CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR 
 
 RELATIONS 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 EVALINE BURNS 
 
The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001831936 
 
WAGES AND EARNINGS 
 
 WORKING CLASSES, 
 
 WITH SOME FACTS ILLUSTRATIVE OP THEIB ECONOMIC 
 
 CONDITION, DRAWN PROM AUTHENTIC 
 
 AND OFFICIAL SOURCES, 
 
 IN A KEPORT TO MICHAEL T. BASS, Esq., M.P. 
 
 By LEONE LEVL F.S.S., r.S.A. 
 
 OF LINCOLN'S INN, BABRTSTFJl-AT-LAV, 
 
 PROFESSOJl OF THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF COMMERCE IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDOM, 
 
 DOCTOR OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TIJbiNGEN, 
 
 LONDON.: 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 1867. 
 
 «s 
 
LONDON; PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET 
 AND OHARtNG CROSS. 
 
.» 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 L52. 
 
 iKTTEODtJOTION : 
 
 The Work and the Workers 
 Wages 
 
 Appropriation of Wages . . 
 ■ Trade Societies 
 Letter from M. T. Bass, Esq. M.P. 
 Estimates of the Earnings of the Working Classes of the United 
 
 Kingdom .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 
 
 FAGB 
 
 i 
 
 xxvii 
 
 xxxyi 
 
 xlvii 
 
 1 
 
 Class I. — ^Peofbssional. 
 
 Order I. Persons engaged in the General or Local GoTemment 
 
 of the Country . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 
 
 „ n. Persons engaged in the Defence of the Country . . 21 
 
 
 Class U. — Domestic. 
 
 v. Persons engaged in Entertaining and performing Per- 
 sonal OflSces for Man . . . . - . . . . . . 24 
 
 Class in. — Commehol4l. 
 
 VII. Persons engaged in the Conveyance of Men, Animals, 
 
 Goods, and Messages . . . . . . . . . . 27 
 
 
 Class IV. — Ageioultueal. 
 
 VIII. Persons working the Land, and engaged in growing 
 Grain, Fruits, Grasses, and other Products, and 
 attending to Animals . . . . . . . . . . 38 
 
 IX. Persons engaged about Animals,, .. .. .. 45 
 
 Property of 
 MARTIN P. CATHERWOOD LIBRARY 
 
 HEW YORK ?UH iiSlOL 
 INDOSIRIAL Alio MM RtLATiONS 
 
COKTENTS. 
 
 Class V.— Isdcstkial. 
 
 Order X. Persons engaged in Art and Mechanic Productions, in 
 wMcli Matters of Tarious Kinds are employed in 
 Combination 
 XI. Persons working in the Textile Fabrics and in Dress 
 Xn. Persons working in Articles of Food and Drink 
 
 XIII. Persons working in Animal Substances 
 
 XIV. Persons working in Vegetable Substances 
 XV. Persons working in Minerals 
 
 49 
 69 
 94 
 98 
 102 
 106 
 
 Class VI. — iNDErntiTE Oocdpations. 
 XVI. Labourers .. 
 
 126 
 
 Appendix : 
 
 Prices paid at Greenwich Hospital . . . . . . . . 128 
 
 Prices of Sugar and Tea .. .. .. .. .. .. 129 
 
 Annual Mortality per cent, of Males, aged 15 years and 
 upwards, in various Occupations, in the year 1860-61, at 
 different Periods of Age .. .. .. .. .. 130 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE WOEK AND THE WORKERS. 
 
 Productive Power of the United Kingdom — ^Local Distribution of Occu- 
 pations — Tlie "Wonders of Production — Acquisition of Wealth the Great 
 Motive Power— Tlie Workers and Idlers of Society — Pleasure of La- 
 bour — Conditions for efficient and successful Labour — Who are the 
 Working Classes ? — Producers and Non-Producers — Technical Applica- 
 tion of the Terms Higher, Middle, and Lower Classes. 
 
 The Australian colonies are preparing for the Paris Productive 
 Universal Exhibition a pillar of gold which shall re- tilTuni'ted 
 present th'? exact quantity of the precious metal which '^'"s^"™- 
 they have extracted from their first discovery of the 
 glittering ore to the present time — a brilliant testi- 
 mony to the energy and avidity with which gold- 
 searching has been pursued in that young and thriving 
 colony. ' But why limit this method of illustration 
 to the production of gold ? Britain is a great beehive 
 of human labour. Taking space and population into 
 account, I wonder if there be any other country in 
 the world possessing so large a proportion of labourers, 
 where harder work is gone through all the year round, 
 and where the reward of labour is more liberal than 
 in the United Kingdom.^^^ Let us try to represent 
 
 w There are no means of calculating the value of production in this 
 or in any other country. But the amount of exports gives the value of 
 the produce and manufacture of the country in excess of what is re- 
 quired for the wants of the nation ; and I find that, in 1864, whilst the 
 
VI INTEODUCTION. 
 
 the sum total of what is produced by the inhabitants 
 of these British Isles even in one year. What a breadth 
 and what a height would such a monument attain ! 
 Truly, there is something wonderful in the variety and 
 extent of human labour as displayed in these Great 
 Exhibitions. But, how imperfectly do we see, even 
 there," represented the fruit of the toil, genius, and skill 
 of the sons and daughters of industry. 
 Local Dis- With the census of 1851 was given a beautiful map 
 oicupa-°°^ of Great Britain, showing the distribution of the occu- 
 *'°°^- pations of the people in different parts of the country, 
 represented by means of colour-shading and symbols. 
 A pale green tint covered the parts where the agricul- 
 tural and pastoral occupations are . followed, and the 
 parts shaded denoted the chief manufacturing districts.' 
 The various manufactures were marked by coloured 
 symbols — such as, woollen, red ; silk, yellow ; flax and 
 hemp, green ; cotton, blue ; pottery, orange ; coal, black ; 
 the metals, grey ; with a hat for hatters, a ship for ship- 
 ping, a fish for fishing, a wooden horse for toys, an 
 envelope for paper, and a key for locks j and it was 
 interesting to see the geographical arrangement of 
 these manifold occupations. Certain places seem to 
 London. be the receptacles for everything. The great metro- 
 polis is itself a world of labour. Many of the leading 
 occupations are represented here. Some of them are 
 Lancashire, exclusively metropolitan. Lancashire is beyond doubt 
 the seat of the cotton manufacture ; look at Manchester, 
 Oldham, Blackburn, and other manufacturing towns, 
 apparently glorying in their smoking chimneys, taller 
 
 United Kingdom exported at the rate of £5 6s. per head of the popula- 
 tion, France exported at the rate of £4 3.s., the United States at the rate 
 of £1 lis., Italy £1 5s., and Russia 8s. In proportion to area, the United 
 Kingdom exported at the rate of £1,322 per square mile, Trance at the 
 rate of £754, Italy £286, ttie United States £17, and Russia in Europe £12. 
 
THE WOEK AND THE WOEKEES. Vll 
 
 than Egyptian obelisks. There is nothing romantic 
 or picturesque in Manchester. Yet it is interesting to 
 think that the very land now so overladen with factories 
 was, not a century ago, open and free, with forests and 
 morasses, without roads, and almost uninhabited. Bir- Biiming- 
 mingham and Sheffield are celebrated all the world sw&m. 
 over for their hardware and cutlery, a class of articles 
 some hundreds in number, each forming a separate 
 trade of no light importance. Guns and swords, but- 
 tons and buckles, pins and needles, gold and steel pens, 
 iancy seals, brooches, clasps, gold and silver plate, vases, 
 and candelabra; these are among the produce of Bir- 
 mingham, justly styled the toy shop of Europe. Knives 
 and forks, razors and scissors, files and saws, Britannia 
 metal, crinoline, spectacles, surgical instruments, stoves, 
 scythes, and agricultural implements — these are some 
 fruits of Sheffield industry. In the cotton manufacture, 
 machinery has almost superseded human industry. In 
 hardware and cutlery the great worker is the hand. If 
 in Manchester there seems to be an unbounded facility 
 of production, in Birmingham and Sheffield the wonder 
 is, how difficult it becomes to produce anything — how 
 many processes each article has to undergo beibre it is 
 made ready for the market. And, whilst in the cotton 
 manufacture the main portion of labour is performed 
 by women and children, in the metal manufacture the 
 workers are principally men in the prime of life, daily 
 performing wonders of strength. In the one, the work 
 is carried on in large factories, with 500 or 1000 hands . 
 each; in the other, the domestic industry is largely 
 prevalent, and the factories are generally on a smaller 
 scale. Newcastle and Sunderland, with their large The Mining 
 grey dotting, are conspicuous for the existence of coal 
 in the interior. But if you look at a geological map, 
 you will see that the mineral wealth of the country 
 
Vlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 extends from Cornwall to Wales, thence to Stafford- 
 shire, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire. Further 
 north, it fills Lancashire and Yorkshire; it abounds 
 in Durham, Northumberland, and Cumberland, whilst 
 in Scotland, all the central lowland tracts, in the basins 
 and near the Firths of the Forth and the Clyde, are 
 embedded with coal and iron. In England, coal, 
 copper, lead, iron, and tin are all largely represented ; 
 in Scotland, coal and iron only. In some counties of 
 Ireland coal is to some extent extracted, but the pro- 
 duction is very small. The most important source of 
 British prosperity, the parent and prop of all manu- 
 facturing industry, is thus wanting in the sister isle. 
 Liverpool is the home of the "mariner and the dock 
 labourer; Glasgow is London in miniature; Aberdeen 
 figures with a ship and a fish ; and, if Ireland were 
 included, we should see Belfast rich in her linen 
 manufacture, and Dublin with a cluster of occupations. 
 Generally, agriculture and mining seem to be every- 
 N / where ; in fact, there is scarcely a spot in the United 
 1 Kingdom but is cultivated and worked both above and 
 / \ under ground. 
 Variety of But look at the workcrs themselves. If we could 
 " °"™"' see, through a panorama, the different scenes of human 
 industry, how impressed should we be with the won- 
 derful adaptation of means to ends which obtains in 
 every department of nature. Let us give but a glance 
 The Agri-. at the successive images depicted before our eyes. What 
 uboirer. ' ^ host do wc SCO iutcut upou the cultivation of grain, 
 fruits, and grasses, and how hard do they labour in 
 ploughing, sowing, reaping, attending to, and gathering 
 the precious fruits of thq earth. True, vegetation covers 
 the earth in every clime, but this spontaneous growth 
 would afford but a limited supply of food, were it not 
 for the labour of the husbandman. Though commert^e 
 
THK WORK AND THE- WORKERS. IX 
 
 and iudustry have acquired chief prominence among 
 the occupations of the people of the United Kingdom, 
 agriculture has always held a position of the greatest 
 importance. Numerically and economically, it is cer- 
 tainly one of the largest interests in England and Wales, 
 and still more so in Ireland and Scotland. In some 
 counties, as in Rutlandshire, Lincolnshire, the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire, and Westmoreland, about a third 
 of the people are employed in agriculture. 
 
 But look again. Very near that luxuriant field is a xiie Mmev. 
 mine. Descend it. Fear not to enter that dismal cavern. 
 No inscription is at its portal, Lasciate ogni speranza 
 voi die 'ntrate, " All hope abandon ye who enter here." 
 And what do you see? Numbers of men, groping in 
 darkness, amidst coal and metal, extracting riches from 
 the very bowels of the earth. See those hewers, squat- 
 ting down, frog-like in attitude, o r absolutely lying upon 
 their backs, driving theiF^icks into the hard seam of 
 coal; see that trapper, quite a little boy, sitting in 
 darkness for hours and hours, opening the trap door for 
 the air current ; or those drivers, as they conduct the 
 laden tubs of coals on long low wagons. How glad 
 would you be, were your visit real instead of imaginary, 
 quickly to seize the ladder, or man engine, and ascend 
 once more to the genial sunshine. And did I say, enter 
 ye freely ii»to that fiery pit ? Shudder, indeed, when you 
 think of the many who so recently, cheerily, entered 
 into their labour in the morning, and in a few hours . 
 were the victims of an explosion of the fiery gases. 
 Oh ! what responsibility rests on those who, employ- 
 ing labour of so dangerous a character, fail to take 
 the necessary precautions for the safety of the work- 
 men. 
 
 A little further you can enter that forge. Always The Forger. 
 surrounded by dense heavy smoke which renders the 
 
X INTRODUCTION, 
 
 air very impure, with a most unpleasant suffocating ex- 
 halation arising from the heaps of incinerating iron ; or 
 near the blast furnace, see the puddler or the forger 
 prematurely worn out by unremitting toil. The most 
 indigenous of British industries, the metal work, is also 
 the hardest. The great iron works, where iron is melted 
 and cast into " pigs," or manufactured into plates, rods, 
 bars, and other larger articles, evidently show the truth 
 of the economic axiom, that labour, nothing but hard 
 labour, is the parent of wealth. Their work admits of 
 no relaxation. No rest is allowed to the labourers, not 
 even for meal-time ; they take their food at the works 
 as opportunity offers, and day and night the work goes 
 on uninterruptedly, all the week through, Sunday only 
 excepted, one set of men relieving another at stated 
 hours. And so it is, more or less, with all foundries 
 and factories where iron vessels and implements of 
 various kinds are manufactured. What can be more 
 irksome than the casting of iron, where the men are 
 constantly exposed to the danger of inhaling dust 
 arising from the sand and powdered charcoal used in 
 making moulds for casting purposes ? Bread is dearly 
 earned on conditions like these, and yet the labourers 
 are at their post, content with their lot, and enjoying, 
 doubtless, in their own way, life with all its amenities. 
 If any one wishes to see labour in one of its most unin- 
 viting forms, let him visit the black districts of Stafford- 
 , shire or Wales. 
 The Cotton To scc the cottou spiuner and factory worker you 
 Spinner, jjjyg^ enter one of those illuminated factories, with 
 more windows than an Italian palace. Behold there 
 the ranks of operatives, men, women, and children, 
 hard at work, under as strict a discipline as a regi- 
 1 ment of soldiers ; yet so light and cheerful, all the 
 while singing, may be, a popular song or hymn. See 
 
THE WOEK AND THE WORKERS. XI 
 
 how every minute of time, every yard of space, every 
 dexterous finger, every inventive mind, is at high-pres- 
 sure service. 
 
 Turn you now to the Spitalfields weaver, busy at his The spitai- 
 loom from seven in the morning till ten at night, his wife weaver. 
 and daughter labouring with him quite as hard and long. 
 A visit to Spitalfields recalls to our memory many 
 a beautiful story connected with the silk manufacture. 
 The two monks coming from India to Constantinople 
 with their silkworms,; the Venetians, supplying the 
 Western empire with silks bought at Athens, Thebes, 
 and Corinth ; the Sicilians working their silk factories 
 by workmen kidnapped from Athens and Corinth ; the 
 French, imitating the Italians, and the English trying 
 again and again to plant mulberry trees, with a view to 
 acclimatise the silkworm in this country. It reminds 
 us of what we read of the arrival, first of Flemish and 
 then of French refugees, after the revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes ; and of what sounds now stranger 
 than all, the patenting of a machine for silk throwing, 
 by Lombe, the plan of which he had by stealth taken 
 in Italy, when working in a factory, under the disguise 
 of a common workman. And one is interested in see- 
 ing this great battle-field of free trade. The abolition 
 of the corn laws was contested in Manchester. The 
 battle between free trade and protection to British 
 manufacture, was fought by Mr. Huskisson, at Spital- 
 fields. 
 
 As a specimen of artistic industry, see the printer at The Printer. 
 his type. Professor Tomlinson, in an admirable lecture 
 on the invention of printing, tells the story of Johannes 
 Gansfleisch Gutenberg, the inventor of printing with 
 movable type, how he first suggested to , form every 
 letter or character of the alphabet separately, so that 
 they may be capable of any re-arrangement, instead of 
 
XU INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cutting new blocks of type for every page; how he 
 worked in secret, lest his relatives might think he 
 was -practising sorcery ; how, having been prevailed 
 upon to confide to others his grand ideas, he was 
 trpubled with faithless partners; how, necessitous of 
 money, he fell into the hands of the grasping Faust ; 
 and how, finally, he lost all the rewards of his in- 
 vention by some improvement suggested by a clever 
 assistant of Faust, and the formation of a new partner- 
 ship between Faust and Schoeffer. Unhappy inventors! 
 Many of them the benefactors of the age^ how seldom 
 do they realise any benefit for themselves. They sow, 
 but others reap. Yet vain reflection ! Newton, when 
 he discovered the law of gravitation ; Watt, when he 
 constructed his steam-engine, and Gutenberg, when he 
 completed the first printed Bible, obtained a higher 
 reward than any honour or remuneration could confer. 
 To estimate what the world owes to the invention of 
 printing, compare the present with the past state of 
 society. Greece and Rome had their, philosophers and 
 moralists, who shone most brilliantly amidst surround- 
 ing darkness of ignorance; but when the seeds of 
 knowledge were scattered plentifully through the press, 
 the few units became a mighty host, and what was the 
 privilege of the minority has become the inheritance of 
 the many. 
 TheBiiiider. And scc how numcrous are the builders, construct- 
 ing houses, churches, roads, and bridges. To meet the 
 wants of an increasing population, constantly advanc- 
 ing in wealth and civilization, most extensive public 
 works of every description have been undeilaken in 
 recent years, involving an enormous investment of 
 capital ; and all around us we see houses, churches, 
 hospitals, gaols, roads, bridges, railways, river embank- 
 ments, exhibition buildings, and hotels, springing up 
 
THE WORK AND THE WORKERS. XIll 
 
 with wonderful speed, and in dimensions beyond pre- 
 cedent. An enormous stimulus has thus been given 
 to every hidustry connected both with the materials for 
 building, and with building itself. Thankful, indeed, 
 we should be when the builders are busy. It is a good 
 indication of general prosperity. What need there is 
 of more dwellings for the working classes ! With the 
 wholesale demolition now going on to make room for 
 railways and other undertakings, unless houses are 
 built with the greatest possible celerity for the evicted 
 population, it is difficult to know what will become of 
 them. And how much room there is for improvement 
 in the house accommodation of the people generally ! 
 
 Many are busy conveying men, animals, goods, and TheCamer. 
 minerals. What a host of persons are now employed in 
 railways, and how extensive is the internal traffic of con- 
 veyance ! But look a little beyond. Eastward or west- 
 ward of these British Isles, the great ocean separates 
 you from either continent, but in calm or in storm you 
 see the brave seaman toiling in his ship — now on his 
 watch, now steering the helm, and anon unfurling his i : 
 sail or hoisting his gallant flag. That floating village 
 has a busy community ; and how anxious looks the brow 
 of the mariner when the infuriated elements seem to 
 contest his right to further progress ! This is truly seamen. 
 a seafaring nation. Apart from her naval force, which, 
 with all the advance of other nations, still towers 
 supreme, the tonnage of her mercantile marine has 
 but one rival, the United States of America, and the 
 proportion of her seafaring men to the total popula- 
 tion is probably greater than in any other country. 
 A large number seem instinctively- to take to the 
 sea as a profession, whatever be the attraction and 
 resources which the land may offer. Be it the love 
 of adventure, be it the impressions produced by the 
 
XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 accounts of British prowess on the sea, be it the thirst 
 for gain, which ignores all obstacles^ or be it that love 
 of independence^ which seems especially fostered by 
 a life free from all the trammels of conventionalities, 
 navigation has always been a favourite pursuit in these 
 Isles, and will probably continue to be so through all 
 the vicissitudes of British history. 
 The Fisher- And nearer at hand, see that hard-working fisherman. 
 To us the sea appears a scene of waste. The fisherman 
 finds it more prolific than the richest land. Once in a 
 year an acre of good land, carefully tilled, produces a 
 ton of wheat, or two or three cwts. of meat or cheese. 
 But the same area at the bottom of the sea, on the best 
 fishing grounds, yields a greater weight of food to the 
 persevering fisherman every week of the year. Yet, 
 how often do we see him returning clean and disap- 
 pointed, bitterly repeating the lament, "We have toiled 
 all night, and have caught nothing." 
 Magnitude The panorama must be large indeed to contain a 
 nesso?"' pictorial representation of all the occupations in which 
 Labour, ^yj. vv^orkmeu are busily engaged. And what are 
 they doing? Are they building a pyramid to gratify 
 the pride or arrogance of a Pharaoh? No, they are 
 all working what is useful, and what will permanently 
 advance the moral, social, or material interests of 
 society. But there is something wonderful in the 
 magnitude of the works now so readily undertaken and 
 The Rail- achicvcd. Some years ago Mr. Stfephenson, in his in- 
 way 01 8. gygypg^j address as President of the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers, gave a survey of the magnitude of the works 
 connected with the British railways. He told how 
 many tunnels, viaducts, and bridges had been made; 
 and in making an estimate of the earthworks required, 
 when we had little more than half the number of miles 
 of railway we have now, said that, at an average of 
 
THE WORK AND THE WORKERS. XV 
 
 TOOjOOO cubic yards to a mile, the total would amount to 
 550,000^000 cubic yards. And what did this represent ? 
 " We are accustomed/' he said, " to regard St. Paul's 
 as a test for height and space, but by the side of the 
 pyramid of earth these works would rear, St. Paul's 
 would be but as a pigmy by a giant. Imagine a moun- 
 tain, half a mile in diameter at its base, and soaring 
 into the clouds one mile and a half in height : that 
 would be the size of the mountain of earth which these 
 earthworks would form ; whilst St. James's Park, from 
 the Horse Guards to Buckingham Palace, would scarcely 
 afford space for its base." 
 
 As another specimen of a magnificent and at the same The Tunnel 
 time most useful labour, take the tunnel under the Alps, Ti^T. 
 nearly eight miles long. Think of the difficulty to be 
 met by the impracticability of sinking any shafts on the 
 line to ventilate it. Imagine how slow must be the 
 progress with only two points of attack available at the 
 two ends. By using machinery, the work, which would 
 have taken thirty or forty years to accomplish, will pro- 
 bably be completed in nine years. But when we think 
 of the time to be employed, the capital required, the 
 skill and energy which must be used, we may well con- 
 sider it an undertaking which does honour to the age in 
 which we live. 
 
 But need we take such extraordinary instances to 
 illustrate the wonders of labour ? What could excel 
 the common everyday performance of a cotton spinner, 
 when one man with two assistants turns off daily 220 lbs. 
 of yarn, measuring 420 miles in length ? Imagine how 
 perfect must be the work, when, in one minute, our 
 manufacturers can spin a length of cotton yarn which 
 would wind four times round the earth ! 
 
 With achievements like these before us, it seems 
 that there is scarcely any difficulty or hindrance which 
 
System. 
 
 XVI INTEODUCTION. 
 
 can either arrest the courage and resolution of our bold 
 and. adventurous merchants or engineers, or set a limit 
 to the performance of arduous and persevering labour. 
 The Factory The great feature of modern labour, the factory 
 system, has immensely aided production, in that it has 
 contributed to the improvement of the quality of the 
 article produced, and to the reduction of the cost, 
 afforded scope for the extensive use of machinery, 
 facilitated the division of la,bour, and provided useful 
 occupation for women and children. At one time, the 
 idea of carrying dn any industry by means of great 
 assemblages of labourers seemed strange, and created 
 not a little prejudice and opposition ; but, economically, 
 production on a large scale, vrhether in agriculture or 
 manufacture, is always more advantageous ; and any 
 objections and difficulties of a social and moral cha- 
 racter had to be met, if not overcome, by the inter- 
 ference of the Legislature, in restricting the hours of 
 labour, and making provision for proper regard to the 
 sex and age of the labourers. Experience has since 
 shown the advantage of these regulations, and they are 
 being gradually extended to all those occupations where 
 the necessity for such can be properly establish ed."^^^ 
 Theacquisi- I shall uot attempt to moralise on the lawfulness of 
 wealth the labour, nor is it necessary to dwell on the peremptory 
 
 ''' By the Factory Extension Act, 1864, the following works were sub- 
 jected to the same regulations as were first enacted for mills and factories 
 in 18'33 : viz. earthenware works, luoifer-matoh making, percussion caps, 
 cartridge making, paper staining, and fustian cutting. By a Bill now 
 before the House, it is proposed to place under the same regulations blast 
 furnaces, copper mills, iron mUls or forges, iron, copper, and other foundries 
 for casting metals ; premises in which steam, water, or other mechanical 
 power is used for moving machinery employed in the manufacture of any 
 article of metal, and India rubber or gutta percha ; premises where the 
 paper manufacture, glass manufacture, and tobacco manufacture are 
 carried on ; and any building or premises in the same occupation in which 
 one hundred or more persons are employed in any manufacturing process. 
 
THE WORK AND THE WORKERS. XVU 
 
 duty to use our powers and intellect in the work we great motive 
 are called to do. True, the great prompter of all this ^™^'" 
 labour is the desire to accumulate wealth, which exer- 
 cises Such a powerful spell upon every class of society. 
 True, far too many, in this materialistic age, are prepared 
 to sacrifice ease, comfort, rest, and peace of mind, to 
 undergo the greatest hardship, and to spend a life of 
 constant turmoil, in the laborious, and often vain, attempt 
 of acquiring riches. But are we wrong in caring for our 
 material interests — in seeking comfort and enjoyment ? 
 I think not. The ancient Eastern idea, that matter 
 in all its shapes must be despised and avoided — that 
 the Deity may best be served by a life of solitude and 
 beggary, by mortification and abstinence ; the extrava- 
 gant contempt for the elegances and even the decencies 
 of life, professed by the later Stoics and Cynics ; and 
 the notions of the early Christians regarding monas- 
 ticism, celibacy, and seclusion — find but little counte- 
 nance in the precepts of the Bible. The soul acts Need «f 
 through the body. As yet, mind is enclosed within ^*'"""' 
 matter. If we neglect the wants of the one, we 
 endanger the welfare of the other. The living spitit 
 within us cannot answer its high calling unless it 
 be assisted by the mortal frame within which it is 
 embodied. We cannot be beneficent, charitable, or 
 useful, unless we first provide for ourselves things 
 honest in the sight of all men. It is by labour alone 
 that we can procure abundant and wholesome food, 
 sufficient clothing, and a comfortable home. It is 
 by labour alone that we can secure to ourselves ease 
 and rest, that we can place ourselves beyond the risk 
 of poverty and want, and that we can accumulate for 
 the rainy ' day — the, day of disease and of shattered 
 forces, the day of disaster and the day of old age. 
 Would, indeed, that human, labour were exercised to 
 
 c 
 
XVIU INTEODUCTION. 
 
 The Work- the extcut of which it is capable. The whole world 
 m^t is now before us. With the wonderful facilities of 
 The Bees locomotiou bv laud and by sea, with the liberal and 
 
 and Drones ■' iiic i/" • 11 
 
 of Society, enlightened policy which has lound lavour in ail 
 countries, and with the peace and good accord which 
 happily reign almost all over the globe, the labourer is 
 no longer limited in his field of occupation by space 
 or nationality. Wherever there is work to be done, 
 thither he may go to exercise his strength and skill. 
 But are all our productive forces at work? How 
 many drones are there in modern society ? How 
 many talkers and not doers? How many, who waste 
 their time, talent, and opportunities, which, once gone, 
 pass for ever from within their reach? How many 
 indulge in dolce far niente ? We have some idea of 
 the amount of wealth annually produced. It would 
 be well if we could give a numerical expression to 
 the amount of wealth which is thus wasted ; but I 
 Effect of dare not enter into a labyrinth of figures. One thing 
 ftoraLabour, we must remember, that, if we stop our labour, those 
 or strike, gjignt forccs of iiaturc brought to pur use by ma- 
 chinery, and which supply power equivalent to that 
 of 20,000,000 persons, stop also. And further that, 
 if we stop from working, it is not only the wages that 
 are lost, but three or four times the amount of wages, 
 in the diminution of wealth produced. What is the 
 efFect of a strike? Thousands of workmen suddenly 
 cease to be productive labourers ; the raw materials lie 
 idle ; the machinery is at rest ; the steam-engine is 
 silent ; the factory is deserted ; the railways and canals 
 are without traffic ; the workmen lose their wages ; the 
 mastel" loses the interest on his capital and his profits; 
 the na;tion loses the trade, with all its advantages. And, 
 though not so forcibly exhibited as in a strike, the 
 same loss is caused by every kind of stoppage, whether 
 
THE WORK AND THE WOEKERS. XIX 
 
 any of us are idle altogether, or we shorten the hours 
 of labour, or reduce the quantity of labour within 
 the given time, or by any trade regulation diminish 
 the stimulus necessary to superior productiveness. I short time 
 am not against shortening the hours of labour forp°"iSoD. 
 useful purposes. The factory regulations in this respect 
 have increased, not diminished, production. I know 
 that labour lightened is not lost; that relaxation and 
 rest only quicken our energies for more labour. Yet, 
 with all this, little do our easy-going people, our idlers 
 and talkers, know to what extent they contribute to the 
 waste of those powers which God gives to us — to use, 
 and not to abuse — to exercise, and not to allow them to 
 rust within us. " What is a man," says Shakespeare, 
 " if his chief good and market of his time be but to 
 sleep and feed? — a beast, no more. Surely He that 
 made us with such large discourse, looking before and 
 after, gave us not that capability and God-like reason 
 to fust in us unused ?" 
 
 Labour is not a curse. In his primeval purity Pleasure of 
 and loveliness, man was made to labour, because it 
 was necessary to his happiness. With our powers of 
 thought and imagination — with our capacity of in- 
 vention, construction, and intercourse — we must be 
 active in order to be happy ; and if thorns and thistles 
 spring where we anticipate nought but luxuriant fruit- 
 fulness and beauty, necessity proves an incentive the 
 most salutary to strengthen, develop, and refine the 
 powers and faculties with which we are endowed. But 
 what is labour ? It is the exercise of all our faculties, 
 physical and intellectual. It has been said that the 
 heat of the sun is occasioned by friction, or percussion of 
 meteorites falling upon it ; and whatever latent powers 
 our physical and mental construction may possess, it is 
 only by the friction of labour that we can adapt sub- 
 
 c 2 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 stances to our use, or soar by reason and contemplation 
 towards the infinite. Seldom, if ever, after all, is labour 
 purely mechanical. It is the mind that commands, and 
 the hands that obey. Who can distinguish the respective 
 domain of soul and body ? Though to the philosopher 
 in his study, the lawyer at the bar, and the writer at 
 his desk, the mind may be the great motive power, vain 
 were his efforts but for the obedient hand; and what 
 can be efTected by the spade or the hammer without 
 the directing power of intelligence, art, and design ? 
 Nor can we undervalue the affections in the proper 
 performance of labour. Vain indeed is the attempt to 
 do anything well, unless .the will and the heart give 
 zest and effectiveness to the task. Let, then, the whole 
 man be engaged in accomplishing a distinct object ; let 
 the work he has in hand be in unison with his power 
 ajid disposition ; and let him attain by his well-directed 
 effort a certain measure of success, and labour to him 
 will not be a task but a pleasure. 
 Conditions Certain conditions, however, are quite necessary to 
 for effident the efficient discharge of duties in the work of produc- 
 M Labour' ^^^^- Need I Say that there are wanted energy, aptitude, 
 and skill, in order to subdue matter, and make it sub- 
 servient to our wants and comforts? With indolence 
 and carelessness no work is done, no wealth, is produced. 
 Persever- Thcro must bc a steady and persevering labour, an 
 energetic and willing mind, to overcome the difficulties 
 which nature presents; an impulsive and transitory 
 effort is not sufficient. For the workman himself, 
 nothing could be more necessary than energy and 
 steadiness. Alas for that worker who takes all the 
 Mondays for pastime and idleness, who keeps fairs and 
 wakes, or who deliberately neglects the work which a 
 bountiful Providence sets before him ! " Miserable is he 
 who slumbers on in idleness ! Miserable is the work- 
 
 ance, 
 
THE WOEK AND THE WOEKERS. XXI 
 
 man who sleeps before the hour of his rest, or who sits 
 down in the shade while his brethren work in the sun !" 
 There is enough of forced idleness and slack time in 
 every occupation, without aggravating the evil by wilful 
 neglect. 
 
 Much depends also on the corporeal, intellectual, Health. 
 and moral qualities of the laboureis. That we may 
 work well, we must be healthy and comfortable. A 
 pinched and starving population cannot be expected to 
 be efficient producers of wealth. The body must be in 
 full vigour, the vital energies must be elastic and fresh, 
 the mental faculties must be quick and active, ere we 
 can give ourselves to patient and persevering labour. 
 
 In the present condition of labour, much depends, skiU. 
 moreover, on the skill and judgment which the labourer 
 possesses. Compare the value of skilled and unskilled 
 labour. The demand for skilled labour is incessant ; 
 but beasts of burden and machinery almost monopolise 
 all the work of unskilled labour. Never was the saying, 
 " Knowledge is power," more truly applicable than at 
 present. Education is no longer a luxury — it is a 
 necessity. 
 
 To complete the catalogue of requisites, in order to character. 
 secure a good reward the labourer must not only have a 
 good physical frame and aptitude for labour, but those 
 qualities which create confidence and animate trust. 
 Unless a labourer is worthy of confidence, it is im- 
 possible that he can be regularly employed. And 
 what is it that creates confidence ? A sober and steady 
 conduct, truthfulness, and purity of character, conscien- 
 tiousness and strict regard to duty ; in short, an abiding 
 sense of the responsibility of our calling. 
 
 Over and ,above any qualification, the labourer is, of Natural ad- 
 course, always dependent on natural agents to assist ''*°'"s«. 
 his labour. The land differs in productiveness according 
 
XXll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to place and locality. The climate has a great influence, 
 not only in promoting vegetation, but in making the 
 worker hearty and robust. Numerous external influ- 
 ences, in fact, determine more or less the extent of the 
 labourer's success, not forgetting that, first and fore- 
 Divine most, Divine Providence must bless our labour ere we 
 Providence, pj^jg^j^ g^jjy rgguH from it. " It is vain for us to rise 
 
 up early, to sit up late, to eat the bread of sorrow ; 
 for, except the Lord builds the house, they labour 
 in vain that build it." 
 Producers Such is the work, and such are the workers ! In the 
 producers, technical sense of political economy, which defines labour 
 as the voluntary exertion of bodily or mental faculties 
 for the purpose of production, or, as the action of the 
 human faculties directed to the production of a useful 
 object, there are many whom it would be erroneous to 
 call producers. By that standard all labour is unpro- 
 ductive which ends in immediate enjoyment, without 
 any increase of permanent stock, or which has not for 
 its result a material product. It would be erroneous, 
 nevertheless, to imagine that no labour is valuable 
 which is not employed in the production of wealth. 
 The genius which enlightens, the religion which com- 
 forts, the justice which preserves, the sciences and arts 
 which improve and charm our existence, are as truly 
 productive as commerce, which afibrds us the enjoyment 
 of the produce and labour of all countries — as agricul- 
 ture, which extracts the fruits special to each soil — and 
 as manufacture, which transforms the raw produce of 
 different countries into articles adapted to the taste and 
 wants both of the opulent and the masses. Few, indeed, 
 who truly fulfill the mission to which they are called, 
 who labour in the sphere and condition in. which they 
 are placed, and who exercise the faculties and talents 
 with which they are endowed, can be said to be unpro- 
 
THE WOEK AND THE WORKERS. XXIU 
 
 ductive in this great laboratory. Let us perform our 
 jmrt well, and we need not fear that our labour will be 
 useful. 
 
 But though it is quite true that the labourer or Technical 
 worker may be found among all classes of society, ^^-^thTaTe, 
 there is a special sense in which we speak of the work- 01^^/"^ 
 ing man as of one who is employed in manual labour, 
 or who is in the receipt of weekly wages. Nothing, 
 indeed, is more difficult than to fix the exact meaning 
 of certain terms, and to arrive at a correct classification 
 of objects. But there is no difficulty in apprehending 
 the general designation of working men — working 
 classes. They are the heart and soul of the body 
 politic, the substratum or subsoil of the masses of the 
 people. The census divided the population into six 
 classes : viz. the professional, domestic, commercial, 
 agricultural, industrial, and indefinite. Which of these 
 represent our working men ? The professional has the 
 Army, Navy and Police, th& domestic class has the 
 domestic servants ; the commercial has the carriers by 
 land and sea; the agricultural has the agricultural 
 labourers ; nearly the whole of the industrial consist of 
 working classes ; and a large portion of the indefinite 
 are labourers. Altogether, I have calculated that the 
 number of persons actually at work in the United King- 
 dom amounts, in round numbers, to 11,000,000, of whom 
 about 6,000,000 are adults, and the remainder women 
 and persons under age ; this, however, includes a certain 
 number receiving wages as adults at sixteen to twenty. 
 Of twenty-one years and upwards, we may take the 
 number at about 5,000,000. What proportion of the 
 domestic class, including wives, mothers, and children, 
 not classified as workers, should be added to arrive at 
 the total number of the working classes, it is difficult to 
 say. Ordinarily we take each adult male to represent 
 
XXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a family of 450 persons, since in England the propor- 
 tion of persons to a family, in 1861, was 4-47 ; in Scot- 
 land, 45; and in Ireland, 5-14; and at this rate the 
 K working classes would number 22,000,000, being little 
 more than two to one of the entire population of the 
 United Kingdom. 
 Gradations In taking this large number as the great body of the 
 Working working classes, it is important to remember, that 
 Classes. ^ithjn that appellation there are comprised persons 
 of many grades, and belonging to various branches of 
 laljour. Lord Derby entertained the House of Lords 
 last session with his analogies of political parties as 
 Conservative-Liberals and Liberal-Conservatives, Whigs, 
 Liberals, and Radicals — a classification which corre- 
 sponded, he said, with similar divisions in the social 
 scale. The number of sections, he contended, showed 
 how gradual is the descent from the higher classes to 
 the higher-middle, and from the higher-middle to the 
 lower-middle. By the same imperceptible variation 
 we might proceed from the middle classes to the 
 artisans, thence to miners or agricultural labourers, and 
 downward to common labourers; yet the difference is 
 remarkable between a mechanic and a coal miner, 
 between a Lancashire spinner and a dock labourer. 
 Some are startled with the thought that, in the aggre- 
 gate, the working classes far outnumber the middle 
 and higher ranks of society. But how many are there of 
 the industrial community who are only a shade below 
 the middle class? Where is the difference between 
 an ill- paid schoolmaster and a foreman in a factory ? — 
 ^between a small tradesman and a mason or carpenter ? 
 Higher, Somctimcs society is divided into higher, middle, and 
 
 Lower' lowcr classcs ; but nothing could be more fallacious 
 Classes. ^^1^^ such a divisiou. Who are the higher? Do they 
 comprise only the Upper Ten Thousand ? — or the 
 
 1 
 
THE WOEK AND THE WORKERS. XXV 
 
 aristocracy generally ? — or the gentry ? Who are the 
 middle ? Do they include the Rothschilds, the 
 Barings, and the Peabodies, as well as the great mass 
 of traders, clerks, and professional men ? And what 
 shall we say of the appellative " lower classes ? " Lower 
 in what ? In many cases they are certainly not lower 
 in means, in intelligence, in sagacity, or even in the 
 character of their occupations. Such purely conven- 
 tional terms tend greatly to confuse and perplex our 
 notions on the subject. If the working classes in the 
 United Kingdom are numerous and influential, let us 
 remember that they possess some merits and qualities 
 unequalled among similar classes in any other country. 
 How many men of science, how many artists, have 
 sprung from them or belonged themselves to them ? 
 Hargreaves, the inventor of the carding machine, was 
 an artisan ; and so was Crompton, the inventor of the 
 spinning mule ; whilst Arkwright was a barber. Tel- 
 ford, from a stonemason, became the great constructor 
 of bridges ; Trevithick, a mechanic, invented the first 
 high-pressure steam engine ; Watt was an instrument 
 maker; and Hugh Miller a stonemason. From the 
 shoemakers have sprung Carey and Morrison, the great 
 missionaries. The day labourers have given Brindley, 
 the engineer ; Cook, the navigator ; and Burns, the 
 poet. Newcomen was a blacksmith, and Stephenson an 
 engine fireman. See what a host of men have risen 
 from the ranks in every art! Barry was an Irish tailor 
 boy, Etty a printer, Turner a barber, Chantrey a carver 
 and gilder.* It is not wealth that forms real greatness, 
 nor is wealth needed to acquire it. Let our occupation 
 be high or low in public estimation, he is a great man 
 who, by high character and self-mastery, by culture 
 
 * See Smiles' excellent work entitled, " Self-made Men." 
 
XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and industry, by application and perseverance, secures 
 for himself a true individuality, and with his powers 
 fully developed and his faculties duly expanded, uses 
 whatever talent he may possess to the glory of the 
 great God, from whom we receive every good and 
 perfect gift. 
 
XXVll 
 
 WAGES. 
 
 Belation of Capital and Labour — The Contract of Wages — Intrinsic 
 Value of Labour —Present Eates of Wages — Wages at Home and 
 Abroad. 
 
 No SUBJECT has called forth more continuous, more Relation of 
 keen, and more interesting controversy than the re- Labour,"" 
 lation of capital and labour. Often they have come 
 into open conflict ; most erroneous notions have been 
 entertained, respecting their respective rights and pro- 
 vince ; and very recently they have given rise to no 
 little anxiety. What is the position of the labourer ? 
 Wealth, it is true, is the result of labour. But the 
 labourer has no means of making machines, tools, and 
 implements, or of buying the raw material ; and he is 
 'beholden for these to the capitalist. Here we have at 
 once the basis of interdependence between capital and 
 labour. We might imagine that under such circum- 
 stances the capitalist and the labourer might agree to 
 form a partnership between them ; but seldom can 
 such a relation be satisfactorily- arranged. The la- 
 bourer cannot wait till the article is completed and 
 sold to divide the produce with the capitalist ; he wants 
 the produce, or his share of it, in advance. Neither 
 can he work on the chance that the article produced 
 may be sold, or that the adventure may prove profit- 
 able ; he must provide for his own food and that of 
 his family whilst he is producing. Better for him 
 something prompt and certain than a larger sum at a 
 
Partnership 
 of Capital 
 and Labour, 
 
 XXVIU INTRODUCTIOliT. 
 
 distant time, contingent on the success of the enterprise. 
 Nor would such a contract be in all cases satisfactory to 
 the capitalist, since he might be exposed to the pressure 
 of the labourer to sell the produce in order to realise 
 his share, and he might, by dividing his interest with 
 many, cease to exercise an eifficient control over the 
 whole ; to say nothing of the danger of want of unity 
 in the direction, of disagreement between him and the 
 labourer, and of the difficulty which might be ex- 
 perienced in securing the necessary secrecy. Besides 
 this, legal hindrances would arise from the relation of 
 partnership — such as the difficulty of getting rid of a 
 labourer once he becomes a partner, and the right of 
 investigation of accounts which would be thereby con- 
 ceded. The Act to amend the law of partnership, 
 passed in 1865, provided that no contract for the 
 remuneration of a servant engaged in any trade, by a 
 share of the profits of such trade, shall of itself render 
 such servant responsible as a partner therein, nor 
 give him the rights of a partner.* But though this may 
 enable the master to place the workman in a position 
 to derive direct advantage from the skill and energy 
 which he may apply in the business, that would not 
 extend to the establishment of a contract of partnership. 
 Partnerships between masters and men have often been 
 proposed, and may in some instances have been satis- 
 factorily carried out. 'Even recently! such a partnership 
 has been established in an iron mill, where the masters, 
 after reserving 10 per cent, for themselves, as interest, 
 on the value of the works, and all property owned 
 by them, proposed to divide the profits so that, if they 
 should be 10 per cent, or under, the labourers are to 
 have their wages only ; but if they should exceed 10 per 
 cent., then one-half of the excess shall be given as a 
 
 • 28 & 29 Vict. c. 86. f See the Times of the 19th of January, 1867. 
 
WAGES. • XXIX 
 
 bonus to the men ; but with the limitation that, before 
 any dividend is declared, 2i per cent, should be set 
 aside for a sinking fund, which shall be the property of 
 the firm. It is very doubtful, however, whether such 
 an agreement can prove satisfactory. Generally it 
 will be found that a contract of wages is decidedly 
 preferable to any partnership of capital and labour. 
 
 And what are wages ? Wages are the rent of indus- The Con- 
 tries ; the purchase price of industrial services ; the wTgJ. 
 remuneration received by the labourer in recompense 
 for the exertion of his faculties of mind and body. The 
 labourer who receives wages is understood to transfer 
 to his employer, for a consideration, his portion of the 
 profits which may be derived from his industry, the 
 employer taking the risk of gaining or losing by the 
 transaction. In this new relation, the parties are at 
 liberty to deal as they please — the one to demand, and the 
 other to give whatever their respective interests suggest. 
 But there are certain conditions under which alone they 
 can be mutually helpful. The labourer should remember 
 that it is the amount of capital, or that portion of 
 wealth which is destined for reproduction, which regu- 
 lates and provides for the wages of labour; that, how- 
 ever fertile the soil, however favourable the position 
 of the country, however great the extent of territory, 
 unless there be capital in hand to maintain the la- 
 bourers who have to cultivate it, .and to procure the 
 necessary implements for the purpose, nothing can be 
 done ; that the more capital there is to divide among a 
 certain number of labourers, the higher will be the 
 wages ; that the larger the number of labourers com- 
 peting for the same, the less will be the sum gained 
 by each; that every increase of such capital must 
 necessarily promote a corresponding increase of wages, 
 unless there be as great an increase of competition 
 
XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 among labourers. The labourers are, iu fact^, deeply 
 interested in the increase of capital. They absolutely 
 depend upon it for their welfare ; and the only and best 
 means they can use to increase their own resources is 
 to favour the. increase of capital, so that the fund which 
 is destined for their maintenance may keep pace with the 
 increase in the number of labourers, whilst whatever 
 they do which diminishes or retards such increase must 
 necessarily recoil on themselves. The capitalist must 
 remember that the labourer must live, that he must 
 maintain his family, that he must educate his children, 
 and have a share of relaxation and enjoyment, without 
 which life is a burden. He must not forget that the best 
 way to make a labourer work well is to pay him well ; 
 to keep him happy and cheerful, strong and healthy ; 
 and that if he will deal justly by his labourers, they 
 will neither neglect their labour nor be disaffected — they 
 will neither complain nor be disposed to strike. If, 
 on the one hand, the employer has a right to endeavour 
 to lower the wages, lest by enhancing the cost of produc- 
 tion too high he becomes unable to compete, with the 
 foreign producer, and thus lose the trade altogether, on 
 the other the labourer has a right to expect that the 
 wages shall bear a certain proportion to the profits 
 of the undertaking, be they high or low. And while 
 the competition among labourers is favourable to the 
 master in keeping the wages at the minimum limits 
 of .the labourer's wants, the freedom of labour, an 
 extensive field of industry in the Colonies and in the 
 United States of America,* and the right to combine 
 among themselves, to control, as far as possible, such 
 competition, enable the labourers to resist the attempt 
 to lower wages below what is just and necessary. 
 
 * The emigration from the United Kingdom in ten years (1856 to 1865) 
 averaged 160,000 per annum. 
 
WAGES. XXXI 
 
 It is very difficult to say what is the intrinsic value intrinsic 
 of labour. We may measure it by the cost of main- ubouf. 
 tenance of the labourer, and by the skill and time 
 requisite for the labour. As the value of any article is 
 regulated by the cost of producing it, so the value 
 of labour is ultimately governed by the cost of sub- 
 sistence of the labourer and his family. However 
 large the competition among labourers, the wages can 
 never go far below, or will not continue long at less 
 than^ the actual cost of bare living. This is the natural 
 or necessary rate of wages, which must differ with the 
 cost of articles of food and clothing at different times 
 l\ and in different countries. There is a material differ- 
 ence, for example, in the cost of maintenance of a 
 British labourer who eats daily wheaten bread and 
 butcher's meat, and of a Chinaman who lives almost 
 exclusively on rice. But this minimum rate of wages 
 can only prevail where there are as many labourers as 
 can possibly be required, and where all such labourers 
 are equally efficient. This is, however, far from being 
 the case in all instances, and especially in skilled labour. 
 There the rate of wages must rise above this minimum 
 in proportion to the circumstances incident to each kind 
 of labour, to the peculiar skill and aptitude required, 
 and to the relative repugnance, the fatigue, discomfort,, 
 wear and tear, and damage, attending them. 
 
 The present rates of wages in this country may be Present 
 said generally to be fair and remunerative, though a wagL? 
 considerable difference obtains in different trades and 
 occupations in different districts, and even in different 
 times of the year. The general average rates resulting ^ 
 from the extensive inquiry hereafter instituted appears 
 to be, for adult males, 22/6 in England and Wales, 20/6 
 in Scotland, and 14/4 in Ireland ; for boys and youths 
 under twenty, 6/6 in England, 7/8 in Scotland, and 
 
XXXll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 6/3 in Ireland; for adult women, 12/6 in England, 
 10/6 in Scotland, and 9/9 in Ireland; and for girls, 
 8/6 in England, 8/2 in Scotland, and 7/4 in Ireland. 
 The total average in the United Kingdom being 19s. 
 for adult males, 7/3 for boys under twenty, lis. for 
 adult women, and 7/10 for girls. 
 
 Between mechanics and labourers the diflFerence in 
 wages is great. The mechanic or artisan, such as 
 joiners or carpenters, designers, spinners, engineers, 
 puddlers, moulders, forgers, shipwrights, modellers, 
 and throwers in potteries, and other skilled workers, 
 earn easily 30s., 40s., and even 50s. per week. Common 
 weavers, agricultural labourers, dock labourers, and all 
 those classed as common labourers, earn from 12s. to 
 25s. per week, the hours of labour being usually from 
 ten to twelve hours a day, though in some cases longer 
 hours are required, and overtime is paid. 
 Wages at In comparisou with some foreign countries, the 
 AbroLT* wages in England appear high. From reports given 
 recently* regarding the condition of the collieries and 
 iron forges in Belgium, it seems that in coal-mining 
 hewers earn 2/10 to 4/2, wood-tree setters, 3/1 to 5s., 
 wood-cutters' sawyers, 2/6 to 2/11, and leaders of coal, 
 2/6 to 2/11 ; sundries, 1/6 to 2/6 per day. In this 
 country, in Newcastle and its neighbourhood, hewers 
 earn 5/9, sawyers 3/6, and labourers 2/4 to 3s. In 
 iron furnaces a puddler in Belgium earns 4/2 to 5s. ; 
 in Staffordshire, 7/6 to 7/10 ; the under hand in 
 Belgium, 2/3 to 3/1 ; in this country, 2/6 to 2/11. 
 In iron foundries a moulder in Belgium earns 2s. to 
 2/11 ; in Sheffield, 5s. ; and so in other branches of 
 labour. In France the wages are also lower than in 
 this country. In 1860 the Chamber of Commerce of 
 
 * See the Times of the 24th and 27th of December, 1866, 
 
WAGES. XXXUl 
 
 Paris instituted an inquiry into the state of industry in 
 that metropolis, and the general results were that, out 
 of 290,759 men whose earnings were ascertained, as many 
 as 212,000 earned from 3 to 5 francs a day, or an 
 average of 4 francs a day ; women earning from one-half 
 to 2 francs a day. These wages, however, applied to 
 Paris only, and did not include agricultural labour or 
 other lower-paid occupations, especially in the provinces. 
 Whilst in this country the engine-drivers earn 7s. 6d. a 
 day ; in Prussia first-class drivers earn 5s., and second 
 3s. 9dS^^ In the United States of America, the Statistical 
 Bureau of Washington recently published the wages 
 paid in four places in the North, viz. Hartford, in 
 Connecticut ; Tunkhannock, a town in the iron regions 
 of Pennsylvania ; Tiffin, an agricultural town in Ohio ; 
 and Cairo, at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi 
 river, the extreme southern point of Illinois. Taking 
 into account that the wages are paid in paper money, 
 the averages were, carpenters, Hartford, 2 dols. 75 cents ; 
 Tunkhannock, 3 dols. ; Tiffin, 3 dols. ; and Cairo, 3 dols. 
 50 cents, or 14s. or 15s. a day ; farm labourers, with 
 board, in Hartford, 26 dols. 50 cents ; in Tunkhannock 
 and Tiffin, 27 dols. 50 cents per month, or 3s. to 3s. 6c?. 
 a day ; but in Cairo 18 dols.; machinists, 8 dols. to 3 dols. 
 60 cents per day; ironfounders, 2 dols. 50 cents to 3 
 dols. ; weavers, 1 dol. 50 cents in Hartford, and 2 dols. 
 50 cents in Cairo,^^^ or 6s. to 10s. a day. At Sydney, in 
 Australia, carpenters earn 9s,; bricklayers," 10s.; plas- 
 terers, 9s. ; painters, 8s. ; bricklayers' labourers, 8s. ; 
 plumbers, 10s. ; quarrymen, 8s. to 10s, per day. But, 
 however valuable these facts may be, it is idle to institute 
 any comparison without calculating, on the one hand, 
 
 (» See Times of the 29th of March, 1867. 
 w Jbid. 12th of February, 1867. 
 
XXXIV INTllODUOTION. 
 
 the cost of livins, and on the other the rate of produc- 
 tion. The colliers in Belgium may be as well remu- 
 nerated at the low wages as those in Newcastle at the 
 higher, if we take into account the cost of food and 
 ihouse rent; and the high rate paid in Sydney may be 
 low when we calculate the high rent and cost of food. 
 Rate of The position of employers and employed is often per- 
 
 ^•ife'Df'"* plexing. The employer looks not only to the rate, but 
 Labour, jq the amount of wages which he must give for a given 
 work. The workman is only interested in the wages. It 
 is quite the same for a farmer who wants a field trenched 
 whether the amount that he can afford to give for the 
 work is divided by three able and industrious men, or 
 five or seven weak and lazy. But it makes all the dif- 
 ference with the labourer if he is to get a third or a 
 fifth of that given amount. The amount of wages and 
 price of labour, or the earnings of the labourers, are, in 
 fact, two different things. The same amount of wages 
 may produce twice as much labour, where the labourer 
 is ill earnest in his work. Besides, a much greater 
 amount of labour will be performed in a summer than 
 in a winter's day— in fine, than in bad weather; in 
 countries where the people are less given to enjoyments 
 than in countries where pleasure seems to be the first 
 and most attractive pursuit. Allowing, therefore, that 
 in some foreign countries the rate of wages may be 
 lower, the amount of wages paid for a given quan- 
 tity of work may still be greater than in England. <^'^ 
 Productive Some very valuable facts on this question are fur- 
 Brituh and nishcd by Mr. Alexander Redgrave, Factory Inspector, 
 Labourers ^° ^^^ recent report. Taking the total of cotton fac- 
 &c. tories, the average number of persons employed to 
 
 '^^ Eeport of Inspectors of Factories for the yeai- ending the 31st of 
 October, 1866, 1867. 
 
WAGES. XXXV 
 
 spindles was as follows : — In France, 1 person to 14 
 spindles; in Russia, 1 to 38 ; in Prussia, 1 to 37; in 
 Bavaria, 1 to 46 ; in Austria, I to 49 ; in Belgium, 1 to 
 50 ; in Saxony, 1 to 50 ; in Switzerland, 1 to 55 ; in the 
 smaller slates of Germany, 1 to 55 ; and in Great Britain, 
 1 to 74 spindles. To make an exact calculation, it is 
 not sufficient to take the wages of labour, but, as Mr. 
 Redgrave said, we must take in conjunction with it the 
 power of the operator as a producer ; and here we 
 find that the English operative has an advantage 
 over his foreign competitor, sufficient with some other 
 qualifications to counterbalance the mere cheapness of 
 wages. If we give more to a British workman it is 
 because he works more and works better. When, in 
 fact, we consider the whole amount of wages paid for 
 the total work performed, we find a much greater 
 equality in the rate of wages throughout the world than 
 we are apt at first to think. And it is the rate for 
 labour, and not the rate for the day or for the month, 
 [that constitutes the regulating rate of wages. 
 
 (/ 2 
 
XXXVl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 APPEOPEIATION OP WAGES. 
 
 Number in a Family— Number of Earners— Cost of Food arid Drink — 
 House Eent—OIothing— Medical and Benevolent Objects— Implements 
 and Tools — Savings' Banks — Building Societies — Incomes of the 
 Working compared with those of the Middle and Higher Classes. 
 
 In order to ascertain the real value of wages, it is 
 necessary to examine what amount of comfort they are 
 capable of supplying to the workman. And here I 
 must enter into some interesting details. The economic 
 condition of a family depends primarily on the number 
 of members composing it, and their respective ages. 
 Among skilled labourers, the usual habit is to marry 
 as soon as they terminate their apprenticeship; but 
 among the unskilled, many enter into the bonds of 
 matrimony at a still earlier period, so that very early 
 in life many of them have large families dependent 
 upon them. Of all labourers the farm labourers 
 receive the lowest rate of money wages, yet even 
 among them the number in a "^ family far exceeds 
 the average for the kingdom. In the report of Dr. 
 Edward Smith ^'^ on the food of the poorer labouring 
 classes, it was shown that in 500 families visited in 
 the United Kingdom the total number of members 
 was 2757, giving an average of 5"51 in a family; 
 the proportion in England being 5-75 ; in Wales, 4*79 ; 
 in Scotland, 459 ; and in Ireland, 5' 17. In the manu- 
 facturing districts the same averages would generally 
 
 (1) 
 
 Eeport of the Medical OflScer of the Privy Council, 1864.- 
 
APPROPRIATION OF WAGES. XXXVll 
 
 obtain. We may take, then, as a fact that the number 
 in a family amongst the working classes rather exceeds 
 the number in a family throughout the kingdom, 
 indicating clearly that there are causes in operation 
 among the working classes tending to the increase of 
 families which far outweigh the check which low .in- 
 comes must necessarily produce. 
 
 In a family, however^ there are usually noore than Number 
 one earner. In agricultural pursuits, where the money °J fp™™^ 
 wages are low, generally the wife will keep a cow or ^^""'^ °^ , 
 attend to the pigs and poultry, and the children are all children. 
 at work ; or in other cases the wife and daughters are 
 working in the manufacture of hosiery, lace, or straw- 
 plaiting. In the manufacturing districts there is ex- 
 tensive labour for women and children. In towns, the 
 daughters of artisans are often employed as domestic 
 servants. In most cases, thereforOj in the families of 
 our working classes, the grown-up portion of the family 
 may be considered to be all workers and at work, 
 unless disabled by disease, or kept idle from want of 
 employment. In a moral, and to a great extent economic, 
 aspect, the system of placing every member of a family 
 in industrial pursuits must be considered highly preju- 
 dicial. Careful attendance to household duties should 
 be the first thought in every well-arranged family. Due 
 attention to the wants and comforts of the husband, 
 the bringing-up of children in health and good morals, 
 the maintenance of order and neatness in household 
 arran-gements, are duties which the wife and mother 
 alone can satisfactorily fulfil. Let these be neglected, 
 and the surest and safest foundations of comfort and 
 happiness are ruthlessly torn away. Whatever benefit 
 may be obtSjined from the earnings of the wife or 
 mother, it is more than counterbalanced by the want of 
 supervision and care, the want of economy and order. 
 
XXXVIU INTRODUCTION. 
 
 above all, the disregard to the intellectual and moral 
 advance of the family which her absence is certain to 
 produce. If indeed the money expenditure thereby 
 caused to the household were carefully calculated, it 
 might be proved that on the whole the amount lost is 
 greater than the amount earned. 
 Expenditure The expenditure of our working-men may be divided 
 Working iri*^o lour distinct heads: viz. 1st, food ; 2nd, house rent, 
 Ci«sses. with fire and lighting; 3rd, clothing; and 4th, education, 
 health, and recreation. The proportion which each of 
 these bears to the whole must, of course, vary consider- 
 * ably, but generally we may calculate that more than half, 
 or rather two-thirds, of the income is devoted to food, and 
 the remainder is expended in the other three items. The 
 Expenditure cost of food materially depends on the dietary used ; and 
 in Food, there is much difference in this respect between the habits 
 of farm labourers and artisans, and between workmen in 
 the receipt of high or low wages. Dr. Edward Smith, 
 in his report on the food of farni labouiers, gave the 
 cost of food to be, on an average, for the United Kingdom, 
 2/lOf per adult weekly ; in England, 2/1 1-g- ; in Wales, 
 3/5|; in Scotland, 3/3| ; and in Ireland,- 1/9|; Ireland 
 exceeding the other divisions in cheapness of living, 
 whilst in England the value of the food consumed was 
 less than in Wales or Scotland. With this additional 
 circumstance in favour of Ireland, that for the money 
 expended the labourer obtained nearly twice as much 
 carbon and more than two and a half times as much 
 nitrogen as was procured in England. Then followed 
 Scotland in point of economy, and England was lowest. 
 The Irish farm labourers are greater eaters of bread- 
 stuff than the English or Scotch, but meat is most 
 1 consumed by the English. Meat or bacon was consumed 
 by 99 per cent of all the families included in the 
 inquiry in England, by 84 in Wales, 72 in Scotland, 
 
APPROPRIATION OF WAGES. XXXIX 
 
 and in Ireland by 59 per cent. only. The use of tea is 
 very extensive everywhere, yet more general in Scotland 
 and England than in Ireland.^'^ The food of the lowest- 
 fed classes of labourers, such as silk weavers, needle- 
 women, kid glovers, shoemakers, and stocking 
 weavers; was less in quantity and inferior in nutritive 
 l^ qualities than that of farna labourers, the average 
 /[ quantity supplied being too little for health and strength ; 
 yet the average cost of food per adult, even of these 
 classes, varied from 2/2i to 2/9L Amongst the better 
 classes of labourers and artisans, however, a much 
 higher scale of diet usually prevails, and meat forms a 
 very important item in the daily expenditure. Builders, 
 engineers, shipwrights, and all persons employed in 
 occupations requiring great physical exertion, generally 
 take a large quantity of food, and in many cases even 
 Y wastefully, of the most recherche and even expensive 
 j\ kind. Taken generally, we may assume that bread and 
 meat absorb the largest portion of the labourer's income 
 devoted to food. The price of bread now is certainly 
 lower than it used to be. The average gazette price of 
 British wheat in 1845 was 50/10; 1855, 74/8 ; and in 
 1865, 41/10; of harley in 1845, 31/8; 1855, 34/9; 
 1865, 29/9; and of oats 1845, 22/6 ; 1855, 27/5; 
 1865, 21/10. Meat, however, is much higher. In 1852 
 the average price of meat was 3/9 1 per stone, or within 
 a fraction of 5|d per lb. In 1855 it was 4/6i per stone, 
 or 6|c/. per lb. In 1860 it was 5/l| per stone, or Hd. 
 per lb. And in 1866, 5/9| per stone, or 8|rf. per lb. ; 
 the di fference between 185 2 and 1866 being more than 
 
 I (1) Tea and sugar have become prime necessaries of life to the poorer 
 \ classes. Many of those whose wages range from 8s. to 12s. almost live 
 upon bread and tea. Many purchase daily half an ounce of tea and two 
 ' to three ounces of sugar, and some purchase it at pennyworths at a time 
 twice or thrice a day. The average 'consumption of tea per each in- 
 dividual of the population, in 1840, was 1 lb. 14 oz. ; in 1865, 3 lbs. 4 oz. Of 
 sugar, in 1840, 15 lbs. ; in 1865, 36 lbs. 
 
xl INTRODUOTrON. 
 
 50 per cent ^'^ Sugar and tea, on the other hand, in 
 
 X consequence of the great reduction of- duty, are con- 
 siderably cheaper. 
 Expenditure But grcatcst of all itcms in the expenditure for food, 
 in Drink. -^ ^j^^ ^^^^ ^£ ^ jg^^gg nuuiber.of families of the working 
 
 classes, is the money devoted to drinking spirituous and 
 malt liquors. It is a sad, very sad, fact that in the 
 United Kingdom as much as £89,000,000 a year is 
 expended in ardent spirits, £58,000,000 of which is by 
 the working classes. There are cases, and we fear not a 
 few, where a working man earning 255. to 30s. a week in 
 wages will expend upward of 5s. a week in drink, mostly 
 for his own gratification, quite regardless of the limited 
 resources, amounting almost to penury, of wife and 
 children. Long hours of labour, complete exhaustion 
 of forces, irregular employment, sorrows and disap- 
 pointments, often lead to drinking — excessive drinking, 
 and once the workman becomes a victim to its seduc- 
 tions, health and vigour are soon at an end. Shrewdness 
 and elasticity give place to sottishness of mind and hea- 
 viness of step, and, what is still worse, character and 
 capacity are speedily lost for ever. To say nothing of 
 the evils of drunkenness, that fruitful source of crime, 
 riot, and sorrows without number, can any one with 
 his eyes open prefer the momentary sensUal gratifica- 
 tion of drinking to excess, to the enduring happiness 
 resulting from a comfortable home? Proper statistics of 
 drunkenness are not obtainable. As far as the police 
 statistics assist us in giving the number of persons taken 
 «p by the police as drunk and disorderly, the per- 
 centage ^ould seem to be only five to ten in a thou- 
 sand. A much greater number, however, it is to be 
 
 ('' See the table of prices paid at Greenwich Hospital for food, clothing, 
 and household stores and rates of artificers' wages, from 1740 to 1865, in 
 ■"^"^ Appendix. And also see Times of the 10th of November, 1866. 
 
APPROPRIATION OF WAGES. xli 
 
 feared, waste tlieir substance and destroy their health 
 in this, the most insidious of all social luxuries.''^ 
 
 Next to food and drink is house rent, to which must House Rent. 
 be added the expenditure for fire and light, as well as 
 \ |;iousehold furniture and other necessaries. As will be 
 seen from the facts hereinafter stated, a great proportion 
 of the working classes live in houses rented under £7 
 a year, the accommodatioli thereby obtained being very 
 small and poor. To a great extent the labourers are 
 compelled to economise in their house accommodation, 
 from the difficulty of meeting the cost of the neces- 
 sary food and other expenditure with the low wages 
 obtained. Yet, as it has been well said, a taste for 
 more refined homes has yet to be acquired by the great 
 majority of our working men. They do not think tliat 
 a few shillings more in house rent is, after all, the best 
 expenditure they can make of their money. The saving 
 of one shilling or two per week is an important con- 
 sideration. But it is no saving, when the evil effects 
 are duly. considered. The slow deterioration of health, 
 the lowered vitality and enjoyment, the destruction of 
 the ordinary sense of decency — these, and a long series 
 
 f ' In a paper on the self-imposed taxation of the working classes in the 
 United Kingdom, Mr. Gr. E. Porter calculated the cost of spirits of home 
 production, and of foreign spirits, at three times the amount of duty ; 
 and the cost of beer at the rate of Is. 2d. per gallon. Upon these bases it 
 appears that in the year ending the 31st of March, 1866, the amount of 
 duty on home, foreign, and colonial spirits having been £13,741,907, the 
 cost to the consumer was £41,225,721. The quantity of malt retained for 
 consumption was 51,746,000 bushels, or 6,468,000 quarters. At 3i barrels 
 per quarter, and 36 gallons per barrel, the quantity consumed would be 
 813,888,000 gallons, which, at Is. 2d. per gallon, ^ould give the cost of 
 £47,476,00.0, making a total of £88,702,521, independently of the license 
 duty. If we calculate the proportion consumed by the working classes 
 at two-thirds of the whole, the amount so spent by them will be £58,544,000. 
 To this we must add the cost of tobacco. In 1865 the quantity consumed 
 was 39,000,000 lbs., which, with the addition of other ingredients, may be 
 calculated to become 47,000,000 lbs. Assuming the low price of 4s. per lb., 
 we have a total of £9,400,000. 
 
xlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of evils arising from overcrowding, come in so gradual 
 and insidious a form compared with the palpable and 
 immediate pecuniary advantage of living-at a very small 
 rental, that they fail to be duly noted and traced to their 
 origin/'^ In the houses of a large number of the working 
 classes the want of accommodation, light, and air is re- 
 markable, but still more so is the absence of order and 
 tidiness. 
 Clothing. Clothing enters largely in the expenditure of the work- 
 ing classes, and this item is now high, from the higher 
 cost of some articles of the first necessity, and also 
 from the love of dress which obtains among all classes 
 of society. With the agricultural labourer the wear 
 and tear of shoes is great. In towns, artisans and 
 labourers alike spend much in this item. Servant 
 women devote a great part of their income to dress ; 
 and, in the manufacturing districts, factory women 
 and girls are, on Sunday, scarcely distinguishable from 
 the higher classes of society. Apart, however, from 
 any extravagance, the cost of clothing in a large family 
 is considerable in the course of the year. 
 Medical Other expenses in a household are medical attendance, 
 
 attendance, g^jj^ expcusps for recreatioii and amusements, besides pay- 
 
 and benevo* ^ ' xr j 
 
 lent objects, monts for religious purposes, or for acts of benevolence 
 and charity, and contributions for friendly societies, 
 and other benefit clubs. Altogether, these varied sources 
 of expenditure form a considerable sum during the 
 year, and it is quite evident that, with the increase of 
 civilization and intelligence, and with the increase of 
 comforts and elevation which are sought by every branch 
 of society, thecost^ living^ e it absolute or c onventional, 
 I has greatly augmented, m recent years especially. In- 
 deed, taking all into account, it is probable that the 
 
 '^' See "Homes of the Working Classes, with Suggestions for their 
 Improvement," by James Hole. 
 
APPROPRIATION OV WAGES. xliii 
 
 increase of wages which has taken place has scarcely 
 heen equivalent to the corresponding increase in the 
 expenditure of the working classes. 
 
 Our workmen have no reason to complain of the ex- Taxes. 
 tent of taxation pressing upon them. There was a time 
 when corn was taxed 25s. a quarter, tea 100 per cent., 
 sugar as much as 2d. to Sd. a pound, and when bacon, 
 butter, cheese, soap, and candles were all taxed, raising 
 the prices of food, probably b}'^ at least a third of the 
 am ount, in tax and mo nopoly. Now the taxes are 
 greatly diminished, and they are so levied, that a 
 working man, of sober and abstemious habits, may 
 be said to bear but a very small share indeed of the 
 national burdens. From extensive inquiries instituted, 
 it appears that the working classes consume about 40 
 per cent, of tea and sugar. We may calculate their 
 consumption of corn, tobacco, and other articles of 
 import taxed in the same proportion, and of spirits 
 and beer at two-thirds. Wine is but little used by 
 them. A third of the license duties, and a sixth of the 
 local and poor rates, are probably paid by them. At 
 these proportions, the amount of taxation borne Vy 
 the working classes in 186,5 may be estimated as fol- 
 lows:— Tea, £1,000,000;. sugar, £2,000,000; corn and 
 other imported articles, £700,000 ; spirits and beer, 
 £14,000,000; tobacco, £2,000,000 ; licenses, £700,000; 
 stamps, £500,000 ; and poor and local rates, £3,000,000 ; 
 making in all £24,000,000; which, divided by 
 22,000,000, gives a taxation per head of little more than 
 20s. ; while the middle and higher classes, in addition 
 to their proportion of these taxes, are charged with 
 taxes on wine, £1,400,000; stamps, £9,000,000; arid 
 property and income tax and assessed taxes £10,000,000, 
 or in all about £50,000,000, which divided by 8,000,000 
 ^persons, will amount to about £6 per head. 
 
xliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 saTiiigs. If there be one fault more than another with which 
 
 the working classes are usually charged, it is a want of 
 providence— a disposition to expend every penny of their 
 income^ and generally to live^_s o to say, f roqi handjo 
 mouth. It is much to be lamented that, in a large 
 multitude of instances, however abundant may be the 
 earnings at any given time, a return of stagnation 
 finds the workman as destitute as ever. It would be 
 erroneous, however, to imagine that the labouring 
 classes are all so reckless in the expenditure of their 
 
 Capital in surplus income. The original cost and subsequent annual 
 
 amfTOTis. ^ expenditure in tools and implements cjonstitute so much 
 accumulated capital. There are, for instance, 300,000 
 carpenters, joiners, and shipwrights, each of whom 
 requires tools costing from £10 to £50. At an average 
 of £20 each, they will amount to £6,000,000. The 
 
 Sayings savlngs bauks receive from them large annual amounts. 
 Of late years, the accumulation of capital thus in- 
 vested by the working classes has greatly augmented. 
 In 1830 the number of depositors in savings banks 
 was 17 in 1000 of the population, and the amount of 
 deposits averaged 11/3 per head. In 1848 the number 
 of deposits was 39 in 1000, and the amount of deposit 
 30/8 per head. In 1865 the number of depositors was 
 48 in 1000, exclusive of the depositors to the Post Office 
 Savings Bank, and the amount of deposit 30^. per head, 
 inclusive of the deposits in the Post-office banks — the 
 total amount held by the saving banks to the credit of 
 depositors having been on the 20th of November, 1866, 
 £38,000,000, and at the Post-office Savings Banks 
 £8,000,000 more. 
 
 Building . The amount invested in building societies is vei'y 
 considerable. The freehold land and building societies, 
 originally formed for a purely political purpose, have 
 provided means of investment for the surplus of the 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Societies. 
 
APPROPRIATION OF WAGES. xlv 
 
 working classes of no inconsiderable amount. The 
 large societies, such as the National, Westminster, 
 and Conservative freehold societies, have large num- 
 bers of shareholders, and from a paper read before 
 the British Association at Birmingham, in 1865, it 
 appears that in that town alone there were nineteen 
 societies, with subscriptions received amounting to 
 £2,200,000, principally belonging to the lower, middle, 
 and working classes.^^' The co-operative associations 
 afford a new and important outlet. By a return "^'^ laid 
 before Parliament, there were formed in Great Britain 
 651 industrial and provident societies, having on the 
 31st of December, 1865, capital in shares of £1,017,000. 
 
 Collectively the working classes exercise considerable income of 
 influence on the nation. I have estimated upon very as rompa^d 
 good basis, though necessarily in a general manner, ^'^''j^'J^J.^ 
 that the 12,000,000 persons at work annually earn about ^i^'^- 
 £418,000,000. Comparing this income with the income 
 of the middle and higher classes, I find that the income 
 assessed to income tax,^^^ in the year ending the 5th of 
 April, 1865, paid principally by the latter, amounts to 
 £349,000,000, whilst a considerable addition should be 
 made for the property of such class under £100, or not 
 assessed to that tax. Apparently the difference between 
 the income of the two classes is not so material ; but when 
 we take the number of persons belonging to each into 
 account, the result is very different. If we take the work- 
 ing classes to number, as I have said, 22,000,000, and the 
 
 ™ See a paper on "Freehold Land Society," by Thomas Beggs, Journal 
 of the Statistical Society, vol. xvi. p. 338, and a paper on the " Benefit 
 Building and Freehold Land Societies in Birmingham," by Gr. J. Johnson, 
 vol. xxviii. p. 507. 
 
 W 355 of 1866. 
 
 (8) This amount was divided as follows :— Schedule A, £150,682,260; 
 B, £35,812,402; 0, £32,014,489; D, £110,105,766; E, £20,451,166. 
 Totai, £349,096,083. In the proportion of England, £296,026,220; Scot- 
 land, £29,340,024 ; Ireland, £23,729,839. 
 
xlvi 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 middle and higher 8,000,000, it will follow that the 
 £418,000,000 will give a proportional income per head 
 of about £19 per annum, or £85 per family, whilst the 
 £349,000,000 will give a proportion of £43 per head, 
 or £193 per family ; these proportions, however, varying 
 in the various grades of society from £20 to £300 per 
 family in the working classes^ and from £50 to £50,000 
 and upwards in the middle and higher. 
 
 The accumulations of the working- classes cannot 
 be compared with those of the middle and higher 
 classes ; yet a decided improvement is perceptible in 
 their general condition, and we trust it will be their 
 endeavour to economise and husband their resources, 
 so that, be they large or small, they shall place them- 
 selves in a state of comparative independence. 
 
xlvii 
 
 TRADE SOCIETIES. 
 
 Trade Societies and Guilds— Objects of Trades Unions— Uniformity of 
 Wages — Piecework and Overtime — Apprenticeship^Tntroduction of 
 Machinery — Combination Laws — What is Intimidation? — Strikes — 
 Conseils de Prud'homraes — Arbitration Boards. 
 
 Trade Societies are, in many respects, a revival of Trades 
 the old guilds, formed at a time when charters of and Guilds. 
 incorporation were granted to retailers and artisans for 
 engrossing and monopolising all kinds of business. But" 
 they differ from them in this respect, that whilst those 
 guilds and companies could enforce their monopolies 
 by the powers granted to them by their charters, 
 trade societies or unions rest only on the authority 
 granted to them by their own members, and whilst 
 those exercised their rights and privileges as against 
 the whole community, these can bring their action 
 to bear only upon the members of their own societies. 
 There is, moreover, another essential difference. The 
 old guilds and companies were composed of retailers 
 and artisans, but trade societies or unions are formed 
 exclusively of the latter, with a certain number of 
 labourers. Nor must we forget that, whilst the objects 
 of the old guilds and companies were economic and 
 charitable, trade societies aim also at elevating the 
 workman to a position of respectability and influence in 
 the great body politic. 
 
 The most important object trade societies have in 
 view is to act upon wages. Their motto is ^^ a fair 
 
xlviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Principal day's wages for a fair day's work." Starting from 
 vaisTthe" the principle, that alone and without union the work- 
 ^^g°s man has no chance of improving his income, such 
 societies are formed, either professedly or by impli- 
 cation, for the purpose of maintaining certain rates 
 of wages, obtaining an increase of the same when- 
 ever opportunities occur, resisting any attempt at re- 
 duction, preventing one employer paying less than 
 another for the same amount and quality of work, 
 and for regulating the supply of labour as much as 
 possible in order to check any inordinate competition. 
 Though well acquainted with the fact that wages are 
 much more regulated by the laws of supply and 
 demand than by any concert among the men, or 
 any representations of trade societies, they think that 
 the operation of economic laws may be assisted or 
 counteracted by the action of conflicting forces ; and 
 they imagine that by their efforts they may enable their 
 members to participate at a much earlier time the 
 benefit of any improvement- in the condition of their 
 industry. On this they are strengthened by the report 
 of the Committee of the Social Science Association, 
 which stated, " That leaving out of account the acci- 
 dental benej&ts, and the accidental mischiefs of trade 
 societies, it must be admitted that they have at times 
 assisted the workmen in a trade more speedily to realise 
 higher wages when the profits and wages in it have been 
 rising, and they have, in some instances, been of ad- 
 vantage to the master by producing greater uniformity 
 of wages throughout a trade." In forming an opinion 
 upon questions of so delicate a character, it is ne- 
 cessary clearly to distinguish the permanent from 
 the temporary influence of any law or force. Though 
 it is quite possible tliat the action of trade .so- 
 cieties may temporarily have a direct and beneficial 
 
TRADE SOCIETIES. > xlix 
 
 influence in favour of the workman, it is quite evident 
 tliat permanently all their efforts must prove fruitless 
 as against the operation of the more certain and in- 
 evitable economic laws which regulate wages. 
 
 One great object of such societies is to promote, as Uniformity 
 far as possible, uniformity of wages, aiming not so ° ^° ' 
 much at perfect uniformity, as to fix a minimum rate 
 for all those working in the same trade or occupation. 
 Surely they cannot be blind to the difference of skill and 
 industry among the workers. They must know that a 
 man of indifferent ability cannot earn as much as a 
 man of good ability, and that in any case steadiness 
 and skill will always secure to the workman regular 
 employment to the preference of the indolent and 
 unskilful. Uniformity of wages is a great desideratum ; 
 and, as in the case of uniformity of price, there are 
 economic laws in operation which must inevitably tend 
 towards it. But it is one thing to assist the operation of 
 natural laws, and another to enforce general principles, 
 either before the law is sufficiently in operation, or, in 
 special cases, where the same could never apply. 
 
 The effort to attain such uniformity being thwarted Piecework 
 when wages are paid by piecework, many trade societies t^e. ^*' 
 have opposed such a method of payment, contending 
 that it offers better opportunities to masters to reduce 
 wages, and induces men to work longer and harder than 
 is advantageous for them, whilst where a middleman is 
 required to settle the wages the workman's labour is 
 charged with an additional payment. Although an 
 unfair use may be made of this method of paying wages, 
 can it be maintained that, as a rule, payment by piece- 
 work is unreasonable ? The labourer is at liberty to 
 work as much as he pleases ; it is a matter of open 
 contract in each case; and the master enters into an 
 obligation to pay a given amount in relation to the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 work performed. In many instances, it might be 
 shown, such a method of payment is fairer for the 
 labourer than payment by the day. As regards over- 
 time, trade societies do not object to it on occasional 
 emergencies, but oppose it when it grows into a system, 
 because excess of labour injures the health of the 
 labourer, stupefies his moral energies, deprives him of 
 time for rational enjoyment, and takes from him any 
 opportunity for culture. They oppose it, too, also on 
 the ground that whilst some labourers are thereby 
 overwrought a much greater number are suffering from 
 want of employment altogether. Reasons like these 
 are unanswerable ; and so long as the societies exercise 
 their influence in this respect with reason and discri- 
 mination, they well deserve support and sympathy. 
 Apprentice- Somc societics also object to an excessive number of 
 ^ '''■ apprentices. In some cases they have rules restricting 
 the number, and compelling the members to refuse to 
 work if more are received. The defenders of the system 
 say, first, that by thus requiring journeymen to undergo 
 a proper training they best secure the continuance of that 
 skill and dexterity which are requisite to obtain excel- 
 lence in production ; secondly, that they have a right to 
 say to whom, and to what extent, they will teach to others 
 the art in which they have been trained ; and thirdly, that 
 having once acquired this knowledge, at much expense, 
 they have a right to take care lest those whom they have 
 instructed should outbid them in the labour market. It 
 is moreover asserted that since the sole object of the 
 system of apprenticeship is the recruital of the I'anks of 
 the journeymen, thinned by the course of time, and it is 
 based on the princ iple of gratuit ous instruction on the 
 one sid e, and gratuI tous~aFslig:ht"ly-paid labour on the 
 other, it is a clear"~perverslon of the system wEere^ 
 apprentices are multiplied simply for the purpose of 
 
TRADE SOCIETIES. ll 
 
 cheapening labour. The masters, of course, consider 
 all rules restricting the number of apprentices as inter- 
 fering with their rights^ and as opposed to the personal 
 liberty of the men. And political economy has always 
 proclaimed the grand principle of " I'reedom of labour." 
 Allowing that a certain time is necessary to learn any 
 trade, and that a workman has the right to refuse 
 instruction to any one, does the journeyman stand 
 in the capacity of a teacher to the apprentice? 
 The old practice of placing a boy under a jour- 
 neyman has been generally given up. The apprentice 
 is indentured to his master, and he covenants to teach 
 him his trade in the way he thinks best. Under such 
 circumstances the responsibility of teaching rests with 
 the master, not with the journeyman. If the workman 
 has a right to protect himself from competition, he 
 should always remember that the master has also the 
 right to choose labourers wherever he may find them. 
 
 Happily, the opposition to machinery is now quite introduc- 
 disapproved of by the best societies, and our workmen litichineiy. 
 are as convinced as any other class that it is by our 
 decided supremacy in mechanical contrivances that we 
 have hitherto maintained the foremost place in manu- 
 facturing industry, whilst they have had abundant evi- 
 dence ol' the fact that by the introduction of machinery 
 the demand for labour is increased and not diminished. 
 And if, in individual cases, ignorance still prevails on the 
 subject, we need not wonder. Free trade is now gene- 
 rally admitted to have operated most beneficially to the 
 true interests of the country, yet not a few among the 
 middle and higher classes are yet incredulous of its ad- 
 vantages and ignorant of its working. Must we not excuse 
 at least those who have themselves been injured by the 
 introduction of machinery if they fail to regard them 
 with friendship or good-will ? When new machinery 
 
lii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 is introduced, those thrown out of work are not imme- 
 diately absorbed in the increasing demand for the new 
 species of labour caused by it. Even if the demand 
 increases in consequence, it takes some time before the 
 mills can be erected, or an increased uumber of ma- 
 chines can be put up in order to meet that demand. 
 And, moreover, a new class of workers becomes neces- 
 sary ; the same men are seldom employed, and they 
 are obliged to seek employment in other trades, for 
 which they may or may not have special fitness. That, 
 in view of such eventualities, and conscious of personal 
 unfitness to enter into other occupations, probably at an 
 advanced age, some workmen should oppose the intro- 
 duction of machinery, is no more than the natural 
 instinct of self-preservation would always suggest. A 
 good deal of consideration, therefore, ought to be ex- 
 ercised on the part of the masters in introducing 
 machinery in any industry. It might be expected 
 that, having regard to the immediate consequences 
 which may result on the workers, due and proper no- 
 tice should be given them of the contemplated change 
 in the method of production. It might be hoped 
 that, in the introduction of the change, the displace- 
 ment of labour would be effected in a gradual manner, 
 with special consideration for those unable at once to 
 put their hands to another industry ; and how can the 
 masters hope to secure the ready assent of their men 
 where the introduction of machinery is used as a threat 
 in order to subdue the demand for higher wages, or to 
 , induce them to accept lower wages ? 
 other ob- The restrictions put by trade societies upon their 
 ^T^i^f members working with persons not united with them, 
 Societies, and the demand that the master shall not employ such, 
 are too futile and unreasonable to require confutation. 
 Surely this is burdensome to the labourers, and utterly 
 
TRADE SOCIETIES. 
 
 liii 
 
 irreconcilable with economic laws. Freedom to earn 
 our food wherever we can^ and to give our labour for 
 the best remuneration we can obtain, is the first law of 
 social existence, and is a right which should be allowed 
 to every labourer. 
 
 The law as regards combinations and strikes has Combina- 
 been quite revolutionised of late. At one time work- 
 ing men were not allowed the freedom to ask what- 
 ever wages they liked. In the middle of the fourteenth 
 century, with a spurious coinage in circulation, and 
 with great scarcity of labourers -produced by the recent 
 pestilence, the workmen asked higher wages ; but the 
 Statute of Labour was passed, enacting that no one 
 should be allowed to ask or receive greater wages than 
 he had been receiving for ten years before the pesti- 
 lence ; and, because the workmen refused to work at 
 such wages, another Act was passed forbidding any 
 person to leave the town in summer wherein he had 
 dwelt in winter, or to remove from one shire to another. 
 A century later, in 1548, an Act was passed restraining 
 workmen and labourers from entering into any compact 
 not to make or do their work but at a certain fixed 
 price, or to do only a certain amount of work in a day, 
 or to work only a certain number of hours. A passing 
 ray of light appears in some partial Acts under Philip 
 and Mary, and Elizabeth, but it was not long before 
 another attempt was made to fix the rates of wages by 
 royal proclamation, and workmen were once more sub- 
 jected to imprisonment for taking higher wages than 
 those appointed. Thus the law continued, with but 
 slight emendation, till about 1813, when all the Acts 
 empowering justices to rate wages or set prices of work 
 for artificers, labourers, or artisans, were repealed; but 
 the right to combine, and many other restrictions, re- 
 mained in force till Mr. Hume, in 1824, moved for a 
 
liv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Use of Committee to inquire into the state of the law on the. 
 thSro'i- subject. An Act^'^ was then passed repealing all the Acts 
 "rahibtted™ *^ force in any pa,rt of the United Kingdom relative to 
 combinations of workmen, and enacting, first, that, if 
 any person shall by violence to the person or property, 
 or by threats, or by intimidation, or by molesting or 
 in any way obstructing another, "force or endeavour to 
 force any workman to depart from his hiring or work, 
 or to return to his work before the same shall be 
 finished ; or, secondly, prevent or endeavour to prevent 
 any workman, or other person, not being hired, from 
 hiring himself, or from accepting work or employment ; 
 or, thirdly, if any person shall use violence to the person 
 or property of another, or threats or intimidation, or 
 shall molest or obstruct another for the purpose of 
 forcing or inducing him to belong to any club or asso- 
 ciation, or to contribute to any common fund, or to pay 
 any fine on account of his non-qomplying with the rules 
 or regulations made to obtain an advance, or to reduce 
 the rate of wages, or to lessen or alter , the hours of 
 working ; or, fourthly, if any person shall by violence, 
 pr threats, or intimidation, force any manufacturer 
 to make any alteration in his mode of regulating his 
 business, or to limit the number of his workmen — 
 every person so offending shall be imprisoned and kept 
 to hard labour for three calendar months. 
 combina- The samo law, however, makes it lawful for any 
 masterand numbcr of persons to meet together for the sole purpose 
 men lawful, of cousulting upouor determining the rate ofwages, which 
 the persons present at such meeting, or any of them, 
 , shall require or demand for his work, or the hours or time 
 for which he or they shall work in any manufacture, trade, 
 or business ; and also to enter into any agreement, verbal 
 
 ^'^ 6 Geo. IV. 0. 129. 
 
TRADE SOCIETIES. Iv 
 
 or written, among themselves for the purpose of fixing 
 the rate of wages or prices which he or they shall require 
 or demand, or the hours or time for which he or they will 
 work. And the same powers are granted to masters. By 
 a subsequent law^" it was provided that no one, whether 
 in actual employment or not, shall, by reason merely of 
 his entering into any agreement with any workman or 
 other person or persons for the purpose of fixing, or 
 endeavouring to fix, the rate of wages or remuneration 
 at which they or any of them shall work, or by reason 
 of his endeavouring peaceably and in a reasonable 
 manner, and without threats or intimidation, direct or 
 indirect, to persuade others to cease or abstain from 
 work in order to obtain the rate of wages or the altered 
 hours of labour so fixed or agreed upon, be deemed or 
 taken to be guilty of molestation or obstruction within 
 the meaning of the former Act, and shall not there- 
 fore be subject to proceedings or indictment for con- 
 spiracy. This provision does not authorize any work- 
 man to break or depart from any contract, or authorize 
 any attempt to induce any workman to break or depart 
 from any contract. By the law as it stands, therefore, 
 it is quite allowable for any class of men, be they 
 masters or workmen, to combine together, for any pur- 
 pose whatever, provided they do not coerce any one to 
 join the combination. 
 
 In practice it is very difficult to determine what is what i 
 coercion or threat.^^^ When there is an actual assault or ^r^i"' 
 threat of violence, the matter is clear ; but a formidable 
 combination may spread terror without inflicting or 
 threatening violence, by a tacit understanding that it 
 
 « 22 Vict. 0. 34. 
 
 ® As to what is threat and intimidation, see Wood v. Bowron, 36 L. J; 
 (Mag. C.) 5 ; O'NeiU v. Galbraith, 32 L. J. (Mag. C.)259 ; and Walsby v. 
 Anley, 30 L. J. (Mag. C.) 121. 
 
Trade 
 Societies, 
 
 Ivi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 will be inflicted if needful. The threatening and in- 
 terference may assume many a form. It may be clothed 
 in enigmatic language ; it may be direct and insulting ; 
 it may be used by applying terms of opprobrium to the 
 reluctant party, or by injuring his tools. Whatever 
 form it may assume, there can be no hesitation in pro- 
 nouncing all such use of physical or moral coercion as 
 absolutely wrong. If we prize independence of action 
 for ourselves, we must allow it to others also. 
 Friendly Many of the objects of trade societies are highly 
 ruiefof praiseworthy. Their provisions for the poor and dis- 
 abled among them, and the control they exercise over 
 insubordination and excess, have a most wholesome 
 influence on their members, and it is much to be 
 regretted that, together with these useful provisions, 
 there are some which the courts have declared illegal, 
 as operating in restraint of trade.^'^ 
 strikes. It is sad indeed when disputes between masters and 
 
 men end in strikes. Nothing could be more suicidal to 
 them both than to allow matters to go to such extremes. 
 Any concession is better, and arbitration is better 
 still. AVhen we consider the evils caused by the 
 cessation of production, the heartburnings, the uncer- 
 tainty of transactions, and the endless quarrels — it is 
 impossible to regai'd a strike in any other light than 
 that of unmixed national calamity. Calculations have 
 been made of profits and losses from such strikes.^^^ 
 But one thing is certain. The nation loses always. 
 The Manchester strike of 1829, the Glasgow strike of 
 
 »' Hprnby v. Close, 36 L. J. (Mag. C.) 43. 
 
 <"' See Dr. Watt's paper on Strikes, read at the British Association in 
 1861; Professor Tawcett's "Economic Position of the British Labourer;" 
 and papers in the " Fortnightly Eeview for 1865 " on "The Good and Evil 
 of Trade Unionism ;" and a paper on " Strikes and Combinations with 
 reference to Wages," by Professor Waley, Journal of the Statistical 
 Society, vol. xxx. p. 1. 
 
TRADE SOCIETIES. Ivii 
 
 1837, the Preston strike of 1836-7, the strike of Engi- 
 neers in 1851-2, and the more recent strikes, one and 
 all, have produced great losses and much physical and 
 moral sufferings ; whilst in the contest between capital 
 and labour the chance of success is, to say the least, 
 very doubtful on the part of the labourer. 
 
 Much has been written with a view to introduce a Conseii de 
 remedy for this great evil. Some have proposed the hommes. 
 institution in this country of a court like the Conseii de 
 Prud'hommes of France, consisting of a president and 
 a vice-president, nominated by the Government, and a 
 certain number of manufacturers and workmen, each 
 selected from his own class, with a jurisdiction over all 
 disputes between manufacturers and workmen, masters 
 and apprentices. The Combination Act, 6 George IV. Arbitration 
 cap. 129, provided that disputes relating to past contracts combina- 
 arising between masters and workmen may be settled aX^*"^ 
 and adjusted by arbitration. According to this Act, such 
 disputes might be settled either summarily by a justice 
 of the peace, or, if that be not agreed to, by referees ap- 
 pointed by such justices, or, if the referees do not agree, 
 then definitively by the justices of the peace. But the 
 statute did not work well, from the unwillingness of the 
 parties to go before a magistrate, lest it should have the 
 appearance of a criminal proceeding, from the uncer- 
 tainty as to the parties who may be selected as referees, 
 and from' the objections workmen have to refer their 
 matters to magistrates, whom they consider partial to, if 
 not themselves connected with, manufacturers. Other 
 efforts have been made to provide some satisfactory 
 machinery for the settlement of such disputes. A few 
 years ago Mr. Slaney brought in a Bill for the forma- 
 tion of Councils of Conciliation and Arbitration, to 
 consist of not less than two masters and two work- 
 men, and not more than ten masters and ten workmen. 
 
Iviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and a chairman. Lord St. Leonard^ made also a 
 similar ineffectual attempt, and now a Bill is before 
 Parliament to establish Councils of Conciliation to 
 adjust differences between masters and workmen. 
 Voluntary It is doubtful, indeed, whether we can render com- 
 BMrdtn™ pulsory that which, in the nature of things, must be 
 imft.'.'"^ voluntary: If arbitration is to succeed it must spring 
 i'rom a better understanding between master and men, 
 and a greater readiness, on either side, to do what is 
 right and proper. In this direction, it is gratifying to find 
 ^ that a board of arbitration has been at work for some 
 time in the hosiery trade in Nottingham ; the board 
 being composed of equal numbers of employers and 
 employed, the president being a manufacturer and the 
 vice-president a workman ; the workmen choosing the 
 president and the employers choosing the vice-president. 
 After six years' experience of the practical working of 
 the system of arbitration as opposed to strikes and 
 lock-outs, the board recently reported that they were 
 thoroughly convinced that in a free country, where 
 workmen and capitalists have a perfect right to enter 
 into combinations, the simplest, most humane, and 
 rational method of settling all disputes between 
 employers and employed is arbitration and concili- 
 ation. The board was strengthened in this conviction, 
 by the fact that although during the last two years the 
 demand for hosiery had been, in several branches, of an 
 exceptional character, and labour, in some departments, 
 unusually scarce, and, notwithstanding the workmen 
 have preserved their trade unions, yet by having a 
 central authority to appeal to, composed equally of 
 enjployers and employed, all questions calculated to 
 produce irritation and lead to disputes were promptly 
 settled; all inequalities in the rates of wages were 
 adjusted — the manufacturer was enabled to accept 
 
TRADE SOCIETIES. Hx 
 
 his contracts witliout apprehension, and execute them 
 without delay, and the rights of workmen have been 
 jealously looked after and strictly preseryed ; whereas 
 in neighbouring counties, and throughout the country, 
 a chronic warfare has existed betwixt labour and 
 capital, to the great injury of both, owing to the want 
 of some court commanding alike the confidence of 
 employers and employed. 
 
 The economic and legal bearings of trade unions 
 and strikes are of the highest importance, and they 
 have been the fertile subjects of discussion of late. Any 
 plan therefore which may be suggested, having for its 
 object to prevent the resort to such a fatal issue, deserves 
 the greatest consideration. Much interest will, doubtless, 
 attach to the inquiry now instituted by the Royal Com- 
 mission. Let us hope that the valuable information 
 it may collect, and the mature judgment which they 
 may form, may tend to remove any prejudice which 
 may have been introduced on a question evidently so 
 diflBcult and delicate, and have the effect of restoring 
 the necessary harmony and co-operation between the 
 employers and employed, without which the work of 
 production is seriously hindered and endangered. 
 
Letter from M. T. Bass, Esq. 
 
 oj*:o 
 
 101, Eaton Squai-e, 
 
 25th April, 1866. 
 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 The recent great advance in the rates of 
 wages and the increasing influence of the working 
 classes have suggested the question, what may be 
 the total amount of their annual income. Mr. Glad- 
 stone, in his speech at Liverpool a few weeks since, 
 placed it at about £250^000,000, while I had formed 
 an opinion, based on personal investigation, that the 
 amount must be much greater. 
 
 Having been asked in the House of Commons upon 
 what bases he gave his estimate, the Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer replied that " he was not aware that 
 there existed any positive information on the subject, 
 but that the materials for arriving at it existed in 
 the census enumeration of the occupation of the 
 people in ponnection with the wages paid to the 
 diiferent classes of workmen." 
 
 I am persuaded that accurate information on the 
 subject, would be found of great interest and utility, 
 
( 2 ) 
 
 and having had communication upon it with Mr. 
 Gladstone and Mr. Milner Gibson, I venture to 
 solicit your co-operation in instituting a vsride and 
 methodical inquiry into the earnings of the working 
 classes in the United Kingdom, in order that we may 
 arrive at the closest practicable estimate of the 
 aggregate amount, and be in a position to show the 
 basis on which it is founded, with any other con- 
 ditions congenial to the subject which our inquiry 
 may develop. ' 
 
 I remain, very truly yours, 
 
 M. T. BASS. 
 
 Leone Levi, Esq., F.S.S. 
 
ESTIMATES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 EARNINGS OF THE WORKING CLASSES 
 OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 Ijf accordance with your instructions I have 
 instituted a careful and searching inquiry into the 
 earnings of the working classes of the United King- 
 dom, and I have now the honour to give you an 
 estimate of such earnings, which I have obtained 
 after extensive personal inquiry, and the use of the 
 best and most trustworthy information within my 
 reach. 
 
 I shall first state the sources of such information, somces of 
 and the principles I have adopted in pursuing the '"f"'™".''"" 
 
 r L J. 1 D conceiDing 
 
 inquiry.. For the number of labourers employed ""™ter of 
 in the different occupations I have taken the census 
 of 1861, adding for the increase of population since 
 that year six per cent, for England and "Wales,"' the 
 increase in the last decennium, 1851-61, having 
 
 "> The estimated population in England and Wales ia the middle 
 of 1861 was 20,119,496, and in 1866, 21,210,020. Increase in 
 four years 5-4:2 per cent. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 . ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 been at tlie rate of 12 per cent., and 3 per cent, for 
 Scotland/^^ the increase in the same decennium having 
 been at the rate of 6 per cent. No increase was 
 necessary for Ireland, since the continued emigration 
 and other causes keep the population stationary if 
 not retrograding. It is to be regretted that the 
 census made no distinction between masters and men 
 in giving the number employed in the leading manu- 
 factures. In the census of 1851 a table was given 
 showing the number of masters in trade and of men 
 in their employ; but owing to the difficulty of ob- 
 taining an accurate return without making a complete 
 industrial census the enumeration was not made in 
 1861. Still the table of 1851, which recorded 129,000 
 masters, furnishes some guide for estimating the 
 present number of employers in relation to the 
 number of men . 
 Concerning The wages havc been obtained from the following 
 wages. sources. In most cases I have ascertained the present 
 rate of wages by personal inquiries from the em- 
 ployers and the employed. The wages of the agri- 
 cultural classes have been given in a return to the 
 House of Commons for 1860. The Miscellaneous 
 Statistics published by the Board of Trade give the 
 current wages in different centres of industry mostly 
 supplied by the Chambers of Commerce. Much in- 
 formation I have derived from papers on wages read 
 to the Statistical Society by Mr. Chadwick and 
 Dr. Watts of Manchester, Mr. Purdy of the Poor 
 Law Board, and Dr. Strang of Glasgow ; and to the 
 Society of Arts by Mr. Ashworth and others ; and I 
 have made use of the information given in the news- 
 
 <" The estimated population in Scotland in the middle of 1861 
 was 3,066,633, and in 1865, 3,153,413. Increase in four years 
 2-82 per cent. 
 
OP THE WORKING CLASSES. 5 
 
 papers respecting strikes and meetings of journey- 
 men in different occnpations. 
 
 In estimating the earnings of the working classes Modes of 
 from the number of persons employed and the current mnuaf^m 
 wages, attention must be paid to broken time, short '°^- 
 work, holidays, idle days, wakes, wet weather or 
 frost stopping agricultural work and house building ; 
 time when seamen are ashore, time wasted from 
 accidents or from changes of machinery, and other 
 causes which diminish the sum total annually earned. 
 The time thus lost differs in every industry, according 
 to the state of trade and the habits and character of 
 the working classes. Without attempting to calculate 
 for this item in each case, I have deemed it best to 
 adopt the principle of excluding from the computa- 
 tion all persons of 60 years and upwards. We may 
 assume that at that age the proportion of infirm 
 persons is necessarily great, and any number beyond 
 that thus excluded will provide for those between 20 
 and 60 years of age, not actually at work, or earning 
 less than 52 weeks' wages.^^^ The deductions made 
 by masters for different purposes, such as loan of 
 machine or power, school, and doctors, &c., expenses 
 for tools, and payments made by working men to 
 their piecers, helpers or apprentices, must also be 
 calculated to obtain the net earning. In the earnings 
 of those under 20 a distinction should be made 
 between children and youths ; but I have taken an 
 average for the entire period of minority, making 
 allowance where necessary for apprenticeship fees, &c. 
 
 '^V In ,1861, in a total population in England and Wales of 
 20,119,314, there were 1,460,606, or 7-22 per cent, of 60 years of 
 age and upwards. The time wasted, or during which no wages are 
 earned, may safely be estimated on an average at 4 weeks in 52, or 
 in the proportion of 7*69 per cent. 
 
6 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Designation Much may be said as to the classes of persons in- 
 induSTn eluded within the term " Working Classes." The 
 this inquiiy electoral statistics only included in it persons support- 
 ing themselves by daily manual labour. Some have 
 limited the meaning to such as are in receipt of 
 weekly wages, and some would limit the term 
 " workers " to such as are employed in the production 
 of wealth. It might seem also a condition of such 
 appellation that the person should stand in the capa-- 
 city of servant or worker for others, and not as 
 worker on his own account. On the other hand, we 
 must remember that in many occupations the workers 
 are paid by the month or quarter, as in the case of 
 seamen and domestic servants. The practice is very 
 general also of paying by piece work, rather than by 
 fixed wages; and in many cases the master con- 
 tracts with one foreman, and he makes a sub-contract 
 with other workers. And though, in a strictly eco- 
 nomic sense, we should consider as workers only such 
 as are producers of wealth, we cannot exclude from 
 the general appellation and received meaning of 
 " Working Classes " the large number of domestic 
 servants, soldiers, police, &c. For practical purposes, 
 therefore, we must take within the meaning of 
 " Working Classes " all who, whether as workers for 
 others or as workers for themselves, are employed 
 in manual labour, be it productive of wealth or 
 not.(^) 
 Artisans In analyzing the statistics of the number of per- 
 
 sons employed, it is important first to distinguish 
 between artisans and labourers ; great difference exist- 
 
 ''' When the working classes are designated as the lower, in 
 contradistinction to the upper and middle classes, the term indi- 
 cating the social position of a portion of the people, might include 
 many general dealers and th^ lower description of tradesmen. 
 
 and labour- 
 ers. 
 
OF THE WORKINa CLASSES. 7 
 
 ing between those who have passed an apprenticeship 
 or who are recognised as journeymen and skilled 
 labourers, and those who bring nothing but physical 
 strength to aid them in their work. Unskilled 
 labourers are agricultural, labourers, most of the 
 railway labourers, common seamen, builders' la- • 
 bourers, domestic servants, carriers, porters, &c. 
 Of the 6,000,000 men, probably the half, or 3,000,000 
 men, may be considered as artisans, and the other half 
 as labourers. 
 
 The working classes constitute a large portion of Town and 
 the town population, yet many occupations are carried bourS "" 
 on in the country, and at sea. Agriculture, mining, 
 and quarries, may be considered as country occupa- 
 tions. The army and navy are seldom quartered in 
 towns. Of the 6,000,000 men at work probably 
 2,500,000 are country labourers, and 3,500,000 town 
 labourers. 
 
 Another division should also be made. As I have Producers 
 already hinted at, there is a difference between pro- ^oducei's. 
 ducers and non-producers. Those who may be classed 
 as non-producers are the domestic servants, army and 
 navy, and police, and they number in all 1,800,000 
 out of 11,000,000. 
 
 In estimating the earnings of the working classes, perquisites. 
 it is not sufficient to consider the amount of money 
 wages, but we must add the money value of food, 
 house accommodation, and other perquisites, usually 
 given in some occupations. 
 
 Upon such bases the total annual earnings of the Total 
 number of workers in the different occupations in the e"™^gs. 
 United Kingdom appears in round numbers to be 
 £418,000,000, of which the army, navy, police, and 
 domestic servants, forming the non-productive portion, 
 earn £69,000,000, and the remainder, the productive, 
 
ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 ^349,000,000. Divided according to classes, the 
 number and income of workers are as follows : — 
 
 Number and 
 income of 
 woi'kei's in 
 the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Professional 
 Domestic . 
 Commerciail 
 Agriculture^ 
 Industrial 
 
 Number of 
 Workers. 
 
 Amount of 
 Income. 
 
 300,000 
 1,700,000 
 
 700,000 
 2,700,000 
 5,600,000 
 
 £ 
 10,000,000 
 59,000,000 
 39,000,000 
 84,000,000 
 226,000,000 
 
 11,000,000 418,000,000 
 
 The number and earning of women and children 
 under the same divisions are as follows : — 
 
 
 Professional . 
 Domestic .... 
 Commercial . 
 Agricultural . 
 Industrial 
 
 Number of 
 Workers. 
 
 Amount of 
 Income. 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 112,000 
 
 730,000 
 
 2,650,000 
 
 £ 
 
 100,000 
 
 54,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 9,800,000 
 
 58,800,000 
 
 1 
 
 
 5,100,000 
 
 125,200,000 
 
 
 In relation to ages and sex in the following pro- 
 portion : — 
 
 Men under 20 
 
 „ 20 to 60 . 
 
 Women under 20 
 
 20 to 60 
 
 Number of 
 Workers. 
 
 1,200,000 
 5,900,000 
 1,300,000 
 2,600,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 Income. 
 
 £ 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 293,000,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 75,000,000 
 
 £418,000,000 
 
 Average 
 wag^s. 
 
 The average wages of labourers in the United 
 Kingdom, resulting from the above, are : — Men under 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 9 
 
 20, 7/3 per week; 20 to 60, 19/ : women under 20, 
 7/iO per week; 20 to 60, 11/ : average, 14/5 per 
 week. But taken separately the wages in the United 
 Kingdom would stand as follows : — 
 
 Males under 20 . 
 
 „ 20 to 60 . 
 
 Women under 20 
 
 20 to 60 
 
 Average 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 6/6 
 22/6 
 
 8/6 
 12/6 
 
 7/8 
 20/6 
 
 8/2 
 10/6 
 
 6/3 
 
 14/4 
 7/4 
 9/9 
 
 15/6 
 
 14/0 
 
 11/7 
 
 Frequently, however, there are more workers than 
 one in a family of five ; and generally two or even 
 three persons are earning something. Assuming, then, 
 that there are two earners in each family, and taking 
 the average wages of men, women, and children as a 
 basis, the average income per family may be estimated 
 at 31/ in England, 28/2 in Scotland, and 28/6 in 
 Ireland. 
 
 The workmen usually labour six days in the week. Hours of 
 and each day the hours of labour are from six to six *''°""" 
 in factories, and from eight to eight in other occupa- 
 tions, with one hour and a half for meals and shorter 
 hours on Saturday, But in many occupations longer 
 hours prevail, whilst in some even Sunday work is to 
 a certain extent carried on. A movement has com- 
 
 Xmenced in Lancashire for reducing the hours of 
 labour from ten and a half to eight hours a day, or 
 forty-eight hours per week. 
 
 The wages are usually paid weekly, and in some paymeut of 
 \ cases Friday is the pay-day ; yet miners in Scotland ™^^^" 
 \are paid fortnightly, the workers being allowed in 
 the mean time subsistence-money from day to day. 
 The truck system being abolished by law,^'^ wages are 
 ■"^ <» 1 & 2 William IV. c. 37. 
 
10 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EAENINGS 
 
 Centres of 
 industry. 
 
 ^usually paid in money; hut there are cases where 
 truck shops are still indirectly supported in violation 
 of the law.(') 
 
 Having thus ascertained the earnings of the 
 working classes, I have endeavoured to obtain from 
 the Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, 
 and Marriages, the recent electoral statistics, and 
 the judicial statistics, some facts illustrative of the 
 connexion which exists between the different occupa- 
 tions and house accommodation, education, health, 
 and drunkenness, and the following is a general sum- 
 mary of the information contained under each branch 
 of occupation : — 
 
 INDUSTRIAL 
 DI3TEICTS. 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Cotton Districts 
 Woollen „ 
 Silk „ . 
 
 Hosifery „ 
 ' Colliery „ 
 Earthenware Districts 
 Metal Districts 
 Iron Mining Distriiits 
 Hardware Districts 
 Cutlery Districts . 
 
 Kent of Houses 
 
 in Parliamentary 
 
 Boroughs. 
 
 Under 
 
 S.1. 
 
 30 
 
 58 
 65 
 48 
 45 
 66 
 60 
 67 
 41 
 33 
 56 
 
 fjto 
 £10. 
 
 £10 and 
 upwards 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 9 
 26 
 23 
 16 
 13 
 16 
 50 
 34 
 18. 
 
 53 
 
 24 
 26 
 26 
 32 
 18 
 27 
 17 
 59 
 33 
 26 
 
 Signature by 
 Education 
 
 Marks in the 
 Marriage 
 Register. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 57 
 
 23 
 
 51 
 
 19 
 
 37 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 47 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 64 
 
 29 
 
 43 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 Percent. 
 0-50 
 
 80 
 
 92 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 56 
 
 02 
 
 07 
 
 0-67 
 
 0-46 
 
 0'53 
 
 Percent. 
 2-38 
 
 2-63 
 2-71 
 2 31 
 2>91 
 2-61 
 2-61 
 2' 69 
 2-99 
 2-82 
 2-78 
 
 House rent. 
 
 It will be seen from the above that, as regards the 
 rentals of houses, upwards of 50 per cent, of the 
 
 <"' See Eeport of the Committee of the House of Commons on 
 Masters and Servants, 1866. 
 
 '^'The rate of mortality is for 1864, calculated on the number of 
 deaths and population of 1861. The Supplement to the 25th 
 Annual Eeport of the Eogistrar General gives the mean rate of 
 death for 20 years, 1841-60 ; but the principal facts do not differ 
 materially from the above. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 11 
 
 houses are rented under £7, about 25 per cent, from 
 £7 to £10, and 25 per cent. £10 and upwards. A 
 good portion of the workers, however, are lodgers, 
 ' The facts supplied in relation to builders in the me- 
 tropolis show that four-fifths of the common la- 
 bourers and two-thirds of the artisans are lodgers, 
 and the same obtains, though not to the same extent, 
 in other centres of industry. 
 
 As regards education, it will be seen that the Education. 
 principal centres of manufacturing industry stand 
 below the average for the whole of England and 
 Wales ; the average of those who signed the marriage 
 register with marks being 30 per cent, of the men 
 and 46 per cent, of the women ; the proportion for 
 England and Wales in 1864 having been 23*3 of 
 men and 32 '40 of women. 
 
 The proportion of persons proceeded against for Dmnkou- 
 drunkenness amounted to about 7 per ] 000, whilst the °'^'' 
 proportion for England and Wales was about 5 per 
 1000 ; a small proportion in either case, though such 
 calculations are far from sufficient for ascertaining 
 the amount of drunkenness, the instructions of the 
 police being only to take up any person drunk and 
 disorderly, annoying the people, or giving trouble to 
 the police. 
 
 The rate of mortality, also, is uniformly greater Health. 
 than the average in England and Wales, and 
 this proceeds from diseases incident to the several 
 occupations, as well as from overcrowding and im- 
 perfect sanitary regulations of towns, from insufficiency 
 of food and from excess in drinking, or other bad 
 habits. Much attention has, however, been paid of 
 late to the first of these causes. The Sanitary Act 
 declared a nuisance any factory, workshop, or work- 
 place, not already under any Act for the regula- 
 
12 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 tion of factories or bakehouses, not kept in a 
 cleanly state, or not ventilated in sucli a manner 
 as to render harmless as far as practicable any gases, 
 vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the 
 course of the work carried on therein, that are a 
 nuisance, or injurious, or dangerous to health, or so 
 overcrowded while work is carried on as to be 
 dangerous or prejudicial to the health of those em- 
 ployed therein/*^ 
 
 - The Hours of Labour Eegulation Bill, now before 
 the House, has provisions not only for regulating 
 the time of labour for women and children in work- 
 shops, but also prescribing the use of a fan or other 
 mechanical means in every workshop where grinding, 
 glazing, or polishing on a wheel, or any other process 
 is carried on by which dust is generated or inhaled 
 by the workmen to an injurious extent. 
 
 These are the general results I have come to as 
 regards the many subjects thus developed in this in- 
 quiry. Though in all of them the ground-work is 
 based on actual facts,*^^^ the superstructure must, as 
 regards the annual income of the working classes, 
 be received only 'as an estimate. But it has been 
 carefully calculated, and on the whole I am satisfied 
 that the main results will be found as near the truth 
 as the nature of such an inquiry admits of. 
 
 I have the honour to be, 
 Dear Sir, 
 Yours very faithfully, 
 
 Leone Levi. 
 
 M. T. Bass, Esq., M.P. 
 
 ' (•> 29 & 30 Vict. c. 90 s. 19. 
 
 <^' For example, as regards the wages in the cotton manufacture, 
 the following specific facts have been kindly contributed from a 
 
 [cotton 
 
OF THE WOBKING CLASSES. 
 
 13 
 
 cotton factory in which the machinery was good, but not of the 
 most modem. The total earnings in this industry was obtained 
 from a comparison of such evidence from different sources, and 
 making due allowance for deductions and payments by the workmen 
 themselves. 
 
 SPINNING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 5/ 5/6 6/ 
 
 6/6 7/ 7/6 
 
 8/ 
 
 Totia. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Number of males 
 from 13 to 18 
 
 Number of Pe-j 
 males from 13 
 to 18 
 
 2 2 4 
 2 6 4 
 
 3 5 7 
 
 4 2 1 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 65 
 
 46 
 
 25 
 84 
 
 77 
 
 202 
 
 7 
 
 6/8 
 6/1 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 10/ 13/ 15/ 17/ 18/ 19/ 20/ 22/ .26/ 
 
 
 Males 18 years) 
 of age and up- 
 wards . . . - 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 14 3 1 3 
 
 5 5 2 1 
 
 8 
 
 23/2 
 
 28/ 32/ 
 
 34/ 36/ 
 
 40/ 
 
 
 Males 18 years) 
 of age and up-S 
 wardi . . .) 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 7 4 
 
 4 11 
 
 2 
 
 
 8/ 8/6 9/ 
 
 9/6 10/ 
 
 12/ 
 
 
 Females 18 years" 
 and upwards . , 
 
 8 6 10 
 
 6 11 
 
 5 
 
 9/4 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 WEAVING DEPARTMENT 
 5/6 9/6 11/6 11/ 
 
 12/ 
 
 
 Males 13 to 18 . 
 Females 13 to 18. 
 
 3 8 
 8 30 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 10/2 
 W/ 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 8/ 17/ 18/6 
 
 21/ 23/ 30/ 
 
 32/ 
 
 
 Males 18 and up-' 
 wards . . . , 
 
 3 26 20 
 
 12 5 8 
 
 8 
 
 20/ 
 
 Wages . . 
 
 13/6 15/ 
 
 17/ 18/6 
 
 ai/ 
 
 
 Females 18 and' 
 upwards . . . 
 
 20 80 
 
 82 12 
 
 8 
 
 16/1 
 13/ 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 551 
 
 14/10 
 
14 
 
 BSTIMATKS OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 NUMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN THE DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS 
 IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Order. 
 
 OCCUPATION. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Dockyards 
 
 
 18,747 
 
 
 
 18,747 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Post-Offioe . . 
 
 
 11,449 
 
 
 
 11,449 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Police .... 
 
 
 37,362 
 
 
 
 37,362 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Army .... 
 
 
 137,000 
 
 
 
 137,000 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Navy .... 
 
 8,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 
 
 66,000 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 .Domestic Servants 
 
 59,600 
 
 130,600 
 
 559,000 
 
 ■ 944,000 
 
 1,693,200 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 Railways . . . 
 
 , , 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 Carriers on Roads 
 
 16,100 
 
 106,500 
 
 30 
 
 " 450 
 
 123,080 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 Carriers on Canals 
 
 7,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 50 
 
 170 
 
 37,220 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 Seamen 
 
 20,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 Dock Labourers . 
 
 3,200 
 
 32,000 
 
 
 
 .35,200 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 Warehousemen . 
 
 5,200 
 
 17,90,0 
 
 2,200 
 
 3,150 
 
 28,450 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 (Messengers and 1 
 1 Porters . , .J 
 
 53,30.0 
 
 41,000 
 
 1,360 
 
 570 
 
 96,230 
 
 8 
 
 1,3 
 
 Agriculture . . 
 
 202,500 
 
 1,985,000 
 
 73,000 
 
 457,000 
 
 2,717,500 
 
 9 
 
 
 Fishermen 
 
 7,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 
 
 94,000 
 
 9 
 
 
 /Others engaged in) 
 \ Animals . . ) 
 
 23,000 
 
 59,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 500 
 
 84,. 300 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 Printera . . . 
 
 13,200 
 
 28,200 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 41,850 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 Bookbinders . 
 
 2,150 
 
 5,920 
 
 3.350 
 
 4,850 
 
 16,270 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 (Musical Instru- 1 
 1 ments . . ./ 
 
 1,100 
 
 4,780 
 
 
 
 5,880 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 Lithographers 
 
 1,678 
 
 5,120 
 
 195 
 
 350 
 
 7,343 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 Wood Carvers 
 
 2,400 
 
 15,690 
 
 2,660 
 
 4,120 
 
 24,870 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Watch Makers . 
 
 4,280 
 
 18,000 
 
 150 
 
 370 
 
 22,800 
 
 10 
 
 7,8 
 
 (■philosophical In- 1 
 \ strumeuts . . J 
 
 1,190 
 
 4,610 
 
 140 
 
 290 
 
 6,230 
 
 10 
 
 9,10 
 
 Cutlers . . . 
 
 17,500 
 
 52,000 
 
 2,050 
 
 4,200 
 
 75,750 
 
 10 
 
 10,16 
 
 Machine and Tools 
 
 23,800 
 
 94,000 
 
 2,850 
 
 4,300 
 
 124,950 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Coach Makers 
 
 4,830 
 
 19,600 
 
 25 
 
 170 
 
 24,625 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 Harness Makers . 
 
 4,900 
 
 16,450 
 
 450 
 
 800 
 
 22,600 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 Shipbuilders . . 
 
 10,900 
 
 42,100 
 
 ... 
 
 
 "53,000 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 BuUders and La-| 
 bourers . . ./ 
 
 93,000 
 
 697,000 
 
 
 ., 
 
 790,000 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 Cabinet Makers . 
 
 13,050 
 
 35,500 
 
 1,550 
 
 4,950 
 
 55,050 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 Chemical . . . 
 
 4,300 
 
 17,800 
 
 1,300 
 
 2,400 
 
 25,800 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 (Woollen Mannfac-1 
 ture . . . . / 
 
 39,200 
 
 91,350 
 
 40,460 
 
 89,500 
 
 260,500 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 Silk Manufacture 
 
 10,000 
 
 31,000 
 
 25,800 
 
 55,500 
 
 122,300 
 
 11 
 
 3,5 
 
 Hosiery and Lace \ 
 Manufactui-e . / 
 
 7,000 
 
 24,500 
 
 156,250 
 
 43,000 
 
 230,750 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 Cotton Manufac- ) 
 '. ture. . . .( 
 
 89,500 
 
 156,900 
 
 158,500 
 
 206,500 
 
 611,400 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Linen Manufacture 
 
 23,500 
 
 57,500 
 
 64,500 
 
 105,000 
 
 250,500 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Boot & Shoe Makers 
 
 51,200 
 
 208,500 
 
 13,150 
 
 120,500 
 
 393,350 
 
 u 
 
 5 
 
 Hat Manufacture 
 
 1,460 
 
 9,480 
 
 930 
 
 2,280 
 
 14,150 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Hairdressers . . 
 
 1,900 
 
 9,670 
 
 70 
 
 300 
 
 11,940 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Tailors 
 
 24,300 
 
 115,700 
 
 
 
 140,000 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Tailoresses and \ 
 Dressmakers . / 
 
 
 
 131,400 
 
 430,000 
 
 561,400 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Straw Plait 
 Makers . .' 
 
 Carried forward . 
 
 2,010 
 
 2,230 
 
 15,890 
 
 29,800 
 
 ,49,930 
 
 
 853,248 
 
 4,895,158, 
 
 l,259,3do 
 
 2,515,270 
 
 9,522,976 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 NUMBER OP PERSONS EMPhOY'ED— continued. 
 
 15 
 
 f\„ 
 
 J.._ 
 
 OCCUPATION. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Uraer. | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 
 Brought forward . 
 
 853,248 
 
 4,895,158, 
 
 1,259,300 
 
 2,515,270 
 
 9,522,976 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Glove Manufacture 
 
 680 
 
 2,800| 
 
 7,080 
 
 16,000 
 
 26,560 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Eope Manufacture 
 
 5,720 
 
 1T),800| 
 
 1,150 
 
 2,350 
 
 20,020 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 MUlers . . . 
 
 6,700 
 
 32,200, 
 
 
 410 
 
 39,310 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 /Bakers and Con- \ 
 \ fectioners . ./ 
 Sugar Refiners 
 
 17,500 
 
 58,500 
 
 1,990 
 
 10,640 
 
 88,630 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 3,400 
 
 
 
 3,700 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Maltsters & Brewers 
 
 2,230 
 
 28,500 
 
 
 " 280 
 
 31,010 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Tobacco Manu- \ 
 facture . . ■ . / 
 
 1,720 
 
 4,350 
 
 540 
 
 460 
 
 7,070 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Soap Boilers . . 
 
 1,320 
 
 5,800 
 
 75 
 
 235 
 
 7,430 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Comb Manufacture 
 
 1,020 
 
 3,300 
 
 160 
 
 230 
 
 4,710 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 'Skinners, Tanners, j 
 &c / 
 
 4,360 
 
 21,020 
 
 .. 
 
 380 
 
 25,710 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 /Leather Case "» 
 \ Makers . . . / 
 Brush Makers 
 
 785 
 
 2,970 
 
 520 
 
 545 
 
 4,820 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 2,580 
 
 7,550 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,900 
 
 15,230 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 Gum, Oil, and 1 
 Colourmen . 
 
 2,200 
 
 8,600 
 
 
 
 10,800 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 /Sawyers, Coopers, 
 
 \ &c 
 
 /Other Workers in ' 
 
 \ Wood. . . ., 
 
 Workers in Bark . 
 
 11,550 
 
 61,600 
 
 
 
 73,150 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 3,740 
 
 5,450 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,810 
 
 12,250 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 3,750 
 
 12,400 
 
 250 
 
 700 
 
 17,100 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 Paper Manufacture 
 
 6,200 
 
 16,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 10,200 
 
 39,000 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Mining 
 
 26,000 
 
 77,400 
 
 
 
 103,400 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Coal Mining . . 
 
 90,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 
 290,000 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Ooalheavers . . 
 
 2,380 
 
 13,180 
 
 'i,990 
 
 '2,040 
 
 19,590 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Chimney Sweepers 
 
 1,790 
 
 .4,900 
 
 
 .. 
 
 6,690 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Gas Works . . 
 
 670 
 
 9,280 
 
 .. 
 
 
 9,950 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 /Limestone Quar-' 
 
 riers . 
 Brick Makers 
 
 7,450 
 
 39,700 
 
 
 
 47,150 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 9,800 
 
 29,850 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,700 
 
 42,550 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 /Earthenware Ma- 1 
 I nufacture . .J 
 Glass Manufacture 
 
 4,900 
 
 21,400 
 
 6,600 
 
 7,250 
 
 40,150 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 4,590 
 
 10,670 
 
 530 
 
 750 
 
 16,540 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Salt Manufacture. 
 
 720 
 
 2,480 
 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 Water Works . . 
 
 180 
 
 2,090 
 
 .. 
 
 
 2,270 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 Gold, Silver, &c. . 
 
 5,450 
 
 15,450 
 
 1,450 
 
 'i,60O 
 
 23,950 
 
 15 
 
 9,13 
 
 /Metals other than' 
 
 \ Iron . . .. 
 
 Iron .... 
 
 17,00C 
 
 41,000 
 
 7,500 
 
 5,500 
 
 71,000 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 38,500 
 
 108,500 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,100 
 
 149,400 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 Hardware . 
 
 48,900 
 
 179,000 
 
 5,800 
 
 9,600 
 
 243,300 
 
 
 1,183,933 
 
 5,935,898 
 
 1,306,885 
 
 2,591,900 
 
 11,018,616 
 
16 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 AMOUNT OF EAKNINGS IN THE DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 
 
 y^i^y^m^ 1 f^Ti^XT 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Oraer: 1 
 
 OCCUPA 1 ION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Dockyards . . 
 
 
 1,183,000 
 
 
 
 1,183,000 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Post-Office . . 
 
 .► 
 
 600,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Police .... 
 
 .^ 
 
 2,242,000 
 
 
 
 
 2,242,000 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Army .... 
 
 ., 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Navy .... 
 
 100,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Domestic Servants 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 59,000,000 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 Railways . 
 
 
 11,820,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 11,820,000 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 Carriers on Koads 
 
 '418,600 
 
 6,091,800 
 
 360 
 
 ii,7oo 
 
 6,522,460 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 Carriers on Canals 
 
 148,600 
 
 1,950,000 
 
 780 
 
 33,5,80 
 
 2,132,910 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Seamen . . . 
 
 624,000 
 
 12,744,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 13,368,000 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Dock Labourers . 
 
 41,600 
 
 1,664,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 1,705,600 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 Warehousemen . 
 
 135,200 
 
 1,163,500 
 
 28,600 
 
 81,900 
 
 1,409,200 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Messengers and 1 
 Porters . . ./ 
 Agriculture . . 
 
 970,000 
 
 1,599,000 
 
 17,680 
 
 14,820 
 
 2,601,500 
 
 8 
 
 1,3 
 
 2,869,000 
 
 69,045,000 
 
 854,000 
 
 6,585,000 
 
 78,808,000 
 
 9 
 
 
 Fishermen . . 
 
 300,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 9 
 
 .. 
 
 1 Others engaged \ 
 \ in Animals . . / 
 Printers . 
 
 359,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 23,400 
 
 10,400 
 
 2,692,800 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 279,560 
 
 2,057,600 
 
 8,640 
 
 6,500 
 
 2,347,300 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 Bookbinders ' . . 
 
 55,900 
 
 461,760 
 
 69,680 
 
 169,260 
 
 756,600 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 Musical Instru- 1 
 ments . . .J 
 
 28,600 
 
 316,600 
 
 
 
 345,200 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 Lithographers i 
 
 43,628 
 
 342,860 
 
 3,042 
 
 7,280 
 
 896,810 
 
 10 
 
 4,6 
 
 Wood Carvers 
 
 62,400 
 
 1,323,820 
 
 41,496 
 
 128,544 
 
 1,556,260 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Watch Makers . 
 
 111,280 
 
 1,688,000 
 
 3,120 
 
 9,620 
 
 1,762,020 
 
 10 
 
 7,8 
 
 (Philosophical In- 1 
 \ struments . . J 
 Cutlers . - 
 
 37,128 
 
 419,510 
 
 2,184 
 
 7,540 
 
 466,362 
 
 10 
 
 9,10 
 
 455,000 
 
 4,056,000 
 
 31,980 
 
 87,360 
 
 4,630,840 
 
 10 
 
 10,16 
 
 Machine and Tools 
 
 618,800 
 
 6,110,000 
 
 36,400 
 
 111,800 
 
 6,877,000 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Coach Makers 
 
 100,464 
 
 1,274,000 
 
 520 
 
 4,420 
 
 1,379,404 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 Harness Makers . 
 
 101,920 
 
 1,069,250 
 
 9,360 
 
 20,800 
 
 1,201,330 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 Ship Builders. . 
 
 283,400 
 
 3,064,880 
 
 
 .. 
 
 3,348,280 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 Builders . . . 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 
 
 47,200,000 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 Cabinet Makers . 
 
 271,440 
 
 2,769,000 
 
 24,180 
 
 128,700 
 
 3,198,320 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 Chemical . . . 
 
 89,400 
 
 1,018,000 
 
 20,300 
 
 50,000 
 
 1,177,700 
 
 11 
 
 ] 
 
 fWooUen Manu- 1 
 \ facture ... 
 
 1,019,200 
 
 5,987,750 
 
 736,190 
 
 2,093,800 
 
 9,786,940 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 Silk Manufacture. 
 
 156,000 
 
 886,600 
 
 464,560 
 
 1,010,100 
 
 2,517,260 
 
 11 
 
 8,5 
 
 (■Hosiery and Lace 
 \- Manufacture . 
 
 254,800 
 
 1,592,500 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 1,565,200 
 
 6,662,500 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 1 Cotton Manufao- 1 
 
 \ ture . . . . / 
 
 Linen Manufacture 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 3,400,000 
 
 4,100,000 
 
 18,100,000 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 427,700 
 
 3,588,000 
 
 1,006,200 
 
 2,730,000 
 
 7,751,900 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 fBoot and Shoe 
 \ Makers . . . 
 Hat Manufacture. 
 
 1,065,000 
 
 12,468,500 
 
 239,330 
 
 3,759,600 
 
 17,532,430 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 37,960 
 
 735,540 
 
 12,090 
 
 59,280 
 
 844,870 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Hairdressers . 
 
 49,400 
 
 628,550 
 
 910 
 
 7,800 
 
 686,660 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Tailors . . . 
 
 505,440 
 
 6,317,500 
 
 
 
 6,822,940 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 JTailoresses and 
 1 Dressmakers . 
 
 
 .. 
 
 1,708,500 
 
 11.180,000 
 
 12,888,500 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 f Straw-Plait 
 
 M(i.kers . ; 
 
 Carried forward . 
 
 31,350 
 
 116,000 
 
 289, 20C 
 
 774,800 
 
 1,211,850 
 
 
 16,351,77C 
 
 238,594,520 
 
 26,277,705 
 
 72,699,754 
 
 853,923,746 
 
OF THE WOKKINO CLASSES. 
 AMOUNT OF EARNINGS— cmtimied. 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 O'vlai- 
 
 OCCUPATION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Tot At. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Brought forward . 
 
 16,351,770 
 
 238,594,520 
 
 26,277,702 
 
 72,699,754 
 
 353,923,746 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Glove Manufacture 
 
 10,600 
 
 262,000 
 
 147,200 
 
 665,600 
 
 1,085,400 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Eope Makers . . 
 
 118,970 
 
 667,760 
 
 20,930 
 
 61,100 
 
 868,760 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Millers . . . 
 
 174,200 
 
 1,842,000 
 
 
 8,500 
 
 2,024,700 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 |Bakers and Con- ' 
 \ feotioners . 
 
 364,000 
 
 4,259,000 
 
 41,400 
 
 276,700 
 
 4,941,100 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Sugar Refiners . 
 
 5,. 500 
 
 186,000 
 
 
 
 191,500 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Maltstersft Brewers 
 
 51,. 500 
 
 1,334,000 
 
 
 .5,800 
 
 1,391,300 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 fTobacco Manufac-1 
 \ tare . . . . / 
 
 35,800 
 
 282,750 
 
 8,400 
 
 14,300 
 
 341,250 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Soap Boilers . . 
 
 24,000 
 
 377,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 4,800 
 
 407,000 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Comb Manufacture 
 
 18,500 
 
 257,400 
 
 2,500 
 
 7,200 
 
 285,600 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 ( Skinners.Tanners,^ 
 1 &o. . . . ./ 
 
 113,360 
 
 1,366,800 
 
 
 6,870 
 
 1,486,580 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 ( Leather Case \ 
 \ Makers . ./ 
 
 24,4^2 
 
 270,270 
 
 10,816 
 
 17,004 
 
 322,582 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 Brush Makers 
 
 40,000 
 
 430,000 
 
 28,600 
 
 75,400 
 
 574,000 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 |Gum, Oil, and J 
 \ Oolourmen . . J 
 
 40,0Q0 
 
 499,000 
 
 
 
 S39.000 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 /Sawyers, Ooopers,\ 
 \ &e. ... . .( 
 
 /Other Workers in\ 
 
 \ Wood . . ./ 
 
 Workers in Bark . 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,700,000 
 
 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 68,000 
 
 425,000 
 
 16,250 
 
 37,750 
 
 547,000 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 58,500 
 
 806,000 
 
 3,200 
 
 18,300 
 
 886,000 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 Paper Manufa/iture 
 
 128,960 
 
 1,035,840 
 
 93,600 
 
 212,160 
 
 1,470,560 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Mining ... 
 
 405,600 
 
 4,427,280 
 
 
 
 4,832,880 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 Coal Mining . . 
 
 1,638,000 
 
 11,440,000 
 
 
 
 13,078,000 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Ooalheavers . . 
 
 43,300 
 
 788,000 
 
 is. 900 
 
 42,400 
 
 899,600 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Chimney Sweepers 
 
 30,700 
 
 280,300 
 
 
 
 311,000 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Gas Works . . 
 
 13,936 
 
 554,990 
 
 
 
 568,926 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Quarriers . . . 
 
 116,000 
 
 1,863,000 
 
 , , 
 
 
 1,979,000 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Brick Makers. . 
 
 204,000 
 
 1,940,000 
 
 15,600 
 
 35,000 
 
 2,194,600 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 jlarthenware Ma^l 
 nufaoture . . / 
 
 127,400 
 
 1,669,200 
 
 171,600 
 
 94,250 
 
 2,062.450 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 Glass Manufacture 
 
 71,600 
 
 832,200 
 
 8,300 
 
 15,600 
 
 927.700 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Salt Manu&cture. 
 
 11,200 
 
 161,200 
 
 
 
 172.400 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 Water Works . . 
 
 2,800 
 
 114,000 
 
 
 
 116,800 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 Gold, Silver, &o. . 
 
 113,200 
 
 1,406,000 
 
 22,600 
 
 33,2b0 
 
 1.575.000 
 
 15 
 
 9,13 
 
 Metals other than 1 
 Iron . . . J 
 
 442,000 
 
 2,665,000 
 
 97,500 
 
 115,400 
 
 3,319,900 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 Iron Manufacture 
 
 1,201,200 
 
 8,463,000 
 
 21,200 
 
 28,600 
 
 9,714,000 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 Hardware. . . 
 
 * 
 
 1,017,000 
 
 11,635,000 
 
 94,500 
 
 • 249,500 
 
 12,996,000 
 
 
 23,366.088 
 
 302,834,010 
 
 27,108,998 
 
 74,725,188 
 
 428,034,284 
 
 
 
 Deduct for Masters'! 
 2i per cent.' . . / 
 
 
 10,000,000^ 
 
 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 
 292,834,010 
 
 418,034.284 
 
J^S ESTIMATES- OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Class I.— PROFESSIONAL. 
 
 Order I. 
 
 PEKSONS ENGAGED IN THE GENEEAL OE LOCAL 
 GOVEENMENT OF THE COUNTEY. 
 
 AETIPICEES AND LABOURERS IN HER MAJESTY'S 
 DOCKYARDS. 
 
 Stjb-Oedee 1. ' 
 
 Number of In the Rojal Dockyards the number of workmen 
 pioyrf! ^'"" authorized for the establishment, in the estimates*^^^ for 
 
 1867-68, is 18,747. 
 Wages. The wages in the dockyards are given as follows : — 
 
 shipwrights, single-stationed, 7/6 to 5/ ; leading men, 
 5/6 ; workmen, 4/6 ; caulkers, 5/6 ; joiners, 5/4 to 
 4/4; leading men, 4/10; smiths, single-stationed> per 
 10 hours, 6/3 to 5/3 ; forgemefa, 10/. Millwrights' 
 shop, single-stationed, 5/9 to 4/6. Millwrights and 
 fitters, 1st class, 5/6 ; 2nd class, 5/2 ; wheelwrights, 
 4/4 ; coopers, 3/10. Hired men are paid at the same 
 rate as the established men. Workmen in the establish- 
 ment enjoy the following advantages : — Regular and 
 uninterrupted work throughout the year ; work chiefly 
 •under cover ; hours of employment vary according 
 to the season of the year ; short time in winter ; holi- 
 days for which no deduction of pay is made ; medical 
 attendance ; half-pay when hurt at duty ; superannua- 
 tion after ten years' service ; pensions to widows of 
 men killed in the service, and promotion to the highest 
 '"> Navy Estimates for 1867-68, pp. 160, 161. 
 
amount of 
 wages. 
 
 OF THE WORKINa CLASSES. 19 
 
 class of officers in their respective trades. Hired men 
 enjoy all the above advantages with the following 
 exceptions : some of them are liable to be discharged 
 on completion of certain work, superannuation, pension 
 to widows, and promotion. 
 
 The amount to be voted for wages in dockyards Annual 
 and naval yards, for the year 1867-8, including the 
 yard wages and factory wages,<^^' is £1,182,718. 
 
 POST-OFFIOE. 
 
 The number employed as letter carriers, &c., in the Number of 
 Post-Office in 1866 was given in the estimate ployed! ™ 
 as 11,449. 
 
 The wages of letter carriers in London was given in wages. 
 a return published in 1865*^^^ as follows : — London town 
 letter carriers, 1st class, 26/ to 30/ ; 2nd class, 20/ 
 to 25/. Suburban, 1st class, 23/ ; 2nd class, 20/. 
 Supplementary, 18/. Edinburgh, established, 18/ 
 to 23/ ; supplementary, 18/. Dublin^ estabHshed, 
 18/ to 20/ ; supplementary, 18/. Letter carriers 
 are entitled to a retiring pension after service of 
 10 years. They receive a uniform which costs 
 £4 15s. 4d., and they have Ohristtaas and other 
 gratuities, estimated at £13. They have moreover 
 a fortnight's leave of ' absence annually without 
 deduction from wages ; full wages during absence in 
 consequence of accidents incurred in the service ; 
 assistance in the insurance of their lives, and medical 
 attendance and medicine gratuitously supphed, both 
 at the office and at their own houses. 
 
 The total annual' earnings are given in the Annual 
 estimates ^'^ at £600,000. ™''™* "* 
 
 <" Navy Estimates for 1867-68, pp. 56, 57. 
 "> (284) of 1865. 
 
 "' Estimates for Eevenue Department in Civil Service estimates. 
 
 C 2 
 
20 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 POLICE. 
 Sub-Ohdbr 2. 
 
 Number of AccoEDiNa to the judicial statistics for the year 
 Ked!""" 1865 for England and Wales and Ireland, and the 
 Eighth Report of the Inspector of Constabulary for 
 Scotland/^Hhe police force, exclusive of commissioners, 
 chief constables, head constables, and superintendents, 
 was as follows : — 
 
 England and Wales . . . 21,772 
 
 Scotland 2,700 
 
 Ireland 12,890 
 
 37,362 
 
 The co^t of the police force in England was 
 £1,748,757 ; and the average cost in England was, 
 for salaries and pay, £56 18s. Id., and for clothing 
 and accoutrements, £5 18s. 3d. The pay of police- 
 men in England varies, according to class, from 17/ 
 to 22/ ; sergeants, 24/ to 26/ a week. In Ireland 
 the cost of the police is stated at £767,000. A 
 mounted constable receives £38 ; infantry, £36 ; an 
 acting constable, £30 per annum. In Scotland con- 
 stables receive 14/ to 20/, and sergeants, 21/ to 24/ a 
 week : the judicial statistics are not yet published in 
 the same manner as in England and Ireland ; but 
 the police are clothed, and in most cases lodged, while 
 the Metropolitan, City of London, and Irish police are 
 also entitled to a retiring allowance after a certain 
 period of service. 
 Animal Assuming £60 per head for the whole number, 
 
 the total income of policemen will be £2,242,000. 
 
 '" Judicial Statistics for 1865, for England and Ireland. 
 Eighth Eeport of the Inspector of Constabulary of Scotland. 
 Beport^ jte Im^EiBiiDr of Constabulary of Ireland. 
 
 amount of 
 
OF THE WOKKING CLASSES. 21 
 
 ORDEfe II. 
 
 PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE DEFENCE OF THE 
 COUNTEY. 
 
 ARMY. 
 Sub-Ordeb 1. 
 The army estimates for 1867-68 give the regimental Annual 
 pay, allowances, &c., of 137,000 men at £4,848,000-, Z^l'"^ 
 of which £3,384,000 for home, and £1,46 4,000 or 
 the colonies. To this should be added the cost of 
 the commissariat establishment, clothing establish- 
 ment, barrack establishment, divine service, martial 
 law and hospital establishment, services and supplier, 
 amounting in all, after deducting the portion belonging 
 to the colonies, to £1,619,000, making a total of about. 
 £5,000,000.« 
 
 The wages of privates are 1/11 in the Life Guards ; 
 I/8|^ Horse Guards ; 1/1 in the Guards; and 1/ in 
 the Infantry. In the Infantry regiments the corporals 
 get 1/4 ; sergeants 2/ ; sergeant-majors, 3/4. The 
 supplemental estimates provided for an increase of 2d. 
 a day to the pay of all non-commissioned oflScers and 
 men of the army and of the militia. 
 
 In 1864 the admissions into hospitals among the Health. 
 troops serving in the United Kingdom was at the 
 rate of 967, the deaths at the rate of 9-99, and the 
 constantly sick at the rate of 47' 66 per 1000 of mean 
 strength ; the ratio of invaliding being at the rate of 
 31-74 per lOOO.w 
 
 In 1866 the state of education in the army was Education. 
 
 as follows : — Could neither read nor write, 12*25 per 
 
 cent.; could read but not write, 16-12 per cent.; 
 
 "> Ai-my Estimates for 1867-68. 
 "" Army Medical Statistics. 
 
ESTIMATES OF THE BAENINGS 
 
 Drunken- 
 ness. 
 
 could read and write, 65*47 per cent. ; had a superior 
 education, 6*16 per cent/^^ 
 
 The percentage of drunkenness in the total force 
 was as follows S^^ — 
 
 Years. 
 
 1850 
 1860 
 1865 
 
 England. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 0-78 
 ■0-74 
 2-86 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Per cent. 
 0-97 
 0-34 
 1-39 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Per cent. 
 2-57 
 0-84 
 0-66 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 Savings. The amouut due by the military savings banks on 
 
 the 31st March, 1864, was only £292,212, but many 
 soldiers deposit their savings also in the ordinary 
 savings banks. 
 
 NAVY. 
 Sub-Oedbr 2. 
 The navy estimates for 1867-68 give the cost of 
 petty officers and seamen, coast guard service and 
 marines as follows : — 38,000 petty officers and seamen, 
 £1,244,000; 8,000 boys, £78,000; 4,000 petty 
 officers and seamen (coast guard service), £125,000; 
 16,000 marines, £400,000 : total, £1,847,000. 
 Victuals and clothing, £1,242,000. Total, £3,089,000. 
 Usually, however, about a third of the force only is 
 engaged in the home stations, and therefore we may 
 take the third of the cOst, or £1,000,000, as the amount 
 earned in this country. 
 Wages. The wages of petty officers and leading seamen 
 
 vary according to their classes from £30 8s. Ad. to 
 £100 10s, per annum ; those of able, ordinary and 
 second class seamen vary according to their ratings 
 from £16 14s, Id. to £28 17s. lid. per annum. 
 Boys, 1st class, £10 12s.- lid. ; 2nd class, £9 25.' M. 
 There are moreover allowances and gratuities, 
 
 ''' Eeport of Council of Military Education, 1866. 
 '''> Eeport on Military Prisons for 1865. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 23 
 
 In 1864-65 the total death rate was 13'9 per 1,000 Health, 
 of mean force ; but excluding deaths by violence and 
 drowning, it was 8"6 per 1000. The ratio of death 
 in the home stations was 7*5 ; in foreign stations it 
 differed from 8-3 on the Mediterranean to 103"8 per 
 1,000 on the south-east coast of America, in con- 
 sequence of a great loss of life by the ' Bombay.' Of 
 the total number of deaths, a third was attributable 
 to injuries or drowning. 
 
 According to a recent return, the state of education Education. 
 in the navy was as follows : — Not able to read, 10*91 
 percent.; notable to write, 15*15 per cent.; read 
 indifferently, 27*92 per cent.; write indifferently, 
 34*71 per cent.; able to read well, 61*17 per cent. ; 
 able to write well, 50*14 per cent. 
 
 In 1862 the number of petty officers, seamen and dime and 
 
 1 1 . . ■, n2 J • J. drunken- 
 
 boys, and non-commissioned omcers and private ness. 
 
 marines convicted of crimes and offences was in the 
 following proportion per 1,000 of the force : — Offences 
 •of the 2nd degree, theft, 12-39 ; desertion, 14*16 ; 
 insubordination, 111*01 : of the 3rd degree, drunken- 
 ness, 189*93; absence without leave, 746*93; minor 
 offences, 799*07. 
 
 Order III. — The Professions. 
 
 This order includes clergymen, lawyers, physicians, 
 authors, artists, actors, teachers, and scientific persons. 
 
 Class II.— DOMESTIC. 
 
 Order IV. — Women and Children. 
 
 This order includes persons returned only as wives, 
 widows, children, or relatives and scholars, neither of 
 which enter into the present inquiry. 
 
24 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Order V. * 
 
 PERSONS ENGAGED IN ENTERTAINING AND PER- 
 FORMING PERSONAL OFFICES FOR MAN. 
 
 DOMESTIC SERVANTS. 
 Sub-Okdeb 2. 
 
 Number of Th'e number employed in attendance and domestic 
 ployed. service, including domestic servants j coachmen, 
 grooms, gardeners, inn servants, housekeepers, house- 
 maids, nurses, laundrymaids, charwomen, and others, 
 ■was as follows,. viz : — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 41,000 
 
 3,100 
 15,500 
 
 97,000 
 
 7,600 
 
 24,000 
 
 416,000' 
 
 49,000 
 
 • 94,000 
 
 660,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 193,000 
 
 
 59,600 
 
 130,600 
 
 559,000 
 
 944,000 
 
 Wages. The money wages of domestic servants are as 
 
 follows : — a general servant receives £8 to £14 a 
 year ; a kitchen-maid, £10 to £20 ; a laundry-maid, 
 £12 to £20 ; a dairy-maid, £13 to £15; a still-room 
 maid, £10 to £18 ; a housemaid, £8 to £20 ; a cook, 
 £12 to £60 ; a housekeeper, £30 to £50 ; a steward- 
 boy, £7 to £16; a groom, £15 to £20; a coachman, 
 £30 to £50 ; a footman, £18 to £20 ; an under butler, 
 £30 to £75 ; a butler, £50 to £70 ; a valet, £40 
 
OP THE WORKING CLASSES. 25 
 
 to £50 ; a groom of the chamber, £50 to £60 ; and 
 a steward, £70 to £150. In the wages of domestic 
 servants, especially among general servants, the wages 
 in Scotland and Ireland range a little lower than in 
 England. The largest number, however, consist of 
 ordinary domestic servants. But to the money wages 
 some additions must be made. In comparing the con- 
 dition of the domestic servant with that of the artisan 
 or worker in any other occupations, we must remember 
 that, whilst nearly in all of them the workman has to 
 provide himself with food, clothing and lodging, in the 
 domestic service food and lodging are always added, 
 and in many cases clothing also. When board wages 
 are allowed, 12/ to 14/ a week for men, and 8/ to 
 12/ for women per week, are usually given. If we 
 calculate the value of the articles of food consumed 
 by a domestic servant, as well as the value of the lodg- 
 ing in a furnished house with all the necessary com- 
 forts, including fire, light, and washing of body Hnen 
 and bed linen, 10/ a week at least must be added to 
 the wages, or £26 per annum. Taking the whole 
 number of domestic servants, the wages may be esti- 
 mated for women and girls at £13 in money, and 
 £22 for food, &c., or £35 per annum in all. 
 
 • The annual amount of earnings of domestic ser- Annual 
 vants may be estimated as follows : — 
 
 Men 59,600 under 20, at 32 1,907,000 
 
 130,600 20 to 60, at 40 5,224,000 
 
 Women 559,000 under 20, at 25 13,975,000 
 
 „ 944,000 20 to 60, at 40 37,760,000 
 
 amount of 
 earnings. 
 
 1,693,200 58,866,000 
 
 According to a I'ecent return,^'^ the savings banks Savings. 
 
 "> Eetums relating to Depositors in Savings Banks in the United 
 Kingdom, 1866, and Eeturn on Eailways, 285 of 1866. 
 
26 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 had 257,7ll accounts opened witli domestic servants, 
 charwomen, nurses and laundresses ; the total amount 
 to their credit being £6,907,288, or an average of 
 £27 per head. The Post-OfSce Savings Banks, also, 
 have a considerable portion belonging to them. 
 Health. The condition of domestic service might seem 
 
 highly favourable to health, yet the tables of mortality 
 in the Appendix indicate a very different result. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 27 
 
 Class III.— COMMEHCIAL. 
 
 Obder VII. 
 
 PEESONS ENGAGED IN THE CONVEYANCE OF MEN, 
 ANIMALS, GOODS, AND MESSAGES. 
 
 BAILWAYS. 
 Sub-Oedee 1. 
 
 The progress of railway enterprise within the last Extension of 
 ten years may be gathered from the following terpTfse.™ 
 facts :<')— 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Number of Miles open 
 
 8,280 
 
 13,289 
 
 Capital paid up . . . 
 
 £297,584,709 
 
 £576,291,668 
 
 Number of Passengers 
 
 118,595,135 
 
 251,862,715 
 
 Eeceipts from Traffic . . 
 
 £21,507,599 
 
 £35,890,113 
 
 Working Expenditure 
 
 10,299,709 
 
 17,149,073 
 
 Net Eeceipts .... 
 
 11,207,890 
 
 18,602,582 
 
 According to returns recently obtained, and to Number of 
 estimates made in the ' Railway Times,'^^^ the num- ^o^a! ^'"" 
 ber of persons employed in railways at present is 
 219,970, of whom 19,962 are officers, and 200,008 
 servants, and they are largely drawn from agricul- 
 tural labour, 
 
 "The work is divided into three departments. First, Nature of 
 the passenger and traffic departinent ; second, the S?' 
 engineering or permanent way ; and third, the loco- 
 motive. 
 
 '" Statistical Abstract for tie United Kingdom, 1866. 
 (^> ' Eailway Times' of January 12, 1867. 
 
28 ESTIMATES OF THE EAENINGS 
 
 Hours of Twelve hours a day is the usual time, less two 
 hours allowed for meals ; and when night work is 
 required the men work alternately by relays night 
 and day. In some cases Sunday work goes on. 
 
 Conditions In some lines a candidate as a porter must be 5 feet 
 
 of service, y jjjgjjgg jjj height ; must be 21, and not exceeding 30 
 years of age ; must be able to read and write, be free 
 from bodily complaint, and produce testimonials of 
 character. 
 
 Wages. In the passenger and traffic department porters 
 
 earn 17/6, but gratuities from passengers, although 
 disallowed by the companies, form a handsome ad- 
 dition to their income ; policemen, 18/ ; ticket col- 
 lectors, 25/ ; guards, 20/. In the permanent way 
 the greatest nunlber employed consists of labourers, 
 and their wages are generally 3/ a day ; platelayers 
 receive 3/6; signalmen 20/ to 26/; carpenters, 27/ 
 to 30/ ; and gangers, 21/. In the locomotive depart- 
 ment, engine-drivers 5/ to 7/6 per day; firemen 
 3/ to 4/ a day ; fitters, 4/8 to 6/4 ; smiths, 5/ to 
 6/8 ; rivetters, 4/8 to 5/4 ; boiler smiths, 5/8 to 
 6/8 ; strikers and holders, 3/4 to 4/4 ; carriage 
 makers, 4/6 to 5/4 ; waggon makers, 4/ to 5/ ; 
 trimmers, 5/ to 5/8 ; moulders, 34/ per week. 
 Taking the whole number, the average for servants, 
 160,000 in number, may be taken at 21/ per week ; 
 and the average for artificers, 40,000, at 30/ a week. 
 
 £ 
 Annual 160,000 Servants at 21/ 8,700,000 
 
 amount of 40,000 Artificers at 30/ 3,120,000 
 
 wages. 
 
 200,000 11,820,000 
 
 Accidents. Railway servants are greatly exposed to accidents. 
 In the return presented to Parliament ^^^ the number 
 
 <" 285 of 1866. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 29 
 
 of servants of companies killed or injured in the 
 United Kingdom was given at 122 killed, and 83 
 injured ; whilst of passengers and others there were 
 99 killed, and 1,149 injured. The return, how- 
 ever, is very deceptive. Many railway companies do 
 not report all the accidents which may happen to 
 this class of persons, and a much larger number 
 of persons are temporarily disabled by personal acci- 
 dents which do not acquire public notoriety. 
 
 The Eailway Benevolent Friendly Societies' Insti- Kniway 
 tution is most valuable for the relief of necessitous institution. 
 orphans, children, and widows of officers and servants, 
 and of disabled and necessitous officers and servants. 
 Most of the railway companies have moreover a 
 friendly soci'ety for the relief and maintenance of 
 members in sickness or death, and to provide medical 
 attendance for the members. Contribution to these 
 societies is compulsory on most railways, and the 
 amount is deducted from the wages. 
 
 CABEIEES ON ROADS. 
 
 Sub-Ordbe 2. 
 
 The traffic by road has not decreased with theNatmeof 
 extension of railways, as is apparent from the fact ** '"'"^' 
 that the number of persons so employed in 1861 
 was considerably greater than "in 1851. Three 
 classes are included in this order, viz., coachmen, 
 cabmen, and carmen. In 1865-66 there were issued 
 in Great Britain 2,628 licences for stage carriages ; 
 11,744 for post horses and carriages; and 17,160 for 
 hackney carriages in London. 
 
 Coachmen and cabmen have long hours. Omnibiis Hours of 
 men in the metropolis work from 8 in the morning * 
 
30 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 till 11 at night. In Liverpool, from 7-30 a.m. to 
 9 P.M. Stablemen from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England . 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Under 20. | 20 to 60. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 12,000 
 2,000 
 2,100 
 
 82,000 
 13,000 
 12,500 
 
 480 
 
 16,100 
 
 106,500 
 
 480 
 
 Coal carmen earn 28/ per week ; other carmen, 
 23/ in London, 18/ in the country. In Liverpool, 
 carters earn 22/ ; in London, 25/. In London, omnibus 
 drivers earn 6/ per day, and conductors 4/, about a 
 third of the number working 7 days in the week. 
 The omnibus driver finds his own whip, and the con- 
 ductor his lamp. In Liverpool, drivers earn 22/6 
 and 25/ to 27/6; conductors, 15/ to 20/. In Grlasgow, 
 drivers earn 25/ ; cabmen, 20/. Cabmen have an 
 uncertain income in London. The practice in many 
 cases is for cab-owners to let their cabs to the cab 
 drivers for a given sum, who assume on themselves 
 the risk of the day's fares. On an average for 
 carriers generally, the earnings may be taken at 
 22/ per man ; boys under 20, 5/ ; and 10/ for women 
 and girls. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Men, 16,100 
 
 under 20, 
 
 10/ 
 
 £ 
 418,600 
 
 amount of 
 
 106,500 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 22/ 
 
 6,091,800 
 
 
 Women, 80 
 
 under 20, 
 
 5/ 
 
 360 
 
 
 450 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 10/ 
 
 11,700 
 
 123,080 
 
 6,522,460 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 31 
 
 CABRIEKS ON CANALS AND EIVEES: BARGEMEN AND 
 
 WATEKMBN. 
 
 Sub-Obder 3. 
 
 A WATERMAN is One who navigates, rows, or works 
 for hire a passenger boat ; a lighterman, or barge- 
 man, one who navigates or works for hire a lighter, 
 boat, or barge, conveying goods, wares, or mer- 
 chandize. 
 
 Numler of 
 laboureis. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland . . 
 
 6,500 
 150 
 350 
 
 26,000 
 1,000 
 3,000 
 
 50 
 
 170 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 50 
 
 170 
 
 Number of 
 pei'scns em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The watermen and lightermen on the Thames condition of 
 form a company, incorporated by Act of Parliament, 
 exercising the sole privilege over all parts of the 
 river Thames as far as Grravesend ; but beyond the 
 Thames no such restriction obtains. 
 
 Lightermen, watermen, and canal men earn good wages. 
 wages. Those on the Thames earn on an average 
 fully 30/ a week. Those beyond, probably less. 
 Altogether, the average may be taken at 25/ a week 
 per man, and 8/ for apprentices and boys, with 8/ 
 and 6/ for women and girls. 
 
 £ 
 at 8/ 148,600 
 at 25/ 1,950,000 ^ 
 at 6/ 780 
 
 at 8/ 38,530 
 
 Men , under 20, 
 20 to 60, 
 Women under 20, 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 7,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 50 
 
 170 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wiges. 
 
 37,220 
 
 2,132,910 
 
32 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Health. This occupation is full of dangers. In many cases 
 
 lightermen or bargemen work all night, and are 
 exposed to night air and to the unhealthy exhala- 
 tions of rivers and canals. They also work in small 
 barges amidst large ships, and are met with on all 
 sides by swift passing steamers. Whatever advan- 
 tage they may have by working always in the open 
 air, it is fully counterbalanced .by the constant 
 exposure to cold and wet. 
 
 SEAMEN. 
 Sttb-Okdbk 4. 
 Number of ACCORDING to a retum laid before Parliament 
 pfoyed!™" (312 of 1866), the number of British seamen em- 
 ployed in the home and foreign trade of the United 
 Kingdom and Channel Islands, exclusive of masters, 
 for the year 1865 was as follows : — Mates, 24,292 ; 
 petty officers, 13,546 ; able seamen, 72,558 ; ordinary 
 seamen, 19,221 ; apprentices and boys, 20,063 ; 
 other persons, 16,241 ; engineers, 3,178 ; firemen, 
 8,724 ; foreigners, 20,280 ; Lascars, 40 : total, 197,643 ; 
 and deducting foreigners and Lascars, 177,323. To 
 this number, however, we must add at least 10 per 
 cent, for those on shore, giving a total of little short 
 of 180,000 ; of whom 160,000 are men, and 20,0b0 
 apprentices and boys. 
 Wages. The wages of seamen in the Port of London are 
 
 given as follows : ^'^ — 
 
 <■> Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 292 ; and see Eeturn of 
 Wages of Seamen, 158 of 1867. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 33 
 
 
 1860. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1862. 
 
 1863. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Baltic ...... 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 70/ 
 
 Canada, British North' 
 America .... 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 70/ 
 
 70/ 
 
 70/ 
 
 United States of Ame- 
 rica ; . , . 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ ' 
 
 55/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 West Indies . . . 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/- 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/' 
 
 France,Holland, Spain, ) 
 &o. ) 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 Mediterranean Ports . 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/- 
 
 55/ 
 
 South America . 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 Archangel and Ports i 
 of Norway . . .1 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/ 
 
 60/- 
 
 65/ 
 
 Mauritius .... 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 Sierra Leone . 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 East Indies and CMna 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 ,55/ 
 
 Van Diemen's Land,! 
 Australia . . ./ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 Snnth Sea . . , . 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 50/ 
 
 55/ 
 
 Home Trade . . . 
 
 
 
 80/ 
 
 
 
 
 The wages of able seamen in the Mediterranean 
 trade in 1866, out of London, rose, in consequence 
 of the seamen's strike, to 70/ ; out of Liverpool, 50/ ; 
 out of Hull, 60/ ; out of the Tyhe, 65/. In the 
 North American trade : out of London, 75/ ; Liver- 
 pool, 80/ ; Hull, 70/ ; the Tyne, 80/. In the East 
 India and Australia : out of London, 70/ ; Liverpool, 
 60/ ; Hull, 55/ ; the Tyne, 60/. In the Baltic : out 
 of London, 80/ ; Liverpool, 70/ ; Hull, 70/ ; the 
 Tyne, 80/. In Grlasgow an ordinai-y seaman earns 
 30/ to 50/ per month ; in Dundee 10/ per week ; 1st 
 mate, £5 to £8 per month ; 2nd mate, £4 to £5. 
 Seamen usually get from 10/ to 15/ more per month 
 in steamers than in sailing vessels, and firemen 1 0/ 
 more than able seamen. The mate, 10/ to £2 more 
 than the able seaman ; the carpenter, the same as 
 the mate. Boys and apprentices usually receive £10 
 a year, with board wages when on shore. Taking 
 the whole number of seamen, and including the extra 
 pay of artificers and other subordinate officers, the 
 
 D 
 
3t ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 wages may be taken at 70/ per month for men, and 
 16/ for boys and. apprentices. To tbis we must add 
 tbe value of food and berth at 12/ a week; making 
 in all 118/ for men, and 52/ for boys, per month. 
 
 ABumai Apprentices and Boys 20,000 at 52/ per Month, 624,000 
 an>oun!t.of jjjg^ 180,000 at 118/ „ 12,744,000 
 
 wages. 
 
 200,000 13,368,000 
 
 Health. The registrar of births, deaths, and marriages 
 
 states that the mortality of merchant seamen at sea 
 was I '99 to 100 living in 1864. The average rate 
 in the 13 years 1852-64 was 1"93. In a paper read 
 by Dr. McWilliams to the Social Science Association, 
 the deaths in the merchant navy from 1852 to 1863 
 were given in an average at 18*98 per 1000. Sea- 
 men trading in long voyages are much exposed to 
 scurvy. A report on the subject by Dr. Robert 
 Barnes is published in the Sixth Report of the Medical 
 Officer of the Privy Council.^^^ Much complaint is 
 also made of the insufficiency of accommodation for 
 seamen in merchant ships.^^^ 
 
 Savings. The Seamen's Savings Bank on the 20th November, 
 
 1865, owed £43,854 to 1,425 depositors. Seamen now 
 deposit their savings with the Post-Office Savings 
 Banks, which admit of the transfer of money from 
 place to place. 
 
 *'' See Correspondence between the Board of Trade and the 
 Local Marine Board on the subject of Scurvy in Merchant Ships, 
 404 of 1865, and 126 of 1867. 
 
 '"' See applications made to the Board of Trade on the subject, 
 125 of 1867. 
 
OP THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 35 
 
 DOCK LABOUREKS. 
 
 Sub-Ordeh 4. 
 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 
 3,000 
 200 
 
 29,000 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 32,000 
 
 
 The wages of dock labourers are higher for loading Wages, 
 than for discharging. The loaders earn 4/ a day 
 when at work, but the dischargers employed by 
 dock companies earn 3/ to 3/6 a day. In LiverpooF'^ 
 the first gang or constant men earn 23/ to 25/ ; the 
 second gang or partially employed, 20/ to 22/. In 
 Grlasgow dock labourers earn 22/ to 26/. On an 
 average, considering the uncertainty of the em- 
 ployment, the wages may be taken at 20/ and 5/. 
 At a recent meeting held in Whitechapel, dock 
 labourers complained that their wages were as low 
 as 15/ to 18/. Generalljr, however, higher rates 
 are paid.^^^ 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20 3,200 at 5/ 41,600 
 
 „ 20 to 60 32,000 at 20/ 1,664,000 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 35,200 
 
 1,705,600 
 
 <^' Report of Mortality Committee in Liverpool, 1866, p. 204. 
 <«' See ' Times ' of 29tli January, 1867. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 WAEEHOUSEMEN AND OTHEES ENGAGED IN STORAGE. 
 Sub-Obdeb 5. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 ■Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 4,400 
 530 
 
 280 
 
 16,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 20 
 
 1,800 
 400 
 
 2,600 
 550 
 
 
 5,210 
 
 17,920 
 
 2,200 
 
 8,150 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 The wages of these are high. In Manchester 
 many earn 30/ and 35/ a week. As an average, 25/ 
 for men and 10/ for boys, 5/ for girls and 10/ for 
 women, may be considered rather below than above 
 the usual earnings. 
 
 £ 
 
 Men under 20, 5,200 at 10/ 185,200 
 
 20 to 60, -17,900 at 25/ 1,163,500 
 
 Women tinder 20, 2,200 at 5/ 28,600 
 
 20 to 60, 3,150 at 10/ 81,900 
 
 28,450 
 
 1,409,200 
 
 MESSENGEES AND POETEES. 
 Sub-Obdeb 6. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 46,600 
 4,100 
 2,700 
 
 34,000 
 3,500 
 3,500 
 
 800 
 
 500 
 
 60 
 
 400 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 
 53,800 
 
 41,000 
 
 1,360 
 
 570 
 
 Wages. The wages of porters are low. In Liverpool the 
 
 average wages of cotton porters for a considerable 
 
•OP THE WORKINa CLASSES. 37 
 
 period has been 14/ a week ; but there are gangs of 
 men employed weekly who earn 21/, the captain 
 earning 24/. Corn porters earn 11/ to 12/ ; the 
 captain of gangs, 24/ to 26/. In London few labourers 
 can be had for less than 18/ to 20/. On an average, 
 we may take 15/ for men, 7/ under 20, 5/ girls, and 
 10/ women. 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 53,300 
 
 at 
 
 7/ 
 
 970,000 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 41,000 
 
 at 
 
 15/ 
 
 1,599,000 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 1,360 
 
 at 
 
 5/ 
 
 17,680 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 570 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 14,820 
 
 
 96,230 
 
 2,601,500 
 
 Annual 
 amount oi 
 wages. 
 
38 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Class IV.— AGKICULTUEAL. 
 
 Order VIII. 
 
 PEESONS WOEKING THE LAND AND ENGAGED IN 
 GEOWING GEAIN, FEUITS, GEASSES, AND OTHEE 
 PEODUCTS, AND ATTENDING TO ANIMALS. 
 
 AGRICULTUEB. 
 Sub-Okdee 1, 3. 
 
 Acreage ACCORDING to & retum receiitlj published by the 
 under croF. Board' of Trade relating to the acreage of land urider 
 crop, bare fallows, and grass in the United King- 
 dom in the year 1866, the total acreage was as 
 follows : — 
 
 ■ 
 
 Total of Acreage 
 
 under all Mnds 
 
 of Crops. 
 
 Total of esti- 
 mated ordinary 
 stock of Cattle. 
 
 Total number 
 of Sheep. 
 
 England. 
 
 Wales . . . 
 Scotland. 
 Ireland . 
 
 22,261,833 
 2,284,674 
 4,158,360 
 
 15,549,796 
 
 3,420,044 
 546,966 
 968,637 
 
 3,742,647 
 
 15,124,541 
 1,668,663 
 5,255,077 
 4,270,027 
 
 
 44,254,663 
 
 8,678,294 
 
 26,318,308 
 
 Kelatiou of 
 acreage to 
 labourers. 
 
 I.ocality. 
 
 The proportion between the acreage and the number 
 of agricultural labourers in the United Kingdom is as 
 follows : — England and Wales, 1 labourer to 14 acres ; 
 Scotland, 1 labourer to 13 acres ; Ireland, 1 labourer to 
 20 acres. The proportion of agricultural labourers 
 to population is, in England and Wales, 1 in 12 ; 
 Scotland, 1 in 10 ; Ireland, 1 in 8. 
 
 The following counties have the greatest propor- 
 tion of adults employed in agriculture : — In Eutland 
 33-9 per cent., Lincoln 32-3, Cambridge 31-6, Hereford 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 39 
 
 31-4, Huntingdon 30-8, "Westmoreland 30-8, North 
 Eiding Yorkshire 30-4, Wilts 29-3, Suffolk 28-7, 
 North Wales 27-7 per cent, of the adult population 
 were employed in agriculture. 
 
 The number of persons engaged in agriculture Number of 
 include farmers' sons, grandsons, brothers, nephews, empkyed. 
 agricultural labourers, farm servants, woodmen, 
 gardeners, and nurserymen ; but there are in addition 
 many having holdings under 15 acres who work with 
 their own hands or employ no servant. The total 
 number may be estimated as follows : — 
 
 England Bind Wales 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 15. 15 to 60. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Under 15. 15 to 60 
 
 128,0001,060,000 
 42,000 146,000 
 32,500' 390,000 
 
 I 
 
 65,000311,000 
 2,300100,000 
 5,800 46,000 
 
 202 ,500 1 , 596 , 000 73 , 100 457 , 000 
 
 Small 
 Farmers. 
 
 90,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 275,000 
 
 385,000 
 
 To these we must add 385,000 small farmers and 
 crofters. 
 
 The wages of agricultural labourers in England wages m 
 and Wales were given in Mr. Yilliers' return for the wfie's"'' '^'^ 
 year 1860, and its principal results were brought out 
 in a paper on the subject read by Mr. Purdy of the 
 Statistical Department of the Poor Law Board, at the 
 Statistical Society .^^^ From these documents it ap- 
 pears that the average wages in the half year of 1860 
 were 11/7 for men, and 4/2 for women and children ; 
 the weekly earnings by task work being calculated 
 at 13/9. Basing his calculation upon Mr, Tufnell's 
 
 U) 
 
 ' Journal of the Statistical Society,' vol. xxiv. p. 328. Eeturn 
 of the average rates of weekly earnings of agricultural labourers 
 in the Unions of England and Wales (14 of 1861). 
 
40 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 report on Kent and Sussex, Mr. Purdy estimated the 
 total earnings of agricultural labourers in England 
 and Wales at £44 6/9, or 17/ a week per family. 
 The Earl of Shaftesbury, in a letter to the ' Times,'^'^ 
 depicted the condition of Dorsetshire labourers in a 
 very favourable manner ; 14/6| being calculated to 
 be the average earning, each having a cottage either 
 free or at a very small rent. Although the nominal 
 wages may in some cases be as low as 8/ or 9/ per 
 week in money, a free house and garden, fuel cut 
 and dried, a chain of potato ground prepared and 
 manured, and a bushel of wheat worth 5/ per month, 
 raise the wages 4/ more per week, besides the gratuity 
 given for extra work, and allowance for harvest work, 
 &c. The wages in the different districts differ mate- 
 rially. In the northern and Yorkshire counties in 
 immediate contiguity to the manufacturing districts 
 the wages are higher than in the eastern, western, 
 or midland counties ; yet the force of public opinion 
 and facility of communication tend to assimilate the 
 wages throughout the country. The wages of agri- 
 , cultural labour have increased as follows : — 1824, 9/4 ; 
 1837, 10/4; 1860, 11/7; 1866, 13/. 
 Wages in In Scotland the wages, according to a similar return, 
 moved for by Sir Andrew Agnew,f^ also commented 
 upon in another paper by Mr. Purdy at the Statistical 
 Society ,^^^ were in 1860 as follows : — In the northern 
 counties, men, 12/2f ; women, 5/l| ; children under 
 16, 4/. In the midland, men, 13/2; women, 5/7i ; 
 children, 4/i. In the southern, men, 13/2 ; women, 
 5/1 U-; children, 4/9i : giving an average for all 
 Scotland at, men, 13/1 ; women, 5/7 ; children, 4/3|. 
 
 <" See 'Times,' January 29, 1866. 
 
 "> Ui of 1861. 
 
 <" 'Joui'nal of the Statistical Society,' vol. xxv. p. 425. 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 41 
 
 The ' North British Agriculturist ' published from time 
 to time during 1864 accounts of the wages of agri- 
 cultural labour in distinct farms in the different counties 
 in Scotland, which supported the above averages. 
 The wages are paid half in money, half in food. 
 £20 in cash is frequently given, but the allowances 
 vary, some having house and garden, coal and meat, 
 some the produce of a number of sheep or cows. The 
 small crofters, at least 20,000 in number, cannot be 
 taken to earn more on an average than 20/ a week 
 for themselves and families. 
 
 The wages in Ireland are given in another return wages in 
 for 1860, moved for by Lord Dunkellin,('>^and equally ^'''^'"'*- 
 commented on by Mr. Purdy ;'^^ and according to these 
 the wages in 1860 averaged 7/14 for men, 3/11 for 
 women, and 2/114 for children. 
 
 - Since 1860 there has been a gradual rise in agri- united 
 cultural wages in all counties, and it is necessary ^'"g"^""- 
 to bear in mind that farm labourers often derive 
 assistance from other employments, as from straw 
 work, lace work, gloving, mining, mill work, or 
 needle making. In some cases the labourer holds a 
 piece of land and keeps one or more cows ; in other 
 cases he earns something by carting for others. 
 All things included, the average may safely be taken 
 at 13/ a week for men, 5/6 a week for women, 
 and 4/6 for children under 16 years of age, and the 
 small farmers and crofters at 15/ per week. Sepa- 
 rately, the average might be taken at 14/6, 5/, and 
 3/6 in England; 14/, 6/6, and 4/6 in Scotland; and 
 10/, 5/, and 3/6 in Ireland ; and small farmers 15/ 
 in England and Scotland, and 14/ in Ireland, 
 
 '" 2 of 1862. 
 
 <" 'Journal of the Statistical Society,' vol. xxv. p. 425. 
 
42 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Annual 
 
 Men . . 202,500 under 15, 
 
 at 
 
 £ 
 4/6 2,369,000 
 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 1,600,000 15 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 13/ 54,080,000 
 
 
 Women . . 73,000 under 15, 
 
 at 
 
 4/6 854,000 
 
 
 457,000 15 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 5/6 6,535,000 
 
 
 SmaU Farmersl qqk nnn 
 and Crofters /3S^'°00 
 
 2,717,500 
 
 
 15/ 14,965,000 
 
 
 78,803,000 
 
 Agricultural labour in some counties, such as 
 Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Nor- 
 folk, SuflFolk, and Nottingham, is organized into 
 agricultm"al gangs, consisting of a gang-master and 
 a certain number (10 to 40) of women and young 
 persons ; in most cases the gangs travelling great 
 distances to perform by contract a certain amount of 
 field labour ; a practice which is attended with most 
 injurious physical and moral results. 
 Necessaiy In a report of Dr. Edward Smith on the food of 
 of''™gric"uf- the poorer labouring classes in Bngland,^'^ it is stated 
 bourers "*" *^^* *^® value of the food consumed by farm labourers 
 wa,s, upon the average, 2/ll|^ per adult, or 13/74 
 per family weekly ; 'including in this sum the value 
 of every article of food in the localities referred to, 
 such as vegetables, beer, and cider, which though 
 it may not cost the labourer any money, yet resulted 
 from his labour and was therefore a part of his daily 
 income. But to the expenditure for food we must 
 add that for clothing and rent. If we estimate 
 the cost of clothing at fourpence a week and the rent 
 at 2/, the necessary expenditure will be raised to 
 16/ per family, but nowhere, except in the poorest 
 district, the income of any class is as low as the 
 minimum necessary rate of expenditure. 
 
 "' Sixth Eeport of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, 
 1866. 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 43 
 
 Agricultural labour is healthy. The rate of Health, 
 mortality in. Westmoreland was at. the rate of 1'820 ; 
 Rutland, 2-046 ; Lincoln, 2-052 ; North Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 2-071 ; Wilts, 2-170 ; North Wales, 2-214 ; 
 Suffolk, 2-220 ; Huntingdon, 2-233 ; Hereford, 2-235 ; 
 and Cambridge, 2-256 per cent. 
 
 The percentage of persons who signed their mar- Education. 
 riage register with marks was as follows: — Rutland, 
 31-1 males, 17-5 females; Lincoln, 21-2 men, 24-2 
 women; Cambridge, 31-5 men, 30 women; Here- 
 ford, 29-5 men, 25-6 women ; Huntingdon, 30-9 men, 
 28"3 women ; Westmoreland, 10-3 men, 20-6 women; 
 North Riding of Yorkshire, 2 7' 9 men, 24-4 women ; 
 Wilts, 27-9, men, 24-4 women; Suffolk, 36-0 men, 
 29-3 women; and North Wales, 34-9 men, 48'7 
 women. 
 
 An elaborate report on the state of the dwellings Dwellings. 
 of rural labourers was made by Dr. H. J, Hunter.^'^ 
 The general results were, that in 5,375 houses ex- 
 amined there were 24,770 persons, giving 4-6 to a 
 house and 2'8 to a bedroom. In 2,195 single bed- 
 roomed houses there were 4 persons, or 2*2 adults 
 and 1-8 children. In 185] there were 4-41 persons 
 to a house; in 1861 the proportion was 4-87 persons. 
 
 The amount owing to depositors per head of the Sa-nugs. 
 population, which in England and Wales averaged 
 £1 17/, in Hereford was £2 10/ ; Wilts, £2 1/ ; 
 Lincoln, £1 19/; North Riding of Yorkshire, 
 £1 17/; Suffolk, £1 12/; Cambridge, £1 10/ ; 
 Huntingdon, 17/ ; Westmoreland, 10/ per head. 
 
 The number of persons committed for trial in 1865, Crimes, 
 which in England and Wales averaged 0-97 per 1000 
 of the population, in Hereford was 1-15; Lincoln, 
 
 "' Seventh Eeport of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, 
 1865. 
 
44 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EAENINGS 
 
 Dninken- 
 
 0-89 ; Cambridge, 0-84 ; Wilts, 0-68 ; Suffolk, 0-56 ; 
 Westmoreland, 0-44; Huntingdon, 0-40; and Eut- 
 land, 0-23 per 1000. 
 
 In the reports of the inspectors of constabulary the 
 following statistics were given relating to public and 
 beer houses and drunkenness in agricultural districts 
 in the year ended 29 September, 1866 : — 
 
 Number 
 
 Number of proceeded 
 
 Pub]io"'audJ agaiuat aa 
 
 Beer Houses drunk and 
 
 to 1,000 j disorderly 
 
 population. ' per 1,000 
 
 j population. 
 
 Bedfordshire 
 
 Budringliam ' 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Ely, Isle of 
 
 Essex, with Harwich and Saffron Waldon 
 
 . Hertfordshire 
 
 Huntingdon 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Norfolk, with Thetford 
 
 Northampton, Peterborough liberty . 
 
 Oxfordshire 
 
 Eutlandshire 
 
 Shropshire, with Oswestry and Winlock . 
 Suffolk, East, with Beccles, Eye, and.Orford 
 Suffolk, West, with Bury St. Edmunds . 
 
 Average , 
 
 7-81 
 
 2-09 
 
 8-47 
 
 2-86 
 
 10-05 
 
 •50 
 
 6-32 
 
 1-79 
 
 9-60 
 
 •97 
 
 9-40 
 
 2-20 
 
 5-92 
 
 1-51 
 
 4-96 
 
 1-85 
 
 5-50 
 
 2^64 
 
 6-09 
 
 1^51 
 
 8-09 
 
 •48 
 
 8-09 
 
 1^52 
 
 7-46 
 
 1-28 
 
 5-36 
 
 5-89 
 
 4-14 
 
 •95 
 
 5-31 
 
 1^56 
 
 6^41 
 
 1-92 
 
OP THE WOEKING CLASSES. 
 
 45 
 
 Order IX. 
 
 PEESONS ENGAGED ABOUT ANIMALS. 
 
 FISHEEMEN. 
 
 The census for 1861 gave the numbers employed as Number of 
 
 _ , „ . " „ ,, pei-sons em- 
 
 nsnermen or nsherwomen as toUows : — ployed. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60, 
 
 3,025 
 2,869 
 1,160 
 
 7,054 
 
 11,639 
 
 16,671 
 
 5,692 
 
 34,002 
 
 This is, however, far below the real number. The 
 commissioners for the British fisheries in their report 
 for the year 1865^^^ gave the number employed in 
 the fisheries in Scotland at 44,459 fishermen and 
 boys, exclusive of as many employed about the 
 fisheries. The fishery commissioners of Ireland 
 gave the number employed on the coast of Ireland 
 during 1865 at 37,920 fishermen and boys. "We 
 have no such accounts for England and Wales, but 
 the Life-Boat Institution, in their journal, stated 
 that the fishery boats in the United Kingdom 
 numbered about 40,000, probably manned by 160,000 
 men and boys, in the proportion perhaps of four 
 men to one boy. 
 
 Among fishermen, some work by wages at so^^gp,. 
 
 <'' Eeport of Conunissioners on the Sea Fisheries of the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
4fi ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 much a week, others are paid by a proportion of what 
 they catch, and a large number divide the produce 
 with the owner of the boat, in certain agreed pro- 
 portions. In the oyster fishery at Swansea the 
 oysters are all sold in bulk, and then each man gets 
 2/6 a thousand ; the captain, 3/ ; and the boat, 4/ ; 
 the owner taking one-third, whatever that may be. 
 At- Lerwick fishermen have the half of the catch, a 
 share of the fishing, and other perquisites. At 
 Plymouth the proceeds of the fish is divided into 
 seven shares, the master getting a share and a half, 
 the men a share, the boys a half share, and the 
 owner three shares.. But there is great uncertainty 
 in the results. Two boats will sail together for the 
 same fishing ground ; one will return overladen with 
 fish, the other quite disappointed. Taking the 
 whole number of fishermen, the average earning 
 may be estimated at 20/ for men, and 6/ for boys. 
 In many cases, however, fishermen have other 
 employments. They work on land, have a small 
 potato ground, make kelp of seaweed, or get other 
 occasional labour. And when they are paid by 
 wages, all the time they are at sea they are fed at 
 the expense of the -owners. 
 
 Annual Men 120,000 20 to 60 at 20/ 6,240,000 
 
 amount of ^^ 40,000 under 20 at 6/ 624,000 
 
 wages. 
 
 160,000 6,864,000 
 
 Seeing, however, the small number given in the 
 census as fishermen, it is safer to calculate their income, 
 independently of what they may earn in other occupa- 
 tions, at £2,100,000 men, £300,000 boys; total, 
 £2,400,000. 
 Horns of The labour is great and intermittent. For many 
 
 latour. ° 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 4? 
 
 nights consecutively iishermen are out. In some 
 cases, where the boats are large enough, they have 
 sleeping accommodation ; but when the boats are 
 small the hardship is great. 
 
 When the fisherman is paid by wages he defrays Cost of 
 no part of the expense ; but it is otherwise when he 
 works by shares, A pilchard boat will cost upwards 
 of £200 ; a herring boat, £35 to £40 ; a trawl boat, 
 about £20; a line .boat, £60; a seine boat, £15, 
 besides the cost of fitting her up. 
 
 The great danger of life with fishermen is from Health, 
 wreck. In 1865, 98 fishing smacks were wrecked, 
 but many isolated accidents occur of which we have 
 no account. The Royal National Life-Boat Institu- 
 tion, and the Shipwrecked Mariners' Society — the. one 
 to save life and the other to assist and relieve 
 all wrecked seamen — are conferring an immense 
 benefit on the seafaring classes of the United 
 Kingdom. ''' 
 
 f'^ The Eoyal National Life-Boat Institution has 162 life-boats, 
 and by them and other special exertions it is enabled to save from 
 600 to 700 lives in a year. In 1866 the Life-Boat Institution has 
 been the means of saving 921 lives. The Shipwrecked Mariners' 
 Society has been instituted for three objects : 1st. To board, lodge, 
 clothe, and forward to their homes, or to their nearest consuls, if 
 foreigners, all wrecked seamen or other poor persons of all nations. 
 2nd. To assist seamen to replace their clothes, boats, &c., when 
 lost by storm or other accidents of the sea, and to relieve their 
 widows ; and 3rd. To give gold and silver medals or other pecuniary 
 rewards for any praiseworthy endeavour to save life from ship- 
 wreck. Other institutions of great benefit to seamen are: the 
 British and Foreign Sailors' Society, the Sailors' Homes, and 
 the recently-established Belvidere Institution and Mariners' 
 National Pension and Widows' Fund. 
 
48 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EAENINGS 
 
 HOBSE-KEEPERS, GAME-KEEPERS, AND DROVERS. 
 
 Number of Among these are horse-keepers, game-keepers, 
 
 persons cm -.. 
 
 ployed. drovers, and others engaged in minor occupations. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 WOMEM. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 8,000 
 500 
 
 14,500 
 
 42,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 12,500 
 
 i.'soo 
 
 500 
 
 
 23,000 
 
 59,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 500 
 
 The earnings of these classes of persons vary very 
 much. The wages of horse-keepers are 21/ in 
 London, and 15/ to 18/ in the country. Grame- 
 keepers and drovers earn 12/ to 16/ each per week. 
 -For the whole number we shall take 15/ for men ; 
 6/ boys ; 8/ women ; 5/ girls. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 Men 23,000, 
 
 under 20 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 £ 
 359,000 
 
 59,000, 
 
 20 to 60 
 
 at 
 
 15/ 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 Women 1,800, 
 
 under 20 
 
 at 
 
 5/ 
 
 23,400 
 
 500, 
 
 20 to 60 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 10,400 
 
 84,300 
 
 2,692,800 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 49 
 
 Class V.— INDUSTRIAL. 
 
 Order X. 
 
 ESONS ENGAGED IN ART AND MECHANIC PKODUC- 
 PIONS, IN WHICH MATTEES OF VAEIOUS KINDS 
 LEE EMPLOYED IN COMBINATION. 
 
 PEINTEES. 
 Sub-Obdbb 1. 
 
 WINTERS are found in every part of the United Locality. 
 ngdom, but it is in London and Edinburgh that 
 } bulk of the printing is carried on. Printing 
 ices are usually small. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 — 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 lootland .... 
 reland . . . 
 
 10,200 
 1,900 
 1,100 
 
 25,000 
 1,500 
 1,700 
 
 170 
 30 
 
 230 
 30 
 
 
 13,200 
 
 28,200 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The labour of printers is divided between com- couditions 
 sitors, readers, pressmen, and machinemen. j^^jjOfabour. 
 prenticeship of seven years is required to become 
 ourneyman printer, except that the eldest son of a 
 nter has a right by patrimony to become a journey- 
 n without indenture. 
 
 Among printers there are offices with day work Hours of 
 only, and offices where night work is always going '*'""''• 
 on, and offices with a mixed work. These who work 
 in the day commence at eight in the morning and 
 end at eight in the evening. Those who work at 
 
 E 
 
50 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 night commence at five p.m. and end between three 
 and five a.m. In some offices Sunday labour is 
 ■ performed, especially newspaper work. 
 Wage.. The average earnings of compositors in a large 
 
 printing office in the metropolis was 28/ ; of readers, 
 40/ ; of machine- minders and engineers, 40/ ; of 
 labourers and warehousemen, 24/; of pressmen, 31/6. 
 Boys, 8/ per week. The wages in another large 
 house averaged as follows : compositors, 33/3 ; press- 
 men, 30/; machinemen, 31/; readers, 43/5. In 
 morning newspaper offices the earnings of a com- 
 positor vary from 50/ to 70/ per week, or even 80/.' 
 In a printing office some are paid by the piece, others 
 are on the establishment. Those on the establishment 
 in book houses cannot receive less than 32/, or 34/ if 
 engaged on weekly papers. Those paid by the piece 
 earn according as they are regularly employed, as they 
 are quick in composition, make fewer errors, and have 
 more or less remunerative kind of work. In Edinburgh, 
 the wages are : compositors, settled wages, 26/ ; piece- 
 men, 20/ ; pressmen, settled, 26/ ; machinemen, 2 7/ to 
 30/. Apprentice compositors, 7/ to 1 0/ ; machinemen, 
 9/ to 15/. Establishment wages vary in different 
 towns from 21/ to 30/ per week. On an average^ 
 the wages may.be taken at 30/ for men; 8/, boys ; 
 ] 0/, women ; girls, 7/. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 13,200 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 £ 
 279,560 
 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 28,200 
 
 at 
 
 28/ 
 
 2,057,600 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 200 
 
 at 
 
 7/ 
 
 3,640 
 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 250 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 6,500 
 
 41,850 ' 2,347,300 
 
 Health. Dr. Edward Smith stated in his report, that in 100 
 
 readers there were 2 '75 weeks of sickness yearly per 
 man, and in 10 years 2*3 weeks a year ; the yearly 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 51 
 
 mortality among them being 1 in 44, and the average 
 age at death 45 years. ^^^ 
 
 A full half among the intelligent and steady House rent. 
 printers are householders, living in houses at the 
 rental of £25 to £35 per annum in the metropolis, 
 though they often sublet part of the house. 
 
 BOOKBINDERS, AND BOOKPOLDERS. 
 
 SnB-OEDER 1. 
 
 The work of bookbinders is generally divided into 
 forwarding and finishing ; forwarding, being the 
 actual binding of the book, includes that part of 
 bookbinding which consists in putting a book to- 
 gether, cutting and gilding or colouring the pages, 
 and covering it with leather ; finishing, being the 
 ornamenting of the book, includes lettering of the 
 title of the book on the back, decorating the book, or 
 working patterns in different coloured leather on the 
 book. 
 
 The hours of labour are generally from eight to 
 eight, except on magazine days, when a good deal of 
 overtime becomes necessary .^^•' 
 
 Nature of 
 the work. 
 
 Hours of 
 labour. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1,600 
 400 
 150 
 
 4,900 
 750 
 270, 
 
 2,300 
 
 60 
 
 1,000 
 
 3,200 
 
 60 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 2,150 
 
 5,920 
 
 3,850 
 
 4,050 
 
 
 "' Sixth Eeport of the Medical Officer of the Privy Cotmcil, 
 1864. Also see Eeport on Printers in the Fifth Eeport of the 
 Children's Employment Commission, 1862, 
 
 <"' See Eeport on Bookbinders in the Fifth Eeport of the Chil- 
 dren's Employment Commission, 1862. 
 
 E 2 
 
B2 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EAENINGS 
 
 The wages are generally paid by piece work, the 
 earnings depending on the quantity of work per- 
 formed. In London the piece-worker will earn as 
 mnch as 50/ or 60/ a week ; the time-worker, 35/ ; 
 the finisher, 45/ ; the forwarder, 45/ ; and women 
 from 12/ to 18/. Much depends also on the kind of 
 work and the time of the year. In Edinburgh the 
 wages are given at : men, time-workers, 20/ to 26/ ; 
 girls, 8/ to 10/; piece-workers, 25/ to 35/; girls, 
 9/ to 14/. Apprentice boys, 2/6 to 10/ ; girls, 2/6 
 to 7/. On an average, the wages may be taken at 
 30/ for men ; 10/ for boys under 20 ; 14/ women, 
 and 8/ girls. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 Men under 20, 2,150 at 10/ 
 
 20 to 60, 5,720 at 30/ 
 
 "Women imder 20, 3,350 at 8/ 
 
 20 to 60, 4,050 at 14/ 
 
 £ 
 
 55,900 
 
 '461,760 
 
 69,680 
 
 169,260 
 
 Tools. 
 
 16,270 766,600 
 
 The bookbinder requires no tools of any value. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKERS. 
 Stjb-Okdee 2. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 100 
 
 4,500 
 200 
 
 
 
 1,100 
 
 4,700 
 
 
 Wages. The wages of pianoforte makers and other instru- 
 
 ment makers range from 25/ to 50/ and 60/ per 
 week ; on an average, they may be taken at 30/ for 
 men, and 10/ under 20. 
 
OF THE WOBKING CLASSES. 
 
 53 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20, 1,100 at 10/ 28,600 
 „ 20 to 60, 4,700 at 30/ 316,600 
 
 5,800 
 
 345,200 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 LITHOGEAPHERS. 
 Sub-Obdbr 3. 
 
 The number engaged in this occupation may be 
 estimated as follows : — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1,100 
 
 520 
 
 58 
 
 4,150 
 750 
 220 
 
 120 
 75 
 
 280 
 70 
 
 
 1,678 
 
 5,120 
 
 195 
 
 350 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 This industry requiring a work still more skilled 
 than printing has labourers receiving a large 
 income. 
 
 The wages may be estimated, on an average, at wages. 
 30/ for men; 12/ under 20; 8/ women, and 6/ 
 girls. 
 
 £ 
 Men 1,678, under 20 at 10/ 43,628 Annual 
 
 5,i20, 20 to 60 at 30/342,860 
 
 Women 195, under 20 at 6/ 3,042 
 
 „ 350, 20 to 60 at 8/ 7,280 
 
 amount of 
 
 7,343 
 
 396,810 
 
54 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EAENINGS 
 
 WOOD CAKVEES AND TOY MAKEES. 
 SnB-0»DEE 4, 6. 
 
 Number of 
 persons era- 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 2,000 
 380 
 
 70 
 
 14,300 
 
 1,100 
 
 290 
 
 2,600 
 50 
 10 
 
 3,900 
 
 140 
 
 80 
 
 
 2,400 
 
 15,690 
 
 2,660 
 
 4,120 
 
 The wages in these occupations are usually high, 
 
 since they require consummate skill and precision. 
 
 On an average, they are 35/ men ; 10/ boys under 
 
 20 ; 12/ women, and 6/ girls. 
 
 £ ■ 
 
 Annual Men 2,400 under 20, at 10/ 62,400 
 
 15,690 20 to 60 at 30/ 1,323,820 
 
 Women 2,660 under 20, at 6/ 41,496 
 
 4,120 20 to 60, at 12/ 128,544 
 
 amount of 
 
 24,870 
 
 1,556,260 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTBUMENT MAKEES, OPTICIANS, SCALE 
 MAKERS, AND SUBGICAL INSTKUMBNT MAKEES. 
 
 Sub-Okdek 7, 8. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Men. 
 
 ■JVOMEN. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland . 
 
 1,100 
 80 
 10 
 
 4,300 
 
 230 
 
 80 
 
 140 
 
 290 
 
 
 1,190 
 
 4,610 
 
 140 
 
 290 
 
 Character of This work, which is highly skilled, is carried on 
 
 the work. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 partly in shops and partly in private houses. The 
 workman has little or no expense in tools. 
 
 The wages, mostly all by piece-work, are seldom Wages. 
 as low as 20/ to 25/, and are often 50/ and 70/ ; 
 for the whole number, 35/ for men, and 12/ for those 
 under 20, may be taken. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Men 
 
 under 20, 
 
 1,190 
 
 at 
 
 12/ 
 
 37,128 
 
 )) 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 4,610 
 
 at 
 
 35/ 
 
 419,510 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 140 
 
 at 
 
 6^ 
 
 2,184 
 
 )) 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 290 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 7,540 
 
 
 6,230 
 
 466,362 
 
 
 WATCH MAKERS 
 
 
 
 
 Sitb-Ordee 7. 
 
 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 !England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 3,700 
 430 
 150 
 
 16,000 
 
 1,400 
 
 700 
 
 140 
 10 
 
 360 
 10 
 
 
 4,280 
 
 18,100 
 
 150 
 
 370 
 
 Number ot 
 pereons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The watch manufacture is divided into a large num- Descriptions 
 her of departments. There are finishers, motioners, "'^ '*''°"''' 
 jewellers, engravers, gilders, springers, case makers, 
 cap makers, hand makers, index makers, pallet 
 makers, balance makers, dial makers, pendant makers, 
 glass makers, escapement makers, movement makers, 
 engine turners, joint finishers, and fuzee cutters.^^^ - 
 
 Present wages are given. Clockmakers, 23/, 25/, wages. 
 28/, 30/, 42/; average, 29/. Watchmakers, 30/, 
 
 '" See ' Birmingham and the Midland Hai-dware Trade,' p. 195. 
 
56 ESTIMATES OF THE BAENINGS 
 
 40/, 50/, 60/, and 85/ ; average, 
 we may take 35/ and 10/. 
 
 35/. 
 
 On an average, 
 
 £ 
 
 111,280 
 
 1,638,000 
 
 3,120 
 
 9,620 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 Men under 20, 4,280 at 
 20 to 60, 18,000 at 
 
 Women under 20, 150 at 
 20 to 60, 370 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 35/ 
 
 8/ 
 10/ 
 
 
 22,800 
 
 1,762,020 
 
 
 CUTIiBKY. 
 
 
 
 
 Sub-Oedbr 9, 10. 
 
 
 Value of The declared value of exports of hardware, including 
 ^"^^ ' cutlery, has been as follows : — 
 
 1845 £2,183,000 The value of ordinary cut- 
 
 1855 2,960,391 lery exported in 1865 was 
 
 1865 4,334,271 £402,294. 
 
 Locality. Sheffield is the centre of the cutlery manufacture 
 as Birmingham is of the hardware. The other localities 
 of importance are Ecclesall Bierlov and Wortley. 
 
 Condition of In most of the trades of Sheffield a full seven years' 
 apprenticeship is required. The work is carried on 
 partly in factories, but extensively in private houses 
 and workshops. 
 
 Hours of The hours of labour in workshops and private houses 
 
 labour. • i 
 
 are very irregular. 
 
 Tools. The labourer must purchase tools which are often 
 
 very expensive, or, if he has the use of them from his 
 
 master, the rent of them is deducted from his wages. 
 
 Number of The number of persons employed in the manufac- 
 
 pbyed! ^ ture of cutlery, viz., knives and razors, needles and 
 
 scissors, files and saws, scythes, shovels, spades, and 
 
 other articles of mixed iron and steel in England in 
 
 1861 was 13,000 under 20, and 40,000 from 20 to 60 ; 
 
OF THE "WOBKING CLASSES. 
 
 57 
 
 and in the manufacture of arms, 3,600 under 20, and 
 9,700 from 20 to 60. In the three classes, cutlery, 
 arms, and surgical instruments, the numbers may be 
 estimated at — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 17,000 
 400 
 100 
 
 50,500 
 
 1,300 
 
 200 
 
 2,900 
 150 
 
 4,100 
 120 
 
 
 17,500 
 
 52,000 
 
 2,050 
 
 4,220 
 
 The wages in Sheffield ^^^ are given as follows : — 
 forgers of files, 12 inches and upwards, 45/ to 62/ ; 
 strikers, 35/ to 48/ ; forgers of files', under 12 inches, 
 30/ to 45/ ; grinders, 40/ to 50/ ; cutters, 25/ to 
 40/ ; hardeners, 28/ to 34/ ; saw makers, 30/ to 
 60/; grinders, 50/ to 70/; handle makers, 25/ 
 to 35/ ; scissors forgers, 20/ to 30/ ; grinders, 27/ 
 to 35/; filers, 20/ to 30/; finishers, 22/ to 32/; 
 spring knives, best work, 30/ ; forgers, 30/ ; cutlers, 
 25/ ; scale and spring makers, 25/ ; table knives 
 forgers, 28/ ; strikers, 24/ ; grinders, 30/ ; hafters, 
 21/. Some of these wages are, however, subject to 
 the payment of labourers or assistants. In the needle 
 manufacture men earn 12/ to 40/ ; women, 8/ to 
 15/ ; children, 1/6 to 5/, In the gun manufacture 
 a workman is held to be an inferior hand who, in 
 any of the skilled branches, cannot earn, single- 
 handed, 30/ per week.^^^ In all the branches there 
 are men earning £3 to £6 a week. On an average, 
 the wages may be taken at 30/ for men ; 10/ under 
 ,20 ; 8/ women, and 6/ girls. 
 
 ">^ MisceUaneoTis Statistics for 1866, p. 283. 
 
 (*' ' Birmingham and the Midland Hardware Districts,' p. 394. 
 
58 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Annual 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 17,500 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 455,000 
 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 52,000 
 
 at 
 
 30/ 
 
 4,056,000 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 2,050- 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 31,980 
 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 4,200 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 87,360 
 
 75,750 4,630,840 
 
 Health. The rate of mortality in Sheffield was 3' 2 9 per 
 
 cent. ; Wortley, 2-47 ; Ecclesall Bierlow, 2-6 per 
 cent, of the population. This, however, scarcely in- 
 dicates the extent of unhealthiness of certain of such 
 trades. The average age of all the fork grinders is 
 said not to exceed 29 ; of scissors grinders, 32 ; of edge 
 tool and wool shear grind ers, 33 ; of table knife 
 grinders, 35. It is a sad fact, said Dr. Hall, the phy- 
 sician to the Sheffield Public Hospital, that fork 
 grinders, for instance, are exposed to influences which 
 rob them of 25 years of existence, and to that ex- 
 tent deprive their wives and families of the benefit of 
 their labour, and fill the union poorhouses with 
 widows and fatherless children. ^^^ 
 
 Rent of The rents of houses in Sheffield were in the pro- 
 
 portion of 56 per cent, under £7, 18 per cent. £7 
 and under £10, and 26 per cent. £10 and upwards. 
 
 Education. The number of persons who signed their marriage 
 register with marks was in the following proportion : — 
 Sheffield, 27 per cent, males, 42 per cent, females ; 
 Birmingham, 26 males, 35 females ; Wolverhampton, 
 41 males, 53 females ; Wortley, 21 males, 33 females; 
 Ecclesall, 20 per cent, males, and 33 per cent, females. 
 
 Savings. The amount of money owing to depositors in 
 
 Savings Banks averaged in Sheffield 3/4 per head 
 of the population . 
 
 (» 
 
 See the Eeport on the Metal Manufacture of the Sheffield 
 District in the Fourth Eeport of the Children's Employment Com- 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 59 
 
 The number of persons proceeded against for Drunken- 
 drunkenness in Sheffield was in the proportion of 0*53 °'^^' 
 per cent. ; in Birmingham, 0'57 ; and in Wolver- 
 hampton, 0'67 per cent. 
 
 MACHrNE, TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS MAKERS. 
 Sub-Oedeb 10, 16. 
 
 The declared value of exports of machinery, in- vaiue of 
 eluding steam engines and other kinds, was as fol-*^"'^- 
 lows : — 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 £1,117,470 
 2,243,166 
 5,213,530 
 
 The great centres of the engine and machine Locality, 
 manufactures are Newcastle-on-Tyne, Chorlton, Man- 
 chester, Lambeth, Greenwich, Glasgow, and Greenock. 
 
 
 Mkn. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 20,000 
 
 3,300 
 
 500 
 
 80,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,800 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 23,800 
 
 94,000 
 
 2,800 
 
 4,000 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In the engine works the hours usually are from Hom-s of 
 6 to 6.^^) "-"'• 
 
 In engine works fitters earn 30/; turjiers, 30/; Wages. 
 
 *" See Keport on the Metal Manufactute of Lancashire in the 
 Third Eeport of the Children's Employment Commission (1864) ; 
 also the various reports on Metals and Machinery in the work 
 entitled ' The Eesources, Products, and Industrial History of 
 Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District.' Hardwicke. 
 London, 1866. 
 
60 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 finishers, 30/ ; boiler makers, 34/ ; pattern makers, 
 33/ ; iron moulders, 36/ ; moulders, 30/ ; machine 
 men, 18/ to 22/ ; hammermen, 14/ to 18/ ; riveters, 
 27/; labourers, 15/ to 20/. On an average, the 
 wages may be taken at 25/ for men ; 10/ under 20 ; 
 5/ girls, and 10/ women. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 Men under 20, 23,800 at 10/ 
 
 20 to 60, 94,000 at 25/ 
 
 Women under 20, 2,800 at 5/ 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 4,300 at 10/ 
 
 £ 
 
 618,800 
 
 6,110,000 
 
 36,400 
 
 111,800 
 
 
 124,900 
 
 COACH MAKEES, 
 Sub-Oedeb 11. 
 
 6,877,000 
 
 Number of 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 3,800 
 430 
 600 
 
 16,000 
 1,400 
 2,200 
 
 25 
 
 170 
 
 
 4,830 
 
 19,600 
 
 25 
 
 170 
 
 In Edinburgh the wages are as follows : — Smiths, 
 1st class, 27/ ; 2nd class, 22/ : viceinen, 1st class, 
 18/ ; 2nd class, 16/ ; 3rd class, 14/ : body makers, 
 1st class, 30/ ; 2nd class, 22/ : carriage makers, 23/ : 
 painters, 22/ and 20 : trimmers, 1st class, 25/ ; 2nd 
 class, 20/ ; 3rd class, 18/ : wheelwrights, 22/ ; 2nd 
 class, 18/: spring makers, 26/: strikers, 18/: 
 labourers, 14/.^^^ In Liverpool, carriage makers, 30/ ; 
 body makers, 30/ ; trimmers, 32/. In London the 
 wages range from 25/ to 40/. On an average, we 
 
 <" Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 295. 
 
OP THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 61 
 
 may take 25/ men ; 8/ boys under 20 ; 10/ women 
 and girls. 
 
 £ 
 4,830 at 8/ 100,464 
 19,600 at 25/ 1,274,000 
 25 at 8/ 520 
 
 170 at 16/ 4,420 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 24,625 
 
 1,379,404 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 HAENESS MAKERS. 
 Sub-Obdeb 12. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 WoMEir. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 3,600 
 500 
 800 
 
 13,000 
 1,250 
 2,200 
 
 450 
 
 800 
 
 
 4,900 
 
 16,450 
 
 450 
 
 800 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The wages may be taken as in the coach factory, wage 
 at 25/ ; 8/ ; 8/ and 10/. 
 
 £ 
 
 Men under 20, 4,900 at 8/ 101,920 
 
 20 to 60, 16,450 at 25/1,069,260 
 
 Women under 20, 450 at 8/ 9,360 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 800 at 10/ 20,800 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 22,600 
 
 1,201,330 
 
 SHIPBUILDERS, SHIPWRIGHTS, 
 Sub-Obdeb 13. 
 
 The tonnage of ships belonging to the United Tonnage of 
 Xingdom was as follows : — ^ ''^' 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Tons. 
 3,123,180 
 4,349,334 
 5,760 309 
 
62 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THEBAJRNINGS 
 
 Locality. The great shipping yards are on the banks of the 
 Thames, of the Clyde, and the Tyne. 
 
 The occupations connected with ships include ship- 
 wrights, boat-builders, sail-makers, ship-riggers, &c. 
 
 Number of" 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Tools. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60. 
 
 8,700 
 
 1,800 
 
 400 
 
 10,900 
 
 32,500 
 7,000 
 1,600 
 
 42,100 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 The wages of shipwrights are now 6/6 to 7/ in 
 London ; in Hull, 5/6 ; in Bristol, 5/ ; Glasgow, 5/ ,; 
 Dundee, 4/6 ; Belfast, 5/6. Ship smiths, 5/ to 5/6 ; 
 sawyers, 4/4 to 4/8 ; and 4/ in Dundee ; ship car- 
 penters, 5/ ; joiners, 4/6 to 5/ ; apprentices, 5/ to 
 15/; labourers, 3/ to 4/ per day. Platers earn in 
 Grlasgow 28/ to 30/ ; angle iron-smiths, 24/ to 29/ ; 
 rivetters, 26/; holders up, 16/ ; foremen have 7/ a 
 day. The sail makers in Hull earn 24/ a week ; the 
 rope makers, 24/; in Bristol, 5/6 a day; in Glas- 
 gow, 4/ ; in Dundee, 21/aweek/^^ The work, how- 
 ever, is not constant. Much time is lost during the 
 year, and the earnings, therefore, are less ; alto- 
 gether the average wages, calculating the cost of 
 tools, may be taken at 28/ for men, and 10/ 
 under 20, 
 
 £ 
 Men 10,900, under 20, at 10/ 283,400 
 „ 42,100, 20 to 60, at- 28/ 3,064,880 
 
 53,000 3,348,280 
 
 The shipwright must provide himself with tools, 
 <" Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 290. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 63 
 
 which cost some £10 to £20, and he- has a weekly 
 expenditure of 1/ to keep them in order. 
 
 The hours of labour are generally 10 hours a day, Hours of 
 or 60 hours a week. '*^™'' 
 
 The rate of mortaKty in the principal shipping Health. 
 towns in England in 1864 was as follows : — 
 
 Poplar, 3-54 
 
 Eotherhitlie, 2-42 
 Stepney, 2-49 
 
 HuU, 2-91 
 
 Bristol, 2-80 
 Liverpool, 4 '08 
 
 Birkenhead, 2-87 
 SouthShields,^3-21 
 Sunderland, 2 ■ 50 
 
 The proportion of persons who signed their mar- Education. 
 riage register with marks was as follows : — Poplar, 
 13 per cent, males, 21 females ; Rotherhithe, 16 males, 
 23 females ; Stepney, 15 males, 24 females ; Hull, 
 15 males, 29 females; Bristol, 19 males, 26 females ; 
 Liverpool, 24 males, 41 females; Birkenhead, 15 
 males, 25 females ; South Shields, 24 males, 45 females ; 
 Sunderland, 23 males, 39 females per cent. 
 
 The amount owing to depositors in savings banks Savings. 
 averaged as follows : — Stepney, 28/ per head ; 
 Poplar, 12/; Bristol, £6 15/; .Liverpool, £3 2/; 
 South Shields, 24/ per head. 
 
 The , number of persons proceeded against for Drunken- 
 drunkenness was : — Soutb Shields, 2*82 ; Sunderland, "*^' 
 1-34; Liverpool, 3-13 ; Bristol, 045 ; Hull, 092. 
 
 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 £7 and 
 
 £10 and 
 
 Rent of 
 
 
 HuU 
 
 V./lli.LVyx i*w i ■ 
 
 under £10. 
 
 upwards. 
 
 house.s. 
 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 67 
 
 
 * 
 
 Tower Hamlets 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 Birkenhead . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 Bristol . . ' 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 South Shields 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Sunderland . 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 
64 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 BUILDBES. 
 Sub-Oedee 14. 
 Number of Thb building trades comprise bricklayers, carpenters 
 
 persons em- ■ • • i i t , i i 
 
 ployed. and joiners, labourers, masons, plasterers, plumbers, 
 glaziers and painters, and slaters. The census of 
 1861 gave the number employed in houses and 
 buildings in England at 480,000 ; Scotland, 68,000 ; 
 and Ireland, 57,000 ; or 615,000 males in all, 
 exclusive of labourers. This number, however, 
 includes house proprietors, agents, architects, sur- 
 veyors, &c. Apart from these, the leading branches 
 of labour connected with building were given as 
 follows :— 
 
 
 
 
 
 England. . 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Builderfr .... 
 
 15,658 
 
 1,084 
 
 919 
 
 Carpenters 
 
 
 
 
 177,818 
 
 26,315 
 
 30,499 
 
 Bricklayers 
 
 
 
 
 79,423 
 
 968 
 
 1,571 
 
 Masons . 
 
 
 
 
 86,455 
 
 23,387 
 
 12,300 
 
 Plasterers. 
 
 
 
 
 18,532 
 
 2,289 
 
 1,418 
 
 Slaters 
 
 
 
 
 5,262 
 
 3,824 
 
 2,319 
 
 Painters . 
 Plumbers . 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 74,172 
 
 7,901 
 
 6,095 
 
 
 
 
 
 457,820 
 
 65,268 
 
 55,121 
 
 And the same distributed according to their ages, 
 and calculating the increase since 1861, may be stated 
 as follows : — 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Mek. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 73,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 93,000 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 355,000 
 41,000 
 51,000 
 
 447,000 
 
OF -THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 65 
 
 The employment is not regular. Frost or wet Nature of 
 stops the work of the bricklayer, and often that of the men™'' °^' 
 carpenter also ; whilst the painter's work is confined 
 to a few months in the year. Considerable loss of 
 wages is thus experienced by them in the course of 
 the year, or they give themselves temporarily to 
 other occupations. 
 
 The hours of labour differ much throughout the Hours of 
 country. In London they are 56^ hours a week, 
 except the bricklayer, 54 ; in Cheshire, 55^ ; in 
 Cumberland, 58 ; in Derbyshire, 58^ ; in Lancashire, 
 55^ ; in Huddersfield and Leeds, 45 ; in Grlasgow, 
 bricklayers and carpenters, 48 ; masons, 42 ; plumbers, 
 57 ; in Edinburgh, 51 ; but bricklayers, 57 : on an 
 average, probably 55 hours. 
 
 The workers must provide themselves with their Tools, 
 own tools at the following approximate cost : — 
 
 Bricklayers 
 Masons . 
 Plumbers . 
 Carpenters 
 Plasterers . 
 Joiners 
 
 First Cost. 
 
 £1 
 £1 10/ 
 
 £2 
 £5 to £10 
 
 £3 
 £20 to £40 
 
 Annual 
 Addition. 
 
 5/ 
 
 10/ 
 £1 5/ 
 
 10/ 
 £1 15/ 
 
 The wages in the building trades are now in Wagos. 
 London 8d. per hour 1st, and 7^d. for 2nd class men ; 
 in Cheshire, 5|<f. to 7^. ; in Cumberland, 5^. ; 
 Derbyshire, p^d. to Q^d. ; Lancashire, 5frf. to 7^. ; 
 Norfolk, 4i<i. to 5d. ; Yorkshire, 6^. to 8d. ; Wales, 
 6d. to 6^; Edinburgh, Qd. to 7^. The greater 
 number of builders are, however, in large and popu- 
 lous manufacturing towns, and in the metropolis. 
 On an average, we may take 7d. an hour, or 32/ a 
 
 F 
 
66 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 week ; or, to be on the safe side, 30/ for adults, and 
 5/ for boys and lads. 
 
 £ 
 
 Anuual Men under 20, 93,000 at 5/ 1,200,000 
 
 amount of 20 to 60, 447,000 at 30/ 36,000,000 
 
 Labourers 250,000 at 15/ ,10,000,000 
 
 wa^es. 
 
 790,000 47,200,000 
 
 House rent. The buildcrs being scattered all over the country, 
 this item cannot be obtained from the returns of 
 rentals in the boroughs. A leading employer in the 
 metropolis favoured me with a statement of the number 
 of householders and lodgers among 50 carpenters and 
 50 labourers taken promiscuously in March, 1866. 
 Of the 50 carpenters^ 33 were married, and 17 
 single ; 15 of them were householders, and 35 lodgers. 
 The householders rented houses of the average 
 annual rental of £36 15s. 4d. ; some as high as £55, 
 some as low as £10. The lodgers occupied apart- 
 ments for which they paid 4/ to 5/ for one room, 
 and 4/6 to 6/6 for two rooms ; some paying 7/ a 
 week I for three rooms. 
 
 House- Of the 50 labourers, 9 were householders, and 41 
 
 holders and i -t rni • i T • • i 
 
 lodgers. lodgers. ihe married men were living m houses 
 rented at the annual average value of £19 10s. Id.; 
 the highest being £32, the lowest £10. The lodgers 
 were living in apartments rented at 3/ to 4/6 for 
 one room, and very few at 3/6 to 5/ for two rooms. 
 
 Health. The occupation is a healthy one, although liable to 
 
 accidents ; many of them live to a long age. 
 
 Education. The largcst proportion of builders are not only 
 able to read and write, but are great readers. The 
 newspapers are always in the workshop. Many of 
 them, too, attend schools of art, acquiring a know- 
 ledge of design and mechanical science. 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 
 
 67 
 
 Builders are great supporters of building societies, savings. 
 and they contribute largely to friendly societies. 
 
 CABINET MAKERS AND UPHOLSTEEEES. 
 
 Sub-Order 15. 
 
 In this sub-order there are included cabinet makers 
 and upholsterers, undertakers, chair makers, picture- 
 frame makers, carvers and gilders, bedstead, mat- 
 tress, and bed tict makers. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 ■Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 10,600 
 
 1,700 
 
 750 
 
 28,000 
 5,000 
 2,550 
 
 1,400 
 90 
 60 
 
 4,100 
 420 
 430 
 
 
 13,050 
 
 35,500 
 
 1,550 
 
 4,950 
 
 Number of 
 pei*soDs em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Bed and mattress makers earn by the piece, 30/ ; Wages, 
 sewing women, 11/; horse-hair curlers, 36/, out of 
 which they pay a boy 4/ to 5/ a week ; women 
 sorting hair and feathers earn 6/ to 10/ ; cabinet 
 makers, 32/ to 36/ per week ; sometimes they earn 
 50/ to 60/ ; chair and sofa makers, 32/ to 34/ ; 
 upholsterers, 36/ ; French polishers, 30/. On an 
 average, we may take 30/ men ; 8/ under 20 ; 10/ 
 women, and 6/ girls. 
 
 Men 13,050 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 271,440 
 
 Annual 
 
 35,500 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 30/ 
 
 2,769,000 
 
 amount of 
 
 Women 1,550 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 24,180 
 
 
 „ 4,950 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 128,700 
 
 
 55,050 3,193,320 
 
 Cabinet makers work 58 hours a week; chair and Hours of 
 sofa makers, 60 hours ; upholsterers, 57 hours ; 
 French, polishers, 60 hours. 
 
 F 2 
 
 labour. 
 
Tools 
 
 68 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 The workman : must provide himself with tools, 
 which are costly. 
 
 CHEMICAL. 
 Sub-Obdee 17. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 1,020 
 
 100 
 
 14,500 
 
 3,100 
 
 200 
 
 t 
 
 i 500 
 ; 700 
 1 100 
 
 1,100 
 800 
 500 
 
 
 4,320 
 
 17,800 
 
 1,300 
 
 2,400 
 
 Wages. In Newcastle^^^ the wages are, foremen, 5/4 per day ; 
 
 time keepers, 3/4; engine men, 3/10; foremen, 
 boiler men, 3/8 ; sulphuric acid makers, 4/6 ; sul- 
 phate of soda makers, 4/8 ; crude soda, 4/6 ; car- 
 bonate of soda makers, 4/6 ; crystals of soda, 3/8; 
 bicarbonate of soda, 3/8 ; bleaching powder makers, 
 5/2 ; lads and boys, 1/6 to 2/ a day. In Bristol the 
 wages are the same ; in Glasgow, something less. 
 On an average, the wages may be taken at 22/ for 
 men ; 8/ boys ; 6/ girls, and 8/ women. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 4,300 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 89,400 
 
 amount of 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 17,800 
 
 at 
 
 22/ 
 
 1,018,000 
 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 1,300 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 20,300 
 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 2,400 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 50,000 
 
 25,800 
 
 1,177,700 
 
 ,'!> Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 289. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLA.SSES. 
 
 Order XI. 
 
 PERSONS WORKING IN THE TEXTILE EABRICS AND 
 IN DRESS. 
 
 THE WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE. 
 Sub-Oedbe 1. 
 
 The value of imports and exports connected with 
 this manufacture was as follows : — 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Real value of 
 Wool imported. 
 
 6,527,3-25 
 14,930,430 
 
 Declared value 
 of Woollen 
 
 Manufacture, 
 und Yarn 
 exported. 
 
 £ 
 
 8,760,042 
 
 10,678,371 
 
 25,526,306 
 
 Declared value 
 
 of Foreign and 
 
 Colonial Wool 
 
 exported. 
 
 1,829,573 
 6,790,741 
 
 Value of 
 imports and 
 exports. 
 
 Mr. Baines^^^ estimated the value of the woollen vaiue of 
 
 manufactiire in 1858 as follows : — 
 
 Raw material, foreign and Britisli"j ercent. 
 
 wool, Bhoddy, cotton warp, dye, > 12,000,000 60 
 
 wares, oil, soap, &o. ... J 
 
 Wages 5,000,000 25 
 
 Rent, wear and tear, profits, &c. . . 3,300,000 15 
 
 the manu- 
 factore. 
 
 20,300,000 100 
 
 (1) 
 
 Journal of the Statistical Society, vol. Xxii. p. 1. 
 
70 
 
 BSTIMATJES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Number of In, 1862 the number of woollen and worsted fac- 
 
 woollen and . on 
 
 worsted fee- tories WEis as follows : 
 
 tories. 
 
 
 . Number 
 of 
 Factories. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Spindles. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Power Looms. 
 
 ' England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 ,1,968 
 
 201 
 
 42 
 
 3,092,376 
 
 356,131 
 
 23,274 
 
 63,312 
 
 1,383 
 
 123 
 
 
 2,211 
 
 3,471,781 
 
 64,818 
 
 Lccauty. The factoiies are principally situated in the 
 counties of York and Lancaster, in England ; Stirling, 
 Roxborough, Clackmannan, and Selkirk, in Scotland ; 
 and in Cork, Dublin, and Kilkenny, in Ireland. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 36,500 
 2,550 
 
 igo 
 
 81,000 
 9,000 
 1,350 
 
 35,000 
 4,000 
 1,450 
 
 72,000 
 9,000 
 8,500 
 
 
 39,200 
 
 91,350 
 
 40,450 
 
 89,500 
 
 Nature of 
 labour. 
 
 In the woollen manufacture there are three de- 
 partments of labour, and about in the following 
 proportions per cent. : — 
 
 Preparing woollen cloths 
 
 Weaving . . . . ^ . . . 
 
 Dressing and finishing woollen cloth 
 
 24 
 60 
 16 
 
 100 
 
 Hours of 
 labour. 
 
 The woollen manufacture is under the Factory Act, 
 and has the fixed hours of labour 60 hours per week, 
 
 X though wool sorters, drawers, dyers, and overlookers 
 often do not work more than 56 hours per week. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 71 
 
 The workers require no tools of their own. Tools. 
 
 The wages in Leeds are given, at, spinners, 25/, wages. 
 males ; females, 8/ to 9/ ; carders, males, 25/ ; 
 females, 8/ to 9/ ; weavers, males, 10/ to 14/ ; 
 females, 8/ to 12/ ; reelers, 8/ to 12/ ; cloth dressers 
 finishers, men, 26/ ; boys, 8/ to 10/. In Hudders- 
 field,^'^ wool sorters earn, men, 22/ to 32/ ; scourers, 
 16/ to 21/ ; dyers, 15/ to 22/ ; teazers and willy ers, 
 12/ to 21/; scribblers, 15/ to 21/; women, 8/6 
 to 9/ ; and girls, 6/ to 9/ ; slubbers, men, 22/ to 28/ ; 
 condenser minders, men, 17/ ; women, 9/ to 10/ : 
 spinners, men, 18/ to 30/ ; piecers, girls, 6/ to 10/ 
 warpers, men, 15/ to 26/ ; women, 14/ ; girls, 7/6 
 to 8/; boys, 5/6 to 8/'; weavers, men, 18/ to 23/6 ; 
 women, 10/ to 20/ ; girls, 16/ ; millers, men, 16/ to 
 26/ ; lads, 10/ ; dressers, tenterers, press setters, 18/ 
 to 24/ ; drawers, 30/' to 35/ ; boys, 10/. At Batley, 
 Dewsbury, Leicester, nearly the same wages are 
 current. In Bradford and Halifax, machine wool 
 combers, men, 14/ ; wool sorters, 20/ to 28/ : 
 washers, 16/6; dyers, 18/; engine tenters, 40/; 
 feeders, 20/; stokers, 21/; weavers, men, 18/ 
 women, 12/ ; reelers, women, 13/ ; drawers, women, 
 9/6; overlookers and foremen earn 25/ to 35/. In 
 Glasgow the wages are 12/ to 17/ a week. For 
 a general average, we may take 25/ for men ; 10/ lads 
 and boys ; 9/ w'omen<; 8/ girls. 
 
 Males under 20, 
 
 39,200 
 
 at 
 
 £ 
 10/ 1,019,200 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 91,350 
 
 at 
 
 25/ 5,937,750 
 
 Females under 20, 
 
 4=0,450 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 736,190 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 89,500 
 
 at 
 
 9/ 2,093,800 
 
 Annual 
 
 amount of 
 wa^es. 
 
 260,500 9,786,940 
 
 ' ' Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 277. 
 
72 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 House rents. The rentals of houses in Leeds, Bradford, and 
 Huddersfield, are as follows : — 
 
 Health. 
 
 Education. 
 
 banks. 
 
 Drunken- 
 
 Leeds . 
 Bradford . 
 Huddersfield 
 Stroud 
 
 £4 and 
 under £7. 
 
 Per cent. 
 70 
 60 
 56 
 73 
 
 £7 and | £10 and i 
 under £10. i upwards, i 
 
 Per cent. 
 8 ■ 
 13 
 11 
 ' 5 
 
 Per cent 
 22 
 27 
 33 
 22 
 
 The rate of mortality in 1864 was as follows : — 
 Bradford, 3'-08 ; Huddersfield, 2-68; Leeds, 3:19; 
 Melksham, 2-30 ; Stroud, 2-30 ; Kidderminster, 
 2-30.« 
 
 The number who signed the marriage register 
 with marks was as follows : — Leeds, males, 21 ; 
 females, 39 : Bradford, males, 24; females, 53 : Hud- 
 dersfield, males,' 19 ; females, 49 • Melksham, males, 23; 
 females, 26 : Stroud, males, 21 ; females, 24 : Kid- 
 derminster, males, 32 ; females, 40 per cent. 
 
 Leeds, per head, £3 3/ ; Bradford, £1 4/ ; Hud- 
 dersfield, £1- 13/ ; Kidderminster, £1 7/ ; Melk- 
 sham, 10/ per head. 
 
 Huddersfield, per cent., 2-37 ; Leeds, 0-82 ; Kid- 
 derminster, 0*38 ; Bradford, 0*13 per cent. 
 
 THE SILK MANUFACTUKE. 
 Sub-Orseb 2. 
 Value of The value of imports and exports connected with this 
 
 imports and c j_ • n ^^ 
 
 expoi-ts. manuiacture is as lollows : — 
 
 '■' See Dr. Henry Julian Hunter's Eeport on circumstances 
 endangering the Public Healtkof Leeds, in the Eighth Eeport of 
 the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, 1866. 
 
OF THE WORKma CLASSES. 
 
 73 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Real value of 
 Raw Silk 
 imported. 
 
 5,493,304 
 10,312,020 
 
 Real value 
 
 of Silk 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 imported. 
 
 £ 
 602,207 
 1,797,471 
 7,260,183 
 
 Declared value 
 
 of Silk 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 and Yarn. 
 
 £ 
 602,207 
 1,082,592 
 1,409,221 
 
 Declared value 
 
 of Foreign and 
 
 Colonial Silk 
 
 exported. 
 
 1,880,088 
 4,788,672 
 
 Declared value 
 
 of Thrown 
 
 and YaiTi Silk 
 
 exported. 
 
 £ 
 164,198 
 441,751 
 768,064 
 
 In 1862 the number of silk factories was as fol- Number of 
 lows:— '^ '■^'°" 
 
 iV^ It KJ m viae 
 
 England and 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Factories. 
 
 761 
 8 
 2 
 
 771 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Spindles. 
 
 1,305,910 
 
 31,452 
 
 1,182 
 
 1,338.544 
 
 Number 
 of Power 
 Looms.- 
 
 10,635 
 60 
 14 
 
 10,709 
 
 The silk manufacture is principally situated in Locality. 
 Chester, York, Lancaster, Essex and Warwick, in 
 England; Lanark and Renfrew, in Scotland; and 
 Wicklow and Antrim in Ireland. 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 9,500 
 ■ 500 
 
 10,000 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 29,000 
 2,000 
 
 31,000 
 
 Women, 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 25,000 
 800 
 
 25,800 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 20 to 60. P'-y^- 
 
 48,000 
 7,500 
 
 55,500 
 
 The silk manufacture is carried on partly in Nature of 
 factories, partly in private houses, each weaver '*''°"''' 
 having one or more looms ; Spitalfields and Maccles- 
 field being the seats of silks and silk velvets, and 
 Coventry of ribbons. 
 
74 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Hours of The silk factories under the Factory Act work 
 the legal number of hours per week ; but hand loom 
 weavers usually work from 7 or 8 in the morning to 
 9 or 10 in the evening. 
 
 Tools. The loom belongs to the weaver, and the cost is 
 
 £2 to £4. Raw material, of some value, is entrusted 
 with the labourer. 
 
 Wages. , In Spitalfields the wages are regulated at so much 
 per yard, the earnings varying from 11/ to 17/ per 
 week ; but deduction must be made of Qd. a week 
 for light, and 1/8 a week for twisting and turning 
 over. The wages of silk wearers have been dimin- 
 ishing from year to year. Previous to 1825, for 
 making narrow velvets of 1000 reeds or under, at' 
 52 wires, the weaver used to receive 5/, and at 
 44 wires, 4/ a yard. In 1860, for the same work of 
 1000 reeds, at 52 wires, they received 2/8 a yard ; 
 and now only 1/11. For making lady mantle 
 velvet, 1000 reeds of 24 inches, previous to 1825 
 a weaver got, at 52 wires, 6/6 ; at 44 wires, 5/6. 
 In 1859, he got for the same 3/ ; and now only 2/3 
 per yard. In the same manner, in Coventry, in 
 1860, the price per yard for a piece of ribbon, 
 36 yards, 16 penny widths, was 2/8; in 1865, 1/6, 
 20 penny widths; in 1860, 3/6; in 1865, 1/1. 
 24 penny widths, in 1860, 4/3 ; 1865, 2/. 30 penny 
 widths, 1860, 5/ ; 1865, 2/6. 40 penny widths, in 
 1860, 6/6 ; 1865, 3/6. Dr. Edward Smith, in his 
 Report on the food of the poorer labouring classes in 
 the Sixth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy 
 Council, gave the income of families in Spitalfields 
 at 16/ to 20/ ; Macclesfield, 7/ to 12/ ; Coventry, 
 12/ to 24/. On an average, we cannot take the 
 wages at more than 11/ for men; 6/ boys; and 
 7/ women and girls. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 75 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 10,000 at 
 
 31,000 ai 
 
 . 25,800 at 
 
 55,500 at 
 
 £ 
 
 6/ 156,000 
 
 11/ 886,600 
 
 7/ 464,560 
 
 7/ 1,010,100 
 
 2,517,260 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 
 122,300 
 
 
 
 Derby .... 
 Macclesfield . 
 'Coventry .... 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 £7 and 
 under £10. 
 
 £10 and 
 upwards. 
 
 House rent 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 35 
 72 
 39 
 
 ' Per cent. 
 32 
 12 
 34 
 
 Per cent. 
 33 
 16 
 27 
 
 
 The rate of mortality was, Derby, 2"51 ; Maccles- He>iitii. 
 field, 2-09 ; Coventry, 2/06 per cent.« 
 
 Tlie number of persons wbo signed their marriage Education, 
 register with marks : — Derby, males, 17 ; females, 29 : 
 Macclesfield, males, 20 ; females, 43 : Coventry, males, 
 20 ; females, 40 per cent. 
 
 The amoimt at the credit of depositors was, Derby, Savings 
 £3 17/ per head; Macclesfield, £3 16/; Coventry, ^'°'''- 
 £3 4/ per head of the population ; whilst in England 
 and Wales the proportion was £1 13/. 
 
 Derby, 0*78 per cent ; Macclesfield, 0*25 ; Coventry, orunken- 
 0-40 per cent. ■"*''• 
 
 ''' See Dr. Edward Smith's Eeport on the food of the poorer 
 labouring classes in England in the Sixth Eeport of the Medical 
 Officer of the Privy Council, 1864. Also the Eeport on the 
 Eibbon Trade of Coventry in the Fifth Eeport of the Children's 
 Employment Commission, 1866. And the Eeport on Coventry 
 Eibbon in Birmingham and Midland Hardware districts, 1866. 
 
76 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 THE COTTON MANUPACTUEB. 
 Sub-Obder 3. 
 
 Imports and 
 exports. 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Beal value 
 
 of 
 
 Eaw Cotton 
 
 imported; 
 
 Declared value 
 
 of Cotton Yam 
 
 and Manufaotiu;e 
 
 exported. 
 
 20,848,000 
 66,032,000 
 
 26,119,000 
 34,869,000 
 57,525,000 
 
 Declared value 
 
 of 
 
 Eaw Cotton 
 
 exported. 
 
 2,475,000 
 18,834,000 
 
 Number of 
 cotton fac- 
 tories. 
 
 In 1862 the number of cotton factories was as 
 follows : — 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 Factories. 
 
 2,046 
 
 152 
 
 12 
 
 2,210 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Spindles. 
 
 25,818,576 
 
 2,041,139 
 
 150,502 
 
 28,010,217 
 
 ■ Number 
 
 of Power 
 
 Looms. 
 
 275,590 
 
 21,624 
 
 1,633 
 
 298,847 
 
 Locality. The cotton manufacture is situated principally in 
 the counties of Chester and Lancashire, in England ; 
 Lanark and Renfrew, in Scotland ; Antrim and 
 Down, in Ireland. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England . 
 Scotland 
 Ireland . . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 82,000 
 6,300 
 1,200 
 
 135,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 3,900 
 
 120,000, 
 18,000 
 20,500 
 
 155,000 
 24,000 
 27,500 
 
 
 89,500 
 
 156,900 
 
 158,500, 
 
 206,500 
 
 Nature of 
 labour. 
 
 In the cotton manufacture, independently of calico 
 printing and other subsidiary occupations, there are 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 77 
 
 fi ve departments of labour, which employ labourers in 
 the following proportions, viz. : — carding, 15 per 
 cent. ; spinning, 20 per cent. ; reeling, 15 per cent. ; 
 weaving, 44 per cent. ;• and steam engine, 6 per cent. 
 
 The cotton manufacture being tmder the Factory Hours of 
 Act, the work is from 6 to 6 each day, except 
 Saturday, less one hour and a half for meals. Children 
 under 13 must attend school three days a week. 
 
 The workers require no tools of their own. tooIs. 
 
 The wages in the cotton manufacture have con- wages. 
 siderably increased of late years. Mr. Baker, the 
 Inspector of Factories, gave the following average 
 rates for the following years :^'^ — 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1853 
 
 1860 
 
 1865 
 
 Spinners.— -Men 
 
 20/ 
 
 22/ 
 
 27/ 
 
 30/ 
 
 Carders „ . . . 
 
 20/ 
 
 22/ 
 
 28/ 
 
 85/ to 36/ 
 
 Grinders „ . . . 
 
 14/ 
 
 15/4 
 
 17/ 
 
 16/ 
 
 Kovers. — Women . 
 
 12/ 
 
 13/2 
 
 13/6 
 
 15/ 
 
 Throstle Spinners. — Girls 
 
 8/9 
 
 9/8 
 
 11/9 
 
 
 Weavers . . . 
 
 10/ 
 
 11/ 
 
 12/ 
 
 8/6 
 
 Self-Acting . . .' . 
 
 
 
 22/ 
 
 30/ 
 
 In 1850 the average rate per head in a cotton 
 mill of 500 workers was, according to Mr. Chadwick, 
 10/3. In 1865 Mr. Baker gave the average at 13/2. 
 In this manufacture frequently two or three of a 
 family are employed, and good wages are earned 
 rather from the accumulated income of several mem- 
 bers of a family than from the high wages of its 
 head. In a spinning mill the following were the 
 wages earned by individual families : — 
 
 *'' Eeport of Inspector of Factories for the half-year ending 
 31st October, 1865 (1866.) 
 
78 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Parent 
 
 No. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2 
 
 '4 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 1 18 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 2 14 6 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 2 11 
 
 
 
 3 19 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 2 6 
 
 1 12 
 
 4 
 
 2 3 
 
 
 
 3 15 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 2 14 
 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 The wageB of an adult workman in a spinning 
 mill range from 17/ to £2 ; women earn from 
 13/ to 21/; children, from 2/ to 2/9; young 
 persons, from 5/ to 10/ ; a cipher earns 12/6 to 
 13/, preparatory to his becoming a spinner. The 
 spinner is paid by weight produced, and employs 
 and pays his own hands. The miscellaneous statistics 
 give the wages in a cotton factory in Griasgow, in 
 1866, as follows, viz. : — In the carding department, 
 women scutchers, 8/7 ; strippers, 11/6 ; drawing 
 frame tenters, 10/ ; bobbin and fly tenters, 10/ ; 
 girls, -5/9; grinders, men, 19/6; overlookers, 27/; 
 spinning menders, women, 19/6 ; men, 26/ ; piecers, 
 women, 13/6 ; spinners, women, 9/6. In the reeling, 
 cage rulers, women, 10/6 ; warpers, men, 22/ ; 
 women, 14/ ; dressers,- men, 33/ ; sizers, men, 35/. 
 In the steam engine, tenters, 24/ to 40/ ; stokers, 
 20/6 ; mechanics, 27/. In the weaving, warpers, 
 21/, men ; weavers, men, 12/ to 20/ ; women, 9/ 
 In calico printing, pattern designers, 35/ to 40/ 
 colour mixers, 40/ to 50/ ; bleachers, 45/ ; dyers, 50/ 
 machine printers, 40/ to 50/ ; die cutters, 40/ 
 engravers,,25/'to 34/; firemen, 15/; wrights, 24/ 
 labourers, 12/. A house in Griasgow gave the 
 average earning in their factory as follows : — men, 
 30/ ; women, 12/ ; boys, 6/6. In Belfast, the wages 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 79 
 
 are given at, men, 30/ to 40/ ; spinners, 25/ to 35/ ; 
 women, 9/ to 10/. A touse in Manchester gave 
 the earning of spinners at 30/ to 40/ ; ciphers, 12/6 
 to 13/ ; women, 8/6 to 9/. As a general average 
 we may take the wages at, men, 22/ ; under 20, 
 7/ ; women, 10/ ; girls under 20, 6/. 
 
 Men . 89,500 
 156,900 
 
 Women 158,500 
 206,500 
 
 under 20, 
 20 to 60, 
 
 under 20, 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 at 
 at 
 at 
 
 7/ 
 22/ 
 
 6/ 
 10/ 
 
 611,400 
 
 £ 
 1,600,000 
 9,000,000 
 3,400,000 
 4,100,000 
 
 18,500,000 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 M'Culloch, in the 'Statistics of the British Empire,' 
 gave the wages in the cotton manufacture at 
 £17,000,000. 
 
 The rentals in the cotton districts were returned House rent. 
 to be in the following proportion. In the majority 
 of cases, houses at 3/ a week, or £8 1 6/, are rented 
 by operatives living in their own cottages. Houses 
 at higher rent, where inhabited by working men, 
 are generally let out for lodging, principally in the 
 vicinities of the factories. All houses under 2/6 a 
 week are of a very inferior character. 
 
 Manchester 
 
 Preston 
 
 Ashton 
 
 Bolton 
 
 Oldham 
 
 Stockport 
 
 Rochdale 
 
 Salford 
 
 Blackburn 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 £4 and 
 
 £7 and 
 
 £10 and 
 
 
 under £7. 
 
 under £10. 
 
 upwards. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 . . ■ 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 45. 
 
 27' 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
80 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Health. Taking the rate of mortality in these towns as 
 
 indicative of the healthiness of the manufacture, it 
 appears that, whilst in England and Wales the rate 
 of death in 1864 was 2-386 per 100 living, in Man- 
 chester the rate was 3-13 ; Salford, 2-82 ; Bolton, 2-77 ; 
 Preston, 2-72 ; Blackburn, 2-61 ; Eochdale, 2-57 ; 
 Burnley, 2-35; Stockport, 2-18; Oldham, 2-20; and 
 Ashton, 2-00. 
 
 Educatior. The proportiou of persons signing the marriage 
 register with marks in the cotton districts was as fol- 
 lows : — Blackburn, 29 per cent, males, 65 per cent, 
 females ; Bolton, 30 males, 58 females ; Preston, 27 
 males, 62 females ; Stockport, 29 males, 55 females ; 
 Burnley, 29 males, 56 females ; Oldham, 25 males, 59 
 females; Salford, 25 males, 55 females; Eochdale, 
 25 males, 59 females; and Manchester, 19 per cent, 
 of the males, and 46 per cent, of the females. . 
 
 The savings banks in 1865 had the following 
 amount per head to the credit of the depositors : — 
 Manchester, £3 12/ ; Preston, £2 6/ ; Stockport, 
 £1 14/ ; Bolton, £16/; Blackburn, 18/ ; Burnley, 
 11/ ; Ashton, 10/9 ; Oldham, 6/2. 
 
 Drunken- Accordiug to the judicial statistics for 1865, 
 the number of persons proceeded against before 
 justices on the charge of drunkenness was as follows :— 
 Manchester, 1*08 ; Bolton, 1'05 ; Blackburn, 0-83 ; 
 Rochdale, 0-86 ; Preston, 0-68 ; Oldham, 0-67 ; 
 Ashton, 0'67; Salford, 0*59 per cent. 
 
 ness, 
 
OP THE "WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 81 
 
 THE LINEN MANUPAOTUEE. 
 Sub-Ordee 8. 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Value of Flax aa imported. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,317,122 
 5,369,719 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 1,471,649 
 1,599,633 
 
 Jute. 
 
 447,167 
 1,774,992 
 
 Value of Linen 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 and Yarn 
 
 exported. 
 
 4,096,933 
 
 5,050,994 
 
 11,660,855 
 
 Value ot 
 Value of the manu- 
 
 Flax facture. 
 
 exported. 
 
 44,782 
 127,399 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Factories. 
 
 143 
 192 
 105 
 
 440 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Spindles. 
 
 345,192 
 312,239 
 594,805 
 
 1,252,236 
 
 Number of 
 Power 
 Looms. 
 
 2,161 
 8,620 
 
 10,681 
 
 Number of 
 factories. 
 
 The linen manufacture was principally situated Locality. 
 in the counties of York and Lancaster, in England ; 
 Forfar and Fife, in Scotland ; and Antrim and Down, 
 in Ireland. 
 
 The number of persons employed in the flax, linen, Number ot 
 and jute manufacture, including other spinners and ^[^y^ *"' 
 weavers in unspecified manufactures in Ireland, are 
 as follows : — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 2,500 
 
 3,500 
 
 17,500 
 
 6,500 
 10,500 
 40,500 
 
 7,000 
 19,500 
 38,000 
 
 7,000 
 19,000 
 79,000 
 
 
 23,500 
 
 57,500 
 
 64,500 
 
 105,000 
 
 G 
 
82 KSTIMAT-ES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Nature of The work comprises spinning, weaving, and 
 
 labour. i i i • 
 
 bleaching. 
 
 Hours of The manufactories are entirely under the Factory 
 
 labour. j^^^^ -working 10 hours a day, or 60 hours in a week. 
 
 Tools. Tools are provided by the manufacturers. 
 
 Wages. The wages in Leeds are given at, men, 25/ ; 
 
 females, 7/ to 10/ ; carders, females, 7/ to 10/ ; 
 weavers, females, 10 to 1 5. In Belfast, the preparer 
 for spinning women, 1/2 ; girls, 2d. a day ; the 
 spinner women, 1/4J ; girls, lOd. a day ; stocklers, 
 men, 3/6 ; boys, 1/8 and 9d. ; mechanics, 2/6 ; 
 overlookers, 5/. Weavers, winders, women and 
 girls, 1/ ; warpers, beamers and dressers, men, 5/ ; 
 women, 1/6 ; weavers, boys, 1/ ; women and girls, 
 1/8; overseers, 4/6. In Dundee, ^^^ preparers for 
 spinning earn per week, boys, 4/6 to 8/ ; women, 
 6/ to 10/ ; spinners, women, 8/6 to 14/6 ; girls, 3/ 
 to 6/ ; twisters, women, 8/6 to 12/ ; rulers, 8/ to 
 13/6; girls, 4/ to 5/; hacklers, men, 21/; boys, 
 4/6 to 7/ ; women, 6/6 to 10/6 ; warpers, men, 20/ 
 to 25/ ; boys, 4/6 to 7/ ; women, 9/ to 14/ ; weavers, 
 women, 8/ to 15/ ; winders, women, 7/ to 15/ ; girls, 
 4/ to 5/. In the bleachfield, men, per day, 3/ ; 
 boys, 1/3 ; women, 1/6 ; girls, 1/. In the jute 
 manufacture, preparers for spinning, women, 8/ 
 to 9/ ; boys, 7/ ; spinners, women, 10/ ; girls, 7/ ; 
 reelers, women, 10/6 ; winders, women, 10/9 to 
 12/4 ; girls, 8/9 ; warpers, 8/ to 14/7 ; weavers, 
 women, 12/6 to 13/4 per week. A house in Dundee 
 gives the average wages as follows : — men, 21/ ; 
 , boys, 10/ ; women, weavers, 10/ ; girls, .6/ ; winders, 
 women, 9/. On an average, the wages may be 
 assumed to be 24/ for men ; 7/ boys ; 10/ women, 
 and 6/ girls. 
 
 <^' Miscellaneous Statistics. 
 
OP THE WOEKING CLASSES. 
 
 83 
 
 Men under '20, 
 
 23,500 
 
 at 
 
 7/ 427,700 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 57,500 
 
 at 
 
 24/ 3,568,000 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 64,500 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 1,007,200 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 105,000 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 2,750,000 
 
 250,500 
 
 7,752,900 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 HOSIERY AND LAOE MANUFAOTUEE. 
 Stjb-Oedeb 3, 5. 
 
 The value of exports of hosiery and lace was as Exports 
 follows : — 
 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Dbclabed Value of Bxpobts. 
 
 Lace. Stockings. Hosieiy. 
 
 £ £i 
 
 470,538 552,947 
 465,611 240,534 
 
 £ 
 211,705 
 204,341 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 1,285,190 
 910,486 
 
 In a paper read by Mr. Felkin on the lace and Vaiue of 
 hosiery trade of Nottingham to the British Asso-manS- 
 ciation/^^ it was estimated that the materials worked *"™" 
 up cost about £1,715,000 ; the wages and profits 
 amounted to £3,415,000 ; and the net returns 
 £5,130,000. 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Factories. 
 
 65 
 4 
 
 69 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Hand 
 
 Frames. 
 
 543 
 173 
 
 716 
 
 Number of 
 Beads of 
 Circular 
 Frame. 
 
 6,881 
 94 
 
 6,975 
 
 Number of 
 factories. 
 
 **^ 'Journal of the Statistical Society,' vol. xxix. page 538. 
 
 G 3 
 
ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Locality. 
 
 The miscellaneous statistics for 1866 gives the 
 number of narrow hand frames in Nottingham and 
 neighbourhood at 11,000 ; wide hand frames, 4,250 ; 
 rotary frames, 1,000 ; circular frames, 1,200 ; sets 
 warp frames, 400. 
 
 The hosiery manufacture is confined to Notting- 
 ham, Leicester, and Derby, in England ; and Dum- 
 fries and Roxborough, in Scotland. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 !pngland and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 WoMEir. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 6,800 
 200 
 
 23,500 
 1,000 
 
 156,000 
 250 
 
 42,000 
 1,000 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 24,500 
 
 156,250 
 
 43,000 
 
 Condition of 
 labour. 
 
 Hours of 
 labour. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 These manufactures are partly carried on in factories 
 under the Factory Act, and partly in workshops or 
 in the dwellings of the workers, in the same manner 
 as the silk manufacture in Spitalfields Or Coventry. 
 The frame belongs in most cases to the manufacturer, 
 and the worker pays a rent for it. A middleman 
 superintends the work, and acts as between the hosier 
 and the workers. 
 
 The hours of labour in factories are 10 hours a 
 day ; but in private houses they are most irregular. 
 In the lace manufacture the hours are 18 per day, 
 workmen working in shifts 4 and 5 hours each. 
 
 In the, hosiery manufacture in Nottingham and 
 neighbourhood,^'^ the wages ar,e as follows : — In the 
 narrow hand frames the men earn 10/6 ; women, 
 10/6 : wide hand frames, men, 15/ ; women and girls, 
 4/ : in the rotary frames, men, 20/ to 32/ ; women, 
 5/ : circular frames, men, 20/ to 35/ ; women, 12/ to 
 
 Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 280. 
 
OF THE WORKING. GLASSES. 
 
 85 
 
 20/ ; and 7/ to 12/ : warp frames, men, 16/ to 35/ ; 
 women and girls, 8/ : bleachers, men, 20/ to 35/ ; 
 women, 8/ to 12/. In Leicester and neighbonrhood 
 in woollen and worsted hosiery goods, narrow frame 
 work knitters, men, earn 9/ to 15/ ; wide frame, 
 20/ to 30/ ; circular frames, women, 12/ to 20/ ; 
 hose seamers, 4/6 to 7/ ; sewing machine hands, 12/ ; 
 menders, 10/ ; winders, 18/ ; fancy hosiery and 
 underclothing finishing fabrics, women, 8/ to 16/; 
 counter hands, 9/ ; menders, 10/ ; factory overlookers, 
 men, 22/ to 50/ ; ordinary workmen, 14/ to 28/ ; 
 skilled workmen, 20/ to 35/ ; dyers, labourers, 18/ ; 
 trimmers, 20/ to 33/. In the cotton and silk 
 machine, lace machine, bobbins and carriage prints, 
 guides, combs, needles, &c., makers earn 33/; warpers, 
 men, 25/ ; female replacing broken threads, 6/ to 8/ ; 
 women to fill bobbins with thread, 12/ ; dressers, 10/ ; 
 white minders and folders, 9/ to 12/. On an average, 
 we may take the wages at 25/ men ; 14/ lads and 
 boys ; 14/ women, and 8/ girls. > 
 
 Men under 20, 7,000 at 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 24,500 at 
 
 Women under 20, 156,250 at 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 43,000 at 
 
 £ 
 
 14/ 254,800 
 
 25/ 1,592,500 
 
 8/ 3,250,000 
 
 14/ 1,565,200 
 
 
 
 230,750 
 
 6 
 
 662,500 
 
 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 £7 and under £10. 
 
 £10 and upwards. 
 
 Nettingham . 
 Leicester . . 
 
 6,685 
 6,816 
 
 Per cent. 
 43 
 48' 
 
 4,018 
 2,942 
 
 Per cent. 
 25 
 21 
 
 4,919 
 4,369 
 
 Per cent, 
 32 
 31 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 House rents. 
 
 The rate of mortality in 1864 was, Nottingham, Health. 
 2-74 ; Leicester, 3-09. (^^ 
 
 '"' See Eeport on the Hosiery Manufacture in the First Eeport 
 of the Children's Employment Commission, 1863. 
 
86 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Education. 
 
 banks. 
 
 Drunken- 
 
 The proportion who signed their marriage register 
 with marks was as follows : — Nottingham, men, 19-82 ; 
 women, 33-51: Leicester, men, 22-17; women, 33-14 
 per cent. 
 
 The amount to the account of depositors in savings 
 banks was, Nottingham, £4 12/ per head ; Leicester, 
 £2 5/ per head. 
 
 The number of persons committed for drunkenness 
 averaged as follows : — ^Nottingham, 0-28 per cent. ; 
 Leicester, 0-62 per cen-t. 
 
 BOOT AND SHOE MAKERS. 
 Stjb-Obdbb 5. 
 
 Value of The value of exports of boots and shoes has been as 
 
 exports. <■ n 
 
 loliows : 
 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 £ 
 
 658,303 
 1,462,309 
 
 Locality. ; Northampton is the centre of the boot manufacture, 
 y Stafford of the shoe manufacture, and Leicester of 
 /\ the slipper manufacture. 
 
 Number of 
 
 * 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 38,000 
 4,800 
 8,400 
 
 161,000 
 19,500 
 28,000 
 
 11,500 
 550 
 1,100, 
 
 104,000 
 
 12,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 51,200 
 
 208,600 
 
 13,150 
 
 120,500 
 
 The wages in this manufacture are paid by piece 
 work.^'^ In Leicester finishers earn 30/ ; nailers, 22/ ; 
 
 "' Miscellaneous Statistics, p. 298. 
 
OF THE WOEKma CLASSES. 87 
 
 cutters, 23/6. In Bristol, closers, 20/ ; men's men, 
 23/ ; ladies', 22. In Edinburgh, closers, 26/ ; boot- 
 men, 21/; shoemen, 18/; ladies' men, 21/; jobbers, 
 17/ ; binders, 13/. In Grlasgow, closers, 18/ to 20/ ; 
 ladies' men, 16/; men's men, 16/ ; jobbers, 18/ to 
 20/. By piece work, however, a large number earn 
 35/ and 40/. In Stafford, best hands earn net 26/ 
 to 30/; a second hand, an average of 16/. The 
 average wages earned at Stafford in a factory 
 amounted to 32/. Women earn 10/ to 16/ a week ; 
 girls, 6/ to 8/. On an average, we may take the 
 earnings at 23/ men; 12/ women; 8/ boys under 
 20 ; and 7/ girls under 20. 
 
 Men » 
 
 51, 
 
 ,200 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 £ 
 1,065, 
 
 ,000 
 
 '» 
 
 208, 
 
 ,500 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 23/ 
 
 12,468, 
 
 ,500 
 
 Women 
 
 . 13 
 
 ,150 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 7/ 
 
 239, 
 
 ,330 
 
 )j 
 
 120, 
 
 ,500 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 12/ 
 
 8,759, 
 17,532, 
 
 ,600 
 
 
 393, 
 
 ,350 
 
 ,430 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 The shoemaker has many tools to purchase. He Tools, 
 requires much heat, and in thread and other things 
 expends 1/6 a week. 
 
 Very irregular. The work is mostly done in Hours of 
 private houses at all hours. * "' 
 
 The rate of mortality in Stafford was 2*43 ; in Health. 
 Northampton, 3*14 per cent. ^'^ 
 
 The "proportion who signed the marriage register Education. 
 by marks was as follows : — Stafford, 25 per cent, 
 males; 26, females: Northampton, 18 per cent, 
 males ; 24 per cent, females. 
 
 The amount owing to depositors in savings banks Savings, 
 averaged, Stafford, £1 lis. ; Northampton, £5 125. 
 
 ''' See Eeport on Bootmakers in the Fourth Eeport of the Chil- 
 dren's Employment Commission, 1865. 
 
Drunken- 
 ness. 
 
 Rent of 
 houses. 
 
 88 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE BAENINGS 
 
 In Northampton the average number of persons 
 proceeded against for drunkenness was 0'45 per cent. 
 
 Stafford . . 
 Northampton. 
 Leicester . 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 Per cent. 
 44 
 19 
 48 
 
 £7 to £10. 
 
 Per cent. 
 24 
 30 
 21 
 
 £10 and 
 upwai'ds. 
 
 Per cent. 
 32 
 51 
 31 
 
 HAT MANUFAOTtJRE. 
 Stjb-Obdkk 5. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 1 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 
 1 Scotland .... 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1,300 
 80 
 80 
 
 8,300 
 580 
 600 
 
 900 
 30 
 
 2,200 
 80 
 
 
 1,460 
 
 9,480 
 
 930 
 
 2,280 
 
 Wages. An extensive manufacturer gives the wages of his 
 
 establishments in London and country as follows : — 
 151 men as' body makers, finishers, shapers, their 
 wages varying from 28/ to 50/ per week ; average, 
 34/. 62 men employed at machinery, and packers, 
 porters, &c. ; average, 28/. 50 boys ; average, 9/. 
 101 women and girls, hat lining makers, trimmers, 
 &c. ; average, 12/. 152 cap makers ; average, 9/. In 
 Bristol the wages are, body makers, 25/ ; silk 
 finishers, 25/; tippers off, 30/; crown sewers, 7/; 
 , trimmers, 7/. In Glasgow, body makers, 34/ ; silk 
 finishers, 36/; tippers off, 40/; crown .sewers, 
 women, 10/; trimmers, 12/, In Edinburgh, body 
 makera, 33/ ; silk finishers, 30/ ; tippers off, 30/ ; 
 women crown sewers, 5/ ; trimmers, 10/6. On an 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 average, we may take the wages at 30/ men ; 10/ 
 boys ; 5/ girls, and 10/ women /^^ 
 
 Men under 20, 1,460 at 10/ 37,960 
 
 20 to 60, 9,480 at 30/ 739,440 
 
 'Women under 20, 930 at 5/ 12,090 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 2,280 at 10/ 59,280 
 
 14,150 
 
 848,770 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 HAIEDEBSSEES. 
 
 Sub-Ordee 5. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1,600 
 170 
 130 
 
 8,700 
 530 
 440 
 
 70 
 
 300 
 
 * 
 
 1,900 
 
 9,670 
 
 70 
 
 300 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The wages paid to hairdressers are from 20/ to 30/ Wages, 
 and 35/ per week. On an average, we may take, 
 25/ men ; 10/ under twenty ; 10/ women, and 5/ 
 girls. 
 
 £ 
 
 Men 1,900 under 20, at 10/ 49,400 
 
 9,670 20 to 60, at 25/ 628,550 
 
 Women 70 under 20, at 5/ 910 
 
 300 20 to 60, at 10/ 7,800 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 11,940 
 
 686,660 
 
 <^'' Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 296. See also Eeport 
 on Hatters in the Fourth Keport of the Children's Employment 
 Commission, 1865. • 
 
90 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE' EABNINGS 
 
 TAILOES. 
 Sub-Obdbe 5. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 15,700 
 3,700 
 4,900 
 
 88,200 
 12,500 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 24,300 
 
 115,700 
 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 A strike took place among the London tailors last 
 year, when they obtained a rise on their wages as 
 established in the log, whereby a workman may be 
 able to earn 7d. per hour. In Liverpool the average 
 wages all the year round are 25/ a week. They are 
 paid 5c?. per hour for every garment ; the number of 
 hours' for making each garment being fixed by the 
 club. A great number of them earn 35/ a week. 
 On an average, for the whole number, we may take 
 25/ and 8/. « 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20, 24,300 at 8/ 505,440 
 „ 20 to 60, 115,700 at 21/ 6,317,500 
 
 140,000 
 
 6,822,940 
 
 '^' See Eeport on Tailors in the Fourth Eeport of the Children's 
 Employment CommisBion, 1865. See also Eeport on the Manufac- 
 ture of Wearing Apparel and on Seamstresses in the Second 
 Beport of the Children's Employment Commission. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 91 
 
 TAILORESSBS, DEESSMAKEES, SEAMSTEESSES, AND STAY- 
 MAKEES. 
 
 
 
 Sub-Obder 5. 
 
 
 
 
 England . 
 Sootla,nd . 
 Ireland 
 
 
 Women. 
 
 # 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 86,000 
 
 9,400 
 
 36,000 
 
 318,000 
 38,000 
 74,000 
 
 
 
 131,400 
 
 430,000 
 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In Mr. Hood's report to the Children's Employment vfages. 
 Commission, the wages of adults were given at from 
 6/ to 18/ a week, machinists getting 21/. "V^orkers 
 by machine earn 10/ to 1 8/ ; braiding and embroidery, 
 15/ to 20/; wholesale millinery, 15/ to 21/; plain 
 needlework by hand, 2d. to Sd. per hour. There are 
 two busy seasons in the year ; three months in the 
 spring and three months in the autumn. During the 
 interval employment is scarce, and wages are very low. 
 On an average, the wages cannot be put higher than 7/ 
 
 for girls, and 13/ for adult women. 
 
 £ 
 31,400 under 20, at 5/ 1,708,500 Annual 
 
 430,000 20 to 60, at 10/ 11,180,000 
 
 amount of 
 
 561,400 
 
 12,888,500 
 
 STEAW PLAIT MANUPAOTtTRE, AND STRAW HAT AND 
 
 BONNET MAKEES. 
 
 Sub-Oedbb 5. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Men. 
 
 tTnder 20. 20 to 60, 
 
 1,900 
 110 
 
 2,010 
 
 2,000 
 230 
 
 2,280 
 
 Women. Numier of 
 persons em- 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60. P'"?'^- 
 
 15,500 
 200 
 190 
 
 15,890 
 
 28,300 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 
 29,800 
 
92 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Wages. In a paper read at the Society of Arts in December, 
 
 1860, the earnings of a good plaiter were given at 
 from 5/ to 7/6 a week, and those of sewers at 8/ to 
 12/. Boys employed in bleaching, dyeing, and 
 brushing plait, earn 5/ to 8/ a week ; men, 12/ to 
 15/ ; blockers and pressers, 20/ to 30/ per week. 
 On an average, wages may be taken at 20/ for men, 
 and 6/ for boys ; 10/ and 7/ for women and girls. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Men 
 
 under 20, 
 
 2,010 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 31 
 
 350 
 
 j» 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 2,230 
 
 at 
 
 20/ 
 
 116 
 
 000 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 15,890 
 
 at 
 
 7/ 
 
 289 
 
 200 
 
 n 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 29,800 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 774 
 1,211 
 
 800 
 
 
 49,930 
 
 ,350 
 
 
 GLOVE MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 
 
 
 Sub-Oedbe 5. 
 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 England .... 
 Ireland . . . . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 660 
 20 
 
 2,750 
 50 
 
 7,000 
 80 
 
 15,800 
 200 
 
 
 680 
 
 2,800 
 
 7,080 
 
 16,000 
 
 This is principally a domestic industry. Men can 
 cut 14 to 25 dozens per week, and they may earn, on 
 an average, 26/. The general average, however, is 
 16/ to 20/. A woman can make, when she employs 
 all her time in it, H dozen to two dozens per week ; 
 but few persons work at it all day, having household 
 duties to attend to. The average wages are 5/ to 7/ 
 per week ; but a good hand will earn double that of 
 a common hand. The sewing is almost invariably 
 done separately frbm the embroidery, welting, &c., 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 93 
 
 and by different hands. A good sewer can make 
 
 30 or 36 pairs per week, and get 3/3 per dozen pairs. 
 
 A pointer, embroiderer, or welter can earn, according 
 
 to her opportmiities and capabilities, from 4/ and 
 
 5/ to 18/, or even 20/ per -Week. On an average, 
 
 we may take 18/ for men, and 8/ women and girls. 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20, 680 at 6/ 10,600 
 
 2a to 60, 2,800 at 18/ 262,000 
 Women unde* 20, 7,080 at 8/ 147,200 
 
 20 to 60, 16,000 at 8/ 665,600 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 26,560 
 
 1,085,400 
 
 EOPB MAKERS. 
 Sub-Oedeb 6. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. ' 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20.' 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 4,100 
 
 1,300 
 
 320 
 
 7,600 
 
 2,600 
 
 750 
 
 600 
 550 
 
 1,200 
 1,150 
 
 
 5,720 
 
 10,850 
 
 1,150 
 
 2,850 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The wages of rope makers^^^ in Hull were 24/ ; Wages. 
 Grlasgow", 18/; Dundee, 19/. Sailmakers in Hull, 
 24/ ; Bristol, .5/6 a day ; Grlasgow, 24/ a week ; 
 Dundee, 21/. On an average, the wages may be 
 taken at 22/ men ; 8/ boys ; 7/ girls, and 10/ women. 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 5,720 
 
 at 8/ 
 
 £ 
 118,970 
 
 Annual 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 10,800 
 
 at 22/ 
 
 667,760 
 
 amount of 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 1,150 
 
 at 7/ 
 
 20,930 
 
 wages. 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 2,350 
 
 at 10/ 
 
 61,100 
 
 * 
 
 20,020 
 
 868,760 
 
 <" Miscellaneous Statistics for 1866, p. 290. 
 
94 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Order XII. 
 
 PERSONS WOEKING IN ARTICLES OF FOOD AND 
 DRINK. 
 
 MILLERS. 
 Sub-Oedbb 1. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England . 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 5,500 
 580 
 620 
 
 6,700 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 24,800 
 3,200 
 4,200 
 
 32,200 
 
 Women 
 and Girls, 
 20 to 60. 
 
 270 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 410 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 In Liverpool millmen earn 24/ to 30/ ; labourers, 
 
 21/. In Dublin millers earn 18/ to 24/. Tbe 
 
 wages generally may be taken at 22/ for men, and 
 
 10/ for boys under 20 ; and 8/ women and girls. 
 
 £ 
 Men 6,700 under 20, at 10/ 174,200 
 32,200 20 to 60, at 22/1,842,000 
 Women 410 at 8/ 8,500 
 
 39,310 2,024,700 
 
 BAKERS AND OONFEOTIONBRS. 
 Sub-Obdbe 2. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 12,000 
 3,500 
 2,000 
 
 43,700 
 7,700 
 7,100 
 
 1,450 
 310 
 230 
 
 8,750 
 940 
 950 
 
 
 17,500 
 
 58,500 
 
 1,990 
 
 10,640 
 
 Tbe wages are 20/ for men, and 8/ for women and 
 children. A journeyman baker, however, receives, 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 95 
 
 besides, partial board and lodging, of the value of at 
 least 8/ a week more ; so that the average may be 
 taken at 28/ and 8/ per week ; 10/ women, and 8/ 
 girls. 
 
 The work is arduous, and long hours are generally Hours, 
 complained of. The Commissioners on Journeymen 
 Bakers have made recommendations for shortening 
 the hours of labour. 
 
 Men under 20, 17,500, at 8/. 364,000 
 
 20 to 60, 58,500, at 28/4,259,000 
 
 Women under 20, 1,990, at 8/ 41,400 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 10,640, at 10/ 276,700 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages^ 
 
 _. 88,630 4,941,100 
 
 SU6AE REJj'lN|lES. 
 Sub-Ohdbb 3. 
 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60, 
 
 200 
 100 
 
 300 
 
 2,600 
 800 
 
 3,400 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In Bristol the wages are as follows : — ^boilers, 33/ a 
 week ; pan men, 23/ ; filter men, 17/6 ; warehouse 
 men, 18/6 ; upstairs men, 17/6 ; engineers, 22/ ; 
 stokers, 23/. In Glasgow, pan men, 30/ to 40/ ; 
 filter men, 17/ ; warehouse men, 18/ ; upstairs men, 
 16/ to 17/ ; engineers, 28/ to 80/ ; stokers, 20/ to 
 22/. The wages in a sugar refinery in London are 
 given as follows : — melters, including attending to the 
 melting, bag filters, and washing out of bag filters, 
 25 men, 3/6, and 6 boys, 1/1^, per day. Char, 
 including men burning char, filling and emptying 
 
96 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE BARl^INGS 
 
 char filters, &c., 31 men, 3/9, and 7 boys, 1/6. 
 Curing, including men attending vacuum pans, 
 drying, machines, riddles warehouse, 37 men, 3/7, 
 and 6 boys, 1/3 ; 4 engineers and plumbers, 6/7 ; 
 5 carpenters,' "6/ 1 ; 3 bricklayers, 6/10 ; 7 stokers, 
 3/10, and 3 boys, 1/7 ; 1 smith, 4/6 ; 1 striker, 3/4 ; 
 2 watchmen, 4/ ; 17 labourers, 3/7, and two boys, 
 1/ ; 9 coopers, piece workers, 6/6 ; 1 cooper, breaking 
 down old casks, 6/, and 3 boys, 1/8 ; and 10 lumpers, 
 piece work, 6/8; 
 
 On an average, the wages may be taken at 23/ 
 per man, and 7/ boys. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 Men under 20, 300 at 
 „ 20 to 60, 3,400 at 
 
 7/ 5,500 
 21/ 186,000 
 
 3,700 
 
 191,500 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 MALTSTERS AND BEEWBES. 
 Sub-Oedbr 3. 
 
 England . 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 20 fo 60. 
 
 2,000 
 
 190 
 
 40 
 
 2,230 
 
 26,500 
 
 1,400 
 
 600 
 
 28,600 
 
 Women, 
 20 to 60. 
 
 280 
 
 280 
 
 In Leicester mashhouse men and cellar men earn 21/ 
 a week ; malthouse men, 18/ ; upper and under 
 draymen, 17/6-; coopers, 22/ ; labourers, 17/. In 
 Edinburgh, mashhouse men, 17/6 ; upper, 20/, and 
 under draymen, 18/ ; coopers, 25/ ; carpenters, 25/ ; 
 labourers, 17/. In Burton-upon-Trent, brewers, 17/ ; 
 grainers, 26/; racking-room men, 15/6; hoppers, 
 14/6. The average wages earned in Mr. Bass's 
 brewery were as follows : — men, 20/4, with an allow- 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 
 
 97 
 
 ance of 2/3i a week ; boys, 8/7, with an allowance 
 of 1/2 J. In Liverpool labourers earn 21/ to 25/ a 
 week. 
 
 On an average, we may take 18/ for men ; 9/ for 
 
 boys, and 8/ women. 
 
 £ 
 Men 2,230 under 20, at 9/ 51,500 
 
 28,500 20 to 60, at 18/ 1,334,000 
 Women 280 20 to 60, at 8/ 5,800 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 31,010 
 
 1,391,300 
 
 TOBACCO MANUFACTUEE. 
 Sub-Obdbe 3. 
 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. ' 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1,100 
 
 560 
 
 60 
 
 2,950 
 450 
 950 
 
 520 
 20 
 
 360 
 100 
 
 
 1,720 
 
 4,350 
 
 540 
 
 460 
 
 Number ot 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In Liverpool, in tobacco and cigar factories. Wages. 
 journeymen make by piece work 30/ to 40/ per 
 week; journeywomen, 14/ to 15/; apprentice girls, 
 from 15 to 21 years of age, 6/ to 10/ ; little girls, 
 strippers, &c., 2/ to 6/. In Edinburgh men earn 
 25/ ; boys, 2/6 to 10/ ; women, 10/ to 14/ ; girls, 4/ 
 to -8/. On an average, we may take the wages, 
 25/ men ; 8/ boys ; 12/ women, and 6/ girls/'^ 
 
 £ 
 
 1,720 under 20, 
 
 4,850 20 to 60, 
 
 540 under 20, 
 
 460 20 to 60, 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 7,070 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 35,800 
 
 at 
 
 25/ 
 
 282,750 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 8,400 
 
 at 
 
 12/ 
 
 14,300 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 341,250 
 
 '■^^ See Eeport on the Tobacco Manufacture in the Fourth Beport 
 of the Children's Employment Commission, 1865. 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 ES'riMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Order XIII. 
 PEESONS WOEKING IN AOTMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 SOAP BOILERS AND TALLOW CHANDLERS. 
 Sub-Ordbe 1. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 1,100 
 
 70 
 
 150 
 
 4,700 
 350 
 750 
 
 65 
 6 
 3 
 
 160 
 15 
 60 
 
 
 1,320 
 
 5,800 
 
 74 
 
 235 . 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 The wages of soap boilers are 5/ a day ; assistant 
 
 boilers, 3/6 ; vatmen, 3/4 ; firemen, 4/2 ; furnace 
 
 men, 3/9 ; engine drivers, 4/, On an average, tbe 
 
 wages may 'be taken at 25/ for men ; 7/ boys ; (i/ girls, 
 
 and 8/ women. 
 
 £ 
 
 Men under 20, 1,320 at 7/ 24,000 
 
 20 to 60, 5,800 at 25/ 877,000 
 
 Women under 20, 75 at 6/ 1,200 
 
 20 to 60, 235 at 8/ 4,800 
 
 7,430 
 
 407,000 
 
 COMB MANUFACTURE.- BONE AND IVORT TURNERS. 
 Stib-Obdee 1. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 640 
 
 350 
 
 30 
 
 2,650 
 550 
 100 
 
 80 
 80 
 
 100 
 130 
 
 
 1,020 
 
 3,300 
 
 160 
 
 230 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 99 
 
 The wages in this occupation, which is essentially Wages. 
 skilled work, are, on an average, 30/ for men ; 7/ 
 boys ; 6/ girls, and 12/ women. 
 
 Men 1,020 
 
 3,300 
 
 Women 160 
 
 230 
 
 4,710 
 
 Tinder 20, 
 20 to 60, 
 
 under 20, 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 at 
 at 
 at 
 
 7/ 
 30/ 
 
 6/ 
 12/ 
 
 £ 
 
 18,500 
 
 257,400 
 
 2,500 
 
 7,200 
 
 285,600 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 SKINNERS, TANNERS AND CURRIERS. 
 Sub-Oeder 2. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Hb)n. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60, 
 
 ,700 
 500 
 160 
 
 4,360 
 
 18,000 
 1,950 
 1,070 
 
 21,020 
 
 Women. 
 20 to 60. 
 
 280 
 50 
 
 330 
 
 Number of 
 pei'sons etti- 
 ployed. 
 
 Tanners, common labourers, earn 21/ to 22/ perwagcs. 
 week in London, and 13/ to 14/ in the country. 
 Skilled men earn 13/ to 16/ in the country. But 
 the greater iiumber are on piece work ; their average 
 earning is 23/. In town the skilled workers earn 
 30/ to 40/ per week; curriers, men, employed to 
 dress the leather, make about 50/ in London, and 
 about 30/ in the country; a few men engaged in 
 splitting hides, which require fine handling, earn 
 £4 per week; saddlers earn 5/ to 6/ per diem in 
 town, and 20/ to 24/ per week in the country. On 
 an average, the wages may be assumed at 25/ for 
 men, 10/ for boys, and 8/ for women. In Edin- 
 
 H 2 
 
100 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EAKNINGS 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 burgh the wages are, tanners, 25/ ; curriers and 
 dressers, 34/ ; beam men and shed men, 25/ ; 
 tanners' labourers, 15/. 
 
 £ 
 Men 4,360 under 20, at 10/ 113,360 
 21,020 20 to 60, at 25/ 1,366,300 
 Women 330 at 8/ 6,870 
 
 25,710 
 
 1,486,530 
 
 LEATHEE CASE MAKEES, AND OTHEE WOEKBES IN LEATHBE. 
 Sub-Oedbk 2. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 650 
 45 
 90 
 
 2,550 
 170 
 250 
 
 480 
 10 
 30 
 
 450 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 
 785 
 
 2,970 
 
 520 
 
 545 
 
 In the finer works of leather, including leather 
 case, portfolio parchment, and vellum manufacture, 
 the wages are higher than those of tanners and 
 curriers. On an average, their earnings may be 
 taken at 35/ for m^n, and 12/ under 20 ; 12/ 
 women, and 8/ for girls. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Men 785 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 12/ 
 
 £ 
 24,492 
 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 2,970 
 Women 520 
 
 20 to 60, 
 under 12, 
 
 at 
 at 
 
 35/ 
 8/ 
 
 270,270 
 •10,816 
 
 
 545 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 12/ 
 
 17,004 
 
 4,820 
 
 322,582 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 101 
 
 BRUSH MAKEES, 
 Sub-Order 3.~ 
 
 
 Mek. 
 
 WOMEK* 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 2,400 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 7,000 
 330 
 220 
 
 1,900 
 100 
 200 
 
 2,700 
 
 150 
 
 50 
 
 
 2,580 
 
 7,550 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,900 
 
 Number of 
 pei'sons em- 
 
 In the manufacture of hair, including the making of Wages. 
 
 brushes and brooms, the wages are, 22/ men ; 6/ 
 
 boys ; 10/ women, and 5/ girls. 
 
 £ 
 Men 2,580 under 20, at 6/ 40,000 
 
 7,550 20 to 60, at 22/ 430,000 
 Women 2,200 under 20, at 5/ 28,600 
 
 2,900 20 to 60, at 10/ 75,400 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 15,230 
 
 574,000 
 
102 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Order XIV. 
 PEESONS,WOEKING IN VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 
 GUM, OIL, AND COLOXJRMEN. 
 Sub-Oedeb 1. 
 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 150 
 
 60 
 
 8,000 
 420 
 180 
 
 
 
 2,210 
 
 8,600 
 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 S«ages. 
 
 The wages in this industry are, on an average, 25/ 
 for men, and 7/ for boys. 
 
 £ 
 3,200 men under 20, at 7/ 40,000 
 8,600 „ 20 to 60, at 25/ 499,000 
 
 10,800 
 
 539,000 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 SAWYERS, COOPERS, AND TURNERS. 
 Sub-Oedee 2. 
 
 England . 
 Scotland '. 
 Ireland . 
 
 Mek. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60, 
 
 8,100 
 1,750 
 1,700 
 
 11,550 
 
 46,000 
 8,000 
 7,600 
 
 61,600 
 
 Wages. Coopers earn 33/ ; sawyers, 30/ to- 35/. In Scot- 
 
 land they earn 24/ to 29/. On an average, we may 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 
 
 103 
 
 take, the wages at 28/ for men, and 10/ for boys 
 under 20. 
 
 £ 
 Men 11,650 under 20, at 10/ 300,000 
 „ 61,600 20 to 60, at 28/ 1,700,000 
 
 73,150 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 OTHER WOBKEES IN WOOD. 
 Stjb-Obdee 2. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Uuder 20. 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1,310 
 
 1,220 
 210 
 
 4,000 
 
 450 
 
 1,000 
 
 970 
 150 
 130 
 
 1,270 
 
 70 
 
 470 
 
 
 3,740 
 
 5,450 
 
 1,250 1,810 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 Number of 
 pei'sons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The finer works in wood are well paid,' and the Wages. 
 average earnings may be taken at 30/ for men ; 
 
 7/ for boys ; 5/ girls ; 8/ women. 
 
 £ 
 
 Men under 20, 3,740 at 7/ 68,000 
 
 20 to 60, 5,450 at 30/ 425,000 
 
 Women under 20, 1,250 at 5/ 16,250 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 1.810 at 8/ 37,750 
 
 Annual 
 amouut of 
 wages. 
 
 12,250 
 
 547,000 
 
 WOEKEES IN BAEK, CANE, BUSH AND STRAW. 
 Sub-Obdeb 3, 4. 
 
 
 Mek. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 2,850 
 900 
 
 11,000 
 
 300 
 
 1,100 
 
 250 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 3,750 
 
 12,400 
 
 '. 250 
 
 700 
 
 
 The workers in cane, rush, &c., receive, on an Wages. 
 
Amiual 
 amount of 
 
 104 ESTIMATES OP THE EAENINGS 
 
 average, 25/ per week for men ; 6/ for boys ; 5/ 
 
 girls, and 10/ women. 
 
 £ 
 
 Hen tiiider20, 3,750 at 6/ 58,500 
 
 20 to 60, 12,400 at 25/ 800,000 
 
 Women under 20, 250 at 5/ 3,200 
 
 20 to 60, 700 at 10/ 18,300 
 
 17,100 
 
 886,000 
 
 THE PAPEE MANUFACTUEE. 
 Sub-Oedeb 5. 
 
 Number of The number of paper mills was as follows :- 
 
 paper mills. 
 
 1840 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total. 
 
 362 
 
 48 
 
 32 
 
 402 
 
 1850 
 
 328 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 415 
 
 1860 
 
 . 306 
 
 52 
 
 26 
 
 384 
 
 1866 
 
 288 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 364 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Hours of 
 labour. 
 
 The diminution of paper mills does not imply dimi- 
 nution of production, but tbe erection of larger mills 
 instead of smaller ones, which the introduction of 
 machinery permitted. 
 
 The paper manufacture is scattered all over the 
 country ; but the great centres are the banks of the 
 ThameSj and the vicinities of Edinburgh. 
 
 In large factories the hours are regular, from 
 6 to 6 ; but in hand-made paper factories the work is 
 most irregular, even boys being kept sixteen and 
 more hours a day. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales , 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 5,000 
 
 900 
 
 ' 300 
 
 13,000 
 2,000 
 1,600 
 
 4,300 
 
 1,600 
 
 150 
 
 7,300 
 
 2,100 
 
 800 
 
 
 6,206 
 
 16,600 
 
 6,050 
 
 10,200 
 
OF THE WORKING OLASSES. 105 
 
 This number includes all who ate engaged in 
 paper, viz. : rag gatherers, stationers, paper stainers. 
 In the manufacture of paper proper, the number of 
 persons employed is 13,300 in England and Wales ; 
 4,400 in Scotland ; and 402 in Ireland, 
 
 The wages in a paper-mill vary considerably. At Wages. 
 the mills in the vicinities of London, the wages "are, 
 rag engineers, 22/ ; rag boilers, 23/9 ; poachers, 23/ ; 
 bleachers, 25/; finishers, 26/; firemen, 24/6; machine 
 men, 36/ ; stuff engineers, 36/9 ; mechanics, 36/6. 
 In a mill whose wage book has been examined for 
 one week, the average wages of all men employed, 
 including labourers, amounted to 25/6. The average 
 wages of the boys under 20 were 12/9 ; of women, 
 8/ ; girls, 3/9 a week. In Scotland rag boilers earn 
 15/3 ; bleachers, 17/4 ; engineers and poachers, 17/4 ; 
 beaters, 19/8; machine men, 21/4; sizers, 16/11; 
 drjers, 15/10; cutters, 16/6; finishers, piece work, 
 -23/ ; firemen, 20/. At a paper mill in Yalleyfield 
 the average wages were, men, 17/2 ; young men 
 and boys, 7/ ; women, 8/3 ; girls, 4/1. In the paper 
 hanging, colour mixers earn 12/ ; glaziers, 15/ ; 
 block printers, piece work, 20/ to 40/ ; marblers, 
 20/ to 40/. On an average, we may take the wages 
 at 24/ men ; 8/ boys and women ; and 4/ girls.^^^ 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20, 6,200 at 8/ 128,960 Annual 
 
 20 to 60, 16,600 at 24/ 1,035,840 amount of 
 
 Women under 20, 6,000 at 6/ 93,600 ""S"'' 
 
 20 to 60, 10,200 at 8/ 212,160 
 
 39,000 1,470,560 
 
 ^'^ See Eeport on the Paper Manufacture in the Fourth Eeport 
 of the Children's Employment Commission, 1865. 
 
106 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EAENINGS 
 
 Lociilitj'. 
 
 ORDER XV. 
 PEESONS WOEKING IN MINEEALS. 
 
 METALS MINING. 
 Sitb-Obdee 1. 
 
 Quantity The product of mines other than coal in 1865 was as 
 
 produced. follows-/')— 
 
 
 IltON. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Tons. 
 
 8,410,928 
 
 1,470,000 
 
 29,117 
 
 £ 
 2,949,102 
 367,500 
 8,202 
 
 Tons. 
 14,122 
 
 £ 
 782,284 
 
 
 9,910.045 
 
 3,324,804 
 
 14,122 
 
 782,284 
 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Leap. 
 
 ZiNO. 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Tons. 
 186,827 
 14 
 11,457 
 
 £ 
 842,202 
 .70 
 85,666 
 
 Tons. 
 
 86,064 
 
 2,364 
 
 2,024 
 
 Tons. 
 13,768 
 33 
 4,040 
 
 
 198,298 
 
 927,938 
 
 90,452 
 
 17,841 
 
 Iron ore is most extensively produced in Yorkshire, 
 Staffordshire, Cumberland, Lancashire, Scotland ; 
 tin ore in Cornwall and Devonshire ; copper ore in 
 Cornwall and Devonshire ; lead ore in Durham, 
 Yorkshire, Cardiganshire, and Denbighshire ; zinc 
 in the Isle of Man, Ireland, Denbighshire, Cornwall, 
 and Derbyshire. 
 
 '»' Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom for the year 1865, 
 by Eobert Hunt, P.E.S. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 107 
 
 The number of persons employed in metal mining Number of 
 
 „ ,, '■ J- ■ •/ <^ persons em- 
 
 IS as lOHoWS : ployed. 
 
 
 Under 20, 
 England. 
 
 Under 20, 
 Scotland. 
 
 20 to 60, 
 England. 
 
 20 to 60, 
 Scotland. 
 
 Iron 
 
 Copper .... 
 Tin . ■ . . . . 
 
 Lead . . . . . 
 Not described 
 
 5,000 
 6,000 
 5,400 
 4,500 
 2,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 ioo 
 
 400 
 
 16,000 
 12,000 
 
 9,000 
 24,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 9,000 
 
 400 
 1,500 
 
 
 22,900 
 
 3,100 
 
 66,500 
 
 10,900 
 
 In Cornwall miners are divided into tributors and Wages. 
 tut workmen. The labourers work in companies of 
 from two to eight men, and for eight hours at a time. 
 The tributors' earnings are regulated not only by 
 the amount and quality of the ore brought to the 
 surface, but by its market value at the time it is 
 sold to the smelters. Instances are quoted of £100 
 or more being realised in one month, and of tributors 
 becoming owners of land and cottages ; but should a 
 lode turn out poorer than expected, the tributor may 
 work for weeks, and perhaps months, without earning 
 anything. The workmen are paid by piecework, 
 and their earnings average from £3 to £3 10/ per 
 month. In Cornwall the work at the dressing floors 
 is partly carried on by a few men disabled from 
 ■working below, but principally by women and 
 children, their wages being at the rate of 8d. and 1/ 
 a day for the former, and 4d. to Qd. for the latter. 
 A surface man in Cornwall earns 2/ a day. In the 
 north of England the smelters earn, on an average, 
 20/ a week ; the roasters, 11 /Q ; and the separators, 
 18/ ; the working miners, 16/ to 17/. In the iron- 
 stone mines the wages are from 3/9 to 4/ a day; in 
 
Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 108 ESTIMATES OP THE BAENINGS 
 
 Wales they average £3 per montli. There are, how- 
 ever, deductions for candles, doctors, education, &c. 
 On the average, the wages may be taken at 22/ 
 per man ; 6/ for lads and boys. 
 
 Men under 20, 26,000 at 6/ 405,600 
 20 to 60, 77,400 at 22/ 4,427,286 
 
 103,400 
 
 4,832,880 
 
 COAL MINING. 
 Stjb-Obder 1. 
 
 Quantities In 1865 the produce of coal in the United Kingdom 
 
 produced. r 11 
 
 ^ was as toUows : — 
 
 Durham and Northumberland 
 Staffordshire and Worcestershire , 
 
 Lancashire 
 
 North and South Wales . . ., 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 Monmouthshire .... 
 Other Counties of England . 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 ColUeiies. 
 
 382 
 125 
 884 
 510 
 434 
 154 
 
 83 
 198 
 497 
 
 39 
 
 3,256 
 
 Tona. 
 
 25,032;694 
 
 12,200,989 
 
 11,962,000 
 
 9,894,507 
 
 9,355,100 
 
 4,595,750 
 
 4,125,000 
 
 8,211,047 
 
 12,650,000 
 
 123,500 
 
 98,150,587 
 
 Value of The declared value of coal exported was as fol- 
 ^P"*- lows :— 
 
 
 £ 
 
 1845 
 
 973,635 
 
 1855 
 
 2,446,341 
 
 1865 
 
 4,161,338 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 109 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60 
 
 78,000 
 
 11,500 
 
 500 
 
 90,000 
 
 173.000 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 K umber of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The hours of labour in the collieries differ with Hours of 
 different occupations. The miner works 7 hours a 
 day ; the tunnellers and horse keepers, 8 hours ; the 
 onsetters, pony putters, and others, 12 hours a day. 
 
 The labourer must provide himself with candles, Tools. 
 powder, and implements ; and some deductions are 
 made from his wages. 
 
 The wages in Newcastle and neighbourhood are wages. 
 given as follows, per day : — men, miners and hewers, 
 5/9; tunnellers, 5/; onsetters, 4/9; rolley way 
 men, 3/9; banksmen, 5/ ; overmen, 35/ per week; 
 deputy overmen, 4/ ; horse keepers, 16/ per week ; 
 lamp keepers, 16/; screensmen and weighmen, 3/ ; 
 smiths, 3/6 ; locomotive engine drivers, 4/ ; steam 
 engine drivers, 3/6 ; breaksmen at pits, '3/6 ; boys, 
 pony putters, 2/8 ; horse drivers, 1/6 ; trappers, 1/; 
 wood and water leaders, 2/6 to 3/. In South York- 
 shire the average wages are given at 24/ to 27/ ; in 
 -Scotland about the same. Allowing for deductions 
 and for periodical stoppages, the average may be 
 taken at 22/ ; and 7/ for boys under 20, 
 
 Men under 20, 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 90,000 
 200,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 £ 
 at 7/ 1,638,000 
 at 22/ 11,440,000 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 
 wages. 
 
 13.078,000 
 
 Miners live in cottages built by the coal owner in House rent. 
 
110 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS , 
 
 the immediate vicinities, and they pay £2 or £3 for 
 very small accommodation. In some cases land is 
 let to the miner as accommodation land, and ,the 
 miner builds his own cottage. Evidence was given 
 before the Commissioners on Mines that in the north 
 of England, when the men live three to five miles 
 distant, a dormitory is provided for them, coals are 
 often given with the house, and a little garden. 
 
 Health. The rate of mortality in the coal producing counties 
 
 is not great ; but the rate for counties gives no indi- 
 cation of the mortality from coal mining, the same 
 being modified by a large agricultural population 
 in the same place. In Durham the rate in 1864 
 was 2,284 ; Northumberland, 2,273 ; Staffordshire, 
 2,518; North Wales, 2,214; South Wales, 2,310. 
 The greater danger of mortality is from accidents. 
 From 1856 to 1865 there were raised in Great 
 Britain 850,000,000 tons of coal, and the number 
 of deaths from accidents was 9,916; showing that 
 there was one death to every 100,000 tons of coal 
 raised, and one life lost to every 321 persons em- 
 ployed. Dr. Farr, in his evidence to the Commis- 
 sioners on the Condition of Mines, gave a table 
 showing the annual death rate per cent, of different 
 classesofEfnglishmen for 1849 — 1853.'^' At the age 
 of 20 and upwards, the annual death rate per cent, 
 in England and Wales was 2 '54; among miners in 
 Durham and Northumberland, 2-38 ; Staffordshire, 
 3-00 ; Merthyr Tydvil, 3-27. At 20 to 40, in England 
 and Wales the rate was 1"02 ; among miners in 
 Durham and Northumberland, 0-79 ; Staffordshire, 
 1-51 ; Merthyr Tydvil, 1-85 per cent. 
 
 Education. The proportion of persons who signed their mar- 
 
 '*' See Eeport of Commissioners on Mines and Eeport of the 
 Committee of the House of Commons on Mines, 1866. 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 riage register with marks in colliery counties was 
 as follows : — Durham, 24*4 per cent., males ; 38'3 
 females : Stafford, 38-4 males ; 51-8 females : North 
 Wales, 34-9 males; 48-7 females: Monmouth, 41-9 
 males ; 51" 8 females per cent. 
 
 COALHEAVEES AND LABOUEERS. 
 Sub-Oedbk 2. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 2,100 
 
 210 
 
 70 
 
 11,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 680 
 
 1,900 
 90 
 
 1,900 
 140 
 
 
 2,380 
 
 13,180 
 
 1,990 2,040 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The wages in London are high, coal porters earning Wages, 
 as much as 32/ a week ; but in the country they 
 earn less. On an average, they can only be taken at 
 23/ for men ; 7/ for boys ; 8/ women, and 5/ girls. 
 
 £ 
 
 2,380 at 7/ 43,300 Annual 
 
 13,180 at 23/ 788,000 
 1,990 at 5/ 25,900 
 2,040 at 8/ 42,400 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 19,590 
 
 899,600 
 
 amount of 
 
 CHIMNEY SWEEPEES. 
 Sub-Obdeb 2. 
 
 
 EUgland .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 1,600 
 
 ' 70 
 
 300 
 
 4,200 
 250 
 450 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1,970 
 
 4,900 
 
 
 Nnmber of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
112 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 The earnings of cliimney sweepers vary con- 
 siderably, but they may be taken to average 22/ for 
 men, and 6/ for boys, per week. 
 
 £ 
 Men 1,790 under 20, at 6/ 30,700 
 „ 4,900 20 to 60, at 22/ 280,300 
 
 6,690 
 
 311,000 
 
 GAS WOEKS. 
 Stjb-Oedbe 2. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Mek. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 600 
 60 
 10 
 
 8,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 180 
 
 670 
 
 9,280 
 
 .The wages in the gas manufacture in London 
 average 25/ a week. In Leicester, gas makers, 
 stokers, and retort men earn 3/9 per day. In 
 Edinburgh, 26/ to 27/ per week. Engineers, 6/ a 
 day in Leicester, 40/ a week in Edinburgh ; brick- 
 layers, 5/6 a day in Leicester, 29/ in Edinburgh; 
 gasfitters, 4/6 a day in Leicester, and 21/ to 28/ in 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 LIMB, SLATE, AND STONE QUAEEIEES. 
 Sub-Obdeb 3. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 750 
 700 
 
 29,000- 
 7,000 
 3,700 
 
 - 
 
 
 7,450 
 
 39,700 
 
 
Off THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 113 
 
 The wages of quarrymen are about the same as wages. 
 tliose of common labourers, and they may be taken 
 at ] 8/ for men, and 6/ for boys. 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20, 7,450 at 6/ 116,000 Annual 
 
 „ 20 to 60,, 
 
 39,700 
 
 at 18/ 1,863,000 
 1,979,000 
 
 KEKS. 
 iK 3. 
 
 amouut of 
 wages. 
 
 
 47,150 
 
 BEICKMA 
 Sub-Oedi 
 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 
 TJnder 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 9,200 
 500 
 100 
 
 28,000 
 
 1,550 
 
 300 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,700 
 
 
 
 9,800 
 
 29,850 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,700 
 
 
 Brickmakers are generally paid by piecework. Wages. 
 Moulders earn as much as 50/ in summer and 21/ 
 in winter ; those employed in tempering, 50/ in 
 summer and 21/ in winter. And so those working 
 in burning and wheeling. A good proportion of the 
 whole number employed, 36 per cent., consists of 
 labourers who earn 3/ a day in Leicester and 15/ to 
 17/ a week in Edinburgh. For the whole year, and 
 for the whole number, the wages may be taken at 
 25/ for men ; 8/ boys ; 5/ girls, and 8/ women. 
 
 £ 
 Men tmdbr 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 Women under 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 9,800 
 
 at 8/ 
 
 204,000 
 
 Annual 
 
 29,850 
 
 at 25/ 
 
 1,940,000 
 
 amoiint of 
 
 1,200 
 
 at 5/ 
 
 15,600 
 
 wages. 
 
 1,700 
 
 at 8/ 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 42,550 
 
 2,194,600 
 
114 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EAENINGS 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 670 men under 20, at 8/ 13,936 
 9,280 „ 20 to 60, at 23/ 554,994 
 
 9,950 
 
 568,930 
 
 THE BARTHENWABE MANUFAOTORB; 
 Sub-Oedbe 4. 
 
 Value of The value of exports of this manufacture is as 
 
 exports. p n 
 
 ^ lollows : — 
 
 Declared value of Earthenware 
 
 £ 
 1845 828,182 
 
 1855 1,000,738 
 
 1865 1,442,934 
 
 Locality. The manufacture of earthenware and porcelain is 
 carried on principally in the pottery districts of North 
 Staffordshire, Worcester, and Newcastle ; Stoke-upon- 
 Trent, Bursl^m, Shelton, Stanley; Longton, &c., 
 being the centres. 
 
 Number of 
 
 -Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 persons em- 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 4,200 
 700 
 
 20,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 100 
 
 6,300 
 800 
 
 7,000 
 250 
 
 
 4,900' 
 
 21,400 
 
 6,600 
 
 7,250 
 
 Hours of 
 labour. 
 
 Tools. 
 
 The potteries are now placed under the Factory 
 Act, and the difficulties thereby introduced in the 
 use of children's labour has led to the introduction 
 of machinery in several processes. The hours of 
 labour are about 50 hours a week. 
 
 The workers have to provide themselves with 
 tools, but they do not cost more than 10/ a year. 
 
OF THE WOEKING CLASSES. 115 
 
 The present wages are given in the Staffordshire Wage.'. 
 potteries for earthenware as follows: — men, clay- 
 makers, 4/6 per day ; throwers, 6/6 ; turners, 4/6 ; 
 handlers, 4/ ; pressers, 4/6 ; modellers, 7/ ; moulders, 
 4/6 ; saggar makers, 6/ ; biscuit firemen, 6/6 ; 
 biscuit placers, 4/6 ; printers, 4/6 ; glost firemen, 
 4/6 ; kiln men, 5/ ; gilders, 4/6 ; boys, turners, 6/6 ; 
 throwers, 3/6 ; handlers, Qd. ; pressers, 1/ ; biscuit 
 firemen, 1/6 ; gilders, 2/ ; women, 10/ a week ; 
 girls, 5/ per week. In the porcelain manufacture 
 the men earn 1/ to 1/6 more a week in almost every 
 branch. In Worcester the wages are given per week 
 at, claymakers, 16/; throwers, 50/ ; turners, 30/ 
 handlers, 25/ ; pressers, 30/ ; figure makers, 36/ 
 modellers, 45/ ; moulders, 36/ ; saggar makers, 30/ ; 
 biscuit firemen, 44/ ; biscuit placers, . 18/ ; glost 
 firemen, 22/ ; kiln firemen, 27/. In iTewcastle the 
 wages are given at 10/ per week less. In most cases 
 it is all by piece work that the men are paid. On an 
 average, the earnings may be taken at 30/ for men ; 
 10/ lads and boys ; 10 women, and 5/ girls. 
 
 Men under 20, 
 
 4,900 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 £ 
 127,400 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 21,400 
 
 at 
 
 30/ 
 
 1,669,200 
 
 Women tmder 20, 
 
 6,600 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 171,600 
 
 „ 20 to 60, 
 
 7,250 
 
 at 
 
 5/ 
 
 94,250 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 40,150 2,062,450 
 
 The rentals in Stoke-upon-Trent were '■ — under £7, House rent. 
 66 per cent. ; £7, and under £iO, 16 per cent. ; and 
 £1Q and upwards, 18 per cent. 
 
 The rate of mortality was : — Stoke-upon-Trent, Health. 
 2*78 ; "Wolverhampton, 2'78, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
 2 "2 9 per cent. 
 
 The number who .signed their marriage register by Education. 
 marks was as follows: — Stoke-upon-Trent, 35 per 
 
 I 2 
 
116 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 cent, males, 45 per cent, females ; "Wolverhampton, 
 40 per cent, males, 50 per cent, females ; Newcastle- 
 under-Lyne, 33 per cent, males, 41 per cent, females. 
 The amount of money owing to depositors in 
 savings banks averaged as follows : — 
 
 Newcastle-tinder-Lyne 
 Stoke-uponTTrent 
 
 £ s. 
 1 11 
 i 
 
 Drunken- 
 ness. 
 
 In N^wcastle-under-Lyne the number of persons 
 who wete committed for drunkenness averaged r02 
 per cent. 
 
 GLASS MANTJFAOTUEE. 
 Sub-Obdeb 5. 
 
 Value of 
 imports and 
 exports. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 Declared value of Glass 
 exported. 
 
 T 
 507,332 
 742,739 
 
 Beal value of Glass 
 imported. 
 
 83,815 
 620,991 
 
 
 Ml^N. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. ' 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 4,100 
 
 440 
 
 50 
 
 9,700 
 
 750 ! 
 220 j 
 
 530 
 
 750 
 
 
 4,590 
 
 10,670 1 
 
 530 
 
 750 
 
 The wages in flint glass and domestic articles are 
 given as follows : — 1st class, 48/ to 49/ ; 2nd class, 
 42/ to 44/ ; 3rd class, 30/ to 40/6 ; 4th class, 22/ to 
 34/ ; 5th class, 10/ to 31/ ; 6th class, 21/8 : glass 
 cutters, 24/ to 32/ ; teazers, mixers, packmen, and 
 others, 25/. Mr. White reported to the Children's 
 Improvement Commission that the minimum wages 
 paid to flint glass blowers were 22/ for workmen ; 
 16/6 for servitors. A bottle glass manufacturer 
 
OF THE "WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 117 
 
 states that a finisher would make from £6 to £8 a 
 week ; a blower, £3 10/ ; a gatherer, £2 5/; a 
 putter up, £1 5/ to £1 7/ ; a taker in, 15/. On an 
 average, we may take 30/ a week for men ; 8/ 
 women, and 6/ boys and girls. 
 
 Each chain, or set of hands, consists of a few Conditions 
 persons, viz., the workman, who finishes the article ; ''^^*'"""'- 
 the servitor, who prepares it by blowing ; the foot 
 maker, who assists the servitor, and the taker in. 
 
 In Birmingham glass workers work 45 hours in Hours of 
 the week, except glass cutters, who work 55 to 60 * '""^' 
 hours. 
 
 Men 4,590 under 20, at 6/ 71,600 
 
 10,670 20 to 60, at 30/ 832,200 
 
 Women 530 under 20, at 6/ 8,300 
 
 „ 750 20 to 60, at 8/ 15,600 
 
 16,540 
 
 927,700 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 SALT ULANUFAOTURE. 
 Sub-Obdbb 6. 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 270 
 450 
 
 1,650 
 
 750 
 
 80 
 
 720 
 
 2,480 
 
 Number of 
 pei'soDs em- 
 ployed. 
 
 A fair workman earns, on an average, 28/ a week. Wages. 
 
 In the Stoke works the shift system is adopted ; condition 
 two men, one for the day and one for the night, are"'^'"^"'""- 
 appointed to each pan, and receive 2/ per ton, pro- 
 portionately divided between them. Each head of 
 a pan is paid 22/ weekly on account, and the balance 
 
118 
 
 ESTIMATES OP THE EARNINGS 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 is settled . monthly. On an average, we may take 
 the. wages at 25/ for men, and 6/ for boys. 
 
 £ 
 Men under 20, 720 at 6/ 11,200 
 „ 20 to 60, 2,480 at 25/ 161,200 
 
 3,200 
 
 172,400 
 
 WATER WOEKS. 
 Stjb-Obdeb 7. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 England . 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Men. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 120' 
 10 
 50 
 
 1,800 
 
 • 160 
 
 130 
 
 180 
 
 2,090 
 
 , The wages in this industry are, on an average, 
 not higher than 21/ men, and 6/ for boys, per week. 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 £ 
 Men 180 under 2Q, at 6/ 2,800 
 „ 2,090 20 to 60, at 21/ 114,000 
 
 2,270 
 
 116,800 
 
 GOLD, SILVEB, AND PKECIOUS STONES. 
 Sub-Oedek 8. 
 
 Number of 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland .... 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 Under 20. 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 
 5,000 
 350 
 100 
 
 14,300 
 700 
 450 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 5,450 
 
 16,450 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,600 
 
OP THE WORKING CLASSES. . 
 
 119 
 
 JewellerSj it is said, are some of the best paid Wages. 
 Birmingham artisans ; the rate varies considerably, 
 but he is a poor workman who can earn only 25/ 
 weekly ; 30/ to 50/ being considered the average 
 wages ; though some obtain much more. Bnamellers 
 frequently gain as much as £3 to £4 weekly. Boys 
 are usually apprenticed at 14, when they earn 4/ 
 per week, which is increased annually until they are 
 21, when they generally receive 10/ or 11/. Youths 
 sometimes make a considerable sum by working 
 overtime. In plated wares, men working by the 
 piece earn as much as 50/ to 55/ per week single 
 handed; day men earn 22/ to 40/, according to 
 merit in work. On an average, the wages may 
 be taken at 35/ per man ; 8/ boys; 8/ women, and 
 6/ girls. 
 
 20, 
 
 Men 5,450 under 
 
 15,450 ,20 to 60, 
 
 Women 1,450- under 20, 
 1,600 20 to 
 
 at 
 
 at 
 
 at 
 
 60, at 
 
 23,950 
 
 £ 
 
 8/ 113,200 
 
 35/1,406,000 
 
 6/ 22,600 
 
 8/ 33,200 
 
 1,575,000 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 METAL MANUFACTUEES OTHEB THAN IKON. 
 
 Sub-Obdeb 9, 13. 
 
 The declared value of exports in the last twenty vaiue of e 
 years has been as follows : — i"""'^' 
 
 Copper 
 Lead . 
 Tin . 
 Brass . 
 
 1855 
 
 £ 
 
 2,004,122 
 
 639,031 
 
 1,321,291 
 
 •107,060 
 
 4,071,486 
 
 1865 
 
 £ 
 3,132,179 
 
 775,467 
 2,005,221 
 
 232,316 
 
 6,145,183 
 
120 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 Number of 
 persons em* 
 ployeri. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Annijal 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 Copper and tin are fpund largely in Cornwall, but 
 they are smelted in Wales, principally at Swansea ; 
 lead is produced in Holywell, Hexham, Newcastle- 
 on-Tyne ; steel in Sheffield ; brass in Birmingham • 
 and Aston, 
 
 In the manufacture of copper there are employed 
 in England about 11,000 persons; tin, 22,000; lead, 
 5,000; steel, 3,200; and brass, 20,600. According 
 to ages, they are as follows : — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England .... 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 13,600 
 
 1,750 
 
 15,400 
 
 34,000 
 4,300 
 1,500 
 
 7,400 
 
 5,800 
 
 
 15,750 
 
 89,800 
 
 7,400 
 
 5,800 
 
 The wages are paid by the day, but they are calcu- 
 lated by the qu9,ntity produced ; the rates of wages 
 varying with the description of labour. £5 to £7 a 
 month are usually earned. On an aver&.ge of the 
 whole number, we may safely take 25/ a week per 
 man, and 10/ for boys and lads under 20 ; 5/ for girls ; 
 and 8/ for women. In the steel manufacture, the 
 converter earns 28/ to 40/, and his labourer, 18/ to 
 21/ ; melter, 36/ to 45/ ; puller out, 27/ to 32/ ; coker, 
 20/ ; forgeman and tilter, 40/ to 60/ ; rod roller, 
 36/ to 72/ ; rod furnacemen, 18/ to 30/ ; sheet roller, 
 40/ to 60/ ; sheet furnacemen, 20/ to 30/. The 
 wages of tin workers in Birmingham average 30/. 
 
 £ 
 17,000 at 
 41,000 at 
 
 7,500 at 
 
 5,500 at 
 
 Men 
 
 under 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 Women under 20, 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 10/ 443,000 
 
 2.5/ 2,665,000 
 
 5/ 97,500 
 
 8/ 115,400 
 
 71,000 
 
 3,319,900 
 
OF THE WORKma CLASSES. 
 
 121 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 Per cent, 
 
 60 
 
 No. 
 
 6,361 
 
 £7 and under 
 £10. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 13 
 
 No. 
 
 1,467 
 
 £10 Houserents. 
 
 and upwards. 
 
 Percent, 
 
 27 
 
 No. 
 
 2,878 
 
 The rate of mortality in 1864 in Swansea was Health. 
 3'02 per cent; in Neath, 2*70 per cent; and in 
 Penzance, 2 '3 5 per cent of the population. 
 
 The proportion of persons who signed their Education. 
 marriage register . with marks in 1864 was as fol- 
 lows :■ — Swansea, 33 per cent, males, 43 per cent, 
 females ; Neath, 42 males, 61 females ; Penzance, 
 24 per cent, males, and 40 per cent, females. 
 
 The amount owing to depositors in savings banks savings. 
 averaged in Swansea £3 12/ ; in Penzance, £2 2/. 
 
 The number of persons proceeded against , for Diuuken- 
 drunkenness averaged in Swansea 0*56 per cent. ; 
 in Neath, 2'08 per cent. ; and in Penzance, 0*57 
 per cent. 
 
 THE IKON MANTJFAOTUEE. 
 Sub-Order 14. 
 
 In 1865 there were in the United Kingdom 657 
 furnaces in blast, the production of which was as 
 follows : — 
 
 
 Fm-naces. 
 
 Tons of Pig 
 Iron. 
 
 Export of j 
 Iron Manufacture. 
 
 Import of 
 Iron 
 
 — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 Manufacture. 
 
 England. 
 Wales . 
 Scotland 
 
 376 
 140 
 141 
 
 2,738,867 
 
 916,909 
 
 1,163,478 
 
 1845 
 1855 
 1865 
 
 £ 
 
 3,501,895 
 
 9,465,642 
 
 13 -,451, 445 
 
 £ 
 
 542 j 401 
 584,082 
 
 Staffordshire, Yorkshire, Durham, and Lancashire 
 are the chief iron districts in England ; Glamorgan- 
 
122 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 shire and Monmouthshire, of Wales ; and Lanarkshire 
 and Ayrshire, of Scotland. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Nature of 
 the work. 
 
 Yield of 
 furnaces. 
 
 Hours of 
 laboui'. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotland .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 33,000 
 
 5,200 
 
 300 
 
 94,000 
 
 13,700 
 
 800 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 38,500 
 
 108,500 
 
 1,800 
 
 1,100 
 
 In the manufacture of 1,100 tons of puddled iron 
 froiu 1,100 tons of pig iron per week there are 
 employed 200 puddlers and 200 underhands, 40 
 slingers with their helpers, 20 staff carriers, 20 forge 
 rollers, and 30 lads, 20 ash wheelers, 40 bulldog or 
 cinder men, 20 blacksmiths and strikers, 10 brick- 
 layers, 10 labourers, 20 forge stocktakers, 10 common 
 labourers, 10 watchmen, and 10 coal unloaders. Out 
 of 20/ per ion expended on labour, 9/6 go to the 
 puddlers and underhands, 1/6 to the shinglers, 1/6 to 
 the forge rollers, 1/ to bricklayers, 1/6 to managing, 
 and 5/ between the remaining labourers. 
 
 The average yield of puddling furnaces throughout 
 
 the United Kingdom is not more than 9 tons per 
 
 week. An average mill, produces 10 tons of bar iron 
 
 per day ; an ordinary hoop mill 4, 5, to 9 tons per day. 
 
 Nominally, the labourers work 12 hours; but the 
 
 actual working hours are from 8 to 9 in the forges, 
 
 r / and 10 to 10^ hours in the mills. The general 
 
 y character of labour in forges and mills is intermittent, 
 
 \ and rarely an operation requires more than 2.0 
 
 / \ minutes' close and consecutive attendance. A puddler 
 
 I is but rarely occupied 5 hours per day ; an assistant 
 
 firemen 5 hours ; the majority work only 4 hours, 
 
 \ although they are present in the works ; shinglers 
 
OF THE WORKINO CLASSES. 
 
 123 
 
 work the same hours ; rollers, both forge and millwork, 
 7 to 9 hours ; furnace men, 4 to 5 hours ; lads, helpers, 
 &c., 7 to 9 hours. 
 
 The labourers provide themselves with tools. Tools. 
 
 The wages are given as follows : — puddlers, 7/6 Wages, 
 to 7/10 a day, but they pay the underhands 2/6 to 
 2/11 ; slingers, 9/ to 15/, they paying their helpers 
 4/6 to 6/ a day ; forge rollers, 9/ to 15/, they 
 paying their lads 2/6 to 4/, or others, 1/2 to 2/ ; 
 ash wheelers, 4/ to 6/6 ; engineers, 4/ to 6/ ; cinder 
 men 4/ to 5/ ; blacksmiths and strikers, between 
 them, 6/6 to 8/. While a good workman may 
 receive 37/6 to 40/ per week, the majority do not 
 receive 35/. Puddlers, as a rule, make only from 
 30/ to 32/6 per week ; the puddlers of best iron, 
 35/ to 40/. Taking the whole number employed in 
 this manufacture, we may assume 30/ for men ; 12/ 
 
 for boys and lads ; 10/ for women, and 6/ for girls. 
 
 £ 
 
 Men 38,500 under 20, at 12/ 1,201,200 
 
 108,500 20 to 60, at 30/ 8,463,000 
 
 Women 1,300 under 20, at 6/ 21,200 
 
 1,100 20 to 60, at 10/ 28,600 
 
 149,400 9,714,000 
 
 The rate of mortality in the iron districts was as Health, 
 follows, viz. : — Dudley, 3*20 ; Wolverhampton, 2*84; 
 Merthyr Tydvil, 2-95. 
 
 -Rent of 
 houses. 
 
 The number of persons who signed their marriage Eduction. 
 register with marks was in the following proportion : — 
 Dudley, 51 per cent, males, 66 females ; Wolver- 
 
 Annual 
 amount of 
 wages. 
 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 £7 to £10. 
 
 £10 
 and upwards. 
 
 Dudley . . . 
 Wolverhampton . 
 
 5,295 
 14,775 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 67 
 54 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1,252 16 
 6,727 24 
 
 1,389 
 5,645 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 17 
 21 
 
124 
 
 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 banks. 
 
 Dninten- 
 
 ness. 
 
 Value of 
 exports. 
 
 Number of 
 persons em- 
 ployed. 
 
 kampton, 41 males, 53 females; Merthyr Tydvil, 
 ^52 males, 75 females; Staffordshire, 6-83 males, 
 48-5 females; South Wales, 37-4 males, 55-9 females; 
 Monm,outh,41-9 males, 51'8 females per cent. 
 
 The amount owing to depositors in Wolverhampton 
 was in the 'proportion of 5/ per head of the popu- 
 lation. 
 
 In Wolverhampton the number of persons pro- 
 ceeded against for drunkenness averaged 0-67 per 
 cent. 
 
 HAEDWAKEAND OTHER KINDS OF MANUFACTURE IN IRON. 
 
 Sub-Order 14. 
 The aggregate value of hardware and cutlery, in- 
 cluding instruments, lamps, &c., was as follows : viz. — 
 
 Declared value. 
 
 £~ 
 1845 2,183,000 
 
 1855 2,969,391 
 
 18G5 4,384,271 
 
 Under this appellation enter all the articles of 
 Birmingham manufacture, such as- nails, stove bolts, 
 handles, latches, hinges, boilers, besides blacksmiths, 
 whitesmiths, &c. 
 
 Taking the entire number of labourers in iron and 
 steel, less those employed in the iron manufacture, as 
 well- as ironmongers, &c., the number embraced in 
 this category are : — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 Under 20. 
 
 20 to 60. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 Scotlalid .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 38;400' 
 5,700 
 4,800 
 
 138,000 
 19,000 
 22,000 
 
 5,800 
 
 9,600 
 
 
 48,900 179,000 
 
 5,800 
 
 9,600, 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 
 
 125 
 
 The wages in the manufacture of locks differ mucli. Wages. 
 The best till and cabinet lock workers earn 25/ to 
 40/ ; at Willenhall, warded rim, dead mortice draw- 
 back, pad and till lock makers, 18/ to 30/ ; iron 
 pad and cabinet lock makers, iron cabinet and key 
 makers, at Wednesfield, earn 15/ to 25/ ; and at 
 Brewood, fine plate lock makers, 18/ to 28//^^ In the 
 hollow wares the wages of skilled labourers average 
 from 25/ to 40/ a week ; the manufacturers of 
 tubes, 30/ ; women employed as solderers, 10/ to 
 12/ ; lads, 4/6 to 10/ ; an iron carter sometimes 
 earns £3 per week ; blacksmiths and whitesmiths earn 
 25/ to 80/ a week. 
 
 Men 
 
 48,900 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 8/ 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 ,017,000 
 
 Annual 
 
 51 
 
 179 
 
 000 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 25/^ 
 
 11 
 
 ,635 
 
 ,000 
 
 amount of 
 
 Womer 
 
 6 
 
 800 
 
 under 20, 
 
 at 
 
 6/ 
 
 
 94 
 
 500 
 
 wages. 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 600 
 
 20 to 60, 
 
 at 
 
 10/ 
 
 12 
 
 249 
 996 
 
 ,500 
 000 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 ,300 
 
 
 The rate of mortality in the principal centres of Health, 
 this manufacture was as follows : — Birmingham, 3 "09 
 per cent. ; Walsall, 3'06 ; Wolverhampton, 2*84 ; 
 Aston, 2"58 ; West Bromwich, 2"56 per cent. 
 
 Birmingham . 
 Walsall . . 
 Wolverhampton 
 
 Under £7. 
 
 Per cent. 
 41 
 26 
 33 
 
 £7 to £10. 
 
 Per cent. 
 50 
 28 
 22 
 
 £10 and. 
 upwards. 
 
 Per cent. 
 54 
 24 
 21 
 
 Rentpf 
 houses. 
 
 The proportion who signed their marriage register Education. 
 by-marks was as follows : — ^Birmingham, 25 males per 
 ^ '' See ' Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District,' p. 89. 
 
126 ESTIMATES OF THE EARNINGS 
 
 cent., 35 females ; Walsall, 42 males, 50 females ; 
 
 "Wolverhampton, 41 males, 53 females ; West Brom- 
 
 wich, 31 males, 44 females ; Aston, 19 males,. 24 
 
 females per cent. 
 Drunken-' The number proceeded against for drunkenness 
 "^^ averaged, Birmingham, 0*59 ; Wolverhampton, 0*68 ; 
 
 Walsall, 0-34. 
 
 Class VI.— INDEFINITE OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 Order XVI. 
 
 LABOCJEEES. 
 
 Labourers. The census of 1861 gave the number of general 
 labourers belonging to branches of labour undefined 
 at 808,831 ; viz., England and Wales, 309,883 ; 
 Scotland, 68,336; and Ireland, 430,612; and their 
 income at the lowest estimate would be several 
 millions a year ; but a large portion of these has 
 already been included under builders ; others are 
 doubtless connected with the other occupations, and 
 any excess may be set against any over-estimate in 
 the previous calculation. 
 
 In connection with the workers in dress we should 
 also have placed washerwomen, of whom 170,000 
 were in the United Kingdom. At an average of 
 10/ per week, including the food sometimes earned by 
 them, their income would amount to upwards of 
 £4,000,000 per annum. 
 
 Washer- 
 women, 
 
OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 127 
 
 Order XVII. 
 
 PEESONS OF EANK OE PEOPEETY. 
 
 Under this order are included persons of rank or 
 property not returned under any office or occupation. 
 
 Order XVIII. 
 
 PAUPEES, PEISONEES AND VAGEANTS. 
 
 This order embraces all persons living on income 
 drawn from voluntary sources and rates, prisoners 
 and others of criminal class of no specified occapation, 
 and vagrants and gipsies. 
 
( 128 ) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PEICBS PAID AT GREENWICH HOSPITAL 
 
 For food, clothing and household stores, and rates 
 of artificers' wages, in the following years : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Flesh. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Clieeso. 
 
 Beer. 
 
 
 per cwt. 
 
 
 per cwt. 
 
 per lb. 
 
 per lb. 
 
 per barrel. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 d. oz. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 g. d. 
 
 8. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1740 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 per 9 
 
 
 5 
 
 3i- 
 
 5 2f 
 
 1750 
 
 16 6 
 
 1 per 13 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 3i 
 
 5 81 
 
 1760 
 
 1 11 6 
 
 , , 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 H 
 
 5 71 
 
 1770 
 
 18 6 
 
 1 per 11 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 3f 
 
 5 10 
 
 1780 
 
 1 12 6 
 
 , , 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 3f 
 
 7 3^ 
 
 1790 
 
 1 12 10 
 
 , ^ 
 
 2 3' 4 
 
 6i 
 
 4 
 
 8 7 
 
 1800 
 
 3 4 4 
 
 
 4 16 
 
 llg. 
 
 6i 
 
 10 4^ 
 
 1810 
 
 3 12 
 
 , , 
 
 4 8 4 
 
 1 1^ 
 
 8* 
 
 17 10 
 
 1820 
 
 3 la 4i 
 
 li per lb. 
 
 2 15 1 
 
 9i 
 
 7 
 
 13 104 
 
 1830 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 
 2 14 11 
 
 6i 
 
 4 
 
 12 6* 
 
 1840 
 
 2 14 
 
 , , 
 
 2 11 9^ 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 14 3 
 
 1850 
 
 2 18 9 
 
 , , 
 
 2 15 9 
 
 Hi 
 
 8 
 
 14 5 
 
 1860 
 
 3 12 7 
 
 li per lb. 
 
 1 18 3i 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 118 
 
 1865 2 17 5^[U per lb. 1 17 10 
 
 Hi 
 
 7i 
 
 1 4 84 
 
 
 
 
 Carpenters 
 
 "Rrint. 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 and 
 Joiners. 
 
 layers. 
 
 Masons. 
 
 Plumbers. 
 
 
 
 per ohaldr. 
 
 
 
 
 r ' 
 
 , 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1740 
 
 5/6 
 
 19 
 
 2/6 to 2/8 
 
 2/6 
 
 2/8 
 
 3/ 
 
 1750 
 
 6/2 
 
 17 7^ 
 
 2/6 „2/8 
 
 2/6- 
 
 2/8 
 
 2/6 
 
 1760 
 
 6/10 
 
 1 12 8 
 
 2/6 „2/8 
 
 2/6 
 
 2/8 
 
 2/6 
 
 1770 
 
 6/101 
 
 1 9 14i2/6 „2/8 
 
 2/4 
 
 2/8 
 
 3/ 
 
 1780 
 
 6/9^ 
 
 1 17 31 2/6 „ 2/8 
 
 2/4 
 
 2/10 
 
 3/ 
 
 1790 
 
 7/9 
 
 1 14 4i 2/6 „ 2/10 
 
 2/4 
 
 2/10 
 
 3/3 
 
 1800 
 
 10/4 
 
 2 11 7 2/10 „ 3/2 
 
 3/ 
 
 2/10 
 
 3/J 
 
 1810 
 
 ^2^E* 
 
 3 8 
 
 5/8 „5/8 
 
 5/2 
 
 5/3 
 
 5/9 
 
 1820 
 
 8/2f 
 
 2 5 9 
 
 5/3 
 
 5/1 
 
 5/3 
 
 5/9 
 
 1830 
 
 5m 
 
 17 
 
 5/6 
 
 4/9 
 
 5/5 
 
 5/6 
 
 1840 
 
 G/6i 19 8 
 
 5/5 
 
 l/10to4/8 
 
 5/3 
 
 5/5 
 
 1850 
 
 6/9 1 7 11 
 
 4/8 
 
 .•5/ 
 
 " 5/ 
 
 5/ 
 
 1860 
 
 6/3 17 9 4/8 „ 5/ !' 
 
 t/8 to 5/ 
 
 4/8 to 5/ 
 
 5/ to 5/6 
 
 1865 
 
 5/8 
 
 1 
 
 8 10 
 
 4/8 
 
 ,,5/ 
 
 5/ 
 
 5/ 
 
 5/6 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 129 
 
 PRICES OF SUGAE AND TEA. 
 
 — 
 
 Average 
 
 price of Sugar 
 
 per cwt., 
 
 inclusive of 
 
 duty. 
 
 Average 
 price of Tea 
 per lb., 
 inclusive 
 of duty. 
 
 1801 to 1814 
 
 £ s. 
 3 14 
 
 d. 
 3 
 
 s. d. 
 4 7 
 
 1815 
 
 4 12 
 
 5 
 
 6 3|- 
 
 1820 
 
 3 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 6J 
 
 1825 
 
 3 5 
 
 10 1 
 
 5 6i 
 
 1830 
 
 2 10 
 
 9! 
 
 4 6J 
 
 1835 
 
 2 17 
 
 7 ■ 
 
 4 Oi 
 
 1840 
 
 3 14 
 
 3 ' 
 
 4 9 
 
 1845 
 
 2 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 4 
 
 1850 
 
 1 17 
 
 8 
 
 3. 5i 
 
 1855 
 
 2 
 
 2! 
 
 2 11 
 
 1860 
 
 2 1 
 
 ' 
 
 2 11 
 
 1865 
 
 2 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 6 
 
 Rate of increase or decrease in prices from 1840 to 
 1865:— ... 
 
 
 Increase 
 
 Decrease | 
 
 
 ■ per cent. 
 
 per cent. | 
 
 Flesh 
 
 .6 
 
 
 Bread 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Flour 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 
 
 ■ m 
 
 
 Ofaeese 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 Beer . 
 
 
 
 
 73 . 
 
 .. 
 
 Candles 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Coal . 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 Tea . 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 47 
 
 K 
 
13fr 
 
 APPENDIX TO AVAQES AND 
 
 '-0 
 
 
 
 05 <U 
 
 PI ^ 
 
 •rt o 
 
 S g 
 
 Ph p- 
 
 -^ g 
 
 (D ^ 
 
 la ^ 
 
 •—f CD 
 
 ■^ O 
 
 « i-H 
 
 CO J-l 
 
 H e3 
 
 P^ 
 
 <1 
 
 t4H 
 O 
 
 61 
 
 )J o 
 o 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 CO 
 H 
 
 -<! 
 
 I> r-1 M 
 
 in- ao la 
 
 O OS i> 
 
 CO CO w 
 
 
 O i-l i-H 
 CO 1-1 lO 
 
 03 C3 CTS 
 
 ca (M o 
 
 (M O CO 
 
 CO CO (N 
 
 CO l> -sH 
 00 lO 1C5 
 
 tH (N CO 
 1-1 i^ CO 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 rA 
 
 CC 
 
 ^ 
 
 lO 
 
 ^ 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 M* 
 
 
 I-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 (N 
 
 T-l 
 
 O^ 
 
 (N 
 
 (N 
 
 (N 
 
 r-l 
 
 OS 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 »o 
 
 iH 
 
 r-t 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 iH 
 
 iH 
 
 IH 
 
 
 o 
 
 1-1 
 
 IN 
 
 (N CC 
 
 to CC 
 
 m CO t> 
 
 O (M »« 
 Oi l> o 
 
 o 
 
 (N 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 -* 
 
 -* 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 
 t-H 
 
 c- 
 
 t- 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 l> 
 
 
 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 (N 
 
 tH 
 
 t^ 
 
 h- 
 
 lo 
 
 
 
 
 IM 
 
 ■cH 
 
 
 -* 
 
 ■*< 
 
 lO 
 
 
EARNINGS OP THE WORKING CLASSES. 131 
 
 The mortality of domestic male servants appears 
 very large, but it has been suggested that difficulty is 
 experienced in the calculation, from the uncertainty 
 in the designation of the occupation. 
 
 According to the table of mortality thus supplied 
 the mortality per cent, of males aged 15 years and 
 upwards stood in 1860-61 in the following order : — 
 
 England 1-816 
 
 Domestic, and other male servants . . . . 2*499 
 
 Tailors 1-997 
 
 Persons engaged in the wool, cotton, flax and silk 
 
 manufactures 1-860 
 
 Shoemakers 1-855 
 
 Labourers, including bricklayers and masons . 1 - 744 
 
 Labourers, agricultural, railway navvies, &c. . 1-736 
 
 Carpenters and joiners 1 - 646 
 
 Bakers and confectioners 1-617 
 
 Miners 1-578 
 
 Blacksmiths 1-562 
 
 Persons engaged in the iron, copper, tin and lead 
 
 manufactares 1-222 
 
 At special ages, however, the order is somewhat 
 altered. Tailors and miners have the highest mortality 
 at between 1 5 and 25 ; servants and tailors at between 
 25 and 35, and at between 35 and 45, and 45 and 55. 
 After 55 the highest mortality is experienced by 
 servants, miners, and persons working in tin and lead. 
 At 15 to 25 years of age, the lowest mortality is 
 among bakers and labourers ; at 25 to 35, among 
 persons working in tin and lead, and carpenters ; at 
 45 and the higher ages the least mortality is among 
 labourers, carpenters and joiners.^'' 
 
 ''' See 'Letter to the Eegistrar-General on the Mortality in the 
 Eegistration Districts of England during the ten years 1851-1860,' 
 by William Farr, Esq., M.D., F.RS. (1864). 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ate of 
 
 ib. 
 
 PAG e 
 Agriculture, acreage under Crop in 
 the United Kingdom. ... 38 
 
 Eelation of acreage to Agri- 
 cultural Labourers .... ih. 
 
 Agricultural Industry, Locality of i'l. 
 
 Labourers, Occupation of . . viii 
 
 Number of . . . .39 
 
 ■ Wages of, in England . . ih. 
 
 Scotland . . 4» 
 
 — — Ireland 41 
 
 ■ tlie United Kingdom . i'>. 
 
 ■ Annual amount of Wages of. 42 
 
 ■ Necessary Expenditure of . ib. 
 
 Health of ...... 43 
 
 Education of i'l. 
 
 Dwellings of . 
 
 Savings of 
 
 Crimes of . 
 
 Agricultural Districts, 
 
 Dnmkenncss in ... . 
 Alpaca Manufacture, see Woollen. 
 Army, Number of Men in the . 
 . .Amount of Regimental Pay 
 
 and Allowances ■ . 
 
 Wages in the . 
 
 Health in the . 
 
 Education in the . 
 
 Drunkenness in the . 
 
 — ■ — ■ Savings Banks in the 
 
 Bakers, Number of 94 
 
 Wages of *. 
 
 Armual amount of Wages of . 95 
 
 Bargemen, Lightermen, &c., see 
 
 Cfe,rriers on Canals. 
 Bark, Cane, and Kush Workers, , 
 Number of Persons .... 103 
 
 Wages of . ■ ib. 
 
 Bass, M. T., letter of . . . . 1 
 
 Report to 3 
 
 Bedstead-makers, see Cabinet- 
 
 Beer, Price of, 1740—1865 . . . 
 Biscuit Firemen, see Earthenware. 
 Blacksmiths, see Iron Manufacture. 
 Blade-makers, see Cutlers. 
 Bleachers, see Cotton Manufacture. 
 Boiler-raaJj6i-3, see Iron Manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 44 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 A. 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 22 
 ib. 
 
 127 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Boilers, see Sugar Refiners. 
 Bookbinders and Bookfolders, 
 
 Number of 51 
 
 Hours of Labour .... ib. 
 
 Number of ib. 
 
 Wages of 52 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of . ib 
 
 Boot and Shoe Makers, value of 
 
 Exports 86 
 
 Number of Persons employed ib. 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in 87 
 
 Boot and Shoe Manufacturing Dis- 
 tricts, Health in ib, 
 
 Education in ib. 
 
 Savings in ib. 
 
 Rent of Houses in . . . 88 
 
 Box-makers, see Wood- workers. 
 Brass-moulders, see Metal Manu- 
 
 ■ faoture. 
 
 Bread, Price of, 1740—1865 . . 127 
 
 Bricklayers, Wages of, 1740—1865 ib. 
 
 see Builders. 
 
 Brickmakers, Number of Persons 
 employed 113 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . ib. 
 
 Brush Makers, Number of Persons 
 
 employed as 101 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of . ib. 
 
 Builders, Number of 64 
 
 — — Nature of employment of .65 
 
 Hours of Labour of . . . t6; 
 
 Tools required by . . . . ib. 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . 66 
 
 House Rent of ... . ih. 
 
 Householders and Lodgers . ib. 
 
 Health of ..... . ib. 
 
 Education of ib. 
 
 Savings of 67 
 
 Building, Occupation of . . . xii 
 
 Societies, amount of Invest- 
 ment in xliv 
 
 Butter, Price of, 1740—1865 . . 127 
 
 Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers, 
 Number trf. ...... 67 
 
134 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers, 
 Wages of 67 
 
 Annnal amount of Wages of . ib. 
 
 Hours of Labour of . . . ib. 
 
 Cabmen, see Carriers on Eoad. 
 
 Calico Cotton-printers, see Cotton 
 
 Manufacture. 
 Candles, Price of, 1740— 1865. .127 
 Capital and Labour, Relations of xxvii 
 
 Partnership of . , . xxviii 
 
 Cap-makers, see Hat-makers. 
 Carders, see Linen Manufacture. 
 Carpenters, Wages of, 1740—1865. 127 
 see Builders. 
 
 Carpet Manufacture, see Woollen. 
 Carriage-makers, see Coachmakers. 
 Carriers on Canals and Elvers, Num- 
 ber employed in . . . . . 31 
 
 ; on Road, Number employed in 29 
 
 Wages in 30 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . ib. 
 
 Occupation of xiii 
 
 Carvers and Gilders, see Cabinet- 
 makers. 
 
 Chair-makers, see Cabinet-makers. 
 Cheese, Price of, 1740—1865 . . 127 
 Chemical, Number engaged in . . 68 
 
 Wages of . . ... . . . ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Chimney Sweepers, Number of . Ill 
 
 Wages of . . . . . .112 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . ib. 
 
 Cigat Mauufaeture, see Tobacco. 
 Ciphers, see Cotton Manufacture. 
 Clockmakers, see Watchmakers. 
 Clothing, Cost of, to the Working 
 
 Classes xlii 
 
 Coach Makers, Number of . . . 60 
 
 . Wage,s of ..... . ib. 
 
 i Annual amount of Wages of. 61 
 
 Coal, Price of, 1740—1865 . . .127 
 Coal-miuers, see Miners. 
 Coalheavers, Number of Persons 
 
 employed. Ill 
 
 .Wages of ..... 
 
 . Anuu?il amount of Wages 
 
 Coal Mining, Number of Collieries, 
 
 and quantity, prqduced . 
 
 .Valueof Exports . . . 
 
 . Nmnber of Persons employed 
 
 Hours of Labour in . . 
 
 Wages in, .... . . . 
 
 Annual amount of Wages 
 
 Districts, Health in . 
 
 BducE^t^onin .... 
 
 Colliery Districts, House Rent in 
 
 .State of EJduqatipn in , ~ 
 
 Ra,te of Drunkenness. 
 
 Rate of Mortality in . 
 
 Comb Manufacture, Number o 
 
 Persons employed ... 
 
 98 
 
 FAGE 
 
 Comb Manufacture, Wages of . . 99 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in. ib. 
 
 Combination Laws, History of. . liii 
 
 What is Threat and Intimi- 
 dation of . Iv 
 
 — ~ Requirements of . . . . liv 
 
 Compssitors, see Printers. 
 
 Coufeotioners, see Bakers. 
 
 Cooks, see Domestic Servants. 
 
 Copper Manufacture, see Metal Ma- 
 nufacture. 
 
 Cord-makers, sec Rope-makers. 
 
 Cork-cutters, see Bark. 
 
 Cotton Manufacture, Value of Im- 
 ports and Exports in tlie. . . 76 
 
 Number of Factories . . . ib. 
 
 Locality of. .... . ib, 
 
 Number of Persons employed ib. 
 
 Nature of Labour in tlie . . ib. 
 
 Hours of Laliour .... 77 
 
 ■ Wages in the ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in. 79 
 
 Cotton Districts, House Rent in . i6. 
 
 Health in 80 
 
 ■ ■ Education in .... . ib. 
 
 Savings Banks iu ... ib. 
 
 Drunkenness in ... . »6. 
 
 Cotton Spinner, Occupation of . x 
 Cuniers, see Skinners and Tanners. 
 
 Cutlery, Amount of Exports of . 56 
 
 Tools required for ... ib, 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in ib. 
 
 Wages of Cutlers .... 57 
 
 Aimual amount of Wages , 58 
 
 Health ib. 
 
 Rent of Houses in Cutlery 
 
 Districts ib. 
 
 - Education in i6. 
 
 Savings among Cutlers . . ib. 
 
 Drunkenness among Cutlers. 59 
 
 Dock Laboiu'ers, -Number of . .35 
 -Wages of id. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Dockyards, Wages of Artificers and 
 
 Labourers in 18 
 
 Advantage of Labourers in 
 
 the ib. 
 
 Number employed in . . ib. 
 
 Amount of Wages in . . ib. 
 
 Domestic Servants,' see Servants. 
 Draymen, see Maltsters and Brewers. 
 Dressmakers, see Seamstresses. 
 Drink, Cost of, to the Working 
 
 Classes , xl 
 
 Earthenware Manufacture, Value 
 
 of Exports of . , 114 
 
 Locality of ..... «6. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 135 
 
 Earthenware Manufacture, Number 
 of Persons employed in . . .114 
 
 Hours -of Labour in . . . ib. 
 
 Wages of 115 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Earthenware Districts, House Eunt 
 
 in 10, 115 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 10, 116 
 
 86. 
 
 Health of . . . 
 
 Education in , 
 
 -Savings in 
 
 Drunkenness in . 
 
 Engine-drivers, see Eailways. 
 Engine-makers, see Machine- 
 makers. 
 
 England and Wales, present Bate 
 of Wages in xxxi 
 
 Cost of Food in . ■ . . xxxviii 
 
 Estimated Population in 1861 
 
 and 1866 3 
 
 Number and Income of Work- 
 
 ers in ,<<<<.' . 
 
 Average Eate of Wages in . 
 
 Estimated Income of a Work- 
 ing Man's Family in . . . 
 
 iij. 
 
 Factory Laws, extension of . . xvi 
 
 System, Advantages and Dis- 
 
 advautage^ of ib. 
 
 Farm Servants, see Agricultural La- 
 bourers. 
 
 File-makers, see Cutlers. 
 
 Fishermen, Occupation of . . xiv 
 
 Number of , .... 45 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of 46 
 
 Cost of Boats to .... 47 
 
 Health of ....... ib. 
 
 Flax Manufacture, see Linen. 
 
 Flesh, Price of, 1740—1865 . . 127 
 Flour, Price of, 1740—1865 . . 127 
 Forger, Occupations of .... ix 
 French-polishers, • see Cabinet- 
 makers. 
 
 Gtardeners, see Domestic Servants. 
 Gasworks, Number of Persons em- 
 ployed in . 112 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in ib. 
 
 Glass Manufacture, Value of Im- 
 ports and Exports .... 113 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in . !6. 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . 117 
 
 Glaziers,- Painters, and Plumbers, 
 
 see Builders. 
 Glove Manufacture, Number of 
 Persons employed in . . . .92 
 
 „ i in . . . . . . ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in ib. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gold, Silver, and Precious Stone 
 Workers, Number of ... 118 
 
 Wages of 119 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Great Britain, Local Distribution 
 of Occupations in . . . . vi 
 
 Grinders, see Cutlery. 
 
 Grooms, see Domestic Servants. 
 
 Gum, OH, and Colourmen, Number 
 of 102 
 
 Wuges of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Hacklers, see Linen Manufacture. 
 Hairdressers, Number of . . . 89 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Hardware Districts, Health in . 125 
 House Eent in .... ib. 
 
 Education in ib. 
 
 Drunkenness in . . , . 126 
 
 Hardware Manufacture, Locality of vii 
 
 Value of Exports of . . .124 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in , »6. 
 
 Wages in .125 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in t6. 
 
 Harness-Makers, Number of . .61 
 Hat Manufacture, Number of Per- 
 sons employed in .... 88 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in 89 
 
 Hewers, see Coal Mining. 
 
 Hoppers, see Maltsters and Brewers. 
 
 HorsekeeperB, Number of ... . 48 
 
 Wages of ib, 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Hosiery and Lace Manufeoture, 
 
 Value of feports of .... 83 
 
 Value of ib. 
 
 Number of Factories . . ib. 
 
 Locality of ..... 84 
 
 Number of Person.? employed i6. 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of ... 85 
 
 Hosiery and Lace Districts, Health 
 
 in . ... . . . . ib. 
 
 House Eent in .... ib. 
 
 Education in 86 
 
 Savings Banks in . . . *. 
 
 Drunkenness in . . . . !6. 
 
 House Eent, relation to Health of xli 
 
 Im pleraent Makers, see Machines. 
 Income Tax, amount of Capital 
 
 assessed to xlv 
 
 Ireland, present Eate of Wages in xxxi 
 
 Cost of Food in . . . xxxviii 
 
 Number and Income of Work- 
 ers in-. . . • 8 
 
 Average Eate of Wages in . ib, 
 
136 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ireland, Estimated Income of a 
 
 Working Man's Family in . . 9 
 
 Iron Districts, Health in . . , 123 
 
 • • Kent of Houses in . . . ib. 
 
 Education in .... . ih. 
 
 Savings in 124 
 
 Drunkenness in ... . ib. 
 
 Ii-on Manufacture, Value of Ex- 
 ports of 121 
 
 Number of Persons employed 122 
 
 — — Nature of tlie Work in . . ib. 
 
 Hours of Labour in . . . ib. 
 
 Wages in 123 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in ib. 
 
 Iron Miners, see Miners. 
 
 Italy, Value of Exports of, per 
 
 Head of the Population . . . vi 
 — — ■ Per Square Mile .... ib. 
 
 Japanners, see Workers in Glim and 
 
 Eesin. 
 Jewellers, Goldsmiths, see Gold and 
 
 Silver Workers. 
 Joiners, Carpenters, see Builders. 
 
 Knife-makers, see Cutlers. 
 
 Labour, Necessity for ... . xvii 
 
 Effect of Cessation of . xviii 
 
 Short Time of . . . xix 
 
 Pleasures of ib. 
 
 Condition ' necessary fur Effi- 
 cient and Successful ' . . . . xx 
 
 — ■■ — Production and tJnproduction xxii 
 ■ and Capital, Eelatiou of xxvii 
 
 Intrinsic Value of . . xxxi 
 
 Kelation of Wages to . xxxiv 
 
 Hours of, in Factories and 
 
 Workshops 9 
 
 Laboui-ers, Number and Earnings of 126 
 Lace TMaiiufacture, see Hosiery. 
 Laundry-maids, see Domestic Ser- 
 vants. 
 Lead Manufacture, see Metals. 
 Lead Mining, see Mining. 
 Leather Case Makers, Number of 
 Persons employed as . . . . 100 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Life-Boat Inistitiition, Objects of . 47 
 Lighterrnen, see Carriers on Canals. 
 Lineri Manufacture, Value of Im- 
 ports and Exports .... 81 
 
 — — Number of Factorii s . . ib. 
 
 Locality of .... . ib. 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in ib. 
 
 Wages in 82 
 
 — — Annual amount of Wages in 83 
 
 Lithographers, Number of . . . S3 
 
 Wages of . . . . . . ib. 
 
 ■ ^Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Machinery, Effect of, on Wages . li 
 Machine, Tools and Implements, 
 Value of Exports of .... 59 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in »■*• 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount' pf Wages in 60 
 
 Malt, Cost of, to the Consumers . xli 
 Maltsters and Brewers, Number 
 
 of Persons 96 
 
 Wages of *. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of 97 
 
 Marble-masons, see Builders. 
 Masons, Wages of, 1740-1865 .127 
 Meat, Price of, 1845—1865 . xxxix 
 Messengers and Porters, Number 
 
 of . 36 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of 37 
 
 Metal Manufacture, Value of Ex- 
 ports of 119 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in 120 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Districts, Annual amount of 
 
 Wages ib. 
 
 Education in 121 
 
 Metal Mining, Production of . . 1 06 
 Locality of ib. 
 
 Nmnber of Persons employed 
 
 in . . , 107 
 
 Wagvs of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in 108 
 
 Metal Manufacture, Value of Ex- 
 ports 119 
 
 Number of Persons em- 
 ployed' . . 120 
 
 — ^ Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . ib. 
 
 Metal Districts, Health in . . 121 
 
 Education ib. 
 
 Savings in ib. 
 
 — — Drunkenness in . ... . ib. 
 Metal Districts' Manufactures, 
 
 Health in fib. 
 
 Education in ib. 
 
 Sayings in ... . . , ib. 
 
 ■ Drunkenness in ... . ib^ 
 
 Middle and Higher Classes, 
 
 amount of Income of ... xlv 
 Millers, Number of .... 94 
 1- Wages of !6„ 
 
 Annual amount of Wag?a of ib. 
 
 Milliners, Dressmakers, see Seam- 
 stresses. 
 
 Miner, Occupation of . . . . ,ix 
 Modellers, see Earthenware. 
 Moulders, see Machine-makers. 
 Musical Instrument Makers, Num- 
 ber of '. 62. 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 137 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Musical InstmmeDt Makers, An- 
 nual Amount of Wages of . .53 
 
 Jfavy, Number in the .... 22 
 
 Amouirt of Wages . . . «6. 
 
 Wages in the ib. 
 
 Health ib. 
 
 Education . . . . .23 
 
 Crime' and Drunkenness in 
 
 the' ib, 
 
 Nottingham, Board of Arbitration 
 
 in^ . Iviii 
 
 Nurse, see Domestic Servaats. 
 
 Overtime, Objection of Trade 
 Societies to 1 
 
 Painters, Plumbers, see Builders. 
 Pan-men, see Sugar Befiners. 
 Paper-hangers, see Builders. 
 -Paper Manufacture, Number of 
 Paper Mills 104 
 
 Locality of ib. 
 
 — — Numbbr of Persons em- 
 ployed in ib. 
 
 Wages in 105 
 
 Paper Manufacture, Annual . 
 
 amount of Wages in the . . ib. 
 Paper-stainers, see Paper Manufac- 
 ture. 
 Pattern-designers, see Cotton Manu- 
 facture. 
 Pattern-makers, see Machine- 
 makers. 
 Percussion-cap Makers, see Arms, 
 Philosophical Instrument Makers, 
 ' Number of . ... . . 54 
 
 Wages of 55 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Pianoforte-makers, see Musical In- 
 
 stiTunents. 
 Piecework, Mode of _ judging 
 
 Wages by ...... xlix 
 
 Plasterers, see Builders. 
 
 Plumbers, Wages of ... . 127 
 
 ' see Builders. 
 
 Poachers; see Paper Manufectmu ' 
 
 Police, Number of 19 
 
 Cost of ib. 
 
 Wages of ....... 20 
 
 Population, Different Classes of .xxiii 
 
 Porters, see Messengers. 
 
 Post-office, Number employed in . 19 
 
 Wages of Letter Carriers in . ib. 
 
 Advantages of ... . ib. 
 
 Total amount of Earnings in ib,. 
 
 Printing, History of Invention of . xi 
 
 Printers, Number of .... 49 
 
 Condition of Laboiu: of . . ib, 
 
 Hours of Labour of . . . ib^ 
 
 Wages of 50 
 
 PAGli 
 
 Printers, Annual amount of Wages 50 
 
 Health of *. 
 
 House Rent of .... iJ. 
 
 Puddlers, .see Iron Manufacture. 
 
 Quarriers, Number of Persons em- 
 
 ploved 112 
 
 "Wages of 113 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Eag-boilera, see Paper Manufacture. 
 
 Railway Works, Magnitude of . xiv 
 
 Railways, Number of Miles open ., 27 
 
 — — ■ Persons employed in ■ . . ib. 
 — — Condition of Service . .28 
 
 Wages of Servants in . . ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in ib. 
 
 Health and Accidents in . 29 
 
 Eazor-makers, see Cutlers. 
 
 Reelers, see Woollen. 
 Rivetters; see Machine. 
 Rope' Manufacture, Number of 
 Persons employed in ... 93 
 
 Wages in the ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in 
 
 the ib. 
 
 Eotary-framemen, see Hosiery. 
 
 Saggar-makers, see Earthenware. 
 Sail-makers, -see Sliipbuilders. 
 Salt Manufacture, Number of Per- 
 sons employed in 117 
 
 Condition of Labour in . . ib. 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in 118 
 
 Savings Banks, Amount in - , . xliv 
 
 Number of Depositors in . ib. 
 
 Afliount per Head of . . &. 
 
 Saw-makers, see Cutlery. 
 
 Sawyers, Coopers,- and Turners, 
 Number of . . .. . . .102 
 
 WageS'Of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of 103 
 
 Scotland, Estimated Population in 
 
 1861 and 1866 in .... 4 
 
 Number and Income of 
 
 Workers in 8 
 
 Average rates of Wages in . ib. 
 
 Estimated Income of a Work- 
 ing Man's Family in ... 9 
 
 Present Rate of Wages, 
 
 in xxxi 
 
 Cost of Food in . . . xxxviii 
 
 Consumption of Meat in . ib. 
 
 Scourers, see Woollen. 
 
 Scribblers, see Woollen. 
 
 Seamen, Number of . , . .32 
 
 Wages of . . . . . . ib 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in 34 
 
 — ' — Savings of . . , , . >6. 
 Health of ib, 
 
 L 
 
138 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PASE 
 
 Seamen, Occupation of . . . xiii 
 Seamstresses, Number of . ., . 91 
 ,Wa,ges.of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Servants, Number of . ... 24 
 
 Wages of , »'5. 
 
 Annual amount of Earnings 
 
 of 25 
 
 Savings of ..... ib. 
 
 Health of 26 
 
 Shepherds, see Agricultural La- 
 bourers. 
 
 Ships, Tonnage of those belonging 
 
 to the TJnited Kingdom . . 63 
 
 Sliipbjiilders and Shipwrights, 
 
 Number of 62 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 — • — Annual amount of Wages of ih. 
 
 ^- Health qf 63 
 
 Education of ib. 
 
 Savings of , ib. 
 
 Drunkenness of . . . . ib. 
 
 'Kent of Houses of . . . ib. 
 
 Shipwrecked Mariners' Society, Ob- 
 jects of 47 
 
 Shipwrights, Wages of, in the Dock- 
 yards , 18 
 
 Silk Manufacture, Value of Imports 
 
 and Exports 72 
 
 Number of Factories ... 73 
 
 Locality of ib. 
 
 Number of Persons employed 
 
 in .16.. 
 
 Nature of Labour . . . S>. 
 
 Hours of Labour - ... 74 
 
 Cost of Tools ib. 
 
 Wages in ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . ib. 
 
 Silk Districts, House-rent in . . 75 
 
 Health in ib. 
 
 jEdu jation in ib. 
 
 —— Savings Banks .... ib. 
 
 " Drunkenness . ... . . ib. 
 
 Sizers, see Cotton Manufaotm'S. 
 Skinners, Number of Persons em- 
 ployed 99 
 
 .W^es of . . . . . , ib. 
 
 -n — .Annual amount of Wages . 100 
 
 Slaters, see Builders. 
 
 Slubbers,, sei Woollen. 
 
 Smiths, see Coaohmakers. 
 
 Soap-boilers and Tallow-chandlers, 
 
 Number of Persons employed . 98 
 
 —* — .Wages of !6. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages . s6. 
 
 Spinners, see Cotton and Linen Ma- 
 
 , nuf&cture.. 
 
 Spirits, cost of, to the consumers . xli 
 
 Spitalflelds and the Silk Manufac- 
 ture, reminiscences of . . . xi 
 
 Stay-i)iakers,,see.8eamstreBses. ( 
 
 PASB 
 
 Stocking Manufacture, see Hosiery. 
 Stokers, Firemen, Engine-drivers, 
 
 see Railway. , 
 Straw-plait manufacture, Number 
 
 of Persons 91 
 
 Wages in . . . ■ . . 92 
 
 Annual amount of Wages in ib. 
 
 Strikes, Effect of xviii 
 
 Natural aspect of . . . Ivi 
 
 Modes of averting . . . Ivii 
 
 ' Conseil de Prudhoinmea *. 
 
 Arbitration under the 
 
 Act ..... »5. 
 
 ^ Voluntary .... Iviii 
 
 Sugar, Consumption of . . . xxxiv 
 
 Price of, in 1801—1865 . . 128 
 
 Sugar Eefiners, Number of Persons 
 
 employed 95 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages of 16. 
 
 Tailors, Number of . . . .90 
 Wages of ib, 
 
 Annual amount of Wages , 16. 
 
 Tanners, see Skinners. 
 
 Taxes, Proportion of, borne by the 
 
 Working Classes xliii 
 
 Tea,- Consumption of, in 1864 and 
 
 1865 per head .... xxxix 
 
 Price of, 1801—1865 . . 128 
 
 Teazevs and Wiilyers, see Woollen 
 
 Manufacture. 
 Tenterers, see Woollen. 
 Throwers, see Earthenware. 
 Tobacco, cost of, to the Consumer xli 
 Tobacco Manufacture, Number of 
 
 Persons employed in . . . ,97 
 
 - — Wages of . ' ib. 
 
 Annual amoimt of Wages in ib. 
 
 Trade. Societies, relation of, to 
 
 Guilds xlvii 
 
 Objects of .... xlviii 
 
 — — Effect of, on Wages . . . ib. 
 Enles of, respecting uniform- 
 ity of . . xlix 
 
 Piecework and Overtime ib. 
 
 : Apprenticeship . . 1 
 
 Tributors, see Metal Manufacture. 
 Tunnel under the Alps, magnitude 
 
 of ... XV 
 
 United Kingdom, productive Power 
 of V 
 
 Value of Exports of, per head 
 
 of the population . . , . vi 
 
 per square mile , . %b. 
 
 tTnited States, Value of Exports of, 
 per head of the popuUtiou . , v 
 
 '■ — - per square mile . . vi 
 
 Wages, Appropriation of , , Kxxvi 
 
INDEX. 
 
 139 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wages, how affected by Trade So- 
 cieties xlviii 
 
 Uniformity of . . . . xlix 
 
 Effect of Maohineiy on . . li 
 
 Total amount of Wages of 
 
 Women and Cliildren . . . 7, 8 
 
 Eelation of Capital and La- 
 bour respecting .... xxvii 
 
 Contract of .... ?xix 
 
 Present Bates of . . . xxxi 
 
 of Mechanics and Labourers xxxii 
 
 at Home and Abroad.- . . ib. 
 
 in Belgium ib. 
 
 in Prance xxxiii 
 
 in Prussia ib. 
 
 in the United States of 
 
 America lb. 
 
 in Sydney ib. 
 
 Rate of, and Price of La- 
 bour xxxiv 
 
 — '■ — of Paper Manufacturers . .105 
 
 Metals Miners . . . .107 
 
 Coal Miners 109 
 
 Coalheavers Ill 
 
 Chimney Sweepers . . . 112 
 
 Gas Works men .... ih. 
 
 Quarriers 113 
 
 ' Brickmakers ib. 
 
 Earthenware Manufacturers. 115 
 
 Glass Manufacturers . .116 
 
 Salt Manufacturers . . .117 
 
 Water Works men . . .118 
 
 Gold, Silver, and Precious 
 
 Stone Workers . • . . . .119 
 
 Philosophical Instrument 
 
 Makers 55 
 
 Watermen and Bargemen . 31 
 
 Seamen 33 
 
 Dock Labourers .... 35 
 
 Warehousemen .... 36 
 
 Gold, Silver, and Precious 
 
 Stone Workers 119 
 
 Metal Workers . . . .120 
 
 Iron Manufacturers . . .123 
 
 Hardware Manufacturers . 125 
 
 Messengers and Porters . . 36 
 
 Agricultural Labourers . . 39 
 
 Fishermen 45 
 
 Horsekeepcrs .... 48 
 
 Printers 50 
 
 Bookbinders and Bookfolders 52 
 
 Lithographers .... 53 
 
 AVood Carvers and Toy Makers 54 
 
 Brash Makers . . . . 1 01 
 
 Gum, Oil, and Colourmen . 102 
 
 Sawyers, Coopers, and Turners ib. 
 
 Workers in Wood . . .103 
 
 in Bark, Cane, Rush, 
 
 and Straw ib. 
 
 Watchmakers S5 
 
 Cutlers 57 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wages, Machine and Tool Makers 60 
 
 ' Coach Makers .... ib. 
 
 Harness Makers . ... 61 
 
 Shipbuilders 62 
 
 Builders 65 
 
 Cabinet Makers and Up- 
 holsterers ....... 67 
 
 Cliemical Manufacturers. . 68 
 
 Shipwrights in the Dockyards 18 
 
 Caulkers ib. 
 
 Policemen 20 
 
 Privates in the Army . . . 21 
 
 Petty Officers and Seamen in 
 
 the Navy 23 
 
 Domestic Servants ... 24 
 
 Railway Servants. ... 28 
 
 Carriers 29 
 
 Linen Manufacturers . .82 
 
 Hosiery and Lace Manufac- 
 turers 84 
 
 Boot and Shoe Manufacturers 88 
 
 Hat Manufacturers . . . ib. 
 
 Hairdressers ..... 89 
 
 Tailors 90 
 
 Seamstresses 91 
 
 Straw Plait Manufacturers . 92 
 
 Glove Manufacturers . . ib. 
 
 Rope Manufacturers . . 93 
 
 Millers 94 
 
 Bakers ib. 
 
 Sugar Refiners .... 95 
 
 Maltsters and Brewers . , 96 
 
 Tobacco Manufacture . , 97 
 
 Soap Boilers and Tallow 
 
 Cliandlers 98 
 
 Comb Manufacturers . . ib. 
 
 Skinners and Tanners . . 99 
 
 Leather Case Makers . .100 
 
 Woollen Manufacturers , . 71 
 
 Silk Manufacturers ... 74 
 
 Cotton Manufacturers . . 77 
 
 Amount off in the different 
 
 Classes ....... 77 
 
 Warehousemen, Number of . . 36 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 .^nnual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Warpers, see Cotton Manufacture. 
 Washerwomen ...... 126 
 
 Watchmakers, Number of . . .55 
 
 Wages of ib. 
 
 ■ Annual amount of Wages . 56 
 
 Watermen, Occupation of . . . 31 
 
 Wages' ib. 
 
 - Health of 32 
 
 Waterworks, Number of Persons 
 
 employed in " . 118 
 
 Wages in ..... . ib. 
 
 Annual amount of Wages , ib. 
 
 Wealth, "eager pursuit of . . . xvi 
 Wideband Frame-men, see Hosiery. 
 Winders, see Linen Manufacture. 
 
140 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wood-carvers and Toy-toaliers, 
 
 Number of 54 
 
 Wages ib. 
 
 Anilual amount of Wages of ib. 
 
 Wood- workers, Number of Persons 
 
 employed . , . . . . . 103 
 
 Wages in . . . . . . ib. 
 
 ■ Annual amount of Wages in ib. 
 
 Woollen Manufacture, Value of 
 
 Imports and Exports ... 69 
 
 Value of . . ', . . ,■ ib. 
 
 ■ Number of Factories and 
 
 Spindles 70 
 
 'Locality of ib. 
 
 — — ■ Nuniber of Persons employed 
 
 in . . ' ib. 
 
 Nature of Labour in .. . . ib. 
 
 Hours of Labour in . . . ib. 
 
 Wages in ....'.. 71 
 
 — — ■ Annual amount of Wages . ib. 
 
 Woollen Districts, House-rent in . 72 
 
 — — Education . . . . . ib. 
 
 Health ib. 
 
 Savings Banks In - . . . ib. 
 
 Drunkenness in ... . ib. 
 
 Workers, Sources of information 
 
 concerning 3 
 
 who are included imder . . 6 
 
 Number of Artisans and La- 
 bourers '. 7 
 
 Town and Country . . . ib. 
 
 Producers and Non-producers ib. 
 
 Total annual Earnings of . ib. 
 
 Number and Income of . . 8 
 
 PAGIi 
 
 Workers, Mode of Payment of . . 9 
 Working- Classes, Mode of estimat- 
 ing the Earnings of ... . 5 
 
 . • Estimate of the Earnings of . 3 
 
 Meaning of . . • , . xxiii 
 
 — ^- Number of •''■ 
 
 Gradation of ... . xxiv 
 
 as distinct from lower classes ib. 
 
 Number in a family . . xxxvi 
 
 Number of earners in a fa- 
 mily of xxxvii 
 
 Expenditure of, in food . xxxviii 
 
 Women and Children, Labour of xxxvii 
 Workman, British and Foreign, re- 
 lative power of production of xxxv 
 
 Workmen, Producers and Non-pro- 
 dueera xxii 
 
 Expenditure in Drink . . xl 
 
 House-rent ... . xli 
 
 . Clothing .... xlii 
 
 — Medical Attendance and 
 
 .Benevolent Objects . . . ib. 
 
 Taxes xliii 
 
 Savings of !6. 
 
 ■ ■ in Implements and 
 
 Tools ...... xliv 
 
 at the Savings Banks .. ib. 
 
 — — ■ in Building Sopieties . ■ib. 
 
 • In Co-operative Asso- 
 ciations ....... xlv 
 
 Total annual Income of , , ib. 
 
 per head ' . . . . ib. 
 
 per family .... ib. 
 
 Wrights, see Cotton'Manufaoture.. 
 
 J-OXDOS: rfilKTED OT IV. CLOWES AKD EOHS, SlASLFOaD 6TKEET ASD OIIAEIKG OROSt. 
 
a<W8ir!999" - 
 
 
 PRINT KOINU.a.A. 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 HD5017.L321867 
 
 Wages and earnings of the working ciasse 
 
 3 1924 001 831 936