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 UNIVERSITY 
 
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 3 1924 032 485 058 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032485058 
 
THE 
 WORKING AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 OF AN 
 
 ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
THE 
 
 WORKING AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 OF AN 
 
 ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 GEORGE FINDLAY, 
 
 LIEUT.-COL. ENGINEER AND RAILWAY VOLUNTEER, STAFF CORPS ; 
 
 ASSOC. INST. CIVIL ENGINEERS ; GENERAL MANAGER OF 
 
 THE LONDON AND NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. 
 
 P.'ITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 WHITTAKER & CO., 
 
 White Hart Street, Paternoster Square; 
 
 GEORGE BELL & SONS, York Street, Covent Garden. 
 
 18S9. 
 
 ® 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 In the early part of last year I accepted an invitation 
 from the Commandant of the Royal Engineers 
 at Chatham to lecture at the School of Military 
 Engineering at the Brompton Barracks upon the subject 
 of "The Working of an English Railway." On that 
 occasion, the theme was necessarily approached from 
 the point of view of the utility of the railways in the 
 event of the country being invaded ; and although this 
 led up to a description, within certain limits, of the 
 methods of working and managing the railways, there 
 were, of course, many branches of the subject which 
 could not be brought within the scope of an evening's 
 lecture, and would indeed scarcely have interested the 
 audience to whom it was addressed. The lecture, 
 however, in the printed form in which it afterwards 
 appeared, attracted a certain amount of attention on the 
 part of those interested in such matters, which eventually 
 resulted in a suggestion that I should endeavour to deal 
 with the subject in a more comprehensive manner than 
 had previously been contemplated. The result of my 
 attempt (I fear a very inadequate one) to carry out this 
 suggestion is embodied in the following pages. 
 
 I must not omit to acknowledge thy obligations to 
 Mr. Francis W. Webb, the Chief Locomotive Engineer 
 
vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 of the London and North-Western Railway; to Mr. 
 Harry Footner, the Assistant Engineer ; to Mr. A. M. 
 Thompson, the Signalling Superintendent; Mr. J. W. 
 Fletcher, the Telegraph Superintendent, and to the 
 other Chief Officers and Heads of Departments of that 
 Company for the able assistance they have rendered to 
 me in the preparation of the work, and I must further 
 confess my indebtedness to the valuable " History of 
 the EngUsh Railway,'' published by Mr. John Francis in 
 185 1, and to the "Treatise on the Law of Carriers," 
 published by Messrs. Chitty and Temple, Barristers-at- 
 Law, in 1856, both of which works had great interest 
 for me during my early career as a Railway Manager. 
 
 In Chapter XV. of the present edition of the work, 
 I have endeavoured to make what I trust may be a 
 useful contribution to the discussion of a subject which 
 has been, in recent years, much debated in railway 
 circles, viz., the Composition of Passenger Trains and the 
 Relation of the Classes. I scarcely venture to hope for 
 universal concurrence in the views which I have ex- 
 pressed, but I know they are fully shared by many of 
 those best qualified to form an opinion upon the subject, 
 and I hope at least that the enumeration of the un- 
 doubted facts which I have been able to adduce as the 
 result of actual experience, may have the effect of 
 inducing those most interested to bestow their serious 
 attention upon a question having so much importance 
 for those whose capital is invested in English railway 
 enterprise. 
 
 G. F. 
 
 Hill House, Edgware, 1889. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. Introductory and Retrospective . . . i 
 
 II. Management 12 
 
 III. The Staff 25 
 
 IV. The Permanent Way 38 
 
 V. SiQNALS and Interlocking , ... 64 
 
 VI. Telegraphs 85 
 
 VII. Rolling Stock :— i. Engines and Brake-power 98 
 
 VIII. Do. II. Carriages .... 123 
 
 IX. Do. III. Goods Waggons . . . 142 
 X. The Working of the Trains . . . .149 
 XI. The Shunting and Marshalling of Goods 
 
 Trains 170 
 
 xii. The Working of Goods Stations . . .181 
 XIII. Rates and Fares — Division of Traffic — The 
 
 Railway Clearing House .... 204 
 
 XIV. On the Relation of the State to Railways 
 
 IN England, and the Question of State 
 
 PujiCHASE of Railways 220 
 
 XV. Passenger Traffic 239 
 
 XVI. On THE Law as between English Railway 
 
 Companies and the Public .... 265 
 
 xvii. On THE Railways as a means of Defence . 283 
 
 Index . . 293 
 
AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introductory and Retrospective, 
 
 It may at first sight appear that the subject of 
 " The construction, working, and management of an 
 English Railway " is one calculated only to enlist the 
 attention of a limited class, namely, of those who are, 
 or may be, directly or indirectly, connected with the 
 working of railways, either in this country or abroad, 
 but a little reflection will probably suffice to show 
 that the theme is one which should appeal to a much 
 larger circle of readers, and, :n fact, to almost every 
 class of the community. If the attention of an in- 
 dividual is drawn to any new law, any fresh discovery 
 or social reform calculated to promote his personal 
 comfort or well-being, his interest is at once aroused ; 
 and the circumstance that, in this case, the revolution 
 has been effected and the benefit is actually being 
 reaped should surely not suffice to rob the subject of 
 its interest. The railway, in its present phase of 
 development, enters so intimately into the social life of 
 
 B 
 
2 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 the community in its every detail, and has become so 
 potent a factor in its every movement and operation, 
 whether of business or of pleasure, that it must clearly 
 be material for every individual to know something of 
 the great agency which does so much for his happiness 
 and welfare, and to realise clearly what are its obliga- 
 tions and liabilities towards himself, and what he has a 
 right to expect from it. Such knowledge it is hoped 
 this work may impart ; but it has the further aim of 
 constituting a practical guide or hand-book for those 
 who, whether m this country or in our numerous 
 colonies, may find it necessary, for whatever reasons, 
 to acquire a knowledge of the principles upon which a 
 great English railway is constructed and managed, and 
 the methods and appliances by means of which its 
 bil-siness is carried on. 
 
 It is not the intention of the present writer to enter 
 into a detailed history of the conception and growth of 
 the railway system from its earliest period to the 
 present time. The story is one full of interest, and, 
 having been recounted by many other and abler pens, 
 may, in its main features, be said to be fairly well 
 known. It may not, however, be out of place to 
 allude, briefly,- to the state of things which prevailed 
 before the genius of a great engineer and .the courage 
 and enterprise of a few Liverpool merchants in- 
 augurated the enormous social revolution which has 
 since displayed such extraordinary development, and 
 has so greatly contributed to the happiness and pros- 
 perity of the human race. 
 
 If we go no further back than the commencement 
 of the present century, only a few years before the 
 ffrst railway was projected, we find that, although the 
 
INTR0DUC7^0RY AND RETROSPECTIVE. 3 
 
 difficulties of earlier locornotion had been to some 
 extent obviated by the introduction of fast and well- 
 appointed coaches, running between some of the most 
 important cities in ths kingdom, the only means of 
 communication between the smaller towns was by 
 means of post-chaises, or private carriages for the 
 wealthy, and, for the less well-to-do, the humble carrier's 
 cart or the slow and ponderous stage waggon. Travel- 
 ling was so expensive a luxury that a journey was 
 only undertaken under 'Cae. most pressing necessity ; 
 many of the roads were so ill-constructed that in bad 
 weather they were almost impassable, besides being 
 at all times infested by highwaymen and footpads. 
 Merchandise was conveyed from town to town by 
 heavy and slow-moving waggons, and the cost of land 
 carriage between Manchester and Liverpool, a distance 
 of not more than thirty miles, was forty shillings per 
 ton. To-day, Manchester bales are carried to Liverpool 
 by railway at six shillings and tenpence per ton, and 
 they are conveyed to London, a distance of upwards 
 of 180 miles, for twenty-five shillings per ton. In those 
 days, a journey from London to Birmingham, if all 
 went well, and no mishaps were encountered, occupied 
 ten or twelve hours at the least ; while now. a man ot 
 business may break his fast in London, be in Bir- 
 mingham before noon, transact his affairs, and be back 
 in town before dinner. At that time a journey from 
 London to Scotland was something to ponder well 
 upon before it was undertaken, for, apart from heavy 
 expense and dangers, difficulties and fatigue to be 
 encountered, it occupied several days ; whereas now, a 
 traveller may leave London at 8.0 p.m. or 8.5b p.m.; 
 qain retire to rest as comfortably as if he^ were, in a weU=i 
 
4 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA K 
 
 appointed hotel, and awake in the early morning to find 
 himself in Glasgow or Edinburgh, or even further 
 north. Merchants are able to be in frequent personal 
 communication with their correspondents in the most 
 distant towns ; young folks, exiled from their homes in 
 pursuit of their various careers, are enabled to spend 
 even the shortest holiday in the family circle ; letters 
 posted in the evening are read at breakfast tables 
 hundreds of miles distant the following morning ; coals 
 and every necessity of life are cheapened to the con- 
 sumer, and every branch of business has been enor- 
 mously stimulated and developed by the facilities thus 
 brought to bear upon it ; and, in fact, the speed and 
 certainty with which the inland and import and export 
 trade of the country is carried on are nothing less than 
 astonishing. Goods are punctually collected, carried 
 hundreds of miles between all the most important towns 
 in England, and delivered to their consignees within 
 the day of twenty-four hours, and even between 
 England and places in Scotland, and the seaport towns 
 of Ireland, within forty-eight hours. The Yorkshire 
 manufacturer who attends the London wool sales to- 
 day can have the wool he purchases in his warehouse 
 to-morrow. The Lancashire cotton spinner will buy 
 cotton in the Liverpool market one day, and it will 
 probably be in actual consumption in his mill the next. 
 Dead meat from Scotland and from abroad, poultry, 
 butter and eggs from Ireland, vegetables, fruit, and all 
 perishable goods of the kind, are despatched by the 
 growers with the narrowest .possible margin of time to 
 catch a particular market ; and all this is done with the 
 utmost certainty and punctuality, making allowance, 
 of course, for trifling miscarriages, which will occur in 
 
INTRODUCTORY AND RETROSPECTIVE. J 
 
 every large business, often from circumstances that nc 
 foresight could control. 
 
 Such are a few of the advantages which have resulted 
 to the community from the invention of railways, but 
 the list might be multiplied indefinitely. 
 
 The first dawn of the idea of a railway was, no 
 doubt, about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 when some inventive genius hit upon the plan of 
 laying down parallel blocks of timber to form tram- 
 roads in the vicinity of mines, to enable the mineral 
 products to be drawn more easily by horses to the 
 riverside. More than a hundred years later (about the 
 year 1768), as we are told by Mr. Francis in his admir- 
 able " History of the English Railway," cast-iron rails 
 were substituted for the wooden blocks, and this was a 
 distinct step in advance. By the commencement of the 
 nineteenth century, the application of steam as a 
 motive power was no longer unknown, for it had been 
 applied to the working of stationary engines in mines 
 and elsewhere, and, in fact, as early as 1804, a machine 
 had been constructed at a Welsh ironworks, which 
 moved upon rails, drawing after it a load of ten tons 
 of bar iron, and which was, to all intents and purposes, 
 a locomotive engine. The construction of the Stockton 
 and Darlington Railway followed in 1821, but the first 
 railway made with public money, and for the public 
 benefit, and which marks the birth of the railway 
 system as we know it to-day, was the Liverpool and 
 Manchester. The conflict which was sustained by the 
 promoters of that undertaking with the forces of 
 ignorance and prejudice was really the decisive 
 one, and when the struggle was over and the 
 battle had been won, the floodgates of enterprise 
 
6 AKT ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 :vere opened wide and the era oJF railways had 
 commenced. 
 
 About the year 1820, the relations between Man- 
 chester, as the great manufacturing town of the north, 
 and Liverpool, as the nearest shipping port, had created 
 a large traffic between the two places, for the 
 conduct of which the road waggons and canal barges 
 had proved to be totally inadequate. In the year 1821, 
 therefore, a committee of merchants of Liverpool was 
 formed to drav/ up a scheme for the construction of a 
 railway or tramway between Liverpool and Manchester, 
 the question of the motive power to be employed 
 being left for a time an open one as between horses 
 and the steam engine, with which Mr George Stephen- 
 son was then experimenting. There was no idea at first 
 of conveying passengers, but the scheme grew in im- 
 portance as time went on, until at length it aroused 
 a perfect storm of enthusiasm on the one side and of 
 embittered opposition on the other. Much has been 
 said and written as to the incredible lengths to which 
 that opposition was carried by the enemies of the 
 undertaking, and the story is one not without its pain- 
 ful, as well as its ludicrous, features, but it need not here 
 be enlarged upon. Suffice it to say that every weapon 
 that the prejudice and narrow-mindedness of the many, 
 or the alarmed avarice of the few, whose interests were 
 threatened by the impending change, could devise was 
 brought to bear without scruple, even to the length of 
 personal abuse and calumny levelled against the pro- 
 moters. The most absurd statements were gravely put 
 forward and believed in; the smoke of the engines 
 would kill the birds, cattle would be terrified, and cows 
 would cease to give their milk ; the sparks from the 
 
INTRODUCTORY AND RETROS-FECTIVE. f 
 
 engines would set fire to the houses and manufactories 
 on the line of route ; the race of horses would become 
 extinct, and many other direful consequences would 
 ensue, amidst which the absolute ruin of the country 
 would shrink to the insignificance of a detail ! The 
 first surveys had to be accomplished, in many cases, by 
 stealth, and were, in some cases, resisted to the extent 
 of the employment of armed force. 
 
 After the lapse of sixty years, we can afford to smile 
 at the folly of those who seriously maintained such 
 theories as these ; but the opposition to be encountered 
 was no laughing matter, we may be sure, to the earnest 
 pioneers of the new movement who had staked their 
 means and their reputations upon the issue of the 
 undertaking, and devoted themselves heart and soul to 
 the effort to carry it to a successful termination. At 
 length, in March, 1825, the survey, in spite of all diffi- 
 culties, had been completed, and the Bill was in 
 Committee ; but, after a lengthened discussion, extend- 
 ing over thirty-seven days, and chiefly owing to the 
 opposition of the landowners and canal proprietors, it 
 failed, and its enemies were for the time being 
 triumphant. The sequel, however, shows that their 
 exultation was premature and but short-lived. 
 
 The simile of Dame Partington striving with her mop 
 to keep back the waves of the Atlantic is one suffix 
 ciently trite and well-worn, but it recurs almost 
 irresistibly to the mind in contemplating the futile and 
 hopeless attempt of these enemies of progress to arrest 
 the march of that tremendous social revolution which, 
 within the span of a single generation, was destined to 
 change the whole face of the earth. 
 
 Nothing daunted by their first failure, the great 
 
8 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 engineer and his courageous backers returned to the 
 charge. A fresh survey was made, by which many of 
 the difficulties which had been raised were overcome or 
 circumvented ; the Bill was re-deposited in the ensuing 
 session of Parliament, and this time the enterprise of its 
 promoters was rewarded by success. The Bill received 
 the Royal assent on the 7th May, 1S26; the works 
 were at once vigorously proceeded with, and the 
 railway was actually opened for public traffic on the 
 i6th September, 1830. It was, however, of a very 
 different construction to the well-appointed and 
 perfectly equipped railways of the present day. It 
 consisted, it is true, of a double line of rails ; but those 
 rails were of so light a description that they soon 
 succumbed to heavy wear and tear, and large sums had 
 afterwards to be expended in taking them up and 
 replacing them with others of a more substantial 
 character. Instead of the timber sleepers, now uni- 
 versally in use, the rails were laid upon huge stone 
 blocks, soon to be found expensive and unsuitable. 
 The passengers were conveyed, either in open cars, 
 unsheltered from the weather, or in covered carriages 
 only a degree less comfortless, and presenting a strong 
 contrast to the luxuriously appointed vehicles in which 
 the traveller of to-day is accommodated. The trains, 
 at first, started at irregular intervals, and were few and 
 far between, and it was not until after some time had 
 elapsed that the time-table became a recognised institu- 
 tion. The journey between Liverpool and Manchester, 
 which is now easily accomplished in forty-five minutes, 
 occupied at that time an hour and a half. Of the engines 
 employed, more will be said hereafter ; but it will be 
 readily believed that they were of an extremely primi- 
 
INTRODUCTORY AND RETROSPECTIVE. 9 
 
 tive character compared with those of a later date. As 
 first projected, the railway terminated, at the Liverpool 
 end, at Crown street, near Edge Hill, and omnibuses were 
 employed for conveying the passengers to and from the 
 City ; but this was soon found to be a great hindrance to 
 the development of the traffic, and in the session of 1 832 
 powers were obtained for the construction of the tunnel 
 under the City to Lime Street, which was completed and 
 opened for traffic in August, 1836. Despite all its short- 
 comings, however, the undertaking was, from the very 
 outset, a much greater success than even its authors had 
 ever ventured to predict, and indeed their anticipations 
 proved to have fallen almost ludicrously short of the 
 results actually realised. They had expected to earn 
 ;^I0,000 a year from passenger traffic, whereas in the 
 first year after the opening the receipts from that 
 source were ;£^iOl, 829. They had estimated the gross 
 receipts from merchandise at ^^50,000 per annum, but 
 in 1833 the actual amount received was .^80,000. From 
 the very commencement, the shareholders obtained a 
 dividend at the rate of 8 per cent, per annum, afterwards 
 rising to 9 and 10 per cent, and remaining at the latter 
 figure for some years. 
 
 The great success of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 railway, as might naturally have been expected, let 
 loose a flood of railway enterprise all over the country. 
 Lines were soon projected between all the towns of any 
 importance in the kingdom and even between remote; 
 villages. One enthusiast went so far as to propose a 
 railway under the sea between Dover and Calais, and 
 was no doubt looked upon by his contemporaries as a 
 fitting candidate for a lunatic asylum, but probably the 
 distinguished promoter of the Channel Tunnel scheme 
 
lo ' AN ENGLISH RAIL WAY. " A 
 
 pf to-day may hold a different opinion upon that point.' 
 The most important result that immediately followed, 
 however, was the revival of the scheme which had pre- 
 viously been mooted, but had been abandoned, for the 
 construction of a railway between London and Birming- 
 ham. The Bill for this line, which was the parent of 
 the London and North-Western Railway, was first 
 deposited in November, 1831 ; but, after passing the 
 House of Commons, was thrown out in the House of 
 Lords on the loth July, 1832. The opposition to this 
 Bill was as unscrupulous, and of precisely the same 
 character, as that which its precursor — the Bill for the 
 Liverpool and Manchester Railway- — had had to en- 
 counter ; but in the end it was overcome, and the line, 
 having been sanctioned in 1833, was finally opened to 
 the public in 1838. 
 
 For the purposes of this work, it is not necessary to 
 follow, step by step, the gradual, yet rapid, development 
 of the railway system throughout the country. It will be 
 sufficient to record that by an Act obtained in 1846 the 
 London and Birmingham, the Grand Junction (with 
 which, under an Act obtained earlier in the same year, 
 the Liverpool and Manchester Railway had already been 
 incorporated), and the Manchester and Birmingham 
 Railway Companies were amalgamated under the title 
 of the " London and North- Western Railway Com- 
 pany." During the lapse of time since that period 
 this Company has gradually absorbed the South 
 Staffordshire, the Chester and Holyhead, the Lancaster 
 and Carlisle, and some forty smaller companies, many 
 of which, for a time, were only leased, and retained their 
 separate capitals with varying rates of interest and, in 
 some cases their independent boards of directors. But 
 
INTRODUCTORY AND RETROSrECTIVE. ii 
 
 in 1877 an Act was obtained, commonly called the 
 " Consolidation Act," the effect of which was to weld 
 all these separate companies into one homogeneous 
 undertaking, the London and North- Western Railway, 
 as it exists to-day, having a consolidated stock of 
 upwards of ^108,000,000, possessing more than 1,800 
 miles of railway, with nearly 650 stations, and employ- 
 ing a staff or an army, as it may be called, of S5,OCO 
 men. 
 
 It may here be stated that, although much of what 
 follows may be taken as being more or less generally 
 applicable to all the principal railways of the United 
 Kingdom, yet the one, the working of which is more 
 particularly described in the succeeding chapters, is the 
 London and North- Western, with which the writer has 
 been connected for a great number of years, and with 
 which he naturally therefore possesses a more intimate 
 acquaintance than with any other. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Management. 
 
 The administration of the London and North- 
 Western Railway is carried on by the Chairman, two 
 Deputy- Chairmen, and a Board of thirty Directors, 
 five of whom retire annually, but are eligible for re- 
 election. Any shareholder may become a director by 
 election, provided he possesses the qualification of hold- 
 ing ordinary stock to the value of one thousand pounds. 
 The full Board of Directors meets once a month, viz., 
 on the third Friday in every month, but the members 
 are also organised in a number of smaller committees, 
 called "Committees of the Board," which also meet 
 once a month and deal with various branches of the 
 business. For instance, there is a " Special Committee," 
 consisting of sixteen members, which holds its meetings 
 intermediately between the meetings of the full Board 
 and devotes itself to much the same class of business ; a 
 " Finance Committee " of seven members ; a " Permanent 
 Way Committee" of ten members, at which the 
 engineers attend, and which accepts tenders, approves 
 contracts, orders relaying and repairs, and generally 
 authorises all expenditure connected with the permanent 
 works of the railway ; a " Locomotive Committee " of 
 ten members, which deals with all matters relating to 
 the engine works at Crewe, the carriage works at Wolver- 
 
MANAGEMENT. 13 
 
 ton, the waggon works at Earlestown, and everything 
 connected with the rolling stock of the railway and with 
 the steamboats. There are also a " Fares and Rates Com- 
 mittee" of eight members, and a "Debts and Goods 
 Claims Committee " of ten members, the titles of which 
 sufficiently indicate their functions, and an important 
 committee called the "Traffic Committee," composed of 
 fifteen members, which approves changes in the staff and 
 in the pay of the Company's servants, authorises expendi- 
 ture upon new works, and deals, besides, with a variety 
 of other matters connected with the discipline of the 
 staff and the working and accommodation of the traffic. 
 In addition to these there are smaller committees for 
 the hotels and refreshment rooms, for legal and medical 
 business, and for stores. At the meetings of the full 
 Board, which are presided over by the Chairman of the 
 Company, the minutes of all these various committees 
 are submitted and approved or otherwise as the case 
 may be, and the Board also deals with Parliamentary 
 matters, questions of policy, proposals for new works 
 involving large expenditure, and, generally, with all 
 business of the first importance affecting the Company. 
 The present Chairman of the Company, as is pretty well 
 known, is an extremely hard worker, and has for many 
 years devoted the whole of his time and his great talents 
 for administration and finance to the service of the 
 Company which he has done so much to place in its 
 present position at the head of the railway enterprise of 
 the country. 
 
 The executive management of the line is carried on by 
 a General Manager, a Chief Goods Manager with two 
 assistants (one for the outdoor working, and one for the 
 indoor work, the making of rates, etc.), and a Superin-* 
 
14 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 terident of the line with one assistant. These two last- 
 named officials deal with the working of the trains, both 
 goods and passenger, and all things pertaining to the 
 movement of the traffic. 
 
 For administrative purposes, the entire system is 
 divided into ten sections or districts, each of which is 
 under the control of an officer of tried and practical 
 experience, termed the "District Superintendent," having 
 his offices at some central point, who is responsible for 
 the train arrangements of his own district, the conduct 
 of the traffic and the discipline of the staff. Each of 
 these officers has under him an assistant and several 
 travelling inspectors who regularly visit every station 
 and signal post and investigate and report upon every- 
 thing that is going on in the district, these men being, 
 moreover, encouraged to make suggestions for the 
 improved working of the trains and the avoidance of 
 irregularities, any such suggestions always receiving 
 careful consideration. In some of the less important 
 districts the District Superintendents are responsible 
 for the goods work at the stations as well as the conduct 
 of the passenger traffic, and in that case they are answer- 
 able both to the Chief Goods Manager and to the Super- 
 intendent of the line ; but, in six of the more important 
 districts, they are relieved of the management of the 
 goods business (except as to the working of the trains) 
 by district officers of equal rank with themselves, who 
 are called " District Goods Managers," and who are 
 responsible to the Chief Goods Manager at Euston. The 
 same principle is followed out with regard to the man- 
 agement of the stations, at the majority of which a 
 single agent is placed in charge of both the goods and 
 passenger traffic, while at i8o of the most important 
 
• MANAGEMENT. I J 
 
 stations there are two officials, one of whom, called the 
 " Station-master," attends to the passenger work, and is 
 accountable to the District Superintendent,and the other, 
 styled the " Goods Agent," is responsible for the goods 
 working, and is under the control of the District Goods 
 Manager. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the chain of responsibility 
 and of supervision is a very complete one, and, in fact, 
 the secret of organising the management of a great 
 service, such as this, is nothing more than a carefully 
 arranged system of devolution combined with watchful 
 supervision. It is not, of course, practicable for the 
 General Manager to superintend in person the every-day 
 actions of the porter or the signalman, but these latter 
 act under the immediate direction of the Station-master, 
 the Station-master is accountable to the District Super- 
 intendent, the District Superintendent to the Super- 
 intendent of the line, the Superintendent of the line to 
 the General Manager, and the General Manager to the 
 Chairman and Directors. If anything goes wrong, or 
 any mishap or irregularity occurs, each of these has to 
 bear his own share of the responsibility in turn, and 
 thus all are kept on the alert, and each one has an 
 interest in seeing that those subordinate to him are fit 
 and capable in every way to discharge the duties placed 
 upon them. 
 
 There are two " Conferences " held every month (so 
 called to distinguish them as meetings of Officers from 
 the meetings of the Directors, which are termed " Com 
 mittees "). The first is called the " Officers' Conference," 
 and meets monthly, the meetings being held usually, 
 but not invariably, at Euston. It is presided over by 
 the General Manager, and is attended by the chief 
 
l6 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y.^ 
 
 officers at headquarters, and by the whole of the dis- 
 trict officers, both goods and passenger. One of the 
 most important functions of this Conference is to discuss 
 and decide upon all alterations of the train service, but 
 it also deals with mishaps and irregularities in working, 
 and considers the causes that have led to them, and the 
 means of preventing a recurrence. Proposals for the 
 alteration of rules and improved arrangements for con- 
 ducting the traffic are also debated, and, broadly speak- 
 ing, all matters affecting the working of the line, or the 
 running of the trains come within the purview of this 
 Conference. 
 
 The second of the two Conferences is termed the 
 " Goods Conference," which also meets once a month, 
 usually on the day preceding the meeting of the Officers' 
 Conference, its chairman being the Chief Goods Manager, 
 and the members being confined to those district officers 
 who are responsible for the goods working. This Con- 
 ference takes no cognizance of train arrangements, 
 which are dealt with entirely by the Officers' Conference, 
 but concerns itself with questions relating exclusively to 
 the conduct of the goods traffic, such as mileage and 
 demurrage, outstanding freight accounts, the supply of 
 waggon stock, ropes and sheets, claims for goods lost, 
 damaged, or delayed, cartage and agency and kindred 
 subjects. 
 
 The minutes of both these Conferences, which are 
 printed for more convenient distribution to all concerned, 
 are submitted for approval to the Board of Directors, 
 and until they have been so approved, the recommenda- 
 tions contained in them are not valid and cannot be 
 acted upon. 
 
 The fact of all the country officers being brought 
 
MANAGEMENT. 17 
 
 together at headquarters once a month, primarily for 
 the purpose of attending these Conferences, forms a 
 very essential and valuable feature in the working of 
 the line. They have thus the opportunity of meeting 
 one another, comparing notes and exchanging experi- 
 ences, besides which each of them in turn enjoys the 
 advantage of a personal interview with the General 
 Manager and with the other chief executive officers, 
 in order to seek advice or instruction upon important 
 and, perhaps, delicate matters which for various reasons 
 can better be dealt with orally than by means of written 
 reports. On the other hand, the chief officers themselves 
 derive benefit from being brought in contact with the 
 men who are engaged from day to day in supervising 
 the actual working of the traffic, and are kept well 
 posted in everything that is going on all over the system. 
 Another important feature is the system of periodical 
 inspections. From time to time, some of the directors, 
 accompanied by the chief officers, the engineers, and 
 the district officers concerned, go over each district, 
 visit the stations, and inquire into cases of alleged in- 
 adequate accommodation or other matters calling for 
 attention. At other times, the chief officers, unaccom- 
 panied by the directors, visit the districts, inspect the 
 stations, examine personally the principal station- 
 masters and inspectors, and satisfy themselves by care- 
 ful inquiry that all the rules and precepts laid down 
 for the efficient conduct of the traffic, and the safety of 
 the line, are being scrupulously carried out throughout 
 the system. Thus nothing is left to chance or to the 
 possible carelessness of subordinates, but a jealous 
 watchfulness is constantly exercised to ensure that all 
 the necessary precautions that experience has dictated 
 
 C 
 
1 8 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA K 
 
 and authority has laid down are thoroughly and effec- 
 tually observed. 
 
 Every servant of the Company, on his appointment, 
 is presented with a copy of the " Rules and Regula- 
 tions," and is expected to make himself master of its 
 contents, but more especially of the section relating to 
 the branch of the service to which he belongs. This 
 book contains a complete resunii of the rules laid down 
 for signalling, for the use of the block telegraph, and 
 for the working of the line generally, and an intimate 
 acquaintance with its contents is indispensable to any 
 man who desires to make himself proficient in his duties. 
 The book also contains the disciplinary rules of the 
 service, and every employi, when on duty, is required 
 to have his copy about his person so that he canno 
 plead ignorance of his instructions as an excuse for 
 neglect of duty. 
 
 The system of control over the expenditure of the 
 Company's money is a very complete one. The gene- 
 ral theory is that no expenditure whatever is incurred 
 without the direct sanction of the Directors, expressed 
 by a minute of some committee approved by the 
 Board. The district officers are, indeed, allowed to make 
 some small necessary payments, but even for these the 
 vouchers are submitted monthly, and, after being care- 
 fully examined, are passed by the Finance Committee. 
 No work is done by any of the engineering departments, 
 except ordinary maintenance and repairs, without a 
 minute of the Directors to sanction it, and, in like 
 manner, no claim is paid, except those of very trifling 
 amount, without the authority of the " Goods Claims 
 Committee." 
 
 As might be expected, in an undertaking of such 
 
MANAGEMENT, 19 
 
 magnitude, and with a constantly fluctuating but nearly 
 always growing, traffic, the Executive at headquarters 
 is daily inundated with suggestions and recommenda- 
 tions for alterations and increased accommodation at 
 stations and depots, but these undergo a very searching 
 examination before any effect is given to them. We 
 will suppose, for example, that a goods agent conceives 
 it to be necessary for an additional siding to be laid 
 down at a station. He makes a report to that effect 
 to the Manager of the district ; the latter inquires into 
 the facts on the spot, and, if he concurs in the necessity, 
 reports his recommendation to the General Manager. 
 The latter consults, in the first instance, the Chief Goods 
 Manager or the Superintendent of the line, as the case 
 may be, and, if his report be favourable, authorises the 
 Engineer to prepare a plan and estimate. The plan, 
 when ready, is subjected to the criticism of the District 
 Officer, the Chief Officer, and of the General Manager, 
 and, if all are satisfied, the Directors are next asked to 
 authorise the necessary outlay. But even this is not 
 all, for, finally, the plan has to be signed by the Chair- 
 man of the Company before the Engineer commences 
 operations, and that gentleman, who keeps a watchful 
 guard over the Company's purse strings, has to be con- 
 vinced that the expenditure is not only desirable, but 
 actually unavoidable, before his signature is obtained. 
 Thus the shareholders may rest perfectly easy in the 
 assurance that their money is not dissipated in needless 
 accommodation works. 
 
 One very important part of the management of a 
 railway, as may be easily imagined, is the arrangement 
 of the train service. The entire service is re-organised 
 twice in the year, viz., in the spring, to provide for the 
 
20 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 summer months, when the passenger traffic is heavy 
 and the goods and coal traffic light ; and again in the 
 autumn, with a view to the winter months, when, con- 
 versely, the passenger traffic is light and the goods 
 and coal traffic heavy. As far as is practicable, the 
 changes are confined to these two periods ; but, owing to 
 fluctuations of business, the growth of new neighbour- 
 hoods, and all kinds of local and special circumstances, 
 there is really no month in the year when a number of 
 train alterations do not have to be considered and 
 decided upon. This is done, as before stated, at the 
 monthly meetings of the Officers' Conference, held dur- 
 ing the third week of every month, and between that 
 time and the end of the month the time-tables have 
 to be revised and reprinted. No one who has ever 
 glanced with an intelligent eye at the time-table of a 
 great railway will be surprised to learn that this opera- 
 tion is one of the most complicated nature, and involv- 
 ing great labour and considerable skill. This will be 
 apparent if it be borne in mind that, supposing, for 
 instance, a train running from London to Scotland 
 is altered in its timing ever so slightly, it involves the 
 necessity of altering all the trains running on branch lines 
 in connection with it, and many other trains which are 
 affected by it A train service is, in fact, like a house 
 of cards ; if the bottom card be interfered with, the 
 whole edifice is disarranged, and has to be built up 
 afresh. Remembering all this, and the pressure under 
 which the work must be done,, the wonder is not so 
 much that an occasional error creeps into a time-table, 
 as that such marvellous accuracy is, on the whole 
 arrived at. 
 
 The time-tables of the London and North- Western 
 
MANAGEMENT. 2i 
 
 Railway are printed at Newton-le-Willows, where the 
 contractors for printing and stationery, Messrs. McCor- 
 quodale & Co., have their headquarters. To that town, 
 within a few days of the train alterations having been 
 decided upon by the Officers' Conference, there repairs 
 a clerk from each of the ten districts who is called the 
 "time-table clerk," and with these ten clerks comes an 
 official from the office of the Superintendent of the line 
 to supervise their labours and assist them with his ex- 
 perience. Taking the minutes of the Officers' Conference 
 as their guide, these clerks proceed to revise the time-, 
 table, each working out the times for his own section of 
 the line, but all comparing notes as they proceed so as 
 to ensure a harmonious result. As they progress, the 
 results of their labours are placed in the hands of the 
 printers who are on the spot, and the proof-sheets are 
 afterwards revised and corrected by the clerks who have 
 prepared them, and this is how the time-table of the 
 North- Western Railway is produced. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to lay down any hard and 
 fast rules for the efficient management of the whole 
 or a section of a large undertaking. If the man who 
 is called to the task has a talent for organisation and 
 administration, he will be a law to himself, and if he 
 does not possess these qualifications, no stereotyped 
 rules will avail to supply their place. There are, how- 
 ever, certain maxims which are elementary and upon 
 which it may be worth while to insist, and these may 
 be briefly summed up as follows : — 
 
 (i.) Every man should be chosen with special refer- 
 ence to his suitability for the duties he is called upon 
 to perform. To use a familiar aphorism there should 
 be no " round pegs in square holes." 
 
22 AlSr ENGLISH RAILWA Y, 
 
 (2.) Care should be taken that every man entrusted 
 with a responsible duty is thoroughly trained for its 
 performance and competent, before the responsibility 
 is cast upon him. 
 
 (3.) Every man should be fairly remunerated for his 
 labour, and should be, as far as it lies with the manage- 
 ment to make him so, a cheerful and contented servant. 
 A discontented man makes a bad servant, for his mind 
 is often pre-occupied by his own real or fancied griev- 
 ances when it should be concentrated on his employer's 
 business. 
 
 (4.) Every man should have his duties thoroughly 
 defined and should know exactly what is required of 
 him. To use another aphorism, " What is every one's 
 business is no one's business," or, in other words, a piece 
 of service which is equally the duty of two or three 
 men is likely to be well performed by neither, for each 
 will shift it on to the others if he can, and the one who 
 ultimately discharges it, will do so grudgingly, thinking 
 the others might have done it rather than himself. 
 Moreover, if, after all, it is neglected, it is difficult to fix the 
 responsibility for the omission on any one individual. 
 
 (5.) There should be, at all times, active and vigilant 
 supervision in every branch of the service. It is not 
 enough that every man should be fit for his duties and 
 trained for their performance, but it must be the duty of 
 someone to see that he actually does perform them, and 
 that no slackness or carelessness is allowed to supervene 
 in carrying, on the working from day to day. The 
 railway service is pre-eminently one requiring for its 
 efficient conduct a high degree of smartness, alacrity, 
 energy, and zeal on the part of every individual 
 engaged in it. 
 
MANAGEMENT. aj 
 
 To anyone who may be called upon to occupy the 
 position of a chief official in any great undertaking, such 
 as the one herein described, one or tv/o hints, the result 
 of the writer's practical experience of five-and-thirty 
 years, may not be without their -value. The first 
 discovery that any man makes on his being appointed 
 to such a post is that if the day consisted of forty- 
 eight hours instead of twenty-four, and every hour 
 were devoted to his office, his time would still be 
 insufficient to meet the demands on it. It thus be- 
 comes essential to economise time as a most precious 
 commodity, and this is best accomplished by acting 
 strictly upon the following maxims : — 
 
 (i .) Choose your subordinates carefully and well, and 
 let them be men you can thoroughly rely on. Do not 
 concern yourself too much with points of detail, with 
 which you must be fully conversant, but with which 
 they are just as well able to deal as you are, and 
 reserve yourself for such matters of moment as they 
 are not competent to decide without your authority 
 and experience. 
 
 (2.) Before any question is submitted to you for 
 decision, insist upon having all the details filled in, and 
 all the facts before you, so that you may not have to 
 apply your mind to it a second time, but may decide 
 it once and for all with a full knowledge of all its 
 bearings. 
 
 (3.) Always decline steadily to attempt to do two things 
 at once. If you are giving an audience to one person, 
 be it a head of department, or any other, let your door 
 be rigidly closed to everyone else for the time being. 
 Let " one at a time " be always your maxim, and act 
 upon it strictly. The man in authority who is seen 
 
24 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 continually surrounded by a throng of subordinates 
 and striving to meet all their demands at once is the 
 man who, by reason of excessive wear and tear, is most 
 likely to break down in mid-career and fail either in 
 health or intellect ; but the man who steadily concen- 
 trates his brain power upon one thing at a time, never 
 wasting a moment, but never flurried or hurried, is the 
 man who gets through the greatest amount of work 
 with the least toil and harassment to himself and in 
 the shortest possible time. 
 
 (4.) Always make a point of refusing (except, of 
 course, in special circumstances) to see chance callers, 
 who will otherwise occupy the best part of your time 
 with trivial matters which could just as well be attended 
 to by your subordinates. It is a good plan to make it 
 a rule to see no one without an appointment made 
 beforehand either in writing or through your secretary, 
 or else without previously knowing their name and the 
 nature of their business. It is very amusing, at times, 
 to see the pertinacious attempts which are made to 
 break through this rule, and it can only be maintained 
 inviolate by the agency of a wily and imperturbable 
 secretary, and an office which can only be ap- 
 proached through his. The man who has had a box 
 delayed, the woman who conceives she has been over- 
 charged in her fare, the discharged footman who seeks 
 employment as a porter, will each and all insist upon 
 seeing the general manager ; each believes that no one 
 else can or will give them a satisfactory answer, and it 
 is often very difficult to get them even to disclose their 
 business to another person. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 The Staff. 
 
 The staff employed by the London and North- 
 western Railway Company (exclusive of the staff 
 engaged upon lines owned jointly by the North- 
 western and other companies) consists at the present 
 time of 55,217 persons of all grades, and these are 
 made up as follows : — 
 
 Salaried officers and clerks 6,770 
 
 ■ Drivers, firemen, guards, breaksmen, and signalmen 8,298 
 Other servants working at weekly wages in the 
 
 various departments 40,149 
 
 Total 55,217 
 
 About 22,000 of these persons are engaged in one 
 way or another in connection with the working of the 
 traffic, the remainder being clerks, artificers, labourers, 
 etc. A certain percentage are boys in training in the 
 various departments, and the total includes about 
 130 girls and women who are employed at the principal 
 goods stations in the performance of certain duties in 
 connection with the accounts department, for which 
 they are found to be peculiarly suitable. This experi- 
 ment was first tried some years ago, and being found 
 to be fairly successful, both on the score of economy 
 
26 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 and efficiency, is being gradually extended within 
 certain limits. 
 
 To carry on the traffic of a great railway one of 
 the main essentials is a highly-trained and thoroughly 
 qualified staff, and it may justly be said that the com- 
 panies spare neither trouble nor expense in securing 
 and maintaining this most important requirement. The 
 practice adopted by the London and North-Western 
 Company, and it is, 'in the main, the one which is 
 observed by all English Railway Companies, is to 
 appoint lads about fourteen years of age as boy 
 porters, telegraph boys, and for other similar employ- 
 ments ; these lads grow up in the service, and by the 
 time they reach manhood they have become experi- 
 enced in railwayduties in their various branches, and are 
 eligible for filling such posts as become vacant. The most 
 scrupulous attention is paid to the training of signal- 
 men, a class of men the difficult and responsible nature 
 of whose enployment can hardly be exaggerated, and 
 they are never entrusted with the sole charge of signals 
 until they have received a specific course of instruction in 
 the duties. The period of training varies according to 
 the importance of the posts at which the men are to 
 be stationed, but their appointments are not confirmed 
 until the superintendent of the division has certified that 
 he has examined the men, and finds them to possess every 
 qualification for the posts they are to fill, including 
 freedom from colour-blindness, which is a fatal defect 
 in a railway servant. The guards of passenger trains 
 are usually chosen from the ranks of the porters ; and the 
 goods train guards, or brakesmen, are selected from 
 the goods porters, shunters, and men of that class ; but 
 all these men are subjected to a rigid examination 
 
THE STAFF. ' ' S7 
 
 before being appointed, and due regard is had, not only 
 to their knowledge and experience, but to their general 
 intelligence, capacity, and character. 
 
 For the superior positions of inspectors, foremen, 
 station-masters, and the higher grades of the service, 
 it is the invariable rule to select men from the lower 
 ranks, solely on the ground of merit, the best man for a 
 particular post being chosen, irrespective of seniority 
 or any other circumstance. Thus it is no unusual thing 
 for a station-master, by reason of special aptitude, to 
 rise to the position of divisional superintendent, and 
 even of General Manager. 
 
 As regards the highest positions, at the time when 
 railways were a new feature in the social life of the 
 country, and their promoters looked around them for men 
 suitable to direct their operations and control the large, 
 number of persons engaged in working them, they found 
 none who, in their opinion, at that time, were so suitably 
 as officers who had retired from the army and navy, it 
 being supposed that their acquaintance with discipline^ 
 and the habits of command they had acquired in the 
 pursuit of their former avocations, would stand them in 
 good stead in their novel career. Thus, in connection 
 with the London and North-Western Railway, we recall 
 the names of Captain Huish and Captain Bruyeres ; the 
 North Eastern Company appointed Captain O'Brien as 
 their general manager ; the Lancashire and Yorkshire, 
 Captain Lawes, R.N., and the Caledonian, Captain 
 Coddington, R.N., besides other officers of the two 
 services, whose names might be mentioned. As time 
 went on, and the strictly commercial character of these 
 great undertakings became more evident and pro- 
 nounced, it was perceived that the duties of the highest 
 
28 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 positions in connection with them required for their 
 efficient performance men who had received a business 
 training, and were thoroughly acquainted with all the 
 details of railway working. It thus became gradually 
 the practice to promote men of talent and capacity from 
 the lower ranks of the service, from one post to another, 
 through the intervening grades, until they reached the 
 highest positions attainable, and the present writer can 
 recall, within his own personal experience, many cases 
 in which men have risen from subordinate posts to 
 become general managers of some of the most important 
 railways in the kingdom. 
 
 ' Thus the humblest railway servant, if he does not, 
 like one of Napoleon's corporals, carry a marshal's 
 MtoK in his knapsack, may at least contemplate a field 
 of possible promotion of almost as wide a scope. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that engine-drivers are 
 very carefully trained for their duties before being 
 entrusted with the charge of a locomotive. They 
 usually commence service as lads in the engine sheds, 
 where they are employed as cleaners ; after a time they 
 are promoted to be firemen ; then to be drivers of goods 
 trains ; next to be drivers of slow or local passenger 
 trains, and, ultimately, the most experienced and 
 intelligent men are selected to drive the express pas- 
 senger, and mail trains. 
 
 The Company are very far from being unmindful of 
 the material welfare of the men they employ, and indeed 
 it is their constant study to maintain the most cordial 
 and friendly relations with them, and to make them 
 feel that their employers have a sincere interest in them 
 and in their well-being at all times, apart from the mere 
 buying and selling of their labour ; in fact, they are 
 
THE STAFF. 29 
 
 taught to regard their employers as their best friends 
 and advisers, as should be the case in every department 
 of labour where proper relations exist between master 
 and man. 
 
 Several funds or societies have been established 
 in connection with the Company's service, in order to 
 enable every member of the staff to make prudent pro- 
 vision against the results of accident, sickness, death, or 
 old age, and a brief description of the working of these 
 societies, which, judging from the success which has at- 
 tended their operations, may to some extent be regarded 
 as models of their kind, rhay not be without interest. 
 
 The first, and in some respects the most important, is 
 the "Superannuation Fund Association," which was also 
 the first established, having been in existence since 1853, 
 and is for the benefit only of the salaried officers and 
 clerks of the Company, its object being to provide each 
 contributing member with a superannuation allowance 
 on his retirement from the service at the age of sixty 
 years, or at any earlier period should his health perma- 
 nently fail, provided he has been at the time of his 
 retirement a paying member for ten years. 
 
 There is also a payment to the member's representa- 
 tives in the event of his death before superannuation. 
 Membership is compulsory upon every servant of the 
 Company receiving a monthly salary, and is in fact made 
 a condition of entering the service, with the proviso, 
 that no person is permitted to become a member after 
 ' the age of 26 years. 
 
 The members' contributions amount to 2\ per cent, 
 per annum upon their salaries, deducted monthly from 
 their pay, but the Company contribute, in respect of 
 each member, an amount exactly equal to his own 
 
30 
 
 Ar7 ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 contribution. The accumulated balance is Invested 
 in the hands, and under the trust, of the Company, at 
 such average rates of interest as the Company, from 
 time to time, pay on their debenture bonds and mort- 
 gages, the interest being carried to the credit of the 
 fund at the close of each half year. The fund is 
 administered by a committee of six persons, three of 
 whom are nominated by the directors, and three are 
 elected by the members. In the event of the death of a 
 member before superannuation, his representatives 
 receive either the equivalent of half-a-year's average 
 salary, calculated over the whole term of his contribu- 
 tions or the sum of his own contributions and those of the 
 Company in his behalf, whichever be the greater. Any 
 member retiring from the Company's service before 
 superannuation, bonA fide of his own accord, receives 
 back one half the amount of his own contributions to 
 the fund. A member whose engagement is terminated 
 by the Company from any cause other than fraud or 
 dishonesty receives the whole of his own contributions, 
 but if he is dismissed for dishonesty, he may, in the 
 discretion of the Committee, forfeit the whole. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Superannua- 
 tion in per- 
 centage 
 of avera£[e 
 salary. 
 
 ill 
 
 Superannua- 
 tii n in per- 
 centage 
 of average 
 Salari'. 
 
 lit 
 
 1 8 
 
 Superannua- 
 tion in per- 
 centage 
 of average 
 Salary. 
 
 m 
 
 Superannua- 
 ti )n in per- 
 centage of 
 average 
 Salary. 
 
 lO 
 
 ^\ 
 
 19 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 46 
 
 37 
 
 56 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 3« 
 
 58 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 5° 
 
 40 
 
 61 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 SI 
 
 41 
 
 62 
 
 15 
 
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 42 
 
 33 
 
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 63 
 
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 35 
 
 54 
 
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 65 
 
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 35 
 
 27 
 
 45 
 
 Z'o 
 
 55 
 
 &up\vards 
 
 67 
 
THE STAFF. 31 
 
 The pensions of those members who remain in the 
 service and claim them are calculated upon the foregoing 
 graduated scale, to which, however, an addition of ^^ 
 or 8J per cent, is made, in accordance with a supple- 
 mentary regulation prescribed by the actuaries since the 
 scale was laid down. 
 
 The fund has, at the present time, 5,705 members, 
 its revenue amounting to ;^5o,ooo per annum, and 
 its accumulated balance to considerably more than 
 half a million sterling. Yet the actuaries who, in 
 accordance with the Deed Poll, thoroughly investigate 
 the position of the fund every five years, advise that the 
 benefits are the maximum that can safely be accorded, 
 consistently with maintaining the association upon a 
 sound financial basis. 
 
 The " London and North-Western Insurance Society" 
 was established in 1871, its object being to provide for 
 every member of the wages staff, except those in the 
 Locomotive Department (of whom more hereafter), 
 pecuniary relief in cases of temporary or permanent 
 disablement, arising from accident occurring while in 
 the discharge of duty, and also a payment in all cases 
 of death, whether the result of accident or natural 
 causes. Membership of this Society is compulsory 
 upon all men on joining the service, and each man is 
 called upon to sign an agreement under which the 
 Company undertakes to contribute to the funds of 
 the Society a sum equal to five-sixths of the pre- 
 miums from time to time payable by the employe, 
 and the latter agrees to accept such contributions, and 
 any advantages to which he may be entitled under the 
 rules of the Society, in satisfaction of any claim which 
 Itp nr Viid rpnrp'jpnf-atives miVht Otherwise have had 
 
32 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA K 
 
 under the provisions of the " Employers' Liability Act " 
 of 1880. By these means, for a small payment, the 
 men, or their families, become entitled to a substantial 
 sum in case of death or disablement, without any 
 delay or any question being raised as to the circum- 
 stances of the accident from which they suffer, and this 
 is far more to their advantage than being left with the 
 questionable privilege of claiming under the Act, with 
 all the delay, expense, and doubtful result of legal 
 proceedings. Moreover, a state of good feeling is 
 engendered between the men and their employers 
 which could not be the case to an equal extent if each 
 were taught to look upon the other as a possible 
 opponent in litigation, and any legislation such as has 
 from time to time been threatened in the direction of 
 preventing the men from contracting themselves out 
 of the provisions of the Act is justly viewed by 
 the majority of the London and North- Western 
 employes with dislike and dread, and is much to be 
 deprecated alike in their interest and that of their 
 employers. 
 
 The premiums payable by the members are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Class r. — Passenger Guards, and Breaksmen, and 
 (optionally) men of other grades 
 receiving wages of 21s. per week and 
 upwards 3d. per week. 
 
 „ 2. — ^AU othei: Wages staff, except those -in 
 
 Class 3 2d 
 
 ,, 3. — Boys and Persons whose Wages are 
 
 under 12s. per week id 
 
THE STAFF. 
 The scale of benefits is as under : — 
 
 33 
 
 Sum insured in 
 case of death 
 arising from 
 accident whilst 
 in the discharge 
 of duty. 
 
 £ 
 
 Class I lOo 
 „ 2 80 
 » 3 40 
 
 Allowance in case of 'Weekly allowance in case 
 of temporary disable- 
 
 permanent disable- 
 ment and incapa- 
 city to resume 
 e mploy ment 
 arising from acci- 
 dent whilst in the 
 discharge of duty, 
 
 ment by accident whilst g . ^^ . 
 
 dutv ^"^"^^^ °f of death from any 
 
 ^' cause not provided 
 
 During continuance of ^r incolumnNo.l. 
 disablement, not 
 exceeding 52 weeks. 
 
 £10 o 
 5 o 
 
 The members elect delegates to represent them at 
 the general meetings, viz., five for each of the twelve 
 districts into which the line is divided, and the affairs of 
 the Society are managed by a committee of 15 persons, 
 12 of whom are elected by the delegates from their own 
 body, one representing each district, and three members 
 are nominated by the Directors and are termed the 
 " Company's nominees." 
 
 On the 31st December, 1888, this Society consisted 
 of 39,602 members; its income for the year 1888 was 
 upwards of £t,i,ooo, and it had an accumulated balance 
 in hand of more than ;^23,000, the amount paid out to 
 the members in the shape of benefits during the year 
 being ^^29,148. 
 
 The " London and North-Western Provident Society," 
 an offshoot of the Insurance Society, was established in ' 
 1874 with the object of providing a weekly allowance in 
 cases of ordinary sickness for the men composing the 
 wages staff of the Company (other than those employed 
 in the locomotive department) ; a retiring allowance for 
 permanently disabled members ; and a sum at death in 
 all cases not provided for by. the rules of the Insurance 
 
34 
 
 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 
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 Sum insured in case 
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 owing to Sickness 
 or to Accident in- 
 curred while not in 
 the discharge of duty, 
 or from any cause 
 not provided for in 
 the Rules of the 
 Insurance Society. 
 
 0) 
 
 mS . 
 
 ■S £ 
 
 5 S " 
 Q c s 
 
 i vS 
 
 •siuauiXijj ^R33AV 
 
 
 
 Members receiving 
 Wages of I2S. per 
 week and upwards 
 
 Members whose 
 wages are under 
 i2s. per week 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 tn a 
 
THE STAFF. 35 
 
 The Society is managed in the same way, and by 
 the same committee, as the Insurance Society. It has 
 upwards of 23,500 members, with an income from all 
 sources of 1^21,000, and an accumulated balance of 
 nearly ^^40,000, the amount paid to members in the 
 shape of benefits, under the various heads, during the 
 year 1888, being upwards of ;^i 8,000. 
 
 The "London and North-Western Pension Fund," also 
 for the benefit of the wages staff, was established as 
 recently as 1883, and has therefore been in operation 
 less than six years. Its object is to provide a retiring 
 pension for members after they attain the age of 65, 
 or for such members as, having reached the age of 
 60 years, are no longer able, by reason of failing 
 health, or impaired energies, to continue at work. 
 There are two classes of members, and a man 
 on entering the service may elect to join either one 
 class or the other. First-class members pay 2d. per 
 week, to secure a pension on retirement of los. per 
 week, while second-class members pay id. per week, 
 and are entitled to a pension of 7s. per week. The 
 Company contribute nearly ;^5,ooo per annum to the 
 fund, which is administered by the same committee as 
 the Insurance and Provident Funds. 
 
 With a view to consolidate the two Funds, and thus 
 enable them to be worked for the greater advantage of 
 the members, arrangements have been made, as from 
 the 1st January, 1889, to amalgamate the Provident 
 Society with the Pension Fund. New members entering 
 the combined society, who were not previously members 
 of the former Provident Society or Pension Fund, upon 
 attaining the pension age will not, on leaving the 
 service, be entitled to receive a retiring gratuity, but will 
 
S'e AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 in lieu thereof be allowed an increasecl pension of i%. 
 per week. To those who were members of the former 
 societies it will be optional whether they take the 
 retiring gratuity or the increase of pension. 
 
 It has been thought that the case of the men employed 
 in the locomotive department differs in some degree 
 from that of the men engaged in the traffic and perma- 
 nent way departments, seeing that amongst a body of 
 men who are continually coming and going, and consti- 
 tute, in fact, a sort of floating population, no scheme 
 which provides for a large surplus or reserve fund would 
 be equitable, and therefore the following plan has been 
 adopted : — 
 
 A society has been formed, or rather two societies — 
 one for Crewe works and one for the engine drivers, 
 firemen, and others comprising what is known as the 
 "running department." These societies are managed 
 by delegates elected by the members, assisted by repre- 
 sentatives of the Company ; and there is a scale of 
 benefits ranging, according to the grade of the men, 
 from £ifi to i^ioo in the case of death or permanent 
 disablement from accident on duty, with a weekly 
 allowance in case of temporary disablement from any 
 cause, and a payment in the event of death from natural 
 causes. The expenses are met by calls upon the mem- 
 bers from time to time throughout the year, as necessity 
 arises, but averaging from five to ten calls per annum 
 ranging from 4d. to is. per call, according to the men's 
 pay, the Company supplementing these payments by 
 liberal contributions. The number of men in these two 
 societies ainounts to upwards of 15,000. 
 
 By means of these twin societies, the men employed 
 in that most important branch of the railway service 
 
THE STAFF. 37 
 
 the Locomotive Department, are enabled, at an expense 
 to themselves so small as hardly to be felt, to make a 
 substantial provision against the results of illness and 
 of death, either from accident arising in the discharge of 
 their duties, or from natural causes. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 Permanent Way. 
 
 We have had occasion to remark in a former chapter 
 that the permanent way of a first-class EngHsh railway 
 of the present day represents a very advanced stage 
 of development as compared with the rude methods of 
 construction of the earlier railways, and perhaps this fact 
 can most forcibly be illustrated by a brief retrospect of the 
 various changes and improvements which have from time 
 to time been introduced, and which have finally resulted 
 in giving us the magnificent steel track of the present age, 
 upon which a train weighing, with its engine, nearly 
 300 tons may travel with ease and safety at a speed of 
 from fifty to sixty miles an hour. 
 
 As we have already seen (Chap. I.),, the earliest con- 
 ception of a railway or tramway found its embodiment 
 in a wooden track consisting of oak rails laid upon 
 blocks of wood about two feet apart, and upon which 
 carts with flanged wheels were drawn. Tramways 
 of this description are said to have existed in the 
 neighbourhood of Newcastle-on-Tyne more than two 
 hundred years ago. Nicholas Wood, in his " Treatise 
 on Railroads," published in 1825, gives the Coalbrook- 
 dale Iron Works Company the credit of being the first 
 to construct cast-iron rails, which they are said to 
 have done in 1767, the rails being 5 feet long, 
 
40 
 
 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 4 inches wide, and \\ inch thiclc, with three holes drilled 
 in them, by means of which they were fastened to 
 oak rail's, these latter being in turn laid upon 
 sleepers. ' 
 
 In 1776 we find in use, at the Sheffield Colliery, 
 cast-iron rails of an angular section (Fig. i), laid upon 
 wooden sleepers, and which required no flanges to the 
 wheels. Tramways constructed in this manner exist, 
 and are in use in some parts of the country at the' 
 present time. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 Sheffield Colliery Tramway of 1776. 
 
 In 1789 a railroad or tramway was constructed at 
 Loughborough, having cast-iron "fish-bellied" rails, frqpi 
 three to four feet in length, resting on stone blocks 
 instead of wooden sleepers, and requiring flanged 
 wheels (Fig. 2). 
 
 The first malleable iron rail was patented by J. 
 Birkenshaw, in 1820, and this form of permanent way, 
 
42 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 with rails weighing 28 lbs. per lineal yard, was used on 
 the Stockton and Darlington Railway, and was subse- 
 quently adopted by George Stephenson when he con- 
 structed the Liverpool and Manchester Railway ; but 
 he increased the weight of the rails to 35 lbs. per 
 lineal yard, their length being 15 feet. The rails rested 
 for the most part on solid stone blocks, laid diamond 
 fashion, but on embankments and on peaty ground oak 
 sleepers were used (Fig. 3). 
 
 These rails, as will be seen from the illustration, 
 were of the " fish-bellied " pattern, but in practice, and 
 as the demand increased, these were found troublesome 
 to roll, and this difficulty led to the introduction of the 
 flat-bottomed or " flat-footed " section of rail, combining 
 a solid head with a flanged base. This is known as the 
 "Vignoles" rail (Fig. 4, No. 4), and, although still 
 largely used in the colonies and abroad, it is very little 
 in use in this country except in the case of lines laid 
 down for temporary use by contractors. 
 
 Another form of rail, known as the " Bridge " rail 
 (Fig. 4, No. 3), was introduced by Brunei contempo- 
 raneously with the " Vignoles " rail, and this section of 
 rail, laid upon longitudinal instead of transverse sleepers, 
 was adopted as the standard form of permanent way on 
 the Great Western Railway. 
 
 In 1837 the double and equal-headed reversible 
 rail, as shown by Fig. 4, No. 5, weighing 84 lbs. 
 per hneal yard, was originated by Joseph Locke, 
 and was adopted on the Grand Junction Railway. It 
 was originally intended, when one head was worn 
 out, to turn the rail and use the other, but it was 
 found in practice that, unless the rail was turned very 
 frequently, the lower head became indented, where 
 
44 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 it rested in the chairs, to an extent which rendered it 
 unfit for a running surface. This section of rail is still 
 in use on some of the railways in this country, but it is 
 being rapidly superseded by the " bull-headed " section 
 (Fig 4, No. 6), which is'> simply a refined and enlarged 
 copy of George Stephenson's single-headed rail, and was 
 used in very nearly its present form on the Shropshire 
 Union Railway some forty years ago. 
 
 Up to the year 1847 the ends of the rails rested in 
 joint chairs, but in that year Mr. Bridges Adams intro- 
 duced the suspended joint with fish-plates (Fig. 5, No. 
 i), by which a much greater degree of elasticity was im- 
 parted to the permanent way. The innovation was not 
 adopted upon the London and North- Western Railway 
 until the year 1853, but although, since then, many 
 other plans have received a trial, and some hundreds of 
 patents have been taken out, this form of connecting 
 the rails is found to be the most simple and effectual, 
 and, with one improvement, which is shown by Fig. 5 
 No. 2, is still used universally on the London and North- 
 western Railway. 
 
 Rails have gradually increased in length, in depth, 
 and in sectional area, but perhaps the greatest improve- 
 ment which has been effected in them is in the change 
 of material from malleable iron to Bessemer steel. Steel 
 is not only found to be more homogeneous, generally 
 wearing uniformly from end to end, but its strength is 
 half as great again as that of iron, and the rail may 
 thus be reduced in weight by abrasion and corrosion to 
 an extent that would be unsafe in an iron rail. On the 
 other hand, it is only fair to add that steel corrodes 
 more rapidly than iron (in the proportion of about five 
 to four), and in tunnels, and in manufacturing districts 
 

 ^^ 
 
 '2, 
 
 O 
 
45 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 where sulphurous and other acid gases are present in 
 the atmosphere, the life of the rail is shortened to a 
 material extent. On the whole, however, the balance of 
 advantages is greatly in favour of steel. 
 
 Fig. 4, No. 5 (a), shows the section of a double- 
 headed rail which has been in use for twenty years in the 
 main line at a large station, and subsequently for five 
 years in a siding, and one head of which is quite worn 
 ! out This is, of course, an extreme case, but it very 
 'forcibly indicates the possible reduction of sectional 
 area in a rail constructed of first-class material. On the 
 other hand, Fig. 4, No. 6, shows the section of a rail 
 which is no longer fit for the main line, but might still 
 be used in a siding ; in both these cases it will be 
 observed that corrosion has more or less had the effect 
 of reducing the portion of the rail not in contact with 
 the wheels, and that the original shape of the head of the 
 rail is no longer recognisable, so great is its reduction 
 and deformation under the heavy percussive and 
 abrading forces to which it has been subjected. 
 
 The improved form of permanent way actually in use 
 upon the London and North-Western Railway at the. 
 present time is seen in Fig. 6. It consists of wooden 
 sleepers, laid transversely, and which are of well-seasoned 
 Baltic timber, into which creosote oil has been forced 
 under pressure to the extent of 3I gallons to each 
 ' sleeper. The sleeper, which is 9 feet in length, 10 
 inches wide, and S inches deep, when creosoted, weighs 
 150 to 160 lbs. To each sleeper two cast-iron chairs, 
 each weighing 45 lbs., are secured by two iron spikes 
 and two galvanised iron screws, a layer of hair felt 
 being interposed between the sleeper and the chair. 
 The spikes are cup-headed, slightly tapered, 6 inches 
 
48 ■" AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 in length, and weigh 19 oz. each. The screws have a 
 hexagonal head, are also slightly tapered, and weigh 
 20 oz. each, their length being 6| inches. A creosoted 
 oak ferule or socket is inserted in each hole in the chair, 
 through which the screws are driven, so as to obtain a 
 mechanical fit by simple means. The steel rails, which 
 are laid in the chairs, are of the single-headed section, 
 30 feet in length, and weigh 900 lbs., or 90 lbs. per 
 lineal yard. It may be mentioned that over bridges, 
 and for some other special purposes, about 10 miles of 
 rails have been laid upon the London and North- 
 Western Railway which are 60 feet in length. 
 
 Each 30 feet rail rests on ten sleepers, and is secured 
 in its place by creosoted oak keys 6 inches long, 3f inches 
 wide, and 2 J inches thick, driven between the rail and the 
 chair, outside the rail. The fish-plates by which the rails 
 are joined (Fig. S,No. 2) are 20 inches in length, ^\ inches 
 deep, and weigh 54 lbs. per pair. The four bolts by which 
 they are secured to the rails are square-headed, with a 
 Whitworth thread 9 to the inch, the nuts being hexagonal. 
 
 A certain number of iron and steel sleepers have been 
 laid down on the London and North- Western Railway 
 experimentally, the first step in this direction having 
 been taken eight years ago. The results have been 
 varied, a percentage of the sleepers having failed, while, 
 on the other hand, a larger percentage appear to be 
 standing well ; but, on the whole, a sufficient time has 
 not yet elapsed to fairly test their durability. 
 
 Permanent way engineers insist that the first and 
 last requisite for the maintenance of a sound and good 
 permanent way is a perfect system of drainage. The 
 formation requires to be kept as dry as possible, and to 
 this end, if the material is of a porous nature, retentive 
 ' of moisture, it should be well drained by means of 
 
PERMANENT WAY. 49 
 
 rubble or pipe drains ; if it is not of a porous character^ 
 as, for instance, stiff clay or rock, the surface should 
 be formed with a section similar to that of a well- 
 constructed macadamized road, so as to throw the 
 water quickly off its surface to the side ditches. Upon 
 such a formation should be placed a layer of bottom 
 ballast of uniform size and durable quality, free from 
 dirt or any substance which absorbs and retains 
 moisture. Upon the bottom ballast the sleepers will 
 be laid, and with a sufficient quantity of top ballast, 
 which should be equally clean and durable, although, 
 preferably, of smaller size, the line will be raised and 
 adjusted to its intended level, the plate-layers, in laying 
 the sleepers, taking particular care to obtain a 
 uniformly solid and level bed for each sleeper, so 
 that it may take precisely its proper share — no more 
 and no less — of the weight of the passing trains. 
 Skill and attention displayed at this stage meet with 
 their due reward, and much subsequent trouble and 
 anxiety is saved to the permanent way inspector, who 
 has a length of road to maintain, if he takes care that 
 his sleepers are not bedded on irregularly-sized lumps 
 of stone, that his chairs are fixed to a uniform gauge, 
 and that the sleepers are placed at right angles to the 
 direction of the line, and well packed, or beaten up, as 
 firmly under one rail as the other. He should see that 
 his rails are not bent in unloading, that all crooked or 
 defective fish-plates, spikes, and screws are rejected ; 
 that his curves are of uniform curvature, and with 
 super-elevation proportioned to the radii, and that 
 many other apparently insignificant precautions are 
 not neglected, all of which contribute to the construc- 
 tion of a sound and perfect permanent way over which 
 
 E 
 
PERMANENT WAY, |1 
 
 heavy trains may travel safely and smoothly at a high 
 rate of speed, and with a minimum wear and tear and 
 expenditure of motive power. 
 
 The intersection of one rail with another at any angle 
 is termed a "crossing," and these crossings are so con- 
 structed with wing rails and check rails as to guide the 
 flange of the wheel, and ensure its taking the required 
 direction at the point of intersection. The simplest 
 form of crossing is where the rails intersect each other at 
 right angles (Fig. 7, No. 2), but such crossings are of 
 rare occurrence. When the rails intersect at any other 
 than a right angle, the crossings are of two types. When 
 the external angle of intersection is acute (as at a, Fig. 7, 
 Nos. I and 3), the crossing is known as a single or 
 "V" crossing, but where the angle of intersection is 
 obtuse (as at B, No. 3), it is called a " diamond " crossing. 
 "Diamond" crossings occur only in pairs. 
 
 For "V" crossings, check rails are provided {m and n, 
 No. I, Fig. 7), which, by holding one wheel on an 
 axle to its proper course, prevents the wheel at the other 
 end of the axle from taking the wrong side of the point 
 of the crossing between m and n. The check rail n 
 guides the flange when a wheel is travelling from F to 
 G, and the check rail m. guides it in the direction H 
 to K. 
 
 From an inspection of these diagrams (Fig. 7) it 
 will be easy to trace the course of the wheel flange, 
 which is always on the inner side of the wheel. 
 
 To turn a train off one line of railway and on to 
 another which connects with it, a pair of tapered move- 
 able rails, called " switches," or " points," are made use 
 of (see Fig. 7, No. 4). These are connected by 
 rods with a lever in the signal cabin, and worked by 
 
PERMANENT WAY. 53 
 
 the signalman ; the lever being so controlled mechani- 
 cally that it is impossible for the signalman to lower the 
 signals for a train travelling in the direction of the arrow- 
 on line " B," until the " points " or " switches " have been 
 placed in their proper position, as at D. On the other 
 hand, before the signal can be lowered for the line c 
 the switches must be placed as at E. 
 
 Fig. 9 gives a view in perspective of a pair of 
 switches, and shows the manner in which they are 
 worked. 
 
 Fig. 8 is a view of an ordinary junction between 
 a main hne and a double branch line, with the signal 
 cabin from which the points and signals are worked, and 
 the home signals for the junction. The diamond cross- 
 ings are marked B, and the nearest single crossing 
 is marked A. This is a simple double junction ; but 
 where the running lines are duplicated, and there are 
 numerous cross-over-roads and sidings connecting with 
 the main lines, the arrangement of roads frequently 
 becomes extremely complicated. 
 
 There is one important feature in the formation of a 
 well-constructed permanent way, which is known as 
 the super-elevation of the outer rail on curves. Any 
 one who has witnessed the evolutions of a circus rider 
 will have observed that both horse and rider, in order 
 to maintain their balance, incline their bodies towards 
 the centre of the ring, and the greater the speed, the 
 greater is their deviation from the perpendicular. In 
 order to enable a train to do by mechanical means 
 what the rider does by muscular power — that is, to 
 balance the centrifugal force of a train running round a 
 curve — it is necessary for the outer rail on a curve to 
 be raised somewhat above the inner rail, and the 
 
PERMANENT WAY. SS 
 
 smaller the radius — that is the sharper the curve — and 
 the higher the speed of the trains, the greater must be 
 the super-elevation. In practice it must be adjusted 
 to the average speed of the fastest trains that are 
 likely to run over it — that is, the express passenger 
 trains. 
 
 Railway curves are invariably arcs of circles of 
 greater or less radius, except for a short length, where 
 they join or leave the straight line. Where the radius 
 of the curve is uniform, a uniform super-elevation is 
 given to the outer rail, but this elevation dies away 
 gradually to the straight line, where the rails become 
 level. As the super-elevation decreases the radius of 
 the curve increases until it becomes infinite, or, in other 
 words, until the straight line is reached. 
 
 If it be asked what is the steepest gradient a railway 
 should have, the answer is, " The best that can be 
 obtained under all the circumstances ; or, in other words, 
 the nearest to a dead level." There are cases in which the 
 physical conditions of a country will only permit of a 
 railway being constructed with sharp curves and steep 
 gradients, except at a practically prohibitive cost. It is, 
 nevertheless, a fact that the less the deviation from a 
 straight line and moderate gradients, the greater is the 
 safety and economy of working ; and, in constructing a 
 main line of railway, it is frequently worth while to 
 incur heavy outlay at the outset rather than handicap 
 the undertaking with difficulties of working, which will 
 place it at a disadvantage in competing with other 
 railways for the same class of traffic, for which 
 punctuality and speed are of the first importance. 
 
 In practice it is usually found that sharp and frequent 
 curves are associated with steep gradients, and, upon 
 
56 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 railways vvRich have to be constructed in this manner, 
 the trains must necessarily be lighter, and the average 
 speed must be considerably less than vi'here the conditions 
 are more favourable. Such lines are, therefore, in pro- 
 portion to the traffic carried over them, more expensive 
 to work and maintain, but as the weight of the train, 
 the class of locomotive used, and all the other arrange- 
 ments for conducting the business are specially adapted 
 to the circumstances, such a line as this probably 
 involves less trouble and anxiety in working than a 
 railway which is generally level, but which has one or 
 more long and steep gradients in its course. In the 
 latter case, the steep gradient is the exception, and not 
 the rule ; all the conditions are adapted to the mainte- 
 nance of the high rate of speed expected with heavy 
 trains on fair gradients, and yet the engines must have 
 sufficient adhesion and steaming power to surmount the 
 difficulties of the exceptional gradient. In some cases 
 the plan is adopted of attaching an auxiliary engine 
 (called a " bank engine ") to the rear of the train at the 
 foot of the incline, but this involves an additional 
 stoppage and the loss of valuable time, and special 
 precautions are required to enable the operation to be 
 performed with certainty and safety. 
 
 The extent to which the average speed of trains is 
 affected by the mode of construction of a railway is 
 strikingly illustrated by the following table, which 
 gives particulars of the curves and gradients, and 
 the speed of the trains, upon the main line of the 
 London and North-Western Railway from London 
 to Carlisle, upon the Buxton Branch, the Central 
 Wales line, and the Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny 
 Branch. 
 
PERMANEN7 WAY. 
 
 57 
 
 
 2 f 
 
 ow 
 
 o 
 
 I-" 
 
 
 
 
 
 oq crq 
 
 Sgt-. 
 
 n n 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 me., 
 ■thyr 
 ir an 
 iveni 
 
 sle.. 
 
 ton 
 
 tral 
 
 
 P- 
 
 3 
 
 3' 
 
 5* 
 
 
 '1 
 
 
 o Q. : 
 en y : 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 3 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 . <D 
 
 : 7 
 
 n> : 
 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 >H 
 
 
 g 
 
 t- IT 
 
 
 
 Ln 
 
 I-. ^ 
 
 \F\ 
 
 
 
 ^■0 3 
 
 
 \o 
 
 VO 
 
 vo w 
 
 00 
 
 
 u 
 
 ?-„ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ffl 
 
 Less ■ 
 
 than 
 2ochains 
 radius. 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 ; 
 
 ; 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 o\ 
 
 (.o 
 
 W ' 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >T3 
 
 Betwee 
 20 & 4 
 chains 
 radius. 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ha 
 
 ^ «j^ trf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 etween 
 .0&80 
 ;hains 
 adius. 
 
 c 
 
 M 
 
 Sv 
 
 to CO 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 ' 10 
 
 LO 
 
 
 S- 
 
 ig-^? 
 
 • 
 
 -C^ 
 
 : -vj 
 
 vO 
 
 
 t 
 
 p-r« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >TJ 
 
 M 
 
 *. 
 
 U^ 
 
 C^ Ln 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 !S 
 
 5^3 
 
 
 VO 
 
 N 
 
 w o 
 
 00 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-H l-l 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 r:rfi? 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 i-t 
 
 HH Ui 
 
 vO 
 
 
 P <• n n 
 
 •""2,3 
 
 
 HH 
 
 i-t 
 
 CH l-l 
 
 h-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 .-•• 
 
 _ 
 
 !-•• _d< 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 s 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 l*J 
 
 On 
 
 i^ vj 
 
 u> 
 
 
 
 a* 
 
 £-.■3 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 00\^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 )-i 
 
 hH >-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5' 
 
 5' 
 
 5' 3' 
 
 5' 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 %l 
 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 OnvO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 a' 
 
 
 * 
 
 t^ 
 
 o 
 
 O^^ 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 l-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-. 
 
 
 .- M 
 
 .-. 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Gradient 
 
 both 
 
 ways. 
 
 
 B 
 
 5' 
 
 3 3 
 
 3' 
 
 
 
 
 *. 
 
 vO 
 
 VJ M 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 
 
 J^ 
 
 ^J 
 
 OO to 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 on 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OJ -|i 
 
 -)i^ 
 
 
 
 !^f^ 
 
 
 M 
 
 Oj 
 
 ON oo 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 N-l 
 
 1*- 
 
 I*- 
 
 
 
 f^'N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M |: 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 VI 
 
 M W 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 l°i- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 > 
 W 
 
 r 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 d 
 
 W 
 2; 
 
 H 
 w 
 
5S AN' ENGLISH RATL WA V. 
 
 It will be observed from this table that upon the 
 Merthyr, Tredegar and Abergavenny Branch, with its 
 steep gradients and severe curves, the trains can only 
 run at less than half the average speed that can, without 
 difficulty, be maintained upon the main line, and it may 
 be added that, while upon the main line the load drawn 
 by a goods engine is five tons to every ton of engine, 
 on the Merthyr Branch the load is only three tons to 
 every ton of engine, notwithstanding the low rate of 
 speed. 
 
 The following may be mentioned as instances of 
 specially steep gradients for short distances : — The 
 incline to the Fruit Market at Edge Hill, near Liver- 
 pool, is I in 24 for 173 lineal yards, and the load which 
 can be drawn up it is only 2^ times the weight of the 
 engine. On the Hopton incline, on the Cromford and 
 High Peak Railway, there is a gradient of i in 14 for a 
 length of 440 lineal yards, and on this an engine is only 
 able to draw its own weight of load. 
 
 On the other hand, on an easy gradient, a coal engine 
 will draw from eight to ten times its own weight, and 
 between London and Carlisle 2j tons of passenger train 
 load can be drawn for every ton of engine at an average 
 speed of from 45 to 50 miles an hour, and if this is 
 compared with the same load conveyed over the Merthyr, 
 Tredegar and Abergavenny Branch at a speed of only 
 22 miles an hour, the effect of curves and steep gradients 
 upon the working of a railway will be seen at a glance. 
 
 Sharp and reverse curves add to the train resistance 
 and increase the risks attending a high rate of speed, 
 and they also largely contribute to the fatigue expe- 
 rienced by a passenger after a long railway journey. 
 
 To maintain the permanent way of a great passenger 
 
' PERMANENT WA V. 59 
 
 railway in perfect working order, a very careful and 
 complete system of organisation becomes necessary, and 
 this, upon the London and North-Western, is carried out 
 in the following manner : — 
 
 Three men, with a foreman or ganger, form a gang, 
 and have charge of the constant inspection and mainte- 
 nance of about two miles of double line of railway, being 
 an average of one man to each mile of single line ; but 
 the exact number depends upon the extent of the traffic 
 using the line, and the consequent wear and tear, and 
 the number of junctions and sidings which have to be 
 maintained. Every ten or twenty of these gangs are 
 under the direct supervision of an inspector, who thus 
 has a district of from 20 to 40 miles of railway. Every 
 seven or eight of these inspectors are under the control 
 of a chief inspector, who is therefore responsible for 
 from 200 to 250 miles of railway, and who has also 
 under him travelling gangs of ballasting men and re- 
 layers, who are employed in renewing the permanent 
 way and carrying out alterations and additions. Each 
 length has also a full complement of artificers, joiners, 
 masons, bricklayers, painters, blacksmiths, etc., with 
 their foremen and inspectors, and these men repair 
 bridges, tunnels, stations, and all kinds of buildings 
 which constitute the " works " of a railway. All these 
 men, together with the Chief Permanent Way Inspector, 
 and the men under him, are under the direction of a 
 civil engineer of experience, who has also a staff of 
 surveyors, draughtsmen, and clerks, with offices and 
 workshops at the most important centre of traffic in his 
 district. Such a section of the railway is called a 
 " Division," and there are eight such divisions on the 
 North- Western Railway, the eight divisional engineers 
 
6o AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 being responsible to an "assistant engineer "■ who, 
 together with another assistant engineer of equal rank 
 who has charge of the construction of new railways 
 and other important contract works, acts under the 
 instructions of the engineer-in-chief of the Company. 
 
 The duties of the gangers comprise the daily in- 
 spection of every portion of the section of hne under 
 their charge, and the repairs of the permanent way, 
 fences, drains, and roads. They have also to report 
 anything they may observe to be amiss with the 
 telegraph wires, the signals, or with passing trains 
 more especially during storms, fogs, or heavy falls of 
 snow. They furnish their inspectors with an account 
 of all materials required and used, and are responsible 
 for the work performed by the men under them, which 
 is of a very miscellaneous character. 
 
 The inspectors of permanent way are responsible 
 for the discipline of their men, and for keeping a correct 
 account of the time they work, and the wages paid to 
 them. It is their duty also to keep a record of all 
 materials received and used, to see that every care is 
 taken of the property of the Company, and to report 
 to the chief inspector of the district, or to the divisional 
 engineer, every circumstance of an unusual character 
 which may come within their knowledge. They take 
 charge of the renewals of permanent way, and of the 
 operations necessary in case of floods, and of landslips 
 of an ordinary character. In mining districts they 
 keep careful watch, and see that the railway is lifted 
 and maintained when subsidences occur ; they daily 
 visit portions of their districts, and are in constant 
 personal communication with their gangers, acquaint- 
 ing them with all instructions issued from headquarter.s. 
 
. . PERMANENT WA Y. 6l 
 
 The chief inspectors of districts are responsible for 
 the general condition of the main lines, and it is their 
 special duty to see that a uniform standard of main- 
 tenance is kept up by each of their sub-inspectors, and 
 that orders given by the engineer are duly observed 
 and consistently followed out. They arrange the 
 running of trains of materials, and provide for ballast- 
 ing operations, and are in constant communication 
 with the divisional engineers, to whom they report upon 
 every matter affecting the permanent way. 
 
 A similar chain of supervision exists in the workshops 
 in each district. 
 
 Periodical meetings of the divisional engineers are 
 held, at which the various points which arise from time 
 to time in connection with the maintenance and repair 
 of the permanent way are discussed, and the engineers 
 are thus enabled to compare notes and give each other 
 the benefit of their respective experience. 
 
 The stability of the permanent way and works of a 
 great railway is frequently threatened, and ceaseless 
 vigilance has to be exercised to avert the dangers 
 arising from circumstances which no human foresight 
 can anticipate. Embankments and sea-walls are some- 
 times demolished by storms ; landslips and the fall of 
 rock from overhanging cliffs may cover the rails ; sudden 
 subsidences of the surface, due to mining operations, 
 may take place ; bridges and viaducts may be set on 
 fire, or washed away by floods ; dangerous compounds 
 explode in transit, rails be torn up by collisions, or por- 
 tions of tunnels may collapse. Instances of mishaps 
 from all these causes have occurred in actual experience, 
 and to repair the damage and restore the communication 
 in the shortest possible time is the task which frequenth' 
 
62 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 has to be undertaken by the railway engineer, occur- 
 rences of the nature referred to frequently happening 
 without the least previous warning. In such cases, the 
 first difficulty the engineer experiences is very often 
 in ascertaining, with any degree of accuracy, what has 
 actually taken place, and the precise extent of the damage 
 which has resulted, and he has next to determine what, 
 with the time and means at his disposal, he is justified 
 in attempting. It is often found that men, plant, and 
 material can be more expeditiously obtained from some 
 central dep6t than from local resources, although the 
 depot may be a hundred miles or more from the scene 
 of operations. 
 
 A notable illustration of what can be done in this 
 way in an emergenc3/- by a company like the London and 
 North-Western, possessing great resources, occurred 
 when, in the great storm of Sunday, the 17th August, 
 1879, the Llandulas viaduct, on the main line of the 
 Chester and Holyhead Railway, was undermined By 
 flood, and washed completely away, interrupting, for the 
 time being, the trafiic between England and Ireland. 
 For two days, until the flood subsided, nothing could 
 be done, but within the space of five days afterwards 
 the railway was deviated for about half-a-mile so as to 
 strike the river at the narrowest point, and a temporary 
 trestle bridge was erected, over which the first train 
 passed at 2 p.m. on the 24th August, exactly 
 seven days after the mishap occurred. The line was 
 cut in the slope of the embankment leading to the 
 old viaduct, and was everywhere placed upon solid 
 ground, or upon stacks of old sleepers, so that there 
 might be no settlement, and the line might be fit for the 
 heaviest traffic immediately it was completed. The 
 
PERMANENT WAY. 63 
 
 gradients were 1 in 23, dipping down to the river, 
 and rising on the opposite side, and everything 
 was finished off in the most substantial and careful 
 manner; but of course great skill and attention were 
 necessary on the part of the engine drivers, and the 
 difificulty of working long and heavy trains, some of 
 which required three engines, over these severe and 
 changing gradients, without breaking the couplings, or 
 heavily bumping the carriages together, can hardly be 
 exaggerated, yet no mishap occurred, and the passengers 
 in the trains were scarcely aware that they were 
 travelling under unusual conditions. 
 
 The new permanent viaduct was meanwhile rapidly 
 constructed, and was actually completed and opened for 
 traffic on the 14th September, less than one month after 
 the mishap. Its length is 224 feet, divided into seven 
 spans of thirty-two feet each, and its height is fifty feet. 
 Forty-two girders, each thirty-two feet in length, were 
 required, and the plates and angles for each girder were 
 rolled "in one length. All these were made in the Com- 
 pany's own steel works at Crewe, and the whole of the 
 material was turned out and ready for erection within seven 
 days, the steel having been manufactured, rolled, and 
 worked, within that short space of time. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Signals and Interlocking. 
 
 An attempt will now be made to give some idea of 
 the elaborate system of signalling the trains, which, in 
 conjunction with the use of the electric telegraph, alone 
 enables the traffic of a great railway to be carried on 
 with safety and despatch, and which has grown up from 
 the rudest beginnings side by side with the growth of 
 the railway system itself. 
 
 There is, of course, a very obvious and primary 
 necessity, on any railway, for some visible indication by 
 means of which the drivers of the trains may be warned 
 when they may proceed, and when they must come to 
 a stand, and shortly after the opening of the Stockton 
 and Darlington, which was the earliest railway con- 
 structed, one of the station masters is said to have 
 adopted the simple expedient of placing a lighted 
 candle in the window of the station-house when it was 
 necessary for a train to stop. From this rude beginning 
 to the complicated system of signals and interlocking 
 which may be seen, for example, at Clapham Junction 
 or Waterloo is a very long step in advance, and it has, 
 of course, only been achieved by a gradual process of 
 evolution. Thus when the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway was first opened in 1830, the only arrangement 
 made for signalling the trains was a flag by day or a 
 
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 6$ 
 
 lamp by night, held in the hand of the pointsman, as 
 he was then called, and an old print from the " Illus- 
 trated London News " shows us the pointsman, or police- 
 man, in the long-tailed coat and tall hat of the period, 
 standing outside his hut, and making the prescribed ; 
 motions with his flag ; but this simple device was soon 
 found to be insufficient, and, about four years after the line 
 had been opened, stout posts were provided, upon which 
 lamps were placed by the pointsman. This really marks 
 the first step in the creation of the present system of 
 signalling ; but about the same time the Grand Junction 
 Railway was approaching completion, and the necessity 
 for some improved form of fixed signal seems to have 
 been realised, since we find that the line, at its opening 
 in 1837, was provided with station signals in the form 
 of discs, carried on poles about 1 2 feet in height, with a 
 lamp at the top, the disc and lamp being arranged to 
 turn through a quarter circle by the pointsman actuating 
 a lever at the base. If the disc was turned so as to 
 face an approaching train, or the lamp showed a red 
 light, it implied a signal to stop ; while, if the disc was ■ 
 turned edgeways to the driver, or the lamp showed a 
 white light, it meant "go on." These signals, which 
 may still be seen in use in some remote country 
 districts, were fixed on the platforms at stations, or 
 outside the pointsmen's huts at junctions, and cor- 
 responded in position with the home signals of to-day, 
 the "distant signal" being, at that time, a thing un- 
 known'. 
 
 Some five years later, about 1842, a semaphore signal, 
 somewhat similar to those in use at the present time, 
 was introduced, and it appears probable that this now 
 universally-adopted type of signal very rapidly super- 
 
 F 
 
66 AN ENGLISH J? AIL WA Y. 
 
 seded the disc signals of the earlier period. The: old 
 semaphores showed three positions, " all right," " slacken 
 speed," and " danger," the arms being actuated by the 
 pointsman by means of a lever on the post. Up to 
 this time, although the necessity must have existed, as 
 it does to-day, for a driver to be warned as to the state 
 of the line some time before actually reaching the point 
 of obstruction, where he was required to stop, no 
 attempt seems to have been made to meet the want ; 
 but at length accident proved once more the parent of 
 design, for in the year 1846 a pointsman, who had to 
 attend to two station signals, placed some little distance 
 apart, in order to save himself the trouble of walking to 
 and fro between them, procured some wire, which he 
 attached to the levers of the signals, using a broken iron 
 chair as a counter-weight, and by this simple expedient 
 found himself able to work both signals without leaving 
 his hut. Thus was demonstrated the possibility of 
 working a signal at a distance, and this man's primitive 
 contrivance doubtless hastened the introduction of 
 distant signals, the use of which rapidly became 
 universal. " Starling signals " were the development 
 of a later period, the necessity for them having only 
 been brought about by the application of the Block- 
 Telegraph system some years after. 
 
 The next step in advance was the adoption, in a very 
 elementary form, of the principle of interlocking, and 
 this seem,s to have been forced upon the attention of 
 railway engineers at a very early period, since, as early 
 as 1843, we find that the levers for working the signals 
 at a junction were provided with a simple mechanical 
 device to prevent the main-line signal being' lowered at 
 the same time as that for the branch line ; but, at that 
 
SIGNALS AtTi> mt£.RL6ckli7G. 67 
 
 time, no attempt was made to extend the locking to the 
 levers which actuated the points. In the following year 
 Mr. C. F. Whitworth patented a scheme for locking 
 points and signals on the ground by means of locks 
 worked by wire, but there was no suggestion for 
 concentrating the levers. The apparatus was compli- 
 cated and difficult to work, and apparently it was never 
 brought to bear, but there is no doubt that the proposal 
 contained the germ of the interlocking system as we 
 have it to-day. 
 
 In 1856 a successful attempt was made by Mr. John 
 Saxby, at the Bricklayers' Arms Junction (London), 
 to concentrate and interlock the levers working both 
 points and signals, and although the apparatus employed 
 was crude as compared with the perfect mechanism now 
 in use, it represented the earliest practical application of 
 the principle of interlocking. In 1859 the first inter- 
 locking frame was fixed on the London and North 
 Western Railway, at Willesden Junction, by Mr. Austin 
 Chambers, who patented his arrangement in 1 860, and 
 from this point the interlocking of the London and North 
 Western system proceeded rapidly ; for thirteen years 
 later, in 1873, it is recorded that 13,000 interlocked levers 
 were in use on that railway. 
 
 At this point it may be worth while briefly to describe 
 the meaning and application of the different kinds of 
 signals and locking appliances in use upon the principal 
 railways at the present time. 
 
 The form of signal most generally adopted is the 
 " Semaphore, " which is no doubt familiar to most of my 
 readers, and consists of a timber or iron pole varying ill 
 dimensions according to circumstances, but sometimes 
 as murh as 70 feet high, with an arm about 5 feet long^ 
 
63 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 capable of assuming two positions when actuated by. 
 mechanical force. When this arm is horizontal and at ■ 
 right angles to the post it signifies "stop"; when it is 
 nearly vertical it indicates " go on." As the arm cannot 
 be seen at night, a lamp is provided on the post, and ' 
 working with the arm is a frame containing coloured ^ 
 glasses, and termed " spectacles," which cause the lamp , 
 to show a red light to indicate " stop," and a white or 
 green light to indicate " safety," or " caution." 
 
 The signals are distinguished as "home signals," 
 " distant signals," " starting signals," " advanced start- 
 ing signals," and " disc signals." The home signal, as 
 its name implies, is placed close to the point at which 
 it is desired a train shall stop. The distant signal is 
 placed at varying distances behind the home signal 
 according to the gradient of the line and other circum' 
 stances, but on a straight and level railway it would be 
 about 1,000 yards back, and its function is to repeat 
 the action of the home signal, so that if the latter is 
 at danger the driver has timely intimation. of the fact, 
 and can at once reduce the speed of his train so as to 
 stop at the home signal. Distant signals are distinguished 
 by a notch cut in the end of the arm. In working a 
 Military railway it would be quite practicable to dispense 
 with visible signals altogether and rely entirely upon the 
 use of the telegraph ; or, at all events, the two simple sig- 
 nals, the home and distant, as described, would probably 
 suffice ; but for the purposes of ordinary railways the 
 introduction of the block telegraph system has neces- 
 sitated the provision of starting and advanced .starting 
 signals. Starting signals are usually placed at the end 
 of the platform at a station, and they indicate to the 
 driver, by the lowering of the arm, when he may start his 
 
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 69 
 
 train and enter the section in advance. The advanced 
 starting signal is usually placed about 300 yards from the 
 cabin, in front of the starting signal, and enables a train 
 which has passed the platform starting signal for the 
 purpose of picking up waggons from sidings, or to clear 
 the section in the rear, to be brought to a stand without 
 entering the section in advance. It may be explained 
 that all semaphore signals are fixed in such a way that 
 on approaching them the arm appears on the left-hand 
 side of the post, and this arrangement enables the 
 same post sometimes to be used for carrying both " up " 
 and " down " signals. 
 
 The disc signal is used to indicate to a driver whose 
 train is in a goods siding which joins the main line when 
 he may leave the siding and pass out on to the main 
 line. It is really a disc of metal, with a lamp, carried on 
 a spindle fixed near the ground, and which turns on its 
 axis. The position of the disc by day and the colour 
 exhibited by the lamp at night furnish the required 
 indications as to the state of the line. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows a simple arrangement of signals at a 
 station, and Fig. 11 shows the ordinary signals required 
 at a simple junction where there is no complication of 
 lines. 
 
 At a small roadside station, where there are no sidings 
 connecting with the main line, the signals are easily 
 worked by detached levers, placed in any convenient 
 position ; but at larger stations, where there are many 
 signals and points to be actuated, a means of concen- 
 trating the working becomes necessary, and this is done 
 by means of the "signal cabin," which brings us to the 
 question of interlocking. The signal cabin contains a 
 most complicated piece of mechanism,, called the "locking 
 
I 
 
 '•1 
 
 
 II 
 
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 71 
 
 frame," consisting of a row of levers by means of which 
 the signalman actuates every pair of points and every 
 signal under his control. By a mechanical contrivance, 
 the points and signals are interlocked — that is to say, 
 supposing, for example, that the signalman has moved 
 a lever that opens a pair of points, to enable a 
 train to come out of a siding on to the main line, the 
 home and distant signals must be at "danger" to stop 
 any train from approaching on the main line, and it is 
 physically impossible for the signalman to lower them. 
 The manner in which this is accomplished was described 
 some years ago in the Engineer, and that description is 
 so complete and lucid that probably it would be difficult 
 to improve upon it. The writer says : — ■ 
 
 " Mounting by an iron ladder to the signal platform, 
 we enter the glass-house. One side of this building is 
 occupied by a row of strong iron levers standing nearly 
 upright from the floor, and placed at equal distances 
 along one side of the apartment ; on the opposite 
 side are many electric telegraph instruments, and the 
 rest of the width forms a gangway or passage from end 
 to end for two stalv/art and serious-looking men, whose 
 time is entirely occupied in looking through the glass 
 sides of their. cell, and pulling this way or pushing that 
 way some of the levers which are arranged before them. 
 These levJ^rs work all the points and signals, and their 
 number is found to correspond exactly with the 
 number of points and signal levers outside. Every 
 lever is numbered, and on the floor beside it there is 
 fixed a brass plate, engraved with its name and use. 
 Sets of. them are also distinguished in a way that 
 .readily catches the eye, by being painted in strong 
 colours. Thus, for example, all the point levers may 
 
yi AN MNGLlsn RAII. WA Y. ' 
 
 be black, the up signals red, the down signals blue 
 and the distant signals green. The row of levers thus 
 presents a diversified pattern to the eye, which is 
 readily caught by the parti-coloured groups, and, 
 having once got the key, distinguishes quickly and 
 correctly between their different classes. 
 
 " On examining the levers somewhat more closely, we 
 perceive that many of them have numbers painted on 
 their sides, not one number only, but in some cases 
 half a dozen or more ; and one naturally asks what 
 can be their meaning. These numbers involve the 
 whole secret of the safety which is secured by the 
 mechanism, as will be readily understood on examining 
 the principles on which it has been devised. 
 
 " The keys and pedals of an organ, as every one knows, 
 command numerous valves admitting air from a wind- 
 chest to the pipes which it is desired to sound. The 
 key-boards are sometimes double or triple, and are 
 occasionally arranged so that the performer sits with 
 his back to the instrument. The pipes are generally 
 spread over a large space, and sets of them are some- 
 times enclosed in separate chambers. There thus 
 arises considerable complexity in the mechanism by 
 which the several keys are made to operate on their 
 respective air-valves. Nevertheless, by means of rods, 
 cranks, and levers, such a connection is effected that, 
 on depressing a C key, not one C pipe only, but it may 
 be twenty C pipes are made to sound, in whatever part 
 of the instrument those pipes may be situated. And 
 so it is with the point and signal levers. The' whole 
 row may be considered to form a key-board, every key 
 of which is connected by suitable cranks and rpds to 
 some one of the points and semaphores which have to 
 
SlC'NAtS AND INTERLOCKING. 73 
 
 fBe 5)layed upon. In the organ, a touch of the finger 
 ; serves to depress a key, for the movement has only to 
 ■ admit a puff of air to certain pipes ; but here the keys 
 require a strong and steady pull, for they have to move 
 ponderous point bars,, or broad semaphore arms, and 
 their movements have to be conveyed round many 
 corners and over considerable distances. In both cases 
 the mode of communicating motion is the same, the 
 two mechanisms differing only in size and strength ; 
 and thus far the organ and the signal instrument 
 exactly correspond. Now, however, we come to a 
 point in which they differ toto ccelo. A performer on 
 the organ can touch any keys he pleases in any order 
 or in any number ; he can ' discourse most eloquent 
 music,' or he can rend the ears of his audience by 
 abominable discord. Not so the signalman. Concord 
 he can produce at will, but discord is utterly beyond 
 . his powers. He cannot open the points to one line 
 and at the same time give a safety signal to a line 
 which crosses it ; and the points must be properly set, 
 close home to the stock, or fixed rail, or the signal for a 
 - train to pass cannot possibly be given, and the least 
 obstruction occurring to prevent the full and true 
 opening or closing of the points is at once discovered, 
 even with connecting rods of the greatest length 
 practicable. Moreover, while a train is actually travel- 
 ling through the points, it is itself master; of the 
 situation ; not even the signalman can, either inten- 
 tionally or inadvertently, change their position or 
 disturb them until the whole train is safely p^assed. 
 When he gives a clear signal for a main line, h6 cannot 
 open a point crossing to it ; when he gives a clear 
 signal for a crossing he must show danger for all the 
 
7 4 AN ENGL TSTT RAIL WA Y. 
 
 lines which it crosses. And this is the meaning of the 
 numbers marked on the different levers. No. lo, let 
 us suppose, has 5, 7, and 23 marked on Its side. He 
 may pull at No. 10 as long as he pleases, but he 
 cannot move it till Nos. S, 7, and 23 have first been 
 moved ; and so throughout the whole system. No 
 signal lever can be moved to safety unless the point 
 levers corresponding with it have first been moved, 
 and no point levers can be moved while there stands 
 at safety any signal lever that ought to stand at danger. 
 Every lever is under lock and key, each being a part 
 of the key which unlocks some of the others, and each 
 forming a part of the lock which secures some of the 
 others against possible movement, while each is at the 
 same time subject to the control of all those which are 
 related to it. 
 
 " This result, complex and difficult as it seems, is 
 achieved by mechanism of great simplicity and beauty. 
 Immediately under the floor of the platform, and just 
 in front of the levers, are arranged several series of 
 vibrating and sliding bars, somewhat like the tumblers 
 of a lock, placed horizontally. These bars have pro- 
 jections here which stand in front of certain levers as 
 obstacles to their motion, and notches there which 
 permit certain levers to travel. Some of these have 
 sloping faces, so that when a lever moves along 
 them it edges them to one side, and this transverse 
 motion being communicated to others of the 
 series, brings the proper projections or notches in 
 front of those other levers to which the moving 
 lever is related. Thus by the movement of one 
 lever some others are stopped, and some are left 
 free, and this simple principle, carefully applied 
 
SlQNAZiS -ArTD- mTERLOCKING. . 75 
 
 to all, combines them in a system incapable of 
 discord." 
 
 There are several supplementary interlocking appli- 
 ances now generally in use which may be briefly 
 described. For instance, there is the " Facing-Point 
 Lock," which is a bar of iron working in connection 
 with facing points — that is, points by which one line 
 diverges from another in the same direction. This bar, 
 which is actuated by a separate lever in the cabin, 
 works with, and securely locks, the points, and not 
 until this has been done can the signal be lowered. 
 The bar holds the points firmly in position, so that, even 
 if the signal has been reversed, they cannot be moved 
 while the train is passing over them. Then we have 
 the "Locking Bar," somewhat similar to the facing- 
 point lock, but actuated by the same lever that works 
 the points. This is chiefly applied to siding points to 
 prevent their being moved while a train is passing over 
 them. " Detector Bars " are employed on parts of the 
 line which cannot be seen by the signalman, to prevent 
 the signals being lowered when the line is occupied by a 
 train. " Detector Locks" are applied to facing points, 
 and are worked by the wire that works the signals, and 
 if the points should be injured or out of position the 
 fault is at once detected, and the signal is locked at 
 "danger." 
 
 Again, there is the " Point-rod Compensator," which 
 automatically compensates for the expansion or contrac- 
 tion from heat or cold of the rods which actuate the points, 
 and an " adjusting apparatus," which enables the signal- 
 man to adjust his signal wires without leaving his cabin, 
 together with numerous other .ingenious contrivances for 
 working and interlocking with thesignals the gates of level 
 
; ^y6 AN^ ENGLISH RAIL WA K 
 
 ; crossings, turn-tables, and canal drawbridges, and for many 
 
 other purposes. There is, moreover, in use on some of 
 
 ■ the branch railways, a system of what is known as " Key 
 
 , Interlocking" forsidingpoints, which merits a particular 
 
 , description, as it is both simple and effectual, and might 
 prove valuable in the working of temporary or Military 
 railways. By means of this system, while the large 
 outlay required for laying down rods to work the points 
 is avoided, all the security of interlocking is retained. 
 A simple frame of levers is provided for working the 
 signals, with a number of keys. If a certain siding is 
 
 ; required to be used, the key which applies to that siding 
 is withdrawn, and this has the effect of mechanically 
 locking all signals for the road with which the siding 
 connects. The key is then carried to the siding, and 
 with it the points are unlocked, but when they are once 
 opened the key cannot be withdrawn until they are 
 closed and locked again, and the signals, of course, 
 cannot be lowered until the key has been carried back 
 and inserted in the lever frame, so that the security is 
 complete. 
 
 During the interval between 1859, when the first 
 interlocking apparatus was fixed on the London and 
 North-Western Railway, and 1873, when, as before 
 stated, considerable progress had been made towards 
 interlocking the whole of the system, many alterations 
 and- improvements in the method, both of signalling 
 and interlocking, had from time to time been introduced 
 with the inevitable result that the signal plant and 
 apparatus in use had come to be of very mixed types, 
 ■causing great difficulty and unnecessary expense in 
 rriaintenance and repairs. 
 
 This state of things led to the introduction of a new 
 
SICN:4LS and INTERLOCh'TNG. 77 
 
 system altogether, with regard to signalling the railway, 
 the organisation of which was entrusted to Mr. F. W..-, 
 Webb, Mem. Inst. CE., the Company's chief mechanical, 
 engineer. Up to this time, all signal work upon the 
 railway had been provided and kept in repair under 
 contract by the different firms of railway signal manu- 
 facturers, but chiefly by Messrs. Saxby & Farmer, of 
 which firm Mr. John Saxby, before referred to as having 
 been the inventor of the first effective system of inter- 
 locking, was an active partner. The Company now 
 determined in future to make and keep in repair their ; 
 own signals and interlocking apparatus, so as to secure , 
 not only efficiency and economy, but uniformity of ■ 
 pattern throughout the line. The scheme was brought , 
 to bear, and proved to be a success. The Company had . 
 already ample facilities in the locomotive works at 
 Crewe for turning out all kinds of iron work ; carpenters' 
 and fitters' shops for making the cabins, signals, and : 
 other woodwork were added, a superintendent and a- 
 staff of artisans appointed, and the thing was done, the 
 payment of royalties to inventors being soon dispensed , 
 with by the Company's engineers designing and . 
 patenting new systems of their own. 
 
 The signal-fitting shop at Crewe is 280 feet long, and 
 85 feet wide, the machine tools being driven by a fine Otto 
 gas engine of 48 indicated horse-power. There is, of 
 course, plenty of steam power available in the works, 
 but the signal shop is often busy at a time when the 
 other machinery is not working, and the gas engine is, 
 for this reason, found to be a convenient and economical ■ 
 arrangement. One side of the shop is devoted to the , 
 preparation of the signal-posts, which are received from ■ , 
 the saw-mill cut to the proper dimensions, and ready ,j 
 
7S AN ENGIISH RAIL tVA Y. 
 
 for fitting. The posts are of Baltic timber, varying- in 
 size from 9 inches to 15 inches square at the bottom 
 end, and tapering to 6 inches square at the top, the 
 length varying according to circumstances. About 
 seven feet of each post, at the bottom, is left the full 
 size of the timber from which the post is cut, and this 
 portion is first charred in a furnace and afterwards well 
 coated with gas tar, while upon the top of the post is 
 placed a galvanised cast-iron cap. The arm of the 
 signal is formed of a thin steel plate, stiffened by two 
 corrugations running lengthways, and is riveted to a 
 galvanised cast-iron centre, upon which is fixed an 
 adjustable frame for the spectacle-glasses, made 
 sufficiently heavy to counterbalance any accumulation 
 of snow on the arm, and keep it in its " danger " 
 position should any of the fittings fail. The arm works 
 on a spindle squared to receive it at one end, and on 
 the back light lever at the other end, except when the 
 signal is electrically repeated, in which case a racked 
 segment is substituted for the back light lever, and it is 
 geared with a similar segment, in connection with the 
 electrical contacts of the repeater apparatus. The 
 spindle turns in a casting fastened to the post by four 
 |-inch bolts, which also serve to secure the lamp bracket 
 fixed at the back of the arm, this bracket being of 
 sufficient width to form a "stop " for the arm when in 
 its '' danger position. " 
 
 There are several other distinctive patterns of signals 
 employed for special purposes, amongst them being the 
 " disc " signals, previously mentioned, for controlling the 
 exits from sidings, and the miniature semaphore signals 
 placed low down on the post, which at certain busy parts 
 of the line are used instead of a hatid signal when it 
 
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 79 
 
 is necessary to call an engine cautiously past a signal 
 at "danger," and which are termed " calling on arms." . 
 
 On an average the fitting shop at Crewe turns out 
 about nine signals per week, including composite or 
 bracket and gantry posts, some of which have been con- 
 structed to carry as many as twenty-four signal arms. 
 
 On the other side of the shop are arranged a number 
 of erecting frames, on which the interlocking apparatus 
 is built up. The frame used by the Company is known 
 as lever actuation, with horizontal and vertical bar 
 locking. The horizontal bars are of Bessemer steel, 
 rolled to a shallow channel section, the locking studs 
 being squared to fit the channel and secured by 
 riveting. The vertical bars are also of steel, notched, 
 the notches being punched out cold. Each vertical bar 
 is guided by a channel the length of itself, one wall of 
 which is made deeper than the other ; notches are cast 
 in this to act as guides for the horizontal bars, these 
 notches being faced by a special drifting machine at the 
 rate of thirty-five notches per hour. The apparatus is 
 characterised by great strength and simplicity, and, an 
 unusual amount of special machine work being employed 
 in its construction, a perfect interchangeability of parts is 
 secured which is highly essential to economical mainte- 
 nance. This is sufficiently demonstrated by the fact 
 that, since the introduction of the present form of 
 apparatus and methods of construction, the annual cost 
 of maintenance has been largely reduced. 
 
 Signals are worked from the signal cabins by wires, 
 but the points are actuated by rods. Trailing points 
 are worked at a distance of 220 yards from the cabin, 
 but in the case of facing points the distance is 
 restricted by the Board of Trade to 150 yards, increased 
 
8p\ AN ENGLISH RAIL V/A V, ■ 
 
 in some exceptional cases to i8o yards. At such dis- 
 tances as these, it is obviously of great importance to 
 have a strong and thoroughly trustworthy means of con- 
 nection between the points and the cabin, and for this 
 purpose ordinary iron gas-piping was formerly used, but 
 latterly it has been found that a steel channel section 
 of rodding is far superior for the purpose, and the success 
 attending this innovation has led to its adoption by 
 several other railway companies. The chief advantage 
 over gas-piping is that rods weakened by corrosion are 
 readily detected and can be removed. Moreover, being 
 manufactured to a standard in the works at Crewe, they 
 are of uniform excellence, both in material and work- 
 manship. About 6,coo yards of this rodding is turned 
 out on an average every month, is sawn off to i8-feet 
 lengths, and, when laid down, is jointed by means of fish- 
 plates, secured by sixi-inch bolts, the fish-plates being 
 rolled to a section to fit the channel of the rod, and the 
 bolt holes drilled by a multiple drill. After being laid 
 down, the rodding receives a coating of red lead and a 
 second coat of red oxide paint, which gives it a smart 
 appearance, and is found to be a good preservative. 
 
 For lighting the signal lamps at night, gas is used in 
 the neighbourhood of large towns, where it is readily 
 obtainable ; but by far the greater number are lighted 
 with petroleum oil, a large number of spare lamps being 
 kept always on hand to provide for cases of failure. 
 
 The signalling of the London and North-Western 
 Railway as it exists to-day has involved the erection of 
 1,400 signal cabins, containing some 30,000 levers, and 
 of 16,000 signals. The steel rodding used to actuate 
 the points would form a continuous rod from the Land's '■ 
 End .to- John 0'Gr<jat's,-v/hiIc-the wires which. work the ' 
 
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. 8i 
 
 signals would stretch from Liverpool to New York. The 
 largest interlocking apparatus ever constructed in the 
 Crewe works is that at the South Junction cabin at 
 Rugby, which contains no less than i8o levers. 
 
 The maintenance of all this complicated array of 
 signals and interlocking apparatus, over upwards of 
 i,8oo miles of railway, is in itself a work of great mag- 
 nitude, and one requiring the closest and most anxious 
 attention, having regard to the consequences that might 
 result from a single point rod breaking or getting out 
 of gear ; or from a single signal arm failing to respond 
 to the action of the lever. For the purposes of mainte- 
 nance, the entire system is divided into eleven districts, 
 each of which is in charge of an inspector, these eleven 
 inspectors being assisted by twepty-one sub-inspectors 
 and foremen, and having under their orders sixty-eight 
 chargemen and 430 workmen. The districts are sub- 
 divided into lengths, and each length is placed in charge 
 of a "chargeman" and an assistant, who visit every 
 signal cabin on their length once a fortnight, clean and 
 oil the fittings of each signal and point, execute any 
 small repairs or renewals that may be required, and 
 which it is possible to carry out during their visit, and 
 report to the inspector of the district any repairs or 
 renewals which they may find to be necessary, but which 
 they are unable to deal with upon the spot. In every 
 signal cabin the name and private address of the charge- 
 man who is responsible for it is posted, and it is the 
 duty of the signalman to report to him every failure or 
 defect that may become apparent during the intervals 
 of his visits, sending at the same time a duplicate of the 
 report to the inspector of the district. 
 
 In addition to this, every cabin is visited once a month 
 
 G 
 
82 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 by a fitter and his assistant, whose duty it is to carefully 
 examine, clean, oil and, if necessary, repair the locking 
 apparatus, particulars of the work done being entered 
 in a monthly report, which is sent through the district 
 inspector to the head office at Crewe. 
 
 Heavy repairs and renewals are executed by an extra 
 gang, attached to each districr, in charge of a respon- 
 sible foreman, the most stringent rules being laid down 
 as to the manner in which the work is to be carried out, 
 so as to provide for the safe and uninterrupted conduct 
 of the traffic during the time it is going on. 
 
 In order to secure uniformity in the sighting of the 
 signals, the following rules are, as far as possible, adhered 
 to, but these rules are always subject to modification so 
 as to meet special circumstances such as, for instance, 
 where bridges, trees, or other natural objects, or sharp 
 curves, would otherwise obscure the sight of the signals. 
 
 Home Signals. — To be fixed within sight of the 
 distant signal, and to be erected as near the signal 
 cabin as possible, so that a driver, whose engine is 
 standing at the signal, may be verbally communicated 
 with, if necessary, by the signalman. 
 
 Distant Signals.— To be fixed at a uniform distance 
 of i,ooo yards from the home signal, unless the gradient 
 is a rising one, in which case a distance of 8oo yards is 
 considered sufficient. In special cases, a distant signal 
 may be fixed a maximum distance of 1,200 yards from 
 the home signal, where the circumstances admit of a 
 sufficiently direct route for the wire connections to 
 enable the signal to work freely. 
 
 function Signals. — The same rules apply to these as 
 to home signals. They are to be fixed near the facing 
 points to which they apply, and in no case at a greater 
 
SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING, 83 
 
 distance from them than 200 yards, unless repeater 
 signals or dupHcate locking bars are provided. 
 
 Junction signals for protecting a junction in the trailing 
 direction {i.e., a junction formed by the connection of 
 one line with another, not by meeting or facing points, 
 but by trailing points) to be fixed a sufficient distance 
 from the fouling point to afford some margin for a 
 driver who may accidentally draw past the signal. 
 
 Junction signals are not in any case to be placed on 
 the same post one above another, but a separate post is 
 to be provided for each signal. 
 
 Platform Starting Signals. — These are sighted at a 
 height of about 15 feet above rail-level, and so as to be 
 seen by a driver the whole length of the platform. This 
 rule, however, is not strictly applicable if the same post 
 carries the distant or home signal for a cabin in advance, 
 in which case the signals are sighted as home or distant 
 signals, as the case may be. 
 
 Advanced Starting Signals- — These are to be sighted 
 of a uniform height with platform starting signals, and 
 are to be seen by a driver from the platform starting 
 signal. They must not in any case be at a greater 
 distance in advance of the cabin than 350 yards, and 
 must be clearly in view of the signalman. 
 
 General Rules. — Bay starting and other subordinate 
 signals are to be of a tmiform height of 15 feet from 
 rail level, and are to be provided with short arms and 
 purple lights instead of red. 
 
 Lamps are never to be placed nearer together than 
 7 feet, except in the case of subordinate signals. 
 
 Signals elevated more than 45 feet above rail- level are 
 to have a lower arm on the same post, 15 feet above 
 rail-level, so as to be visible in fogs or thick weather. 
 
84 AN ENGL ISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Signal cabins are to be so placed that the signalman 
 may have a good sight of all points and signals 
 actuated from his cabin, more especially facing points. 
 
 All signals are to be fixed on the left-hand side of, 
 and as near as possible to, the road to which they apply, 
 no signal or cabin, however, being erected at a less 
 distance than 4 feet 6 inches from a passenger line of 
 rails. 
 
 A distant signal for a cabin in advance must never 
 overlap a home or starting signal for a cabin in the rear, 
 but must be fixed on the same post, 7 feet below the 
 home or starting signal, and be controlled by the home 
 or starting signal, to prevent the distant arm being 
 "off" when the home or starting arm is at "danger." 
 When a distant signal is placed below a home or starting 
 signal, no other signal must be placed on the same post, 
 excepting " fog " or " calling-on " arms. 
 
 When the distant signals for a junction have to be 
 combined with the home or starting signals for a cabin 
 in the rear, then the starting signal post must be nearest 
 the line with the distant arm for the right-hand junction 
 placed under it, and the distant signal for the left-hand 
 junction must be carried by a separate post to the left 
 of the home or starting post. Both distant arms must 
 be controlled by the home or starting signal. This 
 rule will not apply if the junction to the right is a goods 
 loop or other subordinate line ; in this case, the distant 
 signal must be carried on a separate post to the right 
 cf the home or starting post. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Telegraphs. 
 
 Telegraphy might not inaptly be termed " the hand- 
 maid of steam," for it plays an important part in 
 almost every operation connected with railway working. 
 By its means the trains are started from the stations 
 and conducted safely from point to point throughout 
 their journey ; the signalmen who regulate their passage 
 are placed in an unbroken chain of communication one 
 with the other; the nature of the train and its desti- 
 nation, and the fact of its punctual running, or otherwise, 
 are flashed ahead from signal cabin to signal cabin as 
 it speeds on its journey ; while the faithful telegraph 
 warns the signalman if his signals are not acting freely 
 or if his lamps are not burning brightly. By telegraph 
 the marshalling of goods waggons, the loading of trains, 
 and the movements of empty waggons are intelligently 
 controlled, and the whole business of the railway is 
 carried on with a promptitude and despatch that could 
 not otherwise be attained. In short, the uses of tele- 
 graphy as applied to railways are so numerous, and so 
 diversified, that it would be a formidable task even to 
 catalogue them, and one still more formidable to attempt 
 their description in detail. 
 
 In the earlier days of railways, and before electricity 
 had been brought to bear upon their working, the only 
 
S5 AN ENGLISH RAIL IVA Y. 
 
 means for providing for the safety of the line was by 
 erecting fixed signals at certain points, and keeping 
 them at "danger " for a specified time after the passage 
 of one train, before another was allowed to follow. 
 Obviously, under a system of this kind, only a very 
 limited number of trains could be dealt with within a 
 given period of time, and as the traffic increased and 
 trains were multiplied it was found quite inadequate, 
 and some better plan had to be devised. The electric 
 telegraph had already been utilised for transmitting 
 from station to station the times of departure of the 
 trains, and about the year 1853 Mr. Edwin Clark 
 introduced the absolute block telegraph system, by 
 means of which the number of trains which may be 
 passed over a given section of line, with perfect safety, 
 may, by the multiplication and shortening of the 
 sections, be said to be almost unlimited. 
 
 Mr. Clark's apparatus took the form of what is known 
 as the " three-wire " block telegraph for double lines, 
 and this form has held its own up to the present time — 
 that is, there is one wire with an instrument at each 
 end of the section for the up line, the same for the down 
 line, and one wire for the bell circuit, the latter being 
 common to both lines. Besides this, there is in use a 
 "one-wire" system, also for double lines, but which 
 shows only two positions of the indicator instead of 
 three. The advantages claimed for the "one-wire" 
 system are (i) that on railways where there are four lines 
 of rails only two wires are required, instead of the six 
 that would be needed under the " three-wire " system ; 
 and (2) that where the sections are long, the " one-wire " 
 system is less expensive, although in sections half a 
 mile or less in length the " three-wire" proves to be the 
 
TELEGRAPHS. 
 
 6? 
 
 cheaper of the two, for the reason that, although the 
 wires cost more, the instruments cost less. In addition 
 to these, there is a single-line block telegraph, which is 
 worked by two wires, one for the block instrument and 
 one for the bell. 
 
 All the different kinds of block telegraph apparatus 
 may be worked either on the " absolute " or " permis- 
 sive " system, according to the requirements of the case 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 Three-wire "Tell-tale" Block Telegraph Instritment. 
 
 and the regulations in force; the meaning of the "abso- 
 lute block " being that there can only be one train in a 
 given section at the same time, while, under the " per- 
 missive " system, there may be more than one train in 
 the section. Prior to the year 1 879 it had not been found 
 practicable to work with the block telegraph through 
 busy station yards, and the passage of the train was, in 
 
88 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 such cases, regulated by a special code of electric bell 
 signals, but this plan was very unsatisfactory, and the 
 difficulty was at length met by the introduction of the 
 " Tell-tale " instrument. This is really a form of block 
 telegraph, worked under " permissive regulations " ; but 
 there is a special apparatus, by means of which a 
 reminder is given to the signalman at a station of the 
 number of trains there are in the section in the rear, 
 (r.ee Fig. 12.) 
 
 A block instrument of any kind consists of an indicat- 
 ing dial and a commutator or handle. The indicator is 
 attached to an axle, on which a magnet is centred, 
 being suspended either within, or in close proximity to, 
 , a coil of silk-covered wire, and deflected to the right or 
 left according to whether a "negative" or " positive '' 
 current flows through the coil. The commutator is so 
 arranged as to alter the direction of the current at will. 
 The bells are generally of the single-stroke type, and 
 are used for calling attention, and for giving the com- 
 plete code of signals descriptive of the nature of trains, 
 as agreed to by all the railway companies. 
 
 The normal state of the indicator of the three-wire 
 block instrument is vertical (" Line closed ") when no 
 current is flowing ; the deflection when a negative 
 current is flowing is to the right, meaning " Line clear," 
 and with a positive current to the left, indicating 
 "Train on line." (A set of the three-wire apparatus 
 is shown in Fig. 13.) 
 
 Briefly the modus operandi is as follows : — Attention 
 is first called on the bell, and then station A will give to 
 station B what is called the " Be ready " signal, consisting 
 of a certain number of strokes of the bell, varying so as 
 to indicate the nature of the train. The man at station 
 
TELEGRAPHS. 
 
 89 
 
 B, if the previous train has passed his cabin and he knows 
 the section between A and B is clear, repeats this signal. 
 The train is then despatched from A, the signalman at A 
 gives the signal "Train on line," the signalman at B 
 acknowledges this by moving his own indicator and the 
 one at A to "Train on line," and at once gives the 
 '■ Be ready " signal to C, and so on throughout. As soon 
 as the train has passed B the man at B moves his own 
 indicator and the one at A over to " Line clear," and 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 j::. «;. 
 
 « 
 
 (■f) 
 
 « 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 Set of Three-wtre Block Telegraph Instruments with Bei.l. 
 
 upon this being acknowledged by A the indicator is left 
 vertical, signifying " Line closed," and thus the operation 
 has been completed so far as that particular train and 
 that particular section are concerned. Of course it will 
 be apparent that if this system is properly carried out, 
 it is an absolute impossibility for two trains to be between 
 A and B at the same time. 
 A new form of instrument devised by iVEr. G. E. 
 
90 
 
 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Fletcher, one of the Company's officials, has been recently 
 introduced on the London and North-Western Railway, 
 by means of which the whole of the apparatus shown in 
 Fig. 13, viz., the indicating dials for both up and 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 Fletcher's Combined Block Telegraph Apparatus and Bell. 
 
 down lines, and the bell, are combined in one instrument. 
 (See Fig. 14.) The novelty lies, not so much in the 
 combination, as in the mode of actuating the indicators, 
 the advantages claimed for the invention being (i) a 
 reduction in cost, and (2) considerable economy in 
 
TELEGRAPHS. 
 
 91 
 
 space, which is a great desideratum in the smaller signal 
 cabins. 
 
 The one-wire system differs from the three-wire, in 
 so far as the indicator of the instrument is moved over to 
 the different positions by a momentary current, and is 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 One-Wire Block Telegraph Instrument. 
 
 afterwards held there by induced magnetism, the wire 
 being left free for any succeeding "signals. The mode 
 of working is about the same, only that there are but 
 two positions, viz., " Line clear," and " Train on line," and 
 no vertical positi"on, (See Fig. 15.) 
 
92 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 The " Tell-ta!e " instruments are somewhat similar in 
 construction to the three-wire, the difference being that 
 the commutator is provided with a revolving disc, 
 lettered " line closed '' (indicator vertical), " line clear," 
 and " train on line," and Nos. 2 to 6 on the remaining 
 five sections of the disc. Up to the point of getting one 
 train in the section, the operation is exactly the same as 
 with the ordinary three-wire instruments, but as each 
 additional train is admitted into the section a corre- 
 sponding disc is brought forward ; and also as the trains 
 pass out of the section the same disc is moved back, 
 section by section, until the line is again clear, and the 
 indicator is left at the normal position of " line closed." 
 
 It only remains to say that the single-line block 
 telegraph is worked by a similar kind of instrument to 
 the three-wire (absolute biock), only there is a commu- 
 tator at each end, which is blocked over by the station 
 towards which the train is running, keeping the indicators 
 at both signal boxes at " train on line " until the arrival 
 of the train, when they aro again released. 
 
 Important as the block telegraph is, it is, of course, 
 only an auxiliary to the working of the outdoor sema- 
 phore signals, without which it would be impossible to 
 conduct the traffic ; and the maintenance of these in a 
 state of perfect efficiency has much to do with the 
 punctual running of the trains. It not infrequently 
 happens that a train will run from London, say, to 
 Liverpool or Manchester without a single "danger" 
 signal being exhibited, or, in other words, that there is 
 a clear road throughout. This efficiency is to a great 
 extent secured by the application of electricity. As is 
 well known, expansion and contraction of the sio-nal 
 wires take place owing to change of temperature, the 
 
TELEGRAPHS. 
 
 93 
 
 former preventing, by the elongation of the wire, the 
 pulling of the signal " Off," and the latter, by shortening 
 the wire, preventing the signal from getting properly 
 " On." It is essential that the signalman should know 
 the exact state of his signal, although, by reason of 
 curves or other circumstances, it maybe out of his sight, 
 and, in order that he may be so informed, electric signal 
 repeaters have been introduced, the function of which is 
 to send currents from the signal-post, by means of 
 
 Fig. i6. 
 Electric Signal Repeater and Light Indicator 
 
 electric contacts, to a miniature signal-post fitted in the 
 repeating instrument at the signal-box. Up to about 
 three years ago the arm was only shown "On" by current, 
 and " Off" by gravity, but since that time it has been 
 found possible to show " On " and " Off" by current and 
 "Wrong" by gravity; and, in addition to this, the 
 apparatus now in use shows " Light in " and " Light 
 out," one wire, only, being required for the five indica- 
 tions. (See Fig. i6.) 
 
94 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA >. 
 
 There are many other electrical appliances used in 
 railway working, such as "Train-starting indicators," 
 from platform to signal-box, to inform the signalman 
 that trains are ready to start from certain platforms ; 
 "Route indicators" for junction cabins, by means of 
 which signalmen are advised beforehand of the route 
 an approaching train is required to take where the roads 
 diverge; "Vehicles on line" indicators, to show the 
 signalman when a line is fouled by a vehicle being 
 detached from a train and left standing on the line ; 
 " Shunting indicators" for station yards, and a variety 
 of other electrical apparatus of a similar character. 
 There is, however, one special appliance which merits 
 a somewhat more detailed description, viz., the '" Electric 
 lock " for sidings. This apparatus has been designed to 
 lock and unlock sidings at a distance from the signal- 
 box too far to be worked by rod and lever. There 
 is an instrument at the signal-box, and another at the 
 siding, each containing an electro-magnet capable of 
 actuating an armature which constitutes the lock, fixed 
 in connection with the locking bars of the signal frame. 
 The normal state of the apparatus is " Signals at signal- 
 box unlocked, and siding locked," by the constant flow 
 of a current of electricity through the electro-magnets. 
 If a train, arriving at the signal-box, has to call at the 
 siding, the breakman, or person in charge, intimates the 
 fact to the signalman, who, by the insertion of an 
 ordinary carriage key into the electrical apparatus, 
 disconnects the wire. This has the effect of locking the 
 signals at the signal-box and unlocking the lever at 
 the siding, and the key can only be inserted when the 
 signals are at " Danger." There is a code of bell signals 
 drawn up for the guidance of the men, but it will be 
 
TELEGkAP^HS. 95 
 
 sufificient to say here that when the train has finished 
 its work at the siding and is ready to go forward, the 
 breakman communicates this by bell signal to the signal- 
 box, and at the same time, by the turning of a button 
 in the front of the instrument at the siding, renews the 
 flow of current, thereby again locking the siding lever 
 and unlocking the signals at the signal-box. The 
 security of the system lies in the fact that, whatever 
 operation takes place at one end, it is only in the hands 
 of the person at the other end to reverse it. 
 
 On all the more important main lines the signalmen 
 are enabled to converse one with the other, either by 
 means of the speaking telegraph or of the telephone, 
 which latter is found to be a great acquisition in 
 facilitating the working of the line, more especially 
 through busy station yards. 
 
 The mileage of telegraph wires upon the London 
 and North- Western system for purely railway purposes 
 is 11,238 miles, in addition to which there are 6,877 
 miles of wire appropriated to the use of the Post 
 Office, making up an aggregate of 18,115 miles of wire, 
 while the number of battery cells in work for carrying 
 on the telegraphic business of the Company amounts 
 to 100,323 ceils. With such an extent of wires, and so 
 large a number of instruments and batteries in use, it 
 becomes of great importance to provide for a complete 
 and perfect system of maintenance and supervision ; 
 but the staff which has to be employed for the purpose 
 is not so extensive as may at first sight appear to be 
 requisite. A line of telegraph has this advantage over 
 a line of railway, that the person charged with the duty 
 of maintaining it in a proper state of repair need not 
 walk from end to end of it in order to detect any fault 
 
96 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 or weakness. A man can stand at one end of a line of 
 telegraph, hundreds of miles in length, and, by ex- 
 changing signals with the other end, may satisfy himself 
 that the entire circuit is in efficient : working order. 
 Thus the work of inspection and maintenance of the 
 extensive system of telegraphs in operation on the 
 London and North-Western Railway is carried on by 
 nine inspectors, three sub-inspectors, and forty-eight 
 " linemen." The line is divided for maintenance pur- 
 poses into nine sections, each of which is in charge of 
 an inspector ; and the first daily duty of each inspector 
 is, at a stated time previous to 8.0 a.m., to test all the 
 more important circuits under his charge, and ascertain 
 if they are intact and working efficiently, and the results 
 of this inspection are telegraphed at once to the office 
 of the chief telegraph superintendent, in Manchester, 
 so that that officer has before him, by 9.0 a.m. each day, 
 a condensed report of the exact state of the telegraphic 
 communications over the entire system. By these 
 means it is known where the services of the linemen 
 are required, and some of them are told off to execute 
 necessary repairs, while others undertake the duties of 
 cleaning apparatus, and refreshing batteries. As a general 
 rule, the batteries are cleaned, or refreshed, at fixed 
 intervals varying from ten days to a month, according to 
 the amount of work they have to perform ; but it is the 
 duty of any operator who perceives, by the failure or 
 weakness of the indications, that his battery power 
 shows signs of exhaustion at once to intimate the fact 
 to the inspector in charge of the district, and to report 
 any neglect or delay in attending to it to the chief 
 telegraph superintendent. 
 
 Electricians are said to be somewhat divided in 
 
TELEGRAPHS. 97 
 
 opinion as to the relative advantages of iron and copper 
 wires for transmitting the electric current, but for over- 
 head wires the London and North- Western Company- 
 prefer galvanised iron wires, as having greater tensile 
 strength and superior powers of elongation and 
 contraction, so as to allow for a considerable variation 
 in temperature. The gauges of wire used differ ac- 
 cording to circumstances, but the wire chiefly employed 
 has a standard diameter of •171 inch with a minimum 
 tensile strength of 1,200 lbs., and is subjected to a torsion 
 test of 20 twists in 6 inches. The average life of the 
 wire varies very much according to locality. For instance, 
 in the vicinity of chemical works, as at Widnes and St 
 Helen's, the wire corrodes and requires renewal in about 
 three years, while, in the pure atmosphere of the island of 
 Anglesey, there are wires that have been in use for five- 
 andthirty years, and which recent tests show to have 
 been very little impaired, whether as regards conductivity 
 or tensile strength; under ordinary conditions, however, 
 the average life of the standard wire is about 10 years. 
 
 x\s regards battery power, the Company use, for speak- 
 ing telegraph circuits, three wire block telegraph circuits, 
 and electric locks, the Daniell Sulphate Battery ; for 
 bell wires the Leclanche Battery ; and for signal 
 repeaters, Fuller's bichromate battery. 
 
 H 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Rolling Stock (l). — Engines and BRAKErPOWER. 
 
 In order to meet the locomotive requirements of 
 modern times, and to draw long and heavy trains at 
 the high rates of speed now demanded by the public, 
 there has naturally had to be a great development in 
 the engines employed for the purpose, and indeed 
 nothing can be more striking than the contrast between 
 the primitive machines which were regarded as triumphs 
 of engineering skill in the early days of railways, and 
 the magnificent engines which are produced in these 
 modern times. This contrast is very forcibly illustrated 
 by our reproduction in Plate XVII. of a photograph 
 of the old " Rocket," the first engine made by 
 George Stephenson for the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway, in 1829, which is still preserved in the South 
 Kensington Museum, and which the reader may com- 
 pare with the representation in Plate XVIII. of the 
 " Marchioness of Stafford," embodying perhaps the 
 highest form of development of the passenger train 
 engine of the present day. The latter was exhibited 
 by its inventor, Mr. Francis W. Webb, the locomotive 
 superintendent and chief mechanical engineer of 
 the London and North-Western Railway, at the 
 "Inventions" Exhibition at Kensington, in 1885. 
 Let none, however, venture to despise the humble 
 " Rocket," with her wheels with wooden rims, her 
 ungainly appearance, and, as we are now told, her 
 
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 O 
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 7, W 
 
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 H 
 
 Ch 
 
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 o 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. 09 
 
 faulty construction, for she was the fruitful mother of a 
 race of giants ! It was reserved for the engineers of a 
 later generation to clothe Stephenson's great idea in 
 forms of beauty and of strength, and they are entitled 
 to all credit for the- perfection they have attained ; but 
 immeasurably greater must be the fame of him whose 
 master-mind first gave the great conception to the 
 world, with all its infinite possibilities of development 
 for the advancement and happiness of mankind,. His 
 achievement can only be rivalled, and can hardly be 
 eclipsed, by the genius of the man, perhaps yet unborn, 
 whomayendow the human race with a new faculty, by 
 teaching them to navigate the air with the same ease 
 with which they now traverse the ocean and the land. 
 
 It is extremely interesting to turn back to the reports 
 of the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway, in 1826, and for some few years after, when 
 the plan for working railways by means of locomotives 
 was still hardly out of the region of experiment, and 
 was not yet freed from a great deal of hostile and 
 sceptical criticism. Thus we find them writing on the 
 27th March. 1828, when the railway was under con- 
 struction and the works were well advanced : — 
 
 " The nature of the power to be used for the con- 
 veyance of goods and passengers becomes now a 
 question of great moment, on whatever principle the 
 carrying department may be conducted. After due 
 consideration, the engineer has been authorised to 
 prepare a locomotive engine which, from the nature 
 of its construction and from the experiments already 
 made, he is of opinion will be effective for the purposes 
 of the Company without proving an annoyance to 
 the public. In the course of the ensuing summer 
 
100 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 it is intended to make trials on a large scale, so as to 
 ascertain the sufficiency in all respects of this im- 
 portant machine. On this subject, as on every other 
 connected with the execution of the important task 
 committed to his charge, the directors have every 
 confidence in Mr. Stephenson, their principal engineer, 
 whose ability and unwearied activity they are glad 
 of this opportunity to acknowledge." 
 
 It is, however, clear, from the perusal of these reports, 
 that even while the works were in progress, and the 
 railway was actually nearing completion, the directors 
 were still somewhat doubtful whether steam engines 
 were the best form of motive power to adopt. Stephenson 
 was at this time continually experimenting, altering, and 
 effecting improvements in his original conception, but 
 the result was not yet conclusive, and in 1829 a prize of 
 ^500 was offered for the best engine that could be 
 devised, when Stephenson's "Rocket" was entered for 
 competition, and was successful. The circumstances of 
 this trial, which took place at Rainhill, have been re- 
 counted in ample detail by Mr. Francis, in his " History 
 of the English Railwaj'-," and by others, and they need 
 not here be recapitulated ; but the result was to com- 
 plete Stephenson's triumph over all his rivals, and to 
 establish the right, which he had so justly earned, to be 
 considered the founder of railways. 
 
 The present writer maybe excused for taking a special 
 interest in the circumstance just related, inasmuch as he 
 was born at Rainhill in the year 1829, just about the 
 period of the famous trial, his father, who was then 
 engaged under George Stephenson in the construction 
 of the principal viaducts and bridges on the Liverpool 
 and Manchester Railway, being at that time occupied in 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. loi 
 
 the building of the Rainhill Skew Bridge. This bridge, 
 which is believed to be the earliest example of an 
 oblique arch constructed in masonry, is still standing, 
 and is a most remarkable work. George Stephenson at 
 this time was so pleased at the result of the trial of the 
 " Rocket," that he presented the writer's father with an 
 English silver lever watch (then a scarce and valuable 
 possession), which is still preserved in the family. 
 
 The Liverpool and Manchester directors now com- 
 menced to build engines of the " Rocket " type, although 
 v/ith continued improvements ; but, as time went on, it 
 was found in practice that the parts were too weak to 
 withstand the heavy wear and tear. The directors were 
 astonished and dismayed at the large expense incurred 
 for renewals and repairs ; the engineers were spurred on 
 to tax their inventive powers for still further improve- 
 ments, and it was thought that a great triumph had 
 been achieved when, in February, 183 1, an engine called 
 the "Samson" carried 107 tons of merchandise from 
 Liverpool to Manchester, a distance of about 30 miles, in 
 two hours and a half. It was not, however, until five years 
 later (1836) that the directors felt they could congratu- 
 late themselves upon having at length obtained engines 
 upon which they could rely, and, although no model of 
 the engines of this period has been preserved, so far as 
 the writer is aware, there can be no doubt that they were 
 vastly inferior to those in use at the present day. 
 
 The London and North- Western Company now employ, 
 for the various purposes of their traffic, engines of eight 
 distinct types, and an Appendix to this chapter gives, 
 in a tabulated form, the details of construction of these 
 different types, including their wheel diameter, cylinders^ 
 heating surface, weight, and other particulars. 
 
102 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA I- 
 
 Our illustration (Plate XIX.) shows an express goods 
 engine with six wheels coupled, cylinders i8 inches by 
 24 inches, and wheel diameter 5 feet. 
 
 Plate XX. shows a special tank engine for goods 
 trains, having six wheels coupled, 4 feet 3 inches 
 diameter, and cylinders 17 inches by 24 inches. 
 
 Plate XXI. is an engine used for drawing coal trains, 
 having 6 wheels coupled, 4 feet 3 inches diameter, and 
 cylinders 17 inches by 24 inches. 
 
 It was formerly the practice to work the express 
 passenger trains with single engines of the " Lady of the 
 Lake" class (see Appendix), although, later, it was found 
 better to work the heavier trains with four-wheeled 
 coupled engines ; but these, having proved to be too 
 small for the increasing loads and the higher rate of 
 speed demanded, are now being superseded by com- 
 pound engines of a new construction, invented by 
 Mr. Webb, of which the " Marchioness of Stafford " 
 (Plate XVIII.) is an example, and which may be thus 
 described : The engines differ from the compound 
 engines in use on other lines chiefly in the number and 
 disposition of the cylinders, there being two high-pressure 
 cylinders fixed outside the frames, between the leading 
 and middle wheels (the connecting rods working on to 
 crank pins, set at right angles to each other, in the 
 trailing wheels), and one low-pressure cylinder carried 
 between the main frames at the front end of the engine, 
 the connecting rod working on to a single throw crank 
 in the middle pair of wheels. For the benefit of non- 
 professional readers, it may be explained that the 
 underlying principle of a compound engine is that the 
 $team, instead of being allowed to escape after having 
 once done duty, is compelled, by an arrangement of 
 
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 H 
 
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 z; 
 H 
 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. 103 
 
 duplicate cylinders, to do duty again, and thus the 
 maximum development of power is obtained, with the 
 mininium expenditure of fuel. The advantages claimed 
 for the improvement are : — 
 
 (i.) That the engine, being practically balanced, runs 
 very steadily at a high rate of speed. 
 
 (2.) That the power of the engine is distributed over 
 two axles instead of one, as in ordinary non-compound 
 engines, and the strain on the various parts is thus very 
 much reduced. 
 
 (3.) The adhesion of two pairs of driving wheels has 
 been obtained, without the use of coupling rods, which 
 become unnecessary. 
 
 (4.) The driving wheels may be placed further apart 
 than would be advisable if coupling rods were used, and 
 a larger fire-box can be introduced. 
 
 (5.) With independent driving wheels there is less 
 friction in passing round curves, and, if more convenient 
 for the working out of the general design, each pair of 
 wheels may have a different diameter. 
 
 The first compound engine was set to work on the 
 London and North- Western Railway in 1881, since which 
 time seventy-three others of the same type have been 
 built, and have run collectively upwards of 11,000,000 of 
 miles. On their first introduction they were met, like 
 all innovations upon recognised methods, by a great 
 deal of hostile criticism, but it is believed that they have 
 lived this down, and are now pretty generally admitted 
 to be a success. An actual trial has shown that, with 
 one of these engines and a train of 321 gross tons in 
 weight, one ton of dead weight can be hauled one 
 mile at a speed of twenty-four miles an hour, with an 
 expenditure of 1-26 oz. of Welsh coal, while to haul the 
 
104 ^^ ENGLISH FA IL WA Y. 
 
 same weight one mile at a speed increased to forty-four 
 miles an hour required 2-o6 oz. of fuel — a striking 
 testimony to the great increase in expenses which rail- 
 way companies have had to incur to keep up the high 
 rates of speed now demanded in railway travelling. The 
 economy of fuel effected by these engines is very con- 
 siderable, and the fact is not without importance to a 
 Company whose engines consume in the aggregate an 
 average of 3,000 tons of coal per day, or upwards of a 
 million tons in a year. 
 
 The compound engines are fitted with "Webb's radial 
 axle-box," which is described as follows : — The axle-box 
 consists of a single casting, with brasses fitted in each 
 end for the journals, and which works between two 
 curved guides formed of flanged plates stretching from 
 frame to frame, thus allowing a lateral motion of \\ inch to 
 the axle on either side of the centre line of the engine. 
 Underneath the axle, and within the box, are placed 
 two horizontal helical springs, coiled right-hand and 
 left-hand, and working one within the other, so that 
 when the engine enters a curve the springs are com- 
 pressed to one side against cross pieces connecting the 
 axle-box guide-plates, and the shock transmitted from 
 the rails through the wheels is minimised, while, as soon 
 as the engine gets on the straight line again, the springs 
 resume their normal position, and the engine is kept 
 central. The axle-box, as originally designed, had two 
 sets of controlled springs placed laterally on each side 
 of the centre line of the engine, but as it was found that 
 there was a tendency, in the case of a broken spring, 
 or of one set being stronger than the other, for the wheels 
 to be forced out of the centre line when runninsr on the 
 straight, the present arrangement was designed to over- 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. loj 
 
 come the difficulty. These axle-boxes were introduced 
 in the year 1876, and there are now nearly 700 of them 
 in use on engines, with the result that, in addition to 
 the improved running, a considerable saving has been 
 effected in the wear and tear of the flanges of the wheel 
 tyres. A number of the long 42-feet carriages in use 
 on the London and North- Western Railway have also 
 been fitted with the same species of controlling gear at 
 each end, their rigid base being thus reduced from 32 
 feet to 16 feet, with the best results as regards 
 easiness of running, and saving of wear and tear ; and 
 the steady running of these vehicles in the fast trains 
 running between London and Edinburgh last year was 
 very noticeable. The under-frames of these carriages 
 are constructed of steel, which is found to give them 
 greater strength and elasticity than iron. 
 
 In addition to the various types of engines 
 enumerated in the Appendix, Mr. Webb has constructed, 
 for certain special purposes in connection with the 
 railway, some small engines for narrow gauge lines, 
 in which the usual link motion is done away with, 
 and the engine is reversed by a pair of spur wheels, 
 one of these spur wheels being keyed in the driving 
 axle, and the other, equal in diameter, being fixed in a 
 counter shaft, on each end of which is a crank driving 
 the two valve spindles. The spur wheel on the driving 
 axle is a broad one, occupying the space between the 
 two bearings, and the spur on the counter-shaft is a 
 narrow one, and held in position on the shaft by a 
 skew-key, so that, by traversing the narrow wheel 
 across the face of the broad wheel on this key, the 
 relative position of the counter or valve shaft with the 
 driving axle is altered, and so the engine is reversed, 
 
ic6 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 thus doing away with all eccentrics and link motion. 
 The construction is simple, and there being so few 
 parts, and those principally having a rolling motion, 
 the engines are not likely to get out of gear, or, if they 
 do, they are easily put right. These engines, cf which 
 Plate XXII. contains an illustration, can be driven 
 from either end, and only require one man to work 
 them. Some engines have also been built somewhat 
 similar in construction, but for the ordinary gauge, and 
 are found useful for certain special purposes in 
 connection with shunting yards. It is believed that 
 engines of this type would possess great advantages for 
 the working of military field railways, and that they could 
 easily be protected by armour-plates if necessary. 
 
 It may here be mentioned that, in order to facilitate 
 the working of the trains, and to avoid the necessity of 
 their having to stop to take water at places where they 
 are not otherwise required to stop, a number of narrow 
 troughs have been laid down between the rails at 
 convenient distances along the main lines, which, by an 
 automatic arrangement, are kept always filled with 
 water. The tenders attached to the engines have a 
 "pick up" apparatus, provided with a scoop, which can 
 be lowered into the trough while the train is passing 
 over it at full speed, and the tanks are filled with water 
 in a few seconds. Thus, not only is the time saved 
 that would otherwise be spent at the stations in pulling 
 up, obtaining a supply of water, and getting up speed 
 again, but it is possible to use a smaller tender containing 
 a less quantity of water, and consequently there is less 
 dead weight to be handled. These troughs were first 
 introduced by Mr. Ramsbottorn in 1857, and, having 
 since been improved and developed, have now been 
 
Pl.\I !■: AAlI. TRAinVAY ENGINE, l8 INCH GAUGE. 
 
 [Page Io6, 
 
Io8 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA ?. 
 
 laid down at eleven different places on the main lines ; 
 so that a train may run through, if need be, between 
 London and Carlisle, or Holyhead, without once having 
 occasion to pull up at a water column. Fig. 23 shows, 
 by means of a diagram, the manner in which a tender 
 picks up water from the feed-trough while in motion. 
 
 The Crewe works, where the locomotive engines of the 
 London and North-Western Company are manufac- 
 tured and kept in repair, constitute the largest railway 
 works in the world, and have come, in process of time, 
 to be looked upon as one of the most interesting sights 
 to be seen by almost every Royal or distinguished 
 personage who has visited our shores for many years 
 past, as well as by engineers and railway officials from 
 all parts of the world, who have visited England for the 
 purpose of acquiring information as to the methods and 
 processes of railway working in this country. A brief 
 description of the works, and of what is done there, will 
 not, therefore, be out of place in a work of this character, 
 which professes to give some account of the means and 
 appliances which have resulted in causing a first-class 
 English railway to be regarded as a model for the rail- 
 ways of the civilized world. 
 
 The works were originally established in 1843 ^o'' the 
 purpose of repairing the engines, carriages, and waggons 
 of the Grand Junction Railway, which was afterwards 
 incorporated in the London and North- Western system, 
 in 1846. As the locomotive requirements gradually 
 increased, the carriage and waggon works were by 
 degrees removed to Wolverton and Earlestown, respec- 
 tively, and, since the year 1865, Crewe has been 
 exclusively given up to the mechanical and engineeiing 
 departments, and has become the chief centre of the 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. 109 
 
 London and North- Western Railway Company's works. 
 In 1864 a very important addition was made to the estab- 
 lishment by the erection of works for the manufacture 
 of Bessemer steel, and, as the whole of the space at that 
 time available had been already occupied, these new 
 works were placed a short distance from the junction, 
 adjoining the Chester and Holyhead Railway. This 
 railway had hitherto run through the works, but it was 
 now thought desirable to divert it, and the land lying 
 between the old line and the deviation was utilised for 
 the new workshops, which thus came to be designated 
 the "Deviation Shops," in contradistinction to the "old 
 works." Other additions to the premises have been 
 made from time to time as required, and the total area 
 enclosed now amounts to about one hundred and 
 sixteen acres ; the covered shops and mills comprising 
 thirty-six acres. It must be borne in mind, however, 
 that at these works, not only are the engines used 
 upon the railway made and repaired, but a number 
 of other processes of the most varied description are 
 carried on, including the manufacture of steel rails, 
 signal work, the under-frames for carriages, cranes and 
 machinery of all kinds for warehouses, girders for 
 bridge-building, bricks, and joiners' work for houses, 
 stables, and signal cabins, gas, water, and drain pipes, 
 hydraulic machinery, and a multiplicity of other railway 
 appliances far too numerous to catalogue. 
 
 The capabilities of the works are such that the Com- 
 pany is enabled to purchase the raw materials and 
 to become the actual manufacturers of every part of the 
 locomotive engines and other machinery constructed at 
 Crewe, with the exception of brass tubes and copper 
 plates. 
 
1 10 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 The total number of engines constructed at these 
 works from their estabhshment up to the end of April, 
 1888, was 3,031, of which no less than 146 were con- 
 structed in one year, viz., the year ending the 30th 
 November, 1872. In addition to constructive works, 
 however, about 2,000 engines annually undergo repairs, 
 there being usually about 330 in the works for that 
 purpose at one time. 
 
 The old works are now entirely devoted to the manu- 
 facture and repair of engines, and contain a shop for 
 their erection, three repairing shops, a wheel shop, a 
 fitting and turning shop, a smithy and forge, and a 
 spring shop and copper smithy, as also the offices and 
 general stores. With the exception of the light forgings 
 and smiths' work made in this smithy, the various 
 parts of the engines are brought to the old works 
 in their rough state from other portions of the works ; 
 for instance, the frames and other wrought-iron plates 
 come from the plate mill ; the crank and straight 
 axles, the tyres, the spring steel, the coupling and 
 connecting rods, and other steel forgings come from 
 the forge at the steel works ; and the cylinders, 
 wheels, horn blocks, axle-boxes, and other iron and 
 brass castings come from the foundry. The different 
 portions of the finished work ultimately find their way to 
 the erecting shop, where the actual fabric of the engine 
 is built up, and, as soon as the frame or skeleton is 
 complete, the boiler is added. The engine is then grasped 
 by two overhead travelling cranes, reaching down like 
 giant hands, and is run bodily out of the shop in order 
 that the boilers may be tested. This done, it is conveyed 
 back to the shop, and the boiler is covered in, and 
 all the remaining portions of the internal machinery 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. Ill 
 
 and the external fittings are added, when the cranes 
 again seize the engine and convey it to the paint shop. 
 Meanwhile the tender has been constructed in another 
 shop. It is now coupled to the engine, the two are 
 painted, and, after receiving a trial, are ready for service. 
 The usual time required in the erecting shop for 
 building an engine is about four weeks, while the 
 shortest time in which any engine has been built in this 
 shop in the ordinary way of business is fourteen days. 
 As an illustration, however, of what could be accom- 
 plished at these works in case of emergency, it may be 
 mentioned that some time ago, as an experiment, the 
 erection of an engine was commenced at six a.m. on a 
 Monday, and at one o'clock on the following Wednes- 
 day, or within a space of twenty-five-and-a-half working 
 hours from the time the frame plates were selected and 
 laid down, the engine was finished, and in steam, and 
 ready to work a train. 
 
 In the fitting shop, which, to the unaccustomed eye, 
 presents a most bewildering appearance, with its end- 
 less ramification of pulleys, shafting, revolving wheels, 
 and machinery of every description, all kinds of opera- 
 tions connected with the making of the various parts of 
 an engine may be seen in progress. Here are turning 
 lathes, planing, shaping, slotting, boring, and drilling 
 machines. Here are made the cylinders, the pistons, 
 the valves, connecting rods, injectors, axle-boxes, and a 
 hundred other small fittings and castings, all these being 
 adjusted to standard gauges suitable to the various 
 classes of engines, without respect to the individual 
 engine for which they may happen to be used. Thus, 
 to a great extent, the interchangeability of parts is 
 secured, so much so, that four of the standard classes of 
 
112 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 engines have many of their parts exactly alike, and any 
 of these could be taken from one engine and fitted to 
 another without difficulty, the result being to secure the 
 greatest economy in effecting repairs. To such an extent 
 is this principle carried, that when, as is sometimes the 
 case, one of a pair of cylinders in an engine is damaged, 
 a new cylinder can be straightway procured from the 
 fitting shop and bolted to the remaining one, without 
 any further fitting being required. 
 
 The nuts, bolts, pins, and a good many of the small 
 parts are prepared, in an upper room over the fitting 
 shop, by boys, who enter the works as apprentices, and 
 remain at this work for some time before being drafted 
 out as journeymen in the various branches. 
 
 The wheel shop, where the wheels and axles of the 
 engines are constructed, is fitted with large and 
 powerful machinery, suitable for the work which has 
 to be carried on, some of the lathes being capable of 
 turning a pair of wheels as much as 8 feet 9 inches in 
 diameter. Interesting features in this shop are the 
 "roughing lathe," in which seven cutting tools are 
 employed at one time in " roughing out " the crank 
 axles, and the " nibbling machine," designed for cutting 
 out the " throws " in the cranks, and which has no less 
 than 160 cutting tools arranged round the circumference 
 of a large disc. An ingenious mechanical contrivance 
 exists in this shop for lifting the wheels and axles into 
 the lathes and other machines. It consists of a series 
 of light jib cranes travelling on a single rail laid on the 
 floor of the shop, parallel with the lathes, and worked 
 by a cotton cord f of an inch in diameter, running at 
 the rate of a mile a minute, by which motion is 
 transmitted to the various parts of the cranes. These 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. 113 
 
 latter travel along the shop, wherever they are required, 
 at the rate of 80 feet per minute, and lift their loads at 
 the rate of 9 feet per minute. Special light machinery 
 of a similar type has been provided also in the erecting 
 shop, and in the various repairing shops, and is found 
 almost invaluable in facilitating the operations to be 
 carried on. 
 
 One portion of the wrorks which seldom fails to 
 interest visitors is the steel works, which, at the time 
 of their opening in 1864, consisted of a converting 
 house with two converters, a cogging shop, and a 
 small forge, but have since been greatly enlarged, the 
 steel-making plant being now capable of producing 
 50,000 tons of steel per annum, besides which there 
 have been added a large forge, iron, brass and steel 
 foundries, rail- rolling mills, a boiler shop, and several 
 repairing and other shops. To those who are not 
 acquainted with the Bessemer process of converting iron 
 into steel, a brief description of the operation may be 
 interesting 
 
 The converting plant consists of four retorts or vessels, 
 each holding 5 tons, and arranged in two groups, with 
 the cupolas behind them. The pig-iron is first melted 
 in a cupola, to which the air is supplied by a Root's 
 blower, after which the liquid metal is run into a huge 
 ladle moving on a line of rails, and is conveyed to the 
 converting vessel. This latter is lined with ganister, 
 and in the bottom of it are a number of small holes, 
 through which air is injected upwards through the 
 molten mass, the oxygen of the air combining with 
 and eliminating the carbon of the iron, and keeping 
 up a fierce combustion until the whole of the impurities 
 are ejected. The blowing is continued for some fifteen 
 
 I 
 
114 ^^ ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 or twenty minutes, until the metal is thoroughly decar- 
 bonized, when the process ceases, and a quantity, 
 varying according to the quality of steel required, of 
 "spiegeleisen," an iron highly charged with carbon and 
 manganese, previously melted in a furnace, is run into 
 the converting vessel, and combines chemically with the 
 decarbonized iron. The vessel is now turned down and 
 the liquid steel is poured out into a ladle carried at 
 the end of a crane, the crane swings round, and the steel 
 runs out through a small orifice in the bottom of the ladle 
 into cast-iron moulds, and is thus formed into ingots 
 ready to be used for making rails, or for any other 
 purpose required. The air is supplied to the converting 
 vessels by a fine pair of horizontal blowing engines 
 of 450 horse-power, made by Hick, Hargreaves & Co., 
 of Bolton. The steam cylinders are 36 inches in 
 diameter and have a stroke of 5 feet, and the air cylinders 
 are 48 inches in diameter with the same stroke. There 
 are also three reheating furnaces, in which the steel 
 ingots, as they come from the converter, can be 
 reheated, and taken direct to the rolling mill. 
 
 The rail-making plant has an annual capacity of 45,000 
 tons, the rolling mill being driven by a Corliss con- 
 densing engine, developing, in ordinary working, about 
 700 h.p. The rails, while hot, are sawn off to the 
 required length by a circular saw, and, after cooling, are 
 drilled and straightened ready for use. 
 
 The powerful forge machinery consists of a duplex 
 steam hammer of 30 tons, and one of 10 tons, 
 together with eight vertical steam hammers weighing 
 from 15 cwt. to 8 tons, tyre rolling, plate rolling, 
 and merchant mills, saws, and shearing machines. The 
 30-ton hammer was designed by Mr. Ramsbottom, the 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER, iij 
 
 late chief mechanical engineer of the Company, and 
 consists of two huge blocks, each weighing 30 tons, 
 moving upon rails, with eight small wheels. The blocks 
 are actuated by steam cylinders placed behind them, 
 and on steam being admitted to these, the blocks are 
 propelled with enormous force against the mass to be 
 forged, which is held between them. 
 
 An interesting machine to watch in operation, is 
 the large circular saw, 7 feet in diameter, which 
 is used for sawing off the crop ends of forgings, and 
 which is driven by an engine at a great velocity, 
 running at no less speed than 13,000 feet per 
 minute. This will cut its way through an iron axle 
 9 inches in diameter in 30 seconds. 
 
 The tyre mill, plate mill, and merchant mills require 
 no detailed description, as, although the machinery 
 employed is powerful and admirable of its kind, it is 
 analogous to what may be seen at work in other rolling 
 mills, and possesses no features of special interest. 
 
 In the steel works there are thirty-seven furnaces 
 for heating the metal, all of which are Siemens' 
 Regenerative Gas Furnaces. There are also seven for 
 making steel by the Siemens'-Martin process, viz., three 
 20-ton, two lo-ton, and two 5-ton furnaces. The gas for 
 the furnaces is generated in a series of forty-nine gas 
 producers, the gas being conveyed to the furnaces in 
 underground pipes. 
 
 Steam is supplied to the various engines and steam 
 hammers by two ranges of stationary boilers, each range 
 consisting of eight boilers of the Lancashire type, 7 
 feet in diameter, and 30 feet long, with double flues, 
 and constructed entirely of steel plates. 
 
 The engine repairing shops occupy an extensive range 
 
n 6 AN ENGLISH RAILW'A\. 
 
 of buildings, 993 feet long, and 106 feet wide, and are 
 fitted with wheel lathes for turning the tyres of the 
 engine wheels as they become worn, and with all kinds 
 of machinery for effecting the necessary repairs to the 
 various parts of an engme. They are also furnished 
 with boiling pans for removing the oil and grease from 
 the parts when they are taken to pieces for repairs, 
 so that they are turned out well cleaned at very little 
 cost, the grease removed being collected and converted 
 into soap. 
 
 It may here be mentioned that up till about the year 
 1873, the attempts which had been from time to time 
 made to introduce steel into the manufacture of boilers, 
 had resulted in failure, but at the International 
 Exhibition in Vienna, in 1873, a locomotive boiler and 
 fire-box were sent from the boiler shop at Crewe, 
 which were fine specimens of boiler work, and were 
 constructed entirely of steel, and since that time no 
 less than 2,863 locomotive, and 218 stationaiy boilers, 
 have been made of that material without a single case 
 of failure having occurred other than those due to 
 ordinary wear and tear. The greatest care is taken 
 to ensure the selection of reliable plates for the boilers, 
 a piece being cut from each plate and subjected to 
 the most severe tests of all kinds, and a register being 
 kept of the result of the tests, and of the position 
 occupied by every plate in each boiler. 
 
 Extensive brick-making plant exists at Crewe, 
 consisting of two brick-making machines, and a large 
 circular kiln, and drying sheds, the turn-out being some 
 five or six millions of bricks in a year. 
 
 The "Deviation Works" previously referred to, 
 consist of a range of shops built alongside the devia- 
 
ROLLING STOCK—ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. 117 
 
 tion of the Chester and Holyhead Railway, and com- 
 prise a chain and plate testing shop, a millwright's 
 shop, devoted to the manufacture and repair of all 
 the shafting and machinery in the works, shops- for the 
 making of cranes, warehouse machinery, and stationary 
 engines, joiners' and pattern makers' shops, saw 
 mills, &c. 
 
 The check upon stores of all kinds used in the works 
 is very strict, and necessarily so ; the stores are kept at 
 the old works, and not the smallest article can be 
 obtained from them without a written order signed by 
 one of the foremen, none but the storekeepers being 
 permitted to enter the stores. 
 
 A notable feature in the life of the Crewe works is the 
 narrow-gauge railway, of which nearly five miles have 
 been laid down, traversing every part of the works. 
 The gauge of this railway, is eighteen inches, and it is 
 worked by small locomotive engines of the type shewn 
 by Plate XXII., which draw trains of strong, low- 
 wheeled trollies, conveying materials and finished work 
 from one part of the premises to another. It also aff'ords 
 a ready means of locomotion for the workmen and 
 officials from point to point, and visitors to the works 
 seldom fail to make acquaintance with it. 
 
 Dining, or " mess " rooms, are provided at Crewe for 
 the convenience of the artisans who live at a distance 
 from the works, and here they can leave their food in 
 the morning, and have it prepared and placed ready for 
 them when dinner-time arrives. 
 
 The number of persons of all classes employed in 
 these works is about 6,500, but in addition there are 
 some 600 engine-drivers, firemen, cleaners, and others 
 at the steam sheds at Crewe station, making a total of 
 
1 18 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 upwards of 7,000 persons employed in connection with 
 the locomotive department at Crewe. Although the 
 steam sheds referred to form no part of the Crewe works 
 properly so-called, they yet contribute in no slight 
 degree to the establishment of Crewe as the most 
 important locomotive centre of the London and North- 
 Western Railway. About 140 engines are kept in 
 steam at this station daily, for the stabling of which 
 suitable sheds have been provided, covering an area of 
 nearly 2\ acres, and including a v/ashing shed and soap 
 factory. Here the waste and sponge cloths used for 
 cleaning engines all over the London and North-Western 
 system, are washed and dried, and afterwards returned 
 to the stations from which they have been received ; the 
 oil and grease collected from them in the process of 
 cleansing being converted into soap, to be used in the 
 various steam sheds. 
 
 The Company manufacture and supply gas, not only 
 to their own works, but to the whole town of Crewe, 
 and they also supply water to the works and to the town, 
 the supply being derived from the red sandstone at 
 Whitmore, about twelve miles distant, on the Crewe and 
 Stafford Railway. The water is pumped from a large 
 well into reservoirs, and descends to Crewe by gravita- 
 tion. 
 
 Crewe, which previous to the establishment of the 
 locomotive works was inhabited only by a few farmers 
 and cottagers, has now developed into a flourishing 
 town of thirty thousand inhabitants, composed almost 
 entirely of the Company's workmen and their families, ■ 
 and the tradesmen who supply their wants. In 1877 
 the town applied for and obtained a charter of incorpora- 
 tion, and Mr. F. W. Webb, the chief superintendent of 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER, iig 
 
 the works, was elected Mayor for the Jubilee year (1887), 
 being re-elected for the year 1888. In commemoration 
 of Her Majesty's Jubilee, and of the fiftieth anniversary- 
 of the opening of the railway through Crewe, the 
 Company presented the town with a public park, about 
 forty acres in extent, which was dedicated by Sir 
 Richard Moon, Bart., chairman of the Company, on the 
 4th July, 1887, and was formally opened to the 
 public by H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge, on the 
 9th June, 1888. 
 
 The Company have built, and are the owners of, 
 nearl)^ 800 houses occupied by their workpeople, in 
 addition to which a considerable number have been 
 built by the workmen themselves. The town being 
 almost entirely dependent upon the works, and consti- 
 tuting, in fact, a veritable railway colony, the directors 
 have aided by their countenance, and by material sup- 
 port, every public movement deserving of their liberality. 
 They have erected and endowed a church belonging to 
 the Establishment, and have subscribed to the expenses 
 of building several places of worship of other denomina- 
 tions ; have established large schools for the education of 
 the children of the men employed in the works, and erected 
 public baths. They have also provided a Mechanics' 
 Institute, which contains a library of more than 8,000 
 volumes, a comfortable reading-room, well supplied with 
 newspapers, periodicals, and magazines ; class-rooms, a 
 smoking-room, a gymnasium, and a lecture hall seating 
 800 persons. During the winter months evening classes 
 are held for the instruction, both in elementary and 
 advanced subjects, of the young people employed in the 
 works during the day, and these are largely attended, 
 the fact that since 1871 no less than twenty-four of the 
 
1 20 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Students have been successful in gaining Whitworth 
 scholarships, being a sufficient testimony to the cha- 
 racter of the results accomplished at this institution. 
 Habits of prudence and economy amongst the workmen 
 are encouraged by the establishment of a savings bank, 
 the Company paying interest at three per cent, on all 
 sums deposited. 
 
 The question of Brake-power is one which has an 
 intimate relation to the locomotive department, 
 since it is the great development in the speed and 
 power of the engines employed, which has led to the 
 imperative necessity of devising equally powerful means 
 for bringing the trains quickly to a stand in case of need. 
 The trains of the London and North-Western Company 
 were formerly fitted with a chain brake invented by Mr. 
 Clark, and improved by Mr. Webb, but in matters of 
 this kind continued progress is demanded, and the 
 Company have now adopted a system of continuous 
 brake known as the " Automatic Vacuum," with which 
 the greater portion of their stock has already been fitted. 
 This brake is applied to all the vehicles of a train, 
 except the engine and tender, which are fitted with a 
 separate steam brake. Each carriage carries its own 
 length of train-pipe, flexible hose, and universal coup- 
 lings ; also a reservoir and brake cylinder or " sack," 
 the latter being supplied with a flexible diaphragm and 
 connected through the piston rod with the brake-rigging. 
 The piston rod works through a flexible stuffing-box 
 attached to the bottom of the sack, and which adapts 
 itself to every movement of the rod, but prevents the air 
 from leaking into the sack when it is not required to do 
 so. Attached to the train-pipe, and in connection with 
 ♦^he reservoir and the top and bottom of the sack, is an 
 
ROLLING STOCK— ENGINES AND BRAKE-POWER. 121 
 
 automatic cock, with a valve inside the plug through 
 which the air passes to and from the train-pipe, so that 
 when the air is being exhausted it is drawn from the 
 reservoir, and the top and bottom of the sack, but when 
 air is admitted to the train-pipe, the valve in the cock 
 closes the connection to the top of the sack and reservoir, 
 but leaves the bottom of the sack open to the train- 
 pipe. While the train is running a continual vacuum is 
 maintained in the train-pipes, reservoirs, and sacks, by 
 means of a small ejector on the engine, and in this 
 condition the brakes are "off," but when it is desired 
 to apply them, air is admitted into the train-pipe by the 
 driver or guard ; the valve in the automatic cock 
 moves as previously described, and the pressure of the 
 atmosphere, acting on the under side of the diaphragm, 
 lifts the piston rod and applies the brakes. The same 
 result ensues if the train becomes separated or a coupling 
 breaks, air being thus admitted to the train-pipe, and 
 the brakes being applied automatically throughout the 
 train. 
 
 When the brakes have been applied, and it is desired 
 to take them off again, all that is necessary is to renew 
 the vacuum by means of the ejector. The driver's brake 
 valve on the engine is so arranged that both the steam 
 and vacuum brakes can be applied simultaneously by 
 one movement of a lever, but the train-pipe may be used 
 without the steam brake if desired, by means of a 
 separate valve provided for the purpose, both on the 
 engine and in the guard's van. By means of the auto- 
 matic cock previously referred to, the brake on each 
 vehicle may be released while shunting is going on, and 
 may also be shut off if the brake gear is out of order, 
 leaving the train-pipe intact throughout the train. 
 
Plate XXIV. Trains upon the Liverpool and Manchester Railway about the year 1830. 
 
 l7o face page 123. 
 
Grate Area 
 Weight- 
 In Working 
 Order 
 
 On Driving 
 Wheels ... 
 
 Hi 
 
 Cylinders- 
 Diameter 
 
 Stroke ._ ... 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 Driving Wheels 
 Wheel Base ... 
 
 Heating Surface : 
 
 Tubes 
 
 Fire Box 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 t-i 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 w d ' -5' 
 
 Ofg. 
 
 yj ft 
 
 ^" "p ^ 
 
 3 * co5 ft- 
 
 
 
 
 
 I7-I ft. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 32 10 
 
 22 10 
 
 2 pairs f 
 
 
 00 
 
 6 6 ' ^ p 
 
 Ogo- 
 
 1 7- 1 ft. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 29 u 
 
 (29 III 
 (3 pairs) 
 
 b 
 
 0^d ■ - 5 
 
 n en 
 
 p n n. 
 
 '„ w 00 oj 2 1- 
 
 "0 
 
 6\ 
 
 
 " w S S''^ 
 
 1-^ 
 
 1 
 
 LaU\ 
 
 ° H Q>< 
 1 °-| 
 
 WOJ W C3 « 
 
 a^'ooS p 
 
 — r- r- 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 IIP- 
 
 -1 Cb 
 
 2 High Pressure 
 
 Cylinders 
 
 13 in. diameter 
 
 24 „ stroke. 
 
 I Low Pressure' 
 
 Cylinder 
 30 in. diameter 
 24 „ stroke. j 
 6 ft. 3 in. 
 18 „ I „ 
 
 sq. ft. 
 1,242-42 
 
 20-5 ft. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 42 10 
 30 .0 
 2 pairs 
 
 not coupled 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 00 
 
 . 
 
 
 2 High Pressure 
 
 Cylinders 
 
 13 in. diameter 
 
 24 „ stroke 
 
 I Low Pressure 
 
 Cylinder 
 26 in. diameter 
 , 24 „ stroke 
 6 ft. 6 in. 
 17 .,7 » 
 
 sq. ft. 
 980 
 103-5 
 
 3 
 
 .... 
 
 p* 
 
 ■ > t 
 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 Rolling Stock (ii.). — Carriages. 
 
 Mention has already been made in a previous 
 chapter of the rude accommodation with which the 
 earlier railway passengers of half a century ago had to 
 content themselves, as compared with the luxurious 
 conditions of modern travel. As illustrative of this 
 wide difference, our illustration (Plate XXIV.) repro- 
 duces an old print showing two of the trains which 
 were actually run upon the Liverpool and Manchester 
 railway at, or soon after, its opening. One of these, 
 which apparently represents the very earliest form of 
 passenger train, is drawn by an engine which is a species 
 of first cousin to the famous " Rocket." All the 
 vehicles, as will be seen, are fully exposed to the 
 weather, except for a slight awning overhead, and only 
 a portion of the passengers are indulged with seats, the 
 vehicles, being, in fact, not unlike an open goods waggon 
 of the present day. The upper portion of the picture 
 shows a train containing somewhat superior accommo- 
 dation, for all the carriages are covered in, although we 
 may be sure that the internal fittings of these ungainly 
 vehicles were very different to the elegantly-furnished 
 saloons of 1888. It will be observed, too, that the 
 luggage of the passengers is piled on the roofs of the 
 carriages, which elevated situation is also occupied by 
 
1 24 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 the guards, and that all the carriages have names, " The 
 Traveller," " The Times," etc., like their predecessors, the 
 stage coaches, which they have but recently superseded. 
 Finally, a party of travellers are seen riding in their own 
 family carriage, mounted upon a low truck without 
 removing the wheels, and only dispensing with the 
 horses. Modern advertisements of the running of 
 excursion trains upon railways, frequently to this day 
 announce the fares as " First class — Covered carriages " — 
 and it is well understood that the term "Covered 
 carriages," thus employed, is synonymous with " third 
 class " ; but not every one is aware that this expression 
 is really a lingering survival of the period when railway 
 companies, in announcing an excursion, held out the 
 inducement of what was then the unwonted luxury of 
 covered vehicles for the lower classes of passengers. 
 
 A striking contrast to the primitive conveyances of 
 fifty years ago is the passenger carriage shown by Plate 
 XXV., which is a specimen of the latest development of 
 the art of carriage-building in these modern times. Forty- 
 two feet in length, with- accommodation for three classes 
 of passengers, and a compartment for their luggage, 
 provided with a lavatory for the first-class passengers, 
 mounted upon the easiest of springs, well lighted by gas, 
 and warmed during the winter, adorned with ornamental 
 woods and the handsomest upholsterer's work, and 
 replete with every convenience and comfort throughout, 
 it embodies in fact in a high degree, the latest develop- 
 ment of modern civilization as exemplified in railway 
 travelling. 
 
 The London and North-Western Company possesses 
 a stock of upwards of 4,500 passenger carriages, of which 
 nearly 300 are forty-two feet in lengtli, and the 
 
aat :.-.^,-l..y,^-^iai«-fcv. 'j^iiMtlL 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES. 125 
 
 remainder vary from thirty feet to thirty-four feet 
 in length. Nearly 1,200 of the vehicles are fitted 
 up for lighting by means of compressed gas, and 
 this system of lighting, of which more will be 
 said hereafter, is being extended, the remainder of the 
 carriages being, in the meantime, lighted with rape 
 oil lamps. The whole carriage stock of the Company 
 contains seating accommodation for 164,073 pas- 
 sengers, in the following proportions : — 
 
 First class .... 22,067 
 Second class . . . 22,506 
 
 Third class .... 119,500 
 
 164,073 
 
 these proportions being very carefully considered 
 and adjusted from time to time in building addi- 
 tional carriages, or renewing old ones, so as to 
 preserve the proper ratio of each class to the others. 
 The Midland Company, as is well known, in the 
 year 1875, decided upon abolishing second class 
 . compartments in their trains, and retaining only two 
 classes, viz : first and third ; but the success of the 
 experiment is believed by m'any of the companies to be 
 open to serious question, whether upon financial grounds, 
 or as a matter of public convenience. The London and 
 North-Western Company, at any rate, believe that 
 > society in this country, for all purposes, naturally divides 
 itself into three classes, and that the wants and tastes 
 of the community are best served by their present 
 practice, in which belief apparently, they are supported 
 by the great body of railway opinion in the country, 
 since no other company has, so far, followed the exampla 
 
126 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 of the Midland Company, with the exception of, to a 
 certain extent, the Great Northern Company, 
 
 Although, nominally, the passengers who travel upon 
 the London and North- Western Railway are divided 
 into three classes, there are, in a manner of speaking, four 
 classes, for the saloon passengers almost constitute a class 
 in themselves, paying, in some cases, a slightly higher 
 fare than first class, and enjoying superior accommoda- 
 tion.' The North- Western have not seen their way to 
 follow the example of their great rivals (the Midland 
 Company) in introducing *' Pullman Cars " as used in 
 the United States, in their trains ; but they have filled 
 the places of these with saloon carriages of their own 
 construction, which, in their belief, are quite equal, if 
 not superior in some respects, to the Pullman Cars. 
 These are run, as sleeping carriages, in all the night trains 
 between London and Scotland, Holyhead (for Ireland), 
 Liverpool, and Manchester ; and, for the payment of a 
 very moderate fee over and above the first class fare, 
 the passenger can secure a berth in one of them, and 
 accomplish his journey without any of the weariness 
 and discomfort, which, until some few years ago, 
 rendered a night journey to the North an experience to 
 be dreaded, and by all means, if possible, to be avoided. 
 The berths are fitted up with beds, pillows, sheets, and 
 rugs, and the traveller may enjoy as sound a night's 
 rest in them as if he were in his own bed at home. 
 
 The saloon is supplied with lavatory accommodation, 
 and the passenger, being awakened by the attendant 
 when nearing his journey's end, can make his toilet, 
 enjoy a cup of tea or coffee, provided by the attendant, 
 and alight at his destination refreshed and prepared to 
 commence his business without losing time in repairing 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES. 127 
 
 the fatigue of the journey. Saloon carnages are also 
 available at all times for parties travelling by day trains, 
 on payment of a certain minimum number of fares, and 
 drawing-room carriages, luxuriously fitted up with 
 couches, easy chairs, and tables, are run by the principal 
 express trains between London and Liverpool, seats in 
 which can be obtained on application in advance by 
 telephone or otherwise, without any charge over and 
 above the first class fare. The Company also provide 
 saloon carriages specially fitted up for the accommoda- 
 tion of invalids and their attendants. 
 
 The London and North- Western Company have for 
 many years built their own carriages at their Wolver- 
 ton works, situated about midway between London 
 and Birmingham. These works cover an area of about 
 fifty acres, and are traversed by what was formerly the 
 main line of the London and Birmingham Railway, but 
 the line has since been deviated, and the old railway 
 has been converted into sidings within the works. In 
 the old days of the London and Birmingham Rail- 
 way, Wolverton was a kind of "half-way house," and 
 was fixed upon for that reason as the chief locomotive 
 centre ; but when the London and Birmingham became 
 amalgamated with other undertakings, some of them 
 reaching to the extreme North and West, and blossomed 
 into the London and North- Western, it was found more 
 convenient to remove the locomotive works to Crewe, 
 and since 1877 the works at Wolverton have been 
 devoted exclusively to the building and repair of 
 carriages and other vehicles used in passenger trains, of 
 parcel carts and vans, omnibuses, station furniture, 
 office fittings, and many other requirements, both for 
 trains and for stations. For all these various purposes. 
 
1 2S AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 the carriage department employs 2,234 workmen at 
 Wolverton, besides 489 at otlier workshops which have 
 been established at Euston and Crewe, and 731 men 
 engaged at out stations in executing small repairs, and 
 in cleaning, lamping, and examining the carriages. In 
 the old days, when a journey of moderate length occupied 
 a much longer time than it does now, the Wolverton 
 passenger station was a very important place, having 
 extensive refreshment and dining rooms, but the 
 traveller of to-day is only on the threshold of his 
 journey from London to the North when his train 
 dashes through Wolverton without even deigning to 
 stop there. 
 
 With the consent of our readers we will now pay a 
 visit to the Wolverton Works, and endeavour to gain 
 some insight into the method in which the rolling-stock 
 of a great railway is built up and maintained. The 
 smaller companies, of course, do not build their own 
 carriages, but obtain them from one or other of the firms 
 of railway carriage manufacturers in the country. 
 
 Entering at the main gateway, facing the old London 
 and Birmingham Railway, and, for the moment, passing 
 by the extensive ranges of shops devoted to various 
 purposes, which meet the eye, we first visit (by way of 
 beginning at the beginning) the timber stores, con- 
 taining at all times a two years' supply of the raw 
 materials of which the carriages are constructed. Here 
 we find the spoils of the West Indian and American 
 forests in the shape of huge logs of mahogany, 
 baywood, pine, and Quebec oak, the East Indies being 
 represented by teak, largely used in the framing and 
 fittings of the carriages, while English oak and ash are 
 not wanting. Overhead is a high-speed travelling 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES. 129 
 
 crane which, as we are looking on, seizes one of the 
 great logs in its powerful grasp, and lifts it on to two 
 trucks, standing upon a miniature railway of two feet 
 gauge, which runs throughout the works. The log is 
 rapidly run into the saw mill, and is met on its entrance 
 either by a large circular saw, which speedily converts 
 it into planks, or by a frame saw, which cuts it into 
 boards or panels as required. The planks are next cut 
 into scantling of standard sizes, and are sent to the 
 drying shed to season, or if they already consist of 
 seasoned timber, they are at once marked out, and 
 fashioned into the various parts of a carriage by some 
 of the numerous machines of complex construction 
 and bewildering variety which maybe seen on all sides, 
 performing the most complicated operations with the 
 utmost apparent ease and rapidity. Meanwhile, how- 
 ever, we follow our log of unseasoned timber in its new 
 form of planks, or scantling, to the drying shed, where 
 we are shown timber of every description, and of all 
 shapes and sizes, stacked symmetrically, and with the 
 greatest neatness and exactitude, for seasoning, together 
 with piles of mahogany panels, and of veneers of 
 walnut, sycamore, ebony, and various other decorative 
 woods, used for ornamental purposes. These are all 
 labelled and dated, and receive, we are assured, as much 
 anxious care and attention as a connoisseur would 
 bestow upon his bins of choice vintages, for much 
 depends upon the skilful selection and preparation of 
 the materials from which the carriages are built. 
 
 The parts and sections, which we have seen cut out 
 of the seasoned timber in the saw mill, are run by means 
 of the small tramway into what is termed the "body 
 shop," where they are put together by the coach-makers, 
 
 K 
 
1 30 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 and begin to assume the rough outline of the body of a 
 carnage. This is raised by a crane, and lowered on to 
 the under-frame already prepared for it, and which is 
 constructed of channel steel, with Mansel wheels and 
 radial axles. The vehicle, in its rough state, is next taken 
 forward to another shop, where it undergoes long and 
 tedious processes of rubbing-down, painting and var- 
 nishing ; and meanwhile, the internal fittings, linings, 
 and other upholsterers' work, which have been prepared 
 in various shops devoted to such purposes, are put in, 
 and the break gear and gas fittings are added. Finally, 
 when the carriage is quite complete, it is placed in a cool 
 airy shed, for the paint and varnish to thoroughly harden, 
 before it is turned out for use in trains. 
 
 The making of the wheels for the carriages is a very 
 interesting process, and will repay a visit to the wheel 
 shop. The wheels are made without spokes, the centres 
 being solidly built up by segments of teak com- 
 pressed by hydraulic power. Passing the formidable 
 double row of wheel lathes, which, with apparently very 
 little attention from the workmen, are cutting long spiral 
 shavings of steel from the tyres very much as one pares an 
 apple with a sharp knife, or boring out tyres, and cutting 
 the grooves for the retaining rings, which, when in posi- 
 tion render it impossible for the tyre to leave the wheel, 
 even if it is broken into several pieces, we arrive at the 
 machinery by which the wheels are finally put together. ' 
 A steel tyre, spun from a solid block of Bessemer steel, 
 without a. weld, is swung up by a hydraulic crane on to 
 the press, the teak segments, already cut and shaped 
 with the greatest nicety by an automatic machine in the ' 
 saw mill, are placed in position within the circumference 
 of the tyre; the press is closed up, and a handle is turned, 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES, 131 
 
 which sets the hydraulic ram in motion. Soon we hear 
 the solid teak blocks begin to groan as they are forced 
 into the tyre, and with a few loud thumps they are 
 driven home, when the press is opened, and the wood- 
 centre is seen to be as compact as if it were fashioned 
 out of one piece of timber. Nothing remains but to 
 add the retaining ring and boss plates ; another hydraulic 
 press forces the wheel and its fellow on to the axle and 
 keys them up ; and one more pair of wheels is added to 
 the many thousands that are ceaselessly rushing to and 
 fro upon the iron highway. 
 
 Making a tour of the premises, we shall observe that 
 there are special shops and rooms for almost every 
 portion of the work which has to be carried en. Here 
 for instance, is a shop devoted to the fine cabinet work 
 required for the internal fitting and decoration of the 
 carriages, and close at hand is a room where a staff of 
 girls is employed in French polishing. The body shop, 
 paint shop, and drying rooms, we have already seen ; but 
 here is a carpenters' shop, where furniture, ticket-cases, 
 barrows, and similar articles are made ; a smithy, where 
 brawny workmen are wielding the heavy sledge-hammers, 
 and fashioning all kinds of intricate ironwork; a spring 
 makers' shop ; brass and iron foundries, where casting is 
 going on, and the molten metal is spurting from the 
 cupola furnaces ; a lamp shop, with its deafening sound 
 of the ceaseless tapping of tinmen's hammers, and rooms 
 where women are busily engaged in cutting out and 
 making up the trimmings and linings of the carriages ; 
 while everywhere we cannot fail to be struck by the 
 ingenious mechanical appliances which mimimise the 
 labour, and secure uniformity in the work, although 
 these are too numerous and complicated to be described. 
 
132 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Before leaving the works we must pay a visit to the 
 laundry, where some half-dozen women are engaged in 
 washing the linen and towels used in the saloon carriages, 
 all of which are sent to Wolverton daily to be washed, 
 in exchange for a clean supply, about 4,500 articles being 
 thus dealt with every week. Most of the work is done 
 by steam, supplied by a small vertical boiler, the linen 
 being dried in a hot closet, and very scrupulously aired 
 before being sent away, so that passengers never need 
 have before their eyes the fear of damp sheets, in the 
 sleeping saloons. 
 
 It is a somewhat interesting sight to watch the opera- 
 tion of paying the large number of men engaged in 
 these works ; and the method employed to facilitate the 
 task, and avoid mistakes or disputes, is not without 
 ingenuity. The whole of the men employed are numbered 
 consecutively from one upwards, and at pay-time they 
 arrange themselves in numerical order in a large yard, so 
 as to form a queue, and pass the pay-window in single iile. 
 Each man, as he passes the window, hands in his pay 
 check, and receives in return a tin box stamped with his 
 number, and containing his wages. At the end of the 
 passage is a receptacle, into which he throws the empty 
 box, this being considered his receipt for the money ; 
 since any question as to the correctness of the amount 
 must be raised before he parts with the box. The 
 money is, of course, counted out and placed in the boxes 
 beforehand, and so simple is the process, and so expert 
 are the clerks employed, that the whole of the men, 
 upwards of 2,000 in number, are paid and the business 
 is at an end in less than half-an-hour. 
 
 The physical and moral welfare of the men are not 
 lost sight of, but are promoted in many ways. There is, 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES. 133 
 
 for Instance, a spacious dining-hall, with accommodation 
 for 1,000 men, each seat being provided witli a coffee 
 can and cup, and a cooking tin. Adjoining the dining- 
 hall are large kitchens fitted with ovens, boilers, and hot- 
 plates, where the workmen can either procure their 
 meals at a small cost, or can bring their own provisions, 
 and have them cooked free of charge. 
 
 Near the works are schools, largely supported by the 
 Company, where the children of the workmen are edu- 
 cated for a very small fee, while near the schools is a 
 Science and Art Institute, a handsome brick building, 
 in which so much good work is being done, that an 
 extension of the premises will very shortly be necessary. 
 The Company have provided also a spacious recreation 
 ground near the station, and the men can boast of a 
 promising amateur athletic club, cricket and football 
 clubs, and a strong and efficient company of the County 
 Volunteers. 
 
 Wolverton, to a great extent, resembles Crewe in 
 being a railway colony, the inhabitants of which are all 
 engaged in one occupation, and although a considerable 
 number of young women are employed in the works, 
 there were formerly a great many girls, the daughters of 
 the workmen, who could find no occupation. Seeing 
 this difficulty, Messrs. McCorquodale and Co., the 
 Company's stationery contractors, considerately came to 
 the rescue, and by erecting a large envelope factory in 
 the immediate neighbourhood, have provided suitable 
 employment for tne surplus female population. 
 
 Apart from the carriage works ' at Wolverton, the 
 superintendent of the carriage department has under 
 his orders, at what are termed " Out-stations," a staff 
 of nearly 1,200 men, who are engaged in the repair, 
 
134 ^N ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 examination, greasing, lamping, washing, cleaning, and 
 warming of the carriages throughout the system, and it 
 may be useful to give some account of the manner in 
 which these very necessary operations are carried on. 
 
 Examination. — About one hundred carriage ex- 
 aminers are employed, who are stationed singly or in 
 small gangs at the most important stations and junc- 
 tions from one end of the line to the other. Before any 
 man is appointed to a post of this kind he must have 
 had previous experience in the lifting and repairs of 
 carriages in the shops, and it is his duty to carefully 
 examine the wheels, springs, and other running parts of 
 all carriages standing at, or passing through, his station, 
 tapping every wheel-tyre with his hammer, so that his 
 experienced ear may detect by the sound whether they 
 are in good order and without flaw. Where no special 
 staff of coach repairers is employed, the examiner has 
 also to attend to slight repairs of internal fittings, 
 defective locks, etc. At the more important stations 
 pits are provided between the rails to enable the 
 examiners to get beneath the carriages to inspect the 
 under-gear. 
 
 Greasing. — This is attended to by men stationed at 
 the principal stations and junctions under the orders of 
 the examiners, their duty being simply to examine the 
 axle-boxes of every carriage passing through their 
 station, and replenish them with oil or grease when 
 required. 
 
 Washing. — Every carriage is washed outside with 
 water once each day, the water being usually obtained 
 from cast-iron tanks let into the ground, with a self- 
 acting ball-valve. The buckets can thus be filled 
 instantaneously, without the loss of time involved in 
 
ROf^LING STOCK— CARRIAGES. 135 
 
 drawing water into them from a tap. At the large 
 stations there are sheds specially provided for carriage 
 washing, having wooden stages the height of the 
 carriage floors, alongside each line of rails, with wrought- 
 iron troughs running the whole length of the stages, 
 which by the ball-valve arrangement are kept constantly 
 full of water. Periodically, of course, the outsides of 
 the carriages require something beyond the simple 
 washing with water, and have to be thoroughly scoured 
 with soap or some cleansing composition. The equip- 
 ment of each "washer" consists of a bucket, a long- 
 handled brush, with which he can reach from the 
 ballast, if need be, the tops of the carriages, and a small 
 spoke-brush for getting i[ito corners, etc. 
 
 Cleaning. — The " cleaners," of whom a large number 
 are employed, attend to the insides of the carriages. 
 They are provided with a bass broom, a hard hand- 
 brush, and a soft one, a wash leather and a linen duster. 
 They are expected to shake each carpet, well brush the 
 linings and cushions, clean the windows, and finally to 
 dust the whole carriage throughout. 
 
 Heating of Carriages. — During the cold weather, 
 that is to say generally from the ist November to the 
 31st March in each year, evesy compartment of each 
 class is supplied with at least two foot-warmers. The 
 ordinary foot-warmer is an oblong tin, filled with water 
 through an orifice which is then hermetically sealed, and 
 the warmer is placed in a boiler until the water is heated. 
 A patent foot-warmer has, however, been introduced, and 
 is now in use on all the main lines, in which the water is 
 replaced by acetate of soda. The utilisation ofcrystalised 
 acetate of soda for this purpose is of comparatively 
 recent introduction, the adyantage consisting in the 
 
1 36 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 fact that the heat, before it has altogether disappeared, 
 can be restored by merely shaking the receptacle, and 
 that the heat is retained nearly three times as long as 
 in the ordinary hot-water tins, viz., for about 8 hours, 
 thus avoiding the inconvenience and annoyance to 
 passengers of continually changing the foot-warmers 
 on a long night journey. The acetate of soda used for 
 this purpose should possess a slightly alkaline re-action 
 to litmus test paper, and should be commercially free 
 from sulphate-chloride and carbonate of sodium, as 
 well as from acetate of lime. It should not possess 
 any unpleasant odour of tarry matter, and its total 
 impurities should not exceed 2 per cent. The warmers 
 are charged in the following manner : — -The acetate of 
 soda is first placed in a large iron tank and reduced 
 by heat to a liquid, of which seven quarts are placed in 
 each warmer. Seven ounces of water are added, and 
 two cast iron balls, each two inches in diameter, and 
 weighing 20 ounces, are placed inside. The aperture 
 at the end, through which the liquid has been 
 introduced, is now covered hy a cap, soldered down, 
 with a small hole left in the centre. The warmer is 
 placed in another tank, and the contents again brought 
 to boiling point, when the receptacle is hermetically 
 sealed, and is then ready for use. 
 
 The sleeping saloons in the through trains between 
 London and Scotland, Holyhead, Liverpool, and 
 Manchester, are warmed by means of high-pressure 
 hot-water pipes, each saloon being supplied with a 
 small heating apparatus for the purpose. 
 
 The Lighting of Carriages.— Until recent years the 
 carriages upon the London and North-Western 
 Railway were all lighted by means of oil-lamps, but this 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES. 137 
 
 plan is being gradually superseded by the introduction 
 of a system of lighting by compressed oil gas, about 
 26,000 oil lamps being, however, still in use. At all 
 stations where the lamping of trains is performed, 
 separate rooms are provided, as remote as possible 
 from the station buildings, to lessen the risk of fire. 
 These rooms are furnished with tables having iron 
 frames and slate tops, with benches for cleaning and 
 iilling the lamps, wooden stands for cleaning the lamp 
 cases, and racks aflSxed to the walls, in which the lamps 
 are placed when cleaned, trimmed, and ready for use. 
 The rooms are also fitted with iron tanks for the oil, 
 waste bins, and sawdust bins. On the arrival of a train 
 the lamps are removed from the carriages, placed on a 
 truck specially constructed for the purpose, and taken 
 to the lamp-room, where the cases are cleaned, the 
 burners filled, and the wicks trimmed, when the lamps 
 are replaced in the train, or placed in the racks, as the 
 case may be. 
 
 The system of lighting by oil gas, previously 
 referred to, is the patent of Mr. Pope, the gas being 
 manufactured from shale oil. At the stations where 
 this gas is made and supplied, the oil is brought to the 
 works in barrels, and emptied into a large covered iron 
 tank, let into the ground outside the gas-house, being 
 afterwards pumped thence into a smaller tank, placed 
 at a high level inside the gas-house. From this it is 
 allowed to gravitate to red-hot retorts, through a small 
 jet pipe, and is vapourised, afterwards passing through 
 a hydraulic main to the condensers, thence to a coke 
 scrubber, and, finally, through a registering meter to 
 the gas-holder. The gas is stored in reservoirs about 
 18 feet long, and about 4 feet in diameter, built up of 
 
I3S , AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. - 
 
 ^-in. plates, to stand a working pressure of 150 lbs. to 
 the square inch. The reservoirs are provided with gun- 
 metal inlets and outlets, and also with a low-level 
 outlet, to admit of drawing off the hydro-carbon which 
 is thrown down owing to the compression of the gas. 
 A combined engine and pump is employed to pump the 
 gas from the reservoir to the receiver, whence it is 
 conveyed by pipes to the cylinders attached to each 
 carriage, at a pressure of 150 lbs. to the square inch, 
 each cylinder, as well as the main, being supplied with 
 a pressure gauge, so as to show at a glance when they 
 are full. 
 
 The gas is conveyed from the v/orks where it is 
 made, to the station or shed where the carriages are 
 charged, through an underground main of iron pipe, 
 having an outside diameter of ij in., and an inside 
 diameter off in., connecting hydrants are then attached 
 to the main, to which gas-hose is attached at distances 
 of about 120 ft. for filling the cylinders in the carriages. 
 The hose is of india-rubber and canvas knit together, and 
 is capable of withstanding a pressure of 150 lbs. to the 
 square inch ; it has attaching unions and stopcocks at 
 each end, so that it can be taken off the main without 
 waste of gas, the main and the carriage cylinders having 
 stop valves, so that all can be closed before detaching the 
 hose. The gas in the main can also be drawn off into 
 the gas-holder when it is desired, for any reason, to empty 
 the carriage cylinders. Each carriage has one or two 
 cylinders, which are filled to a pressure of iio lbs. to 
 the square inch, and are made of lined steel, with the 
 seams welded, and two of these, 16 feet in length, with a 
 diameter of 13 in., will carry a sufficient supply of gas 
 to keep twenty lights, burning on a journey from London 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIA GES. 1 39 
 
 to Aberdeen and back. Gas cannot be tonsumed under 
 this high pressure, but has to be passed through a regu- 
 lator, so as to reduce it to something like the pressure 
 of coal gas as used for household purposes, and this is 
 effected by a very simple contrivance. The gas passes 
 from the high pressure cylinder through a small needle 
 hole, with a pin valve and lever attached to a diaphragm, 
 in a round box. As soon as 95 water gas gauge pres- 
 sure has entered this box, the diaphragm rises and closes 
 the valve, which does not re-open until the lights are 
 turned on, when i"t admits gas at the sam.e rate at which 
 it is consumed at the burners. Each jet can be regur 
 lated to a given size, so that it cannot blaze and cause 
 waste, and all the lights in a carriage can be turned off 
 or half-off, by a key at the end of the carriage. Finally, 
 each carriage has a pressure gauge to indicate the pres- 
 sure of gas in the cylinders, andto shew when the supply 
 is exhausted. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the London and Northr 
 Western Company, in their endeavours to secure an 
 improved system of lighting their passenger carriages, 
 have overlooked the question of electric lighting, or that 
 they have been oblivious of the experiments which have 
 been made in this direction upon various railways, but 
 ch efly upon the Southern lines. They are, on the con- 
 trary, perfectly alive to the fact that in all probability 
 the electric light is the light of the future for railway 
 carriages, as for most other purposes ; and they have 
 not been behindhand in making experiments with it 
 on their own account. For some time past one of their 
 trains running between Liverpool and Manchester has 
 been lighted by electricity, and not without success ; 
 and although the directors, regarding the question as 
 
I40 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 only in a transitional or experimental stage, have not 
 yet seen their way to adopt the system to any large 
 extent, a brief account of what has been done may 
 perhaps be of interest. 
 
 It is tolerably well known that there are at least three 
 methods in which a current of electricity may be ob- 
 tained for lighting the carriages of a train. A primary 
 battery may be used, or secondary batteries as on the 
 Brighton line, or the dynamo may be used direct. Each 
 system has its own supporters, but the greatest con- 
 sensus of opinion, at any rate amongst railway engineers, 
 appears to be in favour of either the secondary batteries, 
 or the direct action of the dynamo, while possibly the 
 ultimate solution will be found in a combination of the 
 two ; that is to say, the train will carry both a dynamo 
 and accumulators ; but whether the dynamo is to be 
 carried on the engine or driven from the engine 
 direct, or is to be driven by a separate engine, or by 
 the axle of the guard's van, are points not yet deter- 
 mined with any degree of authority. The train already 
 referred to on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 
 carries a Brotherwood's engine and a Siemen's com- 
 pound shunt dynamo fixed on the tender of the 
 locomotive, with an ammeter and switch on the engine, 
 so that the driver may regulate the current, and there 
 are two lamps in each compartment of the train with 
 an automatic switch arrangement, so that in the event 
 of one lamp failing, the second would be automatically 
 brought into use. The system, which has been devised 
 by the Company's chief telegraph superintendent, 
 does not admit of the engine leaving the train without 
 disconnecting the current, but this difficulty might be 
 overcome by the use of secondary batteries or accumu- 
 
ROLLING STOCK— CARRIAGES. \^\ 
 
 lators. The capital outlay required for the installation 
 of this one train, including the Brotherwood engine and 
 dynamo machine, was £'i?>6, and the working expenses 
 for a year have amounted to ;^84 2s. id., which works 
 out to about '628 of a penny per lamp per hour, but this 
 has since been somewhat reduced, and moreover, a 
 portion of the working expenses would be no greater 
 if there were three or four trains to attend to, working 
 between the same points. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Rolling Stock (iil) — Goods Waggons. 
 
 Prior to the year 1 88 1, the railway companies, generally 
 speaking, only provided waggons for the conveyance of 
 ordinary merchandise, and coal and coke, lime, salt, 
 and some other commodities were carried in waggons 
 belonging to the colliery proprietors and other traders, 
 the companies making an allowance off their authorised 
 tolls, for the use of the vehicles, and the owners perform- 
 ing all the services of loading and unloading. To a 
 very considerable extent, this state of things still 
 prevails, but in the year previously mentioned (1881) 
 the Midland Company decided upon the new policy of 
 becoming the owners of nearly the whole of the waggons 
 running upon their railway. They accordingly obtained 
 Parliamentary powers to raise a large sum of money 
 for the purpose of buying up waggons from private 
 owners, and building others for the conveyance of coal, 
 and other traffic, and they now possess nearly 38,000 
 coal and coke trucks of their own. 
 
 The London and North- Western Company have also 
 provided waggons for coal traffic, but not to so large an 
 extent, as at the present time they have only some 
 6,000 coal waggons (including nearly 3,000 "which are 
 used for the conveyance of their own coal for locomo- 
 tive purposes), and the bulk of the coal traffic upon their 
 
ROLLING STOCK— GOODS WAGGONS. 143 
 
 railway is still conducted by means of waggons owned 
 by the traders. Of course, where the railway company 
 find the waggons, they make a fair charge for their use, 
 which charge varies from 6d. to is. per ton according to 
 distance and other circumstances. 
 
 It must be confessed that the Midland Company's new 
 departure was not without some justification in the fact 
 that private owners' waggons are, always have been, and 
 probably always will be, a fruitful source of trouble and 
 anxiety. A railway company, in building its stock, has 
 too much at stake to risk sacrificing efficiency to economy, 
 and the vehicles are constructed with the utmost solidity 
 and perfection of workmanship, without regard to cost ; 
 but the same considerations do not apply with equal 
 force to private traders, and the companies are obliged 
 to exercise the most stringent precautions, both in the 
 matter of imposing a certain standard of construction 
 and maintenance, and in keeping up a watchful system 
 of examination, in order to guard against unsuitable 
 waggons being run in their trains. The breaking down 
 of a waggon may endanger the safety of a whole train, 
 and cause the loss of valuable lives and property, and a 
 very complete and elaborate system is adopted, with a 
 view to guarantee that every private waggon shall be 
 properly built and maintained. The system is as 
 follows : — 
 
 A "Standard Specification," accompanied by drawings 
 and dimensions, is drawn up, and private owners are 
 required to build their waggons strictly in accordance 
 with it, down to the minutest details, working drawings 
 and descriptions of the waggons being first submitted^ 
 for the approval of the Company's waggon superin- 
 tendent before the work is 'commenced. When the' 
 
144 -AN ENGLISH RAIL WA K 
 
 waggons are complete and before they are permitted 
 to run upon the railvvay, they are examined by the same 
 official, and if he is satisfied that all the requirements 
 of the specification have been faithfully complied with, 
 be affixes to each side of each waggon a register plate, 
 bearing the name of the Company, the registered number, 
 the date of registry, and the maximum load to be 
 carried. The waggon, with the plate so affixed, is free 
 to work over the Company's, or any other, line of rail- 
 way, the arrangement being a mutual one between all 
 the railway companies in the Kingdom agreed to at 
 the Railway Clearing House. 
 
 The registration in no way affects the right of any rail- 
 way company to inspect a registered waggon, and if found 
 in any way defective, to stop or refuse it, and when a 
 waggon, which has been approved, is repaired, or any of 
 the parts renewed, the work must be carried out in 
 accordance with the standard specification. The owners 
 of the vehicles are required to keep them in a perfect 
 state of repair, and to have them thoroughly greased and 
 properly examined before each journey, any station- 
 master being authorised to detain a waggon which 
 appears to him to be unfit to travel. 
 
 Careful precautions are taken to see that every waggon, 
 whether private or belonging to the Company, is in a fit 
 and proper state of repair and efficiency while running in 
 the trains, and the instructions issued to the men who are 
 charged with this duty are of the most minute character. 
 A staff of 220 examiners and greasers is employed, and 
 these men are posted singly or in gangs at every impor- 
 tant station and junction throughout the system. They 
 are held responsible for seeing that every vehicle on 
 commencing its journey from their station is in good 
 
ROLLING STOCK— GOODS WAGGONS. 145 
 
 and safe running condition, that the wheels, axle- 
 boxes, springs, buffers, draw gear, brakes, and all other 
 working parts are in perfect order, that the axle-boxes 
 are well greased, and that any waggon in which a defect 
 is discovered is promptly shunted out of the train, and 
 a red card affixed to it to indicate that it is not to run 
 until the necessary repairs have been attended to. 
 
 When a through train is standing at a station or junc- 
 tion, where it is required to stop, it is met by an 
 examiner, whose duty it is to pass along each side of 
 it and examine every wheel, not only by means of the 
 tapping hammer, but by personal inspection. He also 
 examines the axle-boxes, to see that they are well 
 greased, and are not running "hot," and watches the 
 revolving of the wheels, in order to detect a bent axle, 
 stress being laid upon the fact that in the event of a 
 waggon being stopped with a bent axle, no attempt is 
 to be made to straighten it while cold, but the wheels 
 are to be taken out and sent to a repairing shop where 
 the axle can be heated, and thus properly and safely 
 straightened. 
 
 The following are the minimum dimensions of axles 
 to be allowed, which a long experience has dictated as 
 representing the limits of safety, and any waggon found 
 running with an axle of less dimensions is stopped and 
 treated as a defective vehicle : — 
 
 Wheel Seat. Middle. JournaL 
 
 Ins. Ins, Ins. 
 
 For 6-ton waggons 
 
 4i 
 
 3i 
 
 2| 
 
 « 7-ton 
 
 4^ 
 
 3f 
 
 3 
 
 „ 8-ton 
 
 4* 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 „ 10- ton „ 
 
 S 
 L 
 
 A\ 
 
 3i 
 
146 AN ENGLISH KAIL WA Y. 
 
 No tyres are allowed to run if they are less than i in. 
 thick on the tread. 
 
 The London and North- Western Company possess in 
 all upwards of 56,000 waggons of various descriptions, 
 including the 6,000 coal waggons previously referred to, 
 and the whole of these have been built, and are kept in 
 repair, at their own waggon works at Earlestown. Of 
 the total number nearly 34,000 are open goods waggons, 
 I S ft. 6 in. in length, and 7 ft. 8 in. in width, 20,000 of 
 these having low sides only 9 in. in height, while the 
 remaining 14,000 have sides i ft. 8 in. in height. There 
 are 4,000 covered goods waggons, 15 ft. 6 in. long, 
 7 ft. 8 in. wide, and S ft. 8 in. in height, at side. ■ The 
 rest are vehicles of some forty different descriptions 
 constructed for special classes of traffic, and having 
 varying dimensions. The frames are all constructed of 
 well-seasoned English oak, and the bodies of oak, teak, 
 or red pine, the carrying capacity of the bulk of the 
 waggons being 7 tons. The wrought iron work in the 
 under frames is of the best Staffordshire iron, with the 
 exception of the couplings, for which iron from the Low 
 Moor furnaces is found to be the most suitable. The 
 axle-boxes, buffer-shoes, and bearing spring shoes are 
 of the best cast iron, and the wheel tyres and axles are 
 of Bessemer steel. 
 ,/ The Earlestown works, although not quite so exten- 
 sive as the carriage works at Wolverton, yet cover an 
 area of thirty-five acres, and employ at busy times about 
 1,600 men, who are engaged in constructing and 
 repairing, not only waggons, but the whole of the carts 
 and vans required for cartage purposes throughout the 
 Company's system. The works comprise a waggon- 
 maker's and wheelwright's shop, 463 ft. long and 291 ft. 
 
ROLLING STOCK— GOODS WAGGONS. \: 147 
 
 in width, a saw mill 200 ft. in length, two smithies 
 containing over one hundred fifes, a timber shed, turning 
 and spring-making shops, foundries and forges, and 
 numerous other shops devoted to various purposes, all 
 fitted up with the most powerful and efficient machinery 
 for minimising labour and ensuring accuracy of work- 
 manship. The capacity of these works may be judged 
 from the fact that when the full complement of some 
 1,600 hands is at work, they can turn out about eighteen 
 finished waggons during the working day, or at the rate 
 of one waggon every half-hour ! 
 
 Most of the institutions which exist at Wolverton for 
 the benefit of the men employed are represented by 
 kindred institutions at Earlestown. Thus, there is a 
 commodious dining-room, capable of seating 400 
 persons, where the men and boys employed in the 
 works can have their food cooked free of charge. There 
 is also a Mechanics' Institute, erected by the Company, 
 where lectures on scientific and other subjects of general 
 interest are given during the winter months, with free 
 admittance for the workmen and their families. Four 
 nights in each week are devoted to the classes held 
 under the auspices of the Science and Art Department 
 at South Kensington, and of the Lancashire and Cheshire 
 United Institutes, preference being given to those 
 subjects which have the most intimate relation to the 
 avocations of the men. A circulating library with 
 upwards of 3,300 volumes has been established, and a 
 reading room has been provided, where all the leading 
 newspapers and the best magazines are available for the 
 use of the members. A spacious recreation ground, 
 adjoining the Institute, and covering an area of six 
 acres, contains three bowling-greens, lawn-tennis courts. 
 
148 AN ENGLISB RAIL WA Y. 
 
 and a cricket-ground, together with a miniature park 
 tastefully laid out with flower-beds and trees, so that 
 healthful recreation and manly sports are far from being 
 neglected, and, by the liberality of the directors, all 
 these advantages are secured to the men and boys 
 engaged in the works in return for a payment of one 
 penny per week by the men, and one halfpenny per 
 week by the boys. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Working of the Trains. 
 
 The immense and continuous development of railway 
 traffic during the last fifty years has taxed to the very 
 utmost the ability and inventive faculties alike of those 
 engaged in its management, and of constructive and 
 mechanical engineers, in order to keep pace with it, and 
 to enable it to be carried on with regularity and despatch, 
 and with a minimum of delays and mishaps. In the 
 foregoing chapters, some account has been given of 
 the numerous mechanical and other contrivances which 
 have been almost universally adopted by railway com- 
 panies for this purpose ; and the following pages will 
 serve to afford an insight into the various adminis- 
 trative arrangements which alone enable the traffic of 
 the chief lines in the country to be carried on. That 
 traffic consists of varying elements. There are express 
 and mail passenger trains, running at a speed of forty- 
 five miles an hour, and, in some cases, more than that ; 
 others at a somewhat less speed, but still known as fast 
 trains ; stopping trains, calling at every station, and 
 running at a rate of from twenty to twenty-five miles an 
 hour ; local suburban trains, running for short distances 
 at a fairly high rate of speed, chiefly for residential 
 purposes ; express goods trains between the larger towns, 
 attaining a speed of from twenty to twenty-five miles an 
 
1 50 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 hour ; slow, stopping, goods trains, for serving smaller 
 towns and villages ; and, finally, the heavy coal trains, 
 running out of the great colliery districts to every centre 
 of population. All these various trains, heavy and light, 
 fast and slow, some stopping at the stations and others 
 dashing through them at high rates of speed, have to be 
 accommodated to a great extent upon the same line of 
 rails, yet all to keep their time and fulfil their appointed 
 functions — and, briefly, this is the great problem which 
 railway management has to solve. Such a service can- 
 not be carried on under all circumstances, whether by 
 night or day, in fogs, in snow-storms, in wind or rain, 
 and under all other adverse conditions, without entailing 
 hardships and dangers upon the men engaged in the 
 working ; yet it is gratifying to be able to say that the 
 vast army of men of all grades employed in the service 
 of the various railway companies exhibit at all times a 
 state of complete discipline and cheerful devotion to 
 duty, which could not be exceeded by any body of men 
 whatever, and which, although perhaps not so well 
 understood or appreciated by the public as might be 
 the case, reflects the highest credit upon them as a 
 class. Bearing in mind the vast importance of the 
 interests entrusted to their charge, and the serious con- 
 sequences that might easily arise from any carelessness or 
 dereliction of duty on their part, it is a fact upon which 
 the travelling public may well congratulate them- 
 selves, that their lives and limbs, their property and 
 interests are confided to hands so trustworthy and 
 reliable. (See Appendix A.) 
 
 The train mileage run upon the London and North- 
 Western Railway during the year ending the 31st 
 December, 1888, was : — 
 
I A M w/ 1 Passenger Trains shewn thus 
 L. a IN. w. g . 
 
 ■ ! Goods 
 G. W. A 
 
 L & Y. _ , 
 
 » H 
 
 L. & N. W. R.— DIAGRAM SWOWING THE WORKING OF TRAINS BETWEEN 
 
 ivi«. iVErvp-Tora" mrincs-E:.' 
 
 LIVERPOOL C>- - 
 
 -LIVERPOOL ('ir> 
 
 CDOE HILL 
 
 BROAD OREEN 
 
 MurrON QUARRY 
 
 S&'^Rffii™ 
 
 ST. HCLENS JUNCTION 
 
 COLUNS ORCEH 
 NEWTON aRIDOE 
 
 ■^'LTOrJ^*^ 
 
 CLAZEBURT 
 
 UARTON MOSS 
 
 PATRICHOfT 
 
 tOCt-tS 
 
 WEASTE 
 
 DEEDLEY 
 tJHOSS LANE 
 
 CRO&l LANE 
 
 ■ffiANCKC^TER <«^) 
 
 NOTE Trains shown fine lines, th-w . _ , ^ run one or two days por week onl/. 
 
 NOTE —Trains marked S com© off or go on Slow Lines. 
 
 NPTE -Trains m»rkpd X, see Liverpool to Manchester, va Wigan. Diagram, 
 
 Fig. 36, 
 
 Page 15 T, 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 151 
 
 Passenger trains 20,001,285 miles 
 
 Goods and mineral trains... 19,141,030 „ 
 
 Total 39,142,315 „ 
 
 but this was exclusive of empty mileage and of shunt- 
 ing, and, as a matter of fact, the total engine miles run 
 during theyear amounted to 55,525,334. In other words, 
 the engines of this one company ran a mile and three- 
 quarters every second, or 104 miles every minute, and in 
 effect they put a girdle round the earth once in every 
 four hours throughout the year, yet such is the perfection 
 of mechanism attained in the present.day, that the engines 
 were able to run a distance equal to twice round the 
 world for every single case which occurred of a hot axle, 
 the loss of a split pin or cotter, or anything tending to 
 throw an engine out of gear. 
 
 During the year above mentioned, the number of 
 passengers carried on the North-Western Railway was 
 56,830,2 16, and the number of tons of goods and minerals 
 conveyed was 35,922,619. The revenue derived from 
 all sources, except from rents, was ;^ 4,25 1,329 from 
 passenger traffic, and;^ 6,198, 583 from goods and mineral 
 traffic, giving a total of .£"10,449,912. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (Plate XXVI.) is a 
 specimen on a reduced scale, of the diagrams which are 
 prepared for each section of the line, showing how the 
 engine working is arranged, the time and speed of 
 running, and the intersection of the trains at places 
 where goods and slow passenger trains have to shunt 
 into sidings for the fast express trains to pass them. 
 
 It will be perceived that the perpendicular lines divide 
 the day of twenty-four hours into periods of hours, half 
 hours, quarters of hours, and of five minutes ; the hori- 
 
I S2 AN ENGLISH- RAIL WA Y. 
 
 zontal lines dividing the railway into sections, while the 
 slanting lines represent the engines or trains timed to run 
 over the line . Thus the diagram offers, as it were, a visible 
 picture of the state of the hne, as to its being occupied 
 or otherwise, between any two points at any minute of 
 the day, and it will be easily apparent that such diagrams 
 are invaluable, and in fact indispensable, in arranging 
 train alterations or the running of new trains or special 
 trains when required. The section of line chosen for 
 illustration is that between Liverpool and Manchester, 
 upon the major portion of which there is as yet only one 
 up and one down line of rails, and on this portion one 
 train cannot pass another proceeding in the same 
 direction, unless the first one takes refuge in a siding. 
 Over this Liverpool and Manchester Railway there are 
 running at the present time, for greater or less distances, 
 no fewer than 272 passenger trains, and 292 goods 
 trains, or a total of 564 trains up and down within 
 twenty-four hours. Of the passenger trains, 112 are ex- 
 presses, fourteen of which travel at a speed of forty-four 
 miles an hour, and the remainder at an average speed of 
 thirty-five miles an hour ; and there are 56 express goods 
 trains running at about twenty-three miles an hour. 
 
 Over certain busy portions of the North-Western 
 system it has been found necessary, owing to the 
 enormous development of the traffic, to lay down 
 additional lines of rails, and there are now four lines 
 (viz., two up and two down) between London and 
 Roade, between Stafford and Crewe, and over some 
 twenty shorter sections of railway, varying from half a 
 mile to five miles in length, while, on other sections, a 
 third line has been provided for goods traffic only. 
 The advantages of the duplicated lines are obvious ; they 
 admit of the fast and slow trains being kept separate. 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 153 
 
 and thus simplify the working, lessen the risk of acci- 
 dent, and reduce delays and irregularities to a minimum. 
 
 If the theory of the Time Bill, with regularly appointed 
 trains running at varying rates of speed, with specified 
 places for them to pass each other, could be realised 
 absolutely in regular practice, it would represent the 
 perfection of railway working ; but, owing to bad 
 weather, the fluctuations of traffic, the running of 
 special trains at short notice, and other uncontrollable 
 causes, this ideal can never be absolutely attained. 
 The most important thing, at all times, is to keep the 
 line clear for the passenger trains, and, as a matter of 
 fact, everything is made to give way to this, for there 
 is nothing that adds so much to the reputation of a 
 line, or redounds so much to the credit of the officers 
 and servants, as a well-appointed and punctual passenger 
 service. It pleases the travelling public, and brings 
 both reputation and profit to the company. 
 
 On a line which is efficiently worked, the percentage 
 of unpunctual trains is small, but at certain times of the 
 year there will always be a considerable amount of late 
 running, which cannot be avoided. For instance, in 
 summer the passenger traffic is largely swelled by 
 tourists proceeding to seaside resorts, the lakes, and 
 Scotland, taking with them great quantities of luggage, 
 which add to the weight of the trains and to the diffi- 
 culty of getting them away from the stations promptly. 
 Again, in winter, fogs, frosts, and snowstorms delay the 
 progress of cross-channel steamers from Ireland, which 
 run in connection with the trains, and these, in their 
 turn, delay the trains. Those responsible for the 
 working are thus constantly engaged in a contest 
 against disturbing influences, and the arrangements 
 
154 At7 ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 have to be sufficiently elastic to enable trains to be run 
 out of course, if necessary, as safely and well as at the 
 specified times. 
 
 Goods trains, starting from terminal stations where 
 the shunting and marshalling of the waggons take place, 
 cannot always leave with absolute punctuality ; nor can 
 those having waggons to attach and detach at roadside 
 stations, where a margin is allowed for the purpose, 
 always accomplish their task within the specified 
 time. The weight of the load, the capacity of the 
 engine, the state of the rails and the weather, the 
 varying gradients, and the more or less frequent running 
 of special trains, are all disturbing elements which have 
 to be reckoned with, and which tend materially to upset 
 the calculations made in compiling the time bill, so that 
 the arrangements for shunting goods trains off the 
 running lines into sidings to allow passenger trains to 
 pass them, have to be left very largely to the discretion 
 of the station-masters and foremen. The most that can 
 be done on the part of the management is to lay down 
 certain rules and principles for the guidance of the men, 
 and this is done. For instance, as a general rule, pas- 
 senger trains take precedence of goods, cattle, and coal 
 trains, and such trains are not allowed to be started 
 from any station within a given space of time before a 
 passenger train is due. This regulation is, however, 
 subject to modification according to circumstances, and 
 a light through goods or cattle train, on a clear day or 
 night, may be started before a passenger train, if the 
 latter has to call at all the stations. Again, if the station- 
 master or foreman has been informed by means of the 
 telegraph or otherwise, that a passenger train which is 
 due, may not be expected for some time, he may 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINi,. 155 
 
 despatch a goods train, taking care to inform the driver 
 of the passenger train when it does arrive, what time the 
 goods train was started, and where it was ordered to 
 shunt. The same principle applies to a slow or stopping 
 passenger train travelling in front of an express which 
 is known to be late. 
 
 These are general rules, but on all the more important 
 sections of the main lines it has been found desirable to 
 fix an absolute margin of time within which a goods 
 train is to leave a particular station in advance of a 
 passenger train. This information is set forth, for each 
 division of the line, in what is called the " Working 
 Book," a compendium of general instructions and infor- 
 mation issued every month for the guidance of the staff, 
 and which gives also the locality of the various shunting 
 or refuge sidings, and the number of waggons each of 
 them will contain. 
 
 The following table, as an example, gives these parti- 
 culars for down trains on the line from London to 
 Rugby ; but, of course, similar arrangements exist with 
 regard to up trains and for all the other divisions of the 
 main line. 
 
 But this is not all. To ensure the principal station- 
 masters and inspectors being kept well posted as to the 
 working of the line and the movement of the trains, a 
 most elaborate system is in force for telegraphing the 
 progress of the trains from point to point. For instance, 
 the telegraph clerk at Stafford will telegraph the time 
 •of departure of all trains from Stafford, to Crewe, to 
 .Chester, to Wolverhampton, to Tamworth, to Warring- 
 ton, and to any other stations at which the information 
 is useful, and this is continually going on all over the 
 line, and from almost every station and signal cabin, so 
 
156 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 that everyone concerned is kept well posted as to what 
 is going on. 
 
 DOWN FAST LINE, 
 
 p 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Is 
 
 It 
 
 T3 C 
 
 Watford (June. 
 
 fiom Fast to 
 
 Slow). 
 
 a 
 H 
 
 Ms 
 4° 
 
 ... 
 
 S 
 Ms. 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 Ms. 
 
 25 
 
 'a 
 
 ^ o 
 S '■>-' 
 
 o 
 
 Ms. 
 
 '5 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 V 
 
 X 
 Ms. 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 Ms. 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 Ms, 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 fcO 
 
 D 
 
 Miles. 
 
 4i 
 l6i 
 
 3oi 
 
 6i| 
 66 
 
 75 
 
 1^\ 
 
 Willesden Junction 
 Watford 0unc. from 
 
 Fast to Slow)... 
 
 Tring 
 
 Bletchley 
 
 Roade 
 
 Gay ton Loop 
 
 Heyford (Norlh) ... 
 South end Kilsby 
 
 Tunnel 
 
 Hillmorton 
 
 Wgns. 
 
 5° 
 SO 
 
 lOO 
 
 i6o 
 
 100 
 
 Mins. 
 3° 
 
 Ms. 
 25 
 
 DOWN SLOW LINE. 
 
 o 
 
 (5 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 V 
 
 22 
 u5 
 
 C 
 4) 
 
 1 
 
 rt 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 § 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 15 
 
 
 bo 
 
 1 
 
 Miles. 
 
 4i 
 
 loj 
 
 I4f 
 
 i6J 
 
 23i 
 
 3°i 
 
 39 
 
 45i 
 
 581 
 
 66i 
 
 74i 
 
 Camden 
 
 Willesden ... 
 Harrow - 
 
 Wgns. 
 
 45 
 45 
 
 50 
 5° 
 8o 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 Ms. 
 10 
 
 Ms. 
 15 
 
 Ms. 
 15 
 
 Ms. 
 
 Ms. 
 20 
 
 Ms. 
 25 
 
 Ms. 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 ... 
 
 Ms. 
 
 35 
 20 
 
 Ms. 
 25 
 
 Ms. 
 IS 
 
 Ms. 
 
 25 
 
 Ms. 
 
 Watford 
 
 Boxmoor 
 
 Tring 
 
 ... 
 
 Leighton 
 
 Bletchley 
 
 Roade 
 
 • *4 
 
 Northampton 
 Long Buckb| 
 
 25 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 157 
 
 In order that the different descriptions of trains may 
 be the more readily distinguished one from another, 
 especially at night, a system of distinctive head lights 
 for the engines has been devised, which is as follows : — 
 
 / Two White Lights — one over 
 
 1. Engines of Fast Passenger 1 each Buffer. Fish and Break- 
 
 Trains, Fish Trains, and \ down Van Trains by day must 
 Break-down Van Trains ... / carry a White Diamond Board 
 \ over Right Hand Buffer. 
 
 2. Engines of Slow Passenger i A White Light over Left Hand 
 
 Trains and Light Engines ( Buffer. 
 
 / One Green Light overN 
 iRight Hand Buffer, and 
 
 3. Engines of " Express " Goods / one White Light over Left 
 
 and Through Trains of ( Hand Buffer. A White 
 Cattle, Perishables, and \ Diamond Board at Bottom 
 Shipment Traffic ... ... j of Engine Chimney during j^ 
 
 i daylight. ) 
 
 4. Engines of Fast Goods Trains 
 ■' '"'' ■ ■ ' ■ Two Green Lights — one over 
 
 each Buffer. AWhite Diamond 
 Board over Left Hand Buffer of 
 Engine during daylight. 
 
 
 not having to stop at inter- 
 mediate stations and sid- 
 ings ; also Ballast Trains 
 not stopping to do work on 
 the road 
 
 5. Engines of Stopping Goods, f One Green Light over Left 
 Mineral, and Ballast Trains 1 Hand Buffer. 
 
 Where there are more than two lines (one Up and one Down) 
 a Green Light must be carried at foot of chimney by Engines of 
 all Trains travelling on the Auxiliary Line.s. 
 
 Light Engines on the Auxihary Lines must carry one Green 
 Light at the foot of the chimney, the Light on the Buffer Plank 
 being dispensed with. 
 
 Note A.— Urgent Express Goods, Cattle, Meat, or Vegetable 
 Trains requiring unusual despatch, will, under special instructions 
 from the District Superintendents, carry the following distinctive 
 Head Signals : — 
 
 By day — A White Oval Board, with Green Cross on it, at 
 foot of chimney. 
 
 By night— One Green Light over Left Hand Buffer, and 
 one White Light over Right Hand Buffer. 
 
 These special Head Signals must only be used in cases 
 specified by instructions from the District Superipfendents. 
 
is? AN ENGLISH RAIL WAY.- 
 
 In order to afford some idea of the growth which has 
 taken place in the length and weight of the trains, during 
 the last five-and-twenty years, it may be mentioned that 
 the lo.o a.m. down express from Euston, which in 1863 
 was 312 ft. in length, and weighed 123 tons, had increased 
 in 1887 to 652! ft. in length, and in weight to 268 tons ; 
 while the 5 o'clock train in the evening, in the same 
 period, increased from 403 ft. in length, and 149 tons in 
 weight, to 463^ ft. in length, and 235 tons in weight. 
 One of the principal up trains from Scotland — the 
 8.41 p.m. from Carlisle — in 1863 was 206 ft. in length, 
 and weighed 97 tons, while to-day it measures S68J ft. 
 and weighs 242 tons (see Fig. 27). Then, again, 
 the speed of the trains has increased to almost as great 
 an extent as their length and weight, for the three trains 
 selected as illustrations travel now from five per cent, to 
 upwards of fourteen per cent quicker than they did even 
 fifteen years ago. 
 
 The London and North- Western Company, however 
 have not hitherto made it their principal object to run 
 their trains at the highest possible rate of speed. In these 
 days, journeys must be accomplished quickly in order to 
 keep pace with the times, and meet the growing require- 
 ments of the travelling public ; but the highest attainable 
 speed is not always the most compatible with safety and 
 punctuality, and these latter essentials are certainly not 
 the least important to be secured in the working of a 
 railway. Thus the London and North-Western, if it 
 does not lay claim to the doubtful distinction of running 
 the fastest trains in the world, is, it is believed, fairly 
 entitled to the reputation of being the most punctual 
 line in the kingdom. Still it can, on occasion, achieve 
 notable records in the way of fast travelling, and an 
 
Coal Train. 
 
 5.30 p.m. Ex EusTON S p.m. 10 a.m. Ex EuSTON. 
 
 8.41 p.m. Ex Carlisle, 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 w 
 o 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 
 > 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
l6o AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 illustration of its ability to do so, occurs to the writer in 
 connection with what happened some years ago, at the 
 commencement of the civil war in America. It was 
 at the time when the British Foreign Secretary had 
 sent a despatch, in the nature of an ultimatum, to the 
 Federal Government, with respect to the case of Messrs. 
 Mason and Slidell, the Confederate Envoys, who had 
 been forcibly taken out of a British ship by a Federal 
 cruiser. There was no Atlantic cable in those days, 
 and although all England was on the tip-toe of expecta- 
 tion to know the terms of the reply which would 
 govern the issue of peace or war between two great 
 nations, there was no quicker means of communication 
 than by steamer to Queenstown, thence by rail to 
 Dublin, then again by steamer to Holyhead, and by 
 rail again to London. During this anxious period from 
 the 2nd to the 9th of January, 1862, an engine was kept 
 constantly in steam at Holyhead, and when at length 
 the long expected despatch arrived, it was brought from 
 Holyhead to Euston, a distance of 264 miles, in five 
 hours, or at an average speed of 53 miles an hour 
 throughout, including one stoppage at Stafford for the 
 purpose of changing engines. It may be added that 
 although at that time the Company had not adopted 
 the block telegraph system, and the working was carried 
 on by the ordinary telegraph signals from station to 
 station, the entire journey was performed without the 
 slightest stoppage or interruption of any kind. 
 
 For the working of single lines of railway, most com- 
 panies adopt what is known as the " Train Staff and 
 Ticket System," which is carried out in the following 
 manner: — Supposing the line, or the section of line, 
 extends from A to B, and there are three trains at A 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. i6i 
 
 wanting to proceed to B. The first one is despatched 
 with a ticket, and the second also, but the third, or last, 
 must carry on the engine what is known as the train 
 staff, a straight piece of wood somewhat resembling a 
 constable's staff, but coloured and lettered in accordance 
 with the particular section of line it refers to. The box 
 containing the " tickets " can only be unlocked by means 
 of the train staff, which is really the key, and no train 
 can enter the opposite end of the section until the train 
 staff itself arrives at that end, so that it is impossible for 
 two trains to meet in opposite directions, and the proper 
 distance between trains proceeding in the same direction 
 is maintained by fixed signals and the block telegraph, 
 the same as on double lines. Where the branch is a 
 long one, it is divided into sections, with crossing places 
 at convenient intervals, and each section has its own staff 
 and set of tickets, and is worked separately in the 
 manner described. 
 
 This system of working single lines, although it has 
 been altered and improved upon in many ways, until it 
 may now be considered to be almost perfect, both as to 
 safety and convenience, was originally devised by Mr. 
 Henry Woodhouse, until lately one of the engineers to 
 the London and North-Western Company, for the 
 working of a long tunnel, called the " Standedge 
 Tunnel," on the Huddersfield and Manchester railway, 
 of which he had charge nearly forty years ago, and 
 was authorised generally by the Board of Trade, and 
 included in their requirements in i860. 
 
 Some single lines of short length, and where the 
 traffic is light, are worked by a single engine in steam, 
 and this fact, of course, supersedes the necessity for any 
 special precautions such as those already described. 
 
 M 
 
r62 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Another method of working single lines which has 
 been introduced within a comparatively recent period is 
 what is known as the " Train Tablet System,"- which is 
 now in operation on a section of the line at Cocker- 
 mouth, on the Callander and Oban railway in Scotland, 
 and elsewhere. Although the train staff system, as 
 described above, combined v/ith the block telegraph, has 
 answered its purpose well, it has one drawback, which 
 is that the sections have of necessity to be short in order 
 to avoid serious delays, and under any circumstances it 
 may occur that the train staff may be at one end of the 
 section while a train is waiting for it at the other. This 
 fact led one of the officers of the Caledonian Company 
 to set his wits to work to devise an arrangement by 
 which a train staff, or its equivalent in the form of a 
 tablet, or circular disc of metal, could be electrically con- 
 trolled from the other end of the section, so as to con- 
 stitute in point of fact a train staff and block telegraph 
 system combined. 
 
 The apparatus has been since improved and perfected, 
 and has been patented by Messrs. Tyer & Co., the well- 
 known electrical engineers. Although the working is, 
 in practice, very simple, a detailed description of the 
 instruments used, and the way in which they are manipu- 
 lated, would appear extremely complicated, but the 
 essential features of the system are as follows : — 
 Supposing A and B are the two ends of a section of 
 single line and a train is waiting at A to proceed to B. 
 The signalman at A gives a signal to that effect on an 
 electric bell to the signalman at B. If, according to 
 the block telegraph regulations, the train may proceed 
 to B, that is to say if the line to the knowledge of the 
 signalman at B is clear between A and B, the signalman 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 1C3 
 
 at B draws out a slide in his instrument, and depresses 
 a plunger, which, by means of an electric current, has the 
 effect of enabling the signalman at A to draw out a 
 corresponding slide in his instrument, and remove from 
 it a train tablet, which he hands to the driver of the 
 train as his authority to start and enter the section in- 
 advance towards B. On arrival at B the driver delivers 
 up the tablet to the signalman there, who inserts it in 
 his instrument, and until this has been done, the apparatus 
 is automatically locked, and a second tablet cannot be 
 obtained fro7n the apparatus at either end. Thus it is 
 impossible for two trains to be in the same section at 
 the same time, proceeding in opposite directions, although 
 trains may follow one another in the same direction at 
 the proper intervals without intermission or delay. 
 
 An apparatus very similar to this, and designed to 
 attain the same objects, has recently been devised and 
 constructed at the Crewe works, and is now in use on 
 the Bedford and Cambridge branch, having been ap- 
 proved by the Board of Trade. In this case train staffs 
 of the ordinary type take the place of the tablets, and 
 these are made in such a form, that they will serve to 
 open any of the intermediate sidings within the section, 
 which in their normal state are loeked. Although the 
 apparatus differs in form, the manipulation is almost 
 identical with that of the train tablet system, it being 
 physically impossible for a staff to be withdrawn without 
 the concurrence of the signalmen at the two ends of the 
 section. The experimental trial of this system having 
 proved very successful, it will probably be extended to 
 other single line branches. 
 
 There is one element which causes, perhaps, more 
 difficulty, and entails more anxiety upon those engaged 
 
i64 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 in the management of a railway than all others put 
 together, and that is the prevalence of fogs in this 
 country. When one of these unwelcome visitations 
 descends upon us, although the telegraph still remains, 
 the whole system of visible signals is, as it were, blotted 
 out, and it is easy to realise how extremely difficult this 
 must render the working. The greatest caution has to 
 be observed, the speed has to be reduced, and more or 
 less delay is inevitable in the interests of safety, which, 
 after all is, of course, the first and last consideration. 
 To admit of the trains running while the signals are 
 invisible, a system of what is called "fog-signalling" 
 has been devised, and a brief description of this system, 
 which is as simple as it is perfect, may do much to 
 reassure any of our readers who may chance to find 
 themselves performing a journey by an express train 
 during a fog. At such a time the platelayers are 
 perforce idle, since the permanent way is not allowed 
 to be interfered with until the weather clears, and 
 these men for the most part furnish the ranks of 
 the fog-signalmen. Directly a fog comes on, a man 
 is stationed at the foot of each distant signal, and 
 becomes, in fact, a living signal-post. As soon as the 
 signal-arm is raised to " Danger," he places upon the 
 rails two detonating signals, which are exploded by the 
 engine of a train passing over them, and the driver of 
 the train is thus apprised that the signal, although 
 invisible to him, is at " Danger," and he must act ac- 
 cordingly. If the signal is lowered to indicate that the 
 line is clear before any train approaches, the fog-signal- 
 man at once removes the detonators, but replaces them 
 as soon as the signal is again raised to " Danger." 
 
 Each man is provided with a hut to shelter him, a fire 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 1C5 
 
 and a thick warm overcoat, which is supplied by the 
 Company for his use. As soon 9.3 he has been on duty 
 three hours he is supplied with refreshments at the 
 Company's expense, and again six hours later if the fog 
 continues so long ; and, after twelve hours, if the fog 
 still continues, he goes off duty, and his place is taken 
 by a relief man. The refreshments supplied consist 
 usually of bread and meat, and tea or coffee. 
 
 During the week ending the 14th January, 1888, as 
 may perhaps be remembered, occurred one of the most 
 severe visitations of fog within living memory. It was 
 general throughout the country, and, in fact, was not 
 confined to England, but extended over some portions 
 of the Continent. In most parts of the country it com- 
 menced either on Sunday night or Monday morning, 
 and, with brief intervals, and in some places with, 
 practically, no interval whatever, it continued until 
 Friday night. It may readily be imagined that to carry 
 on the working of the railway under such circumstances, 
 and for such a lengthened period, became a matter of 
 great difficulty, and imposed a very severe strain upon 
 all the men engaged. 
 
 Delays, more or less, were naturally inevitable, but it 
 is gratifying to state that, with the exception of one or 
 two trifling mishaps with goods trains, involving no 
 serious results, the whole of the traffic was carried on 
 during this trying week without any actual interruption, 
 and without accident or injury to a single passenger. 
 This result was entirely due to the efficient carrying out 
 of the system of fog-signa1ling above described, and 
 probably there could not well be a more searching test 
 of the efficiency of the system employed. Enquiries 
 have shown that during the week in question on the 
 
iC6 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 London and North-Western Railway alone, fogmen had 
 to be provided at 2,462 signal posts ; 2,375 rnsn were 
 employed, in addition to 1,377 relief men, making a 
 total of 3,752 men. During the week scarcely any 
 express train was more than half-an-hour late, and some 
 of the trains actually ran to time. 
 
 Various plans have from time to time been suggested 
 for dispensing with the fog-signalmen, and conveying to 
 the drivers the requisite warning as to the state of the 
 signals during a fog, by mechanical means, either in 
 connection with electricity or otherwise, and it appears 
 probable that sooner or later some efficient system of 
 this kind will be devised, but, so far, none has been 
 developed which has been thought to be sufficiently 
 reliable, and the matter is still within the region of 
 experiment. 
 
 A great deal of difficulty was formerly experienced in 
 getting the fog-signalmen to their posts, especially if the 
 fog came on during the night, as is frequently the case. In 
 remote country districts the men often found it impossi- 
 ble to obtain dwellings near their work, and even in the 
 vicinity of large towns the only houses available were 
 sometimes those of a type unsuited to the means of men 
 of the class to which they belonged. Thus the signal- 
 man, confined to his cabin, perhaps in some lonely 
 cutting, far from any station or town, during the solitary 
 hours of the night, would see a fog approach and blot 
 out his signals, and, not daring to leave his post to call 
 assistance, and knowing that the nearest fog-signalman 
 lived a mile, or perhaps more, from the spot, he was 
 frequently placed in a position of great anxiety and 
 perplexity. This difficulty is being gradually met by 
 the expedient of the Company themselves building in 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 16? 
 
 the neighbourhood of every station or signal-post where 
 the circurpstances are such as to give rise to the 
 necessity, a number of workmen's cottages sufficient to 
 accommodate the platelayers and others who are 
 required for fog-signalling at that particular station or 
 post. These cottages are specially designed for the 
 convenient occupation of a single family ; they are of 
 uniform construction, all the wood-work, iron-work, and 
 other fittings being turned out in quantities at the- 
 Company's works at Crewe, where the bricks are also 
 made ; and owing to this, and to the buildings being 
 erected by the Company's own workmen, they can be 
 completed at a comparatively moderate outlay, each 
 pair of cottages costing from ^350 to £af:>o. There is 
 usually an electric bell communication between the 
 signalman's cabin and the bedroom of one of the men, 
 generally the ganger, whose duty it is, on the alarm 
 being given, to call out the other men, so that within a 
 very few minutes of the first warning, every man is at his 
 appointed post, and ready for duty. Both the Company 
 and the men are the gainers by this arrangement. The 
 Company attain their object of having the men 
 concentrated on the spot, and easily accessible at all 
 times, and the rents paid by the men, which range from 
 2s. 6d. to 3s. per week, ensure them a certain return, 
 a'though a small one, for their outlay. The men, on 
 their part, reap the benefit of occupying, at a small 
 rental, a commodious and convenient dwelling, near to 
 their work, constructed under proper sanitary conditions, 
 kept in a good state of repair, and in every way 
 infinitely superior to the best accommodation which 
 their small means would otherwise enable them to 
 obtain. 
 
i68 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Besides the cottages for fog-signalmen, the Company 
 provide houses for their station-masters, foremen, signal- 
 men, engine-drivers, brakesmen, and others, who cannot 
 easily obtain suitable dwellings near the stations to 
 which they are attached, the houses owned by the 
 Company and occupied by their servants, being in all 
 nearly 4,000 in number. 
 
 It is only during the passage of the Royal train to 
 convey Her Majesty and suite to and from Scotland 
 twice a year, that the ordinary arrangements for work- 
 ing the line are suspended. The exceptional nature of 
 the regulations then adopted may be considered as 
 affording the nearest approach to perfection in railway 
 travelling that has yet been arrived at. The train 
 is lighted with gas, and fitted throughout with 
 the Westinghouse and vacuum brakes, with an elec- 
 trical communication between the compartments of each 
 saloon and carriage, and the guards, and with a com- 
 munication between the front guard and the driver. A 
 pilot engine is run fifteen minutes in advance of the 
 train throughout the entire journey, and in order to 
 guard against any obstruction or interference with the 
 safe passage of the train, no engine, except the pilot, or 
 any train or vehicle, is allowed to proceed upon or cross 
 the main line during an interval of at least thirty minutes 
 before the time at which the Royal train is appointed 
 to pass. All shunting operations on the adjoining lines 
 are suspended during the same period, while, after the 
 Royal train has passed, no engine or train is permitted 
 to leave a station or siding upon the same line for at 
 least fifteen minutes. In addition to these regulations, 
 no engines or trains, except passenger trains, are allowed 
 to travel between any two stations on the opposite line 
 
THE WORKING OF THE TRAINS. 169 
 
 of rails to that on which the Royal train is running, 
 from the time the pilot is due until the Royal train has 
 passed. For instance, supposing the Royal train is to 
 run on the down line from Stafford to Norton Bridge, 
 and the pilot is due at Norton Bridge at, say eight 
 o'clock, if a goods train or light engine required to 
 travel on the up line from Norton Bridge to Stafford, 
 and it was ready to start at eight o'clock, it would be 
 kept back until the Royal train had passed. 
 
 The precaution is also taken of specially guarding 
 "^very level crossing, farm crossing, and station, to pre- 
 vent trespassers, and of securely bolting all facing 
 points over which the Royal train must pass. Plate- 
 layers are also posted along the line to prevent 
 the possibility of any obstruction or impediment occur- 
 ring ; and all level crossing gates, where gatekeepers 
 are not kept, are locked an hour before the train is due, 
 and kept so until it has passed. Special arrangements 
 are made for telegraphing the passage of the train from 
 point to point as it speeds along its journey, and an 
 instrument is conveyed by the train by means of which 
 a telegraphic communication can be established at any 
 place on the journey in case of need. The train is 
 accompanied by a staff of fitters, lampmen, and greasers, 
 who keep a vigilant watch on each side of it, so as to 
 notice any irregularity in the running of the carriages, 
 and who, upon the train stopping at the appointed 
 stations, examine it throughout and grease the axle 
 boxes. The average speed of the train does not exceed 
 about thirty-six miles an hour excluding stoppages. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Shunting and Marshalling of Goods 
 Trains. 
 
 In working the goods traffic on a line such as the 
 London and North-Western, the trains are so arranged 
 as to run with full loads between the most important 
 points, as from London to Birmingham, Liverpool, 
 Manchester, Scotland, and so on ; but the traffic at the 
 intermediate stations is collected by a service of local 
 stopping trains, and conveyed to the large junctions, 
 such as Rugby, Crewe, and Stafford, where the waggons 
 are properly classified and marshalled for transit by the 
 through trains. This operation of marshalling and 
 classifying the goods and mineral traffic into district 
 and station order, as will be readily believed, is one of 
 immense magnitude and difficulty, and the work at the 
 terminal stations, and at the important junctions, is 
 extremely complicated, and carried out at a great cost. 
 It is obvious that, unless the trains were properly mar- 
 shalled for their various destinations, and the waggons 
 arranged in station order, it is not enough to say that 
 the traffic could only be carried on with the most serious 
 interruption and delay ; but it would, in fact, be imprac- 
 ticable to carry it on at all, now that it has attained its 
 present dimensions. As it is, any neglect or omission 
 on the part of the men employed in this duty results 
 in great confusion and difficulty at the junctions and 
 
SHUNTING AND MARSHALLING OF GOODS TRAINS. 171 
 
 Stations, as the train proceeds on its journey. The 
 extent of the operations required may be gathered from 
 the fact that the London and North- Western Company 
 alone have no less than 228 engines constantly employed 
 in this work of marshalling and classifying the trains 
 in the sidings, and that the total number of hours of 
 shunting performed last year by these engines was 
 estimated at 1,989,751, representing a cost to the Com- 
 pany, at Js. per hour (including wages), of .^497,437. 
 
 The great importance of performing this work in an 
 effectual manner, and with the minimum expenditure 
 of time and money, has led to the subject being studied 
 and debated perhaps to a greater extent than any of the 
 other problems which railway management has had to 
 deal with. Many plans have been suggested and put 
 in operation, as, for instance, at Camden, where the 
 sidings are laid in parallel lines, with a double line of 
 turn-tables across them, worked by hydraulic capstans ; 
 at Willesden, Stafford, and other places, where there are 
 sets of sidings in the shape of a fan, with a shunting 
 " neck," or siding, which represents the handle of the 
 fan ; and at other stations where the fan-shaped sidings 
 are adopted, but with a falling gradient, utilised so as to 
 economise power. The " fan " arrangement, either with 
 or without the aid of gravitation, is the one most com- 
 monly in use, and its utility is sufficiently apparent if 
 the nature of the operation required to be performed is 
 borne in mind. By its aid a miscellaneous collection of 
 waggons for different destinations can be broken up into 
 sections, each section being placed either by gravitation, 
 by a shunting engine, or by horses, in a separate siding. 
 All the sidings running into a common departure line, it 
 is obvious that the sets of waggons can then be drawn 
 
1 72 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 out in any order in which they are required to be 
 marshalled in the trains. 
 
 At certain important places throughout the country, 
 as at Shildon, on the North-Eastern Railway ; at Chad- 
 desden, near Derby, and at Toton, near Trent, on the 
 Midland Railway ; and at Blaydon, near Newcastle, on 
 the North-Eastern, and elsewhere, schemes of marshall- 
 ing sidings of elaborate construction and great extent 
 have been laid down, and these have in each case their 
 own distinctive features, but they have for the most part 
 been devised to meet the special circumstances of a par- 
 ticular traffic or locality, and probably it is not necessary 
 to enter into a detailed description of them. The most 
 successful experiment which has been tried upon the 
 London and North- Western Railway, and possibly also 
 the most successful in the kingdom, whether with regard 
 to efficiency or economy, has been an ingenious plan 
 devised by Mr. Harry Footner, MT.C.E., one of the Com- 
 pany's principal engineers, for marshalling the waggons 
 in district and station order by one operation, and by 
 means of gravitation. This plan has been put in operation 
 on an extensive scale at Edge Hill, near Liverpool, and 
 as it is one which would be applicable to any large station 
 or junction where a great number of waggons required to 
 be sorted and marshalled, and where a suitable gradient 
 either naturally existed, or could be easily obtained, a 
 description of the method in which the work is carried 
 on and the results obtained, may not be without value. 
 
 Edge Hill, as is no doubt well known, is a place on 
 the outskirts of Liverpool, and is situated on the Liver- 
 pool and Manchester Railway, which, as we have seen 
 in an earlier chapter, was the first railway constructed 
 by George Stephenson, nearly sixty years ago. At 
 
SHUNTING AND MARSHALLING OF GOODS TRAINS. 173 
 
 this point the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 
 which has its passenger terminus at Lime Street, a 
 mile and a quarter from Edge Hill, is joined by a 
 branch railway running round the city, to the docks at 
 the north end, and also by branch lines running through 
 tunnels, under the city, to the various goods depots at 
 Wapping, Waterloo, and Crown Street, so that it will 
 be easily perceived that as regards goods traffic, Edge 
 Hill is a very important and busy place indeed. This 
 is sufficiently proved by the fact that, at the present 
 time, no less than 534 trains of all descriptions are 
 running in and out of Edge Hill within 24 hours, viz., 
 273 in, and 261 out, and that it has been found necessary 
 to build there a steam shed or engine-house, which 
 holds eighty engines. 
 
 Of course, all goods trains arriving at Liverpool have 
 to be broken up at Edge Hill, and the waggons have 
 to be sorted out for the sevei'al depots, whence they are 
 distributed to the various docks and warehouses. On 
 the other hand, the trucks loaded at all the depots have 
 to be sent, in the first place, to Edge Hill, where they 
 are classified and marshalled in trains for despatch in 
 all directions. These comprise what is called the 
 " outward " traffic. 
 
 It was about the year 1873 that the Company began 
 to have strongly impressed upon them the urgent 
 necessity for making provision on a very much larger 
 scale than they had, up to that time, contemplated, for 
 the shunting and marshalling of trains at Edge Hill, and 
 that they commenced to carry out, as an experiment, 
 and, to a limited extent, the system which has since 
 been elaborated and extended with such beneficial 
 results. In that year (1873) 'hey found themselves 
 
1 74 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 in presence of this state of things — that, while the out- 
 wards traffic at Edge Hill had grown from 257,025 tons 
 in 1850 to 1,032,853 tons in 1873, the siding accommcda- 
 tion had only been increased from 1,782 waggons to 
 3,215 waggons ; in other words, the business had quad- 
 rupled, while the facilities for dealing with it had only- 
 been doubled. It may here be said, that, at the present 
 time, the area occupied by shunting lines and sidings at 
 Edge Hill is 200 acres, and that there are 57 miles of 
 running lines, and siding room for nearly 6,500 wag{jons. 
 
 At the period mentioned it became necessary to con- 
 sider seriously how the difficulties were to be met, for, 
 in addition to the want of room, the main passenger 
 lines had to be crossed every time waggons were moved 
 from one group of sidings to another (and there were a 
 great many groups), so that there were serious obstacles 
 to be encountered in carrying on the working, and as 
 the safety of the passenger trains always had to be the 
 first consideration, the goods traffic had often to suffer 
 delay. 
 
 The Company had, at that time, about 70 acres of 
 spare land on the north side of the railway, and available 
 for extension, but to reduce this to the level of the main 
 lines would have involved a stupendous amount of 
 excavation, and the fact that the surface of the land 
 rose from west to east, and that, for a comparatively 
 reasonable outlay, sidings could be laid upon it on a 
 uniform gradient which would enable them to pass over 
 the branch line running round to the docks, which 
 branch line intersected the land, suggested to Mr. 
 Footner a scheme for marshalling by gravitation. In 
 considering a scheme of this kind two things appeared 
 to be essential — first, that in the passage of the trucks 
 
Fir. 2Sr. 
 
-31 i- 
 
 ^Og-^^oyJ 
 
SHUNTING AND MARSHALLING OF GOODS TRAINS. 17; 
 
 from the top to the bottom of the incline, all the neces- 
 sary changes in their relative positions should be 
 effected, so that when they reached the bottom they 
 should be ready to go away as properly marshalled 
 trains ; and secondly, that there should be some means 
 of stopping, without injury to them or their loads, any 
 trucks which might get beyond the control of the 
 shunters. The mere principle of shunting by gravita- 
 tion was no new thing, as it had already been success- 
 fully adopted for coaling ship? on the Tyne, and for 
 sorting mineral trains at Darlington on the North- 
 Eastern Railway ; but Mr. Footner claims as his own 
 the idea of an inclined plane specially constructed in 
 such a way as to sort and marshal a mixed goods train 
 by gravitation alone, without any assistance from 
 locomotive or horse power. 
 
 The arrangement he devised is shown by the accom- 
 panying diagram (Fig. 28 b). The sidings consist of, 
 first, the six upper reception lines at the summit 
 of the incline, holding 294 waggons ; secondly, the 
 sorting sidings, 24 in number, and capable of holding 
 1,065 waggons, into which the waggons, when separated, 
 first run, each siding receiving the waggons for a par- 
 ticular train; thirdly, two groups of marshalling sidings, 
 which owing to their peculiar formation have been 
 christened " gridirons," through which the trucks are 
 filtered so as to make them take their proper order of 
 precedence in the train ; and, fourthly, the lower recep- 
 tion and departure lines, which receive the trains in their 
 complete state, and where the engines are attached to 
 take them away. All these, it may be remarked, are 
 laid out in such a manner, with a view to future require- 
 ments, that without altering any of the existing lines 
 
5: 
 
 ft 
 
 5: 
 
 
 h g 
 
 O 
 O 
 
SHUNTING AND MARSHALLING OF GOODS TRAINS. 177 
 
 the accommodation can be increased, when necessary, 
 by 50 per cent. 
 
 The modus operandi is as follows : — On the arrival of 
 a set of waggons in the upper reception lines, the rear 
 brakes are put on, the engine is detached, and then on 
 each waggon is chalked the number of the sorting 
 siding it has to enter. One man carefully inspects the 
 brakes of each waggon, and calls out the chalked 
 number to a second man standing below him, who 
 has to regulate the speed of the descending waggons. 
 This second man passes the number on by hand signal 
 to the shunter lower down who has charge of the points, 
 and who, by moving a lever, turns the waggon into its 
 proper siding. The shunters are provided with brake 
 sticks, which they insert between the wheel and the 
 waggon-frame to steady the waggons in going down, 
 and they also use these implements for letting down 
 the brake levers when required. By the process thus 
 described, each sorting siding now holds a separate 
 train, although the waggons composing it are in indis- 
 criminate order, but by a repetition of the operation, 
 the waggons of each train are separated in the gridirons, 
 and are lowered, one by one, into the departure lines, 
 in the precise order in which they are required to be 
 sent away. 
 
 Fig. 28 A also shows the apparatus known as the 
 " chain drag," devised by Mr. Footner for arresting run- 
 away waggons, which may occasionally get beyond the 
 control of the shunters. This consists of a heavy iron 
 chain cable, placed in a wrought iron tank between, and 
 below, the level of the rails ; a steel hook attached to the 
 cable is fixed in a loose socket, at the height of a waggon 
 axle, and is worked by a lever which also works a signal. 
 
 N 
 
1 78 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 When a train is intended to pass, the hook is lowered 
 by the lever, but if it is desired to stop a waggon, the 
 hook is raised by the lever, and catches the axle of the 
 waggon, and the heavy cable attached to the hook, 
 being drawn out of the tank, by its weight, when 
 dragged over the ballast, soon stops the runaway. 
 During the last twelve years this apparatus has come 
 into use 135 times, and in no case has it failed to stop 
 the waggons, without injury either to them or to their 
 loads, or to the apparatus itself. At the present time 
 there are six of these chain drags in use at Edge Hill, 
 the cables varying in weight from 86 cwt. to 109 cwt. 
 
 The gradient of these sidings varies, according to 
 requirements, from I in 60 to i in 1 1 5 . For instance, 
 through points and crossings, and round the standard 
 curve of seven chains radius, the gradient is from i in 
 70 to I in 100, but on straight lines, where waggons have 
 to. start singly, and enter curves, as, for example, at (i), 
 the lower end of the upper reception lines ; (2) the lower 
 end of the sorting sidings ; and (3) the lower end of 
 each siding in the gridirons, the gradient is one in 60. 
 Again, on straight lines, where many waggons move 
 together, and good "runners" compensate for bad, the 
 gradient varies from i in 100 to i in 1 15. All the curves 
 are of the same radius (seven chains), so that a shunter, 
 in determining the speed necessary for any particular 
 truck, may concentrate his attention upon it, knowing 
 that the resistance of every curve it encounters will be 
 the same. Speaking generally, the gradients are so 
 regulated that the greatest momentum is imparted 
 where the trucks are required to start quickly, and 
 where there is the greatest amount of resistance to be 
 overcome 
 
SHUNTING AND MARSHALLING OF GOODS TRAINS if^ 
 
 In practice it is found that in shunting by gravitation, 
 no two trucks run exactly alike, some railway com- 
 panies and private owners keeping their stock in better 
 order than others, and much depending upon the precisa 
 condition of the tyres and axle-boxes, the length of the 
 wheel base, the nature of the load, and the description 
 of brake gear employed. Strong winds also affect the 
 running, especially of covered vans lightly loaded ; 
 severe frost offers an impediment, while, on the other 
 hand, warm and moist weather renders the rails slippery, 
 and heavy concentrated loads on a narrow wheel base 
 will often run too freely ; but there are simple appliances 
 which are found in practice easily to overcome all these 
 difficulties. The shunters, during the day-time, use 
 various recognised gestures to indicate in advance to 
 one another the numbers chalked on the trucks passing 
 down the incline, and during the night, similar informa- 
 tion is communicated by the movement of the coloured 
 lenses of their hand-lamps. 
 
 During the year 1887, 518,000 loaded waggons were 
 passed through these sidings, in addition to 108,000 
 empty waggons, making a total (exclusive of special 
 trains) of 626,000 waggons, or a daily average of about 
 2,000, equal to fifty average trains. 
 
 There are eighty-three men employed to work the 
 sidings, including nine foremen and inspectors. The 
 various foremen's offices are connected by telephone 
 circuits, and, finally, the whole of the sidings are 
 lighted by lofty and powerful lamps of the Siemen's 
 type, in addition to smaller lamps fixed near each pair 
 of points. 
 
 One special advantage claimed by its inventor for 
 this system of marshalling waggons, is that it can be 
 
'iSo " AN ENGLISH RAILWA\. 
 
 carried out by any active man without previous train- 
 ing, the operations being so simple that the work can 
 be learnt in a week or two, and the only man who is 
 really required to be possessed of geographical know- 
 ledge and experience being the one who chalks the 
 numbers of the sidings on the waggons. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 On the Working of Goods Stations. 
 
 To the uninitiated, it may possibly appear that when a 
 package or a consignment of merchandise is handed to 
 a railway company for transit, it is a very simple 
 operation to place it in a waggon and convey it to its 
 destination, but it is only necessary to bear in mind the 
 vast extent of the operations carried on at a large and 
 important goods station, the multitude of consignments 
 that have to be simultaneously dealt with, their varied 
 description, and the many destinations to which they 
 have to be conveyed, in order to realise that to enable 
 a vast business of this kind to be conducted with 
 promptitude and certainty, to provide securities against 
 goods being mis-sent or wrongly delivered, and to 
 ensure a reliable means of tracing them in the event of 
 their, after all, going astray, a most complete and 
 careful system of organisation is indispensable. It may 
 be premised that the methods and appliances employed 
 by different railway companies, as a means of securing 
 these results, are not precisely identical in practice, nor 
 are they absolutely uniform at all the stations of one 
 company, it being frequently necessary to be guided by 
 physical circumstances, the mode of construction of the 
 premises, and the special nature of the traffic at par- 
 ticular stations, but fro"! a description of the mode of 
 
i82 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 working certain of the goods dep6ts on the London and 
 North-Western Railway, the reader will be able to 
 gather a fair idea of the nature of the operations to be 
 carried on in working a large merchandise traffic, and of 
 the arrangements which, with more or less variation, 
 are adopted at the most important goods stations. 
 
 A goods station which possesses certain features of 
 interest, chiefly on account of its somewhat unique 
 mode of construction, is Broad Street, which is the 
 City Depot of the London and North-Western 
 Company, in London. The North London Railway, 
 which is connected with the North-Western, passes 
 round the Northern suburbs of London to Dalston 
 Junction, where it trends almost due South to its 
 passenger terminus at Broad Street, in the very heart 
 of the City. Land in the City of London being, of 
 course, extremely valuable, the line is carried during the 
 latter part of its course by means of bridges and 
 viaducts at a high elevation, in some cases over the 
 tops of the houses, and it thus reaches its terminus at 
 a point considerably above the level of the surrounding 
 thoroughfares, the passenger station having accordingly 
 been built on arches. Advantage has been taken of 
 this fact to enable the London and North-Western 
 Company to provide themselves with an extensive 
 goods station without incurring the enormous expense 
 of taking land for the purpose in the busiest part of the 
 City, and the goods traffic is, as a matter of fact, con- 
 ducted in the arches under the passenger station, the 
 waggons of goods being transferred one by one from 
 the upper to the lower level and vice versd, by means of 
 powerful hydraulic lifts. All along the front of these 
 arches, which are fourteen in number, and, including 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. tSj 
 
 some space beyond them, which has been covered in, 
 each measure 340 feet in length, and 32 feet in width, a 
 roomy stage, or unloading bank, has been erected, 430 
 feet long and 45 feet deep, and from this, at right angles, 
 narrow stages 240 feet in length, and 12 feet in width, 
 with a line of rails on each side of them, extend through 
 each arch, the lines of rails being at the further end 
 connected with a cross-line, by means of which the 
 waggons can be turned upon turn-tables, and taken to 
 one or other of the hydraulic hoists, each of which will 
 raise a weight of fourteen tons. 
 
 On the further side of the arches some additional 
 space has been taken in on the street level to form an 
 open goods yard, on one portion of which a lofty ware- 
 house has been erected for the storage of goods waiting 
 delivery, or goods for forward transit. 
 
 Before attempting to describe the manner in which 
 this station is worked, it is necessary to explain that 
 traffic arriving from the country for delivery in London 
 is called " up traffic," while " down traffic " means traffic 
 sent from London to the country, and these two 
 elements in the business of the station are in practice 
 kept perfectly distinct. 
 
 The inwards or "up " traffic at Broad Street, consists 
 very largely of provisions for supplying the early 
 markets with fish, meat, poultry, butter, eggs, and other 
 perishable commodities, which have to be delivered in 
 time for sale to the retail buyers who attend the markets 
 as early as four o'clock in the morning, and also of 
 general merchandise, purchased from manufacturers 
 in the provinces one day, and expected to be in 
 the City warehouses by nine o'clock on the following 
 morning ; and to effect deliveries at such an early hour 
 
i84 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA \. 
 
 is a work which demands for its accomplishment the 
 most perfect organisation and attention to detail. For 
 instance, in the Metropolitan Meat Market there are no 
 less than 230 stalls or shops, all of which receive meat 
 from the provinces, and the railway companies are 
 expected to deliver and hang the meat in these shops 
 before the arrival of the salesmen. Thus, a waggon 
 will arrive, say, from Scotland, with thirty sides of beef 
 for delivery to as many consignees, in as many different 
 parts of the market, while other meat will arrive simul- 
 taneously from other stations for the same consignees, 
 and, with a view to speed and economy, the different 
 consignments have to be brought together, and the vans 
 loaded in such a way that, as far as possible, two vans 
 will not be delivering at the same time to one shop. 
 This is effected by sorting the meat into districts, 
 according to the position of the stalls in the market, on 
 the stage at Broad Street before it is loaded on to the 
 vans. 
 
 Speaking more generally, the mode of dealing with 
 "up" goods is as follows : — This part of the business is 
 conducted, not in the arches previously described, but 
 in the warehouse of which mention has already been 
 made, the ground iioor of which is staged, so as to form 
 a deck, or platform, upon which the goods can be sorted 
 and transferred from the railway waggons to the street 
 vans. This platform is open on both sides, so that vans 
 can be backed up to it on one side, while a line of rails 
 extends along the other side, on which the railway 
 waggons on arrival are placed, after being lowered from 
 the upper level by means of the hydraulic hoists. 
 The invoices which are received with the waggons, and 
 which are documents containing a description of the 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 185 
 
 goods, their marks and addresses, the weight, and par- 
 ticulars of the charges, are passed into an office called 
 the delivery office, where each invoice is entered in a 
 book, stamped with a progressive number, timed as to 
 arrival, checked as to correctness of rate and charges, 
 and is then passed to a " marking clerk," whose duty it 
 is to mark against each entry on the invoice the position 
 on the platform or sorting bank in which the article to 
 which the entry refers, is to be placed. On the platform, 
 by means of letters and numbers painted on the columns 
 which support the roof, the whole of London is mapped 
 out into districts with great care and precision, and the 
 numbers inserted by the marking clerk on the invoice 
 correspond with these divisions, and are for the guidance 
 of the checkers in unloading the goods from the wag- 
 gons, and loading them into the vans for delivery. The 
 marking clerk having discharged his office, the invoice 
 passes on to another set of clerks, each of whom extracts 
 from it, and enters on the carman's delivery sheets, such 
 of the entries as refer to the particular section of the 
 City with which he is appointed to deal, and by this 
 process ' of exhaustion, the whole of the entries for 
 delivery to a particular district are brought to a focus, 
 although the goods may have arrived from hundreds of 
 different stations, and be entered on as many different 
 invoices. The same set of clerks enter the charges in 
 the carmen's delivery sheets in cases where they are to 
 be paid by the consignees. 
 
 The next step is to pass the invoice out of the delivery 
 office to the platform, where a gang of men unload the 
 goods from the waggons, checking them with the invoice 
 as they do so, and wheel them away on hand-trucks to 
 the different positions on the platform, according to the 
 
i86 AN ENGLISH RAIL IV A V. 
 
 numbers marked against the entries. Next, the carmen's 
 delivery sheets are passed out to the platform, and the 
 delivery foreman directs the loading of the vans from 
 the diiiferent sections on the bank, the goods being care- 
 fully checked against the entries on the delivery sheets 
 as they are placed in the vans. Finally, the cartage 
 department take possession of both vans and delivery 
 sheets, the vans are horsed and started away to their 
 respective destinations, all the processes being carried 
 out with the utmost^ care, but at the same time, with 
 the greatest rapidity. 
 
 There are, however, many contingencies which arise 
 in the working of the traffic, and must be promptly met, 
 in order to prevent delays occurring, and the chief of 
 these may be classed under four heads, as follows : — (i) 
 Goods arriving without invoice ; (2) discrepancies 
 between the invoice and the goods actually received in 
 the waggons ; (3) invoices arriving without the goods ; 
 and, (4) goods accidentally trucked to the wrong posi- 
 tion on the platform. 
 
 If the waggon arrives without invoice it is unloaded 
 in its turn, an account of the goods contained in it is 
 entered on a special form provided for the purpose, and, 
 where the addresses of the consignees appear on the 
 goods, they are trucked away to their proper position 
 on the platform, the number ofthe section being marked 
 on the form by the checker. The form is then passet' 
 into the delivery office, and, as far as possible, delivery 
 sheets are made out from it in the same way as if it 
 were the missing invoice. Such goods as are found in 
 the waggon merely under mark and not addressed, are 
 taken to a particular position on the platform to wait 
 further orders on the arrival of the invoice, Meair-vhilc 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 187 
 
 the sending station is applied to for a copy of the 
 invoice, and the goods which remain on hand are dealt 
 with on its arrival. A similar course is adopted in the 
 case of goods found in a waggon without there being 
 any corresponding entry on the invoice. 
 
 When the invoice arrives, but not the goods, which 
 usually results either from the waggons having been 
 wrongly labelled or having missed their proper train, 
 the telegraph is set to work to ascertain their where- 
 abouts, and the invoices are held over until the goods 
 make their appearance. 
 
 The most troublesome errors arise from the porters 
 misunderstanding- the directions given by the checkers, 
 and wheeling goods to a wrong section on the platform. 
 In a case of this kind, when the delivery sheet for that 
 section arrives from the office, it, of course, contains no 
 entry of this particular package, and it is consequently 
 left on the bank. On the other hand, the checker for 
 the section to which it should have been taken iinds he 
 is short of it, and makes a remark to that effect on the 
 sheet which he passes back to his foreman, and the 
 latter employs every means in his power to discover the 
 whereabouts of the missing package. Failing to do so, 
 he calls in the services of two men, who are called 
 " searchers," and are employed upon this duty all day, 
 but if their efforts prove fruitless there is nothing for it 
 but to wait until the " bank list " is taken, that is, when 
 at four o'clock each afternoon a complete list is made 
 of all goods remaining on the bank after the morning's 
 deliveries, by means of which most errors can be 
 rectified. 
 
 The " down," or outward traffic is dealt with in the 
 arches before described, the " runs " or lines of rails 
 
iSS AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 alongside thte stagbs being gradually filled during the 
 day with rows of empty waggons, ready to receive the 
 goods as they come in during the afternoon and evening. 
 This is effected by transferring to the " down " arches 
 the waggons which have come in with " up " goods 
 and have been emptied during the morning. As the 
 loaded vans come in at the gates they are stopped 
 at an office placed at the entrance, called the "weigh- 
 bridge office," and the consignment notes are impressed 
 with an official stamp, which alone renders them 
 authentic. The consignment note plays an important 
 part in the manipulation of the outwards goods, and it 
 may be explained, for the benefit of the uninitiated, 
 that it is a document which the sender of goods hands 
 to the carman or other agent of the Company, to whom 
 he delivers the goods, and in which is described their 
 nature, their marks, and addresses, and sometimes their 
 weight. Business firms who are in the habit of for- 
 warding goods use for this purpose printed forms 
 supplied by the Company, or provided by themselves, 
 but where ordinary members of the general public for- 
 ward isolated packages without a consignment note, 
 the Company manufacture one from the address, or the 
 entry in the carman's book, the principle' acted upon 
 being that there must be a separate consignment note 
 provided for every distinct package or parcel of goods 
 for the same destination. The object of stamping the 
 consignment notes at the entrance gates is to checkmate 
 a very ingenious system of fraud which was found to be 
 in operation some time ago, when some dishonest servants 
 of the Company hit upon the plan of obtaining posses- 
 sion of valuable goods, by simply destroying the original 
 consignment notes and addresses, and substituting false 
 
ON THE. WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. iSg 
 
 documents, by which the goods were consigned to con- 
 federates in some other town. Under the present system, 
 as the fraudulent note could not bear the weighbridge 
 stamp, its character would at once be detected. 
 I Large firms frequently enter a whole van load of 
 goods for various addresses, on one consignment note, 
 and therefore the first step is for all such notes, contain- 
 ing more than one entry, to be taken to an office called 
 the " Shipping office," where a separate note is made 
 out for each separate consignment, these manufactured 
 notes being officially stamped to shew that they are 
 " extracted " from an authentic note. 
 
 Meanwhile the vans, as they arrive, are placed in 
 position for unloading on to the large stage or platform, 
 previously described as running along the front of all 
 the arches ; the consignment notes relating to each load 
 are handed by the unloading foreman to the various 
 checkers who are in charge of the unloading gangs, and 
 the goods are removed from the vans, checked against 
 the entries on the consignment notes, and weighed on 
 the weighing machines, which are stationed at regular 
 intervals all along the stage. On the wall in each of 
 the arches is painted a number, and the name of the 
 place or district for which goods are loaded in that par- 
 ticular arch ; for instance, one will be " Liverpool," 
 another " Manchester," a third "North Staffordshire," 
 and so on, and in each arch, also, there is displayed a 
 copy of a table, corrected from time to time, and which 
 shews in more detail the stations to which goods are 
 loaded in each arch, and the times of departure of the 
 trains made up and despatched each night to the' various 
 destinations. The experienced checker, however, has 
 all -this in-his head, so .that w^en a package js takenout 
 
igo AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 of a van, and the marks or address is called out, he is 
 able at once to check the entry on the consignment note 
 and to shout " No. 5," or "No. 6," as the case may be, 
 when the, package is forthwith placed on a hand truck 
 and, accompanied by its consignment note, is wheeled 
 away to the particular arch to which it belongs, and 
 deposited on the stage there, ready for loading into the 
 waggons. Here one of the loading gangs, each of which 
 consists of a checker, a loader, a caller-off, and two 
 porters, take it in hand, and deposit it in a waggon 
 destined for the station to which it is addressed. When 
 the goods are in the waggons, the consignment notes 
 are taken to the shipping office, and the clerk in charge 
 sorts them out to the different clerks whose duty it is to 
 make out the invoices for the various destinations. 
 These clerks enter on the invoices the names and 
 addresses of consignees, the nature and description of 
 the goods, the weight and the charges ; and the invoices, 
 if they are ready in time, are handed to the brakeman 
 in charge of the train by which the waggons are 
 despatched ; if not ready at the time the train departs, 
 they are sent afterwards by fast passenger trains, so as 
 to arrive at the same time as the goods, or before. The 
 consignment notes, having been marked with a pro- 
 gressive number in such a way as to identify them 
 with the corresponding entries on the invoices, so as 
 to facilitate the tracing of goods which may go astray, 
 are carefully filed for future reference. 
 
 The waggons of goods when loaded, sheeted, and 
 labelled, are run out at the further end of the arches, 
 turned on to the hydraulic hoists by means of the turn- 
 tables and capstans, and emerge on to the upper level, 
 where in a group often long sidings adjoining the North 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 191 
 
 London E.ailway, and still by the aid of hydraulic 
 capstans, they are marshalled into trains, and sent away 
 to their various destinations. 
 
 This process is, however, very much facilitated before- 
 hand by the fact that the waggons have been arranged 
 in the runs or arches in train order, i.e., a separate train 
 or portion of a train has been loaded in each arch and 
 in station order, so that the waggons emerge from the 
 lifts on the high level in the order in which they are 
 required to go away. 
 
 Goods intended for large centres such as Liverpool, 
 Manchester, etc., to which many waggons are loaded on 
 the same night, are dealt with in two of the arches which 
 are laid out in a somewhat different manner from the rest. 
 In these arches, there is a roadway for carts throughout, 
 and the goods are loaded direct from the carts to the 
 railway waggons without any hand trucking being 
 needed. 
 
 If, through extra; pressure, or by oversight, goods are 
 left on the stages when the loads have been made up, 
 and the night's work is over, the consignment notes 
 found with them are taken into the shipping office, and 
 stamped with the letter " S " (Stage), to indicate that the 
 goods have been left over, and that special attention 
 must be given to their despatch by the first available 
 train. 
 
 When goods are found left on the stage without con- 
 • signment notes, if the names and addresses of consignees 
 are apparent, they are entered on new consignment 
 notes, and dealt with in the usual way. If, on the other 
 hand, there is nothing to indicate their destination, they 
 are kept on hand, and a record of the fact is made in a 
 book set apart for the purpose, and which is referred to 
 
192 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 whenever there is any enquiry witli regard to goods not 
 delivered, every available means being meanwhile taken 
 to discover the owners, by a number of clerks specially 
 employed on this duty. 
 
 There are many other arrangements in operation, both 
 with regard to " up " and " down " traffic, with a view to 
 guard against irregularities, and to rectify mistakes ; but 
 perhaps enough has been said to give an adequate idea 
 of the amount of method and organisation required to 
 conduct such a business with order and despatch. 
 
 The warehouse, already referred to, which occupies 
 one side of the yard, and rears its imposing height far 
 above most of the surrounding buildings, consists of four 
 storeys, besides extensive cellarage in the basement, and 
 the different floors are reached from the stage by means 
 of two 25-cwt. hydraulic lifts. Packed closely from top 
 to bottom with goods of every possible description, it 
 would at first sight appear that an individual package 
 once deposited here, would be to all intents and purposes 
 lost, but a brief examination will correct this error, and 
 reveal order in the apparent chaos, for the numerous 
 iron pillars which support each floor divide it into small 
 sections, each of which bears a number, while every 
 article which comes into the warehouse, either waiting 
 for delivery, or for forward transit, is entered in a book 
 with the number, against the entry, of the floor and sec- 
 tion in which the article is deposited. Amongst a 
 i great deal of curious flotsam and jetsam, which has 
 drifted into this capacious repository, perhaps one of 
 the most interesting features is a huge wooden case, 
 fashioned after the manner of a cofiin, and which contains 
 what are alleged to be the fossilised remains of a gigantic 
 specimen of the human race, upwards of twelve feet in 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 193 
 
 height, and of colossal proportions. It is said to have 
 been excavated near the Giant's Causeway (surely an 
 appropriate spot for such a trouvaille !), some years ago, 
 during some prospecting operations for the discovery of 
 iron ore, and was for a time exhibited at Liverpool ; but 
 a dispute arising as to its ownership, the grim relic was 
 thrown into Chancery, and has remained " on hand " at 
 Broad Street ever since the year 1876, the Railway 
 Company having a very considerable lien on it for 
 warehouse charges. Whether it be, as stated by its 
 original owner, the petrefaction of a human being, or 
 merely a specimen of very antique sculpture, it is beyond 
 doubt one of the most curious consignments ever ware- 
 housed by a railway company. 
 
 The total area embraced by the Broad Street Goods 
 Station, including three and a half acres on the high 
 level, is seventeen acres, the lines affording, in all, stand- 
 ing room for 820 trucks, of which 487 can be placed in 
 position for forward loading on the low level at one 
 time. On the average, 456 loaded waggons are received 
 daily, and 508 are forwarded, making a total not far 
 short of a thousand waggons a day. 
 
 The crane power employed is as follows : — 
 
 Nine 30-cwt. hydraulic cranes, and twenty-seven 
 manual cranes, for loading from vans to 
 waggons and vice versA. 
 Eleven 30-cwt. hydraulic cranes, and five manual 
 cranes, for loading from vans to platforms 
 and vice versd. 
 Twenty 30-cwt. hydraulic cranes, and sixty-nine 
 manual cranes, for loading from waggons to 
 platforms and vice versa. 
 besides which there are twelve hydraulic and twenty- 
 
 O 
 
194 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 eight hand cranes used for special purposes, and one 
 5 -ton and one lo-ton hydraulic crane in the yard, for 
 dealing with exceptionally heavy articles. 
 
 A goods station of the London and North-Western 
 Company, which has excited the attention, and, to some 
 extent the admiration, of foreign engineers and railway 
 managers who have visited this country for the purpose 
 of comparing their own methods and appliances with 
 ours, is Holyhead. The Company have devoted a great 
 amount of attention to cultivating and encouraging the 
 trade between England and Ireland, and one means to 
 this end has been the provision of very complete and 
 admirably adapted accommodation at Holyhead, for 
 the transfer of traffic between the railway waggons and 
 the fleet of steamers belo.nging to the Company, seven- 
 teen in number, and having a gross tonnage of 6,128 
 tons, by means of which a daily service is established 
 between Holyhead and the North Wall, Dublin. 
 
 Holyhead Harbour, the entire quay frontage of which 
 is about 3,760 feet, has an area of twenty-four acres, and 
 an average depth at high and low water of thirty feet and 
 twelve and a half feet respectively, the transhipment of 
 the goods being carried on in two large warehouses, each 
 . about 750 feet in length, erected on the quays on the 
 east and west sides of the harbour, of which the one on 
 the east side is devoted exclusively to the export traffic, 
 or traffic going from England to Ireland, and the one 
 on the west side to the traffic from Ireland to England. 
 Lines of rails, conveniently connected with the railway, 
 run right through both warehouses, with a platform or 
 loading deck, fifteen feet wide, running throughout 
 between the lines of rails and the quay. In each ware- 
 house there are six hydraulic cranes, having a rake of 
 
ON THE WORKING OP GOODS STATIONS. 195 
 
 twenty-five feet, and a capacity of three tons, so fixed 
 that they can hft goods from the railway waggons to 
 the platform, or to the hold of a vessel, or vice versd. 
 With screw steamers, of which the Company possess 
 four, it is practicable by one operation to take a package 
 from the waggons and deposit it in the hold of the 
 vessel, but with paddle-wheel steamers, owing to their 
 greater width, the hydraulic cranes are worked in con- 
 nection with a winch which raises or lowers the goods 
 between the hold and the deck. 
 
 The harbour and quays are illuminated at night by 
 five powerful electric lights, one being fixed at each end 
 of each warehouse, and the fifth at the south end of the 
 harbour. 
 
 The mode of carrying on the working is as follows : — 
 Waggons containing export traffic for shipment, having 
 been brought by the train engines, and deposited close 
 to the en .ranee of the export warehouse in reception 
 sidings provided for the purpose, are drawn up by 
 hydraulic capstans, and placed in exact positions opposite 
 the berths, where are moored the vessels into which they 
 are required to be unloaded. The goods are taken from 
 the waggcns, checked with the invoice, and lowered into 
 the vessel, full particulars of the goods shipped by each 
 boat being recorded in a " Transfer-book." The clerkage 
 is carried on simultaneously with the actual handling of 
 the goods, so that almost as soon as the hatchways are 
 closed, and the gangways removed, the invoices are sent 
 on board, and the vessel is ready to leave. Specially 
 heavy articles, such as furniture vans or machinery, are 
 loaded on the quay by means of 1 8-ton hydraulic cranes, 
 or, if necessary, by a pair of shear legs, which will carry 
 eighty tons. 
 
»g6 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 With regard to import traffic, as soon as the vessel is 
 berthed alongside the quay, the invoices are passed to a 
 checker, who, for the guidance of the men on the plat- 
 form, first makes out a " card," or list, of the urgent, or 
 " perishable," traffic, showing the loads which have to be 
 made up for different destinations, so that as the goods 
 are landed from the boat, the ganger in charge of the 
 men on the platform is enabled to direct the loading 
 into waggons. By the time the urgent, or perishable, 
 traffic has been dealt with, the checker has prepared 
 another " loading-card " for the general cargo, and thus 
 the discharging and loading-up of the goods is enabled 
 to proceed without interruption, until the whole have 
 been despatched. 
 
 Ireland being to so large an extent an agricultural 
 country, an important feature in her exports to England 
 is live stock, and for the transfer of this from the vessels 
 to the waggons at Holyhead, the arrangements are very 
 complete. There is accommodation for the unloading 
 of the animals from the vessels at any height of the tide 
 all along the front of the import warehouses, and this 
 operation can be carried on at the same time as the unload- 
 ing of parcels and the perishable goods traffic from the 
 same boats, while, close at hand, is a covered pen set 
 apart for the reception of lame and distressed animals who 
 are unfit to walk to the cattle yard, such animals being 
 loaded upand taken by an enginetotheyard. The animals 
 who are fit to walk are conducted by a convenient roadway 
 to the yard, which contains covered accommodation for 
 upwards of i8o cattle, 800 pigs, and fifteen horses, 
 together with open pens capable of holding 230 head of 
 stock. There are also pens erected alongside a siding, 
 upon which twelve waggons can be placed in position 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 197 
 
 for loading the animals up for forward transit. The 
 sidings appropriated to the cattle trafific hold in all 
 140 waggons, and there are ample facilities for clean- 
 ing and disinfecting them after each journey, including 
 twelve hydrants for the supply of water. During the 
 year 1887, 76,700 cattle were transhipped at Holyhead 
 to the various towns in England, in addition to 63,032 
 sheep, 27,1 10 lambs, 7,780 horses, and last, but not least, 
 157,411 pigs. The live stock shipped to Ireland from 
 England is not considerable, but last year it included 
 two lions and two elephants, although what these strange 
 denizens of the far east were to do in the "distressful 
 country," can only be a matter of conjecture. 
 
 When import goods are loaded into waggons, a kind 
 of inventory is made of them, which is termed a slip, 
 and as soon as the load is completed, these slips are 
 compared with the invoices, so as to discover and 
 rectify any mistakes, as for instance, goods loaded 
 in the wrong waggon. A transfer book is also kept, as 
 in the case of the export traffic, and in this is recorded 
 the date and number of the invoice, particulars of the 
 traffic, the weight, the name of the vessel by which the 
 goods are received, and the number and destination of 
 the waggon in which they are loaded for forward 
 transit. 
 
 As the waggons are loaded, they are turned over 
 turntables on to adjoining lines of rails, where they are 
 marshalled. in proper order, labelled, and sheeted, and 
 within a few minutes of the loading of the last waggon 
 being completed, the train is ready to start. In dis- 
 charging a vessel, as already mentioned, preference is 
 always given to perishable and urgent goods, and these 
 are despatched by express passenger trains within an 
 
198 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA I . 
 
 nour after the boat is berthed, but within two hours and 
 a half of the arrival of the vessel, a full train load, of 
 sometimes upwards of thirty waggons, is despatched, 
 while a second and a third train follow at intervals of 
 not more than an hour, a striking proof of the excellence 
 of the arrangements, and the energy and skill with 
 which the operations are conducted. 
 
 There is a large fish traffic at Holyhead, and in dealing 
 with this, speed is, of course, of the utmost importance, 
 especially in hot weather. In order to accommodate 
 the fish brought to the harbour by steamers and sailing 
 vessels direct from the fishing grounds, the Company 
 have constructed a fish jetty, 440 ft. long and 50 ft. 
 wide, on the import side of the harbour, with two plat- 
 forms and two lines of rails, each line being capable of 
 holding twenty-five waggons. The loading from the 
 vessels to the waggons is performed by means of three 
 hydraulic cranes, each lifting 30 cwt., and having a 
 sufficient rake to cover both platforms, so that two train 
 loads of fish may be loaded simultaneously. To save 
 time, the empty waggons are placed in proper station 
 order, so that there shall be no delay in marshalling 
 them, and the labels and way-bills being prepared while 
 the loading is proceeding, the train can start on its 
 journey as soon as the last load is completed. 
 
 At all the Company's large goods stations, ample 
 provision is made for the prevention or extinction of 
 fire, fire brigades composed of members of the staff 
 being organised, drilled, and frequently called together 
 by signal for exercise, and these precautions are not 
 omitted in the case of Holyhead. The fire appliances 
 here are of a very complete description, and water is 
 supplied from no less than sixty-three powerful hydrants. 
 
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 The total traffic handled at Holyhead during the year 
 1887, in addition to live stock, was about 250,000 tons, 
 including coal; of this total about 117,000 tons was 
 cross-channel traffic with Ireland. 
 
 It has always been a question involving some amount 
 of controversy, as to what is the best and most conve- 
 nient manner of laying out the accommodation in a 
 large goods warehouse, so as to enable the business to 
 be carried on in the most expeditious and economical 
 manner. Many different arrangements have been tried, 
 and, of course, in building a warehouse at any particular 
 station, there may always be special circumstances to 
 be taken into consideration, such as the nature of the 
 traffic, and the available space ; but our illustrations 
 (Figs. 29, 30 and 31) shew the ground plan, first- 
 floor plan, and section, of a large goods warehouse 
 of the first class, built upon the most modern principles, 
 and laid out in the manner which is believed to be the 
 best adapted to the needs of an important goods station 
 (Chester), where three different classes of traffic have to 
 be dealt with, that is to say (i), local traffic, or traffic 
 which commences or ends its journey at the station ; 
 (2), transfer traffic, or traffic loaded to the station, for 
 the purpose of being transhipped into other waggons, 
 and forwarded to destination ; and (3), warehouse traffic, 
 or goods which are required to be stored, awaiting orders 
 for forwarding or delivery. It will be perceived that 
 this is what is termed a " dead-end " warehouse, or, in 
 other words, the waggons come in and go out the same 
 way, and cannot be taken through the warehouse, and 
 out at the other end. There are five platforms, or stages, 
 and six lines of rails, so that every platform, as will be 
 seen, has a line of rails alongside it, and three of them 
 
200 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 have a line on each side. There is also a stage running 
 transversely along one end of the building, to which 
 access is given by a roadway for carts. To facilitate 
 the handling of the heavy goods, there are in all twenty- 
 four cranes, each carrying thirty cwt., four of which are 
 power cranes, and the rest are worked by hand. The 
 upper floor is devoted to storage purposes, and to 
 enable grain to be conveniently delivered from this 
 storey, slides are provided, down which the sacks can be 
 passed to the ground floor ; there are also a number of 
 shoots for transferring loose grain from sack to sack. 
 Grain in sacks can be hoisted direct from the waggons or 
 carts below to the upper storey by means of cranes, but 
 if required to be stored in bulk, it is lifted by crane to a 
 gangway, or gallery, erected over the upper storey, and 
 supported on the principals of the building, and then is 
 shot out of the sacks into bins below, through shoots 
 provided for the purpose. 
 
 Under the stages of the warehouse are capacious 
 cellars for the storage of ale, bacon, and such commo- 
 dities, which can be lifted or lowered direct between 
 the cellars and the carts, or railway waggons, by means 
 of suitable cranes. 
 
 Waggons containing goods arriving by train for 
 delivery in the town, are placed on the outer line of rails, 
 next to one or the other of the side stages, nearest the 
 walls, and as carts can approach either of these from 
 the side of the warehouse, where they stand sheltered 
 by a projecting awning, the goods can be transferred 
 by the cranes direct from waggon to cart, or light goods 
 can be handed across the platform. Other town goods 
 can be unloaded in the second line of rails on either side, 
 and trucked to the platform at the end of the warehouse- 
 
ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 201 
 
 where carts can approach them. Outward goods, col- 
 lected in the town for forward transit, are brought in by- 
 carts, unloaded on the transverse stage, and trucked 
 thence to the various stages alongside which the waggons 
 have been placed for their reception. The narrow centre 
 platform, having a line of rails on each side, and cranes 
 suitably arranged, is appropriated to transfer traffic 
 which can thus be easily removed from one waggon and 
 placed in another. 
 
 A warehouse of this description and dimensions will 
 accommodate upwards of forty waggons at one time, 
 and in this particular warehouse about eighty are loaded 
 daily, and ninety are discharged. Warehouses designed 
 upon this plan are in use at Liverpool (Edge Hill), 
 Bolton, Blackburn, Leicester, Derby, Chester, and other 
 stations. 
 
 Fig. 32 is an illustration of a small wooden goods 
 shed, suitable for a roadside station, where the traffic 
 to be dealt with is purely local, and not of an 
 extensive character. The arrangement, in this case, is 
 so simple and obvious, as to speak for itself and to 
 require no detailed description. 
 
 In goods warehouses where a small amount of 
 machinery requires to be actuated, and the business to 
 be conducted is not sufficiently extensive to justify the 
 application of steam or hydraulic power, a gas engine 
 is found to affiDrd very satisfactory results, both as 
 regards economy and convenience, as a means of 
 actuating the cranes. For a machine of this kind no 
 special attendant is required, as one of the ordinary 
 warehouse porters can start and stop the engine when 
 necessary, and clean and oil it in his spare time. The 
 peculiar advantage of the gas engine is that it can be 
 
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ON THE WORKING OF GOODS STATIONS. 203 
 
 started and stopped at a moment's notice, and there 
 is accordingly no waste of fuel whatever, besides 
 which the first cost of the machinery is very moderate 
 compared with that of hydraulic power on a small scale, 
 and the average cost of gas for an eight h.p. gas engine 
 is not more than from threepence to sixpence per hour, 
 according to the price of gas in the locality, and the 
 work required of the engine 
 
 The London and North- Western Company have at the 
 present time thirty warehouses in which the machinery 
 is actuated by gas engines, varying from one and a half to 
 eight h.p., according to the size of the building, and the 
 number of cranes and lifts required. A good example 
 of this class of machinery is found at the Northampton 
 warehouse, erected by the North- Western Company, 
 in 1 88 1. In this warehouse there are two cranes of 
 thirty cwt. capacity, and two lo-cwt. friction jiggers, 
 worked by a gas engine of eight h.p., the first cost of 
 the installation having been £9^0. The cost of gas 
 consumed (about 108,300 cubic feet) averages £\o ids. 
 per annum, in addition to about £-3, los. for maintenance 
 and repairs, and £2, Ss. for oil and waste, etc. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Rates and Fares — Division of Traffic— The 
 Railway Clearing-House. 
 
 It is not the intention of the present writer to enter 
 very deeply into the thorny and much debated question 
 of railway rates, and the many controversial points 
 arising out of them. The late Mr. Grierson, General 
 Manager of the Great Western Railway Company, in 
 the work published shortly before his lamented decease, 
 and entitled, "Railway Rates, English and Foreign," 
 has so completely exhausted this subject from almost 
 every point of view, that, from the stand-point of the 
 railway companies at least, there remains very little to 
 be said. In a work of this character, it will be suflScient 
 to give merely a brief account of the manner in which 
 rates and fares are made, and the way in which the 
 different railway companies share the receipts amongst 
 themselves, where those receipts are derived from 
 "through" traffic, i.e., traffic which has to be carried 
 over more than one railway before its transit is 
 completed. 
 
 The rates and fares to be charged upon a railway are, 
 in a sense, regulated by Act of Parliament ; that is to 
 say, that, until recently, the Act which authorised the 
 making of the railway fixed the maximum tolls, which 
 were not to be exceeded for any traffic using the line. 
 
RATES, PARES— TRAFFIC— THE CLEARING-BOUSE. 205 
 
 In practice, however, the maximum tolls were rarely- 
 charged, and a great deal was left in the discretion of 
 the railway companies — moreover, it is impossible for 
 an Act of Parliament to fix the precise charge to be made 
 for each particular commodity which may be conveyed 
 over a railway, and, as a matter of fact, the articles 
 specified in the Acts were comparatively few in number, 
 the remainder being summed up in the comprehensive 
 phrase, "other articles, matters, and things." In fixing 
 its rates, therefore, a railway company had to classify 
 these " articles, matters, and things," as nearly as might 
 be with relation to the commodities which were actually 
 specified in the Act. This necessity was met by the 
 companies meeting in conference at the Railway Clear- 
 ing-house, and drawing up a comprehensive list of the 
 articles usually carried on railways, classifying them 
 under eight different heads, according to their weight, 
 bulk, value, and destructibility, in what is called the 
 " Clearing-house Classification ;" for instance : minerals, 
 sand, and such matters, would be in the lowest class, 
 while fresh fruit and fish, furniture, china, and other 
 valuable or fragile articles would be in the highest. 
 Each company then fixed its rates between each pair of 
 stations for each class of goods in the classification, 
 having due regard to its maximum powers ; but in addition 
 to these " class rates," there were always a number of 
 special rates for particular descriptions of goods. 
 
 But the old order of things has been totally changed 
 since the passing of an Act in the last session of Parlia- 
 ment, entitled " The Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 
 1888," the provisions of which will be more particularly 
 described in the succeeding chapter. The general effect 
 of it, however, has been to place upon the railway 
 
2o6 AN ENGLISH RAIL \VA Y. 
 
 companies the obligation of submitting an entirely new- 
 classification and schedule of maximum charges, which, 
 after running the gauntlet of all objectors, and securing 
 the approval of the Board of Trade, will be embodied 
 in an Act, and receive the sanction of Parliament. 
 
 The rates are governed by the nature and extent of 
 the traffic, the pressure of competition, either by water, 
 by a rival railway route, or by other land carriage ; but, 
 above all, the companies have regard to the commercial 
 value of the commodity, and the rate it will bear, so as 
 to admit of its being produced and sold in a competing 
 market with a fair margin of profit. The companies 
 each do their best to meet the circumstances of the 
 trade, to develop the resources of their own particular 
 district, and to encourage the competition of markets, 
 primarily, no doubt, in their own interest, but never- 
 theless greatly to the advantage of the community. 
 
 The fixing of passenger fares is a comparatively simple 
 process. Between local stations on the North Western 
 Railway the fares are made up, roughly speaking, on 
 the basis of charging twopence per mile travelled for 
 first-class passengers, three half-pence per mile for 
 second-class, and one penny for third-class, the amount 
 of the passenger duty being added to the first and 
 second-class fares; but where there are competing routes, 
 or where, in suburban districts, the opposition of omni- 
 buses or tramways has to be encountered, the fares are 
 often considerably reduced. Railway companies are 
 sometimes very unfairly assailed when they reduce 
 their rates or fares in order to meet competition, and it 
 is somewhat hastily assumed that, if they were able to 
 reduce their charges on compulsion, it was incumbent on 
 them to have done so before. Thus, it is not uncommon. 
 
RATES, FARES— TRAFFIC— THE CLEARING-HOUSE. 207 
 
 to hear the remark, " The Company have had to 
 
 reduce their fares at last, thanks to the opening of the 
 line." This is, however, unjust. So long as com- 
 petition does not exist, the companies are only dis- 
 charging their duty to their shareholders in obtaining 
 what Parliament has sanctioned as a fair rate of 
 remuneration for the services they perform, but when 
 there is a rival in the field, they are justified in conclud- 
 ing that " half a loaf is better than no bread at all " ; 
 although it by no means follows that their previous 
 charges were unfair or excessive. 
 
 In days gone by, it cannot be denied that railway 
 companies incurred great losses and sacrificed a consider- 
 able portion of their revenue by extreme competition 
 amongst themselves, but in this matter, as in many 
 others, they have gained wisdom by experience, 
 and " profited by the uses of adversity." A certain 
 amount of healthy competition will always exist ; but 
 the companies now mitigate its severity by agreeing 
 amongst themselves what the rates between competing 
 points shall be by all routes. The competitive rates 
 between most places in Great Britain are, in the main, 
 governed by two Conferences, " The English and Scotch 
 Traffic Rates Conference," and the " Normanton Con- 
 ference." The English and Scotch Conference is com- 
 posed of representatives (who are usually the Chief 
 Goods Managers) of all the companies, both English 
 and Scotch, vs^ho are interested in the carriage of goods 
 between places in England and places in Scotland by 
 the various routes. These representatives meet once a 
 month, and deal with all questions arising in connection 
 with the making of new rates or the alteration of exist- 
 ing rates for competitive places between which more 
 
2o8 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 than one company can carry. The Normanton Confer- 
 ence, which was originally established to control the 
 rates for a certain district of which Normanton, where 
 its meetings were formerly held, was a convenient 
 centre, has gradually so much extended its scope that 
 it is now composed of representatives of nearly every 
 company of any importance in England, and governs 
 almost the whole of the competitive rates which are not 
 dealt with by the English and Scotch Conference. The 
 cross-channel rates between England and Ireland are 
 controlled by an "English and Irish Traffic Rates 
 Conference," and, besides these three, there are some 
 minor Conferences which have been established in 
 connection with the traffic of particular districts, but 
 have not the importance of those which have been 
 already alluded to. 
 
 In addition to the system of agreeing the rates 
 between competing points, there is another plan which 
 railway companies sometimes adopt, in order to avoid 
 the losses arising from competition, which is known as 
 " Percentage Division of Traffic," and which is carried 
 out in the following manner. Supposing that there is a 
 certain traffic to be conveyed between two towns or 
 districts, and that there are two or more railway com- 
 panies, each having a route of its own by which it is 
 enabled to compete for the traffic. An agreement is 
 come to that the receipts derived from the whole of the 
 traffic, carried by all routes, shall be thrown into a 
 common fund, and that each company shall be entitled 
 to a certain percentage of the whole — say, for example, 
 50 per cent, to the company having the best route, 30 
 per cent, to the second, and 20 per cent, to the third. 
 The percentages are usually adjusted on the basis of 
 
RATES, FARES— TRAFFIC— THE CLEARING-HOUSE. 209 
 
 past actual carryings, but in settling the terms of the 
 agreement due weight is accorded to any prospective 
 advantages which may entitle one company to claim a 
 larger proportion than it has carried in the past. An 
 agreed allowance for working expenses is made to any 
 company carrying more than the percentage allotted to 
 its route, but, as this allowance is fixed with due regard 
 to the actual cost of the service, it will be perceived that 
 there is no very great inducement for any company to 
 carry more than its share. 
 
 Let it not be hastily concluded that an agreement of 
 this kind is opposed to the interest of the general public, 
 for it may safely be asserted that in the long run it is a 
 mistake to imagine that the public are the gainers by 
 an extreme course of competition between two railway 
 companies. If the contest is waged to the bitter end, 
 the public may enjoy low rates for a time, but the result 
 must be the "survival of the fittest" — or, rather, the 
 strongest — and the latter, becoming masters of the 
 situation, will naturally seek to recoup themselves for 
 the severe losses they have sustained during the progress 
 of the struggle. Meanwhile, neither of the competitors 
 will have been in a position to perform the services they 
 have undertaken in as efficient a manner as would have 
 been the case if they had been working with a fair 
 marign of profit. The only competition from which the 
 public can reap a real and lasting advantage is that of 
 two companies carrying at fair and remunerative rates, 
 and each seeking to attract business to its own railway 
 by performing the service to the public in the most 
 efficient, safe, and expeditious manner. 
 
 It must be admitted that railway companies set a 
 good example to the community at large in the method 
 
 P 
 
210 AN- ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 they adopt of settling disputed claims and other 
 matters of difference between themselves instead of 
 having recourse to expensive litigation. By the terms 
 of an Act passed in the year 1859, and entitled the 
 " Railway Companies' Arbitration Act," it was provided 
 that any two or more companies might, by writing under 
 their Common Seal, agree to refer to arbitration any 
 differences or disputes in which they were mutually 
 concerned, and which they might legally settle by 
 agreement between themselves. This Act is incor- 
 porated in all modern Acts of Parliament and in 
 most agreements entered into by railway companies, 
 and - the effect is to reduce litigation between them 
 to a minimum, with a consequent great saving in 
 expense. Under the Act, the arbitrators have power 
 to call for the production of books and documents, to 
 administer oaths, and hear evidence, and their deci- 
 sions are final and binding upon all concerned, and 
 may be legally enforced in any of the Superior Courts 
 of Law. Two companies may agree to appoint a single 
 arbitrator, or each company concerned may appoint one, 
 in which case the arbitrators appoint an umpire to 
 decide between them in case of difference. In the event 
 of either company failing to appoint an arbitrator after 
 having agreed under seal to do so, or of the arbitrators 
 failing to appoint an umpire, the Board of Trade may 
 be called upon by either of the other companies con 
 cerned to name an arbitrator or an umpire, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 A very complete machinery exists for the settlement 
 of cases of disputed liability for claims arising on through 
 traffic in which two or more companies are concerned. 
 A tribunal has been constituted which is termed the 
 
RATES, FARES— TRAFFIC— TBE CLEARING-HOUSE. 211 
 
 "Claims Arbitration Committee," and which holds its 
 meetings at the Railway Clearing-house in London 
 once each month. It consists of twelve members chosen 
 by election from their own body by the Goods Managers 
 of the companies who are parties to the Railway 
 Clearing-house, the members holding office for three 
 years, and one-third of them retiring annually and not 
 being eligible for re-election until after the lapse of a 
 year from their retirement. When two or more com- 
 panies fail to agree as to the liability for a claim arising 
 upon traffic in which they are jointly interested, either 
 party to the dispute may, by giving due notice, appeal 
 to the decision of the Claims Arbitration Committee. 
 Statements of the facts are drawn up and submitted on 
 either side ; and, after examining these, the Committee 
 hears the evidence and arguments of the parties Con- 
 cerned, and gives its decision, which is held to be final. 
 
 For claims arising upon through passenger traffic 
 there is a similar committee, having the same functions 
 and constituted in the same manner, but which, in this 
 case, consists of twelve Passenger Superintendents, elected 
 by the members of the Superintendents' Conference. 
 There can be no question as to the great advantages of 
 a system of this kind ; for not only are railway companies 
 saved a vast expense which would otherwise be incurred 
 in litigation, but the cases are adjudicated upon by able 
 and experienced railway men, who are perfectly con- 
 versant with the facts, and incomparably more com- 
 petent to arrive at a satisfactory decision than any other 
 tribunal which could be selected. It should be mentioned 
 that in order to secure the complete impartiality of the 
 Committee, no member is permitted to take part (except 
 as an advocate) in the proceedings upon any case 
 
21 2 ArT ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 in which the company he represents is in any way 
 interested. 
 
 In cases where traffic, in being conveyed from its 
 starting point to its destination, has to be carried over 
 the railways of two or more companies, the receipts are 
 divided between the companies concerned in proportion 
 to the mileage travelled over each railway. In the case 
 of merchandise traffic, before this division is made, a 
 certain fixed sum is allowed (according to the class of 
 traffic) to the forwarding and receiving companies 
 respectively, for terminal expenses ; that is to say, for the 
 use of the stations, and for the services of loading and 
 unloading and clerkship. A simple illustration will 
 perhaps best serve to show the working of this arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 We will suppose that a ton of goods has to be 
 forwarded a distance of loo miles, and in completing its 
 journey has to travel 60 miles over one railway (A) and 
 40 miles over another (B). We will assume that the 
 freight amounts to 23s. and that the terminal allowance 
 at each end is 4s. : 
 
 Company A will receive — 
 
 60 - 
 
 Y^ of iSs. = 9s. + 4s. = 13s. 
 
 Company B will receive — 
 
 40 r 
 
 01 15s. = OS. + 4s. = los, 
 
 100 ^ 
 
 Total ... 23s. 
 
 The question of division of traffic brings us to the 
 consideration of one of the most important features of 
 the railway system, which is known as the Railway 
 Clearing-house. In the early days, when railways 
 
HATES, FARES^TRAFFIC—THE CLEARING-HOUSE. 213 
 
 began to multiply and to run in connection one witla 
 another, it was necessary for a passenger who had to 
 travel over two railways before his journey was 
 completed, to change carriages on the termination of 
 the first one and to take a fresh ticket ; and similarly 
 ever}'' consignment of merchandise had to be transhipped 
 from one company's waggon to that of another at the 
 point of junction, and to be re-invoiced. As the 
 business increased, this was soon found to be a perfectly 
 intolerable system, and a demand arose from the public 
 ^;hat they should be enabled to travel between any points 
 by paying the fare for the whole journey at the place of 
 departure, and that in the same way merchandise and 
 live stock should be forwarded throughout without 
 sustaining the delay and possible damage involved in 
 frequent transhipments. The difficulty to be overcome 
 in giving effect to this demand was twofold ; for not only 
 would one company be receiving money part of which 
 was due to another company, but each would be 
 obtaining a service from the carriages and waggons of the 
 other for which, clearly, some payment must be made. 
 For a time the companies attempted to meet the case 
 by a system of keeping accounts and exchanging 
 returns of the receipts of each from through traffic ; but 
 this plan was open to many objections. Different 
 companies had different modes of keeping their accounts, 
 and no one had any authority to impose uniformity ; so 
 that there were mutual difficulties in agreeing the figures, 
 and the consequent disputes engendered ill-feeling, 
 recriminations, and charges of untair practice. At 
 length, in the year 1842, it occurred to Mr. Morison. who 
 was at that time an audit clerk of the London and 
 iPirmingham Railway, that the true remedy for the 
 
2T4. AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 unfortunate state of things which prevailed was to 
 establish a central office, founded somewhat upon the 
 lines of the Bankers' Clearing-house (which had then 
 been established more than half a century), and which 
 should receive the returns of through traffic from all the 
 companies, impartially make the apportionments, and 
 declare the balances due to each. The scheme thus 
 outlined met with the warm approval and support of 
 Mr. Glyn, who was at that time the chairman of the 
 London and Birmingham Railway, and, after sharing the 
 fate of every innovation or reform in encountering a 
 great deal of opposition from various sources, it was 
 finally brought into operation. Like most great 
 institutions, the Railway Clearing-house had a very 
 humble commencement, for it began its operations with 
 a staff of only four clerks, and dealt with the traffic of 
 only four railways, controlling an aggregate mileage of 
 418 miles; but its growth has only been paralleled by 
 the growth of the railway system itself, and the 
 magnitude of its operations may be judged by the fact 
 that it employs at the present time a staff of not much 
 less than 2,000 persons, and deals with the traffic of all 
 the railway companies in Great Britain, having, in the 
 aggregate, nearly 17,000 miles of railway. If we add 
 that during the year 1887 the number of traffic settle- 
 ments made was 9,000,000, and the value of the receipts 
 dealt with was ;^i6,5oo,ooo, we shall have said enough 
 to give a fair idea of the extent of the business carried 
 on in the vast building in Seymour Street, Euston 
 Square, where the Railway Clearing-house has found a 
 home. 
 
 Since the year 1850 the proceedings of the Railway 
 Clearing-house have been regulated by Act of Parliament 
 
RATES, FARES-TRAFFIC— THE CLEARING-HOUSE. 215 
 
 (13 and 14 Vic, cap. 33), and its authorised functions are 
 thus defined : " To settle and adjust the receipts 
 arising from railway traffic within, or partly within, the 
 United Kingdom, and passing over more than one 
 railway within the United Kingdom, booked or invoiced 
 at throughout rates or fares." The management is 
 conducted by a Committee of Delegates appointed by the 
 boards of the several railway companies, parties to the 
 system, each company, however great or small, having 
 the power to appoint one delegate, and the expenses 
 being borne by the companies in the ratio of the amount 
 of business done on their behalf. Any railway company 
 not a party to the clearing system may apply under 
 seal for admission, and if the Committee of Delegates 
 assent to the application, the company is at once 
 received on an equal footing with all the other com- 
 panies already parties to the system. Any company 
 may withdraw at will by giving one month's notice 
 under seal, or a company may be expelled by the vote 
 of two-thirds of the delegates present at a meeting 
 specially convened for the purpose. The Committee 
 meets four times a year, or oftener if needful, and 
 its chairman is elected annually, but is eligible for 
 re-election indefinitely. 
 
 The accounts of the clearing system, and the balances 
 due to and from the several companies, are settled and 
 adjusted by the secretary, who also determines the 
 amount to be from time to time contributed to the 
 funds of the Clearing-house by each company. In 
 case of any difference arising with respect to the ac- 
 counts, the decision of the Committee that a certain 
 balance is due and payable by a particular company is 
 final and conclusive, and such balance is recoverable in 
 
2 1 6 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 a court of law, upon simple proof that the committee 
 have declared the amount to be payable. 
 
 In earlier days, the operations of the Clearing-house 
 were limited to dealing with passenger and parcel 
 traffic, and the mileage and demurrage charges for the 
 use or detention of carriages, waggons and sheets, when 
 travelling upon railways other than those belonging to 
 the owners of the stock; but since the year 1847 the 
 system has been extended to merchandise and live 
 stock traffic, including a considerable proportion of the 
 through coal traffic. The general principle upon which 
 the receipts arising from through traffic are apportioned 
 between railway companies has already been described, 
 but two or more companies frequently enter into agree- 
 ments for special modes of division of certain traffic, 
 and the Clearing-house gives effect to these on receiv- 
 ing "joint instructions," mutually agreed between the 
 companies concerned, the system being sufficiently 
 elastic to meet every kind of agreement that can be 
 devised for the apportionment of traffic receipts. In 
 any case in which one company claims a larger share 
 of the receipts from a particular traffic than its partners 
 are prepared to concede, the Clearing-house reserves, 
 in making the apportionment, a sufficient amount to 
 meet the claim, until the difficulty can be adjusted by 
 agreement, arbitration or otherwise, and amounts thus 
 reserved are said to be " in suspense." 
 
 Having described the results achieved by this admir- 
 able, organisation, it may be worth while to glance 
 .briefly at the machinery by which those results are 
 attained. 
 
 In the first place, all through tickets are forwarded to 
 the Clearing-house ; for instance, if a passenger books 
 
RATES, FARES^TRAFFIC—THE CLEARING-HOUSE. 217 
 
 to-day from London to Aberdeen, on the completion 
 of his journey, his ticket is sent to the Clearing-house, 
 and each of the companies over whose railway he 
 has travelled is credited with its due mileage proportion 
 of the fare he has paid. The same course is adopted 
 with regard to the invoices of merchandise traffic ; but, 
 in addition to this, every station makes a return to the 
 Clearing-house daily of passengers and parcels booked 
 through, and of carriages and waggons, either loaded or 
 empty, received and despatched. Then, scattered all 
 over the country, at every junction of two railways, the 
 Clearing-house have number-takers stationed, who 
 record the number and description of every vehicle 
 that passes a junction going from one line to 
 another, and these men forward returns to the head 
 office in Seymour Street All these returns are 
 examined, analysed, and checked, one with another, 
 and thus, with enormous labour, but with the most 
 marvellous accuracy, the accounts are made up and the 
 balances declared. The advantages of such an institu- 
 tion as this, which has had such great results in facilitat- 
 ing intercourse and the trade of the country, can hardly 
 be over-estimated, for it is only by means of this system 
 that the produce of remote districts has been brought to 
 the door of the consumer ; while, as for Ireland, if the 
 facilities thus afforded for her cattle, poultry, butter and 
 eggs to command the English markets had not existed, 
 it is certain that the social condition of her people must 
 have been much worse than it is. 
 
 The Clearing-house, however, discharges other func- 
 tions besides the division of traffic receipts. It affords 
 a convenient neutral ground where the various com- 
 panies, whatever their, conflicting interests or differences 
 
2i8 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA I-. 
 
 of policy, can meet on friendly terms, can agree upon 
 measures of concerted action, and afford one another 
 the benefit of their mutual experience in devising 
 measures for the common good. Three important confer- 
 ences are held at the Clearing-house every three months, 
 one attended by the general managers of the different 
 conipanies, another by the goods managers, and a third 
 by the passenger superintendents, all these dealing with 
 the subjects specially germane to their respective depart- 
 ments. Thus the Goods Managers' Conference deals 
 with such questions as the construction of private 
 waggons, the charges for the use of waggons, the classi- 
 fication of goods traffigj-. -terminal allowances, etc. ; 
 the Superintendents' Conference deals with the speed 
 and signalling of trains, rules and regulations for work- 
 ing the railways, the block telegraph system, excursion 
 trains and subjects of like nature ; the General 
 Managers' Conference reviews the recommendations of 
 the Goods Managers and Superintendents, and, in its 
 turn, frames proposals to be submitted to the Committee 
 of Delegates for adoption by the companies. 
 
 Besides these three, there are a host of other com- 
 mittees and rates conferences for various purposes 
 which hold their meetings at the Clearing-house, and 
 the total number of such meetings held in the course of 
 a year is upwards of 250. 
 
 Since the year 1847, the Railway Clearing-house, as 
 a central establishment well adapted for the purpose, 
 has been employed to facilitate the recovery of lost 
 luggage, a duty which it discharges in the following 
 manner. A description of every article lost or found 
 is forwarded daily to the Clearing-house, who, in turn, 
 furnish the information to the different stations, and 
 
RATES, FARES-TRAFFIC— THE CLEARING-HOUSE. 219 
 
 anything found on hand at a station which answers to 
 the description of an article lost is sent up to the 
 Clearing-house for identification. During the year 
 1887 nearly half a million of articles were reported to 
 the Clearing-house as being lost or found, and in the 
 majority of cases, thanks to the machinery employed, 
 the owners were traced and their property restored 
 to them. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 On the Relation of the State to Railways 
 IN England, and the Question of State 
 Purchase of Railways. 
 
 As is well known, the relations of the State to railways 
 differ in various countries to a very wide extent. For 
 instance, in Belgium, practically the whole of the rail- 
 ways have been purchased by the State, and are worked 
 by a department of the Government for the benefit of 
 the public, very much as the Post Office is in England. 
 
 In Prussia, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and most of the 
 other German States, nearly the whole of the railwaj^ 
 have been acquired by the Government and are 
 worked as a Department of State ; while in Austria, 
 with the exception of one line, which is a State railway, 
 the whole of the railways have been made and are 
 worked by private companies, the Government merely 
 exercising a certain power of control over the fixing of 
 the rates and charges. 
 
 In France, some of the railways have been con- 
 structed and are worked by the State, and others 
 have been made by private companies, but on a system 
 of territorial concessions, by which these companies are 
 secured against competition, and the Government, in 
 consideration of this fact, exercise a complete control 
 over the fixing of the rates. In India, the railways have 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWA YS. 221 
 
 been constructed under various conditions, some of them 
 by joint-stock companies, as in England, but guaranteed 
 by the State, while others have been built absolutely by 
 the Government. In the United Kingdom, all the rail- 
 ways have been constructed by joint-stock enterprise, 
 under the sanction of Parliament, without any subsidy or 
 guarantee whatever ; but Parliament, in granting the 
 powers to buy land and make a railway, fixes the 
 maximum tolls to be charged, and the Government, under 
 various Acts of Parliament which have been passed from 
 time to time, retains certain powers of inspection and 
 control which will be more particularly detailed hereafter. 
 It may be said that, prima facie, anyone has the 
 right to construct a railway on their own land and for 
 their own use, and, similarly, a joint-stock company can 
 be formed for any purpose by complying with certain 
 formalities and by the process of registration ; but when 
 a number of individuals desire to form themselves into 
 a company for the purpose of making a railway for 
 public traffic, they require to obtain from Parliament 
 compulsory powers for the purchase of land, whether 
 the owners are willing to sell or not, to cross highways, 
 divert roads and footpaths, to bridge rivers, and to make 
 legal bye-laws, the breach of which shall be penal. 
 Therefore, the first thing to be done by any group of 
 promoters who desire to construct a new railway is to 
 deposit a Bill, together with plans showing the course 
 of the line and the limits of deviation. The Bill, if 
 opposed, is referred to a Select Committee of the 
 House of Commons, and subsequently to a like Com- 
 mittee of the House of Lords, and both these Committees 
 sit and hear all the evidence that can be adduced, both 
 on behalf of, and in opposition to, the Bill, as well as 
 
222 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 the arguments of the counsel employed on each side. 
 The opposition usually proceeds from private land- 
 owners, from Corporations and Town Councils, and 
 from other Railway Companies who foresee competition 
 from the new comers ; but where a good case can be 
 made out, and the Committee can be fairly satisfied 
 that the construction of the new railway is required and 
 will be for the advantage of the public, the powers 
 sought for are usually granted, and the opposition is 
 satisfied as far as may be necessary by the insertion oi 
 accommodation or protective clauses in the Bill. 
 
 The Bill having been sanctioned by Parliament, the 
 company next proceed to purchase the land, and here 
 they find the advantage of the powers they have obtained; 
 for if they find a landowner unreasonable and exorbitant 
 in his demands, they can serve " notice to treat," and 
 claim to have the merits of the case investigated either 
 by a sheriffs jury or by arbitrators, who will hear evi- 
 dence and decide what is a fair price to be paid, which 
 price the landowner is bound to accept. The case was 
 widely different with the promoters of the early railways, 
 who had to submit to the most excessive demands on 
 the part of the landowners as the price of their consent 
 to sell their land for the purposes of the railway, and we 
 are told, for instance, that the land for the London and 
 Birmingham Railway, which was liberally estimated to 
 cost ^^250,000, actually cost three times that amount, or 
 about ^6,300 per mile, the most extravagant sums 
 having to be paid for compensation, for consequential, 
 damages for fancy prospects, and other unreasonable 
 demands, in order to buy off the opposition of the 
 landowners. Claims such as these are not heard of 
 in these days, or if they were, they would at once be 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS. 223 
 
 scouted by any jury or arbitrator before whom they 
 were brought. 
 
 The growth of the traffic on the principal railways has 
 brought about the necessity of widening or laying down 
 additional lines of rails upon the principal trunk rail- 
 ways, and as this usually involves the purchase of addi- 
 tional land, and more or less interference with public 
 roads and bridges, the operation has to be sanctioned by 
 Parliament very much in the same way as if an abso- 
 lutely new line of railway were contemplated, although 
 there is not, as a rule, so much serious opposition to be 
 encountered. 
 
 Another point of contact between the railway and the 
 State is the power of control, within certain limits, 
 possessed by the Board of Trade. Before any new rail- 
 way or branch line can be made use of, it must be 
 examined by the Inspecting Officers of the Board, and 
 the permanent way, bridges, stations, and signals must be 
 certified by thera as being satisfactory and in accordance 
 with a schedule of requirements laid down by the Board, 
 and to which all railway companies are bound to conform. 
 The same applies to any new line, or siding, or any inter- 
 ference, however slight, with the lines upon which passen- 
 ger trains run. All accidents involving the least injury 
 to life or limb, whether of passengers or the servants of 
 the company have to be reported to the Board of Trade, 
 who, in every case where they consider it necessary, 
 appoint one of their Inspecting Officers to view the 
 locus in quo, and hold an enquiry upon the spot into 
 the circumstances of the mishap, hearing evidence, and 
 reporting to the Board of Trade. A summary of these 
 reports is submitted to Parliament annually. 
 
 The Board of Trade have also power to compel the 
 
2::4 AN ENGLISH RAILVi'A'i'. 
 
 companies to make use of a proper system of communi- 
 cation between passengers, guards, and drivers, to 
 impose regulations as to the use of level crossings, to 
 order bridges or subways to be constructed in lieu of 
 level crossings, to insist upon the running of workmen's 
 trains where they consider it necessary, and to call for 
 various statistical returns from the railway companies. 
 
 In 1873, an Act was passed entitled the "Railway 
 and Canal Traffic Act," which contained provisions of 
 great importance as affecting the railways in this country. 
 Divested of various minor enactm.ents and of all un- 
 necessary verbiage, the essential principles of this Act 
 were as follows : — 
 
 (i) A new tribunal was constituted consisting of three 
 " Railway Commissioners,'' one of whom was to be of 
 experience in the law, and another of experience in 
 railwa)?- business, who were to decide all questions of 
 difference between any two railway companies, or 
 between a railway company and a canal company 
 or between any individual and a railway or canal 
 company, upon the application of either party to the 
 difference. 
 
 (2) It was ordained that where two, railways formed 
 part of a throughout route between two given points, 
 one of the said companies might call upon the other to 
 afford facilities for the conveyance of through traffic 
 over the lines of the two companies, by giving written 
 notice of the through rate to be charged and the route 
 to be travelled. If the company receiving the notice 
 objected to the rate or the route, the matter was to be 
 referred to the Railway Commissioners for decision. 
 
 During the fifteen years that this Act has been in force, 
 the Railway Comrnissioners have had a considerable 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS. 225 
 
 number of cases submitted to their judgment, and 
 although their decisions have not at all times escaped 
 severe criticism, it cannot be denied that they have 
 dealt fairly and equitably, on the whole, with the 
 questions which have been brought before them. 
 
 During the last few years a demand has arisen from 
 certain quarters for fresh legislation in a spirit apparently 
 hostile to railway companies, although mistakenly sup- 
 posed to be in the interest of the general public. The 
 promoters of this agitation have assumed that the rates 
 and charges of the companies were too high, and that 
 the commerce of the country would benefit if the State 
 were empowered to fix the rates, instead of leaving the 
 companies to do so within the limits of their toll powers. 
 The companies have strenuously opposed this demand, 
 on the perfectly logical ground that Parliament, having 
 sanctioned the existing railways, with power to take 
 certain tolls for their use, upon the faith of which the 
 capital for their construction had been subscribed, had 
 no just claim to deprive the shareholders of a portion of 
 their profits, unless it was prepared to compensate them 
 for their loss. It is also argued, and is easily susceptible 
 of proof, that the railway companies, so far from 
 having unfairly taxed the trade of the country, as is 
 asserted by their assailants, have been its best friends, 
 and have done everything in their power to foster and 
 encourage it ; treating the public fairly and liberally, and 
 keeping well within their powers as regards tolls. They 
 would, indeed, have been suicidal in acting other- 
 wise, for their course is shaped by men of business, 
 who are well aware that the prosperity of trade means 
 the prosperity of the railway companies, and that, in 
 short, the welfare of each is dependent upon the other. 
 
 Q 
 
:2t) AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 The public, however, it is to be feared, are far from 
 realising how much the companies have done for them, 
 or how the conditions of railway transit, both for 
 passengers and merchandise, have been revolutionised 
 in their favour in these modern times, without the 
 companies reaping any additional remuneration, the 
 maximum tolls being now precisely what they were 
 when the railways were first authorised, while in every 
 other respect the scene has entirely changed. The 
 stations, which were once of the most primitive des- 
 cription, consisting of little more than a platform and 
 an office, have been replaced by costly and elaborate 
 structures, replete with every kind of accommodation, 
 and erected at a large expense ; the trains are luxuriously 
 fitted up with every modern appliance for comfort and 
 convenience, and run at a rate of speed never dreamt of 
 in the earlier days ; the merchandise is carried in express 
 goods trains from one end of the country to the other 
 within the twenty-four hours ; vast sums have been spent 
 in providing warehouses and depots, machinery and appli- 
 ances, where, in the old days, the companies simply took 
 their tolls for the use of the rails and left others to find 
 the accommodation ; and yet, for all these advantages, 
 they exact no increased payment. On the contrary, 
 during the last few years great concessions have been 
 made to the traders in the matter of rates ; and wherever, 
 it has been shown that a particular industry could be, 
 developed or created by the quotation of low rates, or 
 the granting of any other facilities, the companies have 
 always been willing to meet the case in a liberal spirit, 
 recognising the fact that in so doing they were consult- 
 ing their own best interests as well as those of the 
 public. 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS. 227 
 
 There is no doubt that the agitation against the 
 railway companies has arisen in consequence of the 
 depressed state of trade which has existed during the 
 last few years, not only in this country, but all over the 
 ■world, many of the largest undertakings in the coal and 
 iron industries having been carried on in fact with little 
 or no margin of profit to those interested in them ; but, 
 whatever the cause of the agitation, it has had sufficient 
 force to induce two successive Administrations to attempt 
 legislation in order to satisfy it. 
 
 In 1886 Mr. Mundella, the then President of the Board 
 of Trade, introduced a " Railway and Canal Traffic 
 Bill," which met with vigorous opposition on the part 
 of the railway interest, but Mr. Gladstone's Government 
 fell before any decision was arrived at with regard to it. 
 In the last session of Parliament (1888), however, a 
 bill was introduced by Lord Salisbury's Government, 
 and with some modifications in Committee became 
 law, under the title of the " Railway and Canal Traffic 
 Act, 1888," containing, inter alia, the following 
 provisions : — 
 
 (1) The Railway Commissioners' powers, as defined 
 by the Act of 1873, are renewed, and their body is 
 re-constituted so as to consist of two appointed mem- 
 bers (one of whom is to be of experience in railway 
 business), and three ex-officio commissioners, one for 
 England and Wales, one for Scotland, and one for 
 Ireland, these latter being judges of a superior court, 
 each of whom will preside in cases only which are 
 heard in that part of the United Kingdom for which 
 he is nominated. 
 
 (2) Town councils, county authorities, urban and 
 rural sanita.ry authorities, harbour boards, chambers 
 
27X AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 of commerce, trade associations, and, in short, almost 
 every constituted body may become the plaintiff to 
 the Railway Commissioners in any matter in which 
 that tribunal has jurisdiction. 
 
 (3) The new Commission is invested with juris- 
 diction over disputes as to the legality of tolls, rates, 
 and charges, and may enforce payment of them, may 
 order traffic facilities to be granted, notwithstanding 
 agreements between companies to the contrary, unless 
 the agreements are confirmed by Act of Parliament, 
 by the Board of Trade, or by the Commissioners 
 themselves, and may award damages to aggrieved 
 parties. 
 
 (4) Every railway company within six months of 
 the passing of the Act, is to submit to the Board of 
 Trade a revised classification of merchandise traffic, 
 and a revised schedule of maximum rates and charges 
 applicable thereto proposed to be put in operation, 
 and is to state the nature and amount of all terminals 
 proposed to be authorised in respect of each class of 
 traffic. The Board of Trade are to consider the 
 classification and schedule of charges, to hear any 
 objections made by any parties whom they consider 
 entitled to be heard, and on coming to an agreement 
 with the company as to what the classification and 
 schedule of charges are to be, are to embody them 
 in a Provisional Order, submit them to Parliament, 
 and bring in a Bill for an Act to confirm the order. 
 If the Board of Trade cannot agree with the railway 
 company, they (the Board) are to determine for them- 
 selves what they consider fair and reasonable, and report 
 to Parhament, calling attention to the points of difference; 
 certain machinery is then provided, by means of which 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS. 229 
 
 Parliament will, in the end, decide between the Board 
 of Trade and the railway company. 
 
 (5) Where complaint is made that a railway company 
 unduly favours one trader or body of traders, or the 
 traders of a particular district, by charging them less 
 than they charge other traders or districts for similar 
 services performed, the burden of proving that the 
 difference in treatment does not amount to undue 
 preference is cast upon the railway company. In 
 deciding cases of alleged undue preference, however, 
 the Commissioners may consider whether the lower 
 charge or difference in treatment is necessary for the 
 purpose of securing in the interests of the public the 
 traffic in respect of which it is made ; no difference, 
 however, is to be sanctioned in the tolls, rates or charges 
 for home and foreign merchandise in respect of similar 
 services. 
 
 (6) Any person receiving or sending goods by any 
 railway who believes he is being charged an unfair or 
 excessive rate may complain to the Board of Trade, 
 who, if they think there are reasonable grounds for 
 the complaint, may appoint a competent person to 
 communicate with both parties and endeavour to bring 
 them to an arrangement. 
 
 Such are the leading provisions of an Act which the 
 railway companies, it need hardly be said, opposed so 
 long as there was any utility in opposition ; but seeing 
 that the majority was against them, they have recognised 
 the wisdom of bowing to the inevitable, and loyally 
 accepting this Act as a compromise of propositions of 
 an even more extreme nature. They feel, however, that 
 the railway interests have been hardly dealt with, and, 
 in particular, that the introduction of the clauses 
 
230 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 providing for a revision (which may imply a reduction) 
 of the tolls fixed by the Acts of Parliament authorising 
 the construction of the railways, constitutes an extreme 
 measure not warranted by the circumstances or by any 
 failure in their duty to the public on the part of the 
 railway companies. On the contrary, the Railway 
 Eates Committee of 1882, after going very fully into the 
 subject and hearing an immense mass of evidence, mostly 
 offered in a spirit hostile to the railway companies, 
 have recorded their conviction in the following words, 
 which will be found in iheir report : — 
 
 "Your Committee, in conclusion, report that on 
 the whole of the evidence they acquit the railway 
 companies of any grave dereliction of their duty to 
 
 the public Your Committee find that the 
 
 rates for merchandise on the railways of the United 
 Kingdom are, in the main, considerably below the 
 inaxima authorised by Parliament." 
 
 But there are not wanting those who are advocates 
 of measures of a much more sweeping nature even than 
 those involved in the legislation of the last session, 
 and who go so far as to propose nothing less than that 
 the Government should become the purchasers of all the 
 railways in the United Kingdom, and work them as a 
 department of State for the benefit of the public, the 
 assumption being that by the concentration of the 
 management, the absence of competition, and the 
 appropriation of the profits reaped by the existing 
 railway companies to the reduction of the present rates 
 and charges, great benefits must accrue to the public at 
 large. This proposal is one which has been more or 
 less the theme of discussion from a very early period, 
 and indeed it is a fact not perhaps generally known that 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE 70 RAlLVf'AYS. 231 
 
 an Act was passed as long ago as 1844 empowering 
 the Government to acquire the whole of the railways 
 on certain terms, and that the Act in question has 
 never been repealed. In the House of Commons on 
 the Sth May, i883, Mr. Watt moved a resolution to the 
 effect : — 
 
 " That in the opinion of this House the time has 
 arrived when the Government should appoint a Com- 
 mittee or Royal Commission to take into consideration 
 the question of acquiring the railways of the United 
 Kingdom in accordance with the provisions contained 
 in the General Railway Act of 1844." 
 
 The motion was, however, negatived. 
 
 It is to be feared that supporters of this proposition 
 have not fully realised the magnitude of the opera- 
 tion they recommend, and nothing is more probable 
 than that, if it ever came to be carried out, the sanguine 
 anticipations of its advocates, as to its financial success, 
 would prove to have been based upon fallacy. The Act 
 of 1844 authorised the transfer of the railways to the 
 State at 25 years' purchase of their average profits for 
 the three years antecedent to the purchase, and this sum 
 would be represented by about eight hundred and 
 twenty-five millions sterling; but if ever a scheme of the 
 kind comes within the region of practical legislation, it 
 will certainly not be carried out on the basis of an old 
 and obsolete Act of Parliament, passed at a time when 
 the railway system was in its infancy. To commend 
 itself to the legislature of the present day, and to over- 
 come the strenuous opposition it would undoubtedly 
 encounter, it must proceed upon the principle of 
 equitable treatment of the shareholders of the existing 
 companies, who would have to receive not merely the 
 
233 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 capital they had sunk in the undertakings, but some 
 reasonable compensation for its prospective value. 
 We believe that if the principle of State purchase were 
 decided upon, it would ultimately have to be carried out 
 somewhat in the following manner : — 
 
 As regards the lines that are now earning a profit, 
 Government should guarantee a rate of dividend, 
 which might be taken at the average of, say, three 
 years preceding the purchase, and this would certainly 
 not be putting too high an estimate on their prospective 
 value, which would have a tendency to increase in view 
 of the Government guarantee. 
 
 As regards capital invested in railways constructed, 
 but paying no dividend, the question is more complicated. 
 Each case would have to be considered on its merits, 
 but for our present purpose we may assume that the 
 justice of the case would be roughly met by taking this 
 capital at half its nominal value, the Government paying 
 say, 2 1 per cent, per annum upon the reduced amount 
 in consideration of their obtaining the possession and 
 control of these lines. 
 
 Lines under construction and paying no dividend 
 at the time of purchase might be taken at their nominal 
 value, the Government paying 2\ per cent, per annum 
 upon that amount. 
 
 A perpetual Government railway consolidated stock 
 might be created, and the stocks of the different 
 companies be converted into this Government stock 
 on the principle of equivalents ; that is to say, that, for 
 example, supposing the Government consols to bear 
 interest at 2\ per cent, per annum, a company whose 
 invested capital was five millions, and who, during the 
 preceding three years had been paying a dividend at 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS. 233 
 
 the rate of 4 per cent., would receive eight millions of 
 Government bonds. 
 
 The following calculation is only an approximate one, 
 but it will afford some indication of the probable 
 financial result of an operation of this kind, supposing it 
 to have been undertaken at the close of the year 1886.* 
 
 The total amount of capital (including 
 both share and loan) invested in the 
 railways of the United Kingdom was 
 
 December, 1886 ;^828,344,254 
 
 in 
 
 The gross revenue earned in the year 
 
 1886 was ;£69,59i,QS3 
 
 At the present time the capital is earn- 
 ing dividend at various rates, from 
 nothing at all up to 12 per cent. ; but 
 the bulk is earning from 3 to 5 per 
 cent., and the amount thus distributed 
 to the shareholders in the year 1886 
 was ^^33.073.706 
 
 (The average for the three years 1884, 
 1885 and 1886 was almost identical.) 
 
 The capital invested in railways con- 
 structed but paying no dividend is 
 ;£'5 5,810,3 16, upon one-half of which, 
 say ;if27,905,io8, the Government 
 would pay 2\ per cent 6g'j,62y 
 
 The capital of railways under construc- 
 tion on which no dividend is paid 
 
 * The Board of Trade returns for the year 1887 are not completed at the 
 time of writirg. 
 
2 34 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 amounts to ;£■!, 541,444, interest on 
 
 which at 2j per cent, amounts to . :£^38,S36 
 
 Total interest payable ^^^3 3, 809,869 
 
 Add working expenses of the railways, 
 
 which in 1886 were 36,518,247 
 
 Total outgoings 70,328,116 
 
 As against the gross receipts of . . . . 69,591,953 
 
 Deficiency ........ ^736,163 
 
 There would thus be, instead of the large gains 
 anticipated, an. actual loss, of nearly a million sterling 
 per annum ; but this calculation proceeds upon the 
 assumption that the rates and charges and the gross 
 receipts would be the same as they are at the present 
 time, whereas one of the principal avowed objects of 
 those who recommend State purchase is that, as the 
 profits of the shareholders would be reaped by the 
 Exchequer, the Government would be enabled to reduce 
 the rates and fares for the benefit of the public. Yet if 
 the Government ventured to do this even to the very 
 moderate extent of ten per cent., they would, even after 
 making every allowance for any economy of working 
 that might be effected by the concentration of manage- 
 ment, at once find themselves with a deficit of 
 several millions sterling per annum, on the working of 
 the railways, to be made up out of other sources of 
 revenue. 
 
 But apart altogether from financial considerations, 
 there are many and grave objections to the scheme, the 
 most important of which may be briefly summed up as 
 follows : — 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS. 235 
 
 The State purchase of railways would involve an 
 objectionable amount of interference with the industries 
 of the nation, and with the character of the people. 
 The Government would become the direct employers of 
 a vast army of men of all classes, from labourers to 
 highly trained artisans, clerks and officials; they must 
 come in contact with trades unions, face the question of 
 employers' liability, and all the other difficult labour 
 questions which from time to time agitate the industrial 
 community, and at times they would even have to deal 
 with strikes. In all matters of this kind, they, as a 
 Government, would occupy a very invidious position as 
 compared with the railway companies, who are merely 
 mercantile bodies, dealing with labour as a marketable 
 commodity, under the ordinary laws of supply and 
 demand. 
 
 Trade would suffer from the absence of the efforts 
 now put forth by the different railway companies, by 
 granting low rates, constructing branch lines, and by 
 other facilities to develop the competition of markets 
 and to open up new districts. 
 
 The Government would be invested with a large 
 amount of patronage, not only in the appointment and 
 promotion of the staff, but in the placing of contracts 
 for coal and iron and other materials, in granting rail- 
 way facilities, and in many other ways, and they would 
 always be open to the accusation of making use of this 
 patronage for political purposes. 
 
 The policy of the railway administration, instead of 
 being guided by one consistent principle, as at present, 
 viz., the improvement and development of the traffic, 
 with which the prosperity of the country is necessarily 
 bound up, would, in all probability alter from time 
 
236 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 to time, as one party or the other succeeded to 
 office, and this want of continuity would prejudicially 
 affect the management of the railways, and the com- 
 mercial interests so largely dependent upon them. 
 
 All experience of the working and of the scale of 
 expenditure of Government departments is strongly 
 opposed to the belief that so vast and difficult an under- 
 taking as the administration of the railways of the 
 country could be carried on economically and upon 
 sound commercial principles by a department of State. 
 Complaints would be innumerable, and the House of 
 Commons, already overburdened with matters of detail, 
 would, by the multitude of questions to be asked and 
 answered, find its labours so much increased that the 
 business of the country would be seriously interfered 
 with. The traders, who have now the advantage of free 
 access to the officials engaged in the management of the 
 railways — men trained to understand their business and 
 their needs, and willing and anxious to meet their views 
 and assist their operations — would find themselves con- 
 fronted by the attitude of a Government official, bound 
 inflexibly by hard and fast rules, with no personal 
 discretion, and with, above all, a great disinclination to 
 incur any responsibility. 
 
 It only remains to add that in France, where the ex- 
 periment of ownership of railways by the State has been 
 tried for many years past on a very considerable scale, 
 an agitation, is now growing up, as may be gathered firom 
 recent debates in the French Chambers, for the absolute 
 sale of the State railways to private companies, on the 
 grounds that the present system involves a very heavy 
 annual loss to the Exchequer, and that any advantages 
 which might be expected to result from the ownership 
 
THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO RAILWAYS, in 
 
 of the railways by the Government arc not reaped by 
 the public, but are applied to the furtherance of political 
 objects. 
 
 In Belgium, where, as before stated, the railways are 
 worked as a department of the State, and the appoint- 
 ment of Minister of Railways is a political one, the 
 patronage which lies in his gift is well known to be 
 largely exercised for party purposes. Promotion in the 
 service is entirely governed by consideration of the 
 political tendencies of the individuals concerned, and 
 when the Minister is a " Liberal " he will systematically 
 refuse to appoint or promote officials who are known 
 to belong to the " Clerical " party ; while, on the other 
 hand, if a " Clerical " Minister is in office, there is no 
 hope of advancement for " Liberals " until their friends, 
 in turn, succeed to power. 
 
 In Germany, where there has been considerable 
 experience of the plan of working the railways as a 
 Government Department, the financial result does not 
 appear to be too encouraging. The Railway Depart- 
 ment, it is true, figures in the Budget with a large annual 
 profit, but this is only apparent, for the Landtag is every 
 year called upon to vote supplies to be expended on the 
 railways far in excess of the so-called profit, notwith- 
 standing which loud complaints are heard of the want 
 of sufficient plant for carrying on the working in an 
 efficient manner. 
 
 The inference drawn from what is taking place in the 
 older countries of Europe is in nowise contradicted by 
 the experience gained from the result of the experiments 
 tried in the new world at the Antipodes. The Victorian 
 State Railways, which, until recently, were managed as 
 a branch of the Government, somewhat on the plan 
 
2 38 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 adopted in Belgium, have now been committed to the 
 charge of three commissioners, who are to be freed from 
 all political influences, and to have absolute powers of 
 control, as if the railways were the fruits of private 
 enterprise, as in Great Britain. The same plan is about 
 to be adopted by the Government of Queensland. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 
 
 A CONSIDERABLE amount of controversy has taken 
 place during recent years amongst those engaged in the 
 management and working of railways, and also amongst 
 statisticians and others who, as amici curia, have taken 
 an interest in the subject, upon the question of the rela- 
 tion of the classes one to another, and their relative 
 productiveness from a revenue-earning point of view, and 
 a great deal of diversity of opinion has been shown to 
 exist, even amongst experts, as to the number of classes 
 into which passenger traffic should be divided, the 
 fares which should be charged, and as to what should 
 be the composition, the speed, and the weight of 
 trains, so as to reduce the amount of unprofitable 
 haulage to a minimum, and, while accommodating to the 
 fullest extent the requirements of the travelling public, 
 to secure the best paying load, and preserve a reason- 
 able margin of profit for those whose capital is embarked 
 in the business of conducting railways. 
 
 This question — or group of questions — is to form one 
 of the subjects of debate at the forthcoming meeting of 
 the International Railway Congress at Paris, and as the 
 writer has accepted the honour of acting as reporter on 
 that occasion for the English railway companies, and 
 has consequently had occasion to consider the topic 
 
240 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 with some care, it may be of interest not only to those 
 professionally engaged in the working of railways, but 
 to the public whose interests are largely concerned, to 
 give here some of the conclusions to which he has been 
 led. It is only fair, however, to premise that although 
 the views expressed in the following pages are fully 
 endorsed by some of the leading English railway 
 managers, there are others with whom they find less 
 favour, and they must therefore be taken merely as repre- 
 senting the result of the writer's own experience. 
 
 There can, at least, be no question as to the great 
 importance of the subject to all who are engaged in con- 
 ducting railway traffic, whether in Great Britain or upon 
 the Continent of Europe, since it is a fact that in these 
 modern times the demands made upon railway com- 
 panies on behalf of the public, not only for th^ reduction 
 of fares, but for increased speed, more frequent trains, 
 and improved accommodation, have increased, and 
 continue to increase, in such ratio as to render it exceed- 
 ingly difficult for the companies to keep pace with them 
 without altogether sacrificing the interests of their 
 shareholders. There is, in fact, a great tendency to 
 regard railway companies as monopolists — a reproach 
 to which, in these days of unrestricted competition, few 
 of them are open — and to bring to bear every sort of 
 influence to exact new concessions without any regard 
 to the profit derived, or the loss incurred, in carrying on 
 the business. Thus, while the travelling public benefit, 
 the railway shareholder finds himself filling the doubt- 
 less honourable, but not always profitable, rdle of a 
 philanthropist, investing his capital for the advantage of 
 the community at large. It may be, perhaps, that on 
 the Continent, where the railways are more or less under 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC, 24I 
 
 State control, the case may somewhat differ from that 
 of Great Britain, where all the railways have been con- 
 structed by private enterprise ; but, in the main, the 
 pressure of public opinion will no doubt operate in the 
 same direction, and there will be a constant tendency to 
 require greater and still greater facilities, and thus 
 continually to diminish the revenue-earning powers of 
 the railways. The facts and figures which are here 
 adduced will probably suffice to convince any impartial 
 student of the subject that this process has continued 
 upon the principal railways of Great Britain, to such a 
 degree as to bring about a state of things which can 
 scarcely be defended on sound commercial principles— 
 at any rate from the shareholder's point of view. 
 
 Prior to the year 1872 the general practice of all 
 English railway companies was to convey by the mail, 
 and principal fast passenger trains, only first and second 
 class passengers, third class passengers being compelled 
 to travel by less important trains calling at a greater 
 number of stations, or by the Parliamentary trains, so- 
 called, which stopped at every station, and which the 
 companies were bound by statute to run over their lines at 
 least once a day in each direction. For exarnple, in 1872 
 the Parliamentary train from Euston to Liverpool, a 
 distance of 201 f miles, started at 7.40 a.m., stopped at 
 every station on the route, and reached its destination at 
 6.3s p.m., thus occupying nearly eleven hours on a 
 journey which the more fortunate third class passenger 
 of to-day is enabled to perform in four and a half 
 hours. The fares charged at that period averaged 2d. 
 per mile for a first class passenger, ijd. per mile 
 for second class, and id. per mile for third class by 
 Parliamentary trains, while fares at a fraction over id. 
 
 R 
 
2^2 AN ENGL ISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 per mile were charged for third class passengers con- 
 veyed by a few fast trains of a secondary character, to 
 which third class carriages were beginning to be attached. 
 At this tinne the third class carriages, although they 
 were covered in as a protection from the weather, were not 
 upholstered in any way, and contained nothing more 
 than plain wooden seats. 
 
 Taking a period of thirteen years, from i860 to 1872, 
 during which the traffic was conducted under these 
 conditions, a table which has been prepared showing the 
 gross receipts of the London and North Western Rail- 
 way from each class of traffic, and from the three classes 
 combined, per passenger, and per passenger train mile 
 run, from year to year, gives the following averages for 
 the whole period : — 
 
 
 Average Receipts 
 per Passenger. 
 
 Average Receipts 
 per Train Mile. 
 
 First Class ... 
 Second Class 
 Third Class ... 
 
 PENCE. 
 64-18 
 23-92 
 13-15 
 
 PENCE. 
 16-69 
 17-99 
 17-62 
 
 All Classes combined . 
 
 22-17 
 
 52-30 
 
 1 
 
 Space would not admit of the details of this table 
 being given, but an examination of it shows that from 
 about the year 1869 third class traffic began to assume 
 greater importance, and that the receipts per train mile 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 243 
 
 from this class were gradually increasing ; the fact 
 being that the companies about that time commenced 
 to extend the practice of attaching third class carriages 
 to some important trains — other than express trains — 
 while the receipts per train mile from the first and 
 second class had begun to fall off. For instance, in 
 1868 the first class earnings were i6'05d. per train mile, 
 and the second class i8o5d., while in 1872 they were only 
 I3'2id. and iO"82d. respectively. On the other hand, the 
 third class receipts, which in 1868 were only id'pgd. 
 per train mile, in 1872 had risen to 24'63d. The same 
 causes, however, had led to an increase in the train 
 mileage, which had the effect of reducing the average 
 earnings per train mile, from all classes combined, from 
 Sropd. in 1868 to 48-66d. in 1872. 
 
 In April, 1872, the Midland Company adopted the 
 practice (immediately and necessarily followed by all 
 the other leading railway companies) of conveying third 
 class passengers by all the trains, while nearly three 
 years afterwards — viz., on the 1st January, 1875 — they 
 introduced the further innovation of abolishing second 
 class in their trains altogether, and running only two 
 classes, which they termed, rather paradoxically, perhaps, 
 first and third, at the same time reducing the first 
 class fares to about i^d. per mile. The London and North 
 Western Company did not follow the Midland Company's 
 policy as regfirds abolishing second class, for the reasons 
 which have been already set forth (see page 125), nor 
 with one or two exceptions, and then only to a limited 
 extent, have any of the other leading railway companies 
 done so, but all were compelled by the exigencies of com- 
 petition to place themselves on an equality with the 
 Midland Company so far as regarded the re-adjustment 
 
2<4 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 of their fares, which was effected by reducing the first 
 class to about \\A. per mile, and making the second 
 class about ijd. and the third id. 
 
 The striking effect of these changes upon the passenger 
 earnings of the London and North Western Company 
 is very clearly shown by a table which has been drawn 
 up, and which gives the same particulars in respect of 
 the period from 1873 to 1888 inclusive as are given in 
 the table previously referred to, for the period from 1 8£o 
 to 1S72, viz., the gross earnings from each class of 
 traffic per passenger and per train mile. Comparing the 
 average gross earnings of each class for the two periods, 
 we arrive at the following results : — 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pl-vwrkg-e. Receipts pee 
 Passenger. 
 
 Average Receipts pee 
 Train Mile. 
 
 First Class 
 Second Class ... 
 Third Class 
 
 During period 
 of 13 years — 
 i860 to 1872 
 
 During period 
 of 16 jears — 
 1873 to 1888. 
 
 During period 
 of J 3 yeats — 
 i860 to 1872. 
 
 During period 
 of 16 years— ' 
 1873 to 1888. 
 
 D. 
 
 64-18 
 23-92 
 
 i3'iS 
 
 D. 
 
 54-70 
 23-05 
 11-59 
 
 D. 
 
 16-69 
 17-99 
 17-62 
 
 D. 
 
 8-46 
 
 6-35 
 28-27 
 
 All Classes com-) 
 bined ...) 
 
 22-17 14-97 
 
 52-30 
 
 43-08 
 
 The average receipts per passenger were thus reduced 
 in something like the ratio of the reduction of fares, 
 but the increased mileage consequent upon the greater 
 weight of the trains, coupled with the reduction of the 
 fares, had the effect of reducing the average receipts per 
 train mile from all classes, comparing the two periods, 
 from 52-3od. to 43-o8d. 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 24 S 
 
 Taking the classes separately it will be seen that while 
 the average receipts per passenger train mile from first 
 class passengers fell in the later period to about one-half 
 what they were in the earlier period, and the second class 
 to about one-third, the receipts from third class traffic 
 were nearly doubled. 
 
 But it must not be forgotten that during the last 
 fifteen years other causes, besides the conveyance of 
 third class passengers by all trains, and the reduction of 
 the fares, have been at work in the direction of increasing 
 the cost of the service, and reducing the profits from 
 the conveyance of passengers. 
 
 In the first place, there has been a great increase in 
 the speed of the trains generally, and particularly in that 
 of the express passenger trains. For example, in 1872 
 the fastest trains between London and Liverpool, 20 if 
 miles, performed the journey in 5i hours to 6 hours, 
 while now it is accomplished in 4J hours. Between 
 London and Manchester, i88f miles, the shortest time 
 occupied was 5 hours, while now the distance is covered 
 in \\ hours. Between London and Birmingham, 113 
 miles, one train ran in 3^ hours, but the others were 
 much longer on the road, while to-day the fast trains all 
 perform the journey in 2f hours. But the most remark- 
 able development in the rates of speed is found in the 
 running of the express trains between London and 
 Scotland ; and as regards these it will be a sufficiently 
 striking illustration to mention that the 10. a.m. Scotch 
 Express from London which, in 1872, reached Edinburgh 
 at 9.10 and Glasgow at 9.30 p.m., now starts from 
 London at the same time but is timed to reach 
 Edinburgh at 6.30 and Glasgow at 6.45. The journey 
 to Edinburgh is thus performed in 8J hours, and to 
 
246 AN ENGLISH KAIL WA Y. 
 
 Glasgow in 8f hours, but even this rate is sometinaes 
 exceeded, and during the tourist season of 1888 the 
 journey to Edinburgh was accomplished in less than 
 8 hours, the distance being 401 miles, giving a speed 
 throughout of 50 miles an hour, including all stoppages. 
 
 The 8.50 p.m. train from London to Scotland, well- 
 known for many years as the "Limited Mail," and 
 which formerly ran to Aberdeen in 14 hours and 50 
 minutes, conveying, under contract with the Post Office, 
 a limited number of passengers as well as mails, has 
 been superseded in its functions as the principal mail 
 train from London to Scotland, and since the ist July, 
 1885, a special train, conveying no passengers, but only 
 the mails and postal parcels, has left Euston at 8.30 p.m., 
 and reaches Aberdeen at 0.55 a.m., thus performing the 
 journey (540 miles) in only 13 hours and 25 minutes, and 
 travelling at the rate of about 40 miles an hour, 
 throughout, including all stoppages. Between London 
 and Carlisle, this train travels at an average speed of 46 
 miles an hour. 
 
 These exceptionally high rates of speed add to the 
 cost of working in more ways than one ; in fact they 
 have a tendency to increase almost every item of 
 expenditure. In the first place, there is a greater wear 
 and tear of the engines and vehicles, and more frequent 
 repairs and replacements become necessary. Secondly, 
 the engines must be worked at much higher pressure, 
 and be of greater capacity, and the increased con- 
 sumption of fuel, as has already been shown (see 
 page 104), is a very serious item. Then again, to permit 
 of heavy trains being run at such high rates of speed the 
 permanent way must be proportionately strengthened, 
 and becomes more expensive to provide and maintain 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 247 
 
 in the perfect condition which is essential. It is also in 
 a great measure the high rate of speed at which the 
 trains have to be run that necessitates the elaborate and 
 complicated system of signalling and interlocking which 
 has been described in Chapters V. and VI. 
 
 Again there has been a very striking increase in the 
 size and weight of the carriages employed for the con- 
 veyance of passengers, arising from the popular demand 
 for improved accpmmodation, and the extent to which 
 that demand has been met. 
 
 The standard third class carriage of 1872, for example, 
 was 3O2- feet long, and weighed 10 tons, but the standard 
 third class carriage of 1889 is 42 feet in length, and 
 weighs upwards of 18 tons. The carriage of 1872 was 
 capable of seating 50 passengers, but that of 1889 only 
 seats 20 more, or 70 in all, so that while the weight of 
 the vehicle has increased by 80 per cent, the seating 
 capacity has only increased by 40 per cent. — in other 
 words, the weight has increased in double the ratio of 
 the accommodation provided. To take another illustra- 
 tion, the standard composite carriage built by the 
 London and North Western Company in 1S72, 30 feet 
 5 inches in length, weighed 10 tons 8 cwt, but those of 
 the latest type, built recently, measure 42 feet in length 
 and weigh from 18 to 19 tons. These contain lavatory 
 accommodation for the first class compartments, and a 
 cupboard for luggage, and they only provide seats for 
 44 passengers, as against 36 who could be conveyed in 
 the smaller vehicle of the earlier period. 
 
 To keep pace with the increased weight of the vehicles, 
 the power and v/eight of the engines employed to draw 
 them has also had to be correspondingly augmented. 
 The most powerful passenger engines in use on the 
 
?48 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 London and North Western Railway in 1872, having 
 driving-wheels 7 ft. 6 in. in diameter, weighed, without 
 tenders, 27 tons i cwt. ; but the compound engines now 
 being made by Mr. Webb at the Crewe Works, having 
 triple cylinders, and driving-wheels 6 ft. in diameter, 
 weigh 42^ tons ; while an even more powerful type of 
 engine on the compound system, having 7-ft. driving 
 wheels, weighs no less than 45^ tons, or, with the tender 
 attached, 70J tons. 
 
 The effect of this increase in the weight and 
 dimensions of the vehicles employed is seen by the 
 diagram given at page 159 (fig. 27), showing the growth 
 which has taken place in the length and weight of some 
 of the typical trains on the London and North Western 
 Railway during the past five-and-twenty years. All the 
 principal trains have been affected in the same way, and 
 of course when trains, under ordinary circumstances, are 
 of such great weight and length, they cannot easily be 
 strengthened to meet any abnormal increase of traffic or 
 sudden pressure, and it becomes necessary, instead, to 
 run extra, or duplicate trains, thus adding in another 
 way to the working expenses. The increased speed has 
 also indirectly had the effect of adding very considerably 
 to the number of trains run, and to the amount of train 
 mileage. In order, for instance, to enable a train to run 
 last year from London to Edinburgh in eight hours, it 
 became not only necessary to maintain a high rate of 
 speed throughout, but very few stoppages at inter- 
 mediate places could be permitted, and other trains had 
 to be run to serve the stations where the stoppages were 
 omitted, and to enable the passengers from those stations 
 to get on to other stations at which the train did stop. 
 
 Another cause which has tended greatly to increase 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 249 
 
 the weight and bulk of the trains is the introduction of 
 saloon carriages of various descriptions, to which allusion 
 has been made in Chapter VIII. (page 126) since these 
 vehicles, although of exceptional weight and dimensions, 
 and extremely expensive to build and maintain, yet 
 accommodate but a very limited number of passengers. 
 For instance, a sleeping saloon 42 feet in length, weigh- 
 ing 22^ tons, and costing ;^i,300, only contains berths 
 for 16 individuals. A family carriage measuring 32 feet, 
 weighing 15 tons 4 cwts., and costing ;^82o, accom- 
 modates eight first class passengers (sleeping) and six 
 second class passengers. The ordinary first class car- 
 riages have also lost part of their seating capacity from 
 the fact that no first class passenger in these times is 
 satisfied unless he is provided with lavatory accom- 
 modation, and this requirement is being met in building 
 ;.ll new stock, so that practically nearly all first class 
 carriages used on the main line are furnished with 
 lavatories. If we take, for example, a first class carriage 
 of the largest size, 42 feet in length, which under ordinary 
 circumstances would provide seats for 40 passengers, 
 with a luggage compartment, we find that, when the 
 necessary space for lavatories has been abstracted, we 
 have only accommodation left for 28 passengers ; so 
 that nearly one-third of the accommodation is lost, and 
 the weight of the train is correspondingly increased. It 
 may be added that some of the companies are now com- 
 mencing to provide lavatory accommodation, not only 
 for first class, as hitherto, but for second and third class 
 passengers also. 
 
 Another cause which has a tendency to increase the 
 length and weight of the trains, especially in the busy 
 tourist season, is the growing desire on the part of the 
 
250 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 travelling public to secure the exclusive use of compart- 
 ments for a small number of passengers. The companies 
 very generally offer this facility to any one who desires 
 it, subject to the payment of fares as for a minimum 
 number of passengers, viz., four first or second class, or six 
 third class. Great numbers of people, however, seek to 
 obtain the privilege on one plea or another without the 
 payment of the minimum charge, and where the traffic is 
 highly competitive there is a disposition on the part of 
 the companies to make the concession somewhat freely, 
 and often without adequate grounds. 
 
 Having thus briefly touched upon the principal 
 causes which have operated during the past fifteen or 
 sixteen years in the direction of reducing the profits 
 derivable from the conveyance of passencjers, and more 
 especially of those of the higher classes, it will probably 
 be of interest to refer to certain calculations which have 
 recently been prepared showing (i) a comparison of the 
 receipts from passenger traffic of the three classes carried 
 by the London and North Western Company in the 
 }-ears 1871 and 1888 respectively ; (2) the number of 
 passenger miles run (i.e., taking the unit of one passenger 
 conveyed one mile, which is arrived at very simply by 
 dividing the gross receipts of each class by the assumed 
 average fare per mile); (3) the cost at which each class 
 has been worked in the two periods ; and (4) the net 
 profit derived from each class. 
 
 It is found, then, that during the two years mentioned 
 the gross receipts of the London and North Western 
 Railway from passenger traffic (including season tickets) 
 were as follows : — 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 
 
 251 
 
 Year. 
 
 Firsr Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Cass. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1871 
 1888 
 
 ;^758.66S 
 550,53s 
 
 ;^903.627 
 366,552 
 
 ;£'990,05I 
 2,487,532 
 
 ;i 2,652,343 
 3,404,619 
 
 Increase 
 Decrease 
 
 208,130 
 
 537,075 
 
 1,497,481 
 
 752,276 
 
 So that the first class receipts decreased 27 per cent., 
 and the second class 59 per cent., v/hile the third class 
 increased by 151 per cent., the total increase from all 
 '■■-lasses being 28 per cent., while within the same period 
 the capital invested in the undertaking increased to the 
 extent of about 46 per cent. 
 
 The passenger miles (not to be confounded with 
 passenger train miles) calculated in the manner above 
 described by assuming the average fares to have been • — 
 
 First Class. Second Class. Third Class. 
 
 D 
 
 In 1871 .... rSo 
 In 188S ... 1-50 
 give the following results :— 
 
 D 
 
 1-35 
 
 I-2S 
 
 D 
 
 ■90 
 •90 
 
 Vear. 
 
 First Cass. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Cass. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1871 
 
 1888 
 
 101,155.333 
 88,085,600 
 
 160,644,800 
 70,377,984 
 
 264,013,600 
 (63.341,867 
 
 525.Si3.733 
 821,805,451 
 
 Increase 
 Decrease 
 
 13.069,733 
 
 12-qVo 
 
 90,266,816 
 
 5f-2Vo 
 
 399,328,267 
 151-370 
 
 295.991,718 
 56-3V0 
 
252 AM ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 So that while the total receipts from all three classes 
 shew an increase of only 28 percent., the work done, 
 measured by passenger mileage, has increased by just 
 twice that amount, viz , by 56 per cent. 
 
 If the reader will now refer to the figures given at 
 page 125, he will find that the number of seats provided 
 in the company's carriage stock at the present time is : — 
 
 First Class 22,067 
 
 Second Class 22,506 
 
 Third Class 119,500 
 
 164,073 
 
 In 1 87 1 the numbers were: — • 
 
 First Class ... 19,462 
 
 Second Class 28,768 
 
 Third Class 44.960 
 
 93.190 
 
 Thus the accommodation has in the aggregate been 
 increased by "jG per cent., while, the gross receipts, as 
 stated above, have only been augmented by 28 percent., 
 which shows — assuming that the carriage stock provided 
 in 1871 was proportionate to the requirements of the 
 traffic — that under present conditions the trains are not 
 so well and fully occupied as under the old state of 
 things, and that unprofitable mileage of carriage stock 
 is being run. 
 
 It has always been a somewhat vexed question 
 amongst railway statisticians as to what is the most 
 reliable method of arriving at an estimate of the relative 
 net profits derived from the various classes of passenger 
 traffic ; that is to say, that, having ascertained the total 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 253 
 
 cost of working the traffic as a whole, the difficulty is 
 to find a sure basis upon which to apportion it between 
 the three classes. The number of passengers carried 
 is obviously not a safe guide, because it is necessary 
 to take into consideration the wide difference in the 
 conditions under which they are conveyed. To divide 
 the amount in proportion to carriages employed is 
 impracticable, because a great number of the carriages 
 contain accommodation for all three classes in varying 
 proportions. The number of seats provided in the 
 carriages employed is a somewhat more reliable basis ; 
 but even this leaves something to be desired, because 
 a first class seat occupies more space in a train, and 
 adds more to its weight than a second class seat, while 
 even a second class seat occupies more space than a 
 third. In addition, the lavatories for first class, and 
 the great size and weight of the saloons of various 
 descriptions have to be reckoned with. 
 
 After very careful consideration of the subject, the 
 writer has arrived at the conclusion that the nearest 
 approximate results are to be obtained by apportioning 
 the total passenger working expenses betwen the three 
 classes in the ratio of the seat space occupied in the 
 entire carriage stock of a company, and a calculation 
 made upon this basis, with regard to the passenger traffic 
 of the London and North Western Railway in 1888, 
 and in 1871, the last year before the introduction of the 
 changes which have been enumerated, gives the follow- 
 ing results : 
 
254 
 
 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 Year. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 1871 
 IS88 
 
 Working 
 Expenses 
 per cent. 
 
 Net profit 
 per cent. 
 
 Working 
 Expenses 
 per cent. 
 
 Net Profit 
 per cent. 
 
 Working 
 Expenses 
 per cent. 
 
 Net Profit 
 per cent. 
 
 53"oo 
 92-05 
 
 47-00 
 7-95 
 
 51-55 
 72-55 
 
 48-45 
 27-45 
 
 36-35 
 42-25 
 
 63-65 
 
 57-75 
 
 If it be assumed that these figures are approximately 
 correct, and that the principle adopted in arriving 
 at them is theoretically sound, which there is probably 
 not much reason to doubt, their significance can hardly 
 be exaggerated. It will be seen that the net profit on 
 first class traffic, which, in 1871 was nearly half of the 
 gross receipts, has by reason of the reduction of fares 
 and the greatly enhanced cost of working (from causes 
 which have already been dwelt upon) diminished until 
 in the year 1888, it represents not quite eight percent, of 
 the gross receipts. The profit upon second class traffic, 
 which, in 1871 was also neatly half the receipts, has 
 row, from the same causes, dwindled to little more than 
 a quarter, while even the profit on third class traffic has 
 fallen off to some extent, although not so seriously, 
 owing to the fares remaining practically undisturbed. 
 
 Another calculation shov/s that the net earnings per 
 .passenger per mile, after payment of working expenses, 
 for the two periods under comparison, were approxi- 
 mately, as under : — 
 
 First Class. Second Class. Third Class. 
 
 D. D. D. 
 
 1871 -85 -65 -57 
 
 I8J8 -12 -34 -52 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 255 
 
 So that, under the old state of things, the first class 
 traffic paid best, but the second class paid better than 
 the third ; while, under present conditions, the third 
 class is the most remunerative traffic, the second class 
 comes next, and the profit en first class appears to be 
 very small indeed. 
 
 During the period of eighteen years which has elapsed 
 between the years 1870 and 1888, although the mileage 
 of railways owned and worked by the London and North 
 Western Company has only increased to the extent of 
 forty-five per cent., the passenger train mileage has 
 increased by sixty-one per cent, and the gross amount 
 of fuel consumed per annum by passenger engines has 
 been augmented by no less than 142 per cent, or in 
 more than double the ratio of the increase of train 
 mileage, showing the unmistakeable effect of the in- 
 creased speed, and the heavier weights to which motive 
 power has to be applied. The total number of pas- 
 sengers carried has increased, it is true, by eighty-seven 
 percent, but the earnings have only been improved to half 
 that extent, or by forty- four per cent, while the number of 
 passengers conveyed for the expenditure of one ton of 
 fuel has fallen by 22 per cent. — that is to say, that the 
 amount of fuel, which in 1870 was sufficient to convey 
 100 passengers, in 1888 only sufficed to convey about 
 seventy-eight, owing to the greater amount of dead 
 weight to be hauled, and the higher speed to be main- 
 tained. 
 
 Mr. Price Williams, Mem. Inst. Civil Engineers, who 
 has achieved a considerable reputation as an inde- 
 fatigable statistician, and an authority on most questions 
 relating to railways, submitted to the writer, about four 
 years ago, some very interesting calculations which he 
 
256 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y, 
 
 had prepared with the view of demonstrating what he 
 believed to be the unproductive character of the first and 
 second class traffic upon the principal railways, consequent 
 upon the altered policy which had been brought about 
 since 1873, and to which reference has been made-. 
 These calculations assumed the form of an analysis of 
 the passenger receipts and working expenses of the 
 London and North Western Railway during a long period 
 of years, viz., from i860 to 1884, and as they impressed 
 me very much at the time as showing striking re- 
 sults, and bearing out to a great extent the conclusions 
 at which I had already arrived, it may be worth while to 
 give a brief abstract of them in this connection, 
 
 Mr. Williams' figures, which were most carefully pre- 
 pared, showed that from i860 to 187 1 the net profits 
 from first and second class continued to be over 50 per 
 cent, of the gross receipts, although the average gross 
 receipts per passenger and per train mile were gradually 
 reduced. In 1873, the first year in which the policy of 
 attaching third class carriages to all trains was brought 
 fully to bear, although the gross receipts from first-class 
 traffic continued to increase, there was a larger growth in 
 the working expenses, and the first class net receipts there- 
 fore fell off from 2s.9^d to 2s. 3^d. per passenger, and from 
 7^d. to S|d. per train mile. The second class suffered to an 
 even greater extent, the number of passengers of that class 
 having decreased from 8,281,366 in 1871 to 5,418,494 in 
 1873, and the gross receipts from £"867,099 to ;£'s 57,200. 
 The second class net receipts fell from is. 3d. per pas- 
 senger to 9d., and the net receipts per train mile from 
 lod. to not quite 4d. The third class receipts, as might 
 have been expected, were very largely increased. 
 
 Coming to the year 1875, the year in which second 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 257 
 
 class was abolished on the Midland Railway, and the 
 fares were consequently reduced, as previously described, 
 we find that, although the number of first class passengers 
 conveyed by the London and North Western Company 
 reached its maximum of 3,288,661, the net receipts were^ 
 owing to the reduction of the fares, only is. 6^d. per 
 passenger, and 4d. per train mile, as against 2s. 3d. per 
 passenger, and Sd. per train mile in 1873. The second 
 class net receipts, from the same cause, were similarly 
 affected. 
 
 From 1875 to 1881 the number of first and second 
 class passengers and the receipts continued rapidly to 
 decrease, and the third class to increase, in a remarkable 
 degree. The net receipts from first class fell from is. 6|d. 
 to IS. 2d. per passenger, and from 4d. to 2d. per train 
 mile, and in the second class, although the gross receipts 
 per passenger were slightly increased, the net receipts 
 were reduced from 5d. to 4d. per passenger, and from 
 2jd. to less than a penny per train mile. 
 
 The figures for the last period compared, from 1881 to 
 1884, continue to show the same tendency, but in an 
 accelerated degree, the effect of the decrease, year by 
 year, in the first and second class gross receipts, com- 
 bined with the increase in the working expenses, being 
 to still further diminish the slender profit upon these 
 classes of traffic, until we find that in the year 1884 the 
 net profit per first class passenger has come down to 
 S"7id., as against 3s. 5d. in i860, and from iid. per 
 train mile to ■68d. The net profit upon each second 
 class passenger, which in i860 was is. 2d., in 18 84 has 
 fallen to 2d., and the net profit per train mile has been 
 reduced from nearly a shilling to less than a halfpenny. 
 
 It will be seen that the tendency of these figures, 
 
 s 
 
2S8 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 although they have been compiled by a different hand, 
 and arrived at by a different process, is to confirm the 
 conclusions based upon the more recent calculations 
 prepared under the vi^riter's directions, and which have 
 already been quoted, and to show that the altered con- 
 ditions under which the business is carried on have con- 
 tributed to render the profits derived from first and 
 second class very small indeed, and that the companies 
 must now look chiefly to the third class traffic for their 
 revenue. In fact, in contemplating the returns for a series 
 of years, nothing is more striking than the enormous 
 and uninterrupted growth in the number of third class 
 passengers from year to year, no matter how the other 
 classes may fluctuate. The companies, in short, have 
 spent and are spending large sums of money in provid- 
 ing the most luxurious accommodation, and every facility 
 and convenience for the benefit of the superior classes, 
 but they are doing this practically at their own expense, 
 and it is really the humble and once despised third class 
 traveller who furnishes the sinews of war. It must be 
 borne in mind, moreover, that although the figures show 
 a profit, however small, upon the carrying of first class 
 passengers, this result is only arrived at as an average, 
 by treating all first class passengers alike, and while it 
 may still be a profitable busmess to carry first class 
 J season-ticket holders, or passengers by local and 
 suburban trains, it may well be doubted whether, under 
 present circumstances, upon first class passengers carried 
 long distances by express trains — say between London 
 and Scotland — there is any profit at all. 
 
 On the whole, therefore, it would appear that the 
 revenue to be derived from the conveyance of passenger 
 traffic upon English railways is a diminished and 
 
PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 259 
 
 diminishing quantity, and that it is only the fall during 
 recent years in the value of materials, especially of coal, 
 and other favourable circumstances, that have enabled 
 the principal companies to fairly maintain their divi- 
 dends ; while if the present conditions with regard to 
 passenger traffic remain unaltered, and there should be any 
 material rise in prices of stores, or loss upon the working 
 of the goods traffic by reason of bad trade, or if there 
 should be any considerable reductions of the Parlia- 
 .mentary powers of the companies, which are now 
 undergoing revision at the hands of the Board of Trade 
 in conformity with the Railway and Canal Traffic Act 
 of last Session, then the outlook for railway shareholders 
 would be a serious one for them to contemplate. 
 
 There seems to be no reason to doubt that the state 
 of things thus described, so unfavourable from the railway 
 shareholders' point of view, has been brought about 
 chiefly by reason of the lengths to which the companies 
 have gradually proceeded, under the pressure of compe- 
 tition, in making concessions without adequate remunera- 
 tion for the privileges bestowed. These concessions have 
 certainly been very great, and they have had the effect 
 of placing railway travellers in Great Britain in an 
 extremely favoured position as compared with the public 
 who use the Continental railways, since there need be 
 no hesitation in saying that although the methods of 
 working in France, Belgium, Germany, and Austria may 
 be sufficiently well adapted to the circumstances of those 
 countries respectively, they are not such as would com- 
 mend themselves to the British public. On most Con- 
 tinental railways the express trains carry, as a rule, only 
 first and second class passengers, and the fastest trains 
 travel, on an average, ten miles an hour less than the 
 
26o AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 express trains in England. The permanent way — con- 
 structed with Vignoles, or ilat-bottomed rails bolted to 
 the sleepers, without chairs, and weighing considerably 
 -less to the yard than the rails commonly in use in this 
 country — is not adapted to bear the enormous strain 
 which would be imposed upon it by long and heavy 
 trains running at the high rates of speed which prevail 
 upon English railways. 
 
 It is evident that the readiness of English railway 
 companies to yield to the demands of the public, 
 ;and to proceed from one concession to another, 
 -has arisen from the peculiar nature of the traffic of a 
 country of limited extent like Great Britain, and where 
 the business is so extremely competitive. Most of the 
 railways in Germany, Austria, and Belgium are either 
 State railways, or are controlled more or less by the 
 State, and are worked not only for the benefit of the 
 travelling public, but with an eye to the improvement of 
 the State revenue ; and in France, although the principal 
 railways have been constructed by private Companies, it 
 has been done upon a system of territorial concession 
 ■for a period of time, the State reserving a control over 
 the fixing of the rates and charges, so that the question 
 of competition seldom arises. In England, on the con- 
 trary, the Legislature has fostered the principle of com- 
 petition by sanctioning the construction of railways 
 forming alternative routes between most points of im- 
 portance. For instance, between London and Manches- 
 ter there are three routes open to the intending traveller ; 
 between London and Liverpool there are three, between 
 London and Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, or Aberdeen, 
 three ; between London and Leeds, three, between 
 Liverpool and Manchester three, between London and 
 
. PASSENGER TRAFFIC. 261 
 
 the principal places in the West of England two ; and 
 so on throughout the country. 
 
 From London to Manchester the London and North 
 Western Company are running 16 trains daily, the 
 Great Northern Company are running 8, and the Mid- 
 land Company the same number. From London to 
 Liverpool the North Western Company are running 13 
 trains daily, the Midland Company 9, and the Great 
 Northern Company 6. From London to the principal 
 places in Scotland, the North Western Company run 8 
 trains daily, the Midland Company 6, and the Great 
 Northern Company 6. Between Liverpool and Manches- 
 ter the London and NorthWestern Company run upwards 
 of 20 express trains a day in each direction, the Cheshire 
 Lines Committee run about 25, and the Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire Company will shortly be running about an 
 equal number. Many of these trains run at the same 
 times, or nearly so. For example, both the North 
 Western and Great Northern Companies have trains 
 leaving London for Scotland at 10 a.m., and the Mid- 
 land Company have a similar train only half-an-hour 
 later. By three different routes a train leaves Liverpool 
 for London at or near 4.0 p.m., and such instances 
 might be multiplied indefinitely, the trains in most 
 cases performing the journey in about the same time, 
 and at precisely the same fares. The traffic is thus 
 acutely competitive, and the conditions being so equal, 
 it requires but a trifling inducement to influence the 
 travelling public in the choice of route, so that there is 
 a constant temptation to the competing companies to 
 make fresh concessions so as to attract the business 
 from their rivals ; and as any new departure by one 
 company is immediately followed by its competitors, it 
 
262 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 becomes at once stereotyped, and merely forms a basis 
 for still further concessions. 
 
 It may be, of course, that during the busiest season 
 — extending over four or five months of the year — there 
 is sufficient traffic to utilise the whole of the trains run 
 by the various routes ; but there is no doubt that during 
 the remaining seven months the accommodation pro- 
 vided is, in the aggregate, far in excess of the require- 
 ments, and that, as a matter of fact, the trains are 
 frequently run with very few passengers in them, doing 
 little more than paying their expenses. 
 
 So far as the public are concerned there is, of course, 
 in all this nothing to be complained of; but if it be 
 asked from a railway shareholder's point of view, Avhat 
 is the remedy for the loss of revenue which has been 
 indicated, although it is not impossible to find an 
 answer to the question, the solution of the problem is 
 one involving many difficulties. As regards increasing 
 the traffic greatly beyond its present volume, there is 
 probably not much to be hoped for, the country being 
 limited in extent, and the possibilities of expansion being 
 circumscribed by the amount of the population, although 
 it will, naturally, always fluctuate with the prosperity of 
 the country. The only thing to be done in this direc- 
 tion is to follow out the policy which has already been 
 adopted by most of the companies, of granting low fares 
 and season ticket rates between all the large centres of 
 population and places within a radius of about twenty 
 miles, so as to build up a residential traffic, by encourag- 
 ing the people to live in the healthier suburbs instead 
 of in the large towns in which they pursue their avoca- 
 tions. As regards long distance traffic it is very doubtful 
 whether the reduction of fares, or any other concessions, 
 
PASSENGES TRAFFIC. 263 
 
 tend to materially increase the volume of business ; as 
 a rule people do not take long journeys unless they are 
 called upon by actual necessity to do so, and in that 
 case they will travel, whatever the fare may be, within 
 reasonable limits. Of course, however, this remark is 
 not intended to apply to the traffic between large towns 
 and seaside or other holiday resorts, which all the com- 
 panies encourage by granting return tickets at low 
 fares during the summer months, this being a case in 
 which, by judicious concessions, a traffic is created which 
 would not otherwise exist to anything like the same 
 extent. 
 
 A return to the earlier practice of conveying third 
 class passengers only by secondary trains, combined 
 with a general reduction of speed, is practically out of 
 the question, for if anyone were sufficiently bold to pro- 
 pose any such retrograde policy, it would encounter the 
 strongest tide of public opinion in opposition to it, and 
 it would be impossible to get all the companies to adopt 
 and adhere to it in the face of the pressure which would 
 be brought to bear upon them. For good or evil 
 these concessions have been granted and cannot now 
 be withdrawn, and it only remains for the railway com- 
 panies to make the best of the situation as it exists, and 
 to endeavour to protect themselves against further 
 losses. In the end, it seems probable that the com- 
 panies, if they are wise, will achieve this object by some 
 kind of combination amongst themselves by which 
 excessive competition may be obviated, and two or 
 more companies carrying between common points may 
 be enabled to reduce their train mileage, to curtail the 
 running of unprofitable trains and a great deal of un- 
 necessary expenditure, and to keep the speed of the trains 
 
264 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y, 
 
 witl^in reasonable limits, so as, without lessening the 
 accommodation afforded to the public, to preserve con- 
 ditions under which the business of carrying passengers 
 may again be conducted with a fair margin of profit to 
 those whose capital is engaged in it. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 On the Law as between English Railway 
 Companies and the Public. 
 
 It is not the writer's intention, under this heading, to 
 enter upon a minute examination of the whole body of 
 what is known as "Railway Law." The limits of the 
 present work would not indeed admit of this, nor is it 
 necessary, for books of reference already exist, edited by 
 competent hands, and affording the widest information 
 upon all the legal questions which can arise in connection 
 with railways. These are, however, for the most part 
 overlaid with legal formulae, references to case law and 
 Acts of Parliament, and contain a great deal of matter 
 which can possess no interest for the general reader ; so 
 that, without in any way trenching upon their pro- 
 vince, it may be useful to give here a brief summary, 
 in " language to be understanded of the people," of the 
 most important provisions of the laws which govern 
 railway companies in their daily dealings with the public. 
 It has been said that a little law, like a little knowledge, 
 is a dangerous thing ; and it has been likewise remarked 
 that " the man who is his own lawyer has a fool for his 
 client "; but all this proverbial philosophy must be taken 
 cum grano, and it may well be that a little intelligent 
 appreciation of the state of the law on a given subject 
 
266 AN ENGLISH RAIL WA Y. 
 
 may suffice to keep a man out of the law courts when a 
 resort to litigation could only end in the loss of time, 
 temper, and money. 
 
 The law as affecting railways is defined in various 
 ways. There are, first, the provisions of the special Acts 
 authorising the making of the several railways ; secondly, 
 the various public Acts which have been passed from 
 time to time for the regulation of railways ; thirdly, there 
 is what is known as common law, or the custom of the 
 realm ; and in addition to all these, there is a great body 
 of what is called " case law,'' that is, the recorded 
 decisions which have been given by the Courts at different 
 times upon disputed questions involving the interpreta- 
 tion of Acts of Parliament. In the remarks that 
 follow, we shall treat all these authorities as one for our 
 purpose, and merely attempt to give the reader some 
 idea of what, in the present state of the law, he has a 
 right to demand from the railway companies in his 
 dealings with them, and what, on the other hand, they 
 are entitled to expect from him. 
 
 In considering railway law, nearly every thing appears 
 to turn upon the great question of what constitutes a 
 " common carrier," and if this point is once clearly 
 established in a given case, the rights, liabilities, and 
 immunities of a common carrier are pretty clearly defined 
 by the authorities. We learn, then, that a " common 
 carrier" is one who undertakes the conveyance of goods 
 or passengers for hire or reward, and therefore stands in 
 the light of a bailee. He must exercise the business of 
 carrying as a public employment, and must undertake 
 to carry all persons, or the goods of all persons, as the 
 case may be, indiscriminately. Having become a common 
 carrier, as thus defined, the law places upon him the du(j/ 
 
ON LA W RBLA TING TO RAIL WA Y COMPANIES. 267 
 
 to carry, according to his profession, though there may 
 be no specific agreement as to the performance of the 
 service, or the price to be charged for it, and, with 
 certain reservations, which will be noticed hereafter, he 
 becomes an msurer, and is liable for loss or damage, 
 unless such loss or damage arises from the act of God or 
 the Queen's enemies. 
 
 Legally speaking, railway companies are not common 
 carriers unless they choose to constitute themselves as 
 such. The Railway Clauses Consolidation Act of 1845 
 provides that it shall be lawful for a railway company 
 to employ engines and carriages and convey passengers 
 and goods, but it does not say that they shall do so. 
 Thus some of the earlier railway companies simply 
 allowed other people to run their own engines and 
 carriages over the railway on payment of tolls, and they 
 were not common carriers ; but so soon as a railway 
 company exercises its discretion under the Act of 1845, 
 and holds itself out to the world as a common carrier, it 
 comes within the operation of all the provisions of 
 carrier's law, which, with some variations, applies equally 
 to all other means of conveyance, whether by land or 
 water. 
 
 A railway company is not entitled to make any 
 charges for the services it performs, in excess of the 
 charges specified in the Acts relating to its under- 
 taking. 
 
 From this point it will be convenient to divide the 
 remarks which follow under two heads, viz., (a) as to the 
 law affecting the carriage of merchandise (in which term 
 is included coal and other minerals, and live stock) ;,and 
 (b) as to the law affecting the conveyance of passengers, 
 and their luggage. 
 
268 AN^ ENGLISH RAIL WA V. 
 
 (^.)— As TO THE Law affecting the Carriage 
 OF Merchandise. 
 
 (i.) A common carrier, as a general rule, is bound by 
 the common law to receive and carry, to those places 
 which he holds himself out as carrying to, all goods 
 offered to him for that purpose, from all persons alike 
 upon the tender of payment for his hire ; and if he 
 refuses to do this, an action is maintainable against 
 him. It must, however, be proved that he had the 
 means of carrying the goods ; that, in the case of goods 
 of great value, he had the means of carrying them 
 securely, and that they were offered to him at a reason- 
 able time. 
 
 He is only liable to carry to such places as he holds 
 himself out to be a common carrier to and from, and 
 then only to carry such descriptions of goods as he 
 professes to carry. As will be seen hereafter, there are 
 certain articles of which railway companies are not, and 
 decline to be, common carriers. 
 
 (2.) A carrier may refuse to take the custody of 
 goods unless he is previously paid the price of their 
 carriage. Railway companies, as a matter of practice, 
 charge the carriage forward, if so desired, and collect it 
 from the consignee, and in some cases they allow ledger 
 accounts and collect their freight charges monthly ; but, 
 in so doing, they waive their rights in order to meet the 
 convenience of their customers. 
 
 (3.) The responsibility of a carrier commences on 
 the delivery of the goods to him and continues until he 
 has delivered them or tendered them for delivery to the 
 consignee. Many actions at law have turned upon the 
 question of what constitutes "delivery" to a carrier, and 
 
ON LAW RELATING TO RAILWAY COMPANIES. 269 
 
 the point is one of some delicacy ; but, speaking generally, 
 it may be said that the goods must be delivered by the 
 sender or his accredited agent actually into the hands 
 ■ of the carrier, or some person who can be shown to be 
 his agent, for the purpose of receiving them ; for instance, 
 his carman or the keeper of one of his receiving offices. 
 
 (4.) Goods delivered to a carrier must be properly 
 and securely packed, and if any injury arises to them 
 during their conveyance from their being, unknown to 
 the carrier, improperly or insufficiently packed, the 
 carrier is absolved from liability. 
 
 (S.) If any fraud or deceit be practised on the 
 carrier whereby the real value of goods is concealed 
 from him, and he is induced to regard them as of com- 
 paratively trifling value, he is not liable in case they be 
 lost or stolen from him. 
 
 (6.) Railway companies are not bound to carry 
 articles of a dangerous nature, such as gunpowder or 
 other explosives, or lucifer matches ; and if a person 
 sends such articles by railway without declaring their 
 true nature, he is liable to a penalty. The company 
 may refuse to accept any package which they have 
 reason to suspect contains goods of a dangerous nature, 
 or to require that the package shall be opened so as to 
 ascertain the facts. 
 
 Railway companies are not common carriers of 
 articles of this description, and only convey them by 
 arrangement with the senders, and under proper regu- 
 lations. 
 
 (7.) At common law a carrier is in the nature of 
 an insurer, and is bound to keep and carry goods 
 entrusted to his care safely, and is liable for all losses, 
 and in all events save only, as before mentioned, those 
 
270 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 resulting from the act of God or the Queen's enemies ; 
 and this holds good notwithstanding that there may- 
 have been no actual negligence on his part, and that 
 the injury or loss may have been occasioned by the act 
 of a third party. The " Act of God " has been defined 
 as being something in opposition to the act of man, as 
 for example, winds and storms, lightning, earthquake, 
 inundations, or sudden illness or death, the consequences 
 of which could not by any reasonable precautions on the 
 part of the carrier have been prevented. " The Queen's 
 Enemies" means foreign enemies, who are such by 
 open declaration of war ; not domestic enemies, as in the 
 case of insurrection or riot, where the carrier, if made 
 liable, would have his remedy in turn against the 
 county. 
 
 (8.) The carrier is liable for the loss of goods occa- 
 sioned by fire while in his possession as a carrier, notwith- 
 standing that the fire may not have originated on his 
 premises, or been caused by his negligence ; but if the 
 carrier is merely acting in the capacity of a warehouse- 
 man for the owner of the goods, the liability of a 
 common carrier will no longer attach to him. 
 
 (9.) A carrier is not liable for losses or damage 
 arising from the ordinary deterioration of goods in 
 quantity or quality during transit, or from their inherent 
 tendency to decay or deteriorate, or from accident 
 occurring to any animal through its own inherent vice. 
 
 (10.) At a very early period in the history of rail- 
 ways, viz., in 1830, an Act was passed, which, although 
 at the time intended for the protection of coach pro- 
 prietors, mail contractors, and other carriers by road, 
 was, by the 89th section of the Railways Clauses 
 Consolidation Act of 1845, extended to railway 
 
ON LA W RELA TING TO RAIL WA Y COMPANIES. 271 
 
 companies in their capacity as common carriers. Tills 
 Act (I. Will. IV. cap. 68) is popularly known as the 
 "Carriers' Act," and it has a very important bearing 
 upon the liability of a railway company for loss of, 
 or damage to, valuable goods entrusted to its care. 
 
 The principle of the Act is contained in the first and 
 second clauses, which provide that no common carrier 
 by land for hire shall be liable for the loss of, or injur" 
 to, any articles of the following descriptions, viz. : — 
 
 Gold or silver coin. Writings. 
 
 Gold or silver in a manu- Title deeds. 
 
 factored or unmanu- Paintings. 
 
 factured state. Engravings. 
 
 Precious stones. Pictures. 
 
 Jewellery. Gold or silver plate 
 
 Watches. or plated articles. 
 
 Clocks and timepieces. Glass. 
 
 Trinkets. China. 
 
 Bills. Silks, manufactured or 
 
 Bank notes. unmanufactured, and 
 
 Orders, notes or securities whether wrought up 
 
 for payment of money. with other material or 
 
 Stamps, Englishor Foreign, Furs. [not. 
 
 Maps. Lace. 
 
 whether delivered to be carried for hire or to accompany 
 the person of a passenger by any public conveyance, 
 when the value of such article exceeds ten pounds, 
 unless at the time of delivery to the carrier the nature 
 and value of such articles shall have been declared by 
 the sender, and he shall have paid, or agreed to pay, 
 such additional charge, over and above the ordinary 
 rate of carriage, as the carrier shall, by notice, demand 
 
272 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 as compensation for the greater risk and care to be 
 taken for the conveyance of the articles. In plain 
 terms, the carrier is not liable unless the sender declares 
 the value and pays the charge for insurance fixed by 
 the carrier, and railway companies give effect to this 
 Act by fixing an ad valorem scale of insurance for 
 the articles named in the Act, this scale being duly 
 advertised in their time tables and by other means. 
 
 By an amending Act, passed in 1865, it was enacted 
 that the term " lace " should be construed so as not to 
 include machine-made lace. It should also be mentioned 
 that the Act of 1830 limits the carrier's liability to the 
 declared value of the goods, plus the additional charge 
 for insurance, but does not preclude the carrier from 
 reducing this liability by proving that the declared value 
 exceeds the actual value, if such be the case. Further, 
 as the intention of the Act, as stated in its preamble, 
 was to protect the carrier from the risk of depredation 
 of articles of great value in small compass, it very 
 properly provided that, where such depredation was 
 committed by the servants of the carrier, he should be 
 liable notwithstanding any of the provisions of the 
 Act. 
 
 (11.) When rai^ay companies first commenced to 
 carry horses, cattle, sheep, and other live stock, they 
 were in the habit of giving notice to the senders that 
 they were not common carriers of live stock, and that 
 they only conveyed it on the understanding that the 
 owners took the entire risk, and this notice, being 
 printed on the ticket, was held by the courts to be a 
 special contract, and legal and binding upon both parties; 
 but by an Act passed in 1854, entitled, "An act for the 
 better regulation of the trafEc in railways and canals," 
 
 1 
 
ON LA W RELATING TO RAIL WA Y COMPANIES. 273 
 
 it was provided that in future all conditions limiting the 
 liability of railway companies should be void unless 
 they were reasonable, and were signed by the consignor, 
 with a further proviso limiting the liability of railway 
 companies for loss of, or injury to, animals and live 
 stock committed to their care, to the following 
 amounts : — 
 
 For any horse, not exceeding ;^so. 
 
 „ neat cattle, per head „ 1 5 
 
 „ sheep or pigs, per head „ 2 
 
 The companies are exempted from liability for any 
 greater sums than these, unless the sender shall declare 
 the value of the animals at the time of delivery to 
 them, and pay a reasonable charge for insurance, to be 
 fixed by the company, over and above the ordinary 
 rate of carriage. In point of fact, the principle of 
 the " Carriers' Act " is, with certain limitations, applied 
 to the conveyance of live stock. 
 
 (12.) By an Act passed in 1845 the railway company 
 is empowered, in any case where they fail to recover 
 the charges payable for the carriage of goods, to detain 
 and sell the goods, and to retain out of the profits of the 
 sale the amount due to them for freight, rendering up 
 the surplus, if any, to the owner of the goods. The 
 carrier may, however, sue for his carriage and is not 
 obliged to rely entirely upon his lien on the goods 
 where they are not equivalent in value to the amount 
 of the freight. 
 
 (13.) A railway company is also entitled to retain 
 possession of the goods until the amount due for freight 
 has been paid. 
 
 (14.) We have seen in clause 3 that the liability of a 
 
274 AN ENGLISH HAILIVAY. 
 
 carrier terminates only on the goods being delivered up 
 out of his custody to their owner, but this requires a 
 httle elucidation. The law provides that if the terms 
 of the carrier's contract with the sender necessitate his 
 transferring the goods to another company or con- 
 veyance in order to complete their transit, he is liable 
 throughout, and the company or person to whom he 
 hands them at the termination of their transit over his 
 own railway is looked upon as his agent ; but where, by 
 the terms of the contract, his own duty is complete and 
 the goods have passed out of his hands, the liability is 
 transferred to the third person, until the delivery of the 
 goods is completed. 
 
 Practically, this means that if the goods are booked 
 and the carriage paid throughout, the contracting 
 company, in the absence of any special condition to the 
 contrary, is liable for the whole journey; but if the 
 contracting company book the goods and are paid the 
 carriage from A to B only, and there, by the instructions 
 of the sender, hand them over to another company or • 
 carrier to convey from B to C, the liability for the 
 latter portion of the journey rests with the carrier from 
 B toC. 
 
 (15.) It is the duty of a carrier to deliver the goods 
 within a reasonable time according to the usage of trade, 
 the ordinary course of business, or the terms of the 
 contract. 
 
 (16.) We have seen that the responsibility of the 
 carrier continues until he has effected delivery of the 
 goods to the consignee, but much litigation has from 
 time to time arisen as to what constitutes a good 
 delivery. The point is one involving some difficulty, 
 but the following principles have been laid doAvn : — 
 
07V" LA W RELA TING TO RAIL WA Y COMPANIES. 275 
 
 («.) The carrier is bound to deliver the goods at 
 the place of business, or residence of the con- 
 signee, provided it be known to him, and that 
 he has been paid a charge which includes 
 delivery from the receiving station to the con- 
 signee's address. 
 
 (3.) If the carrier tenders the goods for delivery at 
 consignee's residence or place of business, and 
 the latter is not in a position to pay for their 
 carriage, the carrier's liability is at an end, 
 as he is not bound to bring them a second 
 time. The consignee must fetch them away 
 when he is in a position to pay the carriage. 
 
 (^.) Where it is not part of the duty of the carrier 
 to deliver the goods to the consignee's resi- 
 dence, as in the case of goods carried at 
 station to station {i.e., not carted rates), or 
 where the consignee's residence or place of 
 business is beyond the recognised limits of 
 delivery, the carrier is bound to give notice to 
 the consignee of the arrival of the goods ; and 
 when a reasonable time for their removal has 
 elapsed, the liability of the carrier for loss or 
 damage ceases, and he is, in law, held to have 
 effected a constructive delivery. 
 
 (17.) If the carrier delivers goods to any other than 
 the person entitled to receive them, he is liable to the 
 proper owner for their value. 
 
 (18.) The sender of goods has a right of what is 
 called "stoppage in transitu," which may be exercised 
 in the following circumstances: — If goods are sold upon 
 credit and delivered to a carrier to be conveyed to the 
 
276 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 buyer, and if, while the goods are in transit, the buyer, 
 not having paid the whole of the purchase money, 
 becomes bankrupt, or fail, or stop payment, the sender 
 may countermand the consignment, and require the 
 goods to be re-delivered to himself, of course upon pay- 
 ment of the carriage. 
 
 (19.) When goods have been delivered to a carrier 
 for conveyance the property in them is vested in him 
 for the time being, and he is not obliged to give them up 
 again until he has been paid his charges. Even if the 
 sender changes his mind and does not require them to 
 be forwarded, the carrier may still demand his hire 
 because by taking the goods into his custody he has 
 already incurred risks. The carrier, while he is liable 
 to the owner for the safety of the goods, may maintain 
 an action at law in his own name against a third party 
 who takes them out of his possession or damages them, 
 just in the same way as a letter while in transit through 
 the post, is held to be, at law, the property of the Post- 
 master-General. 
 
 (20.) When goods are directed to be left with the 
 carrier until called for, and the consignee does not 
 remove them within a reasonable time, the carrier is 
 entitled to make a charge for warehousing them. 
 
 (21.) In an action against a carrier for loss of goods 
 the amount to be recovered depends upon the extent 
 of the carrier's liability, ?>., upon whether he is liable 
 for the whole value of the goods, or whether his liability 
 has been limited by Act of Parliament (as, for instance, 
 in the case of a horse carried at the uninsured rate), or 
 by any special contract. If no special damage can be 
 proved, the plaintiff cannot recover beyond the value of 
 the goods. 
 
ON LA W RELA TING TO RAIL WA Y COMPANIES. 277 
 
 In the case of the non-delivery of goods, a plaintifil 
 is entitled to recover the value of the goods at the 
 place of delivery, at the time at which they ought to 
 have been delivered, so that, in the case of goods sent 
 to a market, the plaintiff is entitled, not merely to the 
 cost price, but to the market value ; and in the case of 
 delay in delivery, he is entitled to recover any diffe- 
 rence between the market value at the time when the 
 goods ought to have been delivered and at the time 
 when they were actually delivered. 
 
 In other cases, special damages for delay may be 
 recovered even when the article delayed has suffered no 
 deterioration in value, as, for instance, when the com- 
 pany has accepted the goods with notice that their non- 
 delivery by a specified date will defeat the object with 
 which they are sent ; but only such damages can be 
 recovered as must be taken to have been within the 
 contemplation of the parties to the contract of carriage 
 when such contract was entered into, and as might 
 reasonably be expected to result from a breach of such 
 contract. 
 
 (5.)— As TO THE Law affecting the Conveyance 
 OF Passengers and their Luggage, 
 
 (i.) A railway company, having constituted itself a 
 carrier of passengers, is boimd to convey upon its 
 railway all such passengers as may offer themselves for 
 that purpose, without unreasonable delay, and without 
 partiality, and if a railway company issues time-tables 
 and advertises that a train will run at a particular time, 
 this amounts to a contract on their part to run the 
 train and convey all persons who offer themselves as 
 
278 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 passengers, provided they are prepared to pay the usual 
 fare, and that there is room in the train. 
 
 (2.) The passenger must be in a fit and proper state 
 as to sobriety, health and conduct, so as not to cause 
 offence or danger to the other passengers. A railway 
 company is not compelled to convey upon their railway 
 a person who is intoxicated or insane, or who is suffering 
 from an infectious disease. A passenger is also bound 
 to submit to all reasonable regulations which may be 
 adopted for the convenience, safety and comfort of the 
 public. 
 
 (3.) By an Act passed in 1883, called the "Cheap 
 Trains Act," it is provided that if at any time the 
 Board of Trade have reason to believe that upon any 
 railway or system of railways, whether belonging to one 
 company or more than one, but which forms a continuous 
 mode of communication, a due and sufficient proportion 
 of the accommodation provided is not available for 
 passengers at fares not exceeding one penny per mile, 
 or that upon any passenger railway proper and suffi- 
 cient workmen's trains are not provided for workmen 
 going to and returning from their work at such fares 
 and at such times between 6 p.m. and 8 a.m. as appear 
 to the Board of Trade to be reasonable and necessary, 
 they may hold an enquiry, and, if called upon to do so 
 by any railway company concerned, may refer the 
 matter for the decision of the Railway Commissioners. 
 If the result of the enquiry is to prove to the satisfaction 
 of the Board of Trade or of the Railway Commissioners 
 that such proper accommodation is not provided, then 
 the Board or the Railway Commissioners, as the case 
 maybe, may order the company to provide such accom- 
 modation, and at such fares as seem to them reasonable. 
 
ON LA W RELA TING TO RAIL WA V COMPANIES. 279 
 
 As a matter of fact, this power has, on several occasions, 
 been exercised by the Board of Trade since the passing 
 of the Act. 
 
 (4.) A railway company, in carrying passengers, is 
 not subject to the same liabilities as apply to a common 
 carrier of goods. It has been shown in the first portion 
 of this chapter, that as to goods the carrier is in the posi- 
 tion of an insurer, and is liable in all events except the 
 act of God or the Queen's enemies, but he is not called 
 upon absolutely to warrant the safety of the passengers. 
 He only undertakes that so far as human care and fore- 
 sight can go he will provide for their safe conveyance ; 
 he is to use the utmost care and diligence, and is respon- 
 sible for the consequences of the slightest neglect on his 
 part, but his liability goes no further. Thus, in a case 
 where an accident occurred through the breaking-down 
 of a bridge the Court held that if the bridge was con- 
 structed by a competent engineer, and of reasonable and 
 proper strength for the purpose, and was maintained 
 with due care and skill, the company was not liable. 
 
 (5.) A railway company is responsible for the negli- 
 gence or default of its servants within the scope of their 
 legitimate employment as if their acts were its own. Thus, 
 if a signalman causes an accident by giving a wrong 
 signal, the company is liable ; but if a porter or telegraph 
 boy were to mischievously, or without authority, interfere 
 with the signals, or with an engine and cause an accident, 
 the company would not be liable. 
 
 (6.) A railway company is bound to carry free, with 
 each passenger, his personal luggage to an amount 
 fixed by the Acts of Incorporation of the several rail- 
 way companies, according to the class of carriage in 
 which the passenger travels. This amount varies in 
 
ago AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 different Acts, but, in practice, the railway companies 
 carry free 120 lbs., 100 lbs., and 60 lbs., for ist, 2nd, 
 and 3rd class passengers respectively, and the com- 
 pany's liability with respect to passengers' luggage is 
 the same as that with respect to goods entrusted to it 
 for conveyance, so long as the passenger's luggage 
 is under the charge of the company. If, however, 
 the passenger takes the luggage under his own con- 
 trol, the company's liability is diminished, and only 
 arises where negligence is shown on the part of its 
 servants. 
 
 (7.) The question of what constitutes personal 
 luggage has been the subject of many judicial decisions, 
 but, broadly speaking, personal luggage may be defined 
 as consisting of such articles as the passenger requires 
 for his own use or personal convenience upon or in 
 connection with his journey, although more recent 
 decisions have included articles which might not 
 perhaps fall strictly within that definition. 
 
 As a negative definition, however, it may be said that 
 personal luggage does not include merchandise and 
 materials intended for trade purposes. 
 
 (8.) The provisions of the Carriers' Act apply equally 
 to passengers' luggage as to goods, and the foregoing 
 remarks upon the subject of that Act may be taken as 
 referring to both, with the additional observation that, 
 though the Act protects the carrier from loss or damage 
 under the circumstances stated, it does not protect him 
 from the consequences of delay, unless the delay is 
 such as to practically amount to a loss even though the 
 articles are eventually recovered. 
 
 (9.) If a passenger travels upon a railway without 
 paying his fare, or travels a greater distance than that 
 
ON LA W RELA TING TO RAIL WA Y COMPANIES. 281 
 
 for which he has paid, and there is evidence that he has 
 acted with a fraudulent intent, he is liable to a penalty, 
 and may be detained by any officer of the company, or 
 by any peace officer, until he can be brought before a 
 justice for the purpose of punishment. If there is no 
 evidence of fraud, the company have no right to detain 
 the individual or to use force to expel him from the 
 train after he has commenced his journey ; their proper 
 course is to exercise the right, which they possess, of 
 Hen on his luggage for payment of the fare, or to sue 
 him in a court of justice. 
 
 (10.) Under the bye-laws of railway companies 
 which they are by Act of Parliament empowered to 
 make, and which are legal and binding, a passenger is 
 bound to show his ticket when requested to do so by 
 any servant of the company. 
 
 (11.) In an action against a railway company for 
 refusing to carry, or for not carr>'ing, a passenger 
 within a reasonable time, the plaintiff, on proof of 
 negligence, is entitled to recover any extra expense he 
 may have reasonably incurred in reaching his desti- 
 nation by other means, and he may also, within certain 
 limits, recover damages for any loss or expense which 
 he may have sustained by reason of the delay ; but 
 the extent to which these special, or consequential, 
 damages may be recovered involves the consideration 
 of many intricate questions of law which v/ould be- 
 beyond the scope of this chapter, although the prin- 
 ciples already laid down with regard to the recovery of 
 special damages for delay to goods may be taken 
 as generally applicable. 
 
 In an action for loss of, or injury to, the luggage of 
 a passenger, or for delay in delivery, the danjfiges will 
 
282 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 be assessed upon the same principles which apply to 
 goods. 
 
 (i2.) Railway companies are also liable for the 
 negligence of their servants, resulting in death or 
 personal injury to any person. In the case of death 
 no action was maintainable until the passing, in 1846, 
 of the Act known as Lord Campbell's Act, under which 
 an action can now be brought for the benefit of the 
 parents, grand parents, children, grandchildren or step- 
 children of the deceased person (but not on behalf of 
 any other relative or person), provided the action be 
 brought within twelve months of the death of the 
 deceased. In any such action, actual pecuniary loss 
 must be shown to have been sustained by the persons 
 for whose benefit the action is brought. 
 
 In an action for personal injury the plaintiff is en- 
 titled to recover, not only the pecuniary loss sustained 
 by him by reason of the accident, such as loss of salary, 
 wages or business profits, and any expenses incurred 
 for medical fees, extra nourishment, nursing, change of 
 air, assistance in business, and the like, but also com- 
 pensation for bodily pain and suffering. The claim 
 may, furthur, include compensation for losses or ex- 
 penses to be incurred before the plaintiff may have 
 completely recovered from the effects of the accident, 
 or for any permanent injury which he may have 
 sustained. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 On the Railways as a Means of Defence. " 
 
 It can hardly be necessary to insist upon the obvious 
 importance of the railway system when considered in 
 relation to the means of warfare, and more particularly 
 in connection with any scheme for the defence of the 
 country in the event of invasion. Thanks to our insular 
 position and to the admirable and powerful navy with 
 which England keeps the narrow seas, it may safely be 
 said that the possibility of an invader ever being able to 
 set foot on our shores, is more or less remote ; but there 
 have not been wanting those of late who have not 
 hesitated to discuss this contingency as one within 
 the regions of practicability, and, whether it be remote 
 or otherwise, it is only prudent to reckon with it. 
 
 If a calamity so great should at any time overtake us, 
 it is quite evident that the prospect of our being able to 
 repel the invader and maintain inviolate our hearths 
 and homes would to a very great extent depend upon 
 the perfect equipment and efficient working of the net- 
 work of railways which now covers these islands. The 
 Government have been fully alive to this fact, and 
 many years ago a step was taken which would probably 
 turn out to be a very prudent one if ever an emergency 
 should arise. A Corps was constituted which is termed 
 
2S4 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 the "Engineer and Railway Volunteer Staff Corps," 
 and which is composed of a certain number of engi- 
 neers, several of the great contractors, and the general 
 managers of most of the principal railways, the con- 
 tractors forming what is called the " Labour Branch " of 
 the Corps. The intention is that in case of an invasion 
 the officers of this-corps would superintend the working 
 of the railways, as they do in time of peace, but acting 
 then under the directions of the military commanders. 
 The railways of the country, so far as might be neces- 
 sary, and wholly if need be, would have to be, for the 
 time being, given up to the service of the State, as was 
 recently done in Western France, when the experiment 
 was tried of mobilising certain Army Corps, and by 
 thus utilising the means and appliances which are at all 
 times available, and making a free use of the perfect 
 organization and large resources of the great railway 
 companies, it is believed that no difficulty need be 
 anticipated in concentrating a considerable body of 
 troops within a brief period of time upon any part of 
 our shores that might be threatened by a foe. 
 
 In the early part of 1885, the War Office instituted a 
 kind of test of the ability of the officers of the Staff 
 Corps to perform this task, which it may be of interest 
 briefly to describe, as although, of course, merely on paper, 
 it served to afford a very fair idea of what could undoubt- 
 edly be accomplished by the railway companies in 
 case of jieed. The test took the form of an " Exercise " 
 proposed by order of the Commander-in-Chief, and 
 constituted in point of fact a kind of problem to which the 
 Staff Corps were required to furnish the solution. The 
 assumption was that an invading force numbering 
 150,000 men had commenced to disembark on the Coast 
 
HAJLWAYS AS A MEANS OF DEFENCE. 285 
 
 between Southend and Shoeburyness, and that hostile 
 vessels were simultaneously ascending the Blackwater 
 river to land a strong detachment at Stangate Abbey. 
 Instructions were supposed to have been issued by tele- 
 graph for the concentration of six Army Corps, number- 
 ing about 130,000 men, on the line of Stanford-le-Hope, 
 Billericay, and Chelmsford, with a view to occupy the 
 Basildon position and repel the invader, three Corps 
 being brought up as rapidly as possible, and the whole 
 within forty-eight hours'. Particulars were given as to 
 where the troops were stationed all over the country — 
 North, South, East and West — and the number of men 
 quartered at each place — and in due course the problem 
 was solved and the answer furnished. 
 
 It was assumed, of course, that the ordinary traffic 
 would be, for the time being, entirely suspended, that 
 land could be freely encroached upOn whenever necessary 
 for the construction of temporary platforms of sleepers 
 and ballast, for loading and unloading horses and 
 artillery, and for other purposes, and that all the railways 
 could be worked as one. Tables were submitted showing 
 in the most complete detail the number of trains required, 
 where each would start from, and the hour of starting, 
 the route travelled, the hour of arrival at destination, the 
 time allowed for refreshments and other purposes on the 
 journey, and the number of men conveyed by each train. 
 The total number of trains employed was 515 ; the 
 speed was about 25 miles an hour, exclusive of stoppages, 
 the trains following one another on the same lines at 
 intervals of fifteen minutes, and the last train was timed 
 to arrive at Chelmsford within 45 hours and 50 minutes 
 of the hour at which the order was supposed to have 
 been given by telegraph, so that, in theory, at any rate, 
 
286 AN ENGLISH RAILWAY. 
 
 the defenders were placed in a position to drive the 
 invaders into the sea. Thus it is evident that railways 
 have revolutionised the conditions of modern warfare, 
 much as they have revolutionised everything else that 
 existed before their advent. In the days before the era 
 of railways a kingdom might be lost or won, or the fate 
 of a dynasty decided, before a single army corps could 
 make its way by forced marches from the north of 
 England to the south coast. 
 
 Of course, in the event of this country being engaged 
 in warfare on the continent of Europe, or elsewhere 
 abroad, either independently or in conjunction with some 
 other power, the advantages which in a war of defence 
 would be derived from the perfection of our railway 
 system would no longer be available, or if they existed, 
 they might be used against us. For instance, when 
 the Germans invested Paris in the war of 1 870-1, not 
 only did they avail themselves of the railways around 
 the city, but they took possession of the extensive loco- 
 motive works of the Northern of France Railway, and 
 were thus enabled to repair the rolling stock and plant 
 required to work the railways of which they were in 
 possession, even seeking out and impressing into their 
 service many of the artizans employed in the works, 
 although it must be said to their credit that they honour- 
 ably paid these men for their labour. Mention of this 
 fact recalls a somewhat amusing incident related to the 
 writer by M. Banderali, the able Locomotive Superin- 
 tendent of the Northern of France Railway, and which 
 was a striking proof of the extent to which the courtesies 
 of nations are sometimes displayed in modern warfare. 
 M. Banderali occupied a comfortable and well-furnished 
 residence at St. Denis, and when, on the approach of tl:e 
 
RAILWAYS AS A MEANS OF DEFENCE. 287 
 
 German army, he was forced to retreat with the 
 Northern army to Lisle, taking with him, as far as 
 possible, the rolling stock and other personnel of the 
 railway, he had no time to dismantle his house, or 
 remove any of his goods and chattels. He accordingly 
 left behind him a letter addressed to any officers of the 
 German army who might be quartered in his house, 
 politely begging them to make free use of everything 
 they found there, but expressing a hope that they would 
 do as little damage as possible. But the Teuton was 
 not to be beaten in courtesy by the Gaul, for on M. 
 Banderali's return, after the evacuation, he found every- 
 thing just as he had left it, and upon the piano in his 
 drawing-room was a volume of Schubert's songs sub- 
 scribed to their courteous, though involuntary, host by 
 the officers of the German army who had been his 
 guests ! 
 
 Colonel H. M. Hozier, who recently read a paper 
 before the members of the Royal United Service Insti- 
 tution on the " Equipment and Transport of Modern 
 Armies," enlarged upon the importance, to military 
 commanders, of having the control of an efficient rail- 
 way corps able to move with an army, to construct or 
 repair railways in advancing, and to dismantle and 
 break them down when necessary to cover a retreat. 
 There is no doubt that in such a case, it would be of 
 the greatest assistance to those who were conducting 
 such operations, to be able to command the services not 
 only of trained Engineer officers, but of artificers, engine 
 drivers, firemen, and men of all the various crafts 
 connected with the making, repairing, and working of 
 railways ; and it is satisfactory to add that the need of 
 such a body of men has not been lost sight of by the 
 
288 AN ENGLISH I! AIL WAY. 
 
 War Office, and that the nucleus of a force of -the kind 
 has already been formed. At the locomotive works of 
 the London and North Western Company at Crewe, 
 where something like 6,000 men are employed, a Volun- 
 teer force was embodied in the early part of the year 1 887, 
 under the title of the 2nd Cheshire (Railway) Engineer 
 Volunteers, which comprises at present — and while it is as 
 yet perhaps only in its infancy — an effective force of 631 
 men, of whom 23 are officers, 578 are non-commissioned 
 officers and men, and 30 are first-class Army Reserve 
 men who are employed in the works, and are attached 
 to the corps as supernumeraries, This corps is com- 
 posed almost entirely of men who, in their ordinary 
 avocations, are smiths, fitters, firemen, etc., and they are 
 undergoing, in addition to the ordinary infantry drill, a 
 course of instruction in military engineering. The 
 corps, having been incorporated upon the ordinary 
 volunteer principle, is at present only liable to be called 
 out in case of invasion, but such men as these would be 
 invaluable in case of a war on the continent, or elsewhere, 
 in which we might be engaged, and the War Office, 
 recognising this fact, have arranged that a certain pro- 
 portion of the men comprising each company should 
 enlist in the Royal Engineers, as a matter of form, for 
 one day, and then be placed in the first-class Army 
 Reserve for six years, in which case they would receive 
 pay, and their services would be available in case of 
 need either at home or abroad. A considerable number 
 of men have already come forward, and if the move- 
 ment proves successful, the example will doubtless be 
 followed in other large railway works throughout the 
 country. 
 
 The Crewe Volunteers were reviewed by H.R.H. the 
 
RAILWAYS AS A MEANS OF DEFENCE. 289 
 
 Duke of Cambridge, on the occasion of his opening 
 the Crewe Park, on the 9th June, 1888, when he com- 
 plimer.ted them very highly on their eiSciency, and 
 spoke of their probable value to the country in the 
 event of war; at the same time expressing the hope 
 that the example so well set at Crewe would be followed 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Note to Second Edition. 
 
 "The oflScers of the Staff Corps, under the direction of the 
 War Office, are at present engaged in drawing up a carefully con- 
 sidered code of Rules and Regulations for the working of the 
 railways of Great Britain in time of war or mobilisation, and also 
 for the conduct of transport operations in connection with 
 railways abroad, in the event of this country being engaged in a 
 foreign war." 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 A writer in \h& Edinburgh Review, of July, 1889, commenting 
 on Mr. Acworth's recently published work on " The Railways of 
 England," is apparently much impressed with the difficulties which 
 must arise, and the loss of profit which must ensue, from the fact 
 of traffic of various descriptions, and travelling at different rates of 
 speed, having to be accommodated on the same railway, and he 
 puts forward the theory, that in cases where a railway is doubled, 
 that is, where there are two up and two down main lines, if one of 
 each were appropriated to the express passenger trains, running at 
 forty-five to sixty miles an hour, and the others devoted to such se- 
 lected merchandise traffic as would pay for a speed of about thirty 
 miles an houi, and to passenger trains calling at every station, leaving 
 the heavy mineral and low-priced goods traffic to be accommo- 
 dated by the canals, the railways would thus be utilised in the 
 most remunerative manner, and there would be a lucrative future 
 in store for the railway shareholder. 
 
 This proposition is one based upon fallacies which are suffi- 
 ciently apparent to any one practically conversant with the working 
 of railways. The reviewer, in short, advises the railway companies 
 to increase their revenue by cutting off one of the most important 
 branches of their business — and that not the least lucrative — on the 
 assumption that the others would in the end grow to such an 
 extent as to absorb the whole of the accommodation provided ; but 
 it is very doubtful whether there are sufficient grounds for this 
 initial assumption, since in a country of small extent, like Great 
 Britain, there must be limits to the possibilities of expansion of 
 any class of traffic. In the second place, he is apparently not 
 aware that the policy of appropriating one track to the express 
 passeilger trains, and the other to the goods and slow passenger 
 trains, is one already adopted on sections where there are four 
 
APPENDIX. 291 
 
 lines of rails ; besides which, he overlooks the fact that the goods 
 traffic is practically worked during the night, when there are very 
 few passenger trains running. Thirdly, when he relegates the 
 heavy goods and mineral traffic to the canals, he forgets to inquire 
 how far these latter would be competent to provide for it. Canals 
 only exist in certain districts, and they cannot be taken to the doors 
 of the manufacturers, as railways are, by means of branch-lines and 
 sidings throughout the country ; and the idea, for example, of the 
 canals accomplishing the gigantic task of bringing into London its 
 daily coal supply of about 32,000 tons, and distributing it through- 
 out the metropolis in the manner expected of the railway com- 
 panies, is one which, to any one familiar with the subject, appears 
 almost grotesque, to say nothing of the fact that if the railway 
 companies abandoned this class of business, the millions of money 
 which have been spent in providing for it would be practically 
 thrown away. 
 
 The reviewer, too, is mistaken in hastily assuming, as he appears 
 to do, that passenger traffic is remunerative to railway companies 
 in a high degree, while goods traffic, especially of the heavier 
 classes, is carried with a small margin of profit. A very few 
 simple calculations drawn from the published accounts and other 
 known statistics of the London and North Western Railway will 
 serve to correct this error. 
 
 In the year 1888 that Company received for the conveyance of 
 passenger train traffic, ;£4,25 1,329; the working expenses amounted 
 to ^2,268,157, leaving ^1,983,172, or 46I per cent, as representing 
 the net profit. During the same year the same Company received 
 for the conveyance of goods and mineral traffic, ^6,198,583, and 
 the expenses of working it amounted to ;£3,237,i54 ; the net profit 
 being £2,961,429, or 47I per cent. ; so that the percentage of profit 
 upon merchandise traffic, taken as a whole, is more than i per cent- 
 greater than that upon passenger traffic. It may be added that of 
 the total of 35,922,619 tons of merchandise traffic carried upon 
 the London and North Western Railway during the period men- 
 tioned, no less than 27,898,314, or about 77? per cent, consisted of 
 coal, coke, and the other low-priced mineral traffic, which the 
 reviewer so much despises. It is impossible accurately to calculate 
 the actual rate of working expenses upon each particular class of 
 traffic, but it seems tolerably clear that, if nearly 78 per cent, of the 
 
E93 . -AFPENDIX. 
 
 jvhole were carried &t a loss, and were, as the'reviewer puts it, A 
 •robbery of the shareholders," there would have to be a rate of profit 
 upon the remaining 22 per cent, which we know is far from existiny,, 
 in order to achieve the general result described above. It is quite 
 .true, of course, that coal, and the other mineral arid heavy traffic, 
 is carried at a much lower rate per ton than the lighter and more 
 valuable descriptions of merchandise ; but it must be borne in 
 jnind that the service of conveying it involves nothing moie than 
 the mere cost of haulage, and the provision of sidings, to receive 
 and marshal the waggons, the vehicle being provided, and all 
 loading and unloading services performed by the senders and 
 consignees, in most cases, within their own premises. On the 
 other hand, for the ordinary merchandise, it is necessary to pror 
 vide expensive warehouses and sheds, costly machinery and ap- 
 pliances, waggons and sheets, and an army of men to perform the 
 handling services, to say nothing of the greater risk ; so that, on 
 the whole, it may be conclusively asstamed that one class of traffic 
 pays as well as another. • 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Accidents and Mishaps Occurring 
 
 on Railways, 6 1 
 Regulations as to Reporting 
 
 to Board of Trade, 223 
 Accommodation Works, Mode of 
 
 Authorisation of, 19 
 Advantages Conferred upon the 
 
 Community by Introduction 
 
 of Railways, 3 
 Agents at Stations, Duties of, 15 
 ARBITRATION asaMeans of Settling 
 
 Disputes between Railway 
 
 Companies, 208 
 
 Bessemer Process of Converting 
 Iron into Steel, Description 
 01, 113 
 
 Block Telegraph, Various De- 
 scriptions of, in use, 85 
 
 " Tell-Tale" Apparatus in 
 
 Connection with, 88 
 
 Apparatus, Description of,88 
 
 ' — Mode of Working, 88 
 
 Combined Indicator and 
 
 Bell System, 90 
 
 Board Meetings, Business Trans- 
 acted at, 13 
 
 Board of Trade, Definition of 
 their Powers of Control over 
 the Working of Railways,2 23 
 
 ■ New Railways Must be In- 
 spected by, 223 
 
 Accidents must be Reported 
 
 to, 223 
 
 Boilers, Employment of Steel in 
 Manufacture of, 116 
 
 Boys, Employment and Training 
 of, 25 
 
 Brake Power, Various Descrip- 
 tions of in use, 120 
 
 Description of i^utomatic 
 
 Vacuum, 120 
 
 Bridge Rails, Early Use of, on 
 Great Western Railway, 42 
 
 Broad Street, Goods Station, 
 Description of Construction 
 and Working of, 182 
 
 Carriages, Steel Under-frames 
 for, 105 
 
 Rude Type of, in use Half 
 
 a Centuiy Ago, 123 
 
 Improved Type of. Now in 
 
 Use, 124 
 
 Proportions of Accommoda- 
 tion for Various Classes of 
 Passengers, 125, 252 
 
 Abolition of Second-class 
 
 by Midland Company, 125, 
 
 243 
 
 London and North-Western 
 
 Company's Practice of Build- 
 ing their Own Stock, 127 
 
 Description of Mode of 
 
 Building at Wolverton 
 Works, 129 
 
 Examination, Greasing, 
 
 Washing, and Cleaning o{, 
 
 134 
 
 Heating of, 13S 
 
 Lighting of, 136 
 
 Increase in size and weight 
 
 of, 247 
 Carriers' Act, of 1845, Provisions 
 
 of, 270 
 Cattle, Mode of Dealing With, at 
 
 Holyhead, 196 
 {see also Live Stock) 
 Chairs, Type of, Now in Use, 
 
 46 
 Chain Drag for Arresting Run- 
 away Waggons, 177 
 Channel Tunnel Railway Scheme 
 
 of 1833, 9 
 Cheap Trains' Act of 1883, Pro- 
 visions of. Described, 278 
 Check Rails for Crossings, 51 
 
i9+ • 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ci-AIM?, Mode of Settling Dis-' 
 puted Liability for, as Be- 
 tween Railway Companies, 
 
 2IO 
 
 Against Railway Com- 
 panies for Loss or non- 
 Delivery of Goods ; Mode 
 of Assessing Damages, 276 
 
 Against Railway Com- 
 panies for Delay in Con- 
 veying Passengers ; Mode of 
 Assessing Damages, 281 
 
 Classes of Passenger Traffic — Re- 
 lation of to each other, 239 
 
 Classification of Merchandise 
 Traffic, 205, 256 
 
 Coal, Consumption of, by Engines, 
 
 255 
 
 Committees, Composition and 
 Functions of, 12 
 
 Common Carriers, Rights and 
 Duties of, 267 
 
 Compartments, Practice of re- 
 serving for Passengers, 249 
 
 Competition, Means of Avoiding 
 Extreme, 207 
 
 When Pushed to an Ex- 
 tremity not to the Advan- 
 tage of the Public, 209 
 
 Pressure of as affecting 
 
 Railway Companies, 259 
 
 Concentration of Troops in the 
 Event of Invasion by Means 
 of the Railway System, 
 284 
 
 Conferences of Officers, Con- 
 stitution and Functions of, 
 
 15 
 
 of Railway Companies to 
 
 Agree upon Rates and Fares, 
 207 
 
 Consignment Notes, Utilityof, 188 
 Continental Railways, disad- 
 vantages of as compared with 
 English Railways, 259 
 Crewe Works, Description of, lo8 
 Cross-Channel Traffic with Ire- 
 land, Mode of Conducting, 
 194 
 Crossings and Points, 51 
 CURVES, Super-Elevation of Outer 
 Rails on, 53 
 
 Debts and Claims Committee, 
 Functions of, 13 
 
 Defence of the Country, Import- 
 ance of Railways Considered 
 in Relation to, 283 
 
 Delivery of Goods to a Carrier, 
 what constitutes, 268 
 
 by a Carrier, what Con- 
 stitutes, 274 
 
 Detector Locks for Points, 75 
 
 Directors, Qualification and 
 Functions of, 12 
 
 Disc Signals for Sidings, 69 
 
 Distant Signals, 68 
 
 District Officers, Duties of, 14 
 
 DivisiONSof Traffic in Percentages 
 between Railway Com- 
 panies, 208 
 
 in Mileage Proportions 
 
 of a Through Route, 212 
 
 Drainage of Permanent Way, 
 
 System of, 49 
 Duplication of Lines on Crowded 
 
 Railways, 152 
 
 Eaklestown Waggon Works, 
 
 Description of, 146 
 Earnings of the various classes of 
 
 Passengers, 243, 256 
 Electric Signal Repeaters, 93 
 Locksfor Protecting Sidings, 
 
 94 
 
 Lighting of Carriages, 139 
 
 Employers' Liability Act, 32 
 Engine Drivers, Selection and 
 
 Training of, 28 
 
 Diagrams for Regulating 
 
 Working of Trains, 151 
 
 Head Lights, Distinctive, 
 
 157 
 Engines, Primitive Type of, m 
 Use on Earlier Railways, 9S 
 
 Early Difficulties, Expe- 
 rienced with regard to, loi 
 
 Trial of, at Rainhill, in 
 
 1829, loi 
 
 Various Types of, in Use 
 
 at Present Time, loi 
 
 Webb's Compound, De- 
 scription of, 102 
 
 Advantages of Webb's 
 
 Compound,^ 103 
 
INDEX. 
 
 29s 
 
 Engines of Special Type, Con- 
 structed for Narrow Gauge 
 Lines, and for Shunting 
 Yards, 105 
 
 Method of Building at Crewe 
 
 Works, no 
 
 Interchangeability of Parts, 
 
 III 
 
 Increase in size and weight 
 
 of, 247 
 
 Engineer and Railway Volunteer 
 Staff Corps, Constitution of, 
 284 
 
 Volunteers, Enrolment ol, 
 
 at Crewe Works, 288 
 
 Executive Officers, Duties of, 14 
 
 Expenditure, System of Control 
 Over, 19 
 
 Explosives, Railway Companies 
 not Bound to Carry, 269 
 
 Facing Point Locks, 75 
 
 Points, Distance from which 
 
 they can be Safely Worked 
 from Cabins, 79 
 
 Fares and Rates Committee, 
 Functions of, 13 
 
 Mode of Regulation, 204 
 
 Effects of Competition 
 
 Upon, 206 
 
 Conferences of Railway 
 
 Companies to Agree Upon, 
 207 
 
 Reduction of, in 1875, 243 
 
 Females, Employment of, as 
 Clerks, 25 
 
 Finance Committee, Functions of, 
 12 
 
 Fires, Arrangements for Prevent- 
 ing or Extinguishing at Sta- 
 tions, 198 
 
 • Liability of Railway Com- 
 panies for Damage Result- 
 ing from, 270 
 
 First Class Traffic, Unpro- 
 ductive character of, 256 
 
 Fish Plates, Description of, 44 
 
 Traffic, Mode of Dealing 
 
 with, at Holyhead Harbour, 
 198 
 
 Fog Signalmen, Duties of, 165 
 
 Signalling by Mechanical 
 
 Methods, 166 
 
 Fog Signalmen, Means of Pro- 
 viding Dwellings for, Near 
 their Posts, 167 
 
 Fogs, Mode of Working Railways 
 During, 164 
 
 Foot-warmers for Carriages, Im- 
 proved Method of Heating, 
 
 135 
 Frauds Practised upon Railway 
 
 Companies as to Value of 
 
 Goods, 269 
 Freight, Railway Companies 
 
 may Demand Prepayment 
 
 of, 268 
 Railway Companies may 
 
 Detain Goods for Payment 
 
 of, 273 
 Fuel, Consumption of, by Engines, 
 
 255 
 
 Gas for Lighting Signil Lamps, 80 
 
 Lighting of Carriages, 137 
 
 Engines for Actuating Ma- 
 chinery in Goods Ware- 
 
 . houses, 201 
 Goons Agents, Duties of, 15 
 Conference, Business Trans- 
 acted at, 16 
 
 Traffic, Perfect Organisa- 
 tion Required for Conduct 
 of, 181 
 
 Method of Invoicing, Check- 
 ing, Loading, and Unload- 
 ing, 184. 
 
 Warehouses, Methods of 
 
 Construction and Working 
 
 of, 199 
 
 Lost or Damaged, Liabili- 
 ties of Common Carriers 
 with Regard to, 270 
 
 Must be Properly Packed, 
 
 or the Carrier is Absolved 
 from Liability, 269 
 
 Deterioration of, in Transit, 
 
 270 
 
 Stopped in transitu, 275 
 
 {See also Merchandise) 
 
 Gradients of Railways, 55 
 
 Effect of, on Speed and 
 
 Load of Trains, 58 
 
 Guards, Selection, Training, and 
 Examination of, 26 
 
29$ 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Head Lights of Engines, Dis- 
 tinctive Colours of, 157 
 
 Holyhead Goods Station and 
 Harbour, Construction and 
 Working of, 194 
 
 Home Signals, 68 
 
 Inspections, System of Periodical, 
 
 17 
 
 Insurance Against Accidents to 
 Railway Servants, 31 
 
 of Goods by Railway Com- 
 panies, 267, 269 
 
 Interlocking of Points and Sig- 
 nals, First Introduction of, 
 66 
 
 Description of Theory and 
 
 Practice of, 71 
 
 by Means of Keys for 
 
 Sidings, 76 
 
 Invasion, Value of the Railway 
 System in the Event of, 283 
 
 Irish Traffic, Mode of Conducting, 
 at Holyhead, 194 
 
 Iron Sleepers, Experimental Use 
 of, 48 
 
 Junctions, Formation of, 53 
 
 Key, Interlocking, for Siding 
 Points, 76 
 
 Land, Compulsory Purchase of, 
 for making of Railways, 221 
 
 Legal Means for Acquiring, 
 
 upon Reasonable Terms, 222 
 
 Extravagant Prices For- 
 merly Paid for, 222 
 
 Law as Between Railway Com- 
 panies and the Public, 267 
 
 Affecting; Railways ; Man- 
 ner in which it is Defined, 
 268 
 
 Legislation Hostile to Railway 
 Companies, 225 
 
 Liability of Railway Companies 
 as Regards Carriage of Mer- 
 chandise, 270 
 
 Light Indicators for Signals, 93 
 
 Lighting of Signal Lamps, 80 
 
 of Carriages by Gas, 136 
 
 Electricity, 139 
 
 Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway, Projection of, 6 
 
 Opposition offered to, 7 
 
 . Construction and Open- 
 ing of, 8 
 
 Mode of Construction of, 8 
 
 Success of, 9 
 
 ■ Type of Permanent way 
 
 in Use upon, 42 
 
 LiVERPOOL(Edge Hill), Description 
 Footner's Plan of Sorting 
 and Marshalling Waggons, 
 172 
 
 Live Stock, Conditions under 
 which Railway Companies 
 Carry, 272 
 
 Llandulas Viaduct Washed 
 Away by Flood in 1879, 62 
 
 Locking Bars for Points, 75 
 
 Locomotive Committee, Func- 
 tions of, 12 
 
 Department ; Societies for 
 
 Benefit of Staff, 36 
 
 Engines {see Engines) 
 
 London and Birmingham Rail- 
 way, Projection iind Con- 
 struction of, 10 
 
 and- North Western Rail- 
 way, Various Companies 
 Amalgamated under the 
 Title of, 10 
 
 Statistics of, n, 151 
 
 Lost Property, Means Adopted 
 for Tracing Owners of, 218 
 
 Luggage of Passengers, Law 
 AfiTecling the Conveyance 
 of, 277, 279 
 
 Question of What Consti- 
 
 tates, 280 
 
 Application of "Carriers' 
 
 Act "to conveyance of, 280 
 
 Management of a Railway, 12 
 
 General Principles laid 
 
 down for, 21 
 
 Marshalling of Goods Trains, 
 Different Methods of. Em- 
 ployed, 170 
 
 Footner's Plan of 
 
 "Gridiron" Sidings, 172 
 
 Merchandise, the Laws Affect- 
 ing the Carriage of, 268 
 (jee also Goods) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 297 
 
 Merchandise Traffic of the lower 
 classes, relative profit upon, 
 Appendix 
 
 Military Operations, "Value of 
 Railway System Considered 
 with Relation to, 285 
 
 New Works, Mode of Dealing 
 with Applications for, 19 
 
 Officers, Duties of, 14 
 
 Conference, Business Trans- 
 acted at, 15 
 
 Attending at Headquarters 
 
 Periodically, 17 
 
 Hints for Economising 
 
 Time, 23 
 
 Selection and Promotion 
 
 of, 27 
 
 Parliamentary Powers for Con- 
 struction of Railways, 221, 
 223 
 
 Procedure in the matter of 
 
 New Railways, 221 
 
 Passengers, the Law Affecting 
 the Cnnveyance of, 277 
 
 Conditions under which 
 
 Railway Companies are 
 Bound to Carry, 278 
 
 Liabilities of Railway Com- 
 panies with regard to Con- 
 veyance of, 279 
 
 Luggage {see Luggage) 
 
 Travelling on Railways 
 
 Without Paying their Fares, 
 280 
 
 Must Show their Tickets 
 
 on Demand, 281 
 
 Train mileage, increase of, 
 
 Increase in number of, 255 
 
 PassengerTraffic, Conduct of239 
 Revenue earning powers of, 
 
 241 
 Working Expenses of, 250, 
 
 256 
 Pension Fund, Constitution of, 35 
 Percentage Divisions of Traffic 
 
 betweenRail way Companies, 
 
 208 
 Permanent Way Committee, 
 
 Functions of, 12 
 
 Permanent Way, Improved Type 
 of, as Compared with Earlier 
 Railways, 38 
 
 ■ Type of, in Use at Present 
 
 Time, 46 
 
 Essentials of a Sound and 
 
 Good, 49 
 
 Arrangements for Main- 
 tenance and Repair of, 59 
 
 Type of in use on Continen- 
 tal Railways, 260 
 
 Personal Injury to Passengers ; 
 Mode of Assessing Damages 
 for, 282 
 
 Point Rod Compensators, 75 
 
 Points and Crossings, 51 
 
 Postal Train, London to Scot- 
 land, 246 
 
 Pope's Oil Gas for Lighting Car- 
 riages, 137 
 
 Private Waggons, Difficulties 
 with Regard to, 143 
 
 ■ Standard Specification 
 
 for Construction of, 143 
 
 Provident Fund, Constitution 
 
 of, 33 
 Purchase of Railways by the 
 State, 232, 233 
 
 Queen's Train, Description of 
 Mode of Working and Pre- 
 cautions Adopted, 168 
 
 Radial Axles for Engines and 
 
 Carriages, 104 
 Rails, Fish-bellied, as used in 
 
 1789, 40 
 
 Vignoles', 42 
 
 Bridge, 42 
 
 Double-headed, 42 
 
 Steel, Introduction of, 44 
 
 Railways, a Subject of interest to 
 
 all classes, i 
 State of things Existing 
 
 Prior to Introduction of, 2 
 First Dawn of the Concep- 
 tion of, 5 
 Proposed Purchase of by 
 
 State, 232, 233 • 
 
 As a means of Defence, 283 
 
 Railway Clearing House, 
 
 Origin of, 212 
 '- — Functions of, 215 - 
 
298 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Railway Clearing House 
 
 Statistics of, 214 
 Methods and Machinery 
 
 of, 216 
 As a Means of Tracing lost 
 
 Property, 218 
 Railway and Canal Traffic Act, 
 
 1873, Provisions of, 224 
 
 1888, Provisions of, 229 
 
 Railway Commissioners' Court, 
 
 Constitution of under Act 
 
 of 1S73, 224 
 Extension of Powers 
 
 under Act of 1888, 229 
 Railway Companies and their 
 
 Relation to the Trade of the 
 
 Country, 225 
 Railway Engineers' Corps, Value 
 
 of in Relation to Military 
 
 Operations, 287 
 Rates ana Fares Committee, 
 
 Functions of, 13 
 
 • Mode of Calculating, 204 
 
 Effects of Competition 
 
 on, 206 
 — - Conferences 
 
 of Rail- 
 
 way Companies to Agree 
 
 Upon, 207 
 -Demand that the S' ate should 
 
 be Empowered to Fix, 225 
 - And Charges, Mode of 
 
 fixing maxima under the 
 
 Act of 1888, 230 
 Receipts from Passenger Traffic, 
 
 242, 250, 256 
 RESPONSlBlLiTY,Chain of Through- 
 out Railway Service, 15 
 Responsibilities of RailwayCom- 
 
 panies as regards Carriage 
 
 of Goods ; Where they begin 
 
 and End, 268 
 Of Companies for the Acts 
 
 of their Servants, 279 
 " Rocket," Trial of, at Rainhill in 
 
 1829, 100 
 Rods for Working Points, 80 
 Route Indicators (Electric), 94 
 Royal Train, Description of Mode 
 
 of Working, 168 
 Rules and Regulations for Working 
 
 Railways, 18 
 for working of Railways in 
 
 time of war, 289 
 
 Saloon Carriages, 126, 248 
 
 Second Class, Abolition of on Some 
 Railways, 125, 243 
 
 Sheffield Colliery Tramway of 
 1776, 40 
 
 Shunting Indicators (Electric), 94 
 
 Of Slow Trains to allow Fast 
 
 Trains to pass, 154 
 
 And Marshalling of Goods 
 
 Trains, 170 
 
 Footner's Plan of Grid- 
 iron Sidings, 172 
 
 Signals, Concentration of, 67 
 
 Various Descriptions of, in 
 
 Use, 68 
 
 Home, 68 
 
 Distant, 68 
 
 Starting, 68 
 
 Disc, 69 
 
 Making of, 78 
 
 Arrangements for Mainte- 
 nance and Repair of, 81 
 
 Sighting of, 82 
 
 Signal Cabins and Apparatus, 69 
 
 Fitting Establishment at 
 
 Crewe, 77 
 
 Lamps, Lighting of, 80 
 
 Signalmen, Training and Exam- 
 ination of, 26 
 
 Signalling and Interlocking, 
 System of, 64 
 
 Earlier Methods of, 65 
 
 Single Lines, Methods of Work- 
 ing, 160, i6i, 162 
 
 Sleepers, Description of, Now in 
 Use, 46 
 
 Experimental Use of Iron 
 
 and Steel, 48 
 
 Sleeping Saloons, Advantages of, 
 126 
 
 Societies for the Benefit of the 
 Staff, 29 
 
 Speed of Trains not the first Desi- 
 deratum, 158 
 
 ■ • of Trains, Increase in, 245 
 
 Staff, Number of Men Employed, 
 
 25 . 
 
 Training and Examination 
 
 of, 26 
 
 Starting Signals, 68 
 
 State, The, Relations of to Rail- 
 ways in Different Countries, 
 220 
 
INDEX. 
 
 299 
 
 State, The, relations of to Rail- 
 ways in Great Britain, 221 
 
 Purchase of Railways Advo- 
 cated in Certain Quarters, 
 223 
 
 Scheme Discussed, 233 
 
 Station Masters, Duties of, 15 
 
 Steam as a Motive Power, First 
 Introduction of, 5 
 
 Steamboats for cross-Channel 
 Traffic with Ireland, 194 
 
 Stfel Sleepers, Experimental Use 
 of, 48 
 
 Stockton and Darlington Rail- 
 way, Construction of, 5 
 
 Stone Sleepers used on the Early 
 Railways, 42 
 
 Stoppage of Goods in transittt. 
 Circumstances under which 
 this Right may be Exercised, 
 
 273 
 Superannuation Fund for Clerks, 
 
 29 
 Super-elevation of Outer Rails 
 
 on Curves, 53 
 Sitpervision, System of, 15, 22 
 Switches, Description of, 51 
 
 Telegraphy, Various Uses of in 
 Working Railways, 85 
 
 Telegraphs, Various Descriptions 
 of Block, in Use, 86 
 
 Speaking, Extensive Use of, 
 
 95 
 
 Arrangements for Mainte- 
 nance and Repair of, 95 
 
 Telegraph Wires, Relative Ad- 
 vantages of Iron and Copper, 
 
 97 . . ^, 
 Description of, in Use, 
 
 97 .... 
 Batteries, Description of, m 
 
 Use, 97 
 
 Telegraphing Progress of Trains 
 
 from Point to Point, 155 
 Telephones, Use of in Railway 
 
 Working, 91; 
 Third Class Traffic, extraordinary 
 
 development of, 258 
 Passengers formerly only 
 
 carried by Slow Trains, 241 
 
 Through Booking of Traffic by 
 Railways which Connect ; 
 Powers of Railway Commis- 
 sioners, 224 
 
 Tickets must be Shown by Rail- 
 way Passengers on Demand, 
 281 
 
 Time-tables, Preparation and Re- 
 vision of, 20 
 
 Traffic, Agreements for Divisions 
 of, between Railway Com- 
 panies, 208 
 
 Possibilities of Increase, 262 
 
 Train Alterations, Method of 
 Dealing with, 16, 20 
 
 Starting (Electric) Indica- 
 tors, 94 
 
 • Diagrams for Regulating 
 
 Engine Working, 151 
 
 Mileage, Increase of, 255 
 
 Staff and Ticket System for 
 
 Single Lines, 160 
 Tablet System for Single 
 
 Lines, 162 
 Trains, Various Descriptions of, 
 
 to be accommodated on 
 
 Same Lines, 149 
 
 Difficulties in Attaining 
 
 Absolute Punctuality, 153 
 
 Increase in Length, Weight 
 
 and Speed of, 158 
 Composition, Speed a nd 
 
 Weight of, 239 
 
 Increase in Speed of, 245 
 
 Trains Run between same points 
 
 by various Routes, 261 
 Troops, Concentration of, by 
 
 Means of Railway System 
 
 in Event of Invasion, 284 
 
 Undue Preference, Mode of Deal- 
 ing with Complaints as to, 
 231 
 
 Vacuum Brake, Description of, in 
 
 Use, 120 
 Valuable Articles, Liability of 
 
 Railway Companies with 
 
 Regard to, 271 
 Vehicles on Line Indicators 
 
 (Electric), 94 
 
300 
 
 ViGNOLES' Rails, 42 
 
 Waggons, Ownership of by Rail- 
 way Companies, 142 
 
 Belonging to Private 
 
 Owners, 'DifSculties with 
 Regard to, 143 
 
 Private Owners', Specifica- 
 tion for Construction of, T43 
 
 Examination and Greasing 
 
 of, 144 
 
 Dimensions of Axles, 145 
 
 Works at Earlestcwn for 
 
 Construction of, 146 
 War, working of Railways in time 
 
 of, 283 
 
 • INDEX. 
 
 Water Troughs to Enable Trains 
 
 in Motion to take Supply of 
 
 Water, 106 
 Wheels for Passenger Carriages, 
 
 Mode. of Construction, 130 
 Widening or Duplication of Lines 
 
 on Busy Railways, 152- 
 Woi.VERTON Carriage Works, 
 
 Description of, 127 _ . 
 Workmen's Trains, Provisions of 
 
 CHeap Trains' Act of 1883, 
 
 278 
 Works, Mode of Dealing with 
 
 Applications for New, 19 
 Working Expenses of Passenger 
 
 Traffic, 250 
 
 ■William eider anb son, pfiiKTERs. T.osroN. 
 
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 LIST OF 
 
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 CONTENTS. 
 
 Atlases . 12 
 
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 Bibliotheca Classica 4 
 
 Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts 8 
 
 Cambridge Texts with Notes . . 7 
 
 English Language . . ... 12 
 
 Euclid . ... ... 18 
 
 French 18 
 
 French Series .... 21 
 
 French Classics 21 
 
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 yw/jV, 1889. 
 
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 PRACTICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 A WORK ON 
 PREPARING THE MEMORY, DEVELOPING 
 QUICKNESS OF PERCEPTION, AND 
 TRAINING THE CONSTRUC- 
 TIVE FACULTIES. 
 
 By CHARLES G. LELAND. 
 
 Author of ^^ The Minor Arts" " Twelve Manuals o/ Art Work" " The Albttm 
 
 of Repoussi Work" Industrial Art in Education, or Circular 
 
 No. 4, 1882," '"'Hints on Self-Edtication" etc- 
 
 Mr. Leland was the first person to introduce Industrial Art as a branch of 
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 thence gradually leading them on to more advanced w6rk. 
 
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 memory must first be created. By training children to merely memorize, extra- 
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 is associated exercises in quickness of perception, which are at first purely 
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 or interest is the final factor in this system." 
 
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 " Strongly to be recommended," — Chemical News. 
 
 " This valuable little ujork" — Liverpool Daily Post. 
 
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