■;» . H\4 Cornell University WB Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924012755975 Cornell University Library HN 37.C3C365 The Pope and the people; select letters a 3 1924 012 755 975 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE Select Letters and Addresses on Social Questions BY HIS HOLINESS POPE LEO XIII EDITED BY THE REV. W. H. EYRE, S.J. LONDON AND LEAMINGTON ART AND BOOK COMPANY New York, Cincinnati, Chicago : Benziger Brothers 1895 Nihil obstat. GUL. H. EYRE, S.J. Imprimatur. ^ HERBERTUS Cakd : Archiep : Wertmonast. Die 31 Decembris, iS PREFACE. The Encyclical Letters contained in this volume, have been chosen out of a large number, as comprising in a special manner the teaching of Lep XIII. on some of the great social questions now agitating the public mind. Nearly all have already been translated into English. The changes occasionally introduced into existing versions have been made, in the endeavour to render more clear such philoso- phical and theological terms as, the Editor thought, were too technical to be readily under- stood by thosfe not familiar with the language of the Schools. It is scarcely necessary to state that these verbal alterations have been made with per- mission and . approval. As the Letters can be published separately at a small cost, the Editor would suggest that an exceedingly useful form of charity might be the distribution of some of them on a large scale, notably that "On the Condition of the Working Classes." 114, Mount Street, London. Decemker 20, 1894. W. H. EYRE, S.J. CONTENTS. / I. — The Condition of the Working Classes. (Encyclical Letter, May 15, 1891.^1 The Socialist solution ; its refutation — Private Property, a natural right — The right of Private Property proved by the Family — No practical solution without Religion — Labour and suffering must exist — Class must help class — The rich must help the poor — The poor must accept their lot — The Church serves Society by uphold- ing Christianity — She is also solicitous about the temporal interests of her children — The State should promote the general good — - should be solicitous for the working population — In what respect the State should interfere — How the State should deal with Labour questions — Working people must have their spiritual rights re- spected — The State and the regulation of Labour — The Living Wage — The working man should be encouraged to acquire pro- perty — Associations and Organizations — The right of Associa- tion — The right of Ecclesiastical Association — Bad and dangerous Associations — Catholic Associations for working men to be encouraged — Advice to Catholic Associations — Summary and Con- clusion ; Divine Charity ... ... ... ... 1 II, — On the Evils Affecting Modern Society, their Causes and Remedies. (Encyclical Letter, April 2\, 1878.^) Summary of the evils that affect the human race — These evils are caused by the rejection and contempt of the Church's authority — The Church is the mother of Civil society — Civil society is vain or false if opposed to the Church's teaching and laws — The Apostolic See has deserved well of all Civil society— The country of Italy has most of all exiaerienced the Church's benefits— Restoration of the Holy See to its former dignity and freedom — Union of the whole Catholic flock with the Supreme Pontiff in embracing truth and rejecting error — Observance of God's law about matrimony and the family — Rejoicing on account of union of hearts and minds — Thanks fortokens of obedience received ... 50 III. — The Christian Constitution of States. (Encyclical Letter, November i, 1885.^ The Church is the nursing mother of civilization — Yet she has been traduced from the beginning as an enemy of progress and pros- vi CONTENTS. perity in the civil order — An opinion favoured by many nowadays traces the origin of the maxims of social morality to other sources than the teaching of the Church — The modern system of State polity compared with the Christian jurisprudence— Civil society is founded by God, the Author of Nature— Hence God is the source of public authority and of the right to rule — In order to a just and paternal exercise of authority, the sovereign power must take pattern from God— The obedience of subjects for God's sake is honourable and holy — Society, being a moral person, is bound to pay due hom^e to God — Society is bound, as a consequence, to help its members to attain their last end — Ecclesiastical Society, which is the Church, is instituted by Christ — with a view to the everlasting salvation of souls — The Church is a Universal Society — with a distinction of grades and offices — both natural and supernatural — complete, in- dependent, and supreme — invested with legislative and judicial power — This authority is complete and self-dependent — The two- fold authority, that of the Church and that of the civil government, established by God — both of which are confined within certain limits — Between these two powers there exists a certain orderly connection — Sacred things are subject to the authority of the Church — Concordats — The Christian idea of Civil l^olity is unexceptionable — Advantages to be derived from the Christian Civil Polity — in both the family and society at large — and in benefit of the social order — St. Augustine enlarges admirably on these benefits — -Ilistoiy witnesses to these advan- tages — The new jurisprudence traced to the revolution of the sixteenth century — the main principle being the false claim of the absolute equality of all men — Whence it follows that the will of the people is looked upon as the sole law — Religious indifference throughout society is openly maintained — also the so-called liberty of conscience — Those who adopt these maxims deny that the Church is a complete society — and seek to sever the affairs of the Church from those of the State — Proofs that this system is at variance with the teachings of reason — Religious indifference — The liberty of the Press — Exclusion of the Church from the busi- ness of life, from the school, and from the family — The Church enslaved by the Civil power — Condemnation of these erroneous tenets by the Supreme Pontiffs — The true import of those Papal utterances — Rejection of distorted meanings assigned to them — for instance, the Popes in no wise proscribe any form of govern- ment or the toleration of false religions — or reasonable, civil and political liberty — or scientific research — The aim of the Pontiff in renewing this assertion of Catholic truth — Duties of Catholics with reference to opinions — in private life — in their public capacity- Example of the early Christians — Recommendations to Catholics to remain well-affected to the Church, and to be conformed to her mind — to be unanimous in their profession of doctrines taught by the Church — to reject whatever is akin to Naturalism or Rationalism — or divorces public from private duty — foregoing all domestic controversies, especially in the periodical Press ... 65 CONTENTS. VII IV. — On the Chief Duties of Christians as Citizens. (Encyclical Letter, jTanuary lo, 1890.^ The evil of neglecting Christian teaching— Material progress cannot lead man 10 his last end — A godless government deserves not the name — Decline of religion owing to the pursuit of tempora advantages — The object of this Encyclical Letter — Catholics, as children of the Church, have imperative duties towards her — The duty of loving the Church and the State^The love of Church and of Country, coming from God, cannot be opposed to each other — The State has no right to order things opposed to God's law — Catholics strictly bound to obey the government in things not con- rary to divine authority — Laws invalid which are against those of God — Enmity to Christ and the Church is born of pride — Need of Catholics to be well instructed in their religion — Catholics should be ready and anxious to defend the P'aith— To defend the Church is the duty and glory of all Catholics — Catholics should profess and spread the Faith — Faith cometh by hearing, hence the preach- ing of the word by the Pastors of the Church — Private individuals ought to help in this leaching — Witness of the Vatican Council on this point — Every one bound lo preach by example and profession of the Faith — Common action a duty, from the very constitution of the Church — Concord of opinion a prime need — Independence of mind a source of concord even in the natural order — Perfect religious concord is of divine precept^ — By obedience to the teach- ing Church revelation is made known to us — Obedience, if not complete, does not exist — St. Thomas of Aquin on the matter — What is included in this complete obedience to the Church — There is no antagonism between Church and State — The Church, exacting obedience from Rulers, helps them to govern — The Church approves of all lawful forms of Civil government — All should imitate the Church in this respect — Civil law must keep in view the moral order — Catholics should uphold Civil Rulers who favour Religion —The enemies of the Church use, against her, dis- sensions amongst Catholics — Catholic statesmen should shun worldly prudence and rashness — The prudence of the flesh de- scribed — How harmful it is to the cause of Christianity — The pru- dence of the spirit — State prudence consults common good — It concerns above all the Roman PontiiT — then the Bishops — It belongs to the Pope to judge the Rulers of the Church — The chief remedy is to be found in the practice of Christian virtue — The evils threatening nations are the punishment of decay of faith and morals — Charity must be restored towards God and our neighbour — Love of our neighbour carefully preserved amongst the early Christians — How necessary it is in these our times — Warning to parents to bring up their children as true Christians — The nature of Christian training — Commendation of Catholics who have defrayed the expenses of schools — The clttgy should exert all their zeal ... 101 viii CONIENTS. ^ HuiMAN Liberty. (Encyclical Lelter, June 20, 1888.^ By Liberty man is master of his actions — Importance of using it aright— What religion has done for Liberty — Modern notions of Liberty— Christian aspect of Liberty — Natural Liberty —M.a.n, being rational, is therefore free— The Church has ever upheld this freedom— Its definition— It lies in the will enlightened liy reason — The power of choosing evil implies defect in human freedom — Moral Liberty — Necessity of law— Natural law, which is our reason commanding us to do good and avoid evil — is identical with the eternal law — Grace is given by God to strengthen and guide the will — but does not hinder freedom — Human law enforces the natural law — and applies its general precepts to par- ticular cases — Hence the eternal law is a standard of true liberty — The Church has ever promoted true freedom — .by abolishing slavery and by spreading civilization — by inculcating respect and obedience to lawful authority — by laying down the limits of human authority — Liberalism casts aside authority — Its logical issue — which is repugnant to reason — Its dangerous consequences — Another form of Liberalism limits obedience by the natural law — Its inconsistency — Another form holds that individuals are subject to the Divine law, but not the State — This view is inconsistent with the end of the State — Some false doctrines of Liberalism — Liberty of Worship — Man must worship God in the way God wills — in the one true religion — The State is also bound to worship God in a form acceptable to Him — -The public profession of Religion is helpful to the liberty of rulers and ruled — Liberty of the Press supposes a right to circulate falsehood — Liberty of Teaching — Truth, being the perfection of the intellect, can alone be lawfully taught — Natural and supernatural truth cannot be mutually opposed — The teaching of the Church is beneficial to science — and is a safeguard of true freedom — True and false Liberty of Conscience — The Church tolerates wrongful teaching for grave reasons — Tolerance of evil a sign of imperfection in the State — Recapitulation of the whole Letter — Various kinds and degrees of Liberalism — Rejection of the Church, or of her claims to have rights — The desire of an impossible compromise — Modern liberties, as they are called, affect dangerous independence — Con- stitutional forms of government approved by the Church — Also political action for national independence ... ... ... 138 t VI. — Christian Marriage. (Encyclical Letter, February 10, 1880.^ The restoration of the spiritual order — Many benefits conferred on the natural order itself — both for individual men — and especially for the domestic household — Marriage a divine institution — having from the beginning the two properties of unity and indissolubility-^ The primitive character of marriage obscured by the Hebrews, CONTENTS. IX through polygamy and divorce ; corrupted by the Gentiles with every kind of sin — Jesus Christ restored marriage to its first con- dition — and raised it lo the dignity of a Sacrament — a higher end proposed to nuptial intercourse — The mutual rights and duties of husbands and wives defined — The authority of parents over their children, and reverence of children towards their parents pre- scribed — The discipline of the marriage state committed by Christ to the Church, which has constantly exercised this divine con- ferred authority, and has provided by its laws for the due sanctity and protection of marriage — Rationalists have endeavoured to withdraw marriage from the control of the Church, and to treat it as a mere human institution — But the right of the Church to con- trol marriage is se'en from the sacred character inherent in it from its first institution — by the dignity of a Sacrament which Christ has willed to apply to it — by the action of our Saviour, of the Apostles, of the Pontiffs and Bishops in its regard — with the united consent of Christian princes — In Christian marriage the contract inseparable from the Sacrament — The evils arising from desecrated marriages considered — These have led to a law of divorce — the fruitful parent of fresh evils — as experience invariably testifies — The Church, by reason of her care to protect the sanctity and perpetuity of the married state, deserves well of nations — The Church, instead of opposing, does greatly aid the Civil power — A concord between both these parties is to be greatly desired — The Po]ie offers his co-operalion to temporal rulers — He strongly ex- horts all bishops to urge on the faithful that they ever bear in mind the divine origin of marriage — its supernatural dignity, unity and perpetuity — Mixed marriages to be avoided ... 178 VII. — The Right Ordering of Christian Life. (Encyclical Letter, December 30, 1888.^ The Jubilee an occasion of great spiritual benefit to the world — Christian Life — The reign of the threefold lust — Its sources — Bad books and licentious plays — Godless education — The offspring of Godlessness — The remedy being beyond human resource — must come from Jesus Christ — A Christian is bound not to seek after pleasure and fly from labour — The struggle with our passions brings even temporal blessings— The duty of mortification — Prayer — its fruits — Faith restored and increased by prayer — The example of the Clergy — Virtuous nations rewarded with tem- poral prosperity — The hope of the future is centred in the Church — A prayer for the well-being of the Church ... ... 207 I^VIII. — Concerning Modern Errors, Socialism, Communism, Nihilism. (Encyclical Letter, December z8, 1878.^ The character and aims of certain sects described — They attack authority, the family, private property — The source of this rationalism, which since the sixteenth century has invaded the political, scientific, and economical order — The care taken by the Popes to ward off danger by excommunicating members of Secret Societies —The Gospel teachings opposed to Socialism — The Church inculcates obedience of subjects to rulers — and moderation to the rulers of the people — The Church defends the indissoluble imion of husband and wife — The Church defines the rights and duties of parents and children, and of masters and servants — It acknowledges the rights of possessing and disposing of private pro- perty, honours and relieves the poor, enjoins the rich to give alms — An appeal to peoples and rulers to hearken to the voice of the Church teaching, and to restore liberty to her — Appeal to pastors to plant deep down in the souls of the faithful the teaching of the Church' — and to establish Associations of working men — Hope of divine aid ... ... ... ... ...240 IX. — Working Men's Clubs and Associations. (An Address to the Officials and Members of the Societies for the Furtherance of Catholic Interests amongst the Industrial Classe in France, February 24, 1885.^ Catholic Working Men's Associations — Self-seeking agitators — The Church and social ills — United action for religious and social ends ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 241 ^ X. — The Reunion of Christendom. ( Encyclical Letter, Jtme 20, 1 894. J The Pope's Jubilee and unity amongst Catholics— A great multi- tude outside Catholic Unity — The Holy Father's concern for those outside Catholic Unity — The most unfortunate of all nations — Former unity amongst civilized nations— The Eastern Churches- Appeal to the Easterns— Appeal to the Slavs— Nations more recently separated drifting into various errors— Catholic Unity and the sure way of salvation — Exhortation to Catholics. .. 245 ERRATA. ge II. Line i6. omit "who."' 24- ,. 3- for "afford," read "afforded." 73- „ 21. ow«V "all her affairs." 8o. ,, II. „ "not." 215. „ 6. for "decree" 7-ead "degree." 231- ,> 16. „ "so still" „ "still so." THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. (Encyclical Letter, May i^, i8gi.) THAT the spirit of revolutionary change, which has long been disturbing the nations of the world, should have passed beyond the sphere of politics and made its influence felt in the cognate sphere of practical economics is not surprising. The elements of the conflict now raging are unmistakable, in the vast expansion of industrial pursuits and the marvellous discoveries of science ; in the changed relations between masters and workmen ; in the enormous fortunes of some few individuals, and the utter poverty of the masses ; in the increased self-reliance and closer mutual combination of the working classes ; as also, finally, in the prevailing moral degeneracy. The momen- tous gravity of the state of things now obtaining fills every mind with painful apprehension ; wise men are discussing it ; practical men are proposing schemes ; popular meetings, legislatures,- and rulers of nations are all busied with it — and actually there is no question which has taken a deeper hold on the public mind. Therefore, Venerable Brethren, as on former occasions when it seemed opportune to refute false teaching, we have addressed you in the interests of the Church and of 2 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. the common weal, and have issued Letters bearing on "Political Power," "Human Liberty," "The Christian Constitution of the State," and like matters, so have we thought it expedient now to speak on The Condition of THE Working Classes. It is a subject on which we have already touched more than once, incidentally. But in the present Letter, the responsibility of the Apostolic office urges us to treat the question of set purpose and in detail, in order that no misapprehension may exist as to the principles which truth and justice dictate for its settlement. The dis- cussion is not easy, nor is it void of danger. It is no easy matter to define the relative rights and mutual duties of the rich and of the poor, of Capital and of Labour. And the danger lies in this, that crafty agitators are intent on making use of these differences of opinion to pervert men's judgments and to stir up the people to revolt. But all agree, and there can be no question whatever, that some remedy must be found, and found quickly, for the misery and wretchedness pressing so heavily and unjustly at this moment on the vast majority of the working classes. For the ancient working-men's Guilds were abolished in the last century, and no other organisation took their place. Public institutions and the very laws have set aside the ancient religion. Hence by degrees it has come to pass that working-men have been surrendered, all isolated and helpless, to the hard-heartedness of employers and the greed of unchecked competition. The mischief has been increased by rapacious usury, which, although more than once condemned by the Church, is nevertheless, under a different guise, but with the like injustice, still practised by THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 3 covetous and grasping men. To this must be added the custom of working by contract, and the concentration of so many ^branches of trade in the hands of a few individuals ; so that a small number of very rich men have been able to lay upon the teeming masses of the labouring poor a yoke little better than that of slavery itself. To remedy these wrongs the The sooiaiiat soiu- Socialists, working on the poor man's tion; its refutation. ' ° ^ envy of the rich, are striving to do away with private property, and contend that individual possessions should become the common property of all, to be administered by the State or by municipal bodies. They hold that by thus transferring property from private individuals to the community, the present mischievous state of things will be set to rights, inasmuch as each citizen will then get his fair share of whatever there is to enjoy. But their contentions are so clearly powerless to end the con- troversy that were they carried into effect the working-man himself would be among the first to suffer. They are moreover emphatically unjust, because they would rob the lawful possessor, bring State action into a sphere not with- in its competence, and create utter confusion in the community. It is surely undeniable that, when a f "^n^urrrSght. ™an engages in remunerative labour, the impelling reason and motive of his work is to obtain property, and thereafter, to hold it as his very own. If one man hires out to another his strength or skill, he does so for the purpose of receiving in return what is necessary for sustenance and education; he therefore expressly intends to acquire a right full and real, not only 4 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. to the remuneration, but also to the disposal of such remuneration, just as he pleases. Thus, if he lives sparingly, saves money, and, for greater security, invests his savings in land, the land, in such case, is only his wages under another form; and, consequently, a working-man's little estate thus purchased should be as completely at his full disposal as are the wages he receives for his labour. But it is precisely in such power of disposal that owner- ship obtains, whether the property consist of land or chattels. Socialists, therefore, by endeavouring to transfer the possessions of individuals to the community at large, strike at the interests of every wage-earner, since they would deprive him of the liberty of disposing of his wages, and thereby of all hope and possibility of increasing his stock and of bettering his condition in life. What is of far greater moment, however, is the fact that the remedy they propose is manifestly against justice. For every man has by nature the right to possess property as his own. This is one of the chief points of distinction between man and the animal creation, for the brute has no power of self-direction, but is governed by two main instincts, which keep his powers on the alert, impel him to develop them in a fitting manner, and stimulate and determine him to action without any power of choice. One of these instincts is self-preservation, the other the propagation of the species. Both can attain their purpose by means of things which lie within range ; beyond their verge the brute creation cannot go, for they are moved to action by their senses only, and in the special direction which these suggest. But with man it is wholly different. He possesses, on the one hand, the full perfection of the animal THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 5 being, and hence enjoys, at least as much as the rest of the animal kind, the fruition of things material. But animal nature, however perfect, is far from representing the human being in its completeness, and is in truth but humanity's humble handmaid, made to serve and to obey. It is the mind, or reason, which is the predominant element in us who are human creatures ; it is this which renders a human being human, and distinguishes him essentially and generi- cally from the brute. And on this very account — that man alone among the animal creation is endowed with reason — it must be within his right to possess things not merely for temporary and momentary use, as other living things do, but to have and to hold them in stable and permanent possession ; he must have not only things that perish in the "user" but those also which, though they have been reduced into use, continue for further use in after time. This becomes still more clearly evident if man's nature be considered a little more deeply. For man, fathoming by his faculty of reason matters without number, and linking the future with the present, becoming, furthermore, by taking enlightened forethought, master of his own acts, guides his ways under the eternal law and the power of God, Whose Providence governs all things. Wherefore it is in his power to exercise his choice not only as to matters that regard his present welfare, but also about those which he deems may be for his advantage in time yet to come. Hence man not only can possess the fruits of the earth, but also the very soil, inasmuch as from the produce of the earth he has to lay by provision for the future. Man's needs do not die out, but recur ; although satisfied to-day, 6 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. they demand fresh supplies for to-morrow. Nature accordingly owes to man a storehouse that shall never fail, affording the daily supply for his daily wants. And this he finds solely in the inexhaustible fertility of the earth_ Neither do we, at this stage, need to bring into action the interference of the State. Man precedes the State, and possesses, prior to the formation of any State, the right of providing for the sustenance of his body. Now to affirm that God has given the earth for the use and enjoyment of the whole human race is not to deny that private property is lawful. For God has gfranted the earth to mankind in general, not in the sense that all without distinction can deal with it as they like, but rather that no part of it has been assigned to anyone in particular, and that the limits of private possession have been left to be fixed by man's own industry, and by the laws of individual races. Moreover, the earth, even though apportioned among private owners, ceases not thereby to minister to the needs of all, inasmuch as there is no one who does not sustain life from what the land produces. Those who do not possess the soil, contribute their labour ; hence it may truly be said that all human subsistence is derived either from labour on one's own land, or from some toil- some calling which is paid for either in the produce of the land itself, or in that which is exchanged for what the land brings forth. Here, again, we have further proof that private owner- ship is in accordance with the law of nature. Truly, that which is required for the preservation of life, and for life's well-being, is produced in great abundance from the soil, but not until man has brought it into cultivation and THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 7 expended upon it his solicitude and skill. Now, when man thus turns the activity of his mind and the strength of his body towards procuring the fruits of nature, by such act he makes his own that portion of nature's field which he cultivates — that portion on which he leaves, as it were, the impress of his individuality ; and it cannot but be just that he should possess that portion as his very own, and have a right to hold it without any one being justified in violating that right. So strong and convincing are these arguments, that it seems amazing that some should now be setting up anew certain obsolete opinions in opposition to what is here laid down. They assert that it is right for private persons to have the use of the soil and its various fruits, but that it is unjust for anyone to possess outright either the land on which he has built, or the estate which he has brought under cultivation. But those who deny these rights do not perceive that they are defrauding man of what his own labour has produced. For the soil which is tilled and cultivated with toil and skill utterly changes its condition : it was wild before, now it is fruitful ; was barren, but now brings forth in abundance. That which has thus altered and improved the land becomes so truly part of itself as to be in great measure indistinguishable and inseparable from it. Is it just that the fruit of a man's own sweat and labour should be possessed and enjoyed by anyone else? As effects follow their cause, so is it just and right that the results of labour should belong to those who have bestowed their labour. With reason, then, the common opinion of mankind, little affected by the few dissentients who have contended for 8 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. the opposite view, has found in the careful study of nature, and in the laws of nature, the foundations of the division of property, and the practice of all ages has consecrated the principle of private ownership, as being pre-eminently in conformity with human nature, and as conducing in the most unmistakable manner to the peace and tranquillity of human existence. The same principle is confirmed and enforced by the civil laws — ^laws which, so long as they are just, derive from the law of iiature their binding force. The authority of the Divine Law adds its sanction, forbidding us in severest terms even to covet that which is another's : — Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife ; nor his house, nor his field, nor his man-servant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything which is his* The rights here spoken of, belong- The rigM of Private ing to each individual man, are seen Property proved by ,. i i the Family. in much stronger light when con- sidered in relation to man's social and domestic obligations. In choosing a state of life, it is indisputable that all are at full liberty to follow the counsel of Jesus Christ as to observing virginity, or to bind them- selves by the marriage tie. No human law can abolish the natural and original right of marriage, nor in any way limit the chief and principal purpose of marriage, ordained by God's authority from the beginning. Increase and multifly.^ Hence we have the Family ; the " society " of a man's house, — a society limited indeed in numbers, but no less a true "society," anterior to every kind of State or nation, invested with rights and duties of its own, totally independent of the civil community. * Deuteronomy v. 21. t Genesis i. 28. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 9 That right of property, therefore, which has been proved to belong naturally to individual persons, must in like wise belong to a man in his capacity of head of a family ; nay, such person must possess this right so much the more clearly in proportion as his position multiplies his duties. For it is a most sacred law of nature that a father should provide food and all necessaries for those whom he has begotten ; and, similarly, nature dictates that a man's children, who carry on, so to speak, and continue his own personality, should be by him provided with all that is needful to enable them to keep themselves honourably from want and misery amid the uncertainties of this mortal life. Now in no other way can a father effect this except by the ownership of lucrative property, which he can transmit to his children by inheritance. A family, no less than a State, is, as we have said, a true society, governed by a power within its sphere, that is to say, by the father. Provided, therefore, the limits which are prescribed by the very purposes for which it exists be not transgressed, the Family has at least equal rights with the State in the choice and pursuit of the things needful to its preservation and its just liberty. We say, at least equal rights ; for inasmuch as the domestic household is antecedent, as well in idea as in fact, to the gathering of men into a community, the family must necessarily have rights and duties which are prior to those of the Community, and founded more imme- diately in nature. If the citizens of a State — in other words the families — on entering into association and fellowship, were to experience at the hands of the State hindrance instead of help, and were to find their rights attacked 10 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. instead of being upheld, such association should be held in detestation, rather than be an object of desire. The contention, then, that the civil government should at its option intrude into and exercise intimate control over the Family and the household, is a great and pernicious error. True, if a family finds itself in exceeding distress, utterly deprived of the counsel of friends, and without any prospect of extricating itself, it is right that extreme necessity be met by public aid, since each family is a part of the commonwealth. In like manner, if within the precincts of the household there occur grave dis- turbance of mutual rights, public authority should intervene to force each party to yield to the other its proper due ; for this is not to deprive citizens of their rights, but justly and properly to safeguard and strengthen them. But the rulers of the State must go no further : here nature bids them stop. Paternal authority can be neither abolished nor absorbed by the State ; for it has the same source as human life itself. " The child belongs to the father,'' and is, as it were, the continuation of the father's personality ; and, speaking strictly, the child takes its place in civil society, not of its own right, but in its quality as member of the family in which it is born. And for the very reason that "the child belongs to the father," it is, as St. Thomas of Aquin says, " before it attains the use of free- will, under power and charge of its parents."* The Socialists, therefore, in setting aside the parent and setting up a State supervision, act against natural Justice, and break into pieces the stability of all family life. And not only is such interference unjust, but it is quite * St. Thomas, Sunima Theologica, 2a 2£e Q. x. Art. I2. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. II certain to harass and worry all classes of citizens, and subject them to odious and intolerable bondage. It would throw open the door to envy, to mutual invective, and to discord ; the sources of wealth themselves would run dry, for no one would have any interest in exerting his talents or his industry ; and that ideal equality about which they entertain pleasant dreams would be in reality the levelling down of all to a like condition of misery and degradation. Hence it is clear that the main tenet of SociaUsm, community of goods, must be utterly rejected, since it only injures those whom it would seem meant to benefit, is directly contrary to the natural rights of mankind, and would introduce confusion and disorder into the common- weal. The first and most fundamental principle, therefore, if one who would undertake to alleviate the condition of the masses, must be the inviolability of private property. This being established, we proceed to show where the remedy sought for must be found. We approach the subject with con- No practical fidence, and in the exercise of the solution -without Religion. rights which manifestly appertain to us, for no practical solution of this question will be found apart from the intervention of Religion and of the Church. It is We who are the chief guardian of Religion and the chief dispenser of what pertains to the Church, and We must not by silence neglect the duty incumbent on us. Doubtless this most serious question demands the attention and the efforts of others besides ourselves — to wit, of the rulers of States, of employers of labour, of the wealthy, aye, of the working 12 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. classes themselves, for whom We are pleading. But We affirm without hesitation that all the striving of men will be vain if they leave out the Church. It is the Church that insists, on the authority of the Gospel, upon those teachings whereby the conflict can be brought to an end, or rendered, at least, far less bitter ; the Church uses her efforts not only to enlighten the mind, but to direct by her precepts the life and conduct of each and all ; the Church improves and betters the condition of the working-man by means of numerous useful organisations ; does her best to enlist the services of all ranks in discussing and endeavour- ing to meet, in the most practical way, the claims of the working classes ; and acts from the positive view that for these purposes recourse should be had, in due measure and degree, to the intervention of the law and of State authority. Let it, then, be taken as granted, Labour and suffer- -^^ ^j^g gj.gj ^ ^^at the condition ang must exist. "^ ' of things human must be endured, for it is impossible to reduce civil society to one dead level. Socialists may in that intent do their utmost, but all striving against nature is in vain. There naturally exist among mankind manifold differences of the most important kind ; people differ in capacity, skill, health, strength ; and unequal fortune is a necessary result of unequal condition. Such inequality is far from being disadvan- tageous either to individuals or to the community. Social and public life can only be maintained by means of various kinds of capacity for business and the playing of many parts ; and each man, as a rule, chooses the part which suits his own peculiar domestic condition. As regards bodily labour, even had man never fallen from THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 13 the state of innocence, he would not have remained wholly unoccupied ; but that which would then have been his free choice and his delight, became afterwards compulsory, and the painful expiation for his disobedience. Cursed be the earth in thy work ; in thy labour thou shalt eat of it all the days of thy life* In like manner, the other pains and hardships of life will have no end or cessation on earth ; for the consequences of sin are bitter and hard to bear, and they must accompany man so long as life lasts. To suffer and to endure, therefore, is the lot of humanity ; let them strive as they may, no strength and no artifice will ever succeed in banishing from human life the ills and troubles which beset it. If any there are who pretend differently — who hold out to a hard-pressed people the boon of freedom from pain and trouble, an undisturbed repose, and constant enjoyment — they delude the people and impose upon them, and their lying promises will only one day bring forth evils worse than the present. Nothing is more useful than to look upon th'e world as it really is — and at the same time to seek elsewhere, as we have said, for the solace to its troubles. The great mistake made in regard °1*^^ clL°sl^'^ ^^^^ *° '^^ "^^"^^ "°'' ""'^^'' consideration, is to take up with the notion that class is naturally hostile to class, and that the wealthy and the working-men are intended by nature to live in mutual con- flict. So irrational and so false is this view, that the direct contrary is the truth. Just as the symmetry of the human frame is the resultant of the disposition of the bodily mem- bers, so in a State is it ordained by nature that these two * Genesis iii. 17. 14 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. classes should dwell in harmony and agreement, and should, as it were, groove into one another, so as to maintain the balance of the body politic. Each needs the other: Capital cannot do without Labour, nor Labour without Capital. Mutual agreement results in pleasantness of life and the beauty of good order; while perpetual conflict necessarily produces confusion and savage barbarity. Now, in preventing such strife as this, and in uprooting it, the efificacy of Christian institutions is marvellous and manifold. First of all, there is no intermediary more powerful than Religion (whereof the Church is the inter- preter and guardian) in drawing the rich, and the poor bread-winners, together, by reminding each class of its duties to the other, and especially of the obligations of justice. Thus Religion teaches the labouring man and the artisan to carry out honestly and fairly all equitable agreements freely entered into ; never to injure the property, nor to outrage the person, of an employer ; never to resort to violence in defending their own cause, nor to engage in riot or disorder ; and to have nothing to do with men of evil principles, who work upon the people with artful promises, and excite foolish hopes which usually end in useless regrets, followed by insolvency. Religion teaches the wealthy owner and the employer that their work-people are not to be accounted their bondsmen ; that in every man they must respect his dignity and worth as a man and as a Christian ; that labour is not a thing to be ashamed of, if we lend ear to right reason and to Christian philosophy, but is an honourable calling, enabling a man to sustain his life in a way upright and creditable ; and that it is shameful and inhuman to treat men like chattels to make money by, or to look upon THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 15 them merely as so much muscle or physical power. Again, therefore, the Church teaches that, as Religion and things, spiritual and mental, are among the working-man's main concerns, the employer is bound to see that the worker has time for his religious duties; that he be not exposed to corrupting influences and dangerous occasions ; and that he be not led away to neglect his home and family, or to squander his earnings. Furthermore, the employer must never tax his work-people beyond their strength, or employ them in work unsuited to their sex or age. His great and principal duty is to give every one a fair wage. Doubtless before deciding whether wages are adequate, many things have to be considered ; but wealthy owners and all masters of labour should be mindful of this — that to exercise pressure upon the indigent and the destitute for the sake of gain, and to gather one's profit out of the need of another, is con- demned by all laws, human and divine. To defraud any- one of wages that are his due is a crime which cries to the avenging anger of Heaven. Behold, the hire of the labourers . . . which by fraud hath been kept back by you, crieth aloud ; and the cry of them hath entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth.* Lastly, the rich must religiously refrain from cutting down the workmen's earnings, whether by force, by fraud, or by usurious dealing ; and with all the greater reason because the labouring man is, as a rule, weak and unprotected, and because his slender means should in proportion to their scantiness be accounted sacred. Were these precepts carefully obeyed and followed out, would they not be sufficient of themselves to keep under all strife and all its causes ? * St. James v. 4. 1 6 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. But the Church, with Jesus Christ The Rich must help j^^^ Master and Guide, aims higher the Poor. still. She lays down precepts yet more perfect, and tries to bind class to class in friendliness and good feeling. The things of earth cannot be understood or valued aright without taking into consideration the life to come, the life that will know no death. Exclude the idea of futurity, and forthwith the very notion of what is good and right would perish ; nay, the whole scheme of the universe would become a dark and unfathomable mystery. The great truth which we learn from Nature herself is also the grand Christian dogma on which Religion rests as on its foundation — that when we have given up this present life, then shall we really begin to live. God has not created us for the perishable and transitory things of earth, but for things heavenly and everlasting ; He has given us this world as a place of exile, and not as our abiding-place. As for riches and the other things which men call good and desira- ble, whether we have them in abundance, or lack them altogether — so far as eternal happiness is concerned — it matters little ; the only important thing is to use them aright. Jesus Christ, when He redeemed us with plentiful redemp- tion,* took not away the pains and sorrows which in such large proportion are woven together in the web of our mortal life. He transformed them into motives of virtue and occasions of merit : and no man can hope for eternal reward unless he follow in the blood-stained footprints of his Saviour. If we suffer with Him, we shall also reign with Him.\ Christ's labours and sufferings, accepted of His own free-will, have marvellously sweetened all * 2 Timothy ii. 12, t 2 Corinthians iv. 17. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 1 7 suffering and all labour. And not only by His example, but by His grace and by the hope held forth of ever- lasting recompense, has He made pain and grief more easy to endure ; for that which is at present momentary and light of our tribulation, worketh for us above measure exceedingly an eternal weight of glory. * Therefore those whom fortune favours are warned that freedom from sorrow and abundance of earthly riches are no warrant for the bliss that shall never end, but rather are obstacles ; j that the rich should tremble at the threatenings of Jesus Christ — threatenings so unwonted in the mouth of Our Lord % — and that a most strict account must be given to the Supreme Judge for all we possess. The chief and most excellent rule for the right use of money is one which the heathen philosophers hinted at, but which the Church has traced out clearly, and has not only made known to men's minds, but has impressed upon their lives. It rests on the principle that it is one thing to have a right to the possession of money, and another to have a right to use money as one wills. Private ownership, as we have seen, is the natural right of man ; and to exercise that right, especially as members of society, is not only lawful, but absolutely necessary. " It is lawful," says St. Thomas of Aquin, " for a man to hold private property ; and it is also necessary for the carrying on of human existence." § But if the question be asked, How must one's possessions be used ? the Church replies without hesitation in the words of the same holy Doctor : " Man should not consider his outward possessions as his own, but as common to all, so as * 2 Corinthians iv . 17. \ St, Matthew xix. 23, 24. J St. Luke vi. 24, 25. § 2a 2£e Q. Ixvi. Art. 2. B 1 8 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. to share them without hesitation when others are in need. Whence the Apostle saith, Command the rich of this world ... to offer with no stint, to apportion largely."* True, no one is commanded to distribute to others that which is required for his own needs and those of his household ; nor even to give away what is reasonably required to keep u]) becomingly his condition in life ; " for no one ought to live other than becomingly."! But when what necessity de- mands has been supplied, and one's standing fairly taken thought for, it becomes a duty to give to the indigent out of what remains over. Of that which remaineth, give alms.% It is a duty, not of justice (save in extreme cases), but of Christian charity — a duty not enforced by human law. But the laws and judgments of men must yield place to the laws and judgments of Christ the true God, Who in many ways urges on His followers the practice of almsgiving — // is more blessed to give than to receive ;% and Who will coun a kindness done or refused to the poor as done or refused to Himself — As long as you did it to one of My least brethren, you did it to Me. 1 To sum up then what has been said : — Whoever has received from the Divine bounty a large share of temporal blessings, whether they be external and corporeal, or gifts of the mind, has received them for the purpose of using them for the perfecting of his own nature, and, at the same time, that he may employ them, as the steward of God's Providence, for the benefit of others. " He that hath a talent," says St. Gregory the Great, " let him see that he hide it not ; he that hath abundance, let him quicken himself to mercy and generosity ; he that hath * Ibid. Q. Ixv. Art. 2. t Ibid. Q. xxxii. Art. 6. XSt. Luke xi. 41. %Acts xx. 35. \ St. Matthew xxv. 40. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 19 art and skill, let him do his best to share the use and the utility thereof with his neighbour." * As for those who possess not the acce^°the"'iot. g'^'^ °^ fortune, they are taught by the Church that in God's sight poverty is no disgrace, and that there is nothing to be ashamed of in seeking one's bread by labour. This is enforced by what we see in Christ Himself, Who whereas He was rich, for our sakes became poor ;\ and Who, being the Son of God, and God Himself, chose to seem and to be considered the son of a carpenter — nay, did not disdain to spend a great part of His life as a carpenter Himself. Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary ? % From contemplation of this Divine exemplar, it is more easy to understand that the true worth and nobility of man lies in his moral qualities, that is, in virtue ; that virtue is moreover the common inheritance of men, equally within the reach of high and low, rich and poor ; and that virtue, and virtue alone, wherever found, will be followed by the rewards of ever- lasting happiness. Nay, God Himself seems to incline rather to those who suffer misfortune ; for Jesus Christ calls the poor " blessed; "§ He lovingly invites those in labour and grief to come to Him for solace ; ^ and He displays the tenderest charity towards the lowly and the oppressed. These reflections cannot fail to keep down the pride of those who are well to do, and to embolden the spirit of * St. Gregory the Great, Horn. ix. in Evangel, n. 7. t2 Corinthians viii. 9. % St. Mark vi.^. § St. Matthew v. 3 : Blessed are the poor in spirit. 1" Ibid. xi. 28 : Come to Me all you that labour and are burdened, and T will refresh you. 20 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. the afflicted; to incline the former to generosity and the latter to meek resignation. Thus the separation which pride would set up tends to disappear, nor will it be difficult to make rich and poor join hands in friendly concord. But, if Christian precepts prevail, the respective classes will not only be united in the bonds of friendship, but also in those of brotherly love. For they will understand and feel that all men are children of the same common Father, Who is God ; that all have alike the same last end, which is God Himself, Who alone can make either men or angels absolutely and perfectly happy ; that each and all are redeemed and made sons of God, by Jesus Christ, the first-born among many brethren ; that the blessings of nature and the gifts of grace belong to the whole human race in common, and that from none except the unworthy is withheld the inheritance of the Kingdom of Heaven. If sons, heirs also ; heirs indeed of God, and co-heirs of Christ. * Such is the scheme of duties and of The Church serves Society rights which is shown forth to the ^ChriftiaLlty^ world by the Gospel. Would it not seem that, were society penetrated with ideas like these, strife must quickly cease ? But the Church, not content with pointing out the remedy, also applies it. For the Church does her utmost to teach and to train men, and to educate them ; and by the intermediary of her bishops and clergy diffuses her salutary teachings far and wide. She strives to influence the mind and the heart so that all may willingly yield them- sel ves to be formed and guided by the commandments of * Romans viii. 17. ^ THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 21 God. It is precisely in this fundamental and momentous matter, on which everything depends, that the Church possesses a power peculiarly her own. The agencies which she employs are given to her by Jesus Christ Himself for the very purpose of reaching the hearts of men, and derive their efficiency from God. They alone can reach the innermost heart and conscience, and bring men to act from a motive of duty, to resist their passions and appetites, to love God and their fellow-men with a love that is singular and supreme, and to break down courageously every barrier which impedes the way of a life of virtue. On this subject we need but recall for one moment the examples recorded in history. Of these facts there cannot be any shadow of doubt : for instance, that civil society was renovated in every part by the teachings of Christianity ; that in the strength of that renewal the human race was lifted up to better things — nay, that it was brought back from death to life, and to so excellent a life that nothing more perfect had been known before, or will come to be known in the ages that have yet to be. Of this beneficent transformation, Jesus Christ was at once the first cause and the final end ; as from Him all came, so to Him was all to be brought back. For when the human race, by the light of the Gospel message, came to know the grand mystery of the Incarnation of the Word and the redemption of man, at once the life of Jesus Christ, God and Man, pervaded every race and nation, and interpenetrated them with His faith. His precepts and His laws. And if Society is to be healed now, in no other way can it be healed save by a return to Christian life and Christian institutions. 22 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. When a society is perishing, the wholesome advice to give to those who would restore it is to recall it to the principles from which it sprang ; for the purpose and perfection of an association is to aim at and to attain that for which it was formed ; and its efforts should be put in motion and inspired by the end and object which originally gave it being. Hence to fall away from its primal constitution implies disease ; to go back to it, recovery. And this may be asserted with utmost truth both of the State in general and of that body of its citizens — by far the great majority — who sustain life by their labour. Neither must it be supposed that She is also solicitous ^, t -^ ■• r ^i /-i i • about the temporal the solicitude of the Church is so interest of her pre-occupied with the spiritual con- cerns of her children as to neglect their temporal and earthly interests. Her desire is that the poor, for example, should rise above poverty and wretchedness, and better their condition in life ; and for this she makes a strong endeavour. By the very fact that she calls men to virtue and forms them to its practice, she promotes this in no slight degree. Christian morality, when adequately and completely practised, leads of itself to temporal prosperity, for it merits the blessing of that God Who is the source of all blessings ; it powerfully restrains the greed of possession and the thirst for pleasure — twin plagues, which too often make a man who is void of self-restraint, miserable in the midst of abundance ; * it makes men supply for the lack of means through economy, teaching them to be content with frugal living, and further, keeping them out of the reach of those vices which devour * The desire of money is the root of all evils — i Tim. vi. lo. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 23 not small incomes merely, but large fortunes, and dissipate many a goodly inheritance. The Church, moreover, intervenes directly in behalf of the poor, by setting on foot and maintaining many associations which she knows to be efficient for the relief of poverty. Herein 'again she has always succeeded so well as to have even extorted the praise of her enemies. Such was the ardour of brotherly love among the earliest Christians that numbers of those who were in better circumstances, despoiled themselves of their possessions in order to relieve their brethren ; whence neither was there any one needy among them. * To the order of Deacons, instituted in that very intent, was committed by the Apostles the charge of the daily doles ; and the Apostle Paul, though burdened with the solicitude of all the churches, hesitated not to undertake laborious journeys in order to carry the alms of the faithful to the poorer Christians. TertuUian calls these contributions, given voluntarily by Christians in their assemblies, deposits of piety ; because, to cite his own words, they were employed " in feeding the needy, in burying them, in the support of youths and maidens destitute of means and deprived of their parents, in the care of the aged, and the relief of the shipwrecked." f Thus by degrees came into existence the patrimony which the Church has guarded with religious care as the inheritance of the poor. Nay, to spare them the shame of begging, the common Mother of rich and poor has exerted herself to gather together funds JFor the support of the needy. The Church has aroused everywhere the heroism of charity, and has established congregations of Religious * Acts iv. 34, + Apologia Stcunda, xxxix. 24 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. and many other useful institutions for help and mercy, so that hardly any kind of suffering could exist which was not afford relief. At the present day many there are who, like the heathen of old, seek to blame and condemn the Church for such eminent charity. They would substitute in its stead a system of relief organised by the State. But no human expedients will ever make up for the devotedness and self-sacrifice of Christian charity. Charity, as a virtue, pertains to the Church ; for virtue it is not, unless it be drawn from the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ ; and whoso- ever turns his back on the Church cannot be near to Christ. It cannot, however, be doubted that to attain the purpose we are treating of, not only the Church, but all human agencies must concur. All who are concerned in the matter should be of one mind and according to their ability act together. It is with this, as with the Providence that governs the world ; the results of causes do not usually take place save where all the causes co-operate. ™,. „^ ^ ^ ,^ I' 'S sufficient therefore, to inquire The state should ' ^ promote the general what part the State should play in the ^°° ' work of remedy and relief. By the State we here understand, not the particular form of government prevailing in this or that nation, but the State as rightly apprehended ; that is to say, any government conformable in its institutions to right reason and natural law, and to those dictates of the Divine wisdom which we have expounded in the Encyclical on "The Christian Constitution of the State." The foremost duty, therefore, of the rulers of the State should be to make sure that the laws and institutions, the general character and administra- tion of the commonwealth, shall be such as of themselves THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 25 to realise public well-being and private prosperity. This is the proper scope of wise statesmanship and is the work of the heads of the State. Now, a state chiefly prospers and thrives through moral rule, well-regulated family life, respect for religion and justice, the modera- tion and equal allocation of public taxes, the progress of the arts and of trade, the abundant yield of the land — ^through everything, in fact, which makes the citizens better and happier. Hereby, then, it lies in the power of a ruler to benefit every class in the State, and amongst the rest to promote to the utmost the interests of the poor ; and this in virtue of his office, and without being open to any suspicion of undue interference — since it is the pro- vince of the State to consult the common good. And the more that is done for the benefit of the working classes by the general laws of the country, the less need will there be to seek for special means to relieve them. There is another and deeper con- sliould taa solicitous for the •working sideration which must not be lost ' sight of. As regards the State, the interests of all, whether high or low, are equal. The poor are members of the national community equally with the rich ; they are real component living members which constitute, through the family, the living body ; and it need hardly be said that they are in every State very largely in the majority. It would be irrational to neglect one portion of the citizens and favour another ; and therefore the public administration must duly and solicitously provide for the welfare and the comfort of the working classes ; otherwise that law of justice will be violated which ordains that each man shall have his due. To cite the 2 6 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. wise words of St. Thomas of Aquin : " As the part and the whole are in a certain sense identical, the part may in some sense claim what belongs to the whole."* Among the many and grave duties of rulers who would do their best for the people, the first and chief is to act with strict justice— with that justice which is called by the Schoolmen distributive — towards each and every class alike. But although all citizens, without exception, can and ought to contribute to that common good in which indi- viduals share so advantageously to themselves, yet it should not be supposed that all can contribute in the like way arid to the same extent. No matter what changes may occur in forms of government, there will ever be differences and inequalities of condition in the State. Society cannot exist or be conceived of without them. Some there must be who devote themselves to the work of the commonwealth, who make the laws or administer justice, or whose advice and authority govern the nation in times of peace, and defend it in war. Such men clearly occupy the foremost place in the State, and should be held in highest estimation, for their work con- cerns most nearly and effectively the general interests of the community. Those who labour at a trade or calling do not promote the general welfare in such measure as this ; but they benefit the nation, if less directly, in a most important manner. Still we have insisted that, since the end of Society is to make men better, the chief good that Society can possess is Virtue. Nevertheless, in all well-constituted States it is in no wise a matter of small moment to provide those bodily and external * 2a 2£e Q. Ixi. Art. i ad 2. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 27 commodities the use of which is necessary to virtuous action.* And in order to provide such material well-being, the labour of the poor— the exercise of their skill, and the employment of their strength, in the culture of the land and in the workshops of trade — is of great account and quite indispensable. Indeed, their co-operation is in this respect so important that it may be truly said that it is only by the labour of working-men that States grow rich. Justice, therefore, demands that the interests of the poorer classes should be carefully watched over by the administration, so that they who contribute so largely to the advantage of the community may themselves share in the benefits which they create — that being housed, clothed, and enabled to sustain life, they may find their existence less hard and more endurable. It follows that whatever shall appear to prove conducive to the well-being of those who work, should obtain favourable consideration. Let it not be feared that solicitude of this kind will be harmful to any interest j on the contrary, it will be to the advantage of all ; for it cannot but be good for the commonwealth to shield from misery those on whom it so largely depends. > We have said that the State must \ In what respects • ■ j 1 t, the State should not absorb the individual or the interfere. family; both should be allowed free and untrammelled action so far as is consistent with the common good and the interests of others. Rulers should, nevertheless, anxiously safeguard the community and all its members : the community, because the conservation thereof is so emphatically the business of the supreme * St. Thomas of Aquin, De Regimine Principum, i. 15. 28 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. power, that the safety of the commonwealth is not only the first law, but it is a Government's whole reason of existence; and the members, because both philo- sophy and the Gospel concur in laying down that the object of the government of the State should be, not the advantage of the ruler, but the benefit of those over whom he is placed. The gift of authority derives from God, and is, as it were, a participation in the highest of all sovereignties ; and should be exercised as the power of God is exercised — with a fatherly solicitude which not only guides the whole, but reaches also to details. Whenever the general interest or any particular class suffers, or is threatened with mischief which can in no other way be met or prevented, the public authority must step in to deal with it. Now, it interests the public, as as well as the individual, that peace and good order should be maintained ; that family life should be carried on in accordance with God's laws and those of nature ; that Religion should be reverenced and obeyed ; that a high standard of morality should prevail, both in public and private life ; that the sanctity of justice should be respected, and that no one should injure another with impunity; that the members of the commonwealth should grow up to man's estate strong and robust, and capable, if need be, of guardiijg and defending their country. If by a strike, or other combination of work- men, there should be imminent danger of disturbance to the public peace; or if circumstances were such as that among the labouring population the ties of family life were relaxed ; if Religion were found to suffer through the operatives not having time and opportunity afforded THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 29 them to practise its duties ; if in workshops and factories there were danger to morals through the mixing of the sexes or from other harmful occasions of evil ; or if employers laid burdens upon their workmen which were unjust, or degraded them with conditions repugnant to their dignity as human beings ; finally, if health were en- dangered by excessive labour, or by work unsuited to sex or age — in such cases, there can be no question but that, within certain limits, it would be right to invoke the aid and authority of the law. The limits must be determined by the nature of the occasion which calls for the law's interference — the principle being that the law must not undertake more, nor proceed further, than is required for the remedy of the evil or the removal of the mischief. Rights must be religiously respected wherever they exist; and it is the duty of the public authority to pre- vent and to punish injury, and to protect every one in the possession of his own. Still, when there is question of defending the rights of individuals, the poor and helpless have a claim to especial consideration. The richer class have many ways of shielding themselves, and stand less in need of help from the State ; whereas those who are badly off have no resources of their own to fall back' upon, and must chiefly depend upon the assistance of the State. And it is for this reason that wage-earners, who are undoubtedly among the weak and necessitous, should be specially cared for and protected by the Government. Here, however, it is expedient to How the State . , . should deal with bring under special notice certain labour questions. ^^^^^^^ ^^ moment. It should ever 30 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. be borne in mind that the chief thing to be realised is the safe-guarding of private property by legal enactment and public policy. Most of all is it essential amid such a fever of .excitement, to keep the multitude within the line of duty ; for if all may justly strive to better their condition, neither justice nor the common good allows any individual to seize upon that which belongs to another, or, under the futile and shallow pretext of equality, to lay violent hands on other people's possessions. Most true it is that by far the larger part of the workers prefer to better themselves by honest labour rather than by doing any wrong to others. But there are not a few who are imbued with evil principles and eager for revolutionary change, whose main purpose is to stir up tumult and bring about measures of violence. The authority of the State should intervene to put restraint upon such fire-brands, to save the working classes from their seditious arts, and protect lawful owners from spoliation. When work-people have recourse to a strike, it is fre- quently because the hours of labour are too long, or the work too hard, or because they consider their wages insufficient. The grave inconvenience of this not un- common occurrence should be obviated by public reme- dial measures ; for such paralyzing of labour not only affects the masters and their work-people alike, but is extremely injurious to trade and to the general interests of the public ; moreover, on such occasions, violence and disorder are generally not far distant, and thus it frequently happens that the public peace is imperilled. The laws should forestal and prevent such troubles from arising ; THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 31 they should lend their influence and authority to the removal in good time of the causes which lead to con- flicts between employers and employed. But if owners of property should Working people , , ^, , . must have their D^ made secure, the workmg-man, spiritual rights \^ \\]^q manner has property and belongings in respect to which he should be protected ; and foremost of all, his soul and mind. Life on earth, however good and desirable in itself, is not the final purpose for which man is created ; it is only the way and the means to that attainment of truth and that practice of goodness in which the full life of the soul consists. It is the soul which is made after the image and likeness of God ; it is in the soul that the sovereignty resides in virtue whereof man is commanded to rule the creatures below him and to use all the earth and the ocean for his profit and advantage. Mil the earth and subdue it ; and rule over the fishes of the sea, and the fowls of the air, and all living creatures which move upon the earth* In this respect all men are equal ; there is no difference between rich and poor, master and servant, ruler and ruled, for the same is Lord over all.'\ No man may with impunity outrage that human dignity which God Himself treats with reverence, nor stand in the way of that higher life which is the preparation for the eternal life of Heaven. Nay more ; no man has in this matter power over himself. To consent to any treatment which is calculated to defeat the end and purpose of his being is beyond his right; he cannot give up his soul to servitude; for it is not * Genesis i. 28. t Romans x. 12. 32 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. man's own rights which are here in question, but the rights of God, the most sacred and inviolable of rights. From this follows the obligation of the cessation from work and labour on Sundays and certain holydays. The rest from labour is not to be understood as mere giving way to idleness; much less must it be an occasion for spend- ing money and for vicious indulgence, as many would have it to be ; but it should be rest from labour, hallowed by religion. Rest (combined with religious observances), dis- poses man to forget for a while the business of this every- day life, to turn his thoughts to things heavenly, and to the worship which he so strictly owes to the Eternal ■Godhead. It is this, above all, which is the reason and motive of Sunday rest ; a rest sanctioned by God's great law of the Ancient Covenant — Remember thou keep holy the Sabbath day* and taught to the world by His own mysterious " rest " after the creation of man : He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done.\ If we turn now to things external The State' and the regulation and corporeal, the first concern or o Labour. ^ j^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ p^^^. ^^Qj-j^g^g f^Qjj, the cruelty of greedy speculators, who use human beings as mere instruments for money-making. It is neither just nor human so to grind men down with excessive labour as to stupefy their minds and wear out their bodies. Man's powers, like his general nature, are limited, and beyond these limits he cannot go. His strength is de- veloped and increased by use and exercise, but only on condition of due intermission and proper rest. Daily labour, therefore, should be so regulated as not to be * Exod. XX. 8. t Genesis ii. 2. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 33 protracted over longer hours than strength admits. How many and how long the intervals of rest should be, must depend on the nature of the work, on circum- stances of time and place, and on the health and strength of the workman. Those who work in mines and quarries, and extract coal, stone, and metals from the bowels of the earth, should have shorter hours in proportion as their labour is more severe and trying to health. Then, again, the season of the year should be taken into account; for not unfrequently a kind of labour is easy at one time which at another is intolerable or exceedingly difficult. Finally, work which is quite suitable for a strong man cannot reasonably be required from a woman or a child. And, in regard to children, great care should be taken not to place them in work-shops and factories until their bodies and minds are sufficiently developed. For just as very rough weather destroys the buds of spring, so does too early an experience of life's hard toil blight the young promise of a child's faculties, and render any true educa- tion impossible. Women, again, are not suited for certain occupations ; a woman is by nature fitted for home-work, and it is that which is best adapted at once to preserve her modesty and to promote the good bringing-up of children and the well-being of the family. As a general principle it may be laid down that a workman ought to have leisure and rest proportionate to the wear and tear of his strength ; for waste of strength must be repaired by cessation from hard work. In all agreements between masters and work-people, there is always the condition expressed or understood that there should be allowed proper rest for soul and body. 34 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. To agree, in any other sense, would be against what is right and just; for it can never be just or right to require on the one side, or to promise on the other, the giving up of those duties which a man owes to his God and to himself. We now approach a subject of The Living Wage. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ importance, and one in respect of which, if extremes are to be avoided, right notions are absolutely necessary. Wages, as we are told, are regulated by free consent, and therefore the employer, when he pays what was agreed upon, has done his part and seemingly is not called upon to do any- thing beyond. The only way, it is said, in which injustice might occur would be if the master refused to pay the whole of the wages, or if the workman should not complete the work undertaken ; in such cases the State should intervene, to- see that each obtains his due : — but not under any other circumstances. This mode of reasoning is, to a fair-minded man, by no means convincing, for there are important considera- tions which it leaves out of account altogether. To labour is to exert oneself for the sake of procuring what is necessary for the purposes of life, and chief of all for self-preservation. In the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread.* Hence a man's labour bears two notes or characters. First of all, it is personal, inasmuch as the exertion of individual strength belongs to the individual who puts it forth, employing such strength to procure that personal advantage on account of which it was be- stowed. Secondly, man's labour is necessary ; for without * Genesis iii. 19. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 35 the result of labour a man cannot live ; and self-preservation is a law of Nature, which it is wrong to disobey. Now, were we to consider labour so far as it is personal merely, doubtless it would be within the workman's right to accept any rate of wages whatsoever; for in the same way as he is free to work, or not, so is he free to accept a small remuneration or even none at all. But this is a mere abstract supposition; the labour of the working- man is not only his personal attribute, but it is necessary ; and this makes all the difference. The preservation of life is the bounden duty of one and all, and to be wanting therein is a crime. It follows that each one has a right to procure what is required in order to live ; and the poor can procure it in no other way than through work and wages. Let it be then taken for granted, that workman and employer should, as a rule, make free agreements, and in particular should agree freely as to the wages ; nevertheless, there underlies a dictate of nature more imperious and more ancient than any bargain between man and man, namely, that the remuneration must be sufiScient to support the wage-earner in reasonable and frugal comfort. If through necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept harder conditions because an employer or contractor will afford him no better, he is made the victim of force and injustice. In these and similar questions, however — such as, for example, the hours of labour in different trades, the sanitary precautions to be observed in factories and workshops, etc. — in order to supersede undue interference on the part of the State, especially as circumstances, times, and localities differ so widely, it is advisable that recourse 36 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. be had to Societies or Boards such as We shall mention presently, or to some other mode of safeguarding the interests of the wage-earners ; the State being appealed to, should circumstances require, for its sanction and protection. If a workman's wages be sufiScient should Te'^™ncoT^^ 'o enable . him to maintain himself, aged to acquire pro- his wife, and his children in reason- perty. able comfort, he will not find it diffi- cult, if he be a sensible man, to study economy ; and he will not fail, by cutting down expenses, to put by some little savings and thus secure a small income. Nature and reason alike would urge him to this. We have seen that this great Labour-question cannot be solved save by assuming as a principle that private ownership must be held sacred and inviolable. The law, therefore, should favour ownership, and its policy should be to induce as many as possible of the humbler class to become owners. Many excellent results will follow from this ; and first of all, property will certainly become more equitably divided. For the result of civil change and revolution has been to divide society into two widely-differing castes. On the one side there is the party which holds power because it holds wealth ; which has in its grasp the whole of labour and trade ; which manipulates for its own benefit and its own purposes all the sources of supply, and which is even represented in the councils of the State itself On the other side there is the needy and powerless multitude, broken-down and suffering, and ever ready for disturbance. If working-people can be encouraged to look forward to obtaining a share in the land, the consequence will be that the gulf between vast wealth and sheer poverty THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 37 will be bridged over, and the respective classes will be brought nearer to one another. A further consequence will result in the greater abundance of the fruits of the earth. Men always work liarder and more readily when they work on that which belongs to them ; nay, they learn to love the very soil that yields, in response to the labour of their hands, not only food to eat, but an abundance of good things for themselves and those that are dear to them. That such a spirit of willing labour would add to the produce of the earth and to the wealth of the com- munity is self-evident. And a third advantage would spring from this : men would cling to the country in which they were born ; for no one would exchange his country for a foreign land if his own afforded him the means of living a decent and happy life. These three important benefits, however, can be reckoned on only provided that a man's means be not drained and exhausted by excessive taxation. The right to possess private property is derived from nature, not from man ; and the State has the right to control its use in the interests of the public good alone, but by no means to absorb it altogether. The State would therefore be unjust and cruel if under the name of taxation it were to deprive the private owner of more than is fitting. In the last place — employers and Associations and workmen may of themselves effect organisations. -' much in the matter we are treating, by means of such associations and organisations as afford opportune aid to those who are in distress, and which draw the two classes more closely together. Among these may be enumerated, societies for mutual help; various 38 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. benevolent foundations established by private persons to provide for the workman, and for his widow or his orphans, in case of sudden calamity, in sickness, and in the event of death j and what are called " patronages," or institutions for the care of boys and girls, for young people, as well as homes for the aged. The most important of all are Working-men's Unions ; for these virtually include all the rest. History attests what excellent results were brought about by the Artificers' Guilds of olden times. They were the means of affording not only many advantages to the workmen, but in no small degree of promoting the advancement of art, as numerous monuments remain to bear witness. Such Unions should be suited to the requirements of this our age — an age of wider education, of different habits, and of far more numerous requirements in daily life. It is gratifying to know that there are actually in existence not a few Associa- tions of this nature, consisting either of workmen alone, or of workmen and employers together ; but it were greatly to be desired that they should become more numerous and more efficient. We have spoken of them more than once ; yet it will be well to explain here how notably they are needed, to show that they exist of their own right, and what should be their organisation and their mode of action. The consciousness of his own weakness urges man to call in aid from without. We read in the pages of Holy Writ : It is better that two should be together than one ; for they have the advantage of their society. If one fall he shall be supported by the other. Woe to him that is alone, for when he falleth he hath none to lift him up.* * EccUsiastes iv. 9, 10. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 39 And further : A brother that is helped by his brother is like a strong city. * It is this natural impulse which binds men together in civil society ; and it is likewise this which leads them to join together in associations of citizen with citizen ; associations which, it is true, cannot be called societies in the full sense of the word, but which, notwith- standing, are societies. These lesser societies and the The rights of society which constitutes the State associations. differ in many respects, because their immediate purpose and aim is different. Civil society exists for the common good, and hence is concerned with the interests of all in general, albeit with individual interests also in their due place and degree. It is therefore called public society, because by its agency, as St. Thomas of Aquin says, " Men establish relations in common with one another in the setting up of a commonwealth. "f But societies which are formed in the bosom of the State are styled private, and rightly so, since their immediate purpose is the private advantage of the associates. " Now a private society," says St. Thomas again, " is one which is formed for the purpose of carrying out private objects ; as when two or three enter into partnership with the view of trading in common." :j: Private societies, then, although they exist within the State, and are severally part of the State, cannot nevertheless be absolutely, and as such, prohibited by the State. For to enter into a " society " of this kind is the natural right of man ; and the State is bound to protect natural rights, not to destroy them ; * Proverbs xviii. 19, t Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem, ii. J Ibid. 40 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. and if it forbid its citizens to form associations, it con- tradicts the very principle of its own existence ; for botii they and it exist in virtue of the like principle, namely, the natural tendency of man to dwell in society. There are occasions, doubtless, when it is fitting that the law should intervene to prevent association ] as when men join together for purposes which are evidently bad, unlawful, or dangerous to the State. In such cases public authority may justly forbid the formation of associations, and may dissolve them if they already exist. But every precaution should be taken not to violate the rights of individuals and not to impose unreasonable regulations under pretence of public benefit. For laws only bind when they are in accordance with right reason, and hence with the eternal law of God.* And here we are reminded of the ecclesiastical asso- Confraternities, Societies, and Reli- ciation. gious Orders which have arisen by the Church's authority and the piety of Christian men. The annals of every nation down to our own days bear witness to what they have accomplished for the human race. It is indisputable that on grounds of reason alone such associations, being perfectly blameless in their ob- jects, possess the sanction of the law of nature. In their religious aspect, they claim rightly to be responsible to the Church alone. The rulers of the State accordingly * " Human law is law only by virtue of its accordance with right reason : and thus it is manifest that it flows from the eternal law. And in so far as it deviates from right reason it is called an unjust law ; in such case it is no law at all, but rather a species of violence. " — St. Thomas of Aquin, Summa Theologica, la are Q. xciii. art. 3. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 4 1 have no rights over them, nor can they claim any share in their control; on the contrary, it is the duty of the State to respect and cherish them, and, if need be, to defend them from attack. It is notorious that a very different course has been followed, more especially in our own times. In many places the State authorities have laid violent hands on these communities, and com- mitted manifold injustice against them ; it has placed them under control of the civil law, taken away their rights as corporate bodies, and despoiled them of their property. In such property the Church had her rights, each member of the body had his or her rights, and there were also the rights of those who had founded or endowed these communities for a definite purpose, and, furthermore, of those for whose benefit and assistance they had their being. Therefore We cannot refrain from com- plaining of such spoliation as unjust and fraught with evil results ; and with all the more reason do We complain because, at the very time when the law proclaims that association is free to all, We see that Catholic Societies* however peaceful and useful, are hampered in every way, whereas the utmost liberty is conceded to individuals whose purposes are at once hurtful to Religion and dangerous to the State. Associations of every kind, and Bad and dangerous especially those of working-men, are Associations. r j a > now far more common than hereto- fore. As regards many of these there is no need at present to inquire whence they spring, what are their objects, or what the means they employ. There is a good deal of evidence, however, which goes to prove that many of these 42 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. societies are in the hands of secret leaders, and are managed on principles ill-according with Christianity and the public well-being ; and that they do their utmost to get within their grasp the whole field of labour, and force working-men either to join them or to starve. Under these circumstances Christian working-men must do one of two things : either join associations in which their religion will be exposed to peril, or form Associations among them- selves—unite their forces and shake off courageously the yoke of so unrighteous and intolerable an oppression. No one who does not wish to expose man's chief good to extreme risk will for a moment hesitate to say that the second alternative should by all means be adopted. Those CathoUcs are worthy of all Catholic Assocla- . j ii. 4. „ f„,„ tions for working- praise— and they are not a few- men to be encoura- ^y^q understanding what the times ged. '. . u • require, have striven, by various undertakings and endeavours, to better the condition of the working-class without any sacrifice of principle being mvolved. They have taken up the cause of the working- man, and have spared no efforts to better the condition both of families and individuals ; to infuse a spirit of equity into the mutual relations of employers and employed ; to keep before the eyes of both classes the precepts of duty and the laws of the Gospel — that Gospel which, by incul- cating self-restraint, keeps men within the bounds of moderation, and tends to establish harmony among the divergent interests, and the various classes which compose the State. It is with such ends in view that we see men of eminence meeting together for discussion, for the promotion of concerted action, and for practical work. Others, again. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 43 Strive to unite working-men of various grades into Asso- ciations, help them with their advice and means, and enable them to obtain fitting and profitable employment. The Bishops, on their part, bestow their ready good-will and support ; and with their approval and guidance many members of the clergy, both secular and regular, labour assiduously in behalf of the spiritual and mental interests of the members of such Associations. And there are not wanting Catholics blessed with affluence, who have, as it were, cast in their lot with the wage-earners, and who have spent large sums in founding and widely spreading Benefit and Insurance Societies, by means of which the working-man may without difficulty acquire through his labour not only many present advantages, but also the certainty of honourable support in days to come. How greatly such manifold and earnest activity has benefited the community at large is too well known to require Us to dwell upon it. We find therein grounds for most cheering hope in the future, provided always that the Associations We have described continue to grow and spread, and are well and wisely administered. Let the State watch over these Societies of citizens banded to- gether for the exercise of their rights ; but let it not thrust itself into their peculiar concerns and their organi- sation ; for things- move and live by the spirit inspiring them, and may be killed by the rough grasp of a hand from without. In order then that an Association Advice to Catholic may be carried on with unity of associations. ■' purpose and harmony of action, its organisation and government should be firm and wise. 44 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. All such Societies, being free to exist, have the further right to adopt such rules and organisation as may best con- duce to the attainment of their respective objects. We do not judge it expedient to enter into minute particulars touching the subject of organisation : this must depend on national character, on practice and experience, on the nature and aim of the work to be done, on the scope of the various trades and employments, and on other circumstances of fact and of time : — all of which should be carefully considered. To sum up, then, We may lay it down as a general and lasting law, that working-men's Associations should be so organised and governed as to furnish the best and most suitable means for attaining what is aimed at, that is to say, for helping each individual member to better his condition to the utmost in body, mind, and property. It is clear that they must pay special and chief attention to the duties of religion and morality, and that their internal discipline must be guided very strictly by these weighty considerations ; otherwise they would lose wholly their special character, and end by becoming little better than those societies which take no account what- ever of Religion. What advantage can it be to a working- man to obtain by means of a Society all that he requires, and to endanger his soul for lack of spiritual food? What doth it profit a man if he gain the whole world and suffer the loss of his own soul?* This, as Our Lord teaches, is the mark or character that distinguishes the Christian from the heathen. After all these things do the heathens seek. . . . Seek ye first the Kingdom of God * Matthew xvi. 26. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 45 and His justice, and all these things shall be added unto you* Let our Associations, then, look first and before all things to God ; let religious instruction have therein the foremost place, each one being carefully taught what is his duty to God, what he has to believe, what to hope for, and how he is to work out his salvation : and let all be warned and strengthened with special care against wrong principles and false teaching. Let the working-man be urged and led to the worship of God, to the earnest practice of religion, and, among other things, to the keeping holy of Sundays and holydays. Let him learn to reverence and love Holy Church, the common Mother of us all; and hence to obey the precepts of the Church, and to frequent the Sacraments, since they are the means ordained by God for obtaining forgiveness of sin and for leading a holy life. The foundations of the organisation being thus laid in Religion, We next proceed to make clear the relations of the members one to another, in order that they may live together in concord and go forward prosperously and with goqd results. The offices and charges of the Society should be apportioned for the good of the Society itself, and in such mode that difference in degree or standing should not interfere with unanimity and good- will. Office-bearers should be appointed with due pru- dence and discretion, and each one's charge should be carefully mapped out. Hereby no member will suffer injury. Let the common funds be administered with strict honesty, in such mode that a member may receive assistance in proportion to his necessities. The rights * Matthew vi. 32, 33. 46 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. and duties of the employers, as compared with the rights and duties of the employed, ought to be the subject of careful consideration. Should it happen that either a master or a workman believe himself injured, nothing would be more desirable than that a committee should be appointed composed of reliable and capable mem- bers of the Association, whose duty would be, con- formably with the rules of the Association, to settle the dispute. Among the several purposes of a Society, one should be to try to arrange for a continuous supply of work at all times and seasons ; as well as to create a fund out of which the members may be effectually helped in their needs, not only in cases of accident, but also in sickness, old age, and distress. Such rules and regulations, if willingly obeyed by all, will sufficiently ensure the well-being of the poor ; whilst such Mutual Associations among Catholics are certain to be productive in no small degree of prosperity to the State. It is not rash to conjecture the future from the past. Age gives way to age, but the events of one century are wonderfully like those of another ; for they are direct- ed by the Providence of God, Who over-rules the course of history in accordance with His purposes in creating the race of man. We are told that it was cast as a reproach on the Christians in the early ages of the Church that the greater number among them had to live by begging or by labour. Yet, destitute though they were of wealth and influence, they ended by winning over to their side the favour of the rich and the good-will of the powerful. They showed themselves industrious, hard-working, assiduous, and peaceful, ruled by justice. THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 47 and, above all, bound together in brotherly love. In presence of such mode of life and such example, prejudice gave way, the tongue of malevolence was silenced, and the lying legends of ancient superstition little by little yielded to Christian truth. At the time being, the condition of the working classes is the pressing question of the hour ; and nothing can be of higher interest to all classes of the State than that it should be rightly and reasonably adjusted. But it will be easy for Christian working-men to decide it aright if they will form Associations, choose wise guides, and follow on the path which with so much advan- tage to themselves and the commonweal was trodden by their fathers before them. Prejudice, it is true, is mighty, and so is. the greed of money; but if the sense of what is just and rightful be not debased through depravity of heart, their fellow-citizens are sure to be won over to a kindly feeling towards men whom they see to be in earnest as regards their work and who prefer so un- mistakably right dealing to mere lucre, and the sacredness of duty to every other consideration. And further great advantage would result from the state of things We are describing; there would exist so much more ground for hope, and likelihood even, of recalling to a sense of their duty those working-men who have either given up their faith altogether, or whose lives are at variance with its precepts. Such men feel in most cases that they have been fooled by empty promises and deceived by false' pretexts. They cannot but perceive that their grasping employers too often treat them with great inhumanity and hardly care for them 48 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. outside the profit their labour brings ; and if they belong to any Union, it is probably one in which there exists, in stead of charity and love, that intestine strife which ever accompanies poverty when unresigned and unsustain- ed by religion. Broken in spirit and worn down in body, how many of them would gladly free themselves from such galling bondage ! But human respect, or the dread of starvation, makes them tremble to take the step. To such as these. Catholic Associations are of incalculable service, by helping them out of their difficulties, inviting them to companionship, and receiving the returning wan- derers to a haven where they may securely find repose. We have now laid before you, Summary and ■, , -^ , , , , Conclusion ; Divine Venerable Brethren, both who are the "^ ^' persons, and what are the means whereby this most arduous question must be solved. Every one should put his hand to the work which falls to his share, and that at once and straightway, lest the evil which is already so great become through delay absolutely beyond remedy. Those who rule the State should avail them of the laws and institutions of the country ; masters and wealthy owners must be mindful of their duty ; the poor, whose interests are at stake, should make every lawful and proper effort; and since religion alone, as We said at the beginning, can avail to destroy the evil at its root, all men should rest persuaded that the main thing needful is to return to real Christianity, apart from which all the plans and devices of the wisest will prove of little avail. In regard to the Church, her co-operation will never be found lacking, be the time or the occasion what it may ; and THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 49 she will intervene with all the greater eifect in proportion as her liberty of action is the imore unfettered. Let this be carefully taken to heart by those whose ofi&ce it is to safe- guard the public welfare. Every minister of holy religion must bring to the struggle the full energy of his mind and all his power of endurance. Moved by your authority, Venerable Brethren, and quickened by your example, they should never cease to urge upon men of every class, upon the high-placed as well as the lowly, the Gospel doctrines of Christian life ; by every means in their power they must strive to secure the good of the people ; and above all must earnestly cherish in themselves, and try to arouse in others, charity, the mistress and the queen of virtues. For the happy results we all long for must be chiefly brought about by the plenteous outpouring of charity ; of that true Christian charity which is the fulfilling of the whole Gospel law, which is always ready to sacrifice itself for others' sake, and is man's surest antidote against worldly pride and im- moderate love of self ; that charity whose office is described and whose Godlike features are outlined by the Apostle St. Paul in these words : Charity is patient, is kind, .... seeketh not her own suffereth all things, .... endureth all things.* On each one of you, Venerable Brothers, and on your Clergy and people, as an earnest of God's jnercy and a mark of Our affection. We, lovingly in the Lord, bestow the Apostolic Benediction. I Cor. xiii. 4 — 7. ON THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES. Encyclical Letter, April 21, iSyS. WHEN by God's unsearchable design, We, though all unworthy, were raised to the height of Apos- tolic dignity, at once We felt Ourselves moved by an urgent desire and, as it were, necessity, to address you by letter, not merely to express to you Our very deep feeling of love, but further, in accordance with the task entrusted to Us from heaven, to strengthen you who are called to share Our solicitude, that you may help Us to carry on the battle now being waged on behalf of the Church of God and the salvation of souls- For, from the very beginning of e-rtis°th^Ifflict the Our Pontificate, the sad sight human race. jjas presented itself to Us of the evils by which the human race is oppressed on every side : the wide-spread subversion of the primary truths on which, as on its foundations, human society is based ; the obstinacy of mind, that will not brook any authority however lawful j the endless sources of disagreement, whence arise civil strife, and ruthless war and blood- shed; the contempt of law which moulds characters and is the shield of righteousness ; the insatiable craving for things perishable, with complete forgetfulness of THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 51 things eternal, leading up to the desperate madness whereby so many wretched beings, in all directions, scruple not to lay violent hands upon themselves ; the reckless mismanagement, waste and misappropriation of the public funds ; the shamelessness of those who, full of treachery, make semblance of being champions of country, of freedom, and every kind of right ; in fine, the deadly kind of plague which infects society in its in- most recesses, allowing it no respite, and foreboding ever fresh disturbances and final disaster. Now the source of these evils These evils are jjgg chiefly, We are convinced, in caused by ttie reiec- ■' tion and contempt this, that the holy and venerable authority. authority of the Church, which in God's name rules mankind, up- holding and defending all lawful authority, has been despised and set aside. The enemies of public order, being fully aware of this, have thought nothing better suited to destroy the foundations of society than to make an unflagging attack upon the Church of God, to bring her into discredit and odium by spreading infamous calumnies, and accusing her of being opposed to genuine progress. They labour to weaken her influence and power by wounds daily inflicted, and to over- throw the authority of the Bishop of Rome, in whom the abiding and unchangeable principles of right and good find their earthly guardian and champion. From these causes have originated laws that shake the structure of the Catholic Church, the enacting whereof we have to deplore in so many lands ; hence too have flowed forth contempt of episcopal authority ; the obstacles 5 2 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. thrown in the way of the discharge of ecclesiastical duties ; the dissolution of religious bodies; and the confisca- tion of property that was once the support of the Church's ministers and of the poor. Thereby public in- stitutions, vowed to charity and benevolence, have been withdrawn from the wholesome control of the Church ; thence also has arisen that unchecked freedom to teach and spread abroad all mischievous principles, while the Church's claim to train and educate youth is in every way outraged and baffled. Such too is the purpose of the seizing of the temporal power, conferred many centuries ago by Divine Providence on the Bishop of Rome, that he might without let or hindrance use the authority conferred by Christ for the eternal welfare of the nations. We have recalled to your minds. Venerable Brothers, this deathly mass of ills, not to increase the sorrow naturally caused you by this most sad state of things, but because we believe that from its consideration- you will most plainly see how serious are the matters claiming our attention as well as devotedness, and with what energy we should work and, more than ever, under the present adverse conditions, protect, so far as in us lies, the Church of Christ and the honour of the Apostolic See — the objects of so many slanders — and assert their claims. It is perfectly clear and evident, The Church is the -.j ui t. il ^i -^ ^i mother of civil Venerable Brothers, that the very society. notion of civilization is a fiction of the brain, if it rest not on the abiding principles of truth and the unchanging laws of virtue and justice, and if unfeigned love knit not together the wills of THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 53 men, and gently control the interchange and the character of their mutual service. Now, who would make bold to deny that the Church, by spreading the gospel throughout the nations, has brought the light of truth amongst people utterly savage and steeped in foul superstition, and has quickened them alike to recognize the Divine Author of nature and duly to respect themselves? Further, who will deny that the Church has done away with the curse of slavery and restored men to the original dignity of their noble nature ; and — by up- lifting the standard of Redemption in all quarters of the globe, by introducing, or shielding under her protection, the sciences and arts, by founding and taking into her keeping excellent charitable institutions which provide relief for ills of every kind — has throughout the world, in private or in public life, civilized the human race, freed it from degradation, and with all care trained it to a way of living such as befits the dignity and the hopes of man ? And if any one of sound mind compare the age in which we live, so hostile to religion and to the Church of Christ, with those happy times when the Church was revered as a mother by the nations, beyond all question he will see that our epoch is rushing wildly along the straight road to destruction ; while in those times which most abounded in excellent institutions, peaceful life, wealth and prosperity, the people showed themselves most obedient to the Churches rule and laws. Therefore, if the many blessings we have mentioned, due to the agency and saving help of the Church, are the true and worthy outcome of civilization, the Church of Christ, far from being alien to, or neglectful of progress, has a 54 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. just claim to all men's praise as its nurse, its mistress, and its mother. Furthermore, that kind of civiliza- ClTll society Is vain ,. ... □• . vi. ..i_ j or false if opposed tion which conflicts with the doc- to the Church's trines and laws of holy Church, is tsaohiug and laws. ■' ' nothing but a worthless imitation and a meaningless name. Of this those peoples on whom the gospel light has never shone, afford ample proof, since in their mode of life a shadowy semblance only of civilization is discoverable, while its true and solid blessings have never been possessed. Undoubtedly that cannot by any means be accounted the perfection of civilized life which sets all legitimate authority boldly at defiance ; nor can that be regarded as liberty which, shamefully and by the vilest means, spreading false principles, and freely indulging the sensual gratification of lustful desires, claims impunity for all crime and mis- demeanour, and thwarts the goodly influence of the worthiest citizens of whatsoever class. Delusive, perverse and misleading, as are these principles, they cannot possibly have any inherent power to perfect the human race and fill it with blessing, for sin maketh nations miserable. * Such principles, as a matter of course, must hurry nations, corrupted in mind and heart, into every kind of infamy, weaken all right order, and thus, sooner or later, bring the standing and peace of the State to the very brink of ruin. „, . ^ ,. ^ Again, if we consider the achieve- The Apostolic See ° ' has deserved well ments of the See of Rome, what of all civil society. , ■ i j ,, j can be more wicked than to deny * Prov. xiv. 34. THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 55 how much and how well the Roman Bishops have served civilized society at large ? For Our predecessors, to provide for the peoples' good, encountered struggles of every kind, endured to the utmost burdensome toils, and never hesitated to expose themselves to most dangerous trials. With eyes fixed on heaven, they neither bowed down their head before the threats of the wicked, nor allowed themselves to be led by flattery or bribes into unworthy compliance. This Apostolic Chair it was that gathered and held together the crumbling remains of the old order of things ; this was the kindly light by whose help the culture of Christian times shone far and wide ; this was an anchor of safety in the fierce storms by which the human race has been convulsed ; this was the sacred bond of union that linked together nations distant in region and differing in character ; in short, this was a common centre from which was sought instruc- tion in faith and religion, no less than guidance and advice for the maintenance of peace and the functions of practical life. In very truth it is the glory of the supreme Pontiffs that they steadfastly set themselves up as a wall and a bulwark to save human society from falling back into its former superstition and barbarism. Would that this healing authority had never been slighted or set aside ! Assuredly neither would the civil power have lost that venerable and sacred glory,, the lustrous gift of religion, which alone renders the state of subjection noble and worthy of man ; nor would so many revolutions and wars have been fomented to ravage the world with desolation and bloodshed ; nor would kingdoms, once so flourishing, but now fallen from the 56 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. height of prosperity, lie crushed beneath the weight of every kind of calamity. Of this the peoples of the East also furnish an example, who, by breaking the most sweet yoke that bound them to this Apostolic See, forfeited the splendour of their former greatness, their renown in science and art, and the dignity of their sway. Of these remarkable benefits, how- The country of Italy i.- i. -n i • has most of all ex- ^ver, which illustrious monuments periencedthe of all ages prove to have flowed Church's benefits. ° '^ upon every quarter of the world from the Apostolic See, this land of Italy has had the most abounding experience. For it has derived advan- tages from the See of Rome proportionate to the greater nearness of its natural situation. Unquestionably to the Roman Pontiffs it is that Italy must own herself indebted for the substantial glory and majesty by which she has been pre-eminent amongst nations. The influence and fatherly care of the Popes has upon many occasions shielded her from hostile attack and brought her relief and aid, the effect of which is that the Catholic faith has been ever maintained inviolate in the hearts of Italians. These services of Our predecessors, to omit mention of many others, have been witnessed to in a special manner by the records of the times of St. Leo the Great, Alexander III., Innocent III., St. Pius V., Leo X. and other Pontiffs, by whose exertions or protection Italy has escaped unscathed from the utter destruction threatened by barbarians ; has kept unimpaired her old faith, and, amid the darkness and defilement of a ruder age, has cultivated and preserved in vigour the lustre of sciei\ce THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY 57 and the splendour of art. To this furthermore bears witness Our Own fostering City, the home of the Popes, which, under their rule, reaped this special benefit, that it not only was the strong citadel of the faith, but also became the refuge of the liberal arts and the very abode of culture, winning for itself the admiration and respect of the whole world. As these facts in all their amplitude have been handed down, in historical records, for the perpetual remembrance of posterity, it is easy to under- stand that it is only with hostile design and shameless calumny — meant to mislead men — rthat any one can venture in speech and in writing to accuse the Apostolic See of being an obstacle to the civil progress of nations and to the prosperity of Italy. Seeing, therefore, that all the hopes of Italy and of the whole world lie in the power so beneficent to the common good and profit, wherewith the authority of the Apostolic See is endowed, and in the close union which binds all the faithful of Christ to the Roman Pontiff, We recognise that nothing should be nearer Our heart than how to preserve safe and sound the dignity of the Roman See, and to strengthen ever more and more the union of members with the Head, of the children with their Father. Wherefore, that We may above all Restoration of tae , . , . ... Holy See to its thmgs, and m every possible way, former dignity and maintain the rights and freedom of freedom. ° this Holy See, We shall never cease to strive that Our authority may meet with due deference ; that obstacles may be removed which hamper the [iiee exercise of Our ministry ; and that We may be restored 5 8 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. to that condition of things in which the design of God's wisdom had long ago placed the Roman Pontiffs. We are moved to demand this restoration, Venerable Brethren, not by any feeling of ambition or desire of supremacy, but by the nature of Our office and by Our sacred promise confirmed on oath ; and further, not only because this sovereignty is essential to protect and preserve the full liberty of the spiritual power, but also because it is an ascertained fact that, when the temporal sovereignty of the Apostolic See is in question, the cause of the public good and the well-being of all human society in general are also at stake. Hence We cannot omit, in the discharge of Our duty, which obliges us to guard the rights of Holy Church, to renew and confirm in every particular by this Our Letter those declara- tions and protests which Pius IX., of sacred memory. Our predecessor, on many and repeated occasions pub- lished against the seizing of the civil sovereignty and the infringement of rights belonging to the Roman Church. At the same time We address ourselves to Princes and chief rulers of the nations, and earnestly beseech them in the august name of the most High God, not to refuse the Church's aid, proffered them in a season of such need, but with united and friendly aims to join them- selves to her as the source of authority and salvation, and to attach themselves to her more and more in the bonds of hearty love and devotedness. God grant that — seeing the truth of Our words and considering within themselves that the teaching of Christ is, as Augustine used to say, "a great blessing to the State, if obeyed,"* * Epistola 138 (vel S), ad Marcell. u. 15. THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 59 and that their own peace and safety, as well as that of their people, is bound up with the safety of the Church and the reverence due to her, — they may give their whole thought and care to mitigating the evils by which the Church and its visible Head are harassed, and so it may at last come to pass that the peoples whom they govern may enter on the way of justice and peace, and rejoice in a happy era of prosperity and glory. Union of the whole ^" *^ ^^^^ Plaf^^' '" o^der that CathoUc flock; with the union of hearts between their chief the Supreme Pontlfif In embracing truth Pastor and the whole Catholic flock rejec mg error. ^^^ daily -be strengthened. We here call upon you, Venerable Brothers, with particular earnest- ness, and strongly urge you to kindle, with priestly zeal and pastoral care, the fire of the love of religion among the faithful entrusted to you, that their attachment to this chair of truth and justice may become closer and firmer, that they may welcome all its teachings with thorough assent of mind and will, wholly rejecting such opinions, even when most widely received, as they know to be con- trary to the Church's doctrine. In this matter, the Roman Pontiffs, Our predecessors, and last of all, Pius IX. of sacred memory, especially in the General Council of the Vatican, have not neglected, so often as there was need, to condemn wide-spreading errors and to smite them with the Apostolic condemnation. This they did, keeping before their eyes the words of St. Paul : Beware lest any man cheat you by philosophy and vain deceit, according to the tradition of men, according to the elements of the world and not according to Christ. * All such censures, We, following * 2 Coloss. ii. 8. 6o THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. in the steps of Our predecessors, do confirm and renew from this Apostolic Seat of truth, whilst We earnestly ask of the Father of Lights that all the faithful, brought to thorough agreement in the like feeling and the same belief, may think and speak even as Ourselves. It is your duty, Venerable Brothers, sedulously to strive that the seed of heavenly doctrine be sown broadcast in the field of God, and that the teachings of the Catholic faith may be implanted early in the souls of the faithful, may strike deep root in them, and be kept free from the ruinous blight of error. The more the enemies of religion exert themselves to offer the uninformed, especially the young, such instruction as darkens the mind and corrupts morals, the more actively should we endeavour that not only a suitable and solid method of education may flourish, but above all that this education be wholly in harmony with the Catholic faith in its literature and system of training, and chiefly in philosophy, upon which the foundation of other sciences in great measure depends. Philosophy seeks not the overthrow of divine revelation, but delights rather to prepare its way, and defend it against assailants, both by example and in written works, as the great Augustine and the Angelic Doctor, with all other teachers of Christian wisdom, have proved to us. Now the training of youth most ObservanceofGod's conducive to the defence of true law about matrimo- ny and the family. faith and religion and to the pre- servation of morality, must find its beginning from an early age within the circle of home life ; and this family Christian training, sadly undermined THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 5 1 in these our times, cannot possibly be restored to its due dignity, save by those laws under which it was established in the Church by her Divine Founder Himself. Our Lord Jesus Christ, by raising to the dignity of a sacrament the contract of matrimony, in which He would have His Own union with the Church typified, not only made the marriage- tie more holy, but in addition provided efficacious sources of aid for parents and children alike, so that, by the dis- charge of their duties one to another, they might with greater ease attain to happiness both in time and in eternity. But when impious laws, setting at naught the sanctity of this great sacrament, put it on the same footing with mere civil contracts, the lamentable result followed, that, outraging the dignity of Christian matrimony, citizens made use of legalised concubinage in place of marriage ; husband and wife neglected their bounden duty to each other; children refused obedience and reverence to their parents; the bonds of domestic love were loosened; and, alas ! the worst scandal and of all the most ruinous to public morality, very frequently an unholy passion opened the door to disastrous and fatal separations. These most unhappy and painful consequences. Venerable Brothers, cannot fail to arouse your zeal, and move you constantly and earnestly to warn the faithful committed to your charge, to listen with docility to your teaching regarding the holiness of Christian marriage, and to obey the laws by which the Church controls the duties of married people and of their offspring. Then, indeed, will that most desirable result come about, that the character and conduct of individuals also will be reformed ; for just as from a rotten stock 62 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. are produced healthless branches or worthless fruits, so do the ravages of a pestilence which ruins the household spread wide their cruel infection to the hurt and injury of individual citizens. On the other hand, when domestic society is fashioned in the mould of Christian life, each member will gradually grow accustomed to the love of religion and piety, to the abhorrence of false and harmful teaching, to the pursuit of virtue, to obedience to elders, dnd to the restraint of that insatiable seeking after self interest alone, which so spoils and weakens the character of men. To this end it will certainly help not a little to encourage and promote those pious Associations which have been established, in our own times especially, with so great profit to the cause of the Catholic religion. Great indeed and beyond the strength of man are these objects of our hopes and prayers, Venerable Brothers ; but since God has made the nations of the earth for health, * when He founded the Church for the welfare of the peoples, and promised that He will abide with her by His assistance to the end of the world. We firmly trust that, through your endeavours, the human race, taking warning from so many evils and visitations, will submit themselves at length to the Church, and turn for health and prosperity to the infallible guidance of this Apostolic See. Meanwhile, Venerable Brothers, Rejoicing on . account of union of before brmging this Letter to a close, hearts and minds. ur „ ^ r\ ^ i We must express Our congratula- tions on the striking harmony and concord which unites your minds among yourselves and with this Apostolic * Wisdom i. 14. THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 63 See. This perfect union We regard as not merely an impregnable bulwark against hostile attacks, but also as an auspicious and happy omen, presaging better times for the Church ; and, while it yields great relief to Our weakness, it seasonably encourages Us to endure with readiness all labours and all struggles on behalf of God's Church in the arduous task which We have undertaken. Moreover, from the causes of hope Thanks for tokens '^ ofobedienee and rejoicing which We have made known to you, We cannot separate those tokens of love and obedience, which you, Venerable Brethren, in these first days of Our Pontificate, have shown Our lowliness, and with you so many of the clergy and the faithful, who, by letters sent, by offerings given, by pilgrimages undertaken, and by other works of love, have made it clear that the devotion and charity which they manifested to Our most worthy predecessor, still lasts, so strong and steadfast and unchanged, as not to slacken towards the person of a successor so much inferior. For these splendid tokens of Catholic piety We humbly confess to the Lord that He is good and gracious, while to you. Venerable Brothers, and to all Our beloved children from whom We have received them. We publicly, from the bottom of Our heart, avow the grateful feelings of Our soul, cherishing the fullest confidence that, in the present critical state of things and in the difficulties of the times, this your devotion and love and the devotion and love of the faithful will never fail Us. Nor have We any doubt that these conspicuous examples of filial piety and Christian virtue will be of such avail as to make our most merciful 64 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. God, moved by these dutiful deeds, look with favour on His flock and grant the Church peace and victory. But as We are sure that this peace and victory will more quickly and more readily be given Us, if the faithful are unremitting in their prayers and supplications to obtain it. We earnestly exhort you. Venerable Brothers, to stir up for this end the zeal and ardour of the faithful, taking the Immaculate Queen of Heaven as their inter- cessor with God, and having recourse as their advocates to St. Joseph, the heavenly Patron of the Church, and to SS. Peter and Paul, the Princes of the Apostles. To the powerful patronage of all these We humbly commit Our lowliness, all ranks of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and all the flock of Christ our Lord. For the rest. We trust that these days, on which We renew the memory of Jesus Christ, risen from the dead, may be to you. Venerable Brothers, and to all the fold of God a source of blessing and salvation and fulness of holy joy, praying our most gracious God that by the Blood of the Lamb without spot, which blotted out the handwriting that was against us, the sins we have committed may be washed away, and the judgment we are suffering for them may mercifully be mitigated. The grace, of our Lord Jestis Christ, and the charity of God, and the communication of the Holy Ghost be with you all, * Venerable Brothers ; to each and all of whom, as well as to Our beloved children, the clergy and faithful of your churches, as a pledge of Our special goodwill and as an earnest of the protection of heaven, We lovingly impart the Apostolic Benediction. * 2 Cor, xii. 13. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. (Encyclical Letter, November i, 1883.) THE Catholic Church, that iiLusmB iiiuLiitji ui imperishable handiwork of our civilization. all-merciful God, has for her imme- diate and natural purpose the saving of souls and securing our happiness in heaven. Yet in regard to things temporal she is the source of benefits as mani- fold and great as if the chief end of her existence were to ensure the prospering of our earthly life. And in truth, wherever the Church has set her foot, she has straightway changed the face of things, and has attempered the moral tone of the people with a new civilization, and with virtues before unknown. All nations which have yielded to her sway have become eminent for their culture, their sense of justice, and the glory of their high deeds. And yet a hackneyed reproach of Yet she has been • , 1, i • 1 , traduced from the old date is levelled against her, that Sy'^^f probe's the Church is opposed to the rightful and prosperity in the aims of the civil government, and civil order. is wholly unable to afford help in spreading that welfare and progress which justly and naturally are sought after by every well regulated State. From the very beginning Christians were harassed by slanderous accusations of this nature, and on that account E 66 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. were held up to hatred and execration, for being (so they were called) enemies of the empire. The Christian religion was moreover commonly charged with being the cause of the calamities that so frequently befell the state, whereas, in very truth, just punishment was being awarded to guilty nations by an avenging God. This odious calumny, with most valid reason, nerved the genius and sharpened the pen of St. Augustine, who, notably in his treatise On the City of God, set forth in so bright a light the worth of Christian wisdom in its relation to the public weal, that he seems not merely to have pleaded the cause of the Christians of his day, but to have refuted for all future times impeachments so grossly contrary to truth. Anopinionfavoured The wicked proneness, however, -by many nowadays ^ jgyy the like charges and accu- traces the origin of _ ■' ° the maxims of social sations has not been lulled to rest. ^^cef th°an°*th" Many, indeed, are they who have teaching of the tried to work out a plan of civil society based on doctrines other than those approved by the Catholic Church. Nay, in these latter days a novel scheme of law has begun here and there to gain increase and influence, the outcome, as it is maintained, of an age arrived at full stature, and the result of liberty in evolution. But though en- deavours of various kinds have been ventured on, it is clear that no better mode has been devised for the building up and ruling the State than that which is the necessary growth of the teachings of the Gospel. We deem it, therefore, of the highest moment, and a strict duty of Our Apostolic office, to contrast with the lessons taught by Christ the novel theories now advanced THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 67 touching the State. By this means of sta^°pomy^co^ We cherish hope that the bright pared with the shining of the truth may scatter Christian jurispru- ° ■' dence. the mists of error and doubt, so that one and all may see clearly the imperious law of life which they are bound to follow and obey. It is not difficult to determine what would be the form and character of the State were it governed according to the principles of Christian philosophy. '!W!an's natural instinct moves him to live in civil society, for he cannot, if dwelling apart, provide himself with the necessary requirements of life, nor procure the means of developing his mental and moral founded by^God.thl faculties. Hence it is divinely Author of Nature. ordained that he should lead his life — be it family, social, or civil, — with his fellow-men, amongst whom alone his several wants can be ade- quately supplied. But as no society can hold together unless some one be over all, directing all to strive earnestly for the common good. Hence God is the ■ -v j v ^ source of publican- every civilized community must thority, and of the h^ye a ruling authority, and this right to rule. ° ■' authority, no less than society itself, has its source in nature, and has, consequently, God for its author. Hence it follows that all public power must proceed from God. For God alone is the • true and supreme Lord of the In order to a just and paternal exer- world. Everything, without excep- sove?ei^*''°"power tion, must be subject to Him, and must take pattern must serve Him, so that whosoever from God. holds the right to govern, holds it 68 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. from one sole and single source, namely God, the Sovereign Ruler of all. There is no power but from God* The right to rule is not necessarily, however, bound up with any special mode of government. It may take this or that form, provided only that it be of a nature to insure the general welfare. But whatever be the nature of the government, rulers must ever bear in mind that God is the paramount Ruler of the world, and must set Him before themselves as their exemplar and law in the administration of the State. For, in things visible, God has fashioned secondary causes, in which His Divine action can in some wise be discerned, leading up to the end to which the course of the world is ever tending. In like manner in Civil society, God has always willed that there should be a ruling authority, and that they who are invested with it should reflect the Divine power and providence in some measure over the human race. They, therefore, who rule should rule with even- handed justice, not as masters, but rather as fathers, for the rule of God over man is most just, and is tempered always with a father's kindness, government should moreover be administered for the well-being of the citizens, because they who govern others possess authority solely for the welfare of the State. Further- more, the Civil power must not be subservient to the advantage of any one individual, or of sorrfe few persons ; inasmuch as it was established for the common good of all. But if those who are in authority rule unjustly, if they * Rom, xiii. i. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 69 govern overbearingly or arrogantly, and if their measures prove hurtful to the people, they must remember that the Almighty will one day bring them to account, the more strictly in proportion to the sacredness of their office and pre-eminence of their dignity. The mighty shall be mightily tormented. * Then truly will the majesty of the law meet with the dutiful and willing homage of the people, when they are convinced that their rulers hold authority from God, and feel that it is a matter of justice and duty to obey them, and to show The obedience of ^, , , ,. •. ■, .„ subjects, for God's them reverence and fealty, united to sake, is honourable a love not unlike that which children and holy. show their parents. Let every soul be subject to higher powers. \ To despise legitimate authority, in whomsoever vested, is unlawful, as a rebellion against the Divine will, and whoever resists that, rushes wilfully to destruction. He that resisteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God, and they that resist, purchase to them- selves damnation. % To cast aside obedience, and by popular violence to incite to revolt, is therefore treason, not against man only, but against God. As a consequence, the State, moral personfls'' ^ constituted as it is, is clearly bound bound to pay due ^.o act up to the manifold and homage to God. weighty duties linking it to God, by the public profession of religion. Nature and reason, which command every individual devoutly to worship God in holiness, because we belong to Him and must return to Him since from Him we came, bind also the civil community by a like law. For men living * Wisd. vi. 7. \ Rom. xiii. 1. % Rom. xiii. 2. 70 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. together in society are under the power of God no less than individuals are, and society, not less than indi- viduals, owes gratitude to God, Who gave it being and maintains it, and Whose ever-bounteous goodness enriches it with countless blessings. Since, then, no one is allowed to be remiss in the service due to God, and since the chief duty of all men is to cling to religion in both its teaching and practice — not such religion as they may have a preference for, but the religion which God enjoins, and which certain and most clear marks show to be the only one true religion, — it is a public crime to act as though there were no God. So too is it a sin in the State not to have care for religion, as a something beyond its scope, or as of no practical benefit; or out of many forms of religion to adopt that one which chimes in with the fancy ; for we are bound absolutely to worship God in that way which He has shown to be His will. All who rule, therefore, should hold in honour the holy Name of God, and one of their chief duties must be to favour religion, to protect it, to shield it under the credit and sanction of the laws, and neither to organise nor enact any measure that may compromise its safety. This is the bounden duty of rulers to the people over whom they rule, ^ox one and all are we destined, by our birth and adoption, to enjoy, when this frail and fleeting life is ended, a supreme and final good in heaven, and to the attainment of this every endeavour should be directed. Since then upon this depends the full and perfect happiness of mankind, the securing of this end should be of all imaginable interests the most urgent. Hence Civil society, established for THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 7 1 the common welfare, should not only safeguard the well-being of the community, but have also at heart the interests of its individual members, in such mode as not in any way to hinder, but in every manner to render as easy as may be, the possession of that highest and unchangeable good for which all should seek. Wherefore, for this purpose, care must especially be taken to preserve unharmed and unimpeded the religion whereof the practice is the link connecting man with his God. Now it cannot be difficult to find Society is bound, ^ i.- 1 • 1 as a consequence, to out wnich is the true Religion, if attain tri^TsTeVd" ""'^ '' ^e sought with an earnest and unbiassed mind ; for proofs are abundant and striking. We have, for' example, the fulfilment of prophecies; miracles in great number; the rapid spread of the faith in the midst of enemies and in face Of overwhelming obstacles ; the witness of the martyrs, and the Uke. From all these it is evident that the only true reli- gion is the one established by Jesus Christ Himself, and which He committed to His Church to protect and to propagate. For the only-begotten Son of God society, which is the established on earth a Society which by cS'st? tastit^ted jg called the Church, and to it He handed over the exalted and divine office which He had received from His Father, to be continued through the ages to come. As the Father hath sent Me, I also send you. * with a view to -^ the everlasting Behold T am with you, all days, salvation of souls. j jz. j- v ^7 even to the consummation oj the * John XX. 21. ■ 1 72 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. world. * Consequently, as Jesus Christ came into the world that men might have life and have it more abun- dantly, f so also has the Church for its aim and end the eternal salvation of souls, and hence it is so con- stituted as to open wide its arms to all mankind, unhampered by any limit of either time or place. Preach ye the Gospel to every creature. \ The Church is a ^''^ ^'^ '"'S^ty multitude God universal society, has Himself set rulers with power to govern; and He has willed that one should be the head of all, and the chief and un- S?arsandoS.°' ^^^^^ teacher of truth, to whom He has given the keys of the kingdom of heaven. \ Feed My lambs, feed My sheep. § T have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not. ^ This Society is made up of men, supemaS' """ J"^* as Civil society is, and yet is supernatural and spiritual, on ac- count of the end for which it was founded, and of the means by which it aims at attaining that end. Hence it is distinguished, and differs, from civil society, and what is of highest moment, it is a society chartered as of right divine, perfect in its nature and in its title, to possess in itself and by itself, through the will and loving kindness of its Founder, all S'lnd^^u^lme. "^^^ful provision for its maintenance and action. And just as the end at which the Church aims is by far the noblest of ends, so is its authority the most exalted of all authority, * Matthew xxviii. 20. •^John x. 10. % Mark xvi. 15, II Matt, xvi, 19. § John xxi. 16-17. ^ Luke xxii. 32. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 73 nor can it be looked upon as inferior to the Civil power, or in any manner dependent upon it. In very truth Jesus Christ gave to His Apostles unrestrained authority in regard to things sacred, together with the genuine and most true power of making laws, as also with the two-fold right of judging and of punishing, which flow from that power. All power is given to Me in heaven and on earth: invested with legia- . ,, , . , „ lative and judicial SO^^g therefore teach all nations. . . power. teaching them to observe whatever T have commanded you. * And in another place. If he will not hear them, tell the Church. \ And again,' In readiness to revenge all disobedience. \ And once more, That . . . I may not deal mo7-e severely according to the power which the Lord hath given me, unto edification and not unto destruction. || Hence it is the Church, and not the State, that is to be man's guide to heaven. It is to the Church that God has assigned the charge of seeing to, and legislating for, all that concerns religion ; of teaching all nations ; of spreading the Christian faith as widely as possible ; in short, of administering all her affairs freely and without hindrance, in accordance with her own judgment, all matters that fall within its competence. Now this authority, perfect in itself, and plainly meant to be unfettered, so long assailed by a philosophy that truckles to the State, the Church has never ceased to claim for herself, and openly to exercise. The Apostles them- selves were the first to uphold it, when, being forbidden by the rulers of the Synagogue to preach the Gospel, * Matthew xxviii. 18, 19, 20. t Ibid, xviii. 17. J 2 Cor. x. 6. II Ibid. xiii. 10. 74 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. they courageously answered, We This autbority Is complete and self- must obey God rather than menr dependent. ^j^j^ ^^^^ authority the holy Fathers of the Church were always careful to maintain by weighty arguments, according as occasion arose, and the Roman Pontiffs have never shrunk from defending it with unbending constancy. Nay more, princes and all invested with power to rule have them- selves approved it, in theory alike and in practice. It cannot be called in question that in the making of treaties, in the transaction of business matters, in the sending and receiving ambassadors, and in the inter- change of other kinds of official dealings, they have been wont to treat with the Church as with a supreme and legitimate power. And assuredly all ought to hold that it was not without a singular disposition of God's providence, that this power of the Church was provided with a civil sovereignty as the surest safeguard of her independence. The two-fold au- The Almighty, therefore, has thority, that of the • , , i r i i Church and that of appomted the charge of the human the Civil govern- ^^^^ between two powers, the ment, estabhshed by "^ God. Ecclesiastical and the Civil, the one being set over divine, and the other over human, \ things. Each in its kind is supreme, each has fixed limits within which it is contamed, limits which are defined by the nature and special object of the province of each, so that there is, we may say, an orbit traced out within which the action of each is brought into play by its own native right. But inasmuch as each of * Acts V. 29. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 75 these two powers has authority over the same subjects, and as it might come to pass that one and the same thing — related difTerently, but still remaining one and the same thing — might belong to the jurisdiction and determination of both, therefore God, Who foresees all things, and Who is the Author of these two Botn.of which are P"^^""^' ^^^ ""^'^'"^^ °"' the course confined within of each in right correlation to the certain Umits. , „ , , other. For the powers that are, are ordained of God. * Were this not so, deplorable contentions and conflicts would often arise, and not unfrequently men, like travellers at the meeting of two roads, would hesitate in anxiety and doubt, not knowing what course to follow. Two powers would be com- manding contrary things, and it would be a dereliction of duty to disobey either of the two. But it would be most repugnant to deem thus of the wisdom and goodness of God. Even in physical things, albeit of a lower order, the Almighty has so combined the forces and springs of nature with tempered action and wondrous harmony, that no one of them clashes with any other, and all of them most fitly and aptly work together for the great purpose of the universe. There must, accordingly, exist, between these two powers, a certain orderly connection, which may be Between these two compared to the union of the soul i r^rtfinTderlf*' ^"'^ ^"-^^ '" ^^"- ^he nature connection. and scope of that connection, can be determined only, as We have laid down, by having regard to the nature of each power, and by takin * Rom. viii. i. •J 6 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. account of the relative excellence and nobleness of their purpose. One of the two has for its proximate and chief object the well-being of this mortal life ; the other the everlasting joys of heaven. Whatever, therefore, Sacred things are in things human is of a sacred subject to the au- character, whatever belongs either thonty of the ' ° Church. of its own nature or by reason of the end to which it is referred, to the salvation of souls, or to the worship of God, is subject to the power and judgment of the Church. Whatever is to be ranged under the civil and political order is rightly subject to the Civil authority. Jesus Christ has Him- self given command that what is Caesar's is to be rendered to Csesar, and that what belongs to God is to be rendered to God. There are, nevertheless, occasions oncorda s. when another method of concord is available, for the sake of peace and liberty : We mean when rulers of the State and the Roman Pontiff come to an understanding touching some special matter. At such times the Church gives signal proof of her motherly love by showing the greatest possible kindliness and indulgence. Such then, as We have briefly pointed out, is the Christian organisation of Civil society : not rashly or fancifully shaped out, but educed from the highest and truest principles, confirmed by natural reason itself. „, , . In such an organization of the The Christian idea of Civil Polity is State, there is nothing that can be unexcep lona e. thought to infringe upon the dignity of rulers, and nothing unbecoming them ; nay, so far from degrading the Sovereign power in its due rights, it THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 77 adds to it permanence and lustre. Indeed, when more fully pondered, this mutual co-ordination has a perfection in which all other forms of government are lacking, and from which excellent results would flow, were the several component parts to keep their place, and duly dis- charge the office and work appointed respectively for each. And, doubtless, in the Constitution of the State such as we have described, divine and human things Advantages to be are equitably shared; the rights of CMst^n cSrii citizens assured to them, and fenced Polity, round by divine, by natural, and by human law ; the duties incumbent on each one being wisely marked out, and their fulfilment fittingly ensured. In their uncertain and toilsome journey towards the city made without hands, all see that they have safe guides and helpers on their way, and are conscious that others have charge to protect their persons alike and their possessions, and to obtain or preserve for them every- thing essential for their present life. Furthermore, domestic society acquires that firmness and solidity - ^ ^^ XT. * -1 so needful to it, from the holiness in both tbe family ' and society at large, of marriage, one and indissoluble, wherein the rights and duties of husband and wife are controlled with wise justice and equity ; due honour is assured to the woman ; the authority of the husband is conformed to the pattern afforded by the authority of God; the power of the father is tempered by a due regard for the dignity of the mother and her offspring ; and the best possible provision is made for the guardianship, welfare, and education of the children. In political affairs, and all matters civil, the laws aim •jS THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. at securing the common good, and are not framed accord- ing to the delusive caprices and opinions of the mass of the people, but by truth and by justice; the ruling powers are invested with a sacredness more than human, and are withheld from deviating from the path of duty, and from overstepping the bounds of rightful authority ; and the obedience of citizens is rendered with a feel- ing of honour and dignity, since obedience is not the servitude of man to man, but submission to the will of God, exercising His sovereignty through the medium of men. Now, this being recognised as undeniable, it is felt that the high office of and In benefit of tlie rulers should be held in respect: social order. that public authority should be constantly and faithfully obeyed ; that no act of sedition should be committed ; and that the civic order of the commonwealth should be maintained as sacred. So, also, as to the duties of each one towards his fellow- men, mutual forbearance, kindliness, generosity, are placed in the ascendant ; the man who is at once a citizen and a Christian is not drawn aside by conflicting obligations; and, lastly, the abundant benefits with which the Christian religion, of its very nature, endows even the mortal life of man, are acquired for the community and civil society. And this to such an extent that it may be said in sober truth : "The condition of the commonwealth depends on the religion with which God is worshipped: and between one and the other there exists an intimate and abiding connection."* * Sacr. Imp. ad Cyrillum Alexand. et Episcopos Metrop. Cfr. Labbe, Collect. Cone, T. iii. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 79 Admirably, according to his wont, St. Augustine en- , r.^ a larges admirably on aoes St. Augustine, in many passages, -these benefits. enlarge upon the potency of these advantages ; but nowhere more markedly and to the point than when he addresses the Catholic Church in the follow- ing words : " Thou dost teach and train children with much tenderness, young men with much vigour, old men with much gentleness ; as the age not of the body alone, but of the mind of each requires. Women thou dost subject to their husbands in chaste and faithful obedience, not for the gratifying of their lust, but for bringing forth children, and for having a share in the family concerns. Thou dost set husbands over their wives, not that they may play false to the weaker sex, but according to the requirements of sincere affection. Thou dost subject children to their parents in a kind of free service, and dost establish parents over their children with a benign rule. . . . Thou joinest together, not in society only, but in a sort of brother- hood, citizen with citizen, nation with nation, and the whole race of men, by reminding them of their common parentage. Thou teachest kings to look to the interests of their people, and dost admonish the people to be submissive to their kings. With all care dost thou teach all to whom honour is due, and affection, and reverence, and fear, consolation, and admonition, and exhortation, and discipline, and reproach, and punishment. Thou showest that all these are not equally incumbent on all, but that charity is owing to all, and wrong-doing to none." * And in another place, blaming the false wisdom * Z>e morihts Ecd. Cathol., xxx, 63. 8o THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. of certain time-serving philosophers, he observes : " Let those who say that the teaching of Christ is hurtful to the State, produce such armies as the maxims of Jesus have enjoined soldiers to bring into being ; such governors of provinces ; such husbands and wives ; such parents and children ; such masters and servants ; such kings ; such judges, and such payers and collectors of tribute, as the Christian teaching instructs them to become, and then let them dare to say that such teaching is hurtful to the State. Nay, rather, will they not hesitate to own that this discipline, if duly acted up to, is the very mainstay of the commonwealth?"* There was once a time when States were governed by the principles of Gospel teaching. Then it was that the power and divine virtue of Christian wisdom had diffused itself throughout the laws, institutions and morals of the people ; permeating all ranks and relations of Civil society. Then too, the religion instituted by Jesus Christ, established firmly in befitting dignity, flourished everywhere, by the favour of princes ^hes7aSTaTea° ^"^ the legitimate protection of magistrates ; and Church and State were happily united in concord and friendly interchange of good offices. The State constituted in this wise, bore fruits important beyond all expectation, whose remembrance is still, and always will be, in renown, witnessed to as they are by countless proofs which can never be blotted out or even obscured by any craft of any enemies. Christian Europe has subdued barbarous nations, and changed * Epist. 138, al. J, ad Marcdlinum, ii. 15. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 8l them from a savage to a civilized condition, from super- stition to true worship. It victoriously rolled back the tide of Mohammedan conquest; retained the headship of civilization ; stood forth in the front rank as the leader and teacher of all, in every branch of national culture ; bestowed on the world the gift of true and many-sided liberty ; and most wisely founded very numerous institutions for the solace of human suffering. And if we inquire how it was able to bring about so altered a condition of things, the answer is — Beyond all question, in large measure, through Religion ; under whose auspices so many great undertakings were set on foot, through whose aid they were brought to completion. A similar state of things would certainly have continued had the agreement of the two powers been lasting. More important results even might have been justly looked for, had obedience waited upon the authority, teaching, and counsels of the Church, and had this submission been specially marked by greater and more unswerving loyalty. For that should be re- garded in the light of an ever-changeless law which Ivo of Chartres wrote to Pope Paschal II. : " When kingdom and priesthood are at one, in complete accord, the world is well ruled, and the Church flourishes, and brings forth abundant fruit. But when they are at variance, not only smaller interests prosper not, but even things of greatest moment fall into deplorable decay." * * £^is(. 238. 82 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. Sad it is to call to mind how dence ^tZiioto^the the harmful and lamentable rage for revolution of tHe innovation which rose to a climax XVI. century. in the sixteenth century, threw first of all into confusion the Christian religion, and next, by natural sequence, invaded the precincts of philosophy, whence it spread amongst all classes of society. From this source, as from a fountain-head, burst forth all those later tenets of unbridled license which, in the midst of the terrible upheavals of the last century, were wildly conceived and boldly proclaimed as the principles and foundation of that new jurisprudence which was not merely previously unknown, but was at variance on many points with not only the Christian, but even with the natural law. Amongst these principles the main The main principle , , ,, . „ being the false claim one lays down that as all men are of absolute equality ajij^g by race and nature, so in ofaUmen. •' ' like manner all are equal in the control of their life; that each one is so far his own master as to be in no sense under the rule of any other individual ; that each is free to think on every subject just as he may choose, and to do whatever he may like to do ; that no man has any right to rule over other men. In a society grounded upon such maxims, all govern- ment is nothing more nor less than the will of the people, and the people, being under the power of itself alone, is alone its own ruler. It does choose nevertheless some to whose charge it may commit itself, but in such wise that it makes over to them not the right so much as the busi- ness of governing, to be exercised however in its name. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 83 The authority of God is passed over Wlieiice It follows ■ ., . -r 1 that the wiu of the ^^ Silence, just as it there were nfthVso°etw.^" "° God; or as if He cared nothing for human society; or as if men whether in their individual capacity or bound together in social relations, owed nothing to God ; or as if there could be a government of which the whole origin and power and authority did not reside in God Himself. Thus, as is evident, a State becomes nothing but a multitude, which is its own master and ruler. And since the populace is declared to contain within itself the spring-head of all rights and of all power, it follows that the State does not consider itself bound by any kind of duty towards God. Moreover, it believes that it is not obliged to make public profession of any religion ; or to inquire which of the very many Religious indif- ... • .1 1 ference throughout religions IS the Only one true; or society is openly to prefer one religion to all the rest; raamtained ; ^ ° . ' or to show to any form of religion special favour; but on the contrary is bound to grant equal rights to every creed, so that public order may not be disturbed by any particular form of religious belief. And it is a part of this theory that all questions that concern religion are to be referred to private judg. ment; that every one is to be free' to follow whatever religion he prefers, or none at all if he disapprove of all. From this the following consequences also the so-called 1 • u a ^.u ^ i.u ■ j i. r lihertyofcon- logically flow : that the judgment of science. <• ga^j.jj one's conscience is independent of all law ; that the most unrestrained opinions may be openly expressed as to the practice or omission of Divine 84 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. Worship ; and that every one has unbounded license to think whatever he chooses and to publish abroad what- ever he thinks. Now when the State rests on Those who adopt r j ,■ vi ^i. • ^ j these maxhns deny foundations like those just named that the Church is a — and for the time being they are complete society; ° ■' greatly in favour, — it readily appears into what and how unrightful a position the Church is driven. For when the management of public business is in harmony with doctrines of such a kind, the Catholic religion is allowed a standing in Civil society equal only, or inferior, to societies alien from it; no regard is paid to the laws of the Church, and she who, by the order and commission of Jesus Christ, has the duty of teaching all nations, finds herself forbidden to take any part in the instruction of the people. With reference to matters that are of twofold jurisdiction, they who administer the Civil power lay down the law at their own will, and in matters that appertain to religion, de- fiantly put aside the most sacred decrees of the Church. They claim jurisdiction over and seek to sever ., . r /-. ^i 1• theaffili^sof the the marriages of Cathohcs, even over *?J^°o4. *i"°™ ^^°^ the bond as well as the unity and the of the State. •' indissolubility of matrimony. They lay hands on the goods of the clergy, contending that the Church cannot possess property. Lastly, they treat the Church with such arrogance that, rejecting entirely her title to the nature and rights of a perfect Society, they hold that she differs in no respect from other societies in the State, and for this reason possesses no right nor any legal power of action, save that which she holds THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 85 by the concession and favour of the government. If in any State the Church retains her own right — and this with the approval of the Civil law, owing to an agreement publicly entered into by the two powers — men forthwith begin to cry out that matters affecting the Church must be separated from those of the State. Their object in uttering this cry is to be able to violate unpunished their plighted faith, and in all things to have unchecked control. And as the Church, unable to abandon her chiefest and most sacred duties, cannot patiently put up with this, and asks that the pledge given to her be fully and scrupulously acted up to, contentions frequently arise between the Ecclesiastical and the Civil power, of which the issue commonly is, that the weaker power yields to the one which is stronger in human resources. Accordingly, it has become the Proofs that this ^. j j .^ • ^- j iL- systemisatvariance practice and determmation under this -(^th the teachings condition of public polity (now so ofreasou. _ "^ r j \ much admired by many) either to forbid the action of the Church altogether, or to keep her in check and bondage to the State. Public enactments are in great measure framed with this design. The draw- ing up of laws, the administration of State affairs, the godless education of youth, the spoliation and suppression of Religious Orders, the overthrow of the Temporal Power of the Roman Pontiff, all alike aim at this one end — to paralyze the action of Christian institutions, to cramp to the utmost the freedom of the Catholic Church, and to curtail her every single prerogative. Now, natural reason itself proves convincingly that 86 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. such concepts of the government of a State are wholly at variance with the truth. Nature itself bears witness that all power, of every kind, has its origin from God, Who is its chief and most august Source. The sovereignty of the people, however, and this without any reference to God, is held to reside in the multitude ; which is doubtless a doctrine exceedingly well calcu- lated to flatter and to inflame many passions, but which lacks all reasonable proof, and all power of insuring public safety and preserving order. Indeed from the prevalence of this teaching, things have come to such a pass that many hold as an axiom of civil jurisprudence that seditions may be rightfully fostered. For the opinion prevails that princes are nothing more than delegates chosen to carry out the will of the people ; whence it necessarily follows that all things are as changeable as the will of the people, so that risk of public disturbance is ever hanging over our heads. To hold therefore that there is indSOTence. ^° difference in matters of religion between forms that are unlike each other, and even contrary to each other, most clearly leads in the end to the rejection of all religion in both theory and practice. And this is the same thing as atheism, however it may differ from it in name. Men who really believe in the existence of God must, in order to be consistent with themselves and to avoid absurd conclu- sions, understand that differing modes of Divine Worship involving dissimilarity and conflict even on most important points, cannot all be equally probable, equally good, and equally acceptable to God. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 87 So, too, the liberty of thinking, and pJe''ss.^'^^'^''°"^^ of publishing, whatsoever each one likes, without any hindrance, is not in itself an advantage over which society can wisely rejoice. On the contrary, it is the fountain-head and origin of many evils. Liberty is a power perfecting man, and hence should have truth and goodness for its object. But the character of goodness and truth cannot be changed at option. These remain ever one and the same, and are no less unchangeable than Nature herself. If the mind assents to false opinions, and the will chooses and follows after what is wrong, neither can attain its native fulness, but both must fall from their native dignity into an abyss of corruption. Whatever, therefore, is opposed to virtue and truth, may not rightly be brought temptingly before the eye of man, much less sanctioned by the favour and protection of the law. A well-spent life is the only passport to heaven, whither all are bound, and on this account the State is acting against the laws and dictates of nature whenever it permits the license of opinion and of action to lead minds astray from truth, and souls away from the practice of virtue. To exclude the Church, founded by God Himself, ^?^°^1^1°''°!^*^® from the business of life, from the Churcli from the , ^ i, ^ business of life, ft-om power of making laws, from the the school, and. from . . ^ 1 ,. the family. trammg of youth, from domestic society, is a grave and fatal error. A State from which religion is banished can never be well regulated ; and already perhaps more than is desirable is known of the nature and tendency of the so-called civil philosophy of life and morals. The Church of Christ is the 88 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. true and sole teacher of virtue and guardian of morals. She it is who preserves in their purity the principles from which duties flow, and by setting forth most urgent reasons for virtuous life, bids us not only to turn away from wicked deeds, but even to curb all movements of the mind that are opposed to reason ; even though they be not carried out in action. To wish the Church to be subject The Church en- ^ .1. /-.• m t. • ^t. ■ r slaved by the civu *« the Civil Power in the exercise of Power. }jgj (jyj-y jg g, great folly and a sheer injustice. Whenever this is the case, order is disturbed, for things natural are put above things supernatural ; the many benefits which the Church, if free to act, would confer on society are either prevented or at least lessened in number; and a way is prepared for enmities and con- tentions between the two powers ; with how evil result to both the issue of events has taught us only too frequently. Doctrines such as these, which Condemnation of . , j 1. 1. these erroneous cannot be approved by human tenets by the reason, and most seriously affect Supreme Pontifife. ■' the whole Civil order. Our prede- cessors the Roman Pontiffs (well aware of what their Apostolic office required of them) have never allowed to pass uncondemned. Thus Gregory XVI. in his Encyclical Letter Mirari vos, of date August 15th, 1832, inveighed with weighty words against the sophisms, which even at his time were being publicly inculcated — namely, that no preference should be shown for any particular form of worship; that it is right for individuals to form their own personal judgments about religion; that each man's conscience is his sole and all-sufficing guide; and that it THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 89 is lawful for every man to publish his own views, whatever they may be, and even to conspire against the State. On the question of the separation of Church and State the same Pontiff writes as follows i " Nor can we hope for happier results either for Religion or for the Civil Government from the wishes of those who desire that the Church be separated from the State, and the concord between the secular and ecclesiastical authority be dissolved. It is clear that these men, who yearn for a shameless liberty, live in dread of an agree- ment which has always been fraught with good, and advantageous alike to sacred and civil interests." To the like effect, also, as occasion presented itself, did Pius IX. brand publicly many false opinions which were gaining ground, and afterwards ordered them to be condensed in summary form in order that in this sea of error Catholics might have a light which they might safely follow.* * It will suffice to indicate a few of them : Prop. xix. The Church is not a true, perfect, and wholly in- dependent society, possessing its own unchanging rights conferred upon it by its Divine Founder ; but it is for the Civil power to determine what are the rights of the Church, and the limits within which it may use them. Prop, xxxix. The State, as the origin and source of all rights, enjoys a right that is unlimited. P>op. Iv. The Church must be separated from the State, and the State from the Church. Prop. Ixxix. ... It is untrue that the Civil liberty of every form of worship, and the full power given to all of openly and publicly manifesting whatsoever opinions and thoughts, lead to the more ready corruption of the minds and morals of the people, and to the spread of the plague of religious indifference. 90 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. From these pronouncements of Jesep'Tp'aiutTe?-'" the Popes it is evident that the a°°es. origin of public power is to be sought for in God Himself, and not in the multitude, and that it is repugnant to reason to allow free scope for sedition. Again, that it is not lawful for the State, any more than for the individual, either to disregard all religious duties, or to hold in equal favour different kinds of religion ; that the unrestrained freedom of thinking and of openly making known one's thoughts is not inherent in the rights of citizens, and is by no means to be reckoned worthy of favour and support. In like manner it is to be understood that the Church no less than the State itself is a Society perfect in its own nature and its own right, and that those who exercise sovereignty ought not so to act as to compel the Church to become subservient or subject to them, or to hamper her liberty in the management of her own affairs, or to despoil her in any way of the other privileges conferred upon her by Jesus Christ. In matters, however, of mixed jurisdiction, it is in the highest degree consonant to nature, as also to the designs of God, that so far from one of the powers separating itself from the other, or still less coming into conflict with it, complete harmony, such as is suited to the end for which each power exists, should be preserved between them. This then is the teaching of the to^irm*^antogs~ Catholic Church concerning the Con- assigned to them, stitution and government of the State. By the words and decrees just cited, if judged dispassionately, no one of the several forms of government THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 9 1 is in itself condemned, inasmuch as For instance the . , . ... Popes in no wise none of them contam anythmg con- proscribe any form trary to Catholic doctrine, and all of government ; •' of them are capable, if wisely and justly managed, to insure the welfare of the State. Neither is it blameworthy in itself, in any manner, for the people to have a share, greater or less, in the government : for at certain times, and under certain laws, such participation may not only be of benefit to the citizens, but may even be of obligation. Nor is there any reason why any one should accuse the Church of being wanting in gentleness of action or largeness of view, or of being opposed to real and . lawful liberty. The Church, indeed, deems it unlawful to place the various forms of Divine Worship on the same footing as the true religion, but does not, on that account, condemn those rulers who for the sake of securing some great good, or of hindering some great evil, allow patiently custom or usage to be a kind of sanction for each kind of religion having its place in the State. And in ., , , ,. . fact the Church is wont to take or the toleration of false religions ; earnest heed that no one shall be forced to embrace the Catholic faith against his will, for, as St. Augustine wisely reminds us, " Man cannot believe otherwise than of his own free will." In the same way the Church cannot approve of that liberty which begets a contempt of the most sacred laws of God, and casts oif the obedience due to lawful authority, for this is not liberty so much as license, and is most correctly styled by St. Augustine the " liberty of self- ruin," and by the Apostle St. Peter the cloak of malice.* * I Peter ii. 16. 92 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. Indeed, since it is opposed to reason, it is a true slavery, for whosoever committeth sin is the slave of sin. * On the other hand that liberty is truly genuine, and to be sought after, which in regard to the individual does not allow ^, . ., men to be the slaves of error and or a reasonable civil and political liberty ; of passion, the worst of all masters ; which, too, in public administration guides the citizens in wisdom and provides for them increased means of well-being; and which, further, protects the State from foreign interference. This honourable liberty, alone worthy of human beings, the Church approves most highly and has never slackened her endeavour to preserve, strong and unchanged, among nations. And in truth whatever in the State is of chief avail for the common welfare ; whatever has been usefully established to curb the license of rulers who are opposed to the true interests of the people, or to keep in check the leading authorities from unwarrantably inter- fering in municipal or family affairs ; — whatever tends to uphold the honour, manhood, and equal rights of individual citizens; — of all these things, as the monu- ments of past ages bear witness, the Catholic Church has always been the originator, the promoter, or the guardian. Ever therefore consistent with herself, while on the one hand she rejects that exorbitant liberty which in indi- viduals and in nations ends in license or in thraldom, on the other hand, she willingly and most gladly welcomes whatever improvements the age brings forth, if these really secure the prosperity of life here below, which is as it were a stage in the journey to the life that will know no ending. * 2 John viii. 34. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 93 Therefore, when it is said that the °^ ^s'e^oii" '^^" Church is jealous of modern political systems, and that she repudiates the discoveries of modern research, the charge is a ridicu- lous and groundless calumny. Wild opinions she does repudiate, wicked and seditious projects she does con- demn, together with that habit of mind which points to the beginning of a wilful departure from God. But as all truth must necessarily proceed from God, the Church recognises in all truth that is reached by research, a trace of the divine intelligence. And as all truth in the natural order is powerless to destroy belief in the teachings of revelation, but can do much to confirm it, and as every newly discovered truth may serve to further the knowledge or the praise of God, it follows that what- soever spreads the range of knowledge will always be willingly and even joyfully welcomed by the Church. She will always encourage . and promote, as she does in other branches of knowledge, all study occupied with the investigation of nature. In these pursuits, should the human intellect discover any thing not known before, the Church makes no opposition. She never objects to search being made for things that minister to the refine- ments and comforts of life. So far indeed from opposing these she is now, as she ever has been, hostile alone to indolence and sloth, and earnestly wishes that the talents of men may bear more and more abundant fruit by cultivation and exercise. Moreover she gives encouragement to every kind of art and handicraft, and through her influence, directing all strivings after pro- gress towards virtue and salvation, she labours to prevent 94 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. man's intellect and industry from turning him away from God and from heavenly things. All this, though so reasonable and Pontiff to rene^ng ^"11 of counsel, finds little favour this assertion of now-a-davs when States not only refuse Catholic truth. ' to conform to the rules of Christian wisdom, but seem even anxious to recede from them further and further on each successive day. Nevertheless, since truth when brought to light is wont, of its own nature, to spread itself far and wide, and gradually take possession of the minds of men, We, moved by the great and holy duty of Our Apostolic mission to all nations, speak, as We are bound to do, with freedom. Our eyes are not closed to the spirit of the times. We repudiate not the assured and useful improvements of our age, but 'devoutly wish affairs of State to take a safer course than they are now taking, and to rest on a more firm foundation without injury to the true freedom of the people. For the best parent and guardian of liberty amongst men is truth. The truth shall make you free. * If in the difficult times in which our Duties of Catholics, lot is cast. Catholics will give ear to Us, as it' behoves them to do, they will readily see what are the duties of each one in matters of opinion as well as action. As regards opinion, whatever the Roman Pontiffs have hitherto taught, or shall hereafter teach, must be held with a firm grasp of mind, and, so often as occasion requires, must be openly professed. * fohn viii. 32. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 95 Especially with reference to the so- Sinion^r°°^*° called "Liberties" which are so greatly coveted in these days, all must stand by the judgment of the Apostolic See, and have the same mind. Let no man be deceived by the outward appearance of these liberties, but let each one reflect whence these have had their origin, and by what efforts they are everywhere upheld and promoted. Experience has made us well acquainted with their results to the State, since everywhere they have borne fruits which the good and wise bitterly deplore. If there really exist anywhere, or if we in imagination conceive, a State, waging wanton and tyrannical war against Christianity, and if we compare with it the modern form of government just described, this latter may seem the more endurable of the two. Yet, undoubtedly, the principles on which such a government is grounded are, as we have said, of a nature which no one can approve. Secondly, action may relate to m pnva e e , private and domestic matters, or to matters public. As to private affairs, the first duty is to con- form life and conduct to the gospel precepts, and to refuse to shrink from this duty when Christian virtue demands some sacrifice difScult to make. All, moreover, are bound to love the Church as their common mother, to obey her laws, promote her honour, defend her rights, and to endeavour to make her respected and loved by those over whom they have authority. It is also of great moment to the public welfare to take a in their public prudent part in the business of capacity. municipal administration, and to endeavour above all to introduce 96 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. effectual measures, so that, as becomes a Christian people, public provision may be made for the instruction of youth in religion and true morality. Upon these things the well-being of every State greatly depends. Furthermore it is in general fitting and salutary that Catholics should extend their efforts beyond this restricted sphere, and give their attention to national politics. We say in general, because these Our precepts are addressed to all nations. However, it may in some places be true that, for most urgent and just reasons, it is by no means expedient for Catholics to engage in public affairs or to take an active part in politics. Nevertheless, as We have laid down, to take no share in public matters would be equally as wrong (We speak in general) as not to have concern for, or not to bestow labour upon, the common good. And this all the more because Catholics are admonished, by the very doctrines which they profess, to be upright and faithful in the discharge of duty, while if they hold aloof, men whose principles offer but small guarantee for the welfare of the State, will the more readily seize the reins of government. This would tend also to the injury of the Christian religion, forasmuch as t-hose would come into power who are badly disposed towards the Church, and those who are willing to befriend her would be deprived of all influence. It follows therefore clearly that Catholics have just reasons for taking part in the conduct of public affairs. For in so doing they assume not the responsibility of approving what is blameworthy in the actual methods of government, but seek to turn these very methods, so far as is possible, to the genuine and true public good. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 97 and to use their best endeavours at the same time to infuse as it were into all the veins of the State the healthy sap and blood of Christian wisdom and virtue. The morals and ambitions of the heathens differed Example of the widely from those of the Gospel, yet early Christians. Christians were to be seen living un- defiled everywhere in the midst of pagan superstition, and, while always true to themselves, coming to the front boldly wherever an opening was presented. Models of loyalty to their rulers, submissive, so far as was per- mitted, to the sovereign power, they shed around them on every side a halo of sanctity ; they strove to be help- ful to their brethren, and to attract others to the wisdom of Jesus Christ, yet were bravely ready to withdraw from public life, nay, even to lay down their life, if they could not without loss of virtue retain honours, dignities, and offices. For this reason Christian ways and manners speedily found their way not only into private houses but into the camp, the Senate, and even into the imperial palaces. " We are but of yesterday," wrote Tertullian, " yet we swarm in all your institutions, we crowd your cities, islands, villages, towns, assemblies, the army itself, your wards and corporations, the palace, the senate, and the law courts." So that the Christian faith, when once it became lawful to make public profession of the gospel, appeared in most of the cities of Europe, not like an infant crying in its cradle, but already grown up and full of vigour. In these our days it is well to revive these examples of our forefathers. First and foremost it is the duty of all Catholics worthy of the name and wishful to be G q8 the pope and the people. known as most loving children of Becommendation the Church ; to reject without swerv- mafn wSfoted ing whatever is inconsistent with to the Church, and g^ f^jr a title; to make use of popu- to be conformed to her mind; lar institutions, so far as can honestly be done, for the advancement of truth and righteousness ; to strive that liberty of action shall not transgress the bounds marked out by nature and the law of God ; to endeavour to bring back all Civil society to the pattern and form of Christianity which We have described. It is barely possible to lay down any fixed method by which such purposes are to be attained, because the means adopted must suit places and times widely differing from one another. Neverthe- less, above all things, unity of aim must be preserved, and similarity must be sought after in all plans of action. Both these objects will be carried into effect without fail, if all will follow the guidance of the Apostolic See as their rule of life, and obey the bishops whom the Holy Ghost has placed to rule to he unanimous the Church of God.* The defence in the profession of the doctrines taught of Catholicism, indeed, necessarily demands that in the profession of doctrines taught by the Church all shall be of one mind and all steadfast in believing ; and care must be taken never to connive, in any way, at false opinions, never to withstand them less strenuously than truth allows. In mere matters of opinion it is permissible to discuss things with moderation, with a ■ Acts XX. 28. THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 99 desire of searching into the truth, without unjust sus- picion or angry recriminations. Hence, lest concord be broken to rmect whatever , , , , , . , is akin to Natural- by r^sh charges, let this be under- ism or Rationalism, gtood by all, that the integrity of Catholic faith cannot be reconciled with opinions verging on Naturalism or Rationalism, the essence of which is utterly to sterilise Christianity, and to instal in society „ the supremacy of man to the exclusion of God. Further, it is unlawful to follow one line of or divorces public conduct in private and another in from private duty ; ^ public, respecting privately the authority of the Church, but publicly rejecting it : for this would amount to joining together good and evil, and to putting man in conflict with himself; whereas he ought always to be consistent, and never in the least point nor in any condition of life to swerve from Christian virtue. But in matters merely political, as for instance the best form of government, and this or that system of administration, a difference of opinion is lawful. Those, therefore, whose piety is in other respects known, and whose minds are ready to accept in all obedience the decrees of the Apostolic See, cannot in justice be accounted as bad men because they disagree as to subjects We have mentioned ; and still graver wrong will be done them, if — as We have more than once perceived with regret — they are accused of violating, or of wavering in, the Catholic faith. Let this be well borne in mind by all who are in the habit of publishing their opinions, and above all by lOO THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. journalists. In the endeavour to secure interests of the highest order there is no room for intestine strife or party rivalries; since all should aim with one mind and pur- pose to make safe that which is the common object of all, — the maintenance of ReUgion and of the State. If, therefore, there have hitherto ^rioX^ersiT" been dissensions, let them henceforth especially in the fjQ gladly buried in oblivion. If periodical press. ... rash or injurious acts have been committed, whoever may have been at fault, let mutual charity make amends, and let the past be redeemed by a special submission of all to the Apostolic See. In this way Catholics will attain two most excellent results : they will become helpers to the Church in preserv- ing and propagating Christian wisdom ; and they will confer the greatest benefit on Civil society, the safety of which is exceedingly imperilled by evil teachings and bad passions. This, Venerable Brethren, is what We have thought it Our duty to expound to all nations of the Catholic world touching the Christian Constitution of States and the duties of individual citizens. It behoves Us now with earnest prayer to implore the protection of Heaven, beseeching God, Who alone can enlighten the minds of men and move their will, to bring about those happy ends for which We yearn and strive, for His greater glory and the general salva- tion of mankind. As a happy augury of the divine benefits, and in token of Our paternal benevolence, to you, -Venerable Brothers, and to the clergy and to the whole people committed to your charge and vigilance, We grant lovingly in the Lord the Apostolic Benedictior. ON THE CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. Encyclical Letter, January lo, i8go. FROM day to day it becomes more and more evident how needful it is that the principles of Christian Wisdom should be ever borne in mind, and that the life, the morals, and the institutions of nations should be wholly conformed to them. From the fact of these principles having been disregarded, mischiefs so vast have accrued, that no right-minded . Tie evil of neglect- ^an can face the trials of the time mg Christian teaon- ing. being without grave solicitude, nor contemplate the future without serious alarm. Progress, not inconsiderable indeed, has been made towards securing the well-being of the body and of material things ; but all natural advantages that administer to the senses of man, fannS^^n" ^l^^l^ bringing in their train the to his last end. possession of wealth, power, and limitless resources, may indeed greatly avail to procure the comforts and increase the enjoy- ments of life, but are incapable of satisfying the soul created for higher and more glorious benefits. To fix the gaze on God, and to aim earnestly at becoming like Him, is the supreme law of the life of man. For we 102 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. were created in the Divine image and likeness, and are vehemently urged, by our very nature, to return to Him from Whom we have origin. But not by bodily motion or effort do we make advance towards God, but through acts of the soul, that is, through knowledge and love. God is, in very deed, the primal and supreme truth, and truth the food on which alone the soul is nourished; and God is holiness in perfection and the sovereign good, to which solely the will may aspire and which it may attain, when virtue is its guide. But what applies to individual men applies equally to society — domestic alike and civil. Nature did not fashion society with intent that man should seek in it his last end, but that in it and through it he should find suitable aids whereby to attain to his own per- fection. If then a civil govern. A. godless g-overn- ment strives after external advantages raent deserves not the name. merely, and the attamment of such objects as adorn life ; if in adminis- tering public affairs it is wont to put God aside, and show no solicitude for the upholding of moral law ; it deflects wofully from its right course and from the injunctions of nature : nor should such a gathering together and association of men be accounted as a commonwealth, but only as a deceitful imitation and make-believe of Civil organization. As to what We have termed the well-being of the soul, which consists chiefly in the practice of the true religion and unswerving observance of the Christian precepts, We perceive that it is daily losing esteem among men, either by reason of forgetfulness or disregard, in such CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. I03 wise that the greater the advance The decline of rell- j ■ iU n 1. • r j.i. gion owing to the ^^'^^ i" *e well-being of the pursuit of temporal body, the greater is the falling advantages. . away in that of the soul. A striking proof of the lessening and enfeebling of Christian faith is seen in the insults that are, alas ! so frequently, in open day, and before Our very eyes, offered to the Catholic Church — insults, indeed, to which an age cherishing religion would on no account have submitted; For these reasons how great a multitude of men is involved in danger as to their eternal salvation surpasses belief; but more than this, nations and even vast empires themselves cannot long remain unharmed, since, upon the lapsing of Christian institutions and morality, the main foundation of human society must necessarily be uprooted. Force alone will remain to preserve public tranquillity and order; force, however, is very feeble when the bulwark of religion has been removed ; and being more apt to beget slavery than obedience, it bears within itself the germs of ever increasing troubles. The present century has encountered notable disasters, nor is it clear that some equally terrible are not impending. The very times in which we live are warning us to seek remedies there where alone they are to be found — namely, by re-establishing in the family circle and throughout the whole range of society the doctrines and practices of the Christian religion. In this lies the sole means of freeing us from the ills now weighing us down, of forestalling the dangers now threatening the world. For the The object of this accomplishment of this end, Venera- encyolical letter. ble Brothers, We must bring to bear 104 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. all the activity and diligence that lie within Our power. Although We have already, under other circumstances, and whenever occasion required, treated of these matters in other Letters, We deem it expedient, in this message to you, to define more in detail the duties of Catholics, inasmuch as these would, if strictly observed, avail with wondrous power to save society in all its length and breadth. We are engaged, as regards matters of highest moment, in a violent and well-nigh daily struggle, wherein it is hard at times for the minds of many not to be deluded, not to go astray, not to yield. It behoves Us, Venerable Brothers, to warn, instruct and exhort each of the faithful with an earnestness befitting the occasion : that none may abandon the way of truth. It cannot be doubted that duties more numerous and of greater moment devolve on Catholics than upon such as are either not sufficiently CathoUcs, as chU- enlightened in relation to the Catho- dren of the Church, have imperative hc faith, or who are entirely un- duties towards her. acquainted with its doctrines. Con- sidering that forthwith upon salvation being wrought out for mankind, Jesus Christ laid upon His Apostles the injunction to preach the Gospel to every creature. He imposed, it is evident, upon all men the duty of learning thoroughly and believing what they were taught. This duty is intimately bound up with the gaining of eternal salvation : He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he that believeth not, shall be condemned. * But the man who has embraced the * Mark xvi. i6. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. I05 Christian faith, as in duty bound, is by that very fact a subject of the Church as one of the children born of her, and becomes a member of that greatest and holiest Body, which it is the special charge of the Roman Pontiff to rule with supreme power, under its invisible Head, Christ Jesus. Now, if the natural law enjoins us to love devotedly and to defend the country in which we had birth, and in which we were brought up, so that every good citizen hesitates not to face death for his native land, very much more is it the urgent duty of Christians to be ever quickened by like feelings towards the Church. For the Church is the holy City of the living God, born of God Himself, and by Him built up and established. Upon this earth indeed she accom- plishes her pilgrimage, but by instructing and guiding men, she summons them to eternal The duty of loving happiness. We are bound then to the Churcli and the State. love dearly the country whence we have received the means of enjoyment this mortal life affords, but we have a much more urgent obligation to love, with ardent love, the Church to which we owe the life of the soul, a life that will endure for ever. For fitting it is to prefer the good of the soul to the well- being of the body, inasmuch as duties toward God are of a far more hallowed character than those toward men. Moreover, if we would judge aright, andco^ti^!?o^ng '^e supernatural love for the Church from God, cannot be ^nd the natural love of our own opposed to each other. country proceed from the same eter- nal principle, since God Himself is their Author and originating Cause. Consequently it follows Io6 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. that between the duties they respectively enjoin, neither can come into collision with the other. We can, certainly, and should love ourselves, bear ourselves kindly towards our fellow-men, nourish affection for the State and the governing powers ; but at the same time we can and must cherish toward the Church a feeling of filial piety, and love God with the deepest love of which we are capable. The order of prece- dence of these duties is, however, at times, either under stress of public calamities, or through the perverse will of men, inverted. For instances occur where the State seems to require from men as subjects one thing, and Religion, from men as Christians, quite another ; and this in reality without any other ground, than that the rulers of the State either hold the sacred power of the Church of no account, or endeavour to subject it to their own will. Hence arises a conflict, and an occasion, through such conflict, of virtue being put to the proof. The two powers are confronted and urge their behests in a contrary sense ; to obey both is wholly impossible. No man can serve two masters,* for to please the one amounts to contemning the other. As to which should be preferred no one ought to balance for an instant. It is a high crime indeed to withdraw allegiance from God in order to please men ; an act of consummate wickedness to break the The State has no ]aws of Jesus Christ, in order to right to order things opposed to God's yield obedience to earthly rulers, or, ^^' under pretext of keeping the Civil law, to ignore the rights of the Matthew vi. 24. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. I07 Church ; we ought io obey God rather than men. * This answer, which of old Peter and the other Apostles were used to give the Civil authorities who enjoined unrighteous things, we must, in like circumstances, give always and without hesitation. No better citizen is there, whether in time of peace or war, than the Chris- tian who is mindful of his duty ; but such a one should be ready to suffer all things, even death itself, rather than abandon the cause of God or of the Church. Hence they who blame, and call by the name of sedition, this steadfastness of attitude in the choice of duty, have not rightly apprehended the force and nature of true law. We are speaking of matters widely known, and which We have before now more than once fully explained. Law is of its very essence a mandate of right reason, proclaimed by a properly con- stituted authority, for the common good. But true and legitimate authority is void of sanction, unless it proceed from God the supreme Ruler and Lord of all. The Almighty alone can commit power to a man over his fellow-men ; nor may that be accounted as right reason f which is in disaccord with truth and with divine reason ; I nor that held to be true good which is repugnant to the supreme and unchangeable good, or that wrests aside and draws away the wills of men from the charity of God. Hallowed therefore in the mind Catholics strictly bound to obey the of Christians is the very idea of fhiI|s°not'contrary Public authority, in which they re- to divine authority, cognise some likeness and symbol as it were of the Divine Majesty, even when it is exercised * Acts. V. 29. Io8 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. by one unworthy. A just and due reverence to the laws abides in them, not from force and threats, but from a consciousness of duty ; for God hath not given us the spirit of fear. * But if the laws of the State are manifestly at variance with the Divine Law, containing enactments hurtful to the Church, or conveying injunctions adverse to the duties imposed by religion, or if they violate in the person of the supreme Pontiff the authority of Jesus Christ, then truly, to resist becomes a positive duty, to obey, a crime ; a crime moreover combined with misdemeanour against the State itself, inasmuch as every offence levelled against religion is also a sin against the State. Here anew it becomes evident how unjust is the reproach of sedition: for the obedience due to rulers and legislators is not refused; but there is a deviation from their will in those precepts only which they have no power to enjoin. Commands that are issued adversely to the honour due to God, and hence are beyond the scope of justice, must be looked upon as anything rather than laws. You are fully aware. Venerable Brothers, that this is the very contention of the Apostle St. Paul, Laws Invalid which . . . are against those of who, in writing to Titus, after *^°'*' reminding Christians that they are to be subject to princes and powers, and to obey at a word, at once adds, And to be ready to every good work. \ Thereby he openly declares that if laws of men contain injunctions contrary to the eternal law of God, it is right not to obey them. In like manner * 2 Timothy i. 7. t Tit. iii. i. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. T09 the Prince of the Apostles, gave this courageous and sublime answer to those who would have deprived him of the liberty of preaching the Gospel : If it be just in the sight of God to hear you rather than God, judge ye, for we cannot but speak the things which we have seen and heard.* Wherefore, to love both countries, that of earth below and that of Heaven above, yet in such mode that the love of our heavenly surpass the love of our earthly home, and that human laws be never set above the Divine Law, is the essential duty of Christians, and the fountain-head, so to say, from which all other duties spring. The Redeemer of mankind of Himself has said : For this was I bom, and for this came I into the world, that I should give testimony to the truth.\ In like manner, / am come to cast fire upon earth, and what will I but that it be kindled 1% In the knowledge of this truth, which constitutes the highest perfection of the mind ; in divine charity which, in like manner, completes the will, all Christian life and liberty abide. This noble patrimony of truth and charity entrusted by Jesus Christ to the Church, she defends and maintains ever with untiring endeavour and watchfulness. But with what bitterness and in how many guises war has been waged against the Church, it would be ill- timed now to urge. From the fact that it has been vouchsafed to human reason to snatch from nature. Scientific progress through the investigations of science, used against tlie ^ , . , Ciiurcii. many of her treasured secrets and to apply them befittingly to the divers requirements of * Acts iv. 19, 20. t [olm xviii. 37. J Ltike xii. 49. no THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. life, men have become possessed with so arrogant a sense of their own powers, as ah-eady to consider themselves able to banish from social life the authority and empire of God. Led away by this delusion, they make over to human nature the dominion of which they think God has been despoiled ; from nature, they maintain, we must seek the principle and rule of all truth ; from nature they aver, alone spring, and to it should be referred, all the duties that religious feeling prompts. Hence they deny all revelation from on High, and all fealty due to the Enmity to cbrist Christian teaching of morals as well born of^ride.'^° ^ ^s all obedience to the Church ; and they go so far as to deny her power of making laws and exercising every other kind of right, even disallowing the Church any place among the civil institutions of the State. These men aspire unjustly, and with their might strive, to gain control over public affairs and lay hands on the rudder of the State, in order that the legislation may the more easily be adapted to these principles, and the morals of the people influenced in accordance with them. Whence it comes to pass that in many countries Catholicism is either openly assailed or else secretly interfered with, full impunity being granted to the most pernicious doctrines, while the public profession of Christian truth is shackled often-times with manifold constraints. Under such evil circumstances therefore each one is bound in conscience to watch over himself, taking all means possible to preserve the faith inviolate in the depths of his soul, avoiding all risks, and arming himself on all occasions, especially against the various CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. Ill Need of Catholics specious sophisms rife among non- to be well instruct- ed in their religion, believers. In order to safeguard this virtue of faith in its integrity, We declare it to be very profitable and consistent with the requirements of the time, that each one, according to the measure of his capacity and intelligence, should make a deep study of Christian doctrine, and imbue his mind with as perfect a knowledge as may be of those matters that are interwoven with religion and lie within the range of reason. And as it is necessary that faith should not only abide untarnished in the soul, but should grow with ever painstaking increase, the suppliant and humble entreaty of the Apostles ought constantly to be addressed to God : Increase our faith. * But in this same matter, touching Catholics should he „, . ^. /■ '^i .1 , ready, and anxious, Christian faith, there are other to defend the faith, duties, whose exact and religious observance, necessary at all times in the interests of eternal salvation, become more especially so in these our days. Amid such reckless and wide-spread folly of opinion it is, as We have said, the office of the Church to undertake the defence of truth and uproot errors from the mind, and this charge has to be at all times sacredly observed by her, seeing that the honour of God and the salvation of men are confided to her keeping. But when necessity compels, not those only who are invested with power of rule are bound to safeguard the integrity of faith, but, as St. Thomas maintains, "Each one is under obligation to show forth his faith, either to instruct and encourage others of the faithful, * Luke xviii. 5- 112 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. or to repel the attacks of unbelievers."* To recoil before an enemy, or to keep silence, when from all sides such clamours are raised against truth, is the part of a man either devoid of character, or who entertains doubt as to the truth of what he professes to believe. In both cases such mode of behaving is base and is insulting to God, and both are incompatible with the salvation of mankind. This kind Church Tthe%uty of conduct is profitable only to the and glory of all enemies of the faith, for nothing Catholics. emboldens the wicked so greatly as the lack of courage on the part of the good. Moreover, want of vigour on the part of Christians is so much the more blameworthy, as not seldom little would be needed on their part to bring to naught false charges and refute erroneous opinions; and always by exerting themselves more strenuously they might reckon upon being successful. After all, no one can be prevented from putting forth that strength of soul which is the characteristic of true Christians ; and very frequently by such display of courage our enemies lose heart and their designs are thwarted. Christians are, moreover, born for combat, whereof the greater the vehemence, the more assured, God aiding, the triumph : Have confidence ; I have over- come the world.\ Nor is there any ground for alleging that Jesus Christ, the Guardian and Champion of the Church, needs not in any manner the help of men. Power certainly is not wanting to Him, but in His loving-kindness He would assign to us a share in * 2a 2je Q. iii. a.. 2 ad 2. ^ John xvi. 33. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 113 obtaining and applying the fruits of salvation procured through His grace. The chief elements of this duty Catholics should . . . . , , profess and spread consist m proiessmg openly and thePaith. unflinchingly the Catholic doctrine, and in propagating it to the utmost of our power. For, as is often said, and with most great truth, there is nothing so hurtful to Christian wisdom as that it should not be known, since it possesses, when loyally received, inherent power to drive away error. So soon as Catholic truth is apprehended by a simple and unprejudiced soul, reason yields assent. Now faith, as a virtue, is a great boon of divine grace and goodness ; nevertheless, the objects them. selves to which faith is to be applied are scarcely known in any other way than through the hearing. How shall they believe Him of whom they have not heard i and how shall they hear without a preacher 1 Faith then comeih by hearing, and hearing by the word of Christ. * Since then faith is necessary for salvation, it follows that the word of Christ must be preached. The Faith cometh by office indeed of preaching, that is of hearing, hence the preaching of the teaching, lies by divine right in the ■Word by the Pastors • r it. 1 1 r- of the Church. provmce of the pastors, namely of the bishops whom the Holy Ghost has placed to rule the Church of God. \ It belongs above all to the Roman Pontiff, Vicar of Jesus Christ, established as head of the universal Church, teacher of all that pertains to morals and faith. No one, however, must entertain the notion that private individuals are * Rom. X. 14, 17. f Ads xx. 28. H 114 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. prevented from taking some active oSLTtohe^n thl: part in this duty of teaching, espe- teaching-. cially those on whom God has be- stowed gifts of mind with the strong wish of rendering themselves useful. These, so often as circumstances " demand, may take upon themselves, not indeed the office of the pastor, but the task of communicating to others what they have themselves received, becoming, as it were, living echoes of their masters in the faith. Such co-operation on the part of the laity has seemed to the Fathers of the Vatican Council so opportune and fruitful of good that they thought well to invite it. "All faithful Christians, but those chiefly who are in a prominent posi- tion, or engaged in teaching, we entreat, by the compassion of Jesus Christ, and enjoin by the witness of the ^u -^ r ^i. f j j Council Vatican on authority of the same God and this point. Saviour, that they bring aid to ward off and eliminate these errors from Holy Church, and contribute their zealous help in spreading abroad the light of undefiled faith. * Let each one therefore bear in mind that he both can and should, so far as may be, preach the Catholic faith by the authority of his example, and by open and constant profession of the obligations it imposes. In respect to preach by exam- consequently to the duties that bind !S®^1?'"°^^^^'°'^°^ us to God and the Church, it should the Faith, ' be borne earnestly in mind that in propagating Christian truth and warding off errors, the zeal of the ' laity should, as far as possible, be brought actively into play. * Const. Dei Films, sub fine. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. II5 The faithful would not, however, so completely and advantageously satisfy these duties as is fitting they should, were they to enter the field as isolated champions of the faith. Jesus Christ indeed has clearly intimated that the hostility and hatred of men, which He first and foremost experienced, would be shown in like degree towards the work founded by Him, so that many would be barred from profiting by the salvation for which Common action a „ . , , , ^_. , . duty, from the very 3,11 are mdebted to His loving- constitution of the kindness. Wherefore He willed not Gnurcn, only to train disciples in His doctrine, but to unite them into one Society, and fastly conjoin them in one Body, which is the Church, * whereof He would be the Head. The life of Jesus Christ pervades therefore the entire framework of this body, cherishes and nourishes its every member, uniting each with each, and making all work together to the same end, albeit the action of each be not the same, f Hence it follows that not only is the Church a perfect society far excelling every other, but it is enjoined by her Founder that for the salvation of mankind she is to contend as an army drawn up in battle ari-ay. % The organization and constitution of Christian society can in no wise be changed, neither can any one of its members live as he may choose, nor elect that mode of fighting which best pleases him. For in effect he scatters and gathers not, who gathers not with the Church and with Jesus Christ; * Coloss. i. 24. t As in one body we have many members, but all the members have not the same office. — Rom. xii. 4, 5. X Canticles vi. 9. Il6 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. and all who fight not jointly with Him and with the Church, are in very truth contending against God. * To bring about such an union of Concord of opinion t ■ r a prime need. minds and uniformity of action — not without reason so greatly feared by the enemies of Catholicism, — the main point is that a perfect har- mony of opinion should prevail ; in which intent we find Paul the Apostle exhorting the Corinthians with earnest zeal and solemn weight of words : JVbw I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord J^esus Christ, that you all speak the same thing, and that there be no schisms among you : but that you be perfectly in the same mind, and in the same judgment, t The wisdom of this precept is readily apprehended. In tnith, thought is the principle of action, and hence there cannot exist agreement of will, nor similarity of action, if people all think differently one from the other. In the case of those who profess to take reason as their sole guide, there would hardly be found, if, indeed, there ever could be found, unity of doctrine. Indeed, the art of knowing things as they really are is exceedingly . difficult; moreover, the mind of man is by nature feeble and drawn this way and that by a variety of opinions, and not seldom led astray by impressions coming from without ; and furthermore, the in- Independence of „ r ^i. ■ /v .• mind the source of "uence of the passions oftentimes diBcord even in the j^kes away, or certainly at least natural order. ... diminishes, the capacity for grasping * Who is not with Me, is against Me, and he mho gathereth not with Me, scattereth. — Luke xi. 22. + I Corinthians i. 10. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 117 the truth. On this account, in controUing State affairs means are often taken to keep those together by force, who cannot agree in their way of thinking. It happens far otherwise with Perfect religious /^u ■ ^- j.t. • ^i. • i concord is of divine Christians : they receive their rule precept. of f^jth from the Church, by whose authority and under whose guidance they are conscious that they have beyond question attained to truth. Consequently as the Church is one, because Jesus Christ is one, so throughout the whole Christian world there is, and ought to be, but one doctrine : One Lord, one faith ; * but having the same spirit of faith, \ they possess the saving principle whence pro- ceed spontaneously one and the same will in all, and one and the same tenour of action. Now, as the Apostle Paul urges, this unanimity ought to be perfect. Christian faith reposes not on human but on divine authority, for what God has revealed " we believe not on account of the intrinsic evidence of the truth perceived by the natural light of our reason, but on account of the authority of God reveal- ing. Who cannot be deceived nor Himself deceive." \ It follows as a consequence, that whatever things are manifestly revealed by God, we must receive with a similar and equal assent. To refuse to believe any one of them is equivalent to rejecting them all ; for those at once destroy the very groundwork of faith, who deny that God has spoken to men, or who bring into doubt His infinite truth and wisdom. To determine however which * Ephes. iv. 5. t 2 Cot: iv. 13. % Cone. Vat. Const. Dei Filius. Il8 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. are the doctrines divinely revealed, theleaSoh^rch belongs to the teaching Church, to revelation Is made whom God has entrusted the safe- known to us. keeping and interpretation of His utterances. But the supreme Teacher in the Church is the Roman Pontiff. Union of minds, therefore ' requires, together with a perfect accord in the one faith, complete submission and obedience of will to the Church and to the Roman Pontiff, as to God Himself This obedience should, however, be perfect, because it is enjoined by faith itself, and has this in common with faith, that it cannot be given in shreds ; — nay, were it not absolute and perfect in every particular, it might wear the name of obedience, but its essence would disappear. Christian usage attaches such value to this perfection of obedience, that Obedience if not complete does not it has been, and will ever be, accounted the distinguishing mark by which we are able to recognise Catholics. Admir- ably does the following passage from St. Thomas of Aquin set before us the right view : " The formal object of faith is primary truth, as it is shown forth in the Holy Scriptures, and in the teaching of the Church, which proceeds from the fountain-head of truth. It follows, therefore, that he who does not adhere, as to an infallible divine rule, to the teaching of the Church ^^ „^ ^ which proceeds from the primary St. 1 nomas of ^ f J Aquin on this truth manifested in the Holy Scrip- matter. . ,,,,.,- tures, possesses not the habit of faith : but matters of faith he holds otherwise than through faith. Now it is evident that he who cHngs CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. II9 to the doctrines of the Church as to an infaUible rule, yields his assent to everything the Church teaches ; but otherwise, if with reference to what the Church teaches, he holds what he likes, but does not hold what he does not like, he adheres not to the teaching of the Church, as to an infallible rule, but to his own will." * " The faith of the whole Church should be one, accord- ing to the precept (i Corinthians \.): Let all speak the same thing, and let there be no schisms among you; and this cannot be observed save on condition that questions which arise touching faith should be determined by him who presides over the whole Church, whose sentence must consequently be accepted without wavering. And hence to the sole authority of the Supreme Pontiff does it pertain to publish a new revision of the Symbol, as also to decree all other matters that concern the Universal Church." t In defining the limits of the obedience owed to the Pastors of souls, but most of all to the authority of the Roman Pontiff, it must not be supposed that it is only to be yielded in relation to dogmas of which the obstinate denial cannot be disjoined from the crime of heresy. Nay, further, it is not enough sincerely and firmly to assent to doctrines which, though not defined by any solemn pronouncement of the Church, are by her proposed to belief, as divinely revealed, in her common and universal teaching, and which the Vatican Council declared are to be believed with Catholic and Divine Faith. But this likewise must be reckoned amongst the duties of Christians, that they allow them- * 2a 2je, q. v. art. 3. t Ibid. q. i. art. 10. 120 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. selves to be ruled and directed by the authority and leadership of Bishops, and above all of the Apostolic See. And how fitting it is that this should be so. any one can easily perceive. For the things contained in the Divine Oracles have reference to God in part, and in part to man, and to whatever is necessary for the attainment of his eternal salvation. Now, both these, that is to say, what we are bound to believe, and what ■we are obliged to do, are laid down, as we have stated, by the Church using her divine right, and in the Church by the Supreme Pontiff. Wherefore, it belongs to the Pope to judge authoritatively what things the Sacred Oracles contain, as well as what doctrines are in harmony, and what in disagreement, with them ; and also, for the" same reason, to show forth what things are to be accepted as right, and what to be rejected as worthless ; what it is necessary to do and what to avoid doing, in order to attain to eternal salvation. For, other- wise, there would be no sure interpreter of the commands of God, nor would there be any safe guide showing man the way he should live.* * The following note will perhaps help to make clearer the words of His Holiness, which, clear enough in themselves, may be found somewhat obscure by those unaccustomed to use theological terms. It is evident that articles defined to be of faith can be accepted wholly, and at all points, by those alone who believe all doctrines flowing immediately from what is of faith, or closely connected with it. For these doctrines are propounded to belief by the Church in her ordinary and universal teaching. Though not defined as of faith, they are to be held with "Catholic and Divine Faith." To deny them would lead to danger of making shipwreck of the faith, since they are not only certain, but are declared by the Church to be certain. We are CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. I2I In addition to what has been laid down, it is necessary to enter more fully into the nature of the Church. She is not an association of Christians brought together by chance, but is a divinely established and admirably constituted Society, having for its direct and proximate purpose to lead the world to peace and holiness. And since the Church alone has, through the Grace of God, received the means necessary to realize such end, she has her fixed laws, special What is included , . in this complete spheres of action, and a certain cS^"^ " *^^ method, fixed and conformable to her nature, of governing Christian peoples. But the exercise of such governing power is difficult, and leaves room for numberless conflicts, inas- much as the Church rules peoples scattered through every portion of the earth, differing in race and customs, who, living under the sway of the laws of their respective country, owe obedience alike to the civil and reli- gious authorities. The duties enjoined are incumbent on the same persons, as already stated, There is no anta- , , , , . . , gonism between and between them there exists neither Church and state. contradiction nor confusion; for therefore bound to accept them, and to submit ourselves to such decisions concerning doctrine as are given by the Roman Pontiff or by Roman Congregations appointed by him. It is a sign of a mind being out of touch with the Church, to reject doctrines generally taught by theologians and Catholic doctors. The Vatican Council has declared that it is not enough to shun the self-willed obstinacy of heresy, but we must carefully turn a deaf ear to those errors which, more or less nearly, approach heresy ; and all Christians are warned that they are in duty bound to observe the Constitutions and Decrees by which the Holy See has proscribed perverse opinions of whatever kind. [Editor. ] 122 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. some of these duties have relation to the prosperity of the State, others refer to the general good of the Church, and both have as their object to train men to perfection. The tracing out of these rights and duties being thus set forth, it is plainly evident that the governing powers are wholly free to carry out the business of the State; and this, not only not against the wish of the Church, but manifestly with her co-operation, TheChurcli, exact- . , u i. i ing obedience from masmuch as she strongly urges Rulers, helps them ^q j^g practice of piety, which to govern. implies right feeling towards God, and by that very fact inspires a right-mindedness towards the rulers in the State. The spiritual power, however, has a far loftier purpose, the Church directing her aim to govern the minds of men in the defending of the Kingdom of God, and His justice, * a task she is wholly bent upon accomplishing. No one can, however, without risk to faith, foster any doubt as to the Church alone having been invested with such power of governing souls as to exclude altogether the civil authority. In truth it was not to Caesar but to Peter that Jesus Christ entrusted the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven. From this doctrine touching the relations of politics and religion, originate important consequences which We cannot pass over in silence. A notable difference exists between every kind of Civil rule and that of the Kingdom of Christ. If this latter bear a certain likeness and character to a Civil kingdom, * Matt. vi. 33. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 123 it is distinguished from it by its origin, principle, and essence. The Church, therefore. The Cbtirch ap- ... . , proves of all lawful possesses the right to exist and to S°o^vn^«nr'^^ protect herself by institutions and government. ^ -' laws in accordance with her nature. And since she not only is a perfect Society in herself, but superior to every other society of human growth, she resolutely refuses, prompted alike by right and by duty, to link herself to any mere party and to subject herself to the fleeting exigencies of politics. On like grounds the Church, the guardian always of her own right and most observant of that of others, holds that it is not her province to decide which is the best amongst many diverse forms of Government and the Civil institutions of Christian States, and amid the various kinds of State rule she does not disapprove of any, provided the respect due to religion and the obser- vance of good morals be upheld. By such standard of conduct should the thoughts and mode of acting of every Catholic be directed. There is no doubt but that in the sphere of politics ample matter may exist for legitimate difference of opinion, and that, the single reserve being made of the rights of justice and truth, all may strive to bring into actual working the ideas believed likely to be more conducive than others to the general welfare. But to attempt to involve the Church in party strife, and seek to bring her support to bear against those who take opposite views, is only worthy of partisans. Religion should, on the contrary, be accounted by every one as holy and inviolate; — nay, in the public order itself of States — which cannot be 124 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. severed from the laws influencing All should imitate morals and from religious duties — it the Church in this . j • j j ii respect. is always urgent, and indeed the main pre-occupation, to take thought how best to consult the interests of Catholicism. Wherever these appear by reason of the efforts of adversaries to be in danger, all differences of opinion among Catholics should forthwith cease, so that, like thoughts and coun- sels prevailing, they may hasten to the aid of religion, the general and supreme good, to which all else should be referred. We think it well to treat this matter some- what more in detail. The Church alike and the State, doubtless, both possess individual sovereignty ; hence, in the carrying out of public affairs, neither obeys the other within the limits to which each is restricted by its Constitution. It does not hence follow, however, that Church and State are in any manner severed, and still less antagonistic. Nature, in fact, has given us not only physical existence, but moral life likewise. Hence, from the tranquillity of public order, whose immediate purpose is Civil society, man expects that this may be able to secure all his needful well-being, and still more supply the sheltering care which perfects his moral life, which consists mainly in the knowledge and practice of virtue. He wishes moreover at the same time, as in duty bound, to find in the Church the aids necessary to his religious perfection, which consists in the knowledge and practice of the true religion ; of that religion which is the queen of virtues, because in binding these to God it completes them all and perfects them. Therefore they who are engaged in framing constitutions CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 125 and in enacting laws should bear in mind the moral and religious nature of man, and take care to help him, but in a right and orderly way, to gain perfection, neither enjoining nor forbidding anything save what is reasonably consistent with Civil as well as with religious requirements. On this very account the Church cannot stand by, indifferent as to the import Civil law must and significance of laws enacted by keep in view the ■' moral order. the State ; not in so far indeed as they refer to the State, but in so far as, passing beyond their due limits, they trench upon the rights of the Church. From God has the duty been assigned to the Church, not only to interpose resistance, if at any time the State rule should run counter to religion, but further to make a strong endeavour that the power of the Gospel may pervade the law and institutions of the nations. And inasmuch as the destiny of the State depends mainly on the disposition of those who are at the head of affairs, it follows that the Church cannot give countenance or favour to those whom she knows to be imbued with a spirit of hostility to her; who refuse openly to respect her rights; who make it their aim and purpose to tear asunder the alliance that should, by the very nature of things, connect the interests of religion with those of the State. On the contrary she is (as she is bound to be) the upholder of those who are themselves imbued with the right way of thinking as to the relations between Church and State, and who strive to make them work in perfect accord for the common good. These precepts con- tain the abiding principle by which every Catholic 126 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. should shape his conduct in regard .phoM umfaXs to public life. In short, where the •who favour Eeii- Church does not forbid taking part in glon. public affairs, it is fit and proper to give support to men of acknowledged worth, and who pledge themselves to deserve well in the Catholic cause, and on no account may it be allowed to prefer to them any such individuals as are hostile to reli- gion. Whence it appears how urgent is OhSrTrf Igli'nst the duty to maintain perfect union her dissensions gf minds, especially at these our amongst Catholics. times, when the Christian name is assailed with designs so concerted and subtle. All who have it at heart to attach themselves earnestly to the Church, which is the pillar and grou?id of the truth, * will easily steer clear of masters who are lying- and promising them liberty, when they themselves are slaves of corruption^ Nay, more, having made themselves sharers in the divine virtue which resides in the Church, they will triumph over the craft of their adversaries by wisdom, and over their violence by courage. This is not now the time and place to inquire whether and how far the inertness and internal dissensions of Catholics have con- tributed to the present condition of things ; but it is certain at least that the perverse-minded would exhibit less boldness, and would not have brought about such an accumulation of ills, if the faith which workeih by charity % had been generally more energetic and lively in the souls of men, and had there not been so universal * I Tim. iii. 15. t 2 Peter ii. i, 19. J Galat. m. 6. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 12 7 a drifting away from the divinely established rule of morality throughout Christianity. May at least the lessons afforded by the memory of the past have the good result of leading to a wiser mode of acting in the future. As to those who mean to take part Catholic states- . , ,. „ • ,1 1 . i ■ i men should shun ^''^ public atiairs, they should avoid worldly prudence ^jjh jj^g yg utmost care two and rashness. •' criminal excesses : so-called prudence and false courage. Some there are, indeed, who main- tain that it is not opportune boldly to attack evil- doing in its might and when in the ascendant, lest, as they say, opposition should exasperate minds al- ready hostile. These make it a matter of guess-work as to whether they are for the Church or against her; since on the one hand they give themselves out as professing the Catholic faith, and yet wish that the Church should allow certain opinions, at variance with her teaching, to be spread abroad with impunity. They moan over the loss of faith and The prudence of ^j^g perversion of morals, yet trouble the flesh described. '^ ' ■' 'rmr 'itet themselves not to bring any remedy ; — nay, not seldom, even add to the intensity of the mischief through too much forbearance or harmful dis- sembling. These same individuals would not have any one entertain a doubt as to their good will towards the Holy See ; yet they have always a something by way of reproach against the Supreme Pontiff. The prudence of men of this cast is of that kind which is termed by the Apostle Paul Wisdom of the flesh and death of the soul, because it is not subject to the law of God, neither can 128 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. it be. * Nothing is less calculated to amend such ills than prudence of this kind. For the enemies of the Church have for their object — and they hesitate not to proclaim it, and many among them boast of it — to destroy outright, if possible, the Catholic religion, which is alone the true religion. With such a purpose in hand they shrink from nothing ; for they are fully conscious that the more faint-hearted those who withstand them become, the more easy will it be to work out their wicked will. Therefore they who cherish the prudence of the flesh and who pretend to be unaware that every Christian ought to be a valiant soldier of Christ ; they who would fain obtain the rewards owing to conquerors, while they are leading the lives of cowards, untouched in the fight; are so far from thwarting the onward march of the evil- disposed, that on the contrary they even help it forward. On the other hand not a few, im- How harmful it is pelled by a false zeal, or — what is to tlie cause of Chris- tianity, more blameworthy still — affecting sentiments which their conduct be- lies, take upon themselves to act a part which does not belong to them. They would fain see the Church's mode of action influenced by their ideas and their judgment, to such an extent that everything done other- wise they take ill or accept with repugnance. Some, yet again, expend their energies in fruitless contention, being worthy of blame equally with the former. To act in such manner is not to follow lawful authority but to forestal it, and unauthorised assume the duties * The wisdom of the flesh is an enemy to God ; for it is not subject to the law of God, neither can it be. — Horn. viii. 6, 7. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. igg of the spiritual rulers, to the great detriment of the order which God established in His Church to be observed for ever, and which He does not permit to be violated with impunity by any one, whoever he may be. Honour then to those who shrink t^XSt^"""^ °' ' """^ f-^^™ e"t^""g the arena, as often as need calls: believing and being convinced that the violence of injustice will be brought to an end and finally give way to the sanctity of right and religion ! They truly seem invested with the dignity of time-honoured virtue, since they are struggling to defend religion, and chiefly against the faction banded together to attack Christianity with extreme daring and without tiring, and to pursue with incessant hostility the Sovereign Pontiff, fallen into their power. But men of this high character maintain without wavering the love of obe- dience, nor are they wont to undertake anything, upon their own authority. Now, since a like resolve to obey, combined with constancy and sturdy courage, is needful, so that whatever trials the pressure of events may bring about, they may be deficient in nothing, * We greatly desire to fix deep in the minds of each one that which Paul calls the wisdom of the spirit, f for in controlling human actions this wisdom follows the excel- lent rule of moderation, with . the happy result that no one either timidly despairs through lack of courage or presumes over-much from want of prudence. There is, however, a difference between the State prudence political prudence that relates to the consults the common good. general good, and that which con- cerns the good of individuals. This * James i. 4. t Rom. viii. 6, i 130 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. latter is shown forth in the case of private persons who obey the prompting of right reason in the direction of their own conduct; while the former is the characteristic of those who are set over others, and chiefly of rulers of the State, whose duty it is to exercise the power of command, so that the political prudence of private individuals would seem to consist wholly in carrying out faithfully the orders issued by lawful authority. * The like disposition and the same It concerns above , i_ u -i • r^u ■ ..• all others the oi^der should prevail m every Christian Koman Pontiff; State by so much the more that the political prudence of the Pontiff embraces diverse and multi- form things; for it is his charge not only to rule the Church, but generally so to regulate the actions of Christian Citizens that these may be in apt conformity to their hope of gaining eternal salvation. Whence it is clear that in addition to the complete accordance of thought and deed, the faithful * "Prudence proceeds from reason, and to reason it specially per- tains to guide and govern. Whence it follows that insomuch as any one takes part in the control and government of affairs, in so far ought he to be gifted with reason and prudence. But it is evident that the subject, so far as subject, and the servant, so far as servant, ought neither to control nor govern, but rather to be controlled and governed. Prudence then is not the special virtue of the servant, so far as servant, nor of the subject, so far as subject. But because any man, on account of his character of a reasonable being, may have some share in the government according to the degree which reason determines, it is fitting that in such proportion he should possess the virtue of prudence. Whence it manifestly results that prudence exists in the ruler, as it exists in the architect with regard to the building he has to construct, just as is expressed in the sixth Book of Morals, and that it exists in the subject, as it exists in the workman employed in the construction." — St. Thomas, 2a23e, Q.ii.2, 4, 7, art, 12. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 131 should imitate the practical political wisdom of the ecclesias- tical authority. Now the administration of Christian affairs immediately under the Roman Pontiff appertains* to the Bishops, who, although they attain not to the summit of pontifical power, are nevertheless then the Bishops. , truly prmces m the ecclesiastical hierarchy ; and as each one of them administers a particular church, they are " as master-workers ... in the spiritual edifice,"* and they have members of the clergy to share their duties and carry out their decisions. Every one has to regulate his mode of conduct according to this constitution of the Church, wliich it is not in the power of any man to change. Consequently, just as in the exercise of their episcopal authority the bishops ought to be united with the. Apostolic See, so should the members of the clergy and the laity live in close union with their Bishops. Among the Prelates indeed one or other there may be affording scope to criticism either in regard to personal conduct or in reference to opinions by him entertained about points of doctrine ; but no private person may arrogate to himself the It belongs to the „ r • j 1 ■ 1 ^1 • Pope to judge the oVa.ce. of judge which Christ our rulers of the Church, lq^^j ^as bestowed on that one alone whom He placed in charge of His lambs and of His sheep. Let every one bear in mind that most wise teaching of Gregory the Great : " Subjects should be admonished not rashly to judge their prelates, even if they chance to see them acting in a blameworthy manner, lest reproving what is wrong, they be led by pride into greater wrong. They are to be warned against the danger of * St. Thomas, Quodlib. i, xiv. 132 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. setting themselves up in audacious opposition to the superiors whose shortcomings they may notice. Should, therefore, the superiors really have committed grievous sins, their inferiors, penetrated with the fear of God, ought not to refuse them respectful submission. The actions of superiors should not be smitten by the sword of the word, even when they are rightly judged to have deserved censure." * However, all endeavours will avail but little, unless our life be regulated conformably with the discipline of the Christian virtues. Let us call to mind what Holy Scripture records concerning the Jewish nation : As long as they sinned not in the sight of their God, it was well with them, for their God hateth The chief remedy ■ • •. ^ t 7 ^7 7 j is to be found in the miguity. And even . . . when they had practice of Christian revolted from the way that God had virtue. •" ■' given them to walk therein, they ^were destroyed in battles by many nations. \ Now the nation of the Jews bore an inchoate semblance to the Christian people, and the vicissitudes of their history in olden times have often foreshadowed the truth that was to come; saving that God in His goodness has enriched and loaded us with far greater benefits, and on this account the sins of Christians are much greater, and bear the stamp of more shameful and criminal ingratitude. The Church, it is certain, at no time and in no particu- lar is deserted by God ; hence there is no reason why she should be alarmed at the wickedness of men ; but in the case of nations falling away from Christian virtue there is not a like ground of assurance, for sin maketh nations * Reg. Pastor, p. iii. cap. iv. \ Judith v. 21, 22. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. I33 miserable. * If every bygone age has experienced the force of this truth, wherefore should The evils threaten- -, mi • 1 ing nations are the "O' our own ? There are in truth of fei«i™n'dmOTals^ ^^^^ "'^"^ ^'S"® '"^^^^^ proclaim that just punishments are already mena- cing, and the condition of modern States tends to confirm this belief, since we perceive many of them in sad plight from intestine disorders, and not one entirely exempt. But should those leagued together in wickedness hurry onward in the road they have boldly chosen ; should they increase in influence and power, in proportion as they make headway in their evil purposes and crafty schemes ; there will be ground to fear lest the very foundations nature has laid for States to rest upon be utterly destroyed. Nor can such misgivings be removed by any mere human effort, especially as a vast number of men, having rejected the Christian faith, are on that account justly incurring the penalty of their pride, since blinded by their passions they search in vain for truth, laying hold on the false for the true, and thinking themselves wise when they call evil good, and good evil, and put dark- ness in the place of light, and light in the place of darkness. \ It is therefore necessary that God come to the rescue, and that, mindful of His mercy, He turn an eye of compassion on human society. Hence, We renew the urgent entreaty We have already made, to redouble zeal and perseverance, when addressing humble suppli- cations to our merciful God, so that the virtues whereby a Christian life is perfected may be re-awakened. It is, * Prov, xiv. 34. t Is. V. 20. 134 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. however, urgent Ijefore all, that Charity must be gharitv, wliicli is the main founda- restored, towards ■" God and our neigh- jjon of the Christian life, and apart from which the other virtues exist not or remain barren, should be quickened and main- tained. Therefore is it that the Apostle St. Paul, after having exhorted the Colossians to fiee all vice and cultivate all virtue, adds : Above all things have charity, which is the bond of perfection.''' Yea, truly, charity is the bond of perfection, for it binds intimately to God those whom it has embraced and with loving tenderness, causes them to draw their life from God, to act with God, to refer all to God. Howbeit the love of God should not be severed from the love of our neighbour, since men have a share in the infinite goodness of God and bear in them- selves the impress of His image and likeness. This commandment we have from God, that he who loveth God, love also his brother, f If any man say I love God, and he hateth his brother, he is a liar. | And this commandment concerning charity its Divine Proclaimer styled netv, not in the sense that a previous law, or even nature itself, had not enjoined that men should love one another, but because the Love of our neigh- _, . . .. r i ■ „u hour carefully pre- Christian precept of loving each served amongst the ^ther in that manner was truly new, early Christians. and quite unheard of in the memory of man. For that love with which Jesus Christ is beloved by His Father and with which He Himself loves men. He obtained for His disciples and followers, that they might * Coloss. iii. 14. t I John iv. 2r. J Iliid. iv. 20. CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 1 35 be of one heart and of one mind in Him by charity, as He Himself and His Father are one by their nature. No one is unaware how deeply and from the very beginning that precept has been implanted in the breast of Christians, and what abundant fruits of concord, mutual benevolence, piety, patience, and fortitude it has produced. Why then should we not devote ourselves to imitate the examples set by our fathers ? The very times in which we live, should afford sufficient motives for How necessary it .., ^- r i ■.. o- -^ is in these our times, ''^e practice of charity. Smce im- pious men are bent on giving fresh impulse to their hatred against Jesus Christ, Christians should be quickened anew in piety ; and charity, which is the inspirer of lofty deeds, should be imbued with new life. Let dissensions therefore, if there be any, wholly cease ; let those strifes which waste the strength of those engaged in the fight, without any advantage resulting to religion, be scattered to the winds ; let all minds be united in faith and all hearts in charity, so that, as it behoves, life may be spent in the practice of the love of God and the love of men. This is a suitable moment for t^^i^™upthlir^°*^ Us to exhort especially heads of children as true families to govern their households Christians. according to these precepts, and to be solicitous without failing for the right training of their children. The family may be regarded as the cradle of Civil society, and it is in great measure within the circle of family life that the destiny of the State is fostered. Whence it is that they who would break away from Christian discipline are working to corrupt family life, 136 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. and to destroy it utterly, root and branch. From such an unholy purpose they allow not themselves to be turned aside by the reflection that it cannot, even in any degree, be carried out without inflicting cruel outrage on the parents. These hold from nature their right of training the children to whom they have given birth, with the obligation superadded of shaping and directing the education of their little ones to the The-nature of — ej,d for which God vouchsafed the Clinstian.,traiiiing. privilege of transmitting the gift of life. It is then incumbent on parents to strain every nerve to ward off such an outrage, and to strive manfully to have and to hold exclusive authority to direct the education of their offspring, as is fitting, in a Christian manner ; and first and foremost to keep them away from schools where there is risk of their drinking in the poison of impiety. Where the right education of youth is concerned, no amount of trouble or labour can be undertaken, how great soever, but Commendation of , . ,-ii ^ u Catholics who have '^at even greater still may not be defrayed the ex- j-^Hgd for. In this regard indeed penses of schools. ° there are to be found in many countries Catholics worthy of general admiration, who incur considerable outlay and bestow much zeal in founding schools for the education of youth. It is highly desirable that such noble example may be generously followed, where time and circumstances demand ; yet all should be inti- mately persuaded that the minds of children are most influenced by the training they receive at home. If in their early years they find within the walls of their homes the rule of an upright life and the discipline of Christian CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 137 virtues, the future welfare of the State will in great measure be guaranteed. And now We seem to have touched upon those matters which Catholics ought chiefiy now-a-days to follow, or mainly to avoid. It rests then with you, Venerable Brothers, to take measures that Our voice may reach everywhere, and that one and all may understand Tbe clergy should , ,. -^ • ^ j ^ ,.■ exert all their zeal. "ow urgent it is to reduce to practice the teachings set forth in this Our Letter. The observance of these duties cannot be trouble- some or onerous, for the yoke of Jesus Christ is sweet, and His burden is light. If anything however appear too difficult of accomplishment, you will afford aid by the authority of your example, so that each one of the faithful may make more strenuous endeavour, and dis- play a soul unconquered by difficulties. Bring it home to their minds, as We have ourselves oftentimes conveyed the warning, that matters of the highest moment and worthy of all honour are at stake, for the safeguarding of which every most toilsome effort should be readily endured ; and that a sublime reward is in store for the labours of a Christian life. On the other hand, to refrain from doing battle for Jesus Christ, amounts to fighting against Him : He Himself assures us He will deny before His Father in Heaven, those who shall have refused to confess Him on earth. * As for Ourselves and you all, never assuredly, so long as life lasts, shall We allow Our authority, Our counsels, and Our solicitude to be in any wise lacking in the conflict. Nor is it to be doubted but that especial aid of the great God will be vouchsafed, * Luke ix. 26. 138 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. SO long as the struggle endures, to the flock alike and to the Pastors. Sustained by this confidence, as a pledge of heavenly gifts, and of Our loving-kindness in the Lord to you. Venerable Brothers, to your clergy and to all your people, We accord the Apostolic Benediction. HUMAN LIBERTY. (Encyclical Letter, June 20, 1888.) LIBERTY, the highest of natural endowment, being the por- ismaster of his . • . actions. tion only of intellectual or rational natures, confers on man this dignity — that he is in the hand of his counsel and has power over his actions. But the manner in which such dignity is exercised is of the greatest moment, Importance of inasmuch as on the use that is using it aright. ^^^^ ^f Liberty the highest good and the greatest evil alike depend. Man, indeed, is free to obey his reason, to seek moral good, and to strive unswervingly after his last end. Yet he is free also to turn aside to all other things, and, in pursuing the empty semblance of good, to disturb rightful order and to fall headlong into the destruction which he has voluntarily chosen. The Redeemer di^^fOTldberty!^^^ o^ mankind, Jesus Christ, having restored and exalted the original dignity of nature, vouchsafed special assistance to the will of man ; and by the gifts of His grace here, and the promise of heavenly bliss hereafter, He raised it to a nobler state. In like manner this great gift of nature has ever been, and always will be, deservingly cherished by the Catholic Church ; for to her alone has been com- mitted the charge of handing down to all ages the benefits 14° THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. purchased for us by Jesus Christ. Yet there are many who imagine that the Church is hostile to human liberty. Having a false and absurd notion as to what liberty is, either they pervert the very idea of freedom, or they extend it at their pleasure to many things in respect of which man cannot rightly be regarded as free. We have on other occasions, and Modern notions of • n • ^ ^^ ,• , t Liberty. especially m Our Encyclical Letter Immortale Dei, in treating of the so- called modern liberties, distinguished between their good and evil elements ; and We have shown that whatsoever is good in those liberties is as ancient as truth itself, and that the Church has always most willingly approved and practised that good : but whatsoever has been added as new is, to tell the plain truth, of a vitiated kind, the fruit of the disorders of the age and of an insatiate longing after novelties. Seeing, however, that many cling so obstinately to their own opinion in this matter as to imagine these modern liberties, cankered as they are, to be the greatest glory of our age, and the very basis of civil life, without which no perfect government can be conceived. We feel it a pressing duty, for the sake of the common good, to treat separately of this subject. It is with moral liberty, whether Christian aspect of j^ individuals or in communities. Liberty.— 1. Natural ' Liberty. that We proceed at once to deal. But, first of all, it will be well to speak briefly of natural liberty : for, though it is distinct and separate from moral liberty, natural freedom is the fountain-head from which liberty of whatsoever kind flows, HUMAN LIBERTY. I41 sua vi suaque sponie. The unanimous consent and judgment of men, which is the trusty voice of nature, recognises this natural liberty in those only who are endowed with intelli- gence or reason ; and it is by his use of this that man is rightly regarded as responsible for his actions. For, while other animate creatures follow their senses, seeking good and avoiding evil only by instinct, man has reason to guide him in each and every act of his life. Reason sees that whatever things are held to be good upon earth, may exist or may not, and discerning that none of them are of necessity for us, it leaves the will free to choose what it pleases. But man can judge Man, ■being ra- of this contingency, as we say, only tional, Is therefore , , . free. because he has a soul that is simple, spiritual, and intellectual — a soul, therefore, which is not produced by matter, and does not depend on matter for its existence ; but which is created immediately by God, and, far surpassing the condition of things material, has a life and action of its own — so that, knowing the unchangeable and necessary reasons of what is true and good, it sees that no particular kind of good is necessary to us. When, therefore, it is established that man's soul is immortal and endowed with reason and not bound up with things material, the foundation of natural liberty is at once most firmly laid. As the Catholic Church declares The Church has in the strongest terms the simplicity, freedom. ^ spirituality, and immortality of the soul, so with unequalled constancy and publicity she ever also asserts its freedom. These truths she has always taught, and has sustained them as 142 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. a dogma of faith ; and whensoever heretics or innovators have attacked the liberty of man, the Church has defended it and protected this noble possession from destruction. History bears witness to the energy with which she met the fury of the Manicheans and others like them ; and the earnestness with which in later years she defended human liberty in the Council of Trent, and against the followers of Jansenius, is known to all. At no time, and in no place, has she held truce with fatalism. Liberty, then, as We have said, Its deflnition. belongs only to those who have the gift of reason or intelligence. Considered as to its nature, it is the faculty of choosing means fitted for the end proposed ; for he is master of his actions who can choose one thing out of many. Now, since everything chosen as a means is viewed as good or useful, and since good, as such, is the proper object of our desire, it follows that freedom of choice is It lies in the will a property of the will, 'or rather is enlightened by .,.,.,, .„ . reason. identical with the will m so far as it has in its action the faculty of choice. But the will cannot proceed to act until it is enlightened by the knowledge possessed by the intellect In other words, the good wished by the will is necessarily good in so far as it is known by the intellect; and this the more, because in all voluntary acts choice is subse- quent to a judgment upon the truth of the good pre- sented, declaring to which good preference should be given. No sensible man can doubt that judgment is an act of reason, not of the will. The end, or object, both of HUMAN LIBERTY. 143 the rational will and of its liberty is that good only which is in conformity with reason. Since, however, both these facul- The power of ^. . /- ^ -^ • -i 1 choosing evil implies ties are imperfect, it is possible, as defectlnhumanfree- jg often seen, that the reason should dora. ' propose something which is not really good, but which has the appearance of good, and that the will should choose accordingly. For, as the possibility of error, and actual error, are defects of the mind and attest its imperfection, so the pursuit of what has a false appearance of good, though a proof of our freedom, just as a disease is a proof of our vitality, implies defect in human liberty. The will also, simply because of its dependence on the reason, no sooner desires anything contrary thereto, than it abuses its freedom of choice and corrupts its very essence. Thus it is that the infinitely perfect God, although supremely free, because of the supremacy of His intellect and of His essential goodness, nevertheless cannot choose evil; neithier can the Angels and Saints, who enjoy the Beatific Vision. St. Augustine and others urged most admirably against the Pelagians, that, if the possibility of deflection from good belonged to the essence or perfection of liberty, then God, Jesus Christ, and the Angels and Saints, who have not this power, would have no liberty at all, or would have less liberty than man has in his state of pilgrimage and imperfection. This subject is often discussed by the Angelic Doctor in his demonstration that the possibility of sinning is not freedom, but slavery. It will suffice to quote his subtle commentary on the words of our Lord : Whosoever 144 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. committeth sin is the slave of sin. * " Everything," he says, "is that which belongs to it naturally. When, therefore, it acts through a power outside itself, it does not act of itself, but through another, that is, as a slave. But man is by nature rational. When, there- fore, he acts according to reason, he acts of himself and according to his free-will; and this is liberty. Whereas, when he sins, he acts in opposition to reason, is moved by another, and is the victim of foreign misapprehensions. Therefore, Whosoever committeth sin is the slave of sin." Even the heathen philosophers clearly recognised this truth, especially they who held that the wise man alone is free; and by the term "wise man" was meant, as is well known, the man trained to live in accordance with his nature, that is, in justice and virtue. Such then being the condition of 2.— Moral Liberty. , ' ,., . ., , human liberty, it necessarily stands in need of light and strength to direct its actions to good and to restrain them from evil. Without this the freedom of our will would be our ruin. First of all there must be law ; that is, a fixed Necessltyjpf law. . i.^-^uj 9-' rule of teaching what is to be done and w|iat is to be left undone. This rule cannot affect the lower animals in any true sense, since they act of necessity, following their natural instinct, and cannot of themselves act in any other way. On the other hand, as was said above, he who is free can either act or not act, can do this or do that, as he pleases, because his judgment, precedes his choice. And his judgment not only decides what is right or wrong of its own nature, * John viii. 34. HUMAN LIBERTY. I4S but also what is practically good and therefore to be chosen, and what is practically evil and therefore to be avoided. In other words the reason prescribes to the will what it should seek after or shun, in order to the eventual attainment of man's last end, for the sake of which all his actions ought to be performed. This ordination of reason is called law. In man's free-will, therefore, or in the moral necessity of our voluntary acts being in accordance with reason, lies the very root of the necessity of law. Nothing more foolish can be uttered or conceived than the notion that because man is free by nature, he is therefore exempt from law. Were this the case, it would follow that to become free we must be deprived of reason; whereas the truth is that we are bound to submit to law precisely because we are free by our very nature. For law is the guide of man's actions ; it turns him towards good by its rewards, and deters him from evil by its punishments. Foremost in this office comes the is^'oTr'Stom-'' natural law, which is written and mandlng- us to do engraved in the mind of every good and avoid evil, man ; and this is nothing but our reason, commanding us to do right and forbidding sin. Nevertheless all prescriptions of human reason can have force of law only inasmuch as they are the voice and the interpreters of some higher power on which our reason and liberty necessarily depend. For, since the force of law consists in the imposing of obligations and the granting of rights, authority is the one • and only foundation of all law — the power, that is, of fixing duties and defining rights, as also of assigning the 146 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. necessary sanctions of reward and chastisement to eacii and all of its commands. But all this, clearly, cannot be found in man, if, as his own supreme legislator, he is to be the rule of his own actions. It follows ■therefore that the law of nature is the same thing as the eternal law, implanted in Is identical with the rational creatures, and inclining them eternal law^. ' " to their right action and end ; and can be nothing else but the eternal reason of God, the Creator and Ruler of all the world. To this rule of action and restraint of evil God has vouchsafed to give special and most suitable aids for strengthening and ordering the human will. The first and most Grace is given by- God to strengthen excellent of these is the power of .and gruide the will; His divine ^raf j members of a community are effec- tually protected from the wrong-doing of evil men. Lawful power is from God, and whosoever reststetk authority reshteth the ordinance of God ; wherefore, obe- dience is greatly ennobled, when subjected to an authority which is the most just and supreme of all. But where the power to command is wanting, by lasting down the . limits of human or where a law is enacted contrary aut on y. ^.^ reason, or to the eternal law, or to some ordinance of God, obedience is unlawful, lest, while obeying man, we become disobedient to God. Thus, an effectual barrier being opposed to tyranny, the authority in the State will not have all its own way, but the interests and rights of all will be safeguarded — the rights of individuals, of domestic society, and of all the members of the commonwealth ; all being free to live according to law and right reason ; and in this, as We have shown, true liberty really consists. If when men discuss the question Liberalism of liberty, they were careful to grasp its true and legitimate meaning, such as reason and reasoning have just explained, they would never venture to affix such a calumny on the Church as to assert that she is the foe to individual and public liberty. But 152 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. many there are who follow in the footsteps of Lucifer, and adopt as their own his rebellious cry, " I will not serve ; " and consequently substitute for true liberty what is sheer and most foolish licence. Such, for instance, are the men belonging to that widely-spread and powerful organisation, who, usurping the name of ' liberty, style themselves Liberals. What Naturalists or Rationalists aim at in philosophy, that the supporters of Liberalism, carrying out the princi- ples laid down by Naturalism, are attempting in the domain of morality and politics. The fundamental doctrine of Rationalism is the supremacy of the human reason, which, refusing due submission to the divine and eternal reason, proclaims its own independence, and constitutes itself the supreme principle and source oasts aside divine and judge of truth. Hence these fol- authority. ■" ° lowers of Liberalism deny the exis- tence of any divine authority to which obedience is due, and proclaim that every man is the law to himself ; from which arises that ethical system which they style independent morality, and which, under the guise of liberty, exonerates man from any obedience to the com- mands of God, and substitutes a boundless licence. The end of all this it is not difficult to foresee, especially when Society is in question. For, when once man is firmly persuaded that he is subject Its logical issue, to no one, it follows that the efficient cause of the unity of civil society is not to be sought, in any principle external to man, or superior to him, but simply in the free-will of individuals; that the authority in the State comes from the people only ; HUMAN LIBERTY. I53 and that, just as every man's individual reason is his only rule of life, so the collective reason of the community should be the supreme guide in the management of all public affairs. Hence the doctrine of the supremacy of the greater number, and that all right and all duty reside in the majority. But, from what which is repugnant has been said, it is clear that all to reason. this is in contradiction to reason. To refuse any bond of union between man and civil society, on the one hand, and God, the Creator and consequently the supreme Law-Giver, on the other, is plainly repugnant to the nature, not only of man, but of all created things : for, of necessity, all effects must in some proper way be connected with their cause ; and ii belongs to the perfection of every nature to contain itself within that sphere and grade which the order of nature has assigned to it ; namely, that the lower should be subject and obedient to the higher. Moreover, besides this, a doctrine =inf,f^^£f°''^ °°°" of such a character is most hurtful both to individuals and to the State. For, once ascribe to human reason the only authority to decide what is true and what is good, and the real distinction between good and evil is destroyed; honour and dishonour differ not in their nature, but in the opinion and judgment of each one; pleasure is the measure of what is lawful ; and, given a code of morality which can have little or no power to restrain or quiet the unruly propensities of man, a way is natu- rally opened to universal corruption. With reference also to public affairs : authority is severed from the 154 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. true and natural principle whence it derives all its efficacy for the common good ; and the law determining what it is right to do and avoid doing is at the mercy of a majority. Now this is simply a road leading straight to tyranny. The empire of God over man and civil society once repudiated, it follows that religion, as a public institution, can have no claim to exist, and that everything that belongs to religion will be treated with complete indifference. Furthermore, with ambitious designs on sovereignty, tumult and sedition will be common amongst the people; and when duty and con- science cease to appeal to them, there will be nothing to hold them back but force, which of itself alone is powerless to keep their covetousness in check. Of this we have almost daily evidence in the conflict with Socialists and members of other seditious societies, who labour unceasingly to bring about revolution. It is for those, then, who are capable of forming a just estimate of things, to decide whether such doctrines promote that true liberty which alone is worthy of man, or rather pervert and destroy it. There are, indeed, some adherents Another form of r t -u v i_ j ^ u -i. LiberaUsm limits Of Liberalism who do not subscribe obedience by the jq these opinions, which we have natural law^. '^ seen to be fearful in their enor- mity, openly opposed to the truth, and the cause of most terrible evils. Indeed, very many amongst them, com- pelled by the force of truth, do not hesitate to admit that such liberty is vicious, nay is simple licence, when- ever intemperate in its claims, to the neglect of truth and justice ; and therefore they would have liberty HUMAN LIBERTY. T55 ruled and directed by right reason, and consequently subject to the natural law and to the divine eternal law. But here they think they may stop, holding that man as a free being is bound by no law of God, except such as He makes known to us through our natural reason. In this they are plainly inconsistent. Its inconsistency. For if — as they must admit, and no one can rightly deny, the will of the Divine Law- Giver is to be obeyed, — because every man is under the power of God, and tends towards Him as his end — it follows that no one can assign limits to His legislative authority without failing in the obedience which is due. Indeed, if the human mind be so presumptuous as to define the nature and extent of God's rights and its own duties, reverence for the divine law will be apparent rather than real, and arbitrary judgment will prevail over the authority and providence of God. Man must, there- fore, take his standard of a loyal and religious life from the eternal law ; and from all and every one of those laws which God, in His infinite wisdom and power, has been pleased to enact, and to make known to us by such clear and unmistakable signs as to leave no room for doubt. And the more so, because laws of this kind have the same origin, the same author, as the eternal law, are absolutely in accordance with right reason, and perfect the natural law. These laws it is that embody the government of God, Who graciously guides and directs both the intellect and the will of man lest these fall into error. Let, then, that continue to remain in a holy and inviolable union, which neither can nor should, be separated ; and in all things — for this is the dictate of 156 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. right reason itself— let God be dutifully and obediently served. There are others, somewhat more Another form holds moderate though not more consis- that individuals are 1 «- 1 1 i- /- subject to the Divine tent, who affirm that the morality 01 &blte^'^* ''°* *^^ individuals is to be guided by the divine law, but not the morality of the State, so that in public affairs the commands of God may be pkssed over, and may be entirely disregarded in the framing of laws. Hence follows the fatal theory of the need of separation between Church and State. But the absurdity of such a position is This view is incon- manifest Nature herself proclaims sistent with the end of the State. the necessity of the State providing means and opportunities whereby the community may be enabled to live properly, that is to say, according to the laws of God. For, since God is the source of all goodness and justice, it is absolutely ridiculous that the State should pay no attention to these laws or render them abortive by contrary enact- ments. Besides, those who are in authority owe it to the commonwealth not only to provide for its external well-being and the conveniences of life, but still more to consult the welfare of men's souls in the wisdom of their legislation. But, for the increase of such benefits, nothing more suitable can be conceived than the laws which have God for their author; and, therefore, they who in their government of the State take no account of these laws, abuse political power by causing it to deviate from its proper end and from what nature itself prescribes. And, what is still more important, and what We have more than HUMAN LIBERTY. 157 once pointed out, although the Civil authority has not the same proximate end as the spiritual, nor proceeds on the same lines, nevertheless in the exercise of their separate powers they must occasionally meet. For their subjects are the same : and not unfrequently they deal with the same objects, though in different ways. When- ever this occurs, since a state of conflict is absurd and manifestly repugnant to the most wise ordinance of God, there must necessarily exist some order or mode of procedure to remove the occasions of difference and con- tention, and to secure harmony in all things. This harmony has been not inaptly compared to that which exists between the body and the soul, for the well-being of both one and the other; the separation of which brings irremediable harm to the body, since it extin- guishes its very life. To make this more evident, the Some false doc- growth of liberty ascribed to our trlnes of Liberalism, . , , . . —Lliaerty of worship, age must be considered apart m its various details. And, first, let us examine that liberty in individuals which is so opposed to the virtue of religion, namely, the liberty of worship, as it is called. This is based on the principle that every man is free to profess as he may choose any religion or none. But, assuredly, of all the duties God in the way God which man has to fulfil, that, without '"^^^- doubt, is the chiefest and holiest which commands him to worship God with devotion and piety. This follows of necessity from the truth that we are ever in the power of God, are ever guided by His will and providence, and, having come forth from 158 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. Him, must return to Him. Add to which, no true virtue can exist without religion : for moral virtue is concerned with those things which lead to God as man's supreme and ultimate good : and therefore religion, which (as St. Thomas says) " performs those actions which are directly and immediately ordained for the divine honour,"* rules and tempers all in the one true virtues. And if it be asked which religion. . .... ot the many conflictmg religions it is necessary to adopt, reason and the natural law unhesitatingly tell us to practise that one which God enjoins, and which men can easily recognise by certain exterior notes, whereby Divine Providence has willed that it should be distinguished, because, in a matter of such moment, the most terrible loss would be the consequence of error. Wherefore, when a liberty such as we have described, is offered to man, the power is given him to pervert or abandon with impunity the most sacred of duties, and to exchange the unchangeable good for evil; which, as we have said, is no liberty, but its degradation, and the abject submission of the soul to sin. This kind of liberty, if con- The State also is ., , . , ,. , ., _, , bound to worship sidered in relation to the State, Godinaforni clearly implies that there is no acceptable to Him. '' ^ reason why the State should offer any homage to God, or should desire any public recognition of Him; that no one form of worship is to be preferred to another, but that all stand on an equal footing: no account being taken of the religion of * Siimma, 2a 2x, q, Ixxxi. a. 6. HUMAN LIBERTY. 159 the people, even if they profess the Catholic faith. But, to justify this, it must needs be taken as true that the State has no duties towards God, or that such duties, if they exist, can be abandoned with impunity ; both of which assertions are manifestly false. For it cannot be doubted but that, by the will of God, men are united in civil society ; whether its component parts be considered ; or its form, which implies authority ; or the object of its exis- tence; or the abundance of the vast services which it renders to man. God it is Who has made man for society, and has placed him in the company of others like himself, so that what was wanting to his nature, and beyond his attainment if left to his own resources, he might obtain by association with others. Wherefore civil society must acknowledge God as its Founder and Parent, and must obey and reverence His power and authority. Justice therefore forbids, and reason itself for- bids, the State to be godless ; or to adopt a line of action which would end in godlessness, — namely, to treat the various religions (as they call them) alike, and to bestow upon them promiscuously equal rights and privileges. Since, then, the profession of one religion is necessary in the State, that religion must be professed which alone is true, and which can be recognised without difficulty, especially in Catholic States, because the marks of truth are, as it were, engraven upon it. This religion, there- fore, the rulers of the State must preserve and protect, if they would provide — as they should do — with prudence and usefulness for the good of the community. For public authority exists for the welfare of those whom it' governs ; and although its proximate end is to lead l6o THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. men to the prosperity found in this life, yet, in so doing, it ought not to diminish, but rather to increase, man's capability of attaining to the supreme good in which his everlasting happiness consists : which never can be attained if religion -be disregarded. All this, however. We have ex- Bion^of ^Biugton^s^' plained more fully elsewhere. We heipfai to the liberty ^^^^ Q^iy ^jgjj (.g ^dd the remark of rulers and ruled. ■' that liberty of so false a nature is greatly hurtful to the true liberty of both rulers and their subjects. Religion, of its essence, is wonderfully helpful to the State. For, since it derives the prime origin of all all power directly from God Himself, with grave authority it charges rulers to be mindful of their duty, to govern without injustice or severity, to rule their people kindly and with almost paternal charity ; it admonishes subjects to be obedient to lawful authority, as to the ministers of God ; and it binds them to their rulers, not merely by obedience, but by reverence and affection, forbidding all seditions and venturesome enterprises cal- culated to disturb public order and tranquillity, and cause greater restrictions to be put upon the liberty of the people. We need not mention how greatly religion conduces to pure morals, and pure morals to liberty. Reason shows, and history confirms the fact, that the higher the morality of States, the greater are the liberty and wealth and power which they enjoy. We must now consider briefly Press^'^uppoaes^a ^'^^f^y of speech, and liberty of the '^faehood '^°'^^**^ ■^''^^^- ^* '^ hardly necessary to say that there can be no such right HUMAN LIBERTY. l6l as this, if it be not used in moderation, and if it pass beyond the bounds and end of all true liberty. For right is a moral power which — as We have before said and must again and again repeat — it is absurd to suppose that nature has accorded indifferently to truth and falsehood, to justice and injustice. Men have a right freely and prudently to propagate throughout the State what things soever are true and honourable, so that as many as possible may possess them ; but lying opinions, than which no mental plague is greater, and vices which corrupt the heart and moral life, should be diligently repressed by public authority, lest they insidiously work the ruin of the State. The excesses of an unbridled intellect, which unfailingly end in the oppression of the untutored multitude, are no less rightly controlled by the authority of the law than are the injuries inflicted by violence upon the weak. And this all the more surely, because by far the greater part of the community is either absolutely unable, or able only with great difficulty, to escape from illusions and deceitful subtleties, especially such as flatter the passions. If unbridled licence of speech and of writing be granted to all, nothing will remain sacred and inviolate; even the highest and truest mandates of nature, justly held to be the common and noblest heritage of the human race, will not be spared. Thus, truth being gradually obscured by darkness, pernicious and manifold error, as too often happens, will easily prevail. Thus, too, licence will gain what liberty loses; for liberty will ever be more free and secure, in pro- portion as licence is kept in fuller restraint. In regard however to an matters of opinion which God leaves L 1 62 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. , to man's free discussion, full liberty of thought and of speech is naturally within the right of every one ; for such liberty never leads men to suppress the truth, but often to discover it and make it known. A like judgment must be passed perfectton^of t*he^ "Pon what is called liberty of teaching. inteUect can alone There can be no doubt that truth ■be lawfully tauglit. alone should imbue the minds of men; for in it are found the well-being, the end, and the perfection of every intelligent nature : and therefore nothing but truth should be taught both to the ignorant and to the educated, so as to bring knowledge to those who have it not, and to preserve it in those who possess it. For this reason it is plainly the duty of all who teach to banish error from the mind, and by sure safeguards to close the entry to all false convictions. From this it follows, as is evident, that the liberty of which We have been speaking, is greatly opposed to reason, and tends absolutely to pervert men's minds, in as much as it claims for itself the right of teaching whatever it pleases — a liberty which the State cannot grant without failing in its duty. And the more so, because the authority of teachers has great weight with their hearers, who can rarely decide for themselves as to the truth or falsehood of the instruction given to them. Wherefore, this liberty also, in order Natural and super- ^, ^ .^ , ^, . , natural truth cannot that it may deserve the name, must be toe mutually op- j-gpt within certain limits, lest the posed. "^ office of teaching be turned with im- punity into an instrument of corruption. Now truth, which should be the only subject-matter of those who teach, is HUMAN LIBERTY. 163 of two kinds, natural and supernatural. Of natural truths, such as the principles of nature and whatever is derived from them immediately by our reason, there is a kind of common patrimony in the human race. On this, as on a firm basis, morality, justice, religion, and the very bonds of human society rest : and to allow people to go unharmed who violate or destroy it, would be most impious, most foolish, and most inhuman. But with no less religious care must we preserve that great and sacred treasure of the truths which God Himself has taught us. By many and convincing arguments, often used by defenders of Christianity, certain leading truths have been laid down : namely, that some things have been revealed by God ; that the Only-Begotten Son of God was made Flesh, to bear witness to the truth ; that a perfect Society was founded by Him — the Church namely, of which He is the Head, and with which He has promised to abide till the end of the world. To this Society He entrusted all the truths which He had taught, in order that it might keep and guard them and with lawful authority explain them ; and at the same time He commanded all nations to hear the voice of the Church, as if it were His own, threatening those who would not hear it with everlasting perdition. Thus it is manifest that man's best and surest teacher is God, the source and principle of all truth ; and the Only-Begotten Son, Who is in the bosom of the Father, the Way, the Truth, and the Life, the true Light which enlightens every man, and to Whose teaching all must submit: And they shall all be taught of God. * In faith and in the teaching of * John vi. 45. 164 THE POPE AND THK PEOPLE. morality, God Himself made the Church a partaker of His divine authority, and through His heavenly gift she cannot be deceived. She is therefore the greatest and most reliable teacher of mankind, and in her dwells an inviolable right to teach them. Sustained by the truth received from her Divine Founder, the Church has ever sought to fulfil holily the mission entrusted to her by God : unconquered by the difficulties on all sides surrounding her, she has never ceased to assert her liberty of teaching ; and in this way the wretched superstition of Paganism being dispelled, the wide world was renewed unto Christian wisdom. Now, reason itself clearly teaches that the truths of divine revelation and those of nature cannot really be opposed to one another, and that whatever is at variance with them must necessarily be false. Therefore of the Church ^^^ divine teaching of the Church, so is heneflcial to f^r from being an obstacle to the science ; pursuit of learning and the progress of science, or in any way retarding the advance of civilisation, in reality brings to them the sure guidance of shining light And for the same reason it is of no small advantage for the perfecting of human liberty; since our Saviour Jesus Christ has said that by truth is man made free : You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. * Therefore, there is no reason why genuine liberty should grow indignant, or true science feel aggrieved, at having to bear the just and necessary restraint of laws, by which, in the judgment of the Church and of reason itself, human teaching has to be controlled. The Church, indeed, — as facts have * John viii. 32. HUMAN LIBERTY. 1 65 everywhere proved— looks chiefly and above all to the defence of the Christian faith, while careful at the same tirne to foster and promote every kind of human learning. For learning is in itself good, and praise- worthy, and desirable; and further all erudition which is the outgrowth of sound reason, and in conformity with the truth of things, serves not a little to confirm what we believe on the authority of God. The Church, truly, to our great benefit, has carefully of fruefre^dom^'^*^ preserved the monuments of ancient wisdom j has opened everywhere homes of science ; and has urged on intellectual pro- gress, by fostering most diligently the arts by which the culture of our age is so much advanced. Lastly, We must not forget that a vast field lies freely open to man's industry and genius, containing all those things which have no necessary connection with Christian faith and morals, or as to which the Church, exercising no authority, leaves the judgment of the learned free and unconstrained. From all this may be understood the nature and character of that liberty which the followers of Liberalism so eagerly advocate and proclaim. On the one hand, they demand for themselves and for the State a licence which opens the way to every perversity of opinion; and on the other, they hamper the Church in divers ways, restricting her liberty within narrowest limits, although from her teaching not only is there nothing to be feared, but in every respect very much to be gained. Another liberty is widely advocated, namely, liberty of conscience. If by this is meant that everyone may, l66 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. as he chooses, worship God or True and false . . „ . ,, riji.ii. Liberty of Con- not, it is sufficiently retuted by the science. arguments already adduced. But it may also be taken to mean thdiy%v&ry man in the State may follow the will of God and, from a consciousness of duty and free from every obstacle, obey His commands// This, indeed, is true liberty, a liberty worthy of the sons of God, which nobly maintains the dignity of man, and is stronger than all violence or wrong — a liberty which the Church has always desired and held most dear. This is the kind of liberty the Apostles claimed for themselves with intrepid constancy, which the Apologists of Christianity confirmed by their writings, and which the Martyrs in vast numbers consecrated by their blood. And deservedly so; for this Christian liberty bears wit- ness to the absolute and most just dominion of God over man, and to the chief and supreme duty of man towards God. It has nothing in common with a seditious and rebellious mind; and in no tittle derogates from obedience to public authority : for the right to command and to require obedience exists only so far as it is in accordance with the authority of God, and is within the measure that He has laid down. But when any- thing is commanded which is plainly at variance with the will of God, there is a wide departure from this divinely constituted order, and at the same time a direct conflict with Divine Authority ; therefore it is right not to obey. By the patrons of Liberalism, however, who make the State absolute and omnipotent, and proclaim that man should live altogether independently of God, the liberty HUMAN LIBERTY. 1 67 of which We speak, which goes hand in hand with virtue and religion, is not admitted ; and whatever is done for its preservation is accounted an injury and an offence against the State. Indeed, if what they say were really true, there would be no tyranny, no matter how mon- strous, which we should not be bound to endure and submit to. The Church most earnestly desires ateswron^lteach- that the Christian teaching, of which ing for grave ^g jjg^^g given an outline, should reasons. = ' penetrate every rank of society in reality and in practice. For it would be of the greatest efficacy in healing the evils of our day, which are neither few nor slight, and are the oiSspring in great part of the false liberty which is so much extolled, and in which the germs of safety and glory were supposed to be contained. The hope has been disappointed by the result. The fruit, instead of being sweet and whole- some, has proved cankered and bitter. If then a remedy is desired, let it be sought for in a restoration of sound doctrine, from which alone the preservation of order and, as a consequence, the defence of true liberty can be con- fidently expected. Yet, with the discernment of a true mother, the Church weighs the great burden of human weakness ; and well knows the course down which the minds and actions of men are in this our age being borne. For this reason, while not conceding any right to any- thing save what is true and honest, she does not forbid public authority to tolerate what is at variance with truth and justice, for the sake of avoiding some greater evil, or of obtaining or preserving some greater good. God 1 68 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. Himself, in His providence, though infinitely good and powerful, permits evil to exist in the world, partly that greater good may not be impeded, and partly that greater evil may not ensue. In the government of States it is not forbidden to imitate the Ruler of the world ; and, as the authority of man is powerless to prevent every evil, it has (as St. Augustine says) to over- look and leave unpunished, many things which are punished, and rightly, by Divine Providence* But if, in such circumstances, for the sake of the common good (and this is the only legitimate reason), human law may or even should tolerate evil, it may not and should not approve or desire evil for its own sake ; for evil of itself, being a privation of good, is opposed to the com- mon welfare which every legislator is bound to desire and defend to the , best of his ability. In this, human law must endeavour to imitate God, Who, as St. Thomas teaches, in allowing evil to exist in the world, " neither wills evil to be done, nor wills it not to be done, but wills only to permit it to be done ; and this is good." f This saying of the Angelic Doctor contains briefly the whole doctrine of the permission of evil. But, to judge aright, we must acknowledge that the more a State is driven to tolerate evil the further is it from perfection ; and that the tolerance of evil which is dictated by political prudence should be strictly confined to the limits which its justifying cause, the public welfare, requires. Where- fore, if such tolerance would be injurious to the public welfare, and entail greater evils on the State, it would * S. August., de lib. arb., lib. l. cap. 6, num. 14. t S. Thomas, i q. xix. a 9 ad. 3. HUMAN LIBERTY. 1 69 not be lawful ; for in such case the motive of good is wanting. And although in the extraordinary condi- tion of these times, the Church usually acquiesces in certain modern liberties, not because she prefers them in themselves, but because she judges it expedient to permit them, she would in happier times exercise her own liberty ; and, by persuasion, exhortation, and entreaty, would endeavour, as she is bound, to fulfil the duty assigned to her by God of providing for the eternal salvation of mankind. One thing, however, remains always true — that the liberty which is claimed for all to do all things, is not, as We have often said, of itself desirable, inasmuch as it is contrary to reason that error and truth should have equal rights. And as to tolerance, it is surprising how far Tolerance of evil a i ,- 1 ■ i sign of imperfection removed from the equity and pru- in the State. ^^^^^ ^f ^^ Church are those who profess what is called Liberalism. For, in allowing that boundless licence of which We have spoken, they exceed all limits, and end at last by making no apparent dis- tinction between truth and error, honesty and dishonesty. And because the Church, the pillar and ground of truth, and the unerring teacher of morals, is forced utterly to reprobate and condemn tolerance of such an abandoned and criminal character, they calumniate her as being want- ing in patience and gentleness, and thus fail to see that, in so doing, they impute to her as a fault what is in reality a matter for commendation. But, in spite of all this show of tolerance, it very often happens that, while they profess themselves ready to lavish liberty on all in the greatest profusion, they are utterly intolerant I "JO THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. towards the Catholic Church, by refusing to allow her the liberty of being herself free. And now to reduce for clearness' Kecapitulation of sake to its principal heads, all that the whole Letter. "^ .... . has been set forth with its immediate conclusions, the summing up is this briefly : that man, by a necessity of his nature, is wholly subject to the most faithful and ever-enduring power of God ; and that as a consequence any liberty, except that which consists in submission to God and in subjection to His Will, is unintelligible. To deny the existence of this authority in God, or to refuse to submit to it, means to act, not as a free man, but as one who treasonably abuses his liberty ; and in such a disposition of mind the chief and deadly vice of Liberalism, essentially consists. The form, however, of the sin is manifold ; for in more ways and degrees than one can the will depart from the obedience which is due to God or to those who share the divine power. For, to reject the supreme au- Varlous kinds and .1. .. r /-. j j ^ ^ n \i degrees of Liberal- thority of God, and to cast off all '^"^- obedience to Him in public matters, or even in private and domestic affairs, is the greatest perversion of liberty and the worst kind of Liberalism; and what We have said must be understood to apply to this alone, in its fullest sense. Next comes the system of those who admit indeed the duty of submitting to God, the Creator and Ruler of the world, inasmuch as all nature is dependent on His Will, but who boldly reject all laws of faith and morals which are above natural reason, but are revealed HUMAN LIBERTY. 171 by the authority of God ; or who at least impudently assert that there is no reason why regard should be paid to these laws, at any rate publicly, by the State. How mistaken these men also are, and how inconsistent, we have seen above. From this teaching, as from its source and principle, flows that fatal principle of the separation of Church and State ; whereas it is, on the contrary, clear that the two powers, though dissimilar in functions and unequal in degree, ought nevertheless to live in concord, by harmony in their action and the faithful discharge of their respective duties. But this teaching is understood in two ways. Many wish the State to be separated from the Church wholly and entirely, so that regard to every right of human society, in institutions, customs, and laws, the offices of State, and the education of youth, they would pay no more regard to the Church than if she did not exist ; and, at most, would allow the citizens individually to attend to their religion in private if so minded. Against such as these, all the arguments by which We disprove the principle of separation of Church and State are conclusive ; with this superadded, that it is absurd the citizen should respect the Church, while the State may hold her in contempt. Others oppose not the existence of Churiro?o?her the Church, nor indeed could they; claims to have ygt (.jjey despoil her of the nature rights. J J I. and rights of a perfect society ; and maintain that it does not belong to her to legislate, to judge, or to punish, but only to exhort, to advise, and to rule her subjects in accordance with their own consent 172 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. and will. By such opinion they pervert the nature of this divine Society, and attenuate and narrow its authority, its office of teacher, and its whole efficiency ; and at the .same time they aggrandise the power of the civil government to such extent as to subject the Church of God to the empire and sway of the State, like any voluntary association of citizens. To refute completely such teaching, the arguments often used by the defenders of Christianity, and set forth by Us, especially in the Encyclical Letter Immo9-tale Dei, are of great avail ; for by those arguments it is proved that, by a divine pro- vision, all the rights which essentially belong to a society that is legitimate, supreme, and perfect in all its parts, exist in the Church. Lastly, there remain those who. The desire of an , ., , , , impossible compro- while they do not approve the ™'^®' separation of Church and State, think nevertheless that the Church ought to adapt her- self to the times, and conform to what is required by the modern system of government. Such an opinion is sound, if it is to be understood of some equitable adjustment consistent with truth and justice; in so far, namely, that the Church, in the hope of some great good, may show herself indulgent, and may conform to the times in so far as her sacred office permits. But it is not so in regard to practices and doctrines which a perversion of morals and a warped judgment have unlawfully introduced. Religion, truth, and justice, must ever be maintained ; and, as God has entrusted these great and sacred matters to the care of the Church, she can never be so unfaithful to her office as to dissemble HUMAN LIBER'XY. 173 in regard to what is false or unjust, or to connive at what is hurtful to religion. From what has been said, it Modern liberties, j.,, ^i^-^- ■, , r ■, as they are called, toUows that it IS quite jnlawful affect da,ngerous to demand, to defend, or to grant, independence. > o > unconditional freedom of thought, of speech, of writing, or of worship, as if these were so many rights given by nature to man. For if nature had really granted them, it would be lawful to refuse obedience to God, and there would be no restraint on human liberty. It likewise follows, that freedom in these things may be tolerated wherever there is just cause; but only with such moderation as will prevent its degenerating into licence and excess. And where such liberties are in use, men should employ them in doing good, and should estimate them as the Church does ; for liberty is to be regarded as legitimate in so far only as it affords greater facility for doing good, but no farther. Whenever there exists, or there is reason to fear, an unjust oppression of the people on the one hand, or a deprivation of the liberty of the Church on the other, it is lawful to seek for such a change of government as will bring about due liberty of action. In such case an excessive and vicious liberty is not sought for, but only some relief, for the common welfare, in order that, while licence for evil is allowed by the State^ the power of doing good may not be hindered. Again, it is not of itself wrong to prefer a democratic form of government, if only the Catholic doctrine be maintained as to the origin and exercise of power. Of the various forms of government, the Church does not reject 174 THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. any that are fitted to procure the welfare of the subject ; she wishes only — and this nature itself requires — ^that they should be constituted without involving wrong to anyone, and especially without violating the rights of the Church. Unless it be otherwise determined, Constitutional and by reason of some exceptional con- popular forms of _ _ Government ap- dition of things, it is expedient to Chiu-cii. ^ ^ ^^^^ P^'"'- ^^ ^^^ administration of public affairs. And the Church approves of everyone devoting his services to the common good, and doing all that he can for the defence, preservation, and prosperity of his country. Neither does the Church condemn Also political ac- ., t. -r -^ i_ j -^i tion for national *ose who, if it can be done without independence. violation of justice, wish to ■ make their country independent of any foreign or despotic power. Nor does she blame those who wish to assign to the State the power of self-government, and to its citizens the greatest possible measure of prosperity. The Church has always most faithfully fostered civil liberty, and this was seen especially in Italy, in the municipal pros- perity, and wealth, and glory, which were obtained at a time when the salutary power of the Church had spread, without opposition, to all parts of the State. These things. Venerable Brothers, which, under the guidance of faith and reason, in the discharge of Our . Apostolic office. We have now delivered to you, We hope, especially by your co-operation with Us, will be use- ful unto very many. In lowliness of heart We raise Our eyes in supplication to God, and earnestly beseech Him HUMAN LIBERTY. 1 75 to shed mercifully the light of His wisdom and of His counsel upon men, so that, strengthened by these heavenly gifts, they may in matters of such moment discern what is true, and may afterwards, in public and in private, at all times and with unshaken constancy, live in accordance with the truth. As a pledge of these heavenly gifts, and in witness of Our good will to you. Venerable Brothers, and to the clergy and people committed to each of you, We most lovingly grant in the Lord the Apostolic Benediction. CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. Encyclical Letter, February lo, 1880. THE hidden design of the divine wisdom, which Jesus Christ the Saviour of men came to carry out on earth, had this end in view, that, by Himself and in Himself, He should divinely renew the world, which was sinking as it were, with length of years, into decline. The Apostle Paul summed this up in words of dignity and majesty when he wrote to the Ephesians, thus : That He might make known unto us the mystery of His will .... to re-establish all things in Christ that are in heaven and on earth. * In truth, Christ our Lord, setting the supernatural Himself to fulfil the commandment ot:&b,t. which His Father had given Him, straightway imparted a new form and fresh beauty to all things, taking away the effects of their time-worn age. For He healed the wounds which the sin of our first father had inflicted on the human race ; He brought all men, by nature children of wrath, into favour with God; He led to the light of truth men wearied out by long-standing errors; He renewed to every virtue those who were weakened by lawlessness of every kind ; and, giving them again an inheritance of never-ending bliss. He added a sure hope that their mortal and * Ephes. i. 9, lo. CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 177 perishable bodies should one day be partakers of immortality and of the glory of heaven. In order that these unparalleled benefits might last as long as men should be found on earth, He entrusted to His Church the continuance of His work ; and, looking to future times. He commanded her to set in order whatever might have become deranged in human society, and to restore whatever might have fallen into ruin. Although the divine renewal co'^f^rrefonth: ^^ ^ave spoken of chiefly and natural order directly affected men as constituted itself, . , , , ^ in the supernatural order of grace, nevertheless some of its precious and salutary fruits were also bestowed abundantly in the order of nature. Hence, not only individual men, but also the whole mass of the human race, have in every respect received no small degree of worthiness. For, so soon as Christian order was once established in the world, it became happily possible for all men, one both for individual ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ q^^,^ men, " ' fatherly providence is, and to dwell in it habitually, thereby fostering that hope of heavenly help which never confoundeth. From all this outflowed fortitude, self-control, constancy, and the evenness of a peaceful mind, together with many high virtues and noble deeds. Wondrous, indeed, was the extent as also for Society ^f dignity, steadfastness, and good- ness, which thus accrued to the State as well as to the family. The authority of rulers became more just and revered; the obedience of the people more M lyg THE POPE AND THE PEOPLE. ready and unforced; the union of citizens closer; the rights of dominion more secure. In very truth, the Christian religion thought of and provided for all things which are held to be advantageous in a State ; so much so, indeed, that, according to St. Augustine, one cannot see how it could have offered greater help in the matter of living well and happily, had it been instituted for the single object of procuring or increasing those things which contribute to the conveniences and advantages of this mortal life. Still, the purpose We have set the dome'^sHc house- before Us is not to recount, in 'i°i