•Mm 
 
O^ocnell Hnittersttg Hibratg 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE 
 
 FISKE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE BEQUEST OF 
 
 WILLARD FISKE 
 
 LIBRARIAN OF THE UNIVERSITY 1868-1B8S 
 1905 
 
Cornell University Library 
 arW38925 
 
 3 1924 031 754 371 
 olln,anx 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031754371 
 
HYGIENE AS NATURE 
 STUDY 
 
 GREGG 
 
HYGIENE AS NATURE STUDY 
 
 A SERIES OF INDUCTIVE.DEDUCTIVE LES^ 
 SONS IN HYGIENE FOR GRADES V, VI, VII 
 AND VIII OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 By F. M. GREGG, A. M. (Chicago.) 
 
 Department of Education and Psychology, Peru State Normal, Author of an Outline 
 of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, A Manual of Parliamentary 
 Law, etc. 
 
 Price 70 cents. Paper Ecur.d 
 
 PLBLISHKD By THE AUTHOK 
 
 PhKU, NKBKAPKA. 
 U 
 
Copyrighted 1917 
 BY FRED MARION GREGG, A. M. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Thia monograph Is an expansion of a bulletin on Hygiene, including 
 a Course of Study for the Elementary Schools, which the author pre- 
 pared for the Nebraska State Department of Education in 1916. The 
 failure of the legislature of 1917 to provide adequate appropriation, made 
 it impossible for the succeeding State Superintendent to continue the 
 publication. Its re-publication has accordingly been undertaken by the 
 author, in order that the movement for better hygiene work in the ih - 
 mentary schools, especially of his own state, might not be denied this 
 recourse for continued progress. 
 
 The general spirit and method of the hygiene teaching provided for 
 in the following pages, has arisen out of the author's contacts with the 
 teaching of hygiene in the Training School of the Peru State Normal. 
 Along with this and back of it is his experience in taking more than six- 
 ty classes over the ground of elementary physiology, and in presenting 
 the subject to more than 2000 secondary and collegiate students. The 
 futility of trying to present physiology to grade pupils thus became ap- 
 parent from two extreme points of view. The book has accordingly been 
 a result of slow development and evolution both in its organization and 
 in its content. 
 
 Practically all the thirty-three nature study lessons have been tried 
 out either in the Peru Normal Training School or by teachers in nearly 
 fifty school rooms in Nebraska in the year 1916-17. The enthusiastic 
 reports which have come back from the teachers doing this work in the 
 prescribed way have constituted the chief stimulus in entering upon this 
 larger enterprise. Dean Rouse and Misses Krebs, Perkins, Orr and Van- 
 Middlesworth, of the Peru Training School, are those to whom special ac- 
 knowledgement is due for sympathetic assistance, and without whose 
 co-operation all experimentation in the teaching of hygiene could not 
 have been entered upon. 
 
 Courteous acknowledgment is also made to the Middle- West School 
 Review and to. the Nebraska Teacher for the use of matter originally ap- 
 pearing in thffse journals. 
 
 With a few self-evident exceptions', the series of zinc etchings 
 in Vhapter VIII are intended as suggestions for summarizing the 
 different general topics in the subject of elementary physiology. 
 They are not supposed to be used with pupils in the elementary grades, 
 except as they may be simplified by the teacher and brot within the 
 range of the pupil's sense experience. As they stand, however, they 
 should serve as a convenient device for affording a quick general re- 
 
view of the teacher's knowledge of physiology, which should serve as 
 the background of her work in hygiene teaching. They should prove 
 helpful; also, to "normal training" pupils taking the review in physiology. 
 
 The actual use which the author has made of the etchings has been 
 in connection with the teaching of physiology to secondary and collegi- 
 ate studenta. After a class has been introduced to a new topic in phy- 
 siology by means of definite work in the laboratory, the next step has 
 been the study of the books. Following the book study, the blackboard 
 summaries have been built up before the pupils, and the latter required 
 to master the outlines to the point of ability to reproduce them from 
 memory. 
 
 These methods may aeem a bit old-fashioned to certain advocates 
 of "soft pedagogy" but it is the conviction of the author that not a 
 little of the teaching by laboratory and research is lost because of a 
 failure to crystallize and master the essence of the topic under consid- 
 eration.The author regards the practice of blackboard aimmarization 
 as the most effective single device he had hit upon in the course of 
 fifteen years experience as a teacher of elementary physiology. 
 
 As to the nature-study lessons in Hygiene provided in this manuel, 
 it is not asBumed that all of them are practicable for all school condi- 
 tions, and a few of them in part may not be practicable for any school. 
 Accordingly the author will appreciate and welcome any constructive 
 criticism from any quarter. 
 
 F. M. GREGG. 
 Peru, Nebraska, September 1917. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter " Page 
 
 I. SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 Sanitation of the School Property 7 
 
 Emergency Outfits 11 
 
 II. PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 Purpose and Problems 12 
 
 Instruction in Hygiene and Sanitation 13 
 
 Motivating the Pupil 16 
 
 III. WORK OF GRADES I-IV 
 
 Aims and Special Problems 22 
 
 Subject Matter for Grades I-IV 22 
 
 IV. GRADE V :— HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 Time, Aim, and Procedure 26 
 
 Major Topics and Nature-Study Lessons 28 
 
 1. Breathing Good Air 30 
 
 2. Taking Care of the Nose and Throat 33 
 
 3. What and How to Eat and Drink 37 
 
 4. Caring for the Teeth 40 
 
 5. Harmful Stuffs for the Mouth 48 
 
 6. Making the Body Strong and Straight 47 
 
 7. Caring for the Skin, Nails, and Scalp 57 
 
 8. Caring for the Eyes and Ears 54 
 
 9. What to Do When Accidents Happen 56 
 
 V. GRADE VI. :— GERM HYGIENE 
 
 Time, Aim, and Procedure 58 
 
 Major Topics and Nature Study Lessons 59 
 
 1. Plant Germs, or Bacteria 62 
 
 2. Animal Germs, or Protozoa 65 
 
 3. How the Body Combats Germ Enemies 63 
 
 4. How We Can Help Nature Control Germs 71 
 
 5. Ventilation, Germs, and Body Temperature — 74 
 
 6. Bathing to Counteract Germs and Colds 77 
 
 7. Clothing and Germs 80 
 
VI. GRADE VII:— COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 Time, Aim, and Procedure 83 
 
 Major Topics and Nature-Study Lessons 84 
 
 1. Pure Air and Good Water 87 
 
 2. Communicable Bacterial Diseases 91 
 
 3. Communicable Protozoan Diseases 92 
 
 4. Quarantining and Care of the Sick 93 
 
 5. ' Inspection of Food Supply Sources 94 
 
 6. Mosquitoes, Rats, and Pets 98 
 
 7. The Housefly as a Menace 102 
 
 8. Community Duties and Burdens 105 
 
 VII. GRADE VIII.— HUMAN BODY HYGIENE 
 
 Time, Aim, and Procedure liO 
 
 Major Topics and Nature-Study Lessons 111 
 
 1. Foods, Feeding, and Beverages ^ 113 
 
 2. Blood and Lymph 119 
 
 3. The Circulation and Common Colds 121 
 
 4. The Air, Breathing, and Speaking 127 
 
 5. Body Wastes, Ventilation and Heat Control 132 
 
 6. Bones, Joints and Levers 138 
 
 7. Muscles, Posture, Exercise, Fatigue 140 
 
 8. Behavior, Brain, Nerves, and Senses 143 
 
 9. Stimulants, Narcotics, and Medicines 147 
 
 A. Proposed Eighth Grade Hygiene Test 149 
 
 VIII. ZINC ETCHINGS OF BLACKBOARD WORK 151 
 
 IX. APPENDIXES 
 
 A. List of Teacher's and Pupil's Books 168 
 
 B. A Dekalog of Good Health 170 
 
CHAPTER I.— SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 SANITATION OF THE SCHOOL PROPERTY 
 
 I. THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 
 
 1. Is there absence of mud around the schoolhouse when 
 
 it rains ? 
 
 2. Is there a good walk leading from the road to the 
 
 schoolhouse door? 
 S. Are the school grounds well drained, that is, free from 
 all standing water in wet weather? 
 
 4. Are there trees to relieve the excessive heat in sum- 
 
 mer and to serve as a windbreak in winter? 
 
 5. Is there abundant and suitable playground space and 
 
 apparatus to provide appropriate opportunity and 
 stimulus for healthful physical exercise ? 
 
 6. Is there a well of pure water on the grounds, or con- 
 
 veniently accessible to the building, and is it so 
 covered as absolutely to prevent the incursion of 
 surface water and all filth? 
 
 II. THE OUTBUILDINGS 
 
 1. Are the outbuildings in good condition, that is, are 
 
 they rainproof, do the doors swing freely, are the in- 
 terior constructions adapted to their purposes, and 
 are they clean and free from unsightly marks? 
 
 2. If boys' and girls' closets exist separately, are they 
 
 suitably screened in the interest of decency? 
 
 3. Is there a suitable container for closet excreta, either 
 
 (1) a dry earth closet, (2) a septic tank container, or 
 (3) a water tight vault or box? 
 
 4. Is all thoroughly screened against insects and easily 
 
 cleanable at frequent intervals, the excreta being 
 either burned, buried, or distributed on tilled land, or 
 reduced by septic tank conditions? 
 
8 SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 III. THE SCHOOL BUILDING 
 
 1. Cleanliness 
 
 (a) Are the flooi's scrubbed and the windows washed 
 at least once a month, and are board floors oiled 
 every two months? 
 
 (b) Are the floors, doors, walls, windows, ceilings, 
 and school furniture free from accumulations of 
 dirt and dust? 
 
 (c) Are the floors swept daily with sweeping powder, 
 and the seats and other school furniture well dust- 
 ed with a damp cloth? 
 
 2. Heating 
 
 (a) Is the building itself in good condition for main- 
 taining a proper temperature with a good heating 
 apparatus? 
 
 (b) Is the schoolroom provided with a suitable and 
 effective heating apparatus, either a well jacketed 
 stove or a well installed furnace ? 
 
 (c) Is there provision for the evaporation of a consid- 
 erable quantity of moisture at the source of heat 
 supply, so as to humify the air to 60 per cent 
 humidity ? 
 
 (d) Is there a good thermometer in the room kept at 
 the height of about four feet above the floor and 
 convenient to the teacher, so that a fairly uniform 
 temperature of 68 degrees F. can be maintained? 
 
 (e) Is the heating apparatus in charge of someone 
 who is thoroughly capable of managing it effi- 
 ciently and economically? 
 
 (f ) Is the fuel abundant and in good condition and is 
 there a provision of suitable kindling? 
 
 3. Ventilating 
 
 (a) Is there at least 200 cubic feet of air space for 
 each pupil in the room? 
 
 (b) Is there an aperture a foot square per room for 
 supplying fresh air to the heating apparatus? 
 
 (c) Is there a foul air exit of sixteen inches square 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 9 
 
 on the wall near the floor and on the side of the 
 room the heat supply comes from? 
 
 (d) If conditions (a) and (b) do not exist, is there a 
 provision for open windows in mild weather and 
 for window board ventilators under all other 
 conditions ? 
 
 (e) Is the practice carried out of flushing the room 
 with fresh air at intermission times whatever the 
 the system of ventilation, and is the whole air of 
 the room regularly renewed about once every 
 fifteen minutes? 
 
 4. Lighting 
 
 (a) Is the total window glass space equal to one-fourth 
 to one-fifth of the floor space? 
 
 (b) Are the sources of illumination, for the most part, 
 on the left of the seated pupils, and on the long 
 wall of the room ? 
 
 (c) Are the ceilings colored white or cream, the walls 
 light gray or a light green, and the blackboards 
 black but not glossy? 
 
 (d) If there are windows at the rear or right of the 
 pupil (for sunlight at some time of the day, or for 
 ventilation), a*re their bases at least seven feet 
 from the floor? 
 
 (e) Are neutral colored window shades provided for 
 both the tops and bottoms of the v/indows, (t>e 
 ones at the top being translucent for controlling 
 light on very bright days) and are the shades regu- 
 larly kept in good order? 
 
 5. School furniture, books ,etc. 
 
 (a) Are the school seats single and are those of the 
 same size in separate rows? 
 
 (b) Are the seats adjustable, and are they fitted to the 
 child at first and refitted every four months there- 
 after? 
 
 (c) Are the devices for using ink kept in good order, 
 and are the desks kept free from ink marks and 
 other defacements? 
 
10 SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 (d) Are the seats, teacher's desk ,and other furniture 
 of such a nature as to permit ready sweeping and 
 cleaning underneath, and are they of a sort to re- 
 duce dust-gathering to the lowest terms? 
 
 (e) Are the desks so related to the seats that a plumb 
 line dropped from the rear edge of the desk will 
 fall two inches back from the front edge of the 
 seat? 
 
 (f) Are there seats provided for the left-handed 
 children so set as to permit the illumination to 
 come in over their right shoulders while they are 
 writing ? 
 
 (g) Are the children's books kept in good order in 
 their desks, and is there insistance on general 
 freedom from litter in and about the desks? 
 
 6. Water supply 
 
 (a) Is the drinking water wholesome and free from 
 the possibility of germ infection. 
 
 (b) Is there easy access to drinking water any time 
 of day without the necessity of disturbing the 
 school in any way ? 
 
 (c) Is there plenty of chance to get a drink when the 
 demand is heavy, as at the close of intermissions? 
 
 (d) If individual drinking cups are used (cups used in 
 common, of course, not being tolerated), are they 
 kept where they are free f'lom scl^oolroom dust? 
 
 (e) If individual cups are used, is the container for the 
 drinking water so fixed that the water runs into the 
 cups and cannot be dipped into? 
 
 (f). Are there facilities for the pupils' washing their 
 hands after (a) the use of the toilet, (b) handling 
 soiled objects such as chalk, baseballs, etc., and 
 (c) just before eating luncheon? 
 
 (g) Are there individual towels kept in suitable re- 
 cepticles, or better yet, paper towels conventiently 
 at hand? 
 
SCHOOL SANITATION 11 
 
 EMERGENCY OUTFIT 
 
 The following list of emergency materials is modified 
 from Rapeer's "Educational Hygiene." This material (or 
 the outfit mentioned below) should be a part of every rural 
 and city school equipment, and can be had from almost any 
 drugstore at the (war) prices named: 
 
 One doz. bandages, one inch, for fingers and toes 50c 
 
 One doz. bandages, one inch, for extremities 60c 
 
 One lb. absorbent cotten 50c 
 
 One yard of sterile gauze for use as sponges or as wet 
 
 dressings 15c 
 
 One roll zinc oxide adhesive plaster, to draw edges of 
 cuts together and hold dressings on, one inch by 
 
 ten yards 50c 
 
 One ounce flexible collodion with brush to apply 15c 
 
 Two ounces tincture of iodine, with brush to apply 25c 
 
 Four ounces aromatic spirits of amonia, about 35c 
 
 Six ounces carron oil (apply to burns) 20c 
 
 Six ounces witch-hazel (for sprains) 20c 
 
 One box borax 10c 
 
 Two ounces oil of cloves 50c 
 
 1 can Kreso Disinfectant (Parke, Davis Co.) 35c 
 
 One paper safety pins, small and large 10c 
 
 One pair scissors 25c 
 
 Total $4.70 
 
 One copy Gulick's Emergencies, Ginn & Co., Boston 30c 
 
 One copy Lynch's "First Aid to the Injured," Am. Nat'l 
 
 Red Cross, Washington, D. C 30c 
 
 THE RED CROSS COMPANY'S CABINET 
 
 The Red Cross Company, of Chicago, have for sale at 
 $2.50 a neat, hard wood cabinet, 3l^x9xl2 inches, includ- 
 ing an illustrated book of instructions. This outfit they call 
 their First Aid CabinetNo.l, by which title it should be 
 ordered. 
 
CHAPTER II-PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 PURPOSES AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. To develop such habits in the pupils as will make for the 
 most wholesome physical efficiency, 
 
 2. To vitally impress the specific knowledge necessary to the 
 niaintenance of the highest efficiency and to the preven- 
 tion of diseases. 
 
 3. To make immediately available a certain body of definite 
 knowledge preparing one to meet vital emergencies and 
 to provide first aid to the injured. 
 
 4. To insure pupils with a deep sense of mutual responsibil- 
 ity for community health, and to arouse a pride in whole- 
 some local conditions. 
 
 5. To develop a public sentiment in favor of such laws, regu- 
 lations, and practices as will make possible a "better race 
 of boys, and girls and. men and women in a better world." 
 
 THE TEACHER'S PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Primary 
 
 (a) To awaken an interest in hea,lth practices and to 
 provide motivation for taking them up. 
 
 (b) To supply the most recent and trustworthy informa- 
 tion regarding the things that make for good health. 
 
 (c^ To seize every natural opportunity and, if necessary, 
 
 to provide artificial ones for inculcating hygienic 
 
 practices and habits, 
 (d) To so present the lessons of hygiene that they will 
 
 transfer from the schoolroom and playground to 
 
 the home and the community. 
 
PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 13 
 
 ■(e) To impress the greatest single law of hygiene, name- 
 ly, "nothing in excess," and to make vital the wbrth- 
 whileness of temperance and sobriety in all situa- 
 tions. 
 
 2. Secondary. (From the Indianapolis course of study.) 
 
 (a) To secure home interest and support. 
 
 (b) To employ a textbook in a way to subordinate its use 
 to observation and discussion. 
 
 (c) To subordinate physiology to hygiene, but yet to 
 
 have it form an adequate background (in the 
 mind of the teacher) for the hygienic laws. 
 
 (d) To select those phases of life for emphasis at the 
 varying points of development that a natural re- 
 sponse in action, that is, better living, may result. 
 
 (e) To be positive and convincing in instructiouj and yet 
 
 so liberal and sane as to induce the assent of the 
 child's and the parents' reason. 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 It is felt that progress in three distinct lines should follow 
 the adoption in spirit by teachers generally, of this course 
 of study in hygiene for the elementary grades. The first 
 of these is in the content of the course, the second in the 
 method of instruction, and the third in the effect upon the 
 pupils taking the • course. Sympathetic consideration is 
 urgently invited to the following discussion of each of these 
 points. 
 
 I. Content— In content the course has been greatly 
 changed in the direction of greater attention to hygiene. 
 Hitherto a good deal of emphasis has been placed on anat- 
 omy and physiology as desirable bodies of knowledge for 
 elementary school pupils . This has been particularly 
 apparent in the character of the earlier textbooks provided 
 for pupils, and in the corresponding nature of the examina- 
 tion questions given to eighth grade pupils. The futility of 
 attempting to teach the rather technical aspects of the 
 
14 PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 subject to immature minds, becomes easily apparent in the 
 usual answers to eighth grade state examination questions. 
 The following are typical answers taken in the spring of 
 1915 from the pupils' papers in one of the best educational 
 counties in Nebraska, and the inference is plain : 
 
 "Mastification is what is going on." 
 "A common disinfectant is smallpox." 
 "Epidermis is a certain kind of medicine." 
 "The diaphragm is another word for backbone." 
 "The bones are made up of hard mucous membrane." 
 "Pericardium is something that will put you to sleep." 
 "Respiration means all the different juices in the body." 
 "The Eustachian tube is a tube running all over the body." 
 "The diaphragm is very delicate and is located in the 
 
 head." 
 
 "Fumigation is when the air is shut off and death may 
 
 come." 
 
 "The nervous system is a kind of tube where blood vessels 
 
 are in." 
 
 "The process of digestion causes headaches and much 
 
 impure blood. Fried potatoes often cause digestion." 
 "The way to treat a burn is after I burned it I would put 
 
 my finger on the stove just where I burned it before." 
 "A disinfectant is anything you catch by going where they 
 
 are. Measles and chickenpox are disinfectants. When you 
 
 have them you should stay in the house and keep warm and 
 
 try not to give them to others. Pimples on the face are not 
 
 disinfectants but some kinds are." 
 
 A widespread feeling of revolt against the futile physi- 
 ology grind in the grades finally led to the adoption of the 
 following resolution by the Nebraska State Teachers' As- 
 sociation at its meeting in Omaha in November, 1915: 
 
 "Coincident with the widespread movement for bringing 
 the public school curriculm into closer parallelism with the 
 present-day needs of the individual and of the community, 
 and in response to the general demand for more serious and 
 effective attention to the physical well-being of the rising 
 generation, we recommend that more attention be given in 
 the upper grades of our elementary, schools to the teaching 
 of practical hygiene and sanitation, and that the teaching 
 of physiology, as such, be transferred to the high school for 
 
PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 15 
 
 a full semester of serious study with substantial laboratory 
 work as an essential adjunct." 
 
 In harmony with the spirit of this resolution and the 
 constantly growing demand of the people, a course of study 
 is herein provided that attempts to obviate, at least in part, 
 some of the serious difficulties that have arisen in the effort 
 to provide health instruction for pupils of our elementary 
 schools generally. 
 
 II. Method. — But if instruction in hygiene and sanitation 
 is to achieve what it was originally designed to accomplish, 
 a change in: method of presenting the subject is quite as im- 
 portant as the change in content or matter. In the light of 
 the examination answers quoted above, the older teaching 
 of hygiene stands impeached, not only for its matter, but for 
 its method as well. Manifestly the pupils had not had the 
 sence-experience necessary, properly to image or appreciate 
 the things written about, and the method had been a too ex- 
 clusively bookish one. It is impossible to imagine anything 
 the elements of which have not come into the actual exper- 
 ience of the individual. 
 
 The remedy, of course, lies in an inductive approach to 
 all the major topics of the course. Let things be studied first 
 and books afterward. An effort to make clear what is here- 
 in implied is attempted after each of the outlines of the 
 course of study in the grades from V to VIII inclusive, and 
 teachers of hygiene are earnestly enjoined to try to absorb 
 the general spirit of the nature-study method of approaching 
 the successive topics of the subject as there illustrated. 
 
 III. Effect. — There is still a third point of departure from 
 older procedure, the importance of which it is hoped that 
 teachers of elementary schools will fully sense. This point 
 is one of so devising the health work of the schools as to 
 develop health habits among boys and girls who come under 
 the influence of our schools. For the pupils merely to be able 
 to say over the words of a book, or to re-echo a list or health 
 platitudes, is not necessarily to guarantee a vigorous and 
 efficient life. To be able to pass an eighth grade examina- 
 
16 
 
 PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 tion in physiology has too often seemed to be the end of the 
 instruction in hygiene. This is, however, only incidental to 
 the real aim, namely, the development of a set of habits that 
 will function in the life of the child and adult. 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows how Miss Burley 
 Intermediate Grades Critic Teacher of the Peru Training 
 School, follows up her teachin.is about cleanlines.', by a 
 morning inspection of hands, teeth, general appearance, and 
 appearance of the desk and its contents. 
 
 READY FOR INSPECTION! 
 
 (Courtesy of the "Nebraska Teacher.") 
 
 MOTIVATING THE FUPIL 
 
 (1) In tl:e first place, it is important that the school admin- 
 istration in general and the teacher in particular shall 
 see to it that the environmental conditions of the pupil 
 in school are such as to make it easier for the child to 
 get right health habits than vvTong onei. The specific 
 details for this are given in the introduction of this 
 manual. "With her part of these details the teacher 
 needs to so saturate her consciousness that she will have 
 a feeling of "wrongness" about the schoolroom when 
 any one of them is being neglected. 
 
PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 17 
 
 (2) In the second instance, since the pupil cannot be directly 
 interested in health practices, he must be indirectly 
 motivated to take them on. The approach must there- 
 fore be made through certain of the child's natural 
 tendencies. The more important of the "springs of 
 human action" are indicated in the following para- 
 graphs. 
 
 (a) A child loves to "do something in order to have 
 something happen," says Thorndike. Since what 
 he does at such times is of secondary consequence 
 to him, the teacher can take advantage of the fact 
 and set him to doing something worth while for 
 health-habit ends and at least temporarily turn 
 the flow of his energy away from the formation of 
 undesirable habits. Volley ball, for instance, is 
 a better form of activity than marbles. 
 
 (b) The human child is the imitating animal par excel- 
 lence. If the teacher commands his respect and 
 confidence, imitation of the teacher is inevitable. 
 A fine primary teacher in Hyde Park, Chicago, 
 whose physique and carriage were ideal, said to 
 her pupils one morning in the presence of the 
 writer of these lines, "How many little soldiers 
 have I this morning?" Instantly the children 
 seemed to take on the natural poise of their teacher 
 and this condition continued during the whole of 
 the hour they were under the writer's observation. 
 
 (c) A child is highly suggestible. That is, he uncrit- 
 ically accepts ways of doing things new to his ex- 
 perience, especially if they are indirectly approved 
 by some one or more in whose judgment he has 
 confidence. A teacher wanted to develop the 
 toothbrush habit in certain pupils by the suggestive 
 method. She accordingly posted up by the school 
 washbowl an attractive advertisement picture of 
 a child cleaning his teeth with a brush. A few 
 days after this, one of the most needy of her pupils 
 said to her, pointing to the picture, "We got one 
 
18 PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 o' them brushes at our house now, and we all Use 
 it!" 
 (d) Play is a deeply rooted tendency in child life. It 
 ' is because Mrs. Stoner took fullest advantage of 
 this fact that she was able to accomplish the re- 
 markable intellectual and healthful development 
 of her daughter, Winifred Sackville Stoner, de- 
 scribed in her book^i' '"Natural Education." Many 
 desirable health habits can be started by incorpor- 
 ating them in a game, and many undesirable ones 
 can be broken up in a similar way. 
 
 As an example of the first sort, a teacher taught 
 her pupils to use a toothbrush properly and to do 
 other acts of the morning toilet, through a game 
 called "Getting ready for breakfast." The class 
 was divided, into two contesting groups and the 
 various acts were done in pantomine, the tooth 
 brushing, for instance, being shown by a twisting 
 motion of the hand in its position for using a brush 
 on the teeth so as to make the brush work the long 
 way of the teeth as well as crossways. The sides 
 did the acts alternately and the teacher was 
 "umpire," checking against each side for each of 
 its individual errors. Such a game is capable of 
 indefinite extension. 
 
 An instance of inhibiting bad habits through the 
 use of games is the case of the teacher who broke 
 up the practice of moistening the thumb with the 
 tongue when turning the leaves of a book, or hand- 
 ling papers. This game involved a contest to see 
 who of the class could find a certain page the 
 quickest, all having the same book. If any one wet 
 his finger in the common way, he was out of the 
 game till another page was sought for. The game 
 was varied by requiring the picking out of ten 
 cards most quickly from a pack of authors' cards. 
 
 There is a chance for some ingenious school 
 
PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 19 
 
 teacher to distinguish hereself and render a great 
 educational service by developing a set of health- 
 habit games and of suggesting appropriate 
 dramatization of health lessons, 
 (d) One of the most potent of the springs of human 
 action is the love of approbation, or the instinct of 
 self-assertion. This instinct crops out conspicu- 
 ously when either children or grown-ups try to 
 "show off." What child, or what adult, for that 
 matter, who has said or done something "smart," 
 does not try to repeat his act at the first opportun- 
 ity? This tendency to play "smart," or be "stuck 
 up," or get into the limelight, is a primitive exhibi- 
 tion of the instinct in queston. Refined behavior 
 requires that we suppress this tendency, or at 
 least cover it up as much as possible. Yet it un- 
 doubtedly lies at the basis of a good deal of our 
 social and even moral behavior. Else whence the 
 potency of the idea, "What'll folks think?" when 
 we are contemplating some doubtful social act? 
 
 The specific point about this matter is that the 
 teacher can make more progress in teaching prac- 
 tical hygiene by the social appeal and by invoking 
 group influence than by any other means. As a 
 direct illustration of this method we reproduce 
 the "personal inspection" device found in Hoag 
 and Terman's "Health Work in the Schools." 
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE INSPECTION BY TEACHER 
 AND PUPILS 
 
 "The personal inspection of pupils must be adapted to 
 the peculiar needs of individual conditions, but in the main 
 may follow the method outlined below. 
 
 "The pupils themselves may be easily taught to take part 
 in this inspection by the teacher's appointing the one pass- 
 ing the best inspection to act as inspector of the rest of the 
 class, for a given length of time. The complete inspection 
 
20 PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 need not be introduced at once, but the pupils may be led 
 very gradually into it, so that their interest will be aroused 
 and their fears or prejudices overcome. ' Other points not 
 mentioned in the outline here given may be introduced, at 
 the discretion of the teacher, and in order to meet local re- 
 quirements: Some points may, of course, be omitted for the 
 same reason, but in general the plan here suggested will be 
 found fairly satisfactory in the majority of schools. 
 
 "It should be noted that in this personal, hygiene inspec- 
 tion the questions are asked so that the negative answers 
 indicate the number of undesirable conditions existing. 
 Daily inspection of pupils in the first four grades. 
 
 1. Are the hands clean? 
 
 2. Is the -face clean? 
 
 3. Is the hair clean, well brushed, and cared for? 
 
 4. Are the nails clean and neat? 
 
 5. Do the teeth look clean? 
 
 6. Has the toothbrush been used? 
 
 7. Are the ears clean? 
 
 8. Is the clothing nfeat and clean? 
 
 9. Are the shoes neat, clean, and well fitting? 
 10. Does the child have a handkerchief? 
 
 Additional information to be obtained by the teacher, 
 at intervals : 
 
 1. Is at least one window kept open in the bedroom at 
 
 night? ■ 
 
 2. Does the pupil drink coflfee ? How much? 
 
 3. Does he drink tea? How much? 
 
 4. Does he always have breakfast? 
 
 5. What does he usually eat? 
 
 6. Does he always hSve lunch? 
 
 7. Whattime does he go to bed? 
 "8. What time does he get up ? 
 
 9. Is he suitably clothed? 
 10. How often does he bathe? 
 
PEDAGOGY OF HYGIENE 
 
 21 
 
 11. Is he required to do any work for pay? What sort? 
 
 12. Are the bov/els evacuated daily? 
 
 13. Has the pupil apparently any bad sex habits? 
 
 14. Does the child use an INDIVIDUAL toothbrush? 
 
 15. Does the child visit a dentist at least once every years? 
 
 A MORNING INSPECTION 
 (Courtesy of the "Nebraska Teacher" and of 
 Miss Burlev of the Peru Training School.) 
 
CHAPTER III.-WORK OF GRADES I-IV 
 
 THE AIM AND THE SPECIAL PROBLEM 
 
 In the subject of hygiene the primary aim with children 
 in all the public school grades, is the formation ofwholesome 
 health habits. By this is meant the ability to react wisely 
 in all health situations, without having to think much about 
 it. While this aim is true in general for all education in 
 hygiene, it is especially important in the earlier years of a 
 child's life. Teachers of primary and intermediate gra,des 
 must therefore concern themselves more with the art of de- 
 veloping habits than with that of imparting information. 
 Their most important pedagogical ally is the psychology of 
 habit formation. 
 
 Children under ten years of age do not have any particu- 
 lar interest in health as such. Yet it is also true that the 
 general outline of a child's character is pij-etty well estab- 
 lished by that age. The problem of health training, then, 
 becomes the imparative one of developing desirable habits 
 in a field in which the natural interest of the child is small. 
 
 SUBJECT MATTER FOR GRADES I-IV 
 
 1. No written or formal hygiene work should be given or 
 
 required in these grades. 
 
 2. The work that is to be given should come in, for the most 
 
 part, incidentally and at an hour a situation or need 
 arises with the group or with an individual. 
 
 3. In general, the needs of the individual pupil and of the 
 
 group as a whole should be the guide as to what sub- 
 ject matter to present. 
 
 4. The following are some positive habits that the teacher 
 
WORK OF GRADES I-IV 23 
 
 may well keep in mind and seek to establish among her 
 pupils : 
 
 A. Personal cleanliness. 
 
 (a) Skin. — Use of water, soap, washrag and towels' 
 in connection with hands, face, neck, ears, body, 
 and limbs. 
 
 (b) Hair. — Importance of combing, brushing, and 
 occasional washing. 
 
 (c) Nails. — Keeping them clean and well shaped. 
 
 (d) Teeth. — Use of brush and importance of annual 
 examination by a dentist. 
 
 B. Taking food and drink. 
 
 (a) Foods. — Simple, wholesome, sufficient. Candy 
 only just after meals, and then not over much. 
 
 (b) Eating. — Small bites eaten slowly and chewed 
 thoroly. Ordinarily at meal time only. 
 
 (c) Drinking. — Plenty of cool water between meals 
 and also at meals, but not to help swallow the 
 food. Pure milk is a valuable beverage. 
 
 (d) Caution. — Only wholesome food and drink, a 
 fork, a spoon, a tooth pick, and dental thread 
 should, under ordinary circumstances, be ad- 
 mitted into the mouth. 
 
 C. Breathing and the care of the nose. 
 
 (a) Breathing. — Pure air and only thru the nose 
 except in violent exercise. 
 
 (b) Care of the nose. — See that clean handerchiefs 
 are provided and their proper use developed. 
 
 (c) Coughing and sneezing. — Desirable to turn face 
 
 away form others and to cover mouth with 
 handkerchief. 
 
 D. Posture and exercise. 
 
 (a) Sitting. — Comfortably erect, limbs not crossed. 
 
 (b) Standing. — ^Ideally a straight line should be able 
 to touch the outer end of the eyebrow, hip, knee- 
 cap, and middle of foot arch. 
 
"24 WORK OF GRADES I-IV 
 
 (c) Walking. — In walking on a level surface the leg^ 
 is swung forward, the heel strikes first but not 
 violently, and the foot then rolls forward. The 
 arms should hang pendent, swing naturally, and 
 the body should retain good form. In going up 
 and down stairs, the hall strikes the tread first. 
 
 E. Personal attire. 
 
 (a) Clothing.— .Simple, sufficient, clean ,dry, non- 
 constrictive. 
 
 (b) Shoes. — Clean and dry. Heels low and toes 
 broad. 
 
 (c) Extra clothing. — Sweaters, heavy coats, and 
 overshoes are for outdoor use in cold weather, 
 to be removed on coming into a warm room. 
 
 5. The following are some undesirable tendencies the 
 teacher must seek to combat effectively. 
 
 A. Uncleanliness. 
 
 (a) Unclean skin with its attendant disagreeable 
 odors (the chief source of "bad air" of school 
 rooms). 
 
 (b) Unclean or decayed teeth. 
 
 (c) 111 kept hair and nails. 
 
 IB. Undesirable nasal and breathing habits. 
 
 (a) Imperfect breathing from bad posture or con- 
 stricting clothing. 
 
 (b) Fingering the interior of the nose. 
 
 C. Imperfect food-canal practices. 
 
 (a) Neglecting breakfasts. 
 
 (b) Eating candy and nicknacks between meals. 
 
 (c) Hurridely gulping down food at mealtimes. 
 
 (d) Gum-chewing — it is both hygienically and es- 
 thetically undesirable. 
 
 (e) Exchanging bites of candy, apples, etc., with 
 other pupils. 
 
 <f) Putting pencils, papers, and other promiscuous 
 things into the mouth. 
 
WORK OF GRADES I-IV 
 
 25 
 
 (g) Unwholesome beverage and drink habits. 
 
 (h) The spitting nuisance. 
 
 (i) Neglect of alimentary elimination. 
 
 D. Neglected exercise and posture. 
 
 (a) Persistently undesirable sitting and standing 
 attitudes. 
 
 (b) Slovenly walking. 
 
 (c) Reluctance to engage in games. 
 
 E. Undesirable clothing. 
 
 (a) Wearing unclean or unsuitable clothing. 
 
 (b) Wearing wet or muddy or ill-fitting shoes. 
 
 (c) Wearing overshoes or other heavy outer cloth- 
 ing during school hours. 
 
 Dramatization. — "Getting Ready For Breakfast 
 ("Courtesy of "The Nebraska Teacher") 
 
CHAPTER IV.— GRADE V: HABIT HY- 
 GIENE. 
 
 AMOUNT OF TIME 
 
 It is intended that a half year shall be given in Grade V 
 to the study of hygiene, with recitations of 15 minutes dura- 
 tion, making a total of about 80 recitations. These may oc- 
 cupy either the first or last half of the school year, or may be 
 "distributed through the year in alternation with some other 
 subject. The latter is rather the better arrangement .as 
 giving the longer time in which to develop and fix the de- 
 sired health habits. 
 
 In case the fifth and sixth grades are combined in the 
 study qf hygiene, as they may be, then a whole year should 
 be given to the two courses. If seventh and eighth grade 
 hygiene courses are also combined, then the one-room teach- 
 er would have V-VI grade hygiene one year, and VII- VIII 
 grade iiygiene the next year. This arrangement would re- 
 quire only one class in hygiene a year (but running daily 
 thru thjC year) in the one room school. 
 
 THE AIM 
 
 As may be readily gathered from the list of topics for study 
 in Grade, V, the general aim is to continue the work of the 
 first four grades in the development of desirable hiealth 
 habits. However, a larger world opens out to the fifth 
 grade pupil than he has known before, a greater expansion 
 of his horizon than he has experienced at any previous time. 
 He is capable now of taking on more skill in doing things 
 and both his wish and his capability to understand the 
 reasons for what he does are greater. The health work 
 can accordingly now be more definite and formal, but the 
 aim remains the same as in lower grades, namely, the 
 specific development of health practices and habits. 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 27 
 
 METHOD OF PROCEDURE 
 
 The fifth grade teacher needs to read and thorly digest 
 what is said about "Methods" under Grades I and IV. To 
 that background of fundamentals the following particular 
 considerations must now be added : 
 
 A. The plan requires that each general topic shall be 
 
 approached in the nature-study way. That is, 
 each major topic in the course and, in some cases, 
 the subtopics, must be studied in a concrete way 
 before the pupils are sent to the books at all. The 
 purpose is to give pupils the necessary sense-ex- 
 perience before taking up book study so that when 
 they come to the latter they can have something 
 in terms of which to image and understand what 
 the books try to tell This part of the procedure 
 should throw as much responsibility on the pupils 
 as possible. They should assist in collecting ma- 
 terials and in constructing apparatus so far as they 
 can, and their study should be done as nearly as 
 possible independently, of the teacher and of books. 
 Here is an opportunity to start pupils on project 
 work, one of the great, new things in education. 
 
 B. In opening up a new topic the recitation time should 
 
 be given over to reports on what has been learned 
 by each pupil in his original study, or in conducting 
 a class experiment, to be followed by questions 
 that throw the pupil into original discovery and 
 thinking. If this is skillfully done a great many 
 questions will arise in the mind of the pupil which 
 his work thus far has excited but not answered. 
 Now is the time to send the pupil to nature for 
 more study if profitable, and to the books if the 
 information cannot be gotten otherwise. 
 
 C. The book study, when at last it is taken up, should 
 
 be carried on topically. In the course of study 
 following will be found references to a number 
 
28 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 of good recent text bpqks. on hygiene. If at least 
 one of the books can be in the hands of each pupil 
 and several of the other books named can be on 
 the teacher's desk for the use of the pupils in turn, 
 then the very best results can be secured. Espe- 
 cially is this true if the recitation is carried on af- 
 ter the plan of the so-called "socialized recitation." 
 The less experienced and more conservative teach- 
 ers may hold vs^ith varying degree to the use of a 
 single book. 
 
 D. Finally if the pupil is to fully conserve the gains from 
 his study of a topic, he should have a notebook 
 for his hygiene lessons, and should be required to 
 set down in as systematic a way as possible, the 
 crystallized results of his observation, experiment, 
 research. The hygienic conclusions reacht 
 should be stated with especial definiteness and 
 reviewed until they become well fixed in mind and 
 in behavior. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE HYGIENE TOPICS.— HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 1. BREATHING GOOD AIR. 
 
 1. Why does the body need air? 
 
 2. What air is good air? 
 
 3. What breathing is best? 
 
 2. TAKING CARE OF THE NOSE AND THROAT. 
 
 1. What is the nose for? 
 
 2. How keep the nose in good condition? 
 
 3. When is the throat in the best condition? 
 
 S. WHAT AND HOW TO EAT AND DRINK. 
 
 1. How choose good foods? 
 
 2. What are the best habits of eating? 
 
 3. Why chew till the food is like thin soup ? 
 
 4. Why, when, and how much water shall one drink? 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 29 
 
 4. CARING FOR THE TEETH. 
 
 1. How improve the teeth? 
 
 2. Why form the tooth-brush habit? 
 
 5. HARMFUL STUFFS FOR THE MOUTH. 
 
 1. Why are tea and coffee drinks that injure? 
 
 2. Why are alcoholic beverages drinks that destroy? 
 
 3. How does the tobacco harm good athletes? 
 
 4. How do cigarettes spoil quisk thinking ? 
 
 6. MAKING THE BODY STRONG AND STRAIGHT. 
 
 1. What are the best body postures? 
 
 2. What are the best play and work habits? 
 
 3. What are the best feet for running? 
 
 4. What are the best sleep habits? 
 
 7. CARING FOR THE SKIN, NAILS, HAIR, AND SCALP. 
 
 1. Why keep the skin clean? 
 
 2. How keep the nails nice? 
 
 3. How take care of the hair and scalp? 
 
 4. What are the nature and treatment of a headache ? 
 
 5. How treat cuts, burns, and bruises? 
 
 6. How care for poison ivy and other skin poisons? 
 
 8. CARING FOR THE EYES AND EARS. 
 
 1. When are spectacles needed? 
 
 2. What light is good for the eyes? 
 
 3. How remove foreign bodies from the eyes? 
 
 4. How care for the outer ear? 
 
 5. How treat earache and running ears? 
 
 9. WHAT TO DO WHEN ACCIDENTS HAPPEN. 
 
 1. How avoid the common accidents? 
 
 2. How care for sprains and broken bones? 
 
 3. How ^et skill in the art of bandaging? 
 
 4. How save the life from drowning? 
 
30 
 
 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS AND TOPICAL REFERENCES 
 
 Note. — It is to be understood that no attempt is here made 
 to indicate how much work shall be assigned for each single 
 recitation, as the length of the assignment will have be be 
 determined by the length and number of recitations that 
 the school gives to this important subject. The CHAPTER 
 references following the major (Roman-numbered) topics 
 are for the TEACHER'S especial use. The PAGE references 
 following the n^inor (Arabic-numbered) topics, are for the 
 PUPILS' and teacher's use. The key to the books referred 
 to is given in Appendix A. The teacher must know that it 
 is not necessary to have or to use all the books referred to, 
 but the more she can have both for herself and the pupils 
 the better. . -; - 
 
 LUNG TESTING 
 
 I. BREATHING GOOD AIR.-Al. V ; Dr. X ; H-S. X ; Wa. VI. 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To learn about breathing, and something about air. 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 31 
 
 1. Apparatus for a class experiment — A home-made spi- 
 
 rometer, or lung tester, can be prepared from a 
 gallon bottle by some one of the pupils as a piece 
 of home-project work, as follows: By calcula- 
 tion or otherwise, determine and mark the level 
 , to which an ordinary water glass must be filled to 
 contain just ten cubic inches of water. With this 
 measure, pour ten cubic Jnches of water into the 
 glass bottle sitting on a level table, and with a new 
 three-cornered file make a scratch at this level of 
 the water. Now pour in another ten cubic inches 
 of water and mark the new water level as before. 
 Repeat till the graduation of the bottle is complete. 
 For this study there will also be needed a tub 
 or other vessel of water, and a rubber tube of 
 about a half inch internal diameter and two feet 
 long. This tube should have a short glass tube 
 fitted into one end of it to serve as a mouthpiece 
 for the experiments. 
 
 2. Procedure — Children like to "test their lungs." After 
 
 filling the bottle with water by immersing it in the 
 large vessel of water, hold it up, but keep its mouth 
 under water, and insert the rubber tube in the 
 mouth. Now let a pupil fill his lungs completely 
 while standing erect, and then take the mouth- 
 piece of the tube between his lips, and exhale all 
 the breath he can, delivering it into the bottle. 
 Just before the pupil quits exhaling, see that the 
 water in the inside of the bottle is level with that 
 on the outside. When exhalation is complete, take 
 the reading of the pupil's capacity from the 
 volume marks on the bottle. 
 
 After each using, rinse the glass mouthpiece in 
 a glass of clean water, pour a little hydrogen 
 peroxide on the mouthpiece to disinfiect it, and 
 rinse it again. This process is not only hygienic, 
 but it will act suggestively to impress the need of 
 care in such matters. Now take the record of the 
 remaining pupils in turn, and post the records on 
 the blackboard. 
 
 Take each pupil's lung capacity again, but this 
 time in filling the lungs have each one "sit on the 
 small of his back," as pupils are often inclined to 
 do while studying books. Set down these results 
 alongside the other results. 
 
32 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 3. Additionl experiments. — 
 
 (a) Take a record, in seconds, of the longest time each 
 pupil can say "ah," using as little force as possible 
 while doing this. Set down these time results 
 alongside the other results. 
 
 (b) Exhale through a glass tube into a glass fruit jar 
 and, when the jar is filled with exhaled air, invert 
 it over a short, burning candle. At the same mo- 
 ment invert another similar jar with fresh air, 
 over another burning candle. Note the times the 
 candles continue to burn. 
 
 (c) Get a number of small bottles just big enough to 
 hold large-sized locusts (commonly called "grass- 
 hoppers"). Select pairs of locusts of equal size 
 and put each locust into a vial. The bottles for 
 one locust of each pair should be filled with ex- 
 haled air and the other with fresh air. Cork and 
 set aside for several hours. Note the relative times 
 when the members of each pair quit breathing, 
 and, if possible, remove each from, the vial at that 
 moment and note what happens after a short time. 
 
 (d) Let each pupil fill a mason jar with his own breath, 
 cover at once and let stand for some time. When 
 the pupils come in from outdoor play let each 
 smell his own bottle. Do not ask for reports here, 
 but simply explain that bad odor is a sign of de- 
 cayed teeth, or something of that kind (not from 
 carbon dioxid, which is practically odorless). 
 
 Questions On The Experiments 
 
 In the light of the above experiments, and before any 
 book study has been engaged in, consider with the pupils 
 such questions as the following: Of two boys of the 
 same size, but of diiferent lung capacities, which do you 
 think could run the longer distance without getting out 
 of breath? Give a reason why one should sit erect in 
 his seat. What do you notice about the chests of the 
 finest looking boys and girls you meet on the street or 
 highway? Do you suppose a boy or girl could get a 
 larger chest and lungs? Shall we test our lungs once a 
 week to see who can make the biggest improvement? 
 
 How do we know that the air we breathe out is differ- 
 ent from that we take in? Do you think exhaled air is 
 poisonous? If not (and it isn't), why did one set of 
 locusts quit breathing sooner than the other? Can you 
 give any good reasons why it is not good to breathe 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 33 
 
 continuously air that has been once breathed? If your 
 own breath should smell disagreeable, what do you think 
 should be done? Why? 
 
 Studying the Books 
 
 If the preceding experiments have been entered into 
 heartily by the pupils, they will be keen to find out more 
 about breathing, and now is the time to send them to the 
 books. The assignment would be to the successive page 
 references in the regular text book and also to such other 
 books as the school may provide. Ideally, there should 
 be in the school library several sets of the hygiene books 
 listed for pupils, and the teacher should study the ref- 
 erences suggested for her own use. If now the recita- 
 tion is carried on topically, each pupil will be able to con- 
 tribute something the others will probably not have, and 
 the whole recitation will prove highly interesting to 
 pupils and teacher alike. 
 
 I. 1. Why does the body need air? Con. 1,88; Hu. I, 35 
 
 Je. I, 1. 
 
 2. What air is good air? Con. I, 89 ; Gu. I, 6 ; Hu. I, 44 
 Je. I, 6 ; 0-K. 8, 82 ; Ri. I, 46. 
 
 3. What breathing is best? Con. I, 91 ; Gu. I, 1 ; Hu. I, 41 
 Je. II, 107 ; O-K. I, 93 ; Ri. I, 57, 138. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book 
 
 A pupil's notebook on hygiene should contain all the 
 main points gathered from the experiments and the book 
 study. The teacher should provide an outline for the 
 pupil's books and the latter should be encouraged, even 
 required, to complete the record in a neat fashion. 
 
 More important than the note book, even, is the fol- 
 lowing up of results of improved breathing capacity and 
 sitting and standing positions; in the schoolroom, and in 
 the practice of exercises that will develope free breath- 
 ing. The w'eekly or monthly testing of the lungs will do 
 more than anything else to get these desired health 
 habits. 
 
 II. TAKING CARE OF THE NOSE AND THROAT.— Ho. 
 
 I;Te.XII. 
 . The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To get some first hand knowledge of the nose and 
 
 throat. 
 1. The exterior of the nose. With a hand mirror examine 
 the nose to see whether it comes down straight 
 
34 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 from between the eyes, or bends sideways at any 
 point, and whether the partition between the 
 nostrils divides the space evenly. Put your head 
 sideways to a larger mirror, and about a foot from 
 it. Place the small mirror straight in front of the 
 face, but let it be turned half way between the face 
 and the large mirror so that looking into the small 
 mirror one can see whether the pencil touches the 
 nose at three points, or only at the upper and lower 
 ends, or only once and that in the middle. 
 
 With the; thumb and finger bend the nose back 
 and forth sideways to discover that in the middle 
 is a gristle, such as one finds on the breast bone of 
 a spring chicken. Half way up the outside of the 
 nose one finds that the outer fleshy, wall of the nose 
 begins to cover boney walls. These walls should 
 stand out distinctly from the inner gristle, if the 
 nose is just right. 
 
 2. The inside of the nose. — For this study one needs to sit 
 
 with one's face turned away from a strong source 
 of light such as the sun, or any strong artificial 
 light. Holding the mirror with the right hand so 
 it will reflect light abundantly into the nostrils, 
 with the left index finger press the point of the 
 nose back and up, so as to show as much of the 
 inside of the right nostril as possible, meantime 
 fixing the lower mirror so it will throw light well 
 into the right nostril. Now note (1) the numerous 
 hairs at the entrance, (2) the direction the nostril 
 takes at its inner end, (3) the redness and moisture 
 of the nostril in its deeper parts, and (4) the ir- 
 regular outer wall and smooth inner wall. Next, 
 take the mirror in the left hand and study the left 
 nostril similarly. 
 
 3. Some uses of the nose. — Present any strong smelling 
 
 stuff (either agreeable or disagreeable) to the 
 nose and inhale from it strongly thru the nose. 
 Again, instead of taking one strong breath, take 
 several sniffs of air and note the difference in the 
 strength cf the odor. 
 
 While talking out loud press with a' finger against 
 the side of the nose so as to shut off the air f rom'one 
 nostril. Now try the other side and then both 
 sides at once. 
 
 Close the nostrils and thru the mouth inhale 
 some very dry air from over a hot stove or other 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 35 
 
 warm body. Now inhale dry air again but this 
 time only thru the nose. 
 
 If weather or other conditions permit, try the 
 above experiments by breathing in very cold air 
 under the two conditions. 
 
 Figure out, if possible, two other uses of the 
 nose from what was seen when looking at the in- 
 ner surfaces. 
 
 Keep the nose pinched shut for about five min- 
 utes while reading or doing something else, just 
 to see how it would be if one could not breathe 
 thru one's nose at all. 
 
 4. Using a handkerchief. — Taking a clean handkerchief 
 
 in hand, place a part of it loosely over both nostrils 
 and hold it in position by pressing it lightly against 
 the lower side of one nostril, but not stopping up 
 this nostril, while the other nostril is compressed 
 shut. Now force a lot of aii? thru the open nostril 
 without making a loud noise, for to make such a 
 noise is not regarded as refined behavior. Now 
 treat the other nostril in the same way. 
 
 5. Washing the nose. — Take a tincup or glass of warm 
 
 water and with it mix a spoonful of common salt. 
 Close the mouth and hold one edge of the cup or 
 glass against the upper lip and lower edge of the 
 nose. Now close one nostril with a finger, duck the 
 nose into the water, and very gently draw the salt 
 water up into the nostril, and then force it out. 
 Repeat several times for each nostril. 
 
 6. Studying the pharynx (far-ingks). — Making use of 
 
 a, mirror as in Study 1 above, throw light into the 
 vs^ide-open mouth for a study of the cavity back of 
 the mouth, known as the throat, or pharnyx. 
 Hanging down from above at the back you will 
 see a nipple-like body, called the uvula, and arch- 
 ing down from each side of it a double band of 
 flesh that opens out like a V as it passes down to 
 the root of the tung. This is the back boundary of 
 the mouth and what is behind this yet is the 
 pharnyx, thru which both food from the mouth 
 and air from the' nose pass to organs below. 
 
 Now examine the pharnyx carefully to see if you 
 can discover some dark red flesh just back of each 
 border of the root of the tung, and between the 
 sides of the V-shaped flesh coming down from the 
 uvula. In shape each is about like a ripe mulberry. 
 
36 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 and if the tonsils are in good condition they should 
 not be any larger, if so large. If they are enlarged, 
 they may look like two big red marbles. 
 
 Thoroly clean your finger and with it feel the 
 roof of your mouth. Note that the farther back 
 you get, the softer it becomes. This soft part is 
 called the soft palate, and it ends in the uvula. 
 The soft palate hangs down in front of the upper 
 end of the pharnyx, into which the nostrils lead. 
 
 Hold the mouth and nose shut and gently force 
 air into the nose till the ears "pop," that is, till a 
 puff of aid passes into the middle ear. Any distress 
 in the ear can be relieved by swallowing. There 
 are two holes that lead from the upper end of the 
 pharynx to the middle ears, and these are what the 
 air went into. 
 
 It is in this upper back pharnyx that a growth 
 often developes that stops breathing thru the nose, 
 and which is quite like the tonsils in appearances. 
 This growth is known as "adenoids," and can 
 easily be removed. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. Is your nose straight or crooked? Is it a Grecian nose, a 
 Roman nose, or a snub nose? (One kind is as good as 
 ano.ther if only the nostrils are open!) 
 
 2. Where do the nostrils seem to lead to? What do you 
 think the hairs are for at the entrance of the nose? 
 Why is the outer side of a nostril wall so very irregular? 
 What makes the walls of the nose so red? Is it very 
 warm in there, do you think? Why? Where does so 
 much blood come from when one has the nose bleed? 
 What does this show about the blood supply of the 
 nostrils ? 
 
 3. Why sniff when you want to get a good smell of any- 
 thing? When "talking thru your nose" do you really 
 use your nose? Can you take a breath thru each 
 nostril separately? If not, why not? Do you sleep 
 with your mouth shut? Can you imitate snoring? How 
 do you do it? Do you snore when asleep ? If so, why? 
 Judging from your experience with the dry and the 
 cold air, what two distinct advantages come from 
 breathing thru the nostrils (except when running rapid- 
 ly) ? Is the moist surface of the nostrils just water, or 
 is it a sticky liquid ? What would it do for germs and 
 dust? What would the moisture on the surface do for 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 37 
 
 dry air? Can you now give four distinct uses of the 
 nose? Can you give five important reasons why one 
 should breathe thru the nose ? 
 
 4. Can you blow your nose without making a loud noise ? 
 Do you always keep a handkerchief over the end of 
 your finger if you have occasion to reach up into your 
 nose ? Why should one always use only a clean hand- 
 kerchief? Why use a handkerchief at all? Why not 
 sneeze into other people's faces? Why is it better to 
 sneeze into a handkerchief than elsewhere? 
 
 5. Can you wash out your nose readily as directed, and 
 without bothering your middle ear or choking your- 
 self? 
 
 ■6. Do you find that your tonsils are swollen and inflamed? 
 If so, do you sometimes have the rheumatism? (Some- 
 times rheumatism is traceable to diseased tonsils, and 
 sometimes to diseased teeth). Do you find adenoids 
 present in your upper pharnyx? If so, these should 
 be removed for they will make lots of trouble if allowed 
 to remain. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. What is the nose for? Con. I, 92 ; Gu. I, 131 ; Hu. I, 41 ; 
 Je. I, 134; Ri. I, 67. 
 
 2. How keep the nose in good condition? Con. I, 201; Gu. 
 I, 134; Je. I, 134;Ri. I, 59. 
 
 3. When is the throat in the best condition? Con. I, 92, 74 ; 
 Hu. I, 87; Je.1, 134;Ri. I, 59. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book (See Study 1). 
 
 III. WHAT AND HOW T OEAT AND DRINK.— Ho. IX; 
 H-S XIX; Te VIII; Wa. VII. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 _Aim. — To learn something of foods and of the mouth and its 
 uses. 
 1. As an important preliminary study, the pupil should 
 take a mirror and examine his mouth cavity. The 
 effort here should be to discover and be able to descide 
 the different structures visible in the mouth (15 or 
 20, not counting the different kinds of teeth). It will 
 be worth while to try to see which pupil can find and 
 describe the greatest number. Let particular notice 
 be taken of the points in the mouth at which saliva 
 comes in freely when one is beginning to eat a bite 
 of cracker or bread. 
 
38 
 
 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 2. When the teacher has gotten from the pupils the re- 
 ports of the results of their studies, she may sum- 
 marize by placing on the blackboard a sketch of the 
 open mouth (a diagrammatic representation of the 
 mouth opened so wide as to show its upper and lower 
 parts as if they were hinged back into one plane). 
 Indeed the sketch may well be on the board when 
 the pupils' reports are called for, the final summariz- 
 ing consisting in a table of the structures that may be- 
 seen. 
 
 i&Tp I i a 
 UpjoeT teetlj . 
 
 Soft loat-k/Te/ 
 
 
 Toi 
 
 Ch>ir)\yi,toihe'thr>o»jf' 
 
 10 o"f licl'To i/oice.-|ooX 
 
 TS/ite-feOol^ (t.Tjw Tsed- spots) 
 
 ^IJtPTd-le of l^eloip&fde. 
 
 t)t(eT of loLde.-rc3a;(iN/8u|ov ^Ictm^s. 
 
 oTJe-T? teetjj 
 X^oiJe-i? 1 iio. 
 
 Structures in the Mouth 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 The studies that follow have to do with the uses of the 
 mouth. First, let the pupil pinch his nose shut for a 
 minute or two and note the effect on his breathing. 
 After the pupil has given the most common sound of 
 each of the letters, let him reach a conclusion as to- 
 the way in which the consonant letters are made to- 
 sound different from the vowel letters. 
 
GRADK V: HABIT HYGIENE 39 
 
 5. Require the pupil to make observations as to how a 
 
 bird or chicken drinks water. 
 
 6. Let each pupil take a good big bite of cracker, crush 
 
 it rapidly with his teeth and then try to swallow it 
 quickly. 
 
 7. Either eat, or recall the eating, of an apple or other 
 
 semi-solid fruit or vegetable, and consider how the 
 teeth help in the eating act. 
 
 :8. Put a teaspoonful of raw starch in a glass of water, 
 and into another glass of water put a teaspoonful of 
 sugar. Stir, and note the effect on the starch and on 
 the sugar. 
 
 '9. Supply each pupil with an oyster cracker that is fair- 
 ly free from salt, and require him to chew it until a 
 new and agreeable taste comes from it. 
 
 10. If conditions permit, let each pupil compare the rela- 
 tive time it takes to get a similar result from a tea- 
 spoonful of raw com starch and from one of cooked 
 starch. 
 
 11. Provide each pupil with a teaspoonful of clean wheat 
 grains, and let him chew them till a snfiall mass of 
 "wheat gum" remains. Explain that wheat is made 
 up mainly of starch and protein, and that it is the 
 latter that is not dissolved by the saliva, while the 
 starch is dissolved. The protein must pass to the 
 stomach and small intestine before it is dissolved or 
 digested. 
 
 12. Similarly let each pupil discover that a piece of fat 
 meat will not dissolve in the mouth ; and explain that 
 fat is practically, if not wholly digested in the small 
 intestine. 
 
 13. Let each pupil arrange to eat a meat sandwich at lun- 
 cheon on one day quickly and on the next day slowly 
 and conclude which one gives the most satisfaction 
 
 to hunger. 
 
 14. On another day let each pupil eat very rapidly at 
 luncheon as many meat sandwiches as it will take to 
 satisfy hunger. The next day, other conditions being 
 the same, let every sandwich be eaten very slowly 
 and chewed till each bite becomes like pea soup be- 
 fore it is swallowed. Compa're the number of sand- 
 wiches required to satisfy hunger in the two cases. 
 
 15. Try drinking a glass of water on rising in the morning 
 or just before breakfast. Also drink plenty of water 
 at mealtime, but always when the mouth is free of 
 
40 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 other food. Report at the end of a week whether yon 
 feel better because of these practices. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. How many structures did you find in the mouth? 
 
 2. Can you describe and give a use for each one of the 
 
 structures ? 
 3-9. Can you state, nine different uses of the mouth? 
 10. Can you give a reason why starchy foods may well be 
 
 cooked to eat. 
 11-12. What sorts of foods does the mouth not digest? 
 
 13. How eat to get the most good out of each bite of food ? 
 
 14. How can one eat so as to save money in his eating 
 or food bills? 
 
 15. What has been the result of your following directions 
 about drinking? 
 
 Note. — If you cared to make the experiment, you might 
 find that if you always chew your food abundantly, you 
 would naturally crave less meat, and thus you could save 
 more money, for meats are our most expensive foods. 
 Then besides that, those who have tried the plan say they 
 are freer from headaches, tiredness, etc. Have you ever 
 read the interesting story of Horace Fletcher and his eat- 
 ing? If not, you could learn much from this unusual 
 American. 
 
 Studying the Books (See also Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 1. How choose good foods? Con. I, 18; Gu; I, 157; Hu. I,. 
 
 156 ; Je. I, 157 ; 0-K. I, 117 ; Ri. I, 9, 15. 
 
 2. What are the best habits of eating? Con. I, 10, 24 ; Gu. 
 I, 151; Hu. I, 160; Je. I, 155; 0-K. I, 119; Ri. I, 33. 
 
 4. Why, when, and how much water shall one drink? 
 Con. I, 41 ; Gu. I, 155 ; Hu. I, 68 ; Je. II, 130 ; 0-K. I,. 
 130;Ri. I, 33. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. _(See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 IV. CARING FOR THE TEETH— Al. IX; DR. XVII; TeXL- 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To learn about the teeth and to discover reasons 
 for their care. 
 
 1. Assign as a studyta be reported on at the next recita- 
 tion hour, the number of teeth each pupil may find 
 in his own and his larger and smaller playmates' 
 mouths. 
 
 2. With this same assignment there should .go one re- 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 41 
 
 quiring each pupil to study, with a mirror, his own 
 teeth so as to be able to describe the difference in the 
 appearance of the four knds of teeth in his mouth. 
 
 3. At the class hour pupils report their discoveries. If the 
 
 teacher desires to give the technical names for the 
 various groups of teeth, the necessary motivation 
 may be secured by asking the pupils if they would 
 like to be able to talk to the doctor, priest or pastor 
 ip their language, about teeth when these men pay a 
 visit to their homes. 
 
 4. The functions of the different groups of teeth may be 
 
 inductively studied by supplying each member of the 
 class with grains of wheat, pieces of thread and sticks 
 of candy, and noting the uses of groups of teeth em- 
 ployed in dealing with these materials . Ask what 
 teeth are used to get meat from, a chicken bone? 
 
 5. As a further study, now that the names of the teeth are 
 
 known, the pupils can be directed to find out, so far 
 as they can, when their own and their playmates' 
 various second teeth came in. At the class hour, a 
 tabulation can be made on the blackboard of all the 
 results reported. There will be variations, of course, 
 but the final table should average up about a^ follows 
 for the upper jaw : 
 
 Middle incisors — 1 years. 
 
 Lateral incisors — 8 years. 
 
 Canines, or cuspids — 11 
 years. 
 
 First bicuspids — 9 years. 
 
 Second biscuspids — 1 
 years. 
 
 First molars — 6 years. 
 
 Second molars — 12 years. 
 
 Third molars — 17 to 45 
 years. 
 
 6. The parts of a tooth can best be studies by providing 
 
 the pupils with human teeth obtained from an oblig- 
 ing dentist. After the parts of the teeth have been 
 decided upon by the pupils, the terms crown, neck, 
 and root may be supplied. 
 
 7. The structure and ftiaterials of a tooth can be grossly 
 
 studied from a tooth that has been ground in a trans- 
 verse plane and from one that has been ground in a 
 longitude plane, and the names, enamel, dentine, and 
 pulp cavity supplied. 
 
 CD 
 
 i5 "Pe-rmaneni p-, 
 
 C3 •^^^^'^ a 
 
42 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 8. Secure from the laboratory or the druggist some blue 
 
 litmus paper, and in the presence of the class, demon- 
 strate its use in discovery of acid substances, by put- 
 ting on a piece of it a drop hydrochloric and other 
 acids and noting that acids turn the paper pink. 
 
 9. Test the decayed spots on spoiled fruits, such as ban- 
 
 anas, apples, etc., with litmus paper, and let the class 
 report their conclusions from the effects observed. 
 
 10. Now provide each member of the class with a piece of 
 blue litmus paper and a fresh wooden tooth pick.. 
 Give directions for each to put some scrapings from 
 his own teeth on the litmus paper. Not the effect 
 after a few minutes ,and draw the appropriate con- 
 clusion. 
 
 11. When the reports of the effect of the tooth-scrapings 
 on the litmus paper come in, recall with the class that 
 germs cause decay and that conditions that favor the 
 growth of germs are warmth, moisture, air, and dead 
 matter. 
 
 12. At this time apply dilute hydrochloric acid to one of 
 the teeth previously studied, and permit each member 
 of the class to see the little bubbles that arise from 
 the tooth. Watch the acid's "eating" the tooth. 
 
 13. Now connect up this phenomenon with the acid con- 
 dition of tooth scrapings and secure the proper infer- 
 ence as to the cause of decay, namely, the action on 
 the teeth of acids developed by germs of decay in 
 foods left in the mouth and between teeth. Explain 
 that sugars, candy, and starchy foods most quickly 
 yield these acids that eat teeth. 
 
 14. The matter of using the teeth to crack nuts, etc., may 
 be taken up here, and the reasons made clfear why it 
 is especially desirable to preserve the enamel of teeth 
 intact. 
 
 Questions for Study 
 
 It is assumed that the teacher will be easily able to 
 frame up appropriate questions on the above experiments. 
 They are accordingly ommitted here. 
 
 Studying the Books. _(See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. How improve the teeth? Con." I, 65; Gu. I, 146; Hu I, 
 
 168 ; Je. I, 149 ; 0-K. I, 151 ; Ri. I, 43. 
 
 2. Why form the tooth brush habit? Con. I, 55 ; Gu. I 151 
 
 Hu. I, 161 ; Je. I, 151 ; 0-K. I, 156 ; Ri. I, 41. 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 43 
 
 V. HARMFUL STUFFS FOR THE MOUTH— Al. XXXVI ; 
 H-S. XX; Wa. Vni. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To get some important facts about tea, coffee, al- 
 chohol, and tobacco. 
 
 1. As a preliminary exercise, pass small pieces of alum 
 
 to each member of the class, requiring the pieces to be 
 tasted, and explain that alum is called an astringent 
 bcause of its "puckering" effects. Explain that tea 
 and coffee contain a similar astringent known as 
 tannin. 
 
 2. Have pupils make a pair of balance scales by passing 
 
 a pin halfway through the exact center of a foot rule, 
 and attach by three strings to each end a pair of card- 
 board scale pans. With this instrument weigh out 
 three samples of black tea, three of green tea, and 
 three of freshly ground coffee, equal in quantity to 
 the weight of a dime, and distribute in nine jelly 
 glasses. 
 
 3. Nearly fill one glass of each of three sets with cool or 
 
 cold water and one each with water that has been 
 boiling. Fill the remaining three glasses with boil- 
 ing water and place in a pan of boiling water so as to 
 continue boiling. Keep all nine glasses in the above 
 conditions for just four minutes, then drain all of them 
 off into other similar glasses, keeping track of "which 
 is which." Now pour two spoonfuls of a strong solu- 
 tion of copper (copper sulphate) into each glass 
 and note the fleecy stuff (copper tannate) that forms 
 in each. When this precipitate has settled, the result- 
 ing quantities easily show the relative amounts of 
 tannin in each sample of tea and coffee. 
 
 4. Of course people drink tea and coffee not for the tan- 
 nin, but for another substance that serves to stimulate, 
 namely caf-f e-in. It is not easy to show the presence 
 of this substance but it can be shown that the amount 
 of caff ein in the cool and the boiled specimens is about 
 the same, and less in the cold specimens. 
 
 5. Space does not permit descriptions of concrete studies 
 
 of soda water and other soft drinks, but a little in- 
 genuity and suggestions from a good druggist will en- 
 one to show that a glass of milk is very much more 
 wholesome and nutritive as well as less expensive than 
 any of the soft drinks. 
 
44 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 6. Provide a small bottle of denatured alcohol for direct 
 
 observation of its appearance, its odor, its w^eight as 
 compared with water, etc. 
 
 7. Pour some alcohol on the raw white of egg The effect 
 
 here is not unlike that of alcohol on the protoplasmic 
 contents of the body cells. 
 9. Immerse a fishworm ,or other soft bodied "worm" or 
 "grub," in a small quantity of alcohol and note the 
 effect on the behavior and tissues of the creature. 
 The teacher should know (without any guess work) 
 the difference between a stimulant and a narcotic. The 
 early behavior of the "worms" is due to irritations 
 and not to stimulation. 
 
 10. It would be an illuminating experiment for adol- 
 escents and adults if some poultry raiser could be in- 
 duced to keep a screened pan of alcohol under the 
 straw of a setting-hen's nest of eggs. Only a few 
 chicks would be hatched and they would be deformed. 
 
 11. Take about a thimbleful of your sample of alcohol, 
 pour it into a small bottle, and add five more thimble- 
 fulls of water. Now tie a wire to a bottle, and add 
 five more thimblefulls of water. Now tie a wire to a 
 little piece of sheet copper and heat the copper red 
 hot and continue till the copper appears dark on cool- 
 ing. While the blackened copper is still red-hot, 
 thrust it into the solution of alcohol. Remove and 
 note that the copper is now bright again. Blacken 
 the copper again and this time thrust it into pure wa- 
 ter. It remains black. Apply this test for alcohol to 
 Peruna and other patent medicines whose labels 
 report as much as 15 or 20 per cent of alcohol. 
 
 12. Take the dilute alcohol used in No. 11 and bring it to 
 boiling. Now bring a lighted match to the mouth of 
 the bottle and not the flash of light from the burning 
 alcohol. Treat Peruna and other alcoholic patent 
 medicines similarly. 
 
 13. Pour several drops of alcohol into a saucer and set 
 fire to the alcohol. Observe three things about the 
 flame different from that of a burning match. 
 
 14. If weather permits, try freezing alcohol. 
 
 15. Pour alcohol on separate sample of oil, fats and resins. 
 
 16. Secure a small packet of tobacco seeds and give the 
 pupils an opportunity to examine them through a sim- 
 ple magnifying glass. Provide a suitable receptacle 
 and start some of these seeds to growing. They will 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 45 
 
 germinate and develop sufficiently to be interest- 
 ing to the pupils while their later studies of tobacco 
 are being made. 
 
 17. Many greenhouses will have some species of these 
 plants growing, and here a plant can be obtained 
 for examination and study. Note the generally dis- 
 agreeable odor of the plant, particularly of a crushed 
 leaf. Something of the history of the plant may well 
 come in at this point, supplied by the teacher. 
 
 18. A bit of plug tobacco as big as half a pea, in an 
 inch of water in a test tube or other glass vessel, will 
 soon give the water a dark brown color, showing 
 that tobacco contains substances that are highly sol- 
 uble in water. The most important of these sub- 
 stances is, of course, nicotine. 
 
 19. Try a similar amount of tobacco in about a half-inch 
 of saliva collected in test tube or vial and note that 
 saliva also dissolves the substance of tobacco. 
 
 20. Take a bit of the raw white of egg and on it place a 
 drop or two of the liquid from No. 13. Note that the 
 white of egg takes this into itself. Point out that 
 this white of egg is not unlike the living matter that 
 makes up the cells of which our bodies are made up. 
 
 21. Put a drop of solution from No. 13 on a fly or other in- 
 sect and note the result. If you think it not unwise, 
 take a medicine dropper and inject some of the sol- 
 ution into the mouth of a mouse. Keep the animal 
 out of sight, of course, till "all is over" and then pre- 
 sent the final result for examination. 
 
 22. Have a little girl with a particularly white and clean 
 little finger immerse it in some of the tobacco solution 
 for a few minutes, and note the discoloration. 
 
 23. Now take a bit of tobacco no larger than a pea and 
 placef it on a thin metal plate supported over an alco- 
 hol or other flame. Place flies or other insects caged 
 in wire screening, over the fumes, and note results. 
 The odors that come from the heated tobacco disclose 
 the volatile character of nicotine. 
 
 24. A bit of tobacco may now be held by pliers and burn- 
 ed in the alcohol flame, the odors again being noted 
 and any other facts considered that the teacher deems 
 it wise to present, such as the effect of this burning on 
 the nicotine itgelf . 
 
46 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 Questions For Consideration 
 
 1. How does alum affect your tung? What use do bar- 
 bers sometimes make of alum? 
 
 2. Can you find from the books what causes the differ- 
 
 ence in the appearance of black tea and of green tea? 
 
 3. How must tea and coffee be prepared so they will have 
 
 the most tannin? The least tannin? Which sort of 
 tea, black or green, has the least tannin? 
 
 4. How can tea and coffee be prepared so they will come 
 
 nearest to yielding the most caffein and the least 
 tannin. 
 
 5. What makes soda water effervesce ("boil up") ? Why 
 
 is a glass of sweetened milk more nutritious and 
 wholesome than the drinks at the soda fountain ? 
 6-7. What different terms can you employ to describe the 
 physical properties of alcohol? 
 
 8. What is the effect of alcohol on raw white of egg? 
 
 What else does this experiment teach? 
 
 9. Why does the "worm" behave as he did at first and at 
 the last? 
 
 10. Query for adolescents and adults: Why are there so 
 many imbeciles in countries where alcoholic drinks 
 are freely used? 
 
 11.-12. What are the two ways to tell whether a medicine 
 has a good deal of a,lcohol in it? 
 
 13. Why (three reasons) is alcohol so well adapted to use 
 in "alcohol lamps"? 
 
 14. Why is alcohol instead of mercury used in low temper- 
 ature thermometers? 
 
 15. What is meant by "spirits" of camphor, vanilla, etc? 
 16-24. Are any insects found around a growing tobacco 
 
 plant other than the green-house white fly? Why do 
 housewives sometimes take a solution of tobacco and 
 sprinkle it on houseplants? Why are pieces of to- 
 bacco sometimes placed among articles of clothing 
 that have been laid away for the summer or winter? 
 Why do entomologists (bug men) find empty cigar 
 boxes especially good for keeping their preserved 
 specimens in? Do you know of any other good uses 
 to which to put tobacco? 
 
 Would you think tobacco a good thing to feed to 
 your pet animals, especially young ones? Why do 
 not foot-ball trainers and physical directors permit 
 their men who play in hard contests, to use tobacco ? 
 who finds it the most difficult to keep such a law? 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 47 
 
 Would it help the looks of ladies if they used tobacco 
 as some men do? Since people who have not gotten 
 their systems used to the poison of tabacco find to- 
 bacco smoke very offensive, is it fair to them to compel 
 them to endure the sickening odor of tobacco? 
 
 How much do Americans spend anually for to- 
 bacco? For cigars? For public schools? (See 
 Chapter VIII.) 
 
 Studying the Books (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. Why are tea and coffee drinks that injure? Con. I, 44; 
 
 Je. I, 165 ; 0-K. I, 132 ; Ri. I, 34 
 
 2. Why are alcoholic beverages drinks that destroy? Con. 
 
 I, 45 ; Gu. I, 159 ; Hu. I, 75, 150 ; Je. I, 77, 83, 121, 127, 
 159 ; 0-K. I, 135 ; Ri. I, 37, 105. 
 
 3. How does tobacco harm good athletes! Con. I, 69 ; Gu. 
 
 IV, 141 ; Je. II, 78 ; 0-K. I, 71 ; Ri. I, 56, 110. 
 
 4. How do cigarettes spoil quick thinking? Con. I, 69 ; Gu.. 
 
 Gu. II, 63 ; 0-K, I, 71 ; Ru. I, 110. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 VI. MAKING THE BODY STRONG AND STRAIGHT.— 
 Al. XII; Ban. I-XXVI; Dr. II; Ho. VII- VIII; Ly. II, 2; 
 Te. VII, XX; Wa. V. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To disclose some fundamentals about posture, 
 play, work, and sleep. 
 
 1. Take a piece of rubber band about two inches long and 
 
 a quarter of an inch wide and stretch to twice its 
 first length. Now let the rubber come slowly back to 
 its first length and watch how the band changes in 
 thickness and width. 
 
 2. Take two such rubbers as that above and firmly tie in 
 
 place on a clothes-pin as shown in Fig. 1. 
 In the end of a piece of broomstick twice as long as 
 the clothespin hollow out a rounded depression that 
 will nicely take in the head of the clothespin made 
 
48 
 
 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 round by whittling or filing to the piece of broom- 
 stick as shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 By shifting the position of one or the other of the 
 thumb tacks, show how the clothespin can be made to 
 take different directions. 
 
 If you want to make a more realistic showing of the 
 way muscles work in the human body, take a piece of 
 soft wood board an inch thick, two inches wide, and 
 six inches long, and by cutting suitable depressions 
 and attaching clothespins and a knob of wood in the 
 same way as in Fig. 2, construct such a devise as that 
 of Fig 3. 
 
 4. Straighten out your index finger and then make it 
 
 point in various directions. While the back of the 
 hand is kept motionless, now feel your forearm to see 
 where the muscles (the "rubbers") lie that make the 
 finger move forward and where backward. Decide 
 where the ends of the muscles are fastened. 
 
 5. In similar way find out the places of attachments re- 
 
 spectively of the muscles that produce movement at 
 the elbow, the shoulder, the neck, the back, the knee, 
 and the ankle and toes. 
 
 6. Let each member of the class see how many times he 
 
 can chin himself (girls as well as boys). Now take 
 the circular measure of the upper arm of each pupil 
 both when the forearm is drawn up as much as it pos- 
 sibly can be, and when the arm hangs loose. See if 
 there is any relationship between number of "chin- 
 nings" and increase of arm girth. 
 
 7. Consider how one can get bigger muscles by thinking 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 49 
 
 how the strong, big-muscled men of the community 
 came to be so. 
 
 8. By referring to your wooden man, show what muscles 
 
 must be strengthened to make one naturally stand 
 straight and sit erect. Let each pupil think which 
 of his own muscles need strengthening and what he 
 can do to secure for himself the best of body postures. 
 
 9. Make a list of the things that are sometimes done in 
 
 school, on the playground, and about home that tend 
 to draw one out of good body shap. Make another list 
 of the things that help to give one a good shape. 
 
 10. The ideal standing posture being relatively a straight 
 line for the major axis of the head and neck, upper 
 and lower trunk, thighs and legs, find out, by standing 
 naturally near a; vertical wall how much, if any, each 
 section of the person bends away from a vertical line. 
 Let the teacher make a straight (or crooked) line 
 sketch of each pupil's sideview posture, in the pupil's 
 notebook. 
 
 11. Since a forward protruding neck and head is so com- 
 mon a posture defect, let each pupil, while at home in 
 the morning, preferably just after rising from bed, 
 loosely fold the arms on the chest and arch the body 
 by supporting it on the heels and the back of the head. 
 The knees will have to be bent slightly but not very 
 much, and the body and neck should then be arched 
 as high' as possible and allowed to drop back at once. 
 Let each pupil report how many times, working con- 
 tinuously, he was able to do this act of "bridging", as 
 it is called. 
 
 12. Let each pupil be provided with a piece of loose cotton 
 that has been partly moistened with a half and half 
 water and glycerine solution of chloride of iron (ferric 
 chloride). Each of these should be wrapt in paper 
 and taken home to use on the soles of the bare feet to 
 take foot prints as follows : rub a thin coating of the 
 iron chloride solution on the sole of one foot and then 
 place the foot carefully on a piece of unglazed paper 
 lying on the floor, throwing the full weight of the body- 
 on the foot. Remove the foot carefully, take a simi- 
 lar impression of the other foot, and lay the paper 
 away to dry. Wash both feet without further delay. 
 Later compare the assembled foot prints of the class 
 with an ideal foot print found in the books. If it is 
 desired to make the foot prints black, apply with a 
 brush to the backs of each paper, a water solution of 
 
,50 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 tannic acid. The mixture of this with the iron chloride 
 makes real ink. 
 
 13. Let the teacher take such a survey of the sleeping 
 habits of the members of the class as is outlined on 
 page 378 of Terman's Hygiene of the Child. Note 
 that about ten hours is an average sleeping period for 
 a fifth grade pupil. To the list of questions provided, 
 add a question as to the usual posture of the pupil 
 v^fhile sleeping. Emphasize the fact later that body 
 posture can be improved by lying on one side or the 
 other with the elbow thrown back of the trunk, and 
 not in front of it. 
 
 Qiiections for Consideration 
 
 1. How do you think a muscle of the body gets shorter? 
 
 What are two reasons for believing your answer? 
 2-3-4. How is any part of the body kept in position? Can 
 
 you figure out how one manages to walk? 
 
 5. What muscles are most used when running? When 
 
 throwing a ball? When jumping? V7hen breathing? 
 
 6. Why can one pupil "chin" himself more than another? 
 
 V/ould you like to try this out a month from now? 
 
 7. V/hy are some folks not so very strong? Why do you 
 
 think it is worth while to be strong? 
 
 8. Can you show how you can make a limb of your 
 
 wooden man take the same position in two different 
 ways? For what two different reasons may come 
 folks be round shouldered? 
 
 9. What are the things you are going to do and not do to 
 
 give yourself a fine body shape? 
 
 10. If your standing posture is not ideal, what exercises 
 do you need to take to make it such? 
 
 11. How many times can you "bridge" without stopping 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 51 
 
 to rest? If you get stiff and sore for a day or so after 
 the first time you "bridged", what does that show ? 
 
 12. Does your foot print show two good "arches" for your 
 foot, and are the toe prints not crowded together too 
 much? If not, how can you correct "flat feet" and 
 cramped toes? 
 
 13. What improvements can you make in your sleeping 
 conditions, and in your posture while sleeping? 
 
 Studying the Books (See also Greide V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. What are the best body postures? Con. I, 94-113; Gu. 
 
 IV. 9 ; Hu. I, 5 ; Je. II, 1 ; 0-K, I, 13 ; Ri. I, 82. 
 
 2. What are the best play and work habits? Con. I, 121; 
 
 Je. I, 16 ; 0-K, I, 41 ; Ri. I, 86. 
 
 3. What are the best feet for running? Con. I, 112; Hu. 
 
 IV, 44; Je. II, 38; O-K. I, 187; Ri. I, 79. 
 
 4. What are the best sleep habits? Con. I, 148 ; Gu. I, 57 ; 
 
 Hu. I, 166 ; Je. I, 47 ; 0-K. I, 106 ; Ri. I, 50, 94. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 VII CARING FOR THE SKIN, NAILS, HAIR, AND 
 
 SCALP— H.S. XI; Hu. XVII; Te. XV; Wa. X. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To discover some conditions favorable to the 
 health of the surface of the body. 
 
 1. If a simple microscope is available, let each pupil make 
 
 an examination of the skin of the hand to see how 
 scaly it is. When the back or palm of the hand is 
 sweaty, take a dull knife and scrape off some of the 
 scurf. Use the microscope to discover what the scurf 
 grew from and why one can never be freed "for good" 
 from the accumulation of scurf. 
 
 2. Recall the smell of decaying meat, that is, of a dead 
 
 cat, rat, or other decomposing animal. Think why 
 clothing, especially that worn next the skin, sooner 
 or later gets to smelling bad. Consider also why 
 people sometimes do not smell very wholesome. Ex- 
 plain why a crowded room or a room that has just had 
 many people in it is not likely to smell very well. 
 
 3. Sometime when your hands are not very clean, wash 
 
 them in plain water, doing the best that can be done. 
 Examine the hands carefully to see if they are quite 
 clean and if there is any odor. Then right after that, 
 use warm water and soap in re-washing the hands. 
 
52 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 See if this has. made any difference in the cleanliness 
 and odor of the hands. Think what is the chief reason 
 for bathing and honestly answer the question as to 
 how often one ought to bathe the whole body. 
 
 4. Let each pupil now make a study of his finger nails 
 
 to find out answers to the following questions : 
 
 (a) How does a nail differ from the skin? What two 
 reasons can you give for thinking nails steadily 
 grow out from the root? (Nail-paring and the 
 progress of a "black and blue" mark) , 
 
 (b) Does a nail grow thicker the farther out it gets 
 from the root? (Determine by successive press- 
 ings with a dull pencil point) . 
 
 (c) How do the three parts of a nail differ in color, 
 the "moon" rising from the root, the central part 
 or body, and the outer part or free margin? 
 Since the nail itself is not pink, as seen at the 
 margin, why do you think the central part looks 
 pink ? If the margin of the nail ever really gets 
 black, what makes it look black sometimes? 
 Why could not one get along just as well without 
 finger nails as with them? 
 
 5. Sometimes one finds the skin at the root of a nail wants 
 
 to hang" to the "moon" of the nail. It may even hang 
 on so long as to be partly pulled away as the nail con- 
 tinues to grow out. This makes it look very ragged. 
 Think what you could do to keep the skin from hang- 
 ing on to the nail in this way, and how this can best 
 be done without injury to skin or naiL Why is biting 
 the nails a bad practice, both for the mouth and for 
 the nails? What have you found to be the best thing 
 to use in trimming the nails? What shape and how 
 long or short should the nails be kept so as to look the 
 best? 
 
 6. Secure a hair freshly pulled from someone's head and 
 
 let each pupil examine it with a simple microscope, 
 as the hair lies on a piece of clear glass. Is the hair 
 smooth or is it scaley? How does the root seem to 
 differ from the rest of the hair? Look closely at the 
 hair of someone's scalp to see if it seems to come from 
 "holes" in the scalp, or right from the surface of the 
 scalp. What stuff do you find that makes you think 
 of the scurf from the hand in No. 1 ? 
 
 7. Using your handkerchief, rub the back of your hand 
 
 quite hard till the skin begins; to get red. Remember- 
 
GRADE V! HABIT HYGIENE 53 
 
 ing that blood feeds the hair roots, what would be the 
 advantage of thoroly brushing the hair and scalp 
 about twice a day? What is the objection to wearing 
 a very tight hat so far as the growth of the hair is con- 
 cerned? What is a second important reason aside 
 from making the hair lie right, for frequent brushing 
 of the hair and scalp ? 
 
 8. Often when one has a headache, one can get relief by 
 massaging the scalp. The first time a headache 
 comes, try rubbing the scalp well, and see if relief is. 
 secured. Headaches are due to poisonous stuffs in the^ 
 blood of the scalp, and the rubbing helps this blood 
 to flow along and take away the poisons. This poison 
 usually comes from bad eyesight, failure to discharge 
 the bowels daily, lack of sufficient red blood, loss of 
 sleep and rest, and from eating things one ought not 
 to eat. If the pupil has headaches often, the teacher 
 should direct his attention to possible causes, and to 
 the removal of the same. 
 
 9. In connection with the treatment of cuts, burns, and 
 
 bruises, as these are studied in the books, let the 
 "recitation" consist in a dramatization of the proced- 
 ure, the teacher providing the necessary materials, and- 
 the pupils actually demonstrating the work. 
 10. Put some drops of oil on some water in a small bottle, 
 and shake thoroly. Take a similar bottle and put very 
 soapy water in it and some drops of oil on it as before. 
 Now shake well and state what is the difference now 
 in the appearance of the oil. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. Why cannot one free oneself entirely of scurf? 
 
 2. Why do some people smell less wholesome than 
 
 others ? 
 
 3. Why and how often should one bathe ? 
 4-7. Answer the questions in No. 4-7 above. 
 
 8. Do you suffer with occasional headaches? If so, what 
 
 do you think is the cause ? 
 9-10. Since the poison of poison ivy is a volatile oil, why 
 
 is the prompt use of soap likely to prove beneficial? 
 
 Studying the Books (See also Grade V, Study I.) 
 
 1. Why keep the skin clean? Con. I, 131; Gu. I, 114; Hu. 
 
 I, 8 ; Je. I, 114 ; 0-K. I, 162 ; Ri. I, 75. 
 
 2. How keep the nails nice ? Con. I, 134 ; Fu. I, 101 ; Hu. I, 
 
 16 ; Je. I, 105 ; 0-K. I, 178 ; Ri. I, 74. 
 
 3. How take care of the hair and scalp? Con. I, 128; Fu. 
 
S4 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 I, 108 ; Hu. I, 18i Je. I, 114 ; 0-K. I, 176 ; Ri. I, 73. 
 
 4. What are the nature and treatment of a headache? 
 
 Con. II, 333 ; Da. II, 45 ; Je. II, 176, 176 ; 0-K. IV, 209 ; 
 Ov. II, 235. 
 
 5. How treat cuts, burns, and bruises? Con. I, 84, 126, 
 
 200 ; Gu. II, 30, 52, 57 ; Hu. 1, 137 ; Je. 1, 186, 181, 184 ; 
 Ri. I, 66, 127. 
 S. How care for poison ivy and other skin poisons? Con. 
 I, 169; Gu. II, 82, 131; Je. I, 181; Ri. I, 129; 
 
 VIII. CARING FOR THE EYES AND EARS— Al. VII, 
 VHI; Dr. XV, XVI; H-S. XXII; Te. XIII, XIV; Wa. 
 XIII. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To develop important facts in the hygiene of the 
 eyes and ears. 
 
 1. Take a card-board box (without lid) that is roughly 
 an inch or more each way in size, and cover the open 
 side of the box with tissue paper fastened on with 
 paste. Make a good, clear hole with a darning needle 
 in the center of the side opposite the tissue paper. 
 Darken the room considerably and hold a burning 
 match or candle an inch or two back of the hole in the 
 paste board and observe the image of the flame on the 
 tissue paper. Now make a hole in the pasteboard 
 considerably bigger, at least a quarter of an inch in 
 diameter and try the match experiment again to ob- 
 serve what happens now to the image. 
 
 Next, lay the lens of a simple microscope over the 
 hole in the pasteboard box and we have an artificial 
 eye. Again try the match experiment, moving the 
 match closer or farther away one gets such an image 
 as near-sighted folk have of distant objects. Holding 
 the match nearer ,one gets such an image as far- 
 sighted folk have of near objects. Try some near- 
 sighted and some far-sighted eye glasses on both these 
 cases to see if the images can be made clear thereby. 
 
 '2. While looking at one's own eyes in a mirror hold a 
 strong light between the mirror and the side of the 
 head. Now move the light out to right or left as far 
 as possible and then bring it back close to the eye 
 again, and while doing this back and forth watch the 
 change in the size of the pupil of the eye (which is 
 like the hole in the box, and lets light into the eye). 
 
 3. Try reading a iDook when a strong light is in front of 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 55 
 
 the eyes and also when the light is at the right or left 
 back of the head. Consider how the eyes feel while 
 doing this and what must be the condition of the pupil 
 and the work, of the eye under the two conditions.. 
 
 4. Try writing with a pencil while a strong light comesr 
 
 over the shoulder, and also when it comes over the; 
 right shoulder and note especially the shadows made= 
 by the writing hand. 
 
 5. Whilei the hands are very clean take a small and very" 
 
 clean pencil and, sitting before a mirror, try rolling 
 the upper lid of an eye over the pencil, so as to see the 
 under surface of the lid. Consider how one could now 
 remove a particle from the eye with the corner of a 
 clean handkerchief. Try putting the lower lid down 
 without the use of the pencil. 
 
 6. The teacher should by all means make a test of the eye 
 
 sight of all her pupils, using any ordinary eyechart 
 and following the directions therein. If a chart has to- 
 be purchased, send 25c to the F. A. Hary Co., Chicago, 
 for one of the Allport charts. The teacher could well 
 saturate her consciousness with the contents of Chap. 
 XIV of Terman's "The Hygiene of the Child." 
 
 7. Let the pupil adjust himself so that a strong light is 
 
 shining into an ear canal, place a mirror on the same 
 side of the head as the light is on, and with a hand mir- 
 or held in front of the eye but turned so it faces half 
 way between the other mirror and the eyes. Now let 
 the pupil, by a litle adjusting, learn as much as pos- 
 sible about his own ear canal, which leads into the 
 head about an inch to the most important organs of 
 hearing. 
 
 8. Let the teacher test the hearing of all her pupils, fol- 
 
 lowing the directions for the "whisper test" given in 
 Terman's "The Hygiene of the Child," pages 237-23&. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. How do glasses help some people to see better 
 
 2. Why is a very strong light objectionable? "Why is a 
 
 poqr light objectionable, if one has to keep looking 
 
 closely while working in it? 
 3-4. How should the light fall upon the printed page 
 
 while one is reading? While one is writing? Does 
 
 it make any difference in the two cases as to which 
 
 side the light comes from? 
 5. Can you show how you could get a gnat or a cinder 
 
 out of your eye ? 
 
-56 GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 «. What proportion of pupils in the class or school seem 
 to have defective vision? 
 
 7. What has been learned about the ear canal from the 
 
 mirror examination? 
 
 8. What proportion of the class or school seem to have 
 
 defective hearing? 
 
 Studying the Books 
 
 1. When are spectacles needed? Gu. I, 75; Je. I, 75; Ri. 
 I, 116. 
 
 2. What light is good for the eyes? Con. I, 160 ; Gu. I, 70 ; 
 Hu. I, 61; Je. I, 70;Ri. I, 117. 
 
 3. How remove foreign bodies from the eyes? Con. I, 159 ; 
 Fu. I, 69; Ri. I, 119. 
 
 '4. How care for the outer ear? Con. I, 162 ; Gu. I, 90 ; Ju. 
 
 I, 57; Je. I, 90; Ri. I, 125. 
 5. How treat earache and running ears ?Con. I, 201; Gu. 
 
 I, 89 ; Hu. I, 57 ; Je. I, 98 ; Ri. I, 124. 
 
 IX. WHAT TO DO WHEN ACCIDENTS HAPPEN— Bai. 
 I-XIX;Ly. HI, 6. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 No special studies are offered here. What is recom- 
 mended instead is that the pupils be set to work on the 
 book study with the understanding that the "recitation" 
 shall consist in an exhibition of just what and how to do 
 in all the cases considered. Let bandaging materials, etc., 
 be provided by the school for this exhibition. 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows a demonstration 
 given by the Fifth Grade in the Peru Normal Training 
 School to the Sivth Grade in the same school. The pros- 
 pect of giving a public demonstration serves as an addi- 
 tional stimulus for careful work. 
 
 Studying the Books 
 
 1. How avoid the common accidents? Con. I, 198; Gu. II, 
 
 1 ; 0-K. II, 270 ; Ri. I, 127. 
 
 2. How care for sprains and broken bones? Con. I, 114; 
 
 Gu. II, 21 ; Je. I, 180, 187 ; Ri. I, 126. 
 
 3. How get skill in the art of bandaging? Con. I, 84, 204 ; 
 
 Gu. II, 39 ; Hu. I, 137 ; Ri. I, 126. 
 
 4. How save life from drowning? Con. II, 159; Gu. II, 
 
 126; Hu. I, 144; Je. I, 185; Ri. I, 128. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1). 
 
GRADE V: HABIT HYGIENE 
 
 57 
 
 Dramatizing First-Aid Instructions 
 
CHAPTER v.— GRADE VI, GERM HY- 
 GIENE 
 
 AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF TIME 
 
 It is intended that a half year shall be given to the study 
 of hygiene in Grade VI, with recitations of fifteen minutes 
 ■duration. Thus about eighty recitations should be given to 
 the subject, either the first half or the last half of the year 
 or in alternation with other subjects thruout the year. 
 In case Grades V and VI are combined in one class, the fifth- 
 grade course should come the first half of the year, to be fol- 
 lowed by the sixth-grade course the second half. 
 
 THE AIM 
 
 It will be noted from the heading of the Course of Study" 
 
 Note. — The proportions given in the above graph were estimated from 
 the sections of the United States containing the most reliable records of 
 deaths and their causes in 1910 — Compiled by Abel J. McAlister, formerly 
 Principal of the Atchison County (Kansas) High School. 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 59> 
 
 for Grade VI that the dominant theme is acquaintance with 
 germs. The same is also true for Grade VII. If half the 
 child's hygiene time in school is, by this distribution, given 
 to germ study, so also do half the people (52 per cent, see 
 diagram) who die prematurely, succumb to germ diseases. 
 Conscious effort should be made in this grade to conserve 
 the health practices presumably set up in grades I-V, or to 
 establish them if wanting. 
 
 THE METHOD OF PROCEDURE 
 
 1. Preliminary consideration. — For the more extensive 
 directions for presenting the hygiene lessons, see 
 "Method of Procedure" under Grade V. 
 
 A. Approach each new general topic by assigning some 
 definite observation or project work. 
 
 B. Have the pupils report in class the things previously 
 observed, or conduct a class observation of an experi- 
 ment or of concrete objects. Follow this up by 
 specific questions that will bring out the desired 
 hygienic points. 
 
 C. Make text book and reference book assignments, 
 distributing the latter among the pupils of the class, 
 to be followed by a socialized recitation, or by an 
 ordinary recitation, as may seem best. 
 
 D. The final conclusion from the study, definitely drawn 
 up according to some common outline or scheme, and 
 record in the pupils' individual notebooks on hygiene 
 followed by applications of the conclusions in 
 practice. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE HYGIENE TOPICS— GERM HYGIENE 
 
 I. PLANT GERMS, OR BACTERIA. 
 
 1. What are the nature and habits of bacteria? 
 
 2. Are some bacteria beneficial — as cheese ripeners, 
 
 nitrogen-fixers, scavengers, etc.? 
 
 3. Are some bacteria harmful — purification germs, etc.? 
 
60 GRADE VI: GBEM HYGIENE 
 
 4. Are there bacterial germ diseases not readily con- 
 tagious ? 
 
 JI. ANIMAL GERMS, OR PROTOZOA. 
 
 1. What are the nature and habits of protozoan germs? 
 
 2. Can you describe the protozoan germ diseases? 
 
 III. HOW THE BODY NATURALLY COMBATS GERM 
 ENEMIES. 
 
 1. Does unbroken skin keep germs out? 
 
 2. Are the inside linings of the body a protection? 
 
 3. Is the nose a destroyer of germs? 
 
 4. Is the acidity of the stomach a germicide? 
 
 5. Are white corpuscles of the blood devourers of germs? 
 
 IV. HOW WE CAN HELP NATURE CONTROL GERMS. 
 
 1. How help by the use of disinfectants? 
 
 2. How help by the use of drinking fountains and indi- 
 vidual cups? 
 
 3. How help by allowing only good foods and drinks, 
 
 clean forks and spoons to enter the mouth? 
 
 4. How help by avoiding the spitting habit? 
 
 5. How help by suppressing dust in all forms? 
 
 6. How help by cooking of foods? 
 
 7. How help by not permitting alcoholic beverages to 
 
 interfere with the work of the white corpuscles? 
 
 8. How help by cleanliness in all things? 
 
 V. VENTILATION IN RELATION TO GERMS AND TO 
 
 BODY TEMPERATURE. 
 
 1. How is "crowd air" due to germs of decay in unclean 
 
 bodies and clothing? 
 
 2. How does stagnant air sometimes cause us to feel 
 warm? 
 
 3. How may ventilation give some relief for both these 
 
 conditions ? 
 
 TI. BATHING AS A GERM PROPHYLACTIC AND PRO- 
 TECTOR FROM CATCHING COLDS. 
 1. Why is the surface of the skin an ideal home for germs? 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 61 
 
 2. Why is cleanliness the primary function of bathing? 
 
 3. How do cold baths keep one from catching colds? 
 
 4. What are the kinds of baths and how take a bath? 
 
 VII. CLOTHING IN RELATION TO GERMS AND HEAT. 
 
 1. What are the desirable kinds and use of undercloth- 
 ing? 
 
 2. What are the desirable kinds and use of outer cloth- 
 ing? 
 
 3. What are some general considerations about clothing? 
 
 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS AND TOPICAL 
 REFERENCES FOR GRADE VI 
 
 Note. — It is to be understood that no attempt is here made 
 to indicate how much work shall be assigned for each single 
 recitation, as the length of the assignment will have to be 
 determined by the length and number of recitations that 
 the school gives to this important subject. The chapter 
 references following the major (Roman-numbered) topics 
 are for the teacher's especial use. The page references fol- 
 lowing the minor (Arabic-numbered) topics, are for the 
 pupils' and teacher's use. The key to the books referred to 
 is given in Appendix A. The teacher must know that it is 
 not necessary to have or to use all the books referred to, but 
 the more she can have both for herself and for her pupils 
 the better. 
 
 I. PLANT GERMS, OR BACTERIA.— Al. VI, IX; Co. VII, 
 IX, XIV; Ho. IV; Hr. XI; H-S. XXX; Hu. XL XH; 
 Ma. XVI. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To learn the conditions favorable to the growth 
 of germs. 
 
 1. Preparing a culture medium. The success of the study 
 of germs here described, will depend in large degree 
 on the skill with which the culture medium, or place 
 for germs to grow, is prepared. The directions for 
 two sorts of culture media are here given, the_ first 
 being rather the more complex but also more satisfac- 
 tory, and the second simpler, but workable where 
 materials for the first medium are not readily avail- 
 abl. 
 (a) First, prepare a half teacup of clear beef soup or 
 
62 
 
 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 Children Examming Germ Culture 
 
 bouillon, add two cups of hot water and one tea- 
 spoonful of dextrose (ordinary brown sugar will 
 do, but dextrose or glucose, is better) . Second, to 
 this substance add 2 per cent (by weight) of agar, 
 if prepared for use in warm weather. If for colder 
 weather, use 12 per cent of Knox gelatin instead. 
 Now bring the whole to a boil, mixing in thoro- 
 ly, then filter thru a funnel lined with wet 
 absorbent cotton. Collect in a bottle large enough 
 to hold what strains through, and stopper the 
 bottle with a plug of absorbent cotton. Now set 
 the bottle in a covered vessel, like a wash boiler, 
 having several inches of water in it, and bring the 
 whole to boiling for an hour on each of three suc- 
 cessive days. This material will solidify on stand- 
 ing, and may be kept for some time. When ready 
 to use, put the bottle in hot water again to melt the 
 contents, and pour into at least a dozen test tubes 
 or small vials, thoroly sterilized by heating in 
 a hot oven, putting half an inch to an inch of the 
 preparation in each bottle or tube. Carefully pluc 
 
GRADE VI: GERM IgYGIENE 63 
 
 each with a sterilized cotton plug. You are now 
 ready to proceed with the experiments, after the 
 contents of the tubes or bottles have been allowed 
 to solidify by cooling when the tubes or bottles 
 are standing at an angle of about 45 degrees, 
 (b) The alternatives medium, mentioned at first, con- 
 sists in taking a healthy raw potato and from it 
 cutting as many pieces an inch long and three- 
 eighths of an inch square, as there are experi- 
 ments, with a few extra to fall back on. Take an 
 equal number of test-tubes or small bottles that 
 will admit the piece of potato unbroken. Now 
 place all in a covered vessel nearly full of hot 
 water, and boil for three minutes. 
 
 Meantime, have at hand some clean, dry, and 
 previously baked absorbent cotton, and remember 
 to perform all directions here without stirring up 
 any dust whatever, if possible. With a pair of 
 pliers, or a wire bent double for the purpose (also 
 boiled), take a test tube from the water, put in it 
 (with the pliers) , a piece of potato, add a drop or 
 two of red ink, and insert a pledget of cotton into 
 the mouth of the tube as a stopper, set aside, being 
 careful not to let the water in the test tube touch 
 the cotton. Similarly treat the remaining pieces of 
 potato. Now boil the water in each test tube for 
 one minute, not letting the water boil up against 
 the cotton. These can be boiled by holding the 
 lower ends in an alcohol or other hot flame, or 
 lowering them into a boiling teakettle. A little 
 common sense and ingenuity will help out. Set 
 aside for twelve hours and boil each again for one 
 minute, and so also at the end of another twelve 
 hours. After this last boiling remove the cotton 
 stopper, holding it so as not to touch any thing with 
 the end that belongs in the test tube, pour off all 
 the water you can, being careful not to "spill out" 
 the potato, re-insert the cotton stopper, and your 
 culture medium is now ready for use. If this has 
 all been done carefully, there should now be no 
 bacteria or mold or yeast in the test tubes and these 
 may be kept for use any number of days later. 
 
 If test tubes and cotton are not available use 
 jelly glasses with their lids, and a larger slice of 
 potato. The red ink is used to color the potato and 
 make it easier to see the little white patches of 
 
64 GRADE VI:- GERM HYGIENE 
 
 bacteria that should appear in some of the experi- 
 ments. 
 2. Making the experiments. No microscope is needed 
 for this work. After starting the experiments as de- 
 scribed below, the culture mediums should be ex- 
 amined for results in a day, two days, three days, and 
 even four days. The results to be looked for are little 
 white patches of bacteria colonies varying in size 
 around that of a pin head. Sometimes mold develops 
 on the potato, this being fluffy and the patches larger. 
 This mold is to be neglected (and regretted). 
 
 The experiments should be distributed among the 
 members of the class, or, if the class is more num- 
 erous, additional sets should, be prepared till all are 
 supplied. A good time to give these out is on Friday 
 so the return can be brought in on Monday. 
 
 (a) Take a small, long knife or a sharp, clean stick 
 and scrape the tongue with the end of it. Care- 
 fully pull out the stopper (holding it as explained 
 above) from the test tube, convey the scrapings 
 to the medium and reinsert the stopper at once. 
 
 Set ihe test tube aside in a dark place but keep it 
 all the time at a temperature between 90 and 100 
 degrees F. A warm thermos bottle would be 
 ideal to keep the test tube in. Examine as ex- 
 plained above every day for three or more days 
 and report what you see. 
 
 (b) Treat as in (a) but keep in direct sunlight as 
 much as possible. 
 
 (c) Treat as in (a) but keep in a cold place, as a re- 
 frigerator. 
 
 (d) Treat as in (a) but put in a drop of formalin be- 
 fore reinserting the stopper. 
 
 (e) Stir up a dust in a room, remove the stopper and 
 allow some of the dust to settle on the medium 
 and reinsert the stopper. Set aside as in (a). 
 
 (f ) Set the test tube in a room where little or no dust 
 is floating, remove stopper foi^ half an hour, and 
 then set aside as in (a). , (Every dust particle 
 generally has bacteria on it) . 
 
 (g) Sprinkle on the medium some dust from a dusty 
 book and set aside as in (a) . 
 
 (h) Touch the medium with a bit of decayed fruit 
 
 and set aside as in (a) . 
 (i) Touch the medium in several places with the end 
 
GRADE VI; GERM HYGIENE 65 
 
 of a pencil that somebody has had in his mouth, 
 
 and treat as in (a). 
 (1) Take some scrapings from the rim of a common 
 
 you see it walk on the medium, liberate the fly, 
 
 and set the tube aside as in (a). (Two or three 
 
 tubes may well be treated with flies) . 
 (k) Take scrapings from the hand, transfer to the 
 
 medium, treat as in (a). 
 (1) Take some scrapings from the rim of a common 
 
 drinking cup and place them on the medium, and 
 
 set aside as in (a). 
 
 Questions on the Experiments 
 
 After making a table of results from the twelve experi- 
 ments, as reported by the pupils in class (they should 
 Tiave test tubes or bottles with them) , follow up with ques- 
 tions such as the following: If one of our culture me- 
 diums had been perfectly dry would bacterial colonies 
 have developed? What four conditions are unfavorable 
 to the growth of germs? Name the various places in which 
 you know germs may be found. 
 
 Tell what you think about the following practices, and 
 what you mean to do about it hereafter; (a) spitting in pub- 
 lic places; (b) promiscuous kissing; (c) putting pencils 
 and other things in the mouth; (d) moistening the thumb 
 to turn the leaves of a book; (e) "licking" court plaster 
 to put it on a sore ; (f ) eating decayed fruit, etc. ; (g) the 
 carpeting of floors; (h) dusting furniture and books with a 
 feather duster; (i) admitting sunlight to living and sleeping 
 rooms; (j) exposing milk and other foods in dusty places; 
 (k) drinking from public drinking cups ; (1) exposing meats 
 and other food to flies; (m) using disinfectants; (n) keep- 
 ing the hands and body clean. 
 
 The Study of the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 1. What are the nature and habits of bacteria. — Col. I, 
 
 11 ; Con. I, 169, 174 ; Da. I, 36 ; Gu. II, 30 ; Jc. II, 269 ; 
 Ov. I, 17; Ri. II, 18. 
 
 2. Are some bacteria beneficial — as cheese ripeners, ni- 
 trogen-fixers, scavengers, etc.? Con. I, 171; Da. I, 
 38; Gu. Ill, 130, 179; Je. I, 30; 0-K. IV, 218; Ov. I, 
 19 ; Ri. II, 19. 
 
 3. Are some bacteria harmful — putrification germs, etc. ? 
 
 Con. I, 171; Da. I, 39; Gu. Ill, 45; Je. II, 174; 0-K. 
 IV, 219 ; Ri. II, 19. 
 
 4. Are there bacterial germ diseases not readily conta- 
 
 gious as those of tetanus, pus-formation, boils, tooth 
 
66 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 decay, colds, pneumonia, appendicitis, etc.? Con. II, 
 48, 170, 364; Da. I, 62, 197 ; Je. II, 199, 334; 0-K. IV, 
 223 ; Ov. I, 61, 54,174 ; Ri. II, 21, 42. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 II. ANIMAL GERMS, OR PROTOZOA. Hr. XIII, XV, Hu. 
 XV;H-S. XXXI;Ly. Ill, 7. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To get sense-acquaintance with one-celled animal 
 
 forms. 
 
 Note. — Now that the pupils have a little first hand 
 knowledge of microscopic plant life, it is desirable that 
 they be given similar acquaintance with minute forms of 
 animal life. While animal germs are larger than plant 
 germs, it is possible, only under the most favorable cir- 
 cumstances, to see them with the naked eye. As no school 
 room ought to be without one or more simple microscopes 
 (costing about 50c each), it is assumed that at least the 
 studies calling for the use of this instrument as well as 
 those for the naked eye study, will be gone thru with. If 
 the teacher knows how to use a compound microscope and 
 can have the use of one in school, it will be found highly 
 desirable to do so. The protozoan forms to be studied 
 here are harmless, and are abundantly distributed every- 
 where. 
 
 1. To develop material for these studies, a hay infusion 
 
 should be started by some pupil TEN DAYS OR TWO 
 WEEKS BEFORE it is intended to enter on the class 
 study of protozoa; To make this, have the pupil take 
 a good double handful of pretty finely chopped hay 
 and put it into a quart Mason jar. Now pour very 
 warm water over it till the jar is two-thirds full. Then 
 put the lid on loosely and set the jar aside in a warm 
 place (for two weeks or so) till a white scum begins 
 to form on the water. At first there will be myriads of 
 bacteria and later (when the white scum comes) 
 numerous little oblong, one-celled animals, called 
 paramecia, will develop and feed on the bacteria. 
 If it is possible to get a clam and let it decay in a 
 Mason jar of water, a good supply of paramecia that 
 are larger will develop. 
 
 2. When the teacher is ready to present the subject of 
 
 protozoa, let a piece of black cloth or paper be laid 
 on a table before the class, and on this, lay a pane of 
 window glass. Now take drops of water in and near 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 67 
 
 the scum (also some of the scum itself) on the hay 
 infusion, and transfer them with a pipette, or even a 
 pencil, to various places on the pane of glass. Spread 
 out the transferred drops of water as thin as possible 
 on the glass, and look for extremely minute and nu- 
 merous white specks swimming in the water. If the 
 paramecia cannot be discovered with the naked eye, 
 make use of the simple microscope. 
 S. Into one of the larger drops of water spread out on the 
 glass in No. 2, put the tiniest grain of salt you can 
 possibly get, and watch the behavior of the paramecia 
 around the salt grain. 
 
 4. Put a drop of weak vinegar on a saucer or a butter- 
 
 ette, and add 8 or 10 drops of water to the drop of 
 vinegar. Now dip a fine needle into the vinegar thus 
 weakened and transfer a tiny drop of it to a second 
 spot of hay infusion in No. 2. Again watch the be- 
 havior of the paramecia in the neighborhood of the 
 introduced vinegar. 
 
 5. Similarly dip a fine needle into some denatured alcohol 
 
 and place in still another spot of hay infusion in No. 
 2. Observe what happens to the paramesia. 
 €. If a compound microscope, magnifying about a hun- 
 dred diameters, is available, make a regular mount- 
 ing of a drop of the infusion from No. 1. Study the 
 behavior of the paramecia and discover, if you can, 
 how they travel and why they go in so straight a 
 course. 
 
 7. Again, if a microscope as in (6) is at hand, make 
 
 mountings of water from horse troughs, standing 
 pools, and places where there is green scum of any 
 sort. Examine for various minute forms of protozoa. 
 
 8. If some person can be found whose teeth are affected 
 with pyorrhea, and is willing to lend himself to the 
 enterprise, have him take a tooth pick and take 
 scrapings from between the gum and the root of the 
 affected tooth. With this material make a smear 
 mounting for examination under the compound 
 microscope magnifying three or four hundred dia- 
 meters. Some of the semi-transparent forms may be 
 seen to change shape in ameba-like fashion. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. Where did the bacteria come from that developed in 
 the infusion? Whence the paramecia and other pro- 
 tozoa, if any? 
 
68 GRADE VI; GERM HYGIENE 
 
 2. Can you suggest a reason why the paramecia should be 
 more numerous near the top of the hay water? Why 
 should this not be true for the bacteria also? 
 
 3. How did the paramecia behave around the salt? Why 
 
 did they do this ? 
 
 4. How differently did the paramecia behave around the 
 vinegar drop than around the salt? Any reason for 
 this? 
 
 5. Since white blood corpuscles are really one-celled ani- 
 
 mals doing important work in the body, what might 
 be expected from getting even a small amount of 
 alcohol in the blood? 
 
 6. Why do men make a coiled groove around the inside 
 
 of a rifle barrel? How do you account for the fact 
 that the Paramecium swims in such a straight line? 
 What makes it go at all ? 
 
 7. Describe the different kinds of protozoa you may have 
 seen in No. 6. 
 
 8. How does the pyorrhea germ differ in appearance from 
 
 the Paramecium? How does it differ in its motion? 
 How do you suppose it devours its food? How do you 
 think pyorrhea helps to make bad breath? Why 
 is this germ so hard to get rid of? What is the con- 
 nection of pyorrhea with rheumatism? 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. What are the nature and habits of protozoan germs? — 
 Col. I, 11 ; Con. I, 176 ; Da. I, 43 ; Ov. I, 20 ; Ri. H, 101. 
 -2. Can you describe protozoan germ diseases, hydropho- 
 bia, pyorrhea (Rigg's disease), malaria and yellow 
 fever, etc. — Con. I, 176; Da. I, 127; Gu. HI, 234; Je. 
 n, 327; Col. I, 132; Ov. I, 196; Ri. H, 101, 128, 207. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 HI. HOW THE BODY NATURALLY COMBATS GERM 
 ENEMIES.— Hu. I ; Co. XV; Te. IX; Wa. XVI. 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To discover some of the body's defenses against 
 harmful germs. 
 
 1. Take an apple with unbroken skin and in one spot 
 make a simple cut thru the skin with a knife. Put a 
 drop of ink on the cut spot and also one on an un- 
 broken spot of skin and let stand for a minute or two. 
 Now thinly pare the skin from each of the inked spots 
 and note the condition of the apple beneath. 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 69 
 
 2. Make an examination of several apples some of which 
 
 have decayed spots in them and some of which do not. 
 Note whether one group has broken skin and the 
 other not. 
 
 3. Take a clean pin and examine the skin of the back of 
 
 your hand to see if you can discover a layer of skin 
 somewhat like that of the apple. Possibly you may 
 be able to run the pin under the outer layer of the 
 skin without pain. 
 
 4. Make a similar examination of the inner lining of the 
 
 mouth, using a mirror and a very clean pin. 
 
 5. Now face your head away from a strong light, or the 
 
 sun, and use a hand mirror in such away that you can 
 examine the inside of your nose. You should see that 
 deep in the nostril the inner surface is quite red and 
 moist with a slightly sticky moisture. 
 
 6. Take two of the apples that have rotten spots about 
 
 as big as a dime or a quarter each. After opening 
 up one of these spots with a knife or splinter, pour into 
 it several drops of hydrochloric (or muriatic) acid and 
 mix this acid about with the apple decay. Now set 
 the two apples aside for some days to see the effect 
 of the acid on the decaying of the apple, in compari- 
 son with the decay on the other apple. 
 
 7. Put a spoonful of water in a shallow dish like a saucer. 
 
 Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the water and 
 note that the paper remains blue. Now drop a few 
 drops of muriatic (hydrochloric) acid into the water 
 and try the litmus paper again to see how the paper 
 looks now. Next put a drop of ammonia water into 
 the water in the saucer and try a fresh piece of blue 
 litmus paper to see if the paper again turns red. If 
 it does, put a few more drops of ammonia water into 
 the mixture and again try with blue litmus paper. 
 Repeat if necessary till the paper no longer turns red. 
 The acid has been neutralized, (fixt so it won't work) 
 by the ammonia. 
 
 8. Take some rather fine dry bread crumbs, color them 
 
 with red ink, and let them dry out again. Besides 
 these crumbs there is needed f ot a good sized class of 
 pupils, 5c worth of scales of shellac, 10c worth of oil 
 of cloves, and 10c worth of denatured alcohol. Put a 
 small quantity of the shellac in a small vial and com- 
 plete the filling of the vial with denatured alcohol. 
 When the shellac has dissolved in the alcohol, pour 
 
70 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 some of it on a part of the crumbs of colored bread 
 and allow to dry up as before. We are now ready 
 for an interesting experiment to learn how white cor- 
 puscles "eat" germs. 
 
 Into a white saucer or dessert dish pour three tea- 
 spoonfuls of water and one of denatured alcohol. 
 (Three or four pupils can work around one dish.) 
 Float a small crumb of the red bread in the liquid, 
 then, getting a drop of oil of cloves on the end of a 
 pencil, float the drop in the liquid near the bread. 
 Does the drop of oil "eat" the bread? Take a crumb 
 of the shellacked bread and float it on the liquid and 
 put beside it a fresh drop of oil of cloves. If all has 
 worked well, the drop of oil will "eat" the bread. Put 
 other drops of oil on the liquid and "feed" them grains 
 of shellac directly. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. What seems to be the work of the skin of an apple? 
 
 2. Remembering that decay is caused by germs and that 
 
 germs are everywhere, why do some apples decay and 
 others not? 
 3-4. What resemblances between the skin of an apple 
 and the surface skin of the hand and of the inner 
 cheek? 
 
 5. Why do you think the nose is such a good germ de- 
 stroyer? 
 
 6. Since the human stomach has hydrochloric acid in it. 
 
 what is one of the stomach's important uses? 
 
 7. Germs in the human body sometimes do not destroy 
 flesh but make a poison that injures it. How can the 
 body counteract this poison? 
 
 8. How do the white blood corpuscles destroy germs; 
 If these corpuscles do not "like" these germs, what 
 may nature do to get them to eat the germs? How 
 can a fellow sometimes easily get boils and at another 
 time not get them so easily? (Let the teacher look 
 up the subiect of "opsonin" or "bacterin" in a good 
 recent dictionary or cyclopedia.) 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 1. Does unbroken skin keep germs out? — Con. I, 126 ; Da. 
 
 I. 85 : Gu. I, 37 ; 0-K. IV, 276 ; Je. I, 37 ; Ov. I, 23, 167 ; 
 Ri. Ill, 21. 
 
 2. Are the inside linings of the body a protection? 0-K. 
 IV, 276. 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 71 
 
 3. Is the nose a destroyer of germs — Con. I, 92; Da. I, 
 
 104; Gu. I, 132; Je. I, 133; 0-K. IV, 276; Ov. I, 51, 
 153 ; Ri. Ill, 71. 
 
 4. Is the acidity of the stomach a germicide? — Con. I, 
 
 51 ; Da. I, 51 ; 0-K. Ill, 284 ; Ri. I, 28. Ov. 178. 
 
 5. Are white corpuscles of the blood devourers of germs? 
 
 —Con. I, 74; Da. I, 123; Gu. Ill, 88, 98; Je. II, 339; 
 0-K. Ill, 284; Ov. I, 122; Ri. H, n. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 IV. HOW WE CAN HELP NATURE CON'TROL GERMS. 
 Co. XVI, XVII; H-S. XXXI; Wa. XVU. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To make actual acquaintance with some common 
 disinfectants, etc. 
 
 1. Deodorization. — Take a rotten egg, or other ill-smell- 
 
 ing substance in process of decay, and divide it into 
 three parts, placing each part in a dessert dish or can 
 lid. On the first of these samples put several small 
 pieces of charcoal bought directly for the purpose, or 
 sifted out from wood ashes. On the second portion 
 put a small quantity of pulverized quicklime (less 
 than 5c worth). On the third portion put a small 
 amount of "chloride of lime". A box of this "chloride 
 of lime" might well be in every schoolroom collection 
 of supplies. 
 
 After these deodorants have been applied for an 
 hour or so, determine the relative strengths of the 
 disagreeable odors. 
 
 2. Fumigation with sulphur dioxide. — Secure 5c worth 
 
 of "flowers of sulphur" from the druggist. Have at 
 hand for a class experiment a pie-pan half full of 
 water. In it put a valueless desert dish or lid to a 
 Mason jar. Take a piece of absorbent cotton, or 
 cotton batting, as big as your thumb, saturate it with 
 coal oil or denatured alcohol, and lay it in the center 
 of the dish or can lid. On this now pour a teaspoon- 
 ful of flowers of sulphur. Permit the class to smell 
 the fumes of the burning sulphur, called sulphur 
 dioxide. 
 
 Put some flies or other insects in a small net and 
 hold the net over the fumes of burning sulphur. 
 Observe what happens. 
 
 Hold several samples of moistened calico, or other 
 
72 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 colored cloth, or colored plant blossoms, over the 
 fumes of burning sulphur, and see if they change 
 color or not. 
 
 Hold an apple with a decayed spot so the fumes 
 will penetrate the decay and set aside to see if decay 
 continues, (as in No. 4 below). 
 
 See what the dictionary says the words fumigation 
 and fumigate mean. 
 
 3. Fumigation with formaldehyde. — A chemical called 
 
 formalin when mixed with water is called formalde- 
 hyde. As this comes from the drugstore, it usually 
 contains 40 per cent formalin and 60 per cent wiater. 
 Permit each member of the class to become acquaint- 
 ed with the appearance and odor of formaldehyde. 
 If much of the fumes get into the eyes it will make 
 them water, but this will not prove serious. Put some 
 flies or other insects in a small net and hold the net 
 over the fumes of formaldehyde. Observe what hap- 
 pens. 
 
 Hold several moistened samples of calico, or other 
 colored cloth or flowers, over the fumes of formalde- 
 hyde, and see if they change color or not. 
 
 If the teacher cares to undertake the enterprise with 
 the class, she can fumigate a room by using the ap- 
 paratus for the purpose, such as physicians or drug- 
 gists have. The directions will be found on the 
 apparatus. A highly recommended solution is 10 
 ounces of formaldehyde with 10 ounces of potassium 
 permanganate for every 1000 cu. ft. of room space. 
 
 4. Disinfection. — Have at hand for class demonstration 
 
 six apples or other fruit having spots of decay on the 
 surface. On each of the several apples put a quantity 
 of the following disinfectants, mixing it well into the 
 decay of the fruit: (a) hydrogen peroxide, (b) quick- 
 lime, (c) chorlide of lime, (b) 5 per cent solution of 
 carbolic acid, (e) denatured alcohol, (f) formalde- 
 hyde (a 10 per cent solution). Set these aside for 
 several days to observe the effect on the progress of 
 decay. 
 
 See the dictionary for the meaning of disinfection 
 and disinfectant. 
 
 5. Sterilization. — Consider how fruit and other foods are 
 
 treated when they are canned so they will not decay 
 or "spoil". 
 
 Recall how the cotton and bottles or test tubes 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 73 
 
 used in the first nature studies of sixth-grade hygiene 
 were treated. (Give some reasons for this treatment.) 
 Find from the dictionary the meaning of steriliza- 
 tion. 
 
 6. Let each pupil make a sanitary drinking cup of paper, 
 
 as shown in Chapter VIII. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. What is deodorization ? A deodorant? Which of the 
 
 deodorants used proved to be the most effective ? Do 
 any or all of the deodorants stop the decay by destroy- 
 ing the germs? 
 
 2. What is fumigation? A fumigant? Do the fumes of 
 burning sulphur destroy insects? Discolor cloth? 
 Destroy germs? How does a fumigant differ in effects 
 from a deodorant? 
 
 3. In what respects if any is formaldehyde a better fumi- 
 
 gant than sulphur dioxide ? 
 
 4. What is disinfection ? A disinfectant ? Can you give 
 
 any special advantages for each of the disinfectants 
 made use of? What is the difference, if any, between 
 fumigation and disinfection ? 
 
 5. What is sterilization? How does it differ, if at all, 
 from disinfection? What are the two most common 
 methods of sterilization? Can you name the stuffs 
 used as deodorants? As fumigants? As disinfect- 
 ants? 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. How help by the use of disinfectants? — Con. I, 182; 
 
 Da. II, 200 ; Je. II, 335 ; Ov. I, 190 ; Ri. II, 156. 
 
 2. How help by the use of drinking fountains and individ- 
 
 ual cups?— Con. I, 176; Da. I, 177; Gu. HI, 99, 125; 
 Je. II, 267 ; 0-K. I, 193 ; Ov. I, 95 ; Ri. II, 37, 51, 164. 
 
 3. How help by allowing only good foods and drinks, 
 
 forks and spoons to enter the mouth? — Con. I, 175; 
 Da. I, 22, 91; Gu. HI, 149; Je. II, 269; 0-K. I, 196; 
 Ov. I, 72 ; Ri. II, 86. 
 
 4. How help by avoiding the spitting habit? — Da. II, 185 ; 
 
 Je. I, 43; Ov. I, 54 ; Ri. II, 67. 
 
 5. How help by suppressing dust in all forms? — Con. I, 
 
 186; Da. I, 37, 108; Gu. Ill, 30, 39; Je. O, 38; 0-K. I, 
 92; Ov. I, 34; Ri. 11,71. 
 '6. How help by the cooking of foods? — Con. I, 171; Da. 
 I, 30 ; Je. H, 164 ; 0-K I, 141 ; Ov. I, 81 ; Ri. II, 82. 
 
 7. How help by not permitting alcoholic beverages to 
 
74 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 interfere with the work of the white corpuscles? — 
 Con. I, 69 ; Da. I, 123 ; Gu. Ill, 213 ; Je. II, 345 ; 0-K. 
 IV, 233 ; Ov. I, 121, 138, 179 ; Ri. II, 14, 58. 
 8. How help by cleanliness in all things? — Con. I, 132, 
 184, 191; Da. I, 44, 91; Gu. Ill, 149; Je. I, 34; 0-K. 
 Ill, 288; Ov. I, 23; Ri. II, 141,. 164. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 V. VENTILATION IN RELATION TO GERMS AND TO 
 BODY TEMPERATURE.— Dr. XI; H-S. XII; Te. X. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To discover the causes of "bad air" in living 
 rooms. 
 
 1. Let each pupil study the back of his hand with a simple 
 
 microscope, (such as should be in every schoolroom, 
 costing about 50c). Look at the back of the wrist 
 first and notice how rough and seemingly scaly it is. 
 Note particularly where a hair comes out of the skin. 
 If a good specimen is found ,note whether it seems to 
 come out of a hole. Pulling a hair out so you can ex- 
 amine its "root" with the microscope may help to 
 decide whether it was in a tiny hole or not. 
 
 2. Try running a pin under the outermost layer of the 
 
 skin. If you proceed carefully, it will not hurt much, 
 
 ; if any. This outer layer is dead stuff as you may guess 
 
 : ; from the fact that you can scrape it off without hurt- 
 
 "^ ing, when your hand is quite sweaty. If you do not 
 
 know this for certain, be sure to get youir hand very 
 
 sweaty and then scrape off some of the scurf. 
 
 3. Once more look thru the magnifier at the skin of the 
 
 hand, this time on the palm. Notice the; little ridges. 
 Now look very sharply for tiny little depressions 
 along the top of the ridges. These can more readily 
 be made out if one is sweating a little, so that very 
 tiny drops of perspiration will show up as shiny spots 
 at each depression. This is because these are the 
 outlets of the sweat pores of the skin. Similar depres- 
 sions can be found all over the skin but they are not 
 so easily made out elsewhere. 
 
 4. We know that moisture stands out over the skin when 
 
 we are quite warm, but on colder days we are not so 
 certain about the presence of moisture. To find out 
 about it, we need a day or a place where th^e tempera- 
 ture is down to something near 50 degrees F. In such 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 75 
 
 a temperature let the pupil put his hand into a glass 
 quart fruit jar, not allowing the skin to touch the jar, 
 and stopping up the unoccupied part of the mouth of 
 the jar with a handkerchief. Thrust a thermometer 
 tube (a dairy thermometer would be excellent) into 
 the jar without letting it touch the skin. Note that 
 the temperature on the inside is still only about 10 
 degrees warmer than that on the outside. To be 
 sure of the conclusion of our experiment, have at hand 
 another glass fruit jar that has its lid on. After ten 
 minutes examine the inner surface of one of the jars. 
 
 Turn back to the notes on Study I of the Sixth Grade. 
 series, and refresh the memory about the five condi- 
 tions favorable to germ growth. 
 
 If a compound microscope with an oil immersion lens 
 is at hand, and the teacher can make a stained mount- 
 ing of scrapings from the skin, the presence of germs 
 can be impressively demonstrated. If no staining is 
 done, the germs may still be seen as very, very tiny 
 quivering particles. 
 
 But there is another way to tell whether germs are in 
 skin scurf, and that is to put some of the germs on a 
 culture medium such as was described in the direc- 
 tions for the experiment referred to in Study I of 
 
76 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 Grade VI, and to await the development of germ 
 colonies. 
 8. There is still a third way, and this experiment ought 
 on no account be ommitted. It calls for the use of an 
 adult person's raincoat, as shown in the figure above. 
 There will also be needed a frame to carry the coat 
 on the shoulders of the pupil in a way to keep the 
 coat out from the body of the pupil. A frame is 
 shown on the ledge o'f the blackboard in the picture. 
 Now let each pupil put on the rain coat of an adult 
 quite a little bigger' than the pupil, and stand for ten 
 minutes or more till a sweat is developed. Incidently 
 the teacher can develop the most fundamental need 
 for ventilation by taking the coat (with the frame) by 
 the shoulders and shaking the coat about so as to stir 
 the air on the inside without letting any fresh air in. 
 Perhaps the pupil could discover why this stirring of 
 air gives him relief from the heat, tho this subject 
 belongs more properly to the eighth grade. The main 
 point of this experiment for this grade comes when 
 the teacher unbuttons the raincoat at the neck only 
 and slowly lifts the coat over the pupil's head, giving 
 him a chance meantime to get the odor of the air that 
 has been around his body. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. Do you find any place on the skin where germs could 
 
 stay? If so, what would be the very best places in 
 which they could develop ? 
 
 2. Why do you think it does not hurt much to scrape off 
 the scurf, or to run a pin under the outer layer of the 
 skin? 
 
 3. Where does sweat come from and how does it get out? 
 Since we do NOT sweat to get rid of waste matter, (as 
 many people have supposed) why do we sweat at all, 
 as you may gather it from the 8th grade part of No. 7 ? 
 
 4. Which jar had moisture in it and what does this show? 
 
 5. What are Ifive of the conditions favorable to germ 
 
 growth? Do these conditions all exist on the skin? 
 
 6. How much smaller are germs than the microscope 
 
 shows them to be? 
 
 7. If white patches develop on your culture medium, what 
 
 have you verified ? 
 
 8. What is the character of the odor of decay generally? 
 
 What do you suppose is the chief reason why the air 
 of poorly ventilated school rooms smells so bad? What 
 is one very important reason, accordingly, why in- 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 77 
 
 habited rooms have to be ventilated? What is the 
 greatest reason why you and I should bathe frequent- 
 ly? Which is better, to use perfumes to hide odor or 
 keep as clean as we can and thus keep down bad 
 odors? 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. How is "crowd air" due to genqs of decay in unclean 
 bodies and clothing?— Con. I, 104; Da. I, 111 ; Gu. Ill, 
 1, 10; Ov. I, 15, 9 ; Ri. Ill, 66. 
 
 2. How does stagnant air sometimes cause use to feel 
 
 warm?— Con. I, 103; Da. I, 113; Ov. I, 163; Ri. Ill, 
 63. 
 
 3. How may ventilation give give some relief for both 
 
 these conditions? — Con. I, 103; Da. I, 115; Gu. Ill, 
 16 ; Ov. I, 161 ; Ri. Ill, 60. 
 
 VI. BATHING AS A GERM PROPHYLACTIC AND PRO- 
 TECTOR FROM CATCHING COLDS.— Ha. XII; Hu. 
 IV;H-S.XXIV. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach. 
 
 Aim. — ^To find out differences in baths and their effects. 
 _ Introductory. — ^Prteliminary to the studies to follow, 
 let the teacher take occasion to recall from prior studies 
 that the surface of the skin is covered with dead skin cells, 
 that it is warm, moist, non-acid, and for the most part 
 protected from direct sunshine. It is accordingly an ideal 
 place for germs of decay. The evidence that decay is 
 going on, is found in the odors that arise from any part 
 of the skin not thoroly cleaned for a few hours. ■ 
 
 We wish now to have each pupil discover for himself 
 certain important effects to be gotten from the various 
 forms of bathing. The pupils readiness to co-operate in 
 the enterprise must first be secured, for the baths will, of 
 course, all have to be taken at home, preferably on suc- 
 cessive days. 
 
 1. Let the pupil test with his nose the odor coming from 
 
 his forearm, let us say, both before and after each of 
 the kinds of baths. Let him, at the end, consider what 
 is the primary purpose of and gain from all forms of 
 bathing. 
 
 2. The first of the bathing should be a warm bath (90 to 
 
 95 degrees F.) lasting from 4 to 6 minutes, taken just 
 before retiring,followed by a thoro rubbing with a 
 rough, dry towel, great care being taken not to suffer 
 chilling following the; bath. After donning the night 
 clothing, consider the change in the color of the skin 
 
78 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 effected by the bath and the change in the pulse rate 
 per minute (this necessitating the counting of the 
 pulse both before and after the bath) . Finally, press- 
 a cool inverted jelly glass over the fleshy part of the 
 forearm or elsewhere, and note whether a film of mois- 
 ture collects inside of the cup. 
 
 3. The next morning or on a following morning after 
 
 counting the pu4se, let a cold bath be taken (with wa- 
 ter below 65 degrees F.) as follows: use only a basin 
 of water, a wash cloth, and a drying towel. Let the 
 bath be taken in a room not too cold but still cool. 
 Remove the night clothing at first only from the left 
 arm and shoulder. With the wash cloth saturated with, 
 the cold water, wash the left arm and shoulder and 
 then rub dry quickly and thoroly. Now remove the 
 clothing from the right arm and shoulder and pause 
 to consider which arm now; feels the warmer. Wash, 
 and dry the right arm and shoulder as you did the left. 
 In the same way now proceed with the chest, then the 
 back and so on, part by part, till the bath is com- 
 pleted. Consider again the difference in the pulse 
 rate, and the appearance of any moisture on the inside 
 of a jelly glass held for a minute as in study 2. (Ex- 
 ception might be made of this experiment in the case 
 of a child with a weak constitution) . 
 
 4. On the second or a following evening, proceed exactly 
 
 as in No. 2 only this time let the water be as near the 
 skin temperature as possible (between 80 and 90 
 degrees F.). Make the same observations as before. 
 
 5. On the second evening or a later one a cold bath may 
 
 again be taken following the general details outlines 
 in No. 3, but requiring that the bath be a plunge bath 
 or a shower bath, if these are possible for the pupils. 
 Make the same observations as in No. 3. 
 
 6. Finally, on the third or a later evening let some one 
 
 or more of the hardier pupils try out the effects of tak- 
 ing a cold bath just before retiring and a warm or hot 
 bath on rising, in each case making the same three ob- 
 servations as before, and also whether it is easier to 
 go to sleep or not, and whether one feels so much like 
 going to work in the morning. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 After discussing and answering all the questions that 
 follow, come back to the question,What seems to be 
 the primary effect of bathing? (It is to be hoped that 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 79 
 
 there will emerge from the study something more 
 scientific than the ancient fiction about "opening the 
 pores of the skin.") 
 
 2. What is the effect of a warm bath on the frequency 
 
 of heart-beats? Why then should the skin get pinker 
 or redder? Why does the face get redder when you 
 hold it near a hot stove ? Does the heart beat faster 
 at such at time? Whence came the moisture that you 
 saw on the inside of the jelly glass? How did the 
 moisture get out of the skin? (Thru sweat-gland 
 ducts, the only "pores" the skin has). 
 
 3. What is the effect of a cold bath on the frequency of 
 heart-beats? How do you account, this time, for the 
 increased redness and warmth of the skin ? (The com- 
 plete physiological answer to this question the pupils 
 should not be expected to give.) How again do you, 
 account for the moisture on the inside of the jelly 
 glass? Is it true, as used to be said, that a warm bath 
 "opens the pores" and a cold one "closes the 
 pores"? Since the sweat ducts open only when one 
 perspires can you give a list of half a dozen conditions 
 that will "open the pores" and as many that will "close 
 the pores"? 
 
 4. How does a tepid bath differ from a hot bath and a 
 
 cold bath in heart-beats, circulation and perspiration 
 effects? What, then, is the important effect of a tepid 
 bath? Would there be any serious objections to tak- 
 ing such a bath close to meal time, when consider- 
 ably more blood is needed around the digestive or- 
 gans? Would it not be a fine thing for the family in 
 the home if every one who works amid necessarily 
 dirty surroundings would take a tepid bath at the 
 close of the day's work, just before going to supper? 
 
 5. How does a cold bath make one feel, anyway, after it 
 
 is all over? Are you more ready to pitch into work, 
 or play, or breakfast, or what not? 
 
 6. Is there any effect on your ability to go to sleep after 
 
 taking a cold bath at night? On your enthusiasm for 
 work after a warm bath in the morning? Why these 
 results ? When and what kind of a bath do you think 
 thoroly healthy boys and girls should take? Why 
 is it better to bathe once a day rather than once a 
 week? To what do you: think the bad odors of school 
 rooms, concert halls, etc., are chiefly due? 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 1. Why is the surface of the skin an ideal home for 
 
80 GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 germs?— Con. I, 126; Da. I, 176; Gu. 1,113 ;0v. 
 I, 26 ; Ri. II, 32, 165. 
 
 2. Why is cleanliness the primary function of bathing? 
 
 Con. I, 132; Da. I, 91; Je. I, 117; Ov. I, 123; RL 
 III, 87. 
 
 3. How do cold baths keep one from catching colds? 
 
 Con. I, 133; Col. II, 120; Da. I, 180; Je. I, 118; 
 Je. II, 20 ; Ov. I, 30 ; Ri. Ill, 78, 87. 
 
 4. What are the kinds of baths and how take a bath?" 
 
 Con. 132 ; Da. I, 91 ; Gu. Ill, 66 ; Je. I, 118 ; Ov. I,. 
 29 ; Ri. Ill, 87. 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 VII. CLOTHING IN RELATION TO GERMS AND HEAT 
 H.-S. XXV. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach. 
 
 Aim. — To discover some hygienic principles in th& 
 selection of clothing. 
 
 Note. — We need for our study a cotton, a linen, and. 
 a silk handkerchief or pieces of cotton, linen, and silk, 
 weighing about the same. With these there should 
 go a piece of as thin woolen goods as may be obtained 
 and weighing no more than the cotton handkerchief 
 or cloth. If scales weighing an ounce and fraction 
 thereof, are not available ,take a light wooden ruler, 
 stick a pin thru the center, pin the piece of cotton 
 cloth to one end of the ruler and trim the woolen piece 
 to a size that, when pinned to the other end of the 
 ruler, will balance the cotton piece. Similarly the other 
 samples of cloth may be made to balance the cotton 
 piece. Of course if silk and linen are not at hand, 
 these experiments can be run thru to advantage with 
 cotton and woolen. There will be needed also for 
 the experiments a common water glass one-fourth full 
 of water, a flat-iron, a simple magnifying glass and a 
 pan of water. 
 1. To study the relative power of the pieces of cloth ta 
 conauct heat, fold the larger pieces of cloth until they 
 are about the size of the pieces of woolen. Now heat 
 the flat-iron till it is not quite hot but still distinctly 
 warm to the touch. Have a pupil place a piece of 
 cloth over the end of the finger and apply to the warm 
 iron. Take the other pieces of cloth similarly in turn, 
 and compare the relative time it takes for the heat 
 to be felt thru the cloth. The one that yields the heat 
 sensation the quickest is of course the best conductor 
 
GRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 81 
 
 of heat, and conversely. (If pupils are not acquaint- 
 ed with the word "conductor" the word should nOt 
 be employed until after the experiment has beert 
 made.) The pieces of cloth might now be opened 
 using only a thickness of each piece. It is said that if 
 the textile could all be woven equally compactly and 
 equally loosely, they would have about equal con- 
 ductivity. The difference in conductivity is said to 
 be due to the air enclosed in the meshes. Why then 
 is woolen cloth one of the poorest conductors and cot- 
 ton one of the best? Our next study should help us to 
 understand this. 
 
 Examine a few of the finest fibres of each textile with 
 a simple microscope. Which fibre is most crinkly 
 and coarsest? Does this explain the difference in con- 
 ductivity of cotton and wool ? So far as conductivity is 
 concerned, if cotton is woven with a loose mesh it is as 
 valuable for underclothing for most people (invalids 
 and old folks excepted) as woolen is. 
 We learned in our studies of the skin that we sweat 
 in order to get rid of excess of heat, of the body, 
 and that this may work to the best advantage, under- 
 clothing should be of such materials as will best take 
 up and get rid of the sweat of the body. Let us there- 
 fore test our materials to find out their relative absorb- 
 ing power for water. Hang the four samples of cloth 
 so that one comer of each piece is in a pan of water 
 and the opposite comer is pinned to some support 
 above. After these have stood for half an hour or 
 such a matter, examine to see which one has carried 
 water the highest. 
 
 A further test my be made by immersing each piece 
 in turn when dry in a glass one-fourth full of water. 
 Mark with ink on the outside of the glass the level 
 of the water before the cloth is put in and after it 
 is taken out, allowing the cloth to drip as much water 
 as it will. Be sure, too, that the cloth is given a chance 
 to take in as much water as it will before removing 
 it from the water. Refill the glass to one-fourth full, 
 treat the second piece of cloth as the first, make "the 
 mark after removing it, and go on similarly v.'ith the 
 remaining pieces. If the comparison of marks does 
 not show which cloth takes up the most water the 
 matter can be settled by comparing the doubtful ones 
 on the balanced ruler used at first. Ordinarily the 
 cotton will be found to take more water than the others 
 
CtRADE VI: GERM HYGIENE 
 
 which shows that on the side of absorbing: power 
 it is the better for underclothing. 
 5, But we must now find out which one will give off its 
 water fastest, for that is important also. We now take 
 the four pieces of wet cloth and "hang them out to 
 dry" as mother does with her washing and after a 
 little while we must watch them to see which one gets 
 dry first. The silk will usually have the advantage 
 here because thinnest and most spread out. But note 
 especially the cotton and wool. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. What is meant by "a good conductor of heat"? A 
 
 "poor conductor" ? Why does the cotton sheet of our 
 beds in winter time feel so much colder than the 
 woolen blanket? Why does a piece of iron out of 
 doors in winter feel colder than a piece of wood? 
 
 2. How answer the questions in No. 2 above ? 
 
 3. How do you find the textiles to compare in rate of wa- 
 ter absorption ? 
 
 4. What were the actual results of experiment No. 4? 
 
 5. What reason emerges from No. 5 for favoring the use 
 
 of cotton underwear? What are all the reasons that 
 can be given as shown by our experiments for prefer- 
 ring cotton underwear, by people who are active? 
 Which suit of underwear would harbor germs best? 
 Can you give still other reasons favoring the use of 
 cotton underwear? Should people who live and work 
 in warm houses in winter time wear very much heavier 
 underclothing in winter than in spring or summer? 
 If not, how should such people prepare for the cold 
 when they have to go out into it? Why should one not 
 keep on his overcoat, or cloak and overshoes when 
 coming from the cold into a warm room to remain for 
 a while before going out again ? 
 .Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. What are the desirable kinds and use of underclothing? 
 
 Con. I, 135; Da. I, 97; Gu. IV, 217; Je. II, 204; 
 0-K. I, 191 ; Ov. I, 41 ; Hi. Ill, 83, 87. 
 
 2. What are the desiralsle kinds and use of outer clothing? 
 
 Con. I, 135; Da. I, 94; Je. II, 205; 0-K. I, 181; 
 Ov. I, 38; Ri. Ill, 83, 87. 
 
 3. What are some general considerations about clothing? 
 
 Con. I, 135; Gu. IV, 217; Je. II, 204; 0-K. I, 181; 
 Ri. Ill, 83, 87. 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
CHAPTER VI.- GRADE VII: COMMUN- 
 ITY HYGIENE 
 
 AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF TIME 
 
 The time arrangement for this grade is intended to cor- 
 respond with that in Grades V and VI, namely about eighty 
 recitations (a half year's work) given in either half of the 
 year, or distributed thru the whole year. The recitation 
 period may well be twenty minutes in this grade. If it 
 seems best to combine grades, the seventh should be joined 
 with the eighth, taking both courses in order through the 
 year. 
 
 THE AIM 
 
 The seventh grade pupil is beginning to get a sufficiently 
 enlarged horizon to see himself in relation to community 
 life. The study of germs in Grade VI has prepared him to 
 
 Causes of Death in Nebraska 
 
 Note. The proportions given in the above graph were estimated from 
 
 the Report of the Nebraska Board of Health for 1915. Compiled by Dr. 
 B. L. Shellhorn, Peru, Nebrasfea. 
 
84 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 understand how germs may become a community menace. 
 In Grade VII the subject of germs is taken uip undier the 
 head of community hygiene, the prior germ study being 
 here turned to its largest use. Other aspects of community 
 hygiene are also included in the course. The general aim 
 may therefore be said to be the presentation of hygiene in a 
 way to impress the pupil with his larger responsibility in 
 matters hygienic. 
 
 While logic would say that the courses for Grades VI 
 and VII might better be thrown together when two years' 
 "work are combined in one, good pedagogy will say that the 
 pupil needs to hit the germ question two different times in 
 his course, rather than give it one continuous treatment. 
 A combining of Grades V and VI and of Grades VII and VIII 
 for hygienic work, where the four courses are not kept sep- 
 iarate, gives the child a chance at germ study in Grades V 
 and VII, or in Grades VI and VIII, depending on how he 
 happens to get started off. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE HYGIENE TOPICS— COMMUNITY 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 I. PURE AIR AND GOOD WATER AS COMMUNITY 
 RIGHTS. 
 
 1. What are the character and sources of the water of 
 the community? 
 
 2. How keep the water wholesome? 
 
 3. When is air good and when is it bad? 
 
 4. What are the peoples rights and duties as to air? 
 
 II. COMMUNICABLE BACTERIAL DISEASES. 
 
 1. Shall we review the nature of bacteria? 
 
 2. What are tuberculosis and the "rest cure" ? 
 
 3. What are typhoid fever and its vaccination ? i ^ 
 
 4. What are diphtheria and its antitoxins? 
 
 5. What are whooping cough, mumps, and acute rheu- 
 matism? 
 
 6. What are sore eyes and granulated lids? 
 
 7. What are the intestinal germ diseases? 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 85 
 
 III. COMMUNICABLE PEOTOZOAN AND WORM DIS- 
 EASES 
 
 1. Shall we review protozoan disease germs? 
 
 2. What are smallpox and vaccination? 
 
 3. What are hydrophobia and Pasteur Institutes? 
 
 4. What are measles, chickenpox and scarlet fever? 
 
 5. What are the intestinal worm diseases? 
 
 6. What are trichina and "mealy pork" ? 
 
 7. What is the hookworm and how eliminated ? 
 
 IV. QUARANTINING AND COMMUNITY CARE OF THE 
 SICK. 
 
 1. What are the purpose and value of quarantining? 
 
 2. What are the quarantinable diseases in your state ? 
 
 3. How are community hospitals controled and what 
 is their value? 
 
 V. INSPECTION OF FOOD SUPPLY SOURCES. 
 
 1. What are the character and sources of your milk 
 supply? 
 
 2. Are the slaughter houses, meat shops, and bakeries 
 wholesome ? 
 
 3. What dangerous occupations are in your com- 
 munity? 
 
 VI. MOSQUITOES, RATS AND PETS AS COMMUNITY 
 MENACES. 
 
 1. What are the breeding places and life history of 
 mosquitoes ? 
 
 2. How are mosquitoes carriers of disease? 
 
 3. How control mosquitoes? 
 
 4. What are the dangers and control of rats? 
 
 5. Are pet animals disease carriers? 
 
 VII. THE HOUSEFLY AS A COMMUNITY MENACE. 
 
 1. What are the breeding places and life history of 
 the housefly? 
 
 2. Is the housefly a carrier of diseases? 
 
 3. Can a community be free of flies? 
 
86 
 
 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 VIII. COMMUNITY DUTIES AND BURDENS. 
 
 1. How dispose of garbage and sewage? 
 
 2. What are the dangers from conflagrations? 
 
 3. What is the cost and harm of tobacco chewing and 
 smoking? 
 
 4. What is the individual and community toll for alco- 
 holic beverages? 
 
 NATURE STUDY LESSONS AND TOPICAL REFERENCES 
 
 FOR GRADE VII 
 
 Note. — It is understood that no attempt is here made to 
 indicate how much work shall be assigned for each single 
 recitation, as the length of the assignments will have to be 
 determined by the length and number of recitations that 
 the school gives to this important subject. The chapter 
 references following the major (Roman-numbered) topics 
 are for the teacher's especial use. The page references 
 following the minor (Arabic-numbered) topics, are for the 
 pupil's and teachers use. The key to the books referred to 
 is given in Appendix A. The teacher must know that it 
 is not necessarj^ to have or to use all the books referred to, 
 but the m.ore she can have both for herself and her pupils 
 the better. 
 
GRADE VII: CO'MMUNITY HYGIENE 87 
 
 I. PURE AIR AND GOOD WATER AS COMMUNITY 
 RIGHTS.— Al. I; Dr. VII, VIII, X; HE. XXIV; H-S. 
 XXXII. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 1. Vaporization and boiling point. — These can be advan- 
 
 tageously studied by putting a pint of water in a 
 discarded linseed oil can, or other equally large can. 
 By suitable nieans, bring this water to the boiling 
 point, and with a cream thermometer, determine 
 the temperature of the vapor and of the water by 
 lowering the thermometer into a can with a string. 
 That the can is practically filled with water vapor, 
 if the water has been been boiling for several minutes, 
 can be impressively shown by taking the can from the 
 source of heat, stoppering it quickly and tightly and 
 then sprinkling cold water over the outside of the can 
 so as to cool the vapor within. Ordinarily the can will 
 weirdly collapse with startling contortions (as seen 
 in the picture), due to the removal of pressure from 
 the inside to counteract that of the air without. 
 
 2. Freezing point of water. — This may be determined 
 
 by taking the temperature of water that has plenty 
 of ice floating in it. If weather conditions permit, 
 a bucket of dirty water should be allowed to freeze 
 over and the ice taken off later and some of it melted 
 and poured into a clear water glass to see if there is 
 any sediment deposited. 
 
 3. The solvent power of water. — Take two glasses of clear 
 
 rainwater and dissolve a teaspoonful of salt in one 
 of them. Submit to the class to tell "which is which" 
 by mere appearance. Let the final determination be 
 made by a pupil's tasting the two thru a straw. 
 Now add to these glasses of water a third glass con- 
 taining water from one of the wells of the neighbor- 
 hood and allow all three to stand in a warm place till 
 they dry up. 
 
 4. Power to absorb gases. — Fill a jelly glass with clear 
 
 water that has been exposed to the air for some time. 
 Fill another jelly glass with water that has just been 
 boiled. Into each glass put a bright nail and cover 
 each lightly with a lid. Examine both nails the next 
 day, remembering that iron will not rust unless there 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUfllTY HYGIENE 
 
 is some of that part of the air known as oxygen present 
 along with moisture. 
 
 5. "Hard" water and "soft" water. — ^Prepare a "soap 
 
 solution" by dissolving a small piece of soap in a bottle 
 of hot rain-water. Get half a bottle of water that is 
 called "hard" and another that is called "soft." Put 
 a small quantity of the soap solution into each sample 
 of water and shake thoroughly. Compare them after 
 the shaking. 
 
 6. Filtration of water. — Put filter paper or white cotton 
 
 in the bottom of a funnel successively as you try var- 
 ious samples of neighborhood drinking water to see 
 if any substance collects on the filter paper or cotton. 
 A very impressive illustration of the filtering power 
 of soils can be made by taking several ordinary flow- 
 er pots that will hold a quart or more and filling them 
 respectively with different grades of soil, from garden 
 soil, fine sand, coarse sand, and gravels fine and coarse. 
 Pour a pint of very muddy water into each 'filter" 
 and collect what goes through the hole of each pot, 
 in a water glass. Compare results as to clearness. 
 
 7. Distillation. — If time permits, and the resources and 
 
 interest of the class justify it, one or more pupils can 
 be set to making a distilling apparatus, following the 
 suggestion of pictures found in books on physics. 
 With such an apparatus, an interesting demonstra- 
 tion of distillation can be given the class. 
 Questions on the Experiments. 
 
 1. What is the temperature of boiling water and of steam 
 
 at your altitude? Do you think it to be different on 
 mountain tops or at the sea-level? Was the can filled 
 with water vapor only, at the end of your experiment? 
 Why this conclusion ? 
 
 2. What is the freezing temperature of water? Is the 
 
 water in ice-water as cold as the ice? What do you 
 think of the popular opinion that "freezing purifies 
 water" ? 
 
 3. What happens to substances dissolved in water, that 
 
 is, is the substance destroyed ordinarily? Can you tell 
 by looking at water whether it is good to drink? If 
 you drink well water in your community, are you get- 
 ting something besides pure water? 
 
 4. Water that has taken up some oxygen gas from the 
 
 air is said to be aerated. Is there any difference in the 
 taste of aerated and of recently boiled water? If you 
 have seen fishes kept in an aquarium, have you no- 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 89 
 
 ticed that they stay close to the top when the water 
 has not lately been changed? Why do they do this? 
 
 5. What do you think naakes the difference in the effect 
 
 of soap on hard and on soft water? Why is soft water 
 so much more desirable for washing purposes? Why 
 is cistern water not "hard"? Where does "hard" 
 water get its "hardness" ? 
 
 6. Why should finer soil and sand permit water to come 
 
 thru more clear than the coarser sand and gravels? 
 Is this water now pure? How could you discover 
 whether or not this water has germs in it? If germs 
 are here, how could the water be freed from them? 
 
 7. Do all liquids boil at the same temperature ? Would 
 
 the distillation of water free it from all other sub- 
 stances? Which is better for a community, to free 
 its water from impurities at the source or at the point 
 ■ of delivery? 
 
 A Community Water Supply Survey. 
 
 The following studies of community water supply are 
 modified from an original series drawn up and used in a vil- 
 lage survey by Professor Hendricks, of the Peru Normal. 
 If used judiciously, they will prove profitable and stimu- 
 lating as a class activity. 
 
 (a) Well survey. 
 
 1. Depth and diameter of well? 
 
 2. How made — dug, drilled or driven? 
 
 3. If dug, is it well walled? 
 
 4. Depth in feet of water usually in well? 
 
 5. What seems to be the source of the water? 
 
 6. Is the water hard or soft? 
 
 Y. Is the water perfectly clear, odorless, and taste- 
 less? 
 
 8. How long since interior was last cleaned or ex- 
 amined ? 
 
 9. How is water drawn from the well? 
 
 10. Is the well so covered as to exclude all surface 
 water and debris? 
 
 11. Is the well perfectly rat proof? 
 
 12. Is there any danger of infection of water from 
 house or outhouse drainage? 
 
 (b) Cistern survey. 
 
 1. What is the capacity of the cistern? 
 
 2. Is the cistern lined with concrete, or brick, or 
 both? 
 
 3. Does the cistern leak any? 
 
90 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 4. For what purpose is the water used? 
 
 5. Is the water colorless, odorless, and tasteless? 
 
 6. Is the cistern covered so as to exclude every- 
 thing but rain-water and air? 
 
 7. What kind of filter is used, or is none used? 
 
 8. Is the filter regarded as effective ? 
 
 9. How is water drawn from the cistern? 
 
 10. How frequently is a cistern thoroly cleaned? 
 
 11. What is the character of the roof from which 
 water for cistern is collected? 
 
 12. Are the eave troughs and conduits in good con- 
 dition? 
 
 13. Is there any consideration as to what time of 
 year the cistern is filled? 
 
 14. Is any care taken as to whether the roof is 
 fairly clean when water is allowed to go into 
 the cistern? 
 
 15. What provision is there for caring for the 
 water from the roof when it is not entering the 
 cistern ? 
 
 (c) Central supply for a community. — ^If there is a 
 pumping station and community i-eservoir, stand 
 pipe, or water tower, a study can be provided fitted 
 to the local situation. If source of water is from 
 wells, the study for wells suggested above can be 
 modified to fit the case. The report on the place 
 of water storage is important in such a survey. 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. What are the character and sources of the water of the 
 community? — Col. I, 42; Con. II, 32, 350 ; Da. II, 60; 
 Gu. Ill, 89; Hu. II, 183; Je. II, 315; Ov. II, 184; Ri. 
 II, 86, 179. 
 
 2. How keep the water wholesome? — -Con. I, 42; Da. II, 
 61; Gu. HI, 124; Hu. II, 189; Je. II, 310; 0-K. II, 
 187; Ri. II, 89. 
 
 3. When is air good and when is it bad? — Con. II, 150, 353 ; 
 Da. II, 95; Gu. I, 6; Je. II, 118, 303; 0-K. II, 59; 
 Ov. II, 134; Ri. II, 71; Ri. HI, 60. 
 
 4. What are the peoples rights and duties as to air? — Col. 
 I, 20 ; Con. II, 150 ; Da. H, 107 ; Gu. Ill, 1 ; Je. I, 1, 6 ; 
 
 Ov. II, 144 ; Ri. H, 71. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 91 
 
 II. COMMUNICABLE BACTERIAL DISEASES.— Al. VI ; 
 Co. XIV; F-B. 473, 478; Hu. VI, 10; H-T. IX; 
 H-S. XXXI; Mo. Ill; Te. IX; Wa. XVI, XVIL 
 
 DRAMATIZATIONS.— It is difficult if not impossible 
 to develop a suitable series of nature-study approaches 
 to the communicable diseases to be studied at this 
 point in the course. But to add a touch of reality and 
 to motivate the study, a series of dramatizations have 
 been successfully employed. By a dramatization is here 
 meant an imitative reproduction of procedure. For 
 example, let some pupil play he is "sick" with the dis- 
 ease being studied, and let one or more of the others 
 "play" they are giving the "sick" one the proper treat- 
 ment. For their information the pupils will have to 
 be sent to the books, and the dramatization of the 
 treatment will have to be associated with a discussion 
 of the nature of the disease, its sources of distribution, 
 its course, its dangers, etc. Doctors can furnish de- 
 tails of procedure in many cases. Do not be afraid to 
 ask them. These dramatizations should, of course, 
 accompany, and not precede the study of the books. 
 
 1. Tuberculosis. — Dframatize the "rest cure," with Its 
 
 abundance of good food, fresh air, and sunshine, and 
 the care in regard to expectoration. 
 
 2. Typhoid fever. — Learn how vaccination for this 
 
 disease is conducted, and how the procedure may be 
 illustrated. Exemplify the procedure. 
 
 3. Diptheria. — ^Let one pupil behave as a diptheria patient 
 
 does, and let another give an imaginary treatment of 
 anti-toxin. The making of anti-toxin can be drama- 
 tized also. 
 
 4. Whooping cough, mumps, and acute rheumatism. — 
 In so far as these diseases may be imitatively illustrat- 
 ed and "treated", let this be done. 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. Shall we review the nature of bacteria? — Con. II, 91; 
 
92 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 Da. II, 13 ; Gu. Ill, 165 ; Je. I, 34 ; Ov. II, 35 ; Ri. II, 18. 
 
 2. What are tuberculosis and the "rest cure"? — Col, I, 
 
 29; Con. II, 173; Da. II, 208, 256; Gu. Ill, 192; Je. II, 
 302 ; Ov. II, 197 ; Ri. II, 53. 
 
 3. What are typhoid fever and its vaccination? — Col. 
 
 53; Con. II, 94; Da. II, 194; Gu. Ill, 124; Ov. II, 278; 
 Ri. II, 77. 
 
 4. What are diphtheria and its antitoxins? — Col. 117; 
 
 Con. II, 168 ; Da. II, 212 ; Gul. Ill, 178, 184 ; Je. II, 326 ; 
 Ov. 278, 288 ; Ri. II, 36. 
 
 5. What are whooping coughs, mumps, and acute rheu- 
 
 matism? — Col. I, 123 ; Con. II, 167 ; Da. II, 190 ; Je. II, 
 333 ; Ov. II, 41, 290 ; Ri. II, 48. 
 
 6. What are sore eyes and granulated lids? — Col. I, 124; 
 
 Con. II. 333; Da. II, 185, 231; Je. II, 335; Ov. II, 353; 
 Ri. II, 96, 197. 
 
 7. What are the intestinal germ diseases — Col. I, 59; 
 
 Con. II, 58 ; Gu. Ill, 119 ; Je. II, 308 ; Ov. II, 226 ; Ri. II, 
 83. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 III. COMMUNICABLE PROTOZOAN AND WORM 
 DISEASES.— Hr. XV; H-S. XXX; H-T. X, XI; Hu. XI; 
 Wa. XVI, XVII. 
 
 Dramatizations, etc. (See Study II.) 
 
 1. Dramatize the vaccination process for smallpox. 
 
 2. Exemplify a patient's treatment for hydrophobia in a 
 
 Pasteur Institute. 
 
 3. As far as possible dramatize the treatment of measles, 
 
 chickenpox and scarlet fever. 
 
 4. The Peru Normal can temporarily loan preserved 
 
 specimens of intestinal worms, trichina, and hook- 
 worms, if postage is sent, and prompt return assured. 
 Perhaps local physicians can supply specimens of one 
 or more of these worms. 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V Study 1.) 
 
 1. Shall we review protozoan disease garms? — Col. I, 12 ; 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 93 
 
 Con. II, 126; Da. II, 195, 204; Je. II, 322; Ov. II, 185; 
 Ei. II, 101. 
 
 2. What are smallpox and vaccination? — Con. II, 270; 
 
 Col. I, 127 ; Da. II, 211 ; Gu. Ill, 184 ; Je. 11, 324 ; Ov. 
 II, 276; Ri. II, 117. 
 
 3. What are hydrophobia and Pasteru Institutes? — Col. 
 
 I, 127; Con. Con. II, 268; Da. II, 222; Gu. Ill, 174; 
 Je. Ill, 327 ; Ov. II, 208 ; Ri. II, 128. 
 
 4. What are measles, chickenpox and scarlet fever? — 
 
 Col. I, 122 ; Con. II, 292, 269 ; Da. II, 223 ; Je. II, 323 ; 
 Ov. II, 289; Ri. II, (Index). 
 
 5. What are the intestinal worm diseases?^ — Con. II, 19; 
 
 Da. II, 194; Ov. II, 290; Ri. II, 135, 139. 
 
 6. What are trichina and "measly pork? — Col. I, 83 ; Con. 
 
 II, 19; Ri. II, 82. 
 
 7. What is the hookwomi and how eliminated? — Col. I, 
 
 253 ; Cob. II, 19,7 ; Da. II, 201 ; Je. II, 329 ; Ov. II, 291 ; 
 Ri. II, 135. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 IV. QUARANTINING AND COMMUNITY CARE OF 
 THE SICK.— Al. XVIII, XIX; Co. XV, XVI; H-T. Ill; 
 Hr. XXIV; B-H. IV (for Nebraska). 
 Dramatization. 
 
 .-^-.-:.. - 
 
 
 ■ ' ' - '^ 
 
 ■■■^f^i 
 
 jHRnt L:;\^t' ^' 
 
 IS 
 
 
 111 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 {Say ^-^tirtuiJH 
 
 
 jSk^SS^^^^ 
 
 im 
 
 |^^^||S£^ 
 
 
 li^lEi^"'''':~rt:-j:.- kSB 
 
 ww^ 
 
 The Plea of the "Prosecuting Attorney.' 
 
94 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 The accQmpanying illustration shows one scene 
 from a very successful presentation of the subject of 
 quarantining as worked out by Principal D. B. Kantor, 
 of Fairbury, Nebraska. In order to bring out the 
 method and value of the quarantine, he had his pupils 
 develop the details of a mock trial of alleged violators 
 of the quarantine regulations of the State of Nebraska. 
 After studying the State Board of Health Regulations 
 and consulting with local lawyers and judges, the 
 pupils formed themselves into three groups and pre- 
 sented three mock trials before the pupils of three 
 other grades, the latter acting as jurors. The "of- 
 fender" in one instance was found guilty, and as a 
 penalty, was required by the judges to read fifty 
 pages of an old physiology book. 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. What are the purpose and value of quarantining? — 
 
 Col. I, 224; Con. II, 351; Da. II, 215; Hu. II, 233; Je. 
 II, 323 ; Ov. II, 285 ; Ri. II, 132, 177. 
 
 2. What the the quarantineable diseases in your state? 
 
 B-H. (Nebr. p. 29) 
 
 3. How are community hospitals controlled and what is 
 
 their value?— Con. II, 358; Da. II, 253; Gu. II, 244; 
 Ov. II, 365 ; Ri. II, 178. 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 V. INSPECTION OF FOOD SUPPLY SOURCES.— Al. 
 XXIII; F-B. 413, 692; Hr. XXIV. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach. 
 
 Aim. — To get first hand information of certain food 
 sources. 
 
 1. The teacher should ask as many pupils as will, to 
 bring samples of fresh milk from home. Each sample 
 should be taken from the bottom of the milk contain- 
 er. After having poured off the larger part of the 
 milk, the last of it should be poured into the bottle to 
 contain the sample. Once these samples have been 
 
GRAJDB VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 95 
 
 assembled by the teacher, she should put them into 
 a different set of similar bottles or big testrtubes. 
 When the samples have been thus changed so they 
 cannot be identified by the pupils, the teacher can take 
 each sample successively and pour its contenfs into a 
 receptacle, all this, of course, in the presence of the 
 class. Now take the series of pads and examine them 
 for specks, sediment and colorations. 
 
 2. Take a floating dairy thermometer (costing about 25 
 
 cents, such as should well be in every school collec- 
 tion of apparatus) and try floating it in water. If it 
 does not float erect, wrap some broom wire around 
 the bottom of the thermometer and try again. Keep 
 adding wire till the thermometer floats vertical but so 
 the higher degree marks float a little above the surface 
 of the water. Put the milk collected from Exp. 1 into 
 a tall narrow vessel, like a flower vase, and float the 
 thermometer in this milk. If it floats higher tha,Ti it 
 did in the water, the milk is heavier than the water^^ 
 but if lower, the milk is lighter than the water. 
 
 3. For this experiment it will be necessary to call in the^ 
 
 help of some enterprising pupil, or some sympathetic 
 and intelligent dairyman or dairymaid (possibly the 
 school teacher). The purpose is to get several 
 samples of milk under controlled conditions and to 
 discover the most favorable way to keep it the longest 
 from souring, the souring, of course, being under- 
 stood to be due always to the action of germs (bac- 
 teria). It will be necessary to have at hand fourteen 
 perfectly clean scalded bottles or test-tubes, each 
 holding about six ounces. Utilizing an ordinary cow 
 under ordinary stable conditions and without washing 
 the cow's udder or particular care with the hands, 
 clothing, or other surroundings, fill a bottle three- 
 fourths full of milk by milking directly into the bottle 
 with the very first milk that comes out, the "fore- 
 milk". Take a second sample from a second teat. 
 Now continue the milking of these two teats till they 
 
9.6 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 are about half exhausted and take two more samples 
 as before. Continue the milking again till these teats 
 . are nearly exhausted and then take two final samples 
 of the "strippings." Stopper all of the samples at 
 once and set one of each in a place that will keep 
 them at a temperature of 60 degrees F. or less, all the 
 time, while the other samples are kept in a rather 
 warm place. Label each sample carefully. 
 
 4. Following the above performance, see that the cow's 
 
 udder and all neighboring parts are now thoroly 
 washed and everything in the immediate surroundings 
 made scrupulously clean. Let the milker's hands and 
 wrists also be well washed and dried. Now with the 
 two remaining teats repeat all parts of Exp. 3. Allow 
 all samples to stand for a day or at least till souring of 
 one or more samples begins. The samples should 
 now be brought convenient to the school room, while 
 still kept under the first conditions of warmth and 
 , cold. Now examine the samples once every hour or 
 two and record when each is sour enough to be 
 curdled. When the curdling is complete the records 
 can be examined and a comparative study made of the 
 conditions most favorable to the development and 
 multiplication of germs. 
 
 5. This experiment can profitably be extended by taking 
 
 a third sample of milk from each of the two middle 
 milkings and stoppering the bottles as before. Place 
 enough warm water into the pail to bring the water 
 to the neck of the bottle. Heat the bucket and its 
 contents on a stove till the water just begins to boil, 
 then. remove the bottles from the pails and cool as 
 rapidly as possible. Milk thus treated is said to be 
 Pasteurized. Treat these two samples as the pairs of 
 other samples are treated. 
 
 6. If situated to employ a few simple chemicals, take a 
 
 fourth set of samples from the middle milkings and 
 into each put a few drops of formalin or formaldehyde. 
 Treat as the other pairs of samples. Do not wait to 
 
GRADE VII; COMMUNITY HYGIENE 97 
 
 close out the experiment till these samples curdle. At 
 the last, take one of these samples and any other and 
 into each put a drop or two of the solution of ferrous 
 chlorid. Now very carefully pour down the side of 
 bottle (holding it away from other folks) some strong 
 sulphuric acid. The ring of color in the one shows 
 that the milk has been "preserved" with formalin. 
 
 7. Employ the questions found in Allen's "Civics and 
 
 Health", pages 26-28, or those in Hoag and Terman's 
 "Health Work in the Schools", pages 240-250, for a 
 . study of dairies of the community. ... , 
 
 8. Use the suggested questions for a survey of the coni- 
 
 munity bakeries found in Hoag and Terman, pageS 
 245, and those on pages 24'4 for a survey of local 
 butcher shops. 
 
 Questions f br'Cpnsidef atibh. 
 
 i.:.How do you acjCQuntfor the dirt in some of the samples 
 
 , -of. milk? . -;, .. .,-r .. ..-. ... . 
 
 2. How could youdiseover whether a sample of milk has 
 • - been watered by a -dishonest dairyman ? 
 
 3-4. What is the best way to keep milk from spoiling 
 
 " without :putting in a poisonous preserver? What are: 
 : the different ■v^ays that are,''favorab-Ie "to.-.the multi-; 
 plication of g^rms in -milk?. What are the different 
 chances milk may hav6 for infection from cow to 
 table ? How can it be that milk is responsible for more' 
 sickness and death than perhaps all other foods com- 
 bined. 
 
 5. Why does Pasteurization of milk largely free it from 
 
 germs? 
 
 6. Why is formalin objectionable as a preserver of milk 
 and how show its presence ? 
 
 7. What kind of a showing does your local dairy make 
 
 according to your survey? 
 8- Are the local butcher shops and bakeries up to a good 
 standard of sanitation? 
 
98 
 
 GRADE VII; COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. What are the character and sources of your milk sup- 
 
 ply?— Col. I, 56; Con. II, 15; Da. II, 36, 264; Gu. Ill, 
 153; Je. II, 316; 0-K. 190; Ov. II, 246, 253; Ri. II 
 (Index). 
 
 2. Are the slaughter houses, meat shops, and bakeries 
 
 wholesome? — Col. I, 74; Con. II, 30; Da. II, 215; Je. 
 II, 284; Ov. II, 243; Ri. II, 152. 
 
 3. What dangerous occupations are in your community? 
 —Col. I, 261. 
 
 Writing Up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 VI. MOSQUITOES, RATS AND PETS AS COMMUNITY 
 MENACES.— F-B. 450, 475, 567; Hr. XV; Hu. IX, 
 XIII ; H-S. XXXI ; Wa. XVIII. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To learn the character and history of the mosquito 
 in order to know how this menace can be controlled. 
 
 1. Some time in warm weather, when ponds or rain bar- 
 rels abound with "wigglers", let each pupil be pro- 
 vided with a glass of wiggler-filled water. Make a 
 
 Studying Mosquitoes 
 
GRADE VII; COMMUNITY HYGIENE 99 
 
 study of the different sorts of "wigglers" to be found 
 in the water. In general, two kinds should be found, 
 a longer sort (the larvae) and a coiled-up sort (the 
 pupae). 
 
 By the exercise of a little ingenuity select a number of 
 the longer sort (mosquito larvae) and put them in a 
 small bottle or test-tube of clear water. If the local- 
 ity is very malarial, then it is possible that two sorts 
 of these longer forms may be found, that of the com- 
 mon kind (Culex) having a big head, being mort 
 lively, staying under water more (to feed there), and 
 when at the surface (to breathe there) hangs head 
 down. The malarial mosquito (Anopheles) has a 
 head only a little larger than the body, is less active, 
 and lies horizontally at the surface most of the time, 
 both to feed and to breathe. Learn all you can by 
 observation about the behavior of one or both forms. 
 
 Now take a specimen of each of the kinds found in No. 
 2 (if both are present) and place with a drop of water 
 on a piece of glass. Study with a simple microscope, 
 looking to find the parts shown in the pictures of 
 mosquitoes, found in the government bulletins or 
 books of mosquitoes. Especially observe the differ- 
 ences between the common and the malarial kinds of 
 mosquitoes. 
 
 By the exercise of ingenuity again, select from your 
 original supply of "wigglers" a number of the coiled- 
 up sort and put them in a small bottle or test-tube of 
 clear water. Again look for the two sorts, common 
 and malarial, the former lying more nearly vertical 
 and the latter not being quite so coiled. Experiment 
 with these in various ways to find out how mosquito 
 larvae behave differently from pupae. 
 Make use of a simple microscope in examining speci- 
 mens of pupae just as you did in the case of the larvae 
 in No. 3, and note how pupae differ from larvae in 
 appearance. 
 
IQO GRADE VII; COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 6. Set aside in a warm place or glass in which you had 
 your original piece of glass or mosquito screening and 
 examine it the next day to see if adult mosquitoes 
 (imagos) have now appeared above the surface of the 
 water. 
 
 Along with this jar or glass place another with wig- 
 glers, and on this pour a little kerosene, but otherwise 
 treat as you do the first glass. You can tell whether 
 the mosquitoes from the first glass are culex or anoph- 
 eles by the way their bodies stand at rest. If the body 
 is horizontal to the surface on which the insect rests, 
 it is a common one, but if the body is oblique to the 
 surface, it is a malarial mosquito. 
 
 Into a third glass of the pond scum, put a small fish 
 or minnow if you can get one, and see what happens. 
 
 7. Take the mature mosquitoes (the imagos) from the 
 first glass in No. 6 or take adult mosquitoes from any 
 other source, and examine with the naked eye or with 
 a microscope to distinguish males from females. The 
 former have feathery hairs or antennae between the 
 eyes and the latter have hairs that are not feathery. 
 It is the female that carries the malarial germs, if it 
 has had a chance to get them from a human being 
 sick with malaria. 
 
 8. To make the life story of the mosquito complete, we 
 
 need to discover some of the eggs, which may be found 
 floating on the surface of quiet water in warm 
 weather. The eggs of the mosquito are as long as a 
 pin is wide, and only one fifth as wide as they are long. 
 These stick together to make a little boat or raft if 
 they are from the common mosquito, but merely lie 
 along-side of each other if from the malarial mos- 
 quito. 
 
 9. If you can take the necessary time and care, a good 
 
 way to find out the complete life history of mos- 
 quitoes, is to take one of these egg masses and keep 
 in a favorable place, observing now and then to see 
 the four successive stages of the mosquitoe's life. 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 101 
 
 The water on which the eggs are placed should have 
 scum in it. In placing the eggs on the water, be 
 careful not to "drown" them, for they are meant to 
 stay on water much as a needle may be made to float. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. Why are "wigglers" given the name they have? 
 What do you think "wigglers" live on? Why do they 
 keep coming to the top? 
 
 2.-3. What difference between Culex and Anopheles larvae 
 do you notice besides those named? Do you find that 
 a larva can stay down in the water as long as a min- 
 ute? If one were weak and could not wiggle up, 
 would he drown? 
 
 4.-5. Do you notice any difference between Culex and Ano- 
 pheles pupae other than those described? Do these 
 forms seem to feed at all? Why do they stay at the 
 top? If disturbed do they have to "wiggle" to get 
 back to the top? 
 
 6. If no mosquitoes emerged from the glass containing 
 
 the kerosene, why not? Do the mosquitoes that 
 emerged from the first glass show any preference for 
 resting on the banana ? If you were fortunate enough 
 to see a mosquito coming out of its pupa can you des- 
 cribe the process? Do fish like mosquito larvae and 
 pupae? 
 
 7. How many legs and wings has a mosquito? Can you 
 
 distinguish head, thorax, and abdomen of the adult 
 mosquito ? When a mosquito is at rest, how many legs 
 does it use to support itself? What do you suppose 
 swallows are after as they fly about in summer even- 
 ings? 
 8.-9. Writ out the complete life story of either the Culex 
 or the Anopheles mosquito or both. In the light of 
 what you know of mosquito history, figure out several 
 things we could do to rid our homes of mosquitoes. 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. What are the breeding places and life history of 
 
102 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 mosquitoes? Col. I, 140; Con. II, 126; Da. II, 195; Gu, 
 III, 228; Hu. II, 223; Je. II, 329; 0-K. II, 153; Ov. II, 
 202 ; Ri. 11, 104. 
 
 2. How are mosquitoes carriers of diseases? Col. I, 138; 
 
 Con. II, 126 ; Da. II, 214 ; Gu. Ill, 228 ; Hu. II, 223 ; Je. 
 II, 328; 0-K. II, 153; Ov. II, 202; Ri. II, 104. 
 
 3. How control mosquitoes? Col. I, 139; Con. II, 126; 
 
 Da. II, 214 ; Hu. Ill, 223 ; Je. II, 329 ; 0-K. II, 166 ; Ov. 
 II, 204; Ri. Ill, 115, 203. 
 
 4. What are the dangers and control of rats? Con. II, 
 
 130; Dav. II, 219; Hu. II, 230; Ov. II, 208; Ri. II, 98, 
 175. 
 
 5. Are pet animals disease carriers? Dav. II, 240; Hu. 
 
 II, 247 ; Ov. II, 209 ; Ri. II, 37, 76. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 VII. THE HOUSEFLY AS A COMMUNITY MENACE.— 
 
 F-B. 540, 679; Hr. XV; Hu. XIII; H-S. XXXI; Wa. 
 . XVIII. 
 
 Aim. — To learn the life history of a fly so as to be able to 
 control the fly nuisance. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 1. Capture a good specimen of a live house fly and fix it 
 to a small white card by running a pin down thru the 
 rear part of the body (the abdomen). Using the 
 thrust-thru pin as a handle, make an examination of 
 the fly with the naked eye, and with a simple micro- 
 scope, examine the fly's upper parts. Note the shape 
 of the head with its big compound eyes, the narrow 
 neck attaching it to the body. Look for the feather- 
 like hairs between the yes. Count the black stripes on 
 the back of the fly, for few other kinds of flies are 
 marked exactly like this. See if there are hairs on 
 the back also. Look for marks of veins on the wings 
 and especially the veins at the rear next to the inside, 
 and note the knee-shaped bend in this vein on each 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 103 
 
 "wing. Only house flies have the vein thus bent. Pull 
 the wings out (or off) and see the little knob-ended 
 "balancers" just back of the wing attachments. These 
 are all that is left of a second pair of wings that flies 
 had long, long ago. 
 
 Fix another specimen of a housefly (or the same one) 
 but this time pin him back down to the card, Note 
 that the fly is made up of three main parts, — ^the head, 
 the thorax, and the abdomen. Observe with the 
 microscope the "proboscis" of the fly and determine 
 if you can whether it suck or bites its food. See the 
 hairs around the mouth. 
 
 Note how many pairs of legs there are and the part 
 of the body they fastened to. See whether there are 
 hairs above the last pair of legs, for this is another 
 way to tell a house fly from most other flies. If a strong 
 magnifying glass can be used, look at a foot of a fly to 
 see the fine hairs on the foot-pads that exude a sticky 
 stuff so the fly can walk on glass or the ceiling. 
 
 Now look at the abdomen and see if there are 
 hairs on it also, and if so, where they are. Here too, 
 is a way to tell a housefly from most other flies. 
 Examine a few other kinds of flies, if you can get them, 
 as the stable fly, the blow fly, the horse fly, the hot 
 fly, etc, and see how they differ in appearance from 
 the house-fly. Particularly, make a close examination 
 of a stable fly's mouth and see if it bites or sucks for 
 its food. 
 
 Have a few flies in a small fly trap and study their 
 habits. Discover, if you can, why the fly sometimes 
 rubs his feet together, and whether there is any choice 
 in his walking up or down the side of the cage. Make 
 one side of the cage very bright and the other not so 
 and see which the fly prefers. Make one side very 
 dark and the other less so, and see what happens. 
 Bring fly-food near and find out by what sense the fly 
 recognizes the food. Make a cage entirely dark and 
 see if food now attracts the flies. 
 
104 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 5. Repeat the experiment given in the nature study ap- 
 
 proach to Study I, Grade VI, requiring the walking 
 of a fly over a germ culture medium. Observe results 
 after three or four days. 
 
 6. To find out the life story of a fly, put a piece of fresh 
 
 meat out of doors, for blow flies, (or horse manure, for 
 house flies) in the spring time until a deposit of flies' 
 eggs are found on it. Now put the meat on some 
 breakfast food or bran that fills a water glass two- 
 thirds full. In the bottom of the glass should be a 
 piece of cloth kept moist all the time. Keep in a warm 
 place with a screen on the glass. The egg stage is the 
 first stage, of course. 
 
 7. The second stage comes when, after about a day, the 
 
 eggs have hatched out. This is the maggot, or larva 
 stage, and it lasts about a week. Examine the develop- 
 ment of the maggots from day to day and keep some 
 moisture in the bottom of the glass all the time. 
 
 8. After the maggots are full grown they will pass to the 
 bottom of the glass to enter their third, or pupal 
 stage. They how look like small, imperfect grains of 
 wheat, arid reniain seemingly quiet for nearly another 
 week. Supplement the study of this stage by digging 
 to the bottom of a pile of horse manure, and finding 
 there a quantity of pupae. 
 
 9. If" all has gone well, the adult fly, or imago stage, 
 
 should now appear. Keep the glass screened at this 
 time so as to be sure you have the flies of your own 
 "raising." 
 
 Note. — Send 50c to the International Hai-vester Co., 
 Chicago, 111., for a set of their stencils for making 
 charts about flies. A valuable booklet goes vrith it 
 telling how to make the charts and giving a lot of 
 valuable information about flies. It is a really wonder- 
 ful set of charts that can be made and this would be 
 an excellent thing for the school to have. 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 105 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. How do flies differ from other insects in the number of 
 their wings ? 
 
 2. What are three ways in which a fly's abdomen differs 
 from its thorax? 
 
 3. What are four ways in which a house fly differs from 
 
 almost all other kinds of flies? 
 
 4. What habit of a fly does an ordinary fly trap take ad- 
 vantage of? Why do flies gather at the windows of 
 darkened rooms? How could one best arrange to 
 catch flies in a baited trap in a cow stable ? 
 
 5. Why is the fly sometimes called the most dangerous 
 
 animal in the world? 
 6.-9. In the light of what you have learned of the fly's life 
 history, what are some ways you can think of to get 
 rid of the fly nuisance? 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. What are the breeding places and life history of the 
 
 housefly? Col. I, 145; Con. H, 97; Da. II, 201; Hu. 
 H, 226 ; Je. H, 272 ; 0-K. II, 143 ; Ov. II, 198 ; Ri. II, 
 145, 
 
 2. Is the housefly a carrier of diseases? Col. I, 148 ; Con. 
 
 II, 96 ; Da. II, 205 ; Hu. II, 226 ; Je. II, 271 ; 0-K. II, 
 134;Ov.II, 181;Ri.II, 145. 
 
 3. Can a community be free from flies? Da. II, 209 ; Hu. 
 II, 244; Je .II, 275; 0-K. II, 140; Ov. II, 197; Ri. H, 
 145. 
 
 Writing up the Note Books. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 VIII. COMMUNITY DUTIES AND BURDENS.— Al. 
 XXXIV; XXXVI; Dr. IX; F-B. 393, 447, 450, 463; 
 Hr. XXIV; H-S. XX; Mo. II. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — ^To intensify the sense of community responsibility 
 for rubbish, garbage, sewage, tobacco and alcohol. 
 
 Note. — A very practical way to approach these topics 
 
106 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 is to enter on a community survey, to learn how house- 
 hold wastes are specifically disposed of. If the teacher 
 does not deem it wise to send the pupils out over the 
 school district to take a census of the methods of taking 
 care of rubbish, garbage, etc., she can have them hand in 
 to her independently whitten reports of how these things 
 are taken care of in the homes represented. In this latter 
 case, and perhaps also in the former, the teacher can 
 look the reports over in advance of the class work with the 
 census, and then call on only those pupils to report who 
 have some approach to desirable conditions upon which 
 their report is based. 
 
 But if there is no danger of starting a neighborhood 
 "row", a tabulation of the results of the census can very 
 profitably be considered in class. If sufficient interest is 
 developed, this study may yield results in the stimulation 
 of the whole community to undertake a clean-up day or 
 week. Following su^ch a renovation period, a second 
 survey could profitably be undertaken in order to measure 
 the amount of progress actually achieved in the commun- 
 ity. Indeed this second survey can be made to serve as a 
 strong means of motivation for the community clean-up, 
 especially if there is to be some public recognition of the 
 ones who make the best showing. 
 
 1. Rubbish. — This term is here applied to the useless 
 materials about the premises that go rather slowly 
 into decay, if at all. Ashes, tin cans, old iron, etc., 
 are samples. Since these things, in addition to being 
 very unsightly, are apt to harbor rats and other 
 vermin, if not properly taken care of they become a 
 matter of vital community concern. We do not here 
 incorporate questions on the way in which stable 
 refuse is taken care of, but teachers who care to add 
 some such questions may well do so, for when it comes 
 to housefllies, nothing is more vital than the way in 
 which manure heaps are prevented from becoming 
 wholesale fly breeders, 
 (a) What five stuffs make up most of the rubbish? 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 107 
 
 (b) Is all or part of it regularly thrown into an alley 
 or otherwise off the premises belonging to the 
 house ? 
 
 (c) Is most of it thrown promiscuously about on the 
 ground near the house? 
 
 (d) If thrown about in this way is there regular time 
 for cleaning it up ? 
 
 (e) Is the rubbish ordinarily thrown on a careless 
 heap to harbor vermin? 
 
 (f ) Is the rubbish kept in boxes, barrels or other com- 
 mon receptacles, making the place look neater, 
 but still providing a haunt for rats? 
 
 (g) Is the rubbish kept regularly in a neat, rat-proof 
 place ? 
 
 (h) How often is the rubbish removed from the 
 premises? 
 
 (i) By whom and at whose expense is the rubbish 
 removed? What is done with it when it is re- 
 moved? 
 
 Garbage. — This is understood to be the waste material 
 of the kitchen and house, that is, subject to rapid 
 decay. We shall here hold it to include dishwater 
 and other kitchen waters, and the residue from pre- 
 paring meals as well as that left after meals. 
 
 (a) Is the garbage or most of it thrown promiscuous- 
 ly about the place? 
 
 (b) Is all or a large part of it kept in barrels or gar- 
 bage cans to be fed to hogs or other animals on 
 the premises or elsewhere? 
 
 (c) If a swillbarrel or garbage can is used, is it well 
 covered so as to keep out flies and other insects? 
 
 (d) If the receptacle is well covered, is there a large 
 fly trap in connection with it to catch the flies 
 that swarm about it? 
 
 (e) If the water is drawn off from the rest of the 
 kitchen waste, what is done with it? Is it used 
 to help breed flies? 
 
108 GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
 
 (f ) Is the solid stuff from the above dried and then 
 thrown away ? 
 
 (g) Is it burned either in a house stove or in a regular 
 incinerator? 
 
 (h) Is it buried and well covered with soil? 
 
 (i) Is it set out to be collected by a garbage man? 
 
 3. Human excreta. — The teacher must use her judgment 
 
 about giving the following questions. They touch 
 upon some of the most vital questions that can be 
 raised in matters of sanitation. If the teacher has a 
 good hold on her boys and girls she may safely ask 
 these questions, we venture to believe. 
 
 (a) Is there an inside toilet in the house which is 
 used by all? 
 
 (b) If so, is it connected with a general sewage and 
 water system ? 
 
 (c) If thus connected, how is the sewage disposed of 
 finally? 
 
 (d) If not thus connected, in which of the following 
 ways is it treated : 
 
 By distribution to a running stream? 
 By surface distribution? 
 By subsurface distribution ? 
 By a septic tank system? 
 
 (e) If an outhouse is depended on, is it over an un- 
 protected pit? 
 
 (f) Is the outhouse provided with a protected but 
 removable can? 
 
 (g) Are the contents: of the can frequently buried? 
 (h) Is the outhouse stocked with dry earth, or slacked 
 
 lime for covering purposes? 
 (i) Is the outhouse equipped with a spetic tank 
 
 device ? 
 (j) Is some effective plan used other than those 
 
 listed? 
 
 4. Investigate the quantity and cost of tobacco and of 
 
 alcoholic beverages used in your community, (See 
 Chapter VIII.) 
 
GRADE VII: COMMUNITY HYGIENE 109 
 
 5. Secure from the U. S. Statistical Report the latest 
 figures corresponding to those given on the diagram 
 accompanying this study. 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. How dispose of garbage and sewage? Col, I, 252; 
 
 Con. II, 352; Da. II, 273; Gu. Ill, 45; Hu. II, 190; Je. 
 II, 279; 0-K. II, 110; Ov. II, 177, 368; Ri. II, 147, 
 180, 203. 
 
 2. What are the dangers from conflagrations? Gu. Ill, 
 
 68; Ov. II, 106, 363. 
 
 3. What is the cost and harm of tobacco chewing and 
 smoking? Con. II, 120 ; Da. II, (Index) ; Gu. Ill, 141 ; 
 Je. II, 73 ; 0-K. II, 235 ; Ov. II, (Index) ; Ri. Ill, 197. 
 
 4. What is the individual and community toll for alcoholic 
 
 beverages? Col. I, 171; Con. II ,(Iindex); Da. II, 
 (Index) : Gu. Ill, (Index) : Je. II, 186, 260; 0-K. II, 
 240; Ov. II, (Index) ; Ri. Ill, 210. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
CHAPTER VII-GRADE VIII: HUMAN- 
 BODY HYGIENE 
 
 AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF TIME 
 
 The time arrangement in this grade is intended to cor- 
 respond with that in Grades V, VI, and VII, namely, about 
 eighty recitations of twenty minutes each. This means a 
 half year's work, which may be given to either the first or 
 the last half of the school year, or distributed through the 
 year in alternation with other subjects. If it seems wisest 
 to join Grades VII and VIII for the work in hygiene, then 
 of course the year's work would start in with the work for 
 Grade VII and close with that for Grade VIII. 
 
 THE AIM 
 
 The fourteen-year-old boy or girl has reached a point 
 in development in which, to a constantly enlarging social 
 horizon, there is added an appreciation of the reasons for 
 things. The facts of life must now begin to take shape in 
 some system. This systematization of knowledge is still 
 a crude one, but it must serve as a basis for the scientific 
 structure in later years. It is exceedingly important, then, 
 that the f oundataion be laid on a concrete footing of actually 
 observed facts and experiences. 
 
 This year's work should accordingly be so shaped as 
 to lead up naturally to a study of elementary physiology 
 in the High School. It should not, on the other hand, at- 
 tempt the technicalities of the great and complex subject 
 of physiology. Experience has abundantly shown that ef- 
 forts of this latter sort are futile, not to say injurious. The 
 aim, then, becomes one of leading the pupil as far in the 
 direction of physiology as can be fully sensed and appre- 
 ciated by him, and no further. The course is accordingly 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 111 
 
 organized as closely as possible around the fundamental 
 functions and activities of the human body, while confining 
 the study to those limits which the ordinary school room and 
 home life afford opportunity for first hand studies. The 
 teacher, of course, should be acquainted with elementary 
 physiology, just to keep her from saying a lot of things that 
 aren't so; but she should merely provide conditions for 
 growth in the knowledge of the things that constitute the 
 background for hygiene, and then she should give the pupil 
 a chance to grow ! 
 
 EIGHTH-GRADE HYGIENE TOPICS.^HUMAN-BODY 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 I. FOODS, FEEDING AND BEVERAGES. 
 
 1. What are the different classes of nutrients and their 
 
 uses? 
 
 2. How make a balanced ration from the common 
 foods? 
 
 3. What is the value of thoro mastication? 
 
 4. What conditions favor good digestion ? 
 
 5. How care for the teeth and mouth ? 
 
 6. What are the desirable and undesirable beverages? 
 
 n. BLOOD AND LYMPH. 
 
 1. What constitute good blood and lymph? 
 
 2. How do we maintain a good supply of good blood 
 and lymph? 
 
 m. THE CIRCULATION AND COMMON COLDS. 
 
 1. What is the pulse and its meaning? 
 
 2. How keep the heart sound and strong? 
 
 3. What are common colds and how avoid them ? 
 
 IV. THE AIR, BREATHING AND SPEAKING. 
 
 1. When is air good and when is it bad? 
 
 2. How breathe to ventilate the lungs and interchange 
 the gases? 
 
112 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 3. What are five reasons for breathing through the 
 nose? 
 
 4. What are adenoids and other obstructions to free 
 
 breathings? 
 
 5. How make the voice-box an instrument for pleas- 
 ing speech? 
 
 6. How keep the lungs sound and effective? 
 
 V. BODY WASTES, VENTILATION AND HEAT-CON 
 TROL. 
 
 1. How do wastes and toxins arise in the body? 
 
 2. What is the importance of regularly eliminating 
 wastes? 
 
 3. Why are the kidneys the most important organs of 
 
 elimination ? 
 
 4. How does perspiring aid in heat-regulation? 
 
 5. Why and how ventilate living rooms? 
 
 6. Why bathe for cleanliness and to countract colds? 
 
 7. How does the body naturally keep a nearly uni- 
 form temperature ? 
 
 8. How does clothing serve as an artificial aid to 
 
 heat regulation? 
 
 VI. BONES, JOINTS AND LEVERS. 
 
 1. How keep the bones in good condition? 
 
 2. How care for injured and broken bones? 
 
 3. How maintain good joints and care for sprains? 
 
 VII. MUSCLES, POSTURE, EXERCISE, FATIGUE. 
 
 1. What is the necessity of exercise in a healthy life? 
 
 2. How exercise to correct defects and maintain good 
 
 postures? 
 
 3. What is body fatigue and how is it controled? 
 
 VIII. BEHAVIOR, BRAIN, NERVES, SENSES. 
 
 1. What is the nature of the brain as the home of the 
 mind? 
 
 2. How guard the eyes from injury? 
 
 3. How guard the ears from injury? 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE. 113 
 
 4. How conserve the skin senses — heat, cold, pain, 
 and touch? 
 
 5. How conserve the sense of smell and of taste? 
 
 6. How are good habits formed and bad ones avoided ? 
 
 7. How develop an attractive countenance ? 
 
 8. How control the passions? 
 
 9. How keep the mind in a healthy condition? 
 
 10. Why is sleep the great restorer? 
 
 11. What is the value of the after-dinner nap ? 
 
 12. How may headaches be avoided? 
 
 IX. STIMULANTS, NAECOTICS, AND MEDICINES. 
 
 1. How does tobacco harm? 
 
 2. How does alcohol destroy? 
 
 3. Are patent medicines beneficial? 
 
 NATURE-STUDY LESSONS AND TOPICAL REFERENCES 
 
 Note. — ^It is to be understood that no attempt is here made 
 to indicate how much work shall be assigned for each single 
 recitation, as the length of the assignments will have to be 
 determined by the length and number of the recitations that 
 the school gives to this important subjects. The chapter 
 references following the major (Roman-numbered) topics 
 are for the teacher's especial use. The page references fol- 
 lowing the minor (Arabic-numbered) topics, are for the 
 pupils' and teacher's use. The key to the books referred to 
 is given in Appendix A. The teacher must know that it is 
 not necessary to have for use all the books referred to, but 
 the more she can have both for herself and for her pupils 
 the better. 
 
 L FOODS, FEEDING, AND BEVERAGES.— Al. XXXV; 
 
 F-B. 34, 85, 121, 128, 182, 249, 293, 295, 298, 363, 
 413, 565; Hr. XIX, XX; H-S. VII, X, XIX, 
 XX; Ly. II, V; Mo. II; Wa. VII, VIIL 
 
 The aim. — To obtain concrete acquaintance with the 
 major kinds of foodstuffs, and to get sense-experience 
 from a measurement of food values. 
 
114 
 
 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 EXPERIMENTING WITH FOODS 
 
 1. The study of the pricipal nutrients, or primary food- 
 stuffs. 
 
 (a) Proteinj — Typical examples of this important 
 foodstuff (properly pronounced pro-te-in, with 
 the accent on the first syllable) will need to be 
 provided. This will call for a sample of dried 
 beef, baked beans, cooked white of egg, scum 
 from boiled milk, gum left after chewing grains of 
 wheat, etc. After examining the specimens, the 
 pupils should be required to burn a sample of 
 each of the specimens provided, and to note 
 whether there is an odor common to all. 
 
 (b) Carbohydrates. — Here, too, some specimens of 
 each of the two general varieties of carbohy- 
 drates will be needed. Some corn starch will 
 serve to give the necessary sense-experience and 
 provide material for the later study of the 
 starches in foods. 
 
 The test for starch is one that any eighth- 
 grader can easily apply — ^the well-known tine- 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 115 
 
 ture of iodine test. If any substance turns some 
 shade of blue when the iodine is applied, the 
 presence of starch is indicated. Pupils enjoy 
 making such tests as these, and usable tabula- 
 tions can be prepared by them. 
 
 The sugars are another form of carbohydrates, 
 easily recognized by their taste. If samples of 
 both cane sugar and of grape sugar can be pro- 
 vided, an interesting comparison can be made of 
 the relative sweetness of the two varieties. Any 
 of the carbohydrates, when burned, will yield a 
 black residue of carbon. 
 
 (c) .Fats and Oils — These foods can be exemplified by 
 
 samples of olive oil, butter and beef suet. The 
 test calls for the use of a little ether. Take the 
 specimen of food you wish to test, (as the yolk 
 of egg, olive oil, crushed kernels of nuts, etc.), 
 put it to soak in some ether and later pour the 
 ether off on a piece of writing paper. If, after 
 the ether evaporates, the paper still remains 
 transparent, then oil or fat must have been 
 present in the food. 
 
 (d) The mineral foods are known by the fact that 
 they cannot be burned. They can be illustrated 
 by samples of salt and by pure water. 
 
 2. The fuel value of foods. 
 
 The following proposed tests the writer regards as 
 especially important, keenly conscious though he is, 
 that they are open to the criticism by punctilious 
 scientists, of being crude and imperfect. These critics 
 forget that the natural order for gaining knowledge 
 is from the psychological, or imperfect, to the logical 
 or more nearly perfect. While these tests will call for 
 some enterprise in their execution, the labors can be 
 much reduced by enlisting the co-op era tiive services 
 of the pupils, a thing that ought to be done anyway 
 whenever possible. The accompanying illustration 
 shows an eighth grade boy in bis shop just after com- 
 pleting the home-made calorimeter described below, 
 as a home project. 
 
 If the four tests snow to be described can be under- 
 tarken simultaneously by four pupils or groups of 
 pupils, it will make an interesting contest — ^that of 
 seeing which set of conditions can bring the water to 
 the highest temperature. 
 
116 
 
 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 (a) Preparation. — The purpose of the experiment 
 is to measure roughly the relative heating power 
 of the organic foods when they are burned. It is 
 a crude kind of calorimeter we are describing. 
 
 Making a Homemade Calorimeter 
 
 There are needed for each of the tests three pie 
 pans or pie tins of the larger size, a board about a 
 foot square, come pieces of glass and four ten- 
 penny nails. Lay the glass on the board (to keep 
 the board from burning) and on the glass set one 
 of the pans and drive the four nails at equal 
 distances around the pan, into the board just 
 enough to have them stand securely, each lean- 
 ing in just a little over the pan. On the tops of 
 these nails can now be set the rim of the second 
 pan, and the third pan, turned up-side-down, can 
 be used as a lid for the second pan. The "calo- 
 rimeter" is now complete, except that a cream 
 thermometer, a teaspoon and a tin cup are need- 
 ed to supply the additional apparatus required, 
 (b) Procedure. — Take a piece of newspaper just the 
 size of a pie pan, pour on its center a completely 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE llV 
 
 filled teaspoon of kerosene and spread the oil 
 around a circle area six inches in diameter. In 
 experiment No. 1, you add nothing to the kero- 
 sene. In No. 2, you add just a quarter-ounce of 
 either corn starch or sugar, letting the starch or 
 sugar be distributed evenly over the oiled patch 
 on the paper, and allowing it to become complete- 
 ly saturated with the oil. In No. 3 you distribute 
 just a quarter-ounce of butter over the oiled; 
 patch. And in No. 4, you lay down just a quarter- 
 ounce of thin slices of dried beef very thoroly' 
 dried out, and now soaked with the oil in the pan. 
 
 In each of these cases the next thing to do is to 
 pick up each oiled paper and place under it bits 
 of crumpled paper so that the oiled paper with 
 its contents shall lie level with the top of the sides 
 of the pan. With the parts to be burned now in 
 readiness, place the second pan on the nail sup- 
 ports, pour into it just a pint (pound) of water, 
 take its temperature, place over it the cover pan, 
 and touch a lighted match to the contents of the 
 fire pan below. 
 
 When the burning is complete, again take the 
 temperature of the water in the pans, subtract 
 the temperature value of pan No. 1 from that of 
 Nos. 2, 3, and 4, and the results will be roughly 
 the relative caloric value of proteins, carbohy- 
 drates, and fats, a bit of information that is basic 
 in all food considerations. 
 
 Questions on the Experiments 
 
 1. Is there a characteristic odor to all the burned samples 
 
 of protein foods? How determine whether a sample 
 of mixed food has protein in it? How do you test for 
 the presence of starch in a sample of food? Can you 
 name half a dozen common foods having an abund- 
 ance of starch? Which is the sweeter, cane sugar or 
 grape sugar? Can you give a good reason for apply- 
 ing the name carbohydrates to the sugars and 
 starches? (Look up the word carbohydrates in a 
 big dictionary) . Mention several common foods that 
 have a good deal of sugar in them. Describe the test 
 for fats and oils. Name several foods with fat and oil 
 present. How would you find out what different food- 
 stuffs are present in bread? Which class of foods, 
 vegetable or animal, has starch commonly present? 
 
 2. Which of the foodstuffs tried out in the calorimeter 
 
lis GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 )n.ad the most heating power? How did the other two 
 compare in heat value? What is a pound-Fahrenheit ' 
 calorie ? If the starch has been all thoroughly burned 
 and none of its heat lost, let us suppose that it would 
 have given three times as much heat. Now, if a man 
 working moderately hard uses up 14,000 pound- 
 Fahrenheit calories of heat a day, how much starch 
 ;and sugar should a man eat in a day if five-sevenths 
 of his food should be carbohydrates? 
 
 Turning to the Books 
 
 With some such concrete background of sense-exper- 
 "ience as these studies will provide, the teacher may now 
 ^fairly expect some real thinking and some sane interpre- 
 tations, of the printed page of the textbook. The mere 
 fact of actually measuring the quarter-ounce units of food 
 called for will give the pupil a conception of quantities 
 that few grown-ups possess, and an ideal daily ration of 
 15 02. of corbohydrates, 3 of fats, and 3 of proteins, can 
 now have a real meaning. 
 ^ If the interest has been keen in the work outlined, it 
 will be a comparatively easy matter to induce the pupil 
 to weigh up his own average meals, and even, by the aid 
 of data given in the textbooks, to calculate the weights of 
 primary foodstuffs in the dry-weight equivalents of the 
 foods devoured.. The wasteful economy of Americans in 
 their excess meat-eating becomes vitally apparent to the 
 pupil instructed in these ways, and the background has 
 1)een laid for an intelligent study of the books. 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1) 
 1. What are the different classes of nutrients and their 
 
 uses? Con. II, 5, 15, 21; Da. II, 27; Gu. IV, 144; Hu. 
 
 Ill, 21; Je. II, 134; 0-K. Ill, 15; Ov. II, 211; Ei. Ill, 
 
 135. 
 "2; How make a balanced ration from the common foods? 
 
 Con. II, 70 ; Da. II, 36 ; Gu. IV, 147 ; Hu. Ill, 21 ; Je. 
 
 II, 131 ; 0-K. Ill, 63 ; Ov. II, 238 ; Ri. Ill, 166, 243. 
 
 3. What is the value of thoro mastication? Con. II, 
 
 42 ; Dav. II, 56 ; Gu. IV, 153, 166 ; Je. II, 130 ; 0-K. Ill, 
 60 ; Ov. II, 226 ; Ri. Ill, 155. 
 
 4. What conditions favor good digestion? Con. II, 
 
 (Index) ; Da. II, 42, 50; Gu. IV, 166; Je. II, 144; O-K. 
 
 III, 61 ; Ov. II, 222 ; Ri. Ill, 102. 
 
 5. How care for the teeth and mouth? Con. II, 47 ; Dav. 
 
 II, 47. 229 : Gu. II, 76 ; Je. II, 134 ; O-K. I, 181 ; Ov. II, 
 263 ; Ri. HI, 182. 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE ll9 
 
 6. What are the desirable and undesirable beverages? 
 Con. I, 32; Dav. II, 62; Hu. Ill, 69; Je. II, 164; 0-K. 
 Ill, 62 ; Ov. II, 48 ; Ri. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1 } 
 
 II. BLOOD AND LYMPH.— Hr. XXI; H-S. IX, XXI; Wa. 
 XI. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To learn about the parts of the blood, and espe- 
 cially the relation of blood and lymph to germs. 
 
 1. If it is at all possible, a good mounting of blood should 
 
 be made and examined under the low power (xlOO) 
 of a compound microscope. The reason for taking 
 the low rather than the high power ,is because the 
 pupils cannot do their own focusing, and . the low 
 power will fit all eyes more nearly than the high. 
 With the low power the white corpuscles are not 
 readily seen, or made out, and the teacher should 
 give the information that about one in 400 of the 
 little bodies observed is a white corpusle, or little liv- 
 ing germ or protozoan. Nearly all the rest are the 
 so-called red corpuscles, tho under the microscope 
 they seem to be a pale rust color. Attention should 
 also be called to the liquid, or plasma, in which the 
 corpuscles float. 
 
 2. It is desirable that pupils have a first hand knowledge 
 
 of the parts of the blood if one is to make clear the 
 ways in which blood combats disease germs.- To get 
 this knowledge some fresh blood will be needed. 
 Perhaps some pupil at whose house chicken is to be 
 served in a day or two, would bring the chicken to 
 school for decapitation. Before the teacher is ready 
 for the class demonstration, two of the older boys (or 
 the janitor) can take the chicken to the basement or 
 coalshed and perform the needed amputation. The 
 blood from the neck should be collected in a water 
 glass or bottle. At once divide the quantity of blood 
 into three equal parts by pouring into three other 
 vessels such as teacups. Let one cup stand in a warm 
 place, into a second pour a solution of epsom salts 
 (magnesium sulphate), while the third is to be kept 
 stirred constantly for several minutes, or till the 
 threads of fibrin quit forming. Use a fork to do 
 the stirring and wipe the threads from it occasionally 
 if necessary. The blood in cups two and three should 
 
120. GRABEVIU: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 not clot. Of course, all this preparation can be done 
 out of school if deemed wisest. 
 S, The blood in cup one will serve to illustrate the com- 
 mon process of coagulation or blood clotting. That 
 in cup two will show that by the use of chemicals 
 • blood will not clot. This will help make clear how 
 a mosquito fixes things so the wound he makes is not 
 closed up by a clot. 
 
 4. The blood in the third cup should be allowed to stand 
 till the corpuscles and the plasma separate. Let it be 
 explained that plasma is the basis of lymph, and that 
 lymph is fundamentally plasma that has gotten out of 
 the blood capillaries and found its way in among the 
 cells of the tissues. Test the plasma or serum with 
 litmus paper to tell whether it is acid or alkaline. To 
 make these terms clear, there should be at hand a 
 small bottle of hydrochloric acid and one of ammonia. 
 Introduce a piece of paper back and forth in the acid 
 and the ammounia and not the effects on the color of 
 the paper. Ammonia is an akali. 
 
 Kecall what was learned in Grade VI about germs, 
 namely, that most of them require a non-acid (non- 
 sour) medium in which to grow. 
 
 5. In a third receptacle carefully mix a little acid with a 
 
 little ammonia (never mind the white fumes) till the 
 mixture does not change the color* of either the red or 
 the blue litmus paper. This mixture is said to be a 
 neutral one, each substance counteracting the effect 
 of the other. 
 6» It can now be more readily explained that the blood 
 combats germs in at least three ways: 
 
 (a) The white corpuscles eat the germs directly. (See 
 Grade VI, Study III.) 
 
 (b) Sometimes the white corpuscles will not eat the 
 germs till a substance gets into the plasma and 
 comes into contact with the germs and makes 
 them "taste good" to the corpuscles. Such a 
 substance is called an opsonin, and physicians 
 oftea use bacterin to produce it. The corpuscles, 
 may be said to be like children who will not eat 
 meat until mustard is put on it ! 
 
 (c) Again, the genhs sometimes make toxin (poison) 
 which gets into the plasma and is carried over the 
 body to do harm to the organs. To counteract 
 this poison a neutralizing agent, or anti-toxin, 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 121 
 
 must be either developed or put into the plasma. 
 It acts against the poison somewhat as alkalis 
 act against acids. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. About how big is a blood corpuscle, actual size? 
 (Divide the size it seems to be by the number of times 
 the microscope magnifies.) How do you account for 
 the seeming differences in the shapes of the corpuscles 
 since they are all (except the few white corpuscles) 
 the same shape ? 
 
 2-3. Do the corpuscles in Exp. 1 separate from the 
 plasma ? What makes blood clot as you judge from 
 the behavior of that in cup 1 and cup 3 ? 
 
 4-5. How determine whether any liquid is acid, alkaline, 
 or neutral? In which of these conditions is blood 
 plasma? Can ordinary germs live and thrive in 
 plasma or lymph ? 
 
 6. What are the three ways in -^vhich the blood, combats 
 germs? What are three diseases which the blood 
 has to combat in the three ways respectively? 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Studyl) * 
 
 1. What constitute good blood and lymph, and W^hat do 
 
 they do? Con. It, 125; Da. II, 78; Gu. IV, 87, 100; 
 Hu. Ill, 109 ; Je. 11, 88 ; 0-K. HI, 75 ; Ov. II, 88 ; Ei. HI, 
 45. 
 
 2. How do we maintaiii a good supply of good hlood and- 
 
 lymph? Con. I, il6; Da. II, 81; Gu. IV, 95, 96; Je. 
 II, 88 ; O-K. Ill, 89 ; Ov. II, 99 ; Ri. II, 44. 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 m. THE CIRCULATION AND COMMON COLDS.— T'-F. 
 
 P272-280; Hr. XXI; Ho. XH; H-S. IX; XXI; Hu. IV; 
 
 Wa. XI. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. To study directly the pulse-beat, heart action and 
 
 the cause of colds. 
 
 1. Attach to the outgoing end of a bulb of an ordmary 
 syringe a rubber tube of the size of the tubing th^t 
 goes with the syringe, but about two feet long. To 
 the outer end of this long tube attach a nozzle that 
 tapers down to a fine point or opening. Now put the 
 receiving and the discharging ends of this remodeled 
 syringe into a pan of water, sitting on a table, and cov- 
 er the center portion of the long tube with a cloth or 
 towel. Now start the syringe in action and have the 
 
122 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 pupils one by one put their fingers on the cloth over the 
 tube as the pulse waves of water are made to go by. 
 By varying the action of the bulb see if you can develop 
 a "strong pulse", a "weak pulse," a "sharp pulse", a 
 "dull pulse", etc. 
 . 2. Compress the long tube considerably at its middle 
 :• point and not the difference in the pulse-waves in the 
 
 two halves of the tube. 
 ' 3. Keeping exact account of the time it takes to do it 
 drive the water thru the tube by strong, regular pulse- 
 strokes till you have filled a water glass at the dis- 
 charging end. Now take off the long rubber tube and 
 replace it with a glass tube of similar diameter and 
 length, and with the nozzle of the other tube trans- 
 ferred to the glass tube. Again timing the process, 
 fill the glass and note the difference in effort and time. 
 
 4. Next, let each pupil for himself give attention to his 
 
 own pulse-beat by laying the back of the left wrist in 
 the palm of the right hand, bringing the ends of the 
 second and third fingers around till they press over the 
 artery just inside the outer end of the left bone of the 
 left forearm. Consider the character of the pulse- 
 beat, whether weak or strong, sharp and adrupt or 
 flat and gradually swelling, regular or irregular. 
 
 5. Let each pupil count his own pulse-beats for a minute 
 
 under the following conditions : 
 
 (a) After sitting or reclining for ten minutes. 
 
 (b) After standing erect for some minutes. 
 
 (c) Just after running rapidly for a few minutes. 
 
 6. If possible get the pulse frequency of a babe and of an 
 
 elderly person. 
 
 7. Also if possible discover the difference in the character 
 
 and frequency of the pulse-beat of a tobacco smoker 
 when he is smoking and when he has not smoked for 
 ., several hours. 
 
 8. Locate five distinct points over the body, other than the 
 
 wrist, where pulse-beats can be felt. 
 
 , 9. Sit with one lower limb crossed over the other so as to 
 give the foot a chance to bob with the pulsations of 
 blood sent there. Place the fingers of one hand over 
 the big artery in the neck on either side of the voice- 
 box, and note at which point the pulse-beat shows up 
 first, foot or neck. 
 
 10. With the ends of the right hand fingers placed over 
 the space between the fifth and sixth ribs at a point 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE IBS 
 
 about two inches to the left of the breast bone, locate 
 the apex beat of the heart. 
 
 11. With the right hand still in the above position, place 
 
 the finger ends of the left hand on the pulse of the 
 wrist of the right arm, note whether heart-beat or 
 wrist-beat comes first, and decide on the relation be- 
 tween heart-beat and pulse-beat. 
 
 12. While listening to the beating of someone else's heart, 
 
 discover two points of difference in the two sounds 
 that accompany each beat. 
 
 13. If at all convienent, get a sheep's, hog's or beef's 
 
 heart, and cut it open to discover its structure. If 
 you go to a butcher for such a heart, be sure to ask 
 him for a heart "with all the pipes left on it." 
 
 14. Consider why people who do not exercise very much 
 get "fainty" if they climb a long stairway or run for 
 a street car. Boys and girls not used to running very 
 much say they "get out of wind" when they try to 
 run far or fast. Consider whether it is the "wind" or 
 the heart that is in fault. 
 
 15. A race horse's heart is said to be 25 per cent larger 
 than a work horse's heart. A Marathon racer's heart 
 is said to be abnormally large also, and such athletes; 
 often do not live so long as other people who exer- 
 cise moderately. Connect this with the Greek motto, 
 "Nothing in excess." 
 
 16. Return to our own circulation, note the effect of plac- 
 
 ing an index finger across the face of the wrist of the 
 opposite hand and while pressing on the wrist rub 
 the wrist first down and then up. Repeat to discover 
 which way the blood naturally flows in wrist veins. 
 Discover if you can, why the blood can be made to go 
 only in one direction. 
 
 17. We are wanting at this point to find out how heat and 
 
 cold affect the distribution of blood in the body, in 
 order to learn what lies at the basis of catching colds. 
 This experiment calls for a piece of apparatus, such 
 as is pictured below, and such as eighth-grade boys 
 will take pleasure in making as a piece of project 
 work. The apparatus involves the use of a carpenter's 
 "saw horse" and a balancing board about six feet long 
 and fifteen inches wide, more or less. On the under 
 side of the balancing board, at each border, and run- 
 ning the long way of the board there is required a 
 piece of iron fastened to the board, with a broad notch 
 filed at the center of the face opposite the board. 
 
124 
 
 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 Then on the top of the "saw horse" there must be fas- 
 tened down two three-cornered files to form a "knife 
 edge" for the balancing board. When the board is 
 in position there must be hung, by wires from each 
 corner of the board, a box to contain bricks or iron 
 enough to bring the center of gravity just beloAv the 
 knife edge when the pupil is lying on the board. 
 
 When the apparatus is ready for use, v, e must first 
 put in a warm room (the warmer the better) and 
 let a good healthy boy or girl who does not easily 
 catch cold, balance himself or herself on it as shown, 
 at the same time using the foot block to mark the 
 exact place of lying. This block can be held in place 
 in various ways, — by driving nails into it belov/, if 
 no other convenient way offers. Put a corresponding 
 block at the head of the pupil, and secure any final 
 balancing by the addition of small weights at either 
 end. At best, there will be a slight teetering due 
 to breathing, the diaphram thrusting the abdominal 
 contents back and forth somewhat. 
 
 This done satisfactorily, take the whole apparatus 
 out of doors on a cold day and let the same pupil lie 
 there till he gets appreciably cold. If the apparatus 
 meanwhile gets out of balance, use a spring hand scale 
 to pull it into balance, placing the hook on one side 
 of the board at a point just opposite the center of the 
 breast bone of the pupil. Note the reading of the 
 scale when the board is just brought into balance. 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 125 
 
 What has happened is that the blood that was in the 
 skin and near the surface of the body has partly left 
 the surface and collected in the large blood vessels 
 around the heart and in the lungs, as well as elsewhere 
 in the deeper parts of the body. Find out the meaning 
 of the word "congestion" from your dictionary. 
 
 Possibly it might work out better to first balance 
 a boy or girl who cOmes to school cold and then to 
 bring the apparatus on the inside and get the warm 
 balance later. 
 
 18. If you have ever had (or now have) a boil or other 
 
 similar sore spot, consider whether it was (or is) 
 warmer than other corresponding spots. Consider 
 whether the spot was (or is) puffed out or swollen 
 more than common, and redder as well as more pain- 
 ful than usual. Get from your dictionary a good 
 difinition of the word inflammation. Carefully note 
 the pronunciation of the word, also. 
 
 Remembering that inflamations are generally due 
 to the presence of germs, consider why nature should 
 bring a good deal of blood to the infected spot. 
 
 19. As a background for the undertaking of colds we 
 
 need to know the difference between what is known 
 as active congestion and what is known as passive 
 congestion. To understand the first, take an ordinary 
 sjTinge bulb and pump it very fast and see how the 
 delivery tube becomes congested. To understand the 
 second, pump slowly this time, but narrow the outlet 
 of the delivery tube by pinching it down to a email 
 opening near the end. 
 
 20. Cold drafts or chilling surroundings are the means by 
 
 which active internal congestion is set up in the 
 human creature. If germs for colds are present in 
 the breahting passeges, the abundant blood straining 
 the capillaries makes easy the coming of a lot of 
 white corpuscles to the surface of the air passages. 
 These, in turn devour the many germs and develop 
 the matter that stuffs one up when one has a cold. 
 To counteract this sort of cold, one needs to have one's 
 system trained to throw back the blood to the surface. 
 Consider the effect of cold baths in the morning, of 
 exercise, of exposure to varying temperatures thru 
 the day for such a training. 
 
 21. Passive congestion in the human body is caused by an 
 
 unusual accumulation of germs along the air passages. 
 As the white corpuscles now travel out to devour the 
 
126 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 germs, they impede the flow of blood in the capil- 
 laries, and secure a congestion of blood in a passive 
 way. Presently the same condition results as in No. 
 20. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. How are the pulse-waves in arteries to be explained? 
 
 2. Why are there practically no pulse-waves in veins? 
 
 3. How does Exp. 3 show that "hardening of the arter- 
 
 ies" increases the work of the heart (raises blood- 
 pressure) and often results in paralysis from broken 
 blood vessels in the brain. Since the four S's (stuf- 
 fing, strain, spirits, syphilis) are common causes of 
 hardened arteries, how could many people prolong 
 their lives and their usefulness? 
 4-7. What different conditions may account for difference 
 in the rate of people's pulse-beats? 
 
 8. Where are five or more spots where pulse-beats may 
 be counted? 
 
 9. How account for the facts observed in Exp. 9? 
 
 10. What makes the heart kick out against the chest in 
 
 its apex beat? (Consider the heart's relation to the 
 aorta, and why a garden hose tends to straighten out 
 when forced full of water.) 
 
 11. How does Exp. 11 show the heart as the cause of pulse- 
 
 beat? 
 
 12. How account for the two different sounds made by the 
 
 heart? 
 
 13. What are the important parts of the heart and what 
 
 is the course of the blood thru it? 
 
 14. What is the real difficulty when one seems to "get out 
 
 of wind" thru exertion? 
 
 15. Why not try to become a Marathon racer? 
 
 16. In what direction does the blood naturally flow on 
 
 the surface of the wrist? Why can it not go the other 
 way? 
 
 17. If cold on the surface of the body drives blood in, what 
 
 shold be the effct and the value of inhaling cold air? 
 Since alcoholic drinks drive blood to the skin, how 
 can they temporarily benefit colds? Is not the cure 
 ultimately worse than the disease ? 
 
 18. What are the four characteristics of an inflammation? 
 
 Since an inflammation is called an "itis", what is rhin- 
 itis, laryngitis, trachitis, bronchitis, pulmonitis? 
 19.-20. What do the syringe bulb and the delivery tube 
 correspond to ? The narrowed outlet of the delivery 
 
GRADE VIII: HUAIAN-BODY HYGIENE 127 
 
 tube? What causes active congestion? Passive con- 
 gestion? Why do one's cheeks get so red on a cold 
 day? Why does not the whole body get red simi- 
 larly? 
 21. Why may one readily get a cold if he patronizes bad- 
 ly ventilated and crowded halls? How should the 
 continuous breathing of air that is warm and dry af- 
 fect the mucous lining of the air passages, and what 
 would naturally happen if one is exposed to germs of 
 cold? Why are those people whose nasal passages 
 are somewhat stopped up by adenoids or irregular 
 bones, more liable to colds than other people? How 
 is it that if one works in a very dusty place, as around 
 a threshing machine, he is particularly liable to colds ? 
 
 Study the Books. (See also GradeV, Study 1) 
 
 1. What is the pulse and its meaning? — Con. H, 109 ; Da. 
 
 n, 88; Gu. IV, 81; Hu. HI, 115; Je. H, 48; Ov. 
 n, 97 ; Ei. HI, 42. 
 
 2. How keep the heart sound and strong? — Con. H, 119 ; 
 
 Da. n, 81; Gu. IV, 62; Hu. Ill, 120; Je. II, 53; 
 0-K. Ill, 83 ; Ov. II, 95, 101 ; Ri. Ill, 46. 
 
 3. What are common colds and how avoid the? — Con. 
 n, 248; Da. II, 129; Gu. IV, 209; Hu. Ill, 154; Je. II, 
 
 199; 0-K. Ill, 64; Ov. II, 357; Ri. Ill, 79. 
 
 Wrinting up the Notebook— (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 IV. THE AIR, BREATHING, AND SPEAKING.— Ai. V; 
 F-F. I; Hr. XXII; H-S. X; Ly. I, 5; Te. Xll, XIX; 
 Wa. VI. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach. 
 
 AIM. — To gain sense-experience from studies of air and 
 breathing. 
 
 1. With a good thermometer take the temperature of 
 
 the air of the room and then, with the mouth well 
 opened, exhale air from the lungs on the thermometer 
 bulb, and note which way the mercury column moves. 
 
 2. Exhale the breath as in above case, but this time 
 
 against a piece of window glass or mirror. 
 
 3. Fill a washpan, or other shallow pan, half full of water 
 
 and on it float a flat cork that is about two inches 
 across and half an inch thick. Insert the broken 
 end of a half match in the center of the cork so that 
 the match head will ride about an inch above the cork. 
 
128 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 Hold an inverted water glass (the less sloping the 
 sides the better) in one hand near the match head, 
 and with a lighted match in the other hand, set fire 
 to the floating match and instantly cover the float- 
 ing cork and match with the glass, its rim resting on 
 the bottom of the pan. After the flame dies out, raise 
 the glass till its rim is just under the surface of the wa-' 
 ter in the pan, cover the mouth of the glass with a piece 
 of pasteboard by passing it under the water and pres- 
 sing it snugly up against the rim of the inverted cup, 
 and now turn the cup right side up, still keeping the 
 pasteboard lid closely oii. Ordinary air is a mixture of 
 several gases, that now in the eup being mostly a 
 gas called nitrogen. Note the relative quantities of 
 water and of pitrpgen in the glass. The flame used 
 up a gas called oxygen that was in the cup at first, 
 and the water came in to take its place. 
 
 4. Slip tlie pasteboard off the glass of nitrogen and water, 
 and insert a burning match again and see what hap- 
 pensw Replace the pasteboard cover. 
 
 5. Put a grasshopper or other insect under the paste- 
 
 board and keep the card tightly held down for a few 
 minutes„ Take another glass with just as much water 
 in it and cover with pasteboard after introducing a 
 cork such as in the first glass^ Put a similar insect 
 , ,in. the first glass also^ , Watch xesulta for several, min- 
 utes. If the insect in the first glass "keels over", take 
 it out at once and see wha.t .happens if it is kept in 
 ^ood air for a while. 
 
 6. Repeat Exp. 3 but before covering the flame of the 
 
 floating match, see that the glass is filled with exhaled 
 air. It can be kept inby holding a cardboard over it 
 till just ready to cover the flame. Compare the wa- 
 ter that came in this time with the iquantity which 
 came in during Exp. 3. Let stand for Exp. 7. 
 
 7. Slack some fresh lime in a big bottle of cistern water 
 
 and let stand till there is clear lime water on top. 
 Deftly pour this clear lime water into a bottle by it- 
 self. Now take two clear bottles holding about a pint 
 each and fill one with ordinary air and the other 
 with exhaled air. Now put a teaspoonful of limevsr'a- 
 ter in each of these bottles, shake and note the color 
 of the water in each. A gas called carbon dioxid is 
 the only ordinary gas that will turn lime-water milky 
 white. 
 
 8. Take a small bottle and put a little lime-water in it. 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN BODY HYGIENE 129 
 
 Now insert a glass tube and blow thru it, making 
 "bubbles" in the lime-water. See if by keeping up 
 the blowing you can clear up the milky water that 
 iirst resulted. 
 9. Take two saucers of water and put a small piece of 
 stick sodium hydroxide in the center of each. The 
 piece should be about as big as the last joint of 
 the little finger. Over one saucer invert a glass with 
 ordinary air in it and over the other invert a similar 
 glass with exhaled air in it. Potassium hydroxide 
 absorbs or takes up the gas carbon dioxid, and water 
 comes in to take its place. 
 
 10. If the teacher has studied chemistry, she may well 
 
 make a carbon dioxid generator and collect some 
 pure carbon dioxid. This gas can now be studied as 
 to its appearance, its ability to extinguish a burning 
 match, to make an insect "keel over" if introduced 
 into the gas, etc. 
 
 11. In Undertaking this experiment it will be necessary 
 
 to provide a lung tester or spirometer, such as is des- 
 cribed in the first of the nature-study lessons in Grade 
 V, and shoTvn also in the accompanying zinc etching. 
 The pupil should note that after taking in an ordinary 
 breath (Tidal air) he can still take in more air (Com- 
 plemental air.) He should not further that after 
 giving off an ordinary breath, he can give off still 
 more air (Supplemental air). These three capaci- 
 ties make up what is known as one's Vital capacity. 
 Even after expelling all the air one can, there are still 
 about 100 cu. in. of air left in the lungs (Residual 
 air). 
 
 12. Fill the lungs as full as possible and then exhale into a 
 
 lung-tester (spirometer) all one can. Read and re- 
 cord the volume of your vital capacity. 
 
 13. Just after taking in an ordinary breath, exhale into 
 
 the spirometer all one can. Record this result and 
 subtract it from the result in Exp. 12. Determine 
 v/hich of the capacities this gives one. 
 
 14. Just after giving off an ordinary breath exhale into 
 
 the spirometer as much as can possibly be done. Re- 
 cord the volume and decide on which capacity this 
 gives one. Now subtract this volume from that got- 
 ten in Exp. 13 and decide on which of the capaci- 
 ties this gives. 
 
 15. With a tape line take the circumference of the chest 
 
 when all the air possible has been expelled from the 
 
130 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 lungs. Take the measurement again whien the lungs 
 have been fully inflated. Find the difference be- 
 tween the two measurements and record it. 
 
 16. Take a pint or a quart bottle with its bottom broken 
 
 out and stopper removed. Place this bottle so that 
 its bottom is just under the surface of the water. 
 Hold a burning match at the bottle's mouth as you 
 thrust the bottle farther down in the water and as 
 you quietly bring it up again. Discover from this 
 what makes the air come into and go out of the lungs. 
 
 17. Breathe by using the muscles of the lower half of 
 
 the trunk only (diaphragm and abdominal muscles) 
 inhaling and exhaling several times as you consider 
 the nature of what is known as Abdominal Breathing. 
 
 18. Breathe by using the muscles of the upper half only 
 
 of the trunk (the rib muscles) inhaling and exhaling 
 several times while considering the nature of what is 
 known as Chest breathing. 
 
 19. If one wants to increase one's lung capacity appre- 
 
 ciably, it can be done best by combining the two me- 
 thods of breathing just described. 
 
 20. By careful observation discover the number of times 
 
 one breathes per minute (a) while sitting quietly, 
 and (b) just after running or climbing stairs, etc. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1.-2. How does the temperature of inhaled air compare 
 with that of exhaled air? The moisture? 
 
 3. Why did the match burn as long as it did under the 
 
 glass and why did it at last go out? Why did the 
 water rise in the glass? What proportion of oxygen 
 does your experiment show to be in air? What pro- 
 portion or nitrogen? Of course this experiment is 
 not an accurate one because the air around the flame 
 was highly heated and as it cooled it let more wa- 
 ter up in the glass than the oxygen alone would 
 account for. When carefully done experiment shov/s 
 that there is one-fifth of oxygen in the air and four- 
 fifths of nitrogen, or nearly so, 
 
 4. Why did not the match burn in this experiment? 
 
 5. Why did the insect "keel over" in the one case and 
 not the other? 
 
 6. Why do you think the flame went out quicker this 
 time and why did less water enter the glass? 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 131 
 
 1. Does exhaled air contain ca:rbon- dioxid? Inhaled 
 air? 
 
 8. Since milky water like that in this experiment can 
 
 be cleared up by mixing carbon dioxid gas with it, 
 what additional evidence have we here that exhaled 
 air has carbon dioxid in it? 
 
 9. How much carbon dioxid does this experiment shov/ 
 
 to be in inhaled air? 
 
 10. Adapt question to suit. Now sum up by giving four 
 respects in which exhaled air differs from inhaled 
 air? 
 11.-14. How do your various breathing capacities compare 
 with those of your class mates? 
 
 15. How does your chest measure and expansion com- 
 
 pare with those of your class mates? 
 
 16. How do we breathe, that is, get air into and out of 
 
 our lungs? 
 
 17.-19. Why should the mixt type of breathing be the best 
 type? 
 20. Why is it necessary for one to breathe oftener when 
 exercising ? 
 
 Study the Books.. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. When is the air good and when is it bad? — Con. H, 
 
 150; Da. H, 98, 103; Gu. I, 6 ; Hu. HI, 135; Je. 
 H, 118; 0-K. HI, 113; Ov. H, 134; Ri. HI, 46. 
 
 2. How breathe to ventilate the lungs and interchange 
 the gases? — Con. H, 139; Da. II, 96; Gu. IV, 126; 
 Hu. Ill, 139; Je. II, 110; 0-K. Ill, 125; Ov. II, 
 116; Ri. Ill, 30. 
 
 3. What are five reasons for breathing through the nose? 
 
 —Con. II, 132; Da. II, 96, 104; Gu. I, 134; Je. I, 
 134 ; 0-K. Ill, 125 ; Ov. II, 263 ; Ri. Ill, 70. 
 
 4. What are adenoids and other obstructions to free 
 breathing? — Con. II, 133; Da. II, 109, 178; Je. II, 
 114; 0-K. Ill, 127; Ov. II, 156; Ri. Ill, 71. 
 
 5. How make the voice box an instrument for pleasing 
 
 speech?— Con. II, 135; Da. II, 100; 0-K. Ill, 134; 
 Ov. II, 120. 
 
 6. How keep the lungs sound and effective? — Con. I, 
 
 147; Da. II, 103; Gu. IV, 124, 186; Hu. Ill, 139; 
 Je. II, 116; 0-K. Ill, 123; Ov. II, 144; Ri. Ill, 58. 
 
 Writing up the Notebook. (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
132 GRADE VIII:, HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 V. BODY WASTES, VENTILATION AND HEAT-CON- 
 TROL.— Dr. XI, XIII,, XIV; F-F. Ill; Hr. XXII; H-S. 
 X, XI, XII, XXIV, XXV; XVIII; H-T. VII; Ly. II, 
 Wa. X. 
 
 The .Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To gain insight into the fundamentals of body- 
 wastes, ventilation, and heat-control. 
 
 1. The forms of body wastes. 
 
 a The major forms of waste,^carbon dioxid, water 
 and urea. 
 Make the will known limewater test for carbon 
 dioxid in breath. Expel the breath against a cold 
 looking glass; Secure for examination a commer- 
 cial sample of urea (nitrogenous waste formed 
 in the liver and sorted out of the blood by the 
 kidneys), or boil down a sample of urine till it 
 gets somewhat thick and then let stand till crys- 
 tals, of urea form. Strain out and dry. 
 
 b The minor forms of waste, — bile and feces. 
 
 Examine a specimen of bile from a chicken's liver 
 (bile is part waste). Refer to waste from undi- 
 gested food stuffs in the alimentary canal which 
 is fed upon by myriads of bacteria, especially if 
 excess protein is eaten, and converted into body 
 toxins (poisons). 
 
 2. Waste elimination. 
 
 a Recall the lesson of the pupil's experiences in Study 
 IV, Exp. 7. 
 
 b Consider! how concretions and crystals may form in 
 the bladder unless bladder elimination is complete. 
 
 c Headache being usually due to toxins in the blood, 
 consider how these may arise in case of constipa- 
 tion. 
 
 3. Secure a specimen of a hog's or beef's kidney, cut it 
 in halves the flat way, and examine its interior to see 
 pyramids made of numerous little drainage canals 
 that carry the water and other wastes off from the 
 blood. See also the outlet of the kidney that leads off 
 to the place of storage for kidney secretions (to the . 
 bladder). 
 
 4. Because the human body perspires only when it needs 
 
 to get rid of heat, the study of the evaporation of 
 moisture becomes important. Take two saucers or 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 133 
 
 other like shallow vessels, put two or three drops of 
 water in each, keep them in a moderately warm 
 room, fan one of them so as to keep the air in motion 
 over it, and note the time it takes the water in each to 
 evaporate. 
 5. To study an important effect of evaporation, take an 
 ordinary dairy thermometer and insert its mercury 
 bulb in a 10c bottle of ether, and let stand for a few 
 moments. Now take the themometer out and take 
 its reading quickly and thus watch what the mer- 
 cury column does while the ether evaporates from the 
 bulb after removing it from the ether, noting the dif- 
 ference in the rate of movement of the mercury col- 
 umn. Now pour some ether on the hand and see what 
 you experience as the ether evaporates. 
 
 For this and the following experiments there will be 
 needed some such appartus as the ones shown in the 
 accompanying picture and zinc etching. The box 
 cabinet should not be too big, that is, the sides of the 
 box should be reasonably close up to the body of the 
 pupil. Let a pupil adjust himself as shown, take a 
 palm leaf fan in with him, and close the door. Of 
 course the box should be as nearly air-tight as is con- 
 veniently possible. If the general room temperature 
 
134 
 
 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 is 68 degrees F., and the pupil remains in for ten 
 minutes, the temperature should come up to 75 de- 
 grees, or such a matter, (as shown by a thermometer 
 thrust thru a suitable hole in the cabinet) and the pu- 
 pil now reports discomfort. At this point let some 
 one fan his face for a minute, to be followed by his 
 fanning his body vigorously on the inside of the cab- 
 inet, being careful to pull the clothing as much as pos- 
 sible to keep it from sticking to his body. Consider 
 the relief afforded by the two tannings respectively, 
 while carefully taking the temperature of the inside 
 of the cabinet again. Consider further why the sec- 
 ond fanning makes it cooler on the inside than it 
 really is. Make very sure that the pupil gets a good 
 chance to smell the air of the cabinet as he ducks 
 his head into it on his way out, and decides on the 
 source of the odor, namely, unclean bodies and cloth- 
 ing. 
 
 Ventilation Experiments 
 
 After airing the cabinet out thoroly let a pupil 
 reenter the cabinet but this time let him get entirely 
 on the inside of it, the head hole having been covered 
 with a board. When he has staid in there as long 
 as he reasonably can, that is, till it seems very uncom- 
 fortable, let him again fan the air vigorously, and then 
 see what difference it makes in his ability to stay long- 
 er. 
 
 After again airing out the cabinet, lay it on its side 
 and arrange some sort of a cot for the pupil to lie on 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 135 
 
 SO he can stick his head conveniently into the cabinet 
 this time, his body being on the outside, and the 
 room temperature not being over 68 degrees or 70 
 degrees. Keep track of the time till the pupil really 
 finds it uncomfortable to breathe the air in the cab- 
 inet. Calculate the volume of the cabinet in cubic 
 feet and also that of the room, and then determine 
 how long the boy could stay in the schoolroom with- 
 out a change of air, and how long all the pupils could 
 stay there similarly, that is, till they have put in car- 
 bon dioxid and taken out oxygen as long as they can 
 stand it. 
 
 An even more convenient device is to take a paste- 
 board box about a foot each way, provide a hole for 
 the neck on one side, and place over the head, as shown 
 on one of the pupils in the accompanying illustration. 
 9. Take an empty cigar box with its cover still on, bore 
 two holes in the lid, an inch or more apart, and each 
 an inch in diameter. Place a short lighted candle 
 under one of the holes, close the lid tightly, and then 
 over each of the holes set a separate lamp chimney, 
 or a pasteboard tube an inch or so in diameter and 
 six inches long. Now by means of smoke from an 
 extinguished match, discover which way the air is 
 moving at the top of the chimney. 
 
 Similarly, if the weather is cool outside, open the 
 window sash two inches at the bottom and as much 
 at the top, and try smoke at each opening to see which 
 way the air currents run. 
 
 10. Recall or renew the studies of the ventilation cabinet 
 
 to make clear tb.it the surface of the body is a great 
 scavenger field for germs of decay. 
 
 Recall or renew the balanced board study for colds 
 to show the effects of various baths on the circula- 
 tion of the blood and upon the training of the heat- 
 regulating mechanism of the body. 
 
 11. Uniform body temperature. 
 
 (a) How the body gains heat. 
 
 Recall the effect of muscular exercises on body 
 temperature. Carefully pour some sulphuric 
 acid into a test tube of water to show how chem- 
 ical action results in the liberation of heat. All 
 glandular and muscular action are chemical 
 action. 
 
 (b) How the body looses heat. 
 
 Illustrate with experiment how heat is trans- 
 
136 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 ferred by conduction. 
 
 Illustrate by experiment how heat is transferred 
 by convection. 
 
 Illustrate by experment how heat is tranf erred by 
 radiation. 
 
 Recall or reproduce the ventilation study with 
 ether to show how evaporation is a cooling pro- 
 cess, 
 (c) Keeping the temperature uniform. (See H-S's 
 great chapter on "Thermal Phenomena.") 
 12. Recall or renew the studies of clothing in Grade VI. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. What are the character and appearance of the forms 
 
 of body waste respectively? 
 
 2. Why is it important that each of the forms of waste 
 
 respectively should be eliminated from the body? 
 
 3. What are the reasons for regarding the kidneys as the 
 
 most important of the organs of elimination? 
 
 4. What have you learned from Experiment 4 ? How 
 
 would it affect that rate of evaporation if the air of 
 the room were already damp? Why does one feel 
 warmer on hot damp days than on hot dry days? 
 
 5. What is the effect of evaporation on the temperature 
 
 of the surroundings? Why does the fanning make the 
 mecury column fall faster? 
 
 6. Why does the pupil get warm and sweaty in this ex- 
 periment? Why does the fanning help at all ? Why 
 does the body fanning ordinarily help give relief even 
 more than the face fanning? Why did the second 
 fanning seem to make it cooler than the thermometer 
 really showed? Suppose one staid in the cabinet till 
 the air inside all became saturated with sweat, would 
 the fanning then give relief? Whence came the bad 
 odor of the cabinet air? 
 
 7. If the pupil can stay in the cabinet still longer because 
 
 of his fanning the air, what does this show as to the 
 first need for ventilating a room ? On account of the 
 odor of the room or cabinet, what is the second most 
 important reason for ventilating a room ? Why should 
 people bathe? 
 
 8. What do you learn from Experiment 8 is the third im- 
 portant reason that a living room should be ventilated? 
 How long could all the pupils stay in your unventilated 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 137 
 
 school room till the air would just have to be re- 
 renewed? Why should one be careful to have a bed- 
 room window open at night? 
 9. Can you explain how the air may be made -to circu- 
 late in a room? Under what condition would the air 
 of the room need only to be stirred? Under what 
 condition is it necessary to have the air renewed? 
 
 10. What lessons in skin hygiene come from the experi- 
 
 ments referred to? 
 
 11. How does the body gain and how lose heat? Since 
 the liver is the warmest organ in the body (107 
 degrees F.), how must its chemical work compare 
 with that of other organs? How does the body keep 
 to 98 degrees F. normally when the surrounding air 
 is over 100 degrees F.? When it is between 98 
 and 70 degrees? When it is 70 to 60 degrees? When 
 it is below 60 degrees? 
 
 12. Why is properly woven cotton underwear better than 
 
 woolen underwear for folks who are active ? 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V. Study 1 ) 
 
 1. How do wastes and toxins arise in the body? Con. II, 
 227 ; Da. II, 113 ; Gu. IV, 160 ; Hu. Ill, 18 ; Je. II. 152 ; 
 0-K. IV, 191; Ov. II, 166; Ri. Ill, 154. 
 
 3. Why are the kidneys the most important organs of 
 
 elimination? Con. II, 229; Da. II, 21, 114; Gu. IV, 
 146, 178 : Hu. Ill, 199 ; Je. II, 172 ; 0-K. IV, 187 ; Ov. 
 II, 173 ; Ri. Ill, 159. 
 
 4. How does perspiring aid in heat-regulation? Con. 
 
 II, 242; Da. II, 127; Gu. IV, 206, 216; Je. II, 197; 
 0-K. Ill, 159; Ov. II, 24, 154, 164; Ri. HI, 85. 
 
 5. Why and how ventilate living rooms? Con. II, 150; 
 
 Da. II, 107; Hu. Ill, 144; Ri. Ill, 60. 
 
 6. Why bathe for cleanliness and to counteract colds? 
 
 Con. ir, 247 ; Da. II, 119 ; Gu. Ill, 66 ; Hu. Ill, 184 ; Je. 
 II, 201 ; Ov. II, 166 ; Ri. Ill, 78, 87. 
 
 7. How does the body naturally keep a nearly uniform 
 
 temperature? Con. „ 238; Da. II, 117; Je. II, 202; 
 O-K. HI,. 1591 Ov. II, 152; Ri. IH, 84 
 8 How does clothing serve as an artificial aid to heat 
 regulations? Con. II, 252 ; Dav. II, 127 ; Hu. $11, 171 ; 
 Je. II, 204; 0-K. Ill, 165; Ov. II, 155; Ri. HI, 87. 
 
 Writing up the Notehook. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
138 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 VI. BONES, JOINTS, AND LEVERS.— Dr. II; Ho. VIII; 
 Hr. XVIII ; H-S. V ; Ly. II, 2 ; Te. V. 
 
 Aim. — To learn from the body and from specimens some 
 important facts about the skeletal system 
 
 1. By feeling the parts, find out how many different bones 
 
 in each of the following organs: (a) fingers and free 
 part of thumb, (b) palm of the hand, (c) the fore- 
 arm, (e) the shoulder, (f) the head, (g) the chest, 
 (h) the hips, (i) the thigh, (j) the leg, (k) the arch 
 of the foot, (i) the toes. 
 
 2. By a re-examination distinguish the four different 
 
 shapes of bones to be found in the body and which 
 sort is most numerous and which least so. 
 
 3. If possible obtain from the butcher a fresh bone of the 
 
 form that is several times longer than wide, and saw 
 it in two lengthwise. Obtain a similar dry bone and 
 saw it in two likewise. (Chicken bones will do, but 
 larger bones will be better.) From an examination 
 of these specimens be able to describe the following 
 parts ; covering, compact bone, spongy bone, red mar- 
 row, fatty marrow, and medullary cavity. 
 
 4. Into a wide-mouthed bottle, put a piece of limestone 
 
 or marble and pour over it a 20 per cent solution of 
 muriatic acid. Into another bottle put a reasonably 
 fresh drum stick of a chicken and cover it also with a 
 20 per cent solution of muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. 
 Let both stand for a day. Upon re-examining both 
 experiments, decide what has happened to the chicken 
 bone. 
 
 5. Obtain a hip joint of a pig or other animal from the 
 butcher. If the outer sheath-like covering (capsular 
 ligament) is still on, examine it to see how the point 
 is protected. Now remove the capsular ligament and 
 note the smooth coverings of the bone ends. Examine 
 the cartilage to see how it differs in at least three ways 
 from compact bone. Let the pupil further verify one 
 of these differences by superficially experimenting 
 with the cartilages of the nose and ears. 
 
 6. Find in the above specimen certain white cords (liga- 
 
 ments) that help to tie the bones together. Separate 
 one of these out and see how a ligament differs from 
 cartilage. and from bone. Also find any similar white 
 cord (tendon) that was fastenecl at one end to the 
 bone and at the dther to a muscle. Let the pupil feel 
 
GRADE VIII : HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 139 
 
 behind his own knee to discover two such tendons, and 
 to make out what they are for. 
 
 We are accustomed to describe different kinds of joints 
 by the motions they permit. If the motion is like a 
 hinge, as in the knee, it is called a hinge joint. If it 
 is two nearly flat surfaces that slip over each other, 
 as in the knee cap, it is a gliding joint. If it turns 
 on a pivot, as in the neck, it is a pivot joint. If 
 it permits a cone-like motion, and also lets one 
 bone rotate or twist on the other, as in the should- 
 er joint, it is a true ball-and-socket joint. If it per- 
 mits a cone-like motion but does not let one bone 
 turn or twist on another, as in the wrist joint, it is a 
 false ball-and-socket joint. Now proceed to find over 
 the body other examples of these joints, as follows: 
 
 (a) 22 hinge joints. 
 
 (b) 48 gliding joints. 
 
 (c) 2 pivot joints. 
 
 (d) 21 false ball-and-socket joints. 
 
 In attempting to find these joints, note that there is a 
 joint between the wrist ends of the arm bones, and 
 two different kinds of joints at each elbow. Also ex- 
 amine two dry specimens of immediately neighboring 
 vertebrae to find where so many gliding joints can 
 come in. 
 
 If teacher and pupils are particularly ambitious, it is 
 possible to illustrate many important facts about the 
 frameworke of the body by using the skeleton of a cat 
 or other small animal. "To prepare the skeleton, 
 kill the mammal by chloroforming it, skin it, remove 
 the "insides" with out injuring the breast bone, and 
 cut off all the flesh possible with knife and scissors. 
 Then boil the animal for a short while in the following 
 mixture : water, 2 quarts ; ammonia, 2 ounces ; salt- 
 peter, one-half ounce ; laundry soap, 3 ounces. Boil 
 the skeleton until the muscles have softened but the 
 ligaments still hold together. It might be well to 
 take the head and limbs off before boiling. To pre- 
 vent the vertebral column from going to pieces, the 
 vertebrae should have a wire run thru where the 
 spinal cord is before the boiling has proceeded very 
 far. With patience any pupil may make an excel- 
 lent preparation of a skeleton."^Hartman. 
 Study the different forms of levers shown m Chapter 
 VIII, and find other examples of each kind of lever m 
 the -iunjan. skeleton. . r 
 
140 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. How many bones do you discover in each of the or- 
 
 gans which you were directed to study? 
 
 2. What and where are the four sorts of bones as to 
 shape? 
 
 3. What is your description of bone covering, compact 
 bone, spongy bone, red marrow, fatty marrow, and 
 medullary cavity? 
 
 4. What part of the chicken bone was dissolved by the 
 
 acid and why did it not all dissolve ? 
 
 5. What are the important parts of a joint and how 
 
 does it work so easily? 
 
 6. How does a ligament differ from a tendon, from bone, 
 
 and from cartilage? 
 
 7. What are the locations of the joints called for above? 
 
 8. How does your animal skeleton differ from a human 
 skeleton? 
 
 9. Where in the human skeleton are all the examples of 
 the three, classes of levers you can locate?" 
 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. How keep the bones in good condition? — Con. H, 200, 
 
 213 : Da. H, 133 ; Gu. IV, H, 37 ; Hu. HI, 229 ; 0-K. 
 HI, 126; Ov. n, 164; Ri. HI, 16. 
 
 2. How care for injured and broken bones? — Con. H, 
 
 199 ; Da. H, 139 ; Gu. H, 39 ; Je. I, 186 ; Ov. H, 72 ; Ri. 
 HI, 23. 
 
 3. How maintain good joints and care for sprains? — Con. 
 
 213; Da. II, 140; Gu. II, 39; Hu. Ill, 238; Je. II, 271, 
 92 ; Ov. II, 65 ; Ri. Ill, 225. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book, (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 VII. MUSCLES, POSTURE, EXERCISE, FATIGUE.— Ban. 
 I-XXVI; F-F. IV; H-S. V, XVH; Mo. II; Te. VII; Wa. IV, V. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 Aim. — To secure direct acquaintance with the funda- 
 mentals of the genera,l topic. 
 
 1. Secure a whole muscle with its tendons from a chicken 
 
 or other small animal, and let each pupil discover 
 the difference between the body of the muscle and 
 its tendons, and how the tendon connects with both 
 the muscle body and the bone. 
 
 2. Take a specimen of boiled beef and examine its make 
 
 up of bundles of muscle tissue about as big across as 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 141 
 
 a match stem. Now take one of these bundles and 
 pick from it the tiniest possible thread, at least as 
 small as a fiber of cotton or wool. Such a thread, 
 if examined under a microscope would be found to 
 consist of several still finer threads called muscle 
 fibers. 
 
 3. The teacher should send to the American Posture 
 
 League, So. Church St., New York City, for a chart 
 of postures. She should then apply to all her pupils 
 the "tripple test" for postures as described in Miss 
 Bancroft's "The Postures of School Children". Now 
 make out a posture diagram for each pupil and de- 
 vise exercises for correcting the imperfections, if any. 
 Follow out Miss Bancroft's suggestions for stimulat- 
 ing the class to continue improvements. See also 
 Grade V, Study 6. 
 
 4. After having been comparatively quiet for a time, 
 count your pulse beat and breathing frequency per 
 minute, and take note of your temperature, blood dis- 
 tribution, perspiration, and the quantity of air you na- 
 turally breathe at a breath. Now make a quick run 
 for a tenth to a fifth of a mile, or around a city block, 
 and then at once re-examine yourself on all points 
 listed above. 
 
 5. Observe the veins on the palm side of your wrist. 
 
 Across the wrist next to the palm, lay the index finger 
 of the other hand and pressing on the wrist, move 
 the finger toward the elbow so as to force the blood 
 in the veins that way. Note how the veins seem to 
 have been emptied of blood. Now place the finger 
 at the middle of the fore arm and try to force the 
 blood slowly back to the palm. Note how the blood 
 backs up and in a few spots seems to form knot-like 
 appearances in the vein (the places of valves) . 
 
 6. Having at hand a wash basin full of water, place in 
 
 it two wash cloths or sponges that have just been 
 soaked with dirty water. Squeeze one of these re- 
 peatedly and then remove both and compare the 
 cleanliness of the two. 
 
 7. In the accompanying illustration is a picture of a fa- 
 
 tigue apparatus and in Chapter VIII is a diagram of 
 the apparatus, which any enterprising eighth grade 
 boy can make. Part 1 is a board 6 x 18 inches and 
 a half to a whole inch thick. Part 2 is a similar board 
 to which a paper is fastened with thumb tacks on 
 which the fatigue record is to be made. Parts 3, 4, 
 
142 
 
 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 5, and 6 are sticks 1 x 1 x 18 inches nailed to part 1 
 as shown. Part 7 is a stick 1x8 inches to carry a 
 recording pencil running thru a hole in No. 7, and a 
 slot in No. 1. It carries a small potato on its upper end 
 to give weight enough to make a mark. Part 8 is a 
 board 1x3x8 inches set up edgeways and pivoted at 
 the right-hand end, the other end being tied to neigh- 
 boring parts so as to hold the back of the hand in the 
 right position for taking the fatigue record. Part 
 9 is a spool serving as a pulley to carry the bucket 
 of pound weights (part 10). Part 11 is a little wind- 
 las apparatus made of very heavy wire for wind- 
 ing a string that runs thru a steeple on part 1 and 
 to the outer end of part 2. While the experiment is 
 in progress the windlass is to be slowly turned so as to 
 cause part 2 to move slowly under part 1. 
 
 Fatigue Apparatus In Use. 
 
 In the experiment itself, the one whose record is 
 to be taken sits by the apparatus, his right hand be- 
 tween parts 3 and 8, his elbow resting along part 3. 
 Tie part 8 snugly up against the back of the hand 
 and run the middle finger thru the leather or cloth 
 loop (No. 12) which in turn is tacked to the left hand 
 end of part 7. Tie the index finger back to part 8. 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 143 
 
 Now put two pounds of weight into the bucket and 
 have the experimenter lift the weight with his mid- 
 dle finger only, as far as he can, every second, keeping 
 track of the time by counting rapidly :one, two, three, 
 four, five, six ; one, two, three, four, five, six ; one, two, 
 three, four, five, six; one, etc. Meantime, some one 
 else will have to be turning the windlass slowly. If 
 the record that is made in a minute (60 strokes) is 
 not like the one shown in the figure, put on more 
 weight or less, as may be needed. The idea is to see 
 what is the heaviest weight one can carry and 
 just run down in 60 seconds. Let each pupil file his 
 records in his note book. Read Chap. V. in H-S. 
 
 Questions for Consideration 
 
 1. How. do the parts of a muscle differ from and con- 
 
 nect with each other? 
 
 2. About what is the diameter of a single muscle fiber? 
 
 3. How can your personal posture be corrected or im- 
 
 proved ? 
 
 4.-6. What are eight important effects of exercise ? Can 
 one succeed in living well without exercise ? Can au- 
 tomobile riding take the place of exercise ? Can medi- 
 cine? 
 
 7. What makes your finger give out in lifting its load? 
 Could you find a load which you could lift about the 
 same height every time and for a long time? If 
 so, what makes this possible? 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 1. What is the necessity of exercise in a healthy life? — 
 
 Con. II. 213; Da. II, 147; Gu. Iv, 14, 18; Je. II, 230; 
 0-K. HI, 197 ; Ov. II, 81, 100 ; Ri. Ill, 48. 
 
 2. How exercise to correct defects and maintain good 
 
 postures?— Con. II, 218; Da. II, 148; Gu. IV. 18; Hu. 
 II, 243 ; 0-K. Iv, 187 ; Ov. II, 84 ; Ri. Ill, 30. 
 
 3. What is body fatigue and how is it controlled? — 
 
 Con. II, 216; Gu. V, 112, 119; Hu. HI, 241; Ri. Ill, 
 103. 
 
 VIH. BEHAVIOR, BRAIN,- NERVES, SENSES.— Al. XI; 
 Dr. XXV, XXVI; Ho. V; Hr. XXIH; Hu. XVH, XVHI; 
 H-S. VH, XIV, XVHI, XXH; Mo. V; Te. XIII-XX; 
 Wa. XII-XV. 
 
 The Nature-Stjady Approach, with Questions 
 1. Forms of behavior. 
 
144 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 (a) Recall your behavior on touching something very 
 hot. Did you have to think about jerking your 
 hand back? If you tickle someone's toes while 
 he is asleep, will he move before he awakes?. 
 What is a reflex act? Give other examples of 
 such an act. 
 
 (b) Recall your behavior when you were badly 
 scared. Did you have to know there was some- 
 thing to be scared of before you did what you 
 did? Did you have to think at all while you were 
 scared? Was your behavior simple, or were there 
 a lot of things going on at the same time? What 
 is an instinct and how does it differ from a reflex 
 act? 
 
 (c) Play a game of "Simon-says-thumbs-up". Con- 
 sider how you get your hands to do Just what 
 they ought to do. What is it you have in mind 
 when your hands come up at the time they 
 should stay down. What is really in mind when 
 the hands stay down both when they ought to 
 and when they ought not to? What seems to 
 precede every voluntary or willed act? How 
 does such an act differ from a reflex and from an 
 instinctive act? 
 
 (d) Whistle or sing and draw a picture at the same 
 time. Which of the acts do you think about the 
 more? What is a habitual act? How do habi- 
 tual acts get started and how perfected? How 
 does such an act differ from the other three forms 
 of behavior mentioned ? 
 
 2. Examining the brain and nerves. 
 
 (a) Get a butcher to secure you as complete as pos- 
 sible a specimen of a beef's, sheep's, hog's, dog's, 
 or cat's l)rain with as much spinal cord still at- 
 tached as possible. Wash the specimen thoroly 
 and put it to soak for several days in a 10 per 
 cent solution of formalin. When ready to study 
 it, remove and wash thoroly in water again. Ex- 
 amine the specimen till you become reasonably 
 well acquainted with, its, more important parts, 
 such as the cerebrum or larger portion, with its 
 parts side by sidie ; the cerebellum lying just 
 back of and partly under the cerebrum; (?^back 
 of" and "under" here mean in the sense, of the 
 Brain's being in its original position in the ani- 
 mals) the medulla lying back of and under the 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 145 
 
 cerebellum and connecting directly with the 
 spinal cord, the part that was in the backbone. 
 On the under side of the center of the cerebrum 
 find the roots of the optic nerves; under the 
 medulla find the roots of several other nerves. 
 (b) Now place the brain before you so that if it 
 were still in the animal it would now be facing 
 you. You have already found a long fissure sep- 
 arating the two halves of the cerebrum. With a 
 sharp knife cut down thru the brain squarely 
 across this fissure, and a third of the way from its 
 rear end. Note the gray surface of the cere- 
 brum, known as the cortical or "gray matter". 
 This gray stuff is believed to be the seat of the 
 thinking part of the brain, and you should find 
 two circular masses of "gray matter" each called 
 a thalamus. The thalami are supposed to be 
 the seat of agreeable and disagreeable feelings, 
 and of instinctive actions. The cerebellum has 
 a good deal to do with habits, it is believed, while 
 the medulla takes care of the reflex acts, as does 
 also the spinal cord. The nerves, of course, car- 
 ry nerve messages. 
 Learning about the senses.. 
 
 (a) To find out what are the four different kinds of 
 sensations connected with the skin make use of 
 a pencil and pin as follows. Warm the pencil 
 and with its point explore the back of the hand 
 to find tiny spots that seem warmer than other 
 places. Make the pencil cold and hunt for simi- 
 cold spots. Have the pencil neither hot nor cold 
 and try this time to find spots that are more sen- 
 sitive to touch than other parts. Using the pin 
 point gently, hunt for places a little more sensi- 
 
 ^tive to pain than other places. 
 
 (b) Put the open hand behind the head but not 
 touching it. It will be known of course, what 
 shape the fingers are in, but now stiffen the fin- 
 gers and see if there is a more complete knowl- 
 edge of the position of the hand and fingers. 
 What one gets is a strain sensation coming from 
 the contraction of muscles. This will, introduce 
 one to one of the most important of all the senses, 
 the muscle sense. 
 
 (c) Let the teacher put some odorous substance in a 
 
146 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 cloth covered pasteboard box and let the pupils 
 in turn see how near they have to come to be able 
 to say what the odor is. Let this be a "race with 
 noses" for the class, to see who has the best 
 smeller. 
 
 (d) To get the experience of the four tastes the tung 
 can distinguish, put some sugar or candy in the 
 mouth to find where the tung can best tell sweet- 
 ness. Similarly try sour stuff like "sour drops" 
 of candy, salty stuffs like common salt, and finally 
 bitter stuffs like quinine. 
 
 (e) Following the directions given in some of the 
 books, make a test of the acuteness of hearing 
 of each of the pupils. Also have each pupil 
 make the best examination he can of the audi- 
 tory canal by means of a good light and two mir- 
 rors. 
 
 (f ) Again using the tests for acuteness of vision given 
 in the books, test the vision of each of the pupils. 
 
 If opportunity permits, secure an eye of a beef 
 or other large animal, and dissest it to discover 
 its important parts and the reasons for great 
 care in protection of the eyeball. (See Chapter 
 VIII) 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 
 1. What is the nature of the brain as the home of the 
 
 mind?— Con. II, 302; Da. II, 161; Gu. V, 10; Hu. Ill, 
 216; Je. Ill, 213, 242; 0-K. IV, 121; Ov. Ill, 318; Ri. 
 Ill, 93. 
 
 2. How guard the eyes from injury? — Col. II, 254; Con. 
 
 II, 332; Da. II, 174; Gu. V, 154; Hu. Ill, 259; Je. II, 
 247 ; 0-K. V, 254 ; Ov. II, 249 ; Ri. Ill, 109. 
 
 3. How guard the ears from injury? — Col. II, 258; Con. 
 
 II, 337 ; Da. II, 244 ; Gu. V, 162 ; Hu. Ill, 226 ; Je. II, 
 249 ; 0-K. Ill, 250 ; Ov. II, 337 ; Ri. Ill, 122. 
 
 4. How conserve the skin senses — heat, cold, pain, and 
 
 touch?— Col. II, 239 ; Con. II, 343 ; Da. II, 236 ; Je. II, 
 236, 259 ; O-K. IV, 239 ; Ov. II, 337 ; Ri. Ill, 129. 
 
 5. How conserve the sense of smell and of taste? — Col. 
 
 II. 244; Con. II, 341; Gu. V, 154; Hu. II, 253; Je. II, 
 236, 250 ; 0-K. V, 244 ; Ov. II, 339 ; Ri. HI, 129. 
 
 6. How are good habits formed and bad ones avoided? — 
 
 Con. II, 299 ; Da. II, 166 ; Gu. V, 84, 213, 220 ; Hu. HI, 
 19 ; Je.II, 235 ; Ov. II, 332 ; Ri. Ill, 99. 
 
 7. How develop an attractive countenance? — Con, II, 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 147 
 
 213, 247 ; Dav. H, 147 ; Gu. V, 135, 91 ; Ov. II, 83, 100 ; 
 Hi. Ill, 106. 
 
 8. How control the passions? — Col. II, 211; Con. II, 208; 
 
 Gu. V, 134; Hu. Ill, 239; Je. II, 255; 0-K. IV. 1'42; 
 Ov. II, 325; Ri. II, 106. 
 
 9. How keep the mind in a healthy condition? — Con. II, 
 
 305; Da. II, 167; Gu. V, 18, 27, 173; Je. II, 256; 0-K. 
 IV, 136 ; Ov. II, 321 ; Ri. Ill, 102. 
 
 10. Why is sleep the great restorer? — Con. II, 309 ; Da. 
 
 II, 233 ; Gu. V. 123 ; Hu. Ill, 232 ; O-K. IV, 232 ; Ov. 
 II, 329 ; Ri. Ill, 103. 
 
 11. What is the value of the after-dinner nap? — Con. II, 
 
 259; Ga. V, 27; Ri. Ill, 103. 
 
 12. How may headaches be avoided? — Col. II, 209; Con. 
 
 333 ; Da. II, 45, 169 ; Hu. Ill, 235 ; Je. H, 176, 247 ; 
 0-K. IV, 209; Ov. II, 235; Ri. Ill, 102, 154. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book (See Grade V, Study 1.) 
 
 IX. STIMULANTS, NARCOTICS, AND MEDICINES.— 
 Al. XXXVIV, XXXVII ; F-F. Ill, Appendix IV, V ; Ho. 
 XVII; H-S. XX; Te. I-XIV; Wa. VHI, XIX. 
 
 The Nature-Study Approach 
 
 1. Recall or reproduce the experiment with tea, coffee, al- 
 
 cohol ,and tobacco in Grade V, Study 5. See also 
 Chapter VIII. 
 
 2. In case any pupil is afflicted with the cigarette habit try 
 
 the following prescription recommended by Dr. J. F. 
 Slater, Supervisor of School Hygiene, Houston, Texas. 
 
 Use a 10 per cent solution of silver nitrate. It can be 
 prepared by any competent druggist. Apply this solu- 
 tion with a camel's hair brush to the tip and edge of the 
 tongue every two or three days for two or three weeks. 
 Make these applications often enough to prevent the 
 patient from using tobacco with any amount of pleas- 
 ure. The combination of silver deposited on the 
 tbngue, with the products of tobacco in the saliva of 
 the mouth result" in a very bitter taste not unlike that 
 of copper or brass. 
 
 Moral foi-ces should also be used. The patient should 
 be told that the effect of his treatment is only temporary 
 and that he lilust use his Will to stop the haibit from the 
 bei^irining of the treatment if he expects a permanent 
 cure. In other words, this silver nitrate. merely aids the 
 Will by temporarily taking away the p^leasure from the 
 use of tobacco. It has a good iiffect to allow him 
 
148 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 the use of tobacco once immediately after the treat- 
 ment. 
 3. Verify in whole or in part the percentage quantities of 
 a.rugs in the following classification of patent medicines. 
 A. The "ethical preparations".— More or less bene- 
 ficial. 
 B. Fraudulent but not injurious or dangerous "reme- 
 dies." 
 
 (a) The cures, if any, are mentally induced. 
 
 (b) They usually serve only to delay proper treat- 
 ment. 
 
 G. "Remedies" more or less dangerous but forming no 
 drug habit. 
 
 (a) Hair "restorers" containing sugar of lead. 
 
 (b) Cosmetics containing corrosive sublimate. 
 
 (c) Blood "purifiers" containing iodide of potassium. 
 
 (d) Consumption "cures" containing chloroform. 
 D. Dangerous to life and usually forming a drug habit. 
 
 (a) "Remedies" whose chief element is )alcohol; 
 for example : 
 Chamberlain's Diarrhoea Remedy 58 per cent 
 
 ethyl alcohol. 
 Hostetter's Bitters, 39 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Common American Whiskey, 35 per cent ethyi 
 
 alcohol. 
 Peruna, 18 per cent ethyl alcohol, 
 Lydia E. Pinkham's Vegetable Compound, 18 
 
 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Hood's Sarsaparilla 18 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Warner's Safe Cure, 15 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Pond's Extract of Witch Hazel 15 per cent 
 
 ethyl alcohol. 
 Hall's Catarrh Cure, 14. per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Jayne's Expectorant, 13 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Wakefield's Blackberry Balsom, 12 per cent 
 
 ethyl alcohol. 
 American Red Wine, 9 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup, 5 per cent ethyl 
 
 alcohol. 
 American Lager Beer, 4 per cent ethyl alcohol. 
 Castoria, 3 per cent ethyl alcohol, 
 (b) "Remedies" containing opium and its derivatives. 
 
 (a) Forms. — Pure opium, laudanum, paregoric, 
 morphine. 
 
 (b) Examples. — Soothing syrups, Shiloh's 
 "Cure," etc. 
 
GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 149. 
 
 (c) "Remedies" containing cocaine, e. g., catarrh 
 
 cures etc. 
 
 (d) "Remedies" containing acetanilid (a powerful 
 
 heart depressant, used in practically all head- 
 ache medicines). 
 
 (e) "Remedies" containing chloral hydrate. 
 
 (f ) "Remedies" containing cannibas indica (hashish) . 
 Studying the Books. (See also Grade V, Study 1 ) 
 
 1. How does tobacco harm? — Con. II, 313; Dav. II, 50- 
 
 Gu. V, 145 ; Hu. Ill, 103 ; Je. II, (Index) ; 0-K. IV, 
 165 ; Ov. 279, 331 ; Ri. Ill, 197. 
 
 2. How does alcohol destroy? — Con. II, 213; Da. II, 234; 
 
 Gu. V, 95, 203, 54; Hu. IV„ (Index) ; Je. II, (Index) ; 
 0-K. IV, 148 ; Ri. HI, (Index) . 
 
 3. Are patent medicines beneficial ? — Col. II, 89 ; Hu III 
 
 237 ; Je. H, 287 ; 0-K. IV, 179 ; Ov. II, 62. 
 
 Writing up the Note Book. (See Grade V, Study 1) 
 A PROPOSED EIGHTH GRADE HYGIENE TEST 
 
 Does the pupil have a good sitting posture? 
 
 Does he carry his head and shoulders well when standing? 
 
 Can he exert himself without easy exhaustion ? 
 
 Does he take regular and vigorous exercise in work or play — 
 enough to get up a sweat and lead to deep breathing, 
 the only kind worth while ? 
 
 Does our pupil ordinarily breathe thru the nose ? 
 
 Is he particular as to the air he breathes ? 
 
 Does he provide for fresh air in his bedroom ? 
 
 In the feeding act are the bites small and the chewing abun- 
 dant? 
 
 Is his sub-maxillary exercise taken only on food and not on 
 gum? 
 
 Does he eat only a limited amount of meat and other pro- 
 
 teids and thus avoid auto-intoxication and general malaise ? 
 
 Does he drink generously at meal time but not merely to 
 help swallow the food? 
 
 Is the liquid he drinks confined to water, milk, and cocoa ? 
 
 Is he regular in the discharge of alimentary excreta? 
 
 Has our pupil taken on the tooth-brush habit at night before 
 retiring ? 
 
 Does he refrain from putting into his mouth everything ex- 
 cept water, food, a fork, a spoon, a tooth brush, and den- 
 tal thread? 
 
 Does he regularly consult a dentist once a year and keep his 
 teeth in the best condition? 
 
150 GRADE VIII: HUMAN-BODY HYGIENE 
 
 is he properly trained to turn the leaves of a book, affix 
 postage stamps, and apply court plaster? 
 
 Is he entirely free from the spitting habit? 
 
 When he coughs or sneezes, does he turn his face away from 
 others, or cover it with a handkerchief ? 
 
 Is this pupil wholesome looking and inoffensive to smell ? 
 
 Has he developed the habit of daily bathing, either a cold 
 •^ath on rising, or an indifferent one before supper on com- 
 ing in from a day's work amid dirty surroundings? 
 
 Are his fingernails habitually in mourning, or only occas- 
 ionally so? 
 
 Does our pupil read writing on the black board easily from 
 his seat? 
 
 Does book print not blur for him, nor do his eyes occasion- 
 ally smart? 
 
 If his eyes are myopic, hyperopic, or astigmatic, does he 
 wear properly fitted glasses? 
 
 Does he hear common conversation without straining, and is 
 he alert to the sights and sounds about him? 
 
 Is he free from headaches, colds, and tendencies to cough? 
 
 Is the pupil happy, aggressive, buoyant, courageous, enthu- 
 siastic, enterprising, and can he find contentment in 
 wholesome play and work? 
 
CHAPTER VIII.— BLACKBOARD 
 SKETCHES, ETC. 
 
 (See second page of preface.) 
 
 ^figue Jfooaraiifs. /Perpencfrcu/ai' l//e«> 
 
 OblioueVieuf of/lpparafua on a %6/^. 
 
aiouf 8' inches Sfuare 
 
■geproduottom from ihe Work of Ten/A^^racfe PupiJs 
 
'parts and Kin efforts o/ T^esh ^/oocl 
 
 ^ 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 ? 
 
 Ta r /J o/ C/o // ed ^/o 9Cf 
 
Diagram of Veins — Systematic and Pulmonic 
 
JJiagram a/ AHb ries—Sys temic and Pulmonic 
 
:Blackboarcl ^tuduj oj ihe Lijmphaiic ^^siem 
 
 ,5 rt'ciir VTl. 
 
 
 
c no 
 
 1^ 
 It 
 
 a F 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 /If ^ 0* ^ 
 
 ' / / .^ >i \ ^ 
 
 
 // / C "l "• V 
 
 
 " 2 » ^ 1 
 
 
 / u -a c -s- 
 
 ■a-T? 
 
 
 
 / H. ;^ ^ „ 
 
 "a 1 
 
 ^^^x 
 
 1? 
 
 il) 
 
 »a^ 
 
 V t: 
 
 5 5 
 
 V 1 B- 5 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 >5 . § g 
 
 «,> 
 
 
 ? '■•' s ' 
 
 l;^ 
 
 s 
 
 \ > -J ' 5 ° 
 
 
 or" s s ■'- > » 
 
 <} s 
 
 \\\ ^ £ -i 1 ^ 
 
 Si-^ 
 
 WW ■<!. ^ C> V 
 
 1% 
 
 \v\i2i^<«X 
 
 ^ \ 
 
 
 \S:r>:>/ 
 
 * \ 
 
L'l^ht on iheji/^h Cosi oj Liv in^ my^tnerica (J/car/j/), 
 
<9 
 
 (U 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ^ -e <: ^ 
 
 ^ ^ § ^^i 
 
 V. C '^ ° 
 
 s5 1 1 j,-^ 
 
 !• a> - ^ -is. 
 
 
 
 o ^ o 
 
 -1^ ■•» 0«j -, . 
 
 r L O "^ * « 
 
 5 o^A w •» ^ 
 
Sl ncKBmitiiJ^rsjeiv&r—^/CiX/n s of Musct. c' 
 
 O CO 
 
 I- > 
 
 5.^ 
 
 ?9 vr jv t>i :* <o N» 
 
 "4 ^ 
 
 2 5 1 S" 5 5 S I 
 
 o 
 
 1 Sir 
 
 cr 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 I? 
 
 i 3 5 I 
 
 r> o o J? 
 
 "« N s; «, fa 
 
 3 S 
 
 Si. 
 .5- 
 
 
Qui/'im o/i/ie7^iif/so/J/?e£ar_ 
 
 ^ec//e/7 c/ ii€^^ Cor 
 \Seen Jrcrri in -/renf) 
 
 "tier part 
 
 iiSJ 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 KEY LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS 
 
 For Teachers. 
 
 Al. — Allen's "Civics and Health," Ginn and Co., Chi- 
 cago. 
 
 Bai. — Bailey's "Sure Pop and the Safety- Scouts,'" 
 World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson. 
 
 Ban. — Bancroft's "The Postures of School Children,'" 
 The Macmillan Co., Chicago. 
 
 Co. — Conn's "Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds," Ginn and'. 
 Co., Chicago. 
 
 B-H. — Laws, Rules, and Regulations, State Commiss- 
 ioner of Health, your State Capital. 
 
 Dr. — -Dressler's "School Hygiene," The Macmillan Co.,, 
 Chicago. 
 
 F-B. — Farmer's Bulletins, Dept. of Agriculture, Wash- 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 F-F. — Fisher and Fiske's "How to live," Funk and. 
 Wagnall's, New York City. 
 
 Ho.— Hoag's "Health Index of Children," Whittaker- 
 & Ray-Wiggin Co., San Francisco. 
 
 H-S. — Hough and Sedgwick's "The Human Mechan- 
 ism," Ginn and Co., Chicago. 
 
 H-T. — Hoag and Terman's "Health Work in the 
 Schools," Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston., 
 
 Hr. — Hunter's "Civic Biology,"American Book Co.„ 
 Chicago. 
 
 Hu. — Hutchinson's "Preventable Diseases," Houghton 
 Mifflin Co., Boston. 
 
 Ly. — Lyster's "School Hygiene," Warwick and York,, 
 P.iltimore. 
 
 Mo. — Moore's "Keeping in Condition," The Macmil- 
 lan Co., Chicago. 
 
 Te. — Terman's "The Hygiene of the Child," Hough- 
 ton Mifflin Co., Boston. 
 
 To. — Town's "Habits that Handicap," The Century 
 Co., New York City. 
 
 Wa.— Walter's "Principles of Health Control," D. G. 
 Health and Co., Chicago. 
 
REFERENCE BOOKS 169 
 
 Note — ^For information regarding the "socialized reci- 
 tation," teachers are referred to a sixty-cent book by Whit- 
 ney, entitled, "The Socialized Recitation," and published by- 
 A. S. Barnes and Co., New York. 
 2. For Pupils. 
 
 Col. — Coleman's Series, The Macmillan Co., Chicago. 
 I. "The Peoples Health." 
 II. "Hygienic Physiology." 
 Con. — Conn's Series, Silver, Burdette & Co., Chicago. 
 I. "Physiology and Health," Book I. 
 n. "Physiology and Health," Book II. 
 Da. — Davidson's Series, American Book Co., Chicago. 
 I. "Health Lessons," Book I. 
 II. "Health Lessons," Book II. 
 Gu. — Gulick Hygiene Series, Ginn & Co., Chicago. 
 I. "Good Health." 
 II. "Emergencies." 
 
 III. "Town and City." 
 
 IV. "The Body at Work." 
 
 V. "Control of Body and Mind." 
 Hu. — Hutchinson's Health Books, Houghton Mifflin 
 Co., Boston. 
 L "The Child's Day." 
 n. "Community Hygiene." 
 III. "Handbook of Health." 
 
 Je. — Jewett's Two Book Series (Gulick revised) , Ginn 
 and Co., Chicago. 
 I. "Health and Safety." 
 II. "Physiology, Hygiene, and Sanitation." 
 0-K. — O'Shea and Kellogg's Series, The Macmillan 
 Co., Chicago. 
 I. "Health Habits." 
 II. "Health and Cleanliness." 
 
 III. "The Body in Health." 
 
 IV. "Making the Most of Life." 
 
 Ov — Overton's Hygiene Series, American Book Co., 
 Chicago. 
 I. "Personal Hygiene." 
 II. "General Hygiene." 
 Ri. — Richie-Caldwell Series, The World Book Co., 
 Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 
 I. "Primer of Hygiene." 
 II. "Primer of Sanitation." 
 III. "Primer of Physiology." 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 A DECALOG OF GOOD HEALTH 
 
 1. Nutriment.— Thou Shalt select thy diet on a basis of six parts 
 of starchy food, one part of fat, and one of albumin food; avoid thou 
 an excess of purin yielding foods if thou wouldst escape many bodily 
 ills. 
 
 2. Feeding.— Thou shalt eat thy- two or three sufficient meals under 
 conditions of good cheer and shalt masticate- solids till they become 
 as pea soup, that thou mayest not abuse thy food canal nor eat ex- 
 cessively. 
 
 3. Exercise and perspiration.— Thou shalt bring into daily activity 
 all thy more important muscles up to the point of vigorous sweating, 
 
 ■vso that thou mayest introduce into thy blood sufficient fatigue stuff to 
 insure recuperative sleep, and mayest exercise thy heat-regulating 
 mechanism enuf to prevent thy taking colds. 
 
 4. Respiration. — Thou shalt give thy ohest an(d trunk free breathing 
 ■play, and shalt provide thyself with an abundance of wholesome air; 
 "Whatsoever deep breathing tihou indulgesit in let It be done naturally 
 
 in connection with thy daily vigorous exercise, and not as an ar- 
 tificial performance apart from thine other forms of exercise. 
 
 5. Cleanliness. — Thou shalt avoid all needless contact with patho- 
 genic germs, and shalt not make thy mouth a "happy hunting ground" 
 for these thine enemies ; that thy presence may not be offensive to thine 
 associates, thou shalt take a daily bath in the early morning only if 
 thou workest amidst clean surroundings, and in the evening only if 
 thou toilest where thou canst not remain immaculate. 
 
 6. Relaxation. — Thou shalt give thyself daily opportunity for ap- 
 proximately eight hours of quite slumber, and if possible a fifteen- 
 minute siesta midway of thy daily tasks, that tbou mayest be ever 
 fresh and optimistic in all thy waking hours. 
 
 7. Elimination. — Thou shalt observe all the conditions that favor a 
 regular and natural discharge of all the waste materials from thy 
 body, lest thou store up poisoni in thy system that sliall do thee harm. 
 
 8. Medicine and drugs. — Thou shalt abstain from the unnecssary 
 use of drugs generally, and when thou partakest, thou shalt do so 
 only under the direction of a wise physician. If thou wouldst be sane 
 thou wilt employ water alone as thy satisfying beverage, and if thou 
 wouldst be wholesome, thou wilt refrain from the use of all narcotics. 
 
 9. Clothing.-^Thou shalt employ as thy clean and sufficient raiment 
 only a good absorber and nonretainer of perspiration next thy body, 
 such as meshwoven cotton, and shalt adapt thine attracive and 
 serviceable outer garments according to thy varying thermal sur- 
 roundings. 
 
 10. Mental hygiene. — Thou shalt suppress all useless forms of 
 nervous activity; thou shalt practice cheerfulness all thy days and 
 shalt never hate; thou shalt not indulge in self-pity nor dream for 
 a moment thait thou are the exclusive "it" ; thou shalt regard thyself as 
 counting for something in this world, but shalt consider others that 
 thou mayest do them good, and thait thy days may be long and cherish- 
 ed in the land. 
 
 So shalt thou be physically efficient mentally strong, and morally 
 good.