Cornell University Library 1 LB 2842.1. D99 The economic aspect of teachers' salarie 284T.'lfc.. D99 ■ % 3" 1924 002 682 080 .^ ers' salaries. f ?f- U3 THE LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF TEACHERS' SALARIES Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002682080 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION Vol*, r No. 3 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF TEACHERS' SALARIES CHARLES BAETLETT DYKE, A.M. Professor of Education in Hampton Institute, Va, OCTOBEK, 1899 The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth Avenue, Nbtv York Mater and MUller, Markgrafenstrasse, Berlin Price $1.00 CONTENTS. PAGE The Economic Aspect of Teachers' Salaries : I. The Economics of Teachers' Salaries 9 II. The Teacher's Salary and the Workingman's Wage Compared 15 III. American and European Salaries 22 IV. Why Teachers' Salaries are Low 43 V. The Improvement of Teachers' Salaries 49 Public School Maintenance : VI. The Units of Public School Organization and Admin- istration 54 VII. The Sources of Public School Revenues 57 VIII. State w. Local Units of School Taxation 67 IX. Distribution of School Moneys to the School Districts. 76 Bibliography 84 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF TEACHERS' SALARIES The inheritance of each succeeding generation is the cul- ture of all the past. By its means we can project ourselves into the future, lift yet higher the world's ideals, add our increment of culture, thus increasing the individual and social efficiency and power, and pass on the resultant to those who- shall follow us. In this struggle for greater self-realizatioiv and greater social perfection, the world is chiefly engaged.. We vie with each other to attain the highest honor ia our struggle to make the world a fit place for human habi- tation. But no one is doing more to attain this ideal thare those who are directly engaged in the work of transmitting to the young their inheritance from the past, and in giving them the cue to life's problem. With the conviction that the work of the public school teacher in this country is not sufficiently appreciated, and that his remuneration is far from commensurate with his high call- ing, I have undertaken a study of the Economic Aspect of Teachers' Salaries : their economic basis, their comparison with the incomes of workingmen and of European teac.hers, and finally, why they are low, with suggestions for improve- ment. The amount of the public school revenues in a given year acts as a limit to the amount of the teacher's salary. Because of this vital relationship I have supplemented the study by a section on Public School Maintenance. This study is the outgrowth of work in the Education Sem- inar of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University. For indispensable assistance in gathering information I am indebted to Dr. los] 7 8 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [io6 Butler, to Dr. William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Edu- cation, and to the large number of State and City Superin- tendents of Education whose reports are cited. Of course the discussion of this subject is far from ex- haustive ; my aim being rather to state fairly the existing conditions, to suggest underlying principles, and to stimulate further discussion of the teacher's condition, the demands made upon him, and his relatively meagre income. THE ECONOMICS OF TEACHERS SALARIES All economic relations find their origin in tlie effort to satisfy human desires by services or utilities. Services pre- suppose human effort, and human effort employed in the pro- duction of material objects is commonly called labor. But since the utility of labor is determined by its power to satisfy human wants and desires,' all human effort having its end in human satisfaction is productive labor and renders utilities. Some utilities minister to man's necessities, as those of the business man, the mechanic, the hod-carrier; others to his desire for pleasure and culture, as those of the actor, the artist, the servant. The teacher ministers to both the neces- sities and the luxuries of human life in the service he renders to individuals and to society. He satisfies human wants, and like all laborers produces utilities. The advancement of the aims of education is a utility because it furthers the best in- terests of the individual, and because popular government demands popular education for its preservation. Quantita- tively stated, the utility, to the individual is the difference between his ability with the aid of the teacher and without the aid of the teacher to develop culture, efficiency, and power; the utility to society is the difference between the civilization to be attained with the public schools and without the public schools. Since the teacher and the school satisfy so great a social and individual want, the state administers and supports the public school system. The immediate reward of the teacher for services rendered, ' Taussig, Wages and Capital, p. 33. 107] 9 lO THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [io8 the immediate reward of all workers of whatever class, consists of completed and enjoyable goods, as food, clothing, shelter, various luxuries, together with professional and personal ser- vices.' The continuous flow of this reward to individuals and to society is the real income, measured not in terms of money, but by the capacity to enjoy, in terms of satisfaction. The number and extent of human desires make up the standard of living set by the individual and by society.' A high standard of living indicates a large number of commodities of relatively high utility and closely associated with each other. A low standard indicates few necessities, sparse comforts, and no lux- uries. But how are the different standards of living determined ? Primarily, by surplus of utility. By the surplus utility of a commodity, we mean the value set upon it above its cost by the individual or by society. It is evident that this differs among individuals. The botanist may sacrifice time, clothing, and energy to secure a plant which has absolutely no utility to the woodsman. A general improvement in the standard of living means an increase in the number of commodities whose surplus of utility is about the same, and such a change in the economic order of consumption that the intenser appetites are limited in favor of the new commodities. Society sanctions a high standard of living. " Those con- sumers whose ideals are high, whose tastes are developed har- moniously, and who call for a wide variety of physical, mental, and social resources, will win a commanding place in the un- conscious economic struggle which continually goes on. Their income will be larger, their distribution fairer, their pro- ^Taussig, Wages and Capital, pp. 14, 15. ^"Standard of living is a collective term for the necessaries, comforts, and lux- uries which are within reach at a given time, and which are so related to each other that none can be dropped without lessening the amount of pleasure to be ob- tained from the others, and so checking general prosperity." — Devine's Economics, P- 143- log] TEACHERS' SALARIES 1 1 ductive power greater." ' Society also has its minimum re- quirements, below which the individual dare not go. That physician would not be tolerated for a moment whose home, food, clothing, and manner were those of the mechanic or the laborer. But while society establishes the lower, the indi- vidual establishes the upper limit. The teacher, preacher, philosopher, lawyer, physician have varying needs and desires, but, as a class, their standard of living is widely different from that of the producers of material utilities. The teacher's standard of living comprises not only the physical necessities of life, but also books, travel, church, theatre, opera, art gal- leries. The carpenter is satisfied with fewer of these utilities. All members of society, whether industrious or idle, get their real income from the same source and in the same way, by consuming enjoyable goods. Whether money is received in the form of salary or wages, interest or rent, all individuals come into possession of their real income in the same way, by spending their money receipts. The money receipts of the teacher, paid for the services he renders to individuals and to society, we term salary, but salary, says Taussig, " is as clearly wages as is the pay of the day laborer," ^ and subject to the same economic laws. Since the amount of money receipts limits the amount of real income, the mechanism of monetary distribution becomes an important question. In modern commerce, four individuals or classes are concerned in the distribution of money from a productive enterprise — the business manager, the capitalist, the renter, and the employee. The business manager borrows money of the capitalist at a specified rate of interest, rents land of the property owner for a fixed sum, employs laborers and individuals at fixed wages or salaries, and conducts the business, assuming all risks and business responsibilities of the enterprise. He sells his product and receives a gross in- ' Devine, Economics, p. 153. 2 Wages and Capital, p. 92. 12 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [no come. From this he pays interest, rent, wages, and salaries, pays for materials and other items in the conduct of his busi- ness, and retains the balance as his net income. In a manu- facturing or commercial center nearly the whole money income of the community flows first into the hands of managers of business enterprises, and by them is distributed to the indi- viduals of the community according to their relations to the enterprises. While the margin of profit on a single transaction or a single investment of the capital may be small, the capital is "turned over," or reinvested, from one to ten or a dozen times a year, and the manager of the business enterprise is said to "make money." From the standpoint of society, the pro- ducts of the enterprise satisfy human wants and by their con- sumption become a part of the real income of society; although the business manager serves the community by increasing its real income, his chief purpose in doing so is to make money. He therefore obtains capital, land, materials, and labor at the lowest figure for which they can be procured. In all industries, it is generally conceded that the laborer's standard of efficiency must be maintained. All productive workers should receive sufficient remuneration to supply the necessities of life — to provide food, clothing, shelter, and com- forts, sufficient to restore each day the energy expended. But should they receive more than this? Capitalists loan money only on the condition that at a specified time their money shall be returned with usury, as a reward for abstinence. The interest is a net return. Rent is charged for the use of land, which comes back into its owner's hands with the properties of the soil practically intact. Hence, the rent is a net return. But wages correspond to neither interest nor rent. No distinction is made, as in the case of capital and interest, land and rent, between the refunding of energy and payment for the use of the energy. The term wages or salary includes both items. Ill] TEACHERS' SALARIES j. There are two practical reasons for this lack of distinction. Energy, in the first place, cannot be measured easily in terms of money. There is no common unit of measure, no exact basis for determining the cost of a unit of work. On the other hand, capital is measured in terms of money, and interest is reckoned on that basis. Energy, in the second place, is vitally connected with the man who expends the energy. He bargains for its use and fills his contract with his own strength. He is unable to measure the cost of the energy or to consider it apart from himself Interest, popularly speaking, is necessary to induce in- dividuals to save and invest in sufficient quantities to maintain industry. Is the same inducement necessary to procure laborers ? The capitalist is not dependent from day to day upon the income of his investments. He can live upon previous earn- ings — on his capital. But the laborer must be employed most of the time. He is directly dependent upon his labor — his stock of energy. All work involves disutility, just as saving involves abstinence and self-denial. The laborer is not likely to spend himself simply that his expenses may be refunded. Some persons may do so, but the mass of people value them- selves more highly. If the laborer considers the disutility of the labor greater than the utility of the wage, he can decrease the expenditure of energy. A man is not a machine, and a given wage does not insure the expenditure of a given amount of energy. In order to obtain the best results, something more is necessary than the mere refunding of energy day by day, and the wage must be sufficient to include such an allowance. While the amount of the teacher's salary is controlled by the same fundamental laws as the amount of other wages, he is employed by an institution having quite a different aim from that of the modern commercial enterprise. The maximum wage of the laborer, as determined by the business manager, 14 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [112 is his estimate of what the laborer is worth to him, but " the only reason why the employer should pay the maximum is that he can pay it ; and this he is not likely to pay until he is forced." ' But the State administers and maintains the public school system not for the purpose of " making money," but because the best interests of society demand it. It should not be necessary, then, to force the State to pay what the teacher is worth to society. The State raises funds not by "making money " but by levying assessments. Its ability to pay salaries is practically unlimited. Its purpose is defeated whenever its employes, like underpaid workingmen, gauge their efforts by the amomnt of their money receipts. For education, as Dr. Butler puts it, is " spiritual growth toward intellectual and moral perfection." ° The very effort to hold back his best, be- cause he is not paid for its expenditure, would call halt to that spiritual approach by means of which the teacher obtains a spiritual response from the child. As a bargainer, the teacher should demand a sufficient salary to provide for reimburse- ment of energy and payment for its use. It is to the interest of society that the teacher be ensured freedom from present embarrassments and future uncertainties, and that properly qualified persons be attracted into the teaching profession. The aims of education, as conducted and maintained by the State, are best furthered by salaries which provide for a standard of living including study, travel, recreation, and par- ticipation in social movements. 3 But under existing con- ditions the standard of living which society sets for teachers has no direct' connection with the salary paid. The salary is determined by an entirely different set of considerations, such as the surplus utility of the school to the community and the relative strength of the two parties to the bargain. • Davidson, The Bargain Theory of Wages, p. 154. 2 Butler, The Meaning of Education, p. 66. ^ Cf. Davidson's Article in the Educational Review, February, 1898, "The Economy of High Wages for Teachers." II THE teacher's SALARY AND THE WORKINGMAn's WAGE COMPARED Although required to maintain a much higher standard of living, the average teacher' of the United States is paid less than the average worker in the principal productive industries. True, his salary has greatly increased during the last forty years. Commissioner Harris estimates the increase at 86^*^ per cent, in cities, and 74^^ per cent, in country districts. His estimates are based upon data, a portion of which is presented in the following tables : ' SALARIES OF TEACHERS.'— 1860-1899 Boston u .1 J3 B Year V J3 Sj3 h c5„ J2 u 20 en < SB K s s [I, J i860 ... ;!S28oo $2000 ;?2ooo ^500 Jfsoo 1891 2898 2080 _ 1080 456 378^ 3060 3180 I2I2 936 ' Throughout this discussion, by " teacher " is to be understood the teacher in the public schools of the United States, the board schools of England, the primary schools of France, and the people's schools of Germany. 2 Mr. Harris' figures, presented in the " Aldrich Report," are from i860 to 1891. The added information is from the latest school reports. ' Maximum salaries. 113] IS i6 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF St. Louis [114 C J= S -« R U ^ ^ 'Ji to cn ■S CO Year n-C« j2 to 1:1 -c .3 Is ■g.a .5 a r .SO fin SP ■-P i860 ;*25oo ?1200 ^1250 S42S »37S i88g 3000 3500 1800 2C0O 850 850 400 1899 2000 2000 i6co * Second Assistant Cincinnati Year 1 ■g •B .ss P4 Principal District School First Assistant District School Principal Intermediate School First Assistant Intermediate School i860 1889 1897-98 $1750 2600 2600 31200 I goo 1900 $420 700 700 $1320 2100 2100 *4SO 8co 800 400 400 Baltimore irf ^ u >-< ^^ ■s a s s B 8 H e s •g c S B e c Year P4 CL.'tn "i r r ■si- .s-s -r P4 1? 1? ■2 >> E 1 i860. . . 31500 3 1 100 3900 3500 3300 «3SO S300 3200 3100 1891 . . . 2400 2000 1500 900 696 672 648 468 408 1897-98 . 2400 2000 1500 900 696 900 648 504 480 "5] TEACHERS' SALARIES Massachusetts Country Teachers 17 BARNSTABLE COUNTY FRANKLIN COUNTY Year si 1.1 a a S as Cl. Year Ji 1 s g c a s i860 . . 1890 .... 1897-98 . . . ^40.73 68.18 76.61 ^19.12 34.87 37-97 i860 .... l8go . . . 1897-98 . . . JS27.44 4654 82.67 28.69 34-55 This increase of teachers' salaries has merely followed a general rise in wages, and is considerably less than in some of the mechanical trades. Of the twenty-two industries enumerated in the " Aldrich Report," all but seven have risen more than 60 per cent, in the remuneration to the workers.' Wage- workers in ale, beer, and porter receive I24i\ per cent, more than in i860. Since that date, also, wages have risen in carriage- making, I02i\ per cent. ; in groceries, 94y\ per cent; in sidewalk-building, 87^ per cent. ; in dry goods, SSi% per cent. ; in paper, 82^^-^ per cent. ; in lumber, 77-^ per cent. We find that the greatest relative increase in salaries has been among the teachers most poorly paid in i860. In Balti- more, for instance, though the lowest assistant in the public schools receives a salary of ^480 only, this is 380 per cent, better than the salary of her predecessor of i860; and in Franklin county, Massachusetts, the poorly paid woman teacher has gained I I7r(r P^'^ ^^^^- "P°" ^^'^ predecessor of i860. It is of interest to compare the increase of salaries in the Boston public schools with the increase of wages of certain Massachusetts workingmen. From 1 860 to 1 89 1 , the salary of the head master of the Boston High School increased 3j-\ per cent; of the lowest assistant in the grade schools, 52 per 1 « Aldrich Report," Table 39, p. 173. l8 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [ii6 cent.; of the first assistant, ii6 per cent. On the other hand, the wage of the card-tender in woolen mills increased 94 per cent.; of the bricklayer, io6 per cent.; and of the frame spinner in cotton, 157 per cent' As a part of a general economic movement, the increase in teachers' salaries cannot be considered the result of special consideration on the part of the public. Consideration is not gauged entirely by money reward, but any comparison be- tween the wages of teachers and of other workers results un- favorably for the teachers. The accompanying diagram indi- cates the average amount paid to teachers in different sections of the United States since 1877.'' Teachers' salaries vary greatly in different parts of the country, and men invariably receive more than women in any one section. There is also a great difference between the salaries of city teachers and those of country teachers. The " average teacher" does not exist. This is equally true of the "' average worker" in any field, however, and comparative statistics at least show a tendency, though one may qualify them by Thiers' definition of statistics, " the science of specifying in exact terms that which no one knows." The average salary of the male teacher of the United States in 1896-97 was ^47.37, of the female teacher, ;^40.24 per month. The length of the average school year was 140 days, or about 7 months of twenty days each. The annual salary ' of the average male teacher was then ;^33i.59, of the female teacher, $281.68.' During the year i890-'9i, for which are the latest available statistics, the average earnings of various wage-workers ran as follows for the entire United States.* 1 " Aldrich Report." 2 This chart is based upon the data contained in the Annual Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of Education %mce. 1877. ' Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1 896-97, p. 1537. * Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor, 1890-91, Vol. I., pp. 1712, 1722, 1732, contains statistics from which above figures are taken. Salaries of Cotton Operatives and of Teachers in 16 States. MALE teachers ONLY INCLUDED. %k *» Jr -^ - -~ - » -Wff .r "*s •- **. ^ RKo4e.tsVv«.cL vnu. Cotton operatives Teachers ~^^~ 117] TEACHERS' SALARIES 19 Glass . . Bar Iron . Steel Woolen . Coke . . S773-43 698.41 578.52 524.31 516.46 Pig Iron S5'3-52 Bituminous Coal. . . 426.73 Cotton 394-26 Iron Ore 322.82 A Still more striking comparison is made between the wages of the cotton operatives and those of the male teacher in six- teen states of the Union. The cotton operative is selected because he is popularly supposed to be especially destitute. Many novels owe their pathos to descriptions of scenes in his poverty-stricken home. The male teacher is selected for the purpose of showing what his home would be, should he marry and rear a family on the basis of the salary quoted. Surprising as are these results, they fail to do justice to the superior financial position of the cotton operative, for the reason that the salaries of women teachers are not included in these data. In only five of these sixteen states, Massachu- setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, does the teacher receive the better pay. Comparison between Salaries of Teachers and Wages of Cotton Operatives in Sixteen States. State Maine . . New Hampshire Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . . New York . . New Jersey Pennsylvania Maryland . . . Virginia ... North Carolina South Carolina . Mississippi . . . Louisiana . . . , Kentucky . . Tennessee . . . Cotton Operative Average Income per Family! i?S'0-39 572-31 524.28 502.02 478.26 556-63 506.36 541-37 440-93 377-81 463.82 360-36 45387 499-58 549-5° 461,25 Male Teacher Average Income' «S276-35 249-31 1346.64 942.78 834-43 632.22 740.65 345-38 436-80 191.88 81.21 105.75 167.01 177-97 250.97 143.46 ^Report of the U. S. Commissioner qf Labor, 1891. = Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, iSge-'gj, Table XII, p. LXVII, gives average monthly salaries; Table VllI, p. LXII, the number of days the schools were kept, whence the estimates. 20 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [ng We find, again, in the State of New York, that of sixty-four productive industries enumerated by the Commissioner of Labor, forty-four pay to their workmen more than the average teacher of the state receives. It needs no argument to prove that the average parent values his son's education more highly than any material commodities. But if we should gauge the public valuation of education by the salaries paid to teachers, we should decide that the average parent of New York places a higher value upon the toys with which the child plays, the piano which adds to his accomplishments, the watch which decorates him, and the liquors which sometime he may drink, than upon the school room teaching which affects his life, for good or for evil, most profoundly. The following chart affords a comparison between the average annual wage of the teacher, ;^4 1 1.8 1, and of other workers in the State of New York.' Average Annual Wage in Selected Occupations, New Yokk State. Liquors (spirits and malt) ^^780.45 Ship Building 689.59 Liquors (unfermented) 671.76 Clocks and Watches 647.46 Musical Instruments 604.69 Printing, Binding, etc 583.48 Arms and Ammunition . . . , 53'-58 Drugs 530.64 Soap . 504.14 Toys 480.05 =i Education 411. 81 Bicycles 409.73 Cigars, Cigarettes 386.86 Clothing . . 361.77 As has been said, society demands ofthe teacher a high stand- ard of living, compared with that maintained by the average wage- worker. Estimates of a " good living" in the State of New 1 Fourteenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor of the State of New York, 1896, is the source ofthe statistics. * Report ofV. S. Commissioner of Education^ i8g6-'97, p, 2187. 1 19] TEACHERS' SALARIES 21 York were sent to Mr. Wm. A. McAndrews, of Brooklyn, by eighty-three persons living in cities varying in population from 1,000 to 3,350,000. The smallest estimate of a needed in- come was ^2,067 at Port Byron, increasing to ;^4,Si6 in New York City. In each estimate there was a provision for a sink- ing fund of ;^700 per year.^ Opposed to society's demand that the teacher live well, both absurdity and cruelty seem in- volved in the fact that the average male teacher of the State of New York is paid ;^639.50. The " Aldrich Report" presents the expenditures of a " normal" workingman's family whose income is ;^726, that is, a family with not more than five chil- dren, in which the wife is not a wage-worker.' The wife in this normal family spent for her dresses, cloaks, and shawls dur- ing the year, ^8.26; for her other clothing, ;^I4.50.' Should the teacher adopt such a standard of living, the indignation of society would cost him his position. It is obvious that the average male teacher cannot marry. His only alternative is to enter some other profession which will insure him a liveli- hood. The result is a process of selection between occupa- tions and professions, much to the disadvantage of the teach- ing profession. ' Published in Mr. McAndrews' paper, " Theories of Salaries Discussed," in the New York Education, of October, 1898. 2 Volume III., pp. 62, 92. ' According to experience, the proper proportion of expenditure in the normal family is arrived at by considering the income as 10,000 units, and allowing units for various purposes, as follows: rent, 1,506; food, 4,103; fuel, 500; clothing, 1,531 ; light, 90; all other expenses, 2,270. "Aldrich Report," y. III., p. 61. Ill AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN SALARIES It is a common belief that the American teacher is better paid than the European teacher. Any comparison of salaries must take into account the wages of all workers, as well as the somewhat lower cost of living in Europe. Thus, while the printer receives ;^583.48 annually in the State of New York, in England he receives ^372.84, and in France, ;g345.28. While the brewer receives ^671.70 in New York, in England his wage is ^356.20, in Germany $260, in France ^230.36.' Mr. Carnegie estimates the wage of the British workingman to be 56^ per cent, of that of the American workingman.'' The relative superiority of American wages appears in the fol- lowing table : ' AVERAGE Daily Wages, 1896 Blacksmith . Bricklayer Carpenter . . Compositor . Iron Holder . Machinist . . Mason . . . Plumber . . UNITED STATES GREAT BRITAIN FRANCE ^2-44>^ $1-52 $1-11% 3-82?< I.69X 1.64 2.52 I.58X i-SS^ 2.82>^ 1-44^ 1.2^% 2-SS^ I.60X '•39x: 2.4,0% I-SOX 1.38 Z-2^y2 i.68|< i-54>^ 3-I7X '•74X 1.42 Notwithstanding the financial superiority of the American • Fourteenth Annual Report of Bureau of Statistics of Labor of State of New York, p. 84. 2 Cost of Living in Britain and the United States. Contemporary Review, Sept., 1894. ' Compiled from Bulletin No. 18 of the U. S. Dept. of Labor. Statistics are based upon twelve American cities, three British cities, and Paris, France. 22 [120 I2l] TEACHERS' SALARIES 23 workingman, the average American teacher is paid a smaller sum than the average English teacher. The average certifi- cated master receives in England 1^595. 20, against the ;^33i.50 of the average male teacher in America. The average certifi- cated mistress receives ^394.94, against the ^281.68 of her American sister. About one-third of the masters and one- sixth of the mistresses are also provided with free residences.^ In 1898 a general pension law was carried through parliament, applicable to all superannuated teachers in public elementary schools.^ In the Prussian schools a minimum wage is established by law' of 720 marks — about ;^i8o.* The fifth year of service the minimum is 900 marks, about ^225 for men, and 700 marks — about ,^175 — for women. Thereafter, every three years of service is rewarded by an additional ^25 for men, and ^20 for women. " After the thirty-first year of service an income is assured of 2000 marks, if the dwelling and garden be reckoned at 200 marks''^ — that is, $450 and a free residence. To the legal minimum, wealthy communities often add a considerable sum, so that the average Prussian teacher receives about ^^340, and either a free residence or indemnity for rent." Pensions are provided for by a fund " formed by the state and the com- munity, the teacher paying a nominal annual premium."' It is evident that in Germany the average teacher is better paid than his American cousin. In France, expenses for education have grown so enorm- '^Kefort of the Committee of Council on Education, p. xxv, et seq. 2 Personal letter from Dr. Wm. T. Harris, of Sept. 22, 1899. "Law of April l, 1897. See Fischer's GescMchte des Volksschullehrerstandes, V. 11, p. 451- 'Somewhat less for women. 'Fischer's GescMchte, v. 11, p. 447. 'In 1887. Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1896-97, p. 1538. "< Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, i894-'9S, p. 1079. 24 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [i22 ously that the burden is the source of much complaint among the people.' The expenditure per capita is not extravagant," but the great public school system has been virtually created since 1870. In i860 the government aid to primary education amounted to about five and one-half million francs, in 1892 to nearly one hundred and twenty-six million francs — an increase of about 2200 per cent.s Primary schools -in France are of two classes — elementary and superior, the latter correspond- ing to our high schools. The teaching force of the element- ary primary schools is divided by law into five classes, each containing a certain proportion of the total number. The minimum salaries fixed by the State are as follows : ■* Percentage of Minimum Salaries ^^^'^^ Total No. Men Women Probaiioners . Fifth Class . . Fourth Class . Third Class . Second Class Urst Class . 15 $\'&o S180 25 200 200 25 240 240 20 300 280 lo 360 300 5 400 320 The minimum salaries paid in the superior primary schools are as follows : s Directors Assistants Fifth Class . . 3360 $240 Fourth Class .... 400 280 Third Class ... 450 320 Second Class 500 380 First Class 560 440 ' Taine's Modern Regime, p. 255 fT. 'Less than that of Prussia or Great Britain — JS6.68 per child enrolled. Report U. S. Com, of Education, l896-'97, p. Z366. ' Neymarck, " Les Impots et la Richesse Publique." In Journal de la Societi Siatistique, Jan., 1898. In 1897, according to the same authority, the govern- ment appropriation for education was S39,6oo,ooo. *Jost's Annuaire de V Enseignement Frimaire for 1894. See Law of April 29j 1893. ^ Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1896-97, p. 44. 123] TEACHERS' SALARIES 2$ The legal minimum salary averages about $2^$. To the minimum must be added an indemnity for rent, ranging from ^20 in towns of less than 100 inhabitants to ;^400 in Paris. Additions to the minimum salary are made for the possession of the " brevet complet," the silver medal, or for honorable mention, and the commune often increases the amount. Promotions depend partially upon length of ser- vice, partially upon recommendation.' After thirty years service a pension is sure, but the maintenance of the fund entails considerable hardship upon the teachers.' In the following table are presented some of the best salaries open to teachers in the United States. No data are accessible for making any instructive comparisons with salaries paid in European cities. The average salary of the London teacher is ^739-' In Commissioner Harris' Report for 1895-96 are given the average salaries of teachers in one hundred and twenty-eight German cities, in 1889. In forty-seven cities the average salary exceeds ;^500 and 20 per cent, additional for rent. The highest averages recorded are in Frankfort on the Main, ^^743. 50; in Leipzig, $701; and in Berlin, ^700 (with the additional 20 per cent, in each case). When we consider the much smaller cost in Germany of all that contributes to the teacher's culture, these salaries compare very favorably with the average paid in our best American cities, for example, in San Francisco ^922.82,'* in Boston ' Jost's Annuaire. Law of April 29, 1893. 'Pensions are fully discussed in the U. S. Commissioner's Report {ox l894-'95, p. 1079. » Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, l896-'97. See Schedule, p. 44. *The City School Report for 189S, showing 1070 teachers, paid $987,412.21. 'Statistics for 1899, showing 2038 teachers, paid $1,963,255.18. 26 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [124 Xjbibs 8 vo in"^0 »no 000000 o>^o t>.t-^LnMsD lomo ^J^ »nvo 8 £.8 8 8 s. J2 \o ro f^ r^vo vo 00 vD m "^ t^oo i^ r^ •-« t-^ m^o m i^oo ■3 iiininix'Ej^ «% ct (^ 1 ,Sj'3M0B9X 00«0i^O000O>J-iO0Q00OOO0 Cfi AJ^lUg m XT) u-> t>. "^00 or^O"^00 000 inoo in ^ ranaiiuin ,si3qD«aX AjtiEg mnni 8 8S 88888888888 2,8 5888 "8 iO'-« '-' 0\0^0'^ M^O mO mr^O^ OSO Moo TS -IXB^ J3A0 wt-i rocii-ii-i«>-'i-ii-i«t-HCIW roMi-Mi-ii-ii-i pUB SUIOOJ ** tM ri S ■b 'sj^dpuUij XjBiEg mnm cio«ooboiou^*o ooooooo« i -rail\r 'J3AO c5 puB sraooj t 'SJEdlOUUJ • Xa^pg S.85 888 8 8 8888888888888 tunuiixEj\[ >-< ro M >-«NMt-ii-iwNNM»-« rO w W « d i-i t-i ■g ,S)U1!)SISSV «% ^ XaE[ES MOOGOOOOQOOOOOOOOOO l^0in"->0000-0"->0000io0iO0in \ w mnuiiuij^ .HI ,SJUE)S1SSV u Xje^s 8S'=g8S,8S888888S888888 "8 1 0'^I>«Oi^mmM W OiJ^mOOi'lO too '<3- «i-« coroMN row W « cnroN roioM rocOPl w W UITllUlXEpj iSJEdlOUUd =69= M IS ta (0 u» (0 iOO ow ooomoimwoOO -^ cT •-*" -4 CO «" cf\Dd tCi>ldiod>focri>l.iriind" ly-i »-i ^ ►.! 10 fO »H ro 9^ jCpsjEuiiisg) gl ui uoijEindoj 00 00 Q 00 0» ONOO 0^ OsOO 00 a\O\Q0OD0CO000O00 O\Os0 0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0 0^0^0^0^0^0^ 1 JESA t^ ^^ On r^co 00 00 t^oo 00 r>. t--oo 00 o^^^^>■^^^^^^^^ 0^0^0^0^0\0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0\ ooaooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooocxjoooo > •s .5 "S . ' " c c C fc!. 2i3 4 7 !? m CO •? t Is n im -is^ ■Ji 1 i5 pC i-H 'S ^ J.K a « g!>< IS S5S ^§6 S6^ ON d >A « ,S> s .» M HI « "s. t 1 I •a \ ii •5 ^ ^ fci « V s "K > 0. t!< en 125] TEACHERS' SALARIES 27 XiEi^s Soooooomo O =0 O O O in 0000 O O N N vo m t^ r^ O inino 000 in o O N O O fOO CO -* in O m o O >n jCiBi-eg uinui -IXEI\[ 'J3A0 pUB SUIOOJ I 0000 ,0000 000 000 00 »nM o o in o o o inin fo o o o^ AiE[Bg uinra -IUIJ\[ 'J3AO pUE SlUOOJ ■b ',s[i3dpuUj[ Eh u 13 Id fd 1-1 H U3 C/3 ?; < uinoitxB])^ (SiuBisissy 0000 .0000 O \r\\r\0 u->W)N m CT\30 CX) m . 10 u-» ^ T^t- O yD o 10 ON O 100 o o OOOOOOOOu-i OOu^OOjOOO**- O Q ON N roo ON ON O 000 000 ■I (M -^ 000000 O "^ 10 O O O 00 N TfX « ON OOOOOOOinin OOu^u^O^OONO^ y3 00 00 I>.^0 ^O UT^ 000 •O ON t>. 0000 u^m ro lOi-i M r^30 t^ao 00 UTO 10 ,S[BdlOUU(J 4U3pU9]UU3dTlS (pajBuiiisa) 9631 UT uoi;B[ndO(j JB3A OOQOOOOOO 000 OOQi^O'OOQO 000 u-i un o « i>.00 in N i-i ON Tf O «5t 000000 O O O O O m "->■£> GO M 30 c^i 0000 0000 r>. >n O ON 0000 0000 0000 000 509. CJ N M O Q O 6 O O 000000 m*-" O O "^ o rO N ro M « « ooofoooooo 000 ooo'-tooooo 000 000*^00000^ ^00 8" 10 cJ CO 10 10 iPixT o" kT d" 'f W O 1^00 li-j'd-rOCO •^ \r\^ N 11 m^ O O O O r^ O o o 106 a\ o O O t^ O On O ON ON 00 onco o 00 q on OnONOnOnOnO OnO on "I "1 "I "l "1 "1 "1 111 00 00 t^OO t^ On t-. OnOO OnOnOnOnOnOnOnONON ooaooooooooooooooo 00 r>. !>. On 0\ On 00 00 00 ONOO 00 r^oo 00 On On On On On O^ "i "t "j "1 "1 "1 00 t-» t^»^ t-». r^ On On On On On On 00 0000 00 00 00 bjO C M 3 11 to . 13 ^" >-*< S C • ■-• ■ . ii lu n ..«j" 3 lU 5 U 4) S .3 « •- -2^ .S -S M c « 3 > s I** 1— > PLi ■e " s.S s . *i 5 2 Xi « §-3 S 01 — u * 28 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [126 O OOOQOioOOOOOO "^K3 o m ro o o^^o o \0 r^ OS r^ O uinui!U!j\[ ,SJ3qoB3X XaT3[EC^ LuntUl -XEJ^ 'JSAO piiB smooj fr '.SlBflpUUfl AaB[BS tunui -laiM 'aSAO pnc siuooi 1? *,SIBdl3UU(J u CO rantaixBI^ XjBlBg (SiuBisissy mniuixBj^ ,sit!diouuj §000000 OOOOOOulO'p O O loirio mmo lo^no^ '-' O O 000000 .000000 "^Q OQOOOO oOOOON>pO 800000 mo O O mo O t^ O u-j O^ O t^ t-» ONvO 00 80000 o o -^ o OOOOOioinO IT) o O ^'i "^ r^vO O U-»Q 000 i-i o o mo M u-1 ^ M OS M W ?4 1-1 ■-• 00000 M O 00 100 r^ r*. O Os O O 00 Q o\ o o»vo , t^ 0\ t^ ON o 8 O I o Q I m ro O ' 00600000 *-nO Q 8 000000^3*^00 coi-< ««■-<« m « ►-« « 000 000 00 t^o O 'LT, o vo ;u3pu3iuusdiig (pgiEuirjsa) 9631 UT uoptiindoj i-esx u 80 o o o o < O O O O Q ( O O O O "O O VI u^ CO fn « m !>. H 800060000 OOOOQOOm O O ■^ O O O invo fO CO -^ W W Vj- ro N CO >-t O O O O O O - ro CO 00 ggo mO O CO O 9, °- S. °-, ^ "^J O- ®- "^ '^^ ^- OmO'«o"ovOM"o"'-*'orC. „„ •o «oo rot->.'-' rooNioroN •-' u^vo CO tH (-4 VO M vo <-• O dOO ON ON OnOO C t^OO On O 00 O^OO f^ 00 ON ON On a\ OONOnOnOnOnOn6 0nOnOnOOnOnOnOn OnONOnOnOn "1 "1 ~l "1 "l "1 "1 "l "1 '1 "1 '1 "l "1 "1 "1 *"| "1 "1 "1 "1 ONOO r^oo 00 00 f-- OnvO t-^00 ON r^oo r>.vo t-^oo 00 00 00 ONOnOnOnOnOnONOnOvOnOnOnOnOnONON OnOnOnOnOn 00SO000O000OO00C00O000300OD0CO00 0000000000 « . o • . '.'.' '-^ '. 3^s^ :^ ■ : :-^ |l ■ 127] TEACHERS' SALARIES 29 It must be remembered that "average salary" corresponds to neither the relatively high salary of the cities, nor the rela- tively low salary of the country districts, though including both. While the American teacher is protected by no min- inum salary, he is bound by no uniform legal requirements. In most cities, with their higher salaries, we find provision for both mininum salary and uniform requirements in the schedules, while promotion is made dependent upon grade of certificate, upon the superintendent's recommendation, and upon length of service. Where merit is one of the factors fix- ing salary, the advantages of the schedule are obvious. It frees the Board of Education from the burden of annually determining mdividual salaries, and from much of the politi- cal, factional, and family influence upon appointment and promotion, while it affords opportunity for bringing in strong new talent. Freeing the teacher from an annual bargain, it eliminates much undesirable competition, stimulates continual effort, and conduces to a feeling of security as to future income. This is particularly true in the primary and grammar schools, where a high degree of specialization is not commonly demanded of the teacher, and, hence, where the number of persistent applicants is very large. For high school positions the need of a schedule is not so strongly felt, either by the school boards or by the teachers. Although schedules are used and have a legitimate place in the large cities, as in- dicated by the following table, the number of positions to be filled is much smaller, and the election by the board depends much more upon superior scholarship, which presupposes a college or university training, than in the primary and grammar schools. While schedules of salaries in cities are a decided advantage and safeguard both to the schools and to the teachers, a single schedule should never extend beyond the local unit of public school organization. The vitality and excellence of the American school system is stimulated by its dependence upon 30 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [128 local initiative, its great variety of school systems, its freedom for experiment, its lack of extreme centralization, from which the French school system is suffering. What teacher, what body of American teachers would exchange their uncertainty of position and of salary, their opportunity to increase their income by increasing their efficiency and by change of loca- tion, for the certainty of both position and salary in the deadly routine of the French system ! The following table gives a few of the best city schedules in this country. No attempt is made to show their relative merits. Each differs from the other, each has its own merits, and all have been developed by years of experience according to the needs and the genius of the several localities. 129] TEACHERS SALARIES 31 1/1 8 li-l %9» rt "3 M fj w S t Q s OJ u u m J3 !^ 00 increa 5 th year. rding to t ■* « w-- < psuiEjqo ^ .5 ^ .a .c ^ .g .5 £ -S ■£ ranmixEj^ -"^SA ^^"A NTN ^loinin'trN LTN^ « 00 O 0000000'Uro«««N4w l-« «% -—y-' QOOOOOO. «30«..0 00000 loio t^O I^ Tj- HH NO 1* ro r^NO , . --i- 10 ON . . u^ XiE[Eg mnuiiui^ 10 «5 ««W.<«M --l-IM ■« M. 1 . ^3 S •,„,„».. 2 _. S, 2 C 1 Principals . . Asst. Princip! Head Assista 1st Assistants 2d Assistants 3d Assistants 4th Assistant! 5th Assistant! Head Mastei Masters . . , Jr. Masters . Instructors . . Asst. Instruc Principals . . Sub Masters Heads of De 1 ■5" i^ 00 jCpajEmijsa) t.. 00 N o^ 96gl ui uoi)E[ado£ •z 2 i ui S >< Mo. 00) iass. 00) ford, 99) U Louis, 1899-' iton, M 1 899-' w Bed 1898-' 55 M :z; u w ~ I o -S ■S.S •s -J" H 0* 32 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [130 o IS » 03 ^1 jj- N u M, J2 S^J= a bjQ M a eScho hool, S tral Hi .cos (U ■" en u A According to According to Principal of C pauiEjqo rS £ •£ •S •£ -o ■S : !-« f T3i3 -a -3 •5 ranraix-BH JBaj^ isii j; 10 u-» ^ r^ Lo ro -^ fO vc ro m ro ■* 1/ asEajDui k\resj^ OOOOOOOUUOUC inmiommu^inc c cj c c W, M 1- §§ 888 0. It B S C R S B 000000000000 8888>8cg Xat![BS ranraixBH OQOOOUOOOOmiooO inO t-fON 0^lO ONDO ro N lA (M N »-. i-t i-i i-t roi- w t-i »- M N hH hH CO" M a» XjEps uinniimni OQQQQOOOOO .0 .0 oooooo"~iQoo mo §11 • ■§ M M b^ M iM « w • M M 09. [/] u ' " , ^ • ■ , ctf . . (U B • m • • • ■ H • »■ ' M i-i «-> 4-> s • .. • ■ Tl . CL ' ' U] . P< 1 iters Mast itant! tants tants Is . Is . fDe ts B g § 1 *3 to Head IV Masters Sub-Mai Jr. Sub 1st Assis 2d Assis 3d Assis Principa Assistan' Principa Heads 2d Assis 3d Assis 4th Assi; Principa Heads Assistani iCpSlBIHIJSa) I 8 § 00 § 968 1 ui uoijBindoj i in 00 « M CO • • S -2 t-H M .S .2 g »00 8 ^> ^ g .1. •5 OS s ^ > ^^ ^ _ t-l C Nw* nt C/3 U U (^ m 131] TEACHERS' SALARIES 33 o o M o W Pi Q K o CO 13 t/1 b/l ■n fe-S .S 5 .0 T3 -G d year ;he B s of aught, accor aught. DOlS. r teac halls. c» S-- >-1 ^ "2 •«■ S -S ": t .^ Jraj _D.S e.^ ejtndP 0) ording to the E rly increase aft alaries fixed 1 within the 1 schedule. ording to subje alaries determii to positions he ording to subje^ ies in different 50 to S150 extr in charge of St , — ■ — ' < '-V-' <;>>-v-' pau|Biqo -S -S ' ■&' ' ^ ■ ■ J= mnmixB[^ o\o\ '"^ t^ asuaiDuj u^^vuouua)(UUOin t-^30 o^ 5 u^ r^ Th mo u-jI^mM a^triNOO com o O^M 1^30 mnuiixBCT MhH««lMHH^«WMW WMHHHH^I-, « 56: XiB[Eg >oo .oTogoQo .o . . rOinOOOOOOO (^ 2888 mnuimipi HH Ml ■ hH C^ Ml hH M 00 O ■* "-1 8ft . ... >-v-' £ • C ul ■ o t; r^ O ■U^ O 1 id • • id o. . . o. 4) • ■ qj i» »■ m id ■St^ id • • • n° Q ■ -Q ^^ .-I u s . a e c S -.SfiJ=Q . • Ph J»^ »J2^ i3.a S S i3 S.3 i2.^330^ i" J2 i2 nsl=1is^^^Js-^.S.S.s1-s.S 1 t(paiBca '^ o 00 9 00 o" "^ u-» tC o -qsa) 968 1 ui uo!}B[tidoj -f 2 -. - » ^ (J Cal. . . -'99) eles, Cal. -'99) ee.Wis. , -'98) e, Ky. -'99) s, fenn. -'99) .apids, M -'oo) tj U -ooo ^^ ■^i^ :3o6=:t>o Mcn itg- ^^ 1^ a=g':s^ -^^ 3c:. sC. :!::. g'^s^ a-^ O ^ S J ;z; o I - s 2 4* S. >. « J. H " « X .- ■^ V JJl « ■* 1 ?! >< CO U ri' tA «4 34 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [132 .5 ■5 ti K T3 TJ C c c;t cJ A "^ cS , 1 Si -s? !>-';:■;: •S to- 0^ in paureiqo ranra .a •S ,5^^,5^,5^.05 -JXBM 1B3A 5SJIJ P. !P. ■^^ ■* ■si-'S 'S ■« ■>1-^ 3SE3J0UI XjJBa^ a. t t K ii 8 888 s" c Ih 1-1 >- h. e hH KH E«- 8 000 Xj^ps uinuiptEj^ &§ m s,g in m « N 11 l-t " m « M /tiBiBg uinmiuin 8 in 8 88 00 in 8 Q m a^ m m N 00 N « « w M «fi- c i (A c 2d Assistants en 2d Assistants . . 3d Assistants 1 Group . . Group . . Group . Group . Group . .0 ■a 1 3 ^ to m s Principals, 1st Principals, 2d 1 Instructors, ist 13 T) « CO u \ g 1 4J 1 5 5 ^ : s ^ S&S^ a G I. en (pajErapsg) Ij \D 96gi ui uoi)B{ndoj c p > X. Is H c 1 < > j " Js r X s T33] TEACHERS SALARIES 35 2 o o o O a •< s Pi a. < en g s u t/3 w « a >> 1 %l t;?. j: J= J5 t^ U« i-fi VO VO T3 o n T3 -O u B o ii •e ■£ o ■fifi rt VO iri vrj B OJ bo Mia u J3 •S S Pi -a •3.2 ca u S^-o U d m L. kH £ .sfT W .£ .S s «. > |tX ^ pauiBjqo ■S 6 ■£ -S 13 -d -B -S ■£ £ 5 ■£ :S ■£ JB3A ;saiji ssBSJoai X[a-e3^ Xjbibs uiniuixBi^ OQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOU )QOQOQOOOQOO«vOQ O )OO0OOinir>OO00-<*-»- i-t onOO vO 00 t^^ nn ro M Oi ON « Xjb[bs 88? 8QOOOOOOQ«« ONOO t^O VO lOT^u^mo^»o smoo^ JO jaquin^ i(p3jBra -ijsa) 9631 ui uoijEindoj^ *- Ml os t^ "^ E5 cn WW M in M ^w tg (x a. a. OiO. Q* Dh^ 'G "o 'o 'o *o *y '5 s.s .s .s .S.S -S S 't^ ')_ 'iM »-( I- C J-" [— [ CL. (Xi cu p-i ph CM (i< a *2 « -; i« IW SS w is So a t3 B , 5 e I .§ .si 2 Bi •«! s O Q < Pi g rt pauiBjqo SSBSJOUX XjaBaj^^ XlUJES ranmixE]^ Xa^itis saiooy JO jsquin^ •^ ■£ ^ ■* O w OJ O m fl d o :« i3 Si '^ 'O '^ '^ ^3 "^ '^ U OJ OJ OJ (U 4J Th ■<* 10 m m t-^jS**^ ^ 10 u^ <2 (pajBui -psa) 9651 ui uopB[ndoj 00000 00000 O "10 OOOOOOOQOO o f^ o lo o loo 000000 -Ts.e- ■ •-; g fl a s > : ui ^ ri *^ 'C t^ ^ >!^ o P I— 1 1— ( . ;s > > > >* ^ 4j dj u (U V V ftj Tj 'O T3 'C 'O *© Pa cd rt nl <4 td nl rH t. U li Im )M li mOOOOOO S^ o » O 13 O g'tX) O ON c '2 e2 u 135] TEACHERS' SALARIES 37 o a H o 1/3 Pi paupiqo X[JBa^ X«IBS mnraixBp^ sraoo^ JO asqmn^ (pSJBUI -psg) 968 1 UI UOIJB[TldoJ ^ ^ ■S -S ■S 10 'O m 00 o ON t^ 0> 00 o o O O " ■'O l-H 2 o .0 .0 .0 a 2 o .0 .j2.a ?. . K o .0 E->'o " I— I xnmviuittimmm . o .0 . 'G -5 o6p^ iTjOriOcdOnlOPH O. O D- O Oh O •r\ Ji: -^ ^ ■- ^ w j« en in en V} ^ n. U rt o " -O o» O - O 38 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [136 .- .-- ^TixriO ti r^ -13 w t^inia T3 T3 t»lN « I-. cd cd Ml « «. M, ;a . ^ *=■ >^ ^1 N S 'T3t3T3'Uo'^oj S ^^ l-( ■3 «,«iw«sg gd " f^l>,>, P^ eomwmiiciJ^'dOOO S 1^ h P4 U 01 » .■"■":■" «J 5 5! s ^ s s ■« 1-5 .-§• ■s-s^'Ss-gi^«£« 1 oj 'c3 rtg ou(uug — .S""" 1§ e ^ = fi p c c _ — 'O l-l U-. ^ ^ ^ I paaiEiqo ;5 a tnnmixBjn JB3A JS-IIjI "^ g in 3S33J3aX u icK^8 s> vge's's"?- ranuiixBj^ t^ \0 r^ r^ vo C^^O vo VO N t^O>0 O\00 a Q r. XjBIBg • 8 0000 00000 u-lioioui OOOOOON < umraiuij^ . . a 3 s smoog 1 JO jaquin^ 1 ■* u tu '13 "T3 • « • . . . Z i 2 -S .0 •J: ■" ■ 'H 7 g 0) . u • ■"s ■ JS • 43 • ■> . -30,. . T3 . h-4 1 tn Ui tti a 9 a ills •5-a «> > 1, 0. " . • 2 Ix! B 1. g 0.0 a D a, -a _. (A . W mm a,rtP.''olin Pi ja ^ 01 w 01 u a c 73 -a T3 -o a soaTS-a-o a-cSS22 -g s'2 222 i „• fe -a T3 U3 i«0 « « 1 du £ < 00 Oa-OOJO £ <|5000 5 (paiBui g 00 » 2 a ^ OT -psg) 96gi 0" ui uoi}E[ndoj ? 8 00- .2 *-; "« i tH J3 S li S a\ poo •2 00 -^oo ^cffl g— gC.^^ U Ph t-\ 1 -S 6 si "I o en •a " no ^ rI g 2: « fli IS .!<•§ M U E ^ to a." en 5 137] TEACHERS' SALARIES 39 o o » u (/} •«: Pi O a •< Bi P4 ■< en ■J g H s o CO a P4 pauiBjqo ssESjauj Xj^lEg mnuiixB]^ XjE[t!S UIOOJ JO j[3qum»y[ PL| (p3;BUi -ijsa) 968I ui uoijBindoj u J3 o 3 u - O ■5 ° >< e v. S S £ X J2 .J=! CO iri lom ^■S -5 -S -S -S \0 vO o ^ ^ o C IS (3 S -vO O 800000 00 vo 't « O o xmo "^ 10 "^ 0000 5 o o o *0 'O o ^ 000000 u-j »o "^ 10 u^ "^ CO CO ro CO CO CO X .— « w ci • (J '^ "^ J5 c 2 ^ r '5 I .5 -S •:> > C? y tn tn s a g>-S^ ^ >-• ^ )i )-< >-• [fl • "ri "i-H a. .-H •u > c « I ■S B -J cj I/} U U U s < T3 -a -a 5 ea eij d i3 1-3 a i I— i « tf) i_t "-* 1-^ , t> '. I ^ O a ^ .S30--J0 tS cij ri ot id c4 1 o o o o o o ' g E u .2 I o 00 S ON rtoo S t- ■a'i ■a C- s o 40 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [138 1 jT J^ t** t^ ^S-^- ^ x t B J $41% for each \ above 1 2 to : / $50 for each 1 above 6 to i r paaiEiqo ■S'S'S .£ •5 •£ ■S •£ uinuiixEj^ ^^^ O^ 0\ ro ■S ■£ JB3A jsaij • "^ H* 11 n « m 3SE3J3UX a s s° . in CO N S- "S3 ■* CO ro Xjeibs mioo 8 8 8 ■ 1 1 uintuimpj N O. m -^f n ro S^ m o% «9, ir, M fc- w (L> ^ u ^ IX t> > sinoo^ JO Jsqranjj W M c 2 1 c 1 " ! 2 1 • ■ s. .;< t/} • U] U) >- l-l ^ cn w rt . 1 Q " ri flJ 1 Principals . . . Principals . . . ry Principals . . ades .... VIII . . s III.-VII s I. and II . . . « 1/5 1 1 u .£ .S n Principals . . n Principals . . Grades n 1st Assistants- last 2)4 yrs. of n 1st Assistar r years of course. n — 1st yr. and 1 of course n— All other y se ^ ^ (M .7 ID U U PH Ph lU V \ V -g^ (U > o a (i;^ > ^2 00 B 'Z^ ■& > a\ 1^ tX ON S^ J^ ^^ ■£05 s g s t» to h_ o w. o "•am a-S Ir: "O M A. ■0 -i s"|. m 8! 00 G fil m |o y -O a -"S (4 — » 00 jj o I b" ■« * *i o » M ^ S M 00 H 2 -fi u 2 ^ *; •'^ "S "B 139] TEACHERS' SALARIES 41 'Be a K o rt paiirejqo aSEaaoaj iCpEaj^ AiBpg rammxB]^ AiBfeg uinraiuij^ ja j3 j3 O O Q I'^i^ "^ O O O O r^ 1^ r^ O »o N u^ M w o O N M M I-. w I-. i-i _W 000 000 N « « suiooy; }0 jaqmnjij o PL, (pSJBUIIJSa) 95gi u; uopBindoj 1^ N O O C^ ON u^ 10 P. P. a.i» 5 a 3 c 2 S S « o o o .'2 ^ ^ C (/) t/l CA U} (/} u,4 g, o, g<.o. 'O "U 'U *0 '^ rrt rrt PL| P4 Pli PL, a CJ O > m 6 'I 2 o « o to c O ^ L4 11 ^ b« bo .5.3 ■K ° ;§ «l J. & 1 S 3 .2" tj B w i- in i> ^ >2 nt ,1: By action of Board of Education, March 19, 1898. 52 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [150 sufficient to provide for a standard of living w^hich will fit the teacher physically and spiritually for his work, which will in- clude a home, books, study, travel, recreation, and provision for old age. Increased efficiency on the part of the teacher can be used to strengthen his position as a bargainer, and, therefore, to increase his salary. Through better training, through unselfish devotion, through participation in social movements, through professional unions, the teacher must finally gain the public respect and recognition as expressed in a standard of living compatible with his great mission of passing on, undiminished and untarnished, the life-giving spirit of free institutions. PUBLIC SCHOOL MAINTENANCE While the teacher can make demands for a sufficient income to support him in his chosen standard of Uving, the amount of school revenues in a given year limits the amount of salary that can be paid. If dissatisfied with this amount, the teacher must seek a locality with larger funds. Because of the importance of this factor in determining the teacher's salary, because of the unlimited strength it gives to the school board in bargaining with a teacher, I have presented a study of public school maintenance, including the units of public school organization and administration, the sources of public school revenues, state vs. local units of school taxation, and the methods of distribution of school moneys to the school districts, ISO S3 VI THE UNITS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINIS-. TRATION The Federal government stands in the same relation to all the states. It has general administrative powers, but it has no proper educational functions within the state. The state gov- ernment exercises special administration within its boundary, and in education it is the central authority. The sub-division of the state for the purposes of local government shows a variety of civil units. 1. The town system of local government: The town, corresponding in general to the township farther west, is the unit of local government in New England. It is also the local unit of school organization and administration. The county unit exists, but it is more judicial than political in character. In Rhode Island it is wholly judicial. 2. The county system of local government : In the South and in most states of the West, the county is the local civil unit. The town or township does not exist as a political or civil unit. The county is divided into districts to define the jurisdiction of justices of the peace, into election precincts, and sometimes into school townships. 3. The mixed system of local government : In the Middle and in some of the Western States, the town and county systems exist together, certain powers being dele- gated to each. The township is less prominent than the New England town, and the county is more prominent. There are two types of the mixed system. In New York and the states that have imitated her, the county legislative and executive S4 [152 153] TEACHERS' SALARIES cc board is composed of supervisors elected by the several town- ships, while in Pennsylvania and the states that have followed her example, this board is composed of commissioners elected by the county at large. The New York type tends to emphasize the township ; the Pennsylvania plan, the county. The units of public school organization and administration follow, so far as possible, the civil units of government. Aside from the country school examiners of Vermont, no mention of the county is made in any New England school law.' The Southern States make little use of the town or township; while states having the mixed system of local government em- ploy both units in public school organization and administra- tion. But owing to the extreme importance of the enterprise, and its local character, an independent and ultimate unit of school organization and administration has been created. This unit is the district, and it is ordinarily a body politic and corporate. With such assistance as it receives from the state or county, it provides and carries on its own schools, independent of any other unit. It raises funds by taxation, and expends them subject only to the law of the state. There are two types of the school district. 1. The town or township district system. 2. The district system. The town or township district system^ is wholly different and separate from the town system of local government de- scribed above. The two systems may exist together, but not necessarily so. The town or township system is found in con- nection with both the town and the mixed system of local government. Geographically, they are generally identical, but are managed by boards wholly or partially independent of each other. The local authority is sometimes a school com- ' Vermont, Maine, and New Hampshire once enacted laws creating the office of County Superintendent, but these laws have been repealed. ' Called also the town or township unit system. 56 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [154 mittee, as in Massachusetts ; sometimes a board of education, as in Ohio and New Jersey ; and sometimes a trustee, as in Indiana. The school children within this unit may be brought together to one or more central points, or the unit may be marked off into districts, or sub-districts, and the children attend the school of their district or sub-district. 2. In the district system the district is commonly a subdi- vision of the town, as in Connecticut, or of the township, as in Michigan, or of the county, as in Virginia. It is the ulti- mate unit of school organization and administration, has its own school committee, and, with the aid it receives from the state and county, provides buildings and carries on the schools. Special districts, city districts, borough districts, etc., are usu- ally organized after the general plan of the district system, and, hence, fall under this head. In a few states the county is the unit for the entire local administration of public schools, and Texas has the community system of local administration in thirty-five counties. Counties generally receive, hold, and disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by the subdivision of counties. Towns or townships generally per- form the same function for districts formed by the subdivision of the town or township. In a few states, districts have their own tax collectors and treasurers.' ^ Report of U. S. Commissioner 0/ Education, l896-'97, p. 1540. VII THE SOURCES OF PUBLIC SCHOOL REVENUES The educational items for public school maintenance have assumed great proportions in the United States. The Com- missioner of Education reports the total expenditure in the states and territories of the Union for the year iSgS-'gy, not including the payments on bonds, at ^187,320,602. Of this amount the North Atlantic and the North Central States alone expended nearly ^149,000,000. Eight states expended more than ;^S, 000,000 and less than ^10,000,000 each. Four states, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois, expended more than ^10,000,000 and less than ^20,000,000, each. New York alone stood above ;^20,ooo,ooo. Twenty- six years ago the total expenditure was ^69,107,612, or but little more than one-third of the present expenditure. In 1870-71 the total expenditure per capita of population was ;^i.7S, while in 1896- '97 it amounted to ^2.62, indicating that the increase of ex- penditure for public education has much more than kept pace with the increase of population. In those portions of our country where public education has thrived most, the expendi- ture per capita of population for 1896-97 was, in the North Atlantic States, 1^3.62, in the North Central States, $3.08, and in the Western States, ^3.49. Many teachers, law-makers, and other believers in popular education, seeing the increasing needs of public education, and realizing that competent teachers and good equipments cannot be obtained without a great expenditure, have made every effort to increase the receipts for maintenance. On the other hand, the taxpayers, who have borne most of the burden, have not infrequently used their influence to keep 155] 57 58 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [156 down the school tax- rate and the school appropriations. These questions now confront us : How shall adequate funds be raised without proving too great a burden to the taxpayer ? In the effort to obtain school funds, have the most equitable methods of taxation been employed? Have all individuals of the various commonwealths borne their just proportion of the burden ? To state more concisely, what is the most effective, and at the same time the least burdensome method of raising revenue for the support of public education? The two principal sources of school revenue are : 1. Income from school funds, permanent and special. 2. Taxes levied on the basis of real and personal property, and a capitation tax. Permanent funds first demand attention. In the land ordi- nance of 1785, Congress initiated a policy which has been es- tablished in all the public land states of the Union, and which has laid the basis for a permanent school fund in each state. Section number sixteen of each congressional township was set apart for purposes of education. The public land states, comprising all except the original thirteen, with Maine, Vermont and Kentucky, may be divided into two classes.^ From the admission of Ohio to that of Ar- kansas (1803-1836), Congress gave to the congressional town- ships, severally, six hundred and forty acres of land each, for the perpetual use of 5chools, and vested the title in the state < legislature. Consequently, in these states every township has its own independent and permanent school fund," which is sometimes managed by the local authorities, and sometimes by the state. In general, the sum of the township funds makes the so-called state school fund, so far as it is derived from pub- lic lands. From the admission of Michigan to that of Utah (1837- 1895), Congress gave the common school lands to the states ' Report of Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, p. 35. ' Ohio, and possibly other states, offer some minor exceptions. 157] TEACHERS' SALARIES eg as units, instead of to townships. This resulted in the estab- lishment of consolidated state school funds. Since the admis- sion of California (1850), 1280 acres of common school lands have been set apart in each congressional township, compris- ing sections 16 and 36, or lands in lieu thereof Most of the non-public-land states set about the formation of permanent endowments for public education out of their own resources. In nearly all of the states the permanent funds thus inaugu- rated have been augmented in various ways. The whole or a part of the Federal Surplus Revenue Loan of 1836 was de- voted to this purpose by all of the states ' except Virginia, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Michigan. Several states have made appropriations for investment in bonds and stocks, and the proceeds remaining from the sale of swamp lands' have in many states been made a part of the permanent school fund.3 The permanent funds are generally supplemented by special funds, which are made up of taxes on railroad, telegraph, and long-distance telephone lines, banking, trust, and express com- panies, building and loan associations, and accumulations of de- positors and stockholders, of private gifts, of special legislative appropriations, and of money derived from fees of auctioneers, from trade-licenses, from dog taxes, and from fines.'* These special funds, so far as they consist of taxes on large com- panies and corporations, and so far as they are made up of di- rect legislative appropriations, as in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, are reported as taxes, and often form a considerable 'Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, . Maryland, North Carolina, Georgia, Ala- bama, Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. 2 By Act of Congress, 1850. ^ Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1896-97, pp. 642-661. * For a peculiarly long list of miscellaneous taxes and fees see the state school laws of Delaware and Georgia, 6o THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [158 part of the state school money. The remainder of the special funds, made up from miscellaneous sources, is of compara- tively little consequence. Income of State School Funds and Rent of School Lands ' Divisions 1889-90 i896-'97 Increase Per cent. Increase United States N. Atlantic S. Atlantic S. Central N. Central Western i!7.797,927 1,025,600 427,156 1,452,487 4,326.839 565.845 $7,846,648 1,044,074 45i,5'4 854.903 4,750,541 745,616 $48,721 18,474 24,358 Dec. 597,584 423,702 179,771 0.6 1.8 Dec. 41. 1 9-7 3I-7 The income of state school funds and rent of school lands during seven years has remained about constant for the whole country, increasing six-tenths of one per cent. In the Western division the income has increased 31.7 per cent, which is due partly to the establishment of school funds in Montana, Wyom- ing, Idaho, and Washington since 1890, and partly to a great in- crease of this income in California and Nevada. In the South Central States the income has decreased 41.1 per cent., due partly to the appropriation of the money for other purposes, and partly to the fact that Texas, in recent years, has re- turned most of her large income from the state school fund as state taxes. While the income from permanent funds has not increased materially, the total school revenues, as has been noted, have increased nearly three fold in the last twenty-six years. This augmentation is due to increasing taxation, by means of which, in every state of the Union except New York, Minne- sota, Nebraska, Nevada, and Idaho, at least 75 per cent, of the school maintenance is raised.^ '^ Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, i889-'90 and 1896-97. ^ Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, i896-'97, p. LXX. 159] TEACHERS' SALARIES 6l When the permanent funds were first provided for by Con- gress, the poHcy was sanctioned by the majority of people, first, because of their belief in public education and its obvious necessity, and, secondly, because it was believed that permanent endowments would greatly ease the burden of taxation for school puposes, and would keep the machinery of the state constantly running and well regulated. In many of the states,^ especially when they were new and poor, the permanent en- dowments unquestionably hastened educational development, but it is certain that they have also often done great harm. The enormous increase in population throughout the country, and the improved systems of education, have created an enor- mously increasing demand for school money, yet the existence of state funds has often caused the people to rely upon them instead of supplementing them by the only adequate source of school maintenance — public taxation. In Texas, which has probably the finest permanent school fund in the Union, public education has undoubtedly been hindered instead of helped by its existence.^ The public lands are not increasing in value, as was expected, and their existence causes the state to resist taxation for school purposes. "In 1853, Connecticut was ex- pending on her schools only one-third as much per pupil as the neighboring states were expending, while she was raising by taxation only one-tenth or one-twentieth part as much as they were raising per pupil. Dr. Henry Barnard says, in 1856, ' Taxation for school purposes had not only ceased to be a cheerful habit of the people, but was regarded as something foreign and anti-democratic. The supervision of most schools had become in most societies a mere formality, and the whole system seemed struck with paralysis.' Enough has been shown to support the conclusion that while the state school funds have encouraged and fostered pub- lic educationjin new states, they have never proven adequate 1 Report of Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, Appendix B. » Ibid., Appendix B. 62 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [i6o to the demands of education ; that the incomes from them have not increased as was anticipated by their founders, but instead have remained nearly stationary, with a diminishing ratio to the whole revenue; that, with the increasing demands for school revenue, they have hindered taxation. It is evident that most of the school revenues are raised at the present time, and must continue to be raised, by taxation. Whether the school revenues are sufificient to maintain the schools, and whether they are to increase with the rapidly in- creasing demands of education, depends upon how much society wants public education — how much surplus utility the people place upon the public school system. ^ With taxes as the principal source of school revenues, we will now consider the units of taxation to be used. The Federal government has never made direct appropria- tions out of its treasury for the support of public schools, ex- cept in the city of Washington, nor has it the power to levy direct taxes for the support of any Federal function. Congress has virtually delegated that function of education to the sev- eral states, by setting apart lands in the public land states for public school purposes and vesting the title in the State legis- lature. The first Act of this kind occurred in the Land Ordi- nance of 1785. In the Ordinance of 1787, Article III, we find the following statement : " Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." The practice of the courts in giving the Federal constitu- tion a strict construction, and the State constitutions a liberal construction, has prevented the Federal government from undertaking the administration of the public school system, and has delegated that function to the several States.' Thus', a system of free public education, recommended to the North- ' Report of U, S. Commissioner of Education, 1896-97, p. 636. l6l] TEACHERS' SALARIES 63 west Territory, and, hence, to the states carved from it, and encouraged by Federal land grants, has become a part of the constitution and statutes of every state in the Union. The principle is firmly established that the whole state is responsible for the education of its youth, and that the whole wealth of the state shall be made available for that purpose;' hence, the right of the state to impose a school tax for the education of its children, rich and poor alike. That such education shall exist is determined by the several constitutions. The extent to which it shall be carried is determined by the several legislatures. ^ The local units of school taxation follow in general the units of local government and local taxation. The principal excep- tion to this order is the school district, where it exists geo- graphically independent of any other local unit of government or taxation. The school district is a unit of local taxation in a majority of the states. In studying the basis and amount of taxation two points are to be considered : 1. The basis of school taxation should be such as to cause the burden to fall upon the citizens of the state according to their ability to render support. 2. The amount should be such as to produce sufficient rev- enue to support an efficient public school system, and to pro- vide for variations in the amount of revenue according to the school population. So far as there has been state taxation (and it holds only in less degree for smaller units), the state legislatures have lev- ied such taxes, as to both kind and amount, as the taxpayers would tolerate. In but yery few cases have the direct needs of the schools been consulted. Taxes for school purposes exist in great variety. The prin- cipal tax is a certain rate on real and personal property. The principal state tax in Florida, Maine, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minne- ^ Report ofU. S. Commissioner of Education, iSgfr-'g?, pp. 634-637. 64 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [162 sota, and Kansas is one mill on the dollar of property valua- tion ; in Tennsssee and Nebraska, one and one-half mills ; in Illinois, two mills, and in Arkansas not to exceed two mills ; in Virginia, one to five mills ; in West Virginia, a tax of ten cents on each ;^ 100 of taxable property; in Maryland, ten and one-half cents ; in Indiana, eleven cents ; in Texas, eighteen cents; in Missouri, not to exceed forty cents; in North Carolina, eighteen cents on property and credits ; in Kentucky, twenty-two cents on real and personal property and corporate tranchises. This basis of taxation provides a lump sum — probably what the taxpayers are willing to pay — but it bears no relation to the present or future needs of the schools.' The capitation tax of from fifty cents to two dollars, which exists principally in the South,'' finds its origin in the belief that every citizen, however poor, should bear at least a small part of the burden of public education. The gain to the indi- vidual gives justification for this belief, but the larger purpose of public education is public gain — the protection of society against the intrigues of the " unsocial." The practical objec- tions to the capitation tax are that it is a difficult tax to col- lect ; that in any case the revenue therefrom must be small ; that it bears no relation to the needs of the schools ; and that, while it might tend to interest every one in education, the amount is not sufficient to produce that result. i In Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, New York, and other states, the legislature makes annual appropriations to supple- ment the other school revenues. In Oregon the county courts levy a tax on all the taxable property in their respective counties, which aggregates as ^ Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, l896-'97, p. 642-667. ' In Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas, Arkansas, Indiana, North Dakota, Wyoming, California. Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, l896-'97, p. 642-661. 163] TEACHERS' SALARIES ge much or more per capita for each child within the county between the ages of four and twenty as did the school tax of that county for the year 1892. The merit of this plan is that it provides for a variation of school revenues in propor- tion to the variation in the school population. The result is that the county taxes show a decided increase in the past six years, while the revenues from the state and district have decreased.' New Jersey has taken a step in advance by recognizing primarily the needs of the schools, in levying a state tax on real and personal property equal to $iy for each child in the state between the ages of five and eighteen years. For this reason New Jersey leads the North Atlantic States in state school funds, an^ at its last session the legislature re-appor- tioned a surplus of ^1,000,000 of state school money. A plari equally successful in raising school revenues, and providing for county taxation, also, according to the needs of the schools, is found in California. In every county of the state whose population is less than 200,000, the county super- intendent estimates the minimum amount of school money to be raised by the county on the following basis : For every seventy school- census children, or fraction thereof not smaller than twenty, he calculates one teacher, and for each teacher, ^500. From this amount he deducts the total amount of the state apportionment, and the remainder is the minimum amount to be raised by the county, provided that the total amount shall aggregate $6 for each census child. The plans of taxation in New Jersey, Oregon, and California are based on the necessity of recognizing the needs of the schools primarily, with provision for variation in the amount of tax according to the school population. At the beginning of the inquiry as to sources of public school maintenance we asked, "What is the most effective ^Oregon State School Report, 1898, p. lo. 66 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OP [164 and at the same time the least burdensome method of raising school revenues?" We have found: 1. The permanent and special funds which were established to give permanent support to the public school system, and to relieve the burden of taxation, are rendering but little support, and are entirely inadequate to meet the demands of public ed- ucation. 2. The per capita tax is necessarily small, hard to collect, bears no relation to the needs of the schools, and has no influ- ence to interest the community in public education. 3. The only remaining source of school revenues, taxation on real and personal property and on corporate industries, is entirely adequate to meet the demands of public education, provided that in levying such taxes the needs of the schools are made the primary consideration, as in New Jersey, Oregon, and California. 4. Property taxation is not necessarily burdensome, be cause, in a general way, wealth increases with the population. The principle is established that public education is a civil function, and that the wealth of the state shall be made avail- able for its support. The burden of school taxation can be made to rest equitably on all parts of the state by proper dis- tribution of the tax levies as between state and local taxing units. This will be discussed in the following pages. VIII STATE VS. LOCAL UNITS OF SCHOOL TAXATION School revenues are raised generally from the state as a unit of taxation and from one or more local units of taxation. The principal arguments in favor of the state as a unit of taxation are, equalization of the burden of taxation, and the possibility, with proper distribution, of maintaining a uniform standard of educational efficiency. If the ratio of population to wealth were the same in all parts of the country, it would make no difference whether the school tax were levied upon large areas or small ones. But this is not the case. The cities are centers of both absolute population and school population, and also of wealth. But their wealth tends to increase much more rapidly than either the absolute population or the school population. Most of the large fortunes of this country are either made in the cities or tend to flow into the cities. To indicate the disparity of wealth in different communities, Supt. Wells of Wisconsin published facts for several states in 1893, which show that the tax rate in Rhode Island was fourteen times as high in some districts as in others, and simi- lar disproportions existed in Connecticut. In New York, the tax rate is often " seven times as great in one district as in an- other in the same town, and the per capita cost of educating a child is eleven times as great."' In Massachusetts, the tax rate varied in 1897 from thirty-one hundredths of a mill on a ' Township Systems of School Government, Madison, Wisconsin, 1894. 165] 67 68 ■ THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [i66 dollar in Gosnold to nine and twenty-one hundredths mills on a dollar in Tyngsborough.' Thus great disparity of wealth exists between different parts of a state, between city and country, between different parts of a county, and even of a township. Since we consider public education to be a state function, a state tax is legitimate and is necessary to equalize the burden of taxation and to enable every part of the state to enjoy a good public school. Only by means of such a tax are the cities likely to contribute as they should to the country schools. This theory is perhaps carried to an extreme form in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Mississippi, where there is raised by State taxation 85.6 per cent., 79.6 per cent., and 75.5 per cent, respectively, of the total school revenues.' The same arguments apply in favor of a county tax as against a township or district tax, and of a township tax as against a district tax. The district is the least desirable tax- ing unit. The larger the amount of revenues raised from large taxing units, the more nearly is the burden equalized, and the greater the possibility of the attainment of a uniform quality of education throughout the state. For the year iSge-'g/, the Commissioner of Education re- ports that 18.6 per cent, of the total school revenues come from state taxes. The scale ran from no state tax in Massa- chusetts, Iowa, South Dakota, Kansas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, and Washington, to a state tax of 85.6 per cent, in North Carolina. ' Mass. State School Report, i896-'97, p. 339. * Heport of U. S. Com. 0/ Education, i896-'97, p. LXX. 167] TEACHERS' SALARIES 69 Per Cent, of Whole Revenue Derived From' — Permanent State Local Other Divisions funds and rents Taxes Taxes Sources United States 4.2 18.6 67.8 9.4 North Atlantic 1-4 17.0 67.4 14.2 South Atlantic 4.0 36.1 5'-7 8.2 South Central 6.4 S9-8 29.8 4.0 North Central 6.2 9S 77-9 6.4 Western S-7 23.6 639 6.8 From the second column in this table we find that a much larger percentage of the school revenue is raised by state taxation in the Southern than in the Northern and Western States. This is due, first, to a difference in the units of gov- ernmental organization; second, to a difference in initia- tive in arousing and maintaining interest in public education ; third, to a difference in the elements of society and of social organization ; fourth, to different economic conditions ; fifth, to consequent different habits of taxation. While the Western division appears to contribute 23.6 per cent, of the total school funds by state taxation, only five out of eleven of the Western States levy any state tax for school purposes. The Northern and Western States, relying so much upon local sentiment, initiative, and enterprise, are much more in the habit of taxing local units. The total school revenues of the North Atlantic, North Central, and Western States receive from local taxes, respectively, 67.4 per cent., 77.9 per cent., and 63.9 per cent. (i896-'97). Local taxation develops enterprise, self-reliance, and local character, and tends to keep alive the interest of the people in the schools. The American common school is the people's school, and must have the support of its patrons, the people of ' Report 0/ U. S, CommissioKer cf Education, iSge-'g?, p. LXX. JO THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [i68 the community. This social support cannot be easily obtained without money investments by the community. If there is sufficient enterprise to raise money for the local school, there is likely to be sufficient enterprise to see that the money is wisely expended. We have already shown that it is unjust to expect each poor school district or township to support its schools entirely by local taxation, but each and every school district or tiDwnship should raise a sufficient school revenue to insure interest in the schools, and to insure wise expenditure of school moneys. The source of community interest in the public schools has changed from that of former times. When the patrons of the school donated the teacher's board, furnished lumber and built the school house, cut and hauled the firewood — when the boys built the fires and the girls swept the school-house, interest in the school was assured. At the present time all these public services are measured in terms of money, and are paid for in general by a local tax on the community. Interest is aroused now, not by services, but by the payment of taxes for services. This is the primary reason for a local tax large enough to make the school felt as a local enterprise.' In no way is the necessity of developing local interest in public education better shown than by an examination of the value and condition of school property. In most states, land, buildings, and furniture are supplied entirely by local taxation, and generally by the school district or township. This fact accounts for the fine school plants found in enterpris- ing localities, and the astonishingly poor plants found where en- terprise is wanting. The educational tone of the community can be largely judged by its school plant. Concerning the school houses in the districts of the old de- scendants of the Acadians, on the upper St. John River, Supt. ^ Maine State School Report, 1898, pp. 20-25. 169] TEACHERS' SALARIES -, Stetson of Maine says : " The majority of the schools in- spected are taught in school houses which are wooden shells without interior finish, and are provided with long tables for desks and benches without backs for seats. The most of their teachers receive their training in schools supported in their own territory. The wages paid are not sufficient to make it possible for many of them to attend schools other than those within easy access." ' In North Carolina, where previous to the law of 1897 no local school tax was raised except in chartered towns, Supt. C. H. Mebane, in advocating a township local tax, says : " As a matter of fact, under the old law, in many instances, there are three huts, not school houses, each receiving about ^75 per year. Under the new law it is possible to have, instead of three cabins, one good school house near the centre of the territory covered by the three cabin^, and have ;^225 for this school. Instead of having three ;^I5 teachers, we may have one good II50 man or woman, that may do more for the school children in four months than, under the old system, was done in two or three years."' The average value of school property in the State of North Carolina is ^159.03 per school for white children, and ^120.88 per school for colored children.' In Georgia, the average value of school property in the coun- try districts is ^127.31 per school.* In New York State, which is typical of northern enterprise and interest in public educa- tion, the average valuation of the country school plant is ^1463.32.' Taking into consideration the sparsely populated country districts of the South, the poverty of the country population, • Maine State School Report, 1897, p. 54. « N. C. State School Report, 1897-8, p. 70. ' Iliid.,'p. 318, table IV. * Georgia State School Report, l897-'98, p. CCCCLX. ^New York State School Report, 1898, p. 45. 72 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [170 the low valuation of real estate, and the fact that comfortable school houses can be built for one-third of their cost in the North, still the local enterprise and interest in education is at an extremely low ebb, when the value of the school plant averages from ^120 to ^160 per school. To increase the rate of local taxation would be to increase also the local interest in the schools. The local units of taxation vary greatly in different states.' The county, the town or township, and the district, including the special district of cities, the joint district, etc., are all used as taxing units. In Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and New Jersey the district system has been wholly swept away, and the town system established. In Connecticut and Rhode Island the town system is permissive, and exists side by side with the district system. The township system exists in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, and is permissive in the upper peninsula of Michigan, in Wisconsin, in Minnesota, and doubtless in other states. The following table shows the percentage of school revenues raised from each of the local taxing units, so far as this can be obtained from the state school reports." The percentages are calculated on the basis of the amount of school money actually raised for the year indicated. The balance from the previous year is deducted. ' See state school laws. " This information from the following states is not available : New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Indiana, Missouri, Arizona. I/I] TEACHERS' SALARIES Per Cent, of Revenues from each Taxing Unit. 73 State c g 1 >.' U3 % S u s s i * tfl U H Q u H Maine 98 3S-° 65.0 65,0 Massachusetts 97 '•S . . 98.4 O.I 98.4 Rhode Island 97 7-4 . . . 64.2 ■ 8.7 19.7 72.9 Connecticut . 98 14.7 550 25.9 4-4 80.9 New Jersey . 98 42.4 . . . »5S.8 1.8 5S-8 Maryland . . 98 26.5 73-5 . . . 73-5 Virginia . . 97 52-5 14.4 . . . 331 . . . 47S West Virg nia 96 17-3 •82.7 . . . 82.7 Georgia 98 75.0 . . - . . . •25.0" 25.0 Florida . 96 19.1 71.8 • . ■ . . . . . . 91 71.8 Kentucky . 97 59-7 3-3 . . . II. 2 25.8 . . . 40.3 Alabama 98 73-S . . . • • • I.O . . . 26.5 Texas . 96 66.5 8.8 . • . 5-7 15.2 3-8 29.7 Arkansas 98 26.6 ... . . • 70.8 2.6 70.8 Oklahoma 97 °32-3 • • > 61.2 . . . 6.5 Ohio . . 97 12.4 •72.6 . . . . . . 15.0 72.6 Illinois . 96 6.8 0.1 5-7 87.4 . . . 93-2 Michigan 97 24.1 . . 67.S 8.4 67.S Wisconsin . 96 16.7 16.8 ' 3-8 35-5 22.0 10.2 78.1 Minnesota . 97 22.5 »6o.6 16.9 606 Iowa .... 97 9-5 '80.1 . . . 10.4 So.i North Dakota 98 28.3 61.1 . . . 10.6 . . . South Dakota 98 •22.2 . . . . . . 74-9 2.9 Nebraska . . 98 < '75-2 18.6 6.2 '93-8 Kansas . . . 98 •9.8 . . . 87.1 31 f^-i Montana . 98 '66.3 183 '5-4 84.6 Wyoming . . 98 S-7 25.8 64.5 4.0 90-3 Colorado 98 24.4 . . . 49-S 26.1 49-5 New Mexico. 97 . . > 69.1 30-9 1 00.0 Utah. . . . 96 33-2 3°-4 . . . 35-9 °-5 66.3 Nevada . . . 97 59-6 37-9 2.4 0.1 40-3 Idaho . . . 97 8.1 54.5 . . ■ 36.2 1.2 90.7 Washington . 98 647-9 . . . . . ■ 50.6 "S Oregon . . . 98 10.8 53-4 . . . 18.1 17.7 7I-5 California . . . ■96 44.8 24.8 '12.5 17.9 37-3 1 Includes income from state funds and state taxes. ■Includes city revenues. * Includes three counties, • Includes county funds. • Not often reported separately. * Includes district taxes. * Includes township revenues. 74 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [172 This table shows the principal local taxing units in the several states to be as follows : North Atlantic States : The town, in Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey. Southern States : The county^ in Maryland, Florida, and Alabama. The disti-ict and city, in Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia, Kentucky, Texas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. North Central States : The county, in Minnesota and North Dakota. The township and city, in Iowa and Ohio. The dis- trict in Illinois, Michigan, South Dakota, and Kansas. All the local units, in Wisconsin and Nebraska. Western States : The county and district are the principal units. In France the primary schools, both elementary and superior, are supported in part by the State and in part by the commune. The State insures the teachers a legal minimum salary,' with small additions for the silver medal, for the brevet complet," and for honorable mention.^ The communes have the privilege of increasing this minimum. In 1891 the State paid for teachers' salaries about 88 per cent., or ^20,o68,002, of the total expenditure for salaries. The communes paid about 12 per cent., or ^2,676,834.57, of the total amount. In addition to this voluntary contribution, the communes furnish the school plant and pay indemnity for the teachers' lodgings.^ In conclusion, we find that both state and local taxes are necessary to an ejfficient school system. State taxation, with proper apportionment, equalizes the burden of school mainte- nance, and makes possible a uniform standard of educational efficiency. Local taxation creates self-reliance and local char- 1 See page 24. ' Each department council makes a list of merit. For " honorable mention " the first eight on the list receive f 20 for the current year, the second eight get J 10. • Stalistique de I'Enseighement Primaire. Tome Cinquiime. 173] TEACHERS' SALARIES 75 acter, and tends to interest the community in the schools. No general rule can be laid down that shall govern the division of taxation between state and local units. Two things must be considered : The political institutions of the state — whether centralized in the capital and county seats, or de- centralized with fully developed local self-government — and the social and economic conditions. But state aid should be made contingent, in part at least, upon what the local units do for themselves. The New England States could probably follow to advantage the example of Maine and raise one-third of the total school revenues from state taxation. The Southern States should stimulate local spirit and effort by increasing the amount of local taxation. North Carolina is making every effort to introduce a township special tax, made optional by the law of 1897. In 1898, eleven townships voted such a tax. State Superintendent Mebane maintains that " a local tax by townships is the only hope for rural districts in North Caro- lina." ' The French schools are supported chiefly by the State. State aid is not made contingent upon a local tax, with the exception of the indemnity for teachers' lodgings. The contributions of the communes are voluntary, and the schools are imposed upon the communes by the State. ■ In a personal letter dated April 4, 1899. IX DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL MONEYS TO THE SCHOOL DISTRICTS According to what method shall the state, the county, the township school moneys be distributed to the districts? If funds raised from large taxing units are not distributed in such a manner as to cause the rich localities to aid the poor ones, then the large taxing units should not exist. " On no other principle can a state school tax, or even a county or township tax, be defended, unless indeed the county or township is a single district.'" The problem is to dis- tribute such revenues so as to aid the poorer districts. A study of existing methods of distribution will furnish a basis for suggestion and criticism. Congress has followed two different plans of distributing the income from school lands in the public land states. From the admission of Ohio to that of Arkansas (i 803-1 836) the 640 acres of land given to each congressional township by Congress became the independent permanent school fund of that township, sometimes managed by the local authorities, sometimes in the keeping of the state. If the township unit system prevails, the ultimate distribution has already been determined ; if the district system, then the township distributes to the districts. From the admission of Michigan to that of Utah (1837-1895), Congress gave the common school lands to the states as units. This results in the establishment of con- solidated school funds. The annual income from these funds is distributed by most states to the local school organizations * Report of the Committee of Twelve, p. 35. 76 [174 175] TEACHERS' SALARIES 77 on the basis of children of legal school age, as enumerated each year. This principle of distribution is followed far more generally than any other. Maine distributes all her state school money to the towns according to the number of children between four and twenty-one years of age. Connecticut distributes the annual income from her permanent state fund, and the pro- ceeds of the tax of ;^i.50 for every child between four and sixteen, according to the number of children between these ages. The following states apportion certain of their school revenues according to the same principle: Pennsylvania, her state tax of ^5,500,000 annually; Ohio, the proceeds of her one-mill tax ; Michigan, so much of her specific tax as goes to schools ; Indiana, Kentucky, and Alabama, the proceeds of their state school taxes ; Iowa, Kansas, South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Oregon, Missouri, Texas, and Florida, the proceeds of their permanent and special state school funds ; Georgia, Maryland, West Virginia, Tennessee, Louisiana, Illinois, and Nevada, the proceeds of their state school funds and state school taxes. But other rules of distribution are followed, and to them we must look for suggestions for the improvement of the basis of apportionment. Alabama and Louisiana distribute their poll tax, of not to exceed ^1.50, according to the number of polls collected in a district or parish. Delaware apportions her state school moneys to the counties according to their white population, as determined by the census, each county dividing its share equally among its districts. Vermont apportions her state tax to the towns, cities, and unorganized districts according to the number of legal schools maintained during the preceding year, New Hampshire ac- cording to the number of pupils returned as attending school not less than two weeks in the year. Rhode Island appor- tions her annual state appropriation of ;^ 120,000 as follows: ^100 is first assigned to every school, not to exceed fifteen in 78 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OP [176 number in a township ; the remainder is then apportioned to the towns in proportion to the number of children from five to fifteen years inclusive. Massachusetts makes property valuation the principal basis of distribution. The scale is so adjusted that the poorer the town the larger the amount it receives from the state funds. So much of the permanent fund as goes directly to the schools is apportioned to the towns of the state having a valuation of less than ;^3,ooo,ooo. Towns ranking above this limit receive nothing. Towns whose valuation does not exceed ^500,000, receive each ^275. Those exceeding ^500,000 and not ex- ceeding ;^ 1,000,000, receive each ^200. Those exceeding $\,- 000,000 and not exceeding ;^2,ooo,ooo, each ^$100. Those exceeding ;^2,ooo,000 and not exceeding ;g3,000,000, each ^50. Another portion of the state fund is divided among the eligible towns on the basis of the ratio that the town's school tax bears to the whole town tax. The greater the ratio, the more help the town receives, and thus local taxation is stimulated. New York apportions her state moneys in a complicated manner. The State Superintendent first sets aside the annual salaries of the school commissioners. Then to every city, every incorporated village having a population of ^^5000 and over, and every union free-school district having a like popu- lation and employing a competent superintendent of schools, he sets apart ;^8oo. To cities having more than one member of the assembly in the state legislature, ^^500 is apportioned for each additional member. Appropriations made by the legislature for library purposes, ;^6ooo for a contingent fund, and a sum according to the ratio fixed by law for the schools on Indian reservations, are then set aside. The remainder of the state moneys is divided into two equal parts. From the district quota ;^iOO is given to every district in the state which has maintained its school in accordance with certain pre- scribed qualifications as to the teacher and the length of the term, with a certain sum for every additional teacher em- 177] TEACHERS' SALARIES yg ployed. The remainder is divided on the basis of population as determined by the last U. S. census, among the counties of the state, with a separate provision for cities that have special laws. The New Jersey state school tax, equal to $S for each child in the state between the ages of five and eighteen, is raised by the several counties according to their amount of taxable property. Ten per cent, of this fund is apportioned among the counties by the State Board of Education, " equitably and justly, ac- cording to their own discretion." The ninety per cent, remain- ing is then divided among the counties in the proportion that they have contributed to the tax. The state money, together with all other school money, is then distributed to the town- ships and cities in the following manner : For each teacher employed for the legal term, $200 is apportioned, and the remainder is distributed according to the number of chil- dren from five to eighteen, provided that no district shall receive less than 1^275, and that districts with fifty-five or more children shall not receive less than ^375. If these funds are not sufficient to maintain a free school nine months, additional taxes may be levied by the district for that purpose. The local one-mill tax in Minnesota is expended within the district where it is raised, and is, therefore, only a compulsory district tax. The current school fund of the state, which in- cludes the income of the permanent fund, is distributed accord- ing to the number of pupils who have attended school 40 days or more, in districts that have maintained schools for at least five months during the year. High schools meeting certain requirements receive state aid to the amount of ^400 each," graded schools under specified conditions of efficiency receive ;g200, and district schools employing a teacher holding a first grade certificate and maintaining their school plant in a speci- fied manner receive $50 each. These grants are paid from permanent appropriations met by general taxation. I If elementary Normal training is provided under state regulations, ^500 is paid. So THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [178 Wisconsin has an approved high school hst. One-half the cost of maintaining these schools is met from the state treasury, and ^250 in addition is paid to certain approved high schools in which manual training is taught. Nebraska distributes her state school taxes to the several counties in proportion to the enumeration of scholars. All county moneys are apportioned as follows : One-fourth of the total amount is divided equally among the several districts of the county, and the remaining three-fourths according to the last district enumeration of scholars. If a district has failed to maintain a school for the term required by law, such a dis- trict shall receive no share of the school money. In Oregon, the income from the common school fund is distributed among the several counties according to the number of children between four and twenty years. All the school money in the county treasury is distributed semi-annually by the county superintendent as follows : From the county school tax levy, ^50 each year is distributed to each district that has made a report according to law. The remainder of all school moneys is distributed to all districts that have made the lawful reports according to population between four and twenty years of age. In Nevada the State Superintendent apportions all state school money to the counties in proportion to the children between six and eighteen years of age. The county superin- tendent apportions all school money as follows : One teacher is calculated for each 75 census children or fraction thereof, in each school district. Forty per cent, of the school money is apportioned among the districts on this basis, an equal sum being paid for every teacher estimated. The remaining 60 per cent, is apportioned to each district in proportion to its num- ber of children between six and eighteen years. The California system of distribution is unique. The State Superintendent apportions the state school fund to the coun- 179] TEACHERS' SALARIES gl ties according to their population of school census children.' The county superintendent then computes the minimum amount to be raised in the county by taxation in the following manner : He calculates for each district one teacher for every seventy school census children or fraction thereof not less than twenty,' and for each teacher so calculated, the sum of 1^500. From the amount so obtained, he deducts the state apportionment, and the remainder is the minimum amount to be raised by county taxation, provided it allows $6 for every census child. The county superintendent distributes all school money to the various districts in the following manner : ^500 is allowed for every teacher in districts having 20 or more census children ; to districts having more than 70 census children, $20 additional is allowed for every such child less than 20 in number. To districts having less than 20 census children only IS400 is assigned. All money remaining is di- vided among the districts of the county in proportion to the average attendance during the preceding school year. These various methods of distribntion offer an opportunity for a suggestive comparison, and lead to several definite con- clusions regarding principles of distribution. I. The principle of distribution according to the school census or enumeration is open to serious objection, because the needs of the various school districts are not in proportion to the number of census children. For example, two school districts lie side by side, one having 25 children, the other 50 children of school age. One receives only one-half as much school money as the other, and yet it costs nearly as much to support the smaller school as to support the larger. The same might be true of two township units, unless the schools were consolidated. While the needs of the two schools are almost equal, one receives but half the amount of money received by ' Children from 5 to 17 years of age. ' According to the next preceding school census. 82 THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF [i8o the other. This rule for distribution is simple and easily worked, but it tends to defeat the end of state and county aid. 2. Rules of distribution based on school enrollment or attend- ance are open to the same objections. It may be urged that this will tend to stimulate attendance, but appeals to the dis- trict on that basis would not be likely to have any effect, if made. Further, such rules of distribution work in favor of the graded schools, on account of their larger enrollment and more regular attendance, and discriminate against the country dis- tricts where aid is most needed, 3. Distribution according to the United States census of population, as in Delaware, is objectionable, because the ratio of children to population is not constant in all parts of the state and county. It varies between city and country, in dif- ferent nationalities and classes of society. It is true, also, that great changes of population occur in the course of ten years, and it is possible that a populous district may, if new, be left without adequate provision. 4. It is obvious that distribution in proportion to the amount of taxes paid by each district, township, or county, defeats entirely the very purpose of using large taxing units. 5. The Massachusetts rule is open to the objection that the school needs of towns cannot be measured in all cases by the low valuation of property, as the number of schools to be sup- ported and the number of children to be educated are also « factors. 6. If distribution is based upon a specific amount per teacher, as in New York, or on a certain amount for each dis- trict or school, as in Vermont, Rhode Island, and New Jersey, the temptation is to multiply schools or teachers. This objec- tion is met in California by fixing stationary limitations — by reckoning arbitrarily a certain number of census children to each teacher. The California plan causes the wealthy districts to aid the poorer districts, and is not subject to the danger of undue increase of schools or teachers. l8l] TEACHERS' SALARIES 83 The principal objection to distributing fixed sums on the basis of arbitrary units, as in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon and Cali- fornia, is that they are necessarily complicated, but this is not a serious objection. The Minnesota and Wisconsin plans, of granting a bonus to schools employing teachers of a certain standard of preparation, have the merit of stimulating profes- sional preparation among teachers, and local pride in the well- managed schools receiving this bonus. The New York plan of distribution, though theoretically inferior to the California plan, results in bringing the wealthy localities to the aid of the poorer in a striking manner. Of the sixty counties of the state, all except Albany, Erie, Mon- roe, New York, Queens, and Westchester, received more of the state school taxes in 1898 than they paid.^ ' New York State School Report, 1898, p. 4- BIBLIOGRAPHY fiardeen, C. W. Teaching as a Business for Men. Proceedings of N. E. A., 1885. Barr, James A. Schedules of Salaries in 210 Cities. Stockton, Cal., 1894. Carnegie, Andrew, Cost of Living Compared in the United States and Great Britain. Contemporary Review, Sept., 1894. [v. 66.] Clark, J. B. 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France — Statistique de I'Enseignement Primaire. Tome Cinqui6me. Paris, 1895. United States — Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics of Labor of the State of New York. McDonough, Jno. T., Com. Albany and New York, 1897. Seventh Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor. Wright, C. D., Com. Washington, 1892. Bulletin of the Department of Labor. No. 18. Wright, C. D., Com. Washington, 1898. Digest of the Public School Laws of the States of the Union, [Reprint from Report of Com. of Education, 1893-94.] Washington, D. C, 1898. Wholesale Prices, Wages, and Transportation. 5 2d Congress, 2d Session, v. 1394. [Commonly known as" Aldrich Report."] Washington, 1893. Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-68 to i896-'97. Washington, l867-'68 to i896-'97. [20 vols.] Annual Reports of State and City Superintendents, as cited. [ 1 25 vols. ] 84 [182 3. The Basis of Early Christian Theism, by Lawrence T. Cole, Ph. D. (May, 1898. Price, 50 cents.) 4. Early Amerioan Philosophers, by Adam Leroy Jones, Ph. D. (May, 1898. Price, 75 cents.) VOL. 3. 1. The Formal and Material Elements of Kant's Ethics, by WU- liam Morrow Washington, Ph. D. (June, 1898. Price, 60 cents.) 2. A Syllabus of Psychology, by James H. Hyslop, Ph. D., Professor of Logic and Ethics in Columbia University. (September, 1S99. Price, $1.00,) 3 &; 4. A Syllabus of an Introduction to Philosophy, by Walter T. Marvin, Ph. D., Assistant in Philosophy, Columbia University. (September, 1899. Price, $1.25.) VOli. 4. [The issues contained in Volume 4 are also Monograph Supplements to the Psychological Review.'] • 1. On Seuations from Pressure and Impact, by Harold Griffing, Ph. D. (February, 1895. Price, 60 cents.) 2. Mental Imagery, by Wilfrid Lay, Ph. D. (May, 1898. Price, 50 cents.) 3. Animal Intelligence, by Edward L. Thorndike, Ph. D. (June, 1898, Price, $I.