6561 
 
A course of elementaiy practical physiol 
 
 3 1924 031 264 934 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031264934 
 
A COUESE 
 
 OF 
 
 ELEMENTAEY 
 PEACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
A COUESE 
 
 OF 
 
 ELEMENTAEY 
 PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY, 
 
 M^lpSTER, M.D., F.R.S., 
 
 TELLOW OF, AND PE^IEOTOE IN PHYSIOLOGY IN, TBIKITT COLLEGE, 
 CAMBBIBQE. 
 
 ASagTED BY 
 
 J.'^.»^NGLEY, B.A., 
 
 ST JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBBIDGE^ 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Hontron : 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 i8;7 
 
 [All Bights reserved.] 
 
PnlNTBD BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. 
 AT THE UNIVEESITY PKESS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Ever since I began teaching Practical Physiology in Univer- 
 sity College, London, I have been in the habit of distributing 
 among my students a syllabus to guide them in their work. 
 By the introduction of fuller details what was at first a 
 Syllabus has been changed into a Practical Course, which 
 I now venture to publish in the hope that it may be found 
 useful to others. 
 
 I fear that its use will be much restricted by the fact that 
 in it Histology and Physiology are closely combined instead 
 of being separated into two or more distinct courses. Although, 
 in practice at least, I stand alone, I believe, in this matter, 
 continued experience makes me more and more convinced 
 that the plan which I adopt is, though troublesome, the safest 
 one. Histological work, unless it be salted with the salt either 
 of physiological or of morphological ideas, is apt to degene- 
 rate into a learned trifling of the very worst description ; and 
 students are generally only too ready to spend far too much 
 of their time in the fascinating drudgery of cutting sections 
 and mounting stained specimens. In morphological ques- 
 tions the physiologist has but an indirect interest; and 
 details of microscopic structure ought only to occupy his 
 attention in so far as they serve as a basis for physiological 
 deductions. The reader in looking through this little book 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 ■will see that in it structure and function go Land in hand. 
 In the case of each tissue or organ, as far as is practicable, the 
 anatomy and histology are first studied, and then without delay 
 the physiology, so that the student may, in learning what is 
 known concerning the action of the part, form an opinion of 
 the relative importance of the structural details. 
 
 The various topics are arranged in the order of my lec- 
 tures', each Lesson containing the practical work corresponding 
 to one or more lectures. Ib> those lectures I first deal with 
 the animal body as a collection of fundamental tissues, each 
 tissue having- a conspicuou-s and characteristic property or 
 characteristic properties, and then consider the ways in which 
 these tissues are arranged in mechanisms, and coordinated 
 into an orgsaiic whole. Thus the student is first introduced 
 to the structure' and properties of blood, muscle, nervous 
 tissue, and what, for want of a better name, I have called 
 'indifferent tissues'. Next comes the vascular mechanism, 
 constructed out of the preceding tissues, and carrying on its 
 work by means of their properties. I have' found it practically 
 convenient thus to break the series of fundamental tissues 
 by the early introduction of this important mechanism. Re- 
 turning to the fundamental tissues, the secreting tissues are 
 next considered, under the divisions of the digestive, with 
 which the lymphatics are not unnaturally taken, the respira- 
 tory, with which comes the respiratory mechanism, and the 
 urinary, the practical work on tha urine being an accompani' 
 ment to lectures on the general facts of nutrition. The great 
 nervous mechanism of the body is then attacked, first as re- 
 gards the special senses and then with reference to the spinal 
 
PEEFACE. Vli 
 
 cord and brain. ■ The Lesson on the larynx is from its very- 
 nature disconnected from the others. The tissues of repro- 
 duction naturally form the subject of the concluding Lesson, 
 
 I have called it an Elementary Course because my class 
 is divided into an Elementary and an Advanced Division, and 
 this work is intended for the former only, I have found 
 it, however, practically convenient to go into some subjects 
 fully in the Elementary Class and to leave certain other sub- 
 jects entirely for tbe advanced class. Thus while, on the 
 one hand, some topics seem t© be treated here in a more 
 than elementary manner; others, on the other hand, e.g. the 
 ear and hearing, binocular vision, &c., are enitirely absent, 
 being reserved for the advanced class. 
 
 I presuppose the student to have gone through a course 
 of Elementary Biology, in ;which he has worked out the 
 Lesions of Prof. Huxley and Dr Martin. He will thus have 
 ^cquired a knowledge of the fundamental principles of Histo- 
 logy and Physiology, know how to use his microscope and 
 possess a good acquainrtamce with the Anatomy of the Frog. 
 The dissection of the dog and the rabbit as directed in Lesson 
 I., in which attention is paid only to details of physiological 
 importance, will at once put him in a position for the study 
 of Physiology, strictly so called. 
 
 The instructions given are generally complete in them- 
 selves ; but the student should have access to the Handbook 
 of the Physiological Laboratory, to which (under the ab- 
 breviation Hdh) he is frequently referred. 
 
 The demonstrations appended to each Lesson illustrate 
 the lecture belonging to the Lesson, and are for the most 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 part observations or experiments too difficult for the student 
 to carry out for himself. A list of them is given merely in 
 order that the student may know what he has to see. No- 
 thing therefore is said about the manner of executing them ; 
 I may, however, remark that none of them are painful, since 
 they are of such a nature that anaesthetics where necessary 
 can always be used. 
 
 The work marked out occupies my class the whole of two 
 terms, i. e. from fifteen to eighteen weeks, the lectures being 
 delivered twice weekly, and the practical work being carried 
 on immediately after the lecture as well as on the interme- 
 diate days. The plan of work, in fact, closely follows that of 
 Prof Huxley in his Elementary Biology. It is, of course, 
 not necessary that all the details of each chapter should be 
 worked over by each student. Practical work of this kind is 
 only of value in so far as it suggests or corrects ideas. The 
 student who has mounted an exquisitely thin and beautifully 
 stained section, is only just so much the worse for his pains 
 (as far as physiology is concerned), if he does not understand 
 what the section means. Hence, when the features of some 
 of the fundamental tissues and the general working of the 
 more important mechanisms have been really learnt, and the 
 student has got, by doing things for himself, to know the 
 value of a physiological experiment and the pitfalls that are 
 hidden under carmine and Canada balsam, he may be safely 
 trusted to fill in the details of his study by means of refer- 
 ence to mounted specimens and to mere demonstrations or 
 even to descriptions of experiments. How much practical 
 work is needed by each student must depend on a variety of 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 circumstances; and the choice of subjects studied in detail 
 ought to be varied from time to time. In the Lessons, there- 
 fore,, selection has been exercised to a very limited extent, 
 and most of the topics have been treated with equal fulness. 
 
 In no case whatever are the directions given intended to 
 be exhaustive. In the use of reagents, in the details of the 
 microscopical work, and in the various experiments, the 
 counsels given are those which have, on the whole, been 
 found most useful for students in the laboratory. They are not 
 in any way to be considered as forming a practical treatise 
 on Histology or Physiology. That ground is already occupied 
 by the Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory, to which 
 the present little book may be looked upon as an intro- 
 duction. 
 
 So much of the labour of preparing this volume for the 
 press has fallen on my able Demonstrator, Mr J. N. Langley, 
 B.A., of St John's College, that his name naturally appears 
 on the title-page as well as my own. To Prof. Huxley and 
 to Dr H. N. Martin I am indebted for much valuable advice. 
 
 M. FOSTER. 
 
 Teiniiy Colleoe, Cambeidoe, 
 May, 1876. 
 
LESSON I. 
 
 DISSECTION OF A EABBIT AND OF A DOG. 
 
 'A. 1. Make a median incision througli the skin, down the 
 whole length of the front of the body from the neck 
 to the pubis, and reflect the skin as far as posdble on 
 both sides. 
 
 Observe the thin, pale, abdominal muscles. These, in 
 the rabbit, are indistinct and need not be specially 
 studied. 
 
 In the Dog observe 
 
 a. The tendinous aponeuroses of the abdominal muscles 
 forming in the middle line the white linea alha. 
 
 b. The extemus qbliquus abdominis, a thin muscle, with 
 descending fibfes, stretching from the rihs above and 
 from the back to the linea alba and the pubis. 
 
 c. The recti abdominis, one on either side of the middle 
 line, covered by the tendon of the extemus obliquus. 
 
 If b be carefully reflected, there wiU. be seen underneath : 
 
 d. The intemus obliquus abdominis, with ascending fibres ; 
 and underneath the upper part of this 
 
 e. The transversalis abdominis. 
 
 1 K. B. A and B ahonld be carried out on the first day, in order that the 
 viscera may be useful for microscopic observation, and the brain in good con- 
 dition. If for any reason the dissection be delayed beyond the first day, the 
 sections which are marked with an asterisk should be omitted. ' 
 
i ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [l. 
 
 2. Divide the abdominal wall carefully (so as to avoid 
 wounding the intestine) in the middle line from 
 the sternum to the pubis. From the middle of this 
 incision make transverse incisions through the ab- 
 dominal walls. Hook or pin back the four flaps. 
 
 3. Simply turning the parts over without cutting or • 
 tearing anything, trace out as far as possible the 
 alimentary canal, making out the stomach, duodenum, 
 jejunum passing without any distinct alteration 
 into the ileum, the dark sacculated caecum with 
 appendix vermiformis, the large intestine, (puckered 
 near the csecum, but in its course becoming smoother 
 and containing balls of faeces,) and lastly the rectum. 
 (The student should avoid mistaking the csecum for 
 the Is-rge intestine,) 
 
 4. Trace out the mesentery which supports the intestine ; 
 observe its attachment to the vertebral column behind, 
 its continuity with the lining membrane (peritoneum) 
 of the a,bdominal cavity, and the manner in which the 
 blood-vessels run in it. 
 
 Observe in the Dog the loose fold of mesentery loaded with 
 fat, hanging from the lower border of the stomach and 
 forming the great omentum. * 
 
 ,5. Observe the spleen, an elongated dark red body lying 
 near the broad end of the stomach to which it is 
 attached by a mesenteric fold (gastro-splenic omentum). 
 
 6. Gently stretch out the duodenum and observe in the 
 mesentery belonging to it, the diffuse, pale red pan- 
 creas; trace the entrance of the pancreatic duct into 
 the duodenum, rather more than a foot below the 
 pylorus. 
 
 In the Dog the pancreatic duct ia close to the entrance 
 pf the bile-duct (see § 10), 
 
I.] DISSECTION OP A BABBIT AND OF A DOG. $ 
 
 7. Turning the stomach and intestines over to the right 
 side, observe the dorsal aorta* descending through 
 the diaphragm and giving off first the coeliac 
 artery, and next the superior mesenteric artery. 
 Just above the latter lies the left supra-renal body, 
 and a little above this, lying in the angle between the 
 9,orta and superior mesenteric artery, is the transparent 
 cceliac ganglion, seen through the peritoneal mem- 
 brane. Kunning into this, and crossing the aorta to do 
 so, may be seen the left splanchnic nerve. Trace the 
 latter up to the diaphragm. To see these structures 
 more distinctly, the peritoneum and any fat which 
 may be present can be gently removed, care being 
 taken not to injure the splanchnic nerve. 
 
 Observe at the same time on the oesophagus the end 
 of the left pneumogastric nerve, and trace out the 
 branches of it proceeding to the cceliac ganglion. 
 
 8. Then turning the stomach and intestines over to the 
 left side, carefully tear away the connective tissue 
 round the right supra-renal body. Underneath this, 
 or very nearly so, will be seen the right coeliac ganglion, 
 not so large as the left, but having the splanchnic in 
 connection with it. Trace out this latter. 
 
 In the Dog the right coeliac ganglion is a little in front of, 
 and nearer the middle line than the sijpra/-renal body. 
 Note the number of pale nerves which are given off, 
 proceeding more especially to the stomach, Uver and 
 kidneys. 
 
 The left coeliac ganglion will be found in a corresponding 
 position on the other side, 
 
 ^ The arteries may be distinguished from the veins by their containing 
 after death little or no blood, and therefore appearing of a bluish ■white 
 colour, vdth a central tint of pink, whereas the veins are of a fuU dark 
 jnaroon colour. 
 
' ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGT. [i. 
 
 9. With the stomach and duodenum still tamed' to the 
 left side, trace out the union of the mesenteric, 
 splenic, and gastric veins to form the vena ports, 
 and the entrance of that vein into the liver. Observe 
 the vena cava inferior, and entrance into iti of the 
 hepatic veins. 
 
 10. Trace out the hepatic dnct, its union with the cjstic 
 duct, and the entrance of the common bile-duct into 
 the duodenum, close to the pylorus. 
 
 11. Trace out the division of the cceliac artery into the 
 hepatic, splenic, and gastric arteries: trace out also 
 the main branches of the superior mesenteric artery. 
 
 12. Place a ligature round the rectum and another round 
 the oesophagus, and cut through the rectum and oeso- 
 phagus a little above the ligatures. Place also two 
 ligatures round the vena cava, one just below the 
 liver, and the other just above that organ, close to the 
 diaphragm. Divide between the ligatures and cut 
 free the liver, taking care not to injure the dia- 
 phragm. Cut through the mesentery and remove 
 from the abdomen the alimentary canal and its 
 appendages. 
 
 *13. Cut off several small pieces of the liver, about the size 
 
 of a bean, and place them in Miiller's Fluid. Change 
 
 the fluid next day; and after three weeks transfer to 
 
 50 per cent, alcohol, leave two days and transfer to 
 
 75 per cent., leave one day and then put in absolute 
 
 alcohol until required for sections. 
 
 Jn the following sectioTis, when tissues are directed to be 
 
 placed in Mullet's Fhmd, •potassium or ammonivm li- 
 
 clvromate, chromic add, &c.; it is to he understood tlicet 
 
 they are to he subsequently treated as abcrve with alcohol, 
 
 unless the contrary is stated. 
 
l] dissection of a EABBIT AlfD OF A DOG. 5 
 
 11. Cut away the mesentery from the alimentary canal, 
 and trace out the latter along its whole length, ob- 
 serving more fully the features mentioned in § 3, and 
 noting in addition the white patches (Peyer's patches) 
 on the free surface of the ileum, and the spotted ap- 
 pearance of the vermiform appendix due to lymph- 
 follicles. 
 
 Note in. the Dog, the shorter length of the intestine,, the 
 
 smaller csecum, and the less difference between the 
 
 large and small intestine. 
 *15. In the Dog (if dissected within 24 hours of ite death) 
 
 a. Cut some of the pancreas into small bits the size of 
 
 peas, and place in absolute alcohol. 
 6. Mince the remainder, remove as much fat as possible, 
 
 dry with blotting-paper, and cover with glycerine. 
 
 *16. Lay open the stomach, throw away the contents, and 
 wash the surface once with normal saline solution. 
 
 a. Cut out small pieces of the middle region (one 
 inch square) and place in Miiller's Fluid. 
 
 h. Place similar pieces at once into absolute al- 
 cohoL 
 
 c. PlSce in alcohol, or Miiller's Fluid, one or two 
 small pieces, taken from the pyloric end. 
 
 d. From a piece of the middle region of the stomach 
 remove the mucous membrane from the mus- 
 cular coat; mince the former finely; dry it 
 somewhat by pressing it between blotting-paper, 
 and cover it with strong glycerine in a small 
 flask or bottle. 
 
 - 17. Wash out the duodenum, observe the openings of the 
 biliary and pancreatic ducts, and carefully pass a 
 bristle through them into the ducts. 
 
■fiLEMENTART PHYSIOLOGY. [I- 
 
 18. Lay open a portion of the jejunum, wash it, and exa- 
 mine the villi with a lens* 
 
 *19. l^ay open another portion, about 2 inches long, wasli 
 it once with normal salt solution, divide it into half a 
 dozen pieces. Place some in chromic acid, S per cent, 
 and others in MiiUer's Fluid. Lay open several inches 
 of the ileum by an incision carried along the mesen- 
 teric attachment. Cut out the Peyer's patches, and 
 place them in Mliller's Fluid. 
 
 20i Take a piece of the large intestine, cut it open and 
 Wash, look at it with lens; there are no villi. 
 
 21. . Place two or three small pieces of the spleen in 
 
 ammon. bichrom, 5 per cent. 
 
 22, Remove with a moist sponge ^ny blood in the abdo- 
 minal cavity; observe the mesenteric glands. 
 
 2S. Note the position of the supra-renal bodies. 
 
 24. Note the position of the kidneys, the left being much 
 nearer the pelvis than the right; trace out the renal 
 artery and vein. Observe the ureter, a pale semi- 
 transparent duct passing downwards from the kidney 
 over the muscles of the back, towards the middle 
 line; trace it down to its end in the urinary bladder. 
 
 25. If a female, observe the utsrus, with its two cornua 
 prolonged into the Fallopian tubes. Near the end of 
 each Fallopian tube will be seen a small, somewhat 
 oval, spotted body, the ovary. If a male, observe 
 the testis in its serous pouch, the epididymis, and 
 the vas deferens; trace the vasa deferentia to their 
 entrance into the ■uretlira. 
 
I.] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT ANB OF A DOGf, 7 
 
 26. Divide the symphysis pubis, stretch the two halves 
 apart^ and with the bone-forceps cut away as much 
 bone on each side as may be necessary. Observe 
 the prostate, surrounding the first part of the urethra. 
 Lay open the bladder, observe its neck, ending in 
 the urethra, and the entrance at the base of the 
 two ureters. Pass a probe down each ureter into the 
 bladder, 
 
 *27. Divide one kidney longitudinally, aad observe the 
 cortex, medulla, and pelvis. Divide one half into four 
 or five pieces, each containing cortex and medulla, and 
 treat some with ammon. bichrom.; the rest with 
 absolute alcohol. 
 
 *2S. a. Make two or three incisions into the ovary, and 
 treat it with chromic acid '5 per cent. 
 
 h. Cut off two or three pieces of testis, and one 
 or two of the epididymis, not larger than a pea, 
 and treat with Miiller's Fluid. 
 
 *29. Cut off one or two pieces of bladder, and treat with 
 Miiller's Fluid. 
 
 B. 1. Make a median incision over the skull fi;om the nose 
 to behind the level of the ears. Reflect the skin on 
 each side. Cut away the attachment of the muscles 
 of the neck to the occiput until the occipito-atlan- 
 toidean membrane between the occiput and the atlas 
 is laid bare. Carefully divide this with scissors and 
 observe the medulla oblongata. 
 
 With a trephine saw through the roof of the skull in 
 its broadest part, a little behind the orbits, working 
 
■ ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. [l' 
 
 very carefully wben the bone is nearly sawn through. 
 With an elevator raise the circular piece of bone and 
 remove it. Then with the bone-forceps cut away 
 piecemeal the rest of the roof of the skull. 
 Observe the smooth cerebral hemispheres, somewhat 
 triangular in form ; in front of these and separated 
 from theili by a constriction, the elongated olfactory 
 lobes. Behind the cerebral hemispheres lies the lami- 
 nated cerebellnm (the outlying lateral portions of 
 which are lodged in pits in the skull), and behind this 
 again is seen the medulla obloug^ata with the fourth 
 ventricle. On the surfafce of the cerebrum may be 
 seen the dura mater and pia mater, but these are 
 better seen in the dog. 
 
 2. In the Dog observe 
 
 a. The dura mater, a thick and very resistant membrane ; 
 its prolongation between the cerebral hemispheres as 
 the /alx cerebri and between the cerebellum and cere- 
 brum as the fentorkim. 
 
 i. The pia mater, underneath (a), and immediately cover- 
 ing the brain ; note the blood-vessels running in it. 
 
 c. The relative sizes of cerebrum and cerebellum. 
 
 d. The general appearance of the cerebral convolutions. 
 
 3. With a scalpel divide the front of the cerebral hemi- 
 spheres from the olfactory lobes. Lift up with . the 
 handle of a scalpel the extreme front of the cerebrum, 
 and turning it backwards bring into view the optic 
 nerves. Cut these through with a sharp pair of 
 scissors close to the skull. Still turning the brain 
 back cut through successively all the other cranial 
 nerves. A little behind the optic nerve is the small 
 but evident third nerve (motor oculi), close behind 
 
I.] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND 01' A DOG. 9 
 
 tliis the considerably smaller fourth nerve (trochlear), 
 farther back in the hollow behind the attachment of 
 the tentorium lies the thick fifth nerve, to the median 
 side of which the small sixth (abducens) is fairly 
 conspicuous. A little behind and to the outside of 
 the fifth, in the hard petrous bone are seen together 
 the seventh (facial) and eighth (auditory). Some 
 distance back and nearer the middle line come the 
 ninth (glossopharyngeal), tenth (pneumogastric), and 
 the small eleventh (spinal accessory). Lastly, still 
 farther back is the twelfth (hypoglossal). Finally, 
 cut through the spinal cord below the medulla oblon- 
 gata, and remove the brain entirely. 
 The outlying lateral portions of the cerebellum will 
 probably be left in the skull. Do not injure the skull 
 in attempting to get them out. 
 
 4. Placing the brain bottom upwards observe the super- 
 ficial origin of the above cranial nerves. (These will 
 be studied more carefully in a subsequent lesson.) 
 Place the brain in spirit. 
 
 . 5. In the Dog repeat § 3 and 4, observing in addition the 
 basilar artery uniting with the internal carotid arteries to 
 form the circle of Willis, which will be seen more dis- 
 tinctly in the dog than in the rabbit. 
 
 *6. Eemove one eye, puncture the cornea, make a slight 
 incision in the thin part of the scleirotic behind 
 the cornea and place it in strong spirit. 
 
 G. 1. Examine the diaphragm, marking well its shape ; ob- 
 serve the central tendon and the i^adiating muscular 
 
10. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, [i- 
 
 bundles, their attachnieiit to the chest-wdls ; the 
 orifices of the CBSophagus, aorta, and vena cava. 
 
 2. Make similar observations on the Dog, where the 
 diaphragmatic muscles are much more fully developed. 
 
 3. Through the transparent tendon of the diaphragm 
 the lungs are visible in close contact with it. Punc- ;• 
 ture the tendon, and observe the collapse of the lungs 
 upon the entrance of air into the pleural cavity. 
 
 In the Dog 
 
 4. Observe the peatoralis muscle consisting of the sternal 
 and costal pectoral, the former partly overlying the 
 latter. Cut through the sternal pectoral in its middle • 
 and reflect the two ends. Observe its attachment to 
 the upper part of the sternum and to the humerus. 
 Observe the attachment of the costal pectoral along 
 the greater part of the sternum below the sternal 
 pectoral. 
 
 5. Observe the costal cartilages and their connection with 
 * the ribs and sternum. 
 
 6. Obser've the serratus magnus proceeding from the 
 whole length of the internal border of the scapula to 
 the first seven ribs. Cut this through the middle. 
 
 7. Note the course of the fibres of one of the external 
 intercostals about an inch from the end of the bony rib. 
 Trace it forward to about the juncture of the rib and 
 cartilage where it ends in a free border and the fibres 
 of the internal intercostal pass beneath it. Beginning 
 at this free border remove the external intercostal, 
 laying bare the internal intercostal; trace also the 
 intercartilagiaous part of the latter. 
 
 8. Turning the animal on its side obssrve the serratus 
 anticus, arising from a single flat tendon lost amongst 
 
} biSSECTIOK OF A RABBIT AND OF A BOG< 11 
 
 the muscles of the neck and dividing into bundles 
 going front the 4th rib to the 10th inclusive* 
 
 S4 Diss6ct away the conspicuous longitudinal muscles 
 coTering the vertebral ends of the ribs, and observe 
 the levcftores costarum arising from the transverse 
 processes of the dorsal vertebrae and proceeding to 
 the ribs below. 
 
 lO. Cut through the costal cartilages at their junction 
 with the ribs, beginning at the second; diyide the 
 sternum between the 1st and 2nd ribsj and remove the 
 sternum with the cartilage, While removing it ob-/ 
 serve the mediastinum separating the two pleural 
 cavities. 
 
 *11. Place a small piece of costal cartilage in Miiller' s fluid. 
 
 12. Observe the pericardium, lay it open, 
 
 13. Observe the vena cava inferior — and, on each side 
 of the mediastinum the phrenic nerve distributed 
 to the muscles of the diaphragm. Trace the phrenic 
 nerve up until it is lost in the tissue at the top of the 
 chest. Avoid cutting it. 
 
 14. Prolong the median skin incision to the chin and re- 
 flect the skin as far as possible. Observe on each side 
 the external jugular vein dividing into two branches ; 
 avoid wounding it. 
 
 15. Cut through in the middle line the thin superficial 
 muscle (platysma) ; draw it to one side, clearing away 
 the connective tissue. Lying on either side of the 
 muscles immediately surrounding the trachea will be 
 seen the sterno-mastoid muscle diverging from the 
 lower part of the neck. Separate this and draw it to 
 
12 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [l- 
 
 one side ; there -will be seen the carotid artery, and 
 running along the outer side of it the puexiiuogastric 
 nerve. Free in one place the carotid, and lift it up 
 with forceps. In the underlying connective tissue 
 will he seen two nerves more or less closely united ; 
 the larger is the sympathetic, the smaller the su- 
 perior cardiac (depressor), 
 
 16. Clear away the connective tissue from the artery. 
 Passing over it at the level of the larynx will be seen 
 the descendens noni. Cut this through and remove 
 it entirely. Passing underneath the carotid nearly at 
 the same level is the superior laryngeal branch of 
 the pneumdgastric. Trace this with especial care; 
 soon after it leaves the pneumogastric it will be seen 
 to give off a sma,ll nerve, the depressor. Follow this 
 down the neCk, separating it from the •sympathetic. 
 Sometimes the depressor receives a branch direct 
 from the pneumogastric. Occasionally this is its sole 
 origin. 
 
 17. Remove the first rib and the remains of the sternum, 
 avoiding any injury to, the tissues below. Observe the 
 thymus, a fatty looking body covering the roots of 
 the great vessels. It may be torn away. 
 
 Trace out on each side the junction of the jugular 
 and subclavian veins to form respectively the right 
 and left vensB cavae superiores. 
 
 18. Observe the right vena cava superior passing straight 
 down to join the right auricle; the left vena cava 
 superior passing obliquely downwards underneath 
 the left auricle to join the right auricle; and the 
 inferior vena cava passing upwards from the dia- 
 phragm to join the right auricle. 
 
I.]] DISSECTION OF A BABBIT AND OT A DOG. 13 
 
 19. Trace up the phrenic nerve. It makes its way out of 
 the thorax by the side of the superior vena cava, and 
 then passes beneath it. Place a double ligature 
 round the vein Mid divide between the ligatures. Fol- 
 low up the phrenic ,to its origin from the 4th and 
 5th (land also from the 6th and 7th) cervical nerves. 
 
 20. Trace out the arch of the aorta by clearing away the 
 tissue from its upper surface. Take care not to 
 injure the pneumogastric nerves (see next section). 
 ObseiTe on the right side the innominate artery, 
 which gives off first the left carotid, and then divides 
 into the right subclavian and right carotid; on the 
 left side the left subclavian. 
 
 21. Trace both pneumogastric nerves downwards, ob- 
 serving the recurrent laryngeal branches passing on 
 the. right side round the subclavian artery, and on 
 the left round the aorta. Place a double ligature 
 round the innominate artery and divide between the 
 ligatures. Trace the recurrent laryngeal nerves along 
 the back of the trachea to the larynx. Pursue the 
 main pneumogastric trunks on the oesophagus to the 
 point where they were seen in A, § 6. 
 
 22. Trace the sympathetic nerve downwards to the in- 
 ferior cervical ganglion lying a little above the sub- 
 clavian artery, and close to the vertebral artery; 
 follow it thence to the first thoracic ganglion. 
 Observe the branches going from these ganglia to the 
 heart. Observe also the depressor nerve passing to 
 the heart. 
 
 From the first thoracic ganglion trace down the 
 thoracic sympathetic lying, on the. heads .of the ribs 
 
H ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [t 
 
 Tvitli tlie ganglia (twelve in all) and the rami com- 
 mnuicantes. 
 
 Trace out the splanchnic on one side ; it ■will be 
 - found to separate from the sympathetic at the 8th, 
 9th, or 10th thoracic ganglion. At first sight it 
 appears to be the continuation of the sympathetic 
 instead of a branch of it ; since the sympathetic at its 
 lower part becomes more transparent, and running in 
 a groove between two muscles, is rather easily over- 
 looked. 
 
 The splanchnic receives branches from each of the 
 thoracic sympathetic ganglia below its origin. 
 
 23. Cut out the heart with the lungs attached and trace 
 the pulmonary arteries and veins. 
 The heart may here be dissected by help of the direc- 
 tions given for the dissection of a sheep's heart in 
 Lesson XI., or its dissection may be omitted. 
 
 2i. Having reflected on either side the skin of the neck 
 of the Dog, and cleared away the fascia of connective 
 tissue, observe the muscles underneath. 
 
 a, The sterno-hyoid one on either side of the median 
 line, 
 
 hf The stemo-thyroid lying immediately outside (a) 
 for the greater part of its length. 
 
 c. The thyro-hyoid, a pmall muscle of the larynx 
 external to (a) in the upper part of its course. 
 
 d. The sterno-masfoid external to (b) ^nd covering 
 it near the hyoid bone, thence it proceeds 
 outwards, and disappears under a white oval 
 mass, the submaxillary gland. 
 
 25. Carefully separate the sterno-mastoid from the sterno- 
 thyroid; the sympathetic-pneumogastiic trunk and 
 the carotid artery will come intg yiew^ 
 
1.] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG, 15 
 
 26. Observe the following points in whicli the Dog diflfers 
 from- the Eabbit ; 
 
 a. There is but one superior vena cava formed 
 by the junctioq. of the two innominate veins. 
 
 p. There is in the neck no separate nerve cor- 
 responding to the depressor in the rabbit. 
 
 y. The sympathetic is intimately united with 
 the pneumpgastric in the greater part of its 
 course. Low down in the neck it separates 
 from the pneumogastric, though still running 
 in the same sheath with it, until it reaches 
 the inferior cervical ganglion. Issuing from 
 this it diverges from the pneumogastric, 
 going to the large rod-shaped first dorsal 
 ganglion, 
 
 D. 1. Make an incision over the knee, and remove the skin 
 for some distance above and below it. Observe the 
 fascia covering the muscles of the thigh and leg, 
 the fibrous capsule of the knee-joint, and the patella, 
 
 2. Remove the fascia, dissect out the lower part of some 
 of the muscles of the thigh, cutting them across in 
 the middle, and observe the attachment, direct or 
 by tendon, to the bones, and the continuation in some 
 cases (e. g. muse, sartorius, the thin broad muscle 
 running obliquely across the thigh) of their tendons 
 into the capsule of the knee-joint. 
 
 3. Observe' the lateral ligaments or fibrous strengthen- 
 ings of the capsule., 
 
 4. Move the joint until the edges of the femur and of the 
 tibia are felt, and make a transverse incision through 
 the capsule between the two bones, Obse]?ve the 
 synovial fluid, 
 
16 . ' ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [l, 
 
 5. Bend the knee so as to bring the crucial lig^aments 
 into view and divide them; divide also the lateral liga- 
 ments, and expose completely the ends of the bonfes. 
 
 6. Examine the extent of the synovial sac. Observe the 
 articular ends of the bones, their cartilaginous cover- 
 ings, and their form. Observe the interarticular 
 cartilages. 
 
 7. Eemove the fascia, and clean any one of the muscles 
 of the leg. 
 
 Observe its attachment to the tibia (or fibula) above, 
 notice^ the fascicular construction of the muscle ; the 
 entrance of nerves and blood-vessels. Observe how 
 the muscular bundles end below in the tendon. 
 
 8. .Trace the tendon down into the foot. Observe its 
 
 synovial sheath. 
 
 E. The Student should have a rabbit's and a dog's skull 
 before him, and make out the several openings by 
 which the nerves spoken of below issue from the skull. 
 
 1. Sever the neck at its lower part from the trunk, and 
 reflect the skin from the side of the head. Place 
 the head on one side. At the base of the ear will be 
 seen the small parotid gland. From its anterior border 
 issues the facial (7th) nerve, branching almost im- 
 mediately; these branches may be traced to certain 
 ; facial muscles. 
 
 v^2. Carefully pushing upwards the facial nerve close to 
 the parotid gland, the small pale duct of Stenon 
 will be seen. Satisfy yourself that it is a duct, by 
 gently pushing a bristle down it. Its course need 
 not be traced. 
 The duct is seen much more readily in the dog. 
 
!•] / DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 17 
 
 ^\$. Dissecting away the parotid gland, trace the facial 
 nerve to its exit from the skull by the stylo-mastoid 
 foramen ; observing the branches going to the muscles 
 of the ear. Whilst still in the skuU the facial gives 
 off the chorda tympani. See § 13. 
 
 —^4. Behind the parotid gland will be seen a nerve running 
 from the under surface of the sterno-mastoid muscle, 
 dividing into two branches, and passing up the 
 ear. This is the great auricular, which arises from 
 the Srd cervical nerve, and is the main sensory nerve 
 for the ear. Trace as far as possible its course in the 
 ear. 
 
 5. Place the head resting on the lower jaw, and clear 
 away the skin from the base of the ear ; a somewhat 
 flat piece of cartilage will come into view. In the 
 normal animal this can be felt by passing the finger 
 from the occipital spine outwards towards the ear, 
 Through this cartilage runs another sensory nerve 
 of the ear, the posterior auricular. Carefully clear 
 away the connective tissue on either side of the 
 cartilage, and trace the nerve forwards into the ear. 
 Trace it also backwards along the neck, to its origin 
 from the 2nd cervical nerve. 
 
 6. Now follow up the course of the pneumogastrio from 
 the place where it was left in C. § 16. A little 
 above the superior laryngeal branch will be seen the 
 pharyngeal nerve. Still a little higher up, the trunk 
 presents a fusiform enlargement, the ganglion of 
 the trunk. Note the large nerve (hypoglossal) run- 
 ning across the pneumogastric a little below the 
 ganglion. Observe at the same time the sympathetic 
 nerve passing into the superior cervical ganglion. 
 
 L. 2 
 
ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. [l. 
 
 In the dog the united sympathetic-pneumogastric trunk 
 divides at this point into the sympathetic -with its 
 ganglion, and the pneumogastric with its ganglion. 
 
 7. In the dog, in -which the skin has been reflected, the 
 outline of a .muscle attached to the inner part of the 
 extremity of the lo-wer jaw will be seen, this is the 
 digastric. Clear away as much as possible the con- 
 nective tissue surrounding it, carefully cut it through, 
 and turn back the cut ends; the suhmamlla/ry duct 
 will be seen running from the submaxillary gland, 
 and passing underneath the mylohyoid muscle. 
 
 Cat through the middle of the latter, parallel to 
 the jaw, taking care not to injure the tissues below ; 
 reflect the cut ends. In the fascia below the muscle 
 will be seen the continuation of the submaxillary 
 duct. Crossing the duct not far from the free lower 
 border of the mylohyoid muscle runs a nerve, the 
 Ivngiml or gustatory, a branch of the Sth. It is seen 
 coming from underneath the jaw, and passing on to 
 the tongue. Just before it crosses the duct it gives ofi' 
 a small branch, chorda tympani, which turning back 
 runs to the duct, and thence to the gland. In the 
 triangle formed by lingual, chorda, and duct, lies the 
 small submaxillary ganglion. 
 
 In the middle line is seen the hypoglossal passing to 
 the muscles of the tongue. 
 
 8. Trace the chorda tympani back towards the gland. 
 Trace the lingual towards the tongue, it will be found 
 to be mainly distributed to the tip of the tongue. 
 
 , 9. Trace the submaxillary duct f5rom the gland on towards 
 the tongue. Lying on it in its course is seen the 
 small lobulated svhUngucd gland, and issuiog from 
 the gland, the sublingual duct. The two ducts (the 
 sublingual being the smallest) run together. 
 
I DISSECTION OF A BABBIT AND OF A DOG. 19 
 
 10. In. the rabbit when the skin and underlying fascia 
 have been reflected, there -will be seen between the 
 angles of the jaw the tolerably compact submaxillary 
 glands meeting one another in the middle line. Trace 
 forward the duct and make out as in the dog the 
 lingual and hypoglossal nerves. The chorda tympani, 
 being small, will not be easily seen. 
 
 11. Partly saw through the symphysis menti, then use a 
 ' lever and force the rami asunder, and in the following 
 
 dissection cut through or remove any muscles necessary. 
 
 12. Trace the lingual backwards. It wiU be found to join 
 the inferior dentary (a large nerve entering into the 
 lower jaw), to constitute, with other branches, the 
 inferior maxillary nerve. Trace this back to the 
 front edge of the tympanic bulla. 
 
 13. The lingual, almost immediately after its leaving the 
 inferior maxillary, receives a smaU nerve, the chorda 
 tympani. Carefully trace the latter backwards; it 
 will be found to make its exit from the skull by 
 the Glaserian fissure, near and rather to the outside 
 of the tympanic bulla. 
 
 If this is not seen in the rabbit, it should be traced out 
 in, the dog. 
 
 14. Trace the hypoglossal nerve forwards from its point 
 of crossing the pneumogastric. It wiU be found to 
 terminate in the muscles of the tongue. 
 
 15. Trace up the pneumogastric beyond its ganglion, to 
 near its exit from the skull by the foramen jugulare; 
 (observe the foramen on the prepared skuU), 
 
 Note, passing from the skull with the pneumogastric, 
 the small spinal accessory nerve behind and the 
 glosso-pharyngeal in front, 
 
 2—2 
 
20 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [l. 
 
 ,16. Trace the glosso-pharyngeal forwards to the tongue 
 and pharynx, It runs somewhat parallel to, but at a 
 higher level than, the hypoglossal, and may be traced 
 to the hinder part and to the sides of the tongue. 
 
 17. Cut through the above three nerves, at some distance 
 from the skull, break away with small bone forceps 
 the tympaiiic bulla, and trace back more thoroughly 
 the exit from the skull of these nerves and of the 
 hypoglossal. The latter issues through the condyloid 
 foramen, yhich is separated by a distinct width of 
 bone from the foramen jugulare, through which the 
 other three issue. 
 
 18. Sa^4hrough the base of the skull and the face, from 
 the occiput to the nose, nearly in the median line, 
 but leave the nasal septum entire on one half. Divide 
 carefully with a scalpel the soft palate and the roof 
 and back of pharynx. 
 
 Observe the cavity of the nose, the anterior and pos- 
 terior nares, the turbinate bones, and the Schneiderian 
 membrane. 
 
 19. Looking down into the pharynx, observe the epiglot- 
 tis at the root of the tongue, the glottis of the larynx 
 and the vocal cords. 
 
 Look at the side of the pharynx for the opening of the 
 Eustachian tube, pass a probe up it into the tympanic 
 cavity. Pass another probe down the meatus exter- 
 nus and, rupturing the membrana tympani, make 
 sure that the first probe has entered into the tym- 
 panic cavity. 
 
 20. Eemove the larynx. Observe the position and rela- 
 tions of the hyoid bone. Divide the larynx by a me- 
 
I.}] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 21 
 
 dian incision in front, observe the vocal cords, the 
 arytenoid, cricoid and thyroid cartilages. 
 
 In the Dog put the larynx in weak spirit, for 
 dissection at a later period. 
 
 21. With a pair of bone forceps remove piecemeal the 
 roof of the orbit which still contains the eye, leaving 
 a broad ring of bone round the optic nerve. Imbedded 
 in the fat -will be found the muscles of the eyeball. 
 Trace out the origin and insertion of the four recti 
 and two ohliqui. 
 
 22. Immediately below, arid in front of the eye, the 
 superior maxillary nerve will be found issuing 
 from a foramen in the superior maxillary bone, to 
 supply the skin of the face, &c., with sensory fibres. 
 Cutting away the bone with a small pair of bone 
 forceps, trace this nerve back along the floor of the 
 orbit. 
 Trace at the same time the inferior maxillary nerve. 
 
 23. In the upper part of the intact orbit of the Dog will 
 be found a nerve, the ophthahnia nerve. It passes from 
 the front of the orbit to the forehead. 
 
 24. These three, the ophthalmic, the superior and the in- 
 ferior maxillary nerves, when traced back, will be found 
 to unite into one large nerve, the fifth or trigeminal. 
 Observe on the nerve at the junction of the three 
 branches, the swelling of the Gasserian ganglion. 
 Observe also that the nerve in leaving the brain has 
 two roots, a small and a large, that the small root passes 
 beside the ganglion on the large root, without entering 
 into it, and that the fibres of the small root are beyond 
 the ganglion, almost entirely confined to the third or 
 inferior maxillary branch. 
 
LESSON II. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF BLOOD. 
 
 A. Blood of Frog or Newt. 
 
 1. Place a drop of blood on a glass slide and close to it 
 place a drop of nonnal saline solution, but so that they 
 do not run into one another. Carefully cover with a 
 cover-slip, avoiding air-bubbles. At the line of junc- 
 tion of the two drops the corpuscles are few, and can 
 there be best examined for special characters. Look 
 at the slide first with the naked eye, then with objective 
 no. 3 or 4, and finally with objective no. 7 or 8. 
 
 2, Examine the red corpnscles, and observe that 
 
 a. Each red corpuscle is a flattened oval, of some 
 breadth when viewed flat, narrow when seen in 
 profile, 
 
 i. Seen singly, each corpuscle appears to be of a 
 pale yellow colour, the tint being equally diffused 
 throughout its substance. Where several cor- 
 puscles lie one over the other, they together 
 appear red. 
 
 *. In a carefully prepared specimen, many of the 
 corpuscles appear homogeneous ; in others there 
 is visible, owing to changes which have taken 
 place, a central slightly darker spot, the nucleus. 
 
J . STEUCTUEE OP BLOOD. 23^ 
 
 d. There is a very considerable uniformity in the 
 size of the red corpuscles. Measure the long and 
 short axes of two or three. The simplest mode 
 of measuring objects under the microscope is as 
 follows : 
 
 Place a drawing-pad in a firm position close to 
 and on a level with the stage of the microscope. 
 Looking through the tube of the microscope with 
 one eye, keep the other open also. An image of 
 the field of the microscope with the corpuscles 
 will appear on the drawing-pad ; and the outline 
 of a corpuscle may, with a little practice, be 
 traced. 
 
 Substitute for the object the stage micrometer, 
 marked with lines, which are small fractions of 
 an inch or of a millimetre apart. Trace these in 
 the same way on a piece of cardboard, taking 
 care that the cardboai'd is at exactly the same 
 level as the drawing-pad was previously. The 
 cardboard can be kept as a scale, and tracings of 
 any object drawn at the same level, with the same 
 magnifying power, may be directly measured by 
 it. Of course for each objective, and each ocular, 
 and for each position of the draw-tube, a separate 
 scale is necessary. 
 
 With a camera lucida the same mode of measure- 
 ment is much easier. 
 
 In this and succeeding lessons the student is re- 
 commended to measure all the more important 
 structures. 
 
 3. Bring a drop of dilute acetic acid (1 p. c.) on the glass 
 slide, so that it just touches one edge of the cover-slip. 
 Be careful that the acid does not flow over the cover- 
 
24 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [ll. 
 
 slip. ToTichmg the opposite edge, place on the slide a 
 small piece of blotting paper, so as to absorb the fluid 
 tinder the cover-slip on that side. There will then be 
 a current from the drop of acetic acid to the blotting 
 paper. It is best to arrange that the current is mainly 
 along the line of junction of the blood and saline drop. 
 Observe the changes in the red corpuscles, looking 
 first at those which the acid has just begun to attact, 
 and then at those more fully acted upon. Note that 
 a. The corpuscles become more egg-shaped, swelling 
 
 up from the absorption of fluid. Some after a 
 
 time become spherical. 
 
 h. The nucleus becomes more and more distinctly 
 visible, and as it does so becomes granular and 
 irregularly rod-shaped. 
 
 c. The colouring matter is either concen trated around 
 the nucleus, or disappears altogether. 
 
 d. The outline of the corpuscle is seen as a faint oval 
 line at some distance from the nucleus. Observe 
 the not infrequent excentric position of the 
 nucleus. 
 
 4. Place on the centre of a very clean cover-slip a fresh 
 drop of blood from a frog just killed. Rapidly and 
 yet carefully place on a glass slide (also scrupulously 
 clean) the cover-slip, with the drop of blood under- 
 most, and with the point of a needle gently move 
 about until the drop is spread over its whole area. 
 Cement with paraffin A. (which melts at 40° C.) in the 
 following manner. With a mdrsisl of blotting paper 
 dry if necessary the slide at the edges of the cover-slip. 
 Keep the cover-slip in place by gently holding a 
 needle against one edge, and with a small brush, brush 
 
II.I.] STKUCTUEE OF BLOOD. 25 
 
 very carefully the melted paraflSn over the edges all 
 round. The paraffin need not extend more than J 
 or ^ inch over the cover-slip. In a few minutes the 
 paraffin becomes solid, and thus the fluid underneath 
 is protected from evaporation. 
 
 5. Neglecting the red corpuscles, search, in the spaces 
 •where these are scanty, for the colourless corpuscles. 
 Be careful not to confound with the colourless cor- 
 puscles any of the granular nuclei which may have 
 escaped from the red corpuscles. Observe that 
 
 a. They are much fewer than the red. 
 
 h. They are smaller than the red, but not uniform 
 in size. 
 
 c. They are of variable form, sometimes spherical 
 but more frequently of irregular outline, and 
 marked with protuberances. 
 
 d. They are colourless and granular. Some are much 
 more coarsely granular than others. 
 
 e. They possess a transparent nucleus of round or 
 irregular shape, sometimes more than one : since 
 the refractive index of the nucleus differs very 
 slightly from that of the surrounding protoplasm, 
 its outline is seldom visible except when the 
 corpuscle is very flat. Do not confound a heap 
 of granules or a protuberance with the nucleus. 
 
 6. Examine several of the colourless corpuscles until 
 you find one actively engaged in amoshoid move- 
 ments. Watch the movements carefully, sketching 
 the outline of the corpuscle every twenty seconds. 
 If the movements are not satisfactory, warm the slide 
 on the hot stage. (Hdb. p. 7.) . 
 
26 ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. [ll^ 
 
 7. Take a fresh drop. Do not cement. Having found 
 a characteristic white corpuscle, irrigate very cautiously 
 with dilute acetic ^d as in § 3, keeping the corpuscle 
 in view. The corpuscle, when the acid reaches it, 
 becomes more transparent, and a granular nucleus, 
 often irregular or lobed, comes into view. 
 
 B. Human Blood. 
 
 1. Take a drop of blood from the finger and cover as 
 speedily as possible wi'th a cover-slip. The glasses 
 should be perfectly clean, and the layer of blood so 
 thin that the red colour is hardly visible. It is as 
 well to breathe on the under surface of the cover-slip 
 immediately before putting it on. Observe the red 
 corpuscles. 
 
 a. They stick to one another, and, owing to their 
 shape, usually in rouleaux. 
 
 h. They roll about readily, as when the cover-slip is 
 lightly touched. 
 
 c. They are yellowish, circular bi-concave discs, so 
 that when seen in profile they appear dumb-bell 
 
 d. They appear homogeneous, and possess no nucleus. 
 At a proper focus their centre is light ; a little 
 out of focus it appears dark. 
 
 e. Towards the outside of the drop, where evapora- 
 tion is going on, many of the red corpuscles are 
 crenate, 
 
 /, They are much smaller than the red corpuscles 
 of the frog. Measure them, 
 
II.] STBUCTUEE OF BLOOD. 27 
 
 2. Observe the white corpuscles. Look for them in the 
 open spaces where the red corpuscles are few. 
 
 a. They do not readily roll about. 
 6. Their general characters are similar to those of 
 the frog, which they also resemble in size. 
 
 3. Irrigate (see A. § 3) separate drops. 
 
 a. With saline solution (5 p. c). The red corpuscles 
 become shrivelled and crenate. 
 
 h. With water. The red .corpuscles swell up, be- 
 come spherical, and finally dissolve leaving behind 
 a hardly visible ring of stroma. 
 
 c. With dilute acetic acid. The red corpuscles 
 undergo changes similar to those brought by 
 water. Observe that there is no trace of a 
 nucleus. The white corpuscles behave like those 
 ofthefrog(A. §7). 
 
 4. Examine a drop of the sediment which forms in blood 
 repeatedly frozen and thawed. Observe the pale 
 colourless rings and fragments of stroma. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 
 The amoeboid movements of the white corpuscles and the 
 formation and appearance of fibrin filaments under a 
 high power. 
 
LESSON III. 
 COAGULATION" OF BLOOD. 
 
 1. Watch carefully the natural coagulation of freshly- 
 shed blood. This will be obtained by the demonstra- 
 tor. Observe — a. The natural perfectly fluid stage. 
 h. The viscid stage, c. The jelly stage, d. The 
 appearance of the first drops of serum, e. The con- 
 tinued contraction of the fibrin, resulting in the 
 ordinary clot and serum. 
 
 2. Whip a small quantity of freshly shed blood. Wash 
 with water the clot so obtained. Note the quantity 
 and observe the following general characters of fibrin. 
 
 a. It appears under the microscope as a fine felt- 
 work of granular fibrils. 
 6. It is elastic. 
 
 c. It is insoluble in water and in normal saline so- 
 lution. 
 
 d. It swells up and becomes transparent when 
 treated with dilute hydrochloric acid; but it 
 may be restored to its previous condition if the 
 acid be neutralized. 
 
 Leave in a test-tube a little of the whipped blood for 
 twenty-four hours, and satisfy yourself that it under- 
 goes no further coagulation. 
 
III.] COAGULATION OF BLOOD. 29 
 
 3. Examine the plasma of horse's blood kept, by means 
 of cold, from coagulating. (Hdb. p. 167.) 
 
 a. Transfer with a pipette 2 or 3 cc. of the plasma 
 into a small test-tube. Observe the coagulation 
 and compare it with that of § 1. Avoid shaking. 
 Probably the fibrin will adhere so strongly to the 
 sides of the tube that little contraction wiU take 
 place. On being freed from the glass it will 
 contract. 
 
 b. Dilute 1 cc. of the plasma with 50 cc. of distilled 
 water or normal saline solution. Carefully avoid 
 shaking and leave it till the next day. Observe 
 the fine delicate fibrils of fibrin which are formed. 
 
 c. Examine, without washing, the characters of the 
 fibrin of a and b. They are best fitted to shew 
 the microscopical characters; white corpuscles 
 wiU be found entangled among the fibrils. 
 
 4. Examine the plasma of blood prevented from coagu- 
 lating by the presence of neutral salts. (Hdb. p. 171. 
 par. 10.) 
 
 a. Remove 1 or 2 cc. carefully with a pipette, 
 avoiding blood-corpuscles as much as possible, 
 and dilute tenfold with water. The mixture will 
 clot very speedily if placed in the warm chamber; 
 less speedily if left at the ordinary temperature. 
 
 6, Remove about 10 cc. into a small conical glass. 
 Add gradually solid sodium chloride to excess, 
 stirring no more than is necessary to assist the 
 salt to dissolve. As the poiat of saturation is 
 reached, a flaky precipitate makes its appearance. 
 If the precipitate be plentiful, remove it with a 
 spatula, put it on a small filter wetted with a satu- 
 
30 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [ill; 
 
 rated solution of sodium chloride and wash with 
 small quantities of the same : if the precipitate be 
 small, decant it from the undissolved salt ; filter 
 and wash the precipitate on the filter paper with 
 small quantities of a saturated sodium chloride 
 fiolution. Dissolve the substance so obtained, the 
 plasmiue of Denis, in a small quantity of distilled 
 water, and filter. Probably a portion of it will 
 not dissolve, having already coagulated. The 
 clear, colourless fluid filtrate will, if set on one 
 side, clot. Avoid shaking after filtration. If a 
 small quantity only of the fibrin factors be pre- 
 sent, the fine threads of fibrin, as they are 
 formed, are loosened by the shaking, and con- 
 tract; thus the more easily recognized gelatinous 
 stage is lost. This operation is the more success- 
 ful, the more rapidly it is carried on. 
 
 5. To 1 cc. of hydrocele or other serous fluid which has 
 been ascertained not to coagulate, or to have coagu- 
 lated spontaneously, add 1 cc. of fresh blood-serum, 
 gently mix, and put on one side. 
 After a while, possibly not until after twenty-four 
 hours, the mixture will have coagulated. The coagu- 
 lation will be more rapid in the warm chamber. 
 
 ; 6. Dilute 10 or 15 cc. of fresh blood-serum with twenty 
 times its volume of distilled water. Pass a brisk 
 stream of carbonic acid through it for half an hour or 
 • longer. The mixture will become turbid and opaque. 
 After standing for twelve hours a white amorphous 
 precipitate will have settled to the bottom of the vessel. 
 Siphon off all the clear supernatant fluid. (Fill up 
 the vessel with water charged with carbonic acid, let 
 it stand till the precipitate has again settled, and 
 
.] .111.] .COAGULATION OP BLOOD. 31 
 
 again decant. This is for the purpose of still further 
 getting rid of the serum, and may, if time presses, 
 be omitted.) 
 
 The precipitate is for the most part fibrinoplastin. 
 Add to the fluid containing the precipitate in suspen- 
 sion a drop or two of a 10 p. c. solution of chloride 
 of sodium, 'and shake gently. The greater part of the 
 precipitate will dissolve, fibrinoplastin being soluble 
 in dilute solutions of sodium chloride. Filter, and let 
 the clear filtrate stand. It will not coagulate spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 Fibrinoplastin may also be prepared from blood-se- 
 rum by saturation with sodium chloride, as in § 4 &. 
 
 7. Add a small quantity of fibrinoplastin solution to 
 hydrocele fluid. Coagulation wiU result. 
 
 8. Treat 10 cc. of hydrocele or pericardial fluid with 
 sodium chloride to saturation, and proceed as in § 4 6; 
 a precipitate, very similar in appearance to plasmine, 
 will be obtained, but its solutions do not coagulate 
 spontaneously. It is fibrinogen. 
 
 Fibrinogen may also be prepared by the carbonic 
 acid method, as fibrinoplastin in § 6, but the salt 
 method is preferable. 
 
 9. Add to 1 cc. . of a strong solution of fibrinogen an 
 equal volume of blood-serum, and set aside ; coagula- 
 tion will take place, » 
 
 10. General characters of serum albmuin (Hdb. 423 §§7, 
 8, 9). Dilute serum tenfold with water. Of this 
 dilute serum 
 
 a. Place 10 cc. in a test-tube with a thermometer 
 and gradually heat in water-bath. Observe the 
 
32 EXEMENTAEY PHYSIOLOGY. [ill. 
 
 temperature (about 70° C.) at which the fluid be- 
 comes milky, and that at which coagulation is 
 complete. 
 
 6. Take another 10 cc. and add a few drops of 
 strong nitric acid. The albumin is coagulated. 
 
 c. To a third 10 cc. add 1 cc. of acetic acid and then 
 a strong solution of potassium ferrocyanide. The 
 albumin is precipitated. 
 
 11. Tests for proteids (Hdb, p. 426, §§ 10, 11, 12). Dilute 
 serum twenty-fold with water. 
 
 a. Xanthoproteic reaction. Take a little of the 
 dilute serum, add a few drops of nitric acid, and 
 boil. The white precipitate of albumin at first 
 formed becomes yellow, or if the quantity of 
 albumin present is small, dissolves, forming a 
 yellow solution. Cool, and when cold add am- 
 monia ; the yellow is turned to orange. 
 
 b. To another small quantity of the serum add a few 
 drops of Millon's re-agent and boil for some 
 minutes. The fluid and the precipitate (if any 
 be formed) will become pink or rosy. 
 
 c. Add a drop of cupric sulphate solution to an ex- 
 cess of liquor sodse. To the blue solution so 
 formed add a drop of dilute serum, and warm; 
 the fluid will become violet. 
 
 • DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Coagidation of blood over mercury without access of 
 air. 
 
 2. Fluidity of blood in living blood-vessels. 
 
 3. Coagulation of blood within the vessels during life on 
 foreign bodies or in injured blood-vessels. 
 
LESSON IV. 
 CAETILAGE, BONE, AND TEETH. 
 
 A. Hyaline Caetilage. 
 
 1. Snip off a piece of the free edge of any of the thin 
 
 cartilages projecting from the sternum or shoulder- (_. 
 , girdle of a freshly killed young newt. Scrape off [ 
 ■with a scalpel any tissue covering it. Mount it in 
 normal saline solution' and note that 
 
 a. The matrix is studded with corpuscles or cells. 
 
 h. Each corpuscle consists of a round or oval mass 
 of more or less coarsely granular protoplasm, 
 in which lies a relatively large uucleilS. 
 
 c. Most of the cells entirely fill up the cavities in 
 which they lie. 
 
 d. At the extreme edge some cavities from which 
 the cells have fallen out may generally be seen. 
 
 e. Except at the edge, the cells are two or more 
 layers deep, 
 
 /. The matrix is hyaline or faintly granular. 
 
 ' In this and the followiDg Lessons whenever a tissue is directed to be 
 mounted in normal saline solution it is to be understood that if either JEresh 
 aqueous humour, or fresh blood-serum are obtainable, it is to be preferred, 
 
 L. 3 
 
34 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [iV. 
 
 2. Irrigate the piece with acetic acid 5 p. c. ; the nucleus 
 will become more granular and very distinct; some 
 few granules will be seen around it in the proto- 
 plasm, which otherwise has become clear and hardly 
 distinguishable. 
 
 Irrigate the same piece with spirit; the protoplasm 
 wiU again become distinct and granular, thus partly 
 hiding the nucleus, and will shrink, leaving a clear 
 space between itself and the matrix. The cartilage 
 will appear to the naked eye more opaque. 
 
 3. Immerse it in hssmatoxylin for about five minutes, 
 place it on a slide, and wash with spirit to remove 
 any colouring matter simply adhering to the tissue. 
 If the cartilage has been stained too deeply, soak up 
 as much as possible of the spirit with blotting paper 
 and add a drop of acetic acid 5 p. c. until it is of a 
 light purple or violet cobur. Soak up the acetic acid, 
 wash the tissue once more with spirit, and mount it 
 in glycerine. Observe that the matrix stains slightly, 
 the protoplasm of the cells more so, and the nuclei 
 most of all. The spaces between the shrunk cor- 
 puscles and the matrix are now very distinct, as are 
 also such empty cavities as happen to be present. 
 
 4. Cut as thin a transverse section as possible of the 
 articular end (preserved in Miiller'e fluid) of any bone 
 of a young animal. The cutting of the section will 
 be rendered easier if a small piece of the cartilage be 
 previously " imbedded " in the following manner. At 
 one end of a small oblong block of paraffin B scoop 
 out a small hole ; and place the piece of cartilage in 
 the hole with that surface uppermost from which the 
 sections are to be taken. Pour over it slowly and 
 carefuUy a little of the paraffin mixture heated so as 
 
'.] CARTILAGE, BONE, AND TEETH. 35 
 
 to be just melted ; keeping, if necessary, the tissue in 
 its proper position by means of a heated needle; 
 when the ■whole is thoroughly solid pare down the 
 paraffin to the- surface of the cartilage,, at the same 
 time bevelling the edges. In cutting the sections, cover 
 the tissue and the blade of the razor with spirit (for 
 convenience from a wash-bottle) and float the sections 
 by means of a gentle stream of spirit into a, watch- 
 glass. With the platinum " lifter " transfer them to 
 hsematoxylin and treat as in § 3. Observe that 
 
 The cells are smaller than in § 1, and much more 
 scattered, since more matrix is formed between 
 them. They are more irregular, often angular, 
 in form, and those on the outside are seen to be 
 flattened parallel to the surface. Otherwise the 
 general features are the same. 
 
 5. Cut thin sections of costal cartilage fresh or pre- 
 served in Miiller's fluid, imbedding if necessary, and 
 observe that 
 
 . a. The protoplasm of the cells frequently contains 
 large granules and oil-drops, from having under- 
 gone degeneration. Distinguish between a large 
 oil-drop (very highly refractive) and a nucleus, 
 b. The cells are arranged in groups ; each cell in a 
 group is called a daughter-cell, all the daughter- 
 cells in a group having arisen from the division 
 of a previously existing cell called a mother-cell. 
 Make out the partitions dividing the mother-cell. 
 This can, be best done in stained specimens. 
 C. The matrix in places may be fibrillated or lami- 
 nated. Add acetic acid; it will have no effect 
 on this fibrillation, which thus differs from that 
 of connective tissue (Lesson V. A. 2, h). 
 
 3—2 
 
36 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [iV. 
 
 d. In places the matrix may be opaque with cal- 
 careous deposit, removable by dilute hydrochloric 
 acid. 
 
 6. Take a smaU piece of the ear of a freshly killed mouse, 
 remove the skin and scrape away the tissue surround- 
 ing the ear-cartilage. Mount the cartilage in normal 
 saline solution. 
 Observe that the cavities of the cells, generally 
 
 •> polygonal in form, are separated by very narrow par- 
 titions of matrix. From many of the cavities the 
 corpuscles have disappeared altogether, leaving simply 
 a honeycombed matrix. This form of cartilage is 
 frequently called " parenchymatous " 
 
 B. Elastic Caetilage. 
 
 Cut sections of epiglottis or arytenoid cartilage, or 
 of the ear-cartilage fresh, or preserved in MuUer's 
 fluid. 
 
 The cells are like those of hyaline cartilage, but 
 in the matrix are a number of branching anasto- 
 mosing fibres, unaffected by acetic acid. Fre- 
 quently there is round each cell a clear trans- 
 parent border, forming the wall of the cavity in 
 which the cell lies. 
 
 .C. Bone. 
 
 1, Examine with a low objective transverse sections of 
 compact bone prepared by grinding down thin slices 
 and mounting them in Canada balsam. Observe 
 o. The Haversian systems, each consisting of a 
 Haversian canal, surrounded by concentric 
 lamellae marked with lacimse. 
 h. Their arrangement ; make out which is the inner 
 and which the outer surface of the bone. 
 
rav.] CAKTILAGE, BONE, AND TEETH. 37 
 
 c. Their variable size, and form, partly due to the 
 plane in which they are cut, whether obliquely 
 or at right angles. 
 
 d. Where the balsam has run in and rendered 
 the tissue transparent, the canals, not being 
 filled either with air or ddbris, are no longer 
 black, but appear as holes. 
 
 e. The irregular Haversian spaces, seen towards the 
 cavity of the bone. 
 
 f. The circumferential and intersystpciiic lau^eUse. 
 
 2. Examine the same with a higher objective, and ob- 
 serve more carefully' 
 
 a. The lacunae, and their arrangement in the Haver- 
 sian system, 
 
 i. Their form; irregularly oval, generally narrow 
 but varying in breadth according to the plane in 
 which they are cut, since they are flattened ovals. 
 
 c. Their blackness, due to their being filled with 
 air or ddbris. Where the balsam has run in, 
 they appear as cavities. 
 
 d. Their canalicnli, branching, anastomosing, and 
 running across the lamellse from lacuna to lacuna. 
 They are seen as black lines when filled with 
 air, but are almost invisible when filled with 
 Canada balsam. 
 
 3. Examine similar longitudinal sections, first with a low 
 
 and then with a high objective, and compare 
 them with the above. Observe 
 
 a. The Haversian canals, cut longitudinally or 
 • . obliquely. 
 
 b. Their divisions or junctions. 
 
38 ELEMENTAEY PHYSIOLOGY. [iV. 
 
 c. Their openings on to the surface of the bone and 
 into the medullary cavity. 
 
 d. The lacunas, generally cut lengthways and there- 
 fore narrow, and mostly disposed parallel to the 
 Haversian canals. In many spots they may be 
 seen scattered irregularly. 
 
 4. Prepare transverse and longitudinal sections of bone 
 which has been treated with chromic acid. Stain 
 with hsematoxylin and mount in glycerine. Observe 
 
 a. The Haversian systems, with the Haversian canals 
 as before. 
 
 b. The remains of capillaries and blood-vessels in 
 the Haversian canals and spaces. 
 
 c. The cell, consisting of protoplasm and nucleus 
 present in each lacuna. 
 
 d. The canaliculi,. appeairing as fine, hardly visible 
 streaks, or when seen, in section as dots. 
 
 D. Teeth. 
 
 1. Examine wi^fh a low objective longitudinal sections of 
 teeth prepared in the same manner as bone in C- 
 Observe the dentine surrounding the pulp cavity 
 the cement or crusta petrosa covering the dentine 
 of the fangs, and the enamel covering the dentine 
 of the crown. Note the general arrangement of the 
 dentinal tubules. 
 
 2. Examine with a higher objective the same section, 
 and study in detail. 
 
 a. The Dentine. 
 
 a. In the matrix, apparently homogeneous, are 
 numerous dentinal tubules which run in a wavy 
 course fcQm the pulp-cavity outwards. These, 
 
IVV.] CARTILAGE, BONE, AND TEETH. 39 
 
 dividing as they go, and giving off many anasto- 
 mosing lateral branches, finally end either in 
 loops or in small irregular cavities, the so-called 
 interglobular spaces, on the surface of the dentine. 
 
 K In some places the dentinal tubules are cut 
 transversely. Here the central dark spot indi- 
 cates the space formerly occupied by the dentinal 
 fibre, the ring round this is the dentinal sheath. 
 
 /3. The Cement or Cmsta Petrosa. 
 
 a. This differs little from bone, but Haversian canals 
 are generally absent. 
 
 h. The canaliculi of the lacunse, next to the inter- 
 globular spaces, open into these, thus bringing 
 the dentinal fibres into connection with the bone- 
 corpuscles. 
 
 c. "Where the cement is massive, wavy 'contour' 
 lines may be seen, indicating the successive 
 deposits. 
 
 7. The Enamel. 
 
 The striated enamel fibres or prisms are arranged 
 in sets, perpendicular to the surface of the dentine. 
 In mounted specimens the indications of the 
 separate fibres are generally not well marked, 
 but are visible at places. The line of junction of 
 the enamel and dentine is generally very con- 
 spicuous, in consequence of a change of level 
 in the specimen, the dentine having been ground 
 thinner than the harder enamel. The enamel 
 is frequently split or cracked. 
 
 3. Examine prepared transverse sections of Teeth, taken 
 at different heights, and compare with the above. 
 
LESSON V. 
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 
 
 A. Connective-tissue Fibres. 
 
 1. Elastic Fibres. 
 
 a. Tease out in water a morsel of ligamentum 
 nuchse. It is almost entirely inade up of rather 
 large branching, and anastomosing, fibres with 
 bold outlines, curling at their ends. 
 
 6. Irrigate with acetic acid; the fibres are un- 
 affected. 
 
 2. Proper PibriUaB of Connective Tissue. 
 
 a. Tease out in water (Hdb. p. 32) a small piece of 
 fresh tendon, e.g. from one of the digits of a frog. 
 It is made up of bundles of wavy, delicate 
 fibrillse, whose outline is hardly visible. 
 
 h. Irrigate with acetic acid 5 p.c. The fibrills 
 disappear, and the whole tissue swells up into a 
 transparent gelatinous mass, in which one can 
 hardly distinguish anything besides a few elastic 
 fibres similar to those of A. 1, but much finer. 
 
 c. Snip off a piece of subcutaneous intermuscular 
 connective tissue from the frog. Spread it out 
 
v.] CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 41 
 
 carefully on a glass slide with water, and avoid 
 as much as possible pulling it about. It is 
 composed of similar wavy bundles of fibrillse 
 arranged as a meshwork; these are similarly 
 affected by acetic acid. The elastic fibres are 
 more abundant, and very much curled along 
 their course. 
 
 B. Connective-tissue Coepuscles, 
 
 1. Take a piece of the thin expansion of a tadpole's tail 
 preserved in chromic acid. Gently break a piece up 
 in glycerine. Where the hexagonal cells of the 
 epidermis have broken away, the homogeneous matrix 
 may be seen, imbedded in which are many blood- 
 vessels and a number of stellate cells. 
 
 The larger dark stellate cells are pigment-cells, the 
 smaller stellate cells are fixed connective-tissue 
 corpuscles, each of which consists of a nucleus 
 and a branched protoplasmic body. The processes 
 divide much, but irregularly, and communicate with 
 the processes of other cells. 
 
 2. Break off the tip of the tail of a young rat just 
 killed, and pull out from the stump a bundle of fine 
 tendons. Spread these over a glass slide from edge 
 to edge, putting a drop of normal saline solution in 
 the middle only, so that they will dry at the edges 
 and remain on the stretch. Cover with normal solu- 
 tion and cover-slip. On examination the buiidles of 
 wavy fibrillse will be seen, but no corpuscles. 
 
 Slowly irrigate with acetic acid 1 p. c, watching 
 the bundles the while under a high objective. Be- 
 tween the bundles of fibres, and sometimes apparently 
 
42 ELEMENTARY PHTSIOIOST. [V. 
 
 over them, -will be seen rows of cells. Note in each 
 the nucleus, the rectangular outline of the cell, and 
 the granular protoplasm. Indications of lateral pro- 
 cesses may be seen by careful focussing. After the 
 acetic acid has been added for some little time the 
 protoplasm of the cells becomes very indistinct, and 
 between thf swollen bundles scarcely anything is seen 
 but rows of irregularly shaped nuclei. 
 
 3. Snip off a small piece of subcutaneous tissue in a new- 
 bom mammal, and spread it carefully on a glass slide 
 without teasing) cover it with normal saline solution 
 and a cover-slip. 
 
 In the spaces where the fibrillEe are scanty will be 
 seen some pale, granular, branched cells, not unlike 
 those of B. 1. 
 
 Irrigate gently with acetic acid 1 p. c. the nuclei 
 of these connective-tissue corpuscles, each, surrounded 
 by an irregular-shaped mass of protoplasm, will come 
 distinctly into view. 
 
 4. Take a frog, of which the brain and spinal cord have 
 been destroyed, squeeze the side of the head gently to 
 make the eye bulge out; then with a sharp scalpel 
 with one slice ciit off the cornea. If any blood has 
 accidentally got on it, put it on a slide with a drop 
 of normal saline solution and gently brush it with a 
 camel's hair brush. Put it in gold chloride "5 p. c. 
 solution till it is of a pale yellow colour, wash well, 
 transfer to water just acidulated with acetic acid, 
 and expose to light. When the cornea has become 
 of a weak blue-violet colour, put it on a slide with 
 glycerine, aild brush or scrape both surfaces to remove 
 the epithelium, then mount in glycerine and look at 
 it first with a low, and then with a high objective. 
 
y.] . CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 43 
 
 Where the hexagonal surface epithelium has been 
 removed, there will be seen stained connective-tissue 
 corpuscles, with numerous fine processes branching 
 and anastomosing with each other. 
 
 C. Pigment-Cells. 
 
 Pin out on a frog-board one of the webs between the 
 toes of the same frog, and observe first with a low 
 "and then with a high objective. There wiU be seen 
 large corpuscles loaded with dark pigment, and pos- 
 sessing numerous branched processes. In some places 
 the pigmented cells will appear as round dots, the 
 processes in this case having been retracted. Every 
 intermediate stage between these two states may be 
 observed by watching from time to time. 
 
 D. Fat-Cells. 
 
 1. Out out a small.piece of the omentum or subcutaneous 
 tissue of a mammal, from a part containing com- 
 paratively little fat. Spread it out on a slide, and 
 cover with normal saline solution and a cover-slip. 
 Examine with a low objective. Observe the groups 
 of highly refractive fat-cells. 
 
 2. Examine with a high objective. Observe the in- 
 dividual fat-cells, their variable size, the apparent 
 absence of a nucleus, and the fibres of connective 
 tissue passing between and over them. 
 
 3. Take a small piece of adipose tissue, which has been 
 kept for some time in alcohol, and place it in hsema- 
 toxylin until it has become well stained. Wash 
 it with spirit, place it on a glass slide, and tease it 
 out if it is too thick. Remove as much of the spirit 
 
4 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [y. 
 
 as possible with blotting paper. Cover the tissue 
 with a mixture of carbolic acid (1 part) and turpen- 
 tine (4 parts), and let it remain until it is completely 
 transpareiit, changing the fluid and gently warming 
 if necessary. Eemove the excess of turpentine and 
 cover the tissue with a drop of Canada balsam and 
 put on a cover-slip. 
 
 Observe the groups of cells from which the fat has 
 been thus removed. Note the shrunken outlines 
 of the ceUs, and the presence in each cell of a nucleus 
 and of a small amount of protoplasm, both of which 
 are stained with hsematoxylin, 
 
 4. Snip off a small portion of the gelatinous material 
 from the orbit of the rabbit (Hdb. p. 44, Figs. 47, 48), 
 and eiamine the transitional forms between con- 
 nective-tissue corpuscles and fat-ceUs. 
 
 E. Connective Tissue with Cautilage-Coepuscles : 
 
 FiBEO-CABTILAGE. 
 
 Imbed in paraffin B a small piece of mammalian 
 intervertebral cartilage which has been hardened in 
 chromic acid. Cut sections and stain them with 
 heematoxylin. Observe 
 
 a. The fibrous connective-tissue, sometimes collected 
 into bands, sometimes forming a meshwork. 
 
 h. The ordinary connective-tissue corpuscles which 
 occur in parts. 
 
 c. The cartilage-corpuscles ; large cells with a dis- 
 tinct nucleus ; they are often seen in groups. 
 
LESSON VI. 
 STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE TISSUES. 
 
 1. Scrape the mucous membrane of the throat or 
 
 roof of a frog's mouth, which has been treated with 
 osmic acid 1 p. c. for twenty-four hours. Tease out 
 the flakes so obtained in a drop of water,,and examine 
 with avoidance of pressure. Groups of ciliated cells, 
 intermingled with goblet-cells will be observed. Neg- 
 lect the latter ; note in the former 
 
 a. The shape of the cell ; it is more or less conical, 
 often with a branching or irregular apex. 
 
 h. The cilia on the base. Seen in profile, they 
 appear to form a row, but when a ceU is ob- 
 tained in such a position that it is viewed from 
 above, the cilia, foreshortened into mere dots, 
 are seen to be spread over the whole surface of 
 the base. 
 
 c. The nucleus, the granular protoplasm, and the 
 hyaline border just below the cilia. 
 
 2. Scrape the same membrane in a recently killed frog, 
 and gently tease the scrapings in normal saline solu- 
 tion. Note 
 
 a. The movements of the cilia, watching especially 
 those in which the action is becoming faint. 
 
4ffi ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [VI. 
 
 b. The results of ciliary action : granules and blood- 
 corpuscles are driven along. Detached cells may 
 also be seen carried about by the action of their 
 own cilia. 
 
 c. The contracted, almost globular form of the cells 
 which have been set free. 
 
 3. Tear off the smallest possible strip of a frog's muscle, 
 preserved in alcoho], add a drop of acetic acid, and 
 tease it out as finely as possible in water. Note 
 
 a. The varying size of the elementary fibres., 
 
 b. The striation of the fibres : alternate dim and 
 bright cross-bands passing through the whole 
 thickness of the fibre. 
 
 c. The breaking up of the fibre into fibrillse, the 
 latter also striated. Try to obtain as fine fibrillse 
 as possible. The fibres sometimes split trans- 
 versely into discs; the surfaces of the discs 
 appear dotted. 
 
 4. Remove carefully, with sharp scissors, one of the thin 
 muscles from the neck of a frog, and mount it in 
 normal saline solution, avoiding pressure. The fibres 
 wiU for a brief period be seen in a normal condition^ 
 In many, the alternate dim and bright strise will be 
 very distinct; in others the transverse markings will be 
 more or less obscured by an appearance of longitu- 
 dinal fibrillation. Occasionally fibres are met with, 
 having only a confused granular aspect. If the pre- 
 paration has been successfully made, waves of con- 
 traction may, at times, be seen to travel along the 
 fibres. At the contracted part, the fibre is,, for the 
 time being, thicker, and the strise set closer together^ 
 
 5., Irrigate with distilled water ; the fibres will become. 
 
Vri.] STEUCTUEE OF COXTEACTILE TISSUE. 47 
 
 more opaque, and after a while, a pale homogeneous 
 membrane, the sarcolemma, will bulge out at one spot 
 or another. 
 
 6. Irrigate with dilute acetic acid. Observe the elon- 
 gated nuclei disposed lengthways, with lines of 
 granules proceeding from their ends. 
 
 7. Make a thin transverse section of muscle hardened in 
 chromic acid. 
 
 Observe the cut ends of the fibres, and their arrange- 
 ment in bundles, 
 
 8. Eepeat § 3 on mammalian muscle. The fibres are 
 much more uniform in size, but the same general 
 features may be observed. 
 
 0. Tease out in water a strip of plain muscular tissue, 
 taken from a stomach or intestine preserved in 
 potassium bichromate. Note 
 
 a. The isolated fibre-cells. These are long, and, 
 when not broken oEF in the preparation, fusiform 
 masses of hyaline or faintly granular protoplasm. 
 They appear very much thinner when seen in 
 one direction than in another; that is to say, they 
 are much flattened. In the middle of each fibre 
 an oval nucleus may with difiSculty be seen. In 
 the neighbourhood of the nucleus, especially at 
 its ends, granules are more abundant in the 
 protoplasm. 
 
 h. The arrangement of the fibre-cells in bands and 
 sheets : the fibres may frequently be seen pro- 
 jecting like a palisade from the torn end of a 
 band, 
 10. Examine a strip of plain muscle from a perfectly 
 
 fresh intestine, having teased it out very gently in 
 
48 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [VI. 
 
 normal saline solution. The individual fibre-cells are 
 seen with great difiSculty, and when visible are often 
 contracted. 
 
 11. Add acetic acid. Note in each the nucleus which 
 now appears rod-shaped, and contains one or some- 
 times two dark spots, the nucleoli. 
 
 12. Tease out thoroughly a small portion of cardiac 
 muscle preserved in potassium bichromate. Note that 
 a. The striation is generally obscure. 
 
 h. No sarcolemma is present. 
 
 c. The fibres may frequently be seen branching and 
 anastomosing. 
 
 d. Nuclei are present disposed with considerable 
 regularity. Around each nucleus is an area of 
 contractile substance (muscle-cell) marked out by 
 obscure partitions from neighbouring areas. 
 
 The nuclei will become more evident if the tissue be 
 stained with hsematoxylin. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 
 The structure of a living muscular fibre of Hydrophilus 
 
 or Dytiscus as seen under a very high power. 
 The appearances of muscular fibre under polarised light. 
 
LESSON VII. 
 PROPERTIES OF CONTRACTILE TISSUE. 
 
 1- Constant Current. 
 
 Place on its belly a frog, the brain and spinal cord 
 of which have been destroyed, and make a longitudi- 
 nal incision through the skin of the back of the thigh. 
 Separate the large semi-membranosus muscle which 
 lies on the inside of thigh, from the smaller biceps 
 muscle which lies more to the outside. (Compare 
 Elementary Biology, xiii. E. 4, p. 221.) The sciatic 
 nerve with the femoral vessels wiU come into view. 
 Taking as much care as possible not to injure the 
 nerve, isolate it by tearing away carefully the sur- 
 rounding connective tissue. 
 
 Place under the nerve the shielded electrodes (Hdb. 
 fig. 271), so that the nerve, and the nerve only, 
 touches the platiaum wires. 
 
 Connect the wires of the electrodes with a Du Bois 
 Reymond's Key (Hdb. fig. 300), and this again with a 
 battery of two Daniell's^ cells. The key short- 
 circuits 'the battery. Hence when the key is opened, 
 the current is thrown into the nerve. 
 
 ^ In tlie f oUowing experiments, for convenienoe iu description, Daniell's 
 cells and Du Bois Eeymond's key are recommended to be used. Any other 
 battery of corresponding strength, or any other form of key, will serve. 
 
 L. 4 
 
50 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY- [VII. 
 
 The leg being perfectly at rest, and the key closed, 
 open the key, and after a few seconds close it again. 
 A movement in the leg caused by contractions in the 
 muscles to •which the nerve is distributed, will be 
 seen when the key is either opened or shut, or on 
 both occasions. Save in exceptional cases, there is 
 no movement during the passage of the current through 
 the nerve, but only when the current is thrown into or 
 shut off from it (the current being supposed to be 
 tolerably constant). Do not repeat this experiment 
 more than once or twice on the same nerve, lest it be 
 too much exhausted for the succeeding observations. 
 
 2. Single Induction Shocks. 
 
 Now connect the wires of the electrodes with the 
 binding screws of the secondary spiral of a Du 
 Bois Reymond's induction machine (Hdb. p. 351), 
 and one of the top screws of the same machine 
 with one pole of a Daniell's cell, connecting the 
 other top screw with a Du Bois Reymond's key, 
 from which connect a wire to the remaining pole 
 of the ceU, so that when the key is put down, the 
 current passes into the primary coil, and induces a 
 momentary current in the secondary coil, and in the 
 electrodes therewith connected. When the key is 
 opened, the circuit is broken, the current disappears 
 from the primary coil, and in so doing induces a 
 momentary current in the secondary coil and the 
 electrodes. 
 
 Place the marker at the fore part of the secondary 
 coil at the mark 10 on the scale, and, the frog's leg 
 being at rest, shut and open the key. At each 
 shutting and opening of the key, i.e. at each mo- 
 mentary induced current, a single sharp movement of 
 
VVri.J PEOPESTIES OF CONTEACTILE TISSUE. 51 
 
 the leg will take place. The 'single induction shock" 
 causes a single contraction or spasm of the muscles of 
 the leg. 
 
 Be careful to replace the nerve on the electrodes 
 (without pinching it) if it slips off during the move- 
 ments. 
 
 If good contractions are not obtained with the 
 secondary coil at 10, push it up gradually over the 
 primary coil, one division at a time. 
 
 3. Shut and open the key as rapidly as you can, for a 
 few seconds. The contraction of the muscle taking 
 longer time to develope than the induced current, each 
 contraction will catch up its predecessor, and the leg 
 will remain rigidly contracted, or nearly so, as long as 
 the breaking and making of the primary current is 
 kept up. In other words, tetanus is produced. This 
 is however more easily brought about as follows. 
 
 4- Interrupted Current. 
 
 Remove the wires from the screws at the top of the 
 primary coil to those at the base, thus putting into 
 action the magnetic interrupter attached to the 
 machine (Hdb. p. 351), using, however, the key 
 as before. Remove the electrodes from the nerve 
 while arranging the interrupter. The machine should 
 work in such a way that immediately the key is put 
 down the hammer at once is thrown into oscillations 
 (as indicated by its noise). The current is made 
 and broken at each oscillation. Having replaced the 
 nerve on the electrodes, put down the key. Im- 
 mediately that the sound of the hammer is heard, 
 the leg is thrust out straight by the tetanic con- 
 tractions of the muscle, and remains so as long as 
 
 4—2 
 
52 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. " [Vir.. 
 
 the current continues to be thus made and broken. 
 Open tbe key, at once the limb becomes flaccid and 
 quiet. The ' interrupted current ' should not be 
 applied for more than five seconds. 
 
 5. Chemical Stimulation. 
 
 Dissect out the sciatic nerve up to the spinal column, 
 so as to have as long a piece as possible. Let the 
 extreme end of the nerve dip into a saturated solu- 
 tion of sodium chloride; watch the leg. 
 In a variable time twitchings of the toes will be seen, 
 and after a while these will increase in vigour and 
 extent over the limb until the latter becomes almost 
 as rigid as in § 4. 
 
 6. Mechanical Stimulation. 
 
 Cut off the part of the nerve which has been dipping 
 in the salt solution ; the chemical stimulus being 
 thus removed, the leg will become flaccid again. 
 Pinch the remaining nerve sharply with a pair of 
 forceps several times. At each pinch the muscles of 
 the leg will contract. The pinching kills or injures 
 the part of the nerve pinched; hence it is necessary 
 to begin at the cut end, and work down towards the 
 muscle. 
 
 The gastrocnemius muscle of this leg may be used 
 for § 11, b. 
 
 7. Muscle Curve. 
 
 From the other leg of the same frog get ready a 
 muscle-nerve preparation. (Hdb. p. 343.) 
 Place the preparation in the moist chamber (Hdb. 
 pp. 344 and 348) with the nerve on a pair of electrodes. 
 Attach the tendon to the lever, load with 15 or 20 
 grammes, and bring the lever to mark on the revolv- 
 ing cylinder. 
 
VUI.] PROPERTIES OF CONTRACTILE TISSUE. 53 
 
 Connect the electrodes with the induction machine 
 arranged for single induction shocks as in § 2. 
 Take tracings of single contractions or simple 
 spasms of the muscle caused by simple induction 
 shocks (coil at 10 to begin with for instance), using 
 the swiftest speed of the cylinder. Observe the rapid 
 but gradual rise to a maximum, passing almost imme- 
 diately into a similar but less rapid ' fall, the later 
 stages of the fall being distinctly more gradual than 
 the early ones. 
 
 Note that the contractions caused by the opening or 
 'breaking' shock are, as a rule, greater than those 
 caused by the closing or ' making ' shock. 
 
 8. Tetanus. 
 
 Now arrange the induction machine for an interrupt- 
 ed fcurrent, (§ 4,) the secondary coil being at 15 or 20 
 to begin with. 
 
 Take a tracing of a tetanic contraction of a muscle, 
 stimulating for not more than three or four seconds. 
 Observe the rise to a maximum at first rapid but 
 afterwards more and more slow, the maintenance 
 of the maximum during the application of the 
 current, and the fall, at first rapid but afterwards 
 more slow, after the removal of the current. 
 Watch during the tetanus the muscle itself as well 
 as the curve. 
 
 9. Load the muscle with 50 grammes, allowing the lever 
 to write on the stationary cylinder^ Note the elasticity 
 of the muscle. The weight when applied stretches 
 the muscle to a certain extent, but when raised so 
 as not to drag on the muscle, the latter returns, at once 
 to almost, and eventually to quite, its former length. 
 Stimulate with an interrupted current (coil say at 
 
54 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [VII.' 
 
 20). Note the amount of contraction. Repeat this 
 with 100, and then with 200 grammes, using in each 
 case the same strength of current for the same time, 
 moving the cylinder with the hand so as to expose a 
 fresh black surface for each observation. 
 Observe that with medium weights the work done {th6 
 product of the weight into the height) is greater than 
 with very light or very heavy weights. 
 Observe also that the muscle gradually becomes ex- 
 hausted, i.e. the contractions caused by the same 
 stimulus gradually become less and less. 
 
 10. Remove the magnetic interrupter from the pri- 
 mary circuit, and insert the oscillating rod. (Hdb. 
 p. 353.) Take tracings of the contractions so caused. 
 Observe the gradual fusing of a series of single con- 
 traction-curves into the carve of tetanus. 
 
 11- Eeaction of Muscle. 
 
 a. Remove the muscle from the moist chamber, 
 place it on a clean glass slide, and apply the 
 electrodes, coimected with the induction ma- 
 chine arranged for an interrupted current, 
 directly to the muscle. 
 
 Observe that the current applied directly to the 
 muscle produces the same effect as when applied 
 indirectly through the nerve. 
 Tetanize the muscle with currents of increasinsr 
 strength until it is completely exhausted, push- 
 ing the secondary coil right up over the 
 primaiy. 
 
 Cut the muscle across in half, with a quite clean 
 scalpel, and press on one section a piece of 
 faintly blue, on the other a piece of neutral 
 
II.J PROPERTIES OF CONTRACTILE TISSUE. 00 
 
 litmus paper. Both will be turned red. where 
 they come in. contact with the muscle. 
 
 b. Dissect out the gastrocnemius from the leg used 
 in §§ 1 — 6, and place it for five minutes in 
 normal saline solution heated to 50° C. 
 Observe that it has become contracted and 
 opaque, i. e. rigor mortis has set in. 
 
 Cut the muscle across, and test with litmus 
 paper as in a. The muscle will be distinctly 
 acid, even more so than the tetanized muscle 
 in a.. 
 
 c. Take a fresh living gastrocnemius from a frog 
 just killed, cut it across as in a and b, and test 
 the sections^ with neutral litmiis paper. The 
 muscle will be found neutral or faintly alkaline. 
 
 13. Myosin. 
 
 Take some muscle which has been minced and 
 washed until all the substances soluble in water have 
 been removed (Hdb. p. 452), 
 
 Rub up a small portion with an equal bulk of a 10 
 p. c. solution of sodium chloride and let it stand 
 for twenty-four hours. Press the glairy mass through 
 a piece of linen, and then filter through a coarse 
 filter. Let the filtrate drop into a tall jar contain- 
 ing some 500 cc. of distilled water. As each drop 
 falls into the water it gives rise to a white flocculent 
 precipitate. This is myosin, which, after standing for 
 some hours, wiK settle at the bottom of the vessel. 
 Pour off the clear fluid, filtering if necessary, and 
 determine that the myosin is soluble 
 a. In a 10 p. c. sodium chloride solution, the solu- 
 tion coagulating on being boiled, 
 
56 ELEMENTAKT PHYSIOLOGY. [VII. 
 
 b. In dilute acids and dilute alkalis, the solutions 
 not coagulating on being boiled. 
 
 13. Syntonin. 
 
 Treat another portion of the same ■washed muscle 
 with ten times its bulk of hydrochloric acid 1 p. c, 
 and place in the warm chamber, frequently shaking. 
 After three or four hours much of the muscle will 
 have disappeared. 
 
 Filter off the clear fluid, and carefully neutralize the 
 filtrate with a weak solution of sodium carbonate ; a 
 copious bulky precipitate of syntonin takes place. 
 Separate the precipitate by filtration, avoiding ex- 
 posure to air as much as possible, and determine that 
 
 a. It is soluble in dilute acids and alkalis. 
 h. The acid and alkaline solutions are not coagu- 
 lated by heat ; 
 
 c. The syntonin is precipitated from these solutions 
 on careful neutralisation. 
 
 d. The precipitated syntonin suspended in water 
 and boiled becomes coagulated, and is no longer 
 soluble in dilute acids and alkalis. 
 
 DEMONSTKATIONS. 
 The natural electric currents of muscle. 
 
 The negative variation of the current attending a contrac- 
 tion of the muscle. 
 
 The rheoscopic frog. 
 
 Measurement of the latent period of contraction. 
 
LESSON VIII. 
 STRUCTURE OF NERVOUS TISSUES. 
 
 A. Spinal Nerves. 
 
 1. Cut off about one third of an inch of a perfectly fresh 
 nerve (e.g. the sciatic of a frog), and place it on a glass 
 slide without any fluid. With needles gently tease 
 out one end into the shape of a fan ; add a drop of 
 normal saline solution, and cover with a cover-slip. 
 Observe 
 
 a. The nerve-fibres of variable size. 
 6. In each the double contour, due to the medullary 
 sheath or white substance of Schwann. 
 
 c. The primitive sheath ; this is seen with difficulty 
 except at points where the medullary sheath is 
 wanting. 
 
 d. The connective tissue (perineurium) running 
 amongst and around the nerve-fibres. 
 
 e. Drops and fragments of the medullary sheath, 
 extending from the cut ends of the fibres and 
 showing a double contour. 
 
 2. Cut off a similar piece of nerve and treat it in the same 
 way, but instead of adding a normal solution, pour 
 over the nerve a drop of chloroform, and immediately 
 
58 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY, [VIII. 
 
 cover with a cover-slip. Add chloroform as evapora- 
 tion goes on. 
 
 Jn the middle of the nerve-fibre the pale granular 
 axis cylinder will be seen running through the swollen 
 and partially dissolved medullary sheath. 
 
 3. Take another piece of fresh nerve ; tease it out on 
 a slide in a drop of osmic acid '5 p. c, then place it 
 in a small quantity of the acid till it is black, covering 
 it up to prevent evaporation. 
 
 Wash it thoroughly, first with water, then with spirit, 
 and place it in haematoxylin till it has become well 
 stained. Wash with water and tease out more com- 
 pletely in glycerine. Observe 
 
 a. The medullary sheath, stained black with the 
 osmic acid. 
 
 6. The axis cylinder, stained with the hsematoxylin. 
 
 c. The nuclei of the primitive sheath seen at in- 
 tervals, also stained with hsematoxylin. 
 
 d. The break in the meduUarj' sheath (Ranvier's 
 node) between each two nuclei. 
 
 4. Stain with hsematoxylin, or carmine, a short piece 
 of rather thick nerve (e.g. the sciatic of a mammal), 
 previously treated with ammonium bichromate and 
 alcohol. Imbed, and cut as thin transverse sections 
 as possible; treat these with carbolic acid &c., and 
 mount in Canada balsam. Obser\'-e 
 
 a. The cut ends of the nerve-fibres varying in 
 diameter, and in each 
 
 h. The section of the stained axis cylinder sur- 
 rounded by 
 
Till.] STRUCTURE OF NERVOUS TISSUES. 59 
 
 c. A transparent ring indicating the former position 
 of the medullary sheath, which has been dis- 
 solved out in the process of mounting. 
 
 d. The primitive sheath as a limiting circle. 
 
 e. The arrangement of the fibres in bundles. The 
 perineurium between the fibres, and between the 
 bundles of fibres. 
 
 5. Open the abdomen of a recently killed frog, stretch 
 the mesentery smoothly over a ring of cork, with a 
 central hole of about one-third of an inch in diameter, 
 and pin it in that position. Cut out from the body the 
 piece so fixed to the cork, cutting away also the in- 
 testine immediately connected with it. Treat the 
 piece still attached to the cork with gold chloride 
 ■5 p. c. (Lesson V. B. § 4), taking care that the whole 
 of the tissue is kept immersed in the fluid. 
 Cut out a piece of the mesentery so stained, and 
 mount it in glycerine. Trace out the nerves (coloured 
 with the gold) towards the periphery. Observe 
 a. The division and branching of the nerves. 
 h. The division of the nerve-fibres. 
 
 c. The gradual loss of ttie medullary sheath. 
 
 d. The continuation of the fine nerve-fibres, with 
 the nuclei of their primitive sheath very distinct, 
 into delicate threads, without a primitive sheath 
 
 . and with frequent varicosities. 
 
 B. Sympathetic Nerves. 
 
 Cut out from the spleen of a large animal (e. g. ox) a 
 small piece of one of the large sympathetic nerves 
 running alongside the blood-vessels. Hemove the loose 
 connective-tissue sheath, and tease out the nerve care- 
 fully in normal saline solution. Note 
 
60 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [VIII. 
 
 a. The scanty medullated nerve-fibres. 
 
 b. The non-mednllated nerve-fibres or fibres of 
 Remak, constituting the bulk of the nerves : 
 they are pale and granular, and having no 
 medulla show distinctly the oval nuclei, of the 
 primitive sheath. 
 
 G. Spinal Gaj^glia. 
 
 1. From the head of a frog, preserved in potassium 
 bichromate, dissect out the Gasserian ganglion of one 
 side (Hdb. p. 70). Tease a portion of it, in a very 
 small quantity of water or of glycerine, into small 
 fragments. Take care that when the cover-slip is 
 laid on, as little as possible escapes. Numerous 
 ganglionic corpuscles, freed from their sheath, will 
 be seen floating about, also others still surrounded 
 by their sheaths and in position. Observe ia the 
 corpuscle 
 
 a. The granular protoplasmic cell-substance often 
 containing pigment. 
 
 b. The large transparent nucleus with its conspi- 
 cuous nucleolus. 
 
 c. The sheath, of connective tissue with numerous 
 small nuclei. 
 
 d. Processes of the cell-substance. These, in most 
 instances, will have been torn away in teasing. 
 
 2. Excise the ganglion on the posterior root of one of 
 the spinal nerves of the frog. Mount it in a drop of 
 potassium hydrate, and gently press on the cover-slip. 
 
 Observe the now faintly visible ganglion-cells, ar- 
 ranged in groups, and the nerve-fibres passing over 
 and among them. 
 
VIII.] STRUCTURE OF NERVOUS TISSUES. 61 
 
 3. Cut thin transverse and longitudinal sections of spinal 
 ganglia (mammalian) previously hardened in chromic 
 acid and stained in hsematoxylin. Moimt in glycerine 
 or in Canada balsam ; and observe 
 
 a. The arrangement of the ganglionic corpuscles. 
 
 h. The arrangement of the nerve-fibres. 
 
 c. The connective tissue supporting both fibres and 
 corpuscles. 
 
 The nuclei, cell-substance, and sheaths of the corpuscles 
 may also be very well seen. 
 
 D. Sympathetic Ganglia. 
 
 Lay open the abdomen of a frog, and carefully cut 
 away the intestines. The abdominal aorta will be seen 
 lying in the middle line, with the large spinal nerves 
 on either side. Cut out the aorta and the nerves of 
 both sides, in one piece, and place flat in gold chloride 
 ■5 p. c. and treat as usual. Along the aorta and its 
 branches, and on the sympathetic branches crossing 
 from the spinal nerves towards the aorta, are numerous 
 sympathetic ganglia. The whole piece may be searched 
 with a low objective until the position of the smallest 
 and least covered ganglia is ascertained. These can then 
 be examined (in situ or after removal from the large 
 piece) with a higher objective. Note 
 
 a. The celi with granular, pigmented, protoplasm, 
 nucleus and nucleolus. 
 
 6. The sheath with its nuclei. 
 
 c. The straight and the spiral processes of the cell- 
 substance. 
 
62 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [vill. 
 
 E. Spinal Coed. 
 
 1. Cut a thin transverse section of the spinal cord of a 
 mammal hardened in ammonium bichromate. Stain 
 with haematoxylin, treat with carbolic acid as usiial, 
 and mount in Canada balsam. Observe 
 
 a. In the white substance, the cut ends of the 
 nerve-fibres. Compare with A, § 4. 
 
 h. In the grey substance (especially in the anterior 
 comua), the multipolar ganglionic cells, each 
 possessing a nucleus with nucleolus, and proto- 
 plasmic cell-substance, prolonged into branching 
 processes. The cell-substance often contains 
 pigment. 
 
 c. The connective tissue support of the nerve-fibres 
 
 and cells. 
 (N.B. The structure of the spinal cord will be more 
 fully studied in a future Lesson). 
 
 2. Cut a thin transverse section of the spinal cord of 
 ox, preserved in potassium bichromate. Tease out 
 the section carefully, under a low power; the cells 
 may thus be isolated. Note 
 
 a. The nucleus, nucleolus, and protoplasmic cell- 
 substance, the latter frequently containing a 
 deposit of pigment. 
 
 h. The branched processes frequently broken short. 
 
 c. The undivided nerve-process about to form an 
 axis cylinder. 
 
 d. The obscure fibrillation of this process and of 
 the cell-protoplasm. 
 
LESSON IX. 
 
 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NERVOUS TISSUE. 
 AUTOMATIC ACTIONS. 
 
 A. Reflex Action. 
 
 1. Place on its belly a frog, wliicli has been previously 
 deprived of its brain by the demonstrator. Observe 
 that its hind-limbs are drawn up under the body; 
 but that it differs from the normal frog in the follow- 
 ing respects. 
 
 a. Its head is depressed, instead of being erect. 
 
 b. Its fore-limbs are spread out, or flexed, instead of 
 being held nearly vertical ; thus the angle which 
 the body makes with the table is diminished. 
 
 c. There are no respiratory movements, either of 
 the nostrils, or of the throat. 
 
 2. Gently pull out one of the hind-limbs, until it be- 
 comes quite straight, and then let it go. It will be 
 immediately drawn up into its old position under the 
 body. 
 
 3. Gently tickle one flank with a feather or a blunt 
 needle; a contraction of the flank muscles of that side 
 will be observed. 
 
6-t ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [iX. 
 
 4. Pinch the same spot rather sharply with a pair of 
 forceps; the leg of the same side will be first ex- 
 tended, and then drawn up and swept over the flank ; 
 the movement tending to thrust away the points of 
 the forceps. 
 
 5. Pinch with the forceps the skin round the anus ; both 
 legs will be drawn up and thrust out again; the 
 
 . movement tending as before to sweep away the points 
 of the forceps. 
 
 Leave the animal alone for five minutes and watch it 
 carefully : if no disturbing circumstances are brought, 
 to bear on it, it will remain perfectly motionless. 
 
 6. Place the animal on its back ; it, will make no effort 
 to regain its normal position. 
 
 7. Pass a hook through the lower jaw, and fasten it to 
 the cross-bar of a stand so that the body can be 
 raised up and down. The hind-limbs, after a few 
 movements of flexion and extension, will remain pen- 
 dant and motionless. 
 
 8. Gently pinch the tip of one of the toes of either leg ; 
 that leg will immediately be drawn up. 
 
 9. Take two glasses, fiU one with dilute sulphuric acid 
 (•1 p. c.) and the other with water : lower the frog 
 until the tip of one of the toes just touches the dilute 
 sulphuric acid. In a short time the foot will be 
 withdrawn. At once let the foot dip into the second 
 glass containing water, in order to wash away the acid. 
 Measure with a rapidly beating metronome, the time 
 between the moment when the toe comes into con- 
 tact with the acid and the moment when it is with- 
 
IX. J PROPERTIES OF NERVOUS TISSUE. G5 
 
 drawn. Make three such ohservations; and take the 
 mean of the three. 
 
 10. Cut a small piece of hlotting paper one or two mms. 
 square, moisten it with strong acetic acid, and place 
 it on the flank of the animal, The leg of the same 
 
 ■ side wiU be speedily drawn up and swept over the 
 flank as if to remove the piece of paper. 
 
 11. Place similar pieces of pager dipped in acetic acid 
 on different parts of the body; different movements 
 will be witnessed in consequence; all however tending 
 
 ' to remove thB irritating substance, 
 
 12. Wash off all the acid from the frog, and when it has 
 become perfectly quiet, place it in a bason of water; 
 it will sink to the bottom (unless the lungs be acci- 
 dentally much distended with air), and no movements 
 of any kind will be witnessed. 
 
 Ohserve that all the movements produced in the foregoing 
 observations,, although complicated, co-ordinated, and pur- 
 poseful in character, are partial, and ordy by accident 
 bring about locomotion. However stimulated, the animal 
 never springs or leaps forwa/rd. 
 
 In order that the same frog may serve for observations on 
 the lymph-hea/i'ts, B. I. § 1 should be performed here. 
 
 13. Make a small cut through the skin of the back', and 
 with a fine glass tube inject one drop of a 1 p. c. 
 solution of strychnia. In a few minutes the slightest 
 stimulus applied, to any part of the animal will pro- 
 duce violent tetanic spasms of the whole body. 
 
 1 Immediately nnderneatli the skin of the bapl:; of the frog is the dorsal 
 lymphatic sac, and any fluid placed in this rapidly makes its way into the 
 blood. 
 
 L. 5 
 
66 ELEMENTABT PHYSIOLOGY. [iX. 
 
 14 Through the opening at the back of the neck into the 
 spinal canal made in destroying the brain, introduce a 
 pithing needle or piece of stout wire, and destroy the 
 whole of the spinal cord. Observe that the spasms 
 immediately cease. 
 
 15. Eepeat any of the above observations (§ 2 — 13). No 
 reflex actions wUl now be produced. 
 
 B. Automatic Action. 
 
 I. The Lymph-Hearts. 
 
 1. Placing the animal again on its belly watch the 
 movements of the posterior lymph-hearts. They may 
 be seen beating on either side of the extremity of the 
 urostyle, in a depression between that bone and the 
 hip-joint. The contractions are generally visible 
 through the skin, but become more evident if the 
 skin be removed, care being taken not to injure the 
 lymph-hearts themselves. 
 
 2. Observe that after destruction of the posterior part of 
 the spinal cord the lymph-hearts cease to beat. 
 
 II. The Heart. 
 
 1. Lay the frog on its back, make a median incision 
 through the skin, and from the middle of this make 
 transverse incisions. Raising up the end of the 
 sternum with a pair of forceps, cut it through a little 
 above the end so as to avoid cutting the epigastric 
 vein. Then again lifting up the sternum cut it 
 through longitudinally, a little removed from the 
 middle line, with a strong pair of scissors; pin back 
 each part of the sternum, cutting through such 
 muscles as may be necessary; the heart will be seen 
 
.] PROPERTIES OF NERVOUS TISSUE. 67 
 
 in the pericardium beating with considerable regu- 
 larity and force. Pinching up the pericardium with 
 a fine pair of forceps, open the pericardial cavity; 
 then tilt up the apex of the ventricle; a small band 
 of connective tissue will be observed passing from the 
 posterior surface of the ventricle to the adjoining 
 wall of the pericardium. Seizing this band with the 
 forceps, divide it between the forceps and the. peri- 
 cardial wall. Lift up the apex of the ventricle, by 
 means of this band, and with a sharp pair of scissors 
 cut through the aortse, the superior vense cavse, the 
 inferior vena cava, and the surrounding tissue. Take 
 care not to injure the sinus venosus. Place the heart 
 in a watch-glass, moistening it when necessary with 
 normal saline solution. The beats will either not be 
 interrupted at all or for a very short time. 
 
 2. Lifting up the apex of the ventricle by means of the 
 same band as before, cut through the ventricle with a 
 sharp pair of scissors at its upper third. The lower 
 two-thirds of the ventricle will remain motionless 
 without any spontaneous beat; the upper third and 
 the auricles will continue to beat with regularity. 
 
 3. By means of a longitudinal incision divide the 
 auricles with the attached portions of ventricle into 
 two lateral halves. Each half will continue to beat. 
 
 X Cilia. 
 
 Placing the frog on its back, cut through the lower 
 jaw, in the middle line, and carry the incision as far 
 as the point where the broad pharynx narrows into 
 the oesophagus, so as to expose as much as possible 
 the upper or dorsal wall of the throat, Moisten the 
 
 5—2 
 
"^8 ELEMENTAftY-PHYSIOLeSY. -r- :[lS. 
 
 mucous membrane, if it is at all dry, with' normal 
 saline solution, and place on it, between the two 
 orbits, a small thin piece of cork. The cork will be 
 seen to be driven by ciliary action down towards the 
 oesophagus. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 
 The natural electric currents of nerves. 
 
 The negative variation attending a nervous impulse. 
 
 The phenomena of electrotonus. 
 
 Electrotonus as affecting irritability. 
 
 The law of contraction. 
 
 Measurement of the rapidity of the nervous impulse. 
 
 The transmission of nervous impulses in both directions. 
 
 The phenomena of urari poisoning. 
 
 The function of the anterior and posterior roots of the 
 spinal nerves. 
 
 The peristaltic movements of the jntestines and of the 
 ureters. 
 
LESSON X. 
 
 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF BLOOD- 
 VESSELS. 
 
 The Larger Arteries. 
 
 1. Cut transverse and longitudinal sections of a small 
 piece of a moderate sized artery imbedded in paraffin. 
 
 JSTote 
 
 a. The thin inner coat thrown into longitudinal folds 
 by the contraction of 
 
 b. The much thicker middle coat, consisting of al-_ . 
 temating layers of elastic and circularly arranged , 
 muscular tissue. The disposition and relative 
 amount of the elastic tissue vary much in dif- . 
 ferent arteries. 
 
 c. The external coat (tunica adventitia), consisting 
 mainly of white fibrous connective tissue, with 
 some elastic tissue not unfrequently arranged in 
 layers, especially at the inner part of- the coat. 
 Add acetic acid to bring into view the nuclei of 
 the muscular fibres. 
 
 2. Cut sections as above, and stain with picrocarmine, 
 being careful to wash well with water before mount- 
 ing. The fibrous connective tissue will be coloured 
 pink, and the elastic and muscular tissue yellow. 
 
70 ELEMENTAUT PHYSIOLOGY. [X. 
 
 3. Take as small an artery as possible, cut it open 
 longitudinally, and pin it out on a thin piece of cork; 
 immerse it for five or ten minutes in a "5 p. c. solution 
 
 ^ of silver nitrate, then wash well with distilled water, 
 and expose to light, also in distilled water, until it 
 becomes of a brownish colour : mount it in Canada 
 balsam, with the epithelium upwards. Observe the 
 dark lines of the cement substance between the cells. 
 If the arteiy has been left too long in the silver 
 nitrate solution, or exposed too long to light, silver 
 wUl also be deposited in the substance of the cells, 
 
 4. Cut open longitudinally a large artery, e.g. carotid of 
 sheep, from a freshly killed animal, and very gently 
 scrape the internal surface. Tease out the material 
 so obtained in normal saline solution, 
 
 Observe the long, almost fusiform cells of the 
 lining epithelium, with theiy somewhat oblong nuclei, 
 Probably there will also be seen fragments of fenes- 
 trated membrane. These will become obvious after 
 the addition of acetic acid. The perforations in them 
 are rendered more distinct by staining. 
 
 5. Tease out in water small • portions of arteries pre- 
 viously digested in artificial gastric juice. The tissue, 
 after being weU washed, will be found to consist 
 almost entirely of elastic laminae. 
 
 Observe the gradations from an almost homogeneous 
 elastic perforated membrane to a meshwork of elastic 
 fibres. 
 
 6. From fresh arteries, and from arteries that "hscve 
 been preserved in potassium bichromate, tear off strips 
 from the middle coat, and tease out thoroughly the 
 pieces so obtained. 
 
X.] STRTJCTUEE AND PEOPERTIES OF BLOOD-VESSELS, 71 
 
 Note the bands of plain umscular tissue mingled 
 with the elastic laminae. 
 
 To the fresh specimens add acetic acid ; the appear- 
 ance of the rod-shaped nuclei will shew where the 
 muscular element is present. 
 
 B. The Larger Veins, 
 
 1, Repeat the above observations on the veins in place 
 of the arteries. Relatively, the epithelial cells will 
 be found to be broader, the elastic element to be less, 
 the connective element to be greater, and the muscular 
 element to be very variable. 
 
 2. Examine the structure and position of the valves in 
 the veins of some large animal. Attempt to make 
 fluid pass along them in the wrong direction, in order 
 to shew the action of the valves, 
 
 C. Capillahies and Small Blood-Vessels, 
 
 1, Tease out in glycerine the tail of a tadpole preserved 
 in chromic acid, and either stained with hsematoxylin 
 or left unstained. Abundant capillaries will be seen. 
 Note 
 
 a. The outline of the channels. 
 h. The nuclei on the walls, especially at the points 
 of bifurcation, 
 
 c. The branched connective-tissue corpuscles, in 
 places partially surrounding the capillaries, and 
 constituting the simplest form of the tunica 
 adventitia, 
 
 d. The connection of some of the processes of the 
 connective-tissue corpuscles with the capillary 
 walls, 
 
 e. The blood-corpuscles within thp capillaries. 
 
/2 ELEMENTAET phtsiologt. [x. 
 
 2. Remove a small portion of pia mater from a 
 
 perfectly fresh brain, and spread it out carefully 
 in normal saline solution, washing it gently with 
 the same, and mount. Note 
 
 a. The capillaries, with their nuclei and protoplasm 
 bulging out into the channels. 
 
 b. The small arteries, their adventitia, and the indi- 
 cations of their muscular coat composed of a 
 single layer of fibres wrapped round the intima. 
 
 c. The small veins generally filled with blood- 
 corpuscles, with their muscular coat not so dis- 
 tinctly developed. 
 
 3. Gently irrigate with dilute acetic acid. Note 
 
 a. In the capillaries, the more distinct nuclei. 
 
 h. In the small arteries, 
 
 (a) The fusiform cells and nuclei of the adven- 
 titia, arranged longitudinally, with elastic 
 fibres, 
 
 (/S) The nuclei of the muscular coat arranged 
 transversely, 
 
 (7) The profile of the elastic intima, 
 
 (S) The oval nuclei of the epithelium arranged 
 longitudinally. 
 
 c. In the small veins, similar appearances to b, but 
 less development of muscular nuclei. 
 
 4. Examine capillaries and small vessels previously 
 injected with silver nitrate. 
 
 Note the pattern formed by the junction lines of the 
 epithelium. 
 
X.J STEUCTUEE AND PROPERTIES OF BLOOD-VESSELS. 73, 
 
 5. Take a frog with a pale web, and introduce under 
 the skin of the back one drop of a 1 p.o. solution of 
 urari, and leave it under a glass jar till it makes no 
 motion on being pinched. It is of advantage that 
 this should not be the case in less than three-quarters 
 of an hour, otherwise the vessels will be abnormally 
 dilated. Laj^ the frog on the frog-board, and tie not 
 too tightly a piece of soft cotton round the end of 
 the (e.g.) 3rd and 4th digits. Stick tw'o pins into the 
 board a little distance from the hole ; by twining the 
 cotton round them the web may be stretched out 
 level above the hole. Surround the web, and cover 
 the leg and body of the frog, with moist blotting 
 paper. Put a small drop of water upon the web, and 
 cover it with a triangular piece of cover-slip, taking 
 care that the glass does not cut into the digits and 
 that no fluid flows over it. 
 
 Examine, first with obj ecti ve 3, and then with 7. Note 
 
 a. The course of the blood from the arteries to the 
 veins. Sometimes a slight pulsation may be 
 observed in the arteries. 
 
 h. In the small arteries and veins the rapid median 
 stream of red corpuscles, separated from the walls 
 of the vessels by the slower stream or inert layer, 
 in which the red corpuscles are rare. 
 
 c. The white corpuscles in the inert layer, either 
 stationary and clinging to the walls of the vessel, 
 or moving slowly. 
 
 d. The passage of corpuscles in single file through a 
 small capillary; the distension of the capillary 
 by the corpuscle. 
 
74 ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. [X. 
 
 e. The elasticity of the red corpuscles, observing the 
 ■way in which they bend and become deformed, 
 but regain their normal shape. 
 
 6. Remove the cover-slip, and soak up the fluid on the 
 web; touch the middle of the web with the tip 
 of a pointed glass rod that has been dipped in 
 an irritant, such as moderately strong sulphuric 
 acid, and replace the covec-slip. The early stages 
 of inflammation may be seen. Observe in suc- 
 cession 
 
 a. The dilatation of the arteries, the much more 
 distinct appearance of the capillaries, and the 
 enlargement of the veins. 
 
 h. A quickening of the current followed by a 
 slowing. 
 
 c. The crowding of white corpuscles in the capillaries 
 and veins, with a slowing of the current. 
 
 d. Stasis, or complete stopping of the current, with 
 a gradual obliteration of the outlines of the cor- 
 puscles. 
 
 e. The emigration of the white corpuscles. 
 
 /. The diapedesis of the red corpuscles from the 
 veins. 
 
 Notice that these effects are local, that they are of 
 greatest intensity in the spot touched, that they 
 extend for some distance round, but that the circula- 
 tion in the rest of the web is normal. 
 
LESSON XL 
 STRUCTUEE AND ACTION OF THE HEART. 
 
 A. Heaet OF Sheep \ 
 
 1. Observe the attachment of the parietal pericardium 
 to the roots of the great vessels. 
 
 Remember that the parts of the heart which are right 
 and left In the body are called right and left after 
 removal. The front of the heart may be recognized 
 by a groove filled with fat, the interventricular sulcus, 
 which runs from about the middle of the base of 
 the ventricles to rather below the middle of the right 
 margin of the heart. The front is also much more 
 convex than the back. Holding the heart with the 
 front towards you, note that the right ventricle, which 
 will be on your left hand, is much more yielding than 
 the left ventricle, which will be on your right hand. 
 Note also the pulmonary artery arising from the 
 middle of the heart at the upper part of the ven- 
 tricles, and immediately behind this the aorta. 
 
 ' ''^ , ' 
 
 2. Tie a short glass tube into the superior vena cava 
 
 and connect with it a piece of india-rubber tubing. 
 
 Ligature the inferior vena cava and the left vena 
 
 ' The heart should he obtained from the butcher with the pericardium ; 
 to Becure this it is advisable, to purchase the lungs with the beart. 
 
76 ELEMEI{TAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XI. 
 
 azygos whicli opens close beside it. Tie a glass 
 tube about two feet in length into tbe pulmonary 
 artery. Fill the india-rubber tubing .with water, 
 and squeezing it press the water onwards. The 
 water will mount in the tube connected with the 
 artery, and will only descend a little way on un- 
 clasping the india-rubber tubing. Pour water into 
 the long glass tube by means of a funnel, and ob- 
 serve the column of water which the semilunar 
 valves will sustain. Note the distension of the ar- 
 terial walls and the bulging at the attachment of the 
 valves. When the pressure is removed the artery 
 by its elasticity returns to its previous dimensions. 
 
 3. Repeat the above observation with the pulmonary 
 veins and aorta. 
 
 4. Compare the imited sectional areas of the superior 
 and inferior ven£e cavse when distended, with the 
 area of the aorta below the origin of the innominate 
 artery. 
 
 5. Having removed the tubes, lay open the superior 
 and inferior venae cavse, and bring the incisions to 
 meet in the front of the auricle. Note 
 
 a. ' The size and form of the auricular cavity. 
 
 &. The auricular appendage with its muscular 
 fretwork. 
 
 c. The septum auricularum. 
 
 d. The fossa ovalis, or expression of the foetal fora- 
 men ovale, which is early closed by the growth 
 of the septum auricularum. ; 
 
 J d 
 
:i.J STEUCTUEE AND ACTION OF THE HEART. ;77 
 
 e. The EustacMan valve immediately beneath the 
 entrance of the inferior vena cava, and again 
 beneath this, 
 
 / The opening of the comparatively large left 
 azygos vein. 
 
 ff. The auriculo-ventricular orifice.^ 
 
 6. Cut open longitudinally the azygos vein, and observe 
 the coronary vein opening into it close to the heart. 
 
 7.' Cut away most of the auricle, and holding the ven- 
 tricle in the left haind, pour -water suddenly into the 
 auriculo-ventricular orifice. The valves will float up 
 and close. Note the star-shaped junction. 
 
 8. Introduce a pair of scissors between two of the valves, 
 and cut through the wall towards the apex. Having 
 arrived at the bottom of the ventricular cavity, turn 
 the scissors sharp round and carry an incision at an 
 acute angle with the previous one, alongside the 
 septum, towards, but not into, the pulmonary artery. 
 Lifting up the flap, note 
 
 a. The tricuspid valves, their form, attachment to 
 the auriculo-ventricular ring, the chordae ten- 
 dinese, and papillary muscles. 
 
 b. The thickness of the ventricular wall, the co- 
 lumnae carnese. 
 
 c. The projection of the septum at the apex. 
 
 9. Holding the heart vertically, pour water into the 
 pulmonary artery; observe from below the form of 
 the semilunar valves, and their mode of closing. 
 
 10. To observe the valves from above, insert into the 
 pulmonary artery a short wide tube, fill it with 
 
78 ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. [XI. 
 
 water, and cover it witli a piece of glass, excluding air- 
 bubbles. 
 
 11. Prolong the incision of § 8 so as to lay open the pul- 
 monary artery. Note 
 
 a. The form and attachment of the semilunar valves. 
 i. The small nodule in the middle of the free edge 
 
 of each valve, the corpus Arantii. 
 c. The slight depressions in the arterial walls 
 
 opposite each valve, the sinuses of Valsalva. 
 
 12. Lay open the left auricle in a manner similar to that 
 employed for the right. Study as on the right side 
 the action of the left auriculo-ventricular valve (the 
 mitral). 
 
 13. Lay open the left ventricle in a manner similar to 
 that employed on the right side, carrying the incision 
 at j&rst along the extreme left of the heart. Note the 
 thick walls, the mitral valve, &c. 
 
 14. Lay open the aorta, and examine its semilunar valves, 
 corpora Arantii, and the sinuses of Valsalva, which 
 are here very distinct. Note that the coronary arte- 
 ries open respectively into the two anterior sinuses. 
 
 B. Heart of Frog. 
 
 1. Expose the heart of a pithed frog in the manner 
 directed in Lesson IX. B. IL "With the pericardium 
 intact, observe the pulsations of the heart, noting the 
 alternate beats of the auricles and the ventricle ; and 
 the synchronous beats of the two auricles. 
 
 2. Lay open the pericarditim and observe 
 
 a. The synchronous contractions of the two auricles, 
 followed almost immediately by 
 
STEUCTDKE AND ACTION OF THE HEAET. 79 
 
 b. The contraction of the ventricle, note that the 
 ventricle during its contraction or systole becomes 
 pale and conical, and that its apex is thrown 
 forwards and upwards. 
 
 c. The slight contraction of the bulbus arteriosus 
 immediately succeeding the ventricular systole. 
 
 d. The pause, or diastole, which follows before the 
 auricle again beats. 
 
 e. The increased redness and distension of the 
 ventricle after the auricular, and immediately 
 preceding its own systole. 
 
 Divide the band attaching the ventricle to the pos- 
 terior pericardial wall, and turn the apex of the 
 ventricle over. Observe 
 
 a. The j unction of the two superior venas cavse with 
 the inferior vena cava to form the sinus venosus. 
 
 b. The white line marking the junction of the sinus 
 venosus with the right auricle. 
 
 c. The cardiac branches of the pneumogastric, 
 running along each superior vena cava and then 
 plunging into the interior of the heart. 
 
 d. The series of pulsations beginning with the vense 
 cavsB, superior and inferior, next the sinus ve- 
 nosus, then the auricles, then the ventricle, and 
 finally the bulbus arteriosus. 
 
 Place a light lever on the heart, and bring the end of 
 the lever armed with 1 bristle, to mark on the re- 
 volving drum. Take a tracing of ventricular pulsa- 
 tions with the drum at a moderate speed. 
 Note the rise and fall of the lever, indicating the 
 change of form during contraction. The rise increases 
 
80 ELEMENTAEY PHYSTOLOGT. [xl. 
 
 at first rapidly, then more slowly, to a maximum, and 
 the fall is similarly at first slight, then more rapid, 
 but finally slow again. 
 
 5. Pass an interrupted current through the pneumo- 
 gastric nerve. 
 
 a. Observe during and for a short time after the 
 passage of the current, the heart remains with 
 all parts in diastole. 
 
 h. The period of rest (inhibition) is foUov^ed by a 
 period (reaction) in which the beats are quicker 
 and more forcible ; and then the previous normal 
 condition is regained, 
 
 6. Take a tracing of the above on the drum, indicating 
 on the curve the moment at which stimulation was 
 begun, and ended. 
 
 7. Cut across the aorta, to enable the heart to empty 
 itself of blood. Pass a silk ligature underneath the 
 bulbus arteriosus and two underneath the inferior vena 
 cava. Tie them loosely, ready to be tightened at any 
 moment. Kaise up the wall of the inferior vena cava 
 with a fine pair of forceps, as far from the heart as 
 possible, consistently with making an incision into 
 the vein near the liver. Make a V -shaped incision, 
 and introduce into this a cannula as large as can 
 be conveniently used. Tie the tube in the vein 
 by means of the lower of the two ligatures. Fill 
 
 ' the tube with . normal saline solution, and by blowing 
 gently, wash all blofd out of the heart. Then 
 partly fiU the tube with a -5 p. c. solution of gold' 
 chloride. Inject this in the same manner, until the 
 solution begins to issue from the aorta. Then ligature 
 the bulbus arteriosus. Again inject, and whilst the 
 
XI.] STEtrC!TUEE AND ACTION OF THE HEAET. 81 
 
 heart is distended tie the remaining ligature round 
 the inferior cava just beyond the end of the cannula. 
 Immerse the whole heart in gold chloride solution. In 
 a few minutes it will become rigid. Lay open the 
 auricular wall on each side. Observe the distinct 
 cavities of the auricles, Cut out the septum, expose 
 it to light and subsequently examine in glycerine. 
 The branches of the . pneumogastric and the ganglia 
 with spiral cells may be seen in it. Examine in the 
 same way the wall of the sinus venosus along which 
 the cardiac branches of the pneumogastric were seen 
 to run. Numerous ganglia are scattered over these, 
 
 8. Wash the ventricle thoroughly, and when, after ex- 
 posure to the light, it has become stained, transfer to 
 spirit and then to absolute alcohol, as directed in. 
 Lesson I. § 13. When sufficiently hardened, prepare 
 transverse sections of it. Observe the interlacement of 
 the bundles of fibres. The walls are of a distinctly 
 spongy character, the small central cavity being con- 
 tinuous with a labyrinth of small passages. In this 
 way the blood is brought into direct contact with the 
 muscular fibres, though no capillaries or blood-vessels 
 are present. 
 
 Note the absence of ganglia in all parts but the ex- 
 treme base. 
 
 DEMONSTEATIONS. 
 Experiment of Stannius. 
 The action of the mammalian heart. 
 Pneumogastric inhibition in the mammaL 
 Sounds of the heart. 
 Endocardial pressure of frog, 
 
 L, (J 
 
LESSON XII. 
 BLOOD PRESSURE. 
 
 A. MiKOE Aeteeial Scheme*. 
 
 1, Clamp the india-rubber tube at its proximal end close 
 to the pump, and leave the glass tube opeij. so that 
 all the water flows through the latter. Work the 
 pump with a uniform force at about 30 to 40 beats a 
 minute. To ensure regularity, the strokes had better 
 be timed with a metronome. The water will flow 
 from the open mouth of the glass tube in jerks, cor- 
 responding to the beats of the pump. At each stroke 
 as much will issue from the distal end as enters at 
 the proximal end. 
 
 2.. Introduce into the open mouth of the glass tube 
 a fine nozzle, so as to offer considerable resistance to 
 the outflow of fluid. Work the pump with the same 
 force and frequency as before. The outflow wiU still 
 be intermittent, though less fluid will issue from, and 
 consequently less enter into, the tube at each stroke. 
 
 3. Clamp the proximal end of the glass tube and ua- 
 clamp the elastic tube. Let the distal end of the 
 latter be quite open. Work the pump as before. 
 There being little resistance to the outflow, the elas- 
 ticity of the tube is not called into play, and con- 
 sequently the flow will be, as in the case of the 
 glass tube, intermittent. 
 
 1 See Appendix. 
 
XII.] BLOOD PRESSURE. 83 
 
 4. Working the pump as before, insert the fine nozzle 
 into the open mouth of the tube. Considerable resist- 
 ance will now be offered to the outflow of fluid, the 
 elasticity of the walls of the tube will be called into 
 play, and the water will issue from the end of the 
 tube in a continuous instead of an intermittent 
 stream. If the tube be sufficiently long and suffi- 
 ciently elastic, in proportion to the force and fre- 
 quency of the strokes, the flow wiU be absolutely 
 continuous. 
 
 B. Major Arterial Scheme*. 
 
 The pump represents the heart; the small tubes re- 
 present the resistance of the small arteries and capil- 
 laries. The tubes on the proximal side of this resistance 
 represent the arteries, those on the distal side the veins. 
 
 1. The Mercurial Manometer. 
 
 The manometer A is connected with the arterial, V 
 with the venous tubes. 
 
 a. Open the clamps marked C, C and 0", so that as 
 little resistance as possible intervenes between 
 the arterial and venous tubes. Bring the mano- 
 meters to mark on the revolving cylinder, placing 
 V about an inch under A, in the same vertical 
 line. Work the pump steadily, regulating the 
 time with the metronome. 
 
 In A, the mercury rises at each stroke, and in 
 the interva,l between each two strokes falls 
 again to its previous level. (The momentum of 
 the mercury frequently carries it below this level, 
 and the descent may be followed by one or more 
 oscillations.) 
 
 1 See Appendix. 
 
 6—2 
 
ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. "[^11.,. 
 
 In V, a similar rise and fall is observed, of nearly 
 if not quite the same extent. 
 6. Close the clamps C, C and C", so that the capil- 
 lary resistance becomes very considerable.' 
 In A, the mercury rises rapidly at the first 
 stroke and at the end of the stroke begins to 
 fall again, but more slowly than- was the case 
 in a. It has '■ not fallen far before the' second 
 stroke raises it : to a . higher level than before. 
 On falling stUl again, it is once more raised to 
 a yet higher leyel, but the increase is not so 
 great as before. Each succeeding stroke has a 
 similar effect. Thus at the end of a few strokes, 
 the mean arterial pressure is reached, with com- 
 paratively small oscillations corresponding to the 
 strokes of the pump. 
 
 On the strokes ceasing, the mercury gradually 
 falls until the previous level is reached. 
 In V the mercury rises to a much less extent 
 than was the case in a, a slight mean pressure 
 much less than in A is established, marked either 
 with no oscillations at all or such as are much 
 less conspicuous than those of A. 
 
 Ovnng to th& presence of the resistance, a vneom pressure 
 (arterial blood pressrtre) is established on tlie proximal 
 (arterial) side of the resistance. This pressure is 
 marked by oscillations synchronous with the strokes of 
 the pump. On the distal (venous) side the mean pres- 
 sure is muck less and the oscillations are eitlwr slight 
 or altogether absent. 
 
 Flow from Arteries and Veins. 
 
 Kemove the clamps from the fine nozzles a and v. 
 
 Let the clamps 0, C and C" remain closed. Set the 
 
:blood pressure. 85 
 
 pump going. The flow from a on the proximal (arterial) 
 side is in jets; that from v (venous) side is unin- 
 terrupted or nearly so. 
 
 Sphygmograph. 
 
 Bring the levers A (arterial side) and V (venous 
 
 side) to "write on the revolving drum, one under the 
 
 other. 
 
 a. Open the clamps C, C and C", and set the pump 
 going. The two levers describe two nearly 
 straight lines, a slight rise only being evident 
 (and that to about the same extent in both) at 
 each stroke. 
 
 When there is little or no resistance in the capillaries, 
 comparatively little distension of tlie arterial walls is 
 prodiuxd at eacJi stroke of tlie pump. 
 
 i. Close the clamps C, C and C". 
 
 The lever A now describes a well-marked curve 
 
 with each stroke of the pump. 
 
 Observe the sudden rise to a maximum, the 
 
 commencing fall, the break in the fall, followed 
 
 by a slight rise (dicrotic wave) and the final 
 
 descent. 
 
 The lever V describes now a straight line. 
 
 The rise in pressure at each stroke indicated hy the 
 merciurial moMometer is accompa/fiied hy a disten^on 
 of the proximal (arterial) pa/rt of the t/uhing, indi- 
 cated by the rise of the lever. This is the pulse. 
 On the distal (venous) side of tlie resistance no pulse is 
 visible. 
 
 Progression of the Pulse-wave. 
 
 Place two levers, one A, as near as possible to the 
 
 pump, the other A', as near as possible* to the re- 
 
86 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XH,. 
 
 sistance. Bring the two levers to mark on the cy- 
 linder the one exactly beneath the other. 
 (The pressure exerted by the two levers must be as 
 nearly equal as possible.) 
 
 Observe that each rise of A begins a little before, and 
 is over a little before that of A'. In other words, the 
 pulse of A' is a little later than that of A. 
 (By means of a tuning-fork this interval may be 
 measured, and the length of tubing between the two 
 levers being known, the rate of progression of tlie 
 pulse-wave ascertained.) 
 
 5. While the pump is working, the clamps being closed 
 and the manometers tracing their curves, gradually 
 diminish the resistance by opening slowly first C and 
 then C". 
 
 The arterial pressure curve will gradually fall, still 
 marked by the pulse oscillations; the venous curve 
 will gradually rise. 
 
 Diminution of capillary resistance lowers arterial, hut in- 
 creases venous pressure. 
 
 6. Close the clamps C and C", and take tracings with 
 the manometers, then gradually reduce the strength 
 of the strokes of the pump. 
 
 Both arterial and venous pressure will diminish. 
 
 7. The clamp C being closed, the main arterial trunk of 
 the scheme divides into two chief branches, X and Y, 
 each with its own resistance and venous tube, 
 
 a. Work the putap with great regularity, and mea- 
 sure the quantity of fluid which escapes during 
 a given time (say ten seconds) from the venous 
 tube of X, and from that of Y, by the side tubes 
 X and y. 
 
XIi:.J BLOOD PRESSURE. 87 
 
 6. The clamp of X remaining closed, open that of 
 Y, and the pump working exactly as before, 
 measure again the outflow during ten seconds. 
 The outflow of Y will be increased. That of X 
 on the other hand will be diminished, though 
 the resistance in X is the same as before, 
 Tlie flow of Mood through an artery is dependent not 
 only on the resistance offered by its own small arteries 
 and capillaries but also on that of other arteries. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 The effects in the rabbit on the temperature of the ear, 
 and on the calibre of its blood-vessels, following 
 a. Stimulation of the central end of the great auri- 
 cular nerve. 
 h. Section of the sympathetic nerve in the neck, 
 c. Stimulation of the peripheral end of the sympa- 
 thetic. 
 Normal kymographic tracings of the blood-pressure of a 
 mammal obtained by the use of a mercurial mano- 
 meter. 
 The effects on the arterial blood-pressure, as indicated by 
 the tracing, produced by 
 a. Inhibition of the heart through stimulation of 
 
 the peripheral end of the vagus. 
 h. Dilatation of the small blood-vessels through 
 stimulation of the central end of the depressor 
 nerve. 
 Methods of measuring the velocity of the blood-current 
 
 in large vessels. 
 Comparison of venous and arterial pressure. 
 - Use of the sphygmograph. 
 Use of the cardiographi 
 
LESSON XIII. 
 STOMACH AND SAMVAKY GLANDS. 
 
 STEUCTUEE. OF THE STOMACH. 
 
 Make transverse vertical sections from the middle or 
 cardiac end of a cat's or a dog's stomach which has been 
 hardened in potassium bichromate. Stain some of the 
 sections with haematoxylin or carmine, leave others 
 unstained; mount them in glycerine. The general 
 features will best be made out with a low power. 
 Observe 
 
 a. Externally, the connective tissue layer of the 
 peritoneum. 
 
 h. The muscular coat, consisting of an outer longi- 
 tudinal and an inner circular layer of unstriped 
 muscle. If the sections are accurately trans- 
 verse, the former wiU appear as a cross section 
 of a number of bundles with connective tissue 
 running in between them from the peritoneum, 
 the latter as a continuous layer. On the inner 
 side of this may also be seen a much thinner 
 oblique muscular layer. 
 
 C. The submucous coat of connective tissue. 
 
 d. The muscularis mucosae, divided more or less 
 
 distinctly into an outer longitudinal and an 
 
 inner circular layer. 
 
XIII.] STOMACH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. 89' 
 
 e. The mucous coat. Note in tMs 
 
 a. The gastric glands with their openings and 
 the ridges between the openings. Try to 
 make out the bifurcation of some of the 
 glands. 
 
 /8. The fine connectivie tissue immediately inter- 
 nal to the muscularis mucosae, surrounding 
 the bases of the glands, and sending up pro- 
 cesses between them. Towards the surface 
 the fibres have a much closer arrangement 
 and appear as a number of slender, compara- 
 tively dark, bands, which stain deeply: be 
 careful not to confound these with the moutls 
 of the glands. Mark the scarcity of leucocytes. 
 
 7. Using a high power, note further the clear 
 slender columnar epithelium lining the upper 
 portions of the glands and covering the free 
 surface of the gastric mucous membrane form- 
 ing the ridges between the glands, 
 
 S. The large coarsely granular ovoid*, or ' peptic' 
 cells, placed in the middle and lower part of 
 each gland. They. frequently cause a bulging 
 outwards of the basement membrane, especially 
 during digestion, 
 
 e. The small pale and finely granular central 
 cells, cubical or polyhedral in form, inter- 
 mixed with the ovoid cells, and best seen at 
 the lower part of the gland, 
 
 ^ Since tlie functional importance of the different kinds of cells is as yet 
 very uncertain, it is thought best to give them names which do n'ot imply 
 Any special function. 
 
90 ELEMENTARY , PHYSIOLOGY. [XHI,, 
 
 THe columnar cells will stain little or not at all with 
 liEematoxylin, the central cells moderately, and the 
 ovoid cells deeply, more especially their nuclei. The 
 relative amount of colouration, however, depends very 
 much upon the state of nutrition of the cells. 
 
 2. Make longitudinal vertical sections from the same 
 part of the stomach. Note the difference in appear- 
 ance of the muscular layers; in other respects the 
 sections resemble the transverse ones. 
 
 3. Make transverse and longitudinal vertical sections 
 from the pyloric end of the stomach, staining them 
 with hsematoxylin, and note 
 
 a. The greater thickness of the circular muscular 
 layer, and the absence of the oblique layer. 
 
 h. The more frequent branching of the glands, and 
 the absence of ovoid cells. The ovoid cells do 
 not suddenly disappear as the pylorus is ap- 
 proached, so that glands containing a few such 
 cells may be seen. 
 
 4. Prepare surface sections of a cat's or dog's gastric 
 mucous membrane, which has been taken warm from 
 the body and placed in absolute alcohol, cutting 
 across the glands; stain some, leave others unstained. 
 Observe 
 
 In sections of the upper part of the gland, 
 a. The small central lumen. 
 h. The basement membrane. 
 
 c. The layer of small deeply-stained cells imme- 
 diately underneath the basement membrane. 
 
 d. The columnar cells with their broad ends abut- 
 ting on the lumen. , i. 
 
III.] STOMACH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. 91 
 
 In sections of the lower part of the gland, 
 
 a. The small irregular lumen, often completely 
 closed up. 
 
 h. The basement membrane. 
 
 c. The central cells surrounding the lumen, 
 
 d. The ovoid cells between the central cells and the 
 basement membrane. 
 
 6. Gently tease out a section. In this way some of the 
 glands will be isolated, and their bifurcating or even 
 branched ends, with the arrangement of the cells, 
 readily observed, 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE (ESOPHAGUS. 
 
 1. Make transverse vertical sections from the lower third 
 of a rabbit's oesophagus, and compare them with the 
 corresponding sections of the stomach. Note the 
 following points of contrast : 
 
 a. The external muscular layers contain striped as 
 well as unstriped muscular fibres; sections from 
 the upper part of the oesophagus have no un- 
 striped fibres. 
 
 h. The submucous tissue contains mucous glands. 
 Each of these consists of a duct, dividing and 
 ending in dilatations, the alveoli. 
 
 The ducts are lined with columnar epithelium, 
 and the alveoli with spheroidal or cubical cells 
 flattened against one another. 
 
 c. Traces of the muscularis mucosae. 
 
 d. The papillse of the mucous membrane. 
 
92 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. " [XIII» ~^ 
 
 The epithelium forming a layer several cells deep, 
 the deeper being columnar or spheroidal, the 
 superficial cells flattened (cf. JEpidermis, Lesson 
 
 XXIL). 
 
 STEUCTUBE OF THE SALIVAEY GLANDS. 
 
 Prepare sections of mammalian salivary gland which 
 has been removed warm from the body, cut up into 
 small pieces, and placed in ammonium bichromate 
 for a few days, or straight into absolute alcohol, Stain 
 some with hsematoxylin or carmine, leave others 
 unstained. 
 
 With a low power observe 
 
 a. The division of the section into irregular angu- 
 lar areas, by connective tissue septa, which, if 
 the section includes the circumference, wiR be 
 seen to proceed from the sheath of the gland. 
 These are the primary lobules; they may be 
 seen to be divided into smaller lobules, but 
 probably not distinctly. 
 
 h. The alveoli, appearing with objective No. 3 or 4 
 as small round bodies closely aggregated together 
 to form the lobules ; each will be seen to consist, 
 more or less clearly, of a group of cells sur- 
 rounded by connective tissue, continuous with 
 that of the septa. 
 
 c. At intervals oblique and transverse sections of the 
 small ducts. They are usually stained darker 
 than the alveoli, are not surrounded by a sharp 
 ring of connective tissue, and have a well-defined 
 ^bimen. . > 
 
 .■ma^a 
 
XIXIII.] STOMACH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. 93 
 
 2. With a high power observe that 
 
 a. The alveoli vary considerably in size, and fre- 
 quently have no lumen ; when visible the lumen 
 is an irregular central space between the cells. 
 
 h. The alveolar cells are comparatively large and 
 as a rule globular, but modified in form by being 
 pressed together ; each contains a round nucleus 
 situated generally in the outer part of the cell. 
 
 c. The epithelium of the small ducts consists of a 
 single row of slender columnar cells, the inner 
 borders of which apparently coalesce and forqi a 
 distinct ring bounding the lumen: there is no 
 such distinct boundary to the outer (circum- 
 ferential) part of the cell, which especially in 
 haematoxylin specimens has a well-marked stria- 
 tion. Each cell contains an oval nucleus, staining 
 deeply, situated in the inner part of the cell, 
 
 3. Cut sections of the pancreas of a dog, and observe 
 that its structure is fundamentaUy the same as that 
 of the salivary glands, 
 
LESSON XIV. 
 SALIVA AND GASTRIC JUICE. 
 
 SALIVA. 
 
 1. Induce the secretion of saliva by chewing a small 
 piece of india-rubber tubing, by filling the mouth 
 with ether vapour, or by placing a crystal of tartaric 
 acid on the tongue. 
 
 Allow the mixed saliva to stand until the turbidity 
 has settled down into a sediment. To a portion of 
 the clear fluid add acetic acid; a thick stringy deposit 
 of mucill win take place, which does not dissolve in 
 excess of acid. 
 
 2. Filter off the mucin; to the clear filtrate add a few 
 drops of a saturated solution of potassium fen-o- 
 cyanide. The turbidity which results indicates the 
 total quantity of albuminous bodies present (op. 
 Lesson III. § 10 c). 
 
 3. Take three test-tubes, A, B, C, and place in each the 
 same quantity of starch mucilage\ Dilute a little 
 fresh saliva with five times its volume of water, 
 and divide it into two parts. Add one part to B. 
 
 1 To prepare starch mucUage, take a little wheaten starch, and rub it 
 into a thin paste with cold water. Four it into a beaker containing abont 
 two hundred times its volmne of boiling water, boU for about five minatea 
 and let it stand, Decaut the clear supernatant fluid. 
 
SALIVA AND GASTRIC JUICE. 95 
 
 Thorouglily boil the other part for three or four 
 minutes, and add it to C. Then place the test-tubes, 
 A containing starch paste only, in the water bath at 
 a temperature of 35° C. for ten minutes. 
 
 Divide the fluid in A into two parts. 
 
 a. Add a drop or two of a solution of iodine; the 
 
 characteristic blue colour produced by starch and 
 
 iodine will appear. 
 h. Add a few drops of Fehling's fluid, just sufficient 
 
 to give the mixture a blue tinge, and boil; no 
 
 discolouration or deposit will take place, shewing 
 
 the absence of sugar. 
 
 Treat the fluid in B in the same way. 
 
 a. There will either be no blue colouration or but a 
 slight one, shewing, the disappearance or dimi- 
 nution of starch. There may be a violet colour 
 due to the presence of dextrine. 
 
 h. There will be a copious yellow precipitate, due to 
 the reduction of cupric to cuprous oxide, shewing 
 that sugar has replaced starch. Take a little 
 grape-sugar, and boil with Fehling's fluid, to 
 observe the normal effects. 
 
 Treat the fluid in C in the same way.. 
 
 Its behaviour as regards both a and h will be exactly 
 the same as that of A, unless there happen to be 
 an appreciable quantity of proteids present in 
 the saliva, in which case the blue colour may be 
 changed to violet (cp. Lesson III. § 11 c). 
 
 A shews that the mucilage does contain starch and 
 does not contain any grape-sugar. 
 
 B shews that under the action of the saliva the starch 
 disappears and grape-sugar appears in its stead. 
 
96 .ELEMENTAET EHTSIOLOGt. [XIV. 
 
 C shews in the first place that the saliva itself con- 
 tains no grape-sngar, and in the second place 
 that the activity of the saliva is destroyed hy 
 exposure to the temperature of 100° C. This de- 
 struction by heat is one of the proofs that the 
 activity of saliva is due to the presence in it of a 
 ferment — the so-called ptyalin. 
 
 4. Take three test-tubes. Pour into each the same 
 quantity of saUva and of starch. The quantity of 
 saliva should be small; two or three drops of a diluted 
 saliva is sufficient. Keep A at 35° C, B at the 
 ordinaiy temperature, C surrounded by ice and salt. 
 Examine portions from each at intervals, with iodine 
 and Fehling's fluid. 
 
 The starch in A will be rapidly converted into sugar ; 
 that in B much more slowly, and in G hardly at 
 all. Then expose B and G to 35° C; the con- 
 version will be rapid and complete. 
 
 This shews that the action of the saliva is favoured 
 by a temperature as high as 35°, retarded at a 
 ' lower temperature, and arrested without any 
 destTuction of the ferment at about the tem- 
 perature of 0° C, 
 
 5. Pour saliva, diluted with five times its bulk of water, 
 over raw starch', and expose it to 35° C, shaking fre- 
 quently. The conversion will be extremely slow; the 
 water above the starch wiU not contain sugar for an 
 hour or two. 
 
 6. Place some dilute starch mucilage in one dialyser' 
 {A), and another portion with saliva in another (5), 
 
 1 Arrow-root mil do very well. 
 
 s A dialyser can easily be made by tightly tying a piece of parchment 
 paper over the mouth of > test-tube and putting off the closed end. 
 
v.] SALIVA AND GASTRIC JUICE. 97 
 
 Leave them for twenty-four hours. Then examine 
 the external water in each. That from (A), tested 
 with iodine and Fehling's fluid, will give no trace of 
 starch or sugar. That from (B) will contain sugar, 
 but no starch. Sugar dialyses, but starch does not. 
 
 7. Look at a little fresh saliva under the microscope 
 with a high power. Disregarding the flat epithelial 
 cells from the mucous membrane of the mouth, note 
 the so-called salivary corpuscles, which are larger than 
 the ordinary white blood-corpuscles, but in other re- 
 spects indistinguishable from them. In many, a very 
 active Brownian movement of the granules within the 
 corpuscle may be observed. 
 
 GASTRIC JUICE. 
 
 1. Artificial Gastric Juice. 
 
 a. Remove the mucous membrane from the middle 
 region of a pig's stomach. Mince it finely. Put 
 it in a flask with two hundred times its bulk 
 of hydrochloric acid "2 p. c, and place the flask 
 in the warm chamber at a temperature of 35° C. 
 After some hours nearly the whole will be dis- 
 solved. Decant, and filter the decanted fluid. A 
 solution of pepsin in hydrochloric acid will be 
 obtained; it will, however, contain a considerable 
 quantity of peptones. 
 
 h. Cut a portion of the same mucous membrane 
 into minute pieces. Eemove with filtering paper 
 as much moisture as possible. Cover the pieces 
 with strong glycerine. After a few hours the 
 glycerine will become strongly impregnated with 
 pepsin. It may be kept for a great length of 
 L. 7 
 
9a ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT. [XIV. 
 
 time, and the glycerine may be several times 
 renewed. A few drops of this glycerine extract 
 added to 100 cc. of hydrochloric acid '2 p.c. 
 will yield a fluid of high digestive power. 
 
 2. Action of Gastric Juice. 
 
 a. Take four test-tubes. In A place 5 cc. of hydro- 
 chloric acid '2 p. c. In 5 5 cc. of artificial gas- 
 tric juice. In C 5 cc. of the same juice, care- 
 fully neutralized. In D 5 cc. of the same juice, 
 thoroughly boiled. Put the same quantity of 
 fibrin' in each, and expose in the warm chamber. 
 Examine after a few hours. 
 
 A, the fibrin will be swollen and transparent, but 
 
 not dissolved; on neutralization it will appear 
 unaltered. 
 
 B, the fibrin wUl be wholly digested. 
 
 C, the fibrin wiU be opaque and unaltered. 
 
 D, the fibrin will be like that in A. 
 
 These experiments shew that acid alone (A) 
 and pepsin alone (0) will not digest, and that 
 pepsin loses its power on being heated to boiling 
 point (D). Now add acid again to C, and place 
 it in the warm chamber. Digestion wiU take 
 place. The neutralization has only suspended, 
 not destroyed, the action of the pepsin. 
 
 h. Take two test-tubes, with 5 cc. of gastric juice 
 and a morsel of fibrin in each. 
 Place A in the warm chamber. Surround JS with 
 ice, or put it in a cold spot. 
 
 1 The fibrin should be previously boiled, ia order to destroy the small 
 quantity ol pepsin frequently present. 
 
SALIVA AND GASTRIC JUICE. 99 
 
 The fibrin in A will be digested rapidly ; that in 
 B very little or not at all. 
 
 c. To 5 cc. of gastric juice add a small piece of 
 fibrin and keep it in the warm chamber. When 
 digested throw in another flake of fibrin. Con- 
 tinue this as long as the fibrin disappears. 
 When digestion appears to cease, add 10 cc. of 
 hydrochloric acid "2 p. c. Digestion will begin 
 again. 
 
 It was arrested partly by the presence of con- 
 centrated peptones, and partly by the consump- 
 tion of acid. Fresh acid and dilution sets it 
 going again. 
 
 Products of Gastric Digestion. 
 
 a. To 20 cc. of serum or egg-albumin add^20cc. of 
 •2 p. c. hydrochloric acid. Place it in the warm 
 chamber. From time to time remove a few cc. and 
 boil. The first specimens will coagulate as usual, 
 but the coagulation becomes less and less until 
 at last there is not even a turbidity on boiling. 
 When this stage has been reached, carefully 
 neutralize the remainder. A copious precipitate 
 occurs, which, separated by filtration, is soluble 
 in dilute acids and alkalis. This is acid albumin, 
 or syntonin, or parapeptone. (Cp. Lesson yii. § 18.) 
 If the neutralization has been perfect, the fil- 
 trate from the precipitate contains no albumin ; 
 the whole of the serum or egg-albumin has by 
 the action of the acid become converted into 
 acid albi»nin. 
 
 b. Digest a handful of fibrin or other proteid 
 with artificial gastric juice. Decant the fluid, 
 
 7-2 
 
100 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XIY, 
 
 filter through a coarse filter; and carefully neu- 
 tralize it ; a deposit of parapeptone, variable ia 
 amouat, will take place. Filter off the parapep- 
 tone. The filtrate contains peptones. 
 
 4. Determine the following characters of peptones. 
 
 a. Their solutions are not coagulated by boiling. 
 h. They are not precipitated by nitric acid. 
 
 c. They are precipitated by mercuric chloride. 
 
 d. They give MiUon's and the xanthoproteic re- 
 action. 
 
 e. With a very small quantity of Fehling's fluid 
 
 they give a precipitate which dissolves in excess, 
 forming a red and then a violet solution. 
 
 /. They dialyse readily. Pour on one dialyser (A) 
 a solution of peptones, on another (B) egg- 
 albumin. In a short time the external water of 
 A will give evidences of proteids, but not that 
 ofB. 
 
 5. Action of Gastric Juice on Milk. 
 
 Prepare some artificial gastric juice either as in § 1 a, 
 or by simply rubbing up the mucous membrane of 
 any mammal with a little warm water, and filtering. 
 
 a. Pour into a test-tube 5 cc. of fresh milk and add 
 to it a little of the artificial gastric juice ; there 
 will be a flocculent precipitate varying in degree 
 with the amount of acid in the juice. Place it 
 in a warm chamber and observe from time to 
 time. The precipitation will become' more de- 
 cided, so that in two or three hours there is a 
 clot floating in a clear fluid. This is due to 
 
SrjV.] SALIVA AND GASTRIC JUICE. 101 
 
 the casein of the milk being precipitated by 
 the gastric juice, and carrying down with it 
 the fat-globules. If it be left in the warm 
 chamber till the next day, the fluid will be 
 found to be again 'milky' and to contain 
 peptones; the gastric juice has acted on the 
 precipitated casein, turning it first into para- 
 peptone and then into peptones, and so setting 
 the fat-globules once more free. 
 
 h. Neutralize a little gastric juice carefully with 
 sodium carbonate, add it to 5 cc. of milk, and 
 place it in the warm chamber. Except that there 
 is no precipitation on mixing the fluids, the 
 results are the same, shewing that the clotting 
 of the milk is not due to the acid of the juice. 
 
 The following experiments may be made on Milk. 
 
 1. Examine a drop of fresh cow's milk under the micro- 
 scope with objective no. 7. Note that it consists of a 
 clear fluid containing a large number of highly re- 
 fractive (fat) globules of varying size. Add a drop 
 of acetic acid ; in a short time the globules in contact 
 with one another will coalesce. The acetic acid 
 dissolves the thin envelope of casein or alkali albu- 
 minate which prevented them running together. 
 
 2. Test the reaction of fresh cow's milk with litmus 
 paper. It will be found to be alkaline: occasionally 
 it is acid owing to the presence of free lactic acid. 
 Place about twenty cubic centimetres in a warm 
 place for forty- eight hours; then again test the 
 reaction, it will be found to be acid ; this is due to 
 fermentation, in the process of which the milk-sugar 
 is converted into lactic acid. 
 
102 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGT. [xiv; 
 
 3. Neutralize a little milk with dilute acetic acid ; no 
 precipitate will fall. Continue to add the acetic 
 acid carefully, warming to 35° C. ; a precipitate of 
 casein will occur, carrying down with it nearly all 
 the fat. When there is a distinct precipitate, no 
 more acetic acid should be added, as casein is soluble, 
 though not very readily, in excess; it is not pre- 
 cipitated on merely neutralizing, since there are 
 alkaline phosphates present in milk. To precipitate 
 the whole of the casein, the milk must be very much 
 diluted. 
 
 4, Filter the milk from which the casein and fat have 
 been precipitated, and test the clear filtrate for 
 albumin (Lesson iir. § 10) ; a small quantity will be 
 found. 
 
LESSON XV. 
 INTESTINE. BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF INTESTINE. 
 
 The outer coats of the iatestine have the same general 
 characters as those of the stomach (Lesson xiii. § 1, a. h. c. d), 
 except that there is no oblique muscular layer. 
 
 1. Prepare vertical sections of a cat's or dog's ileum hard- 
 ened in chromic acid. Stain some with haematoxylin, 
 leave others unstained, and mount in glycerine. Observe 
 in the mucous coat 
 
 A. The conical projections of the mucous membrane, or 
 villi, either extended and long, or contracted and short 
 with the surface thrown into folds. Note 
 
 a. The epithelium, consisting of conical cells, each 
 with a hyaline or striated border, granular proto- 
 plasm and oval nucleus ; the free borders of the cells 
 frequently appear to have coalesced into a nar- 
 row highly refractive band* 
 
 h. The goblet cells, irregularly scattered among the 
 former, sometimes abundant, sometimes scanty or 
 absent ; they are seen in the section as transparent 
 round or oval cells with sharp outlines. 
 
 c. The adenoid tissue, forming the substance of the 
 villus : this consists of a fine meshwork of fibres 
 
104 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [xV. 
 
 with nuclear-like thickenings at the nodal points. 
 The meshes are seen to be crowded with leuco- 
 cytes. 
 
 There may also be seen with varying distinctness 
 
 d. Beneath the epithelium indications of capillary 
 blood-vessels in the form of rows of blood-cor- 
 puscles, and sometimes the outlines of the walls 
 with their nuclei. 
 
 e. If the intestine be that of an animal killed 
 during digestion, the 'lacteal radicle' in the 
 centre of the villus as a club-shaped mass of 
 finely granular matter. 
 
 f. Unstriped muscular fibres as narrow bands run- 
 ning up the villus. 
 
 B. The depressions of the mucous membrane or glauds of 
 
 Lieberkiihn. Note that 
 
 a. The epithelium lining them consists of short colum- 
 nar cells. Observe their graduation into the cells 
 covering the villi. 
 
 h. There is a distinct basement membrane imme- 
 diately beneath the epithelium. This is formed 
 of connective-tissue corpuscles very much flattened 
 and fused together into a membranous sac ; the 
 outlines of the cells are not seen in the section, 
 but their nuclei are fairly conspicuous. 
 
 c. The lumina of the glands are small, but in thin 
 sections distinct. 
 
 C. The adenoid tissue around the bases of the glands of 
 Lieberkiihn aad between them and the muscularia 
 mucosae. This, unlike the corresponding tissue in the 
 
XV.] INTESTINE. BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 105 
 
 stomacli (Lesson xiil. § 1. e. /3.), has a large number of 
 leucocytes in its meshes. 
 
 D. The closed follicles, isolated or aggregated into Peyer's 
 patches; the follicles are round or oval masses of 
 adenoid tissue crowded with leucocytes, lying imme- 
 diately beneath the surface epithelium and often 
 stretching down into the submucous tissue. They are 
 in the midst of the glands of Lieberkiihn, and the villi 
 are absent over them. They will be more fully studied 
 under Lymphatics (Lesson xvi. §§ 1. 2. 3). 
 
 2. Tease out in water a vertical section from the ileum or 
 jejunum, and observe more closely, 
 
 a. The individual characters of the conical cells 
 covering the viUi, their often branched central 
 process, and the hyaline peripheral border. 
 
 6. The goblet-cells; they will be seen to be flask- 
 shaped cells with the greater part of the proto- 
 plasm replaced by a cavity filled with granules (of 
 mucus) or clear fluid, a small portion only being 
 left around a generally misshapen nucleus at the 
 base of the cell. In the older goblet-eells may be 
 seen a round opening at the top through, which the 
 mucus has been discharged. 
 
 The characters of these cells will be still better 
 seen by teasing out a small fragment of intestinal 
 mucous membrane which has been treated with 
 osmic acid, 
 
 c. The characters of the cells and the basement-mem- 
 brane of the glands of Lieberkiihn. 
 
 3. Prepare sections of the ileum or jejunum through the 
 glands of Lieberkiihn parallel to the surface, and com- 
 pare them with the vertical sections (§ 1,. B. C). 
 
106 ELEMENTABY PHTSIOLOGY, [XV. 
 
 4. Prepare vertical sections of the duodenum at its com- 
 mencement close to the pylorus. It will be seen that 
 the villi and glands of Lieberkuhn are present as in 
 the rest of the small intestine, but that the closed 
 follicles are scanty or absent. Note further 
 
 The glands of Brnnner. Each has a duct with base- 
 ment membrane, columnar epithelium and distinct 
 lumen. This dipping down into the submucous tissue 
 forms a terminal knot of convoluted and anastomosing 
 tubes, so that it has something of the appearance of 
 a lobule of the salivary gland; it is, however, struc- 
 turally more allied to a sweat-gland (Lesson xxii, § 2). 
 
 5. Snip off a few villi from a perfectly fresh intestine of a 
 mammal, and examine in normal saline solution. 
 
 a. Observe the epithelium en face, and the characters 
 of the individual cells. 
 
 b. Irrigate with dilute acetic acid ; observe the nuclei 
 of the plain muscular fibres. 
 
 6. Prepare vertical transverse sections of the large in- 
 testine. Observe 
 
 a. The longitudinal muscular coat, thin except where 
 the section has passed through one of the three 
 conspicuous bands. 
 
 6. The circular coat, thick and well-developed. 
 
 c. The mucous membrane, frequently thrown into 
 longitudinal ridges. 
 
 d. The entire absence of villi. 
 
 e. The gla,nds of Lieberkiihn; they are larger than in 
 the rest of the intestine, and their features, through 
 the absence of the villi, much more easily seen. 
 The epithelium covering the free intestinal _ sur- 
 
XV.] INTESTINE. BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 107 
 
 face or the ridges between the glands, has the same 
 slender columnar character as that covering the 
 free gastric mucous membrane. 
 
 7. Examine sections of a small intestine in which the 
 blood-vessels have been injected, and note the capil- 
 laries running up between the glands of Lieberkiihn, 
 and forming a network in the villi flose beneath the 
 surface, 
 
 BILE. 
 
 Constituents and Reaction. 
 
 Take fresh ox-gall and dilute it with four times its bulk 
 of water, 
 
 1. Test the reaction with litmus paper. If fresh it is 
 distinctly alkaline. 
 
 2. To a small quantity add acetic acid. A curdy precipi- 
 tate of mucin coloured with the bile-pigment will be 
 thrown down. Since the mucin of bile is not ob- 
 tained from the liver but from the mucous glands and 
 cells in the gall-bladder and duct, the longer the 
 bile has been in the gall-bladder the greater the pre- 
 cipitate which will be obtained. 
 
 3. Omelin's test for bile-pigment. To a small quantity 
 add gradually, drop by drop, shaking after each drop, 
 some nitric acid, yellow with nitrous acid; the yellowish 
 green colour gradually becomes first a bluish green, 
 then blue, then violet, then a dull red, and finally a 
 dirty yellow. Another method is to pour the acid 
 carefully over ^ small quantity of bile in a test-tube, 
 or to let a drop of bile, mingle with one of acid on a 
 porcelain slab; where the fluids mingle, zones of colour, 
 
108 ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOG.T. [XV. 
 
 green, blue, violet, red and yellow, from the bile to the 
 acid, are seen. 
 
 This reaction is more strikingly shewn with yellow bile, 
 taken direct from the body of a dog or rabbit and so 
 free from mucus. The first change then is from yellow 
 to green. 
 
 4. PettenJcofer*s test for hile-salts. Take a little bile, 
 or preferably a drop of prepared bile-salts, and place 
 it in a small porcelain basin with a few drops of water 
 and a very little cane-sugar powdered, or in syrup. 
 Add strong sulphuric acid drop by drop, continually 
 stirring and keeping the temperature at about 70° C. 
 The acid first causes a cloudy precipitate of cholic 
 acid, and then dissolves it, giving a characteristic 
 purple colour. 
 
 5. Preparation of hile-salts. Rub ox-gall with animal 
 charcoal into a thin paste. Evaporate on a water 
 bath to complete dryness, and exhaust with absolute 
 alcohol. The alcoholic filtrate should be colourless. 
 Add to it anhydrous ether as long as any precipitate 
 is produced, and let it stand. The precipitate either 
 crystallizes out or falls to the bottom as a thick 
 viscid syrup ; it is a mixture of sodium glycoeholate 
 and taurocholate. 
 
 Properties. 
 
 G. Moisten a small filter A with water, another B with 
 a watery solution of bile-salts. Pour into each filter 
 the same quantity of olive-oil. Take care that neither 
 filter becomes dry, by moistening occasionally the out- 
 side. In a few hours some of the oil will have passed 
 through B, but none at all through A. 
 
XV.] INTESTINE. BILE AND PANCREATIC JUICE. 109 
 
 7. Sliake up equal quantities of ox-gall and oil. An 
 emulsion will be formed, and will remain for some 
 time; but eventually the two liquids will separate. 
 For comparison, shake up equal quantities of water 
 and oil; the two liquids will separate much more 
 quickly. 
 
 8. Digest some fibrin in gastric juice, and to the acid 
 mixture when digestion is nearly complete, add bile, 
 or a solution of bile-salts. A copious precipitate of 
 parapeptone takes place. The clear supernatant 
 liquid, even when acidified again, will not be peptic, 
 the pepsin having been carried down with the 
 precipitate. 
 
 PANCREATIC JUICE. 
 
 Artificial Pancreatic Juice. 
 
 1. Mince a piece of any fresh pancreas, and with luke- 
 warm water make an infusion. If the infusion is at all 
 acid, neutralize with sodium carbonate. Strain it 
 through muslin. It will have all the properties of 
 pancreatic juice, but its power of acting on proteids 
 {i.e. the amount of the proteolytic ferment) will vary 
 greatly with the nutritive state of the pancreas. 
 
 2. Make a glycerine extract of pancreas, in the same 
 way as the glycerine extract of gastric mucous mem- 
 brane was made. It will contain a considerable 
 amount of the amylolytic ferment, and a variable 
 amount (as in § 1) of the proteolytic ferment. 
 
 8. Mince finely a piece of fresh pancreas, and rub it 
 up in a mortar with powdered glass or pure sand. 
 For each gramme of gland-substance add 1 cc. of 
 acetic acid 1 p.c, and mix thoroughly in the mortar 
 
110 ELEMENTAKY PHYSIOLOGY. [XV. 
 
 for ten minutes. Add ten times the volume of gly- 
 cerine, and let the whole stalnd for two or three 
 days. By treating the pancreas with acetic acid as 
 above, the • zymogen ' or substance yielding the pro- 
 teolytic ferment has been converted into ferment, so 
 that there is a much greater proportion of it in this 
 extract than in that of § 2. 
 
 Properties. 
 
 4. Melt some lard, and at a temperature not above 40° C. 
 mix one part of melted lard with two parts of the 
 pancreatic infusion (§ 1), rubbing them gently toge- 
 ther in a warm water bath. A thick creamy emul- 
 sion results, which will remain an emulsion even in 
 the cold for some hours. 
 
 The glycerine extracts will not cause an emulsion with 
 oil, since they do not contain the alkali albuminate 
 which is the chief agent in this action. 
 
 5. "With the glycerine extract (§ 2) make observations 
 similar to those made with the amylolytic ferment in 
 saliva (Lesson XIV. §§ 3 — 6). 
 
 6. Take two test-tubes, and add to each a few drops of 
 the glycerine extract (§ 3) diluted with a 1 p. c. solution 
 of sodium carbonate. Boil one {A), leave the other {B) 
 unboiled. Place in each a fragment of boiled fibrin, 
 and expose to a temperature of 35°. In a short time 
 the fibrin in B will have become dissolved, while the 
 fibrin in A remains much as it was. In B, peptones 
 wiU be found. The solution of the fibrin by the 
 action of the proteolytic ferment of the pancreas 
 differs from pepsin digestion in that no transparency 
 is produced, and the fibrin appears as if corroded 
 rather than dissolved. 
 
XV.] INTESTINK BILK AND PANCEEATIC JUICE. Ill 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 
 The appearance of the chyle in the lacteals of the 
 mesentery of a rabbit a few hours after a meal, 
 
 a. Above the entrance of the pancreatic juice into the 
 intestine, 
 
 h. Below the entrance of the pancreatic juice into the 
 intestine. 
 
 The thoracic duqt. 
 
LESSON XVI. 
 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 
 
 LYMPHATIC GLANDS. 
 
 Prepabe vertical sections of a rabbit's Peyer's patch 
 which has been hardened in alcohol, and stain them 
 with carmine. When stained, mount a section at 
 once, to observe the immense number of leucocytes ; 
 shake up the others in a test-tube with distilled 
 water. Look at them under a low power to see if 
 the leucocytes are for the most part shaken out ; if 
 so, mount them in glycerine. Select a comparatively 
 isolated foUicle, and observe 
 
 a. The adenoid tissue of the follicle, continuous 
 more or less distinctly with the neighbouring 
 adenoid tissue, and resembling it in all respects 
 except that the fibres are, as a rule, finer, and 
 the meshes smaller. 
 
 h. Round parts of the follicle, narrow spaces be- 
 tween it and the surrounding tissue; these re- 
 present the lymph-sinus on the outside of the 
 follicle. 
 
 c. The leucocytes scattered on the outside of, but 
 especially abundant within, the follicle. 
 
XVI.]; .THE LTSIPHATIC SYSTEM. 113 
 
 2. Examine prepared sections of a Peyer's patch with 
 tbe blood-vessels injected. Note the small arteries 
 passing into each follicle, and dividing into a number 
 of capillaries -which nm nearly to the centre and then 
 curve baclc again. 
 
 3. Examine prepared sections of a Peyer's patch with 
 the lymphatic system injected. Note that the in- 
 jected material envelopes to a greater or less extent 
 the separate follicles occupying the lymph-sinus 
 spoken of above, and' does not penetrate into the 
 interior. 
 
 4. Examine sections, stained and unstained, of an ox's 
 mesenteric lymphatic gland, hardened in ammonium 
 bichromate or in alcohol alone. Pencil the sections, 
 i. e. gently rub them with a fine camel's-hair brush, or 
 gently shake them in a test-tube with distilled water. 
 Mount in glycerine. Observe with a low objective the 
 following general features : 
 
 a. The connective tissue surrounding the gland, and 
 sending in 
 
 h. The trabeciilsB, which divide the whole gland 
 into a meshwork of alveoli. 
 
 c. Towards the exterior the alveoli are large, elon- 
 gate, and arranged in a radiate manner, forming 
 the cortex. 
 
 d. In the centre and round the hilus the alveoli are 
 smaller, and the meshwork close set, forming the 
 meduUa. 
 
 5. Examine sections as thin as possible of a small por- 
 tion of medulla or cortex. Observe with a high ob- 
 jective. 
 
 L. 8 
 
114 ELEMENTARY PHTSIOLOGT, [XVI. 
 
 a. The trabeculse, consisting of brancliing bands 
 of connective tissue, containing (in the ox) an 
 abundance of plain muscular fibres. 
 
 h. On either side' of each trabecula, and continuous 
 with it, adenoid tissue, with coarse meshes, and 
 nuclei at the nodal points. In the pencilled sec- 
 tions these coarser meshes contain but few leuco- 
 cytes; but in those which have not been so 
 treated they are crowded so that the meshwork 
 cannot be made out. This coarse reticulum forms 
 the lymph-sinus. 
 
 c. In the centre of each alveolus, separated from the 
 trabeculse by the lymph-sinus, a much finer reti- 
 culum, the meshes of which are still largely filled 
 with leucocytes. This is the so-called glandular 
 substance or medullary cord. 
 
 6. Examine sections of glands with 
 
 a. The blood-vessels injected. The capillaries are 
 almost entirely confined to the glandular sub- 
 stance. 
 
 h. The lymphatic vessels injected. The injected 
 material fills the lymph-sinuses, and spreads to a 
 variable extent into the glandular substance. 
 
 SPLEEN. 
 
 Prepare sections of mammalian spleen which has been 
 hardened in ammonium bichromate, and examine 
 them with objective no. 3 or 4. Observe 
 
 a. Externally, the broad fibrous-looking sheath or 
 capsule sending in 
 
XVI.] THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 115 
 
 h. Large and conspicuous trabeculse, wHcli divide 
 the spleen into alveoli; these are much more 
 irregular than those of the lymphatic glands* 
 
 c. The splenic pulp, filling the alveoli ; it resembles 
 the glandular substance of the lymphatic gland, 
 but has a yellowish mottled appearance; in it 
 will be seen round colourless masses of tissue, the 
 Malpighiau bodies. 
 
 2. PencU a thin section and examine it with objective 
 no. 7 or 8. Observe 
 
 The splenic pulp consisting of a fine connective- 
 tissue reticulum, crowded not only with leu- 
 cocytes but also with red cbrpuscles. It is the 
 presence of red corpuscles which gives the spleen 
 the mottled appearance observed under a low 
 power. Note that the pencilling has not brought 
 into view any distinct lymph-paths in the alveoli, 
 as it did in those of the lymphatic glands. 
 
 3. Cut across a fresh spleen and examine it with the 
 naked eye. Note the white Malpighiau corpuscles. 
 Out out one with curved scissors, and examine it in 
 normal salt solution. It wiU be seen to consist of 
 adenoid tissue crowded with leucocytes, and to be a 
 modification and development of the tunica adventitia 
 of a small artery. 
 
 4. Tease out a fragment of fresh spleen. Note that the 
 trabeculae consist of white fibrous tissue, a few elastic 
 fibres and a varying amount of unstriped muscular 
 tissue. In the spleen of some animals, e.g. the ox, 
 the muscular tissue forms the chief constituent ; add 
 acetic acid to bring into view their nuclei, 
 
 8—2 
 
116 ELEMENTART PHYSIOLOGY. [XVI. 
 
 LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES. 
 
 The lymphatic trunks need not be noticed, since their 
 structure is essentially the same as that of the veins. 
 (Lesson x.) 
 
 1. Lay open the abdomen of a frog, and carefully re- 
 move the intestines, and if necessary the oviducts. It 
 will be seen that the peritoneum above and to the 
 outside of the kidney is not adherent to the lumbar 
 muscles, but is separated by a space — the cisterna 
 magna lymphatica. Cut out the piece of peritoneum 
 "vvhich forms the partition between this space and the 
 general peritoneal cavity, pin it carefully out flat over a 
 ring of cork or paraffin, and immerse it for ten minutes 
 in silver nitrate solution, "5 p. c. Wash it well with 
 distilled water, and expose to light. After twenty- 
 four hours, divide it in two pieces, mount them in 
 glycerine, one (a) with the peritoneal surface upper- 
 most, the other (b) with the cisterna surface upper- 
 most. Observe 
 
 in (a) 
 
 a. The peritoneal epithelium, consisting of large 
 
 flat cells with a slightly sinuous outline. This 
 
 is the usual character of the so-called endo- 
 thelial cells. 
 
 )8. Where several more or less triangular cells 
 seem to radiate from a common point, note 
 at their apices the small nucleated cells sur- 
 rounding the orifice or stoma leading from the 
 peritoneum to the cisterna. 
 
XVI.] THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 117 
 
 in (6) 
 
 a. The lymphatic epithelium, consisting of flat 
 cells, smaller than the peritoneal epithelium, 
 and with a very irregular sinuous outline. 
 
 /8. The stomata ; very much as in (a). 
 
 2. Look at prepared specimens of the diaphragm of a 
 rabbit or guinea-pig stained with nitrate of silver 
 (Hdb. p. 112), the peritoneal surface being upper- 
 most. Observe 
 
 a. The bundles of fibres forming the tendon of the 
 diaphragm. The spaces between these mark for 
 the most part the course of the lymphatic vessels 
 and capillaries. 
 
 h. The peritoneal epithelium, consisting of flat poly- 
 gonal cells. These are larger over the tendinous 
 bundles than over the intervening spaces. Sto- 
 , mata similar to those of § 1 a. /S. may be seen ; 
 they are chiefly found in the epithelium over the 
 intertendinous spaces. Pseudo-stomata, irregular 
 patches of staining at the junction of several 
 cells, are frequent. 
 
 3. Look at prepared specimens of the diaphragm of a 
 rabbit or guinea-pig, pencilled and stained with 
 nitrate of silver (Hdb. p. 110), the pleural surface 
 being uppermost. Observe 
 
 a. The small lymphatic vessels, running between 
 the tendinous bundles and lined with somewhat 
 irregular spindle-shaped epithelium. In places 
 the curved outline of a valve may be seen. 
 
 h. The lymphatic capillaries with their character- 
 istic sinuous epithelium. 
 
118 ELEMENTAEY PHYSIOLOGY. [XVI. 
 
 c. The origin of the lymphatics. This is best seen 
 in specimens deeply stained with nitrate of 
 silver, so as to produce the so-called negative 
 image. Note the clear branched 'spaces, whose 
 sinuous outline resembles that of an epithelium- 
 cell of a lymphatic capillary. The clear spaces, 
 cavities containing unstained connective-tissue 
 I corpuscles, stand out in strong contrast with the 
 
 surrounding stained matrix. The junction of 
 these spaces with the interior of a lymphatic 
 capillary, may here and there be seen. 
 
LESSON XVII. 
 LIVER AND GLYCOGEN. 
 
 STRUCTUEE OF LIVER. 
 
 J. Prepare sections of a liver hardened in Miiller's 
 Fluid or potassium bichromate. Observe with a low 
 objective 
 
 a. The division into lobules, 
 
 h. The hepatic cells and their radiate arrangement 
 in the lobule. 
 
 c. The intralobular or hepatic veinlet. This fre- 
 quently appears in the section as a clear space in 
 the centre of the lobule. 
 
 d. The interlobular or portal veinlet : branches of 
 this, as well as of the hepatic artery, are seen 
 between the lobules sending off capillaries towards 
 the hepatic veinlet 
 
 e. The bile-ducts, recognisable by their distinct 
 lining of columnar epithelium. 
 
 The distinctness with which c and d are seen will 
 depend on the plane in which the section passes 
 through the lobules. 
 
 2. Examine sections of a liver, the blood-vessels of which 
 have been injected both from the hepatic vein (red 
 
1120 ELEMEMTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XVII. 
 
 or blue) and from the portal vein (blue or red). 
 Observe, comparing with uninjected specimens, 
 
 a. The hepatic veinlet, seen according to the plane 
 in which the lobule is cut, either as a more or 
 less circular section, or as a short veinlet passing 
 from the centre of the lobule to the sublobular 
 vein. 
 
 b. The portal veinlet running on the outside of the 
 lobule. 
 
 c. The radial capillary network uniting the portal 
 and hepatic veinlets. 
 
 3. Prepare veiy thin sections of the uninjected liver, atid 
 examine with si high objective. Observe 
 
 a. The polygonal outline of the hepatic cells. 
 
 b. Their granular protoplasm, generally containing 
 oil-drops. 
 
 c. Their spheroidal nuclei. Many cells contain two. 
 
 d. The capillary blood-vessels, traceable by their 
 containing blood-corpuscles, running out from 
 the centre of the lobule between the rows of 
 cells, and joining with one another at intervals 
 by cross branches. 
 
 e. The bile-ducts, their columnar epithelium with 
 distinct nuclei. In some of the sections the epi- 
 thelium may be seen to become shorter and more 
 cubical a,s the duct approaches a lobule. The 
 duct itself often appears to end abruptly at the 
 margin of the lobule. 
 
 4. Examine sections of a liver injected from the bile-duct. 
 The bile-capillaries will be seen within the lobules 
 
XVII,] . LIVER AND GLYCOGEN. 12l 
 
 as a fine network of minute threads of injected mala- 
 rial, passing between and over the surfaces of the 
 celts. 
 
 5. Scrape a small portion of perfectly fresh liver, and 
 examine the hepatic cells, comparing with § 3. 
 
 GLYCOGEN. 
 
 . 1. Open the abdominal cavity of a rabbit immediately 
 after death, and, disregarding the bleeding, cut out 
 the liver as rapidly as possible. Divide one half into 
 pieces of about 2 cc, and throw them at once into a 
 relatively large quantity of boiling water (prepared 
 beforehand). Place the other half on one side in a 
 warm place. In two or three minutes, when the 
 pieces in the boiling water are all thoroughly co- 
 agulated, and the ferment has been destroyed, temove 
 them and pound them in a mortar into a paste ; mix 
 this paste with 500 cc. of boiling water, acidulate 
 with dilute acetic acid, and boil for three minutes. 
 Let it stand till the sediment of proteids has settled, 
 and filter the milky fluid through a coarse filter. The 
 sediment may be squeezed in linen, and the expressed 
 
 V. : . fluid thrown on the filter. This opalescent filtrate 
 is a crude infusion of glycogen. The above will afford 
 material for several students. 
 
 If it contains much proteid material, it should be 
 carefully neutralized, boiled again, and filtered. 
 
 2. a. Place a few cc. of the fluid in a test-tube, and 
 add a drop or two of a dilute iodine solution. A 
 port-wine colour will result. Warm gently ; the 
 colour will disappear, but will return on cooling 
 (unless much proteid matter be present). 
 
122 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, [XVII. 
 
 h. Test 5 cc. for sugar with Fehling's Fluid : a small 
 quantity only will be found. 
 
 c. Add to 10 cc, a drop of saliva, or artificial pan- 
 creatic juice, and place it in the warm chamber ; 
 the opalescence will disappear, and the fluid 
 become transparent, 
 
 a. To 5 ca of this add iodine as before ; the port- 
 wine colour will not appear, shewing that 
 glycogen is no longer present. 
 
 /8. Test the other 5cc. for sugar; much more 
 than before will be found. 
 
 3. After some hours' exposure, make a decoction of the 
 other half of the liver. It will probably be acid, and 
 so require for neutralization no further addition of 
 acid, but some sodium carbonate. 
 
 a. The decoction will be clear and transparent, not 
 milky. > 
 
 h. It will give no port-wine colour with iodine. 
 c. It wiU contain sugar in abundance. 
 
 By a post-mortem change, the glycogen which was in 
 the liver at the moment of death, has all become 
 converted iato glucose. 
 
 DEMONSTRATION. 
 Artificial Diabetes. 
 
LESSON XVIII. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNG. THE 
 MECHANICS OF RESPIRATION. 
 
 1. Cut out a piece of the lung of a freshly-killed newt, 
 and stain it with gold chloride. Mount with the 
 inner surface upwards, and note 
 
 a. The layer of flat epithelial cells, 
 
 b. The underlying connective tissue, with a close 
 plexus of blood-vessels, 
 
 2. Distend the lungs of a frog with chromic acid "5 p. c, 
 tie the trachea, and place the distended lungs in a 
 relatively large quantity of the acid for a week and 
 then treat with alcohol as usual. Stain a piece with 
 hsematoxylin ; when it is well stained, soak it for a 
 short time in bergamot oil, and imbed it in a mixture 
 of spermaceti (1 part) and castor oil (4 parts), and 
 let it cool, Cut sections, using olive oil instead of 
 alcohol to wet the razor. Transfer the sections to 
 a mixture of carbolic acid and turpentine, warm 
 gently, and mount in Canada balsam. Observe with 
 a low objective, the primary, secondary, and tertiary 
 septa forming the alveoli, and with a high power the 
 structure of the wall similar to that of the newt, 
 
 3. Make transverse vertical sections from the posterior 
 part of a small mammalian trachea, which has been 
 
ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XVIII. 
 
 hardened in chromic acid -5 p. c. The section should 
 be so taken as to cut through the ends of a tracheal 
 ring and include the membranous part between them. 
 Observe 
 
 a. Externally, the fibrous coat of loose connective 
 tiss\xe, becoming denser towards the tube of the 
 , trachea; in this are imbedded the two ends of 
 the ring of cartilage. 
 
 h. Stretching between the ends of the cartilage, a 
 transverse baud of unstriped muscular fibres ; 
 there may also be visible outside this the cut 
 ends of rhuscular fibres running longitudinally. 
 
 c. The submucous coat continuous \?ith the fibrous 
 coat, but of finer fibres. 
 
 d. The mucous g;lauds, the alveoli of which form 
 alinost a continuous layer in the submucous 
 tissue; the ducts will be less evident, but they 
 may be seen running towards the surface, and 
 occasionally opening on it. 
 
 e. The cut ends of elastic fibres, which form a 
 distinct longitudinal layer, on the inner side of 
 the submucous tissue. It will be seen that this 
 is most marked in the membranous part of the 
 trachea ; where, too, the fibres are frequently col- 
 lected into bundles. 
 
 f. The mucous coat. In this may be seen 
 
 a. A number of fine elastic fibres with a variable 
 quantity of adenoid tissue, which becoming 
 more dense towards the surface, forms a dis- 
 tinct basement membrane for 
 
XVIII.J STRUCTURE OF THE LUNG. RESPIRATION. ISo' 
 
 ^. The epithelium, consisting of two, three, or 
 more layers of small cells lying beneath and 
 between the central processes of a layer of 
 columnar ciliated cells. If the trachea has not 
 been hardened and prepared carefully, the 
 cilia may appear only as a granular border 
 lying on the columnar cells. Goblet-cells will 
 probably be seen amongst the ciliated cells. 
 
 4. , Make longitudinal vertical sections of trachea, taken 
 
 through the tracheal rings, and compare them with 
 the transverse sections, noting especially the elastic 
 and muscular elements. 
 
 5. Make sections, stained and unstained, of prepared 
 mammalian lung, preferably the lung of a fcetus in- 
 jected with and hardened in chromic acid or potas- 
 sium bichromate. Observe 
 
 a. Sections of blood-vessels (cp. Lesson x.). 
 
 h. Sections of bronchia. Note that 
 
 The sections of the larger bronchia resemble sections 
 of trachea, except that 
 
 a. The cartilages are irregular in form, and 
 irregularly scattered throughout the fibrous 
 coat. 
 
 /S. The transverse muscular fibres now form a 
 complete ring in the submucous coat. 
 
 From the smaller bronchia the cartilages are ab- 
 sent, but the muscular fibres still continue 
 as scattered fibres arranged transversely. 
 
 c. The passage of a small bronchial tube into an 
 infundibulum. Note that 
 
126 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, [XVIIL 
 
 a. The colurnnar ciliated cells become storter and 
 
 lose their cilia, 
 p. The muscular fibres apparently cease. 
 7, The longitudinal fibres spread out into an 
 
 irregular meshwork. 
 ThiSfmay be occasionally seen in a section. 
 
 d. Sections of alveoli. 
 
 a. The outline of the alveoli : the distinct base- 
 ment membrane. 
 
 p. The flat, tesselated epithelium. This •will be 
 seen best where a portion of the wall of the 
 alveolus is left flat in the section ; sometimes 
 it may be seen in profile. 
 
 7. The elastic fibres of the alveolar wall. 
 
 8. The nuclei and collapsfed walls of the capil" 
 laries. 
 
 6. Make sections of mammalian lung, injected with 
 and hardened in alcohol acidulated with acetic acid. 
 Observe more closely the abundant elastic fibres of 
 the alveolar walls and the nuclei of the epithelium, 
 
 7. Make sections of a lung the blood-vessels of which have 
 been injected. Observe the close-set capillary net- 
 work over the alveolus, and the artery forming a circle 
 round the mouth of each alveolus. 
 
XVIII.] STRUCTURK OF THE LUNG. RESPIRATION. 127 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. . 
 
 1. The circulation in the lung of toad. 
 
 2. The movements of the column of air in respiration. 
 
 3. The movements of the diaphragm. 
 
 4. Apncea. 
 
 5. Slight dyspnoea. 
 
 6. The action of the respiratory muscles in dyspnoea. 
 
 7. The collapse of the lungs on puncturing the thorax, 
 and the consecjuent futility of the respiratory move- 
 ments. 
 
 8. The action of the phrenic nerve. 
 
LESSON XIX. 
 
 THE COLOUR OF BLOOD. RESPIRATION. 
 
 1. Place a rat or guinea-pig under a bfeU-jar with a 
 sponge moistened with chloroform. When it is 
 thoroughly under the influence of the chloroform, 
 quickly open the thorax, and cut across the heart. 
 Collect the blood in a glass beaker, and whip it; 
 pour one half of the defibrinated blood into a plati- 
 num crucible surrounded by a mixture of ice and 
 salt. Leave it till it is frozen. Then remove it to 
 a not too warm place, so that it may thaw slowly. 
 By this means the blood-corpuscles will be broken up, 
 and the blood will become of a dark ' laky ' colour. 
 If the blood does not become thoroughly laky it 
 should be frozen and thawed again. 
 
 Compare the dark colour and transparency of this 
 laky blood with the scarlet colour and opacity of the 
 remaining half of the animal's blood which has been 
 simply defibrinated. The opacity or transparency 
 may be easily judged by attempting to read type 
 through a drop placed on a glass slide. 
 
 2. Place the laky blood on one side in a cool place (a 
 temperature of 0° C. is preferable) for 24 hours. A 
 sediment will then have formed consisting partly of 
 (oxyhsemoglobin) hsemoglobiu crystals and partly of 
 
XIX.] THE COLOUR OF BLOOD. EESPIEATION. 129 
 
 broken up corpuscles. Or a drop of the blood, allowed 
 to evaporate on a slide, will be found to contain 
 crystals. 
 
 3. Examine the sediment under the microscope for oxy- 
 hsemoglobin crystals. Note 
 
 a. Their form. In the rat they are thin rhombic 
 prisms, often almost needle-shaped. 
 
 In the guinea-pig they have the appearance of 
 tetrahedra, but in reality belong to the rhombic 
 system. 
 
 b. Their colour. It is that of arterial blood. 
 
 4. Examine the sediment for the stroma of the red 
 blood-corpuscles. These wiU be seen as pale colour- 
 less rings mixed up with a good deal of granular 
 debris. 
 
 5. Prepare a solution of oxyheemoglobin. This may be 
 done by dissolving the crystals in distilled water. In 
 the absence of crystals the following method may be 
 adopted. 
 
 Take a fresh blood-clot, and drain off as much serum 
 as possible. Cut it into small pieces. Wash it with 
 water, and throw away the first two washings. Treat 
 it then with water, squeezing the pieces, and filter 
 through a coarse filter. 
 
 6. Examine, by means of a spectroscope', the absorption 
 bauds of oxyhsemoglobin in a very dilute solution. 
 Previously determine the position on the scale of the 
 lines B, G, D, E, F, by examining the solar spectrum. 
 If this is not practicable, determine at least the pcsi- 
 
 1 The demonstrator will show the method of using the instrument. 
 L. 9 
 
130' ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XIX. 
 
 tioh of D, by burning a sodium flame in front of the 
 collimator, and bringing the micrometer wire to coin- 
 ' cide •with the sodium line. 
 
 a. Note the two absorption bands ; one (a) towards 
 the red, the narrower but the denser of the two, 
 and the first to appear; the other (/3) towards 
 the blhe, broader, but less dense. 
 
 h. Note the position of the bands, both to the blue 
 side of D, lying between D and ^. 
 
 7. Increase gradually the strength of the solution. 
 
 a. . The spectrum is more and more cut off both at 
 the bhie and at the red end, but especially at 
 the former. The absorption bands are both 
 blacker and broader. 
 
 h. As the solution becomes stronger, the two. bands 
 run together, while the two ends also suffering 
 absorption, light passes through only in the 
 green to the blue side of E or 6, and in the red, 
 to the red side of B. 
 
 c. With a still stronger solution, the green light also 
 is absorbed, and only the red is visible, and 
 this at last disappears. 
 
 8. Reduce the oxyhsemoglobin solution with Stokes's iron' 
 fluid in the cold, or with a few drops of ammonium 
 sulphide solution in the warm chamber. 
 
 a. Compare the claret colour of the reduced hssmb- 
 globin solution with the bright scarlet of the 
 original solution. 
 
 b. Examine with the spectroscope. There is a 
 single broad band, occupying a position inter- 
 
 ^ See Appendix. 
 
Xixj THE COLOTJR OF BLOOD. RESPIRATION. 131 
 
 mediate between those of the two oxyhsemoglobin 
 bands which have disappeared. The band is not 
 quite intermediate; its mid-line lies nearer Z> 
 than E. This single band is much less dark 
 than either of the two bands produced by the 
 same quantity of Qxyhsemoglobin. 
 c. With stronger solutions, less of the blue end 
 disappears. Instead of the green beyond E ot b 
 remaining, it is the blue beyond F which now 
 remains; 
 
 9. Pour the reduced solution two ,or three timqs from 
 one vessel into another so as to expose it well to air. 
 The bright scarlet colour will be restored; the 
 oxyhsembgldbin spectrum will reappear. 
 If allowed to remain at rest, reduction (from, excess 
 of reducing reagent present) soon returns. 
 
 10. Examine the spectrum of blood-crystals either with 
 the microspectroscope or by placing a thick layer of 
 crystals on a glass slide before the larger spectroscope. 
 The spectrum of oxyhsemoglobin is seen. 
 
 11. Pass carbonic oxide through an oxyhsemoglobin solu- 
 tion for some little time. 
 
 a. Note the peculiar bluish tinge acquired. Examine 
 the spectrum ; two bands are seen like those of 
 oxyhsemoglobin, but both placed more towards 
 the blue end. 
 
 To compare their position, place some of the 
 oxyhsemoglobin solution before the spectroscope, 
 bring the micrometer wire to the middle of one 
 of the bands, and fix the telescope in position. 
 Eeplace the oxyhsemoglobin solution by the car- 
 
 9—2 
 
132 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY, [SIS. 
 
 bonic oxide haemoglobin solution and examine; 
 the middle of the band will now be to the blue 
 side of the wire. 
 
 h. Treat the carbonic oxide hsemoglobin with either 
 of the reducing agents used above. Reduction 
 will not take place. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIONS. 
 
 The spectra of 
 
 a. Oxy-hsematin. 
 
 b. Reduced hsematin. 
 
 The gases of the blood. 
 
 The colour of venous and arterial blood in the living 
 animal, and its dependence on the presence of oxygen 
 in the lungs. 
 
 The respiratory function of the pneumogastric. 
 
 The action of the respiratory centre. 
 
 The effect of arterial and venous blood on the tissues. 
 
 The phenomena of asphyxia. 
 
LESSON XX. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 
 
 1. Fjrom a kidney hardened in ammonium bichromate, 
 prepare radial sections extending from the pelvis to 
 the external surface. If any difficulty is experienced 
 in cutting the sections, a microtome may be used. 
 Observe with a low power 
 
 a. The medulla. Note the straight tubes, the 
 tnbuli uriniferi recti, radiating from the pelvis 
 outwards. These, increasing in number by divi- 
 sion, form the pyramids of Malpighi. 
 
 6. The cortex. Note 
 
 a. The pyramids of Malpighi, dividing at their 
 base into a number of bundles, the pyramids 
 of Ferrein. These, radiating outwards and 
 becoming thinner, are lost as they approach 
 the surface of the kidney. 
 
 /3. The convoluted tubes, the tubuli uriniferi 
 contorti, occupying the intervals between the 
 pyramids of Ferrein, and forming a layer at 
 the external surface. 
 
 7. The Malpighian capsules, with their glo- 
 meruli, dispersed in double rows in the inter- 
 vals between the pyramids of Ferrein. 
 
134 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. . [XX. 
 
 The part of the cortex in which are the pyramids 
 of Ferrein is frequently spoken of as the 
 marginal zone. The part of the cortex con- 
 taining the convoluted tubules is often distin- 
 guished from the pyramids of Ferrein by the 
 name of cortical substance. 
 
 2. Prepare very thin radial sections of the medulla and 
 of thfe fcbrtex. Stain some with hsematoxylin, and 
 leave others unstained. 
 
 A. In the cortical substance observe 
 
 a. The MalpigMan capsules. Note in each 
 
 a. The external wall of the capsule and the 
 nuclei of the lining epithelium. 
 
 j8. The glomerulus ; the outline and nuclei of 
 
 the blood-vessels (the nuclei of the investing 
 
 epithelium). 
 7.. The narrow neck of the capsule. This is seen 
 
 only when the section passes through the 
 
 capsule in a particular plane. 
 
 b. The tubuli contorti: secreting tubules. Note 
 in these that 
 
 a. The limits of the individual cells lining the 
 tubules are very slightly shewn; a distinct 
 cell-membrane being absent. 
 
 ;S. The cells consist of granular protoplasm, the 
 outer part of which is often distinctly and 
 coarsely striated. 
 
 7, The lumen of the tubule is frequently indis- 
 tinguishable. The nuclei are round, and more 
 or less obscured by the striation., 
 
.XX.] STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 135 
 
 B. In the medulla, 
 
 c. The straight tubules: collecting or discharging 
 tubules. Note in these 
 
 a. The short columnar or cubical epithelium, 
 ^ with round nuclei and well-defined outlines, 
 
 leaving a considerable lumen in the centre 
 of the tubule. 
 
 /3. The distinct basement membrane. 
 ■C. In the pyramids of Ferrein, 
 
 d. The looped tubes of Henle, consisting of 
 
 a. The descending limb. This may be recognized 
 by its narrow calibre, and its transparent flat- 
 tened epithelium, .the, nuclei of which project 
 on alternate sides into the lumen, somewhat 
 after the manner of a capillary blood-vessel. 
 The basement membrane of the tubule is 
 thick and conspicuous. 
 
 ^. The ascending limb. This Is wider than the 
 descending limb, and in many cases does not 
 differ in appearance from a collecting tube ; 
 frequently, however, its epithehum \^ imbri- 
 cate. The nuclei of the cell^ are generally oval. 
 
 The change of character of the epithelium of the 
 loop of Henle may take place either in the 
 descending or in the ascending limb. . 
 
 e. The connecting tubules. These differ little from 
 the secreting tubules, save that their course 
 is zigzag,' their bends being angular and not 
 rounded. 
 
136 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XX. 
 
 Try and make out the followiug course of a 
 tubule. The capsule is continuous by a narrow 
 neck with a secreting tubule. This, after wind- 
 ing about in the cortical substance, descends 
 (along a pyramid of Ferrein) towards the me- 
 dulla as a descending limb of a Henle's loop, 
 returns as an ascending limb, and, after a short 
 course as a connecting tubule, redescends as a 
 collecting tubule, and finally, by junction with 
 others, becomes a discharging tube. No tube can 
 be thus followed in a section, but the various 
 transitions may be seen. 
 
 S. In sections through the cortex, and in tangential 
 sections through the medulla, observe 
 
 a. The firm, conspicuous, transparent membrana 
 propria of the tubuli ; often seen devoid of epi- 
 thelium. This is thick in the loops of Henle, 
 and thin in the other parts of the tubules. 
 
 b. The nuclei of the membrana propria of the 
 tubules, and of the interstitial connective tissue 
 or stroma. 
 
 c. The characters of the epithelium in the different 
 tubules. Try to distinguish, in the sections of 
 the p}Tamids of Ferrein, between the loops of 
 Henle and the collecting tubules. 
 
 d. The transverse, and other sections of the blood- 
 vessels. 
 
 4. Examine sections of kidney injected from the renal 
 artery. Observe 
 
XX.] STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 137 
 
 a. The brandies of the renal artery running between 
 the Malpighian pyramids. 
 
 h. The interlobular branches, continuing outwards 
 in the intervals between the pyramids of Ferrein, 
 and giving off on either side small afferent 
 arteries to the Malpighian bodies. 
 
 c. The single efferent vessel issuing from each 
 glomerulus, and almost immediately dividing 
 into capillaries, which form a close net-work 
 round the tubules. • 
 
 5. Cut as thin a section as possible of a fresh kidney, 
 and tease it out in normal saline solution. Observe 
 
 a. The characters of the cells. 
 
 b. The basement membrane of the tubules. 
 
 6. Cut vertical sections of a rabbit's or dog's bladder, 
 hardened in ammonium bichromate, and observe 
 
 a. Externally the peritoneum. 
 
 h. The muscular coat, consisting of two layers, the 
 outer more or less distinctly longitudinal, the 
 inner more or less distinctly transverse. 
 
 c. The submucous coat. 
 
 d. The mucous coat. Note that the epithelium 
 consists of three or more rows of cells. 
 
 a. An outer, generally cubical, layer. 
 
 /3. A layer of pear-shaped cells. 
 
 y. Small elongated cells between the central pro- 
 cesses of the pear-shaped cells. 
 
13S . -ELEMENTAKY PHYSIOLOGY. [XX. 
 
 ; . 7. Scrape tHe internal surface of the mucous membrane, 
 and observe more particularly the character of the 
 epithelial cells. 
 
 8. Cut transverse vertical sections of a rabbit's or dog's 
 ureter. Note that the structure is much the same as 
 that of the bladder, but the longitudinal muscular 
 coat is gemerally indistinct, and the submucpus coat 
 very loose. 
 
LESSON XXI. 
 URINE. 
 
 1. Test tlie reaction of fresh urine with litmus paper, it 
 wiil be acid; this is mainly due to the presence of 
 acid sodium phosphate, and not to free acid. 
 
 2. Put' in a -warm place 200 cc. of urine, and observe 
 from time to time, 
 
 a. It will, after twenty-four or more hours, lose its 
 acid reaction^ and become alkaline. Gently warm 
 the litmus paper turned blue by the urine, the 
 blue colour will disappear, shewing that the 
 alkalinity ■ is due to the presence of ammonia or 
 a salt of ammonium. 
 
 6. It will gradually become cloudy, and yield a 
 deposit of various salts. 
 
 c, Its odour will become putrefactive. 
 
 The urine has undergone alkaline fermentation, 
 
 3. A small quantity of mucus derived from 'the urinary 
 passages is occasionally present in the form of a faint 
 cloudy precipitate. This may be rendered more 
 opaque by the addition of acetic, acid. 
 
140 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXI. 
 
 4. Urea. Place a few crystals of urea in a watch-glass, 
 and dissolve them in a small quantity of water. 
 
 a. Let a drop of the solution evaporate on a glass 
 slide, and observe under the microscope the 
 crystals of urea, consisting of four-sided prisms. 
 (Hdb. fig. 322.) 
 
 6. Add to another drop on a slide a drop of pure 
 strong nitric acid; comparatively insoluble six- 
 sided tablets of nitrate of urea will crystallise 
 out. (Hdb. fig. 323.) Note the striation fre- 
 quently present in these tablets. 
 
 c. Repeat (6), using oxalic instead of nitric acid. 
 Rhombic tablets of oxalate of urea will be 
 formed. (Hdb. fig. 324.) 
 
 d. Dilute considerably the remaining solution, and 
 add to it a solution of mercuric nitrate. A 
 white precipitate of mercuric oxide combined 
 with urea will take place. 
 
 5. Evaporate 20 cc. of urine in a water-bath till its 
 volume is reduced to about 2 cc. Filter, a,nd examine 
 the filtrate for urea (§ 4, h. c.) 
 
 6. Uric Acid. 
 
 a. Place a few crj'stals of prepared uric acid on a 
 slide, and add a little liquor potassae to dissolve 
 them; then add nitric acid just to excess. Crys- 
 tals of uric acid will be deposited, which may be 
 examined under the microscope. They are gene- 
 rally rhombic plates with obtuse angles, but 
 they vary largely (Hdb. fig. 305). Note the star- 
 shaped and dumb-bell crystals. 
 
XXI.] UEINE, 141 
 
 6. Dissolve some uric acid in an evaporating dish, 
 in a little dilute nitric acid, and evaporate nearly 
 to dryness at a low heat in a water-hath. Add 
 a drop or two of weak ammonia; a red pui-ple 
 colour will be formed. This is called the 
 Murexide test for uric acid. If. a drop of caustic 
 potash be added the colour will turn to a blue 
 purple. 
 
 7. Evaporate 50 cc. of urine to one-third its bulk ; 
 filter, and add to the filtrate a few drops of pure 
 strong hydrochloric acid; set it aside till a red deposit 
 is observed. Examine the deposit under the micro- 
 scope for uric acid crystals, and subsequently apply 
 the tests § 6, a. b. 
 
 TESTS FOK SOME ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE URINE. 
 
 8. Albumin. The albuminous bodies found in the urine 
 have, with rare exceptions, the reaction of serum 
 albumin. Hence apply the tests for that substance. 
 Lesson ill. § 10. 
 
 9. Sugar. Diabetic urine. Coagulate any albumin that 
 may be present, by boiling. Filter through a little 
 animal charcoal, and test with Fehling's fluid. 
 
 10. Bile Pigment. Use Gmelin's test. (Lesson xv.) 
 
 11. Sile-acids. Soak a small piece of white blotting 
 paper in a syrup of sugar, and allow it to dry. Let 
 fall on it a drop of the previously concentrated urine 
 supposed to contain bile-acids, and near it a drop of 
 strong sulphuric acid, so that the two drops run into 
 one another. If bile-acids are present, there will be 
 
J.J.42 ELEMENTAUT PHYSIOLOGY. [XXI, 
 
 a purple colouration at the junction of the drops. 
 This ready method can be adopted only when the 
 quantity of bile-acids present is large. 
 
 Quantitative Estijiation op Ueea (Liebig's Method). 
 
 12. The following standard solutions will be previously 
 prepared by the Demonstrator, , ; 
 
 a. A baryta mixture, consisting of two volumes of 
 barium nitrate, saturated in the cold, and one 
 volume of barium hydrate also saturated in the 
 cold. 
 
 6. A solution of mercuric nitrate of such a strength 
 that 1 cc. precipitates 10 mgr. of urea. 
 
 Take 40 cc. of urine, and add to it 20 cc. of the baryta 
 mixture. A copious precipitate of barium sulphate, 
 phosphate, etc. will fall. Filter and keep the filtrate. 
 Fill a Mohr's burette with the mercuric nitrate solu- 
 tion, and let the solution fall drop by drop into 
 15 cc. of the filtrate, stirring constantly. 
 
 Have ready a glass plate on a dull black surface with 
 a number of drops of sodium carbonate solution on it; 
 from time to time add a drop of the urine to one 
 . of the sodium carbonate. When a yellow colour -is 
 thus produced, the mercuric nitrate is in excess, and 
 all the urea has been precipitated. Since each cc. of 
 the mercuric nitrate solution precipitates 10 mgr. of 
 urea, the number used in the experiment multiplied 
 by 10 gives the number of mgr. in 15 cc. of the 
 filtrate, that is in 10 cc. of urine. But there is 
 sodium ,. chloride ia the urine, and, when this ^ salt is 
 
XXXI.] . URINE. 14a 
 
 mixed ■with mercuric nitrate a double decomposition 
 takes place ; thus, until the quantity of sodium chlo- 
 ride present is exhausted,! the mercuric nitrate is no 
 longer available for precipitating the urea. Now the 
 amount of sodium chloride in urine is tolerably 
 constant; in each 10 cc. there is enough to act upon 
 2 cc. of the standard mercury solution. Hence in 
 reckoning the number of. cuhio centimetres of standard 
 solution used, a deduction of 2 cc, must alwp,ys he 
 made. 
 The method thus carried out is only appi'oximately 
 correct. 
 
 Quantitative Estimation of Sugar. 
 
 1 3. Take the previously prepared standard solution of 
 Fehling's fluid. This is of such a strength that 
 10 cc, are equivalent to '05 grm. of grape-sugar, i. e. 
 10 cc. contain just that amount of cupric oxide which 
 •05 grm. of grape-sugar is capable of reducing to 
 cuprous oxide : the cuprous oxide is precipitated, and 
 the fluid is decolorized. 
 ■Take 10 cc. of diabetic urine, from which any albumin 
 which mayjbe presept must be removed, and add to 
 it 90 cc. of distilled water; place this-in a burette. 
 Pour into a. beaker exactly 10 cc. of the standard 
 solution, dilute it with four or five times its bulk of 
 distilled water, and boil. 
 Then run into it from the burette 40 cc. of the diluted 
 urine, and boil again; let the precipitate settle, and 
 look through the fluid at a sheet of white paper; if it 
 is still blue, add another cc. from the burette and 
 boil once more, and so on till the supernatant fluid 
 
144 KLEMENTABY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXI. 
 
 ceases to have a blue tinge; taking care, towards the 
 end of the process, to add a few drops only, each time. 
 If after adding the 40 cc. and boiling, the fluid is 
 decolorized, too much urine has . been added, and 
 another 10 cc. of the standard solution must be mea- 
 sured out, running in, eay 20, instead of 40 cc. of 
 diluted urihe. 
 Avoid delay in judging of the presence of the blue 
 colour after each boiling; since on cooling the blue 
 colour may partially return, and hence the amount of 
 sugar present be estimated too highly. It is best to 
 make two or three determinations; the first rapid 
 and rough, the others more exact. 
 
 Suppose that the number of cc. of urine has been found 
 which is just sufficient to decolorize the standard solu- 
 tion taken; that volume then contains just sufficient 
 sugar to reduce the cupric oxide contained in 10 cc. of 
 the standard solution to cuprous oxide ; and we have 
 seen that it requires '05 grm. of sugar to do this, 
 therefore the number of cc. used contains "05 grm. of 
 sugar, but of this one-tenth only was diabetic urine, 
 therefore one-tenth of the number of cc. used gives 
 the number of cc. of urine containing '05 grm. of 
 sugar; from which the percentage can easily be 
 calculated. 
 
LESSON XXII. 
 SKIN AND TOUCH. 
 
 SKIN. 
 
 1. Prepare vertical sections of human scalp which has 
 been hardened by placilig it in chromic acid -2 p. c. 
 for a week. Stain the sections with picrocarmine, 
 mount them in glycerine and observe 
 
 A. The Epidennis : proceeding from the outside will be 
 seen 
 
 a. Cells without protoplasm, and apparently with- 
 out a nucleus, very much flattened so that they 
 present the appearance of a number of fibres. 
 This is called the horny layer; in the stained 
 sections it will be yellow, 
 
 b. Nucleated cells, more or less spheroidal in form. 
 
 Some of these cells are frequently seen to be 
 serrated or marked with ridges. 
 
 c. A row of columnar cells placed perpendicularly 
 to the tissue beneath, and having no distinct cell- 
 membrane. The ' spheroidal and the columnar 
 cells together form the Malpighian layer- 
 
 L. 10 
 
146 ELEMENTAET PHTSIOLOGT. [XXII. 
 
 B. The Dermis : in which may be seen 
 
 a. A thin layer of imperfectly differentiated connec- 
 tive tissue, the corpuscles of which are imbedded 
 in an almost hyaline, very slightly fibrillated 
 matrix. The upper portions of this form a kind 
 of basement or limiting membrane immediately 
 below the columnar epidermic cells. The lower 
 portions pass gradually into 
 
 h. A fine meshwork of connective tissue, becoming 
 coarser in the deeper parts, and there continuous 
 with the subcutaneous connective tissue. The 
 dermis is considered to cease with the appearance 
 of fat-cells in the connective-tissue meshwork; 
 but there is no definite line of demarcation, and 
 in some places the deposit of fat does not 
 occur. 
 
 c. Numerous elastic fibres, present both in a and b. 
 
 d. The papillae: conical elevations, composed of 
 a and b, rising up into the Malpighian layer, 
 which therefore appears to dip down between 
 them. 
 
 e. Indications of the blood-vessels, abundantly dis- 
 tributed all over the dermis, and forming ca- 
 pillary loops, in the papiUse, These are better 
 seen in injected specimens. 
 
 /. Nerve-fibres, for the most part becoming lost to 
 view as they approach a. Some may be seen 
 entering the papUlse. 
 
 g. HaJr-follicles and the roots of hairs. Note 
 
 a. The external sheath of the foUicle formed 
 of fibrous tissue continuous with that of 
 
SKIN AND TOUCH. 147 
 
 the dermis, but much denser ii^ arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 /S. The internal sheath of the follicle, consist- 
 ing for the most part of indistinct trans- 
 versely arranged fibres, amongst which oblong 
 nuclei (? of plain muscular, fibres) may be dis- 
 cerned. 
 
 7. A hyaline limiting membrane more marked 
 than that of the dermis. 
 
 S. The external root-sheath, consisting of cells 
 continuous with, and resembling those of 
 the Malpighian layer. 
 
 e. The internal root-sheath, pale and trans- 
 parent, passing into the horny layer of 
 the epidermis. At the exit of the hair 
 from the skin the homy layer dips down 
 around it in the form of a cone. 
 
 f. The papilla of the hair-follicle, consisting of 
 connective tissue, with numerous cells, pro- 
 ceeding from the internal sheath of the 
 follicle. 
 
 h. The external root-sheath near the top has a 
 diverticulum, which constitutes a sebaceous 
 gland. There may be more than one. 
 In the deeper part of the gland the cells become 
 cubical. 
 
 i. ' Below the base of the gland may be seen a 
 band of plain muscular fibres, stretching ob- 
 liquely from the inner sheath of the follicle to 
 the upper part of the dermis. 
 
 10—2 
 
148 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXII. 
 
 2. Cut sections of the palm of the hand or of the fore- 
 head, hardened in chromic acid, picric acid, or 
 alcohol, to observe the structure of the sweat- 
 glands. Note 
 
 a. The terminal gland-knot in the subcutaneous 
 tissue with its membrana propria continuous with 
 that of the dermis, and lined by a single layer 
 of cubical cells. 
 
 b. The gland-tube having columnar epithelium 
 continuous with the cells of the Malpighian 
 layer of the epidermis. In the epidermis the 
 tube has no wall except that formed by the 
 concentrically arranged epidermic cells ; its 
 course here is spiral. 
 
 3. Prepare the cornea of a frog as in Lesson v., B. § i. 
 Observe 
 
 a. A meshwork of nerves, without medulla, but 
 with primitive sheath recognized by its nuclei 
 and perineurium. This forms the primary nerve- 
 plexus, it is at a slightly deeper level than 
 
 b. A meshwork of nerves with much closer meshes, 
 consisting of fine axis-cylinders, without a primi- 
 tive sheath, but having numerous varicosities in 
 their course. This forms the sub-epithelial 
 nerve-plexus. 
 
 4. Cut cut the cornea of a recently killed rabbit, taking 
 care not to drag it, and place it in gold chloride for 
 an hour. Wash well and expose to light as usual, 
 but do not pencil it. When it is well stained, if 
 necessary harden with alcohol, imbed a piece of it 
 vertically in paraffin, and cut sections as thin as 
 possible. Observe 
 
XXII. J ;• SKIN" AND TOUCH. 149 
 
 The primary nerve-plexus in the connective tissue, 
 giving off branches which divide and form the 
 sub-epithelial nerve-plexus, immediately under- 
 neath the epithelium ; from this very fine fibrils 
 are given off, which, penetrating between the 
 epithelial cells, form there the epithelial plexus. 
 
 This may be considered as the type of nerve-termi- 
 nation in those parts of the skin where there are 
 no special terminal organs. 
 
 5. Cut sections of the tips of fingers which have been 
 kept in potassium bichromate 1 p. c. for a day, to ob- 
 serve special nerve-endings : 
 
 A. Touch-corpuscles. Note that 
 
 a. They are oval in form, and are found in the axes 
 of the papillee ; many papillae are without them, 
 in which case a blood-vessel may generally be 
 seen running up into the papilla. 
 
 b. They appear to consist of a transparent matrix 
 in which nuclei are disposed transversely. 
 
 c. The meduUated nerve-fibre enters near the base, 
 and may be traced coiling round it spirally for 
 a varible distance. 
 
 To observe the 'course of the nerve-fibre satisfactorily, 
 a small piece of fresh skin from the tip of a finger, 
 should be placed in osmic acid 1 p. c. for about twelve 
 hours till it is quite black, and then treated with 
 alcohol as usual. The dark nerve-fibres can be dis- 
 tinctly seen entering the touch-corpuscles ; and occa- 
 sionally in papillse without these bodies, one or more 
 nerve-fibres may be seen running up the papilla as 
 far as the Malpighian layer of the epidermis; its 
 
150 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIL 
 
 further course amongst the cells will probably not be 
 made out in these preparations. Osmic acid speci- 
 mens, after they have been well washed, may be 
 mounted in glycerine, or in a saturated solution of 
 acetate of potash, or after clearing in Canada balsam. 
 
 B. Pacinian bodies. These occur in the subcutaneous 
 tissue ; but their structure can be more readily studied 
 in the mesentery of a cat, in which they appear as trans- 
 parent oval bodies generally surrounded with fat. Ob- 
 serve 
 
 a. The twisting meduUated nerve-fibre and the 
 thickening of its connective-tissue sheath as it 
 approaches the Pacinian body. 
 
 h. The division of the connective-tissue sheath to 
 form the capsules. 
 
 c. The loss of medulla as the sheath splits up. 
 
 d. The colloid body inside the inner capsule. 
 
 e. The axis-cylinder penetrating the colloid body, 
 and ending in it in a slight enlargement. 
 
 TOUCH. 
 
 Power of localisation. 
 
 Using a pair of small bone or wooden compasses, deter- 
 mine the distance at which the points must be placed 
 from each other in order that they may be felt as 
 two points when applied lightly and with the same 
 force to various parts of the body. Try if the follow- 
 ing order is correct: tip of tongue, tips of fingers, palm 
 of hand, cheeks, back of hand, fore-head, front of fore- 
 arm, back of fore-arm, back of neck, &o. 
 
XXII.] SKIK AND TOUCH. 151 
 
 2. Sensation of temperature. 
 
 Dip a small metallic knob in hot water {e.g. 70° C), 
 and applying it to tlie same parts of the body as 
 before, determine roughly the sensitiveness to tem- 
 perature of these parts. 
 
 3. Estimation of weight. The muscular sense. 
 
 a. Determine the smallest difference in weight 
 which can be appreciated when the weight is 
 held in the hand. 
 
 h. Then laying the hand and arm supine on a table, 
 so that they are motionless, and placing weights 
 on the palm of hand, determine as before the 
 difference of weight which can be appreciated. 
 This wiU be much less in the case of (6) than of 
 {a). In (a) the muscular sense is employed; in 
 (6), only the sensation of pressure. The weight 
 should be placed on the same part of the palm 
 of the hand in each case. 
 
 4. Estimate (in either way) the difference of weight 
 which can be appreciated 
 
 a. When the weights are light, e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 
 5 grms. 
 
 y3. When the weights are heavy, e. g. 10, 20, 30, &c., 
 or 100, 200, &c. grms. 
 
 Smaller differences will be appreciated in a than in /3. 
 In fact the difference of weight which can be ap- 
 preciated bears, roughly speaking, a constant ratio to 
 the whole weight. 
 
 5. Plunge the finger into mercury, and then draw it out. 
 The sensation will be that of a ring passing down and 
 
152 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOtOGT. [XXII. 
 
 up the finger, the greatest sensation being where there 
 is the greatest variation of pressure. 
 
 6. Place two equal light weights, one cold the other 
 warm, on the corresponding fingers of the hands; the 
 cold one will feel the heavier. 
 
 7. Paint a ring of collodion on the palm of the hand, 
 leaving only a small central space, and attempt to 
 . distinguish between the approach of a hot body and 
 gentle contact of a feather. 
 
 8. Place the elbow first in warm water, and then in a 
 mixture of ice and water. There will be a sensation 
 of pain in the fingers and cold in the elbow. The 
 application of cold to the trimk of a nerve does not 
 cause a sensation of cold. 
 
 9. Tactile delusions. 
 
 Cross the second finger over the first or the third over 
 the second, and place between their tips a small 
 marble (or any solid round body a little larger than 
 a pea) so that it touches the radial side of the first, 
 and the ulnar side of the second finger-tip. On 
 gently rolling the body about, a sensation as if of two 
 distinct bodies will be felt. 
 
 The same delusion is experienced if the tip of the nose 
 be gently rubbed with the tips of the fingers so 
 placed. 
 
 Experiments 6 and 7 will need the assistance of a second 
 person. 
 
LESSON XXIII. 
 
 OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY ORGANS. 
 
 1. Lay bare the olfactory chambers of a newt, and place 
 them in osmic acid 1 p. c. for 24 hours. Tease out 
 in water a small piece of the mucous membrane. 
 Or place in MllUer's fluid for a week or more, and 
 tease out in the same fluid or in waten Observe 
 
 a. The cylindrical epithelium cell, its large oval 
 . nucleus, its broad, clear, peripheral process, and 
 its branching, faintly granular, central process. 
 
 h. The rod-cell, with its spherical nucleus, its hya- 
 line slender peripheral, and its still more slender 
 varicose and branching central process. 
 
 c. Groups of the nuclei of h, forming the nuclear 
 layer (2 B. 6) lying in the meshes of a reticulate 
 slightly granular protoplasm.. 
 
 d. Cylindrical cells will frequently be seen, sur- 
 rounded and partially hidden by numerous rod- 
 cells. 
 
 2. Remove the lower jaw from the head of a newt, 
 cut off the nose by an incision carried just in front of 
 the eyes. Place it in chromic acid '.5 p. c. f6r three 
 days. Imbed it vertically, and cut transverse sections, 
 
154 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIII. 
 
 until the olfactory chambers are reached. These may 
 be at once recognised by their peculiar epithelium. 
 Observe that 
 
 A. In the non-olfactory portion of the mucous mem- 
 brane 
 
 a. The surface-epithelium is cylindrical and ciliated, 
 with the exception of a certain number of goblet- 
 cells. 
 
 h. Below the ciliated cells there is a single row of 
 small spherical granular nucleated cells. 
 
 B. In the olfactory part of the mucous membrane the 
 division of the epithelium into an outer and an 
 inner layer. 
 
 a. The outer layer consisting of the peripheral pro- 
 cesses of both cylindrical and rod-cells. 
 
 6. The inner or nuclear layer consisting of several 
 rows of nuclei belonging to the rod-cells. The 
 nuclei of the cylindrical cells form a single row 
 in the upper part of this layer, but these, as well 
 as the processes of the lower rod-cells, are 
 generally hidden by the nuclei of the rod-cells. 
 In parts of the section where the nuclei have 
 fallen a\^ay the branched central processes of 
 the cylindrical cells may be seen to form an 
 irregular meshwork. 
 
 c. Beneath the epithelium will be seen fine con- 
 nective tissue, in which lie cut bundles of plain 
 non-meduUated nerve-fibres. 
 
 A great number of simple mucous glands will be seen 
 beneath the mucous membrane both of A and B. 
 
XXIII.] OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY ORGANS. loo 
 
 3. From a rabbit's tongue which has been hardened in 
 chromic acid or potassium bichromate excise a papilla 
 foliata and imbed in such a way that the sections 
 will be at right angles to the ridges. The papilla 
 will easily be recognized as an oval patch strongly 
 marked with ridges, about 3 or 4 mm. in its longest 
 diameter, at the side of the back of the tongue. 
 
 Prepare thin vertical sections and observe 
 
 a. The section of the ridges with the intervening 
 fossae. 
 
 b. In each ridge three paplUiform processes of the 
 dermis, one median, two lateral. 
 
 c. The horny epidermis, consisting of cells very 
 flattened, but still retaining their nuclei, cover- 
 ing the ridges and lining the fossae. 
 
 d. The Malpighian layer of the epidermis under- 
 neath the horny layer in the above situations, 
 and also filling up the hollows between the 
 lateral and median papillae of the ridges. (Cf. c 
 and d with Skin Lesson xxii.). 
 
 e. On the outside of each lateral papilla, and 
 therefore lining each side of the fossa, the row 
 of taste-bulbs. 
 
 /. Each bulb reaching from the dermis of the papilla 
 to the free surface of the horny layer lining the 
 fossa, where its circular open mouth may be 
 often seen. 
 
 g. The imbricated epidermic cells forming the nest 
 of the bulb. 
 
156 ^ EtEMENTAHY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIII. 
 
 k. The bulb itself, with 
 
 a. The external cover-cells, granular, fusiform 
 and flattened, with conspicuous oval nuclei. 
 
 y3. The rod-cells, with spherical nucleus, rod- 
 shaped hyaline peripheral and central pro- 
 cesses. These will be better seen on teasing 
 out a section. 
 
 i. Nerve-fibres running along the dermis of the 
 papUlse, and branching off to the bulbs. 
 
 4. Tease out a section to observe the characters of the 
 cells of the taste-bulbs. 
 
 SENSE OF TASTE AND SMELL. 
 
 1. Pinching the nose tightly, so as to suspend the sense 
 of smell, attempt with the eyes shut to distinguish by 
 taste between pieces of an apple, an onion, and a 
 potato of similar consistency. They will taste alike ; 
 hence the so-called taste of an onion is an excitement 
 of the sense of smell. 
 
 2. Wipe the tongue quite dry, and place on the tip a 
 crystal of sugar or on the back a crystal of quinine ; 
 neither will be tasted until they are dissolved. 
 
 3. Apply with pointed, non-polarizable (Hdb. p. 345) 
 electrodes a constant current to the tongue ; a distinct 
 sensation of taste will be felt, of acidity at the anode, 
 of alkalinity at the kathode. 
 
 Keeping the electrodes at the same distance, say two 
 or three millimetres, determine, the amount of taste- 
 
XXIII. J OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY ORGANS. 157 
 
 sensation in different parts of the mouth. It will be 
 greatest at the tip and back (region of circumvallate 
 papillae) of the tongue, and edges of the tongue; least or 
 absent in the anterior and middle surface, under sur- 
 face of the tongue, and lips. The soft palate will be 
 found to be highly sensitive, the hard palate little or 
 not at all. 
 
 4. Take two pieces of sugar of equal size, and place one 
 on the tip, and the other on the back of the tongue ; 
 the sensation will be most acute at the tip. 
 
 5. Place a drop of quinine solution on the tip of the 
 tongue. It will hardly be tasted. Place it on the 
 back ; it will be tasted at once. 
 
LESSON XXIV. 
 THE EYE. 
 
 A. Dissection, 
 
 1. Take a fresh eye of an ox or sheep, and note 
 a. The transparent cornea. 
 
 h. Surrounding and continuous with this, the dirty- 
 white sclerotic which forms the outer coat of 
 the rest of the eye. The posterior two-thirds 
 will probably be covered with fat. 
 
 e. The conjunctiva, a continuation of the mucous 
 membrane of the eyelids. In taking the eye 
 out of the orbit this membrane is cut through 
 where it passes from the eyelids to the sclerotic. 
 Dissect it forwards in any one place ; it will be 
 traceable to the junction of the sclerotic and the 
 cornea. The epithelium is continuous over the 
 cornea, forming the conjunctiva cornese (cp. B. a). 
 
 2. Clear away the fat surrounding the four straight 
 muscles, it will be seen that their tendons form a 
 layer under the conjunctiva of the sclerotic. 
 
 3. Cut-away the conjunctiva and muscles, and remove 
 the fat around the optic nerve j this pierces the 
 sclerotic on one side, and not in the axis of the eye. 
 
XXIV. J THE EYE. 159 
 
 4. Cut througli the cornea close to its junction with 
 the sclerotic; the anterior chamber of the eye, con- 
 taining clear, limpid aqueous humour, is thus laid 
 bare. Observe the iris -with its central aperture 
 through which projects the anterior part of the lens. 
 
 5. At a little distance from the cornea, cut through 
 the sclerotic, being careful not to cut too deeply; 
 it will separate easily from the pigmented subjacent 
 choroid, except at the junction of the sclerotic with 
 the cornea, and at the entrance of the optic nerve. 
 In other places there is only a loose connection, 
 chiefly by means of blood-vessels. Remove a strip of 
 a few mm. breadth between the optic nerve and the 
 cornea. Note its dark inner surface, or lamina ftisca; 
 note also in the front part of the choroid, close to 
 the cornea, the pale fibres of the ciliary muscle 
 spreading from the junction of the sclerotic and 
 cornea, backwards over the choroid. 
 
 6. Carefully pinch up the choroid about half-way 
 between the optic nerve and the cornea with a fine 
 pair of forceps, and snip it through. Underneath it 
 will be seen a thin membrane, the retina. 
 
 7. Tear away the retina to expose the clear vitreous 
 humour which occupies the posterior cavity of the eye. 
 
 8. Tilt the eye so that the cornea is underneath; 
 through the vitreous humour can be seen the choroid 
 coat becoming folded longitudinally as it approaches 
 the lens, and so forming the ciliary processes. 
 
 The nervous elements of the retina cease at the level 
 of the commencement of the ciliary process Their 
 termination is marked by an uneven line, the ora 
 serrata. 
 
160 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIV. 
 
 9. Holding up tlie choroid and retina, cut them through 
 as far forward as the ora serrata ; it will be seen that 
 the vitreous humour separates readily from the 
 retina as far as that line, but in the region beyond 
 becomes more firmly attached to the ciliary processes. 
 If an attempt be made to separate them here with 
 the handle of a scalpel, it will be found that the pars 
 ciliaris retins (or the non-nervous continuation of 
 the retina in front of the ora serrata) together with 
 some of the pigment layer of the choroid wiU come 
 away with the vitreous humour. 
 The so-called hyaloid membrane is the outermost 
 layer of the vitreous humour, and is said to consist of 
 fine fibres fused together. At the ora serrata it 
 becomes united to the membrana limitans interna of 
 the retina. 
 
 10. Turn the eye with the front uppermost, and cut away 
 the free edge of the iris ; make two incisions at right 
 angles to one another on the surface of the lens, it will 
 be seen that the lens is covered by a membrane ; this 
 is the anterior part of the lens capsule. Carefully 
 remove the lens, and trace out the limits of the lens 
 capsule, noting that it forms a complete investment 
 for the lens. 
 
 11. Gently separate with the handle of a scalpel the 
 lens capsule from the front part of the ciliary pro- 
 cesses, and observe that a membrane, the suspensory 
 ligament or zone of Zinn passes from the edge of the 
 capsule to the ciliary processes, of which it forms the 
 innermost layer, dipping down into their depressions. 
 On tracing it backwards it will be found to be con- 
 tinuous with the membrane spoken of above as 
 adherent to the vitreous humour. 
 
XXIV.]' THE EYE. 161 
 
 12. Looking into the eye from the front, observe 
 
 a. The entrance of the optic nerve. 
 
 b. The blood-vessels running in the retina and 
 radiating out from the entrance of the optic nerve. 
 
 c. The iridescence, mainly below the entrance of 
 the optic nerve, caused by the irregular reflection 
 of light from the wavy course of the connective- 
 tissue fibres of the choroid. The hexagonal ceUs 
 of the retina have here no pigment. 
 
 13. Separate the rest of the retina from the choroid, and 
 
 observe that 
 
 a. The pigment-layer generally adheres rather to 
 the choroid than to the retina. 
 
 h. Apart from the pigment-layer the retina appears 
 like an expansion of the optic nerve. 
 
 c. The retina is firmly attached to the choroid at 
 the ora serrata. 
 
 14. Take the eye of a rabbit which has been preserved in 
 potassium bichromate, and imbed in spermaceti and 
 castor oil a piece containing the junction of the 
 sclerotic, cornea, and iris. Cut transverse sections so 
 that the arrangement of the several parts can be seen. 
 Observe 
 
 a. The membrane of Descemet (cf. B. c.) splitting up 
 at the junction of the cornea and sclerotic into 
 fine transparent bundles, some of which curve 
 round towards the iris, the others spreading out 
 fan-like a short distance into the ciliary process 
 and sclerotic. These bundles of fibres form the 
 ligameutum pectinatium iridis. 
 
 L. U 
 
162 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIV. 
 
 b. The ciliary muscle; consisting of bands of nn- 
 striped muscle, radiating from the angle of the 
 iris and cornea; 
 
 (c. The circular muscle of MiiUer may be seen as the 
 cross section of a bundle of fibres lying to the 
 inside of b, in the eye of man and of some other 
 animals, but it is absent in the rabbit.) 
 
 d. The pigment-layer of the choroid contiauing 
 over the ciliary processes to form the uvea of 
 the iris. 
 
 e. The canal of Schlemm (venous sinus) at the 
 junction of the cornea and sclerotic. 
 
 B. Histology. 
 
 Cornea. Prepare the cornea of a frog or a rabbit as 
 in Lesson xxii. § 4. Divide it into two pieces. 
 
 1 . Imbed one piece so as to give vertical sections ; in these 
 observe 
 
 a. The anterior epithelium, or conjunctiva cornea. 
 In this note 
 
 a. The external flattened nucleated cells. 
 fi. The middle layers of roundish but irregular 
 cells. 
 
 7. The internal single layer of columnar cells 
 placed perpendicularly. 
 
 b. The body of the cornea. Note 
 
 a. The narrow transparent zone immediately be- 
 neath the epithelium with very few and small 
 cells. 
 
 ^. The rows of connective-tissue corpuscles seen 
 in profile, with numerous branches communi- 
 
XXIV. j . THE EYE. 163 
 
 eating not only with the cells in the same row, 
 hut also with those helow and above. 
 
 7. The fibrous laminae between which, for the 
 most part, the cells are placed. 
 
 c. The membrane of Descemet or Demours : a thick 
 hyaline membrane, with very sharp outlines. 
 
 d. The posterior epithelium, consisting of a single 
 layer of large nucleated tesselated cells. In this 
 section they are seen in profile, covering the 
 membrane of Descemet. 
 
 2. Imbed the other piece to give horizontal sections, and 
 observe 
 
 The branched cornea-coi-puscles seen en face. (Cf 
 Lesson v. B. § 4.) 
 
 Mount the sections in glycerine. They will in time 
 become darker, ' and their structiure become much 
 more evident. 
 
 Lens. 
 
 1. Boil the lens of ox or dog in sulphuric acid (1 p. c.) 
 for 10 minutes. Tease - out in glycerine. Observe 
 the long band-like epithelial fibres with serrated 
 edges. 
 
 2. Make tangential sections of the lens of rabbit 
 hardened in potassium bichromate: observe the cut 
 ends of the fibres. 
 
 Iris. 
 
 Cut out a piece of an iris from an eye which has been 
 preserved in potassium bichromate, and imbed it so 
 as to cut radial vertical sections. Observe 
 
 11—2 
 
164 ELEMENTAEY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIV, 
 
 a. On the posterior surface the uvea or thick layer 
 of pigment epithelium-cells. The pigment is too 
 abundant to allow the outlines of the individual 
 cells to be seen. 
 
 h. The cross sections of the bundles of plain muscu- 
 lar fibres forming the sphincter papillae near 
 the edge of the pupil, and lying just above the 
 pigment-layer. 
 
 c. The body of the iris, consisting of blood-vessels 
 united together by a loose connective tissue 
 in which branched pigment-cells are conspicuous. 
 Near the anterior surface is a denser layer, the 
 so-called anterior limiting membrane. The 
 radial muscular fibres (dilatator) may (with diffi- 
 culty) be seen near the posterior surface. 
 
 Eetina. 
 
 1. Cut away the anterior half of the eye of a mammal 
 immediately after death: avoid dragging the vitreous 
 humour that the retina may not be displaced. Place 
 the posterior half in potassium bichromate for a week, 
 frequently changing the fluid. Remove the retina 
 carefully, carrying with it if possible the pigment- 
 layer, and treat with alcohol. Stain a small piece 
 with hjematoxylin, imbed it in spermaceti and castor 
 oil, and mount the sections in dammar. 
 
 2. Imbed an unstained piece, and mount the sections in 
 glycerine. 
 
 3. Remove the retina from an eye still warm to osmic 
 acid. After C hours, treat with alcohol. Imbed and 
 mount in glycerine. 
 
 In aU cases take a small fragment 2 or 3 mm. square 
 
J THE EYE. 165 
 
 for making sections. If long vertical sections are 
 
 made they are very apt to turn over. 
 
 In one or other, observe the following structures 
 
 from within (anterior surface) to without (posterior 
 
 surface). 
 
 a. The inner limiting membrane; from this the 
 fibres of Miiller are seen to start with a broad 
 conical foot and to run vertically outwards; they 
 may readily be traced as far as f. 
 
 b. The layer of optic fibres. The nerve-fibres here 
 are without medullary sheaths, or rarely possess 
 them. 
 
 c. The ganglionic layer; this consists of large 
 multipolar cells with conspicuous nuclei. 
 
 d. The molecular layer, finely granular and opaque 
 in appearance. 
 
 e. The inner nuclear layer, consisting of two or 
 three rows of somewhat large, spherical or oval 
 nuclei with nucleoli. 
 
 / The fenestrated membrane. 
 
 g. The outer nuclear layer. In this the nuclei are 
 
 spherical or oval, smaller but more numerous 
 
 than c. 
 
 h. The outer limiting membrane, seen as a sharp 
 well-defined line. 
 
 i. The layer of rods and cones. Both limbs of the 
 more numerous rods may be easily seen; the 
 cones are recognized with difficulty. 
 
 k. The pigment of the choroid with the fine pencil 
 of processes enveloping the outer limbs of the 
 rods and cones. 
 
166 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIV. 
 
 4. Tear off a small piece of the retina from the eye of a 
 sheep ; probably the pigment layer of the retina -will 
 be left adhering to the choroid. Take a small piece 
 of this pigment-layer, and mount it in glycerine. 
 Observe en face the single layer of hexagonal cells, 
 with large pigment-granules. (See also § 5.) 
 
 5. Tease out in water the small piece of retina treated 
 with osmic acid for 24 hours. Observe 
 
 a. The isolated rods and cones, their broken, 
 laminated, and often curled outer limbs. 
 
 h. Loose nuclei, belonging to the inner or outer 
 nuclear layer. 
 
 c. Isolated nerve-fibres and ganglionic cells. 
 
 d. Portions of the membrane shewing the fibres of 
 Miiller projecting, or fragments of the molecular 
 layer with its reticulum of connective tissue. 
 
 Very excellent vertical sections may frequently by 
 accident be found in thus teasing out osmic acid 
 specimens. 
 
 6. Remove the retina of a frog immediately after death, 
 and place for 24 hours in osmic acid; tease out in 
 water. Observe 
 
 a. The large outer limbs of the rods, their striation 
 and transverse lamination. 
 
 1). The pigment-cells, each consisting of a colour- 
 less outer part, containing the nucleus, and a 
 coarsely pigmented part, which splits up into a 
 number of fibres, amongst which are imbedded 
 the heads of the rods. 
 
LESSON XXV. 
 
 VISION. 
 
 Accommodation, 
 
 1. Remove very carefully the sclerotic and choroid from 
 a small portion of the posterior surface of the eye of 
 an ox or a sheep. Place the eye- ia the end of a 
 blackened tube just large enough to hold it, with the 
 cornea outwards. 
 
 On looking through the tube at any object, the in- 
 verted image will be seen shining through the retina. 
 
 Or. 
 
 The eye of any small animal, e. g. rat, may be used 
 without any preparation, the sclerotic being suffi- 
 ciently thin to be transparent. It will be found con- 
 venient to place the eye, with the cornea downwards, 
 on the stage of a microscope, and to direct light 
 through it by means of the mirror. 
 
 2. Standing some feet before a window, close one eye and 
 hold up before the other, at a distance of about six 
 inches, a needle, so that it is at right angles to one o£' 
 the horizontal bars of the window. 
 
 Look at the window-bar, the needle will appear dim 
 and diffuse. 
 
1(S8 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXV. 
 
 Look at tlie needle, the window-bar will appear dim 
 and diffuse. 
 
 The eye can accommodate itself for either the needle or 
 the window-bar, hut not for both at the same time. The 
 accommodation for the near object is accompanied by 
 a distinct feeling of effort. 
 
 3. Facing a window, or a white surface, close one eye and 
 hold a fine needle vertically before the other. At about 
 six inches the needle will be seen distinctly. Bring it 
 nearer the eye, the image will be dim and diffuse, and 
 at the same time larger. The dimness and apparent 
 increase of size are due to diffasion, resulting from 
 imperfect accommodation. 
 
 Prick a small clean hole in a piece of card, hold it be- 
 fore the eye and again bring the needle close to the 
 eye. It will be seen distinctly at a much smaller dis- 
 tance than before, and at the same time will appear 
 magnified. It will seem larger because the rays, after 
 passing through the aperture, diverge, and so produce 
 a larger image on the retina. Construct a figure to 
 shew this. It will be seen more distinctly because 
 the diffusion circles are cut off. 
 
 For a similar reason an object at a distance viewed 
 through the same hole will appear smaller when the 
 eye is accommodated for a nearer object. 
 
 4. Prick in a card two small holes close together, so that 
 both are within the diameter of the pupil. Holding 
 the card before one eye (the other being closed) with 
 the holes horizontal, hold a fine needle vertically at a 
 distance of twelve inches. It will be seen distinctly as 
 one when the eye is accommodated for it, but double 
 when accommodation is made either for farther or 
 
XXV.] VISION. 169 
 
 nearer objects. Both the double images will be dim- 
 mer than the single one. 
 
 When a double image appears and 
 
 a. The eye is adjusted for far objects ; stopping the 
 
 right-hand hole will make the left-hand image 
 
 disappear. 
 
 h. The eye is adjusted for near objects; stopping the 
 right-hand hole will make the right-hand image 
 disappear. 
 
 When the eye is exactly accommodated for the 
 object, the rays passing through the two holes 
 are united at the focus on the retina. 
 
 In a, the rays fall upon the retina before they 
 are so united, and from the inversion of images 
 on the retina, the actual disappearance of the 
 right-hand image is referred to the left-hand side. 
 
 In h, the I'ays are united, and cross at the focus 
 before they fall on the retina. Stopping the 
 right-hand hole removes the image on the left- 
 hand side of the retina; and the disappearance 
 is referred to the right-hand side. Construct a 
 figure to shew this. 
 
 When a single image is seen, stopping either hole 
 merely makes the field of vision appear dim. 
 
 This is called Schemer's experiment. 
 
 5. The image being one, bring the needle closer to the 
 eye ; at a certain distance it will become double ; this 
 marks the near limit of accommodation. 
 
 Fixing the needle on a sheet of paper, walk away 
 while looking at it through the two holes ; at a cer- 
 tain distance it will become double, this marks the far 
 
170 ELEMENTAEY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXV. 
 
 limit of accommodation. This experiment succeeds 
 best with short-sighted people. 
 
 Compare the near and far limits of accommodation as 
 fixed by looking at a vertical needle through hori- 
 zontal holes with those fixed by looking at a horizontal 
 needle through holes placed vertically. The results 
 will differ according to the amount of astigmatism in 
 the eye. 
 
 6. Helmholtz's Phakoscope. This should be used in a 
 dark room. The observed looks with one eye through 
 the hole opposite the needle. The observer looks 
 through the hole at the side. A lainp or candle is placed 
 at some little distance from the prisms and shifted about 
 tmtil the observer sees on the eye of the observed, 
 when the latter looks at a distant object, two small 
 bright patches of light on the cornea, two larger but 
 dimmer patches on the anterior surface of the lens, 
 and two small and very dim (not readily seen) patches 
 on the posterior surface of the lens. 
 
 Let the observed now accommodate for the needle in 
 front of him, making every effort not to move the eye- 
 ball. The observer will see the two patches on the 
 anterior surface of the lens approach each other, while 
 the other two pair remain motionless, thus shewing 
 that during accommodation for near objects the an- 
 terior surface of the lens becomes more convex. 
 
 Observe that in accommodating for near objects the 
 pupil becomes smaller, and in accommodating for far 
 objects the pupil becomes larger. 
 
 7. Astigmatism. " Hold before the eye a card marked 
 with a number of parallel horizontal and vertical lines, 
 and gradually bring the card near to the eye. At a 
 
XXV.J VISION, 171 
 
 certain distance both vertical and horizontal lines will 
 appear dim and diffuse, the near limits of accommoda- 
 tion for both having been passed. With care how- 
 ever (with most eyes) a distance may be found at 
 which the horizontal lines are still sharp and well-de- 
 fined, the vertical are already dim and diffuse, the near 
 limit of horizontal accommodation being nearer than 
 that of vertical accommodation. 
 
 A similar experiment, especially by short-sighted 
 ' people, may be tried for the far limit. . 
 
 Or, 
 
 Fix a needle vertically on a board. Looking at the 
 needle with one eye, accommodate the eye exactly 
 for it. Then hold another needle horizontally before 
 the first, and move it backwards and forwards until 
 both needles are seen distinctly at the same time. 
 This will be found to be the case when the needles 
 are at some distance apart, 
 
 More exact results are however gained by Scheiner's 
 method (§ 4). 
 
 8. Irradiation. 
 
 Cut out two patches of exactly the same size, of 
 white and of black paper. 
 
 Place the white on a sheet of black and the black on 
 a sheet of white paper. 
 
 Place them some distance off and adjust the eye 
 so as to throw them a little out of the range of 
 accommodation. 
 
 The white patch will appear larger than the black one, 
 
172 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXV. 
 
 9. Blind Spot. 
 
 Make a bold mark on a sheet of white paper, place the 
 sheet on the table, and, closing the left eye, fix the 
 axis of vision of the other, by steadfastly looking 
 at the mark at a distance of about 10 inches. Dip a 
 new quill-pen in black ink and place it dose to the 
 paper near the mark. Keeping the axis of vision 
 fixed, and the head at the same distance from the table, 
 move the pen outwards (towards the right) from the 
 mark. At a certain distance it will become in- 
 visible ; mark this spot on the paper. Carry the pen 
 still farther outwards. It will again come visible ; 
 mark this spot also. The two spots will indicate the 
 outer and inner limits of the blind spot. Similarly 
 the upper and lower limits may be traced, and with a 
 little practice an outline of the blind spot, shewing 
 even the commencement of the retinal blood-vessels 
 as they emerge from the edge of the optic disc, may be 
 constructed. 
 The size of the bhnd spot may be calculated from the 
 
 f d 
 formula ■^=yj, where /is the distance of the eye from 
 
 the paper, F the distance of the retina from the nodal 
 point of the eye (average = 15 mm.), d the diameter 
 of the outline on the paper, and D the outline of the 
 blind spot. 
 
 10. Eeg^on of Distinct Vision. 
 
 Fix the axis of vision by steadfastly looking at some 
 mark. Make on a card two dots so close that they can 
 just be seen as two when placed close to the mark. 
 Keeping the axis fixed, move the card towards the 
 periphery of the field of vision; the dots will soon ap- 
 pear as one. 
 
XXV.] VISION. 173 
 
 Or, 
 
 Make two dots oa a card "5 mm. from each other. Fix 
 the axis of vision. Place the card outside the whole 
 field of vision and gradually move it inwards to- 
 wards the mark ; the dots "will first become visible as 
 one, and only appear as two as they approach the 
 centre of the field, and enter the region of distinct 
 vision. 
 
 It will be found on examination that the outline of 
 this region is not circular but very irregular. 
 
 11. Purkinje's Figures. 
 
 Go into a dark room with a lighted candle: looking 
 steadfastly with one eye towards a walP, hold the 
 candle to the side of that eye so that while the eye 
 is illuminated the image of the candle is not seen, 
 and gently move the candle up and down. In a few 
 seconds the subdued reddish glare caused by the 
 candle-light will be marked by branching dark lines, 
 which will be seen to form an exact image of the 
 retinal vessels as seen with the ophthalmoscope. The 
 dark lines are shadows of the blood-vessels, con- 
 sequently the structures in which the physiological 
 processes which give rise to the sensation of light 
 begin must lie behind the retinal blood-vessels. 
 
 A round space, in which the blood-vessels are absent, 
 may with care be seen; this is the yellow spot. 
 
 Or, 
 
 Turn the eye inwards towards the nose so as to 
 expose as much as possible of the thin sclerotic 
 
 1 A light-coloured wall or white blind is the best. A wall, the paper of 
 which has any very marked pattern, should be avoided. 
 
174 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXV. 
 
 behind the cornea. Let an assistant ■with a lens 
 concentrate the rays of direct sunlight or of a candle 
 or lamp on the sclerotic as far behind the cornea as 
 possible, so that the rays may pass directly through 
 it towards the opposite side of the eye, and gently 
 move the focus to and fro. The same image is still 
 more distinctly seen. The smaller the focus on the 
 sclerotic, the more distinct the image. 
 
 If the movement of the light is stopped, the image 
 soon fades away. 
 
 In the first method the image moves in the same 
 direction as the light when the light is moved from 
 side to side, but iu an opposite direction when moved 
 up and down. 
 
 In the second method the movement of the image 
 is in the same direction as that of the light, whether 
 up and down or from side to side. 
 
 12. Look through a microscope with an enipty field, illu- 
 minated, but not too brightly, by a white cloud, and 
 gently move the head to and fro ; an appearance of 
 fine retinal capillaries will be seen as a dark mesh- 
 work on a finely punctated ground. In the centre 
 may be seen a spot devoid of capillaries but still 
 finely punctated. If the head be moved from side 
 to side, the vertical meshwork will be seen ; if up and 
 down, the horizontal meshwork. 
 
 13. The Yellow Spot. Maxwell's Method. 
 
 Place a moderately strong, but perfectly transparent 
 solution of chrome alum in a flat-sided glass vessel. 
 Eesting the eye for a minute or two, suddenly look 
 through the vessel at a white cloud. A rosy spot 
 
XXXV.] . VISION. 175 
 
 or cloud will appear in the centre of vision and re- 
 main for some little time, but will gradually become 
 less distinct. 
 
 The pigment of the yellow spot absorbs the blue- 
 green rays between the lines E and F of the spec- 
 trum, these rays removed from those passing through 
 the chrome alum, viz. red and greenish blue, leave a 
 rose colour. 
 
 14. Region of normal colour-vision. 
 
 Take small pieces of paper of various colours (about 
 10 mm. square). Fix the axis of vision, on a sheet 
 of white paper, and place each of the coloured papers 
 near the axis of vision, they will all be distinct. 
 Place a red piece near the axis, and " then gradually 
 move it towards the outside of the field of vision ; the 
 redness will vanish and it will appear to be black. 
 It will be found. that passing from the centre towards 
 the periphery, red is the first to disappear, next 
 green, and lastly blue. Hence purple becomes violet 
 and then blue, and rose bluish-white, before dis- 
 appearing. 
 
 15. Positive After-image. 
 
 When waking in the morning, close and shade the 
 eyes for a minute or two, then suddenly look at the 
 bright window for a moment or two, and then close 
 and shade the eyes again. The image of the window 
 exactly corresponding to the natural one, i.e. with 
 the sashes da,rk and the panes bright, &c., will last 
 for some little time. 
 
 To succeed, the retina should be in rest beforehand, 
 and the exposure to the stimulus momentary or 
 nearly so. 
 
1T@ ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XXV. 
 
 Or, in the evening, having closed and shaded the 
 eyes, suddenly look at a lamp and immediately close 
 the eyes. A similar positive after-image will be 
 seen. 
 
 This positive after-image must not be confounded 
 Tvith the negative after-image which comes later. It 
 simply shews that the sensation is of longer duration 
 than the application of the stimulus. 
 
 16. Look for an instant at a coloured light, and then 
 look at a white or grey surface, a positive image of 
 the same colour will for a brief period be visible. 
 
 17. Negative After-image, 
 
 Look fixedly for some time with one eye 
 
 a. At a white patch {e.g. white wafer) on a black 
 ground, and then look at a white surface ; there 
 will be visible a corresponding dark patch on the 
 white ground. 
 
 h. At a black patch on a white ground, and turn to 
 a grey surface ; there will be visible a white 
 patch on a grey ground. 
 
 c. At a red patch on a white, grey, or black ground, 
 and turn to a white surface; there will be visible 
 a green patch. 
 
 And so with the other colours, the colour of 
 the negative image will be complementary to 
 that of the actual object. 
 
 d. Look fixedly at a brightly illuminated window 
 and then close the eye. The positive after- 
 image will probably not be seen, in its place 
 
x:xsv.J VISION. 177 
 
 there will come the negative after-image with 
 the sashes as bright lines and the panes as dark 
 spaces. This will in turn be succeeded by 
 coloured images. 
 
 18. Simultaneous Contrast. 
 
 a. Cut out a small piece of grey paper about the 
 size of a shilling, and place it in the middle of a 
 sheet of bright green paper. Cover the whole 
 with a sheet of thin tissue paper. The grey 
 patch will appear pink. The exact tint of the 
 patch will depend on the tint of the green, of 
 which it will be the complementary colour. 
 
 Surround the grey patch with a broad dark black 
 rim. The effect of contrast will be lost; the 
 grey patch will appear grey. 
 
 On a red ground the grey patch will appear green, 
 and with the other colours similar complementary 
 effects will be produced; but the results are most 
 striking in the case of red and green. 
 
 The effect is greatest when the patch is grey, 
 not white, and is always heightened by covering 
 with tissue paper. 
 
 b. Cut a thin strip of grey paper and place it across 
 the junction of a red with a green paper, and 
 cover with tissue paper. 
 
 The grey will appear green on the red side and 
 pink on the green side. 
 
 c. Place a sheet of white paper on a table before 
 a window illuminated by reflection from a white 
 
 I.. 12 
 
ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXV. 
 
 cloud, not with direct sunlight. On the side of 
 the paper opposite the window place a lighted 
 candle, and between it and the paper place a 
 book edge-ways, or any object which will throw 
 a shadow on the paper. Between the paper and 
 the window place a simifar object, throwing a 
 like shadow. The distance of the candle should 
 be such that the two shadows are of nearly equal 
 intensity. 
 
 The shadow from the candle, though illuminated 
 by the white sunlight, will appear blue, the 
 complement of the reddish yellow colour of the 
 rest of the paper illuminated by the candle. 
 
 This effect of contrast is subjective, not objective. 
 To show this, blow out or place a screen before 
 the candle so as to do away with the candle-light. 
 The place formerly occupied by the shadow now 
 appears white. Through a sinall black tube, 
 e.g. a piece of black paper rolled up, with so 
 small a bore that the whole field of view lies 
 within the shadow, look at the centre of the area 
 formerly occupied by the shadow. It still of 
 course appears white. While looking, let some 
 one light the candle, or remove the screen. No 
 change will be visible to the observer looking 
 through the tube, 
 
 If the tube however be directed partly on the 
 area of the shadow, and partly outside, the blue 
 tint of the shadow will, on the candle being 
 lighted or the screen removed, become apparent 
 •as before. 
 
 The daylight-shadow heightens the effect on the 
 candle shadow, but may be dispensed with. 
 
XXV.] VISION. 179 
 
 In place of sunlight and candle, two coloured 
 lights may be used. 
 
 In the above experiments (§§ a, h, c) avoid look- 
 ing at the colours too fixedly and for too long a 
 time. Otherwise the results will be modified by 
 after-images. 
 
LESSON XXVI. 
 
 SPINAL CORD. 
 
 Make a transverse section of tlie hardened cervical 
 spinal cord of a rabbit or dog, carrying tbe section 
 through the nerve-roots; stain it with aniline blue 
 black or hsematoxylin, and clear with carbolic acid, 
 etc. Observe under objective No. 4 the following 
 general features : 
 
 a. The broad and shallow anterior fissure. 
 
 h. The narrow and deep posterior fissure. 
 
 In the rabbit the anterior fissure is not always so 
 distinctly shallower than the posterior as it is in 
 other animals {e.g. ox); and the preparation may be 
 distorted in mounting so that the fissures no longer 
 appear of their normal relative breadth. 
 
 c. The pia mater surrounding the cord, consisting 
 of connective tissue, and having numerous blood- 
 vessels running in it. It will be seen to be 
 divided into an outer part, easily separable from 
 an inner part which sends into the cord numer- 
 ous septa. The outer part dips down into the 
 anterior but not into the posterior fissure. 
 
XXVI.] SPINAL CORD. 181 
 
 d. The entrance into the cord of the anterior roots 
 of the spinal nerves in several small bundles. 
 
 e. The entrance into the cord of the posterior roots 
 of the spinal nerves in a compact mass. 
 
 f. The white substance forming the outer part of 
 the cord and divided on each side by the entrance 
 of the nerve roots into anterior, lateral and 
 po^erior columns. 
 
 g. The division of each posterior column into two 
 by a wedge of connective tissue; the median 
 smaller part is called the slender fasciculus. 
 
 h. The grey matter divided on each side into 
 anterior and posterior cornua, but with no 
 distinct separating line between them. Note the 
 numerous nerve-cells; they are much more con- 
 spicuous in the anterior than in the posterior 
 cornua. 
 
 i. The central canal; probably it will be plugged 
 up with epithelial cells ; in the young animal it 
 is lined by a layer of ciliated epithelium. 
 
 j. A layer of connective tissue surrounding the cen- 
 tral canal, and 
 
 Tc. On either side of this, the anterior and posterior 
 grey commissures. 
 
 I. The anterior white commissure in front of the 
 anterior grey commissure. 
 
 m. A round or oval deeply stained area, forming the 
 hinder part of the posterior comu, the substantia 
 gelatinosa. 
 
 2. Cut transverse sections of the spinal cord of a rabbit 
 or dog taken from the dorsal and lumbar regions. 
 
182 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVI. 
 
 treat as in § 1, and compare with that of the cervical 
 region. Note that 
 
 ■a. The sections taken from the cervical and lumbar 
 regions are larger than those taken from the 
 dorsal. 
 
 I. The enlargements in these regions are due to an 
 increase in the quantity of grey matter. 
 
 c. The quantity of white matter is greatest in the 
 cervical region, less in the dorsal, and least in the 
 lumbar ; that is, the quantity of white matter in 
 the spinal cord increases from below upwards. 
 
 d. In the dorsal region there is a small lateral col- 
 lection of cells behind and to the outside of the 
 central canal; this is Clarke's column, or the 
 posterior vesicular column. It becomes indistinct 
 in the cervical and lower lumbar regions. 
 
 e. Another small group of cells, the tractus inter- 
 medio-lateralis, may be seen chiefly in the lower 
 cervical and upper dorsal regions midway be- 
 tween the anterior and posterior comua. 
 
 3. Take a short piece of the spinal cord of a calf or ox 
 and divide it longitudinally through the anterior and 
 posterior commissures. Divide one of the pieces so 
 obtained into two through the central canal and lateral 
 columns. The cord should have been hai'dened in 
 ammonium bichromate from fifteen to twenty days. 
 Imbed both pieces and cut sections. Treat as before. 
 Note under objective No. 7 or 8, 
 
 a. The division of the connective-tissue septa into 
 fine fibres forming a fairly regular meshwork, the 
 neuroglia, Blood-vessels can easily be seen 
 running in the thicker parts of the meshwork. 
 
1 SPINAI COED. 183 
 
 h. The transverse sections of the nerve-fibres occupy- 
 ing the spaces of the meshwork spoken of above. - 
 The axis-cylinders will be deeply stained, the 
 medulla forming a clear ring round them. Note 
 their varying size. 
 
 c. Surrounding the medulla a clear matrix with a 
 plexus of very fine fibres. 
 
 d. The large nerve-cells in the anterior cornu with 
 distinct nucleus and nucleolus. They may have 
 two, three, four, or more processes, some of which 
 may be traced for a considerable distance, some 
 divide very rapidly. 
 
 e. The collection of the nerve-cells in the anterior 
 cornu more or less distinctly into three groups : 
 a large lateral group, a small median group, and 
 a istill smaller anterior group. This is best seen 
 in the cervical and lumbar regions. 
 
 f. In the posterior cornu the nerve-cells are smaller. 
 
 g. The cross section of vertical fibres, both in front 
 and behind the substantia gelatinosa. 
 
 A. Throughout the whole of the grey substance, a 
 close plexus of very fine fibres. 
 
 Note the following horizontal fibres : 
 
 a. Fibres going from the anterior cornu of one side 
 across the anterior white commissure to the an- 
 terior columns. 
 
 6. Fibres proceeding from the anterior cornu to 
 ascend in the lateral columns. 
 
 c. The posterior nerve-roots, entering the cord and 
 some running through the substantia gelatinosa. 
 
184 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVL 
 
 d. Fibres between the slender fasciculus and the 
 posterior cornua. 
 
 4. Tease out tinder a low power one of the sections 
 including an anterior cornu; observe in the nerve- 
 cells the single unbranched axis-cylinder process and 
 the brancfiing processes forming a very fine mesh- 
 work of nerve-fibrils, the protoplasmic processes. 
 
 5. Cut an antero-posterior longitudinal section passing 
 through both the anterior and the posterior nerve- 
 roots, staiaing with aniline blue black. 
 
 Note 
 
 a. The longitudinal medullated fibres of the anterior 
 column. 
 
 b. The anterior nerve-roots entering obliquely. 
 
 c. The nerve-cells and fibres of the anterior cornu. 
 
 d. The substantia gelatinoga of the posterior cornu, 
 with verticEil fibres on either side and curved 
 fibres running through it. 
 
 e. The longitudinal medullated fibres of the posterior 
 columns, in which can be seen 
 
 f. The cut ends of the posterior nerve-roots. 
 
LESSON XXYII. 
 
 DISSECTION OF THE BRAIN OF A DOG 
 OR SHEEP.' 
 
 1. Carefully handling the brain to avoid breaking the 
 nerve roots, observe 
 
 1/ a. The cerebrum, forming the large anterior mass, 
 divided into two hemispheres by a median 
 longitudinal fissure, each hemisphere having on 
 its surface many indentations or sulci, with 
 elevations or convolutions between them. 
 
 > h. The cerebeUum, behind, and partially covered by, 
 the cerebrum, .divided into a middle and two 
 lateral lobes, each having slight, and, for the 
 most part, transverse, folds. 
 
 c. The medulla oblong^ata, continuous with the 
 spinal cord. In the middle line are seen the 
 
 1 The train should be removed from the skull as carefully as possible, 
 especial pains being taken to cut the internal carotid arteries and the 
 cranial nerves close to the skulL When the brain is removed it is best to 
 tie the internal carotid arteries, and inject spirit of about 90 p. u. into the 
 basilar artery, and then place the brain in spirit. It may be dissected in a 
 few days, but a longer time is preferable. If the brain be not injected, it 
 should be placed for two or three days ia. weak spirit of about 50 p. c, and 
 then transferred to 90 p. 0. spirit. The time required for hardening will in 
 this case be at least a week. 
 
186 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVII. 
 
 small posterior pyramids, and on either side the 
 more conspicuous restiform 1)0dies. The former 
 are the forward prolongations of the slender 
 fasciculi, the latter include fibres from all three 
 columns of the spinal cord. 
 1 , (Z. The pia mater, a thin membrane closely sur- 
 rounding the whole of the brain, and dipping 
 down into the sulci. In it run the vessels which 
 supply the brain with blood. 
 
 2. Tearing away the pia mater, turn forward the cere- 
 
 bellum to observe the upper part of the medulla 
 oblongata. Note 
 I a. The posterior pyramids and restiform bodies 
 diverging, and so forming two sides of a rhomb- 
 oidal space, the fourth ventricle. Trace the 
 restiform bodies forwards ; they enter the lateral 
 lobes of the cerebellum, and are called the 
 inferior peduncles of the cerebellum. 
 
 b. The choroid plexuses of the fourth ventricle 
 formed by projections of the pia mater. 
 
 ; c. Having removed the choroid plexuses, the 
 calamus scriptorins, or angle formed by the 
 divergence of the posterior pyramids. 
 
 I d. The opening into the central canal of the spinal 
 cord, at the point of the calamus scriptorius. 
 
 3. Turn back the cerebellum, tearing away the pia 
 mater which dips down in front of it, and observe 
 
 ], a. Projecting from the under surface of the cere- 
 brum two round bodies, the testes, 
 
 b. Immediately above these, and extending on each 
 side, a cleft, the transverse fissure. 
 
XXVII.] DISSECTION OF BEAIN OF DOG OK SHEEP. 187 
 
 4. Gently separate from the testes tlie pia mater, which 
 enters through the transverse fissure to form the 
 velum iuterpositum (see 18), and observe 
 
 / a. Immediately in front of the testes two other 
 round bodies. These are the nates, and, together 
 with the testes, form the corpora quadrigemiua. 
 
 ) &. Behind the testes are two rounded bands of fibres 
 proceeding from the latter to the cerebellum. 
 These are the superior peduncles of the cere- 
 beUum. 
 
 )/ c. The valve of Vieussens, a thin layer of nervous 
 substance stretching between the superior pedun- 
 cles, and covering in the anterior part of the 
 fourth ventricle. In the anterior part of the 
 valve the roots of the fourth nerve may be seen 
 rising from the middle line, and curving round to 
 reach the base of the brain. 
 
 / d. The small aperture in the median line below the 
 valve of Vieussens and the corpora quadrigemina, 
 and continuous with the anterior part of the 
 fourth ventricle, leads to the third ventricle 
 (cp. § 23). 
 
 oJ/ Separate gently the cerebral hemispheres, and note 
 the corpus callosum or connecting band of transverse 
 fibres between them. 
 
 G. Note on the under surface of the brain 
 
 a. ' The medulla oblongata, with two eminences, the 
 
 anterior pyramids, on either side of the median 
 
 longitudinal fissure. Carefully separate with the 
 
 . handle of a" scalpel the anterior pyramids, and 
 
 observe the decussation of the fibres. 
 
188 ELEMENTAEY PHYSIOLOGY. i [XXVII. 
 
 Uf. Externally to the anterior pyramids just below 
 the pons, two oval elevations, the olivary bodies. 
 
 1/ c. The pons Varolii, a broad band of transversely 
 arranged fibres with a shallow median groove, 
 immediately in front of the medulla. This 
 connects the lateral lobes of the cerebellum with 
 one another, and is called the middle peduncle of 
 the cerebellum. At the lower edge of the pons 
 will be seen a narrow 'supplementary' band, 
 which passes underneath the anterior pyramids. 
 
 \/d. The crura cerebri, or peduncles of the cerebrum, 
 two broad bands of fibres which appear at the 
 anterior edge of the pons Varolii, and run for- 
 wards diverging from one another. 
 
 i/e. The posterior perforated space, or space between 
 these diverging fibres ; it forms part of the floor 
 of the third ventricle. When the pia mater 
 has been removed it will be found to be pierced 
 for the passage of small blood-vessels (to the 
 optic thalamus). 
 
 / The corpus albicans or mammillare in front of 
 the posterior perforated space. In the dog there 
 is a shallow median groove dividing it into two. 
 
 g. Immediately anterior to this the pituitary body ; 
 a round body on a stalk, the infundibulum, 
 springing from the tuber cinereum which forms 
 part of the floor of third ventricle (§ 20 c). The 
 pituitary body will probably have been broken 
 off in removing the brain from the skull. 
 
 ,/' h. The optic tracts, two flat bundles of fibres 
 coming obliquely forward over the front part of 
 the crura cerebri, and meeting in the middle line 
 
tXVXI.] DISSECTION OF EEAIN OF DOG OR SHEEP. 189 
 
 to form the optie chiasma.. The optic, nerves 
 ■will probably have been cut off. 
 
 7. Looking at one side of a brain of a dog, observe 
 
 l/a. The Sylvian fissure, a deep fissure coming up 
 from the under surface of the cerebrum and 
 running backwards and upwards. 
 
 h. The supra Sylvian convolution, forming a curve 
 round the posterior part of the Sylvian fissure. 
 
 c. The inferior external convolution, forming a 
 fold immediately above (&). 
 
 I d. The middle external convolution ; this is nearly 
 straight antero-posteriorly; in the posterior part 
 there is a longitudinal sulcus giving it a bifid 
 appearance. 
 
 e. The superior external convolution, bounding on 
 one side the median longitudiual fissure. 
 
 It may be noticed that the above general plan of 
 the convolutions is to a certain extent modified 
 in different dogs by secondary sulci, so that in 
 some the divisions of each half of the cerebrum 
 into four convolutions may not be evident at 
 first sight. 
 
 8. Note on the upper surface of the brain of a dog 
 
 // a. The crucial sulcus ; this is a sulcus at about the 
 anterior third of the brain, running on each side 
 from the median longitudinal fissure outwards 
 in the superior convolution, and bifurcating. A 
 line drawn through it to the end of the Sylvian 
 fissure roughly divides the convolutions into 
 frontal and parietal portions. 
 
190 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVII. 
 
 by The sigmoid gyrus; this is that part of the ex- 
 ternal convolution which bounds the crucial 
 sulcus. 
 
 .9. Separating the hemispheres, note 
 
 a. The calloso-marginal convolution, running above 
 the corpus callosum, and separated above by a 
 fissure from the superiot external convolution. 
 This is marked by more or less distinct sulci. 
 
 b. The hippocampal convolution; this is the con- 
 tinuation of (a) on the under surface of the brain 
 
 '' 10. Take now a fresh brain, reserving the brain used 
 above for reference to any points that do not appear 
 clear on the first dissection. Trace the chief blood- 
 vessels running in the pia matter of the under surface 
 of the brain. At the upper part of the medulla will 
 be seen two arteries. These are the vertebral 
 arteries, which having given off recurrent branches 
 along the anterior fissure of the medulla, curve 
 round to unite in the median line; the vessel 
 formed by their union is called the basilar artery, 
 and runs forwards in the median line of the 
 pons Varolii. At the front edge of this it divides 
 into two, called the posterior cerebral arteries, each 
 of which running obliquely forward passes to the 
 median side of the third nerve as it springs from 
 the crus cerebri. 
 
 Just beyond this each posterior cerebral divides into 
 two branches. One of these runs backward; the 
 other proceeding forwards, is, a little behind the optic 
 commissure, joined by the internal carotid artery. 
 Each arterial trunk so formed passes round the optic 
 
XXVn.J DISSECTION OF BEAII^ OF DOG OR SHEEP. 191 
 
 commissure, and divides into the middle cerebral 
 artery wMch runs in the fissure of Sylvius, giving 
 off numerous branches, and the anterior cerebral 
 artery which passes forwards between the front lobes 
 of the cerebrum, having a large transverse communi- 
 cating branch with its fellow of the opposite side. 
 The anastomoses between the branches of the posterior 
 cerebral and the internal carotid arteries and those 
 between the two anterior cerebral arteries complete 
 " the circle ofWillis. 
 
 11. Carefully remove the pia mater and observe the 
 origin of the nerve-roots. 
 
 \/ a. The olfactory nerves, or more correctly olfactory 
 lobes, proceeding from the under surface of the 
 anterior part of the cerebrum. 
 
 / h. The optic chiasma and tracts (§6 K). 
 
 I c. The third pair of nerves, arising from the inner 
 surfaces of the crura cerebri in front of the pons 
 VaroHi (§ 10). 
 
 ! d. The fourth pair of nerves, which will be seen 
 curving round the front edge of the pons Varolii; 
 they originate a little behind the corpora quad- 
 rigemina (§ 4 c). 
 
 I e. The fifth pair of nerves, large and conspicuous, 
 arising from the sides of the pons Varolii. 
 
 ! f. The sixth pair of nerves, arising in front of the 
 olivary bodies and anterior pyramids close behind 
 the pons. 
 
 g. The seventh pair of nerves, arising from the 
 depression between the olivary and restiform 
 bodies close behind the pons. 
 
192 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVII. 
 
 j / h. The eighth pair of nerves, arising from the resti- 
 
 ' form bodies a little to the outside of the seventh 
 
 pair. Sometimes fibres proceed fromthe seventh 
 
 to the eighth, rendering it diflScult to distinguish 
 
 them. 
 
 i. The ninth, tenth and eleventh pairs of nerves, 
 each arising by several roots from the restiform 
 bodies, in a line with the eighth but more poste- 
 riorly. 
 
 k. The twelfth pair of nerves, arising between the 
 anterior pyramids and the olivary bodies by 
 several roots. 
 
 1/12. Slice away the surface of the cerebrum to the level 
 of the corpus callosum, noting the central white 
 medullary substance and the thin cortical grey layer. 
 
 In the dog the lateral ventricles project above the level of 
 the corpus caUnsum j when they are reached it is as 
 weU to proceed at once to lay them bare. 
 
 Observe the curving of the corpus callosum in front 
 and behind. 
 
 ;/i3. Make a slight incision along each side of the corpus 
 callosum and so lay bare the lateral ventricles j re- 
 moving the necessary parts of the cerebrum, trace out 
 the anterior and descending comua of the ventricles. 
 Note 
 
 !/a. The corpus striatum, a projection into the floor 
 of the anterior cornu. 
 
 b. The hippocampus major or cornu Ammonis, a 
 
 considerable projection into the descending cornu. 
 
 c. The choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle, 
 lying immediately in front of (6), and continuing 
 
XXVII.J DISSECTION OF BEAIN OF DOG OE SHEEP. I'Jo 
 
 in front as far as the commencement of the 
 anterior cornu. 
 
 ' d. Between the corpus striatum and the choroid 
 plexus is a ridge which is brought more into 
 view by turning back the choroid plexus. This 
 is part of the optic thalamus. It forms a larger 
 part of the floor of the lateral ventricles in the 
 sheep than in the dog. 
 
 14. Turn forwards the choroid plexus, it will be seen that 
 it normally overlies a narrow band with a free edge ; 
 the part of this band adjoining the hippocampus is 
 called the corpus fimbriatum, 
 
 15. Holding up the corpus callosum, the lateral ventri- 
 cles will be seen to be separated by a thiu membrane, 
 the septum lucidum. It is really a double mem- 
 brane. Cut through the corpus callosum behind and 
 gently turn it forwards, separating it from the septum 
 lucidum. In the anterior part of the septum lucidum 
 a very small narrow cleft may sometimes be seen ; the 
 fifth ventricle. 
 
 16. Cut away the corpus callosum, and observe under- 
 neath it the body of the fornix. This is a triangular 
 lamina, the narrow anterior part of which dips down 
 just behind the anterior bend of the corpus callosum. 
 Posteriorly it divides into two diverging bundles of 
 fibres, the posterior pillars of the fornix, part of 
 which spread out over the hippocampus major, the 
 rest forming the corpora fimbriata. This will be 
 rendered clearer on turning back the fornix (§ 18). 
 
 17. Trace forwards the choroid plexuses; they will be 
 found to dip down and join under the anterior narrow 
 part of the fornix through the foramina of Monro. 
 
 L. 13 
 
194) ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVII. 
 
 18. Pass the blade of a pair of scissors through the fora- 
 mina, and cut through the fornix. Carefully turn 
 back the fornix. A vascular membrane, the velum 
 iuterpositnm, will be seen underlying it; this folds 
 round the edge of the fornix to form the choroid 
 plexuses. Separate the fornix from the velum; the 
 diverging posterior pillars will now be well seen; the 
 part of the corpus callosum between them is called 
 the lyra. The thickened posterior free edge of the 
 corpus callosum forms the upper boundary of the 
 transverse fissure. 
 
 19. Turn back now the velum interpositum, and note that 
 the foramina of Monro form the anterior part of a 
 space, the third ventricle, underlying the velum in- 
 terpositum and continuous with the lateral ventri- 
 cles. Normally the third ventricle is only continuous 
 with the lateral ventricles by the foramina of Monro, 
 since the thin epithelial layer of the lateral ventricles 
 passes from the corpora striata to the fornix, over the 
 choroid plexus. In separating the velum posteriorly, 
 note two projections downwards into a median fissure, 
 the choroid plexuses of the third ventricle; be care- 
 ful not to injure a round body, the pineal gland, 
 situated immediately in front of the corpora quadri- 
 gemina. 
 
 20. In the surface now exposed, observe 
 
 a. The anterior pillars of the fornix, two vertically 
 descending cords into which the anterior part of 
 the fornix divides. They descend to the base of 
 the brain, and curving round form the external 
 part of the corpus albicans. 
 
XXVII.]. DISSECTION OF BHAIN OP DOG OE SHEEP. 195 
 
 b. The anterior cerebral commissure, a small white 
 buudle of fibres running transversely in front of 
 the anterior pillars of the fornix, and seen 
 between them. It connects the corpora striata. 
 
 c. The central depression or third ventricle. Cut- 
 ting away the necessary part on one side, trace 
 the passage from this into the infundibulum. 
 
 d. The optic thalami, forming the lateral bounda- 
 ries of the third ventricle. Trace the optic tracts 
 to these. 
 
 e. Proceeding across the third ventricle connecting 
 the optic thalami, a bridge of grey matter, the 
 middle cerebral commissure. This is very 
 easily torn through. 
 
 /. On the inner edge of each optic thalamus a 
 ridge proceeding to the pineal gland; these are 
 the peduncles of the pineal gland. 
 
 g. The small, white, posterior cerebral commissure, 
 in front of, though partially covered by, the 
 pineal gland. 
 
 21. Cut through the corpus striatum on one side, and 
 observe the external layer of grey substance, and the 
 central striated appearance from fibres running in 
 from the crus cerebri. 
 
 22. Between the optic tracts and the corpora quadri- 
 gemina, note two oval bodies, the corpora geniculata, 
 and the band of fibres on either side proceeding from 
 the nates, and dipping down under the corpus genicu- 
 latum internum to join the optic tracts. 
 
 13—2 
 
196 ELEMENTAET PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVII. 
 
 23. Trace out the passage from the third to the fourth 
 ventricle, or aqueduct of Sylvius. It will be found to 
 paas beneath the posterior cerebral commissure, and 
 the corpora quadrigemina, 
 
 24 Divide the cerebellum by a longitudinal vertical in- 
 cision in the median plane; observe the arborescent 
 appearance {a/rbor vitce) produced by the arrangement 
 of the outer grey and inner white substance. Make 
 a similar longitudinal section through the middle of 
 one of the lateral lobes ; note in the midst of the 
 white substance the irregular outline of the grey 
 matter of the corpus deutatuin. 
 
 25, Divide a sheep's or a dog's brain in half, by a longi- 
 tudinal section carried carefully through the median 
 line, and observe 
 
 The corpus callosum, with its anterior and posterior 
 bend, the latter being continuous with the fornix, 
 the body of which is seen as a thin layer lying 
 beneath the corpus callosum and curving down- 
 wards anteriorly towards the corpus albicans as 
 the anterior pillars. Since these diverge, they 
 will be visible only in part of their course. 
 
 The septum lucidum and the lateral ventricle. 
 
 The transverse fissure; the velum interpositum en- 
 tering the transverse fissure, underlying the fornix 
 and forming the roof of the third ventricle. 
 
 The aqueduct of Sylvius; the valve of Vieussens 
 passing from the corpora quadrigemina and en- 
 tering into the median lobe of the cerebellum. 
 
 The pineal gland with its peduncle. 
 
XXVII.j DISSECTION OF BRAIN OF DOG OR SHEEP. 197 
 
 The posterior commissure of tlie cerebrum : it is 
 covered by a thin lamina formed by the united 
 peduncles of the pineal gland. In the section this 
 lamina appears as a band proceeding from that 
 body. The large middle commissure, forming a 
 considerable portion of the cavity of the third 
 ventricle. The anterior commissure, a little 
 below the apparent termination of the anterior 
 pillar of the fornix. 
 
 The optic tract. 
 
 The pons VaroliL 
 
LESSON XXVIII. 
 DISSECTION OF THE LARYNX. 
 
 1. It is preferable to obtain a fresh larynx of a sbeep or 
 an ox from the butcher's; but the spirit-preserved 
 larynx of the dog (Lesson i.) will serve. The larynx 
 will probably be obtained with the upper part of 
 the CESophagus attached, and surrounded by a mass 
 of muscle and connective tissue. 
 
 Having slit up the cesophagus lengthways, turn back 
 or cut away the sides and observe the opening into 
 the larynx bounded in front by the epiglottis, at the 
 sides by folds of the mucous membrane, and behind 
 by the large converging yellow crests of the arytenoid 
 cartilages. On looking down into the larynx the 
 opening between the vocal cords, or rima glottidis, 
 may be seen at some depth below. Observe that 
 the mucous membrane of the cesophagus is continuous 
 with that of the larynx. Bend down the epiglottis 
 projecting from the front, upper, edge of the larynx, 
 and note that the passage to the larynx is then quite 
 closed. 
 
 2. From the posterior surface carefully remove the 
 cesophagus with the pharyngeal muscles. From the 
 
XXVIII.] DISSECTION OF THE LARYNX. 199 
 
 sides dissect away the sterno-thyroid muscle (Lesson i. 
 § 24), taking care not to injure the muscle lying 
 underneath it (§ 3), and clear away the whole of the 
 thyro-hyoid muscle which covers the side of the 
 thyroid. The hyoid bone and thyro-hyoidean mem- 
 brane may be left. The outlines of the thyroid will 
 now come into view, clear away the connective tissue 
 until they are quite distinct. Note that- 
 
 The thyroid cartilage consists of two lateral laminae, 
 which meet in front and diverge behind, and have 
 their upper and lower posterior angles prolonged, 
 forming the upper and lower cornua. Observe in 
 front the rounded projection or Adam's apple. 
 
 3. Observe the crico-thyroid muscle spoken of above (§ 2); 
 dissect it away, noting its attachments. The cricoid 
 cartilage will come into view, and it will be seen 
 that the muscle in question passes from the posterior 
 cornu and posterior portion of the lower margin of the 
 thyroid, to the front part of the cricoid. Observe 
 that below this muscle there is stretching between 
 the two cartilages a membrane which limits the move- 
 ments of the thyroid. 
 
 4. , Observe the articulations of the posterior cornua of 
 the thyroid to the cricoid. Disarticulate one cornu, 
 cut through the crico-thyroid membrane, and remove 
 one half of the thyroid, taking care not to injure any 
 of the muscles. Trace out with the finger the outlines 
 of the cricoid cartilage. Note that 
 
 It forms a complete ring, which in front is narrow, 
 and is covered by the edge of the thyroid, but behind 
 is deep and enclosed on either side by the thyroid. 
 
200 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXVIli. 
 
 5. Oa the posterior surface of the cricoid note on either 
 side of a central ridge two laminse of muscle, the pos- 
 terior crico-arytenoids ; cut through their attach- 
 ment to the cricoid, and reflecting them from below 
 upwards note that they are attached above to the 
 external angles of two cartilages, the arytenoid 
 cartilages, placed on the posterior upper edge of the 
 cricoid cartilage. 
 
 G. Carefully clear away {he tissue from the back of the 
 arytenoid cartilages above the cricoid, and observe on 
 the posterior surface of the former the arytenoid 
 muscle ; cutting it through the middle, which in the 
 sheep is frequently tendinous, reflect it on either 
 side; it wiU be seen to be attached to the back of 
 each arytenoid cartilage ; the posterior surface of the 
 arytenoid cartilage will now be laid bare, and its 
 articulation with the cricoid cartilage can be made 
 out. 
 
 7. Looking at the larynx where the thyroid has been cut 
 away, observe the lateral crico-arytenoid muscle. 
 Cut away its attachment to the lateral portion of the 
 upper margin of the cricoid, and, reflecting it, observe 
 that it passes backwards and upwards from the cricoid 
 to be inserted into the arytenoid cartilage just in 
 front of the insertion of the posterior crico-arytenoid. 
 
 8. Clearing away the fat and connective tissue from 
 the side of the larynx, observe the thyro-arytenoid 
 muscle stretching across from the thyroid in front 
 to the arytenoid behind. Cut it through in the 
 middle and reflect both ends. Note its origin from 
 the angle of the thyroid and its insertion into the 
 
XXVIII.] DISSECTION OP THE LARYNX. 201 
 
 lateral surface of the aiytenoid in front of the in- 
 sertion of the lateral crico-arytenoid. 
 Remove the muscle altogether, and observe the lateral 
 surface of the arytenoid cartilage. 
 
 9. Cut away on the same side the underlying mucous 
 membrane; the interior of the larynx will now be 
 laid open. On the opposite side the indistinct vocal 
 cord win be seen passing as a pale band of tissue 
 from the anterior angle of the arytenoid cartilage to 
 the angle of the thyroid. The inner or medium 
 surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages will be seen to 
 bound a large oval space, called the respiratory 
 space. 
 
 10. Clear away on one side any muscle or connective 
 tissue still attached to the arytenoid cartilage, and 
 observe more fully its shape, noting particularly, 
 the anterior projection or processus vocalis, the pos- 
 terior lateral projection or processus muscularis, and 
 the articulation with the cricoid. 
 
 11. Dissect from, the inside the thyro-arytenoid muscle 
 of the opposite side, and observe more carefully its 
 attachments (§ 8). 
 
 The larynx of the sheep differs materially from that of 
 man, by the indistinctness of the vocal cords, by the 
 absence of the false vocal cords and ventricles of the 
 larynx, and by the peculiar crested conformation of 
 the arytenoid cartilages. 
 
 DEMONSTRATION. 
 The use of the laryngoscope. 
 
LESSON XXIX. 
 
 TISSUES OF EEPRODUCTION. 
 
 A. OVASY. 
 
 1. Prepare sections of mammalian ovary, hardened in 
 chromic acid or in potassium bichromate. Let some 
 of the sections be longitudinal, and others transverse. 
 Be careful that the sections are especially thin at the 
 periphery of the organ. Stain some of the sections 
 and mount in Canada balsam; mount others un- 
 stained in glycerine. 
 
 Examine with No. 3 or 4 objective, and observe 
 
 a. The fibrous ' medullary' portion or stroma, radi- 
 ating from the hilus, and forming the greater 
 portion of the organ, especially in the case of 
 young animals. 
 
 h. The cortical layer, consisting of small Graaffian 
 follicles, and forming a zone immediately under- 
 neath the fibrous investment or tunica albioginea 
 along the whole periphery except at the hilus. 
 
 c. Larger (older) Graaffian follicles which have sunk 
 into the substance of the stroma, and are thus at 
 some distance from the surface. 
 
x:xxrx.] tissues of repeoduction. 203 
 
 Most of the larger Grraaffian follicles will be 
 empty ; in tlie moderate-sized or smaller ones 
 may be seen a transparent nuclear-looking body, 
 the ovum. Do not confound a small Graaffian 
 follicle with an ovum. 
 
 d. If the ovary be not that of a young animal a 
 considerable portion of the stroma may be taken 
 up by a corpus lutenm. This will appear as a 
 circular mass of tissue more opaque than the 
 rest of the stroma, frequently containing pigment 
 and exhibiting a radiating structure. The ap- 
 pearances however of the corpora lutea differ 
 according to their age. 
 
 2. Examine, with a high power, the cortical layer. If 
 the sections already prepared are not sufficiently thin, 
 prepare others taken through the cortical substance 
 only. Observe, passing from the surface inwards, 
 
 a. The superficial epithelium (germinal epithelium) 
 consisting of a single layer of short columnar 
 cells. 
 
 6. Immediately beneath this, a thin fibrous layer, 
 the tunica albuginea, with the bundles of con- 
 nective tissue arranged both longitudinally and 
 transversely. The lower portions of this pass 
 gradually into the stroma. 
 
 c. The stroma, having a fibrous appearance, but 
 more irregular than h, and largely composed of 
 spindle-shaped cells. 
 
 d. The smaller Graaffian follicles. In these will be 
 seen 
 
 a. The ovum, a spherical and transparent mass 
 of protoplasm, containing some fat granules. 
 
204 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIX. 
 
 It has no distinct cell-wall. Within it lies a 
 comparatively large, also transparent nucleus, 
 the germinal vesicle. 
 
 /3. A layer of columnar epithelium immediately 
 surrounding the ovum and lining the follicle ; 
 this is the membrana graniilosa. 
 
 e. The larger Graafian follicles. In these will be 
 seen 
 
 a. A fibrous investment of the follicle : the tunica 
 or theca foUicularis. 
 
 /S. A lining of epitheKum more than one cell deep. 
 
 7. At one spot this epithelium is collected into 
 a mass, the cnmnlus proligerus, in the midst 
 of which is embedded 
 
 S. The ovum, with its cell-substance or vitellus 
 more distinctly granular, and its germinal 
 vesicle marked with a nucleolar looking spot, 
 the germinal spot. In these follicles the ovum 
 has a distinct investing membrane, which in 
 some is much thickened, so as to form a zona 
 pellucida. From "this the vitellus frequently 
 stoinks in the process of hardening. The cells 
 of the cumulus which lie next to this mem- 
 brane are frequently arranged in a radiating 
 manner. 
 
 e. The rest of the follicle is filled with fluid. 
 
 3. Tease out in weak glycerine a thin and small Section of 
 the more superficial stroma. Observe, intermingled 
 with the ordinary connective tissue and blood-vessels, 
 the abundant spindle-shaped fibres. 
 
XXIX.] TISSUES OF EEPRODUCTION. 205 
 
 4. Tease out in weak glycerine a thin section taken from 
 the centre of a corpus luteum. Observe 
 
 a. Cells similar in character to epithelium-cells, 
 often large and loaded with pigment and fatty 
 granules. (Ciystals of hsematoidin may be seen.) 
 
 b. Cells similar to white-blood or lymph-corpuscles. 
 
 c. Spindle and other shaped cells ; developing con- 
 nective tissue. 
 
 The appearances will vary much according to the 
 age of the corpus luteum. 
 
 5. In some of the sections taken near the hilus there 
 may be seen (dog, cat) lying in the stroma groups of 
 tubules, lined with a short cubical or flattened epi- 
 thelium, and cut at various angles. These are the 
 tubules of the parovarium. 
 
 6. Take the fresh ovary of a sheep or large dog ; observe 
 the bulgings due to the more or less ripe GraafiSan 
 follicles. Holding the ovary over a glass slide, care- 
 fully prick the most prominent follicle and receive 
 the contents on a glass slide. Examine without a 
 cover slip, with simple lens or low objective. If the 
 ovum is present it will at once be recognized. When 
 found carefully cover with a cover slip, inserting a 
 ring of thin paper in order to avoid pressure, and 
 examine with a higher power. Observe 
 
 a. The thick zona pellucida, with double contour 
 (and radiating striation). 
 
 b. The granular vitellus. 
 
206 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIX. 
 
 c. The transparent germinal vesicle, witli its ger- 
 minal spot. If the foUicle be quite ripe these 
 may have disappeared. 
 
 d. The cells of the cumulus proligerus attached all 
 round the zona pellucida. 
 
 B. Testis. 
 
 1. Take a small mammalian testis, e.g. of guinea-pig or 
 rat, which has been hardened in Miiller's fluid, 
 and cut longitudinal sections through the testis and 
 globus major of the epididymis. Observe with ob- 
 jective No. 3 or 4. 
 
 a. The tunica vaginalis propria, which is round 
 the greater part of the testis firmly connected 
 with the underlying tissue, and is hence called 
 the tunica adnata. It separates from the testis 
 near the epididymis. 
 
 b. The tunica albuginea, the thick investment 
 proper of the testis; near the epididymis it is 
 very much thickened, forming the corpus High- 
 mori; towards this radiate bands of connective 
 tissue from the rest of the albuginea, forming 
 the septula testis and so dividing it into lobules. 
 
 c. The tubuli seminiferi, contorted and anasto- 
 mosing tubes occupying the lobular spaces ; near 
 the corpus Highmori the tubes unite, and the 
 tubes so formed, the vasa recta, have a short, 
 tolerably straight course; in the corpus Highmori 
 they anastomose with one another, .forming the 
 rete testis ; from the outer edge of this may be 
 seen one or two larger tubes, the vasa efiferentia, 
 
XJXJXIX.] TISSUES OF EEPEODUCTION. 207 
 
 which originate from the rete and open into a 
 still larger tube, the canal of the epididymis. 
 
 2. Cut thin sections of the lobular part of the testis 
 of a dog, and observe with a high power 
 
 a. The tunica vaginalis, consisting of fine fibrous 
 connective tissue, having externally a single 
 layer of tessellated epithelium. 
 
 b. The tunica albuginea, of coarser connective tissue, 
 with numerous blood-vessels running in it, and in 
 the septula testis. 
 
 c. The intermediate tissue between the tubuli 
 seminiferi. In the dog this is small in amount, 
 and consists mainly of fine connective tissue con- 
 taining numerous connective-tissue corpuscles, 
 and of blood-capillaries. 
 
 d. The tubuli seminiferi. In these note 
 
 a. A tunica adventitia of elongated and branch- 
 ing cells. 
 
 yS. A membrana propria. 
 
 7. The cells filling the tubes, to a greater or less 
 extent, so that there is no distinct lumen. 
 They are for the most part polyhedral from 
 compression, with large nuclei staining deeply 
 with hsematoxylin, and small nucleoli. Other 
 forms of cell may be seen. 
 
 S. The spermatozoa, lying generally in bunches ; 
 the heads staining deeply. The method of 
 development of these from ,the cells in the 
 seminal tubes is still a matter of dispute. 
 
208 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [XXIX. 
 
 3. Cat sections of the lobular part of the testis of a pig, 
 cat, or rat, and observe that 
 
 The tissue surrounding the tubuli seminiferi or inter- 
 mediate tissue differs from the corresponding 
 tissue of the dog's testis in containing a large 
 number of polyhedral cells "with round nuclei, 
 not unlike hepatic cells. 
 
 4. Tease out in water a small fragment from a piece of 
 testis that has been treated with osmic acid 1 p. c. for 
 twenty-four hours, and observe more particularly the 
 characters of the cells. 
 
 5. Cut a section through the corpus Highmori, and 
 observe that 
 
 a. The tubuli form a network of passages without 
 distinct walls. 
 
 b. The passages are lined with tabular or cubical 
 epithelium. 
 
 6. Cut a transverse section through the globus major of 
 the epididymis, and note both in the vasa efPsrentia 
 and in the canal of the epididymis, 
 
 a. The external fibrous coat. 
 
 b. The circular muscular coat. 
 
 c. The basement membrane. 
 
 d. The epithelium, consisting of cylindrical ciliated 
 cells, with two or more rows of small cells be- 
 tween them and the basement membrane. In 
 the canal of the epididymis the cylindrical cells 
 are long and slender. 
 
EXXXXIX.] TISSUES OF EEPEODUCTION. 209 
 
 e. The distinct lumen. 
 
 /. The mass of spermatozoa, occupying in some 
 cases the lumen. 
 
 7. Cut a transverse section of the vas deferens. Note 
 
 a. The external fibrous coat. 
 
 6. The muscular coat of three layers, two longitu- 
 dinal and one circular, the latter being the most 
 developed. 
 
 c. The ciliated columnar epithelium, 
 
 8. Cut in half the fresh testis of a rat, and gently press 
 the cut surface on a glass slide. Observe the sperma- 
 
 ' ' ' ' tozoa, each consisting of 
 
 a. An ovoid head. 
 
 b. A long tapering tail. 
 
 c. A short intermediate part. 
 
 Note that the spermatozoa move by a -whip-like 
 movement of their tails. 
 
 9. Observe in like manner the spermatozoa of a frog. 
 In Rana temporaria there is no head, but only a 
 long thread of protoplasm. 
 
 L. 
 
 14 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Notes on the use of the Micko3cope.'. 
 
 See that tte tube of the microscope moves easily, but not 
 too easily, up and down. It should be occasionally rubbed 
 round with a little olive-oil, and the oil then wiped off 
 with a dry cloth. 
 
 With a piece of chamois leather or silk, remove any dust 
 that may bo on the lenses of the eye-piece or on the 
 lower lens of the objective. If by accident the objective 
 has been smeared with glycerine, stream it with water from 
 a wash-bottle, and wipe it dry with chamois leather : if 
 with Canada balsam, place on it a drop of chloroform, and 
 rub gently, repeating till the balsam is quite removed : 
 this must be done very cautiously, since the lenses are 
 sometimes fixed in with Canada balsam. 
 
 All unnecessary rubbing of lenses however should be avoided; 
 hence take care to put them, away after they have beeu 
 used. 
 
 It is advisable for the student not to unscrew the separate 
 lenses of a high objective; when however the dimness 
 of an object under observation renders it necessary to 
 do so, care must be taken not to remove the black coating 
 
 1 The microscope to which reference is made in the text is Hartuaok's 
 Stativ III. -with oculars 2 or 4 and objectives 3 or 4 and 7 or 8. Nearly 
 corresponding to this on Zeiss' model is Stativ IIP. no. 20 with oculars 2 
 and 4, dbjectives A and D. 
 
 14—2 
 
212 APPENDIX. 
 
 on tlie iaslde of the tube in cleaning the lenses, and 
 ■when cleaned to restore them in proper order, to their 
 previous positions. 
 
 With No. 4 objective, twist down, the microscope-tube till 
 it is about a quarter of an inch from the object; then 
 looking through the eye-piece, twist the tube upwards till 
 the specimen is in focus. 
 
 With objective No. 7, lower the tube till it is ^ of an inch 
 from the object, and then slowly twist the tube down, 
 moving the slide about, till the object just becomes visible, 
 then focus by means of the fine adjustment. 
 
 Direct sunlight must not be used to illuminate the field ; in 
 selecting a permanent position to work with the microscope, 
 it is best, if possibly to face the north, — or if this is not 
 practicable, to have the light on the left-hand side. 
 
 With high powers, use the corresponding small diaphragm ; 
 otherwise although the field may look brighter, the outlines 
 of the cells, etc. will not be so well defined. 
 
 The student should accustom himself to keep loth eyes open 
 when using the microscope, and to use either the right or 
 the left eye for looking at specimens. The fatigue of 
 microscope work is thus very much lessened. It generally 
 requires a little practice to keep both eyes open, but a few 
 minutes' trial every time that the microscope is used will 
 soon overcome the difficulty. 
 
 When an olgect appears dim, it may be caused by some fault 
 in the specimen itself, or by the object-glass not being 
 clean. In the latter ease the dimness remains, whether the 
 object is in focus or not. Dust upon the eye-piece can be 
 recognized by the outlines of the particles appearing well 
 defined; they do not look dim and diffuse. 
 
 Obseevation or Fresh Tissues. 
 
 There are but few of the tissues of the body, which in the 
 
APPENDIX. 213 
 
 fresh state are sufficiently consistent and firm to allow tMn 
 sections to be cut with, the razor. 
 
 This, however, is of no very great importance, since the main 
 end of observing the fresh tissue is to ascertain to what 
 extent the various hardening and staining agents, which 
 enable one or another constituent part of the tissue to be 
 clearly seen, alter the tissue components. By taking a 
 small piece of a tissue, and teasing it out carefully in a 
 normal solution, enough can generally be gathered of the 
 normal appearances to judge whether the reagents used 
 cause any structural modification, or simply bring more 
 clearly to view already existing outlines. 
 
 With tolerably firm bodies, e. g. the kidney, it is best to cut 
 as thin sections as possible with a razor, either not moist- 
 ened at all, or covered with normal saline solution, and 
 observe one section under the microscope, mounted in some 
 normal solution, whilst another is carefully teased out. 
 
 With structures too yielding to cut sections, a piece should 
 either be snipped off, as with the villi of the small intestine, 
 with a fine pair of scissors, or a strip torn off with a for- 
 ceps, as with the coat of an artery, and then teased out. 
 
 There are certain fluids which, when fresh, cause very slight 
 changes in the tissues ; they more or less resemble the 
 fluids with which the tissues in the body are surrounded. 
 
 These normal fluids are 
 
 a. The aqueous humour of the eye. 
 h. Blood-serum. 
 
 If, then, a fresh tissue is to be observed from e. g. a rabbit, 
 the cornese should be punctured to obtain the aqueous 
 humour, or the blood should be allowed to clot in a flat 
 vessel, to obtain the serum. In one of these fluids the 
 tissues should be mounted. 
 
214 APPENDIX. 
 
 c. Normal saline solution. 
 
 This may be prepared by dissolving 7-5 grm. of sodic chloride 
 in 1000 cc. of distilled water, 
 
 d. Iodized serum. 
 
 Iodine Is sometimes added to serum to preserve it, so that 
 it may be at hand when required j serum thus iodized is, 
 however, far less a ' normal' fluid than the others. It may be 
 prepared by dropping a few crystals of iodine into fresh 
 serum, and shaking occasionally. The fluid should be of a 
 light brown colour. 
 
 Teasing. 
 
 Be careful to take a small piece only : it should be viewed 
 with a low power before teasing, to ascertain the general 
 relation of the parts, and hence to guide the teasing : 
 thus, if it consists of parallel fibres, with one needle fix 
 the piece at one corner and draw the other needle through 
 it in the direction of the fibres ; in teasing out to show 
 special objects, e.g. ganglion-cells, the arrangement of the 
 parts should be particularly noticed under a low power. 
 
 In teasing, it is important to place the slide on an appropriate 
 ground ; if the object is clear, the slide should be placed on 
 a piece of black paper, if it is dark, on a" piece of white 
 paper. Stained sections should also be teased out against 
 a white or grey ground. 
 
 Dissociating Fluids. 
 
 These are fluids which, whilst preserving ceirtain parts of a 
 tissue, dissolve or partially dissolve others, so that the 
 former can be isolated by teasing or shaking. As a rule 
 the piece of tissue so treated should be only a few mm. 
 square. 
 
 Weak iodized serum of a light brown colour is in most cases 
 the best. As the tissue abiorbs the iodine, a little strongly 
 
APPENDIX. 215 
 
 iodized serum, should be. added; or tte fluid renewed. 
 The tissue may often be teased out after one day; but 
 a longer time may be necessary. 
 
 Chromio acid -02 p. o. is useful for nerve-cells in spinal cord. 
 
 Muller's fluid answers well for olfactory mucous membrane, 
 
 stomach, kidney. 
 Weak spirit 36 p. c. is frequently used for isolating epithelial 
 
 cells. 
 Baryta water, for tendons, &c. 
 
 Osmic acid "1 to 1 p. c. is a dissociating fluid of general appli- 
 cation; it has the advantage of altering the normal appear- 
 ances very slightly. 
 
 There are various other dissociating fluids, but the above will 
 be sufficient to illustrate their use to the beginner. 
 
 Haedening and Hardeiting Agents. 
 General Directions. 
 
 The tissue should be removed from the body to the hardening 
 agent as soon as possible after the death of the animal. 
 
 Be careful to divide the tissue to be hardened into small 
 pieces before placing in the hardening fluid. As a rule 
 the pieces should not be more than 3 to 4 mm. square. 
 
 In all cases where a tissue is put in a fluid to harden or 
 have lime-salts extracted from it, the fluid in which it 
 is placed should be relatively, abundant, e. g. 15 to 20 
 times the volume of the tissue ; it should be renewed, after 
 a time varying from 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 After the substance has been hardened it should be trans- 
 ferred to weak alcohol, e.g. 50 p. c, and there be left for 
 two days. 
 
 It should then be placed in a little stronger alcohol, e. g. 
 70 p. c, and left for one day; and finally placed in 90 p. c. 
 till required for sections. 
 
216 APPENDIX. 
 
 This method answers fairly in most cases, but it is more satis- 
 factory, especially mth chromic-acid specimens, to change 
 the 50 p. c. alcohol every day, till on being left for twenty- 
 four hours the alcohol remains uncoloured. Tissues per- 
 meated with chromic acid are not stained by carmine or 
 hsematoxyUn; moreover chromic acid is not soluble or but 
 very slightly in strong alcohol, hence the repeated change 
 of the 50 p. c. In particular cases the tissues should he 
 transferred from 90 p. c. to absolute alcohol. 
 
 The tissues should be placed in a flat short bottle to harden, 
 rather than a narrow high one ; and they must be kept 
 cool, especially when they are first removed from the body 
 to a hardening agent. 
 
 Preparation of Solutions. 
 
 In making ' solutions containing a definite percentage of 
 hardening or other substance, remember that 1 cc. of 
 water at 4° C. and 760 mm. pressure weighs exactly 1 grm., 
 and that under the ordinary variations of temperature 
 and pressure it may be taken always to weigh 1 grm.; 
 a 5 per cent, solution of (e.g.) ammonium bichromate 
 may therefore be made by dissolving 5 grm. of the salt 
 in 95 cc, i.e. 95 grm. of distilled water, the resulting 
 mixture must weigh 100 grm. of which 5 are ammonium 
 bichromate, hence it is a 5 p. c. solution ; and a "5 solution 
 of gold chloride by dissolving -5 grm. of the salt in 99"5 
 cc. of distilled water. 
 
 Since it is not important to have the solution exactly 5 p. c. 
 or "5 p. c, it is usual to tak^ 100 cc. of water in the above 
 and other similar cases. 
 
 A Solution of any given percentage can easily be diluted 
 to one of a lower percentage : thus, if it is required to 
 dilute a 5 p. c. solution of ammonium bichromate to a 
 2 p. c. solution; 100 parts of the 2 p. c. solution contain 2 
 parts of the salt, therefore 250 parts of the 2 p. c. solution 
 
APPENDIX. 217 
 
 contaia 5 parts of the salt, but 100 parts of the 5 p. c. 
 solution contain 5 parts of the salt, hence by diluting the 
 100 to 250 parts the 2 p. o. solution is obtaiaed. 
 
 Chromic Acid. 
 
 Dissolve 10 grm. in 1000 cc. of distilled -water. 
 
 The "5 solution is that most frequently used ; it is easily 
 
 prepared at any time from the above 1 p. o. solution by 
 
 diluting with an equal volume of water. 
 For acting on bone and teeth, 1 cc. of nitric acid may be added 
 
 to the above; the action is much more rapid, but care 
 
 must be taken to transfer to alcohol as soon as the salts 
 
 are extracted. 
 Chromic acid hardens the tissues by an action analogous to 
 
 tanning ; but renders them, if they are left in it too long, 
 
 brittle and friable. 
 
 Fotassinm Bichromate. 
 
 The 1 p. c. solution is the most useful. Dissolve 10 grm. 
 of the salt in 1000 cc. distilled water. 
 
 Ammonium Bichromate. 
 
 Dissolve 50 grm. ammonium bichromate in 1000 cc. distilled^ 
 water. This gives a 5 p. c. solution. 
 
 Miiller's fluid. 
 
 Dissolve 25 grms. of potassic bichromate and 10 grms. of 
 sodic sulphate in 1000 cc. of water. 
 
 Picric acid. (Kleinenberg's method.) 
 
 Make a cold saturated solution of picric acid, and to 
 
 100 cc. of this add 2 oo. of concentrated sulphuric acid ; 
 
 filter, and to the filtrate add 300 cc. of distilled water. 
 Tissues should be left in this for a comparatively short time, 
 
 varying from three hours to ten, with the exception of 
 
 bone, which requires some days, since there are lime salts 
 
 to be extracted. 
 
21 S APPENDIX. 
 
 Osmic acid. 
 
 A 1 p. c. solution of this is tlie most useful. To avoid reduc- 
 tion of the osmic acid great care should be taken to obtain 
 pure water. The bottle should be washed out with sul- 
 phuric acid and then with distilled water. If the osmic 
 acid turns dark it must be covered with black paper or 
 kept in the dark. 
 
 Most tissues are sufficiently hardened by a stay of twenty-four 
 hours in 1 p. c. osmic acid to allow of sections being at once 
 cut. If not sufficiently hardened, but deeply enough stained, 
 they should be transferred to spirit. 
 
 In the presence of organic matter osmic acid is reduced in 
 the light. This takes place quickly in the presence of 
 fatty substances, so that in a tissue which has been stained 
 with osmic acid, the meduUated nerve-fibres can be easily 
 traced. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 Alcohol, besides its general use of completing the hardening 
 begun by other fluids, is sometimes used alone. It co- 
 agulates the albumin in tissues and then renders them 
 more opaque. Absolute alcohol gives the best results. 
 Imbedding. 
 
 Take a small piece of tissue only to imbed ; of course this 
 cannot be done in many cases, where it is desired to make 
 out the general relation of the parts of an organ, e.g. the 
 eye. 
 
 Before imbedding press the piece of tissue very gently be- 
 tween blotting paper, to remove as much as possible of the 
 fluid in which it has been placed. Spirit and the other 
 hardening agents, if not removed, cool the imbedding mix- 
 ture immediately round the tissue, and not mixing with 
 it, prevent any adherence between the mixture and the 
 tissue : with spirit specimens the excess of fluid should not 
 be removed till the imbedding substance, etc. is ready, 
 siuce the spirit rapidly evaporates, and the tissue dries. 
 
APPENDIX. 21 9 
 
 If it is desired that the imbedding substance should not 
 only adhere to the outside of the tissue so as to form 
 a support for cutting, but should also penetrate its spaces 
 and render it firm to cut right through, it should be placed 
 in absolute alcohol for about five minutes to remove all 
 ■water, and transferred for about half an hour to oil of 
 bergamot. It should then be imbedded in spermaceti and 
 castor oil, with ■which the oil of bergamot mixes. To cause 
 a thorough filling up of cavities it is advisable to soak the 
 tissue, removed from the oil of bergamot, in the just 
 melted imbedding mixture for a minute or t'wo before 
 imbedding. 
 
 For the method of imbedding see Lesson iv. § 4. Note also 
 that 
 
 Instead of using a block of imbedding mixture, the folio-wing 
 method ■will frequently be found useful. Cut a small 
 oblong piece of tolerably stiff paper from the angles to-ward 
 the centre, fold the sides and fasten them together -with 
 sealing-"wax, so that a small box open above is obtained. 
 Pour the melting imbedding mixture into this ^ of an 
 inch in depth and allo-w it to cool. The tissue to be 
 imbedded can then be placed on this and the mixture 
 poured over it. 
 
 The imbedding substance should be heated as little as possible 
 above its melting point. To keep it at a, constant tem- 
 perature, a sand-bath heated by a small gas jet may -with 
 advantage be used; 
 
 When the tissue is moved about to remove air-bubbles, etc. 
 in the still liquid imbedding substance, by means of a 
 heated needle, bring down the temperature of the needle 
 to that of the substance by moving the needle aboiit in 
 it before touching the tissue. 
 
 Before cutting sections, cut away as much of the imbedding 
 substance around the tissue as possible ■without causing the 
 tissue to become loose. It is easier to cut thin sections 
 ■when the surface to be cut is small than ■when it is large. 
 
22'J APPENDIX. 
 
 The substance in wiiich. different tissues stould be imbedded 
 varies •with the consistency of the tissue. As a rule the 
 imbedding substance should be of about the same degree 
 of hardness as the tissue. Loose tissues with many cavi- 
 ties must generally, in order to obtain satisfactory sections, 
 be imbedded in a material which will penetrate the tissue 
 and fill up the cavities, e. g. spermaceti and castor oil : 
 in this case the sections are usually of little value except 
 for teasing out, unless the imbedding mixture be removed 
 by carbolic acid and turpentine. 
 
 In some cases thin sections may be obtained which may be 
 mounted in glycerine by carefully removing the excess of 
 fluid from the outside of the tissue, and then imbedding 
 it in a mixture which has but little penetrating power, 
 not moving it about to remove air-bubbles. 
 
 If the tissue has been stained before imbedding, and it is in- 
 tended to clear it in carbolic acid and turpentine, and mount 
 in Canada balsam, the section should be cut with a razor 
 wetted with olive oil ; in other cases the razor should be 
 wetted with alcohol. 
 
 In preparing the following mixtures, the constituents should 
 be placed in a capsule on a sand-bath and kept at a tem- 
 perature just above melting point for an hour or more, the 
 liquid being occasionally stirred. 
 
 Paraffin A. 
 
 Solid paraflSn 15 grms. 
 
 Liquid paraflSn 15 cc. 
 This is used to surround the cover-slip in observing the 
 amoeboid movements of white blood-corpuscles, on the warm 
 stage. It begins to melt at about 37° C, and thus serves 
 as an indication of the limit of temperature that can be 
 used in the observation without injury. 
 
 Paraffin B. 
 
 Solid paraffin 30 grm. 
 Cocoa butter 10. grm. 
 Hog's lard 30 grm. 
 
APPENDIX. 221 
 
 This is a soft imbedding mixture, melting at a low tempera- 
 ture, and not dissolved by carbolic acid and turpentine. It 
 does not easily penetrate tissues. 
 
 Paraffin C. 
 
 Solid paraffin 30 grms. 
 Cocoa butter 20 grms. 
 Spermaceti 10 grms. 
 
 This is a moderately hard imbedding mixture, soluble in 
 carbolic acid and turpentine. 
 
 Paraffin D. 
 
 Solid paraffin 20 grms. 
 Cocoa butter 10 grms. 
 Spermaceti 10 grms. 
 This is a harder mixture, also soluble in carbolic acid and 
 turpentine. 
 
 Spermaceti and Castor Oil. 
 
 Spermaceti 40 grm. 
 Castor oil 10 grm. 
 
 [An excellent mixture is the following : 
 Paraffin 2 parts, 
 Vaseline 1 part. 
 This is transparent enough to enable the position of the 
 imbedded tissue to be made out ; it penetrates tissues well, 
 is consistent, cuts easily, and is readily soluble in carbolic 
 acid and turpentine. 
 If a harder imbeddiag material is required a little more 
 paraffin may be added.] 
 
 Staining. 
 
 Hsematozylin. (Prepared according to Kleinenberg.) 
 1. Take crystallized calcium chloride and add it in excess to 
 70 per cent, alcohol; shake well and let it stand. Draw off 
 the saturated solution and add alum to excess, shake up 
 and let stand. Filter. 
 
222 APPENDIX. 
 
 2. Make a saturated solution of alum in 70 per cent. alcoLol 
 by tlie method above given for calcium chloride. Add this 
 to the filtrate in 1 in the proportion of 8 to 1. 
 
 3. To the mixture thus obtained, add drop by drop a saturated 
 solution of hsematoxylin in absolute alcohol, till it is a 
 moderately dark purple. In dissolving the hsEmatoxyliu 
 in absolute alcohol remember that it is very soluble, and 
 use as little as possible of the spirit. 
 
 The solution -vf^lX become considerably darker after some days. 
 
 It may be diluted to any extent required with the mixture of 
 (1) and (2), but as a rule a tolerably quick staining is 
 preferable. If a section is placed in hsematoxylin for some 
 time it must of course be covered up, or the spirit will 
 evaporate and the solution become concentrated. In many 
 cases it is well to stain a piece of tissue as a whole in 
 hEematoxylln before imbedding; a tolerably porous tissue 
 naturally serves best for this method. A small piece only 
 should be taken. 
 
 If a section which it is wished to preserve has been stained 
 too deeply, the colour may be extracted by placing the 
 section in dilute acetic acid. At the same time it must be 
 remembered that the acetic acid will exert its own proper 
 action on the tissue. 
 
 The hsematoxylin after it has been used should be put aside 
 in a separate bottle, since after filtration it may be used 
 again. 
 
 Cannine. (Frey's method.) 
 a. Carmine 0'3 grm. 
 
 Glycerine 30-0 „ 
 
 Alcohol 4-0 „ 
 
 Distilled water 30-0 „ 
 Ammonia q. s. 
 
 Add the distilled water to the carmine, and then add dilute 
 ammonia drop by drop until the carmine is dissolved. 
 
APPENDIX. 223 
 
 taking care tliat the least possible excess is added. If the 
 solution smells strongly of ammonia expose it in a flat 
 vessel to the sunlight for a day or two. Finally add the 
 glycerine and alcohol, and shake. It should be kept in a 
 stoppered bottle, since otherwise the ammonia evaporates 
 and the carmine is precipitated. 
 
 It may be diluted with water to any extent required. 
 For staining fresh tissue the. carmine may be prepared thus : 
 
 b. Mix in a mortar 1 grm. of carmine with a little water into 
 a thin paste ; add ammonia, drop by drop, till the whole is 
 lake-red, then add 100 cc. of water, and evaporate on a 
 water-bath till the excess of ammonia is evaporated off, and 
 the carmine begins to be precipitated : filter. The excess of 
 ammonia must be got rid of, otherwise the staining becomes 
 diffuse. 
 
 This solution will not keep long, and fungi readily grow in it. 
 
 As a rule tissues stain better with carmine when they are 
 left in a dUute solution for 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 The following method (Heidenhain) frequently gives good 
 results. 
 
 The sections to be stained are placed in a watch-glass under a 
 bell-jar, with very dilute carmine prepared as in (6). Tinder 
 the bell-jar there is also placed a dilute solution of am- 
 monium carbonate. The staining is complete in about 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 Picrocarminate of Ammonia or Picrocarmine. 
 
 Prepare a saturated solution of picric acid, and to it add 
 a saturated ammoniacal solution of carmine till a precipitate 
 occurs. Evaporate in a water-bath till the volume is 
 reduced by four-fifths. Filter, and evaporate the filtrate to 
 dryness. A crystalline mass of picrocarmine is thus ob- 
 
224 APPENDIX. 
 
 tained. It dissolves readily ia distilled -water; a 1 to 5 
 p. c. solution slioidd be made, and further diluted as occa- 
 sion requires. 
 A great deal of the yellow colour may be removed from 
 tissues stained ■with picrocarmine by careful -washing with 
 water. 
 
 Aniline blue-black. 
 
 Dissolve 5 grm. of aniline blue-black in 100 cc. of water. 
 
 This may be diluted with water to any strength required. 
 It may also be dissolved in 90 p. c. spirit, to stain tissues that 
 
 have been placed in spirit. 
 
 Gold Chloride. 
 
 The method of using this Ls for ordinary cases sufficiently 
 given in the text (Lesson v. B, § 4). 
 
 The foUo-wing rather complicated method is used by Gerlach 
 to trace fine nerve-fibres in the spinal cord. 
 
 The fresh spinal cord is placed from fifteen to twenty days 
 in a 1 to 2 per cent, solution of ammonium bichromate at 
 a low temperature. 
 
 Sections are cut and placed in a '01 per cent, solution of 
 the double chloride of potassium and gold wry faintly 
 acidulated -with hydrochloric acid for ten to twelve hours 
 in the dark. They should be then of a pale Hlao colour. 
 
 They are washed in hydrochloric acid -05 per cent., and 
 then left for ten minutes in a mixture of one part of 
 hydrochloric acid to one thousand of sixty per cent, alcohol, 
 and finally placed for a few minutes in absolute alcohol, 
 cleared and mounted in Canada balsam. The nerve-fibres 
 are most distinct in three or four days. 
 
 Silver Nitrate. 
 
 This is used mainly to trace out flat tesselated epithelium, 
 such as that of arteries, veins, or lymphatics. By exposure 
 to light, the silver is reduced in very fine granules ; in a 
 
APPBaiDix. 225 
 
 fresh, tissue that has been placed in nitrate of Silver the 
 reduction on exposure takes place more readUy in the 
 homogeneous substance between the cells or ' cement sub- 
 stance ' than in the cells. 
 
 As a consequence, where there is a single layer of cells with 
 a small amount of cement between them, the reduced 
 silver in this substance marts very distinctly the outline 
 of the cells. 
 
 The success of silver preparations largely depends upon not 
 dragging the tissue, and on washing it well before it is 
 exposed to the light. 
 
 The reduction of silver goes on slowly in the other parts of 
 the tissue, so that it becomes darker and darker, until it is 
 useless ; this is rendered less rapid by mounting. 
 
 Mounting. 
 
 Some fresh and nearly all hardened tissues are too opaque 
 even in thin, sections to enable a satisfactory microscopic 
 examination of them to be made. They are accordingly 
 placed in some fluid which will thoroughly penetrate them 
 and render them more transparent. 
 
 Glycerine. 
 
 This causes fresh tissues to shrink considerably, since by 
 exosmosis the water is drawn out of them; hence they 
 should never be mounted , in concentrated glycerine ; if, 
 however, they are not sufficiently transparent they may be 
 mounted in it when diluted with two parts of water. 
 Even with hardened tissues it is often better to use the 
 dilute fluid. It must be remembered that sections which 
 have been in alcohol should be placed in water a short 
 time before mounting in glycerine, otherwise, as alcohol 
 and glycerine do not readily mix, small bubbles of 
 alcohol wUl make their way to the surface and spoil the 
 specimen. 
 
 Glycerine, besides clearing the tissue, acts as a preservative 
 agent; specimens mounted in it may be kept for a con- 
 
 L. 15 
 
226 APPENDIX. 
 
 siderable length of time. When it is desired so to pre- 
 serve a specimen, care should be taken that the drop of 
 glycerine is of such a size that the simple pressure of the 
 cover-glass wiU cause it to spread out just to the edges of 
 the cover-slip ; the glass slide round the cover-slip and the 
 edges of the cover-slip should be overlaid with tolerably- 
 consistent Canada balsam. If too laj-ge a drop of glycerine 
 is taken, so that it spreads out past the edges of the cover- 
 slip, the Canada balsam -will not stick to the glass. In 
 this case it is generally less trouble to remount the section 
 than to wipe away the glycerine. 
 
 Clearing with Carbolic Acid and Turpentine. 
 
 Add 1 part of carbolic acid to 4 of turpentine, The carbolic 
 acid may be replaced by creosote ; in this case shake well and 
 set aside till the cloudiness, which forms on mixing the 
 liquids, disappears. This mixture is used for stained and 
 injected sections which it is desired to render very trans- 
 parent] they must be mounted in Canada balsam. The 
 carbolic acid (or creosote) is the cleai-ing agent, but this 
 alone cannot be used since it does not dissolve Canada 
 balsam, accordingly turpentine is added, which mixes with 
 the acid and also dissolves the balsam. Gently warming 
 in carbolic acid and turpentine hastens the clearing. 
 
 Befbre mounting sections all superfluous fluid should be re- 
 moved by means of a piece of blotting paper with the edge 
 not torn but cut clean. 
 
 Injected specimens should, as a rule, be cleared with carbolic 
 acid and tui-pentine; if soluble BerUa blue has been used as 
 the injection material, it is advisable to leave the sections in 
 a little turpentine in an uncovered watch-glass for a day to 
 restore the colour which probably has been weakened by 
 alcohol. 
 
 Canada Salsam. 
 
 Put some Canada balsam into a capsule and place it in the 
 warm chamber at about 65° C. for twenty-four hours to 
 drive off all water. Let it cool and dissolve it in a small 
 
APPENDIX. 227 
 
 quantity of benzole ; it should be kept in a bottle witli a 
 ground glass cap fitting over the neck of the bottle, instead 
 of a stopper, as the stopper is apt to become fixed in the 
 bottle ; the neck of the bottle should be rubbed round ■with 
 lard, to prevent the cap sticking. Dammar may be used 
 instead of Canada balsam. 
 
 Canada balsam renders tissues much more transparent than 
 glycerine. 
 
 Tissues stained in carmine or any watery solution should be 
 placed in absolute alcohol previously to being moiinted in 
 Canada balsam. It is however .most used for tissues which 
 have been cleared with carbolic acid and turpentine. 
 
 Acetate of Potash. 
 
 A satiirated solution of this is often used to mount osmic acid 
 specimens in. 
 
 General Directions. 
 
 Presh specimens should be teased out or examined in normal 
 
 solutions. 
 Osmic acid specimeiis should be teased out in the fluid itself 
 
 or in water. 
 Potassium bichromate and ammonium bichromate specimens 
 
 should be teased out in the fluid itself or in water ; dilute 
 
 glycerine may also be used, but is commonly not necessary. 
 Chromic acid specimens should be teased out in water or dilute 
 
 glycerine. 
 Sections hardened in potassium bichromate, .chromic ^.cid, &c. 
 
 when unstained should be mounted in glycerine. 
 When stained they should be mou^ited in glycerine o;: cleared 
 
 and mounted in Canada balsam. 
 Gold chloride specimens should be mounted in glycerine and 
 
 kept in the dark. 
 Silver nitrate specimens should be cleared and mounted in 
 
 Canada balsam. 
 
 15—2 
 
228 APPENDIX. 
 
 Never mount in glycerine sections cleared •with creosote and 
 turpentine. 
 
 CHEMiCAli E]^GENTS. 
 
 Millon's reagent. 
 
 Weigi out 50 grms. of purified mercury and an equal weight 
 of pUre strong nitric acid. Place the mercury in a flask in 
 the closed chamber, add the nitric acid to it, and leave the 
 mixture as long as any chemical action continues. If all 
 the mercury is not dissolved -warm it gently to complete 
 tOife siolution. 
 
 Add then to it twice its volume of water, and place aside for 
 some hours ; a white crystalline precipitate will fall ; the 
 supernatant fluid is Millon's reagent. 
 
 Pehling's fluid. 
 
 (a) Dissolve 34'65 grm. of pure crystallized cupric sulphate 
 
 in about 160 cc. of distilled water. 
 (6) Dissolve also 173 grm. of pure crystallised potassic-sodic 
 
 tartrate in 600 to 700 grm. of sodic hydrate sp. gr. 1"12. 
 
 Add (a) to (6) stirring well to cause a thorough mixture, and 
 dilute with distilled water to a litre. 
 
 Pehling's fluid should be fresh made whenever it is required, 
 since it decomposes on keeping; it wiU keep some little 
 time if kept in a cool place in the dark and in completely 
 fiUed well-closed bottles (Hoppe-Seyler). 
 
 The solution (6) may be prepared and kept for adding to {a) 
 freshly prepared when required. 
 
 Before using a kept solution to test for sugar, always boil 
 a little of it by itself to see if any reduction will take place. 
 
 From 1 cc. of this solution the copper is completely reduced 
 by "005 grm. of grape-sugar. 
 
APPKNDIX. 
 
 229 
 
 Stokes' fluid. 
 
 This should be made afresh, when required; it consists of 
 a solution of ferrous sulphate, to ■which ammonia has been 
 added after the previous addition of sufficient tartaric acid 
 to prevent precipitation. An excess of tartaric acid is 
 not of consequence ; roughly speaking, three parts by weight 
 may be added to two parts of ferrous sulphate. 
 
 Major Akterial Scheme. 
 
 This (see Fig.) is a modification of Weber's original scheme of 
 the circulation. It is not intended to imitate the details 
 of the circulation of the blood, but simply to illustrate 
 the points to which attention is called in Lesson xii. 
 It can without much diflB.culty be made by joining to- 
 gether india-rubber tubing by means of three-way glass 
 tubes. 
 
 Clamps are placed upon the straight tubes C, C, G", and 
 the dilated tubes along the same line are stuffed with 
 
230 APPENDIX. 
 
 sponge, until on closing the clamps and pumping steadily, 
 a mean pressure of two or three inches of mercury is 
 obtained in the artery tube. 
 
 The artery tube P is connected with an egg-shaped india- 
 rubber bag ; from the opposite end of which a tube passes 
 to a vessel full of water. The bag has two valves, one 
 at each end, opening in the same direction, so that when 
 it is compressed with the hand the water it contains is 
 driven onwards through the artery tube, and on its dilating 
 water is drawn up from the vessel. 
 
 Any other form of pump can be used. 
 
 At S, S, S, are placed vertically above one another either 
 the usual sphygmograph levers or light levers such as are 
 used to take tracings of the movements of the frog's heart 
 (Lesson XI. B-). The tubing, can be supported on pieces of 
 lead fastened to a stand, and bent to fit its course. Each 
 of the tubes A and V communicates with a mercurial 
 manometer (Hdb. p. 210). 
 
 The rest of the scheme requires no further explanation than 
 is given in the text. 
 
 Minor Abterial Scheme. 
 
 This consists of an india-rubber bag like that used in the 
 major arterial scheme. By means of a three-way. tube 
 the end of this towards which the valves open is connected 
 both with a piece of glass tubing about a yard and a half in 
 length, and with a piece of india-rubber tubing of similar 
 length and bore. 
 
 There are clamps upon the long indiar-rubber tube close to 
 its junction with the three-way tube and upon the small 
 piece of india-rubber which connects the three-way tube 
 with the glass tube, so that the flow of water may be 
 through either the glass or the india-rubber tube. 
 
 A small piece of india-rubber tubing is also placed on the 
 end of the glass tube, into which a tube finely drawn out 
 can be inserted. 
 
APPENDIX. 231 
 
 Pithing. 
 
 If it is desired to pith a frog, place it under a small bell- 
 jar ■with a sponge moistened with ether ; when the animal 
 is motionless and under the influence of the ahsesthetic, 
 take it up in a cloth, hold the hind legs between the 
 third and fourth fingers, and with the fore-finger press 
 down the head. Cut transversely through the skin a 
 little behind the skull with a pair of scissors, carrying 
 the incision only a short way on either side of the median 
 line ; make a slight incision also through the skin in the 
 median line. The end of the occipital bone can then be 
 easily made out ; it is j.ust above the level of the anterior 
 edges of the scapulae. "With a sharp scalpel cut through 
 the muscles just behind the occipital bone and as nearly 
 as possible in the median line, so as not to cut the 
 vertebral arteries ; the spinal cord wUl be exposed. Thrust 
 then a blunt stout needle into the brain and move it about 
 so that the brain is quite destroyed. 
 
 The following rough table may be useful to the student. 
 
 1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = If pints. 
 
 1 cubic inch = 16-39 millilitres or cubic centimetres. 
 
 1 cubic foot = 28-32 litres. 
 
 1 gallon = 4-54 litres, 
 
 1 gram =15*43 grains. 
 
 1 kilogram = 32-15 Troy oz. = 35-27 Avoird. oz. 
 
 1 grain* = 0-065 gram, 
 
 1 Troy ounce = 31 -1 gram. 
 
 1 pound (Avoird.) =0-45 kilogram. 
 
 1 centimetre =-|inch, 
 
 1 metre = 1 yard 3|^ inches. 
 
 1 inch = 2-54 centimetres. 
 
 1 foot = 3-05 decimetres. 
 
 1 yard =0-91 metre. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Accessory nerve, 9, 19 
 
 Accommodation, (vision), 167 
 
 Adam's apple, 199 
 
 Adenoid tissue, 103, 104, lofi II2> 
 114, 124 
 
 Agents, hardening, 215 
 
 Albumin, acid, 99 ; of egg, 99 ; milk, 
 102; saliva, 94; serum, 31, 99; 
 test for, in urine, 141 
 
 Albuminate, alkali, pancreatic juice, 
 no 
 
 Alcohol, 215, 216, 218 
 
 Alveoli, glands, oesophageal, 9 1 ; lymph- 
 atic, 113, 1 14; pulmonary, 126; 
 salivary, 92, 93; splenic, 115; 
 tracheal, 124 
 
 Ammonis, cornu, 192 
 
 Ammonium bichrom. sol., 7,16, ii'j 
 
 Aqueduct of Sylvius, 196 
 
 Arantii, corpus, 78 
 
 Arbor vitse, 196 
 
 Arterial scheme, major, 83, 229 ; 
 minor, 82, 230 
 
 Arteries, aorta, arch, 13, 75, 76, 78 ; 
 bulb, 79, 80 ; dorsal, 3, 10 ; basilar, 
 9, 185, 190; carotid, common, 12, 
 13, 14 ; internal, 185, 190 ; cerebral, 
 anterior, 191 ; middle, 191 ; poste- 
 rior, 190; transverse communicating, 
 191 ; circle of Willis, 9, 191 ; coeliac, 
 3 ; coronary, 78 ; innominate, 13 ; 
 mesenteric, superior, 3 ; pulmonary, 
 14. 75. 76. 77i 78 ; alveolar, 126 ; 
 renal, 137; subclavian, 13; ver- 
 tebral, 190; structure of, 6g, 71, 
 213; epithelium of, 224 ; pulsation 
 in, 73 ; blood-flow from, 84, 87 ; 
 in normal, 73 ; abnormal, 74 
 
 Arytenoid, cartilage, 21, 36, 198, 
 200 ; muscle, 200, 20 1 
 
 Astigmatism, 170 
 Auditory nerve, 9 
 Auricle, frog, 78, 79, Si; sheep, left, 
 
 78 ; right, 76 
 Auricular nerve, great, 1 7 ; posterior, 
 
 37 
 Automatic action, 66 
 Axis cylinder, 58, 62, 148, 150, 183, 
 
 184 
 
 B. 
 
 Baryta water, 215 
 
 Basement membrane, (esophagus, 91 ; 
 large intestine, 106 ; stomach, 89 ; 
 epidermis, 146 ; hair follicle, 147 ; 
 glands, Brunuer's, 106 ; gastric, 
 89, 90, 91 ; Lieberkiihn, 104 ; pul- 
 monic alveoli, 126; tubuli recti, 135, 
 
 136. 137 
 
 Bile, capillaries, 120; ducts, iig, 
 120; salts, 108 ;' constituents and 
 reaction, 107 ; properties of, 108 ; 
 test, Gmelin's, 107, 141, Petten- 
 kofer's, 108 ; for acids in urine, 141 
 
 Blind spot, 172 
 
 Blood, crystals, 131; pressure, 82; 
 coagulation of, 28; colour of, 128 ; 
 serum of, 30, 213 ; structure of 
 frog and newt, 22 ; human, 26 
 
 Blood-vessels, in, iris, 164 ; kidney, 
 134. '36; lung, 123, 125; optic 
 thalamus, 188 ; pia mater, 186 ; 
 retina, 161, 172, 173, 174; skin, 
 146 ; spinal cord, 180, 182 ; testis, 
 107 ; structure and properties of, 
 
 69.71 
 
 Bone, hyoid, 20, 199; turbmated, 20; 
 microscopic examination, 36 ; soft- 
 ening, 217 
 
 Brain of, ra.bbit, 7 ; dog, 7, 185 ; 
 sheep, 185 
 
 Brownian movement, 97 
 
234 INDEX. 
 
 Brunner'a glands, io6 
 Bulbus arteriosus, 79, 80 
 
 Calamus scriptorins, 1S6 
 
 Calf, spinal cord, 182 
 
 Canada balsam, 226, 227 
 
 Canallculi, 37, 39 
 
 Canaliculi, of Haversian System, 37, 
 
 39 
 
 Canal, of Schlemm, 162 ; central 
 (cord), 181, 182, 1S6 
 
 Capillaries, of, bone, 38 ; kidney, 137; 
 liver, 120 ; lung, 126 ; lymphatic 
 glands, 114; lymphatic vessels, 116 ; 
 Peyer's patches, 113; retina, 174; 
 villus, 104, 107; blood flow in, 
 normal, 73 ; abnormal, 74 ; epithe- 
 lium of, 117 ; resistance in, 85, 86; 
 structure of, 71 
 
 Capsule, lens, 160; Malpighian, 133, 
 '34> ^3^i Pacinian, 150; spleen, 
 114 
 
 Carbolic acid, 2J6 
 
 Carmine staining, 222 
 
 Cartilage, articular, 16 ; arytenoid, 4i, 
 36, 200, 201 ; costal, ir ; cricoid, 
 21, 199; epiglottis, 20, 36, 198; 
 interarticular, 16; thyroid, 21, 199; 
 microsc. exam, of, bronchial, 125; 
 costal, 35 ; elastic, 36, fibro-elastic, 
 44; hyaline, 33 ; intervertebral, 44 ; 
 parenchymatous, 36 ; tracheal, 124 
 
 Casein, 100, 102 
 
 Castor oil and spermaceti, 12 1 
 
 Gat's, gastric mucous membrane, 90 ; 
 ileum, 103 ; mesentery, 1 50 ; ovary, 
 205 ; stomach, 88 ; testis, 208 
 
 Cement, of teeth, 38, 39 
 
 Cerebellum, of rabbit, 8 ; of dog, 8, 
 i8s; sheep, 185, 186,187, 188, 196 
 
 Cerebrum, 185 ; crura of, 188 
 
 Cervical nerves, 3rd, 17, 2nd, 17 
 
 Chiasma, optio, 189, 191 
 
 Chorda tympani, 17, 18, 19 
 
 ChordsB tendinesB, 77 
 
 Choroid coat, ox or sheep, 1J9, 160, 
 i6r, 162, 164, 165 ; plexus (4th 
 vent.), 186; lateral ventricle, 192, 
 
 193. 194 
 Cilia, frog's structure, 4g ; automatic 
 
 action, 67 
 Ciliary muscle, 159, 162 ; processes, 
 
 159, 160, 161, 162 ; portion of 
 retina, 160 
 
 Circulation, of frog, 73 
 
 Cisterna magna lymphatica (frog), i i 6 
 
 Clearing (of sections), 226 
 
 Coagulation, of blood, 28 
 
 Colloid body (of Pacinian), 150 
 
 Column, anterior, i8r, 183; lateral, 
 181, 183; and posterior (spinal 
 cord), 181; Clarke's, or posterior 
 vesicular, 182 
 
 ColumuEB carnese, 77 
 
 Commissure, grey cord, rSr ; white, 
 181, 183; optic, 189, 190, 191; 
 cerebral, anterior, 195, 197 ; middlu 
 (3rd vent.), 195, 197 ; posterior ce- 
 rebral, 195, 196, IQ7 
 
 Cones, retina, 165, 166 
 
 Conjunctiva (ox or sheep), 158; cor- 
 nea, 162 
 
 Connecting tubules, 135, 136 
 
 Connective-tissue, 88, 89, 92, 146; 
 fibres (elastic), 40, 6g, 71 ; (fibrillae 
 proper), 40, 44; perineurium, 57, 
 61, 62, 150; of sheath of ganglionic 
 corpuscles, 60, 61, 62; of lymphatic 
 glands, 113, 114; of splenic pulp, 
 115; corpuscles (fixed), 41, 44, 104, 
 146; of capillaries, 71; of lung, 
 123; of trachea, 124; of kidney, 
 156; of cornea, 162; subcutaneous 
 con, tiss., 146; con. tiss. of papilla 
 (hair-follicle), 147 ; of olfactory mu- 
 cous, 1S4; of choroid, 161; of cornea, 
 42, 162, 163; of iris, 164; of re- 
 tina, 166; of piit mater, 180; of 
 spinal cord, 181, 182; connective 
 tissue, corpus luteum, 205 ; of testis, 
 206 ; fine fibrous connective tissue, 
 testis, 207, 208 
 
 Contractile tissues, 45 
 
 Contraction, single, in muscle, 50, 53 ; 
 in heart, 78 
 
 Contrast, simultaneous, 177 
 
 Convolution of brain, 189, 190 
 
 Cord, vocal, 20, 21, 198, 2or ; spinal, 
 180, 185, 186; micros, exam, of, 62 ; 
 medullary (lymph, alveolus), 1 14 
 
 Cornea, ox or sheep, 158, 161, 162 ; 
 connectiVe-tissuecorpuscles of (frog), 
 42 ; nerve plexus of frog, 148 ; 
 conjunctiva of, 158; microsc. exam., 
 162 
 
 Cornua, anterior, tSr, 182, 183, 184; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 235 
 
 and posterior (cord), i8i, 182, 183, 
 184; of lateral ventricle, 192, 193; 
 cornu Ammonis, 192 
 
 Corpora quadrigemina, 187, 194; geni- 
 culata, 195 
 
 Corpus, Arantii, 78; calloautn, 187, 
 192, 194, 196 ; albicans, or mam- 
 millare, 188, 194, 196; striatum, 
 192, 195; fimbriatum, 193; den- 
 tatum, 196 ; luteum, 203, 205 ; 
 Highmori, 206, 208 
 
 Corpuscles, blood-, 71; of frog or 
 newt, red, 22, 73, 74; colourless, 
 'Si 73) 74; of man, red, 26; mam- 
 malian, red, us, 129; colourless, 
 27; of cartilage, 33, 44; ganglionic, 
 60, 61; saHvary, 97; touch, 149; 
 of connective tissue (fixed), 41, 44, 
 104, 146; (of capillaries), 71; of 
 cornea, 42, 162, 163; white cor- 
 puscles (corpus luteum), 205 
 
 Cortex (lymph, gl.), 113; kidney, 133, 
 '34. i36;.ovaJ7, 202, 203 
 
 Creosote, 226, 228 
 
 Crico-thyroid, 199 ; -arytenoid, poste- 
 rior, 200; lateral, 200 
 
 Crucial sulcus, 189 
 
 Crura cerebri, 188 
 
 Crusta petrosa, 38, 39 
 
 Cumulus proligerua, 204^ 206 
 
 Current, constant, 49, 156; inter- 
 rupted, 51, 53 
 
 Cylinder, axis, of nerve-fibre, 38, 62, 
 148, 150, 183, 184 
 
 Dammar, gum, 22Y 
 
 Demours, membrane of, 163 
 
 Dentary nerve; inf. (dog and rabbit), Tg 
 
 Dentine, 38 
 
 Dermis, 146, of tongue, 155 
 
 Descemet, membrane of, 161, 163 
 
 Descendens noni, of dog and rabbit, 
 12 
 
 Dialyser, 96 
 
 Diapedesis, throngh veins, 74 
 
 Diaphragm, of dog and rabbit, 4, g ; 
 structure in rabbit and guinea-pig, 
 pleural and peritoneal, 117 
 
 Diastole, 79 
 
 Dicrotic wave, 85 
 
 Diffusion, (vision), 168 
 
 Digestion, of fibrin, 98, 99 
 
 Directions, use of microscope, 7M ; 
 
 observations of fresh tissues, 212; 
 general, 227 
 
 Disc, optic, 1 71 
 
 Dissection, of dog and rabbit, ab- 
 domen, I, 9 ; cranium, 7, 16 ; 
 thorax, 10 ,' neck, i r, 16 ; knee- 
 joint, 15 ; of a muscle, 15, 16 ; of 
 sub-maxillary region, 18 ; of nasal 
 cavity, 20 ; of larynx, 20, 198 ; 
 of eye, 21; of brain, 184 
 
 Dog, dissection of, i ; differences from 
 rabbit, 15 ; stomach, 88 ; gastric 
 mucous membrane, 90 ; ileum, 103 ; 
 bladder, 137 ; \ireter, 138 ; lens of, 
 163 ; spinal cord (microso. exam.), 
 180, 181 ; dissection of brain of, 
 18s ; of larynx of, 198 ; ovary, 205 ; 
 testis of, 207 
 
 Double image, 168 
 
 Duct, hepatic and cystic, of dog and 
 rabbit, 4, 119, 120; Stenon's, 16 ; 
 sub-maxillary, 18 ; sublingual, 18 ; 
 of salivary lobules, 92 ; of gland." 
 of Brunner, 106 ; of mucous glands 
 (trachea), 124 
 
 Duodenum, of dog and rabbit, 2, 5 ; 
 structure of, 106 
 
 Dura mater, of dog and rabbit, 8 
 
 E. 
 
 Ear, cartilage of, 36 
 
 Eighthcranialnerve, of dog and rabbit, 
 9, 192 
 
 Elastic fibrous tissue, 40, 6g, 71; 
 laminae, 70 
 
 Elasticity of muscle, 53 
 
 Eleventh cranial nerve, of dog and 
 rabbit, g, 192 
 
 Enamel, 38, 39 
 
 Epidermis (human scalp), 145, 146, 
 147, 148; homy (tongue), 155 
 
 Epididymis, of dog and rabbit, 6 ; 
 prep, for micros, exam., 7 ; 206, 207, 
 208 
 
 Epiglottis, 20, 36, 198 
 
 Epithelium, ciliated (frog), 45, 67 ; 
 sinuous of capillaries, 117; of arte- 
 ries, 70; of veins, 71 ; ovoid or pej)- 
 tic (gastric gland), 89, 90, 91 ; cen- 
 tral cells, or polyhedral or cubical, 
 89, 90, 91 ; spheroidal, 91, 92; coni- 
 cal cells, ileum and jejunum, 103, 
 105 ; goblet cells, ileum, 103 ; olfac- 
 tory region (newt), 154; peritoneal 
 
236 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 (frog), ii6; rabbit arid guinoa- 
 pig, iij; endothelial (frog), Ii6; 
 of lymphatic capillaries, 117; of 
 lymphatic vessels, 117; pleural of 
 lung (newt) flat, 123 ; columnar cili- 
 ated, trachea, 125 ; infundibulum 
 (lung), 126; epithelial cells (isolating), 
 215 ; flat or tesselated, 224; cubical 
 of tobuli recti, 135; ofMalpighian 
 capsules, 134; of^omerulus, 134; 
 imbricate of looped tubes of Eenle, 
 135 ; of the various kidney tubules, 
 136; ciliated columnar (vas de- 
 ferens), 209; epithelium of bladder 
 (mucous eoat), 137, 138; epithe- 
 lium (superficial or germinal) (cortex 
 of ovary), 203; ciliated cylindrical 
 (vasa efierentia epididymis), 208; 
 cubical or flat (parovarium), 205 ; 
 tesselated epith. (tunica vaginalis), 
 207 ; tabular or cubical epith. (tubuli 
 seminrfeiri) corpus Higbmori, 208; 
 columnar (gastric glands), 89, 90 ; 
 (oesoph.), gi, 92; (salivary ducts), 
 93; (glands of Lieberkiihn), 104; 
 ducts of glands of Brunner, 106 ; 
 large intestine, 106; bile ducts, 119, 
 120; of tubuli recti, 135; gland-tube 
 (sweat), 148; of cornea, 149; cylin- 
 drical (newt's mucous membrane of 
 nose), 153 ; non-olfaotoiy portion 
 cylindrical and ciliated, 154; olfac- 
 tory, outer layer, inner layer, 154 ; 
 anterior of cornea, 162 ; posterior 
 of cornea, 163; fibrous (lens), 163; 
 central canal (cord), 181 ; epithelial 
 layer (Internal and third ventricles), 
 194 ; columnar epithelium (cortex 
 ovary), 203; ovum, 204 
 Estimation, quantitative, urea, I42 ; 
 
 sugar, 143; weight, 151 
 Eustachian tube, 20; valve, 77 
 Exhaustion of muscle, 54 
 Eye, of dog and rabbit, prep, of, 9 ; 
 of frog (cornea), 42 ; dissection of 
 (ox or sheep), 158; aqueous humour 
 of, 213 
 
 F. 
 
 Facial nerve, of dog and rabbit, 9, 
 
 16 
 Falx cerebri, of dog and rabbit, 8 
 Fascia lata, of dog and rabbit, 15 
 Fasciculus, slender, (cord), 181, 184 
 
 Fat-cells, 43 
 Fehling's fluid, 228 
 Fenestrated membrane, 165 
 Ferment, in saliva, 96; in milk, loi ; 
 
 amylolytic, 109; proteolytic, 109, 
 
 no; in urine, 139 
 Ferrein, pyramids of, 133, 134, 135, 
 
 Fibrin of blood, 28 ; digestion of, 
 (gastric juice), 98, 99, 109 ; pan- 
 creatic, no 
 
 Fibrinogen, 31 
 
 Fibrinoplastin, 31 
 
 Fifth cranial nerve of dog and rabbit, 
 9, 191 ; ^statory, 18 ; ventricle, 
 
 193 
 Fimbriatum, corpus, 193 
 Fissure, Glaserian, 19 ; anterior (spi- 
 nal cord), 180, 191 ; posterior spi- 
 nal cord, 180; transverse (cerebrum), 
 187, 194, 196; Sylvian, 189 
 Fluid, serous, 30; of hydrocele, 30, 
 31; pericardial, 31; normal, for 
 microsc. observ., 213 ; dissociating, 
 214; Miiller's, 215, 217; Fehling's, 
 228 ; Stokes', 229 
 Foetus, lung, structure of, 125 
 Follicles, closed, ileum, 105; duode- 
 num, 106; of lymphatic gland 
 (closed), 112; hair-, 146; Graaf- 
 fian, 202, 2[03, 204, 205 
 Foramen, jugular, 19 ; condyloid, 20 ; 
 
 of Monro, 193 
 Fornix, 193, 194, 196, 197 
 Fossa oviilis, sheep, 76 
 Fourth cranial nerve, 9, 187, 191 ; 
 
 ventricle, 1.86, 187 
 Frey's carmine, 222 
 Frog, micros, exam, of, (blood), 22; 
 tendon, 40; connective-tissue, 40, 
 42 ; pigment-cells, 43 ; ciliated cells, 
 45 ; goblet cells, 45 ; muscular fibre, 
 (striated), 46; constant current in 
 muscle, 49 ; single induction shocks 
 on muscle, (single contraction in 
 spasm), 50 ; 'tetanus of muscle, 51, 
 53 ; muscle, stimulation of, (chemir 
 cal), 52 ; (mechanical), 52 ; muscle 
 curve, 52 ; re-action, 54 ; micros, 
 exam, of nerve-fibre (spinal), 57; 
 Gasserian ganglion, 60 ; (of pos- 
 terior root), 60 ; reflex action in, 63 ; 
 automatic action in, 66 ; circulation 
 in, 73 ; heart of, 66, 78 ; lymph- 
 
■ INDEX. 
 
 237 
 
 hearts of, 66 ; cigterna magna lym- 
 phatioa, 117; lung, structure of, 
 123; cornea (nerve plexus), 148; 
 cornea of (m'icrosc. exam.), 162 ; 
 retina of, 166 ; spermatozoa of, 
 209; to pith, 231 
 Fusca, lumiiia, (choroid), 159 
 
 G. 
 
 Ganglia, Gasaerian, of frog, 60; of 
 posterior root, 60; of sympathetic, 
 01 J cardiac (frog), 81 
 
 Ganglionic layer (retina), 165; cells 
 of, 166 
 
 Gastric juice, artificial, prep. 97; ac- 
 tion of, on fibrin, 98 ; on milk, too 
 
 Gasserian ganglion, of dog or rabbit, 
 2 1 ; of frog, 60 
 
 Geniculata, corpora, 195 
 
 Gerlach's method (fine nerve-fibres), 
 224 
 
 Germinal epithelium, 203 
 
 Germinal vesicle, 204, 206; spot, 206 
 
 Glands, ductless, supra-renal body of 
 dog and ratbit, 3, 6; submaxillary, 
 14, 18; thymus, 12; parotid, 16; 
 sublingual, 18 ; gastric, 89 ; mu- 
 cous, 91 ; aalivary structure of, 92 ; 
 of Lieberkiihn, ileum and jeju- 
 num, 104, 105 ; duodenum, 106 ; 
 large intestine, i6. ; of Brunner, ib. ; 
 sweat-gland, 106, 148; lymphatic, 
 112; mucous (trachea), 124; seba- 
 ceous, 147; mucous (olfaotoiy re- 
 gion), 154; pineal, 194, 195, 196 
 
 Glandular substance (lymph alveo- 
 lus), 114; (spleen), 115 
 
 Glaserian fissure, 20 
 
 Glomeruli, 133, 134, 137 
 
 Glossopharyngeal, of dog and rabbit, 
 9, 19, 20 
 
 Glottis, 20; rima of, 198 
 
 Glucose, 122 
 
 Glycerine, 225, 227, 228 
 
 Glycerine, extract of, gastric juice, 
 97; pancreatic, 109 
 
 Glycogen, 121, 122 
 
 Gmelin's test for bile-pigment, 107, 
 141 
 
 Gold chloride sol., 216, 224, 227 
 
 Graafian follicles, 202, 203, 204, 205 
 
 Granules, movements, Brownian, 97 
 
 Guinea-pig, diaphragm, and perito- 
 neum (microsc), 117; diaphragm 
 
 and pleura, ii.; blood colour, 128, 
 
 129; testis of, 206 
 Gustatory nerve (dog and rabbit), 18, 
 
 19 ; organs, structure of, 155 
 Gyrus, sigmoid, 190 
 
 H. 
 
 HEematoidin, 205 
 
 Hsematoxylin, 221 
 
 Hsemoglobin, 128; reduced, 130; car- 
 bonic oxide, 131, 132 
 
 Hair-follicles, 146 
 
 Hardening, 215 
 
 Haversian, system, 365 canals, 3G, 
 39; spaces, 37 
 
 Heart (rabbit and dog), anat., 12, 13, 
 14; lymph (frog), automatic action, 
 60, movements, 78 ; of sheep, struc- 
 ture of, 75 
 
 Heidenhain's carmine staining, 223 
 
 Helmholtz's phakoscope, 170 
 
 Henle, looped tubes of, 135, 136 
 
 Hilus, lymph, gl., 113; ovary, 202 
 
 Hippocampal convolution, 190 
 
 Hippocampus major, 192 
 
 Humour, aqueous, 159; vitreous, 159, 
 160 
 
 Hyaline border of cells, 45 
 
 Hydrocele fluid, 30 
 
 Hyoid bone, 20, 199 
 
 Hypoglossal, of dog and rabbit, 9, 1 7, 
 18, 19, 20 
 
 Ileum, structure of, 103 
 
 Imbedding, 218 
 
 Imbedding substance, 123 
 
 Infundibulum, in lung, 125; cerebral, 
 188, 19s 
 
 Inhibition (pneumogastrie), 80 
 
 Interglobular spaces of teeth, 39 
 
 Inter-lobular, liver vein, 119, 120; 
 arteries, kidney, 137 
 
 Intra-lobular vein, 119, 120 
 
 Intervertebral cartilage, 44 
 
 Intestine, large, of dog and rabbit, 2 ; 
 prep, for microsc. exam., 6 ; struc- 
 ture of ileum and jejunum, 103, 105; 
 duodenum, 106 ; large intestine, 106 
 
 Intima, tunica, 72 
 
 Iris (ox or sheep), 159, 160, 161, 162; 
 ligamentum pectinatum of, 161 ; 
 microsc. exam., 163 
 
238 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Irradiation, 171 
 Isolation of cells, 215 
 
 J. 
 
 Jejunum, of dog and rabbit, «, 6; 
 prep, of formicroso. exam., 6 ; struc- 
 ture of, 105 
 
 K. 
 
 Kidney, of dog and rabbit, 6; prep, 
 for microBO. exam., 7, «IS ; structure 
 of. 133, 213 
 
 Lacteal radicle, villus, 1104 
 
 Lacunae, of Haversian system, 36, 39 
 
 Lamellae, of Haversian system, 36 
 
 Lamina, elastic (arteries), 70; fusca 
 (choroid), 159; fibrous, cornea, 
 163 
 
 Lateral ventricles, 192, 196 
 
 Larynx, 20, 198 
 
 Leucocytes, stomacb, 89 ; ileum, 
 104, 105; lymphatic glands, 112, 
 114; spleen, 115 
 
 Lens (ox or sbeep), 159; -capsule, 
 160 ; microsc. exam., 163 ; accom- 
 modation, 170 
 
 Lieberkiibn, glands of, 104, 105, 
 106 
 
 Liebig's quantitative estimate of urea, 
 142 
 
 Ligament, capsular of knee, of dog 
 and rabbit, 15, lateral of knee, of 
 dog and rabbit, 15 ; crucial of same, 
 16; of neck, 40; suspensory (eye), 
 160; pectinating of iris, 161 
 
 Limit, near (vision), i6g_, 171; far, 
 169, 171; outer and inner upper 
 and lower of blind spot, 172 
 
 Linea alba, of dog and rabbit, i 
 
 Lingual nerve, (dog and rabbit), 18, 
 
 19 
 Liver, of dog and rabbit, prep, of, for 
 microsc. exam. 4; structure of, 
 119 
 Localisation, power of (touch), 150 
 Lumen, central (gastric glands), 90, 
 91; salivary, ducts, 92; alveoli, 
 93 ; glands of Lieberkiibn, 104 ; 
 glands of Brunner's ducts, 106; 
 tubuli contorti, 134; tubuli recti, 
 135; tubuli seminiferi, 207; epi- 
 didymis and vasa efferentia, 209 
 
 Lung, of dog and rabbit, 10; struc- 
 ture of, 123 
 
 Laryngeal nerve, superior, of dog 
 and rabbit, 12, 17; recurrent, 13 
 
 Lymphatic, epith. of, 112; glands, 
 112; vessels, 114, 116, 117; epi- 
 thelium, 117; capillaries, origin of, 
 118 
 
 Lymph-hearts — frog, automatic ac- 
 tion, 66; dorsal lymph-sao (frog), 
 65; -gland from mesentery, 113; 
 -sinus (lymphatic gland), 112, 113; 
 -corpuscles (Graaffian vesicles), 203 
 
 Lyra, 194 
 
 M. 
 
 MalpigUan 'bodies, or capsules, spleen, 
 115; kidney, 133, 137; pyramids, 
 133, 137; layer (epidermis), skin, 
 145, 146, 147, 148, 149; tongue, 
 
 155 
 
 Manometer, mercurial, 83 
 
 Marginal zone (kidney), 134 
 
 Matrix, of cartilage (hyaline), 33, (elas- 
 tic), 36; touch- corpuscles, 149 
 
 Maxillaiy, nerve, inferior, 19, 21; 
 superior, 21 
 
 Maxwell's method (yellow spot), 174 
 
 Measures and weights, 231 
 
 Mediastinum, 11 
 
 Medulla, oblong, of rabbit, 7, 8 ; dog, 
 8, 185, 186, 187 ; sheep, 185, 186, 
 187; of lymph gland, 113; of 
 kidney, 133, 136; of nerve, 57, 58, 
 59, 148, 150, 183; of ovary, 202 
 
 Medullary cord (lymph, alveolus), 114 
 
 Membrana, propria (see "basement 
 membrane") limitans interna retinae, 
 160 ; thyro-hyoideanmembrane, 199; 
 crico-thyroid m., 199 ; granulosa, 
 204 
 
 Mesentery, of dog and rabbit, 2 
 
 Microscope, use of, 211 
 
 Meatus, auditorius ext., 20 
 
 Milk, cligestion of, 100 ; exam, of, 
 loi ; fermentation of, loi ; -sugar, 
 loi ; alkaline phosphates, 102 
 
 Milieu's reagent, 228 
 
 Molecular layer, retina, 165 
 
 Monro, foramen of, 193, 194 
 
 Motor oculi, of dog and rabbit, 8 
 
 Mounting, 225 
 
 Mounting, osmic acid preparations, 
 J 50 
 
INDEX. 
 
 239 
 
 Mouse, cartilage of ear of, 36 
 
 Mucilage, starch, 94 
 
 Mucin, 94, 107 
 
 Mucus (urine), 139 
 
 Mucous coat or membrane (stomaob), 
 
 89, 91 ; large intestine, 106 ; of 
 
 bladder, 137; (cesophagus), 91; 
 
 trachea, 124; intestine, ileum, 103; 
 
 mucous membrane (olfactory region) , 
 
 ,,153. 154, 215 
 
 Miiller's circular muscle, 162 ; fibres, 
 165, 166; fluid, 215, 217 
 
 Multipolar gaugliouic cells, 62 
 
 Murexide test, 141 
 
 Muscle, of dog and rabbit, ext. 
 obliq. abd., i ; rect. abd., i ; int. 
 obUq. abd., i ; transversalia, i ; 
 diaphragm, 9 ; pectoralis major, 
 10; serratus xnagnus, 10; ext. in- 
 tercom., 10; int. intercost., 10; 
 serratus anticus, 10; levatores eosta- 
 rum, 1 1 ; platysma, 1 1 ; stemo-mas- 
 toid, 11,14; sterno-thyroid, 14, 199^ 
 sterno-hyoid, 14; thyro-hyoid, 14, 
 199 ; motor, 15 ; digastric, 18 ; mylo- 
 hyoid, 18; recti and obliqui oculi, 
 21 ; micros, exam, frog's striated, 
 46 ; mammalian, 47, 91 ; plain or 
 non-striated, 47, 69, 71, 88, 90, 91; 
 cardiac, 48, 81 ; of villus, 104, 106 ; 
 lymph gland, 114;' spleen, 115; 
 trachea, 124; bronchia, 125; plain 
 muscular fibre in infundibulum 
 (lung), 126; internal sheath Of 
 hair-follicle, 147 ; of ciliary mus- 
 cle, 162, 164; properties of muscle 
 as shewn by constant current, 49 ; 
 single induction, shocks, 50 ; in- 
 terrupted current, 51 ; stimulation 
 (chemical), s 2 ; (mechanical), 52 ; 
 muscle curve, 52 ; tetanus, 53 ; 
 elasticity, 53; exhaustion, 54; re- 
 action of muscle, 54 ; muscular 
 coat, stomach, 88 j oesoph. 91 ; in- 
 testine, 103 ; muscularis mucosae, 88, 
 91 ; muscular sense, 151 ; ciliary 
 muscle, 159, 162 ; circular muscle of 
 Miiller, 162 ; sphincter pupillse, 164; 
 dilator iridis, 164 ; crico-thyroid, 
 199 ; crico-aryteuoid post., lateral, 
 200; arytenoid, 200; thyro-ary- 
 tenoid, 200, 201 
 
 Muscular coat (stomach), 88, 90 ; 
 bladder, 137; of ureter, 138; cir- 
 
 cular (tubes of testis), 208; of vas 
 
 deferens, 209 
 Muscularis mucosae, 88, 91, 104 
 Myosin, 55 
 
 N. 
 
 ^ares, anterior and posterior, 20 
 
 Nates, 187, 195 
 
 Negative after-image, 176 
 
 Nervous system. Cerebro-spinal, of 
 dog and rabbit, pneumogastric, 3, 
 12 ; nerves of base of brain, 8 ; 
 cervical nerve (4th, 5th, 6th, and 
 7th), 13 ; microscopic examination 
 of spinal nerves, 57 ; sympathetic, 
 59 ; spinal ganglia, 60 ; sympa- 
 thetic ganglia, 61 ; spinal cord, 62 
 properties of nervous tissue, 63 
 automatic action of, 63 ; nerves, 
 skin, 146 ; cornea, frog, 148 ; rabbit 
 149 ; medullated nerve of touch 
 corpuscles, 149 ,- medullated nerve 
 fibre of Pacinian body, 1 50 ; nerves 
 of olfactory mucous, 154 ; of taste 
 papSlse, 156 ; optic nerve, 158, i6r, 
 165, 166; spinal cord, 180; spinal 
 anterior roots, 181 ; posterior roots, 
 iSi ; nerve-fibres (cord), 183, 184 ; 
 nerve-cells, (anterior cornu), 183 ; 
 fourth cranial nerve, 187 ; nerves, 
 olfactory, 191 ; optic ohiasma and 
 tracts, 191 ; third nerve, 191 ; 
 fourth, 191 ; fifth, 191 ; sixth, 191 ; 
 seventh, 191 ; eighth, 192 ; ninth, 
 tenth, eleveuth, 192 ; twelfth, 192 ; 
 nerve-cells, 215; nerve-fibres, 218; 
 fine nerve-fibres, (spinal cord), 224 
 
 Nervous system, sympathetic, of dog 
 and rabbit, 3, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18; 
 cceliac ganglion, left splanchnic 
 Kerve, 3 ; inferior cervical gan- 
 glion, 13, 15; first thoracic gan- 
 glion, 13, 15 ; rami communicantes, 
 14; splanchnic, 14; superior cer- 
 vical ganglion, 1 7 ; sub-raaxillary 
 ganglion, 18 
 
 Neuroglia, 182 
 
 Newt, structure of blood of, 22 ; of 
 cartUage of, 33 ; of lung, 123 ; of 
 olfactory region, 153, 154 
 
 Ninth cervical nerve of rabbit and 
 dog, 2, 17, 18, 19, 192 
 
 Nucleolus, of ganglionic corpuscles. 
 
240 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 60, 61, 62; nuclear layer, retina, 
 165; ne,rTe-cells, 183; of cells of 
 tilbuli seminiferi, 207 
 Nucleus of cells, (hyaline cartilage), 
 32 ; lacunae of bone, 38 ; of con- 
 nectiTe-tissue corpuscles, (tadpole), 
 41 ; (newborn mammal), 42 ; of 
 fat-cells, 44 ; of ciliated cells, (frog), 
 45 ; of sarcolemma, 47 ; of fibre- 
 cells, 47, 69 ; of cardiac muscle, 
 48 ; of n^rve-sheaths, 58, 59 ; of 
 ' ganglionic corpuscles, 60, 6i ; of 
 ganglionic corpuscle sheath, 60, 6r, 
 62 ; of capillaries, 71, 72 ; 104, 
 1 26 ; of cells of epithelium (gastric 
 glands), 90; of alveolar cells, (sa- 
 liyaiy gland), 93 ; nucleus with 
 thickening of adenoid tissue, 103 ; 
 nodal, adenoid, lymph glands, 114; 
 plain muscular fibre, 115; hepatic 
 cells, (spheroidal), 120 ; columnar 
 epithelium of bile duct, 120; of 
 epithelium (Malpighian capsules), 
 134 ; (of glomeruli epithelium), 
 134 ; of blood-vessels of glomeruli, 
 1 34 ; lining cells of tubuli contorti, 
 134 ; of columnar epithelium of 
 tubuli recti, 135 ; of basement 
 membrane, (tubules of kidney), 
 136; of dermic muscular fibres, 147; 
 primitive sheath, nerves of cornea, 
 148; of matrix of touch corpuscles, 
 mucous membrane nose, newt, 153 ; 
 cylindrical epithelium cell, (oval), 
 153 ; rod cell (spherical), 143, 154, 
 156; of nuclear layer, 153, 154; of 
 cylindrical cell, 154 ; of flat cells 
 (horny epidermis), tongue, 155 ; fu- 
 siform cells (taste-bulb), ovaJ, 156; 
 nucleus larger retina, spherical or 
 oval, 165, 166; of nerve-cells, 183; 
 nucleus of ovum cell, ^04 ; of cells 
 of tubuli seminiferi, 207 ; of cells 
 in intermediate tissue of ditto, 208 
 
 O. 
 
 (Esophagus, of dog and rabbit, 4, 10, 
 13, 198; structure of, 91 
 
 Oil, castor, and spermaceti, 221 
 
 Olfactory, lobes, of dog and rabbit, 
 8, 191 ; organs (newt), structure 
 of, 153 ; mucous membrane, 215 
 
 Olivary body, 188 
 
 Omentum, great, of dog and rabbit, 2 
 
 Ophthalmic nerve, 21 
 
 Optic nerves, of dog and rabbit, 8 ; 
 fibres, retina, 165 ; tracts, 188, 191, 
 195, 197; chiasma, 189, 191; tha- 
 lamus, 193, 195 
 
 Ora serrata, 159, 160, 161 
 
 Osmic acid, 215, 218, 227 
 
 Ovary, of dog and rabbit, micros, 
 exam., 7, 202 
 
 Ovum, 203, 204, 200 
 
 Ox, eye of, 158 ; lens of, 163 ; vision, 
 167 ; spinal cord, 182 ; larynx, 198 
 
 Oxyhsemoglobin, 128, 129, spectrum 
 of, 129, 130, 131 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacinian bodies, 150 
 
 Palate, sensation (taste) in, 157 
 
 Pancreas, of dog and rabbit, 2 ; pre- 
 paration of for micros, exam., 5; 
 structure of, 93; juice of, 109; 
 properties of, no 
 
 Papillae, cesoph. 91; (skin), 146, 149; 
 tongue, 155; nerves of, 156; cir- 
 cumvallati, 157 
 
 Paraffin (imbedding), 220 
 
 Parapeptone, 99, 100, lor, 109 
 
 "Parenchymatous" cartilage, 36 
 
 Parovarium, 205 
 
 Pars ciliaris retina, i5o 
 
 Peduncles, inferior (cerebellum), 186; 
 superior, 187 ; middle, 188; of cere- 
 brum, i88j of pineal gland, 195, 196 
 
 Pepsin, 97, 98, 109 
 
 Peptic or ovoid cells, 8g, 90, gi 
 
 Peptones, 97, 100, loi, no 
 
 Pericardium, dog and rabbit, 11; 
 sheep, 75; frog's, 78, 79 
 
 Perineurium, 57, 148 
 
 Peritoneum, 88, 137 
 
 Pettenkofer's test for bile-salta, 108 
 
 Peyer's patches, of dog and rabbit, 5 ; 
 preparation of, for micros, exam., 
 6; structure of, 105, 112 
 
 Fhakoscope, Eelmholtz's, 170 
 
 Pharyngeal nerve, 17 
 
 Pharynx, 20 
 
 Phosphates, alkaline, in milk, 102 
 
 Phrenic nerve, of dog and rabbit, 11, 
 13 
 
 Pia mater, of rabbit, 8, 72 ; dog, 8. 
 72, 186; and sheep, J6.; spinal cord, 
 180, 188 
 
 Picric acid, 517 
 
INDEX. 
 
 24; 
 
 Picrocarmine or pioro-oarminate of 
 ammonia, 223 
 
 Pig. gastric mucoug membrane (gas- 
 tric juice), 97 ; testes, 208 
 
 Pigment-cells, 43 ; bUe-, Gmelin's test 
 for, 107; -layer (choroid), 160, 161, 
 162, 164, 165; branched (iria), 164; 
 pigment layer of retina, i6i, 166 
 
 Pillars, posterior (fornix), 193, 194; 
 anterior, 194, 196, 197 
 
 Pineal gland, 194, 195, 196 
 
 Pithing, 231 
 
 Pituitary body, 188 
 
 Plasma, of horse's blood, 29 
 
 Plasmine, 30 
 
 Pleural cavity, of dog and rabbit, 10, 
 II 
 
 Plexus nerve (cornea), primary, 148, 
 149; sub-epithelial, 148, 149; epi- 
 thelial, 149; choroid (4th v.), 186; 
 lateral vent., 192, 193, 194 
 
 Pneumogastric, of dog and rabbit, 3, 
 9, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19; of frog, 
 80, 8i; gangUon of the trunk, 17; 
 cardiac branches (frog), 79 
 
 Pons Varolii, 188, igo, 197 
 
 Positive after-image, 175 
 
 Potash acetate, 227 
 
 Potassium, bichromate, 217, 227 
 
 Pressure, blood-, 82 
 
 Processes, ciliary, 159, 160, 161, 162; 
 protoplasmic (nerve-cells), 184 ; pro- 
 cessus vocalis, 201 ; muscularis (ary- 
 tenoid cart.), 201 
 
 Prostate, of dog and rabbit, 7 
 
 Proteids, tests for, 32 ; in saliva, 94 ; 
 in liver, 121 
 
 Proteolytic ferment, 109, no 
 
 Protoplasm, of cells (cartilage), 33 ; 
 bone lacunae, 38 ; of connective-tis- 
 sue corpuscles (tadpole), 41 ; of fat- 
 cells, 44; of ciliated cells (frog), 
 45 ; of fibre cells, 44 ; of ganglionic 
 corpuscles, 60, 61, 62; of epithelial 
 cells (conical) ileum, 103 ; (goblet) 
 ileum and jejunum, 105 ; (hepatic 
 cells), 120; of lining cells of tubuli 
 contort., 134; reticulate (olfactory 
 mucous), 153; protoplasmic nerve 
 processes, 184; of ovum, 203; of 
 spermatozoa (frog), 209 
 
 Fseudo-stomata (guinea-pig and rab- 
 bit), 117 
 
 Ptyalin, ^6 
 
 Pulp; cavity of teeth, 38 
 
 Pulp (spleen), 1 15 
 
 Pulsation, ventricular, tracing of, nor- 
 mal, 79 ; abnormal, 80 
 
 Pulse, 85 jprogression of pulse-wave, 85 
 
 Purkinje'a figures, 173 
 
 Pyramids, of Malpighi, 133, 137; of 
 Ferrein, 133, 134,' 135, T36, 137; 
 medulla oblongata, posterior, i8)5, 
 anterior, 187 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quadrigemina corpora, 187, 194 
 Quantitative estimatiou (urea), 142; 
 sugar, 143 
 
 E. 
 
 Eabbit, dissection of, i ; differences 
 from dog, 15; transition of con- 
 nective, tissue corpuscles to fat- 
 cells, 44; oesophagus, 91 ; Peyer's 
 patch, 112; diaphragm and peri- 
 toneum (micros.), 117; diaphragm 
 and pleura, ib, ; liver for glyco- 
 gen, 12 r; bladder, 137; ureter, 
 138; cornea, nerves, 148; tongue 
 (papillae), 155; eye of, 161; cornea 
 (micros, exam.), 162; spinal cord 
 (micros, exam.), 180, 181 
 
 Radicle, lacteal, villus, 104 
 
 Ranvier's node, 58 
 
 Rat, connective-tissue corpuscles, 4 1 ; 
 blood-colour, 128, 129; eye of, 167J 
 . testis of, 200, 208, 209 
 
 Reagents, chemical, 228 
 
 Reflex action, 63 
 
 Remak, fibres of, 60 
 
 Respiration, 128 
 
 Rete testis, 206 
 
 Reticulimi, (lymphatic alveoli), 114; 
 (splenic pulp), 115; (retina), 166 
 
 Retina, ox or sheep, 159, 160, i6i ; 
 micros, exam., 164 
 
 Rima glottidis, 198 
 
 Rods (retina), 165, 166 
 
 Roots, spinal nerves, anterior and 
 posterior, 181, 183, 184 
 
 Sac, dorsal lymphatic (frog), 65 
 Saliva, exam, of, 94 
 Salivary gland, 92 
 Sarcolemma, 47, 48 
 Soheiner'a experiment, 169, 171 
 
 Itt 
 
242 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Scheme, arterial, minor, 82, 430; 
 major, 83, 229 
 
 Schlemm, canal of, 162 
 
 Sclmeiderian membrane, 20 
 
 Schwann, ^hito substance of, 57 
 
 Sclerotic, (ox or sheep), 158, 161, 162 
 
 Semilunar valves, 76, 77, 7,8 
 
 Sensation, of temperature, 151 ; of 
 taste and smell, 156; of light, 17.6 
 
 Septula testis, 266, 207 
 
 Septum, heart, sheep, 76, 77 ; frog, 8i ; 
 lung of frog, 123 ; lucidum, 193, 196 
 
 Serum, of blood, 30, 213 ; iodised, 214 
 
 Seventh cranial nerve, of dog and 
 rabbit, 9, 16, 191 
 
 Sheaths, (of nerve), medullary, 57, 58, 
 59, 148, 150; primitive, 57, 58, 59, 
 148; of ganglionic corpuscle, 60, 
 61 ; of salivary gland, 92 ; of spleen, 
 1 14; of hair-follicle, 146, 147 
 
 Sheep, heart of, 75 ; eye of, 158, 166, 
 167; brain, 185; larynx, 198; dif- 
 ferences froin man, 201 ; ovary of. 
 
 Shocks, single indubtioU, 50, 53 
 
 Sigmoid gyrus, 190 
 
 Silver.nitrate, 2^245 227- 
 
 Simultaneous contrast,- 177 
 
 Sinus, Valsalva^ 78; venosu^ 79, 81; 
 lymph-, (Jymph. gland), 112, 113, 
 114; (spleen), 115; venous (eye), 
 162 
 
 Sixth cranial nerve, of dog and rabbit, 
 9, 191 
 
 Skin, structure of, (human scalp), 145; 
 palm or forehead, 148; nerve end- 
 ings in, 149 
 
 SmeQ, sense of, 156 
 
 Solutions, normal saline, 214; prepa- 
 ration of, 216 
 
 Space, posterior perforated, 188; re- 
 spiratory, 201 
 
 Spasm, single, 50, 53 
 
 Spermaceti and castor oil, 22 1 
 
 Spermatozoa, 207, 209 
 
 Sphygmograph, 85 
 
 Spot, blind, 172; yellow, 173, 174; 
 gerininal, 200 
 
 Spinal accessory, of dog and rabbit, 
 9, 19; cord, 180 
 
 Spleen, of dog and rabbit, 2; struc- 
 ture of, 114 
 
 Staining, 221 
 
 Starch mucilage, 94 
 
 Stasis, 74 
 
 Stokes' fluid, 2^9 
 
 Stoma, (frog), 116, 117; rabbit and 
 
 guinea-pig, 117; pseudo- (rabbit and 
 
 guinea-pig), 117 
 Stomach, of dog and rabbit prep, of, 
 
 for micro, exam. , 5, 215 
 Stomach, structure of (oat, dog), 88 
 Stroma, kidney, 136; ovaiy, 202, 203, 
 
 204 
 Subcutaneous tissue, 146, 148, 150 
 Sublobular vein, 120 
 Submaxillary gland, 14 
 Submucous coat, stomach, 88; oesoph. 
 
 91; ileum, 105; duodenum, 106; 
 
 trachea, 124; bronchia, 125 
 Submucous coat, (stomach), 88 ; blad- 
 der, 137 
 Substance^ glandular (lymph, alveolus), 
 
 114; (spleen), 115; cortical (kiri- 
 
 "^y); I3^> '37; white (spinal cord), 
 
 181, 182 
 Substantia gelatinosa, 181, 183, 184 
 Sugar, in glycogen, 121; test for 
 
 (urine), 141 ; quant, estimation, 
 
 „ 143 
 
 Sulcus (ceretrum),' 185, i86; crucial, 
 189 
 
 Supplement^y band, 188 
 
 Sweat-gland, 106, 148 
 
 Sylvius, fissure of, 189; supra, con- 
 volution of, ib.; aqueduct of, 196 
 
 Synovia, 15 
 
 Synovial sac, 16 
 
 Syntonin; 56, 99 
 
 Systole, 79 
 
 T. 
 
 Tactile delusions, 152 
 
 Tadpole, connective-tissue corpuscles 
 
 of. 41 
 Taste, bulbs, 155, 156; sense of, 156 
 Teasing, 214 
 Teeth, microsc. exam, of, 38 ; softening 
 
 of, 217 
 Temperature, sensation of, 151 
 Tendon, 15, 16; microsc. exam, of (frog), 
 
 40; rat, 41; rabbit and guinea-{ug 
 
 (diaphragm), 117 
 Tenth cranial nerve of dog and rabbit, 
 
 9, 192 
 Tentorium of dog and rabbit, 8 
 Testes, of dog and rabbit, 6 ; prep, oi 
 
INDEX. 
 
 243 
 
 for microsc. exam., 7 ; e-iam. of, loC ; 
 (cerebrum), 186, 187 
 
 Tetanus (muscle), 51, S3 
 
 Thalamus opticus, 193, 195 
 
 Theca follicularis, 204 
 
 Third cranial nerve, of dog andrabbit, 
 8, igo, 191; ventricle, 188, 194, 
 19s, 196 
 
 Thymus of dog and rabbit, 12 
 
 Thyro-hyoid, 199 ; arytenoid, 200, 
 201 
 
 Thyroid cartilage, 11, 199 
 
 Tongue, (papillse), 155 ; taste in, 157 
 
 Touch, 150 
 
 Touch-corpuscles (figures), 149 
 
 Trabeoulae (lymphatic gland), 113, 
 114; (spleen), 115 
 
 Trachea, of dog and rabbit, 1 1 ; struc- 
 ture of, 123 
 
 Tractus intermedio-lateralis, 182 
 
 Tricuspid valves, sheep, 77 
 
 Trochlear nerve of dog and rabbit, 9 
 
 Tuber cinereum, i88 
 
 Tubes, Eustachian, 2<y, looped, of Henle, 
 kidney, 13s 
 
 Tubules, 137 ; straight, collecting or 
 discharging (recti), 133, 136; se- 
 creting (oontorti), 133, 134, 136; 
 connecting, 135,136 ; of parovarium, 
 205 ; tubuli seminiferi, 206, 207, 
 208 
 
 Tunica adventiUa (blood-vessels), 69,; 
 71, 72; Malpighian bodies, 115; 
 tunica adventitia (tubuli uriniferi), 
 207 ; intima, 72 ; albuginea (ovary), 
 202, 203 ; (testis), 200, 207 ; follU 
 cularis, 204 ; vaginalis propria, 20^, 
 207 ; adnata, 206 
 
 Turpentine, 226, 228 
 
 Twelfth cranial nerve of dog and rab- 
 bit, 9, 192 
 
 Tympanic, bulla, 19, 20; cavity, 20; 
 membrane, 20 
 
 17. 
 
 Urea, 140 ; quantitative estimate (Lie- 
 big's), 142 
 Ureter of dog and rabbit, 6 
 Urethra of dog and rabbit, 6 
 Uric acid, 140; murexide test, 141 
 Uterus of dog and rabbit, 6 
 Uvea (iris), 162, 164 
 
 V. 
 
 Valsalva, sinuses of, 78 
 
 Valve, of veins, 71; semi-lunar, 76, 
 77, 78; Eustachian, 77; auriculo- 
 ventricular (tricuspid), 77; initial or 
 bicuspid, 78; of lymphatic vessels, 
 ti7; of Vieussens, 187, 196 
 
 Varicosities of nerve-fibres, 59, 148 
 
 Varolii, pons, 188, 190, 197 
 
 Vasa, recta (testis), 206 ; efferentia, 
 206, 208 ; deferentia, 209 
 
 Vas deferens of dog and rabbit, 6 
 
 Veins, structure of, 7i, 72, 116; valves 
 of, 71; blood-flow /(normal) in, 73; 
 in (abnormal), 74 ; from, 84 ; inter- 
 lobular, 119; intra-lobular, 119; 
 sub-lobular, 120; epith. of, 224 
 
 Velum interpositum, 187, 194, 196 
 
 Venous system, of dog and rabbit, v. 
 portse, 4, 1 ^9 ; v. cava inf., 4, 10, 1 1 ; 
 sheep's, 75, 76; frog's, 79, 80; he- 
 patic v., 4, 119; external jugular, 
 1 1 ; internal jugular, 12 ; subclavian, 
 12; vena cava sup., 12, 15; sheep, 
 75) 76) frog's, 79; pulmonary veins, 
 14 ; sheep, 76 ; innominate veins, 15 ; 
 V. azygos, sheep, 76, 77 ; coronary 
 vein, 77 ; valves of, 71 ; venous 
 sinus (eye), 162 
 
 Ventricle, (sheep's) heart, right, 77; 
 left, 78 ; frog's, 78, 79 ; cerebral, 4th, 
 186, 187; 3rd, 188, 194, 195; late- 
 ral, 192, 196; Sth, 193; of larynx, 
 201 
 
 Vesicle, germinal, 204 
 
 Vieussens, valve of, 187, 196 
 
 Villi (ileum and jejlinum), 103, loj, 
 213 ; duodenum, 106 
 
 Vision, 167; region of distinct, 172; 
 of normal colour-, 175 
 
 Vitellus, 204, 205 
 
 Vocal cords, 20, 2i, 198, 201 
 
 W. 
 
 Wave, dicrotic, 85; pulse-, progres- 
 sion of, 85 
 Weber's scheme of circulation, 229 
 Weight, estimation of, 151 
 Weights and measures, 231 
 Willis, circle of, in dog, 9, 191 
 
244 INDEX. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xainthoproteic reactions, 33, 100 Zinn, zone of, 160 
 
 Zone, marginal (kidney), 1 34 ; of Zinn, 
 Y. 160; zona pelluoida, 204, 205 
 
 Yellow spot, 173, 174 Zymogen, no 
 
 cambeidgb: pbinibd by c. j. clay, iii.a. at the university ebess. 
 
February, 1876. 
 
 A 'Catalogue of Educational Books, 
 Published by Macmillan and Co., 
 Bedford Street^ Strand^ London. 
 
 CLASSICAL. 
 
 ^SChyluS.— THE EUMENIDES. The Greek Text, with Intro- 
 duction, English Notes, and Verse Translation. Sy Bernakd 
 Drake, M.A.,' late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 8vo. 
 3J. td. 
 
 Aristotle. — AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLE'S 
 RHETORIC. With Analysis, Notes, and Appendices. By E. 
 M.' Cope, Fellow and Tutor of Trinity Coll. Cambridge. 8vo. 14J. 
 
 ARISTOTLE ON FALLACIES ; OR, THE SOPHISTICI 
 ELENCHI. With Translation and Notes by E. PosTE,. M.-A., 
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SCIENCE. IS 
 
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SeiENCM. 17 
 
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SCIE NCE. 19 
 
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HISTOR Y. 25 
 
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HISTORY. z1 
 
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 FRANCE. By Charlotte M. YoNGE. 
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DIVINITY. 29 
 
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