CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT 
 FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY 
 
 HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE 
 
Cornell University Library 
 NC760 .T48 1899 
 
 olin 
 
 3 1924 030 666 899 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030666899 
 
HANDBOOK OF ANATOMY 
 
 FOR 
 
 ART STUDENTS 
 
 ARTHUR THOMSON 
 
HENRY FROWDE, M.A. 
 PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD 
 
 LONDON, EniNBURGH, AND NEW YORK 
 
A 
 
 HANDBOOK OF ANATOMY 
 
 FOR 
 
 ART STUDENTS 
 
 ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., M.B. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HUMAN ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD ; AND LECTURER ON 
 ANATOMY IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART, SOUTH KENSINGTON 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 1899 
 
PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 BY HORACE HART, M.A. 
 
 PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 MEMORY OF MY FATHER 
 
 JOHN THOMSON, M.D. 
 
 fLEET SURGEON, R.K. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 
 
 The experience -whicli I have had as a teacher and my 
 acquaintance and sympathy with the requirements of 
 students of Art liave led me to the conclusion that hitherto 
 too much stress has been laid on the nomenclature and 
 technical details of Human Anatomy^ and too little emphasis 
 placed on the relation of these details to the surface forms. 
 What the student requires is not a minute description of 
 every bone, muscle, and joint, but only such an account 
 as will enable him to appreciate their influence on the 
 modelling of the figure. Names convey little to his 
 mind, forms alone interest him. 
 
 In the following pages, which are based on the lectures 
 which I have had the honour of giving at the Eoyal College 
 of Art, South Kensington, I have endeavoured to carry out 
 as far as possible these principles. With this intention 
 every effort has been made to avoid unnecessary detail, and 
 to rid the text as far as possible of technicalities. Where 
 there are English equivalents for the scientific terms more 
 commonly employed, they have been made use of; but 
 unfortunately their number is limited, and the student is 
 left with no other alternative than to accept the scien- 
 tific nomenclature. 
 
 In place of adopting, as is usual, the method of furnish- 
 ing a complete description of the bones, succeeded by an 
 
viii Preface to the First Edition. 
 
 equally detailed account of the joints and muscles, I have 
 incorporated them in the description of regions. As each 
 region — a limb for instance — is considered, its bones, joints, 
 and muscles are described in so far as they have special 
 reference to the moulding of the surface forms. In this 
 way it is hoped that the student may attain a better grasp 
 of the subject than by the study of isolated descriptions of 
 the various structures involved. 
 
 In order to carry out such an idea it was necessary that 
 the descriptions given should be supplemented by frequent 
 reference to the model or by copious illustration. In the 
 present work photography has been employed for this 
 purpose. I am well aware of the drawbacks of such 
 a method, yet it seems to me that these are counterbalanced 
 by the truth of the resulting figures. The plates lay no 
 claim to artistic excellence ; their value depends on their 
 fidelity to nature. Artists, I feel sure, will sympathize 
 with me in regard to the defects of some of the forms 
 represented, knowing as they do how difficult it is to 
 obtain universal excellence in a model. Apart from the 
 professional models employed, I am largely indebted to 
 some of the better known athletes of this University for 
 the facilities which have enabled me to take the photo- 
 graphs. For obvious reasons it is unnecessary for me to 
 name these gentlemen, but I wish none the less to express 
 my indebtedness to them. 
 
 In the production of most of the keys which accompany' 
 the plates I have received much valuable assistance from 
 my friend and pupil, Mr. Cecil "W". Pilcher, B.A., of Keble 
 College, who has also drawn a few of the illustrations in 
 the text: to him my best thanks are due. For the rest 
 of the figures I am alone responsible. Two or three have 
 been borrowed from other sources, and in constructing the 
 plates illustrative of the entire skeleton I have availed 
 myself of the proportions laid down by the late Professor 
 
Preface to the First Edition. ix 
 
 John Marshall, in his work entitled, A Rule of Proportion 
 for the Human Figure. In the cuts with which the text 
 is illustrated I have endeavoured to lay particular stress on 
 those points which are of importance to the artist, and, 
 in spite of their shortcomings as drawings, I trust that 
 they may appeal to the reader on account of their direct 
 application to the subject-matter. 
 
 A word or two as to how the subject should be studied. 
 Let the student in the first place familiarize himself with the 
 forms of the bones by rapid sketches of them in different 
 positions. Especially is this necessary where the limbs are 
 foreshortened. Having acquired this knowledge, let him 
 then proceed to the study of the model. It is hoped that 
 with the aid of the plates and their accompanying keys he 
 will be able to determine for himself the form and position 
 of the structures on which the surface contours depend. 
 Assist the eye where possible with the hand, and by rapid 
 and sudden changes of position ascertain precisely the 
 nature of the underlying cause. 
 
 In conclusion I have to thank Professor E. Howden, of 
 the University of Durham, for the trouble and care w;hich 
 he has bestowed on the revisal of the proof-sheets, as well 
 as for the many valuable hints he has given me. 
 
 A. T. 
 
 OXPOBD, 
 
 August lo, 1896. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 The reception accorded to the first edition of tliis book 
 has been such as to lead me to believe that it has proved 
 acceptable to that class of student for whom it was written. 
 In it I endeavoured to explain the principles which 
 underlie the construction of the human figure, and hoped 
 thereby to invest the subject with an additional interest, 
 apart from its purely technical application. Conscious that 
 the utility of such a work as this depends largely on its 
 illustrations, I have in the present edition replaced some of 
 the old figures by new blocks. Fourteen new plates have 
 been added, and these it is hoped will be of ser^dce in 
 throwing further light on the relation of muscular action 
 to surface form. I wish I had possessed more technical 
 skill to enable me to express in graphic form what one ma}- 
 term the ' Shorthand ' of the figure, for thereby no doubt 
 many of the details referred to in this volume might have 
 been better impressed on the memory ; on the other hand it 
 is perhaps as well that the student should work out these 
 details for himself in the life school. If in any way the 
 present work serves to lighten his labours or proves an 
 aid to his studies, I shall feel that my efforts have not been 
 without reward. 
 
 A. T. 
 Oxford, 
 
 August I, 1899. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF POSTTJEE ON THE FOEM OF MAN. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Early attempts at walking — Curves of back-bone — Vertebral column 
 — Erectores spinae — Limb girdles — Pelvic girdle -Thigh-bone — 
 Skeleton of lower limb— Leg and foot — Shouldei'-girdle — Form 
 of chest — Skeleton of upper limb — Skull .... 1-19 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 GENEEAL DESCRIPTION OP THE BONES AND JOINTS. 
 
 Classification of bones — Chest-wall — .Joints — Movable joints — 
 Immovable joints 20-26 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 VERTEBEAL COLUMN OE SPINE. 
 
 Vertebral column — The vertebrae — Curves of column — Curves 
 of back— Grrooves for muscles— Erector spinae— Movements of 
 column 27-45 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE THOEAX, THE EEGIONS OF THE FLANK, AND THE 
 ANTEETOE ABDOMINAL WALL. 
 
 Ribs — Breast-bone — Thorax— Anterior abdominal wall — Lumbar 
 aponeurosis — External oblique — Rectus abdominis — Contours 
 of abdominal wall— Fold of groin— Diiferences between male and 
 female— The flank— Action of abdoiainal muscles— Effect of 
 movements on contours of abdominal wall .... 46-73 
 
XII 
 
 Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND THE MUSCLES WHICH 
 INFLUENCE ITS MOVEMENTS. 
 
 Shoulder-girdle— Collar-bone— Shoulder-blade— Girdle as a whole 
 —Direct and indirect action of muscles— Trapezius— Rhomboids 
 —Action of trapezius— Serratua magnus— Action of serratus 
 magnus — Rotation of scapula — Humerus — Shoulder-joint — 
 Latissimus dorsi — Pectoralis major — The breasts — Deltoid — 
 Action of the deltoid— Infra-spinatus and teres minor— Teres 
 major — Summary of the muscles of the back . . . 74-121 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE UPPER ARM.' 
 
 The armpit — Coraco-brachialis — Humerus — Bones of fore-arm — 
 Ulna— Radius— Elbow-joint— Fascia of upper arm — Brachialis 
 anticus — Biceps cubiti — Triceps — Anconeus — External inter- 
 muscular septum — Internal intermuscular septum . . 122-149 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE FORE-ARM. 
 
 Pronation and supination — Wrist-joint — Bones of the wrist — 
 Movements of the wrist-joint — Pronators and supinators — 
 Muscles of the fore-arm — Flexors of the wrist — Superficial flexor 
 of the fingers — Supinator longus — Radial extensors — Ulnar exten- 
 sor — Ulnar furrow — Common extensor of the fingers — Depression 
 behind elbow — Extensors of thumb — Summary of muscles of fore- 
 arm — Surface contours of fore-arm — Hollow in front of elbow 
 — Influence of position on form of fore-arm — Contours around 
 elbow— Superficial veins of arm— Front of wrist— Action of 
 muscles .... . . ... 150-187 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 The skeleton of the hand — Joints of the fingers — The thumb — 
 Short muscles of the thumb— Abductor indicis — Muscles of the 
 little finger — The palm— The fingers — Back of the hand — 
 Movements of the fingers— Summary . ... 188-210 
 
PAGES 
 
 Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE GLUTEAL REGION. 
 
 Skeleton of lower limb— Innominate bone — The Ilium— Pubis— 
 Sacrum — Pelvis — Femur — Obliquity of the thigh-bones — The 
 hip-joint— Ilio-femoral ligament— Mechanism of erect posture- 
 Obliquity of the pelvis— Influence of pelvic obliquity on thigh- 
 Movements at the hip-joint— Gluteus maximus — Gluteal fold 
 — The buttock- Actions of gluteus maximus —Tensor fasciae 
 femoris — Ilio-tibial band — Gluteus medius — Anterior superior 
 iliac spine — Surface forms of buttock ..... 211-2415 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE THIGH. 
 
 The femur— Bones of the leg — The tibia — The fibula— The patella 
 — Knee-joint — Movements of knee-joint— Looking of the knee- 
 joint — Muscles of the thigh — Extensor muscles — The vasti and 
 rectus — Sartorius — Adductor muscles — Gracilis — Action of ad- 
 ductors — Flexor muscles — The hamstrings — Action of the ham- 
 strings-Form of female thigh — Hip-width— Contours of thigh 
 — Straightness of limb— Form of knee .... 246-284 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE LEG AND FOOT. 
 
 Bones of leg— The ankle— Bones of the foot — Astragalus — Os calcis 
 — Ankle-joint— Muscles of leg — Tibialis anticus — Long extensor 
 of the toes — Peroneal muscles— Muscles of calf— Tendo Achillis — 
 Action of muscles of calf- Surface contours of leg — The back 
 of the knee — Form of leg in female — Bones of the foot — Arches of 
 the foot — Dorsum of the foot— Short extensor of the toes — Muscles 
 of the foot— Plantar fascia^ Sole of the foot — The toes — Female 
 foot— Superficial veins of leg 285-321 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE NECK. 
 
 The atlas and axis — Movements of the neck— Muscles of the neck 
 — Ligamentum nuchae— Deep structures of neck— Hyoid bone — 
 Larynx — Thyroid body— Sterno-mastoid muscle — Pit of the neck 
 —Hollows above the collar-bone — Action of sterno-mastoid — 
 The platysma— Contours of neck— Length of neck— Movements 
 of neck— Neck and shoulders 322-344 
 
xiv Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE HEAD, FACE, AND EXPRESSION. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 The skull-Bones of the skull— Frontal sinus— Cranium — Size of 
 head — Bones of face— The facial angle— The lower jaw— The 
 masseter— Form of lower jaw— The chin — The orbits — Nose — 
 Ear — Mouth — Eyes — Expression — Muscles of expression— The 
 eye in expression —Muscles of the nose — Muscles of the mouth — 
 The mouth in expression— Laughter — Eeflection— Shyness — Rage 
 — Sneering — Disdain — Fear — Horror — Habitual expression 345-385 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PEOPOETION. 
 
 Proportion— Proportions of female — Female figure — Proportions 
 of child— Growth — Old age and decay .... 386-405 
 
 Index . . 407 
 
PLATES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plate I 6 
 
 Male skeleton. Front view. 
 
 Plate II 7 
 
 Female skeleton. Front view. 
 
 Plate III 12 
 
 Male skeleton. Back view. 
 
 Plate IV 18 
 
 Male skeleton. Side view. 
 
 Plate V aud Key Plate 34 
 
 Back view of male figure throwing javelin. 
 
 Plate VI and Key Plate . . 36 
 
 Fig. I. View of male back with shoulders forward. 
 Fig. 2. View of male back with shoulders drawn back. 
 
 Plate VII and Key Plate 38 
 
 Back view of male figure with uplifted weight. 
 
 Plate VIII and Key Plate 42 
 
 Back view of male figure inclined to the side. 
 
 Plate IX and Key Plate 44 
 
 Side view of male figure rotated from spectator. 
 
 Plate X and Key Plate 52 
 
 Front view of male torso. 
 
 , b 
 
xvi Plates. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plate XI and Key Plate 62 
 
 Front view of male figure inclined to the side. 
 
 Plate XII 66 
 
 Three-quarters front view of female figure. 
 
 Plate XIII and Key Plate 72 
 
 Side view of male figure turned towards spectator. 
 
 Plate XIV and Key Plate ........ 82 
 
 View of male back with arm raised to a right angle. 
 
 Plate XV and Key Plate 84 
 
 View of male back with right arm raised above the head. 
 
 Plate XVI and Key Plate 86 
 
 Fig. I. View of male back with right arm raised to a right angle. 
 Fig. 2. View of male back with right arm raised above the head. 
 
 Plate XVII and Key Plate 92 
 
 Fig. I. View of male back with shoulders forward. 
 Fig. 2. View of male back with shoulders drawn back. 
 
 Plate XVIII and Key Plate 96 
 
 View of male back with right arm raised and bent. 
 
 Plate XIX and Key Plate 102 
 
 Fig. I. Side view of male trunk with arm i-aised to a right angle. 
 Fig. 2. Side view of male trunk with arm raised above the head. 
 
 Plate XX lo- 
 
 Fig. I. Side view of female trunk with right arm raised to 
 
 a right angle. 
 Fig. 2. Side view of female trunk with right arm raised above 
 
 the head. 
 
 Plate XXI and Key Plate jo^ 
 
 Three-quarters view of male figure with uplifted arm. 
 
 Plate XXII and Key Plate . jog 
 
 Front view of male trunk with right arm raised to a right alible. 
 
Plates. 
 
 XVll 
 
 FAGB 
 
 Plate XXTII and Key Plate io8 
 
 Front view of male trunk with right arm raised above the head. 
 
 Plate XXIV no 
 
 Fig. I. Front view of female bust. 
 
 Fig. 2. Front view of female bust with arm uplifted. 
 
 Plate XXV 120 
 
 Pig. I. View of female back with shoulders forward. 
 Fig. 2. View of the same model with arms upKfted. 
 
 Plate XXVI and Key Plate 144 
 
 Front view of extended arms. 
 Fig. I. Prone. 
 
 Fig. 2. Midway between the prone and supine positions. 
 Pig. 3. Supine. 
 
 Plate XXVII 148 
 
 Fig. I. Bent ai-m. Front view. 
 Fig. 2. Bent arm. Back view. 
 
 Plate XXVIII and Key Plate 170 
 
 Back view of extended arms. 
 Fig. I. Prone. 
 
 Fig. 2. Midway between the prone and supine positions. 
 Fig. 3. Supine. 
 
 Plate XXIX and Key Plate 180 
 
 Fig. I. Bent arm with fore-arm supine. Front view. 
 Fig. 2. Bent arm with fore-arm supine. Back view. 
 
 Plate XXX 230 
 
 Side view of female iigure with arms uplifted. 
 
 Plate XXXI and Key Plate 234 
 
 View of male back with shoulders raised. 
 
 Plate XXXII 238 - 
 
 Three-quarters back view of female figure. 
 
 Plate XXXIII and Key Plate 240 
 
 Figs. I and 2. Views of male legs in kneeling position. 
 
xviii Plates. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plate XXXIV 244 
 
 Figs. I and 2. Views of female legs. 
 Plate XXXV and Key Plate ... ... 264 
 
 Front view of male figure throwing javeHn. 
 
 Plate XXXVI 280 
 
 Fig. I. View of bent knee (male), outer side. 
 Fig. 2. View of bent knee (male), inner side. 
 
 Plate XXXVII and Key Plate 282 
 
 Three-quarters front view of male figure with uplifted arm. 
 
 Plate XXXVIII and Key Plate 292 
 
 Fig. r. Male leg and foot. Front view. 
 Fig. 2. Male leg and foot. Back view. 
 
 Plate XXXIX and Key Plate ... . 302 
 
 Fig. r. Male leg and foot, outer side. 
 Fig. 2. Male leg and foot, inner side. 
 
 Plate XL and Key Plate 332 
 
 Front view of male figure raising weight from the ground. 
 
 Plate XLI 338 
 
 Fig. I. Side view of female bust with neck extended. 
 Fig. 2. Side view of female bust with neck bent forward. 
 
 Plate XLII 2^o 
 
 Fig. I. Muscles of face and neck. Front view. 
 Fig. 2. Muscles of face and neck. Side view. 
 
 Plate XLIII .... 388 
 
 Proportions of male and female figure in heads and half 
 heads. 
 
ANATOMY FOR ART STUDENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF POSTUEE UPON THE POEM OF MAN. 
 
 ' Man alone stands erect.' The least observant amongst 
 us cannot have failed to recognize the fact that man owes 
 much of his dignity to the erect posture. In this respect 
 he differs from all other animals. If we compare him with 
 the man-like apes, his near relations, they suffer much by 
 contrast. The gait of these creatures is shuffling, and the 
 balance of the figure unsteady ; while their whole appear- 
 ance, when they attempt to walk upright, suggests but a 
 feeble imitation of the grace and dignity of man's carriage. 
 
 The assumption by man of the erect position has led 
 to very remarkable changes in the form of his skeleton and 
 the arrangement and development of his muscles. 
 
 In his growth from the ovum to the adult, he passes 
 through many stages. In some of these his ascent from 
 lower forms is clearly demonstrated. This statement holds 
 good not only in regard to structure, but also as regards 
 function. 
 / To take a case in point. The child at birth is feeble and 
 
 B 
 
2 Early Attempts at Walking. 
 
 helpless, and the limbs are as yet imsuited to perform the 
 functions they will be called upon to exercise when fully 
 developed. Dr. L. Eobinson has recently proved that the 
 new-born child possesses a remarkable grasping power m 
 its hands. He found that infants, immediately after birth, 
 were able to hang from a stick, for a short time, by clutching 
 it with the hands. With this exception, we may regard 
 the movements of the limbs as iU controlled and imperfect. 
 At first the legs are not strong enough to support the body. 
 It is only after a considerable time has elapsed that the 
 child makes efforts to use them as means of progression. 
 These first attempts are confined to creeping, an act in which 
 the fore limbs play as important a part as the hind. "With 
 advancing age, however, the legs become longer and the 
 muscles more powerfal. In course of time they are suffi- 
 ciently strong to support the body-weight. In the earlier 
 stages of the assumption of the erect posture the child 
 assists itself by laying hold of any object which it can conve- 
 niently grasp with its hands ; as yet its efforts are ungainly 
 and unsteady, but practice, and the exercise of a better 
 control over the muscles of the legs, soon enable it to stand 
 upright and walk without the aid of its upper limbs. 
 
 There are thus three stages in the development of this 
 action : first, the use of ' all fours ' ; secondly, the employ- 
 ment of the upper limbs as means to steady and assist the 
 inadequately developed lower limbs— this mode of pro- 
 gression is comparable to that of the man-like apes ; and, 
 thirdly, the perfected act wherein the legs are alone suffi- 
 cient to support and carry the body. 
 
 The growth and development of the legs are not the 
 only changes that are associated with the assumption of the 
 erect position. If the back -bone of an infant at birth be 
 examined and compared with that of an adult, other differ- 
 ences than those of size and ossification will be observed. 
 As will be afterwards explained, the adult back-bone is 
 
Curves of Back-bone. 3 
 
 characterized by certain curves, some of which we fail to 
 notice in the child. These latter, therefore, are developed 
 at a period subsequent to birth, and are described as 
 secondary curves, whilst those which exist at birth and 
 are maintained throughout life are called primary curves. 
 The primary curves are those associated with the forma- 
 tion of the walls of the great visceral cavities, whilst 
 
 Fig. I. Diagram to show Fig. 2 displays the curves 
 
 the curves in the back-bone in the back-bone of the 
 
 of an infant. adult. This figure has been 
 
 reduced to the same size as 
 Fig. I so as to render com- 
 parison easier. 
 
 the secondary curves are developed coincident with the 
 assumption of the erect position, and are compensatory in 
 their nature. The advantage of this arrangement is that 
 the curves are not all bent in the same direction, but 
 alternate, so that the column is made up of a succession 
 of backward and forward curves. In this way the general 
 direction of the back-bone is vertical, which it could not 
 
 B a 
 
4 Curves of Back. 
 
 possibly be if the curves did not so alternate, for then all 
 the curves would be directed forwards, and a vertical line 
 would fall either in front of, across, or behind the bent 
 column in place of cutting it at several points, as happens 
 in the column with the alternating curves. This becomes 
 a matter of much importance when the vertical line coin- 
 cides with the direction of the force exercised by gravity, 
 as in standing upright. 
 
 These facts may be proved by looking at a baby. The 
 back displays a uniform curve from the shoulders to 
 the hips ; as soon as the child begins to walk, however, 
 the development of a forward curve in the region of the 
 loins is observed, a curve which ultimately becomes per- 
 manent and is associated with the graceful flowing contours 
 which are characteristic of the back of the adult. This 
 lumbar curve is one of the most remarkable features of man's 
 back-bone, for, although the curve is exhibited to a slight 
 extent in the columns of the apes, in none does it approach 
 anything like the development met with in man. On the 
 other hand, in four-footed animals, where the column is 
 horizontal in position, there is either no such curve present, 
 or it is only slightly developed. 
 
 The assumption of the erect posture necessarily involves 
 the growth of powerful muscles along the back to uphold 
 and support the back-bone and trunk iu the vertical 
 position, as is proved by the changes which take place 
 in old age. At that time of life the muscular system 
 becomes enfeebled, and is no longer strong enouo-h to 
 hold the figure erect; the consequence of which is the 
 bent back and tottering gait of the aged, who, in their 
 efforts to avail themselves of every advantage, seek the 
 assistance which the use of a staff affords. Thus history 
 repeats itself within the span of our own existence. It has 
 been seen how the young child avails itself of the assistance 
 of its upper limbs in its first attempts to walk ; and it is 
 
Vertebral Column. 5 
 
 notewortliy how, in that ' second childhood,' the weak and 
 aged seek additional support by the use of their arms 
 and hands. 
 
 It is, however, to neither of these types that our attention 
 must be especially directed, but rather to the examination 
 of man in the full exercise of his strength, after he has 
 outgrown the softness and roundness of youth, and before he 
 has acquired any of the weakness dependent on advancing 
 years. 
 
 Starting then with the fundamental idea that the erect 
 posture is essentially a characteristic of man, it is necessary 
 to study in some detail the various modifications in his 
 bony framework and muscular system which are associated 
 with this posture. 
 
 As a vertebrate animal, man possesses a hack-hone or 
 spinal column made up of a series of bones placed one above 
 the other. Around this central column are grouped the 
 bones which protect and support the trunk. On the upper 
 end of this axis is poised the head, and connected with 
 the trunk are the two pairs of limbs — the arms and legs. 
 
 For convenience of description it will be necessary to 
 consider the body in its several parts : 
 (i) The trunk. 
 
 (2) The lower limbs. 
 
 (3) The upper limbs. 
 
 (4) The head and neck. 
 
 In regard to the trunk, as has been already stated, the 
 vertehral column, so called because it is composed of a 
 number of separate bones or vertehrae, forms the central 
 axis around which the other parts are grouped. Comparing 
 the position of this chain of bones in man with that 
 observed in a four-footed animal, it will be noted that in 
 man its axis is vertical, whilst in a quadruped it is more 
 or less horizontal ; moreover, the column in man is curved 
 in a more complex manner than is the case in animals. 
 
6 Eredores spinae. 
 
 It is on these curves that the column is mainly dependent 
 for its elasticity. It -would, however, be unable to sustain 
 the weight of the trunk unless some provision had been 
 made whereby it could be held erect. This is supplied 
 by the powerful groups of muscles which lie in the grooves 
 on either side of and behind the back-bone. An inspection 
 of the back of a model will enable the student to recognize 
 these fleshy masses on either side of the middle line, 
 particularly in the lower part of the back, in the region of 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Figs. 3, 4 (after Goodsir) show 
 the characteristic differences in the 
 arrangement of the parts of the 
 skeleton in man and a quadruped. 
 
 the lotus. These groups of muscles are called the erectores 
 spinae, a name which sufficiently explains their action. 
 How much depends on the action of these muscles is, as 
 has been said, amply demonstrated in the case of the feeble 
 and aged, in whom the muscles are no longer able properly 
 to perform their function, with the result that the persons 
 so affected are unable to hold themselves erect for any time 
 without fatigue. 
 
 The column supports the weight of the head, and by its 
 connexion with the ribs, enters into the formation of the 
 
MALE SKELETON, FRONT VIEW 
 
FEMALE SKELETON, FRONT VIEW 
 
Limb Girdles. 
 
 chesfc-wall. The upper limbs are connected with, the chest- 
 wall in a way which will be subsequently described. It 
 is thus evident that this central axis is a most important 
 factor in the formation of the skeleton 
 of the trunk. Through it the entire 
 weight of the head, upper limbs, and 
 trunk is transmitted to the lower 
 limbs, which necessarily have to support 
 their combined weight in the erect 
 position. 
 
 It is to the structure of these limbs 
 that our attention must next be directed. 
 In considering them it must be borne 
 in mind that the legs serve two pur- 
 poses : first, they afford efficient support, 
 and, secondly, they are adapted for the 
 purposes of progression. The limbs are 
 connected with the trunk by means of 
 bones arranged in a particular way. 
 These are termed the limb girdles. 
 There are two such girdles— the shoulder- 
 girdle, connecting the upper limbs with 
 the trunk, and the pelvic girdle, con- 
 necting the lower limbs with thei trunk. 
 As the latter is concerned in trans- 
 mitting the weight of the trunk to 
 the lower limbs, it is well first to exa- 
 mine it. 
 
 From its fanction it is essential that 
 the pelvic girdle should be firmly united 
 to the vertebral column or central axis 
 by means of an immovable joint. In 
 order to effect this union the segments or vertebrae, of 
 which the column is made up, undergo certain modifica- 
 tions in the region where the girdle-bones of the lower 
 
 Fig. 5. A diagram 
 to show the arrange- 
 ment of the muscles 
 which support the 
 back-bone. The mus- 
 cles, which are repre- 
 sented in solid black, 
 are seen to be thick 
 in the regions of the 
 loins and neck, and 
 comparatively thin in 
 the mid-dorsal region. 
 
Pelvic Girdle. 
 
 limb are attached. 
 
 «5^C^: 
 
 Fig. 6. The back-bone and pelvis. 
 
 [1. Includes tlie twenty-four movable 
 vertebrae. 
 
 b. Is placed on the sacrum and coccyx, 
 
 made up of five vertebrae each, 
 which are fused together j the 
 sacrum articulates with 
 li. The haunch-bone (03 innominatum), 
 on the outer side of which at 
 
 c. Is the socliet(acetabulum)for the recep- 
 
 tion of the head of the thigh-bone. 
 
 d. The pubic arch and symphysis pubis. 
 
 and these are united 
 
 This modification consists in the fusion 
 ofanumber of these vertebrae, 
 which are separate in the in- 
 fant, and their conversion into 
 one large wedge-shaped bone 
 called the sacrum. This bone, 
 built up by the union of five 
 vertebrae, is, in man, remark- 
 able for its width and stout- 
 ness. It acts not only as a 
 strong connecting link be- 
 tween the vertebral column 
 and the bones of the pelvic 
 girdle with which it articu- 
 lates, but also provides a 
 fixed base on which the upper 
 and movable segments of the 
 central axis are placed. The 
 posterior aspect of the sacrum 
 also furnishes an extensive 
 surface for the attachment 
 of the erector muscles of the 
 spine, which assist so ma- 
 terially in maintaining the 
 column in its erect position. 
 The bones of the pelvic 
 girdle, though separate at an 
 early period of life, are in 
 the process of growth fused 
 together to form a large stout 
 irregular bone called the 
 haunch-bone (ps innomina- 
 tum). There are two such 
 
 bones — one for either limb 
 
 behind to each side of the sacrum 
 
Pelvic Girdle. 9 
 
 by means of an immovable joint. Tlie girdle is further 
 strengthened by the union of the two bones with each 
 other in the middle line in front, where they are bound 
 together by an immovable joint called the symphysis pubis. 
 A bony basin, called the pelvis, is thus formed by the 
 articulation of these two haunch-bones in front, and their 
 union with the sacrum behind. There is no movement 
 between the several parts of this osseous girdle, and it is 
 firmly united with the lower part of the vertebral column. 
 It helps to form the lower part of the trunk, and, by its 
 expanded surfaces, assists materially in supporting the 
 abdominal contents. This form 
 of pelvis is very characteristic 
 of man. As a result of the 
 assumption of the erect posture 
 the abdominal viscera are no 
 longer supported entirely by 
 the abdominal walls, as in four- 
 footed animals, but rest to a Fig. 7. A diagrammatic repre- 
 very considerable extent on the sentation of the pelvic girdle, 
 expanded wings of the pelvic "■ Saornm. . , , 
 
 ■■- ^ _ _ ^ 5. Haunon-Done (os innominatum). 
 
 bones. In addition, the outer c. symphysis pubis. 
 
 „ _c ii 11 (J. Upper end of thigh-bone (femur). 
 
 surfaces 01 these expanded 
 
 plates of bone are utilized to provide attachment for the 
 powerful muscles which pass from and connect this pelvic 
 girdle with the thigh-bone, a group of muscles which in 
 man attains a remarkable development. 
 
 The fact must be emphasized that no movement is possible 
 between the pelvic girdle and the sacrum, and that all the 
 weight transmitted down the vertebral column through the 
 sacrum is equally distributed between the two haunch- bones. 
 
 If the outer surface of each of these bones be examined, 
 a deep cup-shaped cavity will be noticed, into which the 
 rounded head of the thigh-bone or femur fits, thus 
 forming the movable articulation called the hip-joint. 
 
lo Thigh-bone. 
 
 Tke bones of tlie thigli and leg are remarkable for their 
 length 1- Combined they equal in length the measurement 
 of the head and trunk. This relative development is not 
 attained by any other animal. In addition, the thighrbone 
 of man possesses an extremely long and well-marked neck. 
 The neck is that part of the bone which supports the 
 rounded articular head, and connects it in an oblique 
 direction with the upper end of the shaft. The length 
 of the neck of the femur is peculiar to man, and permits 
 a freedom of action of the limb not attainable by any 
 other animal, the movements in the lower animals being 
 more or less limited to a backward and forward direction. 
 By means of the neck of the thigh-bone we have in man 
 an arrangement which fulfils all the conditions necessary 
 to ensure stability, and permits a more extended range 
 of movement, not only from before backwards and from 
 side to side, but also in an inward and outward direction. 
 This latter is the movement of rotation, whereby we are 
 enabled to turn the front of the limb inwards or outwards 
 as desired. 
 
 The muscles to which reference has been already made in 
 connexion with the outer surfaces of the haunch-bones are 
 inserted into the upper part of the thigh-bone. As they 
 are immediately concerned in the control of certain impor- 
 tant movements of the hip -joints, through which the entire 
 weight of the trunk is transmitted to the lower limbs, they 
 necessarily acquire a very great development, a develop- 
 ment on which is dependent the prominence of the 
 buttocks. This appearance was justly regarded by Aristotle 
 as eminently characteristic of man. 
 
 The thigh-bones, separated above by the width of the 
 pelvis, are placed obliquely so that they lie side by side 
 in the region of the knees. 
 
 Dgi 
 
 ' The terms ' thigh ' and ' leg " are applied respectively to the parts of 
 the limb above and below the knee. 
 
Skeleton of Lower Limb. 
 
 II 
 
 Bones of the lower limb. 
 Fig. 8. Front view. Fig. 9. Side view. 
 
 The lettering is the same in both figures. 
 
 a. Sacnun. d. Knee-pan (patella). 
 
 Jj. Hannch-bone (os innonunatirm). e. Fibula, 
 
 t. Thigh-bone (femur). /. Shin-bone (tibia). 
 
 g. Bones of foot (tarsus, &c.). 
 
12 Leg and Foot. 
 
 The bones of the leg are two in number. They are 
 immovably united to each other, since any movement 
 between them would interfere with their stability and 
 thus weaken the limb as a means of support. One only 
 of these bones, the shin-lone or tiUa, enters into the 
 formation of the knee-joint ; by its expanded upper ex- 
 tremity it affords a broad surface not only for the support 
 but also for the movements of the condyles, or articular 
 surfaces, of the thigh-bone. The slender outer bone, 
 the fibula, furnishes extensive attachments for numerous 
 muscles. 
 
 The fleshy masses which move the leg on the thigh at 
 the knee-joint clothe both the front and back of the thigh- 
 bone ; in man the extensor group of muscles, viz. that 
 placed on the front of the thigh, which extends or 
 straightens the leg, attains a relatively greater develop- 
 ment than the flexor group, which is situated on the back 
 of the limb. This is just the reverse of what is found 
 in animals, and is associated in man with the power he 
 possesses of bringing his leg into a direct line with his 
 thigh, that is to say he can straighten or extend his limb 
 at the knee-joint in a way which no other animal can 
 effect. 
 
 Man's foot is a very characteristic member. It possesses 
 the qualities essential to strength and solidity combined 
 with elasticity and movement. When standing upright 
 the axis of the foot is placed at right angles to the axis 
 of the leg. 
 
 The bones which enter into the formation of the foot 
 are disposed so as to form a series of arches. The advantage 
 of this arrangement is that the soft parts on the sole are 
 protected from pressure, while at the same time considerable 
 elasticity is imparted to the foot. The slight play of the 
 bones which form the arches allows the latter to act like 
 a series of curved springs. 
 
Foot. 
 
 13 
 
 The form of the heel-bone, or os calcis, is characteristic : 
 to its posterior part is attached that group of muscles which 
 determines the form of the calf The development of these 
 muscles is very great ; and it is noteworthy that they are 
 quite typical of man, as no animal equals him in this 
 respect. This is explained by the fact that not unfrequently 
 they are called upon to support the entire weight of the 
 body, as in the acts of standing or dancing on tiptoe, while 
 at other times they are required to project the body 
 forward, as in springing or leaping. 
 
 The bones of the toes are shorter than those of the 
 fingers. The great toe is united to the others and lies side 
 by side with them ; it has no such power of separation and 
 closing on the other toes as is possessed by the thumb. 
 Thus the stability of the foot is not interfered with by 
 an excess of mobility such as we see in the apes, where 
 this power of movement is necessary. In them the foot is 
 employed as a grasping organ, a modification which greatly 
 assists the animal in its arboreal habits. 
 
 From what has been stated it will be apparent that the 
 lower limb of man displays in its structure those modifica- 
 tions which are essential to the combination of support and 
 mobility. 
 
 In the upper limb, the same influences lead to modifica- 
 tions in its structure which enhance its usefulness. As 
 already stated, the child dispenses with the use of his arms 
 as aids to progression as soon as his legs become strong 
 enough to support him. This relieves the upper limb of 
 one function, and permits a development of that member 
 rather in the direction of freedom of motion. So extensive 
 is the range of movement of this limb that man can touch 
 any part of his body with one or other hand. 
 
 An examination of the bones of the shoulder-girdle — the 
 bones by which the upper limbs are connected with the 
 trunk — at once reveals a remarkable difference between 
 
14 Shoulder-girdle. 
 
 their mode of articulation with the skeleton of the trunk 
 and that which has been already described in connexion 
 with the pelvic girdle. 
 
 Fig. io. Bones of the right upper limb, front view. 
 
 a. CoUtir-bone (clavicle). c. Badius. 
 
 6. Breast-bone (sterixivin). /. Ulna. 
 
 c. Shoulder-blade (scapula). </. Wrist-bones (carpus). 
 
 d. Humerus. ft. Metacarpus. 
 
 i. Finger-bones (phalanges). 
 
 The shoulder- girdle consists of two bones on either side, the 
 collar-bone or clavicle, and the shoulder-blade or scapula. 
 These two bones are united by a small joint which permits 
 
Shoulder-girdle. 
 
 15 
 
 liinited movement in certain directions, but the girdle 
 is only connected with the skeleton of the trunk by one 
 joint on either side, viz. that between the upper end of the 
 
 Fig. II. Bones of the right upper limb, back view. 
 
 a. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 6. Shoulder-blade (scapula). 
 
 d. Hmnerus. 
 
 e. Badius. 
 
 /. Ulna. 
 
 g. Wrist-bones (carpus). 
 
 %. Metacarpus. 
 
 i. Finger-bones (phalanges). 
 
 breast-bone or sternum and the inner extremity of the collar- 
 bone. The range of movement of this joint is not extensive. 
 The shoulder-blade, on the other hand, is not directly 
 
i6 Form of Chest. 
 
 connected with the skeleton of the trunk, but only indirectly 
 through its articulation with the collar-bone. At the same 
 time the blade-bone is attached by numerous muscles to 
 the framework of the chest-wall. By this means, though the 
 range of movement in the two joints just named is limited, 
 the combination of these movements and the looseness of 
 the connexion of the shoulder-blade with the chest-wall 
 impart a very extensive range of movement to the entire 
 girdle. When it is remembered that this girdle is arti- 
 culated with the bone of the upper arm, the student will 
 recognize how important a part it plays in increasing the 
 freedom of movemeniJ of the upper limb. 
 
 As has been shown, the shoulder-girdle in man is modified 
 in order to increase the range of movement of a limb used 
 
 Fig. 12. Diagrammatic representation of the 
 shoulder-girdle. 
 
 a. First dorsal vertebra. d. ShoTilder-blade (scapula). 
 
 b. First rib. e. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 c. Breast-bone (sternum). /. Humerus (bone of upper arm). 
 
 for prehensile purposes, and this is correlated with an 
 alteration in the form of the chest-wall. In animals in 
 which the fore limb is used as a means of support, the form 
 of the chest-wall is laterally compressed, that is to say the 
 depth of the chest cavity is greater than its width. In man, 
 on the other hand, in whom the limb is not habitually made 
 use of to uphold the trunk, the chest-wall, relieved from 
 pressure, expands laterally ; hence the thoracic or chest cavity 
 is wider from side to side than from before backwards. 
 The joint between the shoulder-girdle and the upper 
 
Skeleton of Upper Limb. 17 
 
 extremity of tlie humerus, or bone of the upper arm, requires 
 a brief description. The union of the Umb-bone with the 
 girdle is effected by means of a relatively small shallow 
 socket on the shoulder-blade in which the large rounded 
 head of the humerus rests. The fibrous bands, called liga- 
 ments, which surround this joint are lax, so that they limit 
 but slightly the range of movement possible. This is in 
 striking contrast to what we have seen in the articulation 
 of the hip, where the hollow for the reception of the head 
 of the thigh-bone is deep and surrounded by a prominent 
 margin. A moment's consideration will at once explain the 
 difference in the nature of the two joints. The shoulder- 
 joint is adapted to permit very free movement, and is, 
 relatively speaking, a weak joint, as demonstrated by the 
 frequency with which it is dislocated, whilst the hip-joint 
 combines great strength with a more limited range of 
 movement. 
 
 There are two bones in the fore -arm as in the leg, but, 
 whilst in the latter the bones were seen to be immovably 
 united, in the fore-arm the bones are jointed together in 
 such a manner as to move freely on one another in certain 
 definite directions. The resulting movements are termed 
 pronation and supination, and are effected by the rotation 
 of the outer bone or radius over the inner bone or ulna. 
 These movements, not confined to man, but found in those 
 animals whose fore-limbs are used for prehensile purposes, 
 are extremely serviceable and greatly enhance the value 
 of the hand as a grasping and tactile organ. 
 
 The terminal segment of the human upper limb is 
 marvellously adapted for performing the most delicate mani- 
 pulations. Man has been defined as a ' tool-using ' animal, 
 and no doubt owes much of his supremacy to the facility 
 which he possesses of ' turning his hand ' to almost any- 
 thing. This power he owes largely to the freedom of 
 movement and power of opposition of the thumb, the most 
 
 c 
 
i8 
 
 Skull. 
 
 useful, as it is the most important in regard to size and 
 strength, of all the digits. 
 
 The sTcull must now be considered : this consists of two 
 portions, one which encloses the brain, the other which 
 supports and protects the soft parts of the face. If the 
 human skull be compared with that of a manlike ape, it 
 will be observed that the development of that portion 
 which contains the brain in man is far in excess of the 
 corresponding part in the anthropoid. In the latter the 
 bones of the face are always more prominent, forming 
 
 Fig. 13. Skull and cervical ver- 
 tebrae of a gorilla, showing pro- 
 jecting muzzle, small brain-case, 
 and elongated cervical spines. 
 
 Fig. 14. Skull and cervical 
 vertebrae of man, showing 
 small face-bones, large brain- 
 case, and short cervical spines. 
 
 the projection which is familiarly known as the mu^le, 
 whilst in man the face underlies the expanded brain-case,' 
 and projects but slightly in front. This difference gives 
 rise to modifications in the manner in which the head is 
 supported on the vertebral column. In a dog the skull 
 is slung at the anterior extremity of a more or less 
 horizontal spinal column; in man the head is poised on 
 the upper end of a vertical column ; whilst in the man-like 
 apes an intermediate condition is observed, the column 
 
i'i' 
 
 ^\ 
 
 <% 
 
Skull. ig 
 
 liere being more or less oblique in direction. Owing to 
 the fact that in quadrupeds and apes the muzzle is very 
 large, special provision, in the form of an elastic ligament, 
 is necessary to assist in supporting the head. In man, 
 however, the parts are so distributed, owing to the absence 
 of muzzle and the greater development of the back and 
 upper part of the head, that the skull, when placed upon 
 its articular surfaces on the upper end of the vertebral 
 column, nearly balances itself. The importance of this 
 arrangement is evident, because it enables us to keep the 
 head erect with comparatively slight muscular effort. The 
 contrary would have been the case had we been called 
 upon to support a large and heavy muzzle. The elastic 
 ligament present in other animals is thus rendered un- 
 necessary. At the same time there is proof that some 
 slight muscular effort is required to keep the head upright, 
 for, if a drowsy person be watched, the forward nodding 
 of the head is an indication that the muscles which support 
 it are becoming relaxed. It may be noted that the position 
 of the skull exerts an influence on the plane of vision in 
 man : in the erect position the visual axis is directed 
 towards the horizon, ' He looks the whole world in the 
 face ; ' and the occasional remark that one has a ' hang- 
 dog ' expression has more significance in it than at first 
 appears. 
 
 So far we have dealt generally with the physical attributes 
 of man. It is unnecessary here to dwell upon those higher 
 mental and moral developments which distinguish him 
 from the brutes. 
 
 c a 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENEEAL DESCEIPTION OF THE BONES AND JOINTS. 
 
 In the previous chapter great stress was laid on the 
 influence exerted by posture on the bodily framework of 
 man. The reader must now consider some points con- 
 nected with the skeleton as a whole, before proceeding to 
 study it in detail. Fortunately for the art student, a 
 minute description of all the bones is unnecessary, as many 
 of them have little or no influence on the surface forms. 
 
 The term 'skeleton' is applied to the solid framework 
 of the body. This consists largely of bone, but also includes 
 cartilage or gristle, and ligaments. An examination of 
 a skeleton as ordinarily prepared is somewhat misleading. 
 In the process of maceration, to which for the purposes 
 of preparation it is subjected, the cartilaginous and 
 ligamentous elements of this framework have disappeared, 
 being more easily disintegrated than the osseous parts. 
 The result is that the dried bones convey but a poor 
 impression of the delicacy and precision with which the 
 several portions of this skeletal framework are jointed 
 together. 
 
 It would appear at first sight almost hopeless to attempt 
 to classify the bones of the body, but a closer examination 
 will prove that there are many points of resemblance between 
 them, not only in regard to structure, but also in regard 
 
Classification of Bones. 21 
 
 to function. There are bones which are characterized by 
 their length ; these we find in the limbs, for example, the 
 bones of the upper arm, fore-arm, thigh, and leg. Such are 
 clearly associated with movement, for their extremities 
 are moulded into smooth articular surfaces, which fit more 
 or less accurately on the corresponding areas of adjacent 
 bones. Of the joints so formed each is specially adapted 
 for particular movements. To these long bones the muscles 
 are attached, which move them and convert them into 
 levers of different kinds, examples of which will be 
 easily recognized by the student of mechanics. This lever 
 principle is not confined to the long bones. If one of 
 the irregularly-shaped bones of which the vertebral column 
 is built up be examined it will be seen to possess a number 
 of prominent processes. Some of these afford attachment 
 to muscles and act as levers, enabling these muscles to 
 operate with greater mechanical advantage. In addition 
 to the use of the long bones as levers, it must also be borne 
 in mind that they act as supports. Having reference to 
 what has been already stated in the previous chapter, we 
 see that the bones of the lower limb are stouter and 
 stronger than those of the upper ; moreover, their articular 
 surfaces are more expanded, and, if the range of movement 
 of the joints which unite them be less, there is this 
 advantage, that the articulations are stronger and better 
 fitted to bear the strain to which they are subjected. 
 
 Another group of bones are those which are more or 
 less flattened and expanded — plate-like bones they are called. 
 Grenerally speaking, these serve as protective coverings 
 for the more delicate structures which are lodged beneath 
 them. On examining that part of the skull which contains 
 the brain it is seen that the oval case which envelops 
 it is made up of a number of such expanded bones firmly 
 united together. So also, in the pelvic region, the bones 
 which constitute the girdle of the lower limb afford 
 
22 Chest-wall. 
 
 protection to the viscera which are lodged within its 
 cavity. But nature takes advantage of these expanded 
 surfaces in other ways ; besides protecting the organs which 
 they overlie, they afford extensive surfaces for the attach- 
 ment of muscles on their outer or exposed surfaces. Thus, 
 in the head, the region of the temple, which in the skeleton 
 is formed of expanded portions of the temporal, parietal, 
 frontal, and sphenoid bones, affords attachment to one of the 
 powerful muscles of mastication — the temporal muscle, which 
 raises the lower jaw. It has been already noted how the 
 outer surface of the pelvic girdle furnishes wide areas for 
 the origin of the muscles which pass to the thigh-bone 
 and control the movements of the hip-joint. 
 
 In the examples above cited the protective bones are 
 firmly united to each other, no perceptible movements 
 taking place between them. In the animal economy it is, 
 however, sometimes necessary to provide an arrangement 
 which, whilst protective, will also be capable of certain 
 movements : such, for instance, is the chest- wall. This 
 consists of an osseous framework composed on either side 
 of the curved ribs, united in front with the breast-bone 
 and connected behind with the vertebral column by a series 
 of movable joints. This bony framework, combined with 
 cartilage, membrame, and muscle, forms a highly elastic, 
 movable, yet relatively strong protecting case for the heart 
 and lungs which are placed within its cavity. Movement 
 in this instance is required in order to provide for the 
 bellows-like action which is necessary to draw in and expel 
 the air from the lungs. Here again advantage is taken 
 of the extensive outer surface of the chest- wall to provide 
 attachment for the numerous muscles which pass from the 
 trunk to the upper limb, another example of the economy 
 of space and material practised by nature. 
 
 The remaining bones may be classed as those of irregular 
 shape : such are the bones of the face, which are very com- 
 
Joints. 23 
 
 plicated in their structure. These are admirably adapted 
 for the protection of the various delicate organs of special 
 sense which are lodged in this region, while at the same 
 time they afford attachment to the muscles of expression. 
 Further, the bones which form the vertebral column are 
 of irregular shape. When articulated together, they afford 
 complete protection for the delicate nervous centre, the 
 spinal cord, which lies within the osseous canal formed by 
 their neural arches, whilst their outstanding processes 
 not only furnish attachments to the muscles which directly 
 control their movements, but also provide points of origin 
 for many other muscles which act upon the limbs and 
 head and neck. Again, the small bones of the hand and 
 foot are examples of irregularly-shaped bones ; they will 
 be considered when these members are described. 
 
 As has been stated, the appearance of the dried skeleton 
 conveys little idea of its perfection in the living body. 
 The bones have been denuded of the soft parts which 
 bind them together and form the joints. It is necessary 
 therefore to say something generally regarding these 
 articulations. 
 
 If the bones entering into the formation of the hip-joint 
 be examined, it will be noticed that the rounded head 
 of the thigh-bone fits loosely into the cup-shaped cavity 
 of the haunch-bone ; but, if a recent specimen be in- 
 spected, these articular surfaces are seen to be covered by 
 a layer of smooth gristle or cartilage. If these cartilage- 
 covered surfaces be placed in contact with one another 
 they will be found to fit with remarkable accuracy. 
 Moreover, the opposed surfaces are so smooth that the 
 bones can be moved on each other with the least possible 
 amount of friction. So accurate, indeed, is the fit of 
 these articular surfaces that it is possible, in some instances, 
 to keep them in contact by the influence of the atmospheric 
 pressure alone. 
 
24 
 
 Movable Joints. 
 
 But some arrangement is necessary whereby the op- 
 posed surfaces may be held together. This is provided 
 for by structures called" ligaments. These ligaments are 
 bands of fibrous tissue which completely surround the 
 joint forming its capsule. The thickness of this capsule 
 varies on different aspects of the joint ; and in some situa- 
 tions the thickening of the capsule forms specialized 
 bands which are described and named as separate liga- 
 ments. At other points the capsule is 
 so thin as merely to consist of the layer 
 to be next described. This is a delicate 
 membrane which lines the interior of 
 the capsule, called the synovial mem- 
 hrane. It secretes an oily fluid called 
 synovia, which lubricates the articular 
 surfaces of the joint and so reduces 
 friction to a minimum. Such is the 
 structure of a movable joint : its 
 strength depends on the form of its 
 articular surfaces and the stoutness 
 of its ligaments; but, whilst these 
 ligaments are useful in binding together 
 the joint, they also in many instances 
 limit or check its movements, especially 
 when such an effect is not produced by 
 the locking of the bones themselves. 
 The accompanying figure may assist 
 in explaining the details above described. 
 
 But there are other varieties of movable joints : the 
 type mentioned above possesses a joint cavity, and a wide 
 range of movement. The next class includes those joints 
 in which there is no joint cavity, and in which the move- 
 ment is limited in its extent. If a fresh vertebral column 
 be examined, the bodies or solid parts of the vertebrae are 
 seen to be united by means of pads of laminated fibrous 
 
 Fig. 15. Diagram- 
 matic section through 
 a moveable joint. 
 
 a. The thick black lines 
 represent the carti- 
 lage-covered articu- 
 lar sTirfacea. 
 
 6. The joint cavity. 
 
 c. The ligaments around 
 forming the capsule, 
 the interior of which 
 is lined by synovial 
 membrane represent- 
 ed by dotted lines. 
 
Immovable Joints. 
 
 25 
 
 tissue and pulp matter, whicli bind them together and 
 permit only a limited movement between any two segments. 
 The movement between the individual bones is small, but 
 if the number of such segments be taken into account the 
 amount of movement possible in the column as a whole 
 is very considerable. The arrangement may be better 
 understood if we compare the back-bone to a number 
 of wooden disks cemented together by pads of india- 
 rubber ; the movement between any two disks will be slight ; 
 but, supposing we have a chain of such 
 disks similarly united, the column 
 so formed will acquire a remarkable 
 flexibility. As will be seen hereafter, 
 these intervertebral disks, as they are 
 called, not only allow of movement, 
 but also serve the useful purpose of 
 acting as buffers to reduce the shocks 
 which are from time to time trans- 
 mitted along the chain of bones which 
 they unite. 
 
 Fig. 16 represents the general appear- 
 ance of such a joint. 
 
 There are other kinds of joints in 
 which there is no movement. These 
 may be compared to the dove-tailed 
 
 joints employed in carpentry ; they are of little importance 
 from our standpoint, as we are only concerned with the 
 forms produced by their union. A word or two is how- 
 ever necessary in regard to these particular forms of 
 joints, because without a knowledge of their structure it 
 would be impossible to account for the growth of certain 
 parts of the body. The most typical examples are met 
 with in the skull. The several bones which cover in and 
 protect the brain are seen to be united at their borders 
 by a series of interlocking teeth. If we examine a fresh 
 
 Fig. 16. Section 
 through a joint pos- 
 sessing no joint cavity. 
 
 u a. The bodies of two 
 vertebrae united 
 
 J. The intervertebral 
 disk, the central 
 part of which is 
 softer and more 
 pnlpy than the 
 circumference. 
 
26 Immovable Joints. 
 
 specimen, or, better still, the skull of an infant, it will be 
 observed that there is a layer of membrane between the 
 opposed borders of the bones ; so long as this membrane 
 persists growth may take place, but on its disappearance 
 osseous union occurs between the contiguous bones. In this 
 way it is possible to understand how increase in size takes 
 
 Fig. 17. Shows the arrangement by which the bones of the top 
 of the skull are united by serrated joints called sutures. 
 
 place, and how the bony walls of the cranial box expand to 
 allow the growth of the brain. "When growth is complete 
 the necessity for this expansion no longer exists ; and if 
 the skulls of old people be examined it will not unfrequently 
 be found that all trace of these joints, or sutures as they 
 are called, has disappeared, the bones having become 
 ossified together. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 VEETEBRAL COLUMN OE SPINE. 
 
 It -will now be necessary to take up in detail the con- 
 sideration of the various parts of the body. 
 
 For descriptive purposes it is no doubt convenient to 
 furnish a separate account of the bones, joints, and muscles, 
 and such a method possesses great advantages in the 
 study of scientific anatomy j but a knowledge of much 
 of the detail which it is necessary the medical student 
 should possess is altogether useless to the student of art. 
 The bones, joints, and muscles all form part of one great 
 system, and it will, it is hoped, serve our purpose better 
 to consider them together as the various regions of the 
 body are studied. 
 
 Although the divisions of the body suggested in Chapter I 
 are not, strictly speaking, scientific, yet they are convenient, 
 and for the purpose in view may be adopted with advantage. 
 
 Commencing with the description of the trunk, it will 
 be necessary to examine the central axis or vertebral 
 column, the chest-wall, and the pelvis ; though, as we have 
 seen, the pelvis is, properly speaking, the girdle of the lower 
 limbs. The trunk corresponds pretty closely with what, in 
 artistic language, is called the torso, with this difference, 
 that the latter includes portions of the upper and lower 
 limbs. 
 
 An examination of the back of the trunk involves a more 
 detailed description of the vertebral column than has 
 
28 Vertebral Column. 
 
 hitlierto been given. The back -bone, represented in 
 
 5^ 
 
 iss/ 
 
 13- 
 
 
 i# 
 
 Vertebi-al Column. 
 
 ^n. 
 
 V.^ 
 
 Fig. 1 8. Front view. Fig. ig. Back view. Fig. 20. Side view, 
 
 showing curves. 
 
 a. Cervical vertebrae, seven in number. d. Sacrum, formed by fusion of five 
 6. Dorsal or thoracic vertebrae, twelve segments. 
 
 in number. «. Coccyx, made up of four or five seg- 
 c. Lumbar vertebrae, five in number. ments. 
 
 the accompanying figures, is seen to consist of thirty-four 
 
Vertebrae. 29 
 
 bones placed one on the top of another. This statement, 
 however, requires some qualification, for, if the skeleton be 
 more carefully examined, the lower ten of these segments 
 are seen to have become fused together in the process of 
 growth to form two separate bones each consisting of five 
 segments ; these two bones are not unfreqnently more 
 or less united. They are the sacrum, to which reference 
 has been already made, and the coccyx, which is formed 
 of the dwarfed tail vertebrae of man. 
 
 The remaining twenty-four vertebrae are separate and 
 distinct, so that we have an easy means of subdividing 
 the column into (a) the region in which the vertebrae, 
 twenty-four in number, are movable, and (6) the part com- 
 prising the sacral and coccygeal portions of the column, 
 formed by the fusion of ten segments, in which the 
 vertebrae are immovable. 
 
 Proceeding with the examination of one of the movable 
 vertebrae, it is seen to consist of a solid part in front, more 
 or less disk-shaped, which varies in size and thickness ac- 
 cording to the part of the column from which the specimen 
 has been taken. Fused on to the posterior aspect of this 
 solid portion or body^ there is an osseous arch which thus 
 includes between it and the body a more or less circular 
 hole. Connected with this arch are a number of pro- 
 cesses, some of which are articular and assist in the 
 junction of the various vertebrae together ; others are long 
 and outstanding, and form levers to which muscles are 
 attached. Of the latter, one springs from either side 
 of the arch, and forms the ti-ansverse process, the third 
 or remaining one juts out from the centre of the arch 
 behind and is known as the spinous process. The length 
 and direction of these spines vary in different regions 
 of the vertebral column, and, as will be presently shown, 
 have an important influence on the surface contours of 
 the back. If two or three of these vertebrae be taken 
 
3° 
 
 Vertebrae. 
 
 from the same region, and placed one on tlie top of the 
 other, it will be seen that the bodies or solid parts rest on 
 each other, whilst the arches form an interrupted osseous 
 canal which contains and protects the spinal cord. At the 
 same time the muscular processes fall in line, the spines 
 forming a series of projections in the middle, the lateral or 
 transverse processes forming a similar series of projections 
 on either side. The lateral rows of projections are separated 
 by a groove from the mesially-placed row of spines. This 
 
 Fig. 21. View of a dorsal 
 vertebra as seen from above. 
 
 a. Body or centrum. 
 6. Transverse process. 
 
 c. Spinous process. 
 
 d. Articular surface on transverse pro- 
 
 cess for tubercle of rib. 
 
 e. Articular proc sses by means of which 
 
 adjacent vertebrae are jointed. 
 
 Fig. 22. View of two dorsal 
 vertebrae articulated together 
 as seen from the aide. 
 
 /. Articular facets for head of rib. 
 g Neural arch, in which the spinal cord 
 is lodged. 
 In Fig. 22 the space between the bodies 
 a a of the two vertebrae is, in the recent 
 condition, occnpied by an intervertebral 
 disk. 
 
 groove varies in width and depth in different parts of the 
 column, and is of great importance, as herein are placed 
 the erectores spinae muscles, of which mention has been 
 already made as helping to hold the column upright. 
 
 Thus the column consists of a series of solid parts in 
 front, an intermediate series of arches which enclose a canal, 
 and three more or less distinct rows of processes at the sides 
 and behind; but, as has been stated in Chapter II, the 
 bodies of the vertebrae are united by fibrous disks, so that 
 in this way a column is formed possessing stability combined 
 
Vertebral Column. 31 
 
 with flexibility. If we consider the functions this part of 
 the column is called upon to discharge, we find (first) 
 that it supports not only the framework of the chest-wall 
 and, through it, the upper limbs, but also carries the head 
 on its upper extremity. In addition to upholding the 
 weight of these structures, it has also (secondly) to reduce 
 the effect of any shocks to which it may be subjected. 
 Every step we take is accompanied by a jar which, if not 
 reduced in intensity, would render such acts as leaping 
 and running an impossibility; for, if there were not some 
 such arrangement, the shocks would be transmitted direct 
 to the head and give rise to disturbance and injury of the 
 delicate nervous centres lodged therein. As has been 
 already explained, the reduction of the shock is largely 
 due to the buflfer-like action of the intervertebral disks. 
 As will be seen, however, from an inspection of the 
 articulated skeleton, the vertebrae are not placed one on 
 the top of the other in a straight line, but are arranged 
 in a series of curves which, acting after the manner of 
 bent springs, likewise tend to reduce the transmission 
 of these shocks. Before describing the character of these 
 curves, it is necessary first to subdivide the movable 
 vertebrae according to the regions in which they are 
 placed. The twenty-four movable vertebrae are thus 
 apportioned : seven are found in the neck, and are hence 
 called the cervical vertebrae ; twelve enter into the for- 
 mation of the chest or thoracic wall, and are known by 
 the name of the thoracic or dorsal vertebrae ; the remain- 
 ing five are situated in the region of the loins, and are 
 termed lumbar vertebrae. The results can now be tabulated 
 as follows : — 
 
 Veetebeae. 
 
 34 
 Movable— 24 Immovable — lo 
 
 Cervical Dorsal Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal 
 
 7 12 5 5 5 
 
32 Curves of the Column. 
 
 There are four curves in the column— a forward curve 
 in the cervical region, a backward in the dorsal region, 
 a forward in the lumbar region, and a backward in the 
 sacral region. Of these four curves, as has been already 
 stated, two only exist at birth, viz. those associated with 
 the formation of the thoracic and pelvic cavities ; these 
 are the primary curves, and are both directed backward. 
 The secondary curves are those in the cervical and lumbar 
 regions ; they are forward curves, and, as has been explained 
 in Chapter I, they only attain their full development after 
 the assumption of the erect posture. As will be seen by 
 a reference to Fig. 20, these curves pass imperceptibly into 
 one another, with the exception of the lumbar and sacral 
 curves ; in these the transition from the forward to the back- 
 ward curve is sudden and abrupt, and forms the projection 
 known to anatomists as the sacro-vertebral angle — the 
 bony promontory which overhangs the cavity of the pelvis. 
 
 The curves formed by the bodies of the vertebrae are, to 
 a certain extent, repeated by the line connecting the tips 
 of the spinous processes. The latter have a very important 
 relation to the surface contours of the back, for, if the fingers 
 be firmly carried down the middle line of the back from 
 the lower part of the neck to the inferior extremity of the 
 column, the tips of these processes can be distinctly felt. 
 It is well to examine them carefully in the skeleton to see 
 how far they accurately repeat the curves of the anterior 
 outline of the column. As has been said, the length of 
 these spinous processes varies in different situations : not 
 only so, but their direction alters considerably; in some 
 cases they are directed almost horizontally backwards, in 
 other instances they are very obliquely placed (see Fig. 20). 
 These facts have a very important influence in modifying 
 the contour which is formed by the line connecting 
 their tips, and we find that, whilst they repeat generally 
 the curves of the solid part of the column, they are 
 
Curves of Back. 33 
 
 neither so prominent nor so well marked ; thus in the 
 neck the spines of the cervical vertebrae are short, with 
 the exception of the second and last, and the curve formed 
 by a line passing through their tips is irregular and does 
 not correspond accurately to that on the front of the 
 column in this region ; but the posterior curve is of little 
 importance in relation to the surface contour of the back 
 of the neck, as the short spines lie imbedded in the 
 fleshy muscles of the back of the neck at some considerable 
 depth from the surface, a fact which can easily be verified 
 by the difficulty one experiences in feeling them. The 
 spine of the last (seventh) cervical vertebra forms a striking 
 exception to this arrangement. Owing to the unusual 
 length of the spine of this vertebra it has been called 
 the vertebra prominens. Its projection on the surface of 
 the back just at the junction of the neck with the upper 
 dorsal region forms a very characteristic landmark. Below 
 this point the curve of the middle line of the back depends 
 on the projection of the spines of the thoracic vertebrae, 
 but, owing to the varying length and altered degrees of 
 obliquity of these processes, the curve so produced is flatter 
 and less pronounced than the curve formed by the anterior 
 outline of the column in this region. In like manner the 
 curve formed by the spines in the region of the loins is 
 shallower than that displayed on the anterior surface of the 
 column in the corresponding situation, and there is no 
 sudden interruption in the flow of the curve from the 
 lumbar to the sacral region such as we have seen exists an- 
 teriorly. The backward thrust of the sacrum is diminished 
 owing to the fact that the thickness of the bone is rapidly 
 reduced, a circumstance which naturally reacts on the 
 prominence of its curvature. 
 
 As will be seen, therefore, the contour of the middle 
 line of the back, whilst repeating to a certain extent 
 the outline of the front of the column, yet displays 
 
34 
 
 a 
 
 Fio. 33. Diagram to show that 
 the curves fomied by the line 
 connecting the tips of the spinous 
 processes do not correspond to 
 the ourres produced by the an- 
 terior outline of the column. 
 
 The strong black line corre- 
 sponds to the contouj; of the back 
 in the middle line ; the dotted 
 line represents the profile outline 
 of the back, which differs from 
 the foregoing, owing to the thick- 
 ness of the fleshy muscles around 
 the shoulder-blade above, and the 
 development of the muscles of 
 the buttock below. 
 
 Grooves for Muscles. 
 
 considerable modifications, parti- 
 cularly in tlie direction of ex- 
 hibiting these curves to a less 
 marked degree. These details are 
 evident in Fig. 23. 
 
 The grooves which lie on either 
 side of the central ridge of spines 
 require farther notice, particularly 
 if a skeleton is examined in which 
 the ribs and pelvic bones are arti- 
 culated with the vertebral column. 
 The two haunch-bones are seen 
 to be united to either side of the 
 sacrum, and their upper and back 
 parts project considerably behind 
 the surfaces of their attachment to 
 that bone ; the result is that they 
 bound externally these lateral 
 grooves as they run down the back 
 of the sacrum. In this way the 
 groove in this region on each side 
 is much deepened, and an exten- 
 sive surface for the attachment 
 of muscles thus formed. 
 
 On tracing the groove upwards, 
 into the mid-dorsal region, it is . 
 found to become very shallow from 
 the fact that the spines are not 
 so prominent ; owing to the arti- 
 culation of the ribs with the 
 vertebrae, however, the groove 
 though shallow is much wider, 
 for the shafts of the ribs, as far 
 as their angles (the points at 
 which they bend forward), assist 
 
JikemhuieHS In/ra^inatus.^ 
 major,. 
 
 MM Sti..,/.^p.la. rr^''-- 5/,»./ra-™- 
 
 ilvtrtebra. Trapezius. Acromion proctss 
 / / Deltoid. 
 
 Ttret tnajor. ^ 
 
 Trkeps,OHter head.. 
 
 Trict^, long head. . 
 Biceps cvbiti.,^ 
 
 Latissimas Jorsi. ,^ "■- 
 Triers lendon..,^ 
 Trices, inner hfftd.„_ 
 
 Oiteration process. ... 
 Ittiernal condyiej-.... 
 BrachittUs antiaes. 
 
 Bicipital fascia 
 
 Proltoior radii teres. 
 
 Palmaris longus. 
 
 Sitpiiialor langust— 
 Flrxer carpi radialis. 
 Flexor utrpi ulnar is. 
 External olHi/iie-- 
 Iliac crest. 
 
 Gluteus mtfiiits. 
 Posterior superior 
 iliac spine. 
 Trochanter major. 
 Chiltus maxinms.- 
 lUo-tihialband.-— 
 
 AiMuctor magniis. 
 
 Graa'lit. — 
 
 Vastus cvlemtts.^ 
 
 Seiui-fendiitosiis. 
 
 Biceps cruris. 
 
 Semi-tHetnbrauosus. 
 
 Sartarius — 
 
 Popliteal space: 
 
 CastrocHttHius, 
 
 outer head.. 
 
 r inner head. 
 
 Ext. 
 
 condyle 
 
 Ext.carp.rad. 
 
 bmg- 
 
 Tnceps tendon. 
 
 Tncep outer head. 
 
 B acktaUs a 
 
 Biceps cuiiti. 
 
 cep long luad. 
 
 Teres major. 
 
 T res maur, 
 
 I / a-spmaists. 
 
 Ph mbo lens vu^r. 
 
 La simtzs dorsi. 
 
 F ernal obliqvt. 
 
 Jliac cnsl. 
 
 •~~~ G uteiis meditts. 
 
 Tens asaae fejaoris. 
 
 Paster si peno Oiac sltiae. 
 
 Ghieu maximus. 
 
 Adductor maeftis. 
 
 — Granlis. 
 
 S u iettdinosus. 
 
 astus externus. 
 
 I o-tihial band. 
 
 B ceps cruris. 
 
 nmnhranosKS. 
 
 Poplileal space. 
 
 -Gastrocnemius^ ouUr head. 
 
 - —Pennevs hmgus. 
 
 -Gastrocnemius, inner hetid. 
 
 - Soletts. 
 
 ... . — Ptroucus irevis. 
 
 Longfiexor of great tee. 
 
 -■■-•■• Tcudo ..Ifhillis, 
 ■■■■ Fxtrruul ma/loolns. 
 
 BACK VIEW OF MALE FIGURE THROWING JAVELIN 
 
 Cofiyri^/it, 1899, dy Hunhv FKOwuii] 
 
Erector spinae. 35 
 
 in forming its floor. Above the mid- dorsal point it again 
 deepens. 
 
 Lying in this groove, on 
 either side of the median 
 spines, is the great fleshy- 
 column of the erector spinae 
 muscle, which takes origin 
 from the posterior surface 
 and spines of the sacrum, 
 the spines of the lumbar, 
 and some of the lower dorsal 
 vertebrae, and in addition 
 receives flbres of origin from 
 the posterior border of the 
 haunch-bone, and from the 
 posterior superior iliac (or 
 haunch) spine ^, as well as 
 from the upper border of 
 that bone in its posterior 
 fourth. This muscle, which 
 is very complicated in the 
 
 ' The posterior superior iliac 
 spine is the name given to the 
 prominent posterior extremity of 
 the upper border of the haunch- 
 bone. 
 
 a. Placed over teudinons part of erector 
 
 spinae. 
 &. Posterior superior iliac spine. 
 
 c. Haunch-bone (os innominatnm). 
 
 d. Socket (acetabulum) for head of thigh- 
 
 bone. 
 
 e. Tuberosity of the ischium. . 
 
 f. Placed over fleshy part of erector 
 
 spinae. 
 ff. Splenius muscle, 
 ft. Mastoid process of temporal bone, 
 i. Complexusmusoleand superior curved 
 
 line of occipital bone. 
 
 Fig. 24. Shows the great erector 
 spinaemassof muscles. Themuscles 
 are shown only on one side, the 
 groove in which they are lodged is 
 seen on the right side of the ligure. 
 
 D 2 
 
o6 Erector spinae. 
 
 arrangement of its fibres, breaks up into a number of 
 subsidiary muscles, which have been separately described 
 and named by anatomists : from our point of view, however, 
 it may be regarded as one muscle having 
 many attachments, being reinforced by 
 additional slips as it ascends, and at 
 the same time furnishing tendons of 
 insertion to the ribs and transverse 
 processes. As the groove in which it 
 lies becomes shallower in the dorsal 
 region, the muscle spreads out and 
 thins, to become again more fleshy and 
 more powerfully developed as it is con- 
 tinued into the upper dorsal region and 
 the back of the neck as far as the base 
 of the skull, to which it is ultimately 
 attached. The fleshy mass at the back 
 of the neck is farther increased by 
 the addition of muscles which need not 
 here be particularized ; these are im- 
 mediately concerned with the move- 
 ments of the head and neck. 
 
 A glance at the accompanying dia- 
 gram will enable the reader to recognize 
 that the lower part of this muscular 
 column is particularly concerned with 
 the control of the movements of the 
 lowertwo-thirds of the back- bone, whilst 
 the upper part is more immediately 
 associated with the movements of the 
 head on the column, as well as those of 
 the upper part of the column itself. 
 Whilst the erector spinae has a free admixture of 
 tendinous fibres throughout its entire length, these form 
 a dense layer on the superficial aspect of the muscle at its 
 
 Fig. 25. A diagram 
 to show the arrange- 
 ment of the muscles 
 which support the 
 back-bone. The mus- 
 cles, which are repre- 
 sented in solid black, 
 are seen to be thick 
 in the regions of the 
 loins and neck, and 
 comparatively thin in 
 the mid-dorsal region. 
 

 
 
 jVS ^ s s ^ >: 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 us 
 u 
 < 
 » 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 II) 
 
 a 
 a 
 •J 
 
 B 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 U] 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 <: 
 a 
 
 m 
 
 < 
 S 
 
 h 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 < 
 -1 
 (X, 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 >• 
 U 
 
 a 
 ei 
 < 
 
 a: 
 o 
 
 » 
 u 
 
 Q 
 >J 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
Erector spinae. 37 
 
 lower attacliment, and this requires special attention. It 
 extends as higli as the second lumbar spine, close to the 
 middle line, and, further, passes up as a pointed process 
 over the middle of the fleshy column, as far as the mid- 
 dorsal region. The outer margin of this tendinous area 
 describes a curve of varying outline, which terminates 
 below at the posterior superior iliac spine. (See Fig. 24.) 
 
 This arrangement of the fleshy and tendinous fibres of 
 the muscle, in a well-developed figure, aff'ects the surface 
 contours, the fleshy fibres of the muscle forming, during 
 powerful contraction, a more distinct elevation than the 
 tendinous portion. Whilst this fleshy mass is not, strictly 
 speaking, superficial, the muscles which overlie it, parti- 
 cularly at the lower part of the back, consist merely of 
 thin tendinous layers ; at a higher level, though fleshy, 
 they are sheet-like muscles, and their thickness, if con- 
 siderable, is not sufficient to entirely obliterate the rounded 
 form which the underlying muscular column imparts to 
 the surface. It is on account of the development of these 
 erectores spinae that the middle line of the back is con- 
 verted into a furrow, the muscles bulging up on either 
 side. This is particularly noticeable when these muscles 
 are in a powerful state of contraction, as when a person 
 is supporting a heavy weight on the head "or shoulders, or 
 is bending backwards. If, on the other hand, we examine 
 the back of a model when the figure is bent forwards, we 
 notice that the median groove to a large extent disappears, 
 and, in many cases, the spines of the vertebrae may be ob- 
 served forming a prominent ridge (Pis., pp. 34, 36, 38, 42, 
 84, 234). 
 
 It wUl thus be observed how misleading the appearance 
 of the skeleton is ; it by no means follows that because 
 a prominent process of bone is near the surface its position 
 is indicated by a surface projection. In fact, as we shall 
 hereafter see, such bony ridges or projections frequently 
 
38 Erector spinae. 
 
 correspond to depressions or furrows on the surface of the 
 body. The depth of the median furrow of the back will 
 therefore depend largely on the development of these 
 muscles, their state of contraction, and the posture of the 
 body. "We have only to examine the back of a weakly 
 person and compare it with that of the athlete to see 
 at once the extent to which these muscles influence the 
 surface contours. 
 
 On tracing the median groove downward, we find that 
 it not unfrequently ends in a depression or dimple, which 
 usually corresponds to the position of the second sacral 
 spine ; below this point the furrow fades insensibly into the 
 cleft between the buttocks. The groove itself is best marked 
 in the region of the loins, in which situation there are often 
 indications of the presence of the lumbar spines, as demon- 
 strated by the unevenness of the bottom of the furrow ; it 
 becomes shallower again above, where it is interrupted by 
 the outline of some of the more superficial muscles. 
 
 The lower attachment of the erector spinae is associated 
 with two distinct depressions on either side ; one corresponds 
 to the outer border of the attachment of its fleshy fibres to 
 the posterior fourth, or so, of the iliac crest. As Richer has 
 pointed out, this is only seen in men ; in women the more 
 abundant deposition of fat in this region obliterates this 
 little hollow. The other depression corresponds to the 
 position of the posterior superior iliac spine, from which the 
 tendinous fibres of the muscle spring, and this little dimple 
 is common alike to male and female. These two latter 
 depressions combined with the furrows on either side, corre- 
 sponding to the posterior border of the haunch-bones and 
 the outer converging margins of the sacrum, mark off a 
 somewhat depressed triangular area, overlying in part the 
 posterior surface of the sacrum. It is this area which is, 
 as it were, wedged in between the prominences formed at 
 either side and below by the projection of the buttocks. 
 
Kky to' Plate VII 
 
 hxieiisor coi-pi rmiuilis brevioi-. 
 Exlensor carpi radialts longhi: 
 ^Hpinaioi' hiigiis. 
 Biceps ciibili. 
 Brachiniis aiitwus. .. 
 
 Spine of scapula 
 Spiju-.>n I! a V 
 
 'Jni/vaiui . 
 
 Spine of St p 
 
 Delleid.- 
 
 Infra-spina 
 
 Rliamboide 
 
 Teres vinjo 
 
 Lafissimus d 
 
 Triceps, ton 
 
 Biceps ciiir 
 
 Triceps, inite 
 
 Triceps ten { n 
 Brachialis a ats 
 
 Internal coi dy 
 
 Olecranon p o es 
 Pronator rad er 
 
 Bicipilal fa 
 Paliiians lo 
 plexor carp 
 Supinator lo g 
 Plexor carp a 
 Vas/ns e.vfe 
 flio-tibtal ba d 
 Biceps crurt 
 Sewi-fendiit . 
 Vastus exte 
 Biceps ci'un 
 Semi-menibi 
 Patella." 
 Popltle.xl sp 
 Hsadofjibi a 
 Gasirocii'ewi 
 Gaslroateiniiis, 
 Salens. 
 
 Peronens longi 
 
 Plxii-nsor longns digitennn pedis. 
 
 Ptioneiis brevis 
 
 Teiido A chillis. 
 External nialleolns. - 
 
 — -Styloid process of ulna. 
 
 Head o/ultia 
 
 Exieusor carpi vlnaris. 
 
 Posferiflr border of nlna. 
 
 Flexor cffrPi ultiaris. 
 
 . Extensor communis digiiorum, 
 
 - ~ - -Aruoneus. 
 
 ■ ■■ — Olecrauon process of ulna.. 
 
 External ittterinuscu/ar septum. 
 'Triceps leiuion. 
 
 Triceps, inner luad. 
 
 ■■' " Triceps, outer head. 
 
 Trices, long liead 
 
 •Acromion process of scapula. 
 'fgff^ ntajar. 
 
 infraspinatus. 
 
 - RAomli<</d,-ns major. 
 ■ Trapezius. 
 
 — - Latlssimits dorsi 
 
 p^x tenia/ eldit. 
 
 — /liac crest. 
 
 — Gluteus medius. 
 
 Posterior supen'or lii.u spine 
 
 — Trochanter major, 
 
 - ■" Tensor tasciae f'einoris. 
 
 "Gluteus maximus. 
 
 -Ilio-libial band. 
 
 -••AddMctor magnrts. 
 
 Gracilis. 
 
 -■ Semi-tendtnosr/s. 
 
 . . .Biceps cruris, long head. 
 Vastus e.yfernus. 
 
 Semi-meniiranosus. 
 
 .-Biceps cruris, short head 
 Poplttorl sp-jcc. 
 
 Sartorius 
 
 Gastrocnemius, outer head. 
 
 -Gostrociieintus. inner head. 
 
 Pet.'iteus l>r,T'is. 
 
 Long d.- 1 or of' great toe 
 
 Tr-,-i^ AeMllis. 
 
 /■.tA-'i.ii'r i.'v^'/o digitonint pedis. 
 
 luiirr:,!,' lu.ii/rolus. 
 
 P'ACK VIEW OF MAT F PintTPir wi 
 
 CoPyHght, 1899, h Hknky FKowhi. 
 
 TH TTPT TITTirn AVtTTritJT 
 
Erector spinae. 39 
 
 It should be noted that the angles of this triangle are 
 all fixed points, and, whatever be the relation of the 
 surrounding parts as influenced by change of posture, the 
 limits of this area remain always the same (Pis., pp. 34, 
 36, 38, 42, 96, 120, 234, 238). 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Pig. 27. 
 
 In the lumbar region, in the male the outer margin 
 of the erector mass is indicated by a shallow depression, 
 which separates it from the flank (Pis., pp. 34, 38. 84), 
 
4° 
 
 Movements of Column. 
 
 The movements of the column are exceedingly complicated. 
 In attempting to analyze them, the student should bear in 
 mind the facts already stated, viz. that the column consists 
 of a part made up of separate segments, and a part in which 
 the originally separate segments have become fused together 
 in the process of growth. The latter comprises the sacrum 
 and coccyx, the former includes the parts of the column which 
 
 Pig. 28. 
 
 lie in the neck, thorax, and loins. Movement can alone take 
 place in those parts of the column in which the vertebrae 
 are separate. Further, it is weU to note, for reasons already 
 explained, that the sacrum is firmly and immovably con- 
 nected with the haunch-bones, to form the pelvis. In this 
 way a fixed base is provided for the upper and movable 
 part of the 'back-bone,' and any movement of the pelvis 
 
Movements of Column. 
 
 41 
 
 as a wliole, either at the hip-joints or by rotation on the 
 thighs, necessarily involves an alteration in the position 
 of the base on which the movable part of the column rests. 
 
 As has been shown, the upper or movable part of the 
 vertebral axis displays certain curves : a forward curve in 
 the lumbar region, a backward in the thoracic region, and 
 a forward in the cervical region. 
 
 Fia. 29. 
 
 These curves are necessarily much modified, though not 
 to the extent we might imagine, when the back is bent 
 forwards and backwards; these movements are termed 
 flexion and extension respectively and are freest in the 
 lumbar and cervical regions. They are not so free in 
 the thoracic region, for here the cage-like structure of 
 the chest wall limits the range of these movements. The 
 
42 Movements of Column. 
 
 power of bending forward in tliis part of the column is 
 checked by the compression of the thoracic-wall, whilst 
 the extent of the backward movement in this region is 
 limited by the resistance of the chest- wall to further expan- 
 sion; again, the overlapping of the spines of the dorsal 
 vertebrae mechanically checks extension of the column in 
 this situation. 
 
 Flexion is freest in the loins, extension in the neck. As 
 has been already pointed out, the spines of the cervical 
 vertebrae are short, hence they do not interfere with the 
 movement of extension, as is the case with the spines of 
 the dorsal vertebrae. 
 
 In throwing back the head and trunk, the curve described 
 is not a uniform one, on account of the limited range of 
 extension in the dorsal region, as shown in Mgs. 26, 27. 
 
 It is to be noted that when the body is bent forward the 
 hollow in the lumbar region disappears, and for it is sub- 
 stituted a curve, which blends above with that of the thorax, 
 thus leading to a more flowing and uniform outline. 
 
 It will be observed, however (Fig. 23), that the outline 
 of the figure in exact profile does not correspond to the 
 curve of the median line of the back, from the fact that 
 the muscular projections on either side of the column, 
 particularly in the region of the shoulder-blades, conceal 
 from view the middle line of the figure. 
 
 Lateral movements of the column are also possible, the 
 trunk being bent to one or other side. This movement 
 is freest in the neck, extremely limited in the lumbar 
 region, and not great in the thoracic region, for here it 
 is necessarily associated with a compression of the chest- 
 wall on the side towards which the body is bent, and an 
 extension or stretching of the same structure on the opposite 
 side. The range of this side-to-side movement is greatly 
 increased by altering the position of the pelvis. The 
 alteration in the position of the pelvis shifts the plane 
 
Key to Plate VIII 
 
 Tens major. Infra-spinains. Dciloui. . Spine of scapula. Trapezius. Spine of VII cervical vertebra. 
 
 Rhomboideiis major. 
 Triceps, hug head. , 
 Triceps (endon. ,,_^ 
 Triceps, inner head. 
 
 Biccfis cubiii. 
 
 lu/ci'ual condyle. 
 
 Olecranon process:" 
 Bicifiila I fascia. — 
 Thoracic wall. - 
 Palniaris longns. --y 
 
 Flex. carp. rad. 
 Flex, cnrp.ithi:- ■ 
 Lat.dorsi.-" 
 
 Jixt.Qhliqne. 
 Iliac crest.-\^^ 
 
 Pasf.snp. iliac 
 
 spine.---"' 
 Glntcus medius.-"" 
 Trocha7itcr major. 
 Tensor fasciae fevioris 
 Ghileus maximus 
 
 Ilio-lihial band. 
 
 Addnclor magnus. 
 
 Gracilis. 
 
 Seini-lendinosns.— 
 Biceps cruris. —- 
 Vastus extcrnns. 
 Senii'jneinbranosits. 
 Sartorins. 
 Popliteal space. 
 
 Gastrocnemius, outer head. 
 Gastrocnemius, inner head. 
 
 Soicn 
 
 PeroncHs longus. 
 Salens. 
 
 Peroneus brevis. 
 Long flexor of great loe. 
 Internal malleolns 
 Hxternal malleolns. 
 Tcndo Achillis- 
 
 ine of scapula. 
 
 .". - Infi'a-spiiiatns. 
 
 " '•■--• Diltoid. 
 
 Rhomboidens mafor. 
 
 '''•-.. Teres major. 
 
 """■ JLatissimns dorsl. 
 
 - Triceps, long /wad. 
 
 Triceps, outer head. 
 
 —Triceps, inner liead. 
 
 Supinator longus. 
 
 £xl. carp. rod. long. 
 
 ..Anconeus- 
 
 Olecranon process 
 
 lixt.com. dig. 
 
 '["Extensor cjirpi ulnaris. 
 
 Bicipital fascia. 
 
 -Posterior border of ulna. 
 
 Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 Palmaris longus. 
 
 Fle.xor carpi raiiialis. 
 
 Styloid process of ulna. 
 
 Gra-cilis. 
 
 Ilio-iibial band. 
 
 Semi-fejtdmosiis. 
 
 J 'astus c.x/ernus. 
 
 -Biceps cruris 
 
 Semi-memhranosus. 
 
 Sartorins, 
 
 Gastrocnemius, enter liead. 
 •Gastrocnemius, inner head. 
 
 SoUus. 
 
 Percacus longus. 
 •• ■■ Solcus. 
 
 •roncns brtvis. 
 
 Tettda Achillis. 
 F i/ernal Ji.'a/kolns. 
 
 BACK VIEW OF MALE FIGURE INCLINED TO THE SIDE 
 
 Co/>vriii>it, 1899, by H knmv Fkowijk] 
 
Movements of Column. 43 
 
 of the base (sacrum) upon which the movable part of the 
 column rests. The movement of the pelvis is effected by 
 the straightening of the leg on the side from which the 
 body is bent, and the bending of the leg on the side 
 towards which the trunk is inclined. This causes one 
 side of the pelvis to fall lower than the other, and thus 
 alters the position of the base of the column (sacrum) from 
 a horizontal to an oblique plane. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Figs. 30, 31 show how the lateral inclination of the body is 
 increased by shifting the pelvis from a horizontal to an oblique 
 position. 
 
 Further, when the movable parts of the column are bent 
 from side to side, there is a slight rotation of the individual 
 vertebrae, which causes their spines to be turned away from 
 the side towards which the body is bent. This explains 
 why the surface furrows produced do not correspond precisely 
 to the middle line of the bent column. 
 
 Whilst speaking of these lateral curves of the column, 
 it is well to note the existence of a slight degree of lateral 
 curvature which is sometimes seen in the backs of persons 
 standing upright. This curve when present is found in the 
 
44 Movements of Column. 
 
 dorsal region, and has its convexity directed towards the 
 
 right side. It is probably due to the greater use of the right 
 
 arm as compared with the left, and is associated with 
 
 a more pronounced development of the 
 
 muscles of the right limb. 
 
 Below this curve there is often a slight 
 compensatory curve in the opposite direc- 
 tion, which imparts a sinuous aspect to 
 the back and relieves it of its appearance 
 of stiffness. 
 
 Movements of rotation may take place 
 in the cervical and also slightly in the 
 dorsal region. As we have seen, these move- 
 ments are combined with the lateral flexion 
 in the side-to-side movements. The power 
 which we possess of turning the head 
 round, so as to cast the eyes in a direc- 
 tion opposite to that in which the toes 
 point, is mainly due to the existence of 
 a special joint between the top of the 
 column and the base of the skull, com- 
 bined with the rotation of the pelvis (which 
 supports the base of the column), on the 
 upper extremities of the thigh-bones. This 
 can be demonstrated in the following way. 
 Standing erect, fix the pelvis by placing 
 the hands on the haunches, turn the head 
 to one or other side, without causing any 
 perceptible movement of the column, then 
 Fig, 32. rotate the column, still keeping the pelvis 
 
 fixed : if these directions be followed, it 
 will be found that the eyes can be directed across the 
 point of the shoulder. If now the pelvis be released, 
 the further movement in a backward direction will be 
 seen to be effected by the rotation of the pelvis on the 
 
Key to Plate IX 
 
 - Trapesuis. 
 
 — Spine 0/ scapula. 
 
 Spine of VII cervical vertebra. 
 Trapezius. 
 
 Acromion process 0/ scapula.. ,,_ 
 Spine 0/ scapula. 
 
 Deltoid.- 
 
 In/ra-spinaius. 
 
 Rkomboideus major. 
 
 Teres imyor. 
 
 Triceps, mtter liead.-"""\,.--l'^ 
 Triceps, long liead.-""' ' 
 
 Triceps, inner heud,- 
 
 Triceps tendon., -'■'' 
 
 Biceps cubiti.' ,-'',--'' 
 
 Supitmtor hngus. '.-■'' ,--'' , 
 
 Bicipital fascia -■'' .■■' ..-''. 
 
 Plexor carpi radialis: ..•'..-' . 
 
 Plexor carpi ulnar is y y y' 
 
 Digs.of ser.magnus.'' .■■' .--' 
 
 Latissimus dorsl.-'' ,--'' ,.--'' 
 Exterfial ob/iqjte.'\.'-'' 
 
 Iliac crest. —'' ,.-■' 
 
 Ani.sup.iliac spine.\'.---"'\.-- 
 Pectus femoris.-"' _..■■"' 
 
 Gluten f medius. ' ' ' ..-''' 
 
 Tensor fasciae femoris. '..--''', 
 Trochanter major. -■■''._---""' 
 
 Gluteus maximus."'" _...-■■- 
 
 Ilio-tibial band. -■-'" 
 Vastus externus. 
 
 Band of Richer. 
 
 Patella. 
 
 Ligamentum patellae. 
 
 Tubercle of tibia. 
 Tibialis anticus. 
 
 Extensor loiigus digitorum pedis. 
 Long extensor of great toe. 
 
 Annular ligament of ankle. 
 
 P^oneus brrois. 
 
 Teado AchiUis 
 Exiemai mallmbts. 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF MALE FIGURE ROTATED FROM SPECTATOR 
 Copyright^ 1899, by Henkv Frowdic] 
 
Movements of Column. 45 
 
 thigt-bones, the one hip being advanced, whilst the other 
 is directed backwards. This sufficiently proves how limited 
 the movement of rotation is when strictly confined to the 
 column, and demonstrates how much the range of -this 
 movement depends upon the rotation of the pelvis on the 
 thighs, for the head is now turned so that the eyes may 
 be directed straight behind the figure, instead of across the 
 shoulder, as happened when the movement was confined 
 to the trunk alone (Pis., pp. 38, 42, 44, 238). 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE THOEAX, THE EEGIOKS OP THE FLANK, AND 
 THE ANTEBIOE ABDOMINAL WALL. 
 
 Although tlie cliest-wall comes into immediate relation 
 with, the surface of tlie body at comparatively few points, 
 it is an extremely important factor in determining the 
 general outline of the upper part of the trunk, because it 
 forms the framework which supports the bones of the 
 shoulder-girdle. These bones impart a varying width to 
 the shoulder, according as they are placed upon a narrow 
 or a broad chest, a difference which is characteristic of the 
 two sexes, the comparatively narrow chest of the female 
 contrasting with the broad expanded chest of the male. 
 
 In examining the structures which enter into its formation, 
 it is necessary to consider what are the requirements of the 
 chest-wall. In the first place it must be capable of move- 
 ment. This depends on its association with the respiratory 
 function. The chest-wall expands and contracts with 
 a bellows-like action, which is effected by means of a series 
 of jointed bones acted on by muscles. 
 
 But, in addition, it is necessary that the chest- wall should 
 form a protective covering for the vital organs which are 
 lodged within its cavity; for this reason, besides being 
 movable, it must combine strength with elasticity. Its 
 structure is admirably adapted to meet these require- 
 
Ribs. 
 
 47 
 
 ments ; bone, cartilage, ligament, muscle and membrane, all 
 enter into its formation. 
 
 The osseous framework consists of twelve pairs of ribs 
 wbich vary in length and in degree of curvature, according 
 to the position tbey occupy. A typical specimen exhibits 
 a shaft which is more or less curved and twisted; the 
 posterior extremity or head articulates with the dorsal 
 
 Fig. 33. The first and 
 sixth ribs. 
 a. Head. 6. Neck, 
 
 c. Tubercle. d. Angle. 
 
 e. Shaft. 
 
 f. Extremity of shaft which 
 
 articulates with the rib 
 cartileige. 
 
 FiGt. 34. Shows how the ribs articulate 
 with a vertebra as seen from above. 
 
 a. Head of rib articulatingwith body of vertebra. 
 
 6. Neck of rib. 
 
 u Tubercle of rib axticulating with transverse 
 
 process of vertebra. 
 d. Body of vertebra, 
 s. Articulax processes of vertebra. 
 /. Neural ring for lodgement of spinal cord. 
 g. Transverse processes of vertebra. 
 h. Spinous process of vertebra. 
 
 vertebrae ; and the anterior end is connected in front with 
 the breast-bone by means of a bar of cartilage. 
 
 If an articulated skeleton be examined, it will be noticed 
 that all the ribs are not similarly connected with the breast- 
 bone. The first seven pairs are joined to it directly by 
 means of their cartilages; the next three pairs, namely 
 the eighth, ninth, and tenth, are only indirectly united 
 with it by pieces of cartilage which are blended together. 
 
48 
 
 Ribs. 
 
 but wliicli ftise above with, the cartilages of the seventh 
 pair of ribs ; -while the two lowest, vi^:. the eleventh and 
 twelfth pairs, are not connected with the breast-bone at all. 
 The ribs are thus classified, according to their relation to 
 the sternum, into the true ribs, which include the first seven 
 pairs, and the false ribs, which comprise the lower five pairs. 
 
 Fig. 35. Trout view of skeleton of thorax. The costal cartilages 
 are shaded. 
 
 The latter group thus includes the two last pairs, which 
 are generally known as ihe floating ribs. 
 
 Arranged one above the other, these arched bones form 
 a cage-like structure by their union with the breast-bone in 
 front and the column behind. The shape of the framework 
 so formed has been described as a truncated cone, or it may 
 
Ribs and Thorax. 49 
 
 be described as barrel-shaped. It is narrowest above where 
 it lies in relation to the root of the neck, broadest about 
 the level of the pit of the stomach, or lower end of the 
 breast-bone. Below this level it again narrows slightly. 
 The length and curvature of the ribs naturally vary 
 according to their position ; thus the first pair of ribs is the 
 
 Fig. 36. Side view of skeleton of thorax. The costal cartilages 
 are shaded. 
 
 shortest and the most bent, the seventh or eighth pairs 
 are the longest and most open in their curve. The ribs 
 are not uniformly curved : if one of the middle ribs be 
 examined, it will be seen to possess two curves ; these 
 are not in the same plane, but in planes placed obliquely 
 to each other, so that where the curves meet an angle 
 
50 
 
 Breast-bone. 
 
 is formed not only between the curves themselves but 
 between the planes of the curves; this angle has been 
 already referred to in connexion with the study of the 
 vertebral column ; the part of the shaft of the rib behind 
 it has been seen to assist in the formation of the groove in 
 which the erector muscles of the back are placed ; the part 
 of the shaft of the rib in front of the angle forms the curve 
 
 Breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 Fig. 37. Front view. 
 
 a. Upper part of breast-bone (manu- 
 
 briuin sterni). 
 &. Middle part of breast-bone (body, or 
 
 gladiolus), 
 c. lower part of breast-bone (ensiform 
 
 process). 
 
 Fig. 38. Side view. 
 
 d. Surfaces for articulation with collar- 
 
 bones. 
 
 e. Surfaces for articulation with carti- 
 
 lage of first rib. 
 i. Surfaces for articulation with carti- 
 lages of second to seventh ribs inclusive. 
 
 of the side and front of the chest- wall. The adaptation of 
 the ribs to the barrel shape of the chest-wall necessarily 
 involves a slight twisting of their shafts, so that the 
 flattened surfaces of these bones are brought into harmony 
 with the general outline of the thorax. 
 
 The breast-bone or sternum, in the adult, consists of three 
 pieces, the middle one of which has been formed by the 
 
Breast-bone. 51 
 
 fusion of several elements. These three parts of the 
 breast-bone may be inseparably united, but it is usual to 
 find the highest one detached from the others in the 
 macerated skeleton. As the joints which unite these parts 
 m life are so firm that there is practically no movement in 
 them, we may for present purposes regard the sternum as 
 one bone consisting of three parts, an upper, a middle, and 
 a lower. Viewed from the front the upper part appears 
 the largest and most expanded ; the middle portion displays 
 much variety of shape in different individuals: it varies 
 in width, and is often considerably wider below than above. 
 The joint between the upper and middle parts of the bone, 
 if fusion has taken place, is marked by a transverse ridge. 
 The lowest part consists in early life of cartilage, which 
 becomes ossified later ; it also varies much in shape, and its 
 anterior surface does not come as far forward as the level 
 of the front of the middle part. 
 
 If we examine the bone from the side, we note that it is 
 slightly curved, a curve which corresponds to that of the 
 front of the chest-wall in the middle line ; above, this 
 curve is interrupted at the point of junction of the upper 
 and middle portions by a slight angle formed by the 
 articulation between the two. This is known to anatomists 
 as the sternal angle. (See Fig. 38.) 
 
 As has been already seen, the breast-bone is of great 
 service in forming a support for the ribs in front, being 
 united , to them by the rib cartilages already referred to. 
 The first pair of ribs articulates with this bone at the 
 upper angles of the highest portion ; the second pair of 
 ribs, by means of their cartilages, unite with the bone on 
 either side, at a level with the line of articulation, or it 
 may be of fusion, of the highest segment with the middle 
 portion. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth pairs of ribs 
 are united to the middle part of the bone along its outer 
 border, and the seventh pair of ribs, i.e. the last pair directly 
 
 £ 2 
 
52 Breast-bone. 
 
 connected with the sternum, is wedged in between the 
 middle and lowest portions of the bone. 
 
 In addition to its connexion with the ribs, the breast- 
 bone also articulates with the collar-bones; the surfaces 
 for these may be seen at the upper angles of the first 
 portion, just above the point where the first ribs are 
 attached. The upper border of the first part of the breast- 
 bone between these two articular surfaces for the collar- 
 bones is thick and rounded and slightly hollowed ; it 
 forms the lower limit of that depression familiarly known 
 as the pit of the neck. Trom this point downwards along 
 the middle line the bone is quite superficial and corre- 
 sponds to a groove, noticeable on the model, the sides 
 of which are formed by the bulging of the powerful 
 mu^les which arise from the lateral surfaces of this bone. 
 If Ihe finger be run down this groove, the sternal angle, 
 formed, as has been said, by the articulation of the highest 
 and middle portions of the breast-bone, can always be 
 recognized by touch, and in the male not unfrequently 
 by sight. Inferiorly the groove ends in a more or less 
 well-marked depression over the situation of the lowest 
 segment of the bone, or ensiform cartilage as it has been 
 named. This depression is called the pit of the stomach, 
 and its sides are formed by the slight projection of the carti- 
 lages of the seventh pair of ribs as they pass upwards to the 
 breast-bone (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 72, 108, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 In the female these details are obscured by the large 
 deposition of fat in this region, due to the presence of the 
 breasts. The extent to which these points can be observed 
 in persons of either sex will largely depend on the degree 
 of muscular development and the amount of fat. In an 
 emaciated person not only can the outline of the whole 
 breast-bone be seen, but the ribs and rib cartilages may 
 with ease be counted (Pis., pp. 66, no). 
 
 From the fact that the ribs are articulated with the back- 
 
Key to Plate X 
 
 Stey}io-mastoiii. -- 
 Posterior' triangle.-. 
 
 Trapesins.^^ 
 Clavicle. .^ 
 
 Acromion process^ 
 
 Pectoralis major, 
 clavicular fibres, 
 sternal fibres. 
 Deltoid. -~...,,^^ 
 Pit of stomach.,^ 
 
 Biceps cubiti.^^ 
 
 Brachialis ant. 
 Triceps, 
 outer head. ., 
 
 tendon. 
 
 Exl.iniermus\ 
 
 septum. 
 Ext.oblique. 
 Sup.longus. 
 Olecranon 
 Extcondyh 
 Anconeus.'- 
 
 Ext.carp.rad. 
 longior. 
 „ byevior.'- 
 Exts.of thumb. - 
 Extensor carpi 
 Ext. com.digitorum. 
 /Int.snperior iliac spinel 
 aponeurosis o/ext obliqi 
 Rectus abdominis." -" 
 Poupart's ligament..- 
 Ilfo~psoas. 
 
 Tensor fasciae fetnoris. ■ 
 Pectincns. 
 Sartorius. 
 Rectus femoris. 
 Adductor longus. 
 Jlio-tibial band. 
 Vastus externtts. 
 Gracilis. 
 
 Vastus ivternus. 
 
 Stcrno-mastoid. 
 .■■'' .-Trapesius. 
 
 .'■'' _. Clavicle. 
 
 ■ '.. Acromion process 
 
 __...Pit of neck. 
 
 "... Pectoralis major. 
 
 clavicular fibres. 
 
 Deltoid. 
 
 ^.Pectoralis major, 
 sternal fibres, 
 
 ^,... Biceps cubiti. 
 
 ^DigitatioHS of 
 
 serratus mae 
 
 Latissimjis dorsi. 
 
 .Brachialis ant. 
 
 ..Triceps, 
 
 outer head. 
 Digitations of 
 ext. oblique. 
 Liuea trans 
 .-Triceps 
 
 tendon. 
 Sup. longus. 
 
 Olecranon 
 
 ^'Linea alba. 
 
 Anconeus. 
 
 ExLcarp.rad. 
 
 longior. 
 
 brevior. 
 
 Ext. comdigUorum . 
 
 'Extensor rar/ii u/it 
 
 Post, border of ulna. 
 
 •Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 {Mr '"-• Extensors of thumb. 
 
 uferior superior iUac spine. 
 
 Gluteus mcdius. 
 
 'Pouparfs ligament. 
 
 '_ Ilio-psoas. 
 
 Tensor fasciae fetnoris. 
 
 Pcctineus. 
 
 -Sartorius. 
 
 Rcifus femoris. 
 
 Adductor longus. 
 
 Ilio-tibial boitd. 
 
 Vastus crlemus. 
 
 Gracilis. 
 
 Vastus ititcntus. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF MALE TORSO 
 Copyright^ 1899, by |j[hnkv FkowdiI 
 
Thorax. 
 
 53 
 
 bone in such a waj' that their posterior extremities always 
 lie on a higher level than their anterior ends, the shaft 
 of each bone lies in a plane oblique to and not horizontal 
 with the vertical plane. In consequence of this, the upper 
 end of the breast-bone does not lie on a level with the 
 first thoracic vertebra, but at a point considerably below, 
 corresponding it may be to the lower border of the second, 
 or the upper border of the third, thoracic vertebra ; the level 
 varies slightly according as the breast-bone is raised or 
 lowered during the respiratory movements (Fig. 39). It is 
 due to this obliquity of the first rib 
 that the neck appears longer in front 
 than behind. Irt like manner the 
 lower end of the middle segment 
 of the sternum corresponds usually 
 to the level of the ninth or tenth 
 thoracic vertebra. Of course this will 
 vary according to the length of the 
 bone, which differs considerably in 
 different individuals. The angle 
 which the bone forms with a hori- 
 zontal line drawn through its inferior 
 extremity ranges from about 70° to 
 75°. The bone approaches more 
 nearly the vertical in the female, 
 in whom also it is relatively broader in proportion to its 
 length, and also absolutely shorter than in the male. This 
 circumstance imparts a more rounded form to the chest-wall 
 of woman. In regard to the proportionate length of the 
 sternum, Duval has pointed out that, including the upper 
 and middle portions only, it corresponds pretty closely to 
 the length of the collar-bone or to the length of the hand 
 less the third joint of the middle finger. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the thorax in the female is of slighter 
 build and relatively shorter and more rounded than in the 
 
 Fig. 39 (After Quain). 
 Illustrates the rise and 
 fall of the chest-wall in 
 the movements of respira- 
 tion. 
 
54 Thorax. 
 
 male ; in the female, too, tlie upper ribs are more movable 
 than in the male, an arrangement which allows of greater 
 expansion of this part of the female chest during violent 
 inspiratory movements, such as are very frequently employed 
 on the stage to indicate suppressed emotion. The lower 
 margin of the thorax plays an important part in the 
 moulding of the surface contours. The eleventh and 
 twelfth ribs may be disregarded, for their shafts and ex- 
 tremities are deeply imbedded in the fleshy muscles of the 
 flank, but the cartilages of the tenth, ninth, and eighth 
 ribs, as they curve forward and upward to join the cartilages 
 of the seventh ribs, and thus become indirectly united with 
 the breast-bone, are very clearly indicated on the surface 
 of the body, though their outline may be concealed to 
 a greater or less extent by the development and state of 
 contraction of some of the muscles which form the wall 
 of the abdomen in front (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 102, 108, 282). 
 
 The form of the outline so described sweeps downward 
 and outward from the pit of the stomach, in a direction 
 towards the highest point of the crest of the haunch-bone ; 
 the convexity of the curve being directed inwards and 
 downwards. As will be shown hereafter, the acuteness of 
 the angle between the two converging borders of the 
 thoracic wall is to a great extent concealed by the presence 
 of two of the muscles which form the wall of the abdomen 
 in front. These are called the recti abdominis muscles, and 
 are placed one on either side of the middle line. 
 
 As already stated, the expanded outer surface of the 
 thoracic wall affords extensive attachment, not only to 
 the muscles of the abdomen, but also to the muscles of the 
 upper limb. In this way the outer surface of the ribs is 
 clothed with fleshy layers, which conceal the form of these 
 bones, whilst the shoulder-girdle above, with its associated 
 muscles, entirely modifies the shape of the upper part of the 
 trunk. 
 
Anterior Abdominal Wall. 55 
 
 The region of the abdomen, which we have next to 
 consider, lies between the lower thoracic margin above and 
 the pelvis below. It extends round the sides of the trunk, 
 where it forms the flanks, and there its surface-form blends 
 behind with that produced on either side by the erectores 
 spinae muscles. A longitudinal furrow along the outer 
 border of that fleshy mass in the lumbar region serves 
 to define the hinder limit of the 
 flank. 
 
 The cavity of the abdomen, how- 
 ever, is not so limited, but extends 
 upwards beneath the thoracic wall 
 for a considerable distance, its roof 
 being formed by a dome-shaped par- 
 tition, the diaphragm, which separates 
 it from the thoracic cavity. 
 
 The anterior aspect of the ab- 
 dominal wall is limited above in the 
 middle line by the pit of the stomach, 
 a depression which corresponds to 
 the ensiform cartilage. From this 
 point its margin is defined by the 
 cartilages of the seventh, eighth, 
 ninth, and tenth ribs in the manner 
 already described ; the eleventh and 
 twelfth ribs, though not discernible, 
 and as a rule with difficulty felt, 
 carry this curve towards the back. 
 
 The lower boundary of the abdominal wall is formed by 
 the haunch-bone. This bone will be more fully described 
 when the anatomy of the thigh and buttock is considered, 
 but it is necessary here to mention some points connected 
 with its structure. As was stated in an earlier chapter, it 
 is formed by the fusion of three smaller bones, the ilium, 
 the pubis, and the ischium. With the first two only are 
 
 Fig. 40. Diagram show- 
 ing the boundaries of the 
 abdominal region. ' 
 
 a. Anterior superior iliac 
 
 spines. 
 i. Symphysis pnbis. 
 
 c. Poupart's ligament. 
 
 d. Outline of lower tho^kcic 
 
 margin. 
 
 e. Ensiform process corre- 
 
 sponding to the pit of the 
 stomach. 
 
56 Haunch-bone. 
 
 we at present concerned. Tlie ilium forms the upper ex- 
 panded -wing-like portion of the haunch-bone, and by its 
 inner hollow surface furnishes a support for the contents 
 of the abdominal cavity, while the outer aspect affords 
 attachment to the muscles of the buttock. These two 
 surfaces meet above, and form the upper curved margin 
 of the bone, which is termed the crest. This ' iliac ' crest 
 ends, in front and behind, in two well-marked projections 
 or spines, called respectively the anterior and posterior 
 superior iliac spines. The relation of the latter we have 
 already studied in connexion with the surface forms of 
 the lower part of the back (vide Chapter III). The anterior 
 superior iliac spine will be found to have a like importance 
 in relation to the anterior region (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 72, 108, 
 264, 282, 332). 
 
 The pubis is that portion of the haunch-bone which lies 
 in front and below. The pubis of the one side is united to 
 its fellow of the opposite side by an immovable joint called 
 the symphysis pubis, which corresponds in position to the 
 lower part of the abdomen, in the middle line. An inch 
 or so from the middle line (somewhat more in the female), 
 the upper border of this bone forms a projection, called 
 the spine of the pubis. Stretching between the anterior 
 superior spine of the ilium, which lies at a considerably 
 higher level, and the pubic spine there is a band of fibrous 
 tissue, called Poupart's ligament. This band, which is in 
 reality formed by the lower fibres of the sheet-like tendon 
 of one of the abdominal muscles, is curved between its 
 points of attachment. The convexity of the curve is 
 directed downward, and corresponds to the furrow which 
 separates the lower abdominal region from the front of 
 the thigh; the farrow is commonly known by the name 
 of the fold of the groin. 
 
 Such are the boundaries of the abdominal wall. Now 
 this wall is made up of a number of expanded sheet-like 
 
Muscles of Abdominal Wall. 57 
 
 muscles attached by their edges to these boundaries, and 
 in order to understand better the arrangement of these 
 structures it will be of advantage to study a diagrammatic 
 representation of a cross section of the trunk (Fig. 41). 
 
 Connected with the lumbar vertebrae are sheets of con- 
 densed fibrous tissue [aponeuroses). These layers, which 
 
 Fig. 41. Diagram of a section across the trunk to illustrate the 
 arrangement of the muscles of the abdominal wall. 
 
 a. The sheath of the rectus abdominis 
 formed by the tendinous aponeur- 
 oses of the muscles of the flank. 
 
 6. The rectus abdonunis muscle in situ. 
 
 c. The external oblique muscle, the most 
 
 superficial of the three muscles of 
 the flank. 
 
 d. The compartment formed by the 
 
 ft. The body of a 
 
 splitting of the lumbar aponeurosis, 
 
 within which is lodged 
 e. The erector spinae muscle. 
 /. The quadratus lumborum muscle, 
 
 lying "within 
 g. Another compartment formed by the 
 
 splitting of 
 i. The lumbar aponeurosis, 
 lumbar vertebra. 
 
 spring from the spines and transverse processes in the 
 manner represented in Fig. 41, unite wide of the middle 
 line, and just external to the erectores spinae muscles so as 
 to encase these muscles in a fibrous sheath. From the strong 
 aponeuroses so constituted, certain of the muscles of the 
 flank take origin. Their fleshy fibres are so disposed that 
 three muscular layers are formed, the direction of the 
 fibres of which vary widely. Th^ outer layer constitutes 
 
58 
 
 Lumbar Aponeurosis. 
 
 the muscle known by the name of the external oblique ; the 
 other two layers are from without inwards, the internal 
 oblique, and transversalis. The fleshy fibres of these three 
 muscles do not reach far forwards on the abdominal wall, 
 but are again replaced by tendinous sheets or aponeuroses ; 
 
 Fig. 42. Side view of muscles of the trunk. 
 
 a. Peotoralis major muscle. 
 
 6. External oblique muscle of abdomen. 
 
 c. Aponeurosis of external oblique, cor- 
 
 responding to linea semilunaris. 
 
 d. Aponeurosis of external oblique, pass- 
 
 li. LatissimuB dorsi muscle. 
 
 ing in front of rectus abdominis 
 
 muscle. 
 € e. Anterior superior iliac spine, Pou- 
 
 part's ligament, and spine of pubis. 
 g. Serratus magnus muscle. 
 
 as we approach the middle line in front, the aponeurosis 
 of the intermediate muscle splits, the split layers being 
 united in front and behind with the aponeuroses of the 
 outer and inner muscle respectively. The layers so formed 
 
Abdominal VValL 
 
 59 
 
 enclose a muscle wtich is here represented in section, tlie 
 fibres of which are directed longitudinally. This is the 
 straight or rectus muscle of the abdominal wall. At the side 
 of this muscle, nearest the middle line, the layers which 
 
 Fig. 43. Front view of muscles of the abdominal wall. 
 
 a. Pectoralis major muscle. 
 
 ft. External oblique muscle of abdomen. 
 
 u. Aponeurosis of external oblique, cor- 
 responding- to linea serailimaris. 
 
 d. Aponeurosis of external oblique, pass- 
 ing in front of rectus abdominis 
 muscle. 
 e e. Anterior superior iliac spinej Pou- 
 part's ligament, and spine of pubis. 
 
 f. Rectus abdominis muscle, exposed by 
 
 the removal of the front of its 
 sheath, and showing its tendinous 
 intersections. 
 
 g. Serratus magnus muscle. 
 
 h. Latissimus dorsi muscle. 
 
 i. Linea alba, formed by the fusion of 
 the tendinous aponeuroses of the 
 muscles of the flank in the middle 
 line. 
 
 Jc. Umbilicus or navel. 
 
 overlie it back and front again unite, and become blended 
 with a similar layer from the opposite side of the body. As 
 both sides of the trunk are symmetrical, there is formed 
 
6o External Oblique. 
 
 in this way a fibrous cord, whicli lies in the middle line in 
 front, extending from the cartilage of the breast-bone above 
 to the symphysis pubis below ; this is called the linea alba. 
 On either side of this are the longitudinal recti muscles, 
 which also stretch from the thoracic margin above to the 
 pubis below. These muscles are ensheathed in the manner 
 just described. 
 
 We are only concerned with the most superficial of the 
 muscles of the flank and abdominal wall. This is the 
 external oblique ; as its name implies, its fibres have an 
 oblique direction. The muscle consists of a broad sheet of 
 fleshy fibres which takes origin from the outer surfaces of 
 the eight lower ribs, by a series of slips or digitations. The 
 hinder fibres, almost vertical in direction, pass down to be 
 attached to the anterior half of the crest of the ilium or 
 haunch-bone. In front of this attachment the fleshy fibres 
 are inserted into the most superficial of the aponeurotic 
 layers just described. These anterior fibres are directed 
 forwards with varying degrees of obliquity. Through the 
 medium of its aponeurosis the muscle becomes attached to 
 Poupart's ligament (which has been already described as 
 passing between the anterior superior iliac spine and the 
 spine of the pubis), to the whole length of the linea alba, 
 extending from the symphysis pubis below to the cartilage 
 of the breast-bone above, and to the fascia covering the 
 large muscle which arises from the front of the chest- wall 
 on either side of the middle line, viz. the muscle called the 
 great pectoral. A line let fall vertically from the middle 
 of the collar-bone to meet a transverse line carried across 
 between the two anterior superior spines of the ilia, with 
 the angle between the two rounded off, will fairly accurately 
 define the anterior and lower limits of the fleshy portion 
 of the muscle (Figs. 42, 43). 
 
 The recti muscles of the abdomen lie on either side of the 
 middle line ; they are attached above to the cartilages of 
 
Rectus abdominis. 6i 
 
 the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs, as well as to the cartilage 
 of the breast-bone ; below they are connected with the pubes 
 and pubic symphysis; their lower attachments are very 
 much narrower than their upper. These muscles do not lie 
 immediately beneath the skin and superficial fatty layer, 
 but are ensheathed, in the manner already stated, by the 
 aponeuroses of the muscles of the flank. "When the anterior 
 layer of these sheaths is removed, the muscles are exposed. 
 The arrangement of their fleshy fibres is peculiar. In place 
 of extending the whole length of the muscle, they are 
 interrupted by tendinous intersections which usually occupy 
 certain definite positions. In this way the muscle is not 
 composed of one fleshy belly, but of four or five segments 
 firmly united to each other by short tendinous fibres. These 
 tendinous intersections, or lineae transversae, as they are 
 called, are usually three in number, and are situated, the 
 lowest, a little above the level of the navel ; the highest, 
 a short distance below the pit of the stomach ; the inter- 
 mediate one, midway between the other two. The latter 
 is usually continuous, towards the outer side, with the broad 
 shallow furrows which surround the sides of the trunk, and 
 which mark the position of the waist (Fig. 43, and Pis., pp. 
 52, 62, 108, 264). 
 
 The inner borders of the two muscles lie side by side, 
 being separated merely by their sheaths and the linea alba, 
 which is wider above the navel than below. The outer 
 border is gently curved from the upper broad attachment 
 to the more pointed lower origin from the pubis. 
 
 "We must now examine the influence these structures 
 have upon the surface contours. A median furrow is seen 
 running from the pit of the stomach downwards towards 
 the symphysis pubis ; this corresponds to the position of 
 the linea alba. The prominence of the rectus muscle on 
 either side assists in deepening the groove. About midway 
 between the cartilage of the breast-bone and the symphysis 
 
62 Contours of Abdominal Wall. 
 
 pubis is placed tlie navel. Below this point the median 
 furrow becomes less distinct, and finally disappears owing to 
 tbe closer approximation of the recti muscles and the more 
 abundant quantity of fat in this region (Pis., pp. 52, 108). 
 
 The outer borders of the recti muscles are marked by the 
 existence of furrows, sometimes called the lineae semilunares. 
 These separate the anterior abdominal region from, those 
 of the flanks. Commencing above at the costal margin, 
 just wide of the attachment of the recti muscles to the ribs, 
 these furrows are narrow, as here the fleshy parts of the 
 recti and external oblique muscles lie close together. At 
 the level of the navel the farrows begin to widen, and 
 ultimately spread out to form smooth areas of triangular 
 shape. These areas correspond to the surface of the ab- 
 dominal wall immediately above the folds of the groin. 
 Here the fleshy parts of the superficial muscles of the 
 abdominal wall are separated by a wide interval com- 
 posed of tendinous fibres. The outer border of the rectus 
 as it curves in to be attached to the pubis limits this 
 region on the inner side. Its lower boundary is marked 
 by Poupart's ligament. Above and to the outer side, 
 the fibres of the external oblique form its outer limit. 
 These details may not in every case be clearly recognized, 
 as their sharpness depends on the quantity of fat beneath 
 the skin (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 108, 264, 282.) 
 
 A glance at Fig. 43 will enable the reader to realize that 
 this triangular area corresponds to the lower part of the 
 aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, which here 
 has a form somewhat resembling the shape of an arrow- 
 head, the point being directed towards the spine of the 
 pubis; the sides, to the outer border of the rectus and 
 Poupart's ligament respectively; the tang, or part where 
 the arrow-head is connected with the shaft, correspondino- 
 to the insertion of the fibres of the external oblique. 
 
 The prominences formed by the recti muscles as they lie 
 
Key to Plate XI 
 
 Steyno-mastoid. 
 
 Trapezius. Clavicle. Acromion process of scapula. 
 
 ^.Deitoid. 
 
 Clavicle, 
 
 Pecioj-alis major. 
 Deltoid. 
 
 Conico-brachialis. 
 Latissimus dorsi 
 
 Digitations of sen a his 
 vinous 
 Triceps, longhead 
 Trices, outer head 
 Trices, inner liead 
 Biceps cubiti... 
 Brachialis anticus _ 
 Rectus abdominis 
 Gluteus itiediiis 
 Internal condy le 
 Bicipital fascia 
 Pronator radii tei es 
 Supinator longus 
 Ext. carp. rod. long- 
 Ext.carp.rad.hev 
 Flexor carpi radiahs 
 hxtensors of.ihuinb 
 
 Gracilis,.. 
 
 Rectus femoris 
 
 Vastus externus. 
 Vastus internus. 
 Internal condyle of femur-. 
 
 Gastrocnemius, inner head: 
 Tibialis anticus. 
 
 Tibia, subcutaneous surface. 
 Soleits. 
 
 Ilcxor longus digitoruyn pedis. 
 Extensor longus digitorum pedis. 
 
 Long extensor of great toe. 
 
 T*ecioralis major, 
 
 clavicular fibres. 
 
 ^,Triceps, outer h^ad. 
 
 ^^rackialis anticus. 
 
 _^,.Biceps cubiti. 
 
 .Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 Pectoralis major, 
 
 sternal fibres. 
 
 :Supinator longus. 
 
 —Digitations of 
 
 serraius mag. 
 
 Ext. carp. rod. 
 
 long. 
 
 \Mxt.carp rod. 
 
 brev. 
 
 ^ Exl.com. 
 
 dig. 
 
 'External 
 
 oblique. 
 
 Linea trans 
 
 -Ant.supMiac spine. 
 
 ''-•Aponeurosis of 
 
 ' .^ external oblique. 
 
 '•-•Linea alba. 
 
 Tensor fasc.fem . 
 
 ■•.Iliopsoas. 
 
 '"Peclineus. 
 
 -Adductor longus 
 
 Ilio-tibial band. 
 
 Sartorins. 
 
 ■Rectus femoris. 
 
 Vastus externus. 
 
 ."' 'Gracilis. 
 
 y^astiis intcmus. 
 
 Band of Richer. 
 
 flio-tiiial band. 
 
 - - -Patella. 
 
 -/vz^ 
 
 Ligamentum patellae. 
 
 -Soleus. 
 
 -GastrocnrmiuSj 
 
 inner head. 
 
 Perofieus longus. 
 
 E.xtcnsor longus dig: ped. 
 
 Tibialis anticus. 
 
 Tibia, subattaneous sur/ace. 
 
 -Peroneus brevis. 
 
 Long extensor of great toe. 
 ■ Internal malleolus {tibia). 
 4nnular ligament of ankle. 
 Extfrnal mai. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF MALE FIGURE INCLINED TO THE SIDE 
 Copyright^ 1899, by Henry FrowdeI 
 
Contours of Abdominal Wall. 63 
 
 between the median and lateral furrows are interrupted by 
 transverse grooves. Above the level of the navel these 
 grooves are due to the presence of the lineae transversae 
 which were described in connexion with the recti. The 
 sheaths of these muscles are not thick enough to obscure 
 the influence of these tendinous intersections ; besides, there 
 is an intimate union between the anterior part of the 
 sheath and those tendinous fibres, so that their position 
 is rendered very evident by the occurrence of transverse 
 grooves on . the surface of the body when the muscles are 
 powerfully contracted. Their position has been already 
 sufficiently indicated, but it may be well to refer to their 
 modifying influence on the outline produced by the lower 
 thoracic margin. Where the recti muscles are attached 
 to the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs, they 
 necessarily overlie the cartilages of the seventh ribs, and 
 according to the varying thickness of the muscles (de- 
 pendent on the degree of their development) the surface 
 form produced by the cartilages of the seventh ribs will be 
 obscured. This accounts for the fact that the angle formed 
 by the converging margins of the chest-wall at the lower 
 end of the breast-bone is not so evident as a mere inspection 
 of the skeleton might lead us to suppose. On the other 
 hand, the highest of these transverse furrows which cross 
 the recti lies some distance below the pit of the stomach. 
 Its outer extremity usually corresponds to the junction of 
 the eighth rib cartilage with the seventh; and the two 
 furrows, one on either side, form an arch across the middle 
 line, the convexity of which is directed upwards. This arch 
 cuts off the acute angle formed by the converging cartilages 
 of the seventh ribs. Externally this furrow joins the lateral 
 abdominal furrow, or the furrow between the rectus and the 
 external oblique, which here corresponds to the lower costal 
 margin, and it is the contour so produced which obscures 
 the form of the lower costal border on the anterior aspect 
 
64 
 
 Fold of the Groin. 
 
 of the trunk. The extent to which this occurs will of 
 course depend on the muscular development of the model 
 (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 108). 
 
 The fold of the groin, as has been seen, corresponds to 
 the position of Poupart's ligament. Owing to the fact that 
 this band is very intimately connected with the fascia or 
 
 Fig. 44. Diagrammatic representation of the vaiioua furrows and 
 depressions on the anterior surface of the trunk. 
 
 investing fibrous sheath of the thigh, it is found to undergo 
 considerable modification according to the position of the 
 limb. Thus, when the thigh is extended or straightened 
 on the trunk, the fascia which invests it will necessarily 
 be drawn down, and as one of the attachments of this 
 fascia is Poupart's ligament the result is that the ligament 
 
Fold of the Groin. 65 
 
 is rendered more tense at the same time that its downward 
 curve is increased. If, however, the thigh be bent upon 
 the trunk, the ligament is relaxed and tends to become 
 straighterj these facts react on the surface form. When 
 the limb is extended the fold' of the groin will be seen 
 to best advantage and will display a more or less curved 
 outline, a form which is always accentuated in the antique 
 (Pis., pp; 52, 62, 108, 264, 282, 332). The outer end of this 
 furrow corresponds to the position of the anterior superior 
 iliac spine, at which point it forms an open angle with 
 the transverse furrow of the flank ; the inner extremities 
 of the folds of the groin are not unfrequently lost in the 
 fat in this region, though in many cases they become 
 blended with a shallow depression which curves down- 
 wards across the lower part of the abdominal wall and 
 the prominence which overlies the symphysis pubis. Just 
 above this, in the female, there is frequently a second 
 shallow curved depression, as seen in the Townley Venus, 
 and in the accompanying figure (Fig. 45). 
 
 Distinct from the above, and due to the flexion of the 
 thigh at the hip-joint, there is a crease or supetficial folding 
 of the skin which lies below the fold of the groin, and is 
 best seen in the plump thigh of a young child. This line 
 is most distinct internally, by the side of the genitals, 
 and curves upwards and outwards across the upper and 
 anterior part of the thigh to be lost in the general round- 
 ness of the limb. In the adult it is best seen in the 
 female, in whom its inner extremity is not concealed, as 
 in the male. Briicke has pointed out that in the female 
 this line appears in two distinct forms. In the one, as 
 shown in Fig. 46, the hollow of the curve is directed 
 upwards, the outer extremity of the farrow is turned 
 towards the anterior superior iliac spine, and it usually 
 blends with the fold of the groin about its middle. In 
 the other type (Fig. 45) the line curves outwards across 
 
 F 
 
66 Differences between Male and Female. 
 
 the thigh, the hollow of the curve being directed down- 
 wards. Externally the line is but faintly seen on the 
 general rounded surface of the front of the thigh, but if 
 the thigh be flexed the fold is rendered more distinct. 
 
 The abdomen in the male shoiild be small ; that of the 
 female, which is relatively larger, should be of rounded 
 form and slightly more prominent, owing to the presence 
 of a thicker fatty layer; in the female also the surface 
 contours dependent on muscles are obscured, and display 
 
 Pig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 a smoother and more rounded appearance. For the same 
 reason the navel in women is usually more depressed, owing 
 to the presence of the surrounding fat. One need not here 
 dilate on the baneful influence of the pressure exerted by 
 the use of corsets on the shape of the abdomen, it is 
 sufficient merely to note the fact and put the student on 
 his guard against the artificial forms so produced. 
 
 Turning next to that portion of the abdominal wall which 
 lies between the lateral abdominal depression in front 
 (i. e. the furrow corresponding to the interval between the 
 rectus and external oblique) and the lateral dorsal depression 
 
The Flank. 67 
 
 behind, this is found to include the region known as the 
 flank. Above, the thoracic margin limits this region ; below, 
 the crest of the ilium or haunch-bone serves to define it 
 from the buttock. The lower half of the sheet of fibres 
 of the external oblique, already described, constitutes the 
 most superficial muscle in this region (Pis., pp. 44, 52, 62, 
 72, 106, 108, 282). 
 
 The surface of the flank is rounded from before back- 
 wards, and is marked off from the prominence of the buttock 
 below by a furrow which is well defined in the muscular 
 male, less so in the female (Pis. pp. 66, 230, 238). The 
 position of this furrow corresponds in front to the anterior 
 superior iliac spine and also to an inch or two of the iliac 
 crest ; behind this point however, as indicated by Eicher, 
 the attached fleshy fibres of the external oblique overlap 
 the iliac crest so that the furrow, which depends largely 
 on the development of these fibres, does not overlie the iliac 
 crest, but is placed at a somewhat lower level. The furrow, 
 which assumes towards its termination a somewhat upward 
 curve, gradually fades away and is lost in the rounded form 
 produced by the accumulation of a considerable amount 
 of fat ; this obscures the outline of the posterior border of 
 the external oblique muscle. In the female, on account 
 of the greater amount of fat in this region, all trace of the 
 upper lateral depressions, which we saw overlay the point of 
 attachment of the fleshy fibres of the erector spinae to the 
 hinder end of the iliac crest in the male, disappears (p. 38) 
 (PI., p. 238). Owing to the obliteration of the iliac farrow 
 — as the groove we are just describing is called — by 
 the presence of this pad of fat, the rounded surface of the 
 posterior part of the flank is not so clearly defined from the 
 general swelling of the buttock as in front, but is insensibly 
 blended with it — a condition which maintains to a greater 
 extent in the female. As will be seen in the accompanying 
 figure (Fig. 47), the iliac furrow displays a double curve. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 The Flank. 
 
 Its anterior extremity corresponds to the position of tlie 
 anterior superior iliac spine, a point occasionally more or 
 less prominent, where it forms an angle with the furrow of - 
 the groin, as has been already stated. 
 
 The upper limit of the flank corresponds to the waist, 
 the narrowest transverse diameter 
 of the trunk. Above this level the 
 figure increases in breadth owing 
 to the enlargement of the thoracic 
 framework, and the muscles con- 
 nected with the upper limb. Below, 
 the outline is carried down by a 
 gentle curve which increases the 
 breadth of the trunk until the 
 iliac crest is reached ; at this point, 
 owing to the overlapping of the 
 iliac crest by the fleshy fibres of 
 the external oblique, the curve 
 is much accentuated as it dips 
 down into the iliac furrow. In 
 the female the outline is softer 
 and more flowing, and the iliac 
 furrow not so well marked. The 
 waist, therefore, corresponds to 
 a broad shallow furrow which lies 
 between the wider parts of the 
 trunk above and below -, in front 
 this shallow depression becomes 
 blended with the lateral abdominal 
 furrow or linea semilunaris, at a 
 point corresponding to the junc- 
 tion of the tenth rib cartilage with the ninth, at some 
 distance above the level of the navel, and a trifle below 
 the level of the middle transverse intersection of the 
 rectus. At this point, where there is a slight general 
 
 Fig. 47 (after Richer). 
 Shows the relation of the 
 iliac furrow to the iliac crest. 
 
Action of Abdominal Muscles. 69 
 
 hollowing of the surface, the thoracic margin formed by 
 the cartilages of the false ribs can be distinctly felt, and 
 corresponds to a depression -which is accentuated in certain 
 positions and is well displayed in the figure of Theseus 
 from the pediment of the Parthenon. As is seen in many 
 of the antiques, this furrow of the waist is carried round 
 the front of the figure in correspondence with the furrows 
 produced by the middle tendinous intersections of the recti 
 (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 108). 
 
 The abdominal muscles above described are of great use 
 in supporting the contents of the abdominal cavity, and 
 also assist in the movements of respiration. When any 
 violent muscular effort is about to be made, these muscles 
 are thrown into a state of contraction to brace up the 
 abdominal walls, and so resist the strain to which they 
 would otherwise be subjected. If the vertebral column be 
 not fixed, these muscles will assist in bending the trunk 
 forwards if the muscles of both sides act at the same 
 time. If only those of one side are brought into play they 
 will effect a lateral movement of the trunk towards the 
 side on which they are contracted. It may happen that 
 the upper part of the trunk is fixed, as in climbing or 
 hanging by the hands ; in this case the muscles will assist 
 in drawing upwards and forwards, or to one or other side, 
 the pelvis and lower limbs. 
 
 These movements give rise to very considerable modifica- 
 tions in the surface forms. When the trunk is bent forward 
 the tissues of the anterior abdominal wall become infolded 
 (Figs. 48, 49) (PL, p. 332). The deepest of these transverse 
 folds passes across the belly a little above or just on a 
 level with the navel. Laterally this fold corresponds to 
 the inferior thoracic margin, and the compression of the 
 abdominal contents leads to a greater distension of the ab- 
 dominal wall below this line of flexion than is the case 
 in the erect position. Secondary folds may appear either 
 
70 Contours of Abdominal Wall. 
 
 above or below the one already mentioned, and in extreme 
 flexion tte furrow, usually very shaUow, which connects 
 the two furrows of the groin above the pubis, becomes 
 emphasized and converted into a deep line. At the same 
 time the farrow of the groin is deepened and the fore 
 part of the iliac furrow rendered more distinct. The 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 position of the afore-mentioned folds is often indicated on 
 the surface of the abdomen, in the ordinary erect position, 
 by delicate lines which merely affect the skin and do not in 
 any way influence the surface contours. Consequent on the 
 alteration in the form of the abdominal wall in the flexed 
 position there is a disappearance of some of the most charac- 
 teristic farrows, most notably the lateral abdominal furrows, 
 which correspond to the outer borders of the recti ; these 
 
Contours of Abdominal Wall. 71 
 
 disappear, and tlie rounded form of the flank becomes con- 
 tinuous with the general roundness of the front of the belly 
 which lies below the best marked line of flexion. The most 
 noticeable effects of extension of the trunk on the surface 
 forms of the abdominal wall are a distinct flattening and 
 stretching of that region, and a marked -projection of the 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 surface corresponding to the outline of the lower thoracic 
 margin due to the forward thrust of that portion of the 
 chest- wall (Fig. 50) (PI., p. 282). The anterior superior iliac 
 spines are rendered more prominent, and the anterior part 
 of the iliac furrow is obliterated, whilst its posterior part 
 is somewhat deepened. Above, the flank is characterized 
 by the deepening behind of the furrow which corresponds 
 to the waist, and the flank itself is naturally more com- 
 
72 Effect of Movements. 
 
 pressed and rounded behind, wliere it lies between tbe 
 deepened furrows afore-mentioned, than in front, where it 
 is continuous with the stretched tissues of the anterior 
 abdominal wall. The lateral movements of the trunk 
 
 Fia. 50. 
 
 naturally affect diflPerently the forms of the flanks from or 
 towards which the movement is made. The flank on the 
 side opposite that towards which the body is bent is 
 naturally stretched, and the furrows which define it above 
 
Key to Plate XIII 
 
 Sierno-mas^id -■.. 
 
 Trapezius. - 
 Clavicle. -• .. 
 Pit of neck.. 
 
 Breast bene (stemi(tn) 
 
 Pit of stomach 
 
 Biceps ctibiii 
 
 Lineae transversae. 
 Brackialis anticus. 
 
 Bicipital fascia 
 
 Pronator radii teres. 
 Supinator longtis. — 
 
 Extensor carpi rod. 
 Flexor carpi radialis- - ■ 
 Extensor carpi rod. brev. 
 Extensor cotn di^.----' 
 Rectus abdominis. - - " 
 Ant.suferior iliac stine.' 
 Poupart s ligament. '-;'.-■ 
 Sartorius. -■■■"" ,.--- 
 Gluteus medius.-' 
 
 Tensor fasciae femoris.'' 
 
 Rectus femoris.-' 
 
 Vastus externus. 
 
 Band of Richer.- 
 
 Vastus internus. 
 
 Pa/eUa. ■■ ' 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Ligamentum patellae. 
 
 Tubercle of tibia. 
 
 Tibialis anticus 
 
 ExteTtsor hngtis digiiorutfi pedis. 
 
 Long extensor of great toe. 
 
 Annular ligament of ankle. 
 
 _. , - Stemo-mastoid. 
 ,.. 'Trapezius. 
 ,..'■' Clavicle. 
 
 Pectoralis major, clavicular /^bres. 
 
 .' Pectoralis major, sternal fibres. 
 
 Deltoid. 
 
 Digitiitions of serratns mapius. 
 
 Latissimus darsi. 
 
 _. Triceps, outer h-ead. 
 
 - Biceps cubiti. 
 
 Brackialis anticus. 
 
 -- -- -- .- -Triceps tendon. 
 
 Supinator longus. 
 
 -Extensor carpi radialis longior. 
 
 ...External oblique. 
 
 Iliac crest. 
 
 ■Extejisor carpi radialis brevior. 
 
 Extensor ossts metacarpi pollicis. 
 
 Extensor primi in ternodii pollicis. 
 
 '"Extensor communts digitorum. 
 
 Extensor carpi ulnaris- 
 
 ""Annular ligament of'orrist. 
 
 Gluteus maxitnus. 
 
 1 lio-tibial band . 
 
 -Vastus externus. 
 
 ■ "Biceps cruris. 
 
 - Biceps cruris, short head 
 
 Sejni-membranosus. 
 
 External condyle of femur. 
 HeadoffU}ula, 
 
 Gastrocnemius, outer head. 
 ... . -'.Pfroneus longus. 
 
 Soleus 
 
 Feroneus brevis. 
 
 --■ 'Tendo Ackillis 
 " 'External malleolus. 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF MALE FIGURK TURNED TOWARDS SPECTATOR 
 
 Copyright^ 1899, by HtNRY Fkowuk] 
 
Key to t'LATE XXXV 11 
 
 Styloid process of -ulna. 
 Flexor carpi nlnaris.... 
 
 Flexor carpi ratiialis. 
 
 Palmaris lottgus 
 
 Pronator radii teres. 
 Supinator hngtts. 
 Bicipilitt fascia. — 
 Internal eimdyle - 
 Brachialis anticus. 
 
 Triceps, iruur /uad. 
 
 Biceps cuinii. 
 
 Triceps, loiig limd. 
 
 Deltoid.,,. 
 
 Coraco-bracJi talis. 
 
 Teres ma/or. 
 
 Latissititus dersi, 
 
 PectoraJis major. 
 Breast bone (sternum). 
 Pit of stomach. 
 
 Digitiitions ofserratvs magnus 
 
 Lineae transversae. 
 
 Latissimus dor si. 
 Linea alba, _. 
 
 Digitations of external oblitjue 
 
 Lineae transversae. 
 
 Rectus abdominis. 
 External oblique. 
 
 Lineae transversae. 
 
 Umbiliats. 
 
 Iliac crest. 
 
 Anterior superior iUac ^ne 
 
 Aponeurosis of external obbqtte 
 Pot^arfs ligament. 
 Iliopsoas. 
 
 Sartoriits, 
 
 Gracilis,— 
 
 Rectus femoris. -. 
 
 Vastus intertass.- 
 Band of Richer.-. 
 
 Slemo-mastoid. 
 
 Posterior triangle. 
 .. ..--Trapcdus. 
 
 -Clavicle. 
 
 Patella. 
 
 Internal condyle pf femur 
 
 Fat. - vw" VI t™ 
 
 Liffimenium patellae. -— \ ^^, \ 
 
 Sariorius. ".—'--"■" - ' 
 
 Gracilis. "' __,.. 
 
 Semi-imdiitasiLi.-""' H BIWM 
 
 Tibialis anticus. ^ ' *""■' 
 
 Casfrocfiemiiis. outer head 
 
 Solcus. 
 
 Tibia, subcutaneous surface.- 
 
 Flexor longtis digitorum pedis. 
 
 Tendc A chillis. - 
 
 Internal malleolus {tibta). 
 
 Pecieialts major, clavicular fbres. 
 
 Deltoid. 
 
 Pectoralis major, sternal fibres. 
 
 Brachialis anttats.^ 
 
 ..-.Triceps, oiOer Itead. 
 
 Biceps cubiti. 
 
 Snpitmlor longus. 
 
 Fxterttal intermuscular septum. 
 
 ■Extensor carpi radtalts longior. 
 
 I ~ —-Anconeus. 
 
 -Extensor communis digitorum. 
 -Extensor carpi radialis bresior. 
 
 'Gluteus inedius. 
 
 Teksor fasciae femoris. 
 
 Extensors of thumb. 
 
 Extensor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 Gluteus ntaximus. 
 
 ■Jrochanicr m^or, 
 -Ilio-iibiai band. 
 Adductor mass. 
 Sartoriits^ 
 ■Rectus femoris. 
 Vastus extemus. 
 -Band of Richer. 
 Vastus intemus. 
 
 External condyle offetnur. 
 
 ~ Biceps cruris. 
 
 Patelhr. 
 
 Head of fibula. 
 
 'Ligamentum patellae, 
 Gastroctiemius, outer liead. 
 
 ■•- Soleus. 
 
 Gastrocnemius, inner head. 
 
 Peroneus lojigus. 
 
 ■-■ " Solnts. 
 
 JLxtensor communis digitorum, 
 
 Tibialis anticus. 
 
 ■ 'Tibia, subcutaneous surface, 
 
 Peroneus brevis. 
 
 ■ I-ong exietisor of great toe. 
 
 ■Atniulirr ligament of ankle. 
 
 ' ■ - F-x/ermsl malltelus. 
 "Internal malleolus (tibia) 
 
Effect of Movements. 73 
 
 and below are obliterated, tlieir places being taken by 
 reliefs wliich correspond to the thoracic margin and the 
 crest of the haunch-bone respectively. On the side to- 
 wards which the movement takes place these farrows are 
 deepened, and, owing to the compression of the tissues of 
 the side of the body, the flank forms a prominent pad or 
 elevation, the surface of which is traversed by numerous 
 skin folds which are usually more distinct behind than in 
 front (Pis., pp. 38, 42, 62, 332). 
 
 The surface forms of the abdomen and flank are like- 
 wise affected by the movements of rotation, of which mention 
 has been already made (p. 44) in connexion with the move- 
 ments of the vertebral column. Their principal influence 
 is to cause an obliquity of the longitudinal furrows, and 
 to intensify the transverse furrows, namely those of the 
 waist and crest of the haunch-bone, on the side toward 
 which the body is twisted, whilst leading to their effacement 
 on the side from which the body is turned (PL, p. 72 
 
 Combinations of these movements will necessarily be 
 associated with modifications in the surface forms, but, 
 bearing in mind the main points as they have been described 
 in the simplest forms of movement, the student will be 
 enabled to analyse more correctly the complex contours 
 associated with combinations of these movements. 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 
 THE SHOULDEE-GIEDLE AND THE MUSCLES WHICH 
 INFLUENCE ITS MOVEMENTS. 
 
 We have next to study tlie manner in wliicli the upper 
 limb is connected with the trunk. This is effected in the 
 
 Fig. 51 A. Bones of the right upper limh, front view. 
 
 d. Hnmervis. g. Wrist-bones (carpus). 
 
 «. Eadius. ft. Metacarpus. 
 
 ■f- Ulna, i. Finger-bones (phalanges). 
 
 a. Collar-bone (clavicle) 
 
 b. Breast-bone (sternum). 
 <;. Shoulder-blade (scapula), 
 
Shoulder-girdle. 
 
 75 
 
 skeleton by means of the shoulder-girdle, which is made 
 up of two bones on either side, the collar-bone or clavicle, 
 and the shoulder-blade or scapula. The striking difference 
 between the arrangement of the bones of the shoulder and 
 pelvic girdles has been already referred to in Chapter I, so 
 that it is not necessary again to emphasize the character- 
 istics peculiar to these portions of the skeleton. It will be 
 
 Pig. 51 b. Bones of the right upper limb, back view. 
 
 It, CoUar-bone (clavicle). e. Radius. h. Metacarpus. 
 
 c. Shonlder-blade (soapiila). /. Ulna. 
 
 d. Humerus. g. Wrist-bones (carpus). 
 
 i. Knger-bones (phalanges). 
 
^6 Collar-bone. 
 
 suificient to keep clearly in view the fact that the shoulder- 
 girdle is particularly modified, in order to permit great 
 freedom of movement between the upper limb and trunk. 
 
 The collar-hone (Figs. 53, 54) may be compared to a rod 
 bent into the form of the italic letter /. It possesses two 
 extremities, the inner of which is enlarged and articulates 
 with the upper end of the breast-bone, just above the 
 junction of the first rib cartilage, to which it is also firmly 
 attached by ligament. The outer extremity is flattened 
 from above downwards, and slightly expanded ; it is called 
 the acromial end of the bone, because it articulates with 
 
 Fig. 52. Diagrammatic representation of the 
 shoulder-girdle. 
 
 a. First dorsal vertebra. d, Shoulder-blade (scapula). 
 
 h. First rib. e. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 c. Breast-bone (sternum). /. Humerus (bone of upper arm). 
 
 the acromion process of the shoulder-blade. This end of, 
 the bone corresponds to the summit of the shoulder, and 
 in the male lies at a slightly higher level than the inner 
 or sternal end. The curves of the bone are so arranged 
 that the part of the shaft near the breast- bone is bulged 
 forward, whilst the outer half of the bone describes a curve, 
 the convexity of which is directed backwards. These curves 
 impart a certain amount of spring to the bone, so that the 
 shock of blows falling on the shoulder is reduced by the 
 slight yielding of the curves, a condition which would 
 not hold good had the bone been straight. 
 
 The curves of the collar-bone vary considerably in 
 different individuals. The variations are due in great part 
 
Collar-bone. 77 
 
 to the exercise or use to which the limb has been put. 
 In persons who have to live by hard manual labour the 
 curves are more pronounced than in those whose occupation 
 is sedentary, a difference which is to a greater or less extent 
 also characteristic of the sexes. The curvatures of the bone 
 may therefore be regarded as affording some indication 
 of the muscular development of the person to whom the 
 bone belonged. As men are usually more muscular than 
 women, the inference will be that a bone which displays 
 well-marked curves is that of a male. Differences in 
 length may also be noted as having an important relation 
 to the width of the shoulders. As the inner enlarged 
 extremities of the collar-bones rest upon the upper extremity 
 of the breast-bone, they are separated by a notch, the 
 
 Right collar-bone (clavicle). 
 Fig. 53. As seen from the front. Fig. 54, As seen from above. 
 
 a. Shaft. c. Acromial end, with articular surface 
 
 6. Sternal end. for acromion process of scapula. 
 
 lower boundary of which is formed by the upper margin 
 of the breast-bone. Passing across from one clavicle to the 
 other, there is a strong band called the interclavicular 
 ligament; this ligament smooths off the angles of the 
 notch, which is thus converted into a rounded, well-marked 
 depression between the extremities of the collar-bones on 
 either side and the breast-bone below (Fig. 55). It is 
 this which causes the surface depression known as the pit 
 of the neck, the distinctness of which is further increased 
 by the attachment of one of the neck muscles, to which 
 reference will be made in a future chapter. 
 
 Prom what has been stated regarding the collar-bone 
 and its articulations it will be easy to understand how it 
 
78 Shoulder-blade. 
 
 acts as a prop or fulcrum on which the shoulder-blade 
 moves. This action of the bone may be readily demon- 
 strated if we compare its position when the limb is thrown 
 forward and when it is drawn back. In the former case 
 the collar-bone is pulled forward from the chest- wall, whilst 
 in the latter action the bone is brought into closer relation 
 with it. The accompanying figure (Fig. 56) represents, in 
 a diagrammatic way, these actions. 
 
 The sTioulder-blade or scapula (Figs. 57, 58, 59) is a thin 
 plate-like bone of triangular form, with certain outstanding 
 processes. It is placed on the upper and posterior aspect of 
 
 Fig. 55. Showing articulation of the collar-bones (clavicles) with 
 
 the breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 a. Collar-bones (clavicles). g. Placed over the body of the first dorsal 
 
 h. Sternal ends of collar-bones. vertebra, lies in the interval between 
 
 c. Placed on the first and second ribg. the sternal ends of the collar-bones, 
 
 d. The upper piece of the breast-bone a space which corresponds to the 
 
 (manubrium stemi). surface depression at the root of the 
 
 /. Eib cartilages. neck, called the pit of the neck. 
 
 the chest-wall, overlying the second to the seventh ribs 
 inclusive. In the upright position with the arms by the side, 
 the interval between the two blade-bones usually corresponds 
 to the width of the neck. As a triangle the bone possesses 
 three sides and three angles. The borders are described as 
 inner, outer, and superior. It may be well here to add some 
 explanation of the use of these terms in anatomy. The body 
 being symmetrical on the two sides, we can divide it by 
 an imaginary plane, which we term the mesial plane. As 
 this plane bisects the trunk in front and behind, it corre- 
 sponds to the middle lines of these regions. In comparing 
 
Shoulder-blade. 79 
 
 the position of one structure -witli another in relation to 
 this mesial plane we describe as internal that which lies 
 closer to it, whilst that which is placed wider from it is 
 accounted external; thus the ear is external in position 
 to the eye. 
 
 When therefore we examine the shoulder-blade in 
 position on the back of the chest-wall, that border which 
 lies nearest the middle line is called the internal, that 
 margin which lies in relation to the back of the armpit is 
 called the external, and the third side of the triangle, 
 which is placed above, is called the upper or superior 
 border. In like manner the angles of the bone are described 
 
 Fig. 56. On the left side of the figure the girdle is shown pulled 
 back, on the right side drawn forward. 
 
 a. Collar-bone (clavicle). c. Breast-bone. e. First rib. 
 
 6. Sboulder-blade (scapula), d. First dorsal vertebra. 
 
 as external and internal ; the latter, two in number, are 
 placed at the upper and lower ends of the internal border 
 of the bone, and are distinguished the one from the other 
 as the superior internal and inferior internal angles of the 
 bone ; more frequently, however, these are spoken of as 
 the superior and inferior angles. Of the borders the 
 most important, from our standpoint, are the internal and 
 external. The latter can readily be felt, covered though it is 
 by muscle, by firmly grasping the tissues which lie behind 
 the armpit. The inner border, overlaid by much thinner 
 muscles, is readily seen, particularly if we move the arm 
 about so as to rotate the shoulder-blade. Of the angles, the 
 
8o Shoulder-blade. 
 
 superior and inferior are easily distinguishable, particularly 
 the latter, which can be observed to advance across the chest- 
 wall when we raise the arm over the head. The external 
 angle, which furnishes the shallow socket for the lodgement 
 of the he-d of the humerus, is obscured by the structures 
 around the shoulder-joint. It will be described at greater 
 length when the anatomy of that joint is considered. 
 
 The right shoulder-blade (scapula). 
 Fig. 57. Back view. Fig. 58. External view. Fig. 59. Front view. 
 
 a. Glenoid fossa, for head of humerus. 
 6. Spine. 
 
 c. Acromion process, 
 "li. Facet for outer end of collar-bone, 
 e. Coracoid process. 
 /. Superior angle. 
 
 jr. Inferior angle, 
 ft. External or axillary border. 
 i. Internal or vertebral border, 
 k. Superior border. 
 I. Supra-spinous fossa, 
 m. Infra-spinous fossa. 
 
 n. Ventral or anterior surface. 
 
 Arising from the posterior surface of the shoulder- 
 blade is the process called the spine. This is somewhat 
 triangular in form. It is attached by one of its borders 
 to the blade- bone, the posterior surface of which it 
 thus divides into two unequal fossae, called respectively 
 the supra- and infra-spinous fossae, according as they 
 lie above or below the spine which separates them. The 
 remaining two sides of the spine form free borders, that 
 
Shoulder-blade. 
 
 8i 
 
 is to say, they are not attached by osseous union to any 
 otter parts of tlie bone ; one, tbe longest or posterior 
 border, is superficial throughout its entire extent, and 
 forms an important factor in the modelling of the 
 surface contours over it. The external border is short 
 and curved, connecting the external extremi^es of the 
 attached and the posterior borders. The plane of this 
 triangular spinous process is 
 oblique to the plane of the blade- 
 bone in an upward direction, 
 a fact which is best displayed 
 on making a section of the bone. 
 Its upper surface forms part of 
 the floor of the supra-spinous 
 fossa, its under surface part of the 
 infra-spinous fossa. 
 
 The inner angle of this spine, 
 formed by the convergence of the 
 posterior and attached borders, 
 corresponds to the point of junc- 
 tion of the upper with the middle 
 third of the internal border of the 
 blade-bone. There are two ex- 
 ternal angles, one anterior, which 
 corresponds to the outer end of 
 the attached border, the other 
 posterior, which is formed by the 
 fusion of the external with the 
 posterior border. At this point the spine becomes continuous 
 with a process called the acromion process, which is carried 
 upwards and outwards for some distance, in line with the 
 posterior border of the spine. It then turns somewhat 
 suddenly forwards, and becomes compressed and flattened, 
 so that its surfaces are directed upwards and downwards. 
 It arches over the shoulder-joint, and is furnished on its 
 
 G 
 
 Fig. 6o. The outer side of 
 the shoulder-blade (scapula). 
 u,. Glenoid fossa, for head of 
 
 htimerus. 
 6. Spine. 
 
 c. Acromion process, 
 ti. Coracoid process. 
 g. Inferior angle. 
 It. ^External or axillary border. 
 {. Supra-spinons fossa. 
 m. Infra-spinous fossa. 
 n. Ventral or anterior surface. 
 
82 Shoulder-blade. 
 
 inner border near its extremity witli a small facet, by- 
 means of which it articulates with the outer end of the 
 collar-bone. This process is of great importance in rela- 
 tion to the surface contours, as it forms the summit of 
 the shoulder, and is superficial throughout. These details, 
 though somewhat tedious, are necessary, as without a know- 
 ledge of the shape of this bone it will be difficult to under- 
 stand its relation to the surrounding muscles and to the 
 surface. 
 
 Another process of hook-like form, called the coracoid 
 process, springs from the upper border of the blade-bone, 
 close to the external angle. This is important only as 
 
 Fig. 6i. On the left side of the figure the girdle is shown pulled 
 back, on the right side drawn forward. 
 
 a. Collar-bone (clavicle). c. Breast-bone. e. First rib, 
 
 h. Shoulder-blade (scapula). d. First dorsal vertebra. 
 
 affording attachment to muscles and ligaments, and is not 
 a determinant of surface form. 
 
 The surface of the blade-bone, opposite that to which the 
 spine is attached, is hollowed out so as to form a shallow 
 fossa in which fleshy muscles are lodged. This surface is 
 directed towards the chest-wall, and lies in relation to 
 the outer surfaces of the ribs, being separated from them 
 by sheets of intervening muscles. As has been said, 
 the collar-bone articulates with the acromion process of the 
 shoulder-blade. The joint itself is small and weak, but is 
 very much strengthened by powerful ligaments which pass 
 between the collar-bone and the coracoid process. 
 
Key to Plate XIV 
 
 spine of VI f cervical vertebra. ----_. 
 Trapesiti'. 
 
 ^,^-TraPesius. 
 
 ,. Acromion process 
 
 ',, — Deltoid. 
 
 ■■' Brackialis anticus. 
 Biceps cubiii 
 I Si^.tongMS 
 
 Biceps 
 
 cruris ■- 
 Vastus ext- 
 Semi-tcndinosHs 
 
 -Exierftal oblique. 
 
 -LMmbar aponeurosis. 
 
 -Iliac crest. 
 
 Posterior superior iliac spine. 
 
 GMeus medius. 
 
 Trochanter tnajor. 
 ■GlutcHs maxiiHHS. 
 
 •—Ilio-tibial band. 
 
 ■Semi-tendinosns. 
 
 Bictps cruris- 
 
 Vastus extcntus. 
 
 VIEW OF MALE BACK, WITH ARMS RAISED TO A RIGHT-ANGLE 
 
 Copyright^ 1899, by Hehrv Frowde] 
 
Shoulder-blade. 83 
 
 By the articulation of these bones an angle is formed, 
 which is occupied in great part by the rounded form of 
 the upper part of the chest-wall. The interval between the 
 girdle and the thoracic wall is occupied by the vessels, 
 nerves, and muscles of the upper limb. By means of 
 the above joint, the angle between the collar-bone and the 
 plane of the blade-bone can be modified so as to adapt 
 it to the form of the chest-wall. When the shoulders 
 are drawn back the angle is opened out ; when the arms are 
 thrown forward the angle is diminished (Fig. 61). A slight 
 amount of rotation of the blade-bone on the extremity of the 
 collar-bone may also take place at this articulation. The 
 continuity of the clavicle with the acromion can easily be 
 demonstrated on the living ; if the finger be placed on the 
 inner end of the collar-bone, then the outline of the bone 
 can readily be traced towards the shoulder to the point 
 of its articulation with the acromion; this is usually 
 recogniijed as a slight elevation. Passing round the summit 
 of the shoulder, the upper surface of the acromion can be 
 distinctly felt, and, if it be followed backward, the finger 
 will pass along the posterior border of the spine, until the 
 point is reached where that process blends with the in- 
 ternal margin of the blade-bone, a point which is still 
 further emphasized in the living, owing to the arrangement 
 of the muscles around it. 
 
 The only articulation which the blade-bone has with the 
 trunk is indirectly through the collar-bone, by means of 
 the union of the latter with the breast-bone. It is at 
 this joint, therefore, that many of the movements take 
 place which influence the position of the shoulder-blade. 
 
 The movements possible at this joint (sterno-olavicular 
 as it is called) when reduced to their simplest form are 
 those in an upward, downward, forward, and backward 
 direction, together with a slight degree of rotation of the 
 collar-bone on its own axis. These of course may be 
 
 G 2 
 
84 Shoulder-girdle. 
 
 variously combined. As has been seen, certain movements 
 take place at the aoromio-clavicular joint, so that the 
 movements of the blade-bone are further complicated by 
 the addition of those which are effected at the sterno- 
 clavicular articulation. 
 
 But, whilst the shoulder-blade is only thus slightly con- 
 nected with the osseous framework of the chest, it is very 
 efficiently supported and held in position by the many 
 muscles with which it is connected, and these react on the 
 surface form according as they are strongly developed 
 or not. 
 
 In man we usually find the outer end of the collar-bone 
 lying at a somewhat higher level than the inner end. In 
 woman the outer end of the bone lies either about the same 
 level as the inner end or somewhat lower. In other words, 
 in the male the collar-bones tend to slope outwards and 
 upwards ; in the female, outwards and downwards. This is 
 owing to the different form of the thorax in the two 
 sexes. The smaller and narrower chest of the female affords 
 the girdle less support than in man, in whom the larger 
 thorax furnishes a wider surface on which the girdle may 
 rest. But, independently of the form of the framework of 
 the chest, there are other factors which must be taken 
 into account ; these are the muscles. It often happens that 
 a person with sloping shoulders is recommended to indulge 
 in some form of gymnastic exercise to expand his chest. 
 After the age of twenty-five, when all the bones are fully 
 ossified and the figure set, any form of exercise will have 
 but little influence on the form of the thorax, except that 
 it stimulates a more healthy respiration. Yet we cannot 
 but admit the effect which the exercise has had on the man 
 for he appears now with braced-up figure and square 
 shoulders. The increase in breadth of the chest is not due 
 to any marked increase in the capacity or form of the chest- 
 wall, but is due almost entirely to the increase in size of 
 
Key to Plate XV 
 
 spine of yjf cervical vertebm 
 Trapezius. , 
 
 j4crcnntm' process.'"-^ 
 Spine of scapula ^ "'•., ""'•■ 
 Deltoid ,^ "'■•■.. "■•■. 
 
 Infya-^pinatus ~'--~.^ 
 
 Rhoinboideui majoi 
 Teres major, ^ 
 Triceps, longhead. 
 Biceps ciiiuii ^ 
 
 Latissitnui dam.. 
 
 Triceps tendon , 
 
 Triceps, 
 inner /lead.. ^ 
 Brachiaiis ant.. 
 External obliijtt 
 
 Olecrniioit 
 
 Int. condyle. 
 Biiipilalfas .. 
 
 Lintibar 
 
 aponeurosis... 
 Proii.radfer.— 
 Palmaris long... 
 Iliac era!.---- 
 Plexor en •'pi 
 
 PQsl.snpU:.t-.\^ 
 
 i^l.cart.>ad....\^^ 
 
 Gluteus wcf^M/j, - \VvU'- 
 
 Tyocltanier niaior. 
 Glutens mux . 
 
 —ExLcarpi uliiaris, 
 
 Ex t.cont. digit 
 
 ■■ Exl.carp.rad brev 
 
 '^iiconeii'^. 
 
 .Ext carp, rad.long. 
 
 .Exterttal condyle 
 
 i-l -Snpinalor longus. 
 
 4— \.. Ext. nilermiti. septum. 
 
 Triceps tendon. 
 
 ■hueps cubiti. 
 
 Brachiaiis anticus. 
 
 Triceps outer Mead. 
 
 Triceps, long head. 
 Deliotd. 
 
 Ilio-tibial band 
 
 Tensor fasciae femoris. 
 
 Trochan/er major. 
 
 Ilio-ttbial band. 
 
 VIEW OF MALE BACK, WITH RIGHT ARM RAISED ABOVE THE HEAD 
 
 Copyright, J899, hy Henry Fhowdk] 
 
Shoulder-girdle. 85 
 
 the muscles, brouglit about by exercise. As lias been shown, 
 some of these muscles lie between the blade-bone and the 
 chest-wall, and one can readily understand how any in- 
 crease in the thickness of these layers will tend to push 
 upwards and outwards the blade-bone from the chest- wall, 
 and so impart to the shoulders that squareness which is so 
 desirable in the male figure. 
 
 In regard to the relative proportions of these bones to 
 others, we find that the collar-bone is usually about the 
 same length as the osseous part of the breast-bone, or about 
 half the length of the bone of the upper arm. The length 
 of the internal border of the shoulder-blade very nearly 
 approximates to that of the collar-bone. These measure- 
 ments are very liable to vary, and must not be taken as 
 affecting any scientific accuracy; they are merely put 
 forward as aids to assist the draughtsman to apportion 
 approximately the lengths to these different bones. 
 
 Before passing to the consideration of the muscles which 
 move the upper limb on the trunk, it will be necessary 
 to enter into a short explanation of the mode in which 
 muscles act. Taking the simple case where two long bones 
 are united by a joint which permits of a hinge-like move- 
 ment, it will be apparent that any muscle attached to the 
 upper bone and passing down over the joint, either in 
 front of or behind it, to be inserted into the lower bone, 
 will, when it contracts, effect a movement of the lower 
 bone on the upper. If the muscle passes in front of the 
 joint, the limb will be bent or flexed ; if it passes behind 
 the joint, the limb will be straightened or extended. Such 
 muscles are called direct flexors or extensors. 
 
 But it not unfrequently happens that a muscle which 
 takes origin from the upper bone is not inserted into the 
 bone immediately below, but passes over that bone to be 
 inserted into one beyond. In this case the muscle passes 
 over more than one articulation. All the intervening joints 
 
86 Action of Muscles. 
 
 may be influenced by the contraction of such a muscle, 
 but as the action of this muscle is not brought to bear 
 directly on the intermediate bone it has been described as 
 possessing an indirect action. 
 
 To take the case with which we are immediately con- 
 cerned. A number of muscles pass from the trunk to the 
 bones of the shoulder-girdle. These have a direct influence 
 on the movements of the bones of the girdle, but there are 
 others which, arising from the trunk, are not attached to 
 the bones of the girdle, but pass to be inserted into the bone 
 of the upper arm, which is connected with the shoulder- 
 girdle by the shoulder-joint. These muscles act primarily 
 upon the bone of the upper arm, moving it at the shoulder- 
 joint, but they also secondarily affect the movements of the 
 girdle through its connexion with the bone of the upper 
 arm. This is the indirect action of these muscles, and they 
 are therefore described as acting indirectly on the move- 
 ments of the girdle in contradistinction to those which 
 act directly upon it. 
 
 Arranging the muscles according to their action, it will 
 be most convenient to take up the consideration of that 
 group which acts directly on the girdle, namely, those 
 which arise from the trunk and are inserted into the bones 
 of the girdle. It will not be necessary to describe them 
 all, for some have no influence on the surface form, and 
 may for present purposes be disregarded. 
 
 The muscles with which we are particularly concerned 
 are the trapezius, the rhomboids, the levator anguli scapulae, 
 the serratus magnus, and the pectoralis minor. Be it under- 
 stood that these muscles are symmetrical on the two sides 
 of the body. There is a pair of each, one of each pair being 
 assigned to opposite sides of the trunk. 
 
 Unfortunately there is no English equivalent for these 
 technical names, so that the student has no other alternative 
 than to acquire a familiarity with these anatomical terms. 
 
< 
 
 PS 
 
 s 
 < 
 
 H 
 X 
 O 
 
 ffl H 
 
 U 
 O 
 
 > 
 
 M 
 
 < 
 >-) 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 >- 
 
 w 
 
 Q 
 H 
 in 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 < 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 b. 
 O 
 
Trapezius. 87 
 
 The trapezius (Fig. 62), so called from the four-sided 
 figure which the muscles of opposite sides form, has been 
 compared, when we consider the muscles of both sides 
 together, to a tippet hanging over the shoulders, the tip 
 of which reaches to about the level of the spine of the 
 last thoracic vertebra. In order to render this description 
 intelligible, it is necessary to supplement it by supposing 
 that the muscles extend upwards along the back and sides 
 of the neck to the skull, somewhat in the fashion of a high 
 collar, the peak of which reaches the back of the head. 
 
 The two muscles take origin from the middle line, ex- 
 tending above as high as the back of the skull or occiput, 
 on either side of which they are attached for a variable 
 distance to a rough ridge which is called the superior 
 curved line of the occipital bone ; and reaching as low down 
 as the level of the spine of the last thoracic vertebra. 
 In the neck the muscles arise from a median ligament, 
 which extends from the occiput superiorly to the spine of 
 the seventh neck vertebra, or the vertebra prominens, 
 inferiorly. Below this level the muscles are attached to 
 the tip of the spine of the seventh neck vertebra, to the 
 spines of all the thoracic vertebrae, and to the ligaments 
 which connect these spines together. 
 
 From this wide attachment the fibres converge to be 
 inserted into the outer third or fourth of the posterior 
 border of the collar-bone in front, and along the entire 
 upper border of the acromion process and spine of the 
 shoulder-blade at the side and behind. This insertion 
 involves a considerable alteration in the direction of the 
 fibres of the different parts of the muscle ; thus the fibres 
 which arise from the occiput and neck pass downwards, 
 outwards, and forwards toward the collar-bone and acromion, 
 whilst those which spring from the lower thoracic spines 
 ascend upwards and outwards to the root of the spine 
 of the shoulder-blade. The fibres which arise from the 
 
88 Trapezius. 
 
 intermediate attacliments of tlie muscle pass outwards with 
 a varying degree of obliquity, wMlst those which spring 
 from the upper two dorsal spines are nearly horizontal in 
 direction when the limb is at rest by the side of the 
 trunk (Pis., pp. 52, 82, 84). 
 
 The muscle is attached to these points and surfaces by 
 means of tendinous fibres, which are usually short ; but in 
 some situations they are longer, and give rise to alterations 
 in the surface forms dependent on this muscle, for where 
 the tendinous fibres are long they are represented on the 
 surface by flattened depressions in contrast with the pro- 
 minences produced by the contraction of the fleshy fibres. 
 
 The tendinous fibres are long at the origin of the muscle 
 in the lower region of the neck and upper part of the 
 thorax ; they reach their maximum length about the level 
 of the spine of the vertebra prominens (seventh neck 
 vertebra) ; a lozenge- shaped figure is thus formed by the 
 muscles of opposite sides, the inferior angle of which 
 reaches as low as the third thoracic spine, whilst above 
 it gradually tapers towards the occiput. On a level with 
 the external angles of this area is the projection formed 
 by the spine of the seventh cervical vertebra in the middle 
 line. During the powerful contraction of the muscles this 
 area corresponds to a surface depression, in the centre of 
 which the projection caused by the spine of the seventh 
 cervical vertebra is readily recognized (Pis., pp. 36, 82, 84, 
 86, 92, 234). 
 
 At the lowest point of origin of the muscle from the last 
 two or three dorsal spines the tendinous fibres form a small 
 triangular aponeurosis. This, combined with that of the 
 opposite side, forms a diamond-shaped surface which, when 
 the muscles are powerftdly contracted, corresponds to a 
 depression on the surface of the back of somewhat similar 
 shape, though less apparent than the above. A third 
 tendinous area is noticeable over the point where the spine 
 
Rhomboids. 89 
 
 of tlie shoulder-blade becomes blended with the internal 
 border of that bone. As the parts of the muscle around 
 this are thrown into relief during contraction, there is 
 a surface depression in correspondence with it, but the 
 position of the depression varies with the movements of 
 the blade-bones (Pis., pp. 36, 84, 86, 92, 234). 
 
 The entire muscle is superficial ; that is to say, it is merely 
 covered by the skin and the superficial fatty layer which 
 lies beneath the skin. According to the thickness of this 
 fatty layer the sharpness of the surface forms dependent 
 on the muscle will vary, being obscured in those in whom 
 there is much fat. The surface forms also depend on the 
 development of the muscles themselves. 
 
 These muscles overlie deeper layers of muscles, and so 
 they themselves are influenced by the form of the structures 
 on which they rest. On either side of the middle line 
 he rounded form of the back is not due to the trapezii, 
 which here constitute a comparatively thin layer, but 
 depends on the fullness of the erectores spinae group upon 
 which they lie (Pis., pp. 34, 84). 
 
 Beneath the trapezius there are three muscles attached 
 to the internal border of the blade-bone. These are the 
 two rhomboids and the elevator of the angle of the scapula. 
 For our purpose we may consider the two rhornboids as 
 forming one muscular sheet. This is attached along the 
 middle line, extending as high as the lower half of the 
 median ligament of the neck and passing downwards to 
 be connected with the spine of the seventh neck vertebra 
 and the spines of the first five thoracic vertebrae. The 
 muscle lies higher at its origin than at its insertion, so 
 that its fibres are directed downwards and outwards towards 
 their insertion into the inner border of the shoulder-blade, 
 where their attachment extends from the root of the spine 
 down to the inferior angle (Fig. 62). 
 
 These muscles, although covered by the trapezius, with 
 
go Rhomboids. 
 
 the exception of a small portion below close to the inferior 
 angle of the blade -bone, exercise a considerable influence 
 on the surface contours, as during their contraction they form 
 a somewhat broad and oblique elevation which accentuates 
 the relief of the trapezius muscles which overlie them 
 
 Fig. 62. View of the muscles attached to the shoulder-blade. The 
 trapezius has been cut away on the left side of the figure. 
 
 a. Trapezius muscle. 
 
 b. Ehomboid. 
 
 G. Elevator of the angle of the scapula 
 (levator anguli scapulae). 
 
 d, Splenius muscle. 
 
 e. Complexus muscle. 
 
 /. Sterno-mastoid muscle. 
 
 g. Infrarspiaous fossa oil back of scapula. 
 
 h. Acromion process of scapula. 
 
 i. Spine of scapula, 
 
 j. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 k. Humerus. 
 
 (Pis., pp. 82, 84, 86, 234). The elevator of the upper angle of 
 the scapula([6ra,tor anguli scapulae) arises from the transverse 
 processes of the higher neck vertebrae and is inserted into 
 the inner border of the blade-bone above the level of the 
 
Action of Trapezius. 91 
 
 spine. It is merely mentioned here as it assists in giving 
 the rounded form to the neck and this part of the back. 
 The greater part of the muscle is covered by the trapezius 
 (PI, p. 234). 
 
 The action of these several muscles may now be described. 
 As will be seen from a study of the direction of its fibres, 
 the upper and lower portions of the trapezius may antagonize 
 one another. The upper or neck part of the muscle 
 may act in one of two ways, according to which of its 
 extremities is fi:xed. If the shoulder-girdle be rendered 
 immovable, and both muscles act at the same time, the 
 head will be extended, that is, thrown back. If one 
 muscle alone be brought into play the head will be drawn 
 to the same side, and rotated slightly away from the side 
 on which the muscle is contracting. If on the other hand 
 the head and neck be fixed, the upper fibres of the muscle 
 will raise the shoulder-girdle, while the intermediate fibres 
 will also assist in elevating the point of the shoulder. If 
 the lower fibres be alone called into action they will depress 
 the shoulder-blade, and thus draw down the shoulder. The 
 intermediate fibres also act in drawing the blade-bones 
 closer to the middle line, as in the act of pulling back 
 the shoulders, and the entire muscle, acting at one and the 
 same time, fixes the shoulder-blade, and thus furnishes a firm 
 base of support from which the limb may act (Pis., pp. 34, 
 36, 38, 42, 82, 84, 86, 92, 96, 102, 106, 108, 234, 332J. 
 
 It is needless to say that these movements are the result 
 of a combination of the action of many other muscles, but 
 for present purposes it is best to simplify the description 
 as much as possible. The rotatory movements of the 
 scapula will be described later. 
 
 The rhomboids elevate the blade-bone and draw it nearer 
 the middle line. The levator anguli scapulae, as its name 
 implies, raises the upper angle of the bone (PL, p. 234). 
 
 The serratus magnus muscle is a broad, somewhat fan- 
 
92 
 
 Serratus magnus. 
 
 shaped sheet of muscular fibre, and has an extensive origin 
 from the side of the chest- wall. Passing backwards it is 
 closely applied to the chest- wall, and lies between it and 
 the deep surface of the blade-bone, to the inner border 
 of which it is attached. The position of this muscle is 
 difficult to understand : a diagram may help to explain it. 
 Fig. 63 represents a section across the chest-cavity ; 
 the shoulder-blades are seen on either side and behind, 
 and the muscle is represented in section, arising from 
 the side of the chest- wall, rather towards the front, and 
 passing back between the chest-wall and shoulder-blade 
 
 Fig. 63. Diagrammatic section across the chest to show the relations 
 of the great serratus muscle. 
 
 a. Head of humerus. 
 
 b. A dorsal vertebra^ 
 
 c. Bibs in section. 
 
 d. Breast-bone. 
 
 e. Shoulder-blade. 
 
 f, Serratus niag;nus muscle. 
 
 to be attached to the inner border of that bone. Only 
 a small portion of the muscle is superficial, as it is in great 
 part covered by other muscles and by the blade-bone ; but 
 the part which is superficial has a most important influence 
 on the surface forms, and corresponds to that row of finger- 
 like elevations on the side of the chest- wall with which the 
 student is familiar in the model when the arm is raised 
 (Pis., pp. 62, 72, 102, 106, 108, 282) ; they are well shown on 
 the figure of the Gladiator. These elevations correspond to 
 the points of origin of the muscle, and it will be necessary 
 to describe them (see Figs. 64, 65). The muscle arises by 
 eight or nine fleshy slips from the outer surface of the eight 
 
o 
 < 
 a 
 
 < 
 m 
 o 
 (/) 
 
 ci 
 u 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 t/i 
 
 H 
 
 $ 
 
 < 
 
 b 
 O 
 
 ^ 
 
 ifjf 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 Id 
 H 
 
 PL, 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 Ph 
 M 
 
 O 
 b 
 
Serratus magnus. 
 
 93 
 
 upper ribs. The upper fibres may be disregarded. The fibres 
 from the lowest five or six slips of origin converge in a fan- 
 like shape to be inserted in the lower angle of the inner 
 border of the blade-bone, forming a well-marked fleshy 
 prominence which, though it is not superficial, yet influences 
 to a marked degree the surface contour. The muscle which 
 covers it, and which will be presently described, forms a 
 relatively thin layer over it. The lower and anterior part 
 
 Fig. 64. View to show the 
 serratus magnus muscle with 
 the shoulder-blade in its na- 
 tural position. 
 
 a. ShonldeT-blade. 
 
 &. Glenoid fossa for head of humerus. 
 
 Fig. 65. The same, with the 
 shoulder-blade turned away from 
 the chest-wall in order to show the 
 insertion of the muscle into the an- 
 terior aspect of the inner or verte- 
 bral border of the bone. 
 
 c. Coraooid process. 
 
 d. Acromion process. 
 
 of the serratus muscle is however superficial, and it is here 
 that its influence on the surface contours is most readily 
 recognized. This part of the muscle comprises the lowest 
 four slips which arise from the surfaces of the fifth, sixth, 
 seventh, and eighth ribs. These slips consist of pointed, 
 finger-like, fleshy processes, called digitations, and, owing to 
 
94 
 
 Serratus magnus. 
 
 the fact that they are placed between corresponding slips 
 of origin of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, 
 they are said to interdigitate with these attachments of 
 the latter muscle, just as we can thrust the fingers of one 
 hand between the fingers of the other. 
 
 It is this arrangement 
 which gives rise to the 
 zigzag jEurrow which is so 
 characteristic a feature of 
 the lower and lateral part 
 of the chest- wall in violent 
 action of these muscles. 
 The general direction of 
 the farrow so produced 
 corresponds to a gently 
 curved line, with the 
 convexity directed down- 
 wards, drawn from the 
 nipple above towards the 
 posterior end of the crest 
 of the haunch-bone below. 
 The furrow is obliterated 
 for a short distance below 
 the nipple by the fleshy 
 mass of the great pectoral 
 muscle ; inferiorly and 
 posteriorly it fades away, 
 where it joins the broad 
 shallow furrow of the 
 waist, and where it is overlapped by the lower fibres of the 
 latissimus dorsi. The two muscles which have just been 
 mentioned, the latissimus dorsi and the pectoralis major, will 
 be described in the next group. It has been necessary to 
 anticipate here in referring to them. The higher fibres of 
 the serratus magnus are not as a rule exposed, except when 
 
 Fig. 56. A view to show the struc- 
 tures which underlie the deltoid and 
 great pectoral muscles, the outlines of 
 which are represented in dotted lines. 
 The separation of the clavicular fibres 
 from the sternal fibres of the great 
 pectoral is also shown by a dotted 
 line. 
 
 a. Collar-bone {clavicle). 
 6. Breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 c. Acromion process of scapula. 
 
 d. Coracoid process of scapula. 
 
 e. Pectoralis minor muscle. 
 y. Ooraoo-brachialis muscle. 
 
 g Short head of biceps muscle. 
 h. Long head of biceps muscle. 
 k. Humerus. 
 
Action of Serratus magnus. 95 
 
 we raise the arm over the back of the head, in which action 
 the surface of the chest- wall in the hollow of the armpit 
 corresponds to these fibres (PL, p. 108). 
 
 The muscle assists in keeping the blade-bone closely 
 applied to the chest-wall, and during contraction draws 
 it forward as a whole (PL, p. 92). It is brought into play in 
 the act of pushing, and is the chief muscle by which the 
 thrusting movement in fencing is effected. It can also 
 bring about rotation of the shoulder-blade, but the descrip- 
 tion of this movement is for the time delayed. 
 
 The pectoralis minor muscle (Fig. 66) is not important 
 as a modifying influence on the surface forms, for it is 
 covered as a rule by the great pectoral, and it is only in ex- 
 ceptional positions of the limb that we can trace directly 
 its form on the surface. It takes origin from the front 
 of the chest- wall under cover of the great pectoral ; its fibres 
 arise from the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, just where these 
 unite with their rib cartilages, and passing upwards and 
 outwards it is inserted by means of a pointed tendon into 
 the hook-like coracoid process of the shoulder-blade. Under- 
 lying, as it does, the great pectoral, it imparts a fullness 
 to the upper fleshy part of the chest, and when the arm 
 is raised upright a small part of its lower border becomes 
 superficial. This does not give rise to any distinct elevation 
 of the surface, but helps to impart the rounded form to 
 the fleshy fold which bounds the hollow of the armpit in 
 front. During contraction the muscle depresses the shoulder 
 and assists in drawing it forward. 
 
 It is by the combined action of certain of these muscles 
 which have just been described that the movements of 
 rotation of the scapula are effected. The manner of their 
 action can best be explained by the aid of diagrams. 
 
 Fig. 67 represents in a schematic way the combined 
 action of the trapezius behind and the serratus magnus in 
 front. The lower fibres of the trapezius tend to pull 
 
96 
 
 Rotation of Scapula. 
 
 downwards and backwards the upper angle of the blade- 
 bone ; the serratus draws downwards and forwards the 
 inferior angle ; the result is a rotation of the bone by which 
 the lower angle is advanced and the upper angle pulled 
 back in the directions represented by the arrows in the 
 diagram. Fig. 68 shows rotation in the opposite direction. 
 The rhomboids and elevator of the angle, attached to the 
 inner border of the blade-bone, draw the lower angle 
 upwards and nearer the middle line, whilst the pectoralis 
 minor, inserted near the external angle, drags down- 
 
 /~-i 
 
 Figs. 67 and 68. Diagrams to show how rotation of the scapula is 
 effected. 
 
 d. The lower fibres of trapezius passing 
 up over root of spine. 
 In combination these portions of 
 the muscles will cause the bone 
 to rotate in the direction of the 
 arrows. 
 
 o. Pectoralis minor muscle. 
 6. Rhomboideus muscle. 
 
 The combined action of these muscles 
 
 will cause rotation in the direction 
 
 indicated by the arrows. 
 t. The fibres of serratus magnus attached 
 
 to lower angle of shoulder-blade. 
 
 wards and forwards that part of the bone, the combination 
 of the two actions being a rotatory movement in a 
 direction opposite to that above described. This differ- 
 ence is indicated by the direction in which the arrows 
 point. 
 
 Before describing those muscles which have an indirect 
 influence on the movements of the shoulder-girdle through 
 their attachment to the bone of the upper arm, it will be 
 necessary to say something about that bone, and also to 
 
Key to Plate XVIII 
 
 Spine of yj/ cervical vertebra. 
 Trapezius.^ 
 
 Acromion process 
 
 Spine of scapuk 
 Deltoid.., _ 
 Jufra-spinaius. 
 RJiOtnb.maj.,^ 
 
 Gluteus 
 JHo-tibiai band 
 
 Mead of mIho. 
 .Ext.secuKdi 
 inte^nod poll. 
 
 * ^ /^/^^^\, Extensors of Ihmnb. 
 
 "^^^S^^S^^xt-cmnJigitornm. 
 
 Ext.carp.rad. 
 
 brevtor. 
 
 ^^L .XX ^%^^li^arp.ulH. 
 
 \AncOHeits. 
 
 '^'/// l^yy'-- f'/Jm '■ '■■ '■ • '^"""prad.hHg. 
 
 vSK?/ ■■ '^^(///,/ ydj^M'-- ''■■ ■■■ '■■ '■■ S«pin«lcr Imgtis. 
 
 ^^7/7 '■ ■.l^4i''('™'^'^T- '"• ''■ '■ '■ '■ ' BrachiaUs aniicu,. 
 
 ■ W//, 'i^^^ST £'m. '■■.'■■. ■■■..'■■.■■■,'■■.' Biafstum. 
 
 S^l ll //==^g =^ '^^M '"'- ''•'"• '■• '■ '• Tritrps, oulcr ieaJ. 
 
 ^l! jljir^^^lf^^-^m- ""- •.'■ ''■■ ■■ '- Triceps, Irntg heml. 
 
 ^^^$\-#s '''/^^J>- 'M '■ •■ ' ■■^■>'''- ■ """"" 
 
 'C^'^C' \\y ■ 7 — "^Z^^^^^ V-- w/vil '-- "' -■ ■- *■• "■■ ' j4cromi<m Process 
 
 > \i [ "^!^-^:X<:<xr ■'/™--. "-- *"-. "•■ '■." />«j major. 
 
 ■^> ' Im '''-'-. ^ '■■".''■-."'"" ■ -Spine of scapuia. 
 
 '^'Zy/'/^/Wi "■■-•. "■■"■■-" —Ittfra-sptnatHS. 
 
 \ ^yyyy^/J ^i '''':''•'. RJiomboidens major. 
 
 J^ </^Mm, '" ':. 7rapes,HS. 
 
 -\ ' '^yVy////^^^ '' -Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 y ■="-■' "^^MTOV^ External oblique. 
 
 ix — ■^■nnftii^WimVm ' Lumbar aponeurosis. 
 
 //^^ ^^^X^lll\l 1 ^ Posterior superior iliac sptMe 
 
 i^//^^ J 'A*$^^[^\^!/lT \ Gluteus meOius 
 
 -Posterior surface of sacrum. 
 _ - Gluieus maxiiHUi 
 
 "H^^lf^f- - Trochanter major. 
 
 / / //ymW ^^^^&v I 'Tensor fasciae femoris. 
 
 VIEW OF MALE BACK, WITH RIGHT ARM RAISliD AND BENT 
 
 Copyright^ 1B99, ^^ Hemhv FrowdbJ 
 
Humerus. 
 
 97 
 
 give some account of the shoulder-joint. The bone of the 
 upper arm is called the humerus. It is the first example, 
 
 Right Humerus. 
 Fig. 70. Outer side. Fig. 71. Back view. 
 
 h. Capitellum for articulation with head 
 
 of radius. 
 i. Trochlear surface for articulation 
 with ulna. 
 
 e. Deltoid impression where deltoid j. External condyloid ridge, 
 muscle is inserted. k. Internal condyloid ridge. 
 
 /. Internal condyle. These ridges aiford attachment to the 
 
 g. External condyle. external and internal intermuscular 
 
 septa respectively. 
 
 Fig. 69. Front view. 
 
 a. Head. 
 
 b. Greater tuberosity. 
 
 c. Lesser tuberosity. 
 
 d. Bicipital groove. 
 
 as yet met with, of a long bone. As has been seen, the 
 long bones occur only in the limbs and serve as the levers 
 
98 Humerus. 
 
 through which the power is transmitted. As the bones 
 of the upper limb are not concerned in supporting the 
 trunk, they are smaller and not so stout as the bones 
 of the lower limb which have to sustain the body weight. 
 The long bones have many characters in common; they 
 are usually described as consisting of a shaft and two 
 extremities. Of the latter, the upper is usually called the 
 head. To this rule there is an exception in the case of 
 the ulna, the inner bone of the fore-arm, the lower end 
 f which is named the head. This term, though usually 
 applied to the upper extremity of a long bone, is not so 
 employed unless that end of the bone displays a rounded 
 appearance — thus we speak of the head of the humerus, the 
 head of the femur, the head of the radius, but we do not 
 so describe the upper end of the tibia. Both ends of 
 a long bone are provided with articular surfaces, whilst 
 the shaft affords attachment for the muscles which cause 
 the movements. 
 
 The upper end of the humerus is enlarged, and is pro- 
 vided with a hemispherical surface. This is the head, 
 which in the recent condition is covered with cartilage, 
 and articulates with the shallow socket on the outer angle 
 of the blade-bone. To the outer side, in front, and below 
 the head, the bone is rough and prominent, forming two 
 well-marked tuberosities for the attachment of muscles; 
 these are called the greater and lesser tuberosities. There 
 is a groove between the two tuberosities, to the outer side 
 of which the greater tuberosity lies, whilst the lesser 
 tuberosity is placed on the inner side. From both these 
 tuberosities prominent ridges of bone descend on either 
 side of the groove, forming well-marked lips. The groove 
 is called the bicipital groove, from the fact that in it 
 lies one of the tendons of origin of the biceps muscle of 
 the arm (Fig. 66, p. 94). 
 
 The shaft of the bone, which is cylindrical above, becomes 
 
Humerus. 
 
 99 
 
 flattened below, so that its surfaces may be described as 
 anterior and posterior. Tbese surfaces are separated by 
 inner and outer margins, wbicli end inferiorly in two 
 prominent processes, called the condyles of the humerus. 
 The condyles are placed one on either side of the lower 
 articular end of the bone, which is much broader from 
 side to side than from before backwards. On the outer 
 side of the shaft, about its middle, and formed by the 
 recurved margin of the outer lip of the bicipital groove, 
 there is a rough V-shaped impression, called the deltoid 
 impression, which affords insertion to the muscle of that 
 name. The fuller consideration of the lower end of the 
 
 Fig. 72. Diagrammatic section across the chest to show the relations 
 of the great serratus muscle. 
 
 a. Head of humerus. 
 6. A dorsal vertebra, 
 c. Bibs in section. 
 
 d. Breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 e. Shoulder-blade. 
 
 /. Serratus maguus muscle. 
 
 bone will be delayed until the elbow-joint is described 
 (see p. 125). 
 
 The upper end and shaft of the humerus do not im- 
 mediately come in relation to the surface, being enveloped 
 in the fleshy mass of the shoulder and upper arm. This 
 part of the bone, however, determines to a large extent 
 the general form of the limb by supporting the muscles 
 which surround it. Particularly is this the case in the 
 region of the shoulder, for here the large rounded head 
 underlying the muscles of the shoulder imparts to them 
 that roundness which is so characteristic. This is at 
 
 H 2 
 
loo Humerus. 
 
 once apparent, for, if from any cause the head of the bone 
 is displaced, the roundness of the shoulder disappears. 
 
 In this connexion there is one other point to be noted. 
 If we examine the humerus in an articulated skeleton, when 
 the bones of the limb are in a position corresponding to 
 
 Fig. 73. View of the bones which enter into the formation of the 
 shoulder-joint as seen from the front. 
 
 a. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 b. Breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 c. Acromion process of scapula. 
 
 d. Coracoid process of scapula. 
 
 e. Coraco-acromial ligament. 
 
 /. Shaft of humerus ; the impression for 
 the attachment of the deltoid muscle 
 
 is just below and to the outer side 
 of the letter f. 
 g. Placed on the anterior surface of 
 the shoulder-blade (scapula). This 
 is the surface of the bone which is 
 directed towards the chest-wall. 
 
 that which they occupy in the living when the arm is 
 hanging loosely by the side, it will be noticed that the 
 articular head of the humerus is not turned directly inwards, 
 but inwards and backwards. Owing to this the great 
 tuberosity of the bone is directed somewhat forwards. The 
 importance of this will be at once apparent if the shoulders 
 of the living be examined. In them the most prominent 
 part of the shoulder points towards the front, as is repre- 
 
Shoulder-joint. 
 
 lOI 
 
 sented in the diagram (Fig. 72), and not towards the side, 
 as one might naturally be led to expect (PL, p. 332). 
 
 The shoulder-joint is remarkable for the wide range of its 
 movement. The external angle of the blade-bone is pro- 
 vided with a shallow hollow, called the glenoid fossa (see 
 
 Fig. 74. Shows the change in position of the bones of the shoulder- 
 girdle when the arm is luised ; i. e. elevation of the collar-bone, and 
 advance and rotation of the shoulder-blade. 
 
 u. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 u. Humerus. 
 
 b. Shoulder-blade (scapula). 
 
 Figs. 57, 58, 59). This is coated with cartilage, and slightly 
 deepened by a ligament which surrounds its margin. The 
 articular surface so produced is small compared with the 
 articular area on the head of the humerus, the margin of 
 the fossa not interfering in any way with the free move- 
 ment of the head of the humerus, as would have been the 
 case had the socket been large enough and sufficiently deep 
 to have embraced a greater portion of the articular head. 
 
I02 Shoulder-joint. 
 
 The ligaments which surround this joint and form its 
 capsule are very loose. The joint is protected above by 
 an arch, formed by the acromion and coracoid processes 
 of the blade-bone, which are united by a strong ligament 
 (Fig. 73, e). 
 
 Movement in every direction may take place at the 
 shoulder-joint. These movements will be better understood 
 if we resolve them into their simplest forms. 
 
 There are the movements of abduction and adduction, by 
 which the arm is raised from or drawn down to the side. 
 Flexion and extension are movements in a forward and 
 backward direction ; the latter is more limited in its range 
 than any of the others. There is the combination of these 
 four movements termed circwmduction, and an additional 
 movement, that of rotation, by which the shaft of the 
 humerus is turned on its long axis. If the elbow be bent 
 at a right angle, and the fore-arm crossed over the front of 
 the trunk, we can by this rotatory movement of the humerus 
 carry the fore-arm away from the front of the chest, at the 
 same time that we keep the elbow close to the side. The 
 range of this rotatory movement is slightly more than 
 a quarter of a circle. 
 
 Another interesting observation may be made regarding 
 the movements of abduction and flexion. If we raise the 
 arm from the side, or bend it forwards, we can do so to 
 a considerable extent without causing any very extensive 
 movement of the shoulder-blade, as may be ascertained by 
 placing the opposite hand over that bone ; but when we 
 have raised the limb from the side, so as to make a right 
 angle with the trunk, we find, if we continue to raise 
 the arm higher, that the movement is not now taking 
 place at the shoulder-joint, but is being effected through 
 the rotation of the scapula, the lower angle of which can 
 be readily felt advancing forwards and upwards (Fig. 74). 
 The same holds good when we bend the arm forward. We 
 
1 
 
 ^ .8 iJ I I J ■§ 
 
 Q 
 
 ss 
 
 OS 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 
 < 
 
 z 
 
 M 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 a 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 W4 
 
 >J 
 
 
 < 
 
 U 
 
 S 
 
 > 
 
 
 o 
 
 b 
 
 n 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 S 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 S^ 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 a. 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 Id 
 
 
 
 
 f II 
 
 I ^ 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
Latissimus dorsi. 103 
 
 can do so at the shoulder-joint, until we have nearly reached 
 a right angle with the line of the trunk, after which the 
 further movement takes place by the rotation of the scapula, 
 as before (Pis., pp. 38, 82, 84, 86, 102, 104, 106). 
 
 In considering the movements of the shoulder-joint 
 in connexion with the muscles which produce them, it 
 will be necessary to revert to what has been already said 
 in relation to the movements of the shoulder- girdle. 
 The first group of muscles which we considered were 
 those which arose from the trunk and were inserted into 
 the bones of the girdle. The second group comprises 
 those muscles which arise from the trunk, and which pass 
 to be attached to the bone of the upper arm. There are two 
 such muscles, the latissimus dorsi, or the broad muscle of 
 the back, and the pectoralis major, or the great muscle 
 of the breast. The one overlies the lower and back part of 
 the trunk, the other is placed on the front and upper part 
 of the chest. 
 
 The latissimus dorsi (Fig. 75) has an extensive origin 
 from the lower six thoracic spines and the spines of the 
 lumbar and sacral vertebra, as well as from an inch or 
 two of the posterior end of the crest of the haunch- bone. 
 This origin of the muscle consists of tendinous fibres, short 
 above, but increasing in length below, and forming a 
 fibrous layer, which constitutes the posterior layer of the 
 lumbar aponeurosis (Fig. 41, p. 57). In addition to these 
 attachments, it also arises by fleshy slips from the last 
 three ribs, slips which interdigitate with the origin of 
 the external oblique in a similar manner to that already 
 described in the case of the serratus magnus. At its 
 origin from the lower six thoracic spines the muscle is 
 overlapped by the trapezius, and it in turn overlies the 
 erector spinae, which is lodged in a compartment the 
 superficial wall of which is formed by the aponeurosis of 
 the latissimus dorsi. 
 
I04 Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 Tke line of attacliment of the fleshy fibres of the muscle 
 to the aponeurosis is indicated by a curved line drawn 
 from the highest point of attachment of the muscle, near 
 the middle line, to its inferior attachment to the iliac crest. 
 The convexity of the curve is inwards. This arrangement of 
 the fleshy and tendinous fibres is important, because it is 
 readily recognized on the surface of the back of a muscular 
 model (Pis., pp. 34, 44). From this extensive attachment the 
 fleshy fibres converge towards the posterior fold of the arm- 
 pit ; here they become thick, and help to form the roundness 
 of that fold ; they then pass forward to be inserted into the 
 front of the upper part of the shaft of the humerus, to a line 
 corresponding to the bottom of the bicipital groove. 
 
 The upper fibres of the muscle are almost horizontal in 
 direction, and as they pass outwards across the back they 
 overlie the inferior angle of the blade-bone, to which they 
 are not unfrequently attached ; here they serve a useful 
 purpose in preventing the lower angle of the blade-bone 
 from being separated from the chest-wall in certain move- 
 ments of the limb. It sometimes happens that, as a result 
 of violent muscular effort, the lower angle of the shoulder- 
 blade slips from under cover of the muscle. Under such 
 circumstances it is not readily replaced beneath the latissi- 
 mus dorsi, and a deformity results in the shape of an 
 undue projection of the lower part of the scapula, thereby 
 demonstrating the action of the muscle in keeping the 
 blade-bone closely applied to the chest-wall. The upper 
 border of the muscle can usually be easily seen on the 
 model just as it overlaps the lower angle of the blade-bone 
 (Pis., pp. 36, 38, 44, 84, 106, 234). 
 
 The lower fibres and those which spring from the last 
 three ribs pass almost vertically upwards, corresponding 
 very closely above to the outline of the front of the upper 
 arm when the limb is hanging by the side (Pis., pp. 44, 102, 
 106, 282). 
 
Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 105 
 
 As tte fibres of the muscle are gathered together to be 
 inserted into the bottom of the bicipital groove they are 
 naturally brought in relation to the external border of the 
 blade-bone, which is here clothed by fleshy muscles, around 
 which the fibres of the latissi- 
 mus curve, thus forming as it 
 were a sling in which these 
 structures lie. The result of 
 this arrangement is that the 
 posterior surface of the muscle 
 on the bach of the trunk 
 becomes the anterior surface 
 of its tendon of insertion in 
 front of the arm (Fig. 75). 
 
 The fibres of the muscle are 
 comparatively thin behind, but 
 form a thicker layer as they 
 pass upward and outward to the 
 arm ; there, as already stated, 
 they assist in forming the thick 
 fleshy fold which bounds the 
 armpit behind, and which is 
 best seen when the limb is 
 raised from the side (PL, p. 108). 
 
 As has been already said, the 
 anterior border of the muscle 
 overlaps the serratus magnus 
 on the side of the chest- wall, 
 and the interdigitation of the 
 fibres which spring from the 
 last three ribs with the external 
 oblique muscle forms the con- 
 tinuation of the zigzag furrow, already referred to (p. 94), 
 between the serratus magnus and the higher slips of origin 
 of the external oblique. 
 
 Fig. 75. Diagram showing 
 the attachments of the latissi- 
 mus dorsi muscle. The other 
 muscles are not represented. 
 The fleshy fibres of the latissimus 
 are seen crossing the lower 
 angle of the shoulder-blade, and 
 turning forwards to bend on 
 themselves so that the tendon 
 may pass to its insertion into 
 the bottom of the bicipital 
 groove on the front of the 
 humerus. This twisting of the 
 muscle forms a groove or sling 
 in which the fleshy part of the 
 teres major muscle is placed. 
 
io6 
 
 Pedoralis major. 
 
 If the arm be raised the latissimus will assist in drawing 
 it down to tlie side. With the limb by the side the 
 muscle draws it downwards and backwards, and so causes 
 the shoulder-blade to move slightly downwards and nearer 
 the middle line. The muscle also assists in rotating the 
 upper arm inwards, antagonizing the movement of external 
 rotation. Under certain conditions the action of the muscle 
 may be reversed, i. e. the fixed point being the attachment of 
 the muscle to the humerus, the movable part corresponding 
 to its attachment to the trunk ; this happens when we pull up 
 the trunk as in the act of climbing (Pis., 
 pp. 44, 84, 86, 102, 106, 108). 
 
 The pectoralis major muscle, or great 
 muscle of the breast, has been included 
 in the group of muscles which spring 
 from the trunk and pass to the limb. This 
 is not strictly correct, as will presently be 
 seen, for the muscle also arises from one 
 of the bones of the shoulder-girdle ; it is. 
 however, more convenient for our purpose 
 to group it with the latissimus dorsi 
 (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 72, 108, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 The muscle arises by fleshy fibres from 
 the anterior border of the inner two- 
 thirds or half of the collar-bone, i. e. from that end 
 of the collar-bone which articulates with the breast-bone, 
 from the anterior surface of the breast-bone on either 
 side of the middle line, from the cartilages of the upper 
 six ribs, and from the upper part of the aponeurosis of 
 the external oblique of the abdominal wall. The fibres 
 of the muscle converge as they pass outwards to the limb, 
 the highest fibres passing downwards and outwards in front 
 of the lowest fibres, which pass upwards and outwards. 
 Between the two extremes they have varying degrees of 
 obliquity. Those springing from the breast-bone at the 
 
 Fig. 76. Diagram 
 to show the mode 
 in which the fibres 
 of the pectoralis 
 major muscle are 
 inserted into the 
 outer lip of the 
 bicipital groove. 
 
Key to Plate XXI 
 
 Extensors of thumb. , 
 
 Fiextcarpi ulnar:s.^ 
 t.xl. foPttnitmA 
 digtiorittn. | " 
 Exl.carpi radiahi\ ^^ 
 
 breuxor. J 
 Ext larpinlmm-'-. 
 Ext tarpiradiahS}- 
 longior. f 
 Anmteus< 
 Sufiinafar longits. 
 Olecranon I 
 proetssofulna.) 
 Exit condyUV 
 Triceps Giidon. 
 Trices, external heaa. 
 
 JSierno-masioid. 
 
 Trapezius. 
 
 Acromim process of scapula. 
 J)elleid. 
 
 Triceps, long head.- - - ■ 
 
 Digilations of serratus magnus. 
 External oblique. 
 Lumbar apotunrosis. 
 Iliac crest.. 
 
 Af>otir.<rf^'! of external oblique. 
 Gluteus vudius. 
 
 Tettsor fasciae femoris. 
 
 Gluletis maxintus. 
 
 Triceps^ tHUrnal head. 
 .Xric^s tendon. 
 
 jfnttrmai eoikfyU 
 *afJkiimenu. 
 "Brae/ttalis aMitms. 
 
 •Pronator radii teret 
 \Bieipiial fasda. 
 \ \Biceps cuhiti. 
 \ ^-Supinaier lemgus, 
 \ *\PaAmaris tongus, 
 
 '■J^iexor tar pi radiaUs. 
 "■Flexor carpi lUuaris. 
 
 IHo-tibial band. 
 
 THREE-QUAKTERS VIEW OF MALE FIGURE, WITH UPLIFTED ARM 
 
 Copyrii*', tBgS, by Henky Frowdk] 
 
Pedoralis major. 107 
 
 junction of its lower and middle third (not including 
 the cartilaginous portion) lie in a horizontal direction 
 when the limb is hanging by the side. The tucking 
 in of the lower fibres behind the upper as they pass from 
 the chest-wall to the arm leads to an increase in the 
 thickness of the fleshy fold which bounds the hollow of 
 the armpit in front. By this convergence and infolding 
 of the fibres of the muscle it becomes much narrowed, and 
 is inserted by means of a flat tendon about 2I inches 
 in breadth into the outer lip of the bicipital groove of the 
 humerus (Fig. 76). The muscle is superficial throughout, 
 except at its tendinous insertion, where it is overlapped 
 by the deltoid or great muscle of the shoulder. The great 
 pectoral muscle overlies the lesser pectoral. When the arm 
 is raised above the head, however, the lower border of 
 the lesser pectoral is for a short distance uncovered and 
 imparts a roundness to the lower part of the anterior 
 axillary'^ fold. 
 
 The fibres of the great pectoral which spring from the 
 collar-bone are usually separated from the fibres which 
 arise from the breast-bone by a shallow furrow passing 
 obliquely downwards and outwards from the inner end of 
 the collar-bone. The distinctness of this furrow on the 
 surface depends on the development of the muscle and 
 the position of the limb. The fleshy fibres which spring 
 from the breast-bone and ribs form a triangular mass, 
 the apex o^ which overlies the front of the upper arm, 
 while the base corresponds to the surface on either side of 
 the middle line of the breast-bone. The prominence caused 
 by these fibres forms the sides of the median furrow, the 
 bottom of which corresponds to the breast-bone. The 
 angles formed by the base and sides of the triangle above 
 and below are rounded off. The upper side of the triangle 
 
 ' The term ' axilla ' is used by anatomists for the hollow of the 
 armpit. 
 
io8 Pedoralis major. 
 
 lies contiguous to tlie lower border of tlie portion of the 
 muscle whicli arises from tlie collar-bone. The lower side 
 of the triangle is almost horizontal in its inner half, where 
 it overliee the chest- wall, but, curving slightly upwards as 
 it passes from the chest to the limb, corresponds to the lower 
 border of the anterior fold of the armpit. From the round- 
 ing of the angles of the base of this fleshy mass it follows 
 that the median farrow, which on the surface corresponds to 
 the interval between the two muscles, is opened out above and 
 below in front of the upper and lower ends of the osseous 
 part of the breast-bone. The latter is at some little distance 
 above the pit of the stomach, which it may be remembered 
 corresponds to the position of the cartilaginous portion of 
 the breast-bone (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 72, 108, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 It occasionally happens in persons of great muscular 
 development that bundles of tendinous fibres pass from the 
 origin of one muscle across the middle line of the breast- 
 bone to the opposite side, and when the muscle is powerfully 
 contracted these may stand out as more or less prominent 
 cords crossing and slightly interrupting the smoothness of 
 the central breast furrow (PL, p. 332). Oftentimes, too, 
 the lower and internal attachment of the muscle can be 
 recognized as a series of slight elevations corresponding to 
 the lower fleshy slips of origin. The lower border of the 
 muscle corresponds usually to the cartilage of the fifth rib, 
 or to a line drawn outwards and slightly upwards from the 
 pit of the stomach. 
 
 When well developed the muscle completely conceals the 
 framework of the thoracic wall, which it overlies, but in 
 cases where the muscle is thin the ribs and rib cartilages 
 may be recognized beneath it. Passing as it does from the 
 breast to the upper arm, the muscle conceals the rounded 
 form of the chest, except in front where it is supported on 
 the convex surface of this part of the tnink, the fullness of 
 which it carries towards the upper part of the limb, thus 
 
Key to Plate XXII 
 
 Trapettns. Posterior triangle. Sternth^ntastoid. 
 
 Clavicle. 
 
 Pectoralis major."'-, 
 clavicular fibres. ''■, 
 
 Deltoid. ^^ 
 
 CoracQ-bracliialis. 
 Biceps cubili.. 
 
 Rectus femorib , 
 Adductor lottgus. 
 Gracilis. 
 Vastus externus. 
 llio-tibial band.- 
 Vastus interims. 
 
 Extcotid. 
 
 —Olecran. 
 
 /^HCOWttS. 
 
 ■Iliac crest. 
 
 Exi.carp. 
 radbrevicr. 
 'Ext.com.dig. 
 carp.uln. 
 
 of thumb. 
 
 , ytfioneurosis of 
 
 external obliatft. 
 
 — Tensor/asciae 
 /efitoris. 
 
 Sartorius, 
 
 Symphysis pubis. 
 
 Adductor mass. 
 
 — Rectus /emoris 
 
 - ISo-^ibial bftmd. 
 yastus extermts. 
 Vastus intentus. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF MALE TRUNK, WITH RIGHT ARM RAISED 
 TO A RIGHT-ANGLE 
 
 Copyright, 1899, Ay Hknrv Fkowdk] 
 
Key to Plate XXIII 
 
 Bicipital fascia. 
 
 Olecranon t :-. 
 
 Internal condyle>i^, 
 
 Brachialis ant 
 
 Biceps cttbiti. - 
 
 Triceps ieiidofi 
 „ inner Itead. 
 
 •• long head. 
 
 Deltoid 
 
 Pectoralis utajor . 
 clavicular /tores. 
 Coraco-brachiahs. 
 
 Teres major. 
 
 Deltoid. ... 
 
 Laiissimus dorsi. 
 Hollow of armpit - ■ 
 Pectoralis major. 
 
 sternal fibres 
 
 Subcutaneous part 
 of breast bone. 
 
 Pit of stomach 
 Digitations of serraius mag. 
 
 Digitations o^ external oblique. - 
 
 Lineae transversae 
 
 Linea alba 
 
 Umbilicus: 
 
 £xtental oblique.— 
 Pectus abdomtnis. . 
 Iliac crest. 
 
 ylnterinr superior iliac spine. 
 Gluteus medius. 
 Aponeurosis of external oblique. 
 
 Ilio-psoas. 
 
 Tensor fasciae fentoris.' 
 Pouparts ligament. 
 Sptne of pubis. 
 Pectineus. 
 Symphysis, publs.- 
 Sarforius^ 
 
 Rectus femoris. 
 Adductor longus. 
 
 Gracilis. 
 
 Ilio-tibial band.- 
 yas/us externus. 
 Vastus intemus.-- 
 
 Stemo-mastoid. 
 
 JPuUerioT irtanglt. 
 
 ^.Pitofneck. 
 ..-■'" Trapesius. 
 
 ,^ Clavicle. 
 
 ..Acromion process 
 
 ^.Pectoralis major. 
 ..■'' clamctilar fibres, 
 
 , <• sternal fibres. 
 
 _.. Deltoid. 
 
 ^.-Biceps cubiti. 
 
 ..DigitatioHS of 
 serratus masnus. 
 
 Brachialis aulicus. 
 
 'xt. intermuscular septum. 
 ,.. Triceps, outer Mead. 
 
 . -Supinator longus. 
 
 ,,-- Trices tendon. 
 
 ...--■Extemal condyle 
 
 -Olecranon process 
 
 ■ Anametts. 
 
 -Exlcarpi radiatis long 
 
 •External oblique 
 
 Iliac crest . 
 
 Ant. superior iliac spine. 
 £xt.carpt radialis brev 
 
 Gluteus medtHS. 
 
 ■Ext. coimtumis digitonan. 
 
 Extensor carpi ulnarts. 
 
 -Extensors of thumb. 
 
 Tensor fasciae femoris. 
 
 Ilio-psoas. 
 
 ■Pectineus. 
 
 Sartorms. 
 
 -Adductor hugus. 
 
 Gracilis 
 
 Rectus femoris. 
 - Ili<h4ibial baud, 
 yastns e.x/emns. 
 
 f^asfns internus. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF MALE TRUNK, WITH RIGHT ARM RAISED 
 ABOVE THE HEAD 
 
 Copyright^ 1899, by Hknbv FrowdkI 
 
The Breasts. 109 
 
 imparting an appearance of width to the chest and causing 
 it to blend externally with the general roundness of the 
 shoulder. 
 
 The pectoralis major draws down the uplifted arm ; it 
 may also draw forward the limb, and thus counteract the 
 influence of the latissimus dorsi, which draws the arm back ; 
 it assists that muscle, however, in effecting inward rotation 
 of the limb. The lower fibres of the muscle assist in de- 
 pressing the shoulder, whilst the upper fibres, which spring 
 from the collar-bone, help to bend the arm forwards at 
 the shoulder-joint. The sternal fibres also draw forward 
 the shoulder. "When the shoulders are thrust forwards the 
 muscle is not pulled away from the chest-wall, but becomes 
 bent upon itself so as to form a broad and shallow furrow 
 which crosses the muscle from above, downward. This is due 
 to the fact that the attachment of the muscle to the chest- 
 wall and subjacent structures is so intimate that its fibres 
 cannot fall into line with the direction in which its force 
 acts. The hollowing of the muscle is due to the slight 
 folding which takes place as it crosses in front of the armpit, 
 the laxity of the tissues there permitting greater mobility. 
 
 These various actions of the muscle are reversed when the 
 limb becomes the fixed point, as in the act of climbing ; it 
 then assists in drawing up the trunk towards the fixed limb. 
 
 The surface forms over the muscles vary very much in the 
 two sexes ; what has been already stated applies princi- 
 pally to the male. In the fat which overlies the muscle 
 the breast or mammary gland is situated. In the male the 
 only indication of the breast is the nipple, for the glandular 
 part is not developed, although in some cases a slight 
 accumulation of fat in the region of the nipple imparts 
 a prominence to that point. The position of the nipple is 
 a variable one, but it usually lies opposite the interval 
 between the fourth and fifth ribs. If a line be drawn 
 from the navel to the joint between the collar-bone and 
 
no The Breasts. 
 
 the acromion process of tlie shoulder-blade it will fall over 
 the position of the nipple on a level with the interspace 
 between the fourth and fifth ribs. 
 
 In the female the breasts are glandular, and their develop- 
 ment depends largely on age and other conditions. As they 
 lie on the surface of the pectoral muscles the breasts should 
 be widely separated from one another ; this will vary ac- 
 cording to the width of the chest- wall. In cases where that 
 is narrow, the glands are necessarily brought closer together. 
 The nipples should be directed forward and slightly outward 
 so as to point away from each other. The breasts should 
 not be unduly large, and their consistence should be such 
 as to counteract the influence of gravity ; there should be 
 no fold or crease of the skin below them, but they should 
 rise gently from the general surface. As Professor Briicke 
 has pointed out, the angle formed by the apex of the cone 
 should nearly approach a right angle, the lower part of the 
 organ being slightly more convex and rounded (Pis., pp. 66, 
 104, no, 230, 238). 
 
 In regard to the level at which the female breasts are 
 placed this will vary somewhat in different models, but 
 the effect produced is always more pleasing when they 
 are set high and combined with the general roundness of 
 the neck and shoulders than when they are situated on 
 a somewhat lower level (Plate XVI, p. no). 
 
 In some models the areola, or tinted area which surrounds 
 the nipple, is slightly elevated from the surrounding sur- 
 face of the breast, a feature which is sometimes represented 
 in modern sculpture. The breasts themselves are movable, 
 a circumstance which accounts for the fact that in the erect 
 posture they lie at a somewhat lower level than in the 
 recumbent position, when they are no longer influenced by 
 their own weight. 
 
 What has been said regarding the form of the breasts 
 will require modification if it be the artist's intention to 
 
Deltoid. 1 13 
 
 anterior border of the muscle lies alongside the outer margin 
 of the clavicular fibres of the great pectoral, from which it 
 is separated by a linear depression which is wider above, 
 as the two muscles are slightly separated from one another 
 at their origins from the collar-bone. In correspondence 
 with this, on the surface of the shoulder in front, there is 
 a slight hollow below the collar-bone overlying the interval 
 between the muscles. From this there passes down a linear 
 furrow, which follows the line of separation between the 
 two muscles towards the external Hmit of the anterior fold 
 of the armpit where the tendon of the insertion of the 
 great pectoral sinks under cover of the deltoid. These 
 surface depressions are best seen in a muscular model with 
 little or no superficial fat, and are of course intensified 
 when the muscles are powerfully contracted. They are 
 absent in the female, or, if present, are very much softened 
 on account of the quantity of fat and the feebler muscular 
 development (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 66, 72, 108, no, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 The posterior border of the deltoid is much thinner. 
 Owing to the fact that it is intimately connected with 
 a strong aponeurosis which stretches across the lower part 
 of the blade-bone, it has much less influence on the surface 
 contours, though if the arm be raised over the head the 
 outline of this border may be traced upon the surface 
 (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 82, 84, 86, 92, 96, 102, 104, 106, 120, 
 230, 234, 238). 
 
 The roundness of the muscular mass of the deltoid is due, 
 as has been already stated, to the fact that it overlies the head 
 of the humerus and receives support from that portion of the 
 bone. This also explains why the most prominent point of 
 its general roundness is directed forwards and outwards, the 
 anterior part of the "muscle appearing much fuller than the 
 posterior, which presents a somewhat flattened appearance 
 (PL, p. 332). 
 The greatest width of the shoulders, however, does not 
 
114 Deltoid. 
 
 correspond to the points at which the deltoid muscles over- 
 lap the head of the humerus, but is situated at a somewhat 
 lower level, where the various bundles of fibres are gathered 
 together to pass to their insertion. This point is usually- 
 found to correspond to the level of a line drawn outwards 
 across the limb in continuation with the lower border of the 
 anterior fold of the armpit (Pis., pp. 52, 72, no, 234). 
 
 The surface form does not convey a correct impression 
 of the extent to which the muscle descends to be attached 
 to the shaft of the humerus, for the insertion is obscured 
 both in front and behind by the fleshy muscles of the upper 
 arm, between which its tendinous fibres pass to a much 
 lower level than might at first seem likely. According to 
 the amount of fat present a depression more or less distinct 
 appears, on the surface overlying the point of junction of 
 the fleshy fibres with the tendon of insertion. It is most 
 pronounced when the arm is raised and slightly drawn back 
 and the muscle powerfully contracted. Leading up from 
 this hollow on either side are the linear furrows corre- 
 sponding to the anterior and posterior borders of the muscle 
 respectively (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 72, 82, 86, 96, 106, 148, 332). 
 
 The origin of the deltoid is much better seen when the 
 limb is raised. It then corresponds to a furrow which over- 
 lies the outer third of the collar-bone, the upper surface of 
 the acromion and the spine of the scapula, over the middle 
 of the latter of which it gradually fades into the general 
 fullness of the trapezius. The depth of the furrow, which 
 is greatest, in the uplifted position of the limb, over the 
 acromion, depends on the development and state of contrac- 
 tion of the trapezius and deltoid muscles which lie above 
 and below it (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 82, 84, 86). This furrow, 
 which is seen in the female when the limb is raised, is 
 much softer in its contours, owing to the greater thickness 
 of the superficial fatty layer (Pis., pp. 120, 238). As has 
 been pointed out to me by my friend Mr. Pilcher, it is not 
 
Action of the Deltoid. 115 
 
 tincommon, particularly in women with plump shoulders, 
 to meet with a dimple overlying the angle formed by the 
 acromion process as it passes forwards from the spine. 
 
 The action of the deltoid varies according to the part of 
 the muscle brought into play. It assists in raising the arm. 
 That part of the muscle which arises from the acromion 
 draws the arm upwards and away from the side ; the anterior 
 fibres raise the limb and bend it forwards ; the posterior 
 fibres elevate the limb and pull it backwards. The action 
 of the muscle is checked by the ligaments around the 
 shoulder-joint, so that in the act of raising the limb from 
 the side further movement at the shoulder-joint ceases when 
 the arm forms a right angle with the trunk. Any further 
 movement in an upward direction is due to the rotation of 
 the shoulder-blade itself ; this movement has been previously 
 described (p. 96). During powerful contraction of the 
 muscle the surface forms over it frequently display the details 
 of the arrangement of its fibres, a series of shallow furrows 
 indicating the lines of separation of the different bundles ; 
 these are best seen near the bony origin (PL, p. 84). 
 
 Of the two remaining muscles of this group little need 
 be said. The infraspinatus arises from the posterior surface 
 of the blade-bone below the spine ; its fibres converge 
 externally to end in a tendon which is inserted into the 
 back of the great tuberosity of the bone of the upper arm. 
 
 The muscle is triangular in shape. In close relation to 
 its lower border we find another muscle which is called the 
 teres minor. The fibres of this muscle lie parallel to those 
 of the infra-spinatus, and are attached along the external 
 border of the blade-bone. The fibres pass upwards and 
 outwards towards the great tuberosity of the humerus, into 
 which they are inserted immediately below the infra-spinatus. 
 In regard to their action and their influence upon the 
 surface forms these two muscles may be regarded as one ; 
 they both act as rotators outwards of the bone of the upper 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 Infraspinatus and Teres minor. 
 
 arm, ; 
 
 they assist also in drawing the arm backwards, and 
 the teres minor helps to pull down the uplifted limb 
 (Fig. 77). Both muscles are covered by a fairly strong and 
 tough layer of fascia; a circumstance which explains why they 
 do not produce a greater surface relief when they are in 
 a state of contraction. The portions of these muscles which 
 are subcutaneous correspond to a somewhat triangular area, 
 
 Fig. 77. Diagram showing the 
 attachments of the infra-spinatus 
 and teres minor. The two muscles 
 are treated as one fleshy mass. 
 
 a. Supra-spinous fossa. 
 &. Acromion process. 
 
 c. Root of spine, 
 
 d. Humerus. 
 
 e. Upper angle of shoulder-blade. 
 
 f. Lower angle of shoulder-blade. 
 
 g. Infra-spinatus and teres minor. The 
 
 dotted line represents the outline 
 of the deltoid. 
 
 Fig. 78. Diagram showing the 
 attachments of the teres major. 
 
 tt. The infra^spinous fossa of the blade- 
 bone, from which the infra-spinatus 
 muscle and teres minor have been 
 removed. 
 
 &. Acromion process. 
 
 c. Root of spine. 
 
 d. Humerus. 
 
 e. Tipper angle of blade-bone. 
 
 /. Lower angle of blade-bone. The 
 dotted lines represent the outUnes 
 of the deltoid above and the latis- 
 simus dorsi below. 
 
 which is mapped out by the reliefs formed by the edges of 
 the trapezius within, the deltoid above, and the upper 
 border of the latissimus dorsi below. The surface of these 
 muscles so exposed forms a slight relief bounded by the out- 
 lines above described. These points may be seen best when 
 the shoulders are drawn back. When the limb is raised 
 above the head, the surface form is modified by the rotation 
 of the blade-bone, the inferior angle of which is carried 
 
Teres major. 117 
 
 forwards and slightly upwards. In this position the inner 
 border of that bone is rendered more apparent, and the 
 lower part of the rhomboideus major is more fully exposed 
 (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 82, 84, 86, 96, 102, 104, 106, 234). 
 
 The last muscle of this group which we have to consider 
 is the teres major. It takes origin from the posterior 
 surface of the lower angle of the blade-bone ; its fibres run 
 upwards and outwards parallel to those of the teres minor, 
 but in place of being attached to the back of the humerus 
 the teres major runs forward to the front of the shaft of 
 that bone and is inserted into the inner lip of the bicipital 
 groove. The muscle, when well developed, forms a thick 
 fleshy mass. Its relations to the latissimus dorsi and the pos- 
 terior fold of the armpit are important. As has been already 
 stated, the latissimus dorsi folds round the outer border of 
 this muscle so as to enclose it like a sling. As the fibres 
 of the latissimus sweep round the thick teres major muscle 
 the latter imparts a fullness to them which accounts for the 
 thickness of the posterior fold of the armpit. The teres 
 major acts as a rotator inwards of the arm, thus antagonizing 
 the action of the teres minor. Acting in conjunction with 
 the minor it draws down the uplifted limb (Mg. 78). 
 
 The muscle imparts a fullness to the surface which overlies 
 the outer border of the blade-boue. With the limb by the 
 side and forcibly rotated inwards, the muscle forms a well- 
 marked elevation between the upper border of the latissi- 
 mus dorsi and the teres minor. This relief, externally, sinks 
 under cover of the deltoid and the long head of the great 
 extensor muscle on the back of the upper arm, called the 
 triceps. It is owing to the presence of this muscle that 
 the external or axillary border of the blade-bone exercises 
 so little direct influence on the surface forms (Pis., pp. 34, 
 38, 44, 84, 96, 102, 234). 
 
 Having now considered in detail the various superficial 
 muscles which lie on the back of the trunk, it may be well 
 
ii8 Summary of the Muscles of the Back. 
 
 to review briefly the main features of the superficial anatomy 
 of this region. Arising from the middle line of the back, 
 throughout the entire extent of the dorsal region, and ex- 
 tending upwards as high as the back of the skull, is the 
 trapezius. The fibres of insertion are to be traced outwards to 
 the bones of the shoulder-girdle. The higher fibres, which 
 pass forward to be attached to the outer third of the front 
 of the collar-bone, have a downward direction. The lower, 
 which are inserted into a tendon overlying the root of the 
 spine of the shoulder-blade, have an upward direction. The 
 intermediate fibres run with varying degrees of obliquity, 
 to be inserted into the upper margin of the spine and the 
 acromion process of the blade-bone (Pis., pp. 52, 82, 84, 
 96, 234). 
 
 The origin of the deltoid corresponds precisely to the 
 insertion of the trapezius, the collar-bone and the bony 
 processes of the blade-bone alone separating the attach- 
 ments of these muscles. The fibres of the deltoid are 
 gathered together to form a pointed tendinous insertion, 
 which is attached to the outer side of the shaft of the 
 bone of the upper arm, about its middle. The muscle 
 thus covers the shoulder-joint behind, in front, above, and 
 to the outer side (Pis., pp. 52, 82, 84, 96, 108, 234, 332.) 
 
 Arising from the middle line of the back, throughout 
 the entire region of the loins, and also from the lower 
 half of the thoracic region, is the latissimus dorsi. The 
 latter part of its origin is overlapped by the pointed lower 
 fibres of attachment of the trapezius. In addition the 
 latissimus dorsi arises from the last three ribs as well 
 as from the hinder end of the iliac crest for a variable 
 distance, as has been already described. The fibres pass 
 upwards and outwards with varying degrees of obliquitv 
 towards the hinder fold of the armpit, the contour line 
 of which they form : here the muscle is twisted on itself 
 to reach the front of the upper part of the shaft of the 
 
Summary of the Muscles of the Back. 119 
 
 humerus, into whicli it is inserted (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 
 82, 84, 96, 102, 108, 234, 282). 
 
 A triangular interval between these muscles in the 
 scapular regions is to be noted, the apex of which cor- 
 responds to the root of the spine of the blade-bone. Of 
 its sides the inner corresponds to the outer margin of the 
 trapezius, the outer to the posterior border of the deltoid, 
 while its base, somewhat curved, coincides with the upper 
 border of the latissimus dorsi. It is within the area so 
 defined that the blade-bone, and some of the muscles con- 
 nected with it, come into direct relation to the surface. 
 "With the limbs by the side we recognize, in this triangular 
 interval, the internal border of the blade-bone. To the inner 
 side of this border, we note the presence of that portion of 
 the rhomboideus muscle which is uncovered by the trapezius. 
 Arising from the posterior surface of the blade-bone below 
 the spine, we see as much of the infraspinatus and teres 
 minor as is uncovered by the deltoid, while, corresponding 
 to the lower angle and external border of the blade-bone, 
 as much of the teres major as is not overlapped by the 
 latissimus dorsi is displayed (Pis., pp. 82, 84, 96, 234). 
 
 The relations of the boundaries and contents of this 
 triangular area, which, for descriptive purposes, may be 
 called the scapular triangle, vary from one or other of two 
 causes or a combination of both. These causes depend on 
 the mobility of the blade-bone or scapula. 
 
 Firstly, the relation of this scapular triangle to the surface 
 will alter according as the blade-bone is raised or lowered 
 or drawn backwards or forwards, movements which take 
 place when we raise or lower the shoulders or when we 
 brace them back or pull them forwards (Pis., pp. 92, 234). 
 
 Secondly, the outlines of the scapular triangle and its 
 contents will be much modified by that movement of the 
 scapula which is called rotation, and which has been already 
 considered in detail. This is the movement which causes 
 
120 Summary of the Muscles of the Back. 
 
 the inferior angle of the blade-bone to advance on the 
 chest-wall, whilst its upper angle passes nearer the middle 
 line, a movement which takes place to greatest extent 
 when the arm is thrown above the back of the head or 
 neck. Eotatoiy movement in an opposite direction is 
 produced when the arm is carried across the back of the 
 trunk towards the opposite side of the body. In this 
 position the lower angle of the blade-bone is drawn nearer 
 the middle line of the back, whilst the upper angle passes to 
 lie wide of the middle line (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 84, 96, 102). 
 
 As will be obvious, there may be many combinations of 
 these movements. Two examples will be sufficient to render 
 this clear. We may have the uplifted arm with the shoulder 
 thrown forwards, or, on the other hand, the uplifted limb 
 with the shoulder drawn back — in these positions the 
 arrangement of the contents and outlines of this scapular 
 triangle will display very characteristic differences ; these 
 the student will test appreciate for himself by a study of 
 Pis., pp. 34, 36, 38, 82, 84, 86, 96, 102, 106, 234. 
 
 The only remaining superficial muscle which it is neces- 
 sary to study here is a portion of the external ohlique as it 
 forms the flank ; this is visible in a view of the superficial 
 muscles of the back, since it lies wide of the lower attach- 
 ment of the latissimus dorsi to the ribs and iliac crest. 
 Usually, however, the superficial layer of fat in this region 
 is so abundant that the surface contours are not much in- 
 fluenced by the development or contraction of this part of 
 the external oblique (Pis., pp. 34, 38). 
 
 "Whilst the muscles above mentioned constitute the super- 
 ficial layer of the back, the student must not overlook 
 the fact that many of the deeper muscles exercise a very 
 marked influence on the surface forms. Most important of 
 these are the erectores spinae. These control to a large extent 
 the movements of the vertebral column, and though their 
 action has been already fully discussed, it may be well here to 
 
Summary of the Muscles of the Back. 121 
 
 remind the student that when the figure is represented in 
 poses in which the back is bent either forwards or backwards, 
 to the side, or twisted, these muscles undergo remarkable 
 modification in their outline and the degree of their contrac- 
 tion. This will necessarily react on the surface contours, 
 for, as has been previously stated, the muscles which overlie 
 them are frequently so thin and tendinous that the deeper 
 muscles exercise a much greater influence on the surface 
 form than those which overlie them (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 84). 
 
 An examination of PL, p. 36, will best explain this. It 
 may be well here to emphasize the fact that when the figure 
 is bent forward the central furrow of the back becomes 
 shallower, and may be replaced by a ridge corresponding 
 to the tips of the spines of the vertebrae ; the fleshy columns 
 of the erectores spinae, which lie on either side, are flattened, 
 owing to the stretching of their fibres : whereas if the figure 
 be bent backwards the median furrow is deepened and the 
 erectores spinae are rendered more prominent, owing to the 
 fact that they are now in a powerful state of contraction. 
 The median furrow of the back in the upper thoracic 
 region may be further deepened by the approximation 
 of the blade-bones to the middle line, an action which 
 is induced by the powerful contraction of the trapezii, and 
 the shortening and bulging of their fibres, a condition 
 which is represented in Pis., pp. 36, 92. 
 
 In concluding this r4sum4 it need only be added that 
 the difference between the sexes is in great part due 
 to the fact that in woman the superficial fatty layer is 
 present in such quantity as to mask, to a greater or less 
 extent, the details above described. In the female we do 
 not expect to find so powerful a muscular development as 
 in the male ; the result is that, though in woman the surface 
 contours depend on the same structures, in her the outlines 
 are more rounded and soft, affording little if any evidence 
 of many of the above details (Pis., pp. 104, 120, 230, 238). 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE UPPER AEM. 
 
 Before passing to the consideration of the surface forms 
 of the upper arm, it may be well to glance for a moment 
 at the manner in which the arm springs from the trunk. 
 "When the arm is hanging by the side there is a hollow, 
 called the armpit, between the upper part of the limb and 
 the chest- wall. If the fingers be thrust into this space the 
 anterior and posterior walls of the hollow will be found to 
 be thick and fleshy. These have been already frequently 
 referred to as the anterior and posterior folds of the arm- 
 pit, and have been seen to be formed by the muscles passing 
 from the trunk to the limb. 
 
 Great alterations take place in the form of this hollow 
 when the arm is raised from the side. Its boundaries are 
 now better seen, for the borders of the anterior and 
 posterior folds are stretched, and more clearly defined 
 (Pis., pp. io8, no). 
 
 The most noticeable feature in connexion with them is 
 that the posterior fold extends farther down the Hmb than 
 the anterior ; in consequence of this, if the figure is looked 
 at from the front when the arm is raised we can see into 
 the hollow of the armpit. In this view the anterior 
 ■surface of the posterior wall is in part exposed, and we 
 have to account for the structures which determine its form. 
 If, on the other hand, the figure is sketched from behind 
 
The Armpit. 123 
 
 when the arm is uplifted the posterior fold of the armpit, 
 being deeper, conceals from view the hollow, and the lower 
 margin of this fold forms the outline of the figure in this 
 position (Pis., pp. 82, 86, 96, 106). Viewed from the side, 
 we can of course recognize both boundaries, and get a better 
 idea of the inner wall of the space. 
 
 For clearness of description the boundaries of the space 
 had now better be described. In form the hollow resembles 
 a four-sided pyramid, the sides of which are unequaL The 
 base of the pyramid corresponds to the skin which overlies 
 the hollow. The inner wall of the space is formed by the 
 chest-wall overlain by the serratus magnus. The anterior 
 wall, as has been already stated, is formed by the pectoralis 
 major and minor. The posterior wall is in part made up of 
 the anterior surface and external border of the blade-bone, 
 both of which are clothed by muscles, a muscle called the 
 subscapularis being placed upon its anterior aspect, whilst 
 the fleshy fibres of the teres major cover its external 
 border. The thickness of this latter muscle is sufficient to 
 mask the outline of the external border of the bone, which 
 the student can easily feel by grasping firmly the posterior 
 fold of the armpit when the limb is raised. Sweeping 
 round the outer border of the teres major the fibres of the 
 latissimus dorsi can readily be seen in a dissection of this 
 region, and in certain positions of the limb their presence 
 causes distinct alterations of the surface forms. The anterior 
 and posterior walls of the armpit are wide apart as they 
 pass from the trunk, but as the muscles which form them — 
 with one exception, the pectoralis minor — are all inserted 
 into the bone of the upper arm the folds are necessarily 
 brought much closer together at their attachments to the 
 limbi 
 
 The outer wall of the space is necessarily much narrower 
 than the others, and consists of the upper portion of the 
 shaft of the humerus and certain muscles which are passing 
 
124 
 
 Coraco-brachialis. 
 
 down along its inner side. These are the hice'ps muscle 
 of the arm and the coraco-iracUalis, which will presently 
 be described. The hollow itself is filled with fat, in which 
 the large vessels and nerves of this region are embedded. 
 It is owing to the presence of these contents, and also 
 
 to the stretching of the 
 skin and fibrous layers 
 which form the base of 
 the space, that the hollow 
 is not so deep as one would 
 expect from a mere study 
 of the muscles alone. 
 
 The plates on pp. 82, 84, 
 86, 96, 102 106, and 108 re- 
 present the figure with the 
 limb in different positions, 
 and the student will be 
 able to form a better idea 
 of the arrangement of the 
 muscles by a study of 
 these plates than by any 
 verbal description. 
 
 This is a convenient 
 point at which to study 
 the coraco-brachialis ; it 
 arises, in conjunction with 
 the short head of the 
 biceps muscle of the arm, 
 from the tip of the cora- 
 coid process of the blade-bone, and is inserted into the inner 
 side of the humerus, where its attachment corresponds to 
 the middle third of the length of the shaft. The upper part 
 of the muscle is concealed by the anterior fold of the arm- 
 pit, and as it runs down along the inner side of the shaft of 
 the humerus it is overlapped, when the limb is hanging 
 
 Fig. 79. A view to show the struc- 
 tures which underlie the deltoid and 
 great pectoral muscles, the outlines of 
 which are represented by dotted lines. 
 The separation of the clavicular fibres 
 from the sternal fibres of the great 
 pectoral is also shown by a dotted 
 line. 
 
 a. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 b. Breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 c. Acromion process of scapula. 
 
 d. Coracoid process of scapula. 
 
 e. Pectoralis minor muscle. 
 /. Coraco-brachialis muscle. 
 
 fj. Short head of biceps muscle. 
 h Long head of biceps muscle. 
 k. Humerus. 
 
Humerus. 125 
 
 by the side, by the fleshy fibres of the biceps. When the 
 arm is raised and the borders of the armpit are stretched, 
 the muscle can be readily recognized as a distinct elevation 
 running along the inner side of the limb, between the 
 attachments of the folds of the armpit to the limb. This 
 elevation is distinct from, and lies behind, that formed 
 by the upper portion of the biceps, and can be traced 
 down along the inner side of the upper arm, gradually 
 fading away about the. middle of this portion of the limb. 
 The muscle is most strongly marked in such positions as 
 we see represented in pictures of the Crucifixion, but an 
 examination of the plate on page 108 will sufficiently 
 demonstrate the influence which it has on the surface 
 forms. As will be seen, it is separated in front from the 
 anterior wall of the armpit by the biceps, whilst behind it 
 overlies the posterior fold just where the muscles which 
 constitute that fold, viz. the latissimus dorsi and teres 
 major, are inserted into the upper portion of the shaft of 
 the humerus. The coraco-brachialis assists in raising the 
 arm at the shoulder-joint; it also tends to turn the limb 
 forwards and inwards towards the middle line of the body 
 (Pis., pp. 108, 144, 264, 282). 
 
 Before passing to consider the muscles of the upper arm 
 it will be necessary to describe the bones with which they 
 are connected. 
 
 The humerus, or bone of the upper arm, has been in part 
 described (Chapter V, p. 98), but its lower end must now 
 be examined in greater detail. 
 
 The lower extremity of the humerus enters into the 
 formation of the elbow-joint. This joint unites the bone of 
 the upper arm with the two bones of the fore-arm. The 
 latter lie side by side, and are called — the inner bone, the 
 ulna, the outer bone, the radius. 
 
 The shaft of the humerus, which about its middle is more 
 or less prismatic in section, becomes expanded infeTiorly. 
 
126 
 
 Humerus. 
 
 It acquires a flattened form, and displays, as lias been 
 already stated, well-marked anterior and posterior surfaces, 
 
 Fia. 80. Tront view. 
 
 Right Humerus. 
 Pig. 81. Outer side. 
 
 Fig. 82. Back view. 
 
 a. Head. 
 
 b. Greater tuberosity. 
 
 c. Lesser tuberosity. 
 
 d. Bicipital groove. 
 
 e. Deltoid impression where deltoid 
 
 muscle is inserted. 
 /. Internal condyle. 
 g. External condyle. 
 
 h. Capitellum for ai*ticulation with bead 
 
 of radius. 
 i. Ti'ochlear surface for articulation 
 
 with ulna. 
 j. External condyloid ridge, 
 k. Internal condyloid ridge. 
 
 These ridges afford attachment to the 
 
 external and internal intermuscular 
 
 septa respectively. 
 
 which, are separated on the inner and outer sides by dis- 
 tinct margins. If traced downwards these margins will be 
 
Humerus. 127 
 
 found to terminate in pointed processes called respectively 
 the inner and outer condyles. Of these condyles the 
 inner is the more prominent, whilst of the ridges leading to 
 them (called supra-condyloid ridges) the outer is the better 
 marked. These ridges and processes are of great import- 
 ance in affording attachment to numerous muscles and 
 processes of fascia in this region. The part of the humerus 
 which lies between the two condyloid processes is much 
 thickened and is curved slightly forward. It is on this 
 portion of the bone that the articular surfaces are placed 
 by means of which it is jointed with the radius and ulna. 
 
 Just below the external condyle and to its inner side 
 a smooth rounded surface, called the capitellum or little 
 head, is noticed. This process, which lies more on the front 
 of the lower extremity of the humerus than on its inferior 
 aspect, is adapted to articulate with the shallow hollow on 
 the upper end of the outer bone of the fore-arm (radius). 
 To the inner side of this little articular head, the lower 
 end of the humerus is grooved by a pulley-like surface 
 which passes round it in a slightly spiral manner from 
 back to front. This is called the trochlea, and is for 
 articulation with the inner bone of the fore- arm (ulna). 
 The trochlea is separated from the capitellum by a slight 
 smooth ridge, whilst its inner border is defined by a well- 
 marked and prominent edge. The latter is separated by 
 a considerable interval from the internal condyle of the 
 humerus, which lies above it and to its inner side. It is to 
 this fact that the internal condyle owes its prominence. 
 
 As has been already stated, there are two bones in the 
 fore-arm — the radius and the ulna. ISTow it must be borne 
 in mind that these two bones are not immovably united, as 
 is the case with the corresponding bones of the leg, but are 
 freely movable on one another in certain directions. This 
 may be best understood if we compare for a moment their 
 relations to each other in different positions of the limb. If 
 
128 Bones of Fore-arm. 
 
 the arm be held with the palm of the hand directed upwards, 
 the bones will be found to lie side by side and more or less 
 parallel to each other, whereas if the hand be now turned 
 so that the palm is directed downwards it will be observed 
 that the outer bone of the fore-arm passes to lie obliquely 
 across, the inner bone. In the former position the limb is 
 described as being supine, in the latter, prone. The move- 
 ment whereby the limb is turned from the supine to the 
 prone position is termed pronation, the reverse action, viz. 
 that which rotates the limb from the prone to the supine 
 position, is called supination ; these movements will require 
 to be studied in detail later, but it is necessary that it should 
 be referred to here, in order that the student may under- 
 stand the forms of the articular surfaces of the two bones. 
 
 In comparing the two bones of the fore-arm it will be 
 noticed that the upper extremity of the ulna is large, whilst 
 its lower end is comparatively small. On the other hand, 
 the upper end of the radius is small, whilst its inferior 
 extremity is large and expanded. The student should 
 associate with these details the facts that the ulna, or inner 
 bone of the fore-arm, enters most largely into the formation 
 of the elbow-joint, whilst the outer bone, or radius, plays 
 the most important part in supporting the skeleton of the 
 hand at the wrist-joint. 
 
 As it is with the muscles which move the fore-arm on the 
 upper arm that we are at present concerned, it will be ad- 
 visable to consider first the form of the bone of the fore-arm, 
 which is most intimately associated with these movements. 
 
 The upper extremity of the ulna is large, and presents 
 a very characteristic appearance. The most noticeable 
 feature is a deep and well-marked notch, called the greater 
 sigmoid notch, which lies between two prominent processes 
 placed one above, the other below it. The higher of these, 
 called the olecranon process, lies ia line with the upper end 
 of the shaft. The posterior prominent angle of this process 
 
The Breasts. m 
 
 represent a matronly form ; in this case the changes in the 
 gland dependent on the maternal function will have given 
 rise to alterations in development and consistence which 
 materially affect its form, greater fullness and a slight 
 folding of the tissues beneath the breasts being permissible 
 under such conditions. 
 
 The existence of these glands in the female, and the 
 presence of an abundant quantity of fat, naturally mask the 
 form of the great pectoral muscle on the surface of the body. 
 The lower border of the muscle is concealed, and the lower 
 part of the anterior fold of the armpit is effaced by the 
 extension of the rounded base of the gland across it (Pis., 
 pp. 66, 104, 230, 238). Above, however, the fold of the 
 armpit appears distinct where the muscle escapes from 
 under cover of the breast. There is usually a considerable 
 quantity of fat overlying the fold here, and the surface 
 form presents a smooth, slightly convex surface extending 
 from the collar-bone above to the somewhat thick and 
 rounded border of the fold of the armpit below. Over this 
 part of the great pectoral muscle there is an elevation on 
 the surface distinct from that of the breast, the conical 
 form of which rises gradually from this surface (Pis., pp. 
 66, 1 10, 238). These points may be readily recognized in 
 a well-formed model, and may be farther demonstrated by 
 raising the limb from the side, in which position the fold 
 of the armpit is more distinctly seen. At the same time it 
 will be noticed that the act of raising the arm exercises 
 a certain amount of traction on the breast, which lies higher 
 on the side with the uplifted limb than on the opposite 
 side if the arm is pendant (PL, pp. 104, no). 
 
 "We have next to turn our attention to that group of 
 muscles which arise from the bones of the shoulder-girdle 
 and pass to be inserted into the bone of the upper arm ; 
 the most important of these is the deltoid or great muscle 
 of the shoulder. There are others which take their 
 
112 
 
 Deltoid. 
 
 origin from tlie surfaces of the blade-bone, but these for 
 the most part lie deeply, and do not influence the surface 
 forms except in so far as they constitute a padding for 
 the more superficial muscles which overlie them. It will 
 be necessary, however, to refer to two of them, the infra- 
 spinatus and the teres major, because they are in part 
 superficial The coraco-brachialis muscle also arises from 
 the blade-bone (coracoid process) and is inserted into the 
 humerus, but its consideration had best be delayed until 
 the surface forms of the upper arm are discussed. 
 
 The deltoid muscle, which is superficial throughout, forms 
 the cap of the shoulder. As its name implies, it is trian- 
 gular in shape, and is so called from its resemblance to 
 the G-reek letter A. The base of the triangle is directed 
 upwards and is attached to the girdle-bones, the apex or 
 pointed extremity of the muscle passes down towards the 
 middle of the outer side of the upper arm. 
 
 The muscle arises from both bones of the shoulder-girdle, 
 from the anterior surface of the external third of the collar- 
 bone in front, above the shoulder from the point and outer 
 margin of the acromion process of the shoulder-blade, and 
 behind from the lower border of the spine of the same bone 
 in its whole length. The origin of this muscle is thiis seen 
 to correspond to the insertion of the trapezius, indeed we 
 may regard it as a prolongation of that muscle downward to 
 the limb, the bones of the girdle forming an interruption 
 to the direct continuity of the muscular fibres. 
 
 The fibres of the muscle, which arise from the bony origin 
 just described, are arranged in fleshy bundles which con- 
 verge inferiorly to form a strong thick tendon which 
 is inserted into that rough V-shaped surface, already 
 described (p. 99), on the outer side of the shaft of the 
 humerus, about its middle. This raised V-shaped surface is 
 hence called the deltoid eminence. The thickest part of 
 the muscle corresponds to its central fibres ; in front the 
 
Ulna. 
 
 129 
 
 is a point of great importance, as it forms the tip of tlie 
 elbow. 
 
 The lower or coronoid process is a wedge-shaped piece of 
 bone which is united to the front of the upper extremity 
 of the shaft of the ulna, some little distance below the 
 olecranon. The interval between the two processes corre- 
 sponds to the notch already mentioned, and the surfaces 
 of these processes, which bound the notch, are smooth and, 
 in the living, coated with cartilage. If the ulna and the 
 humerus are articulated, the surfaces of the greater sigmoid 
 notch are seen to be admirably adapted to fit on the 
 trochlear surface of the lower end of the bone of the 
 upper arm. 
 
 A further examination of the upper end of the ulna 
 reveals the fact that there is another articular surface to 
 be studied in connexion with it. This is an oval hollow 
 on the outer side of the coronoid process — called the lesser 
 sigmoid notch — into which the thick margin of the rounded 
 head of the upper end of the radius fits. 
 
 The shaft of the ulna is long and tapering ; its upper 
 part is prismatic on section, the various surfaces being 
 separated by well-defined margins ; of these, one, called 
 the posterior border, is highly important. This border, 
 commencing above by the fusion of two lines which en- 
 close between them a V-shaped area on the back of the 
 olecranon process, may be traced down along the posterior 
 aspect of the shaft towards the lower extremity, where 
 it gradually fades away, corresponding, however, in line 
 and direction with a projection to be hereafter described 
 as the styloid process. The line so formed describes a 
 sinuous curve and corresponds to a well-marked furrow on 
 the back of the fore-arm, which is known by the name of 
 the ulnar furrow. The importance of this border of the 
 bone is due to the circumstance that throughout its entire 
 length it is subcutaneous, a fact which the student can 
 
 K 
 
I30 
 
 Ulna. 
 
 easily verify for himself by running his finger firmly along 
 the back of the fore-arm, commencing above at the tip of 
 
 view. 
 
 7 
 
 Bones of right fore-arm. 
 Fig. 83. Front Fig. 84. Back Fig. 85. Outer 
 
 view. 
 
 side. 
 
 Fig. 86. Inner 
 side. 
 
 u. Ulna. 
 
 a. Olecranon process of ulna. 
 
 6. Coronoid process of ulna. 
 
 c. G-reater sigmoid notch. 
 
 d. Attachment of brachialis anticus. 
 
 fi. Triangular subcutaneous surface on 
 
 back of olecranon process. 
 /. Styloid process of ulna. 
 a. Posterior subcutaneous border of ulna. 
 
 m. Styloid process of radius. 
 
 h. Lower end or head of ulna. 
 
 r. Radius. 
 
 i. Head of radius. 
 
 j. Bicipital tuberosity to which is at- 
 tached the tendon of the biceps. 
 
 Ic, Placed near the insertion of the 
 pronator radii teres. 
 
 7. Expanded lower end of radius, which 
 articulates with the carpus. 
 
 the elbow, and ending below at the prominence on the back 
 and inner side of the wrist which lies in a line with the 
 little finger. 
 
Radius. 131 
 
 The lower end of the ulna, curiously enough called the 
 head, consists of a rounded thick button-like process, fused 
 on the extremity of the shaft. From the back and inner 
 side of this head there projects downwards a prominent 
 spur of bone called the styloid process of the ulna. The 
 further details of this portion of the bone will be studied 
 in connexion with the description of the wrist. 
 
 The radius, or outer bone of the fore-arm, differs from the 
 ulna or inner bone in being small above and thick and 
 expanded below. Moreover this bone is not as long as 
 the ulna, which exceeds it by the length of the olecranon 
 process. 
 
 The upper end of the radius is called the head. It too 
 may be compared to a thick disk-shaped piece of bone 
 fixed on the end of the shaft. The upper surface of this 
 disk or head is slightly hollow so as to fit on to the 
 smooth rounded surface of the capitellum or little head of 
 the humerus. The circumference of the disk is thick and 
 rounded, and on its inner side is adapted for articulation 
 with the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna, which we have 
 already seen on the outer side of the coronoid process of 
 that bone. The head of the radius can be distinctly felt 
 beneath the skin in the dimple or depression which appears 
 behind and towards the outer side of the elbow, when 
 the fore-arm is straightened on the upper arm. 
 
 Below the head the shaft of the bone is constricted, but 
 gradually expands as it passes downwards, becoming much 
 thicker towards its lower extremity. About three-quarters 
 of an inch below the head there is an outstanding osseous 
 tubercle on the inner side of the shaft. This is called 
 the bicipital tubercle, because the tendon of the biceps 
 muscle is attached to it. 
 
 The shaft of the bone is so overlain by muscles that 
 it has no direct influence on the surface contours of the 
 fore-arm, though indirectly it reacts on the surface forms 
 
 K 2 
 
132 Elbow-joint. 
 
 by supporting these muscles, and thus gives rise to great 
 modifications in the general outline of the limb, according 
 as its position is changed in the movements of pronation 
 and supination already referred to. 
 
 ,The lower end of the bone is broad and expanded. It 
 enters largely into the formation of the wrist-joint, furnish- 
 ing by its inferior articular surface a broad support for the 
 bones of the wrist. The external border of this expanded 
 inferior extremity is prolonged downwards in the form of 
 a blunt-pointed projection, called the styloid process of the 
 radius. This process, as well as the bone immediately around 
 it, is subcutaneous and forms the prominence on the outer 
 side of the wrist which lies in line with the thumb. An 
 oval hollow, seen on the inner side of the expanded lower 
 end of the bone, receives the thick margin of the rounded 
 head of the ulna when the two bones are articulated. 
 
 These points will require further consideration when the 
 movements of pronation and supination are discussed and 
 when the anatomy of the wrist is considered. 
 
 There are few subjects which require more careful study 
 than the elbow-joint. A knowledge of the shape and 
 relations of the bones which enter into its formation is 
 essential to enable the student to understand the alterations 
 in form which depend on the movements of this joint. 
 
 The elbow-joint is a typical example of a hinge-joint. 
 That is to say, movement takes place in one or other of two 
 directions, either forwards or backwards — such movements 
 being termed j^easiow and extension. In the former the fore- 
 arm is bent forwards on the upper arm, in the latter the 
 limb is straightened so that the fore- arm is brought 
 nearly into line with the upper arm. The capsule which 
 invests the joint is loose in front and behind, so as to 
 allow freely of movements in those directions. At the sides 
 of the joint, however, the capsule is strengthened by the 
 addition of strong ligaments which prevent any lateral play. 
 
Elbow-joint. 
 
 133 
 
 As has been already stated, the ulna is th« bone of the 
 fore-arm which enters most largely into the formation of 
 this joint. The sigmoid notch 
 between the coronoid and 
 olecranon processes is fitted 
 on to the trochlear surface 
 of the humerus, but as this 
 notch is less in extent than 
 the surface on which it fits 
 it follows that, in the move- 
 ments of the joint, the notch 
 is applied to different parts 
 of the trochlea as the for- 
 ward and backward move- 
 ments are performed. Thus, 
 when the limb is extended, 
 i. e. straightened, the surfaces 
 of the notch are in contact with 
 the back and lower parts 
 of the trochlea, whereas, when 
 the elbow is forcibly bent, the 
 notch is in contact with the 
 anterior and inferior aspects 
 of the trochlea. 
 
 The processes which bound 
 the notch above and below 
 are prominent and outstand- 
 ing, and an arrangement is 
 necessary to prevent them 
 unduly limiting the range 
 of movement of the joint. 
 Above the trochlear surface 
 of the humerus, both in front 
 
 and behind, the bone is hollowed out to form two fossae. 
 That in front is c&Wed. t\ie coronoid fossa ; the one behind. 
 
 Fig. 87. Front view of the elbow- 
 joint. The head of the radius has 
 been drawn away from the collar- 
 like ligament (i) which holds it in 
 position. 
 
 r. Badins, «. Ulna. 
 
 a. Trochlear surface of humems. 
 6. Capitellum. 
 
 c. Head of radius. 
 
 d. Coronoid process of ulna, 
 
 e. Internal condyle of humerus. 
 /. Coronoid fossa of humerus. 
 
 g. External condyle of humerus. 
 
 h. External lateral ligament. 
 
 i. Orbiculax ligament. 
 
 j. Lesser sigmoid notch of ulna into 
 
 which head of radius fits, 
 it. Surface for the attachment of the 
 
 hrachialis anticus. 
 I. Bicipital tuberosity of radius to which 
 
 the tendon of biceps is attached. 
 
134 Elbow-joint. 
 
 the olecranon fossa. When the limb is extended the 
 anterior and upper border of the olecranon process lies 
 in the olecranon fossa, whilst in the bent position the 
 prominent lower border of the great sigmoid notch, formed 
 by the coronoid process, occupies the coronoid fossa. 
 
 The movements of flexion and extension of the fore-arm 
 are effected by the sigmoid notch being drawn over the 
 trochlea of the humerus, but as the radius is united to 
 the ulna by means of certain joints it follows that as the 
 ulna moves it carries with it the radius. It has been already 
 stated that the upper surface of the head of the radius is 
 hollowed out to adapt it to fit the capitellum or small head 
 of the humerus, but as this latter articular surface is placed 
 more on the front than on the lower aspect of the inferior 
 extremity of the humerus it results that the radius is but 
 slightly in contact with this surface of the humerus when 
 the limb is fully extended. When the elbow is bent, how- 
 ever, the head of the radius is more closely applied to the 
 capitellum. The surfaces just described are so arranged 
 as to permit not only of movements in a backward and 
 forward direction, but also of movements of rotation of the 
 head of the radius on the capitellum. This movement of 
 the radius is possible in all positions of the limb, but is 
 best controlled and most efficiently employed when the 
 elbow is bent, for in this position the head of the radius 
 fits more accurately on the capitellum and is therefore 
 better supported. 
 
 These facts are borne out by experience. It is in the 
 movements of pronation and supination, already incidentally 
 referred to, that the rotation of the head of the radius takes 
 place. When we make use of these movements, and desire 
 to employ a considerable amount of force, we are accustomed 
 to do so with the arm bent, as in the acts of inserting 
 a corkscrew or using a screw-driver, for in this position 
 of the limb the head of the radius is well supported by the 
 
Elbow-joint. 135 
 
 capitellum. But, whilst this is the case, the student must 
 not overlook the fact that the same movements may be 
 performed with the limb extended, as in fencing, or when 
 we lift and twist anything about; in the latter act, however, 
 it will be obvious that the joint is subjected to a tearing 
 rather than a crushing strain. 
 
 It is necessary to consider the movements of flexion and 
 extension of the elbow more carefully. Were the move- 
 ments as simple as have been described, one would naturally 
 expect that when the fore-arm is bent on the upper arm 
 the anterior surfaces of the two parts of the limb would be 
 brought into contact ; that this is not the case, the student 
 can easily demonstrate for himself. If the arms be extended 
 by the sides of the trunk with the palms of the hands 
 directed forwards, and the fore-arms be then bent upwards 
 without any conscious restraint, the elbows being still kept 
 in contact with the sides of the chest, it will be found that 
 the hands will fall naturally in a crossed position on the 
 front of the breast, and not, as one might reasonably expect, 
 over the shoulders of the corresponding limbs. This will 
 be obvious if the attempt is made to touch the shoulder 
 with the hand of the same side, while the upper arm is 
 still closely applied to the side of the body : the effort will 
 prove that the action is a very constrained one. 
 
 If the arms be again extended by the side, in the manner 
 above described, another point will be noticed. The fore- 
 arms appear splayed on the upper arms ; in other words, 
 the axis of the fore-arm when viewed from the front is not 
 in line with the axis of the upper arm, but forms with it 
 an obtuse angle. Why this is not as a rule apparent is 
 due to the fact that when we carry our limbs by the sides 
 of our body we usually have the palms of the hands directed 
 inwards towards the sides of the thighs, as in the military 
 position of attention ; in this attitude the bones of the 
 fore-arm are 'in a state midway between supination and 
 
136 
 
 Elbow-joint. 
 
 pronation, a position wliich so modifies the direction of the 
 axis of the fore-arm as to bring it directly in line with 
 the axis of the upper arm and thus cause the disappearance 
 of the obtuse angle alluded to. To represent this angle has 
 been regarded by many as offensive and inartistic ; at the 
 same time it must be borne in mind that the condition is 
 a perfectly natural one, and the action in -which it is most 
 pronounced is by no means unfrequently employed by 
 many as a gesture which is usually associated with an 
 obsequious manner. 
 
 Fig. 88. Diagram to illustrate the manner in which flexion of the 
 elbow affects the limb. 
 
 a a. The axis of rotation of the joint 
 is plEused obliquely to the long 
 axis of the humerus. 
 
 c c and d d. Bepresent two pieces of 
 
 wood hinged together obliquely 
 at 6 6. When d d is bent upon 
 c c it occupies the position re- 
 presented by the dotted lines e e. 
 
 The explanation of the above facts is to be found in the 
 form of the articular surfaces by which the humerus and 
 ulna are united. The student will best understand this by 
 a reference to the accompanying diagrams (Fig. 88). These 
 do not account for all the movements which take place at 
 the elbow, but they at least render clear the cause of the 
 obtuse angle when the limb is extended and the crossing 
 inwards when the fore-arm is bent. As will be seen, this 
 
Elbow-joint. 137 
 
 is due to the fact that the axis of rotation of the hinge is 
 not placed at right angles to the axis of the upper segment 
 of the limb, but obliquely to it. The dotted line in the 
 figure represents the position which the lower segment of 
 the two hinged pieces would occupy if it was bent on 
 the upper. 
 
 The influence of the bones of the elbow-joint on the 
 surface forms must now be studied. Of the two condyles 
 of the humerus the internal is the more prominent, and 
 can be readily felt and seen on the inner side of the elbow. 
 The external, not nearly so pronounced on the bone, can be 
 felt from the surface, but causes no corresponding projection, 
 because the muscles which rise from the ridge leading to 
 it are so fleshy as completely to mask its form. Its position, 
 however, is clearly indicated by an intermuscular farrow 
 which lies behind and to the outer side of the elbow between 
 the muscles already spoken of and others which rise from 
 the back of the external condyloid process. This furrow in 
 the muscular male is clearly defined by the margins of the 
 outstanding muscles on either side, but in the female and 
 child, owing to the larger quantity of subcutaneous fat, it 
 is replaced by a dimple. If the finger be placed in the 
 upper part of this furrow the back of the external condyle 
 can be distinctly felt, whilst immediately below it the 
 finger will readily recognize the head of the radius (PI., 
 p. 170). 
 
 The olecranon process of the ulna is a feature of great 
 importance in connexion with the surface forms of the 
 elbow, a circumstance due, not only to its prominence, but 
 also to its mobility. The projection of the hinder and 
 upper part of this process forms the tip of the elbow. 
 When the arm is fully extended this point of the bone lies 
 on a level with a line, drawn across the back of the joint, 
 connecting the two condyloid processes. When the arm 
 is bent, the tip of the elbow becomes more prominent and 
 
138 
 
 Elbow-joint. 
 
 descends to a mucli lower level. In the position of the 
 limb in which the fore-arm is flexed on the upper arm at 
 a right angle, the tip of the olecranon lies in direct line with 
 the axis of the humerus, and from an inch to an inch and 
 a half, according to the size of the bones, below the level of 
 the internal condyle. These points, if viewed from behind 
 with the arm in this position (Fig. 91), will be seen to form 
 a triangle, of which the base corresponds to an imaginary- 
 line connecting the two condyloid processes of the hmnerus, 
 the apex being formed by the tip of the olecranon. 
 
 Fig. 89. As seen 
 from the front when 
 the joint is extended. 
 
 Bones of the left elbow. 
 
 Fig. 90. As seen 
 from behind when the 
 joint is extended. 
 
 Fig. 91. As seen 
 from behind when the 
 joint is bent to a right 
 angle. 
 
 e. External condyle. 
 
 i. Internal condyle. 
 
 If flexion of the fore-arm be carried to a greater extent, 
 the tip of the olecranon will advance further, and the outline 
 of this process will be rendered more distinct. 
 
 The back of the olecranon process forms a triangular 
 surface which is bounded on either side by bony ridges; 
 these gradually coalesce inferiorly to form the posterior 
 
Elbow-joint. 
 
 139 
 
 Pig. 92. View of the bones of the right elbow from the outer side 
 with the joint extended. 
 
 Pig. 93. View of the bones of the right elbow from the outer side 
 with the joint slightly bent. 
 
 Fig. 94. View of the bones of the right elbow from the outer side 
 with the joint still further bent. 
 
 h. Htuuenis. 
 », Capitellum of humems. 
 
 )•. Badius. «. Ulna. 
 
 0. Olecranon process of ulna 
 
140 Fascia of Upper Arm. 
 
 border of tke shaft of the ulna. The triangular surface 
 of bone included between the two lines is uncovered by 
 muscle and immediately underlies the skin; it can be 
 easily felt, and is limited above by the pointed extremity 
 of the olecranon, whilst below it becomes continuous with 
 the ulnar furrow which corresponds, on the surface, to the 
 posterior border of the ulna. 
 
 The movements of which the elbow-joint is capable are 
 those of flexion and extension. The former is effected by 
 the contraction of the muscles of the front of the upper arm, 
 and is checked by the opposition of the soft parts which 
 clothe the anterior aspect of the limb. Extension is due 
 to the contraction of the triceps muscle, which lies on the 
 back of the upper arm, and is limited by the tightening 
 of certain ligaments and the mechanical locking of the 
 bones, especially when the action is a violent one. The 
 extent to which this movement may take place varies in 
 different individuals ; in some, owing to a greater laxity of 
 the ligaments and to modifications in the form of the bones, 
 a certain amount of hyper-extension is possible. This gives 
 rise to an unpleasant appearance, for the fore- arm appears 
 as if bent back on the upper arm. 
 
 The muscles which control the movements of the elbow- 
 joint must now be described; they form the fleshy masses 
 on the front and back of the upper arm. Beneath the 
 skin and subcutaneous fat of the arm a sheath of fascia 
 invests the entire limb. This fascial sheath may be com- 
 pared to a tight-fitting sleeve. Above, it is continuous 
 with the fascia covering the shoulder and the layer which 
 forms the floor of the armpit ; at several points corre- 
 sponding to the attachment of the muscles which form 
 the anterior and posterior folds of the armpit, it receives 
 considerable additions by means of fibrous strands derived 
 from the tendons of insertion of these muscles. These 
 fibrous bands mask to some extent the borders of the 
 
Brachialis anticus. 141 
 
 tendons of insertion of these muscles, and render more 
 flowing the outline of the axillary folds, where they become 
 blended with the surface contours of the upper arm. 
 A closer inspection of this fibrous sheath reveals the fact 
 that in the upper arm it is subdivided by partitions, which 
 pass from it, one on either side, to become attached to the 
 ridges of bone which have been already seen to extend 
 upwards on each side of the shaft of the humerus from the 
 internal and external condyloid processes. 
 
 These partitions are called the intermuscular septa, 
 internal and external, according as they lie along the inner 
 or outer side of the limb. The result of this arrangement 
 is that the sleeve or sheath is divided into two compart- 
 ments, in the anterior of which are lodged the muscles 
 which bend the elbow, and which are known as the flexor 
 group, whilst occupying the posterior compartment is the 
 extensor mass. The intermuscular septa are structures of 
 some importance as determinants of surface forms, but 
 their influence in this respect will be better studied when 
 the actions of the various muscles have been considered. 
 
 Of the flexors of the fore-arm there are two which may 
 now be conveniently studied. There are other muscles 
 which assist in performing these movements, but the 
 description of them is for the time delayed. The two 
 referred to are the hracMalis anticus and the biceps of 
 the arm. 
 
 The brachialis anticus is the deeper as well as the smaller ; 
 it passes directly over the front of the elbow-joint, arising 
 from the humerus above and passing to the ulna below. It 
 takes origin from the front of the lower half of the shaft 
 of the humerus, as well as from the intermuscular septa, 
 more particularly that on the inner side ; superiorly its 
 fibres lie on either side of the insertion of the deltoid. 
 The fleshy fibres of the muscle diverge above, but converge 
 below towards the insertion, which is into the front of the 
 
142 Biceps cuhiti. 
 
 coronoid process of the ulna. The widest part of the muscle 
 lies at some little distance above the elbow. 
 
 The brachialis anticus is overlain by the biceps muscle, 
 but as the latter is narrower than the former the fibres of 
 the brachialis are exposed, both on the inner and outer 
 aspects of the front of the limb. Along the outer side of 
 the upper arm the fibres of the brachialis are seen lying 
 in the interval between the biceps in front, the external 
 inter-muscular septum and the outer head of the triceps 
 behind, the insertion of the deltoid above, and the origin of 
 a muscle called the supinator longus below (Pis., pp. 52, 
 96, 106, 170, 180). Along the inner aspect of the upper 
 arm the fibres are visible between the biceps in front, the 
 internal intermuscular septum and inner head of the 
 triceps behind, and the origin of the pronator radii teres 
 muscle below (Pis., pp. 144, 148, 180, 282). In both these 
 situations the muscle is superficial, and, during powerful 
 contraction, may directly influence the surface forms. In 
 action it will also push forward the lower part of the biceps, 
 which lies upon it, and so indirectly exert an influence on 
 the superficial contours. 
 
 The muscle acts as a flexor of the fore- arm ; by its in- 
 sertion into the coronoid process of the ulna it draws 
 the sigmoid articular area over the trochlear surface of the 
 humerus. 
 
 The biceps flexor cubiti, or biceps of the arm, belongs to 
 that group of muscles which has been described as indirect 
 in their action. Under normal conditions it has no attach- 
 ment to the humerus whatever, but arises from the shoulder- 
 blade. This it does by two tendons, one of which, called 
 the long head, springs from the blade-bone just above the 
 articular surface (glenoid fossa) for the head of the humerus ; 
 the other, or short head, arises along with the coraco- 
 brachialis (as has been already described at the beginning of 
 this chapter) from the coracoid process of the shoulder-blade. 
 
Biceps cubiti. 143 
 
 These tendons lie under cover of the muscles which form 
 the cap of the shoulder, and it is just before they appear 
 beneath the anterior fold of the armpit that they become 
 fleshy. Each tendon is provided with a belly, hence the 
 name of the muscle, but these bellies are so closely applied 
 the one to the other that we may disregard their separate 
 existence and consider only their combined fleshy mass 
 (Fig. 79, p. 124). 
 
 At the upper part of the limb this appears as it escapes 
 below the margin of the pectoralis major, which here forms 
 the anterior fold of the armpit ; gradually increasing in 
 bulk, the muscle attains its maximum thickness about the 
 middle of the upper arm. Below this point the fibres are 
 gathered together to end in a powerful tendon, part of 
 which passes by a ribbon-like expansion to be inserted into 
 and blended with the fascia of the fore-arm which over- 
 lies the muscles which spring from the inner condyle of 
 the humerus. The remainder, by far the stronger portion, is 
 continued downwards as a thick rounded tendon, which is 
 inserted into the bicipital tubercle of the outer bone of the 
 fore-arm (radius). In form the muscle may vary consider- 
 ably in different individuals, a difference not dependent 
 on its development from exercise or otherwise, but due 
 to the arrangement of its component parts. Thus in some 
 the muscular fibres are long and the tendinous portions 
 are relatively short, whilst in others the fleshy belly of the 
 muscle is short and the tendons are lojjg. The influence 
 of these varieties of the muscle on the surface form may 
 be better understood by a reference to the condition met 
 with in the calf of the leg. It is a matter of common 
 knowledge that the form of the leg differs much in different 
 persons ; in many the prominence of the calf is situated 
 high up on the back of the leg, whereas in others the 
 swelling of the calf reaches lower down and imparts a much 
 more clumsy appearance to the ankle. This is entirely due 
 
144 Biceps cubiti. 
 
 to differences in tlie length of tlie fleshy bellies of the 
 muscles which are placed on the back of the leg. 
 
 In considering the relations of the biceps to the surface 
 the student must bear in mind that the muscle is in 
 great part superficial. It is only at its upper and lower 
 attachments that it is concealed from view. Above, the 
 anterior fold of the armpit covers the tendons of origin 
 of the muscle. Below, the tendon of insertion sinks deeply 
 between the muscles of the fore-arm (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 82, 84. 
 96, 106, 108, 144, 180, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 The greater part of the fleshy belly of the muscle is 
 therefore superficial, and it is to this that the rounded 
 form of the front of the upper arm is due. The form of 
 the belly of the muscle is such that its thickness is greater 
 than its width ; hence the diameter of the upper arm is 
 greater from before backwards than from side to side. As 
 has been already said, the width of the belly of the biceps 
 is not sufficient to conceal entirely the brachialis anticus on 
 which it rests, so that a portion of the latter muscle is 
 exposed on either side of it (Pis., pp. 62, 144). 
 
 The outer and inner borders of the biceps are defined 
 by two shallow furrows which run down one on either side 
 of the front of the upper arm. The outer furrow corre- 
 sponds superiorly to the interval between the deltoid and 
 biceps, whilst below, where it is usually well marked, it 
 overlies the interval between the biceps above and to the 
 inner side, and the supinator longiis below and to the outer 
 side. The middle part of this furrow, which is less well 
 marked, overlies the external intermuscular septum, and it 
 is here that fibres of the brachialis anticus are brought into 
 direct relation with the surface (see ante). These facts will 
 be clearly demonstrated by a reference to Pis., pp. 52, 62, 
 96, 106, 108). 
 
 The surface farrow along the inner side of the upper arm 
 corresponds to the inner border of the biceps muscle. 
 
Key to Plate XXVI 
 
 u. Pecioralis major, 
 
 b. LatissifHUS dorsi. 
 
 c. Teres major. 
 
 d. Coraco-brackialis. 
 
 e. Deltoid. 
 
 f. Triceps, long head. 
 
 g. Triceps^ inner head. 
 h. Biceps cubiti. 
 
 I m 't p q ^ 
 
 PRONE 
 
 /. Internal intermuseiUar- septum. 
 
 j. Brachialis anticns. 
 
 k. Internal condyle of huwerus. 
 
 I. Bicipital fascia. 
 
 ■m. Pronator radii teres, 
 
 n. Extensor carpi radialis longior. 
 
 u. Supinator longus. 
 
 p. Flexor carpi radialis. 
 
 abcdefghijk Imnopryzvw 
 MIDWAY BETWEEN THE FUONE AND SUHINE POSITIONS 
 
 g. Extensor carpi radialis brevtor. 
 r. Pahnaris longus. 
 s. Tendons of radial extensors, 
 t. Common extensor of fingers, 
 
 I Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 
 
 ' Extensor primi inlernodii pollicis. 
 V, Extensor secundi internodii pollicis. 
 
 w. Annular ligament of wrist. 
 
 X. Paltnar fascia. 
 
 y. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 z. Flexor sublirms digitortint, ^ 
 
 1 . Triceps tendon. 
 
 2. Olecranon process of ulna. 
 
 3. Styloid process of ulna. 
 
 bcdefgkijik 2 I fu P y y s 
 SUPINE 
 
 FRONT VIEW OK EXTENDED ARMS 
 
 Copyright, 1896, by Hknrv FROwnt:] 
 
Biceps cubiti. 145 
 
 Above, it may be traced into the hollow of the armpit, 
 though in certain positions of the limb, viz. when the arm 
 is uplifted, the prominence due to the coraco-brachialis will 
 interrupt it to some extent. The bottom of this furrow 
 corresponds to the brachialis anticus muscle and the internal 
 intermuscular septum, whilst the posterior margin of the 
 furrow is due to the prominence of the triceps muscle on 
 the back of the arm. Below, it blends with the surface in 
 front of the elbow. The aponeurotic insertion of the biceps 
 into the fascia of the fore-arm bridges across the interval 
 which would otherwise exist between the biceps and the 
 muscles of the fore-arm arising from the internal condyle 
 of the humerus. The furrow along the inner side of the 
 upper arm is mucli less marked than what we would expect 
 from a study of the muscles alone, because the great blood- 
 vessels and nerves which supply the arm lie along the limb 
 in this situation (Pis., pp. 108, 144, 148, 282, 332). 
 
 The biceps muscle, fr(fin its connexion with the radius, acts 
 as a powerful flexor of the fore-arm, but it also assists in 
 raising the arm at the shoulder-joint, as it derives its 
 origin from the shoulder-blade. Its action as a flexor of 
 J^t the fore- arm is modified by the position of the radius at 
 the commencement of the act ; for if the radius, which 
 is the bone principalIFy' concerned in the movements of 
 pronation and supination, be crossed over the ulna or inner 
 bone of the fore-arm, as in the prone position, the first 
 effect of the contraction of the biceps will be to supinate 
 the limb. The muscle is therefore a powerful supinator 
 as well as a flexor of the fore-arm. The action of the biceps 
 as^ a supinator may be easily demonstrated as follows : — 
 Bend the elbow until the fore-arm forms a right angle with 
 the upper arm, then rotate the bones of the fore-arm in 
 such a way as to direct the palm of the hand upwards and 
 downwards, or backwards and forwards, as the case may 
 be. The biceps will be most powerfully contracted when 
 
146 . Triceps. 
 
 the limb is in the supine position, much less so when in 
 the prone position. 
 
 The fleshy mass which is placed on the back of the upper 
 arm acts as an extensor muscle of the fore-arm : it is 
 called the triceps, and, as its name implies, arises by three 
 heads, which are distinguished as the inner, the outer, and 
 the middle or long head. The two former arise from the 
 humerus ; the latter springs from the outer margin of the 
 blade-bone, just below the shallow socket which receives 
 the head of the humerus (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 82, 84, 96, 
 106, 144, 170, 180, 234, 332). These three fleshy masses are 
 attached inferiorly to an aponeurotic tendon, from an inch 
 to an inch and a half wide, which reaches as high as the 
 middle of the upper arm. By means of this tendon the 
 muscle is inserted into the hinder part and outer border of 
 the olecranon process, a few of the fleshy fibres of the inner 
 head of the muscle being directly connected with the 
 olecranon without the intervention of tendinous fibres. As 
 the fleshy mass of the muscle overlies the back of the shaft 
 of the humerus, it is brought into relation with the inter- 
 muscular septa which have been already described. From 
 the posterior surface of these septa the outer and inner 
 heads of the muscle derive fibres of origin. It will thus be 
 seen that these septa lie between the brachialis anticus 
 muscle in front and the triceps miiscle on the back of the 
 upper arm, one septum along the inner, the other along 
 the outer side of the limb. 
 
 The triceps is superficial except at the upper part of the 
 limb, where the deltoid covers a part of the long head as 
 well as the highest attachment of the outer head. 
 
 The surface contours of the back of the upper arm depend 
 on the arrangement of the fibres of the triceps, and the 
 distinction between its several parts is most apparent when 
 the muscle is in a state of powerful contraction. In this 
 condition the contrast between the fleshy and tendinous 
 
Anconeus. 147 
 
 parts of the muscle is at once apparent. The area overlying 
 the tendinous part forms an elongated flattened surface, 
 passing up the centre of the back of the limb from the tip 
 of the elbow below to a point above corresponding pretty 
 closely to the middle of the length of the upper arm. On 
 either side of and above this flattened area, the bulging 
 produced by the contraction of the fleshy fibres is seen. 
 The most noticeable contour is that caused by the attach- 
 ment of the outer head of the muscle to the tendinous part, 
 this forms a well-marked oblique furrow, which repeats 
 at a lower level that due to the hinder border of the 
 deltoid as it passes across the upper part of the limb 
 (Pis., pp. 82, 86, 102, 170, 180, 332). 
 
 On the inner side of the limb the separation of the long 
 from the inner head is indicated by a furrow which passes 
 obliquely downwards and backwards across the hinder and 
 inner aspect of the upper arm from a point about its middle 
 towards the inner border of the tendinous part of the muscle 
 (Pis., pp. 38, 96, 108, 148, 180). 
 
 The muscle acts as a powerful extensor of the fore-arm 
 on the upper arm. Owing to the attachment of the long 
 head to the blade -bone, this part of the muscle also assists 
 in drawing down the elevated limb. 
 
 Mention may now be made of a muscle called the anconeus, 
 which, whilst it might well be described with the muscles 
 of the back of the fore-arm, is better considered here, as it is 
 intimately associated with the triceps. 
 
 The anconeus has a triangular outline, and fills up the in- 
 terval between the back of the external condyle, the outer 
 border of the olecranon process, and the upper part of the 
 shaft of the ulna. It thus overlies to a slight extent the 
 back of the head of the radius. The muscle arises from 
 the posterior surface of the external condyle of the humerus 
 by a pointed tendinous attachment. The fibres spread out 
 in a fan-shaped manner ; the upper, almost horizontal, cross 
 
 L 2 
 
148 External Intermuscular Septum. 
 
 inwards to be attached to the outer margin of the olecranon, 
 whilst the lower pass, with varying degrees of obliquity, to 
 be inserted into the posterior border of the ulna along its 
 outer margin. The extent of this attachment varies some- 
 what, but, generally speaking, may be said to correspond to 
 the upper third or fourth of the length of the bone. 
 
 The muscle is held down by an expansion derived from 
 the outer side of the tendinous insertion of the triceps. At 
 its origin the anconeus is directly related to the muscles 
 which arise from the front and outer side of the external 
 condyle, and the interval between it and these muscles 
 corresponds to the depression to which attention has 
 already been directed in considering the surface relations 
 of the parts about the elbow. 
 
 The general lie of the muscle may best be understood by 
 a reference to Pis., pp. 42, 96, 106, 148, 170, 180. It acts, 
 along with the triceps, in extending the fore-arm. 
 
 The influence of the foregoing muscles on the surface 
 form of the limb has been already considered, but reference 
 may now be made to the intermuscular septa which have 
 been already described. Of these the more important, as 
 a determinant of surface form, is the external. When the 
 muscles are powerfully contracted and the limb is flexed, 
 the margin of the external septum forms a well-defined 
 ridge, which passes up from the external condyloid process. 
 An important group of muscles, which will be described 
 in the next chapter, arises from the front of this septum as 
 well as from the front of the external condyle. When the 
 limb is straight these muscles overlie the condyle and so 
 partially mask its form, but with the elbow bent and the 
 muscles powerfully contracted the condyle is uncovered 
 and the attachment of the external intermuscular septum 
 to it is more plainly seen, as is shown in Pis., pp. 38, 96, 
 148, 180. In this position the surface ridge, corresponding 
 to the sharp edge of the septum, lies between the external 
 
Internal Intermuscular Septum. 149 
 
 head of the triceps and the muscles of the fore-arm which 
 arise from its anterior surface. 
 
 The internal intermuscular septum does not produce so 
 pronounced a surface elevation, but its position may be 
 readily recognized on the inner side of the upper arm when 
 the elbow is bent and the muscles are powerfully contracted. 
 Under these conditions it may be traced upwards from the 
 prominent internal condyle as a rounded elevation which 
 separates the triceps behind from the brachialis anticus in 
 front (Pis., pp. 148, 180). 
 
CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 THE FOEE-AEM. 
 
 As has been already pointed out, the two bones which 
 form the skeleton of the fore-arm are jointed together in 
 a manner different from that of the corresponding bones of 
 the lower limb. In the leg the bones are bound together in 
 such a way that they cannot possibly move on one another, 
 whilst in the fore-arm they are united so that one of 
 them may rotate round the other. The importance of this 
 arrangement cannot be overlooked when we consider how 
 much this movement enhances the utility of the hand. 
 By its means we are enabled to perform such acts as in- 
 serting a corkscrew or turning a screw-driver ; it permits 
 us with ease to make use of any screwing action of the 
 hand. We employ it every time we turn the handle of 
 a door. 
 
 These movements are termed pronation and supination. 
 
 Let us endeavour to analyze them in their simplest form. 
 
 With the elbow by the side, and the fore-arm bent on the 
 upper arm at a right angle, we can control the movement 
 of the hand so that the palm is directed upwards. In 
 this condition the limb is said to be supine. A careful 
 examination of the limb in this position will reveal the 
 fact that the two bones of the fore-arm are lying side by 
 side, the radius externally, the ulna internally. The form 
 
Pronation and Supination. 151 
 
 of the fore-arm is such that it is thicker from side to side 
 than from before backwards. Whilst still retaining the 
 elbow by the side, the hand may be turned so that the palm 
 is directed downwards, the limb is now placed in the prone 
 position, performing at the same time the movement of 
 •pronation. Coincident with this change in the position 
 of the palm some remarkable alterations in the arrange- 
 ment of the parts of the fore-arm are to be noted. The 
 bones no longer lie side by side, since the outer bone or 
 radius is now directed obliquely across the front of the 
 ulna or inner bone. The head of the radius still retains 
 its relation to the outer side of the upper extremity of the 
 ulna, but the lower end of the radius is placed to the inner 
 side of the lower extremity of the ulna. The shaft of the 
 radius therefore passes obliquely across the front of the 
 shaft of the ulna. As has been stated in the previous 
 chapter, the lower end of the radius is large compared 
 with that of the ulna. As a consequence of this it enters 
 more extensively into the formation of the wrist-joint, and, 
 playing as it does so important a part in the formation 
 of the joint by means of which the hand is articulated 
 with the fore-arm, it follows that when the radius moves 
 it carries with it the hand. Now when the radius is lying 
 parallel to and along the outer side of the ulna the palm' 
 of the hand is directed upwards and the thumb lies to 
 the outer side ; but when the radius has moved so as to lie 
 obliquely across the front of the ulna it causes the hand 
 to turn, so that the palm is directed downwards and the 
 thumb inwards. 
 
 This change in the position of the radius is associated 
 with marked alterations in the form of the fore-arm. As 
 we have already seen, the greatest thickness of the limb 
 with the hand in the supine position is from side to side. 
 "When however the radius lies across the front of the ulna, 
 the flatness of the front of the fore- arm disappears, and the 
 
152 Pronation and Supination. 
 
 greatest thickness of the limb is now from front to back. 
 This alteration in form is primarily due to the change 
 in the relative position of the bones, but as the radius is 
 covered by the powerful muscles which form the fleshy 
 mass along the outer side of the fore- arm it results that 
 when this bone changes its position it carries them with 
 it, and thus brings about a further modification of the 
 surface forms. 
 
 When the limb is in the prone position, i. e. with the palm 
 directed downwards, we can reverse the action and bring the 
 palm upwards again. This is the movement of supination. 
 
 Pronation and supination, therefore, are movements 
 whereby we may rotate the axis of the hand through an 
 arc of 180°, or about half a circle. 
 
 But if the student will repeat the movement already 
 described, and, in addition, will now extend the elbow, 
 the palm of the hand, which was in the first instance 
 directed downwards, will, now the limb is straightened by 
 the side of the body, be directed backwards. In the first 
 position we had no further power of rotating the hand, 
 but when the axis of the fore arm is brought into line 
 with the axis of the upper arm the hand can be turned 
 further round, so that the palm is directed outwards. 
 There is thus a considerable gain, for, whilst we were only 
 able to rotate the hand through 180° with the elbow bent, 
 now that the limb is straightened we can rotate the hand 
 to the extent of 270°, i. e. through three-quarters of a circle. 
 The explanation of this difference is simple. Superadded 
 to the movements of pronation and supination, move- 
 ments which are confined to the fore-arm, there is the 
 further advantage of bringing into play the power of 
 rotation at the shoulder-joint; this enables us to turn 
 the humerus, and the bones of the fore-arm along with it, 
 and so leads to a rotation of the entire limb. 
 
 These two movements must be kept quite distinct in the 
 
Pronation and Supination. 
 
 153 
 
 mind of the student, as well as the fact that they can only 
 
 be associated when the limb is straight, i e. with the elbow 
 
 extended. The best example 
 
 of this combination of the 
 
 two actions is seen in certain 
 
 of the thrusting and parrying 
 
 movements in fencing. 
 
 Confining our attention 
 strictly to the movements of 
 pronation and supination, it 
 is necessary to study the 
 mechanism by which they 
 are eflFected. 
 
 As will be remembered 
 from the description given 
 in the previous chapter, the 
 head of the radius is like a 
 thick disk of bone united to 
 the upper extremity of the 
 shaft. The margin of this 
 disk is coated with articular 
 cartilage, and fits into the 
 oval hollow on the outer side 
 of the coronoid process of the 
 ulna called the lesser sigmoid 
 notch, where it is held in 
 position by a collar or band, 
 called the orbicular ligament 
 (Fig. 95). This ligament, 
 whilst it does not interfere 
 with the rotation of the head 
 of the radius within it, serves 
 to retain the head of the bone 
 
 in contact with the articular surface of the lesser sigmoid 
 notch. Another important point to remember is that the 
 
 Fig. 95. A view of the bones of 
 the right elbow with the head of the 
 radius withdrawn from the lesser 
 sigmoid notch and the orbicular 
 ligament. 
 
 a. Ttoclilear surface of humerus. 
 6. Capitellum. 
 
 c. Head of radius. 
 
 d. Coronoid process of ulna. 
 
 e. Internal condyle of humerus. 
 
 f. Coronoid fossa of humerus. 
 
 g. External condyle of humerus. 
 
 ft. External lateral ligament of elbow. 
 
 i. Orbicular ligament. 
 
 j. Lesser sigmoid notch. 
 
 k. Surface of attachment of brachialis 
 
 anticus. 
 I. Bicipital tubercle of radius. 
 r. Badius. 
 u. Ulna. 
 
154 Pronation and Supination. 
 
 external lateral ligament of tlie elbow-joint, instead of being 
 connected witli the head of the radius, is attached to the 
 orbicular ligament, so that the rotation of the radius at 
 this joint is in no way interfered with. These points 
 are better shown in the accompanying figures, the first of 
 which (Fig. 95) shows the bones of the elbow-joint, with 
 the head of the radius withdrawn from the orbicular 
 ligament and lesser sigmoid notch. Fig. 96 (I.) represents 
 a section through the upper ends of the bones of the fore- 
 arm, and shows how the head of the radius is surrounded 
 by the orbicular ligament. 
 
 Turning to the lower ends of the bones, we note first the 
 fact that the lower extremity of the radius is much larger 
 than the lower end (or head) of the ulna. On that side 
 of the enlarged extremity of the radius which is directed 
 towards the head of the ulna we observe a hollow articular 
 surface, called the sigmoid cavity of the radius, in which the 
 head of the ulna rests. In this respect, therefore, there 
 is a striking similarity between this joint and the articula- 
 tion between the upper extremities of the bones. In the 
 one case the head of the radius fits into the lesser sigmoid 
 hollow of the ulna, in the other the head of the ulna fits into 
 the sigmoid hollow of the lower end of the radius, but the 
 manner in which the ligaments unite the ends of the bones 
 is quite different. The lower end of the ulna is not bound 
 to the radius by an orbicular ligament, but by a triangular 
 fibro- cartilage, the apex of which is attached to the base of 
 the process of bone which springs from the inner and hinder 
 aspect of the head of the ulna, a process which has been 
 already referred to under the name of the styloid process. 
 By its base the fibro-cartilage is united to the ridge on 
 the lower end of the radius which separates the articular 
 surface for the ulna from that for the bones of the wrist. 
 This arrangement permits of an entirely different kind 
 of movement from that described in connexion with the 
 
Pronation and Supination. 
 
 155 
 
 superior joint. The head of the ulna does not rotate within 
 the sigmoid hollow of the radius, as does the head of the 
 radius within the orbicular or collar-like ligament, but 
 the lower end of the radius travels over and round the 
 head of the ulna, so that its position may be altered from 
 a condition in which it lies to the outer side of the ulna 
 to one in which it comes to be placed to the inner side 
 of the same bone. 
 
 The accompanying diagrams (Fig. 96, II. and III.) will 
 
 Fig. 96. 'Diagrams to illustrate the movements of the .radius and 
 ulna during pronation and supination. 
 
 I. A section across the upper ends of the 
 
 hones of the right limb. 
 a. Ulna. 
 6. Head of radius retained in 
 
 c. The lesser sigmoid notch by 
 
 d. The orbicular ligament. The head 
 
 of the radius 6 can rotate in 
 either direction within the collar 
 formed by d, 
 
 II. and III. represent the relations of 
 
 the lower ends of the bones of the 
 right limb. 
 
 II. In supination. 
 
 III. In pronation. 
 
 a. Lower end of ulna (head). 
 
 6. Lower end of radius. 
 
 /. Triangular fibro-cartilage attached 
 
 to 
 g. The styloid process of ulna. The 
 
 arrows show the directions in 
 
 which the radius may move on 
 
 the ulna. 
 
 perhaps enable the student to understand this point. The 
 lower ends of the two bones are represented at (II.) in the 
 supine position: the radius here lies to the outer side of 
 the ulna; at (III) the same bones are represented in the 
 prone position — the arrows indicate the direction in which 
 the radius may move from either extreme. At the same 
 time that this movement is taking place the lower end of 
 the ulna undergoes slight lateral displacement. But it is 
 
156 
 
 Pronation and Supination. 
 
 hardly necessary here to enter into a detailed account of 
 
 the complex nature of this latter movement ; the points to 
 
 be emphasized are these, viz. that 
 the upper end of the radius, whilst 
 it undergoes a rotatory movement, 
 still retains its relative position 
 to the ulna and humerus, whereas 
 the movement of the lower end 
 of the radius effects a change in 
 its position from the outer to the 
 inner side of the ulna. It follows, 
 therefore, since the shaft of the 
 radius connects the two extremi- 
 ties, that when these two ex- 
 tremities are both lying to the 
 outer side of the ulna the shaft 
 of the radius will also lie to the 
 outer side of the ulnar shaft. 
 As we have seen, the head of the 
 radius always lies to the outer 
 side of the superior extremity of 
 the ulna, whilst the lower end 
 of the same bone may be moved 
 so as to lie to the inner side of 
 the lower end of the ulna ; under 
 these circumstances it becomes 
 necessary that the shaft of the 
 radius should pass obliquely across 
 and lie in front of the shaft of 
 the ulna, and it is this difference 
 in the relative position of the 
 bones which chiefly explains the 
 alterations in form and outline 
 
 which we recognize when the limb is in the prone and 
 
 supine positions respectively (see Fig. 97). 
 
 Fig. 97. Diagram to illus- 
 trate the position of the 
 bones of the right fore-arm 
 and the position of the hand 
 in pronation and supination. 
 
 The simple ontlmes represent 
 the position of the bones and 
 hand in supination. 
 
 The dotted outline and shaded 
 parts represent the position of 
 the bones and hand in prona^ 
 tion. The radius now lies ob- 
 liquely across the front of the 
 ulna, and the thumb lies to the 
 inner side with the back of the 
 hand directed forwards. 
 
Wrist-joint. 15-7 
 
 In addition to the ligaments wJiich bind together the 
 bones of the fore-arm at the points above described, there 
 is a strong fibrous sheet, called the interosseous membrane, 
 which unites the shafts of the bones throughout almost 
 their entire length. We are not much concerned with this 
 layer, except to point out 
 that it affords extensive 
 attachments to the deep 
 muscles on both the front 
 and back of the fore-arm. 
 Its position varies accord- 
 ing to the relation of the 
 bones in pronation and 
 supination, and it is neces- 
 sarily associated with al- 
 terations in the forms of 
 the muscles which are con- 
 nected with it, alterations 
 which react to a greater or 
 less extent on the surface 
 contours. 
 
 As many of the muscles 
 
 in the fore-arm are asso- Fia. 98. The bones of the right wrist 
 ciated with the movements and hand seen from the front, 
 
 of the hand, it will be ^' uina!" 
 
 necessary next to consider «• styloid process of radius. 
 
 V. styloid process of ulna, 
 the anatomy of the wrist- cc. The carpal bones (8). 
 ioint ™ '"" ■'■^^ metacarpal bones (5). 
 
 "^ ' pp. The finger-bones or phalanges (14), 
 
 The skeleton of the palm 
 of the hand consists of five bones, called metacarpal 
 (Fig. 98). These are described as long bones, each possessing 
 a shaft and two extremities. By one end they articulate 
 with and support the phalanges, or bones of the fingers; 
 by the other they are united by a series of complex 
 joints with a number of small bones, called the wrist or 
 
158 
 
 Bones of the Wrist. 
 
 carpal hones, ■which intervene between them and the 
 bones of the fore-arm. These carpal bones are eight in 
 number, and exceedingly irregular in their form, but united 
 together they constitute a compact mass (Fig. 99) which 
 presents for examination certain very characteristic features. 
 It will be well here to recall to mind certain points in 
 regard to the structure of the lower ends of the ulna and 
 
 radius, to which reference has 
 been already made. The lower end 
 of the radius is much expanded, 
 presenting on its inferior aspect 
 a somewhat triangular-shaped ar- 
 ticular surface, which is hollowed 
 out from side to side and from 
 before backwards. The apex of 
 this triangle corresponds exter- 
 nally to the pointed projection 
 called the styloid process, whilst 
 its base is that edge which is 
 directed towards the ulna. 
 
 This styloid process can be 
 distinctly felt at the outer side 
 of the wrist where it lies in line 
 with the outstretched thumb. Its 
 prominence is to some extent 
 masked by the tendons which 
 overlie it. 
 The lower end of the idna is small, and does not reach 
 so low in the limb as the radius; for we have seen 
 that the triangular fibro-cartilage, already described in 
 connexion with the lower articulation between the radius 
 and ulna, passes across its lower aspect, being attached 
 internally to the base of the ulnar styloid process, and 
 externally to the ridge which separates the carpal from the 
 Tilnar articular surface on the lower end of the radius (see 
 
 Fig. 99. In this figure the 
 carpal bones, are shown se- 
 parated from the radius and 
 ulna of the right side. 
 
 s The tubercle of the scaphoid 
 and 
 
 t. The ridge on the trapezium 
 forming the prominence at 
 the root of the ball of the 
 thumb. 
 
 p The pisiform and 
 
 n. The hook-like process of the 
 unciform forming the pro- 
 minence at the root of the 
 ball of the little finger. 
 
Bones of the Wrist. 159 
 
 Fig. 96). From this it appears that the lower end of the 
 ulna does not directly articulate with the bones of the wrist, 
 but only indirectly through the medium of the triangular 
 fibro-cartilage. 
 
 The ulnar styloid process projects from the inner and 
 back part of the head of the bone, but, being overlain by 
 tendons, is somewhat difficult to make out on the surface. 
 It can best be felt in line with the inner border of the 
 palm and to the inner side of the wrist when the hand 
 is supine. Whilst this process has little influence on 
 the surface forms, the part of the back of the head of the 
 ulna immediately external to it forms the well-marked 
 rounded elevation so characteristic of the wrist. This may 
 best be seen when the hand is pronated, i. e. palm turned 
 down, in which position the rounded eminence caused by it 
 is seen on the back of the limb, just above the wrist-joint, 
 and in line with the cleft between the little and ring 
 fingers. The student will do well to contrast its appear- 
 ance in this position of the limb with that in which the 
 palm is directed upwards ; in the latter condition, whilst 
 the head of the bone can be distinctly felt, its surface 
 projection is now very much less apparent. 
 
 The radius is the only bone of the fore-arm which enters 
 directly into the formation of the wrist-joint, the head 
 of the ulna being, as already described; cut off from 
 this articulation by the triangular fibro-cartilage already 
 referred toj but whilst this is the case both bones materially 
 assist in supporting the joint, for they furnish attachments 
 by their styloid processes for the lateral ligaments which 
 strengthen the articulation. 
 
 The eight bones ^ of the carpus, which form the complicated 
 
 ' The bones of the first row, passing from the radial to the ulnar side 
 of the wrist, are named the scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, pisiform ; 
 those of the second row, the trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and 
 unciform. 
 
i6o 
 
 Bones of the Wrist. 
 
 series of joints between the fore-arm and the skeleton of the 
 palm, are arranged in two transverse rows of four each. 
 The outer three bones of the first row provide a surface 
 convex from side to side as well as from before back- 
 wards, which articulates with the lower end of the radius 
 externally, and the under surface of the triangular fibro- 
 cartilage internally. The bones of the second row arti- 
 culate by means of an irregular joint with the. bones 
 of the first row, and themselves provide articular sur- 
 faces for the bones of the palm. But these eight bones 
 
 which constitute the two 
 rows of the carpus are not 
 united in such a way that 
 the surfaces formed by their 
 anterior and posterior as- 
 pects are flat. Their arrange- 
 ment can best be understood 
 by a diagram which repre- 
 sents a view of the carpal 
 bones as seen on making a 
 section across the wrist-joint 
 (Fig. loo). From this it will 
 be observed that the bones 
 are grouped in such a man- 
 ner as to form a deep groove 
 anteriorly, whilst their posterior surfaces form a broad 
 area, rounded from side to side. It is this surface which 
 we can feel on the back of the wrist, where it is overlain 
 by the tendons of the various muscles passing down to 
 the back of the hand. 
 
 In regard to the anterior aspect of the wrist- bones they 
 form, as has just been stated, a deep groove, the borders 
 of which are outstanding and prominent. This groove 
 is converted into a tunnel by a strong band, called the 
 anterior annular ligament of the wrist, passing across it 
 
 Fig. ioo. A diagram to represent 
 on a larger scale the appearance 
 of the carpus when cut across at 
 the dotted line shown in Fig. 98. 
 The hollow in front of the carpus 
 is converted into a canal by a 
 ligament which stretches between 
 the prominent inner and outer 
 borders. 
 
Bones of the Wrist. 
 
 i6i 
 
 from one prominent border to the other. In this canal are 
 lodged the tendons of the muscles, the fleshy bellies of 
 which are placed in the fore-arm. It is these muscles 
 which influence the movements of the thumb and fingers 
 by bending them forwards. 
 
 This arrangement is of 
 advantage in retaining the 
 flexor tendons in position 
 when the wrist is bent for- 
 wards, otherwise they would 
 be liable to be pulled out of 
 place by the contraction of 
 the muscles. 
 
 If the student will but look 
 at his own fore-arm, with 
 the muscles strained and the 
 wrist flexed, he will observe 
 that all the tendons which 
 he can both feel and see are 
 firmly bound down as they 
 cross the front of the joint. 
 
 Returning now to the 
 consideration of the promi- 
 nent borders of this groove 
 formed by the wrist-bones, 
 the student will have no diffi- 
 culty in recognizing the fol- 
 lowing points. If the finger 
 be placed on the ball of the 
 
 Fia. loi. Outline of the hand, 
 showing the arrangement of the 
 skin folds in front of the wrist 
 and on the palm and fingers. The 
 shaded parts indicate the positions 
 of the bones which form the pro- 
 minent inner and outer borders of 
 the carpus. Those at the ball of 
 the thumb correspond from below 
 upwards to the tubercle of the 
 scaphoid and the ridge of the 
 trapezium ; those on the ball of 
 the little finger to the pisiform 
 and hook-like process of the unci- 
 form. 
 
 thumb close to the wrist, and 
 in line with the cleft between the index and middle fingers, 
 he will recognize a bony prominence ; this is due to 
 two of the bones of the wrist, called scaphoid and 
 trapezium, which lie to the outer side of the groove. 
 If the ball of the little finger be examined, a corre- 
 
 M 
 
1 62 Movements of the Wrist-joint. 
 
 spending eminence will be noticed close to the level of the 
 wrist and in line with the cleft between the little and 
 ring fingers. This elevation is caused by the presence of 
 a small rounded pea-like bone, called the pisiform bone. 
 This ossicle does not enter into the formation of the joint 
 between the radius and the first row of the wrist-bones, 
 but artici:\lates with the innermost bone of that row on its 
 anterior surface. It thus helps to deepen the groove by- 
 causing a projection along the inner border of the wrist ; 
 in front of this, but less distinctly felt, is the hook-like 
 process of the unciform bone, the innermost of the bones 
 of the second row of the carpus. It is to these prominences 
 that the anterior annular ligament is attached, thereby 
 converting the groove into a canal, as has been already 
 described (see Figs. 99 and 100). 
 
 The movements of the wrist-joint are necessarily com- 
 plicated by the large number of articulations involved, but 
 for present purposes it is not necessary to consider these 
 movements in detail. 
 
 The wrist may be bent forward, i. e. flexed, or bent back, 
 i. e. extended. The former movement is freer than the 
 latter. The wrist may also be moved from side to side, 
 either to the inner or ulnar side, or to the outer or radial 
 aspect. The former movement is frequently called adduction, 
 the latter abduction. The range of movement towards 
 the inner is greater than that towards the outer side. 
 Further, these movements of flexion, extension, abduction, 
 and adduction may be combined, constituting the movement 
 of circumduction. The rotatory or twisting movement of 
 the hand is effected, not at the wrist-joint, but by the 
 crossing of the bones of the fore-arm, already alluded to 
 under the terms pronation and supination (p. 150). 
 
 In studying the muscles of the fore-arm we have to deal 
 with an exceedingly complex mass, which not only controls 
 the movements of pronation and supination and the move- 
 
Pronators and Supinators. 163 
 
 ments of the wrist, but also those of the fingers. Of these 
 nineteen muscles, four are concerned with the movements 
 of pronation and supination, nine with the movements of 
 the thumb and fingers, and six with those of the wrist. 
 Happily for our purpose, a detailed description of many 
 of them is unnecessary, for a considerable number are so 
 deeply placed that they do not directly influence the 
 surface contours, though it should be clearly understood 
 that indirectly they do modify the form of the limb, as in 
 a state of contraction they will cause a bulging forwards 
 of the superficial muscles which overlie them. 
 
 It is with the superficial muscles of the fore-arm that 
 we are most concerned, since they are the direct deter- 
 minants of the surface form. Before discussing these 
 muscles in groups, however, a word or two may be said 
 regarding the pronators and supinators, i. e. the muscles 
 which effect the movements of pronation and supination. 
 These are all inserted into the radius, for, as we have 
 already seen, it is that bone which moves in these acts. 
 The pronators, of which there are two, must obviously take 
 their origin from points internal to the radius, as they have 
 to draw the radius inwards across the ulna, whilst the 
 supinators, of which there are also two, must necessarily 
 spring from points to the outer side of the radius in order 
 to pull the radius back again to the outer side of the ulna. 
 It follows from this that the two muscles of this group with 
 which we are more immediately concerned, viz. the pronator 
 radii teres and the supinator longus, will lie in relation to 
 the inner and outer aspects of the fore-arm respectively. 
 In this connexion the student will do well to remember 
 the powerful action of the biceps muscle as a supinator, an 
 action which has been already alluded to in the description 
 of that muscle (p. 145). 
 
 The superficial muscles of the fore-arm may be sub- 
 divided into two groups, an outer and an inner, which lie 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 Muscles of the Fore-arm. 
 
 along the corresponding sides of tlie fore-arm. Superiorly 
 the muscles of each group are attached to the condyles 
 
 Fig. 102. Diagram to illustrate 
 the arrangement of the pronator 
 and stiperficial flexor muscles 
 which arise from the internal con- 
 dyle and pass down the front and 
 inner side of the fore-arm. 
 
 a. Pronator radii teres. 
 
 hi Flexor carpi radialis (radial flexor of 
 the wrist). 
 
 t. Flexor sublimis digitorum (super- 
 ficial flexor of the fingers). 
 
 d. Flexor carpi ulnaris (ulnar flexor of 
 the wrist). 
 
 Fig. 103. Diagram to illustrate 
 the arrangement of the superficial 
 muscles (extensors and supina- 
 tors) which arise from the extet-nal 
 condyle and the ridge above it, and 
 which pass down the back and 
 outer side of the fore-arm. 
 e. Supinator longus. 
 /. Extensor carpi radialis longior (long 
 
 radial extensor of the wrist). 
 g. Extensor carpi radialis brevior (short 
 
 radial extensor of the wrist). 
 A. Extensor communis digitorum (com- 
 mon extensor of the fingers). 
 «". Extensor carpi ulnaris (ulnar ex- 
 tensor of the wrist). 
 J. Anconeus. 
 
 of the humerus, those of the outer group arising from 
 the external condyle, those of the inner from the internal 
 
Muscles of the Fore-arm. 165 
 
 condyle. An inspection of the limb will enable the student 
 to recognize that the fleshy bellies of the muscles are not 
 confined to the sides of the fore-arm, but spread out on the 
 front and back of the limb. Thus, the muscles which 
 spring from the inner condyle of the humerus not only pass 
 down along the inner side of the fore-arm, but also clothe 
 the anterior surface of the bones, whilst those which arise 
 from the external condyle pass down the outer side of the 
 limb and spread backwards over its posterior aspect. The 
 former group comprises the flexor muscles, which lie on 
 the front ; the latter, the extensors, which lie on the back 
 of the limb. As has been pointed out by Sir Charles Bell, 
 owing to the fact that the internal condyle is the longer 
 and more prominent of the two, the muscles arising from 
 it, viz. those which bend the wrist forward and close the 
 fingers, act with great mechanical advantage, much force 
 being required to enable us firmly to grasp an object. 
 On the other hand, the extensors of the wrist and fingers, 
 arising as they do from the shorter external condyle, are 
 weaker in their action : facts which are clearly demon- 
 strated when we compare the force which can be exerted 
 when we close the fist as contrasted with the power we 
 can exercise in opening it. 
 
 The greater bulk of the fore- arm above, and its tapering 
 form below, are due to the fact that in the lower part of 
 the limb the fleshy bellies of the muscles are replaced by 
 their tendons, which obviously take up less room. ; 
 
 Examining the muscles of the inner superficial -group 
 first, they will be found to take origin from the internal 
 condyle of the humerus by a common tendon of attach- 
 ment ; this group comprises the flexor muscles and one 
 of the pronators, viz. the pronator radii teres. From this 
 pointed superior attachment the fleshy mass spreads. out 
 below and is arranged in the following manner. The outer 
 and most superficial part crosses the fore-arm obliquely 
 
i66 Flexors of the Wrist. 
 
 from above downwards and outwards, and is inserted into 
 the outer side of tlie shaft of the radius, about its middle ; 
 this is known by the name of the pronator radii teres 
 (PL, p. 144 m ; see also pi., p. 62). 
 
 Associated with the inner side of the origin of the pro- 
 nator teres there is a well-marked fleshy belly, the muscular 
 fibres of which are replaced by tendon about the middle 
 of the fore-arm. This tendon may easily be recognized on 
 the surface of the limb when the muscles are contracted ; 
 it will be found to pass down towards the radial or outer 
 side of the wrist to the prominence which has been already 
 described in connexion with the base of the ball of the 
 thumb. Here it sinks deeply into the palm of the hand, 
 into the second bone of which it is inserted. The muscle 
 is a flexor of the wrist-joint, and as its tendon passes to 
 the radial or outer side of that articulation it is called the 
 flexor car-pi radialis (Pis., pp. 62, 82, 144 ^J, 180, 282, 332). 
 
 If we return again to the internal condyle of the humerus, 
 and trace the arrangement of the most internal fibres 
 which spring from that process of bone, we find that they 
 form a fleshy mass which lies along the inner side of 
 the shaft of the ulna, connected therewith by a strong 
 aponeurosis attached to the posterior or subcutaneous 
 margin of that bone. From this extensive origin the 
 fibres pass downwards and forwards, to end in the tendon of 
 insertion which lies along the anterior border of the fleshy 
 belly in its lower half This tendon may be traced along the 
 front and inner side of the fore-arm to its insertion into 
 the pisiform, bone, which forms, as has been already stated, 
 the prominence to the front and inner side of the wrist 
 in line with the cleft between the little and ring fingers. 
 This muscle, like the last, is also a flexor of the wrist or 
 carpus, but as it lies to the inner or ulnar side of the joint it 
 is called i\\Q flexor carpi ulnaris. Its tendon is not nearly 
 so prominent on the surface as that of the flexor carpi 
 
Muscles of Front of Fore-arm. 167 
 
 radialis, but its fleshy belly is of great importance in deter- 
 mining the surface form, as to its presence is due the flowing 
 outline of the inner side of the fore-arm from the internal 
 condyle above to the wrist below (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 
 106, 144 y, 170 I, 180, 234, 264, 282). 
 
 Between the origins of the flexor carpi radialis and 
 ulnaris from the internal condyle of the humerus there 
 is frequently a muscle which has a slender belly and 
 a long thin tendon. The fleshy part of this muscle, which 
 is called the palmaris longus, is wedged in between the 
 bellies of the flexor carpi radialis and ulnaris, so that 
 it is not readily distinguishable on the surface, but helps 
 to form the general rounded mass which springs from the 
 internal condyle. Its slender tendon, which passes down 
 the centre of the fore-arm to cross the middle of the wrist 
 below and become attached to the dense fascia of the palm 
 of the hand, can usually be readily recognized, particularly 
 if the wrist be powerfully flexed. As however this muscle 
 is absent in about 10 per cent, of us, the student need 
 not be surprised if he occasionally meets with cases in 
 which he can obtain no evidence of its existence (Pis., 
 pp. 144 r, 180}. 
 
 The muscles above described comprise the superficial 
 part of the fleshy mass which has a common origin from 
 the internal condyle of the humerus, but, whilst this mass 
 is superficial in the sense that it is merely covered by the 
 skin and fascia of the limb, the student should recollect 
 that incorporated with the fascia, which overlies its com- 
 mon origin, there is the insertion of the band of fascia 
 derived from the biceps tendon. This insertion of the 
 biceps into the fascia of the inner and upper aspect 
 of the fore-arm has been already mentioned in connexion 
 with the description of that muscle, but its influence on 
 the surface contours may now perhaps be better understood. 
 If the biceps be powerfully contracted this band will be 
 
i68 Superficial Flexor of Fingers. 
 
 rendered very tight, and will produce a shallow oblique 
 furrow overlying the fleshy bellies of the muscles which 
 have just been described (PL, p. 148). Another detail in 
 connexion with the arrangement of the muscles just 
 mentioned is one which should not be overlooked. In 
 different individuals the proportion between the lengths 
 of the fleshy and tendinous parts of the muscles varies, and 
 this gives rise to individual differences in the form of the 
 limb. In a person in whom the fleshy part of the muscle 
 is proportionately long the thickness of the fore-arm will be 
 carried to a lower level, and vice versa. 
 
 Underlying these superficial muscles we have others 
 which are placed in front of the bones of the fore-arm. These 
 are the superficial and deep flexors of the fingers and the 
 long flexor of the thumb, together with a muscle called 
 the pronator quadratus, the fibres of which cross over from 
 the lower end of the ulna to the lower end of the radius. 
 A detailed description of these muscles is however unneces- 
 sary, as they do not directly influence the surface forms, the 
 only exceptions being the tendons of the superficial flexor 
 of the fingers, which, when powerfully contracted, appear in 
 the intervals between the tendons already enumerated in the 
 region of the wrist. Indirectly, however, these deep muscles 
 do exert an influence on the contours of the limb, for they 
 help to impart to it its characteristic roundness, and pad up, 
 as it were, the superficial muscles which overlie them. The 
 student may best observe this for himself by opening and 
 closing the fist rapidly, when the slight changes in form 
 due to the contraction of these muscles will be readily seen, 
 particularly in the lower part of the fore-arm, where the 
 retraction of the fascia covering the muscles renders more 
 distinct the tendons of the superficial muscles already 
 alluded to (PL, p. 144 z). 
 
 Turning now to the consideration of the muscles which 
 spring from the external condyle, the student will do well 
 
Supinator longus. i6g 
 
 to remember two facts in this connexion : firstly, that the ex- 
 ternal condyle of the humerus is not so prominent as the 
 internal ; and, secondly, that the origins of the muscles which 
 lie along the outer side of the fore-arm are not confined to 
 it, but extends for some very considerable distance above it, 
 arising from the external condyloid ridge and from the 
 external intermuscular septum attached thereto. A know- 
 ledge of these facts will do much to enable the student to 
 appreciate the differences between the outer and inner 
 outlines of the limb. 
 
 The muscles which arise from this attachment consist 
 of the supinators (two in number) and some of the extensor 
 muscles of the wrist and fingers.' Of the supinators we are 
 concerned with one only, the supinator longus. This forms 
 the highest of the fleshy fibres of the outer muscular mass 
 and arises from the upper two thirds of the external 
 condyloid ridge, passing up to within an inch of the level 
 of the lowest point of insertion of the deltoid, from 
 which, however, it is separated by the fibres of origin of 
 the brachialis anticus, as may be seen in the plate, p. 170. 
 The belly of the muscle curves forward from this attach- 
 ment to lie in front of the shaft of the radius, thus con- 
 cealing the insertion of the pronator radii teres, and partially 
 overlapping the belly of the flexor carpi radialis. It rests 
 upon some of the other muscles to be presently described, and 
 ends about the middle of the fore-arm in a strong tendon, 
 which passes downwards with a slight outward inclination 
 towards the lower end of the radius, to the outer side of the 
 base of the styloid process of which it is attached. The 
 muscle is superficial throughout, except at its lower part, 
 where its tendon of insertion is obliquely crossed by certain 
 tendons to be mentioned later. As the name of the 
 muscle implies, it acts as a supinator, i.e. it draws back the 
 radius when that bone has been carried across the front 
 of the ulna in pronation ; but from its relatively high 
 
170 Radial Extensors. 
 
 attachment to tlie humerus it also acts as a flexor of the 
 elbow, an action which is easily demonstrated when one 
 lifts a heavy weight with the limb in a bent position. 
 Its influence on the surface form is at once apparent, and 
 is well seen in Pis., pp. 148, 180 ; see also pis., pp. 34, 38, 44, 
 52, 62, 72, 96, 108, 264, 332. 
 
 Beneath the foregoing muscle, and partially overlain 
 by it in front, there are two muscles, which lie along the 
 outer side of the shaft of the radius ; the tendons of these 
 muscles, however, pass to their insertion into the bones 
 of the hand over the back of the wrist towards the outer 
 or radial side : they are therefore extensors of the wrist 
 and, named extensores carpi radiates, are distinguished 
 from one another by being called long and short. 
 
 The extensor carpi radialis longior is the more superficial 
 of the two : it takes origin above from the lower third 
 of the external condyloid ridge, that is to say, the part of 
 the ridge below the attachment of the supinator longus. Its 
 fleshy belly is directed obliquely forwards and downwards, 
 so as to lie across the outer side and front of the upper part 
 of the shaft of the radius ; in this position the muscle is in 
 part covered by the belly of the supinator longus, only its 
 posterior border and part of its outer surface being super- 
 ficial. At a level corresponding to the junction of the 
 middle with the upper third of the fore-arm the belly joins 
 its tendon, which passes down in very close relation with 
 that of the short radial extensor (Pis., pp. 170 /, 180; also 
 PP- 34> 38, 52. 62, 96, 108, 332). 
 
 The extensor carpi radialis hrevior arises from the ex- 
 ternal condyle of the humerus in conjunction with the 
 remaining members of the superficial extensor group. At 
 its upper attachment the muscle is covered by the fleshy 
 fibres of the extensor carpi radialis longior, but, as its 
 fleshy fibres are directed downwards along the outer side 
 of the shaft of the radius, they appear superficial, lying 
 
Key to Plate XXVIII 
 
 fl. Deltoid, 
 
 b. Triceps^ long head. 
 
 c. Triceps^ outer head. 
 
 d. Triceps tendon. 
 
 r.. Brachiaiis anticns. 
 f. Triceps^ inner head. 
 
 g. Snpifiator longus. 
 
 h. External intermuscular septum. 
 
 i. Extensor carpi radialis longior. 
 
 j. Olecranon process oj uhia. 
 
 k. Anconeus. 
 
 i. Flexor carpi nlnaris. 
 
 c tdefghijklmnopqursv 
 MIDWAY BETWEEN THE PRONE AND SUPINE POSITIONS 
 
 nt. Extensor carpi radialis brevior. 
 «. Commoti extensor ofthejiugers. 
 u. Extensor carpi ulnaris. 
 p. Ulna^ subcutaneous posterior border. 
 
 Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 
 
 Extensor primi internodii pollicis. 
 
 9' 
 
 T. Head of ulna. 
 
 s. fhsterior annular ligament of ivrisi. 
 
 t. Biceps cubifi. 
 
 If. Tendons of radial extensors. 
 
 ■u. Extensor secundi internodii pollicis- 
 
 BACK VIEW or EXTENDED AKMS 
 
 Copyright, i8g6,*i' Henhv Frowi>b] 
 
Ulnar Extensor. 171 
 
 external and posterior to the belly of tlie preceding muscle. 
 The fleshy belly of the short radial extensor reaches 
 a lower level than that of the long radial extensor in 
 the fore-arm. It joins its tendon about the level of the 
 junction of the middle with the lower third of the fore- 
 arm. As stated above, the tendons of these two muscles 
 are very closely related to one another ; they pass down 
 to reach a groove on the back of the radius, just behind 
 the styloid process of that bone. Beyond this point they 
 cross the back of the wrist and are inserted into the back 
 of the bases of the metacarpal bones ' (bones of the palm) of 
 the index and middle fingers. These tendons are not readily 
 recognizable from the surface, for in the lower third of 
 the fore-arm they are covered by two muscles which pass 
 to the thumb, and on the level of the back of the wrist 
 another tendon, also passing to the thumb, crosses them 
 obliquely. The action of these muscles is sufficiently 
 indicated by their names ; they extend the wrist on the 
 radial side (Pis., pp. 170 m, 180 ; also pp. 34, 52, 62, 72, g6, 
 106, 282, 332). 
 
 Adopting the same method of description as has been 
 employed in regard to the arrangement of the muscles 
 which spring from the internal condyle, we shall next 
 consider the most internal member of the group arising 
 from the outer side of the external condyle. This muscle 
 runs down in close relationship with the back of the shaft 
 of the ulna, to the posterior border of which it is connected 
 by means of an aponeurosis: it becomes tendinous on a level 
 with the upper limit of the lower quarter of the fore-arm, 
 and from this point the tendon is directed downwards 
 across the back of the wrist to the inner or ulnar side. 
 As it passes over the lower extremity, or head of the ulna, 
 
 ' The skeleton of the palm is made up of five bones called metacarpal 
 bones; these articulate above with the bones of the carpus or wrist, below 
 with the first row of the phalanges or finger-bones. 
 
172 Ulnar Furrow. 
 
 it lies in a groove wMcli is placed just behind the styloid 
 process of that bone ; thence it passes to be inserted into 
 the back of the base of the metacarpal bone of the little 
 finger. This muscle is called the extensor carpi ulnaris, or 
 the ulnar extensor of the wrist (Pis., pp. 170 0, 180 ; also 
 pp. 38, 42, 52, 96, 108). 
 
 In this connexion it may be as well to remind the 
 student of certain facts which have been already referred 
 to. In the description of the ulna it was stated that the 
 posterior border of that bone was superficial throughout 
 its entire extent. Commencing above at the triangular 
 subcutaneous area, which corresponds to the back of the 
 olecranon process or tip of the elbow, this margin of the 
 shaft may be traced along the whole of the back of the 
 fore-arm to the wrist below, where it ends on the enlarge- 
 ment produced by the lower end of the bone. The line 
 so traced is not straight, but takes the form of a sinuous 
 curve. The two ulnar muscles lie, one on the inner and 
 the other on the outer side of this border ; that to the 
 inner side is the flexor carpi ulnaris, while that which is 
 placed along the outer or radial aspect is the extensor carpi 
 ulnaris, just described. The bulging of these fleshy muscles 
 on either side of this ridge of bone reacts on the surface 
 form so as to produce a furrow between them. This surface 
 depression is called the ulnar furrow, and the bottom of it 
 corresponds to the posterior border of the bone. When the 
 finger is run along it, one feels the ulna with the muscles 
 above mentioned on either side. The furrow is of course 
 best seen when the muscles are powerfully contracted, and 
 it may be well to warn the student not to confuse it with 
 the furrow which lies behind the back of the external 
 condyle of the humerus and the upper end of the radius ; 
 and, further, the reader should be careful to note that the 
 two ulnar muscles are not in close relation throughout their 
 entire extent, but are separated above by the interposition 
 
Common Extensor of the Fingers. 173 
 
 of the fibres of the anconeus muscle in addition to' the 
 expanded upper extremity of the ulna. These points may 
 be rendered clearer by a reference to the plate (p. 170, 
 Figs. I, 2 _p ; also p. 38). 
 
 Returning once more to the consideration of the super- 
 ficial muscles which spring from the external condyle, 
 and noting the fact that we have already traced the 
 attachment and arrangement of the extensor carpi radialis 
 brevior and the extensor carpi ulnaris, we have now to 
 account for the interval between these muscles as they pass 
 down along the radial and ulnar sides of the limb. This 
 interval is filled up by a fleshy belly of the extensor 
 communis digitorum,, i.e. the common extensor muscle of the 
 fingers. There are really two muscles here, the common 
 extensor muscle of the fingers and a special extensor muscle 
 of the little finger, but for our purpose we may disregard 
 the latter altogether and consider the two as one. The 
 fleshy mass of this muscle is wedged in between the origins 
 of the short radial extensor, on the outer side, and the 
 ulnar extensor on the inner side, and passes down 
 the middle of the back of the fore-arm, occupying the 
 interval between the foregoing muscles, which are widely 
 separated below. The common extensor of the fingers, 
 however, does not completely fill up this interval, but is 
 separated from the tendon of the short radial extensor 
 by some of the deeper muscles, which here ' crop up ' so 
 as to become superficial between the short radial extensor 
 on the outer side and the common extensor of the fingers on 
 the inner side. In the lower third of the fore-arm the 
 fleshy fibres of the common extensor are replaced by a broad 
 tendon, and this subsequently breaks up into a number 
 of slips which, after crossing the centre of the back of the 
 wrist, spread out on the back of the hand to pass to 
 their respective fingers. Throughout its entire length the 
 inner border of the muscle, i.e. that portion of it which 
 
174 Depression behind Elbow. 
 
 forms the special extensor of the little finger, is in contact 
 with the outer margin of the ulnar extensor, and this, as will 
 be subsequently noticed, is represented by an intermuscular 
 furrow on the surface of the limb. The common extensor of 
 the fingers acts primarily on the fingers, straightening them 
 after they have been bent; but it also acts secondarily as 
 an extensor of the wrist, assisting in pulling back the hand 
 at that articulation (Pis., p. 170, Figs. 2 and 3 n ; also pp. 34, 
 52, 62, 72, 96, 108, 180, 282, 332). 
 
 As the tendons of these muscles, together with the tendons 
 of others which still remain to be discussed, pass across the 
 region of the wrist they are bound down by a ligament, 
 called the posterior annular ligament. This arrangement 
 is comparable to that already described on the front of the 
 wrist, and prevents the displacement of the tendons in 
 powerful extension or bending back of the wrist (Fig. 104). 
 Attention should next be directed to the arrangement 
 of the foregoing muscles as they are grouped behind the 
 external condyle of the humerus. An examination of the 
 plate, p. 170, Figs, i, 2, 3, will show that there is a A-shaped 
 area overlying the back and outer side of the elbow. The 
 apex of the f\ corresponds to the back of the external 
 condyle ; its outer limb is formed by the hinder border of 
 the long radial extensor, whilst its inner side corresponds 
 to the outer border of the anconeus. The floor of this space 
 is made up of the tendinous origins of the ulnar extensor 
 of the wrist and the common extensor of the fingers. It 
 results from this arrangement that when the limb is ex- 
 tended the borders of the muscles just enumerated become 
 more prominent, and produce on the surface a well-marked 
 intermuscular depression, the bottom of which corresponds 
 to the origins of the ulnar extensor and the common ex- 
 tensor of the fingers. In this position these latter muscles 
 overlie the back of the head of the radius, and as they are 
 tendinous rather than fleshy it follows that we can easily 
 
Extensors of Thumb. 
 
 175 
 
 recognize the head of the radius beneath them when we 
 place our fingers in the hol- 
 low, the more so if, at the 
 same time, we pronate and 
 supinate the fore-arm so as 
 to cause rotation of the head 
 of the radius. The sharpness 
 of the surface furrow which 
 corresponds to these struc- 
 tures will, of course, largely 
 depend on the absence of fat 
 in the subcutaneous tissue, 
 and on the development and 
 state of contraction of the 
 muscles. As has been pre- 
 viously stated, in the female 
 and child there is a larger 
 amount of subcutaneous fat, 
 and the surface form no 
 longer displays the charac- 
 teristic appearance above de- 
 scribed, but exhibits only a 
 shallow depression or dimple 
 (PI., p. 230). 
 
 As in the case of the front 
 of the fore-arm, so in the 
 back, we have to take into 
 consideration the influence 
 of the deeper muscles. Of 
 these the most important 
 are the extensor muscles of 
 the thumb; the others are 
 not directly concerned in 
 the moulding of the surface 
 forms. 
 
 Fig. 104. View of the tendons 
 and muscles on the back of the 
 right hand. 
 
 o. Tendon of seoundi internodii pol- 
 licis. 
 
 6. Tendon of primi internodii polliois. 
 
 c. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis 
 
 longior. 
 
 d. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis 
 
 brevior. 
 e e. Posterior annular ligament of 
 ■wrist. 
 
 /. Tendons of extensor commnnis 
 digitonun. 
 
 g. Tendon of extensor minimi digiti. 
 
 h. Tendon of extensor carpi nlnaris. 
 
 i. Tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 j. Muscles of baU of little finger seen 
 from behind. 
 
 k. Abductor indicia or first dorsal 
 interosseus muscle. 
 I 1 1. Second, third, and fourth dorsal 
 interossei muscles. 
 
 m. Extensor ossis metaoarpi pollicis. 
 
 K. Adductor pollicis seen from be- 
 hind. This muscle determines 
 the outline of the web between 
 the thumb and the index finger. 
 
176 Extensors of Thumb. 
 
 The thumb, as we shall see hereafter, is the most important 
 of all the digits : a fact which is further emphasized by the 
 number of muscles connected with it. Of these, three must 
 be studied in connexion with the back of the fore-arm. If the 
 thumb be forcibly drawn away from the palm, one has no 
 difficulty in recognizing two cord-like tendons running from 
 the outer side and back of the wrist to the first joint, or 
 knuckle, of the thumb ; these are the tendons of the special 
 extensors of this digit. The fleshy bellies of the muscles 
 with which they are connected arise from the back of the 
 bones of the fore-arm beneath the common extensor of the 
 fingers and the ulnar extensor of the wrist. The two highest, 
 called respectively the extensor ossis metacarpi poUicis (ex- 
 tensor of the metacarpal bone of the thumb) and extensor 
 primi internodii pollicis (extensor of the first finger-bone or 
 phalanx of the thumb), appear as two little fleshy bellies 
 in the interval between the common extensor of the fingers 
 and the short radial extensor about the lower third of the 
 fore-arm. Having become superficial in this position, the 
 two muscular slips end in tendons which curve down- 
 wards and outwards over the lower end of the radius to 
 reach the outer side of its styloid process in a groove on 
 which they are lodged. Below this point the tendons, 
 which are indistinguishable, can be traced to the thumb, 
 one becoming attached to the metacarpal bone of that 
 digit, whilst the other passes along the back of that bone 
 over the first knuckle to be inserted into the first phalanx 
 of the thumb. The fleshy parts of these small muscles lie 
 obliquely across the tendons of the long and short radial 
 extensor as they pass down on the back of the lower end 
 of the radius, and the tendons of these extensors of the 
 thumb also overlie the tendinous insertion of the supinator 
 longus. The student will do well to realize the importance 
 of these small muscles as determinants of surface form. It 
 is to their presence that the outline of the lower part of the 
 
Summary of Muscles of Fore-arm. 177 
 
 external border of the fore-arm is to some extent due. Mucli 
 will depend on their development, but the reader can easily 
 satisfy himself as to their position by rapidly moving the 
 thumb from and to the palm. Their tendons form a promi- 
 nent ridge leading up the back and outer side of the thumb, 
 whilst their fleshy bellies cause a distinct elevation having 
 an oblique direction across the lower end of the radius from 
 behind forwards (Pis., pp. 144, Fig. i m, 170 q ; also pp. 62, 
 72, 96, 108, 180, 332). 
 
 The remaining extensor of the ihnmb— extensor secundi 
 internodii poUicis (extensor of the second finger-bone of the 
 thumb) — may be briefly dismissed. The fleshy part scarcely 
 becomes superficial, and it is therefore only the tendon of 
 this muscle which is noteworthy. If the thumb be forcibly 
 drawn away from the palm, a prominent ridge caused by 
 this tendon will be observed crossing the back of the wrist 
 and hand obliquely from a point above in line with the 
 cleft between the index and middle fingers, towards the 
 first knuckle of the thumb below, over which it may be 
 traced onward to reach the second or terminal phalanx of 
 that digit. As the tendons of this muscle and those just 
 described pass over the back and outer side of the lower 
 end of the radius they are separated by an interval of 
 about an inch. If the thumb be forcibly draAvii away from 
 the palm, they are rendered tense and stretch the skin 
 over them so as to produce a little hollow, corresponding 
 to the interval between them. This hollow has been called 
 by the French ' la tabatifere anatomique,' from the circum- 
 stance that it was frequently used to measure a convenient 
 dose of snuff (Pis., pp. 144, Fig. i v, 96, 148, 332). 
 
 Having described the arrangement of the muscles of the 
 fore-arm so far as is necessary for our purpose, the student 
 is now in a position to summarize many of the results 
 obtained. Taking first the flexors and extensors of the 
 wrist, these muscles are seen to be arranged in the following 
 
 N 
 
178 Surface Contours of Fore-arm. 
 
 way. There is a group of ulnar flexors and extensors, and 
 a group of radial flexors and extensors. The former He 
 along the ulnar or inner side of the fore-arm, the latter 
 along the radial or outer side of the limb, but, whereas each 
 group is further subdivided into a flexor and an extensor 
 mass, it is seen that along the inner side of the limb there 
 is a flexor carpi ulnaris running down the front of the 
 ulna, and an extensor carpi ulnaris passing along the back 
 of the same bone. In like manner the outer side of the 
 limb is provided with a, flexor carpi radialis muscle, which 
 lies more or less in front of the radius, and an extensor 
 muscle, made up of the extensores carpi radiales {longior 
 and irevior), which runs down along the posterior and outer 
 side of the same bone. Of the pronators and supinators 
 we are concerned only with two, viz. pronator radii teres, 
 which crosses the front of the limb obliquely from the 
 internal condyle towards the middle of the shaft of the 
 radius, and the supinator longus, which overlies the fleshy 
 bellies of the long and short radial extensors as they pass 
 down the outer side of the limb. The position of the 
 remaining muscles has been sufficiently described ; they 
 occupy the intervals between the radial and ulnar flexors, 
 in front, and the radial and ulnar extensors behind, and 
 are flexors or extensors in their action according as they 
 lie on the front or back of the fore-arm. 
 
 Hitherto the muscles of the fore-arm have been studied 
 with the limb in the supine position, i.e. with the radius 
 lying parallel to and along the outer side of the ulna. 
 Under these conditions the outline of the limb, as viewed 
 from front or back, corresponds on the inner side with the 
 flowing curve produced by the fleshy belly of the flexor 
 carpi ulnaris. On the outer side the outline is made up 
 of three curves, the prominence of which varies accord- 
 ing to the development of the muscles on which they 
 depend. The highest of these curves commences above 
 
Hollow of Front of Elbow. 179 
 
 in the lower third of the upper arm, and sweeps over the 
 region of the external condyle or outer elbow, to end below 
 at the junction of the upper with the middle third of the 
 fore- arm. This curve depends on the origin and attach- 
 ment of the long supinator and the long radial extensor 
 of the wrist. The second curve, opposite the middle third 
 of the fore-arm, corresponds to the fleshy belly of the short 
 radial extensor of the wrist. The third curve, generally 
 less pronounced than the others, occupies the lower third 
 of the limb ; it is due to the lower portion of the shaft of 
 the radius and the tendons and muscles which overlie it, 
 particularly the two extensor muscles of the thumb, viz. 
 the extensor of the metacarpal bone and the extensor of 
 the first phalanx (PL, p. 170, Figs, i and 2). 
 
 When the limb is in the supine position the front of the 
 fore- arm is somewhat flattened, and this flattened surface 
 is continuous above with what is called the hollow in front 
 of the elbow. This hollow is due to the V-shaped interval 
 separating the muscles which spring respectively from the 
 outer and inner sides of the lower end of the humerus. 
 Thus on the outer side we find the interval bounded by 
 the inner border of the long supinator, whilst internally 
 the outer or upper border of the pronator radii teres forms 
 its boundary. In the interval so formed, the biceps 
 passes downwards to be inserted by means of its tendon 
 into the tubercle of the radius. This causes a projection 
 in the middle of the V-shaped intermuscular interval 
 just described, so that the surface hollow presents rather 
 the appearance of a Y-shaped furrow on either side of the 
 lower part of the biceps muscle as it lies in front of 
 the elbow. The two upper limbs of the Y are continuous 
 above with the surface furrows which lie along the inner 
 and outer sides of the belly of the biceps in the upper 
 arm. As already stated, the inner of the two upper furrows 
 is not so clearly seen as the outer, the reason being that 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o Influence of Position on Form of Fore-arm. 
 
 the aponeurotic insertion of the biceps into the fascia 
 covering the muscles which spring from the internal 
 condyle bridges over the interval, thus interrupting the 
 groove and modifying considerably the surface form (see 
 ante, p. 145) (Pis., pp. 144, Fig. i, 282, 332). The lower 
 limb or stalk of the Y corresponds to the interval which 
 separates the long supinator from the radial flexor of the 
 wrist. This farrow is not noticeable to any extent when the 
 fore-arm is in the supine position, but when the fore-arm is 
 pronated it becomes quite distinct (PL, p. 144, Fig. i). 
 
 The front of the elbow is crossed by a number of fine 
 cutaneous creases ; these are due to the folding of the 
 skin when the elbow is flexed. The most marked runs 
 transversely across the hollow of the front of the elbow 
 from one condyle of the humerus to the other. 
 
 In a woman's arm the furrows above described are 
 much less marked, as the subcutaneous fat imparts a more 
 rounded form to the limb and masks the outline of the 
 different muscles which, in the male, exercise so important 
 an influence on the surface contours (Pis., pp. 66, 230, 238). 
 
 The influence of the change of position of the radius on 
 the form of the limb when the fore-arm is pronated has 
 been already dwelt upon in describing the movements of 
 pronation and supination (p. 170). The student would do 
 well to remember this fact, for not only does the radius 
 move, but it carries with it the muscles which are grouped 
 around it. Thus when, in the prone position, the shaft of 
 the radius is thrown obliquely across the front of the ulna, 
 so that its lower extremity comes to be placed internal 
 to the head of the ulna at the wrist, the various muscles 
 which lie along the outer and posterior surface of that 
 bone are carried with it ; the supinator and extensor mass 
 of muscles no longer lies along the outer and posterior 
 aspect of the limb, but takes an oblique direction, from the 
 external condyle of the humerus and the ridge leading 
 
3 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 B 
 g 
 
 In "^ 
 
 o 
 B < 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 Z 
 
 u 
 pa 
 
 
 X 
 
 1—4 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 M 
 H 
 
 •< 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 OS 
 
 < 
 
 I 
 
 M 
 BS 
 
 £ ? 
 
 . c 
 
 < 
 
 u 
 
 A 
 
 O 
 
 X 
 is. 
 
Contours around Elbow. i8i 
 
 to it, downwards and inwards towards the inner side of 
 the wrist, where, as has just been said, the lower end of the 
 radius is situated. Over the lower end of this bone we 
 have already seen that the tendons of the afore-mentioned 
 muscles are carried in grooves in which they are retained 
 by the posterior annular ligament of the wrist. By this 
 arrangement the tendons are held in position, and when 
 the bone (radius) moves it necessarily carries with it the 
 tendons which are lodged in the grooves on its surface. 
 
 The modification in the form of the limb is thus explained. 
 From being flattened from before backwards, and wide 
 from side to side, as happens in the supine position, the 
 fore-arm becomes rounded in the prone position, so that 
 its thickness from before backwards exceeds slightly its 
 width from side to side. It may here be pointed out that 
 we usually carry our fore-arms in a position midway 
 between extreme pronation and supination ; in other words, 
 in walking we carry the limb with the palm of the hand 
 directed towards the thigh, and not with the palms turned 
 forwards, as in extreme supination, or backwards, as in 
 extreme pronation (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 44, 52, 62, 108, 234, 264, 
 282, 332). 
 
 The modification in the arrangement and grouping of 
 the muscles of the limb can best be studied by an examina- 
 tion of the plates, pp. 144, 170, in which they are repre- 
 sented with the limb in different positions. 
 
 When the elbow-joint was described, the relation of its 
 bony parts to the surface form was then discussed. Some- 
 thing yet remains to be said regarding the changes 
 in form due to the muscles of the fore-arm which are 
 grouped around it. In the extended position of the joint, 
 i.e. when the whole limb is straight, the outer condyle 
 of the humerus is concealed by the muscles which overlie 
 it and spring from it, viz. the supinator and extensors. 
 In this connexion it is important to remember that two 
 
i82 Form of Bent Elbow. 
 
 of these muscles, viz. the long supinator and the long radial 
 extensor of the wrist, do not take origin from the external 
 condyle, but from the external condyloid ridge above 
 it. On the other hand, if we examine the inner side 
 of the elbow there is no difBculty in recognizing the 
 surface prominence which corresponds to the internal 
 condyle of the humerus, for the pronator and flexor muscles, 
 which spring from this, do not extend upwards to any 
 extent to be connected with the ridge above it (the internal 
 
 Fig. loj. Diagram to show the outline of the outer side of the ai-m 
 when the elbow is bent. The outline of the fore- arm at the elbow is 
 determined by the supinator longus and extensor carpi radialis longior, 
 which arise above the external condyle of the humerus. 
 
 condyloid ridge), but are confined in their attachment to the 
 condyle itself, a circumstance which explains the character- 
 istic prominence on the surface of this process of bone. As 
 a result of these arrangements we can readily explain the 
 marked differences which the limb presents when the elbow 
 is bent, according as we view it from the outer or inner 
 aspect (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 66, 96, 106, 148, 180, 238, 264). 
 
 The angle formed by the outline of the fore-arm and 
 the upper arm is placed much higher on the outer side 
 
Form of Bent Elbow. 
 
 183 
 
 of the elbow than on the inner ; this is due to the fact that 
 the long supinator takes origin from the external condyloid 
 ridge of the humerus, as high as the junction of the lower 
 with the middle third of the length of that bone. This may 
 be best seen when a heavy weight is raised with the elbow 
 bent ; the long supinator is then powerfully contracted, 
 and its anterior margin is rendered very tense, a condition 
 shown in the diagram (Fig. 105). Not only is the belly 
 of the supinator longus, above the level of the joint, but 
 the long radial extensor of the wrist is also seen powerfully 
 
 Fig. 106. Outline of the inner side of the arm with the elbow bent. 
 The front of the fore-arm is in contact with the front of the upper arm, 
 and forms a deep fold, at the bottom of which the internal condyle is 
 situated. 
 
 contracted as it arises from the ridge on the humerus above 
 the external condyle, the surface point corresponding to 
 which is placed much below the level of the angle formed 
 by the outline of the limb. When viewed from the inner 
 side, the limb displays a marked contrast to the form just 
 described ; a deep fold crosses the front and inner side 
 of the elbow. This fold is produced by the approximation 
 of the soft parts of the upper part of the limb with the 
 anterior surface of the fore-arm, and its inner extremity 
 
184 Superficial Veins of Arm. 
 
 passes in towards the surface prominence corresponding 
 to the position of the internal condyle of the humerus. 
 The depth of this fold will of course depend on the degree 
 of flexion of the joint, being most marked when the joint 
 is forcibly bent (Pis., pp. 66, 148, 180). 
 
 In lesser degrees of flexion, say about a right angle, the 
 Y-shaped hollow of the front of the elbow becomes more 
 pronounced; particularly if a powerful strain be put on 
 the muscles, as in lifting a weight ; the outer side of the 
 hoUow is rendered more prominent by the tension of its 
 outer boundary, the long supinator. The insertions of the 
 biceps muscle, both tendinous and aponeurotic, are now 
 well seen as they pass into the space. Such a view of the 
 limb is shown in the plate, p. 180, Fig. i. 
 
 In considering these details the student will do well 
 to contrast the influence of powerful muscular contraction 
 on the surface forms as compared with their appearance 
 in moderate action, a difference which he can easily 
 demonstrate on his own person. We have here adopted 
 the former condition as the one which enables us best 
 to emphasize the influence of muscle in action on the 
 contours of the limb, and it appears hardly necessary to 
 dwell upon the fact that any pictorial representation of the 
 parts in the condition above described would imply 
 a vigorous use of the limb. Under ordinary circumstances, 
 in moderate action the surface contours above mentioned 
 would be much less deflnite. 
 
 Mention may here be made of the arrangement of the 
 superficial veins of the fore and upper arm and their 
 influence on the surface form. The distribution of these 
 veins is liable to great individual variation, but the usual 
 arrangement is one in which we have veins running up 
 the outer and inner sides, as well as along the centre 
 of the fore-arm ; in front of the bend of the elbow they 
 rearrange themselves so that there are only two superficial 
 
Superficial Veins of Arm. 185 
 
 veins of any size in the upper arm ; these lie along the 
 inner and outer sides of the biceps and occupy the corre- 
 sponding furrows. These vessels become much engorged 
 when the limb has been subjected to any violent muscular 
 strain or prolonged effort, and the distended veins are 
 readily recognized by the knotted cord-like ridges which 
 they produce on the surface of the limb (Pis., pp. 38, 44, 96, 
 332). Their nature is also indicated by the bluish colour 
 which they impart to the skin over them. In the antique 
 the surface elevations produced by veins are frequently 
 represented, and help to emphasize the artist's representa- 
 tion of the limb in violent action. A curious and not 
 uninteresting detail may here be mentioned. This engorge- 
 ment of the veins is always most marked when the limb is 
 in such a position that the shoulder forms its highest point. 
 If, on the other hand, the arm be uplifted, the engorgement 
 rapidly disappears and the veins are no longer recognizable 
 by their influence on the surface contours. This statement 
 is hardly in accordance with fact, for curiously, if the course 
 of a large vein is examined when the blood has been 
 suddenly drained from it, its position is in some cases 
 indicated by a shallow furrowing of the surface, so slight, 
 however, as almost to escape notice, and hence hardly 
 worthy of representation in plastic art. This difference in 
 the distension of the veins in these two positions of the 
 limb is due to the fact that, in the first, the blood which is 
 circulating in the veins is passing up towards the shoulder 
 and has thus to counteract the influence of gravity, where- 
 as when the arm is raised above the shoulder the blood 
 flowing in that direction is assisted by the influence of 
 gravity and is therefore more rapidly drained away. From 
 this it follows that if the artist wishes to be strictly 
 accurate in his representation of the forms of the limb in 
 action he should not emphasize the presence of these 
 superficial veins on the surface of the uplifted arm, unless 
 
i86 
 
 Front of Wrist. 
 
 of course he merely wishes to represent a momentary 
 raising of the limb. On the other hand, their presence 
 may be clearly defined if the limb be represented on 
 a lower level than the shoulder. 
 
 The prominence of these superficial veins not only 
 
 depends on their distension, 
 but also on the thickness of 
 the subcutaneous fatty layer 
 in which they are imbedded. 
 They are best marked as sur- 
 face elevations when that 
 layer is thin, as in a lean 
 muscular model ; but their 
 influence on the surface forms 
 is masked when the fatty 
 subcutaneous layer is thick, 
 consequently it would be al- 
 together contrary to artistic 
 ideas to indicate them by 
 surface elevations in any 
 representation of a full and 
 healthy female type. Under 
 these circumstances their 
 presence is sufficiently sug- 
 gested by colour, and this 
 especially as the finer and 
 whiter skin of the female 
 enhances the contrast. Par- 
 ticularly is this the case in 
 
 Fig. 107. Outline of the hand, 
 showing the arrangement of the 
 skin folds in front of the wrist 
 and on the palm and fingers. The 
 shaded parts indicate the positions 
 of the bones which form the pro- 
 minent inner and outer borders of 
 the carpus. Those at the ball of 
 the thumb correspond from below 
 upwards to the tubercle of the 
 scaphoid and the ridge of the 
 trapezium ; those on the ball of 
 the little finger to the pisiform 
 and hook-like process of the unci- 
 form. 
 
 certain regions, viz. the front 
 of the elbow and the front of the wrist, where the skin is 
 thinner than elsewhere ; here a suggestion of this delicacy 
 may be conveyed by representing the colour which the 
 smaller veins impart to the surface. 
 
 The surface relations of the various structures met with 
 
Action of Muscles. 187 
 
 in the region of the wrist have been already described; 
 but, in addition, the existence of certain lines or creases 
 in the skin in front of this region must be noted. Of 
 these there are two which are usually well defined. The 
 lowest is a line with a double curve which sweeps across 
 the wrist, and corresponds to the bases of the elevations 
 familiar to the reader as the ball of the thumb and the 
 ball of the little finger. At some little distance above this, 
 on a level with the tip of the styloid process of the radius, 
 is a second delicate fold ; this becomes at once apparent 
 as a line of flexure when we bend the wrist forwards. 
 Other slight folds are rendered evident, lying more or less 
 parallel to and above this, by further bending the hand 
 forwards. 
 
 The action of the various muscles described in the fore- 
 arm is sufficiently indicated by their names. Those which 
 flex and extend the wrist are assisted in their action 
 by the muscles which bend and straighten the fingers. 
 
 Abduction, or the action of drawing the hand towards the 
 radial or outer side, is effected by the muscles which lie 
 along the outer or radial side of the limb, viz. the radial 
 flexor and the radial extensors of the wrist. 
 
 Adduction, or the movement of the hand towards the 
 iilnar or inner side of the limb, is caused by the combined 
 action of the ulnar flexor and extensor of the wrist, which 
 lie along the inner side of the fore-arm. 
 
 The movement of circumduction of course necessitates 
 a combination of the action of flexors, abductors, extensors, 
 and adductors, or vice versa, according as the movement 
 takes place from within outwards or from without inwards. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 The hand is one of the most characteristic features 
 of man ; by means of it he is able to perform the most 
 delicate manipulations. It may also be made use of as 
 a means of expression. The actor's art is one of the 
 most striking examples of this — the finger to the lips 
 to indicate silence, the hands held up to express horror, 
 are only instances of the more common modes of ex- 
 pression by this means. This may be carried ftirther, 
 as in pantomime, and men who could not otherwise con- 
 verse are enabled to interchange ideas by means of this 
 gesture language. 
 
 The artist will frequently have recourse to this mode of 
 suggestion, as it enables him to assist in giving expression 
 and action to the figures he represents. 
 
 But in other ways the hand reflects to some extent the 
 character and mode of life of its possessor. Apart altogether 
 from the refinement associated with the female, very great 
 diff'erences in the form of the hand are found in different 
 individuals, differences in many instances due to the uses 
 to which the hand has been put. To represent the hand 
 of a blacksmith as delicate and refined would be absurd 
 from a pictorial standpoint, though it is curious to note 
 
Skeleton of Hand. 
 
 189 
 
 that the hands and fingers of those employed in the most 
 delicate manipulations are often clumsy and uncouth. 
 As a rule, however, we associate delicacy of hand with 
 refinement and with mental rather than manual labour, 
 whilst a muscular hand is regarded as an attribute of 
 strength and of a powerful 
 physique. A man's hands 
 are often as characteristic as 
 his face, and in portraiture 
 the artist frequently avails 
 himself of this feature. "With 
 women, however, this is less 
 marked, as here we expect 
 to see elegance and beauty 
 rather than character, a cir- 
 cumstance which has often 
 led painters in the past to 
 supply the hands from other 
 and better models. 
 
 The skeleton of the hand 
 comprises the bones of the 
 palm and fingers. The former 
 consists of the five meta- 
 carpal bones already men- 
 tioned. These are long bones, 
 long in the sense that they 
 consist of a shaft and two 
 extremities ; the upper end 
 or base is directed towards 
 the wrist, the lower end, which is rounded to form a 
 head, supports the bones of the digits. Of these five 
 metacarpal bones, four are connected with the fingers, 
 whilst one, the outermost of the series, supports the 
 thumb. The bases of these five bones articulate with 
 the second row of the wrist or carpal bones. The heads 
 
 Fig. 108. The bones of the right 
 wrist and hand as seen from the 
 front. 
 
 r. Badius. 
 
 u. Ulna. 
 
 u,. Styloid process of radius. 
 
 c. Styloid process of ulna, 
 c c. The carpal bones (8). 
 m m. The metacarpal bones (5). 
 p p. The finger-bones or phalanges (14). 
 
igo Skeleton of Hand. 
 
 or lower ends are arranged in the following way:— The 
 four inner bones, viz. those which support the fingers, 
 are united together by ligaments so that they cannot 
 be separated from each other. They may be regarded as 
 almost immovable, for we possess little or no active control 
 over their movements if we except the innermost member 
 of the series, viz. that connected with the little finger, the 
 slight movements of which will be afterwards described. 
 Whilst we cannot by the contraction of our muscles cause 
 any alteration in the relative position of these bones to 
 each other, they may, by the exercise of pressure, be moved 
 to a slight extent. Thus by grasping the hand of another 
 they may be crushed closer together, or by pressing the 
 palm firmly against a flat surface they may be separated 
 slightly from each other. In marked contrast to this 
 arrangement it must be observed that the lower end or 
 head of the metacarpal bone of the thumb is free — that is 
 to say, it is not connected with the heads of the other 
 metacarpals by means of ligaments. It is this condition 
 of the parts which enables us to draw the thumb away 
 from the palm and fingers. The student wiU thus observe 
 that it is only over the inner and outer members of this 
 series of bones that we have any muscular control — the 
 inner only to a slight degree, the outer or metacarpal of 
 the thumb to a very great extent. 
 
 The general form of the palm depends on its osseous 
 framework, but it is only on the back of the hand that 
 there is any distinct evidence of the arrangement and 
 form of its bones, for on the front of the palm their out- 
 line is concealed by the numerous muscles and tendons 
 which overlie them. On the back of the hand there are 
 no fleshy muscles to mask their outline, as here they 
 are crossed merely by the tendons of the muscles going to 
 the back of the fingers. The reader may satisfy himself as 
 to this by feeling the back of his own hand, when the 
 
Skeleton of Hand. 191 
 
 metacarpal bones of tlie fingers and thumb will be readily 
 recognized in line witb the several digits. If tbe fist be now 
 closed the beads of tbese bones become at once apparent 
 as a series of well-marked rounded elevations, familiar to 
 all under the name of tbe first row of kuLickles. According 
 to the disposition of the fatty layer on the back of the hand, 
 these knuckles will present a different appearance when 
 the hand is again opened and the fingers straightened. 
 If the fat be absent or small in amount, the heads of the 
 metacarpals, and the joints which they form with the first 
 row of the bones of the fingers, will be seen to form a series 
 of slight elevations covered with wrinkled skin, towards 
 which the ridges formed by the several extensor tendons 
 of the fingers may be traced ; but if, as in the ideal female 
 hand, and also in that of the child, the fat is present in 
 considerable quantity the surface corresponding to the 
 position' of the knuckles is depressed and forms a series 
 of hollows, or dimples, with but slight, if any, indication 
 of the direction and position of the extensor tendons of 
 the fingers. 
 
 In regard to the joints between the bases of the meta- 
 carpal bones, and the bones of the wrist, little need be said. 
 The articulation so formed is curved from side to side, 
 corresponding to the curve already described in connexion 
 with the arrangement of the wrist-bones. This curve, it 
 will be remembered, formed the sides and bottom of the 
 tunnel in front through which the tendons of the flexors 
 of the thumb and fingers passed, whilst to its posterior 
 convexity was due the side-to-side roundness on the back 
 of the wrist. This arched arrangement is maintained 
 throughout by the four inner metacarpal bones, a fact 
 which can be easily demonstrated. If we lay the back 
 of the hand on a flat surface, it will be found that it is 
 impossible to bring all four inner knuckles of the first row 
 into contact with the surface at the same time, unless we 
 
192 Bones of the Fingers. 
 
 employ pressure from above with the other hand. Further, 
 this grouping of the metacarpal bones assists in forming 
 the hollow of the palm, and imparts to the back of the hand 
 its characteristic side-to-side convexity. It also explains 
 the apparent separation of these bones, which has been 
 already alluded to, when we bring great pressure to bear 
 on the palm as it lies in contact with a flat surface, the 
 increase in width being due to a flattening out of this 
 transverse arch. 
 
 A notable exception to the foregoing arrangement is the 
 metacarpal bone of the thumb. This articulates by means 
 of a separate joint with the outermost bone (trapezium) of 
 the second row of wrist-bones. The surfaces of this joint 
 are of such a kind as to permit movement of every sort 
 except rotation, and, owing to the fact that the lower end or 
 head of the metacarpal bone is not united by ligaments 
 to the other metacarpal bones, the thumb can be moved 
 across or away from the palm, brought forwards or pulled 
 backwards, or by the combination of these movements the 
 act of circumduction may be performed. 
 
 The first row of knuckles forms a series of rounded 
 projections, which are due to the shape of the heads of the 
 metacarpal bones. The bones of the first row of phalanges, 
 or finger-bones, articulate with the rounded heads of the 
 metacarpals by means of shallow hollow surfaces on their 
 bases ; for, like the metacarpal bones, these phalanges are 
 described as long bones, though in reality some of them 
 are very short. Each digit possesses three such phalanges, 
 with the exception of the thumb, which has only two. 
 Each phalanx has a shaft and two extremities, upper and 
 lower ; these extremities are articular, except in the case 
 of the lower ends of the bones which are placed at the tips of 
 the fingers, where each phalanx is furnished with a surface 
 which afibrds attachment for the nail. 
 
 The bones of the first row are the longest, those of the 
 
Joints of Fingers. 193 
 
 third row tte shortest, whilst those of the second row are 
 intermediate in length. Both the back and the front of 
 these bones are overlain by the tendons of the iingers in 
 such a way as to conceal their outline. When we bend the 
 fingers the lower ends of the bones of the first and second 
 rows of phalanges are seen to form the projections of the 
 second and third rows of the knuckles. 
 
 If the reader will now compare the form of these 
 knuckles with that of the first row, previously described, 
 he will note a difi'erence. Whereas the surface projection 
 of the first row of knuckles was seen to be rounded, the 
 outline of the second and third rows is flattened from 
 side to side. This difi'erence depends on the shape of the 
 lower ends of the phalanges as compared with the heads of 
 the metacarpal bones. As previously stated, the latter are 
 rounded and fit into the shallow hollows on the upper 
 ends of the first row of phalanges. These surfaces permit 
 of movements in a backward and forward direction, i.e. 
 bending or extending the fingers ; in this respect the 
 joints are hinge joints. At the same time, another move- 
 ment is here possible : the phalanges may move from 
 si de to side on the rounded end of the metacarpal bone. 
 This is demonstrated when we spread out the fingers or 
 draw them together, a movement which we efi'ect at the 
 first knuckle-joint of the four fingers. This lateral play 
 of the phalanx on the metacarpal bone is absent in the 
 thumb, the corresponding joint of which permits only 
 of flexion and extension. Such movement here is un- 
 necessary, for we possess the power of pulling the meta- 
 carpal bone of that digit away from or towards the palm, 
 a movement which, in the other digits, is rendered im- 
 possible by the fact that the heads of their metacarpal bones 
 are bound together by ligaments. When we separate 
 the fingers the movement is termed abduction ; when we 
 bring them close together we adduct them. The line 
 
194 ^^^ Thumb. 
 
 of the middle finger is regarded as tlie axis of the hand 
 from and towards which these movements take place. 
 An examination of the articular surfaces of the other 
 knuckles explains at once their difference in form as 
 compared with those of the first row. The lower ends of 
 the bones of the first and second rows of phalanges are 
 provided with two small rounded articular areas separated 
 by a groove ; these fit into corresponding hollows on the 
 upper ends of the bones with which they articulate, the 
 two shallow hollows being separated by a slight ridge 
 which fits into the groove above mentioned. Such a joint 
 
 " permits of movement only in one direction, viz. flexion 
 and extension ; any lateral play is rendered impossible 
 by the arrangement of its articular surfaces. This is 
 the explanation why the surface form of the second and 
 third rows of knuckles is squarer in outline than that of 
 the first row, for the outline depends on the form of the 
 lower ends of the phalanges of the first and second rows 
 respectively ; indeed, a close inspection of these joints 
 will show not only the squareness of the knuckle, but 
 also a slight hollowing in the centre, which corresponds 
 to the groove which separates the two small articular 
 surfaces. This may best be seen in the second knuckle 
 of the thumb. 
 
 As will be gathered from the foregoing description, 
 the thumb possesses a far freer range of movement than 
 any of the other digits, and a moment's consideration will 
 
 ' enable the reader to realize its great importance as a part 
 of the hand. The thumb can be brought into opposition 
 with each of the fingers ; in this way we can employ it 
 and the finger with which it is brought into contact as 
 a pair of forceps enabling us to pick up the most delicate 
 objects. Perhaps the student will have this brought home 
 more forcibly to him if he considers for a moment what 
 the loss of the thumb entails. The fingers may, by the 
 
Short Muscles of Thumb. 195 
 
 power of adduction which we possess, be brought together 
 so as to clasp anything between them, but we have no 
 longer the power of opposing them, as is the case with the 
 thumb ; this fact can be easily demonstrated if the reader 
 will endeavour to hold a pencil between any two fingers, and 
 then try to make use of it. No doubt practice will assist 
 us in acquiring greater facility in holding anything in this 
 way, but it will be at once apparent that there is a vast 
 difference between the use of the instrument so held and 
 the control which we can exercise over it when held by 
 the thumb and finger. 
 
 Accordingly, we find that the thumb is furnished with 
 a large number of muscles, which not only move it in 
 different directions, but which are sufficiently powerful 
 to enable us to employ very considerable force. Some 
 of these muscles have already been studied ; they are the 
 long muscles of the thumb, and their fleshy bellies are placed 
 in the fore-arm. But there is a group of short muscles, 
 the fleshy parts of which lie in the hand itself. 
 
 It is this latter group which forms the rounded elevation 
 along the outer side of the palm and overlying the meta- 
 carpal bone of the thumb, which is familiarly known as 
 the hall of the thumb. 
 
 This fleshy mass consists of the following muscles : a short 
 flexor, an abductor, and an opponens of the thumb. We 
 need not here enter into details regarding the precise 
 attachment and position of these muscles ; their names 
 have been mentioned in order that the reader may have 
 some idea of their action. Generally speaking, the afore- 
 said muscles arise from the wrist-bones which form the 
 external ridge of the groove in which the flexor tendons 
 of the fingers are lodged ; this ridge has been already 
 referred to (ante, p. 160), and was seen to consist of parts 
 of the scaphoid and trapezium which form the elevation 
 at the base of the ball of the thumb on a line with the 
 
 2 
 
196 Muscles of Thumb. 
 
 cleft between the index and middle fingers. But as this 
 ridge affords attachment to the strong anterior annular 
 ligament which bridges over the groove and converts it 
 
 Fig. 109. Shows the arrangement 
 of the structures in the palm. 
 
 a. Palmar fascia, 
 
 b. Tendon of the palmariBlongiis pass- 
 
 ing into it. 
 c c. The anterior annular ligament 
 underneath which the tendons 
 pass to the palm and fingers. 
 d, e, and / are the muscles of the ball of 
 the little finger. 
 
 d. Opponens minimi digiti. 
 
 e. Flexor brevis minimi digiti. 
 /. Abductor miuimi digiti. 
 
 jr, ft, and i are the muscles of the ball of 
 the thumb. 
 g. Flexor brevis poUiois. 
 h. Abductor pollicis. 
 i. Opponens poUiois. 
 
 Pig. 1 10. A deeper view of some 
 of the muscles of the hand. 
 
 a. Abductor minimi digitL 
 6. Hook-like process of unciform (one of 
 the bones of the carpusX 
 
 c. Pisiform bone. 
 
 d. Ulna. 
 
 e. Badius. 
 
 /. Opponens pollicis. 
 
 g. Deep part of flexor brevis pollicis or 
 oblique adductor. 
 
 h. Superficial part of flexor brevis polli- 
 cis and the abductor pollicis (cut). 
 
 i. Adductor pollicis, or transverse ad- 
 ductor, and 
 
 j. Abductor indicis, or first dorsal inter- 
 osseous muscle, both of which 
 occupy the interval between the 
 metacarpal bones of the thumb and 
 index finger. 
 
 into a tunnel the muscles of the above group also derive 
 fibres of origin from this ligament. 
 
 From this attachment the fleshy fibres pass down to be 
 
Muscles of Thumb. 197 
 
 attaclied to tke bones of tlie thumb. One is inserted into the 
 shaft of the metacarpal bone, and forms the opponens pollicis, 
 a muscle by which we are enabled to carry the thumb 
 across the palm and so oppose it to the other fingers. The 
 remaining fibres, which consist of the flexor brems pollicis 
 and the abductor pollicis, pass down to be inserted into the 
 base of the first phalanx of the thumb in the following way. 
 The fibres of the short flexor are connected with a little 
 bone, called a sesamoid bone, which lies to the outer side 
 of the front of the joint between the first phalanx of the 
 thumb and its metacarpal bone. This little nodule of 
 bone is provided with a cartilage- covered articular surface, 
 which glides on the rounded surface of the outer part 
 of the head of the metacarpal bone. From this sesamoid 
 bone, which thus acts like a pulley, tendinous fibres pass 
 to connect it with the outer side of the base of the first 
 phalanx. Superficial to, and to the outer side of this 
 sesamoid bone, though not connected with it, the abductor 
 pollicis is found as it passes to its insertion into the outer 
 side of the base of the first phalanx along with the fore- 
 going. The abductor action of this muscle moves the 
 thumb as a whole, and not the phalanx on the metacarpal 
 bone, as is the case with the other fingers (Figs. log, no). 
 
 A small portion of the flexor brevis is inserted into 
 a corresponding sesamoid bone on the inner side of the 
 joint, by means of which it is connected with the inner 
 side of the base of the first phalanx of the thumb. 
 
 The thumb is also provided with adductor muscles, which, 
 like the opponens, draw the thumb inwards towards the 
 palm : of these there are two, the oblique and the transverse 
 adductors. The former has hitherto been described as the 
 deep part of the short flexor, but the description here given 
 is that now generally adopted. This muscle lies deeply 
 in the palm, and, although covered by those already de- 
 scribed, it assists in imparting to the ball of the thumb 
 
igS Muscles of Thumb. 
 
 its characteristic fullness. The oblique adductor is in 
 greater part inserted into the inner sesamoid bone, but 
 it also sends some fibres to the outer sesamoid as well, 
 which unite with those of the flexor brevis. Much more 
 important from our standpoint is the transverse adductor. 
 This muscle does not assist in forming the swelling of the 
 ball of the thumb, but lies internal to it ; it helps to form 
 the fleshy mass which occupies the interval between the 
 metacarpal bone of the thumb and that of the index finger. 
 The muscle is fan-shaped ; by its pointed extremity it is 
 united to the inner sesamoid bone along with the adductor 
 obliquus, by its base it is attached to the front of the shaft 
 of the metacarpal bone of the middle finger. When the 
 thumb is outstretched the lower border of the muscle 
 can be distinctly felt about half an inch above the fold 
 of skin which forms the web between the thumb and 
 forefinger. By their connexion with the inner sesamoid 
 bone both these muscles are attached to the base of the 
 first phalanx on its inner side. As, however, the joint of 
 the first knuckle of the thumb allows of no lateral play, 
 but only of flexion and extension, these muscles do not 
 move the phalanx, but act on the metacarpal bone with 
 which the phalanx is connected. The presence of the 
 small sesamoid bones imparts a fullness to the front of 
 the joint which it would not otherwise possess (Fig. no). 
 
 The adductor transversus, as above described, is not the 
 only muscle which occupies the interval between the meta- 
 carpal bones of the thumb and forefinger. If the reader 
 will examine the back of his own hand with the thumb 
 outstretched and the forefinger pulled as far apart from 
 the middle finger as possible, he will observe a rounded 
 elevation occupying the V-shaped interval between the 
 metacarpal bones of the thumb and forefinger. This 
 is due to the fleshy part of the abductor indicia. It is 
 one of a series of muscles which lie between the meta- 
 
Abductor indicts. 
 
 199 
 
 carpal bones of tlie digits, called the dorsal interossei, and 
 is hence sometimes called 
 the Jirst dorsal interosseous 
 muscle. The former name 
 is the better for present 
 purposes, as it indicates the 
 action of the muscle. It arises 
 by fleshy fibres which are 
 attached to the metacarpal 
 bones of the thumb and 
 index finger respectively, as 
 they lie on either side of the 
 V-shaped interval. These 
 fibres unite to form a fleshy 
 belly which is placed along 
 the radial side of the meta- 
 carpal bone of the index 
 finger, and terminate, near 
 its lower extremity, in a 
 tendon which runs down the 
 radialside of the first knuckle 
 of the forefinger, to become 
 attached to the base of the 
 first phalanx of that digit 
 along with the extensor ten- 
 dons. This muscle lies behind 
 the transverse adductoi' of 
 the thumb, and when we 
 grasp the fleshy layers be- 
 tween the thumb and fore- 
 finger we compress these two 
 muscles between our fingers. 
 Just as the outer digit or 
 thumb is provided with short 
 muscles, so the inner digit or 
 
 Fig. III. View of the tendons 
 and muscles on the back of the 
 right hand. 
 
 u. Tendon of secnndi internodii pol- 
 licis. 
 
 b. Tendon of primi internodii pollicis. 
 
 c. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis 
 
 longior. 
 
 d. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis 
 
 brevior. 
 e e. Posterior annular ligament of 
 wrist. 
 
 /. Tendons of extensor communis 
 digitorum. 
 
 g. Tendon of extensor minimi digiti. 
 
 h. Tendon of extensor carpi tilnaris. 
 
 i. Tendon of flexor carpi nlnaris. 
 
 j. Muscles of ball of little finger seen 
 from behind. 
 
 k. Abductor indicis or first dorsal 
 interosseons mnscle. 
 I 1 1. Second, third, and fourth dorsal 
 interossei muscles, 
 m. Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 
 
 u. Adductor pollicis seen from be- 
 hind. This muscle determines 
 the outline of the web between 
 the thumb and the index finger. 
 
200 Muscles of Little Finger. 
 
 little finger is similarly equipped, though the muscles 
 of the latter are much smaller and less powerful than 
 those of the former. This is at once apparent if we 
 compare the prominence of the ball of the little finger 
 with that of the thumb. 
 
 The hall of the little finger consists of the following 
 muscles, an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. The 
 two former are inserted into the inner side of the base 
 of the first phalanx of the finger, whilst the opponens is 
 attached to the inner side of the whole length of the shaft 
 of its metacarpal bone. These muscles arise more or less 
 in common from the ridge on the inner side of the wrist, 
 formed mainly, as we have already seen, by the pisiform 
 bone, together with a process of another bone called the 
 unciform. The former causes the elevation, already 
 referred to, which may be seen and felt at the root of the 
 ball of the little finger, on a line with the cleft between 
 the little and ring fingers, and towards which the tendon 
 of the flexor carpi ulnaris can be traced (ante, p. i6o). In 
 addition some fibres of this fieshy mass arise from the 
 anterior annular ligament. The action of these muscles is 
 sufficiently indicated by their name, though it may be well 
 to note a difference in the action of the abductor of the 
 little finger as compared with that of the thumb. This 
 muscle draws the little finger away from the ring finger at 
 the first knuckle-joint, a movement which is impossible in 
 the thumb, as the corresponding joint of that digit allows of 
 no lateral movement. The action of the opponens muscle 
 of the little finger is much more limited than that of the 
 thumb, because the head of the metacarpal bone of the little 
 finger is bound to that of the ring finger by ligaments. 
 The movement is therefore limited to a slight drawing 
 forward of the metacarpal bone which helps to deepen the 
 hollow of the palm (Figs. 109, 1 10). 
 
 Between the two muscular prominences above described, 
 
The Palm. 201 
 
 the palm is hollowed out from side to side and slightly also 
 from above downwards. If the fingers be pressed into 
 this hollow the skin is felt to be firm and resistant. This 
 is due to the fact that there is a dense layer of fibrous 
 tissue, called the palmar fascia, immediately beneath 
 and intimately connected with the skin in this situation. 
 This fascia is somewhat triangular in shape ; its narrow 
 or pointed end is united to the anterior annular ligament 
 which bridges across the groove formed by the wrist- 
 bones, whilst its broad end or base is directed towards 
 the roots of the fingers, with the tendon sheaths of which 
 it is connected. On either side this fascia thins out, 
 furnishing fibrous expansions which cover the muscles of 
 the balls of the thumb and little finger respectively ; the 
 middle portion is, however, by far the strongest. All 
 the flexor tendons of the fingers, together with a number 
 of blood-vessels and delicate nerves, pass underneath this 
 fascia, so that ample protection is afforded to these parts, 
 a most important detail when we remember how frequently 
 we grasp the handle of a tool and thus subject the struc- 
 tures in the palm of the hand to the influence of direct 
 pressure. 
 
 The skin of the palm varies in thickness in different 
 places ; it is thick in the centre and along the inner side 
 where it covers the ball of the little finger, thinner where 
 it passes over the muscles of the thumb. The thickness 
 of the skin of course depends on the occupation of the 
 individual, ' the homy-handed son of toil ' in this respect 
 presenting a marked contrast to the appearance displayed 
 by the hand of one whose lot has never required him to 
 engage in hard manual labour. The palm presents a series 
 of small rounded elevations or pads just before the fingers 
 spring from it. These prominences, of which there are 
 three, lie rather in the intervals between than over the 
 roots of the fingers. Viewed from the front, the webs 
 
202 
 
 The Palm. 
 
 between the fingers, and the skin creases which cross 
 the roots of the fingers, form a well-defined line with a 
 flowing curve from without inwards which limits inferiorly 
 the region of the palm. 
 
 A number of well-marked creases or folds are seen 
 
 crossing the palm in different 
 directions. Of these, four 
 are usually well marked, two 
 having a somewhat trans- 
 verse direction, whilst the 
 other two pass more or 
 less longitudinally ; their 
 arrangement has been de- 
 scribed as resembling the 
 written capital M placed 
 obliquely across the palm. 
 The lower of these trans- 
 verse lines may be traced 
 from the inner border of the 
 hand, about an inch above 
 the level of the web between 
 the little and ring fingers, 
 across the palm curving 
 downward towards the cleft 
 between the middle and fore 
 fingers. The second trans- 
 verse line commences about 
 an inch above the web of 
 the index and middle fingers, 
 
 Fig. 112. Outline of the hand, 
 showing the arrangement of the 
 skin folds in front of the wrist 
 and on the palm and fingers. The 
 shaded parts indicate the positions 
 of the bones which form the pro- 
 minent inner and outer borders of 
 the carpus. Those at the ball of 
 the thumb correspond from below 
 upwards to the tubercle of the 
 scaphoid and the ridge of the 
 trapezium ; tljose on the ball of 
 the little finger to the pisiform 
 and hook-like process of the unci- 
 form. 
 
 and, curving upward, crosses 
 the palm to be gradually lost on the surface of the ball 
 of the little finger. If the student will examine these 
 lines with the fingers straight and the palm stretched, and 
 then proceed to bend the fingers on the palm, he will at 
 once recognize that they are lines of flexion and oorre- 
 
The Fingers. 203 
 
 spond to the infolding of the skin over the joints between 
 the metacarpal bones of the fingers and the first row of 
 phalanges. 
 
 In like manner the two longitudinal lines, one sweeping 
 round the ball of the thumb, the other running down the 
 centre of the palm, are at once seen to be associated with 
 the movements by which the hollow of the palm is deepened 
 by the approximation of its inner and outer borders through 
 the action of the opposing muscles of the thumb and little 
 finger. 
 
 To apply any other significance to these lines is at once 
 an imposition and a fraud. 
 
 Many persons possess the power of wrinkling the skin 
 along the inner border of the palm overlying the ball 
 of the little finger ; this is due to the action of a small 
 superficial muscle, called the palmaris brevis, the scattered 
 fibres of which have a transverse direction across the upper 
 and inner side of the palm, from the dense fascia of which 
 they take origin, whilst by their inner ends they are 
 attached to the skin. 
 
 The four fingers as they spring from the palm are united 
 by skin folds, which form the webs of the fingers. These 
 folds unite the fingers at a level corresponding to the 
 middle of the first row of phalanges or finger-bones, so that 
 a considerable portion of the palm is formed by the bases 
 of these bones and their articulation with the metacarpals. 
 The part of the palm which lies below the level of the two 
 transverse folds aforementioned corresponds to the roots 
 of the fingers. As we shall see, this is one of the reasons 
 why the fingers appear'shorter when viewed from the front 
 than from the back. 
 
 The fingers should taper regularly from base to tip, 
 and should not display any thickening at the joints. The 
 rounded form of the anterior surface is due -to the tendons 
 which pass down the front of the phalanges. These 
 
204 Back of Hand. 
 
 tendons are enclosed in a strong sheatii, which, however, 
 is much thinner where it crosses the front of the joints. 
 The surface roundness is somewhat constricted over each 
 joint, where delicate skin folds are seen. These are lines 
 of flexion, and are arranged as follows : on a level with the 
 web of the fingers, the index and little fingers are crossed 
 by a single line, the middle and ring fingers by two lines. 
 In front of the second joint each finger is crossed by two 
 folds, there being only one transverse crease in front of 
 the third joints. The tips of the fingers are provided with 
 well-marked 'pulps' covering the front and ends of the 
 third row of finger-bones, which in their turn support 
 the nails. 
 
 The skin in front of the first joint of the thumb is 
 crossed by an oblique fold which passes upwards and out- 
 wards from the web between the thumb and forefinger. 
 Two creases cross the front of the second joint. 
 
 The appearance of the back of the hand varies much, 
 according to the amount of fat distributed in the sub- 
 cutaneous layers. The general surface is convex from side 
 to side, superiorly it is carried up into the roundness 
 of the wrist. The manner in which the wrist is united 
 to the hand varies in different individuals; in some the 
 outline of the back of the arm is carried down as a more 
 or less straight line on to the back of the hand. In 
 the more refined and beautiful type, however, the flow 
 of this line is interrupted by a rounded curve over the 
 back of the wrist, which thus interrupts the continuity 
 of the outline of the fore-arm and that of the back of 
 the hand. This graceful contour is further emphasized if, 
 at the same time, the fingers are slightly hyper-extended. 
 These remarks apply particularly to the hands of women, 
 in whom we expect to find suppleness and delicacy rathsr 
 than firmness and strength. 
 
 The skin over the back of the hand is thin and trans- 
 
Back of Hand. 205 
 
 parent, enabling us to recognize easily the position of the 
 superficial veins either by their colour or prominence ; 
 the latter would be justifiable in a representation of a male 
 hand, but would be entirely out of place if indicated in the 
 female, unless it be the hand of an old woman in whom 
 the wasting of the fat has led to an undue prominence 
 of the vessels. In man these superficial veins are seen to 
 form an irregular arch across the back of the hand from 
 which the blood passes up by the superficial veins of the 
 fore-arm already noticed (ante, p. 184). 
 
 The appearance of the first row of knuckles has been 
 previously alluded to. In hands in which the tendons are 
 easily seen these will be noticed, when in a state of tension, 
 forming a series of ridges passing down from the middle 
 of the back of the wrist to the first row of knuckles, 
 over which they are carried on to the backs of the fingers. 
 The tendons which form the most pronounced ridges on the 
 surface are those associated with the thumb. These we 
 have already described in connexion with the wrist-joint 
 and the muscles of the fore-arm. They are the extensors 
 of the metacarpal bone and phalanges of the thumb. That 
 passing to the second phalanx forms the salient ridge which 
 is plainly visible when we strongly extend the thumb ; 
 this ridge is seen to pass from a point on the back of 
 the wrist in line with the cleft between the index and 
 middle fingers, downwards towards the first knuckle of the 
 thumb, after which it is carried along the back of the first 
 phalanx to reach the base of the second, to which the 
 tendon is attached. 
 
 The manner in which the fingers spring from the back 
 of the hand is very different from what we have seen in 
 front. If the fingers be spread out, the webs between 
 them will be noticed to be attached to the sides of the 
 fingers much lower down in front, where they form a sharp 
 abrupt fold which stretches across the interval between 
 
2o6 Back of Hand. 
 
 the fingers on a level with the middle of the first phalanges. 
 Above and behind this the skin between the fingers forms 
 a broad groove when the fingers are outspread, which 
 gradually fades away on the back of the hand in the 
 intervals between the knuckles of the first row. When 
 the fingers are again brought together these furrows are 
 represented by a series of folds which carry upwards the 
 outline of the fingers on to the back of the hand. It is for 
 this reason that the fingers of the hand appear much longer 
 when viewed from the back than from the front, for on 
 the back the whole length of the phalanges of the first row 
 is seen to enter into the construction of the fingers, whereas 
 on the palmar surface nearly half the length of these bones 
 is concealed in the fore-part of the palm. The reader may 
 at once satisfy himself as to the correctness of this explanation 
 if he examines his two hands placed side by side, the one 
 palm upwards, the other palm downwards (Fig. 113). 
 
 The flow of the lines which separate the fingers behind, 
 when closely approximated, is peculiar. The lines on either 
 side of the middle finger take different directions, that 
 between the middle and index fingers passing outwards 
 towards the thumb, the other between the middle and ring 
 fingers being directed towards the inner border of the hand, 
 a direction which is also followed by the line between the 
 ring and little fingers. The direction of these lines is 
 determined by the position and direction of the tendons 
 of certain small muscles lodged between the shafts of the 
 metacarpal bones, and called the dorsal inferossei. The 
 middle finger is provided with two of these muscles, one 
 on either side, and it is the tendons of these muscles, 
 as they pass down to be attached on either side to the first 
 phalanx, which account for the flow of the lines in opposite 
 directions. The corresponding muscle of the ring finger 
 is attached to the ulnar side of the first phalanx of that 
 digit (Fig. III). 
 
Back of Fingers. 207 
 
 In the extended position of the fingers the skin is seen 
 to be much wrinkled over the second row of knuckles, less 
 so over the third, beyond which we find the nails. 
 
 Well-shaped nails should be long and not too broad ; 
 straight or but slightly curved in their long direction ; 
 arched from side to side. The nail of the forefinger is the 
 least curved from side to side, that of the little finger 
 the most curved. Short, broad, and flat nails are an un- 
 pleasant feature in the hand. 
 
 The length of the fingers varies in different individuals, 
 but as a rule, in a well-formed hand, the relative lengths of 
 the digits are approximately as follows. The middle finger 
 is the longest; the tip of the index finger corresponds 
 pretty closely to the level of the root of the nail of the 
 middle finger. The ring finger reaches as low as the level 
 of the middle of the nail of the middle finger, and is thus 
 slightly longer than the index finger; the little finger 
 reaches to the level of the third joint of the ring finger ; 
 whilst the thumb, when closely applied to the outer side of 
 the forefinger, should reach the level of the second joint 
 of that digit, though it is frequently somewhat shorter. 
 Seen from the front the middle finger appears shorter than 
 the palm, viewed from the back it appears longer than the 
 back of the hand. 
 
 When the fingers are bent the length of their dorsal 
 surface is increased ; this is at once apparent if we examine 
 the condition of the skin. When the fingers are straight 
 the skin over the knuckles is puckered and wrinkled ; 
 when bent, the skin becomes tense and stretched over the 
 joints, thus indicating that there has been an increase in 
 the length of the finger on its dorsal aspect. This increase 
 is due to the fact that the thickness of the lower articular 
 ends of the metacarpal bones and first two rows of pha- 
 langes has now to be taken into account. The accompanying 
 diagrams will at once make this clear (Figs. 113, 114). 
 
ao8 
 
 Movements of Fingers. 
 
 As a rule extension of the fingers is limited to bringing 
 them into a straight line with the palm, but many persons 
 possess the power of bending back the fingers to a slight 
 degree at the first row of knuckles, and also at the 
 other joints. This hyper- extension at the first joints of 
 the fingers is most easily effected when the other joints 
 are slightly bent, and the appearance produced conveys 
 an impression of suppleness and grace particularly plea- 
 sant in a well-modelled female hand. The movement 
 just described is an active movement, i. e. one controlled 
 
 Fia. 113. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 Diagrams to show how the length of the dorsal surface of the finger 
 IS increased during flexion by the sum of the thickness of the meta- 
 carpal and phalangeal bones of the first and second row. In Fig. 113 the 
 dotted line represents the attachment of the web between the fingers, 
 showing how the fingers seem longer when viewed from behind than 
 in front. 
 
 by the muscles of the individual, and must not be con- 
 fused with passive hyper-extension which is caused by 
 pressing back the fingers. The extent to which this may 
 be carried will depend on the looseness of the joints and 
 the amount of pressure employed. 
 
 It may be pointed out, in connexion with the movements 
 of the thumb, that flexion at the first knuckle is limited 
 in range, whilst at the corresponding joints of the other 
 fingers bending may take place to form a right angle ; in 
 the thumb we can only flex it so as to include an angle 
 
Summary. 209 
 
 of about one liuiidred and twenty or one hundred and 
 thirty degrees. 
 
 In summing up the facts in regard to the hand, the student 
 will now realize the advantages of its complex structure. 
 The number of bones and muscles which enter into its 
 formation impart to it a wide range of mobility which 
 adapts it for the most delicate manipulations. The 
 varying length of the fingers, and the manner of their 
 articulation, enable us to grasp with ease and firmness 
 objects of a spherical form. Similarly, their arrange- 
 ment is conducive to the ease with which we can poise 
 on our finger-tips and thumb any flat surface, such 
 as a plate. The numerous bones and joints in the hand 
 are also of much service in reducing the violence of shocks. 
 In striking a blow with the fist the force is much broken 
 up and diminished in intensity before it reaches the bones 
 of the fore-arm, so that we are enabled to strike power- 
 fully without doing injury to ourselves. 
 
 In conclusion it may be well to remind the reader that 
 the form of the upper limb differs in the two sexes. As 
 an artist of repute once said, ' A woman should have no 
 anatomy ' ; this really is the gist of the whole matter. In 
 the female the bones are smaller and of more delicate form ; 
 the muscles are less developed, and in addition they are 
 covered by a thicker layer of subcutaneous fat which 
 masks and softens the outlines of the underlying structures, 
 imparting a roundness and fullness to the limb such as is 
 characteristic of the sex ; in both male and female the 
 form of the limb is tapering, its greatest thickness being 
 in the region of the shoulder, where the deltoid muscle 
 overlies the shoulder-joint (Pis., pp. 66, 230, 238). 
 
 Another matter requiring consideration is the length 
 of the limb. This will be more fully discussed when the 
 question of proportion is considered ; but it may be well to 
 state here that a short arm is much more pleasing than 
 
 p 
 
2ro Proportion of Upper Limb. 
 
 a long one, the latter being regarded as rather an ape-like 
 characteristic, and one which is more frequently observed in 
 the lower races of man. As Briicke has justly observed, 
 'A model is not easy to find in whom the arms are too 
 short as compared with the legs, but there is no lack of 
 specimens in whom they are too long.' 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE GLUTEAL REGION. 
 
 Beeoee passing to the consideration of tlie lower limb 
 it may be well to refer to some of the points already 
 discussed in one of the earlier chapters. The essential 
 difference between the fore and hind limbs of man was 
 
 Fig. 115. Diagrammatic represen- Fig. 116. A diagrammatic repre- 
 
 tation of the shoulder-girdle. 
 
 a. First dorsal vertebra. 
 6. First rib. 
 
 c. Breast-bone (sternnm). 
 
 d. Sboulder-blade (scapula). 
 
 e. CoUar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 /. Humerus (bone of upper arm). 
 
 sentation of the pelvic girdle. 
 
 a. Sacrum, 
 
 6. Haunob-bone (os innominatum). 
 
 c. Symphysis pubis. 
 
 d. Upper end of thigh-bone (femur). 
 
 there described, and it was shown that the hind limb 
 was designed to combine the functions of support and 
 progression. 
 
 The attention of the student must be particularly directed 
 to the arrangement of the bones which form the pelvic 
 
 F 2 
 
212 Innominate Bone. 
 
 girdle, by means of which the lower limb is connected with 
 the trunk. It has been already shown that the shoulder- 
 girdle is movable on the trunk, for the upper limb is 
 specially adapted to meet the requirements of free move- 
 ment and prehension. In the case of the pelvic girdle, 
 however, the bones afford support to the trunk, and for 
 this reason the girdle-bones of the lower limb are firmly 
 united to the axial skeleton. The only movements which 
 are comparable in the two limbs are those which tak-e 
 place at the shoulder and hip joints. There is no move- 
 ment between the pelvic girdle and the trunk resembling 
 that which takes place between the shoulder-girdle as 
 a whole and the trunk, or between the component parts 
 of that girdle, viz. the collar-bones and shoulder-blades. 
 
 On examining the skeleton, the girdle-bones of the lower 
 limb are seen to be firmly united with that part of the 
 vertebral column or back-bone which is specially modified 
 by the osseous union of its component vertebrae to form 
 the sacrum (ante, p. 8). In front they are united by an 
 immovable joint called the symphysis pubis. By this 
 means an osseous girdle, called the pelvis, is formed which 
 encloses or surrounds a very considerable cavity called 
 the pelvic cavity. 
 
 Leaving for the present the consideration of the pelvis, 
 the portion of the girdle strictly associated with the limb 
 may be examined. This consists of an irregularly shaped 
 bone called the innominate or haunch-hone. Although in the 
 adult this appears as a single bone, it is in reality formed 
 by the fusion of three separate parts. The student will 
 have no difficulty in recognizing on the outer side of the 
 haunch-bone a well-marked cup-shaped cavity called the 
 acetabulum. Into this deep hollow the head of the thigh- 
 bone fits. The acetabulum marks the point of coalescence 
 of the three parts of which the fully developed bone is 
 constituted. Extending forwards and inwards from this 
 
Skeleton of Lower Limb. 
 
 213 
 
 FiGf. 117. The skeleton of the lower Fig. 118. The skeleton of the lower 
 limbs as seen from the front. limb as seen from the outer side. 
 
 a. The sacrum. d. Knee-pan (patella). 
 
 b. The haunch-bone (os jnnominatum). e. Outer bone of leg (fibula). 
 e. Thigh-bone (femur). /. Inner bone of leg (tibia). 
 
 g. Bones of foot. 
 
214 Innominate Bone. 
 
 articular cavity is the pubis ; passing upwards, outwards, 
 and backwards we note the expanded curved plate of bone 
 called tbe ilium; below and slightly behind is the ischium. 
 The pubis and the ischium are further united by processes 
 called their rami, and thus enclose between them a wide hole, 
 called the thyroid or obturator foramen, which lies in front of 
 
 Fig. 119. Haunch-bone (os in- 
 nominatum) of male seen from the 
 outer aide ; it is represented as 
 articulated with the sacrum. 
 
 a. Uiac portion of the innominate bone. 
 
 b. Pubic portion of the innominate bone. 
 
 c. Ischial portion of the innominate 
 
 bone. 
 
 d. Biac creat. 
 
 e. Anterior superior Uiac spine. 
 
 Fia. 120. Haunch-bone (os inno- 
 minatum) of female. Note that 
 the female bone is more tilted for- 
 ward than the male, as shown by 
 the relation of the points s and e 
 to the dotted vertical line. 
 
 ./. Anterior inferior iliac spine. 
 g. Acetabnlum (hollow for head of thigh- 
 bone). 
 i. Posterior superior iliac spine. 
 j. Spine of isohinm. 
 I. Tuberosity of ischium. 
 
 s. Spine of pubis. 
 
 and below the acetabular articular cavity above mentioned. 
 "With parts only of this irregularly-shaped haunch-bone are 
 we immediately concerned, and with some of these details 
 the reader is already familiar, as reference has been pre- 
 viously made to them in the description of the abdominal 
 
The Ilium. 
 
 215 
 
 walls and flanks (ante, p. 55). Thus the upper border or 
 crest of the expanded iliac bone has been already studied 
 in its relations to the surface. This describes a sinuous 
 curve, being towards the outer side convex in front and 
 concave behind, whilst between its two extremities the 
 crest is arched in a vertical direc- 
 tion, the convexity of the curve 
 being inclined upwards. The ex- 
 tremities of this crest, called 
 respectively the anterior and i^os- 
 terior superior iliac spines, have 
 been noted as important deter- 
 minants of surface form, the 
 anterior corresponding to the de- 
 pression at the outer side of the 
 fold of the groin (ante, p. 65), 
 the posterior underlying the 
 depression or dimple which is 
 so characteristic a feature of the 
 lower part of the back in the 
 male and female (ante, p. 38). 
 
 The anterior two-thirds or so 
 of the inner surface of this plate- 
 like bone is hollowed out to form 
 the iliac fossa. This affords an 
 expanded surface for the support 
 of the abdominal contents. The 
 posterior third of the inner aspect 
 of the ilium is rough and irre- 
 gular, and is adapted for articu- 
 lation with the side of the sacrum, 
 
 to which it is firmly united. This surface corresponds to 
 the posterior part of the crest, which curves slightly 
 outwards. The outer surface of the ilium furnishes an 
 extensive attachment for the muscles of the buttock, 
 
 Pig. 121. (After Richer.) 
 Shows the relation of the 
 iliac furrow to the iKac crest. 
 
2i6 The Pubis. 
 
 which, in man, attain a remarkable development, and are 
 associated with the maintenance of the erect position. 
 
 Of the pubis we are concerned only with the anterior 
 part or body. It is by means of this bone that the inno- 
 minate or haunch-bones of the two sides articulate with 
 each other, forming a joint which is known as the sym- 
 physis pubis ; in this way the osseous girdle is completed 
 in front. This joint lies in the middle line in continua- 
 tion with the direction of the median furrow which runs 
 down the front of the abdominal wall. On each side of 
 this lie the bodies of the respective pubic bones, occu- 
 pying the interval between the inner extremities of the 
 folds of the groin on either side. Owing to the thick pad 
 of fat which overlies these bones, their outline is concealed, 
 but they assist, however, in forming the general round- 
 ness which is so characteristic of this region. If the finger 
 be passed along the upper border of the pubis from the 
 symphysis outwards, one can easily recognize the presence 
 of a well-marked process called the spine of the pubis. To 
 this point attention has been already directed (ante, p. 56) 
 when describing the lower limits of the anterior abdo- 
 minal region. It affords attachment to an important band 
 called Pouparfs ligament, which stretches obliquely upwards 
 and outwards, to be fixed to the anterior superior iliac 
 spine (the anterior extremity of the iliac crest). It is 
 this ligament, as has been seen, which corresponds to the 
 position of the furrow of the groin. The upper border of 
 the body of the pubis between the symphysis and the 
 spine is called the crest of the pubis. 
 
 The ischium as a rule does not directly influence the 
 surface form. The most prominent part of that bone, which 
 lies below and slightly behind the acetabulum, or articular 
 cup, is thick and rounded, and is called the tuberosity. In 
 the standing position the tuberosity is covered by the thick 
 fleshy fibres of one of the great muscles of the buttock, the 
 
The Sacrum. 217 
 
 gluteus maximus, but when tlie leg, or more properly the 
 thigh, is bent forward at the hip-joint the muscle slips 
 over this bony prominence, and so uncovers it. Thus, in 
 the sitting posture, the tuberosity of the ischium underlies 
 the skin, and it is on these prominences that the body weight 
 rests, so that the muscles are in no way crushed or com- 
 pressed in this position. Further, provision is also made 
 to relieve, as much as possible, the parts from pressure, 
 for the fat overlying the ischial tuberosities is abundantly 
 mixed with fibrous tissue which imparts to it a highly 
 elastic quality, resembling, in this respect, the arrange- 
 ment met with in the tissues underlying the heel. 
 
 It is by the fusion of these three bones, the ilium, the 
 ischium, and the pubis, that the innominate or haunch- 
 bone is formed, and it is, as has been said, at the point of 
 fusion of these three bones that the acetabulum is placed. 
 We need for the present only compare it with the glenoid 
 fossa on the shoulder-blade. The latter was seen to be 
 relatively small and shallow, thus permitting great free- 
 dom of movement and affording limited support, whereas 
 the acetabulum is large and deep, and better adapted to 
 furnish support, though less well fitted to allow free 
 movement. The further details in connexion with this 
 are reserved until the hip-joint is described. 
 
 It is by the union of the two haunch-bones with each 
 other in front and the sacrum behind that the pelvis is 
 formed. The sacrum, as has been already explained (ante, 
 p. 8), is a specially modified part of the vertebral column 
 or back-bone, which is built up by the fusion of five verte- 
 bral segments. It is, so to speak, wedged in between and 
 behind the iliac portions of the two innominate bones, 
 with which it is firmly united by immovable joints. 
 In this way provision is made for the transmission of 
 the body weight from the vertebral column downwards 
 through the two haunch-bones, and so on to the thighs. 
 
2i8 The Pelvis. 
 
 The surface relations of the sacrum have been already- 
 studied (ante, p. 38), and the student may be referred to that 
 description for further details. Meanwhile, it may be 
 sufficient to note that it is only the posterior aspect of 
 this bone which is a determinant of the surface contours. 
 The osseous girdle so formed encloses the pelvic cavity in 
 which certain viscera are lodged. This cavity is described 
 as consisting of two parts, the true and the false. The false 
 pelvis corresponds to the hollow formed by the expanded 
 iliac bones. The true pelvis is that part of the cavity which 
 is bounded in front by the pubes, on either side by the 
 ischia, and behind by the sacrum. 
 
 The pelvis is a most important determinant of form, not 
 only directly, as has been already sufficiently explained, 
 but also indirectly, since by variations in its size and 
 shape it influences the entire modelling of the lower part 
 of the trunk and upper part of the thighs. It is on the 
 width of the pelvis that the narrowness or breadth of 
 the lower part of the figure depends. These differences give 
 rise to the characteristic figures of the two sexes. The 
 cavity of the true pelvis in the female is, for sexual reasons, 
 larger than that of the male, and thus necessarily reacts 
 on the form of the bones which surround it, leading to 
 their greater expansion. It follows therefore that the 
 female pelvis is wider than the male. On the other hand, 
 the male pelvis, though narrower than the female, is deeper. 
 These two facts account for the differences in the width 
 of the figure across the hips in the two sexes, and also 
 for the circumstance that the flanks in the female are 
 relatively longer than those of the male, for the iliac 
 crests in the female do not rise to so high a level. The 
 pelves of the male and female present many other differ- 
 ences, but these need not here be discussed. 
 
 Another matter of great importance in regard to the 
 influence of the pelvis on the surface form is its position 
 
The Pelvis. 219 
 
 in relation to other parts of the skeleton. The student will 
 
 Fig. 122. The male pelvis. 
 
 Tig. 123. The female pelvis. 
 
 a. niac portion of os innommaturQ. 
 5. Pubic portion of os innominatum. 
 
 g. Acetabulom. 
 ft. Pubio arch. 
 
 c. Ischial portion of os innominatum. fc. Pubio symphysis. 
 
 d. Iliac crest. 
 
 e. Anterior superior iliac spine. 
 /. Anterior inferior iliac spine. 
 
 5. Spine of pubis. 
 
 The sacrum is seen wedged in between 
 the two innominate bones behind. 
 
 experience considerable difficulty in acquiring a correct 
 
220 The Pelvis. 
 
 knowledge of its usual position in the erect position, unless 
 he has access to a specimen which has been separated from 
 the rest of the skeleton, and adopts some such simple rule 
 as the following: — Take the pelvis and hold it in such 
 a position that the two anterior superior iliac spines 
 (anterior extremities of the iliac crests) lie in the same 
 horizontal line, then move the bone till the symphysis 
 pubis lies vertically beneath the centre of the line which 
 connects the two anterior superior iliac spines ; or, draw 
 a horizontal line on any vertical surface, a wall for instance, 
 and place the pelvis against this vertical surface so that all 
 three points (the two anterior superior iliac spines and 
 the symphysis) are in contact with it at once, care having 
 been taken to place the anterior superior iliac spines over 
 the horizontal line already drawn. The bone will now 
 lie approximately in the position which it occupies in the 
 living when we stand upright. As a matter of fact its 
 upper part is slightly tilted forwards in the female, whilst 
 in the male this part of the bone is tilted a little backwards. 
 This variation in the obliquity of the position of the pelvis 
 is associated with very remarkable changes in the contours 
 of other parts of the figure, and its further description must 
 be delayed until the anatomy of the hip-joint has been 
 considered ; it is on the adjustment of this articulation that 
 the alterations in position or ' obliquity ' largely depend. 
 
 The relation of the width across the hips and that across 
 the shoulders is a point requiring some consideration. In 
 both sexes the former is less than the latter, though in the 
 female the difference between the two measurements is 
 much less than in the well-proportioned male. In other 
 words, women have broad hips and narrow shoulders, whilst 
 men have broad shoulders and narrow hips. This difference 
 in hip-width is largely dependent on the fact that in women 
 the pelvic width is not only relatively, but also absolutely, 
 greater than in man. Since this hip-width includes the 
 
The Femur. 221 
 
 upper extremities of the tliigh.-bones as well as the trans- 
 verse diameter of the pelvis, it -will be necessary to say 
 more about it after we have described the anatomy of the 
 thigh-bone. 
 
 The thigh-bone or femur (Figs. 124-126) is remarkable 
 in man for its great length. Like other long bones, it is 
 described as possessing a shaft and two extremities. In 
 connexion with the upper end of the bone the head must 
 be studied. This consists of a rounded knob forming about 
 two-thirds of a sphere, which in the living is covered with 
 a layer of articular cartilage and fits into the deep socket 
 of the acetabulum on the outer side of the haunch-bone. 
 This rounded articular head is supported by means of 
 a process called the neck, by which it is united to the 
 upper extremity of the shaft, forming with it an angle of 
 about 125°. This angle varies according to circumstances ; 
 it is more open in children, more acute as age advances, 
 and is usually less obtuse in the female than in the male. 
 
 The length of the neck of the bone is a matter of great 
 importance, as it permits of a freer range of movement at 
 the hip than would otherwise be the case, considering the 
 depth of the articular cup and the prominence of its borders ; 
 further, it acts as a lever for the muscles which control the 
 movements of the hip-joint, and which are inserted around 
 the neck where that part of the bone becomes fused with 
 the shaft. At this point there are two well-marked pro- 
 cesses developed : these are called the trochanters. They 
 are distinguished by the names great and small ; the small 
 or lesser trochanter is placed on the lower side of the neck 
 as it joins the shaft, and is of little interest from our 
 standpoint. 
 
 The great trochanter is situated at the upper and outer 
 side of the angle formed by the fusion of the neck and 
 shaft, and overtops, as it were, the root of the neck. This 
 process is of the greatest importance as a determinant of 
 
222 The Femur. 
 
 surface form, since its outer aspect is merely covered by- 
 skin, fat, and certain thin, thougli strong, tendinous layers. 
 It can be readily feltj and its prominence assists in im- 
 parting to tlie hips that width to which attention has been 
 already directed. As a rule it corresponds in position to 
 the greatest width of the male figure in this region ; most 
 frequently in the female the greatest breadth is at a some- 
 what lower level, owing to the presence of the subcutaneous 
 fat which tends to accumulate along the upper and outer 
 part of the thigh. It is into the trochanter major that 
 many of the muscles concerned in the maintenance of the 
 erect position are inserted. 
 
 The shaft of the thigh-bone is seen to be curved when 
 viewed from the side (Fig. 125), the convexity of the curve 
 being directed forwards. Though covered with muscles, the 
 bone yet exercises a considerable influence on the form of 
 the limb, and it is to this forward curve of the shaft that 
 the rounded form of the front of the thigh is in part due. 
 
 On the hollow side of the curve, i. e. on the back of the 
 bone, the shaft is strengthened by the addition of a rough 
 ridge called the linea aspera. Besides imparting increased 
 rigidity to the bone, this ridge affords extensive attachment 
 to muscles. 
 
 Inferiorly the lower end of the bone is expanded, forming 
 two processes, called the condyles. These are coated with 
 articular cartilage and enter into the formation of the knee- 
 joint. They will be more fully described when the anatomy 
 of that joint is considered. 
 
 The position of the thigh-bone in the limb is oblique. 
 This may be easily demonstrated. When we stand in the 
 military position of attention, the knees are close together, 
 whilst the upper extremities of the thigh-bones are separated 
 by the pelvic width between the two acetabular hollows. 
 According as the interval between the heads of the thigh- 
 bones is increased or diminished, so the obliquity of the 
 
The Femur. 
 
 223 
 
 w 
 
 f f " ^ 
 
 Right thigh-bone (femur). 
 Pig. 124. Front view. Fig. 125. Outer side. Fig. 126. Back view. 
 
 a. Head, 
 
 &. Trochanter major. 
 
 c. Trochanter minor. 
 
 A. Neck. 
 
 e. External condyle. 
 
 /. Articular surface of condyles. 
 
 g. lutercondyloid notch. 
 
 h. Surface for attachment of gluteus 
 
 maximus. 
 i. Internal condyle. 
 
224 Obliquity of the Thigh-bones. 
 
 shaft is rendered greater or less. This explains how it is 
 that the thigh-bones of women are usually more oblique in 
 their position than those of men, because superiorly they 
 are separated by a pelvis of greater width, whilst inferiorly 
 they touch each other at the knees. It is this greater 
 obliquity of the femur in women which gives rise to the 
 knock-kneed appearance which is really a characteristic of 
 the sex. When, from shortness of the thigh, this appearance 
 is unduly pronounced, it becomes exceedingly offensive and 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 Diagrams showing the greater degree of obliquity of the thigh-bones 
 dependent on the greater pelvic width in woman, Fig. 128, as compared 
 with man, Fig. 127. 
 
 unpleasant, but in its gentler form it often conveys a sense 
 of delicacy and refinement. It is seldom, indeed, that the 
 artist would be called upon to represent the female nude, 
 with the limbs placed as has just been described, i. e. the 
 position in which the knock-kneed appearance is most 
 pronounced: more usually one or other knee would be 
 advanced and slightly bent, an action sufficient to impart 
 to the figure a sense of grace and modesty. As a result 
 
The Hip-joint. 
 
 225 
 
 of the greater obliquity of the thigh-bone in women it 
 follows that the angle formed by the neck of the femur 
 with the shaft is more acute than in the male. 
 
 The hip-joint lies so deeply embedded on all sides in 
 fleshy muscles that it has but slight influence on the surface 
 form. It is only when the limb is thrown as far back as 
 possible that the head of the femur pushes forward the soft 
 -parts which overlie it, and thus leads to the obliteration 
 of that depression on the upper and 
 anterior aspect of the limb called the 
 hollow of the thigh. 
 
 The surfaces of the joint fit so 
 accurately that atmospheric pregsure 
 is alone sufficient to keep the smooth 
 rounded articular head of the femur 
 in contact with the hollow of the 
 acetabulum. This has been demon- 
 strated experimentally, after death, by 
 cutting away all the muscles and liga- 
 ments ; under these circumstances the 
 articular surfaces of the bones still 
 remained in contact instead of falling 
 away, as one might expect. 
 
 The socket of the acetabulum, further 
 deepened by a ligament which sur- 
 rounds its edge, affords ample support 
 to the head of the femur, through 
 which the weight of the trunk is transmitted. The joint 
 is a very strong one. This is partly due, as above stated, 
 to the form of its articular surfaces, but is also dependent 
 on the strength of the ligaments which bind the bones 
 together. One frequently hears of dislocations of the 
 shoulder-joint, but displacements of the hip-joint are of 
 rarer occurrence and are .generally the result of much 
 greater violence. 
 
 Q 
 
 Fig. 129. Diagram- 
 matic section through 
 the hip-joint. 
 
 a. The thick black lines 
 represent the carti- 
 lage-covered articular 
 surfaces. 
 
 6. The joint cavity. 
 
 c. The ligaments around, 
 forming the capsule, 
 the interior of which 
 is lined hy synovial 
 membrane represent- 
 ed by dotted Unes. 
 
226 
 
 Ilio-femoral Ligament. 
 
 The capsule of the hip-joint is formed of dense fibrous 
 tissue. In certain situations it is much thickened and 
 forms well-marked fibrous bands, which are described as 
 the ligaments of the joint and have received special 
 names. The most important of these is one which passes 
 down in front of the joint ; it is called the ilio-femoral 
 ligament, or, from its resemblance to an inverted Y (A)> 
 the Y-sTiaped Ugamemt. This is attached to a part of 
 
 the ilium immediately above the 
 acetabulum, called the anterior 
 inferior iliac spine, and spreading 
 out inferiorly in a fan-shaped 
 manner, it is united to the thigh- 
 bone below along a rough line, 
 called the spiral line, which marks 
 the point of fusion anteriorly of 
 the neck of the bone with the 
 shaft ; superiorly this line is car- 
 ried up along the inner and 
 anterior border of the great 
 trochanter. 
 
 Great importance attaches to 
 this ligament, because it prevents 
 excessive extension backwards of 
 the thigh on the trunk ; it has 
 been already pointed out that 
 one of the characteristics of man 
 is the fact that he alone of all four-footed animals can 
 place the thigh-bone in such a position that the axis of 
 the limb falls in line with the axis of the trunk. Any 
 further range of movement beyond this is checked, however, 
 by the tightening of this ligament. 
 
 It is mainly owing to the presence of this ligament 
 that man can stand erect for prolonged periods without 
 experiencing much muscular fatigue. "When we stand 
 
 Fig. 130. Diagram show- 
 ing the attachment of the 
 ilio-femoral ligament. 
 
 a. Uium. 
 
 b. Anterior superior iliac spine. 
 
 c. Anterior inferior iliac spine. 
 
 d. Hio-femoral ligament, 
 ri. Pubis. 
 
 /. Symphysis pubis. 
 
 g. Femur. 
 
 h. Sacrum, 
 
 i. Tuberosity of ischium. 
 
Mechanism of Erect Posture. 
 
 227 
 
 tipright the line of gravity passes 
 behind the axis of the hip-joint and 
 the points of attachment of this 
 ligament, thus that force in this 
 position is constantly acting so as 
 to keep the ligament tense and 
 stretched, thereby mechanically lock- 
 ing the joint ; no special muscular 
 effort is required to effect this 
 purpose, hence we do not suffer 
 from the fatigue which a constant 
 prolonged muscular strain would 
 naturally produce. 
 
 The student may satisfy himself 
 as to the correctness of these obser- 
 vations by making a little experi- 
 ment. He will find that he can 
 stand in the military position of 
 attention for a long time with 
 little discomfort and fatigue. If, in 
 this position, the hands be placed 
 on the buttocks and back of the 
 thighs, the muscles of these regions 
 will be found flaccid, or but slightly 
 contracted, but if the body be now 
 bent forward at the hips, so as 
 to throw the line of gravity in 
 front of these joints, he will find 
 it impossible to maintain for long 
 this position without a sense of 
 fatigue. On passing the hand along 
 the back of the thighs and over the 
 buttocks he will now recognize that 
 the muscles are powerfully con- 
 tracted, particularly in the former 
 
 >^i 
 
 Pig. 131. Diagram to 
 show how the figure is 
 held erect. 
 
 The thick black lines in- 
 dicate the principal muscles 
 therein concerned. The ver- 
 tical dotted line indicates the 
 direction exercised by the 
 force of gravity. Note that 
 this falls behind the axis of 
 rotation of the hip and in 
 front of that of the knee, thus 
 rendering tense the ligaments 
 of these joints, which are re- 
 presented on the figure by 
 dotted lines passing in front 
 of the hip (ilio-femoral) and 
 behind the knee (posterior 
 ligament), 
 
223 Obliquity of the Pelvis. 
 
 situation. The movement of the hip is no longer 
 mechanically checked by the action of the ligaments, but 
 is controlled by the contraction of the muscles situated in 
 the aforesaid regions, which is the explanation why this 
 position cannot be maintained for any length of time 
 without a sense of muscular fatigue. 
 
 Slight variations in the length of this ilio-femoral liga- 
 ment occur in different individuals. These variations are 
 attended with very remarkable differences in the contours 
 of the figure. A slightly longer ligament will naturally 
 allow of a greater range of extension of the thigh on 
 the pelvis ; on the other hand, when the ligament is short, 
 the range of movement in a backward direction will be 
 less. 
 
 Interpreted in another way, this means that when we 
 stand erect with the thigh-bones in a more or less vertical 
 position it follows that the pelvis, which they support on 
 their upper extremities, will be tilted forwards or back- 
 wards according as the ligament is short or long; this 
 variation in the position of the pelvis leads to alterations 
 in its obliquity. Under ordinary circumstances, the plane 
 formed by the inlet of the true pelvis, represented by a line 
 passing across from the upper part of the symphysis pubis 
 to the point where the lowest lumbar vertebra unites with 
 the upper part of the sacrum, usually forms with the horizon 
 an angle of from 60° to 64°. If the pelvis be tilted further 
 forwards, as is the case where the ilio-femoral ligament is 
 short, the obliquity of the pelvis is thereby increased, whereas 
 if the ligament be long the pelvis will lie in such a position 
 that the plane of its inlet more nearly approaches the hori- 
 zontal : in the latter case, therefore, the obliquity of the 
 pelvis is diminished. In using the expression ' obliquity 
 of the pelvis ' we refer to the obliquity of the plane of its 
 inlet ; the position of the entire pelvic girdle is, however, 
 necessarily involved, as its component parts are immovably 
 
Obliquity of the Pelvis. 229 
 
 united, and variations in this obliquity will obviously be 
 associated witli alterations in the relative position of the 
 pelvic girdle to other parts of the skeleton. 
 
 A little consideration will enable the reader to realize the 
 importance of the changes in form which are secondarily 
 dependent on this. The back of the pelvic girdle is 
 formed by the sacrum, and the position of this bone alters 
 according as the entire pelvis is tilted forwards or back- 
 wards ; thus, if tilted backwards, the posterior surface 
 of the sacrum (that part of it with which we are most 
 concerned as a determinant of surface form) will more 
 nearly approach the vertical, whereas a forward tilt of 
 the pelvis will cause this surface to incline more obliquely, 
 the axis of the bone being directed more backwards. 
 But the sacrum, formed, as the reader is aware, by the 
 fusion of several segments of the back-bone, is connected 
 above with the movable part of the vertebral column. 
 If now the sacrum, and with it the pelvis, be tilted 
 forwards, so that the upper extremity of the sacrum is 
 thrown further forwards, it follows that the bones of the 
 vertebral column, with which it is connected, must be 
 bent forward too. As it is however necessary, for the 
 maintenance of the erect position without muscular fatigue, 
 that the line of gravity should pass through the column 
 at certain points, and fall in definite relation to certain 
 joints, it also follows that this forward thrust of the entire 
 column must be compensated for by the development of 
 more strongly marked curves. This is what takes place, for 
 in persons where the pelvic obliquity is great, i. e. where the 
 pelvis is much tilted forwards, a condition which, as has 
 been said, is largely dependent on the existence of a short 
 ilio-femoral ligament, the curves of the back, particularly 
 the lumbar curve, are more strongly marked, and the 
 projection of the buttocks is more pronounced ; whereas in 
 individuals in whom the pelvic obliquity is slight, i. e. in 
 
230 Pelvic Obliquity. 
 
 persons who possess a long ilio-femoral ligament, the curves 
 of the back are but slightly emphasized, as here the 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 Figs. 132, 133, show the influence of the pelvic obliquity on the 
 figure of the male and female. In Fig. 132 the female pelvis is tilted 
 further forward than in the male, Fig. 133, as will be seen by noting the 
 position of the anterior extremity of the iliac crest (anterior superior iliac 
 spine). As a result of this the lumbar curve is more pronounced in 
 Fig. 132 than in Fig. 133. This reacts on the outline of the figure, the 
 curves being more pi-onounced in the female than in the male. 
 
 necessity for strongly marked compensatory curves does not 
 These facts may perhaps be better understood by 
 
 arise. 
 
Influence of Pelvic Obliquity on Thigh. 231 
 
 reference to tte accompanying diagrams : Fig. 132 repre- 
 sents a female figure with well-marked pelvic obliquity 
 and pronounced curves in the back, Fig. 133 is that of 
 a male in whom the obliquity of the pelvis is less, and 
 as a consequence the back appears much flatter than in 
 Fig. 132 (see also Figs. 119, 120, p. 214 ; also pi., p. 230). 
 
 This difference in the pelvic obliquity reacts on the form 
 of the thigh as well as on the trunk, for if the obliquity of 
 the pelvis be increased the anterior superior iliac spines 
 (the anterior ends of the iliac crests) will be thrust forward, 
 so as to lie on a plane anterior to the plane occupied by the 
 symphysis pubis. IJnder these circumstances, the most 
 prominent border of the thigh above will correspond to the 
 anterior superior iliac spine, and the anterior surface of the 
 limb will slope slightly inwards and backwards towards the 
 symphysis pubis ; whereas, when these several bony points 
 lie in the same vertical plane, or when the anterior superior 
 iliac spines lie in a plane behind that of the pubic sym- 
 physis, the surface of the thigh between these two points 
 will be directed forwards, instead of forwards and inwards 
 as in the former case. The same thing may be expressed 
 differently by saying that, in the former condition, the 
 pubic symphysis is withdrawn between the thighs, and 
 overhung by a more prominent abdominal curve, whereas, 
 under the latter conditions, the symphysis lies on the same 
 plane with the fronts of the thighs, and is less overhung 
 by the abdominal curve. 
 
 The artist will of course be guided in his selection of 
 models by a reference to these points, avoiding, as far as 
 possible, extreme conditions, and recognizing that the most 
 pleasing results are obtained when the average is repre- 
 sented, though he will not fail to observe that in the female 
 one meets with degrees of obliquity which, if represented 
 in the male, would be altogether out of character with the 
 type. He may note, as a more or less definite rule, that 
 
232 Movements at the Hip-joint. 
 
 in tlie female tlie anterior superior iliac spines lie slightly 
 in advance of tlie symphysis pubis in the erect position, 
 and that in the male they lie either on the same plane or 
 slightly behind the symphysis (Figs. 119, 120, p. 214). 
 
 The movements of the hip-joint must next be con- 
 sidered. Flexion is the movement whereby the thigh is 
 bent forward on the trunk; this movement is limited by 
 the approximation of the anterior surface of the thigh to 
 the front of the abdomen. It is worth noting that the 
 range of this movement is affected by the position of the 
 knee. When that joint is bent, we can flex the thigh 
 on the trunk until their surfaces come into contact ; when 
 the knee is straight or extended, flexion at the hip is much 
 more limited in its range, and is arrested by the stretch- 
 ing of the muscles called the hamstrings on the back 
 of the thigh. This is at once apparent when we touch, 
 or attempt to touch, the toes without bending the knees 
 (see p. 272). 
 
 Extension, as has been said, is remarkably free in man, but 
 a word or two is necessary to prevent any misconception 
 regarding the extent of this movement. When the thigh 
 is brought into line with the axis of the trunk the movement 
 is checked by the ilio-femoral ligament, and no further 
 movement is possible in this direction ; how comes it then 
 that we can touch the ground behind us with the foot? 
 In order to understand how this takes place, we must 
 consider the movement which takes place at the hip-joint 
 of the opposite limb to that which touches the ground 
 behind us. The reader may best recognize the move- 
 ments which take place by studying them in his own 
 person. If he stands with the toe of the right foot touching 
 the ground about a couple of feet behind the heel of the 
 left foot, upon which he is resting the weight of the body, 
 he will note that the trunk is thrown forward, and the rio-ht 
 leg is directed backward in line with the axis of the trunk 
 
Movements at the Hip-joint. 233 
 
 i. e. in the condition of full extension. Under these con- 
 ditions no change in the relative position of these two parts 
 of the body has taken place ; but if now he examines the 
 condition of the left hip he will observe that the joint is 
 in a state of flexion, and it is the combination of flexion 
 of the left hip-joint with extension of the right thigh that 
 enables him to pass the right leg behind the point through 
 which the line of gravity of the body falls. 
 
 Fig. 134 will at once make this clear. 
 
 The other movements which take place at the hip-joint 
 are movements of adduction, 
 or crossing the legs, and 
 abduction, or separating the 
 legs. Rotation of the entire 
 limb also takes place at this 
 joint ; it is the movement 
 whereby we turn the point 
 of the foot in or out. Circum- 
 duction is the combination 
 in sequence of the foregoing 
 movements, either from with- 
 in outwards or from without 
 inwards. The several move- 
 ments are checked in most 
 
 . Fig. 134. 
 
 instances by the action of 
 
 ligaments, or else by the contact of the neck of the thigh- 
 bone with the margin of the acetabulum. 
 
 In considering the muscles which effect these movements 
 the reader must bear in mind one important difference 
 between the girdles of the upper and lower limbs. In 
 connexion with the former we studied a number of muscles 
 which passed from the trunk and were inserted into the 
 bones of the shoulder- girdle ; by the action of these 
 muscles the shoulder-girdle was moved upon the trunk. 
 In considering the musculature of the pelvic girdle we 
 
234 Gluteus maximus. 
 
 have no sucli group to examine, as, for reasons whicli 
 have elsewhere (ante, p. 212) been fully stated, the pelvic 
 girdle is immovably united with the axial skeleton of the 
 trunk ; hence the examination of the muscles which control 
 the movements of the hip may be at once proceeded with. 
 
 The gluteus maximus, or great muscle of the buttock, has 
 an extensive origin from the posterior fourth of the iliac 
 crest of the haunch-bone, from the aponeurosis covering 
 the erector spinae muscle, from the side of the lower part 
 of the sacrum, from the side of the coccyx, and from the 
 surface of a ligament which stretches from the sacrum 
 to the ischium, called the great sacro-sciatic ligament. 
 A consideration of these attachments will enable the reader 
 to realize that the origin of the muscle corresponds pretty 
 accurately to the side of the V-shaped interval, at the 
 root of the back, which separates the prominences of the 
 buttocks behind, the upper and outer limits of which are 
 marked by the presence of little hollows or dimples over- 
 lying the position of the posterior superior iliac spines (the 
 posterior extremities of the iliac crest), whilst the lower 
 angle corresponds to the cleft between the buttocks. 
 
 From this attachment the fibres pass outwards, forwards, 
 and downwards, forming a thick fleshy sheet of muscle, 
 which is inserted in front into a broad tendinous aponeurosis. 
 All the fibres of the upper half of the muscle, together with 
 the superficial fibres of the lower half, are inserted by means 
 of this strong aponeurosis into the dense fascia which runs 
 down along the outer side of the thigh. The bulk of the 
 fibres of the lower half of the muscle, except the superficial 
 ones above mentioned, are attached by means of a flattened 
 tendon to a rough ridge, called the gluteal ridge, on the 
 back of the upper third or fourth of the shaft of the thigh- 
 bone ; the latter insertion is entirely concealed by the 
 former. It is the attachment of this muscle to the fascia 
 of the thigh which gives rise to the most marked changes 
 
Key to Plate XXXI 
 
 Cmnplexus. 
 
 Splenhts ca-pitis- 
 
 Levator anguli scapulae.. 
 
 Clavicle ' "--.,_ 
 
 Acromion process. ^^ 
 
 Spine of scapula, 
 Rhomboids 
 
 Deltoid. 
 
 Infraspinatus. 
 Erector spinac. 
 Teres major. ^- 
 
 Triceps, 
 
 Long fieau..... 
 
 .. outer licad. 
 
 , inner head. „ 
 
 , tendon 
 
 Biceps cnliili. - 
 
 Lat.dorsi. '-'-'- 
 Int. interiniis.sep\ 
 Olecranon "' 
 Int.cmidyle. 
 Ext. oblique. — 
 Bicipital fnscia. 
 Lumbar, aponeur 
 Iliac crest. .---'' 
 Palmaris tongns'.' 
 Ft carpi radialts. 
 Post.snp.iliac sf'ine. 
 
 Gluteus medins. \^: 
 
 Flcarpi ulnari: 
 Post. surf of sacrum. -^ 
 Trochanter nmjor. 
 Styloid process of ulna.- 
 Gluteus mnxinms 
 
 Tensor fasciae fetnoris.-\^- 
 Adductor magmis. - 
 
 Gracilis 
 
 Semi-tendinosus. 
 
 Biceps cruris, long head. . 
 yastus exieynus. 
 
 Spine of VII cervical vertebra. 
 Trapezius. 
 
 ^.■■■'' .Spine ef scapula. 
 
 Acromion process 
 
 ...--Deltoid, 
 "jnfra-spinatus. 
 
 .. Rhomboid major. 
 ---Teres major. 
 
 1 Triceps, long head. 
 
 1 outer head. 
 
 Latissimus dorst 
 
 ^..■Biceps cubiii. 
 
 ^.Triceps, 
 
 inner head. 
 „ tendon. 
 
 , Internal condyle 
 
 Ilio-tibial band. - 
 
 Semi-membranosus.- ' ■ 
 Popliteal space. 
 
 Olecranon 
 
 .External oblique. 
 
 Anconetis. 
 
 'Lurnb. aponeurosis. 
 
 -- Bicipital fascia. 
 
 '"Palmaris longus. 
 
 'Post.snp.iliac spine. 
 
 Flexor carpi rod. 
 
 Flexor carpi uln . 
 
 ■ Post, border of ulna. 
 
 Gluteus medius. 
 
 . Trochanter major. 
 -Styloid process of ulna. 
 
 Gluteus maximus. 
 
 Adductor magnus. 
 
 Ilio-tibial band. 
 
 Gracilis. 
 
 yastus externns. 
 
 Biceps cruris, long head. 
 
 — Sem i-tendinosus. 
 
 ■Semi-niernbranosus. 
 
 Sortorius. 
 
 VIEW OF MALE BACK, VV: 
 
Gluteus maximus. 235 
 
 in the surface form (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 72, 82, 84, 96, 
 106, 234). 
 
 In the erect position the fleshy fibres are seen becoming 
 tendinous behind the line of the great trochanter and shaft 
 of the thigh-bone, so that the outer surface of the great 
 trochanter is merely covered by the aponeurotic insertion of 
 the muscle, and not by its fleshy fibres. This fact is easily 
 ascertained by placing the hand over the trochanter when 
 in the upright position ; under these conditions the outline 
 and form of the trochanter can be readily recognized ; further, 
 if the tnuscle be thrown into a powerful state of contraction, 
 the prominence of the trochanter will be still more em- 
 phasized by the tension of the aponeurotic layers over it, 
 and the consequent hollowing out of the surface form behind 
 it caused by the retraction of the fleshy fibres of the muscle 
 (Pis., pp. 38, 42, 234J. 
 
 The upper border of the muscle describes a curved outline, 
 the convexity of which is upwards. Its general direction is 
 indicated by a line drawn from a point a little in advance of 
 the posterior superior iliac spine downwards, outwards, and 
 forwards to the tip of the great trochanter. The outline 
 of tlie lower border of the muscle is also curved, with 
 the bend directed downwards across the back of the thigh. 
 The highest point of this border corresponds to the cleft 
 between the buttocks, whilst its lowest extremity reaches 
 a level corresponding pretty closely to the middle of the 
 outer side of the thigh (i. e. the distance from the iliac crest 
 to the knee) (Pis., pp. 42, 44, 82, 84, 96, 234). 
 
 The oblique direction of the lower border of the muscle 
 is a matter of some importance, as there has been a tendency 
 to ascribe the direction of the transverse furrow of the buttocJc, 
 or the gluteal fold as it is sometimes called, to the influence 
 of this border of the muscle. It will be evident that this 
 cannot be so, as the direction of the former is transverse, 
 whilst the latter is oblique. As a matter of fact, the 
 
236 
 
 Gluteal Fold. 
 
 gluteal furrow is a skin fold the depth, of which depends 
 on the degree of extension of the thigh on the trunk, and 
 the quantity of fat present over the inner and lower aspect 
 of the gluteus maximus muscle (Pis., pp. 42, 82, 84, 86, 120, 
 230, 234, 238). 
 
 The gluteus maximus muscle is entirely superficial, but 
 as it is always overlain by a fatty layer of considerable 
 thickness the outline of the muscle is much masked 
 thereby, and the surface form therefore more rounded. 
 The fat is most abundant on the back of this region, being 
 much reduced in quantity as it passes forward over the side 
 of the thigh. In the female the layer 
 of fat is much thicker than in the 
 male, so that we have less evidence 
 of the form of the subjacent structures. 
 For the same reason, the gluteal fold in 
 women is more strongly marked, and of 
 greater length transversely than in the 
 male, whilst the overhang of the gluteal 
 projection is in them more pronounced 
 (Pis., pp. 120, 230, 238, 244). 
 
 It may here be noted that the 
 sharpness of this fold varies according 
 to the position of the limb ; it is always 
 best marked when the limb is fully 
 extended, i. e. straightened on the 
 trunk, whilst it undergoes gradual 
 obliteration with the bending of the thigh. Coincident 
 with this movement, and the disappearance of the sharp 
 transverse furrow, we note the tendency to an increase 
 in the obliquity of its direction, so that it overlies, and 
 more directly corresponds with, the oblique lower margin 
 of the gluteus maximus. This difference is clearly seen 
 in Fig. 135, and is readily apparent when we view the 
 figure in profile in the erect and stooping positions 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 m 
 
Actions of Gluteus maximus. 239 
 
 warned against the ungainly forms whicli are dependent on 
 the undue accumulation of fat in the region overlying the 
 iliac crest. This is particularly liable to occur in female 
 models past their prime, and imparts a grossness to the form 
 at variance with the delicacy and refinement displayed in 
 earlier life (Pis., pp. 66, 120, 230, 238). 
 
 The gluteus maximus muscle is a powerful extensor of 
 the hip-joint. It straightens the thigh on the trunk when 
 the hip-joint is bent. It acts in one or other of two ways 
 or by a combination of both. Thus if the thigh be flexed 
 on the trunk this muscle extends the thigh-bone at the 
 hip-joint, or if the trunk be bent forward on the thighs, as 
 in the stooping position, it assists in straightening the figure. 
 
 The muscle is thrown into a powerful state of contraction 
 
 in such actions as springing, leaping, rising from a chair, or 
 
 running upstairs or up an incline. It also comes into play 
 
 in some of the movements of abduction and adduction, and 
 
 " likewise assists in external rotation of the thigh. 
 
 The gluteus maximus muscle in man has attained a very 
 remarkable development, and is, as has been just shown, 
 largely concerned in straightening the body. The figure, 
 when once erect, can be held in that position for lengthened 
 periods by the mechanical locking of the hip-joint, without 
 any marked voluntary effort, though a certain amount 
 of muscular contraction is necessary to steady the joint. 
 
 The importance of the insertion of the gluteus maximus 
 muscle into the fascia of the outer side of the thigh must 
 not be overlooked. As will be described hereafter, this 
 fascia forms a thickened band which passes down to be 
 attached to the bones of the leg below the knee. Through 
 this process of fascia the gluteus maximus exercises an 
 influence in supporting and steadying the knee when that 
 joint is extended; and its action, in the male at least, is 
 demonstrated by its influence on the surface forms along 
 the outer aspect of the thigh (Pis., pp. 38, 44, 72, 240). 
 
240 Tensor fasciae femoris. 
 
 The relation of certain bony parts of the pelvis and thigh- 
 . bone to the muscle varies according to the position of the limb. 
 Of these the most important, from the present standpoint, 
 is the relation of the trochanter major to the fleshy and 
 tendinous parts of the muscle. In the erect position, the 
 trochanter is covered merely by the tendinous aponeurosis 
 of the muscle, but if the thigh be flexed upon the trunk the 
 trochanter glides backwards under cover of the fleshy fibres. 
 The reader can easily prove this by placing the hand over 
 the trochanter whilst standing up ; under these conditions the 
 bone is felt to be quite subcutaneous, being covered only by 
 skin and the dense aponeurosis ; if, however, the trochanter 
 be felt when sitting down, the student will recognize that 
 it is separated from the fingers by a greater thickness of 
 tissue, a circumstance which is due to the fact that the 
 process is now overlain by some of the fleshy fibres of 
 the muscle (PL, p. 240). 
 
 In like manner the tuberosity of the ischium (the hinder 
 and lower part of the haunch-bone) is at times covered and 
 at other times uncovered by the muscle. In the erect 
 position the lower border of the gluteus maximus over- 
 hangs the tuberosity of the ischium, but when the thigh is 
 bent it slips over that process of bone and so uncovers it, 
 causing it to lie directly beneath the skin and subcutaneous 
 fat. As already stated, it is upon this part of the skeleton 
 that we rest the weight of the body in the seated position, 
 and thus avoid any pressure on the fleshy part of the 
 muscle. It is only in such views as that of a kneeling 
 figure seen from behind, or at the side, that the artist 
 would have any reason to concern himself with the surface 
 forms dependent on these processes of bone. Under the 
 conditions just mentioned, the rounded angle which marks 
 the limit of the gluteal region, within and below, is 
 dependent on the surface projection caused by these out- 
 standing processes of bone. 
 
Key to Plate XXXIII 
 
 UnUrior sufierior iliac ^ne. 
 i / Tensor /ascioe femons. 
 
 Gluteus medius. 
 
 Gluteus maximus. 
 
 Vastus intemus- 
 ,Recius/emoris tendon. 
 
 'astus extemus. 
 ^atella. 
 
 hand. 
 
 Mxternal amdyU of femur. 
 
 Biceps cruris tetidon. 
 Btceps cruris, short head. 
 Vastus extemus. 
 Btceps cruris, long head. 
 .Gasfrocnet/tius, outer head. 
 Peroneus longus. 
 
 Soleus. 
 
 fthialu anttcus. 
 J-x/e-nxor lotigus dtgiiorum pet 
 Peroneus hrexis. 
 Tendo Achfllis. 
 
 Peroneus terttus. 
 Mxtemal malleolus (fibula) 
 
 A nterior annular ligament. 
 
 £xtemal annular Itgament. 
 
 Jiecius ^noris; 
 
 Iliac crest. 
 
 jr superior iliac ^ne. .._ 
 
 'ensor/ascuK femoris..., 
 Sarionus. 
 
 Glutt'tis iitfdius — 
 Gluteus maximus..-. 
 
 'astus intemus. 
 Patella. 
 
 Internal condyle of fen 
 LigamcTttum patellae 
 
 SetHimembranosus- 
 Scmitcndinosus. 
 JjracUxs. 
 
 Gastrocne«ttus, irrner head. 
 Tibia. 
 Soli-us. 
 
 Adductor magnus. 
 Rectus /emoris. 
 Vastus exiemus. 
 Vastus intemus. 
 Tendo Achtllis. 
 Jntemal malleolus (itbiaj. 
 Ttbtalis anttcus tendon. 
 
 "cndons of ttbtaits postut/s and | 
 
 ^xor lofigus dtgtforum pee^ 
 
 Internal annular ItgofK^ 
 
 Head of fibula 
 Biceps cruris tendon. 
 
 Rectus femorts tendon. 
 Patella. 
 
 FIGS. I AND 2. VIEWS OF MALE LEGS IN KNEELING POSITION 
 
 Copyrigkty 1696, hy Hbni^v FrowdrJ 
 
^ 
 
Ilio-tibial Band. 241 
 
 The tensor fasciae femoris is the name given to a muscle 
 which separates the region of the buttock from the 
 anterior aspect of the thigh ; it arises by tendinous 
 fibres from the anterior extremity of the iliac crest, 
 close to the anterior superior iliac spine. The fleshy 
 belly of the muscle is short and of considerable thickness. 
 The fibres follow a direction downwards, and slightly 
 backwards towards the front of the great trochanter of the 
 thigh-bone, and reach about three inches below it. At this 
 point the muscle becomes blended with the strong fascia, 
 which forms a band along the outer side of the thigh 
 (Pis., pp. 44, 62, 72, 106, 108, 240, 282, 332). 
 
 The reader will remember that the gluteus maximus has 
 an extensive insertion into this process of fascia. The 
 muscles of the thigh are invested by a sheath of fibrous 
 membrane much in the same way as the limb is covered by 
 a tightly fitting stocking. This covering is much thicker 
 along the outer side of the limb, and it is this thickening of 
 the fascia which forms the band called the ilio-tibial hand. 
 This may be regarded as the conjoined flattened tendon of 
 the gluteus maximus and tensor fasciae femoris. The former 
 is inserted into it above and behind, whilst the latter is 
 attached to it above and in front. Inferiorly the ilio- 
 tibial band passes over the outer side of the knee-joint 
 and is inserted into the external tuberosity of the tibia 
 (one of the bones of the leg). In this way the two muscles 
 above described exercise an important influence in sup- 
 porting the knee-joint in the extended position (Pis., pp. 
 44, 72, 240, 282). 
 
 From the fact that the upper end of this band is connected 
 with muscles both in front and behind it follows that the 
 traction exercised by the combined action of the muscles is 
 kept in the direct line of the thigh. 
 
 Superiorly, the gluteus maximus and the tensor fasciae 
 feinoris are separated by a V-shaped interval, the angle of 
 
243 Gluteus medius. 
 
 whicli corresponds to a point two or three inclies below the 
 summit of the great trochanter. The sides of the V corre- 
 spond to the posterior border of the tensor fasciae femoris in 
 front, and the upper border of the gluteus maximus behind. 
 Superiorly, this triangular area is limited by the curved 
 margin of the iliac crest. This surface is overlain by 
 a fascia which stretches over it, from the gluteus maximus 
 behind, to the tensor fasciae in front. Under cover of this 
 fascia, and occupying the whole of the interval described, is 
 another of the gluteal group of muscles, called the gluteus 
 medius (Pis., pp. 44, 72, 106, 240, 282). 
 
 The gluteus medius is a fan-shaped muscle. Its superior 
 attachment is spread over the outer surface of the iliac 
 expansion of the haunch-bone, extending from near the 
 posterior superior iliac spine behind to the anterior superior 
 iliac spine in front. Inferiorly, the fibres are gathered 
 into a flattened tendon which is inserted into an oblique 
 line running downwards and forwards across the outer 
 surface of the great trochanter. As this attachment lies 
 below and between the anterior and posterior origins of 
 the muscle, it follows that the anterior fibres pass down- 
 wards and backwards, whilst the posterior pass downwards 
 and forwards, to this insertion. 
 
 The muscle, as has been said, occupies a superficial position 
 in the interval between the tensor fasciae femoris and the 
 gluteus maximus, but it is partly overlain both in front 
 and behind by these muscles. 
 
 The gluteus medius is a powerful abductor of the thigh, 
 i. e. it draws the limb away from the middle line of the 
 body, causing the separation of the legs as in standing 
 stride-legs. The action of the muscle is still better seen 
 if the leg be raised from the ground ; again, we bring it 
 into play if we stand on one leg and incline the trunk 
 to the side over the supporting limb. The muscle varies 
 in its action according to the part used. If the anterior 
 
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine. 
 
 243 
 
 fibres contract, they -will act as rotators inwards of tlie 
 thigh, whilst the posterior fibres will assist in turning 
 the thigh outwards. It plays an important part in the act 
 of walking, as it supports the trunk on the limb which is in 
 contact with the ground during the time that the opposite 
 foot is uplifted. 
 
 The surface forms of the buttock vary much, according 
 to the position of the limb. As has been already stated, 
 the gluteal fold or line which separates the region of the 
 buttock from the back of the thigh undergoes gradual 
 obliteration as the limb is carried from the fiiUy extended 
 condition to one of marked flexion. Coincident with this, 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 there is a pronounced infolding of the furrow of the 
 groin, together with a deepening of the fold immediately 
 beneath it which crosses the upper and inner aspect of 
 the thigh, which lies slightly above and towards the outer 
 side. Externally, the angle formed by the profile of the 
 front of the limb with the side of the trunk corresponds 
 to the position of the anterior superior iliac spine ; ac- 
 cording to the amount of flexion so the direction of the 
 lines meeting at this angle varies. A reference to Figs. 
 138, 139, will make this clear. The fold of the thigh 
 passes outwards across the front of the limb so as to 
 fall below the level of the anterior superior iliac spine, 
 
 E 2 
 
244 Surface Forms of Buttock. 
 
 whilst the furrow of the groin corresponds externally 
 to that process. When the limb is only partially flexed 
 the profile outline of the front of the thigh, at the angle 
 formed with the side of the trunk, alters its direction 
 a little and passes with a slightly more pronounced 
 upward curve over the anterior superior spinous pro- 
 cess, but if the limb be more fully flexed the fold on the 
 front of the thigh tends to curve outwards over the outer 
 side of the limb, and the outline of the front of the thigh 
 breaks up into two lines, one of which curves downwards 
 whilst the other is continued upwards. The angle formed 
 by these two lines overlies the prominence of the anterior 
 superior iliac spine (see Pis., pp. 240, 244). In the fully 
 extended position of the limbs, with the muscles in a 
 powerful state of contraction, a well-marked hollow lies 
 behind the trochanter major. This is caused by the tight- 
 ening of the fascia, due to the contraction of the gluteus 
 maximus. In front, this hollow is bounded by a rounded 
 elevation which passes from the anterior extremity of the 
 iliac crest, downwards and slightly backwards, to the front 
 of the trochanter ; this depends upon the presence of the 
 fleshy fibres of the tensor fasciae femoris (Pis., pp. 38, 44, 
 72, 234). The deepest part of the hollow corresponds to the 
 angle formed by the tensor fasciae femoris and the gluteus 
 maximus ; it is rounded off" above by the surface elevation 
 produced by the fleshy part of the gluteus medius, which 
 lies superficially in the interval between the tensor and 
 the gluteus maximus. When the thigh is flexed this 
 hollow appears as a well-marked furrow, the lower part 
 of which runs down along the outer side of the limb 
 behind the trochanter and upper part of the shaft of the 
 thigh-bone, whilst the upper end curves upwards round 
 the end of the trochanter, following the direction of a line 
 towards the middle of the iliac crest, midway between 
 which and the trochanter it gradually fades away. The 
 
Surface Forms of Buttock. 245 
 
 anterior border of this furrow is tiie more pronounced, and 
 depends on tlie contraction of the tensor fasciae and the 
 anterior fibres of the gluteus medius, which together 
 form a well-marked elevation on the anterior half of the 
 outer side of the limb ; in forced contraction of these 
 muscles their outlines are still further defined by a furrow 
 which lies between them (Pis., pp. 38, 240). 
 
 In dealing with these details the student must not over- 
 look the fact that great muscular development, and a greater 
 or less abundance of subcutaneous fat, modify very much 
 the character of the surface forms, a fact which he will 
 specially note in connexion with the representation of the 
 female figure. In well-selected female models, owing to 
 the existence of a thick fatty subcutaneous layer, the influ- 
 ence of the muscles and bones on the surface is much 
 reduced ; the forms are more rounded, and the depres- 
 sions, when they exist, are less sharply defined and much 
 shallower than in a male of an athletic build. These facts 
 are sufficiently emphasized in the plates given for reference 
 (Pis., pp. 66, 120, 230, 238, 244). 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE THIGH. 
 
 Before passing to the consideration of tlie thigh, the 
 knee-joint requires description. The lower end of the 
 thigh-bone is expanded and forms two broad recurved pro- 
 cesses called the internal and external condyles. Posteriorly 
 the ends of these processes, which project backwards behind 
 the lower end of the shaft, are separated by a deep notch 
 about a finger's breadth in width. "When the femur is held 
 so that the shaft is vertical, the inner of these processes 
 projects beyond the level of the external; when the con- 
 dyles of the femur are placed on some flat, horizontal 
 surface, such as a table, so that both condyles are in contact 
 with it at the same time, the shaft of the bone assumes 
 an obKque direction as seen from the front or back. If, in 
 place of one femur, the two thigh-bones be taken and 
 placed side by side in this way on a table, with their lower 
 ends close together, the upper extremities, with the inturned 
 heads and necks, will be separated by a considerable space, 
 an interval which corresponds to the pelvic width between 
 the two acetabular hollows. This is a fairly accurate way 
 of estimating the position of the femur in the thigh, since 
 in the living, the plane of the knee-joint is very nearly 
 horizontal, and as the knees should just touch each other in 
 
The Femur. 
 
 247 
 
 f/>J 
 
 Eight thigh-bone (femur). 
 Fig. 140. Front view. Fig, 141. Outer side. Fig. 142. Back view. 
 
 a. Head. 
 
 6. Trochanter major. 
 
 c. Troclianter naiiior. 
 
 d. Neck. 
 
 e. External condyle. 
 
 f. Articular surface of condyles. 
 
 g. Inter-condyloid notch. 
 
 ft. Surface for attachment of gluteus 
 
 maximus. 
 %, Internal condyle. 
 
248 Bones of the Leg. 
 
 the erect position it follows that the line of the thigh-bone 
 very nearly corresponds to that displayed in the above 
 experiment. 
 
 The anterior, inferior, and posterior aspects of the con- 
 dyles are smooth, and in the recent condition coated with 
 articular cartilage. The inner surface of the inner condyle 
 is rounded and prominent, and projects from the line of 
 the shaft more than does the outer, the external surface 
 of which is somewhat flattened and less prominent. 
 Towards the hinder part of the outer surface of the external 
 condyle there is a well-marked groove in which the tendon 
 of a muscle is lodged. 
 
 The condyles of the thigh-bone are important deter- , 
 minants of surface form. The size of the knee depends 
 upon their development, and to their disposition is also due 
 the rounded projecting form of the joint on the inner 
 side as compared with the flatter appearance along its 
 outer aspect. 
 
 The bones of the leg are two in number ; they are 
 placed side by side, and so firmly united to each other 
 by ligaments that any movement between them is ren- 
 dered impossible. They differ very much in size ; the 
 inner, called the tihia or sMn-hone, is by far the stouter 
 and stronger of the two. It alone enters into the forma- 
 tion of the knee-joint, and supports the entire weight 
 of the trunk and thigh above. The fibula, which is a long 
 slender bone, lies along the outer side of the tibia, to which 
 it is immovably united by joints and ligaments. The 
 fibula bears no share in the articulation of the knee, but 
 along with the tibia enters into the formation of the ankle- 
 joint. The fibula is of small service as a means of support, 
 but furnishes a bony attachment for many of the muscles 
 of the leg. As regards the form of these bones, the tibia 
 (or inner bone) displays a shaft with two expanded ex- 
 tremities ; the upper end, which supports the condyles of the 
 
The Tibia. 
 
 249 
 
 femur, equals them in width, and forms two tuberosities, 
 an inner and an outer. The latter more overhangs the 
 
 \d d 
 
 f f 
 
 Right tibia and fibula articulated. 
 
 Fig. 143. Front Fig. 144. Back 
 
 view. view. 
 
 *. Tibia, inner bone of leg. 
 
 w.. Tubercle of tibia, to which ligaxaent 
 
 of patella is attached. 
 6. External tuberosity, 
 c. Internal tuberosity. 
 
 Fig. 145. Outer 
 view. 
 
 Fig 146. Inner 
 view. 
 
 d. Heart of iibula. 
 
 e. External malleolus (fibula). 
 /. Fibula. 
 
 i. Internal malleolus (tibia). 
 s s. Crest or shin. 
 
 shaft and is slightly more projecting than the former. 
 
250 The Tibia. 
 
 Both tuberosities project backwards from the line of 
 the shaft to a slight extent; their upper surfaces 
 form two somewhat rounded or oval areas, separated 
 in the middle line by a well-marked process called the 
 s^ine, which projects upwards and occupies the notch 
 between the condyles of the femur when that bone is in 
 position; it is upon the upper surfaces of these tuberosi- 
 ties that the condyles of the femur rest in the various 
 positions of the limb. Whilst the transverse width of the 
 tuberosities of the tibia equals that of the condyles of 
 the femur, it will be noted that the measurement of the 
 tuberosities from before backwards is much less than 
 the corresponding diameter of the femoral condyles. At 
 some little distance below and in front of the tuberosities 
 of the tibia the student will notice a projection called 
 the tubercle of the tibia. This process is of importance, as 
 to it is attached the powerful ligament, the ligamentum 
 patellae, which is connected above with the patella or 
 knee-pan, the latter a flattened bone of nearly circular form 
 which lies in front of the knee-joint. 
 
 The shaft of the tibia is somewhat triangular in section, 
 and thus has three margins. Of these the anterior forms 
 a prominent sharp border, which can be traced from 
 the tubercle of the tibia downwards, with a gentle 
 curve inwards, towards the anterior surface of the pro- 
 jection on the inferior extremity of the bone which 
 forms the prominence of the inner ankle. This ridge, 
 with which every one is familiar under the name of 
 the shin, is superficial throughout its entire length, i. e. 
 it is merely covered by skin and superficial fascia. The- 
 surface of the shaft of the bone immediately to the inner 
 side of the shin is smooth and rounded from side to side, 
 and may be traced from the inner tuberosity above to 
 the inner ankle below. It is widest superiorly, narrowest 
 towards the middle of the shaft, and expands again slightly 
 
The Fibula. 251 
 
 near the ankle. Througliout almost its entire extent 
 this surface is covered merely by skin and subcutaneous 
 fascia; it is only above, close to the inner tuberosity of 
 the bone, that it is crossed and overlain by the tendons 
 of certain muscles wliicli pass down along the inner side 
 of the knee. The hinder border of the shaft limits this 
 surface posteriorly, and can be traced downwards in front 
 of the muscles of the calf, along the inner side of the leg. 
 The other surfaces and remaining border of the bone 
 are covered and concealed by fleshy muscles, and have no 
 direct influence on the surface forms. 
 
 If the under surface of the most projecting part of the 
 external tuberosity be examined a small smooth circular 
 surface will be noticed. This is for articulation with 
 the upper end of the fibula. 
 
 The lower end of the shaft is expanded and enters 
 into the formation of the ankle-joint. From its inner 
 side there projects downwards a process called the internal 
 malleolus which corresponds to the prominence of the inner 
 ankle. The further consideration of this part of the bone 
 is reserved until the ankle-joint is described. 
 
 Little need be said regarding the fibula or splint-bone. 
 It is about the same length as the tibia, but is placed at 
 a somewhat lower level in the leg, so that its upper end 
 does not reach as high, whilst its lower extremity projects 
 beyond the tibia ; the shaft of the bone is extremely 
 slender: its thickness is not usually greater than that 
 of the little finger. The form and curvature of the shaft 
 are liable to very great individual variation, but as this 
 part of the bone is surrounded on all sides by fleshy 
 muscles, except at its lower end, it matters little what its 
 precise shape is, as it has little direct influence on the 
 surface forms. The fibula lies along the outer side of the 
 shin-bone, but the direction of the axis of its shaft is not 
 parallel to that of the tibia ; in the upper part of the leg 
 
252 The Fibula. 
 
 it lies somewhat behind the tibia, whilst, below, its inferior 
 extremity is placed directly to the outer side of the ex- 
 panded end of the shin-bone. The ends of the bone are 
 enlarged, the upper is the Tiead, the lower the external 
 malleolus, a process which forms the prominence of the 
 outer ankle. 
 
 The head of the fibula is an irregular rounded process 
 of bone, from which passes a short upward projection 
 called the styloid process, in front of which the strong 
 external lateral ligament of the knee-joint is attached. 
 On the inner surface of the expanded head is a small, 
 smooth, circular surface, adapted for articulation with the 
 corresponding surface already described on the under sur- 
 face of the overhanging external tuberosity of the tibia. 
 This joint permits of no perceptible movement, the bones 
 being firmly united by surrounding ligaments. Situated 
 as this articulation is, below the level of the knee-joint, 
 it follows that the upper end of the fibula does not 
 share in the formation of that joint and is in no wise 
 concerned in supporting the condyles of the femur. The 
 student will do well to determine in his own person the 
 precise position of the head of the fibula. If he follows 
 the direction of the outer hamstring, when the knee is 
 bent, this will lead him to the head of the fibula, which 
 he will recognize as a rounded knob of bone lying just 
 below the level of and behind the joint on the outer side. 
 This warning is necessary, as most students, when asked 
 to place the finger on the head of the fibula, commit 
 the mistake of pointing to a spot in advance of that 
 really occupied by the bone. This part of the bone 
 is subcutaneous on its outer and anterior aspect, where it 
 is uncovered by muscle ; superiorly it has attached to 
 it the external lateral ligament of the knee-joint, whilst 
 the outer hamstring, viz. the tendon of the biceps muscle 
 of the thigh, passes down to be inserted into it. The 
 
The Patella. 253 
 
 lower part of tlie shaft and the inferior extremity of 
 the bone will be further referred to in connexion with the 
 description of the leg and ankle. 
 
 The knee-joint is the largest joint in the body. By its 
 great size it affords adequate support for the weight of 
 the trunk which is transmitted through it. Three bones 
 enter into its formation, the femur, the tibia, and a bone 
 not hitherto described, called the patella. When we 
 straighten the knee, and no longer contract the muscles 
 of the front of the thigh, this last may be felt as a 
 movable disk lying in the loose tissues in front of the 
 joint. If, however, we contract the muscles of the front 
 of the thigh or bend the knee, the patella can no longer 
 be freely moved, but is felt lying in close contact with 
 the lower end of the thigh-bone, and practically fixed in 
 position. 
 
 The patella consists of a disk of bone the anterior 
 surface of which is rounded from side to side and slightly 
 from above downwards ; the deep surface of the bone is 
 adapted for articulation with the condyles of the femur, 
 on which it glides as on a pulley. The margin of the 
 disk varies in thickness ; inferiorly it is somewhat pointed, 
 and has connected with it a strong ligament, called the 
 ligament of the patella, by means of which the bone is 
 connected inferiorly with the tubercle of the tibia. The 
 patellar ligament consists of a thick broad band of non- 
 elastic fibrous tissue, so that, whatever the position of the 
 limb may be, if the ligament is drawn tight by the contrac- 
 tion of the muscles which are attached to the patella, the 
 distance between the lowest point of that bone and 
 the tubercle of the tibia never varies. In the extended 
 position of the joint, when the muscles are in action, 
 the lower border of the patella lies about one inch above 
 the articular surface of the tibia ; when the muscles are 
 relaxed the bone slips to a somewhat lower level, and, 
 
254 The Knee-joint. 
 
 the strain being taken off, the patellar ligament becomes 
 lax. The reader may demonstrate these facts for himself 
 
 by standing erect and alter- 
 nately contracting and relax- 
 ing the muscles of the thigh, 
 when the knee-pan will be 
 seen to move accordingly. 
 The upper border of the bone 
 is thick, and here, as well as 
 at the sides, are attached 
 the powerful fleshy muscles 
 which form the extensor 
 group of the jfront of the 
 thigh. 
 
 The patella plays an im- 
 portant part in the modelling 
 of the anterior aspect of the 
 knee. Applied as it is to 
 the lower end of the femur, 
 it masks the form of the 
 condyles in front, and fills 
 up the shallow groove which 
 separates them anteriorly 
 and inferiorly, so that, even 
 when the joint is flexed, it 
 gives a rounded appearance 
 to the front of the knee. 
 The knee-joint is exceedingly complicated in the arrange- 
 ment of its articular surfaces and the ligaments which 
 strengthen it. It is not necessary for present purposes 
 to enter into a detailed account of this articulation, except 
 to mention that the condyles of the femur, as they rest 
 on the upper surface of the tuberosities of the tibia, are 
 supported by pads of cartilage of a semilunar form, which 
 are placed in relation to the circumference of each rounded 
 
 Fig. 147. The bones of the ex- 
 tended right knee, front view. 
 
 /. Femur. 
 fi. Fibula. 
 t». Tibia, 
 e. External condyle of femur. 
 }. Internal condyle of femur. 
 h. Head of fibula. 
 ■p. Patella, or knee-pan. 
 \. Ligament of the patella. 
 t. Tubercle of tibia. 
 
The Knee-joint. 255 
 
 facet on the articular surface of the tibia. Passing from 
 the sides of the deep notch which separates the femoral 
 
 Pig. 148. The bones of the ex- 
 tended right knee, outer side. 
 
 f. Femur. 
 fl. Fibula. 
 m. Tibia, 
 e. External condyle of femur, 
 ft. Head of fibula. 
 p. Patella, or knee-pan. 
 I. I/igament of the patella. 
 t. Tubercle of tibia. 
 
 Pig. 149. The bones of the ex- 
 tended right knee, inner side. 
 
 /. Femur. 
 ji. Fibula. 
 tt6. Tibia. 
 i. Internal condyle of femur. 
 A. Head of fibula. 
 i>. Patella, or knee-pan. 
 I. Ligament of the patella. 
 t. Tubercle of tibia. 
 
 condyles posteriorly to the surface of the tibia in front 
 of and behind the spine, are two powerful ligaments 
 which from their crossed arrangement are called the 
 crucial ligaments. On either side the articulation is 
 strengthened by strong lateral ligaments; the internal 
 stretches from the inner surface of the internal condyle 
 of the femur down over the inner tuberosity of the tibia, 
 and is attached to the shaft of the bone just below t^hat 
 
256 
 
 The Knee-joint. 
 
 process. The external lateral ligament, whicli is of a 
 rounded cord-like form, is connected above with the outer 
 surface of the external condyle of the femur, and is attached 
 below to the head of the fibula. 
 
 The capsule posteriorly is formed by a broad mem- 
 braneous band, called the •posterior ligament, which is 
 united above to the femur along the upper edge of the 
 notch between the condyles, and is attached below to the 
 posterior margin of the upper extremity of the tibia. 
 
 In front the joint is enclosed by a thin capsule with 
 
 Fig. 150. The bones of- the bent 
 right knee, outer side. 
 
 a. Femur. 
 
 6. Tibia. 
 
 c. Pibola. 
 
 e. External condyle of femur. 
 
 Fig. 151. The bones of the bent 
 right knee, front view. 
 
 i. Internal condyle of femur, 
 i). Patella. 
 
 I. Ligament of the patella. 
 t. Tubercle of tibia. 
 
 which the ligament of the patella is incorporated, whilst 
 additional support is afforded by tendinous expansions 
 from the muscles, which are inserted into the sides of the 
 patella. 
 
 A glance at the bones will enable the reader to understand 
 that there is one part of the articular surface of the femoral 
 condyles which never comes into contact with the tibia or 
 semilunar cartilages, for if the bones be placed one on the 
 
Movements of Knee-joint. 257 
 
 top of the other, as in the extended position of the limb, 
 a considerable articular surface is displayed on the front of 
 the condyles, which lies above the level of the tibia. It is 
 on this that the patella rests in extension. When the joint 
 is bent the femoral condyles hinge and roll on the upper 
 surface of the tibia and on the semilunar cartilaginous pads 
 afore-described in such a manner that in extreme flexion 
 their hinder surfaces rest on the upper surface of the tibia, 
 whilst the surfaces of the condyles, which were previously 
 in contact with the tibia in the extended position, are 
 now turned forwards; they are thus brought into contact 
 with the deep surface of the patella, which cannot shift 
 its position, owing to its connexion with the tubercle of the 
 tibia by the patellar ligament. Thus, whilst in extension 
 the patella rests on a part of the femoral condyles peculiar 
 to itself, it passes, in flexion, to rest on portions of the 
 condylar articular surfaces, which were previously in contact 
 with the tibia and semilunar pads. 
 
 The chief movements of the knee are those of flexion 
 and extension. Mexion is limited by the back of the calf 
 coming into contact with the back of the thigh. Extension is 
 checked, when the leg is brought in line with the thigh, by 
 the action of certain ligaments. In this extended or straight 
 position of the knee it may be said that all the ligaments 
 of the joint are in a state of tension, except one of the 
 crucial ligaments and the part of the capsule in front of 
 the joint, the principal ligament of which, the ligamentum 
 patellae, may or may not be tense according to the state of 
 contraction of the muscles on the front of the thigh. By 
 this means the joint is mechanically locked, so that little or 
 no muscular effort is necessary to enable us to stand erect 
 with the knees straight. The explanation of this is that 
 under these conditions the line of gravity falls in front of 
 the axis of rotation of the joint, and this force keeps the 
 ligaments tense, thereby mechanically locking the joint and 
 
258 Locking of the Knee-joint. 
 
 preventing any further movement of extension (Fig. 131). 
 The reader may convince himself of this in one or other of 
 two ways. If, when standing erect, he sways the body 
 backwards, so that the line of gravity falls behind the axis 
 of the joint, he will only be able to prevent himself from 
 falling by the exercise of very violent muscular effort, and 
 he will realize that the muscles of the front of the thigh 
 are thrown into a state of powerful contraction ; but if the 
 body be again swayed forward, so as to bring into action 
 the ligaments aforementioned, no muscular effort is neces- 
 sary to maintain the joint in its extended position, and the 
 fleshy mass on the front of the thigh may now be felt soft 
 and relaxed. Or again, an admirable demonstration of the 
 mechanical principles involved is afforded by the schoolboy 
 trick of knocking the knees from under one. The victim, 
 unconscious at the time of any such attack upon his 
 stability, is standing upright with his muscles in a state of 
 relaxation when the blow is struck behind the knee. 
 The joint is then held in the extended position by the 
 tension of the ligaments only ; the force of the blow, 
 however, knocks the knee suddenly forwards, and thus 
 causes the line of gravity to fall behind the axis of the 
 joint, with the usual result, that, before the subject of 
 the experiment has time to recover himself by bringing 
 into play the powerful muscles which control the joint, he 
 falls to the ground. 
 
 The degree of extension of the joint depends, like that 
 of the hip, on the length of its ligaments. Under ordinary 
 conditions these are sufficiently long to permit of the leg 
 and thigh being brought into the same straight line ; ex- 
 ceptionally, when these ligaments are longer, the joint may 
 be more fully extended, so that the front of the leg forms 
 with the front of the thigh a slight angle, with a corre- 
 sponding curve along the back of the limb. As Briicke has 
 pointed out, this is more or less characteristic of the type 
 
Muscles of Thigh. 259 
 
 so commonly represented in the period of the German 
 renaissance, and,. though minor degrees of this condition are 
 tolerable, it should be discarded when unduly emphasized 
 in the male, or when present in the female. 
 
 "When the knee is straight we have no power of rotating 
 the leg on the thigh ; if we wish to turn the point of the 
 toes inwards or outwards we do so by rotating the whole 
 limb, the movement taking place at the hip-joint. "When 
 the knee is bent, however, any one who tries it may satisfy 
 himself that a limited amount of rotation of the leg on the 
 thigh is possible, as the ligaments of the joint are relaxed. 
 The range of this movement is not great, and is checked by 
 the tightening of the ligaments of the knee. 
 
 In considering the arrangement of the iieshy muscles 
 which form the bulk of the thigh it is necessary to study 
 several groups, two of which, viz. that in front of and that 
 behind the shaft of the thigh-bone, are immediately con- 
 cerned in the movements of the knee-joint. The third 
 group, that which lies along the inner side of the thigh, is 
 mainly associated with the movements of the thigh at the 
 hip, and particularly with that action, called adduction, 
 whereby the outspread limbs are- brought together. It is 
 therefore called the adductor group of muscles. 
 
 All the muscles of the thigh are encased in a sheath of 
 fascia, which invests the limb like a tight-fitting stocking. 
 We have already seen how this sheath is thickened along 
 the outer aspect of the thigh to form the strong ilio-tibial 
 band which is connected above with the insertions of the 
 gluteus maximus and tensor fasciae femoris muscles, and 
 is attached below to the external tuberosity of the tibia 
 (ante, p. 241). The fascial sheath is subdivided into three 
 compartments by means of fibrous partitions, which pass 
 from its deep surface to become attached to the thigh- 
 bone. The compartments thus formed are for the lodge- 
 ment of the groups of muscles just mentioned ; that in 
 
 s a 
 
26o Extensor Muscles of Thigh. 
 
 front contains the extensor group, that behind the flexor 
 muscles, whilst the internal compartment is occupied by 
 the adductors. 
 
 The muscles of the extensor group, or those which lie 
 along the front of the thigh, are four in number, Tiz. 
 the crureus, on either side of which are the vasti, named 
 internal and external according to their position, whilst, 
 superficial to all, is the rectus femoris. All these muscles 
 are inserted into the patella, and are oftentimes referred 
 to as the quadriceps extensor, on account of the four- headed 
 arrangement of their fleshy mass. For present purposes 
 it will be most convenient to describe the muscle as con- 
 sisting of two parts, a superficial and a deep ; the latter 
 includes the crureus with the vasti, one on either side 
 of it. It is unnecessary to consider the details of the 
 attachment of the several parts of this fleshy mass ; it 
 is sufficient to point out that it clothes the front and 
 sides of the thigh-bone, extending as high as the base 
 of the outer side of the great trochanter, and following 
 inwards and downwards from that point the spiral 
 line which sweeps across the upper part of the thigh- 
 bone, from the root of the great trochanter externally to 
 the linea aspera or rough ridge which passes along the 
 posterior aspect of the shaft of the bone. Inferiorly these 
 muscles are inserted into the sides and upper border of the 
 patella. The arrangement of the fleshy flbres is such that 
 the whole length of the outer side of the shaft of the thigh- 
 bone, reaching as far back as the linea aspera, is covered 
 with a thick fleshy layer which imparts to the outer side 
 of the thigh its rounded contour and flowing outline, whilst 
 internally the shaft is clothed by the vastus internus, which 
 sweeps round the inner side of the bone to the rough 
 ridge on its posterior aspect. This part of the muscle 
 attains its greatest thickness in the lowest quarter of 
 the thigh, where its rounded surface not only imparts 
 
The Fash'. 
 
 261 
 
 a fullness to the front of the tMgli in this situation, 
 but also influences the outline of the inner side of 
 the limb, where it is overlain by a strap-like muscle 
 called the sartorius, -which here passes down along its 
 inner side (Fig. 152). 
 
 There is a characteristic difference in the way in which 
 the lateral portions of this fleshy 
 mass are connected with the 
 patella. The outer part, or vastus 
 externus, passes down to be at- 
 tached to the outer side of the 
 upper border of the patella, from 
 which it sends a general expan- 
 sion over the anterior part of the 
 capsule of the knee. The vastus 
 internus,oii the other hand, reaches 
 a much lower level on the inner 
 side of the thigh, and is inserted 
 
 Tig. 152. Front view of the muscles of 
 the right thigh. 
 
 TenBor fasciae femoris. 
 
 Vastus externus. 
 
 Rectus femoris. 
 
 Vastus intemus, 
 
 Sartorius. 
 
 Psoas and iliacus. 
 
 Pecttaeus. 
 
 Adductor longus. 
 
 Gracilis. 
 
 Patella. 
 
 Tubercle of tibia witli ligamentum patellae 
 
 attached, 
 nio-tibial band. 
 Head of fibula. 
 
 Subcutaneous surface of tibia. 
 External oblique. 
 Aponeurosis of external oblique. 
 Placed over sheath of rectus. 
 Crluteus medius. 
 Anterior superior iliac spine, 
 niac crest. 
 
 Inner head of gastrocnemius. 
 Tibialis anticus. 
 
262 The Vasti. 
 
 into the upper half of the inner border of the patella. 
 The lowest fibres of the vastus intemus are very oblique in 
 their direction, and overUe the upper part of the internal 
 condyle of the thigh-bone whereas those of the external 
 vastus are much more vertical in their direction and 
 in the erect position do not cover the outer side of the 
 external condyle at all, but pass down to the pateUa above 
 it ; here the posterior border of this part of the muscle is 
 defined by a tendinous edge which is emphasized during 
 contraction. Behind this a few fleshy fibres of the 
 crureus become superficial, but as they are overlain by 
 the lower part of the ilio-tibial band they do not exercise 
 much influence as determinants of surface form (Fig. 152, 
 and Pis., pp. 44, 62, 72, 240, 264, 282, 332}. 
 
 Resting on this deeper stratum of muscle, and occupying 
 a position corresponding to a line leading from the anterior 
 superior iliac spine to the patella, there is a superficial 
 muscle called the rectus femoris. This muscle has a fusi- 
 form belly, with upper and lower tendons of attachment. 
 It arises by two tendons, the details of which need not 
 be described, from the iliac part of the haunch-bone, just 
 above the acetabulum or cup for the reception of the head 
 of the thigh-bone. At this point the muscle lies deeply, 
 having to its outer side the tensor fasciae femoris, whilst 
 in front of and along its inner side for a short distance is 
 the above-mentioned sartorius, a muscle to be presently 
 described. The fleshy belly of the rectus crops up in the 
 angle formed by these two muscles, and passes downwards 
 towards the patella, into the upper boarder of which it 
 is inserted by a broad flat tendon about three inches 
 in length. As the fleshy belly overlies the deeper stratum, 
 it only partially covers it, so that the vasti appear on 
 either side of it. The fleshy part of the muscle imparts 
 a fullness to the front of the thigh which is not only 
 due to the development of its fibres and the thickness 
 
Sartorius. 263 
 
 of the subjacent muscular stratum, but is also dependent 
 on the forward curve of the shaft of the thigh-bone, to 
 which reference has been already made (p. 222) (Pis., pp. 
 44, 62, 72, 240, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 The above muscles act as powerful extensors of the knee — 
 that is to say, they straighten the leg. This takes place in 
 one or other of two ways. Suppose we are seated on a 
 chair with the knees bent at a right angle ; we can straighten 
 the legs in one or other of two ways, either by raising the 
 feet from the ground, in which action the upper is the fixed 
 attachment of the muscle, or by rising from the chair and 
 standing on our feet, in which case the leg and foot are the 
 fixed points, and it is the thighs which move, carrying with 
 them the trunk. These different actions of the extensor 
 muscles are of common occurrence, and depend, as has been 
 said, on which is the fixed end of the limb, the thigh or foot ; 
 but, as has been already noticed (p. 257), their action is not 
 necessary to enable us to stand erect, for in this position, 
 when the foot is resting on the ground, the patella may 
 be felt lying loose in front of the knee. It becomes 
 fixed, however, if these muscles be contracted, or if the 
 extended limb be raised from the ground. The reader 
 will have noticed a difference in the origin of these 
 various parts of the quadriceps extensor. The deeper 
 stratum arises from the thigh-bone, whilst the superficial 
 part or rectus arises from the haunch-bone ; the latter 
 therefore crosses the front of the hip-joint and may also 
 act as a flexor of that joint (Fig. 152). 
 
 There is a muscle which occupies a position in front of the 
 upper part of the thigh, and which subsequently runs down 
 along the inner side of the limb ; this is the sartorius, already 
 alluded to. It cannot be grouped with either the extensor 
 muscles above described or with the adductor mass which 
 lies along the inner side of the thigh-bone, but may now be 
 conveniently studied, as it forms a sort of natural boundary 
 
264 Sartorms. 
 
 between these two groups. Tlie muscle, wliich is of elongated 
 form, in fact the longest in the body, takes origin above 
 from the anterior superior iliac spine (anterior extremity' 
 of the iliac crest) and from the bone immediately below it ; 
 it passes obliquely across the front of the upper part 
 of the thigh so as to reach its inner side about the 
 middle, and, coursing down along this aspect of the limb, 
 it passes behind the most prominent part of the internal 
 condyle of the thigh-bone and along the inner side of 
 the knee. Below this point it forms a thin expanded 
 tendon, which turns forwards beneath the level of the 
 inner tuberosity of the tibia and is inserted into the 
 subcutaneous surface of the upper part of the shaft of 
 that bone, close to the tubercle in front. The muscle 
 resembles a strap which has been twisted round the 
 front of the limb in a spiral fashion. It thus helps to 
 divide the front of the thigh into two regions: an 
 outer and lower, occupied by the extensor muscles which 
 have just been described, and an upper and inner, which 
 contains the adductor group. The sartorius overlies the 
 rectus femoris at its origin, as well as the hinder portion 
 of the vastus internus along the lower and inner aspect 
 of the thigh. It also lies in front of the insertions of 
 the adductors (Fig. 152) (Pis., pp. 62, 240, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 The action of this muscle is to ilex the knee and hip- 
 joints: when the knee is bent it acts as an internal 
 rotator of the leg on the thigh; it also assists in evert- 
 ing the entire limb. The relation of the muscle is best 
 understood by a reference to plates facing pages 62, 240. 
 It will be noticed that its influence on the surface forms 
 is not great. It helps to define the upper LLmit of the 
 fullness of the vastus internus and rectus from the hollow 
 of the thigh which lies above the sartorius and between 
 it and the furrow of the groin. In violent action, when 
 the thigh is flexed upon the trunk, the superior attach- 
 
Key to Plate XXXV 
 
 TrapetiMs. Clavick. Sternihma,ftoid 
 
 TraptMtHt. 
 
 Triceps, outer head, Brachialis OMiiaa Biceps cubiii. 
 
 Stfioidpro 
 
 of ulna 
 £xl.carp «/«, M 
 
 Post bord.uln 
 
 Palmaris 
 ■longuSi^ 
 
 Flex, carp 
 
 rod. — 
 Prm.rad.k 
 teres ri 
 Bicipital I 
 fascia. -I 
 Olecranon 
 Intenial eomfyle. 
 Brachiaiis atttiais. j 
 Tric^, inner hea£ j 
 
 Bie^s cuAiH. 
 
 Triceps, &mg head.— ■' ., , , 
 
 Caraco^raehiali's. ' / / / 
 
 Tens major, — — / / 
 
 Latissimus dorsi.— ' / 
 
 Pitofnak,- -^ 
 
 PtctoraHs major, sternal fibres'. / 
 Digitafiotis ofserratvs wmffutsi / 
 DigiUttioHS of external oblique.' .■ 
 
 Lineae tratKversae.- —''.', 
 
 Iliaccrtst. - '. '_' 
 
 Anterior superior iliac spine,\.-',. 
 
 Tensor fasaae femoris. '!-'' 
 
 RectHS abdominis. — ..■-" 
 
 Adductor mass.- "'..--" 
 
 Sariorivs.-- '.,.■■-'''' 
 
 RtUus femoris. "^ 
 
 Band of Richer, " " 
 
 Vastus extemus 
 
 Vastus inlemus. 
 
 Patella.- - "- 
 
 Ilio-libial band. - -- 
 
 Patellar ligament. 
 
 St^toriu-t -■ — v.. 1- ""-"■■ 
 
 Semi-tenditiasMs: —■ ■"' 
 
 Castrocnemius, inner head. 
 
 Tibialis anticus, " ' 
 
 Soleas " 
 
 Exitkser longns digitorum Pedis. - 
 
 Flexor leugits digitprum pedis. 
 
 Long extensor of great toe, 
 
 Annular ligament of ankle. 
 
 Internal malltolus (tiHa). 
 
 / 
 / /■ 
 
 / 
 
 Triceps tendon. 
 
 Supinator longits. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 •■'// 
 
 ■ / / 
 
 ,. Extensor carpi radtaiis bn§^. 
 
 -Latissimus dorsi^ 
 
 -J}igitotiims of serrat\is magnns. 
 
 — P^toraUs iitajor 
 
 -Digitations 0/ external obliyve 
 
 -Extensor aapi uharu- 
 
 —Extensor communis disitorip*. 
 £xt, carpi radiaiis hreoior. 
 
 'Extensors of thumb. 
 
 '""A iinular ligameat 
 
 \Ant superior Hiae spine. 
 
 Lineae tratKoersae.^ 
 
 '■• -Rectus. abdominis. 
 
 'Aponeurosis of 
 
 external oblique. 
 
 Tensor fasdae femeris. 
 
 - -Iw-psoas. 
 
 '-Peuparfs agamenL 
 
 ~ — Pectineus 
 
 \'^'^ 'Add$Ktor longtes 
 Rictus femoris. 
 
 ""_ ~~Graci£s. 
 
 "Fasfns extemus. 
 
 Band of Rider. 
 
 ~——-PaUlia. 
 
 Vastus intemus. 
 
 Sarionus. 
 
 Internal a^uMe 
 
 " Ligamentum patellae. 
 
 '"■ Tubercle oftHia. 
 
 Gastrocnemius, 
 
 inAr kead 
 — — Peroneus longus. 
 - Hxt.laug- dig.pedis. 
 
 Soleus, 
 
 -Tibialis antkus. 
 
 r-J'ibu, subciif^surf. 
 
 -LongfUxor of toes. 
 
 Tig exf. great toe. 
 
 /n/~ malleolus 
 
 " "Annular lig. 
 
 ^~Ext malltol»s. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OK MALE FIGURE, THROWING JAVELIN 
 
 CoPyrighty 1899, b^ Hbnrv Fhowdk] 
 
Adductor Muscles. 265 
 
 meut of the muscle to tlie anterior superior iliac spine 
 may form an outstanding ridge on the surface of the 
 limb (PL, p. 264). 
 
 Owing to the oblique position of the thigh-bone, there 
 is a triangular interval between the inner side of the 
 shaft of the bone, the inner border of the limb, and the 
 pelvis above. This interval is occupied by the adductor 
 muscles. They form a fleshy mass of triangular shape, 
 attached above to that part of the pelvis in front of the 
 acetabulum which is formed by the pubis, and that por- 
 tion of the ischium which lies in front of the ischial 
 tuberosity. Externally and inferiorly these muscles 
 pass to be inserted into nearly the whole length of 
 the back of the shaft of the thigh-bone, reaching as 
 low as a prominent spur on the upper surface of the 
 internal condyle, whilst internally they assist in forming 
 the outline of the inner side of the thigh. This fleshy 
 mass is broken up into several muscles, named the ad- 
 ductor longus. adductor brevis, adductor magnus, pectineus, 
 and gracilis, but it is unnecessary to enter into a detailed 
 account of them all, as they influence the surface forms 
 rather by their bulk than by their details. As has been 
 already stated, they lie above and to the inner side of 
 the sartorius muscle : here, as they stretch across from 
 the front of the pelvis to the upper part of the thigh- 
 bone, they assist in forming the floor of the depression 
 which lies immediately below the groin, and which is 
 called the hollow of the thigh. This corresponds to a 
 triangular interval between the sartorius on the outer 
 side and the inner border of the adductor longus on the 
 inner side. The base of the triangle, which is directed 
 upwards, corresponds to Poupart's ligament. The floor of 
 this space is deepest in the centre, and corresponds on the 
 inner side to the anterior surfaces of the pectineus and 
 adductor longus, whilst externally two muscles, called 
 
266 The Gracilis. 
 
 the pmas and iliacus, whicli pass down from within 
 the pelvis, under cover of Pouparfs ligament, form the 
 outer half of the floor of the space. The influence of 
 these structures on the surface form is very much modified 
 by the presence of an abundance of fat and other tissues, 
 and depends also on the position of the limb. It 
 is here that the large blood-vessels and nerves which 
 enter the thigh are placed, and, lying as they do in 
 a considerable quantity of fat, they serve to mask and 
 obscure the outlines of the structures above enumerated ; 
 the hollow as such only exists, in a well- nourished 
 model, when the thigh is flexed upon the trunk. In 
 this position the boundaries of the space become more 
 distinct, and the surface contours flattened, whereas when 
 the thigh is fully extended the front of the limb assumes 
 a fullness which is largely dependent on the fact that 
 the head and neck of the thigh-bone, which underlie 
 some of the structures enumerated, are thrust forward 
 and so cause a bulging of the tissues which overlie 
 them (Pis., pp. 62, 240, 264). 
 
 Of the adductor group the most important as a determinant 
 of surface form is the gracilis. This muscle arises by a 
 thin tendon about 2 or 2\ inches broad from the bone, 
 close to and parallel with the symphysis pubis. The attach- 
 ment extends somewhat behind this joint. It differs 
 from the other members of the group in not being attached 
 to the thigh-bone. Its fleshy fibres, which form a broad 
 strap-like muscle, pass vertically downwards along the 
 inner side of the limb, thus coinciding with the outline 
 of the upper and inner aspect of the thigh when viewed 
 from the front. A little below the level of the middle of 
 the thigh it comes in contact with the posterior border 
 of the sartorius, which has crossed over the front of the 
 thigh to reach the inner side, and here the gracilis usually 
 becomes tendinous. Its tendon is closely applied to the 
 
Action of Adductors. 
 
 267 
 
 posterior border of the sartorius, and passes down in 
 company with it along the inner side of the knee. Below 
 the internal tuberosity of the tibia the tendon curves for- 
 wards, and is inserted under cover of the expansion of the 
 sartorius into the inner aspect of the upper part of the shaft 
 of the tibia (Pis., pp. 38, 62, 240, 264, 332). 
 
 As their names imply, these 
 muscles adduct the thigh; in other 
 words, they enable us to draw to- 
 gether the outspread limbs. They 
 are usually well developed in 
 those who indulge in much riding 
 exercise, though of course the 
 reader must bear in mind that 
 this remark applies only to those 
 who ride cross - saddle. Indi- 
 vidual members of the group are 
 associated with other actions ; thus 
 the pectineus and adductors 
 
 Fig. 153. View of the muscles of the 
 back of the right thigh. 
 
 a. Tensor fasciae femoris. 
 6. Gluteus medius, 
 
 c. Gluteus maximus. 
 
 d. lUo-tibial band. 
 
 e. Trochanter major of femur (thigh-bone). 
 /. Vastus extemus. 
 
 g. Biceps of thigh. 
 h. Semitendinosus. 
 / i. Semimembranosus. 
 j. Gracilis. 
 k. Adductor magnus. 
 I, Sartorius. 
 
 m. Popliteal space or ham. 
 n. Head of iibiila (outer bone of leg). 
 o 0. Outer head of gastrocnemius. 
 p p. Inner head of gastrocnemius. 
 
 g. External oblique muscle of abdominal 
 
 waJl. 
 r. Origin of latissimus dorsi. 
 8. Posterior superior iliac spine. 
 t. Posterior layer of lumbar aponeurosis. 
 
268 Flexor Muscles of Thigh. 
 
 longus and brevis assist in flexing the thigh., whilst the 
 gracilis helps to bend the knee and at the same time 
 causes inward rotation of the bent leg. The adductors 
 as a whole may also assist in turning the limb outwards 
 by reason of their insertion into the back of the shaft of 
 the thigh-bone. 
 
 The hamstring muscles form the flexor group, which 
 is placed on the back of the thigh. They consist of the 
 biceps of the thigh, the semitendinosus, and the semimem- 
 branosus. They all take origin from the tuberosity of 
 the ischium (lower and hinder part of the haunch-bone), 
 and pass to be inserted into the bones of the leg : two 
 into the tibia or inner bone, one into the fibula or 
 outer bone. They thus connect the bones of the leg 
 with the pelvis, and, as they cross over the back of the hip 
 and knee-joints, they therefore control the movements of 
 these two articulations. 
 
 This flexor mass forms a thick fleshy column which 
 occupies the middle of the back of the thigh. It is not 
 sufficiently wide to influence either the inner or outer 
 outline of the limb when viewed from behind, for external 
 to it the fleshy fibres of the vastus externus, overlain 
 by the ilio-tibial band, is the determinant of the surface 
 outline, whilst on its inner side the adductor group, 
 covered by the sartorius below and the gracilis above, 
 corresponds to the outline of the inner aspect of the thigh. 
 In the erect position the origin of these flexor muscles 
 from the tuberosity of the ischium is concealed by the 
 lower border of the gluteus maximus. When the thigh 
 is flexed on the trunk, however, the lower border of the 
 gluteus maximus slips forward over the ischial tuberosity, 
 thereby more fully exposing the superior attachment of 
 these muscles (Fig. 153) (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 234). 
 
 The biceps and semitendinosus lie side by side and 
 superficial to the semimembranosus ; the line of separation 
 
Hamstring Muscles. 269 
 
 between tlie biceps and semitendinosus corresponds to 
 the middle line of the back of the thigh. At a point 
 corresponding pretty closely with the junction of the 
 lower with the middle third of the thigh these two 
 muscles separate from one another. The outer one, or 
 biceps, passes towards the outer side of the knee, below 
 which it is inserted into the head of the fibula, whilst 
 the semitendinosus is directed downwards towards the 
 inner side of the knee, and is inserted into the inner 
 aspect of the upper part of the shaft of the tibia, just 
 below the inner tuberosity of that bone and under cover 
 of the tendinous expansion of the sartorius. The biceps 
 differs from the other members of this group in possess- 
 ing a second head of origin from the thigh-bone, hence 
 its name. This femoral origin is called its short head, 
 in contradistinction to the long head, which arises along 
 with the other hamstrings from the ischial tuberosity. 
 The short head of the biceps arises from the rough line 
 on the back of the thigh-bone, below the bony insertion 
 of the fibres of the gluteus maximus, extending down to 
 near the external condyle (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 72). 
 
 There is ' a marked difference between the forms of 
 the biceps and semitendinosus. The latter ends in a long 
 and slender tendon (to which circumstance it owes its 
 name), about the level at which the two muscles sepa- 
 rate from one another, viz. at the junction of the lower 
 with the middle third of the thigh, whereas the biceps 
 remains fleshy until it has reached the level of the knee 
 (PI., p. 302). 
 
 The semimemhranosus, so called on account of the peculiar 
 arrangement of its tendinous parts, lies at its origin 
 under cover of the preceding muscles. The bulk of the 
 fleshy part of the muscle is placed on the inner side of 
 the middle line of the back of the thigh. In this situa- 
 tion the fleshy belly of the semitendinosus rests upon it 
 
270 Hamstring Tendons. 
 
 above, whilst, below, the tendon of that muscle may be 
 traced downwards on the surface of the fleshy part of 
 the semimembranosus, which reaches as low as the upper 
 border of the internal condyle of the thigh-bone. Inter- 
 nally the semimembranosus is in relation above to a 
 portion of the adductor magnus, whilst in the lower two- 
 thirds of the thigh it lies close to the hinder border of the 
 fleshy belly and tendon of the gracilis muscle. Curving 
 round the hinder end of the internal condyle of the 
 thigh-bone, the muscle passes to be inserted by a strong 
 tendon into the back of the inner tuberosity of the 
 tibia (Pis., pp. 38, 42, 44, 240). 
 
 It is to the presence of these muscles that the roundness 
 of the back of the thigh is due. "We have already seen 
 that they exert no influence on the outer and inner outlines 
 of the limb, but if the thigh be viewed from the side they 
 determine its shape as we trace it from the fold of the 
 buttock to the back of the knee, the surface outline being 
 due to the fleshy bellies of the biceps and semitendinosus, 
 though the semimembranosus not unfrequently has a direct 
 influence on the surface form a little above and behind the 
 knee. The reader may, however, better satisfy himself as to 
 these details by a reference to the Plates, pp. 44, 72, 240, 302. 
 
 It is particularly in the region of the ham or the 
 hollow behind the knee that these muscles are most 
 readily distinguished. When the knee is bent their 
 rounded cord-like tendons may be felt with ease on 
 both the inner and outer aspects of the hinder surface 
 of the joint. These tendons are hence called the ham- 
 strings, a term which is also applied to the muscles 
 with which they are connected. The outer hamstring, 
 or tendon of the biceps, can be readily traced to its 
 insertion into the head of the fibula, whilst the inner 
 hamstrings, of which the more superficial is the tendon 
 of the semitendinosus, can also be easily recognized. 
 
Action of the Hamstring Muscles. 271 
 
 That of the semitendinosus passes to the inner side of 
 the upper end of the shaft of the tibia, whilst the tendon 
 of the semimembranosus can be traced with more difficulty 
 to the back of the internal tuberosity of the tibia (Pis., pp. 
 38, 240, 244, 380). 
 
 As regards the action of these muscles, the student must 
 bear in mind the fact already referred to, viz. that they 
 pass over both the hip and the knee-joints ; but note 
 that in the case of the hip the muscles lie in relation 
 to its extensor aspect, whilst in the case of the knee they 
 are placed in relation to its flexor surface. They may 
 thus act as extensors of the hip as well as flexors of the 
 knee. They combine with their flexor action on the knee 
 a certain power of rotating the bent leg. The biceps helps 
 to rotate the leg outwards, whilst the semimembranosus 
 and semitendinosus will counteract this by turning the 
 leg inwards at the knee. 
 
 Their action as extensors of the hip may best be under- 
 stood by reference to a very simple experiment. When 
 we endeavour to touch the toes without bending the knees 
 a great strain is put on the hamstring muscles; they are 
 stretched to their full extent, and our ability to perform this 
 feat depends on the extent to which they have been 
 exercised in this particular way. It is when we recover 
 ourselves and again assume the erect position by straight- 
 ening the trunk on the limbs at the hip-joints that we 
 bring into play the extensor action of these muscles. As 
 has been stated, the extent to which we can bend forward 
 without flexing the knees depends on the length of these 
 muscles. This controlling action of the hamstrings is illus- 
 trated in another way, we can only raise the limb, or in 
 other words bend the thigh, to a limited extent, barely to 
 a right angle with the trunk, when the knee is extended, 
 but if on the other hand the knee be flexed the tension on 
 the hamstrings is at once relieved, and the thigh can be 
 
272 Action of the Hamstring Muscles. 
 
 bent to such a degree that we can bring its anterior surface 
 in contact with the front of the trunk. Similarly there is 
 no difficulty in touching the toes if we slightly bend the 
 knees. The accompanying diagrams serve to illustrate 
 these facts (Figs. 154, 155)- 
 
 The form of the thigh tapers from the hip to the knee. 
 Its roundness depends largely on the quantity of fat present 
 beneath the skin. In a muscular model but sparingly covered 
 with fat the grouping of the muscles into an internal and 
 upper group (adductors), an external and lower group (ex- 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 154. Fig. 155. 
 
 Diagrams to illustrate how flexion at the hip-joint is controlled by the 
 hamstring muscles. In Fig. 154 the hamstrings are represented tightly 
 stretched when the knee is straight. In Fig. 155 the muscles are shown 
 relaxed when the knee is bent. A greater amount of flexion is thereby 
 permitted at the hip-joint. 
 
 tensors), and a posterior group (flexors) is at once apparent, as 
 these several regions resolve themselves into surfaces which 
 are more or less distinctly defined from one another— the 
 two former by the furrow corresponding to the sartorius, 
 the two latter by the furrow which passes down the outer 
 side of the thigh and corresponds to the posterior border 
 of the vastus externus. The fullness on the inner side of 
 the thigh passes insensibly into the roundness caused by the 
 hamstring group (Pis., pp. 42, 44, 62, 72). 
 
Form of Female Thigh. 
 
 273 
 
 In the female the separation of the thigh into regions, 
 corresponding to the grouping of the muscles, is obliterated 
 to a very great extent by the presence of a thick sub- 
 cutaneous fatty layer (Pis., pp. 66, 230, 238, 244). 
 
 Owing to the greater pelvic width in woman, and the 
 consequent greater obliquity of the thigh-bone, the limb 
 is relatively wider above compared with its length than 
 in the male : this conveys the impression that in the 
 female the thigh is shorter than it really is. As a fact 
 
 Pig. 156. 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 Diagrams showing the greater degree of obliquity of the thigh-bones 
 dependent on the greater pelvic width in woman, Fig. 1 56, as compared 
 with man, Fig. 157. 
 
 the thigh is relatively somewhat shorter than in the male, 
 but in well-proportioned females the shortness is more 
 apparent than real, and is dependent on the causes afore- 
 mentioned. It may be noted, however, as a matter of 
 experience, that it is by no means easy to obtain female 
 models with the requisite limb proportions, for in no respect 
 do they vary so much. 
 The greater breadth of the upper part of the thigh 
 
274 Hip-width. 
 
 and the greater obliquity of the thigh-bone give rise in 
 women to a knock-kneed appearance. This is further em- 
 phasized by the outline of the outer side of the thigh 
 forming a more pronounced angle with the outline of 
 the outer side of the leg than in the male. When from 
 great width of the upper segment of the limb this appear- 
 ance is unduly pronounced it gives rise to an unpleasant 
 impression, and models which display this feature should 
 be discarded, though much may be done to remedy these 
 unpleasant lines by placing the limbs in such a position 
 as to modify considerably the appearance of this defect. 
 The condition above referred to, when not unduly em- 
 phasizedj is a characteristic feature of the female figure, 
 and imparts to it a sense of refinement and modesty in 
 harmony with the whole sentiment of the figure. In women 
 there is a tendency to the massing of fat on the outer side 
 of the thigh below the level of the trochanter. This, as 
 has been already explained (p. 238), causes the width of this 
 part of the figure to fall lower than in the male, in whom 
 it is generally situated on a level with the trochanters, 
 but in cases where this fat is present in too great quantity 
 it destroys the symmetry of the thigh and produces an 
 unpleasant outline along the upper and outer aspect of 
 the limb. This difference in the form of the limb in the 
 two sexes may best be observed if we view the figure from 
 behind. In women the greatest width across the thighs 
 is seen to lie as a rule on a level with the folds of the 
 buttocks, whereas in the male the greatest width is con- 
 siderably above this level. These differences are apparent 
 in the plates, pp. 36, 120. 
 
 The outlines of the thigh, when viewed from front or 
 back, depend on the vastus extemus on the outer side, and 
 on the gracilis above and the sartorius below, on the inner 
 side. The student should remember that the ilio-tibial 
 band overlies the fleshy fibres of the vastus extemus, and 
 
Contours of Thigh. 275 
 
 when tight leads to a compression of the muscle, thus 
 giving rise to a flattening of the form along the outer 
 side of the limb. This is best seen when the model stands 
 on one leg, or when the weight of the trunk is mainly- 
 supported on one leg, with the knee extended, whilst the 
 other leg is bent and slightly advanced. In this posi- 
 tion the bent leg carries little weight, but merely acts as 
 a support to steady the limb upon which the bulk of 
 the weight rests. In profile the outline of the front 
 of the thigh depends upon the sartorius, rectus femoris, and 
 the vastus extemus. If the limb be slightly rotated out- 
 wards, a small part of the vastus internus, as it crosses 
 over the internal condyle of the thigh-bone, comes into 
 direct relation with the outline just above the knee. In 
 this view of the limb, the surface outline, due to the fleshy 
 bellies of the vastus externus and rectus, is frequently 
 interrupted towards its lower part by a shallow hollow, 
 corresponding to the position of an arching band of fibres 
 which cross the general investing fascia of the limb ; these 
 fibres are connected with the ilio-tibial band behind, and 
 curve downwards and forwards over the front of the 
 thigh on the upper part of the lower third of the limb. 
 Richer' calls them the arched hand of the fascia of the 
 thigh. Posteriorly the outline depends on the hamstrings, 
 the biceps, or semitendinosus chiefly, whilst, below, the . 
 semimembranosus directly influences the surface contours 
 for a short distance above the knee (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 44, 
 62, 72, 240, 264, 282, 332). 
 
 When the limbs are straight with the knees together 
 there should be but a slight interval between the thighs, 
 and that only where the sartorius muscles curve back to 
 lie along the inner side of the limb. In women the thighs 
 may be in contact all the way down. This difference 
 
 ' Anatomie Artistique, Paul Richer. Paris, 1890. 
 T 2 
 
276 Straightness of Limb. 
 
 is due to the greater quantity of subcutaneous fat, and 
 "when an interval exists between the limbs in this position 
 it should be much less than in the male. In either sex 
 the space between the thighs when the knees are in 
 contact should never be carried up as high as the fork, 
 as such a condition is indicative of a meagre develop- 
 ment of the lower limbs and produces a most unpleasant 
 impression. 
 
 In men of athletic build one not unfrequently meets 
 with a certain amount of outward curve in the limbs. This 
 bow-legged appearance, in minor degrees, is quite con- 
 sistent with a normal growth and an athletic development, 
 and must not be confused with those cases in which the 
 curves of the limb are the result of disease. Briicke ^ has 
 laid down a rule which enables the student to determine 
 when this outward curve of the limb has exceeded the Umits 
 consistent with a well-shapen leg. He takes two straight 
 lines, the inner from the middle line of the trunk at the level 
 of the pubis, the outer from the outer side of the thigh, just 
 where the trochanter lies beneath the surface. Both lines 
 are carried down so as to meet at a point corresponding 
 to the most elevated part of the instep of the foot. As these 
 two lines cross the front of the knee, the patella should lie 
 between them ; in cases where the patella lies outside these 
 limits the curve of the limb is unduly great, and the form 
 inelegant. It follows from this that, in men in whom 
 this form of limb is met with, the inner sides of the knees 
 may not be in contact when they stand erect with the heels 
 together, but may be separated by an interval the width 
 of which is limited by the rule already referred to. Such 
 a condition is inconsistent with the form characteristic of 
 the female, and models displaying such a tendency should 
 be avoided. 
 
 > The Human Figure, Professor Ernst Briicke. London : Greval & Co 
 1891. 
 
Form of Knee. 
 
 277 
 
 The variations in the form of the thigh, due to alterations 
 in its position, are best understood by a reference to the 
 plates, pp. 240, 244. In flexion of the thigh on the trunk 
 it is always well to recognize the position of the anterior 
 superior spine of the iliac crest, as this gives us the key 
 to the drawing of the tensor fasciae femoris, a muscle 
 which exercises an important influence on the surface 
 forms of the upper and outer part of the limb. In slight 
 degrees of flexion the fold of the groin is deepened, and the 
 outer limit ol that farrow corresponds to the bony point 
 in question. When flexion is carried farther, the line 
 of flexion which crosses the front of the upper part of 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 the thigh, just below the furrow of the groin, becomes 
 emphasized, and these two folds as they reach the outer 
 side of the limb form a V o^ Y'sii^P^d. fold between 
 the sides of which the anterior superior iliac spine can 
 be distinctly felt. This is well shown in the plates, pp. 
 240, 244. 
 
 The consideration of the surface forms of the knee is 
 extremely difficult. In the first instance it is very im- 
 portant that the student should have an accurate knowledge 
 of the shape of the bones which enter into the formation 
 of this joint. The most common defect met with in the 
 knee is its size ; this tends as a rule to be too big. 
 
278 
 
 Form of Knee. 
 
 Y\Q,. 160. 
 
 The right tnee with the Fio. i6i. Diagram of the right knee 
 
 musoleB relaxed. ^^th the mtLScles relaxed, showmg the 
 
 arrangement of the parts on which tne 
 
 surface form depends. 
 
 Fio. 162. The right knee with the Pio. 163. Diagram of the right knee 
 
 muscles contracted. with the muscles contracted, showing 
 
 the arrangement of parts. 
 
Form of Knee. 279 
 
 a circumstance wliich is principally owing to the large- 
 ness of the articular ends of the bones, though the presence 
 of a superabundance of fat in this region may assist in 
 emphasizing the defect. The joint should be small, though 
 not unduly so, as this may tend to impart a "weak appear- 
 ance to the limb. It should form a summit to the taper 
 of the thighs, and link the thigh and leg together in 
 such a way as to carry the flow of the lines from one 
 portion of the limb to the other without any abrupt 
 interruption of their curves. 
 
 Along the inner side of the joint the outline of the thigh, 
 determined by the sartorius muscle, should flow evenly and 
 continuously over the prominence of the internal condyle 
 to the upper part of the shaft of the tibia below. The outer 
 side of the joint, less prominent and somewhat flattened, 
 corresponds to the bottom of the curve formed by the 
 outline of the outer side of the thigh above and the swelling 
 of the calf below. In front the form of the patella should 
 be distinct in the male, though in the female it may be less 
 noticeable. It should be small and not unduly prominent, 
 else the knee may have a pointed appearance, which is 
 objectionable (Pis., pp. 62, 292). 
 
 The patella is connected above with the muscles of the 
 front of the thigh, and below, by means of its ligament, 
 with the tubercle of the tibia ; these details are not recog- 
 nisable when the muscles are relaxed, but are plainly seen 
 in action. In repose the patella drops to a slightly lower level, 
 and lies loosely in the tissues in front of the joint, being 
 supported below by two considerable pads of fat, which 
 occupy the intervals between the ligament of the patella 
 and the front of the joint on either side. By the contrac- 
 tion of the muscles of the front of the thigh the patella is 
 drawn up so that its lower border lies about an inch above 
 the level of the articular surface of the tibia. The ligament 
 which connects it with the tubercle of the tibia is thus 
 
28o Form of Knee. 
 
 put on the stretch, and becomes conspicuous as a surface 
 elevation, which is usually marked off aboT^e by a shallow 
 furrow corresponding to its line of attachment with the 
 patella. On either side the fullness of the ligament is 
 maintained by the pads of fat already mentioned, which 
 help to soften its outline. Superiorly a flattened tri- 
 angular depression, leading up into a furrow, corresponds 
 to the tendinous insertion of the muscles into the upper 
 border of the knee-pan. The fullness on either side of 
 this depression corresponds, on the inner side, to the fleshy 
 fibres of the vastus internus, wiich curve obliquely across 
 the internal condyle of the thigh-bone to reach the upper 
 half of the inner border of the knee-pan, whilst at a 
 higher level the fibres of the vastus externus, as they sweep 
 down to be inserted by tendinous fibres into the outer 
 part of the superior border of the patella, limit the surface 
 depression externally. The arching fibres of Eicher, as they 
 pass across the vastus internus, tend to emphasize the 
 bulge of the lower part of this muscle (PL, p. 62). These 
 details are ordinarily absent in the knee of the female, 
 in whom we have a less strong muscular development and 
 a greater abundance of subcutaneous fat. In the antique 
 there is little suggestion of detail, the forms being kept 
 simple and rounded. In females great variety of modelling 
 is met with, depending on the disposition of the fat ; but 
 as a rule the existence of the patella is offcenest indicated 
 by a slight hollowing and flattening of the surface along 
 its outer side, thus emphasizing its presence. It is by no 
 means uncommon, when the joint is forcibly extended, 
 to meet with a triradiate furrow in front of the joint, one 
 limb of the furrow overlying the ligament of the patella, 
 whilst the two upper limbs serve to define the lower 
 and outer borders of the bone itself, the fullness between 
 these being due to the shape of the patella, whilst the 
 rounded forms on either side of the descending furrow 
 
Form of Knee. 281 
 
 are caused by the disposition of the fat on each side of 
 the ligament (Pis., pp. 62, 66, 264, 282, 292, 332, and Figs. 
 160 and 162). 
 
 As viewed from the outer side, the outline of the front 
 of the knee is due to the form of the femoral condyles 
 and the patella. The position of the latter depends on 
 whether the muscles of the front of the thigh are contracted 
 or not. It is more prominent when the knee is forcibly 
 extended than when it is bent, as in the latter condition 
 the patella slips into the groove between the femoral 
 condyles. But be it noted that, the ligament of the patella 
 having once been put on the stretch, the distance between 
 the tubercle of the tibia and the lower border of the patella 
 can never vary, whatever be the position of the joint. In 
 this view of the limb the relation of the femoral condyles 
 to the upper end of the tibia is well seen. They should 
 appear as if well supported on the head of the tibia, and 
 should not display a forward thrust, as if there was a risk 
 of their slipping over the front of the tibia. This appear- 
 ance is by no means uncommon in models, and imparts 
 to the limb an extremely ugly outline, the line of the front 
 of the leg appearing to lie behind the line of the front of 
 the thigh, instead of being continuous with it over the 
 surface prominences of the knee. In flexion of the joints 
 as the patella sinks into the groove between the two 
 condyles, the rounded form of the front of the joint becomes 
 more^ and more due to the condyles, the inner of which, 
 being the more prominent of the two, helps to determine 
 the outline, even though viewed from the outer side. The 
 roundness caused by this condyle is further emphasized by 
 the fibres of the vastus internus, which are curving obliquely 
 across it to join the inner border of the patella (Pis., pp. 44, 
 66, 72, 230, 238, 240, 244, 280, 302). 
 
 The outer side of the joint is overlain by the ilio-tibial 
 band, which is here passing down to be attached to the 
 
282 
 
 Form of Knee. 
 
 The bones of the extended knee (right side). 
 Fig 164. Outer side. Fig. 165. Inner side. 
 
 /. Femur. fi. Fibula. 7i. Head of fibula. 
 
 tih. Tibia. p. Patella or knee-pan. 
 
 e. External condyle of femur. I. Ligament of the patella, 
 
 i. Internal condyle of femur. (. Tubercle of tibia. 
 
 The bones of the bent knee (right side). 
 Fig. 166. Front view. Fig. 167. Outer side. 
 
 a. Femur. i. Internal condyle of femur, 
 
 ft. Tibia. p. Patella, 
 
 f, Fibula. I. Ligament of the patella. 
 
 -". External condyle of femur. (, Tubercle of tibia. 
 
Form of Knee. 283 
 
 outer tuberosity of tlie tibia, in front of the head of the fibula. 
 In such actions as put a strain on this band it forms a sur- 
 face relief distinct from that caused by the vastus extemus, 
 which lies in front (Pis., pp. 44, 72, 292, 302). Behind the 
 ilio-tibial band the tendon of the biceps muscle may be 
 traced to the head of the fibula ; in passing down, it 
 causes a surface elevation corresponding to its form and 
 direction. In flexion this relief is at once emphasized. 
 The relations of the other structures in different positions 
 of the joint are best understood by a reference to the 
 plate, p. 240. 
 
 The roundness of the inner side of the knee is due to the 
 projection of the internal condyle and the internal tuberosity 
 of the tibia. The lowest fibres of the vastus internus partly 
 overlie the former, whilst curving down over the posterior 
 half of the inner side of the joint are the fibres of the 
 sartorius (here fleshy), behind which there lie in the fol- 
 lowing order, from before backwards, the tendons of the 
 gracilis, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus. The semi- 
 membranosus tendon passes away from the surface opposite 
 the level of the internal tuberosity of the tibia, into the 
 posterior border of which it is inserted. The tendons of all 
 the other muscles here enumerated pass down to be attached 
 to the upper part of the inner surface of the shaft of the 
 tibia, below the internal tuberosity, the sartorius forming 
 a broad expansion underneath which the other two tendons 
 are united to the bone, that of the gracilis lying on 
 a higher level than that of the semitendinosus. These 
 details are not indicated on the surface forms by separate 
 reliefs ; together they combine to form a rounded elevation 
 which curves over the inner side of the joint. In flexion 
 the two inner hamstrings, viz. the tendons of the semi- 
 membranosus and semitendinosus, become very prominent, 
 particularly the latter, and serve to carry the line of the 
 back of the thigh across the inner and posterior aspect of 
 
284 Form of Knee. 
 
 the flexed joint. On either side the spring of the muscles 
 of the calf, from the back and upper parts of the femoral 
 condyles, imparts a fullness to the back of the limb, behind 
 and below the joint (Pis., pp. 280, 292, 302). 
 
 The consideration of the surface forms on the back of the 
 knee must be postponed until the muscles of the calf have 
 been described. (See p. 304.) 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE LEG AND FOOT. 
 
 The muscles of the leg ^ are concerned in the movements 
 of the foot and toes. Before considering them, something 
 must therefore be said about the bones of the foot and the 
 ankle-joint. 
 
 The bones of the leg has been already described in the 
 previous chapter, but a more detailed account of their 
 lower extremities is necessary before the reader can fully 
 appreciate the structure and movements of the ankle-joint. 
 Unlike the knee, both bones of the leg enter into the forma- 
 tion of the ankle, though the tibia or inner bone plays 
 a much more important part in its construction than the 
 fibula or outer bone. 
 
 The lower end of the tibia is expanded, and on its inferior 
 surface displays a quadrilateral articular area, hollow from 
 before backwards and very slightly convex from side to 
 side. On the inner side of this the bone is prolonged 
 downwards to form a broad and more or less pointed process 
 called the internal malleolus. The inner aspect* of this 
 process is subcutaneous, and corresponds to the surface pro- 
 jection of the inner ankle. The outer surface of the internal 
 malleolus is provided with an articular facet, which is con- 
 tinuous with that already described on the under surface 
 of the expanded lower end of the tibia. 
 
 ' The term leg is here applied to that part of the limb which lies 
 below the knee. 
 
286 Bones of Leg. 
 
 The lower end of the fibula is also enlarged, and forms 
 a process called the external malleolus. This is narrower 
 
 Fia. i68. Front 
 view. 
 
 Right tibia and fibula articulated. 
 Fig. 169. Back Fig. 170. Outer Fig. 171. Inner 
 
 t. Tibia, inner bone of leg. 
 
 a. Tubercle of tibia, to which ligament 
 
 of patella is attached. 
 6. External tuberosity. 
 c. Internal tuberosity. 
 
 View. vi( 
 
 d. Head of fibula. 
 
 e. External malleolus (fibula). 
 /. Fibula. 
 
 t. Internal malleolus (tibia). 
 s a. Crest or shin. 
 
 and more pointed than the internal malleolus. The outer 
 
The Ankle. 287 
 
 surface of this external malleolus is subcutaneous and forms 
 the elevation of the outer ankle. The inner side of the 
 lower end of the fibula is firmly united to the outer side 
 of the inferior extremity of the tibia, beyond which it 
 projects considerably, and is smooth and covered with arti- 
 cular cartilage. When the two bones are joined together 
 the two cartilage-covered surfaces become continuous, 
 and an articular recess is formed, bounded on either side 
 by the inner and outer surfaces respectively of the two 
 malleoli, and between by the under surface of the lower 
 end of the shaft of the tibia. The student should now 
 study the relations of the malleolar pro- 
 cesses. The internal malleolus is broader 
 from before backwards, less pointed, lies 
 at a higher level, and is placed some- 
 what in front of the external, which is 
 more prominent and pointed, placed lower, 
 and lies on a plane behind that of the 
 internal. These are all details of the 
 greatest importance in the drawing of pjQ_ 172. Sketch 
 
 the foot, and the student would do well of bones of right 
 . . ,1 T_ ■ rni- ankle as seen from 
 
 to impress them on his memory. The hoVjin^ 
 
 anterior margins of the two malleoli are 
 
 rounded off in front, but posteriorly their borders are 
 
 grooved for the lodgement of certain tendons which pass 
 
 down behind them and so help to soften the surface 
 
 contours corresponding to these more or less abrupt edges. 
 
 One of the bones of the foot fits into the recess between 
 
 the two malleoli. The joint between these three bones is 
 
 called the anTcle-joint. 
 
 Just as we have carpal, metacarpal, and phalangeal bones 
 
 in the hand, so we have tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangeal 
 
 bones in the foot. The tarsal bones correspond in the foot 
 
 to the carpal or wrist-bones of the hand. They are seven 
 
 in number, in place of eight as in the carpus : this is due to 
 
288 
 
 Bones of the Foot. 
 
 the fact that the representative in the foot of the pisiform 
 
 bone of the hand has become fused to another of the tarsal 
 
 bones, thus leading to a reduction 
 
 in the number of these bones by 
 
 one. 
 
 The tarsal bones form a striking 
 contrast to the bones of the wrist ; 
 they are much larger and stouter, 
 and constitute a far larger propor- 
 tion of the foot than do the corre- 
 sponding bones of the hand. If 
 the length of the inner border of the 
 foot be taken from the heel to the tip 
 of the great toe the skeleton of the 
 hinder half of the foot is made up 
 of these tarsal bones, the half in 
 front being formed of the metatarsals 
 and greatly reduced phalanges or 
 toe-hones. The advantage of this 
 arrangement is at once obvious. It 
 is on the feet that we habitually 
 stand and rest the weight of the 
 body, and for this purpose strength 
 and solidity are necessary. The foot 
 is not a prehensile organ like the 
 hand, in which great freedom of 
 movement is obviously an advan- 
 tage. 
 
 The tarsal bones, of which a dia- 
 gram is here given (Fig. 173), are 
 named the astragalus, os calcis, 
 navicular, internal, middle and ex- 
 ternal cuneiforms, and the cuboid. 
 Of these the two most important are the astragalus or 
 huckle-bone and the os calcis or heel-bone; the rest help 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 173. The bones of 
 the right foot as seen 
 from above. The tibia 
 and fibula have been re- 
 moved so as to expose 
 
 a. Astragalus 
 
 b. Os calcis or heel- 
 
 bone 
 
 t. Navicular or sca- 
 phoid 
 
 d. Cuboid y Tarsus. 
 
 e External cunei- 
 form 
 
 /. Middle cuneiform 
 
 g. Internal cunei- 
 form / 
 
 / i i i i. Metatarsus. 
 
 iijii- Phalanges or toe- 
 bones. 
 
The Astragalus and Os calcts. 289 
 
 to form the rounded surface on the back of the foot 
 called the instep. 
 
 The astragalus consists of a hinder or larger part, the 
 body, the upper side of which is provided with a saddle- 
 shaped articular surface. The fore part of the bone is called 
 the head. This rounded surface, which is moulded on an ill- 
 defined neck, articulates with the navicular bone, and thus 
 supports the skeleton of the inner border of the foot. 
 
 The hinder part of the bone is of little importance as 
 a determinant of surface form, but is noteworthy because it 
 links together the bones of the foot with the bones of the leg. 
 Superiorly it fits into the recess between the two malleoli, 
 which thus prevent its lateral displacement and also check 
 excessive movement from side to side. Inferiorly it rests 
 on the upper surface of the heel-bone, whilst in front it 
 articulates, as has been said, with the navicular. 
 
 The OS calcis or heel-hone is not placed directly beneath 
 the astragalus, but lies under the outer half or so of that 
 bone. It supports the astragalus in part on its upper surface, 
 and in part by means of a bracket-like process called the 
 sustentaculum tali, talus being another name applied to 
 the astragalus. The inner side of the os calcis forms a wide 
 hollow which is overhung by the sustentaculum. The broad 
 groove which lies behind the inner ankle and between it 
 and the prominence of the heel allows the passage of the 
 numerous structures (tendons, vessels, &c.) which run from 
 the back of the leg downwards into the sole of the foot. 
 The most marked feature of the os calcis is its large pos- 
 terior extremity, which forms the prominence of the heel. 
 The length of this process varies in different individuals ; 
 it is more prominent in a thin, narrow, and long foot than 
 in a short and broad foot. The powerful tendon of the 
 muscles of the calf, called the tendo Achillis, is inserted 
 into this process. The outer side of the os calcis is sub- 
 cutaneous except where crossed by two tendons which pass 
 
 V 
 
290 The Ankle-joint. 
 
 down beliind the external malleolus : these tendons help 
 to carry the relief of the external malleolus on to the 
 surface form corresponding to the outer side of the heel- 
 bone. In front the os calcis articulates with the cuboid, 
 and thus supports the bones which lie along the outer 
 border of the foot. 
 
 Such farther description of the remaining tarsal bones 
 as may be necessary is for the present delayed until the foot 
 as a whole is considered. 
 
 The ankle-joint is the articulation between the tibia and 
 fibula above and the astragalus below. The fibula shares 
 but little in the transmission of the weight of the leg to the 
 foot, by its external malleolar process, however, it affords 
 support to the outer side of the joint, and thus prevents 
 lateral displacement of the astragalus. It is through the 
 under surface of the lower extremity of the shaft of the 
 tibia, which rests on the saddle-shaped surface of the upper 
 aspect of the astragalus, that the bulk of the weight passes. 
 The projection of the internal malleolus on the inner side 
 assists in strengthening the joint internally. The ankle 
 is further supported on either side by very strong lateral 
 ligaments which are attached above to the malleolar processes 
 and pass downwards as radiating bands which are connected 
 with the surfaces of the adjacent bones in front, below, and 
 behind. Anteriorly and posteriorly the capsule of the joint 
 is completed by thin and weak ligaments. 
 
 The movements of the ankle-joint are mainly those 
 of flexion and extension. Under ordinary conditions the 
 axis of the foot is placed at right angles to the axis of 
 the leg. The term flexion is applied to that movement in 
 which the joint is bent so as to bring the back of the foot 
 nearer the front of the leg. Extension is the reverse action ; 
 in it the axis of the foot is drawn more directly into line 
 with the axis of the leg, the heel is raised, and the toes 
 are pointed. The reader may easily satisfy himself that in 
 
The Ankle-joint. 291 
 
 the extremes of flexion and extension the degree of lateral 
 play of the joint varies very considerably. When the joint 
 is strongly flexed the articular surfaces are forced together 
 very firmly, owing to the fact that the wider part of the 
 
 Fig. 174. Bones of right foot, outer view. 
 
 a. Astragalus. 
 
 6. Os calcis (heel-bone). 
 
 c. Navicular. A. Cuboid. 
 
 e. External cuneiform. 
 
 /. Middle cuneiform. 
 
 Fig. 175. Bones of left foot, inner view. 
 
 g. Internal cuneiform, 
 
 h. External malleolus (fibula). 
 
 an. Metatarsus. 
 
 3, Phalanges. 
 
 k. Internal malleolus (tibia). 
 
 upper articular surface of the astragalus is driven home 
 between the two malleoli and acts like a wedge, thus 
 tightening the joint. In extension the narrower por- 
 tion of the articular surface of the astragalus occupies 
 the interval between the two malleoli, the whole joint is 
 
 u 2 
 
292 Muscles of the Leg. 
 
 much looser, and a slight amount of lateral play is now 
 possible. 
 
 The foot may also be turned so that the sole is directed 
 inwards or outwards as desired, the latter movement only 
 to a very limited extent. These movements take place at 
 the joints between the tarsal bones and not at the ankle, 
 though the slight lateral play of the latter joint may assist 
 a little in imparting more freedom to the movement. 
 
 The muscles of the leg are subdivided into three groups : 
 those lying in front of the bones, those behind, and those 
 which run along the outer side of the fibula. The leg, 
 similarly to the thigh, is invested with a sheath of fascia 
 like a stocking : along the inner side of the limb this sheath 
 is blended with the antero-internal subcutaneous surface 
 of the shaft of the tibia, so that it ceases to exist as a 
 distinct layer as it lies over the bone. From the deep 
 surface of the sheath along the outer side there pass in 
 partitions which connect it with the fibula. These inter- 
 muscular septa, as they are called, separate the muscles 
 which lie along the outer side of the fibula from those in 
 front and behind. In the region of the ankle the fascia 
 of the leg becomes thickened and forms more or less 
 distinct bands, one of which passes across the front of 
 the ankle, another over its inner, and a third over its 
 outer side ; these are called annular ligaments, and serve to 
 retain in position the numerous tendons which pass over the 
 different aspects of the joint, preventing them from being 
 drawn away from the surface of the bones in whatever direc- 
 tion the foot is moved (Pis., pp. 292, 302). 
 
 The muscles which lie along the front of the leg are 
 the following— the tibialis anticus, the extensor proprius 
 hallucis (special extensor of the great toe), the extensor 
 longus digitorum (long extensor of the toes), and the peroneus 
 tertius. These muscles arise partly from the tibia, partly 
 form the fibula, and also from the interosseous membrane 
 
5 -S 
 
 
 ^ 
 k 
 
 *. ^ 
 
 Co a; 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ,"3 k£ 
 
 ^ 5 
 
 « ^ a 
 
 V. 
 
 S 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 < 
 0- 
 o 
 
 
S*W|S^-, 
 
Tibialis anticus. 393 
 
 whicli connects the two bones throughout nearly their 
 whole length, and which, in the interval between the 
 two bones, separates the muscles of the front of the leg 
 from those which lie deeply on the back. The tendons 
 of these four muscles pass down in front of the ankle-joint 
 under cover of the anterior annular ligament; they are 
 therefore flexor muscles of the ankle, though the reader 
 will notice that some of them are named extensors. This 
 is an illustration of how the action of a muscle varies 
 according to the joints over which it passes ; thus the 
 extensor muscles of the toes pass along the dorsal or ex- 
 tensor surface of the toes, and in action will straighten 
 or extend them^ but as they pass down to reach the toes they 
 cross over the front or flexor aspect of the ankle and thus 
 become flexors of that joint. 
 
 Of these muscles the innermost is the tibialis anticus. 
 It lies along the outer side of the shaft of the tibia, from 
 the upper two-thirds of which it arises, as well as from the 
 external tuberosity of the same bone : deeply it takes origin 
 from the interosseous membrane. The muscle becomes 
 tendinous about the middle of the leg, and, following the 
 line of the shin for some distance, passes over the middle 
 of the front of the lower end of the tibia, across the ankle- 
 joint beneath the anterior annular ligament, and reaches 
 the middle of the inner border of the foot, round which 
 it turns to be inserted into the inner and under surface 
 of the internal cuneiform bone and the base of the meta- 
 tarsal bone of the great toe (Pis., pp. 44, 62, 72, 240, 264, 
 282, 293, 302, 332). 
 
 Above, where the muscle is thick and fleshy, it serves 
 to conceal the outline of the sharp anterior border of the 
 tibia; it carries the roundness of the inner surface of 
 the leg on to the front, imparting a fullness to it, and con- 
 cealing the shank-like appearance which is obvious when 
 this muscle is wasted. The tibialis anticus is a flexor 
 
294 Long Extensor of the Toes. 
 
 of the ankle, and also assists in raising the inner border of 
 the foot from the ground and turning the sole inwards. 
 
 Lying to the outer side of the tibialis anticus is the 
 long extensor of the toes. This muscle arises from the 
 external tuberosity of the tibia in front of the point of 
 its articulation with the head of the fibula, from the head 
 of the fibula, from the anterior surface of the shaft of that 
 bone, and from the adjacent surface of the interosseous 
 membrane. The bulk of the fibres which arise from the 
 front of the shaft of the fibula, viz. those which spring 
 from the upper three-quarters, unite in front to form 
 a tendon which passes down along the anterior edge of 
 the muscle in the lower half of the leg. Under cover 
 of the anterior annular ligament this tendon divides into 
 four separate slips, which spread out below the level of 
 the ligament and pass to the upper or dorsal surface of 
 the four outer toes, where they form expansions which are 
 inserted into the bases of the second and third phalanges 
 of these digits (Pis., pp. 62, 264, 282, 292, 302). 
 
 The fleshy fibres which arise from the lower quarter of 
 the anterior surface of the fibula have a diflEerent insertion 
 from the fibres which arise above. This small slip is called 
 the peroneus tertius, and its tendon passes to be inserted into 
 the dorsal or upper surface of the base of the metatarsal 
 bone of the little toe (Pis., pp. 292, 302). 
 
 The peroneus tertius is of little importance from the 
 present point of view, and may for all practical purposes 
 be disregarded. 
 
 The fleshy bellies of the tibialis anticus and the long 
 extensor of the toes lie close together in the upper half 
 of the leg. At the point where these muscles become 
 tendinous they separate, and in the interval between 
 them another muscle appears ; this is the special extensor 
 of the great toe. 
 
 The special extensor of the great toe arises from the 
 
Peroneal Muscles. 295 
 
 middle three-fifths of the anterior surface of the shaft of the 
 fibula, and also from the adjacent surface of the interosseous 
 membrane. At its origin it is in part concealed by the long 
 extensor of the toes and the anterior tibial muscle, but 
 becomes superficial as it occupies the interval between 
 the tendons of these two muscles. The tendon of the 
 special extensor of the great toe therefore occupies an 
 intermediate position between the tendons of the foregoing 
 muscles, and, entering a distinct compartment of the 
 anterior annular ligament of the ankle-joint, passes along 
 the inner and upper aspect of the instep to reach the 
 dorsal surface of the great toe, into the base of the terminal 
 phalanx of which it is inserted. In front, of the ankle this 
 tendon lies immediately to the outer side of that of the 
 tibialis anticus, but when the latter has passed to the middle 
 of the inner border of the foot, that to the great toe becomes 
 the most internal of the tendons passing along the upper 
 surface of the foot. The special extensor of the great toe 
 and the long extensor of the toes, as their names imply, 
 serve as straighteners or extensors of the toes, but they also 
 act as flexors of the foot on the leg (Pis., pp. 62, 72, 264, 
 282, 292, 302). 
 
 Lying to the outer side of the long extensor of the toes 
 is the group of muscles which arise from the external 
 surface of the shaft of the fibula. This comprises the 
 peroneal muscles, of which there are two ; the longer of 
 these muscles is the more superficial and overlies the 
 shorter one (Pis., pp. 44, 62, 72, 282, 292, 302). 
 
 The peroneus brevis arises from the lower two-thirds 
 of the external surface of the shaft of the fibula and from 
 the intermuscular septa on either side of it. It ends 
 in a tendon which winds round the back of the external 
 malleolus and is inserted, on the outer side of the foot, 
 into the projection at the base of the metatarsal bone 
 of the Little toe. The peroneus longus arises from the head 
 
296 Peroneal Muscles. 
 
 of the fibula and the upper two-thirds of the external sur- 
 face of the shaft; its fleshy part overlies the origin of 
 the peroneus brevis, and its tendon courses down over 
 the outer' surface of the same muscle to reach the back 
 of the prominence of the external malleolus, behind and 
 beneath which it passes in company with the tendon 
 of the brevis to reach the outer border of the foot. 
 At a point just behind the prominent base of the metatarsal 
 bone of the little toe the tendon enters a groove on the 
 under surface of the cuboid (one of the two tarsal bones 
 of the outer border of the foot), and courses deeply across 
 the sole of the foot to be inserted into the internal 
 cuneiform and base of the metatarsal bone of the great 
 toe. The tendon as it crosses the under surface of the foot 
 lies deeply, and has no influence whatever on the surface 
 forms. These two muscles, as they cover the outer surface 
 of the fibula, conceal the form of the shaft of that bone. 
 Above, the head of the fibula is readily recognised. Below, 
 the external malleolar process and the bone immediately 
 above it are subcutaneous, occupying the interval between 
 the peronei, which pass behind, and the lowest fibres of the 
 long extensor of the toes and the fibres of the peroneus 
 tertius, which lie in front. In the upper three-fourths 
 of the leg the anterior borders of the peroneus longus and 
 brevis are in contact with the posterior border of the long 
 extensor of the toes, which lies in front ; behind, the peronei 
 run alongside the anterior external border of one of the 
 calf muscles, called the soleus, which here takes origin 
 from the posterior surface of the head and shaft of the fibula. 
 In the lower fourth of the leg these muscles separate from 
 one another, the tendons of the peronei passing behind the 
 external malleolus, whilst that of the soleus is continued 
 down to the prominence of the heel. An interval is thus 
 formed, which in the living is filled with fat and bridged 
 over by certain layers of fascia; this corresponds to the 
 
Muscles of the Calf. 297 
 
 surface liollo-w between the external malleolus and the 
 tendo Achillis, or tendon of the calf muscles ; the depth 
 of this hollow varies according to the quantity of fat 
 present. Occasionally one of the deeper muscles of the 
 back of the leg, called the long flexor of the great toe, 
 becomes uncovered in the interval above described, though 
 lying at some considerable distance from the surface ; this 
 muscle exercises but a slight influence on the surface forms. 
 
 The tendons of the two peronei as they pass down behind 
 the outer ankle lie obliquely across the outer surface 
 of the OS calcis or heel-bone : in this position they are 
 held down by a ligament, called the external annular 
 ligament. By this means the prominence of the outer 
 ankle is rendered less abrupt, and the surface contours 
 become more rounded. The peroneus longus and brevis act 
 as extensors of the foot, i. e. they assist in pointing the toes. 
 Along with the peroneus tertius they also raise the outer 
 border of the foot and turn the sole outwards : the range 
 of this movement is limited. Their principal action is 
 to antagonize the muscles which turn the sole of the foot 
 inwards ; accordingly, when the foot is inverted they will 
 draw the foot back again to its normal position. 
 
 The muscles on the back of the leg which constitute the 
 prominence of the calf are subdivided into a superficial and 
 a deep group. The latter comprises the long flexors of the 
 toes and the tibialis posticus, which are placed so deeply, 
 however, that they have little direct influence on the 
 modelling of the surface, though by their presence they 
 impart a fullness to the limb. The tendons of these muscles 
 all pass down into the sole of the foot in a series of grooves, 
 which lie behind the prominence of the inner ankle and 
 between it and the projection of the heel. It is here that, 
 to a slight extent, their fleshy bellies crop up between the 
 tendo Achillis and the posterior border of the tibia, as will 
 be noticed hereafter (Pis., pp. 282, 302). 
 
298 Muscles of the Calf. 
 
 The superficial muscles of tlie posterior group are the 
 soleus and the gastrocnemius. The soleus is the deeper of the 
 two. It arises from the back of the head and upper third 
 of the shaft of the fibula, and from the back of the shaft of 
 the tibia along a line which leads from the surface on the 
 external tuberosity, where the head of the fibula articulates, 
 obliquely downwards and inwards, to blend with the posterior 
 border of the bone, i. e. that border which limits posteriorly 
 the subcutaneous internal surface of the shaft. The muscle 
 is attached to this border as low down as the junction of 
 the middle with the lower third of the length of the 
 tibia. The student will observe that the soleus takes origin 
 from the posterior borders of both bones of the leg, from 
 the tibia on the inner side, and from the fibula on the outer 
 side : the importance of this will be hereafter referred to. 
 
 Between the two bones the muscle arises from a ten- 
 dinous arch, which crosses over the deeper structures. The 
 fleshy fibres, which are short, are inserted into a broad 
 tendon, which gradually narrows as it passes downwards. 
 The lateral fibres of origin as they spring from the tibia 
 and fibula pass obliquely towards the middle line of the 
 muscle. The tendon, which also receives the insertion of 
 the gastrocnemius muscle, is called the tendo Achillis, and is 
 attached below to the back part of the tuberosity of the 
 heel-bone (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 44, 72, 240, 264, 282, 292, 302, 332). 
 
 The gastrocnemius, which rests upon and lies superficial 
 to the soleus, has no attachment to the bones of the leg. 
 It arises by two heads from the back of the lower end of 
 the thigh-bone, immediately above the condyles. At its 
 origin it is partly tendinous and partly fleshy. The two 
 bellies lie side by side behind the knee, with the hamstring 
 tendons to their inner and outer sides : below, where they 
 have escaped from the confining influence of these structures, 
 the bellies of the gastrocnemius become much enlarged and 
 bulge out laterally (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 292). 
 
Tendo A chillis. 299 
 
 The inner head is more prominent than the outer, and 
 somewhat longer. Both bellies are inserted into the super- 
 ficial aspect of the tendo Achillis, about the level of the 
 middle of the leg, the inner head, as has been said, reaching 
 a somewhat lower level than the outer. Above, where the 
 two heads of the muscle lie behind the knee and between 
 the hamstring tendons, they are separated by a V -shaped 
 interval which bounds inferiorly the hollow called the ham. 
 Below this the angle of the V is continued downwards as 
 a linear depression, which serves to indicate the separation 
 of the two halves of the muscle : this may be traced right 
 down to the insertion, where it opens out to correspond 
 with an interval overlying the tendon and placed between 
 the rounded and somewhat pointed inferior extremities 
 of the fleshy bellies. 
 
 As will be seen by a reference to the Plates, pp. 62, 264, 
 282, 292, 332, the inner belly of the gastrocnemius overlaps 
 the upper part of the inner or tibial attachment of the soleus, 
 and here determines the outline of the limb as seen from 
 either front or back. The outer belly, being narrower, does 
 not overlap the outer or fibular attachment of the soleus, 
 so that the gastrocnemius plays no part in determining the 
 surface outline of the outer side of the leg as viewed from 
 the back or front ; here the outline depends on the soleus 
 above and the peronei below (Pis., pp. 42^ 62, 292). 
 
 The tendo Achillis, which is the combined tendon of the 
 soleus and gastrocnemius, occupies the lower half of the back 
 of the leg. Its size and strength vary with the muscular 
 development of the model ; superiorly it may attain a width 
 of three inches. At this point it receives the insertions of 
 the fleshy bellies of the gastrocnemius : gradually diminishing 
 in width as it passes downwards, it receives on either side 
 the fleshy fibres of the soleus as they run towards the 
 middle line of the calf — from the fibula on the outer side 
 and the tibia on the inner side. 
 
300 Tendo A chillis. 
 
 At a point about three or four inclies above its lower 
 attachment the tendon runs down clear of muscular fibres, 
 and, gradually tapering, at a point about an inch above the 
 tuberosity of the heel it again expands before it is actually 
 inserted into the os calcis. At its narrowest part the tendon 
 measures about three-quarters of an inch in width, but this, 
 as has been said, largely depends on the muscular develop- 
 ment of the model: it is inserted into the middle third 
 of the tuberosity of the heel-bone. The upper part of the 
 tuberosity is separated from the deep surface of the tendon 
 by a little sac called a bursa, containing oily fluid, which 
 serves to lubricate the opposed surfaces of the bone and 
 tendon as they move on one another. Not unfrequently 
 the bone below the insertion of the tendon projects some- 
 what ; this, when covered by the dense tissue of the heel, 
 forms a rounded contour distinct from and below the 
 insertion of the tendo AcMlUs, which is often represented 
 in the antique, and is well seen in the outstretched left 
 leg of the Fighting Gladiator. This form of heel is by no 
 means universal, and the student need not be disappointed 
 if he fails to meet with it in the majority of models he 
 examines. 
 
 The gastrocnemius and soleus are powerful extensors of the 
 ankle. If the foot be raised from the ground and the toes 
 pointed, the foot acts like a lever of the first class ; the ankle 
 is the fulcrum, the part of the foot in front of the ankle is 
 the long arm of the lever, which in this instance repre- 
 sents the weight, the part of the foot behind the ankle is 
 the short arm to which the force exercised by the muscles is 
 applied. It is by the contraction of the same muscles that 
 we are enabled to raise ourselves on tiptoe ; in this posi- 
 tion the foot is now converted into a lever of the second 
 class, the fulcrum being represented by the part of the foot 
 in contact with the ground, the weight corresponding to the 
 ankle, through which the pressure exercised by the bulk of 
 
Action of Muscles of Calf 301 
 
 the body is transmitted to the foot, the force, as before, being 
 applied to the extremity of the heel. 
 
 But the reader will note that the gastrocnemius muscle 
 differs from the soleus in not being attached to the bones 
 of the leg. It arises from the lower end of the thigh-bone, 
 it therefore passes behind the knee, and will accordingly, 
 under certain conditions, act as a flexor of that joint. These 
 conditions are the fixation of the ankle-joint by the extensor 
 muscles on the front of the leg, and the relaxation of the 
 extensor muscles of the knee on the front of the thigh. 
 
 In regard to the development of the muscles of the calf 
 a point of some practical importance arises. It has been 
 shown how the foot is to be regarded as a lever ; the force 
 necessary to effect the same results will vary inversely as the 
 length of the lever; thus a short lever will require the appli- 
 cation of a greater force to produce the same result than 
 when a long lever is employed. It follows from this\that 
 the developm.ent of the muscles of the calf which supply 
 the power will stand in some relation to the foot. Experi- 
 ence proves that this is the case. We find the most marked 
 muscular development of the calf associated with a short 
 foot and a short heel, while a long foot and a long heel 
 are the usual concomitants of a poorly developed calf. Yet 
 it by no means follows that the latter type is less capable 
 of performing feats of endurance and fatigue than the 
 former; indeed, an examination of the legs of some of the 
 best running men of the day goes far to prove that their 
 success does not at all depend on an excess in the bulk 
 of the calf, for many of them display, what an uneducated 
 spectator might regard as, but a feeble development of these 
 muscles. 
 
 During powerful contraction of these muscles, as in the 
 act of standing on tiptoe, the fleshy bellies of the gastro- 
 cnemius become outstanding elevations, their lower ends 
 where they are inserted into the tendo Achillis forming 
 
302 Surface Contours of Leg. 
 
 abrupt margins of a more or' less pointed form. At the 
 same time the fibres of the soleus which lie uncovered on 
 either side of the limb form elongated surface elevations, 
 which blend inferiorly with the margins of the tendo 
 Achillis, the broad expanded upper surface of which cor- 
 responds to a more or less triangular flattened area, which 
 gradually narrows and merges inferiorly with the ridge 
 which leads below to the prominence of the heel, and which 
 corresponds to that part of the tendon which is free from 
 muscular fibres (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 264, 292). 
 
 In the profile view of the back of the limb the outline of 
 the upper half or so of the leg depends on the form of the 
 fleshy bellies of the gastrocnemius, and will vary according 
 to their state of contraction ; below, the outline depends on 
 the tendo Achillis. This outline is gently curved — convex 
 backwards above and slightly hollow below, where it passes 
 to the heel : the latter curve should not be unduly empha- 
 sized, as it leads to an unpleasant projection of the heel 
 (Pis., pp. 44, 72, 240, 282, 302). 
 
 In front and on the outer side of the limb the anterior 
 border of the soleus is defined by a straight linear de- 
 pression, which passes from the back of the head of the 
 fibula to the outer border of the tendo Achillis ; this line 
 serves to separate the calf muscles behind from the peronei 
 (long and short) in front (Pis., pp. 240, 302). 
 
 On the inner side of the limb the muscles of the calf 
 are very clearly mapped out by the posterior border of the 
 tibia. This border, the reader will remember, corresponds to 
 that margin of the bone which defines posteriorly the sub- 
 cutaneous surface of the shaft, the surface which lies between 
 the flexors of the ankle in front and the extensor muscles 
 posteriorly. Behind the upper fourth or so of this margin 
 lies the inner prominent head of the gastrocnemius, where 
 it escapes from under cover of the inner hamstrings as they 
 pass to the inner tuberosity of the tibia. The middle third 
 
■•« 
 
 ■<« 
 
 
 ffo 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 •St 
 
 "t' 
 
 
 "•9 
 
 '9 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 ^ 
 ■^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 )< 
 
 •8 
 1 
 
 
 ■<^ 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 :S 
 
 ■5 t~i o '^ 
 
 B 8" *i ?:, 
 
 ^ i? ^ >? 
 
 I > 
 
 5 5k 
 
 »• *■ is 
 
 !^ I ^ 
 
 "S P •§ - ,- 
 
 J -fee a =S S 
 
 a; ivi f~, f-i ^ 
 
 .« 
 
 1. 
 
 f ^ 
 
 z 
 
 H 
 O 
 O 
 
 <^ 
 
 Q 
 Z 
 < 
 
 O 
 M 
 
 >4 
 
 Id 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 X 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 ►J 
 Oh 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 < 
 
 U 
 
 
 ! 
 
Surface Contours of Leg. 303 
 
 of this margin lies in front of the fibres of th« soleus which 
 arise from the tibia, and which are passing obliquely down- 
 wards and backwards to be inserted into the inner border 
 of the tendo Achillis. Below that point the posterior border 
 of the tibia is separated from the tendo Achillis by an 
 elongated triangular interval, the apex of which is directed 
 upwards. It is here that the fleshy bellies of some of the 
 deeper muscles, particularly the long flexor of the toes, 
 become superficial and exercise a direct influence on the 
 surface, helping to fill up the gap that would otherwise 
 exist between the tibia and the tendo Achillis (Pis., pp. 
 241, 282, 302). 
 
 The hollow behind the inner ankle is of crescentic form. 
 Its greatest width is between the internal malleolus and 
 the prominence of the heel ; superiorly it fades away on 
 the surface corresponding to the triangular interval above 
 referred to ; whilst inferiorly it curves behind and below 
 the inner ankle to pass under the inner border of the foot 
 and thus reach the hollow of the sole. The margins of this 
 hollow are less abrupt than might be expected from an 
 inspection of the skeleton ; this is due to the arrangement of 
 the fascia, which here forms the internal annular ligament 
 and serves to bridge over the interval. It is beneath this 
 structure that the tendons of the deep muscles of the back of 
 the leg pass to the sole of the foot. The muscles which spring 
 from the under surface of the heel-bone, and w;hich run 
 along the inner border of the sole of the foot, have also a 
 considerable influence in modifying the surface forms ; and 
 the distribution of the subcutaneous tissue which here forms 
 the pad of the heel should not be overlooked. 
 
 In studying the outline of the leg as seen from the front 
 the student's attention must be directed to the fact that the 
 outlines of the inner and outer side of the limb do not 
 depend on any of the structures which lie on the front of 
 the leg, but are chiefly due to the projection on either side 
 
304 The Back of the Knee. 
 
 of the muscles of tlie calf Along the outer side the fibular 
 attachment of the soleus determines the outline of about the 
 upper third of the limb ; below, the outline is carried down 
 to the external ankle by the two peroneal muscles (long 
 and short). If the outline of the inner side of the leg be 
 divided into thirds, the upper third is due to the projection 
 of the inner belly of the gastrocnemius, the middle third 
 to the fibres of the soleus arising from the tibia, whilst the 
 lower third, which includes the projection of the inner 
 ankle below, depends for its fullness above on the fleshy 
 fibres of the long flexor of the toes, which here become 
 superficial between the tibia in front and the tendo Achillis 
 behind (PL, p. 292). 
 
 The hollow behind the knee, the Tiam, so called, was not 
 described in the last chapter, because the reader was not 
 then familiar with all the structures necessary to enable him 
 fully to understand the relations of this space. 
 
 The hollow corresponds to a diamond- shaped inter-mus- 
 cular space which lies behind the knee-joint. Above, it is 
 formed by the separation of the hamstring muscles as they 
 pass outward and inward on either side of the knee, the 
 biceps to the outer side, the semitendinosus and semimem- 
 branosus to the inner side. Below, the space corresponds to 
 the V-shaped interval between the heads of the gastro- 
 cnemius as they arise from the back and upper surface of each 
 femoral condyle. The interval is occupied by a large quantity 
 of soft fat in which lie the vessels and nerves passing down 
 to the leg. Stretching across from the sides of the space is 
 a layer of fascia, which is particularly strong in this region ; 
 it is really only a specialized part of the general fascial 
 investment of the limb which overlies the hoUow, immedi- 
 ately beneath the skin and superficial fat, and serves to 
 retain the contents of the space in position. The tenseness 
 of this fascia varies with the position of the limb : when the 
 knee is bent it becomes relaxed, as any one may satisfy 
 
The Back of the Knee. 305 
 
 himself by feeling the back of the knee when the joint 
 is flexed. The sharp skin folds on either side depend 
 on the position of the inner and outer hamstrings, within 
 which l^he two heads of the gastrocnemius may be felt 
 passing from the back of the condyles of the thigh-bone 
 (PL, p. 292). 
 
 With the limb in the extended condition the fascia is 
 rendered tense, and the student will experience difficulty in 
 recognizing the afore-mentioned details unless he is familiar 
 with the anatomy of this region. In this position the 
 hamstring tendons are best recognized further up the back 
 of the limb; in place of there being a hollow between 
 them, there is a distinct fullness over the back of the 
 joint, due to the contents of the space being pushed up 
 against the tightly stretched fascia, as well as the femoral 
 condyles which, together with the heads of the gastro- 
 cnemius, are now forced back as far as possible. The 
 positions of the hamstring tendons on either side of this 
 central elevation are now indicated by shallow longi- 
 tudinal furrows, which pass down towards the inner and 
 outer tuberosity of the tibia, the external reaching the 
 head of the fibula. In women the inner of these furrows 
 is often especially well marked. The appearance may 
 perhaps be better described by saying that in the extended 
 position of the limb the surface elevation overlying the calf 
 is prolonged upwards on the back of the thigh, occupying 
 like a wedge the A-shaped interval between the outer and 
 inner hamstrings, the positions of which are indicated by 
 the shallow furrows above described. Crossing this eleva- 
 tion at a level corresponding to the joint is a cutaneous 
 fold or line of flexure. This fold is either slightly curved 
 with the convexity directed upwards, or it may display 
 a slight obliquity, being a little higher on the outer than on 
 the inner side. Its depth varies considerably in different 
 individuals: in a spare model it is but faintly marked, 
 
 X 
 
3o6 Form of Leg in Female. 
 
 but in one in whom there is mucli superficial fat, or m 
 women, it is readily recognized. The fold is of course 
 stretched during extension of the joint, but becomes at 
 once emphasized when the knee is bent (Pis., pp. 34, 38, 42, 
 238, 292). 
 
 Little need be said beyond what has been already stated 
 in regard to the influence of the structures already described 
 on the form of the limb; in powerful contraction the 
 lines of separation of the muscles on the front of the leg 
 are indicated by a series of shallow longitudinal furrows 
 all more or less parallel, and best seen in the upper or 
 fleshy part of the leg. Passing from within outwards, 
 Ve can recognize the furrows separating the anterior 
 tibial muscle from the long extensor of the toes, the long 
 extensor of the toes from the peronei (long and short), and 
 the peronei (long and short) from the fibular origin of the 
 soleus. The surface markings on the back and inner side 
 of the leg have been sufficiently explained (Pis., pp. 72, 264, 
 280, 282, 292, 302, 332). 
 
 We have taken as our type the spare athletic male. The 
 influence of the muscles on the surface forms is much 
 reduced whenever the subcutaneous fat becomes abundant : 
 this is exemplified in the female, in whom the limb presents 
 a uniformly smooth appearance with little or no indication 
 of subjacent structures except under the most exceptional 
 circumstances ; the outlines are more flowing, and the curves 
 more uniform. In this connexion it may be noted that 
 in the female the fullness of the calf descends to a lower 
 level than in the male. In women, owing to their more 
 delicately modelled bones, the surface forms of the inner 
 and outer ankle are less prominent and more rounded than 
 in the male. The shortness of the female foot is no doubt 
 associated with the greater relative development of the 
 muscles of the calf (Pis., pp. 66, 230, 238, 244). 
 
 As has been already stated in the earlier part of this 
 
Bones of the Foot. 
 
 2P1 
 
 chapter, the skeleton of the foot consists of tarsal, metatarsal, 
 and phalangeal bones. The part of the foot formed by the 
 tarsal bones exceeds in length that formed by the metatarsal, 
 and similarly that formed by the 
 series of metatarsals exceeds in length 
 that formed by the phalanges or 
 bones of the toes. This arrange- 
 ment of the bones of the foot is in 
 striking contrast with what one sees 
 in the hand; the combined length 
 of the phalanges or finger-bones is 
 greater than the length of the palm 
 or metacarpal bones, and these in 
 turn exceed the length of the part 
 of the hand formed by the wrist or 
 carpal bones. It is obvious that 
 these differences are correlated with 
 the fiinctions the foot is called upon 
 to discharge, for the toes, which cor- 
 respond to the most freely movable 
 part of th6 hand — the fingers — are 
 much reduced in their relative pro- 
 portions, whilst that part which 
 corresponds to the supporting part 
 of the hand, the wrist, is greatly 
 increased. As has been already 
 pointed out, this increase in the 
 size of the tarsal elements imparts 
 greater strength and solidity to the 
 foot, requirements of which it stands 
 much in need from the nature of 
 the dtities it has to perform. 
 
 The astragalus and os calcis have 
 been sufficiently described (ante, 
 
 p. 288). The astragalus supports the inner column of the 
 
 X 2 
 
 VlQ. 176, The bones of 
 the right foot as seen 
 from above. The tibia 
 and fibula have been re- 
 moved so as to expose 
 
 a. Astragalus 
 6. Os oalois or heel- 
 tone 
 
 c. Navicular or soar 
 
 phoid 
 
 d. Cnboid yTarsus. 
 
 e. External otmei- 
 
 form 
 /. Middle otmeiform 
 g. Internal cnnei- 
 
 form ' 
 
 iiiii. Metatarsus. 
 33333- Phalanges 
 
 bones. 
 
 toe- 
 
3o8 Bones of the Foot. 
 
 foot, which consists, in order from behind forwards, of the 
 navicular, the three cuneiforms, and the three metatarsal 
 hones which support the three inner toes. 
 
 The OS oalcis, or heel-bone, supports the skeleton of the 
 outer column of the foot, which includes from behind 
 forwards the cuboid and the metatarsal hones of the two 
 outer toes. The outer border of the foot, as we proceed from 
 the heel forward, is formed by the os calcis or heel-bone, the 
 cuboid, the metatarsal bone, and the phalanges of the little 
 toe. The metatarsal bone of the little toe is characterized 
 by an enlarged base ; this forms a marked projection 
 which can be readily felt at the middle of the outer border 
 of the foot. Tracing the outline of the inner border of 
 the foot, the os calcis can be recognized on the inner side 
 of the heel : below and in front of the inner ankle the sus- 
 tentaculum tali of the os calcis and the astragalus can be 
 felt ; in front of the latter the projecting inner border of 
 the navicular bone, called the tuberosity, can be easily dis- 
 tinguished ; lying in front of this is the internal cuneiform, 
 articulating anteriorly with the base of the metatarsal bone 
 of the great toe : this joint corresponds pretty closely to the 
 middle of the inner border of the foot, reckoning the distance 
 from the heel to the tip of the great toe. In front, the head 
 of the metatarsal bone articulates with the first phalanx of 
 the great toe, which in turn supports the terminal phalanx 
 of that digit, there being only two phalanges in the great 
 toe in place of three as in the others, an arrangement 
 which corresponds with what we have seen in the case 
 of the thumb. The joint between the metatarsal bone and 
 the first phalanx of the great toe is supported beneath 
 by two small nodules of bone; these are called sesamoid 
 bones, and the whole joint so formed corresponds to what 
 is known as the ball of the great toe. The bones which 
 form the outer and inner columns of the foot, above referred 
 to, are themselves united together by joints and ligaments, 
 
Arches of the Foot. 
 
 309 
 
 "witli the exception, of course, of tlie bones of tlie toes, wMch 
 are not laterally united to each other (Fig. 176). 
 
 Just as the bones of the hand were arranged so as to 
 form the hollow of the palm, so the 
 bones of the foot are united together 
 to form a series of longitudinal and 
 transverse arches, which curve the sole 
 in such a manner that the whole of its 
 surface is never in contact with the 
 ground. The best way by which to 
 demonstrate this is to wet the foot 
 by dipping it in water and then step 
 on a dry floor ; the wet imprint left 
 when the foot is lifted represents accu- 
 rately the surface cof the sole which has 
 touched the ground. From this it 
 appears that the heel, the outer border 
 of the foot, the fore part of the foot, 
 corresponding to the ball of the great 
 toe, and the pads which cover the 
 under surface of the other metatarso- 
 phalangeal joints have all been in con- 
 tact with the floor, whilst the part 
 corresponding to the interval between 
 the heel and ball of the great toe, lying 
 along the inner border of the foot, has 
 not touched the ground, as is evidenced 
 by the fact that the floor corresponding 
 to this part of the sole is dry. 
 
 Again, it must have been the ex- 
 perience of every one when trying on 
 a new boot that the fit was apparently 
 comfortable and perfect so long as the foot was raised, 
 but on placing the foot to the ground and throwing the 
 weight of the body on it the boot, which otherwise appeared 
 
 Fig. 177. Outlines 
 of the imprint of the 
 sole of the foot. The 
 clotted line shows the 
 outline of the sole of 
 the footwhen it merely 
 rests without pressure 
 on a plane surface. 
 The thick black line 
 represents the same 
 when the weight of 
 the body rests on 
 the foot. The latter 
 outline is longer and 
 broader than the for- 
 mer, which shows how 
 the foot exp;inds in all 
 its diameters when it 
 is subjected to pres- 
 sure. 
 
3IO Arches of the Foot. 
 
 to fit the wearer, then felt cramped and tight ; this at 
 once brings home the fact that under these different con- 
 ditions the shape and size of the foot alter considerably; 
 in other words, the foot spreads out when the weight of 
 the body is thrown upon it : it lengthens, the toes being 
 pushed further into the point of the boot, and it becomes 
 wider, as is proved by the tightness across the instep (see 
 Fig. 177). 
 
 It is important that the reader should be familiar with 
 the mechanism by which these changes are effected. As has 
 been stated, the bones of the foot, apart from those of the 
 toes, are arranged in a series of transverse and longitudinal 
 arches ; the former are apparent, as they form the rounded 
 
 b 
 
 Fig. 178. Fig. 179. 
 
 Diagrams to illustrate the arches of the foot. 
 
 a. The longitudinal arch. 
 
 J. The transverse arch through the enneiforms and ouhoid. 
 
 contour from side to side of the upper surface of the foot. 
 The concavity of these transverse arches assists in forming 
 the hollow of the sole. 
 
 The experiment with the wetted foot has demonstrated 
 the existence of a longitudinal arch, of which the posterior 
 pillar is the prominence of the heel, the anterior pillar 
 corresponding to the ball of the great toe and the pad of 
 the fore part of the foot immediately external to it : the arch 
 between these two points coincides with the inner border of 
 the foot, which is raised from the ground. The existence 
 
Arches of the Foot. 311 
 
 of these arches imparts a certain amount of elasticity to 
 the foot ; they are like curved springs the extremities of 
 which are in contact with the ground : if over the most 
 elevated part of the spring pressure be applied, the result 
 will be that the spring will spread out, its extremities will 
 be more widely separated, and the distance between the 
 highest point of the curve of the spring and the ground 
 will be reduced. The arches of the foot act very much 
 in the same way ; they spread out when the weight of the 
 body is thrown on the foot, but they recover themselves at 
 once when the pressure is removed. The elasticity thus 
 imparted to the foot is of the greatest service in enabling 
 it to withstand the violent shocks to which it is so fre- 
 quently subjected. A little experiment will bring this 
 home to the reader. In jumping from a height one lands 
 ordinarily on the ball of the foot, the heel being the last 
 part to touch the ground ; the shock is thus much reduced 
 before the force is transmitted up through the leg: but if 
 in place of landing on the fore part of the foot the reader 
 jumps from an inconsiderable height and lands on his 
 heels with the knees extended he will realize how un- 
 pleasant the shock is by the jarring effect which it produces ; 
 a height of a few inches is quite suf&cient to cause results 
 unpleasant enough to produce a lasting effect on the 
 memory. In this case the arches of the foot cannot yield 
 to the force, and so the shock is directly transmitted 
 through the heel-bone and astragalus to the bones of the leg. 
 
 Apart from the elasticity which is thus imparted to the 
 foot, these arches also serve a useful purpose in protecting 
 the nerves and vessels of the sole from the baneful effects 
 of pressure. The reader will now realize how these struc- 
 tures, as they lie in the hollow behind the inner ankle, pass 
 down into the sole under cover of the arch which raises the 
 inner border of the foot from the ground. 
 
 The lesson to be learnt from these observations is that 
 
312 Dorsum of the Foot. 
 
 the foot when it supports the weight of the body on the 
 ground is longer, broader, and flatter than when raised, in 
 which position, the strain being taken off the arches, the 
 foot becomes more curved and the elevation of the instep 
 more pronounced. 
 
 As man only exceptionally makes use of the foot as a pre- 
 hensile organ, the reader will note that that part of the foot 
 (i. e. the toes) which corresponds to the most movable segment 
 of the hand— the fingers — is much reduced in size : moreover, 
 owing to the fact that in the foot the further extremity 
 of the metatarsal bone of the great toe is united to the other 
 metatarsal bones, we have no such power of opposition of 
 the great toe with the other toes as we possess in the thumb 
 and fingers, for in the hand the distal end of the metacarpal 
 bone of the thumb is free and unconnected with the other 
 metacarpals. 
 
 The dorsal surface of the foot owes its form in great part 
 to the arrangement of the bones. Overlying these are the 
 tendons which are passing down from the anterior surface 
 of the leg in front of the ankle. As previously described, 
 the tendon of the anterior tibial muscle may be traced 
 from the inner side of the front of the ankle down to the 
 middle of the inner border of the foot ; in like maimer the 
 tendon of the peroneus tertius, the muscle which is intimately 
 associated with the lower fibres of origin of the long 
 extensor of the toes, may be traced from the ankle imme- 
 diately in front of the lower end of the fibula to the middle 
 of the outer border of the foot, where it is attached to the 
 base of the metatarsal bone of the little toe on its upper 
 surface : this tendon is small and thin, and only exceptionally 
 gives any indication of its presence by a corresponding 
 surface elevation. Between the foregoing muscles as they 
 lie on either side of the front of the ankle are placed the 
 tendons of the long extensor of the toes and the special 
 extensor of the great toe. The former, which are four in 
 
Short Extensor of Toes. 313 
 
 number, pass to tlie dorsal surfaces of the four outer toes, 
 whilst the latter, which is single, passes down to the dorsum 
 of the great toe. Above, at the front of the ankle, the 
 tendons are confined within narrow limits ; below, on the 
 dorsum of the foot, they spread out as they pass forwards 
 to reach the toes (PL, p. 292). 
 
 If the reader will place his finger on the dorsum of his 
 own foot in front of the outer ankle he will recognize that 
 something soft and of considerable thickness here overlies 
 the tarsal bones and prevents him from recognizing as 
 easily as elsewhere their details. This is a muscle, called 
 the short extensor of the toes: it arises from the fore 
 part of the os calcis or heel-bone and the hollow between 
 it and the astragalus, from the outer side of the os calcis 
 in front of the groove in which the peroneus brevis is 
 lodged, and also from the anterior annular ligament : the 
 muscle at its origin therefore lies immediately in front of 
 and below the prominence of the outer ankle. The fleshy 
 part of the muscle is placed obliquely across the dorsum 
 of the foot from without inwards, ending in four small 
 tendons which pass to the four inner toes. The tendon 
 to the great toe is inserted into the base of the first 
 phalanx, the other tendons blend with those of the long 
 extensor muscle which pass to the second, third, and fourth 
 toes. As the muscle crosses obliquely over the dorsum of 
 the foot it is overlain by the tendons already enumerated, 
 with the exception of the special extensor of the great 
 toe and the tibialis anticus, which lie altogether to its 
 inner side. 
 
 It is to the presence of this muscle that the fullness of 
 the dorsum of the foot in front of the external malleolus 
 is due. The tendons which cross it, particularly the tendon 
 of the peroneus tertius, help to restrict its influence on 
 the surface contours ; but in the interval between the 
 peroneus tertius in front, the external malleolus behind, 
 
314 Muscles of the Foot. 
 
 and the tendon of the peroneus brevis below as it passes 
 to the spur of the metatarsal bone of the little toe, the 
 fleshy part of the muscle forms an oval elevation, which 
 is considerably intensified when the toes are forcibly ex- 
 tended (Pis., pp. 292, 302). 
 
 The appearance of the back of the foot will vary 
 according to the amount of subcutaneous fat present; if 
 that is considerable in quantity, the outlines of the various 
 tendons are masked, and only become apparent when 
 the muscles are strongly contracted. Similarly with the 
 veins which usually form a feature of some prominence 
 on the back of the foot ; they are best seen in a model 
 of spare habit, where their presence is indicated by their 
 surface projection ; when embedded in a layer of sub- 
 cutaneous fat their outline is displayed rather by colour 
 than by elevation. As the arrangement of the veins of 
 the lower limb will be described hereafter, it is not neces- 
 sary at present to refer further to them. 
 
 As in the hand, so in the foot, the intervals between the 
 metatarsal bones are occupied by muscles called interossei; 
 these serve to maintain the uniformity of the surface con- 
 tours and prevent an undue definition of these bones of 
 the foot. 
 
 The under surface of the bones of the foot is provided 
 with many muscles ; these are arranged for the purpose 
 of anatomical description into layers, but a knowledge of 
 their details is happily unnecessary. The muscles which 
 have most influence on the surface form are naturally those 
 which are immediately covered by the skin and fascia 
 of the sole. The three most important arise posteriorly 
 from the under surface of the prominence of the heel. Of 
 these, one passes forward along either border of the foot, 
 whilst the third occupies an intermediate position. 
 
 The aMuctor hallucis, or abdtictor of the great toe, arises 
 behind from the inner side of the under surface of the 
 
Muscles of the Foot. 315 
 
 bony prominence of the heel. Its fibres pass forwards 
 along the inner border of the foot, forming a fleshy 
 longitudinal prominence. Anteriorly the muscle is in- 
 serted into the inner of the two sesamoid bones, which 
 are placed one on either side of the under surface of the 
 joint between the metatarsal bone and first phalanx of 
 the great toe (PL, p. 302). 
 
 The abductor minimi digiti, or abductor of the little toe, 
 arises behind from the outer side of the under surface of 
 the bony prominence of the heel. As its fleshy flbres pass 
 along the outer border of the foot they are attached to 
 the prominent tubercle of the base of the flfth metatarsal 
 bone. Anteriorly the muscle is inserted into the base 
 of the first phalanx of the little toe along with the short 
 flexor of that digit. The fleshy part of the muscle forms 
 the surface elevation along the under surface of the outer 
 border of the foot, between the heel-bone behind and the 
 prominent spur of the fifth metatarsal bone in front, as 
 well as along the outer and under surface of that bone. 
 In standing on the foot this border is in contact with 
 the ground, and is compressed and flattened by the weight 
 thrown on it (PL, p. 302). 
 
 The action of these two muscles is indicated by their 
 name. Only here it is necessary to warn the reader that 
 the terms adduction and abduction of the toes apply to 
 movements whereby the toes are drawn to or away from 
 a line passing along the axis of the second toe, and have 
 no relation whatever to the middle line' of the body. 
 
 Occupying the interval between these two muscles, 
 and lying along the middle of the sole of the foot, is 
 the flexor brevis digitorum, or short flexor of the toes. 
 This arises behind from the under surface of the pro- 
 minence of the heel-bone, between the two muscles just 
 described. In front it ends in four tendons, which pass 
 to the four outer toes, there to be attached to the bases of 
 
3i6 Plantar Fascia. 
 
 the second phalanges on their under surfaces. The fleshy- 
 part of the muscle occupies the central part of the sole ; 
 in the intervals on either side of it, and in front, some 
 of the short muscles of the great and little toe come in 
 relation to the surface. It is not necessary to dwell on 
 these details further than to point out that to the sesamoid 
 bones at the base of the great toe there are attached 
 the short flexor and adductors of that digit, whilst on the 
 outer side of the sole the short flexor of the little toe 
 unites with the abductor of that digit to be inserted into 
 the base and outer border of the first phalanx of the 
 little toe. The action of the short flexor of the toes is 
 sufficiently indicated by its name ; it assists the long flexor 
 in bending the toes towards the sole of the foot. 
 
 The influence of these muscles on the surface forms 
 of the sole is less than what one might expect, owing to 
 the fact that the skin in this region is very thick and 
 tough, and also because there is a considerable quantity 
 of fat and a layer of dense fascia overlying them. 
 
 The plantar fascia very much resembles the fascia which 
 has been already described in the hand. It consists of 
 a very strong and thick central portion which covers 
 the short flexor of the toes, and two thinner lateral expan- 
 sions which spread over the abductors of the great and 
 little toes respectively. The strong central part, which is 
 connected with the under surface of the heel behind, 
 and with the anterior extremities of the metatarsal bones in 
 front, is a structure of no little importance, as it assists 
 in maintaining the longitudinal arch of the foot by tying 
 together its two extremities. The subcutaneous fat of tlie 
 sole of the foot is specially modified to enable it to serve 
 the purpose of an elastic pad. The fatty lobules, which 
 are of small size, are abundantly mixed with fibrous tissue, 
 which imparts to the layer so formed a remarkable tough- 
 ness and resiliency. This layer is especially thick over 
 
Sole of the Foot. 317 
 
 those parts of the sole on which the bulk of the weight 
 rests, particularly over the heel and the ball of the great 
 toe. The skin which forms the superficial covering is 
 likewise modiiied. In no part of the body is it so 
 thick as over the heel, and an inspection of the sole 
 of the foot will reveal the fact that over all the parts of 
 the sole which touch the ground the skin is thick and 
 homy, whereas where the foot is not in contact with 
 the ground the skin is thinner and more delicate, as is 
 indicated by its colour and wrinkling. 
 
 The hollow of the sole, which is continuous with the 
 hollow behind the inner ankle round the inner border of 
 the foot, occupies the interval between the surface of the 
 heel which is in contact with the ground behind and the 
 ball of the great toe in front. The latter projection corre- 
 sponds to the metatarso-phalangeal joint of that digit, 
 a joint which is greatly enlarged owing to the presence 
 of the two sesamoid bones already referred to. This forms 
 a well-marked oval elevation, around which the hollow 
 of the sole slightly curves before it is interrupted in front 
 by the pad of the fore part of the foot which corresponds 
 to the metatarso-phalangeal joints of the remaining toes. 
 Externally the hollow of the sole is bounded by the outer 
 border of the foot which is in contact with the ground 
 when standing. 
 
 The toes, with the exception of the great toe, are 
 much bent, so that when viewed from the under surface 
 little can be seen of their shafts except the enlarged extre- 
 mities by which they rest on the ground ; the pad of the 
 fore part of the foot is therefore separated by a deep groove 
 from the enlarged ends of the toes. In correspondence with 
 this, the dorsal surfaces of the toes are more or less curved 
 in an antero-posterior direction. 
 
 Models with good feet are exceedingly difficult to obtain. 
 The habit of wearing boots is so universal amongst civilized 
 
3i8 The Toes. 
 
 races tliat it is difficult to meet with a person whose feet have 
 not been tortured and disfigured by this means, and in the 
 peasantry of our own islands who habitually go barefooted 
 the exposure and injury to which the feet are subjected do 
 much to destroy their natural beauty : we are largely depen- 
 dent therefore for our ideal on our knowledge of the antique. 
 In regard to the length of the toes, there is much diversity 
 of opinion. The tjrpe most frequently represented in the 
 antique is that in which the second toe projects beyond 
 the great toe. As a matter of fact, this condition is more 
 frequently met with in dwellers of the south, for observa- 
 tions made on our Highland peasantry, some of whom have 
 gone about barefooted from childhood, appear to indicate that 
 the great toe is almost universally the longest of the series : 
 this is a detail, however, of little moment, and the choice 
 may well be left to the individual taste of the artist. The 
 third foe is shorter than the second by the length of 
 the nail, the fourth hardly reaches the level of the nail 
 of the third, and the fifth presents many variations in 
 length; there is anatomical evidence that this toe is 
 gradually undergoing a reduction in size. 
 
 In regard to the direction of the different toes a certain 
 misconception appears to exist. The ' Anatomical bootmaker ' 
 would have us believe that the inner borders of the foot and 
 great toe are in line. An examination of the best models 
 appears to upset this view, for normally the great toe has 
 a slight outward inclination, though undoubtedly this is 
 oftentimes unduly exaggerated by the wearing of pointed 
 boots. The second and third toes as a rule should follow this 
 outward inclination, whilst the fifth should be slightly in- 
 turned, the direction of the fourth being more or less straight, 
 or directed slightly inwards or outwards, as the case may be. 
 
 The clelt between the great and second toes is often- 
 times a little deeper than that between the second and 
 third. As a rule, the clefts between the four outer toes are 
 
Female Foot. 319 
 
 linear, whilst that between the great and second toe is 
 wide : this may be well seen in an infant's foot, particu- 
 larly when the toes are outspread. Advantage was taken 
 of this wider interval between the great and second toes 
 to pass the thong by which the sandal was held in position. 
 The toes appear longer when viewed from above than 
 when seen from below; this is due to the web between 
 the toes sloping downwards and forwards towards the sole. 
 
 As the bones of the leg are firmly fixed together, 
 there is no movement in the lower limb comparable 
 to the raovements of pronation and supination which' 
 occur in the fore-arm. This necessarily limits the range 
 of the movements of the foot as compared with those of 
 the hand. Apart from the movements which have been 
 described as taking place at the ankle-joint, the foot may 
 be turned inwards or outwards, in the one case the sole 
 is inverted, in the other everted, the range of motion in 
 the later direction is the more limited. These movements 
 take place at the joints between the tarsal bones. The 
 toes may be flexed or extended as well as moved apart 
 and drawn together ; this latter movement is freest between 
 the great and second toe. 
 
 The foot of the female is absolutely smaller than that 
 of the male. If we take into consideration its proportion 
 to the height, we find that it is relatively slightly shorter 
 in women. A foot unduly small, if represented in the 
 nude, at once imparts a feeling of instability to the figure. 
 In no respect do artists concede more to fashion than 
 in the representation of the female foot: one has only to 
 imagine what the same foot would look like if divested 
 of its coverings to realize to what absurdities this slavish 
 devotion to fashion may lead us. Another point on which 
 the lay mind is apt to be misled is the height of the instep. 
 The foot as it rests within the boot is really supported 
 on an incline, the slope of which depends on the height 
 
320 Superficial Veins of Leg. 
 
 of the heel : this tends of course to emphasize the arch 
 on the dorsum of the foot, as the toes are necessarily some- 
 what bent upwards at the metatarso-phalangeal joint. The 
 reader need only notice the appearance of a foot in a high- 
 heeled shoe to realize this fact. Naturally when the same 
 foot is bared and placed flat upon the ground the curvature 
 of the instep is much reduced ; so marked is the change 
 that I have frequently been struck with the criticism 
 passed on photographs of fairly well-formed feet, to the 
 effect that they were unduly flat. 
 
 True flatness of the foot must of course be avoided, but 
 the student will readily recognize this condition, as he 
 will notice that the sole of the foot not only touches 
 the ground at the surfaces already described, but is in 
 contact with it at the parts corresponding to the inner 
 border and hollow of the sole. Whilst undue flatness of 
 the foot is ugly, the other extreme, excessive arching of the 
 instep, should be avoided,, as it imparts a cramped appear- 
 ance to the foot. 
 
 Great variation will be met with in the length and 
 breadth of the foot. As a rule, the width of the foot is 
 about one-third of its length. Excessive prominence of 
 the heel, which is associated with marked curving of the 
 tendo Achillis as it passes down to it, should also be avoided, 
 as it gives rise to an unpleasant outline. 
 
 The smaller bones, the greater abundance of fat, and the 
 less marked muscular development impart to the female foot 
 a softer outline and a plumper form. 
 
 Much that has been already stated in regard to cutaneous 
 veins in general might be repeated here, but the reader 
 is referred to p. 185, where the matter has been previously 
 discussed. The blood in the veins of the leg flows con- 
 trary to the direction of the force exercised by gravity; 
 in consequence there is a much greater tendency for the 
 blood to accumulate in these vessels than in the upper 
 
Superficial Veins of Leg. 321 
 
 limb, where tlie flow of the blood through the veins is 
 frequently accelerated by the raising of the arms. In the 
 lower limb we meet with the longest vein in the body; 
 it extends from the inner ankle up the inner side of 
 the leg and thigh, and terminates above a little below the 
 inner extremity of the fold of the groin. It is superficial 
 throughout its entire length, and when distended with 
 blood it forms a well-marked surface elevation, as may be 
 seen in the thighs of the Fighting Gladiator. Over the 
 dorsum of the foot a more or less arched arrangement 
 of the veins is readily recognizable, whilst running up the 
 outer side of the ankle and back of the leg to reach 
 the hollow behind the knee is another vein, which is pretty 
 definite in its position. These veins are called respectively 
 the inner or long saphenous and the outer or short saphenous 
 veins. They will best be seen as surface elevations 
 when the model is of spare habit and when the limbs 
 are in action, as under these conditions they are dis- 
 tended. The student is warned that these veins are often 
 unduly prominent and tortuous, an appearance which 
 depends on their abnormal distension or varicose condition ; 
 hence care must be exercised to avoid a too realistic 
 representation of them. In the antique they are employed 
 to emphasize powerful muscular action, and the student 
 cannot do better than follow the example set before him 
 in these masterpieces of plastic art. 
 
 When the type is less athletic and the subcutaneous fat 
 more abundant, the veins are indicated by colour rather 
 than contour, a condition which particularly obtains 
 in the female, in whom their representation as surface 
 elevations would be altogether out of keeping with the 
 character of the figure. 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 THE NECK. 
 
 In considering the anatomy of the neck it will be 
 necessary in the first instance to examine the skeleton 
 of this part of the body, and note how it is united with the 
 head above. As was stated in a previous chapter (see 
 
 ante, p. 31), there are seven 
 cervical or neck vertebrae 
 in that part of the ' back- 
 bone' which passes through 
 and supports the soft tissues 
 of the neck. One of the 
 characteristic features of 
 these neck vertebrae is the 
 shortness of their spines : to 
 this there is one exception, 
 the last or seventh cervical 
 vertebra. The reader's atten- 
 tion has been already directed 
 to the importance of the spine 
 of this vertebra as a surface 
 prominence on the back of the root of the neck (see 
 ante, p. 88), and the name, vertebra prominens, often given 
 to it, refers to this peculiarity in the length of its spine. 
 
 Fig. 180. Skull and cervical ver- 
 tebrae of man, showing small face- 
 bonea, large brain-case, and short 
 cervical spines. 
 
The Atlas and Axis. 323 
 
 In regard to the other neck vertebrae, the shortness of 
 their spines is a distinct advantage, as it enables the 
 vertebral column to be more fully extended, i.e. bent 
 back, in this situation than in any other region. The two 
 highest of the neck vertebrae, are modified in a peculiar 
 way to adapt them for articulation with the skull. It is 
 not necessary that the student should be familiar with the 
 details of structure of these two vertebrae, as they have no 
 influence whatever on the surface forms, but some account 
 of the nature and range of motion possible at these joints 
 is of service in enabling the reader to understand the 
 subsequent account of the movements of the head and 
 neck. 
 
 The highest of the cervical vertebrae is called the atlas, 
 owing to the circumstance that it supports the globe of the 
 head : it is provided with a pair of peculiar articular surfaces 
 on which rest the condyles of the occipital bone, one 
 of the bones forming the base or under surface of the 
 skull. These condyles may be compared to the rockers 
 on a cradle, and as they move in the hollows on the upper 
 surface of the atlas they produce a rocking or nodding 
 movement of the head. Associated with this there may 
 be slight degrees of oblique or lateral movement. 
 
 The atlas fits on the vertebra beneath it — the axis, so 
 called — ^veiy much as a ring fits over a peg, for the latter 
 vertebra is provided with an upstanding process called 
 the odontoid or tooth-like process, which is enclosed above 
 in a ring formed by the bony arch of the atlas together 
 with a ligament. The joint is a pivot joint, and here take 
 place the movements of rotation whereby the head, and 
 with it the atlas, are turned from side to side. The range 
 of this movement is checked by ligaments, but as a rule 
 the head may be rotated to ojie or other side of the middle 
 plane of the body to the extent of 30°. The reader will thus 
 realize the importance of these two joints, as at the upper 
 
 T 2 
 
324 
 
 Movements of the Neck. 
 
 the nodding movements alone take place, whilst at the 
 lower the movements of rotation only occur. 
 
 In the remainder of the cervical portion of the vertebral 
 column the principal movements are 
 effected in a backward and forward 
 direction ; extension or bending back- 
 wards is more free than flexion or 
 bending forwards, for the reason ex- 
 plained at the commencement of this 
 chapter, and also because the forward 
 movement is checked when the chin 
 comes into contact with the front of 
 the chest. The other movement of 
 which this part of the column is 
 capable is a combination of rotation 
 and lateral flexion, a movement whereby 
 we bend the neck to the side. 
 
 The neck vertebrae are so surrounded 
 on all sides by muscles and other tissues 
 that under ordinary conditions they 
 have no direct influence on the surface 
 forms, with the single exception of 
 Fig. 1 8 1. A diagram ^^® spine of the vertebra prominens. 
 to show the arrange- Behind and on either side it is prin- 
 
 whth°'su*J;orT^t -P-lly ---1« -^-1^ -« 1^-e to deal 
 back-bone. The mus- with, whilst in front the gullet, wind- 
 cles which are repre- pipe, and larynx aU conceal the form 
 sented in solid black, r. ,i i 
 
 are seen to be thick ot the bony structures. The fleshy 
 in the regions of the mass met with behind is a continuation 
 lomparatlvetythin "n ^P^^rds of that great group of muscles 
 the mid-dorsal region, which has been already described under 
 the name of the erectores spinae (see 
 ante, p. 35) : the latter was ^een to occupy the furrows 
 on either side of the spines of the lumbar and dorsal 
 vertebrae, but became much reduced in bulk in the mid- 
 
Muscles of the Neck. 
 
 325 
 
 dorsal region : above that point, however, the muscular 
 column is reinforced by additional slips all more or less 
 intimately associated with the movements of the head and 
 neck. See Fig. 181. These form two cylindrical masses 
 which pass up to reach the under surface of the back of the 
 
 Fig. 182. View of the muscles attached to the shoulder-blade. The 
 trapezius has been cut away on the left side of the figure. 
 
 a. Trapezius muscle. 
 
 b. BhomlDoid. 
 
 c. Elevator of the angle of the Bcapnla 
 
 (levator anguli scapulae). 
 
 d. Splenius muscle. 
 
 e. Com.plexus muscle. 
 
 /. Sterno-mastoid muscle. 
 
 g. Infra-spinous fossa on back of scapula. 
 
 h. Acromion process of scapula. 
 
 i. Spine of scapula. 
 
 j. Collar-bone (clavicle). 
 
 fc. Humerus. 
 
 skull on either side of the short spines of th^ cervical 
 vertebrae which, in consequence, have no direct influ- 
 ence on the surface contours. The fleshy/columns on 
 either side are separated from one anothe/ by a fibrous 
 
326 
 
 Ligamentum nuchae. 
 
 partition called the ligamentum nuchae, a feeble represen- 
 tative in man of the stout 
 elastic ligament so often met 
 with in many of the lower 
 animals. As was stated in 
 an earlier chapter (Chapter I, 
 p. 19), the poor development 
 of this ligament in man is 
 associated with the assump- 
 tion of the erect posture, a 
 position in which the head is 
 more or less poised on the 
 summit of a vertical column, 
 whereas in the lower animals 
 the ligament is of necessity 
 strong in order to support 
 the head at the extremity of 
 a more or less horizontal 
 column. 
 
 It is needless to enter into 
 any detailed account of these 
 fleshy masses on the back of 
 the neck, as they are in 
 great part overlain by the 
 trapezius, which has been 
 already described (p. 87), 
 
 Fig. 183. Shows the great erector 
 mass of muscles. The muscles are 
 shown only on one side ; the groove 
 in which they are lodged is seen 
 on the right side of the figure. 
 
 a. Placed over tendinoTis part of erector 
 
 spinae. 
 h. Posterior superior iliac spine, 
 c Haimcli-bone (os innominatiun). 
 
 d. Socket for head of thigh-bone (aceta- 
 
 bulum). 
 
 e. Tuberosity of the ischium, 
 
 /. Placed over fleshy part of erector 
 
 spinae. 
 g. Splenius muscle. 
 h. Mastoid process of temporal bone. 
 *. Complexus muscle and superior ourved 
 
 line of occipital bone. 
 
Deep Structures of Neck. 
 
 327 
 
 as well as by other superficial muscles, to be hereafter 
 discussed; but their indirect influence on the surface 
 contours of the back of the neck should not be over- 
 looked, as it is to their presence that this region owes its 
 full and rounded appearance. 
 
 The form of the front 
 of the neck is partly due 
 to muscle and partly to 
 other structures which 
 are associated with the 
 alimentary tract and the 
 respiratory system. In 
 front of the vertebral 
 column, and commenc- 
 ing above at the back 
 of the mouth, is the 
 tube, called the gullet 
 or oesop^a^'iw, by which 
 food is transmitted to 
 the stomach. Within 
 and below the arch of 
 the lower jaw there is 
 the hyoid hone, which is 
 connected with the root 
 of the tongue. Below 
 the hyoid bone, and 
 lying in front of the 
 gullet, is the trachea or 
 windpipe. The upper 
 extremity of this res- 
 piratory tube is peculiarly modified to . form an organ 
 immediately concerned in voice-production — the larynx. 
 In front of the windpipe, and below the level of the 
 larynx, there is a gland of considerable size called the 
 thyroid body. Connecting the hyoid bone and larynx with 
 
 Fig. 184. Diagram to show the position 
 of some of the structures in the neck. 
 
 a. 'Hyoid bone. 
 
 h. Thyroid cartilage of the larynx (Adam's 
 apple). 
 
 c. Left lobe of thyroid gland. 
 
 d. Upper end of breast-bone. 
 
 e. Trachea or windpipe. 
 
 /. Spine of seventh cervical vertebra (vertebra 
 prominens). 
 
328 The Hyoid Bone. 
 
 surrounding parts, such as the inferior jaw-bone, the breast- 
 bone, and collar-bones, there are a number of small muscles 
 which, whilst they do not as a rule influence the surface- 
 forms in detail, yet in bulk assist in imparting to the front 
 of the neck its characteristic modelling. A more detailed 
 description of some of these structures is necessary. 
 
 The Tiyoid hone, or bone of the tongue, which is a small 
 slender bone formed like a (J. is situated at the angle formed 
 by the outline of the sofb parts below the chin and the 
 line of the front of the neck. The position of the bone 
 varies according to the position of the head. When the 
 eyes are directed straight forwards the hyoid bone lies 
 nearly on a level with the angle of the lower jaw. The 
 reader may satisfy himself as to the position of the bone 
 by grasping the tissues of the neck in this region firmly 
 between the thumb and fingers. "When the head is 
 extended or thrown back, the angle formed by the line 
 below the chin and the line of the front of the neck is 
 opened out, and the position of the bone is more easily 
 recognized; it always corresponds to the line of flexure 
 or angle where the head bends forward on the neck. 
 When the head is thrown back the first point of resistance 
 met with in passing the finger from the chin downwards 
 along the middle line of the neck is the hyoid bone. 
 
 About half an inch below the level of the hyoid bone 
 a well-marked elevation will be easily recognized: this 
 projection is due to one of the cartilages of the larynx or 
 voice-box. It is called the pomum Adami, or Adam's apple, 
 and is usually more prominent in the male than in the 
 female. In the adult it is large as compared with that in 
 the child. If the neck of a child be examined there is 
 little or no evidence of its presence, but at that period of 
 life when youth gradually merges into manhood, changes 
 take place in the growth of the larynx which are associated 
 with marked increase in the size of its cartilages, and 
 
Larynx and Thyroid Body. 329 
 
 their surface outlines become factors of importance in the 
 modelling of the throat. This alteration in the size of the 
 larynx is intimately associated with the changes which are 
 taking place at the same time in the character of the voice, 
 changes which are popularly referred to as the ' breaking 
 of the voice.' In the female there is no such marked 
 difference between the forms displayed in the child and the 
 adult, so that in woman the rounded contours of the front 
 of the neck are not disturbed by any undue projection of 
 these laryngeal cartilages. 
 
 Below the larynx, the windpipe, which is composed of a 
 number of cartilaginous rings united together by membrane, 
 passes down behind the upper end of the breast-bone to 
 enter the thorax. On either side of this tube, which, owing 
 to its structure, always remains open or distended, there 
 are the lobes of a structure called the thyroid hody. These 
 consist of masses of gland tissue of oval ilattened form which 
 lie on either side of the trachea, and which are connected 
 with each other anteriorly by a bridge of gland substance 
 called the isthmus, which passes across the front of the 
 windpipe just below the larynx. These structures lie under 
 the layer of thin muscles which pass up from the breast and 
 collar-bones to be attached to the hyoid bone and larynx 
 above, and serve to increase the fullness of the neck in this 
 region. As the thyroid gland is usually larger in the 
 female than in the male, it assists in imparting that round- 
 ness and fullness to the lower part of the neck in the female 
 which is regarded as so charming a feature in its modelling. 
 The reader is warned that undue emphasis of this feature 
 may give rise to an unnatural form, a form which is by 
 no means uncommon and is associated with the diseased 
 enlargement of the gland called goitre. 
 
 These structures, as has been stated, are some of them 
 overlain by thin muscles, whilst others are supported and 
 fixed by the same means. A detailed description of these 
 
330 
 
 The Sterno-mastoid. 
 
 appears unnecessary, as iif is only 
 
 Fia. 185. Diagram showing the 
 arrangement of some of the principal 
 structures of the neck. 
 
 a. Stemo-mastoid nmscle. 
 Trapezius mnsole. 
 Sterno-hyoid muscle. 
 Lower jaw. 
 Hyoid bone. 
 Posterior triangle. 
 Acromion process of soapnla. 
 Spine of scapula. 
 
 The two bellies of the omo-hyoid muscle. 
 Thyroid cartilage of larynx (Adam's 
 
 apple). 
 The two bellies of the digastric muscle. 
 Mastoid process of temporal bone. 
 Superior curved line of occipital bone. 
 Humerus, 
 First rib. 
 
 Coracoid process of scapula. 
 Placed on infra-spiuous fossa of scapula. 
 Collar-bone. 
 Breast-bone. 
 
 kTc. 
 
 behind the ear. If the finger 
 
 under exceptional circum- 
 stances that they can have 
 any direct influence on 
 the surface forms : thus it 
 is only in the emaciated, 
 or in such extremes of 
 muscular effort as are asso- 
 ciated with the struggles 
 of an unfortunate creature 
 gasping for breath, that 
 their details are at all 
 apparent. 
 
 The muscle which plays 
 the most important part 
 as a determinant of the 
 surface form of the neck 
 is the sterno-mastoid. In- 
 feriorly this muscle is 
 attached to the anterior 
 surface of the upper end 
 of the breast-bone by a 
 thick rounded tendon ; it 
 also derives fleshy and 
 tendinous fibres from the 
 inner third or so of the 
 collar-bone ; these two 
 origins are separated by 
 an interval of variable 
 width. The fleshy belly 
 formed by the union of 
 these two attachments 
 passes upwards and back- 
 wards towards the part 
 of the skull immediately 
 be placed on the bone in 
 
The Sterno-mastoid. 
 
 331 
 
 this situation, a tiiick rounded blunt process can be dis- 
 tinctly felt : tMs is called the mastoid process of the temporal 
 hone, and it is into this and the rough ridge passing back 
 from it, called the superior curved line of the occipital hone, 
 that the muscle is inserted. The extent of the attachment 
 of the muscle to this ridge varies considerably in different 
 individuals (Fig. 185, and Pis., pp. 62, 72, 282, 332, 370). 
 
 Ttte sterno-mastoid as it passes obliquely across the side 
 of the neck divides that region into two triangles : the one, 
 in front, and above it, is called the anterior triangle, that 
 behind and below it the 
 posterior triangle. The con- 
 vergence of the muscles of 
 either side below where they 
 are attached to the upper end 
 of the breast-bone has a most 
 important effect on the mould- 
 ing of the surface forms : here 
 their tendons of origin from 
 the breast-bone lie just within 
 the expanded inner extremi- 
 ties of the collar-bones as they 
 rest upon the upper border of 
 the sternum on either side. 
 Thus a V-shaped recess is pro- 
 duced, the sides of which are 
 formed by the tendons of the two sterno-mastoid muscles, 
 whilst the angle of the V corresponds to the upper border of 
 the breast-bone. The depth of the recess is further empha- 
 sized by the projection caused by the inner end of the collar- 
 bone on either side. This depression corresponds to the 
 surface hollow familiar to the reader under the name pit of 
 the neck. In the male its borders are sharply defined, especi- 
 ally during violent muscular effort ; in the female, owing to 
 the presence of an abundant layer of fat beneath the skin, 
 
 ^1^' -TV 
 
 Fia. 186. Showing articulation 
 
 of the collar-bones (claviclea) with 
 
 the breast-bone (sternum). 
 
 a. Collar-bones (clavicles). 
 
 6. Sternal ends of collar-bones. 
 
 c. Placed on the first and second ribs. 
 
 d. The upper piece of the breast-bone 
 
 (manubrium sterui). 
 
 y. Rib cartilages. 
 
 g. Placed over the body of the first dorsal 
 vertebra ; lies in the interval between 
 the sternal ends of the collar-bones, 
 a space which corresponds to the 
 surface depression at the root of the 
 neck, called the pit of the neck. 
 
332 Pit of the Neck. 
 
 the outlines are smoother and more rounded, and the surface 
 depression is altogether softer, and forms a feature of great 
 beauty in the modelling of the throat as it rises from the 
 general fullness of the breast (Pis., pp. 52, 108, no, 332). 
 
 It is in the interval between the two stemo-mastoids that 
 the structures already enumerated lie, viz. the windpipe, 
 larynx, and hyoid bone. These, as we have seen, are 
 covered by a layer of small muscles on either side, ^he 
 interval between the sterno-mastoids above, which is 
 bounded superiorly by the border of the lower jaw and 
 inferiorly by the hyoid bone, is filled up in part by the 
 muscles of the tongue and floor of the mouth, in part by 
 blood-vessels, and in part by the salivary glands ; one of the 
 latter occupies the interval between the ear and the angle 
 of the jaw. Under cover of the angle of the jaw there is 
 another of these glands, which imparts a fullness to the 
 surface as it sweeps inwards and downwards towards the 
 hyoid bone (Plate, p. 370). 
 
 In regard to the region behind and below the stemo- 
 mastoid, the student should recollect the arrangement of 
 the superior fibres of the trapezius — that muscle arises 
 above from the back of the base of the skull close to the 
 middle line behind, and passing downwards, outwards, and 
 forwards, is inserted into the outer third of the upper 
 border of the collar-bone. There is thus an interval between 
 the anterior border of the trapezius and the posterior 
 border of the sterno-mastoid, and this space constitutes the 
 posterior triangle of the neck, the base of which corre- 
 sponds to the middle third of the collar-bone, the summit 
 to the interval between the attachment of the muscles to 
 the superior curved line above, whilst the floor is formed 
 by the deeper muscles, which are here superficial and are 
 thus brought in direct relationship to the surface. So dense 
 and tough, however, is the fascia which covers them, and so 
 thick the layer of fat, that their details are hardly if at all 
 
Key to Plate XL 
 
 Sierno-mas^id. Trapezius. Plaiysvui. Acromion process of sca^la. Jl-iavicU. 
 
 ! 1 / „■-'"' ..Deltoid. 
 
 Pectoraiis fttaj'or 
 clavicular fibres. 
 
 Slertto-mastoid, 
 
 Trapexii(s 
 
 Pit ofmck. 
 Clavicle 
 
 « process 
 
 Pectoraiis major, 
 
 clavicular^ fibres. 
 
 sternal fibres'. 
 
 Deltoid. 
 
 Pit of stomach 
 
 Rectus abdominis. 
 
 Lineae transversae. 
 
 Iliac crest. 
 
 Ant. sup iliac spine. 
 Triceps, outer Itead. 
 Triceps, inner 
 
 Biceps cubiti. 
 
 Brachialis anticus. "'' 
 Tensor fasciae femori^. 
 
 Ilio-psoas. 
 
 Pectitteus. 
 
 Adductor longus 
 
 Pronator radii te7-es.-\ 
 Jjicipital fascia, 
 fixt carp. rod. long 
 Supinator longvs. "' 
 Flex ca-'pi radialis._ 
 
 Gracilis.' 
 
 Ext. carp. rad.brrv:' 
 Iixta%sors of thumb. 
 lixt.com dtzilorum.' 
 Annular ligamenl 
 Vastus iniernus.— 
 
 Patella -■;— 
 
 Internal condyle 
 Ltgamentum patellae. 
 Sartorius.— 
 
 Ilio-tlbial band..- 
 
 PeroHtus longus. 
 GastrocNenfins, 
 inner head. — 
 
 Tibialis nntlcus. 
 
 Tibia, subciitaib 
 -eoits siirfa^. - 
 
 Solens. 
 
 Extensor lonf^is 
 
 digilorum pedis,. 
 Flex. Ion. dig. pedis. 
 
 Lone: extensor of great toe. 
 
 Internal malleolus {tibia).- 
 .Annular figamtfit of anhb 
 
 . Trices, outer head. 
 . Brachialis anticus. 
 
 _ Trices tendon. 
 
 _ B^ps cubiti. 
 
 _.Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 .Di^itations of 
 
 serratvs v^gnus. 
 
 "Ext. intermus. s^iuM. 
 
 St^inator longus. 
 
 -Ext.carp.rad.Iong 
 
 -Dig! ta lions of external oblique. 
 
 Extensor communis digit 
 
 — Ext. carpi, radia Jit brevior. 
 
 Extensors of thumb. 
 
 ■Extensor carpi nlnaris. 
 
 -^ Mfi,f/„r,ligawuiti 
 
 __, _ ..... .Ant. sup. iliac stint. 
 
 «B«ltV Gluteus medius. 
 \j^^^- -Aponeurosis of 
 ..!i..]-|l„ exlemai ablaut, 
 y Polaris ttgameni. 
 ITensor fasciae femorisL 
 
 ^••Ilio-psoas. 
 
 Pectineus 
 
 -Adductor longus 
 ■■■■Gradhs, 
 
 Sartorius. 
 
 - Pectus feuuns, 
 
 y^astus r'niemus. 
 
 - Sand of Richer, 
 Vastus externus. 
 
 . . -PaUlU 
 
 Fntemal condyle. 
 
 - Fat. 
 
 Ligamentum pa^Uae. 
 
 -"•■ Sartorius. 
 
 Tuberc/e of tibia. 
 
 - Gastrocnemius, inner head, 
 
 Tibialis anticus. 
 
 "Tibia, subcutaneims Surfiue. 
 
 So&us, 
 
 Ext. longus digitorum pedis. 
 .Plex.hngus digitorum pedis. 
 
 Tmdo Achiiiis, 
 
 Long extensor o^great tve. 
 
 -Annular ligament ^aahU. 
 
 'ntcmaJ malleolus {tibit). 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF MALE FIGURE RAISING WEIGHT FROM THE GROUND 
 Co^^riffhfy 1899, 6y Henry Frowue] 
 
Hollows above the Collar-bone. 333 
 
 apparent on the surface. The boundaries of this space, 
 constituted as they are by the posterior border of the 
 stemo-mastoid anteriorly, and behind by the anterior edge 
 of the trapezius, form in muscular males and thin-necked 
 females outstanding surface contours which map out very 
 clearly the triangular interval referred to. Especially is 
 this the case towards the lower part of the neck, where the 
 clavicle forms a prominent ridge, the hollow above which 
 corresponds to the interval between the two muscles : this 
 depression is in marked contrast to the fullness below caused 
 by the origin of the great pectoral and the deltoid muscle 
 of the shoulder, though the interval between these is often- 
 times indicated by a shallow farrow. These details, as has 
 been said, are best seen in a spare athletic male ; in the 
 female such evidence of structure is contrary to the usually 
 accepted type, in which the general roundness of the neck 
 is largely due to the abundance of fat ; but in women of 
 a spare habit and with slender necks these details, if not 
 unduly emphasized, may be in harmony with the type 
 represented (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 108, no, 264, 282 332) 
 
 The position of the shoulder-girdle has a marked in- 
 fluence on the production of this hollow ; in models in whom 
 there is no evidence of this depression when the arms are 
 hanging by the side we get clearer indications of its presence 
 when the arms are raised and carried forwards (PL, p. 332). 
 In this position the collar-bone is not only elevated, but 
 carried forwards from the chest- wall; it is rendered more 
 prominent, and the space is thus more clearly defined, though 
 even under those conditions, especially in well-formed women 
 in whom the subcutaneous fat is uniformly distributed, the 
 surface contours are rounded and less abrupt than in the 
 male. If the muscles be strongly developed and the action 
 violent, one of the deeper muscles crossing the floor 
 of the space not unfrequently forms an oblique surface 
 elevation, which can be distinctly recognized passing across 
 
334 
 
 Hollows above the Collar-bone. 
 
 the interval between the stemo-mastoid and trapezius just 
 above tlie collar-bone. This muscle is called the omo-Jiyoid : 
 it has two bellies. The portion with which we are more 
 immediately concerned arises from the superior border of 
 the shoulder-blade, just internal to the root of the coracoid 
 process. The anterior belly is attached to the outer part of 
 the lower border of the hyoid bone. These two small fleshy 
 bellies are connected by an intermediate tendon which lies 
 
 beneath the stemo- 
 mastoid muscle (see 
 Fig. 185). It is the 
 posterior belly which 
 forms the surface pro- 
 jection above referred 
 to, and it passes ob- 
 liquely upwards and 
 forwards from under 
 cover of the collar- 
 bone, where the fibres 
 of the trapezius are 
 attached, in a direc- 
 tion corresponding to 
 a line drawn from 
 that point upwards 
 and forwards to- 
 wards the hyoid bone 
 when the neck is 
 outstretched. The student will recognize the surface form 
 produced by this muscle on the right side of the neck of the 
 Fighting Gladiator. An absence of fat in this region con- 
 tributes to the clearness with which these details are seen. 
 
 Not unfrequently in models of spare habit the lower attach- 
 ments of the stemo-mastoid are very distinct. As has been 
 stated, there is an interval of variable width between its 
 origins from the breast-bone and collar-bone, and this is 
 
 Fia. 187. Shows form of neck with shoulder 
 depressed. 
 
Action of Sterno-mastoid. 
 
 335 
 
 often represented on the surface by a triangular depression 
 (Pis., pp. 52, 62, 108, 282, and Figs. 187, 188, i8g). An undue 
 emphasis of these details is likely, however, to detract from 
 the massive feeling which should be aimed at in representing 
 the rise of a powerful neck from a well-developed thorax. 
 
 In regard to the action of the sterno-mastoid muscles— 
 when one muscle contracts, the head is inclined to the same 
 side, whilst the face is directed towards the opposite side. 
 Concerning the combined 
 action of the two muscles, 
 there is much contradic- 
 tion . in the various text- 
 books : some assert that the 
 muscles bend forward the 
 head and neck, whilst 
 others state that the 
 muscles act as extensors of 
 the head ; the truth ap- 
 pears to lie between the 
 two statements. Their 
 united action seems to be 
 the bending forward of the 
 neck on the thorax com- 
 bined with the extension of 
 the head upon the bent 
 neck. In other words, they 
 are in action when the 
 neck is thrust forwards and the face upturned. 
 
 Overlying the structures of the neck which have just 
 been described is a dense layer of fascia called the deep 
 cervical fascia. This invests not only the entire neck in 
 a fibrous sheath, but also famishes prolongations from its 
 deep surface which form compartments for the lodgement 
 of these various structures. A detailed account of this fascia 
 is needless, but the student would do well to remember the 
 
 Fig. 188. Shows form of neck with 
 shoulder raised. 
 
336 The Platysma. 
 
 restraining influence which it exercises on the structures 
 which lie beneath it. It is between this fibrous investment 
 and the skin of the neck that the superficial fat which 
 constitutes what is called the superficial cervical fascia 
 lies. Here we have to study a muscle called the platysma 
 myoides, which is a survival in man of a muscle which 
 commonly occurs in many animals. Any one who has 
 watched a fly settle on a horse's back has seen that the latter 
 has the power of rippling or wrinkling its skin in a remark- 
 able manner. The muscle which we are now describing 
 belongs to the same class. Its development varies very 
 much in different individuals. Some people, too, appear to 
 have much more control over its contraction than others. 
 
 The platysma, which forms a thin muscular sheet, arises 
 below from the fascia covering the great pectoral, the 
 deltoid, and the trapezius : its fibres are directed obUquely 
 upwards and forwards to pass over the lower jaw-bone 
 from the chin as far back as the angle : some of its fibres 
 are attached to this bone, but others pass up to blend 
 with the muscles which are connected with the lower 
 lip and angle of the mouth (see PL p. 3706). Under 
 ordinary conditions there are no indications of the presence 
 of this muscle, though in old people in whom the fat 
 has disappeared it may be often recognized, as it forms 
 the dewlap-like folds which hang beneath the chin. The 
 action of the muscle is best displayed in the expressions 
 of fright and terror, wherein it draws down the angle of 
 the mouth and wrinkles the skin of the neck transversely ; 
 at the^ same time it appears to increase the transverse 
 diameter of the root of the neck in front by flattening the 
 surface forms over and above the collar-bone. 
 
 Of other structures which lie in the superficial fascia 
 we are concerned only with the veins. To avoid repetition 
 the student is referred to the remarks already made on this 
 subject at the end of last chapter (p. 320). The vein which 
 
Contours of the Neck. 337 
 
 is most apparent is the external jugular. This is well 
 seen in the lower part of the right side of the neck of the 
 Fighting Gladiator. It runs down the side of the neck, 
 from the region behind the angle of the jaw to a point 
 above the collar-bone and just external to the origin of the 
 stemo-mastoid. Usually the vein of one side of the neck is 
 much larger than that of the opposite. The superficial veins 
 become distended with blood when the contraction of the 
 muscles of the head and neck is prolonged and violent. 
 They also become prominent under the influence of excite- 
 ment. In the expression of rage and passion they are more 
 or less engorged. Under all circumstances due care and 
 restraint must be exercised in their representation. As 
 indicated by colour, they are of service in imparting a 
 feeling of delicacy to the skin. 
 
 Having described in some detail the structures which 
 determine the contours of the neck, we may pass on to 
 consider the form of the neck as a whole. 
 
 The neck is rounder in front than behind. The flattened 
 surface of the back of the trunk is carried up on to the back 
 of the neck without any interruption in the surface contours. 
 In front the rounded form of the root of the neck appears 
 implanted on the breast between the shoulders, the modelling 
 of which is distinct and separate from that of the neck. 
 The spring of the neck from the shoulders on either side is 
 very much higher than its root in the middle line in front, 
 where the pit of the neck corresponds to the upper edge of 
 the breast-bone. If the figure be viewed in profile, the pit 
 of the neck is seen to lie on a very much lower level than 
 the surface projection formed by the spine of the seventh 
 cervical vertebra, which marks the inferior limit of the 
 neck posteriorly. This is due to the oblique position of 
 the first pair of ribs, which with the breast-bone form the 
 boundaries of the inlet or superior aperture of the thorax. 
 The effect of this obliquity is that the upper end of the 
 
338 Length of Neck. 
 
 breast-bone lies on a level with the second or third dorsal 
 vertebra, hence it follows that the root of the neck appears 
 to spring obliquely from the upper end of the thorax. This 
 circumstance explains why in profile the front of the neck 
 appears longer than the back. 
 
 There is considerable variation in the length of the neck 
 in different individuals. This is more apparent than real 
 and is not due to any marked difference in the length 
 of the cervical portion of the back-bone, for observations 
 prove that the back-bone is of all other parts of the 
 skeleton the least liable to variations in its length. The 
 length of the neck depends largely on the elevation of the 
 shoulders. A long neck is ctssociated with sloping shoulders, 
 while broad and square shoulders are the concomitants of 
 a short neck. The position of the shoulder-girdle depends 
 to some extent on the development of the muscles which 
 are connected with it, as well as on the form of the thorax, 
 as has been already explained (p. 85). The sloping shoulder 
 coincides with a collar-bone which slants outwards and 
 downwards, whilst in the square-shouldered the outer end 
 of the clavicle lies on a higher level than the sternal 
 end. The muscular development of a person with sloping 
 shoulders is usually poor ; hence the muscles of the neck are 
 not so bulky : this reduces the width of the neck and tends 
 to intensify the appearance of length. The broad and square- 
 shouldered are usually persons of powerful physique ; their 
 muscles are usually strongly developed, and increase thereby 
 the width of the neck. This increase in the width of the 
 neck detracts from its appearance of length. 
 
 Much depends, as has been said, upon the quantity of 
 subcutaneous fat which is here distributed. In women 
 of a robust and healthy type the modelling of the neck is 
 full and round, and only in exceptional actions are there 
 indications of the superficial muscles. The fat, which is 
 often present in considerable quantity, imparts a width 
 
Movements of Neck. 
 
 339 
 
 to the neck which does away with any appearance of undue 
 length. In such the neck is often crossed in front by one 
 or two delicate cutaneous folds. This type is associated 
 with a fall and well-developed bust and shoulders. 
 
 Another type is that in which we meet with the long and 
 swan-like neck. This form occurs in women of a sparer habit 
 with narrower chests and more sloping shoulders. The 
 forms themselves may be very beautiful, but hardly convey 
 
 Fig. 189. Shows the hollow above the collar-bone when the shoulders 
 are raised and the head bent forward. 
 
 that feeling of rude health which is so characteristic of 
 the former type. Here the slightness of the forms conveys 
 a feeling of delicacy associated rather with a highly sensitive 
 and nervous temperament. Owing to the less abundant 
 layer of superficial fat we are in them more liable to have 
 surface indications of the superficial structures. 
 
 The neck undergoes very considerable modifications in 
 its form according to its position. The movements of the 
 
 z 2 
 
340 
 
 Movements of Neck. 
 
 head on the neck have been already referred to at the 
 beginning of this chapter. As a matter of fact these move- 
 ments are usually associated with corresponding movements 
 of the neck. Thus when the head is bent forward the neck 
 moves forward with it. A backward movement of the head 
 is usually accompanied by extension of the neck. In like 
 manner, the movements of lateral inclination and rotation 
 
 of the head and neck are 
 usually combined. The 
 reader must not suppose 
 that these movements may 
 not be disassociated. We 
 can extend the head when 
 the neck is bent, and we 
 can flex the head on the 
 extended neck, but these 
 actions are unusual and 
 constrained. 
 
 In flexion of the head 
 and neck the hollow curve 
 of the back of the neck dis- 
 appears and is replaced by 
 a convex outKne, which is 
 an upward and forward 
 continuation of the curve 
 of the dorsal region of the 
 back. The spine of the 
 seventh cervical vertebra becomes more prominent, and 
 the spines of the upper two or three dorsal vertebrae can 
 usually be recognized. The outline of the front of the neck 
 is concealed by the fact that the chin comes into contact 
 with the upper end of the breast-bone. A series of trans- 
 verse folds cross the neck in front, the most pronounced 
 corresponding to the surface of the skin immediately beneath 
 the border of the lower jaw. The inner end of the coUar- 
 
 FiG. 190. Shows the form of the neck 
 in flexion. 
 
Movements of Neck. 
 
 341 
 
 bone is empliasized, and the slight hollow which lies between 
 
 the angle of the jaw and the anterior border of the stemo- 
 
 mastoid is obliterated by the approximation of these two 
 
 structures. The anterior border of the trapezius can usually 
 
 be recognized passing from the occiput to the outer third of 
 
 the collar-bone (Fig. igo, and PL, p. 338). 
 
 When the head and neck are thrown back or extended, 
 
 the angle formed by the 
 
 structures underlying the 
 
 lower jaw and the outline of 
 
 the front of the neck is 
 
 opened out. The hyoid bone, 
 
 as we have seen, corresponds 
 
 almost precisely to this angle. 
 
 The interval between the 
 
 hyoid bone and the upper 
 
 end of the breast-bone is in- 
 creased, so that the outline 
 
 between these two points is 
 
 lengthened and the skin 
 
 stretched over the subjacent 
 
 structures. In the male the 
 
 outline of the cartilages of 
 the larynx is rendered dis- 
 tinct, in the female, owing to 
 the greater quantity of fat 
 and the slighter development 
 
 of these structures, the outline describes a uniform forward 
 curve from the pit of the neck to the angle where it sweeps 
 forward to the chin (Pis., pp. 282, 338). In correspondence 
 with this the back of the head or occiput is brought nearer 
 to the prominence caused by the seventh cervical spine. 
 The outline of the back of the neck is shortened and 
 rendered more concave, and the skin is thrown into thick 
 transverse folds, the skin of the back of the neck being 
 
 Fig. 191. Shows the form of the 
 neck in extension. 
 
342 Movements of Neck. 
 
 much thicker and tougher than that of the front. The neck 
 is somewhat increased in its transverse diameter by the 
 outward thrust of the muscles, and, owing to the stretching 
 of the skin over the lower jaw, the outline of that bone 
 becomes more distinct, and the hollow between its angle 
 and the anterior border of the stemo-mastoid is more 
 pronounced. The lower attachments of the sterno-mastoids 
 
 are rendered tense, 
 and the pit of the 
 neck becomes sharply 
 defined (Fig. 191). 
 
 Whilst the collar- 
 bone is easily recog- 
 nized by the stretch- 
 ing of the skin over 
 it, the hollow above 
 it corresponding to 
 the interval between 
 the stemo - mastoid 
 and trapezius becomes 
 obliterated. A full- 
 ness appears over the 
 back and upper part 
 of the shoulder, owing 
 to the relaxed fibres 
 of the anterior part 
 of the trapezius. 
 When the head is turned towards the shoulder the skin 
 of the side of the neck from which the head is turned is 
 tense and stretched, whilst that on the side towards which 
 the head is directed is obliquely wrinkled. The surface 
 form of the side of the neck from which the head is turned 
 is full and round ; the anterior border of the stemo-mastoid 
 muscle is outstanding, though its clavicular attachment is 
 less marked. The skin as it is stretched over the collar- 
 
 FlG. 192. Shows the relation of the stemo- 
 mastoid to the surface when the head is 
 turned towards the shoulder. 
 
Movements of Neck. 
 
 343 
 
 bone empliasizes that structure, and the hollow above it is 
 effaced to a great extent, though the border of the trapezius 
 may be frequently recognized. The posterior belly of the 
 omo-hyoid as it crosses the lower part of the interval 
 between the trapezius and sterno-mastoid is stretched, and 
 often forms a surface elevation when there is little sub- 
 cutaneous fat. On the side towards which the head is turned 
 the hollow above 
 the collar-bone is 
 deepened, but the 
 outline of the super- 
 ficial muscles is 
 concealed by the 
 wrinkled skin. A 
 deep cutaneous fold 
 defines the angle of 
 the jaw and runs up 
 behind the ear, 
 marking the in- 
 terval between the 
 jaw-bone and the 
 anterior border of 
 the upper part of the 
 sterno-mastoid (Pis., 
 
 pp. 62, 72, no). Fig. 193. Shows the relation of the sterno- 
 
 Bv the rotation ''^^^toid to the surface when the head is bent 
 
 „ , , ^ , to the side. 
 
 01 the head and 
 
 neck the structures which lie in the middle line of the 
 
 neck are dragged obliquely towards the side to which the 
 
 head is turned, and in the male, as also to a slight extent 
 
 in the female, the form of the laryngeal cartilages is 
 
 apparent (Pis., pp. 72, no). 
 
 In the lateral movements, in which the head is inclined 
 
 towards the shoulder, the skin over the neck on the side . 
 
 towards which it is bent is wrinkled : the best marked of 
 
344 Neck and Shoulder. 
 
 these folds corresponds to the spring of the neck, and curves 
 round the root of the neck from the inner end of the collar- 
 bone upwards and backwards across the middle of the anterior 
 border of the trapezius, whilst another follows more or less 
 accurately the anterior border of the sterno-mastoid, passing 
 up between it and the angle of the lower jaw to reach the 
 back of the ear. On the side from which the head is 
 inclined the sterno-mastoid is distinctly seen, its origin 
 from the collar-bone being especially evident. Here too the 
 collar-bone is brought more or less into prominence by 
 the stretching of the skin over it, and the attachment of the 
 trapezius to that bone is usually easily recognized. A surface 
 elevation dependent on the posterior belly of the omo-hyoid 
 may also be noticed. These forms will of course be very 
 much modified if the shoulder from which the head is in- 
 clined is elevated at the same time (Fig. 193, and PL, p. 62). 
 
 It only remains to be said in this connexion that the 
 sweep of the fibres of the trapezius, as they pass from 
 the occiput and the middle line of the back of the neck 
 downwards and outwards towards the outer end of the 
 collar-bone and upper border of the acromion process of ■ 
 the shoulder-blade, plays an important part in linking 
 together the shoulder with the neck. Their presence deter- 
 mines the outline which passes from the side of the root of 
 the neck to the shoulders. The direction of this outline 
 will vary with the position of the shoulder-girdle. It has 
 a downward slope when the shoulder is depressed, but 
 when the limb is elevated or the girdle raised it becomes 
 more nearly horizontal (PI., p. 108). 
 
 The influence of the fibres of the platysma must not be 
 overlooked, but it is only exceptionally and in strained 
 action that the contraction of this muscle masks the details 
 of the underlying structures. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE HEAD, PACE, AND EXPRESSION. 
 
 The skull is the bony framework of the head. It is 
 conveniently divided into two parts, one of which envelops 
 and protects the great nervous centre, the brain^ while the 
 other forms a series of chambers for the lodgement of 
 some of the organs of special sense, viz. the globe of the 
 eye^ the nose, and the tongue. The former is called the 
 cranial iox or calvaria ; the latter is known as the skeleton 
 of the face. All the bones forming these several parts 
 are immovably united to one another, with the exception of 
 •the mandible or lower jaw, which articulates by means 
 of a movable joint with a hollow fossa in front of the 
 ear on the under surface of the temporal bone. 
 
 As the brain in man is larger in proportion to the rest 
 of his body than in any other mammal, the bony case 
 which surrounds it necessarily attains a great size. On 
 the other hand, as was pointed out in Chapter I, a corre- 
 sponding reduction has taken place in the size and projection 
 of the facial part of the skull; the jaws are no longer 
 necessary for offensive or defensive purposes, nor are 
 they so powerful, for man almost without exception 
 prepares and softens his food by cooking. The sense of 
 smell is not nearly so keen in man as in many animals, 
 in whom it serves to protect them from their enemies 
 and assists them in obtaining their food. This has led to 
 
346 
 
 The Skull. 
 
 a corresponding reduction in the size of the nose in 
 man. In animals the nose and jaws form a muzzle or 
 snout which projects in front of that part of the skull 
 which contains the brain, whilst in man the large cranial 
 box overtops the greatly reduced facial skeleton in place 
 of lying only behind it, as in the lower animals. 
 
 Fig. 194. Male skull. Side view. 
 
 «. Frontal bone. 6. Parietal bone. 
 
 c. Occipital bone. 
 
 d. Temporal bone. 
 
 e. Nasal bone. 
 
 f. Upper jaw-bone (superior maxilla). 
 
 g. Cheek or malar bone. 
 
 fe. Mandible or lower jaw (inferior 
 maxilla). 
 
 t. Angle of lower jaw, 
 i. Bamus of lower jaw. 
 Tc. Condyle of jaw. 
 I. Zygomatic arch. 
 •m. Mastoid process of temporal bone, 
 n. External occipital protuberance. 
 0. Coronoid process of lower jaw. 
 
 These two parts of the skull can be conveniently defined 
 in the living by drawing a line from the root of the nose 
 to the orifice of the ear, and thence backwards to the point 
 where the neck unites with the posterior part of the 
 
The Skull. 
 
 347 
 
 head in the middle line. There, a rounded knob of bone 
 can usually be felt : it is called the external ^protuberance 
 of the occipital bone. 
 
 The part of the skull above this line is for the lodgement 
 of the brain, that below and in front of the line which 
 stretches between the root of 
 the nose and the ear belongs 
 to the face. 
 
 The cranial box is built up 
 of expanded plates of bone : 
 these present a smooth and 
 rounded appearance where 
 they form the dome-like roof 
 and sides of the head, and 
 impart to it its characteristic 
 shape. The form and size 
 of the head vary very much 
 in diiferent individuals, a 
 circumstance which usually 
 enables us with certainty to 
 recognize our own hats. 
 
 The under surface of this 
 bony box is called the base 
 of the skull. In front, it is 
 united with the bones of the 
 face. Behind, it is rough 
 and irregular and pierced by 
 many holes. Here it affords 
 attachment to a great many 
 
 muscles, which control the movements of the head. By 
 a large hole, called the foramen magnum placed immediately 
 over the canal in the vertebral column for the lodgement 
 of the spinal cord, it allows that nervous structure to pass 
 upwards and become connected with the brain. 
 
 We are in no wise concerned with these details, nor is 
 
 fiG. 195. Male skull. Front view. 
 
 a. Frontal bone. 
 h. Parietal bones. 
 
 d. Temporal bones. 
 
 e. Nasal bones. 
 
 /. Upper jaw-bones. 
 g. Malar or cheek-bones, 
 .h. Mandible or lower jaw, 
 i. Angles of lower jaw, 
 j. Rami of lower jaw. 
 I. Zygomatic arches, 
 m. Mastoid processes of temporal bones. 
 
348 Bones of the Skull. 
 
 it necessary that we should further discuss the manner in 
 which the head articulates with the top of the vertebral 
 column. This was described in the last chapter (p. 322). 
 
 The bones of the cranial vault, as we pass from before 
 backwards, are named the frontal, which forms the fore- 
 head; the two parietals, one on either side, which con- 
 stitute the top and part of the sides of the head; and 
 the occipital bone, which forms the back of the head. The 
 side of the cranium in front, above, and behind the ear 
 is made up of the temporal bone. In addition a portion 
 of the sphenoid fills up the interval between the temporal 
 bone posteriorly and the frontal anteriorly on either side. 
 
 It is unnecessary to describe these in detail, for it 
 is by their union with each other that they mould 
 the form of the head. There are but slight indications 
 of their lines of union in the living, and the hairy 
 scalp further conceals any evidence of their outlines. 
 
 They are united by a series of interlocking teeth-like 
 projections, and the joints so formed are called sutures. 
 In Chapter II the advantage of this arrangement was 
 pointed out. The bones are by this means immovably united 
 at the same time that growth by expansion is rendered 
 possible. In the aged, after all growth has ceased, these 
 sutures frequently disappear, and the bones can no longer 
 be separated from one another, as they have become fused 
 together by osseous union. • 
 
 The structure of these bones requires some explanation. 
 They are composed of a dense inner and outer layer, 
 the interval between which is formed of softer and more 
 spongy osseous tissue, called the diploe. In some situations 
 this diploe is liable to disappear at certain periods of life. 
 Spaces are thus formed between the inner and outer 
 hard layers. Through their connexion with the respiratory 
 passages these spaces contain air, and are hence called 
 air sinuses. The growth of these air sinuses takes place 
 
Frontal Sinus. 349 
 
 in the earlier periods of life, but some of them are 
 strikingly developed at that age when youth merges 
 into manhood. One of these sinuses has a special interest 
 for us, as it leads to very considerable modifications in 
 the surface form of the bone. The frontal bone, as it 
 moulds the forehead, can be felt underneath the eyebrows, 
 forming the arches over the cavities in which the eyes 
 are lodged. In this situation it is hollow, and contains 
 an air sinus called the frontal sinus. This space is not 
 developed in childhood, and only to a slight extent in 
 youth. In man it attains its maximum development 
 and imparts to the bone underlying the eyebrows a marked 
 fullness and prominence. In this respect man differs from 
 woman, for in the latter the sinus is much smaller, resem- 
 bling rather the condition met with in childhood. This 
 explains why a woman's forehead is flatter and smoother 
 than a man's, and accounts for the persistence in her 
 of the juvenile type. 
 
 The bones of the vault of the cranium ossify in a peculiar 
 way : they are what are termed membrane-bones. In the 
 early stages of growth the bone appears in the form of 
 a localized earthy deposit in the membrane which is subse- 
 quently to become ossified : from this centre the ossifying 
 particles spread until the membrane has become converted 
 into a plate of bone. These ' centres of ossification ' are 
 readily recognized in the child ; they constitute the ' bumps ' 
 which are so easily seen and felt in certain situations. 
 The most noticeable of these are the frontal and the parietal 
 eminences; the former cause the projection of the upper 
 part of the forehead on either side, whilst the latter can 
 be readily felt at some little distance above the ears. 
 The fullness imparted to the child's forehead by those 
 frontal centres of ossification is maintained through- 
 out life, though not in such a pronounced form, for in man, 
 owing to the development of the frontal sinuses, the brows 
 
350 Cranium. 
 
 become more projecting, thus causing the forehead to slope 
 more, and so reducing the appearance of prominence in the 
 region of the frontal eminences. In women, owing to 
 the feebler projection of the brow ridges, the forehead retains 
 its vertical appearance and the frontal bosses seem more 
 pronounced. In this respect again the female resembles 
 the child. 
 
 The relative proportion of the brain-case to the face 
 varies much at different periods of growth. Apart altogether 
 from the proportions of the head in relation to the rest of 
 the body, the most casual observer must have noticed that 
 
 Fig. 196. Skull of adult showing Fig. 197. Skull of child showing 
 proportion of face to brain-case. proportion of face to brain-case. 
 
 in the child the part of the skull which contains the brain 
 is relatively much larger as compared with the face than 
 what we see in the adult. Growth takes place in both 
 these parts concurrently, though to a greater extent in 
 the structures of the face than in the cranial box, else the 
 relative proportions met with in the adult could not be 
 attained. 
 
 The size of the cranial box is some index to the 
 development of the brain, since a large brain necessarily 
 requires a large covering. The size of the brain may, 
 with certain reservations, be regarded as an indication 
 
Size of Head. 351 
 
 of the development of the intellectual faculties. Though 
 it by no means follows that a man with a big head is 
 a philosopher, yet, speaking generally, it may be stated 
 that the more civilized the race the larger the brain, 
 and consequently the bigger the head. 
 
 Since women as a rule are smaller than men, so we find 
 that their brains are smaller than men's ; not only are 
 they absolutely less, but also relatively so in proportion 
 to the bulk of the body. Curiously enough, this dispro- 
 portion between the sexes is less marked in savage than in 
 civilized races ; in the latter perhaps the difference has 
 been emphasized by the greater facilities afforded for the 
 education of the intellectual faculties in the male. Cor- 
 related with these facts is the size of the head, which 
 in woman should be small and shapely, though this is 
 often concealed by the luxuriance of the hair. The fashion 
 of wearing the hair naturally modifies the appearance of 
 the head : travellers have frequently been misled thereby, 
 describing races as big-headed in which in reality the skulls 
 were of small size. 
 
 Whilst willing to admit that, a well-shaped head is 
 some guarantee of high mental and moral attainments, 
 it remains to be pointed out that the detailed mapping 
 out of the faculties on the surface of the skull is not based 
 on, or supported by, any scientific facts. 
 
 As has been said, the face is proportionately small in the 
 young child. As yet the air sinuses in the bones have not been 
 fully developed. These air sinuses are all accessory to the 
 respiratory tract, with which they communicate. They act 
 apparently as resonators, and influence thereby the character 
 of the voice. Many of them are connected with the nose, 
 and the reader will at once appreciate their effect on the 
 voice if he notes the changes which take place in its 
 quality when one is suffering from a severe cold in the 
 head. 
 
352 Bones of Face. 
 
 The most important of these sinuses in connexion with 
 the face is that found within the upper jaw, a bone, which 
 though apparently solid, displays on section a large cavity 
 in its interior. Besides the function above ascribed to 
 these sinuses, it will be evident that by substituting hoUow 
 bones for solid ones the weight of this part of the skull is 
 very much diminished. 
 
 Among the most important of the bones of the face as 
 determinants of form are the cheek or malar bones. These 
 impart the width to the upper part of the face. If the 
 finger be placed upon the brows, and the outline of the orbits 
 be traced beneath the skin, these bones may be felt as they 
 form the margin of these hollows to the outer and lower side, 
 lying in this position between the outer parts of the frontal 
 bone above and the upper jaw-bones below. "Wide of the 
 orbit the malar bones form the prominence of the cheeks. 
 Posteriorly they can be felt to be supported by an arch of bone 
 which can be readily traced back to the region in front of 
 the ear. This is called the zygomatic arch, and is in part 
 made up of a backward process of the cheek-bone and 
 a forward projection of the temporal bone. Beneath this 
 arch, when the skull is stripped of its fleshy parts, there 
 is a hollow extending up on either side of the head. This 
 is called the temporal fossa, and in it is lodged a large muscle 
 called the temporal muscle. The reader may satisfy himself 
 as to the presence of this muscle by placing his fingers 
 above the zygomatic arch and then opening and closing 
 the mouth alternately. The fibres of the muscle will then 
 be felt contracting, for they are inserted into the lower jaw 
 and help to move that bone (Figs. 194, 195, 200). 
 
 The zygomatic arches therefore act as buttresses to the 
 cheek-bones at the same time that they allow the fibres 
 of the temporal muscle to pass beneath ' them to be inserted 
 into the lower jaw. 
 
 The character of the face largely depends on the cheek- 
 
The Facial Angle. 353 
 
 bones. It is to these that the Mongolian and Tartar races owe 
 their characteristic flatness of face ; whilst they impart to the 
 Australian aborigines their remarkable breadth of features. 
 The prominence of the cheek-bones, apart from these racial 
 characteristics, depends largely upon the fullness of the 
 tissues of the cheek. When, from absence of fat or wasting 
 of the tissues, the cheek loses its roundness, the form of the 
 malar bones becomes more easily recognized. Under these 
 circumstances we speak of a person with high cheek-bones. 
 This prominence is more apparent than real, and depends, 
 as has been said, on the wasting of the surrounding tissues 
 rather than on any undue projection of the bone itself. In 
 old age they become prominent by the sinking of the cheeks 
 beneath them. 
 
 As has been said, one of the characteristic features of 
 man's skull is the absence of a muzzle : though this is the 
 case, it is true that minor degrees of projection of the upper 
 together with the lower jaw are met with. These variations 
 in the position of the bones lead to very characteristic dif- 
 ferences in the appearance of the features. The student 
 may best realize this by contrasting the two extremes : 
 viz. the ideal type represented in the antique, and that 
 characteristic of the negro races. In the one the outline 
 of the face is more or less vertical ; in the other it slopes 
 forward. 
 
 A Dutch anatomist named Camper was the first to draw 
 attention to this difference and record it by a scientific 
 method. The projection of the face can be expressed by 
 what is termed the facial angle. A base line is taken which 
 passes across the face, cutting the orifice of the ear posteriorly, 
 and lying on a level with the border of the septum of the nose 
 in front ; on this another straight line is drawn which touches 
 the most prominent part of the forehead above, and the 
 anterior surface of the upper incisor teeth or the front of 
 the upper lip below ; the angle formed by the intersection 
 
 A a 
 
354 The Facial Angle. 
 
 of the two lines, marked in the accompanying diagrams, is 
 the facial angle (Figs. 198, 199, eel). 
 
 In order to measure this angle on the living a variety 
 of different forms of apparatus is used but the method 
 described above, if applied to a profile outline of the head, 
 will enable the student to recognize the variations met 
 with. 
 
 The angle ranges from 62° to 85°. These are the extremes. 
 The former figure indicates a very marked projection, the 
 latter a more vertical outline. Commonly the angle 
 measures from 70° to 80° ; the white races being characterized 
 
 I) ' 
 
 Fig. 198. Head of a European. 
 
 Fig. 199. Head of a Negro. 
 
 The facial angle c e 6 is formed by the two lines 'a 6 and c d. In the negro 
 the angle c e 6 is smaller than in the European, owing to the greater projection of 
 the jaws. 
 
 by a facial angle of from 75° to 80°, the yellow by 
 an angle which varies from 70° to 75°, whilst the negroid 
 races display a projection of the lower part of the face 
 which often causes the facial angle to fall below 70°. 
 In other words, the European races have more or less 
 straight faces, the yellow slightly sloping faces, and the 
 black markedly projecting faces. In the latter this appear- 
 ance is further emphasized by the presence of a broad and 
 flattened nose, and thick and everted lips. 
 
 In the more highly civilized races, as we have seen, the 
 
The Lower Jaw. 355 
 
 face is much straighter, and this may account for the ideal 
 forms represented in the antique, in which no doubt 
 a sense of dignity is imparted to the features by the 
 undue emphasis of this condition. In some of these 
 the facial angle exceeds a right angle, a condition not 
 met with in man under normal circumstances. Subjected 
 to these tests many of the types represented in the 
 antique are impossible, yet in spite of all such criticism 
 they still remain the embodiment of all that is noble 
 and great in art. 
 
 Another bone of much importance in the modelling 
 of the face is the lower jaw. This is divided into two 
 lateral halves, tmited together in the middle line in front, 
 each half consisting of a 'body, an angle, and a ramus. The 
 hody of the jaw is that part which forms the arch which 
 supports the lower teeth ; in front it determines the pro- 
 jection of the chin, and its lower border can easily be traced 
 beneath the skin backwards to a point a little in front of 
 the ear. Here its lower border turns suddenly upwards, 
 forming the angle, and becomes continuous with the 
 posterior border of the ramus. The upper end of the rami, 
 for there is one on each side, supports two processes. The 
 hinder of these, which is called the condyle of the jaw, 
 is furnished with a surface by means of which it articulates 
 with the temporal bone in front of the ear, in a way which 
 will be described below. Separated from this by a notch 
 called the coronoid notch, and lying in front of it, is 
 a pointed process called the coronoid process. This process, 
 when the jaws are closed, passes up beneath the zygomatic 
 arch, and into it the fibres of the temporal muscle, pre- 
 viously referred to, are inserted (Figs. 194, 195, 200). 
 
 The temporo-maxillary articulation is a joint of peculiar 
 construction, in place of the cartilage-covered condyle of 
 the lower jaw, coming in contact with the articular hollow 
 on the under surface of the temporal bone, a pad of cartilage 
 
 A a2 
 
3^6 The Masseter. 
 
 called the meniscus intervenes between them; the upper 
 surface of this is adapted to fit on to the articular surface 
 of the temporal bone, whilst its lower aspect is moulded 
 to receive the rounded condyle. These two joints are 
 distinct and permit of different though associated move- 
 ments. Thus a gliding movement takes place between 
 the meniscus and the temporal bone, whilst a hinge-like 
 movement occurs between the meniscus and the condyle. 
 As already stated, the two movements mentioned above are 
 intimately associated, as may be demonstrated by placing 
 the finger over the joint and opening the mouth, when not 
 only will the jaw be felt to swing, but the prominence 
 caused by the condyle will be observed to advance forwards 
 towards the cheek. Besides the movements of opening and 
 closing the jaws, we can also move the lower jaw from side 
 to side as in grinding the food. Further, we have the 
 power of protruding or retracting the lower jaw, all of 
 which occur at this articulation. 
 
 Connecting the lower border of the zygomatic arch 
 with the outer surface of the jaw-bone, corresponding 
 to the angle, is a powerful muscle called the masaeter. 
 Of quadrilateral form, it overlies the ramus of the jaw, 
 and so conceals its outline, except behind, where the 
 posterior border of the ramus can readily be felt as it 
 passes up in front of the ear. The masseter thus corre- 
 sponds to the hinder and lower part of the cheek, the 
 fullness of which in this situation is due to the presence 
 of this muscle. The reader may satisfy himself as to 
 the correctness of this statement by placing his fingers 
 on his cheeks a little in front of and above the angle of 
 the jaw; then on firmly closing the jaws he will feel the 
 hardening caused by the contraction of the muscles. These 
 two muscles, the temporal and the masseter, as they arise 
 from fixed attachments on the side of the skull, elevate 
 the inferior maxilla and so close the jaws. They are much 
 
Form of Lower Jaw. 
 
 357 
 
 concerned in tlie movements of chewing, and are hence 
 classed among the muscles of mastication. 
 
 The size of the lower jaw varies much, being small in 
 infancy, large in adult life, and again reduced in old age. 
 But coincident with these changes in size there are also 
 alterations in shape. If the jaw of a child be examined, the 
 angle formed by the ramus with the body is seen to be 
 much more open than that displayed by the adult, in whom 
 it more nearly approaches a right angle. "With advancing 
 
 Fig. 200. Side of the skull, showing the position of the temporal and 
 masseter muscles. 
 
 a. Condyle of lower jaw. 
 &. Body of lower jaw. 
 c. Malar or cheek bone, 
 m. Masseter muscle. 
 
 0. External occipital protuberance. 
 t. Temporal muscle. 
 X. Mastoid process of temporal bone. 
 «. Zygomatic arch. 
 
 years the angle again alters, and becomes more like that 
 seen in infancy. The growth and eruption of the teeth 
 have much to do with the form of the jaw. Whilst the 
 child derives its nourishment from the mother the body of 
 the jaw remains small ; but when nature provides it with 
 teeth to chew its own food the jaw alters its shape. It is 
 only after the permanent teeth have succeeded the milk- 
 teeth that the lower jaw attains its full development In 
 
358 
 
 The Chin. 
 
 Fig. 20I. Infant. 
 
 Fig. 203. Old Age. 
 
 Show the shape of the lower jaw and 
 its influence on the surface form in 
 infancy (Fig. 201), in the adult (Pig. 
 202), in old age (Fig. 203). 
 
 later life, wlien the natural 
 process of decay, or it may 
 be disease, leads to the loss 
 of the teeth, a shrinkage and 
 atrophy of the bone take 
 place, which bring about the 
 alterations in form character- 
 istic of old age. 
 
 These variations in the 
 shape and size of the jaw are 
 associated with alterations in 
 the surface forms, and account 
 for the nut-cracker appear- 
 ance imparted to the faces of 
 old people in whom the jaws 
 are toothless. The Hps and 
 cheeks, no longer supported 
 by the teeth, are thin and 
 wasted and form loose and 
 wrinkled hollows. 
 
 The size of the teeth varies 
 in different individuals. The 
 lower races of man as a rule 
 have larger teeth than the 
 more highly civilized. This 
 is no doubt accounted for by 
 the fact that the higher races 
 pay more attention to the 
 preparation of their food by 
 cooking, S:c. Large teeth 
 necessarily require large jaws, 
 and we can thus account for 
 the massive lower jaws met 
 with in many savages. Too 
 big a jaw imparts a brutal 
 
The Orbits. 359 
 
 appearance to the face, a feature which draughtsmen have 
 emphasized in representing the criminal type. 
 
 The chin is a very characteristic feature of man's face ; 
 it depends on the forward projection of the central point 
 of the lower jaw. It presents a variety of forms: it should 
 be full, prominent, and somewhat square in the male, in 
 contrast with the more pointed form which is so pleasant 
 a feature in women. Not unfrequently a depression or 
 dimple overlies its centre, due to a muscle which is here 
 attached to the skin and which helps to raise the, tissues 
 of the chin in certain expressions. This muscle is called 
 the levator menti; it takes its origin from the front 
 of the lower jaw, beneath the lower lip (PI., p. 370, 
 Fig. 2, c). The fullness of the chin is increased by the 
 quantity of fat which underlies the skin. In cases where 
 this is abundant the chin is circumscribed by a fold below 
 which defines it from the fullness beneath the jaw. Not 
 unfrequently the tissues here are so loaded with fat as to 
 give rise to the appearance of double chin. 
 
 In some, owing to the feeble development of the lower 
 jaw, the chin, instead of being prominent, recedes. This 
 imparts a feeling of weakness to the whole face, in striking 
 contrast to the look of strength and determination asso- 
 ciated with a square jaw. 
 
 The other parts of the skeleton of the face do not require 
 much description, as their form is masked by the overlying 
 tissues. 
 
 The shape of the orbits or hollows in which the eyes are 
 lodged varies considerably in different races. The most 
 pronounced feature, and one which alters considerably the 
 appearance of the face, is the overhang and projection of the 
 brows. This, as has been said, depends on the presence of 
 large frontal sinuses and corresponding brow ridges — a con- 
 dition which leads to modifications in form of the lower part 
 of the forehead in the male as contrasted with the female. 
 
360 Nose and Ear. 
 
 The form of the nose depends on the shape and size of the 
 nasal hones and the arrangement and form of the nasal 
 cartilages. In a skull in which the nasal cartilages have 
 been destroyed in the process of preparation the form of 
 the nasal aperture is like an inverted ace of hearts ; but 
 on looking at a number of skulls of different races it will 
 be Seen that this opening varies considerably in appear- 
 ance. In the negroid races it is broad and short, whilst 
 in the European it is long and narrow. This corresponds 
 with the form of the nose in the living. The negro has 
 a broad iiat nose, whilst in the white man the nose is long 
 and thin. 
 
 Differences in the form and projection of the nasal bones 
 are associated with characteristic variations in the shape of 
 the nose in the living. So also the moulding of the nasal 
 cartilages plays an important part in this the most pro- 
 minent feature of the face. The disposition of the nostrils 
 and the form of the end of the nose depend on tJiesii struc- 
 tures. The persistence of type in the arrangement of these 
 parts is often remarkable, as exemplified in the characteristic 
 nose of the Jewish race. 
 
 The root of the nose is very variable. Formed as it is 
 by the nasal bones, its outline depends on the shape and 
 disposition of these bones. In some the root of the nose 
 is depressed and clearly marked by a hollow from the 
 ridge of the brows; in others it is more projecting and 
 carries down the outline of the forehead. 
 
 Further description of this feature is unnecessary. A great 
 variety of shapes are met with, but the student can now 
 realize on what structures these modifications in form 
 depend. 
 
 The external auditory meatus marks the position of the 
 ear on the skull. It is a canal leading into the interior 
 of the temporal bone, placed between the articular hollow 
 for the lower jaw-bone, in front, and the projecting process 
 
The Ear. ' 361 
 
 behind, called the mastoid pr-ocess, to which the anterior 
 fibres of the sterno-mastoid are attached. 
 
 In front of this aperture the temporal portion of the zygo- 
 matic arch springs. 
 
 Implanted in and surrounding this orifice is a convoluted 
 leaf of cartilage, "which when covered by skin forms the 
 shell-like ear. Connected with the cartilage below is 
 a quantity of fatty tissue which forms the lobe of the ear. 
 Great dilferences are seen in the shape and size of the ear. 
 In women it should be small and not projecting, its delicacy 
 being enhanced by its colour and the light and shade which 
 its contours impart. In men it should not be unduly large, 
 and should lie close to the side of the head. Unpleasant 
 forms are due to irregularities in the folding of the car- 
 tilage and a spreading out of its edge. The lobe too 
 varies, in many being absent, whilst in others it is not free 
 in front, but is tied down to the tissues of the cheek. 
 Attempts have been made to identify these conditions with 
 racial characteristics, but siifficient has been said to enable 
 the student to judge for himself as to the forms most 
 suitable for representation. Below and behind the ear the 
 hollow which lies between the jaw in front and the anterior 
 border of the sterno-mastoid behind ends abruptly. 
 
 We have hitherto confined our description to the bones, 
 cartilages, and some of the muscles which influence the 
 surface form of the face ; but covering the front of these, 
 and serving as a mask, is an investment of skin together with 
 fat and muscles. It is to this that our attention must 
 next be directed. 
 
 It will be well, in the first instance, to study the various 
 openings on the face. Of these there are five — the mouth, 
 the nostrils, and the openings between the eyelids. The 
 orifice of the ear is not included, as it lies on the side 
 of the head and has already been sufficiently described. 
 All these openings are liable to modification in their 
 
362 The Mouth. 
 
 form by the action of the muscles whicli surround them. It 
 is largely to these alterations in shape that the expression 
 of the emotions is due. 
 
 The mouth, the largest and most important of these 
 apertures from the point of view of expression, is the cleft 
 between the lips ; it varies much in size and in the form 
 of its boundaries. The lips should be full and rounded, the 
 red parts being clearly defined from the rest by a more or 
 less prominent margin. The upper lip should project some- 
 what, so as to throw part of the under lip in shadow. The 
 form of the upper lip is often a feature of great beauty. 
 From the angles of the mouth the red part of the upper lip 
 should curve over so as to form an arch, the centre of which, 
 however, is interrupted by a gentle groove which passes 
 across its middle from the septum of the nose. As this 
 groove joins the red edge of the lip it breaks the continuity 
 of the curve and imparts to it that characteristic appearance 
 which has been named ' Capid's bow.' It is just where this 
 groove breaks the outline that the lip is most prominent. 
 The upper lip varies considerably in length in different 
 individuals, a short lip being regarded as one of the 
 attributes of ideal beauty. The lower lip, though full, 
 should not project as far forwards as the upper. Beneath 
 its red part it should be recurved and separated by a broad 
 depression from the prominence of the chin, thus tending to 
 cast a shadow beneath, which helps to accentuate its curved 
 outline. At the angles of the mouth the red parts of the 
 lips are narrowed down to a line and tend to be intumed. 
 The fullness of the tissues of the cheek here forms an angular 
 depression which, thrown in shadow, breaks the otherwise 
 abrupt union of the upper and lower edges. The modelling 
 of these parts displays great subtilty of form and imparts 
 a delicacy and finish to the curves of the lips. It is hardly 
 necessary here to remind the reader of the many defects 
 displayed in this feature. 
 
The Eyes. 363 
 
 An undue length of tke upper lip, as well as thinness or 
 excessive fullness of the red parts of the lip, are characters 
 which should be avoided in ideal conceptions, though doubt- 
 less they have their value in the representation of more 
 realistic types. The most remarkable feature about the 
 mouth is its extreme mobility, a property which we shall see 
 hereafter is of the greatest value as a modifying influence 
 in expression. 
 
 The structures which determine the form of the nose 
 have been already described. The form of the nostrils dis- 
 plays many varieties, according to the shape of the nose. 
 These openings are separated by the septum, which joins 
 the upper lip at a point corresponding to its median furrow ; 
 on either side, the cartilages which form the alae of the 
 nose overhang the nostrils. These cartilages are separated 
 posteriorly from the fullness of the cheek by a curvilinear 
 furrow. Their lower borders are more elevated than the 
 lower border of the septum, so that in profile the septum 
 determines the outline, and the aperture of the nostril 
 is seen. The shadow thrown across the nostril by the 
 overhanging ala is warm in tone, owing to the exposure of 
 the highly vascular membrane which lines the interior 
 of the opening. It is worth noting at present that the 
 alae of the nose are slightly movable, and are to a certain 
 extent under the control of the will. 
 
 The size of the eyes depends on the extent of the surface 
 of the globe exposed between the eyelids. This naturally 
 varies with the length of the fissure between the lids, 
 which on the statement of expert authority should form 
 one-fifth of the width of the head. The two apertures 
 should be separated by a width equal to the length 
 of one. 
 
 With the eyes open, the angles formed by the union of 
 the upper and lower lids should lie on the same horizontal 
 line. Deviations from this are not uncommon, the most 
 
364 The Eyes. 
 
 remarkable being that in which the outer angles are raised, 
 thus giving the eye an oblique appearance. It is partly due 
 to this obliquity that the eyes of the Chinese and Japanese 
 owe their distinctive appearance. Another characteristic of 
 these races is the condition known as epicanthus; in this 
 the inner angle of the eye is overhung by a fold of skin 
 which passes downwards from the upper eyelid. This 
 appearance is not unfrequently met with in European 
 infants, though in them it usually disappears as the child 
 grows up. 
 
 The globe of the eye rests on a pad of fat within the orbit. 
 Its movements are controlled by the action of six muscles 
 which are attached to it. If the fat within the orbit be 
 scant in amount, the eyes appear deep-set and sunken. 
 "When prominent the condition depends on the increase 
 in the bulk of these supporting pads. 
 
 The setting of the eyes is further affected by the pro- 
 minence of the brows. When these overhang, the eyes 
 appear deep-set. The orbital margin is only recognized 
 as a surface form along the brows and towards the outer 
 side. Below, the skin passes from the lower lid to the 
 cheek without any indication being given on the surface 
 of the lower margin of the orbit. 
 
 Of the two eyelids, the upper is the longer and the 
 more movable. The closing of the eye is eifected by the 
 descent of the upper eyelid, and not by the raising of 
 the lower lid. The margin of the upper lid is more curved 
 than that of the lower. Both margins are furnished with 
 eyelashes, of which the upper are the longer. The margin 
 of the upper lid is sufficiently thick to throw a shadow on 
 the eyeball beneath it. Viewed from the front or side, the 
 surface of this margin is not visible. The margin of the 
 lower lid, thinner than that of the upper, is upturned, 
 and, viewed from the front in ordinary positions, is 
 clearly seen. From its colour and from the fact that, 
 
The Eyes. 365 
 
 being a moist surface, it more readily catches the light, 
 it forms an element of much importance in the drawing 
 of the eye. 
 
 The inner and outer angles between the eyelids differ. 
 The outer angle, or external canthus as it is called, is formed 
 by the upward curve of the lower eyelid beneath a fold 
 which is continuous with the margin of the upper lid. In- 
 ternally 'the two eyelids do not directly unite with one 
 another, but are separated by a small Z)-shaped recess. Here 
 are found the ducts which carry away the tears, and here 
 also a small triangular-shaped vascular fold, which stretches 
 across the angle between the lids, supplies the painter with 
 opportunities of applying local colour. The red tint of this 
 fold is carried inwards into the recess aforementioned. 
 Passing inwards towards the root of the nose from the inner 
 canthus, for about one-eighth of an inch, a prominent surface 
 ridge can often be seen which is due to the presence of a 
 little ligament called the tendo oculi, which unites the eye- 
 lids with the inner wall of the orbit. 
 
 "When the eyes are closed, as in sleep, the form of the 
 upper lid depends on the shape of the eyeball. This is not 
 a simple sphere, but consists of part of a sphere of smaller 
 diameter placed on the front of a larger one. It might be 
 compared to a well-curved watch-glass placed on the surface 
 of a cricket-ball. This more prominent part of the eyeball 
 is called the cornea ; it corresponds to the coloured part of 
 the eye as distinct from the white of the eye. The white 
 of the eye is due to the white glistening fibrous coat of the 
 eyeball, called the sclerotic. This serves as a protection for 
 the delicate contents within the globe. The corneal part of 
 the eyeball is transparent, and allows of the transmission 
 of the colour of the parts which lie within. The colour of 
 the eye is due to the pigment in the iris, a curtain which 
 serves to control the amount of light which enters the 
 interior of the eye. It corresponds to the diaphragm 
 
366 Expression. 
 
 of a photograpMc lens, varying the size of the aperture or 
 pujpil through which the light passes. 
 
 Both the cornea and sclerotic, so far as they are exposed 
 between the eyelids, are covered by a delicate membrane, 
 called the conjunctiva, which is always kept moist by the 
 secretion of the tears and thus reflects the light which falls 
 upon it. In this way the ' high light,' which is so important 
 a detail in the drawing of the eye, is accounted for. The 
 presence or absence of this high light and its position will 
 vary with the direction of the light falling on the eye of the 
 model. An abuse of this high light is frequently seen in 
 productions of ' artist ' photographers. 
 
 When the eye is open the upper eyelid is withdrawn 
 within a deep fold, which repeats more or less accurately 
 the curve described by its free margin. Above this fold the 
 tissues form a fullness which is continuous above with 
 the projecting brows. Variations in the outline of these 
 details are of course numerous, and alter with the ex- 
 pression and the modelling of the parts. 
 
 Expression is in great part due to the modifications which 
 take place in the form and outline of the features which 
 have just been described, but the study of the subject is 
 beset with many difficulties, and is by no means so easy 
 as at first appears. To take a case in point, the differences 
 between the expression of terror and horror are but slight, 
 yet so marked that there is no mistaking them. Horror is 
 not necessarily associated with fear, nor terror with disgust, 
 yet both are remarkable for the general similarity in the 
 mode of their representation. The analysis of these differ- 
 ences requires careful study, and many subtilties are apt 
 to escape the casual observer. The artist may rely on his 
 models for their outward shape, but it is only exception- 
 ally that he can trust to those means for the inspiration 
 which quickens his forms and gives life and directness to 
 their actions. 
 
Expression. 367 
 
 In the study of expression, the broader effects are easily 
 attained by what one may almost term conventional methods. 
 It is only when the more delicate shades of difference, are 
 treated that we recognize the master hand. This comes 
 home to us in our experience of the stage. We acknowledge 
 success and condemn failure almost intuitively. When the 
 mimicry of the actor falls short of our standard of experience 
 we do not hesitate to criticize his performance adversely, yet 
 how often are we unable to explain the reasons of his lack of 
 success! He has failed to appeal to us because he has 
 not seemed natural, for though he has employed all the 
 conventionalities of his art he has omitted the niceties 
 which give refinement and character to his conception. 
 
 It is the recognition of these details and shades of differ- 
 ence that enable us at once to place our finger on the weak 
 spot, and it is only by prolonged study and careful observa- 
 tion that we can hope to attain to anything like excellence 
 in this respect. Fortunately we are able to avail ourselves of 
 the experience of a great teacher. Darwin, whose book on 
 the Expression of the Emotions is a masterpiece of thought- 
 ful inquiry, has given us a striking exposition of the manner 
 in which these problems should be attacked. The student 
 will be well repaid if he reads this book, for not only will his 
 interest be aroused, but his spirit of inquiry and observation 
 will be stimulated. 
 
 It is outside the scope of this work to attempt anything 
 like a full consideration of this subject, and in the following 
 pages only a few of the more striking facts are referred to. 
 
 As has been said, expression largely depends on the 
 alteration in the form of the features by muscular means, but 
 the student may be reminded that action is not confined 
 to the facial muscles alone. Attitude and posture largely 
 assist us in the expression of the emotions ; the pose of 
 the body, the turn of the head, the position of the hands, 
 all bear a part. 
 
368 Expression. 
 
 There are changes due to other factors, as for instance 
 the blood-vessels and their contents. In certain conditions 
 of excitement the heart beats faster, the blood-vessels are 
 filled with more blood, and the countenance becomes suf- 
 fused. On the other hand there are emotions associated 
 with a great diminution in the quantity of blood in the 
 cutaneous vessels, attended by a death-like pallor of the sur- 
 face of the body. These changes in the circulation react, 
 too. on other organs and systems ; thus the eye becomes 
 more brilliant in certain forms of excitement, due to an 
 increase in the tension of its contents, whereas in other 
 conditions, as in extreme prostration through fear, &c., 
 it lacks much of its natural lustre. Again, perspiration is 
 a result of similar influences, and, curiously enough, this 
 transudation through the pores of the skin is associated 
 either with increase or decrease in the amount of blood 
 in the cutaneous capillaries. Reference need only be made 
 to the occurrence of a cold and clammy sweat in states of 
 terror to verify this fact. Blushing is also due to vas- 
 cular changes dependent on nervous influence, but as the 
 quality of a blush as contrasted with a general height- 
 ening of the colour depends upon its transient nature 
 it is outside the scope of pictorial representation. A 
 moment's consideration will enable the reader to realize 
 that, whilst the contraction of the facial muscles is under 
 the influence of our will, the vascular and nervous pheno- 
 mena above referred to are beyond our control, and hence 
 beyond our powers of mimicry, so that in representing the 
 various emotions the artist must rely on his own experience 
 and observations rather than on the conventional efforts of 
 his model. 
 
 It is with the first group of phenomena, viz. those 
 due to the contraction of the facial muscles, that we 
 are mainly concerned. In discussing these we must bear 
 in mind that the openings on the face are each associated 
 
Muscles of Expression. 369 
 
 with a particular sense : the eye with sight, the nose with 
 smell, and the mouth with taste ; moreover the nose and the 
 mouth are also concerned with the admission of air to 
 the lungs. The bearing of these facts will be seen here- 
 after, when we come to realize that certain emotions are 
 associated more or less distinctly with certain of these 
 senses. Thus the turning away of the eyes in shame, the 
 snif&ng associated with a disdainful look, and the move- 
 ments of the lips frequently observed in the expression of 
 disgust, are proof of the association of these emotions with 
 particular sense organs. One ashamed does not look the 
 accuser in the face; the sniffing in disdain implies that 
 a person by his very odour has rendered himself offensive ; 
 and in disgust the same meaning is conveyed as if by the 
 movement of the lips on an unsavoury morsel. 
 
 The muscles of expression may be grouped as follows, 
 viz. those which influence the movement of the scalp, and 
 particularly that part of it which forms the covering of the 
 forehead, and those which control the form of the various 
 apertures of the face, i. e. the eyes, nose, and mouth. 
 
 The scalp consists of the tissues overlying the skull, from 
 the brows in front to the external occipital protuberance 
 behind. The part which covers the forehead is free from 
 hair, that behind forms the hairy scalp. It is loosely 
 connected with the underlying bones, so that it can be 
 moved backwards and forwards on them. The freedom 
 of this movement varies very considerably in different 
 individuals. Many possess this power to a remarkable 
 degree, whilst in others it is almost absent. 
 
 These movements are effected by the action of certain 
 muscles — most important of which is the occipito-frontalis. 
 This muscle consists of two thin fleshy portions with an 
 intermediate fibrous sheet, called the epicranial aponeurosis. 
 The occipital part of the muscle covers the back of the 
 head and is attached to the ridge on the occipital bone 
 
 Bb 
 
370 Muscles of Expression. 
 
 called tiie superior curved line. This corresponds to the 
 junction of the tissues of the neck with the back of 
 the head. Superiorly the fleshy fibres are connected 
 with the hinder part of the epicranial aponeurosis. The 
 frontal part of the muscle overlies the forehead : it has 
 no bony attachment. Superiorly it arises from the fore 
 part of the epicranial aponeurosis, and inferiorly is inserted 
 into the skin of the brows and the root of the nose (PL, 
 p. 370, Figs. 1,2,71, Ci, if). 
 
 When this muscle contracts, as in the expression of 
 surprise, it raises the skin of the forehead, and throws 
 it into a series of folds, which repeat fairly accurately 
 the curves of the eyebrows. Descending from the frontalis, 
 on either side of the middle line and over the root 
 of the nose, are two little muscular slips called the pyra- 
 midales nasi. These have their fixed points below, and 
 are attached in part to the outer surface of the nasal bones, 
 and in part to the aponeurosis which overlies the car- 
 tilages of the nose. When these muscles act they therefore 
 draw down the skin of the forehead towards the centre, 
 thus causing a depression of the inner ends of the eyebrows 
 and a wrinkling of the skin over the root of the nose. Such 
 movements are associated with expressions of displeasure, 
 as in frowning (PL, p. 370, m). 
 
 The corrugatores supercilii muscles occupy an oblique 
 position above the inner half of the brows, one on either 
 side. They lie under cover of the frontalis, and arise from 
 the bony arch of the orbit on either side of and slightly 
 above the root of the nose; spreading outwards and up- 
 wards they become attached to the skin over the middle 
 of the eyebrows. When these muscles contract, the skia 
 over the outer part of the forehead is drawn inwards, and 
 a series of central longitudinal folds is produced. The 
 muscle is usually combined in its action with the foregoing, 
 that is to say either with elevation or depression of the skin 
 
w 
 o 
 
 <! 
 fa 
 
 a 
 •a 
 < 
 
 M 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 CI 3 
 
 >^ >, 
 
 =3 a 
 
 1| 
 
 H < 
 
 Eh en 
 O S 
 
 |1 
 *^ 
 
 ° 3 
 
 o P 
 « .S 
 
 o 
 
 1 g 
 
 ft rt 
 
 •Z en 
 
 a 4 
 
 II 
 
 • ^ > 
 ■^ a s 
 
 *0 to ^-^ . 
 
 s S5 a 
 
 II 
 
 2 «6 
 
 a ^ 
 
 o o 
 
 S £ * 
 
 •= 5 
 
 a ° 
 
 rr< ft 
 
 is 2 f' 
 
 -S — ■^ 
 
 ■s a 
 * s 
 ll 
 
 go" 
 
 5i O ffl n- 
 
 3 -a o a 
 
 f '^ 1 S 
 
 ft s S ft 
 
 ft.S o 5 
 
 U ^ < ai 
 
 ft S » 
 
 III 
 
 a I a 
 ill 
 
 lis . 
 i 5 « .2 
 
 ■- -3 
 
 .g a -43 a -a -a 'S 
 
 a 3 ^ >> 
 
 O "< ^ N ■ 
 
 a 00 o 
 
 rj O O 
 iE PM O 
 
 ft 3 Is 
 a J ^ 
 o a "^ 
 O m t^ 
 
 irj "O !>• 00 C\ C 
 
 o 
 
 c '^ V f^ 
 
 S s 
 
. '.fei^i 
 
Muscles of Expression. 371 
 
 of the forehead. In this way the transverse folds produced 
 by the frontalis and pyramidales are modified in the 
 middle line. In combination with the central part of 
 the frontalis the corrugatores supercilii cause the eyebrows 
 to become oblique, and pucker the skin in the centre of 
 the forehead, as in the expression of grief. In associated 
 action with the pyramidales muscles they help to emphasize 
 the wrinkling over the root of the nose and lower part 
 of the forehead as in frowning If the reader will consider 
 for a moment the results produced by the contraction of 
 these muscles he will realize that the wrinkling of the skin 
 caused by them is always transverse to the direction of 
 the fibres of the muscles (PL, p. 370, Fig. i, 0). 
 
 In passing to the consideration of the muscles of the face 
 proper we recognize that they are grouped around the various 
 orifices, each of which is provided with opening and closing 
 muscles, in addition to others which modify their shape. 
 
 Surrounding the fissure of the eyelids and overlying the 
 lids themselves is a thin sheet of muscle called the orbicu- 
 laris palpebrarum. The fibres are arranged in a series 
 of concentric loops which are attached internally to the 
 inner bony margin of the orbit. Elsewhere the muscle 
 spreads over the margin of the orbital hollow and is con- 
 nected with the skin superficial to it. Above, it blends with 
 the frontalis and lies superficial to the corrugator ; inferiorly, 
 it is connected with some of the muscles of the cheek. The 
 part of the muscle which overlies the lids is called the 
 palpebral portion. The action of this is to close the eyelids. 
 Under ordinary conditions the lower lid moves but slightly, 
 the upper being drawn down over the surface of the globe. 
 Exceptionally, as in the act of ' winking,' the closure of the 
 lids is effected by the elevation of the lower lid. 
 
 That portion of the muscle which lies around the lids 
 is called its orbital part. The lower half of the orbital 
 fibres elevates the skin of the cheek and wrinkles the 
 
 B b 2 
 
372 The Eye in Expression. 
 
 skin over the outer margin of the orbit, producing the 
 skin folds which, in old people, are often called ' crows' 
 feet/ The upper half draws down the skin of the forehead 
 and antagonizes the action of the frontalis. It pulls down 
 the eyebrows and causes them to overhang. The muscle, 
 as a whole, is employed in forcible closure of the eyes, as 
 when a blow is expected. The lids are strongly compressed 
 against the front of the globe, which is slightly pushed 
 backward at the same time that the lids are carried a little 
 inwards towards the bony attachment of the muscle (PL, 
 
 P- 370= Figs- i> 2, I). 
 
 The eye is opened by the action of a muscle called the 
 levator palpebrae superioris (the elevator of the upper lid). 
 This muscle lies within the orbit, and is attached to the 
 deep surface of the upper eyelid. Its action is sufficiently 
 expressed by its name. 
 
 The eye plays a most important part in the expression of 
 the emotions. The changes met with in it are due to several 
 causes. First, its brilliancy may be increased or diminished 
 according as there is an increase or decrease in the tension 
 of the contents of the eyeball. These changes are beyond 
 our control, and are associated with exalted feelings on the 
 one hand or a sense of depression on the other. In the 
 former state the eye is bright, whilst in the latter it appears 
 dull. An increase in the tears which bathe the surface of 
 the eyeball leads to the more ready reflection of the light 
 from the moist, exposed surfaces. An excessive increase 
 leads to the shedding of the tears which takes place in 
 certain violent and uncontrollable emotions. 
 
 The movements of the eyeball, which are distinct from 
 those of the eyelids, have a definite influence on expression. 
 The downcast eye indicative of shame, the upturned eye 
 suggestive of devotion, the averted eye associated with 
 the expressions of disgust and aversion, the downward and 
 sidelong look in contempt, are all well-marked examples. 
 
The Eye in Expression. 373 
 
 Lastly, we have the relation of the opening of the eyelids 
 to consider. In such emotions as surprise, terror, and horror 
 the eyes are widely opened. The partial closure of the 
 lids may be associated with a contemptuous look, in which 
 there is a suggestion that the person is not worth looking 
 at, and that we would experience little loss if we shut him 
 out from our sight. Narrowing of the opening between 
 the eyelids is often seen in people whose attention is con- 
 centrated on some thought, or who are gazing steadfastly at 
 some object. Here it is often combined with a slight frown. 
 The purpose of this action may be either to allow less light 
 to enter the eye or to shut out surrounding objects. 
 
 The eyelids are forcibly closed when we expect to receive 
 a blow or sudden shock, and one of the first difficulties 
 a novice in boxing has to overcome is to control this 
 tendency. Here the closure of the lids is obviously for the 
 purpose of protection. In like manner, in such violent 
 expiratory acts as sneezing and coughing, the eyeballs 
 are supported by the closed lids. In laughter the orbicular 
 muscle is contracted, the skin around the eye is wrinkled, 
 and the opening between the eyelids is narrowed. 
 
 Apart altogether from the influence of the eye on expres- 
 sion, the student should note the delicacy of the skin below 
 the lower eyelid and on the inner side towards the root 
 of the nose. Here the cutaneous vessels exercise a marked 
 influence on the surface colour. In some a dark tint often 
 enhances the brilliance of the eyes. The general recognition 
 of this fact has led to its adoption by artificial means in the 
 art of ' making up.' 
 
 The eyebrows and eyelashes differ in different individuals. 
 The former should be well arched and separated by an 
 interval. The latter vary in their length and in the character 
 of their sweep. Dark eyelashes mask to a certain extent 
 the drawing of the margin of the lids, as they surround 
 the opening of the eyelids with a dark indefinite zone. 
 
374 Muscles of the Nose. 
 
 The colour of the eyebrows and eyelashes need not neces- 
 sarily conform with that of the hair. It is by no means 
 uncommon to meet with women with fair hair and dark 
 eyebrows and lashes, though it may here be pointed out 
 that the same results may be obtained by the practice of the 
 mysteries of the toilet. 
 
 Though man is unable to open and close the nostrils, he 
 yet possesses a considerable amount of control over the size 
 of these apertures. This is effected by the movements of 
 the nasal cartilages. The reader must bear in mind that the 
 nose is not only the organ of the special sense of smell, 
 but is also one of the channels through which air passes 
 to and fro in respiration ; hence the muscles which control 
 the movements of these cartilages are concerned with the 
 changes in the form of the nostril which accompany forced 
 respiration, as well as those which are associated with the 
 perception of smell. 
 
 Of these muscles the most important are the compressor 
 naris, the levator alae nasi, and the depressor alae nasi. 
 
 The compressor muscles are placed on either side of the 
 nose. They arise from the upper jawbone, close to the bony 
 margin of the nasal aperture. Spreading out in a fan- 
 shaped manner on the sides of the nose, they are inserted 
 into a thin aponeurotic expansion which stretches across 
 the bridge of the nose. Overljdng, as these muscles do, the 
 cartilaginous part of the nose, when they contract they tend 
 to depress the cartilages and so compress the alae, as they 
 overhang the nostrils (PL, p. 370, Figs, i, 2,^'). 
 
 The levator alae nasi forms part of a muscle called the 
 levator labii superioris et alae nasi. It takes origin above 
 from the bone in front of the orbital margin, and close to 
 the root of the nose ; its fibres pass downwards along the 
 side of the nose and are inserted into the wings or alae 
 of the nostril. As its name implies, this muscle raises the 
 wings of the nose and hence dilates the nostril, as in the act 
 
Muscles of the Mouth. 375 
 
 of sniffing. Its action is associated witli an elevation of the 
 upper lip at the same time, owing to the fact that some 
 of the fibres which arise from the same bony attachment 
 pass down to be inserted into the upper lip; hence the 
 name given to the whole muscle (PI., p. 370, Figs, i, 2, /fc). 
 
 The depressor alae nasi takes origin froia the upper jaw- 
 bone, immediately above the front teeth. Its fibres pass 
 upwards to be inserted in part into the septum of the nose, 
 in part into the posterior aspect of the wings of the nostril. 
 The muscle draws down the septum and assists the com- 
 pressor in depressing the alae of the nose and narrowing 
 the nostril. Under ordinary circumstances the movements 
 of the alae are imperceptible in respiration. In violent 
 inspiratory efforts, after prolonged muscular exercise, or in 
 conditions of intense excitement accompanied by deep 
 inspirations, the dilatation of the nostrils becomes a charac- 
 teristic feature. When we wish to analyze more care- 
 fully the nature of a particular odour we draw the air up 
 forcibly into the nose and then contract the orifice so as to 
 prevent its escape. These are the sniffing movements, move- 
 ments which are often the involuntary accompaniment 
 of such expressions as contempt and disdain (PL, p. 370, 
 Figs. I, 2, i). 
 
 Of all the features the mouth is the most mobile and the 
 most under our control. Though many of its movements 
 are in a sense involuntarily associated with certain moods, 
 yet they may be checked by the exercise of the will. 
 In like manner we can, with a certain degree of success, 
 simulate by the voluntary contraction of some of its muscles 
 the expressions which are habitually dependent on the more 
 or less co-ordinated action of these muscles. 
 
 The mouth ranks first therefore as a modifying agent in 
 the appearance of the features. The slight upturning of 
 the angles of the mouth imparts to the face an altogether 
 different appearance from that displayed when the angles 
 
376 Muscles of the Mouth. 
 
 are down-drawn. In support of the view that the mouth is 
 such an important factor in the determination of expression 
 we have only to take into consideration the number of 
 muscles which surround it. 
 
 Generally speaking, the muscles of the mouth may be 
 divided into groups according to their action. There is 
 a closing muscle called the orbicularis oris. There are 
 muscles which raise the upper lip, others which elevate the 
 angle ; some which retract the angles, and some which draw 
 them down; and, iinally, there are those which depress 
 the lower lip. 
 
 The orMcularis oris consists of an oval sheet of muscle 
 of considerable thickness which surrounds the orifice of the 
 mouth. Its inner edge corresponds to the red margins of 
 the lips. Its outer border spreads upwards towards the base 
 of the nose, outwards towards the cheek, and downwards as 
 low as the furrow which separates the lower lip from the 
 chin. The muscle is connected by slender slips with both 
 upper and lower jaws, above and beneath the front teeth. 
 The bulk of the muscle, however, is made up of fibres which 
 pass across from side to side and turn upwards and down- 
 wards at the angles of the mouth. The outer border 
 of the muscle is blended with the various elevators and 
 depressors of the lips and angles, and is also intimately 
 connected with the muscles of the cheeks. The muscle 
 closes the mouth and brings the lips together; it also 
 narrows the mouth and causes the lips to protrude (PL, 
 p. 370, Figs. I, 2, g). 
 
 The elevators of the upper lip are two in number. One 
 has been already in part described, viz. the levator labii 
 superioris et alae nasi. The fibres of this muscle which pass 
 to the lip are blended with the orbicularis on either side 
 of the wings of the nostrils (PI., p. 370, Figs, i, 2, Jfc). 
 
 The levator labii superioris proprius, or special elevator 
 of the upper lip, arises from the front of the upper jaw-bone, 
 
Muscles of the Mouth. 377 
 
 close to the lower margin of the orbit ; it is more or less 
 united with the preceding muscle, and is inserted into the 
 tissues of the upper lip (PL, p. 370, Figs, i, 2, s). 
 
 The elevators of the angles of the mouth are the levator 
 anguli oris and the zygomaticus major and minor. 
 
 The levator anguli oris arises from the front of the upper 
 jawbone under cover of the levator ' labii superioris pro- 
 prius, and passes downwards and slightly outwards to be 
 inserted in bhe upper border and outer side of the angle of 
 the mouth (PL, p. 370, Figs. 1, 2, t). 
 
 The zygomatici are two muscular slips which arise from 
 the outer surface of the cheek-bone and pass downwards and 
 forwards to reach the angle of the mouth, where they are 
 inserted (PL, p. 370, Figs, i, 2, Ji). 
 
 All three muscles are elevators of the angles ^of the 
 mouth, but the latter tend to draw the angles upwards 
 and outwards, as in the broad grin, whereas the levator 
 anguli oris tends to inturn the angle. 
 
 "We have already seen how the platysma myoides (p. 336) 
 passes up from the neck on to the face to be connected with 
 the muscles of the lower lip. Some of its more specialized 
 fibres have received a definite name, and constitute the 
 risorius muscle. These fibres arise from the fascia of the 
 cheek in front of the ear, and, passing forwards, are attached 
 to the skin of the angle of the mouth. They act as retractors 
 of the angles and thus widen the mouth (PL, p. 370, Figs. 
 1,2, i,f}. 
 
 The depressors of the angles of the mouth include the 
 depressor anguli oris and the fibres of the platysma which 
 are passing to the angle. 
 
 The depressor anguli oris arises from the lower jaw near 
 its lower border, on either side of the middle line. The 
 muscle, which is triangular in shape, and is hence some- 
 times called the triangular muscle of the chin (triangularis 
 menti), is attached by its pointed extremity to the tissues 
 
378 The Mouth in Expression. 
 
 of the angle of tHel mouth, on its lower side. The fibres of 
 the platysma have been already referred to. 
 
 Both these muscles pull down the angle of the mouth, 
 the platysma at the same time drawing it backward and 
 outwards (PI., p. 370, Figs, i, 2, e). 
 
 The depressor muscle of the lower lip is the depressor labii 
 inferioris. It arises from the front of the lower jaw xinder 
 cover of the depressor anguli oris. Square in shape, and hence 
 sometimes called the quadratus menti, it passes upwards and 
 is inserted into the tissues of the lower lip, blending with 
 the orbicularis oris. The action of this muscle is assisted by 
 the fibres of the platysma (PL, p. 370, Figs, i, 2, d). 
 
 The levator menti is a small muscle which arises from the 
 front of the lower jaw, below the front teeth. Eunning down- 
 wards and forwards, it spreads out and is inserted into the 
 skin of the chin. By raising the chin, as its name implies, 
 it also elevates the lower lip and protrudes it (PL, p. 370, 
 Fig. 2, c). 
 
 The action of the various muscles on the form of the 
 mouth has been referred to as each has been described, but 
 a moment's reflection will enable the reader to understand 
 the complexity of form which is the result of their conibined 
 action. Not only is this the case when the lips are closed, but 
 an altogether different shape may be given to the open 
 mouth by the squaring of the angles or the inturning and 
 protrusion of the lips. 
 
 Note also how the mouth is, like the nose, associated with 
 a special sense, viz. that of taste, and also with the respiratory 
 function. In association with taste we frequently have 
 movements expressive of pleasure or disgust, movements 
 such as would be performed by the lips on the reception 
 of a tasty bit or the rejection of an unsavoury morsel. 
 
 The mouth is not only a channel through which air may 
 enter and pass from the lungs, but also exercises an important 
 influence in speech and voice-production. In making 
 
The Mouth in Expression. 379 
 
 a violent muscular effort after the chest has been filled with 
 air the mouth is firmly closed to prevent its escape. On the 
 completion of the act the mouth is again opened and the 
 air expelled from the lungs. Under ordinary and healthy 
 conditions the nose alone suffices for the purposes of 
 respiration, but under exceptional circumstances, when the 
 respiratory efforts are much increased, the mouth is often 
 made use of to enable us to get more breath. So delicate 
 and precise are the forms given to the lips in speech that 
 advantage is taken of this circumstance to enable the deaf 
 and dumb to read by sight the words which fall from the 
 lips of a speaker they cannot hear. A striking example 
 of the characteristic appearance of the mouth and lips in 
 the production of certain notes is seen in the figures on 
 the sculptured frieze executed by Luca della Eobbia, in 
 conjunction with Donatello, for the organ gallery of the 
 cathedral at Florence. The visitor to the Uffizi Grallery has 
 little difficulty in determining from the expression of the 
 singers the character of the voice. 
 
 The mouth is opened widely in surprise and awe. ' So also 
 in disgust and laughter, though the forms are very different. 
 A vacant, silly look is often given to the face by an open 
 mouth. 
 
 A firmly closed mouth is expressive of determination. 
 The closure of the jaws and the opening of the mouth so 
 as to show the clenched teeth are suggestive of hatred, and 
 hint at the use of the teeth as weapons of offence. 
 
 The upturned angles are characteristic of the merry 
 moods, whilst a down-drawn mouth is associated with less 
 pleasant emotions. 
 
 In connexion with these alterations in the shape of the 
 mouth it is well to note how furrows, which play an 
 important part in expression, become developed. The 
 most important of these is the naso-labial furrow. This 
 separates the rounded form of the cheek from the wing 
 
380 Expression. 
 
 of the nose, and, sweeping downwards and outwards, fades 
 away imperceptibly towards the angle of the mouth. 
 Coincident with certain movements of the mouth, this 
 furrow is emphasized and altered in its direction. In 
 laughter and crying it is much deepened and curved. 
 It is deepened above when the skin on the side of the 
 nose is drawn up and wrinkled, and it is straightened 
 when the angles of the mouth are depressed. The furrow 
 may either be carried round the angle of the mouth, or 
 may be replaced by another which continues the curve 
 of the upper lip downwards and outwards. 
 
 Reference has been already made to the association of 
 facial expression with gesture and pose of the body. As 
 Professor Cleland ^ has pointed out, gesture largely depends 
 on the association of mental with physical conditions. 
 Moral rectitude, as expressed in indignation, is associated 
 with a straightening of the figure ; mental depression is in- 
 dicated by a lack of energy in the movements of the body. 
 
 In like manner certain emotions are expressed by gestures 
 which have a purely physical basis. "We often convey the 
 meaning that we wish to avoid or shun a thing by putting 
 up the hands as if to push it aside. We bend the body 
 forward and incline towards what pleases us,' or indicate 
 by the direction of a wave of the hand whether we desire 
 a person to approach or leave us. These examples are 
 sufficient to enable the reader to appreciate the physical 
 reasons for the gestures so frequently employed. 
 
 In providing a short summary of the more striking 
 characteristics of some of the expressed emotions the details 
 must necessarily be brief and the selection far from complete. 
 
 Sir Charles BelP laid it down as a general rule that 
 'in all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids, 
 
 1 Evolution, Expression, and Sensation, by John Cleland, M.D., F.RS. 
 Glasgow : James Maclehose. 
 
 ^ The Anatomy of Expression. Third edition, 1844. 
 
Expression. 381 
 
 the nostrils, and angles of the mouth are raised; in the 
 depressing passions it is the reverse.' 
 
 To this may be added the suggestive remarks of Professor 
 Cleland, that 'expression for the information of others 
 is most liable to be made with the mouth, the organ of 
 communication with the world ; while expressions that 
 betray thoughts unintentionally to the outer world are 
 most liable to begin in the eye and forehead.' 
 
 In tTie expression of suffering as shown in a crying 
 child we see the eyes firmly closed and the skin around 
 them puckered. The skin of the forehead is drawn down 
 and wrinkled by the corrugators and pyramid ales so as 
 to cause a frowning appearance. At the same time the 
 skin of the nose is wrinkled and the upper lip drawn up, 
 and the angles of the opened mouth are somewhat squared 
 by the antagonizing influence of the depressor anguli oris. 
 
 Such expression is characteristic of a child ' roaring ' 
 with pain or temper, but, as Professor Cleland has remarked, 
 the expression is very much akin to that of an adult 
 ' roaring ' with laughter. In proof of which we need only, 
 as he points out, make the experiment with one of Darwin's 
 own illustrations ^ by covering with a card all but the head 
 of the child; then draw on the card the figure of a fat 
 old man lying back in his chair, and the child's face, 
 without a stroke of change, will be converted into the bald 
 head of the old man convulsed with laughter. Laughter, 
 sobbing, and crying, as Professor Cleland points out, have 
 the feature in common of convulsive breathing ; the appear- 
 ances are not dissimilar, and the value of the above experi- 
 ment depends on the association of ideas. ' Old men are 
 more given to roar with laughter than to bellow like 
 children.' Hence the very different interpretations placed 
 upon the expression. 
 
 • Expression of the Emotions, by Chas. Darwin, Plate I, Fig. 2. John 
 Murray, London, 1872. 
 
382 Laughter — Reflection —Determination. 
 
 In prolonged grief the face is pale, the eyelids droop, 
 and, owing to the flaccid condition of the muscles, the lips, 
 cheeks, and lower jaw all sink down by their own weight. 
 By the contraction of the central portion of the frontalis 
 and the two corrugators the eyebrows are drawn upwards 
 towards the centre of the forehead and assume an oblique 
 direction, whilst the skin of the forehead is wrinkled, with 
 rectangular furrows towards its centre. The drooping of 
 the head on the chest is also characteristic of this form 
 of emotion. 
 
 Laughter is expressed by the opening of the mouth, the 
 angles of which are either drawn back, as in the broad 
 grin, or drawn back and upturned. The upper lip is 
 slightly raised, the naso-labial furrow is deepened and 
 curved round the angles of the mouth. The skin over 
 the nose is finely wrinkled, and the eyebrows are slightly 
 lowered. The eyes are partially closed by the contraction 
 of the orbicularis palpebrarum, which also wrinkles the 
 skin around the lids. The eyes themselves are bright and 
 sparkling, due to the acceleration of the circulation within 
 them. 
 
 Devotion is associated with an upturned face and eyes, 
 and hands either clasped or crossed on the breast. 
 
 Reflection, abstraction, and meditation are characterized 
 by slight frowning movements and a vacant look in the eyes, 
 due to the fact that we are ' staring at nothing in particular.' 
 The eyes are not concentrated on any object, and sometimes 
 are slightly divergent, conveying just the suggestion of 
 a squint. 
 
 Ill-temper is suggested by a frown and the depression of 
 the angles of the mouth ; sulkiness, by a pouting of the lips, 
 accompanied with a downward turn of the angles. 
 
 Determination is indicated by a firm closure of the 
 mouth, accompanied by a deep inspiratory effort, at the 
 same time that the whole muscular system is ready for 
 
Rage — Sneering — Disdain. 383 
 
 action. A nod, as when a person says ' I'll do it/ frequently 
 accentuates the expression. 
 
 Shyness, on the other hand, is often associated with 
 blushing and a desire to avoid looking one in the face, 
 as suggested by the averted or down turned head. Shyness 
 and shame are very much alike, though the former is 
 often distinguished from the latter by a pouting of the lips. 
 
 In rage the circulation is much affected ; the face reddens 
 and the veins of the neck and forehead become distended. 
 In other cases pallor is a marked feature ; the person so 
 affected becomes ' white with rage.' The chest heaves 
 with the more violent respiratory efforts, and the nostrils 
 quiver, the mouth is closed, and the teeth are firmly 
 clenched. At times the lips are protruded, or, it may be, 
 retracted, so as to show the teeth. The brows are frowning, 
 and the eye is bright and flashing; the hair may bristle, 
 and the voice is affected — it ' sticks in the throat ' and is 
 often trembling and discordant. The fists are frequently 
 closed as if to strike, but in extremes of passion the move- 
 ments of the hands and arms may be purposeless. 
 
 Indignation differs only in degree from rage. The pulse 
 is slightly quickened and the colour heightened ; the eye is 
 bright, and the wings of the nostrils are raised ; the mouth 
 is commonly compressed. Respiration is hurried, and the 
 figure is drawn up and the head thrown somewhat back. 
 
 Sneering is characterized by an upturned and averted 
 face and a retraction of the upper lip so as to expose the 
 ' eye ' or ' canine ' tooth. As Darwin has pointed out, this 
 reveals man's ancestry, for the action is the same as that 
 of a snarling dog when showing his fighting teeth or canines, 
 preparatory to a tussle with his antagonist. 
 
 In disdain the expression is accompanied with a partial 
 closure of the eyelids, as if the person looked at were 
 disagreeable to the sight or unworthy of a glance. In 
 contempt the upturned and wrinkled nose suggests an 
 
384 Fear— Horror. 
 
 offensive odour, whilst in disgust the movements of the lips 
 or the clearing of the throat convey the impression that the 
 person so moved is endeavouring to rid himself of an ill 
 taste or some unsavoury mouthful. 
 
 Helplessness is usually suggested by elevated eyebrows 
 and wrinkled forehead. The mouth is usually open and the 
 head bent to the side. The elbows are placed by the side, 
 and the palms are upturned and open. A shrug of the 
 shoulders helps to emphasize the expression. 
 
 The expressions of attention, surprise, astonishment, and 
 terror are closely allied, and may succeed each other in 
 an apparently natural sequence. In attention the eyebrows 
 are elevated and the forehead is wrinkled, and the opening 
 of the eyes and mouth corresponds to the degree of sur- 
 prise or astonishment. In admiration the same appearances 
 are seen, but here the mouth expands into a smile, and the 
 eye brightens. 
 
 Fear, on the other hand, is accompanied by pallor. 
 A clammy sweat often breaks out on the surface of 
 the skin, the mouth is dry, the heart beats violently, and 
 there is trembling all over. 
 
 In terror these phenomena are all accentuated. A deathlike 
 pallor overspreads the surface. The nostrils are dUated and 
 the breathing is laboured. There is gulping of the throat 
 and a convulsive movement of the lips. The eyeballs 
 protrude and roll from side to side ; the cheeks are 
 trembling, and beads of perspiration roll down them. The 
 violent contraction of the platysma causes the wrinkling 
 of the skin of the side of the lower jaw and neck, and 
 drags down the angles of the opened mouth. The person 
 so affected is utterly unnerved and bordering on a state 
 of collapse. 
 
 Horror, as distinct from terror, is characterized by con- 
 tracted brows with no loss of energy. The body is in a 
 state of extreme tension, but the victim of this sensation 
 
Habitual Expression. 385 
 
 is not unnerved by fear, and has not lost control over his 
 actions. 
 
 In conclusion, it is merely necessary to remind the reader 
 that when an expression becomes habitual the cast of the 
 features is moulded thereby. The face of a sleeping child 
 is calm and expressionless ; it is as it were the clay on which 
 nature is going to stamp the character of the man, for 
 expression uncontrolled is but the outward evidence of the 
 working of the mind. According to the disposition of 
 the individual, so the features become set. We recognize 
 a morose and ill-tempered man by his look, for in him 
 the habitual mood has become more or less permanently 
 expressed by every feature in his face. 
 
 One example is sufficient to enable the reader to recall 
 many others in which the general temperament is as charac- 
 teristically displayed. 
 
 c c 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 A CANON of proportion in strict accordance with scientific 
 measurements would result in mere commonplace. Science 
 seeks to attain an average, art an ideal. Tke artist searches 
 for his models amongst those who display the most graceful 
 and refined types of manly strength and feminine beauty, 
 whilst the anthropologist and anatomist are content to 
 measure all, good, bad, and indifierent, in their endeavours 
 to strike a mean. 
 
 As every artist knows, it is impossible to find a model 
 without blemish. The ideal conception depends on the 
 selection from different models of those features which are 
 most pleasing, the combination forming a masterpiece very 
 different from the vulgar average put forward by the 
 anthropologist as typical of the race. The scientific criticism 
 of proportion as applied to art is therefore misleading, 
 and, far from aiding the artist, is like to sink him to the 
 level of the mere chronicler of facts. For such as desire 
 the information there are many works in which the subject 
 is discussed from a scientific standpoint. Here it is neither 
 my intention nor desire to trouble the reader with details 
 which, however interesting, have little to do with his art 
 education. 
 
Proportion. 387 
 
 The main difficulty whicli has always presented itself in 
 this connexion is the unit of comparison which is the 
 best to adopt. For draughtsmen who are not constructing 
 human figures on geometrical principles with rule and 
 compass it is important that the unit employed should 
 be easily compared with the rest of the figure. The 
 head, face, hand, foot, and middle finger have all been 
 selected by different artists and anatomists for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The history of the subject is by no means uninteresting, 
 and should the reader desire to extend his knowledge 
 further in this direction he may consult with advantage 
 a work entitled Proportions of the Body^, in which he 
 will find a short account of the more important facts. 
 
 The scheme proposed by Dr. Paul Richer in his admirable 
 treatise on Artistic Anatomy^ seems by far the best. It 
 is not too elaborate, and is admirably adapted to serve 
 as a guide to the draughtsman. Dr. Eicher's method 
 is based on that of Cousin, in which the head is taken 
 as the unit of comparison. This corresponds to the length 
 between two horizontal lines, the one passing on a level 
 with the top of the head, the other with the point of the 
 chin. The height of the figure is equal to 7I heads. 
 This corresponds to the proportion of the head to height 
 in the Antinous. The Grladiator and the Pamese Hercules 
 measure 8 heads, as also the Venus of Milo. The tendency 
 in the antique is to keep the head small in proportion 
 to the figure. In this way a sense of height and dignity 
 is attained. 
 
 From the chin to the fork measures 3 heads, distributed 
 as follows. From the chin to about the level of the 
 
 ^ Proportions of the Body, by Prof. B. C. A. Windle. Bailliere, Tindall, & 
 Cox, London, 1892. 
 
 ' Anaiomie Artistique, by Dr. Paul Richer. E. Plon, Nourrit, et Cie., 
 Paris, 1890. 
 
 C C 2 
 
388 Proportion. 
 
 nipples. I head; from this level to a point a little 
 above the navel, i head ; from this to the fork, which 
 corresponds posteriorly to the fold of the buttocks, i head. 
 A rough-and-ready method for sketching in the pro- 
 portions of the trunk is to divide it into thirds, of 
 which the lowest includes the distance from the seat 
 to the waist, the middle that from the waist to the 
 shoulders, whilst the highest is apportioned to the head 
 and neck. 
 
 The limbs bear the following proportion to the head. 
 The lower extremity, when straight, measures 4 heads 
 from the heel to the trochanter major, and thus equals 
 in length the head and trunk together. From the under 
 surface of the heel to the articular surface of the knee 
 measures 2 heads. From the articular plane of the knee 
 to the middle of the furrow of the groin the distance 
 is 2 heads. 
 
 As 4 heads have been measured from the top of 
 the figure to the fork, and 4 heads up from the heels, 
 and as the height of the figure equals yi heads, it follows 
 that the distance between the levels of the fork and the 
 trochanters measures half a head. The half of this distance, 
 which overlies a point on a level with the summit of the 
 arch of the pubis, corresponds to the centre of the figure, 
 being distant from the top of the head and sole of the 
 foot 3! heads respectively. 
 
 From the heel to the fork the limb measures 3I heads, 
 and the centre of the patella corresponds to the middle 
 of the distance between the anterior superior iliac spine 
 and the sole of ^he foot. 
 
 The arm is 3 heads long from the bottom of the hollow 
 of the armpit to the tip of the middle finger. Of this the 
 fore-arm and hand, from the tip of the middle finger to 
 the tip of the elbow (olecranon), measure 2 heads. The 
 length from the summit of the shoulder (the point where 
 
PROPORTION OF MALE AND FEMALE FIGURE IN HEADS AND HALF HEADS 
 
Proportion. 389 
 
 the collar-bone articulates witli the acromion process of 
 the scapula) to the bend of the elbow equals the length 
 from the bend of the elbow to the elevation on the palm 
 of the hand overlying the root of the middle finger. 
 "With the arm by the side, the wrist lies on a level 
 with the central point of the figure, and the fingers 
 reach a little below the centre of the thigh, taking that 
 as a point i head distant from the articular plane of the 
 knee. 
 
 In regard to the breadth of the figure the following 
 measurements are approximately correct, though liable to 
 great individual variation. The greatest width of the 
 shoulders is equal to two heads, the greatest width across 
 the hips should be \\ heads, whilst the narrowest part 
 of the waist is a little more than i head. The width 
 between the nipples is equal to, or a little less than, a head.; 
 and the distance between the two anterior superior iliac 
 spines is about a head or a little over. 
 
 In regard to some other proportions of the trunk, the 
 vertical distance between the collar-bone, when the arm 
 is by the side, and the anterior superior iliac spine of 
 the same side is 2 heads. The waist, or what corresponds 
 to it, the free margin of the ribs, lies \\ heads below the 
 level of the collar-bone. From the level of the spine of 
 the seventh cervical vertebra on the back to the level 
 of the depressions over the posterior superior iliac spines 
 is 2 heads. The lower angles of the shoulder-blades, 
 when the arms are by the side, reach a level midway 
 between these two points ; in other words, they lie a 
 head below the level of the spine of the seventh cervical 
 vertebra. 
 
 The head is divided into two equal parts by a horizontal 
 line passing through the angles of the eyelids ; these 
 halves are again equally divided, so that the head is 
 apportioned into four parts, of which the highest includes 
 
390 Proportion. 
 
 the hairy scalp, the second the forehead and eyebrows, the 
 third the nose, and the fourth the mouth and chin. This 
 arrangement, as has been pointed out, leaves but a short 
 space for the mouth and chin, and the suggestion of Da 
 Vinci, that the distance between the chin and the eyebrow 
 be halved and made to correspond with the base of the 
 nose, appears to meet with general acceptation. It need 
 hardly be pointed out that great individual variations may 
 occur in the relative proportions of the features. 
 
 The breadth of the head on a level with the eyes varies 
 much in different individuals and races ; a good proportion 
 appears to be that this width should equal three-quarters 
 the head length — in other words, the face and forehead. 
 According to Cousin, this width may be divided into five 
 equal parts, of which the central division corresponds to 
 the interval between the eyes. On either side of this the 
 eyes each occupy a division, whilst external to these 
 the outer orbital margins and the temples seen in per- 
 spective go to make up the outer fifths. The base of the 
 nose is said to equal an eye in width, and the mouth, 
 which varies greatly, may be stated as equal in width to 
 \\ eyes. The width of the neck is usually about half 
 a head, and the length from the chin to the pit of the 
 neck varies from a quarter to one-third of a head. This 
 distance is increased or diminished according as the head 
 is raised or depressed. 
 
 The table subjoined, which is taken from Dr. Eicher's 
 excellent treatise, will appeal to the student as eminently 
 practical and not unduly detailed. 
 
 j The length of the middle finger, including the head 
 of its metacarpal bone, as when flexed. 
 Half J The height of the flank as seen from the front, i. e. 
 
 Head = the distance from the anterior superior iUac spine 
 
 to the free margin of the ribs above. 
 The furrow between the buttocks. 
 
Proportion. 
 
 391 
 
 One 
 Head = 
 
 One and 
 
 A HALF 
 
 Heads = 
 
 Two 
 Heads = 
 
 Three 
 Heads = 
 
 /The distance from the chin to the line of the nipples. 
 The distance from the level of the nipples to the 
 
 navel. 
 The length of the arm from the hollow of the arm- 
 pit to a point a little above the bend of the elbow. 
 The length of the hand, including the wrist. 
 / The height of the buttocks. 
 
 \ The distance which separates the two hollows above 
 the collar-bones. 
 The height of the scapular region from the superior 
 border of the trapezius to the lower angle of the 
 shoulder-blade. 
 The width between the two anterior superior iliac 
 \ spines, which slightly exceeds a head. 
 The height of the chest-wall from the summit of 
 
 the shoulder to the upper hmit of the flank. 
 The width between the two shoulder-joints. 
 •< The width across the hips between the two tro- 
 chanters. 
 The distance between the fork and the articular 
 
 plane of the knee-joint. 
 'The leg from the sole of the foot to the articular 
 
 plane of the knee. 
 The thigh from the articular plane of the knee to 
 a point immediately above the great trochanter, or 
 to the level of the middle of the fold of the groin. 
 / The fore-arm and hand from the tip of the middle 
 \ finger to the tip of the elbow (olecranon). 
 The height of the trunk from the collar-bone in 
 front to the anterior superior iliac spine, and 
 from the spine of the seventh cervical vertebra 
 behind to the level of the depressions overlying 
 the posterior superior iliac spines. 
 /The height of the torso from the chin to the fold 
 
 of the buttocks. 
 From the top of the head to the navel, or to the 
 { upper limit of the buttocks behind. 
 The length of the upper extremity from the bottom 
 of the hollow of the armpit to the tip of the 
 middle finger. 
 
392 
 
 Proportion. 
 
 Trom the top of the head to the fork, or the fold 
 Four of the buttocks behind. 
 
 Heads = The length of the lower limb from the sole of the 
 ^ foot to the top of the great trochanter. 
 
 The centres of the shoulder-joints lie i^ heads from the top of 
 the head. The centres of the hip-joints lie 3^ heads from the top 
 of the head, or 4 heads from the ground. 
 
 Added to the foregoing are the following details, which 
 have been collected from various sources. They do not 
 profess to be absolutely accurate, but may afford the 
 student a ready means of testing approximately the pro- 
 portions of his drawing. 
 
 7 J to 8 head lengths. 
 6 to 7 foot lengths. 
 9 to 10 hand lengths. 
 
 4 cubits (i. e. the distance from tip of middle finger 
 to tip of elbow). 
 
 /c,i ,1 12 heads, or more than one quarter of 
 
 _, Shoulder = \ , . , . 
 
 Bbeadtu J I height. 
 
 OF FiGUKE Waist = I foot, or little more than i head. 
 
 vHips = 1 1 heads, or one-fifth of height. 
 
 ! One-sixth to one-seventh of height. 
 Length of ulna. 
 "Width of waist. 
 
 Height 
 or Figure 
 
 One 
 Foot = 
 
 Depth of trunk in profile on a level with the nipples. 
 Twice the length of face from eyebrows to chin. 
 \Circumference of fist. 
 
 Three feet equal the distance from the sole of the foot to 
 the fork. 
 
 /One-ninth to one-tenth of height. 
 A face length (three-quarters of a head). 
 Horizontal depth across profile figure : 
 One J (a) From lips to back of neck. 
 
 Hand = \ (6) At level of navel. 
 
 (c) Across middle of thigh. 
 Distance along side of chest, from waist to anterior 
 fold of armpit with arm by the side. 
 
Proportion. 393 
 
 A Hand /Length of collar-bone, 
 
 (less the Length of inner border of shoulder-blade, 
 
 terminal I Breast-bone without ensiform cartilage, 
 
 joint of the 1 Interval between inner borders of shoulder-blades 
 middle when arms are by the side, 
 
 finger) = \Half the length of the humerus. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter into a detailed account of 
 the proportions of the long bones. The following table may 
 serve as a guide, which will for all practical purposes be 
 found sufficient. 
 
 The thigh-bone (femur) = 2 heads length. 
 
 The shin-bone (tibia) = a little more than \\ heads. 
 
 The bone of the upper arm (humerus) = about i \ heads. 
 
 The outer bone of the fore-arm (radius) = about 1 head, or half 
 
 the length of the femur. 
 The inner bone of the fore-arm (ulna) = i foot length. 
 The collar-bone, the inner border of the shoulder-blades, and the 
 
 breast-bone without the ensiform cartilage are all of nearly equal 
 
 length. 
 The length of the axis from the top of the head to the tip of the 
 
 coccyx is very nearly half the length of the figtire. 
 
 In passing to discuss the relative proportions of the 
 male and female figure it will be necessary, in the first 
 instance, to say something about the characteristic differ- 
 ences of the female skeleton. The bones of the female are 
 smaller and more slender, and do not present the rough 
 surfaces which in. the male are associated with a more 
 powerful muscular system. 
 
 The form of the thorax is not only smaller in all its 
 diameters than that of the male, but is also proportionately 
 shorter. In accord with this we find that the breast-bone 
 is proportionately shorter than in the male. 
 
 The form and size of the pelvis are amongst the most 
 distinctive features of the female skeleton. They have already 
 been referred to (p. 219), but some of the more important 
 
394 
 
 Proportions of Female. 
 
 facts may here be recapitiilated. It is wider and shallower 
 than in the male ; the sacrum is wider, and projects further 
 
 Fig. 204. The male pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 205. The female pelvis. 
 
 a. niac portion of os innominatum. 
 h. Pubic portion of os innominatum. 
 
 c. Ischial portion of os innominatum. 
 
 d. niac crest. 
 
 e. Anterior superior iliac spine. 
 /. Anterior inferior iliac spine. 
 
 <j. Acetabulom. 
 h. Pubic arch. 
 k. Pubic symphysis. 
 9. Spine of pubis. 
 
 The sacrum is seen wedged in between 
 the two innominate bones behind. 
 
Proportions of Female. 
 
 395 
 
 backwards (Fig. 209). The greater width of the female 
 pelvis accounts for the greater breadth of the female figure 
 in this region, for not only are the iliac crests and their 
 extremities, viz. the anterior superior iliac spines in front 
 and the posterior superior iliac spines behind, more widely 
 separated from their fellows of the opposite side than in 
 the male, but the acetabular hollows for the reception of 
 the heads of the thigh-bones are further apart, which gives 
 increased breadth to the thighs below (Fig. 205). Owing 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
 Diagrams showing the greater degree of obliquity of the thigh-bones 
 dependent on the greater pelvic width in woman, Fig. 206, as compared 
 with man, Fig. 207. 
 
 to the pelvis being more shallow in the female than in the 
 male the distance between the iliac crests and the thoracic 
 margin is increased (Figs. 210, 211), whilst the dis- 
 tance from the iliac crests to the tops of the trochanters 
 of the thigh-bone is diminished j in other words, the 
 flanks are longer in women, and the buttocks do not reach 
 so high as in the male. Since the anterior superior iliac 
 spines lie at a lower level and wider apart than in the 
 male, it follows that Poupart's ligament and the farrow 
 
396 
 
 Female Figure. 
 
 of tte groin whicli overlies it are more horizontal tlian in 
 the male, in whom they tend to more nearly approach the 
 vertical. 
 
 As has been already pointed out, the 'obliquity' of 
 the pelvis (p. 228) is more marked in the female than in 
 the male (Figs. 210, 211). This leads to characteristic 
 
 Fig. 208. Haunch-bone (os in- 
 nominatum) of male seen from the 
 outer side ; it is represented as 
 articulated with the sacrum. 
 
 a. Iliac portion of the innominate bone. 
 6. Pubic portion of the innominate bone. 
 
 c. Ischial portion of the innominate 
 
 bone. 
 
 d. Iliac crest. 
 
 e. Anterior superior iliao spine. 
 
 s. Spine of pubis. 
 
 Fig. 209. Haunch-bone (os inno- 
 minatum) of female. Note that 
 the female bone is more tilted for- 
 ward than the male, as shown by 
 the relation of the points s and e 
 to the dotted vertical line. 
 
 f. Anterior inferior iliac spine. 
 
 g. Acetabulum (hollow for head of thigh- 
 
 bone). 
 i. Posterior superior iliac spine. 
 j. Spine of ischium. 
 I. Tuberosity of ischium. 
 
 appearances in the form of the thighs, back, and buttocks ; 
 of these it is only necessary here to mention the more pro- 
 nounced forward curves in the lumbar part of the vertebral 
 column (Figs. 210, 211, and Pis., pp. 66, 230). 
 
 The narrower and more conical thorax supports a 
 
Female Figure. ^ffi 
 
 shoulder-girdle of whicli the collar-bones are proportion- 
 ately shorter and less curved than in the male. Sup- 
 
 FlG. 2IO. 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 
 Figa. 2IO, 211, show the influence of the pelvic obliquity on the 
 figure of the male and female. In Fig. 210 the pelvis is tilted further 
 forward than in the male, Fig. 21 1, as will be seen by noting the position 
 of the anterior extremity of the iliac crest (anterior superior iliac spine). 
 As a result of this the lumbar curve is more pronounced in Fig. 210 
 than in Pig. 211. This reacts on the outline of the figure, the curves 
 being more pronounced in the female than in the male. 
 
 ported as these are by a narrower chest-wall and less power- 
 fully developed muscles, they tend to occupy a horizontal 
 
398 Female Figure. 
 
 position or may slope somewhat downwards. This imparts 
 to the female neck an appearance of greater length (p. 338), 
 and detracts from the squareness of the shoulder, which 
 is so characteristic a feature of the male. The upper 
 limb is to the trunk proportionately shorter than in the 
 male. This is solely due, as Marshall has pointed out, to 
 a difference in the length of the humerus, that of the 
 female being proportionately shorter than that of the 
 male. 
 
 The bones of the leg and thigh are also proportionately 
 shorter than those of the male. In women the length of 
 the leg tends to vary much more than the length of the 
 thigh. The length of the lower limbs tends to vary more 
 than the length of the trunk. Thus, when seated at table 
 it is very difficult to form an estimate of the heights of 
 different individuals, as the lengths of the trunks are not 
 liable to such great variations as the lengths of the legs. 
 It is only when the sitters rise from their chairs that 
 we can form an accurate comparison, the difference in 
 height being mainly due to differences in limb length. 
 The patella is narrower in the female, and the foot is 
 proportionately shorter ; it is also narrower relatively to 
 its length. 
 
 The head in the female is smaller absolutely and pro- 
 portionately than in the male, though it is stated to be 
 relatively higher. The sexual differences of the skull 
 have been already described (p. 349) and need not here be 
 repeated. Though statements are made to the contrary, 
 it is often a matter of difficulty to determine whether 
 a skull is that of a male or female, and in some cases the 
 most expert anatomists will decline to express a decided 
 opinion. 
 
 For all practical purposes the rules already laid down 
 for apportioning the several parts of the male figure may 
 be employed in drawing the female so far as they apply 
 
Proportions of Female. 399 
 
 to height, bearing in mind always that the trunk in 
 ■woman is somewhat longer proportionately than in the 
 male. This causes the centre of the figure to fall a little 
 above the symphysis pubis instead of immediately below 
 it, as in the male. Again, the arm in woman is propor- 
 tionately shorter than in man. The tips of the fingers 
 should barely reach the middle of the thighs, and, owing 
 to the fact that the difference in length of the limbs is due 
 to a difference in the proportion of the humerus, the upper 
 arm should be slightly shorter, and the elbow placed 
 a fraction higher than in the male. In regard to the lower 
 limbs, though proportionately shorter than in the male, 
 the difference is not great, and length of limb tends to 
 enhance the elegance of the figure. In this respect sculptors 
 are apt to unduly emphasize the length of the legs, but 
 as the results are much more pleasing from an aesthetic 
 standpoint than the opposite defect the question may well 
 be left to the iudividual fancy of the artist. As the foot 
 is relatively shorter in the female than in the male, we 
 find that a woman's height measures about 7 foot lengths, 
 whilst that of a man is about 65. 
 
 It is when the width of the figure is considered that 
 the distinctions between the sexes are most marked ; 
 these are associated with differences in the form of 
 the osseous framework, particularly the chest-wall and 
 pelvis. 
 
 Taking into consideration the height of the female, 
 which is less than that of man by about jV of his 
 height, we find that the shoulders are not only absolutely 
 but also proportionately to the height narrower than in 
 the male. 
 
 In man the width of the shoulders is about 2 heads 
 or over, that is to say it is somewhat more than one-quarter 
 of the height. In woman the width is equal to one-quarter 
 of the height or a little less. 
 
400 Proportions of Female. 
 
 The width of the hips in man should not exceed the 
 width of the chest measured from the fold of one armpit 
 to that of the opposite side, when the arms are hanging ; 
 or, to pat it in another way, if we drop two per- 
 pendicular lines from the folds between the arms and 
 the great pectoral muscles these lines should include 
 between them the maximum width of the hips. In the 
 female it is otherwise, for such lines will not be sufficiently 
 far apart to include the width of the hips. How then 
 are we to apportion the width of the hips in the female ? 
 A rule sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes is 
 the following : — Make the width of the hips equal to the 
 distance between the fold of the armpit on one side and 
 the outer sid6 of the shoulder on the opposite side. Ex- 
 pressed in a different way, the width of the hips in the 
 male is equal to the width across the shoulders minus 
 the two arms. In the female the width across the hips is 
 equal to the width across the upper part of the chest •plus 
 the thickness of one arm. 
 
 ■^he reader will recollect that in describing the deltoid 
 (p;*ii3) it was pointed out that the greatest width of the 
 shoulders did not overlie the heads of the humeri, but 
 lay at a somewhat lower level, a level which was seen 
 to correspond pretty accurately with that of the anterior 
 fold of the armpit. 
 
 Again, it is important to note that the maximum hip- 
 width differs in its level in the two sexes ; as we have 
 seen (p. 274), the greatest diameter in the male is opposite 
 the level of the trochanters, whereas in the female it is 
 somewhat lower, lying on a level with the fold of the 
 buttocks posteriorly (Pis., pp. 36, 120). In the female, 
 not only is the maximum width of the hips greater than 
 the upper thoracic diameter, but the width of the figure 
 taken on a level with the points at which the iliac crests 
 reach the sides is also greater. This contrasts with the 
 
Proportions of Female. 401 
 
 condition in the male, in whom this diameter, which is of 
 course less than the maximum hip-width, must also be 
 considerably less than the chest-width taken in the manner 
 described above. 
 
 The hip-width in women is not only greater in propor- 
 tion to the height than in men, but is absolutely greater 
 than in males of the same height. The depth of the 
 female figure is less in all its diameters, if we except 
 the region of the buttocks. There, owing to the greater 
 'obliquity' of the pelvis, the more pronounced backward 
 thrust of the sacrum, and the increased amount of fat, 
 the width from before backwards is absolutely greater than 
 in the male. The abdominal wall below the navel is more 
 rounded, and the thighs are proportionately thicker from 
 back to front (Pis., pp. 66, 230) '. 
 
 The surface forms of the female have been already 
 sufficiently described, and the points in which they diifer 
 from the male may be ascertained by consulting the 
 chapters under which the various portions of the body 
 have been discussed. 
 
 It only remains to say a few words concerning the 
 remarkable changes which take place in the proportion of 
 the human figure from birth to adult life. 
 
 The most striking feature about a child at birth is the 
 large size of its head. The entire length of the child, 
 including its trunk and legs, is a little over 4 heads as 
 contrasted with 72 in the adult. The legs themselves only 
 measure a little more than a head in length, whilst the 
 trunk, including the head, measures 3 heads as compared 
 with 4 in the adult. 
 
 At birth the head is just about half the height of the 
 
 ' For further details in regard to the proportions of the adult the 
 student is referred to a work entitled A Rule of Proportion for the Human 
 Figure, by the late Professor John Marshall. Smith, Elder and Co., 
 London, 1879. 
 
 D d 
 
402 Proportions of Child. 
 
 adult head, so tliat tlie remainder of the child's length, 
 which equals 3 infants' heads or i^ adult heads, must grow 
 about four times as rapidly to make up the adult proportion 
 of 64 heads which it ultimately attains. 
 
 Attention has already been called to the fact (p. 350) 
 that in the child the face is small proportionately to the 
 brain-case. During growth, coincident with the changes 
 already referred to, the face gradually enlarges till it attains 
 the adult proportions. 
 
 The relation of the size of the head to the trunk at 
 different periods of life may best be expressed in tabular 
 form. 
 
 At birth, trunk including head = 3 heads. 
 At 9 years, trunk „ „ = si heads. 
 
 At 15 years, trunk ,, ,, = 3f heads. 
 
 At 25 years, trunk ,, ,, = 4 heads. 
 
 "With reference to the proportion of height at diff'erent 
 periods to that of the adult, it is found that — 
 
 Height at birth = about two-sevenths of adult. 
 Height at 3 years = one-half of adult. 
 Height at 10 years = three-quarters of adult. 
 
 The position of the central point of the figure gradually 
 falls lower as life advances ; this depends, of course, on the 
 increase in the length of the legs. 
 
 At birth the centre is a little above the navel. 
 
 At 2 years the centre is at the navel. 
 
 At 3 years the centre is level with the iliac bones. 
 
 At 10 years the centre is level with the trochanters. 
 
 At 13 years the centre is at pubis. 
 
 In the adult the centre is at the arch of pubis (male). 
 
 The growth, however, is not uniform throughout. As 
 regards the torso, the parts above and between the nipples 
 grow more rapidly than those which lie between the 
 
Growth. 403 
 
 nipples and navel. In regard to the limbs at birth, the 
 upper arms, legs between knee and ankle, and feet are all 
 of about equal lengths. 
 
 In the upper extremity the length of the hand is a little 
 more than the length of the fore-arm. The hand doubles 
 its length about the age of six, and trebles it between that 
 and the adult life. 
 
 The upper limb in the adult is 3I times the length of the 
 infant's at birth, and of its different segments the fore-arm 
 grows most rapidly. In the case of the lower extremity 
 the increase in length is very remarkable. In the adult 
 it attains a length equal to five times its original measure- 
 ment. Its rate of growth may be indicated as follows, 
 measured from the fork to the sole of the foot : — 
 
 At 3 years the lower extremity = twice its original length. 
 
 At 1 2 years the lower extremity — four times its original length. 
 
 At 20 years the lower extremity = five times its original length. 
 
 The thigh grows proportionately longer and quicker than 
 the other segments of the limb. 
 
 The above details are sufficient to lay stress on the 
 necessity of strict attention to the details of the model 
 when representing youth and childhood. "We have ad- 
 mirable examples of this in the antique, where in the earlier 
 examples of Greek art we find an utter lack of appreciation 
 of youthfiil forms. Whether this was due to a want of 
 knowledge is difficult to say ; yet the fact remains that the 
 figures of the youths in the Laocoon are not those of boys, 
 but are like small men. So also the figure of a youth 
 praying, the author of which is unknown, has none of 
 the attributes of youth, but displays all the bodily pro- 
 portions of an adult. The figure in the arms of Zeus 
 has none of the appearances of a child, but resembles more 
 a mannikin. 
 
 Apart altogether from the proportions of infancy and 
 
 D d 2 
 
404 Old Age and Decay. 
 
 youth, about whicli, if he needs more information, the reader 
 may consult the classic work of Quetelet^, the student 
 will recognize how much the surface forms are modified 
 by the abundant layer of fat which underlies the skin 
 of a healthy infant. He will find here creases and folds of 
 great depth overlying the joints and crossing the lines 
 of flexure of the skin. Again, the dimpling of the skin 
 in other situations may be the only indication of the 
 existence of deeper structures. These it is not our intention 
 to discuss. The reader, if he has had the patience to study 
 the previous pages, will have appreciated the conditions 
 upon which these forms depend, and, having this know- 
 ledge, can safely be trusted to select from the model only 
 those details which are in harmony with the spirit of his 
 design. 
 
 Only a passing reference need be made to the changes 
 due to the natural processes of decay. The softer tissues 
 are the first to suffer. The absorption of the subcutaneous 
 fatty layer leaves the skin loose and wrinkled. The wasted 
 muscles cover but imperfectly the bony framework, and 
 hence the outline of the skeleton is rendered more pro- 
 minent on the surface of the body. The forms which were 
 characterized by depressions and farrows in the prime 
 of life are now revealed as prominences and ridges. As 
 examples take the anterior superior iliac spine, the iliac 
 crests, the breast-bone, and the spines of the vertebrae. 
 In addition, the weakened muscles are no longer able 
 to perform efficiently their functions. Especially is this 
 the case in regard to the back-bone. The habitual stoop 
 of the aged is but an indication of this loss of power. As 
 was pointed out in Chapter I, the aged are passing through 
 a stage akin to that of childhood ; for now, as then, they 
 have to seek support by the aid of the arms. The bones 
 too undergo a slow process of atrophy ; but the most marked 
 
 ■ Anthropometrie, par Ad. Qu^telet. C. Muquardt, Bruxelles, 1870. 
 
Old Age and Decay. 405 
 
 changes in them, are seen in the face, where the shedding 
 of the teeth has led to a change in form of both upper and 
 lower jaws. The eyes also have sunk more deeply in 
 their sockets, and, though at times under the influence of 
 excitement they are bright and clear, they lack as a rule 
 the brilliance of youth. These changes are but the outward 
 indication of processes which must slowly but surely end 
 in death. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abdominal muscles, action of, 69. 
 Abdominal wall, anterior, 55. 
 aponeuroses of, 57. 
 contours of, 62. 
 form of, in female, 66. 
 influence of movements on contours 
 
 of, 69. 
 limits of, 55. 
 muscles of, 57. 
 Abductor hallucis muscle (abductor 
 
 of the great toe), 314. 
 Abductor indicis muscle, 198. 
 Abductor minimi digiti muscle, 200. 
 Abductor minimi digiti muscle (ab- 
 ductor of the little toe), 315. 
 Abductor polUcis muscle, 197. 
 Acetabulum, 212, 217. 
 Acromion process of scapula, 81. 
 Adam's apple, 328. 
 Adductor brevis muscle, 265. 
 Adductor longus muscle, 265. 
 Adductor magnus muscle, 265. 
 Adductor muscles of thigh, 259, 265. 
 
 action of, 267. 
 Adductorpollicis obliquus muscle, 197. 
 Adductor poUicis transversus muscle, 
 
 198. 
 Air sinuses, 348. 
 Anconeus muscle, 147. 
 
 relation to surface forms, 148. 
 Ankle, the, 287. 
 annular ligaments of, 292. 
 
 Ankle, internal annular ligament of, 
 
 SOS- 
 Ankle-joint, 287, 290. 
 Aponeuroses, 57. 
 Aponeurosis, epicranial, 369. 
 Arches of the foot, 309. 
 Arm, female, form of, 209. 
 
 proportion of, 210. 
 
 superficial veins of, 184. 
 Armpit, 122. 
 
 Astonishment, expression of, 384. 
 Astragalus, 288. 
 Atlas vertebra, 323. 
 Auditory meatus, external, 360. 
 Axilla, 107. See Armpit. 
 Axis vertebra, 323. 
 
 B. 
 
 Back, surface forms of, difference 
 between male and female, 121. 
 form of, and buttock in the female, 
 238. 
 Back -bone, curves of, 32 ; in adult, 3 ; 
 in infant, 3. 
 position of, in man, 4 ; in animals, 5. 
 Ball of little finger, 161, 200. 
 
 of thumb, 161, 195. 
 Band of Richer, 275. 
 Biceps cubiti, relations to surface 
 
 form, 144 ; action of, 145. 
 Biceps flexor cruris muscle, 268. 
 Biceps flexor cubiti muscle, 142. 
 Biceps muscle of the arm, 142. 
 
4o8 
 
 Index. 
 
 Bicipital groove, 98. 
 Bicipitaltubei-cle, 131. 
 Blushing, 368. 
 Bones, classification of, 21. 
 
 of face, 352. 
 
 flat, 21. 
 
 of the foot, 288, 307. 
 
 of fore-arm, 127 ; relation to surface 
 forms, 151. 
 
 of the leg, 248, 285, 
 
 as levers, 21. 
 
 long, 21. 
 
 proportions of the principal long 
 bones, 393. 
 
 protective, 21. 
 
 of the wrist, 161. 
 Brachialis anticus muscle, 141. 
 
 relations to surface form, 142. 
 
 action of, 142. 
 Breast-bone, 15, 50. 
 Breasts, male, 109. 
 
 female, no. 
 Buttock, surface forms of, 243, 244 ; 
 in female, 245. 
 
 transverse furrow of, 235. 
 Buttocks, 10. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calf, muscles of, 297, 300. 
 
 action of, 300. 
 Calvaria, 345. 
 Canthus, external, 365. 
 
 internal, 365. 
 Capitellum of humerus, 127. 
 Carpal bones, 158, 159. 
 Cartilage, articular, 23. 
 Cervical fascia, deep, 335. 
 Cheek-bones, 352. 
 Chest, form of, 16. 
 
 cavity, 16. 
 Chest-wall, 16, 22, 46. 
 Child, proportions of, 402. 
 Chin, the, 359. 
 
 Clavicle, 14, 76. See Collar-bone. 
 Coccyx, 29. 
 Collar-bone, 14, 76. 
 
 position of, in man and woman, 84. 
 
 hollows above the, 333. 
 Compressor naris muscle, 374. 
 
 Conjunctiva, the, 366. 
 Contours of the neck, 337. 
 Coraco-brachialis muscle, 124. 
 
 influence on surface forms, 125, 
 
 action of, 125. 
 Coracoid process of scapula, 82. 
 Cornea, 365. 
 
 Coronold fossa of humerus, 133. 
 Coronoid notch of lower jaw, 355. 
 Coronoid process of lower jaw, 355. 
 
 of ulna, 129. 
 Corrugator supercilii muscle, 370. 
 Cranial box, 347. 
 Cranium, 345, 350. 
 Crureus muscle, 260. 
 Cuneiform bones, 288. 
 
 D. 
 
 Decay and old age, changes due to, 
 
 404. 
 Deltoid eminence, 112. 
 Deltoid impression, 99. 
 Deltoid muscle, 11 a, 118. 
 
 action of, 114. 
 
 relation to surface form, 113. 
 Depressor alae nasi muscle, 374. 
 Depressor anguli oi-is muscle, 377. 
 Depressor labii inferioris muscle, 
 
 378. 
 Determination, expression of, 382. 
 Devotion, expression of, 382. 
 Diaphragm, 55. 
 Diploe, 348. 
 Disdain, expression of, 383. 
 
 Ear, the, 361. 
 
 Elbow, bent, form of, 182. 
 
 contours around, 181. 
 
 depression behind the, 174. 
 
 hollow in front of, 179. 
 Elbow-joint, 125, 132. 
 
 bones of, relation to surface forms, 
 
 137- 
 movements of, 13a, 135. 
 Ensiform cartilage, 52. 
 Epicanthus, 364. 
 Epicranial aponeurosis, 369. 
 Erector spinae muscle, 35. 
 
Index. 
 
 409 
 
 Erector spinae muscle, surface con- 
 tours of, 37. 
 Ereotores spinae muscles, 6, 120. 
 Erect posture, mechanism of, 227. 
 mechanism of knee-joint in relation 
 
 to, 258. 
 Expression, 366. 
 habitual, 385. 
 
 influence of blood-vessels on, 368. 
 muscles of, 369. 
 Extensor carpi radialis brevior 
 
 muscle, 170. 
 Extensor carpi radialislongior muscle, 
 
 170. 
 Extensor carpi ulnaris muscle, 172. 
 Extensor communis digitorum 
 
 muscle, 173. 
 Extensor longus digitorum pedis 
 
 muscle, 294. 
 Extensor muscles of the thumb, 175. 
 Extensor muscle of the toes, long, 294. 
 
 short, 313. 
 Extensor ossis metacarpi poUicis 
 
 muscle, 176. 
 Extensor primi internodii pollicis 
 
 muscle, 176. 
 Extensor proprius hallucis muscle 
 
 (special extensor of great toe), 294. 
 Extensor secundi internodii pollicis 
 
 muscle, 177. 
 External oblique muscle of abdominal 
 
 wall, 57, 60, 120. 
 Eyeball, movements of, 372. 
 Eyebrows, the, 373. 
 Eyelashes, the, 373. 
 Eyelids, the, 364. 
 Eyes, the, 363. 
 in expression, 372. 
 
 Pace, bones of, 352. 
 
 skeleton of, 345. 
 Facial angle, the, 353. 
 Fascia, cervical, 335. 
 
 of upper arm, 140. 
 Fear, expression of, 384. 
 Female, proportions of, 393. 
 Female figure, characteristics of, 393. 
 Femur, 9, 221. 
 
 Femur, condyles of, 12, 222, 246. 
 
 obliquity of, 224. 
 
 trochanter major of, 240. 
 
 trochanters of, 221. 
 Fibro-cartilage, triangular, of wrist, 
 
 154. 
 Fibula, 12, 248, 251, 286. 
 
 head of, 252 ; relation to surface, 
 252. 
 
 styloid process of, 252. 
 Finger, little, muscles, of, 200. 
 Fingers, the, 203. 
 
 bones of, 157, 192. 
 
 common extensor muscle of the, 173. 
 
 joints of, 193. 
 
 length of, 207. 
 
 movements of, 193, 208. 
 
 superficial flexor muscle of, 168. 
 Flank, the, 67. 
 
 length of, in female, 395. 
 Flexor brevis digitorum pedis muscle 
 
 (short flexor of the toes), 315. 
 Flexor brevis minimi digiti muscle, 
 
 200. 
 Flexor brevis pollicis muscle, 197. 
 Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 166. 
 Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 166. 
 Flexor sublimis digitorum muscle, 
 
 168. 
 Flexor longus hallucis muscle (long 
 
 flexor of great toe), 297. 
 Flexor muscles of fore-arm, 141. 
 Flexure of thigh, line of, 65. 
 Fold of the groin, 64. 
 Foot, 12. 
 
 arches of the, 12, 309. 
 
 bones of, 288, 307. 
 
 dorsum of the, 312. 
 
 female, 319. 
 
 interossei muscles of, 314. 
 
 muscles of, 314. 
 
 sole of the, 317. 
 Foramen magnum, 347. 
 Fore-arm, 150. 
 
 action of muscles of, 187. 
 
 bones of, relation to surface forms, 
 
 151- 
 flexor muscles of, 141. 
 influence of position on form of, 
 
 180. 
 
4IO Index. 
 
 Fore-arm, muscles of the, 164. 
 
 summary of muscles of, 177. 
 
 surface contours of, 178. 
 Forehead, the, 349. 
 Frontal bone, 22, 348. 
 Frontal eminences, 349. 
 Frontal sinus, 349. 
 Furrow, naso labial, 379. 
 
 ulnar, 172. 
 
 Gastrocnemius muscle, 298. 
 
 Gesture and expression, 380. 
 
 Glands, salivary, 332. 
 
 Glenoid fossa, loi. 
 
 Gluteal fold, 235. 
 
 Gluteal ridge, 234. 
 
 Gluteus maximus muscle, 217, 234. 
 
 action of, 239. 
 Gluteus medius muscle, 242. 
 
 action of, 242. 
 Gracilis muscle, 265, 266. 
 Grief, expression of, 382. 
 Groin, the, 64. 
 
 fold of, 243. 
 
 furrow of, in female, 396. 
 Growth, 403. 
 Gullet, 327. 
 
 H. 
 
 Ham, the, 270, 304. 
 Hamstring muscles, 268. 
 
 action of, 271. 
 Hamstring tendons, 270, 305. 
 Hand, 17, 188. 
 
 back of, 204. 
 
 dorsal interossei muscles of, 206. 
 
 palm of, 201. 
 
 skeleton of, 189. 
 
 summary of structure of, 209. 
 Haunch-bone, 8, 55, 212. 
 Head, size of, 351. 
 Heel-bone, 13, 288. 
 Helplessness, expression of, 384. 
 Hip-joint, 225. 
 
 movements of, 232. 
 Hip-width, 274. 
 
 differences in male and female, 220. 
 
 Hip-width, in female, 401. 
 
 in man, 400. 
 Hollow behind the knee, 270, 304. 
 
 of thigh, 265. 
 Hollows above the collar-bone, 333. 
 Horror, expression of, 384. 
 Huckle-bone, 288. 
 Humerus, 17, 97. 
 
 condyles of, 99, 127. 
 
 coronoid fossa of, 133. 
 
 lower end of, 125. 
 
 olecranon fossa of, 134. 
 Hyoid bone, 327. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iliac crest, 215. 
 
 relation of, to surface, 67. 
 Iliac fossa, 215. 
 Iliac furrow, 67. 
 Iliac spines, 56, 215. 
 
 anterior inferior, 226. 
 
 anterior superior, 35 ; position of, 
 in relation to surface, 243. 
 Iliacus muscle, 266. 
 Ilio-femoral ligament, 226. 
 
 influence on obliquity of the pelvis, 
 228. 
 Ilio-tibial band, 241. 
 Ilium, 55, 214. 
 
 Ill temper, expression of, 382. 
 Indignation expression, 383 
 Infra-spinatus muscle, 115, 119. 
 
 action of, 115. 
 
 influence on surface form, 115. 
 Infra-spinous fossa, 80. 
 Innominate bone, 212. See Haunch- 
 bone. 
 Instep, the, 289, 317. 
 Interclavicular ligament, 77. 
 Intermuscular septa of upper arm, 
 141. 
 
 i-elatiou to surface forms, 148. 
 Internal oblique muscle of abdomi- 
 nal wall, 58. 
 Interossei muscles of the foot, 
 
 3M- 
 of hand, 199. 
 dorsal, of hand, 206. 
 Intervertebral disks, 25. 
 
Index. 
 
 411 
 
 Iris, the, 365. 
 Ischium, 55, 214, 216. 
 tuberosity of, 216 ; influence 
 surface form, 240. 
 
 Jaw, lower, 345, 355. 
 
 articulation of, 355. 
 
 changes due to age, 357. 
 
 condyle of, 355. 
 
 coronoid notch of, 355. 
 
 coronoid process of, 355. 
 Joints, classification of, 24. 
 
 immovable, 25. 
 
 movable, 24. 
 
 structure of, 23. 
 Jugular vein, external, 337. 
 
 K. 
 
 Knee, hollow behind the, 304. 
 
 surface forms of, 277. 
 Knee-joint, 253. 
 
 crucial ligaments of, 255. 
 
 hyper-extension of, 258. 
 
 lateral ligaments of, 255. 
 
 locking of, 257. 
 
 mechanism of, in relation to erect 
 posture, 258. 
 
 movements of, 257. 
 
 posterior ligament of, 256. 
 Knee-pan, 250. See Patella. 
 Knuckles, 191, 193, 205. 
 
 L. 
 
 Larynx, 327. 
 
 Latissimus dorsi muscle, 94, 103, 118. 
 
 action of, 106. 
 
 relation to surface form, 105. 
 Laughter, 382. 
 Leg, the, 12, 285. 
 
 bones of the, 248, 285. 
 
 in female, 398. 
 
 form of, in female, 306. 
 
 intermuscular septa of, 292. 
 
 muscles of, 292. 
 
 straightness of, 276. 
 
 superficial veins of, 320. 
 
 surface contours of, 302. 
 Levator alae nasi muscle, 374. 
 
 Levator anguli oris muscle, 377. 
 Levator anguli scapulae muscle, 89. 
 
 action of, 91. 
 Levator labii superioris et alae nasi 
 
 muscle, 376. 
 Levator labii supeiioris proprius 
 
 muscle, 376. 
 Levator menti muscle, 359, 378. 
 Levator palpebrae superioris muscle, 
 
 372. 
 Ligament, great sacro-sciatic, 234. 
 
 ilio-femoral, 226. 
 
 interclavicular, 77. 
 
 orbicular, 153. 
 
 Poupart's, 216. 
 
 Y-shaped, 226. 
 Ligaments, 24. 
 Ligamentum nuchae, 326. 
 Ligamentum patellae, 250. 
 Limb girdles, 7. 
 Limb, lower, in female, 398. 
 Linea aspera of femur, 222. 
 Lineae semilimares, 62. 
 Lineae transversae, 61. 
 Lips, the, 361. 
 
 Little finger, ball of, 161, 200. 
 Lower limb, skeleton of, iij 213. 
 Lumbar aponeurosis, 58, 103. 
 
 M. 
 
 Malar bones, 352. 
 Malleolus, external, 252, 286. 
 
 internal, 251, 285. 
 Mammary gland, 109. 
 Mandible, 345. 
 Masseter muscle, 356. 
 Mastoid process of temporal bone, 331, 
 
 361- 
 Metacarpal bones, 157, 189. 
 Metatarsal bones, 288. 
 Mouth, the, 362. 
 
 the, in expression, 379. 
 
 influence of form of, on expression, 
 
 375- 
 muscles of the, 376. 
 Muscles, direct action of, 85. 
 indirect action of, 86. 
 of back, summary of, 117 ; relations 
 
 to surface forms, 119. 
 
412 
 
 Index. 
 
 Muscles of the calf, 297 ; action of, 300. 
 of expression, 369. 
 of the foot, 314. 
 of the fore-arm, 164. 
 of the leg, 292. 
 of the mouth, 376. 
 of the neck, 325. 
 of the nose, 374. 
 of the thigh, 259. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nasal bones, 360. 
 Nasal cartilages, 360. 
 Naso-Iabial furrow, 379. 
 Nave], 61. 
 
 Navicular bone, 288. 
 Neck, the, 322. 
 
 contours of, 337. 
 
 deep structures of, 327. 
 
 female, 398. 
 
 length of, 338. 
 
 movements of the, 324 ; influence 
 on surface form, 339. 
 
 muscles of the, 325. 
 
 pit of, 77, 332. 
 
 and shoulder, 344. 
 Nipple, position of, 109. 
 Nose, 360. 
 
 alae of, 363. 
 
 muscles of the, 374. 
 
 0. 
 
 Obliquity of pelvis, 228. 
 Obturator foramen, 214. 
 Occipital bone, 348. 
 
 external protuberance of, 347. 
 
 superior curved line of, 331. 
 Occipito-frontalis muscle, 369. 
 Odontoid process of axis, 323. 
 Oesophagus, 327. 
 Old age, changes due to, 404. 
 Olecranon fossa of humerus, 134. 
 Olecranon process of ulna, ia8. 
 Omo-hyoid muscle, 334. 
 Opponens minimi digiti muscle, 200. 
 Opponens pollieis muscle, 197. 
 Orbicular ligament, 153. 
 Orbicularis oris muscle, 376. 
 
 Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle, 371. 
 
 Orbits, the, 359. 
 
 Os calcis, 13, 288. 
 
 Os innominatum, 8. See Haunch-bone. 
 
 P. 
 
 Palm, the, 201. 
 
 lines of, 202. 
 Palmar fascia, 201. 
 Palmaris brevis muscle, 203. 
 Palmaris longus muscle, 167. 
 Parietal bones, 22, 348. 
 Parietal eminences, 349. 
 Patella, 250, 253. 
 
 ligament of, 250, 253. 
 Pectineus muscle, 265. 
 Pectoralis major muscle, 106. 
 
 action of, 109. 
 
 relation to surface form, 107. 
 Pectoralis minor muscle, 95. 
 
 action of, 95. 
 Pelvic cavity, 212. 
 Pelvic girdle, 7, 212. 
 Pelvis, 9, 212, 218. 
 
 differences between male and 
 female, 218. 
 
 female, 395. 
 
 obliquity of, 228 ; effect on curves 
 of back, 229 ; effect on thigh, 231 ; 
 in female, 396. 
 
 position of, 220. 
 Peroneus brevis muscle, 295. 
 Peroneus longus muscle, 295. 
 Peroneus tertius muscle, 294. 
 Phalanges, 157, 192, 288. 
 Pisiform bone, 162. 
 Pit of neck, 77, 332. 
 
 of stomach, 52. 
 Plantar fascia, 316. 
 Platysma myoides muscle, 336. 
 Pomum Adaml, 328. 
 Position of collar-bone in man and 
 
 woman, 84. 
 Poupart's ligament, 56, 216. 
 Pronation, 128, 150. 
 Pronator muscles, 163. 
 Pronator radii teres muscle, 163, 165. 
 Proportion, 386. 
 Proportions of child, 401. 
 
Index. 
 
 413 
 
 Proportions of the long bones, 295. 
 
 relative, of male and female, 395. 
 Psoas muscle, 266. 
 Pubis, 55, 216. 
 
 crest of, 216. 
 
 spine of, 56, 216. 
 
 symphysis, 216. 
 Pupil, the, 366. 
 Pyramidalis nasi muscle, 370. 
 
 Quadratus menti muscle, 378. 
 
 R. 
 
 Radial extensor muscles, 170. 
 Radius, 17, 127, 131. 
 
 head of, 131. 
 
 lower end of, 158. 
 
 sigmoid cavity of, 154. 
 
 styloid process of, 132, 158. 
 Rage, 383. 
 
 Recti abdominis muscles, 54, 60. 
 Rectus abdominis muscle, 59. 
 Rectus femoris muscle, 262. 
 Reflection, expression of, 382. 
 Rhomboid muscles, 89, 119. 
 
 action of, 91. 
 
 influence on surface form, 90. 
 Rib cartilages, 47. 
 Ribs, 47. 
 
 false, 48. 
 
 floating, 48. 
 
 true, 48. 
 Richer, band of, 275. 
 Risorius muscle, 377. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saoro-seiatio ligament, great, 234. 
 Saero-vertebral angle, 32. 
 Sacrum, 8, 29, 212, 217. 
 Salivary glands, 332. 
 Saphenous veins, 321. 
 Sartorius muscle, 263. 
 
 action of, 264. 
 Scaphoid bone, 161. 
 Scapula, 14, 78. See, Shoulder-blade. 
 
 acromion process of, 81. 
 
 Scapula, coracoid process of, 82. 
 
 movements of, 119. 
 
 rotation of, 95. 
 
 spine of, 80. 
 Scapular triangle, 119. 
 Sclerotic coat of eyeball, 365. 
 Semi-membranosus muscle, 269. 
 Semi-tendinosus muscle, 268. 
 Serratus magnus muscle, 91. 
 
 action of, 95. 
 
 influence on surface forms, 94. 
 Sesamoid bone, 197. 
 Sesamoid bones of foot, 308. 
 Shin, the, 250. 
 
 Shin-bone, 12, 248. See Tibia. 
 Shoulder-blade, 14, 78. See Scapula. 
 Shoulder-girdle, 7, 14, 75. 
 
 adaptation of, to chest-wall, 83. 
 
 relation of, to surface, 84. 
 Shoulder-joint, loi. 
 
 movements of, 102. 
 Shoulders, squareness of, 85. 
 
 width of, 113. 
 Shyness, expression of, 383. 
 Sigmoid cavity of radius, 154. 
 Sigmoid notch, lesser, 129. 
 
 greater, 128. 
 Sinuses, air, 348. 
 Skeleton, definition of, 20. 
 Skull, the, 18, 345. 
 
 base of, 347. 
 Sneering, 383. 
 Soleus muscle, 298. 
 Sphenoid bone, 22, 348. 
 Spinal column, 5. 
 Splint-bone, 251. See Fibula. 
 Sterno-mastoid muscle, 330. 
 
 action of, 335. 
 Sternum, 15, 50. See Breast-bone. 
 Stomach, pit of, 52. 
 Styloid process of radius, 132, 158. 
 
 of ulna, 129, 154, 159. 
 Suffering, expression of, 381. 
 Summai-y of the muscles of the back, 
 117. 
 
 of muscles of the fore-arm, 177. 
 
 of structure of hand, 209. 
 Supination, 128, 150. 
 Supinator longus muscle, 163, 169. 
 Supinator muscles, 163. 
 
414 
 
 Index. 
 
 Supra-condyloid ridges, 127. 
 ■ Supra-spinous fossa, 80. 
 Surprise, expression of, 384. 
 Sustentaculum tali, 289. 
 Sutures, 26, 348. 
 
 Symphysis pubis, 9, 56, 212, 216. 
 Synovia, 24. 
 Synovial membrane, 24. 
 
 Tarsal bones, 287. 
 Temporal bone, 22, 345, 348. 
 
 mastoid process of, 331, 361. 
 Temporal fossa, 352. 
 Temporal muscle, 35a. 
 Temporo-maxiUary articulation, 355. 
 Tendo AcMUis, 289, 298. 
 Tendo oouli, 365. 
 
 Tensor fasciae femoris muscle, 240. 
 Teres major muscle, 117, 119. 
 
 influence on surface form, 117. 
 
 action of, 117. 
 Teres minor muscle, 117, 119. 
 
 influence on surface form, 116. 
 
 action of, 115. 
 Terror, expression of, 384. 
 Thigh, the, 246. 
 
 action of extensor muscles of the, 
 263. 
 
 adductor muscles of, 265. 
 
 back of, surface forms of, 270. 
 
 contours of, 274, 
 
 fascia of, 259. 
 
 female, 396 ; form of, 273. 
 
 flexor muscles of, 268. 
 
 fold of the, 243. 
 
 form of the, 272 ; in flexion, 277. 
 
 hollow of, 265. 
 
 muscles of, 259. 
 Thigh-bone, 10, 221, 246. See Femur. 
 
 obliquity of, 224. 
 
 position of, in male and female, 
 224, 
 Thoracic cavity, 16. 
 Thorax, 48. 
 
 female, 53. 
 
 influence on surface contours, 54. 
 
 movements of, 53. 
 Thumb, 194. 
 
 ball of, 161, 195. 
 
 Thumb, extensor muscles of the, 1 76. 
 
 sesamoid bones of, 197. 
 
 short muscles of, 195. 
 
 surface forms dependent on exten- 
 sor muscles of, 176. 
 Thyroid body, 327, 329. 
 Thyroid foramen, 214. 
 Tibia, 12, 248, 285. See Shin-bone. 
 
 tubercle of, 250. 
 
 tuberosities of, 249. 
 Tibialis anticus muscle, 293. 
 Toes, the, 318. 
 
 short extensor muscle of, 313. 
 Trachea, 327. 
 Transversalis muscle, 58. 
 Trapezium, 161. 
 Ti-apezius muscle, 87, 118. 
 
 action of, 91. 
 
 influence of, on surface form, 88. 
 Triangular flbro-cartilage of wrist, 
 
 154- 
 Triangularis menti muscle, 377. 
 Triceps muscle, 146. 
 
 action of, 147. 
 
 relation to surface forms, 146. 
 Trochanter major, 240. 
 
 relation of, to surface, 221. 
 Trochanters of femur, 221. 
 Trochlea, 127. 
 
 U. 
 Ulna, 17, 127. 
 
 coronoid process of, 129. 
 
 head of, 131 ; relation to surface 
 
 form, 159. 
 lower end of, 158. 
 olecranon process of, 128. 
 relations of, to surface forms, 129. 
 styloid process of, 129, 131, 154, 
 
 159- 
 
 upper end of, 128. 
 Ulnar extensor muscle, 171. 
 Ulnar furrow, 129, 172. 
 Unciform bone, 162. 
 Upper arm, 122. 
 
 fascia of, 140. 
 
 intermuscular septa of, 141. 
 Upper limb, form of, in female, 209. 
 
 proportion of, 210. 
 
 skeleton of, 17. 
 
Index. 
 
 415 
 
 Vasti muscles, 260. 
 Vastus externus muscle, 261. 
 Vastus internus muscle, 261. 
 Veins, colour of superficial, 185. 
 
 external jugular, 337. 
 
 saphenous, 321. 
 
 superficial, of arm, 184 ; of leg, 320. 
 Vertebra, articular processes of, 29. 
 
 prominens, 33, 322. 
 
 spinous process of, 29. 
 
 transverse process of, 29. 
 Vertebrae, 5. 
 
 cervical, 31. 
 
 dorsal, 31. 
 
 immovable, 29, 31. 
 
 lumbar, 31. 
 
 movable, 29, 31. 
 
 thoracic, 31. 
 Vertebral column, 5, 27. 
 
 curves of, in adult, 3 ; in infant, 
 
 3- 
 position of, in man, 4 ; in animals, 
 
 5- 
 movements of, 40. 
 
 Vertebral spines, relation to surface, 
 33- 
 
 W. 
 
 Walking, first attempts at, 2. 
 Windpipe, 327. 
 
 Wrist, anterior annular ligament of, 
 160. 
 
 bones of, 157, 161. 
 
 flexor muscles of the, i66. 
 
 front of the, 186. 
 
 posterior annular ligament of the, 
 174. 
 Wrist-joint, 157. 
 
 movements of, 162. 
 
 triangular fibro-cartilage of, 154. 
 
 Y shaped ligament, 226. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zygomatic ai-ch, 352. 
 Zygomatici muscles, 377. 
 
OXFORD 
 
 PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 BY HORACE HART, M.A. 
 
 PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY 
 
'7/0 900 
 
 Clatenbon Ipcess, ©yforb, 
 
 SELECT LIST OF STANDARD WORKS. 
 
 M 
 
 DICTIONARIES page i 
 
 LAW J 
 
 HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC. ... ,,4 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, ETC „ 6 
 
 PHYSICAL SCIBNCE, ETC. ... „ , 
 
 1. DICTIONARIES. 
 
 A NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY 
 
 ON HISTORICAL PRINCIPLES, 
 
 Founded mainly on the materials collected hy the Fhilological Society. 
 
 Imperial 4to. 
 
 EDITED BY DE. MURRAY. 
 
 Present State or the Work. r ^ j 
 
 "^ol- I- ) B I ^y I*r. MURBAY Half-morocco a la 6 
 
 Vol. II. C By Dr. Murray Half-morocco a la 6 
 
 ^°^-"M^|BjM;:HrRrBRA...Y! • • ■ HaIf:morocco a .a 6 
 
 /F-Pield 076 
 
 Vol, IV S ^ ) By Ml"- Hekry J Field-Frankish o 12 6 
 
 ■ j G ) Bradley j Franklaw-Glass-oloth ... o 12 6 
 
 ' Glass-ooaoli-Graded 050 
 
 !H-Hod o 12 6 
 
 Hod.-Horizontal o a 6 
 HorizoBtality-Hywe ...050 
 
 I-In , . o 5 u 
 
 l^g" Tlie remainder of tlie work, to the end of the alphabet, is in an advanced 
 state of preparatioti. 
 
 *it* The Dictionary is also, as heretofore, issued in the original Parts — 
 
 Series I. Parts I-IX. A — Distrustful each o la 6 
 
 Series I. Part X. Distrustfully — Dziggetai 076 
 
 Series II. Parts I-IV. E — Glass-oloth each o la 6 
 
 Series III. Parti. H— Hod .... o 12 6 
 
 Series III. Part II. Hod — Hywe ... . ...076 
 
 Oxford: Clarendon Press, London: Henrt Frowde, Amen Gornei, E.C. 
 
ENGLISH AND ROMAN LA W. 
 
 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, with 
 an Appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic, based on the Thesaurus 
 and Lexicon of Gesenius, by Francis Brown, D.D., S. R. Driver, D.D., 
 and C. A. Brigga, D.D. Parts I- VII. Small 4to, 2s. dd. each. 
 
 Thesaurus Syriacus : collegerunt Quatremfere, Bernstein, Lorsbach, 
 Arnoldi, Agrell, Field, Roediger: edidit R. Payne Smith, S.T.P. 
 Vol. I, containing Fasciculi I-V, sm. fol., sZ. 5s. 
 %* The First Five Fasciculi may also be had separately, 
 
 Faso. VI. il. IS. ; VII. il. 1 is. 6d. ; VIII. iJ. i6s. ; IX. il. 5s. ; X. Pars. I. iZ. i6s. 
 
 A Compendious Syriac Dictionary, founded upon the above. 
 Edited by Mrs. Margoliouth, Parts I and II. Small 4to, 8s. 6d. net each. 
 *^* The Work will be completed in Four Paris. 
 
 A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Etymologically and Philologi- 
 cally arranged. By Sir M. Monier-Williams, D.C.L. 4to. 21.2s. 
 
 A Greek-English Lexicon. By H. G. Liddell, D.D., and 
 
 Robert Scott, D.D. Eighth Edition, Revised. 4to. 1!. i6s. 
 
 An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, 
 arranged on an Historical Basis. By W. W. Skeat, Litt.D. Third 
 Edition. 4to. 2I. 4s. 
 
 A Middle-English Dictionary. By F. H. Stratmann. A new 
 edition, by H. Bradley, M.A. 4to, half-morocco, lU us. 6d. 
 
 The Student's Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon. By H. Sweet, M.A., 
 Ph.D., LL.D. Small 4to, 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, based on the MS. collections of the 
 late Joseph Bosworth, D.D. Edited and enlarged by Prof. T. N. Toller, 
 M.A. Parts I-III. A-SAr. 4to, stiff covers, 15s. each. Part IV, § i, 
 sAR-SWIdEIAN. Stiff covers, 8s. 6d. Part IV, § 2, SWfp-SNEL- 
 iTMEST, 1 8s. 6d. 
 *jf* A Supplement, which will complete the Work, is in active preparation. 
 
 An Icelandic-English Dictionary, based on the MS. collections of 
 the late Richard Cleasby. Enlarged and completed by G. Vigfiisson, 
 M.A. 4to. $1. 7s. 
 
 2. LAW. 
 
 Anson. Principles of the I Badeu-Fowell. Land-Systems 
 
 English Law of Contract, and of Agency 1 of British India ; being a Manual of 
 in its Selation to Contract. By Sir W. , the Land-Tenures, and of the Sys- 
 R. Anson, D.O.L, Ninth Edition. terns of Land-Revenue Adminis- 
 8vo. los. 6d. I tration prevalent in the several 
 
 Provinces. By B. H. Baden-Powell, 
 
 Law and Custom of the i C.I.E. 3 vols. Svo. 3?. 3s. 
 
 Constitution. 2 vols. Svo. } a t t • 
 
 Part I. Parliament. Third Digby. An Introduction to 
 
 Edition. I as. 6d. the History of the Law qf Real Property. 
 
 Part II. The Crown. Second , By Sir KenelmE. Digby, M.A. Fifth 
 Edition. 14s. j Edition. Svo. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Oxford : Clarendon Press. 
 
La IV. 
 
 Grueber. Lex Aquilia. By 
 Erwin Grueber, Dr. Jur., M.A. 
 8vo. I OS. 6d. 
 
 Hall. International Law. 
 
 ByW. E. Hall, M.A. Fourth Edition. 
 8vo. 22s.6d. 
 
 A Treatise onthe Foreign 
 
 Powers and Jurisdiction oj the British 
 Crown. By "W.E. Hall, M.A. 8vo. 
 I OS. 6d. 
 
 Holland. Elements of Juris- 
 prudence. By T. E. Holland, D.C.L. 
 Eighth Edition. 8 vo. i os. 6d. 
 
 The Eu7'opean Concert 
 
 in the Eastern Question; a Collection 
 of Treaties and other Public Acts. 
 Edited, with Introductions and 
 Notes, by T. E. Holland, D.C.L. 
 8vo. 12S. 6d. 
 
 Studies in International 
 
 law. By T. E. Holland, D.C.L. 
 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 Gentilis, Alberici, De 
 
 lure Belli Libri Tres. Edidit T. E. 
 Holland, LCD. Small 4to, half- 
 morocco, 2 IS. 
 
 The Institutes of Jus- 
 tinian, edited as a recension of 
 the Institutes of Gaius, by T. E. 
 Holland, D.C.L. Second Edition. 
 Extra fcap. 8to. 5s. 
 
 Holland and Shadwell. Select 
 
 Titles from the Digest of Justinian. By 
 T. E. Holland, D.C.L., and C. L. 
 Shadwell, D.C.L. 8to. 14s. 
 Also sold in Parts, in paper covers — 
 Part I. Introductory Titles. 2s. 6d. 
 Part II. Family Law. is. 
 Part III. Property Law. 2s. 6d. 
 Part IV. Law of Obligations (No. i), 
 3s. 6d. (No. 2), 4s. 6d. 
 
 Ilbert. The Government of 
 
 India. Being a Digest of the 
 Statute Law relating thereto. 
 With Historical Introduction and 
 
 Illustrative Documents. By Sir 
 Courtenay Ilbert, K.C.S.I. 8vo, 
 half-roan. 21s. 
 
 Jenks. 31odern Land Laiv. 
 
 By Edward Jenks, M.A. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 Markby. Elements of Law 
 
 considered with reference to Principles of 
 OeneralJurisprudence. By SirWilliam 
 Markby, D.C.L. Fifth Edition. Svo. 
 I2S. 6d. 
 
 Moyle. Imperatoris lus- 
 
 tiniani Institutionum Libri Quattuor ; 
 with Introductions, Commentary, 
 Excursus and Translation. ByJ. B. 
 Moyle, D.C.L. Third Edition. 2 vols. 
 Svo. Vol. I. 1 6s. Vol. II. 6s. 
 
 Contract of Sale in the 
 
 Civil Law. 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Pollock and Wright. An 
 
 Essay on Possession in the Common Law. 
 By Sir F. Pollock, Bart., M.A., and 
 Sir R. S.Wright, B.C. L. 8vo. Ss.6d. 
 
 Poste. Gaii Institutionum 
 
 Juris Civilis Commentarii Quattuor ; or, 
 Elements of Roman Law by Gaius. 
 With a Translation and Commen- 
 tary by Edward Poste, M.A. Third 
 Edition. Svo. i8s. 
 
 Raleigh. An Outline of the 
 
 Law of Properly. By Thos. Eakigh, 
 D.C.L. Svo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Sohm. Institutes of Roman 
 
 Law. By Rudolph Sohm. Trans- 
 lated by J. C. Ledlie, B.C.L. With 
 an Introductory Essay by Erwin 
 Grueber, Dr. Jur., M.A. 8vo. iSs. 
 
 Stokes. The Anglo-Indian 
 
 Codes. By Whitley Stokes, LL.D. 
 
 Vol. I. Substantive Law. Svo. 30s. 
 
 Vol. II. Adjective Law. Svo. 3ps. 
 
 First and Second Supplements to 
 
 theabove,i8S7-i89i. Svo. 6s.6d. 
 
 Separately, No. I, 2s.6(i.; No. 2,^s.6d. 
 
 London Henry Frowdg, Amen Corner, E C. 
 
HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC. 
 
 3. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC. 
 
 Adamnani Vita S. Golumbae. 
 Ed. J. T. Fowler, D.C.L. Crown 
 8vo, half-bound, 8s. 6d. net (with 
 translation, gs. 6d. net). 
 
 Aubrey. ' Brief Lives,' chiefly 
 
 of Contemporaries, set down by John 
 Aubrey, between the Years 1669 and 
 1696. Edited from the Author's 
 MSS.,byAndrewClarlc,M.A.,LL.D. 
 With Facsimiles. 2 vols. 8vo. 25s. 
 
 BaedsieHistoria Ecclesiastica, 
 etc. Edited by C. Plummer, M.A. 
 2 vols. Crown 8vo, 21s. net. 
 
 Bedford (W.K.B.). The Blazon 
 
 of Episcopacy. Being the Arms borne 
 by, or attributed to, the Arch- 
 bishops and Bishops of England 
 .nnd Wales. With an Ordinary of 
 the Coats described and of other 
 Episcopal Arms. Second Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. With One 
 Thousand Illustrations. Sm. 4to, 
 buckram, 31s. 6d. net. 
 
 Boswell'B Life of Samuel 
 Johnson, LL.D. Edited by 6. Birk- 
 Deck Hill, D.C.L. In six volumes, 
 medium 8vo. With Portraits and 
 Facsimiles. Half-bound, 3^. 3s. 
 
 Bright. Chapters of Early 
 
 English Church History. By W. 
 Bright, D.D. Third Edition. Beused 
 and Enlarged. With a Map. 8 vo. 1 2s. 
 
 Casaubon (Isaac). 1559-1614. 
 
 By Mark Pattison. Svo. i6s. 
 Clarendon's History of the 
 
 Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. 
 Ke-edited from a fresh collation of 
 the original MS. in the Bodleian 
 Library, with marginal dates and 
 occasional notes, by W. Dunn 
 Maeray, M.A., F.S.A. 6 vols. Crown 
 Svo. 2l. 5s. 
 
 Hewins. The Whitefoord 
 Papers. Being the Correspondence 
 and other Manuscripts of Colonel 
 Chables Whitefooed and Caleb 
 Whitefookd, from 1739 to 1810. 
 
 Edited, with Introduction and 
 Notes, by W. A. S. Hewins, M.A. 
 Svo. 12. 6d. 
 
 Earle. Kandboolc to the Land- 
 
 Cha/rters, and other Saxonic Documents. 
 ByJohnEarle.M.A. Crown8vo.i6s. 
 
 Earle and Plummer. Two of 
 
 the Saxon CJironicles, Parallel, icith 
 Supple^nentaty Extiacts from the otlwrs. 
 A Revised Text, edited, with Intro- 
 duction, Notes, Appendices, and 
 Glossai-y, by Charles Plummer, 
 M.A., on the basis of an edition by 
 John Earle, M.A. 3 vols. Crown 
 Svo, half-roan. 
 Vol. I. Text, Appendices, and 
 
 Glossaiy. los. 6d. 
 Vol. II. Introduction, Notes, and 
 
 Index. I2S. 6d.. 
 
 Freeman. The History of 
 
 Sicily from t!ie Earliest Times. 
 
 Vols. I and II. Svo, cloth, 2I. 2s. 
 Vol. III. The Athenian and 
 
 Carthaginian Invasions. 24s. 
 Vol. IV. From the Tyranny of 
 
 Dionysios to the Death of 
 
 AgathoklSs. Edited by Arthur 
 
 J. Evans, M.A. 21*. 
 
 Freeman. The Reign of 
 
 William Rufus and the Accession of 
 Henry the First. By E. A. Freeman, 
 D.C.L. 2 vols. 8vo. jl. i6s. 
 Gardiner. The Constitutional 
 
 Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 
 162S-1660. Selected and Edited 
 by Samuel EawsonGardiner,D.C.L. 
 Second Edition. Crown Svo. los. 6rf. 
 
 Gross. The Gild Merchant; 
 a Contribution to British Municipal 
 Histoiy. By Charles Gross, Ph.D. 
 2 vols. Svo. 24s. 
 
 Hastings. Hastings and the 
 Rohilla War. By Sir John Strachey , 
 G.C.SJ. Svo, cloth, 10s. 6d. 
 
 Hill. Sources for Greek 
 
 History between the Persian and P^opon- 
 nesian Wars. Collected and arranged 
 by G. F. Hill, M.A. Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 Oxford : Clarendon Press. 
 
HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC. 
 
 Hodgkin. Italy and her In- 
 vaders. With Plates & Maps. 8 vols. 
 8vo. By T. Hodgkin, D.C.L. 
 Vols. I-II. Second Edition. 42s. 
 Vols. III-IV. Second Edition. 36s. 
 Vols. V-VI. a-is. 
 Vol. VII-VIII {completing the 
 zaork'). 245. 
 
 Payne. History of the Feio 
 
 World called America. By E. J. 
 Payne, M.A. 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I, containing Book I, The 
 Discovery, Book II, Part I, 
 Aboriginal America, i8s. 
 Vol. II, containing Book II, 
 Aboriginal America (concluded), 
 14s. 
 
 Johnson. Letters of Samuel 
 Johnson, LL.D. Collected and Edited 
 by G. Birkbeck Hill, D.C.L. 2 vols. 
 half-roan, 28s. 
 
 Johnsonian Miscellanies. 
 
 Bythe same Editor. 2 vols. Medium 
 8vo, half-roan, 28s. 
 
 Kitchin. A History of France. 
 With Numerous Maps, Plans, and 
 Tables. By G. W. Kitchin, D.D. 
 In three Volumes. New Edition. 
 Crown 8vo, each los. 6d. 
 Vol. I. to 1453. Vol. II. 1453- 
 1624. Vol. III. 1624-1793. 
 
 Lewis (Sir G. Cornewall). 
 
 An Essay on the Government of De- 
 pendencies. Edited by C. P. Lucas, 
 B.A. Svo, half-roan. 14s. 
 
 Lucas. Introduction to a 
 
 Ilisiorical Geography of the British 
 Colonies. By C. P. Lucas, B.A. With 
 Eight Maps. Crown Svo. 4s. 6d. 
 
 Historical Geography of 
 
 the British Colonies: 
 
 Vol.1. The MediteiTanean and 
 Eastern Colonies (exclusive of 
 India). With Eleven Maps. 
 Crown Svo. 5s. 
 
 Vol. II. The West Indian Colo- 
 nies. With Twelve Maps. 
 Crown Svo. 7s. bd. 
 
 Vol. III. West Africa. With 
 Five Maps. Crown Svo. ^s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. IV. South and East Afi-ica. 
 
 Historical and Geographical. 
 
 With Ten Maps. Crown Svo. 
 
 9s. 6d. 
 Also Vol. IV in two Parts — 
 Part I. Historical, 6s. 6d. 
 Part II. Geographical, 3s. 6rf. 
 
 Ludlow. The Metnoirs of 
 
 Edmund Ludlow, Lieutenant-General of 
 the Horse in the Ai-my of the Common- 
 wealth of England, 1625-1672. Edited 
 by C. H. Firth, M.A. 3 vols. Svo. 
 \l. 1 6s. 
 
 Machiavelli. II Principe. 
 
 Edited by L. Arthur Burd, M.A. 
 
 With an Introduction by Lord 
 
 Acton. Svo. 14s. 
 Prothero. Select Statutes and 
 
 other Constiluiional Documents, illustra- 
 tive of the Beigns of Elisabeth and 
 James I. Edited by G. W. Prothero, 
 M.A. Crown Svo. Second Edition. 
 10s. dd. 
 
 Select Statutes and other 
 
 Documents bearing on the Constitutional 
 History of England, from a.d. 1307 to 
 155S. By the same Editor. [In 
 Preparation.'] 
 
 Ramsay (Sir J. H.). Lancaster 
 
 and York, A Century of English 
 History (a.d. i 399-1485). 2 vols. 
 Svo. With Index, 37s. 6d. 
 
 Bamsay (W. M.). The Cities 
 
 and Bishoprics of Phrygia. ByW, M, 
 Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D 
 
 Vol.1. PartL The Lycos Valley 
 and Soutli-Western Phrygia. 
 Koyal Svo. 1 8s. net. 
 Vol. I. PartIL West and West- 
 Central Phrygia. 21s. net. 
 
 Ranke. A History of Eng- 
 land, principally in the Seventeenth 
 Century. By L. von Eanke. Trans- 
 lated under the superintendence of 
 G. W. Kitchin, D.D., and C. W. 
 Boase, M.A. 6 vols. 8to. 63s. 
 Revised Index, separately, is. 
 
 Rashdall. The Universities of 
 
 Europe in the Middle Ages. By Hast ■ 
 ings Rashdall, M.A. 2 vols, (in 3 
 Parts) Svo. With Maps. 2I. 58., net. 
 
 London : Henry Fkowds, Amen Corner, E.G. 
 
PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, ETC. 
 
 Smith's Lectures on Justice, 
 
 Police, Bevemue and Arms. Edited, 
 with Introduction and Notes, by 
 Edwin Cannan. 8vo. los. 6rf. net. 
 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 With Notes, by J. E. Thorold Rogers, 
 M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. 2 IS. 
 
 Stephens. The Principal 
 
 Speeches of the Statesmen and Orators of 
 the French Bevolution, 1789-1795. 
 By H. Morse Stephens. 2 toIs. 
 Crown 8to. 21s. 
 
 Stubbs. Select Charters and 
 
 other Illustrations of English Constitu- 
 tional History, from the Earliest Times 
 to the Reign of Edward I. Arranged 
 and edited by W. Stubbs, D.D., 
 Lord Bishop of Oxford. Eighth 
 Edition. Crown Svo. 8s. 6rf. 
 
 The Constitutional His- 
 tory of England, in its Origin and 
 Development. Library Edition. 3 vols. 
 Demy Svo. 2I. 8s. 
 Also in 3 vols, crown 8vo, price 
 1 2s. each. 
 
 Stubbs. Seventeen Lectures on 
 
 the Study of Mediaetal and Modem 
 History. Crown Svo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 Eegistrum Sacrum 
 
 Anglicanum. An attempt to exhibit 
 the course of Episcopal Succession 
 in England. ByW. Stubbs, D.D. 
 Small 4to. Second Edition. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Swift (P. D.). The Life and 
 
 Times of James the First 0/ Aragon. 
 By F. D.'Swift, B.A. Svo. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Vinogradoff. Villainage in 
 
 England. Essays in English Medi- 
 aeval History. By Paul Vinogradoff, 
 Professor in the University of 
 Moscow. Svo, half-bound. 16s. 
 
 Woodhouse. Aetolia ; its 
 
 Geography, Topography, and Antiqui- 
 ties. By William J. Woodhouse, 
 M.A., r.E.G.S. With Maps and 
 Illustrations. Koyal 8vo. price 
 2 IS. net. 
 
 4. PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, ETC 
 
 Bacon. Novum Organum 
 
 Edited, with Introduction, Notes, 
 &c., by T. Fowler, D.D. Second 
 Edition. Svo. 15s. 
 
 Berkeley. Tfie Wo7'hs of 
 
 George Berkeley, D.D., formerly Bishop 
 ofCloyne; including many of his writ- 
 ings hitherto unpublished. With Pre- 
 faces, Annotations, and an Account 
 of his Life and Philosophy. By 
 A. Campbell Fraser, Hon. D.C.L., 
 LL.D. 4 vols. Svo, 2^. iSs. 
 The Life, Letters, dc, separately, 16s. 
 
 Bosanquet. Logic; or, the 
 
 Morphology of Knowledge. By B. 
 Bosanquet, M.A. Svo. 2 is. 
 
 Butler. The Works of Joseph 
 
 Butler, D.C.L., sometime Lord Bishop 
 of Durham. Divided into sections, 
 
 with sectional headings, an index 
 to each volume, and some occasional 
 notes; also prefatory matter. Edited 
 by the Eight Hon. W. E. Gladstone. 
 2 vols. Medium Svo. 14s. each. 
 
 Fowler. The Elements of Be- 
 
 ductive Logic, designed mainly for the 
 use of Junior Students in the Universities. 
 By T. Fowler, D.D. Tenth Edition, 
 with a Collection of Examples. 
 Extra fcap. Svo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 The Elements of Induc- 
 tive Logic, designed mainly for the use (jf 
 Students in the Universities. By the 
 same Author. Sixth Edition. Extra 
 fcap. Svo. 6s. 
 
 Logic ; Deductive and 
 
 Inductive, combined in a single 
 volume. Extra fcap. Svo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Oxford : OlareDdon Fress. 
 
PHYSICAL SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 7 
 
 Fowler and Wilson. The 
 
 Principles of Morals. By T. Fowler, 
 D.D., and J. M. Wilson, B.D. 8to, 
 cloth, 14s. 
 
 Green. Prolegomena to Ethics. 
 By T. H. Green, M.A. Edited by 
 A. C. Bradley, M.A. Fourth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Hegel. The Logic of Hegel. 
 
 Translated from the Encyclopaedia 
 ofthe Philosophical Sciences. With 
 Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel's 
 Logic and Philosophy. By W. Wal- 
 lace, M.A. Secon.d Edition, Bevised 
 and Augmented. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 
 los. 6i2. each. 
 
 Hegel's Philosophy of Mind. 
 Translated from the Encyclopaedia 
 ofthe Philosophical Sciences. With 
 Five Introductory Essays. By Wil- 
 liam Wallace, M.A., LL.D. Crown 
 Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 Hume's Treatise of Human 
 
 Nature. Edited, with Analytical 
 Index, by L. A. Selby-Bigge, M.A. 
 Second Edition. Crown Svo. 8s. 
 Enquiry concerning 
 
 the Human Understanding, and an 
 Enquiry concemiyig the Principles of 
 Morals. Edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge, 
 M.A. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 Leibniz. The Monadology and 
 
 other Philosophical Writings. Trans- 
 lated, with Introduction and Notes, 
 by Robert Latta, M.A., D.Phil. 
 Crown Svo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 Locke. An Essay Concern- 
 ing Human Understanding. By John 
 Locke. Collated and Annotated, 
 with Prolegomena, Biographical, 
 Critical, and Historic, by A. Camp- 
 bell Eraser, Hon. D.C.L., LL.D. 
 2 vols. 8vo. il. 12s. 
 
 Lotze's Logic, in Three Books 
 — of Thought, of Investigation, and 
 of Knowledge. English Translation ; 
 edited by B. Bosanquet. M.A. 
 Second Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Metaphysic. in Three 
 
 Books— Ontology, Cosmology, and 
 Psychology. English Translation ; 
 edited by B. Bosanquet, M.A. 
 Second Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Martineau. Types of Ethical 
 Theory. By James Martineau, D.D. 
 Third Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. 15 s. 
 
 A Study of Religion: 
 
 its Sources and Contents. Second Edition. 
 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. iss. 
 
 Selby-Bigge. British Moral- 
 ists. Selections from Writers prin- 
 cipally of the Eighteenth Century. 
 Edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge, M.A. 
 2 vols. Crown Svo. i8s. 
 
 Wallace. Lectures and Essays 
 
 on Natural Theology and Ethics. By 
 William Wallace, M.A., LL.D. 
 Edited, with a Biographical Intro- 
 ductionby Edward Caird, M. A. , Hon. 
 D.C.L. Svo, with a Portrait. las. 6d. 
 
 5. PHYSICAL 
 
 Balfour. The Natural History 
 
 ofthe Musical Bow. AChapter in the 
 Developmental History of Stringed 
 Instruments of Music. Part I, 
 Primitive Types. By Henry Balfour, 
 M.A. Royal Svo, paper covers. 
 4 s. 61I. 
 
 SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 Chambers. A Handbook of 
 
 Descriptive and Practical Astronomy. 
 
 By G.F. Chambers, F.R.A.S. Fourth 
 
 Edition, in 3 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I. The Sun, Planets, and 
 Comets. 2 IS. 
 
 Vol. II. Instruments and Prac- 
 tical Astronomy. 2 is. 
 
 Vol. III. The Starry Heavens. 14s. 
 
 London : Henry Frowdb, Amen Corner, K.C. 
 
8 
 
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 Do Bary. Comparative Ana- 
 tomy of the Vegetative Organs of the 
 Phanerogams and Ferns. By Dr. A. 
 de Bary. Translated by F. 0. 
 Bower, M. A. , and D. H. Scott, M. A. 
 Royal 8vo. il. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Comparative Morpho- 
 logy and Biology of Fungi, Mycetosoa 
 and Bacteria. By Dr. A. de Bary. 
 Translated by H. E. F. Garnsey, 
 M.A. Kevised by Isaac Bayley 
 Balfour, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Royal 
 8vo, half- morocco, il. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Lectures on Bacteria. 
 
 By Dr. A. de Bary. Second Im- 
 prcmed Edition. Translated by H. 
 E. P. Garnsey, M.A. Revised by 
 Isaac Bayley Balfour, M.A., M.D., 
 F.R.S. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Druce. The Flora of Berk- 
 shire. Being a Topographical and 
 Historical Account of the Flowering 
 Plants and Ferns found in the 
 County, with short Biographical 
 Notices. By G. C. Druce, Hon. 
 M.A. Oxon. Crown 8vo, i6s. net. 
 
 Elliott. An Introduction to 
 
 the Algebra of Quantics. By 
 E. B. Elliott, M.A. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 Goebel. Outlines of Classifi- 
 cation and Special Morphology of Plants. 
 By Dr. K. Goebel. Translated by 
 H. E. F. Garnsey, M.A. Revised by 
 Isaac Bayley Balfour, M.A., M.D., 
 F.R.S. Royal 8vo, half-morocco, 
 II. is. 
 
 Johnston. An Elementary 
 
 Treatise on Analytical Qeometry, with 
 Numerous Examples. By W. J. 
 Johnston, M.A. (R.U.I.) Crown 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Pfeflfer. The Physiology of 
 
 Plants. A Treatise upon the Metabolism 
 and Sources t>f Energy in Plants. By 
 Prof. Dr. W.' Pfeffer. Second fully 
 
 -Revised Edition, translated and 
 edited by Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, 
 Ph.D., F.L.S. Royal 8vo, half- 
 morocco, 28s. 
 
 Prestwich. Geology, Chemi- 
 cal, Physical, and Stratigraphical. By 
 Sir Joseph Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S. 
 In two Volumes. }l. is. 
 
 Price. A Treatise on the 
 
 Measurement of Electrical Resistance. 
 By W. A. Pj-ice, M.A., A.M.I.C.E. 
 8vo. 1 4s. 
 
 Sachs. A History of Botany. 
 
 Translated by H. E. F. Garnsey, 
 M.A. Kevised by I. Bayley Balfour, 
 M.A.,M.D..F.R.S. Crown 8vo. los. 
 
 Solms-Laubach. Fossil Bot- 
 any. Being an Introduction to Pcdaeo- 
 phytology from the Standpoint of th^ 
 Botanist. By H. Graf za Solms- 
 Laubach. Translated by H. E. F. 
 Garnsey, M.A. Revised by I. Bayley 
 Balfour, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Royal 
 8vo, half-morocco, i8s. 
 
 Biological Series. 
 
 I. ITie Physiology of Kerre, of 
 
 Muscle, and of the Electrical 
 Organ. Edited by Sir J. Burden 
 Sanderson,Bart.,M.D., F.RSS. 
 L.&E. Medium 8vo. il. is. 
 
 II. TTie Anatomy of the Frog. By 
 
 Dr. Alexander Ecker, Professor 
 in the University of Freiburg. 
 Translated, with numerous 
 Annotations and Additions, 
 by 6. Haslam, M.D. Medium 
 8vo. 2 IS. 
 IV. Essays upon Heredity and 
 Kindred Biological Problems. By 
 Dr. A. Weismann. Authorized 
 Translation. Crown 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I. Edited by E. B. Poulton, 
 S. Sch6nland,and A. E. Shipley . 
 Second Edition. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. II. Edited by E. B. Poulton, 
 and A. E. Shipley. 5s. 
 
 AT THE 
 
 O,vfovb 
 CLARENDON 
 
 PRESS 
 
 £on6on, €6tn6«rg8, Ani (Jl«iv Jorft 
 HENRY FROWDE