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Cornell University Library 
 Q 93.V64 
 
 Transactions and proceedings of the Vict 
 
 3 1924 002 922 130 
 
Cornell University 
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 The original of tiiis book is in 
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TRANSACTIONS 
 
 PROCEEDINGS 
 
 C|^ fid0rian Instilute 
 
 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 
 
 FOR THE SESSIONS 1864-1865. 
 
 MELBOURNE : 
 
 GEORGE ROBERTSON, 85, COLLINS STREET. 
 
 1855. 
 
170060 
 
 MEIBOUENE : 
 QoodMigTi iSf TrembatJi, 48, Flinders Lane, East. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The Transactions of the Victokian Institute include a 
 collection of Papers on various subjects, more or less inti- 
 mately connected with the present condition and require- 
 ments of the Colony, chiefly by writers who have devoted 
 special attention to the several subjects. 
 
 The objects for which the Institute was founded, has been 
 held in view throughout, viz. : — ^to investigate the resources 
 of the Colony of Victoria, and to contribute to their develop- 
 ment ; and to inquire into the wants of the community with 
 a view to their supply. 
 
 In order to extend the utility of the various papers, they 
 have been written in as popular a style as the subjects ad- 
 mitted, so that while they embody the scientific and profes- 
 sional details resulting from particular investigations, they 
 are yet calculated to furnish abundant interest and informa- 
 tion to the general reader. 
 
 The volume contains, in addition to the above-men- 
 tioned treatises, abstracts of the Pkoceedings of the 
 Institute at its meetings ; containing the discussions on the 
 subjects of the papers, and the oral reports made by the 
 Members of the discovery of new Natural Products, &c. 
 
 In order to make the work of general public utihty, the 
 Council has resolved on printing a limited number of co- 
 pies beyond the supply required for the use of Members, and 
 on publishing them at such a moderate price (viz., fifteen 
 shillings) as wiU just reimburse the Society for the cost of 
 publication. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The Victorian Institute for the advancement of 
 Science, whose Transactions compose the present 
 volume, vpas founded in July, 1854, for the purpose 
 of bringing together persons whose attention was 
 devoted to scientific observations and particularly to 
 those branches of investigation that were calculated 
 to bear directly on the advancement of the Colony 
 of Victoria. At its meetings many such subjects 
 were entertained, observations recorded and dis- 
 coveries reported. The collected results are now 
 laid before the Members ; the papers which were 
 read to the Institute are published entire, and an 
 abstract of the Proceedings of the meetings is 
 appended. The Victorian Institute was, in June, 
 1855, amalgamated with the Philosophical Society, 
 and the combined bodies now form the Philosophical 
 Institute of Victoria, whose future Transactions will 
 form a distinct publication. 
 
 Wm. Sydney G-ibbons, 
 
 Honorary Secretary. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Inaugural Address on the objects of the Institute — Mr. 
 
 Justice Barry - - - 1 
 II. Observations on the Country near Lake Torrens — Fre- 
 derick Sinnett, Esq. - 15 
 III. On Statistical Sanitary Processes — W. A. Archer, Esq. 20 
 rv. Description of Fifty New Victorian Plants — Dr. F. 
 
 Mueller - - 28 
 
 V. On the Deterioration of Grain and Flour — Dr. Maund 48 
 VI. On Water Supply to the City of Melbourne— If. B. 
 
 Jachson, O. E. 54 
 
 Vn. Loan for Public Works in Victoria — E. G. Mayne, Esq. 61 
 VIII. On the Gunyang, a new Indigenous Fruit — Dr. F. 
 
 Mueller 67 
 
 IX. On the Mineral Waters of Victoria — Dr. Maund 70 
 
 X. Gas and Gas Works— ^. K. Smith, O.E., F.B.8.8.A. 74 
 
 XI. On Phonetics— IF. Glarson, Esq. 92 
 
 XII. On tlie Timber of Victoria — George Holmes, Esq. 100 
 
 Xni. On Microscopic Investigation and Manipulation — W.S. 
 
 Gihhons, Esq. 104 
 
 XIV. Descriptionof fifty New Australian Plants— Dr. J". MusZZct- 114 
 
 XV. On the Water of the Plenty River— Dr. Maund 136 
 
 XVI. On Gas and Gas Works; considered in relation to the 
 
 Requirements and Condition of the Colony — A. K. 
 
 Smith, O.E., do. 143 
 
 XVn. On the Trussed Bridge at Keilor — E. Bichardson, Esq. 149 
 
 XVin. On Iron Lattice Bridges— J". Bell, O.E. 154 
 
 XIX. On Translation of Languages— IT. Sydney Gihhons, Esq. 157 
 
 XX. On the Manufacture of Stearine— ^. K. Smith, C.E., Ac. 162 
 
PROCEEDINGS : — 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preliminary Meeting, 15th June, 1854 iii 
 
 Foundation of the Institute, ,, iii 
 
 Greneral Meeting, 31st July, 1854 vii 
 
 Conversazione, 22nd September, 1854 ix 
 
 Ordinary Meeting, 26th ,, x 
 
 ... 23rd October, 1854 xii 
 
 ... 28th November, 1854 xiii 
 
 ... 23rd December, 1854 xiii 
 
 General Meeting and report of half-year, 6th March, 1855 xiv 
 
 Ordinary Meeting, 5th April, 1855 xvii 
 
 Ordinary Meeting and report of Amalgamation Conference, 
 
 3rd May, 1855 xvii 
 
 Ordinary Meeting, 7th June, 1855 xix 
 
INAUGURAL ADDRESS, 
 
 DELIVERED BT 
 
 MR. JUSTICE BAREY, PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTE, 
 
 OPENING CONVEEZAZIONE, 22nd SEPT., 1854. 
 
 Ladies and Gentlembnj — 
 
 The object for which we meet this evening is to inaugu- 
 rate the ViCTOEiAN Institute. 
 
 We assemble in the vestibule of the Temple of Science, 
 many of us unacquainted one with the other, invited to 
 engage in a course of mutual improvement, and to assist in 
 the cause of general instruction. 
 
 The invitation is one which it does not become us to 
 slight ; it holds out not only the certainty of much agreeable 
 mental recreation, but also the means, if duly employed, of 
 attaining and diffusing many substantial benefits. It afibrds 
 an opportunity to those who become members of collecting 
 materials and interesting facts respecting the multitudinous 
 subjects which form topics for the rational inquirer, and to 
 which careful and well regulated observation will attach an 
 accredited worth ; of arranging and collating them so as to 
 
facilitate investigation and attract the attention of those com- 
 petent to exercise thereon an enlightened judgment ; of pro- 
 voking opinions or theories which may at least test the 
 intrinsic merit of those heretofore current ; and of recording, 
 in authentic form, the discoveries or speculations of those 
 who have hitherto individually in private prosecuted their 
 unobtrusive studies, simply for the enjoyment yielded by the 
 pursuit, and of those who may now be stimulated to join in 
 giving their thoughts and views a public circulation. 
 
 The occasion appears to be propitious for the success of 
 such an institution. This is not an era which will tolerate 
 the division of aoroatic* and exoteric learning, or recognise 
 barriers within which the unintiated are not permitted to 
 encroach ; men are no longer content that the search for 
 knowledge should be delegated to the exclusive charge of 
 any particular body, involved in the frivolous niceties of 
 alchemical empiricism ; clouding in allegory or shrouding in 
 mystic symbols the steps by which they, as they supposed, 
 approached the secret of the philosopher's stone, the elixir of 
 life, or the universal solvent; — ^no longer amused with the 
 acuminated subtleties of metaphysical disquisitions, dog- 
 matic theology, or philological dissertations. Theories are 
 not now dozed over for a lifetime, to pass away as idle 
 dreams. We live in an age in which the difficulties which 
 arrested the profoundest masters of antiquity and drew forth 
 desponding lamentations of the impossibihty of their solution, 
 or ambiguous prophecies t of the probability of their removal, 
 
 * Aristotle classified his Lectures as — 1st, aoroamatic, acroatic, or 
 esoteric ; 2nd, exoteric. The latter, delivered in public, comprised 
 logic, rhetoric, and economics, &c. The former, to which his select disciples 
 alone were admitted, related to the Deity, being nature, &c. 
 
 t Vide Bacon, especially "Nova Atlantis, Magnalia Naturse." One 
 of the least oracular and most poetical of these is that well-known pas- 
 sage from Dr. Darwin : — 
 
 Soon shall thy arm, unconquered Steam afar 
 Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car ; 
 Or on wide waving wings expanded bear 
 
have been subjugated by the ever-strengthening arm of 
 Science : in which tangible realities and practical demonstra- 
 tion, from what order soever they may emanate, are accepted 
 and appreciated ; and in which each one who can add to the 
 treasury, and enrich it with a new idea, or shed a ray of 
 light upon any of the obscurities which deface the disk of 
 learning, will be acknowledged as a benefactor and hailed as 
 a good and faithful servant in the cause. 
 
 Moreover, this is an age of which the tendency is not, as 
 formerly, to meet a novel proposition with a contemptuous 
 denial, or its author with an accusation of atheism, intimacy 
 with the Father of EvU, or the yet more heinous offence of 
 heresy, and expose him to the hemlock,* the dungeon, or the 
 stake. The custom of denouncing and decrying innovations 
 as such no longer reigns despotic. We are no longer op- 
 pressed by a bigotted veneration for " the wisdom of our 
 ancestors." It is received with a deferential respect, and re- 
 garded in relation to the lights by which they were illu- 
 minated. New doctrines and inventions are submitted to 
 dispassionate investigation before they are wholly condemned ; 
 if found to bear the tests applied, they are readily approved 
 and adopted, — ^Lf not in the land in which they originate, in 
 some more congenial spot, among some more liberal spirits ; 
 and are made fulcra on which a thousand anxious minds rest 
 their levers to propel into a fuller growth the germ from 
 which they have sprung. The dignified modesty of true 
 
 The flying chariot through the fields of air. 
 Fair crews triumphant, bearing from above, 
 Shall wave their fluttering kerchiefs as they move ; 
 Or warrior bands alarm the gaping crowd, 
 And armies shrink beneath the shadowy cloud. 
 
 * Humanity must mourn and the Muse of History must blush while 
 the names of Socrates, GaUleo, Faust, More, Servetus, &c., stand on 
 record ; and the persecutions of the Christians, by the fierce Nero, the 
 cruel Domitian, the virtuous Trajan, the just Adrian, the 2'ious Antonine, 
 the ambitious Severtts, and the indiscriminate fury of Maximin, Decius, 
 Valerian, Diocletian, Maximinian, Galerius, &c. ; and of each other 
 by But let not the wounded bleed afresh. 
 
learning is conscious tliat it is only by slow and painful steps 
 that man has been able to evolve and eliminate those por- 
 tions of knowledge with which he has been allowed to make 
 himself acquainted; and while it will not suffer the self- 
 sufficiency of ignorance to dictate that which reason must 
 repel, it will not allow the arrogance of sciolism to assert that 
 nothing has been left for the present generation to acquire. 
 
 Not only on such abstract grounds, but for reasons of a 
 more particular nature is the occasion favourable. 
 
 One of the humblest races iu the gradation of the human 
 family has yielded to us the possession of the vast territory 
 over which our people are now dispersed, and, by an in- 
 scrutable regulation of Providence, is waning before the 
 access of civilization. By exertions unassisted from without, 
 cities and towns have sprung up of a class and with a rapidity 
 which challenge a parallel in former or contemporary history. 
 The events crowded into the last three years have wrought a 
 change, not merely in the actual condition, but in the imme- 
 diate prospects of our community, which, as regards our 
 social and political state and the opening dawn of accelerated 
 progression, must inspire consolation, confidence, and hope. 
 The discovery of gold, happily postponed until our hUls, plains, 
 and valleys were covered with flocks and herds, and until we 
 had emerged from dependence upon, to that of sisterly amity 
 with a province, has brought us into direct intercourse with na- 
 tions hitherto indifferent to, perhaps ignorant of, the geogra- 
 phical position of this country ; the keels of whose stately ves- 
 sels now furrow every sea to visit us, who exchange with us 
 commodities, productions of every clime, and pour forth their 
 hardy sons to reinforce our numbers, bearing with them prac- 
 tised skill and restless avidity for the acquisition of wealth. 
 The enterprise of our great parent state, but languidly ex- 
 panding under pastoral occupations, has been caught up, and 
 now directing itself into innumerable fresh channels, gives indi- 
 cation of highly vital force. Each new eclentific application to 
 
economise labour and time is brought within our reach, 
 opening new avenues to honourably earned riches, and un- 
 attended by any of the inconveniences which in over-crowded 
 communities occasionally arise from the substitution of 
 machinery for manual labour before the classes affected 
 thereby have resorted to other occupations ; and we may be 
 well assured that there are amongst us many gifted men of 
 cultivated minds, fervid imagination, and intrepid tempera- 
 ment, who, curbed and confined elsewhere by the pressure 
 of surrounding competition, have panted for a field in which 
 their talents may be allowed to expatiate, and have gladly 
 turned to this young country ready to receive them with a 
 gracious welcome. 
 
 The construction, the features, the products, the de- 
 ficiencies, the wants of this country demand and must exact 
 scientific innovation to suit, adapt, repair, or supply it and 
 them'; and if within the recollection of some present a 
 Fulton, unestimated in his native city, lived to see his 
 baffled projects ripened in a foreign land, and the waters of 
 the western hemisphere crowded with vessels incessantly pro- 
 pelled by the impulse of a sHghted mechanism and a distrusted 
 might', is it presumptuous to imagine that this genial southern 
 sun may hasten into birth some unTevealed combination of 
 forces, the rudiment of which as yet lies in the brain of one 
 amongst us hitherto unsroiled on by the favour of his own 
 compatriots, lingladdened by the approving voice of his own 
 countrymen ? 
 
 This is surely, then, a time when every effort to rivet 
 attention on the culture of Art and Science should be 
 heartily seconded. A strong desire for knowledge is mani- 
 fested in the foundation of our University, the establishment 
 of Libraries, and the- formation of the numerous societies 
 springing up in our towns, their suburbs, and the more 
 distant districts. All this points to prove that the barren 
 acquisition of money does not satisfy the cravings of a 
 
people who possess a comprehension beyond that of the 
 method of acquiring it, and that if such an appetite be once 
 created, that people will demand something more than simple 
 didactic information. 
 
 As to the benefits to be derived from the establishment of 
 this institution, they are incalculable, and an attempted 
 enumeration of them would be alike unnecessary and incom- 
 plete. What rather must they not be when an account of 
 the natural and physical resources of the country is un- 
 touched by any hand we may strictly call our own ? — when 
 the different branches which treat of the mineral stores 
 liidden within the earth, the vegetation which luxuriates, the 
 insects, reptiles, animals which move upon its surface, the 
 fish which swim in its waters, the fowls which float in its air, 
 invoke especial systematic notice? — when the annals of 
 atmospheric and climatic changes continue unnoted, and 
 when a faithful narration of the few but eventful years of the 
 occupation of this soil by Europeans is unwritten ? 
 
 It must, however, strike you obviously as of no inconsider- 
 able moment that an organized body should exist, round 
 which those ardent in the pursuit of Science, and zealous in 
 unfolding its enlarged adaptation to the peculiar wants of this 
 country, should be able to group themselves ; in which they 
 could see the steadfast countenance of recognized authority ; 
 in the archives of which they could find the large stores 
 which sagacity and unwearied diligence have laid up in hours 
 saved from tedious indolence or snatched from profitless self- 
 indulgence, to quicken intelligence and incite to that ambition 
 which extorts praise ; and where they may encounter that 
 variety which will afford a chord on wliich each distinctive 
 mind may strike its ample tone, lend a completeness to the 
 full diapason, and thereby enliven and reUeve the exact and 
 monotonous uniformity. 
 
 One solid advantage to be reaped, were that the only one, 
 is that by the practice of original investigation, the intellect 
 
^ill become fertilized ; and as by ploughing and harrowing 
 the soil, new elements of vegetation and reproduction are 
 brought to the surface, such exercises will imbue the mind 
 with an elasticity and a capacity for analysis and induction, 
 enlarged as occasion presents new objects with which it is 
 called on to grapple. 
 
 This is by no means an unimportant consideration while 
 the printing press is daily sending forth works written with 
 the fascination of what is termed a popiilar style, introducing 
 every species of scientific question, stripped of all severity of 
 demonstration. When readers once acquire a habit of 
 perusing such works hastily and without method, indiscrimi- 
 nately and without reflection or the necessity for mental 
 exertion, they become prone to lean on the memory rather 
 than to rely on the understanding, thereby underrating and 
 necessarily impairing the higher powers of reason. Those 
 who are satisfied with a medium so acceptable to the indolent 
 may be displeased with what they may deem a depreciating 
 allusion to such books. It is not my desire to undervalue, 
 but to stamp a right value upon them. Many of them are 
 of considerable merit, and the authors of them have distri- 
 buted much useful instruction in quarters to which it had 
 never before been able to penetrate ; but in adverting to one 
 of the chief aims of this Institute, " the elevation of the in- 
 tellectual condition of the conununity," it is my wish to im- 
 press upon its members that this is not to be accomplished by 
 adopting second-rate philosophy at second hand, but by. en- 
 forcing the necessity for primary research ; by creating a 
 taste for independent and thoughtful observation ; by gratify- 
 ing the powers of perception while the attention is engaged 
 and the curiosity gratified ; by urging its members to strike 
 out for themselves a track different from that which can only 
 lead to mediocrity ; by enlisting the active and strenuous, 
 fostering in them a vigorous and self-relying habit, and 
 thus, by strengthening the strong, arousing the listless and in- 
 
attentive; and having kindled sucli a spirit, using every 
 means to make it to permeate through every grade. 
 
 That such consequences may be looked for is probable 
 when we consider that labour, whether physical or intel- 
 lectual, is eminently social, and always most effective when 
 combined ; yet, that the achievements which human industry 
 has made conspicuous have been won, not always by the 
 combination of many hands, but by the co-operation of many 
 minds, and the accumulated experience of many men. 
 
 In the elaboration of each separate idea a compensating 
 mutual relation with some other cognate idea is found which 
 brings a fresh agency to bear upon, assimilate, or clash with 
 it ; such attrition, different from that which wastes and di- 
 minishes physical bodies, serving to sharpen and refine the 
 mind, correct, enlarge, or perfect the idea. A mutual depen- 
 dency of powers, faculties, and functions is also an interesting 
 feature in labour, through which arises the reflection of itself 
 upon'itself, and the reaction of the votaries upon each other. 
 
 The philosopher would be helpless without the assist- 
 ance of the mechanic, who furnishes him wherewith to 
 pierce through space beyond the range of human ken; to 
 measm-e the heavens as with a meteyard ; to trace the erratic 
 course and predict the occultation and reappearance of the 
 comet ; to calculate with unerring certainty the effect of 
 every perturbation arising from the constant, yet change- 
 producing influence of gravitation; to weigh the invisible air, 
 and to note the delicate organism of microscopic animalculse. 
 
 The navigator, the engineer, the chemist are alike in- 
 debted to him; while on the other hand, the useful arts 
 would stand still, the mechanic be no more than the primi- 
 tive artificer, were it not for the successive substitutions or 
 additions of forces, economical or supplementary, to construct 
 which genius informs him ; and his hand would be confined 
 to the repetition of that labour which has no excitement of 
 novelty, and is unrelieved by the prospect of improvement. 
 
9 
 
 Thus Science claims Art as its handmaiden ; Art rever- 
 ences Science as her precepto? ; each knit to the other with 
 a benevolent sympathy. 
 
 In seeking to acquire an intimacy with the secrets of 
 either, even in the seemingly motiveless or injudicious study 
 of them, some collateral or accidental good may be expected, 
 while from the neglect or unwise disregard of them nothing 
 can proceed but regret. Although the great truth may lie 
 beyond our reach, the honest and painstaking search for it 
 may profit much ; although the investigation may fail to 
 reach the ultimate goal of his wishes, he may be entertained 
 by many a pleasing diversion on the way. 
 
 Discoveries the most memorable have arisen accidentally 
 and almost unbidden. The stain left on the lips of a dog, 
 which had feasted on an insignificant shell fish, drew atten- 
 tion to that dye* which tinctured the robes kings and con- 
 querors were proud to wear. We are told that some 
 Phoenician sailors having, for want of other fuel wherewith 
 to cook their food on the sea-shore, had recourse to some 
 bWcks of alkali with which their vessel was laden, were 
 astonished to behold it, when acted on by heat, dissolve into 
 translucent streams, and assume with the sand the unde- 
 signed form of vitrification, giving the first hints for the 
 manufacture of glass, now so indispensable an article of use, 
 ornament, and luxury. The fatal efficacy of gunpowder as 
 an agent for the destruction of human life surprised the 
 cloistered Bacon. The mirthful disporting of the children of 
 an obscure spectacle-maker of Middleburg, who, by placing 
 two pieces of glass one before the other, and looking through 
 them,, observed the weathercock on a neighbouring steeple to 
 be magnified, drew the notice of the father to the fact ; who, 
 struck by the singularity of the effect, adjusted lenses on a 
 
 * Purple. 
 
 Tyrioque ardebat murice loen^, 
 
 Demissa ex humeris. 
 i. e., of the Pious Mnta.s.—Virij. Mn. It., 263. 
 
10 
 
 board in brass rings, moveable at pleasure, — ^the first rude 
 attempt at the telescope, the instrument which has so 
 effectually aided to establish the renown of Newton, La 
 Place, and Heeschel. The spasmodic convulsion of the 
 limbs of a dead frog, caused by the unpremeditated contact 
 with two plates of metal, exposed to Galvani the premises 
 on which, by a series of successful experiments, he built up 
 the principles of Animal Electricity. While many of those 
 by which Chemistry has administered so extensively to the 
 convenience and efficiency of medicines, by removing nau- 
 seating or pernicious substances, or to ennobling the arts by 
 disclosing previously unknown properties in vegetables, mi- 
 nerals, acids, or alkalies ; in fixing or liberating colours ; in 
 ascertaining the composition and affinities of the different 
 gases ; have almost, as it were, obtruded themselves obHquely, 
 — and the unappropriated ideas which the surge of everflowing 
 time casts upon its bosom have thus allowed themselves to be 
 drawn within the eddying verge of thafrx^ircle which the in- 
 quirer has disturbed. 
 
 But to turn and view the subject in another light. There 
 is no slender enjoyment afforded by the ready concession 
 made by intellectual liberality to a demonstration, however 
 startling, which stands in direct contradiction to traditional 
 error, to the immature offspring of crude theories which we 
 have too readily accepted from others, or to the cherished 
 conclusions which we may have rashly drawn from ill- 
 considered or assumed data; and the celerity with which 
 after the evidence has been understood and assent granted to 
 the new proposition, all pre-existing notions are displaced — 
 and the tenacity with which the belief clings to the latter 
 doctrine, by which the former has been supplanted, prove in- 
 contestibly the natural and indwelling love of truth which pre- 
 dominates over every other impression on the heart and mind. 
 
 Are there not, however, other attractions besides those 
 emphasised by utilitarian argument capable of luring' us to 
 
11 
 
 such an enlightened species of amusement ; to the devotion 
 of a portion of that leisure left after the performance of our 
 sterner duties, to prepare us for the perception of a more 
 refined description of intellectual recreation than we have 
 hitherto had within our reach ? 
 
 It is too common to treat Science as ascetic and austere, 
 and deny to her the ability of unbending to animate and to 
 please. You recollect the enthusiastic apostrophe of the 
 poet, who exclaims, with a greater generosity, to which I 
 hope I hear an echo : — 
 
 " How charming is divine ptilosophy ! 
 Not harsh and crabhed, as dull fools suppose, 
 But musical as is Apollo's lute, 
 And a perpetual feast of nectar'd sweets, 
 Where no crude surfeit reigns." 
 
 Who, then, is so impassive as not to feel delight in dwelling 
 on the vast design of Nature, the order and beauty with 
 which it is maintaiaed, and yearn for an insight into its 
 great arcana ? Whether we survey the celestial scheme which 
 prescribes to planets and their sateUites stated revolutions, 
 and upholds all, without dislocation of the marvellous me- 
 chanism, producing in the infinitely diversified movements of 
 its members, by an all-wise counteraction of discordant 
 discord, such surprising harmony ; or whether we behold the 
 terrific wonders of the atmosphere torn by devastating hur- 
 ricanes, or agitated by conflicting currents, laden with 
 pestilence, dealing death around ; or its soothing airs breathing 
 life and health. Whether we study the structure of the 
 solid globe, and the alterations it constantly undergoes, by 
 the agency of heat or magnetism, or those subtile power," 
 which generate the volcanic shock, and work the perpetual 
 transmutation of its compact ingredients ; or the properties 
 of elementary substances, their union and reciprocal action ; 
 or the structure, development, and admirable adaptation of 
 the vegetable and animal kingdoms, ascending in unbrokei- 
 
12 
 
 series to man; whether we look around and behold the 
 curious felicity of his inventive genius, through which he 
 has gained a mastery over the resisting elements, the stubborn 
 earth, the treacherous ocean ; and made the explosive steam, 
 and the " thwart flame" of the " slant lightning" ministers 
 obedient to his behests ; or the perseverance of his unremitted 
 toil, by which he has reared in every zone monuments of his 
 piety, his ambition, his ostentation; or the fertility of his 
 aspiring ingenuity, by which he has increased his sources of 
 comfort, and encumbered the field of enjoyment with the 
 prodigality of his luxury ; or, finally, whether we cast our 
 thoughts inward on ourselves, and consider the constitution 
 and operations of the mind, the working of the passions, the 
 sway of the afiections, the faculties of the understanding, the 
 dominion of the reason ? 
 
 These aiford themes which wiU for ever create fresh interest ; 
 for ever yield new gratification ; for ever mock the efforts of 
 the human race to exhaust them. From these as the elegant re- 
 laxations of our prudently husbanded vacation, we may harvest 
 riches which neither birth nor fortune can confer, which 
 neither poverty nor the vicissitudes of adversity can take away. 
 
 If it be necessary to adduce further reasons, besides 
 those indicating the good results expected to follow on the 
 establishment of this Institute, let me call your attention to 
 what is going on elsewhere, without the boundaries of our 
 immediate range of action; amongst other nations, with whom, 
 in the charities of Art and the catholicity of Science, we 
 may claim kindred. Every department of Philosophy is 
 marching onward with gigantic steps, each stride elongated 
 beyond the last. Every year teems with some new disclosure 
 respecting the phenomena of nature, and the laws by which 
 they are governed. WhUe Humboldt, eminent for the 
 remarkable diversity of his matured knowledge, is endea- 
 vouring to prepare his Cosmical sketch of Creation, he finds 
 himself outstripped and forced to pause, that he may append 
 
13 
 
 by Bupplemental annotation to each part as it issues forth, the 
 results of that inductive reasoning, which, carried on by 
 simultaneous yet independent study, has enabled a Le 
 Vereieb and an Adams to herald the existence of new 
 worlds, undetected by the inqidsitiTe astronomer ; and of the 
 patient meditations of other men, who have spread out before 
 him unimagined wonders. Methods of treating abstruse 
 topics are simplified ; improvements in the instruments to 
 assist philosophical investigation, succeed each other to an 
 extent which, while they excite a just admiration, hold out a 
 belief that we are hovering on the threshold of more as- 
 tounding discoveries than any which have hitherto awed us 
 by their subUmity, or gratified us by the practical usefulness 
 which has tended so extensively to the civihzation of mankind. 
 And is it for us to lag behind, in the race in which the sages 
 of our time show us such an example of diligence and activity ? 
 Is it to be said of us, the tenants of a portion of one of 
 the grand divisions of the globe — a storehouse of unrevealed 
 niysteries — the theatre, we may presume, of future great 
 actions — ^that we have no ambition but to vegetate on its sur- 
 face, mere " air plants whose roots are the lungs," (as Novalis 
 quaintly terms men) without even contributing our quota of 
 information respecting those things daily exposed to the 
 observing eye, or endeavouring to awaken an appreciation 
 of their concert, or aspiring to add a sign to the zodiac of 
 science ? 
 
 Are we to waste life in frivolity, or in occupations which, 
 when we perish, will leave no memorial even of our own 
 existence ; and allow our era to be cited as that of the Cim- 
 merian obscurity of the Southern Hemisphere ? Are we. 
 to shrink from solving our portion of the great problem 
 of truth; or is it apprehended that the grandeur of the 
 theme should repel, that we should doubt oiu* powers, 
 distrust our endurance, and be fearful for our success ?, 
 Such timorous diffidence, such unworthy distrust, are un- 
 
14 
 
 becoming, and ought not to be suffered to interpose the 
 fluctuation of a wavering instant ; and even were there 
 grounds to apprehend a want of vigour to sustain this Insti- 
 tute, I would say: 
 
 Yet where an equal poise of hope and fear 
 Does arbitrate the event, my nature is 
 That I incline to hope, and not to fear. 
 
 It wUl not, I feel assured, have escaped the reflective 
 amongst this audience, that of such pursuits as those on which 
 we are about to engage ourselves, the chief end should be, 
 not merely to extend our acquaintance with matters or things, 
 their qualities or accidents ; or to waste time, however sedu- 
 lously employed, if our efforts merely entitle us to the barren 
 praise of skilful compilers of dry and isolated facts, or un- 
 wearied classifiers of characteristic peculiarities or attributes, 
 ingenious nomenclators, or editors who work on the volume 
 of Nature as a Dictionary; but that our faith is to learn 
 their relative value, in subordination to the comprehensive 
 scheme of creation: and by exalting the understanding, waft 
 it above the cheerless sophistry which chains the soul to an 
 empty materialism, and warm the affections towards the great 
 Author of Being. When we acknowledge that to be the 
 needle which guides our speculations, we will be perpetually 
 reminded of that infinite wisdom which governs and regulates 
 the orb on which we dwell; but one amidst the countless 
 myriads of worlds which Divine intelligence holds within their 
 spheres; and, looking "from nature up to nature's God," 
 muse with admiration and humihty upon the system to which 
 we owe so many blessings, and the succession of those indis- 
 soluble links which connect us with immortality. 
 
 We may then, iu sincere approbation of the sentiments 
 attributed to our first parents, in the simphcity of their un- 
 corrupted state, join in these enthusiastic exclamations: — 
 
15 
 
 These are Thy glorious works, Parent of Good ; 
 
 Almighty ! Thine this universal frame, 
 
 Thus wondrous fair : Thyself how wondrous then : 
 
 Unspeakable ! who sit'st above these heav'ns. 
 
 To ua invisible, or dimly seen 
 
 In these thy lowest works : yet these declare 
 
 Thy goodness, beyond thought and pow'r divine. 
 
 II. 
 
 A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE COUNTEY 
 NEAR LAKE TORRENS. 
 
 BEAD BY ME. F. SIISTNETT. 
 
 26th SEPTEMBER 1854. 
 
 Evert one who knows anything of Australian geography, 
 must have observed upon the map the strange horse-shoe 
 shaped lake that is indistinctly shadowed forth; and that 
 appears to form a sort of natural northern boundary to the 
 neighbouring Colony of South Australia. The lake when I 
 visited the district, was but little known, and is but little 
 known now. The outer shore of the horse-shoe lake has 
 been seen by but few persons, except at the extremities^ 
 But one party ever actually reached the water from the 
 outside; — ^thia was a small detachment from the exploring 
 party commanded by Captain Sturt, the detachment being 
 
16 
 
 headed by Dr. Browne, the medical officer of that expedition; 
 and who, after the death of the second in command, and 
 during the illness of the leader, became practically the head 
 of the expedition. He not only reached the water, but 
 bathed in it, and so finally disposed of the doubt that long 
 existed as to wheteer the so-called lake deserved the name, 
 or was more than a long strip of desert land, rendered white 
 and shining by an incrustation of salt. 
 
 UntU the beginning of 1851, the natm-e of the country 
 lying within the bight or horse-shoe had been completely misre- 
 presented, and a personal knowledge of its true character is still 
 confined to a few. Nearly twelve years before, Mr. Eyre, the 
 late Lieut. Governor of the middle island of New Zealand, 
 had crossed the western horn, at a place then — and usually 
 — -devoid of water, but where during floods a torrent rushes 
 down into the head of Spencer's Gulf, close to Mount Aden. 
 I may mention here, that in 1851, — after an interval of 
 twelve years — ^we found the wheel tracks of Mr. Eyre's 
 party along the banks of a creek which he describes in his 
 narrative, and we also found the traces of one of his encamp- 
 ments at another watering place. 
 
 While Mr. Eyre perhaps stands, in the dismal records of 
 Australian geographical research, without second as an 
 intrepid and long-suffering explorer, it has been his unfortu- 
 nate fate often to pass in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 excellent country without ever lighting upon it, and this 
 was the case in the Lake Torrens District. I attribute his 
 misfortune to an inveterate propensity the brave explorer 
 possessed to adhere to coast lines whenever he had an oppor- 
 tunity. Thus by closely coasting Spencer's Gulf he succeeded 
 in confining his observations to a plain covered with salsola- 
 ceous plants and almost destitute of water, while over a 
 broad district, since found to be not only habitable, but in 
 many places highly fertile, he wrote in large letters upon his 
 map that the district appeared to consist of nothing but 
 
17 
 
 barren Mils and spinafex ranges. This part is mentioned for 
 reasons that will be presently shown. 
 
 Among the " barren and useless spinafex ranges," there 
 are a number of excellent sheep and cattle runs, in most of 
 which an interest is held by Dr. Browne, before-mentioned, 
 and his brother, who have really been " pioneers of civiliza- 
 tion" in that neighbourhood, and who have been mainly 
 instrumental in opening up the pastoral resources of the 
 "far north" of South Australia: Among these runs is one 
 characterised by a physical peculiarity that deserves mention. 
 
 An extraordinary triangular range of mountains encloses 
 about twenty-five square miles of fertile country so com- 
 pletely as to have won for this strange place the name of "the 
 Pound." The hills are from two to four thousand feet in 
 height, and out of several which I had the honour of naming, 
 two bear the names of members of the Victorian Institute. 
 The only inlet or outlet to the pound is through a narrow 
 gorge, closed up when I last saw it by about a hundred feet 
 of rude fencing, and through which comes a stream that 
 carries away, to lose in the great plains of Lake Torrens, the 
 drainage from the three ranges — a triangular range of hills. 
 The hUls are so steep on the inner side that neither man nor 
 beast can climb them, and among the incidents of the dis- 
 covery of the place, I may mention that two extremely old 
 bullocks, who, I know not how, had found their way into the 
 pound, were disturbed in their monarchy of all they surveyed, 
 and were as wild as if they had never enjoyed the advantage 
 of communication with civilised man. It was their misfor- 
 tune also to be exceedingly fat, and within a few weeks after 
 their discovery when I first visited the domain of which they 
 had previously held undisturbed possession they were no more. 
 
 According to most maps the extreme length of Lake 
 
 Torrens, measuring round the horse-shoe, from one extremity 
 
 to the other, is represented at about four hundred miles. 
 
 I am convinced that this is a considerable exaggeration. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 I speak only of the inner bight, for how far the lake may 
 extend to the north-west is at present unascertained. From 
 actual though rough survey, however, I ascertained that even 
 the ten thousand square miles of country were included 
 within the horns of the sigantic crescent. 
 
 The area is extremely mountainous, and from the tops of 
 many high hills standing seventy or eighty miles to the 
 northward of " the pound," I have seen the lake stretching 
 lilie a streak of silver between myself and the horizon, and 
 was convinced that the ordinary account which represents it 
 as but a narrow strip of water is substantially correct. 
 I speak of the North-Eastern, the Eastern, and the AYc-tern 
 portions of the lake. The North-Western, as I have said, 
 has never been visited. 
 
 Nor is it easy to visit the lake itself from the inner shore 
 at any place except near Mount Aden. Even there in ordi- 
 nary seasons it would be necessary to labour for at least ten 
 or twelve miles through a sandy plain bearing no vegetation, 
 except a few stunted salt bushes, and totally destitute of fresh 
 water, while nearer to the lake a broad belt of salt incrusta- 
 tion, left by the recession of the water, would, except in the 
 very rare event of a flood, have also to be overcome. Pro- 
 ceeding farther northward and then eastward in a direction 
 more or less parallel to the lake, we found that the farther 
 north we got the wider became the strip of what niav be 
 called the Inner Lake Torrens Desert. Thirty or forty 
 miles to the westward of Mount Serle, as we emerged from 
 the hilly country on to the desert, we could see the lake, or 
 its salt banks shining far away to the north, but we estimated 
 the distance to be at lea^t fifty miles, and had no disposition 
 whatever to go further in that direction. From the summit 
 of jNIount Serle the lake is again visible to north-east and 
 east — to the east through gaps in mountain ranges — to the 
 north-east without any interruption, except that caused by 
 two conical peaks that stand in strange isolation on the level 
 
19 
 
 plain of the desert, and which from their bearings and appa- 
 rent distance I conclude to be — or rather that one of them 
 is — the Mount Hopeless of Mr. Eyre. Now is it to be won- 
 dered at that he should have so named the hill, or that even 
 his spirit should have been subdued into hopelessness of far- 
 ther discovery in that direction. 
 
 The barrier that is drawn round the district of hilly and 
 Inhabitable country separated from Lake Torrens by the 
 strip of desert I have described, is rendered yet more insur- 
 mountable by the fact that even those water-courses which 
 towards their sources contain abundance of fresh water 
 become perfectly salt lower down. Thus the creek that 
 runs through the gorge of " the Pound," contains abundance 
 of good water for several miles^ but afterwards becomes salt, 
 and finally dwindles away and loses itself before reaching the 
 lake. The Frome River described by Mr. Eyre, and which 
 another of our party and myself descended some distance 
 farther than he appears to have done, serves to illustrate the 
 same phenomenon. Where we first came upon this creek 
 the few holes that contained any water at all contained water 
 that was perfectly good and fresh. Lower down the stream 
 passed through a long gorge in the clifis, ascending in several 
 places almost perpendicularly for several hundred feet, and 
 with considerable difficulty we followed the creek for about 
 a dozen miles. Though still pent up among the hills, we 
 found the water gradually changing from fresh to brackish, 
 and from that to salt. We did not succeed, as I should have 
 been very glad to have done, in following the Frome until it 
 finally emerged from the hlUs into the desert plain. 
 
 One peculiarity of what may be called the outer circle of 
 hills, running more or less parallel to the inner shore of Lake 
 Torrens, deserves mention. Approaching these from the side 
 farthest from the lake, it is easy to climb them, but on reach- 
 ing the summit of the range I invariably found steep and 
 inaccessible cliffs facing towards the lake. 
 
20 
 
 I regret that my geological knowledge does not enable me 
 to give a scientific description of a district that I am sure 
 would weU repay a visit to a good geologist. One member 
 of our Institute, Dr. Mueller, will, I trust, give us what no 
 one but himself can — for no botanist but himself has been in 
 the neighbourhood — an account of the vegetable kingdom of 
 the Lake Torrens District. 
 
 III. 
 
 ON STATISTICAL SAKITARY PROCESSES. 
 
 BY W. H. AECHEE, 
 
 ASSISTANT EEGISTRAE-GENERAL. 
 
 READ SEPTEMBER 26, 1854. 
 
 The Council of the Victorian Institute having honoured 
 Dr. Maund and myself with the task of reporting on 
 " Sanitary Processes," and especial invitation having been 
 made to me to initiate the subject this evening, I purpose 
 to show briefly the groundwork on which all sanitary systems 
 in this Colony should be based, or in other words, our 
 Processes of Information, or how we must get at our 
 facts. 
 
 For several years past, — in fact, ever since a Registrar 
 General's Department has existed in London, the public mind 
 in Great Britain and other countries has from time to time 
 been agitated by startling revelations of the prevalence of 
 recurrent forms of disease in certain localities, which seemed 
 to be the very hot-beds of typhus and cholera, and other 
 
21 
 
 diseases of the same hideous family. The public alarm soon 
 manifested itself in the shape of meetings and discussions; 
 and House of Commons' Committees, and Poor Law Com- 
 missioners, and Special Sanitary Commissioners appointed by 
 Her Majesty, and Voluntary Commissions in the shape of 
 Health of Towns' Associations, inspected and reported with 
 a vigour, — ^the good results of which were, and are, certainly 
 lamentably slow in coming about. 
 
 It is not my intention this evening, to enter into a detail 
 of the misconceptions in theory and the mistakes in fact, 
 made by the first agitators of the Public Health Movement; 
 I hope on another occasion to have the opportunity of 
 pointing out the rocks on which they split, much to the injury 
 of a good cause. It will be satisfactory, however, to state 
 that we in this Colony are in possession of materials and 
 advantages that they had not, and it wUl be our fault if the 
 progress of the Science of Vital Statistics should become 
 impeded by unnecessary obstructions. 
 
 When I had the honour of being requested by the Grovern- 
 ment to draw up a general plan of registration, about 
 eighteen months ago ; on examining the schedules appended 
 to the Act xvi. Vict. No. 26, known as the Registration 
 Act, I found very important statistical omissions in every one 
 of the schedules. For example, in the Marriage- Schedule 
 the Ages of the Bride and Bridegroom were omitted; in the 
 BiETHs' Schedule, the ages of the Parents, the date of their 
 marriage, and the number and sex of their former children 
 were not asked for; and in the Deaths' Schedule the 
 duration of the last illness, as certified by a medical attendant 
 was wanting ; also, the time of residence in the Colony, and 
 if deceased were married, the period of marriage, and a list 
 of the issue living and dead, with their ages. 
 
 Now every one of these points has an importance that can 
 only be duly appreciated by Actuaries, in calculating tables 
 of mortality, and the values of life-contingencies dependent 
 
22 
 
 tliereon; and by Vital Statisticians, wlio have hitherto 
 sought for such authentic information in vain. To the 
 honour of Government, be it said, the suggestions made for 
 the introduction of the above points into the schedules were 
 promptly agreed to, and the consequence is that Victoria 
 has commenced a system of registration more comprehensive 
 in its scope and scientific in its detail than any hitherto carried 
 out in any part of the world. 
 
 Apart from the legal value of the minute and varied infor- 
 mation contained in these and similar returns, there may be 
 made a long list of important scientific results deducible from 
 them, when taken in connexion with the ascertained living popu- 
 lation existing at the period for which such returns are made' 
 First, in the Birth Schedule, by the birth-place, age, and date 
 of marriage of the parents, and the number and ages of 
 former children being given, some valuable problems may be 
 solvedybr the first time; for example : — ■ 
 
 1. What relation is there with regard to the ages of parents 
 
 at the time of marriage and the number of after issue ? 
 
 2. What is the rate of mortality among childi-en generally ; 
 
 and also in family groups ? 
 
 3. Are male or female children most difficult to rear ? and 
 
 which are the more fatal periods of age for each ? 
 
 4. AVhat influence has the varying age of the parents over 
 
 the sex of their children ? 
 
 5. Is there any, and what, difference in the rate of birth, or 
 
 mortality, or proportion of either sex in the children of 
 persons of different races, as for example, among the 
 English, Irish, &c. ? 
 From the Death's Schedule, in like manner, may be 
 determined — 
 
 1. The healthiness or unhealthiness of the Colony generally, 
 
 and of specific localities therein. 
 
 2. By the causes of death being given, the extent and 
 
 fatality of each disease may be ascertained. 
 
23 
 
 3. Tables of sickness, mortality, probability, and expectation 
 
 of life, may be formed for purposes of friendly societies, 
 for life assurances, annuities, reversions, leases on lives, 
 endowments, and other objects of first importance to 
 the community. 
 
 4. The influence of occupation on life may be determined. 
 
 5. The place of birth and length- of residence in the Colony 
 
 being given, the duration of life of the advena or im- 
 migrants may be found in contrast with that of the 
 native born. 
 
 6. By the two last columns furnishing the ages of marriage 
 
 of parents, and a list of their issue, similar valuable re- 
 sults may be obtained with regard to the rate of mortal- 
 ity among children, &c., and the influence of the parents 
 ages at time of marriage, on the longevity of their pro- 
 geny; and further, by the number of children shown as 
 living or dead since the arrival of the parents in the Co- 
 lony, the influence of the climate, &G., on European, 
 or other children born out "of the Colony, will be deter- 
 minable as well as with regard to natives. 
 From the Marriage schedules, by means of the ages, the 
 birth-place, and the civil and social condition of the parties 
 being given, various questions in relation to the present and 
 future political state of the population can be answered, and ad- 
 ditional light is thrown on the path of the Statist in his efforts 
 to arrive at the laws of birth, disease, and death, as they va- 
 riously affect the different members of the human family. 
 
24 
 
 
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 From what is here seen, it appears to me you will have no 
 difficulty in coming to the conclusion, that in these processes 
 of Information, namely, the Government returns of Births, 
 Marriages and Deaths, exist the very best materials for 
 Sanitary and other researches. The next point will be to 
 apply this information in a scientific way ; and here we 
 meet the peculiar difficulties of this path of the domain of 
 truth. But, as I said at the commencement, it is not my 
 intention to touch th^se to-night, but simply to content 
 myself with remarking, that the first step to be taken to 
 arrive at the healthiness or unhealthiness of any particular 
 locality, (as for example, the City of Melbourne) after the 
 establishment of a broad registration system, is carefully to 
 divide that locality into clear, well-defined districts, and to 
 ascertain the relative ages, proportions of the sexes, and 
 occupations of the inhabitants of each district; and I would 
 earnestly recommend the Institute to use all its energies for 
 the determination of these points, which are of capital 
 importance ; but once being done, will with the aid of the 
 registration returns leave little to be desired in the way of 
 fundamental operations. 
 
 W. H. ARCHEE. 
 
28 
 
 IV. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FIFTY KEW AUSTRALIAN 
 PLANTS, CHIEFLY FROM THE COLONY 
 OF VICTORIA. 
 
 BY DK. FERDINAND MUELLER, 
 
 GOVEEXMEXT BOTANIST. 
 LAID ON THE TABLE, 6TH NOVEMBER, 1854. 
 
 The following brief descriptive notes on the botany of this 
 country, have been selected partly from manuscripts elaborated 
 for a Flora of this colony, and partly from unpublished ob- 
 servations on the plants of Australia in general. 
 
 In a country, which but a generation ago was an unknown 
 wilderness — the close acquaintance with its productions can 
 be but gradually advanced, and therefore, many a day must 
 yet elapse before a work on its vegetation may be closed, as 
 approaching to that state of perfection which science demands 
 at the present day. It was, however, deemed desirable, that 
 a preliminary account of the lately discovered indigenous 
 plants should be prepared at an earlier period, and the 
 series of them is commenced in the following pages. Still 
 the treatment of so many scientific questions of higher 
 practical importance before this Institute, which favours all 
 branches of science equally, rendered it imperative to draw 
 this paper in as narrow limits as clearness would permit, 
 excluding from it all extensive details, which would more 
 particularly belong to a botanic periodical. 
 
29 
 
 Yet the diagaoses offered on this occasion, although un- 
 supported by ample descriptions, will prove to be sufficient 
 to recognize by them under the requisite literary aid, 
 some of the most characteristic pecuHarities of our Flora; 
 and it wiU be an agreeable duty to the author to continue 
 this series, should it answer the purpose of promoting bota- 
 nical research here, and diffusing abroad some additional 
 knowledge of the manifold singular productions of our 
 Australian home. 
 
 PITTOSPOKE^. 
 
 1. Billardiera cymosa. 
 
 Branches climbing; leaves lanceolate, flat, acute, entire, 
 above smooth, beneath scantily hairy, on the margin ciliate, 
 at length totally glabrescent; cymes terminal, solitary or 
 paniculate; sepals long-acuminate, somewhat hairy, densely 
 ciliated, at least three times shorter than the corolla ; berries 
 cylindrico-oblong, silky or glabrous. 
 
 In the Malice Scrub towards the Murray River, near 
 Guichen Bay; on Spencer's and St. Vincent's Gulf, near 
 Flinder's Ranges ; and in Kangaroo Island. 
 
 Flowers yellow, or nearly purple or blueish, and in all 
 intermediate shades. 
 
 It is a true Billardiera with the inflorescence of a^ronaya. 
 
 ZTGOPHTLLE^. 
 
 - 2. Zygophyllum glaucum. 
 (Sect. Roepera.) 
 Herbaceous, ascending or erect, glabrous; leaflets twin, 
 fleshy, glaucous, obliquely ovate, spathulate, perfectly entire, 
 at least three times longer than the margined petiole ; pe- 
 duncle of the fruit drooping, equal in length with the petiole; 
 sepals from a broad base lanceolate, acuminate; capsule 
 
30 
 
 acute- quadrangular, truncate at the top, slightly tapering 
 into the rounded base, its valves net-veined, dimidiate- 
 cordate or oval, "wingless. 
 
 In the Desert along the jMurray, "Wimmera and Avoca ; 
 on St. A'incent's Gulf, Spencer's Gulf, and in various other 
 places in South Australia. 
 
 DIOSJIE.E. 
 
 3. Corraa decumhens. 
 
 Branches decumbent or adsccndeut ; leaves oblong, blunt, 
 above nearly glabrous, beneath clothed with a white or rusty 
 brown toment ; flowers solitary ; calyx eight-cleft, four of 
 the segments triangular-lanceolate, subulate, the alternating 
 ones twice longer filiform ; corolla red, tubulosc, witli conni- 
 vent segments ; stamens long-exserted ; style glabrous ; 
 stigma four-cleft. 
 
 On the cataracts towards Blount Lofty, and on the banks 
 of the Onkaparinga in South Austraha. 
 
 A plant not less beautiful than remarkable. The singular 
 form of the calyx will at once offer a mark of chstinction 
 from any other of its brilliant congeners. 
 
 4. Phehalhim sedijlorum. 
 
 Erect J branches scaly and covered with resinous glands ; 
 leaves linear, cuneate, truncate or retuse, on the margin from 
 glandular protuberances repand, above smooth, beneath like 
 the terminal generally six-flowered umbels silver-scaly ; petals 
 ovate, acute, golden-yellow ; filaments not exserted ; anthers 
 fixed at the base, Avith a terminal gland ; stigma undivided. 
 
 In the Mallee Scrub, at the Murray River, Lake Lalbert, 
 and Lake Tyrrell. 
 
 This singular plant exhibits some affinity to Phebalium 
 glandulosum, which, however, is a moimtainous species. Its 
 medicinal virtue ought to be tried. 
 
31 
 
 5. Phehalium podocarpoides. 
 
 Leaves small, crovvded, smooth^ coriaceous, narrow-oblong, 
 blunt, witli entire slightly recurved margin, above even and 
 shining, below silver-scaly; umbels terminal, five to ten- 
 flowered, sessile, as well as the twigs clothed with a scaly, 
 glandular tegument ; calyx repand-denticulate, four-times 
 shorter than the ovate-lanceolate petals; the exserted fila- 
 ments and the style capillary, glabrous; stigma undivided ; 
 carpels apiculate ; seeds streaked. 
 
 On the rocky alpine summit of Mount BuUer and the 
 Mitta Mitta Ranges. 
 
 6. Phehalium asteriscophorum. 
 
 Leaves cuneate-oblong, blunt, above covered with dispersed 
 starry hair, beneath as well as branches and pedicels starry- 
 tomentose ; umbels generally three-flowered, axillary or ter- 
 minal ; calyx minute ; stamens ten, not exserted ; anthers 
 fixed at the base, with a very minute gland ; germen starry- 
 tomentellous ; style filiform. ; stigma undivided ; seeds, smooth. 
 
 On stony declivities of Mount Disappointment (Dallachi), 
 and on the gravelly banks of the Bufiklo Creek. 
 
 A beautiful little bush, resembling Asterolasia and Her- 
 mannia, and nearest in relation to Hooker's Pheb. grandi- 
 florum from West Au.stralia. 
 
 7. Phehalium ozothamnoides. 
 
 Erect ; branches scaly ; leaves obovate - cuneate, often 
 retuse, above glabrescent, beneath covered with a starry 
 silvery indument, their margin entire, revolute ; umbels ter- 
 minal, sessile, silver-scaly; petals ovate-lanceolate; carpels 
 trapezoid. 
 
 On the gravelly banks of the Mitta Mitta and Livingstone 
 River. 
 
 It received its name for some resemblance in habit with 
 Ozothamnus obcordatus. 
 
32 
 
 8. Phebalium phylicifolium. 
 
 Spreading ; twigs somewhat downy ; leaves crowded, cori- 
 aceous, narrow-oblong, nearly blunt, short-stalked, above 
 glabrous, beneath often white-velvet;,, with entire recurved 
 margin ; umbels axiUary, pedunculate, few-flowered ; brac- 
 teoles bearded; carpels rhombeo-ovate, ■ndth avery short beak. 
 
 On the highest peaks of the Cobboras Mountains, and on 
 the sources of the Mitta Mitta, 
 
 9. Eriostemon lancifolius. 
 
 Erect, glabrous, glaucous ; branches terete, warted ; leaves 
 large, coriaceous, lanceolate, acute, flat, entire, sharp-pointed, 
 sessile, densely glandulose ; umbels axillary, on a compressed 
 thick peduncle ; sepals rounded, slightly ciliated ; carpels 
 oblique ovate, compressed, beaked. 
 
 On the stony summit of Moimt McFarlan, at an elevation 
 of nearly five thousand feet on Mount Tambo and the Upper 
 Mitta Mitta. 
 
 10. Boronia dentigera. 
 
 Branches nearly terete, spreading, hirtellous ; leaves thick, 
 glabrous or pubescent, divaricate, trifoliolate; leaflets cuneate- 
 linear, trilobulate at the summit ; peduncles axillary, solitary, 
 one to three-flowered, shorter than the leaves, bearing in the 
 middle a pair of leafy bracteas, as well as the subulate-lan- 
 ceolate sepals slightly hirtellous or pubescent ; stamens all 
 fertile "with ciliated filaments ; seeds asperous. 
 
 On sandhills near the La Trobe Eiver, and in McCrae's 
 Island. Also, near the Pendland Hills, according to Mr. 
 Dallachi. 
 
 M Y E T A C E J3 . 
 
 11. Eucalyptus cosmophylla. 
 
 Shrubby; leaves alternate, thick — coriaceous, opaque, glau- 
 cescent, ovate- or falcate-lanceolate, cuspidate-acuminate. 
 
33 
 
 thinly veined, destitute of pellucid dots; peduncles short, 
 axillary, angulate, with one — three large flowers on thick 
 pedicels; lid hemispherico-depressed, mutic or umbonate, or 
 conically pointed; tube of the calyx obconico-bell-shaped, 
 with two indistinct ribs, a little longer than the lid; fruits 
 half-ovate, not contracted at the orifice; valves of the capsule 
 nearly inclosed. 
 
 On stony places in the Lofty and Bugle Ranges. 
 
 One of the handsomest species of this extensive genus. 
 
 12. Eucalyptus costata. 
 
 (Belir S MueU. Coll. J 
 
 Shrubby; leaves alternate, rigid, coriaceous, shining, ovate 
 or narrow-lanceolate, uncinate-acuminate, thinly veined, 
 with scanty pellucid dots; umbels axillary, on a valid com- 
 pressed peduncle; flowers large with a short and thick pedicel; 
 lid from a hemispherical base contracted into a narrow cone, 
 with radiating ribs; tube of the calyx campanulate, slightly 
 constricted in the middle, generally twelve-ribbed, a little 
 longer than the lid; fruits large, nearly bell-shaped, with 
 scarcely contracted orifice; valves of the capsule inclosed; 
 seeds blackish without streaks. 
 
 In the MaUee Scrub, from the Murray River to Spencer's 
 Gulf. 
 
 The nearest alliance of this species appears to with E. 
 
 cuspidata. 
 
 13. Eucalyptus Leucoxylon. 
 
 Arboreous; leaves alternate, somewhat shining, narrow- 
 lanceolate, subfalcate, tapering into a long uncinate acumen, 
 veined and furnished with pellucid dots, umbels axillary, gen- 
 erally three-flowered, with a thin peduncle; lid conico- 
 hemispherical, acuminate; tube of the calyx semiovate, some- 
 what longer than the lid; fruits semiovate, hardly contracted 
 at the orifice; valves of the capsule inclosed; seeds blackish 
 clathrate. 
 r> 
 
31 
 
 In grassy plains from the Avoca to St. Vincent's and 
 Spencer's Gulf. 
 
 This is the "White Gum Tree" of the South Australian 
 Colonists. 
 
 14. Eucalyptus fasciculosa. 
 
 Arborescent; leaves alternate, opaque, glaucescent, elongate- 
 lanceolate, curved, gradually tapering into an uncinate 
 acumen, thinly veined, destitute of pellucid dots; umbels 
 panicidate, few-flowered; nearly hemispherical, minutely 
 apiculate, thin and smooth: tube of the calyx clavate, obcon- 
 ical, angular, glandulose, contracted at the top, gradually 
 tapering into a short pedicel, three times longer than the lid ; 
 fruits obconico-campanulate, slightly contracted at the orifice ; 
 valves of the capsule inclosed, seeds clathrate. 
 
 On barren ridges along St. Vincent's Gulf, on the Gawler 
 River, in the Mount Lofty Ranges and Bugle Ranges, and 
 on Encoimter Bay. 
 
 15. Eucalyptus largiflorens. 
 
 Arboreous ; leaves alternate, glaucous, opaque, oblong- 
 lanceolate, acute, slightly oblique, thinly veined, hardly- dot- 
 ted; umbels pedunculate, panicled, few-flowered; flowers 
 small, on short pedicels ; lid double, thin, nearly even, hemis- 
 pherical, blunt, or minutely apiculate; tube of the calyx 
 obconical-bell-shaped, hardly angular, twice as long as the 
 lower Hd; fruits small, half-ovate, short-stalked, slightly con- 
 tracted at the top ; valves of the capsule inclosed. 
 
 In bushy, barren localities on the Murray, Avoca, Wim- 
 mera, and on St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 
 A small tree, with persistent grey-blackish bark. 
 
 16. Eucalypjtus Behriana. 
 
 Fruticose ; leaves alternate, coriaceous, somewhat shining, 
 lanceolate or ovate, acute, slightly oblique, thinly veined, 
 
35 
 
 dotted; umbels pedunculate, panicled, few — ^flowered; flowers 
 small, nearly sessile; lid hemispherical, blunt or minutely 
 apiculate ; tube of the calyx obconical, bell-shaped, nearly 
 twice as long as the lid ; fruit half-ovate, sessile, not con- 
 tracted at the top; valves of the capsule inclosed; seeds 
 brown, streaked. 
 
 In arid plains and on stony bare hills near the Avoca, 
 Murray, Gawler River, and in Bacchus Marsh. 
 
 17. Eucalyptus santdlifolia. 
 
 Fruticose; leaves alternate, coriaceous, glaucescent, 
 opaque, oblong-lanceolate, hooked-acuminate, a little ob- 
 lique, thinly veined, hardly dotted; umbels axillary and 
 terminal, pedunculate, capitate; lid depressed-conical or 
 hemispherical; tube of the calyx obconical, bell-shaped, 
 nearly three times longer than the lid ; fruit not contracted 
 at the top ; valves of the capsule enclosed. 
 
 In the MaUee scrub on the Murray Eiver, on St. Vincent's 
 and Spencer's Gulfs. 
 
 18. Eucalyptus gracilis. 
 
 Fruticose; leaves coriaceous, alternate, shining, narrow- 
 lanceolate, hooked-acuminate, a little obUque, thinly veined, 
 dotted; umbels axillary and terminal pedunculate; flowers 
 small, short stalked ; lid blunt, depressed-hemispherical ; 
 tube of the calyx obconical, beU-shaped, a little broader and 
 three times longer than the lid ; fruit nearly hemispherical, 
 not contracted at the top; valves of the capsule almost 
 inclosed. 
 
 In the desert on the Murray River, where it forms the 
 MaUee Scrub together with E. dumosa, santalifolia and other 
 species. 
 
36 
 
 LEGUMINOS^. 
 
 19. Sesbania Australis. 
 
 Herbaceous, erect, unarmed; leaves with from twenty to 
 thirty pairs of oblong blunt mucronulate leaflets, which are 
 opaque, above smooth, beneath with the branches at first 
 slightly hairy; racemes with five to ten flowers erect; pedun- 
 cles shorter than the leaves; coraUa smooth, twice or three 
 times longer than the calyx; standard variegated with black 
 streaks and dots; pods terete-compressed, acuminate-pungent, 
 shghtly falcate, subtorulose, as long as the angular, somewhat 
 hairy racliis of the leaves. 
 
 On the Darling River. 
 
 The only notice of the existence of Sesbania in this part of 
 the globe, is given in Sir Thomas Mitchell's Tropic. Aus- 
 tralia, p. 109, where a species aUied to the East Indian 
 Sesbania aculeata is mentioned as found on the Narran. 
 From this remark I am led to suppose, that the plant in 
 question differs from ours, which stands in much nearer 
 relationship to Sesbania picta from New Spain. 
 
 COMPOSITE. 
 20. Euryhia conocephala. 
 
 (Sect. Aglossa.) 
 
 Leaves small, obovate, cuneate, or spathulate, sessile, on 
 both sides as well as the branchlets from a thin grey toment 
 velutinous, with flat entire margin ; flower-heads axillary and 
 terminal, soUtary, subsessUe : involucre at first oblong-cyHn- 
 drical, at length obconical ; scales imbricate, in several rows, 
 rounded-blunt, towards the upper end tomenteUous, on the 
 margin ciliate, outer ones ovate, interior ones oblong ; flowers 
 all tubulose, hermaphrodite, with erect teeth of the corolla ; 
 achenes cylindrical, subangulate, glabrous ; pappus biseriate, 
 its bristles hairy, scabrous, the outer ones but little shorter. 
 
37 
 
 In the desert on the Murray River, near Morunde. 
 A most remarkable plant, in habit not dissimilar to E. pi- 
 meloides, but in its characters widely distinct. 
 
 Pleuropappus. 
 A new genus of Angianthece. 
 
 Capitulum with two flowers, numerous,homogamous, densely 
 aggregated into a cylindrical glomerulus. General involucre 
 shorter than the glomerulus, pluriseriate ; its outer scales 
 leafy, linear, unequal; interior ones paleaceous, without an 
 appendage. General receptacle simple, filiform, paleate ; 
 partial ones very short. Special involucre of the flower-head 
 consisting of four scarious exappendiculate scales, furnished 
 besides with three subovate bracts. Exterior scales two, 
 sessile, folded together, with a dilated base; interior ones 
 two, orbicular-ovate, stalked. Flowers, hermaphrodite. 
 Corolla three to five-toothed, cylindrical, with an attenuate 
 base. Divisions of the style at the extremity convex, dilated 
 slightly bearded. Anthers at the base hastate. Achenes 
 glabrous, obovate. Pappus arising out of a gland from the 
 side of the achene, cymbiform, scarious, deciduous, fimbriate, 
 sometimes producing one or two very short bristles or a small 
 lamina. 
 
 A genm as well allied to Angianthus, as to Phyllocalymma, 
 of both, however, exquisitely distinct by the form and quite 
 abnormal position of the pappus. 
 
 21. Pleuropappus phyllocalymmeus. 
 
 On sterile plains of the Port Lincoln district. — C. Wilhelmi. 
 An annual erect branched glabrescent herb, with alternate 
 linear leaves and terminal, solitary, golden-yellow glomerules. 
 
 22. Ixiolcena supina. 
 
 Viscid-pubescent ; stem procurrent, adscendent ; leaves 
 somewhat fleshy, lanceolate, blunt, tapering into a half-clasp- 
 
38 
 
 ing base, on the margin somewhat revolute ; scales of the 
 hemispherical involucre appressed, linear-lanceolate, viscid, 
 downy on the back, the interior ones terminated in a scarious 
 lanceolate-ovate, smooth, appendix ; achenes sulcate, cylin- 
 drical, glabrous, somewhat shining ; bristles of the pappus 
 about twenty. 
 
 Amongst rocks on the south coast of Kangaroo Island. 
 
 23. Helichrysum adenophorum. 
 
 Shrubby; branches and leaves glandulosely asperous; 
 leaves linear, revolute, clasping with broader base ; flower- 
 heads soHtary, terminal ; scales of the involucre white, the 
 exterior ones lanceolate, on the back and margin slightly 
 downy, interior ones oblong-lanceolate, woolly on the apex 
 of the glandulous semiterete stipes ; achenes glabrous, sub- 
 cyhndrical, at the base attenuate, three times shorter than 
 the pappus, which is serrate, and at the top dilated. 
 
 On barren elevations of Kangaroo Island. 
 
 24. Helipterum prcecox. 
 
 (Sect. Leucochrysmn.J 
 
 » 
 
 Stems annual; slightly wooUy-pubescent, erect, simple, 
 nearly to the top foliate ; leaves glabrescent, narrow — ^linear, 
 sessile, mucronulate, the uppermost scariose ; receptacle 
 short — conical, glabrous, scrobiculate ; interior scales of the 
 involucre white, lanceolate, acute, their stipes wooUy at the 
 apex; exterior scales subhyaHne, gradually narrowed into 
 a long acumen; achenes ovate, quite glabrous, rugulose ; 
 bristles of the pappus five to eight, yellowish-white, connate 
 at the base, thence long-plumose. 
 
 Abundant on the less fertile plains and low ridges alono- 
 the Avoca, Avon, Wimmera, and Richardson River. . 
 
39 
 
 25. Helipterum exiguum. 
 
 (Sect. Ldoohrysum.J — H. diffusum Sond. in Linnaea xxv., p. 518. not 
 
 Oandolle. 
 
 Very dwarf, annual, slightly hairy; stems branched, foliate 
 up to the top ; leaves sessile, linear, mucronulate, the upper- 
 most surrounding the solitary terminal flower-heads; receptacle 
 glabrous, nearly flat, scrobiculate ; interior scales of the 
 involucre scarious, oval-oblong blunt, glabrous, flavescent, 
 not spreading; exterior scales acutish, brown-red or greenish; 
 achens perfectly glabrous, dotted; bristles of the pappus nine 
 to eleven, white, long-plumose. 
 
 In sandy stony declivities of the Grampians, the Serra and 
 Victoria Kanges, near Gawlertown, and in the Bugle Ranges. 
 
 This pygmy of the genus, will be distinguished by exceed- 
 ingly dwarf, branched and somewhat hairy stems; by 
 heterogamous flower-heads, and perfectly glabrous fruits from 
 that plant which De CandoUe named difiusum. 
 
 26. Senecio helichrysoides. 
 
 Suffruticose, simple, white — tomentose ; inferior leaves 
 long-lanceolate, superior ones, sessile, linear-lanceolate, aU. 
 acute, with entire revolute margin; cymes few-headed; 
 involucre bell-shaped-cylindrical, about twice as long as the 
 linear bracts, scales generally thirteen, on the back woolly- 
 tomentose, tapering into a smooth reflexed acumen; flowers 
 all tubulose, hardly exserted; achenes glabrous. 
 
 On low sandy loamy hills near the Wheal Barton mine. 
 
 LOBELIACE^. 
 
 27. Laurentia platy calyx. 
 
 Glabrous, creeping; leaves fleshy, oblong, or obovate- 
 lanceolate, entire; peduncles axillary, one-flowered, gene- 
 rally of less than half the length of the leaves ; calyx 
 compressed, ovate, five-toothed; tube of the corolla very 
 short ; its lacinise nearly equal ; faux glabrous. 
 
40 
 
 In moist subsaline meadows from Port Phillip away to the 
 westward. 
 
 This singular plant possesses scarcely the acridity and the 
 milky juice, so universal in this order. 
 
 GOODENIACEJJ. 
 28. Goodenia glauca. 
 
 Erect, simple, smooth ; axUs bearded ; leaves glaucous, 
 lanceolate, acute, radical ones broader, all entire, gradually 
 tapering into the base ; peduncles one-flowered, axillary and 
 terminal, solitary or twin, without bracteoles, longer than the 
 upper leaves, at all times erect ; segments of the calyx linear- 
 subulate ; corolla pale yellow ; style viUosely downy. 
 
 On the banks of the Murray and Avoca, 
 
 Alhed to Gr. elongata. 
 
 EPACRIDEiE. 
 29. Acrotriche prostrata. 
 
 Branches weak, prostrate, pubescent ; leaves crowded, 
 divaricate, narrow-lanceolate, mucronate, very slightly on 
 the cUiate margin recurved, beneath a little paler, nerved 
 and glabrous, above scantily downy ; spikes forming a corym- 
 bose head, growing out of the branches below the leaves ; 
 sepals half as long as the tube of the greenish corolla, oblong- 
 ovate, pale, membranaceous, hairy on the summit. 
 
 On wooded low ridges from the Dandenong range to the 
 Delatite river. 
 
 The nearest afSnity is to A ramifiora, and it produces 
 likewise eatable fruits. 
 
 Myoporin^. 
 
 Duttonia, a new genus. 
 
 Calyx deeply five-cleft, persistent, with spreading linear- 
 subulate segments. Corolla inside densely bearded; its tube 
 
41 
 
 short, cylindrical; faiix ampliate; limb bilabiate; upper lip 
 with two acute teeth, lower one tripartite. Stamens didynamous 
 inclosed; the two longer filaments inserted near the base of 
 the corolla, the two others very short affixed to the faux. 
 Anthers divaricate. Style simple, glabrous, longer than the 
 stamens. Stigma minute, undivided. Capsule oblong, slightly 
 compressed, quite blunt, as long as the calyx, with two incom- 
 pletely biloceUate cells. Seeds in the locell's solitary, linear. 
 
 30. Duttonia gibbifolia. 
 
 On stony ranges at the Mount Barker Creek in South 
 Australia. — Fischer. 
 
 A shrub almost with the habit and leaves of Eriostemon 
 gracilis. Leaves alternate, appressed, deciduous, beneath 
 convex and gibbous from two small tubercules. Flowers 
 axillary sessile solitary. 
 
 SANTALACE^. 
 
 31. Leptomeria pungens. 
 
 (Sect. Oxymeria.) 
 
 Branches and twigs terete, spinescent; leaves deciduous, 
 narrow-lanceolate, somewhat channelled; bracteoles dicidu- 
 ous, navicular-rhomboid, acuminate, crenulate; flowers spi- 
 cate, five-cleft; stigma five-rayed. 
 
 In the MaUee scrub along the Murray River, St. Vincent's 
 and Spencer's Gulf, not rare. 
 
 Allied to L. Lehmanni. The fruit of a pleasant taste, 
 not unlike acidulous grapes. 
 
 32. Santalum persicarium. 
 (Sect. Fiisanus.J 
 Arborescent; leaves coriaceous, narrow-lanceolate, termi- 
 nating into a short hook, glaucous, without veins; panicles 
 
42 
 
 bracMate; bracteoles at length drooping, linear-subulate, re- 
 curved, of the length of the flowers; base of the filaments 
 with fasiculated hair; drupe globose, dry, slightly rimose and 
 foraminous. 
 
 In the Mallee scrub on the Murray river, Spencer's and 
 St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 
 It differs from Santalum Preissianum in the evidently 
 narrower and more glaucous leaves, in longer pedicels, in less 
 deciduous narrower and longer bracteoles, in the bitter juice- 
 less brownish pericarp, and in the larger putamen, with 
 much less deep fissvires and pores. The toasted bark from 
 the root is used as food by the natives, and the infusion of 
 it as tea. 
 
 33. Exocarpus pendula. 
 
 Arboreous; branches pendulous; leaves deciduous, Knear- 
 subulate, recurved at the summit; spikes long-pyramidate, 
 stalked; their rachis pubertdous; bracteoles nearly triangular 
 as weU as the five-parted calyx glabrous; pedicels rose-red; 
 drupes indistinctly streaked, ovate-globose. 
 
 In the Mallee scrub on the Murray river, on Spencer's and 
 St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 
 XEEOTIDEiE. 
 
 34. Xerotes dura. 
 
 Scape very short; leaves rigid, opaque, long-linear, beneath 
 convex, teethless at the apex, their margin scabrous, but at 
 length smooth; flowers of both sexes in glomerate sessile 
 whorls; clusters in a verticiUate branched panicle; capsule 
 even. 
 
 On barren localities, as well of the mountains as plains in 
 South Australia. 
 
43 
 
 GEAMINEJE. 
 
 35. Agrostis gelida. 
 
 Erect, densely tufted, glabrous; leaves complicate- 
 setacous, radical ones generally of equal length witli the 
 stem ; panicle closely contracted ; bracteas navicular- 
 lanceolate, acuminated, smooth, along the keel somewhat 
 scabrous ; lower one but little longer than the other, but con- 
 siderably exceeding the flower; sepals awnless, glabrous, 
 very thin, 5-nerved, erosely blunt, the lower one a little 
 shorter. 
 
 On the top of the Cobboras mountains. 
 
 An alpine grass in some relation to Agr. Falklandica. 
 
 36. Agrostis nivalis. 
 
 Erect, densely tufted; leaves flat, short, broad, above 
 scabrous, otherwise with stems and vaginas smooth; panicle 
 contracted, with imbricate branches; calyx very short-stalked, 
 bearded at the base ; bracteas somewhat acuminated, nearly 
 equal to each other, glabrous, rough along the keel, as long 
 as the calyx ; exterior sepal smooth, 5-nerved ; awn from 
 below the summit, half as long as the sepal. 
 
 On the grassy top of Mount Buller. 
 
 37. Stipa aristiglumis. 
 
 Stems terete as well as its knots and sheaths glabrous and 
 nearly even ; leaves long, convolute, a little scabrous ; Hgule 
 short, without fringes; panicle elongate, spreading, vdth 
 fasciculate branches; awns scabrous, otherwise naked, 
 flexuous, slightly bent in the middle, four or five times longer 
 than the silky flower; bracteas green, glabrous, navicular- 
 lanceolate, bristle-like-acuminated, ribbed; 3 of the ribs 
 generally terminating in short awns ; the upper bractea a 
 
44 
 
 little shorter than the other and not much exceeding the 
 length of the flower. 
 
 In bushy parts of the Murray Desert. 
 
 Allied to Stipa lEeviculmis. 
 
 38. Aristida contorta. 
 
 (Sect. Artliratherum.) 
 
 Stems erect, hardly branched ; panicle racemose, contort ; 
 bracteas coloured, long tapering into a setaceous apex, the 
 exterior one half as long as the other, equal in length to the 
 calyx ; inferior part of the arista closely twisted, half as long 
 as the scabrous bristles, surpassing twice in length the calyx 
 
 On barren places on the Murray River. 
 
 Allied to Ajistida stipoides. 
 
 39. Aristida Behriana. 
 
 (Sect. CJiaetaria.) 
 
 Stems spreading, simple; panicle branched, condensed; 
 bracteas tapering into a setaceous apex; the exterior one 
 half as long as the other, reaching to the partition of the 
 arista ; bristles of the latter scabrous. 
 
 In dry loamy places near Port Adelaide, at the Barosga 
 Ranges, the Murray River, and elsewhere in South Australia. 
 
 This grass approaches in its characters to Aristida calycina. 
 
 40. Danthonia rohusta. 
 
 Stem high, robust ; leaves flat, glabrous, short-bearded at 
 the base; panicle contracted, lanceolate; spikelets generally 
 four-flowered, shorter than the somewhat scabrous bracteas, 
 exterior sepal villose to the middle ; the upper series of hair 
 touching the fissure; lateral divisions of the sepal tender 
 membranaceous, half as long as the awn. 
 
 On stony declivities, in the higher parts of Mount Buller. 
 
45 
 
 41. Poa syrtica. 
 
 Root fibrous, annual; leaves involute, setaceous, as well 
 as ligules and sheathes glabrous; panicle strict, contracted; 
 spikelets nearly sessile, seven to twelve flowered, oblong- 
 linear; calyces blunt, densely imbricated; inferior sepal 
 convex, five-nerved, glabrous. 
 
 Sandy shores of Spencer's and St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 
 42. Poa ramigera. 
 
 Stems long, diffuse, below distinctly branched; leaves 
 glaucous, involute, setaceous, with the vaginae and joints 
 glabrous ; ligule very short, ciholate; panicle spreading, with 
 solitary branches; spikelets lanceolate-linear, five to seven 
 flowered; inferior sepal laxe, membranaceous, blunt, indis- 
 tinctly three-nerved, as the upper one glabrous. 
 
 A robust grass, abundant in boggy places, subject to inun- 
 dations, on the Murray Kiver. 
 
 43. Poa brizocMoa. 
 
 Leaves nearly flat, as well as the vaginae glabrous, but 
 often rough; joints even; ligule long, torn; panicle effuse; 
 its branches single or twin, capillary ; spikelets ovate, at 
 length roundish; five-eight-flowered; inferior sepal five- 
 nerved, erosely blunt, on the margin and on the back below 
 the middle ciliate ; upper sepal naked, short-bi-lobed. 
 
 On sandhills on the Murray River, Crystal Brook, Rooky 
 River, Tanunda, and other places in South Australia. 
 
 44. Panicum coenicolum. 
 
 Stems erect ; leaves flat, with their sheaths downy ; hgule 
 short, torn ; branches of the panicle with remote flowers, at 
 last spreading, the lower ones whorled, the upper ones soK- 
 tary or twin; rachis somewhat scabrous, bearded at the 
 axils; spikelets narrow-lanceolate, awnless, often solitary. 
 
46 
 
 Imperfectly silky-villose; exterior bractea ovate-lanceolate, 
 blunt, glabrous, much shorter than the seven-nine-nerved 
 interior one^ 
 
 In places subject to inundations; towards Morunde, and 
 near Cudnaka. 
 
 Similar to the following species, but the flowers nearly 
 twice as large, and less downy. 
 
 45. Panicum ammopMlum. 
 
 Stems spreading ; leaves flat, short, with the joints of the 
 stem velvet-downy ; upper sheaths glabrous ; branches of 
 the panicle with remote flowers, at last spreading, the lower 
 ones whorled, the upper soUtary or twin; rachis somewhat 
 scabrous, bearded at the axils ; spikelets lanceolate, awnless, 
 silky-vUlose, single or geminate ; exterior bractea minute, 
 lax, ovate- — lanceolate, nearly blunt, glabrous, much shorter 
 than the other. 
 
 On sandhills along the Murray Kiver. 
 
 46. Panicum convallium. 
 
 Leaves below flat, as well as their sheaths hairy, rarely 
 glabrous ; joints of the stem villose ; ligule very short, ciliate ; 
 panicle wide, perfectly expanded, with hardly flexuous 
 fasciculate somewhat scabrous divided branches ; axils short- 
 bearded ; spikelets solitary, shorter than the peduncle, gla- 
 brous, ovate-lanceolate, acute, awnless; exterior bractea 
 trinerved, nearly heart-shaped, short pointed, half as long as 
 the interior 5-nerved one. 
 
 On the banks of the Torrens and Gawler River, on the 
 Murray Kiver and along the Flinders Ranges. 
 
 47. Panicum prolutum. 
 
 Leaves flat, glaucous, as well as the joints and the sheaths 
 smooth; ligule long, ciliate, torn; panicle wide, spreading. 
 
47 
 
 with fasciculate, scabrous, hardly flexuous, divided branches; 
 spikelets solitary, shorter than the peduncle, glabrous, ovate- 
 lanceolate, acuminate, awnless; exterior bractea oblong-lan- 
 ceolate, nearly blunt, tri-nerved, membranaceous on the mar- 
 gin, more than half as long as the interior one, which is seven- 
 nerved. 
 
 On the Avoca, Broughton, and Leight river, as also at 
 the foot of the Flinders ranges, in localities subject to inun- 
 dations. 
 
 The flowers are almost twice as large as in P. convallium, 
 to which this species bears much affinity. 
 
 48. Panicum melananthum. 
 
 Leaves broad, quite flat, as well as the joint of the stem 
 smooth ; sheaths and the very short Kgules ciliate ; panicle 
 efiuse, with capillary divided, somewhat scabrous, flexuous 
 branches; spikelets glabrous, almost shorter than their pe- 
 duncle, ovate-lanceolate, acute, awnless; exterior bractea 
 ovate, somewhat acute, tri-nerved, hardly half as long as the 
 interior one, which is five-nerved. 
 
 On wet, sandy, or gravelly banks of the Ovens and King 
 Eiver. 
 
 49. Panicum lacunarium. 
 
 Leaves flat, as well as the joints, and the sheaths smooth; 
 ligule wanting ; spikes appressed, mostly simple, the lower 
 ones remote; rachis smooth; spikelets large, ovate, long- 
 acuminate ; exterior bractea round, trinerved, pointed, on 
 the margin membranaceous, more than half as long as the 
 interior one, which is five-nerved; nerves of the bracteas and 
 of the sterile flower scabrous. 
 
 Around the Murray lagoons. 
 
48 
 
 50. Hierochloe suhmutica. 
 
 E.oot creeping; stem together with its knots even; leaves 
 flat, short, broad, hnear, with their sheath somewhat scabrous ; 
 branches of the panicle spreading, the lower ones hardly 
 drooping ; pedicels somewhat hairy ; bracteas with a nerve on 
 both sides towards the base, lower one shorter than the 
 flowers, the upper one a Uttle broader and of the length of 
 the calyx, their keel at last smooth; flowers indistinctly five 
 to seven-nerved, aU awnless or rarely the upper male one 
 with a very short arista below the apex; margin of the female 
 flower smooth, their back at the summit bearded; margin of 
 the male flowers ciliated. 
 
 On the summits of the Cobboras mountains, at an eleva- 
 tion of 6,000 ft. 
 
 This elegant and nutritious grass luxuriated on the limits 
 of eternal snow, like other Hierochloas of the arctic and 
 alpine regions. 
 
 Its nearest afiinity is with Hier. fragrans from North 
 America. 
 
 ON THE DETERIORATION OF GRAIN AND 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 BY JOHN MAUND, M.D. 
 
 READ 27TH NOVEMBER, 1854. 
 
 It has occurred to me, Mr. President and Grentlemen, that 
 an enumeration of the chemical changes, and the best means 
 of preventing such, that often take place in grain and their 
 products, flour, meal, &c., during their transmission from 
 
49 
 
 other countries to this colony, would not form an Inappro- 
 priate subject for a paper, even at this early period of the 
 existence of our Society; for though our main wish may be 
 to develop and unraval the resources of Australia, stiU we 
 must provide for the interval that -occurs before this can be, 
 or at least is accomplished. 
 
 And having. Sir, premised your concurrence in the above 
 opinion, I shall oiFer no further- apology for bringing forward 
 the present subject for the consideration of the Society. 
 
 Though the subject admits, from its general connexion 
 with the process known as fermentation, of entering into 
 perhaps the most interesting and abstruse departments of 
 practical and theoretical chemistry, I shall on the present 
 occasion notice, but very cursorily, the changes called fermen- 
 tation, on which mostly depends the alterations which take 
 place in grain, flour, &c., when they become what is termed 
 sour, unsound, or musty, on which changes, I have well 
 ascertained, depends much of the unwholesomeness of food 
 sold as bread, &c., to the Melbourne population. 
 
 As flour undergoes much the same change, and indeed 
 more easily so, than unground grain does, I shall adopt this 
 as a type of the whole. 
 
 During the last two years I have examined upwards of a 
 hundred samples of what is termed by the merchants and 
 bakers unsound flour; and certainly, the term is most appro- 
 priate when it is considered as the main staff" of life. 
 
 It has appeared to me that different samples present two 
 distinct states, though the one is probably only an advanced 
 stage of the other. 
 
 First. That in which free acid is present, and is commercially 
 known as sour flour. 
 
 Second. That in which no acid in a, free state exists, but 
 from which the volatile alkali, ammonia, can generally be 
 eliminated and is known as musty flour. 
 
 The first change, where free acid exists, is much the most 
 
 £ 
 
50 
 
 common, and as a knowledge of its cause of production and 
 the means of jjreventing its taking place are to the public 
 most important, and, in addition, may be clearly explained, I 
 shall relate these before referring to the chemical and atomic 
 alterations which actually take place in the flour. 
 
 The cause then of good grain and flour becoming sour, 
 during its transmission from other countries to this, is due to 
 nothing more than fermentation : which is produced by the 
 presence of moisture alone, but this is much facilitated by 
 a high temperature and the presence of atmospheric air. 
 
 All grain or flour naturally contains water, the quantity of 
 which varies according to their age &c. The amount of 
 water contained in good wheat flour, varies from about six to 
 sixteen per cent., though I have often found it to exist in 
 a much larger proportion. The increase of which may be 
 due to accidental or intentional causes. 
 
 Thus, the miUer occasionally wets his wheat to assist the 
 more perfect separation of the flour from the bran. Absorp- 
 tion of moisture may also occur from being in a damp 
 atmosphere before it is packed, or by directly coming in 
 contact with water before its voyage, or after its arrival here. 
 
 The main cause then of tliis change being appreciated, its 
 remedy is very simple, and has long been more or less followed ; 
 this consists in using artificial heat, by the means of steam, 
 hot air, &c., so as to expel the greater portion of the 
 moisture. Great heat is not required to eifect this, it should 
 be moderate and prolonged, so as not to injure any of the 
 qualities of the grain or flour. This precaution is frequently 
 neglected, for I have often met with oats here considerably 
 damaged by excess of heat being applied in the process often 
 adopted before shipping, termed kiln drying. Though great 
 heat is not required to prevent fermentation, that of the 
 temperature of boihng water is often required to arrest 
 it when commenced, and indeed such an opponent is this 
 temperature to fermentation, that it will at once arrest it, e^en 
 when going on in its most acti\'e form. 
 
51 
 
 The theories regarding the fermentive process by which the 
 acid state takes place are too numerous and complex to enter 
 minutely into. Evidently it requires for its production a 
 substance containing nitrogen, which by its contact, under 
 favourable circumstances, with a substance containing oxygen, 
 as do air and water, the equilibrium of the attractive forces 
 which hold the organic atoms together is disturbed; are-arrange- 
 ment of the elements of the compound being produced, and the 
 consequent formation of new products, for after fermentation 
 has taken place a totally diiFerent substance is produced, 
 while in some instances the chemical composition remains 
 precisely the same. Take for instance, the sugar contained in 
 milk, which is composed of carbon 12 atoms, hydrogen 12, and 
 oxygen 12; by fermentation it is changed into lactic acid; 
 (carbon 6, hydrogen 6, oxygen 6), two atoms of which cor- 
 respond exactly in composition to one of the sugar. This 
 seems to demonstrate that the change of properties depends 
 solely on a change in the position of the atoms of the sugar 
 of milk, they being merely re-arranged in a new order in 
 the lactic acid. 
 
 In other cases gases, such as carbonic acid and hydrogen 
 are given off, and it is easy to comprehend and calculate the 
 change which takes place. 
 
 In plants starch, gum, sugar, &c., are often, Liebeg says, 
 formed from organic acids, and doubtless a somewhat similar 
 though opposite change occurs where these higher compounds 
 are reduced to more simple ones, but in the present instance, 
 if we look to the composition of cane sugar, (such as exists 
 in wheat), which is composed of carbon 12, hydrogen 
 11, oxygen 11, we see it merely requires one atom of water, 
 that is, one atom each of oxygen and hydrogen to make a 
 compound of the same chemical composition as two atoms of 
 lactic acid, which is the one mostly present in sour grain. 
 
 If instead we take starch or gum, (carbon 12, 
 hydrogen 10, oxygen 10,) which enters largely into the 
 
52 
 
 composition of wheat, but is less easily acted on than 
 sugar, we have only to add two atoms of water to their 
 composition, when we shaU have the proper proportions to 
 make lactic acid. 
 
 If the acid present be acetic acid, the change in composi- 
 tion is as easily made, for it merely requires two atoms of 
 water in addition to one atom of starch, to produce three of 
 vinegar or acetic acid. 
 
 The second state I referred to, where free acid is not 
 present, bixt frequently exists in combination with ammonia, 
 is generally found in the flour which is termed musty, and 
 this, is often, in addition mouldy. This state, I believe, is 
 merely a more advanced stage of the former or acid one, by 
 two subsequent changes occurring, viz. : — first, the acid state 
 is produced by fermentation, which is induced by moisture, as 
 previously described; this acid when formed re-acts on another 
 portion, the glutinous part of the grain, causing it to decom- 
 pose; its nitrogen being set free iinites with the hydrogen, 
 forming ammonia, this being an alkali combines at once with 
 the free acid forming a neutral compound from which the 
 ammonia is easily eliminated by boiling with caustic or 
 quick lime. 
 
 Thus, I regard this musty condition of flour as a state 
 further advanced in decomposition, being an early stage of 
 putrefaction, which if it continued to proceed would end in 
 the carbon being converted into carbonic acid and the hydro- 
 gen into water. 
 
 If amongst our members present, there are any who have 
 devoted attention to this change which takes place in flour 
 I shall be most glad of their opinion on the matter, as 
 I have not been able to find the subject referred to in any 
 authorities I have consulted. 
 
 But in proof of the supposition being a correct one, I may 
 mention that in musty flour where this state existed, I invari- 
 ably found the glutin proportionably as the flour was bad 
 
53 
 
 reduced in quantity, and that the portion remaining always 
 deteriorated in quality. 
 
 In conclusion, Sir, I would wish just to refer to some of 
 the disadvantages which accrue to the public from flour in the 
 states referred to being employed, as it often is, in making 
 bread ; and to be more laconic I arrange them under dififerent 
 heads. 
 
 First. The bread is not so palatable, particularly if kept 
 a day or two. 
 
 Second. It is less nutritious from the reduction in the 
 amount' of the glutin or staminal principle. 
 
 Third. It is injurious to health from being in a state 
 approaching putrefaction, and also from alum being almost 
 necessarily employed to convert it into saleable bread. 
 
 Fourth. It is a means of introducing dishonesty into legiti- 
 mate trade; first, with the merchant miller, who has to mix 
 bad with good flour to make it even saleable to the baker; 
 and secondly, with the baker who is frequently obliged to 
 use alum or some equivalent substance with this flour to 
 convert it into bread of as good appearance and taste as wiU 
 satisfy his customers. 
 
54 
 
 VI. 
 
 ON WATEE SUPPLY TO THE CITY OF 
 MELBOURNE. 
 
 BY M. B. JACKSON, C.E. 
 
 READ DECEMBER 23, 1854. 
 
 The extraorcJinary and alraost unprecedented rapidity of 
 the growth and extension of the city of Melbourne, which, 
 within a period of about twenty years from its foundation, 
 has attained a population of nearly 100,000, coupled with the 
 fact, that the entire supply of fresh water to the inhabitants 
 has, untU lately, been derived either from the winter rains or 
 • drawn from the riyer to the houses of the inhabitants, at an 
 almost fabulous expense, in water carts, may create some 
 surprise in the minds of reflecting individuals that steps have 
 not been taken until a recent period to provide a permanent 
 and sufEcient supply to the city, on the constant and high 
 service principle. 
 
 The first document extant, which shows that the subject 
 had engaged the attention of any public body, is a report of 
 the late City Surveyor, James Blackburn, Esq., to a Com- 
 mittee of the City Council, dated January 8th, 1851. This 
 report, along with several others, were submitted by that 
 gentleman to the City Council, and in the whole of them the 
 writer evinced a considerable amount of practical knowledge 
 of the subject on which he treated. Previous to this date, 
 however, it appears from the City Surveyor's report a sug- 
 gestion had been made by Mr. King, formerly Town Clerk 
 
55 
 
 of Melbourne, that a supply for the city might be obtained 
 by erecting water-wheels near Dight's miU, and constructing 
 reservoirs on the high ground, near the residence of John 
 Hodgson, Esq., M.L.C. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 1852 a Select Committee of 
 the Legislative Council was appointed, to inquire into the 
 subject, and to consider and report on the various schemes 
 that had up to that time been proposed for supplying the 
 city. 
 
 These schemes appear to have been five in number. 1st. 
 That of ' Mr. King, which consisted in driving a tunnel 
 through the isthmus, near Dight's mill, so as to render avail- 
 able a fall of the river, of from twelve to thirteen feet, for 
 the purpose of driving one or two water-wheels. 
 
 2nd. That of Mr. Blackburn, which proposed to draw the 
 supply of water from several creeks and springs which flow 
 from Mount Disappointment, and which when united form 
 the River Plenty. 
 
 3rd. Mr. King's scheme, as modified by Mr. Blackburn — 
 the modification consisting in a suggestion to erect a steam- 
 engine, as an auxiliary to the water-wheels. 
 
 4th. Mr. Hodgkinson's scheme, which was to raise the 
 entire supply by steam-power into reservoirs, situated on the 
 high ground near Dight's mill, on the south side of the river, 
 the reservoir to be situated about 1,500 feet from the pro- 
 posed engines. 
 
 5th. Mr. Blackburn's gravitation scheme, as modified by 
 Mr. Oldham — the modification consisting chiefiy in recom- 
 mending that pipes should be substituted for an open cut, as 
 the means of conveying the water from the Plenty to 
 Melbourne. 
 
 The result of the deUberations of the Select Committee 
 was, that a Commission, consisting of four gentlemen, (non 
 professional,) was appointed, to enter into the subject closely, 
 and afterwards to cause to be carried out that scheme, " not 
 
56 
 
 limiting the choice to those already proposed," which should, 
 after due deliberation, appear to them to be the best. 
 
 On the 20th of June, 1853, I had the honor of being 
 appointed Engineer to this Commission, and I received 
 directions to examine and report on the diiferent schemes 
 that had then been proposed for supplying the city from the 
 Yarra. 
 
 The first of these schemes, that of Mr. King, I condemned 
 at once, inasmuch as I found that the fall was insufficient ; 
 that the whole quantity of water passing down the river in 
 a season of great drought would not be enough to work 
 wheels of the power required ; and that they would be 
 inoperative during floods, the water having been known to 
 rise upwards of twenty feet. A suggestion made by the late 
 James Blackburn, Esq., to erect a steam-engine as an auxi- 
 liary, I also deemed it inexpedient to adopt. 
 
 The next scheme to which my notice was directed was one 
 known as Mr. Hodgkinson's, which was to erect two steam- 
 engines on the banks of the Yarra, opposite the Yarra Bend 
 Lunatic Asylum, and to construct reservoirs on the high 
 ground, in the rear of the residence of John Hodgson, 
 .Esq., M.L.C. 
 
 To this scheme also I considered that there were many 
 weighty objections, the chief of which were the great diffi- 
 culty, "not to say impossibility, of conveying to the pro- 
 posed site for the engines the machinery required," the enor- 
 mous cost of constructing the reservoirs wliich would have 
 required to be excavated out of a bed of bastard freestone, 
 not calculated to hold water, and the great expense of exe- 
 cuting repairs and providing fuel. 
 
 These were the schemes that had been proposed for sup- 
 plying the city from the Yarra; and, although I was well 
 aware that it was quite possible to de^-ise a pumping scheme, 
 in which most of the difficulties above stated would have 
 been obviated, I considered it my duty to recommend * that 
 
57 
 
 the country round Melbourne should be well and thoroughly 
 explored, to ascertain all the facilities that existed for supply- 
 ing the city by gravitation. 
 
 Having thus come to the conclusion that the natural 
 method of gravitation was the only plan to be pursued, I 
 turned my attention to the river Yarra, to ascertain if it were 
 not practicable to derive a supply from it ; but so precipitous 
 are its banks that I found it impossible to dam it back or 
 lead in a pipe in a shorter distance than upwards of thirty- 
 five miles from Melbourne. 
 
 I next examined the Diamond, Darebin, and Merri Creeks, 
 (vide plan,) and the Plenty River and I found that the Merri 
 Creek took its rise from a large swamp, covering about 1,200 
 acres of ground : that this swamp received the drainage of 
 above thirty square mUes, and that the water was discharged 
 from the swamp into the Creek by a narrow outlet. This I 
 considered a very eligible site for the construction of a store 
 reservoir, as a very short embankment would convert the 
 swamp into a large artificial lake ; but on measuring the 
 distance from town I ascertained that it exceeded thirty 
 miles. 
 
 It is an indisputable fact, however, that the converting of 
 this swamp, " and also many others^" into large store reser- 
 voirs, to be used to irrigate the country during the dry 
 weather, would be a great public benefit ; that by these 
 means the country might be converted into a great grain- 
 producing district, exceeded by none in the world ; and that 
 until such measures are adopted it will be comparatively 
 sterile. 
 
 I am also of opinion that such artificial lakes would have 
 a great and beneficial effect on the hot winds of the colony, 
 and undoubtedly bush fires would no longer occur in the 
 districts commanded by such reservoirs. 
 
 Having thoroughly explored the country for a distance of 
 thirty miles round Melbourne, and ascertained that neither 
 
58 
 
 the Diamond nor Darebin Creeks presented greater facilities 
 than the Merri, I examined the Plenty Eiver, and found that 
 the scheme suggested by the late James Blackburn, Esq., 
 was, with some modifications, the best that could be devised. 
 This plan was to convert into a large store reservoir a swamp 
 known as Eider's Swamp, situated on the east bank of the 
 Plenty, and about twenty miles from town, and to lead the 
 water by an open aqueduct into two distributing reservou'S, 
 to be constructed near the Cemetery. 
 
 The necessity of constructing a store reservoir would not 
 be manifest to a casual observer ; but as it would appear 
 from the evidence of those settlers who have been established 
 on the banks of the Eiver Plenty for the longest period of 
 time, that at a ford known as the Bridge Inn Ford, the 
 Plenty has been known, on several occasions, to cease to 
 flow, the necessity becomes more obvious. I therefore 
 adopted the site proposed by Mr. Blackburn for a store 
 reservoir ; wliich, for its natural fitness for the construction 
 of a reservoir is not to be surpassed ; and proceeded to 
 matm-e the plan for supplying the city. 
 
 In the first place, I found that the Btore reservoir would 
 receive the drainage of upwards of nine square miles.* By 
 the first plan made under my direction for supiplying the reser- 
 voir, the drainage into the reservoir, independent of the Eiver 
 Plenty, would have been upwards of eighteen square milesl 
 — an area which, in my belief, is sufl&cient of itself to afford 
 an ample supply of water for the city, without looking to any 
 other source ; but as droughts of two or three years standing 
 have been known to occur, I considered that it would be 
 advisable to lead in the Plenty Eiver. 
 
 Mr. Blackburn originally proposed to lead in the ri■^^er, 
 over the end of the embankment. In my plans the river is 
 
 * The real drainage area of the reservoir basin is 6950 acres, including the 
 area of the reservoir itself. 
 
 t This plan was afterwards altered, and a cheaper suhstitutcd. 
 
59 
 
 caused to enter at the west side of the reservoir, and to pass 
 out over a bye-wash at the south end. 
 
 By these means circulation will be promoted through the 
 reservoir. To lead the water into the reservoir, however, it 
 is necessary to drive a drift, 420 yards in length, through 
 the saddle of the range. 
 
 Into the valley of the Plenty, it is perhaps necessary to 
 remark, that the water from the Merri Creek, the King 
 Parrot Creek, one of the tributaries of the Goulburn river, 
 and the Running Creek, could be led ; and thus a supply for 
 almost any amount of population could be obtained. 
 
 In passing from the store reservoir, the surface of the 
 water in which will be 595 feet above the sea, the water foi- 
 the supply of the city wiU be discharged through three pipes, 
 passing through the embankment ; and immediately within 
 the embankment a tower well, with discharging valves, &c., 
 has been erected. 
 
 The method adopted for discharging the water through 
 the well, with the valves, &c., I believe to be entirely origi- 
 nal, and one which has never before been adopted. 
 
 From the outside of the embankment one line only of the 
 pipes is at present intended to be laid — this line vnll be led 
 down to a point distant about seven miles from Melbourne, 
 and at a level approaching 300 feet above the lowest part 
 of Melbourne, and 150 feet above the highest; a distributing 
 reservoir with filters, &c., is intended to be constructed. 
 From this distributing reservoir I propose to lay down one 
 pipe for the present supply of the city; but, at any time by 
 laying down a second line of pipes to the distributing reser- 
 voir an additional supply can be obtained, and should it ever 
 be required, a second or even a third line can be laid from 
 the store to the distributing reservoir. 
 
 Many objections have at different times been raised to 
 the scheme of supplying the city from the Plenty; and, it 
 has been stated that the supply of water wiU be insufficient. 
 
60 
 
 No objection has, however, ever been raised by any practical 
 man, and I purpose, at no distant date in another paper, to 
 endeavour to show to the members of this society, that the 
 whole of the objections that have been raised have been made 
 by parties who have either wilfully misrepresented facts; or, 
 have been incompetent to distinguish between reliable 
 evidence and the contrary; and I would here venture to 
 remark, that the knowledge which is acquired by practical 
 men during many years' experience has been hitherto too 
 much neglected on engineering works in the Australian 
 Colonies. I am, myself, of opinion that the supply which 
 can be obtained from the Yan Yean Keservoir will be amply 
 sufficient, not only for TMelbourne, but for CoUingwood, 
 Richmond, Prahran, St. Kilda, Brighton, "Williamstown, &c. ; 
 and I am persuaded that it is at once the cheajiest and most 
 effectual scheme that could have been devised. 
 
 The advantages to be derived from the Plenty scheme are 
 also not directly confined to merely supplying water to the 
 inhabitants for sanitary purposes, although that object is of 
 primary importance — the water pressure may be rendered 
 available for working hydraulic engines throughout the city, 
 as well as hydraulic cranes along the wharf; the irrigation of 
 a district of considerable extent may also be considered as an 
 advantage of no mean importance, not only to that tract of 
 country tlurough which the line of pipes will pass, but to the 
 colony generally. I still retain the opinion which I have 
 many times expressed, that great and comprehensive schemes 
 for irrigating many tracts of country, which are now compara- 
 tively sterile, will at no very distant date be favourably 
 entertained by the public. 
 
 I would conclude this paper by remarking, that even sup- 
 posing that the loss of water from the Yan Yean Reservoir 
 by evaporation and absorption were thrice the registered loss, 
 in a somewhat analogous case, i. e. Glasgow, it would be under 
 four feet, and I have not the least hesitation in stating, from 
 
61 
 
 my own experiments, that the statement that the loss by 
 evaporation only would be nine feet, is entirely erroneous. I 
 propose, however, to enter on this subject more fully in a 
 future paper. 
 
 VII. 
 
 OBSERYATIONS ON THE PROPOSED LOAN" 
 FOR PUBLIC WORKS IN VICTORIA. 
 
 BY EDWARD GEAVES MAYNE, ESQ., 
 
 BARRISTER- AT-LAW. 
 
 It is not my intention to discuss in this paper the general 
 question of the expediency of a public loan for Victoria. I 
 assume it as settled, that such a loan is to be raised, from 
 English or foreign capitalists, for expenditure on reproduc- 
 tive works in this colony ; and I propose merely to consider, 
 whether it is likely to realize all the benefits which are 
 ordinarily anticipated from it, and how far its doing so will 
 depend on its being combined with other auxiliary measures. 
 A sum applied to the construction of public works must 
 be expended on the three elements of materials, implements, 
 and labour. No matter what intermediate processes it may 
 pass through, it must eventually, so far as it effects its pur- 
 
62 
 
 pose, be transmuted into these several agents; and any 
 augmentation of its amount furnishes increased efficiency so 
 far, and so far only, as it gives increased command of them 
 in their required proportions. 
 
 Let us inquire, then, to what extent the acquisition of a 
 loan of some millions will augment the supplies available to 
 this colony of the above elements of production. 
 
 As regards the first two, that is to say, the various mate- 
 rials and implements which may be needed, no difficulties, of 
 course, will exist. Every remittance sent to manufacturing 
 countries for their purchase will despatch a corresponding 
 consignment to Melbourne ; and we can calculate beforehand, 
 with tolerable precision, both the quantities which will be 
 necessary, and their probable cost. 
 
 But these are secondary items in estimating the outlay in- 
 volved in the proposed project. A far more important con- 
 stituent, in this country, is the labour which turns them to 
 account. It enters in a much larger proportion into the cost of 
 construction, and affects so vitally every step taken, that any 
 change in its rate of remuneration alters much more essen- 
 tially the aggregate expenditure to be provided for, and the 
 productive efficiency of a given amount of funds. Private 
 contractors will say how readily such fluctuations of the la- 
 bour market as we are accustomed to witness here, can make 
 the difference between success and faihire in the accomphsh- 
 ment of less formidable enterprises than those to which the 
 present remarks are directed. 
 
 Now, suppose a system of public works to be projected, 
 and a certain amount of money to be procured, and appro- 
 priated to the hiring of labourers. How far, in this colony, 
 would this sudden increase of available funds draw forth an 
 increased supply of labour to work out the scheme, and 
 how far would it, in all probability, fail of doing so ? 
 
 I say " in this country," because it is on the pecuhar 
 circumstances of Victoria, and its complete dissimilarity from 
 
63 
 
 most old countries in the conditions affecting this question, 
 that the observations I have to make are founded. 
 
 In England, and countries similarly circumstanced, there 
 is in all ordinary times a large proportion of the labouring 
 classes either wholly or partially unemployed, and ready to 
 fill any opening for work which may present itself. An ac- 
 cession, consequently, to the capital which operates upon the 
 labour market is immediately met by an increase, both in the 
 number of labourers available for production, and in the ex- 
 tent to which their services are actually employed. I believe 
 that the amount of additional labour which is thus attainable 
 in England for extraordinary purposes is inconceivable by 
 those who have not studied the position of the working 
 classes ; and, through its instrumentality, every additional 
 accumulation of capital which seeks the co-operation of la- 
 bour, will obtain it in sufficient abundance to become fully 
 effective. 
 
 In this country, on the other hand, there is, as a general 
 rule, no unemployed class whatever ; all who desire occupation 
 for hire being able to procure it constantly, and for as many 
 hours each day as they are willing to work. I do not mean 
 to say that there are not individual exceptions, amongst new 
 arrivals who have not yet learned to adapt themselves to the 
 Colony ; or that there may not be temporary local exceptions, 
 where classes, unsuited to the requirements of a particular 
 locality, persist in lingering there from week to week, instead 
 of going where their services are in demand. But I say 
 that these are exceptions ; and that the general rule here is 
 directly the opposite of what holds in old countries, inasmuch 
 as all who wish to work for hire, are able to secure, and ac- 
 tually are engaged in constant, and full employment. 
 
 This being so, suppose a large loan were placed in our 
 hands to-morrow; from what quarter are we to di-aw the 
 additional supply of labourers requisite for prosecuting the 
 projected undertakings ? 
 
64 
 
 It is undeniable that the great rise of money wages which 
 would be consequent upon throwing the borrowed fund into 
 the labour market, and which would first show itself on the 
 works in question, Would attract to these a considerable 
 number of the labourers of the Colony. But whence can 
 these men come ? with the exception of the few who may 
 chance at the moment to be out of employment, — a number 
 inappreciably small, as I have said — they must be drawn 
 either from the service of private capitaHsts, or from the gold 
 field?. 
 
 So far as they came from the former source, the pursuits 
 of private enterprise would be crippled by their withdrawal ; 
 and, in a financial point of view alone, the Colony at large 
 would suffer to an extent difficult to be predicted, from the 
 check given to the development of its resources, in the num- 
 berless lines selected by individual interest, and likely there- 
 fore to be those of most urgent necessity to the country. 
 Building and agriculture would decline ; and rents, and prices 
 of all productions of the Colony would rise. 
 
 Nay even the labouring classes themselves, to whose benefit 
 this rise of wages might seem to conduce, however it might 
 injure others, would find their increased money receipts more 
 than counterbalanced by their diminished value in exchange 
 for the necessaries and comforts of life ; a diminution which 
 would speedily result from the discouragement of production 
 carried on by private employers. 
 
 Again, so far as the required supply was drawn from the 
 population of the gold fields ; — and this would occur to but 
 an inconsiderable extent, without a very great enhancement 
 of the rate of wages — it is easy to see that the Colony would 
 be a loser by the diminished production of its great staple, 
 gold. A loss which is not to be measured by the mere re- 
 duction of the gold returns, but by the stoppage of all the 
 future production, of which the amount relinquished might 
 have been the foundation ; and by the check to emigration 
 
;65 
 
 which would ensue from any apparent failure of the 
 mines. 
 
 The foregoing being the only sources within the colony, 
 from which supplies of labour can be expected ; it is clear 
 that the prosecution of extensive undertakings, by the 
 means referred to, would involve a very material advance 
 of wages, to succeed in procuring workmen in adequate 
 numbers. In fact, since the number of labourers is limited, 
 and that number fully employed, the arrival of a large addi- 
 tional sum, to be expended in hiring workmen, would amount 
 to nothing more than distributing amongst the same number 
 of labourers as before a much larger amount of wages than 
 before, without obtaining in return for it any increased 
 qviantity of work. No doubt, by bidding sufficiently high 
 wages on the Grovernment works, men would be procured, 
 and the undertakings carried out. But this would only be 
 effected, as has been shown, by withdrawing these men from 
 their previous employments, and thereby injuring the colony 
 by impairing other and most probably more essential branches 
 of production. At the same time, the works for whose sake 
 these sacrifices were incurred, would themselves be carried 
 out, only with an incalculable waste of the money raised 
 for their construction, through the total inadequacy of the 
 supplies of labour attainable within the colony. 
 
 Nor could any material assistance be expected from the 
 
 adjoining colonies. Their populations are too small, and too 
 
 weU off, to furnish those floating drafts of labour, by which, 
 
 in old countries, an augmented local demand is so rapidly 
 
 and abundantly satisfied. Our neighbours, moreover, have 
 
 learned ere now, that an enhanced money income does not 
 
 always imply an extended command of the comforts of life ; 
 
 and, although they would hear on the one hand of the 
 
 nominal rise in the working man's gains, they would learn, 
 
 on the other, with no less certainty, of the rise of prices by 
 
 which it would be accompanied and neutralized. 
 F 
 
66 
 
 As for immigration from Europe, it is obvious that whatever 
 might be its existing amount, as influenced by other causes, 
 it could not be increased by the attractions of the supposed 
 Government expenditure, (and with this alone we are now 
 concerned,) until too late to prevent the pernicious conse- 
 quences described. The distance is so great, and the 
 uncertainty felt as to Australian intelligence is so universal, 
 that even should a mere rise of colonial wages occasion 
 eventually any considerable enlargement of the stream of 
 immigration, its effect would not be experienced here, until 
 the works were half finished, and the mischief already done. 
 It is to be remembered, too, that in Europe, as weU as in the 
 adjoining colonies, the attractions of high pay would be 
 counterbalanced by the concurrent accounts of high prices. 
 
 If, then, the policy under discussion involves the waste 
 of money, and the derangement of general industry, with its 
 attendant evils, which have been pointed out as likely to 
 ensue from its adoption, it is worth considering how far these 
 evils may be obviated, and the fullest possible advantages of 
 the scheme secured by subsidiary measures. 
 
 The only method which occurs to me of averting the ill 
 consequences adverted to, is the somewhat matter of fact 
 expedient, of importing the necessary supply of labourers 
 from Europe, as we do such other requisites as can be 
 obtained thence more advantageously than elsewhere. If it 
 be worth our while to introduce into the country a large 
 addition to our wages fund, it will be equally so to introduce 
 along with it a corresponding accession to our available 
 labouring classes. 
 
 To what precise extent, or by what machinery, this 
 should be effected, it is unnecessary to discuss at present. 
 The principle of the suggestion is no novelty in these colo- 
 nies. We have long since discovered that no more profitable 
 investment exists for our accumulating revenue than in 
 securing a continuous influx of population ; and that our 
 
67 
 
 gold does riot prove a very beneficial possession, when it is 
 either left locked up in the coffers of the banks, for want of 
 hands to render it productive, or squandered on consignments 
 of goods which rot in the stores from lack of consumers. 
 And, if this truth be admitted, in the case of gradual accu- 
 mulations of income, it must hold still more strongly with 
 regard to a sudden accession of money, such as we have been 
 considering. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ACCOUNT OF THE GUNYANa : A NEW 
 INDIGENOUS FRUIT OF VICTORIA. 
 
 BY DE. FERD. MUELLEE. 
 
 READ APRIL 5, 1855. 
 
 The number of fruits indigenous in this colony is so limited, 
 that any addition to them can not fail to attract a far more 
 general attention, than even the most important discoveries 
 in the medicinal properties of our plants, or in their geo- 
 graphical distribution or affinity likely would secure. With 
 this view, I selected from a series of new plants, which were 
 obtained during my last journey through the eastern parts of 
 this colony, the " Gunyang," for an early publication. That 
 the natives apply a special name to this production of our 
 Flora warrants its usefulness in their nomadic life ; and as, 
 in fact, the Gipps' Land tribes collect this fruit eagerly, and 
 as probably cultivation wiU improve it so much as to render 
 the plant acceptable for our gardens, I hope to be excused in 
 not having chosen a more valuable object for a special paper. 
 The Gunyang bush is a kind of Solanum or nightshade. 
 
68 
 
 and has much the appearance of S. aviculare (S. laclniatum 
 Ait.),* to which species it is, indeed, in habit, so closely 
 allied, that superficial observers seeing these plants growing 
 promiscuously will hardly become aware of their distinction. 
 Yet the differences between them are, through all stages of 
 development in both plants, so clear and so decisive, that I 
 do not hesitate to add to the enormous number of more than 
 nine hundred solana, hitherto described, the Gunyang, as new 
 under the name of S. vescum. 
 
 It differs from S. aviculare in green but not dark purplish 
 twigs, in sessile decurrent, somewhat scabrous, and less 
 shining leaves, whilst those of S. avicular are distinctly per- 
 tiolate, and, consequently, not decurrent along the twigs, in 
 more tender corollas, which are very slightly, but not to 
 the middle, five-cleft, and hardly ever outside whitish, in 
 thinner styles and filaments, the latter not shorter than 
 the anthers, in more acute teeths of the calyx, in almost 
 sperical transparently green berries with large seeds. The 
 berries of S. aviculare are, in contrary, at all times ex- 
 actly egg-shaped, of an orange colour, and with seeds but 
 half as large as in S. vescum. The natives of Gipps' 
 Land, moreover, reject the berries of the former on ac- 
 count of their disagrecal^le taste. To the Peruvian S. re- 
 clinatum the affinity of our plant appears yet greater; 
 yet in the careful description, which Dunal has furnished of 
 it in Cand. Prodr. xiii. p. 68, neither the characteristic 
 wings of the twigs are attributed to the Peruvian plant, nor 
 do his remarks on the corolla, which he calls half-five-cleft, 
 on the shorter pedicles and smaller calyx agree with S. 
 vescum. A close approach between both is, however, 
 manifested in the length and structure of the filaments, as 
 also in the shape and colour of the berries. From S. se- 
 necioides and multifidum, likewise inhabitants of Peru, our 
 species differs already in the division of the leaves, but 
 bears resemblance to them in the winged twigs. 
 
 * The Kangaroo apple of the colonists. 
 
69 
 
 The Gunyang has been found, as far as I know, only yet 
 in Gipps' Land, where it occurs on sand ridges around Lake 
 "Wellington, on the coast towards the mouth of the Snowy 
 River, on grassy hiUs at the Tambo, the Nicholson's Kiver, 
 and Clifton's Morass, on the rich shady banks of the Latrobe 
 River, and near the Buchan River. The occurrence of the 
 plant in such varified locaUties proves how easy it may be 
 cultivated in any soil. It flowers during the spring, and 
 ripens its fruits towards the end of the summer. The berries 
 lose only their unpleasant acridity after they have dropped in 
 full maturity from the branches, and then their taste 
 resembles in some degree the so-called Cape-gooseberry, 
 (Physalis Peruviana), to which they are also similar in size. 
 
 In conclusion to these remarks, I beg to offer the botanical 
 diagnosis of the Gunyang plant, supported by a description, 
 which, I hope, wUl facilitate its recognition. 
 
 Solarium, vescum, n. sp. 
 
 Fruticose, unarmed, erect, smooth ; twigs winged ; leaves 
 large, sessile, long lanceolate, undivided or furnished towards 
 the middle, on both sides, with one or two lanceolate seg- 
 ments ; calyx of the corymbose flowers to the middle ; 
 five-cleft, with thick subdeltoid cuspidate unkeeled lobes ; 
 coroUa, smooth, somewhat folded, violaceous, almost bell- 
 shaped, with five very short lobes; filaments thread-like, 
 equal in length to the yeUow oblong anthers ; berries large, 
 green, nearly globose. 
 
 A shrub, with spreading branches, sometimes more than 
 six feet high, but already in the first year producing flowers 
 and fruits, by which means the plant appears then to be 
 herbaceous. Branches woody, covered with a brownish- 
 grey wrinkled and fissured bark. Leaves decurring along 
 the twigs, hardly shining, beneath a little paler, generally 
 somewhat scabrous ; middle rib of the leaves and their seg- 
 ments above sharply prominent, beneath yet more protrud- 
 
70 
 
 ing, and these semi-terete ; the lateral nerves numerous, 
 patent, and conjoined by veins. Corymbs axillary, few- 
 flowered, either solitary or twin, sometimes cymose, some- 
 times racemose. Peduncles terete, often slightly angulate, 
 from one to two inches long, rarely wanting. Pedicels as 
 long as the peduncles, terete, solitary, gradually passing into 
 the calyx. Calyx nearly campanulate, in age carnulent ; the 
 teeth at length 2—3 lines long. Corolla tender, lilac-blue, 
 nearly all times of an equal colour, but rarely outside with 
 exception of the wing-like part greenish, undulate at the 
 margin ; the lobes either rounded or emarginate. Stamens 
 considerably shorter than the corolla ; filaments very thin ; 
 anthers l^ lines long, opening at the apex, but also bursting 
 more or less longitudinally. Style white, longer than the 
 stamens. Stigma capitellate, bilobed. Berries when per- 
 fectly ripe pulpy, sometimes above one inch long. Seeds 
 ovate-roundish, compressed, with a grey net-Hlic tissue. 
 
 IX. 
 
 ON THE MINERAL WATERS OF VICTORIA. 
 
 BY JOHN MAUND, M.D. 
 
 READ APRIL 5, 1855. 
 
 Mt object in presenting for the inspection of the Institute 
 this specimen of mineral water with a quantitative analysis 
 of its composition, is principally to direct the attention of our 
 members to the probable existence of many valuable mineral 
 
n 
 
 springs, and to point out several whicli have already been 
 discovered in Victoria. 
 
 Thus I may mention that I have met with two specimens 
 of acidulous water derived from different parts of this Colony, 
 one from Hepburn, near Castlemaine, and another from the 
 banks of the Merri Creek, about thirty miles from Mel- 
 bourne. A third, I have been told, exists at Ballan, of which 
 I hope shortly to obtain a specimen. The waters derived 
 from the two former localities contain a very considerable 
 quantity of free carbonic acid gas, which imparts to them an 
 agreeable and acidulous taste and a brisk and sparkling ap- 
 pearance. Time has only permitted me to make a quanti- 
 tative analysis of the former, the results of which are the 
 following. 
 
 EESXJLTS OF THE ANALYSIS OP MINEEAL WATER 
 FKOM HEPBUEN. 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per Gallon. 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 
 
 4-747 
 
 47-470 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia . 
 
 2-570 
 
 25-700 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 
 
 4-380 
 
 43-800 
 
 Carbonate of Iron . 
 
 0-100 
 
 1-000 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 
 
 0-640 
 
 6-400 
 
 Sulphate of Soda 
 
 0-223 
 
 2-230 
 
 Phosphate of Alumina 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Phosphate of Lime . 
 
 0-030 
 
 0-300 
 
 Phosphate of Iron 
 
 0-182 
 
 1-820 
 
 Alumina .... 
 
 0-100 
 
 1-000 
 
 Silicic Acid .... 
 
 0-330 
 
 3-300 
 
 Organic Matter 
 
 0-097 
 
 0-970 
 
 
 13-399 
 
 133-990 
 
 The quantity of carbonic acid I have not yet definitely ascer- 
 
72 
 
 tained, as accurate results could only be obtained by its esti- 
 mation being made at the spring, but I believe from the 
 experiments I have instituted, that 100 cubic inches of water 
 wiU contain at least 100 cubic inches of the gas. The water 
 now produced, which was derived from Hepburn, I should 
 feel inclined to class as an acidulo carbonated chalybeate. It 
 would, however, I am aware, by some authorities, from the 
 small quantity of iron that it contains, be classed merely as 
 an acidulo alkaline ; and indeed, as the presence of iron does 
 not render the taste disagreeable, it might with equal pro- 
 priety be classed under either head. Acidulous waters of 
 this kind have always been held in high esteem, even so early 
 as the time of Pliny (who was about coeval with oiu- Saviour) 
 who particularly mentions a spring of this description which 
 existed in Macedonia, which he states possessed intoxicating 
 properties (Lyncestis aqua, quas vocatur acidula, \mo modo 
 temulentos facet), and for which properties the Pyrmont 
 water is said now to be extensively drunli by the country 
 people. This effect doubtless depends upon the large amount 
 of carbonic acid the water contains. 
 
 Great Britain possesses, as far as is yet known, only one 
 acidulous spring, this exists at Ilkeston, in Derbyshire, and 
 has acquired considerable celebrity, although its properties 
 are far less deserving of attention than those of the water 
 now presented for the inspection of the society. 
 
 The imperial gallon of the Ilkeston water contains only 
 about 36 grains of saline matter per gallon, while that of 
 Hepburn contains about 144 grains in the same amount. The 
 importance of such springs to the Colony will be readily 
 appreciated when we consider that they are of the same class, 
 and, I believe, equal in every respect to the far famed Seltzer 
 Water of Germany, which attracts such hosts of travellers to 
 the Rhine, and is so extensively imported into England and 
 elsewhere, thereby producing a considerable revenue to the 
 country affording it. The water now shown, from the cork 
 
73 
 
 having been frequently removed from the bottle, has lost its 
 free carbonic acid, and consequently its acidulous taste. It 
 is now instead strongly saline and alkaline, and although the 
 water is now clear, I should mention that a portion of the 
 salts have been deposited, owing to the escape of carbonic 
 acid, the presence of which kept them in solution. 
 
 The medicinal effect of the Hepburn and other waters I 
 have referred to are not of a slight character. The excess 
 of carbonic acid makes them refreshing and exhilarating, and 
 useful in allaying nausea and irritation of the stomach, while 
 the salts they contain act directly on the renal and digestive 
 organs, rendering them extremely beneficial in hepatic, gouty, 
 rheumatic, and other affections. In addition to the acidulous 
 waters I have seen several specimens of saline waters, derived 
 from springs which exist mostly on the sides of creeks; I 
 believe, ultimately, springs of this class wiU be found in 
 many parts of the Colony. 
 
 The composition of those I have analysed consist chiefly 
 of chlorides of sodium, magnesium, and calcium, with sul- 
 phates of soda, magnesia, and hme, and occasionally iron, 
 alumina, and traces of potash. 
 
 I have been informed that near the Ovens Diggings a sul- 
 phureous spring exists, but a specimen of this water I have 
 not been able to procure ; I trust, however, some member of 
 our Society, who has friends in that neighbourhood, will be 
 more fortunate, and present the Institute with a specimen. 
 
 The specimen of white powder now shown (which was sent 
 to me by Mr. Moody as a product of the Anderson's Creek 
 Diggings) is the remains of some beautiful, transparent, 
 naturally formed crystals, which have now from exposure to 
 the air effloresced. These I believe to have been the solid 
 portion of a sahne mineral water, which percolating through 
 a rock into a cavity, were deposited in consequence of the 
 evaporation of the aqueous part, leaving the inorganic con- 
 stituents in crystals on the sides of the cavern. The crystals 
 
74 
 
 consist mostly of sulphates and carbonate of soda, with small 
 portions of phosphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, and 
 potash, there being an entire absence of chloride of sodium 
 and chlorine. 
 
 X. 
 
 ON GAS AND GAS WORKS. 
 
 BY A. K. SMITH, ESQ., C.E., F.K.S.SA., &c. 
 
 ENGINEER AND MANAGER OF THE CITY OF 
 MELBOURNE GAS WORKS. 
 
 READ MAY 3, 1865. 
 
 Mr. Chaiumajt and Gentlemen, — I beg to preface my 
 remarks on Gas and Gas Works by stating that, although I 
 have had considerable experience in the erection of gas 
 works, the manufacture of coal gas, and its introduction to 
 towns and houses for pubhc and private uses, yet I have 
 found it advisable to refer to such authorities as Dr. Fyfe, 
 Messrs. Thompson, Faraday, Hughes, Gore, Eutter, &c., 
 &c., regarding its early history, chemical analysis, &c., 
 &c. ; and as there are several interesting papers to be read 
 this evening, I shall not attempt more than to give a brief 
 outline of: — 
 
 1st. The history and nature of coal gas. 
 
 2nd. A description of the works necessary for its manu- 
 factuie. 
 
 3rd. The adaption of these works to suit local circum- 
 stances. 
 
75 
 
 4tli and lastly. The application of gas to public and private 
 uses. 
 
 1st. The subject of light, natural or artificial, has claims 
 on aU classes of society, for it is the duty of every person 
 to study the sources from which health or domestic comforts 
 spring, and to understand, in a certain degree, their appli- 
 cation, the more so as the means of inquiry and investi- 
 gation have been brought to a wonderful degree of simpKcity 
 and perfection, and every step thus gained increases the 
 hope that in the end many of the seeming mysteries bearing 
 directly on our comforts wiU be made clear to the searcher 
 of the truth. 
 
 The present century has been aptly termed the age of me- 
 chanical inventions. Philosophy, arms, the arts, and litera- 
 ture, have had respectively their periods of eulogy, each in 
 its turn has borne its stvay over the minds and hearts of 
 mankind. The advent of mechanical science came, and at 
 last the genius of the steam-engine, the loom, and the print- 
 press rose gradually into the ascendant ; almost every branch 
 of manufacturing industry bears witness to the wonderful 
 effects which may be produced by the ingenuity of man 
 through the medium of mechanical inventions, when his facul- 
 ties are stimulated and sharpened by the necessity of sup- 
 plying manual by machine labour. That coal gas, as at 
 present manufactured and stored in the gas holder, does so, I 
 propose to render evident, and to show that the simple move- 
 ments of that apparatus, so far and in so many instances, 
 ministers to our comforts, and substitutes, by its insensate 
 obedience to mechanical laws, the combined saving of time, 
 trouble, and expense, which are rendered necessary in the 
 produce and distribution of aU artificial light. 
 
 It would be out of place to give anything Hke a history of 
 the rise and progress of gas lighting, suffice it is to say that 
 amongst its foremost apostles figured the names of Murdock, 
 Trevethick, Clegg, Dr. Henry, Watson (Bishop of Landaff), 
 &c., &c. 
 
76 
 
 The discovery and earliest observation of gas lighting by 
 elastic or aeriform fluids, capable of being inflamed and of 
 imparting light and heat, must, undoubtedly, have been of 
 great antiquity. The most ancient writings contain notices 
 of inflammable vapours springing from fissures and cavities 
 in the earth. It is evident, therefore, that gas being a natural 
 production, no such being as the inventor or discoverer of 
 gas ever existed. Modern chemistry will have no difiiculty 
 In showing that aU inflammable gases, whether arising natur- 
 ally from rocks, or produced artificially by combustion or 
 otherwise, are composed of very simple elements, and all pre- 
 sent a remarkable analogy to the common carburetted hydro- 
 gen, which is the gas chiefly burnt in our street lamps and 
 houses of the present day. 
 
 Inflammable gas may truly be said to be as old as the cre- 
 ation of organic matter, for whatever animal or vegetable 
 substances have existed by the immutable laws of nature, 
 they have been subject to decomposition ; and whatever de- 
 composition has taken place, a variety of gases have been pro- 
 duced, some of them inflammable, and others not so. Whether 
 the decomposition be that caused by the slow action of decay, 
 or that more rapid process by the application of sensible heat, 
 the effect is the same ; the gases are equally produced in the 
 two cases. 
 
 Gas may be with more truth called a natural production 
 than steam, although the latter has existed from the first cre- 
 ation of water, and in its palpable state, as proceeding from 
 boiling water, must have been observed in aU ages. The dis- 
 coveries of man, with respect to gas and steam, ought rather 
 to be called applications ; they are conquests over elements, 
 the subjugation of great powers in nature to his use and con- 
 venience. So it is with aU great inventions in which we find 
 one power of nature after another chained, confined, bound 
 down, stored, and then let loose when required ; and made to 
 work machines and to propel ships across the ocean, to supply 
 
77 
 
 the place of human labour itself in a thousand varieties of 
 ways ; nay, to pass far beyond the bounds of human labour, and 
 effect, by a single effort, that which the manual strength of the 
 whole world would scarcely accomplish. If such astonishing 
 applications of steam and gas had been made in the days of 
 ancient Greece, what magnificent, all expressive, world as- 
 tounding, names would have been found to convey their 
 meaning, instead of such contemptible little monosyllables 
 as gas and steam ; one might have heard of the spirit of coal 
 and the spirit of water, with some superlative adjective to 
 stamp the vast importance of each. In such an age these 
 wonderful conquests would have thrown all meaner efforts 
 into the shade ; for them alone poetry would have strung her 
 harp, and the grandest epic productions of genius might have 
 commemorated the victory of man over the inanimate matter 
 of nature, instead of dedicating her loftiest songs to that 
 curse of all ages and nations — the art of war. 
 
 The avidity with which the early nations seized on all na- 
 tural phenomena, and all exhibitions of natural powers, is 
 evident from the great veneration paid to the burning 
 flames which issued forth from the fissures and cavities in the 
 earth, where lakes of naphtha existed, or in the neigh- 
 bourhood of coal districts. Some of the earliest nations 
 have considered fire a type of divinity ; and we can scarcely 
 wonder at the feelings of veneration and superstition occa- 
 sioned by mysterious outbursts of flame, whose origin ap- 
 peared utterly incomprehensible. Hence superstition erected 
 her altars over such flames and claimed the interference of 
 the gods to sustain the perpetual miracle, but all that had 
 been observed with reference to the inflammable vapours 
 of ancient times was very far indeed from approaching to 
 anything like a useful purpose. Far from leading to any 
 attempt to collect any of these vapours, their very nature 
 and composition were unknown, and the most mistaken ideas 
 prevailed as to their real elements. It was not until modern 
 
78 
 
 chemistry had exploded volumes of ancient dogmas, had 
 traced the so-called elements to their simplest forms, and 
 had taught us the law according to wliich the elements are 
 combined in order to constitute all forms of matter. It was 
 not till then that it began to be seen that the inflammable 
 matter of coal, wood, oils, and other fatty substances, was 
 analogous with the marsh gas, which arises in bubbles from 
 the decomposition of vegetables under water ; that it was 
 of the same nature as the fatal " will o' the wisp," which 
 on the wild moor or bog has lighted many a weary and be- 
 nighted traveller to destruction ; finally, that it was nearly 
 the same as that which arises from the decomposition of 
 water however produced ; and that, in fact, one of the con- 
 stituents of water, the greatest antagonist and extinguisher 
 of flame, was itself the most inflammjible substance in na- 
 ture, namely, hydrogen gas ; while oxygen, the other ele- 
 ment of water, is the greatest known supporter of combus- 
 tion. 
 
 All organic bodies, that is to say, all bodies derived 
 either from the vegetable or animal kingdoms, will yield gas 
 when decomposition takes place. "When such decomposition 
 is effected by means of heating organic matter in close 
 vessels, the gas may be collected, and when confined so as 
 to be allowed to issue in a small jet only, from a minute 
 orifice, the jet may be ignited and made to burn so as to give 
 out light, and at the same time heat sufficient to inflame 
 other portions of gas as they issue forth, and so keep up 
 the continuity of flame. 
 
 The eases so deiived are named after the chief constituents 
 of organic bodies ; thus we have 
 
 Hydrogen gas. 
 
 Oxygen gas. 
 
 Nitrogen gas. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas. 
 Named from the elements hydrogen, cixygen, nitrogen, and 
 
79 
 
 carbon, which constitute the principal parts of all organic 
 matter, "We have also gases named after a combination of 
 these elements either with each other or with foreign bodies, 
 frequently with organic matters, as 
 
 Carburetted hydrogen gas. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
 
 Carbonic oxide gas. 
 These names are so expressive that it is scarcely necessary 
 to explain that carburetted hydrogen is a compound of the 
 vapour of carbon with hydrogen, that sulphuretted hydrogen 
 is a similar compound of the vapour of sulphur with hydro- 
 gen, that carbonic oxide is the vapour of carbon in combina- 
 tion with oxygen, &c., &c. 
 
 Coal and other bodies capable of yielding gas by distillation 
 are composed chiefly of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. 
 
 When the heat reaches a certain point the combination of 
 their elements is destroyed, and they enter into new 
 combinations, the principal of which are the various gases 
 arising from distillation. Thus, when one volume of oxygen 
 enters into combination with one volume of carbon, carbonic 
 oxide as formed; and when another volume of oxygen is 
 added, acid gas is produced, called carbonic acid gas. Again, 
 at one part of the process, nearly pure hydrogen is liberated, 
 another portion of gas is formed by carbon, combining in the 
 proportion of one volume of carbon to two volumes of 
 hydrogen; and lastly, olifiant gas is the product of equal 
 volumes of carbon and hydrogen entering into combination. 
 
 In all the contrivances which have been used for the 
 production of gas from fatty matters, either in lamps or in 
 the form of candles, the various component parts of gas, as 
 the carbon and hydrogen, are actually vapourized and put 
 into the form of gas before their combustion takes place. In 
 this point of view, every wick burning in any kind of lamp 
 or candle, is, in fact, a small laboratory for the production of 
 gas, which is burnt or consumed at the instant of production. 
 
80 
 
 It was reserved for the chemistry of our own days to point 
 out this analogy, as it was reserved for the practical skill of 
 engineers and mechanics to bring to perfection the means of 
 producing this gas on a large scale, of storing it for consump- 
 tion, and then sending it forth whenever required into our 
 streets and houses, to communicate light, and enable mankind 
 to pursue their useful and laborious vocations when darkness 
 shrouds the earth, as well as in the light of day. 
 
 A beautiful action takes place in the combustion of an 
 ordinary lamp or candle, in which the wick, surrounded by 
 flame, represents a series of capillary tubes, to convey the 
 melted matter in the form of gas into the flame. This action 
 will be very ajjparent to any one who wUl watch the process 
 of combustion in an ordinary wax or tallow candle. First 
 he will perceive a cup of melted matter around the wicks, in 
 which a great number of small globules are seen constantly 
 in progress towards the wick ; many of these globules are 
 also seen standing on the wick, studding it all over like 
 sparkling diamonds. Let us consider what the globules 
 contain. They are filled with the inflammable gas produced 
 by the heat applied to the melted wax or taUow ; but 
 fortunately for the success of this method of burning these 
 globules do not break and set free the gas until they come 
 in close contact with the flame, when the heat becomes so 
 great that the expansion of the gas causes each Httle globule 
 to break, and add its contents to the already existing flame. 
 
 How admirable is this provision, how exquisitely consti- 
 tuted are the properties of nature, to cause this beautiful 
 result. In every common candle we behold an apjjaratus of 
 refined ingenuity, in which gas is being inclosed in little 
 microscopic pellicles, which are floated to the base of the 
 wick ; there hundreds of these little globules are seen ascend- 
 ing the wick, while hundreds of others are every instant 
 exploding and discharging their contents into the flame, which 
 is thus made up by the instant combustion of gaseous matter. 
 
81 
 
 at the moment when it leaves the liquid form, through the 
 medium of this intermediate stage. 
 
 It Is obvious, if the gas were to be actually formed at the 
 surface of the small cup of melted matter already spoken of, 
 the surface being usually half an inch below the nearest part 
 of the flame, that the gas would immediately diffuse itself 
 through the air, and combustion would not take place. It is 
 only through the property which the gas possesses, of taking 
 an intermediate form, and not finally assuming its gaseous 
 condition till it reaches the flame, that the effect of continued 
 combustion is preserved. 
 
 Before proceeding to consider the various products pro- 
 duced by the distillation of coal, as practised in gas manufac- 
 ture, it may be useful to glance at the origin of the word 
 gas. The word is very slightly altered from a German 
 monosyllable of the same sound, signifying the ebullitions 
 which attend the escape of aeriform fluids from substances in 
 a state of effervescence. 
 
 The gaseous products arising from the distillation of coal 
 may be divided into three classes. 1st. Those which are 
 valuable for purposes of illumination, as the olefiant gas and 
 the hydro-carburets, or vapours of volatile oil. 2nd. Those 
 which burn with a bluelsh flame, and give out very little 
 light. These are simply hydrogen gas, carburetted hydrogen, 
 and carbonic oxide. 3rd. The injurious products that require 
 to be separated by purification, not only on account of the 
 evil effects arising from breathing them, but also on account 
 of the injury to colours, &c., &c. These are carbonic acid, 
 ammoniacal gases, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphuret of 
 carbon, cyanogis Is another product of distillation, due, like 
 ammonia, to the presence of nitrogen in the coal, and, when 
 any alkaline matter Is present, cyanates are frequently found. 
 
 Coal is the remains of vegetable matter. This fact, I dare 
 say, you are all aware of, so I shall not enter into a descrip- 
 tion of the difierent stages through which coal has passed, 
 
82 
 
 before it presents itself to us as the ordinary mineral coal of 
 commerce. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, we have to decompose a piece of 
 coal. We find that it contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
 and oxygen, in certain proportions, combined ^rith lime, 
 silica, sulphur, iron, and other impiirities. Our object is now 
 to obtain, for the purpose of gas manufacture, three ingre- 
 dients, namely, carburetted hydrogen for light, the compound 
 of nitrogen for chemical purposes, and the unconsunied or 
 uncombined carbon for the purpose of fuel. Heat is the 
 agent by which we effect the work, and it is therefore of 
 importance to know the best means of employing that heat 
 so as to efi'ect the object in -sdew in the most speedy, econo- 
 mical, and satisfactory manner. In order that the required 
 substances might be evolved in sufficient quantity, we must 
 havi a proportionate amount of heat ; for, if we wanted to 
 extend a piece of coal to 270 times its bulk, the amount of 
 heat applied must be equivalent to the force requisite to 
 produce such a separation and expansion of its atoms. Those 
 atoms, it must be recollected, had no disposition in themselves 
 to move or change, the expansion mu-t, therefore, be effected 
 by some external agency, and rightly applied. 
 
 In order to produce gas the coal must be expanded to 270 
 tinu's its bulk, and if the amount of heat applied does any- 
 thin"' less, then, instead of jjrodiicing gas we should only 
 produce a liquid. One word as to the nature of pure and 
 impure gas. AA'hen we make use of gas for the purpose of 
 liglit we should remember that, however advantageous it 
 might be to us to have it perfectly pure, yet we could not 
 obtain artificial light without having a certain amount of 
 resldiuil products. The light from the sun leaves no products, 
 but all aitifieial light must of neces.>ity yield products, 
 l>e<:r.i-c matter, though it may undergo a change, is perfectly 
 iude.-truotible. Whether a certain mass of coals was con- 
 giuned in a fire, or a furnace, or in a gas retort, the anioimt 
 
83 
 
 of the weight of the products would be always the same, 
 we should still have the carbon of the coal uniting with the 
 atmosphere, and producing carbonic acid ; and the hydrogen 
 of the coal producing water, and the nitrogen given to us in 
 the same condition, and all the remaining products have only 
 undergone a change as to form ; therefore, it was a matter of 
 importance to us, that in any material to be used for the 
 purpose of giving light, its products should be as innoxious 
 as possible. If we take coal in a perfectly crude state, and 
 submit the gas derived from it for the purpose of illumination 
 to a test, we shall find that it contains, first, a quantity of 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, we shall have the carbon and oxygen 
 uniting, giving us carbonic oxide and carbonic acid, both of 
 which are deleterious ; then the carbon and nitrogen com- 
 bined, giving us cyanogen, which is the base of " Prussic 
 acid," the weU-known poison. Hydrogen and oxygen com- 
 bined, giving water, hydrogen, and nitrogen, producing 
 ammonia, oxygen and nitrogen, combined producing nitrous 
 acid ; so that these elements in their composition would give 
 rise to (with one exception) a mass of poisonous products. 
 But if we can get rid of the oxygen and nitrogen from our 
 gas, we shall then have brought down our absolute poisonous 
 products to carbon and hydrogen ; and these, in the process 
 of combustion, uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere, 
 would give us carbonic acid gas. Sulphur, in a state of 
 combustion, being injurious to health, you wiU readily under- 
 stand the necessity of removing every trace of it which the 
 gas may contain. Doubtless, many of you may have heard 
 of, and some unfortunately experienced, the effects of bad 
 and impure gas, as in the eyes also on goods in linendrapers' 
 establishments, book-bindings, picture-frames, &c., &c. 
 
 A case of this kind lately occurred at Blackheath. There 
 a gentleman had in a room, about twelve feet square, a three- 
 light chandelier, there was no ventilation. This gentleman 
 was constantly complaining of a headache ; his medical ad- 
 
84 
 
 vlser told him the gfis was not good. On complaining to the 
 company which supplied it, he was informed that he had too 
 much light in proportion to the current of air — that, in fact, 
 he had a quantity equal to twenty-six penny candles, and 
 that what he wanted was ventilation. He had a ventilater 
 placed in the window, and the result was that the headache 
 left him, and the gas was found satisfactory. If the public 
 do not take the ordinary means of preventing danger or in- 
 convenience, it will not be surprising if they feel annoyed. 
 I throw out the hint because I know that gas must be far 
 more extensively used than at present, — gas must eventually 
 become the light of the masses — ^it is so in Scotland ; and 
 until it is so more in England and other parts of the world, 
 it wiU not have accomplished its mission. 
 
 Secondly — In commencing to give a description of the 
 works and apparatus necessary for the manufacture of gas, I 
 shall advert, in orc'er to be better understood, to those which 
 will be erected at jMelbourne. Some three or four years ago 
 it was thought necessary to have a part of the public streets, 
 trade premises, and houses of INIelbourne lighted with gas. 
 A public meeting was held and a company formed. A piece 
 of ground for a site was purchased in the lower part of the 
 city about 95-lOOth of an acre. The discovery of gold im- 
 mediately after took place, and the works were for a time 
 abandoned, or, at least, proceeded but slowly. The immense 
 increase of the population of Melbourne in the years 1852 
 and 1853-4 rendered it absolutely necessary that the works 
 should be erected on a larger scale, in order to keep pace 
 with the rapid increase of Melbourne, which, from a town of 
 20,000 inhabitants in 1 851, rose in eighteen months to 70,000; 
 an increase of population, for a town of the same size, un- 
 paralleled in the annals of the world. It was determined 
 that the company should have their manufacturing apparatus 
 for the works from Britain, owing to the advance in price of 
 labour in the Australian market. The propriety of at once 
 
85 
 
 obtaining a large site some distance from the town was ap- 
 parent ; accordingly suggestions were sent out from Britain, 
 accompanied with satisfactory reasons for such advice. The 
 promoters of the scheme here made application to the Govern- 
 ment for a larger site, and eventually obtained a grant of five 
 acres for twenty-one years; such site was well chosen in 
 reference to economising the carriage of raw material used 
 in the manufacture of gas, but otherwise ill adapted for the 
 erection of buildings, &c., &c., owing to the difficulty and 
 expense of obtaining foundations for the same, and in taking 
 precautionary measures against flooding by the river Yarra. 
 The low level of the site and the difficulties to contend with 
 will appear more manifest, when I mention that twelve months 
 ago, the surface of the ground at the south end of the works 
 and upon part of which the present retort-house now stands 
 was below the low water level of the Bay, and consequently 
 covered by each side to a varying depth of from two to four 
 feet at high water. 
 
 Before the erection of the works, it is necessary to hare 
 some definite information as a guide regarding the size they 
 ought to be, in order that the capabilities for production may 
 equal the demand for consumption ; this is generally done by 
 taking a list of the trade premises, private and public houses, 
 churches, chapels, and street lights, &c., &c.; then, according 
 to local circumstances, leaving a large or small margin in 
 favour of the works. In other words, if a city or town has 
 little staple manufacture, such as York, Canterbury, Bath, 
 Exeter, Home, &c., &c., then the works are generally made 
 just of sufficient size, and the pipes running along the streets 
 of just sufficient calibre to supply the existing wants of the 
 community. And on the other hand, if the town or city has 
 an extensive trade in commerce or manufactures, it is ob- 
 viously better to construct the works, leaving a wide margin 
 for extension, in such places as London, Newcastle, Glasgow, 
 Birmingham, New York, San Francisco, Melbourne, &c. 
 
86 
 
 To proceed with our illustration, the Melbourne gas works, 
 it is determined to construct them of the following sizes and 
 capabilities: — there are to be 120 retorts, each retort to pro- 
 duce, when working, 4500 feet of gas per day, that is — it 
 will carbonize 10 cwt. of Newcastle coal, which produces on 
 an average 9000 feet of gas per ton. We therefore multiply 
 the 4500 by 120, and find that the total quantity of gas pro- 
 duced by the whole number will be 540,000 cubic feet. This 
 quantity, when consvimed at the rate of 5 feet per hoiu-, will 
 afford a light equal to that derived from 1,512,000 sperm 
 candles, consuming at the rate of 120 grains per hour. I 
 find that the total illuminating power of the gas, obtained 
 from sixty tons of a^'erage coal, is equal to that obtained 
 from 10 tons 16 cwt. 1 qr. 20 lbs. of sperm candles, and the 
 relative cost of the same at the present market price of 
 2s. 6d. per pound ; and say gas, as charged in the city of 
 Springfield, United States, at 6 dollars per 1000 cubic feet; 
 it is 7 dollars or 29s. 2d. per 1000 in Augusta, United States, 
 stands thus : — ■ 
 
 24,240 lbs. sperm candles, at 2s. 6d. ... £30.30 
 540,000 feet of gas, at 25s 675 
 
 £2355 
 
 or gas has the advantage of being nearly four and a half 
 times cheaper than sperm candles, giving equal amounts of 
 light. 
 
 Having now stated to you the capabilities for making gas, 
 as far as quantity is concerned, I will now endeavoiu" to show 
 liow the operation is carried on. 
 
 Let us take one retort, which I must beg you to under- 
 stand is a cast iron or clay vessel of about nine feet in length 
 and fourteen inches in diameter, open at one end. This re- 
 tort is fixed above a furnace, and simply shielded from the 
 
87 
 
 intense heat of the fire by thin slabs of fire brick ; this is 
 necessary in order that the iron retorts may not be melted. 
 Suppose the fire underneath to be kindled, it is gradually fed 
 by coal or coke for two or three days, care been taken not to 
 get the heat up too suddenly until the colour of the heated 
 retort above presents the appearance of a bright clierry red ; 
 the retort is completely enveloped in brick work, with the 
 exception of the mouth piece, spy holes are left in the front 
 in order that the fireman may look in from time to time and 
 examine the colour. As soon as it assumes the colour above 
 mentioned, a charge of coals varying in weight from 150 to 
 250 lbs. are expeditiously thrown into the retort, and the 
 open end is immediately covered over by a door which is luted 
 with clay or lime mixed up into a paste-lilie consistency, so 
 as to effectually prevent the gas escaping from the mouth of 
 the retort. The closing of the mouth also effects another 
 object, viz., the exclusion of the atmosphere, without which 
 no combustion can take place. 
 
 The coals now fastened securely witliin the retort are 
 immediately subjected to the heat of the red hot retort, and 
 the smoke or gas in its first stage commences to rise in the 
 ascension pipes, towards the hydraulic main, in which their 
 ends dip a few inches below the level of the water. The 
 hydraulic main being a cast iron cistern half full of water, 
 in which the gas, as it forces its way through, deposits the 
 major part of its ammonia and tar ; the gas partially purified 
 immediately ascends through the top of the hydraulic main, 
 and is forced away by the pressure of the gas generating in 
 the retort below, in conjunction with its own specific gravity, 
 into what is called the condensers, which are a series of 
 upright pipes, in which the gas ascends and descends, thereby 
 cooling and condensing. Each time the pipe reaches the 
 bottom of the cistern it also dips into water, and so washes 
 and purifies the gas still more, while its condensation causes 
 
88 
 
 it to precipitate some of the impurities still left after passing 
 the hydraulic main. The gas^ after being so washed and 
 cooled, has deposited aU the tar and most of the ammonia, 
 which was held in suspension, but it still possesses further 
 impurities, namely, sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen, in 
 order to get rid of which it has to pass through the dry and 
 wet lime purifiers. These are vessels containing a solution 
 of lime in the one case, and moist lime in the other. The 
 lime, having a strong aifinity for sulphur, the gas, in coming 
 into active contact with it is robbed of this, its last impurity, 
 and then passes away to the metre, to measure its quantity, 
 before passing into the gas holder : I say measure it — as it 
 passes into a vessel divided into several compartments, and 
 half immersed in water, in passing through which it causes 
 the cylinder to revolve, and thereby gives motion to a piece 
 of mechanism, which accurately registers any quantity passing 
 through it, from one foot to one hundred million feet. After 
 leaving the gas metre, or station metre, as it is called in 
 contradistinction to the other metres used by the consumers, 
 the gas passes away to the gas holder ; this is the storehouse in 
 which it is kept as it is made during the day, ready for the 
 night consumption. Such storehouse is necessary for this 
 reason, that as the gas is made at all hours, and the demand 
 only occurs for about an average of 6.\e hours, it is therefore 
 necessary to store that quantity made during the nineteen 
 hours of the day. At Melbourne, the gas tank wiU be a 
 vessel of cast iron, twenty-one feet deep by eighty-one in 
 diameter, and possessing storage room for about three thousand 
 three hundred tons of water, with which it will be filled ; the 
 gas holder floats in the water, and contains above one hundred 
 thousand feet of gas when fuU. We have now traced its 
 mode of manufacture from the retort where the coal is 
 carbonized and the gas generated, until it passes the hydraulic 
 main, there leaving a deposit of tar and ammoniacal liquor, 
 
89 
 
 from thence to the condensers, where it is cooled and further 
 robbed of its impurities ; from thence again to the wet and 
 dry lime purifiers, in which any quantity of sulphur it may 
 contain is abstracted ; then it passes away from these to the 
 station metre, to register the quantity made ; and lastly, to 
 the gas-holder or store-room, in readiness for use. Before 
 leaving this part of the subject, I may mention that there 
 are three things of importance in the manufacture of gas, to 
 each of which especial attention must be paid — ^namely, the 
 quantity, quality, and cost. Gras, of course, is manufactured 
 by a company, for a two-fold object — ^to supply a great public 
 want, and to afford a fair return of interest for moneys 
 expended, or profit under good guidance to the producers. In 
 order that it may do so, attention must be paid first to its 
 quahty, seeing that it contains no impurities ; secondly, to 
 the quantity produced from each ton of coals, that any waste 
 by careless workmen may be checked; and thirdly, to its 
 cost in production, that the company may be remunerated 
 for their outlay. 
 
 The qualities of gas are not a mere matter of opinion, but, 
 on the contrary, are based upon scientific foundations, and by 
 the aid of chemistry are rendered evident to the senses. In 
 order to detect the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen in the 
 gas, a piece of common writing paper is moistened by a 
 solution of acetate of lead — perhaps better known to you as 
 sugar of lead — this held over a jet of gas will indicate the 
 presence of sulphuretted hydrogen by turning black. The 
 test for ammonia, which is an alkali, is indicated in a similar 
 manner by either yellow turmeric, or litmus paper, first 
 reddened by vinegar or any other weak acid. If the gas 
 contains ammonia it restores the turmeric and litmus papers 
 to their original yellow and blue colours ; if it is free from 
 that impurity the red colour of the changed paper remains 
 unaffected. Again, in like manner, the presence of carbonic 
 
90 
 
 acid gas or any combination of sulphuric acid is determined 
 by the blue tincture of litmus paper being changed into red. 
 
 By these means gas, in each stage of its manufacture, may 
 be tested, and the papers used by the foreman are daily filed, 
 for the inspection and approval of the engineer and manager, 
 who preserves the same as a record of what has been done 
 on that particular day. Next comes the quantity from each 
 ton of coals. This is easily determined by the aid of the 
 station metre, in this way : We will suppose that sixty 
 retorts are at work, containing each exactly two cwt., or six 
 tons in all, and that the station metre indicates 1,500,000 feet 
 of gas ; if, after the duration of six hours, we find that the 
 retorts have ceased working, and that the index of the station 
 metre is at 1,554,800, we then subtract the less from the 
 greater, Avhich leaves us 54,800 feet from six tons, or a little 
 over 9,000 feet per ton. But this quantity depends entirely 
 upon the quality of the coal used, some specimens giving as 
 low as 6,500 feet per ton, others as many as 15,000 feet. 
 
 Next in order comes the cost, an important item to the 
 company, next to the quality. I say next to the quality ; for if 
 they do not manufacture a good article, no one will purchase. 
 
 The cost of the gas is determined in this manner : — Take 
 the last instance of 54,800 feet from six tons of Scotch 
 cannel and English gas coal. As these coals will come from 
 the British isles the cost will be say, delivered, £6 per ton ; 
 therefore, six tons costs £.36 ; to which add cost of coal for 
 carbonizing, workmen's wages, officers' salaries, a proportional 
 share of the interest of the capital invested, and an allowance 
 for wear and tear of retorts, and a contingent fund, at the 
 same time giving credit for the residuary products from the 
 distillation of the coal, such as the coke and coal tar, and the 
 salts of anmionla, &c., &c. After subtracting their value, 
 (which is simply what they will sell for,) from the above, it 
 will leave, when divided by fifty-four, the selling price of 
 1 ,000 feet of gas. 
 
91 
 
 Having now ascertained the cost per 1,000 feet to the 
 consumer, we now come, in the third place, to the mode of 
 distribution to the various locahties where required. One or 
 more large pipes are laid down from the gas-holder, along the 
 principal approaches to towns or cities, or in the main streets 
 thereof. The size of the main pipe laid down from the 
 Melbourne works along Flinders-street is twenty-four inches 
 in internal diameter, and will discharge 160,000 feet per 
 hour, thus leaving a wide margin for the future, and, I may 
 say, certain extension of Melbourne. Here I may at 
 once settle a question that has been discussed pretty freely, 
 as to whether the pipes are large enough for even the 
 present city and suburbs, by stating that the main here 
 described is of sufficient size to discharge, under a moderate 
 pressure, twice as much gas as would supply the present 
 cities and towns of Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and 
 Geelong; being five and three-fourths times as large as 
 those employed to light the city of Amsterdam, with a 
 population of 202,000, and nine times as large as those in 
 Sydney. As soon as this pipe passes the entrance to King- 
 street, a branch pipe, suitable in size for the wants of 
 that street, always bearing in mind the chances of its 
 extension, is laid down, and from which the west end of the 
 city and Hotham Ward will eventually be supplied ; and so 
 on with all the other streets and suburbs of the city. When 
 a street intersects or opens upon a lane, small branch pipes 
 are laid on, in order to supply residents there, or any public 
 lamps that may be required. Supposing that all the streets 
 are supplied with pipes, it is expected that the sanitary 
 commissioners or lighting committee will at once proceed to 
 erect a suitable number of lamps in the city and the suburbs. 
 These lamps are placed generally in well-lighted cities at 
 about thirty-three yards from each other, and seldom vary, 
 unless by their doing so they can bring a lamp to the end of 
 another street or lane, where it may diffuse its light and 
 
92 
 
 perform the duty of two distinct lamps, at the cost of one. 
 The City Council intend to light the public streets and 
 thoroughfares of Melbourne with about 2,000 lamps, 1,000 
 of which are intended to be fixed first at average distances 
 of say seventy yards, leaving space for the introduction of 
 1,000 more subsequently, without altering those already 
 fixed. This is a better arrangement than to light half the 
 city first, and cannot fail to give satisfaction, as it provides 
 for a general diffusion of light amongst those who are taxed 
 to pay for it, rather than the monopoly by one part of the 
 city at the expense of the other. The other public purposes 
 that gas is generally applied to are the lighting of churches, 
 chapels, &c., &c. ; one of great utility, namely, that of 
 illuminating dials of steeple and other clocks, thus allowing 
 to be seen 
 
 " How steals the march of time away, 
 By night as well as broad noon day." 
 
 (To be continued.) 
 
 XI. 
 PHONETICS 
 
 BY W. CLAESON, ESQ. 
 
 Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen. — The paper I have 
 to read before you this evening is upon the phonetic repre- 
 
93 
 
 sentatiou of language, as developed in phonography, or 
 writing by sound; and phonotypy, or printing by sound. 
 
 On introducing this subject to the notice of the members 
 of the Victorian Institute, I can but wish some person had 
 the task better able to do justice to its simple yet philosophic 
 beauty. My chief object is, that any who may feel desirous 
 of paying attention to the matter, may have an opportunity 
 of doing so ; that a section be formed for such purpose, and 
 thus one of the primary objects in the establishment of this 
 Institute be brought to bear. 
 
 My observations wiU necessarily be brief, and of a frag- 
 mentary character ; and doubtless, those here who understand 
 the subject, will feel that much, very much, more might have 
 been said in favour of the system. Still, I hope to make all 
 tolerably well acquainted with the principle upon which it is 
 proposed to reform our orthography, and perhaps excite the 
 interest or curiosity of some to know more of it. 
 
 Phonographers have no new tale to relate. They must still 
 reiterate the tale of their fellows for the last seventeen years ; 
 and, indeed, what hosts of great and good men before them 
 have laboured to lay before the world. The same incon- 
 sistencies and absurdities in our orthography are manifest, and 
 the want of some more efficient mode of communicating 
 thought to paper is increasingly felt. 
 
 We live in an age, the chief characteristics of which, is 
 the universal desire for advancement. Satisfied with nothing, 
 man in his search after truth, leaves no stone unturned while 
 a chance of discovery remains. Yet, though we live and 
 rejoice in the light of modern science ; though our hearts are 
 warmed within us, as by means of correspondence and books, 
 we commune with the distant loved one and the mighty dead, 
 with pain we are reminded that in the land of our birth, 
 England, social, joyous England, there are millions who have 
 not this light ; who are shut out by the circumstances of their 
 birth, or the condition of society, from the chief blessing of 
 civilized life — power to read and write. 
 
94 
 
 We learn from the reports furnished by the Registrar- 
 General, that ten out of every thirty-two men, and ten out 
 of every twenty-two women ; or, dropping the inconsiderable 
 fraction, one man in three, and one woman in two, throughout 
 the country are unable to write their names ; we, moreover, 
 learn that five of the sixteen millions of people in England 
 and Wales cannot read ! This is a startling fact, and any 
 system which professes to be a remedy for an evil of such 
 magnitude, assuredly demands the calm consideration of every 
 man who is a lover of human progress. 
 
 Why is England thus o'ershadowed by a cloud of ignorance 
 after the grand efforts made to educate the people during the 
 last century ? How is it, that with the united efforts of the 
 Sunday, National, British and Foreign, and other School 
 Societies, so little has been accomplished, considering the 
 vast field open for their labours ? We answer, it is because 
 " it is impossible for any one to read till he has charged his 
 memory with the pronunciation of at least ten thousand 
 words, and has so accustomed himself to the look of each, 
 that he can at any time recall its propier sound in spite of its 
 spelling, which would lead him to pronounce it in some 
 other Avay ; and because no one can Avrite till he has com- 
 mitted to memory the orthography of at least ten thousand 
 words, so that he can at any time recall the several letters he 
 must write for each word, in spite of the sound of such word, 
 which would lead him to spell it in some other way !" Am I 
 asked for proof of tliis assertion 'i It is found in every sen- 
 tence of English whicli is spoken, written, or printed. 
 
 I would not be thought to consider the mere power to read 
 and write, education. Far from it. A person who can read 
 I imagine, has no greater claim to be considered educated, 
 than one who can draw a chalk line has to be considered 
 an artist. Reading and writing are the means of education. 
 They are, in fact, artificial modes of hearing and speaking. 
 It is absurd that the attainment of mere reading, the power 
 
95 
 
 to hear, as it were, the instruction of books, should require 
 years of application, consuming valuable time, which pro- 
 perly, should be spent in the acquisition of useful knowledge; 
 yet, so great is the difficulty of acquiring reading, that not 
 a sixth part of the chilrden that attend our public schools 
 acquire the ability to read with ease and correctness; and 
 probably one-half leave school and are absorbed into the 
 labouring community of the country, not being able to read 
 at all. It is indeed a pure farce to vote for national education, 
 while the power to read and write is unattainable, as is the 
 case with the majority, in the period they are able to command 
 for school education. 
 
 All the difficulties experienced in learning to read, is due 
 to the absurd and lawless use of letters in the spelling of 
 words, for, in only one word in a thousand, do the letters 
 point out the true pronunciation, consequently there is no 
 way of mastering the art of reading on the usual plan, but 
 by getting "off by heart" the thousands of words comprised 
 in the English language. 
 
 The following graphic expose of the absurdities of English 
 orthography is from the pen of Hart, a writer of the sixteenth 
 century, a forerunner of the present orthographic reform, 
 who excited no little merriment in his day for offering a 
 remedy for the evil. There are some people, in the present 
 day, who laugh at phonetic spelling, but it is from ignorance, 
 or an aversion to any thing in the shape of reform, and they 
 generally fail to enlist the sympathies of thoughtful men. 
 
 " And now, the better to call to remembrance 'the principal parts and 
 effect of that which hath been said, I will use this allegory, and compare 
 the lively body of our pronunciation, which reason biddeth the writer 
 to paint and counterfeit with letters, unto a man which would command 
 an indiscreet painter to portray his figure, as thus ; naming the man 
 iEsop ; who, coming to a painter, saith,— ' Friend, I would have thee to 
 counterfeit the quantity and quality of my body and apparel, by thy 
 craft ; so lively as those men which have even now seen me, may know 
 (whensoever they may see it hereafter,) that the same is made to repre- 
 
96 
 
 Bent me unto them, as I now am.' The painter answereth, — ' Sir, stand 
 
 you there, and I shall do it as I used to do others, and as all the painters 
 
 of this country are ascustomed to do.' j^sop : ' How is ^ Dlmination. 
 
 that ?' The painter answereth, — ' Though you wear hose 
 
 and shoes, your figure shall need none. But it shall 2. Superfluity for 
 ^ •' ° Derivation. 
 
 therefore have painted other apparel, by a third more 
 
 than you wear; and upon every several piece I mark and 
 
 write the country's name whence it came. And because 
 
 your clothes, as well the cloth as the fur and silli, are of one colour, I 
 
 will make them to be better seen, of divers colours. I 
 
 will also write on your forehead your father's and mother's Etymology. 
 
 name, that men may see of what stock you are come. 
 
 Whereas in some countries painters do use to make the Length ofvoweu. 
 
 nose of like quantity to that in the body, we set others at p^^ shortness 
 
 the ends of them. And for making the littleness of the "l^ubie^' Coim- 
 
 eyes, we make the compass of the head greater than the """"■ 
 
 natural, and double the eyebrows. Then, in the place of 3- Usurpation of 
 
 ' -^ ^ power, 
 
 ears, we do use to paint eyes. And last of all, I will . . . 
 
 change the middle fingers and thumbs to others' places.' 
 The Painter : ' How like you this ? Will it not do well ?' ^sop : 
 ' Yes ; but I would fain know for what purpose, and the reason where- 
 fore you would do this.'' The Painter : 'Because the painters of this 
 country, for time out of mind, have used the like, and we continue 
 therein ; and because it is so commonly received as it is, no man needeth 
 to correct it.' A good answer. Now leave we them, and I demand the 
 maintainers of such painters of our pronunciation, if they had forty or 
 more of such portraitures drawn, shaped, and coloured, of their afore- 
 said friend; and those same set upon the pillars of Paul's Church, who 
 should be able to know (but they themselves, being daily used in naming 
 them,) which should be for the one, and which for the other. For they 
 should not half so well represent them as should the well-proportioned 
 figures of so many skipping babians, apes, marmoset or monkeys, and 
 dancing dogs or bears." 
 
 Hart's ludicrous Illustration of the portraiture of spoken 
 languages in the sixteenth century is true in the last parti- 
 cular of our present representation ; indeed, its state is far 
 worse now than then, and every year its tendency to the 
 hieroglyphic type is more apparent. 
 
97 
 
 It may be well to examine for a moment the principal 
 causes which have brought about this unsatisfactory state ; it 
 wUl be necessary briefly to run through the history of the 
 art of transmitting the symbols of ideas, as well as the 
 progress made in the art of perfecting those symbols. 
 
 In the earliest ages, when the requirements of man were 
 comparatively few, the swiftest runners were selected to 
 convey a message; fire signals were also used for many 
 centuries ; subsequently the roeket system, and more recently 
 stUl, the semaphore; last, and greater than all, the electric 
 telegraph. In the former contrivances the signification had 
 to be pre-determined, and only thus far could they be made 
 available ; but with the electric telegraph no pre-arrangement 
 is necessary ; indeed, we are quite justified in thinking, that 
 in this, at least, we have attained perfection. Certainly, we 
 cannot conceive a quicker mode, and it is admirably free fi-om 
 the incumbrances which attended aU former contrivances. 
 How vast, then, have been the improvements made in the 
 art of transmitting symbols of ideas — from the courier to the 
 electric current ! 
 
 Let us now glance for a moment at what has been done 
 towards improving the symbols themselves. 
 
 There can be no doubt that in the remotest times the 
 representation of language was hieroglyphic, that is, it was 
 composed of a series of thought pictures, or, as it were, 
 portraits of ideas. A sign was required for every distinct 
 idea. As men thought more and poirrtrayed their thoughts, 
 so these symbols increased, until they became too numerous 
 for the memory to retain. 
 
 It is impossible to give the exact date of the invention of 
 the alphabetic system of writing ; but we learn from history 
 that the Egyptian priests knew both the hieroglyphic and 
 alphabetic modes; and moreover, we learn that they kept 
 the secrets of their caste and creed in the former because of 
 the great difficulty of acquiring and retaining it in memory. 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 Nevertheless, the introduction of alphabetic writing forms no 
 insignificant era in the world's history. The inventor happily- 
 subjected language to a careful analysis, and found it to 
 consist of simple vocal sounds, which, though admitting of 
 infinite combination, were, in their radical elements, surpris- 
 ingly few. This discovery formed the basis of his system. 
 These vocal utterances required only representative forms, 
 which he doubtless selected from the numerous figures or 
 thought-pictures he had been accustomed to write. Of 
 course, the simplicity of the sign could not then be any 
 object ; it was sufficient that it suited admirably the require- 
 ments of the age — ^perfection was not to be expected. 
 
 The Phoenicians, Hellenes, and Egyptians, all used the 
 same characters. The Greeks obtained theu" alphabet from 
 the Phoenicians. The Latins adopted theirs from the Greeks. 
 The northern conquerors of Rome took as spoil the letters 
 of the vanquished, and, with but trifling alteration, adapted 
 them to represent their numerous tongues. Thus, any 
 original errors which there may have been were transmitted 
 from nation to nation, and from generation to generation ; 
 and numerous are the defects from omissions and alterations. 
 
 The result is before us ; modern English is considerably 
 less scientific — less true to the alphabetic theory upon which 
 it is professedly based than the ancient Phoenician. 
 
 Great as has been the progress made in the art of trans- 
 mitting symbols of ideas, we cannot but note a retrograde 
 movement in the perfecting of the symbols themselves. 
 
 Various schemes and systems have been proposed whereby 
 to arrest the backward tendency ; but they have feU far short 
 of the mark, from their want of scientific basis. 
 
 The inventor of phonography happily reverted to the 
 original idea of the inventor of alphabetic writing. He 
 sought the elementary sounds and gave to them appropriate 
 representatives. Thus its foundation is eminently scientific 
 and simple. The phonetic alphabet contains as many marks 
 
99 
 
 or signs as there are elementary sounds in the English lan- 
 guage. In this it varies from the old Latin or Romanic al- 
 phabet hitherto used, which provides no signs for' many 
 sounds, and the letters it contains are not always used to 
 represent the same sounds. 
 
 It will be observed that nearly all the letters of the Pho- 
 netic alphabet are arranged in pairs, one letter of each pair 
 being represented by a light sign, the other by a corresponding 
 heavy one. The difference between the two letters of each 
 pair of vowels is in length or duration. There are six pure 
 vowels, — e, a, ah, au, o, oo, with their light sounds, as in fit, 
 met, bat, not, nut, and foot. Of these all other sounds in 
 the English are compounded. — (See Plate.) 
 
 The difference in the letters forming each pair of conso- 
 nants is, that the first is a thin or light articulation, and the 
 second a thick or heavy one. These letters are consistently 
 represented by thin and thick dots and strokes. Many per- 
 sons, who are not acquainted with phonography, think that 
 light and heavy strokes are not easily made in rapid writing; 
 but the experience of thousands of persons, many of whom 
 have written the system for years, proves that the slight dif- 
 ference necessary to distinguish the one from the other, is 
 made without any perceptible effort, the heavy strokes being 
 traced by the hand with as much facility as their corresponding 
 heavy sounds are produced by the various organs of speech. 
 
 Such then is the Phonetic alphabet, such is the alphabet 
 of nature, which, we believe, sooner or later, men will see 
 necessary to adopt. The years of toil spent in teaching and 
 acquiring the art of reading would be lessened to a few 
 weeks, and there would be no longer a danger, as there now 
 is, of creating a distaste and positive aversion to study. That 
 which is now a severe task would become a source of im- 
 perishable pleasure. 
 
 In conclusion, Mr. Chairman and Grentlemen, I would re- 
 mark that there are many points of interest which should 
 
100 
 
 have been noticed, but whicli were beyond the limits of a 
 paper of this description. It is sufficient that the system 
 harmonises in all its parts, and from whatever point of view, 
 it presents simplicity as its beauty, and commends itself to 
 our notice by its beautiful adaptation to our wants. I would 
 call particular attention to the general truths laid down in 
 this paper, for beyond them there is but little difficulty. 
 
 Every portion of the system is so reduced to certain and 
 easily understood principles, that the perception of one part 
 necessarily leads to the attainment of the rest. I shall be 
 happy to furnish any information I am able, and should any 
 member wish to obtain works treating of phonetics, I shall 
 be pleased to lend any I have in my possession. 
 
 XII. 
 ON THE TIMBER OF THE COLONY. 
 
 BY GEOEGE HOLMES, ESQ. 
 
 READ MAY 3, 1855. 
 
 In the greater portion of the habitable world timber is the 
 most valuable part of the vegetable creatibn ; the inexhausti- 
 ble supply of wood in almost every country has been made 
 use of by mankind from the earliest period of his exist- 
 ence. 
 
101 
 
 It may be presumed it was first used as firewood ; and in 
 the erection of huts, implements of husbandry and warfare, 
 as may be seen in clubs, bows, arrows, boomerangs, spears, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 Growing trees are supposed by naturalists to have the same 
 extent of surface occupied by roots as the branches above, 
 but this is as yet not decided. 
 
 All proper wood possesses two sets of fibres, in which the 
 growth of the plant is perfected. 
 
 The medullar or horizontal rays radiate from the centre or 
 pith of the tree to the outer bark ; most fibres are smaller 
 and closer as they proceed externally. Consequently more 
 dense, from the tubes being smaller than in the inner portion. 
 
 The vertical fibres and the medullary rays are intermingled 
 in some timbers closely and uniformly ; which together form 
 collectively the substance of the wood, with the cells running 
 amidst the fibres. 
 
 A portion of these vessels or cells are employed iu carrying 
 food from the roots to the leaves or mouths of the plants ; 
 when digested the fluid returns through the outer cells, near 
 the bark, and combinates with the matter in the external 
 layers of the wood, and mostly becomes consolidated, and 
 forms the new ring, in addition to a portion of the bark; 
 annually, the remainder returns to the earth as excretion. 
 The last or colouring process, is supposed to be the decompo- 
 sition of gum, or resinous fluid, throughout the medullary 
 rays, towards the centre, where it leaves its contents, forming 
 the first ring. 
 
 The multiplicity of fibres constitute the chief difference 
 between hard and soft wood, as also its specific gravity. 
 
 Flexibility in various woods, caused by the distances 
 between the vertical and horizontal fibres — if long, vertically, 
 the wood is tough ; if short, the result is the reverse — the 
 beech is an example of the latter sort. 
 
 The most elastic woods are those whose fibres are less 
 
102 
 
 intermixed with horizontal rays, and free from knots, such aa 
 lancewood, hickory, ash, &c., &c. 
 
 Cross-grained timbers have the rays irregular and sometimes 
 diagonally, such as the elm, maple, lignumvitae, &c. 
 
 By the preceding data one is enabled to form a pretty cor- 
 rect idea of the value of wood, and the purposes for which 
 each variety is best adapted. 
 
 The woods of this colony, generally belong to the harder 
 and tougher sorts, with some exceptions. 
 
 A few of the trees most familiar to us. — The 
 
 Blue Gum . (Eucalyptus Rolusta). 
 Stringy Bark ( „ Faborum.) 
 
 Flooded Gum ( „ Goniscalyx). 
 
 Red Gum ( Cantho-carpies) 
 
 and boxwood are used for many purposes where strength, 
 durabihty, and size are necessary. Red and blue gum wood 
 are much used in ship building, and generally in public works, 
 such as railways, bridges, piles, by coach builders and manu- 
 facturers of agricultural implements. 
 
 The stringy bark is not so valuable a timber for these 
 works, being lighter and more hable to warp and split; still 
 its immense size and straight grain renders it very useful 
 where long piles are necessary, as also for trenails and a 
 variety of other purposes. 
 
 The above timbers are a good substitute for the oak, ehn, 
 ash, and hickory of the old world. 
 
 I am not aware of any experiments as to the relative 
 strengths of timber grown in Australia, except in one in- 
 stance where iron bark is tested with English oak. The 
 proportion is 1000 : 1557, which gives a result of fifty per 
 cent, to the iron bark, and makes it so much prized for 
 spokes and felloes by coach builders and carpenters. 
 
 Some of these timbers are imported to Europe, but the 
 purposes to which they are applied seems strange ; for in- 
 
103 
 
 stance, in making ramrods and handles for surgical instru- 
 ments and artizans' tools. 
 
 These woods are valuable now, and wlU be still more so 
 when the "iron horse" snorts through the primeval forest. 
 
 There is one important characteristic connected with most 
 of the hard wood grown here, and in other countries where 
 the hot winds rush over. 
 
 These timbers when placed in works are much more liable 
 to contraction longitudinally than European wood, therefore 
 it behoves engineers, architects, and builders, to make calcu- 
 lations accordingly. I have myself seen one-half an inch 
 contraction in a piece of timber eight inches square by ten 
 feet long. 
 
 Cedar (Cedralis Australis) is too well known to require 
 description. Almost every block of houses in Melbourne 
 can show to what purposes it is applied, both in the shape of 
 furniture and in-door fittings, &c., &c. 
 
 Most of the above woods are in Europe called Botany Bay 
 beef wood by the mechanics and men who use them. 
 
 Other colonial woods are very important, where their 
 use becomes known to us. These woods are not of such im- 
 mense growth nor so numerous as the before-mentioned. 
 Black Wood, (Accasia Melunoxylin.) 
 
 Botany Bay rosewood is a very valuable and beautiful 
 wood; used in the manufacture of the finest furniture 
 fittings, decorations, &c. 
 
 He Oak, (^Casurina quadrivalvisJ) 
 She Oak, ( " equaalifolia), and others. 
 Woods of smaller dimensions, equally beautiful, being capable 
 of receiving a fine polish, or formed in the hands of an artist 
 to the beauteous forms by which wealth and luxury are 
 surrounded ; while at present a few specimens may be occa- 
 sionally seen in the hands of a turner, and now and then in 
 a small piece of cabinet-work. 
 
 There are other woods valuable, not yet brought into 
 
104 
 
 much notice^ such as the honeysuckle, {Bunksia Australis), 
 and woods of the same class, which require an investigation 
 above what is here intended. But it may be seen by reference 
 to the Sydney Exhibition Catalogue. It is shown there are 
 245 varieties of native woods, collected from the southern 
 districts. Of these — 
 
 22 produce excellent hard wood 
 
 12 " wood suitable for turning. 
 
 16 " wood of considerable variety for cabinet-making. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION, AND SOME 
 MINOR DETAILS OF MANIPULATION. 
 
 BY WILLIAM SYDNEY GIBBONS. 
 
 READ MAY 3, 1855. 
 
 Important and interesting as doubtless all will admit the 
 study of micrography to be, some apology may appear neces- 
 sary for the selection of a subject so limited in its interest as 
 that I have chosen for the present paper. The details I have 
 to communicate are so apparently trivial, that few, but those 
 who are engaged in the prosecution of microscopic investi- 
 gation, will be likely to enter into them with me. They are 
 merely points of manipulation — the results of my own expe- 
 
105 
 
 rience, and only mentioned inasmuch as they diflPer from the 
 operations of others. It frequently happens in a place like 
 this colony, where the ordinary appliances of science are of 
 difficult attainment, that the student has to resort to expe- 
 dients varying somewhat from the routine of English and 
 Foreign observers. It is chiefly of such expedients and of 
 the peculiar contrivances for mounting microscopic prepa- 
 rations which have from time to time occurred to me that I 
 have now to speak. 
 
 To introduce and recommend the study of Microscopy or 
 Micrography to those who have not hitherto entered upon it, 
 I may be allowed to make a few observations as to its value 
 and importance, and as to the modes in which the present 
 may be followed. As the use of the microscope and the arts 
 of preparation are much better set forth in the valuable text- 
 books of Quekett, Hogg, Pritchard, and others, than I can 
 hope to do in a casual paper, I do not propose to enter at any 
 length into general descriptions. The microscope, formerly 
 popularly regarded only as a costly philosophical toy, and 
 used by scientific men only for purposes of limited and per- 
 haps questionable importance, has of late years become the 
 inseparable companion of the investigator of almost every 
 branch of science. 
 
 Not a single department of natural history, taking that 
 title in its widest sense, is independent of the microscope. 
 By its aid the geologist discovers traces of old organisms, 
 which, without it, must have remained sealed ; he employs it 
 in his search for coal and for the estimation of its value 
 when found. The mineralogist is frequently indebted to it 
 for the comparison of crystals and the examination of mine- 
 rals generally. Its uses to the zoologist are beyond enume- 
 ration ; the structures of bones and teeth have alone sufficed 
 to refer a fragmentary fossil to its proper position in the scale 
 of nature ; a knowledge of the varied organisms of the other 
 animals has often served to distinguish them, when necessary, 
 
106 
 
 from each other, and from those of man. The botanist would 
 be totally at a loss without the means of examining the form 
 and arrangement of the minuter parts of plants ; he needs 
 also to identify woods, to compare recent with fossil plants, 
 and to determine a multitude of points that have entered in 
 a commercial as well as scientific point of view. The chemist 
 uses his microscope to examine the results of minute analyses, 
 to watch changes that follow the use of re-agents, and to fol- 
 low out successfully the study of crystallography and inor- 
 ganic structure. In medical practice occasions for the use of 
 the microscope are of constant occurrence; and the study of 
 anatomy, physiology, and pathology, would be incomplete 
 without recourse to it. The different appearances presented 
 by portions of the animal economy under various conditions 
 of health and disease, the indications afforded by the se- 
 cretions, the fluctuating characteristics of the blood itself, 
 and the evidences which diagnoses based on these observa- 
 tions will afford of the treatment and remedies which the 
 system requires, are among the uses of the microscope to the 
 medical man. And in cases in which a life has depended 
 upon its decision, it has frequently been enabled to pronounce 
 with absolixte certainty upon the guilt or innocence of a 
 prisoner charged with a capital offence. Harvey's great dis- 
 covery of the circulation of the blood received conclusive 
 support from the observations of Malpighi who first witnessed 
 the beautiful phenomenon. 
 
 By the microscope the purity of many articles used in food 
 and medicine, and the genuineness of textile fibres and of 
 materials, and in the arts, may frequently be tested, and 
 adulteration or substitution detected. The commission insti- 
 tuted by the Lancet, for the purpose of examining several 
 articles of extensive domestic use, frequently rehed entirely 
 on the observation of form and structure. The farinaj of 
 different plants may be distinguished by the peculiari- 
 ties of the starch grains ; drugs, upon the purity of which 
 
107 
 
 so miicli of OTir health depends, are amenable to the same 
 test ; in short, greater difficulty would be found in selecting 
 a subject of study in which the aid of microscopy is not valu- 
 able than in enumerating its varied applications. I have se- 
 lected for the inspection of the members present a number 
 of objects illustrative of the preceding observations, and it 
 will be a source of great gratulation to me if I succeed in 
 alluring to this most fascinating and useful pursuit any of 
 my hearers. 
 
 A brief notice of the ordinary mode in which objects are 
 prepared for observation and preservation, wUl serve to ex- 
 plain the comparatively trivial details that have suggested 
 the writing of the present paper. It is of the first necessity 
 that the delicate structures be securely protected from injury. 
 This is generally effected by enclosing them between two 
 plates of glass. The mode in which they are so mounted 
 varies with the nature of the' object, and the practice of the 
 operator. Opaque objects are frequently mounted dry, and 
 without covering. The best mode of mounting for these is 
 to attach them to a dark ground on glass slips of standard 
 size. Professor Quekett and other writers have recommended 
 various forms of cell for this purpose; the use of small pill 
 boxes presents the advantage of the protection which the 
 covers afford. In the absence of these I have made a very 
 useful cell of millboard. I punch in a sheet of millboard a 
 series of holes of the size of the inside of the intended ceU ; 
 I then paste a sheet of stout paper on one side of the sheet, 
 and paint the whole with a pigment composed of lampblack 
 and size, which I find of constant use : when the whole is 
 dry I cut out the cells with a large punch. 
 
 Cells made in this way are readily and cheaply obtained, 
 the materials are always at hand, and they answer for various 
 kinds of objects. For those which it is intended to show by 
 reflected light, they need no further preparation; they are 
 simply gummed to the glass flat, and the object is attached 
 
108 
 
 to the bottom by the same cement. They have also this ad- 
 vantage — that they may be made of any required depth, and, 
 if desired, a certain portion of one side may be cut away to 
 admit a greater amount of light on any one part of the ob- 
 ject, while the general protection remains ; they inay also be 
 made of any size and form that is desired. If the black pig- 
 ment be made with strong size, the cells will be impervious 
 to balsam and oily fluids, if not to spirit, and the substitution 
 of varnish for size will qualify them for the reception of the 
 other preservative fluids. The covers may then be attached 
 by means of gold size or any other of the usual cements. 
 
 The use of gold size presents so many advantages that I 
 prefer it in all cases where it is admissible. I flnd it advan- 
 tageous to paint the rims of the cells with gold size some 
 time before using them, and to allow them to dry ; this pro- 
 ceeding greatly facilitates the attachment of the cover, a 
 matter of some importance when mounting in fluid : it also 
 very much lessens the risk of the gold size escaping into the 
 ceU. I have also made some excellent cells of gutta percha 
 and lead, which I submit for the inspection of the meeting. 
 I anticipate being able to make some cells on Darker's plan 
 out of the latter material by means of dies. To make built 
 cells and troughs I generally use Canada balsam, and employ 
 a rather high degree of heat to give it a good hold of the glass. 
 I have troughs made in this way that have lasted for years. 
 
 For cutting the slips of glass, or flats, as they are techni- 
 cally termed, I find it convenient in the absence of a cutting 
 board (and I am not sure that it is not the better plan) to 
 rule a sheet of paper with lines dividing the whole surface 
 at compartments of the required size ; by this plan glass of 
 irregular form may be worked up with great exactness. 
 While on the subject of glass cutting, which, trivial as it 
 may appear, is of no small importance, especially as we have 
 no Ross or Topping to go to for a gross of patent j^afs or an 
 ounce of thin covers when we want them, I may be allowed 
 
109 
 
 to mention a mode of cutting the covers without risk of 
 breakage. It is simply to lay the work on a slab of plate 
 glass, wetted. The water affords support to the fragile ma- 
 terial, and binds it to its position, so that the operation other- 
 wise difficult, is easily performed. I mention this not as an 
 original idga, but because it is mentioned by but few writers, 
 and it is possible that others may experience the same diffi- 
 culty that I frequently laboured under until I met with the 
 suggestion. Those who are not operators will see the value 
 of even this simple artifice when they are told that the ma- 
 terial to be cut is glass of the average thickness of a hun- 
 dredth of an inch, — and unannealed. 
 
 Writers and operators are divided as to the advisability of 
 using turpentine, as a diluent to Canada balsam, in making 
 microscopic preparations. It is often objected, that oily 
 globules separate themselves from the turpentine after a few 
 weeks. I cannot say that I have found this diflSculty ; some 
 of the preparations now on the table have been made for three 
 or four years, with turpentine in equal proportion to the balsam, 
 and they are yet clear and perfect. I frequently keep a mix- 
 ture of balsam and turpentine ready for mounting; it requires 
 a gentle continued heat to evaporate the volatile matter, but 
 I am of opinion that the preparation is more permanent and 
 less likely to split away on receiving a jar, than when balsam 
 alone is used. In the latter case, I always touch the heated 
 balsam on the flat with a single drop of turpentine, to clear 
 it of bubbles before placing the object. Sometimes I have 
 used the previously noticed dilute balsam cold to mount the 
 object, and have sealed it by the application of heat after the 
 cover has been put on. For objects in which it is desirable 
 to retain the air, as the tracheje of insects, and indeed, in in- 
 jected pulmonary organs generally, it is advisable to compress 
 the object by the aid of water or spirit, and to let it dry. 
 The balsam should then be heated, and allowed to become 
 slightly cool, and the object laid upon it and immediately 
 covered, the cover being warmed. The trachea of a musquito. 
 
no 
 
 now on the table, was mounted in that way. Several of the 
 scales and wings were mounted on dilute balsam, as above 
 described. I have found the wooden clips, imported under the 
 unpretending title of American spring clothes-pegs, invaluable 
 as compressors, both for flattening objects and for compressing 
 them when mounted, so as to bring the covers fairly down 
 upon the object, and to ensure perfect union between the 
 glasses. The clips are also useful in building cells, and in a 
 multitude of other operations ; used in pairs one at each end 
 of a pair of flats, they serve to replace the ordinary com- 
 pressors for temporary observations. 
 
 Some years since I made some experiments in the use of the 
 air-pump in making microscopic preparations, beheving that 
 it had not then attracted the attention of operators. Since that 
 time, I found in a recent work an account of some uses that had 
 been made of that instrument, but that which I found most ad- 
 vantageous was not mentioned and appeared to have escaped 
 the experimenter ; while that most dwelt upon in the work in 
 question, is one that I abandoned as unavaiUng, nor have I 
 seen occasion to change the opinion. The operator quoted 
 immerses the objects in balsam, and then places them on a 
 dry hot bath under the receiver of an air pump ; the air is 
 supposed to be extracted by this process from the minute pores 
 or cells, and its place supplied by the balsam. I found, how- 
 ever, that in the majority of cases the viscidity of the balsam 
 retains the bubbles of air even when they escape from the 
 object, and that many of them return to their original posi- 
 tions on the restoration of atmospheric pressure. The plan I 
 recommend as preferable, is to immerse the object in a bath 
 of turpentine, and exhaust it before ajiplying the balsam. 
 The limpidity of the turpentine allows the free escape of air, 
 and when the object is removed from the bath to be mounted, 
 the balsam then blends with the turpentine, and follows it into 
 minute cavities whither it could not alone have penetrated. 
 
 Before quitting the subject of mounting, I may mention 
 that I have found the common balsam of copaiba a useful 
 
Ill 
 
 medium in which to preserve objects of a delicate character, 
 which if is not desired to mount immediately. I have used 
 it cold, and have mounted the objects in it temporarily, be- 
 tween two plates of glass ; and have transmitted them by post 
 and otherwise to distant parts of the country in perfect 
 safety ; objects so prepared may at once be mounted in 
 Canada balsam without farther preparation. The advantage 
 derived from the use of copaiba is that it is not so viscid, 
 and does not dry so rapidly as the other balsam, while its re- 
 fracting properties are so little inferior that no detriment re- 
 sults from its use. 
 
 The next point on which I have to make an observation 
 that I believe to be original, is the mode of, killing insects 
 and other small animals. A paper recently read to the 
 British Association mentions that cyanide of potassium has 
 been employed for this purpose. I have had occasion to make 
 some rather large quantities of this salt for other processes, 
 and contemplated the employment of it as a means of 
 destruction, for which its active poisonous property eventually 
 fits it, but I was so well satisfied with other plans, that I 
 have not yet tried it. I find that immersion in turpentine 
 kills small insects almost instantaneously, and has the great 
 advantage of making them protrude their probosces, lancets, 
 and other organs — a very desirable effect; they are also more 
 readily saturated and rendered diaphanous than after they 
 have been allowed to harden. If it is intended to disect the 
 internal organs, this plan will not do, and Swammerdam's 
 plan of suffocating the animals in spirits will be found almost 
 as rapid, and much more suitable. But the agent I most 
 inchne to in cases when turpentine is inadmissible, both on 
 the ground of humanity, as causing speedy death, and for its 
 preservative quality which renders it suitable for the cabinet, 
 is creasote. If the mouth and spiracles be touched with a 
 pencil dipped in it, the creatures most tenacious of life, 
 soon yield to its influence. The use of spirit to suffocate 
 the animal, and the exhibition of creasote to its mouth. 
 
112 
 
 &c., both present the advantage of hardening the viscera, 
 vchich is very desirable, as it tends materially to assist the 
 process of dissection — at least so long as the albuminous 
 portions are not so much coagulated as to make the delicate 
 organs cling together. There is risk, however, that cyanide 
 of potassium would corrode delicate organisms, and thus be 
 prodvictive of mischief. Small soft-bodied animals are, by 
 soaking in spirit, rendered less liable to injury in the process 
 of compression. 
 
 For the purpose of collecting aquatic animalcules, I use, 
 in preference to any kind of net, those on the table. They 
 consist of stout tin hoops, about four inches diameter and one 
 and a half deep, nested for stowage. Muslin of different 
 degrees of fineness is strained over one opening of the hoop, 
 and a screw is attached by its head to the rim. The net is 
 thus portable, and is screwed into a hole in the end of a 
 walking-stick, or what is better a fishing-rod. I find that 
 for most purposes the fabric called bobbinet answers very 
 well, and catches creatures much smaller than its own meshes, 
 while the free escape of water through the openings prevents 
 their being washed out, as they frequently are in withdrawing 
 the net from the surface. If the stick have a spike at the 
 other end it may be stuck in the ground, and those animals 
 that are visible to the naked eye leisurely picked out, with a 
 small thin spoon or palette-knife, and transferred to bottles, 
 care being taken that the more voracious ones be separated 
 from their prey; while the thick residuum, containing 
 infusoria, &c., may be ladled up or strained oS into its 
 appropriate vessel. On arriving home the contents of the 
 bottles are poured into one of the finer nets, which is placed 
 in a saucer of watei-. The drafting net is then Hfted up out 
 of the water, and a final classification may be made. To 
 catch individual creatures that are too large for a fishing-tube, 
 a small spoon-net, made of slips of thin metal, bent into the 
 form of a spoon, with a large hole punched out of the bowl, 
 and musKn cemented to the rim, will be found convenient. 
 
113 
 
 This form of net is free from the inconYenience of loose parts of 
 material, in which choice specimens may he confused and lost. 
 
 Before concluding this paper, I may mention a very useful 
 cement, for fine work, which was communicated to me by 
 my friend Mr. CapeweU, of Ballan. Canada balsam is heated 
 and evaporated to dryness, and the residual resin dissolved in 
 ether. This cement dries as rapidly as collodion, is perfectly 
 limpid, and does not coagulate. 
 
 I hope soon to submit to the Institute a section cutting 
 machine, which I am constructing on a plan different to any 
 I have yet met with, and presenting, as I fancy, some con- 
 veniences. I have here some sections cut with it in its 
 present state, but it is not yet mounted. 
 
 Whatever value may be attached to the observations I 
 have here made, and to the new modes of operation that I 
 have recommended, I offer them in the hope that other 
 observers will similarly favour us with the result of their 
 experience. Many of the contrivances mentioned were 
 devised long since in the absence of other appliances, and 
 when text-books were scarce here, and there were few col- 
 laborateurs within my acquaintance whom I could consult. 
 Thrown thus upon my own resources, I had to contend 
 with many rough substitutes, the inconvenience of which 
 compelled the invention of some more suitable contrivances. 
 Those who are engaged in similar pursuits will readily enter 
 into these observations, and wUl, I trust in like manner, 
 conununicate information as to their modes of action, as by 
 entering into these particular details, results of general 
 importance are attained. To such persons no apology will 
 be necessary for the matter of these notes, whatever defects 
 there may be in the manner, and I hope that those to whom 
 the minute and apparently trivial details were dull and dry, 
 will find subjects of interest in the resulting specimens which 
 I have the pleasure to submit to them. 
 
 K 
 
114 
 
 XIV. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF NEW AUSTRALIAN PLANTS 
 CHIEFLY FROM THE COLONY OF VIC- 
 TORIA. 
 
 BY DR. FEED. MUELLER, 
 
 GOVERNMENT BOTANIST. 
 
 [second series.] 
 
 READ JUNE 7, 1855. 
 
 CRTJCIFEEiE. 
 1. Cardamine eustylis. 
 
 Dwarf, glabrous or somewhat downy; root creeping; stem 
 tHn, upwards naked; leaves petiolate, pinnatisected; seg- 
 ments five to seven, ovate or oblong, lobulate or with a few 
 teeth, the terminal one the largest, the inferior ones nar- 
 rowed into the l^ase; pedicels at length remote, spreading; 
 petals shorter than the calyx; style longer than the diameter 
 of the spreading sihque. 
 
 On moist sandy places on the IMurray River in South 
 Australia. 
 
 Not unlike C. sarmentosa. 
 
 2. Sisymbrium triscctum. 
 (Sect. Arahidoxisis.) 
 Suffruticose, glabrous, erect; leaves glaucous, divided into 
 three linear-filiform segments; pedicels thread-like, three or 
 
115 
 
 four times shorter than the silique, slightly spreading; style 
 very short or wanting; stigma dilated. 
 
 In the desert on the Murray River, on Spencer's and 
 St. Vincent's Gulf, and near Lake Torrens. 
 
 Besides this and the following species, the genus contains 
 two others already known from Australia, namely S. filifo- 
 lium and S. nasturtioides, both referred formerly (Linnean, 
 XXV. p. 368) to Erysimum. 
 
 Malyace^. 
 Greevesia. 
 
 Calyx closed, at full maturity of the fruit expanding into 
 five segments, surrounded by five shorter lanceolate spreading 
 bracteoles. Petals five, much shorter than the calyx, twisted, 
 never expanded, adnate to the tube of the stamens, and con- 
 cealed by the calyx. Anthers five, ovate-kidneyshaped, one- 
 ceUed. Pollen-grains oblique ovate-spherical, echinulate. 
 Styles ten, dilated into convex at length penicillate stigmas. 
 Carpidia five, perfectly free, net-veined, indehiscent, one- 
 seeded, oblique ovate, slightly keeled. Seeds kidney-shaped, 
 smooth, filling the ceU. 
 
 This highly remarkable genus, which has been dedicated to 
 Dr. Aug. Grreeves, one of our warmest supporters of science, 
 is as well from Pavonia, to which it ranks next, as from all 
 other genera of this order, weU distipguished by its extraor- 
 dinary character of covering with its perfectly connate sepals 
 the little twisted corolla, which therefore does not see day- 
 light until shrivelled up long after fecundation, when at 
 length the calyx unfolds to eject the ripe carpels. 
 
 3. Greevesia cldsocalyx. 
 Discovered in eastern tropical Australia during Dr. 
 Leichhardt's exploring expedition by Mr. D. Bunce, and now 
 cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Melbourne. 
 
116 
 
 A small shrub, with oblong- or ovate-cordate crenate leaves, 
 which are underneath covered with a grey toment. Pedun- 
 cles axillary, solitary. Petals ovate-oblong, red. 
 
 Howittia. 
 
 Calyx five-cleft, without an involucre, shorter than the 
 petals. Stamens numerous, all separately emerging from the 
 tube. Anthers kidney-shaped, one-celled. Grains of the 
 pollen globose, scabrous. Styles three, connate into |one. 
 Stigma club-shaped, three-lobed. Capsule sessile, depressed, 
 with three valves and three cells; valves bearing the septum 
 in the middle; cells two-seeded, including at the top a slight 
 quantity of woolly hair. Axis of the capsule persistent, 
 thread-like, Seeds obovate — three-sided. 
 
 This new malvaceous genus, which bears, in acknowledge- 
 ment of his devotion to botany. Dr. Godfrey Hewitt's name, 
 is nearest related to Lagunaea, less to Fugosia. 
 
 4. Howittia trilocularis. 
 
 On bushy declivities around Lake King. 
 
 A flexil shrub, attaining the height of twenty feet. Leaves 
 ovate or oblong — ^lanceolate,with a heart-shaped base, above 
 scabrous, beneath tomentose. Stipules never distinctly 
 developed. Peduncles axillary, solitary, filiform, single- 
 flowered. Petals obovate purplish. 
 
 DiOSMEiE. 
 
 5. Asterolasia chorilcBnoides. 
 
 Much branched; leaves very spreading, sessile, coriaceous, 
 with revolute margin, terete-linear, above smooth, beneath 
 velutinous; flowers small, capitate, furnished with bracteoles; 
 sepals glabrous, of equal length with the carpels; petals want- 
 ing ; filaments below the middle villose ; style glabrous ; 
 stigma minute, undivided ; seeds opaque, tuberculate. 
 
 On dry coast-ridges near Lake Hamilton in South Aus- 
 tralia. C. Willielmi. 
 
lit 
 
 Anomalous in producing bracts and a simple stigma, yet 
 not to be separated from the two other species; offering thus 
 a close approach of this genus to Chorilaena. 
 
 SAPINDACAiE. 
 
 6. DodoncBa Jiexandra. 
 
 Erect, glandular — scabrous; branchlets thin, indistinctly 
 angulate ; leaves sessile, filiform-linear, acutish, not fur- 
 rowed, on the margin revolute; flowers dioecious, hexandrous, 
 axillary and terminal, aU solitary on short pedicels, nearly 
 drooping; sepals three, ovate — lanceolate, acuminate, fila- 
 ments very short; connective of the anthers puberulous at 
 the top ; capsules depressed, with three rarely four valves, 
 which are wingless, but bear an appendage on the back; seeds 
 shining. 
 
 In the scrub near Port Lincoln, on limestone. C. Wilhelmi.^ 
 
 Undoubtedly similar to D. pinifolia. 
 
 POLTGALE^. 
 
 7. Polygala veronicea. 
 (Sect. Polygalon.) 
 
 Stems sufiruticose at the base, erect or diffused, nearly 
 terete, hardly branched, as well as the peduncles and pedicels 
 puberulous; leaves alternate, close to each other, soon smooth, 
 the lower ones ovate or round, the upper ones lanceolate, 
 acute, apiculate, net-veined, on very short petioles and with 
 slightly recurved margin; racemes lateral and terminal, few- 
 flowered; middle bracteole ovate-lanceolate, longer than the 
 lateral ones, but much shorter than the pedicel; exterior 
 sepals spreading, the interior ones ovate, contracted into a 
 cuneate base, blunt, apiculate, glabrous, veined, of the length 
 of the crested keel and likewise of the roundish-obcordate 
 broad-winged glabrous capsule; ovary tapering into a very 
 short stalk; seeds ovate, sparingly hairy, of twice the length 
 of the strophiole. 
 
118 
 
 In grassy or gravelly places from the King River to the 
 Goulburn River. 
 
 Principally allied to P. coniicarpa and P. Loureirii, both 
 from the Chinese Empire. 
 
 It is remarkable, although already forty years ago the 
 occurrence of the genus Polygala, within and beyond the 
 tropics of Australia, was noticed by R. Brown, in the 
 appendix to Flinders' Voyage, p. 544, that imtil now, no 
 Australian species should have been described. 
 
 LEGUMINOSiE. 
 8. Daviesia eyena. 
 
 Tall, much branched, leafless ; branches terete, erect, 
 furrowed, unarmed; racemes very long, terminal; pedicels 
 thickly, solitary or twin, shorter than the calyx, furnished at 
 the top with two bracteoles; which are rounded, persistent, 
 ciliolate, connate at the base and larger than the lower ones; 
 calyx indistinctly angulate, with acute teeths, the lowest of them 
 longest; keel perfectly blunt, hardly longer than the wings; 
 stamens all connate; ovary subsessile and style smooth; pods 
 oblique oblong-ovate, slightly convex, with a very short beak; 
 seeds equally brown, withapapiUous irregular lobed strophiole. 
 
 In the barren bushy plains along Spencer's Gidf, Lake 
 Torrens, the Fhnders' Ranges, and Murray River. 
 
 The bibracteolate calyx distingviishes this strange plant 
 from the rest of the Daviesia species. 
 
 9. Eutaxia sparsifolia. 
 Branchlets spreading, as well as the calyces silky; leaves 
 dispersed, short -stalked, semiterete -trigonous, channelled, 
 glabrous, acutish, slightly recurved, spreading, at last deflexed; 
 flowers a few together on the top of the branchlets, stalked, 
 without bracteoles; upperlip of the calyx rounded, a little 
 emarginate; teeths of the lower lip deltoid-acuminate; pods 
 turgid. 
 
119 
 
 In the desert scrub towards the mouth of the Murray River. 
 Found also at Tumbay Bay by Mr. C. Wilhelmi. 
 
 10. Pultenaea fuscata. 
 
 Branchlets hardly spreading; leaves stalked, trigonous 
 linear, channelled by the inflexed margin, acute, mucronulate, 
 the uppermost below the middle long ciliated, the rest smooth, 
 stipules large, concrete, imbricate, setaceous-acuminate, fringed; 
 heads few-flowered ; teeths of the calyx and bracteoles seta- 
 ceous-acuminate, downy; ovary sessile, sUky. 
 
 Between the Coorong and Murray Kiver, on scrubby lo- 
 calities. 
 
 Next to P. arista. 
 
 11. Pultenaea canaliculata. 
 
 Branchlets hardly spreading, velvety; leaves oblong-linear, 
 blunt, very short-stalked, channelled, gradually tapering into 
 the base, somewhat silky-velvety ; stipules lanceolate or linear- 
 subulate, downy; heads few-flowered; calyces downy, pale, 
 membranous, little longer than the downy linear-setaceous 
 bracteoles; teeth of the upper-lip broader, all setaceous-acu- 
 minate; ovary sessile, velvety; pod beaked; seeds somewhat 
 shining. 
 
 At Encounter Bay. 
 
 Near to P. mollis. 
 
 12. Pultenaea densifolia. 
 
 Branchlets divaricate, leaves small, crowded, coriaceous, 
 broad-obovate, or somewhat cuneate, stalked, glabrous, mu- 
 cronulate, rarely blunt, recurved, above shining, beneath 
 veined, their margin flat, sometimes with a few hairs ; sti- 
 pules imbricate, nearly lanceolate, membranous, pale brown, 
 fringed ; flowers axillary, solitary, or in terminal heads ; 
 calyces membranous, little longer than the fringed lanceo- 
 late mucronulate bracteoles, with the exception of the mar- 
 
120 
 
 gin smooth, their teeth nearly equal, setaceous-acuminate ; 
 pods oblique ovate, turgid, slightly silky, sessile. 
 
 In the lower Murray desert. 
 
 Also near Port Lincoln, according to C. WiUielmi. 
 
 It stands in relation to P. parviflora. 
 
 13. Cassia revoluta. 
 
 (Sect. Ghamaesenna.) 
 
 Shrubby; leaves with a channelled rachis, and with six to 
 ten pairs of leaflets, which are lanceolate-linear, pointed, 
 above smooth, beneath and along the revolute margin hairy ; 
 a subulate gland between each pair ; stipules Hnear-subulate ; 
 bracteoles cymbiform-ovate; peduncles axillary, about as long 
 as the leaves, with from two to four umbellate flowers, to- 
 gether with the branches, pedicels, and rachis pubescent; 
 sepals ovate, glabrous, cUiate, the outer ones broader; one 
 petal much shorter than the rest, nearly round; legume 
 stalked, smooth, slightly arched. 
 
 On gravelly, sometimes overflown places, along the Avon, 
 in Gipps' Land. 
 
 The systematic position of this Cassia wUl be between C- 
 Australis and Schultesii. 
 
 Khamnace^. 
 14. Trymalium phlebopliyllum. 
 
 Branchlets thinly clothed with velvet hair; leaves coria- 
 ceous, oval or roundish-ovate, blunt or retuse, above perfectly 
 glabrous and densely net-veined ; beneath grey-silky, their 
 margin generally reflexed; stipules lanceolate, acuminate; 
 glomerules disposed in cymes, tomentose; carpels indehiscent. 
 
 On the rocky summits of the Elders Ranges and other 
 mountains near Lake Torrens. 
 
 Easily recognised by the numerous prominent anastomosing 
 veins of the leaves. 
 
 Length of the leaves, quarter to half an inch. 
 
121 
 
 15. Trymalium bilobatum, 
 
 Branchlets subvelutinous; leaves herbaceous^ wedge-shaped, 
 with a dilated bUobed summit, with flat or revolute margin; 
 above glabrous, beneath very thin velvety ; their lobes trun- 
 cate, denticulate, the notch apiculate; stipules lanceolate-sub- 
 ulate; umbels somewhat velvety; crowded at the summit of 
 the branches; style, three-cleft; carpels bursting at the base* 
 
 On dry scrubby ridges towards Guichen Bay, and on 
 Spencer's Gulf. 
 
 A remarkable plant; in the form of the leaves not dissimi- 
 lar to T. bifidum; in the arrangement of the flowers and 
 fruits, however, resembhng Pomaderris eUptica. 
 
 16. Trymalium bifidum. 
 
 Branchlets velutino-tomentose; leaves nearly herbaceous, 
 linear-cuneate, forked, with revolute entire margin; above 
 scantily, beneath densely silky-tomentose or above glabrous, 
 the notch not apiculate; stipules almost lanceolate; flowers 
 in dense glomerules, together with the floral leaves pale-grey 
 tomentose; petals entire; style short, undivided. 
 
 In the Marble Ranges and on the coast of Spencer's Gulf, 
 at Boston Point. C. WUhelmi. 
 
 It may possibly be a variety of the following species: — 
 
 17. Trymalium halmaturinum. 
 
 Branchlets tomentose; leavfes herbaceous, wedge-shaped or 
 ovate-truncate, retuse or bilobed, with flat or recurved mar- 
 gin, above thinly clothed with a partially starry toment, be- 
 neath densely tomentose ; floral leaves nearly round or ovate, 
 entire or bilobed, above as well as the flowers pale grey to- 
 mentose; stipules ovate-lanceolate; flowers in dense glome- 
 rules; petals entire; style simple. 
 
 On sandy ridges of Kangaroo Island and Encounter Bay. 
 
 L 
 
122 
 
 18. Trymnlium spathulatum. 
 
 BrancHets silky; leaves nearly coriaceoiis, obovate-spathu- 
 late, gradually tapering into the base, almost sessile, with 
 slightly reflexecl margin, rounded or truncate at the summit ; 
 terminated by a short reflexed point; those of the branches 
 above perfectly glabroixs and even, beneath yellowish-grey 
 silky; floral leaves above grey velutinous; stipules lanceolate 
 or hnear-subulate ; glomerules disposed in a dense panicle; 
 when fruit-bearing clammy; petals entire; style short, undi- 
 vided; carpels indehiscent. 
 
 On the stony ranges near Mount Lofty, in South Australia, 
 and in Kangaroo Island. 
 
 Trymalium obovatum (Hook. comp. bot. mag., p. 227) dif- 
 fers from tliis in distinctly petiolate leaves, which are beneath 
 clothed with a velvet indument, and in larger flowers. 
 
 19. Trymalium subochreatum. 
 
 Branchlets velutinous; leaves nearly coriaceous, oblong- 
 linear, almost blunt, with re volute margin; above scabrous or 
 scantily velutinous; beneath densely velvety ; stipules lance- 
 olate-ovate, large; flowers cymose-glomerate, with roundish 
 bracts; calyces, outside grey-veh-ety, tomentose at the base; 
 petals entire; style simple, short; stigma trilobed. 
 
 In the desert-scrub on the Murray River. 
 
 Allied to T. augustifolium (Keissek in pi. Preiss II., p. 284.) 
 
 Mtetace^. 
 20. Vcrticordia Wilhelmii. 
 
 (Sect. EiivertivorirKi.) 
 
 Quite smooth; leaves crowded, linear-semlterete, at last 
 triquetrous, very short mucronate; corymbs terminal, com- 
 pound; bracteoles distinct, without ribs, awnless, caducous; 
 tube of the calyx ovate-bell-shaped; lobes of the limb with 
 
123 
 
 from three to five capillar naked simple segments; petals gla- 
 brous, perfectly entire; sterile stamens extremely minute, 
 linear-subulate, glabrous, undivided; style exserted, nearly 
 straight, bearded at the extremity. 
 
 On limestone ridges at Boston Point. C. Wilhehni. 
 
 This exceedingly pretty little bush forms one of the sys- 
 tematic links between the flora of South and Western Aus- 
 tralia. It is accompanied by Myoporum parvifolium. Dodo- 
 nace humilis, Phyllanthus cygnorum, Templetonia retusa, and 
 other Western Australian plants, but appears to be the only 
 species of this charming and numerous genus which reaches 
 so far east. The simple lobes of the calyx distinguish it at 
 once from all others, except Y. Lehmanni, habrantha and 
 umbeHata, and these belong to a different section of the 
 genus. 
 
 21. Camphoromyrtus pluriflora. 
 
 Leaves spreading, lanceolate-linear or oblong-lanceolate, 
 acutish, awnless, with flat perfectly entire margin; peduncles 
 generally three-flowered. 
 
 On the banks of the Tambo, on the Snowy Eiver, and on 
 several of its tributaries. 
 
 22. Camphoromyrtus crenulata. 
 
 Leaves spreading, ovate or obovate-oblong, blunt, with flat 
 densely and unequally crenulated margin, peduncles one to 
 three-flowered. 
 
 On springs and rivulets of the Buffalo B,anges. 
 
 23. Kunzea ericifolia. 
 
 Diffuse or procumbent, pubescent; leaves densely crowded, 
 semiterete, blunt, canaliculate by the inflexed concrete mar- 
 gins, above densely hauy, beneath more or less glabrous; 
 flowers yellow, a few in a head or solitary, axillary, sessile; 
 
124 
 
 bracts and bracteoles persistent, lanceolate, acuminate, cili- 
 ated, nearly as long as the pubescent tube of the calyx; pe- 
 tals a little longer than the deltoid-acuminate segments of 
 the calyx, hardly half as long as the stamens; capsule with 
 two or three cells; seeds somewhat reticulate. 
 
 In the highest rooky parts of the Australian Alps from 
 Mount Wellington to the Munyang Mountains. 
 
 Next to Kunzea vestista. 
 
 24. Kunzea pomifera. 
 
 Procumbent; branchlets glabrous or with the calyces vel- 
 vety; leaves crowded, spreading, coriaceous, imperforated, 
 either cordate or ovate-roundish or lanceolate-ovate, ter- 
 minated in a recurved short point, glabrous or puberulous, 
 indistinctly five-nerved, veined, with flat scabrous margin; 
 flowers few in a head, terminal, white; bracts roundish; brac- 
 teoles broad-ovate, all velvety on the back, shorter than 
 the calyx-tube; filaments long exserted; petals nearly twice 
 as long as the deltoid segments of the calyx; fruit nearly 
 globose somewhat baccate, slightly downy, with three cells; 
 ripe seeds perfectly even, shining. 
 
 On the sandy shores and on rocks at St. Vincent's Gulf 
 and Kivoli Bay. 
 
 The fleshy fruit is edible and called native apple by the 
 South Australian Colonists. 
 
 The plant is in some degree allied to Kunzea recurva and 
 R. Schaueri. 
 
 25. Kunzea peduncularis. 
 
 Erect, glabrous or rarely downy; leaves crowded, coria- 
 ceous, perforated by oil-glands, hnear or oblong-lanceolate, 
 acute, one-nerved; flowers white, axillary, solitary, stalked, 
 crowded below the summit of the branches or forming termi- 
 nal corymbs; bracts downy, lanceolate-linear, deciduous; 
 
125 
 
 petals twice as long as the deltoid segments of the calyx, and 
 half as long as the stamens ; capsule with three, four or five 
 cells, immersed in the dry campanulate calyx ; ripe seeds 
 hardly shining, reticulate. 
 
 At the foot of the AustraHan Alps, on the banks of rivers 
 and rivulets. 
 
 Leaves and flowers similar to those of K. corifoHa ; fruit 
 smaRer and nearly campanulate ; its stalk sometimes of thrice 
 the length of the calyx. 
 
 26. Leptospermum brevipes. 
 
 Branchlets glabrous, or in a young state somewhat silky ; 
 leaves flat, oblong-lanceolate, very short pointed, glabrous, 
 three-nerved, full of oil dots ; flowers solitary or twin, axillary 
 or on very short branchlets, terminal ; pedicels and calyces 
 grey silky-pubescent, the former as long or longer than the 
 latter ; lobes of the calyx pubescent, persistent, lanceolate ; 
 capsule depressed, five-celled. 
 
 Generally a companion of Kunzea peduncularis, to which 
 it bears more resemblance in habit than to any of its con- 
 geners, being quite anomalous in producing very conspicuous 
 flower stalks. It ranks nearest to L. divaricatum. 
 
 HALORAGEiE. 
 27. Pelonastes tillaeacea. 
 
 Leaves short, somewhat blunt, as well as the sepals entire; 
 flowers all sessUe, the male ones with four stamens ; carpels 
 minutely and scantily verrucose. 
 
 In wet localities of the Emu Flat, near St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 
 28. Haloragis acutangula. 
 (Sect. Cereodia.) 
 Stem perennial, erect, angular, branched ; leaves scattered 
 or sometimes opposite, lanceolate-Hnear, flat, beyond the 
 
126 
 
 middle furnished with Hnear-subulate remote serraturje, on 
 the margin denticulate ; asperous, on both sides glabrous, but 
 Hke the stem slightly asperous ; floral leaves entire ; flowers 
 hermajjhrodite, with eight stamens and four stigmas, generally 
 sessile in the axils of the upper leaves, solitary or glomerate' 
 thus forming a long foliate spike ; laciniae of the calyx 
 cordate-deltoid, acuminate, of less than half the length of 
 the glabrous petals ; fruit large, acute-quadrangular, glabrous 
 and smooth, with four ceUs, the angles keeled. 
 
 On ridges about Port Lincoln. C. Wilhelmi. 
 
 It agrees best in its characters with Hal. racemosa (Labill. 
 Nov. HoU. I. p. 100, t. 128). 
 
 LfMBELLFKEiE. 
 
 29. Hydrocotyle geranifolia. 
 
 Subglabrous ; stems long, difiiised, laxe, partially rooting ; 
 leaves three to five-parted, the lower ones peltate ; segments 
 of all divaricate, ovate or linear-lanceolate, grossly and 
 unequally serrate or lobed, gradually narrowed into the apex, 
 cuneate at the base ; stipules membranaceous, fringed ; petioles 
 shorter than the threadhke sometimes divided peduncles ; 
 umbels many-flowered ; pedicels capillary, much longer than 
 the flowers ; fruits kidney-shaped ; didymous, compressed ; 
 mericarps winged at the back, with a rib on each side, and a 
 semicordate excavation at the commissura. 
 
 In moist valleys of Mount Disappointment, of the Dande- 
 nong Ranges, and thence to the western part of Glpps' Land. 
 
 It requires its systematic position near H. quinqueloba. 
 
 30. Hydrocotyle pterocarpa. 
 
 Subglabrous ; stems creeping ; leaves orbicular-reniform, 
 indistinctly five to seven lobed, crenulate-repand ; stipules 
 broad, membranaceous, not fringed ; petioles longer than the 
 downy solitary peduncle ; lunbels generally mauy-flowered. 
 
127 
 
 nearly capitate ; fruits didymo-obcordate, much compressed, 
 broad-winged, even ; with a rib on each side of the mericarps. 
 
 From Mount Disappointment to the Ovens E.iver, on 
 rivulets. 
 
 Sometimes viviparous. 
 
 AUied both to H. peduncularis and plebeja. 
 
 31. Dimetopia eriocarpa. 
 
 (Sect. Eriosclad'ium.) 
 
 Dwarf, downy ; leaflets of the involucre as long as the 
 
 rays of the fruit-bearing umbel, narrow lanceolate or linear ; 
 
 mericarps equal to each other, on either side rugulose and 
 
 covered all over with a thick white woolly toment. 
 
 On barren stony ridges near Cudnaka, in the neighbourhood 
 of Lake Torrens. 
 
 E.UBIACAE. 
 32. Galium geminifolium.. 
 
 (Sect. Leiaparine.J 
 
 Somewhat scabrous, otherwise smooth ; stems long, flaccid, 
 decumbent, with dichotomous branches ; leaves remote, linear, 
 acutish, one-nerved, reflexed on the margin, rarely fom* 
 developed in a whorl, generally two of them wanting or 
 reduced to a teeth-shaped stipule; flowers hermaphrodite, 
 panicled ; peduncles straight, divaricate, solitary, twin or 
 several together ; pedicels very short ; lobes of the small yel- 
 lowish corolla lanceolate ; ovate, much longer than the sta- 
 mens ; fruits glabrous, densely dotted. 
 
 Along the margin of the Murray and Avoca. 
 
 This insignificant herb may be considered a valuable 
 acquisition to the botanical system, inasmuch as it furnishes 
 means of ascertaining the true nature of the stipular leaves 
 in Stellatse, proving apparently that this tribe cannot be 
 separated by natural characters from the Rubinaceous order. 
 
128 
 
 33. Diodia reptans. 
 
 (Sect. EiiilifiiJia.) 
 
 Perennial, herbaceous, much branched; stems rooting; 
 leaves ovate, acutish, petiolate, glabrous or covered with short 
 stiff hair, always ciliate ; stipular, vagina, truncate, with or 
 without short bristles ; flowers axillary and terminal, solitary, 
 on very short peduncles, not opposite to each other ; tube of 
 the corolla very thin, much longer than the bidentate limb of 
 the calyx ; stamens and style exserted ; the latter nearly to 
 base divided, its divisions capillary ; fruits ovate, tapering 
 into the base, nearly glabrous, crowned by the twice or three 
 times shorter deltoid acuminate ciliate nearly erect teeth of 
 the calyx. 
 
 On mountain pastures, as well as on the plains along the 
 Snowy River. 
 
 One of the most southern localities of a tribe of plants 
 which abounds within the tropics. Nertera depressa shares 
 its localities. 
 
 Its nearest related congener seems to be Diodia Virginia. 
 
 LOEANXnACEJ:. 
 
 34. Loranthus canus. 
 (Sect- Dendropththoe.J 
 Squarrose, grey-lepidote ; branchlets below terete; leaves 
 alternate, petiolate, long-lanceolate, more or less falcate, nearly 
 blunt, generally three-nerved; indistinctly veined; cymes 
 axillary, with only two branchlets, bearing each three flow- 
 ers; flowers pentamerous, outward grey-lepidote, the inter- 
 mediate one sessile, with an oblong bracteole ; the lateral ones 
 on a short and thick pedicel with a roundish navicular brac- 
 teole; calyx five-toothed, as well as the bracteoles ciliolate; 
 anthers linear, affixed with the base; style fihform; berries 
 urceolate-ovate, greyish-yellow, succulent. 
 
129 
 
 Along the Mackenzie Creek at the Grampians, on the 
 Buffalo Creek, and the Upper Ovens, parasitical on Acacia 
 mollissima ; at either of these localities rare. 
 
 I regret not having been able to examine well developed 
 flowers of this plant. The leaves are not unlike those of 
 L. pendulus (L. Miquelii Lehm) and L. eucalyptoides. The 
 fruits offer very decisive marks of distinction amongst the 
 numerous species ; thus they are in L. canus more succulent, 
 shorter, and with a lesi contracted border, and not of a 
 greenish-brown colour as L. pendulus. In L. Preissii the 
 berries are pink, spherical, and of the size of a pea ; in L. 
 Exocarpi black, large, ovate; in L. eucalyptoides oblong, 
 pear-shaped, green, with a yellowish top. AU the described 
 species require a careful new disquisition, as they are not 
 only parasites of various plants similar to each other, but also 
 of genera of very different natural orders. Thus L. eucalyp- 
 toides produces as long as it adheres to eucalypti or casua- 
 rinae, or now also to virgilia capensis, long falcate leaves, 
 which, when the plant receives its nourishment from banksia 
 integrifolia assume an ovate-orbicular shape, and a very fleshy 
 consistence, whilst the flowers become sessile. 
 
 On a former occasion, I alluded to the singular circum- 
 stance that the genus should be foreign to Tasmania ; 
 although it is here not only amply represented, but also 
 reaches the shores of Wilson's Promontory, and exists in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Composite. 
 
 35. Calotis glandulosa. 
 (Sect. Euoalotis.) 
 Pubescent from gland-bearing hair; rhizome divided, some- 
 what woody; stems numerous, procumbent or adscendant, 
 leafless at the summit; leaves obovate or oblong-cuneate, the 
 uppermost sessile, the rest tapering into a petiole, beyond the 
 middle toothed or lanciniate; scales of the involucre ovate- 
 
 M 
 
130 
 
 lanceolate, glandulous- pubescent; achenes ovate-cuneate, very 
 strongly compressed, deep brown, glabrous, asperous, with a 
 thin margin; awns four-seven, setaceous, unequal in length, 
 at the apex retro-aculeate, scabrid at the base, alternating 
 with an equal number of oblong or obovate-cuneate scales, 
 which are ciliate at the top. 
 
 On dry grassy ridges near the Snowy River and its tribu- 
 taries, towards Maneroo. The color of the ray is blue, hke 
 in C. cuneifolia, lasiocarpa and dentex. 
 
 This character is not without importance for distinguishing 
 the various species. Thus produce C. dilatata, anthemoides' 
 scapigera, and scabiosifolia whitish radial flowers, C. micro- 
 phylla, Muellerii, multiseta-erinacea and lappulacea yellow 
 ones. Those of C. (Cheiroloma), his pidula, cymbacantha 
 and breviseta are yet to be observed. 
 
 The genus Cheiroloma may be referred as a fifth section to 
 this genus. 
 
 36. Chrysocoryne tenella. 
 ( Sect. Bisquama.J 
 
 Dwarf; leaves thick, linear, upwards broader; glomerules 
 short, cylindrical, blunt, golden-yellow; heads with two 
 flowers; scales of the involucre two, glabrous, naked or but 
 imperfectly ciliolate; corolla three-toothed, short exserted. 
 
 In flats subject to inundations by winter rains, between 
 the Long Lake and the Fountain, on Spencer's Gulf. C. 
 Williehni. 
 
 An Olax (O. obcordata), which grows conjointly with this 
 plant, offers a similar approach to O. phyllanthi from Western 
 Australia, as this Chrysocoryne to C. pusilla. 
 
 EXJTIDOSIS. 
 
 Ci'iiiiloJJc. 
 (Sect. BJej,}iiirnj,J,„lis.J 
 
 Scales of the involucre, neither wrinkled nor fringed. 
 Flowers heterogamous, a few female ones peripherical, with 
 
131 
 
 a three-toothed corolla. Scales of the pappus numerous, 
 fringed. 
 
 37. Rutidosis leiolepis. 
 
 Stems numerous, dwarf, simple, adscending, tomentose, 
 rising from a woody rhizome ; leaves broad-linear, with 
 revolute margin, at last smooth, the radical ones crowded 
 with a woolly clasping petiole ; flower-heads terminal, 
 solitary, hemispherical ; scales of the involucre in several 
 rows, pale, smooth; the outer ones broad-ovate, blunt; the 
 inner ones lanceolate ; achenes oblong-ovate, truncate ; scales 
 of the pappus eleven to thirteen, oblong-spathulate. 
 
 On rocks along the Snowy River, and near it on the bare 
 mountainous pastures. 
 
 The sub-genus established on this plant connects Kutido- 
 chlamys closely with E-utidosis. 
 
 Sttlide^. 
 38. Stylidium soboliferum. 
 (Sect. Tolypangvum.) 
 Soboles numerous, threadlike ; leaves all radical, crowded 
 together in a dense globule, nearly terete, glabrous, bearing 
 a terminal hair ; interstinct scales wanting ; racemes few- 
 flowered, corymbose or panicled, together with the scape 
 glandulously pilose ; calyx five-parted ; lip with appendages ; 
 faux of the corolla naked. 
 
 In sandy stony declivities of the Grampians, the Serra and 
 the Victoria Ranges. 
 
 An elegant little plant, quite of the habit of a saxifraga. 
 It is nearest related to Styl. piliferum, and in some degree 
 also to S. saxifragoides and S. assimile. 
 
 Oleine^. 
 39. Notelace venosa. 
 Arborescent; branchlets nearly terete, glabrous; leaves 
 
132 
 
 large, opaque, ovate or elongate-lanceolate, acuminate, gra- 
 dually narrowed into the petiole, on both sides perfectly 
 smooth and net-veined, not or indistinctly dotted with entire 
 or imperfectly repand margin; racemes axUlary or lateral, 
 when flowering at least three times shorter than the leaves ; 
 teeth of the calyx unequal ; stigma subsessile, bifid ; drupes 
 large ovate. 
 
 In woods of the eastern part of Gipps' Land. 
 
 It shows affinity as well to N. laurifolia from New Zealand, 
 :is to N. reticulata from eastern sub-tropical Australia. 
 
 Photeace^e. 
 ■10. Grevillea Miqueliana. 
 
 (iSi'ct. Lissostylis.) 
 
 Erect ; branches terete ; leaves large, sub-coriaceous, pe- 
 tiolate, lanceolate or oblong-ovate, entire, on the margin 
 hardly recurved, above dotted-scabrous ; beneath as well as 
 the branches and rachis tomentose ; pubescent, penninerved 
 and net-veined ; racemes short, dense, many-flowered, pedun- 
 culate, drooping with centripetal development ; flowers after 
 the anthesis reclinate ; calyx four or five times longer than 
 the pedicel, red, externally grey-downy, inside below the 
 middle white-bearded ; style exserted, towards the summit 
 puberulous, at last smooth ; germen stalked, glabrous ; stigma 
 sublateral, ovate, a little umbonate ; follicle oblique ovate. 
 
 On the crest of the sterile wooded ranges near ]\lount 
 McMillan, and along the upper valleys of the Avon in Gipps' 
 Land. 
 
 This rare and decorous species has been dedicated to the 
 illustrious botanist Miquel, who, as he participates in the 
 labours to elucidate the Australian plants, is so well entitled 
 to this distinction. 
 
133 
 
 SALSOLACEiE. 
 
 41. Blitum atriplidnum. 
 
 (Sect. Orthosporum.J 
 
 Stems numerous, prostrate, simple, hardly streaked ; leaves 
 grey, green on both sides, alternate, petiolate, much spreading, 
 hastate- or ovate-lanceolate, the upper ones narrow-lanceolate, 
 all acute, tapering into the base, glabrous, with evanescent 
 papillje ; flowers densely glomerate ; fruit-bearing calyx 
 wingless, not baccate, imperfectly closed ; lobes near the base 
 gibbous|; seeds hardly keeled with a densely papillose pericarp. 
 
 In saline plains on the rivers Murray and Darling, as also 
 towards Lake Torrens. 
 
 42. Anisacanfha kentropsidea. 
 
 Diffuse, much branched, all over viUose-tomentose ; leaves 
 nearly flat, linear, acute ; calyx tomentose, short, above the 
 middle aristate ; awns two, short, thin, nearly equal. 
 
 In the Murray and Darling Desert. 
 
 It resembles Kentropsis diacantha. 
 
 43. Anisacantha bicuspis. 
 
 Much branched ; leaves crowded, trigono-semiterete, acute, 
 glabrous; calyx viUose-pubescent, long, below the middle 
 aristate ; stamens flve ; anthers exserted ; awns two, some- 
 what unequal. 
 
 In saline plains in the neighbourhood of Lake Torrens. 
 
 44. Anisacantha tricuspis. 
 
 Branches glabrous, streaked ; leaves crowded, semiterete, 
 acute, glabrous ; calyx short, tomentose at the smnmit, above 
 the middle aristate ; awns three, unequal. 
 
 On the subsaline and sandy banks of the Murray River, 
 subject to inundations. 
 
 Next to A. erinacea. 
 
134 
 
 45. Anlsacantha quinquecuspis. 
 
 Branclilets glabrous, streaked, divaricate ; leaves glaucous, 
 nearly flat, lanceolate-linear, acute, glabrous ; calyx short, 
 villose-tomentose at the summit, above the middle aristate ; 
 styles three ; awns five, very unequal. 
 
 In sandy-loamy plains near the junction of the Darling and 
 Murray River. 
 
 Allied to A. muricata. 
 
 46. Kochia sedifolia. 
 
 Velvetty from a pale grey toment ; stem fruticose, erect, 
 with numerous spreading branclilets ; leaves short, crowded, 
 alternate, clavate-semiterete, blunt; flowers generally solitary; 
 wings of the calyx nearly glabrous, hardly longer than its 
 velutinous disk, veined, flabellate, nearly all connate, at last 
 red. 
 
 On the limestone banks of the INIurray and Darling Rivers, 
 and in dry subsaline places towards Spencer's Gulf and Lake 
 Torrens. 
 
 It differs from K. brevifolia not only in much more 
 spreading growth, but also essentially in its velvet iudument 
 and in the partially separated wings. 
 
 47. Kochia oppositifolia. 
 
 Covered with a grey somewhat silky toment ; stem dwarf, 
 spreading, much branched ; leaves short, opposite, generally 
 crowded, triquetrous, acute, with nearly carinate backs ; 
 flowers mostly solitary ; wings of the calyx glabrous, hardly 
 longer than the thinly tomentose disk, veined red, orbicular 
 or flabellate-reniform, disjointed. 
 
 On various saline places at Spencer's Gulf. 
 
 The opposite leaves distinguish it at once from the nu- 
 merous other species. 
 
135 
 
 ASTELIACEiE. 
 
 48. Astelia psychrocharis. 
 (Sect. Trirella.) 
 
 Root thick ; leaves rigid, from a broad base narrow-lan- 
 ceolate, sharp keeled, on both sides together with the scape 
 silky, their margin nearly flat ; female racemes few-flowered, 
 condensed to a conglomerate panicle, which is much shorter 
 than the leaves ; calyx persistent, outside silky ; capsules 
 baccate, red, ovate, beaked by the style, three-celled; seeds 
 angulate, ovate, shining. 
 
 On wet mossy places in the Australian Alps, at sources of 
 the Murray and Snowy Eivers. 
 
 Leaves much broader, but not longer than those of the A. 
 alpina. 
 
 XeROTIDEyF. 
 
 49. Xerotes juncea. 
 
 Stemless, leaves long, terete or slightly compressed, 
 streaked, with teethless pungent apex, much longer than the 
 simple few-headed scape ; flowers of each sex conglomerate- 
 verticillate. 
 
 In the Port Lincoln district. C. Wilhelmi. 
 
 Much more robust than X. spartea, and in some degree 
 also alhed to X. leucocephala and typhina. 
 
 JUNCAGINE^. 
 
 50. Triglochin nanum. 
 
 Annual, extremely small ; root fibrous ; leaves narrow- 
 linear, channeled, nearly blunt, shorter than the treadlike 
 somewhat angular scape ; fruits on spreading stalks, pyra- 
 midale-linear, consisting of three carpels, which are slightly 
 dilated {it the base, inside glabrous, on the back very thin 
 keeled, and on both sides narrow margined. 
 
 On mossy rocks frequent in South Austraha, rarer in Vic- 
 toria. 
 
 Quite of the habit of T. centrocarpum. 
 
136 
 
 XV. 
 THE WATER OF THE PLENTY RIVER. 
 
 BY JOHN MAUND, M.D. 
 
 Some months ago Mr. Jackson communicated to the 
 Institute a paper on the Yan Yean Water Works ; I then 
 promised, at the following meeting to read a paper on the 
 chemical characteristics of the water to be supplied by that 
 scheme, but some additional experiments, that I was anxious 
 to perform, has occasioned the delay in bringing it before the 
 Society. Permit me introductorUy to premise, that pure 
 water, chemically considered, does not simply mean that it is 
 agreeable in taste, and bright and sparkling in appearance, 
 but that there is an entire absence of all foreign matters. 
 Absolutely pure water consists solely of two gases, viz. : — 
 88"89 parts by weight of oxygen, and ll'll of hydrogen, 
 or of one volume of the former to two of the latter. 
 
 All water in common use contains, in addition, substances 
 which may be regarded as impurities, such as gases which 
 rain becomes mixed with, in its formation in the clouds, and 
 in descending through the air ; salts which it dissolves while 
 percolating through various strata in the ground ; and decay- 
 ing animal and vegetable substances, which more or less 
 imiversally abound on the surface of the earth. 
 
 A small amount of the two former groups of substances 
 rarely render the water less desirable for domestic purposes, 
 but these in excess, with organic matter, give to it various 
 peculiarities, such as are termed hardness, softness, and also 
 colour, smell, or taste, which renders it more or less suitable 
 for the various purposes of life. 
 
137 
 
 The water to be supplied from the Yan Yean reservoir 
 will be derived from the Plenty Kiver, and this, with rain 
 water, will be the only source of supply. Analyses therefore of 
 the water, both when the river is low, and also when it is 
 increased in bulk by rain, will afford tolerably accurate know- 
 ledge of the character and quality we may expect to obtain 
 when the works are completed. As I have already sub- 
 mitted the water taken from the River Plenty to analysis at 
 various seasons of the year, and from different parts of the 
 stream, I will now very briefly submit some of the results 
 obtained. 
 
 The following is a quantitative analysis of the water taken 
 in December, 1853, from that part where the river is to be 
 turned into the reservoir. At this period the river was very 
 low. 
 
 CONTENTS OP ONE (lALLON, OE TEN IBS. AVOrEDtrpOlS. 
 
 Grains. 
 Carbonate of lime - - - - -60 
 
 Siilphate of Lime - -54 
 
 Alumina and Iron - - -38 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium and Sulphate of Magnesia - -29 
 Chloride of Sodium - - - 1-78 
 
 Silica - - - -91 
 
 Organic matter - - 1-22 
 
 5-72 
 The gas contained in the water was inconsiderable, and 
 this was mostly atmospheric air and carbonic acid. The 
 microscope exhibited little more than the presence of dead 
 vegetable matter and sand. 
 
 Water taken at the same period above the swamp gave a 
 total of solid matter of 4*85 grains per gallon, there being 
 only -37 grains of organic matter. 
 
 Another sample of the water obtained at the same period, 
 at the Lower Plenty bridge, about ten miles from the reser- 
 voir, contained 7-36 grains of solid matter, 1*97 grains of this 
 being organic matter. 
 
 N 
 
138 
 
 From the above statement it will be seen that the greater 
 the distance the water flows so the impurities increase in 
 quantity, particularly as regards organic matter, indeed this we 
 may have expected, especially when the current was to the eye 
 almost imperceptible. In other analyses of the water 1 have 
 made at different times of the year, derived from the river 
 where it is to be turned into the reservoir, I have found the 
 solid matter to vary from 4;^ to 6| grains per gallon, but I 
 believe the detailed analysis represents a very fair average. 
 
 If we compare the amount of solid matter per gallon with 
 that of the waters supplied to most English towns, we find 
 that it is greatly superior in point of purity. For instance, 
 the imperial gallon of the following waters contain : — 
 
 
 
 
 Grains per gallon. 
 
 East London Eiver 
 
 Company - 
 
 
 - 
 
 23i 
 
 New London River Company - 
 
 
 - 
 
 19i 
 
 Kent Water Company 
 
 
 
 29i 
 
 Hampstead 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 35^ 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 12i 
 
 Durham 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 - 
 
 15J 
 
 Sunderland - 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 27 
 
 Seine at Paris 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 28i 
 
 Rhone at Lyons 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 12i 
 
 Lake of Geneva 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 lOi 
 
 River Jordan - 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 73 
 
 Eiver Plenty - 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 5i 
 
 I have consulted upwards of sixty analyses of waters sup- 
 plied to towns in Great Britain and the continent, and I 
 only find one (wliich exists in Switzerland) that is purer than 
 the Plenty. 
 
 There is another circumstance which renders the Plenty 
 water a very desirable one, this is Its softness ; it being less 
 than two degrees of hardness, while the water supplied to 
 London is upwards of sixteen degrees of hardness. This 
 property too does not impair the taste of the Plenty water. 
 
139 
 
 which is extremely fresh and agreeable. Water being soft 
 is of great importance in both a sanitary and economic point 
 of view ; thus, it is a much more perfect solvent of all or- 
 ganic substances, and so is preferred for brewing, dyeing, 
 bleeching, and all manufacturing purposes, and this property 
 experience has proved equally applies to the various functions 
 of the human body. Mr. Youatt says, instinct has made the 
 horse conscious of this, for he never wiU drink hard water if 
 he has access to soft. It also is an immense saving to a 
 population in the simple article of soap, which with hard 
 water forms an insoluble salt with the fatty acids of the soap, 
 thereby rendering it much less applicable for detergent 
 purposes, as the soap has first to unite with all the earthy 
 salts before a lather can be formed. Professor Playfair says 
 with the Thames water thirty ounces of soap are wasted in 
 every 100 gallons of water before a detergent lather is pro- 
 duced ; and further states, it has been calculated that in 
 London the amount of soap and soda wasted, in consequence 
 of the hardness of the water, is equal in value to the gross 
 water-rental, and besides this it produces a much greater 
 wear and tear of clothes. 
 
 I would not wish it to be supposed that I entertain the 
 opinion that an entire absence of solid and gaseous con- 
 stituents in the water is desirable for the common uses of 
 life. Far from it, as it would so be reduced to the character 
 of distilled water, the taste of which is vapid and destitute 
 of freshness, and again, when we consider that water forms 
 so important an article of our diet, the ingestion by this 
 means of a small amount of inorganic matter cannot but 
 render it useful in supplying the loss sustained by the daily 
 waste of the body ; but where a large amount is contained in 
 the water, it is found to be injurious, and so, often proves 
 the source of derangement of health, and this is especially 
 manifest in particular localities by the greater frequency of 
 urinary and other diseases. Thus, we find Melbourne as it is 
 now supplied from the water containing but a small amount 
 
140 
 
 of either earthy, saline, or metallic particles, that such 
 diseases are extremely rare ; while, on the other hand, its 
 containing a large amount of decomposing organic matter is 
 doubtless often the exciting cause of that frequent disease 
 amongst us — dysentery. 
 
 Specimens op Water Exhibited. 
 
 No. 1. — This water was taken in January, 1854, from the 
 Plenty River above the swamp, and has been preserved for 
 the last fifteen months in a well corked stone bottle. It re- 
 mains perfectly sweet and clear, and tastes fresh as when 
 first derived from the river. 
 
 No. 2. — Is water taken at the same period from the Plenty 
 River, at the point where it is to be turned into the 
 reservoir, this remains equally good. 
 
 No. 3. — Is some of the same water as No. 2, but, instead 
 of being closely corked, it has been freely exposed to the air. 
 It is in all respects equal to the former. 
 
 No 4. — Is some of the same water as No. 3, but the sedi- 
 ment that has been deposited is allowed to remain in the 
 bottle. This is very smaU In quantity and consists mostly of 
 vegetable matter. 
 
 No. 5. — Is some water I received from Castlemaine in 
 March, 1853. It was sent for analysis in consequence of 
 being supposed to have produced numerous cases of dysentery. 
 Its chief peculiarity consists in containing a large amount of 
 organic matter and alumina, it still remains quite sweet, and 
 is as good as when forwarded to me. I exhibit it merely to 
 Illustrate a fact that I have often observed in this Colony, 
 viz., that water that contains even a large amount of organic 
 matter seems to have the property of keeping sweet for a 
 long period. 
 
 These specimens exhibit to some extent the capability of 
 the water keeping good for a long period, and though they 
 may not absolutely prove that the water in the reservoir will 
 
141 
 
 keep equally well, still I have not the slightest doubt, from 
 these and other observations, that if the water from the 
 reservoir be properly filtered immediately before being dis- 
 tributed, we shall not have reason to find fault with its 
 quality. The circumstance of having the water stored in a 
 reservoir, has perhaps been more frequently urged as an 
 argument against the scheme than any other, but this evi- 
 dently is in a great measure refuted by so many towns in 
 England being supplied with good water from similar sources. 
 The London Board of Health, after carefully examining the 
 subject, and having analyses made of various waters by the 
 first scientific men, proposed to do away altogether with the 
 river supply from the Thames, and instead, distribute entirely 
 rain water, to be collected at Bagshot Heath and its vicinity- 
 Again, a little while ago, the Glasgow city authorities con- 
 templated supplying their town from Loch Katrine instead 
 of from the Clyde. No person who has paid any attention 
 to the keeping of water is ignorant of the fact that organic 
 matter, such as the entomostracese and confervese are much 
 encouraged by the water remaining stagnant and exposed to 
 the air and light ; in the Yan Yean reservoir, however, this 
 win I believe to a considerable extent be obviated, for, in 
 addition to a stream constantly flowing into it, the size of the 
 reservoir is such, that the wind will do much to keep the 
 water in motion. Again, the depth is to be considerable, so 
 that the light will have much less effect in producing organic 
 matter. Careful filtration too will remove from it, not only 
 aluvium, but much of the insect and vegetable life which is 
 certain to some extent to be formed. 
 
 Another circumstance, which fortunately the Yan Yean 
 reservoir will possess, is its being at a distance from any 
 town, the air in the country being so much more pure than 
 that where a large population exists, where it is always loaded 
 more or less with noxious gases, which rain in descending 
 becomes mixed with. This impurity of the air is rendered 
 
142 
 
 manifest to all living in densely populated towns, by the air 
 feeling much more pure after a thunder-storm, which is 
 occasioned mostly by nitrous acid being formed in the air, and 
 this speedily decomposes exhalations, effluvia, &c. While 
 adverting to this subject, I cannot forbear stating that I 
 believe there is no one circumstance which demands better 
 the attention of the authorities than making such arrange- 
 ments regarding the reservoir as to preclude a dense popu- 
 lation settling near its banks, for, if such is allowed, the surface 
 water after rains is sure to convey into the reservoir a large 
 amount of impurities, which here will be doubly disadvanta- 
 geous, from there being no current, as in a river, which can 
 convey a portion away, here all must remain in some part of 
 the reservoir till their entire removal by consumption is 
 effected, thereby rendering the water constantly impure. 
 
 In stating my opinion that the water to be obtained from 
 the Yan Yean reservoir will not only be excellent, but superior 
 to that supplied to most, if not to all towns in Great Britain, 
 I would not wish it to be understood that I unhesitatingly 
 state the Yan Yean scheme is the best that could have been 
 adopted for supplying Melbourne, for, on this point, I confess, 
 from its embracing so many scientific details, I do not feel 
 myself a competent judge. I may mention, however, as a 
 general rule, that I should prefer, where it is possible, on the 
 gravitation principle, to derive the water directly from a river 
 near its source, so that it could not be subject to contamination, 
 rather than to any plan of storing water in reservoirs. 
 
 The only other point I wish to advert to regarding the 
 Plenty water, is its ready action on lead, and this is not 
 difficult to account for, as both experiments and experience 
 have proved that the larger the amount of inorganic consti- 
 tuents a water possesses, so is it less able to act on lead, while 
 the more impure it is, as regards organic matter, so, is it more 
 likely to act on this metal. The following experiments will 
 illustrate the action of the Plenty water on lead. I kept a 
 
143 
 
 piece of lead immersed in some of the water for a week, and 
 this water after evaporating to a fourth of its bulk, 'showed 
 it was contaminated with lead to a sufficient extent, if it were 
 constantly drunk, to produce the poisonous eiFects of this 
 metal. 
 
 This circumstance, therefore, should be a caution to the 
 public against using lead pipes, cisterns, &c., for poisoning by- 
 lead in this way is by no means an uncommon occurrence, and 
 from being introduced into the system gradually, it becomes 
 a most insidious poison, producing the most serious derang- 
 ment of the health, which unfortunately is but slowly, if 
 ever, restored, from the disease being often attributed to 
 other causes. 
 
 XVI. 
 GAS AND GAS WORKS 
 
 OOKSIDEEED 
 
 IN RELATION TO THE PRESENT CIRCUMSTANCES 
 
 KSD KEQUIREMENTS OF THE COLONY. 
 
 BY A. K. SMITH, ESQ., C.E., r.E.S., &c. 
 
 READ JUNE 7, 1855. 
 
 FoTJETHLT and lastly, the application of Gas to public and 
 private uses. 
 
 The three great arguments at one time advanced against 
 
144 
 
 the use of gas are now almost annihilated although we hear 
 them quoted, either for one reason or another, as a mode of 
 illumination more dangerous, more unhealthy, and more'costly 
 than the more common methods of obtaining heat and light. 
 
 It fortunately happens, however, that from the progress of 
 collateral knowledge, that the first of these objections has long 
 ago received a conclusive answer through the experience and 
 practice of our insurance companies, who are now so perfectly 
 convinced of the safety of gas, that they neither make any 
 extra charge, nor require any notice or intimation whatever 
 upon its adoption, as a luminiferous or calorific agent, in place 
 of lamp, candles, or coals. Here then we have the best of 
 tests, the money-test, the test of self-interest, a kind of evi- 
 dence it is impossible to controvert, coming as it does from a 
 class of the community not very liable to be deceived in such 
 matters, and this test so powerfully demonstrated the entire 
 safety of coal gas ( here I quote from the admirable paper by 
 Lewis Thompson, M. R. C. S.), that I will henceforth dismiss 
 it without the ceremony of discussion. No man of common 
 sense now-a-days beheves that there is any real danger in the 
 use of coal gas. But the question of unhealthiness or insalu- 
 brity is not so easily disposed of, for here we have unhappily 
 no insurance evidence to assist us, and even the bills of mor- 
 tality are inconclusive, nay although it is quite notorious that 
 the workmen constantly employed about gas works enjoy 
 excellent health, and live to a good old age, yet this only 
 proves, we are told, that they are " used to it," or like 
 Macbeth they bear a "charmed Hfe." Perhaps it would be 
 impossible to point out a more remarkable instance than the 
 above of the effect of prejudice on the imagination ; there are 
 thousands who firmly beUeve that coal gas in burning gives 
 off some liighly deletereous compounds, from wliich wax, tallow, 
 oil, and even coals themselves are free, and this behef is 
 supposed to be corroborative testimony in the shape of facts 
 displayed in the creation of disease, or in the misconceived 
 
145 
 
 opinions of medical men ; but the real truth of the matter is, 
 that whether gas be burned under the name of gas or not, can 
 make no difference whatever to the advocates of this strange 
 prejudice, for under all the circumstances used in the ordinary 
 burning of wax, tallow, oil, &c., &c., it is gas, and nothing but 
 gas that is burned, the only difference being that, coal gas is 
 always purified before it is consumed, whereas the extempo- 
 raneous gas of a candle or lamp is consumed without being 
 purified at all, and hence, light for light, it must and does vi- 
 tiate the air of an apartment vastly more than coal gas. If, 
 therefore, it is true that gas is insalubrious, then wax and oil 
 must be decidedly more so, from the simple fact that aU the 
 impurities they evolve pass into the atmosphere of the locality 
 lighted ; whereas the great bulk, at least, of these from coal 
 gas remain at the gas works. The actual question consequently 
 for the public to consider is, not whether the burning of gas be 
 Injurious to health, for, in one shape or another, gas must be 
 burned to procure light, but the point is, whether is it better 
 to consume for this purpose gas of a pure or impure quahty. 
 In an earUer page of this paper, I mentioned that a wax 
 or tallow candle was simply a gas work on a small scale, 
 consuming the gas generated immediately on its production 
 and without having its impurities removed; now those 
 impurities arising from coal are conducted through instru- 
 ments called condensers, scrubbers, and purifiers, where the 
 impurities are arrested by various means, so that, in the end, 
 pure gas only is sent to be consumed by the public. Thus, 
 then it would appear, that the advocate for wax and tallow 
 illumination is not only a manufacturer and consumer of gas, 
 but, what is worse, a manufacturer and consumer of the 
 most impure kind. It is well known that the red hot wick 
 of a recently extinguished candle continues to give out a 
 dense fetid vapour or smoke which readily kindles on the 
 approach of a lighted match — this smoke is notloing but 
 impure gas, the very gas constantly burned by the wax and 
 o 
 
14:6 
 
 tallow advocate^, and which, if properly condensed and puri- 
 fied, would resemble coal gas, the two differ only in respect to 
 purity, and I (Lewis Thompson) have entered thus minutely 
 into the qviestion, for the purpose of showing the extraordi- 
 nary power of prejudice, because, although it follows as a 
 necessary consequence of the above comparison, and is 
 moreover susceptible of positive proof, that all the ordinary 
 agents employed to give light evolve more impurity and 
 ■\itiate a larger amount of atmospheric air than coal, yet 
 many tolerably well educated persons are to be found who 
 have argued themselves into a belief the very opposite of 
 that which is the correct one. AVith regard to the last 
 argument, that gas is more costly than light from wax, 
 sperm, &c. &c., but little need be said, as it is now imiversally 
 admitted that gas is the cheapest where a considerable amount 
 of light is required, yet, strangely enough, it woidd appear 
 that where but little light is needed gas is not cheaper when 
 consumed in the fittings or burners generally in use ; this 
 arises from those burners being fixtures, and hence an 
 equally near position to them is not always attainable, as to 
 that of a lamp or candle ; it is true this can be remedied by 
 having a flexible Indian rubber tube, or by the use of elbow- 
 joints, &c., as in Scotland, where the light is brought into 
 proper proximity with the object in view, but unless this is 
 done, as before stated, gas is not cheaper where little light is 
 required, for this reason, that the effect of light diminishes 
 in proportion to the square of the distance, it is clear that a 
 single candle placed at two feet from any object will illumi- 
 nate that object as strongly as thirteen candles, or a gas light 
 eqvial to thirteen candles, would do, if placed at a distance of 
 little more than seven feet. Thus we see the advantage of 
 position which the common candle possesses, and which 
 compels the public to consume, as a general rule, thirteen 
 times as much gas, and to generate thirteen times as much 
 expense, heat, and inconvenience as would be incurred did 
 
147 
 
 we possess facilities for bringing the gas we burn into the 
 same advantageous proximity as the candle ; and the above 
 fact requires also to be kept in mind by those who would 
 substitute a gas light in a fixed position for any other por- 
 table light in common use. 
 
 The relative quantities and cost of gas and sperm candles 
 have been obtained by photometerical experiments, the results 
 of which are, that 1,000 cubic feet of common gas was found 
 to yield a light eqiial to that derived from 312,000 grains 
 or 44 4-7 lbs. of sperm candles — assume the price of gas to 
 be 25s. per 1,000 feet and the actual cost of sperm candles 
 2s. 6d. per lb. (the present selling price in Melbourne is 
 3s. 3d.), we would have for equal quantities of light : — 
 
 44 four-sevenths lbs. of Sperm Candles at 2s. 6d.... £5 11 6 
 1,000 feet of Gas, at 25s 15 
 
 Leaving a balance in favour of Gas £4 6 6 
 
 or nearly four and half times cheaper than sperm candles. 
 
 From the preceding facts, I think it will be admitted by 
 every candid inquirer, that in point of safety, salubriety and 
 economy, coal gas not only rivals but greatly excels every 
 other form of illumination yet within the reach of the public, 
 and I know of no reason unless ignorance and prejudice may 
 be dignified by the title, why gas should not be universally 
 employed in all the cities and towns, in our public and 
 private edifices, in our workshops, and in our parlours. 
 Amongst many other useful purposes to which coal gas may 
 be applied besides those of lighting our streets and houses, 
 I may mention that its introduction into the hall, the kitchen, 
 the bath room, the laundry, and the stable, has been attended 
 with signal success. In the hall it can be used to warm and 
 ventilate the house, in the kitchen to cook our victuals, in 
 the laundry to heat iron for the preparation of our linens, in 
 the bath room for the purpose of heating the water, in the 
 stable for the singeing of horses, &c., &c. 
 
148 
 
 In the colony of Victoria cooking and warming by gas has 
 great claims to our attention for several reasons, that, though 
 important here, are of less consequence at home and in other 
 countries. I refer to the sudden change of temperature, often 
 varying as much as thirty degrees Fahrenheit in a few hours, 
 and also to the fact that in no part of the world does the 
 saying of "time is money" admit of a broader or more truth- 
 ful application than here. 
 
 The pubhc of Great Britain have been much indebted to 
 J. O. N. Eutter, Esq., for many excellent hints on the use 
 and abuse of gas ; and in a paper read before the Society of 
 Arts, in 1853, he proceeds to say, — "It may not be imme- 
 diately and not without its advantages in promoting the sale 
 of gas, if its applicability to heating purposes be a little more 
 attentively considered, the proper methods of using gas need 
 only to be understood to become popular. The actual and 
 relative cost of such is not of so much importance as may be 
 imagined. In the every day business of life, out of doors and 
 in-doors, we wiUingly pay something extra for comforts, 
 conveniences, and luxuries ; so it is with gas as fuel, the most 
 simple, comfortable, and healthful means of adopting it ought 
 to be the first consideration, if it cost more than a common 
 fire as a matter of £ s. d., it possesses advantages of another 
 kind which money will not easily purchase." 
 
 Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, understanding that other 
 papers will claim your attention this evening, I draw this 
 paper somewhat abruptly to a conclusion, at its commence- 
 ment I stated that I would refer to, and quote from, various 
 authorities on the subject, I have done so ; and lest I should 
 be accused of plagiarism, I beg again to acknowledge the fact. 
 
 I have to thank you for your attention to a Light subject 
 although it may have been rather Heavily treated. 
 
149 
 
 XVII. 
 KEILOR BRIDGE. 
 
 BY EDWAED EICHAEDSON. 
 
 READ JUNE 7, 1855. 
 
 In this colony^ as in all other new oountrieSj particular 
 attention has been paid to the formation of roads and 
 bridges, the latter requiring in many instances much skill 
 and ingenuity. 
 
 Timber bridges, in the natural order of things, seem to be 
 the first ; they may be found in many rural districts where 
 science in these matters is unknown. 
 
 For instance, it is but natural to place two logs across a 
 stream of small dimensions, and on these logs place transverse 
 timbers, and then a crossing is obtained. 
 
 The subject of the present paper is one of these instances, 
 two of these rusticated bridges have been erected over the 
 stream of the Keilor Eiver, but the issue is too well known 
 to repeat here, not only waste of labour, money, but loss of 
 valuable lives. 
 
 Keilor is ten miles from Melbourne, situate on the main 
 road to the Gold Fields. The Salt Water Eiver rises here 
 in floods to thirty feet or more above the bed of the river. 
 
 About two years and a half ago the traiSc on that road 
 exceeded that of any road in England, and yet no provision 
 was made for a crossing, several old structures being washed 
 away. 
 
 The present bridge was designed according to the require- 
 ments of the site, being built on an American principle, there 
 
1.30 
 
 called Howe's Patent. The length of the bridge is 160 feet, 
 its span 135 feet; it consists of two abutments of solid 
 masonry, 38 feet high, the outside courses being hammered 
 and dressed, and the hearting of rubble masonry. The 
 superstructure of the bridge consists of three trusses placed 
 on these abutments, the floor resting on the lower stringer of 
 these trusses; it has two road-ways, each 10 feet 6 inches 
 wide. 
 
 At the time the plans of this bridge were sent to the 
 Lieutenant-Governor, Mr. Latrobe, there were only two 
 contractors in Melbourne considered competent to undertake 
 the work, one of these being the successful tenderer ; the 
 bridge was undertaken with the sanction of the Executive 
 Council in March, 1853. 
 
 The contractor, Mr. Thomas Oldham, proceeded with the 
 works as far as the masonry was concerned till the eve of its 
 completion. The framing of the first truss was also com- 
 pleted, and I must say not without many difficulties. The terms 
 of the contract left the whole of the responsibility with the 
 contractor, as far as the erection and carrying out of the 
 works as per plan and specification. The contractor, being a 
 gentleman of great practical attainments, imdertook to build 
 the trusses according to his views, although repeatedly advised 
 by the engineer to the contrary. The trusses were first 
 framed on the ground and then set on edge, and latterly 
 launched across the stream on edge. 
 
 This was an undertaking of no small mechanical skill, and 
 is worthy of the man who projected the plan. A truss 17 
 feet high, 50 tons weight, and 160 feet long, to be removed 
 across a chasm 100 feet, even with English means, would be 
 considered no mean undertaking, and I am happy to say has 
 been here performed successfully, but at the same time with 
 a sacrifice to the contractor. The first truss was cari-ied 
 across without any accident (jr obstruction except that of 
 enormous expense. It may be well here to describe the way 
 
151 
 
 m which the truss has been raised on edge, canted and 
 launched across the stream. 
 
 In raising the first truss recourse was had to wedges, these 
 were entered at equal distances throughout the whole length 
 of the truss; great care was taken to drive them simulta- 
 neously so that the truss might be raised equally from end to 
 end, the truss was blocked up as so raised, subsequently jack- 
 screws were used, and when nearly upright guy-ropes were 
 attached to the top stringer, in order to keep it in its proper 
 position when up, to these guy-ropes crab winches were 
 applied, and by this means the raising was completed. The 
 second truss was raised about four feet from the ground by 
 means of jack-screws, and the remainder by four sets of shears, 
 this plan being adopted as more secure and expeditious. 
 
 Owing to the nature of the ground, the position in which 
 the trusses were built caused them- when raised to stand at an 
 angle of sixty degrees to the axis of the bridge, this involved 
 a new difficulty,andthreesetsof "slides"or"ways"hadtobelaid 
 something similar to those used in launching vessels; on the first 
 of these the truss was moved endways about thirty-five feet; on 
 the second about twenty ; and on the third, which was nearly 
 parallel to the axis of the bridge, about forty feet ; the over- 
 hanging end was here landed on a stage built for the purpose, 
 and the truss moved on its full length across the stream; 
 owing to the inclination obliged to be given to the slides, the 
 lower end was from twelve to fourteen feet below the top 
 of the stone pier, and recourse was had to shears and powerful 
 blocks and tackle, to lift the truss to its final resting place. 
 
 The second truss was more expeditiously raised ; by the 
 suggestions of the engineer, instead of raising the truss by 
 screw-jacks entirely, four crab winches were provided, and 
 shear legs to correspond, to which were attached blocks and 
 tackle, the four crabs working simultaneously ; the second 
 truss was raised on edge, but in launching the truss lost its 
 balance, and that portion of the structure fell to pieces. 
 
152 
 
 The case being one of great difficulty the Government 
 allowed the contractor to proceed with the work until this 
 truss was rebuilt and carried over, on the condition that the 
 resident engineer was responsible for the completion of the 
 work. This being the first time the engineer was allowed to 
 interfere with the arrangements or mode of carrying on the 
 works. 
 
 It may not be out of place, that the engineer, Mr. 
 George Holmes, previously expressed his dissatisfaction 
 as to the plans proposed for erecting the bridge, his own 
 notion being to erect a temporary pile scaffolding, and on 
 that to erect the truss, but, as matters then stood, and taking 
 the position of the broken truss, it was thought ad\isable to 
 conform to the contractor's views and assist him — sufiice it to 
 say, the second truss was launched safely and placed in its 
 position without accident. 
 
 The third truss was, by my own instructions, built on a 
 platform resting on the two trusses previously carried across, 
 and in one-third of the time and expense taken to place either 
 the others in its position, which e%'idently proves the 
 suggestion of the engineer in the first instance, that is, to 
 build the bridge on a platform. 
 
 There are several bridges of a similar design now on 
 American railways, ranging in span from 100 to 250 feet, 
 where the span exceeds 150 feet a lamenated arch is generally 
 introduced to assist in taking the weight off the middle of the 
 truss, and transferring it to the branches, or eventually to the 
 abutments of the arch. 
 
 The design of this bridge has been found to answer very 
 well in America and in many places in Great Britain. The 
 truss is simple and of great strength, no skilful mechanician 
 is required, and the village carpenter of any country district 
 may, if needs be, construct a similar bridge. 
 
 The lattice bridge had been in vogue for a long time in 
 America, these seem to have given way to Plowe's truss on 
 
153 
 
 analysation aiid on its merit. The strength of Howe's truss 
 is not interfered with by inferior mechanism so much as the 
 others, and its means of adjustment vastly superior and more 
 simple. Due inspection of the plan which is exhibited, will 
 show some points which are evident to every one, as being 
 simple and efficacious; the principle one of these is the 
 tension or suspending rods, which are capable of adjusting 
 the truss from the effects of the atmosphere, this may appear 
 not worthy of particular notice, but in this colony it is of para- 
 mount importance, especially where colonial timber is used. 
 
 As to the strength of the truss, it may be easily obtained 
 by a simple formula, but yet calculations are not always to be 
 depended upon, the workmanship has to be looked after, and, 
 from time to time, a suggestion and particular attention to 
 details is often of more importance in the stability of a 
 structure than is generally considered; as an instance, a 
 design by the engineer, of a clamp was introduced, which 
 proved its efficacy in the broken truss, the truss was broken 
 in three places, but in no instance where a joining of beams 
 took place did the clamp give way. 
 
 In calculating the dimensions of the various timbers in 
 this bridge, a hberal allowance was made for defects in 
 workmanship. 
 
 It may now safely be said, it has fuUy sustained its expec- 
 tations, for I have myself oftentimes watched it, and could 
 not at any time find any sensible deflection and very little 
 vibration; finally, my firm belief is, if this bridge were 
 enclosed and weather-boarded, it would last thirty years ; the 
 cost of the bridge 160 feet long, having two stone abutments 
 thirty-eight feet high, above ordinary water level, was £11,000. , 
 Taking into consideration the time this bridge was built, 
 when mechanics had 35s. per diem, and labourers from 12s. . 
 to 18s., it will bear a comparison with most of similar con- 
 structions, in Europe and America, in point of expense and 
 
 workmanship. 
 P 
 
154 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON BRIDGES AS ADAPTED 
 TO THE COLONY. 
 
 BY FRANCIS BELL, C.E. 
 
 READ JUNE 7, 1855. 
 
 In submitting this short paper to the Institute, it is my 
 object to bring forward and invite discussion on a subject 
 that I consider of the greatest importance to this colony at 
 present, not only as regards its monetary condition, but with 
 respect to its future prospects. 
 
 The subject of my paper this evening, is to show the great 
 saving that would be effected by the introduction and con- 
 struction of the wrought iron lattice girder bridge over every 
 other kind of bridge, not only on railways, but on public 
 roads. Since my arrival in the colony I have maturely con- 
 sidered this subject, and regret to find that so little notice 
 has been taken by engineers of the materials and construction 
 of bridges most adapted to the colony. The favourite mate- 
 rial used at present seems to be wood, which does very well 
 in the country districts for small spans, where large logs can 
 be conveniently had, but where the spans increase to twenty- 
 five feet and upwards, some other safer material should be 
 iised. 
 
 The timber of this colony is not well adapted for bridges 
 of large spans, owing to its great tendency to warp and 
 shrink, and also to a peculiarity which I have not observed in 
 other timber, viz. : it shrinks with the fibre or lengthwise, 
 this, as must be evident to even an unprofessional man, is a 
 
155 
 
 very serious matter in engineering works, and I have found 
 from experience at home, where timber does not shrink so 
 much as it does in this warm climate ; that in the summer 
 the greatest attention is required to prevent shaking and 
 oscillation, and additional stays and straps are frequently 
 added to try and prevent this, but with very little effect, for 
 the wood must shrink, and the iron straps, bolts, and tension 
 rods expand at the same time, and in the winter season vice 
 versa. Then, surely in this colony where the heat is so 
 intense in the summer, all these effects must be greatly in- 
 creased, and if it can be shown that a bridge or Viaduct 
 could be constructed without these faults, and at a much less 
 cost than wood, and infinitively less than stone, it would be 
 of vast benefit hereafter, and would enable most important 
 and useful works to be proceeded with that otherwise would 
 be long delayed. 
 
 To illustrate this more fully, I wiU suppose a deep river 
 has to be crossed with a span of fifty feet. I have made 
 estimates of three different kinds of materials for spanning 
 it, calculated at the present colonial prices, they are as 
 follows, leaving out the abutments, which I have supposed to 
 be the same in all : — 
 
 Constructed of stone it would cost .... £5,000 
 
 Constructed of wood . . 1,600 
 
 Constructed of wrought iron lattice . . . 550 
 
 Thus, it is evident the wrought iron lattice girder 
 bridge of the form I propose, is immeasurably the cheapest; 
 and now to determine its durability and strength. In the 
 year 1847 I designed and had constructed of this formation, 
 for the Cork and Passage Railway in Ireland, girders of 
 fifty feet span ; the cost for a double line of rails or three 
 girders including flooring, was £414; weight 17 tons 3 cwt. 
 1 qr.; add to this freight, and cartage on 18 tons, with addi- 
 tional cost of erection in the colony, and it will come to about 
 
156 
 
 what I have put down, £550; as this was the first lattice 
 girder bridge of this form, constructed, Sir John MacneUl 
 was naturally anxious to test it, and Captain Wynn, the 
 Government Railway Inspector put it to very severe tests 
 before allowing this line to be opened for trafiic ; he caused 
 one of the largest locomotives, with the tender filled with 
 water and coke, weighing twenty-five tons, to rest on the 
 centre of the girder, afterwards he caused the engine to be 
 run across the viaduct at the greatest velocity attainable, at 
 the rate of about seventy miles an hour — with all this there 
 was not the slightest deflection observable. 
 
 I had several smaller girders afterwards constructed, of 
 Avhich these are drawings,* and afterwards on the Great 
 Southern and Western Railway, and on the KiUarney Junc- 
 tion Railway, I had six or seven constructed of different sizes 
 and spans, and all with equal success, and since I have been 
 in this colony I have had letters from the contractor stating 
 he had orders for several others from three diiierent railway 
 companies, that they were the strongest, cheapest, and lightest 
 bridges that could be erected, and were coming into general 
 use. 
 
 To enumerate some of the advantages of adopting them 
 in this country would be : the great facility of transport, for 
 the lattice bars coidd all be cut, punched, and fitted, before 
 coming out here, the entire being so hght and in such small 
 pieces, the cartage would be very trifling, and the rivettiug 
 could be easily done on the groiind; then neither centring, 
 scaffolding, or any expensive machinery is necessary, for all 
 that is required for fixing them in their position is a few 
 rollers and a crab windlass, as they can be rolled along the 
 approach and placed with the greatest ease. 
 
 In conclusion, I have a strong conviction of their great 
 superiority in strength, durability, and cheapness, for tra- 
 versing large spans, and I have no hesitation in advocating 
 
 * Tlic above di-awiugs were laid before tlie meeting. 
 
157 
 
 their introduction; it is, however, most essential, before 
 opening them to the public, to submit them to severe and 
 satisfactory tests ; these tests have been various and frequent 
 on those that have already been opened, and it may be safely 
 affirmed, that in no case where Wrought Iron Box Lattice 
 Girder Bridges have been duly proportioned and executed, 
 has there been the least reason to doubt their security ; they, 
 furthermore, admit of being highly ornamental, and have, 
 when erected, a most elegant, airy and light appearance, 
 
 I regret much that I have not been able to get a model 
 prepared, as I had intended ; it would have fally shown the 
 construction, and enabled me to put it to a test, before this 
 meeting. 
 
 I might here suggest that Prince's Bridge could be very 
 easily widened by removing the present parapet and support- 
 ing the footpaths outside on a modification of the lattice gir- 
 der, supported partly by'brackets, this could be done at a very 
 moderate cost, and be of infinite benefit to the public. 
 
 XIX. 
 THE TRANSLATION OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 BY WM. SYDNEY GIBBONS. 
 
 READ JUNE 7, 1855. 
 
 The short paper which I have now the honour to lay before 
 the Institute embodies views which I have at former periods 
 had occasion to set before my pupils. The tone is necessarily 
 
158 
 
 somewhat didactic, this I shotdd have been glad to have avoided 
 as inappropriate to the present occasion, but, on reconsider- 
 ing the subject, the course of requesting the indulgence of our 
 members, appears to me to be preferable. It will not then, 
 I trust, be deemed to imply any want of deference to the In- 
 stitute, when a little of the Educator peeps out, and I employ, 
 because they present themselves to me as the most suitable, 
 phrases and illustrations that seem to savour of the class-room. 
 
 The remarks I have now to make were originally suggested 
 by observation of the extreme poverty of most of the re- 
 cognised translations of classic authors generally, and the 
 English versions of many modern foreign writers. This re- 
 mark applies especially to versified translations, in which vio- 
 lence is done to the spirit and verse of the original without 
 any countervailing advantage being presented to the reader. 
 Such a work is neither an English poem, nor a translation of 
 the Classic ; a certain imperative adherence to the style and 
 manner of the author has served to cripple the translator, 
 who has only thus far allowed himself to be guided by it, and 
 has utterly disregarded the beauties everywhere apparent in 
 the peculiar terms of phraseology, and in artistic selection 
 of words from the synonyms at command. I trust that in 
 the following remarks I may be able to justify this heretical 
 condemnation of writers whose names have passed into the list 
 of English Classics, and may support successfully my view 
 that the most free translation is really the least so, and that 
 the closest literal rendering mt.11 produce the boldest and most 
 forcible translation. 
 
 The great end of translation is to convey into one language 
 sentiments originally expressed in another. It is but too 
 frequently the case that what is called a translation is little 
 more than an original work composed on the basis of that 
 professed to be translated. This observation is fully borne out 
 by a perusal of the principal poetical translations ( so called) 
 of the Classics by some of our eminent writers, who have 
 
159 
 
 in these works not only cramped their own powers, but failed 
 to render the beauties of their originals. Attention to the 
 following observations will remove many of the difficulties 
 which commonly arise, and will lessen the risk of falling into 
 the errors above-mentioned. 
 
 I. In order to convey fiiUy and accurately the sense of the 
 author, without loss of spirit and delicacy, other than must 
 necessarily follow from a change of language (this de- 
 terioration may however be reduced to almost a nullity,) it is 
 requisite to exercise the greatest care in the selection of words, 
 so that the form of the classic sentence may be preserved, and 
 the full force of expression arising from the use of partifljlar 
 idioms and words may be obtaiaed without any other change 
 than the conversion of idiom, or rather inversion of sentence 
 in deference to the idiom of another language. 
 
 A few remarks on the process by which this end is best 
 accomplished may be admissible here ; and I would deprecate 
 the idea that this is common-place or that, because the terms 
 are used in teaching, the process itself really forms a frequent 
 part of education. 
 
 First, the words, when their syntactical relations are deter- 
 mined, should be rendered literally and in the classical form 
 of sentence. The various radical significations of each of 
 the words may then be tried and compared until the true 
 sense of the author is discovered and is verified by the con- 
 text. The bare sense having been thus obtaiaed, the sentence, 
 as it stands iu its rough purity may be gradually polished, by 
 the change of order and the substitution of one synonym 
 for another which is found to be more forcible or more con- 
 sistent, until it assumes the aspect of elegant English. In, 
 doiug this care must be exercised in the selection of syno- 
 nyms, so that all the principal inflections may be rendered, 
 by similar forms in English, that all confusion of subject 
 and object, &c,, may be prevented, and the ideas contaiaed in 
 the original may be conveyed without any conversion of 
 
160 
 
 phrase. And the possibility of construing the original, word 
 by wordj into the adopted translatioUj with only such modifi- 
 cation as does not do violence to either the letter or the 
 spirit of the author is the best test of the fidelity of a trans- 
 lation to the original, as the elegance of its construction as a 
 whole is the best indication of the mastery attained over the 
 language into which it is rendered. Nor is this so difficult as 
 might be supposed, for, except in some peculiarly elliptical ex- 
 pressions, a judicious selection of the various admitted signi- 
 fications of words, and a careful survey of their derivation, 
 added to a due observation of their syntactical relations, will 
 en^e the student to give the spirit and force of free English 
 to a translation, which on close comparison with the text, 
 seems to be, and is, purely literal. Indeed, it generally hap- 
 pens that a translation made on this plan and in pursuance 
 of these instructions is more forcible and more poetic than 
 what is commonly called a free rendering, in which the 
 translator jumps at a supposed idea, and moulds it to his 
 own taste, abandoning all attempt to give the style and weight 
 of the author. In fact, a so called free translation is too 
 frequ.ently a substitution of the ideas as well as the words of 
 the Translator for those of his Author : whereas the analytic 
 and synthetic processes enable us to give a version which varies 
 only in tongue from the text, and renders not only the 
 ideas, but the actual words of the poet or orator into their 
 etymological equivalent. 
 
 II. In order for the student to place himself ia a position 
 to efiect the necessary modification of construction and selec- 
 tion of words, it is essential that he regard the two ruling prin- 
 ciples of language. Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 Syntax, or the construction of sentences {aiivTat,is—<Tvv,TaiiiTa), 
 thows the relations in which the words stand to each other, 
 and, consequently, the expression of the idea, by displaying 
 fully the arrangement of the materials by which it is expressed ; 
 and so gives the key both to the conception of the author 
 and to the mode of setting it forth in another tongue. 
 
161 
 
 Etymology, or the Structtire of words ('erviJLo\oy,a, 'erviios-'er^os 
 
 'ei/M, \oyos) shows the power of each constituent of the sentence and 
 its derivation, hy a strict examination of which its radical or 
 natural signification may be traced, and from which its ac- 
 quired meaning may be deduced ; and the means of finding 
 a suitable and expressive synonym are at once provided. 
 
 In order, however, to attain this power, a minute attention to 
 the details of Etymology is indispensable, as without it no 
 certain knowledge of the identity of any word, nor any 
 definite conclusion as to its origin, can be arrived at. Accurate 
 observation of the accidence of words, or their peculiar in- 
 flections arising from their syntactical relations, is also essen- 
 tial to a right knowledge of the syntax of the sentence, and 
 the consequent function and power of each word, as well 
 as of the identity of the words themselves and of their sig- 
 nifications as derived from their roots. 
 
 I shall not trespass on the time of the meeting by enteririg 
 upon examples or by going farther into detail. Instances 
 where the plan I advocate would have obviated all necessity 
 for weakening the original by distorting the phrases to 
 agree with our notions of idiom, notions that set at naught 
 the true origin of idiom, viz. : — a concise and somewhat cor- 
 rupt setting of an idea in words that have since become as 
 obsolete as is now the legitimate sentence in which the senti- 
 ment could have been conveyed at the time the corruption 
 first occurred : a careful analysis of such an idiom enables the 
 student to refer each peculiar form of speech to its source, 
 and then re-construct it in an analogous manner in H^ own 
 language. 
 
 In the same manner rhetorical figures, tropes, and metastases 
 may be re-produced with literal fidelity, and with scrupulous 
 regard for the artistic beauty of the original idea. 
 
 I trust that I have now supported, as far as is possible 
 within the limits of a single paper, the somewhat paradoxical 
 proposition with which I started, viz. : — that the most free 
 Q 
 
162 
 
 translation (so called) is the most cramped, while the most 
 literal rendering is the most bold, and faithful, and forcible. 
 
 XX. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID 
 AND STEARINE CANDLES. 
 
 BY A. K. SMITH, C.E., &c. &c. 
 
 READ JUNE 7, 1855. 
 
 It may seem somewhat strange that I should have chosen 
 such a subject for a few brief observations to-night, and it 
 does at first sight appear somewhat anomalous, that a gas en- 
 gineer should recommend the establishment of a manufactory 
 for the production of Hght other than gas. StUl I feel cer- 
 tain that you wiU join with me in taking a more liberal view 
 of the matter than the contracted one of advocating the in- 
 troduction of one branch of manufacture at the expense of 
 another. Personally interested as I am in coal gas and its 
 manufacture, I fear no rival, well knowing that the £ S. D. 
 test (independent of the convenience and safety of gas) will 
 be the great champion in the cause. 
 
 In the moral, as in the physical world, the first mandate is 
 equally applicable — " Let there be light" — and not only dark- 
 ness but vice wlU be diminished. Implicitly believing in the 
 assertion, I consider I am only doing my duty as a member 
 of society, in pointing out to those who will not be in a po- 
 
163 
 
 Bition to avail themselves of gas when the city is lighted, the 
 means of obtaining a good substitute at a cheap rate ; that 
 such a substitute can be manufactured cheaper than we can 
 import it, I propose to make manifest. 
 
 If we refer to the statistical accounts of colonial produce 
 exported from Victoria in the four years of 1850-1-2-3, we 
 will find that no less than 11,096 tons of tallow were exported 
 the average value of which is estimated at 3^d. per lb., and 
 that in 1855, to the 19th May, 446 tons were shipped from 
 the port of Melbourne alone. The imports of candles during 
 the same dates amount to nearly 3,000 tons, and the quantity, 
 for the first quarter of 1855, received into the port of Mel- 
 bourne alone, is 341 tons, at an estimated cost to the public 
 of 2s. per lb. (the present selling price being 3s.), amounting 
 collectively to £76,384, upon which the public lose, as a 
 minimum, not less than £29,644, independent of losing at 
 least sixteen and a half per cent, in the tallow shipped. Mr. 
 P. A. Walker, in the Argus of June 5th, ia remarking the 
 inconsiderable quantity of tallow at present exported, in com- 
 parison with the time when boiling down was practised, pro- 
 ceeds to say — " However, as roads are improved in the inte- 
 rior, and the expenses of transit lessened, the quantity will 
 increase, and form, as before, an important item in our exports. 
 From the reports of individuals to be relied on, the quantity 
 of ' butchers' fat ' wasted in the neighbourhood of the va- 
 rious diggings is immense, and, if it could be conveyed to 
 Melbourne, would prove a source of employment and wealth, 
 whereas now it is only a generator of disease in the neigh- 
 bourhood where it is wasted." I am led to notice these re- 
 marks, in order to prove that we have the raw material for the 
 proposed manufacture, and that the demand for the manufac- 
 tured article would equal the supply even where the stimulus 
 of a higher price was offered. 
 
 With this preface I will now proceed to make a few remarks 
 on the manufacture of sulphuric acid and stearine candles : 
 
164 
 
 in doing so I beg to acknowledge the co-operative assistance 
 of a French chemist, Monsieur Francis Maudit. The specu- 
 lation I am about to propose would be of benefit to the 
 colony at large by furnishing a necessary article at a reason- 
 able price, as well as proving remunerative to the parties 
 engaged therein, independent of a handsome interest or profit 
 on the capital invested. As before mentioned, one . of the 
 principal articles this colony exports is tallow, notwithstand- 
 ing that the produce does not at present far exceed the wants 
 of the colony. It is returned to us in the shape of stearine 
 candles, thereby causing the public of this colony to bear all 
 the expenses resulting from the double transit, and to lose the 
 profits which all parties engaged in this traffic must reap. 
 
 As to the expenses of this manufacture, it would be far 
 better that the money should remain in the colony. Nor is 
 this all, for it is the supposition that the importation will be 
 regulated by the consumption and a fair and regular price 
 maintained, which is not the case, for the public 9,re some- 
 times obliged to pay double and treble the cost price of these 
 articles, to the entire benefit of a few individuals engaged iij. 
 this commerce, who make as it were a monopoly of the trade, 
 which so largely remunerates them, and they will no doubt 
 endeavour to keep things in this state as long as possible, if a 
 stop is not speedily put to this abuse by the only means which 
 would attain that end, that is to say, by the establishment of 
 a manufactory of stearine candles in this city. 
 
 It ^yill be perceived at a glance, that all these abuses would 
 be put down at the moment a manufactory, established here, 
 began to furnish the market. A fair price would be main- 
 tained, which, in the end, would brins; the said manufactory 
 in direct competition with the English market, with which, 
 however, it would be able to cope, leaving large profits to the 
 parties engaged in it. This is what I propose to prove by the 
 calculations which will follow. To carry out the above it 
 would be, however, necessary to make the sulphuric acid re- 
 
165 
 
 quired in the manufacture of stearine candles, seerag that the 
 acid attainable in the market costs from £1 8s. to £2 16s. 
 per cwt., which prices would materially affect the profitahle 
 manufacture of candles, whereas we could make it at 9s. per 
 cwt.j which would render all competition useless, and leave 
 the market entirely in our own hands for the disposal of the 
 surplus acid that we should manufacture. The quantity im- 
 ported is hut were we to dispose of it at the rate 
 of 18s. per cwt. the consumption, I have no doubt, would be 
 doubled, as at present it cannot be applied to many useful 
 purposes on account of the exorbitant cost price. I might 
 instance the manufacture of that valuable and highly concen- 
 trated manure, superphosphate of lime. Its use is so general 
 that many new branches of industry would spring up if it 
 could be obtained cheap. 
 
 In all cases we could restrict the manufacture, or make use 
 of the surplus for the fabrication of crude soda and miu-iatic 
 acid. The expenses attending the manufacture of sulphuric 
 acid would be as foUows : — 
 
 Sulphuric, 6 cwt., at lOs. per cwt £i " 
 
 Nitrate of soda, 401bs., at 20s. per cwt 7 
 
 Coals, 1 2 cwt., at 70s. per ton 2 2 
 
 Two men and one boy 1 10 
 
 Divers..- 10 
 
 £7 9 
 
 PBODXTGE. 
 
 1890 lbs., at 66 — nine-tenths of a penny cost price per lb. 
 Or 2170 „ „ 60 
 Or 2360 „ „ 55 
 Or 2590 „ „ 50 
 
 I will now proceed to show the expenses attending the 
 manufacture of stearine candles : — 
 
 Tallow, 20r0 lbs., at 6d. per lb £50 
 
 Lime, 260 lbs., at 10s. per cwt 18 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 560 lbs., at Id. per lb 2 8 4 
 
 Labour 5 6 
 
 Fuel, oneton 3 10 
 
 £62 12 4 
 Manufacture of 900 lbs. of canffles 7 10 
 
 £70 2 4 
 
166 
 
 Stearlne candles 900 lbs. 
 
 ou , 1100 „ 
 
 Should any sulphuric acid remain after deducting for the 
 above and the supply of the market^ we could employ it for 
 the manufacture of crude soda and muriatic acid^ or restrict 
 the quantity made to the exact demand. Without entering 
 into the details of the materials required, I shall merely state 
 that we could manufacture 
 
 1650 lbs. crude soda, cwt. 14rJ ) j?ir t n 
 1500 „ muriatic acid, at 22 / * " " 
 
 The surplus muriatic acid, after the supply of the market, 
 could be made use of for the extraction of gelatine from 
 bones. I will now recapitulate the daily expenses, adding 
 thereto the incidental expenses and the produce, to see the 
 profits of the undertaking : — 
 
 Manufacture of 2170 lbs. sulphuric acid £7 9 
 
 Interest of £2,000, at ten per cent, per diem 11 
 
 Maniifafiture of candles 70 2 4 
 
 Interest of £3,000, at ten per cent, per diem 16 6 
 
 Clerks and office expenses, at £600 per annum 1 13 
 
 £80 11 10 
 
 PEODUOE. 
 
 Stearine candles, 900 lbs., at Is. 3d , per lb 56 5 
 
 Oil, 1,100, at £40 per ton 20 
 
 Sm-plus acid, 1,500 lbs., at 2d. per lb 12 10 
 
 88 15 
 
 Sale of produce .„ 88 15 
 
 Expenses 80 11 10 
 
 Profits per diem 8 3 
 
 In conclusion, I will beg leave to state that the profits could 
 not be less, and may be greater, seeing that I have rather 
 exaggerated the expenses than otherwise, which fairly bears 
 
167 
 
 out what I stated in the commencement^ viz., that this un- 
 dertaking would be highly remunerative to the capitalist who 
 would engage in it, as well as result in great benefits to the 
 public of this colony. 
 
 Goodhugh & Trembath, Printers, Flinders-lane east. 
 
THE 
 
 VICTORIAN INSTITUTE. 
 
 PATRON : 
 His ExcBLLENcr Sir Charles Hotham, C.B. 
 
 PRESIDENT: 
 His Honor the Acting Chief Justice. 
 
 VICE PRESIDENT: 
 Captain Clarke, R.E., Surveyor-General. 
 
 TREASURER: 
 John Maund, Esq., M.D. 
 
 HONORARY SECRETARY: 
 William Sydney Gibbons, Esq., 5, Collins Street, East. 
 
 COUNCIL: 
 r. Sinnett, Esq., Chairman. 
 Captain Pasley, R.E., Colonial Engineer. 
 A. R. C. Selwyn, Esq., Government Geologist. 
 George Higinbotham, Esq., Barrister at Law. 
 
 E. G. Mayne, Esq., Registrar of the University. 
 
 M. B. Jackson, Esq., C.E., Engineer of Water Works. 
 
 A. K. Smith, Esq., Engineer of Gas Works. 
 
 George Holmes, Esq., C.E., Engineer of Water Works. 
 
 F. Mueller, Esq., Ph. Dr., Government Botanist. 
 
 LIST OF MEMBERS. 
 
 Abbott, J., Esq., MD. Barker, E., Esq. 
 
 Anderson, Capt. W. A. B. Braun, P. W., Esq 
 
 Aplin, C. D., Esq. Balmain, J., Esq. 
 
 Atkinson, W., Esq. 
 
 Campbell, F. W., Esq. 
 
 Bell, P., Esq., C.E. ' Capewell, L. P., Esq. 
 
 Bland, R. H., Esq, Cutts, — . Esq. 
 
 Barrett, A., Esq. Clarson, W., Esq. 
 
 Bullock, E., Esq. Champion, E., Esq. 
 
 Brodribb, K., Esq. Crawford, J. P., Esq. 
 
 Brisbane, J., Esq. '^iope, T. S., Esq. 
 
Dick, A. M., Esq. 
 Dumbell, G. H., Esq. 
 Davidson, Major A. 
 Dickson, E. I., Esq. 
 Dismorr, J. S., Esq. 
 
 Evans, J., Esq. 
 Early, J., Esq. 
 Edwards, J., Esq. 
 
 Maund, J., Esq., M.D. 
 Mueller, F., Esq., Ph. D. 
 Martin, J., Esq. 
 jMoore, J., Esq. 
 Mayne, E. G., Esq. 
 McDermott, Townsend, Esq. 
 ilcDonogh, M. .T., Esq. 
 Michie, A., Esq. 
 Montefiore, Jacob, Esq. 
 
 Ford, F. T. W., Esq. 
 Foord, G., Esq. 
 Farewell, C, Esq. 
 Foxton, J. G., Esq. 
 
 Gibbons, W. S., Esq. 
 Guillaume, G., Esq. 
 Gilchrist, W. J., Esq. 
 Griffith, C. J., Esq. 
 
 Hod^n, J., Esq. 
 Harrison, A., Esq. 
 Hough, G. S., Esq. 
 Higinbotham, George, Esq. 
 Hankins, E., Esq. 
 Heynes, J., Esq. 
 Hoseason, E., Esq. 
 Holmes, George, Esq. 
 
 Jackson, M. B., Esq., C.E. 
 
 Kentish, N. L., Esq. 
 Knight, J. G., Esq. 
 
 Lewis, G., Esq. 
 
 Moody, J. J., Esq. 
 ^lorse, H. P., Esq. 
 
 Ohlfsen-Bagge, C. H., Esq 
 
 Pasley, Capt. C., B.E. 
 Pritchard, D., Esq. 
 Pyke, T. H., Esq. 
 Powlett, F. .\., Es-i. 
 Palmer, J. F., Esq. 
 
 Robertson, W-, Esq. 
 Richardson, E., Esq. 
 Rawlinson, Thomas E., Esq. 
 
 Sinnett, F., Esq. 
 Selwyn, A. TI. C., Esq. 
 Smith, A. K., Esq. 
 Smith, W., Esq. 
 Smith, L. L., Esq. 
 Stewart, B., Esq. 
 Semple, J., Esq. 
 Slade, Edgar, Esq. 
 
 Venables, H., Esq. 
 Verdon, G., Esq. 
 
 Wilson, E., Esq. 
 "^Vhipham, T. W., Esq. 
 Watts, C. H., Esq. 
 Wright, W. H., Esi. 
 
ABSTRACT OF PEOCEEDINGS, 
 
 PUBLIC PEELIMINAEY MEETING, 
 15ih June, 1854. 
 
 His Worship the Mayor, having been called to the chair, briefly 
 noticed the importance of the subject the meeting was summoned 
 to consider, and called upon Mr. W. S. Gibbons, the Promoter of 
 the scheme, to explain his plans. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons said he felt that the position of prominence which 
 he had assumed in the matter called for some apology. He had 
 felt the importance and necessity of the work he had taken in hand, 
 and his regard for the object induced him to undertake the matter. 
 It was common enough for people to express their regret that there 
 was no scientific institution in the colony, but no one was willing to 
 incur the responsibility, the labour, or the risk of failure. He had 
 therefore originated this movement, and invited co-operation, and 
 he hoped that the step once taken might lead on to success. 
 Having gone so far as to summon the meeting, he felt bound to 
 produce a scheme as fuU and complete as it was possible to lay 
 before a preliminary meeting. He read the following series of 
 propositions for the constitution of an institute, which he submitted 
 to the meeting for its consideration ; and he begged»to say that he 
 had no idea of thrusting his propositions forward, but put the draft 
 of a constitution suggestively. 
 
 VICTOEIAN INSTITUTE. ' 
 
 Resolutions to be proposed at a meeting to be held in the Mechanics' 
 Institution on Thursday, 15th June, at four o'clock, p.m. 
 
 1. That a society be formed under the style of the " Victorian 
 Institute for the Advancement of Science ; " and that its objects be the 
 establishment of a means of communication between persons engaged 
 in the pursuit of science, and of cultivating a refined taste among the 
 people of Victoria; a centre for the collection of observations and speci- 
 mens from all sources, and the gradual formation of a museum ; a source 
 to which the community generally may look for information on scientific 
 
subjects ; and an agency for the development of the resources of the 
 colony. 
 
 2. That the Institute be composed of all persons who may be admitted 
 by ballot under regulations to be made by the Council for that purpose. 
 
 3. That the Institute be governed by a Council, composed of the 
 President, Vice-President, Treasurer, and Secretary, and six elected 
 members ; the same to hold office for one year, vpith power to be 
 re-elected, with the exception of the three non-official members who shall 
 have been last on the poll; that in future elections a qualification of 
 usefulness to the Institute (to be hereafter fixed) be required of all 
 candidates for office ; and that all such offices be honorary. 
 
 4. That the meetings of the Institute for general business be held 
 once in each month ; and the Council meetings for business of detail at 
 a convenient time between such meetings. 
 
 5. That the subscription of ordinary members be (£4) per annum, 
 ■with an entrance fee of (£2); and that the subscription fee of correspond- 
 ing members be (£2) per annum, with an entrance fee of (^£1). All 
 subscriptions to be payable in advance. 
 
 6. That the Council elect its own Chairman. 
 
 7. That the Council be instructed to draw up rules for the internal 
 government of the Institute, the same to be subject to confirmation by 
 a general meeting. 
 
 8. That the Council appoint sections of the Institute, consisting of 
 not fewer than three members each, for -the consideration of questions 
 appertaining to particular sciences ; and that any number of members, 
 not fewer than three, may request the Council to appoint them a 
 section, provided that the branch of science they propose to prosecute 
 has not before been provided for. 
 
 9. That every such section be empowered to elect its own chairman, 
 and make rules of detail on matters peculiar to itself; such election and 
 rules to be confirmed by the Council, if not repugnant to the constitu- 
 tion or general laws. 
 
 10. That the apparatus and museum be vested in one or more Cura- 
 tors to be appointed by the Council. 
 
 (The propositions were well received and great interest was 
 manifested in the object.) 
 
 Mr. Gibbons then said, that with the view of eliciting discussion, 
 and of testing the opinion of the meeting, he would move the 
 several clauses seriatim as distinct motions, explaining his reasons 
 in support of each, and leaving them to be seconded and adopted if 
 approved, or to have amendments moved on them. 
 
 He then moved the first clause, which set forth the necessity for 
 a scientific institution on a comprehensive basis, which might serve 
 as a centre round which men who pursued the various departments 
 of science might rally, and communicate their ideas, and the results 
 of their investigation to each other, and through the institute to 
 the public. 
 
Captain Pasley had much pleasure in seconding the proposition. 
 He was fully conscious that the Institute they were met to found 
 would prove of immeasurable service to the colony. There were 
 scattered labourers in science whose results, if collected and digested 
 by such a body, might tend to the wealth and happiness of the 
 people. It was a constantly occurring thing, to find that the exist- 
 ence of a natural treasure was found by those who knew not what 
 it was, and neither the finders nor the community reaped any 
 benefit from it. Something of this kind had occurred in the case 
 of the gold discoveries. The valuable tin ore was at first thrown 
 away as valueless, then mistaken for silver, and disappointment 
 entailed, and not until it had been subjected to scientific examination 
 was its true value known. Wants of th? colony might be suppHed 
 by the agency of the institute: for instance, there was now a great 
 want of good building stone, — people might find stone, and remit 
 specimens of it, and its qualities would be examined and reported 
 on. He referred to the British Association for evidence of the 
 advantages to be derived from such institutions. 
 
 Mr. Montefiore supported the proposition cordially. He was 
 delighted to see and to take part in a movement for the establish- 
 ment of a scientific association. Not only was there great advantage 
 to be gained in the way of accession of wealth, but he hoped that a 
 noble state of things would arise, in which mental culture would be 
 duly appreciated, and refinement become a characteristic of society. 
 
 The proposition was adopted with enthusiasm. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons then moved the second clause, for the election of 
 members, which did not require comment. 
 
 Mr. O'Brien seconded the motion, which was carried. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons, in moving the third clause, said he suggested the 
 election of ten members of Council, four oflacial and sis non-oflBcial 
 members. The former might be re-elected if they proved efficient, 
 but rotation was ensured by the annual retirement of three of the 
 non-ofiicial members. The qualification suggested for future elec- 
 tions to the Council might be that of usefulness to the Institute in 
 any department, — either labour in the administration, the delivery 
 of useful lectures or important papers, the making of valuable 
 discoveries, or the gift of valuable specimens and objects. He had 
 two objects in making all the offices honorary; one was to place the 
 official and non-official members in positions of equal responsibility, 
 and the other was to shut out the promoter from all possible 
 pecuniary interest in the plan he proposed. 
 
 Mr. E. WooUey seconded the proposition, and expressed his 
 assent to the views set forth by the promoter. 
 
 Mr. Bowman considered that the meeting was entering too much 
 into detail. He would advocate the appointment of a provisional 
 committee to discuss these matters. 
 
Some other gentlemen expressed the same view, when 
 
 Mr. Gibbons explained that the object of proposing to elect the 
 Council then was to prevent the risk of the undertaking falling to 
 the ground, as business entrusted to a provisional committee too 
 frequently did. Another clause (the seventh) would instruct the 
 Council, if now elected, to prepare a code of rules, subject to con- 
 firmation by a general meeting. Thus the Institute would not be 
 committed to any measures of detail, while the important condition 
 of actual organization was given to it. The resolution merely went 
 to make the provisional committee the same as the intended 
 permanent one. He professed, however, a desire to ascertain the 
 ti-ue views of the meeting, and to modify his propositions in 
 accordance with them. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett thought, that although the details need not now be 
 entered upon, the Institute ought to be then definitely constituted, 
 and not exposed to the danger of falling through a provisional 
 committee. 
 
 Several gentlemen took up this view, and various amendments 
 were brought forward. 
 
 The resolution was ultimately carried, with the following rider : 
 
 That of this Council only the six non-official members be now elected ; 
 the same to serve until the 31st December, 1854:. 
 
 Mr. Montefiore then moved, and Mr. Gibbons seconded, 
 
 That this Council be requested to prepare a constitution for the 
 Institute, and to submit the same to a General Meeting on Saturday 
 the 24:th June. 
 
 The following gentlemen were then elected members of the 
 Council : — 
 
 Captain Pasley, E.E. Dr. Maund. 
 
 J. J. Moody, Esq. F. Sinnett, Esq. 
 
 AV. S. Gibbons, Esq. A. E. C. Selwyn, Esq. 
 
 The greatest enthusiasm in the object proposed was evinced by 
 all present, and the promoter was very well received by the meeting. 
 
 The Meeting then separated, after a vote of thanks to the 
 Mayor, who, in acknowledging the compliment, declared that he 
 felt it a privilege to have assisted at the inauguration of an institute 
 of so noble a character, and likely to prove of so great advantage 
 to the colony. 
 
 It was arranged that the Council should hold a meeting imme- 
 diately, and that advertisements shordd be published inviting those 
 gentlemen who might possess copies of the constitutions and rules 
 of the British Association, the Society of Arts, or any similiar 
 institutions, to lend them to the Council as models. Communica- 
 tions to be still addressed to the care of Mr. Gibbons, convener of 
 the Council. 
 
vu 
 
 GENERAL MEETING, 
 31st July, 1354-. 
 
 P. Sinnett, Esq., fhe chairman of the Council, having been called 
 to the chair, said that the business, however, that had now to be 
 brought forward was short. It existed merely in the question of 
 the adoption and non-adoption of the rules that had been framed 
 under the constitution by the Council for the government of the 
 society, they would now be submitted to the meeting. It was also 
 necessary to increase the number of the Council from six to ten. 
 He had to announce to the society that his Excellency Sir Charles 
 Hotham had been pleased to signify his consent to assume the office 
 of Patron of the Institute. There were also some office-bearers to 
 be elected. He would farther remark that the mere passing of 
 rules would not of necessity secure the success of the society; they 
 would merely preserve it from confusion. The society must look 
 for success to the individual exertions of the members themselves. 
 It would be necessary for them to form themselves into sections, 
 for the consideratioa of the various branches of science; and, fully 
 to support the society it would be necessary for every member to 
 take part in its proceedings. He would now call upon the Secretary 
 to read the proposed rules, together with the various parts of the 
 constitution on which they were based. 
 
 The Honorary Secretary having read the laws. 
 
 Captain Pasley said, in moving the adoption of these laws it 
 would not be necessaiy for him to say much. They were simple 
 in their character, short and easily understood. At the end of the 
 year if they were not found to work well, it would be competent 
 for the society to alter or amend them. He would, therefore, move 
 their adoption. 
 
 Mr. Moody seconded the motion ; which was put and carried. 
 
 The Chairman said that the next business for consideration would 
 be the appointment of gentlemen to fill the various offices that 
 were now vacant. On the voting-papers handed round there were 
 certain names put down in connection with these offices. The 
 council did not mention these names with the intention of dictating 
 to the meeting ; the names were mentioned merely as a suggestion 
 that would probably save both time and trouble. It would be 
 competent for any member to move the addition of any other name 
 to the list, and then the ballot could be taken on the amended list. 
 
 Captain Pasley proposed the acting Chief Justice, as President 
 of the Institute ; Mr. Moody seconded the motion, which was 
 carried. 
 
 Mr. Moody moved that Capt. Clarke, R.E., the Surveyor- 
 General, be elected to the office of Vice-President. 
 
Captain Pasley seconded the motion, which was carried 
 
 Mr. Moody proposed that Jacob Montefiore, Esq., be appointed 
 
 Treasurer to the Institute ; carried. 
 
 After some unimportant conversational discussion, the following 
 
 gentlemen were elected Members of the Council : — 
 
 E. G. Mayne, Esq., Eegistrar A. K. Smith, Esq., Engineer 
 of the University. of Gas Works. 
 
 — Harrison, Esq., C.E. C. J. Griffiths, Esq., M.L.C. 
 
 Dr. Ferd. Mueller, Government Botanist. 
 
 The election was taken by a poll, E. Wilson, Esq., and Captain 
 Pasley being scrutineers. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons, the Secretary, announced that the rules just passed 
 would be printed and distributed amongst the members. He said 
 it was intended at an early period to assemble the Institute as a 
 conversazione or a soiree, in order to set the society fairly going 
 before the public, when it would be expected that as many as 
 possible would lend their co-operation to forward its interests. 
 Many gentlemen might possess objects, the production of the 
 Colony, that it might be desirable to bring forward. It is also 
 expected that many of the membei's will address the meeting on 
 particular subjects. 
 
 Dr. Maund said there was still one subject that he wished to 
 bring under the notice of the meeting. It was a well-known fact 
 that a division of labour tended much to the perfection of the 
 mechanical arts ; so, in science, a division of labour was found of 
 the very greatest advantage. For that reason he hoped to see the 
 society divide itself into sections, that the attention of each indi- 
 vidual might be directed to one particular object. Otherwise it 
 would be difficult for the society to succeed. Gentlemen would do 
 well to bear in mind that this arrangement must proceed from 
 themselves. Each gentleman might signify to the Secretary the 
 particular direction in which he intended to carry on his enquiries, 
 and by next meeting something like a system might be arranged. 
 He did not intend to put this as a resolution, he merely meant it 
 as a suggestion. 
 
 Mr. L. L. Smith announced that he would offer a silver medal as 
 a prize for the best essay or lecture on any scientific object. 
 
 There being no further business before the chair the meeting 
 separated. > 
 
INAUGUEAL CONVEESAZIONE, 
 22«i Sejpteniber, 1854. 
 
 The Institute met, as usual, in the Mechanics' Institution. 
 
 The President occupied the cliair, and delivered an inaugural 
 address. 
 
 (Vide page 1.) 
 
 Throughout the room were ranged contributions illustrative of the 
 objects of tbe Institute. 
 
 The following is an approximate list of the subjects contributed 
 to the Exhibition : — 
 
 Bland, R. H. — Case of gold specimens, including samples from every 
 
 diggings ; large gold ingot, &c. Minerals of value from various 
 
 parts of the Colony. Mining and surveying instruments ; assay 
 
 balance. 
 Brisbane, J. — Skull of an Australian half-caste. Engravings; fire-arms; 
 
 microscope. 
 Clarice, Oapt. — Map of the Gold Fields ; pair of eleotrotyped plates ; 
 
 collection of minerals ; collection of stuffed animals. 
 Capewell, L. P. — A collection of useful natural products of the Ballan 
 
 district, viz., — coal ; gold in various conditions ; limestone; building 
 
 clay, pipe clay ; bark ; kino ; amadou ; gum, &c. A collection of 
 
 native implements ; drawings by the Aborigines ; Dipleidoscope. 
 Campbell, W. H. — Skulls, illustrating the process of dentition, &c. 
 JDismorr, J. S. — Fossils ; cases of shells ; microscope. 
 Gibbons, W. S. — Philosophical apparatus, &c., including oxy-hydrogen 
 
 jets, and dissolving view apparatus ; microscopes ; metronome ; 
 
 chemical apparatus ; electrotype medallion ; insects ; microscopic 
 
 preparations ; physical map, drawings, &c. 
 Hough, G. S. — A physical atlas. 
 Maund, J*/-.— Chemical apparatus; samples of pure chemicals ; surgical 
 
 apparatus and drawings ; skeleton ; stuifed birds ; and a kangaroo. 
 Knight, J. G. — Prize design for Government House — architectural 
 
 drawings. 
 Martin, W. — Davy lamp. 
 Montefiore, J.— Varieties of copper ore; bronzes; views in New 
 
 Zealand. 
 Moody, J. /.—Plans for a ship canal ; hmestone ; New Zealand weapons, 
 
 &c. 
 Moore, J. — jModel of steam ferry. 
 
 Ohlfsen, Bagge, G. il.— Model of trussed bridge ; views in Holy Land. 
 Pasley, Capt. — Plans of proposed Government House ; ditto Council 
 
 Chambers. 
 Smith, A. K. — Model of eccentric pump ; electric telegraph ; limestone 
 
 from Mount Eliza ; arms ; mathematical instruments ; engineering 
 
 books and plates. 
 
Smith, L. L — Surgiial instruments. 
 
 Wilson, E.- — Statuette, "Dorothea''; stereoscope; madder of colonial 
 growth ; glass of colonial manufacture ; minerals ; microscope. 
 
 Buzzard & Vale. — Engravings; illustrated books; colonial bookbinding. 
 
 Dennis, A. C. — Statuette, "Greek Slave," &c. 
 
 Hazelden, — . — Arrowroot of colonial growth. 
 
 Hmjden, H. — Hortus siccus ; algae, &c. 
 
 Hackett, — . — Gold and silver plate, of colonial manufacture. 
 
 Kent, R. — Flags of all nations. 
 
 Leitli, — . — Portfolio of antique engravings. 
 
 MiOouan, S. — Suite of electric telegraph apparatus, and materials used. 
 
 Ilecluntics' Institution. — Philosophical apparatus; statuary, &c. 
 
 Pearson, A. — Curiosities from the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Sprague, J. T. — Process of electro-plating ; electro-magnetic coils, &c. ; 
 
 steam engine. 
 Simons, ir. P. — Bronze statuette, "Wellington." 
 Scaife, R. — Gold tokens of colonial manufacture. 
 Wilson, W. — Model locomotive. 
 
 The various objects were illustrated and explained to the visitors 
 by their owners or by those members who were versed in the par- 
 ticular subjects. Thus short lectures were given to succeeding 
 groups on the following, among other subjects : — By Dr. Mueller 
 on the plants exhibited. Mr. A. K. Smith on the locomotive en- 
 gine, which was shown in action ; on a new pump, &c. Mr. W. 
 S. Gibbons on Morse's electric telegraph ; microscopic exposition, 
 &c. Dr. Maund on various chemical subjects. Mr. Moody on the 
 proposed ship canal to Hobson's Bay. Mr. Sprague on electro- 
 plating and electro-magnetism, &c. &c. 
 
 OEDINAEY MEETING, 
 2Qth September, 1851. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett in the chair. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Archer read a paper on Statistical Sanitary Processes. 
 
 (Vide page 20.) 
 
 Mr. Archer laid before the Institute portions of his forthcoming 
 Statistical Register of A'ictoria. He indicated, as the best way of 
 getting accurate data on which to found measures for the pre- 
 servation of public health, the division of the city into sections, 
 and the exploration of each portion by a deputation appointed for 
 that purpose. He hoped that the Institute would take up this 
 question, and that the members would be found to co-operate fur 
 so desirable an end. 
 
XI 
 
 The Chairman remarked that the system for forming sections of 
 the Institute provided for cases of this kind. 
 
 Mr. Mayne inquired if a comparison had heen Instituted between 
 the mortaUty of the town and the bush. 
 
 Mr. Archer said that an inquiry of the kind was being made, 
 but that suflB.cient data were not now possessed on which to form 
 any correct conclusion, and it was of no use to put forth opinions. 
 All comparisons of the kind must be based upon the ascertained 
 population ; now the census returns for the city of Melbourne had 
 not yet been handed in. In reply to a question as to the decrement 
 of life, he stated that the material was not yet complete, but that 
 as soon as the necessary information was collected, he would prepare 
 tables of the expectation of life. 
 
 Dr. Maund was glad that the initiation had been taken in so 
 important a matter as the consideration of vital statistics, and 
 hoped that the suggestion of the essayist would be acted upon. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons pointed to the sectional system as a means for 
 carrying out investigations. By it those members who applied 
 themselves to particular subjects would associate themselves together, 
 and confer upon each other observations, giving the members at 
 large the benefit of their researches. The leading divisions given 
 in the published scheme were merely indicative ; it was for the 
 pursuit of particular sciences and arts that sections would be formed, 
 — and, indeed, sections would only be useful for such pursuits, as a 
 sectiou on physical science or on natural history, for example, would 
 be as little definite in its objects as the Institute at large. He 
 recommended members who were willing to act on such sections 
 for purposes of research, to register their names at once, that the 
 sections might be set in action without delay. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett then read a paper on some personal observations on 
 the geography of the Lake Torrens District. 
 ( Vide page 15.) 
 
 Dr. Mueller promised that on some future occasion he would lay 
 before the Institute his notes on the Flora of the district. 
 
 Mr. Jjloyd inquired the prevailing causes of the failure of these 
 exploring expeditions. 
 
 Dr. Mueller said that the want of water experienced shortly 
 after passing the mountain range was the chief cause of failure. 
 Conveyances broke down, and people sickened and died ; but all 
 these misfortunes were traceable to a want of water. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett said, that in the course of his travels he had seldom 
 met with much difficulty in finding water ; but on approaching the 
 interior of the continent it became too salt for use. He traced out 
 on the map the routes of the explorers, especially Captain Stokes, 
 of H. M. S. Beagle, who had penetrated to some distance inward 
 from the Gulf of Carpentaria, who entertained anticipations of a 
 
large navigable river, extending one thousand miles up. Camels 
 might, with advantage, be employed in the desert country where 
 the ground was soft, but they could not be employed in stony 
 country. 
 
 Dr. Mueller quoted a statement of Captain Sturt, that he had 
 been led to believe that there was water at no great distance from 
 the furthest point reached by him, from the circumstance that 
 birds were constantly seen flying, as if to water, in straight lines 
 that must have converged to a common point of intersection. 
 
 On inquiry as to the origin of the salt, which seemed to increase 
 towards the interior of the continent, it was observed that the 
 theory of the recent elevation of the land would account for it, as 
 there would have been a sheet of sea-water enclosed in the area 
 bounded by the mountain range, and this gradually evaporating 
 and retreating to the hollow spots would explain the phenomenon. 
 
 The Secretary presented to the notice of the members an in- 
 teresting collection of valuable natural productions, collected by 
 L. P. Capewell, Esq., within a distance of six miles from his own 
 house at Ballan. I'he collection included coal, limestone, granite, 
 freestone, basalt, gold, wattle gum, kino, bark, amadon, &c. ; 
 also a collection of microscopic preparations illustrative of the scab 
 in the sheep. 
 
 The following Sections were formed : — 
 
 Sanitary Economy. — W. H. Archer, Esq. ; Dr. Maund ; and A. 
 Barrett, Esq. 
 
 Engineering. — A. Harrison, Esq. ; A. K. Smith, Esq. ; and F. 
 Sinnett, Esq. 
 
 Political Economy. — E. Gr. Mayne, Esq. ; W. H. Archer, Esq. ; 
 E. Sinnett, Esq. ; T. W. Whipham, Esq. 
 
 Ghemistty. — Dr. Maund ; J. T. Sprague, Esq., ; and W. S. Gib- 
 bons, Esq. 
 
 Microscopic Investigation. — L. P. Capewell, Esq. ; Dr. Maund ; 
 and W. S. Gibbons, Esq. 
 
 OEDINAEY MEETING, 
 lird Octoher, 1854. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett in the chair. 
 
 Dr. Mueller laid before the Institute a paper embodying the 
 diagnoses of fifty Australian plants, newly described and some 
 newly discovered by the author. 
 
 {Vide page 28.) 
 
 The paper was illustrated by a collection of the plants de- 
 scribed. 
 
OEDINAEY MEETING, 
 
 2Uh November, 1854. 
 
 Mr. Montefiore in the chair. 
 
 Dr. Maund read a paper on the Deterioration of Breadstuffs. 
 
 ( Vide page 48.) 
 
 Mr. Jackson, C.E., promised a paper on the Plenty Water 
 Scheme for the next meeting. 
 
 A conversation then ensued, in the course of which Mr. Jackson 
 developed a pecuKar plan for the propulsion of steamships by two 
 screws, working in open tubes or channels placed before the beams 
 and at on angle to the line of the keel. He also made some obser- 
 vations on the difference of form between the sperm whale, which 
 travelled with amazing rapidity, and of clipper ships. 
 
 Dr. Smith urged the necessity of forming a Museum. He also 
 suggested a plan to check the rolling of ships by the use of wa- 
 ter-boards to strike on the surface of the water. 
 
 Some nautical gentlemen explained that many old ships had been 
 built with such water-boards which did not answer, the shock oc- 
 casioned by the blow of the boards on the wave being found to 
 strain the ship severely, and to risk carrying away the masts. 
 
 The Secretary was instructed to call a special meeting of the 
 Council for the purpose of taking steps for the amalgamation of 
 the Institute with the Philosophical Society, as the existence of 
 two separate societies caused a division of the forces which might 
 be brought to bear upon the same subjects ; and as the colony was 
 hardly able to support adequately two separate institutions having 
 the same objects. 
 
 OEDINAKT MEETING. 
 
 I^rd December, 1854. 
 
 Dr. Maund in the chair. 
 
 Mr. M. B. Jackson read a paper on " The Water Supply of the 
 City of Melbourne." 
 
 {Vide page 54.) 
 
 After the reading of the paper a discussion took place on the 
 various topics that it suggested. The purity of the Plenty water 
 was said to by many degrees superior to that supplied to any of the 
 large cities of Europe. 
 
Dr. Maund said, from analyses made by himself, he was in 
 a position to state that fact. In the European cities eight grains 
 was the average quantity of organic matter contained in a gallon 
 of water; the waters of the Plenty contained hut three. Several 
 persons present said that they had never in Australia known a 
 pool of water to become putrid by mere stagnation, and this was 
 generally believed to be characteristic of Australian waters alone. 
 The theory of evaporation was discussed, and Mr. Jackson said 
 that he could not instance his experiment on that subject as conclu- 
 sive. He also said that by experiment it had been established that 
 more rain falls in Australia than England. This gave rise to a 
 discussion on the formation of inland lakes throughout the colony, 
 for which the geological formation of the country is particularly 
 favourable. 
 
 Mr. Jackson then said that along the river Tarra from the 
 present waterworks to Prince's bridge, at a distance of twelve feet 
 below the surface of the soil, and a few yards from the river, the 
 water found was quite salt, while that found three feet below the 
 surface, and at the same distance from the river, was fresh. 
 
 Dr. Maund said that the waters of the Tarra itself contained 
 much less salt than those of many other fresh water rivers. He 
 also said that the water was much more free from organic matter 
 when trtken from near where the present waterworks are established 
 than if taken from the neighbourhood of the bridge. This he 
 thought was owing to the habit of washing the horses of the city 
 in that neighbourhood. He had now in his possession two kegs of 
 water, of about six gallons each, one taken from the Yarra, and the 
 other from the Plenty. They had been in his possession during 
 the last twelve months, and were now as good as the first day they 
 were put up. 
 
 GENEKAL MEETING, 
 
 8th March, 1855. 
 
 Mr. F. Sinnett in the Chair. 
 
 The Honorary Secretary read the following Report of the Council for 
 the session ending 31st December, 1854: — 
 
 "After the first half-year's existence of the Victorian Institute, it be- 
 comes the duty of the council to lay before the members a report of the 
 past proceedings of the body, and a view of its present position. This 
 report is necessarily brief, as a large portion of the time to which it re- 
 fers, was occupied by the work of organisation ; and also for the reason 
 that, as the advantages of the society are of a prospective character, a 
 record of its infancy can contain little more than a sketch of the steps 
 which have been taken to call it into existence and to render it useful. 
 In the month of May, 1854, propositions were put forth by the present 
 
XV 
 
 Honorary Secretary, for the formation of a society, haying for its objects 
 the collection and dissemination of information bearing on the welfare 
 of the colony. The invitation met with a ready response, and a list of 
 intending supporters was soon formed. At the initiatory public meeting, 
 held on the 5th of June, at the Mechanics' Institution, and numerously 
 attended, a plan of the proposed association was submitted by the pro- 
 moter, and resolutions were adopted which now form part of the con- 
 stitution. The discussion of the remaining portions of the proposed 
 constitution was committed to a provisional council then appointed. The 
 same body was also entrusted with the preparation of a code of laws, 
 which was finally adopted by a meeting of subscribers, held on the 15th 
 July. The laws were based on observation of the working of other 
 similar bodies, and the main principles of the British Association were 
 held in view as a model. The whole code is now open to revision for 
 the purpose of making any modification that may be considered neces- 
 sary. On the 22nd September, an indugural conversazione of the mem ■ 
 bers and their friends was held at the Mechanics' Institution, when an 
 opening address was read by the president, Mr. Justice Barry. An in- 
 teresting collection of natural productions and works of art and industry, 
 gathered from all available sources, was exhibited on the occasion. The 
 models, philosophical instruments, and the specimens of the natural 
 productions of the colony were demonstrated to the visitors by those 
 members who had devoted attention to the particular subjects illustrated; 
 and, in many instances, by the inventors and producers themselves. The 
 soiree was well attended, and the success was encouraging. Since that 
 time monthly meetings have been held in the same place, when papers 
 have been read, and discussions have arisen on various topics connected 
 with the objects of the Institute. The contributed papers have been as 
 follows : — 22nd September : Inaugural Address, Mr Justice Barry. — 
 25th September : Sanitary Processes, Mr. W. H. Archer. — 25th Sep- 
 tember: Description of Lake Torrens, Mr. F. Sinnett. — 23rd October : 
 Description of Fifty New Australian Plants (illustrated by specimens), 
 Dr. F. Mueller.— 27th November: Adulteration of Breadstuff's, Dr. Maund. 
 — 23rd December : Yan Yean Water Scheme, Mr. M. B. Jackson. These 
 papers, with the present report of the council, and an abstract of the 
 proceedings, vrill shortly be published for circulation among the mem- 
 bers, forming the transactions of the Institute for the first half-year of 
 its existence, or rather of that portion of the time in which actual ope- 
 rations have been carried on. The following contributions have been 
 received : Mr. L. P. Capewell— a collection of twelve useful natural pro- 
 ducts, gathered within six miles of Ballan ; Mr. J. S. Dismorr — two 
 boxes, containing a collection of shells ; Mr. J. Brisbane, a skull of an 
 aboriginal half caste. The Council, acting on the expressed wish of the 
 members, has opened a negotiation with the Philosophical Society, a 
 somewhat similar association, with a view to combine the strength of 
 the two bodies, under the belief that one institute acting comprehen- 
 sively would be more useful, and therefore more successful, than two 
 societies having divided forces, and weakened by apparent if not real 
 rivalry. The project for amalgamation has, however, been received 
 somewhat coldly by the members of the sister society. The treasurer, 
 Mr. Montefiore, having left the Colony, it is necessary to appoint his 
 successor, to whom the secretary, who has acted as treasurer provision- 
 ally, may transfer the books and the balance in hand. It is also neces- 
 sary to appoint auditors of the accounts. The number of members on 
 the books at the close of the year was seventy-nine. Some few of these 
 have, however, left the Colony. 
 
£212 16 
 
 6 
 
 £ s. 
 
 ih 
 
 17 17 
 
 
 
 17 12 
 
 
 
 3 13 
 
 
 
 33 8 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 6 16 
 
 8 
 
 68 9 
 
 5 
 
 £212 16 
 
 6 
 
 68 9 
 
 5 
 
 XVI 
 
 An abstract statement of the cash account brought down to the 28th 
 February is appended to this report. 
 
 The (Acting) Treasurer in account with the Victorian Institute : — 
 
 Dr. £ s. d 
 
 To Subscriptions 172 4 
 
 Conversazione Tickets ... ... ... ... ... 14 5 
 
 Do. Council Subscription 26 7 6 
 
 Or. 
 ByEent 
 
 Advertising 
 Stationery ... 
 Printing 
 Conversazione 
 Postage 
 Balance in hand 
 
 Balance in hand 28th February, 1855 
 
 WM. SYDNEY GIBBONS, Hon. Sec. 
 
 Mr. Crawford moved ; Mr. Barrett seconded— " That this report be 
 adopted." Carried. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons moved; Mr. Clarson seconded — "That Dr. Maund be 
 elected Treasurer, vice Mr. ilontefiore, resigned." Carried. 
 
 A discussion took place on the advisability of reducing the subscrip- 
 tion to the Institute for the current year, and on the amount to which 
 it should be reduced. The following amounts were moved :— ^ 
 
 By Mr. Barrett £3 3 
 
 „ Crawford 2 2 
 
 „ Kentish 110 
 
 The proposition of "Sir. Crawford was adopted, viz. : — " That the sub- 
 scription to the Institute for the current year, in one payment, be fixed 
 at one half of that quoted in the rules, viz., two guineas for ordinary 
 members, and one guinea for country members.'' 
 
 Mr. Crawford moved ; Mr. Kentish seconded — " That the secretary 
 be instructed to reply to the letter of the Secretary of the Philosophical 
 Society, that, as a general principle, in the event of the amalgamation 
 of the two societies, the members' and subscription lists be united, and 
 that the moneys in hand be made a common fund ; and that details be 
 arranged by a conference of the councils of the two societies." 
 
 Mr. Gibbons moved as an amendment the addition of the works : — 
 " The following points being observed, viz., — that either the double name 
 be preserved, or a new and distinctive one be adopted ; and that the two 
 councils, as at present constituted, form a united body. The amount of 
 subscription and other minor details to be settled by the conference.'' 
 The motion was carried with the addition. 
 
 Mr. Kentish moved ; Mr. F. Bell seconded — " That the chairman of 
 council be requested to write to the president of the Philosophical So- 
 
xvu 
 
 ciety, stating that the Victorian Institute deems it due to W. S. Gibbons, 
 Esq., that he should retain office as joint secretary in the event of the 
 amalgamation of the two societies, and that this proviso will be deemed 
 an essential condition to amalgamation.'' Carried. 
 
 On the motion of Mr. Gibbons, ^Messrs. Barrett & Clarson were elected 
 auditors. Mr. E. Richardson, Palmer Street, Collingwood, was admitted 
 a member. 
 
 The Secretary announced that the ordinary meetings of the Institute 
 would thenceforward be held in the Mechanics' Institution, on the even- 
 ings of the first Thursdays of each month, at 8 o'clock, p.m. ; and the 
 council meetings on the preceding Thursdays, viz., the last in the month 
 at half-past 4, p.m. 
 
 OEDINARY MEETING, 
 
 Thursday, Sth April, 1855. 
 Dr. r. Mueller in the chair. 
 
 Mr. E. G. Mayne read a paper of " Observations on a National Loan 
 for Victoria, with reference to the state of labor in the Colony." 
 
 (Vide page 61.) 
 
 Dr. Mueller read a paper " On some species of Solanum, found by 
 him in Gipps' Land (solanum vescumj. 
 
 (Vide page 67.) 
 Dr. Maund gave an account of an "Aerated acidulous spring at Hep- 
 burn, and of another on the Merri Creek;" "and exhibited a specimen 
 of native Sulphate of Soda found crystallised in natural cavities at An- 
 derson's Creek.'' 
 
 Mr. A. K. Smith reported that the native sulphuret of antimony, 
 found by Mr. Kinsella at Mclvor, had realised £45 in England ; and 
 that the shipments of black sand from the Ovens had fetched flit per 
 ton, chiefly on account of the gold contained in it. 
 
 Dr. Maund said there was doubt, however, if it would now pay to 
 ship the antimony, owing to the high rate of cartage from the interior. 
 
 The following members promised papers for the May meeting: — 
 Messrs. Sinnett, Clarson, Maund, Smith, Holmes, and Gibbons. 
 
 Dr. Maund was requested to commit to writing his observations on 
 the mineral waters. 
 
 (Vide page 70.) 
 
 Dr. Maund stated that he had received a sample of cinnabar, said to 
 have been found in the Colony, but he had lost sight of the person who 
 furnished it, and was not possessed of evidence on the subject. 
 
OEDINARY MEETING, 
 Thursday, 3nl May, 1855. 
 
 Mr. E. G. Mayne in the chair. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett, Chairman of the Amalgamation Conference, read the 
 following report, and stated that if it were adopted by both societies, the 
 amalgamation might be at once proceeded with. 
 
 Report. 
 
 The members of the Philosophical Society and of the Victorian 
 Institnte, appointed to confer upon terms of amalgamation of the two 
 bodies have the honour to report to their respective societies as follows : — 
 
 They have held four meetings, have considered the fundamental 
 principles and present position of the two societies, and find no impedi- 
 ment to amalgamation. They accordingly recommend — 
 
 That the two societies be amalgamated, under the title, pending the 
 grant of a royal charter, of " The Philosophical Institute of Victoria." 
 
 That the following gentlemen be office-bearers of the Philosophical 
 Institute of Victoria : — President, Captain Clarke, K.E. ; vice-presidents, 
 his Honor Mr. Justice Barry aud Godfrey Howitt, Esq., M.D. ; council, 
 the present members of the council of the Philosophical Society and of 
 the Victorian Institute ; treasurer, D. E. AVilkie, Esq., M.D. ; honorary 
 secretaries, S. Wekey, Esq., E. B. Smyth, Esq., W. S. Gibbons, Esq, 
 
 That the members of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria shall 
 consist of fellows, resident and honorary members. That fellows shall 
 be elected from among the resident members by ballot, at the monthly 
 meetings of the society ; the proportion of votes for deciding the 
 election of fellows to be at least four-fifths of the members voting. That 
 resident members be admitted on application to, and approval by the 
 council. 
 
 That honorary membership shall be considered one of the highest 
 marks of distinction the society can confer. 
 
 That the objects of the Philosophical Institute shall be as stated in 
 the prospectus of the Philosophical Society, viz. : — The objects of the 
 society shall embrace the whole field of science, with a special reference 
 to the cultivation of those departments that are calculated to develope 
 the natural resources of the country. 
 
 That the mode of operation stated in the prospectus of the Philo- 
 sophical Society be adopted, with some addition, viz. : — The objects of 
 the society -will be carried out by original researches conducted by the 
 members, and by original papers, to be read at the periodical meetings, 
 and published under the direction of the society ; and by such other 
 means as may be deemed expedient. 
 
 That the principle set forth in the paragraph headed " Bye laws and 
 Regulations," in the prospectus of the Philosophical Society, viz. : — 
 " The society shall be definitely established on the principle of the 
 Royal Society of Loudon, as far as the existing bye-laws and regulations 
 of that Society may be applicable to the present local circumstances of 
 Victoria," — be rejected, inasmuch as the regulations of the Royal Society 
 of Loudon forbid the discussion of papers read at general meetings, — 
 
XIX 
 
 such discussion being deemed desirable, and forming an essential part of 
 the scheme of the Victorian Institute. That bye-laws and regulations 
 be therefore framed hereafter by the Philosophical Institute. 
 
 That with regard to the property of the society, the specimens of 
 natural history contributed to the society shall be considered the property 
 of the National Museum until otherwise ordered and resolved by the 
 annual general meeting of the society. 
 
 That the resolution of the annual general meeting, shall not ex- 
 tend to those specimens that are found in actual possession of the 
 society at the time of such resolution being brought in, such specimens 
 being already the property of the National Museum; but merely to such 
 specimens as may be collected after the date of the said resolution being 
 made. 
 
 That every paper, plan, model, &c., presented to the society shall be 
 considered the property thereof, unless there shall have been made some 
 previous arrangements with the donor ; and the council may publish 
 such paper, and a description of such plan or model, apy time tbey think 
 proper. 
 
 No member shall publish on his own account, or give his consent for 
 publication of, any written communication read to the society, without 
 the previous consent of the council. 
 
 These recommendations are based on the four paragraphs headed 
 " The Property of the Society,'' in the prospectus of the Philosophical 
 Society. Some alterations, however, it will be seen have been made, 
 because it was not deemed desirable that models and books presented to 
 the society should pass out of their hands, because the first of these 
 paragraphs, literally interpreted, would deprive the society of all 
 property whatsoever, even in their own transactions, and because such 
 interpretation contradicts the third paragraph, which has been adopted 
 verbatim. 
 
 That the subscriptions at present payable by the members of the 
 Philosophical Society and of the Victorian Institute respectively, be 
 considered the subscriptions due to the Philosophical Society of Victoria 
 for the current year, after which the subscription to the Philosophical 
 Institute can be fixed by that body. 
 
 In recommending that the Victorian Institute and Philosophical 
 Society be amalgamated on the above general terms, the fact has been 
 borne in mind that, after amalgamation, these terms would be subject to 
 complete revision by the Philosophical Institute, and that all details can 
 be most properly adjusted by general vote of the united body. In con- 
 clusion, therefore, the members of the conference appointed to consider 
 the terms of the proposed amalgamation, strongly recommend that to 
 bring about that desirable end, minor objections should be waived and 
 concessions freely made on both sides, as such concessions will merely 
 be required to permit the preliminary diflliculties to be overcome, and 
 will not be permanent unless hereafter approved by the members of the 
 Philosophical Institute of Victoria. 
 
 FRED. SINNETT, Chairman. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett moved; Dr. Mueller seconded — That the report of the 
 conference be adopted. Carried. 
 
 The chairman called on Mr. Sinnett for his paper on Australian Ex- 
 ploration, who said that it would not be ready until the next meeting. 
 d 
 
The secretary read letters from the agents of the Magnetic Telegraph 
 Company, enclosing prospectuses of the patent, which he was instructed 
 to answer, expressing the willingness of the Institute to render any as- 
 sistance in its power toward bringing the invention into notice. 
 
 Dr. Maund read a paper " On the Purity of the Water of the Plenty," 
 and exhibited samples of that and other water taken and preserved under 
 different circumstances. 
 
 (Vide page 136.^1 
 Mr. Sinnett inquired the causes of the deterioration of water ? 
 Mr. Barrett asked how it was that the Thames water, after putrefying, 
 became sweet again ? 
 
 Air. Mayne asked what pipe was recommended for the service of 
 water, as the water of the Plenty was shown to take up so much lead ? 
 
 Dr. Maund replied that water became unfit for use owing to the de- 
 composition of the organic matter suspended in it. The putrefaction 
 and subsequent sweetening of Thames water was attributable to the fer- 
 mentation of the organic matter, which subsided when that process was 
 complete. By a new invention, iron pipes received a lining of a bitu- 
 minous character, somewhat like japan, which prevented corrosion; 
 moreover the presence of iron in water was not injurious. 
 
 Jlr. A. K. Smith read a paper " On Gas and Gas-works, considered 
 in relation to the circumstances and requirements of the Colony." 
 
 (Vide page 143. J 
 Mr. E. G. Mayne inquired if the coal of New South "Wales would 
 not do for the manufacture of gas ? 
 
 !Mr. Smith stated that the Newcastle coal did not possess a sufficient 
 illuminative quality ; it was too impure. The Boghead cannel coal 
 produced thirty-eight units of gas, while some others, as that of New 
 South Wales, produced only ten, its value was therefore to the other as 
 10"38 ; so that the English coal was cheaper at £6 per ton, at which 
 price it could be laid down, than the New South Wales would be if 
 delivered free. The Western Port coal was shown by analysis to be 
 better than that from New South Wales ; the amount of sulphur was 
 less than in the English. If the Western Port coal field were opened, 
 it miglit be used advantageously. The consumption of the gas company 
 would amount to from fifty to sixty thousand tons annually. 
 
 Mr. Sinnett inquired what proportion the quantity of coal used for 
 fuel to heat the retorts, bore to that used for gas. 
 
 Mr. Smith said that the residuary coke from the retorts was more 
 than sufficient for heating, and left a portion for sale. As the company 
 contemplated supplying the market with coke, it was intended to use a 
 mixture of Scotch cannel and English Coal, as the coke from the Scotch 
 coal was valueless. There were some lamps now in Melbourne that 
 gave a light equal to gas, but the gas would be cheaper and more gener- 
 ally difl^used. 
 
 Mr. Clarson read a paper " On the Rationale of Phonetic Represen- 
 tation of Language." 
 
 (Vide prigc 92. i 
 
 Mr. Richardson asked if the Phonetic sj'stem was taught in any 
 schools ? 
 
Mr. Clarson replied that it was taught in some schools, both in Eng- 
 land and America ; that some periodicals were published in the dialect 
 in both countries, and that the Mormons had adopted it and employed 
 it in the publication of a newspaper. He exhibited a work containing 
 specimens of all-known varieties of stenography, from the earliest ages. 
 jNlr. Richardson, in the absence of Mr. Holmes the author, read a 
 paper " On the Timber of Victoria ;'' and stated that Mr. Holmes con- 
 templated a series of experiments on the relative strength of the several 
 woods, but that he had not been able to carry them out in time for the 
 present meeting. It was a peculiar circumstance- that the woods of New 
 Zealand shrank longitudinally, an unusual thing in England. 
 
 fVide page 100.; 
 
 Mr. Mueller explained that this was due to the large amount of ex- 
 tractive matter. Trees for timber should be felled at the end of summer, 
 and not when the sap was rising. 
 
 Mr. Richardson said that some Kaurie pine, used by him, had shrunk 
 on fresh cuts being made after it had been felled two years. The weight 
 of colonial woods was an objection to them as well as their shrinking. 
 Some of the colonial woods had been tested in England for durability ; 
 the Kaurie pine stood the test. Some of the woods, so tested, had stood 
 for fifty years. 
 
 Mr. Brisbane had seen a fence of Tatara wood that had stood twelve 
 years, and also trees that had lain across creeks, beyond memory, with- 
 out change. If wood were cut when the sap was down, it was not so 
 durable, although the shrinking was avoided. 
 
 Mr. Smith said that the British Navy Board had rejected woods that 
 were not cut in accordance with the conditions indicated by Dr. Mueller. 
 A gentleman was going to England from Van Diemen's Land to intro- 
 duce the eucalypti of that Colony into notice, and to endeavour to nego- 
 ciate for the supply of them. Some ships built in Van Diemen's Land 
 long since were good now. 
 
 Mr. Brisbane instanced the case of a ship built in Van Diemen's Land, 
 which at first leaked, and required several successive caulkings, but after 
 a while tightened up and stood well. 
 
 Mr. Gibbons read a paper " On Microscopic Investigation, and some 
 minor details of Manipulation." 
 
 fVide page lOi.J 
 
 He produced specimens to illustrate the processes described, and 
 exhibited, under an Oberhauser microscope, preparations in support of 
 his observations on the value of microscopic study; and specimens 
 illustrating the modes of operation described in the paper. 
 
 The following new members were admitted: — Mr. John Edwards, 
 Swanston Street ; Mr. Thomas Rawlinson, C.E., Gore Street. 
 
ORDINARY MEETING. 
 
 Thursday, -Tth June, 1855. 
 
 Dr. Maund in the chair. 
 
 The minutes having been read and confirmed. 
 
 Dr. INIueller produced a collection of plants, most of them tending to 
 illustrate the Flora of the country round Lake Torrens, which had been 
 previously described by Mr. Sinnett. The collection included many 
 new plants indigenous to the colony of Victoria. 
 
 (_Viile page 114.) 
 
 In the course of the subsequent conversation and discussion on the 
 collection exhibited, Dr. Mueller made the following observations : 
 He had already travelled si.-i thousand miles, and he had a large 
 extent of country yet to explore, particularly about the district of Cape 
 Otway, where he expected to collate some valuable particulars concern- 
 ing the geography of some of the plants. He hoped during his next 
 exploratory tour to be able to collect all his materiel, for which purpose 
 he had still about three thousand miles to traverse. He had already 
 
 Erepared written descriptions of some of the botanical specimens which 
 e exhibited, and they were at the service of the Institute should they 
 be considered acceptable. Certain species of these plants were limited 
 to granite localities, and others again were confined to limestone dis- 
 tricts 
 
 Mr. A. K. Smith then read the concluding part of his paper on Gas 
 Works, commenced at a former meeting. He described the arrange- 
 ments of the Melbourne Gas Works, and the general arrangements for 
 supplying the city with light. 
 
 {Vide page 143.) 
 
 Mr. A. K. Smith stated, in reply to inquiries, that a sample of ap- 
 parently good cannel coal had been forwarded from New South Wales, 
 but as it had not been analysed, he would lay the results before the 
 next meeting, and with them, for comparison, a sample of Boghead can- 
 nel coal, a cargo of which had just arrived from Scotland for the Gas 
 Company. The city would probably be lighted with gaa in about sii 
 months' time. The chimney-stalk was of such a height as to carry off 
 all the deleterious fumes arising from the manufacture, without occasion- 
 ing any nuisance. The stalk was 190 feet in height, and the draught 
 was calculated for sixty fires ; there was no escape below for deleterious 
 fumes. 
 
 Mr. Rawlinson suggested that the waste of the slaughter-houses and 
 boiling-down establishments might be made available for the production 
 of gas. 
 
 Mr. Smith said that this subject was entertained in his forthcoming 
 paper on Stearine. 
 
 Mention having been made of oil gas, as compared with that made 
 from coal, 
 
 Mr. Gibbons observed, that the gas prodiiced from oil, was, 
 cmteris paribus, economical, and gBve a superior light: it was easily 
 manufactured, and so was eminently calculated for private establish- 
 ments, factories, &c., where a daily supply could be made, and there 
 was no necessity for storage. But in lighting a town it was necessary 
 
XXlll 
 
 to have a large reserve in store, and the oil gas atid that made from 
 most of the hydrocarbons rapidly deteriorated. The additional illu- 
 minating power of these gases was due to the presence of a large pro 
 portion of undecomposed hydrocarbon, which, being vapourised, re- 
 mained in suspension in the gas for a sufficient time to be available for 
 combustion, if the consumption were rapid; but if the gas was stored 
 longer than from day to day this was all deposited in the form of an 
 oily liquid on the surface of the water in the gas holder and even in the 
 pipes, and the consequence was such a loss of illuminative power, that a 
 loss rather than an advantage was the result. 
 
 Mr. Eichardson read a paper '.' On the Trussed Bridge at Keilor." 
 
 ( Vide page 149.) 
 
 Mr. Richardson stated in the course of the conversation, that the 
 Bridge was completed in April 1854. The Bridge cost £11,000, and the 
 whole work of crossing might be put down at £20,000. When the work 
 was commenced, the only suitable timber that could be obta,ined was 
 four large pine logs; the material had been collected from all sources, 
 chiefly from New Zealand. 
 
 Mr. Rawlinson referring to the accident of the falling down of the 
 large truss, expressed his opinion that the leading guys were too taut, 
 and that the workmen in charge, slackened them too suddenly, so that 
 the tackle became unhooked by re-action ; a similar accident had 
 occurred at Liverpool. 
 
 Mr. Richardson said that five men were under the truss when it fell, 
 and they escaped by passing through the apertures. Kaurie pine had 
 the same property as English oak of shrinking whenever it was cut, even 
 although it had been previously seasoned. 
 
 Mr. Francis Bell read a paper " On Iron Lattice Bridges." 
 
 (J'^ide page 154.) 
 
 Mr. Bell quoted some Bridges that had been erected on this plan. One 
 of 50 feet span, weighed 18 tons, and cost only £50 per ton, when erected. 
 It was put together on the bank, and run over the piers on rollers. A 
 foot bridge of 84 feet span, weighed only 6^ tons ; this was on a railway 
 near Cork. A plan was shewn of a Bridge a quarter of a mile long, 
 with a swivel in the middle,, also of an ornamental foot bridge over the 
 Cork and Passage Railway, with spiral staircase. These bridges were 
 cheap and very durable. 
 
 Mr. Richardson remarked that the American engineers seemed to ob- 
 ject to iron lattice bridges, but they applied the same principle to their 
 wooden bridges. The iron had the advantage of being fireproof. 
 
 Mr. Rawlinson approved these bridges as being both light and strong ; 
 but he objected to the ordinary sheer of the rivets, the bars needing 
 shoes to support the strain — much strength was lost by the strain laid 
 on the rivets. This was the point of failure in most lattice bridges. 
 Engineers were hardly yet resolved on the best plan. Two large lat- 
 ticed viaducts had been erected on the railway line between' Liverpool 
 and Bury. He considered that engineers and artists wrought too inde- 
 pendently of each other; all materials were in the hands of men of 
 taste, capable of elegant forms. 
 
Mr. Bell advanced a plan for widening Princes' Bridge, by throwing 
 the whole present thoroughfare into the carriage way and erecting light 
 iron balconies of lattice work for the footways. This had been done 
 successfully to Dumbarton Bridge. 
 
 Mr. W. S. Gibbons read a paper " On Translation of Languages.'' 
 
 (Vkle page 157 -J 
 
 Mr. A, K. Smith read a paper " On the Manufacture of Stearine.'' 
 
 (Vide page 162.; 
 
 Dr. Maund produced a sample of cinnabar, which had been handed 
 to him as having been found in the Colony ; but he was not informed of 
 the locality. He also showed a small portion of mercury that had been 
 sublimed from the ore, which was very rich. 
 
 Mr Barrett proposed as a member Mr. AVriothesley Baptist Noel, of 
 Kilmore. 
 
 The Secretary presented an account for £14 12j., due to the Mechanics' 
 Institution for rent, which was passed. 
 
 ItELBOrBNE : 
 Ooodhugh ^ Trembath, 48, Flinders Lane, JEast.