^'' n :^'A^^^A ^a'aUi riffle '& cWsHsKhP ,13 1 HJ' I ::.f T 2».'■ ? 'f **' . , '--$» •■ fa- ir S >• • • - Wi& 5 ui Q CC Hi > g CC CO o - V, -^xtt^. l&m HI H < > < O pewkes] TYPES OF VERDE VALLEY RUINS 537 In Verde valley, villages, cliff bouses, and cavate dwellings exist together, and were, I believe, contemporaneously inhabited by a people of the same culture. These types of ancient habitations are not believed to stand in the relationship of sequence in development; nor is one simpler or less difficult of construction than the others. Cliff houses display no less skill and daring than do the villages in the plain, called pueblos. The cavate dwellings are likewise a form of habitation which shows consid- erable workmanship, and are far from caves like those inhabited by "cave men." These dwellings were laboriously excavated with rude implements; had floors, banquettes, windows, walled recesses, and the like. It is hardly proper to regard them as less difficult to construct than pueblos or cliff houses. Cavate dwellings, like villages or cliff houses, may be single or mul- tiple, single or many chambered, and a cluster of these troglodytic dwellings was, in fact, as truly a village as a pueblo or cliff house. The same principle of seeking safety by crowding together held in all three instances; and this very naturally, for the culture of the inhabi- tants was identical. I shall consider only two of the three types of dwellings in Verde valley, namely, the second and third groups. It has, I think, been conclusively shown by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, so far as types of the first group of ruins on the Verde are concerned, that they practically do not differ from the modern Tusayan pueblos. The remaining types, when rightly interpreted, furnish evidence of no less important character. Notwithstanding Mindeleff's excellent descriptions of the cavate dwellings of this region, already cited, I have thought it well to bring into prominence certain features which seem to me to indicate that this form of aboriginal dwelling was high in its development, showing considerable skill in its construction, and was fashioned on the same general plan as the others. For this demon- stration I have chosen one of the most striking clusters in Verde valley. Cavate Dwellings The most accessible cavate dwellings in Verde valley (plate xci a) are situated on the left bank of the river, about eight miles southward from Camp Verde and three miles from the mouth of Clear creek. The general characteristics of this group have been well described by 'Mr Mindeleff in the Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau, so that I need but refer to a few additional observations made on these interest- ing habitations. 1 These cavate lodges afford a fair idea of the best known of these' prehistoric dwellings in this part of Arizona. Although Verde valley i Mr MindelerFs descriptions deal with the same cluster of cavate rnina here described, but are more specially devoted to the more southern section of them, not considering, if I understand him, the northern row hero described. I had also made extensive studies of the rooms figured by him previously to the publication of his article, but as my notes on these rooms are anticipated by his excellent memoir I have not considered the rooms described by him, but limited my account to brief mention of a neighboring row of chambers not described in his report. 538 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [bth.ahn.17 has many fine ranches, the land in immediate proximity to these ruins is uncultivated. The nearest habitation, however, is not far away, and it is not difficult to find guides to these caves, so well known are they to the inhabitants of this part of the valley. It did not take long to learn that any investigations which I might attempt there had been anticipated by other archeologists and laymen, for many of the rooms had been rifled of their contents and their walls thrown down, while it was also evident that some careful excavations had been made. There is, however, abundant opportunity for more detailed scientific work than has yet been attempted on these ruins, and what has thus far been accomplished has been more in the nature of reconnoissance. The cemeteries and burial places of the prehistoric people of the cavate dwellings are yet to be discovered, and it is probable, judging from experience gained at other ruins, that when they are found and care- fully investigated much light will be thrown on the character of ancient cave life. The entrances to the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw mountain are visible from the road for quite a distance, appearing as rows of holes in the steep walls of the cliff on the opposite or left bank of the Rio Verde. Owing to their proximity to the river, from which the preci- pice in which they are situated rises almost vertically, we were unable to camp under them, but remained on the right bank of the river, where a level plain extends for some distance, bordering the river and stretching back to the distant cliffs. We pitched our camp on a bluff, about 30 feet above the river, in full sight of the cave entrances, near a small stone inclosure which bears quite a close resemblance to a Tusayan shrine. Aboriginal people had evidently cultivated the plain where we camped, for there are many evidences of irrigating ditches and even walls of former houses. At present, however, this once highly culti- vated field lies unused, and is destitute of any valuable plants save the scanty grass which served to eke out the fodder of our horses. At the time of my visit the water of Rio Verde at this point was con- fined to a very narrow channel under the bluff near its right bank, but the appearance of its bed showed that in heavy freshets during the rainy season the water filled the interval between the base of the cliffs in which the cavate dwellings are situated and the bluffs which form the right bank. In visits to the caves it was necessary, on account of the site of the camp, to ford the stream each time and to climb to their level over fallen stones, a task of no slight difficulty. The water in places was shallow and the current only moderately rapid. Considering the fact that it furnished potable liquid for ourselves and horses, and that the line of trees which skirted the bluff was available for firewood, our camp compared well with many which we subsequently made in our summer's explorations. fewkes] CAVATE DWELLINGS IN VEEDE VALLEY 539 The section of the cliff which was examined embraced the northern series of these caves, extending from a promontory forming one side of a blind or box canyon to nearly opposite our camp. Adjacent to this series of rooms, but farther down the river, on the same side, there are two narrow side canyons, in both of which are also numerous caves, in all respects similar to the series we chose for examination. At several points on the summit of the cliffs, above the caves, large rectangular ruins, with fallen walls, were discovered; these ruins are, however, in no respect peculiar, but closely resemble those ordinarily found in a similar position throughout this region and elsewhere in Arizona and New Mexico. From their proximity to the caves it would seem that the cavate dwellings, and the pueblos on the summits of the mesas in which they are found, had been inhabited by one people; but better evidence that such is true is drawn from the character of the architecture and the nature of the art remains common to both. Let us first consider the series of caves from a point opposite our camp to the promontory which forms a pinnacle at the mouth of the first of the two side caverns — a row of caves the entrances to which are shown in the accompanying illustration (plate xcn). I have lettered these rooms, as indicated by their entrances, a to I, beginning with the opening on the left. The rock in which these caves have been hewn is very soft, and almost white in color, save for a slightly reddish brown stratum just below the line of entrances to the cavate chambers. Although, as a general thing, the wall of the cliff is almost perpendicular, and the caves at points inaccessible, entrance to the majority of them can be effected by mounting the heaps of small stones forming the d6bris, which has fallen even to the bed of the river at various places, and by following a ledge which connects the line of entrances. The easiest approach mounts a steep decline, not far from the promontory at the lower level of the line, which conducts to a ledge running along in front of the caves about 150 feet above the bed of the stream. Eoughly speaking, this ledge is about 100 feet below the summit of the cliff. It was impossible to reach several of the rooms, and it is probable that when the caves were inhabited access to any one of them was even more difficult than at present. Judging from the number of rooms, the cliffs on the left bank of the Verde must have had a considerable population when inhabited. These caverns, no doubt, swarmed with human beings, and their inaccessible position furnished the inhabitants with a safe refuge from enemies, or an advantageous outlook or observation shelter for their fields on the opposite side of the stream. The soft rock of which the mesa is formed is easily worked, and there are abundant evidences, from the marks of tools employed, that the greater part of each cave was pecked out by hand. Fragments of wood were very rarely seen in these cliff dugouts ; and although there is much adobe plastering, only in a few instances 540 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [ETH. AKK. 17 were the mouths of the caves walled or a doorway of usual shape present. The last room at the southern end, near the promontory at the right of the entrance to a side canyon, has walls in front resembling those of true cliff houses and pueblos in the Eed-rock country farther northward, as will be shown in subsequent pages. This group of cavate dwellings, while a good example of the cavern type of ruins, is so closely associated, both in geographical position and in archeological remains, with other types in Verde valley, that we are justified in referring them to one and the same people. The number of Fig. 245— Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde eZTTF* these troglodytic dwelling places on the Verde is very large ; indeed the mesas may be said to be fairly honeycombed with subterranean habi- tations. Confined as a general thing to the softer strata of rock, which from its character was readily excavated, they lie side by side at the same general level, and are entered from a projecting ledge, formed by the top of the talus which follows the level of their entrances. This ledge is easily accessible in certain places from the river bed, where stones have fallen to the base of the cliff; but at most points no approach is possible, and in their impregnable position the inhabitants could easily defend themselves from hostile peoples. CC < > < o o f- Ml M 1 jwkes] PLATFORMS IN CAVATE DWELLINGS 541 Whether the rock had recesses in it before the caves were enlarged would seem to be answered in the affirmative, for similar caves without evidences of habitations were observed. These, however, are as a rule small, and wherever available the larger caverns have been appropri- ated and enlarged by stone implement, as shown by the pecking on the walls. The enlargement of these caverns, however, would not be a difficult task, for the rock is very soft and easily worked. Entering one of these cavate rooms the visitor finds himself in a dark chamber, as a rule with side openings or passageways into adjoining rooms. Broad lateral banquettes are prominent features in the most complicated caves, and there are many recesses and small closets or cists. The ramifications formed by lateral rooms are often extensive, and the chambers communicate with others so dark that we can hardly regard them as once inhabited. In these dimly lighted rooms the walls were blackened with smoke, as if from former fires, and in many of the largest tbe position of fireplaces could plainly be discovered. As a type of one of the more complicated I have chosen that figured to illus- trate the arrangement of these cavate dwellings (figure 245). Many are smaller, others have more lateral chambers, but one type is character- istic of all. A main room (a, figure 245), or that first entered from outside, is roughly rectangular in shape, 12 feet long by 6 feet wide, and about 6 feet high. The floor, however, was covered with very dry debris which had blown in from the exterior or, in some instances, fallen from the roof. That part of the floor which was exposed shows that it was roughly plastered, sometimes paved or formed of solid rock. On three sides of this room there is a step 2 feet high, to platforms, three in number, one in the rear and one on each side. These plat- forms are 5, 6, and 6 feet 6 inches wide, respectively, and of the same length as the corresponding sides of the central room. It would appear that these platforms are characteristic architectural features of these habitations, and we find them reproduced in some of the rooms of the cliff houses of the Bed-rocks, while Nbrdenskiold has described a kindred feature in the kivas of the Mesa Verde ruins. A somewhat similar elevation of the floor in modern Tusayan kivas forms what may be called the spectator's part, in front of the ladder as one descends, and the same feature is common to many older Hopi dwellings. 1 1 Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, vol. II, No. 1. All the Tusayan kivas with which I am familiar have this raised spectator's part at one end. The altars are always erected at the opposite end of the room, in which is likewise the hole in the floor called the sipapii, symholic of the traditional opening through which races emerged to the earth's surface from an underworld. Banquettes exist in some Tusayan kivas; in others, however, they are wanting. The raised plat- form in dwelling rooms is commonly a sleeping place, above which blankets are hung and, in some instances, corn is stored. A small opening in the step often admits light to an otherwise dark granary below the floor. In no instance, however, are there more than one such platform, and that com- monly partakes of the nature of another room, although seldom separated from the other chamber by a partition. 542 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann.17 Beginning with the lateral platforms (-B, figure 245) we first note, as we step upon it at c, about midway of its length, a small circular depres- sion in the floor of the central room extending slightly beneath the platform, as indicated by the dotted line. It is possible that this niche was a receptacle for important household objects, although it may have been a fireplace. In a corner of the right platform a round cist, partially hewn out of the rock, was found, but its walls (a, figure 245) were badly broken down by some former explorer. The floor of this recess lies below that of the platform, while the cist itself (d) reminds one of the closed or walled structures, so commonly found in the Verde, attached to the side of the cliff. On the lateral wall of this chamber, at about the height of the head, a row of small holes had been drilled into the solid wall. These holes (d, d, d) are almost too small for the insertion of roof beams, and were probably made for pegs on which to rest a beam for hanging blankets and other textile fabrics when not in use. The roof of the cave was the natural rock, and showed over its whole surface marks of a pecking implement. The left chamber is C feet 6 inches broad, and from one corner, oppo- site the doorway, a low passageway leads into a circular chamber, 6 feet in diameter, with its floor below the platform of the lateral room. Between the chamber, on the left of the entrance, and the open air, the wall of solid rock is broken by a slit-like crevice, which allows the light to enter, and no doubt served as a window. A recess, the floor of which is elevated, on a platform opposite the doorway, is 5 feet broad, and has a small circular depression in one corner. The floor and upraise of this recess is plastered with adobe, which in several places is smooth and well made. In comparing the remaining caVate dwellings of this series with that described, we find every degree of complication in the arrangement of rooms, from a simple cave, or irregular hole in the side of the cliff, to squared chambers with lateral rooms. The room I, 1 for instance, is rectangular, 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, with an entrance the same width as that of the room itself. In room III, however, the external opening is very small, and there is a low, narrow ledge, or platform, opposite the doorway. There is like- wise in this room a small shelf in the left-hand wall. In IV there is a raised platform on two adjacent sides of the square room, and the doorway is an irregular orifice broken through the wall to the open air. Room I Vis a, subterranean chamber, most of the floor of which is littered with large fragments of rock which have fallen from the roof. It has numerous small recesses in the wall resembling cubby-holes where household utensils of various kinds were undoubtedly formerly kept. This room is instructive, in that the entrance is partially closed 1 Counting from the point of the oliit' shown in plate xoia. The positions of the rooms are indicated by the row of entrances. PEWKESj FUNCTION OF CAVATE HOUSES 543 by two walls of masonry, which do not join. The stones are laid in adobe in which fragments of pottery were detected. These unjoined walls leave a doorway which is thus flanked on each side by stone masonry, recalling in every particular the well-known walls of cliff houses. Here, in fact, we have so close a resemblance to the masonry of true cliff houses that we can hardly doubt that the excavators of the cavate dwellings were, in reality, people similar to those who built the cliff houses of Verde valley. Eoom VIII is a simple cave hewn out of the rock, with a chamber behind it, entered by a passageway made of masonry, which partially fills a larger opening. The doorway through this masonry is small below, but broadens above in much the same manner as some of the doorways in Tusayan of today. Continuing along the left bank of the river, from the row of cavate rooms, just described, on the first mesa, we round a promontory and enter a small canyon, 1 which is perforated on each side with numer- ous other cavate dwellings, large and small, all of the same gen- eral character as the type described. Here, likewise, are small external openings which evidently communicated with subterranean chambers, but many of them are so elevated that access to them from the floor of the canyon or from the cliff above is not possible. A marked feature of the whole series is the existence here and there of small, often inaccessible, stone cists of masonry plastered to the side of the rocky cliff like swallows' nests. All of these cists which are accessible had been opened and plundered before my visit, but there yet remain a few which are still intact and would repay examination and study. Similar walled-up cists are likewise found, as we shall see later, in the cliff houses of the Bedrock country, hence are not confined to the Verde system of ruins. Cavate dwellings similar to those here described are reported to exist in the canyons of upper Salado, Gila, and ZuQi rivers, and we may with reason suspect that the distribution '' of cavate dwellings is as wide as that of the pueblos themselves, the sole requisite being a soft tufaceous rock, capable of being easily worked by people with stone implements. In none of the different regions in which they exist is there any probability that these caves were made by people different iu cul- ture from pueblo or cliff dwellers. They are much more likely -to have been permanent than temporary habitations of the same culture stock of Indians who availed themselves of rock shelters wherever the nature of the cliff permitted excavation in its walls. That the cavate lodges are simple "horticultural outlooks" is an important suggestion, but one might question whether they were con- veniently placed for that purpose. So far as overlooking the opposite 1 It was from this region that the individual chambers, described by Mindeleff, "were chosen. 2 Mr Mindeleff, in his valuable memoir, has so completely described the cavate dwellings of the Rio Grande and San Juan regions that their discussion in this account would he superfluous. 544 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.akn. 17 plain (which had undoubtedly been cultivated in ancient times) is con- cerned, the position of some of them may be regarded good for that purpose, but certainly not so commanding as that of the hill or mesa above, where well-marked ruins still exist. The position of the cavate dwellings is a disadvantageous one to reach any cultivated fields if defenders were necessary. When the Tusayan Indian today moves to his kisi or summer brush house shelter he practically camps in his corn or near it, in easy reach to drive away crows, or build wind-breaks to shelter the tender sprouts ; but to go to their cornfields the inhabitants of the cavate dwellings I have described were forced to cross a river before the farm was reached. That these cavate dwellings were lookouts none can deny, but I incline to a belief that this does not tell the whole story if we limit them to such use. It is not wholly clear to me that they were not likewise an asylum for refuge, possibly not inhabited continuously, but a very welcome retreat when the agriculturist was sorely pressed by enemies. Fol- lowing the analogy of a Hopi custom of building temporary booths near their fields, may we not suppose that the former inhabitants of Verde valley may have erected similar shelters in their cornfields during summer months, retiring to the cavate dwellings and the mesa tops in winter? All available evidence would indicate that the cavate dwellings were permanent habitations. 1 There are several square ruins on top of the mesa above the cavate dwellings. The walls of these were massive, but they are now very much broken down, and the adobe plastering is so eroded from the masonry that I regard them of considerable antiquity. They do not differ from other similar ruins, so common elsewhere in New Mexico and Arizona, and are identical with others in the Verde region. I visited several of these ruins, but made no excavations in them, nor added any new data to our knowledge of this type of aboriginal build- ings. The pottery picked up on the surface resembles that of the ruins of the Little Colorado and Gila. The dwellings which I have mentioned above are said 2 to be dupli- cated at many other points in the watershed of the Verde, and many undescribed ruins of this nature were reported to me by ranchmen. I do not regard them as older than the adjacent ruins on the mesa above or the plains below them, much less as productions of people of different stages of culture, for everything about them suggests contemporaneous occupancy. Prom what little I saw of the village sites on the Yerde I believe that Mindeleff is correct in considering that these ruins represent a 1 See Mindeloff, Cliff Euina of Canyon de Chelly, American Anthropologist, April, 1895. The sug- gestion that cliff outlooks wore fanning shelters in some instances is doubtless true, but I should hesitate giving this use a predominance over outlooks for security. In times of danger, naturally the agriculturist seeks a high or commanding position for a wide outlook; but to watch his crops he must camp among them. 2 Ancient Dwellings of the Bio Vorde Valley, Dr E. A. Mearns; Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxvn. Mindeleff, Aboriginal Remains In Verde Valley; Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. > i < 71 < UJ IT ~> m fewkes] PICTOGRAPHS 545 comparatively late period of pueblo architecture. The character of the cliff houses of the Eed-rocks shows no very great antiquity of occupancy. While it is not possible to give any approximate date when they were inhabited, their general appearance indicates that they are not more than two centuries old. There is, however, no refer- ence to them in the early Spanish history of the Southwest. Few pictographs were found in the immediate neighborhood of the cavate dwellings; indeed the rock in their vicinity is too soft to pre- serve for any considerable time any great number of these rock etch- ings. Examples of ancient paleography were, however, discovered a short distance higher up the river on malpais rock, which is harder and less rapidly eroded. A half-buried bowlder (plate xciii) near Wood's ranch was found to be covered with the well-known spirals with zigzag attachments, horned animals resembling antelopes, growing corn, rain clouds, and similar figures. These pictographs occur on a black, super- ficial layer of lava rock, or upon lighter stone with a malpais layer, which had been pecked through, showing a lighter color beneath. There is little doubt that many examples of aboriginal pictography exist in this neighborhood, which would reward exploration with inter- esting data. The Verde pictographs can not be distinguished, so far as designs are concerned, from many found elsewhere in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. An instructive pictograph, different from any which I have elsewhere seen, was discovered on the upturned side of a bowlder not far from Hauce's ranch, near the road from Camp Verde to the cavate dwellings. The bowlder upon which they occur lies on top of a low hill, to the left of the road, near the river. It consists of a rectangular network of lines, with attached key extensions, crooks, and triangles, all pecked in the surface. This daedal us of lines arises from grooves, which originate in two small, rounded depressions in the rock, near which is depicted the figure of a mountain lion. The whole pictograph is 3J feet square, and legible in all its parts. The intent of the ancient scribe is not wholly clear, but it has been suggested that he sought to represent the nexus of irrigating ditches in the plain below. It might have been intended as a chart of the neighboring fields of corn, and it is highly suggestive, if we adopt either of these explanations or interpretations, that a figure of the mountain lion is found near the depressions, which may provisionally be regarded as representing ancient reservoirs. Among the Tusayan Indians the mountain lion is looked on as a guardian of cultivated fields, which he is said to protect, and his stone image is sometimes placed there for the same purpose. In the vicinity of the pictograph last described other bowlders, of which there are many, were found to be covered with smaller rock etchings in no respect characteristic, and there is a remnant of an ancient shrine a few yards away from the bowlder upon which they occur. 17 ETH, PT 2 6 546 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [bth. a™. 17 Montezuma Well ODe of the most interesting sites of ancient habitation in Verde val- ley is known as Montezuma Well, and it is remarkable how little atten- tion has been paid to it by archeologists. 1 Dr Mearns, in his article on the ancient dwellings of Yerde valley, does not mention the well, and Mindeleff simply refers to the brief description by Dr Hoffman in 1877. These ruins are worthy of more study than I was able to give them, for like many other travelers I remained but a short time in the neigh- borhood. It is possible, however, that some of my hurried observations at this point may be worthy of record. Montezuma Well (plate xoiv) is an irregular, circular depression, closely resembling a volcanic crater, but evidently, as Dr Hoffman well points out, due to erosion rather than to volcanic agencies. As one approaches it from a neighboring ranch the road ascends a low eleva- tion, and when on top the visitor finds that the crater occupies the whole interior of the hill. The exact dimensions I did not accurately determine, but the longest diameter of the excavation is estimated at about 400 feet ; its depth possibly 70 feet. On the eastern side this depression is separated from Beaver creek by a precipitous wall which can not be scaled from that side. At the time of my visit there was con- siderable water in the "well," which was reported to be very deep, but did not cover the whole bottom. It is possible to descend to the water at one point on the eastern side, where a trail leads to the water's edge. There appears to be a subterranean waterway under the eastern rim of the well, and the water from the spring rushes through this passage into Beaver creek. At the time of my visit this outflow was very con- siderable, and in the rainy season it must be much greater. The well is never dry, and is supplied by perennial subterranean springs rather than by surface drainage. The geological agency which has been potent in giving the remark- able crater-like form to Montezuma Well was correctly recognized by Dr Hoffman 2 and others as the solvent or erosive power of the spring. There is no evidence of volcanic formation in the neighborhood, and the surrounding rocks are limestones and sandstones. Not far from Navaho springs there is a similar circular depression, called Jacob's Well, but which was dry when visited by me. This may later be found to have been formed in a similar way. At several places in Arizona there are foimations of like geological character. The walls of Montezuma Well are so nearly perpendicular that descent to the edge of the water is difficult save by a single trail which follows the detritus to a cave on one side. In this cave, the roof of which is 1 Since the above lines were written Mr C F. Lummis, who has made many well-known contribu- tions to the ethnology and archeology of the Pueblo area, has published in Land of Sunshine (Los Angeles, 1895), a beautiful photographio illustration and an important description of this unique place. 'Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations on Indians inhabiting Nevada, California, and Arizona, Temii Annual Keport of the Hayden Survey, p. 478 ; Washington, 1878. fewkes] RUINS IN MONTEZUMA WELL 547 not much higher than the water level, there are fragments of masonry, as if structures of some kind had formerly been erected in it. I have regarded this cave rather as a place of religious rites than of former habitation, possibly a place of retreat for ancient priests when praying for rain or moisture, or a shrine for the deposit of prayer offerings to rain or water gods. Several isolated cliff dwellings are built at different levels in the sides of the cliffs. One of the best of these is diametrically opposite the cave mentioned above, a few feet below the rim of the depression. While this house was entered with little difficulty, there were others which I did not venture to visit. The accompanying illustration (plate xcv) gives an idea of the gen- eral appearance of one of these cliff houses of Montezuma Well. It is built under an overhanging archway of rock in a deep recess, with masonry on three sides. The openings are shown, one of which over- looks the spring; the other is an entrance at one side. The face of masonry on the front is not plastered, and if it was formerly rough cast the mud has been worn away, leaving the stones exposed. The side wall, which has been less exposed to the elements, still retains the plas- tering, which is likewise found on the inner walls where it is quite smooth in places. The number of cliff rooms in the walls of the well is small and their capacity, if used as dwellings, very limited. There are, however, ruins of pueblos of some size on the edge of the well. One of the largest of these, shown in the accompanying illustration (plate xcvi), is situated on the neck of land separating the well from the valley of Beaver creek. This pueblo was rectangular in form, of considerable size, built of stones, and although at present almost demol- ished, shows perfectly the walls of former rooms. Fragments of ancient pottery would seem to indicate that the people who once inhabited this pueblo were in no respect different from other sedentary occupants of Verde valley. From their housetops they had a wide view over the creek on one side and the spring on the other, defending, by the site of their village, the one trail by which descent to the well was possible. The remarkable geological character of Montezuma Well, and the spring within it, would have profoundly impressed itself on the folklore of any people of agricultural bent who lived in its neighborhood after emigrating to more arid lands. About a month after my visit to this remarkable spring I described the place to some of the old priests at Walpi and showed them sketches of the ruins. These priests seemed to have legendary knowledge of a place somewhat like it where they said the Great Plumed Snake had one of his numerous houses. They reminded me of a legend they had formerly related to me of how the Snake arose from a great cavity or depression in the ground, and how, they had heard, water boiled out of that hole into a neighboring river. The Hopi have personal knowledge of Montezuma Well, for many of 548 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 3895 [eth.ann.17 their number have visited Verde valley, and they claim the ruins there as the homes of their ancestors. It would not be strange, therefore, if this marvelous crater was regarded by them as a house of Paliilukon, their mythic Plumed Serpent. Practically little is known of the pictography of this part of the Verde valley people, although it has an important bearing on the dis- tribution of the cliff dwellers of the Southwest. There is evidence of at least two kinds of petroglyphs, indicative of two distinct peoples. One of these was of the Apache Mohave ; the other, the agriculturists who built the cliff homes and villages of the plain. Those of the latter are almost identical with the work of the Pueblo peoples in the cliff dweller stage, from southern Utah and Colorado to the Mexican boundary. It is not a difficult task to distinguish the pictography of these two peoples, wherever found. The pictographs of the latter are generally pecked into the rock with a sharpened implement, probably of stone, while those of the former are usually scratched or painted on the surface of the rocks. Their main differences, however, are found in the character of the designs and the objects represented. This differ- ence can be described only by considering individual rock drawings, but the practiced eye may readily distinguish the two kinds at a glance. The pictographs which are pecked in the cliff are, as a rule, older than those which are drawn or scratched, and resemble more closely those widely spread in the Pueblo area, for if the cliff-house people ever made painted pictographs, as there is every reason to believe they did, time has long ago obliterated them. The pictured rocks (plate xcvn) near Cliff's ranch, on Beaver creek, four miles from Montezuma Well, have a great variety of objects depicted upon them. These rocks, which rise from the left bank of the creek opposite Cliff's ranch, bear over a hundred different rock pictures, figures of which are seen in the accompanying illustration. The rock surface is a layer of black malpais, through which the totem signatures have been pecked, showing the light stone beneath, and thus rendering them very conspicuous. Among these pictographs many familiar forms are recognizable, among them being the crane or blue heron, bears' and badgers' paws, turtles, snakes, antelopes, earth symbols, spirals, and meanders. Among these many totems there was an unusual pictograph in the form of the figure 8, above which was a bear's paw accompanied by a human figure so common in southwestern rock etchings. A square figure with interior parallel squares extending to the center is also found, as elsewhere, jn cliff-dweller pictography. Cliff Houses of the Bed- Rocks After the road from old Camp Verde to Flagstaff passes a deserted cabin at Beaver Head, it winds up a steep hill of lava or malpais to the top of the Mogollones. If, instead of ascending this hill, one turns to IS) D o I kewkes] FEATURES OF THE RED-ROCK COUNTRY 549 the left, taking an obscure road across the river bed, which is full of rough lava blocks, and in June, when I traveled its course, was without water, he soon finds himself penetrating a rugged country with bright- red cliffs on his right (plate xovni). Continuing through great parks and plain's he finally descends to the well- wooded valley of Oak creek, an affluent of Rio Yerde. Here he finds evidences of aboriginal occu- pancy on all sides — ruins of buildings, fortified hilltops, pictographs, and irrigating ditches — testifying that there was at one time a considerable population in this valley. The fields of the ancient inhabitants have now given place to many excellent ranches, one of the most flourishing of which is not far from a lofty butte of red rock called the Court house, which from its great size is a conspicuous object for miles around. In many of these canyons there are evidences of a former population, but the country is as yet almost unexplored; there are many difficult places to pass, yet once near the base of the rocks a way can be picked from the mouth of one canyon to another. It does not take long to discover that this now uninhabited region contains, like that along the Verde and its tributaries, many ancient dwellings, for there is scarcely a single canyon leading into these red cliffs in which evidences of for- mer human habitations are not found in the form of ruins. There is little doubt that these unfrequented canyons have many and extensive cliff houses, the existence of which has thus far escaped the explorer. The sandstone of which they are composed is much eroded into caves with overhanging roofs, forming admirable sites for cliff houses as dis- tinguished from cavate dwellings like those we have described. They are the only described ruins of a type hitherto thought to be unrepre- sented in the valley of the Verde. 1 In our excursion into the Red-rock country we were obliged to make our own wagon road, as no vehicle had ever penetrated the rugged canyons visited by us. It was necessary to carry our drinking water with us from Oak Creek, which fact impeded our progress and limited the time available in our reconuoissance. There was, however, in the pool near the ruins of Honanki enough water for our horses, and at the time we were there a limited amount of grass for fodder was found. I was told that later in the season both forage and water are abundant, so that these prime necessities being met, there is no reason why suc- cessful archeological investigations may not be successfully conducted in this part of the Verde region. The limited population of this portion of the country rendered it di£ ficult to get laborers at the time I made my reconnoissance, so that it would be advisable for one who expects to excavate the ruins in this region to take with him workmen from . the settled portions of the valley. 1 The cliff houses of Bloody Basin I have not examined, but I suspect they are of the same type as the so-called Montezuma Castle, or Casa Montezuma, on the right bank of Beaver creek. The latter is referred to the cliff-house class, but it differs considerably from the ruins of the Red-rocks, on account of the character of the cavern in which it is built (see figure 246) . 550 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.anh.17 Ruins near Schtjrmann's Ranch The valley of Oak creek, near Court-house butte, especially in the vicinity of Schiirmann's ranch, is dotted with fortifications, mounds indicative of ruins, and like evidences of aboriginal occupancy. There is undoubted proof that the former occupants of this plain constructed elaborate irrigating ditches, and that the waters of Oak creek were diverted from the stream and conducted over the adjoining valleys. There are several fortified hills in this locality. One of the best of these defensive works crowned a symmetrical mountain near Schiir- mann's house. The top of this mesa is practically inaccessible from any but the southern side, and was found to have a flat surface covered with scattered cacti and scrub cedar, among which were walls of houses nowhere rising more than two feet. The summit is perhaps 200 feet above the valley, and the ground plan of the former habitations extends over an area 100 feet in length, practically occupying the whole of the summit. Although fragments of pottery are scarce, and other evidences of long habitation difficult to find, the house walls give every evidence of being extremely ancient, and most of the rooms are filled with red soil out of which grow trees of considerable age. Descending from this ruin-capped mesa, 1 noticed on the first ter- race the remains of a roundhouse, or lookout, in the middle of which a cedar tree had taken root and was growing vigorously. Although the walls of this structure do not rise above the level of the ground, there is no doubt that they are the remains of either a lookout or circular tower formerly situated at this point. Many similar ruins are found throughout this vicinity, yet but little more is known of them than that they antedate the advent of white men. The majority of them were defensive works, built by the house dwellers, and their frequency would indicate either considerable popu- lation or long occupancy. Although many of those on the hilltops differ somewhat from the habitations in the valleys, I think there is little doubt that both were built by the same people. 1 There are like- wise many caves in this region, which seem to have been camping places, for their walls are covered with soot and their floors strewn with charred mescal, evidences, probably, of Apache occupancy. This whole section of country was a stronghold of this ferocious tribe within the last few decades, which may account for the modern appearance of many of the evidences of aboriginal habitation. There are some good pictographs on the foundation rocks of that great pinnacle of red rock, called the Court-house, not far from Schiir- mann's ranch. 2 Some of these are Apache productions, and the neigh- 1 Fortified hilltops occur in many places in Arizona and are likewise found in the Mexican states of Sonoraand Chihuahua, where they are known as trincheras. They are regarded as places of refuge of former inhabitants of the country, contemporaneous with anoient pueblos and cliff houses. ! ThiB pinnacle is visible for miles, aud is one of many prominences in the surrounding country. Unfortunately this region is so imperfectly surveyed that only approximations of distances are possi- ble in this account, and the maps known to me are too meager in detail to fairly illustrate the distri- bution of these buttes. |li;3;:f^ tjfAx tM^M *% ■■■' z DC CD UJ I H Z O 3 en fewkes] HONANKI AND PALATKI 551 boring oaves evidently formed shelters for these nomads, as ash pits and half-burnt logs would seem to show. This whole land was a strong- hold of the Apaclie up to a recent date, and from it they were dis- lodged, many of the Indians being killed or removed by authority of the Government. Prom the geological character of the Red-rocks I was led to suspect that cavate dwellings were not to be expected. The stone is hard and not readily excavated by the rude implements with which the aborigines of the region were supplied. But the remarkable erosion shown in this rock elsewhere had formed many deep caverns or caves, with overreach- ing roofs, very favorable for the sites of cliff houses. My hurried exam- ination confirmed my surmises, for we here found dwellings of this kind, so similar to the type best illustrated in Mancos canyon of southern Colorado. There were several smoke blackened caves without walls of masonry, but with floors strewn with charred wood, showing Apache occupancy, No cavate dwellings were found in the section of the Red- rocks visited by our party. The two largest of the Red-rock cliff houses to which I shall refer were named Honanki or Bear house and Palatki or Red-house. The former of these, as" I learned from the names scribbled on its walls, had previously been visited by white men, but so far as I know it has never been mentioned in arch eological literature. .My attention was called to it by Mr Schiirmann, at whose hospitable ranch I outfitted for my reconnoissance into the Red-rock country. The smaller ruin, Palatki, we discovered by chance during our visit, and while it i-s possi- ble that some vaquero in search of a wild steer may have visited the neighborhood before us, there is every reason to believe that the ruin had escaped even the notice of these persons, and, like Honanki, was unknown to the archeologist. The two ruins, Honanki and Palatki, are not the only ones in the lone canyon where we encamped. Following the canyon a short dis tance from its entrance, there was found to open into it from the left a tributary, or so-called box canyon, the walls of which are very precipitous. Perched on ledges of the cliffs there are several rows of fortifications or walls of maso.iry extending for many yards. It was impossible for us to enter these works, even after we had clambered up the side of the precipice to their level, so inaccessible were they to our approach. These " forts " were probably for refuge, but they are ill adapted as points of observation on account of the configuration of the canyon. Their masonry, as examined at a distance with a field glass, resembles that of Palatki and Honanki. I was impressed by the close resemblance between the large cliff houses of the Red -rocks, with their overhanging roof of rock, and those of the San Juan and its tributaries in northern New Mexico. While it is recognized that cliff houses have been reported from Verde valley, I find them nowhere described, and our lack of information about them, 552 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [ETH. ANN. 17 so far as they are concerned, may have justified Nordenskiold's belief that "the basin of the Colorado actually contains almost all the cliff dwellings of the United States." As the Gila flows into the Colorado near its mouth, the Eed-rock ruins may in a sense be included in the Colorado basin, but there are many and beautiful cliff houses higher up near the sources of the Gila and its tributary, the Salt. In calling attention to the characteristic cliff dwellings of the Eed-rocks I am making known a new region of ruins closely related to those of Canyon de Tsegi, or Chelly, the San Juan and its tributaries. Although the cliff houses of Yerde valley had been known for many years, and the ruins here described are of the same general character, anyone who examines Casa Montezuma, on Beaver creek, and com- pares it with Honauki, will note differences of an adaptive nature. Fig. 246 — Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek The one feature common to Honanki and the "Cliff Palace" of Mancos canyon is the great overhanging roof of the cavern, which, in that form, we miss in Casa Montezuma (figure 246). 1 We made two camps in the Red-rock country, one at the mouth of a wild canyon near an older camp where a well had been dug and the cellar of an American house was-visible. This camp was fully six miles from Schiirmaun's ranch and was surrounded by some of the wildest scenery that I had ever witnessed. The accompanying view (plate xcvin) was taken from a small elevation near by, and gives a faint idea of the magnificent mountains by which we were surrounded. The colors of the rocks are variegated, so that the gorgeous cliffs appear to 1 In certain cavate houses on Oak creek we find these caverns in two tiers, ono above the other, and the hill above is capped by a well-preserved building. In one of these we find the entrance to the cavern walled in, with the exception of a T-shape doorway and a small window. This chamber shows a connecting link between the type of true oavate dwellings and that of cliff-bouses. \ L_ > < > UJ Q CC Ul > I O z < -I o IT < I Q. < CC C5 O 1- o fewkes] SCENERY OF THE RED-ROCKS 553 be banded, rising from 800 to 1,000 feet sheer on all sides. These rocks had weathered into fantastic shapes suggestive of cathedrals, Greek temples, and sharp steeples of churches extending like giant needles into the sky. The scenery compares very favorably with that of the Garden of the Gods, and is much more extended. This place, I have no doubt, will sooner or later become popular with the sightseer, and I regard the discovery of these cliffs one of the most interesting of my summer's field work. On the sides of these inaccessible cliffs we noticed several cliff houses, but so high were they perched above us that they were almost invisible. To reach them at their dizzy altitude was impossible, but we were able to enter some caves a few hundred feet above our camp, finding in them nothing but charred mescal and other evidences of Apache camps. Their walls and entrances are blackened with smoke, but no sign of masonry was detected. We moved our camp westward from this canyon (which, from a great cliff resembling the Parthenon, I called Temple canyon), following the base of the precipitous mountains to a second canyon, equally beautiful but not so grand, and built our fire in a small grove of scrub oak and cottonwood. In this lonely place Lloyd had lived over a winter, watch- ing his stock, and had dug a well and erected a corral. We adopted his name for this camp and called it Lloyd canyon. There was no water in the well, but a few rods beyond it there was a pool, from which we watered our horses. On the first evening at this camp we sighted a bear, which gave the name Honanki, "Bear-house," to the adjacent ruined dwellings. The enormous precipice of red rock west of our camp at Lloyd's cor- ral hid Honanki from view at first, but we soon found a trail leading directly to it, and during our short stay in this neighborhood we remained camped near the cottonwoods at the entrance to the canyon, not far from the abandoned corral. Our studies of Honanki led to the discovery of Palatki (figure 247), which we investigated on our return to Temple canyon. 1 will, therefore, begin my description of the Bed-rock cliff houses with those last discovered, which, up to the visit which I made, had never been studied by archeologists. Palatki There are two neighboring ruins which I shall include in my consid- eration of Palatki, and these for convenience may be known as Euin I and Euin ii, the former situated a little eastward from the latter. They are but a short distance apart, and are in the same box canyon. Euin i (plate xcix) is the better preserved, and is a fine type of the compact form of cliff dwellings in the Eed-rock country. This ruin is perched on the top of a talus which has fallen from the cliff above, and is visible for some distance above the trees, as one penetrates the canyon. Jt is built to the side of a perpendicular wall 554 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [ETH. ANN. 17 of rock which, high above its tallest walls, arches over it, sheltering the walls from rain or eroding influences. From the dry character of the earth on the floors I suspect that for years not a drop of water has penetrated the inclosures, although they are now roofless. A highly characteristic feature of Euin i is the repetition of rounded or bow-shape front walls, occurring several times in their length, and arranged in such a way as to correspond roughly to the inclosures behind them. By this arrangement the size of the rooms was increased and possibly additional solidity given to the wall itself. This depar- ro HON***"}.-'-" Eig. 247— Ground plan of Palatki -(Ruins I and n) ture from a straight wall implies a degree of architectural skill, which, while not peculiar to the cliff dwellings of the Bed-rocks, is rarely found in southern cliff houses. The total length of the front wall of the ruin, including the part which has fallen, is approximately 120 feet, and the altitude of the highest wall is not far from 30 fe t. From the arrangement of openings in the front wall at the highest part there is good evidence of the former existence of two stories. At several points the foundation of the wall is laid on massive bowlders which contribute to the height of the wall itself. The masonry is made z o > z < o UJ _l Q- s ul 1- o o en a UJ cc u i I- fewkes] MASONRY OP PALATKI 555 up of irregular or roughly squared blocks of red stone laid in red clay, both evidently gathered in the immediate neighborhood of the ruin. The building stones vary in size, but are as a rule flat, and show well directed fractures as if dressed by hammering. In several places there still remains a superficial plastering, which almost conceals the masonry. The blocks of stone in the lower courses are generally more massive than those higher up; this feature, however, whether Consid- ered as occurring here or in the cliff houses of Mesa Verde, as pointed out by Nordenskiold, seems to me not to indicate different builders, but is due simply to convenience. There appears to be no regularity in the courses of component blocks of stone, and when necessity com- pelled, as in the courses laid on bowlders, which serve as a foundation, thin wedges of stone, or spalls, were inserted in the crevices. The walls are vertical, but the corners are sometimes far from perpendicular. The interior of the ruin is divided into a number of inclosures by partitions at right angles to the front wall, fastening it to the face of the cliff. This I have lettered, beginning at the extreme right in closure with A. The inclosure has bounding walls, built on a bowlder some- what more than six feet high. It has no external passageway, and prob- ably the entrance was from the roof. This inclosure communicates by a doorway directly with the adjoining chamber, B. The corner of this room, or the angle made by the lateral with the front walls, is rounded, a constant feature in well-built cliff houses. No windows exist, and the upper edge of both front and lateral walls is but slightly broken. The front wall of inclosure B bulges into bow-shape form, and was evidently at least two stories high. This wall is a finely laid section of masonry, composed of large^ rough stones in the lower courses, upon which smaller, roughly hewn stones are built. It is probable, from the large amount of debris in the neighborhood, that formerly there were rows of single-story rooms in front of what are now the standing walls, but the character of their architecture is difficult to determine with cer- tainty. Their foundations, although partially covered, are not wholly concealed. The front wall of inclosure B is pierced by three openings, the largest of which is a square passageway into the adjoining room, and is situ- ated in the middle of the curved wall. A wooden lintel, which had been well hewn with stone implements, still remains in place above this passageway, and under it the visitor passes through a low opening which has the appearance of having been once a doorway. Above this entrance, on each side, in the wall, is a square hole, which originally may have been the points of support of floor beams. Formerly, like- wise, there was a large square opening abpve the middle passageway, but this has been closed with masonry, leaving in place the wooden beam which once supported the wall above. The upper edge of the front wall of inclosure B is level, and is but little broken except in two places, where there are notches, one above each of the square holes 556 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [bth.ann.17 already mentioned. It is probable that these depressions were intended for the ends of the beams which once supported a combined roof and floor. On the perpendicular wall which forms the rear of inclosure B, many feet above the top of the standing front walls, there are several picto- graphs of Apache origin. The height of these above the level of the former roof would appear to indicate the existence of a third story, for the hands which drew them must have been at least 15 feet above the present top of the standing wall. The front of G is curved like that of inclosure B, and is much broken near the foundations, where there is a passageway. There is a small hole on each side of a middle line, as in B, situated at about the same level as the floor, indicating the former position of a beam. Within the ruin there is a well-made partition separating inclosures B and G. The size of room D is much less than that of B or G, but, with the exception of a section at the left, the front wall has fallen. The part which remains upright, however, stands like a pinnacle, unconnected with the face of the cliff or with the second-story wall of inclosure G. It is about 20 feet in height, and possibly its altitude appears greater than it really is from the fact that its foundations rest upon a bowlder nearly six feet high (plate ex). The foundations of rooms E and F (plate c) are built on a lower level than those of B and G or D, and their front walls, which are really low, are helped out by similar bowlders, which serve as foundations. The indications are that both these inclosures were originally one story in height, forming a wing to the central section of the ruin, which had an additional tier of rooms. There is an entrance to F at the ex- treme left, and the whole room was lower than the floor of the lower stories of B, G, and D. The most conspicuous pictograph on the cliff above Ruin I of Palatki, is a circular white figure, seen in the accompanying illustration. This pictograph is situated directly above the first room on the right, A, and was apparently made with chalk, so elevated that at present it is far above the reach of a person standing on any of the walls. From its general character I am led to believe that it was made by the Apache and not by the builders of the pueblo. Tbere were no names of white visitors anywhere on the walls of Palatki, which, so far as it goes, affords substantial support of my belief that we were the first white men to visit this ruin. While it can not be positively asserted that we were the original discoverers of this interesting building, there is no doubt that I was the first to describe it and to call attention to its highly characteristic architectural plan. The walls of Palatki are not so massive as those of the neighboring Honanki, and the number of rooms in both ruins which form Palatki is much smaller. Bach of these components probably housed not more than a few families, while several phi-atries could readily be accommo- dated in Honanki. fewkes] FEATURES OP PALATKI EUIN II 557 The second Palatki ruin is well preserved, and as a rule the rooms, especially those in front, have suffered more from vandalism and from the elements than have those of Euin i. The arrangement of the rooms is somewhat different from that of the more exposed eastern ruin, to which it undoubtedly formerly belonged. Ruin ii lies in a deep recess or cave, the roof of which forms a per- fect arch above the walls. It is situated a few hundred feet to the west, and is easily approached by following the fallen debris at the foot of a perpendicular cliff. The front walls have all fallen, exposing the rear wall of what was formerly a row of rooms, as shown in the accom- panying illustration (plate ci). There are evidences that this row of rooms was but a single story in height, while those behind it have indi- cations of three stories. Euin n is more hidden by the trees and by its obscure position in a cavern than the former, but the masonry in both is of the same general character. On approaching Euin n from Euin i there is first observed a well- made though rough wall, as a rule intact, along which the line of roof and flooring can readily be traced (plate pi). In front of this upright wall are fragments of other walls, some standing in unconnected sections, others fallen, their fragments extending down the sides of the talus among the bushes. It was observed that this wall is broken by an entrance which passes into a chamber, which may be called A, and two square holes are visible, one on each side, above it. These holes were formerly filled by two logs, which once supported the floor of a second chamber, the line of which still remains on the upright wall. The small square orifice directly above the entrance is a peephole. In examining the character of the wall it will be noticed that its masonry is in places rough cast, and that there was little attempt at regularity in the courses of the component stones, which are neither dressed nor aligned, although the wall is practically vertical. At one point, iu full view of the observer, a log is apparently inserted in the wall, and if the surrounding masonry be examined it will be found that an opening below it had been filled in after the wall was erected. It is evident, from its position relatively to the line indicating the roof, that this opening was originally a passageway from one room to another. Passing back of the standing wall an inclosure (room A) is entered, one side of which is the rock of the cliff, while the other three bounding walls are built of masonry, 20 feet high. This inclosure was formerly divided into an upper and a lower room by a partition, which served as the roof of the lower and the floor of the upper cham- bers. Two beams stretched across this inclosure about six feet above the debris of the present floor, and the openings in the walls, where these beams formerly rested, are readily observed. In the same way the beam-holes of the upper story may also be easily seen on the top of the wall. Between the rear wall of this inclosure and the perpendicular cliff there was a recess which appears to have been a dark chamber, 55H EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.a»n.17 probably designed for use as a storage room or granary. The con- figuration of the cliff, which forms the major part; of the inclosing wall of this chamber, imparts tc it an irregular or roughly triangular form. The entire central portion of the ruin is very much broken down, and the floor is strewn to a considerable depth with the debris of fallen walls. On both sides there are nicely aligned, smoothly finished walls, with traces of beams on the level of former floors. Some of these bounding walls are curved ; others are straight, and in places they rise 20 feet. Marks of fire are visible everywhere ; most of the beams have been wrenched from their places, as a result of which the walls have beeu much mutilated, badly cracked, or thrown down. There are no pictographs near this ruin, and no signs of former visits by white men. Midway between Honanki and the second Palatki ruin a small ancient house of the same character as the latter was discovered. This ruin is very much exposed, and therefore the walls are considerably worn, but six well-marked inclosures, indicative of former rooms, were readily made out. No overarching rock shielded this ruin from the elements, and rubble from fallen walls covers the talus upon which it stands. The adobe mortar between the stones is much worn, and no fragment of plastering is traceable within or without. This evidence of the great weathering of the walls of the ruin is not considered indicative of greater age than the better preserved ruins in the neighborhood, but rather of exposure to the action of the elements. Not only are the walls in a very poor condition, but also the floors show, from the absence of dry soil upon them, that the whole ruin has suffered greatly from the same denudation. There are no fragments of pottery about it, and small objects indicating former habitation are also wanting. A cedar had taken root where the floor once was, and its present great size shows considerable age. If any pictographs formerly existed in the adjacent cliff they have disappeared. There is likewise no evi- dence that the Apache had ever sought it for shelter, or if they had, their occupancy occurred so long ago that time has effaced all evidence of their presence. Honanki The largest ruin visited in the Eed-roek country was called, follow- ing Hopi etymology, Honanki; but the nomenclature was adopted not because it was so called by the Hopi, but following the rule elsewhere suggested. This ruin lies under a lofty buttress of rock westward from Lloyd's canyon, which presented the only available camping place in its neigh- borhood. At the time of my visit there was but scanty water in the canyon and that not potable except for stock. We carried with us all the water we used, and when this was exhausted were obliged to retrace our steps to Oak creek. There are groves of trees in the canyon FBWKBS] FEATURES OF HONANKI EUIN 559 «PS 1^ and evidences that at some seasons there is an abundant water supply. A corral had been made and a well dug near its mouth, but with these exceptions there were no evidences of pre- vious occupancy by white men. We had hardly pitched our camp before tracks of large game were noticed, and before we left we sighted a bear whicb had come down to the water to drink, but which beat a hasty retreat at our iipproach. As previously stated, the knowledge of this ruin was com- municated to me by Mr Schiirmann. The Honanki ruin (figure 248) extends along the base of the cliff for a consider- able distance, and may for convenience of description be divided into two sections, which, although generally similar, differ somewhat in structural features. The for- mer is lineal in its arrangement, and con- sists of a fringe of houses extending along the base of the cliff at a somewhat lower level than the other. The walls of this sec- tion were for the greater part broken, and at no place could anything more than the foundation of the front wall be detected, although fragments of masonry strewed the sides of the declivity near its base. The house walls which remain are well-built par- allel spurs constructed at right angles to I *&w&$ ■■?.' the cliff, which served as the rear of all the it®*?'' ■<■-:. chambers. At the extreme right end of this row of rooms, situated deep in a large cav- ern with overhanging roof, portions of a rear wall of masonry are well preserved, and the lateral walls of .one or two cham- bers in this portion of the ruin are still in- tact. Straggling along from that point, fol- lowing the contour of the base of the cliff under which it lies, there extends a long row of rooms, all destitute of a front wall. The first division (plate on), beginning ^jj with the most easterly of the series, is quite hidden at one end in a deep cavern. At this point the builders, in order to obtain a good rear wall to their rooms, constructed a line of masonry parallel with the face of the cliff. At right angles to this construction, at the eastern extremity, there are remnants of a 560 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ank.17 lateral wall, but the remainder had tumbled to the ground. The stand- ing wall of z is not continuous with that of the next room, y, and apparently was simply the rear of a large room with the remains of a lateral wall at right angles to it. The other walls of this chamber had tumbled into a deep gorge, overgrown with bushes which conceal the fragments. This building is set back deeply in the cave, and is isolated from the remaining parts of the ruin, although at the level which may have been its roof there runs a kind of gallery formed by a ledge of rock, plastered with adobe, which formerly connected the roof with the rest of the pueblo. This ledge was a means of intercommuni- cation, and a continuation of the same ledge, in rooms s, t, and u, supported the rafters of these chambers. At u there are evidences of two stories or two tiers of rooms, but those in front have fallen to the ground. The standing wall at u is about five feet high, connected with the face of the cliff by masonry. The space between it and the cliff was not large enough for a habitable chamber, and was used probably as a storage place. In front of the standing wall of room u there was another chamber, the walls of which now strew the talus of the cliff. The highest aud best preserved room of the second series of cham- bers at Honanki is that designated p, at a point where the ruin reached an elevation of 20 feet. Here we have good evidence of rooms of two stories, as indicated by the points of insertion of the beams of a floor, at the usual levels above the ground. In fact, it is probable that the whole section of the ruin was two stories high throughout, the front walls having fallen along the entire length. From the last room on the left to the eastern extremity of the line of houses which leads to the main ruin of Honanki, no ground plans were detected at the base of the cliffs, but fallen rocks and scattered debris are strewn over the whole interval. The eastern part of the main ruin of Honanki, however, lies but a short distance west of that described, and consists of many similar chambers, arranged side by side. These are lettered in the diagram h to u, beginning with h, which is irregularly circular in form, and ends with a high wall, the first to be seen as one approaches the ruin from Lloyd canyon. This range of houses is situated on a lower foundation and at a lower level than that of the main quarter of Honanki, and a trail runs along so close to the rooms that the whole series is easily visited without much climbing. No woodwork remains in any of these rooms, and the masonry is badly broken in places either by natural agencies or through vandalism. Beginning with h, the round room, which adjoins the main quarter of Honanki, we find much in its shape to remind us of a kiva. The walls are in part built on foundations of large bowlders, one of which formed the greater part of the front wall. This circular room was found to be full of fallen debris, and could not be examined without fbwkes] ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF HONANKI 561 considerable excavation. If it were a kiva, which I very much doubt, it is an exception among the Verde valley ruins, where no true kiva has yet been detected. 1 Following h there is an inclosure which originally may have been a habitable room, as indicated by the well-constructed front wall, but it is so filled with large stones that it is difficult to examine its interior. On one side the wall, which is at right angles to the face of the cliff', is 10 feet high, and the front wall follows the surface of a huge bowlder which serves as its foundation. Eoom i is clearly defined, and is in part inclosed by a large rock, on top of which there still remains a fragment of a portion of the front wall. A spur of masonry connects this bowlder with the face of the cliff, indicating all that remains of the former division between rooms i and /. An offshoot from this bowlder, in the form of a wall 10 feet high, for- merly inclosed one side of a room. In the rear of chamber j there are found two receptacles or spaces left between the rear wall and the face of the cliff, while the remaining wall, which is 10 feet high, is a good specimen of pueblo masonry. The two side walls of room fc are well preserved, but the chamber resembles the others of the series in the absence of a front wall. In this room, however, there remains what may have been the fragment of a rear wall parallel with the face of the cliff. This room has also a small cist of masonry in oue corner, which calls to mind certain sealed cavities in the cavate dwellings. The two side walls of m and n are respectively eight and ten feet high. There is nothing exceptional in the standing walls of room o, one of which, five feet in altitude, still remains erect. Eoom p has a remnant of a rear wall plastered to the face of the cliff. Eoom r (plate cm) is a finely preserved chamber, with lateral walls 20 feet high, of well-constructed masonry, that in the rear, through which there is an opening leading into a dark chamber, occupying the space between it and the cliff. It is braced by connecting walls at right angles to the face of the solid rock. At s, the face of the cliff forms a rear wall of the room, and one of the side walls is fully 20 feet high. The points of insertion of the flooring are well shown, about 10 feet from the ground, proving that the ruin at this point was at least two stories high. Two walled inclosures, one within the other, characterize room u. On the cliff above it there is a series of simple pictographs, consisting of short parallel lines pecked into the rock, and are probably of Apache origin. This room closes the second series, along the whole length of which, in front of the lateral walls which mark different chambers, there are, at intervals, piles of debris, which enabled an approximate 1 The absence of kivas in the rains of the Verde has been commented on by Mindeleff, and baa likewise been found to be characteristic of the cliff bouses on the upper courses of the other tribu- taries of Gila and Salado rivers. The round kiva appears to be confined to the middle and eastern ruins of the pueblo area, and are very numerous in the ruins of San Juan valley. 17 ETH, PT 2 7 562 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [ETH. ANN. 17 determination of the situation of the former front wall, fragments of the foundations of which are traceable in situ in several places. The hand of man and the erosion of the elements have dealt harshly with this portion of Honanki, for not a fragment of timber now remains in its walls. This destruction, so far as human agency is concerned, could not have been due to white men, but probably to the Apache, or possibly to the cliff villagers themselves at the time of or shortly after the abandonment of the settlement. From the second section of Honanki we pass to the third and best- preserved portion of the ruins (figure 249), indicated in the diagram from a to g. To this section I have referred as the " main ruin," for it Fig. 249— The main ruin of Honanki was evidently the most populous quarter of the ancient cliff dwelling. It is better preserved than the remainder of Honanki, and is the only part in which all four walls of the chambers still remain erect. Built at a higher level than the series of rooms already considered, it must have towered above them, and possibly served as a place of retreat when danger beset the more exposed quarters of the village. Approaching the main ruin of Honanki (plate civ) from the east, or the parts already described, one passes between the buttress on which the front wall of the rounded room A is built and a fragment of masonry on the left, by a natural gateway through which the trail is very steep. On the right there towers above the visitor a well-preserved wall of fbwibs] ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF HONANKI 563 masonry, the front of room «, and he soon passes abreast of the main portion of the ruin of Honanki. This section is built in a huge cavern, the overhanging roof of which is formed by natural rock, arching far above the tops of the highest walls of the pueblo and suggesting the surroundings of the u Cliff Palace" of Mesa Verde, so well described by the late Baron G. Nordenskiold in his valuable monograph on the ruins of that section of southern Colorado. The main ruin of Honanki is one of the largest and best preserved architectural monuments of the former people of Verde valley that has yet been described. Although somewhat resembling its rival, the well-known "Casa Montezuma" of Beaver creek, its architecture is dissimilar on account of the difference in the form of the cavern in which it is built and the geological charac- ter of the surrounding cliffs. Other Verde ruins may have accom- modated more people, when inhabited, but none of its type south of Canyon de Chelly have yet been described which excel it in size and condition of preservation. I soon found that our party were not the first whites who had seen this lonely village, as the names scribbled on its walls attested; but so far as I know it had not previously been visited by archeologists. In the main portion of Honanki we found that the two ends of the crescentic row of united rooms which compose it are built on rocky ele- vations, with foundations considerably higher than those of the rooms in the middle portion of the ruins. The line of the front wall is, there- fore, not exactly crescentic, but irregularly curved (figure 249), conform- ing to the rear of the cavern in which the houses are situated. About midway in the curve of the front walls two walls, indicative of former rooms extend at an angle of about 25° to the main front wall. All the component rooms of the main part of Honanki can be entered, some by external passageways, others by doorways communicating with adjacent chambers. jSTone of the inclosures have roofs or upper floors, although indications of the former existence of both these structural features may readily be seen in several places. Although wooden beams are invariably wanting, fragments of these still project from the walls, almost always showing on their free ends, inside the rooms, the effect of fire. I succeeded in adding to the collection a portion of one of these beams, the extremity of which had been battered off, evidently with a stone implement. In the alkaline dust which covered the floor several similar specimens were seen. The stones which form the masonry of the wall (figure 250) were not, as a rule, dressed or squared before they were laid with adobe mortar, but were generally set in place in the rough condition in which they may still be obtained anywhere under the cliff. All the mortar used was of adobe or the tenacious clay which serves so many purposes among the Pueblos. The walls of the rooms were plastered with a thick layer of the same material. The rear wall of each room is the natural rock of the cliff, which rises vertically and 564 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [ETH. ANN. 17 has a very smooth surface. The great natural arch way which covers the whole pueblo protects it from wind and rain, and as a consequence, save on the front face, there are few signs of natural erosion. The hand of man, however, has dealt rudely with this venerable building, and many of the walls, especially of rooms which formerly stood before the central portion, lie prone upon the earth; but so securely were the component stones held together by the adobe that even after their fall sections of masonry still remain intact. There are seven walled inclosures in the main part of Honanki, and as each of these was formerly at least two stories high there is sub- Fig. 250— Structure of wall of Honanki stantial evidence of the former existence of fourteen rooms in this part of the ruin. There can be little doubt that there were other rooms along the front of the central portion, and the fallen walls show them to have been of large size. It would likewise appear that the middle part was higher than the two wings, which would increase the number of chambers, so that with these additions it may safely be said that this part of Honanki alone contained not far from twenty rooms. z < z o i u. O co _i _i < 5 < g — ^ II o -> < 111 rr D m pewkes] ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF HONANKI 565 The recess in the cliff in which the ruin is situated is lower in the middle than at either side, where there are projecting ledges of rock which were utilized by the builders in the construction of the founda- tions, the line of the front wall following, the inequalities of the ground. It thus results that rooms g, a, b, and a part of c, rise from a founda- tion about breast high, or a little higher than the base of rooms d, e, and/. The front wall of a has for its foundation a spur or ledge of rock, which is continued under b and a part of c. The corner or angle of this wall, facing the round chamber, is curved in the form of a tower, a considerable section of its masonry being intact. Near the founda- tion and following the inequalities of the rock surface the beginning of a wall at right angles to the face of the ruin at this point is seen. A small embrasure, high above the base of the front wall, on the side by which one approaches the ruin from the east, and two smaller open- ings on the same level, looking out over the valley, suggest a floor and lookouts. The large square orifice in the middle of the face of the wall has a wooden lintel, still in place; the opening is large enough for use as a door or passageway. The upper edge of the front wall is somewhat irregular, but a notch in it above the square opening is conspicuous. The rear wall of room a was the face of the cliff, formed of solid rock without masonry and very much blackened by smoke from former fires. As, however, there is evidence that since its destruction or abandonment by its builders this ruin has been occupied as a camping place by the Apache, it is doubtful to which race we should ascribe this discoloration of the walls by soot. On the ground floor there is a passageway into chamber b, which is considerably enlarged, although the position of the lintel is clearly indicated by notches in the wall. The beam which was formed there had been torn from its place and undoubtedly long ago used for fire- wood by nomadic visitors. The open passageway, measured externally, is about 15 feet above the foundation of the wall, through which it is broken, and about 8 feet below the upper edge of the wall. Eoom b is an irregular, square chamber, two stories high, communi- cating with a and c by passages which are enlarged by breakage in the walls. A small hole in the front wall, about 6 feet from the floor, opens externally to the air. The walls are, in general, about 2 feet thick, and are composed of flat red stones laid in clay of the same color. The cliff forms the rear wall of the chamber. The clay at certain places in the walls, especially near the insertions of the beams and about the window openings, appears to have been mixed with a black pitch, which serves to harden the mixture. Eoom o is the first of a series of chambers, with external passage- ways, but its walls are very much broken down, and the openings thereby enlarged. The front wall is almost straight and in one place 566 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann.17 stands 30 feet, the maximum height of the standing wall of the ruins. In one corner a considerable quantity of ashes and many evidences of fire, some of which may be ascribed to Apache occupants, was detected. A wooden beam, marking the line of the floor of a second story, was seen projecting from the front wall, and there are other evidences of a floor at this level. Large beams apparently extended from the front wall to the rear of the chamber, where they rested on a ledge in the cliff, and over these smaller sticks were laid side by side and at right angles to the beams. These in turn supported either flat stones or a layer of mud or clay. The method of construction of one of these ioofs is typical of a Tusayan kiva, where ancient architectural forms are adhered to and best preserved. The entrance to room d is very much enlarged by the disintegration of the wall, and apparently there was at this point a difference in level of the front wall, for there is evidence of rooms in advance of those connected with the chambers described, as shown by a line of masonry, still standing, parallel to the front face of inclosures c and d. Room e communicates by a doorway with the chamber marked /, and there is a small window in the same partition. This room had a raised banquette on the side toward the cliff, recalling an arrangement of the floor similar to that in the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw moun- tain which I have described. This platform is raised about three feet above the remainder of the floor of/, and, like it, is strewn with large slabs of stone, which have fallen from the overhanging roof. In the main floor, at one corner, near the platform, there is a rectangular box-like structure made of thin slabs of stone set on edge, suggesting the grinding bins of the Pueblos. Eoom / communicates with g by. a passageway which has a stone lintel. The holes in the walls, in which beams were once inserted, are seen in several places at different levels above the floor. The euds of several beams, one extremity of which is invariably charred, were found set in the masonry, and others were dug from the debris in the floor. As a result of the curve in the front wall of the ruin at that point, the shape of room / is roughly quadrate, with banquettes on two sides. There are six large beam holes in the walls, and the position of the first floor is well' shown on the face of the partition, separating / from g. The passageway from one of these rooms to the other is slightly arched. Room g is elongated, without an external entrance, and communi- cates with / by a small opening, through which it is very dirflcult to crawl. Its longest dimension is almost at right angles to the front face of the remaining rooms, and it is raised above them by its founda- tion on an elevated rock like that of a, b, and c. There is a small, square, external opening which may have served as the position of a former beam or log. The upper level of the front wall is more or less broken down in places, and formerly may have been much higher. Beyond g a spur of masonry is built at right angles to the cliff, inclos- z < z o i < 0- I o < o DC a. < fbwkes] POPULATION OF HONANKI AND PALATKI 567 ing a rectangular chamber at the end of the ruin which could not be entered. Possibly in former times it was accessible by means of a ladder from the roof, whence communication with other portions of the structure was also had. A short distance beyond the westernmost rooms of Houanki, almost covered with bushes and adjoining the base of the cliff, there is a large ash heap in which are many fragments of pottery and the bones of various animals. It is probable that excavation in this quarter would reveal many interesting objects. In the cliffs above this ash heap, far beyond reach, there is a walled niche which has never been disturbed. This structure is similar to those near the cavate dwellings, and when opened will probably be found to contain buried mortuary objects of interesting character. I did not disturb this inclosure, inasmuch as I had no ladders or ropes with which to approach it. It is very difficult to properly estimate, from the number of rooms in a cliff house, the former population, and as a general thing the ten- dency is rather to overstate than to fall short of the true total. In a pueblo like Hano, on the first or east mesa of Tusayan, for instance, there are many uninhabited rooms, and others serve as storage cham- bers, while in places the pueblo has so far fallen into ruinas to be unin- habitable. If a pueblo is very much concentrated the population varies at different seasons of the year. In summer it is sparsely inhabited; in winter it is rather densely populated. While Palatki and Honanki together had rooms sufficient to house 500 people, I doubt whether their aggregate population ever exceeded 200. This estimate, of course, is based on the supposition that these villages were contemporaneously inhabited. The evidences all point to a belief, however, that they were both per- manent dwelling places and not temporary resorts at certain seasons of the year. ' The pictographs on the face of the cliff above Honanki are for the greater part due to the former Apache occupants of the rooms, and are situated high above the tops of the walls of the ruin. They are, as a rule, drawn with white chalk, which shows very clearly on the red rock, and are particularly numerous above room g. The figure of a circle, with lines crossing one another diametrically and continued as rays beyond the periphery, possibly represent the sun. Many spiral figures, almost constant pictographs in cliff ruins, are found in several places. Another strange design, resembling some kind of insect, is very con- spicuous. A circle painted green and inclosed in a border of yellow is undoubt- edly of Apache origin. There is at one point a row of small pits, arranged in line, suggesting a score or enumeration of some kind, and a series of short parallel lines of similar import was found not far away. This latter method of recording accounts is commonly used at the pres- ent time in Tusayan, both in houses and on cliffs; and one of the best 568 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann.17 of these, said to enumerate the number of Apache killed by the Hopi in a raid many years ago, may be seen above the trail by which the visitor enters the pueblo of Hano on the East Mesa. The names of sev- eral persons scratched on the face of the cliff indicate that Americans had visited Honanki before me. The majority of the paleoglyphs at both Palatki and Honanki are of Apache origin, and are of comparatively modern date, as would natur- ally be expected. In some instances their colors are as fresh as if made a few years ago, and there is no doubt that they were drawn after the building was deserted by its original occupants. The positions of the pictographs on the cliffs imply that they were drawn before the roofs and flooring had been destroyed, thus showing how lately the ruin preserved its ancient form. In their sheltered position there seems to be no reason why the ancient pictographs should not have been preserved, and the fact that so few of the figures pecked in the cliff now remain is therefore instructive. One of the first tendencies of man in visiting a ruin is to inscribe his name on its walls or on neighboring cliffs. This is shared by both Indians and whites, and the former generally makes his totem on the rock surface, or adds that of his gods, the sun, rain-cloud, or katcinas. Inscriptions recording events are less common, as they are more difficult to indicate with exactitude in this system of pictography. The majority of ancient pictographs in the Red-rock country, like those I have con- sidered in other parts of Yerde valley, are identical with picture writ- ings now made in Tusayan, and are recognized and interpreted without hesitation by the Hopi Indians. In their legends, in which the migra- tions of their ancestors are recounted, the traditionists often mention the fact that their ancestors left their totem signatures at certain points in their wanderings. The Patki people say that you will find on the rocks of Palatkwabi, the "Bed Land of the South" from which they came, totems of the rain-cloud, sun, crane, parrot, etc. If we find these markings in the direction which they are thus definitely declared to exist, and the Hopi say similar pictures were made by their ancestors, there seems no reason to question such circumstantial evidence that some of the Hopi clans once came from this region. 1 One of the most interesting of the pictographs pecked in the rock is a figure which, variously modified, is a common decoration on cliff- dweller pottery from the Verde valley region to the ruins of the San Juan and its tributaries. This figure has the form of two concentric spirals, the ends of which do not join. As this design assumes many modifica- tions, it may be well to consider a few forms which it assumes on the pottery of the cliff people and on that of their descendants, the Pueblos. The so-called black-and-white ware, or white pottery decorated with black lines, which is so characteristic of the ceramics of the cliff dwellers, is sometimes, as we shall see, found in ruins like Awatobi and Sikyatki; 'See "Tusayan Totemic Signatures," American Anthropologist, Washington, January, 1897. f£wkes] POTTERY DECORATION 569 but it is so rare, as compared with other varieties, that it may be regarded as intrusive. One of the simplest forms of the broken-line motive is a Greek fret, in which there is a break in the component square figures or where the line is noncontinuous. In the simplest form, which appears prominently on modern pottery, but which is rare or wanting on true black-and- white ware, we have two crescentic figures, the concavities of which face in different directions, but the horns overlap. This is a symbol which the participants in the dance called the Humiskatcina still paiut with pigments on their breasts, and which is used on shields and various religious paraphernalia. A study of any large collection of decorated Pueblo ware, ancient or modern, will show many modifications of this broken line, a number of which I shall discuss more in detail when pottery ornamentation is con- sidered. A design so distinctive and so widespread as this must cer- tainly have a symbolic interpretation. The concentric spirals with a broken line, the Hopi say, are symbols of the whirlpool, and it is interesting to find in the beautiful plates of Ghavevo'sAntiguedades Mexicanas that the water in the lagoon surrounding the ancient Aztec capital was indicated by the Nahuatl Indians with similar symbols. Objects Pound at Palatki and Honanki The isolation of these ruins and the impossibility of obtaining work- men, combined with the brief visit'which I was able to make to them, rendered it impossible to collect very many specimens of ancient handi- work. The few excavations which were made were limited almost wholly to Honanki, and from their success I can readily predict a rich harvest for anyone who may attempt systematic work in this virgin field. We naturally chose the interior of the rooms for excavation, and I will say limited our work to these places. Every chamber was more or less filled with debris — fragments of overturned walls, detached rock from the cliff above, dry alkaline soil, drifted sand, dust, and animal excreta. In those places where digging was possible we found the dust and guano so dry and alkaline that it was next to impossible to work for any length of time in the rooms, for the air became so impure that the workmen could hardly breathe, especially where the inclosing walls prevented ventilation. Notwithstanding this obstacle, however, we removed the accumulated d6bris down to the floor in one or two chambers, and examined with care the various objects of aboriginal origin which were revealed. In studying the specimens found in cliff-houses due attention has not always been given to the fact that occupants have oftentimes camped in them subsequently to their abandonment by the original builders. As a consequence of this temporary habitation objects owned by unrelated Indians have frequently been confused with those of the cliff-dwellers proper. We found evidences that both Honanki 570 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [bth.ann.17 and Palatki had been occupied by Apache Mohave people for longer or shorter periods of time, and some of the specimens were probably left there by these inhabitants. The ancient pottery found in the rooms, although fragmentary, is sufficiently complete to render a comparison with known ceramics from the Verde ruins. Had we discovered the cemeteries, for which we zeal- ously searched in vain, no doubt entire vessels, deposited as mortuary offerings, would have been found ; but the kind of ware of which they were made would undoubtedly have been the same as that of the fragments. No pottery distinctively different from that which has already been reported from the Verde valley rains was found, and the majority resembled so closely in texture and symbolism that of the cliff houses of the San Juan, in northern New Mexico and southern Utah, that they may be regarded as practically identical. The following varieties of pottery were found at Honanki: i. Coiled ware. ii. Indented ware. in. Smooth ware. iv. Smooth ware painted white, with black geometric figures. V. Smooth red ware, with black decoration. By far the largest number of fragments belong to the first division, and these, as a rule, are blackened by soot, as if used in cooking. The majority are parts of large open-mouth jars with flaring rims, cor- rugated or often indented with the thumb-nail or some hard substance, the coil becoming obscure on the lower surface. The inside of these jars is smooth, but never polished, and in one instance the potter used the corrugations of the coil as an ornamental motive. The paste of which this coiled ware was composed is coarse, with argillaceous grains scattered through it; but it was well fired and is still hard and durable. When taken in connection with its tenuity, these features show a highly developed potter's technique. A single fragment is orna- mented with an S-shape coil of clay fastened to the corrugations in much the same way as in similar ware from the ruins near the Colorado Chiquito. The fragments of smooth ware show that they, too, had been made originally in the same way as coiled ware, and that their outer as well as their inner surface had been rubbed smooth before firing. As a rule, however, they are coarse in texture and have little symmetry of form. Fragments identified as parts of bowls, vases, jars, and dippers are classed under this variety. As a rule they are badly or unevenly fired, although evidently submitted to great heat. There was seldom an effort made to smooth the outer surface to a polish, and no attempt at pictorial ornamentation was made. The fragments represented in classes iv and v were made of a much finer clay, and the surface bears a gloss, almost a glaze. The orua- STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM HONANKI 571 mentation on the few fragments which were found is composed of geo- metric patterns, and is identical with the sherds from other ruins of Verde valley. A fragment each of a dipper and a ladle, portions of a red bowl, and a rim of a large vase of the same color were picked up near the ruin. Most of the fragments, however, belong to the first classes — the coiled and indented wares. There was no evidence that the former inhabitants of these buildings were acquainted with metals. The ends of the beams had been hacked off evidently with blunt stone axes, aided by fire, and the lintels of the houses were of split logs which showed no evidence that any metal imple- ment was used in fashioning them. We found, however, several stone tools, which exhibit considerable skill in the art of stone working. These include a single ax, blunt at one end, sharpened at the other, and girt by a single groove. The variety of stone from which the ax was made does not occur in the immediate vicinity of the ruin. There were one or two stone hammers, grooved for hafting, like the ax. A third stone maul, being grooveless, was evidently a hand tool for breaking other stones or for grinding pigments. Fig. 251— Stone implement from Honanki Perhaps the most interesting stone implement which was found was uncovered in the excavation of one of the middle rooms of the western part of the ruin, about three feet below the surface. It consists of a wooden handle rounded at each end and slightly curved, with a sharpened stone inserted midway of its length and cemented to the wood with pitch or asphaltum. The stone of this implement would hardly bear rough usage, or sustain, without fracture, a heavy blow. The edge is tolerably sharp, and it therefore may have been used in skinning animals. Judging from the form of the handle, the imple- ment is better suited for use as a scraper than for any other purpose which has occurred to me (figure 251). The inhabitants of the two ruins of the Red-rocks used obsidian arrowpoints with shafts of reeds, and evidently highly regarded frag- ments of the former material for knives, spearheads, and one or two other purposes. The stone metates from these ruins are in - no respect characteristic, and several fine specimens were found in place on the floors of the rooms. One of these was a well-worn specimen of lava, which must have been 572 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [ETH. ANN. 17 brought from a considerable distance, since none of that material occurs in tho neighborhood. The existence of these grinding stones implies the use of maize as food, and this evidence was much strengthened by the finding of corncobs, kernels of corn, and charred fragments at several points below the surface of the debris in the chambers of Honanki. One of these grinding stones was found set in the floor of one of the rooms in the same way that similar metates may be seen in Walpi today. Of bone implements, our limited excavations revealed only a few frag- ments. Leg bones of the turkey were used for awls, bodkins, needles, and similar objects. In general character the implements of this kind found are almost identical in form with ments from Awatobi and Sikyatki, figured and described. Although the which were the boDe imple which are later bone implements well repaid for fireboard, identi the ceremony of universally used unearthed were not numerous, we were our excavations by finding an ancient cal with those now used at Tusayan in kindling the " new fire," and probably for that purpose in former times. The only shell was a fragment of a bracelet made from a Pectuncuhis, a Pacific coast mollusk highly esteemed in ancient times among' prehistoric Pueblos. The majority of the wooden objects found showed marks of fire, which were especially evident on the ends of the roof and floor beams projecting from the walls. A considerable collection of objects made of wiekerwork and woven vegetal fiber was found in the alkaline dust and ashes of the Red rock cliff houses, and while there is some difficulty here as elsewhere, in deciding whether certain speci- mens belonged to the original builders or to later temporary occupants, there is little doubt that most of them were the property of the latter. There were many specimens of basketry found on the surface of the rubbish of the floors which, from the position of their occurrence and from their resemblance to the wiekerwork still used by the Apache, seem without doubt to have been left there by temporary occupants of the rooms. There were likewise many wisps of yucca fiber tied in knots which must probably be regarded as of identical origin. The Yucca baccata affords the favorite fiber used by the natives at the present time, and it appears to have been popular for that purpose among the ancients. fewkes] TEXTILE ARTICLES ORNAMENTS 573 Several specimens of sandals, some of which are very much worn on the soles, were found buried at the floor level. These are all of the same kind, and are made of yucca leaves plaited in narrow strips. The mode of attachment to the foot was evidently by a loop passing over the toes. Hide and~cloth sandals have as yet not been reported from the Eed-rock ruins of Verde valley. These sandals belonged to the original occupants of the cliffhouses. Fabrics made of cotton are common in the ruins of the Bed-rocks, and at times this liber was combined with yucca. Some of the spec- imens of cotton cloth were finely woven and are still quite strong, although stained dark or almost black. Specimens of netting are also common, and an' open-mesh legging, similar to the kind manufactured in ancient times by the Hopi and still worn by certain personators in their sacred dances, were taken from the western room of Honanki. There were also many fragments of rope, string, cord, and loosely twisted bands, resembling head bands for carrying burdens. 1 A reed (figure 252) in which was inserted a fragment of cotton fiber was unlike anything yet reported from cliff houses, and as the end of the cotton which projected beyond the cavity of the reed was charred, it possibly was used as a slow-match or tinder-box. Several shell and turquois beads were found, but my limited studies of the cliff-houses revealed only a few other ornaments, among them being beads of turkey-bone and a single wristlet fashioned from a Pee- tunculus. One or two fragments of prayer- sticks were discovered in a rock inclosure in a cleft to the west of the ruin. Conclusions Regarding the Verde Valley Ruins The ruins of the Verde region closely resemble those of Tusayan, and seem to support the claim of the Hopi that some of their ancestors formerly lived in that region. This is true more especially of the villages of the plains and mesa tops, for neither cave-houses nor cav ate- dwellings are found in the immediate vicinity of the inhabited Tusayan pueblos. The objects taken from the ruins are similar to those found universally over the pueblo area, and from them alone we can not say more than that they probably indicate the same substratum of culture as that from which modern pueblo life with its many modifi- cations has sprung. The symbolism of the decorations on the fragments of pottery found in the Verde ruins is the same as that of the ancient pueblos of the Colorado Chiquito, and it remains to be shown whether the ancestors of these were Hopi or Zuiii. I believe it will be found that they were both, or that when the villages along the Colorado Chiquito 1 were 1 An exhaustive report on the ruins near Winslow, at the Sunset Crossing of the Little Colorado, will later he published. These ruins were the sites of my operations in the summer of 1896, and from them a very large collection of prehistoric objects was taken. The report will consider also the ruins at Chaves Pass, on the trail of migration used by the Hopi in prehistoric times in their visits, for barter and other purposes, to the Gila-Salado watershed. 574 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.aiw.17 abandoned part of the inhabitants went to the mesas of Tusayan and others migrated farther up the river to the Zuni villages. Two centers of distribution of cliff houses occur in our Southwest: those of the upper tributaries of the Colorado in the north and the cliff houses of the affluents of the Salt and the Gila in the south. The watershed of the Rio Grande is, so far as is known, destitute of this kind of aboriginal dwellings. Between the two centers of distribution lie the pueblos of the Little Colorado and its tributaries, the home of the ancestors of the Hopi and the Zuni. The many resemblances between the cliff houses of the north and those of the south indicate that the stage of culture of both was uniform, and probably the same conditions of environment led both peoples to build similar dwellings. All those likenesses which can be found between the modern Zuni and the Hopi to the former cliff peoples of the San Juan region in the north, apply equally to those of the upper Salado and the Gila and their tributaries to the south; and so far as arguments of a northern- origin of either, built on architectural or technological resemblances, are concerned, they are not conclusive, since they are also applicable to the cliff peoples of the south. The one important difference between the northern and the southern tier of cliff houses is the occurrence of the cir- cular kiva, which has never been reported south of the divide between the Little Colorado and the Gila-Salado drainage. If a kiva was a feature in southern cliff houses, which. I doubt, it appears to have been a rectangular chamber similar to a dwelling room. The circular kiva exists in neither the modern Hopi nor the Zuni pueblos, and it has not been found in adjacent Tusayan ruins; therefore, if these habitations were profoundly influenced by settlers from the north, it is strange that such a radical change in the form of this room resulted. The arguments advanced that one of the two component stocks of the Zuiii, and that the aboriginal, came from the cliff peoples of the San Juan, are not conclusive, although I have no doubt that the Zuni may have received increment from that direction. Cashing has, I believe, furnished good evidence that some of the ancestors of the Zuiii population came from the south and southwest; and that some of these came from pueblos now in ruins on the Little Colorado is indicated by the great similarity in the antiquities of ancient Zuni and the Colorado Chiquito ruins. Part of the Patki peo- ple of the Hopi went to Zuiii and part to Tusayan, from the same abandoned pueblo, and the descendants of this family in Walpi still recognize this ancient kinship; but I do not know, and so far as can be seen there is no way of determining, the relative antiquity of the pueblos in Znfii valley and those on the lower Colorado. The approximate date of the immigration of the Patki people to Tusayan is as yet a matter of conjecture. It may have been in prehis- toric times, or more likely at a comparatively late period in the history of the people. It seems well substantiated, however, that when this fewkes] EVOLUTION OF THE KIVA 575 Water-house people joined the other Hopi, the latter inhabited pueblos and were to all intents a pueblo people. If this hypothesis be a correct one, the Snake, Horn, and Bear peoples, whom the southern colonists found in Tusayan, had a culture of their own similar to that of the peo- ple from the south. Whence that culture came must be determined by studies of the component clans of the Hopi before the arrival of the Patki people. 1 The origin of the round shape of the estufa, according to Norden- skiold (p. 168), is most easily explained on the hypothesis that it is a reminiscence of the cliff-dwellers' nomadic period. "There must be some very cogent reason for the employment of this shape," he says, "for the construction of a cylindrical chamber within a block of rectangular rooms involves no small amount of labor. We know how obstinately primitive nations cling to everything connected with their religious ideas. Theu what is more natural than the- retention, for the room where religious ceremonies were performed, of the round shape characteristic of the original dwelling place, the nomadic hut? This assumption is further corroborated by the situation of the hearth and the structure of the roof of the estufa, when we find points of analogy to the method employed by certain nomadic Indians in the erection of their huts." This theory of the origin of the round form of dwelling and its retention in the architecture of the kiva, advanced by Nbrden- skiold in 1893, has much in its favor, but the rectangular form, which, so far as known, is the only shape of these sacred rooms in the Tusayan region, is still unexplained. From Castaneda's narrative of the Ooro- nado expedition it appears that in the middle of the sixteenth century the eastern pueblos had both square and round estufas or kivas, and that these kivas belonged to the men while the rooms of the pueblo were in the possession of the women. The apparent reason why we find no round rooms or kivas in the southern cliff houses and in Tusayan may be due to several causes. Local conditions, including the character of the building sites on the Hopi mesa, made square rooms more practical, or the nomadic stage was so far removed that the form of the inclosure in which the ancients held their rites had not been preserved. More- over, some of the most ancient and secret observances at Walpi, as the Flute ceremony, are not performed in special kivas, but take place in ordinary living rooms. As in all the other ruins of Verde valley, circular kivas are absent in the Red-rock country, and this fact, which has attracted the attention of several observers, is, I believe, very significant. Although as yet our knowledge of the cliff houses of the upper G-ila and Salado and their numerous tributaries is very fragmentary, and generalization on 1 Possibly the Shoshonean elements in Hopi linguistics are due to the Snake peoples, the early colo- nists who came from the north, where they may have been in contact with Pamte or other divisions of the Shoshonean stock. The consanguinity of this phratry may have been close to that of the Sho- shonean tribes, as that of the Patki was to the Piman, or the Asa to the Tanoan. The present Hopi are a composite people, and it is yet to be demonstrated which stock predominates in them. 576 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann. 17 that account unsafe, it may be stated provisionally that no circular kivas have yet been found in any ruins of the Gila Salad o watershed. This form of kiva, however, is an essential feature of the cliff dwellings of Eio Colorado, especially of those aloDg its affluents in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. Eoughly speaking, then, the cir- cular kiva is characteristic of the ruins of this region and of certain others in the valley of the Eio Grande, where they still survive in inhabited pueblos. Circular ruins likewise are limited in their distribution in the South- west, and it is an interesting fact that the geographic distribution of ancient pueblos of this form is in a general way the same as that of circular kivas. There are, of course, many exceptions, but so far as I know these can readily be explained. No ruins of circular dwellings occur in the Gila-Salado drainage area, where likewise no circular kivas have been observed. Moreover, the circular form of dwelling and kiva is distinctively characteristic of prehistoric peoples east of Tusayan, and the few instances of their occurrence on its eastern border can readily be explained as extra-Hopi. The explanation of these circular kivas advanced by Nordenskiold and the Mindeleffs, that they are survivals of round habitations of nomads, has much to commend it; but whether sufficient or not, the geographic limitation of these structures tells in favor of the absence of any considerable migration of the prehistoric peoples of the upper Colorado and Eio Grande watersheds southward into the drainage area of the Gila-Salado. Had the migration been in that direction it may readily be believed that the round kiva and the circular form of dwelling would have been brought with it. The round kiva has been regarded as a survival of the form of the original homes of the nomad, when he became a sedentary agriculturist by conquest and marriage. The presence of rectangular kivas in the same areas in which round kivas occur does not necessarily militate against this theory, nor does it oblige us to offer an explanation of a necessarily radical change in "architecture if we would derive it from a circular form. It would indeed be very unusual to find such a change in a structure devoted to religious purposes where conservatism is so strong. The rectangular kiva is the ancient form, or rather the original form; the round kiva is not a development from it, but an introduction from an alien people. It never penetrated southward of the Colorado and upper Eio Grande drainage areas because the element which introduced it in the north was never strong enough to influence the house builders of the Gila- Salado and tributary valleys. EUINS IN TUSAYAN General Features No region of our Southwest presents more instructive antiquities than the ancient province of Tusayan, more widely known as the Mold res- ervation. In the more limited use of the term, Tusayan is applied to the immediate surroundings of the Hopi pueblos, to which "province" it was given in the middle of the sixteenth century. In a broader sense the name would include an as yet unbounded country claimed by the component clans of this people as the homes of their ancestors. The general character and distribution of Tusayan ruins (plate xvi) has been ably presented by Mr Victor Mindeleff in a previous report. 1 While this memoir is not regarded as exhaustive, it considers most of the large ruins in immediate proximity to the three mesas on which the pueblos inhabited by the Hopi are situated. It is not my purpose here to consider all Tusayan ruins, even if I were able to do so, but to supplement with additional data the observations already published on two of the most noteworthy pueblo settlements. Broadly speaking, I have attempted archeological excavations in order to obtain more light on the nature of prehistoric life in Tusayan. It may be advantageous, however, to refer briefly to some of the ruins thus far discovered in the Tusayan region as preliminary to more systematic descriptions of the two which I have chosen for special description. The legends of the surviving Hopi contain constant references to former habitations of different clans in the country round about their present villages. These clans, which by consolidation make up the pres- ent population of the Hopi pueblos, are said to have originally entered Tusayan from regions as far eastward as the Eio Grande, and from the southern country included within the drainage of the Gila, the Salt, and their affluents. Other increments are reputed to have come from the northward and the westward, so that the people we now find in Tusayan are descendants from an aggregation of stocks from several directions, some of them having migrated from considerable distances. Natives of other regions have settled among the ancient Hopi, built pueblos, and later returned to their former homes; and the Hopi in turn have sent colonists into the eastern pueblo country. These legends of former movements of the tribal clans of Tusayan are supplemented and supported by historical documents, and we. know from this evidence that there has been a continual interchange between the people of Tusayan and almost every large pueblo of New Mexico and Arizona. Some of the ruins of this region were abandoned in historic times; others are prehistoric; many were simply temporary halting 'A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola; Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-87. 17 ETH, PT 2 8 577 578 EXPEDITION TO AKIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann.17 places in Hopi migrations, and were abandoned as the clans drifted together in friendship or destroyed as a result of internecine conflicts. There is documentary evidence that in the years following the great rebellion of the Pueblo tribes in 1680, which were characterized by catastrophes of all kinds among the Eio Grande villagers, many Tanoan people fled to Tusayan to escape from their troubles. Accord- ing to Mel, 4,000 Tanoan refugees, under Frasquillo, loaded with booty which they had looted from the churches, went to Oraibi by way of Zuni, and there established a "kingdom," with their chief as ruler. How much reliance may be placed on this account is not clear to me, but there is no doubt that many Tanoan people joined the Hopi about this time, and among them were the Asa people, the ancestors of the present inhabitants of Hano pueblo, and probably the accolents of Payiipki. The ease with which two Franciscan fathers, in 1742, per- suaded 441 of these to return to the Rio Grande, implies that they were not very hostile to Christianity, and it is possible that one reason they sought Tusayan in the years after the Spaniards were expelled may have been their friendship for the church party. With the exception of Oraibi, not one of the present inhabited pueblos of Tusayan occupies the site on which it stood in the sixteenth century, and the majority of them do not antedate the beginning of the eighteenth century. The villages have shifted their positions but retained their names. At the time of the advent of Tobar, in 1540, there was but one of the present three villages of East Mesa. This was Walpi, and at the period referred to it was situated on the terrace below the site of the present town, near the northwestern base of the mesa proper. Two well-defined ruins, called Kisakobi and Kiichaptuvela, are now pointed out as the sites of Old Walpi. Of these Kiichaptuvela is regarded as the older. Judging by their ruins these towns were of considerable size. From their exposed situation they were open to the inroads of predatory tribes, and from these hostile raids their abandonment became neces- sary. From Kiichaptiivela the ancient Walpians moved to a point higher on the mesa, nearer its western limit, and built Kisakobi. where the pueblo stood in the seventeenth century. There is evidence that a Span- ish mission was erected at this point, and the place is sometimes called Niishaki, a corruption of " Missa-ki," Mass-house. From this place the original nucleus of Walpians moved to the present site about the close of the seventeenth century. Later the original population was joined by other phratries, some of which, as the Asa, had lived in the cliff- houses of Ts6gi, or Canyon de Chelly, as late as the beginning of the eighteenth century. This, however, is not the place to trace the composition of the different modern villages. Sichomovi was a colony from Walpi, founded about 1750, and Hano was built not earlier than 1700. The former was settled by the Badger people, later joined by a group of Tanoan clans called the Asa, from fewkes] THE HOPI PUEBLOS IN 1782 579 the Rio Grande, who were invited to Tusayan to aid the Hopi in resist- ing the invasions of northern nomads. By the middle of the eighteenth century the population of the prov- ince of Tusayan was for the first time distributed in the seven pueblos now inhabited. No village has been deserted since that time, nor has any new site been occupied. In order that the reader may have an idea of the Tusayan pueblos at the time mentioned, an account of .them from a little-known descrip- tion by Morfi in 1782 is introduced : 1 MorjVs account of the Tusayan pueblos Quarenta y seis leguas al Poniente de Zufli, con alguna inclinacion al N. 0. estan los tres primeros pueblos de la provincia de Moqui, que en el dia en el corto distrito de 4£ leguas (112 recto) tiene siete pueblos en tres mesas 6 peHoles que corren linea recta de Oriente & Poniente. Tanos 2 En la punta occidental de la primera, y en la mas estrecho de su eminencia estan situados tres de los quales el primero ea el de Tanos (alii dicen Tegilas), cuyas mora- dores tienen idioma particular y distinto del Moquino. Es pueblo regular con un plaza en el centro, y un formacion de calles. Tendru 110 familias. El segundo 3 pueblo dista del precedente como un tiro de piedra, es de fundacion moderna, y se compondra' de mas 15 familias que se retiraron aqui de : Gualpi Gualpi que dista del anterior un tiro de fusil, es mas grande y populoso que los dos anteriores, puede tener hasta 200 familias. Estas tres pueblos tienen poco caballada, y algunas vacas; pero mucbo ganado lanar. Mosasnabi* Al poniente de esta mesa, y & legua y media de distancia esta' la segunda, cuyo intermedio es un (112 v. ) arenal, que ertrando un poco en ella la divide en dos brazas. En el septentrional, que es el mas inmediata & Gualpi hay dos anillos distantes entre si un tiro de piedra. En la cima del primero esta' situado el pueblo de Mosasnabi compuesto de 50 familias poco mas 6 menos. Xipaolabi 6 En la cumbre del seeando cerrito sefundo el quinto pueblo llamado Xipaolabi, que tendra' solo 14 familias : estS casi arruinado, porque sus vecinos se ban trasladado al brazo austral de la mesa y formaron el sexto pueblo llamado : Xongopabi* Xongopabi goza mejor situacion que todos los demas, tienen tres quarteles mui bien dispuestos y en ellas unis 60 familias. Estos tres pueblos tienen mas caballada que los primeros y mucbo ganado menor. 1 This account was copied from a copy made by the eminent scholar, A. F. Bandolier, for the archives of the Hemenway Expedition, now at the Peabody Museum , in Cambridge, Massachusetts. 2 Hano or " Tewa." 3 Sichomovi. In the manuscript report by Don Jose Cortez, who wrote of the northern provinces of Mexico, where be lived in 1799, Sichomovi is mentioned as anameleas village between Tanos (Hano) and Gualpi (Walpi), settled by colonists from the latter pueblo. One of the first references to this village by name was in a report by Indian Agent Calhoun (1850). where it is called Chemovi. 4 Mishoiiinovi. 5 Shipaulovi. 6 Sha5opovi. 580 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann. 17 Oraybe Dos y media leguas al Poniente de eata mesa, esta^ la tercera, y en sucima el septimo pueblo que llaman Oraybe. Es como la capital de la provincia, el mayor y mas bien formado de toda ella, y acaso de todas las provincias internas. Tiene once quarteles 6 mauzanas bien largas y dispuestos con calles & cordel y& (113 r.) todos vientos, y puede llegar sa poblacion & 800 familias. Tienen buena caballada, mucho ganado menor y algun vacuno. Aunque no gozan siuo una pequeiia fuente de buena agua, distante del pueblo mas de una milla al Norte, ban construido para suplir esta escasez, en la misma mesa, y mui iumediato a lais casas seis cisternas grandes donde recoger la agua de las lluvias y nieves. The distribution of the population of Tusayan in the seven pueblos mentioned above remained practically the same during the century between 1782 and 1882. Summer settlements for farming purposes were inhabited by the Oraibi for brief periods. Between the years 1880 and 1890 a beginning of a new distribution of Hopi families began, wben one or two of the less timid erected houses near Coyote spring, at the East Mesa. The Tewa, represented by Polaka and Jakwaina, took the lead in this movemeut. Prom 1890 to the present time a large number of Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano families have built houses in the foothills of the East Mesa and in the plain beyond the " wash." A large schoolhouse has been erected at Sun spring and a considerable number of East Mesa villagers have abandoned their mesa dwellings. In this shifting of the population the isolated house is always adopted and the aboriginal method of roof building is abandoned. The indica- tions are that in a few years the population of the East Mesa will be settled in unconnected farmhouses with little resemblance to the ancient communal pueblo. This movement is shared to a less extent by the Middle Mesa and Oraibi people. On my first visit to the pueblos of these mesas, in 1890, there was not a single permanent dwelling save in the ancient pueblos ; but now numerous small farmhouses have been erected at or near the springs in the foothills. I mention these facts as a matter of record of progress in the life of these people in adapting themselves to the new conditions or influences by which they are surrounded. I believe that if this exodus of Hopi families from the old pueblo to the plain continues during the next two decades as it has in the last ten years, there are children now living in Walpi who will some day see it uninhabited. This disintegration of the Hopi phratries, by which families are sep- arated from one another, is, I believe, a return to the prehistoric distri- bution of the clans, and as Walpi grew into a pueblo by a union of kindred people, so now it is again being divided aud distributed, still preserving family ties in new clusters or groupings. It is thus not impossible that the sites of certain old ruins, as Sikyatki, deserted for many years, will again be built upon if better suited for new modes of life. The settlement near Coyote spring, for instance, is not far from the old site of a former home of the Tauoan families, who went to Tusayan in the beginning of the eighteenth century, aud the people rawKEs] TUSAYAN RUINS CLASSIFIED 581 who inhabit these new houses are all Tanoau descendants of the original contingent. In order to become familiar with the general character of Tusayan ruins, I made a brief reconnoissance of those mentioned in the follow- ing list, from which I selected Awatobi and Sikyatki as places for a more exhaustive exploration. This list is followed by a brief mention of those which I believe would offer fair opportunities for a continua- tion of the work inaugurated. The ruins near Oraibi were not exam- ined and are therefore omitted, not that they are regarded as less important, but because I was unable to undertake a study of them in the limited time at my disposal. There are also many ruins in Tusa- yan, north of the inhabited pueblos, which have never been described, and would well repay extended investigation. Some of these, as the ruins at the sacred spring called Kishuba, are of the utmost traditional importance. I. Middle Mesa ruins — (1) Old Shufiopovi; (2) Old Mishoiiinovi; (3) Shitaumu; (4) Ghukubi; (5) Payiipki. II. Hast Mesa ruins — (1) Kisakobi; (2) Kiichaptiivela; (3) Kiikii- chomo; (4) Tukinobi; (5) Kachinba; (6) Sikyatki. III. Ruins in Keani's canyon. IV. Jeditoh valley ruins — (1) Bat-house; (2) Jeditoh, Kawaika; (3) Horn-house; (4) Awatobi; Smaller Awatobi. This method of classification is purely geographical, and is adopted simply for convenience; but there are one or two facts worthy of mention in regard to the distribution of ruins in these four sections. The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, are, as a rule, situated on the eastern side of their respective mesas, or on the cliffs or hills which border the adjacent plains on the west. This uniformity is thought to have resulted from a desire to occupy a sunny site for warmth and for other reasons. The pueblos at or nearest the southern ends of the mesas were found to be best suited for habitation, consequently the present towns occupy those sites, or, as in the case of the Jeditoh series, the pueblo at that point was the last abandoned. The reason for this is thought to be an attempt to concentrate on the most inaccessible sites available, which implies inroads of hostile peoples. For the same reason, likewise, the tendency was to move from the foothills to the mesa tops when these invasions began. Early settlers near East Mesa appeared to have chosen exposed sites for their pueblos. This would imply that they feared no invasion, and legendary history indicates that the first pueblos were erected before the hostile Ute, Apache, and Navaho appeared. The early settlements on Middle Mesa were also apparently not made with an absorbing idea of inaccessibility. All the Jeditoh villages, however, were on the mesa tops, these sites having been selected evidently with a view to protection, since they were not convenient to the farms. 580 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.akn. 17 Oraybe Dos y media leguas al PoDiente de esta mesa, esta^ la tercera, y en sucima el septimo pueblo que llaman Oraybe. Es como la capital de la provincia, el mayor y mas bien formado de toda ella, y acaao de todas las provincias internas. Tiene once quarteles 6 manzanas bien largas y dispuestos con calles & cordel yd (113 r.) todos vientos, y puede llegar su poblacion & 800 familias. Tienen buena caballada, mucho ganado menor y alguu vaouno. Aunque no gozan sino una pequefia fuente de buena agua, distante del pueblo mas de una niilla al Norte, ban construido para suplir esta escasez, en la misma mesa, y mui inmediato a lais casas seis cisternas graudes donde reeoger la agua de las lluvias y nieves. The distribution of the population of Tusayan in the seven pueblos mentioned above remained practically the same during the century between 1782 and 1882. Summer settlements for farming purposes were inhabited by the Oraibi for brief periods. Between the years 1880 and 1890 a beginning of a new distribution of Hopi families began, when one or two of the less timid erected houses near Coyote spring, at the Bast Mesa. The Tewa, represented by Polaka and Jakwaina, took the lead in this movement. From 1890 to the present time a large number of Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano families have built houses in the foothills of the East Mesa and in the plain beyond the " wash." A large schoolhouse has been erected at Sun spring and a considerable number of East Mesa villagers have abandoned their mesa dwellings. In this shifting of the population the isolated house is always adopted and the aboriginal method of roof building is abandoned. The indica- tions are that in a few years the population of the East Mesa will be settled in unconnected farmhouses with little resemblance to the ancient communal pueblo. This movement is shared to a less extent by the Middle Mesa and Oraibi people. On my first visit to the pueblos of these mesas, in 1890, there was not a single permanent dwelling save in the ancient pueblos; but now numerous small farmhouses have been erected at or near the springs in the foothills. I mention these facts as a matter of record of progress in the life of these people in adapting themselves to the new conditions or influences by which they are surrounded. I believe that if this exodus of Hopi families from the old pueblo to the plain continues during the next two decades as it has iu the last ten years, there are children now living in Walpi who will some day see it uninhabited. This disintegration of the Hopi phratries, by which families are sep- arated from one another, is, I believe, a return to the prehistoric distri- bution of the clans, and as Walpi grew into a pueblo by a union of kindred people, so now it is again being divided and distributed, still preserving family ties in new clusters or groupings. It is thus not impossible that the sites of certain old ruins, as Sikyatki, deserted for many years, will again be built upon if better suited for new modes of life. The settlement near Coyote spring, for instance, is not far from the old site of a former home of the Tanoan families, who went to Tusayan in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and the people fewkes] TUSAYAN RUINS CLASSIFIED 581 who inhabit these new houses are all Tanoau descendants of the original contingent. In order to become familiar with the general character of Tusayan ruins, I made a brief reconnoissance of those mentioned in the follow- ing list, from which I selected Awatobi and Sikyatki as places for a more exhaustive exploration. This list is followed by a brief mention of those which I believe would offer fair opportunities for a continua- tion of the work inaugurated; The ruins near Oraibi were not exam- ined and are therefore omitted, not that they are regarded as less important, but because I was unable to undertake a study of them in the limited time at my disposal. There are also many ruins in Tusa- yan, north of the inhabited pueblos, which have never been described, and would well repay extended investigation. Some of these, as the ruins at the sacred spring called Kishuba, are of the utmost traditional importance. I. Middle Mesa ruins — (1) Old Shunopovi; (2) Old Mishoiiinovi; (3) Shitaumu; (4) Ohukubi; (5) Payiipki. II. East Mesa ruins — (1) Kisakobi; (2) Kiichaptiivela; (3) Kukii- chomo; (4) Tukinobi; (5) Kachinba; (6) Sikyatki. III. Ruins in Keani's canyon. IV. Jeditoh valley ruins — (1) Bat-house; (2) Jeditoh, Kawaika; (3) Horn-house; (4) Awatobi; Smaller Awatobi. This method of classification is purely geographical, and is adopted simply for convenience; but there are one or two facts worthy of mention in regard to the distribution of ruins in these four sections. The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, are, as a rule, situated on the eastern side of their respective mesas, or on the cliffs or hills which border the adjacent plains on the west. This uniformity is thought to have resulted from a desire to occupy a sunny site for warmth and for other reasons. The pueblos at or nearest the southern ends of the mesas were found to be best suited for habitation, consequently the present towns occupy those sites, or, as in the case of the Jeditoh series, the pueblo at that point was the last abandoned. The reason for this is thought to be an attempt to concentrate on the most inaccessible sites available, which implies inroads of hostile peoples. For the same reason, likewise, the tendency was to move from the foothills to the mesa tops when these invasions began. Early settlers near East Mesa appeared to have chosen exposed sites for their pueblos. This would imply that they feared no invasion, and legendary history indicates that the first pueblos were erected before the hostile Ute, Apache, and Navaho appeared. The early settlements on Middle Mesa were also apparently not made with an absorbing idea of inaccessibility. All the Jeditoh villages, however, were on the mesa tops, these sites having been selected evidently with a view to protection, since they were not convenient to the farms. 582 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ahh.17 For many reasons it would seem that the people who occupied the now ruined Jeditoh villages were later arrivals in Tusayan than those of Bast and Middle Mesas, and that, as a rule, they came from the east- ward, while those of Middle Mesa arrived from the south. The first colonists of all, however, appear to have been the East Mesa clans, the Bear and Snake families. If this conjecture be true, we may believe that the oldest pueblos in Tusayan were probably the house groups of the Snake clan of East Mesa, for whom their traditionists claim a northern origin. The Middle Mesa Euins shunopovi The site of Old Shunopovi (plate cv) at the advent of the first Spaniards, and for a century or more afterward, was at the foot of the mesa on which the present village stands. The site of the old pueblo is easily detected by the foundations of the ancient houses and their overturned walls, surrounded by mounds of soil filled with fragments of the finest pottery. The old village was situated on a ridge of foothills east of the pres- ent town and near the spring, which is still used. On the highest point of the ridge there rise to a considerable height the massive walls of the old Spanish mission church, forming an inclosure, now used as a sheep corral. The cemeteries are near by, close to the outer walls, and among a clump of peach trees about half a mile east of the old houses. The pottery, 1 as shown by the fragments, is of the finest old Tusayan ware, cream and red being the predominating colors, while fragments of coiled and black-and-white ware are likewise common. MISHONINOVI The ruins of Old Mishoninovi lie west of the present pueblo in the foothills, not far from the two rocky pinnacles at that point and adja- cent to a spring. In strolling over the site of the old town I have noted its ground plan, and have picked up many sherds which indicate that the pottery made at that place was the fine cream-color ware for which Tusayan has always been famous. The site offers unusual opportunities for archeological studies, but excavation there is not practicable on account of the opposition of the chiefs. Old Mishoninovi was a pueblo of considerable size, and was probably inhabited up to the close of the seventeenth century. It w r as probably on this site that the early Spanish explorers found the largest pueblo of the Middle Mesa. The ruin of Shitaimovi, in the foothills near Mishoninovi, mentioned by Mindeleff, was not visited by our party. ' In 1890 I collected over a hundred beautiful specimens i'roui tbia cemetery. fewkes] MIDDLE MESA RUINS 583 CHUKUBI The ruin of Chukubi bears every evidence of antiquity. It is situ- ated on one of the eastward projecting spurs of Middle Mesa, midway between Payiipki and Shipaulovi, near an excellent spring at the base of the mesa. Chukubi was built in rectangular form, with a central plaza sur- rounded by rooms, two deep. There are many indications of outlying chambers, some of which are arranged in rows. The house walls are almost wholly demolished, and in far poorer state of preservation than those of the neighboring ruin of Payiipki. The evidence now obtain- able indicates that it was an ancient habitation of a limited period of occupancy. It is said to have been settled by the Patuii or Squash people, whose original home was far to the south, on Little Colorado river. A fair ground plan is given by Mindeleff in his memoir on Pueblo Architecture; but so far as known no studies of the pottery of this pueblo have ever been made. PATTJPKI One of the best-preserved ruins on Middle Mesa is called Payiipki by the Hopi, and is interesting in connection with the traditions of the migration of peoples from the Eio Grande, which followed the troublesome years at the close of the seventeenth century. In the reconquest of New Mexico by the Spaniards we can hardly say that Tusayan was conquered; the province was visited and nominally sub- jugated after the great rebellion, but with the exception of repeated expeditions, which were often repulsed, the Hopi were practically inde- pendent and were so regarded. No adequate punishment was inflicted on the inhabitants of Walpi for the destruction of the town of Awatobi, and although there were a few military expeditions to Tusayan no effort at subjugation was seriously made. Tusayan was regarded as an asylum for the discontented or apos- tate, and about the close of the seventeenth century many people from the Eio Grande iled there for refuge. Some of these refugees appear to have founded pueblos of their own; others were amalgamated with existing villages. Payiipki seems to have been founded about this period, for we find no account of it before this time, and it is not men- tioned in connection with ancient migrations. In 1706 Holguin is said to have attacked the "Tanos" village between Walpi and Oraibi and forced the inhabitants to give hostages, but he was later set upon by the Tano and driven back to Zuni. It would hardly seem possible that the pueblo mentioned could have been Hano, for this village does not lie between Oraibi and Walpi and could not have been surrounded in the way indicated in the account. Payiipki, however, not only lay on the trail between Walpi and Oraibi — about midway, as the chronicler 584 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann. 17 states — but was so situated on a projecting promontory that it could easily have been surrounded and isolated from the other pueblos. The Hopi legends definitely assert that the Payupki people came from the "great river," the Eio Grande, and spoke a language allied to that of the. people of Hano. They were probably apostates, who came from the east about 1680, but did not seem to agree well with the people of the Middle Mesa, and about 1750 returned to the river and were domi- ciled in Sandia, where their descendants still live. The name Payupki is applied by the Hopi to the pueblo of Sandia as well as to the ruin on the Middle Mesa. The general appearance of the ruin of Payupki indi- cates that it was not long inhabited, and that it was abandoned at a comparatively recent date." The general plan is not that common to ancient Tusayan ruins, but more like that of Hano and Sichomovi, which were erected about the time Payupki was built. Many frag- ments of a kind of pottery .which in general appearance is foreign to Tusayan, but which resembles the Eio Grande ware, were found on the mounds, and the walls are better preserved than those of the ancient Tusayan ruins. A notable absence of fragments of obsidian, the presence of which in abundance is characteristic of ancient ruins, was observed on the site of Payupki. All these evidences substantiate the Hopi legend that the Tanoan inhabitants of the village of Middle Mesa, above the trail from Walpi to Oraibi, made but a short stay in Tusayan. 1 There is good documentary evidence that Sandia was settled by Tanoan people from Tusayan. Morfi in 1782 so states, 2 and in a copy of the acts of possession of the pueblo grants of 1748 we find still further proof of the settlement of " Moquinos " in Sandia. 3 When Otermin returned to New Mexico in his attempted reconquest, in 1681, he reached Isleta on December 6, and on the 8th Dominguez encamped in sight of Sandia, but found the inhabitants had fled. The discord following this event drove the few surviving families of the Tiwa on their old range to Tusayan, for they were set upon by Keres and Jemez warriors on the plea that they received back the Spaniards. Possibly these families formed the nucleus of Payupki. It was about this time, also, if we can believe Mel's story, that 4,000 Tanos went to Tusayan. It would thus appear that the Hopi Payupki was settled in the decade 1080-1690. 1 There lived in "Walpi, years ago, an old woman, who related to a priest, who repeated the story to the writer, that when a little girl she, remembered seeing the Payupki people pasB along the valley under "Walpi when they returned to the Rio Grande. Her story is quite probable, for the lives of two aged persons could readily bridge the interval between that event and our own time. 2 "La Mission de N. Sra. de las Dolores do Zandia delndiosTeguas & Moqui." 3 See J. F. Meline, Two Thousand Miles on Horseback, 1887. Sandia, according to Bancroft, is not mentioned by Menchero in 1744, but Bonilla gave it a population of 400 Indians in 1749. In 1742 two friars visited Tusayan, and, it is said, brought out 441 apostate Tiguas, who were later settled in the old pueblo of Sandia. Considering, then, that Sandia was resettled in 174S, six years after this visit, and that the numbers so closely coincide, we have good evidence that rayiipki, in Tusayan, was abandoned about 1742. It is probable, from known evidonci\ that tins pueblo was built some- where between 1680 and 1690; so that the whole period of its occupancy was not far from fifty years. fewkes] FORMER SITES OF WALPI 585 The East Mesa Ruins ktjchaptuvela and kisakobi The two ruins of Kiichaptiivela and Kisakobi mark the sites of Walpi during the period of Spanish exploration and occupancy between 1540 and 1700. The former was the older. In all probability the latter had a mission church and was inhabited at the time of the great rebellion in 1680, having been founded about fifty years previously. The former or more ancient 1 pueblo was situated on the first or lowest terrace of East Mesa, below the present pueblo, on the northern and western sides. The name Kiichaptiivela signifies "Ash-hill terrace," and probably the old settlement, like the modern, was known as Walpi, " Place-of-the-gap," referring to the gap or notch (wala) in the mesa east of Hano. Old Walpi is said to have been abandoned because it was in the shade of the mesa, but doubtless the true cause of its removal was that the site was too much exposed, commanded as it was by the towering mesa above it, and easily approached on three sides. The Walpi which was contemporary with Sikyatki was built in an exposed location, for at that time the Hopi were comparatively secure from invaders. Later, however, Apache, TJte, and Navaho began to raid their fields, and the Spaniards came in their midst again and again, forcing them to work like slaves. A more protected site was necessary, and late in the seventeenth century the Walpians began to erect houses on the mesa, which formed the nucleus of the present town. The standing walls of Old Walpi are buried in the debris, but the plans of the rooms may readily be traced. Comparatively speaking, it was a large, compact, well-built pueblo, and, from the great piles of debris in the neighbor- hood, would seem to have been occupied during several generations. The pottery found in the neighborhood is the fine, ancient Tusayan ware, like that of Sikyatki and Shunopovi. Extended excavations would reveal, I am sure, many beautiful objects and shed considerable light on the obscure history of Walpi and its early population. After moving from Old Walpi it seems that the people first built houses on the terrace above, or on the platform extending westward from the western limits of the summit of East Mesa. The whole top of that part of the mesa is covered with house walls, showing the former existence of a large pueblo. Here, no doubt, if we can trust tradition, the mission of Walpi was built, and I have found in the debris frag- ments of pottery similar to that used in Mexico, and very different from 1 Hindeleff mentions two other sites of Old Walpi— a mound near Wala, and one in the plain between Mishoninovi and Walpi; but neither of these is large, although claimed as former sites of the early clans which later built the town on the terrace of East Mesa below Walpi. I have regarded Kucbaptiivela as the ancient Walpi, but have no doubt that the Hopi emigrants had several tempo- rary dwellings before they settled there. 586 EXPEDITION TO AKIZONA IN 1895 [bth.ann.17 ancient or modern Pueblo ware. But even Kisakobi 1 was not a safe site for the Walpiaus to choose for their village, so after they destroyed the mission and killed the priest they moved up to their present site and abandoned both of their former villages. It is said that with this removal of the villagers there were found to be no easy means of climbing the precipitous walls, and that the stairway trails were made as late as the beginning of the present century. In those early days there was a ladder near where the stairway trail is now situated, and some of the older men of Walpi have pointed out to me where this ladder formerly stood. The present plan of Walpi shows marked differences from that made twenty years ago, and several houses between the stairway trail and the Wikwaliobi kiva, on the edge of the mesa, which have now fallen into ruin , were inhabited when I first visited Walpi in 1890. The build- ings between the Snake kiva and the Nacab kiva are rapidly becoming unsafe for habitation, and most of these rooms will soon be deserted. As many Walpi families are building new houses on the plain, it needs no prophet to predict that the desertion of the present site of Walpi will progress rapidly in the next few years, and possibly by the end of our generation the pueblo may be wholly deserted — one more ruin added to the multitudes in the Southwest. The site of Old Walpi, at Kiichaptuvela, is the scene of an interesting rite in the New-fire ceremony at Walpi, for not far from it is a shrine dedicated to a supernatural being called Tiiwapofitumsi, "Earth-altar- woman." This shrine, or house, as it is called, is about 230 feet from the ruin, among the neighboring bowlders, and consists of four flat slabs set upright, forming an inclosure in which stands a log of fossil wood. The ceremonials at Old Walpi in the New-fire rites are described in my account 2 of this observance, and from their nature I suspect that the essential part of this episode is the deposit of offerings at this shrine. The circuits about the old ruin are regarded as survivals of the rites which took place in former times at Old Walpi. The ruin was spoken of in the ceremony as the Sipapiini, the abode of the dead who had become katcinas, to whom the prayers said in the circuits were addressed. KUKUCHOMO The two conical mounds on the mesa above Sikyatki are often referred to that ancient pueblo, but from their style of architecture and from other considerations I am led to connect them with other phra- tries of Tusayan. From limited excavations made in these mounds in 1891, 1 was led to believe that they were round pueblos, similar to those 1 Sometimes called Niisaki, a corruption of " Missa lei," Mass House, Mission. One of the beams of the old mission at Niisaki or Kisakobi is in tho roof of Pauwatiwa's house in the highest range of rooms of Walpi. This beam is nicely squared, and bears marks indicativo of carving". There are also large planks in one of the kivns which wero also probably from the church building, although no one has stated that they are. Pauwatiwa, however, declares that a legend has been handed down in his family that the above-mentioned raftor came from the mission. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, January 2, 1895, p. 441. FEWKES] THE RUIN OF KUKUCHOMO 587 east of Tusayan, and that they were temporary habitations, possibly vantage points, occupied for defense. Plate cvi illustrates their gen- eral appearance, while the rooms of which they are composed are shown in figure 253. At the place where the mesa narrows between these mounds and the pueblos to the west, a wall was built from one edge of the mesa to the other to defend the trail on this side. This wall appears to have had watch towers or houses at intervals, which are now in ruins, as shown in figure 254. - Fig. 253 — Kiikiichomo The legends concerning the ancient inhabitants of Kiikuchomo are conflicting. The late A. M. Stephen stated that tradition ascribes them to the Coyote and Pikya (Corn) peoples, with whom the denizens of Sikyatki made friendship, and whom the latter induced to settle there to protect them from the Walpians. He regarded them as the last arrivals of the Water-house phratry, while the Coyote people came from the north at nearly the same time. From his account it would appear that the twin mounds, Kiikiichomo, were abandoned before the destruc- tion of Sikyatki. The Coyote people were, I believe, akin to the Kokop 588 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann.17 or Firewood phratry, and as the pueblo of Sikyatki was settled by tbe latter, it is highly probable that the inhabitants of the two villages were friendly and naturally combined against the Snake pueblo of Walpi. I believe, however, there is some doubt that any branch of the Patki people settled in Kukuchomo, and the size of the town as indicated by the ruin was hardly large enough to accommodate more than one clan. Still, as there are two Kukuchomo ruins, there may have been a differ- ent family in each of the two house clusters. It has been said that in ancient times, before the twin mounds of Kukuchomo were erected, the people of Sikyatki were greatly har- assed by the young slingers* and archers of Walpi, who would come Fig. 254 — Defensive wall on the East Mesa across to the edge of the high cliff and assail them with impunity. Anyone, however, who contemplates the great distance from Sikyatki to the edge of the mesa may well doubt whether it was possible for the Walpi bowmen to inflict much harm in that way. Moreover, if the word "slingers" is advisedly chosen, it introduces a kind of warfare which is not mentioned in other Tusayan legends, although apparently throwing stones at their enemies was practiced among Pueblos of other stocks in early historic times. 1 'Thus in Castafleda's nccount wo arc told : "Farthor oft" [near Cia?] was another large village where we found in the courtyard* a great number of stono balls of the size of a leather bag, containing one arroba. They seem to have been cast with the aid of machines, and to have been employed in the destruction of tbe village." It is needless for me to say that I find no knowledge of suob. a machine in Tusayan ! fewkes] EAST MESA RUINS DESCRIBED 589 We may suppose, however, that the survivors of both Kiikiichomo and Sikyatki sought refuge in Awatobf after the prehistoric destruction of their pueblos, for both were peopled by clans which came from the east, and naturally went to that village, the founders of which migrated from the same direction. KACHINBA The small ruin at Kachinba, the halting place of the Kachina people, seems to have escaped the attention of students of Tusayan archeology. It lies about six miles from Sikyatki, about east of Walpi, and is approached by following the trail at the foot of the same mesa upon which Kukiichomo is situated. The ruin is located on a small foothill and has a few standing walls. It was evidently diminutive in size and only temporarily inhabited. The best wall found at this ruin lies at the base of the hill, where the spring formerly was. This spring is now filled in, but a circular wall of masonry indicates its great size in former times. TUKINOBI There are evidences that the large hill on top of East Mesa, not far from the twin mounds, was once the site of a pueblo of considerable size, but I have not been able to gather any definite legend about it. Near this ruin is the "Eagle shrine" in which round wooden imitations of eagle eggs are ceremonially deposited, and in the immediate vicinity of which is another shrine near which tracks are cut in the rock, and which were evidently considered by the Indian who pointed them out to me as having been made bv some bird. 1 It is probably from these footprints, which are elsewhere numerous, that the two ruins called Kukiichomo ("footprints mound") takes its name. Jeditoh Valley Ruins As one enters Antelope valley, following the Holbrook road, he finds himself ia what was formerly a densely populated region of Tusayan. This valley in former times was regarded as a garden spot, and the plain was covered with patches of corn, beans, squashes, and chile. The former inhabitants lived in pueblos on the northern side, high up on the mesa which separates Jeditoh valley from Ream's canyon. All of these pueblos are now in ruins, and only a few ISTavaho and Hopi families cultivate small tracts in the once productive fields. The majority of the series of ruins along the northern rim of Antelope valley resemble Awatobi, which is later described in detail. It is inter- esting to note that in the abandonment of villages the same law appears to have prevailed here as in the other Tusayan mesas, for in the shrink- age of the Hopi people they concentrated more and more to the points of the mesas. Thus, at East Mesa, Sikyatki, Kachinba, and Kukiichomo 1 The ceremonials attending to burial of the eagle, whose plumes are used in secret rites, have never been described, and nothing is known of the rites about the Eagle shrine at Tubinobi. 590 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann.17 were destroyed, while Walpi remained. At Middle Mesa, Chukubi and Payiipki became ruins, and in Antelope valley Awatobi was the last of the Jeditoh series to fall. There has thus been a gradual tendency to drift from readily accessible locations to the most impregnable sites, which indicates how severely the Hopi must have been harassed by their foes. It is significant that some of the oldest pueblos were origi- nally built in the most exposed positions, and it may rightly be con- jectured that the pressure on the villagers came long after these sites were chosen. The ancient or original Hopi had a sense of security when they built their first houses, and they, therefore, did not find it neces- sary to seek the protection of cliffs. Many of them lived in the valley of the Colorado Chiquito, others at Kishuba. As time went on, however, they were forced, as were their kindred in other pueblos, to move to inaccessible mesas guarded by vertical cliffs. Of the several ruins of Antelope valley, that on the mesa above Jeditoh or Antelope spring is one of the largest and most interesting. Stephen calls this ruin Mishiptonga, and a plan of the old house is given by Mindeleff. The spring called Kawaika, situated near the former village of the same name, was evidently much used by the ancient accolents of Ante- lope valley. From this neighborhood there was excavated a few years ago a beautiful collection of ancient mortuary pottery objects, which was purchased by Mrs Mary Hemenway, of Boston, and is now in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge. These objects have never been ade- quately described, although a good illustration of some of the speci- mens, with a brief reference thereto, was published by James Mooney 1 a few years ago. Among the most striking objects in this collection are clay models of houses, dishes, and small vases with rims pierced with holes, and rectangular vessels ornamented with pictures of birds. There are specimens of cream, yellow, red, and white pottery in the collection which, judging by the small size of most of the specimens, was apparently votive in character. The ruins called by Stephen "Horn-house" and "Bat-house," as well as the smaller ruin between them, have been described by Mindeleff, who has likewise published plans of the first two From their general appearance I should judge they were not occupied for so long a time as Awatobi, and by a population considerably smaller. If all these Jeditoh pueblos were built by peoples from the Rio Grande, it is possible that those around Jeditoh spring were the first founded aud that Awatobi was of later construction; but from the data at hand the relative age of the ruins of this part of Tusayan can not be determined. There are many ruins situated on the periphery of Tusayan which are connected traditionally with the Hopi, but are not here mentioned. Of these, the so-called " Fire-house" is said to have been the home of ■Eecent Arcnoologic Find in Arizona, American Anthropologist, Washington, July, 1893. fewkes] IMPORTANCE OF AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI 591 the ancestors of Sikyatki, and Kintiel of certain Zuni people akin to the Hopi. Both of the ruins mentioned differ in their architectural features from characteristic prehistoric Tusayan ruins, for they are cir- cular in form, as are many of the ruins in the middle zone of the pueblo area. With these exceptions there are no circular ruins within the area over which the Hopi lay claim, and it is probable that the accolents of Kintiel were more ZuILi than Hopi in kinship. Many ruins north of Oraibi and in the neighborhood of the farming village of Moenkopi are attributed to the Hopi by their traditionists. The ruins about Kishyuba, connected with the Kachina people, also belong to Tusayan. These and many others doubtless offer most impor- tant contributions to an exact knowledge of the prehistoric migrations of this most interesting people. Among the many Tusayan ruins which offer good facilities for arche- ological work, the two which I chose for that purpose are Awatobi and Sikyatki. My reasons for this choice may briefly be stated. Awatobi is a historic pueblo of the Hopi, which was more or less under Spanish influence between the years 1540 and 1700. When properly investigated, in the light of archeology, it ought to present a good picture of Tusayan life before the beginning of the modifications which appear in the modern villages of that isolated province. While I expected to find evidences of Spanish occupancy, I also sought facts bearing on the character of Tusayan life in the seventeenth century. Sikyatki, however, showed us the character of Tusayan life in the fifteenth century, or the unmodified aboriginal pueblo culture of this section of the Southwest. Here we expected to find Hopi culture unmodified by Spanish influence. The three pueblos of Sikyatki, Awatobi, and Walpi, when properly studied, will show the condition of pueblo culture in three centuries — in Sikyatki, pure, unmodified pueblo culture; in Awatobi, pueblo life as slightly modified by the Spaniards, and in Walpi, those changes resulting from the advent of Americans superadded. While special attention has thus far been given by ethnologists mainly to the last- mentioned pueblo, a study of the rains of the other two villages is of great value in showing how the modern life developed and what part of it is due to foreign influence. A knowledge of the inner life of the inhabitants of Tusayan as it exists today is a necessary prerequisite to the interpretation of the ancient culture of that province; but we must always bear in mind the evolution of society and the influences of foreign origin which have been exerted on it. Many, possibly the majority, of modern customs at Walpi are inherited, but others are incorporated and still others, of ancient date, have become extinct. As much stress is laid in this memoir on the claim that objects from Sikyatki indicate a culture uninfluenced by the Spaniards, it is well to present the evidence on which this assertion is based. 592 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ank.it (1) Hopi legends all declare that Sikyatki was destroyed before the Spaniards, called the "long-gowned" and "iron-shirted" men, came to Tusayan. (2) Sikyatki is not mentioned by name in any documentary account of Tusayan, although the other villages are named and are readily identifiable with existing pueblos. (3) No fragment of glass, metal, or other object indicative of the contact of European civilization was found anywhere in the ruin. If we add to the above the general appearance of age in the mounds and the depth of the debris which has accumulated in the rooms and over the graves, we have the main facts on which I have relied to support my belief that Sikyatki is a prehistoric ruin. Awatobi characteristics op the ruin No Tusayan ruin offers to the archeologist a better picture of the character of Hopi village life in the seventeenth century than that known as Awatobi (plate cvn). 1 It is peculiarly interesting as con- necting the prehistoric culture of Sikyatki and modern Tusayan life, with which we have become well acquainted through recent research. Awatobi was one of the largest Tusayan pueblos in the middle of the sixteenth century, and continued to exist to the close of the seven- teenth. It was therefore a historic pueblo. It had a mission, notices of which occur in historical documents of the period. From its pre- ponderance in size, no less than from its position, we may suspect that it held relatively the same leadership among the other Antelope valley ruins that Walpi does today to Sichomovi and Hano. The present condition of the ruins of Awatobi is in no respect pecu- liar or different from that of the remains of prehistoric structures, except that its mounds occupy a position on a mesa top commanding a wide outlook over a valley. On its east it is hemmed in by extensive sand dunes, which also stretch to the north and west, receding from the village all the way from a few hundred yards to a quarter of a mile. On the south the ruins overlook the plain, and the sands on the west separate it from a canyon in which there are several springs, some corn- fields, and one or two modern Hopi houses. There is no water in the valley which stretches away from the mesa on which Awatobi is situ- ated, and the foothills are only sparingly clothed with desert vegeta- tion. The mounds of the ruin have numerous clumps of sibibi (Bhus trilobata), and are a favorite resort of Hopi women for the berries of this highly prized shrub. There is a solitary tree midway between the sand dunes west of the village and the western mounds, near which we found it convenient to camp. The only inhabitants of the Awatobi mesa are a Navaho family, who have appropriated, for the shade it affords, a •For a previous description see the Preliminary Account, Smithsonian Report for 1895; also "Awa tobi: An Archeological Verification of a Tusayan Legend," American Anthropologist, Washington October, 1893. fewkes] EXCAVATION OP AWATOBI 593 dwarf cedar east of the old mission walls. No land is. cultivated, save that in the canyons above mentioned, west of the sand hills; some fair harvests are, however, still gathered from Antelope valley by the Navaho, especially in the section higher up, near Jeditoh spring. The ruin may be approached from the road between Holbrook and Ream's Canyon, turning to the left after climbing the mesa. This road, however, is not usually traveled, since it trends through the difficult sand hills. As Keam's Canyon is the only place in this region at which to provision an expedition, it is usual to approach Awatobi from that side, the road turning to the right shortly after one ascends the steep hill out of the canyon near Keam's trading post. My archeological work at Awatobi began on July 6, 1895, and was continued for two weeks, being abandoned on account of the defection of my Hopi workmen, who left their work to attend the celebration of the Niman or "Farewell" Jcatcina, 1 a July festival in which many of them participated. The ruin is conveniently situated for the best archeological results; it has a good spring near by, and is not far from Keam's Canyon, the base of supplies. The soil covering the rooms, how- ever, is almost as hard as cement, and fragile objects, such as pottery, were often broken before their removal from the matrix. A considerable quantity of debris had to be removed before the floors were reached, and as this was firmly impacted great difficulty was encountered in successful excavations. With a corps of trained workmen much better results than those we obtained might have been expected, and the experience which the Indians subsequently had at Sikyatki would have made my excavations at Awatobi, had they been carried on later in the season, more remu- nerative. While my archeological work at certain points in these inter- esting mounds of Awatobi was more or less superficial, it was in other places thorough, and revealed many new facts in regard to the culture of the inhabitants of this most important pueblo. I found it inexpedient to dig in the burial places among the sand dunes, on account of the religious prejudices of my workmen. This fear they afterward overcame to a certain extent, but never completely outgrew, although the cemeteries , at Sikyatki were quite thoroughly excavated, yielding some of the most striking results of the summer's exploration. The sand hills west of Sikyatki are often swept by violent gales, by which the surface is continually changing, and mortu- ary pottery is frequently exposed. This has always been a favorite place for the collector, and many a beautiful food bowl has *been carried by the Indians from this cemetery to the trading store, for the natives do not seem to object to selling a vase or other object which they find on the surface, but rarely dig in the ground for the purpose of obtaining specimens. T Tliis important ceremony celebrates the departure from the pueblos of ancestral gods called. katcinas, and is one of the most popular in the ritual. 17 ETH, PT 2 9 594 EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895 [eth.ann. 17 NOMENCLATURE OF AWATOBI The name Awatobi is evidently derived from awata, a bow (referring to the Bow clan, one of the strongest in the ancient pueblo), and obi, "high place of." A derivation from owa, rock, has also been suggested, but it seems hardly distinctive enough to be applicable, and is not accepted by the Hopi themselves. While the different pueblos of Tusayan were not specially mentioned until forty years after they were first visited, the name Awatobi is readily recognized in the account of Espejo in 1583, where it is called Aguato, 1 which appears as Zaguato and Ahuato in Hakluyt. 2 Iu the time of Onate (1598) the same name is written Aguatuyba. 3 Vetan- curt, 4 about 1680, mentions the pueblo under the names Aguatobi and Ahuatobi, and in 1692, or twelve years after the great rebellion, Vargas visited " San Bernardo de Aguatuvi," ten It agues from Zuni. The name appears on maps up to the middle of the eighteenth century, several years after its destruction. In more modern times various older spell- ings have been adopted or new ones introduced. Among these may be mentioned : Aguatuvi. Buschmann, Neu-Mexioo, 231, 1858. Aguatoya. Bandelier in Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, m, 85, 1892 (misquoting Onate). Aguitobi. Bandelier in Archaeological Institute Papers, Am. series, in, pt. 1, 115, 1890. Ahdatu. Bandelier, ibid., 115, 135. Ahuatutba. Bandelier, ibid., 109. Ah-wat-tenna. Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, 195, 1884 (so called by a Tusayan Indian). Aquatasi. Walch, Charte America, 1805. Aquatubi. Davis, Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, 368, 1869. Atabi-hogandi. Bourke, op. cit., 84, 1884 (Navaho name). Aua-tu-ui. Bandelier in Archaeological Institute Papers, op. cit., IV, pt. 2, 368, 1892. A-wa-te-u. Cushing in Atlantic Monthly, 367, September, 1882. Awat