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MODERN PHILOLOGY: 
 
 |b ^xmkxm, 
 
 HISTORY AND INFLUENCE. 
 
 BY 
 
 BENJAMIN W. DWIGHT, 
 
 AUTHOn OF "the HIGHEB CHEISTIAN EDtrOATIOK." 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 NEW YOKE: 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER, 124 GRAND STREET. 
 
 1864. 
 
Entbred, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by 
 
 CHAELES SCBIBNEE, 
 
 In tlie Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Sonthern District 
 
 of New York. 
 
 JOHN p. TEOW, 
 
 rnmTER, STEREOTTFER, AND SIjECTROTVFER. 
 
 46, 48, & 60 Greese' St., New York. 
 
P R E F A C .E , 
 
 The author is happy to introduce to the readers of 
 the First Volume a Second Volume of "Modern Philology," 
 whose preparation was intended, at the outset, as the 
 proper complement of the First. The topics presented in 
 them hoth spread over a wide area of the most deeply in- 
 teresting and intimately related subjects. Their very titles 
 bear inspiration in them to a mind of scholarly tastes and 
 habits: "An Historical Sketch of the Indo-European Lan- 
 guages ; " " The History of Modern Philology ; " " Etymology 
 as a Science;" " Comparative Phonology," and "Comparative 
 English Etymology in its Classical Aspects." In Volume 
 First the historical, ethnographic and bibliographical ele- 
 ments of comparative philology are presented, although 
 briefly, yet, as it is believed, in adequate detail ; while in the 
 Second Volume its more scientific and practical characteristics 
 are offered to the view. From them both, as one whole, 
 any student of moderate classical attainments, and of but 
 ordinary force of will, can obtain, not only a competent in- 
 
VI PEEFACE. 
 
 troduction to the treasures of the New Philology, but also a 
 sufficiently strong sense of having mastered its comprehensive 
 array of materials and deductions, to be both able, and, as 
 the author would hope, eager, to pursue his studies, effect- 
 ively, for himself, in this most inviting field of research. None 
 but a willing novice, or intellectual loiterer, could expect to 
 be inducted into any tolerable acquaintance with the grand 
 outspreading themes of this latest, if not also best, of the In- 
 ductive Sciences without some, or even much manly effort in 
 climbing up its broadly overlooking heights. 
 
 The specific department of comparative grammar, as 
 such, which is a large and wide field of special inquiries and 
 relations by itself, is here purposely left untouched. For 
 light in this interesting sphere of research, let the student 
 resort to the works of Bopp, Schleicher, Meyer, and others. 
 Of the other elements, discoveries and relations of the great 
 science of modern phUology, of its inductions and deductions, 
 historical, scientific and practical, it has been the author's 
 effort to . give well-weighed, clear, quickening, and useful in- 
 formation. 
 
 Indo-European philology rests, like every other great or 
 true form of Philosophic Inquiry, on a basis of thorough 
 science. Nowhere can larger mixtures of the " utile cum 
 dulci" be found, by any one eager in the search for the 
 higher class of intellectual pleasures. Nowhere are there 
 finer combinations of history, poetry, and science, at every 
 point of investigation ; and nowhere, therefore, wiU the effort 
 made by any one, to present such combinations of fact and 
 philosophy, of utility and beauty, in a manner equally 
 scholarly and artistic, arouse to fuller action his best powers 
 of analysis, comparison, and description. The calmness of 
 logic here readily changes, with the flush of enthusiasm, at 
 some newly revealed or newly appreciated truth and its re- 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 lations, into the glow of rhetoric, as this in turn subsides, at 
 once, when the heat of the moment has passed away, into 
 more sober prose. 
 
 In the department of etymological research, in not only 
 the Synopsis, of one hundred and thirty pages of closely 
 condensed matter, but also abundantly elsewhere, in each 
 separate portion of this work, the ever present aim has been 
 to teU the truth, so far as ascertainable, rather than to recite 
 marvels ; and to be useful, rather than to make a glittering 
 show. The several thousands of English words etymologized 
 have been, most of them, selected on account of their value, 
 as component parts of the great staple substance of the lan- 
 guage. Reference has been had likewise, in respect to the 
 large number of Latin roots chosen for elucidation, with 
 regard alike to their individual value and their number, to 
 the growing disposition, so commendable in some of our 
 better academic and collegiate institutions, to put new stress 
 upon the study of Latin derivations. Freund's Dictionary, 
 or others like it, the only helps hitherto had, are too inade- 
 quate in themselves, as guides to true Latin etymology, to 
 seem even respectable to one at all acquainted with the rich 
 results of recent philological exploration. In Liddell's and 
 Scott's Lexicon, some few hints of Indo-European discoveries 
 in Greek etymology occur ; but on what principle they are 
 introduced, and not hundreds of others with them, who can 
 tell ? In the light of the English etymologies here furnished, 
 the narrow, uncritical, and unsatisfactory character, to a very 
 large degree, of those found in Webster, Worcester, and 
 Wedgewood, will appear in full manifestation ; and it will be 
 easy to see on what an empty basis English Lexicography has 
 been hitherto resting, in respect to the department of etymo- 
 logy, and so, by necessary inference, of exegesis and of de- 
 finition. No part of our literature, while yet itself the soul 
 
VUl PKEFACE, 
 
 of all the rest, has been, and still is, in such a meagre and un- 
 worthy state as English Etymology. Our recent writers, 
 who, like Marsh and Craik, have written long and well on 
 the history of the language, and its special Teutonic features, 
 have made no sallies into the field of etymology, although so 
 large and inviting ; and what little. Max Miiller has done in 
 such a way, while of equal interest and value in itself, has 
 been only of the most occasional sort, and on the most limited 
 scale. The copious etymological indexes, at the end of 
 this work, in English, Greek and Latin, will facilitate in- 
 quiries in the derivation and definition of multitudes of 
 English forms. 
 
 Three special features of the Synopsis of illustrative ety- 
 mologies, and indeed of the whole of the second volume, at 
 large, have been of great interest to the author in its prepa- 
 ration, as he trusts that they will also be to the studious 
 reader : — the exhibition of the Latin, in both its anterior or 
 derivative, and its posterior or germinant characteristics ; the 
 illustration of phonetic principles, evinced in the classical 
 languages, in their mutual aspects and relations, by copious 
 parallelisms in the modern languages ; and the grouping into 
 one connected view, of English forms, however diverse in ap- 
 pearance or in sense, that are etymologically correlated. Nor 
 does such a view of them simply gratify a commendable 
 curiosity, concerning their famUy history and connections: 
 it furnishes also all the more sure and satisfactory a basis for 
 a thorough, comprehensive understanding of their real, indi- 
 vidual significance. As French and German are also now 
 quite extensively studied and understood in this country, the 
 various aiBliations of words in these languages, which are 
 presented on quite a large scale, will, it is believed, interest 
 many philosophic students of their lingual features, and give 
 them a felt insight into the genius of their individual struc- 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 ture, with which, when acquired, they would be entirely un- 
 wiQing to dispense. 
 
 In nothing is the vast progress of Indo-European Philo- 
 logy, within the past five or six years, more delightfully ap- 
 parent, than in the greatly enlarged and improved range and 
 style of classical etymologies, beyond those of Bopp and Pott, 
 presented by such younger men as Kuhn, Schleicher, Curtius, 
 Corssen, Meyer, and others, like them for character, who, 
 though not occupying so broad a field of philological author- 
 ship as they, have yet from time to time honored themselves, 
 and various German Magazines, with superior articles and 
 monographs on difficult points of research ; and particularly 
 the "Zeitschrift zur vergleichenden Spraohforschung," now 
 in its thirteenth year of rich accumulation of philological 
 treasures, from the best minds in Germany. 
 
 The elements of the second volume, like those of the first, 
 were presented, in general outline, in successive numbers of 
 the Bibliotheca Sacra (in 1859-'62), but are here expanded to 
 more than twice their origioal volume and value. 
 
 Two classes of students the author has done what he 
 could to interest, in the study of comparative philology : edu- 
 cated Americans, generally ; and, in particular, our younger 
 classical students. Should his public labors in this newly 
 opened sphere of inquiry end here, he would fain express the 
 hope that many others will erelong traverse the same fields 
 of research, with far greater success to themselves, and with 
 richer profit to all who shall wait for knowledge, at their 
 lips. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 %-»-• 
 
 IV. 
 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Scope and Characteristic Elements of Phonology 3-9 
 
 I. Elementary Analysis of Words in the three Classical Lan- 
 guages 10-18 
 
 Relative Number of their Vowels and Consonants 14^18 
 
 n. The Vojrel-Systems of the three Classical Languages 18^69 
 
 First. Structurally 18-53 
 
 1st. In reference to Simple Vowels 18-32 
 
 The Mechanical Weight of the different Vowels. 19-21 
 
 Heyse's Physical Analysis of Vowelization 21 
 
 The Vowel a, as the one Primordial Vowel 23 
 
 Ebel's and Kuhn's Analyses of the Vowels a, e 
 
 and i 24-29 
 
 The Self-retentive Firmness of the Vowel u. . . . 31 
 
 2d. In reference to Vowel -Combinations 82-53 
 
 Long Vowels ; and Greek and Sanskrit Diph- 
 thongs 33-43 
 
 Latin Diphthongs (from Contraction, Guna and 
 
 Composition) 47-53 
 
 Second. Pathologically 63-69 
 
 1st. Counterpoises: or, the Mechanical Shortening 
 
 of Vowels 53-57 
 
 (1) In Syllables increased by Reduplication 53 
 
 (2) By Prefixes and SufBxes. (3) By Person- 
 
 Endings 54r-56 
 
 Cases of Vowel-Assimilation Discriminated, as 
 
 such 67 
 
 2d. The Doctrine of Compensations 57-60 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 FASE 
 
 (1) The Lengthening of a Vowel before a Rejected 
 
 Letter 59 
 
 (2) The Transference of a Rejected Aspirate 60 
 
 3d. Other Variations of the Radical Vowel 60-61 
 
 4:th. Contracted Forms 63-63 
 
 5th. Strengthened Forms 64 
 
 6th. "Weakened Forms ' 65 
 
 7th. Euphonic Additions 65-70 
 
 (1) Euphonic Prefixes 65-66 
 
 (2) Union Vowels 66-70 
 
 in. The Consonantal System of the Classical Languages 70-262 
 
 First. Structurally 70-94 
 
 1st. Simply : or, a General View of Consonants, as 
 
 such 71-75 
 
 2d. In Combination (in a threefold way) 75-85 
 
 (1) The Concurrence of any two different Con- 
 
 sonants 75-83 
 
 (2) The Gremination of the same Consonant 75 
 
 (3) The Union of two Consonants into one com- 
 
 pound Sound 75 
 
 § 1. A Synthetic View of Consonantal Con- 
 currences 76-80 
 
 (a) In the Beginning. (/3) In the Middle. 
 
 (v) In the End of Words 76-79 
 
 § 2. An Analytic View of the same 80-83 
 
 (a) The Combination of Mutes and Liquids. 81 
 
 (/3) The Combination of different Consonants 81-82 
 
 ■ (y) The Combination of two Mutes 83 
 
 Heyse's Phonetic Analysis of the Indo- 
 European Consonantal System 86-87 
 
 The Sanskrit Consonantal System 85-93 
 
 Second. Pathologically 94^262 
 
 1st. Generally ; with a general view of the lams of 
 
 change in word-forms 96-99 
 
 (1) The Continual Tendency towards Simpler 
 
 Forms 96 
 
 (2) Terminal Syllables more altered than Initial. 97 
 
 (3) Vowels more variable than Consonants 97 
 
 (4) The Course of Vowel-Change from the Pri- 
 
 mary to the Secondary Vowels 97 
 
 (5), Different Styles of Phonetic Changes 97i-99 
 
 § 1. The Change of an Aspirate before another 97 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 ' PAGE 
 
 § 2. The Oo-ordination of different Consonsints 98 
 § 3. The frequent Interchanges of Homoge- 
 neous Consonants 98-99 
 
 (a) Of Semivowels and Aspirates 98 
 
 " (/3) Of DiflFerent Liquids 99 
 
 ly) Of Different Mutes 99 
 
 § 4. Homorganous Consonants readily inter- 
 change 99 
 
 1st. The General Forms of Consonantal Changes are : 
 
 A. Substitutions 100-149 
 
 (1) Literal Substitutions 100-121 
 
 § 1. Those which are general, or weak 101-4 
 
 §§. 1. In reference to Palatals or Gutturals 101-4 
 
 (a) The Gutturals with o- become i 101 
 
 (j3) Those at first followed by t become 
 
 o- or T 102 
 
 (y) Latin e becomes sometimes ^ 103 
 
 (S) Latin g becomes sometimes c 104 
 
 (e) Gutturals sometimes interchange 
 
 'with Dentals 104 
 
 §§ 2. In reference to Linguals 104-113 
 
 (a) The Interohangeableness of Greek Li- 
 quids, as X and p, X and r, fi and y, x and p 1 04-6 
 
 O) Of the other Greek Linguals 106-7 
 
 (y) Of Latin Linguals, as d with t, r and I : 
 
 t with «; a with r 110-8 
 
 §§. 3. In reference to Labials : 1 13-5 
 
 (a) Initial Greek fi with /3 113 
 
 03) Latin v becomes sometimes u 114 
 
 (y) Gutturals and Labials interchange in 
 
 various Languages 114 
 
 (8) Linguals and Labials sometimes in- 
 terchange 115 
 
 §§ 4. In reference to the Aspirate A 115 
 
 § 2. Assimilative Substitutions 115-21 
 
 § 3. Dissimilative Substitutions 100 
 
 (2) Topical Substitutions 121-31 
 
 § 1. Metathesis (in Greek and Latin) 121-3 
 
 § 2. Hyperthesis 123-5 
 
 £. Insertions and Additions 126-31 
 
 (1) Prosthesis (of a, e, o, i, and o-) 125-7 
 
 (2) Epenthesis (of o-, ft S and 3, in Greek) 127-8 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 FASK 
 
 Epenthesis (of 6, d, n, p, and r in Latin) 128-31 
 
 (3) Epithesis in Greek 131 
 
 0. Suppressions and Abridgments 131-43 
 
 (1) Aphaeresis (in Greek, of cr, X, and /i) 132-3 
 
 Do. (In Latin, of s, ff, Jc, v, r, etc.) •. . . 133-4 
 
 (2) Elision, Syncope, and Ecthlipsis 184-7 
 
 (3) Apocope (in Sanskrit, Greek and Latin). . . . 139-48 
 
 D. .Weakened Consonantal Forms : as of t to o-, 
 
 of <r to the Aspirate, and of tlie Digamina 143-5 
 
 E. Strengtliened Consonantal Eorms. (By Nasali- 
 
 zation, Keduplication, Assibilation, and Epen- 
 thesis) 146-9 
 
 2d. Special Pathological Affections of Words 149-262 
 
 I. The Greek 149-217 
 
 Firstly. Its Dialects 149-154 
 
 Secondly. The Phonetic Force of the different Greek 
 
 Letters ; . 164-173 
 
 Thirdly. Special Affections of Words, especially in 
 
 Greek ^ 173-217 
 
 1st. Digammation 173-81 
 
 2d. Sibilation 181-8 
 
 8d. Aspiration 188-200 
 
 4th. Reduplication 200-212 
 
 5th. Nasalization 212-217 
 
 n. The Latin 217-262 
 
 First. Benary's Classification 217-18 
 
 Secondly. Phonetic Force of Latin Letters in Alpha- 
 betic Order 219-262 
 
 V. 
 
 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Value of Etymology and the Power of Words 267-71 
 
 I. Applications of General PhUology to English Ety- 
 mology 272-8 
 
 Ist. The English, one of the Teutonic Family of 
 
 Languages 272 
 
 2d. Grammatical Identity, the Basis of Linguistic 
 
 Analysis 278 
 
 3d. Early Grammatical Forms more complete than 
 
 later 273 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PA9B 
 
 4th. The Relations of Philological Analysis to the 
 
 English 274 
 
 5th. The Alphabets of all Languages, of Phoenician 
 
 Origin - 276 
 
 II. Leading Principles in the Study of Words 278-98 
 
 1st. Words never mere Arbitrary Symbols of Thought 278 
 2d. The whole proper Substance of a Word in its 
 
 Root ,. 279 
 
 3d. Mutilations of Word-Forms to be expected 279 
 
 4th. Words understood only in Connection with 
 
 their Cognates 280 
 
 5th. The radical Sense of a Word decided by its 
 
 Etymology 281 
 
 6th. No two separate Words of the same exact Sense 282 
 
 7th. The variable Senses of the same Word 284 
 
 8th. Seeming Correspondences often unreal 284 
 
 9th. Derivations of some Words unresolvable 284 
 
 10th, Words by Necessity of retrospective Force 285 
 
 11th. The figurative and pictorial Senses of Words. . 286 
 12th. Easy Convertibility of Words to secondary 
 
 Senses 286 
 
 13th. Words decay and die as well as living Things.. 287 
 14th. Determinate Laws of Criticism ever at work on 
 
 Words 288 
 
 15th. The Changes in Words evinced in their silent 
 
 Letters 288 
 
 16th. Consonants form the Skeletons of Words 289 
 
 17th. The all-revealing Power of Language 289 
 
 18th. The modifying Force of Climatic Influences . . . 289 
 
 19th. An "Imperium in Imperio " in Language 290 
 
 20th. The easy Devotion of Words to special Senses. 291 
 
 2l8t. Onomatopoetic Words in English 293 
 
 22d. The Self-Defining Force of English Words 294 
 
 23d. The Remarkable Permanency of Words 295 
 
 24th. The Latin Language the Pivot of English Ety- 
 mology 296 
 
 m. Specific Facts pertaining to English Etymology 298-370 
 
 First. Generally 298-305 
 
 1st. It is a vast Unity in Diversity 298 
 
 2d. Phonetic Principles latent and few 299 
 
 3d. No License to the Origination of new Words. . 300 
 
 4th. Our Language full of Abbreviations 301 
 
 5th. Latin-English Words quite degenerate in Form 303 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Second. Particularly 305-370 
 
 1st. Many Words, not seeming so, are of the same 
 
 Origin 305 
 
 2d. Many, so selfeming, are of diverse Origin 311 
 
 3d. Double Forms of the same Eadioal "Word 314 
 
 4th. "Words often greatly lose their original Elements 317 
 
 5th. Instances of Metathesis in English 318 
 
 6th. Many "Words taken without Change from other 
 
 Languages 319 
 
 7th. Kecent Words and Phrases so introduced 322 
 
 8th. Words of a diverse Sense from their Originals 326 
 
 9th. Words of an acqtiired depreciatory Sense 329 
 
 10th. Those derived from the Names of Persons and 
 
 Places 333 
 
 11th. Special Peculiarities of the English 334-370 
 
 § 1. Double Names of Animals, as such, and when 
 
 used as Pood 334 
 
 § 2. Divisibility of Grammatical Forms 335 
 
 § 3. But little minute modal Analysis 336 
 
 § 4. Some English Words elliptical 337 
 
 § 5. Some, corrupted in their Orthography 339 
 
 § 6. Causative "Verbs in English 340 
 
 § 7. Special Words of rhythmical Value in it 341 
 
 § 8. Its Capabilities for expressing abstract Re- 
 lations 342 
 
 § 9. Vowel-Changes in English Words 344 
 
 § 10. The free Use of Consonants, terminally 344 
 
 § 11. The Doubling of final Consonants 345 
 
 § 12, Reduplicated Words 345 
 
 § 13. Diverse Orthography of the same radical 
 
 Words 346 
 
 § 14. Different Degrees of Force in different Deri- 
 vatives 346 
 
 § 16. Hybrid Mixtures in English 347 
 
 §16. Some Conjunctions, etc., but concealed Verbs 347 
 § 17. Words turned from one Part of Speech to 
 
 another 347 
 
 § 18. Tendency of English Words toward original 
 
 Stem-Forms 349 
 
 §19. Vowel- Variations in Preterite Forms 349 
 
 § 20. Individual phonetic Changes in English 351 
 
 § 21. Tendency to Contraction in English 855 
 
CONTENTS. XVU 
 
 PA&B 
 
 § 22. Abundant use of Pronouns in English 357 
 
 § 23. Some Verbs of Motion have the verhTo Be, 
 
 for their Auxiliary 857 
 
 § 34. Absence of all verbal Forms of Politeness . . . 358 
 § 25. False Implications of Passivity in " moral 
 
 Actions " 359 
 
 §26. Compound Forms in our Language 362 
 
 § 27. Compound Derivatives from other Languages 363 
 
 § 28. Some negative Words, of most positive Sense 363 
 
 § 29. Great Conventionality of English "Words 364 
 
 § 30. Phonographic Tendencies 365 
 
 § 31. Capricious Action of " TJsus Loquendi " 365 
 
 § 32. Elliptical Origin of some "Words 866 
 
 § 83. Derivatives from Latin Supine-Stems 366 
 
 § 34. "Words expressive of general Standards of 
 
 Feeling 367 
 
 § 35. Marks of popular Confusion of Ideas 369 
 
 § 36. Different Classes of Words, from Different 
 
 Sources 369 
 
 § 37. Arabic and Persian Words in English 370 
 
 Object of these Philological Gleanings 374 
 
 Design of the Illustrative Synopsis 375 
 
 Mental Attitude of a conscientious Etymologist 380 
 
 Illustrative Synopsis of English Etymologies 381-511 
 
The following works the philological student will 
 find of value, in the various directions indicated by 
 their titles, in the special department of phonological, 
 and so of etymological, investigation : 
 
 Bopp's Vergleichende Grammatik (Neue Auflage) ; Rapp's 
 Vergleich. Gramm. ; Schleicher's Compend. der Vergleich. 
 Gramin. ; Leo Meyer's Vergleich. Gramm. der Griech. tind 
 Latein. Sprache ; Pott's Etymologische Porschnngen ; Be- 
 nary's Lautlehre ; Christ's Griechische Lautlehre ; Heyse's 
 System der Sprachwissenschaft ; Kuhn's Beitrage zur Sprach- 
 forschung ; Hofer's Beitrage ; Curtius' GrundzQge der 
 Griechischen Etymologie and Curtius' Schnlgrammatik ; 
 Corssen's Ueber Aussprache der Lateinischen Sprache, alsw 
 his Vokalismus, and his Kritische Beitrage zur Lateinischen 
 Formenlehre ; Giese's Aeolischer Dialekt ; Ahrens' De Ling. 
 Graec. Dialectis ; Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, and his 
 Deutsches Worterhuoh ; Diez's Gramm. der Roman. Sprachen, 
 and his Etymologisches Worterbuch ; Scheler's Dictionnaire 
 d'Etymologie Frangaise ; Littr6's do. ; die Zeitschrift fiir 
 Vergleichende Sprachforschung, 12 vols. 
 
lY. 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Vol. II.— 1 
 
MODERN PHILOLOGY. 
 
 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY * 
 
 Phonology is to modern apprehension, generally, a new 
 science. Several centuries, however, before Christ, San- 
 skrit scholars had thoroughly studied and classified its 
 facts and principles ; although, in every other language 
 it has remained, while possessiftg a potential presence in 
 it, unappreciated as a science to this day. The ear of the 
 Greek was, beyond that of any other people, vitaUy sus- 
 ceptible to its charms ; but the Greek mind was, in this 
 
 * The design of this Essay, which is an independent Treatise hy 
 itself, and the only one hitherto upon the subject in our language, is 
 to present, in a succinct view, the leading results of recent investiga- 
 tion into the variations of the same radical forms, in different lan- 
 guages. 
 
 The author is glad to hear, and to announce, that a work on pho- 
 nology is soon to appear from Max Miiller, in English. 
 
 The following abbreviations occur in this and the following ar- 
 ticle : cf. for Latin confere, meaning compare ; Eng. for English ; 
 Fr. for French ; Gm. for German ; Goth, for Gothic ; It. for Italian ; 
 L. for Latin ; M. L. for Middle or Low Latin ; Lith. for Lithuanian ; 
 Sp. for Spanish ; Sk. for Sanskrit. By the word paronym is meant a 
 parallel form in another language. Ags. is Anglo-Saxon. 
 
4 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 as in all other relations, too averse in its position from 
 the real God that made heaven and earth, to contain 
 to any large degree in itself any of the attributes or 
 even instincts of true science ; so that all its high phil- 
 osophical architecture, in every field of intellectual la- 
 bor, was only of the speculative order of composition ; 
 and more or less always of one of its two false kinds : 
 the sceptical or dogmatical. But, recently, phonology, 
 a science utterly forgotten among men, looking out, 
 itself, like an all-seeing spirit from within the folds of 
 every language, but seen of no one while lurking there, 
 has been detected and caught by scientific modern 
 exploration, and led forth again, a willing captive, ex- 
 ultingly to view. By the comparison of words in dif- 
 ferent languages on an extended scale one with the 
 other, as well as by the careful study of the various 
 graphic symbols of somid in the ancient tongues, the 
 secret treasures of this long lost science have been 
 finally disclosed ; and modern phonology is found, 
 when reduced to its last analyses, to be exactly the 
 same that Sanskrit grammarians, more than two thou- 
 sand years ago, defined its elements to be in their own 
 primeval language. 
 
 Two lines of investigation are open to the student 
 of words in the department of etymology : the one con- 
 cerning the anatomy of their individual constitution, 
 and' the other concerning their pathology, or the in- 
 fluence of time and circumstances upon ttem ; or. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 5 
 
 which is the same thing, their genetic structure as 
 Hving organisms, and their subsequent history and ex- 
 perience, as they have been borne from one cUmate or 
 age to another. As, in the forms of matter, we find 
 an inorganic element as the base, in combination with 
 one organific and vital ; so, in the forms of words, the 
 stem, theme, or base is the material element, and pro- 
 nouns, in the shape of suffixes, whether for verbs or 
 nouns, constitute the formative or organific element of 
 language. A similar distribution exists, to some ex-, 
 tent, between consonants and vowels, as the individual 
 components of a word. The consonants form its skele- 
 ton ; and the vowels, the living fulness of its strength 
 and beauty. They give language aU its variety of hue, 
 and all the play of light and shade upon its surface. 
 In the disposition of the consonantal elements of a 
 word lies the mere drawing of its outlines ; while the 
 comminghng of the difterent vowel-sounds constitutes 
 its full pictorial presentation to the ear and eye. 
 
 The fundamental constituents of speech are neces- 
 sarily, in all languages, ahke ; and not only so, but the 
 same elemental bases also prevail in all the occidental 
 languages of the M'orld, and constitute their common 
 osseous structure. Although therefore these languages, 
 like those who use them, are divisible into different 
 families and races, they are all still of one origin, and 
 possess one similar nature ; and yet each has some 
 sounds or classes of sounds that others reject, for eu- 
 
6 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 phonic, as we generally say, but reaUy for euphemic or 
 eulogic, reasons ; as it is the greater ease of utterance 
 in one case compared with the other, more frequently 
 than the mere greater pleasure had in the hearing of 
 a different sound, which determines the reason of its 
 adoption. The seeming differences, accordingly, of 
 the Indo-European languages, however great, are, the 
 mass of them, only seeming, and not real. 
 
 The organs of speech are the lungs, throat, tongue, 
 lips, teeth, nose, and roof of the mouth, with the va- 
 rious nerves, muscles and ligaments, used to bring 
 them into action. These are all greatly affected, in 
 their separate and combined development and action, 
 like the other several parts of the body, by climate, 
 food, occupation, habit, character, and culture. The 
 influence of natural causes in determining the specific 
 peculiarities of different nations, tribes, and families, 
 in reference to the cranium, face, eye, voice, chest, 
 figure, and even the most minute bones and organs of 
 the body, is very decisive, beyond the philosophy or 
 fancy of most even intelligent men, who are not spe- 
 cially conversant with the marvels of this sort which 
 abound in the natural history of man. One people 
 use more or less easily, and therefore naturally, their 
 hps, tongues, or nose, their teeth, or throat in speech 
 than others do, from the larger or smaller development 
 of some specific organ or organs, that, from greater 
 relative fulness or feebleness, are thereby specially 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 7 
 
 strengthened, or restrained, in their action. A differ- 
 ence also of more or less, in the general structure of 
 the minute parts of the ear, may sometimes perhaps 
 determine wide differences in this respect. It is a fa- 
 miliar fact, that climatic influences occasion wonderful 
 varieties of appetite and taste for food among men, in 
 the several zones of the world, and even, during differ- 
 ent seasons, in the same zone. And not only each lati- 
 tude, but also each local region in the same latitude, 
 under the influence of its specialities of landscape, air, 
 sky, and various physical surroundings, furnishes its 
 individual types of national stature, strength, com- 
 plexion, and features ; so that every nationality is made 
 to bear inevitably its own peculiar seal perpetually 
 upon its brow. And, as thus in the outer elements of 
 the human form, so, also in the inner bones, angles, and 
 muscles of the mouth, face, and ear, climatology opens 
 to view, as the result of its wonderworking magic, in 
 each varying portion of the earth, a surprising number 
 of diversified effects of its own upon man, made pur- 
 posely by his Maker the most impressible of all His 
 works by its influence. As in our compound nature 
 matter and spirit are mutually interlinked, and made 
 strangely magnetic and retroactive each upon the other ; 
 so, with a double tie of reciprocal adaptations, we are 
 placed, body and soul, within the physical universe, to 
 act freely and fuUy upon it, and in return to receive at 
 all times into every inlet of our being, in ways the 
 
8 ■ COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 most secret and silent, the subtle contact of its mani- 
 fold influences. 
 
 The greater preponderance, accordingly, of vowel- 
 sounds, in languages spoken in mild sunny latitudes, 
 and on the contrary the greater prevalence, as a gen- 
 eral fact, of consonants, in those which are spoken in 
 cold or mountainous regions, is not accidental. There 
 are no accidents anywhere in the entire realm of hu- 
 man causation, any more than in that of divine agency. 
 And so likewise the fact is founded on determinate 
 physical causes, that the French like nasal sounds so 
 much, while the Germans entirely reject them and 
 prefer gutturals, which the French dislike ; and that 
 the English and Americans have naturally high voices, 
 as also that those, in other climates and of other phy- 
 sical characteristics, have an utterance of a deep bary- 
 tone quality. The same primitive radical, as it took 
 on, in different places and ages, the influence of Celtic, 
 Greek or Gothic soil and culture, developed into quite 
 a different word-growth, of greater or less strength and 
 fulness in its foliage, of more or less brightness and 
 largeness in its flowers, or of greater beauty and sweet- 
 ness in the fruit hanging upon its boughs. 
 
 In phonology more difficulties are to be met than 
 in any other field of philological investigation ; mis- 
 takes are easily made here,, and at times indeed seem 
 on the review of them to have been almost unavoidable. 
 It requires a much more exact and critical scrutiny of 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 9 
 
 the organs of speech, than one not versed in such mat- 
 ters would suppose, and of their varied functions, as 
 well as of the most subtle affinities and repellencies of 
 sounds themselves, which are often as difficult of com- 
 plete mastery as any harmonist likQ Mozart, Hayden, 
 or Beethoven, could feel them to be in musical relations, 
 when searching for the beauties or wonders of sound. 
 Phonology is not therefore, as one of the inductive 
 sciences, a mere mass of linguistic facts standing ma- 
 jestically, like geology; as a column of beauty by itself. 
 Its complications, on the contrary, are many and wide; 
 and it rests for its base on a thorough philosophy of 
 the human voice and of all its necessities, capabilities, 
 and conveniences ; and its own superstructure of facts 
 resting on such a foundation must be composed, it is 
 manifest, of simply mere matters of linguistic observa- 
 tion and analysis. 
 
 In the department of phonology we find the great 
 central, determinative elements and principles of the 
 New Philology. Here lies the core of all that is really 
 scientific in its claims to our notice and acceptance. 
 The general outlines of the course of inquiry into the 
 facts and principles of comparative phonology, which 
 wiU be here traversed, with specific reference to the 
 Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages throughout, are 
 presented in the following brief synopsis, containing 
 many minor ramifications not here detailed, on purpose 
 that it may be easily understood : 
 
10 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 I. A general statement of the elementary analysis 
 
 of words in the three classical languages. 
 II. Their vowel'systems, severally. 
 First. Structurally. 
 
 1st. In reference to simple vowels. 
 2d. In reference to compound vowels. 
 Second. Pathologically. 
 1st. Counterpoises. 
 2d. Compensations. 
 3d. Variations in the radical vowel. 
 4th. Contracted forms. 
 5th. Strengthened forms. 
 6th. Weakened forms. 
 7th. Euphonic additions. 
 III. Their consonantal systems, severally. 
 First. Structurally. 
 1st. Simply. 
 2d. In combination. 
 Second. Pathologically. 
 1st. Generally. 
 
 1. Substitutions. 
 (1) Literal. 
 
 § 1. General, or weak. 
 ^ 2. Assimilative or intensive. 
 § 3. Dissimilative. 
 .(2) Topical. 
 
 ^ 1. Metathesis. 
 § 2. Hyperthesis. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 11 
 
 2. 
 
 Insertions and additions. 
 
 
 (1) Prosthesis. 
 
 
 (2) Epenthesis. 
 
 
 (3) Epithesis. 
 
 3. 
 
 Suppressions : 
 
 
 (1) Aphseresis. 
 
 
 (2) Elision, syncope, and ecthlipsis. 
 
 
 (3) Apocope. 
 
 4. 
 
 Weakened consonantal forms. 
 
 5. 
 
 Strengthened consonantal forms. 
 
 3d. Specially. 
 
 1. 
 
 The Greek. 
 
 
 (1) Its dialects. 
 
 
 (2) The phonetic force of its differ- 
 
 
 ent letters, in alphabetic or- 
 
 
 der. 
 
 
 (3) Special pathological affections. 
 
 
 ^ 1. Digammation. 
 
 
 § 2. Sibilation. 
 
 
 ^ 3. Aspiration, 
 
 
 § 4. Reduplication. 
 
 
 ^ 5. Nasalization, 
 
 2. 
 
 The Latin. 
 
 
 (1) Benary's classification in brief 
 
 
 of the fundamental principles 
 
 
 of its special phonetic system. 
 
 
 (2) The phonetic force of its letters 
 
 
 in alphabetical order. 
 
12 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 There are two kinds of word-roots : (1) notional, 
 real or denotative ; as, those of nouns, adjectives, and 
 verbs ; and so expressive of the acts, states or qualities 
 of things and beings, as such. (2) relational, con- 
 structive, or organific ; or, those containing pronouns 
 (which in composition with verb-stems form their 
 proper element of flexion) prepositions, adverbs, and 
 conjunctions. 
 
 Simple roots were, originally, nearly or quite always 
 monosyllabic in the different families of languages. 
 Polysyllabic forms, when not arising from a reduplica- 
 tion of the pure stem of the word, came usually from 
 the addition of pronominal, intensive, comparative or 
 other adjuncts. In the Sk. verb, i, to go ( Gr. 
 tif-ii, I go, stem I reduplicated, as also L. eo, ire ,stem 
 i) ; and also in the demonstrative i, this, in Sanskrit 
 (L. i-s ; cf. also i-dem and i pse) we see that a simple 
 vowel sometimes sufficed to form a full verbal or ad- 
 jective root. In Greek and Latin it is rare that the 
 form of the simple pure root occurs. 
 
 In the Semitic languages word-roots are, as an 
 universal rule, triliteral ; or, which is the same thing, 
 tri-consonantal ; and vowels have no equal or inde- 
 pendent function with them, in the formation of words. 
 In the Indo-European languages, on the contrary, the 
 vowel elements are as significant in a word, and as vital 
 to its form, as the consonants. 
 
 I. A general statement of the elementary analysis 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 13 
 
 of words, in the three classical languages : the San- 
 skrit, Greek, and Latin. 
 
 In he language of Senary, " the natural classifica- 
 tion of sounds according to their organs, and the dis- 
 tinction of mutes and liquids, and of vowels and con- 
 sonants, was recognized by the Greeks and adopted 
 by the Romans, without any high standard of criticism 
 or any conscious demand for them in their language. 
 But the finer differences in their use, the relationship 
 of the vowel with the consonant, the mutual attractions 
 and afiinities of sounds one to the" other, or their mutual 
 repellencies ; the influence of the mechanical weight of 
 the syllable, upon the vowel and the consonant con- 
 tained in it ; all these are questions which have been 
 first thrown upon our own age, and for whose solution 
 it is toiling." With the qualification already indica- 
 ted, that this exposition of the new work of our age has 
 no reference to the progress of early Sanskrit scholar- 
 ship in the same direction, it is true ; true of all lan- 
 guages in aU ages, but that one noble representative 
 of the whole Indo-European family, whose remains 
 were locked up so carefully in India, until the time 
 when the world was ready to appreciate and employ 
 them, for the illumination, more or less, of all the other 
 languages of mankind. 
 
 A comparison of the classical languages, one with 
 the other, in respect to their different phonetic ele- 
 ments, is interesting. This, Forstemann, who may 
 
14 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 well be denominated the philological statistician of the 
 age, has carefully made, and announced the result as 
 follows : 
 
 Among one hundred sounds, reckoning diphthongs 
 and double consonants as simple sounds, the relation 
 of vowels to consonants in Sanskrit, Greek (the Attic 
 dialect), Latin, and Gothic, is expressed in the subjoin- 
 ed table. 
 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 Vowels, 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 OoDsonauts, 
 
 58 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 Thus, in the three classical languages and the Gothic 
 also, the vowel element falls much behind the conso- 
 nantal : in the Sanskrit and Gothic most ; and in the 
 Greek, least. In the Greek, the .vowels compare with 
 the consonants, in number, as 6 to 7 ; in the Latin, as 
 4 to 5 ; in the Sanskrit, as 7 to 9 ; and in the Gothic, 
 only as 7 to 10. In reference to their proportional 
 mixture of these two elements, the Greek and Latin on 
 the one hand, and the Sanskrit and Gothic on the 
 other, compare most nearly with each other ; while the 
 Latin and Gothic agree less, and the Greek and Gothic 
 least. In all the four languages, the liquids are far 
 more abundant than the mutes. In respect to the 
 whole mass of consonants, the Greek prefers the mutes 
 most, and the Gothic least; while, vice versA, the 
 Gothic adopts liquids most, and the Greek least ; the 
 Latin occupies medial . ground between them, whUe 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 15 
 
 the Sanskrit uses liquids more than the Greek or 
 Latin, but less than the Gothic. Linguals {d, t, I, n, 
 r, s) are more abundant, in all four languages, than 
 either gutturals (c, h, g, q) or labials {b,f,p, m), or both 
 combined. As to the distinction of smooth, mid- 
 dle, and rough mutes, the smooth are most abundant 
 in Greek, and nearly quite as numerous in Latin; 
 while in Gothic they occur only one-sixth as often as 
 in Greek. The Latin shows a decided dislike for as- 
 pirates, while the Greek and Gothic exhibit as striking 
 an inclination toward them. The most frequent liquids, 
 and indeed the most frequent consonants (excepting t 
 in Latin), in the Latin, Greek, and Gothic, are n and *, 
 and after these, in and r ; and, last of all, /; Avhich let- 
 ter also occupies in Sanskrit a less conspicuous place 
 than in the European languages. The greatest dispro- 
 portionate use of any consonant in the Greek and Latin, 
 occurs in the letter m, which in Latin is used three 
 times as often as in Greek. In Latin also r is more 
 abundant than in Greek, while in the latter s occurs 
 more frequently than in the former. Sibilants indeed 
 were favorite with the Greeks, most of all; while in 
 Sanskrit they occurred least of all : the Latin and the 
 Gothic occupying medial ground in respect to them. 
 
 As to the vowels, the most equal distribution of 
 them occurs in Latin. The vowel i is in this language 
 most abundant;- in Greek, the e and o sounds take the 
 lead of the other three ; while in the Gothic, a forms 
 
16 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 more than a third part of the whole mass of vowel 
 sounds, diphthongs included. In the Latin 'diph- 
 thongs occur but one-sixth as often as in Greek, and 
 only one-tenth as often as in the Gothic ; so that the 
 Latin and the Sanskrit occupy the negative pole of 
 diphthongal development, and the Greek and Gothic 
 the positive. 
 
 The vowel differences, therefore, of these great 
 primal languages are wider than the consonantal. The 
 Greek and Latin agree most with each other in their 
 abundant use of vowels : the Latin and Gothic next ; 
 and the Greek and Gothic least. In the following 
 table, the vowel correspondences of these different lan- 
 guages are presented in detaU. 
 
 32 
 
 19 
 
 TOWEL. 
 
 
 GREEl 
 
 a, 
 
 
 17 
 
 e, 
 
 e 
 
 19 
 
 
 V 
 
 13 
 
 i, 
 
 
 7 
 
 0, 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 m 
 
 6 
 
 B. 
 
 
 6 
 
 ai, 
 
 
 6 
 
 ei, 
 
 
 4 
 
 oi, 
 
 
 2 
 
 au, 
 
 
 1 
 
 eu, 
 
 
 1 
 
 ou, 
 
 
 5 
 
 ae, 
 
 
 
 
 iu, 
 
 
 
 
 ITIN. 
 
 16 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 35 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 17 
 
 Calling a, «, u^ the older vowels, and e, o, the more 
 recent, we find : 
 
 GREEK. LATIN. GOTHIC. 
 
 Of the older, 30 59 62 
 
 " more recent, 51 38 8 
 
 Here is a sure testimony to the great unchanged 
 antiquity of the Gothic vowel system, and to the strik- 
 ing degeneracy, also, of that of the Greek from its 
 primeval state.' CaUing i and e bright vowels, as phi- 
 lologists sometimes do, and the vowels o and u opaque, 
 then we have the following comparison, as to the pic- 
 torial elements of syllables, or the relative amount of 
 their light and shade. 
 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 lATIN. 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 Bright, 
 
 39 
 
 51 
 
 22 
 
 Dark, 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 So that, in aU these languages, the bright vowels oc- 
 cupy nearly twice the space of the others. 
 
 While such a mere statistical analysis * as the fore- 
 going quoted for substance from Porstemann does not 
 interest the writer, as would one that was philosophical 
 and inward rather than outward in its scope, it is still 
 of sufficient value, in itself, to deserve the limited space 
 which it occupies in this Treatise ; and there are many 
 minds, in every department of labor, that greatly reUsh 
 statements in figures. Pigures, they say, cannot lie ; 
 
 * Zeitsohrift der vergleich. Spraohforschung, Vol. i. pp. 163-179, 
 and Yol. ii. pp 36-44. 
 2 
 
18 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 which, if true in one sense, is not in all ; since no form 
 of demonstration is more apt to rest in blank forget- 
 fulness, than arithmetical tables; which are usually 
 thought to stand so well, in their place, in books, mar- 
 shalled in solemn rank and file, that they are seldom if 
 ever transferred to their admirer's mind, as the hving 
 companions of his thoughts. 
 
 Torstemann's inductive analysis covers the ground 
 which Heyse * denominates " the specific substance of 
 sounds." He divides the elements of speech into two 
 general kinds : those substantial, and those accidental ; 
 each of which he separates also into two subordinate 
 classes ; embracing in the substantial the specific sub- 
 stance of each word, on the one hand, and its specific 
 weight, on the other ; and in the accidental, the two 
 elements of quantity and accent. 
 
 II. The vowel systems of the three classical lan- 
 guages, viewed separately. 
 
 First, Structui'ally : 
 
 1st. In reference to simple vowels. 
 
 A vowel (vocalis) is a mere utterance of voice, an 
 audible expulsion of air through the throat, when in 
 a more or less open or compressed state. The vowel, 
 emitted with the greatest ease from the throat, in its 
 most natural open condition, is a, (pronounced, ah). 
 This vowel was originally ever present in Sanskrit 
 words, and therefore, without doubt, in the first pa- 
 
 * Heyse's System der Spraohwissenscbaft, p. 262. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY, 19 
 
 rent-Arian tongue itself : being a sort of universal sol- 
 vent for every consonantal sound. Every consonant, 
 with whatever sound it began, ended, in the earliest 
 era of the Sanskrit, in that vowel ; so that, while the 
 language was in its primeval state rich in letters, it 
 was yet poor in sounds. Thus h,p, k, t, were each ut- 
 tered by themselves, as bah, pah, kah, tah, and so on 
 throughout the whole range of mutes. Such a system 
 of vocalization, admitting no play of light and shade 
 among the elements of speech, tended of course to ut- 
 ter phonetic monotony. Let no one, however, make 
 the mistake of supposing that all original syllabication 
 ended uniformly in a vowel ; as ultimate verb-roots are 
 found, ending in al, an, ar, as weU as in da, sta, etc. 
 
 The three vowels a, i, u, form the diatonic scale of 
 vowel-sounds, and are therefore sometimes called the 
 original or primary vowels. These are the only simple 
 vowels found in Sanskrit and Gothic ; the others 
 (^e and o) are but modifications of them in any lan- 
 guage, and are therefore called, relatively to them, the 
 secondary vowels. Each vowel has its own separate 
 scope and power ; and, when heard in a succession of 
 syllables, or found greatly prevailing in syllabic com- 
 binations, its effect, as such, is very specific and dis- 
 tinct ; as much so as that of different musical keys, in 
 the style and quality of their expression. 
 
 The vowel that has what philologists call the great- 
 est mechanical weight or effect is a, (pronounced, ah) ; 
 
30 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 that is, this vowel has a greater amount of vowel-sub- 
 stance in it, and so acts as a make-weight, in a com- 
 bination of sounds otherwise light, or imparts to them 
 a gravity of utterance, beyond any other vowel. The 
 hghtest of the vowels is i ; while u occupies a medial 
 place : e and o, although commonly regarded as simple 
 sounds, are formed from a, by its combination with 
 i and u, and are really therefore diphthongs. Short a in 
 Sanskrit united with i becomes e; which corresponds ex- 
 actly with the phonetic value of ai in French, pronounced 
 as if e, as in j'ai and jamais. Compare also the absorp- 
 tion of t subscript in Greek, in the dative forms of the 
 1st or A-declension, and also its short pronunciation, 
 or its estimation as short for purposes of accentuation, 
 in the plural nominative form at of the same declen- 
 sion. In a similar manner the Greek at becomes, in 
 Latin, ae, except in a few proper names, as Aglaia, 
 Maia, etc. A long a formed in Sanskrit with i the 
 diphthong ai, as in English, in the word aisle. In com- 
 bination with u, a forms likewise, in Sanskrit, o, as a 
 diphthong : a result corresponding, precisely, with the 
 same fact in French, where au is pronounced o, as in 
 aune and autre. 
 
 Heyse, in order to represent the different degrees 
 of fulness of sound possessed by different vowels, as- 
 scribes to the sum of both the openings of the mouth 
 in the utterance of a, eight degrees, and to u (pro- 
 nounced as oo) six, and to i four degrees. The two 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 21 
 
 openings alluded to, are that made by the lips, and 
 that made between the tongue, according to its differ- 
 ent positions in the utterance of the different vowels, 
 and the roof of the mouth. The secondary vowels e 
 and have also the same sum of degrees (6) in the 
 two openings of the mouth as w, and yet are lighter ; 
 inasmuch as in the utterance of o, and especially of e, 
 the roof-space of the mouth is much narrower than in 
 the utterance of u. In this space, as in an open cham- 
 ber, the voice is immediately received from the throat 
 and resounds from the arch above, as from a sounding- • 
 board, just as it came from the larynx, or as it is mod- 
 ified by the tongue in this part of its passage to the 
 lips. The different widths of openings in the roof- 
 space are five in u, four in o, and two in e ; so that o 
 is lighter than u, and e much lighter than o. So also, 
 as the differences of breadth in the sum of the mouth- 
 openings between a and u are made by the lips ; which 
 chiefly serve to give utterance to sounds as they are in 
 themselves for substance, rather than to determine their 
 volume or force for them : % is much less light than 
 a in its individual weight, less indeed than the differ- 
 ence of degrees would indicate ; inasmuch as the roof- 
 space is greater in u than in a, in the proportion of five 
 to three. The vowels are to be ranked accordingly, in 
 reference to their weight from heaviest to lightest, in 
 the following order : a, u, o, e, i, (pronounced, not as 
 in English, but as in the continental languages). 
 
22 COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 The vowel a is the stable or fixed element in the 
 diphthongs e (a+i) and o (a+u) ; and the vowels i 
 and u are movable or floating elements ; by the com- 
 bination of which two kinds of elements all diphthongs 
 are formed. In Sanskrit the vowel a represents prop- 
 erly, in a final analysis, the stable element of all diph- 
 thongs ; and from this element the diphthong obtains 
 its true quantitative value. When, in any language, 
 either of the incidental elements i or u occur first in 
 the diphthong, and are followed by the stable element 
 , a, or by one of the floating vowels i or u themselves, 
 then the last vowel determines the quantitative value 
 of the compound, and the first one falls back into its 
 corresponding consonantal equivalent ; so that i and a 
 become ya, and u with a makes va. 
 
 Ebel calls a, on account of its greater weight in a 
 syllable in all the classical languages the masculine 
 vowel, and the vowels e and i, on account of their light- 
 ness, the feminine vowels. Philologists of the modern 
 school divide them, also, not only into long and 
 short, as others have done, but likewise into hard and 
 soft : calling a, e, and o [a, s, r}, o and a) hard, and 
 the vowels i and u soft ; and likewise, sometimes, into 
 dark or opaque, middle, and clear: calling o the 
 opaque, a the middle, and e the clear or bright vowel. 
 
 The vowel-system of the Sanskrit is the most an- 
 tique in its style ; next to which stands the Gothic, 
 followed immediately by the Latin: while the Greek 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 23 
 
 has degenerated most of all from the primitive Indo- 
 European vowel-system. 
 
 Both philology and history agree in representing a 
 to be the great fundamental primordial vowel, of wMch 
 the others are but successive weakenings. The vowel a 
 was sometimes changed into i in Sanskrit through the 
 influence of the vowel y associated with it, or because of 
 its being weakened by the loss of its original accent. 
 A strildng example of the change of an original a 
 into each of the weaker vowel-sounds, in the other 
 classical languages, occurs in the Sanskrit ordinal sap- 
 tama-s, the seventh ; represented in Greek by Sfidof^og, 
 and in Latin by septimus ; where the same vowel a 
 appears variously, as s, and o* and also as e, i, and u. 
 Similar variations also appear in the Sk. madhya-s 
 middle, Gr. ^sgoq, and L. medius ; and also in nohoq, 
 nohsq, and Ttodag, all different cases of Tiovg, and each 
 having one and the same correlative form, pada-s, in 
 Sanskrit. Behold, also, the following examples of the 
 diversified representation of the Sanskrit a by various 
 vowels in the other languages : 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 api, towards. 
 
 i-TTL 
 
 ob. 
 
 ad, to eat. 
 
 iaSLO) 
 
 edo. 
 
 m&tri, a mother. 
 
 l^-fVP 
 
 mater. 
 
 mk-s, the moon. ) 
 
 M/ 
 
 
 m&sa-s, a month. ) 
 
 IJ.rjvr] 
 
 mensis. 
 
 * In some of the modem languages exactly counter changes occur ; 
 as in rrenoh of Lat. o to a, as in dame, a lady from L, domina, and in 
 Italian of L. uto o, as in doge, from L. dux. 
 
24 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 I. 
 
 0. 
 
 ^ agva-s, a horse. 
 ,[ ka-s, who. 
 apa, from. 
 
 HTTTOS 
 
 Tts (for Kts) 
 , airo 
 
 eqnus. 
 
 quis. 
 
 ab. 
 
 
 . naman, a name. 
 J svasar, a sister. 
 l upa, under. 
 
 ovo/ta 
 
 nomen. 
 
 soror (for sosor), 
 
 sub. 
 
 
 c / 
 VTTO 
 
 V. 
 
 r kalasa-s, a cup. 
 ■< nakha-3, a nail. 
 ( sam, with. 
 
 s<»o b 
 
 calix. 
 cum. 
 
 
 5van, a dog. 
 tan, to extend. 
 
 KV(OV 
 
 reivm (for reviw) 
 
 canis. 
 tendo. 
 
 In some English words we have fine specimens of 
 variableness in the radical vowel in different deriva- 
 tives, as : lear, bier, borne and bor^, birth, etc. ; so in 
 the different tenses of the verbs sing, sink, think, etc. 
 
 In Latin, i being lighter than a generally supplants 
 it, when a root with an original a would -be too much 
 burdened by a reduplication of the radical syllable, as 
 in tetigi for tetagi, which is, itself for tatagi. So, also, 
 radical a and e both encounter alteration at once in this 
 language, when the root is laden with prefixes of what- 
 ever sort, as may be seen in instances without number, 
 in verbs compounded with prepositions. 
 
 As Ebel well says : " One of the most difficult 
 questions concerns the relation of short e and * in 
 Latin. Does e pass into *, or i into e ; and under 
 what conditions does a become e ov i?" These ques- 
 tions he has investigated with care, and arrived at the 
 five following results, of a general kind : 
 
 I. a passes regularly, in the beginning and middle 
 of words, into i, before single consonants, except r, h, v 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 25 
 
 (preceding which a everywhere remains unchanged), 
 and before the nasal nff. Por examples, see adjicio, 
 confiteor, immineo, tubicerf, flammifer, and transigo. 
 It passes, regularly into e before r and r-combinations 
 and double consonants, particularly ss, st, ps, x, nt, nd, 
 double mutes, double liquids, and mutes with liquids ; 
 as in such examples, as adjectus, condemno, confessus, 
 imberbis, inermis, iners, infectus, fefelli and peperci, 
 princeps and peregrinus. The declaration here made 
 is, however, but a little more minute statement of the 
 general rule given by Bopp, that " an original a, when 
 loaded with additional elements by composition or re- 
 duplication, is in most roots exchanged for i, in open 
 syllables ; but before two consonants, and in end-sylla- 
 bles before one, it is generally weakened into e." 
 
 2. When the root-vowel becomes variously e and i, 
 in different cases, as in princeps gen. principis, the 
 analysis of the fact is, that they are, each, successive 
 weakenings of an original a-vowel in the root. The 
 retention of e before double consonants instead of i, 
 in verbs, where in the first root i had been used before 
 a single vowel, shows the felt necessity of guarding 
 the radical vowel against being overborne in its force 
 by the consonants accompanying it : e remains, also, in 
 'many roots where one would expect i before single 
 consonants, as in the c mpounds o ' metior, meto, pe- 
 to, seco, sequor, tego, and some of the flexion-forms 
 of nouns in es. 
 
26 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 3. The relation of tlie two vowels appears very 
 clearly in end-syllables, before single consonants, namely 
 5 and n. 
 
 I takes the place of a before s -. in the genitive of 
 the third declension ; in the 2d pers. sing, present of 
 the third conjugation, as in legis for legasi ; and in aU 
 2d persons singular passive and 2d persons plural ac- 
 tive. In such forms as deses (verb-root sed), super- 
 stes (verb-root sta), -ses is for seds and -stes for stets, 
 in which e is still retained, although by abbreviation 
 the d and t are lost. In such words as vomis com- 
 pared with vomer, and so cinis, pulvis, cucumis (gen. 
 cucumeris), with stems all ending in -er, we have un- 
 doubted instances of the convertibility of s and r final, 
 as in arbor and arbos, honor and honos, together with 
 the subsequent shortening of the e into i, according to 
 the usual rule ; so that as genus (gen. generis) is for 
 genes (like ysvog for ysvsg, its stem), cinis is for cines 
 and this for ciner, the proper base of the word. In 
 such words as sanguis (gen. sanguinis, stem sanguin), 
 s is the gender sign and n is dropped before it for 
 euphonic reasons.* Before a terminal nasal as in pec- 
 ten, gluten, inguen, etc., the rule is e and not i. 
 
 4. In some circumstances e seems to be formed 
 from an original i, as in comes, itis (=:cum+ire), and 
 judex, (icis ==:jus+dico). In eo, ire, to go, (stem i), 
 and eum accusative of is, he (demonstrative stem, {), 
 
 * Zeitschrift der Vergleich. Sprachforschung, Vol. V. p. 181. 
 
COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGT. 37 
 
 we have gunated forms of the original stem, where the 
 e (ei) has come from the contraction of the vowels i 
 and e. Eo is for e-i-mi (cf. Gr. dfit, I go). 
 
 5. As for e final the rule is never broken, it is be- 
 lieved, that e passes over sometimes into i, but never i 
 into e. Of such double ablative forms in e or i as 
 igne or igni, no other explanation is needed than to 
 suppose the ablative suffix to have been pronounced 
 as, -ed not -d ; as igni-ed. As to neuters in e of the 
 third declension of the adjective, as in suavis, e, the 
 final e represents probably an umlaut, changing suavi 
 the root to suavai and then to suave. 
 
 Kuhn's analysis, also, of a few facts of the Latin 
 vowel-system is worthy of notice here. " The history 
 of the Latin vowel-system," he says, " presents, as is 
 well known, a considerable number of difficulties, 
 whose solution can be obtained only in a strictly me- 
 thodical way. As the Sanskrit has kept generally the 
 older and fuUer endings of words ; by a comparison 
 of a in the end of Sanskrit words with the endings 
 of similar forms of the Latin, some principles can be 
 obtained which vrill serve to elucidate the Latin vowels. 
 
 The Sanskrit a has, in the end-syllables both of 
 declension and conjugation, a much wider scope than 
 in Latin ; whose endings have been partly rejected and 
 contracted, and partly, as those of the passive, sup- 
 planted by others. The following facts are arrived at 
 by examination : 
 
28 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 1. Sanskrit a final sometimes becomes e in Latin :* 
 as in the vocative in e (Cf. Latin lupe with Sk. vrika) ; 
 in the 2d pers. sing, and pi. imperative (Cf. Lat. tunde 
 and tundite with Sk. tuda and tudata) ; and also in 
 some particles and indeclinable words (Cf. Latin que 
 and ne and quinque with Sk. ca, na, and panchan). 
 
 2. Sanskrit a final is sometimes rejected in Latin ; 
 as in the dative of the 2d or 0-declension, which has 
 lost a previous «, representative of a Sk. a ; which that 
 it actually once had in old Latin, is apparent from the 
 Oscan dative ui and the Umbrian e and i. 
 
 In the exceptional imperative forms die, due, fac, 
 and fer, the same tendency to an abrasion of e appears 
 on a small scale, as also in the conjunctions ac and nee 
 for atque and neque. So the Lat. conjunction at is 
 for Sk. atha ; as nam is also for Sk. nAma ; the original 
 a, or its representative e in Latin, being rejected in 
 these and other instances after c, or a liquid. 
 
 3. Sometimes Sk. a becomes long i; as in uti, Sk. 
 uta. In a few instances a final is found in Latin, 
 
 * A counter process appears in some of the modern languages, as 
 the French where the Lat. e is sometimes changed to as, as in com- 
 jiatible from L. competere ; pardonner, Eng. to pardon, from L. per- 
 donare, lit. to give, or let, through or out (Of. Ital. form perdonare 
 and Span, perdonar). Even L. i hecomes sometimes a in French as 
 Fr. langue, Eng. language from L. lingua ; and L. u, as in mundus, 
 > becomes Fr. o, as in monde. This frequent occurrence in French of 
 stronger vowel-forms than the original radicals possessed is perhaps 
 a real if latent tendency to compensate for the great obliteration of 
 the consonantal elements of words in that language. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 29 
 
 where it does iu)t occur at all in Sanskrit ; or, if it 
 ever did, it has fallen off,* as in the cardinals triginta, 
 quadraginta {rQucxovra and TSGGaQocxovra), com- 
 pared with the Sk. tringat and catvarinQat."f Such is 
 his brief description of the Latin vowel representatives 
 of the Sk. vowel a. 
 
 In Latin, as in Greek, e is the prevailing represen- 
 tative of an original a ; while o is also often, but less 
 commonly so than in Greek. The following are a few 
 of the numerous examples in o : Sk. avi-s, a sheep ; 
 mar and mri, to die ; ashtau, eight ; svan, to sound ; 
 Latin, ovis, morior, octo, sono. The long Sk. a is most 
 generally represented by 6, as in sopio, Sk. swkpkykmi. 
 The Latin e is of double origin, being either like the 
 Greek r/ and Gothic 6, a weakening of long a, as in 
 semi, half, Gr. ^fu, Sk. s4mi, and res, a thing, Sk. rA-s ; 
 or, a representative of a+i as in amem for ama-i-m(i). 
 So the Sk. devara -s (for daivaras) is represented by 
 levir (for laivirus for daivirus), Gr. dd£() for SaFsQ. 
 
 That i is not only Ughter in Latin than a, but also 
 than u, appears by its adoption in compound forms, 
 where, for the sake of a compensative lightening of the 
 vowel-weight of the root, a radical u final is changed 
 to i ; alike, in the middle of the compound, as in cor- 
 
 * That it has actually dropped off in the Sanskrit appears, almost 
 if not quite absolutely, certain, from the Zend forms, in which it oc- 
 curs, thrisata and chatvaresata. 
 
 t Zeitschrift der Vergleich. Sprachforschung, Vol. VI. p. 436. 
 
30 COMPARATIVE PHONOIiOGT. 
 
 niger (comu) and fructifer (fructum), and also in a 
 final syllable, as in imberbis for imberbus ; in which 
 last word, as the proper adjective-form for an a-word, 
 as barba, is that in -us, -a, -um, the u is changed to i, 
 on the principle that i has less weight than u in an end- 
 syllable. In Latin, the soft Greek v, which was the 
 same as the French u and the German ue, is entirely 
 wanting. An original u in Latin was indeed some- 
 times changed to i, as in hbet from liibet, Sk. lubh, 
 and optimus from optumus ; while in other cases it 
 seems to have wavered to and fro, at different periods 
 of the language, towards o and back again to u, as in 
 vult, volt, vult, and vulnus, volnus, vulnus. 
 
 In Greek, as elsewhere, a is the heaviest of the 
 vowels, acting most strongly as a counterpoise when 
 added to forms otherwise light ; while e is the lightest 
 of the vowels, being used in forms otherwise heavy 
 for the purpose of relieving their phonetic gravity ; 
 and is employed specially in those forms which are 
 of intermediate weight. In rkfivco (stem ra^), 2d 
 Aor. trcefiov and the derived noun rofj-oq, and so also 
 in otsKXco (stem sraX), perf. ssraXxa and arokog, 
 the balancing influence . as counterpoises of these dif- 
 ferent vowels, and so their different phonetic force in 
 themselves, may be clearly seen. The Greek vowels, 
 accordingly, are a, e, i, o long and short, and short u, 
 which was long only in the diphthong form ov. 
 
 The short s and o sounds of the Greek were want- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 31 
 
 ing in Sanskrit, as also in the Gothic, the oldest Ger- 
 manic dialect. The short Sk. a is oftener represented 
 by e or o in Greek, than by short a, while the long Sk. 
 a is more frequently represented by ;? or « than by 
 long alpha, as in rixhi^i,* Sk. dadh^mi, I place, and 
 the dual suffix -rriv, Sk. t4m. In the Doric dialect, 
 however, we find long a abundantly where in the Attic 
 dialect we have ri, as in Dor. d/isQa, Attic ^fisQcc, 
 day, and ti/hcc, honor, for Ti/j.r). Indeed, long d was 
 a special peculiarity of the Doric dialect, and caused 
 that broad pronunciation, for which the Dorians were 
 so noted. 
 
 The Sk. diphthong e (a+^) appears in the Greek 
 variously, as si, oi, ai, as in tlfii, I go, Sk. ^mi ; otSa, 
 I know, Sk. veda, Dat. fioi, Sk. me ; while the Sk. 6 
 {a-\-u) appears as ov, as in fiovq, Sk. go, gen. gavas, 
 a cow. 
 
 The vowel u retains the most obstinately of all, in 
 Sanskrit, its form and place ; and in reduplicated syl- 
 lables, although a itself is weakened to i, the vowel u 
 maintains its position unchanged; as in yuyuts the 
 desiderative form of yudh, to struggle, and tutopa (for 
 tutaupa, perf. of tup, to strike, Gr. TVTtra, perf. tstv- 
 cpcc). In Latin, as in tutudi, perf. of tundo, and 
 pupugi, perf. of pungo, and also in the Gothic, u 
 shows much more of the same pertinacity of existence 
 
 * Cf. in same way t<rri)n«, Sk. ti8bthS.mi, I stand, and dlSaiu, Sk. 
 dad&mi, I give. 
 
32 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 that it has in the Sanskrit, than it does at any time in 
 the Greek. 
 
 In the Doric and Attic dialects, a is the most and 
 V the least abundant ; while in the Ionic s abounds 
 most, occurring with great frequency in uncontracted 
 forms, as in sa, ss, sr/, to, ea, t'l. The vowel c occurs 
 most in the Doric ; next in the Ionic ; and least of all 
 in the Attic, being so often subscript. 
 
 In reduplicated syllables, a in Sanskrit often ap- 
 pears as I in Greek, as in xid-rifiL (stem d-t), Sk. dad- 
 hdmi, I place, and didcofii (stem do), Sk. dad^mi, I 
 give. The Greek, however, shows generally far less 
 sensitiveness to the question of the greater or less 
 vowel-weight of the root under new additions, than the 
 Sanskrit, Latin, or even German. In the Sanskrit two 
 special- vowels, ri and Iri existed : compound vowels 
 coming from the combination of the syllables, al, ar, 
 and la, ra. 
 
 But the vowel-systems of the classical languages 
 must be considered structurally, also, 
 
 3. In reference to vowel combinations. 
 
 These are of two sorts : vowel-unions of the same 
 kind, and compound vowels of any kind; or, long 
 vowels and diphthongs. Consonants are indeed the 
 staple elements of speech, and vowels are subordinate 
 both in theory and in fact to them ; having their chief 
 function in affording them a truer utterance, or in 
 enabling them better to foUow each other in successive 
 
COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 33 
 
 syllables, or to combine together in the same syllable. 
 Not only, therefore, are original stems all short, be- 
 ing monosyllabic ; but also the original radical vowels 
 of those stems. In the progressive stages, however, 
 of lingual development, vowels have been variously 
 strengthened and lengthened ; sometimes for mere 
 phonetic reasons, as, to restore the disturbed equipoise 
 of a derivative or composite word, or, which is the 
 same thing in effect, to preserve the stem-syllable from 
 being overborne to the ear by prefixes or suffixes con- 
 nected with it ; and sometimes also for etymological 
 reasons, to represent to the eye the fact, that abridg- 
 ments and abrasions have occurred ; as well as some- 
 times for dynamical effect, so as to individualize and 
 emphasize some grammatical characteristic of a word. 
 Short radical vowels have been for such purposes, ac- 
 cordingly, strengthened in great numbers in all lan- 
 guages ; which can happen in a .direct manner only, of 
 course, by adding to them a new vowel-element. If 
 the vowel added be of the same kind, the resultant is 
 a long vowel ; but if of another kind, then it is a diph- 
 thong ; and such a long vowel is, in its true analysis, 
 but the short one doubled in the time of utterance, 
 being twice repeated in the same breath. In the 
 German, such vowel-geminations abound, as in haar, 
 maass, etc. In ancient Latin inscriptions and records, 
 also, similar instances appear, as in paacem (pacem) 
 and moos (mos). In the Greek a this fact is directly 
 
34 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY, 
 
 symbolized to the eye, as a combination of two short 
 omicrons. If two vowels of the same kind do not, 
 when repeated, melt together into one long one, they 
 are changed, by the conversion of one of them to a 
 lighter vowel (as of ts into ti, and of oo into ov), into 
 a diphthong. 
 
 A diphthong is phonetically the union of two vowel- 
 sounds, a hard and a soft, in one. The hard vowels, 
 it has been said, are a, e, o (Gr. a, s, rj, o, a) ; and the 
 weak ones, i and u. When the hard vowels are long 
 in Greek, as d, 'rj, and co, the c united with them is 
 thrown underneath, and thus preserved to the eye^ 
 while lost to the ear. In Greek, v and t are also some- 
 times combined into a diphthong, as in v/og. 
 
 The synthetic result of a diphthongal union is pre- 
 sented in the symbol used, but not always its analytical 
 constitution : as in the vowels e and o ; which, although 
 appearing to be simple, like the other vowels, are yet 
 compound, as has been stated, in their structure. The 
 Sanskrit affords, in respect to the constituent elements 
 of vowel-combinations, a more precise analysis, graphic- 
 ally, in correspondence with their scope and power 
 phonetically, than any other language. As a was in 
 ' the primary state of the Sanskrit, and therefore, with- 
 out doubt, of the original mother-tongue itself of the 
 whole Indo-European family, the one only vowel-utter- 
 ance employed ; out of it flowered forth, as a matter 
 of historical manifestation, all the rest in due time, each 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 35 
 
 in a separate way. by itself : i and u are, accordingly, 
 but successive weakenings of tlie primal vowel a. And: 
 while e (a-\-i) and o {a-{-u) were in the earliest stages 
 of phonetic development but diphthongs, they came by 
 frequent use to be regarded, like a itself, as simple 
 sounds having an independent existence of their own. 
 
 In Greek, other special vowel-combinations occur- 
 red, as a-{-e and e-{-a = rj or d; and also a-\-o and 
 o-f-ffl =: a. Diphthongs, like r/v and av, were of a 
 strictly dialectic origin, and differed graphically rather 
 than phonetically from av and ov. But in no other 
 language have the vowel-elements of the various diph- 
 thongal combinations, whether latent or manifest, kept 
 their identity in such algebraic distinctness as in the 
 Sanskrit ; where they seem to move for ease upon 
 each other like particles of molten silver. On this 
 very account they were more impressible to new mod- 
 ifications and new combinations than in any language 
 besides. 
 
 In Homeric Greek we see, also, the vowel elements 
 at first distinct, that afterwards mingled into one ap- 
 parently simple sound, which yet was in fact both 
 historically and phonetically composite, preserved to us 
 still in clear outline : each vowel maintaining its own 
 individual place and sound, as in the syllabic form of 
 the temporal augment, as well as uncontracted fonns 
 generally of both verbs and nouns. 
 
 The weak vowels i and v remain before the firm 
 
36 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 ones a, s, and a unchanged,* as in eocpia and hua ; 
 while the firm make with either of the weak ones a 
 diphthong. 
 
 There is a class of vowel juxta-positions in Greek, 
 not of the kind above described, which demands here 
 special consideration : those once containing the di- 
 gamma between them, by whose subsequent omission 
 the vowels have thus fallen casually together; as in 
 coov for wFov, Lat. ovum: Big for hFig, Lat. ovis; 
 alcov for alFcov, Lat. sevum ; ^ooq, gen. of ^ovg for 
 fioFog, Lat. bovis ; vsog, Lat. novus, Sk. nava-s. To 
 a practised eye the very proximity of these vowels to 
 each other carries with it, at once, the evidence of a 
 departed digamma; for vowels connected with each 
 other have not commonly power in themselves to main- 
 tain their own separate existence. In many cases in- 
 deed, after the rejection of the digamma, the two con- 
 curring vowels were blended into a diphthong, as in 
 vavg for vuog, for vaFog, Lat. navis ; and nXovg, for 
 nXong, for nXoFog. That such words have any of 
 them remained uncontracted is owing to the peculiarity 
 of their origin; for, although greatly averse from an 
 hiatus, whether original or derived, the Greeks were still 
 more disinclined to obliterate the original etymological 
 features of their cherished mother-tongue. They had 
 
 * There was indeed in the Attic dialect a strong inclination to re- 
 ject t between two vowels. Hence came such forms, as nXiov for 
 TrXeioj', and ad for ale'u 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 37 
 
 an acute and subtle sense of the true demands of 
 phonetic art in the elaboration of language, which was 
 possessed by no other people. 
 
 The three classical languages compare, in respect to 
 their diphthongs, as follows : the Sanskrit and Latin 
 are aUke poor in them, which is another of their many 
 points of resemblance ; while the Greek is very rich in 
 them, as is also indeed the Gothic. 
 
 There are properly but six normal diphthongs, in 
 any language : ai, au, ei, eu, oi, and ou. The other 
 vowel-combinations found in some languages, as ea, 
 eo, ua, ue, uo, ui, ia, ie, io, iu, are all, if regarded as 
 diphthongs, those of an entirely abnormal type, as 
 such. In the enunciation of a diphthong either of the 
 combining elements may have the most determinative 
 force ; but commonly it is the first, except in the diph- 
 thongs ti and oi, where manifestly l has the prepon- 
 derance. 
 
 In the Sanskrit there are two kinds of diphthongs ; 
 in the first of which short a melts, with i or * succeed- 
 ing it, into e ; or, with u or u, into 6. In the combi- 
 nation of vowels made by this class of diphthongs, 
 neither of the constituent elements appears in the re- 
 sult ; but, as in the chemical union of two substances, 
 they both blend in a third sound distinct from each of 
 them. In the second class, long a forms, with a fol- 
 lowing i or i, the diphthong ai; and with u or u, the 
 diphthong au. In these diphthongs, each of the unit- 
 
38 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 ing vowels preserves not only its own form, but also 
 its own distinct utterance ; and especially is this true 
 of the d. As a diphthong can never occur in Sanskrit 
 except before a consonant, two can never be found side 
 by side ; and no hiatus is possible, in any case, from 
 other vowel or diphthongal admixtures. 
 
 The first class of diphthongs, formed of short a 
 with i or u, both long and short, is made by guna (vir- 
 tue) ; and the second, consisting of long a in combi- 
 nation with i or u, both long and short, is made by 
 vriddhi (increase). These are two remarkable affections 
 of Sanskrit vowels, that need to be understood, in order 
 to appreciate the influence exerted by them in deter- 
 mining many derived forms in other languages. To 
 Bopp, that great natural genius in philology — ^bearing, 
 like Grimm in all his high successes, as manifestly as 
 Luther, Bacon, Newton, or Washington, the proof of 
 his special ordination for the work that was, in itself, 
 so needful for the higher educational culture of the 
 race, and which he has done so well — we are indebted 
 for an analysis of the nature, power, and scope of these 
 affections ; which previous Sanskrit grammarians had 
 stated as facts, but had never disclosed in their true 
 light as inward forces at work within the machinery 
 of language. Guna consists in prefixing short a, and 
 vriddhi, in prefixing long a, to another vowel ; so thai 
 the a melts, together with the original vowel to which 
 it is prefixed, into a diphthong, or, a new compound 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 39 
 
 vowel-sdund, according to certain euphonic laws. Be- 
 fore vowels, however, these diphthongs fall back again 
 into their composite elementary form, becoming ay and 
 av, respectively. Guna influences are very clear and 
 decided, in the Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithuanian 
 languages. 
 
 In the Greek, diphthongs have a strong foundation 
 of their own, as phenomenal facts of the language, and 
 maintain their place firmly not only before consonants, 
 but also before vowels. Any hiatuses thus caused are 
 generally distributed, as we say of the discords of a 
 well-tuned musical instrument, by accentual discrimina- 
 tions, so as to be of a softened kind to the ear. The 
 Greek diphthongs are at,, tc, oi, and ov, which are 
 those that occur most frequently in the various dia- 
 lects ; and also rxv and tv, which are next in frequen- 
 cy ; so that the six genuine diphthongs, belonging to 
 human vocalization as such, are all to be found in 
 Greek. The combinations zji, tjv, and au occur but 
 seldom, the first two only being found in the Attic 
 dialect ; and if called diphthongs at all, as they often 
 are, are but those, as has been said, of an illegitimate 
 character. In Homer oc, and in Herodotus ov, occur 
 most frequently. The diphthongs ending in c had the 
 preference with the Greeks, to those ending in v ; nor 
 did the Greek ear object to their juxtaposition ; as in 
 such third-personal forms of verbs, as xccisi, x^aisc, 
 vaisi. The diphthongs av, sv, and ov, when not aris- 
 
40 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 ing from contraction or the lengthening of the o for the 
 purposes of a strengthened utterance occur at times, at 
 least, from the substitution of the vowel v for its origi- 
 nal consonantal equivalent the digamma, as in Zsvg for 
 ZsFg, Sk. d6va-s, Lat. deus. 
 
 Diphthongs originate in Greek chiefly from con- 
 traction. Contraction in the flexion-forms of verbs, if 
 not also in those of nouns, abounds much more in Greek 
 than in Latin. Person-endings, particularly, had but 
 very little tenacity of life in Greek. How much do 
 TVTira, TVTiTtig, Tvnrti differ from their originals 
 
 TV%TOfX.L, TVHTS6I, TVTITSTI,, aS alsO BTVTtTOV, evVTtTSg, 
 
 etc., from STvnro^t, irvjirtsi,, etc. ! So also such 
 forms as ri in the 2d pers, sing. pres. passive for taai, 
 as in TVTtrri for Tvnr&aai and ov of the 2d pers. sing, 
 imperf. passive, as in tniTtrov for ivvjvTtao, have 
 greatly degenerated from their primitive state. In Ho- 
 mer, we often find the medial micontracted form, which 
 constituted the transition-step from the first full form 
 to the final abridged one ; as in [xiaytaL and Xikaisat, 
 Attic fJ^loyri and XcXairi for fiiayi-aac and XiXaltaat, 
 and also in Xvso, Attic Xvov for Xvsao, and iXvto for 
 kXvsgo, Attic sXvov. It is also a very interesting fact 
 that in Homer we find the subjunctive present active 
 of a few verbs, as siff-sXafic, i&sXr]6i, etc., standing up 
 before us in full representation of the original forms, 
 according to theory, of the subsequent Attic contrac- 
 tions id-sXca, id-sXriQ. It is worth the while, likewise, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 41 
 
 to observe the fact of a contrary sort, that sometimes 
 the a of the 2d perf. pass., which is preserved unim- 
 paired in the Attic, is here entirely lost, as in fisfivrjai 
 for fisfivrjoac. While the Greeks very seldom con- 
 tracted the initial portions of a word they freely and 
 frequently rejected or combined terminal and medial 
 vowels and syllables. 
 
 The principles of vowel-union in Greek are simple, 
 and are eaabraced in the following rules : 
 
 1. Two like vowels melt together into a long one 
 of the same class : as Xda;, Xag ; ^uXoco, ^rjXa ; 
 (piXsTjTt, (piXrjTS. Exceptions : doubled t becomes tc 
 and doubled o becomes ov, as indeed both s and o 
 when followed by o, and o followed by 6 become like- 
 wise ov, as in (pikss, ^iksi ; nXoog, ttXovq. Before 
 a, or any long vowel-sound, a short vowel is absorbed 
 in the contract or vowel-declensions (I. and II,) as 
 uGTsa, dord, and dnXorj, dnXrj ; and before diph- 
 thongs also a vowel, like the first one of the two, is 
 obliterated, while the memory of the fact is preserved 
 by affixing the circumflex accent to the diphthong ; as 
 in nXoov, n%ov, and cpiksri, cpcXt}. 
 
 2. Unlike vowels form when in combination a 
 diphthong ; and the dark or heavy one not only over- 
 powers the bright or Hght one in the union, but, by 
 absorbing it, adds to its own phonetic strength : for 
 diphthongatibn in whatever form is in itself but a mode 
 of vowel-intensification. Thus : 
 
42 co'mpaeative phonology. 
 
 * ao becomes a), as in Tijj.dofj.Ev, rif^aftsv ; 
 
 oa becomes a, as in aldoa, alSoj ; 
 
 or) becomes a, as in drj^orjTt, drjXars ; 
 uov becomes a, as in rifiaov, rifta ; 
 
 to becomes ov, as in ytviog, ysvovg ; 
 
 OS becomes ov, as in dr^Xos, BrjXov ; 
 kov becomes ov, as in ^qv6sov, ^qv0ov. 
 
 The vowel o always gives, indeed, a determinate char- 
 acter to all contract forms, into which it enters as one 
 of the combining elements. In forms where the vowel 
 a enters without o and occurs first, it decides the con- 
 tract form to be of its own kind ; as does likewise e 
 when that stands first in combinations that do not con- 
 tain 0. Thus as, ari, ast, and aii} become a and a 
 when contracted, as in dsxav, dxav ; rifiariTS, rifza- 
 TS ; dtiSco, aScj ; ri/udrjg, rtficig ; and so ice, sai, and 
 r/ai become ;; and jj, as in ttsaq, xyiq ; rvTtTtai and 
 TVJiTJ]aL, rvtHTfi. 
 
 As, in Greek, the short Sanskrit a is often repre- 
 sented by « ; so here we find, sometimes clearly, some- 
 times more disguised, the influence of guna, in the 
 
 * The analysis of suoli contracted forms as T-t/iS/iEK or alhSi is this : 
 that, in the first place, the a was assimilated to the o, as so often hap- 
 pens to consonants one towards the other ; so that each word became 
 respectively n^do/iei/ and aiSiio, from which point it was but a second 
 step, of graphic convenience, to change oo in them both to m ; since 
 0) is in fact but a short mode of writing two o's in one, and so doing 
 to the eye in <», as a lengthened o, what had been previously done to 
 the ear, in sounding oo in one protracted utterance. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 43 
 
 lengthening or strengthening of a radical t, or v, by 
 prefixing an t to it. Thus as in Sanskrit the e of 
 emi, I go, is formed by prefixing guna or short a to 
 the verb-root i, to go ; with which form of the 1st pers. 
 sing. pres. compare also the Sk. 1st pers. pi. imas, we 
 go : so, in Greek ti^t, the t represents guna, and the 
 1st person plural X^ikv, we go, compares with it, as the 
 two persons compare with each other in Sanskrit. So 
 Xsincj, aor. eXitiov, orsi^a, aor. iori^ov and dXtigja, 
 nsida and (pti8ofiai, are instances of gunated diph- 
 thongation ; as are also cptvya, aor. tcpvyov, rsvxco, 
 {eTvxov) and nsvao/nai, fut. of nvvx^dvofiui, aor. 
 snv&o^riv ; and more interestingly still, because some- 
 what concealed at first view, such forms as rtino) (for 
 TsaHoS), aor. srdfcrjv, Xrj&m {tXaS-ov), and also nrj8o- 
 fiai and ar'jnof^at, etc. So, Sk. veda, I see (Gr. ol8a, 
 for Foi8a), represents in the same way the earlier form 
 vaida, formed by guna from vid, to see (Gr. tldsa for 
 Fidsco, L. video). In aitfco (Sk. indh. ; properly, idh, 
 to burn), with which compare laiveo (for id-alvcS), I 
 warm, we have also plainly the proper guna vowel a ; 
 as also in avco, I set on fire, Sk. ush, to burn ; with 
 which compare, in Latin, uro, supine, ustum ; and 
 aurum, gold, as a form derived by guna from uro ; and 
 also aurora. 
 
 The diphthong-system of the Latin is very meagre 
 in its proportions. Hiatus seldom occurs ; the half- 
 vowel i is freely rejected, and the previous vowel is 
 
44 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 lengthened, as in amas for ama-is, 3d pers. sing. pres. 
 indio. of amo. The Latin diphthongs, so called, are 
 ae, oe, au, eu, ei, and ui, the first four of which existed 
 in the classic period ; and only the first three, ae, oe, 
 and au, are properly entitled to consideration, as hav- 
 ing any real living value in the language. Of aU gen- 
 uine diphthongs in Latin, as in Greek, and Sanskrit, 
 either a, e or o is the initial letter, and i or w, the ter- 
 - minal. The diphthong ae never represents the combi- 
 nation of a and e, but only that of a and i ; as is seen 
 by comparing it with equivalent Greek forms in ai, and 
 also in old Latin inscriptions, where ai stands for the 
 later form ae, as in such ancient forms as aitemus, 
 aidilis, quairo, and the archaic datives, aulai, terrai. 
 So also oe represents not a fusion of o and e as such 
 into one sound, but of o * and i ; and oe sometimes 
 runs into ae, as a lighter form, and even into e. Thus 
 compare coelum and caelum, proeUum and praelium, 
 foemina and femina (Gr. (pi,a), Sk. bhii), coena, caena, 
 and cena (originally, without doubt, coesna = con, to- 
 gether, and edo, to eat) : oe, also, signifies sometimes 
 the combination of an original u and i, as in poena, 
 punire, Sk. pii, to purify, and moenia, munire, Sk. mii, 
 to bind ; so that poena and moenia are for an original 
 
 * As in coelum, heaven (Gr. koIXos) ; coetus, an assembly, for co- 
 itus (co-eo) ; foedus, a league (cf. fides, Gr. fffiSta, perf. 7reVoi3a, 
 stem wtS) ; poena (noivij). An original oi was in some cases after- 
 wards changed to u, as in oinus, first form of unus, oitilis (utilis), 
 ploirumus (plurimus). 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 45 
 
 puina and muina like ruina. The diphthongs ae and 
 oe must be regarded, therefore, as abnormal in Latin. 
 Long e represents, occasionally, the combination of 
 a-\-i in the flexion of verbs, as in the pres. subj. act. 
 of the 1st Conj. amem, ames, amet for ama *-im, ama-is, 
 ama-it. In the future of the consonantal conjugation 
 (the present thu'd), as in legam, leges, leget, we have in 
 the 1st pers., as throughout the pres. subj. of this con- 
 jugation, legam, legas, legat, etc., a-{-i changed to cb; 
 while, in all the persons of the future besides the first, 
 we find the same combination represented by e. In 
 the corresponding subj. forms pres. of the 2d and 4th 
 conjugations, as in doceam, audiam, etc., we obtain 
 by analysis a similar result ; as doceam for docea-im-i 
 and audiam for audi-a-im-i. The verb-stems are doce- 
 and audi- ; a is an union vowel uniting the verb-stem 
 to the mood vowel and person ending. With stem, 
 stes, stet, subj. pres. act. of sto, stare for sta-im, sta-is, 
 etc., compare, for similarity of form, ova'nuv, orairig, 
 etc. ; the contracted form being, when restored to its 
 full archaic condition, sta-i-mi, and Grairjv being avd- 
 c-f.(c. The common style of contraction, which such 
 forms undergo in Latin, is simply the absorption of the 
 second vowel (^'), which is in itself the lightest and 
 
 * Ama is the verb stem and not am, as stated in our ordinary- 
 grammars ; and -im is the person ending (mi abridged), with the 
 miion vowel or mood-TOwel i combined with it, as in sim (for es-i-m), 
 velim etc., for the fuller orig. forms, es-i-mi and vel-i-mi. etc. 
 
46 GOMPAB.ATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 slightest of all the Latin vowels, and the lengthening 
 of the first {a), by way of compensation, into e. The 
 diphthong au is of comparatively infrequent occurrence 
 and wavers, in some words, between its own form and 
 the vowel o, as in caudex and codex, lautus and lotus. 
 
 In the beginning of words ae, oe, and au are all 
 found, as in aetas, audio, poena ; and in the middle, 
 as in longaevus, inauratus, pomoerium ; while at the 
 end of words, ae alone is found, as in the gen. and dat. 
 sing, and nom. pi. forms of the 1st declension. 
 
 Such vowel-combinations as ei, eu, and ui in Latin, 
 must be remembered as improper diphthongs. The 
 original diphthong ei ran readily, in subsequent times, 
 into mere I, as in dico, at first deico (Cf. dtixw/nt), 
 and hie, at first heic ; or, if stiU preserved unaltered, 
 the two vowels were thrown, by a separate pronuncia- 
 tion, out of a diphthongal state, as in diei and fidei. 
 The combination eu is found but in a few words con- 
 taining a dissolved v, as in ceu, neu, sen, which are but 
 contractions of ceve, neve, sive ; and also in a few 
 words having an initial u compounded with ne, as in 
 neuter (ne-uter). In nullus (ne-uUus), nunquam (ne- 
 unquam) and nusquam (neusquam), words formed in 
 precisely the same way as neuter, the e of the negative 
 particle has fallen entirely out. The combination ui is 
 found in qui and its compounds, and some few other 
 words, as requiro, nequitia, etc. In these combina- 
 tions, the u has no diphthongal efiect upon the i, or 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 47 
 
 any modifying influence upon it whatever, or indeed 
 any vowel-value even of its own. The Romans pro- 
 nounced qu as the French now do, simply as hard h ; 
 uttering qui, quae, quod as if written ki, kae, kod. 
 Our own pronunciation of qu, as if written lew, is en- 
 tirely German in its origin. In cui and huic, for the 
 archaic datives quoi and hoic, as still found in old 
 Latin inscriptions, ui is not as such radical to the form, 
 but only a contraction of oi or uoi. Qui itself, re- 
 stored to its earlier state, would be : N. quo-s, G. 
 quojus, D. quoi, etc. Oi was not euphonic to the 
 Roman ear, and, therefore, in the middle and end of 
 words was exchanged for ui ; which, as a dissyllable, 
 is of frequent occurrence; and it is pronounced as 
 such in nearly all cases, as in fui, docui, fructui. 
 
 Latin diphthongs arise from three sources : con- 
 traction, guna, and composition. 
 
 1. Contraction. The first of the two uniting vow- 
 els usually absorbs the other ; preserving in its elonga- 
 tion the combined length of the two, but keeping no 
 traces of the phonetic quality of the one rejected, as 
 deabus for deaibus, amant for ama-unt, 3d pers. pi. 
 pres. of amo. 
 
 When, however, the second vowel is radical to the 
 form, as such, then it is often retained ; and the first 
 one is, in such a case, either rejected, as in pennis for 
 penna-is (for penna-i-bus, like quels and quis for qui- 
 bus, and poematis, as used sometimes by the poets for 
 
48 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 poematibus), and famosus for fama-osus, and so also in 
 the perfect forms in -ui of verbs of the 1st conjugation, 
 as sonui, for sona-ui and tonui for tona-ui ; or it is weak- 
 ened, as in hixic for hoic, cui for quoi ; or else the nat- 
 ural hiatus is endured, as in diis and domuum. 
 
 Hiatus made by the occurrence of two of the 
 stable vowels a, e, o together does not occur in proper 
 Latin; such words as aer and poeta being merely 
 Latinized Greek words ; nor does a stable vowel make 
 such a hiatus with one of the movable vowels i and u. 
 Ai does not occur except in archaic forms, as aulai ; 
 and this genitive form in -ai, like that in -as of familia, 
 is but an abbreviation of the full original form in ais, 
 Sk. ayas ; with which compare the Greek genitives 
 -ag and -rjg of the 1st declension, and -oiog, -oio, and 
 -ov of the 2d, and -cog, -tag, and -ig of the 3d. Au 
 is found only in Greek proper names, as in Menelaiis. 
 
 When hiatus is allowed, it is commonly either to 
 preserve unimpaired both the radical and flexional ele- 
 ments of a word, although not in euphonic union with 
 each other, as in radiis (stem, radio-, dative suffix, -is), 
 or to indicate that an original consonant has fallen out 
 between the vowels, whose concurrence has been there- 
 by made inharmonious, as in boiim, gen. pi. of bos, for 
 bovum. In the former case, etymology is honored by 
 the genius of grammar ; and in the latter, by that of 
 phonetics, 
 
 2. Guna. The effect of guna in strengthening 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 49 
 
 vowel-stems is more palpable to the eye in Sanskrit, 
 than in Greek and Latin ; as its phonetic analyses are 
 all preserved in such graphic distinctness. Guna is 
 with vriddhi (the former consisting in prefixing short. 
 a to either one of the Sk. vowels i, u, ri, Iri ; and the 
 latter, long a to any one of the same vowels or a itself) 
 the proper source of all diphthongation in Sanskrit; 
 and has in that language a double force : (1) mechanical, 
 acting as a counterpoise, to keep the stem or theme 
 from being overborne in sound by the addition of suf- 
 fixes ; (2) dynamical, bringing out into fuU relief the 
 idea expressed by the stem as such. The one is out- 
 ward in its effect, and the other inward ; or, still more 
 plainly, one is phonetic in its bearings, and the other 
 intellectual. Those Greek verbs in -fj.i, in which the 
 person-endings are immediately united to the stem 
 vidthout any union-vowel as (fr]^i, didcofii, itj/hi, 'iarrifii, 
 TiS-tj/.u, (stems tpa, do, s, ora, -d-s) are fine instances 
 of the dynamical application of guna in Greek (being 
 at first (pau, Sto, s-e. Besides the objects thus stated, 
 the Sanskrit aims at but one other end in gunating or 
 diphthongizing vowels ; and that is, to strengthen the 
 stems of its weak conjugation-forms. One of the best 
 specimens of guna in Latin, is that found in eo, I go, 
 stem i (Sk. i, to go ; Gr. ti/nc, stem i), in which e is 
 for e-\-i ; as also eum, accus. of is, stem i, which is for 
 em (originally eim), which form Festus indeed gives, 
 
 although unable himself to explain it, as one which he 
 Vol. II.— 4 
 
50 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 found in antique Latin. By guna Benary ingeniously 
 explains the length not only of such words as dico, Sre, 
 for deico, and fido, for feido, but also labor, labi, to fall, 
 compared with iSiho, are, and lex, law, with its derivative 
 lego, are, as compared, each of them, with lego, Sre. 
 Who can help saying, with Corssen : " I see not how 
 any one can explain, otherwise than by guna, fides and 
 perfidus in connection with fido, confido, and foedus." 
 From the root fid would come, by guna faid, for which 
 foed in foedus stands (Cf. tisthoi&cc perf. of nti&cj). 
 Guna has such complications with the subject of accen- 
 tuation, mutually, and its development in Sanskrit is 
 so much fuller and clearer than anywhere else, that 
 one who would make any minute and extended in- 
 vestigations into this affection of early lingual forms, 
 must direct his attention to specific Sanskrit study ; and 
 without, it is believed, the opportunity of adding very 
 much thereby to the results briefly stated in these pages. 
 
 As the Latin allows but the smallest possible mar- 
 gin to diphthongs, the changes wrought by the original 
 action of guna are so overlaid with other changes, and 
 so mutilated, as not often to strike the eye as being of 
 such an origin. They do not therefore always, even 
 when found by careful analysis to exist, carry their 
 evidence fuU in their face, except to an eye practised 
 to search appreciatiugly for them. 
 
 3. Composition. Diphthongation in this way is 
 but of infrequent occurrence. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 51 
 
 The following are examples : neu and sen (=neve 
 and sive) and neuter (=ne+uter). 
 
 In closing this part of the subject, it will not be 
 unprofitable to present in one view a summary of the 
 various contract, or weakened, forms of different vowel- 
 combinations in Latin, in alphabetical order, which 
 unite into latent, rather than formal diphthongs, or, 
 else retain their separate vowel-existence , in juxtapo- 
 sition ; in which the various ways and degrees in which 
 their separate combining elements have been reduced 
 and obscured in their resulting forms, will be apparent. 
 
 I. A. 
 
 1st, A and I. These form, when united, 
 
 (1) a : as in legamus for legaimus, deabus for 
 deaibus. 
 
 (2) e : as, in the subj. pres. of the 1st con- 
 jugation, amemus for amaimus. 
 
 (3) ae : as in pennae for pennai. ' 
 
 (4) 1 : as in pennis for pennais, for penna-i-bus. 
 2d, A and O. 
 
 (1) k: as in malo for maolo for mavolo. 
 
 (2) 6 : as in amo for amao. 
 3d, A and U. 
 
 (1) a: as in amant for ama-unt. 
 
 (2) u : as arula for ara-ula. 
 
 (3) au and 6 : as lotum for lautum (for la- 
 vatima from lavo, to wash), and sodes for 
 si audes. 
 
52 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (4) e : as obedio for ob-audio. 
 
 II. E. 
 
 1st, E and I. 
 
 (1) e: as doces for doce-is, debeo for de- 
 hibeo. 
 
 (2) i : as pemicii for perniciei. 
 2d, E and O. 
 
 (1) eo : as in moneo, equuleo, leo. 
 
 (2) 0: as speciosus for specie-osus. 
 
 III. I. 
 
 I and E. 
 
 (1) ie : as in andies. 
 
 (2) i : as vestibam for vestiebam. 
 
 IV. O. 
 
 Ist. O and A. 
 
 (1) oa : as in coalesco, =:con+alesco. 
 
 (2) 6 : as in c6go =con+ago. 
 2d, O and I. 
 
 (1) 1 : as in liber, free, from archaic loibesus 
 (and afterwards loiberus, liberus, and 
 liber) cf. Gr. sXsvd-sQog. So, also, in the 
 2d declension, genitive form in i, for ois, 
 as in domini, for domino-is. Cf. in same 
 way L. supercilium with Gr. xolXov and 
 L. coelum. 
 
 (2) 6 : as in dative domino for domino-i and 
 bobus for boibus for bovibus, nosti, etc. 
 
 (3) u : as in plurimus for archaic ploiru- 
 
COMPARATIVK PHONOLOGY. 53 
 
 mus, and prudens for providens, bubus 
 for bovibus, as well as bobus. 
 
 V. IJ and A. 
 
 e as in quater for orig. quatuor-ies ; and so 
 quaterni, etc. 
 
 The vowel-systems of the three classical languages 
 have been hitherto considered structurally. We turn 
 now to the next division of our subject. 
 
 Secondly. The vowel-systems of the classical lan- 
 guages, pathologically considered. 
 
 The pathology of human speech, if not so various 
 in its forms as that of the human body, is yet quite as 
 clear and distinct a part of its true history and phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 1st. The doctrine of counterpoises in derived forms. 
 The whole system of checks and balances adopted by 
 the Greeks, in the lengthening and shortening of words, 
 was fuU of the beautiful effects of phonetic art. 
 
 The following are the principal modes in which, 
 when w^ords were lengthened in derived forms, they 
 were at the same time, by way of counterpoise, light- 
 ened, in respect to the mechanical weight of one or 
 more of their syllables. 
 
 § 1. In a reduplicated syllable, one or both of the 
 vowels reduplicated is generally shortened, in both 
 Greek and Latin ; so as to balance, by less weight 
 within, the increased volume of the word without ; as 
 in XsXvxa, perf. of Xua, and ykyqucpa of ygccgxa, and 
 
54 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 cScidi and tetigi, perfs. of cado and tango. A counter 
 effect seems indeed to have been sought, or at least 
 allowed, by the Greeks in a few words within a limited 
 range, the philosophical or normal boundaries of which 
 it is not easy, in all respects, to define, as in rsTQOcpa, 
 Xkloma, eaqaxu from TQScpa, Isina, and oqaco. 
 What the necessity Avas, which the Greek ear felt, for 
 lengthening the radical vowel, in a few exceptional 
 cases like these, it is difficult to say ; unless it was the 
 desire to give additional phonetic importance to the 
 radical vowel, as such, in the presence of the new one 
 added to it. In such forms as tiXricpa, perf. of la^- 
 fidva (stem,^^a/?), tiXri^a {Xay;(ccva), tiQr/xa (^sqeco), 
 the A and q were dropped, as not euphonious, from the 
 original regular forms Xs7^a(pa, XsXa^a, and EQSQuxa, 
 and the f lengthened by way of compensation for the 
 loss, which involved at once the necessity of lengthen- 
 ing also the radical vowel, in which the very sense of 
 the word itself was embosomed, and so increasing its 
 dynamical effect as to preserve its relative etymological 
 importance. 
 
 % .2. The vowels of prefixes and suffixes are made 
 constitutionally short, on the same principle of pre- 
 venting the addition of too great weight to the words 
 to which they belong. 
 
 § 3. When a preposition ' is prefixed to a verbal 
 root in Latin, the radical vowel of the verb is generally 
 weakened. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 55 
 
 (a) A was weakened to e, in a close syllable, (or, a 
 syllable ending in a consonant, whether one or more) : 
 as, in ascendo (= ad+scando) and biennium (= bis+ 
 annus). So, also, when a was followed by r it was 
 changed by a prepositional prefix in compound forms 
 to e : as, in inermis (=: in-j-arma) and iners ( r=in+ 
 ars). 
 
 (b) A or ae and often e were changed to i : as in 
 inhibeo (habeo), accido (cado), eminus (= e+manus), 
 inimicus (= in -{-amicus), iniquus (aequus), inquiro 
 (quaero), adimo (emo). 
 
 (c) A was also, in a few cases, chatiged to u, as in 
 insulsus (salsus), occupo (=in-|-capio), insula (in sale), 
 inculco (calx). So, in Fr. sucre and Eng. sugar (L. 
 saccharum, from which Eng. saccharine) a similar 
 change appears. In Greek, a was very seldom changed 
 to either i or u. 
 
 (d) Au was also changed, sometimes to u, and 
 sometimes to o, as in incuso (causa), includo (claudo), 
 applodo (plaudo). 
 
 (e) O passed in some cases into e, as in vester, for 
 voster, and so, veto for voto (a freq. form of voveo, sup. 
 votum) and vehm, subj. of volo, for volim ; into i, as in 
 cognitus (=con-j-(g)notus), exanimis (=ex -{-animus, 
 stem animo) ; and into u, as in exsul (=:ex-j-solum). 
 
 (f) U sometimes changed to e, as in dejero and 
 pejero (juro). Cf. Eng. trepan (Er. do., and It. tre- 
 pano, with its Greek original rQvnavov). The infiu- 
 
56 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 ence of prepositions upon the radical vowels to which 
 they were prefixed was much less in Greek than in 
 Latin.* 
 
 § 4. The weight of a person-ending often caused, 
 in Greek, a shortening of the preceding vowel, as in 
 the passive forms iarafzai, 8i8ofj,ac, Tvnvouui, com- 
 pared with the active forms 'iorrifxi, 8l8cofj,t, and 
 rvTiTW, whose person-endings are shorter. 
 
 The efiect of the person-ending on the previous 
 radical syllable, in some of the Romanic languages, is 
 deserving of notice here, on account of its analogy with 
 what occurs in Greek. Thus in TVench, compare the e 
 in tenons and acquerons, 1st pers. pi. of tenir and 
 acquerir, with tiens and acquiers the 1st pers, singular. 
 So also in the 8d pers. pi. pres. of verbs, as the final 
 syllable — ent is entirely silent in pronunciation, the 
 original radical form of the tense is restored again, as 
 in tiennent and acquierrent. In Spanish, likewise, as 
 in querimos, we seek, compared with quiero, I seek, the 
 same fact appears. In German, also, the change of a 
 radical a ox u into the middle sound ae and ue, which 
 
 * The explanation of these modes of vowel-shortening in com- 
 pound forms in Latin is this : — that the Romans, when adding another 
 syllable to a word, by way of composition or reduplication, accented 
 the syllable thus prefixed, as giving a special direction, intensification, 
 or definition to the rest of the word ; the result of which was the 
 accentual dropping off of the remaining syllables of the word in pro- 
 nunciation ; or, their being shortened, or lightened in the force of 
 their vowel elements. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 57 
 
 the Germans call umlaut (change of sound), is pro- 
 duced by the addition of a final syllable for purposes 
 of inflection, as in the pi. forms lander, worter, hauser, 
 of land, wort, and haus. 
 
 % 5. There is a limited class of cases among con- 
 sonants, where the law of counterpoises seems to be 
 also at work in Latin ; and they are all connected with 
 the labial nasal m. As »? is a stronger nasal than 
 n, any change from m to n, in compound or deriv- 
 ative words, is of course a weakening. They are such 
 words as clandestinus from clam (for celam from celo), 
 tandem from tam, princeps (primo+capio), tunc (turn 
 +ce). 
 
 There is a class of vowel-changes in Latin, that 
 deserve to be called rather specimens of vowel-assimi- 
 lation than of counterpoises ; the law of change some- 
 times working forwards in its influence but generally 
 backwards : as bene for bone, for bono, nihilum for 
 ne-hilum, familia from famulus, exsilium from exsul, 
 soboles for suboles, socordia for secordia, and simihs 
 from simul; like in Greek, ivvu^i for tovvfic and 
 UiXonovvrjaoi fot TIsXoTiog v^aog, as specimens of 
 consonantal assimilation. 
 
 2d. The doctrine of compensations. 
 
 In the Greek, when letters radical to the stem were 
 rejected from it, a compensation was made, both pho- 
 netically and graphically, to indicate the fact. Counter- 
 poises and compensations are manifestly opposite, in 
 
58 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 their effect, one to the other ; the one preserving the 
 proper equipoise of the different parts of a word when 
 increased ; and the other preserving its etymological 
 integrity, so far as possible, when diminished. 
 
 In Latin, contracted syllables are long, as well as in 
 Greek ; but since there are not two modes of writing 
 e and o in the former, as in the latter, and since diph- 
 thongs (as t-i and ov) are not used to indicate for ever 
 alike the contracted and uncontracted constitution of 
 such words or parts of words ; both the fact and the 
 forms of compensative influences are much clearer in 
 Greek than in Latin, and indeed in Sanskrit also. 
 Numerous are the instances in Latin of the lengthen- 
 ing of a vowel after the rejection of one or more con- 
 sonants, as in junior, (for juvenior), malo, (for magis 
 volo), biga, (for bijuga), but seldom is their loss repre- 
 sented by a diphthong. Vowels are thrown out of 
 derived forms in Latin at times, with absolute indiffer- 
 ence apparently to their formal value, as in actrix, (for 
 actorix), magistra, (for magistera), posse, (for potis 
 esse). In Sanskrit the compensation for rejected con- 
 sonants by lengthened vowel-forms occurs, only on a 
 very limited scale. But in Greek the changes in the 
 radical constitution of words are eiilbalmed in their 
 resultant forms ; and one dialect like a reflecting mir- 
 ror throws its clearly revealing light upon another. 
 
 The following are the chief modes of compensation 
 in Greek: 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 59 
 
 ^ 1. The lengthening of the vowel preceding the 
 rejected letter or letters. 
 
 The rules for lengthening vowels, compensatively, 
 are the following : 
 
 Short a is generally made long a, or rj, and dialec- 
 tically sometimes ai, and, if a monosyllable, circum- 
 flexed, as (a) in nag for ncivvQ ; but otherwise not in 
 a final syllable, as in Tvipag for rvipuvrg. 
 
 Short e becomes rj or «*, as in nocfj,rjv for itotfj-Evg, 
 8lfi,l for s6/^i, tig for evg, tig, into, for svrg, and also 
 the participle suffix -tig for -tvrg, as in rvcpdtig for 
 TVcp^Evrg. 
 
 generally becomes ou, but frequently also 03, as 
 in TvnvovOL for tvtvtovti, and rvnrav for rvmovrg. 
 In the nominative forms of the 3d declension abundant 
 instances occur of vowel-compensations for the with- 
 drawal of the gender-sign g, and often of other letters 
 with it : as ysQav for ysQovrg, xrtig for sersvg, odovg 
 for odovrg, rtrvcpag for rtrvfporg. In the dat. pi. 
 also of nouns and adjectives of the third declension, sim- 
 ilar compensative forms occur, as XsovGt for Xtovrai, 
 Tcd-ti6i for ridsvroi ; and in the 3d pers. pi. of verbs, 
 as in XvovGi, Xvcosi, and XtXvxaai, for Xvovti, Xvcovtc 
 and XtXvxavTc. -In the 1st aor. forms also of liquid 
 verbs the original form is strongly represented by a 
 compensative one : as, '^yytiXa, t/^tiva, tiprjva, for 
 earlier i^yytXaa, tfitvoa and sq)av6a, from dyysXXco, 
 jLisvcj and cpaivco. 
 
60 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 I and u are simply lengthened. So also in French, 
 in shortening original Latin forms from two or more 
 syllables to one, the radical vowel is often diphthongized 
 by way of compensation, as in loin (from longus) ; foin 
 (fenum) ; croire (credere) ; aimer (amare) ; gloire (glo- 
 ria) ; sain (sanus). 
 
 \ 2. When, in a medial or final syllable, an aspi- 
 rate was rejected, instead of being entirely thrown away, 
 it was transferred in Greek to a preceding or succeed- 
 ing syllable, as in -D-qi'^ (stem, tqix), gen. tqixoq, 
 TQScpca, fut. ■d'Qexpa, ra^vg, comp. -d-daoav, and nd- 
 6x(a (stem, ■naff) for ndd-atecj. Whether the reason 
 for thus transferring and preserving the aspirate, was 
 one of an etymological or phonetic kind, it is difficult 
 to say. 
 
 In English, as in French, compensation is made in 
 pronunciation, although not graphically, for the rejec- 
 tion of the sound of a final letter, as in robe compared 
 with rob, and smoke compared with mock. 
 
 The Dorians much preferred to elongate the re- 
 maining vowels of abridged or mutilated words to 
 diphthongizing them. 
 
 3d. Variations in the root-vowel, for other reasons 
 than those of counterpoise or compensation. 
 
 The most mobile of all the vowels in radical forms 
 is e, which when changed in derivatives is usually con- 
 verted into 0. In Latin, the interchange of e and o, in 
 this way, occurs but seldom, compared with the Greek ; 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 61 
 
 yet it does appear in a few instances, as in celare and 
 color, metior and modus, necto and nodus, pendo and 
 pondus, tego and toga, sequor and socius, sedeo and 
 sodalis, bene and bonus. (Cf. in Eng. hear and borne, 
 shear and shorn, tear and torn, from corresponding 
 German forms), and also wear, weary, worn, and worry. 
 In Greek, however, such variations are abundant, not 
 only in verbs and their nominal derivatives, as in "ksyoa 
 and Xoyog, rQSxa and tq6xo(;; but also in different 
 parts of the same verb, in several instances, to denote 
 differences of time, as in rgmco, Aor. irQanov, perf. 
 TSTQo^a. The range of these transmutations, in Greek, 
 is bounded by the three hard vowels^ short a, s, and o. 
 
 The change of the radical vowel, in such perfect 
 forms in Latin as cepi, perf. of capio, egi, perf. of ago, 
 and feci, perf. of facio, is of another origin than that 
 spoken of above ; as they are but abbreviations of re- 
 duphcated forms : cepi being contracted from a fuller 
 form cecipi (for cecapi) ; egi from e-agi ; and feci from 
 fefici (for fefaci). 
 
 Interchanges, like those of a, e, and o in Greek, 
 occur in some of the modern languages of Europe, 
 from the influence of assimilation, as among the Hun- 
 garians and Turks, who have both hard and weak forms 
 of words, all the succeeding syllables of which accom- 
 modate themselves, in reference to their vowels, to that 
 of the first syllable, and become, according as that is 
 hard or soft, 6, o, u, e, oe, or ue. 
 
62 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 4th. Contracted forms. 
 
 These arise generally from the rejection of one 
 vowel before or after another ; but sometimes also from 
 the rejection of an entire syllable of two or more letters, 
 
 Abridged forms are abundant in both Greek and 
 Latin. The early Alexandrian grammarians, who in- 
 vented the whole system of written accents, for the 
 purpose of preserving to posterity their loved old 
 mother-tongue as unimpaired as possible, even in its 
 minutest features, were exceedingly careful to show in 
 certain cases by the circumflex accent,* when original 
 forms had been mutilated, that such was the fact. The 
 service that they thils unconsciously rendered to philol- 
 ogy, in connection with its Sanskrit features and 4n 
 illustration of them, is for value like that of Homer, in 
 preserving for us the fuU Ionic forms of his day ; which 
 show what the Greek in its medial transition-state was, 
 when decided changes had begun, and old and new 
 forms were struggling together for the mastery ; and so 
 make all the more certain the line of connection be- 
 tween the past and the present : the primitive mother- 
 language of the Indo-European family and all its mod- 
 ern representatives. 
 
 A contraction is always an etymological contrivance : 
 a plan for removing a difficulty ; and that difficulty is 
 an hiatus which, whether for uttering or hearing, is 
 
 * A similar etymological instinct is apparent in French in the so 
 common use of the circumflex accent for a deleted s. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 63 
 
 alike disagreeable. A love of variety is not only every- 
 where exhibited by the Deity himself, in his w^orks, 
 but has been purposely also planted by him in the 
 very constitution of our nature. We do not naturally 
 like to make the same effort, with the same vocal organ, 
 twice in immediate succession ; nor does the ear receive 
 with pleasure a repetitious impression of the same sort 
 upon the tympanum. Contractions, accordingly, some- 
 what like slurs in music, serve to make the passage 
 more smooth from one point to another, in the flow of 
 speech and of feeling. Diphthongs are the combination 
 of two vowels, open and close, into one sound. Synizesis 
 is the pronunciation of two syllables (not diphthongized) 
 as one. Synaeresis is the prosodial contraction in a 
 given case of two vowels elsewhere pronounced as such 
 into one syllable! Crasis (mingling) is the blending 
 of the final and initial vowels of two successive words 
 into one vowel or diphthong. 
 
 The forms of contraction and its principles were 
 presented so fully, under the subject of diphthongatibn, 
 as to need no further treatment. 
 
 A few additional examples of contracted forms in 
 Latin will be of profit, perhaps, as well as interest 
 here : as, palma (Gr. TtaXaftrj) ; bellus (for benulus) ; 
 
 henignus (=:benus — for bonus 1- genus ; cf. malignus 
 
 = malus4- genus) ; centuria (= centum 4-viri) ; co- 
 rolla (for coronula, from corona); copia (=co-opia: 
 cf. ops) ; cuncti (= co-juncti) ; debere (== de+ha- 
 
64 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 bere) ; extemplo (for extempulo) ; lac (stem lact for 
 glact, Gr. yd'ka^ stem ydXanv) ; jubere (=jus-(- 
 habere) ; motus (for movtus) ; mulus, for misculus, 
 (miscere); nemo (= ne+bomo) ; norms, for novenus, 
 iind nongenti for novemgenti ; prohrum (for prohibrum, 
 for prohibium) ; propter (for prope-ter) ; puella (for 
 puerula) ; rursus (^re+versus) ; sella (for sedela) ; 
 sinciput {= semi+caput) ; sumo (= sub-j-emo) ; 
 surffo {= sub+rego) ; summus (for supimus) ; udus 
 (for uvidus) ; vendo ( = venum+do). 
 
 5tb. Strengthened forms. 
 
 Vowels may be strengthened in two ways : first, 
 simply ; that is, in a stronger utterance of the same 
 sound by its greater prolongation or more forcible 
 enunciation, as in long a, e, i, o, compared with the 
 shorter ones ; and secondly, by compounding another 
 sound with them, as in diphthongs. The two com- 
 bining vowels, which are thus united with others in 
 one emission of the voice, are i "and u. Greater vocal 
 emphasis is given to sounds thus agglutinated; and 
 what Goethe says, is proved true, that " a diphthong 
 is an act of pathos in speech.''* 
 
 In such words as p^aiQco (stem, ^uq) for ;^«(>i«, 
 d^Hvav (stem, df-uv) iordfj.tvcav, rs/Vw stem, ^Ttv) 
 
 * Vowels are sometimes diphthongized in English 'which in the 
 original radical form are simple : as vaunt (Fr. vanter, Ital. vantare 
 from M. L. vanitare, from L. vanus), and avaunt (Fr. avant=L. ah + 
 ante, lit. from hefore.) 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 65 
 
 for Tsvia, cpalva (stem, cpav) for tpuvcco, we have by 
 a metathesis of the i, a strengthened radical vowel, in 
 a class of original forms, that, when having y, x, or ;^ 
 before i, are changed to 6G, as in rdaoa for rayia 
 and rjaocov for ^xcav. 
 
 The mode of strengthening vowel-forms has been 
 discussed sufficiently, under the head of diphthongs ; 
 and the enumeration of this class of vowel-changes is 
 made here, more for its significance as a part of a true 
 analysis of our subject, than for any other reason. 
 
 6th. Weakened forms. 
 
 § 1. All vowel-changes made as counterpoises are 
 weakenings of the original radical forms. 
 
 § 3. Original forms were also weakened, some- 
 times, by the rejection entirely of a radical vowel, as in 
 L. sum for esum(i) (old Gr., scSjul, Sk. asmi). Simi- 
 larly, the Eng. word stranger (L. extraneus, Sp. 
 estrangero) has lost the radical e, which yet, in the 
 verb estrange, is still preserved. 
 
 7th. Euphonic additions. 
 
 % 1. Euphonic prefixes. In Greek, a, s, and o 
 were often prefixed to words, in order to give them 
 greater volume to the ear. So, in old Erench, e was 
 often prefixed to L. words naturalized in the language, 
 beginning with s before a consonant (especially {), for 
 the better vocalization of the sibilant : as indeed in 
 Spanish always ; where initial s occurs, only before 
 vowels. Hence come in English so many double forms 
 Vol. II.— 5 
 
66 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 of the same ultimate word: — one derived immediately 
 from the ' Latin and the other mediately through the 
 
 i French : as, special and especial ; stable and establish ; 
 
 ! state and estate. 
 
 The following are specimens of such additions in 
 Greek : 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 a. m6, to exchange. 
 
 a/ji.tvea' & d/Aet)8«tv 
 
 meare & movere. 
 
 " mrij, to wipe off, or away. 
 
 afj.ikyeiv 
 
 
 mulgere. 
 
 e. laghu-s, light. 
 
 cA.a<^po;, cXa;^vs 
 
 lev is. 
 
 " mama (or, me) of me. 
 
 ifwv 
 
 
 mei. 
 
 C rohita-s, red. 
 ( rudhira-s, blood. 
 
 ipvSpo'; 
 
 
 ruber. 
 
 
 
 
 0. naman, a name. 
 
 ovofia 
 
 
 nomen. 
 
 nakha-s, a nail. 
 
 ovu^ 
 
 
 ungula. 
 
 paschat, near, after. 
 
 oVto-^e 
 
 
 post. 
 
 raj, to rule. 
 
 opiyeiAf 
 
 
 regere. 
 
 bhru-s, the eyebrow. 
 
 d^pvs 
 
 
 frons. 
 
 danta-s, a tooth. 
 
 oSous, stem 
 
 oSovT 
 
 dens, stem dent. 
 
 § 2. Union vowels. 
 
 An union-vowel is an intermediate vowel, employ- 
 ed to connect the stem of a word and its person- 
 ending together, with which many verbs were origin- 
 ally endowed in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. The 
 instinct that led to its use was the desire to avoid 
 consonantal aggregation ; as, in the caSe of concurrent 
 vowels the effort was natural to blend them in one, or 
 to reject wholly the weaker of them, in order to prevent 
 the necessity of their monotonous or difficult enuncia- 
 tion. Cf. the use of union-vowels, for their origin and 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 67 
 
 sense, with consonantal epenthesis, as hereafter treate^. 
 It is therefore in itself of no value whatever, either 
 etymologically or grammatically, but only in a phonetic 
 way, and therefore readily changeable in its form. It 
 came however, ere long, to have as fixed and influen- 
 tial a status in the word,* as any of its other elements ; 
 and has served, therefore, in some cases, to complicate 
 considerably some of the more abstruse inquiries of 
 the scientific etymologist. Georg Curtius, in his 
 " Die Bildung der Tempora und Modi," first opened 
 to view the hidden riches of this department of philo- 
 logical investigation. 
 
 In the Greek verbs in -[.u, the verb-stem and per- 
 son-ending are joined together without any such copula : 
 as in Ti&rjfic (stem, z)-s) we have, on the one hand, 
 the verb-stem reduphcated and its radical vowel length- 
 ened, and on the other, the person-ending in its original 
 unchanged form -/lii, and nothing else. So in Latin, 
 in such forms as est and estis ; fers and fert; is, it, 
 imus, itis, different persons of eo, ire, I go (stem, «'), we 
 
 * Thus i^ovKevov, c^oiXeves, etc., analyzed becomes 
 
 Augment. Verb-stem. Union vowels (for indie, mood). Person-ending. 
 ( /SouXeu o V (for fii). 
 
 i jSouXeu f s ( " (Ti), 
 
 f /SoiiXfu c wanting ( " n). 
 
 So in Latin, rego, in its different persons, is analyzable in the 
 same way, as 
 
 Verb-stem. Union-vowel. Person-ending. 
 
 2d pers. Sing. reg i s (for si). 
 
 8d " " reg i t (" ti). 
 
 3d " " reg u nt ( " nti). 
 
68 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 have the diiferent verb-stems es, fer, and i, in imme- 
 diate connection with the person-endings s, t, mus, and 
 tis, without any union- vowel. In Greek, all verbs of 
 consonantal stems (or barjrtone verbs) and all pure dis- 
 syllabic verbs have union-vowels in some or all of their 
 persons, as in Latin also have the simple verbs of the 
 consonantal or third conjugation. 
 
 The union-vowels, called also technically, in the 
 different moods, the mood-vowels, because varied in 
 them respectively, especially in Greek, are in Sanskrit, 
 a ; in Greek * and o, which in the subjunctive mood 
 are lengthened into ry and a, and in the case of o, into 
 OL in the optative mood ; and in Latin i and u. In the 
 conjugation of the contract verbs in Greek {aa, kco, oca), 
 as of the 1st, 2d, and 4th conjugations in Latin ao, 
 eo, and io, which are also vowel conjugations like those 
 in Greek, the union-vowel is wanting. The stems of 
 these verbs are all vowel-stems, or stems ending in a 
 vowel, and remain unchanged throughout all the forms 
 of the verb, with a few trifling exceptions, as in the 1st 
 pers. pres. sing, of amo, which is for ama o, and in the 
 tense-stem of the preterite of doceo, as in docui and 
 \ j docueram, which are for doce-fui and doce-fueram. In 
 ' ' early or Epic Greek, an union-vowel retained its place 
 after the rejection of a radical o, F, or half-vowel y, 
 liefore another vowel and even between two vowels, as 
 in TV7VTSO (afterwards rvitTOu) for tvtitsoo and vs-t- 
 ai for vs6-t-6ac ; but in Attic Greek, as the union- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 69 
 
 vowel and stem-vowel of the contract verbs, coming 
 into juxtaposition, made an hiatus which could be en- 
 dured only for some etymological or other imperative 
 reason, one of the two vowels was sacrificed to the 
 other : sometimes the union-vowel to the stem-vowel, 
 and sometimes the latter to the former. In Tifj.d-(o, 
 Ttfidj, Tc/Lta-ic-g, rcfiag, Tcfia-ti, rifia, the stem- 
 vowel a is preserved, and the lengthened union-vowel 
 4«* thrown out ; but in rticd-o-fisv, rificifitv, the 
 stem-vowel is sacrificed, and the union-vowel o is 
 lengthened into a. The stem-vowel has, as it of course 
 should have, the greater tenacity of the two when they 
 come in conflict ; and, except in the subjunctive mood 
 and the participial forms, maintains its ovra precedence 
 with great imiformity. In Latin also, the stem-vowels 
 of the three vowel conjugations maintain themselves 
 firmly before the union-vowel; so that it disappears 
 entirely in them, except in the 3d pers. pi. of verbs in 
 io, ire, of the 4th conjugation, as in audi-u-nt (for nti). 
 Amo, amas, amat, are accordingly for ama-o, ama-i-s, 
 ama-i-t ; so doceo, doces, etc., are for doce-o, doce-i-s, 
 doce-i-t ; and audio is for audio, audi-i-s, audi-i-t : the 
 union-vowel connecting the verb-stem and person-ending 
 being as in the 3d conj. (which is the normal conjuga- 
 tion-form of the Latin verb) i, as in leg-i-s, for earlier 
 form leg-a-si. 
 
 * The proper union-vowel being f, it has been made ia the 2d and 
 3d pers. sing, of verbs in the active voice «, by way of compensa- 
 tion for shortening the original person-endings -o-t, -Tt. 
 
70 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 III. The consonantal system of the classical lan- 
 guages, viewed severally. 
 
 Hrst, Structurally. As vowels have the effect to 
 unite the consonantal elements of words more readily 
 together, so contrarily may consonants be said to avail 
 to separate vowels more fully from each other. 
 
 1st. Simply. Consonants exhibit a much greater 
 amount of vital force and endurance in passing from 
 one age, country, or language to another than vowels, 
 which are of a much weaker constitution. We have, 
 indeed, in these two components of syllabication, that 
 same mixture on a small scale of conservative and pro- 
 gressive, or of stable and mobile elements, which is 
 ordained to form the steady equilibrium of the social 
 state. The consonants or fixed conservative elements 
 are more perpendicular in their form, longer-rooted, 
 and of greater rigidity of position ; and, when re- 
 moved, are not readily rolled from their place, but 
 rather forcibly borne away ; while the vowels are easily 
 set in motion, one upon the other, before any strong 
 phonetic impulse to a change. 
 
 The Greek and Latin are very much alike in their 
 consonantal systems : the Latin and Gothic less so ; 
 6nd the Greek and Gothic least of all. 
 
 The framework of the consonantal system of all 
 the Indo-European languages consists of three great 
 divisions, represented by the three leading sounds p, 
 k, and t ; that is, labials or lip-sounds, gutturals or 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGT, 71 
 
 throat-sounds, and Unguals or tongue-sounds, of which 
 last the lightest and most flexible is t. Each of these 
 separate orders of consonants has other cognate sounds 
 that constitute a class with it, as : 
 
 
 GKEEE. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 P. 
 
 /8 and <^. 
 
 b, f, and ph. 
 
 K. 
 
 ■y and ■)(. 
 
 g and ch. 
 
 T. 
 
 8 and 5. 
 
 d and th. 
 
 Each of these classes is subdivided, in the order in 
 which they here stand, into smooth, middle, and rough 
 * mutes. They had also, in early Greek, and have more 
 or less now, in various languages, a breathing appro- 
 priately belonging to each class. This was vdth the 
 labials the digamma F; with the Unguals, 6 ; and with 
 the gutturals, the rough breathing, our h. With the 
 Unguals coalesce also /, n, r ; and with the labials m. 
 The three fundamental vowels a, i, u, almost agree 
 themselves, also, with this classification : ' 
 a (pronounced as ah) is a guttural vowel ; being the 
 mere emission of the voice through the throat 
 with all of the vocal organs in a state of quiet- 
 ude except the lungs, the simplest vowel-sound 
 that can be made. 
 u, pronounced as the Greek or Erench u* is a labial 
 vowel, as is also o {=■ a-\-u) ; while 
 
 * The French u may be at once rightly pronounced by fixing the 
 mouth as if a going to whistle, or as when pouting or kissing, and, 
 while keeping it in tliat position, saying e. It is accordingly some- 
 
72 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 i is a high guttural vowel compared with a, which is a 
 
 low one. 
 Different classes of consonants have an elective affinity, 
 as is quite manifest in Latin, for different classes of 
 vowels : as the gutturals for a (ah) ; the Unguals and 
 the sibilant for i (Eng. e) ; and the labials for o and u. 
 The continental vowel-sound e (the long flat Eng. a, as 
 in plate) is medial between the guttural a (ah) and lin- 
 gual I (Eng. e, long) ; as is o between the guttural a 
 and labial u. There can, of course, be organically no 
 absolute dental vowel as such, since, in order to utter a 
 vowel, the mouth must be open and no use is made of 
 the teeth in its enunciation ; and yet the dentals, like 
 the Unguals, find their easiest expression with the long 
 vowel i (or Eng. e). The consonants may therefore' be 
 thus grouped : 
 
 GREEK. LATIN. 
 
 Palatals, k, y, )(. c, g, ch. 
 
 Dentals, 8, t, ^, X, v, p, a-, d, t, th, 1, n, r, s. 
 
 Labials, y3, ir, <j>i H- ^t Pi fj P^i '^• 
 
 Of the three great classes of consonantal sounds, 
 the Unguals are the most light and flexible, and the 
 gutturals the most hard and heavy ; so that the labials 
 are intermediate between them both, in ease of utter- 
 ance and in degree of syllabic effect or weight. The 
 ^-sounds, accordingly, occupy the highest point of the 
 
 times called the pouting vowel, in reference to its form ; and some- 
 times also, the grunting vowel, in reference to its sound. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGT. 73 
 
 consonantal scale for force ; and the t- and j»-sounds 
 may be viewed as successive reductions of vocal force. 
 
 It has been already stated, that the consonantal 
 elements of words form the groundwork of language, 
 and the vowel-sounds its superficial coloring ; and also 
 that the Sanskrit is the most simple of all languages in 
 its vowel-system ; its great all-prevailing vowel being a, 
 to which however the Latin and Greek languages, in 
 their greater sensitiveness to consonantal influences of 
 all sorts, respond at various times with the whole scale 
 of vowel-sounds. Although, therefore, in respect to 
 the number of its consonants, the Sanskrit is very copi- 
 ous, yet from the great prevalence of the a-sound in all 
 its forms, it is poorer in the elements of phonetic beauty 
 than any other language of the same family. Like 
 tunes that must be all played upon an instrument of 
 only one string, its consonantal effects can be developed 
 in only one limited direction. 
 
 As in diphthongal combinations there is a stable 
 element in union with one mobile, so, in consonantal 
 mixtures, there occurs a similar difference of firm and 
 weak, or of fixed and incidental. Thus the semivowels 
 (A, /x, V, Q, 6) are so feeble, as their name indicates, as 
 to be midway in strength between consonants and vow- 
 els, or, which is the same thing, to have less mechani- 
 cal weight than the other consonants. The semivowels, 
 like the vowels, can be uttered continuously, so long as 
 the breath can be expired ; while the mutes are capa- 
 
74 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 ble in themselves alone of only one definite explosive 
 utterance. 
 
 The lightest of all the consonants in mechanical 
 weight, the most bodiless in sound, are j and h. In 
 Sanskrit, j is so weak that it occurs even initially after 
 71 and m. Next in hghtness of vocal substance are r 
 and /, and in this order. They readily change, in 
 different languages, into each other, as do likewise r 
 and s in Latin ; and other letters also drop from weak- 
 ness into them ; while, contrarily, no tendency appears 
 anywhere to rise or harden into them. As the mutes 
 are heavier than the semivowels, the two readily com- 
 bine with each other, some in one language and others 
 in another ; while in Sanskrit, where scarcely any con- 
 sonantal combination seems impossible, they are aU of 
 them, or nearly all, found in conjunction in initial syl- 
 lables, as tn, tm, ts, tsn, mm, ml, hm, hi, ddh, dbh, rdr, 
 rtsn. 
 
 There are, strictly, but two simple nasals, m and 
 n ; but in Sanskrit, by assimilation with other letters 
 combined with them, a fivefold variety of nasals has 
 been created. Of these m, the labial nasal, is stronger 
 in mechanical force than n, the dental nasal. We find 
 accordingly in Greek, when the twp occur together, as 
 they do even initially, ^ preceding the v, as a staff 
 upon which it may lean, as in fxvdofiui and its deriv- 
 atives, and also fxviov and fzvooq. In Latin no con- 
 sonant can precede a nasal in the same syllable, except 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 75 
 
 g ; and this occurs only before n, as in gnarus and 
 gnosco, the archaic form of nosco (cf. yiyvdoxcS). 
 The compound nasal ng (as in our word anger), is 
 found abundantly, as in German and English, so 
 also in both Greek and Latin ; as in ayysXog and L. 
 longus. 
 
 ■2d. In combination. The modes of consonantal 
 combination are threefold : 
 
 ^ 1. The concurrence of any two different con- 
 sonants. 
 
 § 2. The duplication or gemination of the same 
 consonant. With the exception of a few half dozen 
 cases like Bdx^og, lEancpco, Tsrra, &c., gemination is 
 in Greek the result of assimilation, as in innog, for 
 Lit Fog, for ifcFog (Sk. agvas), OTtTtag for ornag, rsrra- 
 Qsg iox TsrfaQtg. / < '-'- *' r 
 
 § 3. The union of two consonants into one com- 
 pound sound, as ip {n-\-6), | {}e-\-d), ^ {G-\-d). As ^ 
 so abundantly represents (in Greek) the Sk. j and 
 L. j, it is probable that its sound was dsh or j. 
 
 Consonants blending into one sound may be com- 
 pared with those standing together uncombined, as a 
 diphthong compares with two vowels separated from 
 each other by diaeresis, as naig with Tial'g. 
 
 It is in the first of the three modes of consonantal 
 combination described, that the chief interest of the 
 investigator lies ; and this in three different direc 
 tions : 
 
76 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (a) In reference to the beginning of words. 
 
 (/8) In reference to the middle of words. 
 
 (y) In reference to the end of words. 
 
 There will be a double advantage, it is believed, 
 not only in form but also in fact, in surveying this 
 part of the subject, both synthetically and analytically. 
 
 Krst, synthetically, or generally. 
 
 (a) In the beginning of words. 
 
 Initial combinations of consonants are much more 
 varied and abundant in Greek than in Latin ; as the 
 Greeks were specially fond of strong initial syllables. 
 Besides those to be found in Latin, the following also 
 occur : j3d, as /Sdscj ; yd, ySovnoQ ; dju, 8/Lifor) ; 8v, 
 dpocpog (in which the d is not radical, the word repre- 
 senting Sk. nabha-s = na, not and bhas, to shine) ; §q, 
 Sgaa ; xfi, Hf^rjTog ; xv, }(vaco ; :tT, araofiai ; f^v, 
 ftvd ; 7iv, nviya ; tit, TtTva ; Tf^, Tfiriya ; rX, 
 rXdco ; dv, S^vrjrog and gpi?', gjihavco ; and Hkewise 
 the double consonants ^ {>t, y, /, and o) and ^ {a 
 and 5) as in ^svog and ^da. In Latin, not only 
 would aU of the above initial combinations be abnor- 
 mal ; but there is also very much less fondness for any 
 such combinations generaUy, except when the second 
 letter is a liquid ; and then the first is always one of 
 ■^ the labials {b, f, or jo) or of the guttiirals (c or ff), or 
 it«. tr r. I else the letter s or t. But never, as in Greek, can d or 
 m be initial, and at the same time be followed imme- 
 diately by another consonant ; or any letter come after 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 77 
 
 _^ or ^ in the same initial syllable but r. With I or r 
 any consonant may be blended initially, except t and d 
 with /. No consonant can be doubled when initial in 
 a word ; for no such duplication of a letter could be 
 made or heard without the intervention of a vowel, 
 which would at once destroy the very fact of its duph- 
 tion in the same syllable. In some of the modern lan- 
 guages, indeed, as the Spanish, double letters occur 
 initially, as in llano, plain (L. planus), and Have, a key 
 (L. clavis) ; but the letter thus doubled to the eye is 
 not also double to the ear, but a distinct letter by 
 itself, or graphic symbol, for the representation of what 
 is called the liquid /, or ly •■ llano being pronounced, as 
 if written lyah-no, as a dissyllable. 
 
 (/?) In the middle of words. 
 
 Consonantal combinations in the middle of words 
 are more nearly the same in style and number, in the 
 two languages, than in the beginning ; although the 
 range of the Greek is wider also here than that of the 
 Latin. Thus d and r, while frequently meeting in 
 Greek, in the middle of a w'ord, occur in Latin in but 
 two words, dodrans and quadrans with its derivatives ; 
 and so hi, d, gl, and Id, and en never occur in pure 
 Latin forms that are uncompounded. Codes, a proper 
 name, in which cl occurs once, may be a contraction 
 for caecus oculus, (cf. for form of contraction poclum 
 and saeclum, occasional poetic forms for poculum and 
 saeculum) ; or the initial c may represent the same 
 
78 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 root with Sk. eka single, and be equivalent to ^'ka-\- 
 oculus. Publius, in which dl also occurs once, is a 
 contraction for Populicus, as Id likewise in the one word 
 valde comes, by contraction, from valide. But how 
 often, in Greek, do we find such combinations, in the 
 middle of words, as 8ju, Sv, Hf-i, xv, nv, t/ll, tv, r%, 
 Oy, 6ii', O&X, Oft, as in ih^tv, i'dva, dxfir], oxvog, 
 VTtvog, drfxog, cparvrj, 'ArXag, fj.iayofj.ac, Xolad'og, 
 iad-Xog, d6fj.r'j. Triconsonantal combinations, except 
 when the last consonant was a liquid, which occur 
 indeed seldom except by composition, were displeasing 
 to the Greek ear ; and hence the rejection of 6 in such 
 forms as rsrvcpd-E for Tszvcpa&s and rf-wcpS-at for 
 T'sTVcpGd-ai, and so with the rejection of v from 6vv in 
 composition with words beginning with ox, o%, ot, as 
 in ovoraoig for ovvoraoig. 
 
 The duplication of the same letter, in the middle of 
 a word, does not occur in Latin, on any such scale as 
 in the Greek. The letters d,f, g, I, m, n,p, r, s, t are 
 indeed often thus duplicated, but almost always only 
 because of a prepositional prefix whose first letter is 
 assimilated ; and when duplication does occur in the 
 middle of a word it never exists in the same syllable. 
 In this particular the Prencli has departed widely 
 from the phonetic law of its parent tongue; for in 
 French, duplicated letters in the middle of a word are 
 put together in syllabication, undivided, with the fol 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 79 
 
 lowing vowel : thus, vaisseau is spelled vai-sseau ; and 
 fille, fi-lle. 
 
 (7) At the end of words. 
 
 The Latin allowed here §. far greater number of 
 consonantal combinations than the Greek. In neither 
 was the doubling of the same letter when final, so com- 
 mon in the Teutonic languages, allowed. Mel accord- 
 ingly (stem, mell, Gr. fisXir), fel (stem, fell), and 
 OS, a bone (stem, oss, for oste, Gr. octs-ov, Sk. 
 asthi), each gave up in the nominative, their final 
 radical letter under the force of this law. Of all com- 
 binations of final letters in verb-forms, that of -nt was 
 the favorite in this language. In nouns, s, preceded 
 by a hquid, as in mens and pars, or, itself compounded 
 with a guttural, and then so preceded, as in arx, lanx, 
 etc., occurred quite frequently. 
 
 In Greek, the addition of the gender sign a caused 
 at once the rejection, for the sake of euphony, of the 
 final letter of the root, in consonantal stems, as in ^tg 
 (stem, -ff-iv) for -d-lvg, itdg (stem, %uvt) for navrg, 
 Xuf^Ttag for Xafinadg. 
 
 The most frequent of all consonantal Combinations 
 are those of mutes with liquids, or with the semi- 
 vowel s. 
 
 Mutes combine with liquids on the principle that, 
 in the beginning of words, the mutes must precede the 
 liquids ; while in the middle and end, contrarily, the 
 liquids must precede the mutes ; or, which is the same 
 
80 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 thing in effect, the liquid must always be in immediate 
 connection with its syllabic vowel, whether preceding 
 or following it, as in artem and trado. In neither the 
 Greek nor Latin can one of the semivowels /, «, r, or 
 the letter h be combined vocally, as first of the two in 
 the same syllable, with any of the mutes. 
 
 Secondly : analytically, or, particularly. 
 
 1st. The combination of mutes and liquids. 
 
 (1.) Mutes and liquids in the beginning of words. 
 
 % 1. /. In Greek and Latin we have bl,pl,fi {cpX), 
 gl, cl, (Jet), ^X, and in Greek alone fX (rXrjTog) and 
 d-X (dXda). 
 
 § 2. m. In Greek only, we find 8fx (pf^dco), Tft 
 {Tf.irjyc3), fifjL (^xfj^rjTog). 
 
 § 3. n. In Greek and Latin gn (yvaaig, gnosco), 
 and in Greek xv (^xvdnrco) ; as also dental and labial 
 combinations with v, as dvcxpog, d-v (i?v;?ro;), nv 
 (Tivsvfia). 
 
 \ 4. r. In both languages, the mutes generally ai-e 
 capable of uniting initially with r. 
 
 The combinations with / and r are most abundant. 
 
 (2.) Mutes and liquids in the middle and end of 
 words. 
 
 In both Greek and Latin they occur abundantly in 
 the middle of words ; where they can stand between 
 two vowels. 
 
 In Latin, some combinations of the kind are found 
 at the end of words, but not in Greek : as, It (vult), rt 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 81 
 
 (fert), nc (nunc), nt (amant). In both Sanskrit and 
 Greek a radical t has disappeared from the 3d pers. pi. 
 of the historical tenses, as in Greek av and ov, in 
 ervifjav and tTvnrov. In union with final s, the same 
 combinations and quite a wide range of others can also 
 be found in both Greek and Latin, as rb in urbs, re in 
 arx, Ic in calx, nc in lanx, rt in ars, etc. The Greek is 
 in strong contrast with the Sanskrit and Latin in its 
 treatment of final coiisonants. While at the beginning 
 of words it retained and even strengthened their con- 
 sonantal elements ; it rejected them at the end for 
 euphonic purposes with the utmost indifference to their 
 etymological value. In ccKq, ^aitaqg (Aeol. for ftaxaq), 
 nsiQivs, ^Xfj-ivg and TiQvvg we have a few solitary 
 instances of a final in combination with a liquid in 
 Greek ; with ^ also final (composed etymologically of 
 a x mute and q) we find a nasal gamma and the liquid 
 Q sometimes combined, as in Xvy^, cpaqvy^ and ^ioq'^. 
 
 2d. The combination of different consonants with s. 
 
 (1.) S can precede mutes in the beginning and 
 end of words. If it follows them, it unites with them 
 into a double consonant. It combines most abun- 
 dantly Avith several consonants at the beginning of 
 words. 
 
 § 1. We find in both Greek and Latin, sp, st, so 
 
 (sk), occurring initially, and each admitting an /also 
 
 in threefold combination : like, for consonants, the 
 
 tnphthongal combinations among vowels (as sot, tai)^ 
 Vol. II.— 6 
 
82 COMPARA'flVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 sometimes found in Greek. The following triconsdnan- 
 tal mixtm-es are found accordingly in Greek and Latin 
 respectively: spl (cfjr/l^;';^ yov and spleudeo) ; spr 
 (spretus) ; stl {pvltyyiq and stlembus) ; str {prqav- 
 vvfx.L, stratus) ; ski {ax'kriqoq) ; scr (scribb) ; skn 
 (oxvinTCj). In the Greek we find also a, in combina- 
 tion with the aspirates, as acp, 6^-, Gx, as in G(ph^, 
 ad-svog, 6;(;a8(ov ; and G^q, as in G(pQayig. There is 
 but one word in Sanskrit (stri,- a woman, contracted 
 from sdtri) that begins with three consonants in com- 
 binatidn. 
 
 ^ 2. In the end of words, st,m which the sibilant 
 precedes the mutey occurs in Latin (ast), but not in 
 Greek. With the mute preceding s, we have in Greek 
 tp and |. As for ^, while it represents g8, it never 
 does Sg. In Latin, besides x (=c-4-* and ff-\-s), we 
 find also bs, as in coelebs. 
 
 (2.) The combination of s wdth liquids is of two 
 kinds : 
 
 ^ 1. In the beginning of words, <; can precede /j. 
 in Greek, as in Gfi,da. In suadeo and suavis in Latin, 
 which are of one and the same ultimate radication (cf. 
 Sk. svad and svadu-s and Gr. ^§vg for Gfr^dvg) we 
 have s preceding the liquid u-sound. 
 
 § 2. At the end of words, in the combination of s 
 with a liquid the liquid must precede. The only com- 
 binations of this kind in Greek are those in Ig and vg, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. '83 
 
 as in a'kq and tXfj-tvq ; and in Latin, those in «* and 
 r*, as in mons and pars. 
 
 § 3. In some Gr. words an original initial g has 
 disappeared, as vyog, (L. nurus, Sk. snuga, Gm. 
 schnnr), (jifij for q'uFco i^. sravami) and ■j'^goa?, Sk. 
 snih: cf. Gm. schnee). Cf. ^ogoew and. L. sorbeo. 
 
 3d. *rhe combination of two mutes. 
 
 -This is of more infrequent occurrence than the 
 other combinations. The classes of mutes that thus 
 unite together are always , either labials or palatals, on 
 the one hand, and dentals, on the other ; and they 
 must always be homogeneous, in reference to being 
 smooth, middle, or rough. The combinations of this 
 kind, and the only ones that occur in Greek, in the 
 beginning and middle of words, are the following : /^^, 
 ■yh, %T, XT, (p&, x^- Of thes6, y^ occurs initially 
 but in one word and its derivatives in Homeric Greek, 
 ydov-nog. Not one of these consonants can occur in 
 Latin, in the beginning or end of words, but only in 
 the middle ; where bd, pt, and ct (kt) are to be fre- 
 quently found. Here too the law of homogeneousness 
 is in force, as in scriptum (stem, scrib), and rectum 
 (stem, reg). 
 
 Harsh consonantal combinations are not only allow- 
 able in Sanskrit, but are even very abundant; while 
 in Greek and Latin they were commonly avoided. 
 Excepting the verb-roots s6- to be, and iS- to see, 
 in Greek; and es- to be, fer-, to bear, and alsb vel-, 
 
84 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 to wish, in Latin, no verb having a consonantal stem 
 can have a person-ending attached to it in any tense, in 
 either language, without the intervention of an union- 
 vowel,, except in the perfect passive in Greek ; where, 
 when the person-ending is aflBxed, the final consonant 
 of the stem is modified, and harmonized euphonically 
 with the initial consonant of the personal sufiix. In 
 Sanskrit, such unharmonized forms as T'tTv%(j.aL, rt- 
 TQifi/nai, ■Ttk^Xkxfi.ui, TSTVXf^cci, would be entirely 
 proper; but not in Greek, where they are changed 
 immediately by the inexorable laws of phonetic in- 
 stinct to TSTVfj.fiac, T£TQC/xfj.ai., TiSTiXtyfiai, and 
 Ttrvyf^ui. 
 
 A syllable is, as the word in its very etymology 
 (jjvv and Xaf^fidvco, I take together) defines itself to 
 be, the taking together of a consonant and a vowel for 
 the production of one whole united sound. Says 
 Heyse, no less quaintly than truly : "a mere vowel 
 forms a naked svlkble : united with a consonant, the 
 syllable is clothed. When a consonant precedes the 
 vowel, the syllable is open, and closed, when it follows ; 
 while, wh^n having a consonant both before and after 
 it, it is enclosed." Syllables, alone or in combination, 
 form all tl e varieties and uses of words. In every 
 language words can end in vowels. As for consonants, 
 the liquids and s can freely stand at the end of words ; 
 and, in a few words, b, c, d, and t, as in the preposi- 
 tion^, a,re found as final letters. In Greek, only 6 and 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 85 
 
 the liquids v and q are found, except a? in a few parti- 
 cles. 
 
 THE SANSKRIT CONSONANTAL SYSTEM. 
 
 In Sanskrit, the consonants are arranged accordiag 
 to the organs used in uttering them, into five classes. 
 A sixth class is adopted to include the semivowels, and 
 a seventh, the sibilants and h. In the first five classes, 
 the single letters are so arranged, that the first are 
 the hard, the medials and their aspirates ; and next, 
 the soft, the medials and their aspirates ; each class 
 being completed by its nasal. The nasals belong, like 
 the vowels and semivowels, to the soft, and the sibi- 
 lants to the hard. Every medial letter has its cor- 
 responding aspirate. The aspirates are pronounced, 
 with a clearly audible h, and are easily exchanged with 
 each other, as in bhar and dhar, to bear, and also han 
 and dhan, to kill. 
 
 Before, however, enumerating the difierent classes 
 of consonants in Sanskrit, in reference especially to 
 their correspondents in Greek and Latin, it will be well 
 to consider carefully a sjmopsis of the general conso- 
 nantal system of the Indo-European languages, pre- 
 pared by Heyse, who is not' only one of the latest 
 writers on phonetics, but also one of the best, on those 
 parts of the science which he touches. It is designed 
 to be a complete view of the true consonantal system, 
 on which, in various degrees, the difierent languages 
 
86 COMPARATIVE . PHONOLOGY. 
 
 of the, Indo-European family are formed; no one of 
 them exhibiting the whole of it ; but, as in the strati- 
 fied records of geology, the parts of the system are 
 furnished, each in their appropriate place, from differ- 
 ent directions, 
 
 A. Continuous sounds. 
 
 I. Breath-sounds, Lip-sounds. Teeth-sounds., Eoof- 
 
 [sounds. 
 
 or, breathings and sibilants : 
 incomplete articulation, f, sharp s, ch, 
 
 ' expressed by breathing. 
 
 II. Voice-sounds, 
 
 or, intonated consonants. 
 
 1st, Half-Towels : v, z, j, 
 
 incomplete articulation, 
 
 expressed by the voice. 
 
 2d, Liquids : 
 
 complete articulation, 
 
 expressed by the voice ; 
 
 as (1) made by the mouth, orals ; 1, r ; 
 
 as (2) made by the nose, nasals ; m n,* ng; 
 
 B. Explosive sounds. ■ 
 
 III. Silent or paralyzed sounds. 
 Mutes : complete articulation, 
 
 with' accompanying breath. 
 (1) With the soft, breathing. 
 
 * Kapp distinguishes tie nasals and liquids as consonants, whicTi 
 draw in the breath or at least hold it back, while the others drive it 
 forth. 
 
COMPA?.ATIVE PHONOLOGT. 87 
 
 Lip-sovmds. Teeth-sounds. Eoof- 
 [sounds. 
 
 (a) weak (middle) : b, d, g. 
 
 (b) hard (smooth) : p, t, k. 
 (2) With the rough breathing. 
 
 Aspirates : 
 
 (a) we^, bh, dh, gh. 
 
 (b) hard, ph {cp), th {&) kh ix). 
 
 All the above consonants are pure or simple. The 
 entire system is developed in no one, by itself, of the 
 old or new Europea,n languages ; but to the fullest de- 
 gree in the Sanskrit. 
 
 The Sanskrit alphabet expresses in its consonantal 
 elements beyond that of any other language the nicest 
 gradations of sound. 
 
 The different classes of consonants in the Sanskrit 
 are as follows : 
 
 (1) Gutturals. These are k, Mt, ff, gh, and ?2 (pro- 
 nounced like our nasal n in ng and nk, as in sing and 
 §ink). This nasal n is found only before gutturals : as 
 in the middle of a word, or at the; end of a word in 
 plape of m^ if that word, is succeeded immediately by 
 one beginning with a guttural. Kis represented, in 
 Greek, hj a, and in Latin by c {k) and q: as in Sk. 
 kap41a-s, the skull, Gr. xttpalri ■ and L. caput. Kh is 
 represented, in Greek, by ;f : as in Sk. nakha-s, a nail, 
 Gr. oVf^ stem owx (the o being euphonic) ; and so, 
 khan, to dig, Gr,, p^aivscv^ pure stem x^v G is 
 equivalent to the same sound in Greek and Latin : as 
 
88 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 in Sk. sthag, to cover, Gr. OTsya, L. tego. GA, as 
 in Sk. gharma-s, Gr. -daQfiog, L. formus, Eng. warmth, 
 is represented by the aspirates of different organs in 
 other languages. In the case of laghn-s, Kght, it is 
 represented, in Latin, by the labial v, in the word levis, 
 light; while yet in Gm. leicht and Eng. liffht, the 
 original guttural form is preserved. 
 
 (2) Palatals. These are ch, chh,j,jh, and n. This 
 class of consonants may be viewed as derivative from 
 the preceding, and but as a mere softened form of it. 
 They occur only before vowels and weak consonants, as 
 semivowels and nasals ; while before strong consonants 
 they fall back at once into the class of gutturals from 
 which they came. In the various cognate languages 
 we find this class of letters represented oftenest by 
 gutturals, as is especially the fact in German ; next, 
 by labials, on account of the mutual etymological sym- 
 pathy so apparent in various languages between gut- 
 turals and labials ; next in frequency, by some ^sound, 
 as this is the initial element of the palatal sounds gene- 
 rally ; and, last of all, by the sibilants. Thus compare 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 panchan, five. 
 
 7ra/T£ 
 
 quinque. 
 
 paehami, I cook. 
 
 TreWuj (for ireVcro/ii) 
 
 eoquo (for coquami). 
 
 janu, the knee. 
 
 ydi/u 
 
 genu. 
 
 jam, to unite with 
 
 yajxilv 
 
 
 Chh finds its equivalent, in Greek and Latin, in ox and 
 sc: as in chh4y4, a shadow (for earlier sk^yd) and 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOIiOGT. 89 
 
 6xid ; and also in chhid, to divide, and L. scindo (for 
 scindami) (stems scid and scind) ; chhauna, a covering, 
 and oxrivr'i, a tent, as well as chhali and axvXog, the 
 hide of an animal. When terminal in a root, it appears 
 as y : as in Sk. prachh, to ask ; L. rogo for progo, 
 stem prog (cf. also L. precor, Eng. pray), and Gm. 
 fragen. 
 
 (3) Linguals of a special sort, peculiar to the San- 
 skrit. These are written as /, th, d, dh, n, each, as 
 here, subdotted, to distinguish them from the ordinary 
 dentals having the same symbols in their natural form. 
 
 (4) Dentals. This class embraces the common 
 linguals of other languages, both simple and com- 
 pound : as d, dh, t, th, and n. D is sometimes inter- 
 changed with I in Greek and Latin : as in ^axqvfia, 
 a tear, and L. lacryma for dacryma ; hariq (for da Friq), 
 a brother-in-law, and L. levir (Sk. d^vara-s) ; and L. 
 lingua, the tongue, archaic, dingua; and Sdcpvr], a 
 laurel, with its parallel form 'kd(pvr]. Bopp regards 
 similarly, and for good analogical reasons, therefore, 
 lafxndi as representing the Sk. dipa-s, a lamp, in a 
 strengthened form ; and so, he compares the ending 
 -XtHog in j^Xcxog with drisa, PrAkrit disa, meaning 
 like. Compare perhaps also, in the same way, lorum, 
 a thong, with Sogd, a skin. The Sk. d, besides being 
 represented by its own simple equivalent in Greek and 
 Latin, is, like dh, often represented by ^ in Greek ; 
 while dh itself, in addition to such an equivalent in 
 
90 COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Greek, is represented, also, by/ and b in Latin. Thus 
 compare : 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 
 SBEEK. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 dfeya-s, a shining one. 
 
 
 ^£05. 
 
 deus. 
 
 dvar, a door. 
 
 
 ^pa. 
 
 
 duhitri, a daughter. 
 
 
 SvyaTqp. 
 
 
 dadhami, I place ; stem 
 
 ,dha. 
 
 TL&r][iL, stem, 9t. 
 
 
 madhu, an intoxicating 
 
 drink-. 
 
 [ji,i&v. 
 
 mel. 
 
 dhuma-s, smoke. 
 
 
 ^/JiOS- 
 
 fumus. 
 
 udhar,. a teat. 
 
 
 ovSap. 
 
 uber. 
 
 I I7i, in Sanskrit, is never represented by & in the 
 c Greek, but, always by r : as, in Sk., stha, to stand, (in 
 the present form, tishthami, I stand) compared with 
 lOrrjfii (for ai0Tr]/j.i root, oto), L. sto, stare, (stem, 
 sta.) So, compare Sk. asthi, a bone, with ootsqv, L. 
 OS, stem, OSS for oste ; and also Sk. rath, a carriage, 
 L. rota, a wheel. 
 
 (5) Labials. These sse p,ph, b, bh, and m. Pit 
 occurs rarely, while bh is, like dh, of frequent occur- 
 rence. In Greek, go, and in Latin, /, represent, com- 
 monly, this aspirate, as in Sk. bhar, to bear, Gr q)EQ{o, 
 L. fero ; and also in bhii, to be, Gr. (pvcj^ L. fui. In 
 the Germanic languages, Sk. bh becomes also b, as in 
 (ge)baren, to bring forth, . Eng. bear ; . compare, also, 
 Gm. fahren, to carry, Eng. /erry; and Gm. bin, I am, 
 Eng. be, and Sk. bhu. 
 
 In the dative plural endings -bus, Sk. -bhyas, we 
 see bh represented by b, as its equivalent in Latin. In 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 91 
 
 the interior of a word, indeed, the Latin prefers the 
 medial labial ^ to the aspirates.; Compare, in connec- 
 tion with Sk. tubhyam, to thee, L. tibi ; also, Sk. abhi, 
 both, Gr. cifj-cpto^ and L. ambo; and Sk. nabha-s, rabh 
 and lubhyati with their Latin equivalents, nubes, a 
 cloud, rabies, rage, and lubet or libet, it pleases. Sk. 
 'p, b, and m are §ach abundantly represented by their 
 own simple equivalents in Greek and Latin. 
 
 (6) Semivowels. These are y, r, I, v. Y is, in 
 sound, our y, as in year. In Prakrit, as in Persian and 
 Latin, it often passes intojf; as in Sk. yuvan, yoimg, 
 Persian javAn, L. juvenis. In Greek, its equivalent is ^. 
 Thus compare yuj, to bind, and ^tvyvvvuc and ^av- 
 vvvai, L. jungere, stem, jung and jug, as in jungo, and 
 jugum ; also, Sk. yava, barley, and ^sa for ^ifa ; as also 
 Sk. yas and ^tlv, to boil. So the termination -u^w 
 (for -a^afii) corresponds, with the similar Sk. verbal 
 ending -ayAmi. B is commonly represented by r in 
 the other languages ; and I sometimes passes over into 
 r in them : as in Sk. lup and lump, to break, L. rum- 
 pOj perf.. rupi. V has the sound of our English v, ex- 
 cept after consonants, as in tvAm, where it is sounded 
 like w. Neither v nor y can stand at the end. of a 
 word, since the voice cannot rest on them. As the 
 semivowels are of so flexible^ and flowing a nature, 
 they easily interchange one vidth the other, in the dif- 
 ferent languages, as not only an original / with r, as 
 has been already indicated, but also an original?? with 
 
92 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 /. Thus compare Sk. anya-s, another, and Gr. ciXKog 
 (for aXcog) and L. aUus ; and also Sk. antara-s, and 
 L. alter. 
 
 (7) Sibilants. These are g, sh, and *. His also 
 classified here. The sibilant g is very slightly aspirated. 
 It appears to have sprung from an original Jc ; and, in 
 Greek and Latin, k and c regularly correspond with it. 
 The Gothic substitutes for it It, while the Lithuanian 
 represents it by a compound sibilant sz, pronounced like 
 our sh. Thus Sk. Qvan, a dog, gen. Qunas, is Gr. xvav, 
 gen. xvvoQ ; Goth, hunds; and, Lith. szuo, gen. szuns. 
 So, a§va-s, a horse, is, L. equus (pronounced, originally, 
 as if written ekus) and Lith. aszwa. At the end of a 
 word, and in the middle before strong consonants, it 
 usually reverts to its original ^-sound. With the ten- 
 dency of 'this sibilant to vibrate between a hard and soft 
 sound, compare the double sound of c in our language, 
 as s and h, or hard and soft ; as, likewise, in the French. 
 In Italian, also, it has a double sound, as h and ch. 
 
 The sibilant sh is pronounced as in English. Com- 
 bined with k as in ksh, it is represented, in Greek, by ^, 
 and in Latin by x -. as, in Sk. dakshina-s, Gr. §£§i6g 
 L. dexter, Lith. deszine. It occurs sometimes initially 
 and sometimes terminally : as in shash, six ; where it is 
 represented, when initial, by s in Latin and the aspirate 
 in Greek ; and when terminal by a? (|) in both Ian 
 guages ; as in 4^ and L. sex ; compare Lith. szeszi. At 
 the end of a word, and in the middle before a strong 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 93 
 
 consonant, as t and th, it passes into h and ^in Sanskrit. 
 So, in Greek oxtoj, L. octo ; Italian otto, as compared 
 with the Sk. ashtau, eight, a similar style of inter- 
 changes appears in the other languages. The sibilant 
 s is the ordinary s of other languages. It is changed, 
 in different cases, according to special euphonic rules, 
 into Q, sh, r, and other letters, and only remains unal- 
 tered before t and th. 
 
 H was never admitted at the end of words, or in 
 the middle before strong consonants. When coming 
 into such positions or conjunctions, it passed, according 
 to definite rules, into subdotted t oic d, k ox ff ; which 
 it would be of no value to state or illustrate here, as 
 they lie so exclusively within the bounds of specific 
 Sanslmt scholarship, as such. The Sk. Ji is repre- 
 sented, often, by x in Greek and c in Latin : as in 
 Sk. hard, hrid, and hridaya, the heart ; Gr. xaqhia and 
 ^jj^, L. cor, stem cord, with which compare Goth, 
 hairto ; Gm. hertz ; Eng. heart ; and Lith. szirdis. In 
 Greek, x is often, also, the equivalent of the Sk. h : as 
 in Sk. hima, Gv.p^sifiav, L. hiems ; and also, Sk. hrish, 
 to rejoice, Gr. xuiga ; hansa-s, a goose, Gr. }r^'^i L. 
 anser for hanser ; and Sk. hya-s, yesterday, Gr. ;^j9'£'g, 
 L. heri (for hesi) ; with hesternus, the adjective form 
 of which, compare Gm. gestem and Eng. yesterA&y. 
 No one of the Indo-European families of languages is 
 so complete, besides the Slavic, in the number and or- 
 der of its sibilants, as the Sanskrit. 
 
94 COMPARATIVE PHONdlOGT. 
 
 2dly. The Consonantal System of the several Clas- 
 sical Languages, viewed pathologically. 
 
 The true laws of consonantal combinations, in refer- 
 ence to their proper euphonic effect, are better devel- 
 oped in Greek than in any, not to say all, other lan- 
 guages besides the Sanskrit. In no direction was their 
 acute sense of the fitness of things more exact and 
 artistic ; and in none was their skill more vigorously 
 employed, than in their mode of constructing word- 
 architecture, and adorning it according to their ideas 
 of true taste. In the forms of words that they moulded 
 and chiselled, or, in other language, in the additions, 
 accommodations, abrasions, contractions, and prosodial 
 changes, that they left as the marks of their skill upon 
 them, we see as in fixed type, the rules of art that they 
 discovered and applied, in the mutual arrangement and 
 harmonious distribution of sounds. Phonetic compH- 
 cations occur but on a very limited scale in Latin, 
 whose laws of life and growth^ in this part of its frame- 
 work, are very simple. 
 
 That department of philology, which concerns it- 
 self with the affection^ or changes of letters and 
 syllables, constitutes the pathology of language, and 
 embraces the whole range of mutilations and corrup- 
 tions, whether effected by time, or dialectic causes, or 
 the influences of climatic agency ; as well as the whole 
 range of euphonic additions, substitutions; and sup- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 95 
 
 pressionS, wrought by earnest deterliiihed handsj ac- 
 cording to real or supposed rules of art. 
 
 Letters once radical and characteristic of words in 
 their original state, have dropped from their place; xui- 
 der the pressure of phonetic instincts and tastes in dif- 
 ferent ages upon them, like boughs encumbering the 
 parent stem of a tree, beneath the pruning knife 5 so 
 that, in the scientific study of etymblbgy, it becomes 
 often necessary to khoW, not only the course of the 
 changes that have occiu-red, but also the laws that have 
 determined their rise and progress. 
 
 The consonantal, like the vowel, elements of speech, 
 have their different degrees of weight; and their 
 weight is but another name for the amount of their 
 phonetic force, or the density, as it were, of their pho- 
 netic substance. The breathing h is lighter even than 
 the vowels ; to which the aspirates alid semivowels 
 stand next in order ; then follow the liquids, and in the 
 following sequence, from light to heavy, r, I, n, nt. 
 The heaviest of all the consonantal sounds are the 
 mutes ; and in the order for increasing weight of mid- 
 dle, smooth and rough. So also la,bials and palatals of 
 the same several classeSj smooth, middle and rough, as 
 p and k, h and y, are heavier than the corresponding 
 dentals of each class respectively, aS ^ compared with ^ 
 and k, and so also 6? compared with b and y. These 
 subtle mechaflical relations of sounds to each other, in- 
 dicate the directions in which the inWard forces at work 
 
96 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 upon language, to modify its combinations, exert their 
 energy. 
 
 As the facts and laws that pertain to consonantal 
 combinations are intimately interwoven with those per- 
 taining to consonantal changes, they must, many of 
 them, in order that either should be properly compre- 
 hended, be exhibited together in one view. 
 
 1st. Generally : with a view of the general laws of 
 change in word-forms. These laws of change are the 
 following : 
 
 (1.) The tendency is always, in the course of time, 
 and in the passage of words from one country to 
 another, forwards from complicated to simple forms, 
 and not backwards from simple to complicated. Time 
 abrades and rounds off words in its perpetually flow- 
 ing stream, as it does stones and boulders on the floor 
 of the ever-heaving sea. And yet it is strange with 
 what firm resistance, not only the radical parts of words, 
 but even single letters also, maintain themselves against 
 the corroding influences of time and the power of 
 change from whatever source. The masonry of human 
 toil, of whatever intended monumental significance, and 
 the structures and emblems of human art, disappear 
 for ever from the view under the action of causes, that 
 leave the framework of words and syllables and the 
 very elements of them, fleeting and fickle as they may 
 seem to be in themselves, strangely unmoved and even 
 unharmed in their place. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 97 
 
 (2.) The greatest mutilations in the volume of 
 words occur in their terminal, rather than in their 
 initial syllables ; although in the latter, changes of 
 single letters occur more frequently than in the 
 former. 
 
 (3.) Vowels are much more sensitive to changes in 
 the volume of a word, and correspond more instinct- 
 ively with them, than consonants ; since vowels differ 
 one from another very much in being more or less 
 open ; and by degrees also of greater or less weight, or 
 lightness, rather than in any more, absolute substan- 
 tive way. 
 
 (4.) In vowel-changes the course of change is, for 
 the most part, from the primary to the secondary vow- 
 els, and not backwards. The primary vowel, a, can 
 be transformed into any of the other vowels ; but they 
 do not revert to it. So in Latin, e and o, which dre 
 but compound vowels, it will be remembered, e being 
 a-{-i, and o being a-\-u, often settle down into the 
 weaker vowels, i and u. 
 
 (5.) The interchanges of consonants with each other, 
 which constitute a very large class of all phonetic 
 changes, are made on the following principles : 
 
 % 1. As in Greek no, two successive syllables can 
 begin with an aspirate, the first of two such syllables, 
 otherwise occm-rent, exchanges, as the usual rule, its 
 aspirate for the corresponding tenuis ; as in nscpiXrjxa 
 for (pscpiXrixa. The scope of this law is seen more in 
 Vol. II.— 7 
 
98 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 reduplicated forms than anywhere else. In the 1st 
 aor. pass. 2d pers. sing. imp. the 2d aspirate is changed 
 into its corresponding tenuis, as in fiovXti/driTt for 
 
 § 2. Inasmuch as sounds made by different organs 
 would often require special effort to be distinctly ut- 
 tered in conjunction, they are harmonized on the prin- 
 ciple that a smooth mute must precede a smooth, a 
 medial, a medial, and a rough, a rough ; as in tTira and 
 i:^dof4.og, oxTco and oydoog, yqufpa, yqaiiTOg and 
 yQufiSrjv. The law, stated in its simplest form, is this : 
 consonants brought into immediate juxtaposition must 
 b© made homogeneous, or coordinate. Thus, ted and 
 ;j;'5 become y8; fcd- and ^i?' become ^x)-; yr and;^z- 
 become xt ; -nh and cpb become ^h ; nd- and /Sd- be- 
 come cpd- ; and /?r and <pT become tvt. The prep, sx, 
 however, remained unchanged before a labial, as in 
 exjSaiva and exn's^itco, and also before weak and 
 aspirated consonants, as in Exd-saig. 
 
 % 3. Homogeneous consonants of different organs 
 are often exchanged for each other. 
 
 (a) Semivowels and aspirates, one with the other ; 
 as li and s, in U^ and sex, litva and septem ; and h and 
 V, in eantQog (^FsantQog) and vesper. So / in Latin 
 becomes h in Spanish, as in L. filius, Sp. hijo ; and K 
 filum, Sp. hilo. 
 
 {fi) Different liquids, one with the other, as I and 
 r, I and n, m and n ; examples of which will be fur- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 99 
 
 nislied hereafter, under the head of Substitution of 
 Sounds for each other. 
 
 (7) Different mutes, one with the other, in each 
 of the three Idnds respectively, smooth, middle, and 
 rough; abundant illustrations of which will be fur- 
 ished hereafter. 
 
 § 4. Homorganous consonants, or those of any one 
 specific class, as labials, palatals or dentals, severally, 
 may readily pass into others of the same class, that 
 is, others made by the same organs. The following 
 are a few among many specimens : ^ovXof^ai and 
 volo,* I wish ; Z'^J-F^ ^^^ hiems, wintry weather ; 
 XOQToq and hortus, a garden ; av (Aeol. rv) and tu, 
 thou ; ftkeog, and medius, middle ; figorog (for f^Qorog, 
 Cf. Sk, martta-s, L. mortuus, dead, from Sk. mri, to 
 die ; L. mori) ; and rvnrovOL, Aeol. and Dor. Tvn- 
 rovTi and tv^tovgi. , Let the student here refer to 
 " Grimm's Scale," vol. i. of this work, p. 216. 
 
 The styles or forms of consonantal changes are 
 various, asj — 
 
 1. Substitutions. 
 
 2. Insertions and Additions. 
 
 3. Suppressions. 
 
 * One of the best instances of various labial interchanges occur- 
 ring in the modern languages, as compared with each other, appears 
 in the L. fiber, a beaver, and its correspondents in several languages, 
 as L. fiber; It. bevero; Sp. bibaro; Fr. bievre; Ang. Sax. beofer; 
 Lith. bebru ; Euss. bober ; Cornish, befer ; Eng. beaver. So com- 
 pare Gr. enia-KOTTos and L. episcopus with Provencal evesque, Fr. 
 evfique, Ital. vescovo, Span, obispo, Gm. bisclioff, Eng. bishop. 
 
100 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 4. Weakened Consonantal Porms. 
 
 5. Strengthened Consonantal Porms. 
 
 1. Substitution. This is of two kinds : 
 
 (1.) Literal, or pertaining to a mere change of 
 letters. 
 
 (2.) Topical, or pertaining to a change of place oi 
 order, in respect either to a mere letter, or an entire 
 syllable. 
 
 (1.) Literal Substitution. This is of three kinds : 
 
 § 1. General, or weak. 
 
 ^ 2. Assimilative or intensive. 
 
 § 3. DissimUative. The aversion from monotonous 
 repetition natural to the human mind and even to the 
 very ear itself, has caused in some words in various lan- 
 guages the change of the same consonant, when recur- 
 ring in successive syllables, to another. Thus in L. 
 ceeruleus (for coeluleus) ; in Gr. xtcpalaQyia for 
 xi(pa'ktt%yia ; and (in French, Gm. andEng.) the forms 
 marbre, marbel, and marble, as compared with their 
 L. original, marmor. Pott first used the word dissimi- 
 lation to describe this class of phonetic changes. 
 
 Assimilative substitution occurs, when, by the 
 strong phonetic attraction of another letter preceding 
 or succeeding it, a consonant is changed to the same 
 letter, or to one directly homogeneous with it ; while, 
 by general or weak substitution is described any other 
 change of a consonant, whether made under the influ- 
 ence of weak phonetic attraction, or of indeterminate 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 101 
 
 subtle affinities of any kind, or for the mere sake of 
 avoiding phonetic monotony. The tenues p, h, t, main- 
 tain themselves in the Indo-Euxopean languages, gen- 
 erally, with more firmness than any other consonants, 
 and often interchange with each other, as vdll be shown, 
 in various languages ; as if having a sort of secret 
 elective affinity, one for the other. In Greek and Latin 
 the tenues form a much larger staple in the fabric of 
 speech than the medials, h, y, d. In Homer, for ex- 
 ample, thirteen per cent, of all the sounds employed 
 consist of the tenues, and but six per cent, of the,<me- 
 dials ; while in Plautus (200 B. C.) the tenues con- 
 stitute nearly eighteen per cent, and the medials but 
 five. 
 
 As the modes and forms of substitution are so often 
 the same in both Greek and Latin, and these two lan- 
 guages are so cognate and correlated in every way, 
 illustrations will be drawn indiscriminately from them 
 both. 
 
 § 1. General or weak substitutions occiTr in each 
 of the different classes of consonants. 
 
 I. Palatals or gutturals. These are in Greek x, 
 y, ^, and in Latin c, g, ch. 
 
 (1.) The gutturals when followed by <y become in 
 Greek ^, which, therefore, always represents as a 
 double consonant either ^Hj-y or ^ compounded with a. 
 As in Latin g is exchanged before s and t into c, w 
 commonly represents c-\-», but often also g-\-s, and 
 
102 
 
 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 sometimes v-\-s, as in vixi, perf. of vivo, for vivsi, and 
 nix (gen. nivis) for nivs; as well as jo+s, as in prox- 
 imus for propsimus; and A-\-s, as in traxi, perf. of 
 traho, for trahsi. 
 
 (2.) The gutturals, vi^hen originally followed by i, 
 were afterwards changed to <; or r ; and the vowel was 
 itself also subsequently assimilated to the same letter, 
 which thus became double. This is the true analysis 
 of stems ending in -00, or -tt. Thus, 
 
 0^fj06a, stem 6(}^x, is for O^rjxia. 
 
 OQVGGa, ' 
 
 ' OQVX, 
 
 ' oQVy^ica. 
 
 Garra, 
 
 ' Gay, 
 
 ' oayia. 
 
 raqaGCco,^ 
 
 ' ragax, 
 
 ' Taqaxico. 
 
 raooa, 
 
 " -rar. 
 
 ' Tuyia. 
 
 cpvXaGGco, 
 
 " cpvXux, 
 
 ' cpi/Xaxico 
 
 So jusi^cov for /ns^cav is for original fj-tyiav, and ogos 
 (stem o;€) is for o)(is. Accordingly oa represents not 
 only Ti, as in Kq^OGa for KQrjTia, L. Greta and many 
 other instances, but also yi, tei, ^i, ; in which cases the 
 sibilative assimilation is called assibilation. Some- 
 times, as in xgd^a (stem agay) for itQayuo, yc passed 
 into ^. 
 
 (3.) In Latin, c\ becomes, several times, (/% : as, 
 
 , * The form rtVpijx"! formerly thought to have come from an 
 imaginary verh Tprjx<^i was shown by Buttmann to be derived from 
 Tapa(y(T(o. 
 
 t G and g were pronouneed hard in Latin ; c like our h, and g as 
 our hard g. 
 
 X Good examples of the variableness of guttural interchanges, one 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 103 
 
 § 1. After n • as in quadringenti and septingenti, 
 compared with ducenti, sexcenti, etc. So, likewise, an 
 original Gr. x becomes sometimes g in the modern lan- 
 guages : as in Eng. gulf (It. golfo, Fr. golfe) from Gr. 
 xolnog ; and Eng. crypt (L. crypta, Gr. xqvmT]) is 
 the same word as Eng. grot, ox grotto (It. grotta, Er. 
 grotte). 
 
 § 2. Before n. Thus : sahgnus, willow, from salix 
 (stem, salic), is for salicnus, as dignus is also for dic- 
 nus ; for the proper appreciation of which, compare 
 hixr], bixaioQ, and dico (stem, die), and disco. 
 
 \ 3. Before I: as in negl^go for neclego. 
 
 % 4. Before m : as in segmentum from seco. 
 
 § 5. Before a vowel: as in negotium for nec-otium. 
 So the Latin lacus, a lake, has become the Itahan lago. 
 
 In such words as ignarus (=in-gnarus), ignavus, 
 cognosco, and ignosco, the g represents an original 
 guttural belonging to the simple root in Latin, but 
 now lost : as in gnosco, the archaic form of nosco. Cf. 
 ytyvaaxa (stem yvco). 
 
 (4.) G becomes c in Latin, before if : as in actum 
 
 with the other, in different languages, are seen, in the following words : 
 Eng. slcetch, It. schizzo, Fr. esquisse, Gm. skizze from Gr. o-xeSidfcw 
 to speak or write off-hand : and also in Eng. chin, Gm. kinn, L. gena, 
 and Gr. yeVur. The L. oculus becomes in Provencal huel, in Fr. 
 oeil, in It. occhio, and in Sp. ojo. Gr. ici'xopa is L. cichorium, Gm. 
 ziohorie, Fr. chicoree, Eng. succory. So, cf. Gr. a-Uepa, L. sicera, Gm. 
 zider, Fr. cidre, Eng. eider; and Gr. xi^sapts, L. cithera, Gm. zither, 
 Fr. guitarre, Eng. guitar. 
 
104 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 and rectum, from ago and rego ; c (for k') being the 
 smooth mute with t, another smooth one. 
 
 (5.) In a few cases, very few, gutturals interchange 
 with dentals : as in JrjfirjvrjQ {=-yfiQ fJ-rfrrjo) lit. the 
 earth-mother : cf. in same way, ykv?evs, L. dulcis and 
 indulgeo, and also ddivxriQ, not sweet. In same way 
 Christ compares 8fjfj.og (for ygfi^og) with grama-s, 
 the people. 
 
 II. Linguals. 
 
 These are, in Greek, r, d, &, X, v,q, a ; and, in 
 Latin, d, t, th, I, n, r, s. 
 
 1st. Substitution of Greek Linguals for each other. 
 
 (1.) The liquids are interchangeable with each 
 other : as, 
 
 ^ 1. A. and g. None of the consonants are so 
 kindred to each other as these two. In the earlier 
 periods of lingual forms, / represented much more fre- 
 quently an original r, than r did /. Thus Sk. lih, to 
 lick is for earlier ri/i, as is Sk. plu, to flow, for earlier 
 j)ru. Thus : xscpaXagyia, headache, is for tetcpaXak- 
 yia, and aQyaXsog, difficult, is for dXyaXsog. Com- 
 pare, similarly, eQs/Stv-d-og and Xs/3cv&og, pulse ; 
 6iyr]X6g and aiyrjgog, silent ; alqkco and 2d aor. 
 tlXov ; f-Q^ouac and 2d aor. fjX&ov ; Xuqlov and L. 
 lUium, a lily ; L. rumpo, perf. rupi, Sk. lup and lump, 
 to break ; as also Gr. ntXsxvg, an axe, and Sk. pa- 
 ragu-s. In the same relation stand tgig, strife, with 
 L. lis ; miUe and millia, a thousand, with fivgioc ; 
 
COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 105 
 
 gramia, a humor in the eyes, with yXd/j.rj. So coe- I 
 ruleus, from coelum, is for coeluleus ; and the L. adj. ' 
 terminations, -alis and -aris, are the same. In Prench, 
 similarly, r often represents the Latin / : as in epitre 
 from epistola ; ap6tre (apostolus), chapitre (capitulum,) 
 and rossignol (L. lusciniola. It. rusignuolo). Gibraltar 
 is said, likewise, to stand for gebel al Tarik, the moun- 
 tains of Tarik. So, our EngUsh word frock is derived 
 from a M. L. word, flocus, a monk's garment. L. 
 peregrinus (per-ager) is It. pelegrino, Pr. pelerin, Gm. 
 pUger, Eng. pilgrim ; so that peregrinate and pilgrim 
 come, immediately, from the same root. In the Eng- 
 lish word purple (Gr. noQ(pvQa, L. purpura, Er. 
 pourpre), we have a similar substitution of I ior r ; as 
 also in Eng. plum (Gm. pflaume : cf. L. prunum, Er. 
 prune) and Eng. mulhexxj (Gm. maulbeere : cf. L. 
 moras, Gr. [xoqov). In the Gm. and Eng. forms 
 there is a dissimilation of the radical r, found in the 
 Greek and Latin originals, to /. So, the Er. orme, 
 Eng. elm is the L. ulmus ; and the Span, marmol is L. 
 marmor ; and Eng. herring (Ags. haering, Er. hareng) 
 is L. halec from Gr. al^. 
 
 § 3. A and v : as tcXsvjucjv and Tivtv/uav, the limgs 
 (in the Latin pulmo(n) there is a metathesis of the /) ; 
 Xirqov and v'itqov (L. natrum), soda. In double 
 forms of this sort, the Doric had a preference for the v^ 
 and the Attic for the A. So compare L. lympha and 
 nympha, water, with vvfzcpr]. Ancient Panormus, in 
 
106 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Sicily, is now called Palermo ; and the name of the 
 modern Bologna was, originally, Bononia. 
 ! The Sp. nivel and Fr. niveau, correspond, in the 
 same way, with L. libella, a level ; as do L. lutra and 
 Sp. nutria, the otter, and L. venenura, poison, and its 
 It. equivalent veleno ; which is a good instance of dissi- 
 milation in Italian : the repetition of the same liquid in 
 a succeeding syllable being avoided by adopting another 
 Uquid. 
 
 § 3. /f and v. as Ionic fiiv and Doric viv, in the 
 sense of avrov. So compare fii] and L. ne, not ; Gr. 
 ^av, whether, and L. num; and also Sk. accusative 
 suffix -am, Gr. -ov, L. -um. Final v, in Greek, is gen- 
 erally an alternate for fj,, as in the 1st pers. sing, of the 
 imperf. act. tTvnrov for '£TV7iTOfj,{i) ; and in the ace. 
 sing, ending v of nouns ; but sometimes it springs 
 from d, as afterwards shown. 
 
 ^ 4:. V and q. Cf. the masc. comp. forms of L. 
 and Gr. adjectives ; as axiojv and ocior, juni^av (for 
 /LCiyiojv) and major ; also dttvog, and dirus, terrible, 
 and bcoQov and donum, a gift ; and xvl:(pag and L. 
 creper and crepusculum, and yvcof-icov and groma. 
 
 (2.) The other Unguals (the dentals and sibilant, 
 which is but the dental aspirate) are interchangeable 
 with each other. 
 
 § 1. A r-mute before another r-mute, except tt or 
 T-d- which remain unchanged, is changed to g : as lodc, 
 for idd'c, and TvtmtGTai for innti-d-Tai. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 107 
 
 § 2. A radical 5 or r before i, becomes generally 
 6, and sometimes ^, while in Sanskrit it remained un- 
 changed ; as in TvXovaiog for nXovrio^ (from nXovrog) 
 and ovGia, being, essence, for ovrla, and ytqovoia, a 
 senate, for ytqovria. So, t^ofxac (stem td-) is for 
 idcofz-ai, with which compare L. sedeo ; -d^sQi^a is for 
 ■d-tQidioj ; o^co (stem 68-) for 68ico; and GX'-^^ ^^^ 
 GxtSico. In a few cases, double forms of the same 
 word in -6ia and -na exist, as in vaveia (from vuvq, 
 a ship) and vavvia, L. nausea, sea-sickness. 
 
 The change of r to <;, in feminine adjective and 
 participial forms, originally ending in -tlu, is especially 
 interesting. Thus the feminine suffix -sa, of parti- 
 ciples ending in -av, -ag, and -seg, as Tvnrovaa, 
 TVtpaaa and Tvcp&iiou, stands for -rca. The proper 
 feminine ending is here, as in rj8vg (stem r)8s-), that 
 of -ca ; and the final letters of the stem are, in each 
 case, -VT. So that 
 
 TvnvovGa is for rvmovT-ia, originally. 
 TVifJcioa* " TVipavv-ia, " 
 
 TVcpdalOa " TVcp-&tVT-ia, " 
 
 * So in Traj, naira, nav we have represented with several changes 
 the following original forms : n-Ss for 7ravr(f) — natra for navna — nav 
 for naUT. 'Avniafirjcria, likewise, is for araicrSt/riiJ, from. adj. dwuirSi;- 
 7-09 ; (fiaa-i is for (fiavri, in which original form (-vn) of the third pers. 
 pi. act. of all verbs in Greek (of. L. third pers. pi. ending in -nt), the 
 principal tenses are still found ending in the Doric dialect throughout. 
 Of. also Attic fiKoo-i, twenty, Doric FeiKan, L. viginti, Sk. vingati. 
 
108 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 The true analysis of the changes that have occur- 
 red in the above forms, is the following : t was changed 
 to 6 before i, and the l afterwards rejected ; while also 
 V was, according to uniform Greek custom, cast away 
 before 6, and the previous vowel was lengthened by 
 way of etymological compensation. Stems in -tvr 
 preceded by a ' vowel, as ^^ccQitiq (stem ^aQitw) for 
 XccQitvTQ, have, in the feminine, the ending -toaa for 
 the original -nvna. Here, not only is -nu changed 
 to Ga, as above, but v also, instead of being dropped, 
 is assimilated to it, and changed to g. In such femi- 
 nine forms as 
 
 fj-sXacva, of fisXaq (for fj-aXavg) stem fj.s2.av, 
 rdXacvu, of TCcXag (for raXavg) stem raXav, 
 TSQScva, of Tsgrjv (for rtQtvg) stem rtQSv, 
 the same feminine suffix^ -la, really exists, but the t is 
 placed, by metathesis, before the final letter v, of the 
 stem, because probably, as that is one of the strongest 
 of all the consonants in itself, the Greek ear forbade its 
 being weakened in the feminine, compared with the 
 other genders, by having two vowels after it, one of 
 them the soft i -. so that /usXaivcc represents an orig- 
 inal fitXavia. 
 
 \ 3. The sibilant 6 is also interchanged with t, in 
 many forms where r would be final, and in some, also, 
 where it would occur initially. Por the substitution 
 of 6 for r final, compare, with %Q6g, the Homeric form 
 TiQori (L. prod-), Sk. prati : the neuter suffix -og, of 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 109 
 
 the perf. participle active, as in TtTv<f>6g, is but an 
 euphonic form of the radical -or, as the masculine 
 suiRx -ag {TiTvcpwg) is also of -or? {rsrvcpori;) ; and 
 the final r of those neuter stems which end in r, and 
 do not like ooj/xa drop it in the nominative, is changed 
 to g, as in rtQag (stem rtQcer) and xtgag and xghag 
 (stems x'tqar and xQsar). Por the exchange of 6 for 
 T initial, compare nog, epic and Ionic form of oog, 
 with the same ; also, Sk. tvam, L. tu and Gr. av and 
 the Cretan tqs (for tFs, Sk. tvam) with oii, ace. case. 
 Cf. also, Toaog, so great, and L. tot and totus ; and 
 also Tsxog oflPspring, and L. secus and sexus. So also 
 the termination 6i, in the 3d pers. sing. pres. act. of 
 the verbs in -fii, as didcoai, iarrjat, Ti&rj6i, represents 
 the earlier normal form ti, still preserved, by the force 
 of the sibilant associated with it, in eGri : being for 
 BidcoTi, etc. In the same way rt final, in the third 
 pers. pi. pres. act. of verbs, is weakened into ai, as in 
 SidovGi and rvitrovoi, for 8i<iovTi and rvmovri. The 
 Gr. nominal suffix -6ig is also the equivalent of the 
 Sk. -tis^ and was in Doric -Tig, as in cpadig, Doric 
 cpdvig : when associated with g it has still preserved 
 itself, as in niong, unchanged. 
 
 The interchangeableness of r and 6, both phoneti- 
 cally and graphically, is a fact very noticeable in the 
 pronunciation and orthography, one or both, of almost 
 all languages. The interchangeable spelling of the L. 
 adjective suffix -tius, as such, or as -cius (as in adven- 
 
110 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 titius or adventicius), and so of the nominal suffix -tic, 
 as such, or as -cio (as in conditio and condicio), is 
 noticeable in this direction. So, in the modern lan- 
 guages generally^ t before i in the same syllable, has a 
 simple or mixed s-sound. Thus, in Prench, nation is 
 pronounced as if na,sion ; in German, as if nah-tsi-one ; 
 and, in EngUsh, as if na-shun. 
 
 In the Laconic dialect, even ■& was often changed 
 into o, as in oio:; for &t6q, a god, and dyaooq for 
 dya&OQ, good, adXaaoa for S'aXaOGa ; and naGoq 
 and niaoQ for itdd-oq and ni&og (where, also, q final 
 is changed euphonically to (>). 
 
 § 4. An original sibilant is also, itself, sometimes 
 represented by v final. Compare r)v, he was, with the 
 Doric rjq and the Vedic as. So, in the 1st pers. pi. 
 pres. act. of the verb, v final stands for ? ; as in tvtito- 
 fiiv for xvTivofx.sq (Doric foriia) ; with which compare 
 the corresponding suffix -mas, in Sk. as in dadamas, 
 we give, and the corresponding L. form in -mus, as in 
 damns, we give. The Gr. dual suffix -rov is the 
 3 equivalent of the Sk. thas. 'Adv, poetic form of ahi 
 ^ (Eng. aye), always, is, in Doric, aisq. 
 
 2d. The Substitution of Latin Linguals for each 
 other. 
 
 (1.) D. § 1. D is sometimes substituted for t, 
 especially before r: as in quadraginta for quatraginta, 
 and quadratus for quatratns. So, the ancient Mutina 
 is now Modena : the river Athesis, of old, in Italy, is 
 
COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. Ill 
 
 the present Adige ; and Padua represents tlie ancient ) 
 Patavium.* 
 
 § 2. Other letters are, in several cases, substituted 
 for an original d: as, 
 
 {a) R, sometimes : meridies is for medidies (me- ; 
 dius+dies), noon. So r, in parricida for patricida, is 
 equivalent in one case similarly to an original t. 
 
 (/?) L, also, represents, in some cases, an archaic d; 
 as in lingua, archaic dingua (Cf. dens, a tooth ; Gr. 
 Sdfcva, I bite, and Sk. dan§, to bite), and lacrima, 
 archaic dacrima (Gr. dcixQv/ua). So, the Spanish cola, j 
 a tail, is but another form of the Latin cauda. 
 
 (7) JB, sometimes, represents a primitive u or v, 
 from which initial d has dropped away, as in bonus, 
 archaic duonus ; bellum, archaic duellum ; and bis for 
 dvis, from duo, two, Sk. dv4u (Cf. Gr. d/g for SFig) : 
 the phonetic analysis of which is, that the v was 
 changed to the medial 6, and the initial d rejected as 
 not only useless but also inharmonious. So viginti, 
 twenty, is for dviginti. In adj. viduus, Eng. widow, 
 etc. (Sk. vi-dhav4, without a husband) the prefix vi 
 represents undoubtedly, like ve in vesanus, insane, and 
 
 * In English, contrarily, t often represents an original d ; as, two 
 (Sk. dvau, Gr. Sum, L. duo), and tree (Sk. drn-s, a tree, and Gr. dpit, 
 a tree, an oak, from which Eng. Druid ; Gr. Bevdpov is from Spur hy 
 reduplication and nasalization combined ; dopv, a spear, is of same 
 immediate origin). Eng. eat (Gm. essen) represents also Sk. ad, to eat, 
 L. edo, Gr. eVs/o), fut. tSonM. In Eng. decreed, the final d represents 
 t in L. decretum from decernore. 
 
113 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 vecors, senseless, and the conjunction ve, or, an original 
 form dvi, of which L. dis and di, like bis, as above, are 
 but different forms. The Gr. prep, dice is probably 
 of the same origin, as well as the conjunction ^4 {fisv 
 being connected with /ucu, one, and meaning, on the 
 vne hand, and ^4 with §vd and meaning, on the oUer, 
 I or lit. the second hand). So d in Eng. beard represents 
 I ^ in L. barba (Gm. bart), and Fr. parvis, a court or 
 yard before a church, is Gr. TruQudnoog, a park. In 
 the Fr. forms of asseveration, morbleu and parbleu, we 
 \have curious transformations of the same kind. Mor- 
 [bleu is for mort Dieu, lit. the death of God (i. e. 
 I Christ) ; as also parbleu is for par Dieu, by God; the 
 'phonetic changes having been these from mort-Dieu, 
 etc. : — first morbieu and parbieu, and afterwards mor- 
 bleu and parbleu. Cf. for sense in EngUsh, " zooks " 
 and "zounds" (or, God's looks; and God's wounds). 
 (2.) T. ^ \. T often becomes s, after r, as in the 
 supines of many verbs. Thus tersum, mersum, cur- 
 sum, versum, and other supines in -sum stand for ter- 
 tum, mertum, curtum, verttum, according to the anal- 
 ogy of the regular supine formation in -turn, of the vari- 
 ous conjugations. The liquids, in fact, generally, except 
 m, e"\dnce a special fondness for having s succeed them. 
 § 2. :?' is in one case interchangeable with r, as in 
 parricida, alluded to before. 
 
 (3.) iS'. 8\s readily interchanged with r; as in arbor 
 and arbos, honor and honos. The archaic forms of plu- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 113 
 
 rimus and melior were plusimus (for ploirumus) and 
 melios, as in the early form, meliosem. Corpus (stem, 
 corpor) is for corpos, and this for corpor; and genus 
 (stem, gener) is for genes, and this forgener ; for the 
 reason, probably, that s final forms a firmer support 
 for the termination of the last syllable of the stem than 
 r, as a matter of pleasant vocalization. So the Laco- 
 nians often changed 6 to ^ in the end of words, as in 
 Tig for Tig, and tvo^ for ttovq. Ancient Massilia has 
 become similarly the modern Marseilles. In German, 
 a like interchangeableness of r and s is noticeable in 
 the words darum, therefore, and warum, wherefore, 
 which are compounded of um+das, reversed, and 
 um+was ; as in English, therefore stands for that-for ; 
 and wherefore, for which-for. Compare in the same 
 way, Gm. hase and Eng. hare ; Gm. eisen and Eng. ' 
 iron. So Er. orfraie, Eng. osprey, is the L. ossifraga. ' 
 
 III. Labials. 
 
 These are in Greek n, fi, cp, and ^ ; and in Latin 
 JO, h, v,f,ph, and m. 
 
 As the changes and substitutions that occur in 
 them belong, almost all, to the class of assimilative 
 substitutions, they demand no full, distinct treatment 
 here, except in the following general particulars : 
 
 (1.) In Greek, initial ^ is sometimes interchanged 
 with /?, as in fiXirvsiv for fxXirTSiv; ^Xa6>coa for 
 fiXcoCxa ; and ^qoToq for f^qovoq. 
 
 (2.) In Latin, v becomes «, or is vowelized before a 
 Vol. il.— 8 
 
114 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 consonant, as in cautum for cavtum (caveo) ; fautum 
 for favtum, and lautum for lavatum. As h and v, like 
 p and/ or ph, are all correlated labials of but different 
 : degrees of hardness, the substitution of u for h in such 
 words as aufei'o and aufugio, for abfero and abfugio, is 
 i of the same sort. 
 
 (3.) One of the most frequent of all correspond- 
 ences and interchanges in different languages is that of 
 gutturals and labials, one with the other. Labials in 
 Greek often correspond to gutturals in equivalent 
 Sanskrit and Latin forms, as in ejiofiai (stem, en for 
 atn), to follow, compared with Sk. sach and L. sequor 
 (pronounced as sekor), root, seq. ; Gr. oxvXov and 
 L. spolium ; iTinog, Aeol. ixxos, and equus (as if ekus) ; 
 Sk. agva-s for akva-s ; nsvts and quinque (as if kinke) ; 
 Sk. panchan. So the interrogative and indefinite 
 words :n:d)s, tiots, and Tioiog, are in the Ionic dialect 
 xcog, xovb, and xoloc, corresponding with the Sk. kati, 
 kad&, etc. Cf. in same way Gr. Xu%a, L. linquo, and 
 Sk. rich ; and also Gr. o-nroi^ai, and o^pcg and 6%daX- 
 /j-os, Avith L. oculus and Sk. akshi-s ; and Gr. tq'sna 
 and TQ6:n:oq, with L. torqueo, and L. jecur with Gr. 
 rjJiaQ, stem rjTtav, Sk. yakrit. 
 
 (4.) In a few cases, also. Unguals and labials * in- 
 
 * In the modem languages, occasional instances appear of the re- 
 placement of an original guttural by a liquid : as in It. salma, a burden, 
 for L. sagma (Gr. o-dyfia). So, cf. Sic. mSrakata and It. smeraldo. Span, 
 esmeralda, as also L. smaragdus (Gr. atiipaySos) ; and also Bagdad 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 115 
 
 terchange in different languages, especially r and n 
 (t and p) ; as, ovddiov, Doric andSiov, L. spatium ; 
 and so OTt&vbco and L. studeo. So the Fr. soudain 
 (Eng, sudden) represents L. subitaneus ; and Fr. 
 poudre (Eng. powder) is tlae L. pulvis (stem, pulver) ; 
 and, contrarily the Fr. soif, thirst, is the L. sitis.* Cf. 
 also Fr. absoudre with L. absolvere. 
 
 IV. The aspirate H. 
 
 The L. ^ is a much harder aspirate than the Sk, 
 h, which it sometimes represents. Before s they both 
 become w\ as in vexit from veho, Sk. av4kshit from 
 vah, to carry (cf. Gr. dx^cj). In traxit, perf. of traho 
 (perhaps for tra-veho), the same fact appears. 
 
 (2.) Assimilative Substitution. Assimilation is 
 the result of a strongly determinative, phonetic attrac- 
 tion between one consonant and another, when in im- 
 mediate juxtaposition. f The law of assimilation com- 
 
 and Baldooco, its modern name. The lingual d also often represents 
 in French the Lat. g : as in peindre, to paint ; poindre, to puncture ; 
 oindre, to anoint, and teindre to tint (L. pingere, pungere, ungere 
 and tingere.) , 
 
 * In the Eng. morrow compared with Gm. and Ang. Sax. morgen, 
 we have an instance of a guttural assimilated to a liquid. 
 
 t In the Malagasy language (one of the Polynesian languages 
 spoken in Madagascar), Ellis states in his " Three Visits to Madagas- 
 car," that " for the sake of euphony, several consonants are changed 
 when they follow other consonants: thus, / changes into ^ after «i ; 
 A changes into I after m ; I into A after n, and t into A after n ; «o into 
 5 after m and into d after n \ s changes into j after n ; nr assumes d, 
 and becomes ndr ; and t is inserted after re, before «, as in sivy (intsi- 
 vy), meaning " nine times." 
 
116 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 monly works backwards, or from the second consonant 
 to the preceding one, as in tvvufj.i for tovvfii (for 
 Fsavvfti, L. vestio), and jussi, perf. of jubeo, for 
 jubsi. But sometimes the law works forwards, from 
 the first consonant to the second, as in oX'kvf^i for 
 o'kvvfj.t, &(xq^og for S'aQaog, and aXXog for aXtog, 
 Sk. anya-s, L. ahus. So when TtQoaco was changed by 
 metathesis to Ttogaco in the Attic dialect, it was ere 
 long harmonized to noqqa. Positive full assimilation 
 is the literal change of one consonant to the same as 
 the other connected with it ; as in suffero for sub-feroj 
 and illatus for in-latus. A more incomplete assimila- 
 tion occurs in the change of one consonant, in juxta- 
 position with another, to one of the same class with it ; 
 as in imberbis for in-berbis, and impertio for in-pertio : 
 ni, h, and jo being aU labials. In nihil for ne-hilum, 
 and nisi for ne-si, and bubus for bobus (for bovibus), 
 and familia from famulus, and similis from simul, we 
 have a few cases also of retroactive vowel-assiraUation ; 
 as also in velle, infin. of volo (for orig. volere), and in 
 vester from vos (the gen. pi. vestrum being but the 
 neut. form of the adj. vester, lit. your or yours, and so 
 of you). The principles of euphonic combination 
 (Sandhi) in Sanskrit apply to the combination of 
 words in the same sentence, as well as to the different 
 parts of words themselves. A terminal nasal went 
 through various changes according to the character of 
 the letters preceding it in the same syllable or succeed- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 117 
 
 ing it in the next : s passed into r, or was liquefied 
 into u, or dropped altogether, according to the nature 
 of the initial letter following : a final tenuis was changed 
 before an initial medial into a medial, and a final me- 
 dial before an initial tenuis into a tenuis. 
 
 I. Gutturals. 
 
 The law of harmonization is the same with them, 
 as with all the other mutes, in Greek ; that smooth 
 mutes must combine with smooth, middle with middle, 
 and rough with rough ; except that, in reference to the 
 rough mutes, there can neither be a duplication of the 
 same mute in mutual juxtaposition, nor a repetition of 
 it even in successive syllables, ^atptpd is accordingly 
 changed to ^uTttpa, and Bdxxo^ to Bax^og, and 
 Tid-rjiLii takes the place of did-rifii, and ns<pvyfii:vog of 
 (pi(pvyfi&vos. Before /u. a guttural of whatever degree 
 becomes uniformly y, or medial. Thus Siax/^og be- 
 comes Siayfj-og, and ^s^qs^^occ becomes ^'s^qtyfiat. 
 
 II. Linguals. 
 1st. Greek. 
 
 (1.) The Dentals, r, d, ^. 
 
 § 1 . Before dental mutes, other dentals are changed 
 into the semivowel o ; to which we must give also the 
 appropriate name of i^iVsimilation as before ; so that 
 dvvrrog becomes dworog, ddraov becomes uar'sov, 
 and Ttsi&S'^vai,, nttoid'fjvai. 
 
 § 2. Before ft a dental regularly becomes a ; as in 
 IbGfisv, first pers. pi. of oiba for id/Lisv, and rjvvGf^ac 
 
118 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 for rivvTfjLat, perf. pass, of dvvra, Attic form of dvva ; 
 but in sQST^og, r)d-f^6g and 68f^r|, we find this law 
 without effect. 
 
 (2.) The Liquids 
 
 ^1. L. (a) The weak vowel i (or y) originally suc- 
 ceeding A in many forms was afterwards converted into 
 X, as in fidXXov for fialcov, comp. of f.toeXa ; aXXog 
 for dXtos ; uXXo/Liai for dXio/nac (L. salio for saliomi) ; 
 GtsXXcj for OrtXcco ; ^dXXa for ^aXtco. 
 
 (/?) In the Aeolic dialect o was assimilated to a 
 preceding X, as it was indeed also to fi, v and q. We 
 sometimes find this same style of assimilation in Homer, 
 as in cocpsXka for otcpklGa, Attic acptcXa, first Aor. of 
 ocpsXXa. In the Attic form the tense-characteristic o 
 is rejected ; and the preceding vowel s is lengthened 
 by way of compensation. There was a strong disincli- 
 nation in Attic Greek to allow the combination of A with 
 g either before or after it. 
 
 ^ 2. M. The sounds f^X and ^q are physiologically 
 too dissociated to combine with each other, and when 
 they occurred radically together the Greeks changed 
 them in the beginning of words to /3X and /3q, as in 
 ^Xco6xco for fj.Xcooxco and ^goroq for fXQorog; when 
 occurring in the middle of a word they inserted /S 
 between them by epenthesis, as in [xiarifx^Qia, for 
 fi£6ri/LiQia and fiSfj-^Xsro for fisfi7^iT0 for fA.sfj,sXsTO. 
 
 ^3. N. {a) Before X or f^,v is regularly changed 
 into the same liquid, as in avXXoyi^co for aw-Xoyi^a, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 119 
 
 and sf^fisvG) for sv-f^sva ; but sometimes also into q, 
 as in the perf. pass, of liquid verbs : as nsipaGfiai for 
 nsgjca'fiac from (paiva. 
 
 (/?) Before q, v is not thus changed, as in evQiitTa, 
 ivQriyvv^i ; except in words compounded with ovv, as 
 in avQQtco. 
 
 {y) Before 6, v is, in the word 6vv, assimilated to 
 6, as in GVG6HVCO, or dropped, as in avoncca {avv-\- 
 67Tda). In TtaXiv, also, we find v changed to 6 in the 
 compound naXlaavrOQ. 
 
 (d) Before a guttural, v is always written y, as in 
 avyxaXsto. If the guttural is itself y, then it is to the 
 nasal gamma (Eng. ng final) that v is converted, as in 
 ovyyivrjg {6vv-\-ysvoQ). 
 
 § 4. 8. Before the dentals, and the labial liquid m, 
 an dental may be changed into a, as in oJe-d-a for 
 oiS&a and oofiri for odf^r). So, in Latin est, he eats, 
 third pers. sing, of edo, for edt (for edit), we have d 
 turned to s, before t. 
 
 2d. Latin. 
 
 (1.) The Dentals. 
 
 § 1. The dentals d, t, and the liquid r, are some- 
 times before s assimilated to it ; as in cessi, perf. of cedo, 
 for cedsi, gessi, perf. of gero, for gersi, concussi for con- 
 cutsi, possum for potsum, fissum for fistum, for fidtum, 
 and missum for mistum, for mittum. Such perfects as 
 sedi, fidi and scidi, with supines in -ssum are un- 
 doubtedly contracted forms of original perfects in -si, 
 
120 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 as sedsi, fidsi, etc. ; from which afterwards the s was 
 rejected for better euphonic effect, and the short radi- 
 cal vowel, e or i, was lengthened by way of compensa- 
 tion. 
 
 ^ 2. D was sometimes assimilated to /before /.- as 
 in sella for sedla, for sedela from sedeo, I sit, and lapil- 
 lus (for lapidlus) for lapidulus. 
 
 § 3. iV was assimilated to I, m, and r : as in iUino 
 (in+hno), iramineo (in+mineo), irruo (in+ruo). 
 
 In some of the modern languages, especially 'the 
 Italian, the law of assimilation is quite active : as in It. 
 atto, an act (L. actum) ; patto, a pact (L. pactum) ; 
 fltto,* transfixed (L. fixus). 
 
 The letters most frequently doubled by assimilation, 
 in the middle of words, are the hquids. 
 
 III. Labials. 
 
 1st. In Greek. 
 
 (1.) M. Whenever a labial precedes /u. or v, in the 
 middle of a word, it is changed to /^ : as in yqa^ixr] 
 for yQaq}firi from yqacpo) ; Osf^vog for 6t/3v6g ; and so 
 dfivoQ for dFvog (cf. Sk. avis, a sheep, L. ovis, and 
 Gr. oi's). 
 
 (2.) U, B, <P. These aU, when preceding a, com- 
 bine with it, into the compound consonant^; which, 
 while having, analytically, either one of the labials for 
 its base, has yet, to the ear, always the sound of the 
 
 * Webster's reference to peto, as the etymological radical of the 
 nonn fit, is absurd. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 121 
 
 smooth mute %. So, in Latin, scribsi, perf. of scribo, 
 becomes scripsi. 
 
 2d. In Latin. 
 
 M is, in a few cases, changed io n: as in tunc for 
 tum-ce ; princeps for primum (sc. gradum) capio ; 
 clandestinus, adj. formed from clam (for celam) ; tan- 
 dem (from tarn) ; and so quanquam, eundem, etc. 
 
 The interchanges of the different labials, one with 
 the other, in various languages, may be here advan- 
 tageously recalled : as in 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 upari. 
 
 
 mrip. 
 
 super. 
 
 fiber, 
 
 over, upper, 
 super, hjper. 
 
 navan. 
 
 
 hrvia. 
 
 novem. 
 
 neun. 
 
 nine. 
 
 saptan. 
 
 
 hrra. 
 
 septem. 
 
 sieben. 
 
 seven.* 
 
 saptama-s 
 
 ■t 
 
 ejSSofJiOi. 
 
 Septimus. 
 
 siebente. 
 
 seventh. 
 
 2dly. Topical substitution. 
 
 By this is meant a change of place, in a letter or 
 syllable, either by accident, if there can be any acci- 
 dents in language, or for better euphonic effect. Topical 
 substitution is of two kinds : 
 
 (1) Metathesis. 
 
 (2) Hyperthesis. 
 
 (1) Metathesis (from jusTari^Tjfi^i, I exchange) is a 
 change in the order of the letters of a word, in the same 
 
 * So, the Eng. endive is Lat. intybus ; provost is L. praepositus, Fr. 
 prev6t and Gm. probst : turpentine is the Gr. Tepe^ii^os. 
 t Lith. sekmas. 
 
122 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 syllable. It occurs much more frequently in Greek 
 than in Latin, and in Sanskrit than in Greek. In the 
 modern languages it occurs also at times. See in- 
 stances in English, p. 318. 
 
 1st. In Greek. 
 
 § 1. It occurs in several, separate, individual words, 
 that have no common elements of classification, unless 
 it be that the consonant, before ' and after which the 
 vowel plays interchangeably, is a liquid ((>) ; as fidg- 
 dc6Tos and ^qccSiOtos, sup. of ^qadiig, slow ; Sdgoog 
 and ■d-qdoog, courage ; dgaaxco (stem, doq), I leap ; 
 xQaSirj and xaqhia, the heart ; xccQTog, and xQarog, 
 strength ; xiqxos and xQixog, a circle ; rcitpQog and 
 TQOKpog, a ditch. In Homer we find both xaQTsgog 
 and xQUTkQoz, strong. Tlqoea became, afterwards, 
 n6()6a, and, still later, tioqqco, L. porro. So, cora- 
 ^WQvkvgrj for vigFrj, L. nervus, Aeol. Tegzog (L. ter- 
 tius), Eng. tierce and tier, with tqitos, and Gr. axs- 
 7tT0/j.ai and oxottsco, with L. specio. 
 
 § 2. It occurs, frequently, in the perfect of verbs 
 whose stems end in a hquid : as Tarftrixa from rsfxva 
 (root, Ttfj, or TUfz), /3s/3Xr]xa from fidXXa (stem, 
 fiaX), rkd-vTqxu from i^vriOxa (root, d-av). Compare, 
 also, the perfects of xaXl-a, xdfA.v(o, etc. 
 
 § 3. It occurs abundantly in all those forms having 
 originally the vowel y in their terminal syllable, as 
 fiaiva (for fiavia), XTSvico (for xvivtco) ^kiqav ffor 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 123 
 
 2d. In Latin. 
 
 § 1. A few cases occur, in proper L. forms, com- 
 pared one with the other : as tero, perf. trivi ; sterno, 
 perf. stravi ; ferveo, supine fretum, cerno and cretum, 
 spemo and spretum. 
 
 § 2. There are, also, a few cases of metathesis,* 
 in equivalent forms to certain Greek words ; as 6xs- 
 ■UTO^ac, I look around, and L. specie ; xqIvco, I judge, 
 and cerno ; ipvco and spuo, I spit. 
 
 (2.) Hyperthesis. 
 
 This (derived from vjttQTl&r]fj.i, I place or carry 
 over) consists in changing letters from one syllable to 
 another. 
 
 1st. In Greek. 
 
 § 1. This occurs in a few single words : as in the 
 genitive of JJvv^, the Pynx, Hv'xvoi, which case, from 
 its resemblance to the adj. tvvxvoq, crowded, shows us 
 the undoubted etymology of the word. Compare 
 ox^oq for oX^oiy ^^ people, Cretan noX^oQ, L. vulgus, 
 Gm. volk, Eng./o//&. 
 
 ^ 2. Many verbs, having now the diphthong ti in 
 their stems, exhibit therein a change of place of the 
 
 * In English, an orthoepioal metathesis sometimes occurs, as in 
 the pronunciation of iron and fire, and in the utterance of the aspi- 
 rate first in its combinations with an initial w, as in such words as 
 which, what, where. In clarion (Fr. clairon) &ndiflend (Gm. feind) 
 there are clear instances of literal orthographic metathesis in 
 English. 
 
124 
 
 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 weak vowel t, which originally followed, instead of 
 preceding, the final consonant of the stem. Thus : 
 
 Tiivco, stem 
 
 TtV, 
 
 is for Tivia. 
 
 Ztiqav, 
 
 /JQ, 
 
 " ;^iQcav. 
 
 u^tivav, " 
 
 d^tv. 
 
 " dfifviav. 
 
 ^aivco, " 
 
 fiav. 
 
 " fiavtcj (cf. L. venio) 
 
 fiaivofiai, " 
 
 ixav, 
 
 " ^avio/iicu. 
 
 (paivco, " 
 
 (pav. 
 
 " (pavia. 
 
 % 3. Several feminine adjective forms in -aiva ex- 
 hibit the same change ; as /j.sXaiva for fitXavta, ru- 
 Xaiva for rakavtu, etc. 
 
 2d. In Latin. 
 
 In the words nervus, in Latin, as the equivalent of 
 Gr. vtvQOv, and parvus of Gr. TcavqoQ, we have two 
 instances of hyperthesis, in the one language as com- 
 pared with the other.* 
 
 So Bosra, in Africa, now represents the original 
 BvQGa. Some Prench derivatives from the Latin, ex- 
 hibiting the fact of hyperthesis, will not be inappro- 
 priate ; as, tremper, to temper, L. temperare ; tout, all, 
 L. totus ; noeud, a knot, L. nodus ; peuple, the peo- 
 ple, L. populus. In raison (ratio), maison (mansio), 
 palais (palatium), we have undoubted instances of the 
 same sort, in which the i is to be regarded as radical, 
 and not inserted (as in faini, L. fames, and foin, L. 
 
 * With parvus, cf. also L. panlus, contracted from parvnlus. Vid. 
 also paucus, of same radical origin. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 125 
 
 fenum, as also in soir, evening, L. serus, late, and soie, 
 silk, M. L. seta), as a diphthongal compensation for a 
 shortening of the original form. 
 
 In the case of some aspirated forms there occurs a 
 curious transfer, already alluded to in another connec- 
 tion, not indeed of a letter or syllable itself, but of a 
 special affection belonging to it : as in -d-Qstpa, fut. of 
 TQScpco, s^cj, fut. of t;((o ; 7i:a6;(a (for nd^i-axco), stem 
 :ia&\ and ^qi^, gen. TQi^og. Compare, also, dt- 
 6 (tog with Doric rsd-ftoQ, a statute. Here the aspirate, 
 when lost in one part of the word by contraction or 
 flexion, is carefully borne, for preservation, to another 
 part. 
 
 The next style of Consonantal Changes consists : 
 2. Of Insertions and Additions. These are of a 
 threefold character : 
 
 (1) Prosthesis. 
 
 (2) Epenthesis. 
 
 (3) Epithesis. 
 
 (1 .) Prosthesis. This consists in prefixing a single 
 letter or syllable to the beginning of a word, and for 
 the purpose simply, in nearly every case, of better 
 euphonic effect. 
 
 § 1. The vowel prefixes of a prosthetic sort, in 
 Greek, are a, s, and o, and, once or twice, i. 
 
 (1) a. Compare d^if-qya, I pluck, with its other 
 form (A.kQya, and so dfisgda and fisgSa, I bereave ; 
 dfxsXya and L. mulgeo. 
 
126 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (2) i. Compare sQv&Qog, red, Sk. rohita-s, L. 
 ruber ; s^^d-sg (also x^^?)' Sic. hya-s, L. heri, for hesi. 
 In i&tXcj and -diXco we have botli a fuller and con- 
 tracted form of the same original word, in which the i^ 
 is radical and not prosthetic. 
 
 (3) o. Compare odovg (for odovrg), Sk. danta-s, L. 
 dens, for dents ; ovofia, a name, Sk. naman, L. nomen ; 
 of^ixtoj, Sk. mih, L. mingo, I void water. 
 
 (4) I. As lava, I sleep, compared with avco. 
 
 § 2. The letter o is found initial in some words, 
 which appear at other times without it : as in oxdqa- 
 fiog and xaqafioq, GxvicpoQ and ;ivc(pog, Oxogdivrjfia 
 and xog^Lviifiu, o ^uquooco and ^lUQuGOa, Gfxoytqog 
 and jLioytQog, OfiLxqug and /j,ixQog, Oftvgaiva and 
 fivQani'i^ GTvtXfd'og and ottXt^og, artyog and nyog, 
 (L. tectum), OrXtyytg and rXtyyig, Orgv^a and rgv^a, 
 &c. ; in none of which cases is there any modification 
 of the several words respectively, whether Avith or with- 
 out initial s. Cf. Gfivgva (whence Smyrna) and fxvqqa, 
 myrrh. So, fj-sidcdco, I smile, is probably for Ofztihida 
 (Sk. smi, Eng. smile). In some cases where 6 thus 
 occurs, it is radical to the original form ; and in some 
 cases it may be, possibly, the fragmentary representa- 
 tive of a lost preposition {sig or ig), serving to give the 
 form to which it was prefixed a more strongly directive 
 sense ; just as, in words beginning with vr)-, v-, and a-, 
 we often have fragments of an otherwise lost privative, 
 avev. Other prosthetic additions, particularly t, may 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 127 
 
 have sometimes originated in this way, and be but the 
 remains, occasionally at least, of a primitive prepo- 
 sitional prefix. 
 
 Prosthetic additions to the original radical elements 
 of a word often occur in Erench and Spanish. In 
 Spanish, as in French, e is prefixed to words derived 
 from the Latin beginning with sc, sp, and st : as in 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 escribir, 
 
 ecrire (originally, escrire), 
 
 soriber( 
 
 espeso, 
 
 epais, 
 
 spissus, 
 
 estado,* 
 
 etat, 
 
 status. 
 
 (2.) Epenthesis. 
 
 This is the insertion of a letter in the middle of a 
 word, for the purpose of a better dynamical or musical 
 effect. In the Sanskrit, after the prepositions sam, ava, 
 pari, and prati and some words beginning with h, an 
 euphonic s is introduced between them and the words 
 with which they are compounded. With this euphonic 
 use of s, a similar addition of it to ab and ob, in Latin, 
 before c, q, and p, remarkably agrees. Ob sometimes 
 retains it even when alone. 
 
 1st. In Greek. 
 
 § 1 . .S has an affinity for t, ■&•, and /^, and often 
 occurs before them, after short vowels : as, in the 2d 
 pers. dual and plural person-endings passive of verbs 
 
 * In this way English orthography has been complicated ■with 
 French-Latin forms of original Latin words ; as in estate (L. status) 
 espouse (sponsa), especial (species), establish (stabilire). 
 
128 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 before {> -. as, -odov and -cds ; and in the 3d dual 
 passive person-ending of the historical tenses -ad-Tjv ; 
 with which compare the corresponding person-endings 
 -TOP, -Tt, and -TVjv, in the active voice. 
 
 § 2. We find also, in Greek, other epenthetic uses 
 of different consonants : as, 
 
 {a) Of /? after f.i; as in fikGrifi^qla {=:ft£Orj-\- 
 rifi.sQa) and xi^a^^oq, astonishment, compared with 
 ■d-avfta, wonder. In French, a similar fact appears in 
 some words : as in chambre, L. camera, Eng. cham- 
 ber ; nombre, L. numerus, Eng. number ; semblet, L. 
 simulare, Eng. semblance: cf. also Er. combler with 
 L. cumulare, and Er. trembler (Eng. tremble) with L. 
 tremulus. • 
 
 (^ Of 5 after v -. as in dvsgos, contracted avSgog ; 
 with which also compare Er. gendre and Latin gener ; 
 as well as Er. empreindre from L. imprimere, where 
 after the change of m to n, d is epentheticaUy inserted. 
 
 (y) Of i9' after a -. as in ifida&Xrj, a thong : with 
 which compare, for sense, Ijudoocj and f^ccGri^. The 
 ■d- serves, in such cases, to facilitate, phonetically, the 
 union of /f or v and a with the succeeding ?^ ov q. 
 
 2d. In Latin. 
 
 (1) lB. In L. comburere, combustum (Eng. com- 
 bustion) L. con+urere, b epenthetic occurs. 
 
 (2) B. In L. tendo (Gr. nlva, Sk. tan, to extend) 
 there is an epenthetic d : to give greater syllabic 
 strength to the nasal after the short e vowel-sound. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 129 
 
 Caution : B, it is often said, is also epenthetically 
 inserted between two vowels: as in prodeo (pro+eo), 
 and in the 2d pars. sing, and pi. of prosum (prodes 
 and prodestis), and elsewhere in that verb. The.same^ 
 fact is cited, also, in reference to redeo (re+eo),reddo 
 (re+do), and redargue. The d, however, in these 
 forms, is not epenthetic, but radical. The Sanskrit 
 original of both forms is prati. Its Greek equivalent, 
 nqoq, was accordingly, at first, nQorl, m which form 
 we find it in Homer, and from which, v being inter- 
 changed for 6, it became Tigog by contraction. Prod- 
 and red- are, therefore, nearer their originals than pro- 
 and re-, their shorter forms. In such forms as praeeo 
 and deerro, no difficulty was felt by the Latins, on ac- 
 count of the hiatus caused, as there should have been, 
 on the supposition that d^ in the prefixes prod- and 
 red- is of a mere euphonic origin.* 
 
 * In Eng. yonder there appears a d, ■which is wanting in the Gm. 
 jener ; and in English thunder^ Gm. donner, L. tonitm. A 
 dental added to a nasal, whether hj epenthesis or epithesis, gives it 
 greater ease and force of utterance. In Gm. hund (Eng. hound) 
 compared with Gr. Kvau (L. canis) and Sk. ^van ; as also in Gm. 
 hundert, Eng. liund/red (Gr. i-Karov and L. centum, Sk. gatam), we see 
 a similar insertion of d. In French, epenthetic d often occurs, as in 
 moindre, L. minor, tendre, L. tener, and atteindre, L. attinere. Be- 
 tween n and r, indeed, it is as natural to insert d aa a, helper to 
 their utterance, as it is i between m and r ; as in Er. chambre and 
 nombre (Eng. chamber and number), L. camera and numerns. 
 
 In Eng. syllable there is a very interesting specimen of assimila- 
 tive epenthesis, in the insertion of I in the termination, -ble. Of. Gr. 
 <7-vXXb/3i;, L. syllaba, Fr. syllabe, and Gm. sylbe with Eng.. syllable. 
 Vol. II.— 9 
 
130 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (3) ^. In the Latin equivalents of some Greek and 
 Sanskrit words an epenthetic n, or an n inserted for 
 mere euphony, occurs : as in anguis, a snake, Gr. txts, 
 Sk, ahi-s. The nasahzation of various verb-stems, in 
 the present and imperfect tenses of the different voices 
 of the verb in both Greek and Latin, as in fundo, perf. 
 fudi, and xvv'sca, fut. xvoco, Eng. kiss, will be con- 
 sidered, by itself, under another head ; and is therefore 
 not embraced in this section. 
 
 § 4. P is epentheticaUy inserted between m and 
 t or s ; as in sumpsi and promptus from sumo and 
 promo. Compare Tr. dompter, to subdue, and L. 
 domitare ; and also the English word tempt, and its 
 Latin original, tentare. 
 
 § 5. ^ is euphonicaUy inserted, by epenthesis, 
 in the genitive plural, between the stem-vowels a and 
 0, of the first or A-declension and of the 2d or 0-de- 
 clension and the proper plural genitive case-suffix -um : 
 -arum being for aiim, and -orum for oiim; with which 
 compare -av, gen. pi. suffix in Greek : as in fj-oved-av, 
 contracted fiovoav. The r epenthetic, in Latin, pre- 
 vents the unpleasant hiatus otherwise made by the 
 concurrence of a-\-o in the one case, and by o-\-o in 
 the other. In a few single words r epenthetic also 
 appears, as probrum (for prohibium from prohibere) 
 and opprobrium. In Er. velours (earlier velous), from 
 L. villosus, we have a case of the same kind.* 
 
 * In some other modem languages also, r is epentheticaUy in- 
 
COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 131 
 
 § 6. S is used epenthetically, with ab and ob, in 
 compound forms : as in abstineo, abstrabo, obstinatus, 
 and obsto. In subscus (sub+cudo) compared with 
 incus, we see a similar use of it with sub. 
 
 (3). Epithesis. 
 
 This consists in adding a letter or syllable, at the 
 end of a word, for better euphonic effect. 
 
 The V icpuXxvGTLieov, in Greek, is an addition of 
 this sort, which, from its inherent phonetic strength, 
 furnishes a good staff on which the voice may rest, at 
 the end of a clause or sentence. 
 
 No epithetic addition of letters, in the modern 
 languages, occurs to the author, except that of s, in 
 Fr. sans, without (L. sine, Sp. sin, It. senza). There 
 are, however, in French usage, frequent instances of 
 phonetic, if not of graphic epithesis, in the utterance of 
 the final letters of words which by themselves are 
 sUent, whenever they are in regimen with words im- 
 mediately following them, which begin with a vowel. 
 So, too, the cardinal numerals^ in French, which end 
 with a consonant, as six, sept, huit, dix, have their last 
 letter, otherwise silent except before a vowel, distinctly 
 pronounced when at the end of a clause or sentence. 
 
 serted, as : Span, tronar, to thunder, from L. tonare, and Sp. espar- 
 rago (Gr. da-irdpayoi). 
 
 Instances occasionally appear in them also of vowel-epenthesis, 
 as ia Fr. lieu, from L. locus, for leu (like Fr. feu, fire, from L. 
 focus ; jeu, sport, from L. jocus ; and peu, little, from L. paucus). 
 
132 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 The third class of Consonantal Changes we term : 
 
 3. Suppressions and Abridgments. These may 
 occur in the three different parts of a word : its be- 
 ginning, middle, or end. Such suppressions are de- 
 nominated, according to their nature and position, by 
 the following different names : aphaeresis, ehsion, syn- 
 cope, ecthlipsis, and apocope. 
 
 1st. A suppression of a letter in the beginning of 
 a word. This is termed aphaeresis. 
 
 (1) In Greek. 
 
 § 1. .2" sometimes vanishes entirely in Greek, at 
 the commencement of a word. Thus cpowri (for 
 Gipcovrf) represents Sk. svana-s and L. sonus ; and ^sa 
 fut. qsv6a (for gqsFco, &c.) the Sk. sru : yqvrri, frip^ 
 pery, is the L. scruta ; and yQucpa compares in the 
 same way with L. scrobis, a ditch, a grave, as does 
 ygoficpag, an old sow, with L. scrofa. More frequently 
 6 is replaced by an aspirate, when a vowel follows it, 
 as in tS (L. sex, Sk. shash) and kTira (L. septem, Sk. 
 saptan). Sometime? both forms occur, as in avg and 
 vg (Sk. sukara-s, L. sus,' Gm. sau and schwein, 
 Eng. sow and swine). So also gdXaaoce (Doric) and 
 S-ulaGOa, the sea (for aXa66a) from aXg, salt, L. 
 sal, Sk. sara-s, salt. In respect to i)^aXu66a and aXg, 
 compare for form afj.a and ■d-ajud. The Romans liked 
 the letter 6 much better than the Greeks; and the 
 aspirate is, accordingly, often initial in Greek where, 
 in the equivalent forms of the Latin and the Sanskrit, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 133 
 
 the sibilant occupies its place : as in tTtra, seven, Lat. 
 septem, Sk. saptan; and t§, L. sex, Sk. shash. 
 
 § 2. In a few words ^ was dropped when initial : 
 as in iyfidco for Xtxfzaa, I winnow, and lydrj, mortar, 
 for Xiydog. So, in the Aeolic dialect, /< was dropped 
 from lUia, one, which thus became i'a. In the Eng. 
 ounce (or once), Fr. once, we have probably a similar 
 aphaeresis of I, it being from It. lonza (probably) and 
 that from L. lynx. 
 
 (2.) In Latin. 
 
 Aphaeresis is of very frequent occurrence in Latin ; 
 and in many interesting cases quite concealed from the 
 unphilological eye : — as of the letters y, k, v, jo, s, d^ 
 etc. Witness the following examples among others, 
 which see more at large in Synopsis : (y), as (g)nosco, 
 (g)vado, (g)venio, (g)vi(g)vo, (g)volo, (g)voro; ijc), 
 as (k)amo, (k)aper, (k)rideo, (k)vanus, (k)vapor ; 
 («), as, (v)lacio, (v)lupus, and c(v)anis and s(v)erenus : 
 so, sermo is for s(v)ermo, sol for s(^l|j somnus for 
 s(v)opnus, soror for s(v)osor ■ (jo), as (p)latus, (p)re- 
 nes, (p)rogo ; (*),* as (s)fallo, (s)memor, (s)mirus, 
 (s)repo, (s)taurus, (s)tego, (s)tono, (s)turba; {d^, 
 as (d)racemus, (d)ruo. So, cf. plumbum for (m)- 
 
 * Sometimes, too, the origiual sibilant initial is wanting in San- 
 skrit, while found in the Greek or Latin, or both : as in Sk. dhana-s, 
 strength, Gr. a-6hos : Sk. tftrft, a star, L. stella, for sterula (like puella 
 for puerula), and L. astrnm, Gr. aoriyp and Sa-rpov (of. Sk. verbs star 
 and stri, to strew, L. sternere, stratum, Gr. a-Topevwmi and Gm. 
 streuen). 
 
134 COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 blumbum; and lis and locus for earlier (st)lis and 
 (st)locus ; and latus, part, of fero, for earlier (t)latus ; 
 and testis for t(r)estis and ubi and nter for quubi and 
 quuter. 
 
 In the modem languages, likewise, interesting 
 cases of aphaeresis are to be found : , as the loss of in- 
 itial e in Eng. stranger (L. extraneus, Sp. estrangero, 
 Fr. etranger) ; of hi, in Eng. story (Gr. ioToqia, L. 
 historia. It. istoria- and storia) ; of hy^ in Eng. dropsy 
 (Gr. vdQcotfj^ L. hydrops) ; and of o, in Eng. rice (Gr. 
 oQv^a, L. oryza^ It. riso, Er. riz). So, Gm. spital is 
 L. hospitaUs (sc. domus) ; Er. oncle (Eng. uncle^ is L. 
 avunculus ; It. squisito is L. exquisitus (Eng. exquisite) ; 
 and Eng. plot is Er. complot (earher comploit, L. com- 
 plicitum), as also Eng. tin is Er. etain, L. stannum. 
 Orthoepical aphaeresis (in which the letter is kept^ but 
 its sound dropped) abounds in English : as^ (b)dellium, 
 (g)naw, (h)umble, (k)now, (ni)nemonics, (p)neumo- 
 nia, (w)hoj (w)rite, (w)rong, (w)ry. 
 
 2. A suppression of a letter or syllable in the 
 middle of a word : 
 
 (1) Elision, or, the removal of one vowel from an- 
 other in juxtaposition with it : as nullus (= ne+ 
 uUus), nunquam {= ne+unquam), non (for earlier 
 noenum = ne+oenum or unum). 
 
 (3) Syncope.* By this is meant the removal of a 
 
 * These various phonetic affections of words are not always dis- 
 criminated, with sufficient clearness, in our manuals of grammar. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGT. 135 
 
 vowel fi?bm between two consonants : as in patris, 
 gen. of pater, for pateris ; and so navgog, gen. of 
 itaxriq, and Homeric -tinTs for rmoxs. Valde, in 
 Latin, is for valide, by syncope. 
 
 (3.) Ecthlipsis. This is the removal of a con- 
 sonant, or of an entire syllable, from the middle of a 
 word. 
 
 § 1. In Greek. 
 
 (a) In Greek, 6 is often rejected by ecthlipsis ; 
 sometimes in nouns, and sometimes in verbs : as in 
 ysviog for ysvsaog, gen. of ysvog, and ^ovXsvri for 
 fiovXtvsai for ^ovXtisGai. 
 
 While in Sanskrit euphonic principles ruled with a 
 force greater than in any of the cognate languages, still 
 many harsh combinations were allowable, which seem- 
 ed to the Greeks and Romans, even when occurring in 
 a regular way, altogether too dissonant. In the case 
 accordingly of verbs, having roots terminating in a 
 consonant, it was an all but universal rule, in both 
 Greek and Latin, although not in Sanskrit, to connect 
 the personal termiaations with the stem, by means of 
 an union-vowel. In the following roots, however, the 
 connecting vowel was suppressed, when the personal 
 ending was affixed : in Greek, the roots ig, to be, and 
 Id, to know, and in Latin, es, to be, fer, to bear, vel, 
 to wish, and ed, to eat ; so that we have the forms 
 sGri, i6fA.sv, 16TS and td/uev, and also est, he is, fert, 
 vult, and est, he eats. 
 
136 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 As in Sanskrit, before the personal terminations be- 
 ginning with t, th and dh, roots that end with a con- 
 sonant other than n reject s, in order to avoid a harsh 
 combination of three consonants : so, in Greek, roots 
 terminating with a consonant abbreviate in the perfect 
 passive the terminations -s&ov, -6&s, to -d-ov and 
 -&£., as TSTVcpd-t for T£TVfpo-&s, and Ti-ra^d-s for 
 Tevaid-s. Compare in Sanskrit the form sxhh, to 
 stand, with itself as it is when compounded with the 
 preposition " ut,'' up, as in utthita, upstood, for utsthita. 
 
 Before 6 the dentals and the dental liquid v are 
 dropped ; as in XafiTidg for ka/u7TccSg, hoqvc, for x6- 
 Qv&g, GcjfiaGi for ocofzarOi, and dalfiooi- for §aiftov6t. 
 In Tcovg, stem, noS, not only is d dropped, but o is 
 lengthened also by way of compensation, as likewise in 
 the perf. act. participle in -cog, as in ^s/SovXtvxag for 
 ,8t^ovXevx6vg. 
 
 When both a dental and v are omitted before o, 
 the absorption is indicated by an elongation of the 
 vowel, if a ; or by its diphthongation, if £ or o ; s be- 
 coming in such a case si, and o^ecoming ov and 
 a ; as in ■jiaoi for %avT6L, and otieioco, fut. of gttsvSo), 
 for 07iav8(ja, rvqid-slg for rvqi&svvg, Xscov for }.EovTg, 
 and odovg for odovrg. 
 
 (/?) Liquids fall out, from their own mobile nature, 
 with special readiness, from syllables to which they be- 
 long : as in als^iav, i^S^iav, /ueiaocov, &c., compara- 
 tives of aia/^Qog ix&Qog and fiaxQog. So, cf. (pavXog 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 137 
 
 and cpXavQog, Orvcpvoq and 6TQvq)vos ■ cf. also dxovoa 
 (for dxQova) with Sk. gru, to hear. So, v, in some 
 comparative forms, is dropped between two vowels : as 
 fj-sl^co contracted from fisi^oa for ^ti^ova. 
 
 As liquids thus easily disappeared between or be- 
 fore two vowels : so, contrarily, they often assumed a 
 vowel not radical to themselves, especially in initial 
 syllables, examples of which see \mAei prosthesis. 
 
 (y) An entire syllable is occasionally removed by 
 ecthlipsis : as vQaue^a for n-vQa-jti-^a, df^(poQkvg for 
 dfi<pi(pOQtvg and tixoOTog for tlxoGcaTog. 
 
 ^ 2. In Latin. 
 
 Abridgments by ecthhpsis, accompanied often by 
 a subsequent contraction, are numerous, many in- 
 stances of which have been already furnished : as, 
 praebeo for praehibeo ; promo and sumo for pro-emo 
 and sub-emo ; prudens for providens ; amavi and docui 
 for ama-fui and doce-fui ; lumen for lucmen, for lucimen ; 
 hodie for hoc die ; pejero for perjuro ; judex for jus- 
 dex ; imus for infimus. So the dative and ablative 
 pi. suffix-ending -is, is a contraction, in the different 
 declensions, of the original forms -abus, -obus and -ibus ; 
 with which compare the double dative pi. forms, quels, 
 cont. quis, and quibus of the relative pronoun qui ; and 
 poematis as found in some authors for poematibus.* 
 
 * There are similar abbreviations in English, as pahy (L. para- 
 lysis, Fr. paralisie) ; lamprey (It. lampreda, Fr. lamproie, from M. L. 
 lampetra = L. lambens-f petra). 
 
138 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Contract perfect forms as vidi (for vividi), cepi (for 
 cecipi) etc., illustrate this same fact. 
 
 The above instances are of an individual sort, and 
 better denoted by themselves, than by any attempted 
 classification. The facts which remain, that are worthy 
 of note, may be thus classified : 
 
 («) D is often suppressed before s, and so some- 
 times is t; as in divisi for dividsi, misi for mitsi, clausi 
 for claudsi, and laesi for laedsi. In divisi and misi, 
 or any such form, the first vowel i is long by way of 
 contraction, as it would otherwise be made by way of 
 compensation. 
 
 (/?) C, g and q sometimes disappear in the same 
 way before s ; as in sparsi for spargsi, mulsi for mulgsi, 
 and torsi for torqsi. 
 
 (/) V appears to be quite a weak and movable 
 consonant in certain circumstances : as in malo for 
 magis-volo ; momentum for movimentum ; noram for 
 noveram ; petii for petivi, etc. V was stronger initially 
 and after a consonant, than medially between two 
 vowels, especially if kindred vowels. Hence such 
 forms as ditior for divitior ; junior for juvenior ; neu 
 for neve ; seu for sive ; boum for bovum ; denuo for de 
 novo ; nuntius for noventius ; oblitus for oblivitus, etc., 
 etc. In some of these forms and in others like them 
 V sinks from very weakness readily into u. 
 
 {§) B is in febris (Eng. fever) for ferbris (from 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 139 
 
 ferveo) rejected, as also in prosa, Eng. prose, for prorsa, 
 for pro-versa. 
 
 Even in English, words are sometimes softened by 
 the rejection of a letter belonging to the original root ; 
 as in our words speah^ spake, and spoken, from the 
 Gm. sprechen, sprach, gesprochen; veneer, from Er. 
 vemir, to glaze over ; prow (L. prora, It. prua, Er. 
 prone) ; and ffiant (Gr. yiyag, Er. geant).* 
 
 (3.) A suppression at the end of a word is called 
 Apocope. 
 
 In the Sanskrit, in the final form in which it has 
 reached us, two consonants were no longer tolerated, 
 as they once had been, at the end of a word ; but the 
 latter was rejected. That this feature of the language 
 was not fixed upon it, until after the separation of the 
 other languages from the common parent-stock, would 
 seem evident from the fact, that it is not true of the 
 Zend or of the European languages, old or new. The 
 result to the Sanskrit is a mutilation in the present as- 
 pect of many of its original forms, which, if found now 
 as they were in their primeval state, would furnish 
 much valuable light on many etymological questions 
 and theories. Any consonant in the alphabet may be 
 final in Sanskrit. 
 
 1. In Greek. 
 
 * After «, s is commonly rejected in English : as, in exert Q.,. 
 exserto), exist (L. ex + sisto) ; ei:pect (L. ex + specto) ; extant (L. ex 
 + stans, part, of sto, stare) ; extirpate (L. ex + stirps). 
 
140 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 ^ 1. All final mutes are apocopated from forms, 
 where they would otherwise appear as a radical part 
 of the word. Thus f^kXir becomes fis'lc; oafiav, 
 6a [xa ; sTvnTtT, third pers. sing, imperf. act. (for fuller 
 form STiiTTTsri) becomes etutits ; and £tvittovt{i), 
 third pers. pi. of same tense, becomes eruTtTOv; 
 yalaxT becomes yala, and rjOavT^c) (compare erant 
 for esant) becomes fjoav, and %dvf (neut. of Ttdg) 
 becomes ticcv. In such nominatives neuter as n'sQaq, 
 xqkuq, rsgag, the final t of the stem is merely changed 
 to q. 
 
 § 2. No consonant can properly end a word in 
 Greek, except v, q or g. Two words end in a guttural 
 oiix or ovx, which is but a mutilation of ovxi and ifc 
 or e§ for extS (cf. txag, sxii and ixslvog) ; and they are 
 properly but proclitics, never occurring at the end of 
 a sentence; ovte always preceding a word .beginning 
 with a vowel, and in one commencing with a con- 
 sonant. In respect also to the three letters, v, q and 
 a, it is to be remembered that q occurs rarely, and that 
 V often represents a, or contains it by absorption, and 
 also that g final cannot be preceded by a dental or the 
 liquid V. Even v and 6 were themselves so weak at 
 the end of words, as to be often admitted. Thus iya 
 is for eyoov, Sk. aham ; and tovto, neuter of ovrog, 
 is for TovTOv. Compare also ■rnqoad's and Tzgoad-tv, 
 vv and wv. 
 
 To fx final the Indian ear and Roman, like the 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 141 
 
 German and English, had no objection; but the 
 Greeks utterly rejected it, or substituted the dental 
 nasal v in its place : as, in the neuter termination -ov 
 (for -ofx, L. -um) of the second declension, the regular 
 accusative case-sign {y for [a) and the imperfect tense- 
 ending -V (for orig. ft, L. m). So, in the Romanic 
 languages, especially French, m is not relished. Thus 
 compare the numerals in Latin and the various derived 
 languages, 
 
 Latin, septem, novem, decem, undecim, 
 
 French, sept, neuf, dix, onze, 
 
 Italian, sette, nove, dieci, undici, 
 
 Spanish, siete, nueve, diez, once. 
 
 So, cf. L. centum, mecum, and amabam with It. cento, 
 meco and amava, and Sp. ciento, migo and amaba. 
 
 % 3. The passive person-endings -vtul and -vro 
 cannot occur after a consonantal stem ; the v accordingly 
 is changed to a, and the forms become TSTVcparac and 
 ST£TvcpuTO instead of rsTvgjvrac and ErtvvcpVTO ; 
 like the change of the accusative case-sign v in the 
 third declension to a, after consonants, as in narsQa 
 for narsQv, and y.oqv&u for xogvd-v : cf. in same way 
 jSiSoaOc 3d pers. pi. indie, act. of dida/ut, for Sidovri. 
 
 § 4. When occurring between two short vowels in 
 the end- syllable of a word, a and v tend to vanish, as 
 in finl^ovg for fyLil^o(v)sg and ytvovg for y£vi:(d)og. 
 
 \ 5. When 6 in an end-syllable would be preceded 
 
142 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. • 
 
 by another a, one of them is dropped, as in rel^eai for 
 Tsi;(s6-ai. 
 
 ^ 6. In the third pars. sing, active of all the tenses, 
 and in the third pers. pi. of both the imperfect and 
 aorist tenses, an original t, still preserved in Latin, is 
 dropped. Thus rvTrn-i, hvnvs, rsrvcps, trvips are 
 
 for TVjlTiTiC), iTV%T£v{t), VtTVCpSv{l), BTVlptTl. ThuS 
 
 compare 
 
 SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. 
 
 bharati, he bears, (j>epe(T)i, fer(i)t(i). 
 
 abharat(i), he was bearing, t^epefji), fere-bat(i). 
 
 No final letter hung more feebly than r to its parent 
 stem ; and it fell off everywhere as if by its own weight. 
 Neuter stems in ov, ovrog, av avrog, tv tvrog, uv 
 vvToq, have likewise lost a radical r. It is manifest, 
 also, that nominatives in aq and aq, gen. axoq, hke 
 rinuQ TjTcaTog, vdcoQ, i'lSarog, originally ended in uqt 
 (cf. SdfiaQ, gen. dcc^aqrog), from which r has been 
 dropped in the nominative. 
 
 f 7. Before a, w were dropped, as in hovg for 
 hovrg ; or, after vr, a was dropped, as in Xsav for 
 Xtovrg ; and unsigmatized masculine and feminine 
 nominatives, (or those which would normally have the 
 gender-sign a affixed, but which, on account of an v 
 final in the stem, have rejected it,) have their stem- 
 vowel lengthened by way of compensation for losing 6, 
 as in nocfir)v for %oifisvg, and fiysfiav for ^ys/xovg. 
 
 2. In Latin. 
 
COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 143 
 
 The number of final consonants in Latin, c, I, n, 
 r, s, t, is somewhat greater than in Greek. In the 
 Sanskrit, also, n, t, s, r are almost wholly the conso- 
 nants that occur terminally. The words in which 
 other consonants are found at the end, are but of rare 
 use. 
 
 Apocope occurs in Latin in several interesting 
 classes of cases. 
 
 \ 1. In the loss of the final letters of many con- 
 sonantal stems of nouns in the nominative ; as in cor, 
 the heart, for cord ; lac, milk, stem lact ; os, a bone, 
 stem OSS, for oste (Gr. stem oars, Sk. asthi) ; so that 
 the second s in the Latin form represents the other- 
 wise lost radical syllable, -te. Leo, a lion, stem leon ; 
 and mel, honey, stem mell, (Gr. jutXi^r)). 
 
 § 2. In the ablative singular form of all the declen- 
 sions ; in the dropping of its final characteristic d (Sk. 
 t) from them all ; as domino for archaic dominod, and 
 sermone for sermoned. 
 
 ^ 3. In several imperatives, as die for dice ; due for 
 duce ; fac for face ; and fer for fere. 
 
 The next class of consonantal changes is composed 
 of 
 
 4. Weakened consonantal forms ; or the weaken- 
 ing of individual consonants in certain specific forms or 
 classes of forms. 
 
 (1) The very common one of r into 0. Thus the 
 ending -ovac in the third pers. pi. of the pres. and fut. 
 
144 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 active of Greek verbs, as in Tvnrovac and rvipovei, 
 represents an original -ovn ; which was the form also 
 actually used by the Dorians. The analysis of the 
 changes made in the form is this : t was euphonically 
 changed to a, after which v was dropped, according to 
 universal Greek usage before a, and the vowel o was 
 lengthened, by way of etymological compensation, into 
 ov. 
 
 So in Latin, the proper supine-ending -tum is 
 changed, when the stem of the verb ends in a dental, 
 into -sum. After a long medial vowel the dental is 
 thrown away, as in caesum for caedtum, from caedo, 
 to kill, and laesum for laedtum, from laedo ; as like- 
 wise in the supine and participial forms of cado and 
 edo, to eat ; in which the vowels a and e are accord- 
 ingly lengthened by the contraction of the syllable to 
 which they belongs as in casum for c3,dtum, supine of 
 cado, and the participles ambesus and comesus of am- 
 bSdo and comedo. After a short vowel, the dental is 
 also assimilated to the changed suffix, as in fissum for 
 fidtum, and fossum for fodtum; supines of findo and 
 fodio. 
 
 (2) That of the conversion of an original 6, in the 
 beginning of a word, into the aspirate ; as in vg for 6vg, 
 which two forms are both found in use together ; and 
 of I'arrjfit for oiorrj/ui. (L. sisto). This subject will, 
 however, receive its proper treatment, under the sub- 
 sequent head of Sibilation. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 145 
 
 (3) That of the weakening of an original digamma 
 into various forms : another topic reserved for fuller 
 discussion, by and by, alone by itself 
 
 A special hint. It must not be forgotten, that 
 some difference in the flexion-forms both of nouns and 
 verbs are to be resolved, not by any mere phonological 
 analysis, but on the theory of a manifest duplication of 
 the stems of its different forms, and sometimes even by 
 the aggregation of very different stems together, for 
 grammatical convenience, into one form of conjugation. 
 In such forms as f^syccg, juiydXrj, fisyce ; itoXvq, 
 noXkri, TcoXv ; TtQaog, nqatla, %Qaov we have two 
 different original flexion stems : ^'i:.ya and ^tyalo ; 
 nolv and noXko; TtQao and nqcis. The two stem- 
 forms of noKvs and noXXrj we find used interchange- 
 ably in Homer in most of the cases. In the L. fero, 
 perf. tuli, supine latum, we have two absolutely differ- 
 ent stems aggregated, fer and tul ; two, not three : as 
 latum is for tlatum (cf. Gr. rXdco and rXrjrog, and 
 L, tolero), and tlatum is from the same root with 
 tuH. 
 
 5. Strengthened consonantal forms. 
 
 Neither learner nor teacher, it is believed, can be 
 
 harmed by occasional repetitions of the same fact, in 
 
 other relations and for other uses. It is difiicult, if not 
 
 impossible, to survey phonology thoroughly on its 
 
 different sides, and to do justice to each one of them 
 
 by itself, without at the same time catching views of 
 Vol. II.— 10 
 
146 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 other parts already examined, or demandiag afterwards 
 more distinct and complete consideration. 
 
 The use of strengthened forms was one of the early 
 features of language, abounding in Sanskrit and Greek, 
 and of frequent occurrence also in Latin ; but occurring 
 less and less in subsequent and derived languages, as 
 we go in them farther and farther from their primeval 
 source. As the Latin preserves in most of its aspects 
 more of the simple strong characteristics of the San- 
 skrit, than the Greek, its departure in this respect to a 
 wider degree from their common original than the 
 Greek is to be accounted for probably by the strong 
 practical tendency of the Roman mind, which did not 
 relish double forms of the same thing, and multiplied 
 modes of reaching the same end. 
 
 The modes of strengthening stems are various, as : 
 
 ^ 1 . By nasalization, as in xdjuva, stem nafi,, and 
 TSfzva, stem rafj. ; and in Latin frango, findo, vinco, 
 compared with their simple bases frag, fid, and vie. 
 But the subject of nasalization must be treated more at 
 large by itself. 
 
 § 2. By the reduplication of the radical syllable or 
 sound. 
 
 A repetition or reduphcation of words and syllables 
 is the most natural and efifective style of emphasizing 
 their importance.* This occurs abundantly in San- 
 
 * This idea lies at the foundation of some of our most expressive 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 147 
 
 skrit and in Greek, but much less in Latin. See sub- 
 sequent treatment of Reduplication by itself. 
 
 § 3. By changing stems orginally ending in one 
 of the X mutes or r mutes, followed by the semivowel 
 I (as yi, xt, ^1', 'rt, i^t) into <ja or tt : and stems end- 
 ing in the Hquid X followed by t, eus Xi into XL Thus : 
 raoacj, XsvGoco, cpqioGa, Xioaof^ui are, as before 
 shown, for the earlier forms rayuo, Isvxca^ (pQixia, 
 XcTcofiac; as, also, ^dXXa, fisXXa, and aTsXXo) are 
 for fiaXfM, fzsXiG), and onXia; with which compare 
 fidXXov, comparative of /ndXa for ^aXiov. 
 
 The gemination of the final consonant of the stem, 
 in this way, answers a double purpose ; that of strength- 
 ening the stem, and that also of symbolizing, in a form 
 so unusual in Greek, except as a special etymological 
 contrivance, the previous changes that had occurred in 
 these forms. 
 
 In Latin, the verbs in -io, of the third conjugation, 
 represent the same class of verb -stems that, in Greek, 
 were changed so as to present a duplication of the final 
 letter of the stem : as capio, cupio, and fugio. In 
 Greek, verbs and adjectives having ^^ or ^ for the final 
 letter of the stem, followed by the half-vowel i, a meta- 
 thesis of the I occurs, instead of a gemination of the 
 final consonant ; as in (puiva, stem (pav, for cpavia, 
 
 words, as respect, regard, remark ; where the idea, as in the word 
 respect, is, that the person or thing respected is worthy of heing 
 looked at a second time, or, again and again. 
 
148 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 J3ccivc3, stem /3av, for /Savia (cf. L. venio and also L. 
 vado, and Gr. fiabi^co), etc. The half-vowel i, or y, of 
 the original forms of these various words represents the 
 Sk. yk, properly meaning to go, occurring in verbs of 
 what is called the fourth class, in that language, and 
 characteristic, very extensively, of intransitive and 
 passive verbs. Buty was not a sound to be found in 
 Greek ; and therefore it must either be vowelized, as 
 if ^, or expressed by some other assimilated sound. In 
 the adjective termination -tos in Greek, as in ayiog, 
 Sk. yajya-s, we see the equivalent of the Sk. adjective 
 suffix .yas. The Doric future suffix -form -aca, answers, 
 in the same way, to the Sk. syAmi. The analogue, 
 accordingly, in both Greek and Latin, of the fourth 
 Sk. conjugation-ending -yami, is -la or -io (for -lafic). 
 Prom such an original regular form in -la, come not 
 only the altered forms -oaa, -ttco, -^co, -Vka, but also 
 those in -atvco (for -avia) and -aigco (for -aqia). So, 
 in Latin, the adjective and nominal suffixes -ius, -ia, 
 -ies, answer to the Sk. ya-s, and y4, like the verbal 
 ending -io to the Sk. -y4mi. 
 
 § 4. By the epenthetic insertion of a in the midst 
 of the stem : as in fiiayco (L. misceo) compared with 
 /Ltiyvv/Lti. ; iaxa and la^vsofj-ai compared with «^« ; 
 also iad-ico with edo/nai, to eat, Sk. ad, L. ed. 
 
 § 5. By adding to consonantal stems ending in n 
 and ^ the letter t, and to vowel-stems t?- ; as in Tvnra 
 (stem TVTt) ; xonTCo {xon) ; xgynvco {nQvff) ; n'sxrcj 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 149 
 
 (ttsx) ; and Tixra {tux) ; and for vowel-stems xvrjd-a, 
 xXrj&a, TtQrj&a and Grj^co (stems xva, xXs, ngr], and 
 6a). Such forms, in Latin, as necto, plecto^ flecto, are 
 of the same analytic origin. 
 
 Even in the forms of nouns, in Greek, the strength- 
 ening of the stem by the insertion of t appears : as in 
 the epic forms nvoXt/^io^ and nroXig for %6Xsfj.og and 
 noXiQ. Compare, also, nrsQva and %sqva, the heel, 
 Sk. p^rshni-s. The distinction of strong and weak 
 cases that prevails in Sanskrit in the different case-forms 
 of the same noun, to so marked a degree, is entirely 
 unknown in Greek and Latin. 
 
 2d. We come, now, to some of the special patholo- 
 gical affections of the classical languages. 
 
 1. The Greek. 
 
 Firstly. Its dialects. 
 
 Every language, covering an area of any consider- 
 able extent, for a long period of time, tends to break 
 into separate dialects ; determined, objectively, by dif- 
 ferent physical and local causes ; and also subjectively, 
 by difference of employment, development, and culture. 
 The effects of time and space are as marked on men as 
 on nature, and on the world of language and of letters, 
 as on any part of the vegetable kingdom. In Greece, 
 especially, dialectic developments were of the fullest and 
 finest growth. Had ever a nation, in respect to all 
 physical influences, so favorable a position, as such, for 
 growth in all the elements of inward greatness ? She 
 
150 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 was nursed in the mountains, among the giants : 
 the air that she breathed was full of the seeds of life : 
 in the broad blue sky above, and the bright blue sea 
 below, she saw divine aspects of energy and beauty 
 constantly mirrored to her view : her eye and her heart 
 were ever invited, by surrounding objects, to a per- 
 petual festival. She laid the beams of her greatness on 
 two continents : combining the stem strength of the 
 one with the soft luxuriance of the other. She sat, as 
 queen, on many waters, and girt around, as with a 
 mantle of stars, with clusters of islands shining about 
 her on every side. 
 
 On no spot upon earth can one be born, to this day, 
 where Nature will bend down more lovingly and im- 
 pressively over him, to breathe her life and beauty into 
 all the opening elements of his being. The mountains 
 and the sea have ever been the two greatest natural 
 teachers of mankind. No people could come into 
 more immediate contact with Nature, in either of these 
 forms of her presentation ; none ever did so meet her 
 constantly in them both combined. Rome vras, in 
 some respects, similarly accoutred for greatness with 
 Greece : vnth the mountains behind and the sea be- 
 fore ; but it was with no such fulness of preparation : 
 her home was, after all, upon a plain. Greece was, 
 everywhere, a land full of broken and rugged surfaces, 
 of bold shores, of short, dark, rapid, foaming streams, 
 and of every variety of landscape, skirted, at ten 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 151 
 
 thousand points of contact, with the sea, which not 
 only surrounded it, but crept in, with its pulses of ever- 
 quickening force, into all the folds of its physical and 
 national life. Amid such influences, as each vegetable 
 and animal have not only their, special geographical 
 zone, but also even a specific climate and locality, 
 where they will best fill out the whole ideal outline of 
 their being, man finds his most favored spot for a large 
 growth of life and action. 
 
 When the western fracture was made from the 
 common Graeco-Italic stock, which, under the long 
 action of many favoring circumstances, was perfected, 
 in the end, into the round orb of Roman life and law, 
 the portion remaining behind, within the boundaries 
 of Northern Greece and Asia Minor, began slowly to 
 form a local character and language, as they settled 
 more and more upon the same soil, into fixed com- 
 munities and habits. No language can bear greater 
 evidence of home-growth than does the Greek. Hel- 
 lenic outgrowths, of all kinds, began early to thrust 
 forth themselves, in all the communities of Greece, 
 with great force : so that, erelong, Hellenic, or civilized 
 and cultivated, ideas, words, accent, and euphonism, 
 with the power also of Hellenic arms, greatly changed 
 the first character of the people and of their language. 
 The Hellenes were, in a word, the Greeks, in a more 
 cultivated period of their history, than the pioneer Pe- 
 lasgi or first settlers. Thus readily is the great paradox 
 
152 COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 solved, which has perplexed so long a succession of 
 historical writers, of the connected existence, and yet 
 supposed diverse origin, of the two races, that peopled 
 Greece, to which they really have themselves given, 
 in their imagination, all the reality that they ever pos- 
 sessed ; and which it was as easy, of course, for them 
 to set in grand antagonism to each other, as it was, in 
 the first place, to invent them at all. Grecian literature, 
 art, history, genius, and advancement, are therefore, by 
 necessity, all Hellenic. 
 
 The three leading dialects of Greece were the Aeo- 
 lic, Doric, and Ionic. The Aeohc prevailed in Boeotia, 
 Thessaly, and the colony of Aeolis in Asia Minor : the 
 Doric, in the Peloponnesus and among the Dorian col- 
 onies in Asia Minor, Italy, and Sicily ; and the Ionic, 
 which was spoken by the Ionian race, reigned espe- 
 cially in Asia Minor, and also in numerous islands, and 
 in the Ionian colonies. This was the first of aU the 
 dialects, perfected by poetic composition ; and it burst 
 forth, at difierent times, into three kindred varieties: 
 the Old Ionic or Epic, as seen in Homer and Hesiod, 
 the New Ionic of Herodotus, and the Attic, which be- 
 came ultimately the standard of all the other dialects 
 throughout the "whole of Greece. This is the dialect 
 in which the many chief builders of Athenian great- 
 ness erected their various structures of beauty and of 
 strength. 
 
 The Aeolic and Doric are more simple, severe, and 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 153 
 
 even rough, in their forms. In the AeoHc, Alcaeus, 
 and Sappho sang. This is the dialect with which the 
 forms of the Latin are more correlated than with any- 
 other ; and which also presents to us the patterns of 
 Greek words very nearly as they were at the first, when 
 unbroken, or fused and recast into other moulds. The 
 Doric abounds more in consonants than the others. In 
 it the Muse of Theocritus and Pindar robed herself. 
 
 The Ionic is full of vowels, and therefore soft ; 
 while, possessing also an uncontracted fulness of sylla- 
 bles, it moves before the eye Hke an Asiatic princess, 
 with a Grecian face and smile,- but sweeping a long 
 train, and arrayed in the strong colors of the oriental 
 world. The Attic dialect is the Ionic arrived at matu- 
 rity. The hand of Time has here chiselled all its forms, 
 according to the ideals of pure phonetic taste ; the 
 rules of art have been effectively applied to every side 
 of it, by a Ipng succession of workmen, busying them- 
 selves one after another in perfecting the details of its 
 structure;; and it contains in itself all the plain, deep 
 strength of 'the Doric, with all the real, upper beauty 
 of the Ionic. 
 
 The Attic dialect had certain classes of peculiarities, 
 in different ages, which have led writers sometimes, 
 and yet with no very important results, to divide it into 
 three periods : the Older, the Middle, and the Later 
 Attic. The Older Attic flourished five hundred years 
 before Christ, as found in the writings of Thucydides, 
 
154 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Aeschylus, etc. ; the Middle Attic, a hundred years 
 later, as found in the works of Plato and Xenophon ; 
 and the Later Attic, in the succeeding age, as seen in 
 the orations of Demosthenes. On the margin between 
 the Later Attic and the common Greek dialect, that 
 prevailed 300 b. c, appeared that wonderful philos- 
 opher, Aristotle, who swayed the great speculative 
 tides of thought in the ancient world, quite as much 
 perhaps as Calvin has those of the modem. Some of 
 the leading writers in the Common Greek, into which 
 Classic Greek slowly, and with ever increasing dimness, 
 faded av/ay, were Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of Hali- 
 carnassns, and Lucian. 
 
 Secondly. The phonetic force of the different Greek 
 letters, in alphabetic order ; or a synoptical view of the 
 capacities of the Greek letters, for a variable manifesta- 
 tion of different equivalent sounds in the Sanskrit. 
 
 A. This often represents the Sk. a, illustrations of 
 which will be, of course, unnecessary : short a in Sk. 
 is usually represented by 4 or o in Greek ; and the long 
 Sk. a is oftener represented by i] or a than by long a 
 in Greek. 
 
 It is sometimes euphonic, and so not a radical part 
 of the stem of a word ; as in donalqco, I gasp, com- 
 pared with onaiQco. In ugt^qotit] (^=^dOTr'jQ-{-oifj) 
 lightning, (and also aGrqunri) compared with GrsQonrj, 
 we have, on the contrary, a full and contracted form 
 of the same word, which might readily be mistaken, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 155 
 
 but for etymological reasons, for an instance of a eu- 
 phonic. Like the Sk. a, the Greek a shaded off 
 in kindred or derived forms, in different dialects, into 
 almost all the other vowels : as s, Ionic Bqariv for 
 aQ67iv ; ri. Epic ■d'aqrit, and oo<pir) for ■d-cagai and 
 60(pia ; o, Aeolic GrQorog for jjrgarog. 
 
 In the Doric dialect, a was almost as great a favorite 
 in all consonantal forms, as in Sanskrit ; and it abound- 
 ed greatly also in the forms of the Aeohc dialect. In 
 the different dialectic forms of the genitive of vavg, a 
 ship (Sk. nava-s, L. navis), as Doric vaog, Ionic vrjog 
 and vsog and Attic vscog, we see the radical vowel a 
 represented by a variety of kindred vowels. 
 
 £. This is equivalent in various forms to the Sk. d, 
 y and/ , 
 
 (5) Although specimens of this kind are unneces- 
 sary ; yet the one here given deserves it, for its own in- 
 teresting character, especially to any one who remem- 
 bers the various false etymologies, with which this class 
 of words has been visited : Sk. barbara-s (and varvara- ' 
 s) a stranger, Gr. ^aq^aqog, Eng. barbarian. 
 
 ' (.ff) g^^-s» a ^^"^i /3oiJg ; * g4, to go, ^alva (pure 
 stem /5«), cf. also ,8i/3d^o} ; guru-s, heavy, ^aqvg ; gar, 
 Jo devour, /St^gdaxa (stem ^qo, for ^oq ; redup. etc.) 
 I devour (cf. also /SoQog, devouring, and/?^c5^«, food). 
 
 * Labials often represent gutturals in a cognate language, as a 
 degenerate form of them, as in Aeol. n-i'y, who ; Attic ris ; Sk. kis ; 
 Lat. quis. 
 
156 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (i) jy^> 2' bowstring, ^tog, a bow ; jiv, to live, 
 /S/og, life. 
 
 The sound of the Greek B was softer than ours, 
 more like indeed, as in the Modern Greek, our v than 
 h ; or, as in Spanish, medial between the two.: Before 
 q it was substituted in the Aeolic dialect for the or- 
 dinary aspirate, as in figodov for goSov and figdstos 
 for Qccxog. It was also epenthetically inserted before 
 q after ju, as in fitor]/u/3gia, for /^Sorj rjjutga ; and 
 ccft^QOTog for ajugorog. 
 
 It was interchangeable in the different dialects, with 
 the following consonants : 
 
 (1) :t ; as in ^urtlv for narslv, to tread. Before 
 T in verbal forms, according to the law of the har- 
 monization of mutes in Greek (smooth with smooth, 
 middle with middle, etc.), y(? is regularly changed to 
 %, as in TsrgiTtrac for TSTgifirai. Compare the 
 change oi b to jo in Latin before s and t, as in scripsi 
 and scriptum from scribo. 
 
 (3) <fi ; as in figiysg and figvyoi compared with 
 (pgvytg. Of. L. fremo and /Sgtfia ; and balaena, a 
 whale and cpaXacvu. 
 
 (3) y ; as yXtjj/av for /8Xi];^av, penny-royal. Com- 
 pare, also, /Sagvg and L. gravis ; and also /Sdlavog 
 an acorn and glans. 
 
 (4) S ; as odsXog (Doric) for o^tXog, an obelisk. 
 
 (5) ft ; as 0gor6g for (xgorog by metathesis for 
 jLiogrog ; Sk. marttas (mri, to die), L. mortuus (morior). 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 167 
 
 Cf. f^vQft)]^ an ant, and L. formica ; and also f^oQfia 
 a bugbear, and formido, fear ; and L. promulgare com- 
 pounded of pro and vulgus. 
 
 r. This corresponds , commonly with the Sk. ff, h, 
 j, and rarely withy^ and g. 
 
 (y) gau-s, the earth (stem g4), yi], archaic yalcc 
 (cf. yri'irriQ, a farmer, and ■ytiTtov, a neighbor) ; sthag, 
 to cover, arsya, L. tego. 
 
 (Ji) hanu-s, the jaw, ysvvs, L. gena. 
 
 (^') ]kmx, the knee, yovv, L. genu;'jan, to beget, 
 ylyvofiac (stem ytv), yslvofiac, ysvog and ytvvcia ; 
 aj, to go, to drive, ay a ; jaran, an old man, Gr. ysqcov ; 
 ]nh, to know, yiyvdaxa. 
 
 (gh) ghas, to eat, ydvsiov, an eating-house. 
 
 (p) pag, to bind, nriyvvfii, stem nay. 
 
 In the Greek itself it was interchangeable with J3, 
 §, X, X. Thus for /?, compare /3Xi];(Ci)v and yXrj^av ; 
 for §, yrj and §d (Doric) ; for te, yvanra and ^tvu'JtTa ; 
 and for X, /zoytg and /uoXig. 
 
 J. This is equivalent properly to the Sk. d, and 
 sometimes to^^. 
 
 {d) daksha-s, right (as right-handed) 8e^i6g; 
 dvAu, two, 8vw ; dam, to subdue, da/uda ; and dama-s, 
 a house, 86fiog. 
 
 (J) j^^» to live, diaira. 
 , It is interchangeable in various dialects with dif- 
 ferent letters in Greek. 
 
158 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (1) In the Aeolic dialect with /?, as aaft/SaXov for 
 Oavda?Mv. 
 
 (2) In the Doric, with y, as yata and yrj, Doric 
 8d and also yd. Cf. also dvocpog, as a parallel form 
 of yvocpog. So JrffiTjTrjQ, Ceres, is formed from F;?+ 
 
 (I jui^rijQ. Cf. also vdaQ, and vygog. 
 I (8) In the Ionic, with ^, as in Z«y? and ^fi/? ; 
 with X, as ^t/Zw and xalco ; and with c, as oSfirj and 
 
 (4) In the Attic dialect, with r, as in ^a':/rfg and 
 Tcenrig. It became also euphonically in the Attic in 
 verbal forms a, before r and ■&-, as in itptvad-rjv for 
 iifjivdd-rjv, and h'QtiOr(xi for eQicdrai ; as in Latin we 
 find fissum for fidtum. 
 
 £. This represents properly the Sanskrit short a, 
 and sometimes also other vowels, as e and i. In some 
 Gr. forms also beginning with s there is a lost digamma 
 represented in equivalent Latin forms by an initial v. 
 E, modified in the subj. mood to rj, is, with o, likewise 
 modified to a. in the subj. mood, and to oi in the opt., 
 the favorite union-vowel in the Greek. 
 
 (e) api, to or towards, am; ahi-s, a snake, s;(ig; 
 jaran, an old man, ysQcov (stem ytQovr^ ; ana, in, iv 
 and slg for evrg (cf. L. in, and, with Sk. antar, among, 
 L. inter). 
 
 (e) ena, one, slg for tvg. 
 \- \-~ (J) pippali, pepper, nsntgc (L. piper). 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 159 
 
 (v) Sk. vam, to vomit, i^sco. Cf. Sk. va,q, to 
 wish, and ^^av, for Ftxav, L. invitus. 
 
 E is sometimes euphonic, as in eXce;^vg small, Sk. 
 laghu-s, light. In hxarov, one hundred, the initial k 
 is not euphonic, but is an abbreviation of the numeral 
 6/e for eV, one (=: 'iv-\-}{aT6v. Cf. L. centum, Sk. 
 §atam). In the Aeolic dialect, ti was exchanged for 
 ri, as feijvog for xsivog and ;itf^ for s^al. 
 
 Z. Its regular equivalent in Sk. is y ; but it also 
 sometimes represents^', as Sk. jlv, Gr. ^da. 
 
 (]/) yu and yuj, to bind, or join together, ^svyvv- 
 /ui ; ya.va.-s, barley, ^sa for ^aFa; ^r]/uia loss, damage, 
 seems to compare in same way with Sk. yam, to re- 
 strain, or hinder. So, cf. also, ^vyov, a yoke (L. 
 jugum) with Sk. yuga, equal. 
 
 Z does not represent in Greek the combination, as 
 might be supposed, of 8s, rg, and '&g, etymologicaJly, 
 but of §c and yt. Thus 6%l^cd is for axtSico (stem 
 aX''^) > Gt^i^co fut. Grl^cj (stem evty) is for ortyico ; (cf. 
 L. instigare, Gm. stechen, Eng. stick) ; and /nai^cav is 
 for f^tyicov. In a few cases ^ represents a contraction 
 of 6§ (not 8g), as 'A&riva^n for 'A-d-rjvaabi. Diony- 
 sius, who yet himself represents ^ as being pronounced 
 as 8g, says that it arose from a8. In the Doric dialect, 
 it was indeed so written, so that Ztvg was in Doric 
 !Edivg, as in the Aeohc dialect we find odvyov for 
 ^vyov, and in Doric, intq)dvadw for inicpSv^a ; which 
 cf. also with Doric yjva, L. spuo, and Attic Tvrva, all 
 
160 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 of same radication ; but the analysis of its origin, as 
 representing an earlier form of 8i or yi, is alike its true 
 historical and phonetic analysis. 2r early sank in sound 
 into soft 6, and was by Lucian substituted in some 
 words for it, as in ^^ixqoi iox 6/.ic}<q6s and ZfivQva 
 for !Ef^vQva.* 
 
 Z was interchanged in Greek, when initial, by the 
 Dorians, with 8, and, when medial, by the Tarentine 
 Greeks with go ; as, with 8, in the Doric forms §vy6v 
 and 8afA.6g for ^vyov and ^afios ; and with 60 in the 
 Tarentine form 'kaxriaoco for Xaxri^a. 
 
 H. This is equivalent to the Sk. long a. Thus the 
 Sk. sami, half, L. semi, is in Greek i^jui- ; in which 
 form the r/ represents the Sk. long a, and the accom- 
 panying aspirate represents the Sk. and L. sibilant. 
 So ^8vg compares with Sk. svMu-s, sweet, L. suavis ; 
 and rjTuaQ, the liver, with Sk. yakrit, L. jecur. 
 
 0. This is equivalent to the Sk. d, d/i, and (/k. 
 
 (d) duhitri, a daughter, -d^vydrriQ ; dvar, a door, 
 ■dvqa. 
 
 (dK) dhCima-s, smoke, -d-vfiog (L. fumus) ; indh, 
 to burn (cf. Sk. iddha-s, clear, bright, and L. aestus), 
 
 * In the modem languages, it is represented variously, at times, 
 by z, s, g., j, and d. Thus from f^Xos, zeal (from fe'ca, I boil, from 
 '• which come Gm. sieden and Eng. seethe), are derived Eng. zealous 
 \ jealous (It. geloso, Fr. jaloux). From ^lyyl^epis (L. zingiberi) 
 come It. gengiovo, Sp. gengibre, and Eng. ginger. The Eng. civet ia 
 the Middle Gr. (anhiov (It. zibetto, Gm. zibeth, Fr. civette). So cf. 
 Gr. fijjuia, L. damnum, Fr. dommage, and Eng. damage. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 161 
 
 ai&oj ; dh4, to place, rld-rjfii, stem -ds ; Adhar, a teat, 
 ovd-aq (cf. L. uber, Gm. euter, Ang. Sax. uder, and 
 Eng. udder). 
 
 {gh) gharma-s, heat, dsQfiog (Goth, varms for 
 gvarms, and L. formns. Cf. L. fervere). For a similar 
 change of another guttural into a lingual, compare rig 
 with the Vedic ki-s, L. quis.* 
 
 was interchanged, in the different Greek dialects, 
 with various letters : as a, Doric 'oaco for -ddco to see ; 
 gp, tEoUc (prjQ for ^r/Q, a wild beast (cf. L. fera, Gm. 
 thier, Eng. deer) ; 8, yjv&og poetic form of ipsvdoQ, 
 a lie; the aspirate, as d'afi.a in Homer and Pindar 
 for «^a. 
 
 I. This represents sometimes the Sk. a and e, and 
 also the half-vowel y. 
 
 (a) agva-s, a horse^ iTtTtog, ^olic I'xxog ion ix Fog. 
 Cf. for style of correspondence with the Sanskrit, Eng. 
 hzard (It. lacerta, Sp. lagarto, Er. lezard from L. 
 lacerta). 
 
 (e) vetra-s, -a reed (from ve to weave) hsa for 
 Fttka. Cf. also Sk. vetasa-s, a kind of reed, L. vitis, 
 Eng. withe and with ; so, Eng. lion represents Gr. Xscov 
 and L. leo(n). ^^ 
 
 (y) mahiyas comp. of raahat great (/usyag) comp. 
 jusi^cov for fisyioiv. 
 
 * In one instance in English, as in French, 3 in Greek, or th in 
 Latin, is assimilated to tr, as in ^-qa-avpos, L. thesaurus, Fr. tr6sor, Eng. 
 iyreasure. 
 
 Vol. II.— 11 
 
162 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 /was exchanged sometimes in Greek for si, as in 
 si7,r) compared with iXtj, a band, and laTir] (Ionic) 
 compared with earia, for Fsoria, the hearth of a 
 house (cf. L. vesta). 
 
 When the half- vowel y stood archaically after v or 
 Q, it was afterwards, as a rule, hke the digamma F (or 
 v), transferred, so as to stand before it ; while in the 
 iEolic it was assimilated to the letter preceding it : as 
 in xTslva (Aeol. ^evevvco) for xTsvta, and (p&siQio 
 (tEoI. cp&sQQCi)) for (pSsQia. 
 
 K. Its equivalents in Sk. are k, g, and sometimes 
 h, g, ch, and kh. 
 
 ijc) kri to distinguish, xQiva (L. cemo, cretus and 
 crimen) ; kapala-s, the skull, xs(pu'kri ; kathina-s, a 
 bowl, xaravog. 
 
 {§) §angkha-s, a shell, xoyx^'y cira-s, the head, 
 xaqa; §ru to hear, xXva (L. mclytus and gloria) ; 
 dan§, to bite, Sdxvco ; dagan, ten, hssea ; dig, to show 
 8slfcvvf^l (L. dico and digitus) ; §ad, to fall, xard down 
 (L. cado, I fall and caedo I feU, or cut down. The 
 Sk. g is so regularly represented in Greek by x (and in 
 Latin by c) that it must have been originally k itself. 
 
 (Ji) hard and hridaya, the heart, xiJQ and xuq^ia. 
 
 (j) gaura-s, yellow, xiQqog (cf. L. gilvus, Gm. 
 gelb, and Eng. yellow). 
 
 (cJi) cha, and ; Gr. xai and xt (and also rs). 
 
 (kK) khala-s, a shelter, xakid, a hut. 
 
 K is interchangeable in Greek : 
 
C0MPAB.AT1VE PHONOLOGY. 163 
 
 (1) with 7t ; as Aeolic xa^ and xots, Attic nag 
 and ^OTS. Cf. Trjxa, I pine away, and L. tabeo. 
 
 (2) with T ; as %6xa, Doric form of noTt, and 
 T^vog, Doric of xslvog. 
 
 (3) with y and ;f ; as in xvuTcra (Old Attic) I 
 scratch and yvdnTO .QHew Attic), and QisyX'^' ^ snore, 
 Attic qsyxa. So in the Doric aTQsxsg occurs for 
 drQsxsg, which in Pindar is drgsxrig. 
 
 L. This is often equivalent to the Sk. / and r, and 
 sometimes to n and d, and when doubled to the half- 
 vowel y by assimilation. 
 
 (/) lih (Vedic rih) to lick, Xslxco (Gm. lecken, 
 Eng. lick^ ; sphal to waver, acpdXXa (L. fallo). 
 
 (r) rich, to leave, Xunm, stem Im (L. linquo, 
 stem liq). So, contrarily, Sk. lup and lump, to break, 
 is equivalent to L. rumpo, perf. rupi ; and Sk. ruch to 
 be bright, (cf. also Sk. ruch, splendor, and rukma-m, 
 gold), to the Greek Xsvxog bright, (L. lux, luceo, iUus- 
 tris, etc)- So Eng. marble represents Er. marbre, Eng. 
 purple the Er. pourpre, (Gr. nogtpvQa and L. pur- 
 pura). 
 
 (n) anya-s, another, dXXog for dXcog (L. alius,* 
 oUus and iUe, Gothic alja). In Prakrit, as in Greek, 
 the half-v®wel y is assimilated, and the word is there 
 anna-s. 
 
 * From this same stem alter also is formed: (-ter being a compa- 
 rative suflSx, Gr. -repof ; as also in the prepositions inter, praeter, 
 propter and subter) ; and also aliquis (= alins-fquis). 
 
1.164 COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (d) dipa-s, a lamp, Xa^nag (where the root is also 
 nasalized). 
 
 (y) Vid. aXlo^ above ; and so ^dlXa is for 
 ^aXia. 
 
 L is interchangeable in different dialects with 
 various letters ; as 
 
 (1) In the Doric, with v, where riX&ov becomes 
 r^vd-ov. Compare double forms jtvavf^av a!nd nXav- 
 
 \ fA.av ; and also the Spanish nivel and French niveau, 
 as derived from L. libella (diminutive of hbra) a level. 
 
 (2) In the Attic, with q, as vavnQaQOS for vav- 
 xXaQog, the chief of a division of citizens. L is also 
 sometimes substituted in Sanskrit for r. The semi- 
 vowels are indeed in their very nature so fluent, as 
 their name designates, that in various languages they 
 readily pass into each other. They are possessed of 
 but little phonetic strength, and it is their very weak- 
 ness that makes them so mobile. 
 
 (3) In the Aeolic, vdth 8, as ddyvTj and Xdgjvri 
 the laurel. Compare in Latin oleo, I smell, and odor, 
 fragrance. 
 
 M. M is simply equivalent to Sk. m and sm. As 
 examples of m, see sam4 together, df^a (L, simul and 
 simihs) and saml half, r'l/j-i (L. semi) : of sm, smi, to 
 laughj fi,Ei8aa (for 6jusiddco). It is interchanged in 
 the Aeolic with /? and jt, as o.T;r« for o/ufta and /?(>o- 
 rog ioi jUQorog ; and in the Attic with v, as vtv for f^iv 
 (cf. L. num and /^av). 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 165 
 
 iV! Its equivalents in Sanskrit ai^e n and sn, jn, m 
 and s. 
 
 (sn) snush^, a danghter-in-law^ wog for avvdog 
 L. nurus) ; snu, to flow, i/Sa (for avsFai) fut. vsvoco. 
 
 (jn) jn4, to know, vosa for yvosa (cf. ytyvuCita). 
 Compare roi/g the mind; L. nosco for gnosco; and 
 Eng. know. 
 
 (ni) M final in original forms is everywhere 
 changed in Greek to r : as in the person-endings, for 
 the first person, of the imperfect active, and of the first 
 and second aorists passive ; the nominative case-ending 
 of the 2d declension neuter (Gr. -ov, Sk. -am, L. -um) ; 
 and the accusative singular and genitive plural endings 
 mv; in aU of which respects, the Latin more nearly 
 represents the original form than the Greek. Thus 
 tcpsQov 1st pers. imperf. of (psQw is for k(psQOft(c), as 
 iqaqov, 3d pers. do. is for Gr. £(p'sQovrt ; noaiv (ace. 
 of noGig) is for noaifi, Sk. patim ; and nodav is for 
 noScofz, Sk. pad4m. 
 
 (s) Final g in Sanskrit is often represented by v in 
 the Greek equivalent, as in the plural active suffix 
 -fisv (Doric -fisg) Sk. -mas, L. mus for the first person 
 of verbs ; and so in the 2d and 3d person dual endings 
 -Tov and -rrjv for Sk. -thas and -tas. 
 
 N is exchanged, especially in the Aeolic dialect, 
 with X and fi. 
 
 Z. The equivalents of this letter in Sanskrit are hh 
 and sh. 
 
166 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (As/i) siksha-s, an axle, ce^av (L. axis). 
 
 (sk) shash, six, i§ (L. sex). 
 
 For initial ^ occurs sometimes in the Aeolic dialect 
 6x, as osticpog for §iy>os : and a^esvog for ^svog (cf. for 
 form, Dor. Y"V and ips for ego/v and tJ^Ji'). Gr. 6x 
 represents also sometimes Sk. ksh, as Gr. oxtTida, I 
 cover, Sk. kshap, night, as covering all things. 
 
 0. This as long or short represents the corre- 
 sponding Sanskrit a, as dama-s, a house, Sojuog (L. 
 domus) ; aksha-s, the eye, 6;xog and oaoa for original 
 oxis (L. oculus) ; avi-s, a sheep, ol'g for oFig (L. ovis). 
 Like a and f, the letter o is sometimes euphonic, as in 
 6xsl2,a compared with ^sXXw (L. -cello, celer, etc.) ; 
 odvQO/uat ^vith dvQO/ucci. (cf. ^z/;; pain and 8vg-, hard, 
 Sk. duto suffer pain ; and oQsya, Sk. rij, L. rego. ) 
 
 was interchanged in the Aeolic dialect with a, 
 £, V, a ; and in the Doric with oc : as with 
 
 («) Aeolic GTQOTog for OTQarog, an army ; 
 " ova for avco, upwards ; 
 
 (e) " sSovrsg for odovng the tereth ; 
 
 (y) " v/uoiog for *6/uoiog similar ; 
 
 {a) " opa for Squ a season ; 
 
 (of) Doric TTOicc and Ionic jto/;? for thocc grass. 
 
 0, sometimes called a movable o, is often substi- 
 tuted in derived forms for a radical vowel, as in Xoyog 
 from Xsya, aroXog from gtsXKw, ■jioqog from nsQcca, 
 TQoxog from tqsxco. Cf. in Latin socius from sequor, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 167 
 
 sodalis from sedeo, nodus from oecto, and others before 
 given. 
 
 n. The equivalents of n in Sanskrit are p, b, Jc, 
 and sometimes v. 
 
 ip) pitar, a father, navriQ (for Ttarsgi),; par4, 
 farther, Tvaga ; apa, from, ano (L. ab). 
 
 {b) budh and bundh, to know, to learn, nvvd-a- 
 vofxai, stem nvd'. 
 
 (i) kadA, when, ttots, Aeol. xors ; kati, how many, 
 ■^oGog, Aeol. xoaog. 
 
 (v) var4ha-s, a boar, noqxog (L. porous and 
 verres).* 
 
 77" is interchangeable in Greek with y, as XaTtagog 
 and Xayagog, slack; with x, as noaog and Ionic 
 xoGog ; with t, in a few cases, as nevTS and AeoHc 
 ■jtsfx.%s, the interchange of a labial or guttunal with a 
 dental being rare ; and with /9 and go as ^dXXa and 
 :TaAA« (cf. L. pello, palpo and palpito) ; and a^oyyog, 
 Attic ocpoyyog, a sponge (L. fungus). 
 
 * The New Ionic parallel forms of ttoC, ttote, jrmr, jroior and Trdo-or, 
 were koC, /corf, k.S>s, etc., witli which are connected Sk. ka-9, L. quis, 
 Goth, hvas, Eng. who, which, what. So Aeol. n€a-<rvpes (Attic recr- 
 a-apes) corresponds with Sk. chatv&ra-s. Cf. IWo/ioi and L. sequor, Sk. 
 sach : c7r<a (stem cir and a-eir, as in so-Trf re for orig. o-eo-TreTe) and L. in 
 sece and Gr. io-kcc, he said, Gm. sagen, Eng. say .■ e'lrow (stem ctt for 
 J^eV) for iFfFfTTov, orig. avavakam, Sk. av6cham: XeiVib, stem,' Xin-, L. 
 linquo perf. liqui, Sk. rich ; Srrfi, o^ofiat and o^3aX/ioj, Boeotian 
 oKTaWos, L. oculus, Sk. akshi-s, Lith. akis ; rpma, rpoTri) and rpoTros, 
 L. torquere, tortum, Sk.. tarku-s, a spindle : ct. also arpaieTos and 
 drpcK^s. 
 
168 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 p. This letter represents the Sk. r, dr, sr, bh, vr, 
 ghr. 
 
 (r) uru-s, wide, svQvg ; ar, to rise, oqw/xc, L. 
 orior. 
 
 {dr) dr^ksM, a grape, qd^ for dgd^ (L, racemus, 
 Pr. raisin, Eng. raisin). 
 
 {sr) sru, to poirr forth, ^4-« for (T^ji/w. 
 
 {bh) bhanj, to break, qr^yvvftc for Fqiiyvvfic (L. 
 frango). 
 
 {vr) vri, to cover, qwoi^ the rind, for Fqivog.- 
 
 {ghr) ghr^n, the nose, qig (for yqiQ), gen. qivog. 
 
 P is interchanged in the Aeohc dialect with a, as 
 ovTOQ for ovTog, fxaqrvq for fiaqrvg ; and so Laconic 
 r/(> for rig and vtxvq for vsxvg. (Cf. L. arbor and 
 arbos, honor and honos, and eram for esam, imperf. of 
 sum). It was also prefixed sometimes in the Aedlic 
 dialect with p, to represent what was in other dialects 
 the aspirate, as fiqodov for qodov, fiqi^a for qi^a, 
 etc. 
 
 In the Attic it was interchanged with X, as aiyrjqog 
 for GiyriKog. Cf. in same way L. lilium, a lily, with 
 Xsiqtov. It was also sometimes transposed by meta- 
 thesis, as xdqrog for xqdrog. 
 
 The letter r was called by the ancients the canine 
 letter, as it is a continuous rolling r-sound that an 
 angry snarling dog makes. 
 
 S. The form of this letter in Greek is modified 
 from an earlier form like a Scythian bow : as it was 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 169 
 
 early also figured like a semicircle or crescent (cf. for 
 sense aiyf^aToeidrjg, crescent-shaped). There were in 
 fact originally two signs for the sibilant : Giy^a, 2 
 answering to the Phoenician samech, and san, M, to 
 the Phoenician shin ; without any difference, it is be- 
 lieved, in their sound ; and hence the character san, 
 used by the Dorians, soon fell into entire disuse, except 
 as it was represented by the numeral sampi ( =:san+ 
 pi, n). .2 is equivalent to g and s in Sanslciit. 
 
 (p) garkara, candied sugar, oaxxaqov. (L. sac- 
 charum, Gm. zucker, Fr. sucre). 
 
 {s) stabh to press together and stambh to support, 
 arsi^co and ars^^co ; sphal, to deviate GcpalXa (L. 
 faUo, Pr. faillir, Sp. faltar, Eng. fail, fall, fell, falter, 
 false, fauli). 
 
 In initial syllables archaic 6 was often exchanged 
 for the aspirate ; as sometimes also it was entirely drop- 
 ped. Its dialectic interchanges are with h, S-, r, %v, S, 
 the aspirate, and ^ : as with §, Aeol. and Dor. idjusv 
 for i6fisv ; with S-, Dor. dyaaog for dya-d-og ; with t, 
 Aeol. and Dor. tv for av ; with ut, nsaGa, Sk. pach, 
 to cook', and collateral form %s%tco ; with ^, Dor. roi- 
 gog for TQiaoog and ^vv for 6vv. 
 
 T. Its equivalents in Sanskrit are t, th, dh, ch 
 and k. 
 
 (f) anti over against, avri (L. ante) ; pat to fly 
 %STOfxai, ; tan, to extend, reivco for rsvia. 
 
 (th) asthi, a bone, darsov (L. os for oss, for oste) ; 
 
170 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 stM to stand iavrifii,, stem ara ; sthira-s, fixed, firm, 
 
 (dli) dh4, to place, rid-rifA-i, stem -d-s. 
 
 (cK) cha, and, ts (and xs). 
 
 (Jc) ka-s, who, rig, L. quis. So, rsaaaQsg (Aeol. 
 %s66vQSs) is for xisGaQsg, for xsvFagtg, Sk. chatv^ra- 
 s, L. quatuor (pronounced as if katvor) ; and nsvrs 
 Aeol. nk/A-ns is for nsy}is, Sk. panchan, five, L. 
 quinque. 
 
 The following are its dialectic interchanges : -d-, a, 
 and 7t. Por ■&, compare avdtg and Ionic avrig ; for 
 o, 6v, and Aeol. rv. (For a similar change in the 
 modern languages compare L. stratus, part, of stemo, 
 Sp. strada, Gm. strasse, Eng. street ; and Gm. essen 
 with L. edo, Gr. la&ia, Eng. eat.) Eor jt compare 
 Tsesaqtg, Doric TsroQsg, Aeol. nidVQsg (Oscan petur), 
 and nsvTK, Dor.' nkfi-Tts. Compare similarly anovBr} 
 and L. studium, zeal ; rcecog, a peacock, and pavo ; and 
 also in Latin itself, hospes and hostis, the primary mean- 
 ing of both of which is the same, a stranger. 
 
 Y. Y corresponds with the Sanskrit a, u, v, and 
 when aspirated, with sv. 
 
 (a) sam, with, avv ; nakha-s, a nail, ow^. 
 
 (u) upari, above, vTtiQ ; udan, water, vSag, stem 
 vSar. 
 
 (v) dv4u, two, 8va ; ve and vap, to weave, v(paiv(a; 
 tvam, thou, ov (L. tu) ; §van, a dog, xvcov. (So cf. 
 L. suus, Sk. sva-s). As with i and j, so « is but a 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOIiOGT. 171 
 
 vowelized form of v, or, which is the same thing, v is 
 but a hard consonantal form of u. 
 
 (sv) svapna-s, sleep, vTtvog. 
 
 In the Greek dialects v was interchanged with a, 
 I, o, CO, oi. Por («) compare adg^ and Aeol. 6vq§, 
 as also TsaoaQsg and Aeol. TiidvQsg ; for (i) see cpv- 
 Tsvco and poet, (firva : for (o) ovojucc and ovv/ua 
 (Aeol.) ; for («) ^sXavr) and Aeol. XH^^vr] ; and for 
 {oi) ^(QvGog and Kedi. ^gocGog. 
 
 >P. The equivalents of 90 in Sanskrit are 5/i, p, 
 ph, V. 
 
 (bh) bhii, to be, (pvco (L.'fai and fore) ; bhid, to 
 divide, (psibofiai (reflexive), (cf. Gm. beissen, Eng. 
 bite) ; bhA, to shine, (paiva (cf. (fri(4,i and L. for and 
 facio) ; bhar and bhri, to bekr, (psga ; bhuj, to turn or 
 bend, (fsyyia, stem (pvy (L. fugio). 
 
 {p) p41, to love, cpiXsco ; pr4na-s, breath, spirit, 
 
 (pQ}jv. 
 
 {pTi) phullan, a blossom, (pvXkov. 
 
 (v) sva-s, his, o^og, L. suus. 
 
 <i> is interchangeable in Greek with 71^ and ^ -. with 
 jt, as Aeol. OTioyyog for atpoyyog, and, in the Doric, 
 iitiOQxsotfj.i occurs for E<fLOQxsoLfzi ; and with &, as 
 Aeol. &)^Q, Attic y)]Q, as also dXi^a and Aeol. 
 (pXi^o). 
 
 X. The letter ^ represents regularly the Sk. A, M, 
 and ff, and occasionally g. 
 
 (h) hrish, to rejoice, ;fa/()« ; hya-s, yesterday, ;(&£g ; 
 
"172 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY, 
 
 lib, to lick, Xaixco ; hima, snow, ^tif^rov (cf. L. hiems, 
 hibemus, etc.). 
 
 {kh) khola-s, wavering, x^Xog ; nakha-s, a naU, 
 ovv^, gen. ovv;(og ; cankha-s, xoy^og. 
 
 {ff) garhan, an enclosure, ^.^grdg (L. hortus and 
 cohors ; Eng. cohort and court) ; gaura-s, x^^^> ^^'^• 
 
 (,g) §rat, credit, ;!^(?a« I lend (L. credo =:*crat+ 
 dM, lit. to put credit in = Sk. crad-dadli4mi). 
 
 The interchanges of ;^ in Greek are in the Tonic 
 with X, as dsxojuai for ds^o/^ai, and so the Sicilian 
 Greeks made j;circ6v a tunic, xircov ; and in the Doric 
 with &, as oQVi^os, geh. of oQvig a bird, for ogviS-og. 
 
 W. As ifj represents the combination of any one of 
 the labials with a, its equivalents are of the same gene- 
 ral sort with theirs. In oyj, the voice, (Sk. v4ch, L. 
 vox), it represents the Sk. chs. 
 
 W was interchanged in Greek with an, as andXiov 
 for ipdXiovj and OTiaXig for tpaXig ; with cq^, as by the 
 Dorians and the Sjrracusan Greeks g^iv was made 
 yjiv, and o^s, ips : (so cf. Gr. zf^va and L. spuo) : cf. 
 STttyj&v^co ; and with a, as tpLTTaxog for airraxog, 
 and Aeol. Wancpa for ^aTtcpa. There are also some 
 correlate forms in ip and ^, as tpda and ^ua. 
 
 S2. This letter is representative of the Sk. a, and, 
 with the digamma omitted, represents Sanskrit equiva- 
 lents beginning with v -. as also when accompanied by 
 
 * This is one of the most heautifal as it is one of the most ingenious 
 specimens of true etymological analysis. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 173 
 
 the aspirate it is represented by words beginning with 
 y in Sanskrit. 
 
 {ft) 4su-s, quick, axvq: §van, a dog, tcvojv. 
 
 {va) v4ra-s, time, aqa (L. hora, TV. heure, Gm. 
 jahr and uhr, Eng. hour and year) ; vasna-s, cost, avso- 
 jiiat (L. vendo). 
 , (ya) yat, w? (for mv). 
 
 The Greek interchanges of a are with a, av, ov, 
 o : with a as Ionic avSqanoq for av&QcoTtog, Doric 
 TtQctrog for nqarog ; with av, ■d'afxa, Ionic for d-avfia, 
 wonder ; with ov, coqavoq, heaven, Aeolic for ovgavog ; 
 and with o, orstXi] Aeolic for wsiXr], a wound. 
 
 Tldrdly. Special Pathological Affections of the Latin 
 and the Greek, especially of the Greek. 
 
 § 1. Digammation. 
 
 % 2. Sibilation. 
 
 % 3. Aspiration. 
 
 § 4. Reduplication. 
 
 § 5. Nasahzation. 
 
 These affections of words, while pertaining more or 
 less to the three classical languages in common, have a 
 special relevancy to the Greek in respect to their influ- 
 ence on the forms of the language, or the prominence 
 with which they appear, as special features of it. 
 1. Digammation. 
 
 The digamma, or double-gamma, F, was originally 
 the sixth letter of the Grecian alphabet. It corres- 
 ponded to the Phenician Vau, froili which it originated, 
 
174 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 and is represented in the Latin P. In some old Pelo- 
 ponnesian inscriptions, in the Laconic or Doric dialect, 
 this character is found representing it. The Laco- 
 nians, indeed, and especially the Laconian colonists of 
 Heraclea in Magna Graecia, and the Cretans, showed 
 much more fondness for retaining the digamma, in 
 either its natural form, or as softened into ^, than most 
 of the other Greeks. The name digamma was given 
 by both the Greek and Roman grammarians to this 
 character, because its form was that of two gammas 
 united, one above the other, in one compound symbol. 
 From the great fondness of the Aeolians for this letter, 
 it is often called the Aeolic digamma ; although it was 
 equally favorite with the Dorians, Boeotians, Arca- 
 dians and Eleans : as appears from both their coins and 
 inscriptions. It was used at first by all the Greeks ; 
 or, in other words, it was one of the characteristics of 
 the Pelasgic or Pioneer period of Greek development ; 
 and, as it is not found in any Attic or Ionic inscrip- 
 tions, it must have fallen very early into disuse by the 
 Ionian race. 
 
 It was probably pronounced very much like our vo 
 in its softened form ; for Dionysius says, that it sound- 
 like ov. As a vowel, it was most proximate to v and 
 was often changed into it, as in the diphthongs av and 
 nv, as well as ov, when not formed by lengthening o, to 
 represent a contracted form : thus ^ovq, vavg and 
 TrXsvaa, fut. of ^ksco, are for jSoFg (L. bos for bovs, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 175 
 
 f 
 
 gen. bovis), vaFi^, TtlsFaa. As> a consonant it was ', 
 most proximate to b. 
 
 As the digamma lost its distinct symbol, it under- 
 went several interesting transformations, such as the 
 following : 
 
 (a) It was sometimes, when initial, weakened into 
 the rough breathing, as SaitnQog for FtonsQog for orig. 
 form SiFiOTtsQog, perhaps, as Benfey suggests (cf. Sk. 
 div, to shine). Cf. (L. vesper and Hesperia), eorlce for 
 FsGrla (L. vesta), and 'Lvvvfxi for Ftavvfzt (L. vestio, 
 ' I clothe) : this occurred also when it was preceded by o 
 in the same syllable : as in i^Qoa for aFiSgoa (Sk. 
 svidyami, L. sudo for svado, Gm. schwitzen, Eng. sweat). — °"' 
 In this form it encountered its greatest weakening. 
 
 (^) It was changed by the Laconians, and some 
 others of the Dorian family into fi, y, or cp, as 
 ^kqyov, work, for Fsgyov, later egyov (Gm. werk, 
 
 Eng. work'). 
 fii§scvi to see, for Fidstv, later el'dnir (L. videre). 
 jSixari, twenty, for Faixuri, later tixoGL (Sk. vincati). 
 ycGxvii force, and fiiGxvs for Fcax^Q, later hx^s (Jq 
 
 and L. vis). 
 ycTsa^ a willow, for Firsa, later Irsa (L. vitex). 
 
 (y) It was softened in some cases into o or a : as 
 dwdsxa (Sk. dvddacan), oivEOfiai (L. vendo), and 
 Olrvlog and BeirvXog for FcTvXog, a Laconian town, 
 also called Tvlbg. 
 
 (5) It was sometimes softened into v, as in vTivog, 
 
176 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (Sk. svapna-s), evQiaaco (Sk. svara-mi), and vavg for 
 vaJFg. 
 
 (s) It was transformed in initial syllables into 
 ui/, iv, and ov : as in av^co (Sk. vaksh, Gm. wachsen, 
 Eng. wax), and so avqa, ovqoq and Evgog (Sk. v4, to' 
 blow, Gm. wehen). 
 
 (Zf) It was completely rejected, as in eag for Fsuq, 
 L. ver ; olxoq for Folxog, L. vicus. Cf. 'IraKog and 
 f 'IraXia (Italy) for Firakog, etc. L. vitulus : so called 
 -^ on account of its fine oxen. 
 
 ijl) It was sometimes assimilated to an accompa- 
 nying consonant : as in rszTaQsg for tst Fugsg, and 
 iTTTvog for iitFog, and tvvsTts for ivFtTts. 
 
 Some words originally beginning with two con- 
 sonants, the first of which was the digamma, have re- 
 maining but a mere weakened form of one of them, as 
 Sk. svMu-s, sweet, Gr. ^8vg for oFrjBvg. (Cf. L. 
 _ suavis, where the original sv are both represented ; and 
 also Sk. svapna-s, sleep, (Gr. vTvvog for oFvnvog, L. 
 somnus for sopnus for svopnus). Thus, by the com- 
 parison of many Sk. forms and their L, equivalents 
 with kindred forms in Greek, which are now aspirated 
 or contracted, or otherwise marked as having once had 
 a fuller form of another sort, we ' assure ourselves ab- 
 solutely of the fact, that the archaic form of the Greek 
 .was itself also digammated. 
 
 It is clear, that in Homer's time many words had 
 the digamma, which afterwards lost it. The concurrence 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 177 
 
 of two vowels ill the radical part of a word would make 
 a hiatus,* particularly disagreeable to a Greek earj 
 which both poets and prose writers would seek carefully 
 to avoid. In the case of words that at first had the 
 digamma, such a hiatus did not originally exist, of 
 course, when the preceding word ended in a vowel ; 
 and, in the absence of the digamma, accordingly, the 
 two vowels are still found occurring together, as when it 
 did exist, as in tvqo ed-sv for tvqo Fs&sv (for eFs&sv). 
 Por the same reason, the prosodial influence of the lost 
 ^ of a once digammated word is still felt, in making 
 with a preceding consonant the vowel originally followed 
 by them both, although one of them is now wanting, 
 long by position. 
 
 The following are some of the most important spe- 
 cimens of Greek words that were beyond doubt once 
 digammated : 
 
 (1) Initially. 
 ayvvf^c, I break, for Fdyvv/ui.-f Sk. bhaj. pres. 
 
 tense, nasalized, is bhanajmi. 
 dvdccvco, I please, for {p^JFavdava. 
 doTv, a city, for Faorv (Sk. vastu from vas, to 
 ' dwell). 
 
 * The hiatus of two vowels in juxtaposition was far less offensive 
 to the Latin ear than to the Greek, and less even to the Greek than 
 to the Indian. 
 
 t So, Andalusia (a province of modern Spain) is for Yandalusia, 
 or the country of the Vandals. 
 Vol. II.— 12 
 
178 COMPAl^ATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 i'aQ, spring, and tjq for FsaQ (Persian behdr, L. ver, 
 
 cf. Sk. vasanta-s). 
 sd-a, kCcod-a, to be accustomed, for aFsd-cd (Sk. sva- 
 
 dM, L. suesco, suetus). 
 . tida, I see, for Fidco (L. video, Sk. vid, Goth. vit). 
 tixo6L, twenty, for FtixoGt (L. viginti, Sk. vingati). 
 iinelv and tnoq, for Fttntlv, etc. (L. vocare and vox, 
 
 Sk. vach). 
 a^'ta, I vomit (L. vomo, Sk. vam). 
 ivvvf^i, I clothe, for Fsavufii (L. vestio, Sk. vas : cf. 
 
 also Gr. savog tovFtavog with Sk. vasana-s. The 
 
 Goth, paronym of Sk. vas is vasjan). 
 e'otxa (with its correlatives laxco and siisxco, I am like, 
 
 for Fiaxa, for Fidoxa ; Sk. vid, as also in si^co) 
 
 for FtFsixa. 
 tKkoa, I seize, for FslXa (L. veUo). 
 egyov, work, for Fsqyov (cf. Sk. vrij, to proceed). 
 HOnsgog, evening, for Fsantgog (Aeol. cpsonsgs, L. 
 
 vesper and Hesperia, cf. Sk. vas, to cut off, and 
 
 vasati, night). 
 karia, the hearth, for Fssria (L. vesta, Sk. vas, to 
 
 dweU). 
 r], or, for Fri (L. ve, Sk. v4). 
 L^tog, own, peculiar, for FiSiog (Sk. vidh, to seoarate, 
 
 L. viduus, divido, and individuus). 
 lov, the violet, for Fiov (L. viola). 
 log, poison, for Flog (L. virus, Sk. visha-s). 
 
OOMPARATIVB PHONOLOGY. 179 
 
 i'g, force, for Fig (L. vis, pi. vires for vises). 
 irakog, a calf, for FcraXog (L. vitulus, Sk. vatsa-s). 
 Irsa, a willow, for Ftvsa (Sk. vetra-s, a reed, L. 
 
 vitex). 
 olxog, a house, for Folxog (Sk. v^sa-s, L. vicus). 
 olvog, wine, for Fotvog, Cretan fiolvog (L. vinum ; cf. 
 
 Sk. v^na-s, beloved). 
 '6;(og, a carriage, for Fo^og (L. vehere, Sk. vah, to bear, 
 
 and v4hana, a wagon). 
 og, and 3d pers. pronoun ov, oi, t for oFog, aFov, 
 
 etc. Cf. L. suus and sui, sibi, etc., Sk. svas. 
 oip, the voice, for Foip (L. vox, Sk. v4ch). 
 Qriyvvfu, to break, for Fqriyvv^c (L. frango, Sk. 
 
 bhanj) ; cf. ayvvfzt, above. 
 iidcoQ, stem vdar, water, for Fvdag (L. udor, Sk. udan, 
 
 Goth. vato). 
 avsof^ai, to buy, for Favsofj.at (li.venAo: ^iQqt^.HZ). 
 
 (2) Medially. 
 aisg, aisv and attl, always, for alFti (L. aevum and 
 
 aicov, Sk. eva-s, a moving or going). 
 ^ovg, an ox, for ^oFg (Lat. bos, gen. bovis, Pr. boeuf, 
 
 Eng. beef and beeves). 
 xXritg, a key, for xX?]Fig (L. clavis, Pr. clef). 
 Xatog, left, for XuiFog (L'. laevus). 
 Xsiog, smooth, for XslFog (L. levis, Eng. lift, lever, 
 
 etc.) : cf. Ikvqog, where radical v still appears. 
 edog^ safe, for eaFog (L. salvus, Eng. safe). 
 
180 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 axaios, left', for axaiFog (L. scaevus, Gm. schief, Eng. 
 
 skeio). 
 vtog, new, for vsFog (L. novus, Sk. nava-s). 
 otg, a sheep, for oFcg (L. ovis, Sk. avi-s). 
 aov, an egg, for aFov (Lat. ovum, Fr. oeuf). Doric 
 
 a,3£a,* with which compare wsa, in Epichar- 
 
 mus. 
 
 Between two vowels, therefore, an original digamma 
 often dropped quietly out of sight ; leaving not a trace 
 behind it of its former existence. Thus TtXsoj is for 
 ■jiXsFco (root :t^z/, and, when gunated, nXsv) ; cf. Sk. 
 plave, I swim, plava-s, a ship ; and xXaia, Attic xXaa, 
 I weep, fut. xXavaofiai, is for xlaFta, Sk. §ravaya- 
 mi. Other words of this sort are nvsa pure stem 
 ■Tcvv ; vsco, stem vv ; qsco, stem qv ; and -^l-o}, stem 
 ■d-v. The analysis of this class of forms is this : the 
 final V of the stem was lengthened to iy, as a mode of 
 strengthening it ; but iv before vowels became, in early 
 Greek, tF, from which finally F dropped away, as 
 everywhere else in the language, because distasteful to 
 the cultivated Greek sense, which was so sensitive to 
 all questions of phonetic integrity and harmony. The 
 
 * The Aeolians and Dorians kept the digamma in the beginning 
 of many words (as Aeolio Feros, a year, Doric FlSios, own, peculiar), 
 and the Heracleans in Magna Graecia preserved it in many inscrip- 
 tions, in words, in which it does not occur in any of the other dialects, 
 or exhibit any signs of having occurred ; while as strangely they have 
 omitted it in many words, in which it does occur in the other dialects. 
 Ahrens, Vol. II., p. 42. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 181 
 
 different stages, accordingly, through which the stem 
 nXu went, naay be thus represented: TtXv — ttXsv — 
 otXsF — TtXt. So yalco is for yaFia (cf. L. gaudeo, 
 gavisus) ; and the stems of the following words were 
 digammated at the end of the. first syllable, i. e. after 
 the first vowel : duia, I kindle (Sk. dava-s, fire), 
 SfjXog, clear, Homeric dssXog (cf. Sk. div, to shine), 
 naico, I strike (L. pavio). 
 
 The force of an original digamma occurring initially 
 before a consonant was retained in some words in the 
 form of the medial /?, while the corresponding L. forms 
 rejected it : as, in ^qi'Qa, L. radix ; ^qoSov, L. rosa ; 
 and ^qs^a, L. rigo. 
 
 II. Sibilation. 
 
 8 occupies a sort of middle ground between a con- 
 sonant and a vdwel : uniting the characteristics of them 
 both. While various letters, found in some languages, 
 are wanting in others, as the letter v or w, or the French 
 u; like also the compound consonants, termed the 
 nasal ng and the guttural ch, not to speak of more 
 still ; no language fails to possess the sibilant s. Its 
 two chief sounds are the soft and hard, or its s and z- 
 sounds.* PoUowed by ch in some languages, as the 
 
 * The same root often receives different degrees of sibilation in 
 different modern languages : cf. It. mazza, Fr. masse, Eng. mace. So 
 check., in chess, corresponds to Persian schach (king), It. scacco, Por- 
 tuguese xaque, Fr. echec. The Eng. sirwp is It. sciroppo, Sp. xarope, 
 Fr. sirop : — all from the Arab. scharSb. 
 
182 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 German, and by h in others, as ours, it forms a soften- 
 ed compound-sound, in which it appears in its most 
 agreeable- form, at least to modem ears, and which was 
 not known at.all to the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 The tendency in Greek to the assibilation of gut- 
 turals in the middle of a word, as in Taaeco for rayia, 
 etc.j was very strong in the early history of lingual 
 forms. In Latin, di and ti became early assibilated in 
 pronunciation, when occurring before a vowel, as also 
 in Greek, where ;(U()Uaaa stands for ^agcsvTta, and 
 and so with the fem. flexion-ending -aa, generally, as 
 in TV7VTOV6a for rvitTOvria. 
 
 8 often occurred initially in Greek, and was pro- 
 nounced in such cases with its sharp sibilant sound ; 
 but it was as little pleasing to the Greek ear as to the 
 French ; and, on this account, it was scr frequently ex- 
 changed for the rough breathing in many words whose 
 original stems possessed it ; as in t'S, (sex) and knTcc. 
 (septem). 
 
 When occurring in the middle of a word, especially 
 between two vowels, it is manifest that it had a very 
 soft sound, and was weaker than at the beginning of 
 words, as it so often fell out of its place ; as in fiovXtvri, 
 for /SovXsvuac, for ^ovltvkoac, and i/SouXsvov, for 
 s/3ovXsv£o, fo ■ i^ouXtvtao, and ysvovs for ysvsog for 
 yevsdog ; so, si/ui is for io/ui, which in the Aeolic be- 
 came sfi/ui : vftslg, similarly, was in Aeolic vfj-fzis and 
 previously vOfisg, Sk. yushmat. When dropped out 
 
COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 183 
 
 before u in the njiddle of a word its place was some- 
 times represented by a lengthening of the preceding 
 vowel : as in xX^f^u, a branch, for xXaa^ia, and vno- 
 Brj/xara for v7ioSsOfi,aTa. 
 
 In Latin, s was dropped before d, m and n ; as {d) 
 judex, for jus-dex ; idem, for is-dem ; tredecim for tres- 
 decem ; (m) omen, for osmen ; {n) poiio, for posno. 
 
 Sometimes it is changed before these same sounds 
 into r : as carmen for casmen. 
 
 In Latin, between two vowels and at the end of 
 words, when it formed a part of their original stem, it 
 passed into r; so weak was its sound, or rather its 
 power of retaining its own permanence ; as in Papirius 
 for original Papisius, Valerius for Valesius, honor and 
 arbor for honos and arbos, and generis and foederis, 
 genitives of stems originally ending in s, as genes and 
 foedes. So eram is for esam, imperf. of sum — ^for 
 esum(i) ; and corpus is for corpos, for subsequent cor- 
 por, as the stem. Compare also, honor and honestus, 
 robur and robustus, arbpr and arbustum. The nominal 
 ending -tor represents Gr. -trig, Sk. tar. 
 
 In some of the Greek dialects, as the Laconian, o 
 final was quite often weakened to q : as, ovtoq and 
 iTiTtoQ for OVTOQ and iitnog. That its hold upon the 
 end of a word was very slight in Greek, is plain from 
 the fact of its being so often dropped there ; as, in the 
 vocative of masc. nouns of the 1st declension as well 
 as in the epic forms of their nominative cases, as at- 
 
184 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Xf^rjTa, Imtora, etc. ; in adverbs, as axQt and f^'txQi- for 
 cixgtg, etc. So, in the 2d pers. dual ending -tov (Sk. 
 thas) and the 1st pers. pi. -fx.tv for archaic -fiki; (Sk. 
 -mas, L. -mus) we find 6 weakened to v : the Gr. suf- 
 fixes -<pcv (Sk. -bhis, the instrumental suffix ending) 
 and -dsv (Sk. -adas as in adhas) show the same conver- 
 sion of original s to n. 
 
 That its pronunciation when occurring before a 
 mute and a nasal was positive and sharp, is manifest 
 from its being found doubled often in such cases in 
 ancient inscriptions : as ccqiogtos, xoaeftog, etc. In 
 some few Latin words an initial s occurs, not found in 
 their Greek and Sanskrit correspondents : as L. stupeo, 
 I am thunderstruck (Eng. stupefy and stupid) Gr. 
 TVitTW, Sk. tup and tump. 
 
 The term assibOation is used sometimes to denote 
 the combination of the sibilant with the various mutes, 
 as in ps, ts, and Tcs, gz and dz. In Greek, this assibi- 
 lation is represented by the compound letters xp and^, 
 occurring in aU parts of words, as the beginning, 
 middle, and end. With regard to ^, see previous 
 page, (p. 159.) 
 
 • The graphic symbols ^ and ijj were added by Si- 
 monides, in the times of the Persian wars (b. o. 500), 
 to the Greek syUabariiun. 
 
 The following list of words once sibilated in Greek 
 win interest a classical scholar : 
 
COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 185 
 
 ' aVko[A.ut, I jump, for dlio^at, L. salio, Sk. salami : cf. 
 
 Sk. salila-m, dripping water. 
 aXg, salt, L. sal, Sk. sara-s. 
 a[i.a and o^oq, L. simul, Sk. sama. 
 agjirj, a sickle, L. sarpo. 
 %^ofj.ai, I sit, L. sedeo, Sk. sad. 
 kxvQoq, a father-in-law, L. socer, Sk. 9vacura-s. 
 sKinrj, the willow (as pliant), L. salix. 
 SX05, a marsh, Sk. sara-s. 
 Hvog, old, L. senex, Sk. sana-s. 
 STtToc, seven, L. septem, Sk. saptan. 
 ^Tva and mofxac, I follow, L. sequor, Sk. sach and 
 
 Vedic sakv. 
 tQTva, I creep, L. serpo, Sk. srip, pres. tense sarparai, 
 
 I go. 
 t^, six, L. sex, Sk. shash. 
 B;(<a, 6xr,Ga, kO/^ov, I have, Sk. sah (cf. fff;^^ for 6i6s- 
 
 X(o by reduplication and syncope). 
 ri^vq, sweet, L. suavis, Sk. sv^du-s (cf. rjSo/iat and 
 
 dvddvco) . 
 fifxc', half, L. semi, Sk. s4mi. 
 'ifiaq, a thong, Sk. siman, simanta. 
 i6Tr)iLcc, I stand, L. sisto. 
 6, fi, he, she, Sk. sa, s4. 
 p'koq,^ the whole. Old It. soUus, Sk. sarva-s. 
 vlri, a forest, L. silva. 
 vfxvog, a song, Sk. sumna-s. 
 vTtsQ, over, L. super, Sk. upari. 
 
186 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 v%voQ, sleep, L. somnus, Sk. svapna-s. 
 vTio, under, L. sub, Sk. upa. 
 vg (cf. 6vq), L. sus. 
 
 wv (stem ovt), part, of tif^l, I am, L. sens (stem, sent), 
 as found in compound forms of esse, to he, Sk. 
 san. gen. satas. 
 
 In Zend, s regularly passed over into A before 
 vowels, half-vowels and m. 
 
 The final s, so often found affixed, in the classical 
 languages, at the end of nominal and adjective bases, 
 in the nominative, and called properly the gender-sign, 
 represents the Sk. personal pronouns he and she (Sk. 
 sa, he ; sa, she ; tat, it. Cf. o, /}, to, and Gm. sie, she ; 
 and Eng. he and she). When it fell off from the end 
 of a word, as it often did from the inherent weakness 
 of o final, the previous vowel was lengthened to show 
 it : as in Tcoifirjv for Ttoifisvg, etc. This affix is a sign, 
 at once, to the eye, that personality is predicated of the 
 noun receiving it ; it carries with itself to us still in 
 grammar, as a matter of thought, as it did, originally, 
 to both speaker and hearer in feeling, a vitalizing force. 
 The tendency to the impersonation, in thought, of ma- 
 terial objects, is very strong indeed, in not only poetical 
 natures as such, which love to see and to feel the reflec- 
 tion of their own vitality, from every mute form of 
 beauty around them ; but also, especially, in the early, 
 impressible, and imaginative period of a nation's first 
 intellectual wakefulness, when the very elements them- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 187 
 
 selves seem all astir to every eye by easy imputation 
 with quick subjective energy. 
 
 An initial <s sometimes represents in modern words 
 an obliterated preposition, as in Eng. speed (It. spedire, 
 L. expedire) and spend (It. spendere, L. expendere). 
 
 8, medial, has it is evident dropped out of several 
 Greek verbs and nouns: as ytva (L. gusto, Sk. ju- 
 shate) ; htva (Sk. dush), tvto and ava, I burn (L. 
 uro, ustum, Sk. ush) ; 'taq (L. aurora, Sk. usha-s) and 
 vko[A.ai (Sk. nas) and n'toq (L. penis for pesnis, Sk. 
 pasa-s). 
 
 8 final while being orthographically retained in 
 French is commonly silent in pronunciation. 
 
 The disappearance also of a radical s, initial in sev- 
 eral Tbrench words, and in some English words derived 
 from them, is quite noticeable : as in Er. etat (Eng. 
 estate) * from L. status ; Er. emeraude (Eng. emerald) 
 
 * In several of the Romanic languages e is prefixed to sibilated 
 forms derived from the Latin. In Spanish, which has no word 
 beginning with s followed by a consonant, e is always pi'eflxedto ini- 
 tial !. In the Provengal and French it is often prefixed, but in the 
 Italian never. Thus compare 
 
 LATIN, 
 
 ITALIAN, 
 
 PKOTENgAL, FRENCH, 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 solavus, 
 
 schiavo. 
 
 esclav, esclave. 
 
 esclavo. 
 
 sperare, 
 
 sperare. 
 
 esperar, fisperer, 
 
 esperar. 
 
 spiritus. 
 
 spirito. 
 
 esperit, esprit. 
 
 espiritu. 
 
 stare. 
 
 stare. 
 
 estar, Strei) 
 
 estar. 
 
 strata, 
 
 strada, 
 
 es-trada, estrade. 
 
 estrada. 
 
 (so. via). 
 
 
 
 
 The e is 
 
 thus prefixed 
 
 in French and Spanish, in 
 
 order to avoid 
 
188 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 from L. smaragdus ; and Pr. emeri (Eng. emery) from 
 Gr. OfivQig, It. smeriglio. So, also, Eng. tin is the L. 
 stannum and staghum ; It. stagno. Span, estano ; Er. 
 etain, Gm. zinn : cf. also Er. tain, tinfoil, or leaf-tin. 
 
 III. Aspiration. 
 
 The influence of climate on the tendency to aspira- 
 tion, in any language, is very great, and even, in fact, 
 determinate, it would seem, of the whole taste and ten- 
 dency of ^ people in that direction. " Nowhere," says 
 Senary, "is a simple dialectic difference, in the use of 
 aspiration, more significant than in Germany ; so that, 
 he who should go from the highlands of that country 
 
 the unpleasant concurrence of two or more consonants in the same 
 syllable. In Italian, on the contrary, initial s is favorite, and a radi- 
 cal e is rejected sometimes for mere euphonic gratification : as in Ital. 
 stimare (for estimare, from L. aestimare) and sperto (for esperto, from 
 L. expertus). 
 
 In French, there is a variable tendency, earlier and later, manifest 
 in respect to using and rejecting initial «, in derived forms: the use 
 of it being greatest in the first stages of the language when popular 
 instincts most swayed its forms, and its rejection being most frequent 
 and positive in its later stages of maturity and refinement, whea the 
 pressure of scholarly feeling upon its incidental aspects was most 
 sharp and decisive. Thus Fr. espace and 6cole represent from" early 
 times L. spatium and schola ; while Fr. statut and style represent a 
 more modern type- of the language forL. statutum and stylus. In the 
 Fr. word 6tude from L. studiura the g is rejected, while in stndieux, 
 from same root, the e is rejected that appears in the noun. 
 
 The French also, like the Germans, show this disrelish for the 
 simple sibilant soimd by pronouncing it when between two vowels as 
 z. The Germans also are fond of diluting it in many forms with ch, 
 where in correlate forms in English we so often have sh. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 189 
 
 in the centre, to the low plains of the north, might 
 mark, quite well, the successive steps of decline in its 
 use, from his starting-point, until, on arriving at Den- 
 mark, all traces of its use would disappear." So, in 
 Italy, the Sabines, who lived among the mountains, 
 were specially fond of aspiration ; while the Romans, 
 dwelling on the broad plains of Latium, were averse 
 from * it. 
 
 Each of the three cardinal classes of mutes, the 
 gutturals, labials, and Unguals, has its own aspirate. 
 The aspirates may be classified as foUows : 
 
 1. The Guttural Aspirates. 
 
 (1) The Greek. The rough breathing ' and;jf. 
 
 (2) The Latin, ^and ch (of Greek origin). 
 
 2. The Labial Aspirates. 
 
 (1) Greek, 9D, i^ (obsolete). 
 
 (2) Latin, f, ph (of Greek origin). 
 
 3. The Lingual or Dental Aspirates. 
 
 (1) Greek, d-, o. 
 
 (2) Latin, s and tli (of Greek origin). 
 
 * Says Cicero '' aversus a v^o." Oration IV., iu Catilinam § 9 ; 
 and S(5 also in the Oration for Archias, " aversus a Musis." The 
 prep, ad compounded with versus malces adversus (Eng. adverse) and 
 requires the sign or sense of to with the accompanying noun ; while 
 aversus is compounded of ab./roTO, and versus turned away. The 
 very a in aversus is a for ab, from. How empty, thereforejWebster's 
 remark under this word, that "it is absurd to speak of an affection of 
 the mind exerted /roro an object." It is surely the most natural thing 
 in the world, to speak of a state of feeling, as turned away from a 
 given object. 
 
190 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 The genuine aspirates, except s, are of course all 
 double sounds, consisting of some mute, as the stable 
 element, and an added breathing; so that they cor- 
 respond, among consonants, to diphthongs among 
 vowels. The Greek is rich in this class of mixed con- 
 sonants, as it is also in diphthongal mixtures among 
 vowels ; while the Latin is poor in them both ; and the 
 Slavic languages are almost wholly destitute of them. 
 The oiiginal forms of the aspirates were for the gut- 
 tural, ff/i ; for the labial, dh ; and for the dental, M. 
 Curtius classifies the Indo-European languages, in five 
 divisions,* in respect to the phenomena of their aspi- 
 rates. 
 
 1 . The Sanskrit f by itself : exhibiting the original 
 bases, in the aspirates /;fk, 6h and d/i, of the whole sys- 
 tem of aspiration, in any and all languages ; and jet^A 
 often settles in Sanskrit, into mere k, as lih for ligh, 
 Gr. Xdxoj, L. lingo ; and mahat, great, for maghat, Gr. 
 fisyag, L. magnus. 
 
 2. All those languages, which, by giving up the 
 breathing, remove the difference between the medial 
 aspirates and the medials themselves in given forms ; 
 as the Zend, which, while sometimes retaining the 
 
 * Zeitschrift Der Spraohforschung, Vol. II., pp. 328-334. 
 
 t The scale of aspirates in Sanskrit, while reducible to the simple 
 elements above stated, is full of varied forms of them, as gh, M, ch, 
 chh, jh, as well as ih, ph, dh and th, and compound consonantal aspi- 
 rates as Jish, cheh, ehehh, nchh, nth, ddh, dbh, mhh, dhr, sth, sch, kshm, 
 chchhj/, chchhr, ddhy, etc. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 191 
 
 aspirates, at other times weakens them to medials, as 
 in gTi, bh, dh, weakened to y, b, d. 
 
 3. That embracing the Germanic languages, which 
 has, with the same characteristics as those that mark 
 the second class, an additional tendency to a strength- 
 ening of the mute element of the aspirates, as of y in 
 gh into k; of J in dh into t ; and of b in bh into ju. As 
 these medials, g, b, d, are not coincident in the German 
 with the corresponding Sanskrit medials in respect to 
 their origin, their appearance in the forms in which 
 they occur is to be ascribed to a phonetic peculiarity 
 called " lautverschiebung," or the removal of a tonic 
 element, which in these cases is the h, from each of the 
 aspirates ffh, dh and bh : leaving the pixre simple medial 
 alone by itself. 
 
 4. The Greek in all its dialects with its tenues as- 
 pirated, instead of the original medial aspirates ; in 
 which it is the exact counterpart of the second and 
 third classes. 
 
 5. The Italic languages having only the two aspi- 
 rates, h and/. 
 
 To the above schedule, drawn so well by Curtius, 
 might be added, properly, for an absolutely complete 
 view of the aspirates, 
 
 6. The Slavic languages, as the end of the scale, 
 and the antipodes in its particulars of the Sanskrit : 
 being nearly wanting in aspirates of any kind. 
 
 The stronger the aspiration, the more is the mute 
 
192 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 itself, which is aspirated, covered up by it : and the 
 weaker the aspiration, the more distinct the sphere and 
 scope of the mute. 
 
 The following are some of the more noticeable prin- 
 ciples, pertaining to the aspirates : 
 
 § 1. Since the aspirates possess, as a class^ a spe- 
 cial nature of their own, in common ; they are more 
 readily exchanged for each other, in passing from one 
 language or dialect of the same language to another, 
 than are the other mutes. 
 
 § 2. The stronger the aspirate, so much easier the 
 exchange. 
 
 1. Aspirates in Greek. 
 
 1st. What the aspirates represent, as their originals 
 or equivalents. 
 
 The rough breathing in Greek represents 
 
 (1) The Sanskrit sibilant, as its equivalent. In- 
 stances abound, as 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 sa, he, sk, she, 
 
 sarp, to creep, 
 
 sad, to sit, 
 
 sam, with, together, 
 
 stinu-s, a son, 
 
 shash, six, 
 
 sad and ksai, to go 
 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 OSEEE. 
 O fl 
 
 to. 
 
 serpo, 
 • sedeo, 
 cum and simnl. 
 
 O, 7]. 
 CpTTO). 
 
 5.[jLa. 
 
 e / 
 
 sex, 
 
 oSos, a way. 
 
 
 (2) An obliterated s medial, as ^f^at for riOfiat ; 
 Sk. As, to sit. 
 
 (3) w, or the digamma F. See Digammation. So 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGT. 193 
 
 also, sxovTt is iov Fexovri, Sk. vacant; and tvsxa 
 for evFixa, Aeol. 'ivvtxa, Ionic t'lvsxa. 
 
 (4) It sometimes represents both an obliterated 
 sibilant and digamma, as in S hvaFs, ^dvgiov oFadvg, 
 and its cognate dvdcivco (L. suadeo) for aFavddva. 
 So compare eog, og and Gcpog, his, as various equivalent 
 forms to the one Sk. form sva-s, L. suus. "Idiog like- 
 wise is claimed by some as for oFISiog, from same 
 root, as Sk. sva-s, own. 
 
 (5) The half-vowel y initial. Thus og, the relative 
 adj. pronoun, represents the Sk. ya-s, who (cf. Lith. 
 yis, he and yi, she). The Sk. stem ya, Curtius con- 
 siders but an expansion of the demonstrative stem i, 
 from which he derives is and id in Latin (Old. L. im) ; 
 and ea, eum (for eom) from the longer form of the 
 stem. (Curtius' Griech. Etymologie, p. 364) ; fjTrtcQ, gen. 
 rjituTog, for tjrcaQTog, Sk. yakrit, from yakart, L. jecur ; 
 vfiaTg, for v/^/^alg, for original vajusTg, Sk. yushmat ; 
 and rifitqog, tame, Sk. yam, to restrain ; and a^oa, for 
 ayia (cf. aykog), Sk. yaj, to worship. 
 
 2d. The effects of aspirates on letters immediately 
 preceding them. 
 
 (1) A hard mute {n, x, t) is changed into the 
 corresponding aspirate cp, x> ^j by an aspirated vowel 
 succeeding it. 
 
 % a. In composition, as s(pr)fj,sQog (= eW + 
 
 rj/iiEQa). 
 
 § /S. At the end of a word, whether the conjunc- 
 VoL. II.— 13 
 
* 
 
 194 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 tion occurs regularly, or by apocope, as ovx ovtoq ; 
 d(p ^fitgag ; vv/^d' oXrjv. 
 
 (2) The alliteration of two aspirates of the same 
 kind, in successive syllables, displeased the Greek ear ; 
 so that one of them may be said to have annulled the 
 other, or rendered it impossible ; as, in all reduplicated 
 forms of verbs in -/^t, like Ti^r//^c, and likewise redu- 
 plicated perfects generally, as ittcpikrixa. 
 
 3d. Transfer or hyperthesis of aspiration. 
 
 Aspiration was sometimes removed from one sylla- 
 ble to another, as Sqi^, gen. TQc;(6g, etc. In ed-a, 
 icod-u for aFkd^a (cf. Sk. svadh4 of same radication, 
 and L. suesco) the usual substitution of an initial aspi- 
 rate for the absent sibilant (as in t^ for ci^) is repre- 
 sented sufficiently in the use of -d-. 
 
 II. Aspirates in Latin. 
 
 Xhere are but two aspirates in Latin, h w\A.f. 
 
 1st. The following facts exhibit the function of h, 
 in Latin. 
 
 (1) It may represent any one of the following Sk. 
 aspirates, h, hh, gh : h, as heri for hesi, yesterday (cf. 
 hesternus), Sk. hya-s ; bh, as mihi for mibhi, Sk. m!a- 
 bhyam , and gh, as hospes, a guest, Sk. ghas, to eat. 
 
 It belongs only to vowels, and to them as succeed- 
 ing it, and is found indeed in the middle of words, only 
 between two vowels, as in nihil and traho ; but its pos- 
 session of its place, or of any phonetic power in it, is 
 so very feeble, that it is readily removed, for the con- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 195 
 
 venience of a contracted form, as in nil for nihil and 
 vemens for vehemens; while for prosodial effect it is 
 treated, when occurring between two vowels, as if it 
 did not exist at all. 
 
 (2) Its conversion with s, when in conjunction 
 Avith it, into x, has analogies of a parallel and illustra- 
 tive sort in the Sanskrit. 
 
 When /i is reduplicated in Sanskrit, it becomes 
 sometimes ^, as in hd, to leave, which becomes gah^mi, 
 instead of hah4mi (cf. Sk. hri, to seize, Gr. y^tig, and- 
 with them perhaps L. gero, as of one and the same 
 radication), and so, in the middle of a word, /is be- 
 comes h, as m^xy4mi, for maihsyami, fut. of mih to 
 urinate (cf. L. traxi and vexi, perf.'s of traho and 
 veho). In both Greek and Latin, y is often the equi- 
 valent of the Sk. A, as in ysvvg, L. gena, Sk. hanu-s ; 
 eydv and ego, Sk. aham ; and, as in these instances we 
 have for the guttural equivalent the medial mute y, so, 
 in the following instances, we have likewise the smooth 
 mute te representing the Sanskrit /i : xagSia, L. 
 cor(d), Sk. hard, hrid and hridaya, and necto, Sk. 
 nah. 
 
 (3) IT is not so much a consonant as a breathing. 
 It differs from the sibilant, physiologically, only in 
 being a breathing through the whole open mouth, with 
 the tongue at rest on its base and the teeth apart ; 
 while the sibilant is a breathing through the teeth, in a 
 nearly closed state, with the tongue against the upper 
 
196 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGt, 
 
 teeth. H and s are therefore both breathings, and differ 
 only in the different relative positions of the tongue and 
 teeth. The sibilant and aspirate have accordingly an 
 etymological, as well as phonetic, parallelism with each 
 other; and the sibilant, as has been abundantly 
 shown, fades away readily in the Greek into the aspi- 
 rate.* 
 
 (4) Ch, although found in Latin, is not properly a 
 Latin combination. 
 
 It occurs seldom, and is resolvable : (a) sometimes 
 into a specimen of wrong orthography, in imitation by 
 the Latin grammarians of the Greek, who, as the 
 founders of the science of language, as of so many 
 other sciences and arts, gave law to the Romans in all 
 matters of theoretic and formal criticism ; and (^5) into 
 the resulting form of a contraction. 
 
 Ch occurs in a few proper names, as Bacchus 
 {Bdxxog) and Gracchus. The strictly Roman words, 
 in which it is found, are the following four : pulcher, 
 misspelled for pulcer, the original form, which, like the 
 Gr. (pyXkov, a leaf (pi. foliage), represents, it is be- 
 lieved, the Sk. phullan^ a blossom ; brachium, which is 
 but the Gr. nrixvi;, Sk. bAhu-s ; inchoo, which is con- 
 tracted, as old manuscripts show, from incoho ; and 
 
 * In some of the modern languages, as in French and English, 
 there is a marked tendency to drop A initial in many words, as in 
 Eng. humble, hour (Fr. heure), &c. ; but in a few cases also an h, not 
 radical to a word at all, has been assumed ; as in Eng. hermit (M. L. 
 ermus and hermus), from Gr. f'/jij/iiVijs, 1. eremites. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 197 
 
 sepulchrum, in which the suffix -chrum is misspelled for 
 -crum, meaning the place or the means of any given 
 act described in the root, as in the words lavacrum 
 (lavo) and fulcrum (fulcio). Cicero spells the word 
 as sepulcrum, and states directly that the ancients did 
 not aspirate words. Inchoo is regarded by some, as a 
 strictly Greek word (ivxdvvvfii, to gather in heaps, 
 i. e. for building). Benary conceives of it, in the light 
 of its original form incoho, as contracted (like traho, 
 in his view, for traveho), from an original form inco- 
 veho (in-(-con-f-veho), to bear together; the loss of 
 the radical syllable ve being accounted for by syncope, 
 as in noram for noveram. If Benary's analysis be ac- 
 cepted, we shall have but three verbal roots in Latin, 
 in which h occurs, as the final letter of the stem, — 
 traho, veho, and coho ; and these will be still farther 
 reducible to but one ultimate form, veho (Sk. vah, to 
 bear, cf. Gr. o^soj). Leo Meyer,* however, laughis at 
 such a derivation of traho (as tra-veho) and derives it, 
 like the Gothic dragan (Eng. draw) and Gm. tragen, 
 from the Sk. drdgh, to stretch- out, to lie on the ground, 
 to be weary (cf. Gm. trage, idle). With this he com- 
 pares also Sk. dirgha-s, long, Gr. 8oXi)(6g and Sk. 
 darh, to be long. 
 
 Since the aspirate combines in Sanskrit Avith the 
 medial mutes, as well as with the soft, that is, with d 
 as well as with 7 ; and b as well as p ; and c as well as 
 
 * ZeitscM-ift, etc., Vol. VI. p. 223. ' 
 
198 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 k ; it was probably weaker than in most of the cognate 
 languages. 
 
 2d, The function of F, or the labial aspirate, in 
 Latin. 
 
 (1) F'\^ a much more positive, definite aspirate 
 than h. It occurs in combination with / and r; is 
 capable of being doubled (as in effero), and maintains 
 its position between two vowels against any and all 
 tendencies to contraction. In occurs almost entirely 
 in the beginning of words, and seldom in the middle. 
 
 (2) It is equivalent, etymologically, to several Sk. 
 aspirates, as dli, h, bit ; and to the unaspirated letters, 
 m, dv. 
 
 {ill), inferus from infra, Sk. adhara-s, lower, com- 
 parative form of adhas, below. Cf. also the superlative 
 forms in the two languages, adhama-s, and infimus ; 
 the L. form throughout being nasalized. So L. fumus, 
 smoke, heat, &c., =:Sk. dhuma-s (Gr. S-vfto;) ; and L. 
 frenum, a bridle, seems to be correlate with Sk. dhri, 
 to hold. In Afer, also Africa and Africus,/ is equiva- 
 lent to the same consonant in the same word, adhara-s, 
 meaning the lower or inferior place or places. 
 
 {h) rufus (cf. L. ruber), Sk. rohita-s, Gr. sqv&qoq 
 (with which compare also Sk. rudhira-s, blood).* 
 
 {bk) L. fui, I was, Sk. bhu, to be ; L. frater, a 
 brother, Sk. bhratar ; fremo, I murmur, Sk. bhram, Gr. 
 
 * In Spanish, L./ becomes h, as L. facere, Sp. hacer, L. confortare, 
 Eng. comfort), Sp. conhortar. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 199 
 
 ^Qiifioi) ; fanum, a temple, for fagnum (like finis for fignis 
 from figo), Sk. bhaj, to honor ; fero, I bear, Sk. bhar. 
 
 (m) formica (an instance of dissimilation), Gr. 
 fxvQfj.ri^. The Greek equivalent Benary regards as 
 immediately corresponding with the Sk. root mush, to 
 steal, which in the Greek form is reduplicated, so as to 
 express the idea more strongly : the -r]'g being in his 
 view a mere denominative suffix, like -ex in L. senex, 
 gen.' senis. Compare in* same way frendo, I gnaw 
 (pure stem fred, as in supine fresum for fredtum), and 
 Sk. mrid (with which also for a double equivalent of 
 same root, one strong (where, also, there is dissimila- 
 tion) and the other weak ; cf. L. mordeo, like L. repo 
 and serpo, compared with Sk. sarp, to creep, Gr. 
 egna). 
 
 {dv) fores,* Sk. dvar, a door, Gr. &vQa, Goth, 
 daur. So festus, in the word infestus (the preposition 
 in having only a directive or objective force), compares 
 with the Sk. word dvish, to hate. 
 
 The Latin, however, it must be remembered, is es- 
 sentially averse from aspirates. Many are the ex- 
 amples of their rejection in Latin, compared with 
 equivalent forms in Greek and Sanskrit, as 
 
 * In English, as in some of the Romanic languages, roots appear 
 aspirated, that in their primary form were unaspirated : as in Eng. 
 trophy (It. trofeo ; Fr. troph6e ; Gr. rponaiov, from rpfita, I turn, 
 and so lit. a turning or defeat, and so, the sign or proof of it. Cf. 
 from TpeTTo), Eng. trope and tropics). So, also, in Eng. fife (Gm. 
 pfeife, Fr. fifre from L. pipire, to pipe or pip, &c. — ^from which Eng. 
 pipe — ) we have a similar instance of aspiration. 
 
200 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 LATIN. GREEK. SANSKKIT. 
 
 carrus, a wagon, — — ^ char, to move, 
 
 crepusoulum, (cf. L. ere- Kve^ws, kshapa-s. 
 per, dark, doubtful), 
 
 fido, 7ret5o) (pure stem iriyB), 
 
 fugio, <j)evy<a (stem <i>vy), bhuj. 
 
 patior, irdcrxo), for Tra^a-Koi* stem b&dh. 
 
 Trw&dvofmi (pure stem budh. 
 7rv5). 
 sex, e|, shash. 
 
 IV. Reduplication. 
 
 Reduplication, like nasalization, is a mode of 
 strengthening the symbol of a thought, or thing. The 
 use of strengthened forms was an early feature of lan- 
 guage, abounding in the Sanskrit ' and Greek, and of 
 frequent occurrence also ' in Latin ; but occurring less 
 and less in derived languages, as we get farther and 
 farther from their primeval sources. As the Latin 
 generally preserves, with the Sanskrit, more of the 
 same simple strong characteristics, which they thereby 
 both indicate to have belonged to their common mother- 
 tongue, than does the Greek ; its departure to a wider 
 degree than the Greek from its original, in this respect, 
 is to be ascribed probably to the direct practical ten- 
 dencies of the Roman temperament, which did not 
 
 * Ourtius, however, regards ndaxa as an inchoative form of Trevo- 
 fjuu, I am poor or needy, (cf. jrevia, L. penuria, Eng. penury) ; and for 
 an earlier form, naviTKa. — Griech. Etymol. Vol. II. p. 271. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 201 
 
 relish double forms of the same thing, or multiphed 
 modes of reaching the Same end. 
 
 While human sensibility is instinctively averse from 
 monotony, and the human organism, generally, recoils 
 from mere iteration of any kind ; there is yet mani- 
 festly a strong tendency, as appears not only in the 
 first syllabication of infants, but also in the confirmed 
 usage of all nations, to a repetition of the same conso- 
 nantal sound in the utterance of many words, although 
 the repetition is usually connected with sonae attending 
 vowel-modification. The reiteration of a given sound 
 intensifies it, as does that of a word or syllable, by not 
 only drawing the hearer's attention to it more strongly, 
 but also by showing that the speaker thinks, from his 
 purposed repetition of it, that it deserves to do so. 
 
 Reduplication abounds in Sanskrit, and occurs, as 
 in Greek, in the present active of many verbs, and 
 also in the preterite, as a sign of past time ; and even a 
 retriplication of the root sometimes occurs in Sanskrit, 
 as bhi-bhi-bhid, from the simple base bhid to divide 
 (Gra. beissen, Eng. bite ; cf. L. findo, as a strengthened 
 form). 
 
 1st. Reduplication in Greek. 
 
 (1) A reduplication of the stem occurs, as a mode 
 of strengthening it, in the present tense, and those 
 tenses which are derived from it, of some verbs. 
 
 Thus ylyvo^ai (stem ytv) is for yiytvo/Liai; 
 fiifiva (stem f^av) for fxifitva, and ■jimtco for % ithtco. 
 
202 COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 So rid-rjf^i, SiStofu and iGrrifii are reduplications of 
 the stems ■&s, So, and ara : eOTto/urjv, 2d aor. mid. of 
 eTto/uai (for OiTio/uai) is for <j6Gi7i6/urjv, and is a more 
 concealed instance of reduplication. 
 
 In such reduplicated words, the verb is strength- 
 ened in two ways : by the repetition of the stem itself 
 as such, and also by the consequent lengthening of • 
 the verb-form as a form. 
 
 Of the reduplicated verbs in Greek, when not 
 onomatopoetic, or, like fitQfirjQl^a, ideopoetic, it may 
 be said (as of didajui, slfii, I'ottjjui, ri&rj/ui, etc.), that 
 they are among the most common words in the lan- 
 guage ; whose emphasis, being somewhat impaired by 
 the constant familiarity of their use, is quite restored 
 by the intensification of their form ; or, whose repeti- 
 tious occurrence in ordinary parlance being so continual, 
 has been proximately imaged in an analogical iteration 
 of their own vocal elements. Many also, if not most 
 of them, are but copies of similar forms, in earlier lan- 
 guages, as §iSo}f4i, Sk. dadami, and riS^rjfAi, Sk. da- 
 dhami. 
 
 An exhibition of the attending changes that occur, 
 in some of the common instances of reduplication in 
 Greek, will perhaps be of service. In Stdco/^t (stem 
 So, Sk. dk) the reduphcated vowel o is changed to 
 short ^ ; so as to compensate by an inward shortening 
 for the added length of the w^ord, outwardly, and also 
 so as to throw the reduplicated vowel into the shade. 
 
COMPABATIVE PHONOLOGY. 203 
 
 compared with the stem-vowel ; while, similarly, in or- 
 der to make the stem-vowel still more prominent, or to 
 increase its relative dynamical effect, as containing in 
 itself all the sense of the verb, as such ; as well as for 
 the farther purpose of preventing the monotonous con- 
 currence of three short vowels ; the short stem-vowel o 
 is lengthened into a. The same analysis, step by step, 
 will resolve the changes that have occurred in rid-ri^i, 
 stem ■&&, except that, in addition to those made in 
 didafj.1, x)- is changed, in the reduplicated syllable, into 
 its corresponding smooth mute r, as two initial aspirates 
 could not succeed each other with acceptance to the 
 Greek ear in two successive syllables. Apply also the 
 same analysis to uifii, stem e (Sk. yS, to send away), 
 and ^i^r]fj.i, stem /?« (Sk. ga), as also in ^aiva for 
 ^avLco, in which form the stem is nasalized. The form 
 lOTTjjut is for the more normal form aiGTrjfii, and this 
 for the fuUer form still OTiavrj^i, stem ara ; with 
 which compare L. sisto (for full form sistami) redupli- 
 cated from stem sta, as in sto, stare, Sk. stha. In the ' 
 reduplicated syllable (T) of iarrif-u, two special changes 
 have occurred : the dropping out of a radical letter of 
 the stem (r) and the exchange, as in so many other 
 instances in Greek, of the initial sibilant for the as- 
 pirate. In ylyvof^ai (stem ytv^, for its fullest unal- 
 tered form ytvysvofiai, the final v of the reduplicated 
 syllable has been dropped, and the * of the stem syl- 
 lable iytv) rejected, as in other reduplicated consonan- 
 
204 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY, 
 
 tal stems (as niitra, fiifj-vco, etc.) ; instead of being 
 lengthened, as in the vowel stems. In ji'mTca for iieT- 
 TtSTco and filfivca for fxtv^tvco, there are the same 
 changes as in ylyvofzai. 
 
 (2) The reduplication occurring in the form of the 
 Greek perfect consists, regularly, in doubling the initial 
 consonant of the stem, with the vowel s appended to 
 it ; which, unless it be the stem-vowel itself, as in vifxa, 
 perf. vtv'kftrixa, is adopted as a compensative shorten- 
 ing inwardly of the increased outward volume of the 
 word, as in 7JXvxa from Xva and ytygacpa from 
 yqatpco. If the reduplicated stem be a vowel-stem, as 
 in the contract verbs, the final vowel of which is always 
 short (on the principle that a vowel before another 
 vowel is short), that short vowel is lengthened, as in 
 Tif^aco, TtTifj-rjxa ; (piXta, 7ti(piXr}Ha ; 8rjXoa, dsdr/- 
 Xcoxa. Unlike the augment, which is rejected in all 
 the moods besides the indicative, reduphcation is re- 
 tained in them all. In stems beginning with two con- 
 sonants or a double consonant, except a mute preced- 
 ing either 1, [z, v or q, the reduplication amounts only 
 to the usual augment a in form, as in ^covvv/j-t perf. 
 i^axa. Those beginning also with q prefix t, and at 
 the same time double the initial q, as in qlnxca, perf. 
 iqqtcpa. Such forms as ^s^atea and qtqtcpa, however 
 normal in their type, a Greek's ear could not abide. 
 Some few verbs also, instead of the usual syllable of 
 reduplication, prefix e lengthened into ki, as in tiXrjcpa 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 205 
 
 perf. of Xafj,3avo}, instead of XtXrjcpa (for the explana- 
 tion of which see page 54 of this volume). 
 
 In those few peculiar perfect forms, which change 
 the stem-vowel into an o-sound in reduplication, as 
 toXna perf. of tXTta, toqya perf. of tqya, I'oixa, of 
 uxa and tiad-a of i&a, the facts which at first sight 
 appear to be so anomalous, are yet quite resolvable by 
 phonetic analysis. "EXnco, sq/co and sz^co are each for 
 FeXna, FtQycowaA. Fs&a, respectively ; and their proper 
 perfect forms for the second perfect tense, from such 
 digammated originals, would be F'sFtXna, FiFt^ya 
 and F'kFk&a, or FsFrjlna, etc. With the digammas 
 dropped, there would be a hiatus at once caused by 
 two vowels of the same kind in conjunction, which was 
 the most offensive form of hiatus to a Greek ear : a 
 difficulty which could in no way be relieved so well, as 
 by the change of radical s or rj, in the stem-syllable, to 
 o ; i and Tj being compound vowels formed from a-\-i 
 ( rj differing from s as having two measures of ce in its 
 composition, since s is a-{-i, and r] is a-\-a-{-i) ; while 
 o is a compound vowel also formed from a -{-v. The 
 vowel o was as special a favorite with the Greeks in 
 altered and derived forms, as was the vowel a with the 
 Romans.. The perfect toi^^a from il'^ecj, I seem (from 
 iixog, one with itself, likely, Sk. ^ka-s, for aika-s, one, 
 L. aequus; cf. also lOxa, to make like, and i'aog, 
 equal), would be, reduplicated without change, sisixu. 
 But the I of the reduplicated syllable must fall out, by 
 
206 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 the rule that that syllable must be shortened ; and the 
 s of the stem-syllable ti is changed readily as in so 
 many other cases in Greek (as in the perfects of /Liivco, 
 b'tQxofA-ai, 'ktL:ico, etc.) to o. In the form tico^a from 
 tS-cj for F'td-oa, for earher aFkda (Sk. svadha), we 
 have such changes as the following from FiFriQa for 
 oFtoFrjd-a, the unchanged normal archaic form : the 
 change of the reduplicated vowel (4), after the dropping 
 of the digammas, into ti, which, contrary to the usual 
 rule, is the lengthening instead of the shortening of the 
 vowel of reduplication, and which was done for the sake 
 of strengthening anew a syllable stripped of so many 
 of its rightful phonetic elements ; and the same phone- 
 tic instinct, which would suggest or rather demand the 
 lengthening of the redupUcated vowel, would require, 
 for the preservation of the proper relative vowel-weight 
 of the stem-vowel in the form, the lengthening of that 
 also from o to a. So tlnov is for K-ntTtov which is for 
 tFkFtnov (for earlier a-vavakam : Sk. av6cham, from 
 verb vachjtosay). 
 
 The Attic redupHcation, so called, differs from the 
 common form of reduplication, in repeating the entire 
 initial syllable, instead of merely the initial consonant 
 with 6 : the radical syllable also at the same time being 
 emphasized, as such, by the lengthening of its vowel, 
 as in (XQrjQcoxa, perfect of ccqocj, etc. 
 
 2d. Reduplication in Latin. 
 
 This verbal affection is not of so wide a scope in 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 207 
 
 Latin, as in Greek or Sanskrit. In Sanskrit, there 
 are three distinct preterite forms ; the first, answering 
 in form to the Greek and Latin imperfect ; the second, 
 to the Greek perfect ; and the third, to the Greek 
 aorist. Yet neither one of these three "perfects is ge- 
 nerally used, to represent the completeness of an action ; 
 and their parallelism with the corresponding tenses 
 named in Latin and Greek, is one of form only, instead 
 of being one also of sense. The first preterite, like the 
 Greek imperfect, in form, is marked by the augment 
 («) ; the second, like the Greek perfect, is marked by 
 reduplication ; and the third, like the Greek aorist, is 
 marked by s and the augment. 
 
 In Latin the perfect and aorist are combined in the 
 same form, commonly denominated the perfect, and 
 discriminated in practice only by the sense of the con- 
 text. While there are several modes of forming the 
 Latin perfect — as by use of the auxiliary verb, -fui, 
 which is indeed the prevailing mode of forming it 
 (being hardened in the first and fourth conjugations 
 into -vi ; and often also in the second, in which it is 
 otherwise softened into -ui ; and sometimes even in the 
 third) ; and also by the addition of s to the verb-stem, 
 as in the Sanskrit third preterite and Greek aorist, — 
 many instances are found in the different conjugations, 
 except the fourth, of its formation also by the redupli- 
 cation of the stem.* 
 
 * In facere we have two distinct perfect tense-stems : the first 
 
208 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 A few instances occur in Latin of words possessing 
 a reduplicated form in themselves ; as sisto, stem sta 
 (of. sto, stare) ; gigno, stem gen- (perf. genui) ; both, 
 of which verbs are causative * in their force : sisto 
 meaning to cause to stand, and gigno to cause to be, 
 or become (ylyvof^ai, stem ytv). So bibo has for its 
 stem bo (cf. nivco, stem tho, fut. tzogco, and also L. 
 imbuo). Memini, for original menmeni (A\dth which 
 cf. fj.i^vriax(o, as a reduphcated form of fivdo^ai), is 
 a reduplication of the root men, to think (Sansk. man, 
 as also in L. moneo : cf. reminiscor, mens and Mi- 
 nerva, goddess of wisdom ; and also fj.vdofiat, /nsvog 
 and fj,fjvcg). Populus is, probably, but plus (tcoXvq 
 cf. %Xsoq) reduplicated, to signify a great number. 
 Jejunus (gL Ivdco, I am empty, and inanis) seems to 
 be a reduplicated derivative from the same root with 
 tvaco. 
 
 While in Greek the vowel of the reduphcated syl- 
 lable is t, it may be in Latin, as in Sanskrit, o or w ; as 
 in momordi, spopondi, and tutudi, perfects of mordeo, 
 spondeo, and tundo. 
 
 archaic, and formed on the simple verb-stem by itself (or, reduplicated 
 with the reduplicated syllable lost) viz. : (facso and) faosim, facsem, 
 &c., for fac-sim (or (fe)-fac-sim) ; and feci for fefioi (for fefaci). 
 
 * There are a few other causative verbs in Latin ; but they have 
 no reduplicated or other separate form of distinction : such as, jacio, 
 to cast, of jaceo, to lie down; pendo, to weigh, of pendeo, to hang 
 down ; pateo, to be open, of pando, to expand ; and licet, it is allow- 
 ed, of linquere, to leave. 
 
COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 209 
 
 As the perfect denotes a past act, viewed as com- 
 plete in present time, there is certainly a theoretic 
 propriety in expressing its sense by a reduplication ; 
 as the calling up of something already past into the 
 present again, is making it repeat itself: appearing 
 first in its own occurrence as a fact, and secondly ap- 
 pearing again in the announcement of it anew to those, 
 who did not see it themselves, but who learn it from 
 the testimony of another. There are many concealed 
 reduplications in Latin : as, egi from ago (for e-agi), 
 feci (for fefici for fefaci), veni for veveni (like lavi, 
 perf. of lavare, for lavavi) ; scidi, from scindo, for 
 sciscidi — like stiti, perf. of sisto, for stistiti. 
 
 The following brief synopsis contains the principles 
 of reduplication as such that occur in various languages, 
 whether ancient or modern. 
 
 I. Many reduplicated words are onomatopoetic ; 
 or, directly analogical and symbolic in their char- 
 acter. ' 
 
 1st. The names of some birds given them in imi- 
 tation of their notes ; as, L. cuculus, Gr. xoxxv^, Gm. 
 gukuk, Eng. cuckoo ; L. turtur, Gm. turtel, Fr. tour- 
 terelle, Eng. turtle ; L. ulula, Gm. eule, Eng. owl. 
 
 2d. The names of some inanimate sounds in nature 
 that are repetitious in themselves : as, L. murmuro 
 (Sk. marmara-s, Gr. fj-OQ^vqa, stem (J-Oii), Eng. mur- 
 mur (lit. the noise of a running streamlet). So Greek 
 xax^a^oj, stem ;ifAa^, means I dash or plash, and 
 Vol. II.— 14 
 
210 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGT. 
 
 XaXay'sa, stem Xays, I babble. In L. susurro, stem 
 sur, I whisper, is a similar example. 
 
 3d. The names sometimes given to objects that 
 gleam, and so present a constant reiteration of bright- 
 ness to the eye. Thus, Gr. noQcpvqu, purple, from 
 noQ(pvQ(o, I gleam, stem cpvQ (as in <pvQa, I mix up), 
 L. purpura, P. pourpre; Gm. purpur, Eng. purple ; 
 and Gr. f^aQfiagog (from fiaQfiaiqa, I ghsten), L. 
 marmor, Fr. marbre, Eng. marble, each refer in their 
 original forms, in the very reduplication of their stem, 
 to the play of light upon light on their surfaces. 
 
 4th. Words describing consciously repetitious forms 
 of personal action : as, Gr. fiifiLoftui,, stem fxs, I imi- 
 tate (from which come Eng. mimic and mimetic) ; 
 and /LisQfirjQi^a, stem ^sq, I am anxious ; and fii- 
 fzvrjOxco, L. memini, I remember. Here the gemination 
 of the sound used to denote the act, cleverly symboHzes 
 the essential iteration of the act itself. 
 
 II. The reduplication occvirring in verb-forms is 
 designed to express one of two ideas : either 
 
 1st. The repetitiousness of the operation indicated, 
 as such ; as, in frequentatives and iteratives and the 
 Greek perfect, where an action is described in present 
 time as already completed ; or, 2dly. The greater posi- 
 tiveness and force of the operation, as in the Latin in- 
 tensives and desideratives. 
 
 In English a considerable number of words are 
 formed from the lengthened supine-stem of their Latin 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY, 211 
 
 originals, instead of from tlie simple verb-stem, as deli- 
 berate, educate, indicate, like the L. freq. verbs. 
 
 III. There are various degrees of formal reduplica- 
 tion. 
 
 1st. Complete syllabic reduplication : as in L. mur- 
 mur, stem mur, and susurro, stem sux; and in Fr. bon- 
 bon (from Fr. bon, L. bonus). 
 
 2d. Phonetically abbreviated reduplication. 
 
 § 1. In the reduphcating syllable : as, in the Greek 
 perfects, as r'swcpa from tv%t(o, &c. ; or, as in the re- 
 duphcated class of verbs in fic, as 8i8afic, stem 80. 
 In fis^hxcpa, for fiXs^Xaq)a, and ysyQag)a, for yQs- 
 YQacpa, there is an aphaeresis of X and q. 
 
 § 2. In both syllables : as, in L. perfects, as cecidi 
 and fefelli, from cado and fallo. 
 
 3d. Contracted and so concealed reduplication : as 
 L. cepi for cecipi, perf. of capio, and feci for fefici (cf. 
 compegi, perf. of compingo with its radical pepigi and 
 contudi, perf. of contundo with tutudi). 
 
 IV. The dissimilative changes accompanying the 
 process of reduplication are noticeable : 
 
 1st. Consonantal: as, in Greek, the change of the 
 rough to the corresponding smooth mute, as in n£<fi- 
 Xi^xa, perf. of (ptksa. In English we have hocus pocus 
 (hoc est corpus) ; helter skelter (hUariter at celeriter) ; 
 hubbub ; hvm drum ; hurly burly ; pell mell (Pr. pele 
 m^le) ; raff tag. 
 
 2d. Vowel. These occur chiefly, like the others 
 
212 COMPARATIVE PHONQLOGT. 
 
 just given, in German and English : as, criss-cross ; 
 jlip-Jlap ; knick knack ; sJdlly shoilly ; tittle tattle ; zig 
 zag (Gm. zick zack). 
 
 Before the light of Sanskrit philology was obtained, 
 the Greek augment (J) was analyzed by the best scho- 
 lars, like Buttmann, as but a form of reduplication, 
 shortened by the rejection of the initial consonant. But 
 the discovery of the Sanskrit augment {a), as well as 
 that of the reduplicated preterite in Sanskrit, dispelled 
 at once such a theory. 
 
 V. Nasahzation. 
 
 The one letter most frequently used in all lan- 
 guages, to strengthen the stem of a word, is n ; which 
 contains in it also, when used initially, because of its 
 own phonetic strength, the idea of negation in all lan- 
 guages. Even our very words negation (ne-|-aio), 
 and deny (de+nego), do but echo it again to us, as it 
 appears in the Eng. words no, neither, nor, never, nag, 
 not, none ; Latin ne, non (archaic nenu), nuUus (ne4- 
 uUus), nihil (ne+hUum), neuter (ne-f-uter), nunquam 
 (ne+unquam) ; Gr. vr], (iri ; Pr. ne and non ; and 
 Gm. nicht (not), nie and nimmer (never), nein (no), 
 and niemand (no one). So in Greek the same nega- 
 tive nasal appears in the preposition dvkv, Without, 
 and the abbreviated particles ava, av- and the in- 
 separable prefix vrj; which is but a strengthened form 
 of ava abridged ; and the L. negative prefix in- ; the 
 Gm. preposition ohne, without, and the Eng. prefixes 
 
COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 213 
 
 of negation, in- and un-. In Sk. and Zend we find na, 
 not, aiid in Sk. also mk and Persian me (Gr. /ut]). N 
 is a stronger nasal than m, and is accordingly, as we 
 have shown, the prevailing base of negative words in 
 the different languages. There are properly three nasal 
 Hquids, m, n, ng, which abound in Latin and Greek, 
 as also in German and English. Examples of the nasal 
 ng in Latin are ango, inquam, and anxius ; in Greek 
 nXayyii, ccyytXog ; and in English anger, with which 
 compare for difference of sound the word singing, in 
 .the pronunciation of which the g- sound does not 
 duplicate itself upon the' ne'xt syllable. The soft sound 
 of ng in such words as singing, ringing, etc., occurs 
 abundantly in English and German ; and, while it is 
 not found in Greek and Latin, it does belong to the 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 i^ may be accordingly analyzed, as a guttural 
 nasal, as in Eng. longer^ L. longus ; and as a palatal or 
 resonant nasal; and this of two kinds: hard, as in 
 English words swinging and hanger ; and soft, as in 
 words strange and mangy. The Enghsh and Erench 
 nek, as in Eng. haunch and Fr. blanche, forms a den- 
 tal nasal, as in German the word manch does a lingual 
 nasal, where nch has a sound peculiar to that language. 
 At the end of words in Erench, as in bon, bien, nom, 
 n and m have a very light sound as palatal nasals. In 
 Latin, also, n terminal was so soft a sound that it often 
 disappeared wholly from among the radical elements 
 
214 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 of a word, as in sermo for sermon and nemo (stem 
 nemin). 
 
 In the Sanskrit the principle of nasahzation finds 
 its greatest expansion : where sometimes an n is in- 
 serted before or after the radical consonants of a word, 
 and at others the syllable na or nu is added to them. 
 
 The class of stems strengthened by nasahzation, or 
 by the insertion or addition of n to them, with or with- 
 out an accompanying vowel, is that of verb-stems. The 
 tenses thus strengthened are in each of the three class- 
 ical languages, as a general fact, only the present and 
 the derived tenses. In Latin however jungo preserves 
 its nasalized stem throughout all its forms ; with which 
 compare the simple stem jug, as seen in jugum, and 
 also both the strengthened and simple stems, as com- 
 bined in ^kvyvvfit fut. ^tv^o, etc. In L. words fingo, 
 pingo, and stringo, the nasalized stem prevails through- 
 out the verb, except in the supine stem. 
 
 The nasal is added to the stem in two ways, in 
 reference to the place of its connection : 
 
 (1) At the end of the stem, in Greek. Specimens 
 of its addition at the end pf a vowel- stem are dvvco, 
 xqivco, riva, stems hv, xqi, rt ; and at the end of a 
 consonantal stem are 8d}evco, xdfxva, rsfiva, stems 
 hax, xafx, raft. As, in Latin, cerno, sperno and 
 stemo are cases of metathesis, their simple roots being 
 ere, spre and stra, they are not to be reckoned as verbs 
 having consonantal stems. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 315 
 
 (2) In the middle of the stem ; as, m Latin, in 
 findo, fundo, Hnquo, pango, pungo, rumpo, vinco. In 
 L. trans (Sk. tiras) we have an instance of a nasalized 
 preposition ; which however in Fr. trhs, both in com- 
 position, as in tripasser, to die, lit. to pass beyond 
 (Norman trespasser and Eng. trespass, but of quite 
 different sense), and alone, as tr^s, very, returns to its 
 unnasalized form again. In Tr. 6poux and 6pouse, 
 Eng. spouse (L. sponsus and sponsa), we have a strik- 
 ing instance of deuasalization. 
 
 Roots are nasalized also in different modes and to 
 different degrees, as to the volume and effect of the 
 nasal addition made to their weight in Greek : 
 
 (1) By the addition of mere v to them, which is 
 the exclusive mode in Latin; as in tIvcj fut. Tcea, 
 ■rsfiva fut. TSjucj for tsju(£6^co. 
 
 (2) By adding av, as in SaQ-d-ava, ala-O-dva, 
 av§ccva). 
 
 When the root- vowel is short, as in the stems Xa^, 
 "kad-, "kax, ficcS-, nv&, (fv-y, a double nasalization oc- 
 curs : the simple nasal v being inserted before the final 
 consonant as well as the nasal appendage av after it ; 
 as in "kafi^ava, Xavd-avco, Xayxavco, fzav-d-ava, 
 nvvd-dvofiai, <pvyydva. Here, as Curtius beautifully 
 suggests, the nasal of the stem-syllable is a sort of 
 fainter phonetic reflection of the nasal ending added 
 to it. 
 
216 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOUT. 
 
 (3) By adding vs -. as in xvvsa fut. xvGaj ; Ixvs- 
 ofiai fut. i^o/iccc ; /3vvsa, etc. 
 
 (4) By adding w. This class of strengthened verb- 
 forms in Greek should be viewed in connection with 
 their equivalent forms in Latin : as 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 priyvv[ji,t, for Fprfyw[t.i. 
 
 
 bhanj and bhij. 
 
 frango, 
 
 ^ivyw/jLL (stem t,vy). 
 
 
 yu and yuj. 
 
 jingo. 
 
 irrfprvfJiL (stem Tray). 
 
 
 pa§. 
 
 pango. 
 
 CTKeSan-D/ii (cf. crKiSvrjfii, 
 
 <rxtZfa 
 
 chhid, to divide. 
 
 scindo. 
 
 and KcSa^o)). 
 
 
 
 
 In this class of verbs, while the nasal is inserted 
 before the guttural in Latin, it is placed in Greek after 
 it and syllabicated with a vowely that it may be placed 
 there. 
 
 In some verbs nasalization and reduplication occur 
 together, in the present tense-form of the verb, as in 
 ■jti^nXrifit, stem nXe. 
 
 AH the vowel sounds are capable of receiving, in 
 various modern languages, a nasal quality. In French 
 we have a nasal «-sound, broad, and flat, as in ange and 
 linge ; and a nasal w-sound in both French (un) and 
 Portuguese (um) ; as also a nasal o-sound in French 
 (bon) ; and a nasal «-sound in Portuguese (im). 
 
 Nasalization, on a larger or smaller scale, is one of 
 the inner forces to be found at work in all languages, 
 ancicint and modern, and occurring, not only in Sans- 
 krit, Greek, and Latin, but also in the German, French, 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 317 
 
 and English. Thus in Fr. gingembre (Gr. ^cyyi^aQtg, 
 L. zingiber, It. gingiovo, Sp. gengibre, Eng. ginger) 
 there is an interesting specimen of assimilative na- 
 salization. In English, for example, in word night- 
 ingale, which should regularly be (as in Gm. nachtigaU) 
 nightigale, and in the words passenger (Er. passager) 
 and messenger (Fr. messager), we have clear and strik- 
 ing instances of it. In such words as channel we 
 have a doubling of the single n found in the original 
 forms (L. canalis, Er. chenal), and cannon (Gr. xavav, 
 a straight rod, Gm. kanone, It. cannone). So, popin- 
 jay is the It. pappagallo, and Eng. sting is from same 
 root with stick, stake, stock, etc. (cf. Gm. stange a 
 pole, and stengel a stalk, and stechen to stick). 
 
 While in the Eng. word spouse, the original radical 
 n of the Lat. form is dropped, as also in the other mo- 
 dem languages (L. sponsus, It. sposo, Sp. esposo, Er. 
 Spouse) ; yet in sponsor and respond it reappears. 
 
 2. The Latin. 
 
 Firstly. Benary's classification, in brief, of the fun- 
 damental principles of its special phonetic system. 
 
 After what has been said, in detail, in different 
 parts of this Essay, on the phonetic elements and laws 
 of the Latin language, it will not be necessaiy to en- 
 large the separate features of the general view, here 
 furnished by Benary. The outline is indeed brief, but 
 comprehensive, and well worthy of study as a whole. 
 The first half of the first volume published by him (in 
 
218 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 1837), which is all that has yet appeared from his pen 
 on the subject, is occupied with the subject of diph- 
 thongation ; and the remaining half with that of aspi- 
 ration. 
 
 These, then, are the special pecuHarities of the pho- 
 netic system of the Latin, as grouped by him into one 
 view, and are here thus formally quoted, on account 
 of their value, as a group in one whole. 
 
 I. Disinclination to diphthongs. 
 
 II. The small range of aspiration. 
 
 III. The limited use of consonantal combinations, 
 in initial and medial syllables. 
 
 IV. The counterbalancing influence of consonants 
 and vowels. 
 
 V. The weakening of final letters, after consonants, 
 as well as after vowels. 
 
 Secondly. The phonetic force of the Latin letters in 
 alphabetic order. 
 
 The Latin alphabet, while, like all others, of an ul- 
 timate Phoenician origin, was immediately derived 
 from the Greek ; and that at a second and riper stage 
 of its development, than the alphabets of the other 
 Italic dialects. The Sabellian and North Etruscan al- 
 phabets (in which latter characters inscriptions written, 
 some of them in a serpentine line, and others in the 
 anciient ^ovcrqcxpk^ov form ; or, alternately from right 
 to left and from left to right : have been discovered of 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 219 
 
 late in Northern Italy) were formed according 
 to an earlier and more unfinished type of the Greek 
 alphabet. It was the Doric alphabet of the Greeks of 
 Cumae and Sicily that was thus adopted with some 
 few changes : as the dropping of the three aspirates &, 
 (fi, X S'l'd the adoption of the character F. Thus the 
 Latin alphabet consisted of 21 letters, at that time, in- 
 stead of 24 as in the Greek alphabet, on the basis of 
 which it was formed. 
 
 A. This vowel (pronounced broadly as aTi) is the 
 easiest and fuUest of all the vowel-sounds in its emis- 
 sion. It is produced by the simple breathing of the 
 voice through the throat, in its natural state, with the 
 mouth open, and the lips, tongue and fauces entirely at 
 rest. 
 
 A. This represents the Sanskrit a, and the Greek 
 a, t, and ri. 
 
 (a) Sk. sara-s, salt, aX^, sal. 
 
 (4) 'ivoq and ivcavrog, a year, annus. 
 
 (jj) fJ-riTTjQ, a mother, mater, and aQTvi], a sickle, 
 harpa (Ags. hearpa).* 
 
 * The modem word Tiarp is of the origin here given, in the 
 author's view, getting its name from its being «iciZe-shaped, and so is 
 of the same root with Iw/rpoon and harpies. This instrument seems 
 to have been specially German at the first — but Diez wrongly rejects 
 the Greek origin of the word on that account, or because of the sup- 
 posed dropping of the A in the French form if it did come from apn-i;. 
 Of. Fr. harmonie and Gr. dpiiovia, and hyene and Gr. vatva, Eng. 
 hj/ena. 
 
220 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 In composition it is changed into the different 
 yowels e, i, u. 
 
 (e) inermis (in+arma) ; imberbis (in-f-barba) ; 
 aspergo (ad-|-spargo). So even au may be changed to 
 e, as in obedio (ob+ audio). 
 
 (*) incido (in+cado) ; insilio (in+salio). 
 
 (u) insulsus (in+salsus). 
 
 In redupHcated forms it changes also in the tone- 
 syllable into e and i, as fefeUi perf. of fallo, and tetigi 
 and cecidi of tango and cado. 
 
 The vowel a of original Latin forms becomes quite 
 diversified in . various Romanic derivatives as, beside 
 a itself, also ai, e and ie : as in Pr. larme (lacrima), 
 laine (lana), mer (mare), chien (canis). 
 
 £. The Latin b was from the first, the same medial 
 labial in Latin as now, in English, and the modern 
 languages generally. In Spanish and some other lan- 
 guages, b has a softened pronunciation, like the Eng. 
 V. B sometimes represents in Latin forms an original 
 p terminal (as, by apocope) : as L. ab from (Gr. dno, 
 Sk. apa) and L. sub (Gr. vtzo, Sk. upa). It is equiv- 
 alent to the Sanskrit b, bh and y. 
 
 (bK) bhu, to be, imperf. abhavam, -bam, -bo, im- 
 perf and future tense-suffixes, in the Act. voice of 
 Latin verbs. So L. ambo, both (cf. Gr. ccficpa) is 
 Sk. ubhau : L. nubes (cf. Gr. vtcpoi) is Sk. nabha-s. 
 
 (y) g^'i'S' ^ ^°^' ^^^ ifiovg). G in Sanskrit is 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 321 
 
 however more often represented by g in Latin than by 
 h; while /? occurs, as its equivalent, much more fre- 
 quently in Greek than in Latin. 
 
 It represents the Greek /9, jt, gp. 
 
 (;5) bos, ^ovQ ; bulbus, fioX^og. 
 
 (:7r) bibo (stem bo, reduplicated), nlva fut. noea 
 (stem no), I drink: so,buxus, the $oa7-tree and n:?/^oc;. 
 Compare in the same way in Latin publicus with its 
 archaic form populicus from populus ; and Gm. burg, 
 Eng. burffh, burgher and hurgess with nvQyog. 
 
 (gp) Compare the following equivalent forms : 
 balaena, a whale, and cpdXaiva ; orbiis, bereft, oq- 
 g)av6g, later oqcpog ; nebula, a cloud, vk(ps)\,T]. 
 
 Its changes in Latin are the following : 
 
 (1) Before the labial aspirate/, b passes sometimes 
 into/, as offero for obfero ; sometimes it changes into 
 
 'u, as aufugio for abfugio; and sometimes it is rejected, 
 while its previous existence is recorded in the lengthen- 
 ing of the preceding vowel, as in averto for 3,bverto and 
 aveUo for ^bvello. 
 
 (2) Before s and t, it is commonly softened into 
 p, as scripsi perf. of scribo, and nuptus from nubo. In 
 one case however it becomes s before si by assimilation, 
 as. jussi for jubsi, perf. of jubeo. In compound words, 
 as obtendo, subtraho, etc., heterogeneous sounds are 
 endured in combination in Latin, contrary to the law 
 of homogeneousness required in concurrent vowels 
 
222 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 SO universally in Greek, and occasionally at least in 
 Latin. 
 
 In the Romanic languages a radical L. h undergoes 
 several interesting changes : sometimes being changed 
 to V ; as in Fr. merveiUe and preuve (L. mirabilis and 
 probare) ; sometimes to f. It. canapa, hemp (L. can- 
 nabis) ; to /, It. searafaggio (L. scarabaeus) ; to m, 
 It. gomito, the elbow (L. cubitus). Before s, t, and v, 
 it was assimilated : as It. assolvere, to release (L. ab- 
 solvere) ; It. sotto (L. subtus) and Fr. dette (L. debi- 
 tum) ; and It. obbietto and oggetto (L. objectus). 
 
 In some cases it fell out, as Sp. plomo (L. plumbum) ; 
 and in some it was doubled, as It. pubblico (L. 
 publicus). 
 
 C. As c occupies the place of the medial guttural 
 (y) in the Greek alphabet ; so, in the earliest Latin 
 alphabet, it represented the same sound, but was after- 
 wards gradually put to the double use of representing 
 both the medial guttural y, and the smooth guttural 
 X. Its equivalents in Sanskrit are q, g, h, h, and some- 
 times hh and v. 
 
 (g) §ana-s, hemp, cannabis, xdvva^ig ; §arabha-s^ 
 a crab, carabus, xaqa^oq ; §van, a dog, canis, xvav, 
 
 (y) gala-s, the neck, coUum. 
 
 (/i) hard, hrid and hridaya, the heart, cor(d) {xiiQ 
 and xaqhLcc). 
 
 Qc) karava-s, a crow, corvus {xogai) ; kar and 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 223 
 
 kri, to make, creo, I create^ (cf. cresco) ; kalama-s, a 
 reed, calamus, xdXafiog. 
 
 (M) khala-s, a shelter, cella, xaXid. 
 
 (v) bhavayami (causative form of bhu, to be), I 
 make, facio (for faciami) ; jtv, to live, vixi (for vicsi) 
 and victum, perf. and supine of vivo. 
 
 C is often equivalent to x, y, -x in Greek ; and 
 sometimes to n. 
 
 {x) caro, flesh, xgsas (Sk. kravyam) ; cygnus, a 
 swan, xvxvog ; cithara, a stringed instrument, Hi^agig, 
 ISiHg. guitar (Sp. guitaiTa). 
 
 (/) conger, an eel, yoyy^og; caneo, I glisten, 
 yavacj. 
 
 (;f) cedo, I depart, ;(ccSa ; corium, skin, ;(6qiov ; 
 scindo, I divide, Gxi^a. 
 
 (n) linquere, lictum, to leave, Xslna ; cf. lupus, a 
 wolf, Xvxog. 
 
 In the Latin itself, c changes after liquids and vowels 
 into g ; as, contrarily, g and h before a tenuis become 
 c. See the supines of verb-stems ending in g, as cinc- 
 tum, junctura, rectum, from cingo, jungo, rego, for the 
 change of ^ to c ; and for that of , c to g, quadringenti, 
 quingenti, etc., and negligo, negotium (=nec4-lego 
 and nec+otium). 
 
 So long as the Latin remained pure, c had the hard 
 sound of h even before the vowels e and i ; and in later 
 times, as we learn from QuinctUian, C* was pronounced 
 
 * In L. words written in Gr. characters in the 6th and 7th oen- 
 
224 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 in such names as Caius andCnaeus, as G. No distinction 
 in fact was made archaically between c and ff. The 
 graphic symbol y was not introduced into the Roman 
 alphabet, until five hundred years and more had passed 
 from the founding of the city. A freedman of Spurius 
 Carvilius who kept school in Rome at the time devised 
 It (a. u. c. 523), in order to represent the medial gut- 
 tural sound, for the soft sound of which c, as well as qu, 
 • (both pronounced as k,) were kept. It was put in the 
 Latin alphabet, in the place between F and II, made 
 vacant by the Greek Z, which had now become obso- 
 lete in Latin. Prodigium is accordingly for prodicium, 
 from prodico, to tell beforehand ; so congruo and ingruo 
 (thought by many to be compounds of con and grus, in 
 and grus) are probably but contracted forms of concurro 
 and incurro ; compare also dulcis and indulgeo. The 
 fact that several words have double forms interchange- 
 ably in c and ff, as vicesimus and vigesimus, -centi and 
 -genti, in the various cardinal numbers for hundreds ; 
 and the change of c to ^ in some compound words, as 
 i negotium (nee- otium), or in derived ones, as digitus 
 I from root die (cf. dico and disco, Gr. ddxvvfii), shows 
 j that the sound of c wavered at times in words of the 
 same immediate radication between h and g. 
 
 The fact also that ci and ii occur so interchange- 
 t alily before a vowel in several Latin words shows that 
 
 tunes after Christ, c is always represented by the Gr. k, as in 5«t/i 
 for d ecem, and KifieTore for civitate. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 225 
 
 they must have had a similar pronunciation and that 
 of a somewhat sibilant nature. Initial c has fallen 
 away before m in several derivatives from the inter- 
 rogative pronouns, as in ubi for cubi (for quobi), as in 
 alicubi, and unde for cunde as in alicunde, etc. ; and 
 so uter for cuter for quuter (cf. Ttonpog, Ion. xortqoq, 
 Sk. katara-s). 
 
 C, like g and like v also sometimes, combined with 
 s is changed to x ; while in some perfects in s the gut- 
 tural entirely disappears, as in tersi from tergo for tergsi. 
 
 In the Romanic languages a radical L. c undergoes 
 many interesting changes. When initial, it is harden- 
 ed sometimes before a, o, and u, into hard g in Italian 
 and Spanish : as It. gabbia and grotta (L. cavea and 
 crypta) ; and Sp. graso and greta (L. crassus and creta), 
 cf. also Fr. gras and gros and Eng. gross and grocer.] 
 It becomes also in Italian and Spanish, g, in the middle 
 of words : as, Sp. luego, amigo, and migo (L. locus, 
 amicus and mecum) ; It. luogo, etc. In French it is, 
 both when initial and medial, softened into ch : as, 
 initially in chance (Engl, do.) and chou (L. cadens and 
 caulis), and medially in bouche, the mouth (Eng. de- 
 houcTie from Er. do.); and especially in verbs and before 
 one of the vowels e or i, as in amie, dire, faire and 
 plaire (L. arnica, dicere, facere, placere) it is dropped. 
 
 In such combinations of c, as nc, re, te and dc in 
 orig. L. forms, c reappears in the Romanic languages 
 as soft g : as It. mangiare and Er. manger (L. 
 Vol. II.— 15 
 
226 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 manducare) ; Sp. cargar and Er. charger (L. car- 
 ricare) ; It. viaggio, Fr. voyage (L. viaticum) ; bouche 
 and perche (L. bucca and pertica) ; and ch thus form- 
 ed was occasionally afterwards changed to soft g as 
 in Pr. geole (L. caveola, dim. of cavea, Eng. jaiT). 
 In Italian the weakened form of L. c corresponding to 
 Fr. ch is ci ; as, in It. ciapperone (Er. champion, from 
 L. campus). 
 
 L. c final becomes in Spanish z ; as Sp. diez, ten, 
 L. decem), and paz, peace, (L. pax, pacis) ; and in Er. 
 s or a? : as in croix (L. crucem), fois (vicem) and voix 
 (vocem). In general, the gutturals maintain in various 
 languages their proper hard sound before the hard 
 vowels a, o, u; but incline towards a' sibilant or 
 palatal utterance, before the weak vowels i and e: 
 as in It. zimballo (L. cymbaUum) and It. amista, amity 
 (L. amicitas), where the radical vowel i has also fallen 
 out between the c and f. In Erench, likewise, an ori- 
 ginal c was abundantly represented by s and ss, which 
 was afterwards sometimes dropped: as, in Er. dime 
 (Eng. do.) for earlier disme (L. decimus). 
 
 So w (for cs) becomes in Italian at different times 
 ss, sci, and s : as, lussuria, scempio, lasciare and ansio 
 (L. luxuria, exemplum, laxare and anxius). 
 
 In Italian L. c before t is often assimilated : as, notte 
 and petto (L. noctem and pectus). In Erench L. c 
 often falls out from its radical place between two 
 vowels. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 227 
 
 a. The equivalents of d are in Sanskrit d, dh, 
 and t 
 
 (d) dam, to subdue, domo (cf. dominus and do- 
 mina, Eng. dominion, domineer, domain, dame, dam, 
 damsel. Madam) ; dama-s, a house, domus. 
 
 (dJi) dh4, to place, L. -do, to place or set, as in 
 abdo, I hide, condo, I build, credo, I believe. This 
 -do is not L. do, dare, I give (Sk. da) ; and it is found - 
 only in compound forms. 
 
 (t) T was the original termination of the neuter of 
 pronouns of pronominal adjectives. Thus quod cor- 
 responds with Sk. kat : so, the prep, ad and the conj. 
 at are equivalent to Sk. ati. The ablative singular 
 case-sign also in Sanskrit is t, which was softened in 
 early Latin into d and afterwards entirely dropped. 
 
 Its regular Greek correspondent is 8, and in some 
 few circumstances, it is represented by ^, d-, a. 
 
 (S) 8sxa, ten, decern. 
 
 (^) ^7/^ /«/ damage, damnum. 
 
 (i9) Osog, God, (Aeol. Jsvg, cf. Zsvg=J\svs, 
 gen. J tog, Old Ind. Djau-s, the sky (for correspondence 
 of Gr. ^ with 8], cf. also S^ofiai, I sit, for osdjo/iat 
 wdth L. sedeo, Sk. sad), Deus. (Cf. Ti&rj/ui, stem 
 S-s, Sk. dh4, Gm. thun, Eng. do.) 
 
 (<j) [xkoog, middle, medius. Cf. also q68ov and 
 rosa, a rose. 
 
 Its peculiarities in Latin are the following : 
 
228 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (1) Before c, p, q, r, t, it is regularly assimilated 
 to those letters, as in accedo, appeUo, acquiro, arrideo 
 and attendo. It is also often assimilated before/, g, I, 
 n, s ; as in sella for sedla (for sedela), fossa for fodsa, 
 agger for adger, etc. 
 
 (2) Before t, it changes in the middle of words by 
 assimilation into s, as in claustrum for claudtrum (from 
 claudo), rastrum for radtrum (from rado), and ros- 
 trum for rodtrum (rodo), and est, 3d pers. sing, pre- 
 sent of edo to eat, for edt. In some words, after the 
 change of the d to s, the t wholly disappears, as m 
 morsum (for morstum) for mordtum, from mordeo; 
 and so pensum (for penstum) for pendtum from pen- 
 do ; and risum for ridtum. No one class of euphonic 
 changes is more common than that regularly effected 
 by the dental t, which characterizes the normal suptue 
 ending, -tum, when suffixed to a consonantal verb- 
 stem. 
 
 (3) In nominative forms d drops out before the 
 gender-sign s, as laus for lauds, frons for fronds, pes for 
 peds, vas for vads and lapis for lapids. 
 
 (4) D has wholly disappeared from the ablative 
 singular of nouns where it once existed, as the case- 
 characteristic of the ablative in all the different declen- 
 sions ; as in domino for dominod, sermone for ser- 
 moned : forms found in archaic inscriptions, which yet 
 have left no trace of their previous existence upon the 
 present state of the language, except in the prosodial 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 229 
 
 fact of the elongation of the final vowel of the ablative, 
 as in a, o, u and e terminal, of the 1st, 2d, 4th and 
 5th declensions. In Plautus med and ted are found as j 
 ablatives of ego and tu. The conj. sed, but, is also an 
 ablative of sui, meaning at first by one's self and so 
 afterwards, " apart," " but." The insep. prep, se, apart, 
 is sed with its terminal dental dropped, as in pro simi- 
 larly for prod, Sk, prati. 
 
 (5) 2), original in archaic forms, became afterwards 
 sometimes /, as in lingua for dingua (cf. Gm. zunge, 
 Eng. tongue) and lacrima for dacrima {puxQVfza). So 
 compare levir and 8ayi(j for SaFrjQ, and Ulysses and 
 'OSvaoivg. Compare also lignum, wood (for burning), 
 and Xiyvvg, flame-smoke, with Sk. dah, to burn, and 
 daico, I kindle. 
 
 (6 ) Dv in archaic forms was afterwards represent- 
 ed by b, as in beUum for archaic dveUum ; bis, archaic 
 dvis (cf. Gr. dig for 8 Fig) ; and also bonus for dvo- 
 nus : the v being softened in practice into the medial b, 
 and the initial " d being dropped as an unnecessary 
 and indeed unnatural phonetic appendage. So, in 
 viginti (for dviginti) and suavis (for suadvis) d was 
 dropped: 
 
 (7) Di and t/were correlated in some forms in 
 Latin ; as Diana and Janus : dies, deus, Jovis and 
 Juno (for Djovis and Djovino). In the derived lan- 
 guages, L. di is abundantly thus represented : as in 
 Pr. jour (L. diuriius, It. giomo). In Italian, L. di 
 
230 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 becomes also z, as, It. mezzo (L. medius), and g, as 
 It. raggio (L. radius). Even L. d is in Pr. jusque re- 
 presented byy (= L. de+usque). 
 
 (8) I) was sometimes changed into r : as, in ar- 
 biter for adbiter, from ad-bitere, to draw near, or visit ; 
 arcesso for adcesso arid meridies for medidies, for me- 
 dius dies. In the Romanic languages, contrarily, d 
 represents occasionally an original L. r : as in It. rado 
 (L. rarus). 
 
 The interchanges of radical d and t belonging to 
 original L. forms as found occurring in derived forms 
 in the Romanic languages, deserve the scholar's notice. 
 B often represents a weakened i, in Italian and Spa- 
 nish : as, It. lido a shore for lito {h. litus) and Sp. 
 padre and madre (L. pater and mater). In French it 
 is pronounced as t, when terminal in an adjective, 
 before a noun beginning with a vowel, as profond 
 abime, or in a verb 3d pers. sing.l3efore the 3d pers. 
 pronoun, il. 
 
 E. This letter represents Sk. a and ya. 
 
 (a) ad, to eat, edo. 
 
 {yd) yam, to obtain, emo (cf. vsf.ico). 
 
 It corresponds with a, s and r] in Greek. 
 
 («) Centum, a hundred, e-xcctov ; tenuis, thin, 
 ravaog ; densus, thick, §u6vg. 
 
 (f) xsvTQov, a point, from ^ivrif?', to prick, L. 
 centrum (Eng. centre) ; vscpsXri, a cloud, L. nebula. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 231 
 
 (//) ijpag, a hero, L. heros ; nartiQ (for TtarsQq), 
 L. pater. 
 
 In several words the double forms of the present 
 and preterite roots, apparently occurring by some in- 
 explicable metathesis within the bounds of the Latin 
 itself, are wonderfully parallel with similar double forms 
 of the same roots in Sanskrit : as cemo, perf. crevi 
 (Sk. kar and kri) ; sterno, perf. stravi (Sk. star and 
 stri). So compare Sk. sarp and srip, to creep, and L. 
 serpo and repo. 
 
 E is often changed in Latin in compound and de- 
 rived forms, into i, o and u. 
 
 (i) pertinax (per-f-tenax) ; contineo (con-fte- 
 neo). 
 
 (o) extorris (ex-fterra) ; socius (sequor) ; sodalis 
 (sedeo) : toga (tego) ; vortex (verto). 
 
 (ti) In genus (Gr. ySvog, stem ysvsg) the proper 
 stem of the word is genes and the present genitive 
 generis is for genesis. In pulsus (part, of pello) for 
 pelsus, for peltus, as likewise in sepultus part, of sepelio, 
 and also in avulsus part, of avdlo and tugurium, from 
 tego, we see similar specimens of the same change. U 
 also interchanges sometimes with u in double forms, as 
 dejero and dejuro, pejero and perjuro. It often repre- 
 sents also, as long e, an original combination of a-\-i, 
 as in amem for ama-i-rai. 
 
 It falls often, from its phonetic weakness, from 
 various radical forms : as, in the flexion forms of nouns 
 
232 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 in -ter (as the gen. of pater, &c.) ; in the compounds 
 of genus (as, malignus and benignus) ; and the deno- 
 minative neut. suffix -brum, for -berum. 
 
 Radical L. e becomes in the derived languages, 
 variously, e, ei, i, ie, ai and oi : as, It. rena (L. arena) ; 
 Fr. veine (vena) ; Sp. consigo (secum) ; Fr. miel (mel) ; 
 Fr. raisin (racemus) ; Fr. trois and avoir (tres and 
 habere). 
 
 F. F, while akin in sound to the Greek cp, was yet in 
 fact somewhat diflFerent from it. It had a thicker and 
 coarser sound, the lower lip and upper teeth not being 
 brought into so close junction ; so that the sound was 
 less sharp and fine than that of cp in Greek. The sym- 
 bol used for representing (p in corresponding Latin 
 forms was ph, and not/, in the age of pure Latinity. 
 ^represents several Sk. letters, as already shown im- 
 der " Aspiration." 
 
 Its Greek equivalents are <p, S; and sometimes % 
 and fi. 
 
 (jp) fui, cpva ; fero, I bear, (psQco ; fugio, cpsvyco, 
 
 (&) fera, a wild beast, &^q ; ferveo, I am hot, 
 ^SQCo ; fores, doors, -d-vqa. 
 
 {£) fel, gall (cf. L. bills, Eng. 3^7e), x^^^^j ^^• 
 harit : fatisco, I gape, xf^rsa). So compare funis, a 
 rope, and axoivoq. 
 
 (/?) fremo, I roar, ^Qspia ; fascino, I bewitch, 
 ^aaxaiva. Cf. also rufus and ruber, and Fr. siffler 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 333 
 
 with L. sibilare, as also L. frater and Eng. brother. So, 
 in Eng. interloper {^\sfaY\.dL = L. inter and Gm. laufen, 
 to run : cf. for sense L. intercursus and Eng. inter- 
 course) the labial JO represents a radical/. It is some- 
 times hardened in derived forms in Latin into h; as in 
 the suffixes -ber, -brum and -brium. Thus saluber f 
 (salus+fero) means literally hearing health; and can- 
 delabrum, a candlestick, is literally something hearing \ 
 a candle. Cf. likewise the imperfect and future tense- ! 
 endings -bam and -bo, with the pretei'ite suffix -ui and 
 -vi (fui) : all from the same root as Sk. bhu, to be. 
 
 A radical L./ becomes in Romanic derivatives some- 
 times h : as Sp. trebol (L. trifolium, trefoil) and It. 
 bioccolo (L. floccus) ; and sometimes p : as Sp. soplar, 
 to blow (sufflare). Sometimes also it suffers aphae- 
 resis : as, It. sione (sipho, onis). Its most remarkable 
 conversion, however, is its change in the Spanish as the i 
 contracted and strong labial aspirate into the more 
 open and weak guttural aspirate A -. a change not so ] 
 phonetically as apparently unnatural. Instances abound : 
 as, Sp. haz, horca, horma, etc. (L.facies^ furca, forma), t 
 So Fr. hors is L. fores (and /lors du combat is lit. 
 out of doors from the strife). In the Wallachian, at 
 the opposite pole of European development from the 
 Spanish, the same phonetic weakening of the labial \ 
 aspirate occurs : as, Wall, heru and hUiu (L. ferrum /• 
 and filius). 
 
234 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 G. The Sk. equivalents of g are g, j, and h, and 
 sometimes ffh, g and y. 
 
 {ff) gairio, I chatter (cf. also L. garrulus, Eng. 
 garrulous), grij, or gri : gilvus, yellow, gaura-s (cf. Gm. 
 gelb, Eng. yellow, with gilvus). 
 
 (y) genu, the knee, janu : gelu, cold, jala-s. 
 
 (y/<) ganea, an eating-house, for gasnea, ghas, to 
 eat. 
 
 {K) gena, the check (ysvug), hanu-s -. so also ego 
 {syco) and Sk. aham (for agham) : and nego (== ne+ 
 aio,^I deny, ah, to say ; and anguis, a snake, ahi-s. 
 
 (p) gloria, glory, and mclytus, renowned, grava-s 
 (cf. Gr. hUos for xlsFog) ; and also viginti, vin^ati. 
 
 (y) geminus, twin, yama-s and yamana-s, united, 
 from yam, to unite (Gr. yafisco). 
 
 Its correspondents in Greek are y, x, x, and some- 
 times /?. 
 
 (7) genu, the knee, yow ; gyrus, a circle, yvQog. 
 
 (j)() gutta, a drop, ;^iaj, fut. x^^c>^> ^^'\- X^^^g ; 
 gero, I bear, xsig ; ango, I squeeze, ayxoo. 
 
 {x) gubemo, I govern, xv^tqvaca. 
 
 (/5) glans, an acorn, ^alavoc,. 
 
 (x becomes, c before t, as in lectus and rectus for 
 legtus and regtus. The law of homogeneousness in 
 consonantal combinations prevails in the middle of 
 words, in Latin as in Greek : smooth with smooth ; 
 middle with middle ; and rough with rough, as scrip- 
 tus for scribtus, etc. With a succeeding s, (/ becomes 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 235 
 
 X, as in rexi (reg-si), maximus (mag-simus) ; but after I - 
 or r, g disappears before s ; as in falsi, sparsi and tersi, 
 perfs. of fulgeo, spargo and tergeo. Before m also it 
 sometimes vanishes away ; as in examen, flamen, and 
 fulmen, for exagmen from exigo, fulgmen from fulgeo, 
 and flagmen from flagrare. As an initial letter occur- 
 ring in combination with other consonants, it is found 
 only with / and r. Before n it has entirely disappeared 
 from the beginning of many words once possessing it, 
 as in navus and nosco and nascor, originally gnavus, I 
 gnosco and gnascor; although it reappears again in 
 compound forms, as ignavus (in+gnavus) and ag- 
 nosco, cognosco, ignosco, &c. So, cf. L. lac, milk ' 
 (stem lact, for glact, as in Gr. yuXa, stem yaXaxr). 
 In English in the same way have ff and k disappeared 
 in pronunciation before n in initial syllables, as in gnat, 
 knife, &c. In levis for le('g)vis (Gr. iXaxvg, Sk. 
 laghu-s) ff has disappeared before v. 
 
 G followed by the semivowel i with an accompany- 
 ing vowel, often disappears. The i, although written 
 as j in English, was pronounced in such cases as y : as, 
 major for maior (orig. magior). 
 
 It is also represented sometimes by the dentals d 
 and t, as L. incingere, Fr. enceindre and enceinte ; L. 
 pingere, Er. peindre, Bng. paint. A radical Latin ^ 
 undergoes several changes in the Romanic languages : 
 as, sometimes into^ (It. gi) as Er. jaune (It. galbinus) 
 and jouir. It. gioire (gaudere) ; and sometimes into soft 
 
236 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 c, as in Spanish recio and uncir (rigidus and jungere). 
 It is also sometimes syncopated especially before e ovi -. 
 as, Pr. cueUlir, entier, maitre, noir (L. coliigere, in- 
 teger, magister, niger), and so It. flemma and Sp. flema 
 (phlegma). 
 
 H. H represents Sk. h ; as hiems, wintry storm, 
 himan (of. xtl^cc) ; also veho, I carry, vah. Its equi- 
 valents in Greek are the aspirate, as horror and oqqa- 
 8i:(o ; and Xi ^^ hortus and ;(6qtos, veho and oxsa ; 
 hirundo and /tlchav. H is but a light breathing, and 
 so light that two vowels enclosing it between them are 
 affected by their juxtaposition, just as if it were want- 
 ing : the first being made shoirt by the second, accord- 
 ing to the usual rule, that a vowel before another vowel 
 is short. It was accordingly often dropped between 
 two vowels in the middle of words, as nemo for ne- 
 homo, and debeo and praebeo for de-hibeo and prae- 
 hibeo. 
 
 It changes before t into c ; as tractus from traho 
 and vectus from veho. So mactus agrees with Sk, 
 mah in its root ; as do also magnus, magis, and major, 
 for magior (cf. fj-sl^av for f^syiav). 
 
 The sign ^was used as a sign to represent the 
 aspirate by the Greeks, before being used, as it came 
 to be in the end, as the sign for double s <x rj; and it 
 was accordingly placed, at the outset, after the smooth 
 mutes n, X, T, to indicate the aspiration of them, after- 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 237 
 
 wards indicated by the symbols (p, x, &■ When used 
 as a whole, simply to designate the vowel rj, it was also 
 divided and one half of the symbol I shortened for 
 convenience into ' was used to denote the rough breath- 
 ing ; while the other half I shortened into the smooth 
 breathing, ', and turned from the proper cursive direc- 
 tion of the letter, to indicate that its force did not go 
 over upon it, was used to discriminate as such every 
 initial vowel that was not aspirated. 
 
 H has a much feebler sound in the Romanic lan- 
 guages, generally, than it had with the Romans them- 
 selves, who gave it a strong and even explosive utter- 
 ance at the beginning of words. 
 
 /and J. 7 is often the equivalent of the Sk. a, and 
 I, and sometimes of e. 
 
 Being so light in itself as a vowel, it is much used 
 in Latin like also e as a substitute in reduplicated 
 forms for a, as a mode of balancing inwardly the 
 greater vowel-weight outwardly of added syllables. 
 Thus gigno (cf. Gr. ylyvo^ai), for gi-gen-o, is for the 
 more normal form gagan-4mi (cf. Sk. jan, to beget, 
 and Sk. ja-janmi) : so, sisto (Gr. ioTrjf^i) is for the 
 archaic form sta-st4-mi, and sido (for sisdo, for fuller 
 form sisedo), represents the archaic form sa-sad-ami 
 (Sk. sad, &c.). 
 
 (a) ignis, fire, agni-s ; in, into and in, ana ; imber, 
 a shower, abhra-s. 
 
238 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (e) is, he, i, the demonstrative particle (cf. also idem 
 the same and Sk. idam, he, it) ; eo, ire, I go, Sk. «", to 
 go ; viginti, twenty, vin^ati. 
 
 (e) vitis, a vine, vetras, a reed. 
 
 {/"is equivalent to Sk. y, as jungo, I join, yu and 
 yuj : jnvenis, a youth, yuvan. 
 
 The Greek correspondent of J is ^, which was not 
 pronounced, as commonly in this country, as if ds, but 
 as dsh or j or zh ; and the ancients spoke admiringly 
 of its soft liquid sound. 
 
 /in compound and derived forms in Latin is often 
 substituted for other letters, as for a, ae, e, o and %i. It 
 ,is the substitute of a in incido (in+cado) ; ae,inincido 
 (in+caedo) ; e, in retineo (re-j-teneo) ; o, in illico 
 (in+loco) ; u, in consilium (from consulo) and ex- 
 silium (exsul). /represents the short vowel-sounds in 
 Greek a, s, o. (a) digitus, SuxrvXog; catinus, a 
 bowl, xdravog ; (f) piper, pepper, nsntQi ; (o) canis, 
 gen. canis, a dog, xvav, gen. xvvog. 
 
 The Latin i becomes in the modern languages, 
 when short (since long i usually reappears' unchang- 
 ed) e, and even in some cases also oi : as (e) It. freddo, 
 nero and vedo (frigidus, niger and video) ; Sp. cebo, 
 dedo and plego (cibus, digitus and plico) ; and Fr. 
 justesse, lettre and verre (justitia, litera, vitrum) ; and 
 (oi),rr. moindre and pois (minor and pisum). 
 
 / sometimes falls out of the middle of words, as in 
 obex for objex (objicio) and ais, 2d pers. present of 
 
COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 239 
 
 aio, or ajo for ajis. J" is the consonantal counterpart 
 of the vowel i, as v is of ze. 
 
 As the Greek v was pronounced like the Trench 
 u ; the corresponding vowel of Latin forms, from the 
 same root as Greek forms containing it, takes i in its 
 place, to which the short Prench -w-sound is very simi- 
 lar. The letter y accordingly has received from this 
 fact the alphabetic name, y-Greo, in Prencli. 
 
 The Latin ^' undergoes several interesting changes 
 in derived forms in the modern languages ; as, in Span- 
 ish to y, as yugo and yunto ( jugum and junctus) ; in 
 French to % as aider and maire (adjutare and major) ; 
 in Italian to di and gi, as diacere and giudicio (jacere 
 and judicium). It is sometimes, though seldom, changed 
 to s : as It. zinepro and Sp. zinebro (L. juniperus), and 
 it is occasionally dropped even initially, as Sp. uncir 
 (jungere). 
 
 K. K was employed in the earliest period of the 
 Latin, as the equivalent of the Greek x ; at which time 
 c represented the Greek / in sound as well as in its 
 alphabetic place and its symbolic form (inverted). 
 When subsequently a new symbol for y was invented, 
 c supplanted h in use ; and k in consequence fell into 
 entire desuetude, except in a few abbreviated forms, as 
 Kal. for calendae, etc. 
 
 L. L is equivalent to Sk, / and r, and sometimes 
 to w and d. 
 
240 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (T) labor, labi, I fall, and labo, are, lab and lamb ; 
 libet and lubet, it is pleasing, lubh, earlier form rubh. ; 
 ligo, I bind, ling. 
 
 (r) linquere, lictum, to leave, ricb ; lyra (Gr. XvQa 
 prob. at first Xi/Sga), ru, to sound forth, and rudrt, an 
 instrument; lux, light (cf. illustris, etc.) Gr. Xsvxog, 
 Sk. ruch, to shine ; plus, Gr. noXvg, Sk. puru-s (Vedic 
 pulu-s). So the terminations -ahs and -aris are radL 
 caUy the same (cf. Pr. rossignol and L. lusciniolus) : 
 -aris being used, by way of dissimilation, with stems 
 containing a radical I (as in vulgaris and popularis, 
 /" compared with mortalis). So, Pr. flairer, to smell, is 
 L. fragrare^ and Pr. autel is L. altare. Cf. in same way 
 Sp. marmol and papel with L. marmor and papyrus ; 
 and It. arbol with L. arbor. 
 
 (cT) levir (Gr. barjQ for orig. daFrjQ) Sk. devara-s : 
 cf. Lith. deveri-s ; and mel, Sk. madhu. 
 
 (n) alias, another, anyas: so, Eng. cA^7^/ represents 
 ^^ Gm. kind. 
 
 Cf. also the double forms in Greek, ddcpvrj and 
 Xdq)vt], a laurel, and L. oleo, to Smell, and odor ; also, 
 L. amylum, starch and Pr. amidon. 
 
 As I could not in common with all other letters re- 
 main doubled at the end of a Latin word, it was re- 
 moved in the nominative from the end of the stems 
 mell, honey, and fell, gall. 
 
 In various Romanic derivatives from Latin roots, 
 I passes over into both r and n -. as (r) in It. dattero 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 341 
 
 (L. dactylus) ; Sp. lirio (L. lilium) ; Pr. orme (L. 
 ulmus) ; and {n) as in Pr. nomble (L. lumbulus) and 
 mame (L. margula). It is often syncopated also, as 
 in Fr. pupitre (L. pulpitum) ; while, from its light 
 mobile character, it is also quite subject to metathesis, 
 as in Sp, silbar (L. sibUare) and palabra (L. parabola). 
 LI before a vowel, or / alone before a consonant, in a 
 Latin root, becomes in French u: as in Fr. chaud (L 
 callidus) ; Fr. cou (L. coUum), and Fr. vieux (L 
 vetulus). There occurs sometimes an euphonic epen^ 
 thesis of d, in connection with an original Ir : as in Fr 
 poudre (L. pulvis, stem pulver), and moudre (L 
 molere). In Italian, / is dissolved in initial syllables 
 when in combination with various letters, as c, g, t, p 
 b, and /, into a soft i or j, as in chiaro (L. clarus) 
 ghiaccio (L. glacies), piombo (L. plumbum), bianco 
 (L. blancus), fiacco (L. flaccus). In Spanish, Latin c/, 
 fl and pi are changed into the liquid sound // : as Have 
 and llama (clavis and flamma). 
 
 In Spanish also d is sometimes added to L. deri- 
 vatives after / : as Sp. bulda and humUde (L. bulla and 
 humilis). m 
 
 M. M has for its Sk. equivalent m. Cf. machinor, 
 I contrive, etc. ; Sk. mah (Gr. /urip^uvaof^ui, Eng. 
 mechanist, mecJianics and make, Fr. ma§on, Eng. mason; 
 and also L. machina, Eng. machine and machination). 
 
 M interchanges in compound forms with n, as im- 
 VoL. II.— 16 
 
242 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 manis and immitto for in-manis and in-mitto. It was 
 also weakened in the middle of words into a guttural 
 n, before either one of the gutturals c, ff, q; as in an- 
 ceps for amceps (for ambiceps) ; and into a dental 
 nasal before either of the dentals d and t, as in tandem 
 for tamdem ; eundem for eumdem. M also corresponds 
 as a final letter, in the declension of both verbs and 
 nouns, with r * in Greek (Sk. m) ; for although the 
 Greek ear would not tolerate m at the end of words, 
 to the Romans it was as acceptable when final as when 
 occurring anywhere else in a word. Before s, it is as- 
 similated in one case to 5 ; as pressi, perf. of premo, for 
 premsi. Usually when m and s would occur together 
 in the perfect of verbs, p is euphonically inserted be- 
 tween them, as prompsi, perf. of promo (^pro-f-emo): 
 and sumpsi, perf. of sumo (=sub-f emo). Cf. for 
 similar epenthesis of jp in French, dompter, to subdue 
 (L. domitare), and in English tremble (Er. trembler, 
 Sp. tremolare, from L. tremulus, from which also Eng. 
 tremulous), and tempt (L. tentare). 
 
 vlf interchanges in Latin in some instances with b 
 and V, as hibernus (hiems) and promulgo for provulgo ; 
 with which compare also globus and glomus. 
 
 Before m, c and cs in derived Latin forms suffer 
 aphaeresis: as in lumen for luc-men, and temo for 
 texmo. 
 
 * So in French also, m often changes to n, as colonne, a column 
 (L. columna) ; sentier, a path (L. semita). 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 243 
 
 It is expressly stated in Latin authors that final m 
 was so weak as to be almost inaudible. In the indic- 
 ative mood, active voice, four of the six tense-forms, 
 or^ all but the imperfect and pluperfect, have lost the 
 original proper 1st person ending m or 7ni, which in 
 the subjunctive mood contrarily is found in every tense. 
 There are, however, two verbs that yet retain in the 
 present indicative the person-ending m, sum (for es- 
 umi, Gr. ilf^i for saf.u, Sk. asmi) and inquam. 
 
 M in L. originals becomes, when combined with /, 
 n and r (whether directly or by contraction) mhr in 
 both Italian and French : as (^) It. senibrare (L. simu- 
 lare) ; and Fr. encombrer and It. ingombrare (L. ia- 
 cumulare) cf. Fr. combler from same root : and (r). 
 It. membrare (memorare) and Fr. chambre (camera): : 
 in), Sp. hombre and lumbre (L. hominem and lumen). ;j 
 The epenthesis of h in these various forms is of course 
 of an entirely euphonic origin. 
 
 M is also changed sometimes in derived forms from 
 the Latin to n: as Fr. nappe (L. mappa), and rien 
 (rem) ; and It. sono (L. sum). Sometimes it was dou- 
 bled : as It. fummo (L. fumus). The epenthesis occur- 
 ring with m changed to n was that of d instead of b, as 
 before : as Fr. craindre, to fear (Old Fr. criembre) ' 
 from L. tremere, in which case also tr is euphonically \ 
 changed to cr. 
 
 N. The Sk. equivalents of n, are n, sn* jn. 
 
 * In such cases the initial consonant originally combined with the 
 nasal has fallen off. 
 
244 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 (n) neo, I spin, and necto, I connect together, Sk. 
 nah, to knit ; .nasus, the nose, Sk. nks^. 
 
 (sri) no, I swim, and nato, sna ; nix, nivis, snow, 
 snava-s (from verb snu, to pour forth). 
 
 (^jn) nosco (for gnosco), I know, jn4. 
 
 iVin Latin con'esponds sometimes with r in Greek ; 
 as pinus, a pine, Gr. nirvg : planus, broad, Gr. nXarvg. 
 
 In composition with / and r, and also some- 
 times with qj n is assimilated to them, as coUigo for 
 • conligo ; corruo for connio ; ecce for ence, and 
 ecquis for enquis. So also ullus is for unlus, 
 for unulus ; and corolla for coronla for coronola. 
 In the middle of words before h, and also *, n often 
 disappears, as in cohaereo, cohibeo, cohors, etc. ; and 
 in quoties and toties for quotiens, etc., and vicesimus 
 for vicensimus, and in trado (trans 4-do),traduco, and 
 traho, and tracto its derivative, (supposing traho to be 
 for tra+veho). So in elephas (for elephants), and 
 gigas (gigants), and adamas (adamants), the letters nt 
 have been dropped out before the gender-sign, as 
 always in Greek* when the gender-sign is retained. 
 The disappearance of n, in the perfect and supine 
 forms of verbs, which contain it in the present and 
 
 '^ When such a combination would occur in nominal bases as it, 
 vTs, or pf, in Greek, the rule is, if the gender-sign is retained, to re- 
 ject the other letters of the combination, as ylyas (ylyavTs) ; or to re- 
 ject the gender-sign and keep final v or p, and lengthen the vowel 
 preceding it, by way of compensation, as woijifiv (iroifievs) ; p^rap 
 
 ipriTops). 
 
COMPAEATIVE PHONOLOGY. 245 
 
 imperfect tenses, as in fundo, pungo, tango, is not, of 
 course, to be explained, as a matter of euphonic neces- 
 sity or convenience. Such verbs have their pure stems, 
 which are found, as in Greek, in the preterite tenses, 
 nasalized in the present and imperfect tenses, as like- 
 wise in the Greek in both voices. 
 
 Before n, on the contrary, s vanishes away : as L. 
 pono for posno ; or is assimilated : as penna for pesna, 
 for earlier petna (cf. Gr. nsrof^ai) . 
 
 In the Romanic languages a radical n sometimes 
 falls out of its place, medially, as in Tr. coquille (L. 
 conchylium) and terminally after r, as in Fr. chair, - 
 (L. caro, stem earn) and jour (L. diurnum). L. n 
 becomes sometimes in them ?■, as Pr. diacre (L. dia- 
 conus), and Er coffire (Gr. xoqiivog) : so cf. Londres 
 (London), ordre (L. ordo, stem ordin), and timbre, 
 L. tympanum. In English, a radical n final is some- 
 times strengthened by an added dental, as in propound 
 and compound, from L. proponere and componere : cf. 
 Eng. propose and purpose and compose, as well as Er. 
 proposer and composer, etc., from same root. 
 
 Other words besides verbs are sometimes thus 
 strengthened in Latin, as ambi {dfiipi), Sk. abhi; and 
 inferus, sup. infimus, Sk. adha-s, low, comp. adhara-s, 
 sup. adhamas. 
 
 0. is equivalent variously to Sk. «, ff , u. 
 (a) os(s), a bone, asthi ; novus, new, Sk. nava-s. 
 (a) vox, voice, vdcha-s. 
 
246 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGT. 
 
 (^au) octo, eight ; ashtau. 
 
 After V, an original radical a (as certified by the 
 parallel Sk. form ) is quite apt to appear as o in Latin : 
 as in vomo (Sk. vam) ; voco (Sk. vach) ; vos (Sk. vas). 
 Sv, likewise, becomes regularly so, in Latin, as in socer 
 and socrus (Sk. cvacura-s, Gr. ixvQog for oFs^vQog) ; 
 and soror, for sosor (Sk. svasar). 
 
 Its correspondents in Greek are o, a, and some- 
 times even t. 
 
 (o) nomen, a name, ovofia. (o) ago, ayc3. (s) 
 oliva, the olive, sXuia, and oleum, oil, aXatov. 
 
 is frequently interchanged with u in derived 
 forms : as sermunculus, diminutive of sermo(n) ; exsul 
 (ex -f solum); cultum (sup. of colo) ; robur, gen. ro- . 
 boris ; publicus (for populicus) from populus ; vult 
 (for volit) from volo ; and also homo and humanus. 
 So, the ancient name of Modena was Mutina ; and the 
 Eng. gorffe (Fr. do. It. gorgo) is L. gurges ; and the 
 TV. goutte and It. gotta represent L. gutta. 
 
 It sometimes interchanges with e, in the same word, 
 as vertex and vortex (verto) ; vester and voster (vos). 
 It is in derivatives sometimes changed to i, as in cog- 
 nitus (cognosco). 
 
 By way of adding more weight to the stem-vowel, 
 other vowels, and especially e, are changed to o, in 
 derived forms, as so often occurs also in Greek : as 
 socius (from sequor) ; sodalis (sedeo) ; procus (precor) ; 
 solium (sedeo) ; modus (metior) ; nodus (necto). These 
 
COMPAUATIVE PHONOLOGY. 247 
 
 changes occur chiefly, in both Latin and Greek, in the 
 case of nonns * derived from verbs. 
 
 An original L. o, if long, becomes in derived forms 
 beside long o itself in the Romanic languages also m, 
 eti and oeu : as {u) It. cruna and tutto (L. corona and 
 totus) ; eu, Fr. heure, neuf, and seul (hora, novus, and 
 solus) ; and oeu, Pr. moeurs and oeuf (ovum). Short 
 0, beside undergoing the same changes, becomes also 
 uo and ue : as (u6) It. suora and tuono (soror and 
 tonus) : (ue) Sp. fuero and pueblo (forum and populus). 
 
 P. Its Sanskrit equivalents are p and b; (jo) poto, 
 I drink, p4 and pi ; pingo, I paint, pij and pinj ; (b) 
 pestis, a plague, badh^. 
 
 P, vphen initial, can be follovred only by / and r of 
 all the consonants. Its euphonic insertion between m 
 and s, in perfect and supine forms, has been already 
 described. Its Greek correspondents are n, t, x, and 
 perhaps go. (n) palma, the hand., naXafzr). (r) 
 pavo, a peacock, raag. {ic) lupus, a wolf, Xvxog. 
 
 P is interchangeable in Latin with b,^ as scripsi, 
 
 * In German, and correspondingly in English, there are many in- 
 stances of a change of the stem-vowels of verbs, to indicate distinc- 
 tions of time : as, 
 Infln. singen, to sing. Imperf. sang. Past Part, gesungen. 
 " stehlen, to steal. " stahl. " " gestohlen. 
 
 " sprechen, to speak. " sprach. " " gesprochen. 
 " binden, to bind. " band. " " gebunden. 
 
 t So, L. apotheoa (Gr. djroSijKT; from dnorifiijiit) becomes, vice versa^ 
 Fr. boutique. 
 
248 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 perf. of scribo ; with v, as opilio and ovilio,* a shepherd, 
 ' from ovis, a sheep ; and with t, as hospes and hostis, 
 each having for their primary signification the sense 
 of a stranger. 
 
 In the Oscan and XJmhrian p often represents an 
 original k, as Oscan pis for L. quis, Sk. ki-s, and so 
 Oscan pod for L. quod, and popina for L. coquina. So 
 of. palumbes and columba. 
 
 P was as a general rule softened into the medial b 
 at the end of a word when the final vowel was drop- 
 ped : as, 
 
 LATIN. GREEK. SANSKRIT. 
 
 ab airo apa 
 
 ob £7rt upa 
 
 sub mro upa. 
 
 P was sometimes inserted by epenthesis between 
 m and a dental, for greater ease and strength of utter- 
 ance, as in contempsi, emptus, promptus, and sumpsi, 
 from contemnere, emere, promere, and sumere, 
 
 L. p becomes in the modern languages besides p 
 also at various times b, v, and/: as (3) It. bolso (pul- 
 sus), and bfobbrio (opprobrium) ; (v) Fr. chfevre 
 (capra), and pauvre (pauper) ; (/) Pr. chef (caput). 
 It sometimes sufiers aphaeresis : as It. salmo (psalmus), 
 and Fr. tisane (ptisana). When occurring before tit 
 
 * Of. L. pauper and Fr. pauvre ; and also Gm. vater and L. pater. 
 The interchangeaUeness of the labials one with another occurs abun- 
 dantly in the modern languages : as, in L. nepos, Fr. neveu, Gm. neffe, 
 Eng. nephevr. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 249 
 
 \ 
 
 is abundantly assimilated to it : as, It. atto, cattivo, and 
 rotto (L. actus, captivus, and ruptus). In French pt 
 before ia become c, as in Fr. noces (L. nuptiae) and 
 nihce (neptia). 
 
 Q. Q originated in the Doric koppa (Q) of the Cu- 
 maean iilphabet. Q and qu represent Sk. k, c/i, p, g. (k) 
 quis, who, ka-s ; quatio, Ishake,kvath, to agitate. (cJt) 
 coquo (for poquo), I cook, pach (of. nsTva for tisxtcj) : 
 quaero for quaeso, perf. quaesivi, chesht, to seek. (^) 
 quinque, five, panchan (ttsvts, nsyxs) ; and so, con- 
 trarily, qu reverts in the Wallachian sometimes to p, 
 again as in patru (four), L. quatuor, and in optu 
 (eight), L. octo. (jg) equus, a horse ; agva-s. 
 
 Its correspondents in Greek are rr, as sequor, I fol- 
 low, ETvofiai : and r, as quis, who, rig (for xtg). With 
 reference to the interchangeableness of q, or any other 
 guttural, with p, or any other labial, in Sanskrit or 
 Greek, compare with other examples previously cited, 
 proximus (for propsimus) ; vixi (vivsi) and nix (nivs). 
 So tabeo, I pine away, corresponds with rrixcj and Fr. 
 suivre with L. sequi. 
 
 Qu is not to be regarded as a full compound sound 
 in Latin, as in German and English, where it has the 
 sound of Jew ; but it had, as in French, little in most 
 cases beyond the simple sound of Jc. The vowel u was 
 added, simply to make it better capable of articula- 
 tion; although in early Latin it was used without it (as 
 
250 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 qis for quis). In early forms a similar combination of 
 u with g occurred, as tinguo, unguo and urgueo, first 
 forms of tingo, ungo and urgeo. So in French we find 
 guerir, guider, etc. ; and in English, guide, guard, etc. 
 Q in qu, before another u and also before ^, be- 
 comes c ; as secutus for sequutus (sequor) and secundus 
 for sequundus. So is it with relictus from rehnquo 
 and coctus from coquo and concutio for conquatio and 
 cujus, gen. of quis (for quojus). In one word, inqui- 
 Jinus for incolinuSj a reverse change occurs ; and in 
 quum with its double form cum, we have two different 
 spellings of the same word, yet with the same pronun- 
 ciation bv the Latins. 
 
 M. While the liquids, as their name indicates, al- 
 though not vowels, are also not mutes but have an 
 easy flowing approximation towards vocalization, by 
 themselves alone ; the liquid r is distinguished beyond 
 the rest, for its vocal freeness of utterance. iJ had a 
 much narrower range of combination with other con- 
 sonants in Latin, than in Greek. Its equivalents are 
 in Sk. r, I, and various consonantal combinations with 
 r, asjur, dr, sr, kr : the original, initial consonant being 
 lost in Latin. 
 
 (r) res, a thing, Sk. ra-s : rex, a king, Sk. r&j : 
 rodo, I gnaw, Sk. rad : rheda, a carriage, Sk. ratha-s. 
 
 (I) rumpo, to break, Sk. lup and lump. 
 
 ( j»r) re- and red-, back, Sk. prati. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 251 
 
 (dr) racemus, a cluster of grapes, Sk. dr4ksha. 
 
 (sr) rivus, a brook (cf. qsa for oqsFo), Sk. sru,to 
 pour forth. 
 
 (kf) rideo, to laugh, Sk. krida-s. 
 
 Before s, r sometimes suffers aphaeresis, as lepus 
 for lepors (o being also euphonically changed to u) ; flos 
 for fiors, rnus for murs : pulvis for pulvers ; cinis for 
 ciners ; in which cases, s is the gender-sign. So hausi 
 perf. of haurio is for haursi and haesi for haersi. But 
 in such neuter forms as jus, corpus, foedus, etc., the s 
 is to be analyzed as a substitute for r ; and radical r is 
 accordingly often changed to s, before nominal and 
 adjective suffixes, as flosculus for florculus and corpus- 
 culum for corporculum, scelestus for scelertus and rus- 
 ticus forrurticus : while before t, especially in supines, 
 radical r often becomes s ; as gestum for gertum (gero), 
 questus for quertus (queror) and ustum (uro) for 
 urtum. 
 
 B is frequently assimilated before / and * : as pu- 
 ella, for puerla for puerula ; libellus for liberlus ; and 
 peUucidus for perlucidus : as also gessi for gersi (gero) 
 and ussi (uro) for ursi. 
 
 After r, as after /, c and g disappear before * and t -. 
 as sparsus for spargsus, for spargtus, ursus for urcsus, 
 for iirctus (cf. Gr. ag^trog and Sk. riksha-s) ; and 
 tortus for torctus from torqueo. 
 
 B is sometimes inserted into words, by epenthesis, 
 as in sero perf. sevi (Gr. ^eda, Gm. saen) and in the 
 
252 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 genitive plurals of nouns -arum, -orum, -erum for aiim, 
 oum, eum, Gr. aav, etc. So brachium compares with 
 Sk. bahu-s and frango with bhanj. 
 
 B is often the representative of an original * in 
 Latin ; as ara, an altar, for asa ; eram, I was, for 
 esam, imperf. of sum, I am, for esumi, stem es ; quo- 
 rum for quosum (Sk. k4s4m) ; dirimo for disemo ; 
 diribeo for dishibeo ; quaero for quaeso ; generis, gen. 
 of genus for genesis, gen. of stem genes (of. Gr. ysvog, 
 gen. ysvtog for yi-vtaog). So compare L. nasus and 
 naris. The characteristic r of the passive voice in 
 Latin represents an original s (the reflexive pronoun 
 se). In German and English hkewise r and s often 
 interchange : as Gm. war, frieren, ha§e, eisen ; Eng. 
 was, freeze, hare, iron. 
 
 B is exceedingly movable by metathesis from its 
 radical place in words belonging to various modem 
 languages under the influence of subtle phonetic at- 
 tractions, or for better euphonic effect : as in Sp. cralo 
 (L. clams) and fraguar (L. fabricare) ; Er. brebis (L. 
 vervex) and fromage (M. L. formaticus). It is ex- 
 changed in the Romanic languages, for /, n and d : as 
 (/) It. celebro (L. cerebrum) and Sp. roble (L. robur) 
 and carcel (career) ; (n) It. argine (agger) ; (d) as 
 It. chiedere (quaerere) and proda (prora). B is also 
 abundantly syncopated in the Romanic languages, as 
 in Latin itself: as Sp. avieso (aversus) and traves 
 (transversum). 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 253 
 
 S. y^ represents Sk. s, g, c/i, sv, ksh. (s) scando, 
 to climb, skand. (p) saccharum, sugar, (?arkara. (cA') 
 dbscurus (cf. <sxia, Gxoiog and axorog), chh^yA. 
 (sv) sorer for sosor, a sister, svasri and svas4r. Q:sA) 
 sipo, I cast away, kship. 
 
 The correspondents of s in Greek are the aspirate, 
 as super and vjttg ; 6, as studeo and anavha. 
 
 In some cases s initial is found in roots wanting it 
 in Greek, as scalpo and yXixpa, scruta and yQvrr); 
 and, vice versa, it is not found in some roots where in 
 Greek it does occur, as fallo and GqjdXXro. 
 
 S is dropped in the nominative from the end of any 
 stem, where it would otherwise be doubled, as, as (for 
 ass) gen. assis and os (for oss) gen. ossis. It- is also 
 often dropped in the middle of compound words, as 
 diduco, dimico, divello for disduco, etc. ; and so weak 
 was the sound of s, at the end of words, and likewise 
 between two vowels, that in both instances it was fre- 
 quently exchanged for r. That this interchange occur- 
 red early, is obvious from Cicero's statement, that L. 
 Papirius Cursor was the first of his family named 
 Papirius (b. c. 325) : his ancestors being all named 
 Papisii. 
 
 8 had, from the first, a very faint sound in Latin, 
 and so dropped off ere long from many case-endings : 
 as, in the nom. sing. 1st declension masc. of such 
 words as agricola, . nauta, poeta, &c. (cf. Gr. vavrrig 
 and 7vou]rrjg) ; in the nom. sing, of the 2d, or o-declen- 
 
254 COMPAKATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 sion, after r in the final syllable : as, vir and puer (for 
 viros and pueros) ; in the gen. sing, of the 1st, 2d and 
 5th declensions, which originally ended in -is (as, a-is, 
 o-is, and e-is, from which came afterwards ae, i and ei) ; 
 and in the nom. pi. forms of the 1st and 2d declen- 
 sions, which originally ended in -is (as, equae, for equaes, 
 for equae-is, and equi, for equei, for eque-is). Of the 
 same sort is the dropping of the 2d pers. sing, person- 
 ending s, in the imperative mood, and in the person- 
 ending -re, parallel with -ris, in the 2d pers. sing, 
 pass, of thepres. imperf. andfut. indie, as in amaris or 
 amare, and amabaris or amabare. Cf. also the double 
 forms magis and mage, potis and pote. 
 
 Por the interchange of s and r, see letter r. 
 
 Sis assimilated before/: as, differo for disfero; 
 and it assimilates to itseK in many cases, a preceding 
 b, d, m, r, t, as jussi (for jiabsi), cessi (cedsi), pressi 
 (premsi), gessi (gersi), confessus (for confetsus, for con- 
 fettus). 
 
 8 sometimes represents in Latin an original d, as 
 esca and esciilentus and est, he eats, from edo, I eat, 
 for edca, etc. So in Greek s6d-ia and fat. idofiat 
 compare ; as also L. rosa and qoSov and Sk. madhya-s 
 and /usaog. 
 
 The Latin s appears in the Romanic languages, not 
 only as s, but also as sci, x, c and z -. as (set) It. sci- 
 aliva (L. saliva) ; {x) Sp. xabon (L. sapo, saponis) and 
 Fr. deux (L. duos) ; (c) It. cucire (consuere) ; {g) It. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 255 
 
 zolfo and Sp. azufre {a being the Arab. art. al, the) from 
 L. sulfur. So. Er. chez and nez are for L. casa and 
 nasus. A radical s is sometimes changed to r : as, It. 
 orma (Gr. oo/u-tj), and it is occasionally syncopated, as 
 Pr. pr^tre, for earlier prestre (L. presbyter). In Pr. 
 coudre, to sew, for L. consuere, not only has s been 
 dropped, but (/has been inserted before r, to facilitate 
 and strengthen its utterance. Before such combina- 
 tions as sc, sp and st, initial, e is often inserted in 
 Spanish and French, in order to give s a distinct 
 and full syllabication by itself (see page 187 of this 
 volume). In a few cases s initial was dropped from 
 such combinations : as, Sp. pasmar and Pr. p4mer 
 (from L. spasmus) : so, Pr. tain, tin-foil, Eng. tin, is 
 L. stannum. 
 
 T. At the end of words the vowel force of t, which 
 is in itself naturally sharp and full, was in old Latin 
 much weakened, so as in some cases to disappear 
 wholly, and in others to be softened to d : thus d in 
 is-tud, neuter of iste, stands for an original t (cf. Sk. 
 sa, s4, tat and Gr. 6, r), to). So, the old abl. , suffix, 
 or case-sign d (afterwards dropped), was but the rep- 
 resentative of an earlier t, as in the Sk. abl. case- 
 ending: thus equo is for equod (Sk. aQvat). That 
 -nt final had but a feeble utterance is evident, from 
 the frequent adoption of the weaker form in -ere for 
 -erunt, in the 3d pers. pi perf., as fecere for fecerunt, 
 
256 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 in which u also is weakened to e. The Sanslsrit 
 equivalents of t are t, st, and in some few forms 
 sth. (t) tendo, I extend, tan. (st) tono, I thunder, 
 stan (cf. ^TiVTCoQ, famous for his loud voice, Eng. 
 ^~ stentorian), {sth) taurus, a bull, sthura-s (cf, Sk. 
 sthula-s). 
 
 Its Greek correspondents are r, and -d; as vestis, 
 io&rjQ ; pati, jtae^co, stem 7ia&, and latere, Xavdava, 
 stem Xa&. 
 
 T is assimilated to s, as quassi, perf. of quatio for 
 quatsi, and missum for mitsum (for mittum). So also 
 the superlative ending, is-simus, is for earlier is-timus 
 (cf. Sk. superl. suiBx — tama-s.) The normal form of 
 the suffix is stiU preserved in aptimus. Thus durissi- 
 mus is for duristimus. In the same way the t of this 
 characteristic ending is assimilated after I and r to 
 to them, as in acerrimus and facillimus (for acertimus 
 and facil-timus). 
 
 While t was in many supine and participial forms 
 changed to s, as has been often shown already (as in 
 celsus, falsus, pulsus, &c.), it was in many others re- 
 tained, especially after jo : as, altus, comptus, emptus, 
 raptus, ruptus, &c. : the grounds of the alternative 
 choice in the respective classes of words, it is difficult 
 to determine. Tis also often suppressed before s, as 
 in the nominatives mors, mens, dos, for morts, ments, 
 dots, and the perfects misi, sensi, for mitsi and sentsi. 
 T becomes sometimes d in derived forms, as quadra 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 257 
 
 and quadraginta from quatuor, and so mendax, deceit- 
 ful^ from mentior, I lie. 
 
 In the middle of a word before two vowels the first 
 of which is i, t was in the later period of the Latin 
 language pronounced, as has been stated in another 
 connection, with a sibilant sound, as is evident from 
 the double spelling ci and ti used in such cases, as in 
 nuntius and nunciiis. 
 
 Thad its weakest sounds at the end of words, and 
 hence was sometimes dropped in Latin, as it always 
 was in Greek. 
 
 Latin t becomes in the modern languages, beside t 
 and tt (as It. tutto from L. totus), also d: as, Sp. 
 emperador (L. imperator), and ciudad (L. cjvitas, 
 stem civitat) ; and double d: as It. soddisfare (L. satis- 
 facere). It is also sometimes dropped : as, Pr. delayer -, 
 (L. dilatare) and frere (frater). L. tlh becomes some- / 
 times t: as It. torso (L. thyrsus). L. ti hecomes zi -. 
 as, It. grazia (L. gratia) ; or c : as Fr. grace. L. st 
 becomes in Italian, sci -. as, bescio (L. bestia) ; in 
 Spanish, w ox j: as, uxier and ujier (L. ostiarius^ Eng. ^ 
 usher) ; and z as Sp. gozo (gustus), and rezar (reci-/ 
 tare) ; while in Prench it becomes ss, as angoisse (L. 
 angustia). 
 
 U and V. ?7 is in Latin, as in Sanskrit, a firai 
 strong vowel beyond what it is in Greek, and holds its 
 place with much persistency. U is substituted in de- 
 VoL. II.— 17 
 
558 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 rived forms in Latin for quite a variety of simple and 
 compound vowels : as, 
 
 (1) for a : diluvium = dis-f-lavare, lit. to wash far 
 and wide; and desultari = de+salire. 
 
 (2) foro : as, in thenom. forms in us and um of the 
 2d declension masc. and neuter. Thus dominus is for 
 dominos, and antrum is for antrom (cf. Gr. ocvrQov). 
 
 (3) for au\ as, in includo = in+claudo. 
 
 (4) for oe and oi : as, in punire from poena (cf. 
 Gr. Ttotvrj a ransom), and unus for archaic oinos. 
 
 (6) lov ou : as in cunctus from conjunctus (thus: 
 cojunctus, coiinctus, cunctus), cf. for style of contrac- 
 tion L. contio (spelled ordinarily concio), an assembly, 
 from co-ventio. 
 
 TJ represents Sk. a, u, v or kv, as : (ii) sub, 
 under (yno), upa. (kv) ubi, where, for cubi, as in 
 ahcubi (alius -(-cubi, or ubi), kva. 
 
 U is sometimes hardened into its corresponding 
 consonantal form v, as gavisus, perf. form of gaudeo. 
 Sometimes it is shortened into e or i, as bacillus, dimin. 
 of baculus (for bacululus) ; and so tabella (for tabulula) 
 dimin. of tabula; and famiha formed from famulus. 
 Other vowels frequently change in derived forms to u, 
 but u seldom changes to them, as in cultum sup. of 
 colo ; insulto and exsulto from salio, compounded with 
 in and ex. 
 
 The equivalents of v in Sanskrit are ?<, v, b, k. (u) 
 vacca, a cow, ukshan, an ox, from vah, to carry. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 259 
 
 (v) veneror, I worship, van ; via, a way, vah, to go. 
 (6) valeo, I am strong, balam, force. (^) vermis, a 
 worm for qvermis (cf. Gm. warm and Eng. worm), 
 Sk. krimi-s. 
 
 Latin u remains, if long, unchanged generally in 
 Romanic derivatives. Short u commonly becomes o (as 
 indeed long ti sometimes does) : as, It. omero, pioggia 
 and piombo (L. humerus, pluvia and plumbum) ; uo : 
 as. It. scuotere (excutere) ; and ou: as, Fr. ours (ur-- 
 sus) and goutte (gutta). 
 
 Its correspondents in Greek are the digamma F, as 
 vinum (plvog for Foivog) : in Eng. word fun (Gm. 
 wonne, the Gm. w being pronounced as soft Eng. v) 
 we have an instance of a similar correspondence re- 
 versed ;' and /3, as volo {/3ovXo/uac). 
 
 V, Sometimes called a half- vowel, is properly a 
 dental labial, diflPering from/, only as being somewhat 
 harder. The two sounds compare phonetically, as in 
 English the two sounds of th, in think and rather, or 
 bath and bathe : one being made by the breath, and 
 the other by the voice. After a vowel and before a 
 consonant, especially t, it changes often into u, as lau- 
 tum for lavtum (lavo), nauta for navta ; cautum for 
 cavtum. And so also, vice versa, after a consonant and 
 before a vowel or t, it changes into u, as docui for 
 docvi for doce-fui, and solatum for solvtum. In some 
 words V drops out before a consonant, and the previous 
 vowel is lengthened, as votum, supine of voveo,- for 
 
260 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 vovtum (cf. veto for voto) and oblitus, part, of oblivis- 
 cor, for oblivtus. V was frequently dropped between 
 vowels, as in malo and nolo for mavolo and novolo, 
 aetas for aevitas, and ditior for divitior. It readily 
 dropped into u in contract forms, as in nunc for no- 
 vumce (sc. tempus), prudens for providens. In a few 
 cases it is changed, in combination with <?, into a gut- 
 tural, as vixi, victum for vivsi and vivtum, from vivo ; 
 and nix (for nivs) gen. nivis. In forms like juvi, fovi, 
 movi, cavi, etc., there is a contraction of the full origi- 
 nal forms, which were juv-vi (juv- being the verb stem 
 and -vi the tense-ending, composed of the tense charac- 
 teristic V and the person-ending i for i-mi), and f6v-vi, 
 mov-vi, cav-vi. V, when occurring in a syllable which 
 was afterwards contracted, changed to u, as neu for 
 neve, seu for sive, nauta for navita. 
 
 L. V becomes in derived Romanic forms, besides v 
 itself, also h and hb : as. It. corbo (corvus) and conob- 
 bi (cognovi) ; /: as, Fr. bref and nerf (brevis and 
 nervus) ; and gu, as It. guastare and Fr. gMer (vas- 
 tare), and It. guaina and Fr. gaine (vagina). Before 
 consonants it changes into u (cf. L. lautus from la- 
 vare) : as, Fr. autruche (= L. avis struthio). 
 
 X Its Sanskrit equivalents are sh^ ksh : as (sh) 
 to which it answers seldom : Sk. shash, six, L. 
 sex; (h/i) Sk. aksha-s, L. axis (Gr. a^av), an axle- 
 tree; and its Greek correspondents are §, and, in 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 261 
 
 proper names sometimes, a and ae : as sex, six, S^ -. 
 Ajax and A'lag, Ulixes and 'OSvaatug. 
 
 X represents, as a compound consonant, cs, gs and 
 sometimes vs, ps- and even ts, and lis, in Latin. 
 
 {cs) vox : {gs) rex -. (w) connixi perf. of conniveo 
 for connivsi and fiuxi perf. of fluo, for fiuvsi : {jps) 
 proximus, superlative of proprior, for propsimus : its) 
 nixus for nitsus. from nitor: {Jis) traxi (perf. of 
 traho) for trahsi. 
 
 In one word at least the use of x seems to be alto- 
 gether arbitrary ; senex, gen. senis. The author can 
 think of no adequate analysis that will explain it, 
 unless it be that of a partial dissimilation. 
 
 X'ya. the preposition ex changes into /by assimila- 
 tion before/, as effero, etc. 
 
 The change of x to ss or sc is noticeable in 
 a few words, as lassus (for laxus) and lascivus (for 
 laxivus). 
 
 In composition x was rejected before d, m, n, as in 
 se-decim, semestris {= sex menses) and seni. 
 
 Y. This letter was not introduced until a late period 
 into the Latin alphabet ; and it was then confined to 
 words borrowed from the Greek, in which v had been 
 previously used. As the Greek v was in pronuncia- 
 tion the modern French u, its representation by y in 
 Latin, in the middle of words, was very natural. 
 
262 COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Z was borrowed from the Greek, and used only to 
 denote foreign words. It had been rejected some 500 
 years before Cicero's day from the alphabet, as obso- 
 lete ; but in his time was readopted and placed where 
 it now stands, at the end of the alphabet. L. z is 
 represented in the Romanic languages sometimes by^': 
 as, Fr. jaloux, Eng. jealous (zelosus), andFr. jujube 
 (zizyphuni). In the Fr. ladre, a leper (from Lazarus: 
 cf. It. lazzeroand lazzarone) the « of ^ (= ds) is drop- 
 i ped and only the d remains. 
 
 No one who has not undertaken to compass the 
 whole subject of phonology, for himself, in its many 
 internal elements and external relations ; to subject its 
 facts and difficulties to a thorough analysis of his own ; 
 and to adjust the results of his manifold investigations 
 in all their separate and combined aspects into a har- 
 monious scientific system, adequate to the wants of so 
 great and so complicated a subject, — can have any just 
 idea of the amount of earnest, varied and repeated 
 thought and research required for its proper develop- 
 ment. No study can in itself require more, if any 
 other requires so much, of quick as well as of careful, 
 well-trained habits of observation, improved and forti- 
 fied by extended experience. No one will welcome 
 more gladly than the author, the sound of another's 
 blast, drill or hammer, among us, in these vast and but 
 partially worked mines of scholarly exploration. His 
 
COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY. 263 
 
 own eflPort has been, to throw a true and strong hght 
 on matters hitherto lying out of the field of scholastic 
 vision, in this country ; and to him who shaU give 
 them a brighter and fuller illumination, no one shall 
 shout with more gladness -. AH hail ! 
 
V. 
 
 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY, IN ITS COMPARATIVE ELEMENTS AND 
 ASPECTS, ESPECIALLY ON ITS CLASSICAL SIDE, 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. 
 
V. 
 
 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 There is a great neglected science of etymology, 
 awaiting, in a garnered wealth of silence, the day of 
 its thorough exploration ; when, under the skilful hands 
 of those who shall gather together its blocks of quarried 
 marble, from out of 'the rubbish amid which they now 
 lie confused, it shall rise as if by magic into a 'grand 
 structure of columnar and turreted beauty, to be the 
 joy of every eye that shall gaze upon it. EngUsh, as 
 now used, is, in the comprehension of even our educa- 
 ted men generally, but a mass of uninteresting, opaque, 
 arbitrary conventionalisms ; utterly destitute of any of 
 those pictorial elements, which belong to language in 
 its own true living forms. Modern words accordingly, 
 which once were in themselves veritable thought-pic- 
 tures, are now without inward light or outward color- 
 ing to most eyes ; and are but mere skeleton-drawings, 
 instead of being life-like sketches of the things which 
 they represent. 
 
 Multitudes, from mere idle ignorance, imagine 
 
368 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 that etymology is foredoomed in its very elements and 
 essence to be, forever, but a mass at the best of elegant 
 vagaries and fancied surprises ; and that anything 
 beyond the range, where the testimony of the eye or 
 of the ear is readily decisive in its favor, must be all a 
 matter of uncertain guess-work. But truth has here, 
 as often elsewhere, a deeper significance than any of 
 its mere superficial aspects would indicate. 
 
 As chemistry is not only a beautiful science by it- 
 self, but pours wonderful light also on geology, natural 
 philosophy, and almost all the practical arts of Ufe : — 
 so, etymology, by its analyses and syntheses and its 
 manifold beautiful evolution of the ideas enwrapped 
 more or less deeply in words, as the very strength and 
 beauty of their substance, gives large explanation, both 
 in its exact definitions and in the elementary ideas 
 still treasured in its brief expressive symbols, to the 
 truths of theology, metaphysics, history and social ex- 
 perience, as well as to all the debatable elements of 
 iuman inquiry and of human progress. 
 
 It is often said with truth, that " ideas rule the 
 world," as also that men generally act to a surprising 
 degree on the greatest questions of duty and interest, 
 according to mere theory; but might it not be declared 
 also quite as positively, that after all words themselves 
 rule mankind ? The widely expanded and ever newly 
 expanding power of a mistake, contained in the single 
 word of some creed or dogma or dictum, is certainly 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATUKES. 269 
 
 one of the greatest of all marvels in the history of 
 human opinions.* Words acquire by long use a po- 
 tency that is almost inexplicable, and retain their hold, 
 as descriptive of human rights in law or of human 
 interests in religion, upon the minds of generations 
 that have long ceased to use- them in the ordinary cur- 
 rency of social intercourse. Thus words come to be 
 regarded as sacred in themselves, when their function 
 for the ordinary purposes of life has ceased. What 
 scholar does not for this reason feel that, however much 
 he may himself desire it, or however great the boon 
 would be to the mass of thoughtful Christian readers, 
 there cannot be attempted with success, for the present 
 at least, any new translation of the Scriptures into our 
 language. And so, who can justly expect that the ad- 
 vancing light of human faith will suffice, for a long time 
 in the future, to expel from the church any of the set 
 phrases, so valued now for their antiquity, that have 
 been used for ages in describing the great doctrines of 
 revelation, however imperfect may have been the vision, 
 
 * Stanley's words (Eastern Ohurcli, p. 228) about the doctrine of 
 the " Homoousion " in ancient times are worth quoting here. " It was 
 one of those remarkable words which creep into the language of phi- 
 losophy and theology, and then suddenly acquire a permanent hold 
 on the minds of men, ' Predestination,' ' Original Sin,' ' Prevenient 
 Grace,' ' Atonement.' There is an interest attaching to the birth, 
 the growth, the dominion of words like these, almost like that which 
 attaches to the birth and growth and dominion of great men or great 
 institutions. The history of the word is fall of strange vicissitudes." 
 
270 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 at SO much earlier a period, of those who contrived 
 them ; or however hastily or selfishly dogmatical * their 
 spirit. Many of the greatest differences, controversies 
 and litigations of the world have been mere wars of 
 words. Indeed, while the question is not yet settled, 
 and is not likely soon to be to universal satisfaction, 
 whether men always by necessity think in words, or 
 can and do think swiftly and joyously without them, — 
 it is manifest enough that words mean things to such 
 a degree, that most persons accept them as such. The 
 remark of Parrar, a recent English writer on "the 
 origin of language," is as beautiful as it is true: 
 " When two men converse, their words are but an in- 
 strument ; the speaker is descending from thoughts , to 
 words, the listener rising from words to thoughts." 
 Whewell also, in his "History of the Inductive 
 Sciences," well observes that " language is not only the 
 instrument of thought, but likewise the nutriment of 
 
 * Of how many of the foistings of human arrogance, or at least 
 of human weakness, into the pure text of Christian truth, as furnished 
 from above, must something very similar he said, if the facts were 
 told just as they are, to what AJford so justly says of the Received 
 Text of the Greek Testament (which is that of the second Elzevir 
 edition, founded on the third edition of Robert Stephens, which was 
 itself founded on the fifth edition of Erasmus). " Erasmus," he says, 
 "besides committing numerous inaccuracies, tampered with the 
 readings of the very few manuscripts which he collected; and 
 Stephens's work appears to have been done with levity and careless- 
 ness." The human element, although a very " constant quantity " in 
 all dogmatics, is yet a very weak one in itself. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATUKES. 271 
 
 thought." Whoever accordingly succeeds in turning 
 attention to the concealed riches embosomed in the 
 study of words ; and so, much more, any one who 
 carefully explores himself its mines of wonder, and fur- 
 nishes to others the results of wide and true research 
 in all their varied utility and beauty, is so far a bene- 
 factor to the great community of thoughtful minds ; as, 
 in enlarging to any one the means for greater facility 
 and power of expression, he adds so much stimulus 
 and strength to the exercise and habit of thinking 
 itself. 
 
 The main object of this Essay, especially of the 
 Synopsis with which it concludes, is to show as con- 
 spicuously as possible the classical elements of English 
 etymology : with the hope that some may thus come 
 to see in a new light the lexical wealth of our mother- 
 tongue, and be allured to enter with gladness upon the 
 wide and inviting field of study here opened before 
 them. 
 
 The leading ideas which we would detail to the 
 reader on this subject are expressed in the following 
 comprehensive analysis : 
 
 I. Some of the applications of general philology to 
 the study of Enghsh Etymology. 
 
 II. First principles and facts of leading interest, in 
 the study of words themselves. 
 
 III. Specific facts particularizing Enghsh etymology 
 as such. 
 
272 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 The science of etymology is in itseK, although so 
 little developed as yet in its full proportions, one of the 
 higher forms of inductive philosophy ; requiring for its 
 true and complete elaboration, not only a large and 
 careful gathering of facts, but also their subordination 
 to the most exact criticism. The elements and princi- 
 ples of analogical investigation, in its most scholarly 
 forms and degrees, have here full scope and sweep. 
 
 What then are — 
 
 I. The applications of general philology to English 
 etymology. 
 
 1st. The English is one of the Teutonic family of 
 the Indo-European languages. In respect to this 
 branch of languages, which is large and noble both in 
 itself and in its varied hterature, Danish, Dutch, Gei^ 
 man and English, — ^as the spirit of art is the all-ani- 
 mating genius of the Greek and that of law, authority 
 and mechanism pervades the Latin, as its inward life, — 
 the one great ever-present element of its distinctive 
 vitality is the spirit of individual freedom in it, that, 
 like a living presence, has penetrated and everywhere 
 illuminated, not only its literature, but, by a grand re- 
 active influence, the language itself ; as, first of aU, the 
 hearts of those who have spoken it, as their mother- 
 tongue. 
 
 2d. Gramiuatical identity is the basis of all lin- 
 guistic analysis. According to their grammar, which 
 is in fact their inward osseous structure, all languages 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 273 
 
 are readily classified into distinct determinate families. 
 The English is very largely Latin in its vocabulary, but 
 not at all in its grammar. Its outward order of archi- 
 tecture is therefore specifically German, although its in- 
 ward furnishings are of various sorts beside German, 
 although chiefly Latin. 
 
 3d. The earlier grammatical elements of lingual 
 structure and development were more numerous and 
 minute than in the later derived languages. The ten- 
 dency in the onward progression of lingual forms is 
 always from the complicated to the simple. The style 
 of changes that language has undergone from the past 
 to the present will be understood at a glance, by the 
 statement of the mutual alternation of its two- great 
 elements in the ancient and recent forms of language. 
 Anciently, grammar was rich in forms^ and lexicography 
 poor; while recently grammar is poor in them and 
 lexicography rich ; not only in respect to the absolute 
 volume of its vocabulary, but also in its multiplied 
 resources for expressing the most minute and subtle 
 relations and articulations of thought. 
 
 4th. Since Indo-European philology is in itself a 
 system of high, philosophical, verbal analysis ; its rela- 
 tions as such to English are as definite,* and practical 
 
 * How true the remark made in the Zeitsch. zur Sprachforsohung 
 
 Vol. II. p. 241, that " a priori theories have never furthered science, 
 
 but sometimes kept it back an hundred years." "What is wanted is 
 
 facts ! facts I All true philology rests on these ; and the wonder is. 
 
 Vol. II.— 18 
 
274 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 in their results, as those of chemical analysis to the forms 
 of vegetable and animal life, or those of mathematical 
 analysis to the abstractions of arithmetic or geometry. 
 But in EngHsh that analysis is applicable rather to out- 
 ward derivation chiefly, than, as in the classical langua- 
 ges, to the distinct elements of inward structm-e also. 
 The genetic rather than the progressive and pathological 
 history of forms is here the one chief element of ety- 
 mological interest ; and phonology, which is so large a 
 solvent of difficulties in the ancient languages, has here 
 far less definite scope and function, and cannot be 
 reduced to any scientific treatment by itself, on account 
 of its small action on the language in any determinate 
 manner. No such analysis for example can be traced 
 in Enghsh as in the verb-forms of Greek and Latin : as 
 
 . , Verb- Jv°^®" Mood- Person- Union- ,J°^?^- 
 
 ^"g--»- ste.. s::7°-'- «"«^-s- ^°->- SeT 
 
 Greek, s jSovXsv 6 a vt o 
 
 Latin, ama ba nt u r . 
 
 The separate elements of original grammatical 
 forms have been wonderfully borne away in English. 
 In the person-endings of verbs, the obliteration 
 of the primordial elements of verbal declension, mi, 
 si, ti, mus, tis, nti (I, thoUj he, etc.), is very 
 
 that the facts are themselves on the one hand, so mnltitudinouB and 
 manifest, and that, on the other, they have lain so long, in such 
 •unthought-of concealment. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 275 
 
 marked. In Greek we find them, with few changes, 
 variously defined in the verbs ending in -« and -fj.L 
 alike, and in both the present and preterite tenses, and 
 especially of the passive voice ; and in Latin they appear 
 with wonderful distinctness, especially in the imperfect 
 tenses. But how greatly have they disappeared in 
 German and English ! The only remaining traces left 
 of them in English occur in the endings of the second 
 and third persons singular of verbs in which the origi- 
 nal endings si and ti have become st and th, as in the 
 
 * 
 forms, thou West, he loveth. The ending th, of the 
 
 third person, has become also, interchangeably s, in 
 more recent use ; as in the double forms, new and old, 
 of the third person present active of all verbs, as doth 
 and does, loveth and loves : which change of th to s is 
 like that of the change of the ending n to hi in the 
 third pers. sing, present of verbs in -fzi : thus, 8i8aat 
 is for the earlier form Sidavi, he gives. So too in the 
 possessive case, the only one of the separate original 
 eight cases of the noun which is found in English, and 
 the most important case-form in itself of any language, 
 we have in the case-sign s not only a genuine, but also 
 a beautiful, relic of the same characteristic mark of the 
 genitive in the ancient classical languages. The suffix 
 8 in the word friend's, possessive case of friend, is ex- 
 actly the same as in the corresponding genitive form 
 freundes in German, or as in the genitive eocpia-q of 
 Greek and sermo-n-is of Latin. There is moreover no 
 
276 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 such apparatus of tense-systems outwardly, as there is 
 no such genius for tense-organism inwardly, in any of 
 the modern languages, as in the ancient ; although in 
 the French and Spanish, auxiliaries are used much less 
 than in German and English ; and in respect to verb- 
 forms, as to person-endings, these languages are con- 
 structed very obviously after the fixed models of their 
 parent Latin tongue. In English, as we have aban- 
 doned separate case-forms, for prepositions, so have we 
 separate tense-forms also, for auxiliary verbs. Contin- 
 gent and conceptional ideas, or the forms of subjunctive 
 modality, are expressed in English by an abundant 
 variety of conjunctions, and therefore with great ver- 
 satility and exactness, compared with the system of 
 separate distinct moods for their expression, as in Greek 
 and Latin. 
 
 5th. The alphabetic symbols of all languages are 
 in every case of one common Phoenician origin. The 
 first step in the evolution of alphabetic characters was 
 that simple step, which so many rude tribes in all ages 
 have taken, but have never left behind them for one 
 above it: that of a picture in outline, more or less 
 exact in itself, and more or less filled up in detail, by 
 diflferent people according to the breadth and strength 
 of their ideas. The next step onward towards the in- 
 vention of the alphabet was that of shortening-in the 
 picture, so as to make it in effect but an abbreviated 
 symbol, rather than as at first a pictorial image. Thus 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 277 
 
 the Hebrew, or rather Phoenician, x , aleph, which 
 means an ox, is a symbol of that animal ; in which we 
 have certainly, beside the merit of brevity and sim- 
 plicity, an ingenious combination of the horns of the 
 animal with the plane of his structure, and, that, ac- 
 cording to his general habit when erect, prone towards 
 the ground. So in the letter 1 , beth, a house, we 
 have the most compact possible symbol of a house, 
 containing the four elementary ideas of it, as a piece of 
 architecture : a base, an upright support, a covering, and 
 an entrance within. The letter 5 , gimel, a camel, presents 
 even in its little form the images in compact union of 
 the neck and head, the upright form and the support- 
 ing feet of this animal. In ddleth, T , a door,* nothing 
 more could be added to the symbol to advantage that 
 would not confound it with beth, 3. He, <n , is plainly a 
 window, as its name indicates, and is even left open in 
 the symbol, at one side, to represent its freedom of 
 motion. Vau, 1 , a hook, and zayin, T, a weapon, are 
 strictly pictorial. Cheth, n, a fence, presents not only 
 post and rail, but even the jutting cap in full view. 
 So^ ayin, 5?, the eye, and pe, S, the mouth, viewed as 
 placed horizontally, are noticeably imitative of their 
 sense ; as is shin, 1», a tooth, standing as it does. The 
 same mechanical analysis might be applied to each of 
 the letters of the Phoenician alphabet, seriatim. The 
 
 * The Greek delta, A , is a tent-door in form. 
 
278 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 last and successful step in the invention of alphabetic 
 letters, and in itself the greatest stride of all towards 
 the consummation of this noblest of all human inven- 
 tions, was that of making the abbreviated symbol when 
 obtained, representative, not of the material objects 
 themselves for which they were at first designed, as a 
 sort of system of short-hand pictures, but of the indi- 
 vidual sounds and letters used to denote them. 
 
 II. First principles, and facts of leading interest, 
 in the study of words themselves. 
 
 1st. Words are in no language in any case^ how- 
 ever strong the seeming, mere arbitrary symbols of 
 thought. 
 
 There is no real contingency in matters of human 
 speech, any more than anywhere else in the wide realm 
 of causation, divine or human ; but only what is ap- 
 parently such, from our ignorance of instrumental 
 causes ; as we speak of apparent motion, in common 
 parlance, as real, respecting the heavenly bodies. Each 
 word has had not only a distinct designed origination 
 somewhere in the past, but also a sufficient reason for 
 it, in some specific use that it was to answer : as tnily 
 as each one of the various " dramatis personae " of a 
 tragedy is purposely introduced, for the sake of the 
 part that he is to fill in the development of the grand 
 whole ; or, as every portion of a complicated machine 
 answers some intended service in the production of the 
 final result, for which it is all employed. The tendency 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES, 279 
 
 is in practice indeed uniform, if not resistless, for words 
 to become altogether conventional and mechanical in 
 their general use. Language is in itself an imitative 
 art, and goes down, by as necessary laws of sequence 
 and inheritance, from one generation to another, as 
 men themselves; and mankind generally, moreover, 
 are far more interested in results than in processes ; 
 or, in utilities and practicalities, than in the philosophy 
 of them. 
 
 2d. A given part of every word, variously called 
 its root, stem, base, or crude form, contains all its ab- 
 solute sense as such ; and whatever other accretions 
 are formed upon it, in the shape of prefixes or suffixes, 
 or composite elements of any sort, have come there, as 
 a purposed increase or modification of that fixed signi- 
 fication. Such after-growths upon the simple elemen- 
 tary constitution of words are not parasitical or 
 accidental, but are the determinate results of deter- 
 minate wants, in their use and growth. 
 
 The wonder is that in our various modern lan- 
 guages they are, while at such a vast historic distance 
 from the " primas rerum origines," no greater and no 
 more. 
 
 3d. Mutilations of original word-forms are to be 
 everywhere expected, if not indeed assumed as an 
 almost historical necessity, in the transmigrations of 
 words from age to age and from one language to an- 
 other. The wear of time shows itself on ^ords as on 
 
280 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 things ; and. there is besides an ever-present tendency 
 in all departments of human experience to take, without 
 asking or giving any reason for it, the shortest route to 
 any desired result, and in every way possible to save 
 needless labor. Human nature is inherently practical 
 in its impulses. 
 
 4th. Each word^ in order to be put in its right 
 etymological attitude, must be set in full' correlation 
 with other cognate words, not only in the same lan- 
 guage but also in the various kindred languages. The 
 appointed Law of the Universe, and of all things in it, 
 is the law to each thing of complete individual harmony 
 with itself and, if right in its state and true in its 
 action, of universal harmony also with all things besides. 
 Harmony has no more scope or worth in music, than 
 in art, science^ society, language and religion. 
 
 The almost universal instinct of biographers to 
 place the subjects of their sketches amid those family 
 surroundings, as in a clear harmonious setting for the 
 better display of their characters and fortunes, under 
 the influence of which they became what they really 
 were, is both practically and philosophically a true 
 one. Each individual man is stamped, inwardly as 
 well as outwardly, with strong hereditary aspects ; but 
 the same energetic inter-play of determinate influences 
 from one class, family or generation of words upon 
 another, is apparent, as among the difierent tribes and 
 families of men. Words must be studied in their 
 
IN ITS (CLASSICAL FEATURES. 281 
 
 many correlations, like the scattered facts and elements 
 of any of the natural sciences, or the mutually con- 
 nected doctrines of theology, or the several parts of a 
 full-sounding harmony. They are thus correlated, 
 not only in one language compared with another, but in 
 each separate language also by itself ; so that they not 
 only grow in clusters from one parent stem ; but also, 
 as often in nature, growths of the most opposite char- 
 acter are frequently found united in a common vitality. 
 Words fix themselves in constellated groups, like the 
 stars themselves : they shoot out from, a common centre, 
 like crystals overlying each other and reflecting light 
 one to the other in endless beauty : they grow in 
 masses like trees in the forest, and greatly affect by 
 their height and breadth each other's progressive 
 fulness. 
 
 5th. The etymology of a word decides its real 
 radical signification, as an absolute historical fact. 
 Specific usus loquendi is indeed the proper rule for the 
 interpretation of given words and phrases ; but that 
 " usus loquendi " is itself amenable to definite canons 
 of verbal criticism^ in the form of clear, decisive, ety- 
 mological facts and principles. WhUe there is but 
 little opportunity for improving, with acceptance to 
 persons of critical scholarly taste, the orthography of 
 English words, and whUe, whatever alterations may be 
 made, should be those, for etymological reasons, in- 
 volving as close a return as possible to original forms, 
 
282 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 instead of any sucli iconoclastic processes as some have 
 sought to initiate, — ^there is abundant scope for a large 
 reformatory improvement of the natural derivations, 
 and consequent natural definitions of words in English 
 lexicography. 
 
 6th. No tM'o separate words, whether from the 
 same or different roots, however alike in their general 
 sense, or in any of their specific uses, are yet precisely 
 alike in their entire signification, so that one can be 
 substituted in each and every case for the other. From 
 this remark some half dozen l;echnical words, like 
 dictionary and lexicon, circumference and periphery, 
 circumlocution and periphrasis, supposition and hypo- 
 thesis, which, one from the Latin and the other from 
 the Greek, have come in scholarly usage to be inter- 
 changed one with the other, since they contain respec- 
 tively the same analytic and metaphorical ideas in them, 
 must be excepted.* The statement made however, 
 with these exceptions, is as true as it is sweeping, and 
 can be verified to any extent whatever, at one's leisure, 
 of mingled conviction and humor.f 
 
 * 3uoh etymological fiynonyms as congregational (=L. con-(- 
 grex, a flocking together) ani ecclesiastical (Gr. «KXijoia, an assembly, 
 as being called forth from ordinary pursuits, or, the company of 
 others) are a shade less precise equivalents one to the other by the 
 difference of idea in the fundamental basis of their respective forms. 
 Period (neiiloBos) and circuit (L. oircuitus=ciroum + ire) while of the 
 same etymology for sense respectively, have come to be used with a 
 very diverse signification. 
 
 t The author would suggest, for the readers self-amusement in 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 283 
 
 As our language is, in its very elementary con- 
 stitution, the full round blended union of two wholly 
 distinct hemispheres of lingual development, Anglo- 
 Saxon and Norman-Latin : many synonyms, with the 
 modification above expressed', occur in it, from the self- 
 retentive power, or tenacity of life, possessed by great 
 numbers of kindred words in each of the component 
 languages. They are such as hate and despise, liberty 
 and freedom, love and charity, understanding and in- 
 telligence, strength and power ; and they serve greatly 
 to enrich our facilities for varied and precise expression. 
 So also in some cases we obtain through the French 
 and Latin two separate adjectives, synonymous, in 
 general, as in their origin and fundamental sense ; but 
 descriptive, in particular, one of the inward or sub- 
 jective relations of the word, and the other,' of its out- 
 ward objective or formal aspects : as from L. lex, Pr. 
 loi, the words le^al and loyal, and from L. rex, Pr. roi, 
 re^al and roi/al. 
 
 7th. The same word will readily take upon itself 
 different variations and shades of its fundamental 
 meaning, according to the different classes of minds 
 that use it, or the different ages or periods of civiliza- 
 
 suoh a way, the following familiar synonyms as specimens : see and 
 perceive ; think and reflect ; know and understand ; seize and grasp ; 
 give and bestow ; escape and run away ; sick and diseased ; speak and 
 talk ; change and alter ; act and do ; ask and request ; live and exist ; 
 dare and venture ; shout and halloo ; keep and preserve ; diffuse and 
 spread. 
 
284 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 tion in which it is found in common use. As the human 
 face and form, while in their great aspects always 
 grandly human, are yet so impressible to climatic, local 
 and personal influences as to be able to bear, at one 
 and the same time with their proper generic qualities, 
 all the specific diversities of national, family and indi- 
 vidual characteristics ; or, still again, as the hard bony 
 skull indeed accommodates itself io the size and 
 growth of the soft brain within : — so, language, although 
 fixed and rigid in its forms, yet agrees, in its outward 
 capacities of sense and use, with the wants of the ever 
 growing public mind that works consciously and ac- 
 tively within its living bands. 
 
 8th. As different words are often alike in outward 
 form, a supposed identity of derivation may be arrived 
 at by a guess, which is yet utterly unsubstantial. This 
 style of etymologizing has been much practised by 
 random strollers in the field of etymology, who have 
 thereby brought the real truths and riches of this great 
 but yet undeveloped science into much disfavor. A 
 seeming resemblance of bases, however minute, is not 
 enough to establish an actual derivation or correspon- 
 dence. Phonetic analogies and discordances make 
 strongly for or against alleged connections of words. 
 Minor correspondences also in specific, derived forms 
 from the same base are greatly helpful to the same 
 result; and, in the case of English words derived 
 from the Latin, much determinate light is often obtain- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES, 285 
 
 able from intermediate forms in the other modern 
 tongues. 
 
 9th. Some words in every language, and they are 
 absolutely if not relatively many, cannot be traced to 
 any satisfactory derivation. 
 
 They are isolated in their own existence, without 
 any of those accompaniments of connected forms which 
 enable one to resolve them satisfactorily to their primal 
 condition. The wonder is, not that they are so many 
 but so few ; when we remember, that no one, of all the 
 millions that have used these words in the past, has 
 had any direct purpose to preserve them or their 
 history for critical inspection. Literature, however 
 conveyed from one generation to another, and particu- 
 larly the printed page, have been the great preservers 
 of words, especially as used by the more educated and 
 considerate minds of the day. But on how few words, 
 since the common affairs of life come so little within 
 the pale of literary art or endeavor, has their preserving 
 power been exerted in the ancient languages. Exact 
 criticism and careful scholarship have passed very 
 few of the world's mental products in the past 
 through their scales, and under their measuring-rod, 
 to our eyes. 
 
 10th. Words are always, of course, by necessity as 
 such retrospective in their bearings, and conservative of 
 the results and influences of the past ; instead of being 
 at all anticipative, or prospective, in their signification. 
 
286 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 They are not in themselves prophetic but historical. 
 As they are the coins that were used in the exchanges 
 of preceding generations, they are representative of 
 course of what has been, instead of what is agoing to 
 be ; and, as the human mind grows from age to age 
 and human wants multiply, they must yield to the 
 strain of new uses ; or, rather, like the skin which ex- 
 pands or contracts according to the fulness or leanness 
 of the body which it covers, language is in itself 
 elastic, and dilates or contracts in the dimensions of 
 its use and sense, just as necessity requires. 
 
 11th. As the senses are the inlets of knowledge, 
 
 and sensation is preliminary to speculation, and the 
 
 physical always anticipates the intellectual and the 
 
 spiritual, in the order of development : — so, all those 
 
 words, which form in fact the great mass of language, 
 
 that describe the estimates, wants, acts and states of 
 
 the human mind, are in themselves figurative and 
 
 pictorial in their sense. Language therefore, which to 
 
 us moderns appears at first sight so unadorned, and 
 
 indeed quite arbitrary in its elements, is yet full of 
 
 concealed and also partially obhterated pictures. It 
 
 is, in other words, metaphorical and so, poetical, to a 
 
 vastly greater extent than it is philosophical in its 
 
 elements ; which yet is now its more leading form of 
 
 I, 
 manifestation. 
 
 13th. As words are the symbols of things, and 
 
 things themselves are full of multiform analogies ; so. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 287 
 
 the words that represent them are and must be full of 
 irrepressible tendencies to the expression of analogical 
 ideas and impressions. The ultimate words accordingly 
 of a language have a sort of ganglionic vitality and 
 value in them, and show at every point an ever-active 
 tendency to burst forth into continually new forms of 
 life. 
 
 And the same word also, in instances almost with- 
 out number, shows in itself a ready convertibility to a 
 "great number of secondary related senses. 
 
 A comprehensive and analytic investigation into 
 " the secondary senses of words " would open to any 
 critical, well-stored and earnest scholarly mind a vast 
 fund of pleasing and profitable facts and ideas. 
 
 13th. Words, like vegetable and animal organisms, 
 are in perpetual processes of change, or, of growth and 
 decadence. 
 
 Words pine away and die as truly as men them- 
 selves or books; Many whole languages have disap- 
 peared in other days, as in every language many words 
 are perpetually losing their vitality, like Autumn leaves 
 that have fulfilled their use, and, when their " occupa- 
 tion is gone," drop useless to the ground themselves. 
 As the characteristic qualities and activities of each age 
 and nation are overlaid by those of the better one suc- 
 ceeding and supplanting it : so, the forms of words, as 
 of outer life, that met the wants and tastes of one 
 generation, do not express the ideas and desires of an- 
 
288 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 other. The greatest preservative, antiseptic influence 
 that can be secured for a word is its use in vrorks of 
 standard Hterature. 
 
 But books also have their " day and generation " 
 as well as men ; and that " one cometh and another 
 goeth " is as true of them as of men themselves. The 
 life of a book, so to speak, is now confined to a short 
 and increasingly shorter term of years. 
 
 14th. Great, silent, yet determinative, laws of crit- 
 icism, and so, of general acceptance or condemnation, 
 are ever at w6rk upon words, deciding their position 
 among mankind at large, as if before a court without 
 any appeal. 
 
 Their action is certain, although undefinable to our 
 vision, like the seemingly blind laws of the weather; 
 which yet, however multiplied in their sources or subtle 
 in their action, rule infallibly, not only the questions of 
 human labor and of human harvests, but also to a 
 great extent those of human health, power and en- 
 joyment. 
 
 15ih. As the spelling of words is manifestly de- 
 signed to represent to the eye their real sound to the 
 ear ; the number of silent letters in the present forms 
 of any language is a striking index of the greatness of 
 the changes wrought upon the substance and volume 
 of those forms by time. 
 
 16th. The osseous fabric, or elementary structure, 
 of words consists in their consonantal parts ; and the 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 289 
 
 vowels are but the needful fiUing-up of their framework. 
 Changes and obliterations in the vowel-elements of 
 words are therefore much more frequent, than in the 
 consonantal. 
 
 17th. The revealing power of language, as a sura 
 medium of historical interpretation, is one of its most 
 striking peculiarities. We see plainly each nation as 
 it is, or has been, for aim and effort, for spirit and 
 achievement, for power and progress, in the intellectual 
 rush, or tramp, or pace of its words and phrases^ as 
 well as, in clear and full distinctness, each different age 
 in every nation, according to its- varying moods of 
 energy and aspiration. The Greek is full of deep 
 aesthetic elements, as were the people that spoke it : 
 the Latin, of martial pomp and of the busy stir of 
 wakeful, systematic, active life : the French, of sprightly 
 glancing turns of thought and of much sweet honied 
 phrase; the German, of dreamy revery indeed, but 
 also, and far more, of the rich and tender satisfactions 
 of beauty ; and the English, of all large, full freighted 
 stores of free thought and divine truth, and of large 
 sympathy with human rights and human interests. 
 
 18th. Climatic influences, direct and indirect, 
 which are ever also at work in modifying more or less 
 the living languages of the world, have very decisively 
 modified all languages in the past ; and more then than 
 now, as there was less social intercourse then, to make 
 their forms of speech trite and fixed ; and the influences 
 Vol. II.— 19 
 
290 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 of a more narrow and incomplete literature than ours 
 were also less decisive, in the same direction, in respect 
 to both the phonetic and dynamic quahties of words. 
 Even in the same language, at the same period of its 
 development, whether early or late, physical individu- 
 alities of soil, climate and occupation have always suf- 
 ficed to distinguish, more or less distinctly, according 
 to various geographical divisions, different dialects one 
 from the other. The impressibility of language to ex- 
 ternal influence of all kinds is one of its most remark- 
 able facts ; as well as its wonderful reflex power, in 
 imaging to view the local and historical, as well as also 
 both the inward and outward, peculiarities of those 
 who speak it. 
 
 19th. Nowhere is the fact of an "imperium in 
 imperio " more manifest than in language. Not only 
 has every science, art, trade, and employment its own 
 technics, inside of the general sweep and circuit of 
 every language ; biit the various classes of society have 
 their different circulating media of words and phrases, 
 down to the most unfashionable portions of it, whose 
 slang-language advertises their rudeness wherever they 
 go. Thus scholars, lawyers, merchants, farmers, me- 
 chanics, miners, sailors, all, have their own separate 
 dialect of words and phrases. 
 
 There are also large sections of every language, 
 from which no one man, in whatever employment, ever 
 takes a word for use, any more than if it were an 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATUKES. 291 
 
 utterly foreign language j and even of the common 
 stock of unprofessional words, which constitute the 
 great average staple of any language, the difference of 
 use among men of the higher and lower forms is quite 
 remarkable. As the poorer classes in society do not 
 partake of the dainties of the market ; and the world's 
 rich garniture of fruits and flowers is practically not at 
 all for them : so, they pass by unused, because un- 
 necessary to them, all the higher and better portions of 
 their mother-tongue. 
 
 20th. The facility and certainty with which words, 
 having in themselves a -broad capacity of sense, can be 
 permanently specialized to a confined contracted use, 
 is a very noticeable point in the natural history of words. 
 
 AU technics, doctrinal, scientific, legal and profes- . 
 sional, have been formed out of such material in such 
 a way. As a'few simple specimens from a great abun- 
 dance of this sort, take the following : a congress (L. 
 congressus=con-|-gradi, lit. to come together) means 
 properly any assembly, as does also synod (Gr. avvodog), 
 lit. a gathering together on or by the same way : a 
 minister is in Latin (cf. minor and minimus) any ser- 
 vant, as a deacon is in Greek (pidxovog) ; a presbyter 
 (^■^QtofivrnQog) is literally an older person, as is also a 
 senator (L. senex), and the ecclesiastical word elder 
 (Gm. alter, comp. of alt, old, L. altus) ; and a priest 
 is also etymologically but an elder, being but a con- 
 tracted form of nqto^vTtqog (Gm. priester, Pr. pretre, 
 
292 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 originally prestre ; It. prete ; Sp. preste) ; so too an 
 alderman is but an older man. 
 
 The contractile and elastic power of the same word 
 also is one of the remarkable features of human lan- 
 guage everywhere. Words sweep at once^ at the wUl 
 of him who uses them, through outer or inner circles 
 of signification, or over fuller and narrower areas of 
 sense. To the hearer or reader the context denotes 
 the range of their use, at all times. Thus : the word 
 cause may mean a reason, or, an object of personal in- 
 terest, or an efficient producer : matter may mean the 
 substance of anything, physical substance in general, 
 pus, and any source of pain or trouble : the word 
 church may be narrowed down from the company 
 of the redeemed on earth and in heaven to those 
 on earth alone, or to a particular denomination of 
 them, or to a local collection of them, or even to 
 the building in which they meet. So thp phrase 
 " the kingdom of God " may mean personal piety, as 
 " the kingdom of God is within you " ; or, the visible 
 church, as " the kingdom of God shall be taken from 
 you " ; or Christ's headship over it, as " of his kingdom 
 there shall be no end " ; or, the final triumph of the 
 gospel on earth, as, " thy kingdom come ! " ; or, Heaven, 
 as, " come, ye blessed of my Father, into the kingdom 
 prepared for you, etc." The sifting out of the true 
 sense from such a variety of possible ones in any case 
 belongs to the province of critical exegesis. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 293 
 
 21st. Onomatopoetic words, or those that are 
 formed in imitation of some sound or set of sounds in 
 nature, occur in all languages, and are quite as apt to 
 be indigenous in them as to be derived. 
 
 They are of quite a variety of classes, such as the 
 following : 
 
 (1) Those indicating the sound described : 
 
 § 1. In general: as, in L. susurro, I whisper, 
 and in Eng. boom, buzz, cacTcle, caw, cough 
 and hiccough, drum, gobble, growl, hiss, hum, quack; 
 and also craunch, chuclde, giggle, halloo, lull, mumble, 
 patter, rustle, shout, tinkle, whiz, whirr ; and spue and 
 spit (Gr. nTVHLv, L. spuere, Gm. speien). 
 
 \ 2. Utterances of pain: as, groan, howl, roar, 
 scream, screech, shriek, squeal, wail, wheeze, whine, 
 yelp and yell. 
 
 \ 3. Names of animals accordant with their note, 
 or cry : as, cuckoo (Sk. k6kila-s, Gr. xoxxv^, L. cucu- 
 lus, Gm. kukuk) ; owl (L. ulula, Gm. eule). 
 
 (2) Those indicating sudden or startling motion, 
 or excitement, as, dash, flash, gash, gnash, rash, smash, 
 splash ; so, crack and crackle, hack and haggle, smack 
 and whack, and gasp, clasp and rasp. 
 
 (3) Those descriptive of a general mixing up of 
 things together, to whatever sense the fact is addressed : 
 as, huddle, muddle, puddle, fuddle ; babble and drabble, 
 anA gabble. 
 
 (4) The nasal words : as, nose, nasal, noose, snarl, 
 
294 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 sneer, sneeze^ snicker, snore, snort, snout, snot, snooze, 
 snub, snaffles, snivel, sniff, snuff and snuffle ; as also 
 smirk and smell, and nei^h (L. hinnire).' 
 
 22d. The self-defining power of words in English 
 is as remarkable, in the light of recent etymological 
 research, and as useful, as in any of the more primitive 
 languages. The amount of interest to be found, in 
 the proper study of this element in Greek and Latin, 
 is far beyond any general appreciation of it. Thus : 
 cash (L. capsa, a chest ; Pr. caisse, a chest and cash ; 
 Sp. caja, and Gm. casse, each of the same double sense 
 as Fr. caisse) was something hidden carefuUy from view 
 when the word was first adopted for the thing. Cf. 
 the word coffer, as in the phrase " the coffers of the 
 rich" (Fr. coffre. It. cofano, Gr. xocpivog, a box, Eng. 
 cofiin). 
 
 A comrade (Er. camarade, Sp. camarada, from L. 
 camera, a room or chamber^ is lit. the same as a room- 
 mate; while a companion (Er. compagnon, It. com- 
 pagno, M. L. compaganus) is lit. one who belongs to 
 the same district (=cum+pagus) with us, hke our 
 phrase, a feUow-townsman. A colporteur is not ety- 
 mologically, as is often said, one who bears around 
 wares in a basket, but " on his neck " by a strap (Er. 
 colporteur =:L. e coUo portare). The cricket is an in- 
 sect of shrill note (Gr. xqi^hv and nQix&tv, to screech, 
 Er. criquer). Crape is crisped in its very etymology 
 (L. crispus, Er, crepe, Eng. crape), kpet (Er. petit, 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 295 
 
 small) is one treated as an inferior, in the very mean- 
 ing of the word ; and in the pleasing, though so com- 
 monly unanalyzed, self-flattery of the act of thus pa- 
 tronizing others, lies the charm which many find in 
 "petting" some relative or neighbor, who is often no 
 less victimized morally, than nncomplimented intellec- 
 tually, by the act. Men generally like the company 
 of equals or inferiors, rather than superiors, not indeed 
 for. purposes of ambition but of comfort ; as the mass 
 relish beauty — one fundamental element of which is 
 sufiicient relative littleness to leave them conscious 
 masters of the scene— far more than grandeur and 
 sublimity, the ruling sentiment of which is an overawed 
 sense of their own individual incapacity to stretch out 
 their natures to the vastness that is before them. 
 
 Pay (L. pacare, to pacify, Sp. pagar, Pr. payer) 
 reminds us strongly of the urgency of men to have 
 their debts or dues rendered to them ; this is the only 
 way to satisfy them, the word says. Hut (Gm. hiitte) 
 and hat (Gm. hut) and hide (Gm. haut), all agree in 
 the common idea of being a covering, and are all from 
 one common root (Gm. htiten, to cover, Gr. xtvd-tiv 
 with which cf. exvrog. and xvrog and L. cutis). A 
 pearl (L. pirula, dim. of pirus, a pear) is a little pear 
 in shape. Fangs and fingers are seizers (from Gm. 
 fangen, fing, etc., to catch). A hinge (Gm. hangen, 
 hing, etc., to hang) is a contrivance for hanging a door. 
 A hilt of a sword, like a halter (from Gm. halten, hielt, 
 
296 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 etc., to hold) is a holding place as this is a holding 
 thing. A fashion (L. factio, from facio, to do, Fr. 
 faQon) is the general way of doing things. Treasure 
 (Fr. tresor, L. thesaurus, Gr. ■d-rjaauQog, from Ti-d-rjfit, 
 to place aside, and avqov, gold), is wealth garnered for 
 future use. A garnet is a shining ^r<2«^, &%^granaie is 
 a rock full of grains, and a pome-granate (pomum gra- 
 natum) is an apple full of the same ; and a spider (for 
 spin-der) is a spinning insect (Gm. spinne) being of 
 the same radication as spindle, k. financier (from L. 
 finis) is one who makes ends meet. Anything brilliant 
 shines like the bergl (It. brillare, Fr. briller) ; &. glacier 
 is as clear and smooth as ice (Fr. glacier, L. glacies, 
 Fr. glace) ; an asp (Gr. donig, a shield) resembles, 
 when curled up, a shield ; its head Ijdng in the centre, 
 like a boss. Examples of such words in common use, 
 that define themselves in their own etymology, might 
 be endlessly multiplied. The foregoing have been 
 selected for their commonness ; with the design, that 
 the implication which they bear with them should be 
 seen and felt as real ; — that, if such words carry then- 
 own sense distinctly within them, however latent at first 
 sight to the common eye, so do, much more, most of 
 those higher words, which pertain to the more impor- 
 tant elements of human experience and of the mutual 
 intercourse of men. 
 
 23d. Words are in themselves the most permanent 
 of aU human records and relics. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 297 
 
 Homer often calls words, and well, " winged words." 
 They are winged and, much as they fly through many 
 storms and changes from one land and age to another, 
 their wings are seldom much broken. As language is 
 one of the chief imitative arts ; and as the growth of 
 the public mind of the world has been hitherto slow in 
 the mass ; and as reverence for the past is an instinct 
 that nowhere, except in religious forms, has a stronger 
 hold on mankind at large, than in respect to both words 
 themselves and set forms of words also : it is manifest 
 that we should naturally expect to find language a firm 
 vehicle for the sure conveyance of ideas, traditions, 
 laws, customs and historic facts and memorials, unim- 
 paired from one generation to another. Horace said 
 rightly, as aU time since has shovra, of the power of 
 his written verse to perpetuate his memory : " exegi 
 monumentum aere perennius." " I have wrought out 
 a monument more lasting than brass." What a petty 
 fragment of all the glorious magnificence of Greece 
 could we find anywhere in the world, if aU the "in 
 memoriam " records of the thoughts and deeds of her 
 great men had perished from the eyes and hearts of 
 mankind ! 
 
 But such thoughts alone do not express the full 
 scope of the general statemient, which they are adduced 
 to illustrate. It" is also true, that, in the very fabric of 
 a language itself, aside from any and all forms of lite- 
 rature inwrought into its substance, there is in the 
 
298 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 texture of its elements, as such, a wonderful self-per- 
 petuating power of continued identity ; preserving with 
 itself all the influences stamped upon it, in whatever 
 way, by the myriads that have breathed their thoughts 
 and feelings through its manifold combinations. 
 
 24th. The true philological centre and pivot of all 
 modem etymological research is the Latin language, 
 which mediates, iu its forms, between those of the 
 more primitive languages and those of a recent date, 
 that owe so much of their parentage directly to the 
 Latin. In English especially is it necessary to make 
 thorough scholarship' in Latin etymology the prepara- 
 tion, for an adequate etymological handling of a very 
 large proportion of its forms. 
 
 IIL Specific facts pertaining to English etymology, 
 as such. 
 
 1st. Generally. 
 
 (1) English etymology is in itself, as such, a vast 
 unity in diversity. Our language is indeed a con- 
 glomerate, but one of great firmness and of the finest 
 possible working qualities, for all purposes of word- 
 masonry and of word-ornamentation. No figure, how- 
 ever, drawn from mere inorganic matter wiU describe 
 the inward characteristics of our mother-tongue, which 
 is fuU of organic life and strength, quite individually 
 its own. While the Teutonic and Latin elements 
 greatly prevail over the rest, a number of other elements, 
 in greater or less proportion, are connected with them 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 299 
 
 in the same unique vital structure. Nor are the two 
 cardinal elements of its composite unity, themselves, 
 of one single definite type. The Latin element, while 
 it is often pure ,in its manifestation, is also often 
 strongly Normanized ; and sometimes it has besides a 
 distinct Spanish or Italian modification ; while the Teu- 
 tonic element is sometimes thoroughly Saxon, or High 
 German, and sometimes altogether Danish, Swedish, 
 or Low Dutch. 
 
 As the High German is by far the noblest distinc- 
 tive specimen, now existent, of the Teutonic family of 
 languages, its correspondent forms are exhibited here, 
 rather than those of any other branch of that great 
 family, in the way of comparative parallelisms. 
 
 But, however diversified in the various elements of 
 its origination, there is in the very genius and vital 
 force of thf English language itself, as such, an ever- 
 present, and an all active, assimilative energy at work, 
 which binds them all into one grand, comprehensive, 
 thoroughly harmonized unity. In the wonderful energy 
 of its self-assimilating action upon the materials of 
 which it is composed, it shows, in the most conclusive 
 of all ways, the reality and power of its own individu- 
 ality, as a language. 
 
 (2) In English, far more than in the three classical 
 languages (Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin), the facts and 
 principles pertaining to both the genetic structure and 
 pathological affections of words are much concealed 
 
300 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 beneath the surface. Euphonic changes and substitu- 
 tions are of so infrequent occurrence, and have so Uttle 
 scope and definiteness as such, as not tb be open to 
 any large and thoroughly discriminative analysis. 
 
 The Sanskrit element in comparative etymology is 
 invaluable, beyond any other one by itself, because 
 not only of its high relative antiquity ; but also because 
 of the greater completeness, generally, in form as well 
 as in number, of the nominal and verbal derivatives 
 from its primary roots. 
 
 (3) The English allows, in its present mature state 
 of development, no license to the caprice or choice of 
 individual minds, in the making of new words ; or, in 
 the putting of any new arbitrary senses upon old ones. 
 An academy instituted here, as in France, with a sort 
 of plenary power over the forms of the language, " to 
 kill and to make alive," at their pleasure, would be re- 
 garded, whatever its literary merits might be, as an 
 immense social absurdity. 
 
 (4) The Enghsh is, like the Latin and French 
 languages, beyond all others ancient or modern, owing 
 to the practical business-habits of the people, addicted 
 to abbreviations of its forms. In Greek and Latin, 
 whatever abbreviations occur, are made by the actual 
 rejection of different letters and syllables; but in 
 English and French the letters themselves are retained, 
 while their sounds are dismissed: the abbreviation 
 made is orthoepical only, instead of being also ortho- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 301 
 
 graphical. How many silent letters in English, -which 
 were once exact and needful representatives of the 
 sounds that they were used to denote, have no func- 
 tions now, but those of a merely historical, monumental, 
 or etymological kind. Such almost sacred reverence 
 had the Greeks for the original or normal forms of 
 words, that, in making euphonic changes in them, 
 which sometimes involved a contraction of their 
 elements, they made them on such analogical prin- 
 ciples, or left such obvious traces purposely of the 
 changes wrought, that neither an antiquary's tastes nor 
 a scholar's wants were left unsatisfied. But in Latin 
 the contractions which abound in derived forms are 
 not at all, as in Greek, self-announced. It is a matter 
 often of much scholarly research to find and determine 
 them. As to the multitude of orthoepical contractions 
 in French and English, one, who would deepen his 
 sense of their number and greatness, can readily do so, 
 by comparing the vast array of their silent letters with 
 the full-volumed, vocal forms of the stately Spanish and 
 the exact German. An iconoclastic spirit like 
 Webster's, however narrow its range of operations, is 
 quite foreign to the genius of all the etymological tra- 
 ditions of the language ; and both will be resisted, and 
 should be, in its attacks upon the time-honored forms 
 of our words. 
 
 Notice the following among other contract forms : 
 lone, from alone (Gm. allein = all-fein, lit. all one : 
 
302 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 when wishing to be emphatic, we ourselves say, all 
 alone) ; mart from market (Er. marclid, Gm. markt) ; 
 marsh and moor, as shortened forms of morass (M. L. 
 maristus, Pr. marais, Gm. marsch) ; nurse from 
 nourish ; nonce as a probable contraction of now once ; 
 mould from model (Fr. moule) ; frail from fragile (It. 
 fraile, Fr. frele) ; porch from portico- (L. porticus. It. 
 portico, Fr. porche) ; palsy imva paralysis (Fr. paralisie) ; 
 poor from pauper (Fr. pauvre) ; round from rotund 
 (L. rotundus, Fr. rond) ; sample from example ; stall 
 from stable ; spite from despite (L. despectus. It. di- 
 spetto, Fr. depit) ; sure from secure (L. securus, Fr. 
 sur) ; story (It. storia) from history (L. historia). So 
 compare talc and tallow (Gm. talg) ; spend and ex- 
 pend ; speed and expedite. 
 
 In some words like palsy (Gr. naQaXvacg) and 
 larceny (L. latrocinium, Fr. larcin) and parcel (L. 
 particula, from which also in form Eng. particle, Fr. 
 parcelle) and mercy (L. misericordia *), the changes 
 wrought are like those which would occur in a physical 
 substance under strong pressure from without inwards, 
 
 * The terms of oomparison in respect to Eng. word mercy are these : 
 L. misericordia, It. merci, from obsolete form mercia, Fr. merci. Diez's 
 reference of these forms to L. merces, a reward, is obviously wrong. 
 Merced which he quotes from the Spanish does not mean pity but 
 reward. On the supposition of its being derived from L. merces 
 (stem merced) the i in French merci is not accounted for ; nor the 
 ending — ia in the obsolete It. form, from which the present It. form 
 is easily derived. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 303 
 
 upon both its extremities. So, Carthagena represents 
 Carthago Nova ; Milan, the ancient Mediolanum ; and 
 Naples, Nea Polls ; or, New City. The cormorant 
 (Pr. cormoran) is the L. corvus niarinus. 
 
 (5) The extent to which many Latin-English 
 words have been unjointed from their original form, 
 or de-Latinized, in coming to us through the Prench, 
 Spanish, or other Romanic languages, is quite remark- 
 able. Two or three examples must suffice. It is 
 through the Sp. jamon (jf being pronounced as 1i), 
 Fr. jambon, that we get ham (Gm: hamme, provincial 
 and obsolete) from the Latin gamba, a leg; whUe 
 through the Fr. jambe, from the same root, we get 
 also the word jamb. Our word ambassador, which is 
 thus rightly spelled (M. L. ambasciator from ambascia, 
 entrusted business ; derived from part, ambactus, with 
 which cf. Gm. ambacht) is often wrongly spelled em- 
 ' bassador, as indeed Webster advocates that it should 
 be, because of the kindred word, embassy (from the 
 Spanish form, embaxada, which is special to itself). 
 Much (Sp. mucho) represents the Latin multus ; rent 
 (Fr. rendre) L. reddo ; dupe (Yv. duper) L. decipere 
 (cf. du, owed, part, of devoir, to owe, from debere, and 
 duire, to suit, from decere) ; beauty (Fr. beau and bel) 
 the L. bellus (dimin. of bonus, being contracted from 
 benulus) ; and box (both the box-tree and a box) is in 
 English, as in Spanish, the representative of L. buxus, 
 Gr. TTv^os. 
 
304 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 As many Latin words came into our language, as 
 such, not by Roman or clerical but strictly Norman 
 influence; it is natural that they should have some 
 Norman mark upon them, whose removal without 
 damage, as that of a blemish^ true scholarly taste 
 would both sanction and demand. Thus who does 
 not approve Webster's restoration of those pure Latin 
 words in English, favor, honor, humor, labor, etc., to 
 their true form, by dropping out the u, which they 
 used to have and have still in Walker, from the spelling 
 of the equivalent IVench forms faveur, honneur, 
 humeur, etc. Of the same acceptable nature is the 
 substitution of s for c, in the former mode of spelling 
 such words, as defense, offense, pretense, all directly 
 derived from Latin supines spelled with an s. Such 
 words, of course, as abstinence, licence, and reticence 
 are rightly spelled, for their final syllable, in -ce, as 
 they represent corresponding Latin forms in -tia : as 
 abstinentia, etc. The original Latin should obviously 
 rule the orthography of the English, rather than the 
 degenerate Erench form, in these cases and all like 
 them. But is not the change of -tre to -ter, in such 
 words as centre (xsvtqov), lustre (lustrum), theatre 
 (p-saTQov), utterly abnormal in itself, and offensive to 
 all true scholarly feeling, not to say conscience ! Can 
 the combined efforts of all the type-setters of our news- 
 paper offices, although so pertinacious in the attempt, 
 succeed in making this purposed abuse into a law ? 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 305 
 
 We trow not. And here a word concerning Webster : 
 its etymology is, simply and plainly described, horrible ; 
 and of course its exegesis, or the whole department of 
 its definition of words, both practical and philosophic, 
 rests on no adequate basis in the words themselves. 
 Unless it be utterly renovated, and that in the most 
 radical and critical manner, it must fall dead by its 
 own weight from the hands of the next generation of 
 scholars.* 
 
 2d. Particularly. 
 
 (1) Many English words are of the same identical 
 origin, and so of the same fundamental sense, which 
 yet present in themselves no such appearance of such 
 a fact. Examples of such words with their correspon- 
 dents in various languages : 
 
 § 1. Bay ^nd diary (L. dies) on the one hand, 
 and on the other, journal, journeyman, adjourn, sojourn 
 (L. diumus, M. L. jornus. It. giorno, Fr. jour). 
 
 % 2. Captain (Fr. capitaine) and chief (Fr. chef, 
 cf. also achever, and Eng. achieve) are both from L. 
 caput, the head ; as from capitulum (a diminutive of 
 
 .* Since writing the abore (in 1860), the anthor has rejoiced to hear 
 that Webster has been undergoing, for some two or three years past, the 
 most elaborate and absolute transformation, in the hands of a chosen 
 group of critical scholars, at home and abroad. How will its regene- 
 rated form and substance be greeted, by hosts of waiting students, 
 eager to see English words etymologized, in their outward aspects 
 and inward sense, according to the latest and best discoveries of 
 Indo-European philology 1 
 Vol. II.— 20 
 
306 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 caput), a small head, are our words chapter (TV. cha- 
 pitre) and capitulate ; and from capitalis (pi. capitalia, 
 principal forms of property) come our words cattle and 
 chattels. 
 
 % 3. Aperture, aperient, and April (the month of 
 the earth's being opened for new seed) are from aperio, 
 to open, as is also overt and overture (Fr. ouvrir) and 
 open (as well as the corresponding Gm. offen). 
 
 § 4. Propitious (L. propitius), propinquity (pro- 
 pinquus), property and propriety (proprietas), appro- 
 priate (M, L. appropriare), all have their common 
 root and idea in the word prope, near, near to or by, 
 as have also the following words : approach (M. L. ap- 
 propiare), proximity (sup. proximxis for propsimus), 
 approximate, proxy. 
 
 § 5. Prom L. canna, a reed (Gr. xavva, a reed), 
 come can, cane, canon, a law or rule (Gr. xavcov, a 
 straight rod), cannon (Fr. canon. It. cannone), canai 
 and channel (L. canalis, Fr. chenal). 
 
 § 6. From L. spatula (dim. of spatha, Gr. enad-ri, 
 any broad blade, from o%aa, to draw out — from which 
 come also spasm, spavin and spay — Gm. spaten, a 
 spade, Fr. epaule and epaulette), come oiu" words spa- 
 tula (an anatom. teria), paddle, spade and epaulet. 
 
 § 7. From L. unus, archaic oinos (cf. Gr. sig for 
 Evg, one, olog, alone, and also ovog and oivrj, ace or 
 dice), come onion (Fr. ognon, L. unio), one, only for 
 onely, union, unit, ounce (L. uncia: lit. the 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 307 
 
 measure of a pound), atone (at-one), none (= not 
 one): so, L. non, archaic nenu = ne+unum; alone 
 (Gm. allein, lit. all one), lone, lonely, lonesome. 
 
 S 8. Barber is from L. barba (Fr. barbe and bar- 
 bier), from which come also barh and " en barbette." 
 Eng. beard is from its Gm. correspondent bart. 
 
 § 9. Aquiline and eagle (Fr. aigle) are alike from 
 L. aquila. 
 
 § 10. Canine and ^02<««? represent different stages 
 of the same original word (Sk. cvan, Gr. xvav, L. 
 canis, Gm. hund). H is in German a frequent equi- 
 valent of h in Greek; and it had formerly a harder 
 sound in German than now. 
 
 § 11. Scale (a thin plate), shale, shell and shull 
 are all of the same radication as the Gm, schale, which 
 combines all these different senses in itself. Cf. for 
 sense, Fr. tete, the head, for previous teste from L. 
 testa, a shell. 
 
 § 12. Sign and seal represent the same L. word 
 (signum, dim. sigUlum, Gm. siegel). 
 
 § 13. Pagan (L. paganus, lit. living in a district), 
 and peasant (Fr. paysan, from L. paganus, like Fr. 
 pays from L. pagus), and companion (M. L. compa- 
 ganus, Fr. compagnon) agree in one. 
 
 § 14. Beaker (Gm. becher) and pitcher (Fr. 
 picher) represent alike the M. L. picarium. 
 
 § 15. Wary, aware, warrant and warranty (Gm. 
 gewahr), and ward (Gm. verwahren and wehren) are 
 
308 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOIiOGT 
 
 connected etymologically with guard (M. L. guarda, 
 Fr. garde, Gm. warte), cf. for phonological similarity 
 L. Gulielmus, Gm. Wilhelm, Eng. William ; and also 
 £ng. words guise and wise (manner) ; so Pr. garde- 
 robe is the Eng. wardrobe. Begard and reward are 
 correspondingly of the same etymology (M. L. regar- 
 dium, etc.). 
 
 ^ 16. Cathedral (Gr. udd-tdQa, lit. a seat, from 
 's^ofiac, Sk. sad, L. sedere, Eng. sit and set^ and 
 chair (Er. chaira, from L. cathedra: cf. Eng. chain 
 and Er. chaihe from L. catena, for form), and chaise 
 (Er. do. : — a corrupted form of Er. chaire), though so 
 different in our usage now, have all one common origin 
 and signification, in themselves. 
 
 § 17. -The words take, attack and attach as well 
 as detach all have one primitive source, as is plain in 
 the various modem languages, although their common 
 original is not certain. 
 
 ^18. In the same Latin root radicate (L. salvus, 
 Gr. adog for earlier accFog) the words salvation, salve, 
 salvage, salver, safe, save, savior, salute, salutary, sa- 
 lubrious. 
 
 § 19. With Gm. spalten, to cleave, etc., are con- 
 nected s^lit and splinter, with which are cognate sjoill 
 (Gm. spillen), lit. to separate, and spell (of same fun- 
 damental sense), and gospel (or good spell, or good 
 tidings). 
 
 § 20. Weather and winter (Gm. wetter and winter) 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 309 
 
 seem to be of the same origin, and are perhaps corres- 
 pondents of Sk. v4ta-s, wind; as summer and sun 
 (Gm. sommer and sonne) are also apparently con- 
 nected with each other. 
 
 § 21. With Sk. root r4j, to shine or glisten (cf. 
 also Sk. rajan, a king, and L. rex, regis, and Hindu 
 Rajah) are connected Eng. riches and L. argentum, 
 silver, Sk. rajata-m, as being white and glistening 
 (Gr. ccQyvQos) and perhaps also L. arguere, to argue or 
 make clear, andL. argilla, white clay, Eng. argillaceous. 
 
 § 22. Win and fun (Gm. wonne, delight^ from 
 winnen, to gain) are of the same fundamental sense. 
 
 § 23. Date (L. datus, pass. part, of dare, to give) 
 donate (L. donare) and dose (Gr. Soaig) all have their 
 common signification in the idea of something given. 
 
 ^ 24. KvTtrj, a hollow vessel (cf. teu^rj and 
 }(V[A.^ri, L. cymba) and xvittlXov, a cup, and L. 
 cupa, a tub or cask (M. L. cuba and cubellus, dimin. 
 Gm. kiibel, a tub), and Eng. cup, cupola and goblet 
 (Fr. gobelet), are all in radical connection with each 
 other. 
 
 § 25. Grunt, groan and growl, if not also grumble, 
 all strongly onomatopoetic, axe connected with Gr. 
 yQv^oj and ygvlXi^co, and L. gninnire, Pr. grogner 
 and gronder, Sp. grunir. 
 
 § 26. We must associate also with each other 
 gross, groceries, engross (L. crassus, M. L. grossus, 
 great, Sp. grueso, Er. gros and grosse), and grease 
 
310 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 (L. crassus, thick, fat, coarse; M. L. grassus, Sp. 
 graso, Pr. gras, fat, and graisse, fatness, Sp. grasa). 
 
 § 37. Sauce (L. salsus, Pr. sauce), saucer (Sp. 
 salsera, Pr. sauciere) and sausage (Sp. salchicha, Fr. 
 saucisse), salsify and salad (Sp. salado, salted), and 
 saline aiid salary (L. salarium, lit. salt-money given to 
 the soldiers, or a stipend) are all derived from L. sal, salt 
 (Sk. sara-s, Gr. aXg) ; as well as insular (= in sale). 
 
 § 28. Price, precious^ prize (&vew&xdL), appreciate, 
 depreciate, praise and appraisal are derivatives of L. 
 pretium. 
 
 § 29. Benefit, boon, bounty and beauty are aU de- 
 rived from bonus and its derivatives beUus for benulus 
 and the Pr. bel and beau. 
 
 § 30. Cook, cake, kitchen, precocious, apricot and 
 cockney are all of one common ultimate origin (see 
 coquo, in synopsis). 
 
 ^ 31. A dactyl and a date, the fruit, are the same 
 in origin, but how different in sense (Gr. SatezyXog, a 
 finger. It. dattero, Sp. datil, Gm. dattel, Fr. datte). 
 
 § 32. Vote (L. vovere, votum, and frequent, vo- 
 tare), vow (TV. voeu from L. votum), and veto (L. do. 
 for voto) lit. I forbid, are also of the same root. 
 
 § 33. With Gr. ^sa, I boil (Sk. yas, to strive or 
 struggle) are connected seethe and sodden (Gm. sieden, 
 gesotten) and zeal (Gr. ^fjXos) and jealousy (It. ge- 
 loso, Yx. jaloux), where the Gr. ^ (L. z) acquired by 
 its palatal enunciation a soft sound. The fundamental 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 311 
 
 idea in both zeal and jealousy is the heat of feeling that 
 they engender or express. 
 
 § 34. Heal, health, hale, hail (be well !), Twly (Gm. 
 heilig), morally sound, all radicate in the Gm. heil, 
 soundness, welfare, weal. 
 
 (2) Many words contrarily which seem to be of 
 the same origin, and are often regarded as such, are of 
 a totally diverse etymology. To count is with its de- 
 rivatives, account, discount, recount, from Pr. compter, 
 L. computare (Eng. compute) ; as is also the noun 
 counter (Fr. comptoir) ; but country (L. contra -|-terra, 
 M. L. contrata, Fr. contree) is from L. contra, over 
 against (cf. Gm. gegend, the country, and Gm. prep, 
 gegen, over against), i. e. the eye. Just, righteous, 
 is from Justus, and just, near by, is from juxta, for 
 jug-is-ta from stem jug as in jugum. Toil, a net (L. 
 tela, a web, Fr. toile and toilette, Eng. toilet), has 
 nothing to do with toil, labor, which is a word of 
 Saxon origin. Chance (Fr. chance, L. cadens) has 
 nothing to do with chancery (L. cancellaria, Fr. chan- 
 cellerie). Tempt and attempt (M. L. attemptare, Fr. 
 tenter, L. tentare, to try) are of a different origin from 
 contempt, L- contemno, sup. contemptum). Be/rain 
 (the verb) is from L. refrenare (=re4-frenum, a 
 bridle) ; but a refrain is from L. refrangere. The 
 same fact is still more striking in several composite 
 words. Thus compare surface (super 4-facies from 
 faoio) and preface (praefatio from for, to speak) ; ex- 
 
312 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 plain (ex+planus) and complain (con+plango) ; 
 suffuse (subfundp) and refuse (recusare, Sp. rehusar, 
 IV. refuser) ; prize, as a token of honor (pretium,.from 
 which also, precious, appreciate, etc.), and prize, as 
 something taken in battle (L. prehendere, Pr. prendre, 
 part, pris, lit. taken, from which also enterprise, re- 
 prisal, prison and misprision). How different the 
 origin of the same terminational forms often in English, 
 as in the following specimens of -able .• agreeable (It. 
 aggradevole) ; parable (Gr. naQajSoXrj = naQu + 
 fidXXco) ; syllable (6vXXa^r'i=zauv-{-Xafz/3dvco) ; and 
 able (Fr. habile, L. habUis, from habeo). The termi- 
 nation -ffale in nightingale has no relation to gale, a 
 breeze, but is from the L. gaUus, a bird (cf Gm. 
 nachtigall) and signifies a night-bird. In the word 
 humblebee the prefix "humble" is not our ordinary 
 adjective so named, but the correspondent of the Gm. 
 hummel, anglicized (from hummen, to sing, Eng. hum), 
 and means the buzzing bee. 
 
 The word vow (L. votum, Er. voeu) is of an en- 
 tirely different origin from avow and avouch (L. avo- 
 care, Er. avouer). Mil in mildew is the Gr. f^sXi; 
 Goth, milith- (so that mildew means lit. honey-dew) 
 and not the Gm. mehl (Eng. meal) in which case it 
 would mean grain-dew. Impair is from L. pejor, 
 worse (cf. Sp. empeorar, to impair, with peor, worse, 
 and Er. empirer, to make worse), while repair is, like 
 compare, from parare, to prepare, see L. reparare. Chest 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 313 
 
 in chestnut is not the ordinary word chest, and the com- 
 pound does not mean, however plausible the appearance 
 of the fact, a nut enclosed in a chest or husk. It is but 
 the anglicized form of L. castanea (sc. nux : cf. Fr. 
 chAtaigne, originally chastaigne) and Gr. xaaravov from 
 Kdarava, a city of Pontus. Vaunt, to boast one's 
 self (Pr. vanter) is from L. vanus (M. L. vanitare), 
 while the termination -vaunt in avaunt (=L. ab ante, 
 lit. from before, sc. me) is of an entirely other origin. 
 The termination -licit in elicit and solicit is from L. 
 lacere, to draw out or from; while in illicit, unlawful, 
 it represents the L. licet, it is lawful. So, the termi- 
 nation -ply in comply is from L. complacere, Fr. com- 
 plaire, from which also is Eng. complaisant, as from its 
 L. paronym (complacere) comes Eng. complacent; 
 while in imply, from L. implicare, from which come 
 also implicate and implicit, it represents an entirely 
 other root. Ly, in rely, is the verb lie (L. legere, Gm. 
 liegen), and the word means to lie back, like repose 
 (= re-j-ponere, sc. se) ; while in ally and alliance it is 
 the L. verb alligare, to bind, and means lit. to bind to 
 or with. Spite in despite is from L. despectus;. and 
 in respite (= L. re+spatium) represents L. spatium, 
 from which also come space, spacious and expatiate. 
 The termination -vey in convey represents L. vehere; 
 \xi. purvey (^. providere, Fr. pourvoir) L. videre; and 
 in survey (Fr. surveiller = L. super and vigilare) L. 
 vigilare. Miscreant (Fr. mecreant, an unbeliever) -is 
 
314 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 from L. credere, while recreant is from Pr. recrier, to 
 clamor against : neither of them having anything to do 
 with L. creare, to create, \adue is from L. induere, 
 to clothe on or upon^ from which also L. industria, 
 Eng. industry/, and svibdue is from suhducere (=ducere 
 4-sub, sc. jugum). 
 
 Prom what a vast variety of sources comes the ter- 
 mination -at/ in Engl. Thus day (brown) is from M. L. 
 badius ; decai/ is from L. decadere, Sp. decaer ; day is from 
 L. dies, Gm. tag ; dray isfrom the same root with drag, 
 draw and draught ; fray, L. fricare, Pr. frayer ; yay, 
 Fr. gai (from L. gallus). It. gajo : cf. Sp. gallo, a 
 cook, and galhto, a beau or coxcomb : (here belongs, 
 also, probably, Eng. jay, Sp. gayo, Er. geai) ; kay. is 
 the Gm. heu from hauen, to cut ; hy, L. locare, Gm. 
 legen, while delay (Er. delai, etc.) is from L. dilatare; 
 pay, L. pacare, Sp. pagar, Er. payer ; play is the L. 
 pUcare (cf. Er. plier and Eng: j}ly) ; ray, L. radius, Er. 
 raie ; stay, Gr. tarrj/Lii, L. sto, stare, Gm. stehen ; way, 
 Gm. weg, L. via, etc. 
 
 (3) Many instances occur in English of double 
 forms of the same radical word as blaspheme (/3Xu- 
 6cpr]fA,sa, to speak reproachfidly,) and blame (Er. bld- 
 . mer, originally blasmer, cf. It. biasimare) ; example, 
 (L. exemplum) and sample ; paralysis {%a()dXv6i.^ 
 and palsy ; history (IgtoqIci) and story (It. storia) ; 
 fantasy (^cpavraGia, from rpaiva, to appear), and 
 fancy ; thorough and through (a shortened form) ; single 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 315 
 
 and singular (L. singulus) ; costume and custom (a • 
 shortened form of stem consuetudin), for the double 
 sense of which two words compare for analogy the two 
 corresponding senses of the word habit (from habeo, 
 to have) ; plane and plain (L. planus, Pr. plain) — for 
 the varying modes of spelling which words, compare 
 the two derived forms of manus in om- words manskge 
 (manus+ego) and maintain (manus-j-teneo) — the word 
 piano (It. piano, soft or smooth, L. planus) is also a 
 third modern form of the same root ; secure (se, without, 
 cura, care) and sure; state (L. status) and estate (Fr. 
 etat for estat, Sp. estado) ; spy (L. specie. It. spiare) 
 and espy (Sp. espiar) ; regulate (L. regulus) and rule ; 
 seek (L. sequor, Gm. suchen) and beseech ; repel, re- 
 peal and repulse (L. repello) ; truth and troth as in be- 
 troth; construe and construct. Shun and shy (one , 
 transitive and the other intransitive) both represent the \ 
 Gm. scheuen. The adjective and adverbial suffixes, I 
 -like and -ly (Gm. -lich) are duplicates of each other, as 
 in godlike and godly (Gm. gottUch), -like being in imi- 
 tation of the spelliilg, and -ly, of the pronunciation of 
 the syllable. So, lease and let (Gm. lassen, Fr. laisser, 
 Lat. laxare), from which comes also release, are the 
 same word ; and so likewise with captive (L. captivus) 
 and caitiff (Fr. chetif), one describing his relations to 
 others, and the other, the results of the same ; as also 
 are debt and duty (L. debere, Fr. devoir, part, du); 
 canvas and hemp (Gr. xdvvafiig, L. cannabis, Fr. 
 
316 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 chanvre, Gm. hanf, Eng. hemp) ; chance (L. cadens) 
 and cadence ; gelid (Sk. jalita-s, L. gelidus, Gm. kalt) 
 and cold; tierce (L. tertius, Fr. tiers and tierce) and 
 third and tier. Mmir (a Turkish prince, from Arabic 
 Amir, a prince), and admiral are the same word (from 
 M. L. admiralius, which was also variously admiral- 
 dus), being a Latinized form of al, the Arabic article,' 
 and 4mir, cf. Span, almirante. Provident (L. provi- 
 dens), prudent (from prudens, a contracted form of 
 providens), prude (Fr. prude) and proud (Pr. prud'- 
 homme), are all the same word in varied degrees of 
 more or less. So is it with pompute and count ; pro- 
 pound, propose and purpose ; plum and prune (L. 
 prunum, Pr. prune, Gm. pflaume). 
 
 There is a considerable number of double forms, 
 hard and soft, of the same word in English, and nearly 
 aU of Teutonic origin, as bank and bench (Sax. bene) ; 
 blank ^nd blench and bleach, bleak and black (see blan- 
 cus in Synopsis) ; Frank and French; milk and milch 
 (Gm. milch) ; seek and beseech (Gm. suchen and be- 
 suchen) ; shale, shell and skull (Gin. schale) ; skif and 
 ship (Gm. schiif) ; speak and speech (Gm. sprechen) ; 
 stink and stench. So compare rank and range (Fr. 
 ranger and rang) ; raw and rough (Gm. roh). Cf. also 
 Eng. rank (adj.) and rancid (L. rancidus) ; draw and 
 drag (Goth, dragan) ; and say and forsake (Gm. sagen 
 and ver -sagen, lit. to deny, renounce, etc.) ; and Scotch 
 kirk, Gm. kirche and Eng. church (Gr. xvqiaHov, lit. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 317 
 
 belonging to the Lord. So, of. frish, fresco, fresh, 
 one with the other (L. frigidus, Gm. frisch). 
 
 (4) Some words, especially when combining with 
 others in composition, lose nearly or quite their entire 
 radical substance. Thus k in inJc from Pr. encre (L. 
 encaustum, lit. burned in) represents Gr. xala, fut. 
 xavGa ; cf. Eng. caustic. To couch is from coUocare 
 (It. colcar, Pr. coucher). Sue is from sequor (Fr. 
 suivre) ; cousin is L. consobrinus, Pr. cousin. In obei/ 
 (Fr. obeir, L. obedire =: ob+audire) not one letter of 
 the original verb audire occurs, which is represented 
 merely by the syllable -ey. In prince, ce represents 
 L. capere in L. princeps (== primum, capere, sc. 
 locum). In possible, the second s represents all 
 that is left of the original verb esse, to be, in posse 
 (= potis+esse). The syllable -vy in envy (L. invidia) 
 represents L. videre, to look at (i. e. askance) ; autumn 
 (L. auctumnus) is from augeo, to increase ; strange is 
 from extraneus (Gr. i;€, L. ex, extra, etc., Sp. extrano. 
 It. stranio) ; hotel is from L. hospitalis, Fr. hotel, ori- 
 ginally hostel ; insular and isolate are from L. insula, 
 which is from L.in sale (Gr. if aXi). Other is from 
 Fr. autre, Sp. otro (L. alter, comp. form of alius — from 
 which come also directly alter and alternate in 
 English). Sir is from Fr. sieur, L. senior. Soda is 
 from Fr. soude, L. solida, n. pi, neut. of solidus (from 
 which come also Eng. solder, to make solid, and 
 soldier, Fr. soldat, from L. solidum, a gold coin, and 
 
318 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 M. L. solidarius, a soldier, viewed as under pay. Cf. 
 for sense stipendiary). 
 
 (5) Metathesis occurs occasionally in English as 
 in the ancient languages. This change in the relative 
 order of the letters of a radical word sometimes origin- 
 ates in our language itself, and sometimes it is brought 
 with the word from some other modern language, and 
 is a resultant or formal rather than an analytical meta- 
 thesis. Thus/o«7 represents L. foHum (Ft. feuille), as 
 also does trefoil, or clover (L. tria folia) ; and amiable, 
 the Fr. aimable ; and purpose, the TV. propos (L. pro- 
 positum). So, cf. purvey (Pr. pourvoir) with L. pro- 
 videre, and morning with Gm. morgen. See sho poison 
 (Fr. do.. It. pozione, L. potio) and tool (L. utUis, -e, 
 Fr. outil). Clarion is the Fr. clairon (L. clarus) ; 
 fiend, the Gm. feind ; fright, the Gm. furcht ; nerve 
 (L. nervus) is Gr. vtvQOv ; as ancestors is L. anteces- 
 sores (Fr. ancetres for ancestres) : so, in the word 
 Wright as compared with work, of same radicatiori. In 
 surgery (Gr. ^eiQcvgyia, Fr. chirurgie), there is a meta- 
 thesis of they and r ; as in crow (L. corvus) of the o and 
 r; and grasp is the Gm. grapsen ; as also split is the Gm. 
 spalten ; and burnish the Fr. brunir ; curl is the Gm. 
 krulle (cf. Eng. cruller) ; soap, L. sapo ; blue is Gm. blau 
 and Fr. bleu ; and rue and true are Gm. reuen and treu. 
 
 There is in English and German one remarkable 
 instance of the metathesis of an aspirate Uke that in 
 Greek, as seen in t^-gii, xQcxog, or ^;ra, ?ia, viz. in 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 319 
 
 Gm. ohr, (Eng. ear), and Gm. horen and horchen, 
 Eng. hear and hearken. 
 
 (6) Quite a large number of English words are 
 simply Latin, Greek, German, French, and Spanish, 
 or other like words, as such ; or, with only such little 
 change as shall just suffice to remove the gender-sign, 
 or declension-form, that is added to the stem. Indeed 
 there is quite a manifest tendency in the English to 
 use, if not to demand the simple unencumbered stems 
 of words, beyond most of the languages lying histori- 
 cally between it and the Sanskrit. Observe the follow- 
 ing specimens: 
 
 ^ 1. From the Greek: analysis, dvdlvoiq; ache, 
 dxog; aroma, dqcufia; ball, fidXla ; basis, fidaig ; 
 bomb, ^ofifioQ, a whizzing sound ; catastrophe, xara- 
 GTQocpi^ ; climax, xXlf^ai, a ladder; coffin, ttocpcvog; 
 crisis, xQiGiQ ; character, x<xqaxTi]Q ; dogma, doy/na ; 
 idea, l8sa ; idiot, IdiwTrjs ; idiom, iSia/nu ; idol, al'da- 
 Xov; method, fi.sd-o8os ; pathos, TTd&og ; panther, 
 navdriQ ; paralysis, itaqdUvGLg ; period, TtiqioSog ; 
 poem, nocTifta; scope, axonog; spasm, GnaGfiog; 
 spleen^ anlrjv; stigma, GTiy/Lia ; theme, -d-fifia ; thesis, 
 ■&sais, and synthesis, ovv-d^tetq.'^ 
 
 * Some words have, however, so strong a Greek look, which are 
 yet not at all of such an origin, as almost or quite to deceive at 
 first one well acquainted with its elements: of which the word^ara- 
 gon is a fin* example, which is not only a Spanish word but is of 
 strictly Spanish composition (viz. : Span. prep, para, for, and con, 
 with. Of. phrase para oonmigo, lit. compared with me). It means a 
 
320 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETTMOLOGT 
 
 § 2. From the Latin : arbiter, ardor, animal, ap- 
 paratus, axis, circus, color, error, favor, genius, humor, 
 medium, miser, nausea (cf. vavoia from vavq, a ship), 
 nucleus, odor, pastor, rumor, series, species, stimulus, 
 splendor, terminus, tenor, terror, valor, veto, vigor, 
 virus, which are in their present form just as good 
 Latin words as they are EngUsh 
 
 And what numbers are there of other words that have 
 been only changed from their nominative form in Latin 
 to their simple stem-form, or, at least a nearer approxi- 
 mation to it in English ; as, action, alien,* art (L. ars, 
 stem, art), angel, continent (L. continens, sc. terra), 
 disquisition, elegant, explosion, familiar, form, front, 
 herb, mortal, nation, notion, office, origin, part, sermon, 
 spirit, virgin. 
 
 ^ 3. Erom the Erench, such words have been bod- 
 ily imported into English, as rendezvous (lit. render or 
 report yourselves) ; lieutenant (=:L. in loco tenens) ; 
 revenue (lit. that which comes back) ; mortgage (ht. a 
 
 likeness or pattern, and so a model. So the vori pa/rapet a classical 
 scholar would naturally refer to the Greek irapaireraaiia, a screen ; 
 but a comparison of the corresponding Italian form parapetto shows 
 plainly that it comes from the It. para, in front of, and petto (L. 
 pectus) the breast. 
 
 * The real Latin stem of all such words as alien, angel, antique, 
 and others like them, representing the second-declension-form in Lat- 
 in, ends in the vowel o : as alieno, antique, angelo ; so that by mere- 
 ly removing the tei-minal vowel we get the corresponding English 
 word, as also in Latin words of the first declension, as L. seqaela, 
 Eng. sequel, L. columna, Eng. column. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 331 
 
 dead pledge) ; chemise (L. camisia) '; loyal (L. legalis), 
 and royal (L. regalis) ; sage (L. sapius).* 
 
 ^ 4. Prom the German, as our language is in its 
 grammar wholly German and in its vocabulary largely 
 so, instances might be furnished to almost any extent. 
 
 Differences of form in English cannot be clearly re- 
 solved, as has been stated, by phonetic laws and prin- 
 ciples, and classified as in the classical languages ; but 
 side-influences of all sorts, for variety and force, as of 
 internal commotions, emigration, conquest, commercial 
 intercom-se, and sympathetic contact in whatever way 
 with the elements of power and progress in other na- 
 tions, have at different times struck our language and 
 impressed themselves upon it. It bears as remarkable 
 evidence of having been once in a grand chaotic state 
 of wild interfused elementary agitation, which has been 
 afterwards calmed and consolidated into one grand har- 
 monious whole, as the geologic crust of the world itself. 
 The one mighty, all-assimilating energy, that has sub- 
 dued its sftrugghng elements to each other and to it- 
 self, has been the inward-working, divinely illuminated, 
 ever-advancing, gospelized, English mind, that has 
 clothed itself in its living words, as in a garment of 
 light and of praise. 
 
 * Some of the importations of English words into other modern 
 
 languages have a curious phiz indeed : as Sp. paquebot (packet-boat), 
 
 and the following French words : hiftech (beefsteak) ; redingote 
 
 (riding coat) ; rosbif (roast beef), and canapsa (knapsack, Gm. knapp- 
 
 sack). 
 
 Vol. II.— 21 
 
322 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 (7) New words are introduced from time to time 
 into our language ; but they are almost always* names 
 of new inventions and discoveries in the arts and sci- 
 ences ; instead of being descriptive of any new results 
 or wants in the great sphere of abstract thought. Our 
 language is competent in itself without any enlarge- 
 ment, as a vast, complicated, elastic instrument of 
 thought and speech, to express all possible combina- 
 tions of perception, conception, sensibility, desire, and 
 
 * A few Latin words have come of late into quite common accept- 
 ance as parts of the staple material of speech among the educated : as 
 animus (the inward animating source or cause of any effort or plan, 
 especially in a wrong direction) ; cultus (an ancient system of wor- 
 ship, viewed in its organic aspects) ; humus (soft moist dirt) ; nexus 
 (a bond of connection) ; onus (i. e. of argument) ; plexus (a mass of 
 interweaved ties of relationship) ; redivivus (restored again : as to 
 general social recognition, after having been lost from public view) ; 
 and status (one's own visible condition). So, too, is it with curricu- 
 lum (an appointed course of study, as in college) ; ultimatum (a final 
 proposition, as made or acceded to) ; and maximum, minimum ; and 
 with geologists, detritus, alluvium, stratum, residuum, &c. 
 
 Such Latin phrases, also, as ex tempore, improinptu, ipso facto, 
 sine qua non, status in quo, vice versa, sui generis, viva voce, cui 
 bono, quid pro quo, toto coelo, sub rosa, currente calamo, bona fide, 
 have come to be very common, and even, by imitation, from lips 
 quite unclassical; beside the abundant use by theologians of such 
 phrases as a fortiori, a priori, and by lawyers, as quo warranto, nisi 
 prius, ex post facto, and a hundred others. 
 
 As the daily press is attracting into its field of high and noble toil 
 for the million more and more continually of our best and most clas- 
 sically educated minds, it is amusing to observe the increasing free- 
 dom with which many Latin phrases pertaining to both civil and eccle- 
 siastical affairs are handled by them, as if of plain familiar sense to all. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 323 
 
 vvill. Por, aside from the argument, that while combina- 
 lions are many in possibihty, their elements are in actu- 
 ality few and simple : — how have all the reaches of the 
 human mind in all ancient times, even with the torch of 
 revelation in its hand, been adequately transferred into 
 English ! and how has English thought itself already 
 spread its wing in the upper blaze above ! i 
 
 Not more sensitively does the sea glass the sky in 
 its broad bright mirror, than in the different historic 
 phases of our language are reflected the various forms 
 and stages of mental and moral progress^ made by the 
 common English mind. The diversified ends and ob- 
 jects of English thought, at' successive periods, in the 
 mass ; and so, the differences of expression that they 
 have found in its national literature, whether in its ovni 
 volumed vastness or in its separate, pronounced details 
 — may be grouped under several descriptive classifica- 
 tions, as sentimental, poetical, philosophic, practical, 
 substantial or fanciful, true and glorious, or errant and 
 destructive, subjective or objective^ aggressive, pro- 
 gressive, self-vindicatory, or self-laudatory, just accord- 
 ing to the style and measure of the balancings and 
 counterbalancings of public thought, from age to age. 
 The subjective period of perpetually self-measuring 
 consciousness, and of cool anatomical self-criticism, as 
 indicated here in practical Edwardeanism, and, in Eng- 
 land, in the philosophy of John Locke, has happily now 
 wellnigh passed away ; and this age is not only one 
 
324 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 of more material practicality, as also of martial inspira- 
 tion, but one at the same time of increasing poetic sen- 
 timentalism, as appears abundantly in the number and 
 characteristic style of our essayists, historians, orators, 
 and preachers, as well as poets. In our ever new and 
 blooming Uterature therefore, rather than in any new 
 growuis of words themselves as such, are the signs of 
 advancement or decadence in our language to be found. 
 Newspapers, novels, and periodical literature, from com- 
 ing in contact, as they do, directly with the mass, can 
 and do give favor or umbrage, under the strong mag- 
 netic influence of able glowing pens, to apt words and 
 phrases, imported or imitated from the current litera- 
 ture of other languages, especially Trench and German, 
 with whose influences we are in such constant contact. 
 Such words as amende, baton, blase, canard, cortege, 
 coterie, debouche, debris, debut, denouement, der- 
 nier, detour, ' eclat, elite, entree, expos^, emeute, 
 encore, forte, melange, m^lee, naivete, patois, per- 
 sonnel, premier, prestige, recherche, reconnoissance, 
 regime, resume, rouge, role, roue, have thus become, 
 hke vamose from the Spanish (vamos, imper. of ir, 
 to go, lit. let us go) as used by some, and also 
 canon and ranche, almost or quite naturalized among 
 us of late. So stand-point and shimmer from the 
 German, and from other sources, fihbuster and squelch, 
 both low words in themselves, have been brought into 
 new honor recently by the daily press. The use of the 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 335 
 
 word normal also has gotten to be lately quite enormous. 
 Of all the new words sought to be introduced by some 
 none is homelier than the word resurrected. So also 
 new phrases gain from time to time a general acceptance, 
 as within a few years past such as these : " a power in 
 the land," " dear hfe," the way of "putting things," 
 " manifest destiny," " irrepressible conflict," "glit- 
 tering generality," "bitter end," " mihtary necessity,'' 
 slaves as "contraband of war," "the development 
 theory," " sensational oratory," " demoralized troops," 
 etc,* which, like axioms, maxims, apothegms, and 
 proverbs, have often a value, when once strongly 
 announced, for their perspicacity, brevity, or utility, 
 which preserves them perchance ever afterwards as a 
 vital component part of the common speech of the 
 land. Such indeed is the power of skilful cunning 
 phrase for conveyancing error as well as truth accept- 
 ably from mind to mind, that pseudo-philosophy always 
 seeks carefully to clothe its false theories in such a 
 garb. Hence Auguste Comte calls his infidel reveries, 
 "positive philosophy;" and, in explanation of what he 
 means, declares that there are " three philosophies of 
 things, or general systems of conceptions, each of 
 which excludes the other : the theological or fictitious ; 
 
 * From the French many phrases have recently been introduced 
 into familiar use among ns, as " beau monde," " au fait," " en masse," 
 "par excellence," " en route," "qui vive," " tout ensemble," "faux 
 pas." "Encore," too, is a concealed phrase in itself, rather than one 
 word, and equals L. " ad hano horam." 
 
326 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 the metaphysical or abstract ; and the scientific or pos- 
 itive : the first being the necessary point of departure 
 of the human understanding; the second, merely a 
 state of transition, and the third its fixed and definitive 
 state." So, Darwin speaks of " the struggle for exist- 
 ence, amongst all organic beings, which inevitably fol- 
 lows from their high geometrical powers of increase," 
 the laws of " natural selection," and their influence in 
 " inducing divergence of character." In such books, 
 as also in " The Vestiges of Creation," Mansel's 
 " Limits of Religious Thought," and " Essays and Re- 
 views " by seven English churchmen, — how much is 
 falsely expected to be gained, by a mere phantasmago- 
 ric use of words. But, while words may be employed 
 as dishes and vases for containing and conveying truth, 
 they cannot be used as comer-stones for any of its 
 solid structures. They cannot constitute' or support 
 the truth in any form, but only represent it. 
 
 (8) Words have sometimes in English a widely 
 different sense from that which their originals had. 
 Thus, carpenter (It. carpentiere, Er. charpentier) is 
 from L. carpentarius, a vragon maker ; perspire means 
 literally to breathe through, from a false theory in 
 vogue in ancient times, that one of the chief ofiices of 
 the pores was the aeration of the blood. The fir- 
 mament, from firmus, firm, strong, solid (cf. Gr. enqk- 
 <a/xa from oraQsog) is a name exactly opposite to the 
 nature of the thing described, from a false conception 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATUBES. 327 
 
 among the ancients of the canopy overhead as being a 
 solid vault of sapphire. Privilege, which according to 
 its etymology means a private or separate lai}^, was 
 originally a law not for, as now, but against a person. 
 The Gr. f^aqrvQ, a martyr, was not, as in English, 
 one who witnesses to the truth by his death, but as an 
 ordinary living witness. From caballus, a nag, come 
 through the Fr. cheval, a horse (It. cavallo), our words 
 cavalier and chivalry, both words of honor. From 
 pupus, a yaimg child, come not only j)upa (the chry- 
 salis state of insects) and ^upil (L. pupillus, dimin. of 
 pupus), and bade, dub and dooby (Gm. bube, Dutch 
 babyn), but even also piip and pujjpy. For similar 
 variations of sense, analogically, compare 7j:co?,og, a colt, 
 and L. pullus, the young of any animal, and a chicken, 
 with 'Eiig]ish pullet and foal and flly (Gm. fohlen and 
 fiillen). Sq, in French, crin means horsehair only, 
 while in Latin, crinis means any kind of hair, human 
 as well as animal; nitre means salpetre, while Gr. 
 viTQov and L. nitrum mean potassa. Sudden is from 
 L. subitaneus (sub+eo, to go under), Fr. soudain, 
 and is in its original sense properly a military word 
 and refers to coming slily under the walls of a town, 
 for the purpbse of a quick successful attack. A cargo 
 is etymologically a load for a cart instead of for a ship 
 (Sp. cargo, from cargar, to load on a cart, from L. 
 carrusj a cart). Demon, an evil spirit, meant originally 
 as in bai^cov (its Greek original) the divinity. Heresy 
 
328 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 {aigtoig an individual choice, condemned as the exer- 
 cise of " private judgment " in an age demanding assent 
 to the infallibility of the church) has come to have the 
 strongest possible smell of the " odium theologicum " 
 upon it. To govern (L. gubemare, Gr. xv^sQvda) 
 meant originally to steer a ship, but now chiefly to rule 
 men and manage the state. Equip (Pr. equiper. Old 
 Fr. esquiper from Pr. esquif, It. schifo, Gm. schiff, 
 Eng. ship and skiflp, Gr. oxdtpog) means in its true 
 etymology to fit out a ship, but, in actual usage, to 
 furnish soldiers with arms and munitions of war. An 
 apothecary's shop is lit. but a storehouse (Gr. aTio- 
 ■d-rjxrj from d:toTii}-r]fic, I lay aside : cf. for change of 
 form, its derivatives Fr. boutique and Sp. botica). An 
 ohliging person is one etymologically binding us by his 
 conduct to equal recompense or favor, but factatively 
 one only of whom we think as being kind to us. A 
 veil is from L. velum (from which also comes reveaf) 
 which itself meant originally a sail (for vehelum from 
 vehere, to bear on. Cf. vehiculum, a carriage, etc.), 
 as that which bears a vessel forwards. A carnival (L. 
 carni vale, farevrell to meat) refers in itself to the or- 
 idained or accepted abstinence of Lent, but practically 
 means even a boisterous breaking forth of mirth and 
 revelry (cf. carousal from Fr. can'ousel, a tournament 
 from L. carrus, a wagon). So holiday is plainly but 
 a perversion of holy day. Phlegmatic, cold, sluggish, 
 is from Gr. cpXeyfta, Eng. phlegm, lit. inflammation, 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 329 
 
 from (fXsyca, I burn. Cf. for sense its L. correspon- 
 dent flamma for flagma from flagrare, to burn. Vulvar 
 (L. vulgaris) means in itself belonging to tbe common 
 people (L. vulgus, Gm. volk, Eng. folk) ; as does also 
 lewdva. fact (Gm. leute, the people : cf. Gr. Kdog, Eng. 
 lay and laity). An anecdote is in itself but the Eng. 
 form of the Gr. original dvixSoroQ, which meant a 
 secret. Charity (Gr. ^aQiQ, L. caritas) meant at first 
 love, and not as now mere hberality. A canopy (It. 
 canop^ and Er. canape) is the Gr. xfovmnalov, a mos- 
 quito net, from xavaifj, a mosquito ; and a bureau was 
 originally a table cover and afterwards the writing desk 
 on which it was spread, and then the office in which 
 the business was done, and still again a department of 
 governmental duty. 
 
 (9) A good many words in English, whose ety- 
 mology neither demands nor suggests any such sense, 
 have acquired in usage a permanently depreciatory 
 or evil signification. Consider the following speci- 
 mens : notorious (L. nosco, to know, and noto, to 
 mark), with which compare notable and noble (L. 
 nobilis for noscibilis, worthy to be known) ; adroit 
 (Fr. adroit for L. ad directam, sc. viam, lit. towards 
 the right direction) ; animosity (L. animosus, lit. full 
 of spirit); ambitious (L.ambitiosus, lit., disposed to go 
 around among others) ; arrogant and assuming denote 
 in themselves but the idea of claiming or taking some- 
 thing to or for one's self; artful (lit. full of art or skill) ; 
 
330 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETTMOLOGT 
 
 casuistry (lit. the act, habit, or art of answering cases 
 of conscience) ; a caitiff is etymologically but a cap- 
 tive ; conceit (It. concetto, from L. conceptio) is' in it- 
 self but a conception ; a coalition is in itself but a co- 
 alescing of various minds; contaminate (L. contami- 
 nare from contamen, for contagimen) means lit. to 
 bring into contact (cf. for force, Eng. word contagion 
 from same source) ; craft is Gm. kraft, power, or fac- 
 ulty; criticism is (Gr. tegivco, to discriminate, L. cer- 
 no, discrimen, etc.) properly the mere act or art of 
 passing judgment, and should be of course used to find 
 excellences if possible and not blemishes, except so far 
 as is necessary to tnith and duty ; conspire means lit. 
 to breathe together; cunning is from Gm. konnen, to 
 know how, to be able, from which comes also can ; cu- 
 pidity (L. cupio) means in itself only desire. The 
 following words also exemplify the same fact : despot 
 (lit. a master) ; domineer (to rule over) ; desperate 
 (de-f-spes, lit. without' hope) ; detest (lit. to call the 
 gods to witness, L. detestari^ ; egregious (=e grege, 
 lit. picked out of the flock, and so the best) ; empiric 
 (lit. relying on experience, from Ttugdof^ccci, to try or 
 prove, from which comes sl&o pirate, lit. an adventurer, 
 Gr. miQarrjg ; and yet with ■jitiqaofj.ac are connected 
 also L. experior and through it in English,, experiment, 
 experience, and expert^ ; emissary (one sent forth from 
 or by another) ; to expose another is lit. to show him 
 as he is, and not necessarily for evil ; jealous (but an- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 331 
 
 other form of zealous, Gr. ^^Aog; a libel (L. libel- 
 lus for liberlus, dimin. of liber, a book) means prop- 
 erly a pamphlet ; lust (lit. desire, merely) ; a minion 
 is lit. but an inferior (L. minor. It. mignone, a 
 pet) ; a miscreant (Pr. mecreant from mecroire, for 
 mescroire, not to believe) meant originally an infi- 
 del ; moderate (like modest) means, in itself, self-gov- 
 erned ; officious (performing service or duty) ; plau- 
 sible (approvable) ; pertinacious (holding on through- 
 out) ; prejudice (a judgment in advance) ; persecute. 
 and prosecute (foUoAving one onwards)'; prostitute 
 (placing one's self before or in the way of another) ; 
 reproach (lit. to draw near to again. Cf. Pr. reproch- 
 er and proche, near to, fromL. proximus, etc.). Here, 
 as in resent and retaliate (=L. re+sentire and re -f- 
 talis), the sense of re is that of turning back for evil ; 
 while in such words as reputation, regard, and respect, 
 the idea is expressive of turning around in sight or in 
 thought to see another after passing him, on account 
 of his worthiness. A skeptic gets his name from Gr. 
 ^xi%TLx6q, reflective, thoughtful. A villain (L. villa- 
 nus, Fr. villein) means one living in the country, in its 
 etymology ; as, similarly, a pagan (L. paganus from 
 pagus, a district), one provincial in his habits ; resent 
 (to think back on or towards) ; retaliate (re+tahs, to 
 give the like back) ; wilful (full of will) ; vile (lit. 
 cheap) ; vulgar (ht. belonging to the common people).* 
 
 * The present forms of expression used in Frenoli for step-father 
 
332 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 So an ironical sense has been often permanently 
 imparted to a word in certain connections, as if a com- 
 ponent part of its essential meaning, as in the words 
 respectable, considerable, fair, meek, pretty, when ap- 
 plied to things considered as in themselves below par. 
 
 (10) Some few English words contain in them the 
 names of places, in which the thing described first came 
 into use, or, of the person that introduced them to no- 
 tice. ■ Academy is from Academus ; bayonet is from 
 Bayonne where it was first made ; copper, from Cy- 
 prus (Gr. KvTtQog, Cj'^prus, L. Cyprus ; and cuprum, 
 copper, Gm. kupfer, Fr. cuivre) ; cherry, from Cerasus 
 (Pr. cerise, Gm. kirsche) ; a charade is said to have 
 been derived from a French inventor of the same name 
 (which is somewhat doubtful) ; china came at first, 
 . plainly, from China ; a cravat (Fr. cravate) refers in 
 itself to Croatia, whence the word was introduced into 
 France in the 17th century; crayon is from Creta (L. 
 creta, chalk, Fr. craie and crayon, a pencil of chalk) ; 
 the daguerreotype is named from its inventor Da- 
 
 and step-mother (beau pfere, lit. the handsome father, and belle mfere, 
 the handsome mother) were adopted, It is said, as a purposed reac- 
 tion to the odious sense that had come to be attached in practice to 
 the previous modes of designating those affinities by marriage : which 
 were parStre, for parastre, and mar&tre, for marastre, and grated of- 
 fensively on French ears, as our two, cold, forbidding forms of desig- 
 nation, " step-^father " and '' father-in-law,'' should on ours : — the ter- 
 
 * mination, -astre having a depreciatory sense (of. for sense Eng. poet- 
 
 ' otter with poet). 
 
IN" ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 333 
 
 guerre, as galvanism is|from Galvani, its discoverer; 
 damask was first made in Damascus ; indigo (It. 
 indaco, Fr. indigo), is from Indicus (an Indian dye) ; 
 lazzarone (It. name for a beggar, and occasionally 
 appearing in English), like lazzaretto, a pesthouse, gets 
 its name from Lazarus. Leghorns were first made in 
 Leghorn (Tuscany) ; morocco (Fr. marroquin) is named 
 from Morocco (or the land of the Moors), in north- 
 ern Africa, where it was first prepared ; macadamized 
 roads were invented by McAdam, who died in 1835 ; 
 magnesia and magnet are both derived from Magnesia 
 — the first probably from the one in Asia Minor, and 
 the second from Magnesia in Thessaly ; the magnolia 
 gets its name from a botanist, Magnol, who died in 
 1715 ; muslin (Fr. mousseline) is named from Mosul, 
 in Mesopotamia, where it was originated : nicotine 
 (the poisonous principle in tobacco) gets its name from 
 Nicot, who developed it ; the pheasant (Fr. faisan) =: 
 Phasianus, sc. ales, or the bird of Phasis ; pantaloons , 
 were so named (being a Venetian form of dress) from a 
 nickname given to the Venetians, who were called pan- / 
 taloni, from their great admiration for Saint Pantalon ; 
 sarsaparilla (It. sarsaparigha, Fr. salsepareiUe, Sp. zarza- 
 parilla) is a compound of zarza, the bramble, and Pa- 
 rillo, the name of the doctor that first brought it into / 
 much use : and a silhouette derives its name from 
 that of a visionary financier of Louis XV., whose 
 unsubstantial successes caused his name to be af- 
 
334 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 fixed as a soubriquet to this mere apologetic form, 
 as it were, of a likeness. Tantalize is from Tantalus ; 
 meander, from Mcaavdgog (a winding river in Caria) ; 
 parchment (L. pergamena, Fr. parchemin), from Per- 
 gamum in Mysia, where it was first invented by Eu- 
 menes, its king; peach, from Persicum (sc. malum), 
 lit. the Persian apple (Gm. pfirsche. It. persica and 
 pesca, Sp. persigo, Fr. peche, orig. pesche) ; dollar 
 (Gm. thaler), from Joachim's^^a:/ (Joachimsdale) in 
 Bohemia, where, in 1518, thalers were first coined. 
 
 (11) Some of the special peculiarities of the Eng- 
 lish appear most strikingly, when being grouped in con- 
 trast with those of other languages, especially Greek 
 and Latin ; with which scholars of whatever nation are 
 most apt to compare their own language. 
 
 Notice § 1. Our system of double names for the 
 domestic animals, when viewed as such, and when 
 used as food, as : ox and beef (L. bos, bovisj Fr. boeuf, 
 Eng. beeves) ; sheep and mutton (Fr. moutons) ; calf 
 and veal (Fr. veau, L. vitulus) ; pig or swine and porh 
 L. porcus) ; fowl (Gm. vogel, a bird), anA poultry (L. 
 pullus, from which also pullet) ; deer (Gm. thier, Gr. 
 S-rjo) and venison (Fr. venaison, L. venatio, something 
 hunted) ; so, similarly, we call grapes (from same root 
 with grab, grapple^ and gripe, Gm. greifen, to clasp), 
 when dried, raisins (L. racemus, Sp. racimo, Fr. rai- 
 sin ; and, in old Fr., roisin and rosin, whence the Gm, 
 form rosine) : cf for form Fr. plaisir from placere ; and 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 335 
 
 plums (Gm. pflaumen) we call, when Ane6., prunes (Fr. 
 pnin'e, L. prunum, a plum). So in Spanish a fish in 
 the water is pez (L. piscis), but in hand it is pescado, 
 and, if salted and dried, pescada ; and the French call 
 linen, in the piece, toile (L. tela, from which subtilis, 
 Eng. sub&), but when made up, linge. 
 
 § 2. The variableness or divisibihty of some of 
 our grammatical forms, compared with those of 
 other languages. The English, and it is alone in 
 this peculiarity, has three forms for the present 
 tense active of every verb, as, I love, I do love, 
 and I am loving; while in other languages but one 
 form is ester used. The English, like the Greek, has a- 
 double form of the preterite (the perfect, have, and 
 aorist, did), while the Latin has but one. The Latin 
 is poorer also than the English, in having no article and 
 no perfect active participle. In the subjunctive or con- 
 ceptional mood, the mood for expressing all contingent 
 suppositional and relative ideas, what a range beyond 
 other languages, for both variety and exactness of ex- 
 pression, have we in our might, could, would, should, 
 etc., which in Greek atid Latin were but one undiscrim- 
 inated form. 
 
 ^ 3. The indiflFerence to the minute modal analysis 
 exhibited often in the forms of other languages. We 
 express, by the word know, both the idea 'of being ac- 
 quainted with, as a friend (which in German is kennen 
 and in French connaitre) ; and the idea of understand- 
 
336 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 ing anything, as a science, which in German is wissen and 
 in Trench savoir. In those languages, those separate 
 kinds of knowledge must have a separate designation; 
 but not in ours. We can take a horse or a book equally 
 well from one place to another; but the Germans 
 fuhren a horse and tragen a bundle ; as the rrench also 
 are particular to mener a child or anything that can 
 walk, and to porter a package or anything that they 
 bear in their hands or arms. In Trench anything good 
 physically, or any one good by nature, is bon, but one 
 good morally is sage, while in our language good is ap- 
 plicable to things physical, intellectual, and moral. We 
 can receive anything equally well, a call, a present, a 
 message, etc. ; but the Germans bekommen a disease, 
 erhalten a letter, empfangen a present, and einnehmen 
 money. We can ride equally well on horseback or in 
 a carriage ; but they call the first reiten, and the second 
 fahren. Our language has many nice distinctions for 
 philosophic uses but few for those of curiosity. So, 
 our word timbrella (dimin. of umbra, a little shade) 
 breaks in Trench into parapluie, as being used to keep 
 off rain, paravent, to keep off the wind, and parasol, 
 to keep off the sun ; as the word wall answers equally 
 well to the L. murus; a wall of a city, L. moenia, de- 
 fensive walls of any kind, and L. parietes, the walls 
 of a house. 
 
 The Latin mind, which was constitutionally ana- 
 lytic and constructive, was much more addicted to in- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 337 
 
 dicating, in the very forms of words themselves, the 
 plural elements of facts and thoughts, than is the 
 English and American mind. Hence comes the 
 abundant use of plural nouns in Latin, with a singular 
 sense in English : as, animi, courage (because of so 
 composite elements) ; exsilia, banishment (because 
 touching in any case so many interests and persons) ; 
 gramina, grass ; silentia, silence ( as prevailing in mul- 
 tiplied directions). So too, correspondingly, abstract 
 nouns in Latin can be plural, while they cannot be in 
 English : as irae, anger, rohora, strength. Some among 
 us occasionally use English in such a way, and talk of 
 ambitions, cupidities, knowledges, endurances, envies, 
 industries, &c. ; but no one imitates them. 
 
 Ancient cities with their dxQOJioXcg and xaro- 
 noXig, had for the same reason with both the Greeks 
 and Latins a plural form of noun in many instances, 
 as Athenae, Syracusae, Thebae, &c. 
 
 \ 4. Some English words are in themselves ellipti- 
 cal, and so represent now former phrases or combina- 
 tions of words, instead of single words. 
 
 So, in Latin, while many intransitive verbs are 
 made transitive, by the force of prepositions combined 
 with them by composition, the reverse process takes 
 place sometimes, and by omitting the reflexive pronoun 
 se a transitive verb becomes by ellipsis intransitive, as, 
 in the phrase, nox precipitat (sc. se). Thus to couch 
 down is for se coUocare in its original Latin form ; to 
 Vol. II.— 22 
 
338 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 interfere is a short form of inter (alios) ferre (se) ; to 
 despond is (L. despondere animum) to give up 
 courage. 
 
 In our compound forms of verbs, made after the 
 model of that abundant class in German, whose com- 
 bining particles are separable in practice from the 
 verbs to which they are, united in sense, we have ellip- 
 ses of every kind of curious signification. If the reader 
 will ask himself what nouns were used or plainly im- 
 pUed after these various adverbial appendages in their 
 first and proper use as prepositions, he will find much 
 to amuse if not instruct him. They are such as these : 
 to burn up, to burn down, to freeze up, to light up, 
 to swallow up and to swallow down, to lock up, to fix 
 up, dress up, hurry up, hurry on, come on, come 
 out, look out, wake up, start up, give in, give out, 
 give up, talk up and talk down, starve out, scare 
 up, smoke up and smoke out, dash out, make up, make 
 out, fall out, fall through, work out, step up, flare up, 
 carry on, live up, lay up, lay in, &c. 
 
 The adverbial particle most combined in this way 
 with verbs is the word up; and the one verb that 
 surpasses any and all others, in the variety and strange- 
 ness of the senses that it takes or gives in combination 
 with other words, of whatever sort, nouns, adjectives 
 and adverbs, is the verb get. In evidence of this re- 
 mark, consider such adverbial combinations with this 
 sort of polyglot verb, as these : to get along, get by, 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 339 
 
 get in, get on, get out, get up, get down, get over, get 
 through, get off, get away, get behind, etc., etc. ; and 
 such different senses as this Protean word has, in such 
 phrases as, to get a fortune, to get a cold, to get a 
 blow, to get a fall, to get a wish ; and to get well, get 
 clear, get rid, get warm, get wet, get dry, get fixed, 
 get done. The word keep stands perhaps next to get, 
 in variety of sense. 
 
 ^ 5. Some English words have been much cor- 
 rupted in their apparent etymology, by a false * popu- 
 lar pronunciation of them, as : baluster (Gr. fia'kav- 
 otiov, the blossom of the pomegranate, It. balaustra of 
 same sense. It. balaustro, a small pilaster — 'from resem- 
 blance in its form — Fr. balustre), which is almost 
 universally mispronounced and misspelled bannister; 
 posticmous (L. postumus, Sp. postumo) which is spelled 
 posthumous (as if from post humum) ; asparagus 
 {ccGnccQayog from onuQccOGa, to lacerate, referring to 
 
 * False phrases have similarly become current in English : as 
 " the fault lies at your door," from a misconstruction in Genesis iv. T 
 of what should be " a sin-offering (or Iamb) lieth at the door ; " i. e. 
 the means of pardon and restoration are at hand. Wherever there 
 is sin it lies much closer home than " at the door." So some speak 
 of " straining at " a thing, from the mistranslation in Mat. xxiii. 24 
 of " straining at a gnat," instead of straining out, etc. The straining 
 indicated is objective, not subjective. We often hear also of " laying 
 the axe to the very root " of a difficulty, from a similar misconceived 
 translation of Mat. iii. 10, which should be translated "by the root 
 of the tree." The tree was not struck, but significant preparations 
 were made for its overthrow ere long. 
 
340 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 its irregular head) is extensively called and written 
 sparrowgrass \pompion (Dutch pompoen) is getting to 
 be quite generally spelled, as it pronounced, pumpkin ; 
 cigar (L. cicada, a grasshopper, Sp. cigarra — and ci- 
 garron, a big cicada and a big cigar, from resemblance 
 probably of shape, Tr. cigare) is now quite often spelled 
 segar, Carnelian (L. caro, camis, flesh) a stone of 
 flesh-red hue, is quite commonly spelled cornelian. 
 Frontispiece (M. L. frontispicium) is naturally thought 
 by most from its terminal syllable, piece, to be a hybrid 
 combination of L. frons (stem front) and Ang. Sax., 
 piece : whereas it should be spelled like auspice without 
 an e between the i and c : the syllable -spice represent- 
 ing in each case the L. verb specio. So tourniquet, 
 a surgical instrument, is' extensively supposed to be 
 turnkey. 
 
 § 6. As in Greek and Latin there are verbs of 
 double forms, modified by reduplication or nasalization, 
 so as to express in the two classes of verbs themselves, 
 in a condensed way, a weaker and a stronger sense ; 
 and as in Latin there are a few duplicate verbs having 
 in particular a causative sense (as sisto, reduplicated 
 form of sto, meaning I cause to stand, and jacio, I 
 cast, or cause to lie, from jaceo, I lie, and caedo, I cut 
 or cause to fall, from cado, I fall), so in English there 
 are a few duplicate verbs having a causative force ; and 
 they are all of German origin : as to lay, causative of 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 341 
 
 to lie (Gm. legen, to lay, and liegen, to -lie), and so, 
 set and sit, fell and fall, raise and rise. 
 
 § 7. As there is a portion of every language, which 
 is used as current coin by the cultivated classes only, 
 and forms what is ordinarily termed their standard 
 speech, or what in French is called " la langue oratoire," 
 — so of course is it in English ; and in as marked a 
 degree, as can be found in any other language, ancient 
 or modern. And not only so, but, as in no other lan- 
 guage unless it be the Latin, is it true that there is a 
 large branch of the language that is used only or chiefly 
 for the purposes of poetry. But for thtir rhythmical 
 value, they would pass at once by general disuse out 
 of the language, and this although having many of 
 them the merit of brevity compared with other forms 
 which are retained, as well as also being much more 
 conformable to their origifaals. They are such as 
 mount (L. mons) compared with mountain (Pr. mon- 
 tagne from the adj. montanus) ; fount (L. fons) and 
 font, compared with fountain (Fr. fontaine) ; and so 
 with eve and morn compared with evening and morn- 
 ing ; and ere, yore, olden, yon, sire, afar, reft, ire, clime, 
 lave, lit (for lighted), spake, writ (for written), eyrie, 
 eaglet, sheen, marge, blithe, ween, etc. 
 
 ^ 8. Abstract relations are expressed in EngUsh 
 more copiously and exactly, than in any other language 
 except the German. 
 
 It is especially rich in particles, as prepositions, 
 
342 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGT 
 
 conjunctions^ and qualifying adverbs of every possible 
 shade of sense and degree of force. There is, foi- 
 example, in the precise use of a given preposition always 
 in English, a closely defining power, which the Latin 
 ablative, with its limited range of possible signification, 
 though much more versatile in use than any other case 
 in Latin, did not at all possess ; nor the Greek dative, 
 which was the Latin dative and ablative combined. 
 And besides the greater variety of modal forms in the 
 English subjunctive, already alluded to, even compared 
 with the German, which is yet our chief parent-tongue, 
 what a rich variety of minute, subjunctive senses have 
 we at command, in what may be called our subjunctive 
 conjunctions, or, those conjunctions which give to 
 verbs in connection with them a contingent or relative 
 sense. 
 
 We have with the German the two articles ; which, 
 while they are by true grammatical analysis, but short- 
 ened forms of the demonstrative and numeral pronouns 
 with which they correspond, are yet almost or quite 
 as useful as they, in particularizing objects ; while the 
 Greek has only one of them and the Latin neither. 
 
 In respect also to grammatical gender, while being 
 less pictorial than the Latin, Greek and German, our 
 language is more philosophical than they, in predicating 
 sex only where it really belongs, and so in making all 
 things, beside living beings, directly impersonal. We 
 do not therefore, like the Germans, speak of a boot as 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 343 
 
 Mm, nor, like the Latins, call a mountain masculine 
 and a tree feminine. As a proof how curiously ex- 
 tremes can sometimes meet in this world, the words in 
 German for maiden, young lady, and wife (das mad- 
 chen, das fraulein and das weib) are all neuter, in 
 obedience to the usual neuter character of the termina- 
 tions in which they end, and in accordance with the 
 prevailing philosophy, the world over, of woman's ne- 
 gative position in the social state. So in Latin slaves 
 were denominated servitia. 
 
 The variations of grammatical gender predicated 
 in different languages of the same objects are as amus- 
 ing as they are arbitrary. While the sun is in Greek 
 (d rj?.ios), Latin (sol), and French (le soleil), mascu- 
 line, it is in German (die sonne), feminine ; but, con- 
 trarily, the moon, which is feminine in other languages, 
 is here (der mond) masculine. Zand is feminine in 
 Greek (y^), and in Latin (terra), but in German (das 
 land) neuter. A flower is in Latin (flos), masculine, 
 while in French (la fleur), and German (die blume), 
 it is feminine. Water is in Greek (vScjq), neuter, 
 and in German (das wasser); but in Latin (aqua), 
 feminine. 
 
 § 9. The presence of umlaut is observable in some 
 of the plural and subjunctive forms of English, as of 
 German. Umlaut, or change of sound, is, in Gei'man, 
 the weakening of one of the vowels a, o, u, by an add- 
 ed e- sound, into a (ae), 6 (oe), ii (ue). In the English 
 
344 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 form of the umlaut, the original vowel is not preserved 
 with the added e-sound, but is exchanged for it. Ex- 
 amples : Old, elder (Gm. alter), eldest ; tooth, pi. 
 teeth ; foot and feet ; goose and geese ; brother and 
 brethren ; was and were ; man and men ; woman and 
 women ; mouse and mice (Gm. maus and mause) ; 
 louse and lice (Gm. laus and lause). Cf. in same way 
 blood and bleed ; food and feed ; stood and steed ; 
 long and length ; strong and strength. In the pi. form, 
 women, the sympathetic retroactive influence of the um- 
 laut upon the preceding vowel o in pronunciation, mak- 
 ing it in sound as if an i (the word being pronounced 
 as if spelled wimmin), is a fact of its own single solita- 
 ry kind in our language: cf. for similar assimilative 
 change to e, the word brethren, the pi. form of brother, 
 in ecclesiastical use. 
 
 ^10. Words may end, in EngUsh, in any one of 
 the consonants ; while in Greek no consonant can, as a 
 rule, be final, with but two or three unimportant ex- 
 ceptions, beside v, q, a ; and, in Latin, beside c, I, n, 
 r, t, s ; the four last of which are the chief terminal 
 consonants in Sanskrit. Of Latin words ending in c, 
 there are but two : lac (stem, lact) and halec ; and 
 only caput, with its compounds, end in t. As for w 
 final, that, it has been shown, is but s compounded viath 
 another consonant (generally c or y, but sometimes, 
 also, ct, as nox, stem noct, or v). See page 261. 
 
 ^11. Einal letters may be doubled abundantly in 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 345 
 
 English, as in German ; a fact whicli never occurs in 
 either Latin or Greek. Witness the following speci- 
 mens, among m\iltitudes : cohi, add, bee, staff, egg, hell, 
 iann, purr, hiss, butt, and buzz. The only consonantal 
 letters that, when final, are not doubled in English, are 
 c, h, j, k, m, p, V, and x. In Latin, two different con- 
 sonants may be conjoined in certain cases, at the end 
 of a word^ as in amans, amant, etc., but only in a few 
 very exceptional instances in Greek ; while in English 
 such combinations are as frequent and free as any oth- 
 ers elsewhere. 
 
 § 12. There is a considerable class of words in 
 English, as in other Teutonic languages, which have no 
 similars at all in either Latin or Greek, formed of repe- 
 titious syllables, having the same consonants through- 
 out, but^ different vowels, or the same vowels with dif- 
 ferent consonants. They all have a more or less con- 
 temptuous sense implied in them, and seldom if ever 
 wander out of the limits of ordinary speech into grave 
 or dignified composition. They are, beside those quot- 
 ed on page 211, such as these: clap-trap, charivari (Fr. 
 do.), higglety-pigglety, hobgoblin, hoity-toity, hurry- 
 scurry, namby-pamby, paxwax, pit-a-pat, tit-for-tat, wig- 
 gle-waggle, wishy-washy. 
 
 ^13. How differently often, in their orthography, 
 appear immediate derivatives in Enghsh from the same 
 root ! Take as examples : from L^ petere, to seek, re- 
 peat and compete ; from cedere, to yield, depart, etc., 
 
346 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 recede and proceed, and also decease and success ; from 
 dignus, worthy, indignity, deign (Pr. daigner), and 
 disdain ; from nomen, a name, nominal, name (Gm. 
 name), noun, and renown (Pr. renommee). 
 
 § 14. The difference in degrees of force expressed 
 by different direct derivatives from the same root is 
 sometimes quite mai-ked : as request and require (L. 
 quaerere, to seek) and inquire and inquisitive; so, 
 from L. recognoscere come, through the Latin directly, 
 recognition and indirectly, through the French, recon- 
 noissance ; betray, traitor, and treason are from L. tra- 
 dere, from w^hich also come trade and tradition (see 
 dare, etc.) ; spy is from L. specere, from which come 
 aspect, conspicuous, and respect ; sue is from L. sequi, 
 from which comes consequence ; idiot means etymologi- 
 caUy (Gr. iBccorrig, a private person) one separate from 
 the mass around him. 
 
 ^15. Hybrid mixtures sometimes occur in Eng- 
 lish ; or, the compounding of elements drawn from dif- 
 ferent languages into words^ thus belonging in part to 
 one language and in part to another. 
 
 Examples : almond, Arabic article al, the, and a 
 contracted form of Gr. d/uvySdXt] (It. mandola, M, L. 
 amandola, Sp. almendra, Pr. amande) ; to answer, Gm. 
 antworten (=Gr. dvri, back, and Gm. wort, a word) ; 
 parasol (=Gr. Ttagd, from, away from, and L. sol, 
 the sun) ; partake (=L. pars, a part, and take, Eng.) ; 
 rely (=L. re, back, and Eng. lie) ; palfrey (M. L. pa- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 347 
 
 rafredus from Gr. ^laqd and L. veredus : It. palafreno, 
 Er. palefroi) ; nonage (=L. non, not, and Eng. age) ; 
 charcoal (=:!Fr. charbon — L. carbo, stem carbon — and 
 Gm. kohle, Eng. coal) ; bankrupt (Saxon bene, and L. 
 rumpere, ruptum, to break) ; bonfire (Fr. bon, good, 
 and Gm. feuer, fire) ; and so with contraband, debar, 
 headquarters, inlet, princedom (=L. princeps+Gm. 
 suffix -thum). 
 
 ^16. Some of our common particles, conjunctions, 
 and adverbs are but concealed verbs in different moods, 
 imperative and subjunctive. Thus, but is the impera- 
 tive of an Ang. Sax. verb butan, to take out ; if'\?, for 
 gif (Eng. give) from Saxon verb gifan ; unless is also 
 but the imperative of an old Saxon verb onlesan, to re- 
 lease. 
 
 § 17. The frequent conversion of words from one 
 part of speech to another deserves notice. 
 
 1st. Nouns are sometimes made of adjectives in 
 EngUsh, as in the classical languages. 
 
 (1) Sometimes without change, as a beau (Er. 
 beau, handsome) ; a belle (Er. fem. form of same) ; a 
 brave ; a worthy ; and so of national and denomina- 
 tional names. 
 
 (2) Sometimes by being thrown into the plural 
 form, as : goods (pi. of good) ; news, from new (this 
 word is not plural in sense, although it is in form and 
 fact. Cf Er. nouvelle and les nouvelles, both sing, and 
 pi.) J and so with riches and sweets (from rich and 
 
348 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 sweet). Of similar origin are the words blacks, blues, 
 greens, shorts, whites, odds. 
 
 2d. There is an increasing tendency in our lan- 
 guage to convert verbs into nouns in ordinary speech. 
 The infinitive is properly in fact but a verbal noun in 
 any and every language ; and is therefore most abun- 
 dantly used both as a subject and an object. Any verb 
 is at once made a noun, in Greek and German, by pre- 
 fixing to it the neuter article ; and in Greek it can be 
 converted into any case of the noun, by prefixing to it 
 the article in that case, as r'l tov noXtfitlv STitdvfiiu. 
 
 Examples : Mineralogists speak of talc as having a 
 soapy yfee^; and so we hear of a hard freeze ; a fine 
 swim; along run; a large catch ; a good haul ; a long 
 pull ; a great take-in ; a big scare ; a great sell ; a 
 bold dash ; a strike ; a large turn-out ; a regular ^/are- 
 up ; a poor ^0 of it ; a long talk. 
 
 Many of our most familiar nouns were primarily 
 thus generated : as the Fall (because of the fall of 
 leaves then) ; afy (because always flying) ; a^ea (be- 
 cause so quick to escape) ; a ride, a stroll, a drink, a 
 talh 
 
 3d. In some instances nouns are converted also 
 into verbs, as : to water an animal ; to salt anything ; 
 to hand forth anything ; to pwnp water ; to bridge a 
 stream ; to foot it ; to smoke ; to an^le ; to fsh ; to 
 sail ; to ship things ; to peril one's hfe. 
 
 4th. There is a growing tendency to make some 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 349 
 
 intransitive verbs transitive, by using them in certain 
 connections in a causative sense, as -. to retire certain 
 stocks from the market ; to stay operations ; to say 
 that one officer ranks another in the army (meaning 
 that he outranks him) ; to stibsist an army. 
 
 § 18. There seems to be a sort of strong inward 
 constitutional tendency in our language to revert in its 
 forms to the original stem, rather than to adopt the 
 amplifications of it accepted in other languages, and 
 sometimes even to a still simpler form than that itself, 
 as found anyvrhere else. See Vol. I.,. pages 138-9. 
 Compare also (1) M. L. aequalare (from L. aequalis). It. 
 ugualare, Sp. igualar, Pr. egaler, Eng. to equal ; (2) M. 
 L. adventura (n. pi. neut. of prt. act. part, of L. adve- 
 nire), It. avventura, Sp. aventura, Gm. abenteuer, Pr. 
 aventure, Eng. (Z^yera^^re ; (3) Gr. wAsj^r;, L. ulna, Goth, 
 aleina, Er. aune, Sp. ana, Gm. elle, Eng. ell, Sk. ar-41a-s ; 
 
 (4) I am (pres. of verb to be), Sk. asmi, Gr. tifil (for 
 orig. idfil), L. sum (for esumi), Lith. esmi, Goth, im ; 
 
 (5) Sk. sunu-s, a son, from su, to beget, to bring forth, 
 Gr. vlos, Goth, sunus, Lith. do., Gm. sohn, Eng. son. 
 
 § 19. As English is Germanic in its grammar, the 
 verb-forms are of a full Teutonic mould. The vowel 
 variations of the preterite tense in verbs of an Anglo- 
 Saxon original are specially worthy of notice. 
 
 (1) Radical a becomes sometimes au and e, as : 
 
 ^ a, au : catch and caught. 
 
 ^ /?, e .• draw and drew ; fall and fell. 
 
350 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 (2) Radical e becomes sometimes, when alone, a or 
 ; and, when compounded with another vowel, it takes 
 on still other forms. 
 
 ^ a, a: get and gat ; forget and forgat. 
 
 § /9, : sell and sold ; tell and told. 
 
 § 7, ea becomes o : speak and spoke ; swear and 
 swore; tread and trode; tear and tore. 
 
 § 8, ee becomes aw and o'l : see and saw ; seek 
 and sought. 
 
 § s, both ea and ee become simple e : leave and 
 left ; keep and kept (for keeped) ; sleep and slept. 
 
 (3) Radical i becomes sometimes a, o, on, and u. 
 
 ^ a, a : begin and began ; give and gave ; ring 
 and rang ; sink and sank, swim and swam. 
 . (^ /8. : shine and shone ; win and won. 
 
 § y, ou: bring and brought; bind and bound; 
 fight and fought ; find and found ; think and thought. 
 
 ^8, u : sting and stung ; strike and struck ; wring 
 and wrung. 
 
 (4) Radical o becomes sometimes a, e, and even i. 
 ^ u, a: come and came. 
 
 ^ /?, e: blow and blew ; grow and grew ; know 
 and knew ; show and shew ; throw and threw. 
 % y, i : do and did. 
 
 (5) Radical u remains usually unchanged ; but 
 sometimes is changed to a : as, run and ran. 
 
 In some instances the radical form remains the 
 same as in the present tense, but is shortened in pro- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 351 
 
 nunciation in the preterite : as in read (pronounced as 
 long ^ in the present) and read (pronounced as short e 
 in the preterite). In led, the pret. of lead, the form is 
 shortened to the sound. 
 
 These points and others that follow of a similar 
 sort are offered only as hints towards a proper phonet- 
 ic analysis of English forms and their variations. 
 
 ^20. There are many individual phonetic changes 
 in English that merit notice. 
 
 (1) The omission of radical letters ; 
 
 \ a. Of initial g : as enough, Gm. genug. The 
 past participles of verbs in English differ from their 
 German correspondents, in omitting entirely the parti- 
 cipial prefix ge : as in loved (Gra. geliebt), hitten (ge- 
 bissen), drunken (getrunken), made (gemacht), said 
 (gesagt), sung (gesungen), done (gethan). 
 
 \ /?. Of /.• as in mile (Gm. meile, for L. millia, sc. 
 passuum : cf. Gr. fA.vQioi). So feeble and foihle have 
 lost, in both Erench and English, a radical / (L. flebi- 
 lis, deplorable. Old Er. floible, and Er. foible and fai- 
 ble): differing in their use, simply as noun and adjec- 
 tive, (cf. Sp. feble, weak, and It. fievole). Safe is 
 also L. salvus (cf. salver, salve, and salvation). 
 
 § y. Of n. Thus, spider is for spinder, the spin- 
 ning insect. See page 296. 
 
 § d. Of r. Speak corresponds vdth Gm. sprech- 
 en and Ags. sprecan and specan. So in palsy (Gr. 
 itaQccXvaig, Er. paralisie) the radical r has disappear- 
 
352 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 ed. The word wait is the Gm. warten, and wast (2d 
 pers. imperf. of verb to be) is the equivalent of the 
 Gm. du warst. So, the original r of Etrusci and Etru- 
 ria is dropped in the modern forms Tuscan and Tusca- 
 ny, as is the r of L. febris, Eng. _/(?yer, for ferbris, from 
 j fervere ; and the r of Eng. veneer, from Er.vemir, to 
 ' glaze over, from which also comes varnish. 
 
 (2) In the addition of letters, so as to strengthen 
 the vocal force of a syllable. 
 
 § a. Of c, as in apprentice (Er. apprenti from ap- 
 prendre, L. apprehendere). 
 
 § /9. Of d, as in compound (L. componere), and 
 expound (L. exponere), and sudden (Fr. soudain, L su- 
 bitaneus from L. subire). In address there is a doub- 
 ling of the single d of the Erench original adresser. 
 
 S y. Of/, as in coffin and coffers (Gr. xocptvoq, Er. 
 coffre), and traffic (Er. trafiquer, L. transfacere, like 
 trade, from L. tradere= trans + dare). 
 
 % h. Of m, as in tempt (L. tentare, freq. of tendere, 
 Er. tenter). 
 
 § i. Of n, as in passenger (Er. passager) and mes- 
 senger (Er. messager), compared with passage and 
 message. 
 
 § ^. Of r, as in mirror (Er. miroir, from L. mirari). 
 So, in German, / is doubled in pallast (L. palatium, 
 Er. palais, Eng. jo«/«ce). 
 
 % 7]. Of t, as in pottage (Er. potage, from L. potare, 
 to drink) ; and attire (Er. atoiirs). 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 353 
 
 (3) In the substitution of one letter for another. 
 
 § 1. Of consonants. 
 
 § a. Of cli, the soft guttural, for k, the hard : as 
 chill (Gm. kalt, L. gelidus); child (Gm. kind). 
 
 § ^. Of d, for t in German, as seldom (Gm. selten). 
 
 § y. Of th, for d in German, as both and oath (Gm. 
 beide and eid) ; and- c/o^/t (Gm. kleid). 
 
 \ d. Of / for n : as, c^?7£^ (Gm. kind). 
 
 S t. Oil for r.- os,^ purple (Pr. pourpre, Gm. pur- 
 pur, L. purpura, Gr. noQcpvQo). Cf. Eng. marble and 
 Gm. marbel with Pr. marbre (L. marmor). 
 
 § ^. Of r for 72, by assimilation : as, garrison (Fr. \_ 
 garnison) ; cf. in same way warranty with guaranty. 
 
 § rj. Of r for s : as, ^Vo?^ (Gm. eisen) and hare 
 (Gm. base). So, in Latin, eram is for esam, imperf. 
 of Sinn (pr. esumi). In English was, contrarily, r in 
 German (ich war) is changed to s; as also in Eng. 
 please, compared with Er. plaire. 
 
 § i9'. Of i and th, for d in other languages ; as, 
 also, of t for s and z : as (t for d), eat and sit (L. edSre 
 and sedere) ; (t for s) ^/<ffl# (Gm. das) where initial d is 
 represented by th ; and (of t for z initial) ^mr, ife//, and 
 tooth (Gm. zehren, zahlen, and zahn). 
 
 ^ I. Of if for s : as, s^ree^ Gm. strasse (L. strata), 
 sc. via), nut (Gm. nusz, L. nux), let (Gm. lassen, from 
 which also ^i\g.- lease). 
 
 ^ X. Of / for b : as, calf and half (Gm, halb and 
 kalb) ; and so leaf (Gm. laub). 
 Vol. II.— 23 
 
354 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 § 2. The substitution of vowels one for the other. 
 This class of changes is twofold : 1st. The simple 
 changing of one vowel into another. Sd. Diphthong- 
 izing ; or, strengthening them by a combining vowel. 
 
 1st. Among simple vowel-changes note the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 (a) A to : as, Eng. nose (L.nasus, Gm. nase) and 
 Aooi (Gm. haken). 
 
 (/?) ^ to a: as in partridge (Fr. perdrix where 
 there is an epenthesis of r by way of assimilation, L. 
 perdix) and_/a^ (Gm. fett). 
 
 {y)E to : as provost * (L. praepositus, lit. set 
 over, Pr. pr6v6t) : cf. Gm. probst, where the ultimate 
 radical o is utterly rejected. 
 
 {§) to e : as red (Gm. roth). 
 
 (i) and ou to a and i : as tart (It. torte, Fr. 
 tourte), and tire (around a wheel), Pr. tour; and attire, 
 Fr. atours. 
 
 (ZO ?7 to ^ : as elm (L. ulmus), Gm. ulme : cf. It. 
 olmo, and Fr. orme). 
 
 (;-/) U to 0: as doj; (Gr. nviog, L. buxus, Sp. 
 box). 
 
 {%)-) Ei and ie to o and oa : as, both (Gm. beide), 
 hone (bein), own, (eigen), stone (stein), oak (eiche), 
 oath (eid). So, love is Gm. lieben. 
 
 * In the pronunciation of resin as rosira, we see a popular inclina- 
 tion towards the nse of a stronger vowel in the accented syllable, 
 than one so much like the weak vowel of the terminal syllable. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 355 
 
 2. The following are specimens of diphthongiza- 
 tion : 
 
 («) Au,: as aunt (L. amita), haunch (Fr. hanche), 
 launch (Fr. 61ancer), maunch (M. L. manducare from 
 L. mandere), staunch (Sp. estancar). 
 
 (,<?) 0«.- as abound (Fr. abonder, L. abundare), 
 redound (Fr. redonder), «202<«# (Fr. mont, L. mens), 
 w\^ fount (Fr. font, L. fons), and noun (F. nom). 
 
 So, in French, the L. vowels e, i, o and u are re- 
 presented sometimes by diphthongs, chiefly oi, as : 
 
 e, Fr. loi, roi, toi and trois (L. lex, rex, te andtres). 
 
 i, Fr. doigt and poix (L. digitus and pix). 
 
 0, Fr. gloire and voix (L. gloria and vox). 
 
 u, Fr. joindre and point (L. jungere and punctum). 
 
 ^21. The tendency to a contraction of original 
 forms in our language is very observable. 
 
 (1) In the great number of mute vowels at the 
 end of words, as in the French and very largely from 
 the French. Silent e, found so abundantly at the end 
 of vi^ords in EngUsh, serves practically, while having a 
 separate etymological value in reference to its Latin 
 original, to indicate that the preceding radical vowel 
 of the word is long, as in robe and rose, compared with 
 rob and sod. 
 
 (2) In the large number of silent letters, in the 
 beginning and middle of words : as in chord, cough, 
 gnash, high, knee, knife, laugh, phlegm, plough, 
 rough, sieve, sword, through, weigh. 
 
356 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 (3)" In abbreviated forms themselves. 
 
 (a) See previous list of double forms in Enghsh, 
 fuU and contracted, pp. 801-3. 
 
 (/?) Prom the German, the following are specimens 
 of contracted derivatives : 
 
 Eng. nail. 
 
 Gm. nagel. 
 
 " hail. 
 
 " hagel. 
 
 " hill, 
 
 " hiigel, 
 
 " sail. 
 
 " segel, 
 
 " seal. 
 
 " siegel (L. sigillum) 
 
 " had. 
 
 " hatte, and gehabt. 
 
 (jy) From the Latin (through the Prench, Spanish, 
 &c.) : as, ass (li. asinus, Fr. kne, orig. asne) ; cousin, 
 (L. consobrinus, Fr. cousin) ; date, the fruit (L. dac- 
 tylus, Gr. SdteTvXog) ; larceny (L. latrocinium, Fr. 
 larcin) ; lien (L. ligamentum) ; male (L. masculus, 
 Fr. male) ; parcel (L. particula, dimin. of pars, IV. 
 parcelle) ; prairie (Fr. do., M. L. prataria, a series of 
 meadows, from L. pratum, a meadow) ; punch (Sp. 
 punzar from M. L. punctare, from L. pungere, punc- 
 tum) ; push (L. pulsare, Fr. pousser) ; sue (L. sequi, 
 Fr. suivre). 
 
 (d) From the Greek (through the Romanic lan- 
 guages) : as, alms (Gr. iXsr/fzoavv rj, It. limosina, Sp. 
 limosna, Fr. aumone) ; priest (Gr. nQia^VTtQoq, Fr. 
 pretre, for orig. prestre, Gm. priester). 
 
 § 22. Since both the English verb and noun have 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 357 
 
 SO little of any flexional element in them, we use pro- 
 nouns very much more with the verb, for distinctions 
 of person, as we do also prepositions with the noun, 
 to denote variations of relation to other words, than do 
 the classical languages. Similar also is our greater use 
 of the corresponding adjective pronouns. In Greek 
 and German it is usage to say " I wash the foot," " I 
 have, or hold, the sword," "1 love the son," while in 
 Latin the article itself is also wanting. But in English 
 the objective form used with each verb respectively, as 
 above, is " mj foot," " my sword," " my son." Like 
 the German and the Prench, but unlike the ancient 
 classical languages, having but one fonu, the English 
 has also a double form of the pronominal adjectives, 
 absolute and conjunctive, as my and mine, thy and 
 thine, our and ours, your and yours. 
 
 ^23. In French and German the present and im- 
 perfect tenses of the verb, to be, are very extensively 
 used as auxiharies, and almost universally so in verbs 
 of motion, instead of the corresponding tenses of the 
 verb to have, as in English. A similar usage is quite 
 common in our language, in respect to the two verbs 
 to come and to go. We say therefore, with equal 
 propriety, " he is gone " and " he has gone ; " " he was 
 gone " and " he had gone." There is some difference 
 of sense of course in the two forms ; or they would drop 
 irresistibly one into the other : the forms " is " and 
 " was," come or gone, expressing more strongly the 
 
358 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 present determinateness of the fact, as a fact, than 
 "has" and "had." The present sense or bearing of 
 the fact is specifically declared by them. 
 
 ^ 24. Our language is singularly destitute of the 
 verbal forms of politeness, that are found in some of 
 the modern languages. Our words, grandfather and 
 grandmother (lit great father, etc.) we have derived 
 directly from the Trench (le grand p^re and la grand' 
 mere). The relatives by marriage that we coldly call 
 step-father and step-mother (step, representing perhaps, 
 as Home Tooke suggests, steady or instead), or, in no 
 warmer phrase, father-in-law and mother-in-law ( — in 
 law, observe ! rather than in feeling : — ) are denomi- 
 nated in French le beau p^re and la beUe mere ; or, the 
 handsome father and mother. Even in the impassive 
 Latin, the form of expression is more cordial (noverca, 
 lit^ a new mother), than in English. In German, in- 
 quiries are made after one's father, by the respectful 
 designation of " Ihr Herr Vater," lit. " your Sir father ; " 
 and so of one's mother, " Ihre Erau Mutter," or " your 
 lady mother." In Erench the corresponding titles are 
 " Monsieur/ votre pfere," " Mr., your father," and 
 " Madame/ votre m^re," or " Madam, your mother." 
 
 There is indeed in our country a very general, if 
 unconscious, reaction manifest against the naturally 
 levelling tendencies of American socialistic democracy, 
 in the so prevalent disposition to give and accept titles. 
 But although these also have, under that law of wide- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 359 
 
 spread diifusiveness, which characterizes our notions 
 and habits of national life, been multiplied " for 
 better or worse," and particularly " for worse," 
 all over the land, even to ridiculousness : — small 
 indeed is their influence, in either generating or per- 
 petuating refined habits of social intercourse. Would 
 that some well-sounding forms of polite address, per- 
 petually recurrent in all the familiar modes of speech 
 between man and man, and concerning one man to an- 
 other, belonged to our language, as its natural orna- 
 ments, to please the ears, and win the hearts of the 
 educated and intelligent, as well as of the uninformed 
 and the young, to continual gentleness of feeling and 
 action towards every man as a brother ! 
 
 § 25. Although the sentiment and doctrine also of 
 fate prevail everywhere characteristically in Heathen- 
 dom, no cultivated nation in the past has in its philos- 
 ophy, poetry, mythology, rites of divination, mysteries, 
 public worship, and public enterprizes, shown a more 
 profound and unquestioning subjection to its dictates, 
 than the E,omans. And yet, under the operation of 
 the strange, if blind, laws of social compensation, by 
 which "the evil that men do" is often kept from 
 " living after them," by the counteracting influence of 
 their " own blessed self-contradictions " : — ^in no lan- 
 guage is such apparently great care taken to express 
 constantly the contingency of human actions, as such, 
 or the full possibility at all tim.es of action to the con- 
 
360 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 trary, as in the Latin language ; in which the sub- 
 junctive mood has for this purpose a scope and function 
 altogether peculiar. In the German indeed^ the free- 
 dom of the human wUl is ever brought into the fore- 
 ground, in even the most incidental allusions made to 
 the conduct, character and experience of men : — ^by 
 the continual use of reflexive verbs, to denote our men- 
 tal and moral states, and at the same time the idea of 
 their personal self-origination. 
 
 In English, however, in utter dissonance with nat- 
 ural English genius, feeling and development, no less 
 than with the real metaphysical facts of the case ; — 
 the affections, emotions, and passions of the mind are 
 described (as, in these very words themselves, in which 
 they are here expressed) as results, rather than as ac- 
 tivities ; and as experiences from sources without and 
 beyond themselves, rather than as self-produced modes 
 and forms of responsible personal agency. Our 
 characteristics are all couched, as we speak of them, in 
 the passive voice. We accordingly are ashamed and 
 are afraid, and are penitent, and are converted and re- 
 newed instead of thinking and speaking of ourselves, 
 as in the German, as shaming, frightening, repenting, 
 and' turning aright, ourselves. The English and the 
 American mind are thus unfortunately put, by the very 
 traditional implications of our language itself ; and by 
 assumptions of what are ultimate truths, in the philo- 
 sophy of human conduct and character, which amount 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. ' 361 
 
 in themselves to the strongest possible instances of 
 " petitio principii " in the science of the mind : into an 
 attitude of formal outward observation, and of theoret- 
 ically conscious feeling within, about personal duty to 
 God, which are directly adverse to the whole style and 
 spirit of gospel demands upon its fuU, free, instant 
 return to right thinking and living. The mythology 
 and philosophy of the Roman bound him, as with 
 bands of iron, to the dark, forbidding, godless dogma 
 of fate ; while the various forms and idioms of his 
 mighty mother-tongue were ever silently neutralizing, 
 by their counter-influence, as they mingled, with their 
 charmed presence, in all his thoughts, the powerful 
 effects of such a great comprehensive falsehood, sup- 
 ported with such convincing sanctions. 
 
 The English mind has, on the contrary, been made 
 free in both hemispheres, in all its instincts and im- 
 pulses, by the Gospel, and its own gospelized history 
 of moral conflicts and conquests ; but, by a law of 
 compensation exactly opposite to that Avhich worked 
 upon the Roman mind, and a law, not of Heaven in 
 its origin or influence, it has strangely bound itself in 
 theoretic fetters, that, though imaginary, suffice to hold 
 the minds and hearts of multitudes in a voluntary moral 
 stupor, which soon ends in irretrievable moral death. 
 The unconverted man here thinks it his duty, to be 
 penitent — ^to arrive indeed at such a resulting state, 
 but not to take the necessary means himself of arriving 
 
363 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 there. He hopes that by good luck he may some day 
 find that he has become a new man, although in what 
 way, or when, it shall come to pass, he cannot divine. 
 Thus the glories and riches of divine grace, in all their 
 mingled, governmental and personal characteristics, 
 seem to him, in his reflections upon them and desires 
 for them, but a grand, divine windfall. Not more 
 closely are words and ideas connected, than are true 
 or false philology and true or false theology, with each 
 other. 
 
 § 26. There are but a few compound forms native 
 to our language itself. These are of the following 
 kinds : 
 
 (a) Those made by the combiniation of an ad- 
 jective and noun : as, hard ware, dry-goods ; or, more 
 frequently, those made by the agglutination of two 
 nouns, to express one compound idea : the first noun 
 having the sense of an adjective : as, bar-room, meat- 
 shop, rail-road, steam-boat, store-house, thunder-storm, 
 ticket-office, toll-gate, ware-room, etc. 
 
 (/?) Those forms, chiefly adverbial, modified by 
 the preposition at in combination with them: as, 
 aboard, abroad, afar, afield, afoot (for at foot, like " at 
 large "), ago (for agone), aground, ahead, along, amid, 
 anew, apace, apart (and apartment), aright, around, 
 astern, astray, asleep, and awake, and so also ado 
 (for at doing). 
 
 % 27. Some compound derivatives from other Ian- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 363 
 
 guages, in English, are of decided interest : some of 
 which are at once manifest to a scholarly eye, and 
 others are more concealed. 
 
 Those more evident are such as follow : lieutenant 
 (Fr. do., L. locum tenens) ; potash (Gm. pottasche, 
 Pr. potasse and in chemistry potassa and potassium), 
 which means kettle-ashes ; petroleum (= L. petra+ 
 oleum or, rock-oU) ; saltpetre (= L. sal+petra, or 
 rocksalt) ; port/olio (Pr. portefeuille = L. portare and 
 foli]im) ; knapsack (Gm. knappsack : lit. a nibhle-^^f^, 
 or bag to carry nihblings in). 
 
 How much more so are those more concealed : as, 
 tocsin (Pr. do. = Fr. toucher, to touch or strike, and 
 sein, a beU. Cf. It. segno from L. signum) ; bonfire, lit. 
 good fire (cf. for sense Fr. feu de joie, or fire of joy) ; 
 cormorant (L. corvus marinus, or sea-crow,; a widow 
 (L. viduus, Sk. vi-dhav^, lit. without a man) is one 
 husbandless ; the ostrich (Fr. autruche) = L. avis 
 struthio. Carcass (It. carcassa) is L. caro+capsa, lit. 
 a flesh-case ; jporpoise is L. porcus -|- piscis. 
 
 \ 28. Many words in English, descriptive of the 
 most positive and even offensive forms of human char- 
 acter and conduct, are simple negatives: as, naughty 
 (i. e. doing naught, " good for nothing) ; indolent (" not 
 taking " or accepting " pains ") ; unrighteous ; inhu- 
 man; iniguity, (=L. in, not, -f aequus, equal) ; de- 
 graded (=L. de, from,+gradus, grade, i. e. the ave- 
 rage-grade) ; dishonest (wanting in honesty) ; reckless 
 
364 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 (without recking or reckoning) ; desperate (=:L. de+ 
 spes, without hope). 
 
 So. in German, wron(^ is unrecht, or «<»right ; as, in 
 fact, wrong itself in English impUes, i. e. wrung out of 
 the true course or path. Cf. Fr. tort, for sense^ lit. 
 twisted (L. tortus, from torquere, tortum). In San- 
 skrit the contrast between rigid and wrong (or unright) 
 as expressed in English, is declared in a wonderfully 
 similar form, which is " riju " (or, right) and " vrijinas" 
 (or, wrong), lit. hindered or turned away from the 
 right. So, in physical things, negative forms of words 
 express some of the most positive facts : as, disease 
 (lit. want of ease), disorder, disunion, disgusting, etc. 
 
 § 29. In no language have words taken on in 
 usage a more conventional form, to the apprehension 
 of those that use them.. The definitions, metaphors, 
 and associations of thought and feeling that they really 
 contain in themselves, fresh from their ancient origin 
 and use, are all lost to the eyes and ears, not only of 
 unlearned Enghshmen, but even, generally, of the learn- 
 ed also. Their real beauties, which fill them continu- 
 ally, to a true discerning vision, with inward light and 
 loveliness, are all lost, except to the initiated few, in 
 utter obscuration. 
 
 % 30. In a few instances a slight tendency appears 
 in English to the adoption of a phonographic simplifica- 
 tion of form. Thus indict (L. indicere) has come to 
 be spelled indite; the word law is an evident attempt 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATUKES. 365 
 
 at imitating in English the Fr. loi (L. lex) in spelling, 
 as well as pronunciation ; so, pumpkin is a phonographic 
 perversion of pompion. See page 340. 
 
 § 31. The capricious action of the law of "usus 
 loquendi," in selecting some of the derivatives of vari- 
 ous classical radicals and rejecting others equally eligi- 
 ble in themselves, and convenient for use, is very man- 
 ifest to one who is an eager and watchful explorer of 
 words. How many terse, expressive words could any 
 one introduce from the Latin, from the same roots that 
 have now a welcome representation in our language : 
 as, antevene (L. antevenire, to get the start of) ; con- 
 sess (L. consessus, an assembly viewed as sitting to- 
 gether : quite as valuable a word as congress, L. con- 
 gressus, lit. a coming together) ; covfect (L. conficere, 
 to prepare thoroughly, or finish : cf. affect, effect, in- 
 fect^ ; confringe (L. confringere, to break in pieces, 
 like, for form, infringe^ ; and conject (L. conjicere, to 
 throw together : cf. inject and eject) ; and conquire (L. 
 conquirere, to seek for earnestly, like, for form, acquire 
 and inquire^; delapse (L. delabi, delapsus, to slip 
 down), like elapse and illapse ; distain (L. distinere, 
 to hold apart, like, for form, contain, retain, sustain'), 
 etc. ; detrude (L. detrudere, to thrust away, like pro- 
 trude^. Why not introlt (L. introitus), as well as 
 exit (L. exitus) &nA. prenouncS (L. praenuntiare, to tell 
 beforehand), as well as announce and pronounce ; and 
 
366 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 amii (L. amittere, to lose), as well as omit, remit, and 
 submit. 
 
 § 32. Tire elliptical origin of some words in English, 
 as in some instances correspondingly in their Latin origi- 
 nals also, deserves notice. Thus, September, October, 
 November, December are equivalent probably to septem, 
 octo, etc., menses a vere : as the original Roman year 
 began in March. The English word mob represents L. 
 mobile vulgus, or the fickle common people. Facsimile 
 is two Latin words, fac, imperative of facere, lit. make 
 thou, and simile, like. 
 
 § 33. Our Latin-English verbs are largely formed 
 from the supine-stem of the original root ; as are also 
 sometimes those derived from the French -. as, indicate 
 (L. indicare, indicatum), and so w\.[)a. predicate, deliber- , 
 ate, migrate ; as well as debit, exhibit, prohibit, etc. 
 (L. debitum, etc.), and attract, direct, exert, exempt, 
 etc. 
 
 From the French, we have formed in the same way 
 such words as accrue (Fr. accroitre, prt. accru), due 
 (Fr. du, part, of devoir, L. debere), and view (Fr. 
 voir, part, vu, from L. videre). 
 
 Some few verbal nouns recently introduced from 
 the Latin are but direct specimens of Latin verbs them- 
 selves, in the 3d pers. sing, present : as, habitat, deficit, 
 etc. Affidavit is a similar 3d pers. sing. perf. from 
 M. L. affidare (=ad fidem dare). 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 367 
 
 § 34. It is interesting to notice the standards of 
 general feeling set up in words : 
 
 (1) That the average sense of mankind is the 
 standard of appeal, in all matters of outward appear- 
 ance and custom. 
 
 Common sense is the universally recognized umpire 
 of all individual differences of judgment. FasJdon, 
 whose sway is so imperative, and even imperious, in 
 little matters, is but the L. factio (Fr. facon) or, the 
 common way of doiny things. Fame (L. fama, from 
 fari, to speak) is but the gpneral speech of mankind. 
 
 (2) That the universally acknowledged basis of 
 respect is superiority of age. 
 
 Sir and sire (Pr. sieur. It. signer, Sp. senor) is L. 
 senior, older. So, senator is from senex, old ; as pres- 
 byter and priest are from Gr. nQta^vriQcg', elder, Gra. 
 priester, !Fr. pretre ; and elder represents Gm. alter, 
 comp. of alt (L. altus), old. 
 
 " Let the man of days speak " is the voice of man- 
 kind at large, now as in the days of Job. 
 
 (3) That to the average sense of mankind the most 
 noticeable, as the most valued, effect of personal and 
 social culture appears in the manners of men. The 
 two words, civilized (or, become civil), in opposition to 
 the whole barbarian world outside, and gentleman (a 
 gentle or refined man), in opposition to all rude and 
 uncouth characters in civilized society, evince the fact 
 
368 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 declared. Thus plainly is the declaration made that 
 "manners are matter." 
 
 (4) That to the apprehension of men, generally, 
 the quality of things deteriorates, as their size increases 
 beyond the usual average. Men do not talk of big 
 beauties, or of little lubberly or rowdyish characters, 
 but of little beauties, and of nice, neat little things, on 
 the one hand, and of coarse, unlovely, big specimens 
 of humanity, or of animated nature, on the other. 
 
 (5) That men are judged, in reference to their so- 
 cial distinctions, by their ou,tward visible activities and 
 successes, rather than by their inward merits and ca- 
 pacities ; and this is right : for what God and man 
 want is fruit ! Wealth means in itself strength (cf. L. 
 valere and valor, and Eng. value, valid, valor, etc., and 
 Gm. wohl, Eng. weal and well, and Gm. gewalt, etc.). 
 The men oi fortune (L. fortuna, from fors, chance) are 
 the men admired ; prosperity is what all covet. 
 
 As strong qualities are needful to gain, or hold, 
 success long, whatever weaker ones may be combined 
 with them, those which draw after them a long train 
 of desired results draw also with these the praises of 
 the world at large. 
 
 § 35. Marks of a popular confusion of ideas are 
 apparent in the etymology of some words. Thus, Er^ 
 consommer (properly from L. consummare, to consum- 
 mate) has evidently acquired the sense, to expend or 
 consume, from being mixed in thought with L. cousu- 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 369 
 
 mere. Diamond (Fr. diamant) is from Gr. dba^iaq, 
 L. adamas, Eng. adamant (from a privative and Safidco, 
 I subdue), lit. not able to be broken ; and it is evi- 
 dently of hybrid origin, being equal to Gr. 8id, through, 
 and Fr. aimant (which also means the diamond) : refer- 
 ring, like diaphanous, to its translucence. Jovial, 
 which has been claimed by some etymologists to be 
 derived from Jove, and so to be an astrological word in 
 its origin, referring to the supposed favorable influence 
 of the planet Jupiter for good: — is, doubtless, a cor- 
 rupted derivative from L. juvare (cf. It. giovare, to 
 please, from L. juvare, and It. giovale, jovial). 
 
 § 36. The words pertaining to common wants, oc- 
 cupations, experiences, implements, and articles, are 
 largely Anglo-Saxon, although many, not generally 
 conceived to be such, are from Latin originals. The 
 language of the learned and cultivated is very much of 
 it Latin-English, which, when too preponderant, makes 
 one's style of speech or composition appear too stilted 
 and pompous ; while, for popular impressiveness, it is 
 too ineffective and cold. Our theological technics are 
 from the Latin : the language of metaphysics is largely 
 Greek ; that of mineralogy, German ; that of military 
 deeds and plans, motions, and manoeuvres, French, as 
 well as of the forms of fashion, both in dress and ac- 
 tion; while in mathematics, Latin, Greek, French, and 
 Arabic mingle their elements of Ught and strength to- 
 gether in fraternal unioti for our benefit. 
 Vol. II.— 2i 
 
370 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 § 37. There is a class of Arabic words in English, 
 as also a few of a Persian oi'igiii, as interesting as 
 they are limited, and all the more so from the common 
 use which they have obtained. Witness the following 
 specimens : 
 
 1. ^/co^o/ from Arabic al-ko'hl, a very fine powder 
 used to darken the eyebrows; from which the name 
 was transferred to " the spirits of wine " in modern use, 
 but not Arabic, expressive of the idea of their being 
 very refined. 
 
 2. Alcove (It. alcova, Sp. alcoba, Arabic al 
 quobbah, a vault, a tent. 
 
 3. Alembic (Pr. alambic, Sp. alambique. It. 1am- 
 bicco from Arabic al-amblq). 
 
 4. Algebra (It. and Sp. do.), from Arabic al-gabr, 
 the restoring of broken parts and pieces to unity 
 again). 
 
 5. Arabesque (It. arabesco) from Arab, hke pic- 
 turesque from picture, referring to architectural and 
 other adornments in leaf-work, such as the Arabs used, 
 in preference to any and all designs of men or animals ; 
 which their religious scruples about " graven images " 
 &c., did not favor or even allow. 
 
 6. Arsenal (Sp. and Pr. do.. It. arsenale and arzana) 
 from Arabic dar §anah, a house of industry. 
 
 7. Artichoke (It. articiocco, Pr. artichaut, and Gm. 
 artischoke) from Arabic ar'di schauki, a ground-thorn 
 or fang. 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 871 
 
 8. Carat (Pr. do., It. carato), Arabic qir4't, from 
 Gr. petQixTiov, pulse, used as a weight in weighing 
 things. 
 
 9. Caravan, from Arabic kairavan, Pers. kerwan. 
 
 10. Cipher (It. and Sp. cifra) from Arabic gafar, 
 empty, nought. In Arabic itself the cipher, naught, 
 is denoted by a point. 
 
 1 1. Coffee (Turkish kahveh, Persian do. said by 
 Lieut. Lynch to mean originally wine) Pr. cafe, Gm. 
 kaffee. 
 
 Coffee was first introduced into Europe, and the 
 word with the thing, by Daniel Edwards, a merchant 
 of Smyrna, about the middle of the 17th century. — 
 
 SCHELER. 
 
 12. Cotton (It. cotone, Er. coton, Sp. algodon) 
 from Arabic qo'ton and al-qo'ton. 
 
 13. Julep (Fr. do., Sp. julepe. It. giulebbe) from 
 Arabic golab, which itself represents Persian gul, rose, 
 and ab, water. 
 
 14. Gazelle (Fr. do., It. gaz2ella, Sp. gazela) from 
 Arabic gazM. 
 
 15. Laudanum is the Arabic lodan. 
 
 16. Magazine (Fr. magasin, a store house. It. ma- 
 gazzino, Sp. magacen and almagacen) from Arabic 
 machsan and almachsan, a shed or barn. 
 
 17. Minaret (Fr. do.) Arabic menarah, a lantern, 
 light, or lighthouse. 
 
372 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY 
 
 18. Mummy (It. mummia, Sp. momia, Fr. momie) 
 from Arabic niliin, wax. 
 
 19. Saffron (It. zafferano, Pr. safran) from Arabic 
 
 20. Sherbet (It. sorbetto, Sp. sorbeta, Tr. sorbet) 
 from Arabic schorb, beverage (of. sirop from schar^b). 
 
 21. Sirop (It. siroppo, Sp. xarope, Fr. sirop) from 
 Arabic scharab, drink, wine, &c. 
 
 22. Sumach (Gm. do.. It. sommaco, Sp. zumaque, 
 Pr. sumac) from Arabic sommAq. 
 
 23. Suffar (Gr. odx^aQov, L. saccharum, It. zuc- 
 chero, Sp. azucar, Pr. sucre, Gm. zucker) is from the 
 Arabic sokkar and assokkar (-}-al, the Arabic article 
 the). The Arabs prepared it in Egj^pt, Crete, Syria, 
 Sicily and Spain. The Venetians brought it from 
 Egyptj and from Spain it extended into Southern 
 Erance. Cf. Sk. (jarkara. 
 
 24. Talc (Fr. do.. It. talco) from Arabic 'talaq. 
 
 25. Talisman (Fr. and Sp. do.. It. talismano) from 
 Arabic 'telsam, a magical picture. 
 
 26. Tambourine (It. tamburo and dimin. tambu- 
 rino) from Persian 'tambur, Arabic 'tonbur. 
 
 27. Ikre (Fr. do.. It. and Sp. tara) from Arabic 
 'tarah, removed or taken away. 
 
 28. Tarif (Fr. do.. It. tariffa, Sp. tarifa) from 
 Arabic 'ta'rif, a declaration. 
 
 29. Tulijp (It. tulipano, Sp. tuUpa, Fr. tulipe) from 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 373 
 
 Persian dulbend; whence also Eng. turban (It. tur- 
 bante) because of an imagined resemblance of form. 
 
 30. Zero (It., Sp. and Fr. do.) from Arabic gi'hron. 
 Cf cipher of same radication. 
 
 In conclusion. The grand inward, ever-working, 
 ever-assimilative, energies of the English tongue, and 
 the accumulated influences and evidences of individual 
 homegrowth in it, do not show themselves, as in Latin 
 and Greek, in any perfected grammatical forms as such, 
 or in any phonetic harmony or homogeneousness of de- 
 velopment, in even its poetical elements ; but rather in 
 an intense unity of bearing and sense in all the material 
 elements of the language ; making it a splendid unique 
 product by itself, as it were, of all foregoing humanity 
 and human progress -. — so that it has in it, as the great 
 comprehensive world-language of human progress for 
 these and coming times, all the gathered power, for 
 exactness, of the Latin ; for versatility of expression, 
 of the Greek; for range of beauty, of the German; 
 and for solemn grandeur, of the; Hebrew itself: with 
 all the upper lights of revelation glowing full and 
 strong in the vaulted sphere of its past and present 
 literature. 
 
 The musical capacities of our language, its inward 
 elements of rhythm, its concurrences of sweet-sounding 
 words, ordered by skilful hands as the outward form of 
 deep, rich, strong thoughts within, its harmonies of 
 well-wrought, polished phrase, sweet as the chimes of 
 
374 COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETTMOLOGT. 
 
 silver bells, or as the murmurs of summer streams in 
 their golden flow : — who that knows the magic spell of 
 England's and America's best poets, orators, essayists, 
 and authors, needs to learn ! 
 
 In the philological gleanings thus brought together 
 in this article into so many clustered sheaves, the 
 author has sought to give distinct prominence to such 
 thoughts and views in this charming field of study, as 
 either had not found any proper place of their own in 
 his previous articles, or had not, if finding some such 
 place, a sufficiently clear, pronounced expression of 
 their real individual value in it, and particularly in their 
 relations to the elements of the still unelaborated and 
 imdeveloped science of English etymology. 
 
 How easy is it to appear learnedly reserved, and 
 learnedly obscure ! But to be clear, definite, positive, 
 and practical should be the earnest effort of every one 
 who, having sought to obtain knowledge for himself, 
 undertakes to communicate his conceptions and mental 
 decisions to others. Non-committalism is of little pro- 
 fit, either objectively or reflexively, to any one, and is 
 as worthless, in matters of scientific or literary com- 
 I position, as in politics. Whatever imperfections a 
 coldly critical eye may see, or affect to see, in the sub- 
 stance or style, of the intellectual service here at- 
 tempted, the gratification will remain unabated to the 
 author of having offered the best results of his own 
 efforts, to obtain true and full hght upon this great 
 
IN ITS CLASSICAL FEATURES. 375 
 
 subject, for the pleasure and profit of all who care 
 enough for its riches, or their own mental improvement, 
 to draw near to the precincts of the New Philology, 
 and inquire after its stores of truth and wonder. 
 
 The Latin roots selected for use in the continuation 
 of this Essay, as the "Brief Illustrative Synopsis" 
 promised in the title, will be chosen chiefly for two 
 purposes : to exhibit the mode in which words hang in 
 clusters, as the true normal mode of their growth ; and 
 at the same time to show what variations of form, 
 as well as of sense, words of the same immediate origin 
 may assume. 
 
 The connections of words in the same language, 
 having the same ultimate origin, will be found to be 
 as remarkable for their mutual strangeness of form and 
 sense, as any one can have ever conceived the connec- 
 tions of various families of nations, or of languages, 
 with each other to be. 
 
 The pleasure also to be derived from seeing the 
 various classes of words belonging to the same lan- 
 guage, arranged in their own separate, appropriate 
 groups, is next to that to be obtained from a wide 
 and critical, comparative survey of the different families 
 of languages themselves. 
 
PART II. 
 or 
 
 COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. 
 
A SYNOPSIS 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. 
 
 The list of words here grouped together, for the pleasure 
 and profit of whatever scholarly mind that, while appreciating 
 the value of thorough etymological research, yet has not the 
 time or materials for any satisfactory explorations of its 
 own : — is but a specimen-list, which, though of considerable 
 fulness in itself, might still be largely increased. In the consi- 
 deration of the some thousands of words here explained, there 
 will be found to be much opportunity for both interesting in- 
 vestigation and speculation. Curious, indeed, will the affilia- 
 tions of words often show themselves to be, and odd their 
 multiform combinations alike of form and sense. Nothing but 
 the most rigid logic of facts, and the force of manifest verities, 
 could satisfy one who loves truth ineffably more than any 
 novelties, however imposing, that the existing relations and 
 correlations of words, in each single language, as well as in 
 many combined, are really, in ever-changing forms and aspects, 
 what they actually are. 
 
 "When seeing words " in situ," we see them, all the more, 
 as they are inwardly, as well as outwardly, in themselves. That 
 in subsequent reconsiderations of some of the many etymolo- 
 gies here presented, the author might not modify much, with 
 
380 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 more lightj the views, which he now holds and has here ex- 
 pressed, is more tlian he dare promise himself, or the reader. 
 The experience of Diez (as quoted on page 238, Vol. I. of this 
 work) will be the experience of every critical investigator of 
 words upon any large and adequate scale. The science of 
 philology is also, in all its departments, in such a state of 
 rapid growth, as to be perpetually presenting new materials 
 for a better " finding " of the truth, in respect to the real 
 origin and fundamental significance of a multitude of words. 
 
 While the erect independent spirit of a true scholar is ex- 
 pressed in the words, " nullius ad verba magistri jurare ad- 
 dictus ; " still no one, worthy of such a high name, will fail to 
 use all the light that he can obtain, from whatever quarter, 
 in arriving at his own final, mental decisions. For some 
 words many quite diverse etymologies are offered, by various 
 scholars of the first class ; and the mental and moral position 
 of a critical investigator of their actual, ascertainable connec- 
 tions with other words, radically, phonetically, or historically, 
 is that of a patient, exact, and conscientious judge, hearing 
 and sifting the most conflicting testimonies and deductions. 
 For the word Huguenot, for example, fifteen different etymo- 
 logies have been devised : as, from Hugh Capet (whose shade, 
 it is a popular fancy at Tours, wanders about there at night; 
 and whose name was therefore applied to French Protestants 
 because of their nocturnal assemblies) ; from a heretic in the 
 times of Charles VI. of the name of Hugo ; from a small 
 piece of money called " huguenot " (and named after " Hugues 
 Capet "), used to express the low estimate in which they were 
 held by French Catholics ; or, worse still by way of reproach, 
 as a compound of the name John Suss, the martyr, and the 
 Fr. word guenons, monkeys ; from a Swiss word hensquenaux, 
 seditious, <&c., &c. See Scheler's Diet. D'Etymol. Frangaise, 
 word Huguenot. 
 
 The author of this work has given his own views of the 
 various words here submitted, with as much mingled com- 
 pleteness and conscientiousness, as he could summon to his 
 labors on so wide a field of research. The personal element 
 which is a positive quantity in all governmental and even 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 381 
 
 scientific efforts and effects, the world over, is of necessity- 
 present here also ; let whatever there be of it, that seems 
 false or intellectually unworthy, be eliminated, whether crit- 
 ically or kindly, by any one that follows after him, in the 
 path here opened with welcome to his footsteps. Truth is 
 everything; and any individual in comparison with it is 
 nothing. 
 
 A. 
 
 1. Absurdus, Eng. absurd, commonly guessed to represent 
 ab, from, and surdus, a deaf person (whose voice, being unre- 
 gulated by the ear, is abnormal in its action), is from the same 
 ultimate root with Sk. svri and svar, to sound, and Sk. svara-s, 
 sound (cf. Lith. surme, a flute) ; and like L. absonus means 
 dissonant. Of the same original is Gr. o-Cptyf, a pipe, a 
 musical reed, Eng. syringe. Cf. for similar variation of sense 
 L. pipire, to pipe or peep, and a pipe (as for smoking, &o.). 
 L. susurro, I whisper, which, as a reduplicated form, is quite 
 onomatopoetio, is perhaps of the same radication with Sk. 
 svar. 
 
 2. Acies, a point or barb (Sk. agri-s, the edge of a sword, 
 Gr. <i/«'s and dx^, Gm. ecke), Eng. edge. Of similar origin 
 is acme (Gr. aKjuij, a point) ; as are also the following words, 
 immediately derived from L. acere (obs.), to be sour (as 
 being sharp or biting ; as Eng. word hitter comes from bite), 
 acid, acetic : as also from L. acer, sharp, of same ultimate 
 source (cf. Sk. akra-s, brisk, lively, and d9u-s, swift, and Gr. 
 (oKvs, as also o^u's, from which Gr. irapofi;<r/Aos, lit. sharp irritar 
 tion, Eng. paroxysm, and L. acus, a needle), come acerbity 
 and exacerbate, acrimony (L. acrimonia) and vinegar (Fr. 
 vinaigre = vinum acre, sharp or sour wine), and eager (L. 
 acer, Fr. aigre, like Eng. meagre, from L. macei-, Fr. maigre) ; 
 while from acuere, to sharpen, come acute, acumen, and 
 acuminate (M. L. acuminare). 
 
 3. Aequus, level, equal (Sk. 6ka-s, one, Gr. ei/cos ; lit. one 
 with itself: cf. with Sk. fikars, L. codes, one-eyed = lka+ 
 
382 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 bculus), equal, equable, equation, equator, equity, and ini- 
 quity (L. iniquus), adequate (ad+aequus), inadequate, equani- 
 mity (-J-animus), equivalent (-j-.valere), equivocate (+vox). 
 
 4. Aevum, time, life, age (Sk. Svars, a course, a way, etc. 
 cf. &yu-s, long life, perhaps for orig. aivas, and Gr. aiU, aliv, 
 and atet, always,* and ahav, for alFuiv, a life-time, etc.), ever 
 (Gm. ewig) ; never (not ever), age (L. aetas for aevitas, Fr. 
 S.ge, contracted from such a form as aetaticam), eternal (L. 
 aeternus for aevitemus). 
 
 5. Ager, a field (Sk. ajra-s, a plain or field, Gr. dypds, Gm. 
 acker), acre (M. L. acra), agrarian, agriculture (-|-colere, to 
 cultivate) ; peregrinate (per+ager) ; pilgrim (L. peregrinus. 
 It. pellegrino, Fr. pelerin, Gm. pilger). 
 
 6. Agere, actum, to lead or drive (Sk. aj, to go,' to drive, 
 Gr. ayo) and ayiveo), from which come Sr]fiayary6^, Eng. dema- 
 gogue = Br]ix.6i-\-a.yu> — ^lit. a leader of the "people ; iraiSayoi- 
 yos, lit. a leader of children ; (rrpaTrjyia and a-TpaT-rjy^iJia, Eng. 
 strategy and stratagem / dyiovCa, a contest, from aycov, an as- 
 sembly, &c., Eng. agony ; avrayavta-Ti^s, Eng. antagonist), 
 agent, agile (L. agilis), act, actual (M. L. actualis), actuate, 
 actuary (M. L. actuarius) ; ambiguous (amb, round about-j- 
 agere) ; cogent (L. cogere = con+agere) ; coagulate (L. coag- 
 ulare) ; exigency (exigere), and also exegesis, exact and eTcac- 
 tion ; react ; transact ; agitate (L. agitare, intensive form of 
 agere) ; cogitate (L. cogitare = con -(-agitare) ; cache (Fr. 
 cacher, to hide, from L. coactare) ; attitude (Sp. actitud, It. 
 attitudine) ; castigate (L. castigare = castum-|-agere) ; liti- 
 gate (litera-)-agere) ; manage (Fr. menager = L. manus-|- 
 agere), menagerie (Fr. do.) viewed as demanding care and 
 tact ; mitigate (mitem-f-agere) ; objurgation (L. objurgatio = 
 ob-j-jurgium, which last is doubtless for jus-igium =:jus-)- 
 agere) ; prodigal (L. prodigus^pro, for orig. prod,-fagere) ; 
 purge AnA purgative (purum-J-agere). Examine (L. examen, 
 for exagimen, a balance or measure, cf. exigere, to measure 
 
 * As Kuhn sayg well (Zeitschiift, &e., Vol. II. p. 233), with Sk. tja-a 
 agrees the Gr. aie't, by the weakening of u to e ; and aUv is related to oim, 
 as the 1st pers. pi. su£Sx imv of verbs to the archaic form /ies, Sk. mas; 
 L. mus. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGT. 383 
 
 carefully, to weigh), also, and embassy and ambassador 
 (M. L. ambasoia, entrusted business, and ambasciator, from 
 ambactus, part, of ambigere, to go about) radicate themselves 
 in the L. verb agere. 
 
 7. Aio, or ajo, I say (Sk. ah, to speak, Gr. V'i so Goth, 
 aika is Sk. 4ha, I have said). This verb, in its present form, 
 represents, as in adagium, also, au adage, an earher form, 
 agio (like major, in Latin, for an original magior : cf. Gr. 
 lA-difuv for /x.eyt(ov), stem ag. To this same primitive root ag, 
 belongs, with aio, the word axamenta also, or hymns sung by 
 the Salii, derived from a frequentative form axare, lit. to say 
 or repeat much ; in aio or ajo (for agio), the common root ag 
 having had the half-vowel i or y added to it. Indigitare, to 
 call upon the gods, and indigitamenta, religious books, con- 
 taining the names of the gods, belong also to this same root. 
 From aio come Eng. aye (lit. I say it), nay (aye, with the , 
 negative ne), negatimi (negare = ne-ig-are), deny (denegare), : 
 abnegate (M. L. abnegatio), adage (adagium). < 
 
 8. Alius, another (Gr. aWos for aXjo% ; of. L. ollus, archaic 
 form of ille, with which also cf. Fr. il, le, and la, as its deriva- 
 tives, and adv. olim, old ace. form of ollus, as partim of pars ; 
 and aliquis also = alius+quis, Cf. also aXKaa-aw and Eng. 
 parallax, and irapa dW^Xwi', Eng, parallel, as derived from , 
 aWos, from which also comes metal, Gr. ;i<,£t<xAAov, lit. ^ct / 
 aXKuiv, with other things ; as, ore is never found pure : cf, Fr. 
 metail. From jjieraXKov come also medal and medallion, It. i 
 medaglia, Fr. medaille). " 
 
 Bopp and Pott regard L. alius and Gr. aXXos as the paro- 
 nyms of Sk. anya-s. This derivation Schleicher, Curtius and 
 Corssen reject: Schleicher regarding them, without giving 
 reasons for the idea, as derived from the same root with Sk. 
 ar. Curtius and, Corssen leave the question of its ultimate 
 origin untouched. Here belong alien (L. alienus), alienate, 
 alter (L. alter, comp. form of alius), 'alternate (M. L. 
 alternare) and alternative, and altercate (L. altercari), and 
 alibi, a law term (L. alibi, an old dat. of locative signification, 
 from alius, like ibi of is and ubi, for quubi, .of quis, as in alicubi ; 
 and as also in tibi from tu, Sk. tubhyam, and sibi from tu and 
 
384 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 sui ; and mihi, dative of ego, for mibhi, Sk. mabhyam). Oth&r, 
 also, is but L. alter, Fr. autre, Sp. otro. Here, too, belong 
 the following compounds : solitude and solitary (L. solus = 
 se, without, and alius, another, — like socordia, laziness, from 
 secors, lit. without heart, and sobrius, Eng. sober, or se-f 
 ebrius— ^and hence the gen. form, solius) ; adultery (= ad 
 alteram, sc. uxorem). 
 
 9. Alere, part, altus, to nourish (cf. Sk. ar, to raise up one's 
 self, to strive upwards, and L. orior and olere and elementum : 
 Gr. dASatVo), oXOw and aXBalvut are the Gr. paronyms of alere. 
 From L. olere and olescere come adolescent, L. adolescens ; 
 abolish, L. abolere ; prolific, L. proles), aliment, alimony, 
 alumnus, altitude (L. altus, grown up, high), old (Gm. alt, 
 comp. alter, etc.), elder (both adj. and noun), alderman 
 (M. L. aldermannus), exalt, altar (altus-f-ara). From alescere, 
 incept, form of alere, come coalesce and coalition. Haughty 
 and hauteur find their place also here (L. altus, Fr. haut : so 
 M. L. " hauta justitia" occurs for alta justitia) ; and hautboy 
 (= Fr. haut bois, or high wood : lit. a wooden wind-instrument 
 of high note). 
 
 Corssen makes, perhaps rightly, L. alacer of same radication 
 with L. alere. From alacer come alacrity, allegro and alle- 
 gretto (It. derivatives from alacer). 
 
 10. Amare, to love (for original form (k)amare probably: 
 cf. Sk. kam, to love. Cf for form L. aper and Gr. xdirpos, 
 and also L. noscere, ridere, vanus and venire for (g)noscere, 
 (k)ridere, (c)vanus and (g)venire) ) ; amatory, amorous, 
 amiable (L. amabilis, Fr. aimable), amicable (L. amicus), 
 enemy (L. inimicus, Fr. ennerai), and inimical, amity, en- 
 amor^ (It. inamorare). L. amita, an aunt, belongs perhaps 
 here, from which comes Eng. aunt (Fr. tante, the initial t 
 being euphonic). 
 
 11. Angere, to throttle (Sk. anhu-s, pressed tight; also, 
 anha-s, pain; and agha-m, evil; Gr. ayxu>, I press or tighten; 
 cf. also ax°5' pain, Eng. ache, and dxeuo), I am sad), anguish 
 (L. angustia. It. angosoia, Fr. angoisse. Cf. also L. angor 
 from same root for sense): the physical symbol for the severest 
 mental torment, being that of acute pain in the throat; 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 385 
 
 anxious ; anger (so passion, from pati, to suffer, implies that 
 its subject is a sufferer at the time), angina. 
 
 12. Angulus, an angle, a corner (Sk. ak, to bend, and an- 
 ka-s, a hook ; Gr. ayKu>v, a bend ; and also ayxos and oyKos, 
 L. uncus, Gm. haken, Ags. hacan and hoc, Eng. hook)/ angle, 
 to angle (Gr. dyKuAos, crooked, curved), and ankle. With 
 ayK05 corresponds also ayicvpa, L. aiichora, Eng. anchor. 
 
 13. Anima, breath, the vital principle (Sk. ana^s, breath, 
 from an, to breathe ; cf. also anila-s, wind ; Gr. avc/ios, wind, 
 
 ' and arj/xi, I blow), animate and inanimate (of. L. animus, the 
 mind, and Gr. aye/xos, wind, for correspondence of sense, with 
 L. spiritus, breath, wind, the soul, Eng. spirit, from spirare, 
 to breathe. Air set in motion, in which effects are seen, but 
 not their cause, is the favorite symbol, in all languages, for 
 bodying forth the idea of the soul), animal, anim,alcule, ani- 
 mosity/ (L. animosus, lit. full of feeling), unanimous (L. unus 
 4-animus), magnanimity/ (magnus+etc). 
 
 14. Annus, a year (Gr. evoi and ivoi, a year, and Stevos, L. 
 biennis, and Tptevos, L, triennis; cf. also, Sk. sanarS, old, L. 
 senex, senis, and Lith. senas), annual, annals, anniversary 
 (vertere, to turn, or return), biennial (bis, twice), perennial 
 (per+annus), solemn (L. solennis = solus+annus, stated, and 
 thence ceremonial, and thence pompous), superannuated. 
 
 15. Anser, a goose (Sk. hansa-s, Gr. yriv, Gm. gans), goose 
 and gander. 
 
 16. Ante, before, in space or time (Sk. anti, over against, 
 Gr. dvTt), ante- and anti-, anterior, avaunt (Fr. avant, It. 
 ayanti = L. ab-f ante, lit. from before, cf. for formFr. devant 
 =L. de+ab+ante), advantage (Fr. avantage), advance (Fr. 
 avancer, It. avanzare), antique (L. antiquus), and antiquated, 
 ancient (M. L. antianus, It. anziano, Fr. ancien), ancestors 
 (M. L. antecessores, see cedere). i 
 
 17. Aqua, water (Sk. ap; n. pi. 4pa-s, water. Cf Goth, 
 ahva, a river. The original consonantal radical was doubtless 
 a guttural which has been changed to the labial/) in Sanskrit. 
 The ancient title of Greece, yrj 'Airia — lit. in such a case the 
 water-land, i. e. abounding in water ; or, lying over the water 
 
 Vol. II.— 25 
 
386 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 — seems to indicate this same origin), aquatic, aqueous, aque- 
 duct (+L. ductus), terraqijieous (+L. terra). 
 
 18. Arare, to plough (Gr. apom, aporpov, a plough, and 
 apovpa, a ploughed field, Lith. arti, to plough, and arimas, a 
 ploughed field), arable, oar (Ang. Sax. a,re), viewed as a kind 
 of ploughshare in the water. The root ar, to plough, appears 
 also in L. armentum, cattle for ploughing, and probably in 
 
 -Gm. arbeit, labor, and in Eng. word errand (old High Gm. 
 arunti). 
 
 19. Arcere, to enclose, confine, restrain (Gr. apKew, I keep 
 off, and ciXk^, defense, cf. Sk. raksh, to defend), coerce (L. 
 coercere, to shut up), exercise (L. exercere, lit. to drive or 
 thrust forth, as the arms or feet, etc.), incarcerate (L. career, 
 a prison, for co-ajCer). L. arcus, a bow (as being drawn in) 
 is from arcere and Eng. arc / and also L. arx, a citadel, and 
 L. area, Eng. ark, and L. arcanum, Eng. arcana. 
 
 20. 'ApiOfjiAi, number (cf. apto, I fit, etc., and aprvia, I ar- 
 range, and also a.pOp.o's, a bond, and apOpov, a joint, Sk. ar, to 
 hit upon or obtain anything), arithmetic, ream (It. risma, from 
 orig. arisma, Sp. resma, Fr. rame). 
 
 21. Arma, tools, an army (Gr. apfios, a fitting, a joint, a 
 shoulder, from apu, I fit, etc., Sk. ar, as in apiO/jLo^ above), 
 arms, arm, armature, armor, armory, armament, disarm, 
 
 ' alarm (It. allarme, Sp. alarma, Fr. alarme — a. contracted form 
 ^ of the battle cry "all' arme," or "to arms"): cf. for sense 
 
 Eng. alert (Fr. alerte=It. all' erta, lit. on the high ground, 
 ■ i. e. to stand on watch) ; armistice (L. armistitium=L.arma-|- 
 
 stare : cf for form and sense L. solstitium, Eng. solstice). 
 
 22. Ars, art (Sk. ar, to reach or arrive at anything ; arya-s, 
 hanging or clinging to ; Gr. apto, I fit, and aprvo), I arrange, 
 and a.pOfio'i, a bond ; with which cf , as of same source, app^tfn 
 and app-ovia, Eng. harmony, 2iadi also especially dpeo-Ko), I please, 
 and aperfj, virtue, or fitness of conduct, as also apSfW's, and L. 
 arma. These words are placed together here, because all 
 evidently correlated. The original etymon it is not easy 
 to determine. Art is, etymologically, the handling of 
 things according to their intellectual fitness, as virtue is, in 
 its Greek terminology {aperrj), action according to the fitness 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 387 
 
 of things. Derived from L. ars, are Eng. art, artisan (It. 
 artigiano, Span, artesano), and artist, and a/rtifice (facere) ; 
 and also inert (L. iners) and inertia, artillery (Fr. artillerie ; 
 cf. for sense, engine, Fr. engin, from L. ingenium), Arsenal 
 (Fr. arsenal), which, without examining the corresponding 
 forms in other modern languages, might naturally be placed 
 here, is of another origin, cf. It. arzana and darsena : Arabic 
 dar 5anah, Persian tarsanah. From the same root with ars, 
 comes also L. artus, a joint or limb, and from this, Fng. arti- 
 cle (L. articulus, dim. a little joint), and articulate. 
 
 Of the same ultimate origin with ars, is L. armus (viewed 
 as being fitted to the shoulder-blade), Eng. arm. 
 
 23. Ascia, an axe (cf dfiVij, prob. from same root with 
 ^e'o), and ^uXov, cut wood, It. accia and azza, Span, hacha), axe. 
 
 The following words are of special interest, as all belonging 
 to one and the same radical group with each other. They are 
 connected immediately in sense with L. ascia : that the connec- 
 tion is of any more intimate and vital kind, the author declares 
 not. They are hatchet (Fr. hache and hachette), hack (Gm. 
 hacken), hew (Gm. hauen), hay (Gm. hau), lit. cut grass, hedge 
 and haw, as being trimmed (Gm. hag and hecke, Fr. haie), 
 and hawthorn and hatchel (Gm. hechel). 
 
 24. Astrum, a star (Sk. tS-ra, a star, for orig. stkrk and 
 Vedic pi. staras., stars, from Sk. star and stri, to strew ; see 
 L. sternere, Gr. do-TTjp and ao-rpoi'), astral, asteroid, disaster 
 (It. disastro, Fr. desastre), an astrological word ; star (Gm. 
 stern). L. Stella, for sterla, for sterula, is of same origin, 
 from which come stellar, stellated, constellation. 
 
 25. Augere, auctum, to increase (Sk. yaksh, to increase, 
 Gr. av^avu), Goth, vahsja. The shortest simple root seems to 
 be ug : cf Sk. ugra-s, mighty, and oja-s, strength ; and Goth, 
 auka, more : cf. also L. vegeo, vigeo, vigor and vigil, and Gr. 
 vyiri<s, sound, &c.), augment, auction, autumn (L. autumnus, 
 lit. increase), author (L. auctor, a producer, or cause), 
 authority (L. auctoritas), authorize, authentic (M, L. authen- 
 ticus), auxiliary (Ij. auxilium) ; here too belongs, probably, 
 L. augnstus, Eng. august (referring to the' increase of honor 
 from office) ; cf. Lith. auksz-tas, high. 
 
 y^".*^ 
 
388 A SYNOPSIS OP ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 26. Auris, the ear, for orig. ausis, cf. auscultare (Gr. oSs, 
 cont. from oJas, for prob. older form oiaaT and aia-ar, Gotb. 
 auso, Lith. ausis, Gm. ohr : cf. for form Fr. oreille from L. 
 auricula), ear, auricle, auricular, auscultation (cf. with L. aus- 
 cultare. It. ascoltare, and Fr. eoouter), audience, audit, audi- 
 tory, obedient (L. obedire = ob-j-audire), obey (Fr. obeir), 
 hear (Gm. horen) and hearken (Gm. horchen), and Iiark. 
 Rehearse, probably, belongs here also, as a causative form of 
 this same root. 
 
 27. Aurum, gold (Sk. ush, to burn, to shine, with which 
 cf. also Gr. fxn>> (for eStroj) and L. uro (for euso) I burn. Cf 
 Sk. usar, morning, and usriya, light, and Lith. auszra, dawn. 
 With the same ultimate root gunated, by prefixing an initial 
 a, as in root aus, is connected L. aurora, morning, for aus4isa, 
 Eng. auroral, cf. Lith. auszra, dawn : and also L» prop, name 
 
 - Aurelius * for AitrcXios, lit. descended from the sun, as also 
 represented in ■^\ios, Cretan d^SeAtos, Dor. deXios for orig. 
 aicreX.to's) . With aurum are connected orange f (M. L. auran- 
 tium and arangium, sc. pomum, lit. the golden apple. It. 
 arancia), treasure (Gr. 5r;(raupds = perhaps Tt^ij/Ai+aJpov, L. 
 thesaurus, Fr. tr^sor), auriferous,' oriflamb (— aurea flamma). 
 
 28. Avus, a grandfather, from which comes L. avunculus, 
 dimin. (lit. a little grandfather), Gm. onkel, Fr. oncle, Eng. 
 uncle. 
 
 B. 
 
 29. Ballum (M. L.) a baft (It. balla, Fr. balle, Sp. bala, 
 Gm. ball : cf. Gr. /SaAAw, I cast, or throw, as perhaps, if not 
 probably, its source) ; a balloon (Fr. ballon, Sp. balon, a large 
 ball) ; a ballad (It. ballata) — the game of ball being accompa- 
 nied in the middle ages with songs and dances. 
 
 With Gr. /SdXku), cf TrdXXm, I shake, and ■B-aXacro-w. and L. 
 
 * The Aurelian family at Borne had the public office assigned to it, of 
 performing sacrifices to the sun. 
 
 'f Diez, however, who is certainly an authority of the first class, and not 
 lightly to be contravened, regards the word " orange " as of a Persian ori- 
 ginal, and as having come through the Arabic into Europe, and quotes the 
 Persian n&ren^, Arabic niran*, and Span, naranja. These seem to the author 
 indeed to be of identical origin ; but the Fr. and Eng. orange and Gm. pome- 
 ranzc are as evidently of another common source. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 389 
 
 pello and pila, a ball, and Fr. bille, a ball, and HUard (It. 
 biglietto) Eng. billiards, lit. little balls ; and Eng. bill (viewed 
 as being rolled up into a ball). 
 
 From ^aXXia and PaWitfo (I dance, lit. I throw up my 
 heels) come ball and ballet (It. ballare, Sp. bailar ; and It. ballo, 
 Fr. ballet). 
 
 From ySaXXd) come also bolus (Gr. )3oXos) bowl (both noun 
 and verb : Sp. bola and bolear, Fr. boule) ; bowlder and bullet 
 (Fr. boulet, dimin. of boule, a ball). 
 
 The compound derivatives from ^aXXm are many and sin- 
 gular : as Eng. devil (Gr. 8ia/3oA.os, an aecliser, It. diavolo, Fr. 
 diable, Gm. teufel) and diabolic ; hyperbole (lit. thrown beyond 
 the mark) ; carbine, lit. an instrument for throwing things - 
 (from Gr. KaTajiok-q, a throwing down, M. L. chadabula, con- 
 tracted into cabiilus, came Old French caable, and thence the 
 provincial form calabre and the Fr. carabine, It. carabina and 
 Eng. carbine) ; parabola and parable (Gr. Trapa^dWm, I set side 
 by side, I compare). From irapa/SaXXetv, M. L. parabolare, to 
 harangue, come parole and, through the Fr. parler (for parolei^, - 
 It. parolare, Span, parol ar) lEng. parlance and parliament (lit. a 
 place for speaking) and parlor (Fr. parloir), and palaver (Sp. 
 palabra). The word emblem also belongs here (Gr. e/i/SXTifm, - 
 lit. raised work, embossed on swords and shields, from e//.- 
 jSoAAo)) and the word problem, likewise (Gr. ■n-po^X.rj/jM, from 
 Trpo/JaXXw) ; as also symbol (Gr. o-u/i/SoXov from o-D/xjSaXXo)), lit. - 
 brought together with something else. 
 
 30. Bancus (M. L.), a seat, from Sax. bene, Eng. bank, 
 bench, a Bank, and banker (lit. one standing by a bench ; cf. 
 for sense, a bench of judges, also word assize, from Fr. asseoir, 
 to sit by or near), banquet, It. banchetto, dim. of bancho, a 
 table, Sp. banqueta, a stool (lit. tables for feasting provided 
 with benches) ; mountebank (lit. mount a bank or bench). 
 
 31. Barca (M. L.) a commercial vessel (cf. Gr. ^SSpis, a 
 sort of raft, and also papa's, a burden), barque (Fr. do., It. 
 barca), embark, disembark, debark, barge (M. L. barga and 
 bargia, double forms of barca, Fr. berge), bargain (M. L. 
 barcaniare, lit. to carry to and fro : so, in word traffic — see 
 facio — aiaA negotiate— nQ<i-\-otmm — the idea of the continuity 
 
390 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 of eflEbrt involved is expressed. Cf. It. bargagnare and Fr. 
 bargnigner). 
 
 32. Bar (a Celtic root), a long piece of wood), har, harrier 
 (Fr. barriere), barricade, embarrass (Fr. embarrasser), barris- 
 ter, barrel (Fr. baril), debar (Fr. debarrer) and embargo (Sp. 
 do. from. L. imbarricare). 
 
 33. Batuere, to beat (6r. -TraTcitro-to and Trarayeo), fromwhich 
 roots come^aif and^aWer, Gm. patschen,to clap or slap), beat 
 (M. L. battere, It. do., Sp. batir, Fr. battre), batter, battery, Fr. 
 batterie, battle (M. L. batalia, It. battaglia, Fr. bataille), battle- 
 ment (an embrasure and its surroundings, originally), battalion, 
 combat (Fr. combattre, to fight against), debate (Fr. debattre), 
 abate (Fr. abattre, to beat from or down). 
 
 34. Binden, band, gebunden (Gm. cf. Ags. bindan), to bind 
 (Sk. bandh, to bind. Cf. also Sk. bandhars, a bond, and 
 badh1i-s, a wife. In irevOepo^, a son-in-law, and ■Kiurfi.a, a bond 
 or cable, for irh/a-fia or irivO/jia, we seem to have the same root 
 in Greek. The L. vincire, to bind, and Gm. winden, to 
 wind, belong perhaps here also ; from same source also with 
 Sk. bandh may come L. fidis, a catgut, Eng. fiddle, and L. 
 fascia, Eng. anatom. term) ; bind, band (cf. Fr. bande. It. 
 benda), bandage, bond, bondage, bounds, boundary, bundle 
 (Gm. bund and bundel). Here belong also (besides perhaps 
 the word bend) husband (lit. tlie band of the house}, ribbon 
 or riband for ribband, the true spelling (rib, Gm. rippe, 
 referring primarily to narrow forms of things), meaning lite- 
 rally a narrow band ; contraband (Fr. contrebande, ht. con- 
 trary to law), and a hand (as of music, being bound to- 
 gether by some formal rules of association). To this same 
 root (binden, etc.) belongs Eng. ban (M. L. bannum, of Lom- 
 bard origin, an edict against one ; It. and Sp. bando, Fr. ban), 
 and abandon (Fr. abandonner = L. ad bannum donare, lit. to 
 give or e}q)ose to the ban), banish (Fr. bannir, lit. to put under 
 the ban, M. L. banneiare), bandit (It. bandito, an exile, an 
 outlaw, Sp. bandido), banditti. JBanner, also (M. L. ban- 
 earium, Sp. baudera. It. bandiera) is of same source. 
 
 35. Blanchus, or blancus (M. L,), white, pale, or that 
 which has lost its color (Gr. ;3A.a^, thin, wasted ; cf. /SXrjxpoi:), 
 
IN COMPAKATITE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. ' 391 
 
 Mank (It. bianco, Sp. bianco, Pr. blanc, fern, blanche, wHte ; 
 Gm. blank and blinken, to gleam, to wink), blanch (Fr. 
 blanche and blanchir), ilanket (named from its undyed or white 
 color, like candy, from candere, to be white or glistening, 
 cf. Fr. blanchet),. bleach (Gm. bleich, very white or pale, Old 
 Gm. blichan, with which cf. Sk. bhr&j, cf. Fr. blanchir), and 
 bleak. The word black also belongs here (denoting literally 
 the fading out of all color). 
 
 36. Biegen, bog, gebogen (Gm.), to bend, bow, etc. Its 
 L. paronym, for sense, and as Grimm claims, for radical form, 
 is flectere ; which he refers with Gm. fliehen to Sk. bhuj, Gr. 
 ^evyoj, and L. fugio : — L. flectere and Gm. biegen being tran- 
 sitive and L. fugere and Gm. fliehen being intransitive. Here 
 radicate themselves Eng. bow, bough, and book (Gm. bnch), ^ 
 lit. something bent or doubled up. Cf. volume (L. volumen, ; 
 from volvere, to roll), lit. a scroll. 
 
 37. BoiJL^oi, a hollow sound (an onomatopoetic word), bomb 
 and bombard. Here too belongs perhaps Eng. pump (Gm. 
 pumpe: cf. Gm. pumpern, to make a hollow noise). Eng. 
 boom, Danish bomme (a drum), is of similar onomatopoetic 
 origin ; like Gm. brummen, to hum, and Eng. hum,. With 
 L. bombus, Eng. bobbin is probably correlated, in allusion to 
 its whizzing noise (Fr. bobine). Cf. also Eng. bobinet. 
 
 38. Bos, bovis, stem bov, an ox or cow (Sk. gan-s, Gr. 
 /3ov9 for P6F^. The labial initial in both Greek and Latin was 
 probably reached in the end through a previous softening of 
 the guttural g into gv), bovine, beef. (Fr. boeuf), beeves. Gm. 
 kuh, Eng. cow has been thought by some to have been but a 
 hardened derivative from the Arian original of the Sk. gS,u-s, 
 as L. bos, for bovs, is a softened one ; but it is, probably, de- , 
 rived from the Gm. verb kauen, to chew, the paronym of the i 
 Eng. verb chew, from which comes also cud. With more 
 probability others have also thought that the Gr. yaXa, stem 
 yaXaKT is but a compound of ya, cow, and XaKT, milk (L. la|, 
 stem lact). From Gr. ySoiJs and rupos, cheese, come Gr. pov- \ 
 Tvpov, L. butyrum, Eng. butter (Gm. do., Fr. beurre). From 
 L. bos comes L. buculus, a bullock, and from this Eng. bugle, j 
 (Pr, do., a hunting horn ; cf. also Pr. beugler, to bellow). ' 
 
 '>•-', 
 
393 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 39. Boscus and buseus (M. L.) a wood, a forest: hoaky, 
 bush (Gm. busch, It. bosco), ambush and ambuscade (It. im- 
 boscata). Cf. for sense L. insidiae from in+sedere, to sit 
 down (i. e. in the bushes) against (i. e. those for whom they 
 lie in wait). Fr. bouquet also (for bosquet) and Eng. bouquet 
 belong here. 
 
 40. Botte, butte, and bottich (Gm.), a coop, tub, or 
 barrel (Gr. /SoJtis, a flask, M. L. butta, cf. Gr. ttwivij, cf. also 
 'Eiag.pot and Gm. pott), butt and hoot (Fr. boute and botte, 
 a cask and a boot), bottle (M. L. buticula, It. bottiglia, Fr. 
 bOuteille), body (Ang.-Sax. bodig, its etymological sense being 
 like that of the kindred words trunk and chest for the upper 
 part of the body, Gaelic bodhaig, Gm. bottech). Pictet how- 
 ever regards it as connected with root bandh, to bind (which 
 see), and compares it with Sk. bandh, the body (as being bound 
 together in one). 
 
 41. Brachium, the arm, the forearm (Sk. ba,hu-s, Zend, 
 bazus, Gr. Trrjxvi), brace, a support, and bra^, a couple (lit. 
 two joined together, arm in arm. So the word couple itself 
 has come to mean two), bracket, bracelet (lit. an armlet), em- 
 brace (lit. to put arms around each other). 
 
 42. Brevis, e, short, etc., for orig. bre(g)vis (Gr. jSpa^ws. Cf. 
 L. levis with Gr. cX-ax^^)) brief, brevity, breviary, semibreve, 
 brevet and breveted, abbreviate and abridge (Fr. abreger from 
 L. abbreviare : cf. for form Fr. alleger from L. alleviare). 
 
 43. Brunus (M. L.), brown, from which come Eng. brown 
 (Gm. braun), brunette (It. brunetta), bronze (It. bronzo, Sp. 
 bronce, Fr. bronze) ; burnish (It. brunire, Fr. brunir), cf. bum 
 (Gra. brennen, etc.), burn (Gm. brennen. It. brucciare), brand 
 (Gm. brand, from brennen, to burn), brandy (Gm. brannt- 
 wein, lit. wine burnt or distilled). 
 
 44. Bucca, the cheek (viewed as puffed out in speaking)' 
 from which Fr. bouche, the mouth, and verb deboucher, Eng. 
 debouche. From L. bucca comes L. buccula, a mouth, a part 
 of a helmet, and Fr. boucle and bouclier, Eng. buckle and 
 buckler (cf. It. brocchiere). 
 
 45. Bulla, a bubble, a boss or stud (viewed as protuberant) 
 may be onomatopoetic ; or, with L. buUare and bullire (which 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 393 
 
 are connected both in form and sense with it), and from which 
 come Eng. ioil, ebullition, bubble (cf. It. hollire and Fr. 
 houillir), it may be of same radication with Gr. /3aX\<u, which 
 see. From L. bulla (It. bolla, Gm. bulle) which in the middle 
 ages meant the seal of an important document, comes the 
 Pope's bull* (viewed as being sealed, and so authorative, as a 
 sort of divine exequatur). Here too we must place Eng. 
 billet and bill (It. boUetta and biglietto and Fr. billet, from 
 It. boUare, to stamp with a hot iron and to seal ; and so means 
 lit. a sealed or stamped note) ; and bulletin (It. boUettino, Pr. 
 bulletin, a stamped schedule of news) ; bullion, probably, con- 
 tains the same idea in it, of being gold in the mass, stamped, 
 (cf. for sense, ordnance, regulation-swords, &c.). 
 
 46. Burgus (M. L.), a castle or tower (Gr. -irvpyoi), and 
 also a thickly settled town, viewed as being, without walls, its 
 own adequate defense. Hence come Eng. borough, -burgh, 
 and -bury, burgher (M. L. burgarius, Gm. burger), and from 
 this the vulgar bugger (cf. villain, from villanus, living in the 
 country), too well justified a scarecrow for those residing in 
 the outskirts of a great city, burgess (M. L. burgesia, Fr. 
 bourgeoisie) ; .and burgomaster. The Boulevards (Sp. boule- 
 vard. It. baluarto) in Paris are probably a corruption for 
 Bourgward, or land lying around a city wall. Grimm how- 
 ever considers them to be derived from Gm. boUwerk, Eng. 
 bulwark. Cf. for sense, L. pomoerium = post murum. So, 
 from L. burgus (Gr. Tnjpyos) come Eng. harbor (Gm. herberge 
 = heer-j-bergen, lit. a place for protecting a number), M. L. 
 albergium, al- (being the Arabic article the) and harbinger 
 (lit. one who provides harborage beforehand). Fr. faubourg 
 or suburbs of a city represents perhaps L. falsus+burgus, i. e. 
 the unreal city, or part of the city ; or, that lying outside of 
 the walls. It may be, however, a Fr, corruption of Gm, vor- 
 burg, cf. for sense Eng. suburbs. • 
 
 47. Bupcra, leathei-, a hide, and M. L. bursa and byrsa; 
 from which come Fr. bourse and Eng. purse ; and disburse 
 (Fr. debourser) and reimburse (Fr. rembourser) and Bourse 
 
 * The name of the animal bull (Gm. bulle) ia connected with Eng. bawl 
 and bellow (Gm. bellen). 
 
394 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 (a name first given to the mansion of a patrician family of 
 Bruges in the 14th century who had three hides on their en- 
 signs armorial carved over their gate). 
 
 48. Caballus, a nag, from which come Eng. cavalier (Fr. 
 do.), cavalcade (Fr. do.), cavalry, chevalier (Fr. do.), chiv- 
 alry. 
 
 49. Cadere, casum, to fall (Sk. gad, to fall, and to cause to 
 fall ; cf. also, Sk. pad and pat, to fall, and also Gr. kotci, from 
 above down, as in KarUvai, to go down), case, casual, casuist 
 (lit. a putter of cases, i. e. of conscience), cadence (part, 
 cadens), chance (M. L. cadentia, It. cadenza, Gm. schanze, 
 Fr. chance, cf. Fr. oher, dear, and cherir, to cherish, from L. 
 carus, and Fr. chair, flesh, from L. caro), accident (L. ac- 
 cidere = ad+cado), deciduous (L. decidere), decay and 
 decadence (Fr. decaer, from L. decadere), incident, coincide, 
 Occident (L. occidens, sc. sol), occasion (sup. occasum, of 
 occidere). From cadere, casum, comes Eng. cascade (Fr. 
 do.. It. cascata, from verb cascar, to fall). 
 
 50. Caedere, caesum (a causative form of cadere, Uke, for 
 sense, L. jacio of jaceo, or, in English, lay of lie, raise of rise, 
 and fell of fall. Kuhn analyzes caedo (Zeitschrift, &c. 1. 93) as 
 being derived, by reduplication, from cado : as, thus — CElcado, 
 c^cdo, caedo ; but Corssen agrees with Leo Meyer in associat- 
 ing it with L. scindo and Gr. o-Ki'Sva/tai and KiSva/jMi and Goth, 
 skaidan : making caedere stand for earlier form scaidere, or 
 the pure stem scid, in scindere, gunated). Hence come circum- 
 cise (lit. to cut around), concise lit. certain parts being cut out 
 and the rest put together : like, for sense, syncope (Gr. o-ui'-f 
 KOTTTO)), decide (lit. to cut off, i. e. further doubt or delay), 
 and decisive, excise (lit. cut off, i. e. by way of toll), incision, 
 precise (lit. cut down in front, or sheer, like an escarpment), 
 fratricide (+frater), parricide (-f-pater or parens), homicide 
 (+homo, a man), suicide (se+caedo), cement (L. caementum, 
 for caedimentum, rough pieces or chips of stone, originally). 
 
 51. Calare, to call or call to (Sk. jru, Gr. KoXeo), cf. tXayyi?, 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 395 
 
 clang and clangor, and KXa^u), I dash. Lottner places together, 
 however, with L. calare and Gr. KoXe'co, Sk. kala, sounding 
 softly and Gtn. schallen. From KaXeco comes e/cKXijo-ta, lit. a 
 calling together, an assembly, a church, Eng. ecclesiastical). 
 From calare and its derivatives come Eng. call and a calling 
 (of. sense of word vocation and avocation, i. e. as from God), 
 recall, challenge (Fr. do., M. L. callengia), claim (L. clamare, 
 lit. to cry out, in which word is involved the idea of vocifera- 
 tion in the assertion of one's rights), clamor, acclaim, and 
 acclamMion, declaim,, exclaim, proclaim, reclaim,, calendar (L. 
 calendae, calends, or proclamation-days), intercalary, nomen- 
 clature (lit. a calling hy name), celebrated (L. celeber, lit. 
 called together, and so crowded or spoken much of or to, and 
 so, famous). 
 
 52. Calor, heat : caloric, non-chalance (Fr. do.), lit. without 
 being in any heat about a thing. 
 
 53. Calx, the heel or large bone of the foot, and second- 
 aiily a piece of lime (Gr. Xa| for orig. /cXaf, and XaKn^w, I 
 kick. Cf., for style of changes reversed, L. lac, milk, stem 
 lact, and Gr. ydXa, stem ydkoKr : cf. also Sk. gilS,, a stone, and 
 qarka, gravel, and Gr. x'*^'^)> calcareous, calcine, recalcitrate, 
 chalk (Gm. kalk, Fr. chaux). 
 
 54. Campus, a flat place or plain (Gr. k^itos, a garden or 
 plantation. Cf. Sk; kshi, to dwell, and a supposed early cau- 
 sative form derived from it, kshap^yS,mi, and Gm. hufe), camp, 
 encampment (viewed as being in the open field), campaign, 
 champaign (Fr. champ and champagne), champion (M. L. 
 campio, Gm. karape and kampfer), scamper (Fr. escamper, 
 lit. as ex+campo,to run away from camp and, of course, fast), 
 and scamp (one who does so run) ; so that a deserter is, par 
 eminence, a scamp. 
 
 55. Candere (a strengthened form of canere, to be gray), 
 to be very white, to shine (Sk. kan, to shine. Cf. yava<j> and 
 yavou), I shine, and also Kaiu, I burn, and Kovts, ashes, L. cinis, 
 and Gm. scheinen, Eng. shine and sheen), candle (L. candela), 
 candelabra (L. candelabrum), chandelier (Fr. do.), cannel (or 
 candle-coal), as burning so freely, chandler (Fr. do., lit. a 
 maker or seller of candles, and so of other small wares), candy 
 
396 A SYNOPSIS OiF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 (It. candito, Fr. candi. Of. blanket, from blancus, white) 
 candy, which is but crystallized sugar, being naturally white, 
 and getting its name, like' candle, from its color. Mahn's 
 etymology, endorsed by Diez, is quite different. He regards 
 it as coming from the Arabic qand, the thickened juice of the 
 sugar-cane, and itself derived from the Persian and Sk. 
 khanda, a bit or piece, and so sugar in pieces, or crystallized 
 from Sk. stem khad, to break. From L. candere come also 
 Eng. candor {lit. whiteness of character: so, integrity is un- 
 spottedness), candid, candidate (originally dressed in white), 
 kindle (It. accendere, Sp. encender), incendiary (L. incendere, 
 sup. incensum), incense, and incensed ; incandescent (L. in- 
 candescere). Candia, the ancient name of Crete (from which 
 comes Fr. craie, chalk, and Fi-. and Eng. crayon) is derived 
 from candere, to be white, referring to the chalk cliffs of the 
 island. Cf. Albion, as the name of England, from the chalk 
 cliffs at Dover. 
 
 56. Canere, cantum, to sing (Sk. kvan, to sound, Gr. 
 Kavajtra-ia and KavaK-fj), cant (L. cantare, freq. to sing or sound 
 forth much), cantillate (L. cantillare, dimin. form), canticles, 
 chant (Fr. chanter), enchant (Fr. enchanter), chanticleer 
 (chant + clear), incantation (L. incantare, to say or sing a 
 magic formula), concinnity (L. concinnus, from concinere, to 
 accord, lit. in sound), incentive (a martial figure, drawn from 
 a trumpeter's blowing of a horn as a call to battle. Cf pro- 
 vocative for sense, from provocare to call forth or challenge 
 to a trial at arms). L. carmen, a song (earlier form casmen) 
 is from canere, for canmen. 
 
 57. Canis (for orig. cvanis, Sk. §van, Gr. kvwv, Gm. hund), 
 Eng. canine and canaille (Fr. do., Old Fr. chienaiUe, It. cana- 
 glia), hound (Gm. hund). 
 
 58. Canna, a reed (Sk. kandha^s, a stick or reed, Gr. Kowa), 
 cane, can (as being cylindrical in form), and a canister (L. 
 canistrum), canal (L. canalis), channel (L. canalis, Fr. chenal) 
 canon (Gr. kovSiv, a straight rod), canonize, cannon (Gm. 
 kanone, It. cannone), canon (Sp. do.), and probably canoe (Fr. 
 canot, Gm. kahn). From canna, a reed (M. L. canella, dim.) 
 comes also the Fr. cannelle (It. cannella, Gm. kaneel) for cin- 
 
IN COMPARATIVE KNGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 397 
 
 namon-bark (on account of its volute form wben dried), and 
 also Eng. kennel (Fr. chenil). 
 
 59. Capere, to take, seize, hold (cf. Gr. Koijin/, a handle, 
 and KaTTTj and Kairai/ij, a crib, as a receptacle, and also Kam-o), 
 I gulp down. Cf. also Gm. heft, a handle, for whose phonetic 
 accordance, cf. Gm. herz and KapSux), cwpture, captious, captive., 
 captivate, caitiff (L. captivus, It. cattivo, Fr. chetif, wretched, i 
 mean), capacity (capax), capacious, capstan (L. capistrum, a 
 holder), cable (It. cappio, Fr. and Sp. cable, M. L. capulum, 
 that which holds), accept (L. accipere), anticipate (L. anti- 
 cipare), conceive and conception (L. concipere, Fr. concevoir), 
 deceive and deception (L. decipere, lit. to take from or away), 
 dupe (Fr. duper, L. decipere ; the c of the L. form being lost i 
 in the French, as the g of L. fugere is in Fr. fair), except, i 
 inception, intercept, municipal, occupy, L. occupare (cf. for 
 change of vowels L. taberna and contubernium), to seize, — 
 a military figure ; participate {= L. pars+capere) ; perceive 
 and perception / precept and preceptor / receive, reception, re- 
 ceipt, recipe, and receptacle; recuperate and recover (L. re- 
 cuperare. It. ricovrare, and Fr. recouvrir) ; prince (L. princeps 
 =primum, so. locum, capere), principle (Fr. do., L. principium), 
 principal (L. principalis). From capere comes also captare, 
 freq. verb, to catch at eagerly, etc. (with which cf Gr. Kairrm, 
 I snatch, and Gm. schnappen, to snap up, etc). From captare 
 comes Eng. word catch, and from an intermediate derivative, 
 eaptiare, the Fr. chasser, Eng. chase (It. cacciare, Sp. cazar), 
 and purchase (Fr. pourchasser, to pursue eagerly) referring 
 etymologically more to the mere fact of obtaining than to 
 the mode of doing so. With captare is connected likewise, it 
 would seem, Fr. happer to snatch at or up, from which come 
 Eng. hap, happen, mishap, perhaps, haphazard, happiness 
 (the casual attainment of which by mankind at large is certi- 
 fied in the word itself). Cf. also, in this connection, L. acci- 
 piter, Gm. habicht, Eng. hawh. So, from M. L. accapitare 
 (= L. ad+ captare) comes Fr. aoheter, to buy, lit. to take to 
 one's self (It. accattare). Thus the radical a in capere 
 runs, in derived forms, through all the vowels a, e, i, 
 o, u. 
 
398 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 60. Caper, stem capro and capra, a goat (Gr. Kairpos, a 
 boar. Cf. Kairpdo) and Kairpifco, to be lecherous. Cf. L. aper, 
 stem apro, a wild boar, in which doubtless an original initial 
 guttural is rejected), to caper (lit. to jump around, like a goat), 
 
 .; caprice (It. capriccio, Fr. caprice), lit. like the actions of a 
 / goat (that is, for folly). 
 
 61. Capsa and capsus, a repository, case, etc. (icai/fa, a 
 chest : cf. Kam;, a crib, and Kdin-u), I swallow up, etc.), capsule 
 (L. capsula, dimin.), case, a box, etc., and caisson (Fr. caisse 
 and caisson, Sp. caja and cajon), cash (Fr. caisse, Sp. caja), 
 cashier (Fr. caissier, Sp. cajaro). Carcase also belongs here 
 
 / (It. carcassa, Fr. carcasse) and is undoubtedly a compound of 
 ' L. caro, flesh, and capsa, a case, and means a flesh-case. 
 
 62. Caput, the head. Cf. also, for form, capillus, the hair 
 of the head, for capitlus (Sk. kapala-s, the skull, Gr. kc^oXij, 
 the head), cap (It. cappa, Gm. kappe, Fr. cape and chape: 
 Scheler prefers to derive cap from L. capere), lit. a covering 
 for the head ; cap-Orpie (Fr. = L. ex capite ad pedem), lit. 
 from head to foot, decapitate, cape (Fr. can), a Aeaefland or 
 promontory, chaperon, and capote (French words), chapd and 
 chaplain (Fr. chapelle and chapelain, from M. L. capella, Ut. 
 a little cap, i. e. of St. Martin, which was held sacred by the 
 kings of France, and kept in a building prepared for it within 
 the palace grounds. The name was erelong given to the 
 building itself, which was regarded as holy) ; chaplet (as being 
 worn on the head) ; chapter in a book (Fr. chapitre, L. capi- 
 tulum, dim. a small head), capitulate (to surrender on terms, 
 with formal heads) and recapitulate (lit. to repeat the principal 
 heads or points of a discourse) ; capiUary (L. capillus, for 
 capitulus, the Ireiir of the head. Cf. for form and sense alike, 
 osculum, a kiss, from os, the mouth. We speak in English of 
 a large or fine head of hair) ; capuchin (Fr. capuce, a hood), 
 lit. a hooded monk ; captain (It. capitano, Fr. capitaine) ; 
 chieftain (Fr. capitaine, Old Fr. chevetaine) ; chief (L. caput, 
 It. capo, Fr. chef. This French word has been naturalized 
 also in German as chef and in Spanish as jef, beside other 
 words of similar sense in those languages), achieve (Fr. achever, 
 Sp. acabar), mischief (contracted, as in mischievous, from 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 399 
 
 mis-a-chieve) ; precipice and precipitous (L. praeceps = prae-|- 
 caput, head-first). The words cattle and chattel, also, belong 
 here (L. capitalia, n. pi. neut. of oapitalis, lit. principal things ; 
 Norman, chattel). Cadet also (Fr. do.), represents a dim. 
 form of caput, viz. capitettum, lit. a young head. The German 
 correspondent of caput, in sense — haupt (Gothic haubith, 
 Ang. Sax. heafud, Eng. head, etc.), is probably, as claimed 
 by Kuhn, not derived from the same root with it at all, but 
 from the same source with Sk. (Vedic) kakubha-s, the head : 
 Curtius however places it with Sk. kapala-s, as its paronym. 
 
 63. Caro, gen. camis, flesh, stem, caren (Sk. kravya-m, 
 raw flesh, Gr. Kpms), carnal, carnation (flesh-color), carnelian 
 (a stone oi flesh-red hue), incarnadine (flesh-red), incarnate, 
 carnage (referring not so much to the act or result, as to the 
 sight of horror), charneVaavi&Q (L. carnarium, It. carnajo, Fr. 
 charnier), carnival (L. carni vale, lit. farewell to meat). Here 
 belong, also, L. cruor (Eng. gore), which see, and cruentus, 
 bloody, Sk. krura-s, bloody ; Lith. krauja-s, blood. 
 
 64. Carrus, a wagon, and carruca, a travelling carriage, 
 Eng. car, carry (Fr. charrier, to cart), lit. to hear on a cart ; 
 cart (Fr. charette. Of. Gm. karre, a hand cart, and Fr. car- 
 rosse, a coach), carriage, charge (M. L. carricare, to put a load 
 on a cart, It. carcare, Sp. oargar, Fr. charger) ; discharge (L, 
 discaricare, Fr. decharger), and surcharge (Fr. surcharger) ; 
 cargo (Sp. cargo, a burden, It. carico), caricature (It. caricare, 
 to overload). Career also comes from carrus (It. carriera, 
 Fr. carri&re, a race-course), as does also carousal (Fr. carrousel, 
 a tournament, It. carosello). 
 
 65. Caulis, a stalk or stem (Gr. kovXos, Lith. kaulas. Of. 
 as of same probable origin with caulis, the following words in 
 Latin : collis, columna, culmen, celsus, and excellere, with Gr. 
 KoXoJi/ds and koKo<I>wv, a summit), cauliflower (lit. a stalk-flower), 
 kale (Gm. kohl), brocoli, lit. brown or purple cauliflower (Fr. 
 brocoli, Gm. broccoli = braun kohl). 
 
 66. Cavare, to hollow out (cf. o-KaTr™, I hollow out, from 
 which Gr. (XKa^rf, a light boat, L. scapha, Gm. schiff, Eng. 
 skiff and ship ; viewed as being hollowed out, like a canoe, 
 from canna, a reed, which see ; or, a vessel, Fr. vaisseau, L. 
 
400 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTKATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 vas, a vase). Corssen views L. cavus (from which, cavare) as 
 being for scavus, from an original root ska, to cover, as in 
 Sanskrit ; to which radication he refers also L. caula, a sheep- 
 cote, and L. caulis, a stalk, fixing in its sense the eye upon 
 the outside of it. With a-Kainia is connected, also, Gm. 
 schaben, Eng. shave, and L. scabere, Eng. scab ; as well as 
 Gm. schieben, schob, geschoben, and Eng. shove and scoop, 
 and Gm. schief, shelving, etc., Eng. shew. From cavare 
 come Eng. cay e, cavern, excavate, cage (L. cavea, M. L. gab- 
 ■bia, Sp. gabia, Fr. cage). From It. gabbiuola, dimin. of gab- 
 bia, Sp. gayola, Fr. ge61e, comes Eng. gaol, also spelled jail 
 (Old Fr. gaole and jaiole, Sp. jaula). Hence is derived also 
 "Eng. cajole (Fr. cajoler), lit. to caress one, like a bird in a 
 cage. 
 
 67. Cavere, cautum, to take care (cf. Gm. schauen, to dis- 
 cover, Goth, skayja, and also Gr. Koito, 1 perceive, and Sk. . 
 khav, to appear), caution, precaution. 
 
 Here too belongs L. cura (old form coira and coera, for ear- 
 lier form covira. Cf for form plurimns for archaic ploiromus), 
 care, cure, curate, accurate {^^ in sense, dare curam ad), incu- 
 rable, procure (i. e. curare, to care, pro, for) , secure (L. securus 
 = se, without, cura, care), sure (Fr. sur) oont. form of secure, 
 assure, insure, reassure. 
 
 To cavere, cautum, belongs L. causa, as its radix, for caut- 
 ta. It was at first almost always written caussa. Mommsen 
 declares that in pre-Augustan Latin inscriptions it occurs 18 
 times spelled as causa, and 620 times with two s's, as caussa. 
 From it come cause, causation, because (i. e. by cause of), 
 accuse (=L. ad causam, i. e. inferre), excuse and inexcusable. 
 Here also radicates Fr. chose, a thing (L. causa). 
 
 68. Cedere, cessum, to go to, on, or away (cf. x<^^o/^at, I 
 retire, and K£Kacrfw,i, with also Sk. <jad, as under cado and 
 caedo. Cedo, Kuhn regards, as coming from an early form 
 cecado abbreviated to cddo) ; cede, cession, cease (L. cessare, 
 freq. form), cessation, abscess (L. abs+), accede, access, ac- 
 cessory and accession, antecedent, concede, decease (L. de- 
 cedere, to depart), exceed and exceedingly, excess and ex- 
 cessive, incessant, intercede (lit. to go between), precede. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 401 
 
 precedent, proceed, process, and procession, recede, recess, suc- 
 ceed, success, ancestors (Fr. ancdtrea, for orig. ancestres, M. L. 
 ancessores, for antecessores), predecessors (Fr. predecesseurs= 
 prae H- decedere). 
 
 69. Centum, a hundred (Sk. gatam, Gr. -eKaTov=ei' kotov, 
 one hundred ; the Latin being but a nasalized form of this), 
 a cent, century, centurion, hundred (cf. for correspondences of 
 form, Sk. qvan, a dog, G-r. kvuiv, L. canis, and Gm. hund). So, 
 thousand seems to come from this same root (Gm. tausend, 
 Old Gm. dusunt = dus or thus — for Gothic taihun, Sk. da§an, 
 Gr. SeKa, — and hund, for hnndert). 
 
 70. Celare, to hide (several words in various languages 
 seem to have the same ultimate radication with this word, as 
 L. cella, a store-room or closet, Eng. cell, Gr. KaXid, a granary, 
 Sk. khala-s, a barn-floor, and ^ala, a house. In L. domicilium 
 the same root appears again), conceal, clandestine (L. clandes- 
 tinus from adv. clam, for orig. celam, like in its formation 
 pal^m, openly, from pandere, to open. Cf. for phonetic 
 changes tandem from tarn), and occult (L. occulere = ob+ 
 celare). The L. word color (Eng. color, etc.) probably belongs 
 here (cf. for form L. tegere and toga, and for sense Eng. hide, 
 for skin). 
 
 71. Cernere, crevi, cretum, and originally also certum, to 
 separate one from another, to discern (Sk. kri, to separate, 
 Gr. KpLvw, I separate, distinguish, etc., from which come KpL- 
 o-is, a decision, Eng. crisis ; and KpiTrjs, a judge, Eng. critic 
 and critical/ and Kpiriqpiov, Eng. criterion, and iiroKpia-K, lit. 
 the acting of a part on a stage, under a mask, Eng. hypocrisy 
 — like, for sense, L. persona = per, through, and sonare, 
 to sound, i. e. a mask, 'Eng. person). Corssen's derivation of 
 cerno and Kpivia, from the root skar, as in Sk. apaskara-s, ex- 
 crement, seems to the author fanciful. From certus, orig. 
 part, form, come certain, ascertain, certify, and certificate (L. 
 certum+facere), concert (L. con, together, and certare, to 
 strive, a freq. form of cernere, sup. certum, lit. to decide by a 
 contest) and disconcert. Prom cernere come, also, concern 
 (M. L. concernere), concrete, decree, decretal (L. decernere), 
 discern and discreet, discriminate, indiscriminate, excrete. 
 
 Vol. II.— 26 
 
402 A SYNOPSIS or illustrative examples 
 
 excrement, secrete, secret, and secretary. From the same root 
 come, also, crime (Gr. KpLfui, L. crimen, lit. an accusation) and 
 criminate. 
 
 72. Charta, a leaf, or plate of paper (Gr. x°-f"~^^ '• ^^- X"" 
 pacro-o), I scratch), chart (Ft. c)^arte), cartel (Fr. do. and It. 
 cartello), cartouche (Fr. do.), charter. 
 
 73. Ciere, citum, to shake, to disturb (Gr. kiio, I go, and 
 Kive'a), I set agoing, or urge on, Sk. qi, to sharpen, to arouse)^ 
 cite, excite, incite, recite. 
 
 74. Cingere, cinctum, to surround, to bind (its origin is 
 altogether obscure), cincture, precinct, succinct (lit. tucked 
 up, as the Romans tucked their togas up under their girdles, 
 
 ,/- when attending to business), surcingle, enceinte (Fr. do., L. 
 
 incincta, lit. unbound about the waist, It. incinta). For form 
 
 cf. with Fr. enceindre from L. incingere, Fr. peindre (Eng. 
 
 paint) with L. pingere. 
 [ 75. Civis, a citizen, lit. a resident (Sk. q\, to lie down, to 
 : rest: Gr. Kct/tat, I repose, and Koijuaoi, I sleep. Cf. L. quies, 
 I rest, from same root), civil, civilize, civic, city (L. civitas. It. 
 
 citta, Fr. cite). Ca,^ d.<' 
 
 76. Circus, a ring, a hoop (Sk. chakra-s, a wheel, Gr. Kip- 
 Kos and KpLKos, a ring), circus, circle (L. circulus, dim.), cireu- 
 
 ~ late, circuit (L. circuire), search (Fr. chercher. Old Fr. cer- 
 chier. It. cercare, M. L. circare, to go around after), recherche 
 (Fr. do.). From circum, prep., an orig. ace. of circus, we 
 have also the j)refix circum-, as in circumjacent. 
 
 77. Clarus, clear, whether in sound or sight (c£ Gr. yoXepos 
 and yaktjvoi, and also dyaXXto and dyXads, Gm. glanz, Fng. 
 glance), clear, clarify, claret (because so clear), clarion and 
 clarionet, from their clear sound (Fr. clairon and clarinette), 
 declare (L. declarare, lit. to make clear), clairvoyant (Fr. do., 
 lit. seeing clearly), edaircise (Fr. eclaircir, M. L. exclarare), 
 
 78. Claudere, clausum, to shut (KXe/io, I shut, and kXt^is, a 
 key, Jj. clavis, Fr. clef, Eng. clavicle and clef ), clause (vievred 
 as distinct, by itself), dose (from freq. form clausare), closet, 
 cloister (L. claustrum, Gm. kloster, Fr. cloitre), conclude, dis- 
 close, enclose, exclude, include, preclude, recluse, seclude- 
 
 79. Clinare, obs. to lean on or towards (Gr. kXCvw, from 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 403 
 
 which come Eng. dinic, Gr. k\ivik6%, belonging to a bed ; r. 
 climax, Gr. xXlfixii, a ladder, and climacteric / and clim,ate, \ 
 dime, Gr. K\t)u,a, a slope, a zone. Cf. also Kkurta, a tent), and 
 acclimate. From clinare come client (L. oliens, dependent 
 on), cliff (Jul. clivus, Gr. kXitus), acclivity, dedivity, proclivity, 
 decline, declension, incline, recline, and dinique (Fr. do., L. 
 clinicus). To lean is probably from same root (Gm. lehnen, 
 L. clinare). 
 
 80. Columna, a pillar (cf. L. culmen, -cello and collis, and j 
 Gr. KoXuivo's), column, colonnade (Fr. do. : cf. Fr. colonne), and i 
 colonel (Fr. do.), lit. the commander of a column of soldiers. 
 
 81. Concha, a shell or muscle (Sk. 9ankha-s, Gr. KoyxQ : cf. 
 KoxA-os, L. cochlea, Eng. cockle), conch and coach (It. cocca, ^ 
 Sp. coca, Old Fr. coque, 'New Fr. coohe) from a fancied re- 
 semblance of form. 
 
 82. Contra, against (an old abl. adj. form of a comp. of 
 con or cum, Sk. sara, Gr. <rvv. Cf., for comp. form, inter, 
 praeter, and subter, from in, prae, and sub ; and, for both 
 form and case, extra, intra, etc., for contera, extera, etc., sc. 
 parte), contrary, contradict (+dicere), controvert and contro- 
 versy, contravene, counter (Fr. contre), counteract (+agere), 
 encounter and rencounter (It. incontrare, Sp. encontrar, and 
 Fr. rencontrer), counterpart, control (Fr. controlle = contre 
 rolle, or counter role, a check-book for keeping accounts 
 straight). Country is probably from contrarius (vid. Fr. | 
 contree, M. L. contrata and contreta, probably cont. from 
 contraria terra or contraterra). Cf. Gm. gegend, the country, 
 for sense, from gegen, over against, i. e. the eye. 
 
 83. Conus, a cone (Sk. §6, to sharpen to a point, with ■ 
 which cf. L. cautes, a sharp rock, cos, a whetstone, and Sk. 
 gana-s, a whetstone, Eng. hone / Gr. kSvos, a cone), cone, coin 
 (Fr. coin, a corner and coin, which was at first made in the 
 form of a wedge. It. conio, both a wedge and money. Cf Fr, 
 quignon, L. cuneus), comer (L. cuneus, Fr. encognure). 
 
 84. Coquere, coctum, to cook, bake, etc. (Sk. pach, to 
 cook, Gr. Tria-aav for orig. form irtKruv, a strengthened form 
 of the simple root ttck. For the correspondence of the labial 
 (p) in pach and root ire/c with the guttural (c) in coquere, cf. 
 
404 A SINOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 Gr. tTnros for orig. 6Ki''os,with L. equu8,ancl so tTro/iai and sequor, 
 and also L. palumbes and columba), cooh, cookery, coohy (Gm. 
 kuchien, cake), and caAe, Usmit (Fr. do., cf. Fr. cuire, to cook. 
 \ See also It. biscotto, Sp. bis cocho, lit. twice or double-cooked, 
 or baked. Cf. Gm. zwieback, from backen, to bake, and zwei, 
 two), kitchen (Gm. kuche, M. L. cocina, Sp. do., It. cucina, 
 Fr. cuisine, Ags. cycene), culinary (L. cnlina and colina, cont. 
 from orig. form coqulina, formed from coquus, like inquilinus, 
 I a sojourner, from incola), kiln (L. culina. Sax. cyln), cockney, 
 I a term of reproach (It. coquinus), concoct and decoction, pre- 
 cocious (L. praecoquus). From praecoquus comes the New 
 Greek ^epvKOKov, the apricot (so being called from being early 
 I ripe) ; from which comes Sp. albaricoque (al being the Arabic 
 /' article) Fr. abricot, Bng. apricot, Gm. aprikose. 
 
 85. Cor (stem, cord), the heart (Sk. hard, hrid and hri- 
 daya, Gr. KapSCa and lajp), heart (Gm. herz, Gothic hairto), 
 hearty, dishearten, cordial, accord (M. L. accordare), concord, 
 concordance, discord, recdrd and record, core (It. cuore), 
 courage (Fr. courage, from coeur, the heart), encourage, dis- 
 courage, mercy (L. misericordia, Fr. merci). 
 
 86. Corium, skin, hide, leather (Gr. x°P'-°^- C!f. also L. 
 scortum, from same ultimate root, and Lith. skura, hide, 
 leather. Kuhn suggests with ingenious probability (Zeitsch. 
 IV. 14) that the original Arian root was undoubtedly sibilated 
 and that the aspirated x in x°P'°'' represents its original place 
 
 ^ and force in the stem) : excoriate, cuirass (It. corazza, Fr. 
 1 cuirasse) as being made of leather. To the same root with 
 : corium belongs L. cortex, and from this come Eng. cortical, 
 > cork (Fr. ecorce, Sp. corcho) and scorch (It. scorticare, Sp. 
 j escorchar, Fr. ecorcher). Jit. to take the skin off. 
 
 87. Cornu, a horn (Gr. /cepas : cf. cervus, a stag. Goth, 
 haurn compares with L. cornu like Goth, hund with L. canis), 
 Eng. horn, cornet, scoi-n (from a prob. L. form excornare, to 
 thrust oat a horn at one). 
 
 88. Corona, a crown (Gr. Koptuvds, curved, bent. Cf. also 
 Kopvcra-<o, and L. corusco, and Kcpas, and cornu, and Kapvov, and 
 Sk. garni-s, a horn), crown, coronet (dim.), coronal, corollary 
 L. corolla for coronola, lit. an inference viewed as crowning 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 405 
 
 another truth), cornice (Gr. Kopmk, lit. a curved line or stroke ; 
 It. cornice, Fr. comiohe), coroner (orig. devoted to affairs of 
 the crown), 
 
 89. Corpus, stem corpor, a body ; corpse, corps (Fr. do.), 
 corporation, incorporate, corporeal,, corporal, corset (It. cor-j 
 petto, a waistcoat or bodice, Fr. corset for corpset). ' 
 
 90. Costa, a rib, side, etc., coast (It. costa, Fr. cote), ac- 
 cost (It. accostare, Fr. accoster), lit. to draw near to. 
 
 91. Crates, wicker-work (Gtn. kratze), crate, grate (It. 
 grata, lattice-work), crash (Fr. ecraser, to break or bruise), 
 craze (lit. to break to pieces). Crush, also, seems to be con- 
 nected with' crash, like rash and rush with each other. 
 
 ' 92. Creare, to produce or make (Sk. kri and kar. Cf. also 
 Sk. kartri-s, a maker, and L. creator), create, procreate, re- 
 create. From crescere (incept of creare) come crescent, con- 
 crete, decrease, increase, increment, accrue (Fr. accroltre, part, 
 accru), recruit (Fr. recroltre). With creare cf. also Ceres, 
 the goddess of agriculture and caerimonia (Eng. ceremony), 
 . religious rites (in her honor, originally). 
 
 93. Cruor, blood. See caro (Sk. root kru lies at the base 
 of this word, as of caro, and possibly of crux — , as found in 
 Sk. kravi-s, and kravya-m, raw or bloody flesh, and Sk. kru- 
 ra-s, bloody — ), crude (L. crudus, for cruidus), cruel (L. cru- 
 delis). jRude (L. rudis) is a weakened form of crudus. Cf. 
 also with L. crudus, raw, old Gm. hrao, Gm. rob, Eng. raw 
 and rough. The Gr. Kpvo^, chilliness, shudder, and Kpv/x,os 
 (referring to the natural effects of the sight of blood), perhaps 
 belong here ; and with them /cpiJo-TaAAos (ice, chilliness), Eng. 
 crystal (looking like ice). 
 
 94. Crux, a cross (cf. k^pkU, a beam, from KepKco and Kpkma), 
 crucial, crucible, crucify, excruciate, cross (It. croce, Sp. cruz), 
 crusade (Fr. croieade), crosier (Fr. crosse), cruise and cruiser 
 (Fr. croiser and croiseur, referring to the constant tacking 
 necessary in sailing). Here place, also, Eng. crook, crotch, 
 and crutch (M. L. croca, It. croccia, Fr. crosse, Gm. krucke, 
 all derived probably from a fem. adj. form crucea), and crot- 
 chet and crochet (Fr. crocher). 
 
 Cricket, an English game at ball, belongs also probably 
 
406 A SYNOPSIS OP ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 here (cf. Gm. kriioke), named from the mode of arranging the 
 base, i. e. in the form of a cross. 
 
 95. Cubare, to lie down, and oumbere, a strengthened 
 form of the same root (Gr. Kcijuat, I lie down : cf. Gr. /cca/iij, a 
 village, with which cf. for sense Eng. residence, lit. a settling 
 back or down, i. e. by way of repose ; and Sk. ^i, to lie down, 
 to repose), cubit (L. cubitum, lit. the elbow, on which the 
 ancients inclined at their meals ; and figuratively an ell ; i. e. 
 the distance from the fingers' ends to the elbow). Probably 
 
 ''Eng. cub belongs here, which meant, in the first place, to 
 bring forth, and afterwards, secondarily, the young of ani- 
 mals themselves : (of., for sense, under L. puer, pupus, and Eng. 
 pup). From cubare come also concubine, incubate, incumbent, 
 recumbent, succumb, superincumbent- 
 
 96. Currere, cursum, to run, current, curricle, cursory, 
 concur (lit. to run together), concourse, course and courser, 
 discourse, discursive, excursion, incur and incursion, inter- 
 course' (lit. a running between), occur, precursor, recur, re- 
 course, succour. Courier, also, belongs here (Fr. courir), and 
 
 - curlew (Fr. courlieu, lit. the swift runner = L. currere + 
 levis) : see page 363. Corsair (It. corsare, Fr. corsair, Sp. 
 corsario, from verb corsear, L. cursare). 
 
 97. Cutis, the skin as a covering (Keu'^cu^ I cover or hide, 
 from which Eng. cote and cot. Of. Gr. kutos and o-ki/tos, and 
 (TKewii, dress, as well as o-keSos and cr/ceuafcj. Here belongs Gm. 
 huten, to cover, from which come Gm. hut, Eng. hat ; hutte, 
 Eng. hut ; and haut, Eng. hide. Eng. coat is from M. L. 
 cottus, It. cotta, Old Fr. cote ; whence Fr. cotillon, a petti- 
 coat, Eng. cotillion. For correspondence of sense, in Gm. 
 haut, a skin, and Gr. KivOuv, to cover, cf. the connection of the 
 verb to hide, in Eng., and a hide), cuticle. Cf. also here Gm. 
 schuh, a covering, Eng. shoe. From o-kvtos comes L. scutum, 
 a shield ; from the dimin. of which, scutula, come Gm. schiissel, 
 and Eng. scuttle, an oblong, round, shallow vessel, named from 
 its resemblance in form to a shield ; as is a harp {apTrrj) from 
 its similitude to a sickle. Here belongs also obscure (L. 
 obscurus). 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 407 
 
 98. Damnum, harm, loss {^rjfiia, Cretan 8a/xia. Cf. as from 
 same source, L. domare, Gr. Sa/xaw, I subdue), damn (L. dam- 
 nare), condemn (L. condemnare), indemnify and indemnity 
 (L. indemnitas), damage (Pr. dommage, M. L. dameigium : 
 Eng. doom may be connected here), danger (Fr. danger, 
 M. L. domigerium and dangerium). 
 
 99. Dare, to give, stem da (Sk. dk, Gr. SiSw/ju, stem Bo, 
 from which come Eng. dose, Gr. SoVis ; and antidote, Gr. avrt- 
 SoTos. Cf. also, Sk. d^tar, a giver, Gr. Sorijp and L. dator ; 
 and Sk. danam, a gift, and L. donnm), date (a given day, L. « 
 datus, for datos, cf. Gr. Soto';), dative; add (ad ■+ dare) ; man- \ 
 date (manus-|-dare), command (Fr. commander = L. con+ 
 manus+dare), demand (de+manus+dare); commend and 
 recommend (L. commendare = con+raandare), edit (lit. to 
 give torth), perdition (L. perdere=;dare, to give, per, through, 
 or out), sedition (L. seditio = se-)-dare), trade (L. tradere, lit. 
 to give over, from one to another), and tradition ; betray 
 (It. tradire, Fr. trahir, to betray) and traitor (It. traditore, 
 Fr. traitre), and treason (Sp. traicion, Fr. trahison, from L. 
 traditio, a handing to or over, i. e. the enemy). 
 
 The L. words aido, condo, credo, and seditio, so universally * 
 supposed to be compound derivatives of do, dare, to give, 
 have quite another and more interesting origin. The -do, 
 terminal in them, is the paronym of the Sk. dhS., to place. 
 From L. abdo comes L. and Eng. abdomen (not a contraction, 
 as some have thought, of adipomen) ; from L. condo (lit. I 
 place together) come Eng. condition, abscond (L. abscondo), 
 and recondite; from L. credo (= Sk. grat+dh^) come creed, 
 credit, and incredible ; and from L. seditio (lit. a placing apart, 
 i. e. of one's self) comes sedition. From dare, to give, come also 
 vend (venum+dare), render and rent (Fr. rendre and rente,M.L. 
 and It. rendere and Sp. rendir, L. reddere), dowry and dotal, 
 and endow and endowment (L. dos, dotis). From donare, a 
 nasalized foi-m of dare, come donate and abandon (Fr. aban- 
 donner = ad bannum donare). Surrender is a corrupted An- 
 
408 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 glicised form of the French reflexive verh, se rendre ; rendez- 
 vous is the French " report yourselves " (from rendre, etc.). 
 
 100. Decern, ten (Sk. dagan, Gr. Bixa. Corssen's con- 
 jecture that the iinal n in Sli. daQan, as in saptau, etc., is a 
 degenerate form from an original m, as in L. decem, septem, 
 etc., is undoubtedly right), ten (Gm. zehen), decimal, deci- 
 mate, dime (Fr. dime, orig. disme, L. decimus), dean (L. de- 
 canus, the superior of ten prebendaries, Sp. dean, pronounced 
 as a dissyllable, Fr. doyen), thousand (see L. centum). 
 
 101. Dens, stem dent, a tooth (Sk. danta-s, Gr. oSovs, stem 
 oSovT, Lith. danti-s, Goth, tunthus, Gm. zahn, Eng. tooth. Cf. 
 also, Sk. daq, and dan?, to bite, Gr. SaKvo), dentist, dentifrice 
 fricare, to rub), indent. 
 
 102. Dicere, dictum, to say, for earlier form deico : cf. con- 
 f(e)ido (Sk. dig, to show, etc., Gr. 8eiKW[ii), diction, dictionary, 
 addict and additament, benediction, edict, index, indict and in- 
 ditement, predict, verdict (verum-|- dicere), interdict (lit. to say 
 between, or in the way of), jurisdiction (+L. jus). From 
 dicare, to say much, or strongly (a freq. form of dicere), 
 come abdicate, dedicate, indicate, predicate and predicament, 
 vindicate (L. vindicare — venum+dicare, to call or claim as 
 one's own by sale), and avenge, revenge and vengeance (It. 
 vengiare, Sp. vengar, Fr. venger, etc., from L. vindicare). 
 The words judge (Fr. juger, L. judicare = j us + dicere), and 
 preach, lit. to declare, or make public (Fr. pr^cher, Gm. pre- 
 digen, L. praedicare) belong here. 
 
 103. Dies, a day (Sk. div, to shine, and div&, adv. abl., on 
 a day ; cf. for form L. diu. Cf, also, Sk. dyu-s, day and sky. 
 Here belong L. deus, God, Sk. deva-s, Lith. devas, and also 
 Gr. Zevs for A/ers, Boeotian Acv?, gen. Aios ; Sk. Dy&u-s, gen. 
 Divas ; L. Jfipiter, gen. Jovis, Oscan, Djovis, Gm. Zio, Goth. 
 Tins. From L. deus come Eng. deity, deify, and adieu 
 (Fr. do., lit. to God). For Fr. form Dieu from Deus, cf. Fr. 
 lieu from locus. L. Diespiter and Jupiter (for Joupiter for 
 Jovpiter) are double forms of the same compound Sk. original 
 Dy&us+pitar, Lord or Father o^ the sky or light. Juno for 
 Jovino, and Diana for Djana, as well as Janus, all refer to the 
 worship of light by the early Indo-European mind). To this 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 409 
 
 same class of roots Leo Meyer refers the Gm. Gott, Eng. 
 God : thus Sk. jyut for orig. dyut, to shine (the simpler form 
 of which is dyu and cognate with Sk. div), Goth, guda, Gm. 
 gott ; dial, diary, diurnal (L. diurnus), journal (L. diurnus, 
 M. L. jornus, It. giorno, Fr. jour and journal, belonging to a 
 day, M. L. journale), Jowrney (Fr. journee, a day's toil), jour- 
 neyman, adjourn (Fr. ajourner, M. L. adjovnare), sojourn 
 (It. soggiorno, Fr. sejour : the prepositional prefix here being 
 properly L. sub). Here, also, belong day (Gm. tag) and 
 dawn (Gm. tagen). In Sk., danh and dagh mean to shine, as 
 well as div ; and in Sk. dava, fire, for orig. daghva, and div, 
 for perhaps, orig. dighv, the two roots dagh and div may 
 meet in one. With Zeijs, Acqs and L. Deus, cf. also Gr. 
 8at/«ov for halFiJuov, a divinity, Eng. demon and demoniacal. 
 Perhaps also -Jeo's belongs here for ^eto?, for Sctos for SaJos 
 (cf. Old L. deivos and divos, and Sk. d6va-s, a shining one), 
 L. dlvus, dius and deus. Cf. for similarity of aspiration Gr. 
 c^iapos, plump, sleek, with iriapoi (for iriFapo's, Sk. pivara-s), 
 and tjiiaXr], a drinking bowl (Eng. phial) from Gr. mVto, Sk. pi- 
 v4mi, I drink. Curtius, however, regards ^eos (for &€<t6s) as 
 connected with Sia-fjiaroq, and of a different radication. 
 
 104. Dignns, worthy (Sk. dagas, glory. Cf. Gr. Sofa and 
 8oK£M, Eng. -doxy and dogma. See also Socaios, just, Sk. dig, 
 to show ; and also L. dioere, and discere, as well as Gr. 8a/c- 
 ruXos and L. digitus. L. decere and decus may belong here 
 also), dignity, condign, deign (M. L. dignare, It. degnare, 
 Fr. daigner), disdain (L. dedignari, Sp. desdenar), indignity, 
 indignant. 
 
 105. Discus, a quoit, a dish (Gr. Sur/cos, a round plate), 
 discus, disc, dish, desk (It. desco, a table, Gm. tisch), da:ts 
 (Fr. dais), a raised place or table. 
 
 106. Dividere, divisum, to separate, divide, etc. (Cf. 
 viduus, without, destitute of; Sk. vidhavii, Eng. widow / and 
 individuus, Eng. individual). The prefix vi in all these words 
 is, like that of di also in dividere, abbreviated from an origi- 
 nal form, dvi (cf. Gr. Sts for SMs and L. bis for dvis also — all 
 from L. duo, Gr. Su<o, Sk. dv^u). The English derivatives are 
 divide, indivisible, etc., and device (It. diviso, Fr. devis, a 
 
410 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 specification, and Fr. devise, a plan), and devise (It. divisare, 
 to set apart, project, etc., Sp. divisar). 
 
 lOT. Docere, doctum, to teach (a causative form of root 
 dak, for earlier form dak-ayami. Gr. SiSoo-ko), for Si-8a(K)-crKft), 
 is a reduplicated, as well as inceptive, form of the same root, 
 as well as li. disco, perf. di-dic-i, for dicsco. Cf for form, 
 moneo and noceo). From doceo come doctor (lit. a teacher), 
 doctritie, document (cf. for form, monument from moneo), in- 
 doctrinate ; and from disco come disciple and discipline. 
 
 108. Domare, to subdue (Sk. dam, to conquer, Gr. Sa/jidw, 
 I subdue, Gm. zahmen, Eng. tame; cf. also S/iws, a slave, see 
 also L. damnum). With Gr. SafiAia is connected a8a/i.as, a 
 diamond (lit. unbreakable),^, adamas, Eng. adamant. The 
 Fr. aimant, the magnet, is a cont. form of M. L. adamas, and 
 like it in sense. The fuller Fr. form diamant, It. diamante, 
 Eng. diamond, has the added force of the Gr. Sid, expressive 
 of the translucence of the diamond. From domare comes 
 dominus (Sk. damana^s), lit. a subduer, from which come Eng. 
 dominion, domineer, domain (L. dominium, Fr. domaine), 
 dom,ination, predominate. Here," too, belong don (L. domi- 
 nus, Sp. don), and donna (L. domina, Sp. dona and duena), 
 
 Cdame (L. domina, Fr. dame), damsel (Fr. demoiselle, dimin. 
 It. damigella ifrom It. dama), madam (Fr. madame, lit. my 
 lady), dam, (cf. dama, It. daino, Eng. doe). 
 
 109. Domus, a house (Sk. dama-s, a house, Gr. 8o/aos, Suj/xa, 
 and SS}, a house, and Se/iw, I build), domestic, domesticate, 
 domicile (domieilium = prob. domus+cella), dome (Fr. ddme, 
 orig. dosme, Gm. dom). The word timber (Gm. zimmer, 
 materials for building, a building), is connected prob. with 
 
 110. Ducere, ductum (perhaps Sk. duh, to draw down, 
 may belong here. Goth, tiuhan, from which Fr. touer and 
 Eng. tow), duct, aqueduct, ductile, douche (L. ductus. It, 
 doccia, Fr. douche), duke (L. dux, It. duca, Sp. duque, Fr. 
 due), lit. a military leader. Here belongs also ducat 
 (It. ducato, Fr. ducat), doge (It. do.), abduct, adduce, con- 
 duce, conduct, conduit, deduce, deduct, educe, and educate (a 
 freq. form of educere, lit. to lead forth continually from, i. e. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETTkOLOGT. 411 
 
 the first rude state), induce, introduce, produce, product, 
 reduce, redout (L. reductus, Fr. redoute, It. ridotto), seduce, 
 subdue (L. subducere, to lead under, i. e. the yoke. Cf. for 
 sense, subjugate), traduce. 
 
 111. Duo (Sk. dvi, masc. nom. dvS,u, and neut. dve), %Mil, 
 duel (L. duellum), du^et, two (Gm. zwei), twice, twain, twin, 
 twine, twist (cf. Gm. zwist, from zwei, two), between and 
 betwixt, twilight (i. e. doubtful light. Cf. for sense, Gm. 
 zweifel, doubt = zwei, two, i. e. ways, and fallen, to fall, and 
 also L. dnbius = duae viae), double (Gr. StjrXoCs, L. duplus, 
 Gm. doppel), duplicity (L. duplex = duo+plicare), duplicate. 
 So the adverbial numeral bis, twice, in Latin, as in English 
 bisect, is for orig. dvis (Gr. S/s for 8J?ts) ; as are also the inse- 
 parable preps, dis or di, and vi or ve, as in veeors and vesanus. 
 The orig. form dvis appears less changed in the insep. L. prep, 
 dis ; as in Eng. discuss (lit. to shake in two, or apart), and in 
 L. discordia, Eng. discord, lit. a dualism at heart. Cf. also 
 Gr. 8ta and hi^a. and hia.vhi)(a). L. viginti is also for orig. 
 dviginti, Eng. twenty, Gm. zwanzig). The archaic form, like- 
 wise, of bellum was duellum (lit. a strife between two), from 
 which come bellicose, belligerent (+gerere), rebel. L. bonus 
 was, too, originally duonus, from whence come Eng. bonny, 
 boon, bounty (Fr. bonte), embonpoint (Fr. do., lit. in good 
 point), bonfire (lit. a good fire. Cf. Fr. feu de joie, and Gm. 
 frendenfeuer), benefice and benefit (bene-(-facere), benediction 
 and benison (L. benedicere, Fr. b6nir and b6nison), benign, 
 benignant (L. benignus = bonus-(-genus. Cf. malignus, Eng. 
 malignant = malus+genus), benevolent. From bellus, fair, 
 handsome, for benulns, a dimin. form of bonus (cf. for change 
 of vowel, vester, your, from vos, you), come belle, embellish, 
 belles lettres (lit. fine writing), beau (Fr. beau), and beauty. 
 
 Could any etymological fact seem at first more improbable, 
 than that beauty should be derived, by any possible system 
 of phonetic changes, from duo, two ? 
 
 112. AuVro), I dip (a strengthened form of hvu>, I go into), 
 dip, dipper, dive, dove (Gm. tanben, to dive), lit. the diving 
 bird (its other name, pigeon, L. pipio(n), is given from its 
 piping sound). From Gm. tauben come also prob. Eng. iope 
 
413 A SYNOPSIS or illustkative examples 
 
 and toper (lit, one constantly dipping into liquor) : Gra. tauchen, 
 to duck, may also belong here, Eng. duck. 
 
 E. 
 
 113. Edere, esum, for edtum, to eat (Sk, ad, Gr. co-flio), 
 fSofjiai, Lith. ed, Goth, ita), eat, edible, esculent, etch (Gm. 
 atzen), obesity. L. coena (also written caena and cena) is per- 
 haps for co-esna : from coena come L. de-coenare, Fr. diner, 
 Eng. dine. Leo Meyer however, and with him Corssen, re- 
 gards cena, for cesna, as derived from same root with Sk. khad, 
 to eat, for an earlier form skad. Cf. Umbrian ^esna. 
 
 114. Emere, emptum, lit. to obtain, or take; in classical 
 usage, to buy (Sk. yam, to take. This same root appears prob- 
 ably in Greek in the compound arroyiiiw,! unburden), exempt 
 (L. eximere : cf. L. eximius, chosen, etc.), empty (of immediate 
 Sax. origin, as aemtig, vacant, is perhaps correlated here), pe- 
 remptory (a judicial term, signifying that all debate is cut ofi), 
 preemption, premium, (L. praemium), lit. taken before others, 
 prompt, lit. taken or done straightforwardly (L. promere, 
 proraptum, for proemere), redeem, lit. to take back. Here 
 too belong sumo (=sub-f emo) and its compounds, as assume, 
 consume, presume, resume. 
 
 115. 'Ep-yov, for Archaic Ftpyov, work (cf. epyu and Iphw 
 and epyat,ofi,ai, Goth. vaurkjan, Gm. werk, Eng. work), energy 
 (Gr. ivifyyeLa from ei/epyos, at work), irk and irksome (Gm. ar- 
 gerlich), liturgy (Gr. XetTovpyla = Aetros, ])u.hlic,-\-epyov, work), 
 metallurgy (= p.iTaSXov+lpyov), surgery {xupovpyia, Fr. chirur- 
 gie), and surgeon (Fr. chirurgien). Demiurgic also is from 
 Sr]p.iovpy6i (= 8^/j,oi-\-epy<o, lit. working for the people), as is 
 the proper name George, from yf(apy6i=y^-\-tpyu), to till the 
 ground, a farmer). Here too belong Gr. opyavoi' (cf. perf. iopya 
 of tpyoi) and L. organum, Eng. organ, organize, etc. 
 
 116. Esse, to be (Sk. asmi, I am, Gr. elp,i for orig. ivfu and 
 L. sum for esumi), essence, essential, entity (obs. part, ens, 
 stem ent), absent (part, absens of abesse), interest and interest- 
 ing (L. interesse, lit. to be among or with), present and presents 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 413 
 
 (M. L, praesentia, nom. pi. neut. of L. part, praesens), lit. 
 things put immediately in band (cf. legal phrase, " know all 
 men by these presents "), represent and representative. See 
 potis for derivatives of esse from posse. 
 
 IIY. Ex, prep, forth from, out of (Gr. Ik orig. tKi^), extra 
 (L. do. Cf. for form, contra, intra, etc.), exterior, extreme, 
 external, extraneous, estrange and strange (L. extraneus, 
 It. straniero, Sp. estrangero, Fr. strange), extraordinary 
 (-\-OTdio, ovdiex), extravagant (+vagari, to wander), extrinsic 
 (L. extrinsecus), exotic (elon-tKos), exoteric (iiuirepoi : cf. for sense 
 esoteric from ds, into). 
 
 F. 
 
 118. Facere, factum, to make (Sk. bh&vay, causative form 
 of bhii, to be, i. e. to make to be. Cf. L. fio, fui, and Gr. <f>vio, 
 I produce or prepare, as correlates of hhix, and Ags. beon, to 
 be, Gm. bin, Eng. be and Lith, buwu ; and also Goth, bagvan, 
 Gm. bauen, to build, and baum, a tree, Eng. beam : cf also 
 Sk. bhO and Sk. bhavana-s, a house. L. fio and fui compare 
 as Gm. bauen and bin), face (L. facies. It. faccia, lit. that 
 which makes the chief impression), features (It. fattura, 
 L. factura), fagade (Fr. do.), facile, faculty (power to do), 
 fact (a thing done), faction (a party engaged in the doing of 
 a given thing), /as/won (L. factio, Fr. facjon, the common way 
 of doing things), factory, manufacture (+manus, the hand), 
 factitious, facetious (lit. (fo2w^ a clever thing), /eai (L. factum, 
 Fr. fait), something done, i. e. marvellously, defeat (Fr. de- 
 faite, from defaire, to undo), affair (Fr. affaire), edify (L. edi- 
 fioare, lit. to build, as a house), satisfy (L. satisfacere), counter- 
 feit (Fr. contrefaire = L. contra facere), forfeit (Fr. forfaire 
 = L. foras-ffaoere), magnificent and munificent, surfeit 
 (Fr. surfaire = L, super -f facere), arifij^ce (41-. ars), benefice 
 (L. beneficium), office (L.ob+facere), orifice (-)-L. os, a mouth), 
 sacrifice (L. sacrificium, lit. put to a sacred use), and prolific 
 terrific, etc., and malfeasance (Fr. malfaisance), traffic (Fr. 
 trafiquer = L. trans + facere, as L. tradere, Eng. trade = L: ' 
 trans+dare. From L. faber, for faciber, a worker in metals, ) 
 
414 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 comes 'E^ng. fabric (L. fabrica). From fabrioata, per£ pass. part, 
 of L. fabricare (sc. navis), lit. something fabricated or built, 
 and remarkable as such, comes, probably, Eng. frigate (It. 
 fregata, for earlier form fargata, probably). Several common 
 derivatives, chiefly prepositional compounds, also belong 
 here, as affect and affectation, benefaction, confectionary, de- 
 ficient, effect, efficacious, and efficient, gratification, infect, 
 perfect, prefect, proficient, refectory, satisfaction, suffice, 
 superficial, verification, and also the following, more imme- 
 diately through the French, deface, efface, surface. Profit 
 is L. profectus, Sp. provecho, It. profitto, Fr. profit. Here too 
 belong forge (L. fabrica, Sp. forja, Fr. forge : through such 
 changes as these, fabrica, faurica, forja, forge), and forger : 
 cf., for change of radical vowel, Fr. orfevre from L. 
 aurifaber). Meyer connects L. facere with Sk. bhak, to 
 make. 
 
 119. Fall ere, falsum (Sk. sphal and sphul, to waver, to 
 fall, Gr. trc^aAAo). Cf. also acf>d\.i/.a, a fall, a fault, a-<f>a\ep6s, 
 slippery, and dcr<^aA.i7s, safe, a priv., cf. cftrjXim, I deceive),/afoe, 
 fault, fall (Gm. fallen), befal, to fell (Gm. fallen), fail (It. fal- 
 lire, Fr. faillir, Gm. fehlen. Cf. also Fr. falloir of same origin, 
 lit. to be wanting or necessary), infallible, falter (It. faltare, 
 Sp. faltar from an old M. L. form fallitare), fallacy (L. 
 fallax). 
 
 120. Fari, to speak [cf. Sk. hhk and bhas, to shine, Gr. <t>aivu), 
 ^ads, etc., and Sk. bhash and bhan, to speak, Gr. i^ij/xt and 
 tftda-KU), and (j)(ovi^, the voice, from which come Eng. euphony, 
 phonetics, etc. In L. declaro, I declare:=::de+clarus, clear, the 
 style of connection between ^i?j«.t, I say, and <^atvo), I shine, is 
 well illustrated. From tfiaivia come Eng. phenomenon (Gr. 
 (fiaivoixivov), fantasy and fancy (Gr. <f)avTaa-La), phase (Fr. do., 
 Gr. c^acrts). From <l>riF-h come Eng. emphasis andprophet] : from 
 fari come fate (lit. a spoken decree), /ame, j'^awows and in- 
 famous and defame, fable, fabulous, affable, ineffable, infant 
 (L. infans, one that cannot speak: cf. Gr. v^ttios), infantry 
 (as being young soldiers, Sp. infanteria, foot soldiers, from in- 
 fante, It. fante), nefarious (not to be described), mtdtifarious, 
 preface and prefatory (L. prefatio, etc.) From fata, fem. of 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 415 
 
 fatus, comes Eng. fay (It. fata, Sp. fada, Fr. fee). Here, also, 
 belongs /awe (lit. a dedicated place), and profane (lit. before 
 or outside of the temple, i. e. unconsecrated or unhallowed). 
 From fateri, a strengthened form of fari (like ySttretD, of stem 
 ^a in ^aivco) come confess (L. confiteri), auA. prof ess (L. pro- 
 fiteri). 
 
 121. Fendere, obs. to ward off (Gr. ^dv<a for ^evio), I strike, 
 wound, or dash down, of. for similarity of correspondence, 
 TEiVoj and tendo ; Sk. han, to beat, strike, etc.), fend, fender, 
 fence, defend, defense and indefensible, offend and offense, in- ' 
 fest (L. infestus for infensitus). Here Corssen places also ' 
 L. manifestus, as being equal to " cum manu festus," lit. 
 pushed out to view with the hand : whence Eng. manifest 
 (verb and noun) and manifesto. 
 
 122. Peo, obs. I bring forth (Gr. ^iJoj, I produce, from 
 which physical, physics, m,etaphysics, and physic, as being 
 the use of natural helps ; Sk. bhfi, to be. Cf. L. fui and fio), 
 feminine and female (L. femina, lit. one who brings forth, 
 and femella, dim. Of., for form, L. femina with L. terminus 
 from same root with Sk. tar, to pass through or over), effemi- 
 nate. From foetus come foetal and effete (lit. having just - 
 brought iovih), fecundity (L. fecundus), /eZecjYy and infelicity / 
 (L. felix, lit. producing much: cf "nulla felix arbor,'' 
 Horace). 
 
 123. Ferre, tuli, latum, for tlatum, to bear, bring, yield 
 (Sk. bhar, Persian ber, Gr. ^epm, from which Eng. metaphor ; 
 and Gm. baren, Gothic bairan, from which Eng. bear, with its 
 derivatives birth and born. Here too belong, probably, 
 baron and baronet, as originally meaning a military servitor 
 and thence strong and thence manly and honorable ; barroxo 
 and bier, Gm. bahre), fertile, fortuitous (L. fors, chance : cf. 
 for form L. toga from tego), wiA. fortune (L. fortuna). 
 
 From compound L. forms come confer, defer, differ, in- 
 different, infer, offer, prefer, proffer (the/" is doubled in Eng- 
 lish but not in Latin, in imitation probably of word, offer), 
 refer, suffer, transfer. From L. supine, latum, for tlatum (of 
 sanie root with L. tuli and tolerare and Gr. rXau and rXijrds) 
 come collate and collation, dilate, elate, illative, oblate, prer 
 
416 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 late, relate, relative, and correlate, translate and delay (Fr. d&- 
 lai, L. dilatatio). 
 
 L. fortis, which Pott and Curtius refer to ferre, as its 
 source (like toga from tego) is probably of same origin -with 
 Sk. dhar, to be fixed or firm (cf. L. firmus and forma). From 
 L. fortis come fortitude, forte (Fr. do.), pianq/brie (piano 
 being from L. planus, It. piano, and meaning soft, and forte 
 meaning strong), fort, fortress, fortify, comfort, M. L. con- 
 fortare, lit. to strengthen thoroughly, Fr. conforter), effort, 
 force (M. L. fortia and forcia, It. forza, Fr. force), enforce, re- 
 inforce, perforce. 
 
 L. far, corn, and farina, 'EMg. farina, otherwise referrible 
 to ferre, to bear, are, it would seem from recently discovered 
 Umbrian parallel forms, connected with Sk. gharsh, to rub or 
 bruise, in their common origin. Cf. for form L. fervere and 
 Sk. ghar. 
 
 124. Fervere, to be warm (Gr. &ipu> -. Sk. ghar, to shine, to 
 be bright : cf. Sk. gharma-s, warm ; Gr. Bepfioq and Eng. 
 thermal, thermometer, etc. ; Goth, varms, for (g)varms, Eng. 
 warm), fervent, fervor, fever (L. febris for ferbris : c£ maliebris 
 for mulierbris),/ermewJ. Here belongs L. fornax, Eng. j^r- 
 nace ; and with it L. fornix, Eng. fornication : the brothels 
 
 I of ancient Ronie having been in subterranean vaults. Here 
 also L. furere perhaps belongs, and with it ^ng.fury. 
 
 125. Fides, faith (ttei^o), I persuade, trust, etc. ; short stem 
 ir60), faith, fidelity, fiduciary, confide (L. oonfido, for earlier 
 confeido), diffident, infidel, perfidy. Affidavit (M. L. afiidare, 
 to bind one's self), and defy (Fr. defier, M. L. diffidare, lit. to 
 forfeit one's word) belong also here. From same root comes 
 L. foedus (Old L. foidos : cf. perf. iriTroiOa, for form), from 
 which 2ir& federal and confederate. 
 
 126. Figere, fixum, to fix (Gi-. crc^tyyo), I bind together, 
 from which Gr. <r<j>i.yKTrip, the sphincter muscle, and '%<t>i-yi, 
 the sphinx, lit. the throttler : see story of the riddle. Cf. for 
 correspondence of form L. fallere and Gr. cn^oAAu and L. fides 
 and o-t^i'Sr;), fix, affix, infix, pirefix, suffix, transfix. Here 
 belongs Eng. fit (the noun), L. fixus. It. fitto, like atto from 
 L. actus, lit. pierced or struck down ; and perhaps also hit 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 417 
 
 (L. fixus, Sp. hito, fixed, a mark etc. : Sp. h is the L. /). From 
 figere come L. figura, Eng. figure, prefigure and transfigure, 
 andfibula (L. do. for figibula). Fingere, fictum, is a strength- 
 ened form of figere (as fundere in present tense is of fudi 
 perf. tense), and means, as such, to form or fashion earnestly. 
 While its general sense is much like that of facere, how dif- 
 ferent is the sense of its derivatives. From fingere come 
 feign (Fr. feindre) ^ndi feint, fiction, fictitious, figment, effigy 
 (L. efBgies). Finis, the end, is also for fignis, from figere, and 
 from it covae final, finish, finite and infinite, affinity, confines, 
 define, definite and indefinite, refi'>ie, fine (It. fino, Fr. fin, Gm. 
 fein from L. part, finitus, finished). The noun a fine also 
 belongs here, meaning originally a sum of money paid to 
 end a difficulty at law ; diadi finance (M. L. financia, a pecuniary 
 settlement of anything), financier (lit. one skilful in making 
 ends meet), &adi finesse (Fr. do., lit. fineness of action, and so 
 subtlety). 
 
 127. Findere, fidi, fissum (Sk. bhid, Gr. ^et'So/tai sc. e[t.av- 
 Tov, lit. I separate myself from ; Gm. beissen, biss, etc., from 
 which hite, hit, Utters), fissile, fissure, fihre (L. fibris for fidi- 
 bris), fillet (Fr. filet, L. filum for fidilum), filament, file (the 
 tool, and also a row), lit. something threaded, defile (Fr. de- 
 file) and enfilade (Fr. do.), and profile (It. profilo, Sp. perfil). 
 
 1.28. Flaccere is seemingly connected with flare, meaning 
 to be flabby, to droop, and hence come Eng. ^acac? and ^os^ 
 (lit. to droop). 
 
 129. Flagrare, (Sk. bhraj, to shine; cf. bhargarS, splendor ; 
 Gr. (fiXeyw, I bum, I flame. Of same origin are L. flamen, for 
 flagmen, a priest, viewed as one who sacrifices / and perhaps 
 also L. fulgere and fulmen for fulgimen, and so Eng. refulgent 
 and fulminate), flagrant, confiagration, defiagrate, flame (L. 
 flamma for flagma ; cf. Gr. ^Xeyyua, a flame, Eng. phlegm, lit. 
 iin inflammation), infkvmmation, flambeau, flamingo. 
 
 130. Flare, to blow at, up or down (cf. <^A.o^o), <j>\aivw and 
 ■jrai^Xa^o), I bubble up, etc., and ^Xatr/ids) afflatus, inflate, flute 
 (Gm. flote. It. flauto, Sp. flauta, Fr. flite, Old Fr. flahute and 
 flahuste) and flageolet (derived from a dim. form of flauto or 
 flauta, as flautiolus. Old Fr. flajol, New Fr. flageolet). 
 
 Vol. II.— 27 
 
418 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 Here helong^abby and /lap (L. flabrura and dimin. flabel- 
 lum, a fly-flap, and flabilis, airy). 
 
 131. Flectere, flexum, to bend, bow, &c., Jkxure, circum- 
 flex, flexible, inflsxibk, reflex; and inflect, reflet, etc. 
 
 132. Fligere, to strike (cf. Goth, bliggvan and also Gr. 
 irXijo-o-o) for irkayiw, Stem TrXay, and L. plectrum), afflict, con- 
 flict, inflict, profligate (L. profligare, to strike or dash to the 
 ground), flagellate and flail (L. flagellum, Gm. flegel), and 
 flog. 
 
 133. Fluere, fluxum, to flow (Sk. plu, Gr. ttXco), fut. vXeicrto, 
 for earlier irkiFo), etc.). The order of changes ran thus in 
 fluo, viz. : flovo, flevo, fluo. (Of. also L. flere, to weep, and 
 Gf. <f)\v<D, <j>kv^m and <j>\.io>, and also jSXuo), I spout, etc.), fluent, 
 fluid, flow, flood (L. fluctus, Gm. fluth), float (L. fluitare), 
 fluctuate, fleet and flotilla (M. L. flotta, Fr. flotte), flux, 
 fluxions / affluent, confluent, conflux, effluence, effluvia, efflux, 
 influence, refluent, reflux, superfluous. 
 
 134. Folium, a leaf (Sk. phull, Gr. <^ijA\ov, for orig. ^vKiov), 
 foliage, foil, tin-foil (or tin-leaf) and trefoil (or three-leaved, 
 to which idea the Eng. clover, from cleave, refers). 
 
 L. flos, stem flor, a flower (cf. Gr. <l>\6o';, bloom, and ^Xoiio, 
 to be in full vigor or bloom, with 4'\iu>) is of the same imme- 
 diate origin (cf Ags, bldvan, Goth, bloma, from an archaic form 
 MhvX), flower, flourish (Fr. fleur and fleurir), axiA flour (viewed 
 as the fine and mellow part of the plant), florid, deflower, 
 effloresce and florin (a Florentine crown with a lily on it : Sp. 
 and Fr. florin, It. florino from fiore, a flower). 
 
 135. Foris, door (Sk. dvar and dvara-m, Gr. Bvpa, Gm. 
 thlir and thOre, Lith. durys, doors. In the Sk. dhvar, to in- 
 jure, wound, destroy, these words seem to present the funda- 
 mental idea contained therein, i. e. a breach in a wall : cf. also 
 L. fera, ferox and ferire, as all of probably same origin, and 
 so Eng. fierce, ferocious, etc.), door, foreign (It. foraneo, Fr. 
 forain), forest (M. L. forastum and forestum, from L. foras, 
 out of doors. It. foresta, from fore and fiiora, out of doors. 
 The Span, form floresta is from flor, a flower, and refers to the 
 mass of greenness in a forest), forum and forensic (L. forum, 
 a large, open field, where elections were held, etc.), and per- 
 
IN COMPAUATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 419 
 
 f orate (L. forare). Forage also (It. foraggio) protably belongs 
 here (as being found without). 
 
 136. Forma, form, shape (Sk. dhariman, form, viewed as 
 being fixed : Corssen is probably right in connecting forma, 
 like firmus also — "Eng. firm, firmament, affirm, confirm', infirm 
 — with Sk. dhar, to hold, sustain, etc., as all of one origin. 
 Pott, Curtius and others have connected it, like fors and 
 fortis, with L. ferre, to bear), form, conform, deform,, inform, 
 perform, transform, uniform, {-{-Ti. moos), formula. 
 
 137. Fovere, fotum, to cherish (for prob. earlier form 
 foguere, like, for form, L. favere, for earlier faguere, as com- 
 pared with Sk. bhaj, to cherish, to love. Cf. Gr. ^cuycu, I 
 roast, etc. Cf. also L. favilla and favus), focus (L. do. for 
 fovicus, a hearth), fire (L. focus, Fr. feu, with which cf. for 
 form Fr. peu from L. paucus ; Gm. feuer). Suffocate, which ^ 
 might be thought to belong here (cf. Fr. suffoquer) is a com- 
 pound of L. sub+fauces. From L. focus comes Fr. fusil, a I 
 gun (cf. It. focile and fucile), Eng. fusilade. ■■'* 
 
 138. Frangere, fractum, to break (Sk. bhanj, Gr. p-qyvv/xi 
 for Fpryywfi,i, Gm. brechen, brach, gebrochen, from which Eng. 
 words break, brake and breach), fragment (L. fragmentum), 
 fracture, fraction, fractious (disposed to break things), fragile 
 and frail (L. fragilis, Fr. fr^le, orig. fresle), infraction, re- 
 frangible, refract, fringe (M. L. frangia, Fr. frange, Gm. 
 franze). Refrain, the noun, is from L. refrangere (Sp. refran, 
 Fr. refrain). 
 
 139. Fraudare, to cheat (Gr. Spavu), I break: cf. also the 
 earlier sense of L. fraus, as crime or guilt), fraud, defraud, 
 fraudulent (L. fraudulentus : cf for foi-m L. opulentus). From 
 L. frustra for fraustra, for fraudtra, comes frustrate. 
 
 140. Fricare, to rub (Gr. xpfio, from which Eng. chrism 
 and Christ, lit. the anointed One : Sk. ghri, to sprinkle, and 
 ghrish, to anoint, rub, etc. : cf. for form L. formus and Sk. 
 gharma-s), friction, fray (L. fricare. It. fregare, Fr. frayer, 
 Old Fr. froyer. Cf. L. plicare and Fr. ployer, for form, Eng. , 
 deploy). Here also belongs L. frivolus (cf. for form L. festivus 
 and furtivus), lit. worn out, and so worthless, or trifling, Eng. 
 
420 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 I 141. Frigere, to be cold (Gr. ^ptWco for (jipLKiui. Of. also 
 ' piyiw and L. rigere, Eng. rigid), frigid, fresh (L. frigidus, 
 It. fresco, Gm. frisch, Fr. frais), the etymological idea being 
 that of coolness; freshet, freshman, refresh, fresco (as being 
 painted on fresh plaster), refrigerator, freeze, froze and frost 
 (Gm. frieren, fror, gefroren) ; frisk (i. e. to act freshly). 
 
 142. Frons, stem front, the forehead (Sk. bhru-s, Gr. 6ff>pvg, 
 o euphonic), front, frontlet, frontispiece, frontier (M. L. 
 frontaria), affront (It. affrontare, Fr. affronter), confront, 
 
 ^- effrontery, frown (Fr. refrogner), brow (Gm. braune, as in 
 V augenbraune, eye-brows). 
 
 143. Fundere, fusum, to pour forth. (Cf. at least Gr. xe<», 
 yiva-ai, stem yy, Goth. giutan. From ;)(eo> comes Eng. chemis- 
 try, which should' be spelled chymistry, Gr. x"/''""7» sc. rixyrj, 
 lit. the pouring or mixing art ; cf. also Gr. x^/i«a, Fr. chimie, 
 and Gm. chymie, also Eng. alchemy — , al- being the Arabic 
 article the. "With x^os, adj., poured forth, belongs L. gutta, 
 a drop. The Gm. giessen, also, goes with Gr, xe'w, yycna, and 
 its Eng. derivatives gush, Gm. gusz ; gust, ghost, Gm. geist, 
 like, for sense, L. spiritus, Eng. spirit, from spirare, to blow ; 
 gas, Gm. gase, with which cf. also gaschen, to foam up, and 
 yeast). From fundere come to found (lit. to pour forth, i. e. 
 liquid metal), and foundery (Sp. fonderia, Fr. fonderie), 
 confound (lit. to pour things together), confuse and con- 
 fusion, diffuse, effusion, profuse, refuse (the verb, L. refutare. 
 It. rifiutare, Fr. refuser, Sp. rehusar), refuse (noun), suffuse, 
 and also futile (L. futilis, lit. poured or pouring away). 
 
 144. Fundus, the bottom of anything (Sk. budhna-s, the 
 ground, Gr. ■wvOfj.i^v and irwSaf, the bottom of a vessel, Gra. 
 boden, Eng. bottom), to found (i. e. establish), foundation, 
 fundament, fundamental, profound, and profundity (L. pro- 
 fundus, Fr. ■proionA), fund (lit. a sound money basis). 
 
 G. 
 
 145. Gamba, a leg. (Cf L. camurus, crooked, and also 
 Gr. Ka/iTTvXos, yva/iTTTO), I bend, and ya/xi^ds, curved, crooked.) 
 From gamba come Eng. gambol, (Fr. gambiUer, lit. to frisk 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 421 
 
 with the legs) ; jarrib (Fr. jamhe), ham and Aamstrung (Sp. 
 jamon, j being pronounced as h in Spanish ; Gm. hamme), . 
 hammer (Gm. hammer, the leg, a hammer. So, in Greek, 
 a-<jivpa, a hammer, compared with aripvpov, the lower part of 
 the leg, we have the same idea ; and how exact is the resem- 
 blance in nature !). 
 
 146. Gaudium, joy (Gr. yaioi for yaMo) and yrjBeui for 
 yaFi$(a. L. gaudeo is for gavideo, as iu perf. gavisus. Cf. 
 also yavvfrnL, I cheer up, and yaCpos, exultant, and also ayavos 
 and aya/xat), gaudi/,joy (Fr. joie) and rejoice (It. godere and 
 gioire, Fr. rejouir). Jewel (M. L. jocale, Fr. joyau, Gm. juwel). 
 
 147. Gelu, cold, frost (Sk. jala-s and jalita-s, cold), gelid, 
 glacier (L. glacies), glass (L. glacies, Fr. glace, both ice and 
 glass, Gm. glas. Cf. for sense, Gr. KpuoraWos, ice and a 
 crystal), glaze and glazier, congeal (L. congelare), regale (It. 
 regalare, Sp. regalar and Fr. regaler, to refresh. Cf for sense 
 fresh and refresh with L. frigidus and Gm. frisch) ; chill and 
 cold (Gm. kalt). For phonetic connection of chill with Gm. 
 kalt, cf also Eng. child and Gm. kind. 
 
 148. Gerere, for gesere, gestum, to bear, gem (L. gemma, 
 an assimilated form of germa, the bud or eye of a plant), 
 gesture, gesticulate, congeries, congestion, digest, ingest, sug- 
 gest (c£ for style of form and sense, succour, L. succurrere, lit. 
 to run under ; support, and also Eng. understanA), vicegerent. 
 Here belong exaggerate (L. exaggerare = ex-j- agger, which 
 is but ad+gerere), augury (L. augurium = avis+gerere, 
 taken from the flight of birds), inaugurate. Register also 
 belongs here (M. L. registrum for regestum, It. registro, Fr. 
 registre). L. germen (with which, cf. for sense, Lith. zelmen, 
 a germ, from zelu, to grow), from which come Eng. germ and 
 germinate ; and which it would seem natural to place here : — 
 is quite variously derived by diflTerent scholars : as, by Leo 
 Meyer, for penmen (cf Sk. jan, to beget and L. gigno, etc.) ; 
 by Curtius, for gerhva&a. (cf. Sk. garbha-s, from grabh, to 
 receive) ; and by Corssen for garvoAiy (cf. Sk. gar, to wake, to 
 watch, and used causatively to animate). 
 
 149. Gignere, genitum, stem gen, reduplicated (from gige- 
 nere, for earlier foi-m ga-gan-ami) to beget, to bear (Sk. jan^ 
 
422 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 . to beget, cf. janitrl, a father ; and Gr. yewdio, I beget, and yi- 
 \yvoiJ.ai, stem yev, redup. I become. Cf. also, ywTj, a woman, 
 jlit. a bearer, Sk. jani ; L. cunnus ; and also Eng. quean and 
 queen), genius (lit. inborn talent), ingenious and ingenuous 
 (the heathen experience of the ancients was, that whatever 
 fine dispositions any possessed, were born in them, and were 
 matters of blood, rather than of personal virtue and effort), 
 genial (by nature, the implication is again), and congenial, preg- 
 nant (L. praegnans, lit. producing beforehand, cf. Gr. yevvd<o) 
 progeny and progenitor (L. progenies, etc.). From L. inge- 
 nium comes, also, engine (It. ingegno, Fr. engin), referring, 
 like artillery, ir am. art, to the idea of the mechanical- talent 
 displayed. From gen., root of gignere, comes genus (Sk. jana-s, 
 for earlier form gana-s, Gr. yei/os, Gm. kind, and Eng. kin,- 
 hindred, kind, both noun and adj., akin, msmikin, and child), 
 and from L. genus come Eng. genus, genuine (L. genuinus, 
 lit. innate, natural), generic, general, generous (L. generosus, 
 lit. of noble birth, and by implication, of noble mind), generate, 
 degenerate, regenerate, gender (L. genus, Fr. gendre). L. gens 
 is, also, but a contraction of genus (cf. Sk. jati-s, a family), 
 from which are Eng. gentile (of another nation, to a Jew, than 
 a Jew), gentle and gentleman, and genteel (L. gentilis, lit. 
 belonging to a family of character). So, in French, gentle 
 and genteel are expressed by such words as hien ne, well 
 born ; de honne famille, of good family ; de bon genre, of a 
 good genus or kind. L. gener, son-in-law, is prob. connected 
 with Gr. ya/iySpos from •ya/ico), Sk. yam. 
 
 150. Gloria, glory, fame (Sk. gravasya, adj. renowned 
 from root 5ru ; Gr. kXeos, renown ; and also L. inclytus, Gr. 
 kX-utos, Sk. gruta-s). So, Sk. 5, in vingati, twenty, is represented 
 by Gr. k, and L. g and c : as Gr. eiKocn (Doric FiKari) and L. 
 viginti and vicies), glory, glorify (-fL. fio), and inglorious. 
 
 151. Gradi, gressus, to walk, to take a step (cf. Gm. 
 schreiten, which, as the paronym of L. gradi, indicates the loss 
 in it of a radical initial *. So ypa.<j>u) and scribo compare), 
 grade (L. gradus, Fr. grade), gradation, gradual (Fr. graduel), 
 graduate (Fr. graduer), degrade (Fr. degrader), and retro- 
 grade ; aggression (Fr. do., L. aggredi), congress (L. con- 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 423 
 
 gressus), digress, egress, ingredient, ingress, progress, regress, 
 transgress. Here too belongs degree (Fr. degre from L. di- 
 gredior). 
 
 152. Granum, grain, seed (Sk. gras, to devour, Gr. ypaio 
 and ypalvw, I devour, and ypda-TLs, Eng. grass. Cf. L. gramen, 
 grass, and Eng. graminivorous. Corssen however connects 
 L. granum with. Sk. ghar or gar, to scatter about : making it" 
 a case of metathesis, and comparing with it Goth, kaurn — 
 Eng. corn and dim. kemeC), grain, granulated, ingrain, gra- 
 nary, grange (Fi*. do., L. granea, sc. domus, Sp. granja), 
 granite, as being full of grains (It. granito,- Fr. granit), 
 pomegranate (L. pomum granatum, an apple full of grains), 
 garnet (Sp. granate, It. granato, Fr. grenat), grenade (Fr. do.), 
 and grenadier (the grenade being so called from the little 
 balls within it full of powder, and a grenadier being lit. one 
 who throws grenades). 
 
 153. Gratus, pleasiag, agreeable (Sk, hary&mi, I love or 
 desire, Gr. x"''P") I rejoice, for x«/"-<"j stem x°-Pj and x^pTos and 
 Xaptets), grateful, gratify, grace (L. gratia, Fr. gra.ce), gracious, 
 disgrace (lit. out of favor), gratis (L. do., for gratiis, lit. just 
 for mere thanks), ingrate, ingratitude, gratuitous (L. gratui- 
 tus, done for mere thanks), gratulate, congratulate. Here, 
 too, belong agree (It. aggradare, Sp. agradar, Fr. agr^er, 
 M. L. aggreare), agreeable (Fr. agr6able, Sp. agradable, It. ag- 
 gradevole). 
 
 154. Vpa.<t>o), I scratch, I write (cf. for form -yXat^co and 
 yXvcfua, I dig or hollow out, and L. scrobis, a ditch : see also 
 L. scribere), grave (Fr. graver) and engrave (Gm. graben) and 
 a grave (as being scooped out). Cf. also Lith.^ grabas, a 
 sepulchre. Here belong too graphic, graphite, biography 
 (+Gr. )3to?, life), geography (+y^, the earth), paragraph 
 (Gr. irapaypatjiri), telegraph (+Gr. tc'Xos, the end), typography 
 (+ Gr. TuVos, a blow, stamp, etc.) and so with caligraphy 
 (+Gr. KaXos, beautiful), lithography (-j-Xi^os, a stone), ethno- 
 graphy (+Gr. tOyo's, a nation), etc. Here belong too gram- 
 mar {Gr.y pajxixa, a letter, etc.), anagram, diagram,program,me 
 (Fr. do.). 
 
 155. Gravis, e, heavy, for garuis, for orig. gvaru-is (Sk. 
 
424 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 guru-s, hard, Gr. /Japus : see L. barca), grave (adj.), gravity, 
 gravitate, aggravate^ grief (L. gravis, It. greve (adj.), Fr. grief, 
 a noun), referring in its etymology YO&Si pensiveness (see pen- 
 dere, to hang) to the physical heaviness induced by it. 
 
 156. Greifen, griff, etc. (German), to grasp (Sk. grab, and 
 Vedic grabh and gribh, to seize, and Gr. ypiTri'^a)), gripe, grip, 
 grab, grapple, grape (viewed as being in clusters). Cf. It. 
 grappa, the stem of fruits, grappare, to grapple, grappo, a 
 bunch of grapes, and graspo, do., from which Eng. grasp. 
 
 157. Grex, a flock (cf. Gr. yapyapa, heaps, etc, and Sk. 
 griha-s, a house, a great multitude), aggregate, congregate, 
 egregious (L. egregius, lit. picked out of the flock), segregate 
 (L. segregare). 
 
 H. 
 
 158. Habere, habitum, to have, hold, or keep (cf. Sk. kshap- 
 ayS,mi, from kshi, to inhabit : cf , for sense, L. possidere, 
 whether=potis+sedere, or pro+sedere; habere is probably 
 allied with capere, to take, seize, hold ; cf. Goth, ha^an, to 
 take up, and haban, to have, as their similars, both for sense 
 and origin; cf Gr. /cairro) and /caTn;, etc.), have (Gm. haben), 
 iehave (i. e. one's self, like Gr. Ixeiv, in the sense of to be ; lit. 
 to have one's self), habit (a cloak, as having it on) and habit 
 (a custom, as having it permanently in one's life ; cf. custom 
 and costume, from L. consuetudo, stem consuetudin. So in- 
 dustry is from L. induo, I wear), able (L. habilis, Fr. habile, 
 M. L. abilis), disable, inability, inhabit (L. habitare, sc. se ; 
 lit. to have one's self much in any place), exhibit, inhibit, 
 prohibit, rehabilitate. From this same root come debit and 
 debt (from debere = dehibere, lit. to have from another, and 
 so to owe to him), debenture and indenture (cont. form of 
 same), devoirs (Fr. devoir, to owe, part. d4), and due and 
 duty, debility (L. debDis for dehabilis), opprobrium (L. do. == 
 ob+probrum, for prohibrum), avoirdupois (Fr. do., lit. to 
 have, avoir, some weight, du pois). From L. praebere, to 
 profier, or furnish (prae+habere) comes Eng. prebend (It. pre- 
 benda, Fr. prebende). Of for sense also habena, a rein, from 
 L. habere, with Eng. halter from root of Gm. halten, to hold. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 425 
 
 159. Haerere, haesum, to have, hold, or stick fast to (Sk. 
 hri and bar, to seize, to acquire ; Gr. alpiw, I grasp, from 
 which comes a'peo-is, from which Eng. heresy, lit. a separate 
 individual choice or course, which in an age when " private 
 judgment " was condemned hy an " infallible church " got 
 upon it the intensest smell of the " odium theologicum " ; 
 of. dypecD and also x^ip. and Old L. hir, the hand, and L. herus, 
 a master, of same probable origin, and L. -prehendo), adhere, 
 adhesive, cohere, inherent, hesitate (lit. to stick much). 
 
 160. Halten, hielt, gehalten (Gm.), to hold, halt, halter, 
 hUt (the part of the sword for holding), hold, holder. 
 
 161. Heben, hob, gehoben (Gm.), to throw, to lift up on 
 high; heave, heft, heaven (as being heaved or lifted above 
 one : the L. coelam, Eng. celestial, Gr. koiXos, refers to the 
 sky as a concave vault), hoof (Gm. huf), as being raised in 
 walking, and hop (Gm. hiipfen). 
 
 162. Homo, stem homin, man (of uncertain origin). From 
 homo comes L. humanus (cf. Old L. forms of them, hemo and 
 hemonus), human, humane (lit. acting like a human being : 
 cf. for sense L. generosus, lit. belonging to the same genus, 
 and Eng. land, as belonging to the human kind), inhuman 
 and homage (M. L. homagium, Pr. hommage, -It. omaggio). 
 
 163. Hora, a limited period of each day (<5pa; cf. opos, a 
 a limit, and opi^<o, I separate from, as a boundary, Eng. hori- 
 zon: cf. Sk. vitra-s, time), hour (Fr. heure : cf. Fr. bonheur, 
 happiness, lit. a good hour, and malheur, misfortune ; and 
 
 " also Fr. alors, then = ad illam horam, and encore = ad banc 
 horara, and also Gm. uhr, a watch *), horologe (L. horologium) 
 and horoscope (+Gr. o-KOTreo)). 
 
 164. Hortus, a garden, lit. an enclosure (Sk. garhan, Gr, 
 XopTos, with which cf. L. chors and cohors, a court and a 
 cohort, which were numbered originally by being packed 
 within a given enclosure so as to fill it), court (It. corte, Fr. 
 cour), courtier, courtly, courteous and courtesy (Fr. courtois, 
 
 * The word for watch is in French montre, from montrer, to show (L. 
 monstrare) ; in Italian oriulo and orologio (L. horologium) and in Spanish 
 reloj. The word watch represents a time-piece, aa a sentinel of the passing 
 hours. 
 
426 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 It. cortesia), courtezan (Sp. cortesan Fr. courtesan), and 
 cortege (Fr. do., It. corteggio), also garden (Gm. garten, It. 
 giardino, Fr. jardin), and yard (cf. for correspondence be- 
 tween Gm. garten and ya/rd, also Gm. gestern and yesterday) 
 and horticulture (L. hortus+colo). Meyer (I. 352) connects 
 L. cohors with Gr. x"p, as also found in eixepiQ's, easily managed, 
 L. heres, an heir ; Sk. stem har or hri, as found in Sk. sama- 
 hrita united. The syllable co in L. cohors is in such a view the 
 prep, con or cum. 
 
 165. Hospes, stem hospit, a guest and a host : primarily, 
 a stranger, in which sense L. hostis (secondarily, a public 
 enemy) unites with it. Gm. gast, Eng. gtcest is the Teutonic 
 paronym of L. hostis and is plainly connected with Sk. ghas, 
 to eat. From hostis come Eng, hostile and host (viewed as 
 a warlike army). From L. hospes comes host (the entertainer 
 of a guest), hospitable, hospital (Sp. do., Fr. h6pital=L.hospi- 
 talis, sc. domus), hotel (Fr. hotel for orig. hostel, from L. hos- 
 pitalis). The Romanic equivalents of L. hostis are It. oste, 
 Sp. hueste, Old Fr. ost and Wal. oaste ; and Fr. bote (cont. 
 from hoste, previously hospte). 
 
 166. Humus, for homos, the ground (Gr. x"/^"4 on the 
 ground and xa/^aSts, to the ground : cf. Sk. kshama, the earth), 
 humus. Here belongs L. humilis, low, humble, etc. (Gr. 
 Xaju,»/Xds and )(6afiaX6is, low, etc.), humiliate, humhle. 
 
 I, J. 
 
 16 '7. In, into (orig. endo and indu, Sk. antar, within, 
 Gr. o'Sov, ivl, eU, for eVrs and cn-os, within), in, into, within. 
 From intra, for intera (comp. form) sc. parte (cf. contra, 
 extra, etc., for form), come interior (L. do.) and intimate 
 (L. intimus, Sk. antara-s and antama-s), intestine^ internal, 
 intrinsic, enter (L. intro, intrare ; cf. with the ending -tro, 
 -trare of this verb, Sk. tar and tri, to pass on or to). 
 
 168. Induere, indutum, to put on (Gr. Bvvw and Bvw, I get 
 into, as clothes, and so put on : cf. eicrSu'u) and IkSuw), endue 
 (Fr. enduire), industry (viewed as a habit and clothing one, 
 as the word habit itself is interchangeably used for a custom 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 427 
 
 and a garment. So in Scripture we read " zeal hath covered 
 me as a cloak"). 
 
 169. Ire, itum, to go (Sk. i, to go, Gi. et/ii, stem t redu- 
 plicated. In eo, is, it and so passive form itur, we have con- 
 tract forms for ei-s, ei-t, and ei-tur), itinerant (L. iter, a jour- 
 ney), itinerary, iterative, reiterate, ambition (lit. going around, 
 as a candidate), circuit {circum+), coition, exit, initial and 
 initiate (L. initiari), obituary (L. obitus, a departure), pmsA* 
 and peril (L. perire, lit. to go .through and out, as in a circle, 
 and L. periculum, dim.), praetor (L. do.=:prae+itor), and^ae- 
 torian ; preterite (L. praeteritus, lit. passed hy), sudden (Fr. / 
 soudain, L. suhitaneus), transit, and transitory. From am-1 
 hire, to go around or about, comes L. ambulare (c£ L. postu- 
 lare from poscere, and ustulare from urere), and from this 
 come amble, ambulatory, preamble (M. L. praeambula), and 
 perambulate, and ambulance (because the horses that draw it 
 walk). From L. ambulare comes Fr. aller, and from this^ 
 alley (of. for sense, gangway, from Gm. gehen, to go). Several ' 
 Latin sufiBxes, with their English correspondents, radicate 
 also in the Latin stem i of ire, to go : as es, itis — as L. 
 comes, a companion (= L. cum+ire), Eng. count (=comes 
 belli), and constoSfe '(= comes stabuli; It. contestabile, Sp. 
 condestable, Fr. connetable), aowiomitant also belongs here ; 
 -itio(n) — as in editio (Eng. edition ; iter — as in L. breviter, 
 Eng. briefly ; and itus — as in divinitus, etc. Here too belongs 
 Eng. com/mence (Fr. commencer, It. cominciare, Sp. comenzar) , 
 from L. cum+initiare. a 
 
 170. Is, ea, id, he, she, it (cf., as Curtius suggests, Sk. ya-s, 
 ya-t, who, which, what : Gr. os, ■^, o adj., Lith. jis, he, ji, she. 
 Cf with Sk. ya-s, for form, the gunated L. forms ea and eum), 
 it. From L. idem (= is+dem : cf. qui-dem) formed from is, 
 come identical (cf. for form L. identidem = i-dem redup. 
 
 * It is worth the while to compare here the other words in Latin used to 
 denote destruction. Exitium, hoinv exire, means to go forth or away: <Ze- 
 structio is lit. the taking down of a heap, as constructio, its opposite, is lit. 
 the gathering together of a heap : interiius (= inter-|-ire) is lit. to go among, 
 so as to be lost out of sight : obittts (Eng. obituary) is lit. a going to or down 
 as the stars set, etc. 
 
428 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 meaning ever and anon), identity and identify (Fr. iden- 
 tifier). 
 
 171. Jacere, jactum, to east or throw. Curtius is probably 
 right in considering the fundamental base of jacio to be the 
 verb i, to go, as m Sanskrit, expanded to ya and reduplicated 
 (as in Gr. iij/ii, I send, from same lengthened stem, for yi-ya. 
 mi) and made causative in sense. Here belong Eng. abject 
 (lit. cast away), adjective, conjecture, dejected, eject, inject, inter, 
 jection, dbject and objict, project and project and projectile, re- 
 ject, subject, ejaculate, jet (Fr. jeter, L. jactare, freq. form 
 of jacere, It. gettare, Sp. jitar) ; and perhaps javelin (L. ja- 
 culum, Fr. javeline). 
 
 172. Jocus, a jest, a joke (perhaps for djocus, and so cor- 
 relate with Sk. div, to play, Lith. jukas, a jest), joke, jocose, 
 
 I jocund, jocular, juggle (L. jocnlari, Gm. ga.ukeln),jeud'esprit 
 (an anglicized French phrase), jeu being for L. jocus, like Fr. 
 feu for focus. 
 
 173. Jungere, junctum, to join (Sk. yuj, yunj, and yunaj, 
 to bind together, Gr. ^evywfu, I join, simple stem t,vy, as in 
 ^[ijyov and ^uyoo)), juncture," join (Fr. joindre, part, joint), 
 joiner and joint, adjoin, adjunct, conjoin (Fr. conjoindre), 
 conjunction, disjoin, enjoin, injunction, rejoinder, subjoin, 
 subjunctive. From jugum, of which jungere is but a strength- 
 ened form, come conjugal, conjugate (L. conjux), yoke (Sk. 
 
 I yugam, equal, Gi*. ivyov, L. jugum, Gm. joch, Lith. jungas), 
 yeoman. Here belong also L. juxta, near by (for jugsta, for 
 jug-is-ta), and Eng. just (adv.), adjust (M. L. adjuxtare, Fr. 
 ajuster, cf. also ajouter). 
 
 174. Jus, juris, law, right, is probably a derivative from 
 the same root with Sk. yu, to bind, oblige, etc. Jubere, 
 jussum (for jubsum and this for jubtum) to order and ordain, 
 etc., is doubtless a compound of jus and habere (cf. for form 
 L. debei-e and praebere, for earlier forms de-hibere and prae- 
 hibere) : the order in its changes of form having been these, 
 jushibere, jusbere, jubere), just (L. Justus), unjust, injure 
 (L. injuria = in jus, contrary to right, which in the word jus 
 is viewed as statutory in its nature ; as in their very etymo- 
 logy law, right, fate, are all viewed as matters of formal ap- 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 429 
 
 pointment), justice, justiciary, jury, jv/ridioal, jurisdiction, 
 jurisconsult, and also abjure, adjure, conjure, perjure (for the 
 degenerate L. forms pejero and dejero for per-juro, etc., c£ 
 for form — the changes being juro, jiro, jero — L. cognitus from 
 con+(g)notus),^*M(?<)'e (L. judex =jus-(-dicere), audi judgment 
 and adjudicate, objurgation (L. objnrgare = ob+jurgo = jus 
 •l-ago, like purgo = purum+ago). 
 
 175. Juvare, jutum, to delight (subjectively), and (ob- 
 jectively) to assist, adjutant and aid (It. ajutare and aitare, 
 Sp. ayudar, Fr. aider). 
 
 K. 
 
 176. Kaici), for KaJFojat, Kautro), I bum, caustio, encaustic, 
 ink (L. encaustum, lit. burned in, It. inehiostro, Fr. encre), 
 inkling, holocaust (+Grr. oXos, the whole). 
 
 177. Kneifen and kneipen (Gm.), to press, squeeze, or 
 force, knife (Ags. cnif, Gm. kneif, Fr. canif), nib, nip (Gin. 
 nippen), nibble, sniff. 
 
 178. KoiXos, hollow (of. Sk. kal, to be hollow, to resound. 
 Corssen, however, ingeniously regards L. caelum as for ca- 
 villum from root sku, to cover, as in Sanskrit ; and compares, 
 for correspondence of derivation in such a case, Gr. mpavoi 
 with Sk. var, to cover, and Sk. Varunas, the god. of heaven). 
 From same root with kolXo^ are L. coelum, heaven (lit. the con- 
 cave overhead, cf. also L. superc^ZiMm, Eng. supercilious), 
 Eng. celestial, and L. caelare, to engrave or hollow out with 
 art, Eng. ceiling (Sp. cielo). The ,Gm. hohl, hollow, is of the i 
 same radication with Gr. koiXos and L. coelum, from which , 
 come Eng. hoUow, hole, hell (Gm. holle, a pit), or, " the pit." 
 Holland is also the hollow land ; cf. word Netherlands. 
 
 179. KoXiros, a bosom lap, etc., It. golfo, Eng. gulf. For 
 interchange of vowels o and u, cf Eng. gorge (Fr. do.) with 
 its L. paronym gurges. 
 
 180. Km/xt;, a village [as being inhabited; probably con- 
 nected with Kft/iot, I am quiet or at ease, and Koifjidto, I put 
 to sleep, cf. also Ku/iS/iat, I fall to sleep ; Sk. §i, to i lie down, 
 or rest. Cf. with Kci/iiy, Lith. kemas and kaimas, a court, a 
 village. For correspondence in analytic sense, cf. L. vicus, a 
 
430 A. SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 village, with its etymological homoionym oIkLo). See L. quies 
 
 of same radication. From kw/^ij comes probably kS/ios, a 
 \ village festivity or merrymaking, from which are KinfjuaSia, 
 , a comedy (lit. a village song), and iyKd/jnov, a laudatory ode, 
 I at a Bacchic festival, Eng. encomium. Meyer, however, 
 
 connects k5/xos, with L. comis (Eng. com,ity), with Sk. kam, to 
 j love. See L. amare for (k)amare]. Here, too, belong 
 i probably Goth, haims, Gm. heim, Ags. ham), Eng. home 
 
 and hamlet, Fr. hameau (viewed etymologically as places 
 
 of repose). 
 
 181. Lacere, to draw, entice, or aUure (cf. Gr. IXku for 
 J'eA.KO), I draw, Lith. velku : — so that lacio is for (v)lacio), 
 aUective (L. allicere), delicious (L. deliciae), delectable (L. de- 
 lectare), delicate, elicit, and perhaps solicit and solicitous (so, 
 in "such a case, being the insep. prep, se, apart). From lacere 
 comes L. lacessere, to excite or provoke, for lacesjere, like 
 capesso and facesso for capesjo and facesjo (cf. rao-o-o) and 
 /3d\X(i), for rayjoy and ySoX/o), for form). 
 
 182. Lacus, a hollow, a basin, a lake (Gr. Xoikkos and Xaxos, 
 a hollow or hole. Cf. Aoki's, a rent. Cf L. lacer, torn, and 
 lacerare, Eng. lacerate. Since I and r are quite interchange- 
 able in different languages, Gr. paKos, Eng; rag, should be 
 compared here : as, also Sk. vragch, to tear. L. lacus, thus, for 
 (v)lacus would mean lit. a rent : cf for sense L. fores, etc.), 
 lake (It. laco and lago. Cf also lacca, a ditch), lagoon (L. la- 
 cuna, a ditch, etc.). 
 
 183. Lambere, to lick or lap : lambent, lamprey (It. 1am- 
 preda, Fr. lamproie from M. L. lampetra = lambere+petra), 
 named from the habit of sticking closely with his mouth to 
 the rocks. 
 
 1 84. Lampas, a torch, brightness (Gr. Xa/iiras, Xa/iTro), etc. 
 Cf. '0-Xu/x.7ros, and L, limpidus, Eng. limpid), lamp (Gm. lampe). 
 Here belongs prob. L. lanterna, for lampterna, Eng. lantern. 
 
 185. Lancea, a spear (Gr. ^^yxri, a spear, and a spear-head :> 
 cf Xayya^o) and L. longus), lance, lancet. Whether L. lanx, 
 the scale of a balance, is abbreviated from L, lancea, or, as 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGT. 431 
 
 Pott thinks, is connected with Gr. irXdi, flatness, and wXaicoIs, 
 flat, L. planca, and planus, etc., is uncertain. From L- bilaux 
 comes Eng. balance (It. bilancia, Sp. balanza, Er, balance). 
 Here belongs Eng. launch (Fr. s'elancer). 
 
 -186. Aaos (orig. prob. XajPos), the people: laiti/, luteal, 
 liturgy {XeiTovfyyta = XeiTos, public, and epyov, work or service). 
 Lewd prob. belongs here (cf. Gm. luder, lewdness, and Gm. 
 leute, the people, as also Lettic laudis, do.) Cf. for sense, 
 Eng. vulgar and L. vulgus, the common people. 
 
 IS*?. Latere, to be concealed (Gr. Xav^avw, pure stem Xa^, 
 nasalized : cf. Gr. dAij^jj?, true, lit. without concealment), latent, 
 Lethe (Gr. do.). 
 
 188. Latus, broad, for (p)latu8 [Sk. pratha-s, breadth, Gr. 
 TrXai-Js and Lith. platus, broad, Gm. platt, from which come 
 Eng. plat and plate (It. piatto, Fr. plat),^Zate, or silver (Sp. 
 plata), platitude, platform, flat, blade, Gm. blatt, a leaf, as 
 being flat, bladder ; cf. also Gr. irXaf, anything broad, M. L. 
 planca, Gm. planke, Fr. planche, Eng. plank, and Gr. rrXaKovs, 
 L. placenta, Eng. placenta. With Sk. pratha-s, cf. also Goth, 
 braids, Gm. breit, Eng. broad and breadth'], latitude, oblate 
 (not from L. offerre, sup. oblatum, but ob+latus). For corres- 
 pondence of latus and irka.Tv<s, cf. L. lavare, to wash, and Sk. 
 plavaya. From L. platea, a broad way (Gr. ■jrXaTeta, so. oSos), 
 comes Eng. pl<ice (Sp. plaza, Fr. place), and also piazza (It. 
 do.). Of same origin with irXaru's is wXaravos, the plane-%vQ& 
 a,nd plantain, and also irXao-<r<o, I model or form, Eng. plastic, 
 and ifx,irk(uTrpov, a plaster, as being daubed or spread over, 
 from e/ijrXao-o-u), I daub over (Sp. emplasto, Fr. emplatre). 
 
 189. Lavare, lautum, and lotum, to wash (Gr. Xovw, I wash, 
 for \aFu> : cf. Xovrpov, a bath, orig. \6Ferpov, and \vp.a. and 
 Xv&pov), lave, lotion, lavender (It. lavanda, Fr. lavende), lit. 
 water specially good for washing one's self with, being per- 
 fumed : diluvial, deluge (L. diluvium = dis-f lavare, to wash 
 far and wide), pollute (L. pollutus, for orig. prolutus, lit. 
 washed off or forth : referring to the filth or suds removed. 
 Cf. for form L. polliceri for proliceri). Here too belong lava 
 (It. lava) because flowing like a stream, and lavish (It. lavare, 
 to squander), lit. to pour forth, as water. Of same origin with 
 
432 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 lavare is L. luere, to wash, from which comes L. lustrum, a 
 purification, Eng. lustration. 
 
 190. Laxus, wide, loose, open ; and laxare, to open, un- 
 loose, slacken (cf. also L. languere, Eng. languor, etc.), Eng. 
 
 ■ lax, laxity, relax, lease (L. laxare. It. lasciare, Fr. laisser), 
 release, let (Gm. lassen), lash (Fr. laisse), viewed as hanging 
 loose. Here belongs alas 1 (Fr. helas. It. ahi lasso, lit. " ah 
 weary or sad," sc. "me.") 
 
 191. Legere, lectum (Gr. Xeyo), from which Eng. dialect 
 and dialectics, Gr. StaXeKTos). Both words agree in the same 
 fundamental sense, viz. to pick out or up. The Gr. Xeyu often 
 means I say, and the L. lego, I read (the figure in each case 
 being that of picking up with the eye or voice the letters and 
 sounds of words), legend (lit. sometliing worthy to be read, 
 Fr. legende, L. legenda), legible, lecture, lesson (L. lectio, Fr. 
 leqon), collect, delight (h. delectus), elect, eligible, elite (Fr. 
 do.), recollect, select, diligent (L. diligere = dls-flegere, lit. to 
 choose a thing apart or by itself; cf. for sense study, from 
 studium, zeal), and delight (L. diligere, as above) ; eilegant 
 (lit. picked out from others. For change of conjugation, cf. 
 educate, from educere, to lead out or away from) ; intelligent 
 (= L. inter+legere, lit. to pick up from among, or, select, 
 and so, to discern ; cf for sense, discrimination) / negligent 
 (= nec+legere, not to pick up, or to be inattentive) ; religion 
 (L. religio, lit. reading over and over again, or pondering, L e. 
 the things of the gods ; cf. for sense superstitio, lit. the stand- 
 ing over a thing inquiringly) ; legion (lit. a selected band), 
 college (L. collegium, an assembly). Here also belongs cull 
 (Fr. cueillir, L. coUigere). From legere comes legare, 
 as an intensive form of it, meaning to choose, appoint, 
 or send out, i. e. as deputy or ambassador ; and from legare 
 come legation, legatee, legacy, allegation and aUege (Fr. al- 
 leguer), colleague (collega), delegate, relegate. From legare 
 (to appoint),' come L. lex, law, and its derivatives legal, 
 legitimate, legislate, law, and loyal (It. lega, Sp. ley, Fr. loi, 
 cf. Pr. roi, a king, Eng. royal, from rex), disloyalty, aMoy 
 (Fr. aloi, M. L. allegium, lit. mixed according to law or stan- 
 dard requirement, i. e. ad legem; cf. for sense, ordnance, lit. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 433 
 
 guns made according to governmental requirements). From 
 Xiyio, the Gr. correspondent of legere, and Xoyos, its derivative, 
 come logic, analogue and analogy, apologue and apology, 
 dialogue, geology, prologue, phraseology, syllogism, theology, 
 teleology, etc., etc. From L. lectus, a couch, a nominal deri- 
 vative of legere, to gather up, comes L. lectica (a diminutive), 
 and from this Eng. litter thi-ough M. L. lectaria (for lecticaria), j 
 It. lettiera, Sp. litefa, Fr. litiere (lit. something for picking up I 
 and carrying one). 
 
 192. Levare, to lift up, and levis, light for le(g)vis: cf. for 
 form L. tenuis with Sk. tan, to extend (Sk. laghu-s, light, 
 Lith. lengvas, easy, Gr. eXa^^u's, e being euphonic : cf. for form 
 L. hrevis for orig. bregvis and Gr. fipaxys:), lever, leaven (Fr^i 
 levain, from lever, to raise), levee (Fr. do.), lift, levity, alle-* 
 viate (M. L. alleviare, from L. levis, light), relieve (Fr. relever 
 and relief), bas-relief, elevate (L. elevare), aloft, aloof, loft, 
 and lofty (Gm. luft, luften, etc.). Here, too, belong sublime 
 (L. sublimis, contracted from sublevamis), the Levant (Fr. se J 
 levant, part, of se lever, sc. le soleil ; cf. oriens, sc. sol, Eng. 
 orient), and the adj. light (Gm. leicht, Gr. eXa^vs, etc.). 
 
 193. Libet and lubet, it is pleasing (Sk. lubh for earlier 
 rubh, to desire, and lubdha-s, desirous, Gr. XiTrro/iat, I am 
 eager for, Goth. Hub), libidinous (L. libido), love (Gm. lieben), ; 
 and lief (Gm. lieb). Cf. also, Gr. Xao), I wish, andX(3oTos| 
 (Gm. lust, desire, and Eng. lust, base desire). To this same 
 class of roots belongs L. liber, free (for liberus, archaic loebe- i 
 sus, Gr. eXeu^epos, € being euphonic, lit. having one's own way). I 
 From liber come liberty, liberate, liberal, libertine (lit. freeing 
 one's self from all restraint; cf. Liber, as a name for Bacchus), 
 livery (Fr. livr^e, from livrer, to deliver or give freely, because 
 given to servants without charge to them), deliver (Fr. de- 
 livrer, Sp. librar, M. L. liberare). The L. liberi, children (Gr. 
 iXevOepoi), means lit. free persons, i. e. neither slaves nor citi- 
 zens, but free. 
 
 194. Libra, a pound: lb, libration, level (L. libella. It. li- v 
 vella), equilibrium (+L. aequus), librate (L. librare), and de- 
 liberate (L. deliberare, to weigh in one's mind). Cf!, for sense, 
 ponder, from pendere, to weigh. 
 
 Vol. II.— 28 
 
434 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 195. Licet, it is permitted or allowed (of same radication 
 with linqaere which see : cf. L. polliceor, I promise, for proli- 
 ceor)-, license, licentiate, licentious, illicit, leisure (Fr. loisir : 
 cf. for form Fr. plaisir, pleasure, from L. placere), which is 
 thus etymologically self-license, or freedom of feeling as to 
 personal toil. 
 
 196. Ligare, to bind (Sk. ling, to bend, to embrace: cf 
 also lag, to cleave to. Here belong Ags. laecan, to take, to 
 lay hold of, and Eng. leech, Ags. laece ; cf. also with Sk. ling 
 and lag, Gr. Auyos, a pliant rod, Lith. lugnas, pUant, and Gr. 
 Xvyitfii, I bend, or twist, etc.), ligature, ligament, alligation, 
 atty and alliance (Fr. Her and allier, from L. ligare and alli- 
 gare), lien (Fr. do., L. ligamentum), allegiance (M. L. alle- 
 giantia), olilige (L. obligare), rely (Fr. lier and relier, L. reli- 
 gare, to bind one!s self back to or upon), liege (Fr. lige). 
 
 ' Here belong, also, league (Fr. ligue) and colleague. With 
 L. ligare is to be connected of course also L. lictor for ligtoi-. 
 The Ags. lician (Eng. to like) seems also to belong here. 
 
 197. Linere, levi, and livi, litum, to daub, anoint, smear 
 (Sk. limpami, I anoint, stem lip ; Lith. limpu, I anoint, infin. 
 lipti, to glue, or stick ; Gr. aXd<ftut, I daub, a here being pros- 
 
 I thetic, cf. XtTras, fat, oil), liniment, letter (L. littera for linitera, 
 I from being made in wax by the stylus : Leo Meyer, however, 
 
 regards littera as being for lictera, from same root with Sk. 
 
 likh, to write), literary, literature, belles iettres (lit. fine letters 
 
 or writings), alliterative, obliterate. Cf. L. delere, Eng. delete, 
 
 as being of same origin. 
 
 198. Lingere, to lick, to lick up; cf. L. ligurire (Sk. lih, 
 for ligh, and rih, to lick, Gr. kii)(U), I lick, and Xi;(^ao), I am 
 
 ..dainty), licTc (It. leocare, Gm. leoken, Fr. lecher), relish (lit. to 
 f jlick up again). The L. lingua, the tongue, Archaic dingua 
 (from which come lingual and language (Fr. langue and Ian- 
 gage) is probably from Sk. dan§, Gr. ^a.Kv<a, cf. oSous, stem ohovr, 
 L. dens, stem dent, Sk. danta-s; and was afterwards harmo- 
 nized in form Ijy the Romans with lingere from its general 
 analogies with it, as if connected with it, while yet not at all 
 so. See § 35, p. 368. 
 
 199. Linquere, lictum, to leave, stem lie (Sk. rich; cf. for 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 435 
 
 correspondence of form, L. rumpere, ruptum, with Sk. lup 
 and lump, to break ; Gr. Xeiirto, stem Xitt ; Gm. erlauben and 
 glauben, for ge-lauben, to believe : cf. for form Gr. Xvkos and 
 L. lupus), leave, believe (lit. to leave with or to another), relin- 
 quish, relic, delinquent, derelict. So live (Gm. leben) and life 
 (Gm. leib) are probably of the same origin with leave. Cf. also, 
 Gm. bleiben, to remain, for beleiben. L. licet, it is permitted, 
 is of same radication. 
 
 200. Linum, flax, linen (Gr. Xivov and Xivios), linen, linseed, 
 lint, line and outline, lineage, linear, lineal, lineament (L. li- 
 neamentum), lining, delineate. 
 
 201. Locus, a place, archaic stlocus (cf. for form, L. lis, 
 strife, archaic stlis). It is probably connected with the same 
 ultimate root with Gr. crriWut, I place or put (cf. also Gm. 
 stellen). Here belong locate, locality, locomotion, collocate, 
 dislocate; lodge (Fi-. loger, L. locare, sc. se: cf. Fr. juger and 
 L. judicare) and dislodge; lieu (Fr. do. : cf. for form Fr. feu 
 and pen from L. focus and paucus), and lieutenant (Fr. do. = 
 heu-|- tenant, lit. holding the place of) ; loan (L. locare, Fr. 
 louer) ; couch (Fr. coucher. It. colcare, L. coUocare, sc. se : 
 for sense, cf. L. componere membra), and accoucJiement 
 (Fr. do.) ; allow (Fr. aUouer = L. ad+locare). L. lucrum, 
 gain (Eng. lucre and lucrative), sometimes placed here, seems 
 rather to be connected with Gr. a-rro-Xavuv, to enjoy, and kiuv, 
 to be profitable, as in Xen. Anab. Book III. Ch. iv. § 36, and 
 \vcriT€\a.v (+re\ea)) : cf. Goth, laun and Gm. lohn. 
 
 202. Longus, long, perhaps, as Kuhi>, Meyer, and others 
 have thought, for earlier (d)Iongus (to be compared, in such 
 a view, with Sk. dirgha-s, Gr. SoXtxo^j Old Pers. daraga, 
 Zend daregha), long, longitude, longevity (+ aevum), 
 elongate, oblong, prolong, lounge (Fr. longer, to move idly 
 about), loin and surloin (Fr. longe and surlonge). Loiter is 
 doubtless also from L. longus (Fr. loin), representing such a 
 Latin word as longitare, to make long about anything. Of 
 same root with L. longus is Gr. Xayya^w (in Aeschylus, Xoyya^co), 
 I slacken, and Aayycui/, a loiterer, from which come Eng. lag 
 (Goth. laggs), and perhaps, slack (Gm. schlackern), and also 
 lank (Gm. lang, long), and languor, languish (L. languere). 
 
436 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 203. Loqui, looutus, to speak (Sk. lap, Gr. Xda-Keiv and 
 XaKctv and XrJKuv, to speak, etc.), allocution, circumlocution, 
 colloquy/, interlocutor, obloquy, eloquence (i. e. e corde). 
 
 204. Ludere, lusum, to play (prob. for earlier loidere, for 
 orig. cloidere or croidere, like for form L. mclytus, compared 
 with Sk. §ru, which see under L. gloria. The Sk. equivalent 
 would then be krid, to laugh : cf. krlda and kridana, play, 
 spoi-t. Cf., for vowel-changes, L. unus and coxamunis, and 
 uti, for earlier oinus, etc., and oitier), ludicrous, lusory, aJlude, 
 collusion, delude, elude, illusion, interlude, prelude, prolusion. 
 
 205. Lucre, to wash, to lave, see L. lavare, to wash, with 
 which L. lucre is immediately connected as a shorter form of 
 the same root (Sk. plu, Gr. Xovu, I wash, kvdpov, a stream, and 
 Xovrpov, a bath ; cf. L. pluere for plovere, as of same radica- 
 tion), alluvial (L. alluvio), diluvial, and deluge (L. diluvies, 
 Fr. deluge) ; pollute (L. poUutus, for prolutus, washed off or 
 away, like poUiceri, for proliceri, referring to the filth itself 
 removed), and lustration (L. lustrum, a purification, lit. made 
 clean, by washing : the idea of purification being in all nations 
 connected with either fire or water) ; and illustrious (L. il- 
 lustris for inlustris), lit. clear, bright ; illustrate and lustre 
 (Fr. do.). 
 
 206. Lux, light (Sk. ruch, to shine ; cf. Lith. laukas, white, 
 and Gr. Xeukos, bright, and Av^vos, a lamp), lucid, elucidate 
 (Fr. elucider), pellucid (L. pellucidus = perlucidus), trans- 
 lucent, lucifer (-ffero), lucubrations (L. lucubrare, lit. to com- 
 pose by lamplight), luminary, luminous and illuminate (L. 
 lumen for lucmen), sublunary, lunatic, and loon (luna for 
 lucna), light (L. lux, Gm. licht ; cf. Gr. vv^, L. nox, Gm. nacht, 
 and Eng. night, for correspondence of form). Cf. here also 
 Gr. Xewo-oD, for orig. XevMia, Sk. 16k, to see, Gm. lugen, Eng. 
 loolc, and lo (for correspondence of which in abb. form, as well 
 as in sense, cf. L. oculus and ecce), cf also Xaw, I see, and 
 Xa/X7rds, Eng. lamp. 
 
 M. 
 
 207. Machinari, to make or contrive (Sk. mah, to prepare, 
 and magh, to practise, Gr. \i.yy)(a.va.o^i.a.t), machination, machine 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 437 
 
 (L. machina), mechanic, make (Gm. machen), and perhaps 
 mcison (Fr. ma^on, M. L. macio). 
 
 208. Magaus, great [Sk. mahat, for maghat, great, Gr. 
 ^eyas, with sup. of which, /ieytoros, cf. Gm. meist and Eng. 
 most ; and with /Jbeydhfj, fern, form of /te'yas, cf. Gm. michel, 
 Ei)g. mickle. Cf. also with magnus and /*eyas, L. mactus, 
 increased, etc., and matnrus, for macturus, Eng. mature. The 
 various orig. root-forms of the different correlate words here 
 adduced, and of others like them, are, on a rising scale for 
 strength, mak, mag, and magh (for which also mah)], magnate, 
 magnitude, magnify, magistrate, magisterial (L. magister), 
 majesty (L. majestas), master and mister (L. magister, Sp. 
 maestro and maestro, Fr. maitre for previous ma'istre, Gm. 
 meister). From major (comp., for mag-ior, for orig. mag-ios ; 
 Sk. mahiyans ; Gr. /xei'^uv for earlier /iei^ovs) come major, 
 mayor,{8-p.major, greater, Fr. maire), and from sup. maximus, 
 Eng. maxim (lit. very great or important truths). So Eng. I 
 merino from Sp. do. is but M. L. majorinus from major. L.* 
 adv. magis, more (Fr. mais, hut) is but a cont. form of orig. 
 neut. comp. magius, now majus. 
 
 209. Mains, evil (Sk. mala-s, filth ; cf. Sk. malina-s, dirty, 
 black, malishta-s, very foul, and mal^k4, a bad woman), 
 malice, malignant (cf. benignant, from L. bonus), malady 
 (Fr. maladie, It. malattia), malaria, m,alefactor, malevolent, 
 m,alcontent, malfeasance (Fr. faire, from L. facere, part, 
 faisant), malapropos (Fr. do = L. male ad propositum), mal- 
 treatment and malpractice. 
 
 210. Manere, mansum, to remain (Gr. y^ivus, I remain : /^aoi 
 which expresses continuity of effort or desire, is probably 
 connected with the same ultimate root), manse and mansion, 7- 
 permanent and remain, and remnant. 
 
 211. Man us, the hand (prob. connected with Sk. m&, to 
 measure, referring to the hand, as the mode of man's trying 
 things, and operating liis will upon them ; cf. Gr. /xdipr;, the 
 hand, ci/ua/Diys, easy of hand, and also ya.via.KtY;, an armlet ; 
 c". also L. immanis, huge, i. e. beyond the measure of the - 
 hand), m.anual, maruicle (cf. fetters and feet for form of con- 
 nection), manage (+L. agere), maniple (L. maaipulns, like 
 
438 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 discipulus, from discere), and manipulate, manifest (for 
 festus, cum manu : see Fendere — No. 121, Synopsis), em,an- 
 cipate (= e manu capere), manumit (= e manu mittere), 
 m,aintain (Fr. maintenir, It. mantenere = L. manu tenere), 
 
 • legerdemain (Fr. do., for legerte de main. Leger, adj., is the 
 ^^ L. alaoer, It. allegro),- am,anuensis, m,anoeuvre (Fr. do. = L. 
 
 m.anus+ opera, cf. Sp. maniobrar, to work with the hands), 
 m,anufacture (+L. facere), manuscript (-fscribere), to ma- 
 nure (Norman mainoverer, to manure =: Fr. manoeuvrer, 
 refen-ing to the labor of doing it. So in Spanish to manure 
 a field, is expressed by " labrar la tierra,'' to work the ground. 
 The noun manure is derived from the verb), mandate (L. 
 mandare = in manu dare), command (Fr. commander = L. 
 con+manus+dare), demand (= de+mandare), remand and 
 comm.end (L. commendare) and reconvmend. 
 , From L. manus, through the form manarius, handy, comes 
 I lalso Eng. manner (from It. maniero, well-trained, or handled, 
 Sp. manero, tamed. Cf. for sense L. mansuetus, tame, Ut. ac- 
 customed to the hand. From the It. adj. maniero, above, 
 comes It. noun maniera, manner, fashion, etc. C£ Sp. manera, 
 Fr. manifere, Eng. mann&r and manners^ 
 
 From L. manus also comes L. mantele, a towel, and man- 
 telum, a cloak (as covering the hands). From L. mantelum 
 come Eng. mantle (It. mantello), mantua-Toaaker (Fr. manteau) 
 and m,antilla (Sp. do.). 
 
 212. Mater, a mother (Sk. m^t&, for orig. m^tar, lit. a 
 bringer forth, Gr. /aijtj^p ; cf. also fx.ola, good mother, Lith. 
 moti), maternal, matrieidate, m,atron (cf. patron from pater), 
 matrimony (L. matrimoniuni), m,other (Gm. mutter), m,atter 
 
 I (L. materies ; cf. Sk. mS,tras, a substance), material, matrix 
 \ (L. do.), mare (L. mater, Fr. mere ; of dam, also applied to 
 
 • animals, for style of formation, L. domina, Fr. dame; and 
 / with it, in respect to special appropriation, also pup and puppy 
 
 from pupus, a young child). 
 
 213. Matta, a mat made of rushes ; m,at, mattrass (Gm. 
 matratze, 31. L. almatricium, al- being the Arabic article, as 
 
 \ in almanack, algebra, etc., Fr. matelas), mead and meadow 
 \ (viewed as a sort of natural matting of grass). 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 439 
 
 214. Mederi, to heal, lit. by taking care of: cf. L. curare, 
 to cure, from L. cnra, care (Gr. /j,eSo/iot, I attend to, and /iij- 
 So/uai, T intend), medicine (L. medicina), medical and immedi- 
 cable, remedy (L. reraediuna, that which heals again). Meditate \ 
 and premeditate are from L. meditari, an intensive form of i 
 the same root. • ' 
 
 215. Medins, middle, the midst (Sk. madhya-s, Gr. /xeo-os, 
 Aeol. /AeWos, for orig. /acS/os, Oscan mefiu, Gm. mit, with, 
 mitte, mittel and mitten), m,edium,, middle, m.iddling, midst, 
 amid, m,ediate and mediator, immediate and means (Fr. moyen, / 
 from L. medianus), medley and meddle ; and probably me-\ 
 dullary (L. medulla, pith, marrow), viewed as being within 
 the bones. From L. medius dies, come Eng. midday and 
 Fr. midi, which, though it be not so, sounds as much like 
 a corruption of the Eng. form as Fr. bifteck of Eng. beefsteak. 
 From L. medius dies come by dissimilation L. meridies and 
 Eng. meridian. 
 
 216. Mens, mentis, the mind (Sk. manti-s, from man, to 
 think. Cf. Sk. mati-s, from same root, denasalized, and Gr. 
 IJ.rJTi's, wisdom, counsel, plan, and also /iijSo/xat, juc/iova, fxifnaa, ' 
 /AaoreuM and juaiVoi), mind, mental, demented. ' 
 
 217. Merere, meritum, to deserve, earn, to serve for pay 
 (a military use of it, cf. Gr. /ictpo/iai, /xepos, and fiepC^ai), merit, 
 demerit, meretricious (L. meretrix, lit. a female who puts 
 herself on hire). From merere come merx and meroes, a 
 reward, and mercari, to trade, and Eng. mercantile, mercenary, 
 amerce, commerce, merchant (Fr. marchand), marlcet and, 
 contracted, mart (Fr. marche, Gm. markt). | 
 
 218. Mergere, mersum, to plunge, or sink in (cf. Gr. 
 ajj-ipyui, I pull or pluck, and 6/io/jyvv/it, I press out), merge, 
 emerge, emergency, immerse. 
 
 219. Mel-ken (Gm.) to mark (M. L. marcare, to note or 
 designate, Fr. marquer; cf. Goth, marka and Ags. mearc), 
 marJc and marque (Fr. do.), marches, limits (Fr. marche, a 
 military frontier), marquis and marchioness (It. march ese, 
 Fr. marquis, lit. the count or governor of the marches, or 
 military frontier). 
 
 220. Metiri, mensus, to measure (Sk. mk, to measure ; 
 
440 A SYNOPSIS OP ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 Gr. fi.£Tp€(D, from which Eng. metre, Gv, fierpov, and Sk. m&tr&, 
 measure, and geometry, and also barometer, diameter and 
 diametrically, symmetry, thermometer, etc.), m,ete and metes 
 measicre, mensuration, commensicrate, dimension, immense, 
 menstruum and m,enstruate (L. mensis, a month, Sk. mas and 
 masa-s, Gr. /Aiyi/, stem /ajJi's, as appears by Ionic form jxcU, com- 
 pared with L. mensis and Lith. menesis). The word moon is 
 of this same origin, Gr. \i.r)vrj, Gm. monat and mend ; it is 
 etymologically the measurer of the month, which is, itself, 
 the m,easure made ; cf. Lith. metas, time. From metiri come 
 L. mediocris, within measure, msdiocre (cf. Gr. fLirpuK, of 
 same sense and style of formation from /tiCTpcw), and L. modus, 
 (like toga from tegere, and vortex from vertere, or, more 
 specially still, nodus from nectere), and from this, Eng. mode, 
 modish, modest, modify, m,oderate, modulate, modern (lit. of 
 the present mode), model and mould (M. L. modela, Fr. 
 moule), commode, commodious and commodity, accommodate, 
 incommode. L. mos, a custom, is a contraction of modus 
 (cf. L. praecox for praecoquus), from which are moral,, moral- 
 ize, demoralize,* and immoral. With L. metiri, mensus, 
 corresponds also Gm. messen, to measure, and masz, Eng. 
 m.ass (as an indefinite measure), and mess (as definite) ; cf. Fr. 
 mets and Lith. mera, a measure. With Sk. mk, and Gr. /a€ 
 in /t€Tp£0), are connected also, perhaps, Gr. iJ.iii.iofi.ai, Eng. 
 mimic and pantomime, and also L. imitari and imago, Eng. 
 imitate and image. 
 
 221. Minare (M. L.) to lead : promenade (Fr. mener, to 
 lead, and se promener, to take a walk, lit. to take one's self 
 forth). From this root, too, come mine (It. miua, Fr. mine), 
 viewed as leading an explorer or workman along from one 
 point to another. Cf. for sense Eng. lode from lead ; and 
 mineral (It. minerale, Fr. mineral), lit. coming from a mine. 
 
 * Was ever a word more ridden to death, than the word demoralize haa 
 been, of late I In erery newspaper we read of "demoralized troops," from 
 time to time, even if retreating, when it requires more moral courage to re- 
 treat than to fight. The author has read in the papers also of " demoralized 
 horse&," and even of " demoralized oats." 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 441 
 
 Here too place EDg. mien (Fr. mine : cf. Fr. se mener, like | 
 for sense L. gestus from L. se gerere). | 
 
 222. Miuuere, minutum, to diminish (Sk. minS,mi, I wipe 
 out or away, Gr. /juvvOo), I lessen, Lith. minu : cf. Gr. /xeiav, 
 less). With L. minor and minus, for minlos, etc., less, cf. Gr. 
 uivv's, small. The Eng. derivatives are minute and m,inute 
 (L. minutus. It. minuto, Sp. menudo, Fr. menu), comminuted, 
 minish and diminish, minister (L. do.), lit. a servant, ad- 
 minister, m,ince (Fr. do.), miniature (It. miniatura), m,inion 
 (It. mignone, a darling, a pet), minnow (a little fish). Corssen 
 connects also with L. minus, L. membrum, for earlier sup- 
 posed min-brum, Eng. member, membrane, etc. Others re- 
 gard it as connected with Gr. /ac/dos, a part, being reduplicated 
 and having b epenthetic. 
 
 223. Mirus, wonderful, and mirari, to admire (Sk. smi, to 
 smile, Gr. juaSiaw, I laugh, Old Gm. smielen, Eng. sm,ile), ad- 
 mire, miracle, mirage (Fr.), mirror (Fr. miroir), marvel (L. 
 mirabile, It. maraviglia, Fr. merveille). 
 
 224. Miscere, mixtum (for misctum by metathesis), to 
 mix (Sk. migra, to mingle, Gr. ixvyw/xi, [/.i^o), Lith. miszti), mix 
 (Gm. mischen), mingle (Gm. mengen), m,ilange (Fr. do.), 
 melee (Fr. mSler, for orig. mesler, from M. L. misculare), 
 among and mongrel, commingle and intermingle, m,iscellar 
 neous (L. miscellaneus), mule and mulatto (as being of mixed 
 stock, L. mulus, for misculus) ; and omelet (Fr. omelette = 
 oeufs mSles, or eggs mixed together. Bourdelot, however, 
 suggests rather "oeufs mollets," or quite soft eggs). 
 
 225. Mittere, missum (lit. to set in motion), to send (cf. 
 with mitto for mitjo, /te^i'iy/it, and, in Herodotus, ft-eriiiss, I let 
 loose, I throw), missive, missile, mission, missionary, message 
 (Fr. do., Sp. mensaje), messenger (Fr. messager), m.ass and 
 missal (It. messa, Sp. misa, Gm. messe, Fr. messe, M. L. missa , 
 — ^from the words of dismission foi-merly used at its close, viz. : 1 
 "ite, missa est conoio"), admit, inadm,issible, am,iss, commit, ' 
 committee, commissary and commission, demit, demise, 
 dismiss, emit, emissary, intermit, omit, permit, premise, pre- 
 miss, preterm,it, promise (lit. to send one's word forwards), 
 compromise (lit. to promise mutually), and uncompromising. 
 
442 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 (PoUiceri, to promise, for proliceri, means to offer beforehand ; 
 and versprechen, in German, to promise, means, to speak one's 
 word away), remits remiss, submit, transmit. Pott here 
 places also Gm. schmeissen (with Old Latin form cosmittere), 
 Eng. smite and smith, cf. Goth, smitan, and Gr. S/tivfieus (sc. 
 Apollo). 
 
 I 226. Moenia, walls, viewed as warding off enemies (Gr. 
 Ufivvw, I ward off: cf. t^-vvr], a pretense). From moenia comes 
 iL. munire, to fortify (cf. L. pnnire, to punish, from poena, 
 ipain). From munire come Eng. munition and am,munition. 
 
 With moenia, etc., are doubtless connected L. minae, the 
 projecting points of walls, threats, Eng. minatory and menace 
 (L. minaciae and Fr. menace) ; and L. minere, to jut, or pro- 
 ject, from which come eminent, imminent, preeminent and 
 prom,inent. 
 
 Here too belong L. mons, stem mont, a mountain, and 
 Eng. -mont, mount and mountain (Fr. montagne, from L. mon- 
 tana, sc. pars), promontory (L. promontorium), amount, dis- 
 mount, param,ount, tantamount (+L. tantus), surm,ount (Fr. 
 surmonter). With verb mount (Fr. monter) from L. mons, 
 cf for form Fr. avaler, to swallow, from L. ad vallem). 
 
 227. Molere, to grind in a mill (Gr. /ivAAw, I crush, and 
 ^uiXf], a mill, Gm. mahlen, Gothic malan, Lith. melu), mill, 
 
 'molar, meal (Gm. mahl), mellow (Gm. mehlig, mealy, and 
 meUow). 
 
 228. Moles, a huge, heavy mass : mole, demolish, molest 
 (L. molestus, troublesome), emolument (L. emolimentum from 
 emoliri, to work out or forth. The same idea of forth is also 
 
 ' in the words effort and exertion), amulet (L. amoliri, to re- 
 move from). Here belongs probably L. multus, orig. moltus 
 and molitus : cf stultus, cont. from stoUdus. Meyer, how- 
 ever, connects it with Gr. /xvpioi. From multus come multiply 
 (-fL. plicare), and multitude, and m,uch (Sp. mucho). 
 
 229. Mollis, soft [Gr. /AaXa/co's: Corssen seems to be as 
 right, as he is ingenious, in referring both L. mollis and Gr. 
 /xaXttKos to Sk. mridu-s, tender, from Sk. mard, to rub. Old 
 Slavic mladu, tender; the changes in mollis being as follows, 
 molduis (like tenuis in its form), molvis (like suavis, for earlier 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 443 
 
 suaduis), mollis ; and those of /^aXaKos being these, fx.aXSJF'aKos, 
 fiaXBFaKOi, /AttXaKos. Here belongs /AaXatro-o), I soften, from 
 which Eng. melt, Gni, schmelzen, and smelt, and also malt, 
 Gm. malz, which is barley steeped in water : from same root 
 with fiaXaxos comes Gr. ixakay/jia, a softening, etc., and from 
 this Eng. amalgam and amMgam,ate ; i. e. by uniting a metal 
 with quicksilver] , Tnollify, emollient and mulch. 
 
 230. Monere (for m&n-ayS.mi, a causative form of the root 
 man, to think), to remind, warn, or teach [cf. Sk. man, to think, 
 Gm. mahnen, to remind, and meinen, to m,ean / L. memini, 
 (which is but the root men reduplicated), reminiscor, Eng. 
 reminiscence; and Minerva (which Pott makes equivalent to Sk. 
 manas-vini, a virtuous, or energetic, woman). Here too 
 belongs probably the name Minos ; as do manifestly L. mens, 
 stem ment (Eng. m,ind and m,ental and demented) with which 
 cf. Sk. mati-s, the mind, and also Sk. mana-s, Gr. /i,eVos, Lith. 
 menasjand L. commentari, to think over (Eng. comment and 
 com/mentary), and Gr. fj-viio/jLai (from which Gr. d/AvijoTt'a, lit. 
 non-remembrance, i. e. of past strife, Eng. amnesty), and 
 ILifLvricTKui and navOdvui, 'and also Gm. mensch and mann and 
 man, Eng. man / as well as also Gm. meinen, to mean, and 
 Gm. miene, Eng. m,ien (Fr. mine) and Eng. demsan and m,is- 
 dem^anor], m,onition, monitor, monum,ent, admonish, summon 
 (L. submonere, Fr. sommer). From monere comes also L. 
 monstrare, to point out, show, etc.j and from this m,onster 
 (L. monstrum, lit. an evil omen from the gods), monstrosity, 
 demonstrate, remonstrate. As for L. memoria (Eng. memory, 
 mem,oir, f r. memoire, com.memorate, memorable, etc.) •■—it is 
 probably of another origin, and should be placed, as Curtius, 
 Schleicher and Corssen agree in maintaining, with Sk. smyi 
 and smar, to remember ; the changes being these, smar-smar, 
 (s)me-(s)mor, me-mor. 
 
 231. Movos, alone, single: monad (Gr. /lovas, stem /^oi/aS), 
 monarch (Gr. jnoVap^oSj+apx"? I rule), monk (Gr. /ioi/ap(o's, L. 
 monachus, lit. a solitaire), and m.onachism and monastery; 
 monograph (+ Gr. ypa^-q), monologue (in sense = L. soli- 
 loquium), monomania (+ Gr. /tayta, madness), monopoly 
 
444 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 (+ Gr. 7ro)\e'a), I sell), motiosyUobh (+Gr. o-uWa^jj), monotony 
 (+ Gr. Toi/os). 
 
 232. Mordere, morsum, to Mte, devour, etc. (Here Ebel 
 places Gr. (r[jiipSos and , <r/;iepSaX£os, and Gm. schraerzen, Eng. 
 smart, lit. biting, sharp), mordant, morsel, remorse ; perhaps 
 also muzzle (Fr. museler, from Fr. museau, the mouth, L. 
 morsus), and muse (Fr. muser), lit. to hold the mouth fixed 
 in thinking), amuse (Fr. amuser). See No. 237. 
 
 233. Mori, mortuus, to die (Sk. mar and mri, to die, and 
 adj. marttas, dead), mortal, mortify, mortuary, mortgage, 
 murder (Gm. morden and ermorden). Here belongs L. mor- 
 bus, disease (the first stage of death, generally), and Eng. 
 m,orbid. 
 
 234. Movere, motum, to move, remove (Sk. m§, to change 
 place, Gr. d/Aet^So), Doric a/itSoj. Cf. L. meare, to go on, by, 
 etc., Eng. permeafe), move, motion, mobile, mob (=L. mobile 
 vulgus), moment, momentum, and m,omentous (L. momentum 
 for movimentum), motive (Fr. motif), commotion, emotion, 
 promote, remove, remote. From movere comes mutare (Ar- 
 chaic moitare, for earlier mo(v)itare : cf. Sk. m&,ya-tai, he ex- 
 changes), and from this mutable, commute, permutation, trans- 
 mute and mutual (L. mutuus, cf. Gr. /^oitos, Sicil. dialect, 
 borrowed from Latin), emeute (Fr. do.), lit. set in motion 
 (from L. mota), and mutiny (Fr. mutin, for moutin). 
 
 235. Munis, grateful, obliging (Sk; mu, to tie, or bind. 
 Cf. for sense, Eng. obliging ; Gr. d/x,eiVu)v, better. Cf. L. amo- 
 enus), immunity, municipal (= raunia+ caper e), munificent 
 (+facere, to do). • 
 
 236. Mus, a mouse (Sk. mi!isha-s and mushika-s, a mouse, 
 lit. a stealing animal, from mush, to steal; Gr. /avs, Gm. 
 maus), mouse, pi. mice ; muscle (L. musculus, dimin. ; lit. 
 a little mouse, i. e. in motion ; Gm. muskel, the flesh of 
 animals). 
 
 237. Mutire, to mutter or mumble (Gr. fvotfn, I mutter, or 
 make a sound with the lips closed), mute, mutter, mouth 
 (Gm. mund), muzzle (Fr. museau), muse (Fr. muser), referring 
 to the abstract air of one humming to himself, while he 
 thinks), amuse (Fr. amuser). To the common root of all this 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETTMOLOGT. 445 
 
 class of words, which are indeed quite onomatopoetic in their 
 nature, belong also mumble (Gm. mummeln), mum and 
 mumps (viewed as shutting up the mouth). 
 
 N. 
 
 238. Nah (Gm.) near, and nach, near by, etow : ntar (Ags. 
 neah), next (Gm. nachst), nigh (cf. for form night and Gm. 
 nacht), neighbor (Gm. nachbar, Ags. nehgebur). 
 
 239. Nasci, natus (for orig. gnasci and gnatus) to be bom 
 (Gr. yewoM and ydvoiJi,ci.i, I am born, and yeVos. Cf. also 
 L. gignere and genus and gens. The Sk. root is Jan. The 
 Sk. correspondent of L. gigno is jajanmi, and of L. (g)nasci is 
 jlly^), nascent, nation, native, nature (which in its very ety- 
 mology implies a superior begetting or producing source), 
 naivete (Fr. do. from adj. naif, fem. naive, lit. true to nature, 
 from L. nativus), innate, cognate (L. cognatus, of same birth), 
 naturalize and naturalist y pregnant (L. praegnans, lit. pro- 
 ducing beforehand), and impregnate. 
 
 240. Navis, a ship (Sk. nau-s, Gr. vaus), navy, navigate 
 (-fagere), and circumnavigate, nautilus, nautical (L. nauta), 
 nausea (L. do.). 
 
 241. Ne, not (Sk. na, Vedic nS,, Gr. vr)-, Lith. ne and nei), 
 none (= ne-funus, not one), and no (adj. abb.), aanul and 
 wwflify (L. nullus, etc. = ne+ullus), not (L. non, for orig. 
 noenum = ne+oinus or unus, lit. not one, — and noenu : Gm. 
 hicht), negation and abnegate (from L. negare = ne-ig-are, 
 Vid. aio supra), deny (L. denegare, Fr. denier), nefarious 
 (L. nefarius == ne+fari, unutterable), neither (L. neuter =:= ne 
 -futer), never (= not ever), nor (= not or), etc. 
 
 (The It. niente, nothing, is an interesting compound of 
 L. ne, not, with the L. part, ens, stem ent, of the verb esse, to 
 be : cf. Fr. n6ant). 
 
 242. Nitere, to shine (Sk. nij, to wash : Gr. viXw for vipja> 
 for viyFjia ; and viirru). Cf. for sense L. lautus, neat, from lavare, 
 to wash, and L. mundus, clean, compared with Gr. /^vSaw, I 
 wet. Here belong Eng. neat, nice and nett (L. nitidus, It. 
 netto, Fr. net). The Gr. virpov (our potassa) and L. nitrum. 
 
446 A STNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 used for soap, are derived from the roots above given, a'nd 
 from these Eng. nitre (saltpetre). 
 
 243. Nocere, to harm or hurt (for earlier form, nak-ayami, 
 a causative form, of an original root nak, Sk. naj, to perish : 
 cf. for form moneo and doceo. L. necare, to kill, is of same 
 radication, and also L. pernicies, Eng. pernicious), noxious, 
 innocent, innocuous, noise (L. noxa, Fr. noise), nuisance (Fr. 
 nuire and nuisance), annoy (It. annojare), ennuie (Fr. en- 
 nuyer, to annoy). 
 
 244. Noscere, notum, orig. gnoscere, root gno, to know 
 (Sk. jna, j&,n^mi, I know ; Gr. yiyvuxTKui, root yvo for yva ; and 
 i/oeo) and voCs, the mind ; Gm. konnen, to be able, lit. to know 
 how, Eng. can and cunning), know, acknowledge, notion, 
 noble (L. nobilis for noscibilis, lit. worthy to he known), 
 ignoble (=in+(g)nobilis), tgwore, ignorant (=:in+(g)norans; 
 cf. Gr. yvtopi^o)), cognition (L. cognitus) ; cognizant and con- 
 noisseur (Fr. connaitre, from M. L. cognoscitare), recognize 
 and reconnoitre (Fr. do.) Here too belongs acquaint (Fr. 
 acoointer from L. adcognitare. , From notare, a freq. form of 
 noscere, come note, notable, notorious, notice, annotation, de- 
 note, notify. From L. nomen (for earlier (g)nomen), a name, 
 from same root (Sk. naman, for orig. (g)naman, Gr. ovofia, 
 from which come anonymous and synonymous), come name 
 (Gm. name), namely (Gm. namlich), noun (Fr. nom), pronoun 
 (cf. for sense, Gm. fiirwort, or for-word), nominal, pronominal,, 
 nom.inate, denominate, the innominata (an anatom. term), 
 renown (Fr. renomm6, lit. mentioned over and over again), 
 ignominy (L. ignominia = in+(g)nomen, lit. without a name). 
 Of same ultimate root with (g)noscere is L. narrare (Old L. 
 gnarigare), Eng. narrate. From L. nomen come L. nuncu- 
 pare (+L. capio : cf. L. occupare, for form) and L. nomen- 
 clatura (+L. calare, to call), nomenclature. 
 
 245. Nox, night (Sk. naktam, adv. at night, Gr. vv^, Gm. 
 nacht, Fr. nuit), nocturnal, night, benighted, midnight, fort- 
 night (= fourteen nights : cf. Old Eng. word se'nnight, for 
 seven nights. Cf. also, for abbrev. form, Fr. midi, noon, from 
 L. meridies). 
 
 246. Novus, new (Sk. nava-s, Gr. ve'os for viFo^, Lith. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 447 
 
 navas and naujas), new (Gm. neu, Fr. neuf), novel, novelette, 
 novitiate, innovate, renovate y anew (cf. for form L. denuo, 
 for de novo), renew, news, now (L. nunc, cont. from novumoe, 
 sc. tempus). From L. nuncius (for orig. novencius, like nun- 
 dinus, for novendinus, from novem) come nuncio, announce, 
 denounce and pronounce. 
 
 247. Nubes, a cloud, a veil (Sk. nabh-as, the air, sky, 
 water, Gr. ve<^os, a cloud). From L. nubes comes also L. ne- 
 bula, mist, vapor, smoke (Gr. vi^iXrj, a mass of clouds), Eng. 
 nebula and nebulous. From nubes comes perhaps L. nubere, 
 nuptum, to marry (from the custom of veiling the bride when 
 being conducted to the bridegroom), and Eng. nuptials 
 (L. nuptiae), and connubial (L. oonnubiura). Gr. vu/t^i/, a 
 bride, and vv/jitf>€vu>, I marry, indicate a prob. distinct origin 
 in common for themselves and L. nuptiae. 
 
 248. Numerus, number, etc. (Gr. vefwi, I arrange, etc., 
 from which come Gr. vo/aos, law, and vofws, pasture. Here 
 refer etymologically L. Numa, the lawgiver, and Numitor, a 
 shepherd), number (Fr. nombre), enumerate, innumerable, 
 numerous. With vo/aos, law, is connected prob. L. norma, a 
 rule, a square, Eng. norm,, normal, and enormous (L. enormis, 
 lit. out of rule), and enormity. 
 
 249. Nutrire, to suckle, to feed (connected perhaps with 
 L. novus, new, Gr. ve'os, vewTepo's ; as iraiSevo), I instruct, is with 
 iraw, a boy, and TraiSt'ov, a child), nourish (Fr. nourrir), nurse 
 (L. nutrix, Fr. nourrice), nutritious, nutriment. 
 
 250. Nux, stem nuc, a nut, nut (Gm. nusz, Fr. noix. It. 
 noce, Sp. nuez), nucleus (L. do. for nuculeus, dim. a kernel), 
 enucleate. Chestnut (Sp. castana, Fr. chataigne) is L. casta- 
 nea nux (from Kastana, a city of Pontus) ; nutmeg (Gm. mus- 
 katennusz) is L. nux macis, or mace-nut, and walnut (Gm. 
 wallnusz) is lit. a foreign nut. 
 
 O. 
 
 251. Octo, eight (Sk. rsht&.u, Gr. oktw, Gm. acht, Fr. 
 huit), eight, octavo (L. octavus, Gr. oySjos for crfhoF C). 
 
 252. "OSds, a path or way, cf. ouSa?, the ground (Sk. sad 
 
448 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 and &,-sad, to go to), exodus (l^oSos, a going forth), method 
 (/AE^oSos = /AeTci+oSo's, lit. a following after), methodical and 
 Methodist, period (ireptoSos, a circuit), synod (o-woSos, a coming 
 together, an assembly). 
 
 253. 'OtSiJ, a song, from da'So) and aSio, I sing, ode, comedy 
 (KoiJuaSia, lit. a village song, ete.+Kw/Arj, a village), episode (Fr._ 
 do.. It. and Sp. episodic), melody (Gr. /i£X(i)Sta-|-/t£A.os) ; pa- 
 rody (Gr. TrapwSia, lit. a song by the side of another), ^osorfy 
 (Gr. irpoa-ioSia, lit. an accompanying song), tragedy (Gr. rpa- 
 yiaSia, lit. a goat-song). 
 
 254. OtKi'a, house (Sk. vega-s, a house, Gr. oTkos for J^biKos, 
 L. vicus, Goth, veihs), economy [olKovofiLa, lit. the management 
 of a house), oecumenical (olKovfj-ivri, sc. yrj, i. e. the inhabited 
 earth), diocese (Gr. SiotKjjo-ts), parish (Gr. TrapoiKia, M. L. pa- 
 rochia, It. parocchia, Fr. paroisse, Gm. pfarrei), parochial, 
 parson (Gm. pfarrer. It. parroco). 
 
 255. Oliva, the olive (Gr. eXata, Goth, alev), olive, oil 
 (Gr. fXaiov, L. oleum, Fr. huile), oleaginous. 
 
 256. Ollus, archaic form of ille, for illus, that yonder, he, 
 she, it (cf. for change of initial o to i, L. pocillum, dim. of 
 poculum, for archaic pocolom ; and, for change of terminal 
 MS to e, L. ipse and necesse for earlier ipsus and necesus). 
 Pott connects L. ollus with Sk. compound pronominal stem 
 a-na, " that " (which is represented also in Gr. ivwi, some, and 
 L. conj. an, whether, or) : in Sk. anya-s, " another," it appears 
 in a fuller form (see L. alius, Synopsis N"o. 8). He derives it 
 thus, onos, onolus, ollus (like L. ullus for unulus, from unus, 
 and L. corolla for coronola from corona). These etymological 
 analyses and deductions are no less valuable than critically 
 commendable. Here Corssen, with his accustomed scholar- 
 ship and ingenuity combined, places L. ultra (with its archaic 
 positive, nls), ulterior and ultimus, Eng. ultra, ulterior, ulti- 
 mate, and ultimatum. These L. derivatives he illustrates 
 well, for their style, by reference to their correlatives, cis, 
 citra, citerior, citimus, as formed on the demonstrative prono- 
 minal stem ci- (of which -ce is the locative form), meaning, 
 on this side. Aufrecht's alleged connection of "Umbrian 
 hondomo, Sk. uttama-s, L. ultimus, Goth, hindumi, and Gr. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 449 
 
 voTttTos," he accordingly rejects, to which he previously ac- 
 ceded, regarding then ultimus as for earlier untimus. A wide 
 comparison of forms, with the most thorough comprehension 
 of their real historic and phonetic analogies, is an absolutely 
 necessary condition for any high critical style of etymo- 
 logizing. 1 
 
 257. Ops, power, might (Sk. apna-s, possession, Gr. a<^vos, 
 resources, and aifivvvui, I make rich, cf. also L. apiscor and 
 adipiscor, adeptus, Eng. adept), opulent (L. opulentus), lit. 
 full of resources; copious (L. copia = con+ops), copi/ (It. 
 copia, Pr. copie) = copiam facere scripti, i. e. by transcription 
 originally. 
 
 258. Opus, operis, work (Sk. apa-s : cf. Gr. iroieto, I do, or 
 make), operate, co-operate, operative (noun), operose. 
 
 259. Ordo, stem ordin, order (Sk. ardha-s, upright : Gr. 
 6p96i, straight. Cf. Spw/j-i, I rise up, and L. orior), order, or- 
 dinary, ordain, ordinance, ordnance (because made accord- 
 ing to governmental requisition. Cf., for sense, alloy, Fr. 
 aloi, made according to taw; also " regulation " coats, swords, 
 etc.), coordinate, disorder, extraordinary, inordinate, sub- 
 ordinate. 
 
 260. Oriri, ortus, to rise (Sk. ar and ri, to lift up one's 
 self; Gr. opnj/it, optVui and 6pov(o), orient and oriental (see 
 levare), origin, originate, original, aborigines, abortion (L. 
 aboriri, lit. to set, as the stars do, to fail), east (Gm. ost, L. 
 ortus), Easier (Gm. Ostern), the festival of Christ's resurrec- 
 tion. Austria (lit. the eastern land, i. e. east of Neustria, the 
 western division of Gaul at that time). 
 
 261. Os, oris, the mouth, and orare, to pray, beseech, etc. 
 (Sk. asja, from as, to breathe, Gr. ocraa, a voice, report, etc.), 
 oral, oracle, oration, orison (L. oratio, Fr. oraison), adore, 
 inexorable, peroration, omen and ominous (omen being for 
 osraen, the archaic form ; cf. for sense, monstrum), abominate 
 (L. abominari, lit. to deprecate as an evil omen). From os 
 comes also L. ostium (Fr. huis fi'om M. L. form hostia), a 
 door, and from this Eng. usher (M. L. hostiarius, Fr. huissier. 
 It. usciere, Eng. usher). Here also belongs oscillate from os- 
 
 VoL. II.— 29 
 
450 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 cillum (dirain.), a little mouth, lit. drawing the mouth out 
 and in. 
 
 262. Os, stem oss, for ost or oste (Sk. asthi, Gr. ooTeov, 
 stem 6<TTi, a hone), osteology, ossify, oyster (L. ostrea, Gr. 
 wrrpiov). Cf. Fr. t^te, the head, from L. testa, a shell. 
 
 263. Otium, ease, leisure, for prob. orig. o(c)tium, as Leo 
 Meyer suggests (Gr. oKvtiv, to linger), negotiate (L. negotium 
 = nec+otium: ef. page 363, "§ 28). 
 
 P. 
 
 264. Pacisci, pactus, to arrange, settle, fix (Sk. pa§, to 
 bind, and pa§aylimi, I bind, Gr. tt^v/jli, stem Troy. Pangere, 
 pactum is a nasalized form of same root. With part, pactus 
 of pacisci, cf. mjKTos and Sk. pagita-s and pankta-s, for form. 
 "With pangere is connected also Gm. fangen, Ags. fangar, 
 'Eng. fangs and fngers, Goth, fahan). From pacisci comes 
 L. pax, peace (peace being anciently viewed as, in the very 
 word itself, a covenant), Eng. peace, pacify, pacific, pay (L. 
 pacare, to pacify, Sp. pagar, Fr. payer). To the same etymo- 
 logical source with pacisci, pax, pangere, and pignus belongs 
 also L. pecu, a flock (Sk. pa9u-s, and L.pecus, a sheep). From 
 pecus are Eng. pecuniary (flocks and herds were the first ge- 
 nerally recognized form of convertible property. The image 
 of a sheep or ox was probably stamped on the first specimens of 
 coin), peculiar (L. peculium, lit. property in cattle, and after- 
 wards personal and then private property) and peculate 
 (L. peculari, to steal public funds). With' pecus are correlate 
 Gm. vieh, cattle, wealth, Goth, faihu, Ags. feoh, Old Eng. feh, 
 Eng. yfee/ cf. slso feoff AnA feud. 
 
 265. Palla, a long wide female garment (cf Gr. iraXXo), I 
 \\hTZ.t&), pall, paUiate (L. pallium, a cloak). 
 
 266. Pandere, passum, to spread out [cf Gr. irtTavwiLi and 
 -n-LTvrjii.i, I expand, etc. Cf. L. patere, to be open (Eng. /la- 
 tent), from which Corssen regards L. pandere as being formed, 
 through the adj. form pandus, for earlier supp. form pantdus: 
 its base being a nasalized form of the stem pat of patere], ex- 
 pand, expanse, pass (It. passare, Fr. passer), passage, passen- 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 451 
 
 ger, passably, passport, compass (It. compasso = L. con+ 
 passUs, and corapassare, orig. to move with equal step ; and a 
 military figure : hence the idea of a compass, as describing a 
 circle with equal radii. Cf. Fr. compas], trespass (-f-Fr. tr6s, 
 L. trans, over), surpass (+Fr. sur, L. super), pace (L. passus, 
 Fr. pas). 
 
 267. Pangere, pepigi; pactum, stem pag, to fix, fasten, set, 
 plant, etc. (Sk. pa§, to bind, Gr. ir^ym^i, I make fast, I fix ; 
 cf. 7n;yos and iraytos, firm, fixed), page (L. pagina, a leaf or 
 slab), viewed as firm (a page, a boy, etc., is from Fr. page, Gr. 
 iratSi'oi'), compact (L. compingere, compactum, to fix together), 
 impinge and impact (L. impingere). From pangere comes 
 L. pignus, a pledge. 
 
 Here too belongs undoubtedly L. pagus, a district, a vil- 
 lage (as being established), from which come Eng. pagan 
 (L. paganus, provincial, rustic), viewed in opposition to a Jew 
 or Roman, peasant (L. paganus, Fr. paysan, as pagus becomes 
 in French pays and in Italian pa6se. Companion also is of this 
 same origin (Fr. compagnon, It. oompagno, M. L. compaga^ 
 nus, lit. one of the same village or district). See pacisci, for 
 correlate derivatives from the ultimate root of pangere. 
 
 268. Par, equal (prob. correlate with Gr. irapa. Epic Trap, 
 alongside of; cf. Eng.jparallel and parable, from Gr. Trapaand 
 oXXjjXwv and jSdWo), in each of which TrapdE expresses the very 
 idea of equaXitj) par, parity, pair, (for impair see page 312), 
 disparage (M. L. disparagere), peer (Fr. pair), peerless, com,- 
 peer, nonpareil, of, none such (M. L. pariculus, Fr. pareil). 
 From Gr. Trapa come, beside parallel and parable, as above, 
 also paradox (iraptiSofos, contrary to expectsition) , paradigm, 
 (irapaSety/ia, a sample or copy) , paragraph (irapaypa<^^, a mar- 
 ginal note, contracted in Fr. to parafe), paralysis (TrapaX-uo-w, 
 a loosening apart), parapet,* (It. parapetto : petto being for 
 L. pectus. Cf. Fr. parapet), j)arasite (■n-apao-tTos, one who eats 
 at the same table), paraphrase (■!rapa<^pa^a), I speak by the side 
 of another). So the French words, parapluie, paravent (Sp. 
 paravento) and parasol (Sp. parasole, 'Eng. parasot), different 
 
 * It is accidental that parapet resembles also iropaireToa-iua, a screen or 
 covering. 
 
452 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 names for an umbrella (lit. a little shade, dimin. of L. umbra), 
 as used for the different purposes of warding off the rain, the 
 wind, and the sun, are derived from the same source, through 
 the Sp. parar and It. parare, to ward off; from which comes 
 "Eng. parry (Fr. parer). There is, however, an objectionable 
 mixture here of Greek and Latin elements in the same com- 
 pounds. From irapd, also, and /3aXX(o come, not only the ob- 
 vious derivatives parabola and parable (see BaAAo)), but also 
 palaver (M. L. parabola, Sp. palabra, Portuguese palavra), 
 parley, parlance and parliament (M. L. parabolare, Fr. parler), 
 and parole (Fr. parole), and parlor, lit. a conversation-room 
 (Fr. parloir). 
 
 269. Parare, to put in order, to get ready : apparatus 
 (L. do.), compare (L. comparare, lit. to put together), and in- 
 comparable. From L. imperare (= in+parare, lit. to put on 
 or upon), to enjoin or command, come Eng. imperative, im- 
 perious, empire, emperor (L. imperator, a military ruler). 
 
 From L. praeparare, to make ready beforehand, comes 
 Eng. prepare. 
 
 From L. reparare, to put in-order anew, come Eng. repazV 
 and irreparable. Prom L. separare (= se-j-parare, lit. to 
 prepare or set apart), to divide, etc., come Eng. separate and 
 inseparable, sever (Sp. separar. It. separare and sevrare, Fr. 
 separer and sevrer) and several. 
 
 270. Parere, partum, to bring forth or about (Sk. bhar, to 
 bear, Gm. baren, Eng. bear. Of Gr. <f>4pii> and L. fero), 
 parent, parturition. From aperire (= L. ab+parere) come 
 aperient, aperture, April (L. Aprilis, the month for opening 
 or ploughing the ground) ; open (L. aperire, It. aprire, Fr. 
 ouvrir, derived probably from a form de-operire = de+ob-f 
 ab+parere), overt and overture (Fr. ouvert, part, of ouvrir), 
 cover and covert (L. cooperire, Fr. couvrir, part, convert), 
 cope (L. cobperire, It. coprir). 
 
 271. Parens (for prob. earlier (s)parcus), sparing (Gr. cnrap- 
 vds and cnrai'is, want : Gm. sparsam, Eng. spare), parsimony 
 (L. parsimonia). 
 
 272. Pars, a part, stem part (Sk. pri and par, to press 
 through or out, — ^lit. cut out or off; L. per, through, prep, is 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 453 
 
 correlate with Sk. pri, also, as well as L. porta, a gate, and 
 Gr. irepdo), I go through. Cf. Sk. parara, beyond, and L. pe- 
 rendie = per, beyond or after, unatn diem, one day, day after 
 to-morrow), part, partner, party, partial, partition, particle 
 L. particula, diminutive, a little part), particular, participate 
 (+ caper e), and participle ; apart, apartment, counterpart, 
 depart (Fr. partir, from L. partire, to divide or separate, sc. 
 se ; i. e. from others), department, impart, partake (= part+ 
 take), parcel (Fr. parcelle, L. particula). 
 
 273. Pasci, pastus, to feed, to eat (Sk. pS,, to nourish, Gr. 
 Trareofiai, I eat : cf. airaoros, without food. Cf. also Sk. pita-s, 
 bread ; and see L. pater), pastor, pasture, paste (It. pasta, 
 dough, lit. food, Fr. p&,te), pastille (L. pastillus, dim.). 
 
 Here also belong L. pabulum (Eng. do.), and probably L. 
 p&nis (for orig. pasnis. Leo Meyer however regards it as for 
 pa(c)ais from same root with Sk. pach, to cook), Fr. pain. 
 
 274. Pater, a father (Sk. pit&, stem pitar, from pS,, to 
 nourish, Gr. ■jrar^p. Cf. for origin, L. pascere, pastum, to 
 feed, Gr. 7raTeo/i,at, Eng. pasture and pastor), paternal, patri- 
 arch, patrician, patron, patrimony, patrial (L. patria, one's 
 father-land, as in Gm. vaterland), expatriate, patriot, and 
 father (Gm. vater). 
 
 275. Pati, passus, to suffer (Gr. ■Ka.<Tx<», stem. vaB, for orig. 
 irdda-Kia : SO L. latere compares with stem XaO of XavOdvm. Cf. 
 Sk. badh, to trouble), patient, passive, impatient, impassible, 
 passion (viewed as a state of suffering. Cf. anger and L. an- 
 gor. See L. angere), compassion. From Gr. stem iraB of 
 Tracrxoi come pathos (irdOo's), pathetic (iroflrjTtKOs), apathy (aira- 
 
 6eia), antipathy, sympathy and so allopathy, homoeo- 
 pathy, etc., etc. 
 
 276. Paulus, small, cont. from L. parvulus (Gr. TraSpos for 
 TrdpFo's, like v€vpov for vepFov, L. uervus : cf. also Travofiai, I 
 cease or leave off, Eng. pause. Here belong Goth, favai, 
 Ags. feava, Eng. few. L. paucus is of the same radication 
 with paulus, from which is Eng. paucity ; and L. pauper is 
 doubtless for orig. pauciper : cf. for form puber from puer). 
 From pauper come Eng. pauper, poor (Fr. pauvre), poverty 
 (Fr. pauvrete), impoverish. 
 
454 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 21'!. Iletpao/iat, I try (of same probable origin with irepao), 
 I go through), pirate (Tretpari;?, lit. an adventurer), experience 
 (L. experiri, to make trial of a thing), experiment, expert 
 (" practice makes perfect "), empiric (Gr. ifx-TrelpLKos). Corssen 
 and Meyer connect L. periculum with Trdpa (for iripja), and, as 
 the author thinks wrongly. See perire under L. eo, ire : cf., 
 for form, vehiculum from vehere, and for sense the relation 
 of morbus to mors. 
 
 278. Pellere, for earlier pel/o, like ^aXXia for ^aXja, pulsum, 
 to drive, to drive away [TraXXu ; cf. TraX-q, wresting, and 7ra\/ta- 
 Ti'as, an earthquake. Here also belongs, perhaps, TraXaixTj, the 
 hand, L. palma, Eng. palm and palmate, shaped like the hand. 
 Cf L. palpare. See ^SaXXu. Corssen regards, and with justice 
 probably, L. pollit (obs.) " he plays ball," as of same origin 
 with L. pello and Gr. iraXXu and as all connected with Sk. 
 sphar and sphur, to tremble, for orig. spar and a causative 
 form sphar-aya-mi, I vibrate, I cast ; with which he compares 
 also Gr. Tra-cnrdKr), fine meal, as having been thoroughly shaken, 
 or bolted, and so also Ti. pollen, Eng. do., as well as L. puis, 
 Eng. pulse: — regarding them all as having lost an initial 
 radical s. L. palpo and palpito (Eng. palpable and palpitate 
 which Curtius and Meyer regard as reduplicated forms of Sk. 
 root spur, and so related to L. pello indirectly, are not, pro- 
 bably, of such an origin at all]. From L. pellere come com- 
 pel, expel, impel and impulse, propel, repel and repulsive, 
 pulse and pulsation; appeal (L. appellare, freq. form), apel- 
 lative, repeal ; push (Fr. pousser, Sp. pulsar, L. pulsare). 
 
 279. Pellis [Gr. ttcXXo, a hide or leather ; cf. aireXos and 
 epucrtTTEXas, erysipelas, redness of shin. Pott supposes the 
 main idea in pellis and Tre'XXa to be fulness, i. e. of hair, and 
 connects them like iroXiJs and plus, etc. (see L. plere) with Sk. 
 par and pur. In such a case, as rroXXos is for iroKFo^, L. pellis 
 may be for pelvis], peel (Gm. pelle and pelzen, to peel), pelt 
 and peltry (Gm. pelz), pelisse (Fr. do., cf. also, Fr. pelerine). 
 While the, words feU (Gm. fell and filz), filter (It. feltrare, to 
 filter, from feltro, felt, first used for the purpose), are possibly, 
 and even at first thought, probably, of the same radication 
 with L. pellis, yet they seem, on closer examination, to 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 455 
 
 be of diverse origin. Cf. with pellis, L. pulvinar, Eng. 
 pillow. 
 
 280. Pendere, to hang, to hang down (of. as possibly cor- 
 relate, Gr. TTCTo/iat, I fly, or hang iu the air), pendulum, pen- 
 dent, dependent and independent, pending (Fr. pendant), ^ew- 
 sive, appendage and appendix, compendious, impend, pension, 
 prepense, propensity, suspend, suspense and suspenders. The 
 L. penis (for pesnis ; cf., for form, L. pono for posno), from 
 which peniculus, diminutive, a little tail (Eng. pencil) comes, 
 is not, as might be thought at first, a derivation of pendere, 
 but is of another root (see Vedic pasa^s, m.embrum virile, 
 Gr. TTc'os for TTOTos and iroa-drj). With pendere, to hang, cor- 
 responds pendere, pensum, to weigh, as a causative form, as 
 jacere, to cast down, does with jacere, to lie. From pendfire, 
 to weigh, come pound (L. pondus), as being weighed by rule, 
 or standard ; pence (L. pensum), as having weight ; compen- 
 sate and recompense, dispense, dispensation, dispensatory and 
 indispensable, expend, expense and spend. Here, also, belong 
 ponder (L. ponderare, to wei^), ponderous audi preponderate. 
 In the Fr. penser, to think (L. pensare, to weigh) there is the 
 same radical idea as in Eng. ponder. Poise also finds its 
 place here from Fr. poids, weight, etc., L. pensum, cf. Fr. foin, 
 hay, from L. fenum. 
 
 281. Pes, stem ped, the foot (Sk. p&,da-s, from pad, to go ; 
 Gr. iretps for tteSJos and irovs, stem iro8, from which Eng. tri- 
 pod and antipodes / Lith. padas, the sole ; Gm. fusz, Eng. 
 foot, fetlock, and fetter), pediment, pedal, pedestal, pedestrian, 
 pedigree ; biped, quadruped, expeditious (lit. out of the way 
 of the feet), impede (lit. in the way of, etc.), speed (L. ex' 
 pedire, It. spedire). From -iri^a, a foot, and also a border, 
 or hem of a garment (M. L. pecia. It. pezza, Sp. pieza, Fr. 
 piece), comes Eng. piece. 
 
 282. Petere, petitum, to seek, to go after, to, or against 
 (Sk. pat, to fly, Gr. Trero/xai, cf. Gr. irrepov, a wing, and Sk. 
 patram, and irun-ta for TrL-iriru)), petition, appetency, appetite 
 and appetize, compete, competence, competent, impetuosity 
 (L. impetus), perpetual (L. perpetuus, lit. to seek throughout. 
 Cf. for sense perseverantia), repeat. From the same orig. 
 
456 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 root with petere is penna, Old L. pesna, for petna, Eng. pen 
 (o'rig. a feather, like Gm. feder, a pen), and pennate. 
 
 283. Picea, a pine tree, pix, pitch and pinus, for picnus (of. 
 for form luna for lucna, and sedecim for secdecim), the pine tree 
 are all from a common original Avian root pic. The Greek . 
 correspondents show plainly the same ultimate radication as 
 irevKr), the fir (L. picea) and ■TrtWa, pitch (L. pix) for earlier 
 ■jTiKia (like Tacrtro) for rayiw). So, irtirus (L. pinus), the pine tree, 
 is prob. for orig. ttuctvs. 
 
 With the same ultimate Arian root pic, meaning sharp, 
 pointed, is connected Gr. irtxpos, sharp, pungent, hitter (a 
 word itself formed from bite, as are also bit and bits). Here 
 cluster too a large number of cognate words in the modem 
 languages, as Eng. pike (Fr. pique), to piqite (Fr. piquer), 
 picket (Fr. piquet), /lec/fc and pick (Gm. Tpickeu), picMe (cf., for 
 form, tickle from tick and tackle from tack. J'eak and beak 
 are of the same general radication (Sp. pico. It. picco and 
 becco, Fr. pic and bee), as are also beaker and pitcher (M. L. 
 picarium), in allusion to their sharp nose. See L. pungere. 
 
 From pinus come pine and savin, (It. savina = L. sabida 
 pinus, the Sabine pine. Cf. Gm. sabenbaum). 
 
 284. Pingere, pictum, to paint, adorn (Sk. pig and pin^, 
 to form, figure, adorn, Gr. itoikiXos, variegated : c£ Sk. p^gala-s, 
 beautiful), paint, picture, pigment, depict. 
 
 286. Pinsere, pinsum, and pistum, to beat, pound, bruise 
 (Sk. pish, to bruise, Gr. ■m-ia-cria), pinch and pincers (Fr. pincer), 
 piston and pistol (referring to the pushing- out force of the 
 powder. The Fr. word for gun is fusil, L. fundere, fusum, 
 a pourer forth), pistil, pestle (L. pistrilla, a little pounding 
 mill). 
 
 286. Pipire, to pip or chirp (Gr. nmnri^w, I chirp, onomato- 
 poetic), peep (Fr. piper), pip, pipe (It. and Sp. pipa, Fr. pipe), 
 Jlfe (It. piffaro, Sp. pifaro, Fr. piffre and fiffre, Gm. pfeiffen), 
 pigeon (L. pipio-n. It. piccione, Sp. pichon, Fr. pigeon). 
 
 287. Pius, affectionate, tender, dutiful [its etymological 
 connections Curtius leaves untouched. Kuhn associates it 
 with Sk. priya-s, beloved, and Gr. cjiikoi for supp. earlier c^Xtios. 
 Ebel connects it with -^inos, soft, gentle. Aufrecht refers it 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 457 
 
 to same root with L. apisoi, to obtain, and Sk. apya-s, rela- 
 tionship. Corssen unites it with Sk. pu, to purify (like L. 
 poena, which see), regarding it as for earlier supp. form, 
 povius], pious, impious. Cf. L. expiare, to make satisfaction 
 for, Eng. expiate. 
 
 288. Planus (for orig. placnus), flat, level (Gr. TrXaf, flat 
 land. Cf. irXaKovs, a flat cake, and irXaKLvo's, made of board, 
 and TrXttKcpos, broad), plane, plain, explain, piano (It. do., lit. 
 flat, smooth, from L. planus). 
 
 See latus for other derivatives from the same ultimate 
 root. 
 
 289. Plaudere, plausum, to clap or strike, to applaud by 
 clapping (Gr. irXardcro-ai, I slap or clap), applaud, explode, ex- 
 plosion (L. explodere, explosum : cf. for vowel-changes L. 
 fauces and suffbcare, Eng. suffocate), plausible and plaudit, 
 
 290. Plere, to fill (Sk. pri and pfir, to fill', piparmi and 
 prinarmi, I fill up), cf. pr&na-s and purna-s, fall ; Lith. pilnas, 
 full, Gr. TrL^Tr\riiJ.i, I fill, stem irXe. Cf. TrXecflS and -TrAijpijs, full, 
 
 L. plenus, and Gr. irXoBros, riches. Gr. ?rdXis, a city (Eng. 
 polity, politics, and police, and metropolis and sufiSx -pie and 
 -pies, as in Constantinopfe and Napfes) is prob. connected 
 with this same class of special foi-ms from the same general 
 root, referring to the number of people gathered together], 
 plenary, plenipotentiary (+potentia), replenish, complete, 
 complem,ent, accomplish (Fr. aecomplir), deplete, implement, 
 replete, supplement. L. plebes (the common people), Eng. 
 plebeian, belongs here (cf. Gr. ttX-^^os). Here, too, we must 
 place L. plus, more, for plo-us, for plo-i-us, (Sk. puru-s, Yedic 
 pulu-s,- much, many, and Sk. pula-s, Gr. ■n-oXiJs), plural, sur- 
 plus. From populus (= plus reduplicated), come popular, 
 populous, population, people (Fr. peuple), public (L. publicus 
 for populicus), republic, publish, publican (in England, a hotel- 
 keeper ; in the scriptures, a tax-gatherer), populate and de- 
 populate. 
 
 291. Plicare, to fold or doable np (Sk. prach and prich, 
 to join together, Gr. irXe'/co), I twist : with irXoxos, a derivative 
 of which is connected with L. floccas, Eng. Jlook and lock. 
 Plectere is a strengthened form of the same root, from which 
 
458 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 comes Eng. plait ; cf. L. ampleeti and also flectere), ply (8p. 
 plegar, Fr. plier), pliant, pliable, apply, (the figure in this 
 word being that of a rower, drawing in his arms, as he toils), 
 and application (Fr. appliquer) ; complex, complexion (L. com- 
 plecti, to embrace or surround), complicate (L. coraplicare), 
 complicity (Fr. complicit6), accomplice (Fr. complice, from 
 L. complicatus), duplex, duplicate and duplicity ; explicate 
 and eaplicit ; implicate, implicit and imply ; perplex ; reply 
 and replication ; simple (L. simplex = singulus+plicare), 
 double, triple, supple (lit. doubling under), suppliant, suppli- 
 cate; play (referring to the ever-doubling movements of 
 those engaged in sport or in enacting a drama), and display 
 (Sp. desplegar, Fr. deployer) ; deploy (Fr. deployer = L. de+ 
 explicare), employ (Fr. employer, Sp. emplear, It. impiegare, 
 L. implicare), exploit (Fr. exploiter, M. L. explectare, from 
 earlier form explicitare), and complot (Fr. do. for comploit). 
 
 292. Plumbum, lead, for orig. (m)blumbum : cf Gr. /SAci- 
 (TKin for fi^Xiia-KU} (Gr. ixokvjSoi and /j,dXv/38os, lead). From plum- 
 bum come plumbago, plumber, plummet, plumb-]iae, plunge 
 (Fr. plonger. It. piombare, L. plumbare ; and a probable inter- 
 mediate form, plumbicare. Cf for form L. judicare and ven- 
 dicare, and Fr. juger and venger, L. judge and avenge). 
 
 293. Poena, satisfaction, penalty, for orig. po(v)ina (Gr. 
 iroivi} for iroMvT^, quit-money, ransom, Sk. pu, to purify : — cf. 
 L. pur us for pourus, of same Ta,dica,tion), pain (lit. penalty), 
 penal, penalty, penance, penitent (L. poenitet, etc.), repent 
 (Fr. se repentir), impenitent, punish (L. punire), impunity. 
 
 294. Ponere, posui, positura (for posnere, stem pos nasal- 
 ized, Sk. pag, to make firm or sure), position, positive, post 
 (It. posta, Fr. poste). From L. praepositus, placed over, 
 comes Eng. provost (It. prevosto, Sp. preboste, Fr. prevot, 
 Gm. probst), posture, post-office (where the mail is placed), 
 apposite, apposition, compound, compose, compost (Fr. com- 
 pote, It. composta, for L. composita, uom. pi. neut. of pass, 
 past. part, of componere : lit. things placed together), depo- 
 nent, depose, deposit, depot and depository, expcmnd and ea;- 
 pose, dispose and disposition, impound, impose and impost, 
 interpose, opponent, opposite, preposition, postpone, propose, 
 
IN COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 459 
 
 a/pvopoa (Fr. do. = L. ad proposituni),^Mrpose, repose^ reposi- 
 tory, suppose and supposititious. 
 
 295. Porta, a gate, and portus, a harbor, are of the same 
 ultimate radication, being each viewed as affording a passage 
 out and in. Their cognates in Greek are irepao), I pass 
 through : Tropos, a passage (from which come l/iiropos, a traveller, 
 a merchant, and e/iTrdptos, belonging to merchandize, Eng. 
 emporium), and Tropeiiw, etc. From porta, a gate, comes Eng. 
 porter, and from portus, a harbor, come port and opportune 
 (L, opportunus, lit. lying over against, or favorable to the har- 
 bor). Eng. importune and importunate (L. importunns, lit. 
 inconvenient, rude, troublesome) belong here. Cf. for form 
 Portunus, the god of harbors (from portus, like the above 
 words). 
 
 Portare, to bear, is perhaps connected with the same ulti- 
 mate root, having the fundamental sense of going out and in 
 (cf Eng. carry from L. carrus). From portare come com' 
 port, deportation, export, import, report, support, transport. 
 
 296. Poscere, to beg or demand (prob. for orig. p(r)oscere ; 
 and so, like L. precari and rogare, for orig. (p)rogare, derived 
 from the same root with Sk. prachh, to ask : see precari and 
 rogare). Of poscere, L. postulare is a dim. form (like ustu- 
 lare of urere, ustum) and from it come Eng. postulate and 
 expostulate. For aphaeresis of r in poscere, cf. L. pestis (Gr. 
 iripOu)) for pe(r)stis, and L. prosa for prorsa for pro-versa. 
 
 297. Potare, to drink [Sk. pS, and pi, to drink ; pibS-mi, I 
 drink ; cf. L. bibere, to drink, and. Eng. bib, bibber, and bibu- . 
 lous, beverage (Fr. breuvage. It. beveraggio (Gr. tt'lvw, Aeol. 
 TTMvo), fut. TToa-m, stem TTo aud iroTi/s, a drinker. Cf. Lith. pota, 
 tippling], potation, potion, pottage (M. L. potagium, Fr. po- 
 tage. With Gr. ttiVo) is connected Gr. ^iAXtq, a drinking vessel, 
 Eng. phial). 
 
 298. Potis, able (Sk. pati-s, a master, lord, or husband. 
 Cf L. suffix -pte, as in suopte, and also -pse, as in ipse = i(s) 
 +pse ; Gr. ttoVis and also Se<nroiva and Bea-irorr]?, Eng. despot, 
 Lith. pati-s, a husband. Kuhn (Zeitsch. I. 464) compares 
 Siinroiva, for form, although of different sense, with Sk. D&sa- 
 patni, an Indian goddess). From potis with esse, to be, 
 
460 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 comes posse, and from posse, part, potens, come potent, im- 
 potent, potentate (M. L. potentatus), possible, power (Fr. 
 pouvoir). From potis, with seders (or possidere, lit. to sit 
 by, be master of) come possess, prepossess and dispossess. 
 
 Possidere may be with equal probability also thonglit to 
 be another form for earlier por-sidere, for pro+sedere, like 
 poUiceor and poUuo for pro-Iiceor and pro-lao. The sense is 
 in either case, fundamentally, the same : in the one case " to 
 sit master of^" and in the other "to sit before," i. e. one's 
 property, to hold or protect it. 
 
 299. Prae, prep, before, for prai : and also pro, orig. prod-, 
 Sk. prati, which is the paronym also of L. redi- and red-, as in 
 L. redivivns (Sk. pra, before, Lith. pra and pro. The orig. 
 adjective form pris for prius for prai-us, with which prior and 
 primus for praimus are connected, is lost. Traces of it ap- 
 pear in the Gr. TrptV, before, and also in L. priscus, ancient, 
 (cf. Gr. irpecr^vs), and pristinus, primitive. With the sup. 
 primus, cf. Sk. prathama-s, and Lith. pirmas), prior, prime, 
 primary, primate, primer, premier (Fr. premier, for L. primus), 
 prim (Provengal do., fine, etc.), primogeniture (+L. gignere), 
 prince (L. princeps = primum, sc. locum, capiens) and also 
 principal and principle (L. principium). 
 
 300. Precari, to pray to or for (Sk. prachh, to ask. Cf. 
 Trpoia-a-caOai), pray (Fr. prier), precarious (lit. needing to be 
 prayed for), precatory, deprecate, imprecate. 
 
 301. Prehendere, prehensum, and syncopated prendere, to 
 seize or lay hold of (Gr. yaxhavw, stem yah ; Goth, hinthan, 
 to seize, which agrees closely with the Latin ; Eng. and Gm. 
 hand ; cf. also, Goth, bigitan, Ags. gitan, which corresponds 
 more with the Greek, Eng. ge(), prehensile, apprehend, com- 
 prehend, comprehensive, reprehend ; a prize (Fr. prendre, 
 part, pris and prise), ^isow (Fr. do., It. prigione, Sp. prision), 
 apprize (Fr. apprendre, part, appris), apprentice (Fr.apprenti), 
 comprise, surprise. L. praeda is doubtless also for prae- 
 (hen)da, from which come Eng. predatory and prey and de- 
 predate. 
 
 302. Premere, pressum, to press (cf Gr. ■n-pt'^o) and irpia), 
 T grind between the teeth, and Tp-qOui, I drive out by blow- 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 461 
 
 ing), press, compress, depress, express (lit. to squeeze out, as 
 the juice of grapes. Of. for sense, Gm. ausdriioken), im- 
 press, oppress, repress and irrepressible, suppress; print 
 (L. imprimere, Fr. empreindre, part, empreint, cf. also It. 
 imprenta and imprintare), imprint, and imprim,atur (lit. let it 
 be printed ; like exequatur, let it be executed). 
 
 303. Pretium, price, worth, value (Gr. Trnrpao-Ku), I sell, 
 irpla/jLai, I buy, Trpacris, a sale, and Trpariov, to be sold), price 
 (Fr. prix), prize (Fr. priser, verb), precious (L. pretiosus), 
 praise (Gm. preisen), and appraise, appreciate and depreciate. 
 
 304. Privus, separate, private (from prari, — see prae, prisons, 
 primus, etc. — lit. before, beyond, by one's self), privy, private, 
 deprive (L. privare), privilege (L. privilegium = priva lex, a 
 law, lit. not for, but against one). 
 
 305. Probus, good, upright (cf. Gr. irpSos, gentle, meek, 
 excellent, and Sk. pri, to love), probity and improbity. With 
 this is perhaps connected L. probare, to prove (i. e. to see 
 ■whether good or no), and to approve (as good), from which 
 are Eng. probe, probable, probate, probation, prove (Fr. 
 prouver), proof (Fr. preuve), approve, approbation, improve, 
 improbable, reprove, reprobate, reprieve (Fr. reprouver), lit. to 
 try again (cf. for form retrieve from Fr. retrouver). 
 
 306. Prope, near to, nigh (from same root as pro, before ; 
 cf. Sk. prati, Gr. irpos, old form irpoTt, Aeol. -n-poTzl, just by). 
 The comp. and sup. forms derived from it are propior, proxi- 
 mus. Proprius, one's own (lit. near by one ; cf. for sense, 
 possidere, which see under potis) is from prope. From these 
 words come Eng. proprietor, propriety, property, proper (L. 
 proprius, Fi-. propre), appropriate, propitious, propitiate, pro- 
 pinquity (L. propinquus), approach (L. appropinquare, Fr. 
 approoher), proximity, approximate (L. proximus), proxy, re- 
 proach (Fr. reprocher, lit. to come back, near to : cf. Fr. 
 proche, near to, from L. prope). 
 
 307. Puer, a boy [Gr. Traw, from which, or its derivatives, 
 come pedagogue = irai^iov-^-ayu), lit. to lead a child ; encyclo- 
 paedia = iraiSeta ev kvkSxo ; page, a boy, Gr. •jratSiW, It. paggio, 
 Fr. page ; jsedfobaptism a,ndi pedant (It. pedante, Fr. pedant). 
 In the Spartan dialect, irats occurs as irdlp. In old inscriptions 
 
463 A SYNOPSIS or illustrative examples 
 
 it appears as por, as in Marcipor ; like our English way of 
 tnakirfg surnames, as in Thomason, Jamieson, etc.]. From 
 puer come puerile, puerperal (puer+parere), puberty (L. 
 puber), pupa (L. pupus and pupa cent, from puberus, etc.), 
 puppet, pup, and puppy (as being young), ^jM7(L.pupillus), 
 bub and booby (Gm. bube), and babe, pusillanimous (L. do., 
 lit. having the mind of a little boy). With puer is perhaps 
 connected L. puUus (for puerulus), a young animal, a young 
 chicken, Eng. pullet and poultry (cf L. juvenca, a bullock, and 
 juvenis, a youth). 
 
 308. Pangere, punctum, to prick or puncture (c£ Gr. 
 TTiVKri, the fir viewed as being sharp pointed : see word picea), 
 pungent, poignant (Fr. poindre, part, poignant), poniard 
 (Fr. poignard), compunction, expunge ; punctuate, punctual, 
 punctilious, point (L. punctum. It. punto, Fr. point), ap- 
 point (M. L. appunctare and appointare), disappoint. Here 
 belongs punch (^Sp. punzar and punehar. It. punzellare, M. L. 
 puncture). 
 
 309. Purus, clean, undefiled (Sk. pd, to purify, Gr. irvp, 
 fire, Gm. feuer, Eng._/?re), pure, purify, purge (L. purgare = 
 purum +agere : see agere in Synopsis No. 6. for other ex- 
 amples of a similar sort), purgatory, expurgated ; impurity, 
 spurious (L. spurius = se, insep. prep, without, and purus, 
 pure : cf. L. serius and sobrius, for style of formation). See 
 word poena. 
 
 310. Putare, to cleanse, clear up, prune, arrange, reckon, 
 etc., amputate (L. amputare = ambi+putare, to cut around), 
 compute, depute, dispute, impute, reputation, disrepute, count 
 (Fr. compter. It. contare, L. computare), counter (Fr. comptoir), 
 account (formerly written aocompt) ; discount. 
 
 311. Quaerere (for quaesere), quaesitum, to seek : query, 
 question, acquire (lit. to seek after), acquisition, conquer (Fr. 
 conquerir = cum armis quaerere), exquisite (lit. sought out 
 from among other things. Cf for sense egregious=e grege), 
 inquire, inquest, inquisitive, inquisition, perquisite, require, 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 463 
 
 request, requisition, prerequisite, curious (L. curiosus. Cf. for 
 form, cujus, with its nominative form, ,quis). 
 
 312. Quatere, quassum, to beat, shake, move: concussion 
 (L. concutere, concussum), discuss (L. discutere,, lit. to shake 
 apart), percussion (cf. for sense, L. incus, an anvil, from in- 
 cutere = in+quatere, and L. subscus, a dovetail, from sub 
 and quatere) and quash (L. quassare, freq. form of quatere). 
 Eng. squash (Gm. quatsch), sometimes fancied to belong here, 
 is but an abbreviated Indian word, " askutasquash," lit. the 
 vine-apple. So, the word " tobacco," which Sipme waggish 
 Grecist once etymologized as being for tm BdKp^M, or, sacred to 
 the god of wine, is an Indian word in its origin. 
 
 313. Quatuor, four [Sk. chatur and chatvlira-s, Lith. ket- 
 uri, Gr. TcWopes, Archaic Traro-vpes and iriavp^^, with which cf. 
 Celtic petor. For the interchangeableness of gutturals and 
 labials, as in quatuor and ria-uapes, for ireWapc's, cf. also Gr. 
 irti/re, five, and L. quinque, and also Gr. ttoIs and irore, Ionic 
 k5s and Kore, Sk. kati and kadS,. See also Gr. urrros, Aeol. 
 iKKos, L. equus], quart (L. quartus), quarter and quarters 
 (It. quartiere, Sp. quartel, Fr. quartier), quadrant, quadra- 
 ture, quadruped (+pes, pedis), quadruple (+plicare, to fold), 
 quadrille (It. quadrello, Sp. quadrillo), square (L. quadrare, 
 It. squadrare, Fr. equarrir and carrer), squadron (L. qua- 
 dratus. It. squadrone, Sp. esquadron). 
 
 314. Quies, stem quiet, rest (Sk. > gi, to lie down, Gr. 
 KEiftat, I lie down ; cf. kw/a?;, a village, and Goth, haims, Eng. 
 home and hamlet. See Synopsis No. 180), quiet, quiescent, 
 quietus, quit (Fr. quitter, from L. quietus) and acquit (Fr. 
 acquitter). 
 
 315. Quis, quod and quid (Sk. ka-s, k^, ka-t, for prob. 
 earlier form kva-s, etc., as evinced by the correlate Latin and 
 German forms : Lith. kas, Gr. rts, tI, Ionic kis, Goth, hver, 
 hvas, Eng. who, what) quiddity. Of same ultimate radication 
 are L. qualis, of what sort, Eng. quality and qualify (+L. 
 facjo). L. ubi, where, is for cubi, for quubi, for orig. quobi, 
 as in alicubi (= -alius -f- quobi): cf. for form, L. tibi and sibi 
 and ibi (old dat. of is, he), and Umbrian tefe (for tibi) and 
 Oscan sifei (for sibi) : — all these various suffixes being equiva- 
 
464 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 lents to the Sk. dative snfSx — ^bhyam ; with which cf. also the 
 pi. L. suiBx -bis, as in nobis and vobis and Sk. -bhyas. From 
 L. ubique (+L. que) comes ubiquity. L. uter, also (for cuter, 
 for orig. quoteros : c£ Gr. iroTipos, Ion. Korepos, Sk. katara-s) is ■ 
 the foundation of L. neuter (= ne-|-uter) and Eng. neuter, 
 neutral and Neutralize. 
 
 L. quantuk is of the same derivation with quis, from which 
 comes Eng. quantity. 
 
 Here too belongs L. quotus, as of the same original radi- 
 cation ; from which come Eng. quota (L. do. sc. pars. It. do., 
 Fr. cote, a share or part), quote (It. quotare, to put a thing in 
 its proper place : cf It. quoto, order), coterie (Fr. do., a set, 
 or circle, from Fr. coter, to letter or number). 
 
 316. Rabere, to rave, be mad : rave, rabid (L. rabidus), 
 rage (L. rabies, Fr. rage), enrage, rabble (from L., rabula, a 
 wrangler, used in the pi.) 
 
 317. Racemus, a cluster of grapes (Kuhn places here Sk. 
 draksha-s and Gr. paf, payos for (8)pa|), racy (lit. having the 
 flavor of the grape), used properly of wine ; raisin (M. L. ra- 
 cenius for racemus, Fr. raisin, grapes). 
 
 318. Radere, rasum, to scrape or shave: raze,rasor(^r. 
 rasoir), abrade, erase. Here belong rail and raillery (Fr. 
 railler from a L. form radulare : cf. for form L. rallum, a 
 ploughshare, for radulum). 
 
 319. Radius, a staif or rod (cf. L. radix, etc.), radius, ray 
 (L. radius, Pr. rais, a spoke of a wheel, and Fr. rayon, a ray 
 and radius : cf. It. raggio), radiate, radiant, irradiate. 
 
 320. Radix, a root (Gr. pi'^a, Lesb. fSpia-Sa, which all com- 
 pared with Gotb. vaurts and Gm. wurzel indicate the loss of 
 an initial v from radix, for (v)radix. Cf., for form, L. lupus 
 and Gr. Xvkos, for (v)lupus, and {F')kvKOi together with Sk. 
 vrika-s, and Lith. vilkas ; and also L. rigare, to water, etc., 
 for (v)rigare, as compared with Gr. Ppix^iv), radicle, ra- 
 dical, radish (lit. a root : Fr. radis, Gm. radies), eradicate, 
 ineradicable. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 465 
 
 321. Rapere, raptum, to seize [Gr. apTra^u), prob. for earlier 
 paira^iD, I seize : cf. also apvaXeo^. Pott connects rapere with 
 L. rumpere, ruptum, in origin as in sense, and places it 
 therefore with Sk. lup and lump. Corssen agrees with him 
 and regards L. rapere with its vowel-a-form as exhibiting the 
 earlier radical type of which the vowel-w-forms are but sub- 
 sequent weakenings. Benfey, however, compares it with Sk. 
 hi-apayami, a causative form of the root har, to take], rape, 
 rapacious (L. rapax), rapine (L. rapina), rapid (L. rapidus), 
 
 • rapture (lit. the state of being borne oif or away) ; ravine (Fr. 
 ravin), lit. torn asunder ; ravish (Fr. ravir, ravissant, to take 
 away), and ravage (Fr. ravager). With L. rapere is con- 
 nected M. L. raubare, to steal or plunder, Gm. rauben, Eng. 
 rob (cf. Gaelic reubainn, robbery). 
 
 The noun rauba, or raupa (M. L.) meant spoils, plunder, 
 and especially outside garments, as being then the chief 
 plunder of battle, from which came Fr. robe, and from this 
 Eng. robe, disrobe, and wardrobe (Fr. garderobe). 
 
 322. Ratio, a reckoning, reason, etc. (from L. reri, ratusi 
 to think), ratio, ration (It. razione, Sp. racion), rate {berate 
 and rate, to chide, are from Gm. bereden), reason (Fr. raison), 
 rational and ratiocinate. 
 
 323. Re, insep. prep, for red- and redi-, back, again (Sk. 
 prati, against, opposite to, etc.), re- as in renew, respect / rear 
 and arrears (Fr. arriere = L. ad retro), L. rursus = re-j-ver- 
 sus (cf L. sursum = sub+versum). Fr. dernier (and Eng. do.) 
 belongs here (= M. L. de-retranus) and Eng. ransom (Fr. 
 ran^on from L. redemptio : in some of the Fr. dialects this 
 word appears as raembre). 
 
 324. Regere, rectum, to lead straight, to guide (Sk. rij, 
 to gain : pres. tense arjami, I attain to. Cf Sk. riju-s, 
 right, and raji-s, a row, aud rijra-s, a leader. Cf. also 
 
 . modern Hindu title Rajah. The Gr. paronym is opcyo, — o 
 being euphonic — I reach out : the Gm. paronym is reichen, 
 Eng. reach). From regere come Eng. regent, regency, 
 regular (L. regula), regulate, rule (cf. for form of- contraction 
 of rule from L. regula, Eng. rail from Gm. riegel or Fr. sfir, 
 Eng. sure from L. securus), and ruler ; region (L. regio, 
 Vol. II.— 30 
 
466 A SYNOPSIS or illustrative examples 
 
 viewed as being definitely marked out) ; right (L. rectus, ruled 
 or made according to rule ; of. Gm. recht and Goth, raihts), 
 and downright, upright, righteous, rector (L. do.), and rec- 
 tify ; correct and incorrigible (L. corrigere), direct (L. diri- 
 gere), erect (L. erigere), surge, insurgent, insurrection and 
 resurrection (L. surgere=sub+regere, and resurgere). Here 
 belong also Eng. source and resource (Fr. source from M. L. 
 sursa, as the M. L. form also of L. surgere is sursere). 
 
 From rex, regis, a king, a subst. deriv. of regere, to rule 
 (cf. Sk. r&j and rajan, a king) come regal, regalia, royal (Fr. 
 do., from roi, a king. Cf., for form, Fr. loi, law, from L. lex), 
 viceroy (+L. vicis), realm (Sp. realme, obs. and Fr. reame : 
 cf. Fr. royaume), regimen (L. do.), regime (Fr. do.) and re- 
 giment (Fr. do.), regnant (part. L. regnare). 
 
 Here belongs also adroit (Fr. adroit, dexterous. In L. 
 dexter, Eng. dexterous, is the same fundamental idea as in 
 Fr. adroit = a, to, droit, the right path = L. directam, so. 
 viam). 
 
 From corregere or rather excorregere comes Eng. scourge 
 (It. scorregiare) as also escort (It. scortare), lit. to go with, so 
 as to drive off enemies. From L. directus, pass. part, of diri- 
 gere, come through the intermediate forms directiare and di- 
 rizzare, the Fr. dresser, to put right or set up straight, and 
 Eng. dress, as well as Fr. adresser, Eng. address. Thus, 
 strangely, are words, of the most diverse sense, immediately 
 connected with each other, in their origin. 
 
 325. Kenes, for (p)renes, the reins [Sk. plihan, the milt 
 Gr. ^piyv, and pi. <^pi.vi<i, from which Eng. phrenetic, phreno- 
 logy (+Gr. \(y^oi), frenzy (Gr. (^peviTts, It. frenesia, Fr. fre- 
 nesie], reins. Of the same ultimate radication is prob. Gr. 
 <nr\-rjjv, Eng. spleen and splenetic. 
 
 326. Ridere, risum, to laugh, for (k)ridere (cf. Sk. krid, to 
 laugh), ridiculous, risible, deride, serious (= L. se, without, 
 +ridere, to laugh. Cf. for form, L. sobrius, Eng. sober = se, 
 privative,+ebriu8). 
 
 327. Rivus, a small stream of water (for (s)rivus. (The Sk. 
 correspondent of the ultimate root of rivus is the verb sru, 
 to flow ; pres. tense srav&mi, I flow : cf. srdta-s, a stream. The 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 467 
 
 Gr. paronym of Sk. sru is pew for a-piFui, fut. p€v<TVi ; from 
 which come Eng. rheum and rheumatism, Gr. pevfui, a flow or 
 flux ; and catafrh, lit. a flowing down, Karappeio : cf. also Lith. 
 svava, a stream. Cf., for form, Gr. pocjiia, for crpocjieu} and L. 
 Borbeo, I drink up, Eng. absorb). From L. rivus come Eng. 
 river (It. riviera, Sp. ribera, Pr. rivi6re) and rivulet / rival 
 and rivalry (L. rivalis, lit. using the same brook), derive (Fr. 
 deriver). The word arrive has no connection with rivus, but 
 is compounded of L. ad+ripam (Fr. arriver, It. arrivare, Sp. 
 arribar : cf. It. riva, a bank or shore, and Sp. ribs). Corssen 
 ingeniously refers to the same root with pew, rivus, and Sk. 
 sru, L. Roma, Home, for Sroma (cf. Thracian 'Xtpv/it)), lit. the 
 river-city. 
 
 328. Robur, strength, power, hardness (Sk. radha-s, riches, 
 ability, is correlated with it, as Kuhn supposes : the changes 
 of form would be in such a view these, backwardly, robur, 
 rofur, rodhur. Cf. Gr. pdwvixi, for pw6wfi.i. Corssen accepts 
 this view, also, which seems in itself quite reasonable), robust 
 (L. robustus : c£ for formL. honestus from honor), corroborate. 
 
 329. Rogare, for (p)rogare, to ask, to beg (Sk. prachh, to 
 ask : cf. L. precari), rogation (a biU ashed of the people), ab- 
 rogate, arrogate and arrogant, derogatory, interrogate, prero- 
 gative, prorogue, surrogate (lit. a substitute, i. e. as a judge). 
 
 330. Rota, a wheel (Sk. ratha-s, a wheel, cf. Lith. ratas), 
 rote, rotate, rut (It. rotaja, a track of a wheel, a rut), roll (L. 
 rotulus. It. rotolo, Sp. rollo, Fr. role) and role (Fr. do.), and 
 control (Fr. controle = contre r61e or counter roll or check- 
 book), rotund (L. rotundus) and round (Fr. rond, cont. from 
 L. rotundus: cf. Fr. sur^ cont. from securus, Eng. sure), 
 around, surround (an Eng. word made up of Fr. sur+rond), 
 roundelay. 
 
 331. Ruber and rubrus, red, ruddy (Sk. r6hita-s, red, Gr. 
 epv6p6s, Gm. roth : cf Lith. rauda, redness, and rudas, brown. 
 Cf. also Sk. rudhiram, blood), red (Gm. roth), ruddy, ruby 
 (Gm. rubin), rubric (Sp. rubrica, Fr. rubrique), rubicund (L. 
 rubicundus) ; russet (L. russus. It. rosso, Sp. roxo, Fr. roux), 
 rouge (L. rubeus, It. roggio, Sp. roxo, Fr. rouge), rust (Gm. 
 rost: cf. Gr. ipva-i^i], mildew, and L. robigo). Cf. also Gr. 
 
468 A SINOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 poSov and L. rosa, Eng. rose ; as well as L. rutilus and rufus, 
 red, and Eng. prop, name Rufus. 
 
 332. Ruere, for {d)ruere, rutuni, to rush, etc. (Kuhn 
 connects it with Gr. opw/At and 6povu>, I rush forward, and Sk. 
 ar and ri, to rise : see L. oriri. Pott affiliates it with Sk. sru, to 
 flow : see L. rivus. Ebel and Corssen refer it, more justly, to 
 Sk. dru, to run), rush (of. Gm. rauschen and Gr. poOiu), and 
 also Eng. rustle and Gm. rasseln, and Eng. rattle, which are per- 
 haps all onomatopoetic). 
 
 332. Rumpere, ruptum, to break (Sk. lup, to break ; pres. 
 tense lumpami, I break. Cf. Gr. kviriia, I annoy), rupture, 
 abrupt, bankrupt (a hybrid), corrupt, disrupt, eruption and 
 interrupt (L. corrumpere, disrumpere, etc.). 
 
 L. rupes, a rock (viewed as being broken in fact or ap- 
 pearance) is to be placed here. 
 
 Here belong also Eng. rout (It. rotta, a defeat = L. rupta, 
 sc. res, aut tentatio), and route (Fr. do. = L. rupta, sc. via, 
 i. e. a paved or beaten road), and routine (Fr. do., i. e. a path, 
 etc., thoroughly broken). 
 
 S. 
 
 334. Saccus, for prob. earlier sacsus, a sack or bag, viewed 
 as a covering [Sk. sag, to cover,+the nominal suffix -ca : cf. 
 L. bacca and Sk. bhag : Gr. o-cikkos, a sack, and o-cittco, for 
 o-a-yio), I pack ; and perhaps Gm. sattel and Eng. saddle viewed 
 as a cover in part to the horse — cf., for sense, Eng. housing, 
 a covering for a saddle. Here belong too Gr. o-dyos, a coarse 
 heavy cloak, and L. sagum, a military cloak, and Gr. (ray-qvy), 
 a drag-net, viewed as enclosing the fishes, L. sagena, Fr. 
 seine, Eng. seine. L. soccus for sogcus, Eng. socTc, is of this 
 same radication, lit. a covering for the foot]. From L. saccus 
 come a sack and to sack, as a city (lit. to carry off in hags its 
 treasures), satchel (L. sacculus, dim. Fr. sachet), knapsack 
 [Gm. knappsack (cf Gm. knappen, to nibble), lit. a sack to 
 carry bits of food in], haversack (Gm. hafersack, lit. a sack 
 for oats : cf. L. avena, oats, with Gm. hafer and Fr. haveron), 
 and ransack (cf. Fr. saccager, of same sense : the initial syllable 
 ran here is perhaps the Fr. rond, round about). 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 469 
 
 335. Sacer, sacrum, consecrated to a divinity (cf. Gr.aytos, 
 sacred), sacred, sacrament (L. saoramentum, a soldier's oath, 
 a commercial pledge), sacrifice (+L. facere, lit. put to a sacred 
 use), sacrilege {= L. legere, to gather up and carry off, sacra, 
 sacred things), consecrate (H-L. con or cum, intensive in 
 force ; or, = cum corde), desecrate (+L. de, from, lit. to put 
 sacred things^ out of their true use), execrate (L. exsecrari, lit. 
 to wish or put sacred things away from others), and execrable 
 (L. exsecrabilis, e). 
 
 The L. verb sancire, sanctum, to make sacred or inviolable, 
 to ratify, is a strengthened form of the same root ; from which 
 come Eng. sanction, sanctify, sanctimonious (L. sanctimonia, 
 cf. for form, L. parsimonia from L. parous), saint (L. sanctus, 
 Fr. saint). 
 
 336. Sal, salt (Sk. sara-s and sara^m, salt, Gr. a\s, with 
 which cf. L. halec, brine), salt, saline, salsify (as especially 
 needing salt, to bring out its merits), salad (Sp. salado, salted), 
 salary (L. salarium, lit. salt money given to soldiers), sa'uce 
 (It. salsa, Fr. sauce, from L. salsus, like Fr. chaud, heat, from 
 L. calor), and sausage (It. salsiccia, Sp. salchicha, Fr. saucisse). 
 Here too belong isle and islet (Fr. ile for orig. isle) a,ndi' in- 
 sular as well as isolate (Fr. isoler), all from L. insula (= in 
 sale = Gr. Iv oXC). 
 
 33*7. Salire, saltum (Sk. sri and sar, to go, to flow, Gr. 
 aWo/nai for aXjofJiai, like /SdXXu) for pakjia, or <l>vWov for <l>v\jov, 
 L. folium), salient, salacious (L. salax), salmon (lit. the leaping 
 fish), saltatory and sally (Fr. saillir). Many interesting com- 
 pounds also belong here, as assail (Fr. assailir), and assault 
 (Fr. assaut) ; insult (L. insultare, freq. form of insalire, to leap 
 at, or on), desidtory (L. desultor, a circus rider, who vaulted 
 from one horse to another), exult (L. exsultare, to leap up 
 and down), and result (L. resultare, to spring back). 
 
 338. Salvus, safe (Sk. sarva-s, Gr. oAos, Eng. whole. Old 
 Epic form oJXos — cf. poetic form of salutation, oSXe, be well ! 
 hail ! like, for sense, L. salve ! — oAos being for earlier okFo^, 
 and this for o-oXFo's. The Oscan or Old Italian equivalent was 
 sollus. Of (liis same ultimate radicj,tion is the Gm. all, Eug. 
 all, being for alva, for halva, and equivalent to Sk sarva-s), 
 
470 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 safe, save (L. salvere, Fr. sauver), solvable, salvation, salve, 
 salver,' salvo, salute (L. salus, salutis), salutatory, salutary, 
 salubrity (L. salubris for salut-bris, lit. health-bringing : the 
 adj. suffixes -bar and -bri, like the nom. do. -bro and -bra, as 
 well as the derived ones -bulo, -bula and -bili, are all doubtless 
 of the same origin and sense with Sk. bhar, to bear, L. fero, 
 and Gr. <\iipw, 6m. baren, Eng. hear: cf. for ^rm those in 
 -cer, -cri, -cro and -era, and so in -culo, -cula, -clo and -cla, as 
 connected with Sk. kar, to make, etc., L. creare, cerno, etc.), 
 and insalubrious. 
 
 339. Sanus, sound, whole (Gr. o-aos, o-oos and o-Ss, safe, 
 sound), sane, sanative, sanitary, insane, sound (Gm. gesund). 
 
 340. Sapere, to taste, savor or smack of (Gr. dirds, juice, 
 etc. Cf. voffy^, sure, certain, lit. an adept in testing by taste 
 or smell, and also o-o<^ds of same ultimate scope for sense), 
 savor (L. sapor, Fr. saveur), insipid (L. insipidus), savan (Fr. 
 savoir, part, savant: cf. It. savere), sapient, sage (Fr. do., from 
 L. sapiens, Old Fr. saive, cf for form Fr. and Eng. rage. Old, 
 Fr. raive, from L. rabies). 
 
 The word sagacious, which, might be thought connected 
 ■with sage, is of a different origin, coming from L. sagax. So 
 savin, which might be thought to be L. sapida+pinus, the 
 savory pine, is L. sabina (Sp. do., Fr. savinier), sc. pinus, or 
 juniperus, the Sabine juniper, etc. 
 
 341. Satis, enough (for satius, neat, comp, form, likemagis, 
 for magius), sate, satiate, satiety, satisfy, saturate. Here too 
 belongs satire (L. satira, orig. satura; lit. a sufficieucy: a 
 medley, at first, as a matter of food, and secondly in writing). 
 
 342. Scabere, to scratch, to scrape : Eng. scab, scabbard, 
 shave (Gm. schaben), and shabby (Gm. schabig), as the word 
 scaly is often used to denote shabby. 
 
 The Gr. o-Kairrw is perhaps connected with L. scabere. 
 With a-KOLTTTti) is connected Gr. o-xac^os, anything dug out, as a 
 trench or tub or hull of a ship ; with which correspond Gm. 
 schiff and Eng. skiff and ship (which are but softened and 
 hardened forms of the same root, like bank and bench, seek 
 and beseech). The word equip (Fr. equiper. Old Fr. esquiper) 
 also belongs here, and means lit. to fit out a ship. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 471 
 
 343. Scandere, scansum, to leap or climb (Sk. stand, to 
 climb : cf. Gr. a-KavSaXov, a stumbling block, Eng. scandal and 
 scandalize), ascend (L. ascendere), descend (L. descendere), 
 condescend. From L. scala (for soandela) come escalade (Fr. 
 echelle) and scale (meaning a measuring rod). 
 
 344. Schale (German), a shell, peel, etc., a dish (cf. Gm. 
 schellen and schalen, to split or separate). Hence come shell, 
 scale, shale (cf. for hard and soft forms here respectively 
 speak and speech, milk and miloh). Skull too belongs here, 
 which is the Gm. bimschale, the irainshell (cf. for form Fr. 
 t^te, the head, from L. testa, a shell). Shilling also (Gm. 
 schilling, M. L. schellingus, derived from the German, It. scel- 
 lino, Fr. escalin) is of same origin and refers in its sense to its 
 being like a scale. > 
 
 345. Scheren (German), to shear; shear, shears, sherd; 
 scar and scarce (It.- scarso) may possibly belong here. 
 
 346. Scindere, scissum, for scidtum (stems scid and scind), 
 to divide, to cut (Sk. chhid, to divide, Gr. <tx'^w for (rxSvm, stem 
 07(18, 1 divide, from which Eng. schism, Gr. o-p^tcr/xa. Cf. also 
 (TKLSvafxai, to be scattered or dispersed, and o-xivSaX/tos, Gm. 
 schindel, Eng. shingle, as being split so narrowly. Cf. also 
 Gm. schinden, to split, and Gm. scheiden, to divide, Eng. 
 shite, lit. to separate from one's self. From Gm. schinden 
 comes Eng. skin (Gm. schande). From L. scindere, scissum, 
 come Eng. scissors, abscind, exscind, rescind. 
 
 347. Scire, to know (cfl Vedic Id, to know, and also kit 
 and Qit, to understand), science, conscience, conscious, 
 prescient. 
 
 348. Scribere, soriptum, to write (Gr. ypdijua, Gm. schrei- 
 ben. Cf., for correspondences of form, yXvifxa and L. soulpo, 
 Eng. sculpture ; •yXa^tu and L. scalpo, Eng. scalp and scalpel ; 
 ypo/t^as and L. scrofa ; ypvn] and L. scrnta ; ypliro^ and L. 
 scirpus ; and also L. gradi and Gm. schreiten), scribe, scrip, 
 scriptures, scribble, scrivener, ascribe, circumscribe, conscript, 
 describe and nondescript, inscribe, postscript, prescribe, re- 
 script, subscribe, superscription, transcript. 
 
 349. Se (insep. preposition) without : serious (L. serius = 
 L. se-f ridere, lit. without laughing) ; sober (L. sobrius = L. 
 
472 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 se-febrius, lit. without being inebriated) ; sole, solitary and 
 solitude (L. solus, gen. solius = L. se+ollus, archaic form of 
 ille — of. L. alius and Gr. aXAos — lit. without another) ; secure 
 (L. securus, lit. without care, and sure (Fr. sur, for orig. sars, 
 from L. securus, of. for form, Fr. mur, from L. maturus). 
 
 350. Secare, sectum, to cut (Sk. sagh, to cut, Gr. ikui and 
 fu'Xoi/, cut wood), secant, section, sect, segment (L. segmentum), 
 hisect (4-1'- bis), dissect (+L. dis, apart), insect (+L. in, in or 
 upon), intersect. 
 
 Here belong securis, an ax, and L. Sicania, and Sicilia, 
 Eng. Sicily (Sicani, etc., meaning lit. " the reapers "), refer- 
 ring to the grain early raised there (cf. for form, the early- 
 name of Italy, Oenotria, from oti/os, wine) ; and also L. secula, 
 Gm. sichel, Eng. sickel, as well as Eng. saw (Gm. sagen, 
 to saw). 
 
 The word risJc is but the L. resecare, to cut off or restrain, 
 from which come It. risicare, Sp. arriscar, Fr. risquer, and 
 Eng. risk. In Sp. risco, a clifi' (viewed as being cut down 
 sheer and bold), the idea which lies at the basis of the 
 kindred forms of this word in the various modern languages 
 appears. 
 
 351. Serael, once (cf. Gr. aTraf and Sk. sa-krit, once). With 
 this are connected. L. simplex for semplex (+L. plicare, to 
 fold), Eng. simple and simplify; and L. singulus for senculus, 
 Eng. single and singular. See also L. singultus, hiccoughs 
 (or, AiteA-cough) in which the stpp-by-step process of the 
 ailment is indicated. 
 
 352. Sedere, sessum, to sit (Sk. sad, to sit down — pres.tense, 
 sid^mi, I sit down — Gr. e^o/x,at for ISio/xai for o-£8to/x.at, stem IS, 
 from which Gr. KadiSpa and Eng. cathredal: cf. L. sidere, to set 
 down, etc., and Gr. t^u and l^dvu), Goth, sitjan and satjan), seat 
 (Sk. sada-s, Gr. eSos and L. sedes), sit (Gm. sitzen), set (setzen, 
 a causative form of sitzen), sediment (L. sedimentum), sedate 
 and sedative (L. sedare, to calm), sedulous (L. sedulus : cf. for 
 form L. credulus from credere), lit. sitting at or by a given 
 thing much, in order to do it. The idea in Latin of a lazy 
 person, deses (and so of desidia, laziness = L. de from+sedes, 
 a seat), is that of one who is oflF and away from his seat when 
 
IN COMPAXIATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 473 
 
 he should be on it, sitting up to his work. A see is L. sedes 
 or sedela, It. sedia, Fr. siege, Siadi session is L. sessio. There 
 are various compounds of sedere (from its own form directly 
 or from those of its derivatives sidere and sedare), as assess 
 and assessor (Pr. asseoir), assets and assize (Fr. assises), as- 
 siduous (L. assiduus, lit. sitting up to one's work), dissident, 
 insidious (L. insidiatus, lit. sitting in ambush) ; preside and 
 president (L. praeses, praesidis, lit. one who sits before others, 
 i. e. to manage them) ; possess (L. possidere, possessum = L. 
 potis+sedere, lit. to sit by or near, as master of any thing) ; 
 reside (L. residere, lit. to sit back or down), residue (L. resi- 
 duum) and residual / subside, subsidiary and subsidize (cf. 
 for sense Eng. succour =^ L. succurrere, lit. to run under, and 
 Eng. support, lit. to carry from underneath, and so Eng. 
 undertake). 
 
 Here too belong Eng. siege and besiege (L. sedes, It. 
 sedia and seggia, Fr. siege), lit. to beseat one's self, i. e. in the 
 neighborhood of the enemy, and so starve them out. Cf. for 
 sense, invest, to surround. 
 
 Counsel also'radicates itself here (L. consilium, orig. con- 
 sidium ; with which cf. L. sella and solium from L. sedere), as 
 do also chair and chaise (Fr. chaire and chaise from L. ca- 
 thedra, Gr. KaSiSpa : cf for form Fr. chalne, Eng. chain, from 
 L. catena, from which also Eng. concatenate"). 
 
 353. Senex, senis, an old man (Sk. sana-s, old, Gr. tvo^, 
 old : cf. Lith. senas, old, and senis, an old man), senile, senate 
 (L. senatus, lit. the council of the elders), and senator / and 
 senior, sire and sir (L. senior. It. signore, Spl" senor, Fr. sei- 
 gneur and sieur and monsieur, or, my sir ; like for sense Fr. 
 madame, Eng. madam, my lady). 
 
 The origin of the terminal x, in the nominative, or rather 
 of the double form of the root, with the suffix c and without 
 it, is a matter of interest. The occurrence of such words as 
 Seneca and senectus, formed on the base of the longer form 
 of the root, indicates its primitive co-existence with the shorter 
 form. Cf., for double root of similar form, but with the order 
 of use reversed in the direct and oblique cases, Gr. ywj;, gen. 
 
474 A SYNOPSIS OP ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 yvvaiKos, with the two primary stems ywd (or yw^) and 
 yvvaiK. 
 
 354. Sentire, sensum, to perceive, or observe (cf. Gm. 
 sinnen, to reflect, to meditate), sentient, sentiment, sentinel 
 (It. sentineUa, Fr. sentinelle, Sp. centinela), sense, sensible, 
 sensual, sensuous, sensation, sensitive, sentence, sententious, 
 assent, consent (lit. to think together with), dissent and dis- 
 senter, presentiment, resent, 
 
 355. Sequi, secutus, to follow (Sk. sach, Gr. eiro/iai, stem, 
 iir for creir ; and owXoTepos, the younger. Cf. Lith. seku, I 
 follow), sequel (L. sequela), sequence/ sue, suite, suitor (Fr 
 suivre, to follow, and noun suite, etc.), and suit (lit. to go 
 with or agree), suitable, etc. The compounds are consequent 
 and consequential and consecutive (L. consequi), execute and 
 executive (L. exsequi), obsequies (as being followed after to 
 the grave : cf. L. exsequiae for sense), obsequious, persecute, 
 prosecute, subsequent / second and secondary (L. seoundus from 
 sequendus. Here too belongs doubtless L. prep, secus, by, 
 beside, — or, by the sideof — ). 
 
 Here also belong ensue and issue* (Fr. do. from verb 
 issir, to go forth from, part, issu — contracted from issuivre), 
 pursue (Fr. poursuivre, part, poursu). 
 
 From L. sequi comes L. sooius (like L. modus from metiri, 
 sodalis from sedere, to sit, i. e. together, toga from tegere), 
 from which come social, associate, consociation, dissociate. 
 Cf. with L. socius the Sk. sachi-s, a friend, from Sk. sach, to 
 follow, and Lith. sekeyas, an imitator or follower. 
 
 From suchen, the Gm. correspondent of sequi, come Eng. 
 seek and beseech (Gm. besuchen, of somewhat different sense 
 — a frequent fact among words directly cognate with each 
 other — like the so frequently wide variations of form and as- 
 pect among blood-relatives). 
 
 356. Serere, sertum, to bind together, wreathe or join 
 (Sk. sar, as found in sar-at, a thread or wire, Gr. o-eipd, a 
 string, and eipo), I join or bind ; and also Lith. seris, a string), 
 assert (L. asserere, assert um, lit. to join to. Its sense in 
 
 * See Webster's absurd etymology of this word. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETTMOLOfiY. 475 
 
 English comes from its legal use in Latin, as in the phrase 
 "aliquem in servitutem asserere '.'), dissertation* {L. disser- 
 tare, a freq. form of L. disserere. Disserere means to set 
 apart, and dissertare, to do so, much or earnestly) ; insert (L. 
 inserere, to put into). Here also belong series (L. do.), and 
 serial. 
 
 Desert, the verb (Fr. deserter from L. deserere, desertum, 
 to unjoin and so to disjoin), and exert (L. exsertare, freq. 
 form of exserere, lit. to thrust out or forth much), are also to 
 be placed here. 
 
 And here probably belongs L. servus, a slave, a servant 
 etc. (instead of being derived from servare, to preserve, and 
 so meaning " a preserved man," as some have fancied). Its 
 sense is rather it is probable that of a man under a lien (from 
 serere, to unite or join : cf for sense Eng. obligation, from L. 
 obUgare, to tie or bind to). From L. servus come Eng. ser- 
 vant and serf (Fr. do.), service., servitor and servitude (L. ser- 
 vire, servitium, etc.) ; deserve and desert ; and dessert (Fr. 
 desservir and dessert. Desservir means to remove the cloth 
 after a meal). 
 
 Here belongs Eng. sergeant (Fr. sergent from L. serviens, 
 stem servient. It. sergente, Sp. sargento : lit. one in honorary 
 service to the king, as a civil or military officer). 
 
 357. Serere (prob. for sesere), sevi, satum, to sow (cf Gr. 
 a-dxa and a-qOia, I sift, bolt, shake, etc. Cf. Gm. saen, Ags. 
 savan, Eng. sow). Here belong semen (L. do. for sevimen, 
 seed), seminal,, semirMry (lit. a place for sowing seeds), and 
 disseminate. Here belongs desert (lit. unsown, untilled, and 
 80, secondarily, incapable of being cultivated). 
 
 358. Serpere, to creep (Sk. srip and sarp, to creep, with 
 wliich cf also L. repere, for earlier (s)repere, Eng. reptile and 
 Gi'. Ipirm and ifxTrv^o)), Eng. serpent and serpentine (a species ot 
 marble). 
 
 * Several corresponding words are worthy of mutual comparison here : 
 aa, discourse (L. discurrere, to run to find fro), dissertation (lit. the setting 
 apart earnestly or much of separate points), discussion (L. discutere, to shake 
 in pieces), dispute (L. disputare, lit. to think separately or divergently), dis- 
 quisition (L. disquisitio, lit. a search on various sides of a thing). 
 
476 A SYNOPSIS OP ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 359. Servare, to save, to keep (cf. Gr. ipvui, I guard, 
 watch, etc.), conserve, conservatism and conservatory ; ob- 
 serve, preserve, reserve and reservoir, and subserve and sub- 
 servient. 
 
 360. Severus, severe (cf. Gr. a-eiJi-vog, solemn, august, for 
 o-e/Si/os, and also <r€^o[iai, I reverence, Sk. saiv, to reverence), 
 severe, asseverate (L. asseverare), lit. to stick earnestly to, i. e. 
 a statement ; persevere (lit. to go earnestly through anything). 
 
 361. Signum, a mark, token, sign (probably correlate, as 
 Pictet suggests, with Sk. saj and sanj, to adhere to), sign (cf. 
 Gm. zeichnen), signal, signalize, signally, signet, signify, as- 
 sign, assignation, consign, design, designate, ensign (L. in- 
 signe : cf. Fr. enseigner, to instruct, i. e. by diagrams, pictures, 
 etc.), resign. Here belong also Eng. seal (L. sigillum, dim. 
 for orig. signuhim), and tocsin (Fr. do. =: Fr. toncher+sein, 
 It. segno, L. signum). 
 
 362. Simul, together, at the same time, from which comes 
 Eng. simultaneous (Sk. samam and sama, together, Gr. ayxa 
 and otJv, with, the L. paronym of which is cum. Cf also 
 o/Aos, common, and o/iotos, like, resembling, from which comes 
 Eng. Aomoeopathy). Here belongs L. similis, from which are 
 Eng. similar and assimilate (Sk. sama-s, Gr. oyaaXos, even, 
 like, Goth, sama), and similitude (L. similitudo). From L. 
 similare and simulare, to imitate, represent, and counterfeit, 
 which are of the same radication, come Eng. simulate and 
 dissimulate and semblance (It. sembrare, Sp. semblar, Fr. 
 sembler, where there is an epenthetic m., compared with L. 
 simulare ; as in Eng. tempt from L. tentare), assemble and as- 
 serfibly (M. L. assemblata and Fr. assemblee : the verb-form 
 being variously It. assembrare, Sp. assemblar, Fr. assembler), 
 dissemble (cf. Fr. dissemblance), resemble (Fr. ressembler, Sp. 
 resemblar. It. rassembrare). 
 
 With this same class of roots is connected prob. L. imitari, 
 to imitate (cf. Gr. S/jloio^, and also L. simia, the ape) ; and 
 with imitari, L. aemulus, Eng. emulous, are connected, by 
 being gunated : as, maereo compares with miser or aestas 
 (for aedtas) with Sk. idh. 
 
 363. Skkx and a-Kod, a shade (Sk. chh&,y&, for earlier sk&y^, 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 477 
 
 a shadow : cf. Gr. o-kotos, darkness), sky, viewed as a covering 
 <(cf. Danish skye, a cloud), shade and shaclow (Sk. chhad, to 
 cover or veil : cf. for sense, nubes, a cloud, with nubere, to 
 cover). Of the sanae ultimate radication is Gm. scheuen, to 
 avoid or hide one's self from ; from this immediately come 
 eschew (Gm. scheuen, It. schivare, Fr. esquiver), shpn and 
 shy (Gm. scheu). Here perhaps belongs also Gm. schuh (lit. 
 a covering, as also in Gm. handschuh, a glove, or covering for 
 the hand), Eng. shoe. 
 
 364. Solum, the ground (Sk. sad, to approach : cf. Gr. oSos, 
 a way, and oSSas, the ground, and tSatjios, a pavement), deso- 
 late (L. desolare, cf. for sense, L. vastus and devastare, and 
 Eng. vast, waste and devastate), exile (L. exsilium = L. ex+ 
 solum : cf. for relative forms, L. facultas and facilis from facere), ' 
 sill (It. soglia, Fr. seuil). Of same origin with L. solum, the 
 ground (as that used to walk upon), is L. solea, Eng. sole. 
 
 Eng. soil, which has been sometimes thought to belong 
 here, is, as the various equivalents in the Romanic languages 
 indicate, of another origin. Thus compare Fr. souille, a wal- 
 lowing place of wild boars, and souiller, to soil, with L. snil- 
 lus, pertaining to swine, from L. sus, from which Eng. sow and 
 swine : cf. also It. "sogliardo, dirty, and Sp. sucio. In this view, 
 which seems probable, of the etymology of the verb soil, the 
 noun soil is to be received as derived from it. 
 
 365. SoUus (Old Latin), whole, entire (Sk. sarva-s, Gr. 
 oXos for oXi^c)!, entire, from which Eng. whole and catholic, 
 Gr. Ko.doXiKO's, universal). From L, sollus is derived L. solidus, 
 complete, firm, dense, from which come solid, solidify, and 
 consolidate ; solder (L. solidare, to make solid), soldier (It. 
 soldato, Sp. soldado, Fr. soldat), from L. solidum, which was 
 at first a gold coin given to soldiers, and afterwards a silver 
 one (Fr. sol and sou are derived from this same word) ; soda 
 (It. soda, Fr. soude), contracted from L. solida, as being the 
 settlings or residuum of the lye of kelp or sea-weed. 
 
 366. Solvere, solutum, to loose (L. se-j-luere), found only 
 in the form reluere, in classical Latin. For change of radical 
 vowel e to o, of. socors {= L. se+cor). The Sk. equivalent 
 of L. luere in solvere is Ih, to cut, to cut apart, Gr. Xv(a, I 
 
478 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 loose ; from which Eng. loose (cf. Gtn. losen), and the sufBx, 
 -less (Gm. -los) and lose and loss (cf. Gm. yerlust). 
 
 From L. solvere come solve and solvent and solution; ab- 
 solve and absolute ; dissolve and dissolute, insoluble, resolve 
 and resolute. 
 
 L. solari and consolari, lit. to make whole, i. e. in feeling, 
 belong here ; from which are Eng. solace and consolation. 
 Under L. soUus arrange also L. solicitus, troubled, agitated 
 {= L. sollus+ciere, to be wholly stirred up), Eng. solicit and 
 solicitous (cf. also L. sellers, skilful = sollus+ars, complete 
 in art). 
 
 367. Sons, sontis, guilty (cf Sk. kshi, for orig. ski, to in- 
 jure, offend, etc., in its participial form kshayant — as proposed 
 by Leo Meyer — ), sin (Gr. alvofnai, I injure, Gm. svinde, Goth, 
 sundja). 
 
 368. Sonus, souud, for s(v)onus (Sk. svlbna-s, Gr. </kov^, for 
 {cr)il>u>vri ; from which Eng. phonetics, euphony, symphony, etc. 
 Cf. for form, L. serenus, for earlier s(v)erenus, Eng. serene, 
 from same root with Sk. svar, to shine.; L. se, himself, for 
 s(ve), and Gr. ?, for a-Fi, Sk. sva ; L. canis, a dog, for c(v)anis, 
 Gr. Kvutv, Sk. 5van ; L. soror, a sister, for s(v)osor, Sk. 
 svasiir, Gm. schwester, Eng. sister, and L. somnus, sleep, for 
 s(v)opnus. So L. sol, the sun, for s(v)ol, compares with Sk. 
 svar, to shine). Prom L. sonus come sound (It. sono, Sp. 
 sueno), sonorous (L. sonorus), consonant (a letter requiring a 
 vowel to be sounded with it), dissonant, resonant. Here too 
 belong Eng. person and personate from L. persona (orig. as 
 lit. a mask through which one sounded forth or spoke his part 
 on a stage: next, a character thus personated ; and, last of all, 
 any individual). Of the same ultimate radication is L. sermo, 
 speech (Eng. sermon), for earlier s(y)ermo(n) (Sk. svar, to 
 sound, etc.). 
 
 369. Sors, stem sort, a lot, decision by lot, chance, fate, 
 sort, assort (L. sortiri, to fix by lot), consort (+L. con or 
 cum), sorcerer (L. sortiarius, lit. one who draws lots or works 
 by chance or legerdemain. Cf. It. sortiere, Fr. sorcier and 
 Sp. sortero). 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 479 
 
 Eng. resort is from Fr. ressort (from sortir, to go forth or 
 out, etc.), and docs not belong here. 
 
 370. Spargo, sparsum, for orig. spar(c)tum (for loss of c 
 before the ending -sum, cf. L. ursus, a bear, for orig. ur(o)sus, 
 Gr. apKTOi, Sk. riksha-s, from arksa-s), to scatter, spread (Gr. 
 arireipui, for oTrepjo}, from which Eng. sporadic ; Sk. sphar and 
 sphur, to tremble, shake, etc.), sparse, aspersion, disperse, 
 intersperse. 
 
 371. Siraoj, I draw out or forth (Benfey compares with 
 this Sk. sphS,y), spasm, (Gr. o-Trair/xos), spasmodic (It. spasmo- 
 dico, Fr. spasmodique : the word is a prob. compound of 
 L. spasmus and modus rather than Gr. cnraa-jnos and eiSos. 
 Here belong too spay, and spavin (M. L. spavenus. It. spa- 
 venio). From Gr. <nrd6rj, any broad blade (L. spatha, It. 
 spada, Sp. espada, Fr. 6pee) come our words spade, paddle (L. 
 spatula, dimin., Gm. spatel), and Epaulet (L.spatula, Fr. 6paule, 
 for espaule, the shoulder, and Fr. epaulette, a shoulder-piece). 
 
 A span (as of horses) probably belongs here (Gm. spanne 
 and spannen), and also Gm. spinnen, and with it by conse- 
 quence the Eng. derivatives spin, spindle (Gm. spindel), and 
 spider, for spinder (Gm. spinne), the spinning animal ; and 
 
 372. Specere, to look, to look at (Sk. spa§ and pag, to 
 see, Gr. o-KeirToii-ai, from which are o-KcimKos, thoughtful, re- 
 flective, Eng. skeptic, and o-koitos, Eug. scope, and cTrto-Koiros, 
 Eng. episcopal, and bishop, L. episoopus, Gm. bischof. Such 
 derivatives from o-kotto^ as kaleidoscope, stereoscope, stetho- 
 scope, are very recent : microscope and telescope are older). 
 Species, specie (as being in visible manifestation), specious, 
 special and especial (Fr. do.), specify and specific ; specimen 
 (L. do.) : speck (as being barely visible), and speckle (dimin. 
 form of same) perhaps belong here ; speculum, and spectrum 
 (each L. do.), speculate (L. speculari, to look out or watch 
 for), spectre (L. spectrum, an apparition, Fr. spectre). 
 
 Compound derivatives are aspect, expect, inspect; per- 
 fective, perspicacity, perspicuous / prospect and prospective ; 
 respect, respectable and respective, retrospect; suspect and 
 suspicious. 
 
480 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 Here belong also auspicious (L. auspicium = avis+specere, 
 the mode of taking auspices being by the flight of birds), 
 conspicuous, despise and despicable (L. despicere) ; and deyyite 
 (L. despectus, It. dispetto, Sp. despecho, Fr. d6pit), as well as 
 its contracted form spite, and so spiteful / and respite (L. re- 
 spectus, It. respitto, Fr. r6pit), lit. a looking backwards, and 
 so, purposed leniency toward misconduct. 
 
 From spectare (a freq. form of speoere) come spectator 
 (lit. one who looks much or earnestly), and spectacle (L. spec- 
 taculum) and spectacles; and spy, espy and espionage (L. 
 spectare, It. spiare, Sp. espiar, Fr. epier. Cf the nouns, Sk. 
 spaga-s, a spy, Gm. spaher, Fr. espion, and Eng. spy). 
 
 Here moreover belongs Eng. spice (L. species, which in 
 M. L. usage meant aromatics, It. spezie, Sp. especia, Fr. epice. 
 Cf. likewise Fr. epicier, a grocer, and It. speziale, an apothe- 
 cary. Cf also Fr. espece from L. species). 
 
 373. Spes, a hope (for earlier spes-es, ace. spesem : cf. ar- 
 chaic pi. forms speres and speribus, as in Ennius, etc. ; in 
 which, as in sperare, the original s is weakened to r), de- 
 sperate (lit. without hope, L. desperare, desperatum), and 
 desperado : (Faith in the future and toil for it are necessary 
 to virtue, cheerfulness, or heroism), and despair (Fr. de- 
 sespoir). 
 
 374. Spina, a thorn, a spine (for spicina, from spica, a 
 point, Eng. .spike), spine, pin (Fr. ej^ine : cf. Sp. espina with 
 L. and It. spina, for form), spinach (because of its pointed 
 leaves — It. spinace, Fr. epinard). 
 
 375. Spirare, to breathe (it may possibly be for spisare, 
 and an older form spoisare and spusare, and so be of same 
 original radication with Gr. cjivcrdw, I blow, and <f>v(TLa.ox, I 
 breathe hard, and ttouj^vo-o-o), reduplicated form, I snort), spirit 
 (L. spiritus, breath, mind : the figure adopted in all languages 
 to express the idea of soul), spirits, spiritual and spirituous / 
 and the following compounds, aspire, conspire, expire, inspire, 
 and inspirit, perspire (expressing the mistaken idea that once 
 prevailed among physicians that sweating was a process of 
 aeration), respire, transpire. 
 
 376. Spondere, sponsum, to engage, promise, vow, sponsor 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 481 
 
 (for spondtor), spouse (L. sponsus, a, um, gledged, Fr. epoux 
 and epouse), despond (L. despondere, lit. to give away any- 
 thing and so to give up, so. animura), respond and responsible 
 and correspond. 
 
 377. Spuere, sputum, to spit (Sk. shtiv, Gr. ■nruo) and 
 7rv7i^u), Doric xjrvTTU) and -TTTvaXov, Lith. spyauyu. From Gr. 
 TTTvaXov comes Eng. ptyalism y and from corresponding L. pi- 
 tuita comes Eng. pituitous. Cf. also Gr. ivupdv^ui). These 
 parallel forms in various languages are all evidently onomato- 
 poetic in their origin. From L. spuere come Eng. spew or 
 spue and spit (Gm. speien), and spittle / spout ani sputter 
 (L. sputare, Gm. spiitzen). Here belongs L. spuma, foam, 
 which Kuhn connects with Gm. schaum, Eng. scum. The 
 possible connection of Sk, shtiv, L. spuere and spuma, and 
 Gm. schaum, Corssen illustrates by the radical unity, one 
 with the other, of Gr. rts, L. quis, and Oscan pis, the common 
 original consonant in them all being k. 
 
 378. Stare, statum, stem sta, to stand (Sk. sth^, to stand ; 
 Gr. '(TTT^/tt, stem o-ra, reduplicated, from which Gr. dirdorao-is, 
 Eng. apostacy, Gr. tKoracrts, Eng. ecstacy, as - well as Gr. 
 (rvarriff,a, Eng. system. With, the Gr. root o-ra is prob. con- 
 nected also Gr. rdiros, a plan, for (o-)T07ros, Eng. topic), state 
 (L. status), stately (Gm. stattlich), estate (L. status, Sp. estado, 
 Pr. 6tat, for orig. estat), static (Gr. trraTtKos), and statistics ; 
 station (L. static), and stationary, also, stationer (so called 
 originally from having a fixed station or place for selling 
 books and paper. Cf. for sense modern use of word " station" 
 on railroads, also " post-oflBce," or Jixed ofiice, and " stage 
 coach," or station coach), and stationery ; and stage (Pr. 
 etage, It. staggio, from L. status, staticus. Cf. also Pr. 6ta- 
 gferes), and sto^e-coach (or, station-coach) ; stay (Gm. stehen), 
 stead (as in "bedstead, homestead?, mstead, etc., L. status, Gm. 
 ttatt, anstatt, etc.), steady and steadfast ; stable (L. stabilis), 
 establish (L. stabilire, Pr. Itablir), a stable (L. stabulum), 
 viewed as a standing place for animals), and stall, contracted 
 form of same (It. stalla, Pr. stalle, Gm. stall), and stallion (It. 
 Stallone : cf. It. stallio, stall-fed), lit. a horse Tcept in the stable ; 
 install arid installation; stand (Gm. stehen, stand, gestauden), 
 
 Vol. II.— 31 
 
482 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 and understand (Gm. unterstehen) ; • steed and stud (M. L. 
 stotarius, from Ags. stod and steda, a herd of horses, from 
 verb studan, to stop, etc., Goth. stu. For correspondence of 
 Greek and Latin root-forms in ora (sta), and Gothic and Anglo- 
 Sax, in stu, cf. Gr. l(ni]\n and orvo), as also or^Xi/ and o-riiXos, 
 a pillar), and studding (for a building). Here too belong 
 stanza (It. stanza, Sp. estancia, a stop or division, Fr. stance, . 
 from L. stans, n. pi. neut. stantia), stanchion (Sp. estantio), 
 staunch, the verb (Sp. estancar. For orthography cf. Eng. 
 launch with Fr. elancer), and staunch, the adj., lit. standing 
 firm and sure. 
 
 Here probably belongs Eng. stone (Ags. stan, Gm. stein), 
 as being fixed and strong. 
 
 The compound derivatives from L. stare are many and 
 interesting, as : circumstance (lit, standing around : the phrase 
 therefore " Mwcfer thesie circumstances" is improper. It pro- 
 bably originated in an ellipsis, for, under the influence of these 
 circumstances), constant (lit. standing together: cf. for sense, 
 consistent and consent") and inconstant; constable (= L. 
 comes stabuli, count of the stable; Sp. condestable, It. conesta- 
 bile, Fr. connetaMe), distant (L. distare, to stand apart or 
 away from), extant (lit. remaining from or after other things 
 that have perished), instant and instantly (lit. while standing 
 where you are. The Gm. phrase is, stehenden fuszes, lit. on 
 the standing foot, cf. Fr. tournemain, a turn of the hand), and 
 instance / obstacle (lit. standing in the way of or against) ; 
 rest (L. restare, lit. to stand or stay back or behind), arrest 
 (M. L. arrestare, Fr. arreter =: L. ad + restare, lit. to make to 
 stop or stand), and restive (Fr. r^tif, lit. standing back) ; also 
 substance, substantive, and substantial (lit. standing under or 
 within, i. e. the mere outward surface or aspects of things), 
 and transubstantiation and superstition (L. superstitio, lit. 
 the act or habit of standing over things with anxious doubts 
 or inquiries). 
 
 From stare comes by reduplication the causative form L. 
 sistere, to set, put, stop or stay (corresponding exactly in style 
 of structure with utttjiu for a-ia-TtjixC), and from this, assist (lit. 
 to stop near by, i. e. to help : cf. for sense, Gm. beistehen, and 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 483 
 
 Eng. phrase "to stand by any one"), consist and consistent 
 (lit. staying together in or with itself), desist, exist, insist, 
 persist, resist and irresistible and subsist. 
 
 From l(rrqfi.i, stem trra, the Greek paronym of L. sistere, 
 comes Gr. a-To&wv (lit. & fixed standard of length, a stade), and 
 L. stadiujn and spatium (Gr. o-TraStoi/, Doric form of oraScov), 
 Eng. space, spacious, dispatch (It. dispacciare, Sp. despachar, 
 Fr. d6p6cher) and expatiate. 
 
 With Gr. (TTahov, Doric o-jraStov, may probably be con- 
 nected Gr. (Tirov^, haste, zeal, and so <nrovha.t,u>, as also cnrevSo) ; 
 and with this L. studeo, I am zealous, Eng. studi/ and 
 student. 
 
 Of the same ultimate radication with the Gr. stem o-fa is 
 doubtless also the Gr. o-TEpeos, fixed, firm (Sk. sthira-s, firm), 
 from which come Eng. stearine, stereoscope (+Gr. ctkoxos), 
 and stereotype (+Gr. tuVos, Eng. type, from Gr. tvttt<o, I 
 strike, pure stem rvit). Here cf. also L. sterilis, barren, and 
 Gr. (TTepufios, hard, firm, unfruitful, Eng. sterile, and also Gm. 
 stier, Eng. steer, the noun. The verb steer also (Gm. steuern), 
 radicates here, and means lit. to make hold firm. 
 
 In these relations the words staric (Gm. do., firm, strong), 
 stork (Gm. storch), and sturgeon (M. L. sturio, Gm. stor), de- 
 serve full etymological remembrance, each of the above ani- 
 mals named being strong of their kind. 
 
 From L. stare comes statuo, statui (for statuvi, like metui 
 for metuvi), statutum, a causative, from the supine, statum, 
 meaning to cause to stand ; from which come stature, statue 
 and statuary, statute, constitute, destitute, institute and inr 
 stitution, prostitute (lit. to place one's self before or in the 
 way of another: cf. Proverbs 7 : 10-15), substitute. From 
 L. constare come also cost and costly (It. costare, Gm. kosten, 
 Pr. couter). 
 
 Armistice {-{■'L. arma) and solstice (L. solstitium) also 
 belong here. 
 
 Here too seems to radicate Eng. season (Fr. saison and 
 Sp. sazon, season, in the sense of opportunity), which some 
 refer to L, satio, sowing time. The It. form is stagione and 
 Sp. estacion, for, season of the year, from L. statio — and so 
 
484 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 meaning the fixed oi* appointed time. From season comes 
 seasonable. 
 
 379. Sternere, stravi, stratum, to spread out, to strew (Sk. 
 stri and star, to strew. Cf. Sk. stara-s, a couch, and with this 
 L. (s)torus, Gr. a-Topivwiu and orpuvru/it, and o-Tpards, a camp, 
 and a-Tparia and (XTpaTevoi, etc., as derived forms, from which 
 Eng. stratagem and strategy)^ Eng. strew; stratum (L. do.), 
 and stratified ; street (L. strata, sc. via. It. strada, Sp. estrada, 
 Gm. strasse). See L. astrum, supra, for other derivatives 
 from the original of the forms here given. Here belong also 
 consternation (L. consternare, to bestrew, to throw down, to 
 affright : cf. for change of conjugation, L. aspernari from sper- 
 nere), aadi prostrate (L. prosternere, prostratum). 
 
 380. Stinguere, to prick, to prick out, to extinguish, a 
 nasalized form of the simple stem stig [Sk. tij, to sharpen : cf. 
 Sk. tigma-s, sharp, and teja-s, sharpness, Gr. o-tUjh), I prick, 
 stem oTiy, and otiktos, pricked, and crrty/ia, L. and Eng. stigma, 
 and stimulus, L. do. for sti(g)mulus; stile and style, L. stilus, 
 for sti(g)lus, a stake or pale. The Gothic paronym is stigqan : 
 the q (or kv) of which has come from a,n original 1c, and re- 
 markably represents gu (or gv) in L. stinguere for prob. earlier 
 form stingere (cf., for form, the double forms of L. tinguere 
 and tingere, and of urgere and urguere). The Gm. evstickea, 
 to stifle, represents well its true radical character]. From 
 L. stinguere comes distinguish (L. distinguere, lit. to separate 
 or set off anything as noticeable, by itself, by pricks, cf. Gr. 
 SiacTTi^o), I punctuate), distinct ; extinguish (L. extinguere, lit. 
 to prick out, to destroy), and extinct ; instigate (L. instigare) 
 and instinct (L. instinctus), prestige (Fr. do.). Here belong 
 stick, stake and stock (Gm. stechen, stach, gestochen), and 
 stickle (a dim. form of stick, like tackle of tack, and haggle 
 and waggle of hag and wag). Here too belongs probably 
 sting (Ags. stingan). Etiquette (Fr. do. from etiquei-, Old 
 Fr. estiquer, meaning to label, docket, or ticket : in French, 
 etiquette means a label, a ticket, a ceremonial, and so 
 in English, a ceremony, fashion, etc. : cf. It. etichetta and 
 Sp. etiqueta), and ticket (Fr. etiquette, a ticket, commercially, 
 and verb etiqueter, to ticket or docket), and acrostic (= Gr. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 485 
 
 aK/Dos+o-Tixos, lit. the initial line), are all of this same radi- 
 cation. 
 
 381. Stipes, a stem, trunk, or staff [Gr. otuttos, a stem, or 
 stump. Cf. also L. stipare, to cram, press, crowd, and Gr. 
 oT£i;8a), I stamp or tread. The Sk. correlates are stabh and 
 stamhh, to be firm. Cf. also Sk. stubh, to hinder or stop. 
 With Gm. stapfen, Gr. arei^eiv, and Sk. stahh are connected 
 Eng. step (Gm. stapfen), and stop (Gm. stopfen), and stem 
 (Gr. <TT£/i/ta, Gm. stamm). Here belongs also Eng. stammer 
 (Gm. stammeln, for stabmeln). With Gr. oTt/ijSw, a nasalized 
 form of the radical crrip, of which oTdfita is a resulting form 
 by the addition originally of the half vowel t to the stem, as in 
 are^uD, are connected Eng. stamp (Gm. stampfen. It. stampare), 
 and stump (Gm. stumpf)]. From stipula, a blade of grain (a 
 dimin. of stipes) come stipulate (carrying with it the idea of 
 being done in minute details) and also stubble (Gm. stoppel. It. 
 stoppia). Here too belong Eng. staff (Gm. stab), and stiff 
 (Gm. steif), and staple (Ags. stapel). 
 
 382. Stringere, strictum, to draw tight, to bind (Gr. 
 orpayya), I draw tight, a-Tparfyevu), I twist, and a-TpayyaXit/a, I 
 strangle : cf. L. strangulare, Eng. strangle), a string (as bind- 
 ing things together), stringent, strict, stricture, astringent, 
 constriction, district, restrict; strain (Fr. etreindre, orig. 
 estreindre), constrain, distrain, restrain. Cf. Gr. a-Tpy]vqi, 
 L. strenuus, Eng. strenuous with this class of words, as of 
 same origin with them, and also Gm. streng, Eng. strong. 
 
 Here too belongs Eng. distress (Fr. detresse from L. part, 
 destrictus) : cf. for sense, distraction, L. distrahere. Eng. 
 stress also belongs here (cf phrase, "stress of weather"). 
 
 383. Struere (for earlier strovere and strogvere), structum, 
 to place, pile up, or set in order (Sk. star and stri : cf. Gr. 
 aToiiivvvfu and L. sternere, stratum, which see; also Goth, 
 straujan, and Gm. streuen and stroh, Eng. strew and straw), 
 structure, construct and reconstruct, coiistrue and misconstrue, 
 destroy and destruction/ instruct and instrument ; obstruct. 
 
 . 384. Studere, to be zealous or eager (Gr. <nrovSd^m : 
 Corssen connects it, however, with o-tvui, I erect. Cf. for the 
 other view Gr. (rrdBiov and L. spatium and L. spuere with Sk. 
 
486 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 shtiv, etc.— together with the exact correspondence of sense 
 between L. studeo and Gr. trTrovSa^eo), study, stvdious (L. stu- 
 diosus, full of zeal). Let the young student remember that 
 he dishonors his name, if his will is not ever ia & flaming state 
 for continually new upward effort. L. studium means zeal, 
 eagerness (see L. acer), assiduity (lit. sitting steadily at one's 
 work : see L. sedere), application (a figure drawn from row- 
 ing : see L. plicare), earnest strife, etc. 
 
 385. Stupere, to be thunder-struck (Sk. tup and tump, as 
 Pictet well shows, is the Sk. paronym ; Gr. tvttto), I strike : cf. 
 TVTTos, a blow, an impression, Eng. type, with its various com- 
 pounds, as antitype, prototype, stereotype, daguerreotype, etc., 
 stupid, stupefy (cf. tJc^os, stupor arising from fever, Eng. 
 typhus). Correlate with the words above given are Gm. 
 taub, Eng. deaf. 
 
 386. Suadere, suasum, to advise, or persuade (Sk. svad 
 and svS.d, Gr. avhavm, I please, for a-Favhav<a, double nasalized 
 form of simple stem a-Fal : and ^So/i,ai for a-FaZofmi, and ijSvs 
 for orig. o-J'aSvs. Cf. L. suavis, sweet. See for general cor- 
 respondence of sense L. dulcis, sweet, and L. indulgere, to in- 
 dulge), suasion, dissuade, persuade. 
 
 387. Suavis, sweet, for 8vad(v)is: cf., for change of form, 
 L. somnus, sleep, for s(v)opnus, Sk. svapna-s; L. soror, a 
 sister, for s(v)osor, Sk. svasar ; and L. sonare, to sound, for 
 s(v)onare, Sk. svan (Sk. sv&du-s, sweet, from sv^d, to taste, 
 to like, Gr. ^8«s for a-Fahv^. See L. suadere, suasum, of the 
 same radication), suavity, sweet (Gm. susz). Assuage and as- 
 suasive are from, this source (= ad-|-suavis, Sp. suavizar: cf. 
 for sense, Fr. adoucir=L. ad+dulcis, and It. addolcirse of 
 same origin). 
 
 388. Sub, prep., under (Sk. upa, under, Gr. imo, from 
 which Eng. hypocrisy, Gr. iiroKpuns, lit. the acting of a part 
 on a stage, cf. for sense, L. persona, a mask, etc. ; and Gr. 
 iiTTo^ijo-is, Eng. hypothesis. Sub enters unchanged into some 
 English words, as a strongly qualifying prefix of a diminutive 
 signification, as subacid, subacute : in others, in some assimi- 
 lated form, as Eng. sufficient (= L. sub-f faoere), surprise (Fr. 
 surprendre and surprise = L. sub+prehendere, which see) ; 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 487 
 
 and in others still mucli changed, as in Eng. sudden (Fr. 
 soudain, L. subitaneus). 
 
 389. Suescere, suetum (Sk. sviidha, Gr. I6<i> and tt<o6a for 
 a-FiOo), etc. : so cf. Sk. noun svadha and Gr. Wo's), desuetude, 
 Cfuslotn and costume (Fr. costume and coutume, from L. stem 
 consuetudin : cf. for form Fr. amertume from L. amaritudo, 
 stem amaritudin). 
 
 390. Super, prep., above, over,-beyond (Sk. upari, Gr. wrep, 
 Gm. uber, from which over, up and upper). Eng. superb (L. 
 superbus, cf. Gr. viripfiioi), and supernal. From L. superus, 
 comp. superior, sup. supremus, come superior and supreme. 
 From summus (for snpmus) come sum (L. snmma, Fr. somme, 
 Gm. summe), summary (L. summarium), and summation, con- 
 summate and sum,mit (L. summitas, Fr. sommet), summer- 
 sault (a corruption of Fr. soubresaut = L. super +saltus), 
 which is in English commonly corrupted into summerset ; 
 consummate. Here belongs Eng. sovereign (M. L. superanus, 
 It. sovrano, Fr. souverain). See also such compounds of 
 super as superfluous, superlative, sp.perficial, surface (L. super- 
 ficies, Fr. surface). 
 
 T. 
 
 391. Taberna, a shed, hut, or covering [Corssen connects 
 it with Sk. tan, to extend, making its force to consist in its 
 being stretched out, and compares it with Gr. rei/tov (Eng. 
 tendon), a tightly stretched band, Sk. tantri, a cord, and L. 
 tenus, a snare. See L. tendo. L. tabula (Eng. table and 
 tablet) he regards as of same radication. These etymologies 
 seem to be as just as they are ingenious], tavern (Fr. taverne) 
 and tabernacle (L. tabernaculum). 
 
 392. Talea, a cutting, a stake. From this comes L. talus, an 
 oblong die, the ankle, and from this It. tallone, Fr. talon, Eng. 
 talons. With L. talea are connected It. taglia, Sp. taja, and 
 Fr. taille, a cutting, a cut, and Fr. tailler, to cut, Eng. tally. 
 From Fr. tailler, to cut, comes Fr. tailleur, Eng. tailor. Here 
 too belong detail (Fr. detail, a particular), and retail (Fr. re- 
 tainer, to cut off anew, It. ritagliare), and curtail (Fr. court 
 
488 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 or L. curtus+Fr. tailler : cf. Fr. ecourter), and entail (Fr. 
 entailler). 
 
 393. Tangere, tactum, simple stem tag, to touch, tangent 
 (Fr. tangente), tangible, tact, tag (to touch), and the following 
 compounds, contact, contingent (L. contingere), contagion 
 (L. contagio), contaminate (L. contaminare, from contamen 
 for contagimen, lit. brought into contact), integral (L. integer) 
 and integrity (lit. untouchedness : cf. James 1 : 27), entire 
 (Fr. entier, Sp. entero. It. integro, L. integer), tame (Fr. en- 
 tamer, L. intaminare, for intagminare : cf. contaminare). 
 
 Here belongs Eng. taste (Gm. tasten, It. tastare, Fr. tater 
 for orig. taster from L. taxare, a freq. form of tangere, mean- 
 ing to touch much or strongly, through a double freq. form 
 taxitare). 
 
 The following words also with the word take (and under- 
 take), have a common origin, as is manifest from their simila- 
 rity of form and sense in various languages, and find probably 
 their solution in a supposed intermediate Latin form tactare, 
 to touch much or strongly (like L. tractare, freq. form of L. 
 trahere) from tangere : namely attach (It. attaccare, to attach 
 and to attack, Fr. attaquer), attach (It. attaccare, as above, 
 Fr. attacher) : (for bard and soft forms, as here, of words of 
 the same radication, cf. blank and blanch, bank and bench, 
 etc.) ; and detach (It. staccare for ex+taccare, Sp. destacar, 
 Fr. detacher). Here belongs Eng. touch (It. toccare, Sp. 
 tocar, Fr. toucher). 
 
 The Gr. .Jtyyai'a) is strongly correlated in sense with L. 
 tango, if not (as it probably is not), in origin with it. With 
 5tyyav<i), pure stem .5ty, corresponds Gm. ticken, Eng. tick and 
 tickle (dimin. lit. to tick or touch a little). 
 
 394. Tegere, tectum, to cover (Sk. sthag, to cover, Gr. 
 'fTTiybi: cf. a-Teyoi and reyos, a roof, and Lith. stegiu, I cover, 
 
 and stogas, a roof; and also Gm. decken, to deck, and be- 
 decken, to bedeck / and dach, a roof, Eng. deck, a noun. For 
 the aphaeresis of radical s in the L. and Gm. forms, see p. 132, 
 § 1 : cf also L. torus with Sk. stara-s, a couch, Gr. ordpi/jj/tt, 
 L. sternere and stratus; and ravpos, L. taurus, with Sk. 
 sth<ira-s and Goth, stiur), detect (lit. to take the cover off: 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 489 
 
 cf., for sense, discover), protect (lit. to cover before, or in front 
 of), integument (L. integumentum). Here belong also Eng. 
 thatch (Ags. thecan, to cover), and tile (L. tegula, Fr. tuiles, 
 tiles, or bricks : the palace of the Tuileries in Paris is where 
 once there was a brickyard). 
 
 395. TcXos, a completion, end, etc. (Sk. tar and tri, to 
 bring to an end : cf. Tipjta, Eng. term), telegraph (+y/3a<^ai), 
 teleology (4^oyos), toll {ireXwita, I take toll), as being taken at 
 tlie end of a given distance. 
 
 396. Tempus, time, viewed lit. as a section, i. e. of duration 
 [Sk. tarn, obs. to divide, as still found in tamala-s, a sword, a 
 knife, Gr. rii^voi, I cut, etc., pure stem ra/i, from which comes 
 Gr. TifiLevos, a sacred grove or field, and Tifimi], the romantic 
 valley of the Peneus, lit. a defile having steep banks. From 
 Tc/tvoj come tome, Gr. to/xos, lit. a slice, atom, Gr. S.tojx.o';, lit. 
 indivisible, and epitome, Gr. hnToiiri, lit. a cutting on or down, 
 an abridgement], temporal (L. temporalis), temporary (L. 
 temporarius), temporize (Fr. temporiser), extemporise; tempest 
 (L. tempestas, lit. a season, the weather, a storm : getting its 
 name from its separate individuality ; cf. for form tempestivus), 
 time (Fr. temps), and timely. 
 
 Tempora pi. means the temples (as being lit. cut off by 
 themselves from the rest of the natural line of the skull). 
 Templum, a temple, has also its natural definition in the same 
 idea of being on ground marked out, separately by itself. 
 Meyer, however, connects it with Gr. T6iro<s, a place. 
 
 397. Tendere, tensum, to stretch out [Sk. tan, Gr. teii/m 
 for Tivju), from which, i. e. dvarftVo), come prob. L. and Eng. an- 
 tennae; as also Gr. toVos, Sk. tS,na-s, Eng. tone and tonic. Of. 
 also rawfiai. The Gm. dehnen is correlated here. To this 
 same class of roots belong L. tenuis, like the Sk. tanu-s, thin, 
 tender, Gm. diinn, Eng. thin and tender, Fr. tendre ; as well 
 as attenuate, extenuate and tenuious], tend, tendon (Gr. TtVcov), 
 tendril (Fr. tendron), tense, tension, tent (as being stretched. 
 It. tenda, Fr. tente, L. tentorium) ; and the following com- 
 pounds, attend (lit. to stretch the mind to), and attentive, 
 contend (lit. to stretch arms with another), extend, intend, 
 intent and intense ; ostensible (L. ostendere. for obstendere), 
 
490 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 and ostentatious (L. ostentare), pretend (L. praetendere, lit. 
 to stretch out or hold up before one), and pretense, portend 
 (L. portendere, for protendere, lit. to stretch out before- 
 hand), portent and portentous ; subtend and superintend. 
 These each have derivative forms of their own. The Eng. 
 participial form follows the French, as in the word atten- 
 dant, instead of the L. part, form 3d conj., which would end 
 in -ent. 
 
 The word standard belongs here (It. stendardo, a banner, 
 from It. verb stendere,* to stretch out or forth, L. extendere, 
 Fr. etendard, Gm. standarte). 
 
 398. Tenere, tentum, to hold (from same root with L. ten- 
 dere, Sk. tan. See tendere), tenant (Fr. part, form), tenet (L. 
 do. 3d pers. pres. sing.), tenor (L. do.), tenon (cf. Gr. riviav), 
 viewed as holding the beam or joist mortised into it : tene- 
 ment, tenure, tenacious (L. tenax) ; and the following com- 
 pounds, abstain and abstinent (L. abstinere), attain (L. at- 
 tinere, Fr. atteindre, with epenthetic d), lit. to hold on or to, 
 contain (L. continere), contents, contentment and continent 
 (L. continens : when used as a noun, so. terra), and discontent ; 
 detain and detention (L. detinere), entertain (Fr. entretenir 
 = L. inter+tenere), obtain ; pertain, pertinent and imperii- 
 nent and pertinacious, retain, retentive, retinue and untenable / 
 and sustain (L. sustinere = subs+tenere). Here belongs the 
 word rein (It. redina, Sp. rienda, from L. retinere, to hold 
 back). 
 
 The word countenance also radicates here (Fr. contenance 
 from contenant, part, of contenir, lit. that containing, i. -e. 
 chiefly the elements of one's personal expression : like face 
 from L. facere, to make), as indicating our strongest visible 
 demonstration of ourselves. 
 
 399. Terere, trivi, tritum, to rub [Gr. reipm (for ripjot) and 
 rpvo) and Tpt'jSw, all of same sense, I rub, etc. Cf. to rpi^oXa, 
 a threshing machine, L. tribulum, Eng. tribulation ; and ti- 
 
 * In this word, aa also in It. staccare, to detach (Sp. destacar) for ex- 
 taccare, or distacoare, and It. stiguere, to stain, for extinguere, we hare fine 
 instances of iaitial a representing sometimes, in the Bomanic languages, a 
 suppressed preposition (L. ex). 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 491 
 
 Tpao), I bore through, stem rpa reduplicated ; and its derivative 
 TcpjjSuli', lit. the borer, L. and Eng. teredo. Cf. also Lith. triti 
 and trinti, to rub, to file], trite (i. e. worn), attrition, contrite 
 (lit. bruised or beaten to pieces), detritus (L. do.), deteriorate 
 (L. deterior), and detriment (L. detrimentum, lit. worn off, as 
 gold or silver coin, that has passed around much from hand to 
 hand). Here belong tear and tare (Gm. zehren). 
 
 Here also place Gm. treiben, Eng. drive and drift, »nd 
 Gm. reiben, Eng. rub. Eng. tire (to weary) has prob. also 
 its origin here. 
 
 400. Terminus, a boundary line (Sk. tri, to pass through, 
 over, or beyond, pres. tense tar&mi : Gr. ripfji-a, the goal in the 
 race-course), term, terms, terminate, conterminous, determine, 
 determinate, indeterminate, exterminate. 
 
 401. Terra, for tersa, lit. the dry [sc. pars : cf., by way of 
 contrast. Homer's frequent allusion to the vyph. KiXevda of the 
 sea. The Old Gr. tpa, with which cf. Gm. erde, Eng. earth, 
 has prol^ably no connection with this], terrestrial (L. ter- 
 restris), terrene (L. terrenus), terraqueous (= L. terra+aqua), 
 terrace (Fr. terrasse, M. L. terracea), inter (It. interrare, Fr. 
 enterrer = L. in terra, i. e. condere), territory (L. territorium). 
 Cf. also for sense, one with the other, L. extorris (= ex+ 
 terra), and L. exsul, Eng. exile {= ex+solum). Here also 
 Eng. saunter is said to belong, as a corruption of It. Santa 
 Terra, " the holy land," from the mode in which, during the 
 Crusades, the pilgrims loitered along the road. 
 
 402. Terrere, to frighten [Sk. tras, Gr. rptw, I tremble, for 
 Tpecria and Tpifiia, L. tremo, Eng. tremble (Fr. trembler, It. tre- 
 molare from L. tremulus), tremulous and tremendous, L. tre- 
 mendus], terror (L. do.), terrify, deter (lit. to frighten from). 
 
 403. Testis, for t(r)estis, a witness (connected in sense 
 certainly, and probably in fact, with Sk. tras, to hold or sup- 
 port : cf. for syncopation of radical r, in such a case, L. torrere 
 with Sk. trish), test, testicle (L. testiculus, dim. lit. a little 
 witness), testator (L. do.), testament (L. testamentum, viewed 
 as being made valid by witnesses), testify (L. testifieari), testi- 
 mony (L. testimonium) ; and the following compounds, attest 
 (L. attestari), contest (L. contestari, Fr. contester, lit. to call 
 
492 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 to witness in a law suit, on both sides), and incontestable, de- 
 test (L. detestari, lit. to call a deity to witness, i. e. against 
 one), protest and protestant. 
 
 404. Texere, textum, to weave [Sk. taksh, to make, to 
 fabricate : cf. Sk. takshan, an artisan, and with it Gr. tIktw/ ; 
 Gr. TLKTta, pure stem tek, and tc^wt/, art, and also Tiv^ui, I make, 
 and Te^vao), I make skilfully, and Tuy^wo') stem rvx, to happen, 
 etc. Cf also, as belonging to same class of roots, Sk. t6ka-s, 
 offspring, and Gr. tckos and r€)(yav, and L. secus, Eng. sea;], 
 text, texture (L. textura), textile, context. From L. tela (for 
 texela, like for contraction L. soala from scandela : cf for form 
 L. sequela, Eng. sequel, from sequi), come toil, a net (Fr. toUe, 
 net-work, and toilet (Fr. toilette, which refers lit. to the cloth 
 of the dressing table), subtle (old form subtile, from L. subtilis), 
 lit. woven fine ; and tissue (Fr. tisserj to weave : the parts, 
 masc. and fem. being tissu and tissue — ^from L. texere). 
 
 405. 0pt|, gen. Tpi^os, the hair (Sohweizer refers this to 
 the same radication with Sk. dhri, to grow), tresses (Gr. rptx's, 
 M. L. trica. It. treccia, Fr. tresse), tricks (L. tricae, lit. hairs, 
 and so both trifles and tricks, or, little nets made of hairs), 
 intricate and intrigue (L. intricare, to entangle ; and M. L. 
 tricare and trigare, to plaint, as the hair : cf. for form also It. 
 distrigare and Fr. detresser, to unweave), extricate. 
 
 406. Tingere, tinctum, to wet, to moisten (Gr. reyyoj, I 
 wet or dye : cf also Gm. tUnchen, to whitewash), tinge, tinc- 
 ture, tint (M. L. tincta, It. tinta, a dye)', and taint (Fr. teint 
 from verb teindre, to dye or stain), and also stain (It. stignere, 
 from extingere). 
 
 407. TWrjfjLi, stem ^e (Gm. thun, Eng. do, Sk. dha, to place. 
 For the Latin correspondents of Sk. dha, see abdo, condo, 
 credo, and seditio, under dare), thesis (^co-ts, a position), anti- 
 thesis (Gr. do.), diathesis (Gr. do.), hypothesis (iTrd^ecns), syn- 
 thesis (Gr. do.), theme (-^^.a), anathema and anathematise 
 (Gr. avadriiia, lit. an offering devoted to the gods), apothecary 
 (Gr. dTToOrJKri, a storehouse, cf its derivatives, through L. 
 apotheca, the Fr. boutique, , and Sp. botica). 
 
 408. Tolerare, to endure. With this verb, the perf tuli 
 (of ferre, to bear, from Old L. tulo, supine latum, for tlatum), 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 493 
 
 and the verb toUere, to raise or bear up or forth, are all to 
 be associated as of the skme original radication. [The Sk. 
 paronym is tul, to raise, 1st pers. pres. act. tolarai, I raise or 
 bear up on high : cf. Sk. tuly&mi, I weigh (the ly in which 
 form is exactly represented in the II in L. toUo, for toljo), 
 and tulft., a pound weight, Gr. raXaw, I endure, and tXijtos, 
 patient ; also TotXavrov, a • balance, a large sum of money, 
 a talent,* Eng. talent and talents. TavraXos also belongs here 
 and Eng. tantalize. See story of Tantalus, in whose name 
 there seems to be a metathesis of the radical elements of the 
 word, as in the verb ravTaXoo) for TaXavTow, I oscillate, or sway 
 forwards and backwards], tolerate^ intolerable, extol. 
 
 409. Tonare, to sound loudly, to thunder (Sk. tanyata, 
 noise, Gr. (ttoud and oTeva-yia ; the common orig. root of all 
 these forms was probably stan). Cf. tonare for earlier prob. 
 form (s)tonare, with L. taurus for (s)taurus, and L. tegerefor 
 (8)tegere. With tonare are connected Gm. donner and Eng. 
 thunder. Gr. twos (Eng. tone or accent), is not to be con- 
 founded with L. tonare, but is from Gr. reiW, Sk. tan. 
 
 410. Tornus, a turner's lathe, and tornare, to turn in a 
 lathe (Gr. ropvos, a turner's chisel. Cf. Topvoo) and ropveiJto, and 
 also Top/ios, a socket. These are probably correlated directly 
 with TEipco in origin, and nrpdw), turn (Fr. tourner, Gm. tur- 
 nen), tournament (M. L. torneamentum), and tourney (Fr. 
 tournoi, It. and Sp. torneo), tornado (though apparently a 
 Sp. or It. word, yet really only English), tour (Fr. do., It. 
 torno : cf. for idiom the Yankee way of talking about taking a 
 little tiM-n about the world), return (Fr. retoumer, M. L. re- 
 tornare) ; attorney (lit. one who acts in another's turn or 
 place : cf. for form, but not sense, It. attorniare. The word 
 used in the Romanic languages is a derivative of L. procurator, 
 as Pr. procureur, Sp. procurador, etc. The word is strictly 
 English in origin, like tornado), contour (Fr. do.). 
 
 Here too belong Fr. tour, a circuit, and Eng. tire (around 
 
 * So in Eng. pound and pence Lp eudere, to weigh), and the sign lb. 
 (L. libra) and Fr. livre of same origin, there is the same inward etymological 
 reference to weight, as the true basis of the valuation of money. A talent 
 weighed fifty pounds. 
 
494 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 a wheel), and attire from Fr. atours, lit. around or upon one 
 (Old Pr. verb atorner). 
 
 411. Torquere, tortum, to twist [Gr. rpeKia, Ion. rpaTra, I 
 turn. The forms arpaKo-tK, a spindle — a being for d/x^i — 
 agreeing in sense with Sk. tarkn-s, a spindle ; and Tpwyio, I 
 chew or gnaw, make it probable, taking L. torquere into ac- 
 count, that the stem of rpiiro) was also originally rpuK. 
 
 Cf also Gr. rpoTrrj, deriv. from TpeVu, Eng. trope and tropical, 
 and rpoTraLov, L. tropaeum, Eng. trophy (Fr. trophee, It. 
 trofeo : notice here the aspiration of the labial), lit. a token 
 that the enemy was turned back defeated where the sign was 
 put], tortuous, torture, torment (L. tormentum for orig. torc- 
 mentum), contortion, distort, extort, retort (Fr. retorte, Sp. 
 retorta. Here belong torch (Fr. torche, It. torcia, from 
 toroiare, to twist), a tart (It. torta, a tart, lit. twisted, Fr. 
 tourte ; as we name crullers from their shape, Gm. krullen, to 
 curl ; the word curl being by metathesis from the same root), 
 nasturtian (L. nasturtium, for nastorctium, lit. nose-troubler), 
 and tortoise (M. L. tortuca, Sp. tortuga, Fr. tortue), so called 
 from its bent feet. Here also belongs the word to truss, as a 
 bird (It. torciare from M. L. tortiare, Sp. atrozar, Fr. trousser, 
 to tuck up), and a truss (Fr. trousse : cf. also Fr. and Eng. 
 trousseau). 
 
 With Gr. rpi-Kia, I turn, is prob. connected L. trepidus, 
 disturbed, alarmed (cf for similar radication of form and sense 
 Gr. eirpaffeXos, easily moved, fickle), from which are trepidor 
 tion and intrepid. 
 
 412. Torrere, tostum, for orig. torsere, torstum, to parch, 
 roast, bake (Sk. trish and tarsh, to thirst, and tarsha-s, thirst, 
 Goth, thaursja, I thirst, Gm. durst, Eng. thirst : cf also Gm. 
 darr, parched), torrent (L. torrens, as being dry in summer, 
 in opp. to the name of a winter stream, as x'^'-lJ^o.ppo'K)} torrid, 
 toast (Sp. tostar, verb, and tostada, noun; Fr. toster and 
 toaster, the verb). 
 
 413. Trabs, a beam (Gr. rpairq^, which seems to be, con- 
 nected at once with Tpiirta in both form and sense). From L. 
 trabs comes Fr. entrave, an obstacle (lit. a beam or stick in 
 the way, as on a road). Here too belongs probably Fr. tra- 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 495 
 
 vail, labor (as in going over such a road), Eng. travail and 
 Eng. travel (viewed in tlie light of its diflSculties, which in 
 elder times were manifold and great). 
 
 414. Trahere, tractum, to draw (Goth, dragan, to draw 
 or d/rag, Gm. tragen), traat (L. tractus), trace (Fr. tracer from 
 a M. L. form tractiare, derived from L. tractare), trait (Fr. 
 do. from L. tractus), cf. also Fr. traire, to milk, lit. to draw 
 down. From L. trahere come tractable and intractahle, ab- 
 stract, attract, contract, detract, distract (lit. to draw apart, 
 cf. for sense word craze), extract and extraction, protract, re- 
 tract and subtract. With L. trahere is connected also Eng. 
 train (Fr. do., Provencal trahi). 
 
 Hence too come treat (Fr. trailer from L. tractare), treatise 
 and treaty (Fr. traite), entreat and retreat (Fr. retraite, fern, 
 part, of verb retraire = L. retrahere). Here belong likewise 
 betray, traitor (Fr. traitre) and treason (Fr. trahison : each 
 from ¥v. trahir,* to betray, lit. to draw or drag out to view), 
 portray (Fr. pourtraire for L. protrahere by metathesis), and 
 portrait (Fr. do.) ; trail (Sp. traillar, to level ground, i. e. by 
 dragging it : cf. for sense, Sp. trailla, a cord for leading a dog). 
 Here seems to belong Eng. tirade (Fr. do., a long train of 
 words), and Eng. retire (Fr. retirer, to draw back). Entrails, 
 which might perhaps be even ingeniously thought to belong 
 here (Fr. entrailles), from their long-drawn character : — come, 
 rather, from Gr. evTepa, the intestines (cf. Sp. entranas). Here 
 too belongs It. trainare, to drag along, Fr. trainer and Eng. 
 train : (M. L. traginare from tragina, a wagon). Contrast is 
 the Fr. contraster from L. contractare. With trahere is cor- 
 related in sense and origin Gm. trecken, to draw. The Gm. 
 trinken may possibly belong here as a nasalized form of the 
 ultimate root, Eng. drink (meaning lit. in such a case, to take 
 or draw to one's self). 
 
 415. Trans, prep., beyond (Sk. trl, tar&,mi, I cross over, cf. 
 Lr. intrare). Fr. tr6s f is L. trans. The compound derivatives 
 
 * The It. traire, to betray, is of another origin, being a, contraction of 
 tradire, a parallel form, and from L. tradere, as is It. traditore from L. tradi- 
 tor, Fr. traditeur. 
 
 f In harlequin (Fr. arlequin (It. .arleohino), as a corruption of Gm. erl- 
 
496 A SYNOPSIS OF .ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 of trans are many and interesting : as Eng. trance (Fr. transe, 
 Sp. trance, It. transito, L. transitus), lit. the passage to another 
 world ; trespass' (Fr. trepasser, It. trapassare = L. tran8+ 
 pander'e, passum), traverse (Fr. travers, L. transversus) ; 
 transept (Fr. do. = L. trans + septum, an enclosure). 
 
 416. Trauen (G-m.), to trust (Ags. treovjan), true (Gm. 
 treu, Ags. treove, lit. that which can be trusted), trust and 
 entrust (Ags. treovsjan and tryvsjan), troth and betroth. 
 
 417. Tres, tria, stem tri, three (Sk. trayas, three, stem 
 tri : Gr. rpets, Lith. trys), three (Gm. drei, Fr. trois), triad 
 (Gr. rptas, stem rpidS), trine, trio, thrice and trice (douhle form), 
 thirty, treble (for trible, for triple) and triple (L. triplus, Fr. 
 triple), trillion (Fr. do. = L. tria+Fr. million from L. mille), 
 tertiary/ (L. tertius, Sk. tritiya-s, Lith. treczas), tier and tierce 
 (Fr. tiers, m. and tierce, fem., a third, from L. tertius), trivial 
 (L. trivialis, from trivium = tres viae, where three ways met 
 in the city of Rome : the open space being used for purposes 
 of mirth : see via), trinity (L. tres+unitas). From tres comes 
 L. tribus (perhaps representing, in tribus partibus, or, with 
 morbus, acerbus, etc., exhibiting in its terminal syllable -bus 
 the Sk. root bhu-, Gr. ^v-, and L. fu-: cf. the verbal tense-suf- 
 fixes -bam and -bo in the imperf. and fut. tenses), one of the 
 three ward-divisions of Rome. From L. tribus come Eng. tribe, 
 tribute (the tax levied on a tribe), tributary, attribute (L. at- 
 tribuere), contribute, distribute and retribution (cf., for form, 
 with tribuo from tribus, statuo from status, and metuo from 
 metus). Trestle may belong here (M. L. tresteUus = perhaps 
 to Dutch drie-stal, a seat with three legs). 
 
 418. Trudere, trusum, to push or drive off or away (Goth, 
 thriutan : cf. also Sk. trid and tard, to push), abstruse (lit. 
 pushing one away), extrude, intrude, obtrude, protrude. 
 
 419. Tubus, a tube, Eng. tube and tubular. Trumpet 
 also is of the same origin [L. tuba, fem. form of tubus, It. 
 tromba, a tube and a trumpet, Sp. trompa and Fr. trompe 
 and trompette : cf. for form, Fr. trompe, a periwinkle, and 
 
 konig, we have the same relative vowel correspondence of e and o, in a vice 
 versa way. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 497 
 
 L. turbo (n)], trumpet and trump and trombone (Fr. trom- 
 bone). 
 
 420. Tueri, tutus, to defend [cf. Siaofiai. for ^iFa.oii.a.i, for 
 perhaps earlier form a-TaJFixo[jLai, as seems to be indicated by 
 tlie parallel Gm. form staunen, to behold eagerly or ad- 
 miringly. Tueri would be thus for earlier form {s)tueri], 
 tuition, tutelage, tutorial, intuition and intuitive. 
 
 421. Tumei'e, to swell [Sk. tu, 1st pers. pres. t&.uini, I 
 increase, Gr. tu'Aos, a knob or lump : cf. also Gr. tv/j-jSos, a 
 inound, Eng. tomb and L. tumulus ; and L. and Eng. tuber, 
 and tubercle (L. tuberculum) ; and protuberant: cf. also Ags. 
 thilma, Gm. daum, Eng. thumb^, tumor (L. do.), tumid, con- 
 tumacious (L. contumax, haughty, lit. swelling), contumely 
 (L. contumelia). 
 
 422. Tundere, tusum, to beat, or strike, for (s)tundere, as 
 made probable by the correlate Teutonic forms (Goth, stautan, 
 Gm. stossen). The 8k. paronym is tud. From L. tundere 
 come contusion and obtuse (L. obtusus, blunted). 
 
 423. Turba, for prob. earlier (s)turba, uproar, disorder, 
 from which turbare, to disturb [Sk. tvar, for prob. earlier 
 stvar (as Gm. stvirzen, to overthrow, and Gm. sturm, Eng. 
 storm, seem to indicate), Gr. Tvpfirj and rvp^d^io and a-Tvp^atfo, 
 I overthrow], turbid (L. turbidus), turbulent (L. turbulentus), 
 disturb (L. di.\eX\xv\>&ve), perturbation. 
 
 Here belongs Eng. trouble (Fr. do. from L. turbula, dim. 
 of L. turba, by metathesis). From L. turbare comes also, 
 probably, Fr. trouver, " to find," (Old Fr. truver and trover, 
 It. trovare). Cf for form, Fr. preuve and prouver, from L. 
 probare. In Neapolitan Italian struvare is in sense L. dis- 
 turbare, says Diez ; as is also controvar, L. conturbare. The 
 idea of " finding " is in French that of ransacking things for 
 the purpose — the process is brought to view rather than the 
 result. From Fr. trouver come Eng. treasure-^ro'ye and 
 contrive (Fr. conti-ouver, to invent) and retrieve, lit. to find 
 again (Fr. retrouver). Of. for form, Eng. reprieve (Fr. re- 
 prouver, from L. re+probare), lit. to try again. 
 
 424. Turris, a tower (Gr. Tupo-ts ; for the assimilation of 
 
 Vol. II.— 32 
 
498 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 Gr. 0- to r, in the L. form, of. L. porrum, the leek, for earlier 
 form, porsnm with Gr. irpaa-ov), tower, turret. 
 
 425. Uber, a teat (Sk. udha-s and 1!ldhar,Gr. o56ap, Gm.euter), 
 udder. The various changes of the word ran thus from its first 
 to its last form : udher, ufer, uber. See L. robur for similar 
 style of formation, and also L. urbs; see also p. 198. From 
 uber, the noun, comes the L. adj. uber, rich. Eng. exuberant. 
 
 426. Udus, wet, moist (from which come Eng. exude and 
 otter — Swedish utter, Lith. udra, lit. the water animal). A 
 nasalized derivative is L. unda, a wave, water, etc. (Sk. ud 
 and und, to be wet, Gr. vhtap, from which come Eng. hydrant 
 and hydraulic and dropsy, Gr. vSpoii/f — ^the initial radical syl- 
 lable of the word being lost in English. Cf. also Sk. udam 
 and udan, water, Lith. vandu, Goth, vato, Gm. wasser, Eng. 
 vjater and wet. The forms Gr. avuSpos, wanting water, and 
 Sk. anudra-s, are remarkable certainly for their parallelism) ; 
 abound (L. abundare, to overflow, Fr. abonder), and ahund- 
 ance (L. abundantia), inundate, redound, and redundant 
 (L. redundare, Fr. redonder), undulate (L. undula, dimin. a 
 little wave). 
 
 Cf. in connection with this class of words, Sk. sveda, L. 
 sudor and sudare, Gm. schweisz, Eng. sweat and sudorific. 
 
 The Eng. word, to sound (as the ocean's depths) is pro- 
 bably referrible to unda, as coming from a compound form 
 sub-unda (Sp. sondar and Fr. sonder: cf. for form, Fr. sombre, 
 Eng. sombre, as coming from sub+umbra). 
 
 427. Ulna, an ell (Sk. ar-&,la-s, Gr. wXanj, Goth, aleina, Fr. 
 ' aune, Gm. elle), Eng. ell and elbow (Gm. ellenbogen). 
 
 428. Ultra, beyond (see Synopsis No. 256, Ollus). Beside 
 tdtra, ulterior and ultimate, Eng. outrage also belongs here 
 (Fr. do. = outrer, to exceed, +Fr. rage : see L. rabere, Synop- 
 sis No. 316) ; and outri (Fr. do. ~ L. ultra, beyond). 
 
 429. Ululare, to howl, onomatopoetic (Sk. uliika-s, an owl, 
 and ululi-s, a howling, etc., Gr. dAoXv^o). Cf. also vXo«) and 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 499 
 
 vXaKTeu)), owl (L. ulula, Gm. eule), howl (Sp. auUar, Gm. 
 heulen, Fr. hurler). 
 
 430. Umbra, shade, shadow (Sk. abhra-m, cloud or cloudi- 
 ness), umbrage, umbrageous, umbrella, adumbrate, penumbra, 
 and sombre (Fr. do. : — prob. for orig. form so-ombrare = L. 
 sub+umbra). 
 
 431. "Y/ii/os, a song [Sk. sumna-s.(see page 185), Aufrecht 
 regards it as for v<j>[ivoi, from iijidw, I weave, and Sk. vabh 
 (Gm. weben, Eng. weave; and Gm. weib, Eng. wife). From 
 v^ao) comes at any rate v/i^v, a membrane, Eng. hymen, and 
 "^ti^-qv, Hymen, the god of marriages, Eng. hymeneal. The 
 etymological idea of ^/avos is in Aufrecht's view that of the 
 concatenation of its parts]. From vjttvos come hymn and an- 
 them (= a.vTi-\-vixv6i), originally a song in alternate parts. 
 Psalm, {Gr. i{/aXit.a, a, tune played on a stringed instrument, 
 from i/raXXft), I twang with the fingers), is properly a lyric, 
 which, cf. for sense, from X-ipa, a lyre. 
 
 432. XJnguere, unctum, to anoint (Sk. anj, to anoint), un- 
 guent and unguentum (L. do.), unctuous, anoint, and ointment 
 (Fr. oindre, from L. unguere). 
 
 483. Unus, one [Gr. oti/os, Old L. oinus, cf. for form, L. 
 foedus, for orig. foidus, from root fid ; also Gr. tU for cfs, stem 
 €v, Goth, ains, Eng. an, Gm. ein, and, abbreviated, a], one 
 (Fr. on, which in some uses represents L. unus and in others 
 is a contracted form of Fr. homme, L. homo, in which case it 
 has the article before it, as, I'on, meaning man), once and 
 nonce (= now once), unit (L. unitas), union (L. unio), unique 
 (Fr. do., L unicus), uniform (L. uniformis), universe (L. uni- 
 versus, lit. turned or combined into one), unanimous (L. un- 
 animis = unus+ animus), disunion and reunion; unite (L. 
 unire) ; onion (L. unio, Fr. oignon ; the onion being a vege- 
 table " e pluribus unum.") 
 
 Here too belong only (for onely), alone (Gm. allein = all 
 +ein, or, all one. We ourselves in using the word alone 
 commonly say all alone), lone (a cont. adj. form in our lan- 
 guage of alone, which is adverbial. Allein is used indifferently 
 in German as either an adjective or an adverb), lonely, lone- 
 some ; atone and atonement (= at one, etc.). Here probably 
 
500 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 belongs L. communis for commoinus (= con+oinos, or, unus : 
 cf, L. uti, for orig. oitier, etc. Cf. also Gm. gemein, common, 
 as being connected with Gm. eins, one, Goth, gamains). From 
 L. communis come coymnon, commonwealth (a hybrid), com- 
 munity, communion, communicate and exoom,municate. 
 
 434. TJrbs, a city [very different etymologies have been 
 proposed for this word : by Curtius, as being perhaps con- 
 nected with curvare, like ubi for (c)ubi, in allusion to its 
 halving its circumference walled around ; by Weber, as repre- 
 senting Sk. ardha-s, a district, which the author prefers to the 
 others — ^the changes being, in such a case, these in the stem- 
 form, nrdhi, urfi, nrbi, see robur and uber ; by Meyer, as for 
 orbis, a circle], urbane (cf. for sense, civility, from civis, a 
 citizen), and suburbs (+L. sub, under, or close to, a city). 
 
 435. TJti, usus (for regular orig. form, ut-tus), to use. Old 
 L. oitier, and afterwards oetier, utier and uti : cf. the changes 
 in L. Indus : loidus, loedus, Wdus ; utility, utilise, utensil, use, 
 useful, usual, usury (L. usura, for orig. uttura, like sepultura 
 from sepultus, part, of sepelio), abicse (L. abuti), usurp (L. 
 usurpare = usui-f rapere, to seize for use), tool (L. ntilis, 
 Fr. outil). 
 
 V. 
 
 436. Vadere, for (g)vadere, to go, to move [cf. Sk. ga, to 
 go, and ^aSl(<j>, and also (y)Paivu) and L. (g)venio : the changes 
 from ga to ^a and va having been as follows, ga, gva, ^a and 
 va], evade, evasion, invade and invasion, inveigh (L. in vadere, 
 Fr. envahir : for Eng. invective, which is only apparently from 
 inveigh, see L. vehere), wade (Gm. waten), vamose, vulg. from 
 Sp. vamos, lit. come ! go !) 
 
 437- Vagari, to wander about (connected with L. veherte, 
 to bear : cf. L. vagus and Sk. vaha-s), vague (Fr. do. : cf. also 
 Fr. noun vague, a wave, viewed as always moving and verb 
 vaguer, to wander), vagary, vagrant, vagabond, extravagant 
 (-{-L. extra). 
 
 438. Valere, to be strong or capable, to be worth, etc. 
 (Sk. bala-m, strength, and balishta-s, most vigorous), valid, 
 invalid, and invalidate, valor (L. do), valiant (Fr. vaUlant), 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 501 
 
 convalescent (L. convalescere) ; (mail, prevail and prevalent 
 (L. pi-aevalere). 
 
 "With Gm. -waiter), to be strong, and gewalt, might, both 
 of same ultimate radication, are "connected Eng. weal, wealth, 
 and commonwealth, well (cf. Gm. wohl), and welfare. Here 
 belong also wild (Gm. wild, lit. strong), and wood (Gm. wald), 
 viewed as being wild : cf. savage (L. sUvaticus, Fr. sauvage), 
 from L. silva, a wood. 
 
 439. Vallus, a stake or pale, a palisade, and vallum, a 
 rampart, Eng. wall and circumvallate. L. vallis may be con- 
 nected with this, as being walled about with hiUs ; or it may 
 be of another radication and connected with Gr. IXos, low 
 marshy ground, with which cf also Elis (Gr. "HXts, lit. the 
 low land). From L. vallis come vale, valley and avalanche 
 (Fr. do. from Fr. avaler = L. ad vaUem). 
 
 440. Vanus, empty, vacant (connected, doubtless, as held 
 by Leo Meyer, with the Old Indian Qftny^, empty, from the 
 form gv^nya, and so for (c)vanus, with which he compares 
 also Gr. KEveo's for KFeveo^.* Ebel, however, regards it, as 
 does Schleicher with him, as for va(c)nus, from vacare, Cf 
 Gm. wahn, incomplete, bad, Eng. wane and want), vain (Fr. 
 do.), vanish (L. vanescere), evanescent (L. do.), and vaunt 
 (It. vantare from M. L. vanitare, Fr. vanter). 
 
 441. Vapor, steam, vapor, heat [for orig. (c)vapor, pro- 
 pably, as Gurtius suggests: cf. Sk. kapi, incense, Gr. Kairvui, 
 I breathe out, and Kairm^, smoke, vapor, and Lith. kvapas, 
 breath], vapor, evaporate, vapid (L. vapidus). 
 
 442. Varius, diverse, different (varus, bent, etc., is doubtless 
 of same origin from which varicose, L. various, and praevari- 
 cari, lit. to go shuffling along, Eng. prevaricate^, vary, varie- 
 gate (It. varieggiare), and varioloid (M. L. variola, Sp. viruela, 
 Fr. verole). 
 
 443. Vehere, vectum, to bear, carry or convey [Sk. vah, 
 for vagh : cf. also v^harS and vaha-nam, a horse, a chariot, Gr. 
 oxiofmi for FoxeofMi, I ride, I travel, and oxos, a wagon. Cf. 
 oxA.0!, the people or rabble, with which compare Eng. gang 
 and go, Gm. gehen, ging, gegangen. Cf. also Goth, gavigan, 
 
 * Zeitschrift fur Sprachforschung, Vol. tiii. p. 60. 
 
502 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 to totter or reel, and Gm. bewegen and wiegen, to move 
 hither and thither. Here belong also Gm. weg and Eng. way, 
 with ■which L. via is also correlated], vehicle (L. vehieulum-: 
 correlate with L. vehere and vehieulum is Gm. wagen, Sk. 
 v&ha-s, a horse, and vahanam, a wagon, Eng. wagon and wain), 
 vehement (L. vehemens (+li. mens, the mind) ; convey 
 (L. convehere), invective (M. L. invectiva from L. vectare, 
 freq. of vehere, Fr. invective), covetous (Fr. convoiteux, 
 from verb convoiter, L. oonvectare, lit. to bring together in 
 abundance). 
 
 From vehere comes L. vexare, freq. form, to shake or 
 agitate, lit. to bear about much (cf for sense Eng. agitate, 
 L. agitare from agere), Eng. vex. 
 
 L. velum (as if for vehulum), which some would place 
 here (from which Eng. veil, unveil and reveal, lit. to draw the 
 veil back), the author prefers to place, with Corssen (Krit. 
 Beitrage, etc., p. 60) in connection with Sk. val, to be covered 
 or clothed, and older cognate form, var, to cover: — ^velum 
 meaning a covering originally, etc., but secondarily, a sail. 
 
 With L. vehere is connected L. via, a way,* (for veha), 
 from which are viaduct (+L. ducere), deviate and devious; 
 pervious and impervious / previous ; trivial (L. trivium=tres 
 viae: see tres). Here belong also L. dubius (= duaeviae: 
 cf. for sense, Gm. zweifel, doubt, = zwei, two,+fallen, to 
 fall or happen), and its derivatives dubious, doubt and indu- 
 bitable; and also convoy (M. L. conviare, Fr. conveyer), and 
 envoy (Fr. envoi from L. inviare). The word voyage is de- 
 rived from L. via (Fr. voyage, It. viaggio, Sp. viage, from L. 
 viaticum, travelling money). 
 
 444. Velle, to wish (Sk. var, Goth, val, to choose), infin. 
 of volo, for orig. volere [cf Gr. j8ovXo/j.ai, Gm. wollen, Eng. 
 will and would. Here cf. also eXirw and ikm^m, for Jtekira, etc., 
 I hope. Leo Meyer, however, I. 367, regards IXiru and L. 
 voluptas as coming from a separate early root, valp, by them- 
 selves], volition, voluntary, volunteer, voluptuous (L. voluptas), 
 
 * A frequent misuse of the word way is worth noticing here, for correc- 
 tion. It is this : getting iimder way, instead of under weigh. The figure is of 
 a maritime origin. 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 503 
 
 and voluptuary. From velle comes L. vel, or, (lit. choose ! 
 imper.), and the abbreviated conjunction ve, as in sive, and 
 cont. sen, lit. if you wish (si velis). Here belong too L. 
 quivis, quamvis, ubivis. 
 
 445. Venerari, to reverence or worship (Sk. van, to love), 
 venerate and venerable. Here belong L. Venus, goddess of 
 love, from which Eng. venereal: L. venustus, agreeable, and 
 L. venia, pardon, Eng. venial. 
 
 446. Vellere, vulsum, to pluck, or tear off or out [Sk. hvar, 
 which in its causative form means to injure (see Corssen's 
 Krit. Beitrage, p. 325) : cf. Gm. wal-, as in toa^halla, lit. a field 
 of battle covered with corpses. L. vellere is prob. for earlier 
 velnere, by assimilation, as indicated by L. vulnus, a wound, 
 from which Eng. vulnerable,' and with which cf. also Gm. 
 wunde, Eng. wound]. From L. vellere come convulsion and 
 revulsion. 
 
 4:4:1. Vellus, wool, fleece, pelt [Sk. iirna, wool, Lith. vilna, 
 Goth. vuUa, Gm. woUe, Eng. wool (cf. also Gm. hsmxawolle, 
 cotton, lit. tree-wool): cf. also, Gr. tpiov, wool, for Fipiav. 
 Here too belongs L. villus, shaggy hair, Eng. villous, and 
 velvet. With L. vellus cf. Gm. vliess, Eng. fleece. These 
 diverse English words, of like sense, are of one origin. 
 
 448. Venire, ventum, for (g)venire, to come or go [Sk. g&, 
 for prob. earlier gva, Gr. pa, ^aivw, for {y)PaLvu>, for {y)Pavja) ; 
 in both of which forms the orig. pure stem is found nasalized. 
 Cf. Sk. gam, to come, and Goth, quiman, Gm. kommen, Ags. 
 cuman, Eng. come and welcome, income, etc. Cf. also Gm. 
 gehen, gang, gegangen, and Eng. ffo, gang, gangway, gate 
 and gait. Cf. also L. betere, anteclassical, to go, and its de- 
 rivative L. arbiter (for adbiter), Eng. arbiter, arbitration and 
 arbitrary], advent, adventitious, adventure (M. L. adventura, 
 a noun), venture (of. for abbreviation of form Eng. lone from 
 alone), ventv/resom^e ; and the following compounds, avenue 
 (Fr. do. from verb avenir, from L. ad venire), convene, con- 
 vention, conventicle, convent (L. conventus), convenient (part, 
 conveniens of L. convenire), and inconvenient ; covenant 
 (part, convenant of Fr. verb convenir from L. convenire, lit. 
 coming together, i. e. in terms), event, eventful and eventuate. 
 
504 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 invent (L. invenire, lit. to come on or upon, to find), inter- 
 vene, prevent, supervene, subvent, souvenir (Fr. do., L. sub- 
 venire : cf. for form, Fr. souvent from L. subinde), and revenue 
 (Fr. do. from Fr. revenir, lit. to return). Some of the derived 
 Eng. verbs belonging here are formed on the base of the verb- 
 stem itself, as in intervene, and some on that of the supine- 
 stem, as invent. L. contio (as it should be written, and not 
 concio), an assembly, for co-ventio, belongs here. Would any 
 one believe in advance, that by any philological tortuosity, such 
 words as go, gate, gait, come, went, evade and advent, could 
 be shown to be, in form as in sense, of one and the same 
 origin ! See vadere. 
 
 449. Venter, the belly, for prob. earlier (g)venter [Gr. 
 yacrrqp for prob. yJEaxmip, Sk. jahara-s, Goth, quithus. These 
 various forms combined indicate that the orig. root of them 
 all was gva, which in L. venter is nasalized, and with the loss 
 of the initial g\, ventricle, ventriloquize (-fL. loqui). 
 
 450. Ventus, wind (Sk. yk, to breathe; and vtlta-s and 
 vayu-s, wind, Goth, vaja and vinds, wind, Lith. vejas, the 
 wind), vent, ventilate, wind (L. ventus, Gm. wind), window 
 (cf. Sp. ventana). 
 
 451. Verbum, a word (Gr. ipim, I say, for earlier Feipiui, 
 for orig. J^epjui : (cf. prjroip — for orig. Fp-^oip, Aeol. Pprfriop— 
 Eng. rhetoric, Gr. prfropiK-q, sc. tex^^ and rhetorician) ; Old 
 Prussian wirds, Lith. vardas, Goth, vaurd, Gm. wort, Eng. 
 word; and answer, Gm. antwort = Gr. dvrt-fGm. wort, lit. 
 the backword], verb, verbal, verbose, verbiage, proverb. 
 
 452. Vereri, to regard reverently [Gr. opata for orig. 
 Fopaio, I see or regard. Of oSpos, a watcher, and ^povpos, for 
 irpo-opo's, a watch^ ; ' and wpa, protection. Goth, vars and 
 visan, to be careful, are prob. correlate forms, Gm. gewahr, 
 Eng. wary and aware / and also Gm. warten, and Eng. ward, 
 award and reward, and also towards, etc., and also wait, Gm. 
 warten]. Through M. L. gardare and guardare as paronyms 
 of Gm. warten, come Eng. guard of same etymological sense 
 as ward (Gm. warten), and wardrobe (Fr. garde-robe), and 
 also guarantee (Fr. guarantir), and warrant ; as well as aar' 
 rison (Fr. garnison). 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 505 
 
 From L. vereri comes revere. The Om. fiirchten, to fear, 
 seems also to be allied to L. vereri, from •which come Eng. 
 fear and, by metathesis, fright. 
 
 453. Vermis, a worm, for (k)vermis (Sk. krimi-s, for 
 karmi-s, for kvarmis, Gr. l\/itvs for Fekii.iv<s, a tape-worm, and 
 Goth, vaurms), worm, (Gm. wurm), vermicelli (because shaped 
 like little worms), vermicular, vermifuge (4-I'- fugare,'to dis- 
 pel), and vermilion (It. vermiglia, Sp. .bermejo, from M. L. 
 vermiculus, a little worm, from which the scarlet color was 
 formerly obtained). 
 
 454. Vertere, versum, to turn (Sk. vart and vrit), vertigo 
 (L. do.), vertebra (L. do.), vertex and vortex (L. do.) and verti- 
 cal; verse (lit. a turn, and so in Latin a single line ; as, at its 
 close, one turns to read or write another), version, versed^ 
 versatile ; and the following compounds, advert and animad- 
 vert (L. do. = animum ad vertere), adverse, adversary; con- 
 vert, converse, and conversation (L. conversare, lit. to turn 
 much to : cf. for sense, Eng. intercourse, lit. running between), 
 divert and diversion (lit. turning apart or aside from), diverse 
 and (cont.) divers, divorce (L. divortium), invert, pervert and 
 perverse, revert, reverse, subvert, transverse and traverse (L, 
 transversus, Fr. travers : for correspondence of forms, cf Eng. 
 spouse and sponsor from L. sponsus, Fr. epoux). Here too 
 belong Eng. prose (L. prosa, for prorsa, for pro-versa : cf. for 
 form, L. rursus = re+versus, and sursum = sub-fversum), 
 and advertise (Fr. avertir from L. advertere and Fr. avertisse- 
 ment), lit. to turn attention towards (i. e. of others). 
 
 455. Verus, true (cf. Gm. wahr), verity, veracious (L. 
 verax), verisimilitude (^- L. similis), very (cf. Fr. vrai, true), 
 lit. truly ; verify; aver (Fr. averer, M. L. averare), veritable. 
 
 466. Vespera, the evening [prob. from Sk. vas, to cover 
 or veil : cf Sk. vasati-s, night, Gr. icnrepa, Fr. ouest, Gin. west : 
 cf. Lith. vakara-s, evening], vespers, west. 
 
 457. Vestis, a garment [Sk. vas, to clothe one's self, and 
 vasman, a. garment, Gr. hyv/jn for ea-wfu, for orig. Fiawfii, I 
 clothe myself, and iarOrj?, clothing, and Goth, ga-vastjan, and 
 vasti, a garment], vest, divest, invest (to besiege), and invest- 
 ment (pecuniary). Here too belongs travesty, to disguise, or 
 
506 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 burlesque an author (Fr. travestir = L. trans+vestire, lit. to 
 make a change of clothing). 
 
 458. Vetus, veteris, old, and vetustifs (Vedic vatsa-s and 
 vatsara-s, a year, Gr. £tos, a year, for orig. Feros), veteran, in- 
 veterate (L. inveterascere). 
 
 459. Vicis, change (Sk. vig, to separate, Gr. eixetv for 
 Jf^i/cetv), vicissitude, vicarious (L. vicarius), and vicar (Fr. 
 yicaire). 
 
 460. Vicus, a hamlet, a street [Sk. vSga-s, a house, Gr. 
 oIkos for FoiKOi, Goth, veihs : cf. for correspondence of form 
 L. vinum and Gr. oivos], viUa (L, do. dim. for vicilla), village 
 (Fr. do.. It. villaggio), villain (It. villano, a villager, clown, 
 scamp : cf. for sense, provincial, as meaning rude, and pagan 
 L. paganus, from which also Fr. paysan, Eng. peasant — 
 meaning lit. one Jiving in a district), vicinage, vicinity {L. 
 vicinus, cf. for 'form, peregrinus from per+ager), -ville (Fr. 
 do.), -wiclc and -wich (as Brunswick, or Brownsville, and Green- 
 wich, or Greenville). 
 
 461. Videre, visum, to see [^k. vid, to see; pres. tense 
 vddmi, perf. v^da, — cf. Veda, the Indian scriptures — Gr. ctSeo) 
 for J'etSco), eiSo/Attt and oTSa for JoTSa (cf. also, as derivatives 
 of flSiui, £t8(i)Xov, an image, Eng. idol, e'SyXkiov, a little picture, 
 Eng. idyl, tSe'a, Eng. idea, and la-Topia, Eng. history, stem 
 larop, with which cf. dual form larav of oI8a) : Goth, vait, Gm. 
 wissen, Eng. wise, wit, wisdom, unwittingly, witness, viz, 
 imper. of wissen, lit. know thou], visual, visage (cf. for sense, 
 Eng. aspect), evident, envy (Fr. envie, desire, i. e. looking at 
 or on a thing with desire, L. invidia, looking against, as also 
 in English). For change of the initial radical vowel cf. Eng. 
 entire, Fr. entier with its L. root integer. 
 
 Here belong also provide, proviso, provision and impro- 
 vise (Fr. iraproviser), as \i\ewise provident (L. providens) and 
 prudent ,(L. prudens, cont. from providens). Jurisprudence 
 (+L. jus), and ^roMC? (Fr. prud), and prudish (Fr. prude) ; 
 revise, supervise, wise (as in likewise and otherwise, Gm. weise. 
 It. guisa, Fr. guise, Eng. guise); visit (L. visere, a desid. form 
 of videre for vidsere ; and L. visitare, freq. to go to see much) ; 
 vidette, view (Fr. voir, from L. videre, past part, vu), intervieuo 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 507 
 
 (lit. a mutual seeing), review (Fr. revoir, etc.), invoice (lit. the 
 in-see ; or, a visible account of goods, Fr. envoi : cf. for form 
 L. and Eng. index, lit. the in-say) ; purvey/ (Fr. pourvoir, from 
 L. providere, It. provedere, Sp. proveer. From L. providere 
 comes Eng. provender (L. providenda, n. pi. fut. pass, part., 
 Fr. provende, Gm. pfriinde). 
 
 From L. visere come advice and advise (Fr. avis and 
 aviser. It. avviso, and verb avvisare, to look at, aim at, advise). 
 See vitrum (as a prob. derivative of videre). 
 
 462. Vigere, to be lively, to flourish (Sk. ugra-s, mighty, 
 and oja-s, strength, Gr. vyt^s, sound, lively. Lit. ugis, growth), 
 vigor, invigorate. Cf. L. vegere, to quicken, of same radioa- 
 tion, from which Eng. v egetate and vegetable. 
 
 463. Vigilare, to watch [eycipo), I awake, the I being prob. 
 prosthetic, as Sk. ja-garmi would seem to indicate. Thus 
 vigilare would be for (g)vigilare : cf. vivere for (g)vi(g)vere : 
 cf. also Goth, vakan and Gm. wachen, to wake, to watch, and 
 Gm. wacker, watchful, brave], vigils, vigilant, surveillance, 
 and survey (Fr. surveiller), and reveille (Fr. do.). 
 
 464. Villus, shag (cf. L. vellus, fleece, of same source, Gr, 
 oSXos, adj. crisp and thick, as wool, Gm. wolle, Eng. wool. 
 Of. Gr. tpmv, wool, Sk. tona, wool, and ura^ a sheep), Eng. 
 villous and velvet (Fr. velours), in reference to its nap. 
 
 465. Vincere,ivictum, to overcome, to defeat [Ebel con- 
 nects it with Gr. eiKu (for supposed FiiKui), I yield, making it 
 a causative form of that verb, and also with Sk. vi5, to sepa- 
 rate. To this Curtius and Corssen well object, as being, al- 
 though phonetically natural enough, yet etymologically in- 
 credible, especially in view of the opposite sense of pervicax, 
 "stubborn," which yet is evidently of the same radication 
 with vincere, victum. Corssen supposes an Old L. adj. vicus 
 to have existed, as in the name Vioa Pota, of an Old Roman 
 goddess of victory ; from which vicere (as in pervicax), and 
 afterwards vincere, as nasalized form of it, originated, like L. 
 parcere from parcus], convince and convict, evince and evic- 
 tion, victim (L. victima), victory (L. victoria), province and 
 provincial (L. provinoia, lit. a region in the distance con- 
 quered), vanquish (Fr. vanquir). With L. vincere the L. 
 
508 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLtfSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 noun victima is plainly connected, Eng. victim- The verb 
 vincire, to bind, is prob. also a nasalized form of the same 
 root, like L. fingo of figo. 
 
 466. Vinum, wine (Gr. otvos for orig. Foivoi, Sk. vena-s, 
 beloved, from ven, to love : cf. for form, oikos and L. vicus. 
 But for the Gr. paronym otvos it would be easy to think with 
 Curtius and Christ that L. vinum is a contraction from viti- 
 num, from vitis, a vine, which they refer to Sk. v6ni-s, 
 braided hair, in reference to its many clasping tendrils), 
 vinous, wine (Gm. wein), vintner (Gm. winzer, L. vinitor), 
 viiieffar (Fr. vinaigre = L. vinum+acre, or sour wine). 
 
 467. Vir, a man, virile, virago. Here too belongs prob. 
 L. curia (= coviria, or con+vir : cf. for form L. cura. Archaic 
 co'ira, for orig. covira from cavere, which see). 
 
 468. Virus, poison (Sk. visharS, poison, Gr. los for JFios for 
 FuToi), viiiis, virulent. 
 
 469. Vitare, to avoid, for vicitare (Sk. vi^, to separate, 
 Gr. etKtt) for jRucw, I yield) : cf for form, L. invitas, unwilling, 
 for invicitus (Sk. va§, to wish or desire, Gr. ae»cijTi for aFeKriri). 
 From vitare come inevitable, avoid (Fr. 6viter, and also vider 
 and vuider), void (Fr. vide). Of. with these words Gm. weit 
 Eng. wide. 
 
 L. vitium (Eng. vice and vitiate) is prob. of the same ulti- 
 mate radication, having in it the idea of self-separation from 
 the average standards of human conduct or feeling (cf , for 
 style of sense, Gr. iSiomjs, Eng. idiot, from iSios, separate, lit. 
 a peculiar person). 
 
 470. Vitrum, glass (Bopp regards it, and with justice, it 
 would seem, as connected with L. videre, to see : cf L. specu- 
 lum, for sense, from L. specere), vitreous, vitriol (It. vitriuolOj 
 Sp. vitriolo), and varnish (Pr. vernir from L. vitrinire, to 
 glaze. It. vemiciare, Sp. bamizar). From Fr. vernir, to glaze, 
 comes also Eng. veneer. 
 
 471. Vitulus, a calf [Sk. vatsa-s, Gr. tToXds for FnaXk, 
 from which comes L. Italia, Italy, lit. the land of fine cattle, 
 Oscan Viteliu] : veal (L. vitellus, dim. Fr. veau) and vellum 
 (Fr. velin : cf. Fr. vSler, to calve). Here also Eng. viol and 
 violin seem to belong (It. viola and violino) — referring to 
 
IN COMPAEATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 509 
 
 the merriment and dancing that accompany the viol, like L. 
 vitulari, to be joyful or jump up and down, like a calf. Cf., 
 for sense, Eng. caper from L. caper, a goat, and gambol from 
 L. gamba, the leg). 
 
 472. Vivere, for (g)vi(g)vere, perf. vixi, for (g)vi(g)si, 
 victum, to live [Sk. jiv, to live, and jiva-s, living ; with which 
 cf. Gr. )Sios (Eng. amphibious, Gr. d/x.^ty3ios), Goth, gvius, Lith. 
 gyvas : cf. stem vig for (g)vig in vivere, for (g)vi(g)vere with 
 Gm. quick and Eng. do.]. From L. vivere come vivacious, 
 vivid (L. vividus), vital (L. vita), victuals (L. victus, food), 
 viewed as the sustenance of life ; viands (Fr. viande. It. vi- 
 vanda, Gm. proviant from provianda), convivial (lit. living to- 
 gether or social), revive and revival, survive (= L. super + 
 vivere). With Sk. jiv is connected also Gr. StWa, life, mode 
 of life, Eng. diet. The conjunction of words thus brought to- 
 gether by true phonetic analyses is singular and interesting : 
 quick, vivid, victuals, amphibious and diet. Could any style 
 of etymological guessing seem respectable, that was wild 
 enough to enucleate such words in combination from a com- 
 mon original source ! 
 
 473. Volare, to fly (Meyer thinks it to be for (g)volare, 
 and connected with Sk. gal, to fall down, to flow, for prob. 
 earlier form (g)val. Corssen refers to Sk. val, to go, to move, 
 with much more probability), volatile, volley (Fr. volee, Ut. a 
 flight), Gm. vogel, a bird, and Gm. fliegen are probably cor- 
 related with each other in origin, as they are in sense. They 
 may also be connected radically with L. volare. From Gm. 
 fliege comes Eng. fly (cf. Gm. flvigel, wings), so called from 
 its continual habit of flying; as the ^ea (Gm. floh), gets its 
 name from the quickness with which it escapes from one's 
 hand. Cf. for form, Eng. caper, to frolic, from L. caper, a 
 goat. With Gm. vogel, a bird, is connected Eng. fowl. 
 
 With L. volare and Sk. val is connected L. velox, swift, 
 Eng. velocity (cf. for correspondence of vowel variations with 
 Sk. val and L. velox, also Sk. sad, to sit, and L. sedere or Sk. 
 ad, to eat, and L. edere). 
 
 474. Volvere, volutum, to roll [Gr. e'Xu for FdXw, and 
 iXiw for Fikito, I roll or twist up ; and (IX-iui, I wrap up : cf. 
 
510 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 aXio), I grind, and also cXtf, a coil, and tXura-to, for orig. J'i- 
 XtKto), I twist, and Lith. velke, a string. Cf. also Goth, volvjan, 
 directly with L. volvere], volume (L. volumen, at first books 
 were rolled up as scrolls), volute (L. volutus) ; convolvulus and. 
 devolve, involve and involution, revolve, revolver and. revolu- 
 tion/ revolt (Fr. revolter = L. re and freq. L. voltare), vauU 
 (Fr. voAte from L. volutus). Of the same ultimate radication 
 are Eng. walk and waltz [Gm. walgen and walzen, Lith. velti, 
 to walk, and voloti, to waltz, are from the same ultimate 
 root. The Gothic valyjan, to roll on or along, and Old High 
 German wellan, to dance, are the more primary forms of these 
 words]. 
 
 4T5. Vorare, for (g)vorare, to devour [Sk. gar, to devour, 
 and gara-s, voracious, Gr. Pi^puxTKio, I devour, stem ^po and 
 ^op: cf. popd, pasture, ^op6s, voracious, and ySpS/ia, food], 
 voraciotcs, devour (L. devorare, Fr. devorer). 
 
 476. Vovere, votum, to vote, devote, etc., vote, vow (Fr. 
 vouer, a verb), devote, devotee, devotion, devout (Fr. devot). 
 
 Votare is a freq. form of vovere (for votare). Cf. for 
 change of form L. vester, from vos, for voster. Hence comes 
 Eng. veto, lit. I forbid. 
 
 4:11. Vox, voice [Sk. vach, to say, v&,cha-s, a word, and 
 \kch, the voice, Gr. eh-ov for i-iurrov for kFiFcirov for earlier 
 a-vavacham, Sk. avooham : — with the stem br for Fen- of 
 eiiroi' cf oi//, the voice, for Fo^ ; and also oo-o-a, rumor, for 
 oKto for FoKUL, Sk. vakyam], voice, vocal, vowel (L. vocalis, Fr. 
 voyelle), vocation / and the following compounds, advocate, 
 avocation, convoke, invoke, provoke (L. provocare, lit. to sum- 
 mon forth or challenge, as in boxing or fighting), revoke and 
 irrevocable ; vociferate (H-L. ferre : the change of conjuga- 
 tion to the 1st L. form is quite common in compounds), avow 
 (Fr. avouer, M. L. avoare, L. advocare), vouch and avouch 
 (M. L. advoatio from L. advocatio, a recognition or acknow- 
 ledgment), voucher and vouchsafe. 
 
 Here place also L. invitare (for invicitare for invocitare), 
 Eng. invite : c£ for form, L. convicium and conviciare. 
 
 478. Vulgus, the common people (Gr. ox^os, Aeol. oA,;;^os, 
 Cretan ird^xos, Sk. varha-s), vulgar, Vulgate (lit. made common 
 
IN COMPARATIVE ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 511 
 
 or public), divulge, promulgate (L, promiilgare from pro+ 
 vulgus, for provulgare), follcs (Gm. volk). Of. also Gm. 
 folgen, 'Eiag.foUow, with L. valgus and Gm. volk. The word 
 gang from Gm.gehen is like it for sense, relatively, although 
 the order of relation is inverted. 
 
 W. 
 
 479. Weben, wob, gewoben (German), to weave, to en- 
 twine (Sk. yap, to weave : cf. also Sk. vip, to throw, and v6p, 
 to tremble, as connected with the motions of the shuttle in 
 weaving), weave, woof, wife (Gm. weib, from weben, to 
 weave, i. e. unite in one heart-life : cf. for form Eng. live and 
 life with Gm. leben, to live) ; woman (= womb-man, from 
 Gm. wamme or wampe, from weben, to weave, meaning lit. 
 the paunch or belly, from its form as a fleshly sack : cf. Gm. 
 wamms, a waistcoat). See ^/ti/os in Synopsis No. 431. 
 
 480. "Weiss (German), white (Sk. gvSta), white,* whit (cf. 
 for sense, Fr. point hlanc, lit. a white point), whittle (dim. lit. 
 to make little white places or cuttings), cf. for form scribble 
 from L. scribere ; whitlow, a felon (both " white " and " low " 
 down, being an inflammation of the periosteum). 
 
 Wheat (Gm. weizen) seems to be of this same radication, 
 and to get its name from the white color of its meal. 
 
 481. Winnen (and gewinnen), won, gewonnen (Gm.), to 
 gain (Sk. van, to desire, to obtain), win ; and fun (Gm. 
 wonne, delight). 
 
 The foregoing synopsis can be used, not only for private 
 etymological research ; but also for recitation in the class- 
 room, with supreme reference to English etymology, as such, 
 if one so prefers ; or, with the more specific aim, also, of 
 
 * It is a curioua inatance of the fact that " extremes often meet " in this 
 world, that "black" and "white" are words of fundamentally similar sense: 
 hlaek being of the same origin with hUmh, bleak, and lleach, and referring in 
 itself to want of color. See blanchus in Synopsis No. 35. 
 
512 A SYNOPSIS OF ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 
 
 mastering Latin or Greek etymology, singly or combined. 
 The range of research or requisition can be at once narrowed 
 or widened, with easy adaptation to the contracted or ex- 
 panded attainments of either pupil or teacher. The require- 
 ment of the thorough conquest of three or four of the roots 
 here furnished, with their derivatives, in connection with any 
 classical author in the collegiate or higher academic course of 
 linguistic study, would result, in a few months' time, in a large 
 accumulation, by any zealous pupil, of the most interesting and 
 useful etymologies. The treatise on English etymology, 
 with its accompanying Synopsis, can be used first, to advan- 
 tage, with younger pupils, as a mass of synthetic facts and 
 results ; and the analytic processes of the previous treatise 
 upon phonology be reserved for subsequent mastery. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL INDEXES. 
 
 Vol, II.— 33 
 
 -/ -i 
 
Multiplied references to the same word, many of which 
 might have been added to the Greek and Latin Indexes, 
 have been withheld, and only the leading one given, in each 
 case. Those marked with an asterisk * are all to be found 
 in Volume First. In the English Index, subordinate adjec- 
 tive and nominal derivatives have been left to the ready 
 suggestiveness of the reader's own mind : as, in the Synopsis 
 itself, compound Latin originals, of corresponding English 
 derivatives, have been, for a similar reason, seldom quoted. 
 
GEEEK ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 ayoXXb), 402 
 ayios, 469 
 dyKvXos^ 385 
 ayKvpa, 385 
 dyXaoff, 402 
 dypea^ 425 
 dypos^ 382 
 ayxps, 385 
 aypfo), 884 
 ayw, 382 
 deKrjTi^ 508 
 afo), 193 
 at6i, 382 
 alpecns, 425 
 aipiw^ 425 
 aicoi', 382 
 
 HKtf, 381 
 nXSaii/o), 384 
 aXea),-510 
 aXij^ijr, 431 
 dXKTy, 386 
 aXKofiat, 469 
 aXXoff, 383 
 aXr, 469 
 a/jia, 476 
 d/iei^a, 444 
 d/ielvcov, 444 
 diiepym, 439 
 d/icuiu, 444 
 dfivrjarla, 443 
 dp(f>i^ios, 609 
 ciftitfij/ia, 492 
 lifSdvo), 486 
 avcfios, 387 
 
 di/Ti, 387 
 amSpos, 498 
 d^LVr)^ 387 
 a'^o)!/, 52 * 
 &a^, 472 
 aTraoTOff, 453 
 "AjTia, 385 
 
 (1770, 24 
 
 aTroye/xQ), 412 
 dTToirjKri, 492 
 dpyipiov, 52 * 
 dpcr^, 386 
 apdpov^ 386 
 upt^/xos', 386 
 dpKGQi, 386 
 npKTOs, 251 
 dppovia^ 386 
 ap^osi 386 
 npoTpov^ 62 * 
 dpdo), 52 * 
 dpTrdfo), 465 
 d/jruQ), 386 
 apo), 386 
 darrjp, 387 
 «(Tru, 177 
 flTOpOS, 489 
 arpaKTOS^ 494 
 au^dyo), 387 
 nvpa^ 176 
 ci)^os, 384 
 
 B. 
 
 /SaSi'fa, 500 
 iSaii-ffi, 503 
 iSaXaveioi/, 138 * 
 
 /SflXXifm, 388 
 /SdXXo), 388 
 ^dp^apos, 166 
 iSSpif, 389 
 /Sdpor, 389 
 ^apvs^ 155 
 ^i/Sij/xt, 203 
 /3i/3pa)o-K(B, 509 
 /3idr (a bow), 156 
 /Sior (life), 609 
 i8dXor, 389 
 ^o>pof, 391 
 0opd, 609 
 i8oCf, 391 
 ^oCxif, 392 
 
 jSoUTUpoV, 391 
 
 0paxuf, 392 
 ^pexo), 464 
 ^paipia, 609 
 
 yni'o), 421 • 
 yaXpdj, 402 
 yap^pos, 422 
 yapeio, 87 
 yai/ticd, 395 
 ydrfttjv, 157 
 yavfjuai, 421 
 ydpyapa, 424 
 yaa-Trjpj 604 
 ynvpoff, 423 
 yeiVopat, 445 
 
 yflTdlV, 157 
 yej/i/do), 421 
 ycvos, 421 
 y£vvs, 167 
 
516 
 
 GREEK ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 yepa>v, 157 
 ■yfuci), 187 
 •yfmpyos, 412 
 
 ri, 15T 
 
 yt-yvftXTKo), 446 
 ■yXa0a}, 423 
 ■yXu^G), 423 
 yvii^Tvrm^ 420 
 yvapi^a)^ 446 
 •yoi/u, 157 
 y/xioTty, 423 
 ypa<f>Q}, 423 
 yjuao), 423 
 ypmi^a, 424 
 ypirt), 132 
 yuyjj, 422 
 
 A. 
 
 8a^/), 229 
 Saiuav, 409 
 8ai'(B, 181 
 SdftMi, 408 
 Sdfci-uXor, 409 
 ($a/xaa>, 410 
 fieiKvvjut, 408 
 Se'ra, 407 
 Sf|ios, 92 
 dea-TTOlva^ 469 
 SfO-TTOTT;?, 459 
 
 fi^Xoy, 181 
 ATjprjTrjp, 158 
 did, 411 
 8m/3oXor. 389 
 diaiTa, 157 
 StSao-Ko), 409 
 Si'Safil, 407 
 
 ^LKaLOS^ 409 
 
 SioiKJ/trir, 448 
 Aidf, 408 
 d.'j, 409 
 S/iitBf, 410 
 SoKc'ai, 409 
 SoXixos, 435 
 8d|a, 409 
 SoVif, 407 
 Soriip, 407 
 gui;, 166 
 
 SuTTTO), 411 
 
 8us-, 166 
 8uo, 426 
 
 E. 
 
 e'yelpa, 477 
 eyKQjfiiov, 430 
 6y<i, 217 * 
 eSa(/>or, 477 
 eSoF, 472 
 (Copui, 472 
 f^or, 487 
 r«<B, 178 
 elded), 506 
 fi8i3XXioc, 506 
 
 tlScaXov, 506 
 
 f«oj, 381 
 e'Uo<ri, 178 
 eiKo), 508 
 fj/ii, 412 
 ei/ii, 427 
 fJirov, 510 
 
 fl'po), 474 
 ffr, 159 
 eif, 426 
 fK, 412 
 enarop, 401 
 
 «>C01/T1, 193 
 
 eKO-Tarrts, 481 
 c/cupdff, 185 
 fXoc^pdy, 66 
 EXn;ci;f, 433 
 fXei^fpor, 433 
 .eX/cro"<o, 510 
 
 fXi|, 610 
 eXico), 430 
 'X^txf. 505 
 eXos, 185 
 e'X77iX<o, 502 
 ?X77CO, 502 
 i'p^Xripa, 389 
 
 fV«'<"i 1T8 
 
 ffXTTOpiOS, 469 
 
 Mo./, 426 
 evvvpi, 605 
 evor, 185 
 f'l, 140 
 eg, 166 
 f |oSor, 448 
 i'oiKa, 178 
 
 fVlO-KOTTOr, 479 
 fTTLTOpT]^ 489 
 
 i7ri0^i/fa), 481 
 eVra, 185 
 iTTopat, 474 
 
 epyov, 412 
 f'pEo), 504 
 eptov, 507 
 epTTufo), 475 
 e/JWcB, 475 
 epvSpos, 66 
 e'/jim, 476 
 ffirjs, 505 
 eV^ia), 512 
 eajrfpos, 175 
 irnifpa, 505 
 c'lTTia, 178 
 erof, 506 
 eipaprjs, 437 
 evpvs, 168 
 E3por, 176 
 firpciTreXor, 494 
 eucB, 187 
 ?X's-, 53 * 
 ?X<», 186 
 fojj, 187 
 
 Z. 
 
 fciD), 169 
 ff'a, 91 • 
 f^'o., 91 
 (evyvvpi, 216 
 Zfuf, 227 
 f^Xof, 160 
 fT/^w'a, 159 
 Cvyuv, 428 
 ^avmpi, 91 
 
 H. 
 
 ,-, 178 
 .7, 185 
 ijSo/Kac. 486 
 lySur, 486 
 ijXiof, 388 
 i\pepos, 193 
 ^fii, 383 
 17/11-, 186 
 §7rap, 193 
 rjirios, 456 
 
 W, 178 
 
 0. 
 
 Sfdo/ioi, 497 
 3€iV(i>, 415 
 3eiis, 409 
 
GREEK ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 517 
 
 3ep/iof, 161 
 3fp(u, 416 
 St'o-K, 492 
 tsfllia, 492 
 ^p, 232 
 ^rjaavpoSf 388 
 Siyyai^d), 488 
 Spauo), 419 
 ipi$, 492 - 
 3iiyaTi)p, 139 * 
 tipa, 418 
 
 I. 
 
 <8e'a, 606 
 I'Siof, 179 
 tStojTT;?, 508 
 fSpoQ), 175 
 ti-o), 472 
 
 ilias, 185 
 lO)', 178 
 I'oy, 178 
 
 LO-TTjpi^ 203 
 
 ;., 178 
 icTTopia, 506 
 
 IITXVS, 175 
 
 iraXo'y, 508 
 irea, 175 
 
 K. 
 
 Ka6i8pa, 473 
 Ko^aXiKiif, 477 
 (tai, 162 
 KaiQ), 429 
 KaXe'oj, 394 
 KoKlaj 401 
 KapnvXos, 420 
 (famtrcrco, 396 
 Kiivvay 396 
 KCLVva^it., 222 
 Kandvrj, 397 
 Kanvos, 501 
 KdTrpati), 398 
 KanTu, 424 
 Kanlia), 501 
 Kupa, 162 
 Kapo^os, 53 * 
 Kapdia, 404 
 
 KapKlVOSi 53 * 
 
 Kapvov, 404 
 
 Kaa-tTva. 139 * 
 Kara, 162 
 Kara^oXr}^ 389 
 KauXdff, 399 
 Kf£/jiat, 429 
 K^i/edff, 501 
 Kepas, 404 
 Kfpfci'f, 405 
 
 /CElfla), 406 
 
 Kf0<iXi7, 398 
 
 PC^TTOf, 395 
 
 KihvapaL^ 394 
 
 Ki'ppoc, 162 
 K(o), 402 
 KXayyi;, 395 
 (cXafo), 395 
 xXci'cd, 402 
 (cXeof, 422 
 K\ip,ai 403 
 leXr^al, 403 
 KXvm, 162 
 Ki/e'0ar, 200 
 Ko'yxi?, 162 
 Koe'o), 400 
 KoiXor, 429 
 Koifida), 402 
 Kojua)d/a, 446 
 (tows, 395 
 KopavTi, 53 * 
 
 KOpoiVQS^ 404 
 
 Ko';(Xof , 403 
 Kpeas^ 399 
 
 KpiKOS^ 402 
 
 Kpiva, 401 
 
 KpllTlS, 401 
 
 KpiTrjs, 401 
 KptTr]pl0Vy 401 
 
 Kpuor, 405 
 Kpvfins, 405 
 KpuoraXXoff, 405 
 KiiXil, 24 
 
 KVCOV^ 396 
 
 Koiprj^ 430 
 
 KQipOS^ 430 
 
 Kmvof, 403 
 
 KWTTT], 397 
 
 Xayyufo), 435 
 Xa'KKOf, 430 
 Xa/LiTraf, 430 
 
 Xav^avo), 431 
 Xd|, 395 
 Xadf, 431 
 XarrKO), 436 
 Xaa>, 433 
 Xcyco, 432 
 XeiTTo), 435 
 Xflros-, 430 
 Xftroupyi'a, 412 
 Xei';(m, 434 
 Xeijfro-o), 436 
 XiyvOf, 229 
 
 XiVoi/, 435 
 XiTTuf, 434 
 Xt;^pda>, 434 
 Xuyor, 433 
 Xdy^i), 430 
 XouTpov, 431 
 Xoum, 431 
 Xuyi'fm, 434 
 Xvyor, 434 
 \iApov, 431 
 XwKof, 464 
 XiJ;^^!, 436 
 Xmo-rof, 433 
 
 M. 
 
 /iaXa/coff, 442 
 liavidxris, 437 
 /irip?;, 437 
 p-appaipw, 210 
 pdppapos^ 210 
 HUM, 437 
 /if'yar, 437 
 pciiriiii, 441 
 pf'^oSof, 448 
 ftt'tfu, 90 
 ^EtSao), 441 
 pfi^mv, 437 
 p.(ipi)pau 439 
 fielutv, 441 
 /nfXmSia, 448 
 peVoj, 437 
 licpi^io, 439 
 pfpos, 439 
 pepprjpi^cti^ 202 
 fiia-os, 439 
 pfTpto), 440 
 p,fTptos, 440 
 pl^Sopni, 439 
 /ui)i/, 440 
 
518 
 
 GREEK ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 lirjTtjp, 438 
 (iijTif, 439 
 fiTj)(avdoiJ.ai^ 486 
 firivtj, 440 
 filyvvfiL^ 441 
 ju(^«o/zac, 440 
 
 fliHvfi<TKO}^ 443 
 
 liivlAa, 441 
 fioXujSSor, 458 
 fiovos, 448 
 fiopfivpatj 209 
 /ilifa), 444 
 /iuia, 53 * 
 /iuXt;, 53 * 
 juvXXio, 442 
 /lui');, 442 
 fiOi, 444 
 
 N. 
 
 vavs, 445 
 i/f'/io), 447 
 viofuu, 187 
 veof, 447 
 v((j>os, 4At 
 It}-, 445 
 w'fo), 445 
 i/iVto), 445 
 pirpov, 445 
 vdfioy, 447 
 voCr, 446 
 vvn<f>eia>, 447 
 «t;o'i, 165 
 viJI:, 446 
 
 s. 
 
 ^i\ov, 387 
 
 O. 
 
 o, ij, TO, 185 
 oySoor, 447 
 
 oSof, 477 
 oSour, 408 
 obvpop-M, 166 
 oKa, 506 
 oixi'a, 448 
 oixof, 506 
 oiVos, 499 
 oivos, 508 
 
 otV, 166 
 oKveca, 450 
 
 OKTO), 447 
 
 oXoXij^o), 498 
 iiXof, 477 
 *OXi//i7ros, 429 
 6/iaXds, 476 
 opoios, 476 
 d/idpyvu/xi, 439 
 ovopa, 66 
 
 6'to|, 170 
 oma-de, 66 
 opyavov, 412 
 opeya, 4^5 
 dpi'fo), 425 
 opivw, 449 
 opvvpij 468 
 opova, 449 
 6p(j)apos, 52 * 
 Of, 428 
 Offo-a, 510 
 o(7"(rf, 166 
 
 6<TT€0V, 450 
 oarpeov, 450 
 oj, 179 
 oi/Sas, 447 
 oS^ap, 498 
 ouXoj, 507 
 o^por, 504 
 oippis, 420 
 d)(eopm, 501 
 o;(Xor, 501 
 o^os, 501 
 SV, 179 
 
 n. 
 
 jrayior, 451 
 TTaiff, 46,1 
 jraXXu, 388 
 napa, 167 
 vap^Sia, 448 
 irdo-p^ia, 453 
 7raTd(r(76), 390 
 iraTeopat, 453 
 naTTjp, 453 
 Trdrof, 139 * 
 TraOpor, 453 
 TTffdy, 455 
 Treipdo/iat, 458 
 neipaTj]s, 453 
 TTfiff/ia, 390 
 
 Tre'XXa, 454 
 n€v6epos, 890 
 
 7tivT€, 114 
 TTf'oF, 455 
 
 Trfpdo), 458 
 7r€p6a>, 459 
 TreptoSoff, 448 
 ttcVctco, 403 
 TreTavwpi, 450 
 Trero/xat, 455 
 irevKrjj 456 
 irfjywpi, 450 
 jrijydy, 451 
 
 TTrjKTOS, 450 
 
 TTtapdf, 409 
 TTtxpoy, 456 
 nlfiirXripi, 457 
 TTiVft), 459 
 
 TTITTTTlXta, 456 
 
 7vnrpdcTKa>. 461 
 TriVro), 455 
 jriaira, 456 
 TTiVuf, 456 
 TrXnKouy, 457 
 7rXd|, 457 , 
 
 ^rXdraror, 431 
 TrXardo-a-a), 457 
 TrXaryy, 431 
 ttXeko), 457 
 jrXe'wf, 457 
 ffX^^or, 457 
 nXrjpris, 457 
 TrX^cro-o), 418 
 TrXoKos, 457 
 ttXoiJtos', 457 
 
 n.aif 123 
 
 TTOKia, 449 
 
 n'oiKi'Xof, 456 
 'jTOlvrj, 458 
 jrdXij, 457 
 
 TToXuf, 457 
 TTopeua), 459 
 Trdp/tor, 167 
 
 TTOppO), 122 
 
 TTOptpvpa, 210 
 Trdo-tr, 459 
 TToeror, 167 
 Trocriri, 455 
 Trdre, 167 
 noTcpos, 464 
 
 TTOC, 167 
 
 TTOur, 455 
 
GREEK ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 519 
 
 npaos, 461 
 irpacTis, 461 
 Trpea^vs, 460 
 npfjAa, 460 
 Trpifa), 460 
 wpiv, 460 
 jrpo's, 461 
 TrpocrmS ia, 446 
 
 TTTCpOI/, 455 
 TTTlVoO), 456 
 TTTUD), 481 
 
 Trvdlirjv, 420 
 TTUi'^avopai, 167 
 TfCp, 462 
 jrmr, 167 
 TTOOU, 52 * 
 
 P. 
 
 pd^, 464 
 pea, 467 
 pevficL, 467 
 priyvvpi, 419 
 pr)Tiop, 504 
 ^I'Ca, 464 
 pivosf 168 
 pif, 168 
 pdSoi/, 468 
 poflf'o), 468 
 
 pO<p€<Oi 467 
 
 pavw^t,^ 467 
 5. 
 
 O'ayiyr'T;, 468 
 iroKKOs, 468 
 
 o-dof, 472 
 
 aa(f)ris, 470 
 o-dm, 475 
 o-f'/3opai, 476 
 o-ftpd, 474 
 o-«io,, 139 * 
 (rejuvdff, 476 
 o-^dffl, 475 
 (rivofiai, 478 
 iTKaios, 180 
 (TKdvSaXbv, 470 
 o-KaTTTca, 399 
 o-Kd(j)Tjy 399 
 trKeSavvvfii, 216 
 (TKCTrdo), 166 
 a-KenriKos, 479 
 
 (TKfJTTOfiat, 479 
 
 (TKTJV^, 89 
 
 o-Kid, 476 
 
 (TKod, 476 
 
 O-KOTTOS, 479 
 (TKOrOf, 477 
 (TK^XoSj 89 
 
 o-zidpaySoff, 114 
 o-/i€pSa\f'os, 444 
 a-pepdos. 444 
 2pivt(is. 442 
 (TOIpOS, 470 
 (TTrafxpos. 479 
 (TTrdw, 479 
 (TTreipa, 479 
 (TflrAi^x', 461) 
 
 (TTTOTyOff, 167 
 
 o-7rov8df<B, 485 
 airovbr), 483 
 OTdSiov, 483 
 ore'yci), 488 
 0Tfi/3ai, 485 
 o-rAXm, 435 
 OTCp/3<0, 169 
 (TTtppa, 485 
 2t€i/to)p, 256 
 trriypa, 484 
 (TTl'fo), 484 
 (TTIKTOS, 484 
 
 TTopivvvpi, 484 
 orpdyyiu, 485 
 (TTpaTevoi, 484 
 (TTparia, 484 
 ijrpa>vvvpL^ 484 
 (TTvnos, 485 
 
 OTUp/SdftB, 497 
 
 o-ui', 24 
 (Tvpiy^, 381 
 uvplaaa, 176 
 o-Cf, 52 * 
 a(t>a\fp6s, 414 
 (T^dXXii), 414 
 o-^dr, 171 
 v(l>vp6v, 421 
 •^X'T", 471 
 
 trxivSaXpos, 471 
 0-0)9, 470 
 
 T. 
 
 rdXaiToi', 493 
 raXaiTow. 493 
 raXdffi, 493 
 
 Tavpos, 488 
 Tf'yor, 488 
 TfiVia, 489 
 re/po), 489 
 TfKor, 492 
 repfvos^ 489 
 repvto, 489 
 
 Tf'/XTTT;, 489 
 
 Tevav, 489 
 Tf'p/ia, 491 
 TeVtrapeff, 167 
 TCTprjj^a, 102 
 Te;^Dd(t), 492 
 Tf'x""7, 492 
 TiSripi, 492 
 
 r.'icro,, 492 
 
 i-iV, 463 
 rtrpuD), 493 
 rXTyrdf, 493 
 Topos, 489 
 
 TO'VOJ, 489 
 ' rdTTOff, 481 
 rdpvos, 493 
 Tpdnrj^, 494 
 rpels, 496 
 Tpepco, 491 
 rpcTTio, 494 
 T-pi'^o), 489 
 rplffoXa, 489 
 
 TpOTTOLOV, 494 
 
 rpoirr), 494 
 Tpuo), 489 
 
 Tpiyyai, 494 
 TU'y;^di/o), 492 
 TuXor, 497 
 
 TUTTOS, 483 
 
 TuTrro), 184 
 rvp^d^m, 497 
 TiV^i?, 497 
 Tvpa-is, 497 
 Tv<poSi 486 
 
 Y. 
 
 vytf}s^ 387 
 uSpwi/r, 498 
 vda>p^ 498 
 utoff, 192 
 vXao), 498 
 ij/ifis", 193 
 v/atJi/, 499 
 ■^Y/xjjv, 499 
 
520 
 
 GREEK ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 vtivos, 499 
 imip, 487 
 virip^ios, 487 
 virvos, 176 
 iffd, 487 
 iiroiea-is, 492 
 iiTroKpiartSj 486 
 v(j>dat, 499 .^ 
 
 <j}aiv<o, 414 
 ^eldofJLai^ 171 
 <j)fpa>, 415 
 (jifiyo), 171 
 0i;;xi, 414 
 0iaX);, 409 
 <j>i\oSi '^56 
 <jf)Xa'f<», 417 
 <jbXcy/ui, 417 
 
 cjjKcyai, 417 
 ^Xoos, 418 
 <j)paTt]p, 138 * 
 
 ^P^") ITl 
 <^/jia"0"ft), 420 
 (ppovfjos, 504 
 (jf)i;XXov, 418 
 ^UO'ClCOf 480 
 
 ^ub), 415 
 <f)a>ya), 419 
 ^ffli-^, 478 
 
 X<iCopai, 400 
 \aipa, 171 
 Xai'Sai"), 460 
 Xaprrjs, 402 
 X^tpav, 172 
 Xeo), 420 
 
 X««, 93 
 p^oX,, 172 
 ;(0/>T0t, 425 
 
 W'^i ,419 
 XvpiKrj, 420 
 ;^a)Xor, 172 
 
 V'aXna, 499 
 
 n. 
 
 a>Kt;r, 173 
 diveopai, 179 
 moi/, 180 
 oipa, 504 
 &pa, 173 
 
LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 ab, 24 
 abdo, 407 
 abdomen, 407 
 aboleo, 384 
 abominor, 449 
 absurdus, 381 
 aocido, 394 
 aoies, 381 
 aouo, 381 
 ad, 227 
 adipisoor, 449 
 adolescens, 384 
 aemulus, 476 
 aequus, 381 
 aestus, 160 
 aetas, 382 
 aeternus, 882 
 aevum, 382 
 ager, 382 
 ago, 382 
 aio, 383 
 alacer, 384 
 alibi, 383 
 aliquis, 383 
 alius, 883 
 allicio, 430 
 alo, 384 
 altare, 384 
 alter, 388 
 alteroor, 383 
 ambio, 427 
 ambitio, 427 
 ambulo, 427 
 amo, 384 
 
 anchora, 885 
 ango, 384 
 anguis, 53 * 
 angulus, 385 
 anima, 385 
 animus, 885 
 annus, 385 
 anser, 385 
 ante, 385 
 antiquus, 885 
 aqua, 385 
 arbiter, 508 
 arcanum, 386 
 arceo, 886 
 arous, 886 
 argentum, 309 
 arguo, 309 
 ai-ma, 886 
 armus, 387 
 arc, 386 
 ars, 886 
 articulus, 887 
 arx, 386 
 asoia, 387 
 assevero, 476 
 assiduus, 473 
 astnim, 387 
 at, 227 
 auctor, 387 
 augeo, 387 
 augustus, 387 
 auris, 388 
 aurora, 388 
 aurum, 388 
 ausoulto, 388 
 auxilium, 387 
 
 avus, 388 
 avunculus, 388 
 
 B. 
 
 balneum, 188 * 
 batuo, 890 
 bellus, 411 
 benignus, 411 
 beto, 503 
 bilanx, 431 
 bills, 282 
 bonus, 411 
 bos, 391 
 brachium, 392 
 ■ brevis, 392 
 bulla, 892 
 bullo, 892 
 butyrnm, 391 
 bnxus, 364 
 
 C. 
 
 cado, 394 
 caedo, 394 
 calls, 24 
 calor, 395 
 calx, 395 
 campus, 395 
 camurus, 421 
 canalis, 396 
 cancer, 53 * 
 oandeo, 395 
 candela, 395 
 Oandia, 396 
 
522 
 
 LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 candor, 395 
 caneo, 395 
 canis, 896 
 canna, 396 
 cannabis, 396 
 cano, 396 
 canto, 396 
 caper, 398 
 capillus, 398 
 capio, 397 
 capsa, 398 
 caput, 398 
 carabus, 53 * 
 carmen, 396 
 oaro, 399 
 carrus, 399 
 Cartbagena, 303 
 oastigo, 382 
 catena, 473 
 caulis, 399 
 causa, 400' 
 cautes, 403 
 caveo, 400 
 oavo, 399 
 cedo, 400 
 celer, 166 
 celo, 401 
 centum, 401 
 centuria, 63 
 cerno, 401 
 certo, 401 
 certus, 401 
 charta, 402 
 cieo, 402 
 cingo, 402 
 cinis, 395 
 ciroueo, 403 
 circus, 402 
 cithara, 223 
 civis, 402 
 clam, 401 
 clandestinus, 401 
 -clarus, 402 
 claudo, 402 
 claustrum, 402 
 clavis, 179 
 clino, 402 
 cochlea, 403 
 codes, 381 
 collis, 399 
 collum, 222 
 color, 401 
 oolumna, 399 
 
 commendo, 407 
 commentor, 443 
 concha, 403 
 coneio, 504 
 condo, 407 
 congruo, 224 
 conjux, 428 
 comes, 427 
 concinnus, 396 
 concutio, 463 
 connubium, 447 
 consilium, 473 
 oontestor, 490 
 contra, 403 
 contumax, 497 
 contumelia, 497 
 oonus, 403 
 coquo, 403 
 cor, 404 
 corium, 404 
 cornu, 404 
 corona, 404 
 corpus, 405 
 corusoo, 404 
 cos, 403 
 oosta, 405 
 crates, 405 
 credo, 407 
 creo, 405 
 crepusculum, 200 
 cresoo, 405 
 crudus, 405 
 cruor, 405 
 crux, 405 
 crypta, 103 
 cubo, 405 
 cuoulus, 53 * 
 oulina, 404 
 cum, 24 * 
 cunotns, 258 
 cuneus, 408 
 cunnus, 422 
 cura, 400 
 curia, 508' 
 curiosus, 463 
 curro, 406 
 cutis, 406 
 cymba, 309 
 
 D. 
 
 damno, 406 
 damnum, 406 
 
 debeo, 424 
 deoem, 407 
 decus, 409 
 deleo,434 
 deliciae, 430 
 dens, 408 
 densus, 230 
 desolo, 477 
 despeotus, 480 
 deus, 408 
 Diana, 408 
 dico, 408 
 dies, 408 
 Diespiter, 408 
 digitus, 409 
 dignus, 409 
 diligo, 432 
 diluvium, 431 
 dirus, 106 
 dis-, 411 
 disco, 408 
 discus, 409 
 discutio, 463 
 dirido, 409 
 do, 407 
 
 domicilium, 410 
 domina, 410 
 dominium, 410 
 dominus, 410 
 domo, 410 
 domus, 410 
 donum, 407 
 dos, 407 
 dubius, 411 
 duoo, 410 
 ductus, 410 
 dueUum, 410 
 duo, 410 
 duplex, 411 
 dux, 410 
 
 E. 
 
 edo, 412 
 eduoo, 410 
 ego, 217 * 
 egregius, 424 
 Elis, 601 
 emo, 412 
 enormis, 447 
 eo, 427 
 episcopus, 99 
 eSculentus, 254 
 
LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 523 
 
 ex, 412 
 examen, 882 
 eximius, 412 
 extraneus, 413 
 extrinsecus, 413 
 
 F. 
 
 faber, 413 
 fabrioo, 414 
 facio, 413 
 fallo, 413 
 falsus, 413 
 fanum, 199 
 far, 416 
 fasoino, 232 
 fateor, 415 
 febris, 416 
 fecundus, 415 
 fel, 232 
 felix, 415 
 femina, 415 
 fendo, 415 
 feo, 415 
 fera, 418 
 ferio, 418 
 fero, 415 
 ferox, 418 
 ferveo, 416 
 fibris, 417 
 fides, 416 
 figo, 416 
 fllum, 41Y 
 findo, 417 
 flngo, 417 
 finis, 417 
 fio, 413 
 firmus, 419 
 flacceo, 417 
 flagellnm, 418 
 flagro, 417 
 flamma, 417 
 flecto, 418 
 fleo, 418 
 fligo, 418 
 flo, 417 
 flno, 418 
 focus, 419 
 foedus, 416 
 folium, 418 
 for, 414 
 foris, 418 
 
 forma, 419 
 formica, 199 
 fornax, 416 
 fornix, 416 
 fortis, 416 
 fortuna, 415 
 forum, 41 8< 
 foTeo, 419 
 frango, 419 
 frater, 138 * 
 fraudo, 419 
 frico, 419 
 frigeo, 420 
 frons, 420 
 fumus, 90 
 fundo, 420 
 fundus, 420 
 funis, 232 
 
 G. 
 
 gamba, 420 
 ganea, 234 
 gaudeo, 421 
 gelu, 421 
 geminus, 234 
 gemma, 421 
 gena, 195 
 gener, 422 
 generosus, 422 
 genius, 422 
 gens, 422 
 genuinu§, 422 
 genus, 422 
 germen, 421 
 gero, 421 
 gigno, 421 
 glacies, 421 
 glans, 156 
 gloria, 422 
 gradior, 422 
 gramen, 423 
 granum, 423 
 gratus, 423 
 gratia, 423 
 gratis, 423 
 gravis, 423 
 grex, 424 
 groma, 106 
 guberno, 234 
 gusto, 187 
 gutta, 234 
 
 H. 
 
 habena, 424 
 habeo, 424 
 habilis, 424 
 habito, 424 
 baereo, 425 
 baleo, 106 
 heres, 426 
 herns, 425 
 hibernus, 172 
 biems, 93 
 homo, 425 
 hora, 425 
 hortus, 425 
 hospes, 426 
 hostis, 426 
 humanus, 425 
 humilis, 426 
 humus, 426 
 
 I. 
 
 idem, 428 
 identidem, 428 
 ignominia, 446 
 imago, 440 
 imitor, 476 
 immanis, 437 
 imperator, 452 
 importunus, 459 
 in, 426 
 inchoo, 197 
 inclytus, 234 
 indulgeo, 104 
 induo, 426 
 industria, 426 
 inertia, 387 
 infestus, 415 
 ingruo, 224 
 initium, 427 
 injuria, 428 
 interior, 426 
 interitus, 427 
 iutimus, 426 
 intra, 426 
 intrioo, 492 
 intro, 426 
 invidia, 506 
 invito, 610 
 invitus, 508 
 is, ea, id, 428 
 
524 
 
 LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 Italia, 176 
 itef, 427 
 
 jaoio, 428 
 jaoto, 427 
 Janus, 408 
 jejunus, 208 
 jocus, 428 
 Jovis, 229 
 jubeo, 428 
 judex, 429 
 jugum, 428 
 jungo, 428 
 Juno, 408 
 Jupiter, 408 
 jurgo, 429 
 jm-o, 429 
 jus, 428 
 Justus, 428 
 juxta, 428 
 juvenis, 238 
 juvo, 429 
 
 L. 
 
 lao, 236 
 lacero, 430 
 laoio, 430 
 lacesso, 430 
 lacryma, 111 
 lacus, 430 
 lambo, 430 
 lampas, 430 
 lancea, 430 
 langueo, 432 
 lanterna, 480 
 lanx, 430 
 lateo, 431 
 latum, 145 
 latus, 431 
 lavo, 431 
 laxo, 432 
 laxus, 432 
 lectica, 433 
 lectus, 433 
 legio, 432 
 lego, 432 
 levir, 240 
 levis, 433 
 levo, 433 
 lex, 432 
 
 libella, 433 
 Liber, 433 
 liberi, 433 
 libertas, 433 
 libet, 433 
 libido, 433 
 libra, 433 
 licet, 435 
 ligamentum, 434 
 lignum, 229 
 ligo, 434 
 ligurio, 434 
 limpidus, 430 
 lingo, 434 
 lingua, 434 
 lino, 434 
 linquo, 434 
 linum, 435 
 lis, 435 
 littera, 434 
 locus, 435 
 loDgus, 435 
 loquor, 436 
 lucrum, 435 
 lucubro, 436 
 ludo, 436 
 lumen, 436 
 luna, 436 
 luo, 436 
 lupus, 464 
 lustrum, 436 
 lux, 436 
 
 M. 
 
 macbinor, 436 
 mactus, 437 
 magister, 437 
 magnus,, 437 
 majestas, 437 
 major, 437 
 mains, 437 
 mando, 407 
 maneo, 437 
 manifestus, 415 
 manipulus, 438 
 mansuetus, 438 
 mantelum, 437 
 manns, 437 
 mater,. 438 
 materies, 438 
 
 matrimonium, 438 
 matta, 438 
 maturus, 437 
 medeor, 439 
 medioina, 439 
 mediocris, 440 
 meditor, 439 
 medius, 439 
 medulla, 439 
 mel, 90 
 
 membrum, 441 
 memini, 208 
 memoria, 443 
 mens, 439 
 mensis, "440 
 mercor, 439 
 mereo, 439 
 meretrix, 439 
 mergo, 439 
 meridies, 439 
 merx, 439 
 metior, 439 
 mille, 104 
 minae, 442 
 mineo, 442 
 Minerva, 443 
 minister, 441 
 minor, 441 
 Minos, 443 
 minuo, 441 
 mirus, 441 
 misceo, 441 
 mitto, 441 
 modus, 439 
 moenia, 442 
 moles, 442 
 molestus, 442 
 mollis, 442 
 molo, 442 
 momentum, 444 
 moneo, 443 
 mons, 442 
 monstro, 44S 
 monstrum, 443 
 morbus, 444 
 mordeo, 444 
 morior, 443 
 mos, 440 
 moveo, 444 
 mulgeo, 66 
 mnltus, 442 
 mulas, 441 . 
 
LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 525 
 
 mnndus, 445 
 munio, 444 
 munis, 444 
 murmuro, 209 
 muB, 444 
 musoulus, 444 
 mutio, 444 
 muto, 444 
 rautnus, 444 
 
 N. 
 
 narro, 446 
 nascor, 445 
 nasuSj 244 
 nativus, 446 
 nato, 244 
 natura, 445 
 nausea, 107 
 nauta, 445 
 navis, 445 
 ne, 445 
 nebula, 447 
 neoo, 446 
 neoto, 244 
 nefarius, 445 
 nego, 445 
 neo, 244 
 nervus, 453 
 neuter, 445 
 niteo, 445 
 nitidus, 445 
 nitrum, 445 
 nix, 244 
 no, 244 
 nobilis, 446 
 noceo, 446 
 nomen, 446 
 non, 445 
 norma, 447 
 . nosoo, 446 
 noto, 446 
 novem, 121 
 novus, 446 
 nox, 446 
 noxa, 446 
 nubes, 447 
 nubo, 447 
 nucleus, 447 
 nnllus, 445 
 Numa, 447 
 
 Numifor, 447 
 numerus, 447 
 nunc, 447 
 nuncius, 447 
 nunoupoj 446 
 nuptiae, 447 
 nurns, 166 
 nutrio, 447 
 nutrix, 447 
 nux, 447 
 
 o. 
 
 obitus, 427 
 objurgatio, 382 
 obligo, 434 
 occulo, 401 
 ooto, 447 
 oculus, 167 
 Oenotria, 472 
 oleum, 52 * 
 dim, 383 
 oliva, 448 
 oUus, 448 
 omen, 449 
 opportunus, 459 
 opprobrium,' 424 
 .opa, 449 
 opulentus, 449 
 oratio, 449 
 orbus, 221 
 ordo, 449 
 orior, 449 
 oro, 449 
 OS, oris, 449 
 OS, ossis, 450 
 osoillum, 449 
 ossifraga, 113 
 ostium, 449 
 ostrea, 450 
 otium, 460 
 ovis, 52 * 
 
 pabulum, 453 
 pacisoor, 450 
 paganus, 461 
 pagina, 451 
 pagus, 451 
 
 palla, 461 
 pallium, 451 
 palma, 454 
 palpo, 464 
 palumbes, 248 
 pando, 460 
 pango, 451 
 panis, 453 
 par, 451 
 parous, 452 
 pario, 452 
 paro, 462 
 pars, 462 
 partioula, 453 
 partio, 453 
 pasoor, 453 
 passns, 460 
 pateo, 450 
 pater, 453 
 patior, 463 
 patria, 453 
 paucus, 453 
 paulus, 453 
 pauper, 453 
 pax, 450 
 pecu, 62 * 
 peculium, 450 
 peoulor, 450 
 pecunia, 450 
 peous, 450 
 pejero, 429 
 pellis, 454 
 pello, 454 
 pelluoidus, 436 
 pendeo, 454 
 peniculus, 455 
 penis, 455 
 penna, 466 
 penso, 455 
 pensum, 465 
 peregrinus, 382 
 pereo, 427 
 periculum, 427 
 pernicies, 446 
 perpetuus, 455 
 perseverantia, 476 
 persona, 478 
 pes, 455 
 pestis, 459 
 peto, 455 
 picea, 456 
 pignus, 451 
 
526 
 
 LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 pila, 389 
 
 pingo, 466 
 
 pinso, 456 
 
 pinus, 456 
 
 pipio, 456 
 
 pistrilla, 456 
 
 plus, 456 
 
 pix, 456 
 
 planus, 457 
 
 platea, 431 
 
 plaudo, 457 
 
 plebes, 457 
 
 pleoto, 457 
 
 plenus, 457 
 
 pleo, 457 
 
 plico, 457 
 
 plumbum, 458 
 
 pluo, 436 
 
 plus, 457 
 
 poena, 458 
 
 pollen, 454 
 
 poUutus, 431 
 
 pondus, 455 
 
 pono, 458 
 
 populus, 457 
 
 porta, 458 
 
 porto, 459 
 
 Portunus, 459 
 
 portus, 458 
 
 posoo, 459 
 
 possideo, 459 
 
 possum, 459 
 
 post, 66 
 
 postulo, 459 
 
 potentia, 459 
 
 potis, 459 
 
 poto, 459 
 
 prae, 460 
 
 praebeo, 424 
 
 praeda, 460 
 
 praegnans, 422 
 '■ praemium, 412 
 
 praeses, 473 
 
 praetor, 427 
 
 precor, 460 
 
 prebendo, 460 
 
 premo, 460 
 
 pretium, 461 
 
 primus, 460 
 prisons, 460 
 pristinus, 460 
 
 privilegium, 461 
 
 privus, 461 
 probo, 461 
 probus, 461 
 prodigo, 382 
 prodigium, 224 
 progenies, 422 
 promo, 412 
 promulgo, 157 
 prope, 461 
 propinquus, 461 
 proprius, 461 
 provincia, 507 
 proximus, 461 
 puber, 462 
 publicus, 457 
 puer, 461 
 pullus, 462 
 puis, 454 
 pulso, 454 
 pulvinar, 454 
 punctum, 462 
 pnngo, 462 
 punio, 458 
 pupillus, 462 
 pupus, 462 
 purgo, 382 
 purus, 462 
 pnto, 462 
 
 Q. 
 
 quadro, 463 
 quaero, 462 
 qualis, 463 
 quantus, 464 
 quartus, 463 
 quasso, 463 
 quatio, 463 
 quatuor, 468 
 quies, 463 
 quinque, 463 
 quis, 463 
 qnotus, 464 
 
 R. 
 
 rabidus, 464 
 rabies, 464 
 rabo, 464 
 racemns, 464 
 
 radius, 464 
 radix, 464 
 rado, 464 
 rallum, 464 
 rapax, 465 
 rapidus, 465 
 rapina, 465 
 rapio, 465 
 ratio, 465 
 re-, 465 
 rectus, 465 
 reddo, 465 
 redimo, 412 
 regio, 466 
 rego, 465 
 regula, 465 
 remedium, 439 
 renes, 466 
 res, 250 
 rex, 466 
 rheda, 250 
 rideo, 466 
 rigo, 464 
 rivns, 466 
 robigo, 467 
 robur, 467 
 robustus, 467 
 rogo, 467 
 Roma, 467 
 Romulus, 288 * 
 rota, 467 
 rotulus, 467 
 rotnndus, 467 
 ruber, 467 
 rubeus, 467 
 rufus, 198 
 rumpo, 468 
 ruo, 468 
 rnpes, 468 
 rursus, 605 
 russns, 467 
 
 S. 
 
 saccus, 468 
 sacculus, 468 
 sacer, 469 
 sacramentum, 469 
 sagax, 470 
 sagena, 468 
 sagum, 468 
 
LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 527 
 
 sal, 469 
 salarium, 469 
 salax, 469 
 salio, 469 
 salmo, 469 
 salsus, 469 
 salubris, 469 
 salas, 469 
 salvQS, 469 
 Bancio, 469 
 sanctus, 469 
 sanus, 470 
 sapio, 470 
 sapor, 470 
 sarpo, 185 
 satira, 470 
 satis, 470 
 soabo, 470 
 scala, 470 
 soalpo, 471 
 scando, 470 
 seindo, 471 
 Bcio, 471 
 scribo, 471 
 se-, 471 
 seco, 471 
 seonndus, 474 
 seouris, 472 
 secnrus, 471 
 secus, 109 
 sed, 228 
 sedeo, 472 
 sedimentum, 472 
 sedo, 472 
 sedulus, 472 
 segmentum, 471 
 segrego, 424 
 sella, 473 
 semel, 472 
 semen, 475 
 semi-, 164 
 senatus, 473 
 senex, 473 
 sentio, 474 
 separo, 452 
 sequor, 474 
 serenus, 478 
 series, 475 
 perius, 471 
 sermo, 478 
 sero (to join), 474 
 sero (to sow), 475 
 
 serpo, 475 
 servo, 476 
 servus, 475 
 sessio, 473 
 severus, 476 
 sexus, 109 
 Sicania, 51 * 
 Sicilia, 51 * 
 sigillum, 476 
 signum, 476 
 simia, 476 
 simUis, 476 
 simul, 476 
 simulo, 476 
 sinciput, 64 
 singulus, 472 
 singultas, 472 
 sobrius, 466 
 soccus, 468 
 socer, 185 
 
 sooins, 474 
 
 sol, 478 
 
 solea, 477 
 
 solemnis, 385 
 
 solioitus, 478 
 
 solidus, 477 
 
 sollus, 477 
 
 solidus, 477 
 
 solor, 478 
 
 solstitium, 483 
 
 solum, 477 
 
 solve, 477 
 
 somnus, 322 * 
 
 sons, 478 
 
 sonus, 478 
 
 soror, 478 
 
 sors, 478 
 
 sortiarius, 478 
 
 sortior, 478 
 
 spargo, 479 
 
 spatula, 479 
 
 specie, 479 
 
 specto, 480 
 
 spectrum, 479 
 
 speculum, 508 
 
 speculor, 479 
 
 spero, 480 
 
 spes, 480 
 
 spina, 480 
 
 spiro, 480 
 
 spondee, 480 
 
 spuma, 481 
 
 spuo, 481 
 sputo, 481 
 stabilio, 481 
 statio, 481 
 status, 481 
 Stella, 387 
 Stentor, 256 
 sterno, 484 
 stilus, 484 
 stimulus, 484 
 stinguo, 484 
 stipes, 485 
 stipo, 485 
 stipula, 485 
 strangulo, 485 
 strennus, 485 
 slringo, 485 
 struo, 485 
 studeo, 485 
 stultus, 442 
 stupeo, 485 
 suadeo, 486 
 Buavis, 486 
 sub, 486 
 subitaneus, 427 
 Bublimis, 433 
 subtilis, 492 
 Buesoo, 487 
 sui, 179 
 summa, 487 
 super, 487 
 superus, 487 
 supremus, 487 
 sursum, 505 
 suus, 171 
 
 T. 
 
 tabeo, 163 
 taberna, 487 
 tabernaculum, 487 
 tabula, 487 
 talea, 487 
 talus, 487 
 tango, 488 
 taurus, 256 
 taxo, 488 
 tego, 488 
 tegula, 489 
 tela, 492 
 tempestas, 489 
 
528 
 
 LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 templum, 489 
 tempus, 489 
 tenax, 489 
 tendo, 489 
 teneo, 490 
 tener, 489 
 tenor, 490 
 tentorium, 489 
 tenuis, 489 
 terminus, 491 
 tero, 490 
 terra, 491 
 terreo, 491 
 territoriura, 491 
 tertius, 496 
 testamentum, 491 
 testiculus, 491 
 testimonium, 491 
 testis, 491 
 texo, 492 
 tingo, 492 
 tolero, 493 
 toUo, 493 
 tono, 493 
 tormentum, 494 
 torno, 493 
 tornus, 493 
 torqueo, 494 
 torrens, 494 
 torus, 488 
 tot, 109 
 totus, 109 
 trabs, 494 
 traoto, 495 
 tractus, 495 
 trans, 495 
 tres, 496 
 tribulum, 490 
 tribus, 494 
 tributum, 496 
 trivialis, 496 
 tropaeum, 494 
 trudo, 496 
 tuba, 496 
 tuber, 497 
 tubus, 496 
 tuberculum, 497 
 tneor, 497 
 tumeo, 497 
 tumor, 497 
 tumulus, 497 
 tundo, 497 
 
 turba, 497 
 turbidus, 497 
 turbulentus, 497 
 turris, 497 
 
 U. 
 
 uber, 498 
 ubi, 468 
 iibique, 464 
 udus, 498 
 TiUus, 244 
 ulna, 498 
 nlterior, 448 
 nltimus, 448 
 ultra, 498 
 nlula, 499 
 nlulo, 498 
 umbra, 499 
 uncus, 385 
 anda, 498 
 nnguentum, 499 
 unguo, 499 
 unions, 499 
 uniformis, 499 
 unio, 499 
 universus, 499 
 unus, 499 
 urbs, 500 
 uro, 388 
 usura, 500 
 usurpo, 500 
 utor, 500 
 
 V. 
 
 vado, 500 
 vagor, 600 
 valeo, 500 
 vallis, 501 
 vallus, 501 
 valor, 501 
 vanns, 501 
 vapidus, 501 
 vapor, 501 
 various, 501 
 varius, 501 
 vegeo, 607 
 vehemens, 502 
 vehionlum, 502 
 
 vebo, 501 
 vel, 603 
 vello, 503 
 vellus, 603 
 velox, 609 
 velum, 502 
 veneror, 603 
 venio, 503 
 venter, 604 
 ventus, 604 
 Venns, 603 
 venustus, 503 
 ver, 178 
 verax, 505 
 verbum, 504 
 vereor, 504 
 vermis, 505 
 versus, 505 
 vertebra, 505 
 vertex, 505 
 vertigo, 505 
 verto, 505 
 verus, 505 
 vespera, 505 
 vestio, 178 
 vestis, 505 
 vetus, 506 
 vetustus, 606 
 vexo, 602 
 via, 502 
 Vica Pota, 607 
 vicarius, 507 
 vicinns, 506 
 viois, 506 
 victima, 507 
 victoria, 507 
 victus, 509 
 vious, 506 
 video, 506 
 vigeo, 507 
 vigilo, 507 
 viginti, 411 
 villa, 606 
 villus, 607 
 vinoio, 508 
 vinco, 507 
 vinum, 508 
 viola, 178 
 vir, 508 
 virus, 608 
 vis, 175 
 visito, 506 
 
LATIN ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 529 
 
 viso, 506 
 vita, 509 
 vito, 508 
 vitellus, 508 
 vitis, 238 
 vitium, 508 
 vitnim, 508 
 vitulor, 509 
 
 vitulus, 508 
 vividus, 509 
 vivo, 509 
 volo (to fly), 509 
 volo (to wish), 502 
 volto, 510 
 volumen, 510 
 voluptaB,'502 
 
 volvo, 510 
 vomo, 178 
 voro, 510 
 vote, 610 
 Toveo, 510 
 vox, 510 
 vulgus, 510 
 vnlnus, 503 
 
 Vol. II.— 34 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 abandon, S89 
 abate, 389 
 abbreviate, 392 
 abdomen, 40T 
 abject, 427 
 able, 424 
 abnegate, 383 
 abolish, 384 
 abominate, 449 
 aborigines, 449 
 abortion, 449 
 abound, 498 
 abrade, 464 
 abridge, 392 
 abrogate, 467 
 abscess. 400 
 abscond, 407 
 absent, 412 
 absorb, 467 
 abstruse, 496 
 absurd, 381 
 abuse, 500 
 academy, 332 
 accede, 400 
 accept, 397 
 acclaim, 395 
 acclimate, 403 
 acclivity, 403 
 accommodate, 440 
 accomplice, 458 
 accomplish, 457 
 accost, 405 
 account, 402 
 
 accurate, 400 
 accuse, 400 
 acerbity, 381 
 ache, 384 
 achieve, 398 
 acid, 381 
 acme, 381 
 acquire, 462 
 acquit, 463 
 acrimony, 381 
 acrostic, 484 
 act, 382 
 acumen, 381 
 adage, 383 
 adamant, 410 
 address, 466 
 adept, 449 
 adieu, 408 
 adjective, 427 
 adjourn, 409 
 adjust, 428 
 adjutant, 429 
 admire, 441 
 admiral, 316 
 adroit, 466 
 advance, 385 
 advantage, 385 
 adventure, 349 
 advertise, 505 
 advice, 507 
 advocate, 510 
 adultery, 383 
 affable, 414 
 affair, 414 
 affect, 414 
 
 affidavit, 366 
 affluent, 418 
 Africa, 198 
 age, 382 
 aggregate, 424 
 agony, 382 
 agrarian, 382 
 agree, 423 
 aid, 429 
 akin, 422 
 alarm, 386 
 alchemy, 420 
 alcohol, 870 
 alcove, 370 
 alderman, 384 
 alembic, 370 
 alert, 386 
 algebra, 370 
 alien, 383 
 aliment, 384 
 allege, 432 
 alleviate, 433 
 allow, 433 
 alloy, 432 
 alluvial, 436 
 almond, 346 
 alms, 356 
 aloft, 433 
 alone, 499 
 alphabet, 277 
 altar, 384 
 alter, 383 
 altercate, 383 
 alternate, 383 
 amalgam, 443 
 
532 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 Amanuensis, 438 
 ambassador, 303 
 ambiguous, 382 
 ambition, 427 
 amble, 427 
 ambulance, 427 
 ambuscade, 392 
 amiable, 384 
 amicable, 384 
 amity, 384 
 amorous, 384 
 amulet, 442 
 an, or a, 499 
 analogy, 438 
 anathema, 492 
 ancestor, 385 
 anchor, 385 
 ancient, 385 
 Andalusia, 177 
 anecdote, 329 
 anger, 885 
 angle, 885 
 anguish, 384 
 animal, 385 
 animosity, 385 
 ankle, 385 
 annals, 385 
 anniversary, 385 
 announce, 447 
 annoy, 446 
 annbal, 385 
 anonymous, 446 
 antagonist, 382 
 antecedent, 400 
 anthem, 499 
 anticipate, 397 
 antipathy, 453 
 antique, 385 
 anxious, 385 
 apartment, 453 
 apology, 433 
 apostacy, 481 
 apothecary, 492 
 apparatus, 452 
 appeal, 454 
 appetite, 455 
 apply, 457 
 appraise, 461 
 appreciate, 461 
 apprehend, 460 
 apprentice, 352 
 apprise, 460 
 
 approve, 461" 
 apricot, 404 
 aquatic, 386 
 arabesque, 370 
 arable, 386 
 arbiter, 503 
 arbitrary, 503 
 arc, 886 
 
 argillaceous, 309 
 arithmetic, 386 
 ark, 386 
 armistice, 386 
 arms, 886 
 arrears, 465 
 arrest, 482 
 arrive, 467 
 arrogant, ,467 
 artichoke, 370 
 article, 386 
 articulate, 386 
 artifice, 886 
 artillery, 386 
 asp, 296 
 asparagus, 339 
 ass, 361 
 assemble, 476 
 assent, 474 
 assert, 474 
 assess, 472 
 asset, 472 
 asseverate, 476 
 assiduous, 473 
 assign, 476 
 assimilate, 476 
 assist, 483 
 assize, 472 
 assuage, 487 
 assume, 412 
 assure, 400 
 asteroid, 387 
 astral, 387 
 atom, 489 
 atone, 499 
 attach, 488 
 attack, 488 
 attempt, 311 
 attend, 489 
 attenuate, 489 
 attire, 494 
 attitude, 382 
 attorney, 493 
 attribute, 496 
 
 auction, 387 
 audience, 388 
 augury, 421 
 august, 387 
 aunt, 384 
 auricle, 388 
 auriferous, 388 
 Aurora, 388 
 auspicious, 480 
 Austria, 449 
 anthentic, 387 
 author, 387 
 autumn, 387 
 auxiliary, 387 
 avail, 501 
 avalanche, 501 
 avaunt, 385 
 avenge, 408 
 • avocation, 511 
 avoid, 508 
 avoirdupois, 424 
 avow 312 
 
 B 
 
 balance, 431 
 ball, 388 
 ballad, 388 
 ballet, 389 
 balloon, 385 
 baluster, 339 
 ban, 389 
 band, 889 
 bandit, 389 
 banish, 889 
 banner, 389 
 bank, 389 
 bankrupt, 468 
 banquet, 389 
 bar, 389 
 barbarian, 155 
 bargain, 389 
 barge, 389 
 bark, 389 
 barrel, 889 
 barricade, 389 
 barrier, 389 
 barrister, 389 
 bas-relief, 433 
 bathe, 138 * 
 batter, 389 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 583 
 
 battery, 389 
 battle, 889 
 bay, 314 
 bayonet, 332 
 beaker, 307 
 bear, 415 
 beard, 807 
 beau, 411 
 beauty, 411 
 because, 400 
 beef, 179 
 believe, 435 
 belle, 411 
 belt, 73 * 
 bench, 389 
 benefit, 310 
 benign, 411 
 benignant, 411 
 benison, 411 
 berate, 465 
 beseech, 474 
 betray, 407 
 between, 411 
 beverage, 459 
 bibber, 459 
 bill, 393 
 billet, 893 
 billiard, 389 
 bind, 389 
 birth, 415 
 biscuit, 404 
 bishop, 479 
 black, 391 
 bladder, 431 
 blade, 431 
 blame, 314 
 blank, 391 
 blanket, 391 
 bleach, 391 
 bobbin, 391 
 bobinet, 391 
 body, 392 
 boil, 393 
 bomb, 391 
 bond, 389 
 bonfire, 363 
 bonny, 411 
 booby, 462 
 book, 391 
 boon, 411 
 boot, 892 
 borough, 393 
 
 both, 383 
 bottle, 392 
 bough, 391 
 Boulevard, 393 
 bounty, 411 
 bouquet, 392 
 Bourse, 393 
 bow, 391 
 bowl, 389 
 bowlder^ 389 
 box, 354 
 brace, 392 
 bracelet, 392 
 bracket, 392 
 brand, 392 
 brandy, 392 
 brevet, 392 
 breviary, 392 
 brief, 392 
 brilliant, 296 
 broad, 431 
 brocoli, 399 
 bronze, 392 
 brow, 420 
 brown, 392 
 brunette, 392 
 bubble, 393 
 buckle, 392 
 buckler, 392 
 budge, 138 * 
 bugle, 391 
 bull, 393 
 bullet, 389 
 bulletin, 393 
 bullion, 393 
 bundle, 389 
 bureau, 329 
 burgher, 393 
 burnish, 392 
 bush, 392 
 butt, 392 
 butter, 391 
 
 C. 
 
 cable, 397 
 cadence, 394 
 cadet, 399 
 cage, 400 
 caitifif, 397 
 cajole, 400 
 
 cake, 809 
 calcareous, 895 
 calcine, 395 
 calendar, 894 
 call, 394 
 caloric, 395 
 camp, 395 
 campaign, 395 
 can (noun), 396 
 can (verb), 446 
 canaille, 396 
 canal, 396 
 candid, 396 
 candidate, 396 
 candle, 895 
 candy, 896 
 cane, 396 
 canine, 396 
 canister, 396 
 cannon, 396 
 canoe, 397 
 canon, 396 
 canopy, 329 
 cantillate, 396 
 canvas, 316 
 cap, 398 
 capacity, 397 
 cape, 398 
 caper, 398 
 capillary, 398 
 capitulate, 398 
 caprice, 398 
 capstan, 397 
 captain, 398 
 captions, 397 
 captive, 397 
 car, 899 
 carat, 371 
 caravan, 371 
 carbine, 389 
 carcase, 398 
 care, 400 
 career, 399 
 cargo, 399 
 caricature, 399 
 carnage, 399 
 carnal, 399 
 carnelian, 399 
 carnival, 328 
 carousal. 399 
 carpenter. 326 
 carriage, 899 
 
534 
 
 ICNGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 carry, 899 
 cartouche, 402 
 cascade, 394 
 case (a box), 398 
 case (event), 394 
 cash, 398 
 castigate, 382 
 casual, 394 
 catarrh, 467 
 catch, 397 
 cathedral, 472 
 catholic, 477 
 cattle, 399 
 canliflovei', 399 
 cause, 400 
 caustic, 429 
 caution, 400 
 cavalcade, 394 
 cavalry, 394 
 cave, 400 
 ceiling, 429 
 celebrate, 394 
 celestial, 429 
 cell, 401 
 cement, 394 
 cent, 401 
 centre, 230 
 centurion, 401 
 century, 401 
 ceremony, 403 
 certify, 401 
 chain, 473 
 chair, 473 
 chaise, 308 
 chalk, 395 
 challenge, 395 
 chamber, 128 
 champaign, 395 
 champion, 395 
 chance, 394 
 chancery, 311 
 chandelier, 395 
 chandler, 395 
 change, 94 * 
 channel, 396 
 chant, 396 
 chanticleer, 396 
 chaplain, 898 
 chaplet, 398 
 chapter. 398 
 character, 319 
 charade, 332 
 
 charcoal, 347 
 charity, 329 
 charnelhouse, 399 
 chart, 402 
 charter, 402 
 chase, 397 
 chattel, 399 
 check, 181 
 chemise, 94 * 
 chemistry, 420 
 cherish, 394 
 cherry, 332 
 chestnut, 313 
 chew, 391 
 chief, 398 
 chieftain, 398 
 child, 240 
 chill, 421 
 chin, 103 
 chivalry, 327 
 chrism, 419 
 Christ, 419 
 church, 316 
 cider, 108 
 cigar, 840 
 cincture, 402 
 cipher, 371 
 circle, 402 
 circuit, 427 
 circus, 402 
 city, 402 
 civet, 160 
 civil, 402 
 claim, 895 
 clamor, 395 
 clandestine, 401 
 clangor, 395 
 claret, 402 
 clarify, 402 
 clarion, 402 
 clash, 895 
 clavicle, 402 
 clause, 402 
 clear, 402 
 clef, 402 
 client, 403 
 climate, 403 
 climax, 403 
 clinique, 403 
 cloister, 402 
 close, 402 
 cloth, 353 
 
 clover, 318 
 coach, 403 
 coagulate, 382 
 coalesce, 384 
 coalition, 384 
 coast, 405 
 coat, 406 
 cockle, 403 
 cockney', 404 
 coffee, 371 
 coffers, 852 
 coffin, 852 
 cogent, 382 
 cogitate, 382 
 cognizant, 446 
 cohort, 425 
 coin, 403 
 coincide, 894 
 coition, 427 
 cold, 421 
 colleague, 432 
 collect, 432 
 college, 432 
 color, 401 
 colporteur, 294 
 combat, 389 
 comedy, 480 
 comfort, 417 
 comity, 480 
 command, 407 
 commemorate, 443 
 commence, 427 
 commend, 407 
 comment, 443 
 commentary, 443 
 commerce, 489 
 commodious, 440 
 common, 500 
 communicate, 500 
 community, 500 
 commute, 444 
 compact, 461 
 companion, 451 
 compass, 450 
 compassion, 453 
 compatible, 28 
 compendious, 456 
 compensate, 455 
 compete, 456 
 competent, 456 
 complacent, 313 
 complain, 312 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 535 
 
 complaisant, 313 
 complement, 457 
 complete, 457 
 complex, 457 
 complexion, 457 
 complicate, 457 
 complicity, 468 
 comply, 313 
 comprise, 460 
 compromise, 441 
 compute, 462 
 comrade, 294 
 concatenate, 473 
 conceal, 401 
 conceit, 330 
 conceive, 397 
 concert, 40 
 conch, 403 
 concise, 394 
 concoct, 404 
 concomitant, 427 
 concord, 404 
 conconrse, 406 
 concubine, 406 
 concijr, 406 
 condescend, 470 
 condition, 407 
 conduct, 410 
 conduit, 410 
 cone, 403 
 confectionery, 414 
 confide, 416 
 confront, 420 
 congeal, 421 
 congenial, 422 
 congeries, 421 
 congestion, 421 
 congregate, 424 
 congregational, 282 
 congress, 422 
 conjoin, 427 
 conjugal, 427 
 connoisseur, 446 
 connubial, 447 
 conquer, 463 
 conscience, 471 
 conscript, 471 
 consent, 474 
 consign, 476 
 consistent, 483 
 constable, 427 
 constant, 482 
 
 constellation, 387 
 consternation, 484 
 consummate, 487 
 contact, 488 
 contagion, 488 
 contain, 490 
 contaminate, 488 
 contentment, 490 
 continent, 490 
 contingent, 488 
 contortion, 494 
 contour, 493 
 contraband. 389 
 contract, 495 
 contrary, 403 
 contrast, 495 
 contribute, 496 
 contrive, 497 
 control, 403 
 contumacy, 497 
 contumely, 497 
 contusion, 497 
 convalescent, 501 
 convenient, 503 
 convent, 503 
 converse, 505 
 convert, 505 
 convey, 502 
 convince, 508 
 convivial, 509 
 convolvulus, 510 
 , convoy, 502 
 cook, 404 
 cooky, 403 
 cope, 452 
 copious, 449 
 copper, 332 
 copy, 449 
 core, 404 
 cormorant, 363 
 corner, 403 
 cornet, 404 
 cornice, 404 
 corollary, 404 
 coronal, 404 
 coroner, 404 
 corporal, 405 
 corps, 405 
 corpse, 405 
 correct, 466 
 corroborate, 467 
 corsaii', 406 
 
 corset, 405 
 cortege, 426 
 cortical, 404 
 cost, 483 
 costume, 483 
 cot, 406 
 coterie, 464 
 cotillion, 406 
 cotton, 371 
 couch, 317 
 counsel, 473 
 count (yerb), 462 
 count (noun), 427 
 countenance, 490 
 counter, 462 
 counterfeit, 412 
 country, 403 
 courage, 404 
 courser, 406 
 court, 425 
 courtesy, 425 
 courtezan, 426 
 cousin, 317 
 covert, 452 
 covetous, 502 
 craft, 330 
 crape, 294 
 crash, 405 
 crate, 405 
 cravate, 332 
 crayon, 332 
 craze, 405 
 create, 405 
 credit, 407 
 creed, 407 
 crescent, 405 
 cricket (insect), 294 
 cricket (game), 405 
 crime, 402 
 crisis, 401 
 criterion, 401 
 critic, 401 
 crochet, 405 
 crook, 405 
 crofier, 405 
 cross, 405 
 crotchet. 405 
 crow, 139 * 
 crown, 404 
 crucial, 405 
 crude, 405 
 ci'uel, 405 
 
536 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 cruise, 405 
 cruller, 318 
 crush, 405 
 crutch, 405 
 crypt, 103 
 crystal, 405 
 cubit, 406 
 cuckoo, 293 
 cud, 391 
 cuirass, 404 
 culinary, 404 
 cull, 432 
 cunning, 330 
 cup, 308 
 cupola, 309 
 cure, 400 
 curious, 463 
 curl, 318 
 curlew, 406 
 current, 406 
 curtail, 487 
 custom, 487 
 cuticle, 406 
 Cyclops, 288 * 
 
 D. 
 
 dactyl, 310 
 dais, 410 
 dam, 410 . 
 damage, 407 
 damask, 332 
 dame, 410 
 damn, 406 
 damsel, 410 
 danger, 407 
 date (fruit), 310 
 date (time), 407 
 daughter, 138 * 
 dawn, 409 
 day, 409 
 dean, 408 
 debar, 889 
 debate, 389 
 debenture, 424 
 debility, 424 
 debouche, 392 
 debt, 424 
 decay, 394 
 deceive, 397 
 decent, 409 
 
 decide, 394 
 deciduous, 394 
 decimal, 408 
 deck, 488 
 declaim, 395 
 decorous, 409 
 dedicate, 408 
 deduce, 410 
 deface, 414 
 defame, 414 
 defeat. 413 
 defend, 416 
 defer, 415 
 deficient, 414 
 defile, 417 
 definite, 417 
 deflagrate, 417 
 deflower, 418 
 deform, 418 
 defy, 416 
 degenerate, 422 
 degree, 423 
 deign, 409 
 deity, 408 
 delay, 416 
 delegate, 482 
 delete, 433 
 deliberate, 433 
 delicious, 430 
 delight, 432 
 delineate, 435 
 delinquent, 436 
 deliver, 433 
 deluge, 436 
 demagogue, 382 
 demand, 407 
 demean, 443 
 demented, 439 
 demise, 441 
 demiurgic, 412 
 demon, 328 
 demonstrate, 443 
 demoralize, 440 
 dentist, 408 
 deny, 383 
 depict, 456 
 deplete, 457 
 deploy, 458 
 deposit, 468 
 d6p6t, 458 
 deprecate, 460 
 depress, 460 
 
 derelict, 435 
 deride, 466 • 
 derive, 467 
 derogatory, 467 
 desecrate, 469 
 deserve, 474 
 desert, 474 
 d6sert, 474 
 desk, 409 
 desolata, 477 
 despond, 481 
 detach, 488 
 detail, 487 
 detect, 488 
 deter, 491 
 deteriorate, 491 
 detest, 330 
 detriment, 491 
 detritus, 491 
 devastate, 477 
 deviate, 502 
 device, 409 
 devious, 502 
 devise, 409 
 devoirs, 424 
 devote, 510 
 devotion, 510 
 devour, 610 
 devout, 610 
 dexterous, 466 
 diagram, 423 
 dial, 408 
 diamond, 410 
 diary, 408 
 diction, 407 
 diet, 609 
 differ, 415 
 difficult, 413 
 diffident, 416 
 digit, 238 
 dignity, 409 
 dilate, 415 
 diligent, 432 
 dime, 408 
 dine, 412 
 diocese, 448 
 dip, 411 
 dire, 106 
 direct, 466 
 disaster, 387 
 disburse, 393 
 disc, 409 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 537 
 
 discharge, 399 
 disciple, 410 
 discipline, 410 
 discord, 411 
 discount, 462 
 discuss, 411 
 disdain, 409 
 dish, 409 
 dispatch, 483 
 dispense, 455 
 display, 458 
 dispose, 458 
 dissect, 472 
 dissemiile, 476 
 dissent, 474 
 dissei'tation, 475 
 dissolve, 478 
 distant, 483 
 distinguish, 484 
 distort, 494 
 distribute, 496 
 divert, 505 
 divest, 505 
 divide, 409 
 divorce, 605 
 do, 227 
 doctor, 410 
 doctrine, 410 
 document, 410 
 doge, 410 
 dogma, 409 
 dollar, 334 
 domain, 410 
 dome, 410 
 domestic, 410 
 domicile, 410 
 domineer, 410 
 dominion, 410 
 don, 410 
 donate, 407 
 donna, 410 
 door, 418 
 dose, 407 
 dotal, 407 
 double, 411 
 doubt, 502 
 douche, 410 
 dove, 411 
 dowry, 407 
 drag, 495 
 draw, 197 
 dray, 314 
 
 dress, 466 
 drift, 491 
 drink, 495 
 drive, 491 
 dropsy, 498 
 Druid, 111 
 dual, 410 
 dubious, 502 
 duck, 411 
 duct, 410 
 due, 424 
 duel, 411 
 duke, 410 
 dupe, 397 
 duplicate, 411 
 duplicity, 411 
 duty, 424 
 
 E. 
 
 eager, 381 
 eagle, 307 
 ear, 319 
 east, 449 
 Easter, 449 
 eat, 412 
 ecclesiastic, 395 
 economy, 448 
 ecstacy, 481 
 edge, 381 
 edible, 412 
 edify, 414 
 edit, 407 , 
 educate, 410 
 educe, 410 
 efface, 414 
 effect, 414 
 effete, 415 
 efficient, 414 
 effloresce, 418 
 effluence, 418 
 effluvia, 418 
 efflux, 418 
 effort, 416 
 effrontery, 420 
 egregious, 424 
 eight, 447 
 ejaculate, 427 
 elbow, 498 
 elder, 367 
 elect, 432 
 
 elegant, 432 
 elevate, 483 
 elicit, 430 
 aite, 432 
 ell, 349 
 elm, 354 
 eloquence, 436 
 embargo, 389 
 embark, 389 
 embarrass, 389 
 embellish, 411 
 embonpoint, 411 
 emerald, 187 
 emergency, 439 
 emery, 95 * 
 emeute, 444 
 emir, 316 
 emissary, 330 
 emit, 316 
 emolument, 442 
 emphasis, 414 
 empire, 452 
 empiric, 464 
 employ, 468 
 emporium, 459 
 empty, 412 
 emulous, 476 
 enamor, 384 
 encaustic, 429 
 enceinte, 402 
 enchant, 396 
 encounter, 403 
 encyclopaedia, 461 
 endive, 121 
 endow, 407 
 endue, 426 
 enemy, 384 
 energy, 412 
 enfilade, 417 
 enforce, 416 
 engine, 423 
 engrave, 423 
 ennuie, 446 
 enormous, 447 
 ensign, 476 
 ensue, 474 
 entail, 488 
 entire, 488 
 entity, 412 
 enter, 426 
 entertain, 490 
 entrails, 495 
 
538 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 entreat, 495 
 entrust, 496 
 enucleate, 447 
 envoy, 502 
 envy, 506 
 epaulet, 479 
 episcopal, 479 
 episode, 448 
 epitome, 489 
 equal, 382 
 equestrian, 819 * 
 equip, 470 
 equity, 382 
 eradicate, 464 
 erase, 464 
 erect, 466 
 errand, 386 
 erysipelas, 454 
 escalade, 470 
 eschew, 477 
 escort, 466 
 esculent, 412 
 essence, 412 
 establish, 481 
 etch, 412 
 eternal, 382 
 etiquette, 484 
 euphony, 478 
 evade, 601 
 event, 608 
 eventuate, 503 
 evident, 606 
 exact, 382 
 exaggerate, 421 
 examine, 382 
 exceed, 400 
 excise, 394 
 excoriate, 404 
 excuse, 400 
 execrate, 469 
 ei^ecute, 474 
 exegesis, 382 
 exempt, 412 
 exercise, 386 
 exert, 475 
 exigency, 882 
 exile, 491 
 exodus, 448 
 exoteric, 412 
 expand, 450 
 expatiate, 483 
 expatriate, 453 
 
 expeditious, 455 
 expend, 455 
 experience, 454 
 experiment, 454 
 expert, 454 
 expiate, 456 
 explain, 312 
 explicate, 458 
 explicit, 458 
 explode, 457 
 exploit, 458 
 expostulate, 459 
 express, 460 
 expurgate, 462 
 exquisite, 462 
 exscind, 471 
 extant, 482 
 extemporize, 489 
 exterior, 412 
 external, 412 
 extinguish, 484 
 extort, 495 
 extraneous, 412 
 extravagant, 501 
 extreme, 412 
 extricate, 492 
 extrinsic, 412 
 exuberant, 498 
 exude, 498 
 
 F. 
 
 fable, 414 
 fabric, 414 
 face, 413 
 facetious, 413 
 facile, 413 
 fact, 418 
 faction, 413 
 factitious, 413 
 factory, 413 
 faculty, 418 
 fail, 414 
 faU, 41 
 faith, 416 
 fallacy, 414 
 fallible, 414 
 falter, 414 
 fame, 414 
 fancy, 314 
 fane, 415 
 
 fang, 450 
 fantasy, 414 
 farina, 416 
 fashion, 413 
 father, 453 
 fault, 414 
 fay, 415 
 fear, 505 
 feat, 413 
 feature, 414 
 fecundity, 415 
 federal, 416 
 fee, 450 
 feign, 417- 
 felicity, 415 
 feU, 414 
 felt, 454 
 female, 415 
 fence, 415 
 fend, 415 
 fender, 415 
 feoff, 450 
 ferment, 416 
 ferocious, 418 
 ferry, 90 
 fertile, 415 
 fervor, 416 
 feud, 450 
 fever, 416 
 fibre, 417 
 fictile, 417 
 fiction, 417 
 fiend, 123 
 fierce, 418 
 fife, 456 
 figment, 417 
 figure, 417 
 filament, 417 
 file, 417 
 filly, 827 
 filter, 454 
 final, 417 
 finance, 417 
 fine, 417 
 finesse, 417 
 finish, 417 
 fire, 419 
 firm, 419 
 firmament, 419 
 fissure, 417 
 fit, 416 
 fix, 416 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 flabby, 418 
 
 flaccid, 417 
 
 flag, 417 
 
 flagellate, 418 
 
 flageolet, 417 
 
 flagrant, 417 
 
 flail, 418 
 
 flambeau, 417 
 
 flame, 417 
 
 flamingo, 417 
 
 flap, 418 
 
 flat, 431 
 
 flea, 509 
 
 fleet, 418 
 
 flexure, 418 
 
 float, 418 
 
 flog, 418 
 
 flood, 418 
 
 florid, 418 
 
 florin, 418 
 
 flotilla, 418 
 
 flour, 418 
 
 flourish, 418 
 
 How, 418 
 flower, 418 
 fluent, 418 
 fluid, 418 
 flute, 417 
 fly, 509 
 focus, 419 
 foil, 418 
 foliage, 418 
 folks, 511 
 follow, 511 
 forage, 419 
 force, 416 
 foreign, 418 
 forensic, 418 
 forest, 418 
 forfeit, 413 
 forge, 414 
 form, 419 
 formula, 419 
 fornication, 416 
 forsake, 316 
 fort, 416 
 forte, 416 
 fortify, 416 
 fortitude, 416 
 fortnight, 446 
 fortune, 415 
 forum, 418 
 
 found, 430 
 foundery, 420 
 fowl, 509 
 fraction, 419 
 fracture, 419 
 fragile, 419 
 fragment, 419 
 frail, 419 
 fraud, 419 
 fray, 419 
 freeze, 420 
 frenzy, 466 
 fresco, 419 
 fresh, 419 
 friction, 419 
 frigate, 414 
 frigid, 420 
 fright, 318 
 fringe, 419 
 frisk, 420 
 frivolous, 419 
 front, 420 
 frontier, 420 
 frontispiece, 340 
 frost, 420 
 frown, 420 
 frustrate, 419 
 fume, 160 
 fun, 309 
 fund, 420 
 fundament, 420 
 fundamental, 420 
 fungus, 167 
 furnace, 416 
 fury, 416 
 fusilade, 419 
 fusion, 420 
 futile, 420 
 
 G. 
 
 gait, 503 
 galyanize, 333 
 gambol, 420 
 gangway, 503 
 gander, 385 
 gaol, 400 
 garden, 426 
 garnet, 423 
 garrison, 504 
 garrulous, 234 
 
 gas, 420 
 gate, 503 
 gaudy, 421 
 gay, 314 
 gazelle, 371 
 gelid, 421 
 gem, 421 
 gender, 422 
 general, 422 
 generate, 422 
 generous, 422 
 genial, 422 
 genius, 422 
 genteel, 422 
 gentle, 422 
 genuine, 422 
 genus, 422 
 George, 412 
 gesture, 421 
 get, 460 
 ghost, 420 
 giant, 139 
 ginger, 160 
 glacier, 421 
 gland, 156 
 glass, 421 
 glory, 422 
 go, 503 
 goblet, 309 
 God, 408 
 goose, 385 
 gore, 399 
 gorge, 246 
 gospel, 308 
 govern, 234 
 grab, 424 
 grace, 423 
 grade, 422 
 gradual, 422 
 grain, 423 
 grammar, 423 
 granary, 423 
 grange, 423 
 granite, 423 
 granulate, 423 
 grape, 334 
 graphic, 423 
 graphite, 423 
 grapple, 424 
 grasp, 318 
 grate, 405 
 gratify, 423 
 
540 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 gratis, 423 
 gratuitous, 423 
 gratulate, 423 
 grave, 423 
 grease, 309 
 greed, 189 * 
 gregarious, 424 
 grenade, 423 
 grenadier, 423 
 grip, 424 
 gripe, 424 
 groan, 309 
 grocer, 309 
 gross, 309 
 grot, 103 
 grumble, 309 
 grunt, 309 
 guarantee, 504 
 guest, 426 
 guise, 506 
 guitar, 223 
 gulf, 103 
 gush, 420 
 gust, 420 
 gypsy, 44 * 
 
 H. 
 
 habit, 424 
 habitation, 424 
 hack, 387 
 hail, 811 
 hale, 311 
 halt, 425 
 halter, 425 
 ham, 303 
 hamlet, 430 
 hand, 460 
 haphazard, 397 
 happiness, 897 
 harangue, 95 * 
 harbinger, 893 
 harbor, 393 
 hare, 118 
 harlequin, 495 
 harmony, 386 
 harp, 219 
 harpy, 288 * 
 hat, 406 
 hatchet, 387 
 haughty, 384 
 
 hautboy, 384 
 have, 424 
 haversack, 468 
 hawk, 397 
 hawthorn, 387 
 hay, 314 
 heal, 311 
 health, 311 
 hear, 388 
 hearken, 388 
 heart, 404 
 heave, 425 
 heaven, 425 
 hedge, 387 
 heft, 425 
 hell, 429 
 hemp, 222 
 heresy, 425 
 herring, 105 
 hermit, 196 
 hesitate, 425 ' 
 Hesperia, 175 
 hew, 387 
 hiccough, 472 
 hide (noun), 295 
 hide (verb), 406 
 hilt, 425 
 hinge, 296 
 history, 506 
 hold, 425 
 hole, 429 
 Holland, 429 
 hollow, 429 
 holocaust, 429 
 holy, 311 
 homage, 425 
 home, 430 
 hone, 403 
 hoof, 425 
 hook, 385 
 hop, 425 
 horizon, 425 
 horn, 404 
 horologe, 425 
 horoscope, 425 
 horticulture, 426 
 hospitable, 425 
 hospital, 425 
 host, 425 
 hotel, 425 
 hour, 173 
 huguenot, 880 
 
 hum, 391 
 human, 425 
 humane, 425 
 humble, 426 
 humiliate, 426 
 hundred, 401 
 husband, 389 
 hydrant, 498 
 hydraulic, 498 
 hymen, 499 
 hymeneal, 499 
 hymn, 499 
 hyperbole, 389 
 hypocrisy, 401 
 hypothesis, 432 . 
 
 idea, 606 
 identify, 428 
 identity, 428 
 idol, 506 
 if, 347 
 
 igneous, 237 
 ignorant, 446 
 illicit, 313 
 illuminate, 436 
 illustrate, 436 
 illustrious, 436 
 illusion, 436 
 image, 440 
 imitate, 476 
 impair, 312 
 impede, 456 
 impenitent, 458 
 imperative, 452 
 imperious, 452 
 impetuosity, 455 
 impinge, 451 
 implement, 457 
 implicit, 458 
 imply, 458 
 import, 459 
 importune, 459 
 impost, 459 
 impoverish, 463 
 imprecate, 460 
 improve, 461 
 impunity, 468 
 inadequate, 382 
 inane, 208 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 541 
 
 inaugurate, 421 
 incandescent, 896 
 incantation, 396 
 incarcerate, 386 
 incense, 896 
 incentive, 396 
 , inchoate, 197 
 incite, 402 
 increase, 405 
 incubate, 406 
 incumbent, 406 
 incur, 406 
 indefinite, 417 
 indent, 408 
 independent, 454 
 index, 408 
 indicate, 408 
 indict, 408 
 indignant, 409 
 indigo, 382 
 indiscriminate, 401 
 individual, 409 
 indolent, 863 
 indubitable, 503 
 indulge, 104 
 industry, 426 
 ineffable, 414 
 inertia, 387 
 inevitable, 508 
 inexorable, 447 
 infallible, 414 
 infant, 414 
 infantry, 414 
 infest, 415 
 infldel, 416 
 infirm, 419 
 inflame, 417 
 inflexible, 418 
 influence, 418 
 inform, 419 
 ingenious, 422 
 ingenuous, 422 
 ingredient, 423 
 ingress, 423 
 inhuman, 425 
 iniquity, 382 
 injunction, 427 
 inhabit, 424 
 inherent, 425 
 inhibit, 424 
 initiate, 427 
 injure, 428 
 
 ink, 429 
 inquest, 462 
 inquire, 462 
 inquisitive, 346 
 inquisition, 462 
 insect, 472, 
 insidious, 473 
 insist, 483 
 instant, 482 
 instigate, 484 
 instinct, 484 
 institute, 483 
 instruct, 485 
 instrument, 485 
 insular, 469 
 insure, 400 
 insurgent, 466 
 integral, 488 
 integrity, 488 
 integument, 489 
 intelligent, 432 
 intend, 489 
 intense, 489 
 inter, 491 
 intercourse, 406 
 interest, 412 
 interfere, 338 
 interior, 426 
 interloper, 232 
 internal, 426 
 interrogate, 468 
 intersect, 472 
 intervene, 504 
 interview, 506 
 Intestine, 426 
 intimate, 426 
 intractable, 495 
 intrepid, 494 
 intricate, 492 
 intrigue, 492 
 intrinsic, 426 
 intrude, 496 
 intuitive, 497 
 inundate, 498 
 invade, 501 
 invalid, 501 
 invective, 602 
 inveigh, 601 
 inverse, 505 
 invert, 505 
 inveterate, 506 
 invigorate, 507 
 
 invite, 510 
 invoice, 507 
 invoke, 510 
 irk, 412 
 iron, 353 
 irreparable, 452 
 irrevocable, 510 
 isle, 469 
 isolate, 317 
 issue, 474 
 it, 428 
 itinerary, 427 
 
 J. 
 
 jail, 226 
 jamb, 303 
 James, 316 * 
 Jane, 316 * 
 javelin, 427 
 jay, 314 
 jealous, 262 
 jejune, 208 
 jet, 427 
 jewel, 421 
 jocose, 428 
 jocund, 428 
 John, 316 * 
 join, 428 
 joint, 428 
 joke, 428 
 journal, 408 
 journeyman, 409 
 joviaf, 369 
 joy, 421 
 judge, 429 
 juggle, 428 
 jujube, 262 
 julep, 371 
 juncture, 428 
 jury, 429 
 just (adj.), 428 
 just (adv.), 428 
 
 K. 
 
 kale, 399 
 kennel, 397 
 kernel, 423 
 kiln, 404 
 
542 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 kin, 422 
 kind, 422 
 kirk, 316 
 kitchen, 404 
 knapsack, 469 
 knee, 319 * 
 kneel, 319 * 
 knife, 429 
 know, 446 
 
 L. 
 
 lacerate, 430 
 lacteal, 391 
 lag, 435 
 lagoon, 430 
 laity, 480 
 lake, 430 
 lambent, 430 
 lamp, 430 
 lamprey, 430 
 lance, 430 
 lancet, 430 
 language, 434 
 languor, 435 
 lank, 435 
 lantern, 430 
 larceny, 361 
 latent, 481 
 latitude, 431 
 laudanum, 371 
 launch, 430 
 lava, 431 , 
 lave, 431 ' 
 lavender, 431 
 lavish, 431 
 law, 432 
 lay, 314 
 lax, 432 
 lazzaretto, 333 
 ' league, 434 
 lean, 403 
 lease, 315 
 leave, 435 
 leaven, 483 
 lecture, 432 
 leech, 434 
 legacy, 482 
 legal, 432 
 legation, 4B2 
 legend, 482 
 
 legerdemain, 438 
 leghorn, 383 
 legible, 482 
 legion, 432 
 legislate, 432 
 legitimate, 432 
 leisure, 434 
 lesson, 482 
 let, 315 
 Lethe, 481 
 letter, 434 
 Levant, 433 
 levee, 433 
 level, 433 
 lever, 433 
 levity, 433 
 lewd, 431 
 libel, 331 
 liberty, 433 
 libidinous, 433 
 libration, 433 
 license, 434 
 lick, 434 
 liege, 434 
 lien, 434 
 lieu, 436 
 lieutenant, 435 
 lift, 433 
 ligature, 484 
 light (adj.), 433 
 light (noun), 436 
 like, 434 
 lily, 168 
 limpid, 430 
 line, 435 
 lineament, 485 
 linen, 435 
 lingual, 434 
 liniment, 484 
 lining, 435 
 lint, 435 
 lion, 161 
 literature, 434 
 litigate, 382 
 liturgy, 431 
 live, 435 
 livery, 433 
 lizard, 161 
 lo I 436 
 loan, 435 
 local, 435 
 lock, 457 
 
 lode, 440 
 lodge, 485 
 lofty, 433 
 logic, 433 
 loin, 435 
 loiter, 435 
 lone, 499 
 lonely, 499 
 long, 436 
 look, 436 
 loon, 486 
 loose, 478 
 loquacious, 486 
 lord, 73 * 
 lose, 478 
 loss, 478 
 lotion, 431 
 lounge, 435 
 love, 483 
 loyal, 482 
 lucid, 436 
 lucre, 435 
 lucubration, 436 
 ludicrous, 436 
 luminary, 436 
 lunar, 436 
 lunatic, 436 
 lustration, 432 
 lustre, 436 
 
 M. 
 
 macadamize, 383 
 •mace, 181 
 machinate, 436 
 miachine, 486 
 madam, 410 
 magisterial,. 437 
 magnate, 437 
 magnesia, 833 
 magnet, 333 
 magnificent, 487 
 magnolia, 333 
 maintain, 488 
 major, 437 
 malady, 437 
 malapropos, 487 
 malaria, 437 
 malfeasance, 437 
 malice, 437 
 malignant, 487 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 543 
 
 manacle, 437 
 manage, 882 
 mandate, 407' 
 manifest, 438 
 maniple, 437 
 manipulate, 437 
 manner, 438 
 manners, 438 
 manoeuvre, 438 
 manse, 437 
 mansion, 437 
 mantilla, 438 
 mantle, 438 
 manual, 437 
 manumit, 438 
 manure, 437 
 manuscript, 438 
 marble, 210 
 marches, 439 
 mare, 488 
 mai-k, 439 
 market, 439 
 marque, 489 
 marquis, 439 
 marsh, 802 
 mart, 489 
 martyr, 327 
 marvel, 441 
 mason, 437 
 mass, 441 
 master, 437 
 mat, 438 
 material, 438 
 maternal, 438 
 matrimony, 438 
 matrix, 438 
 matron, 488 
 matt, 443 
 matter, 438 
 mattrass, 438 
 mature, 437 
 maunch, 355 
 maxim, 437 
 mayor, 437 
 mead (honey), 139 * 
 meadow, 488 
 meagre, 381 
 meal, 442 
 
 mean (to think), 448 
 meander, 834 
 means, 489 
 measure, 440 
 
 mechanic, 437 
 medal, 383 
 meddle, 489 
 mediate, 439 
 medicine, 439 
 mediocrity, 440 
 meditate, 439 
 medullai-y, 489 
 mellow, 442 
 melody, 448 
 melt, 448 
 member, 441 
 membrane, 441 
 memoir, 443 
 memory, 443 
 menace, 442 
 menagerie, 882 
 menstruate, 480 
 mental, 439 
 mercantile, 439 
 mercy, 802 
 meretricious, 439 
 merge, 439 
 merino, 487 
 merit, 439 
 mess, 440 
 message, 441 
 messenger, 441 
 metal, 883 
 metallurgy, 412 
 metaphor, 415 
 mete, 440 
 method, 448 
 metre, 440 
 mickle, 437 
 middle, 439 
 midnight, 446 
 mien, 440 
 mildew, 312 
 mile, 351 
 milk, 217 * 
 mill, 442 
 million, 851 
 mimic, 440 ' 
 minaret, 371 
 minatory, 442 
 mince, 441 
 mind, 489 
 mine, 440 
 mineral, 440 
 mingle, 441 
 miniature, 441 
 
 minim, 441 
 minion, 441 
 minish, 441 
 minister, 441 
 minnow, 441 
 minor, 441 
 minute, 441 
 miniite, 441 
 miracle, 441 
 mirage, 441 
 mirror, 441 
 miscellaneous, 441 
 mischief, 398 
 miscreant,' 313 
 misdemeanor, 443 
 misprision, 812 
 missal, 441 
 missile, 441 
 mission, 441 
 mister, 437 
 mitigate, 382 
 mix, 441 
 mob, 444 
 mobile, 444 
 mode, 440 
 model, 440 
 moderate, 440 
 modern, 440 
 modest, 440 
 modify, 440 
 modulate, 440 
 mole, 442 
 molest, 442 
 mollify, 443 
 moment, 444 
 monastery, 443 
 monarch, 448 
 mongrel, 441 
 monitor, 443 
 monk, 443 
 monopoly, 443 
 monotony, 444 
 monster, 443 
 monument, 448 
 moon, 440 
 moral, 440 
 morass, 802 
 morbid, 444 
 mordant, 444 
 morocco, 838 
 morrow, 115 
 morsel, 444 
 
544 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 mortal, 444 
 most, 437 
 motive, 444 
 mould, 440 
 mount (verb), 442 
 mountain, 442 
 mountebank, 389 
 mouse, 444 
 mouth, 444 
 move, 444 
 much, 303 
 mulatto, 441 
 mulberry, 105 
 mulch, 443 
 mule, 441 
 multifarious, 414 
 multitude, 442 
 mum, 445 
 mumble, 445 
 mummy, 372 
 mumps, 445 
 municipal, 444 
 munition, 442 
 murder, 444 
 murmur, 209 
 muscle, 444 
 muse, 444 
 muslin, 333 
 mutable, 444 
 mute, 444 
 mutiny, 444 
 mutter, 444 
 mutual, 444 
 muzzle, 444 
 
 naivet6, 445 
 name, 446 
 Naples, 303 
 narrate, 446 
 nascent, 445 
 nasturtian, 496 
 natal, 445 
 nation, 445 
 nature, 445 
 naughty, 363 
 nausea, 445 
 nautical, 446 
 navigate, 445 
 navy, 445 
 
 nay, 383 
 near, 446 
 neat, 445 
 nebula, 447 
 nefarious, 414 
 negation, 445 
 negligent, 432 
 negotiate, 450 
 neighbor, 445 
 neither, 445 
 nephew, 248 
 nett, 445 
 neuter, 464 
 never, 382 
 new, 447 
 nib, 429 
 nibble, 429 
 nice, 445 
 nicotine, 334 
 nigh, 445 
 night, 446 
 nightingale, 312 
 nine, 121 
 nitre, 327 
 no, 445 
 noble, 446 
 nocturnal, 446 
 noise, 446 
 nomenclature, 446 
 nominal, 446 
 nonage, 347 
 nonce, 302 
 nonchalance, 395 
 none, 445 
 nonpareil, 451 
 nor, 446 
 normal, 447 
 not, 445 
 note, 446 
 notice, 446 
 notion, 446 
 notorious, 446 
 noun, 446 
 nourish, 447 
 novel, 447 
 November, 366 
 novitiate, 447 
 now, 447 
 noxious, 446 
 nuisance, 446 
 nullify, 445 
 Numa, 288 * 
 
 number, 447 
 numerate, 447 
 nuncio, 447 
 nuptials, 447 
 nurse, 447 
 nut, 447 
 nutmeg, 447 
 nutritious, 447 
 
 o. 
 
 oak, 354 
 oar, 386 
 oath, 353 
 obelisk, 156 
 obesity, 412 
 obey, 388 
 obituary, 427 
 object, 427 
 objurgation, 429 
 oblate, 415 
 oblige, 434 
 obliterate, 434 
 oblong, 436 
 obloquy, 436 
 obnoxious, 446 
 obscure, 406 
 obsequies, 474 
 observe, 476 
 obstacle, 482 
 obtain, 490 
 obtrude, 496 
 obtuse, 497 
 obvious, 502 
 occasion, 394 
 Occident, 394 
 occult, 401 
 occupy, 397 
 occur, 406 
 octavo, 447 
 October, 366 
 ocular, 114 
 ode, 448 
 odor, 164 
 oecumenical, 448 
 offend, 416 
 offer, 415 
 office, 413 
 oil, 448 
 ointment, 499 
 old, 384 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 545 
 
 olive, 448 
 omelet, 441 
 omen, 449 
 omit, 441 
 once, 499 
 one, 499 
 onion, 499 
 only, 499 
 onyx, 172 
 open, 462 
 operate, 449 
 opponent, 458 
 opportune, 459 
 opprobrium, 424 
 optics, 167 
 opulent, 449 
 oracle, 449 
 oral, 449 
 orange, 388 
 oration, 449 
 ordain, 449 
 order, 449 
 ordinary, 449 
 ordnance, 449 
 organ, 412 
 organize, 412 
 orient, 449 
 orifice, 413 
 oriflamb, 388 
 origin, 449 
 orphan, 52 * 
 oscillate, 449 
 osprey, 113 
 ossify, 460 
 ostensible, 489 
 ostentatious, 489 
 ostracism, 450 
 ostrich, 363 
 other, 317 
 otter, 498 
 ounce, 133 
 outrage, 498 
 over, 121 
 overt, 462 
 overture, 452 
 owl, 499 
 own, 364 
 ox, 268 
 oyster, 450 
 
 pace, 461 
 
 Vol. II, 
 
 —35 
 
 paddle, 806 
 pagan, 451 
 page (a leaf), 451 
 page (a boy), 461 
 pain, 458 
 paint, 466 
 palace, 352 
 palaver, 452 
 Palermo, 105 
 palfrey, 346 
 pall, 451 
 palliate, 451 
 palm, 464 
 palpable, 454 
 palpitate, 454 
 palsy, 137 
 pantaloons, 833 
 par, 451 
 parable, 389 
 paradigm, 451 
 paragon, 319 
 . paragraph, 423 
 parallel, 383 
 paralysis, 451 
 paramount, 442 
 parapet, 820 
 paraphrase, 461 
 parasite, 461 
 parasol, 461 
 parcel, 453 
 parchment, 334 
 pardon, 28 
 parent, 462 
 parish, 448 
 parity, 451 
 parlance, 452 
 parley, 452 
 parliament, 389 
 parlor, 452 
 parochial, 448 
 parody, 448 
 parole, 389 
 paroxysm, 881 
 parricide. 894 
 parry, -452 
 parsimony, 452 
 parson, 448 
 part, 453 
 partake, 346 
 participate, 397 
 particle, 453 
 particular, 453 
 
 partridge, 854 
 parturition, 462 
 party, 463 
 pass, 450 
 passenger, 353 
 passion, 463 
 passive, 463 
 paste, 463 
 pastille, 453 
 pastor, 453 
 pat, 389 
 path, 139 * 
 pathetic, 463 
 patient, 453 
 patriot, 453 
 patron, 453 
 patter, 389 
 paucity, 453 
 pauper, 453 
 pause, 453 
 pave, 181 
 pay, 295 
 peace, 450 
 peach, 334 
 peak, 456 
 pearl, 295 
 peasant, 807 
 peck, 456 
 peculate, 450 
 peculiar, 450 
 pecuniary, 450 
 pedagogue, 461 
 pedal, 456 
 pedant, 461 
 pedestal, 435 
 pedestrian, 456 
 pedigree, 455 
 pediment, 455 
 peel, 464 
 peer, 461 
 pelisse, 454 
 pellucid, 436 
 pelt, 464 
 peltry, 454 
 pen, 455 
 penalty, 458 
 pence, 466 
 pendent, 454 
 pending, 454 
 pendulum, 464 
 penis, 455 
 penitent, 468 
 
546 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 pension, 455 
 penumbra, 499 
 penury, 200 
 people, 457 
 pepper, 158 
 perambulate, 427 
 perceive, 397 
 percussion, 463 
 perdition, 407 
 peregrinate, 382 
 peremptory, 412 
 perennial, 385 
 perfect, 414 
 perfidy, 416 
 perform, 419 
 period, 448 
 perisb, 427 
 perjure, 429 
 permanent, 487 
 permeate, 444 
 permit, 441 
 permutation, 444 
 peroration, 449 
 perpetual, 453 
 perplex, 458 
 perquisite, 462 
 persevere, 476 
 person, 478 
 perspire, 480 
 pertain, 490 
 pertinent, 490 
 pervert, 505 
 pervious, 502 
 pest, 459 
 pestilent, 459 
 pestle, '456 
 pet,- 294 
 petition, 455 
 petroleum, 363 
 phase, 414 
 pheasant, 833 
 phenomenon, 414 
 philology, 194 * 
 phlegmatic, 417 
 phonetics, 414 
 phrenitic, 646 
 physic, 415 
 physical, 415 
 piano, 457 
 picket, 456 
 pickle, 456 
 picture, 456 
 
 piece, 95 * 
 pigeon, 456 
 pilgrim, 382 
 pillow, 454 
 pin, 480 
 pinch, 456 
 pine, 456 
 pious, 456 
 pipe, 456 
 pirate, 454 
 pistil, 456 
 pistol, 456 
 piston, 456 
 pitch, 456 
 pitcher, 307 
 pituitous, 481 
 • place, 431 
 placenta, 431 
 plain, 314 
 plait, 457 
 plane, 457 
 plank, 431 
 plantain, 481 
 plaster, 431 
 plastic, 431 
 plat, 431 
 plate, 431 
 plaudit, 457 
 plausible, 457 
 play, 458 
 plebeian, 457 
 plenary, 457 
 plenipotentiary, 457 
 pliant, 460 
 plot, 134 
 plum, 105 
 plumbago, 458 
 plumber, 458 
 plunge, 458 
 plural, 457 
 ply, 457 
 poignant, 463 
 point, 462 
 poise, 455 
 poison, 318 
 politics, 457 
 polity, 457 
 pollute, 436 
 pomegranate, 423 
 ponder, 455 
 ponderous, 465 
 poniard, 462 
 
 poor, 433 
 popinjay, 217 
 popular, 457 
 porch, 302 
 porpoise, 363 
 port, 459 
 portable, 459 
 portent, 490 
 porter, 459 
 portfolio, 363 
 portico, 302 
 portrait, 495 
 portray, 495 
 position, 458 
 positive, 458 
 possess, 459 
 post, 458 
 postpone, 458 
 postscript, 471 
 postulate, 459 
 pot, 392 
 potash, 363 
 potation, 459 
 potent, 459 
 pottage, 459 
 poultry, 462 
 pound, 455 
 poverty, 453 
 powder, 115 
 power, 115 
 praetorian, 427 
 prairie, 356 
 praise, 309 
 pray, 460 
 preach, 408 
 preamble, 427 
 prebend, 424 
 precarious, 460 
 precede, 401 
 precedent, 401 
 precept, 397 
 precinct, 402 
 precious, 309 
 precipice, 399 
 precise, 394 
 precocious, 404 
 predecessor, 401 
 predicament, 408 
 predicate, 408 
 predict, 408 
 predominate, 410 
 preface, 311 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 647 
 
 prefect, 414 
 prefer, 415 
 prefix, 416 
 pregnant, 455 
 prehensile, 460 
 pr^udioe, 408 
 prelate, 415 
 prelude, 436 
 premeditate, 439 
 premier, 460 
 premise, 441 
 premiss, 441 
 premium, 412 
 prepare, 452 
 prepense, 456 
 preponderate, 465 
 prepossess, 459 
 prerequisite, 463 
 prerogative, 467 
 prescribe, 471 
 present, 412 
 preside, 473 
 press, 460 
 prestige, 484 
 presume, 412 
 pretend, 490 
 prevail, 500 
 prevaricate, 601 
 previous, 502 
 prey, 460 
 price, 309 
 priest, 291 
 primary, 460 
 prime, 460 
 .primer, 460 
 prince, 460 
 principal, 460 
 principle, 460 
 print, 460 
 prior, 460 
 prison, 460 
 pristine, 460 
 private, 461 
 privilege, 461 
 privy, 461 
 prize, 461 
 probation, 461 
 probe, 461 
 probity, 461 
 problem, 389 
 proceed, 401 
 process, 401 
 
 proclaim, 395 
 proclivity, 403 
 procreate, 405 
 procure, 400 
 prodigal, 382 
 produce, 410 
 profane, 415 
 proficient, 414 
 profile, 417 
 profit, 414 
 profligate, 418 
 profound, 420 
 profuse, 420 
 progenitor, 422 
 progeny, 422 
 prognosticate, 446 
 prohibit, 424 
 project, 427 
 prolific, 413 
 promenade, 440 
 promise, 441 
 promote, 441 
 prompt, 412 
 promulgate, 511 
 pronoun, 446 
 pronounce, 447 
 proof, 461 
 propel, 454 
 propensity, 455 
 property, 461 
 prophet, 414 
 propinquity, 461 
 propitiate, 461 
 propose, 468 
 propriety, 461 
 prorogue, 467 
 proscribe, 471 
 prose, 605 
 prosecute, 474 
 prosody, 448 
 prostitute, 483 
 protect, 489 
 protest, 490 
 protrude, 496 
 protuberant, 497 
 proud, 506 
 provender, 507 
 proverb, 504 
 provide, 506 
 province, 507 
 provision, 506 
 provoke, 510 
 
 provost, 458 
 provr, 139 
 proximate, 461 
 proxy, 461 
 prude, 316 
 prudent, 506 
 prune, 316 
 puberty, 462 
 public, 467 
 publish, 457 
 puerile, 462 
 puerperal, 462 
 pullet, 462 
 pulse, 454 
 pump, 391 
 punch, 462 
 punctilious, 462 
 punctual, 462 
 punctuate, 462 
 pungent, 462 
 punish, 458 
 pupa, 462 
 pupil, 462 
 puppet, 462 
 puppy, 462 
 purchase, 897 
 pure, 462 
 purgatory, 462 
 purge, 382 
 purple, 210 
 purpose, 468 
 purse, 393 
 pursue, 474 
 purvey, 507 
 push, 454 
 pusillanimous, 462 
 
 Q. 
 
 quadrant, 463 
 quadrille, 463 
 quadruped, 463 
 qualify, 463 
 quality, 463 
 quantity, 464 
 quart, 463 
 quarter, 463 
 quash, 463 
 quean, 422 
 queen, 422 
 query, 462 
 
548 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 question, 462 
 quick, 509 
 quiddity, 463 
 quiescent, 463 
 quiet, 463 
 quietus, 463 
 quit, 463 
 quota, 464 
 quote, 464 
 
 R. 
 
 rabble, 464 
 rabid, 464 
 race, 464 
 racy, 464 
 radiant, 464 
 radical, 464 
 radicle, 464 
 radish, 464 
 radius, 464 
 rag, 430 
 rage, 464 
 rail, 465 
 raillery, 464 
 raisin, 334 
 Eajah, 465 
 range, 316 
 rank, 316 
 ransack, 468 
 ransom, 465 
 rape, 465 
 rapid, 465 
 rapture, 465 
 rate, 465 
 ratio, 465 
 rational, 465 
 rattle, 468 
 ravage, 465 
 rave, 464 
 ravine, 465 
 ravish, 465 
 raw, 405 
 ray, 464 
 razor, 464 
 reach, 465 
 realm, 466 
 ream, 386 
 rear, 465 
 reason, 465 
 rebel, 411 
 
 receive, 397 
 receptacle, 397 
 reclaim, 395 
 recluse, 402 
 recognize, 407 
 recollect, 432 
 recommend, 407 
 recompense, 455 
 recondite, 407 
 reconnoitre, 446 
 record, 404 
 recover, 897 
 recreant, 314 
 recreate, 405 
 recruit, 405 
 rectify, 466 
 rector, 466 
 recumbent, 406 
 recuperate, 397 
 red, 354 
 redeem, 412 
 redound, 498 
 redout, 410 
 reduce, 410 
 redundant, 498 
 refrain (noun), 311 
 refrain (verb), 419 
 refresh, 420 
 refrigerate, 420 
 refulgent, 417 
 refuse, 312 
 refute, 420 
 regal, 466 
 regale, 421 
 regard, 147 
 regenerate, 422 
 regent, 465 
 regimen, 466 
 regiment, 465 
 region, 465 
 register, 421 
 regular, 465 
 regulate, 465 
 rehearse, 388 
 reimburse, 393 
 reins (mind), 466 
 reins (of harness), 490 
 relate, 416 
 release, 315 
 relegate, 432 
 relic, 435 
 religion, 432 
 
 relinquish, 436 
 rely, 434 
 remain, 437 
 remedy, 439 
 remiss, 442 
 remit, 442 
 remnant, 437 
 remonstrate, 448 
 remorse, 444 
 remote, 445 
 render, 407 
 rendezvous, 407 
 renew, 447 
 renovate, 447 
 renown, 446 
 rent, 407 
 repair, 452 
 repeat, 455 
 repent, '458 
 replete, 457 
 report, 459 
 reprieve, 461 
 reproach, 461 
 reprobate; 461 
 reprove, .461 
 republic, 457 
 reputation, 462 
 request, 463 
 require, 463 
 rescript, 471 
 resemble, 476 
 resent, 331 
 reservoir, 476 
 reside, 474 
 residue, 474 
 resist, 483 
 resolve, 478 
 resort, 479 
 resource, 466 
 respect, 479 
 respite, 480 
 rest, 482 
 restive, 482 
 restrict, 485 
 result, 469 
 resume, 412 
 resurrection, 466 
 retail, 487 
 retain, 490 
 retaliate, 881 
 retinue, 490 
 retire, 495 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 B49 
 
 retort, 494 
 retract, 495 
 retreat, 495 
 retribution, 496 
 retrieve, 497 
 reveal, 602 
 reveille, 506 
 revenge, 408 
 revenue, 503 
 reverse, 505 
 review, 607 
 revise, 506 
 revive, 509 
 revolt, 610 
 revolve, 510 
 reward, 604 
 rhetoric, 504 
 rheumatism, 467 
 ribband, 389 
 rice, 134 
 riches, 309 
 ridicule, 466 
 right, 466 
 rind, 168 
 risk, 472 
 rival, 467 
 river, 467 
 rivulet, 467 
 rob, 463 
 robe, 465 
 robust, 467 
 rogation, 467 
 r61e, 467 
 roll, 467 
 rose, 468 
 rotary, 467 
 rote, 467 
 rotund, 467 
 rouge, 467 
 round, 468 
 rout, 468 
 route, 468 
 routine, 468 
 royal, 466 
 rubric, 467 
 ruby, 467 
 ruddy, 467 
 rude, 405 
 Eufus, 468 
 rule, 465 
 rupture, 468 
 rush, 468 
 
 russet, 467 
 rust, 467 
 rustle, 468 
 rut, 467 
 
 s. 
 
 saccharine, 55 
 sack, 468 
 sacrament, 469 
 sacred, 469 
 sacrifice, 413 
 saddle, 468 
 safe, 469 
 safiEron, 373 
 sagacious, 470 
 sage, 470 
 saint, 469 
 salacious, 469 
 salad, 310 
 salary, 310 
 salient, 469 
 saline, 310 
 salmon, 469 
 salsify, 469 
 salt, 469 
 salve, 469 
 salver, 469 
 salubrity, 233 
 salute, 469 
 sample, 314 
 sanction, 469 
 sanctimonious, 469 
 sane, 470 
 sapient, 470 
 sarsaparilla, 333 
 satchel, 468 
 sat$, 470 
 satire, 470 
 satisfy, 470 
 saturate, 470 
 sauce, 469 
 saunter, 491 
 sausage, 469 
 savage, 321 * 
 savin, 470 
 savor, 470 
 saw, 472 
 say, 167 
 scab, 470 
 scabbard, 470 
 
 scale, 470 
 scalpi 471 
 scamp, 896 
 scamper, 395 
 scandal, 470 
 scar, 471 
 scarce, 471 
 science, 471 
 scissors, 471 
 scoop, 400 
 scorch, 404 
 scorn, 404 
 scourge, 406 
 scribble, 471 
 scribe, 471 
 scrip, 471 
 scriptures, 471 
 sculpture, 471 
 scum, 481 
 scuttle, 406 
 seal, 476 
 search, 402 
 season, 483 
 secant, 472 
 second, 474 
 secrete, 402 
 sect, 472 
 secure, 400 
 sedition, 407 
 seduce,' 410 
 see (noun), 472 
 seek, 315 
 seethe, 310 
 segment, 472 
 seine, 468 
 seldom, 353 
 select, 432 
 semblance, 128 
 seminal, 475 
 seminary, 475 
 senator, 473 
 senile, 473 
 senior, 473 
 sense, 474 
 sentence, 474 
 sentient, 474 
 sentiment, 474 
 sentinel, 474 
 separate, 452 
 sequel, 474 
 serene, 478 
 serf, 475 
 
550 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 sergeant, 475 
 series, 475 
 sermon, 478 
 serpent, 475 
 servant, 475 
 session, 472 
 seven, 121 
 sever, 452 
 several, 452 
 severe, 476 
 shabby, 470 
 shadow, 476 
 shale, 471 
 shave, 470 
 shear, 471 
 shears, 471 
 sheen, 395 
 shell, 471 
 sherbet, 372 
 sherd, 471 
 shilling, 471 
 shine, 396 
 shingle, 471 
 ship, 399 
 shoe, 406 
 shove, 400 
 shun, 477 
 shy, 315 
 Sicily, 472 
 sickle, 472 
 siege, 473 
 signal, 476 
 signet, 476 
 signify, 476 
 silhouette, 333 
 sill, 477 
 similar, 476 
 simple, 458 
 simulate, 476 
 simultaneous, 476 
 ' sin, 487 
 single, 472 
 singular, 472 
 sir, 367 
 sire, 473 
 sirop, 372 
 sister, 478 
 skeptic, 331 
 sketch, 103 
 skew, 180 
 skiff, 470 
 skin, 471 
 
 sky, 471 
 skujl, 471 
 slack, 485 
 slave, 117* 
 smelt, 443 
 smile, 126 
 smite, 442 
 smith, 442 
 sober, 466 
 society, 474 
 sock, 468 
 soda, 477 
 sodden, 310 
 soil, 477 
 solace, 478 
 solder, 477 
 soldier, 477 
 sole (adj.), 471 
 sole (noun), 477 
 solemn, 385 
 solicitous, 478 
 solid, 477 
 solitary, 471 
 solitude, 383 ~ 
 solstice, 483 
 soluble, 476 
 solve, 478 
 sombre, 499 
 somnolent, 176 
 son, 849 
 sonorous, 478 
 sorcerer, 478 
 sort, 478 
 
 sound (noun), 478 
 sound (verb), 498 
 source, 466 
 souvenir, 504 
 sovereign, 487 
 sow (noun), 132 
 sow, 475 
 space, 488 
 spacious, 483 
 spade, 479 
 span, 479 
 spare, 452 
 sparse, 479 
 spasm, 479 
 spavin, 479 
 spay, 479 
 speak, 851 
 specie, 479 
 species, 479 
 
 specify, 479 
 specimen, 479 
 speck, 479 
 speckle, 479 
 spectacle, 480 
 spectre, 479 
 speculate, 479 
 speculum, 479 
 speed, 187 
 spell, 308 
 spend, 187 
 spew, 481 
 spice, 480 
 spider, 479 
 spike, 480 
 spill, 308 
 spin, 479 
 spinach, 480 
 spindle, 479 
 spine, 480 
 spinster, 479 
 spirit, 480 
 spite, 313 
 spittle, 481 
 spleen, 466 
 splinter, 308 
 split, 308 
 sponge, 133 
 sponsor, 480 
 sporadic, 479 
 spouse, 481 
 spout, 481 
 spurious, 462 
 sputter, 481 
 squadron, 463 
 square, 463 
 squash, 463 
 squire, 319 
 stable, 481 
 stablish, 481 
 staff, 485 
 stage, 481 
 staid, 481 
 stain, 490 
 stake, 484 
 staU, 481 
 stallion, 481 
 stamen, 481 
 Btaminate, 481 
 stammer, 485 
 stamp, 485 
 stanchion, 482 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 551 
 
 stand, 481 
 standard, 490 
 stanza, 482 
 staple, 485 
 star, 387 
 stark, 483 
 state, 481 
 stately, 481 
 station, 481 
 stationary, 481 
 stationer, 481 
 stationery, 481 
 statistics, 481 
 statuary, 483 
 statue, 483 
 statute, 483 
 staunch, 482 
 stay, 481 
 stead, 481 
 steadfast, 481 
 steady, 481 
 stearine, 488 
 steed, 482 
 steer (noun), 483 
 steer (verb), 483 
 stem, 485 
 step, 485 
 stepfather, 368 
 sterile, 483 
 stick, 159 
 stickle, 484 
 stiff, 485 
 stigma, 4,84 
 stile, 484 
 stimulus, 484 
 sting, 484 
 stipulate, 485 
 stock, 484 
 stone, 482 
 stop, 485 
 stork, 483 
 story, 134 
 straight, 485 
 strain, 485 
 strait, 486 
 strangle, 485 
 strangury, 485 
 strap, 95 * 
 stratagem, 382 
 strategy, 382 
 stratum, 484 
 straw, 485 
 
 street, 484 
 strenuous, 485 
 stress, 486 
 strew, 485 
 strict, 485 
 stricture, 486 
 string, 485 
 stringent, 485 
 strong, 485 
 structure, 485 • 
 stub, 485 
 stubble, 485 
 stud, 482 
 study, 483 
 stupefy, 486 
 stupendous, 486 
 stupid, 184 
 sturgeon, 483 
 style, 484 
 suasion, 486 
 suavity, 486 
 subdue, 314 
 subjoin, 427 
 sublime, 433 
 sublunary, 436 
 submit, 442 
 subordinate, 449 
 subscribe, 471 
 subsequent, 474 
 subserve, 476 
 subside, 473 
 subsidiary, 473 
 subsist, 483 
 substance, 482 
 substitute, 488 
 subtle, 490 
 subtract, 495 
 suburbs, 600 
 subvent, 504 
 succinct, 402 
 succory, 103 
 succour, 406 
 succumb, 406 
 sudden, 315 
 sue, 474 
 suffer, 415 
 suffice, 414 
 suffix, 416 
 suffocate, 419 
 sugar, 372 
 suggest, 421 
 suit, 474 
 
 suitable, 474 
 suite, 474 
 suitor, 474 
 sum, 487 
 sumach, 372 
 summary, 487 
 summersault, 487 
 summit, 487 
 summon, 443 
 sumptuary, 412 
 sumptuous, 412 
 supercilious, 429 
 superfluous, 487 
 superior, 487 
 supernal, 487 ' 
 superstition, 482 
 supervene, 604 
 supervise, 506 
 supple, 468 
 supplement, 457 
 supplicate, 468 
 supply, 467 
 support, 459 
 suppose, 468 
 suppress, 460 
 supreme, 487 
 surcingle, 402 
 sure, 471 
 surface, 414 ' 
 surfeit, 414 
 surge, 466 
 surgery, 412 
 surloin, 435 
 surmount, 442 
 surname, 289 * 
 surpass, 461 
 surprise, 460 
 surrender, 407 
 surrogate, 467 
 surround, 467 
 surveillance, 507 
 survey, 607 
 suspect, 479 
 suspend, 455 
 sustain, 490 
 sustenance, 490 
 sweat, 176 
 sweet, 486 
 swine, 477 
 syllable, 129 
 symbol, 389 
 sympathy, 443 
 
552 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX* 
 
 symphony, 478 
 synod, 448 
 synthesis, 492 
 syringe, 381 
 system, 481 
 
 T. 
 
 tabernacle, 487 
 table, 487 
 tablet, 487 
 tact, 488 
 tag, 488 
 tailor, 487 
 taint, 492 
 take, 488 
 talc, 372 
 talent, 493 
 talisman, 372 
 tallow, 302 
 tally, 487 
 talons, 487 
 tambourine, 372 
 tame, 488 
 tangible, 488 
 tantalize, 334 
 Tantalus, 493 
 tare, 491 
 tarif, 372 
 tart, 494 
 taste, 488 
 tavern, 487 
 tear (noun), 217 * 
 tear (verb), 491 
 technics, 493 
 telegraph, 489 
 Tempe, 489 
 tempest, 489 
 temple, 489 
 temples, 489 
 temporal, 489 
 tempt, 242 
 ten, 217 * 
 tenacious, 490 
 tenant, 490 
 tend, 489 
 tender, 489 
 tendon, 489 
 tendril, 489 
 tenement, 490 
 tenet, 490 
 
 tenon, 490 
 tenor, 490 
 tense, 489 
 tension, 489 
 tent, 489 
 tenure, 490 
 teredo, 491 
 term, 491 
 terrace, 491 
 terrestrial, 491 
 terrific, 413 
 territory, 491 
 terror, 491 
 test, 491 
 testament, 491 
 testicle, 491 
 testify, 491 
 text, 492 
 textile, 492 
 thatch, 489 
 theme, 492 
 therefore, 113 
 thesis, 492 
 thin, 489 
 thirst, 494 
 thousand, 401 
 three, 496 
 thumb, 497 
 thunder, 493 
 tick, 488 
 ticket, 484 
 tickle, 488 
 tier, 496 
 tierce, 316 
 tUe, 489 
 timber, 410 
 timbre, 245 
 tm, 188 
 tincture, 492 
 tinge, 492 
 tint, 492 
 tirade, 495 
 tire (verb), 491 
 tire (noun), 493 
 tissue, 492 
 toast, 494 
 tobacco, 463 
 tocsin, 363 
 toil, 492 
 toilet, 492 
 tolerate, 493 
 toll, 489 
 
 tomb, 497 
 tome, 489 
 tone, 489 
 tonic, 489 
 tool, 500 
 tooth, 408 
 toper, 411 
 topic, 481 
 torch, 494 
 torment, 494 
 tornado, 493 
 torrent, 494 
 torrid, 494 
 tortoise, 494 
 tortuous, 494 
 touch, 488 
 tour, 493 
 tournament, 493 
 tourniquet, 340 
 tower, 498 
 trace, 495 
 track, 495 
 tract, 495 
 tractable, 495 
 trade, 407 
 tradition, 407 
 traduce, 410 
 traffic, 352 
 trail, 495 
 train, 495 
 trait, 495 
 traitor, 495 
 trance, 496 
 transcribe, 471 
 transept, 490 
 transverse, 505 
 travail, 495 
 travel, 495 
 traverse, 496 
 travesty, 505 
 treason, 495 
 treat, 495 
 treatise, 495 
 treble, 496 
 tree. 111 
 trefoil, 418 
 tremble, 242 
 trepan, 95 * 
 trepidation, 494 
 trespass, 451 
 tresses, 492 
 trestle, 496 
 
ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 553 
 
 tribe, 496 
 tribulation, 490 
 tribute, 496 
 trick, 492 
 trine, 496 
 trinity, 496 
 triple, 496 
 trite, 491 
 trivial, 496 
 tronaibone, 497 
 trope, 494 
 trophy, 199 
 tropics, 494 
 trouble, 497 
 true, 496 
 trumpet, 497 
 truss, 494 
 trust, 496 
 truth, 496 
 tube, 496 
 tuber, 497 
 tubercle, 497 
 tufa, 95 * 
 Tuileries, 489 
 tuition, 497 
 tulip, 373 
 tumor, 497 
 tumult, 497 
 turbid, 497 
 turbulent, 497 
 turn, 493 
 turpentine, 121 
 turret, 498 
 turtle, 209 
 tutor, 497 
 twain, 411 
 twenty, 411 
 twilight, 411 
 twin, 411 
 twine, 411 
 twist, 441 
 two, 411 
 type, 483 
 typhus, 486 
 
 u. 
 
 ubiquity, 464 
 udder, 498 
 ulterior, 448 
 ultimate, 448 
 
 umbrage, 499 
 umbrella, 499 
 unanimous, 885 
 uncertain, 401 
 unchangeable, 94 * 
 uncle, 388 
 unctuous, 499 
 understand, 482 
 undulate, 498 
 unguentum, 499 
 uniform, 499 
 union, 499 
 unique, 499 
 unit, 499 
 universe, 499 
 unless, 347 
 upper, 121 
 upright, 466 
 urbane, 600 
 use, 600 
 usher, 449 
 usual, 600 
 usurp, 500 
 usury, 600 
 utensil, 600 
 utility, 500 
 
 vagabond, 500 
 vagary, 500 
 vagrant, 600 
 vague, 500 
 vain, 601 
 vale, 501 
 valiant, 600 
 valid, 600 
 valise, 95 * 
 valley, 501 
 valor, 500 
 vanish, 501 
 vanquish, 507 
 vapid, 501 
 vapor, 501 
 varicose, 501 
 variegate, 501 
 various, 501 
 varioloid, 601 
 varnish, 508. 
 vary, 501 
 vault, 510 
 
 vaunt, 501 
 veal, 334 
 vegetate, 507 
 vehement, 502 
 vehicle, 602 
 veil, 602 
 vellum, 608 
 velocity, 509 
 velvet, 607 
 vend, 407 
 veneer, 608 
 venerable, 603 
 venerate, 603 
 venereal, 603 
 vengeance, 408 
 venial, 503 
 venison, 834 
 vent, 504 
 ventilate, 604 
 ventricle, 604 
 ventriloquize, 504 
 venture, 503 
 veracious, 506 
 verbal, 604 
 verbiage, 504. 
 verity, 605 
 vermicelli, 606 
 vermicular, 605 
 vermifuge, 505 
 vermilion, 506 
 vermin, 505 
 versatile, 605 
 verse, 505 
 version, 606 
 vertex, 605 
 vertical, 605 
 vertigo, 605 
 very, 505 
 vespers, 605 
 vessel, 399 
 vestment, 505 
 veteran, 606 
 veto, 510 
 vex, 602 
 viand, 509 
 vicar, 506 
 vicarius, 606 
 vicissitude, 506 
 victim, 507 
 victory, 507 
 victuals, 509 
 vidette, 606 
 
554 
 
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 view, 606 
 vigil, 507 
 vigor, 507 
 villa, 506 
 village, 506 
 villain, 506 
 -ville, 506 
 villous, 507 
 vindicate, 408 
 vinegar, 381 
 vinous, 508 
 vintner, 508 
 viol, 508 
 violence, 508 
 violin, 508 
 virago, 508 
 virile, 508 
 virtual, 508 
 virtue, 508 
 virulent, 508 
 virus/ 508 
 visage, 506 
 visit, 606 
 visual, 506 
 vital, 509 
 vitreous, 508 
 vitriol, 608 
 vivid, 509 
 vocal, 610 
 vociferate, 510 
 voice, 510 
 void, 508 
 volatile, 509 
 volition, 502 
 volley, 509 
 volume, 510 
 volunteer, 502 
 voluptuous, 502 
 volute, 610 
 vomit, 178 
 Voracious, 610 
 vortex, 506 
 vote, 510 
 voucher, 510 
 vouchsafe, 610 
 vow, 510 
 voyage, 502 
 vulgar, 510 
 Vulgate, 610 
 vulnerable, 603 
 
 W. 
 
 wade, 600 
 wagon, 502 
 wain, 502 
 wait, 362 
 wake, 607 
 "Walhalla, 503 
 walk, 501 
 wall, 500 
 walnut, 447 
 waltz, 510 
 wane, 601 
 want, 501 
 war, 110 * 
 ward, 504 
 wardrobe, 808 
 warm, 161 
 warrant, 504 
 wary, 504 
 wasp, 53 * 
 "waste, 110 * 
 watch, 425 
 water, 498 
 way, 502 
 wax (grow), 176 
 weal, 368 
 wealth, 601 
 weather, 308 
 weave, 499 
 web, 499 
 well, 601 
 west, 606 
 wet, 498 
 whale, 221 
 wheat, 611 
 wherefore, 113 
 whit, 611 
 white, 511 
 whitlow, 511 
 whittle, 511 
 who, 323 * 
 whole, 477 
 -wioh, 506 
 -wick, 606 
 wide, 608 
 widow. 111 
 wife, 499 
 wild, 501 
 will, 602 
 
 William, 316 =i 
 win, 511 
 wind, 504 
 window, 504 
 wine, 508 
 winter, 308 
 wisdom, 506 
 wise, 506 
 wish, 139 * 
 wit, 506 
 with, 217 * 
 withe, 161 
 wither, 217 * 
 witness, 506 
 wolf, 126 * 
 woman, 511 
 womb, 511 
 wood, 601 
 woof, 499 
 wool, 607 
 word, 504 
 work, 412 
 worm, 505 
 would, 502 
 wound, 603 
 Wrong, 364 
 wrought, 318 
 
 Y. 
 
 yard, 426 
 year, 173 
 yeast, 420 
 yellow, 162 
 yeoman, 428 
 yesterday, 93 
 yoke, 428 
 yonder, 129 
 youth, 126 * 
 
 zeal, 160 
 zero, 373 
 zone, 91 
 zooks, 112 
 zoology, 159 
 zounds, 112 
 
The number of references in the Greek Index is 722 ; in the 
 Latin 1,1T4; and in the English, 3,636; while in connection with 
 them nearly or quite as many more words in these respective lan- 
 guages that are not indexed, may be found in different portions of 
 the work, and especially in the Synopsis, traceable by easy derivation 
 from the roots that are furnished. As the words selected are, also, 
 the staple words of the various languages mentioned, they are repre- 
 sentative most of them of many times their own number that are not 
 quoted in this work at all. 
 

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