(fimmll ^nivmii^ pihrarg THE GIFT OF SJjtioO. ^..<4^0S.'2:r. ^.f..U(tf.aC^ i^ Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924020666800 THE NEW BRAZIL ITS RESOURCES AND ATTRACTIONS Dr. manoel ferraz de campos-salles PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT THE NEW BRAZIL ITS RESOURCES AND ATTRACTIONS HISTORICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND INDUSTRIAL PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY GEORGE BARRIE & SON LONDON: C. D, CAZENOVE & SON, 26 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W. C. PARIS: 19 RUE SCRIBE D COPYRIGHT, igoi, BY GEORGE BARRIE & SON TO HIS EXCELLENCY Hr. IHanoel JFerrai tre €ampos'g)anes PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL A LEADER AMONG THE GREAT MEN WHO ARE SHAPING THE DESTINY OF THE WESTERN WORLD AND HONORED AS ONE OF THE FOREMOST STATESMEN IN THE CREATION OF THE NEW REPUBLIC Is JietiiratPti THIS WORK IN DESCRIPTION OF THE LIFE AND PROGRESS OF A NATION WHOSE FIRM ADHERENCE TO THE PRINCIPLES OF INDEPENDENCE HAS FOUND REWARD IN THE GREAT PROSPERITY OF THE NEW BRAZIL CONTENTS DEDICATION LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION CHAPTER II NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE CHAPTER III PAGE 5 9 13 17 35 FALL OF THE EMPIRE, AND GENESIS OF THE RE- PUBLIC . . -53 CHAPTER IV THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC . ... 71 CHAPTER V THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS 87 CHAPTER VI THE FEDERAL CAPITAL AND SUBURBS . 103 CHAPTER VII THE BOTANICAL GARDEN 123 CHAPTER VIII PICTURESQUE SCENES 133 CHAPTER I.\ SCHOOLS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS . . . 149 CHAPTER X MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE CHAPTER XI ORATORY AND THE PRESS PAGE 163 177 CHAPTER XII NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE AND MANUFAC- TURES . . iS CHAPTER XIII COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION . . CHAPTER XIV THE STATE OF RIO COFFEE SAO PAULO CHAPTER XV CHAPTER XVI BAHIA . . CHAPTER XX 199 213 225 237 CHAPTER XVII iWlNERAL WEALTH AND VEGETATION 251 CHAPTER XVIIl ■MINAS GERAES • . .... 265 CHAPTER XIX 275 ESPIRITO SANTO, SERGIPE, AND ALAGOAS . 287 7 8 CHAPTER XXI RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES CONTENTS CHAPTER XXII PERNAMBUCO 293 305 CHAPTER XXIII PARAHYBA, RIO GRANDE DO NORTE, AND PIAUHY 317 CHAPTER XXIV AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION CEARA MARANHAO PARA. CHAPTER XXV CHAPTER XXVI CHAPTER XXVII CHAPTER XXVIII THE RUBBER INDUSTRY CHAPTER XXIX AMAZONAS CHAPTER XXX MATTO GROSSO AND GOYAZ YERBA MATE 323 PARANA CHAPTER XXXI CHAPTER XXXII CHAPTER XXXIII 333 SANTA CATHARINA . CHAPTER XXXIV 339 ' RIO GRANDE DO SUL CHAPTER XXXV 347 PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS AND FOLK-LORE CHAPTER XXXVI 361 I NATIONAL CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS 367 385 391 399 407 413 421 439 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE DR. MANOEL FERRAZ DE CAMPOS-SALLES, PRESI- DENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL Fronts. MONUMENT TO CABRAL, RIO DE JANEIRO . 17 RUSTIC BRIDGE IN THE GARDEN OF THE PRESI- DENT'S PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO 19 SALON IN THE PRESIDENT'S PALACE, RIO DE JA- NEIRO 21 CATTETE PALACE, RESIDENCE OF THE PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL, RIO DE JANEIRO • 23 SCENE IN THE GARDENS OF CATTETE PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO • 25 NATIONAL MUSEUM, SAO CHRISTOVAO, RIO DE JA- NEIRO . • -27 ENTRANCE TO THE HARBOR OF RIO 29 FORT OF SANTA CRUZ, ENTRANCE TO THE HARBOR OF RIO . ■ . • 32 YPIRANGA, MONUMENT ON THE SITE OF THE PROC- LAMATION OF BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE, SAO PAULO 33 INTERIOR OF YPIRANGA ■ 38 CORRIDOR IN YPIRANGA • ... 40 RUA DO OUVIDOR, RIO DE JANEIRO 41 RIO DOCKS BY MOONLIGHT 43 OLD CARIOCA AQUEDUCT, RIO DE JANEIRO 46 PUBLIC GARDEN IN RIO DE JANEIRO 49 BOTAFOGO, RIO DE JANEIRO $2 STATUE OF EMPEROR DOM PEDRO I., RIO DE JA- NEIRO 53 PRACA DA REPUBLICA, RIO DE JANEIRO 56 CASA DA MOEDA [MINT], RIO DE JANEIRO 59 OFFICIAL RECEPTION ON THE ARRIVAL OF A FOR- EIGN DIPLOMAT, RIO DE JANEIRO 61 MARSHAL DEODORO DA FONSECA, FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL . 62 MARSHAL FLORIANO PEIXOTO MILITARY SCHOOL, RIO DE JANEIRO PALACE OF AGRICULTURE, RIO DE JANEIRO NATIONAL PRINTING-OFFICE, RIO DE JANEIRO FIESTA IN THE CITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO PAGE 63 66 70 73 75 BOLSA, RUA PRIMEIRO DE MARCO, RIO DE JANEIRO 77 QUAY OF LA GLORIA . 80 PATHWAY IN TIJUCA . 82 COPACOBANA, RIO DE JANEIRO 84 RIO DE JANEIRO 86 DR. PRUDENTE JOSE DE MORAES BARROS, FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT 88 DR. OLYNTHO DE MAGALHAES, MINISTER OF FOR- EIGN AFFAIRS 89 DR. JOAQUIM DUARTE MURTINHO, MINISTER OF FINANCE 90 DR. SEVERINO VIEIRA, MINISTER OF PUBLIC WORKS 91 GENERAL MALLET, MINISTER OF WAR 92 ADMIRAL BALTHAZAR SILVEIRA, MINISTER OF MARINE 93 DR. EPITACIO DA SILVA PESSOA, MINISTER OF JUS- TICE AND OF THE INTERIOR . 94 DR. THOMAZ WALLACE DA GAMA COCHRANE, SEC- RETARY OF THE PRESIDENCY 95 AQUEDUCT ROAD TO CORCOVADO • 98 PALACETE ITAMARATY 100 CORCOVADO, FROM SYLVESTRE 102 VISTA OF RIO DE JANEIRO I03 THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER, RIO DE JANEIRO 105 PAQUETA . 107 SUMMIT OF CORCOVADO, RIO DE JANEIRO 109 VISTA AT SYLVESTRE, SUBURB OF RIO • HI CHURCH OF THE CANDELARIA, RIO DE JANEIRO 113 TIJUCA FOREST 115 MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, RIO DE JANEIRO . 117 9 lO LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE GRAND CASCADE, TIJUCA 119 STATUE OF GENERAL OSORIO, RIO DE JANEIRO 120 THE BAMBOOS, BOTANICAL GARDEN, RIO DE JANEIRO 122 LILY-POND IN BOTANICAL GARDEN AVENUE OF PALMS, BOTANICAL GARDEN . BOTANICAL GARDEN, RIO DE JANEIRO IN THE BOTANICAL GARDEN GLIMPSE OF CORCOVADO FROM BOTANICAL GARDEN 127 RUA LEADING TO THE BOTANICAL GARDEN, RIO DE JANEIRO THE BAMBOOS, BOTANICAL GARDEN GREAT FALLS IN MINAS GERAES MOUNTAIN SCENE IN MINAS GERAES YAPO RIVER, NEAR CASTRO, PARANA ROCKS AT VILLA VELHA, PONTA GROSSA, PARANA NATURAL MONOLITH AT VILLA VELHA, PARANA PINES OF PARANA CURIOUS NATURAL PILLARS, PONTA GROSSA, PA- RANA SCENE ON THE AMAZON RIVER SALTO GRANDE DO RIO DOS PATOS, IN SOUTHERN BRAZIL FOREST BROOK IN SERGIPE INDIAN OF THE RIO BRANCO, AMAZONAS APPIACAZ INDIAN CHIEF, AMAZONAS • CHIEF OF THE JAUAPIRY INDIANS WOODLAND SCENE IN SANTA CATHARINA NORMAL SCHOOL, SAO PAULO ■ POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, SAO PAULO A BRAZILIAN CHAUTAUQUA AMERICAN COLLEGE, PETROPOLIS COLLEGE OF LAW, SAO PAULO • GYMNASIO, MANAOS DR. HORACE M. LANE, PRESIDENT OF MACKENZIE COLLEGE . HOSPITAL MISERICORDIA, BAHIA HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, RIO DE JANEIRO MACKENZIE COLLEGE, SAO PAULO ■ PEDRO AMERICO. HONOR AND COUNTRY PEDRO WEINGARTNER. COUNTRY BALL THE BERNARDELLl BROTHERS CARLOS GOMES MODESTO BROCOS. MANIOC PEDRO WEINGARTNER PEDRO AMERICO ■ STUDIO OF A BRAZILIAN ARTIST FERRAZ D'ALMEIDA. DURING THE REST PEDRO WEINGARTNER. BY OBLIQUE LINES HENRIQUE BERNARDELLl. MOTHER 123 124 125 126 129 130 132 133 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 148 150 151 152 153 154 156 157 159 160 162 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 RODOLPHO AMOEDO. THE DEPARTURE OF JACOB 174 OLD IMPERIAL PALACE, PETROPOLIS DR. BERNARDINO DE CAMPOS 176 178 PAGE DR. JOAQUIM FRANCISCO DE ASSIS BRASIL, MINISTER TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 179 DR. FERNANDO MENDES DE ALMEIDA, JR., EDITOR "JORNAL DO BRAZIL," RIO DE JANEIRO . 180 DR. JOSE CARLOS RODRIGUES, EDITOR "JORNAL DO COMMERCIO," RIO DE JANEIRO 181 DR. RUY BARBOSA 182 GROUP OF DISTINGUISHED EDITORS OF AMAZONAS 183 SENHOR ANTONIO FONTOURA XAVIER, CONSUL- GENERAL TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 184 DR. JOAQUIM NABUCO, MINISTER TO ENGLAND 185 IN THE HEART OF THE TROPICS ■ 188 BRAZILIAN WATER-CARRIER 189 NATIVE PALMS 190 A PEASANT GROUP . 191 COCOANUT PALM 192 NEGRO CARREGADOR 193 A CONTENTED SON OF THE FOREST 194 LAVANDEIRAS 196 PONTE BOA VISTA, ON THE CENTRAL RAILWAY 198 VIEW ON THE CENTRAL RAILWAY 201 RAILWAY BRIDGE AT CASTRO, STATE OF PARANA 202 PARANA RAILROAD BRIDGE OVER THE IGUASSU RIVER 203 VIADUCT ON THE PARANA RAILWAY 204 SCENE ALONG THE PARANA RAILROAD 205 THREE-RAIL TRACK ON LEOPOLDINA RAILROAD, STATE OF RIO • 206 VIADUCT ON THE SERRA BETWEEN SANTOS AND SAO PAULO 207 CABLE ROAD BETWEEN SANTOS AND SAO PAULO 208 A RIVER-BOAT WITH NATIVE INDIAN OARSMEN 209 VIEW OF HARBOR AT SANTOS • 210 PETROPOLIS 212 DR. QUINTINO BOCAYUVA, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE OF RIO. 213 RIVER SCENE IN PETROPOLIS 214 PRINCIPAL AVENUE OF PETROPOLIS, BATHED BY RIO PIABANHA 215 JAF'ANESE LEGATION, PETROPOLIS 2l6 OLD DILIGENCE ROUTE TO PETROPOLIS ■ 217 LIBRARY, PETROPOLIS 218 GERMAN LEGATION, PETROPOLIS . 219 MOUNTAIN DRIVE-WAY, PETROPOLIS . 220 PRESIDENT'S PALACE, PETROPOLIS . 221 AMERICAN LEGATION, PETROPOLIS ■ 222 FAZENDA OF BARAO GERALDO DE REZENDE . 224 BARAO GERALDO DE REZENDE 225 A COFFEE-TREE 227 DRYING COFFEE . .228 PICKING COFFEE . 229 SCENE ON A COFFEE FAZENDA ... 230 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 1 PAGE A GROUP OF COFFEE-PICKERS 231 SAO ANTONIO COFFEE FAZENDA, SAO PAULO 232 FAZENDA NOVA LONGA 233 COFFEE-GATHERER'S CABIN 234 THE PALACE AT SAO PAULO ■ 236 GARDEN SCENE, SAO PAULO ■ 237 DR. RODRIGUES ALVES, PRESIDENT OF SAO PAULO 238 VIEW OF SANTOS AND HARBOR 239 PALACETE OF CONSELHEIRO PRADO, SAO PAULO 23Q IMPOUNDING DAM, SAO PAULO WATER-Vv'ORKS 240 RUA FLORENCIO D'ABREU, SAO PAULO 240 PUBLIC SQUARE IN SAO PAULO ■ 241 STREET IN CAMPINAS, STATE OF SAO PAULO 242 COL. PRESTES, EX-PRESIDENT OF SAO PAULO 243 HOSPITAL DE ISOLAMENTO, SAO PAULO . 243 RESERVOIR DA LIBERDADE, SAO PAULO ■ 244 BEACH AT GUARUJA, STATE OF SAO PAULO . 245 HOTEL AND CASINO AT GUARUJA . 246 LARGO DO PALACIO, SAO PAULO 247 FOUNTAIN LIBERDADE, SAO PAULO 248 QUARRY AT MORRO VELHO, MINAS GERAES ■ 250 THE COQUILLA-NUT PALM 251 DIAMOND MINER'S HUT 252 BANANA-TREES IN A PRIVATE GARDEN . 253 MANGO-TREE 255 PAPAW-TREE 256 TYPES OF HALF-BREED INDIAN V^'OMEN . 257 THE BAMBOO PALM 259 WASHING DIAMONDS . 261 BANANA-TREES • 262 CASCADE NEAR MORRO VELHO, MINAS GERAES 264 CASCADE NEAR BELLA HORIZONTE, MINAS GERAES 266 THE MOUNTAIN CITY OF OURO PRETO, MINAS GERAES 267 JUIZ DE FORA, STATE OF MINAS GERAES 269 MORRO VELHO, MINAS GERAES 271 A SYLVAN SCENE, MINAS GERAES 272 BAHIA. VIEW FROM THE UPPER CITY 274 MONUMENT SEGUNDO DE JULHO 275 PRACA IN LOWER CITY, BAHIA . 276 DR. LUIZ VIANNA, EX-GOVERNOR OF BAHIA . 277 SENHOR S. S, SCHINDLER, BAHIA • 278 PANORAMA OF BAHIA FROM THE BAY OF ALL SAINTS 279 CATHEDRAL, BAHIA. THEATRE, BAHIA RUA DO COMMERCIO, BAHIA MUNICIPAL PALACE, BAHIA . BRIDGE CROSSING RIO UNA, STATE OF BAHIA RESIDENCE OF SENHOR MONTEIRO, BAHIA HOUSE OF THE SENATE, BAHIA . STREET SCENE IN THE UPPER CITY, BAHIA . A LAKE SCENE NEAR VICTORIA TYPICAL COUNTRY CONVEYANCE • • • 279 280 281 281 282 283 284 286 287 288 PAGE A PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY 289 PRIMITIVE METHOD OF THRESHING BEANS ■ 290 INTERIOR OF THE FRANCISCAN CHURCH, BAHIA . 292 ARCHBISHOP ARCOVERDE, OF RIO DE JANEIRO ■ 293 CHURCH OF SANTA ANNA, PARA . 294 CATHEDRAL, MARANHAO 295 CHURCH DO CARMO, PERNAMBUCO • 296 SHRINE OF BOMFIM, BAHIA 297 RUINS OF CONVENT IN OLINDA, PERNAMBUCO 297 CHURCH OF SAO FRANCISCO, CAMPOS 298 SECTION OF DADO, FRANCISCAN MONASTERY, BAHIA 299 CHURCH OF NOSSA SENHORA DE NAZARETH, PARA 300 CHURCH OF MONTSERRAT, BAHIA 301 PATIO OF THE FRANCISCAN MONASTERY, BAHIA 302 CHURCH OF NOSSA SENHORA DO CARMO, PARA 303 CHAPEL OF NOSSA SENHORA DA GRACA, BAHIA . 304 OLINDA LIGHTHOUSE, PERNAMBUCO 305 GOVERNOR'S PALACE, PERNAMBUCO 306 DR. GONCALVES, GOVERNOR OF PERNAMBUCO • 307 PONTE DE BOA VISTA, PERNAMBUCO 307 DERBY MARKET, PERNAMBUCO 308 STREET SCENE IN PERNAMBUCO • 309 RESIDENCE AT DERBY, PERNAMBUCO 310 RECIFE LIGHTHOUSE, PERNAMBUCO 311 PRACA MANOEL PINHEIRO, PERNAMBUCO 311 BOA VISTA, CITY OF PERNAMBUCO 312 THEATRE, PERNAMBUCO 313 HOTEL DERBY, PERNAMBUCO 314 NATIVE FAMILY 316 SCENE IN PIAUHY 318 THE MONJOLO [PRIMITIVE GRIST-MILL] 318 OX-TEAM, PIAUHY 320 IMMIGRANTS AT HOSPEDARIA, STATE OF SAO PAULO 322 A CHEERFUL GROUP AT THE HOSPEDARIA 324 DISEMBARKING OF IMMIGRANTS, PARA 325 POLISH COLONIST'S HOUSE IN PARANA 326 TYPICAL BLUMENAU COTTAGE 327 AMAZON RIVER SCENE ■ 327 FIRST GLIMPSE OF THEIR ADOPTED LAND ■ 328 PUBLIC BUILDING IN BLUMENAU 329 THE LATEST ARRIVALS FROM OVER THE SEA 330 PANORAMA OF ALEMQUER, ON THE AMAZON RIVER 331 STEAMER LANDING IMMIGRANTS IN SANTOS HARBOR 332 VENDOR OF CEBOLLAS STREAMLET IN CEARA RAILROAD BRIDGE OF ACARAHU, CEARA RAILROAD BRIDGE OF CHORO, CEARA . RAILROAD DEPOT, CEARA DAM OF QUIXADA, CEARA MUNICIPAL PALACE, MARANHAO CASA DA PRACA, MARANHAO LARGO DO CARMO, MARANHAO . . 333 334 335 336 337 338 340 341 341 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS COTTON-MILLS, MARANHAO LARGO DOS REMEDIOS, MARANHAO GAZOMETRO, MARANHAO PIER AT MARANHAO PRACA VISCONDE DE RIO-BRANCO, PARA DR. AUGUSTO MONTENEGRO, GOVERNOR OF PARA ESTRADA DE NAZARETH, PARA . THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, PARA ESTRADA SAO JERONYMO, PARA ■ FOYER OF LA PAZ THEATRE, PARA BOSQUE A1UNICIPAL, PARA THEATRO DA PAZ, PARA PUBLIC GARDEN, PARA SENATOR JUSTO CHERMONT, PARA THE PALACE, PARA AVENIDA DA REPUBLICA, PARA. DOCKS, PARA TABATINGA, ON THE PERUVIAN FRONTIER . HUT OF A SERINGUEIRO RUBBER-TREE RUBBER-GATHERERS IN THE AMAZON COUNTRY COLONEL NERY, GOVERNOR OF AMAZONAS RUA DO INSTALLACAO, MANAOS ■ GOVERNOR'S PALACE, MANAOS OLD PALACE OF GOVERNOR, MANAOS THEATRO DO AMAZONAS, MANAOS POLICE STATION, MANAOS PUBLIC MARKET, MANAOS MONUMENT IN MANAOS RUA MUNICIPAL, MANAOS BENJAMIN CONSTANT INSTITUTE, MANAOS ■ WATER-WORKS AT CACHOEIRA GRANDE, MANAOS VIEW OF MANAOS AND THE RIO NEGRO JARDIM PUBLICO, MANAOS INTERIOR OF THEATRE, MANAOS ■ MONSIGNOR COUTINHO, VICE-GOV. OF AMAZONAS • PAGE 343 343 344 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 553 354 355 356 357 358 360 362 363 365 367 368 369 369 370 371 371 372 373 373 374 375 376 376 377 OFFICES AND CARS OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY, MANAOS 378 SUBURBAN VIEW, MANAOS 378 REV. YOSE LOURENCO, BISHOP OF AMAZONAS 379 MANAOS, STATE OF AMAZONAS 380 HARBOR OF MANAOS 381 BRIDGE AT CACHOEIRINHA, MANAOS 382 STEAMBOAT STATION ON THE LAKE OF FONTE BOA 384 CAYAPO INDIAN CHIEF 385 PICTURESQUE COUNTRY ROAD 386 BAIAO, ON THE RIO TOCANTINS . ... .387 ANCIENT INDIAN POTTERY . . 388 WEAVING BASKETS FOR CARRYING PRODUCE . 389 GARUPA, STATE OF PARA, ON AMAZON RIVER . 390 CUYAS AND BOMBILLAS . 391 TRANSPORTING YERBA MATE 392 MATE BLOSSOMS ■ 393 PAGE RIVER-BOAT LOADED WITH YERBA MATE 393 INDIANS CARRYING YERBA MATE TO THE MILL . 394 YERBA-MATE TREES 395 CUYAS 396 WATER-FALL NEAR CURYTIBA, PARANA 398 A PATHWAY IN PARANAGUA, PARANA 399 PUBLIC GARDEN, CURYTIBA 400 RUA 15 DE NOVEMBRO, CURYTIBA . 401 POST-OFFICE, CURYTIBA 401 HOUSE OF CONGRESS, CURYTIBA 402 A RUSTIC SCENE IN THE PUBLIC GARDEN, CURYTIBA 403 STREET IN CURYTIBA 403 PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR, CURYTIBA, PARANA 404 THE AMERICAN CHURCH, CURYTIBA . 405 PUBLIC WASH-HOUSE 406 SUBURBS OF FLORIANOPOLIS, SANTA CATHARINA 407 LAKE AT BLUMENAU, SANTA CATHARINA . . 408 CASCADE IN SANTA CATHARINA 409 STREET SCENE IN FLORIANOPOLIS 410 PRACA GENERAL DEODORO, PORTO ALEGRE 412 JARDIM PUBLICO, PELOTAS 413 BUSINESS STREET, PORTO ALEGRE ■ 414 LANDING, RIO GRANDE DO SUL . 414 RUA SETE DE SETEMBRO, PORTO ALEGRE . 415 ISLAND OF PEDRAS BRANCAS, NEAR PORTO ALEGRE 416 QUARTEL AND INTENDENCIA, RIO GRANDE DO SUL 416 CASCADE IN RIO GRANDE DO SUL . 417 MATRIZ, PORTO ALEGRE . 418 PORTUGUESE HOSPITAL, PORTO ALEGRE 419 LIGHTHOUSE OF ITAPOAN, NEAR PORTO ALEGRE . 420 INDIAN. BOLIVIAN, OF MANAOS . 421 HEAD OF A GOD . 422 INDIAN OF MATTO GROSSO 423 AMAZONIAN INDIAN BOY 424 A BOTOCUDO MOTHER . 425 INDIAN ORNAMENTS FROM THE BORDER OF PERU 426 AMANAS. CANNIBALS, WITH ARMS AND ORNAMENTS 427 AMAZONIAN INDIAN GIRL 428 CAIXANAS. SAVAGE INDIANS, MAN AND WOMAN . 429 CAIXANAS. WITH CROWN OF CREEPERS 431 IMPLEMENTS MADE BY THE INCAS . 433 RUINS OF THE PALACE OF THE INCAS . 435 POTTERY OF THE INDIANS 436 RIACHUELO MONUMENT IN BAHIA 438 GAUCHO OF SOUTHERN BRAZIL . . .... 439 BAHIAN NEGRESS 440 A LIBERIAN PLUTOCRAT OF BAHIA ... .... 442 A MOCO CARRYING WATER . ... 443 PICTURESQUE SCENE, NEAR PARA ... 445 INDIAN CUISINE . 447 COUNTRY SCENE . 449 DAUGHTERS OF THE NEW BRAZIL 450 INTRODUCTION j]Y the recent celebration of her four hundredth anniversary, Brazil not only signalized her wonderful growth and development from apparent insignificance to a position of great importance among the nations, but also marked the successful inauguration of new conditions with the influence of new forces at work to mould the high destiny of a people who will stand among the controlling powers of twentieth-century civilization. There is a constantly growing interest, among English-speaking people especially, regarding the present condition and probable future of this vast republic which promises to be such an important factor in the political and commercial development of the western continent. Scientific explorers have repeatedly drawn attention to her inexhaustible resources; travellers have pictured with enthusiasm her marvellous natural beauties ; but from these sources little information of a commercial character can be expected. Geologists and botanists recognize the priceless value of the vast stores hidden in the mines or growing out of the fertile soil, but only in their relation to the needs of the student seeking fresh knowledge in the field of scientific research ; the average traveller is impressed with existing appearances rather than inlierent possibilities ; and neither of these can fully appreciate the importance of attracting the attention of the world to the general growth and expansion of commerce which must result from the highest development of such unlimited natural wealth. The time has come, however, when to the investigations of the scholar and the discoveries of the traveller are to be added the prac- tical application of commercial talent and much capital with a view to the realization of substantial profit of a twofold character : that which grows out of the employment of idle means and enriches the investor, and that which accrues to the world at large from the stimulated growth and activity of trade. It has been a popular supposition among for- eigners, fostered by reckless and unreliable writers, that the climate of Brazil must forever prove a serious obstacle to her commercial development, standing in the way of immigration and, consequently, of a great population ; but an unprejudiced study of the true conditions, 13 14 INTRODUCTION as furnished by the vital statistics, proves such a view groundless, and tells an entirely different story from some of the articles written by heedless correspondents of sensational papers. The present work, while giving such attention to the political and social development and the natural beauties of the country as is necessary for a general knowledge, is designed also to give a faithful description of the commercial and industrial features of Brazil. No books on Brazil have been published in English since the days of the Empire, and few within the past fifty years. Yet great progress has been made in that time, and espe- cially within the past decade, during which, in spite of the difficulties that necessarily attend first efforts, the republic has steadily forged ahead in the direction of power and prosperity. At the opening of the twentieth century, all eyes are turning toward South America, as they turned toward her northern neighbor at the beginning of the century just closed ; and there is every reason to believe that the phenomenal growth and progress which marked the history of the United States of America during the nineteenth century will be duplicated during the present one by her young republican sister and friend — The New Brazil. During extended travels in Brazil, covering thousands of miles and requiring nearly two years for completion, the author was the recipient of many kind attentions which will ever be remembered with appreciation. From a grateful heart thanks are expressed to the illustrious President of Brazil, Dr. Campos-Salles, and the members of his cabinet, for unfailing interest and assistance in this work, and for many distinguished courtesies. To officials of the State department of the United States, and to its honored representatives in Brazil, Minister Charles Page Bryan and Consul-General Eugene Seeger, to the courteous Consul-General of Mexico, Commendador Simoes dos Santos, and to Mr. Chades R. Flint, of New York, who have generously extended every possible aid, a great indebtedness is acknowledged with heartfelt obligations ; and sincere thanks are tendered to all who have given information of value in the preparation of " The New Brazil," THE NEW BRAZIL CHAPTER I EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION >EDRO ALVARES CABRAL, the Portuguese navigator who discovered the southern continent of the western hemisphere, and set in the royal diadem of Portugal a gem of brilliant lustre destined to eclipse the crown itself, owed the honor and fame that immortalize his memory to one of those happy caprices of destiny that visit a few men once or twice in a century. It was certainly a "favoring fortune " that guided his ships, as he steered westward out of his course to avoid the dead calm off the coast of Africa on his way to the Indies, and suddenly wafted him upon the wonderful." Land of the Southern Cross." A Spanish navigator, Vicente Yanez Pinzon, is thought to have sighted the coast of Brazil some months earlier than Cabral, pass- ing the mouth of the Amazon River, which he named the " Fresh- water Sea;" but he did not take possession of the newly found territory, and the news of its discovery is declared to have reached the Old World first through Cabral. Thus the honor of priority is somewhat divided, opinions differing as to the claims of the two. It was on Good-Friday, the 22d of April, i ^oo, that Cabral first landed, taking possession of the country in the name of the king of Portugal. The point of disembarkation was not far from the present site of Bahia, at what is known as Porto Seguro. The territory was named the " Island of the True Cross," but this was changed the following year to " Santa Cruz," and a little later to its present name, " Brazil;" so called from the abundance of red- wood known to commerce in those days as " brazil." On Sunday, the 26th of April, an altar was erected, and the first Mass was celebrated in Brazil by Friar Henrique, of Coimbra. A few days later, the fleet left the harbor, proceeding on its way to the Indies, having put ashore in the newly discovered territory two dcgradddos [mutineers]. 17 MONUMENT TO CABRAL, RIO DE JANEIRO. i8 THE NEIV BRAZIL Between i^oi and 1^04, two expeditions were sent out by Portugal: tine first, under Andre Gongalves, sailing along the coast from Cape Sao Roque southward ; and the second, under Gongalo Coelho, proceeding from Bahia southward. Amerigo Vespucci accompanied the latter expedition. Two small forts were built,— one, by Vespucci, at Cape Frio, and the other, by Coelho, at Rio de Janeiro,— but both were destroyed by the Indians. Vespucci returned to Lisbon in i ^04, and one of his letters, still extant, is the first published docu- ment giving information about the new country, which he describes in enthusiastic terms as a "terrestrial paradise." In 1^03, the Brazilian coast was explored from Cape Sao Roque to Maranhao by the Portuguese navigator Joao Coelho, and the following year a Portuguese expedition made a survey southward, extending the discoveries to the Rio de la Plata and Patagonia. Nearly all the Portuguese fleets sailing for the Indies at this time, put into port somewhere along the coast of Brazil. Of the eadiest Portuguese colonists whose names have been perpetuated in the annals of history, three are especially noted for their influence upon the civilization of that time,' their descendants being numbered among the first families of Brazil to-day. These were Duarte Peres, Joao Ramalho, and Diogo Alvares Correa. Peres was a nobleman, who had been transported to the island of Cananea in i^oi, and who afterward became a power in colonial affairs. Ramalho arrived in Brazil in 1^12 (some say he was shipwrecked). He made his way to the Indian camp of the chief Teberyga, who gave him not only a kindly welcome, but also his daughter in marriage. Thus was founded the sturdy race of " Mame- lucos," the pioneer Paulistas, v/ho were of such valuable assistance to Affonso de Souza in his efforts to colonize the province of Sao Paulo, and to establish the settlements of Sao Vicente and Piratininga. Correa was shipwrecked near Bahia in i^io, and is celebrated as " Caramuru." His rescue and romantic marriage to the Indian maiden Paraguassu gave rise to the following story of a Brazilian Pocahontas. From the mass of poetic fictions and romantic traditions that embellish the pages of Brazilian chronicles, the history of Paraguassu, the South American " Pocahontas," stands forth in such picturesque effectiveness that one is unwilling to class it among pure legends, however reasonable may be the doubts as to the authenticity of its details. Paraguassu was the daughter of a chief of the Tupinamba Indians, and the story affirms that it was through her influence that the Portuguese captain Diogo Alvares (called " Cara- muru," — man of fire), who was shipwrecked off the coast of Bahia in i^io, was saved from a horrible death at the hands of the Indians. Inspired with gratitude and affection for his Indian protectress, Diogo Alvares married her. Tradition has it that he took her to France, where King Henry II. and Queen Catherine de Medicis received her, and witnessed her baptism, the queen acting as godmother and giving the little Indian princess her own name, after which both the king and queen witnessed her marriage to Diogo. At all events, their union is a matter of history, and their descendants may be counted to-day among the most influential families of Bahia. Paraguassu lived to be nearly a hundred years of age, and at EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION 19 her death, in 1^83, her mortal remains were placed in the church of the monastery of Nossa Senhora da Graga, in the city of Bahia. The tradition which explains the title " Caramuru," given to Diogo Alvares Correa by the Indians, varies according to different chroniclers, but the generally accepted version seems to be that Diogo Alvares Correa, in company with eight others, was shipwrecked off the coast of Bahia, on a voyage from Portugal to the hidies ; that all his companions were killed and devoured by the savages, who had reserved Alvares for their last morsel ; and that as they approached to seize him he fired a shot from a musket he had saved from the wrecked ship, which so terrified them that they fled in all directions, shouting " Caramuru I RUSTIC BRIDGE IN THE GARDEN OF THE PRESIDENT'S PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. Caramuru!" which means "man of fire." It is further related, that, through the favor of the chief's daughter, " Paraguassu " (whom he afterward married), Alvares succeeded in making friends with the Indians, and through his influence with them became one of the most powerful personages in Brazil during the early days of colonization ; that he aided very materially in the settlement of the capitania of Bahia, where he established his family at the place afterward called " Villa Velha," maintaining a position of importance second only to that of the governor-general himself. In the ancient registry of deaths in. the cathedral of Bahia appeared the following note: "On the jth day of October, i^^y, died Diogo Alvares Correa Caramuru, of the hamlet of 20 THE NEIV BRAZIL Pereira; he was buried in tlie monastery of Jesus; leaving for his executor, Joao de Figueiredo, his son-in-law." In 1^39, Orellana made a voyage down the Amazon River from Peru, by order of Pizarro. He was eight months on the journey, and the thrilling stories of adventure which he related in an account of his experiences during that time outrival some of the boldest tales of ancient heroes. It was from his account of the warrior-women of the Amazon that the river received its name, though his story is not the only record of the existence of such a tribe. He related that there lived in the forests of the Amazon country a great and powerful tribe of woman-warriors who ruled over a large territory, and were invincible in battle. They were described as very tall, robust, fair, with long hair twisted over their heads, skins around their loins, and bows and arrows in their hands. Regarding this story, it may be remarked, in passing, that it has been told in substance by nearly all the early explorers of that region. La Condamine, the great French scientist, on his return home after a voyage of exploration in the Amazon country, wrote a pamphlet on the subject, expressing his belief in the existence of these women. He located their head-quarters on the upper Rio Negro. Humboldt also seems to have believed in them, and tells in all seriousness the account given him by the Indians about a " community of women who made sarbacanas [blow-guns] and other weapons of war, and who once a year admitted to their society the men of the neighboring tribe, whom they sent back with presents of sarbacanas. All the male children of these women were killed in infancy." Another authority says regarding them : " They are women of great valor, who have always kept themselves from ordinary intercourse with men ; and even when these, according to agreement, come every year to their land, they receive them armed with bows and arrows, which they brandish for a time till assured that the men come peaceably ; then throwing down their weapons, they rush to the canoes, and each one lays hold of a hammock, carrying it to her house along with its owner, who is to be her guest for a few days — after which the men are sent back to their own country, returning every year at the same time. The female children resulting from this union are brought up by the Amazons, the males being given to their fathers the next year or else killed." Southey gives the following record of Orellana's adventures with the Amazon women, and of a battle that took place in their territory : " Fray Caspar affirmed that ten or twelve Amazon women fought at the head of these people, who were subject to their nation, and maintained the fight desperately, because any one who fled in battle would be beaten to death by these female tyrants." And then follows Orellana's description of these women, said to have been obtained by questioning the Indians: "They lived after the manner of the Amazons of the ancients, and possessed gold and silver in abundance. There were in their dominions five temples of the sun, all covered with plates of gold ; their houses were of stone, and their cities walled." From which it would seem either that Orellana made a very "free translation" indeed of the Indians' language, or that the Indians played extrava- gantly upon Orellana's credulity. EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION 21 Dr. Barbosa Rodrigues, Director of the Botanical Gardens at Rio, relates a story that is still told in the region of the Jamunda River: " Long ago, some women who had abandoned the men of their tribe came down the river Jamunda. The men, discontented, followed them, but numberless obstacles barred their way so that they could never overtake the women: sometimes the thorns formed dense thickets in the forests; again, ferocious animals protected the flight of the fugitives, howling monkeys pelted their pursuers, and citnipirj [spirit-voices] led them astray. At length, the women took pity on their husbands and lovers and received them, — but .as vassals, — promising to admit them to their society once a year. Of the children born of these unions, only the females were to be retained by the SALON IN THE PRESIDENT'S PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. mothers, and only the fathers of female children were held worthy to be presented with the precious talisman, a jade, or ' sacred green stone of the Amazon,' which they called the miiird-kiiaii.'''' There is an interesting tradition about the jade, and the manner in which the Amazon women secured this sacred talisman. It is said that at a certain time of the year and a certain quarter of the moon they came to a lake near the Jamunda River to celebrate a festival dedicated to the moon, and to the " Mother of the Amazon Stone," who dwelt in this lake. After having purified themselves for some days by this festival, which was expiatory, they dived into the water late at night when the moon was reflected in the lake 22 THE NEIV BRAZIL and received from this " Mother of the Amazon Stone," in whatever shape they desired, the precious gem, which hardened as soon as it was exposed to the sunlight, so that it could not change. In 1^31, Martim Affonso de Souza, who was sent out by the Portuguese government, arrived with a fleet and four hundred colonists. He stopped first at Bahia, then in the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, and the following year he pursued his course as far south as La Plata, and founded the colonies of Sao Vicente and Piratininga, in the present State of Sao Paulo. He sent troops into the interior in search of gold, but they were driven back and killed by the Guarany Indians. Soon after establishing the settlement at Sao Vicente, he imported some sugar-cane from the Madeira Islands, which was cultivated in the new colony with great success. It was introduced into Pernambuco about the same time by Duarte Coelho. From 15-32 to 153^, the effort to settle the new country was facilitated by making a division of the territory into parallel strips from the coast inland, each strip extending along fifty leagues of coast, and of unlimited extent inland. These parallel divisions were called " capitanias," and were given, by King Joao III., as hereditary grants to such of his followers ■as were willing to undertake their settlement; the title to the capitanias giving full power of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. Martim Affonso de Souza was the founder of the first capitania, that of Sao Vicente. His brother, Pero Lopes de Souza, took his fifty leagues in two allotments, — one adjoining his brother's, and called Sao Amaro, and the other between Pernambuco and Parahyba. Vasco Fernandes Coutinho founded Espirito Santo; Pedro de Campo Tourinho, Porto Seguro, afterward merged into one of the other States ; Francisco Pereira Coutinho founded the capitania extending from Sao Francisco to Bahia; and Dom Duarte Coelho Pereira was the founder of Pernambuco. Other capitanias were founded later, but when the central government was established, the capitanias were made tributary, though each maintained the office of "ouvidor" [magistrate], whose authority in the college of finance was second only to that of the governor. The establishment of a central government was deemed necessary as a protective measure against the invasions that continually threatened the new colony. It was formed in 1 549, and Thome de Souza was appointed governor-general, with full powers, civil and criminal. Sao Salvador de Bahia, founded by him the same year, and raised to a bishopric two years later, was for some time the government capital and the official residence of the governor-general. Rapid progress was made during the four years of Souza's government. Sugar plantations were laid out in the vicinity of the capital, the city was substantially built up, and much good accomplished, both for the colonists and the natives. The Jesuits who went to Brazil with Souza devoted themselves to the moral and religious training of the Indians; the most distinguished for their labors in this field being Father Anchieta and Father Nobrega, known as the "apostles of Brazil." Although Father Anchieta began his work in Bahia, and Father Nobrega in Sao Vicente (near which he established the Jesuit EARLY HISTORY A}^D TRADITION 2^ college of Sao Paulo, the nucleus of the present city of Sao Paulo and the capital of that State), the two priests united their efforts finally in behalf of the Indians of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes. The first bishop of Brazil, Dom Pedro Fernandes Sardinha, arrived in Bahia January i, i^p, and remained four years. On attempting to return to Lisbon, he was shipwrecked, and falling into the hands of cannibal Indians, he was destroyed by them. Tradition says that the scene of his martyrdom, which had, previous to this horrible crime, been fertile and green, was reduced to an arid and sterile place where nothing could be made to grow. Soon after the foundation of the colonies of Pernambuco and Bahia, i..:^^:;;^ CATTETE PALACE, RESIDENCE OF THE PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL, RIO DE JANEIRO. negro slaves were brought over to these settlements, and in i ^83 the first contract for the importation of slaves was signed at Rio de Janeiro. Meantime, Thome de Souza had been succeeded as governor-general, in 15'^^, by Duarte da Costa, who remained in office until 15' ^8, when Mem de Sa succeeded him, and governed for fourteen years. During his rule, the French made a determined effort to secure a foot- hold in Rio de Janeiro, under the leadership of Villegaignon, sent out by Admiral de Coligny to settle a colony of Huguenots in Brazil. They were defeated in this attempt by Mem de Sa, who took possession of their stronghold on the island of Villegaignon, and, reinforced by the colonists of Sao Paulo, Sao Vicente, Espirito Santo, and Bahia, expelled them from the country. 24 THE NEIV BRAZIL He then founded the city of Rio de Janeiro, the present capital of Brazil, in the year i ^67. In 1^72, Diogo Laurengo de Veiga became governor-general, and the colonies enjoyed a brief period of prosperity until the conquest of Portugal, by Philip II. of Spain, in 1^80, and the union of the two crowns, made Brazil a Spanish possession. It was regarded, however, as inferior to Spain's other colonies in mineral wealth, and was consequently neglected ; the result being that Brazilian shores were invaded and plundered by adventurers of all countries for half a century. Even to this day there exist in Brazil evidences of early invasions, of which the most important in its influence upon the country is that of the Dutch, who came over first in 1624, but who, after a total defeat in their efforts to hold Bahia, then the capital of Brazil, retired the following year. They returned, however, in 1630, when they took possession of Olinda and Recife (Pernambuco). The Brazilians, under General Mathias de Albuquerque, at once began a determined fight against them that lasted for twenty-four years, during which time the Dutch added greatly to their possessions, though they were repeatedly checked by the Brazilians, who fought every inch of territory with unexampled bravery. Under the Dutch general Maurice de Nassau, the invaders succeeded in extending their dominions from Rio Real at the south to Maranhao at the north, their leader founding on the island of San Antonio the town of Mauritzstadt, which became a flourishing centre, and is to-day one of the quarters of Recife. Maurice is credited with having been progressive in his efforts to establish a successful Dutch colony in the new country, and is said to have drawn around him artists and savants, to have proclaimed freedom of belief, and to have obtained from the States-General liberty of commerce, limiting the West India Company's monopoly to the importation of slaves and war ammunition and the' exportation of dyewoods. During this time, Holland sent some of her greatest sailors to these parts, among them Piet Heyn, who was defeated by the Brazilians in his efforts to seize Victoria, in the province of Espirito Santo. When the Spanish union with Portugal was broken, in 1640, and the Duke of Braganza proclaimed king of Portugal under the title of Dom Joao IV., an armistice was signed between Holland and Portugal. It did not, however, prevent the Brazilians from persisting in their efforts to drive out the invaders, and, in 1642, the people of Maranhao rose in revolt, followed by the Pernambucans in 164^. During this war were fought the two famous battles of Guararapes, in 1648- 1649, which were won by the Brazilians, who gained possession of the main strongholds of the enemy and forced their leader, General van Schoppe, to capitulate, all the fortresses still occupied by the Dutch being by the terms of capitulation turned over to the king of Portugal. Many Brazilian soldiers distinguished themselves in this war. The battles of Guararapes were won under the generalship of Barreto de Menezes ; Fernandes Vieira gained an important victory at Tabocos, and Vidal de Negreiros at Casa Forte. Luiz Barbalho, the Indian Camarao, and the negro Henrique Dias were conspicuous for their heroism. Even the Brazilian woman had her share in the war. Dona Clara Camarao, wife of the brave chief, placed herself at the head of a company of heroic women, who EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION 2? fought right nobly in defence of Pernambuco, and T-endered good service to their country in driving back the enemy. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Paulistas, who were the pioneers of Brazil in the centre and south of the empire, advanced far into the interior in search of gold, and to extend their conquest over the Indians, whom they then reduced to slavery on their plantations along the coast, in this way, they founded the provinces of Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, and the northern part of Rio Grande do Sul. They drove out the Spanish Jesuits established in the east of Parana, and forced them to abandon their claims, and to take refuge with their confreres in the province of Tape (Rio Grande do Sul). Afterward the Jesuits were pursued even to this retreat, and made to evacuate their missions. Successful in these efforts, the victors then drove the Spaniards out of all the country east of the Uruguay, though the Jesuits afterward returned and established new missions. A long strug- gle followed between the Paulistas and the Jesuits, the latter claiming the right to protect the Indians from slavery, the former assert- ing that this right was used for purposes of profit by the Church. At Sao Paulo, the people seized all the Indians working in the Jes- uit college, and, in 1640, expelled the Jesuits. Bulls from the pope and orders from the king condemning' slavery were not executed. Ten years later, the Jesuits were permitted to return to Sao Paulo under certain conditions. But the animosity against them was bitter, the people of Maranhao and Para expelled them from their territories, and other provinces showed a strong feeling against them, until, in i75'9, the whole order was finally expelled from Brazil by the minister Pombal. About the same time, Pombal obtained the signature of King Jose I. to two laws which put an end to the slave-trade in Indians. The Paulistas made an effort to gain their independence about the middle of the seventeenth century, naming Amador Bueno their ruler ; but when the hour arrived for the proclamation, Amador himself frustrated their purpose by shouting: " Long live King Joao IV., our rightful sovereign ! " According to information furnished by Father Anchieta, in i ^85', there were at this time in the colonies of Brazil about 2^,000 white persons,— 2^0 at Itamarca, 8000 at Pernambuco, 12,000 at Bahia, 1^00 at Porto Seguro, 7^0 at Espirito Santo, 7^0 at Rio, 1^00 at Sao Vicente; SCENE IN THE GARDENS OF CATTETE PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. 26 THE NEIV BRAZIL and more than 13,000 negro slaves, — 10,000 at Pernambuco, 3000 at Bahia, 100 at Rio; the civilized Indians were counted at 19,000, making the population in all about ^7,000. Sergipe, in 1^90, and Para, in 161^, were among the places founded about this period. When Portugal separated from Spain, in 1640, Brazil was divided into two great gov- ernments, called States; to the north was the State of Maranhao, composed of Para and Maranhao, and to the south, the State of Brazil (with its capital at Bahia), taking in all the rest of the territory, and including the governments of Pernambuco, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro. The State of Brazil was made a vice-royalty in 1640. During the seventeenth century, the emigration from Portugal was nearly all directed toward Bahia and Pernambuco, but gradually it turned southward, until the discovery of mines, in the eighteenth century, brought the whole tide of Portuguese emigration to Rio. The first mint was established in Brazil in 1694. The king of Portugal sent over officials authorized to coin money good only for circulation in Brazil. As it was not deemed advisa- ble to send large amounts of money any great distance on account of the imperfect facilities for transporting it in safety, the plan was adopted of removing the mint to each capital in turn until a sufficient supply had been coined for the whole country, after which the mint ceased to exist. The money was coined first at Bahia, then at Rio, and afterward at Pernambuco. In 1762, Rio de Janeiro became the colonial capital in place of Bahia, and in 177J the State of Maranhao was joined to that of Brazil. The country had already begun to be sub- divided by the creation of new captaincies — Sao Paulo and Minas, together in 1709, were separated in 1720; Santa Catharina became a province in 1738; Goyaz and also Matto Grosso, in 1748; Rio Negro, in i75'7; Para and Maranhao separated in 177^; Ceara, Espirito Santo, and Parahyba were created in 1799; Piauhy, in i8n ; Alagoas, in 1817; Sergipe, in 1 82 1. The province of Amazonas was created, in 18^0, from the old captaincy of Rio Negro, which had been a part of Para since 1823. The province of Parana was formed in i85'3. In 1680, the Colonia do Sacramento was founded by Dom Manoel Lobo, on the left bank of the river La Plata. It was the source of numerous quarrels with Spain, and, finally, by the treaty of Madrid, in 175-0, it was ceded by Portugal to Spain in exchange for the territory of the Jesuit missions on the left bank of the Uruguay. This arrangement did not suit the Jesuits, who excited the Indians to resist it, and, as a result, war was begun in order to reduce them to subjection, it was at this time that Pombal ordered the expulsion of the Jesuits from Brazil. The treaty of Madrid was afterward broken, and the dispute over the possession of the colony began again, lasting for some years, during which several battles were fought with varying results. Finally, an agreement was made by which Spain kept the colony, giving up certain lands that had been seized by her during the war and renouncing claims to other territory within the disputed limits. In 1789, a conspiracy for independence was discovered and crushed in Minas Geraes, the leaders being sent into exile, with the exception of one Silva Xavier, " Tiradentes," who was executed. The history of this conspiracy is interesting, showing the influence of the EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION 27 French Revolution and the American war of independence upon some of the patriotic spirits of Brazil. A few years before, a number of Brazilian students at Coimbra had banded themselves together and taken a solemn pledge to devote their lives to the cause of Brazilian liberty. One of their number, Jose Joaquim da Maia, addressed Thomas Jefferson, then American Minister to Paris, on this subject, both personally and by letter, asking the support of the United States in the cause of Brazilian independence. An enthusiastic member of the little company. Dr. Jose Alves Maciel, returned to Brazil just at the time when the people of his native province, Minas Geraes, were discontented and alarmed by measures which the government was taking to enforce the collection of taxes. These the people NATIONAL MUSEUM, SAO CHRISTOVAO, RIO DE JANEIRO. were unable to pay on account of the falling off in the yield of the mines and the consequent scarcity of money. Maciel took advantage of the situation to advance his theories regarding the necessity for the political regeneration of Brazil, having met in " Tiradentes " a kindred spirit aflame with ideas of independence. The real leader of the plot, in which Maciel imme- diately joined on his arrival at Minas, was his brother-in-law, Francisco de Paula Freire de Andrada, though it is said to have originated at the house of Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, the poet; hence it has been referred to as "a dream of students, and a conspiracy of poets." Chiefly, it is said, through the influence of Freire de Andrada, who was connected with two of the noblest families of Portugal, in high favor at court, the conspirators were saved 28 THE NEIV BRAZIL from the gallows— all except the poor scapegoat, "Tiradentes," who was beheaded and quartered. As a final indignity, his head was exposed in the public square of Ouro Preto, his house burned to the ground, and his family disgraced to the third generation. He was only a secondary character in the forming of the plot, but he won immortal fame by his suffer- ings and death; and the name of "Tiradentes" is to-day inscribed in the annals of Brazilian history as belonging to one of her greatest heroes, — the first republican who shed his blood in the cause of Brazilian independence. A fitting monument to his memory now marks the spot of his martyrdom, bearing on its pedestal his motto : " Libertas quse sera tamen," and the dates 1789-1889, the year of the conspiracy and the year of the establishment of the present republic of Brazil. Just a century later 1 When Napoleon's army descended upon Portugal, in 1807, the prince regent, Dom Joao, who ruled in the name of his mother. Queen Maria I., of Portugal, realizing the impossibility of offering successful resistance to the invading force, sought refuge, with all the royal family, in Brazil, and arrived at Rio de Janeiro March 8, 1808. On two previous occasions, when disaster threatened, it had been suggested that the seat of the Portuguese government should be transferred to Brazil, — in 1736, by Dom Luiz da Cunha, and in 1761, by the Marquis de Pombal ; but the danger having passed before arrangements were completed, the change had been postponed. It came at an opportune moment for Brazil, struggling under the oppression of colonial misrule. *• Soon after his arrival, Dom Joao opened Brazilian ports to foreign commerce; encouraged the free development of every kind of industry by all classes of Brazilians (under the colonial system permission was grudgingly given to manufacture a few articles of coarse quality, for slaves, from the cotton which grew in the country); established the printing-press, which had been inhibited in Brazil up io this time because of its supposed dangerous effects ; built a gunpowder factory ; established a royal treasury and a council of finance to regulate the receipts and expenditures of the national income; created a national bank; instituted a school of anatomy, surgery, and medicine, annexed to the Royal Military Hospital ; and founded a chemical laboratory, and a quarantine lazaretto for contagious diseases brought from foreign ports. About this time, vaccination .was introduced by the Marquis de Barbe- cena, who made the first experiment on his own son (now Visconde de Barbecena, of Rio de Janeiro, almost a centenarian in years, but in appearance and general activity still holding his own on the sunny uplands of life, among men of half his years). In 18 14, the first national library was opened to the public, a new treasury and mint were completed, a new custom-house was erected, and the city of Rio was built up, and beautified by parks and gardens. The following year, the royal decree was issued, naming the new seat of govern- ment the " Kingdom of Brazil," forming, with the other possessions, the " United Kingdoms of Portugal, Algarves, and Brazil." Just at this time, Queen Maria I. died, and, after a year's mourning, the acclamation of Dom Joao's succession took place ; the royal arms were adopted as suitable to designate the new kingdom, and by royal decree added to those of Portugal and Algarves, consisting of an armillary sphere of gold in a field azure, with an escutcheon EARLY HISTORY AhlD TRADITIOhl 31 containing tlie Quinas of Portugal and the seven castles of Algarves placed on the sphere, surmounted by the royal crown. The acclamation ceremony took place on the ^th of February, 18 18. The mode of enthroning monarchs by acclamation was among the most ancient usages of the Portuguese people, dating as far back as the early part of the twelfth century, when the first Affonso was acclaimed king by his soldiers after his victory over the Moors. The ceremony, in earlier times, consisted in the king standing on a shield which was then lifted above the heads of his soldiers, who proclaimed him their king ; but later the shield was dispensed with, and at the coronation of Dom Joao VI. the ceremony was chiefly religious, the accla- mation being made in a loud voice as the royal standard was unfurled after the celebration of Mass in the chapel royal : " Royal, royal, royal, by the very high and very powerful Senhor, King Dom Joao VI., our sovereign !" The acclamation was accompanied by the pealing of bells, the music of military bands, explosions of artillery, fire-works, and deafening vivas! Almost during the whole period of Dom Joao's residence in Brazil, his armies were engaged in war in the Banda Oriental. Finally, a succession of victories for his troops resulted in the demoralization of the Uruguayan forces and the flight of their leader into Paraguay. The Banda Oriental was then united by federation with the kingdom of Brazil, under the name of the " Cisplatine Province," in 1821. Meantime, there was trouble brewing in the mother-country. The commerce of Portugal was suffering in consequence of the opening of Brazilian ports, and there was considerable jealousy felt toward this young "upstart colony" which, since it had been raised to the dignity of a kingdom and had become the residence of the royal family, threatened to take away the laurels of the parent kingdom. Consequently, after the close of Napoleon's wars, when Spain and Italy had set the example by demanding the organization of constitutional governments, the Portuguese followed in their lead and insisted on the convocation of the Cortes for the purpose of forming a constitutional charter. One of the first acts of this body was to publish a manifesto in which all the evils existing in the form of reduced revenues and a general retrograde movement in Portuguese affairs were traced to the residence of the royal family and court at Rio de Janeiro instead of at Lisbon, and the opening of the ports of Brazil to the vessels of all nations, which threatened the extinction of the manufactures and commerce of Portugal. The sympathies of the European residents and the military in Brazil were with the Cortes ; and King Joao was induced through their influence to sign a decree stating that he would return to Portugal and leave the kingdom of Brazil in charge of his son, Dom Pedro, as regent, until the general constitution of the Portuguese nation should be established. But the Brazilians were not inclined to submit tamely to arrangements made by the Portuguese, conflicting with the interests of their own country ; they opposed the departure of the king, and having good reason to fear that the new constitution to be framed by the Cortes would be constructed in such a manner as to favor Portugal at the expense of Brazil, they decided that the Spanish constitution should be the one adopted, and sent a deputation to the king, 32 THE NEIV BRAZIL requiring its immediate acceptance. King Joao gave his royal assent to their demands, just as he had previously done to the requirements of his Portuguese followers and the army. He was anxious to conciliate all parties, having constantly in mind the unhappy fate of Louis XVI., and trembling at every demonstration of popular feeling that was of a spon- taneous character. It is said he fainted in his carriage when an enthusiastic mob of his loyal subjects took out the horses on one occasion and drew the royal equipage themselves. The day after he had received the Brazilian deputation, the king issued a decree annulling all that had been enacted the previous evening ; conferred the dignity and attributes of regent on Dom Pedro, and formed a new ministry, in which the Count of Arcos, chief adviser and confidant of Dom Pedro, whose influence is said to have had a strong effect in inflaming the ambition of that young prince, was made Minister of Foreign Affairs, and the Interior and Justice. Two days afterward. King Joao embarked for Portugal, accompanied by a large suite. It is related that in the final interview with his son at the palace of Sao Christovao, the king, who looked upon the independence of Brazil as already assured, thus counselled the young prince : " Pedro, if such an event should occur, put the crown on thine own head before some adventurer lays hold of it." And in one of a published collection of his letters, written during the war of independence, Dom Pedro reminds his father of this advice, and even recalls the place and the room where their conversation on this subject was held. Dom Pedro acted upon his father's advice ; but when he put on the crown of Brazil, it meant a new regime, which limited the power of the monarch and gave larger liberties to the people. FORT OF SANTA CRUZ, ENTRANCE TO THE HARBOR OF RIO. CHAPTER II NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE [HEN Dom Pedro became regent, he was twenty-two years of age; he had married, in 1818, the Archduchess Dona Maria Leopoldina of Austria (sister of Napoleon's wife, Marie Louise), and was the father of two children, — Dom Joao Carlos, Prince de Beira, who died in childhood, and Princess Dona Maria de Gloria, afterward Queen Maria II. of Portugal. His biographers have described Dom Pedro as an active, energetic prince, fond of the chase, exceptionally skilled in driving a four-in-hand, having a taste for mechanics, and passionately devoted to music. Some of his compositions are regarded as possessing decided merit. From the first establishment of the regency, the Portuguese element in the new country seems to have been in constant opposition to all liberal efforts in behalf of Brazil, on the part of the government. It insisted on the dismissal of the Count of Arcos from the ministry, the placing of the army under the authority of a military commission, and the appointment of a junta responsible to the Cortes of Lisbon, without whose approbation no law should be promulgated or any important business decided upon. Dom Pedro acceded to all these demands ; but when, in addition, the Cortes of Lisbon passed a law that all the provinces should be detached from the central government at Rio, and made subject directly to the administration of Portugal, he became incensed by the efforts made to nullify his power and reduce Brazil again to the condition of a mere colony. Added to this was the trying dilemma in which he found himself in consequence of the financial embarrassment of the treasury. Notwithstanding its advantages, the establishment of the Portuguese court in Rio had not been an unmixed blessing. A host of impecunious followers had come over with the royal family, caring nothing for the progress of Brazil, regarding their stay as merely tempo- rary, and desirous of enriching themselves at the expense of the Brazilian treasury. The extravagance of the court was enormous, and the household of the royal family alone is said to have cost the country annually over half a million pounds sterling. Besides this, the king made many gifts to his followers, which had a depleting effect on the treasury. 3? 36 THE NE^ BRAZIL Then, when his Majesty returned to Portugal, accompanied by his entire suite, numbering about three thousand, they exchanged all the paper money in their possession for bullion, so that the Bank of Brazil was reduced to embarrassing straits, the government debt to the bank at that time amounting to considerably more than the actual capital of the institution. This financial stress was keenly felt by the regent, who wrote to his father : "There are no longer any funds, and I do not know how to obtain them." The people of Brazil had no reason to feel particularly friendly toward their Portuguese cousins, in view of the arbitrary attitude which the latter assumed toward them ; and when two despotic decrees, sent from Portugal by the Cortes, were received at Rio, — one of them commanding the organization of a provisional government which should reduce the country again to the condition of a province, and the other ordering the immediate return of the prince regent, Dom Pedro, to Portugal, — the spirit of rebellion blazed up in one consuming outburst; the newspapers were filled with revolutionary editorials and letters; and the people of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes spoke in united voice against what was termed " an illegal, impious, and impolitic measure." An address drawn up in the name of these two States by Dom Jose Bonifacio de Andrada, containing the following indignant protest, best shows the state of feeling that prevailed : " How dare those deputies of Portugal, without deigning to wait for the concurrence of those of Brazil, legislate on a matter which involves the most sacred interests of the entire kingdom ? How dare they deprive Brazil of her privy council, her court of conscience, her exchequer, her board of commerce, her court of requests, and so many other institutions just established among us, and which promised us such future benefits ? Where now must the people apply in their civil and judicial concerns ? Must they once more, after enjoying for twelve years the advantages of speedy justice, seek it in a foreign land, across two thousand leagues of ocean, amid the procrastinations and corruptions of Lis- bon tribunals, where the oppressed suitor is abandoned by hope and life ?" This address con- cluded with an appeal to the prince to remain in Brazil, and not suffer himself to be "led about like a school-boy surrounded by masters and spies." The prince regent's reply was prompt and decided : "As it appears to be the general wish and for the general good, I will remain." A new ministry was formed January i6, 1822, with Dom Jose Bonifacio de Andrada as Home Secretary and Minister for Foreign Affairs, his brother, Martim Francisco de Andrada, also becoming a member of the cabinet a few months later. It was the original intention to preserve the union with Portugal, but to have a parliament at Rio. Deputies were sent to the Cortes to urge the adoption of this measure, and to voice the general sentiment against the demands of the latter, as contained in the decrees sent over to Brazil. The young prince seems, at least, to have been possessed of energy, and decision of character, judging from his prompt methods of dealing with affairs at this time. On the 1 6th of February, he issued a decree calling the chief legislators of the provinces of Brazil to assemble in Rio de Janeiro. On the 2^th of the same month, he issued another, declaring that no law promulgated by the parliament at Lisbon should be obeyed in Brazil without his sanction. When it was announced that there was opposition to his authority over Minas NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 37 Geraes, he immediately went to that province, visited all the villages and towns, won the loyalty of the whole people, and returned followed by acclamations. When public notices appeared of hostile measures taken by the government of Portugal against Brazil, Dom Pedro accepted the title " Perpetual Defender of Brazil," which, in the name of the people, was offered him, on the 13th of May, by the senate of the municipal chamber. Dom Pedro did not, at first, show any intention of seeking to establish an independent empire in Brazil. He declared only against the infringement of his rights as regent of the kingdom. In a proclamation issued August 17, 1822, he announces: " The dignity and power of regent of this vast empire, that the king, my august father, had granted to me, having been confirmed to me by the unanimous consent and spontaneous will of the people of Brazil, a dignity of which the Cortes of Lisbon, without any of the deputies of Brazil being heard, has dared to deprive me, as is notorious; and I, moreover, having accepted the title and duties of perpetual defender of this kingdom that the same people have so generously and so loyally conferred upon me ; in obedience, therefore, to my sacred duties, and in gratitude for so much love and fidelity, which call upon me to take all the measures indispensable to the salvation of this greatest portion of the Portuguese monarchy, that has been confided to me, and whose rights 1 have sworn to preserve unin- jured by any attack; and inasmuch as the Cortes of Lisbon continues in the same erroneous and evidently unjust system of recolonizing Brazil even by force of arms, notwithstanding that she has already proclaimed her political independence and has gone so far that there is already convened, by my royal decree of the 3d of June last past, a general, constitutional, and legislative assembly, at the request of all the chambers, thus proceeding with a formality that did not take place in Portugal, where the convening of the Congress was originally only an act of secret and factious clubs; and I also considering his Majesty the king, Dom Joao VL, of whose name and authority the Cortes endeavors to avail itself for its own sinister purposes, as a prisoner in that kingdom, without any will of his own, and without that liberty of action that is given to the executive power in constitutional monarchies, — I command, having first heard my council of State, all the provisional juntas of government, generals, military commandants, and all the constituted authorities to whom the execution of this decree may appertain, as follows : " L That all and whatever troops that shall be sent from Portugal or elsewhere to Brazil without my previous consent, upon whatever pretext, be reputed enemies; but without interruption to the commercial and friendly relations between both kingdoms, for the pres- ervation of the political union that I greatly desire to maintain. " IL That if they arrive peaceably, they shall immediately return, furnished with provi- sions and supplies necessary for their voyage back. "in. That, in case said troops shall not obey these orders, and shall dare to land, they be driven back by force of arms, putting into execution, if necessary, all means to bum the vessels and sink the boats in which the troops may attempt to land. 38 THE NE14^ BRAZIL " IV. That if, notwithstanding all these efforts, it shall happen that the troops get pos- session of any port or part of Brazil, the inhabitants shall retire to the interior and carry on against them a war of posts and guerrillas until freed from the enemy. " V. That it shall be the duty of all the competent military and civil authorities to fortify all the ports of Brazil, under strict and severe responsibility. " VI. The civil and military authorities to whom appertain the execution of this, my royal decree, are to fulfil it, and cause it to be fulfilled, with all due zeal, energy, and promptitude, under the responsibility of being guilty of high treason if they shall fail to do so. " Palace of Rio de Janeiro, the 17th of August, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-two. By his Royal Highness the Prince Regent," etc. In a manifesto signed "Prince Regent," Dom Pedro calls upon the Brazilians to unite themselves "with interest, love, and hope," — to " command the august As- sembly of Brazil to manage the helm of State with justice and prudence." He urges: " Let no other shout be issued from your lips but ' union ; ' let no other word be reiterated from the Amazon to the La Plata but ' in- dependence.' Let all our prov- inces be strongly chained in unanimity not to be broken by any force. Let old prejudices be banished, substituting in their place the love of the public good." His closing words are full of enthusiastic patriotism: "Brazilians! friends 1 let us unite ourselves; I am your companion, I am your defender; let us obtain, as the only reward of all our toils,' the honor, glory, and prosperity of Brazil ; for the accomplishment of which I shall always be at your front in the most dangerous places! Permit me to convince you that your felicity depends on mine. It is my glory to rule an upright, valiant, and free people. Give INTERIOR OF YPIRANGA. NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 39 me the example of your virtues and of your union, and be assured that I shall be worthy of you." This manifesto gave zest to the popular sentiment. It soon became evident that it would be impossible for Brazil to continue united with Portugal under existing conditions ; and the crisis was precipitated, first, by the antagonistic and even insulting attitude maintained in the Cortes toward the Brazilian deputies, who were silenced ignominiously when they attempted to speak in behalf of their country's cause ; and, secondly, by the passage of a decree ignoring all Brazilian claims, and peremptorily ordering the prince regent to Europe. The effect of this news upon the prince is well known, as recorded in the dramatic story of " Ypiranga," the name of a little stream in the province of Sao Paulo, made famous in history as the birthplace of Brazilian independence. It was here that the prince, as he and his friends were returning from a hunting-party, received the dispatches containing news of the last act of the Cortes. Upon reading them, the prince called his followers to his side, and, with the watchword, " Independencia ou Morte 1" declared that he would never leave Brazil, but would be her protector and defender against the wrongs that Portugal sought to heap upon her. This was on September 7, 1822, and on October 12, 1822, Dom Pedro was proclaimed Constitutional Emperor of Brazil, the ceremony of his inauguration taking place on the ist of the following December. The magnificent museum of Ypiranga, which to-day marks the site of this famous occurrence in Brazilian history, is a fitting monument in honor of the great event. Upon his return to Rio a few days after the scene at Ypiranga, the prince appeared at the theatre, wearing on his arm a green badge, with the motto, in letters of gold, " Independencia ou Morte." The people, as he entered, arose in a perfect delirium of enthusiasm and greeted him with tumultuous applause. The coronation ceremony took place in the chapel attached to the palace, and was a brilliant affair. In the evening, the new emperor attended the grand opera, and his appear- ance was the signal for prolonged cheers and shouts of " Viva Imperador ! " The empire was established with comparatively little opposition. The Portuguese troops were soon dismissed from Rio ; in July of the following year, they evacuated Bahia, and later in the same year capitulated at Maranhao, at Para, and at Montevideo. Before the end of 182^, Portugal gave up the fight, and recognized the independence of Brazil, but succeeded in saddling on the new empire, as the price of her freedom, debts amounting to nearly ten, millions of dollars. On the 2d of December, 1825', the prince Dom Pedro, afterward Emperor Dom Pedro II., was born, at Rio de Janeiro. The following account of a Brazilian woman's heroism makes an interesting addition to the history of this period. Dona Maria Quiteria de Jesus Medeiros, a Bahian girl, hearing her father lament that he had no son to fight in the cause of Brazilian independence, dis- guised herself as a soldier and enlisted in the artillery. This proving too hard a service, she succeeded in changing to the light infantry called the "Volunteers of the Prince," and served until the end of the war. She led a troop of Bahian Amazons against the Lusitanians who were attempting to land near the mouth of the Paraguassu, and drove them back, for which 40 THE NEIV BRAZIL heroic service she was knighted by Dom Pedro I., and decorated with the " Imperial order of the Cruzeiro." In 1824, the northern prov- inces, led by Pernambuco, re- volted against the imperial government, and disclaimed its authority, which they asserted was being maintained in the interests of Portugal rather than Brazil, and they declared their independence under an alliance entitled the " Federation of the Equator." Their chief leader was Manoel Carvalho Paes de Andrada, the elected president of the province of Pernambuco, whom the central government had attempted to replace by one of the emperor's favorites, but without success, the inhab- itants of Pernambuco refusing to acknowledge any authority except that of their elected president. Carvalho led the revolutionists against the im- perial forces with skill and bravery, engaging General Barreto's army by land while a small naval force blockaded them by sea. Lord Cochrane was sent to co-operate with Barreto's troops and to blockade the city of Pernambuco, and troops under General Lima were dis- patched to reinforce those of Barreto. By their united efforts, the imperial forces finally succeeded in entering Pernambuco, and driving Carvalho back to the parish of Recife, where, having burned the bridge connecting it with the city, he and his followers entrenched themselves and opened fire on the imperialists. They were, however, defeated at last, and three of their number executed, — Ratcliff, Metrowich, and Loureiro ; Carvalho escaped. The next year, 182^, the unpopular war in the Cisplatine province began, lasting three years and resulting in the independence of Uruguay. It created an important addifion to the national debt of Brazil, which was already too burdensome to be borne by the people with- out many evidences of discontent and dissatisfaction. In 1826, by the death of King Dom Joao VI., Dom Pedro succeeded to the throne of Portugal, and immediately abdicated in CORRIDOR IN YPIRANGA. l^ATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 41 favor of his daughter, Dona Maria. The Marquis de Barbacena was appointed to accompany . the young princess, who had been created Duchess of Oporto, to Europe, where she was to be received at Genoa by her aunt, the ex-Empress of France, Marie Louise, and Count Leibzeltern, and talV„'^*r- > , - PUBLIC GARDEN IN RIO DE JANEIRO. slaves who had committed no crime. The Provincial Assembly of Sao Paulo voted such a heavy tax on slaves, that it amounted practically to a prohibition, though the vote was not ratified by the president of the province. Finally, the Cotegipe ministry, which favored gradual emancipation, resigned, and the princess regent called upon Senator Correa de Oliveira to form a new ministry, which came into po^^'er on the loth of March, 1888, Senator Antonio da Silva Prado being one of its members. These two leaders realized the importance of immediate action, and at once prepared a law which was presented to the chambers by Roderigo Silva in the name of the cabinet, and passed almost unanimously, granting imme- diate liberty to all slax^es, without restriction, on the 13th of May, 1888. Following upon the vote of the Senate, the princess regent gave the ku\- her sanction on the same day, affixing her signature with a handsome gold pen which had been purchased by popular subscription V so THE NEI4^ BRAZIL and presented to her for this purpose. The whole population of Rio rose in enthusiastic manifestation of joy over the event, all the large cities of the empire joining in the celebration, which extended throughout all America. France observed July lo, 1888, as a fete-day in honor of the event. In the speech from the throne at the opening of parliament on the 3d of May, 1888, the princess regent had urged the passage of a bill for immediate emancipation, in the following language : " To the honor of Brazil, under the influence of national sentiment and individual liberality, the extinction of the servile element has made such progress that it is to-day a hope acclaimed by all classes, with many admirable examples of self-sacrifice on the part of proprietors. Now that private interest itself has worked spontaneously to deliver Brazil from the unhappy heritage which the necessities of tillage bequeathed, I feel assured that you will not hesitate to efface from the national law the single exception which contrasts with the Christian and liberal spirit of our institutions." And thus the suppression of slavery was accomplished in Brazil without bloodshed. There have been economic difficulties to face in consequence of the sudden cutting-off of the labor-supply on the coffee plantations, but every effort has been made to promote immi- gration, and thus remedy the deficiency ; and if some of the former wealthy land-owners have been reduced to poverty by the change, it is as nothing compared with the sad condi- tion of financial affairs that followed the emancipation of slaves in the Southern States of the North American republic. The year following was not marked by any evidences of widespread discontent. To be sure, there was a feeling of bitterness among some of the former slave-owners at the sudden deprivation which they suffered from the law that took away from them what they consid- ered rightful property. But there was no tendency toward open revolt; and when the emperor visited the State of Sao Paulo soon after the liberation of the slaves, he was received everywhere with demonstrations of the most friendly character. 'r o OS UJ Q O s d o o LI, < f- o CHAPTER III FALL OF THE EMPIRE, AND GENESIS OF THE REPUBLIC — .:■:.- ,^- •— •' \\'ere succeeded b\- Rear-Admiral ChaNes as Minister of Marine, and Dr. Freire as Minister of Finance. The animosit\' of the na\-\- was increased when a decree \\-as issued declaring a trial by court-martial in the case of BOLSA, RUA PRIMEIRO DE MARCO, RIO DE JANEIRO. 78 THE NEIV BRAZIL Admiral Wandenkolk, who had been sent by the central government to Rio Grande to report on the existing conditions, and had openly espoused the cause of the Federalists, joining General Silveira Martins in an unsuccessful attempt to take the city of Rio Grande, which had resulted in his capture. The navy also resented the growing power of the army, which threatened to eclipse its own. The " Historic Republicans," an organization led by Ruy Barbosa and other members of the old Provisional Government, strongly opposed the President's policy of interference with the internal affairs of the States, and joined the navy in a protest against court-martial trial for ex-Admiral Wandenkolk. The Senate, taking action in the matter, decided, by a small majority vote, that the trial should take place in the regular courts. This did not, however, alter the hostile attitude of the navy, and a revolution was the outcome. Although the navy's course was declared to be based purely upon motives of patriotism, there were many who believed that Admiral Custodio de Mello's real purpose in fostering a revolution was to succeed to the presi- dency, himself. Other rumors accused him of plotting for the restoration of the monarchy. Whatever was his design, he had the navy with him in his efforts, and on the evening of the ^th of September, 1892, while the officers of the fleet anchored in the harbor at Rio were at the opera, the admiral, with several of his friends, went on board the Aquidahan and raised his flag, afterward going to the other vessels and completing arrangements by which every government ship in the harbor was under his orders. The following morning, he sent a message to General Peixoto demanding his resignation and the surrender of the government offices within six hours. General Peixoto defied the naval squadron, and immediately took measures to frustrate the revolution. Congress voting him legal authority and supplies. By authority of Congress, Rio and Nictheroy were declared in a state of siege, and the President was empowered to extend this declaration to any part of the country. The press was placed under rigorous censorship, and telegraphic communication was shut off between Rio and the rest of the world. About six thousand troops of the army were distributed in the fortifications and strategic points of the bay, to prevent a landing, and a considerable force of infantry and artillery was sent to Nictheroy, the capital of the State of Rio, on the opposite bank of the bay, in order to keep open communication with the fortress of Santa Cruz, which guarded the entrance to the harbor. Admiral Mello's forces, including officers, marines, and sailors, were not sufficient to attempt a landing on the well-guarded shores of the bay. Neither could the ships venture out to sea past the forts and torpedoes at the harbor's entrance. The admiral had threatened that, if the forts fired on the ships, he would bombard the city; and as this was done, he opened fire on September 13th, first on the forts near Nictheroy, and afterward on the arsenal and public buildings facing the water-front in Rio. The port was blockaded to all Brazilian vessels, foreign vessels being allowed to enter and depart under protection of their country's war- ships. On September 22d, a second bombardment took place, causing a panic among the citizens. Admiral Custodio de Mello issued a proclamation charging President Peixoto, "aided by corrupt Senators and venal Deputies," with overriding the constitutional limits of his THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC 79 power and " introducing a regime of arbitrary tyranny ; " and promising tliat, if successful in his stand for liberty, the government would be handed over to the same honorable men who had given freedom to the nation before. Four members of Congress who were on board the Aquidaban constituted themselves a provisional government and issued a procla- mation giving the command of the forces to Admiral Custodio de Mello for the purpose of restoring peace and re-establishing law and order and republican principles. The President held his ground with determination. He obtained ^4,000,000 of advances to meet the expenses of the engagement, and arranged to fit out a naval squadron to fight the rebels on the sea. On October loth, the bombardment of Rio was resumed because the shore batteries had not ceased firing on the fleet, and at the same time the admiral issued a new proclamation declaring that in the event of his success he would adhere to republican institutions (this in answer to a charge of imperial restoration intentions), that none of the leaders of the rebellion aspired to power for their own benefit, but for the restoration of peace to the oppressed country, and for the liberation of a people who had been sacrificed by the want of patriotism and the reckless ambition of the head of the government. Meantime, President Floriano had provided himself with a fleet. He purchased some merchant vessels in the United States and converted them into war-ships, and secured the torpedo gun-boat Dcsiwycr (which, however, never saw active service), besides nine torpedo- boats bought in Europe. The Nictlicroy was armed with a pneumatic gun for dynamite bombs, invented by a United States army captain. The America was provided with an armament of heavy guns, and four torpedo-boats were fitted out and equipped with Hotchkiss guns. The Tiradeiitcs was put in working order, and manned by a crew under the command of Rear-Admiral Gongalvez. Two Brazilian merchant ships were transformed into gun-boats. Rear-Admiral Duarte was given command of a naval division at Bahia. In Rio Grande do Sul the Federalists gained ground for a time, and one town after another fell into their hands ; and at Desterro, in the State of Santa Catharina, they effected a landing and placed troops in the field, which, however, were defeated, as well as a body of Federalists that came to join them from Rio Grande do Sul. General Saraiva and General Salgado were the leaders of the Federalists in the South. In November, Admiral Custodio de Mello succeeded in running out of Rio harbor with the Aqiiidiihan and the armed transport Espcniu^a, under the fire of the forts, and Commo- dore Elisar Tavares, left in charge of the remaining naval force, was placed under the com- mand of Admiral Saldanha da Gama. The departure of Admiral Custodio de Mello from Rio harbor with the best ships of the insurgent navy at the very time when the government's fleet was known to be concentrating there, was supposed by many to signify that his aims and purposes were not in harmony with those of Saldanha da Gama, who was known to be working for the restoration of the monarchy. Admiral Saldanha's support came chiefly from the churchmen and the imperialists, with whom the Federalists of the South had nothing in common except hostility to the government of President Floriano Peixoto. 8o THE NEIV BRAZIL It was assumed that Admiral Custodio de Mello's first desire was to save the cause in the South without regard to the situation at Rio. He hoped to succeed in establishing a provi- sional government in Santa Catharina, with the aid of the Federalist leaders of Rio Grande do Sul ; international law requiring that a revolutionary government must administer some considerable portion of the territory before it can be recognized as a belligerent power, whereas the insurgents controlled so far only the little island of Santa Catharina. In the harbor of Rio the firing between the forts and the rebel ships became more frequent toward the end of the year 1893, the guns on both sides being better managed than in the earlier engagements. The city suffered a good deal in consequence, and business was practically suspended for a time, people moving away to be out of range of the guns. Meantime, the necessity of placing a strong force in the southern country to combat the QUAY OF LA GLORIA. insurgents had resulted in weakening the central government's defence of the Federal capital and the shores of the bay. Saldanha da Gama was reinforced, January 12, 1894, by the return of the Aqiildabaii, which enabled him to maintain his position in the bay, that had been seriously threatened, as the government troops had succeeded in compelling him to retire from his best strongholds. He now advanced so boldly that he was able to put a stop to all commerce, until checked by the American admiral A. K. Benham, at that time commanding the South Atlantic Squadron in the harbor of Rio. The action of Admiral Benham in raising the blockade against American merchant ships in the harbor had a deter- ring effect upon the operations of the rebels. Admiral Benham objected to the order pro- hibiting foreign vessels from entering within the line of danger when no firing was in progress, claiming that it was an unjustifiable interruption of commerce, and promised the THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC 8i captain of an American mercliant sliip that if he would unload his cargo in lighters flying the American flag he would be protected. At first, the rebels forbade the landing. But Admiral Benham stood firm in the attitude he had taken, and they withdrew all efforts at resistance. On January 23d, Admiral Benham invited the insurgent commander to an informal conference on board the M'a' York, and having already ascertained the views of President Peixoto, counselled Admiral da Gama to give up the struggle. Admiral da Gama demanded the unconditional surrender of Floriano Peixoto and a free vote throughout the country as to the form of government and representation in Congress. President Floriano, on his side, demanded that neither a military nor a naval man should be eligible for the next President, but that he must be a civilian. In the South, the revolutionary struggle continued in all its bitterness. In Parana, General Saraiva formed a junction with Admiral Custodio de Mello, and, with the co-opera- tion of the sailors, they captured the port of Paranagua, took possession of the provincial capital of Curityba, and advanced to southern Sao Paulo. The outlook was not promising just at this time for the government, the President having angered some of his best friends by the severity of his military discipline. The acting Minister of War, General Galvao, resigned because of his disapproval of the treatment of political prisoners. The confidence of many faithful supporters was shaken by a suspicion of the clandestine issue of paper money by the government. The commander of the fort of Santa Cruz, General Macedo, was arrested on a charge of disloyalty because of the repeated successful attempts of the Aqiiidaluii in putting in and out of the harbor, in view of these circumstances, added to the fact that most of the regular army had been sent to defend Sao Paulo against the attack of Saraiva and Custodio de Mello, Saldanha da Gama determined to make a bold strike for possession of the land defences. A battle took place on the 9th of February, resulting in 5^0 killed and wounded of Peixoto's men and 272 of Saldanha da Gama's, the admiral himself being wounded in the neck and arm. Not long after this, the insurgents lost the war-ships / \niis and Jupiter and the transport Mcrciirio, sunk by shells from the government forts. After Admiral Saldanha's reverse, the commanders in the South determined to strike at Santos. A portion of the National Guard joined the rebel standard under General Sarai\-a, whose idea it was to invade the State of Sao Paulo, with the ultimate object of entering Rio de Janeiro, while General Salgado kept in check the government garrison at Porto Alegre, in Rio Grande do Sul, pre\'enting it from moving northward. Sao Paulo was still strongly held by go\'ernment troops and forces, wHch the State had put at the disposal of the central government, and Santos was strengthened against the expected rebel attack. This was the situation of affairs when the election, on March i, 1894, was held for a President to succeed President Peixoto on the following Nox'ember i ^th. The rebels claimed that the election should ha\'e taken place in October, 1893; but the naval re\'olt and the declaration of martial law made an election at that time impracticable. Senators from most of the States had met in December, 189^ and nominated Dr. Prudente Moraes President. The state of siege was suspended, nominally, in order that the election might take place 82 THE NEIV BRAZIL under constitutional forms. The voting resulted in the election of Prudente IVloraes for President and Manoel Victorino Pereira for Vice-President. In Rio Grande, Parana, and Santa Catharina, where the insurgents were in the ascendency, no election was held. After the election, the state of siege was prolonged until May. By a decree of February 23d, all crimes connected with the rebellion were punishable by martial law, even if committed by civilians. Another decree, issued March 2d, authorized the Minister of War to raise regular troops by forcible conscription. Equipped with strong reinforcements, on March i ith Presi- dent Peixoto gave forty-eight hours' notice of a general en- gagement, and the people of Rio and the ships in the harbor were warned to get out of range. The next day. Admiral Saldanha of- fered, through the Portuguese Minister, to surrender on condi- tion that immunity should be granted all connected with the rebellion, that officers who were imprisoned should be pardoned, and all superior officers should be allowed to resign their com- missions on promising never again to take up arms against the government of Brazil. He then took refuge on a Portuguese man-of-war, and sent another message, that the lives of pri- vate insurgents should be spared. President Peixoto replied that no terms would be considered but unconditional surrender. The rebels escaped on the Portu- guese men-of-war, and when President Peixoto demanded their surrender, the commander refused to give them up without orders from his government. Most of the refugees finally made their escape. Meantime, Admiral Custodio de Mello, who had been directing all his energies to the cause of the Federalists in the South, had returned again to Santa Catharina, where he was joined by Salgado, and, reorganizing and assuming the presidency of the Provisional Gov- ernment there, had proceeded to appoint, in the place of the cabinet, a commission of three men representing the three revolted States. This had led to a quarrel in the rebel ranks, and PATHWAY IN TIJUCA. THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC 83 the " Junta " at Desterro, under the leadership of Custodio de Mello, Saraiva, and Salgado, had been repudiated by the Federalists of Rio Grande do Sul. Early in April, Admiral Custodio de Mello and General Salgado attacked the city of Rio Grande do Sul by sea and land, but there was lack of harmony in their operations, and they were defeated. Mean- time, a fleet sent by the central government bombarded the forts at Desterro, and, after a brief naval engagement with the insurgents, succeeded in destroying the Aquidaban, which had been the mainstay of the revolt and the principal target of the government's guns throughout the rebellion. After the loss of the AquidaKin, the forts and vessels at Desterro were abandoned by the insurgents, the rebel junta fled to the South, and General Saraiva's forces retreated to the frontier. Admiral Custodio de Mello, after leaving General Salgado with 400 men on the Uruguayan territory, departed for Argentina, where he surrendered with his command of 1200 men, his five vessels, and his arms, on condition that they should not be delivered up to the Brazilian government. President Peixoto proclaimed pardon for all privates concerned in the rebellion, and on April 20, 1894, sent a communica- tion to the members of the diplomatic body informing them that the revolt was at an end. The guerrilla war in Rio Grande do Sul had been in progress for more than a year before the naval revolt began, the central government becoming involved in the contest by extend- ing its protection by force of arms to the ruling governor. General Julio Castilho. The struggle still continued after the surrender of Admiral Saldanha and the departure of Admi- ral Mello, General Saraiva assuming the leadership of the guerrillas after his retreat from Parana, in June, his forces were defeated by General Lima, and by the end of July the insurgents were exhausted, and General Saraiva was reported dead. It \\'as not the end of the war, howe\er, for, in the beginning of 189^, Admiral Saldanha da Gama put him.self at the head of the rebels. In June, he met the government troops near Santa Anna, was defeated, and, after three hundred men were killed or wounded on both sides and most of his followers had abandoned the field, he ordered those who stood by him to retreat, and met his own death on the battlefield. On July 2d, General Galvao, commanding the go\'- ernment troops, arranged an armistice with General Tavares, the Federalist commander, and terms of peace were finally agreed upon, to which General Castilho, who had up to this time stood out for unconditional surrender, gave his assent. The terms were a free pardon to all who laid down their arms, with a guarantee of all civil rights to e\'ery person implicated in the rex'olution, including the right to appeal to the courts for the redress of injuries com- mitted by the troops. General Castilho was to remain as provisional governor until the meeting of the State Congress, which was to alter the Constitution so as to make it con- formable to the Constitutions of the other States. The amnest\- bill was passed in Septem- ber, after a sharp debate in both houses, with modifications debarring rebel officers from the army and na\'y for two years, and extending the amnesty to other political offenders and exiles. After the war \\'as o\'er. President Peixoto established the most strict military discipline, frequent changes were made in the cabinet, and all branches of the army were strengthened. 84 THE NEIV BRAZIL the military force being increased from 14,000 to 24,000 men. Although bitter attacks had been made against the President in Congress, a resolution was finally passed approving his acts. It was recognized that he had successfully brought the country out of a period of agitation and revolt that threatened its, very existence, and that he deserved the thanks of the people. At the same time, it was the general sentiment that in future the nation's President should not be a military commander, but a civilian. A few months after giving the reins of government into other hands. Marshal Floriano Peixoto succumbed to illness which proved fatal, his death occurring on the 29th of June, 189^. In many respects, the "iron Marshal," as he was popularly called, was a remarkable man. His firmness was unquestioned, his indomitable energy knew no bounds, and although he was regarded as a disciplinarian of over-strict methods, even this charac- teristic had its advantages when mild measures were perhaps not adequate to the exigencies of the times. The history of this unflinching leader shows him to have been thoroughly educated in military matters. He was a graduate of the Military Academy, an artillery officer, and distinguished himself in the Paraguayan war, receiving promotion to the rank of lieu- tenant-colonel for gallantry on the field, and upon his return at the close of the war, the title of colonel. In 1883, he was promoted to the general staff of the army. Under the empire, he held the political office of president of Rio Grande do Sul, and in the cabinet of the Provisional Government was Secretary of War, succeeding Benjamin Constant, who was transferred to the Department of Public Instruction. He resigned his position with other members of the cabinet who disagreed with President Deodoro. COPACOBANA, RIO DE JANEIRO. V CHAPTER V THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS HILE all honor must be given to the brave pilots that brought the ship of State safely through the first threatening storms, the institution of really republican ideals in the government of Brazil may be said to have been effected by the election of Dr. Prudente Jose de Moraes Barros as its President, a civilian, and acceptable to all classes of the people, who had outgrown the conditions requiring military rule. He was elected practically without opposition, and on Novem- ber 15', 1894, \vas inaugurated President. In his first address, he promised to eradicate sectional differences, and to secure the fullest liberty to every la\\--abiding citizen. He said that he intended to make his administration one of economy, to be distinguished by the diminution of the public debt, the restoration of a sound currency, and the reduction of the standing army and na\-y. His ministers were : Foreign Affairs, Carlos Carvalho ; Finance, Rodrigues Ahes; Industry and Public Works, Antonio OI\-ntho; Interior, Gongalves Ferreira; War, General Benjamin Vasques; Marine, Admiral Elisario Barbosa. Immediately on assuming office. President Prudente de Moraes sent General Nieme>-er to Rio Grande to treat \\-ith the re\-olutionists, with a \iew to settling the differences. In the earl\- part of the year, a mo\'ement began in favor of the restoration of Floriano Peixoto, having its origin chiefly in the army and na\-\'. President Moraes closed the military school and expelled the students because they attempted to arouse feeling against the existing go\'ern- ment. Other plots in fa\-or of the ex-President ^^'ere put do\\n in Pernambuco and Sao Paulo. The sudden death of Floriano, on June 29, 189^ put an end to these disturbances. The congressional session opened May 4th. The President, in his message, spoke of the necessity of encouraging immigration, of a reform in taxation, recommended the reor- ganization of the National Guard, and the strengthening of the coast defences. A bill \\-as passed placing a hea\'\' tax on foreign insurance companies doing business in Brazil. The indemnity/ claims of the British, French, German, and Italian go\'ernments for damages on account of losses sustained b\' their citizens in the late re\'olution amounted to a hea\"\' sum. 87- 88 THE NEiV BRAZIL On February 6, 1895', the dispute between Brazil and the Argentine regarding the boundary- line of the Missiones territory was settled by arbitration of the President of the United States, President Cleveland deciding in favor of Brazil, and establishing the boundary-line on the rivers Pepiri-Guaza and San Antonio. In this controversy, Brazil was represented by Baron Rio-Branco, and the Argentine by Dr. E. S. Zeballos. In November, 1896, the President was obliged to retire on account of ill-health, and Vice-President Manoel Victorino Pereira became acting President until March, 1897, when Dr. Prudente de Moraes had sufficiently re- covered to resume his office. The financial difficulties which menaced the welfare of the republic at this time were met with an honest and determined endeavor to improve existing conditions by a rigid system of economy in all expenditures and by a careful administration of the nation's affairs. This was absolutely necessary, as there was a widespread feeling of anxiety and uncertainty regarding the polit- ical future of the country, which was suffering from great commercial depression consequent upon the fall in the value of coffee, from a continuous depreciation of the currency, and from financial embarrassment caused by the necessities of the previous presidency. During the third year of the administration, the gov- ernment was called upon to assist the author- ities of the State of Bahia in putting down an insurrection that had broken out in one of the interior districts at a place called "Canudos," the stronghold of a large band of religious fanatics, led by one Antonio Maciel, whom they called " Conselheiro " [Counsellor], or "Messiah." There is a mystery about this war that has never been solved satisfactorily to all minds. By some people it is believed to have been an uprising for the restoration of the monarchy, with powerful support behind it, particularly as the rebels fought under the imperial flag and declared their mission to be a holy war against the existing government of Brazil, which they denounced as " atheistic, and undeserving of obedience, and doomed to be overthrown;" they also received, it is said, large quantities of arms and ammunition from unknown sources, and assistance in every way that could further their plans. On the other hand, many people are of the opinion that it was nothing more than an outburst of fanatic enthusiasm, simply a " holy DR. PRUDENTE JOSE DE MORAES BARROS, FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT. THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS 89 war," as its leaders called it. The history of the " Conselheiro " is interesting as a psy- chological study. Formerly a small farmer in Ceara, he belonged to a family of whom several had committed crimes under the influence of uncontrollable passion. He himself had unintentionally shot and killed his mother, who entered his house in disguise one night during his absence, intending to convince him of the infidelity of his wife, whom she hated. He then became insane, and on recovering, some time later, he learned that he was under sentence to a term of penitentiary imprisonment, at the end of which he went forth apparently completely transformed; he devoted himself to religious study and teaching, and retired to the remote interior of Bahia, where he gathered about him a large band of followers, and set up a kind of theocratic government of which he was the absolute head, requiring his disciples to give up all property, himself to be the custodian of the commonwealth and the chief father confessor and provider of his people. The following personal description is given of him by a Roman Catholic missionary: "The fanatic, Antonio Conselheiro, whose family name is Antonio Vicente Mendes Maciel, of Ceara, has a white but sunburned skin, is of spare build, of little physical vigor, and evidently a victim of some chronic disease which causes frequent fits of violent coughing. He wears a long gown of cotton goods, goes bare-headed, carrying in his hand a stout staff. His unkempt hair, falling about his shoulders, is long and curly, streaked with white. His eyes, deeply set, he rarely raises from the ground to look at any one. His face is long and of almost cadaveric pallor. His grave and penitent aspect gi\-es him an appear- ance that contributes not a little to attract the simple ignorant people of our remote interior." dr. olyntho de magal- The immediate causes of the rebellion are variously stated. One foreigITaffairs. authority says that the Conselheiro accused a merchant of embezzling some money left with him to pay for material for a church building in Canudos, and that when a demand was made for either the money or the material, the merchant complained to the State, declaring the fanatics were threatening him. Police officers were sent to protect the merchant, and in an attack on the Conselheiro they were defeated and some of them killed. Reinforcements sent to their aid were driven back with great loss, and the State was obliged to call for the assistance of the Federal troops. Meantime, the Conselheiro's sup- porters increased so rapidly that when the Federal army reached his stronghold it found an opposing force of about eight thousand well-trained men prepared to meet it in battle. On March ^, 1897, an engagement took place, resulting in a \ictory for the rebels, their supe- rior numbers overcoming the small battalion of Federal troops commanded by Colonel Moreira Cesar and Major Francisco M. Beitto, who lost six hundred men and all their guns and ammunition. Sympathizers in other States followed the example of the Conselheiro, and insurrections appeared in Pernambuco, Minas Geraes, Sergipe, and Piauh\'. The o-ovemment found it necessar>' to increase the strength of its army, and after a bitter 90 THE NE^ BRAZIL engagement, in which General Moreira Cesar was killed, a fresh force of seven thousand men was sent from Rio to Pernambuco, a large force of artillery being dispatched to Bahia at the same time, in charge of General Cantuzia. General Arthur Oscar took command of the troops on their arrival at Bahia, and attempted to march against the rebels' stronghold, two hundred and fifty miles distant from the capital. It was two months before the army reached Canudos, progress having been delayed all along the line by hostile bands. In June, the Federal troops won a victory in which eight thousand of the rebels were de- DR. joAQuiM DUARTE feated and about three hundred killed. Finally, after repeated engage- MURTINHO, . , . 1 T r J. ii /-> n • . MINISTER OF FINANCE. ments, resulting m alternate victory and defeat, the Lonselheiro s position was captured in October, Admiral Barbosa directing the final operation, during which the Conselheiro was slain, with thousands of his followers. The successful efforts of President Prudente Moraes to establish a peaceful constitu- tional government neady cost him his life on November j, 1897, at the hands of conspirators belonging to a band of political enemies, who planned to bring his administration to an abrupt end by assassination. The attempt was made while the victorious troops, just returned from the Canudos war, were being reviewed by the President. The dastardly deed was frustrated by the brave action of General Bittencourt, Minister of War, who threw himself in front of the President, receiving in his own breast the fatal wound. The assassin killed himself. Others found implicated in the plot were sentenced to imprisonment. At the presidential election held March i, 1898, Dr. Manoel Ferraz de Campos-Salles was chosen President, with Dr. Francisco Rosa e Silva as Vice-President. The administra- tion of Dr. Prudente Moraes had been marked by a strict adherence to the Constitution, and an honest and faithful discharge of his duties as chief executive. He retired from oifice with the plaudits of the nation ringing in his ears. In straightforwardness and unaffected simplicity he has been compared to Abraham Lincoln, and in staunch loyalty and patriotism his character offers an example eminently worthy of the emulation of the Brazilian youth. A native of the State of Sao Paulo, Prudente Jose de Moraes Barros was born at Itu, one of the oldest towns of the State, on the 4th of October, 1841. He was educated at the city of Sao Paulo, and graduated with high honors in the law department of the University in 1863. In 1866, he was married to Dona Adelaide de Moraes e Barros, and seven children have blessed this union. From the earliest days of his career. Dr. Prudente Moraes was a feariess advocate of republican pnnciples, and as Deputy to the Provincial Assembly of Sao Paulo, in 1869, made a famous speech against the vexatious measures of the imperial government. When the republicans of Rio published their manifesto in 1870, he was among the first to give his support to the movement, and his services were of the greatest importance in spreading the new political creed in his native State. Elected a Deputy to the national Congress, in 188^, on the republican ticket, through the defeat of the imperial can- didate by a large majority, he made known his views before that august assembly with the THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS 91 same unhesitating and uncompromising frankness tlnat liad distinguished his attitude in the provincial parliament, declaring, in one of his speeches, that the two great obstacles to the progress of Brazil were the monarchy and slavery. After the proclamation of the republic, he was elected a member of the provisional government of Sao Paulo, and on the 3d of December, 1889, became governor of the State. In October, 1890, he was elected to the Senate, and, when the first Congress met, enjoyed the honor of being called to pr"eside over its deliberations, thus having an important share in the framing of the new Constitu- tion. Although not a candidate for the presidency at that time, he received ninety-seven votes against the one hundred and twenty-two which elected Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. As vice-president of the Senate, in i8gi, his independence of spirit was shown in the manner in which he condemned the attitude of President Deodoro, not hesitating to sign a protest against "the dictatorship." In appreciation of his excellent statesmanship and the great value of his services at that trying time, his fellow-members of the Senate presented him with a handsome gold watch and chain, and a gold penholder incrusted with diamonds, which the great statesman preserves among his most valued treasures. In 1894, Dr. Pru- dente de Moraes was re-elected vice-president of the Senate, and in the same year was chosen by the people to fill the highest office of the nation. How honorably and efficiently he fulfilled the duties of this position is best shown in the popularity which he enjoys among all classes. The inauguration of President Campos-Salles, the present chief executive of Brazil, was celebrated on the i^th of November, 1898. At his election, the choice of the people was almost unanimous, 400,000 votes being cast in his favor, against less than 20,000 for his opponent. The members appointed to form his cabinet at that time were: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes ; Minister of Finance, Dr. Joaquim Murtinho ; Minister of Public Works, Dr. Severino Vieira; Minister of the Interior, Dr. Epitacio Pessoa; Minister of Marine, Admiral Balthazar Silveira; Minister of War, General Mallet. In the inaugural address, the President stated that he would devote the energies of his govern- ment to the reconstruction of the finances of the country, the de\'elopment of its resources, and the adoption of measures of tlie severest economy consistent with dignity and decorum. He accepted and endorsed the arrangement made by his predecessor \\ith foreign creditors for a three years' moratoriiun, promising to use his best efforts to carry out the exact terms of the contract. In foreign relations, the President declared it his intention to pursue an independent policy, at the same time en- deavoring to extend diplomatic and commercial relations with other nations, and advocating arbitration instead of war in the settlement of disputes. In his message to Congress, the President asked for a re- vision of the pension law, and the creation of a law dealing with the stamp duties, ^^'hich the separate States had unconstitutionally appro- '"^^NTxEroF'pur' priated. He proposed measures to impro\'e the collection of customs lic works. 92 THE NEM^ BRAZIL duties and other dues, and urged the co-operation of all loyal Brazilians in the gov- ernment's efforts for the economic and financial reconstruction of the country. The commercial policy advocated v/as the exporting of everything that Brazil could produce better than other countries, and the importing of everything that other countries could produce better than Brazil. The leasing of government railroads was strongly approved, as it was shown that the small lines already leased were earning a surplus under private control, whereas under the former management of the government they had always shown deficits. In that part of the message which refers to the finances of the country and the causes that produced the embarrassing complications, the President said : " What adds to the anxiety of the authorities, in the present difficult moment, is the urgent character and intensity of the financial crisis. It is the result of the gravest errors, which have long been accumulating, and which must be repaired without delay, and as completely and rapidly as possible, by recognizing, first of all, its principal causes, which are as follows: "Inopportune and often absurd protection in favor of artificial industries at the cost of heavy sacrifices to the tax-payer and to the treasury; the emission of enormous masses of inconvertible paper, producing a profound depression in the value of the currency ; deficits created by the enormous staff of functionaries, by expenditure of a purely local character, and by the continuous addition to the inactive classes ; extraordinary expenditure not provided for by the estimates and derived from extraordinary credits opened by the Executive and GENERAL MALLET, |-,y spgQ^i laws euacted by Congress ; indemnities decreed by judicial MINISTER OF WAR. J f JO J J sentences that amount every year to enormous sums; expenditure on account of internal commotions; obligations resulting from the State insurance and deposits, and which have come to be regarded as part of the ordinary revenue; con- tinuous increase of the floating debt, the result of increasing deficits and the conse- quent increase of the consolidated debt; the bad collection of the public revenue; the moral effect of a bad financial policy, with its discredit; the withdrawal of confidence and, consequently, of foreign capital; speculation, that in such a medium develops like a parasite on a failing organism ; finally, the fall of exchange, the synthesis and expression of all such errors. "To act with promptness, energy, and perseverance with regard to all the elements that I have pointed out as agents of our economical and financial decadence, abandoning the policy of expedients and postponements, to adopt a policy of real solution, is, in its general lines, the programme of my government. I can see no other secure or honest course that can lead to the re-establishment of normal relations with the creditors of the republic, the supreme aspiration that the honor and dignity of the nation imposes." THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS 93 In the first decade of her history as a republic, Brazil served a severe apprenticeship. During the first years, revolution followed revolution, and enormous sums of money were spent with inadequate results. Blunders were committed in finances, in politics, and in the essentials of good government, with no apparent error of form. The staunchest republicans of the " old guard " invited criticism by the adoption of certain methods not consistent with the principles of republicanism ; but, with all this, Brazil never quite reached the measure of folly and misgovernment that characterized the early days of American independence, when the United States were said to be "drifting toward anarchy," and the currency had lost its purchasing power. Brazil, under less favorable circumstances, did better than that ; and now that the era is passed which was marked by revolution, discord, and conspiracy, culminating in the attempted assassination of ex- President Prudente Moraes and the result- ing martyrdom of brave General Bittencourt, the inherent good sense and patriotism of the nation having been thoroughly aroused by the shock of that terrible event, a strong reaction has set in against revolutions and the demagogues who incite them, and, as a result, Brazil has since enjoyed an entirely different phase of life, as quiet and peaceful as it was before agitated and bellicose. The money question will s^tle itself, the resources of the country are abundant, and only require honest, prudent management. Brazil practically monopolizes two great staples of the world, — coffee and rubber, — and has many other sources of production, some of them not yet touched. There is a natural bond between Brazil and the United States in their territorial greatness and the oneness of their destiny. That Brazil is in quick and sincere sympathy with the latter is shown by her admiral balthazar standing alone among the nations of South America in open friendli- minister^of'marine ness during the war between Spain and the United States, and by the promptness with which her government responded to that of her northern sister in the matter of war-ships. The financial difficulties from which Brazil suffered during the first years of the republic and from which she is so courageously and successfully extricating herself in the face of the most trying obstacles do not date from the inauguration of the republic. As a matter of fact, the revenue and expenditure of the empire had not balanced in one single instance for thirty years previous to its fall ; and the yearly deficit had been met by continual bor- rowing. The Paraguayan war was to blame for the permanent derangement of the country's finances, from which every effort is being made to free her by the present administration. In his message of 1900, President Campos-Salles dwelt chiefly upon the financial situation, pointing out the most important measures to be adopted in order to raise the credit of the country. He assured Congress that the treasury had sufficient funds to meet its pay- ments punctually in the future, without heavy sacrifices or too burdensome taxation. The withdrawal of a large amount of paper money, the establishment of a metallic reserve to 94 THE NEIV BRAZIL DR. EPITACIO DA SILVA PESSOA, MINISTER OF JUSTICE AND OF THE INTERIOR. guarantee the paper in circulation, and the rise in the price of coffee, are main factors in the present improved situation. With a population of twenty millions, the list of liabilities from which Brazil suffers is not alarming, the per capita debt is not two- thirds of that of Great Britain, about double that of the United States, and considerably less than that of any other South American country. The improved condition of the finances in 1899 enabled the government to purchase and de- stroy 40,000 contos of paper money [about ten million dollars], in accordance with a prom- ise made to foreign creditors. Also 22,000 contos of treasury bills, given for military and naval purposes, were redeemed, and negotia- tions begun to redeem the internal gold loan of 1868. Expenses in all departments were cut down, and the total expenditures reduced by 17,000 contos. By abolishing the naval and military arsenals, 1200 contos were saved, and by disbanding a fifth of the standing army, another saving of 7000 contos was effected. The present active army numbers 1 5',ooo, military service being obligatory on all Brazilians for three years in the active army and three years in the reserve. The naval force com- prises 2 battleships, the Riachuelo and 24° de Maio; 2 smaller armor-clads, the Marechal Deodoro and Marechal Floriano; the cruisers Tamandare and Banv{o; 2 smaller cruisers, ^ monitors and coast-defence vessels; 12 small cruisers and gun-boats; 3 torpedo cruisers and 8 first-class and 6 third-class torpedo-boats. An estimate of the floating debt outstanding January i, 1899, placed it at $44,92o,95'o. The annual expenditure of the Brazilian government since 1890, leaving out the year 1894, when the expenses of the revolt were included in the estimate, and not counting the service on foreign loans, averaged $64,262,793 until i8g8, when it was reduced to $^4,991,4^0, and in 1899 to about $^0,000,000. The income from government railroads already leased, the payment of indebtedness by the banks, and the sale of government securities, all go to make up the redemption fund; while the guarantee fund is derived from the gold customs and duties, increased by five per cent. Important measures will be adopted looking to the development of the country's re- sources, the improvement of her trade relations, and the extension of her commerce. The question of education is receiving the attention and well-directed efforts of the best men in Brazil, men keen of intellect and quick to grasp the situation, who appreciate the necessity THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS 9S for good schools, understand the value of modern methods, and have an earnest desire to advance the educational standard at whatever cost. The historical events marking the close of the nineteenth century were few, but of great interest. The Acre boundary question caused some annoyance to the government toward the end of 1899. The contested territory supplied some of the most valuable rubber of tlie Amazon trade, and had been in dispute between Brazil and Bolivia for a considerable time, until an arrangement looking toward the amicable adjustment of the rival claims was made by accredited representatives of the two countries. This set- tlement of the difficulty was, however, unsatisfactory to some of the inhabitants of Acre, and, taking advantage of their discontent, a few leaders attempted to establish an inde- pendent republic, hoping in this way to control the production of rubber in this rich section without paying taxes either to Brazil or Bolivia. The two governments united to put down the insurgents, and succeeded in their efforts after a few unimportant engagements. An event of more than ordinary importance was the official visit, in August, 1899, of the President of Argentina, General Don Julio A. Roca, to the President of Brazil. Aside from its political significance, as a guarantee of friendly relations between the two great South American republics, the occasion was a notable one socially, the Brazilians fully sustaining their world-wide reputation for hospitality in the princely character of the entertainment of their honored guest. A suc- cession of military reviews, banquets, sight- seeing, excursions, receptions, and balls completely transformed the busy metropolis from a great commercial hive into a festive garden of gaiety and pleasure. Gold medals struck off in honor of the event and gold pieces coined especially for this purpose from the product of Brazilian mines w^ere presented by President Campos-Salles to President Roca, who, in return, made many handsome gifts to the charities of Brazil. The fourth centennial celebration of the discovery of Brazil by Cabral was observed in May, 1900, \\'ith appropriate festivities, in ex-ery city of the vast republic. In Rio de Janeiro the occasion was characterized by a display of great magnificence. The Portu- guese government, in honor of the event, sent a special ambassador. General Cunha, DR. THOMAZ WALLACE DA GAMA COCHRANE, SECRETARY OF THE PRESIDENCY. 96 THE NEIV BRAZIL who arrived on the 3d of May in the cruiser Don Carlos, and was received with distin- guished honors. The ceremonies lasted several days, one of the most important events being the unveiling and dedication of the monument to the great Cabral in the Praga Alvares Cabral. The illustrious Brazilian sculptor Bernardelli is the author of the monument, which is a fine work of art, representing the famous Portuguese navigator with his companions, Caminha, the chronicler of the discovery, and Henrique the monk, the three founders of the wonderful country which they named "The Land of the Holy Cross." The official reception on the second day in honor of the occasion was a grand function, attended by Ambassador Cunha, the guest of honor, by the President of Brazil and members of his cabinet, the army and navy officials, the foreign diplomatic corps, and the representative society of the capital. Eulogistic addresses were made by Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes, Bra- zilian Minister of Foreign Affairs, and by the Portuguese ambassador; two distinguished Brazilian poets, Senhor Luiz Guimaraes, Jr., and Olavo Billac, contributed poems in honor of the event, and a grand ball gave the evening a brilliant termination. Before the close of the festivities, a numismatic exhibition took place, at which nearly ten thousand coins and medals were displayed, Brazil contributing a quarter of the number, among them nearly all the coins of the country used from the time of the discovery up to the present day. An exhibition of Arts and Industries, opened on the last day, was another feature that proved most interesting, and highly creditable to the advancement and progress of Brazil. Illumi- nations, parades, military and naval reviews, banquets, excursions, in fact, a continuous succession of entertainments, made the week a memorable one in the history of the capital. President Campos-Salles paid a return visit to President Roca in October, 1900, receiving a most cordial welcome upon his arrival in the harbor of Buenos Aires, on board the iron- clad Riachuelo, accompanied by a large suite, including high officials of the Brazilian govern- ment and members of the foreign diplomatic corps in Brazil. The Argentine government had been preparing for months to accord the distinguished visitor a fitting reception, and the magnificent avenues and boulevards of the capital presented a beautiful appearance in decorative dress. The visit of Dr. Campos-Salles lasted about a week, during which he was entertained in the most sumptuous manner. Feasting and the usual sight-seeing that is a feature of such occasions filled the days to their extreme capacity. The whole country was en fete, and in the city of Buenos Aires the vehicles and cars were crowded to their utmost capacity day and night to accommodate the eager multitude. The tramways of the capital carried over three million passengers during the week, and the parks and avenues were continually lined with pedestrians. The departure of Dr. Campos-Salles and his friends was attended with much ceremony, addresses being interchanged with felicitous courtesy on both sides. The bond of friendship between the two countries is firmly estab- lished, and as their governments may be said to wield the balance of power in South America, the importance of their political unanimity may readily be understood. The settlement, on December 8, 1900, of a boundary question that had existed for three centuries between Brazil and France constitutes an important event in the history of THE ariL PRESIDENTS 97 the young republic, and especially in the life of the existing administration. The southern ' limits of French Guiana formed the subject of dispute, but the long-standing differences having failed to be adjusted after numerous conferences, it was agreed, in 1897, to submit the question to a court of arbitration, the members of which were to be named by the Swiss government. The French government having modified its eadier demands, which included territory bounded on the south by the Amazon River, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Rio Branco, the contestants defined the disputed territory as comprising an area of about one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, of which, under the award, Brazil secures one hundred and forty-seven thousand square miles, and France three thousand square miles. It is decreed that the boundaries shall be the Oyapok River throughout its course, and the water-shed line of the Tumuc-Humac Mountains from the source of the Oyapok to the Dutch frontier. Dr. Manoel Ferraz de Campds-Salles, the President of the United States of Brazil, occupies a high place among the leading men of the day as a patriot of unblemished record, a statesman honored for his genius and admired for his courage, an orator unex- celled in the force of his argument and the grace of his eloquence ; in character an honorable and upright man, in manner a courteous and distinguished gentleman ; in all, a thorough Brazilian who loves his country and gladly gi\"es the years of his life to its ser\-ice. Born at Campinas, in the State of Sao Paulo, in 1841, he breathed the atmosphere of political progress and reform from his \-ery infancy, and learned to be a patriot at his mother's knee. As he grew up, the splendid qualities of mind and heart which de\-eloped under the careful training of excellent parents were directed by an ambition of pure and lofty purpose toward the study of political conditions and the means for their amelioration. Good fortune ga\-e him the best possible instructors in the principles of political liberty, some of whom had been pupils of the great Dom Jose Bonifacio de Andrada, the father of Brazilian independ- ence, from his inspired lips first learning the lessons of " order and progress," the present watchword of the nation. Educated in the Uni\'ersit\- of Sao Paulo, he \\'as, e\'en at an early age, noted for the power and eloquence of his speech in debates, as well as for his de\'otion to the study of political science. He was graduated ^\■ith the degree of Bachelor of Laws, and, upon lea^■ing the Uni\'ersity, at once joined the Liberal party in politics, whose principles at that time were most nearK- allied with republican hopes and aspirations. As one of the editors of Rjyio, he N\-as an influential power from the beginning, and alwa\-s on the side of ad\-ancement and progress. His election to the Provincial Assembh' of Sao Paulo marked the beginning of his official career as a statesman, and \\'as made an opportunity for the promotion of the liberal principles he so earnestly ad\'ocated. In 186^ Dr. Campos-Salles was married to his cousin, the amiable and accomplished Dona Anna Gabriella de Campos-Salles, whose excellent judgment, and firm decision of character, ha\'e pro\'ed a stimulating influence and a source of encouragement to her distinguished husband in e\-er\' crisis of his important career. As an illustration, the stor\' is told that upon one occasion, when Dr. Campos-Salles was leading a mo\-ement against the government of 98 THE NEIV BRAZIL Sao Paulo because of its refusal to resign, as was demanded, upon the resignation of Deo- doro da Fonseca, its existence being solely a feature of the dictatorship, the brave lady, knowing that no power could daunt him save that most noble of all influences, the thought of loved ones to be protected from harm, though fully appreciating the dangers of his undertaking, said to him, with Spartan firmness, as he left their home to join his followers: "You must forget to-day that you have a wife and children, and remember only your duty to your country." Years -before the establishment of the republic called his administrative and executive abilities into special requisition. Dr. Campos-Salles was regarded by his con- temporaries as a rising statesman and orator. When, in 1884, he was elected a member of Congress by the Republican party, he carried the war against slavery into parliament and advocated immediate abolition, though he was a large landowner and would suffer from the results to follow the passage of such a law. He persistently and unfalter- ingly urged this reform until its final accom- plishment, in 1888. As a member of the Provisional Government, he successfully in- troduced most important measures of reform. During his term of office as Minister of Justice, two memorable decrees were issued, of which he was the author; one of the nth of October, and the other of the 14th of November, 1890, relating to the organiza- tion of the judiciary, and on the 7th of January, 1891, he delivered an address on his favorite theme, which has passed into history as one of the most learned discourses in the annals of modern legislation. Resign- ing from the cabinet of Deodoro da Fonseca when the methods of that President indi- cated a dictatorship. Dr. Campos-Salles was soon afterward elected to the national Senate by the people of Sao Paulo, who further honored him, in 1896, by making him their State president. Since his election to the presidency of the republic in 1898, Dr. Campos-Salles has devoted his energies to the administration of national affairs with a determined purpose and willing hand, letting no department of the vast machinery of government escape his watchful attention ; with clear judgment and ready wit, under no circumstances does his resolution waver or his will falter in the performance of duty, nor is there any occasion that finds him unprepared to meet its needs or demands. As the chief executive of a gov- ernment based on principles of pure republicanism, prosperous, enterprising, and progressive AQUEDUCT ROAD TO CORCOVADO. THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS 99 in aim and metliods, Dr. Campos-Salles, in every feature of his administration, reflects credit upon tlie wisdom of tlie electors in their choice of a national representative. The present members of President Campos-Salles's cabinet are men of great adminis- trative ability, who have been identified with the progress of the republic from its first organization, and are conscientiously devoted to its highest interests. The Vice-President, Dr. Francisco de Assis Rosa e Silva, is a Pernambucan, who, in former years, served his State with the same singleness of purpose and steadiness of aim that he now brings to bear upon the solution of problems that confront him as a chosen representative of the nation. He is in every way worthy of the high trust reposed in him, and is esteemed by all who know him. As Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes is called to the performance of duties corresponding to those of the Secretary of State in the United States. An experienced diplomat and a gifted statesman, his career in public life has been marked by great success wherever circumstances have placed him. At Washington, in Mexico, as Minister to Switzerland, to Russia, whatever has been the nature of the trust reposed in him, he has invariably executed it with credit to himself and honor to his government. Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes speaks English without a foreign accent, and is a good friend of Americans, whether their home be north or south of the equator. There are few men in Brazil so capable of dealing successfully with difficult financial problems as the present Minister of Finance, Dr. Joaquim Duarte Murtinho, who, in addition to his reputation as a successful statesman, enjoys an exalted place in the confidence of his countrymen as a doctor of medicine without a superior in Brazil. Dr. Murtinho is a gentle- man of firm principles and strict fidelity to the obligations resting upon him in his adminis- trative office ; the genius he has exhibited in dealing with the involved problems of Brazilian finance, and in solving them satisfactorily, proves how invaluable his services are to the State, and has given him an international reputation. The Minister of Industry and Public Works, Dr. Alfredo Maia, was appointed in 1899 to succeed Dr. Severino dos Santos Vieira, who resigned upon his election as governor of Bahia. Dr. Maia has been connected with public enterprises of the nature of his present duties for some years, — as Director-General of the Grand Central system of railways, and as an earnest advocate of immigration. He is gifted with rare intellectual qualities, possesses phenomenal energy and activity, and is a typical Brazilian gentleman in his conversational ability, tact, pleasing address, and polished manner. Dr. Epitacio da Silva Pessoa, Minister of Justice and of the Interior, is one of the most brilliant legislators of Brazil. After a college career of unusual distinction in the Law Uni- versity of Pernambuco, Dr. Pessoa at once entered the political arena, where he has won successive honors as Deputy to the Constitutional Assembly in 1890, member of the first legislature under the republic, and since 1898 Minister of Justice and of the Interior. An orator of exceptional power and eloquence, and indefatigable in promoting the interests of his department of the administration, Dr. Pessoa is still a young man, with a future promising the greatest success and honor. lOO THE NEIV BRAZIL The Minister of War, General Joao Nepomuceno de Medeiros Mallet, is distinguished for his splendid talent as a military commander and organizing chief, and brings to the dis- charge of his present responsibilities the advantage of wide experience, consummate tact, and special gifts as an administrator of military affairs. Rear-Admiral Jose Pinto da Luz, who succeeded Rear-Admiral Carlos Balthazar da Sil- veira in August, 1899, as Minister of Marine, has, during his brilliant career, filled many posts of honor in the army and navy, having been given command of the corvette Belinontc in the Paraguayan war when he was only twenty-three years of age. The distinguished admiral possesses several medals bestowed in recognition of his important services to his country. In the multitude of affairs that crowd upon the official life of the President, the office of Secretary of the Presidency requires the possession of superior mental gifts and an almost phenomenal capacity for dealing with a great variety of subjects. Dr. Thomaz Wallace da Gama Cochrane, who has charge of this department of the chief executive office, brings to his important duties the exercise of special talent and indomitable energy. Always cour- teous in attention to those who seek an interview, and willing to give any information pos- sible, provided it does not conflict with official instructions. Dr. Cochrane is greatly esteemed as the President's "right hand," and has the confidence of the entire administration as well as the public. PALACETE ITAMARATY. ■'■^ *s on the water's still expanse," 133 134 THE NEIV BRAZIL the scene is one to be treasured forever in the memory, ineffaceable. It is, however, when the brief twilight of the tropics softens the effect of its general outlines, and a " dim religious light " hallows it, giving a cathedral-like aspect to the picture, that its sublimity is most impressive. In solemn stateliness the gigantic Pao de Assucar guards the vestibule of this sanctuary of the gods ; the surrounding hills support on their lofty peaks its celestial dome ; under the shadow of their mighty columns, the great city, with its myriad tapers, lights up a magnificent altar ; far back in the darker recesses the huge organ-pipes of the Serra dos Orgaos suggest the sublime harmonies that Pythagoras might have fancied in " the music of the spheres ; " above all, pointing heavenward, as if to indicate the infinite Source of so noble a creation, the Dedo de Deus [Finger of God] seems to call upon all the world to bow in reverence before the majesty and power of the divine Author. Upon the first approach to the harbor of Rio, the attention is attracted to " the sleeping giant," a colossal figure outlined by the mountain summits against the sky, and recalling in its clear-cut profile the lineaments of the great father of American liberty. It is formed partly by the suburban hills of Rio and partly by the peaks of the Serra dos Orgaos, in the midst of which the charming city of Theresopolis is situated in a picturesque little valley three thousand feet above the sea. No railroads climb the rugged cliffs or bridge the yawning chasms that mark the ascent of the mountains leading to this sequestered spot, but the difficulties of the journey by diligence find more than compensation in the delight of the prospect constantly unfolding to the view. The city is reached through a great gap in the range, from which a panorama presents itself that in picturesque variety beggars description. The traveller who has enjoyed the scene can never forget the thrill of emotion excited by a first glimpse of the Brazilian Trosachs from this " airy point," when, stretched out below, the splendid harbor " In all her length far-winding lay With promontory, creek, and bay. And islands that empurpled bright Floated amid the livelier light, And mountains that like giants stand To sentinel enchanted land." Nearer, the wild, rugged beauty of lichen-covered rocks and leaping cascades, huge granite masses of fantasfic shape hanging over narrow cliffs, and fossil debris blocking fathomless abysses, further recalls Scott's famous description of the Trosachs, with " Crags, knolls, and mounds confusedly hurled, The fragments of an earlier world." Tradition lends the charm of romance to the unexplored summits of these mountains, in the wonderful story of the Lagoa Dourada, the Lake of Gold. That the legend is not altogether fanciful is proved by the fact that a lake has been found by exploring parties in PICTURESQUE SCENES •3? the region named, and sand glistening with the precious metal has been brought back as a trophy by adventurous discoverers. The tradition relates that in the early days a mur- derer, condemned to death, made his escape through the woods near his native village of Sao Paulo to the Indian settlement where Father Anchieta was living, and told his story to the priest, who advised him to flee to the mountains. The criminal took this advice, and, following the directions given him, came suddenly upon this lake, to which he gave the name "Lagoa Dourada," on account of the great quantity of gold in the sand of its YAPO RIVER, NEAR CASTRO, PARANA. shores. He remained two years, during which he amassed a great fortune, sufficient to purchase his pardon and permit him to return to his family, providing handsomely for them during the remainder of their days. He afterward wrote out the itinerary of his trip, but it is said to be attended by so many dangers that few explorers can be induced to undertake it. The hidians call the peak under which this lake of gold is supposed to be located the "Botucarahu," from two words meaning, in Guarany, "horse" and "fly," because at its great height it has the appearance of a gigantic fly on the arched neck of a horse. Father 136 THE NEIV BRAZIL ROCKS AT VILLA VELHA, PONTA GROSSA. PARANA. Anchieta, who was closely associated with the Indians in these early times and knew all their secrets, used to say to the people: "Between mother and son there lies a great treas- ure," a statement which was interpreted to mean that between the two places. Our Lady of Conception, and Good Jesus of Iguape, the lake of gold existed. This celebrated peak, which may be distinctly seen from the harbor of Rio, is also called the Finger of God. Less fatiguing than the road to Theresopolis, and in many respects quite as interesting, is the picturesque ascent of the Serra da Estrella, in the valley of which, at a height nearly equal to that of Theresopolis, is situated the beautiful summer capital of Brazil, Petropolis. The journey from Rio to this place includes a trip across the bay to the Maua landing, from which a railway train conveys passengers to the summit of the scrm. The changing spec- tacle presented by innumerable turns and curves of the bay and the constantly varying aspect of the islands that are passed is a source of esthetic delight to all nature-worshippers, and the view that spreads out in ever-increasing charm and splendor as the railway train plods its way up the steep slope of the mountain-side has an exhilarating effect upon the imagination, filling the whole soul with its beauty. At times, the entire bay is seen, glis- tening in the sunlight, or covered with foamy mist, the islands and rocks that mottle its PICTURESQUE SCENES 137 surface possessing each a separate claim to favor. Along the route, glimpses of the most gorgeous tropical vegetation appear; trailing vines, feathery ferns, and damp clinging mosses making an effective setting for the delicate coloring of the orchid and the rich glow of more brilliant blossoms. Great blocit'a WOODLAND SCENE IN SANTA CATHARINA. •! ^.'H3lfK:1C O _l < a- O O o X o CO o CHAPTER IX SCHOOLS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS ■ROGRESS in a nation may be measured in a great degree by the character and development of its schools. As the home is the chief bulwark of the State, the school is the great elevating and improving influence upon the home. Without the refining power of education, the family degenerates, and through the family the nation. But where schools flourish and children grow up in an atmosphere of mental culture the national vigor is stimulated and increasing strength assured. It is always an encouraging sign when the government of a country is seriously occupied with the question of educational advancement. Scarcely less important than its schools as an index to the real spirit and genuine worth of a people is the attitude of the State toward its poor and helpless wards. Institutions of charity, hospitals, asylums for the aged and infirm, indicate the humanitarian principles that guide the noble and great of all times and conditions. Without schools and charities, civilization would remain a weak and ill-nourished infant, incapable of sturdy growth or development. Since the inauguration of the republic, the government of Brazil has devoted unremit- ting attention to the interests of education and the improvement of charitable institutions under State protection. Recognizing the necessity for increasing the opportunities offered to the poorer classes for a useful and practical training during childhood, before they are forced to take a place among wage-earners, and to begin the struggle for self-support, it has been the constant aim of the successive administrations to build up and thoroughly equip the primary and secondary public schools of the country. So far as the higher instruction is concerned, while important features have been added, and in most cases complete reorganization under modern methods has been effected within the past ten years, yet for nearly a century this branch of the educational system has received special consid- eration, and there are institutions of learning in several of the larger cities that have been in existence since colonial days. Of these higher institutions, the most important is the Military Academy of Rio de Janeiro, now the Escola Militar do Brazil, which, from its earliest 149 l^O THE NEIV BRAZIL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, SAO PAULO, history, has counted not only as an educational, but also as a political factor in national affairs, its professors and students taking an active part in every crisis and some of the graduates filling the very highest positions in the State as well as in the army. The academy was founded during the reign of King Dom Joao VI., the chief honor of its crea- tion belonging to the Conde de Linhares, whose name is associated with many efforts for the development of the country at that time. From its establishment until the year 1874, the Military Academy occupied the unfmished cathedral in the Largo Sao Francisco, but the separation of the military courses of study from those of the natural and physi- cal sciences led to the removal of the former branch of instruction to the Praia Vermelha, where the Escola de AppUcagao had been established years before. The Military Academy was then reorganized, its buildings enlarged, and the curriculum extended. The present buildings are large and well-equipped with gymnasium, infirmaries, and all necessary con- veniences ; the instruction is thorough, and the discipline as strict as required. When the Military Academy was detached from the institution in the Largo Sao Fran- cisco, the original institution was reorganized under the name of Escola Polytcchnica, and devoted to the higher instruction in natural, physical, and mathematical science, the Visconde do Rio Branco taking charge as its first director. A general course, special courses in physi- cal and natural science, civil engineering, mines, and arts and manufactures, cover the sub- jects now treated in this college. The course in civil engineering receives special attention, and its graduates are prepared to take their place among leaders of the profession anywhere in the world. A great loss to the school and the country at large was sustained in the death, on March i^, 1899, of the distinguished scholar. Dr. Ernesto Gomes Moreira Maia, who was associated with the institution for forty years, both during the time when it was a part of the Military Academy and afterward through the quarter of a century that has marked its existence as a separate school. One of the first medical schools in Brazil was established in 181^, in Bahia, as the Collegio Medko-Cinirgico, in accordance with the royal charter of King Dom Joao VL The course of lectures at first extended over six years ; anatomy and pharmaceutical chemistry SCHOOLS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS i^i were the subjects for the first year; physiology for the second; hygiene, pathology, and therapeutics for the third; surgery for the fourth; and medicinal properties and practical medicine for the fifth and sixth. After this course, students were required to spend three more years in a university before being entitled to a degree. The institution is now known as the Faculdade de Mediciiui of Bahia, having been completely reorganized and modernized. Another institution of long standing, the School of Fine Arts in Rio, was first founded soon after the arrival of King Dom Joao VI. Following the advice of his ministers the king invited to Rio several celebrated artists, among them Joachim Lebreton, a member of the Institute of France, who became the first director of the Rio School of Fine Arts- Nicolas-Antoine Taunay, also a member of the French Institute ; Debret, the famous French painter of that time; Auguste Taunay and Marc Ferrez, the great sculptors; and a talented engraver and an architect of ability. These artists established, under the royal decree, the Escola Real dc Sciencias, Arks, and Officios in 1816. A few years later, the school was reorganized as the Academia das Aries, and provided instruction in painting, drawing, sculpture, and engraving. The present Escola Nacional de Bellas Aries occupies the build- ing erected in 183 1 from the design of the French architect, Grandjean de Montigny, who had come to Rio as one of the founders of the insfitufion; but the architectural style has been changed by the erection of addidonal wings and other alterations of the original A BRAZILIAN CHAUTAUQUA. 1^2 THE NEIV BRAZIL ^ 1^ :, .V I'll liiK' ■ ' * I I I 11 ■ y » < r AMERICAN COLLEGE, PETROPOLIS. Structure. The school was completely reorganized in i8go, and is now conducted on a broad, liberal, and progressive plan. Classes are taught painting, sculpture, architecture, and designing, and the lectures include all subjects bearing upon these arts; as, anatomy and physiology; the history of art; mythology; natural, physical, and chemical science; geometry, archaeology, and ethnology. Bahia also has an excellent School of Fine Arts. The Con- servatory of Music in Rio, now the Instituto National dc Miisica, was for many years a section of the Academy of Fine Arts. It was created an independent school in 1841 for the purpose of giving free musical instruction, and a building was constructed for its special use some years later. It has, besides the class-rooms, a large concert-hall. The celebrated composer, Carlos Gomes, received part of his musical education in this institution. The Universities of Law in Sao Paulo and Pernambuco have long enjoyed an inter- national reputation through some of their famous graduates. The greatest statesmen in the history of Brazil have taken degrees in these schools. The President of the republic. Dr. Campos-Salles, is a graduate of the Sao Paulo college, and the Minister of the Inte- rior, Dr. Epitacio Pessoa, was educated and took his degree in Pernambuco. Half a century ago, the schools of industrial and mechanical art which now flourish in all the chief cities SCHOOLS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 19 were first organized under the name of the Ljrru de Aiies c Officios. They are free schools, providing instruction especially designed to meet the needs of those who cannot afford the expense of a classical education. The training includes practical lessons in mechanical and industrial art, arithmetic, architectural drawing, penmanship, physics, chemistry, and other subjects. These schools were of great value before the present excellent system of primary and secondary education was so generally established, and they are still very important as supplementary courses. The whole educational system in Brazil has, however, undergone a change since the establishment of the republican form of government. Methods belonging to the monarch- ical regime have been discarded in favor of plans more consistent with republican ideas and principles, and, as a result, the schools and colleges are giving more substantial evidence than ever before of their usefulness and the great influence they exert upon the life and progress of the nation. The present school system of Brazil provides for primary, sec- ondary, superior, and special courses of education; a Directory of Public Instruction being appointed in each municipality to take charge of this branch of administrative affairs. The primary schools are increasing in number and importance every year, the census returns showing a steady and constant improvement in the annual average attendance. Girls' schools are taught exclusively by women, or professoras, though no distinction is made in this respect in the boys' schools. In the first grade of the primary classes the studies include,. besides the universal subjects for young children, lessons in moral and civic in- struction, gymnastics, manual training, and the singing of Brazilian national songs. Every ffrffM'niffir ^?;:§sS ^^"^^r^isfc COLLEGE OF LAW, SAO PAULO. i?4 THE NEW BRAZIL child is taught the national hymn — a patriotic feature of school training that is not always given full significance in the education of children of some other countries. In the second primary grade, the study of French and music, first lessons in political economy and national law, elementary chemistry and natural history as applied to the industries, agriculture and GYMNASIO, MANAOS. hygiene, are the subjects added to those begun in the previous grade; in all junior classes the girls are taught needle-work, and the boys mechanics. The kindergarten is an important feature of the primary work. The first kindergarten schools were established in Sao Paulo, during the presidency of Dr. Prudente Moraes, their management being placed in the hands of two capable and energetic ladies, Miss Marcie P. Browne, of Boston, Massachusetts, an American specialist in primary school organization, and Senhorita Mariquinhas de Andrade, a talented Brazilian teacher and a graduate of the Normal School of New York. To these two accomplished educators are due not only the successful adoption of kindergarten training in Brazil, but also the organization of the modern system of normal schools now existing there, whose influence has been most im- portant in raising the standard of teaching, and generally improving the methods of edu- cational training. Some of the most successful teachers in the public schools of Brazil to-day are graduates of the first training school organized by Miss Browne and Senhorita Andrade in the city of Sao Paulo. The history of the normal training school in Sao Paulo is interesting as an indication of the progressive spirit of its people, and of their advanced ideas. During the first year of the republic, Dr. Prudente Moraes, at that time president of the State, recognizing the SCHOOLS AhID CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 15^ immediate necessity for improvement in the public scliool system, devoted liis attention to securing funds for tliis purpose. He appropriated about seventy-five thousand dollars, which, under the imperial regime, had been granted to the Church, and applied it to the cost of establishing a normal school for the training of teachers. He enlisted the services of Dr. Cae- tano de Campos, an enthusiastic educator, in the plan of organization, and, as a result, Amer- ican methods were adopted, and the two ladies previously mentioned were engaged to conduct the school. On the death of Dr. Campos, the work was taken up by Dr. Cesario Motta, Jr., Secretary of the Interior in the State cabinet of Bernardino de Campos, who succeeded Dr. Prudente Moraes as president of Sao Paulo. A fme normal school building, whose foundations were laid by Dr. Prudente Moraes, was completed, training schools were added to it, and the present cluster of handsome school buildings on the Praga da Repub- lica of the city of Sao Paulo was completed, and filled with pupils. Dr. Motta found an able successor to Dr. Caetano de Campos in Dr. Gabriel Prestes, a graduate of the American school at Campinas, under whose intelligent and energetic direction Dr. Motta's plans were put into execution. The new training schools became very popular and attracted attention throughout Brazil. A complete system of public schools was established on the American plan, including gymnasio, polytechnic, model kindergarten, four model and one manual training, and six graded schools. There are now in the State of Sao Paulo 1290 graded, 400 intermediate, and ^^o ungraded [country] schools, with an enrolment of about 40,000 pupils, and an average attendance of 3 5' ,000. There is also a gymnasio at Campinas, and two schools of agriculture are established at the county-seats. The normal and model schools have been for several years under the direction of Dr. Joao Alberto Salles, a brother of the President of Brazil, a graduate of Columbia College, New York, and a noted edu- cator of great ability. The appropriation last year for all educational purposes in the State amounted to a million dollars in gold. Schools conducted on the same system as those of Sao Paulo are established in Rio, Bahia, Minas Geraes, Maranhao, Amazonas, Para, and Rio Grande do Sul. Besides the primary and secondary courses in the public schools, preparatory instruction is also given in the naval and the military schools, although these institutions are classified under the head of superior instruction and are devoted chiefly to the higher courses of study. The curriculum of the college called the Gymnasio Nacional, founded in 18^7, and reorganized in 1899, covers seven years, the alumni being graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Science and Letters. Not only is the new system of primary and secondary instruction showing excellent results in every State where it has been adopted, but the methods of education in all branches are undergoing improvement. The advanced schools and colleges are receiving more careful attention than ever before: the Department of Superior Instruction, embracing the military and the naval academies, the schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, polytechnics, and mines; and the Department of Special Instruction, to which belong the National School of Fine Arts, the National Conservatory of Music, the Lyceums of Mechanical and Industrial Art, the Benjamin Constant Institutes, the Pedagogium, 1^6 THE NEIV BR.4ZIL and the charity schools for children, are in a prosperous and flourishing condition, having made long strides forward within the past iew years. The Federal capital has two free schools of law, giving full courses in this branch of learning, and the cities of Bahia and Minas Geraes are similarly equipped, so that the oppor- tunities for ambitious students desiring to enter this profession are excellent. Sao Paulo has preparatory schools annexed to the Law University, and located in the towns of Cam- pinas and Itu. The Naval Academy, or Escola dc MaruiJia, as it was named when orig- inally established, but changed by subsequent decrees to the Escola NlIimI, is located in Rio, and is still the chief school of training for naval cadets. Many of the highest officers of the marine service have been graduated from the ranks of its students, and the adminis- tration of its affairs has at times been placed in the hands of the best commanders of the Bra- zilian navy. By a decree of December 13, 1893, in consequence of the naval revolt, the privileges of the school were suspended, but they were restored in 1894. The Collcgio Mil- itar of Rio de Janeiro is of recent origin, having been created by government decree on the 9th of March, i88g, and reorganized on the i8th of April, 1898. Its object is the gratuitous educa- tion and military instruction of the sons and eldest grandsons of army and navy officers who have rendered valuable service to the State, and also those of the professors of mili- tary schools who are not in the army. Other students are admitted by paying for their tuition. The Faculty of Medicine in Rio takes rank among the best in the world. The new build- ing erected for the school on the Praia da Saudade, near the Military College, is a handsome structure, thoroughly equipped with a fine laboratory, a complete medical library, and other necessities of such an institution. The students receive professional practice in the charity hospital of Misericordia, where, owing to its particular purpose, — the care of sick sailors of all nationalities, as well as the sick poor of Rio, — the opportunities for valuable experience are almost unlimited. According to a law passed by the National Congress, in 1896, the municipality of Rio assumed the maintenance of an important institution formerly under Federal control, the Pedagogium, or school of professional instruction. In this school night courses are given in pedagogy, physics, chemistry, history, agriculture, moral and civic instruction, etc.; a pedagogical library is maintained, with a circulating branch, and there is also an excellent museum in connection DR. HORACE M. LANE, PRESIDENT OF MACKENZIE COLLEGE. SCHOOLS AND CH.4RIT.4BLE INSTITUTIONS •S7 with it. A pedagogical review, Ediicagjo c Eiisiiio, is published monthly. The school statistics of the Federal district are also furnished by this institution. The advent of a new century marks the successful establishment of a number of excellent new schools in different cities of Brazil. In Para, the Lauro Sodre Institute, named for one of the leading men of that State, has just been completed and opened for the free instruction of poor boys by the government. The course of study includes, in addition to the usual elementary branches, superior classes in the arts and sciences, music, gymnastics, and fencing. At Ouro Preto, in the State of Minas Geraes, Brazil has a school of mines that is said to rank second in the world. It was organized by a decree of HOSPITAL MISERICORDIA, BAHIA. President Floriano Peixoto on the i8th of September, 1893, and is devoted to the free instruction of mining engineers and experts, assayers, and other students of mineralogy. The school is established in the old colonial governors' palace built early in the eighteenth century. The library and museum contain rare collections ; some specimens of the ame- thyst, topaz, and diamond deposits in the State being especially interesting and valuable. Manaos, the capital of the State of Amazonas, has an excellent and notable institution known as the "Benjamin Constant," where the free education of young girls is provided for by the government. Not only are the girls educated and instructed in all womanly arts, and even accomplishments, learning how to manage a household, sing, play the piano, and do fine needle-work, but they are graduated with a dot from the State, \\'hich is fur- nished for the purpose of buying their wedding trousseau, and suitably setting them up in housekeeping. The choice of a husband depends on circumstances, as the young men are presented to a class of graduating girls and asked to make their choice. If the suitor is not acceptable, the girl remains in the Institute another year. Besides the Brazilian schools in every city, there are several excellent English, German, and American schools. One of the most important of these is the Mackenzie College of 1,-8 THE NEIV BRAZIL Sao Paulo, under the direction of an American, Dr. Horace M. Lane, who has been a resident in Brazil for forty years, and during all that time has been identified with its educational affairs, especially in the State of Sao Paulo. He is highly esteemed as an educator and a gentleman of advanced ideas and theories. Mackenzie College was incorporated by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York in July, 1890. It is an undenominational college. In 1891, John T. Mackenzie, of New York City, offered to the college fifty thousand dollars for the erection of a three-story building to be known as Mackenzie College, and to be occupied in connection with the college work. This building, which is a handsome structure, modelled after the general style of the Mark Hopkins Memorial Hall at Williams College, New York, is now the main college building, occupied for recitations, lectures, and laboratory. In 1894, an additional house was built for the younger pupils of the lower school, with funds given by Dr. Gunning, of Edinburgh, Scot- land. The college was opened in 1892. The total enrolment is nearly a thousand pupils. Branches at Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Curityba educate about five hundred students. Mackenzie College prepares its graduates to enter the University of the State of New York. At Petropolis, in the State of Rio, in addition to other educational institutions, there is an excellent German college for boys and an American college for girls. Careful attention is paid by the government to the needs of the unfortunate sick or poor of Brazil, for whom schools and asylums are provided at the expense of the State. The charity known as the National Institute for Deaf Mutes is administered by the Depart- ment of the Interior. This institution is established in Rio, in the Rua Larangeiras, and provides not only all necessary conveniences for its inmates, but also a regulady organized system of training, by means of which their lives may be useful and blessed ; every inmate learns an art or trade ; in the agricultural department all kinds of plants are cultivated ; the museum contains more than three thousand valuable specimens ; and the library has two thousand volumes adapted to the needs of the institution. The National Asylum for the Insane, which occupies a picturesque site on the Praia de Saudade, Botafogo, is one of the important charitable institutions of the capital. It was established by government decree of December 30, 1897, and has proved a great blessing to the many unfortunate wards of the State who are cared for within its protecting walls. The memory of one of the foremost leaders in the successful establishment of the present government in Brazil is associated with a noble charity, — " The Benjamin Constant Institute for the Blind," — which preserves the name of the distinguished educator and is a lasting monument to him who was the chief director of the school under the old regime, and in this capacity was chiefly instrumental in bringing about the prosperous conditions that now attend it, in the form of a handsome building, and all the comforts possible to such an institution, such as libraries, gardens, music-rooms, and other elevating advantages. The Hospital da Misericordia has attracted more attention than any other charity in the Federal capital, because of its far-reaching benefits and the magnificence of the establish- ment. Its original organization was due to the celebrated Jesuit priest. Father Anchieta, in SCHOOLS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS '59 the sixteenth century, though the modern arrangement of the hospital and the construction of the building as it stands to-day date only from 1840, thirty years having been required to complete the splendid edifice. It is a fine specimen of classic architecture, and has accommodating capacity for twelve hundred patients. From ten to fifteen thousand are treated annually within its walls. It is especially intended for the free accommodation of sick sailors of all nations and the poor of the city, though there are private rooms reserved for paying patients. The service of the Misericordia is divided into four branches, each having its own work as a separate organization. The general hospital sustains, through the rent of its patrimony and other aids, the Asylum of the Misericordia for the refuge of aban- doned girls ; the Asylum of Sao Maria for old and decrepit women ; the Hospital of Nossa HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, RIO DE JANEIRO. Senhora dos Dolores at Cascadura for tuberculosis; and the Pasteur Institute in Larangeiras for treatment of hydrophobia. The Pompes Finiebrcs, or Funeral Directorate, attends to the arrangement of public funerals, has charge of the public cemeteries, and controls the administration of affairs in the hospitals of Nossa Senhora da Saude, Gamboa, Sao Joao Baptisto, and Seguro; the services rendered to the city by this enterprise are most valuable, being afforded alike to the poor who cannot pay and to the rich and luxurious to whom money is no object, thus honoring the memory of the great founders of the enterprise,— Dr. Jose Clement Pereira and the Marquis de Monte Alegre. The Asylum for Foundlings takes charge of abandoned infants, nurses and cares for them during their childhood, and gives them instruction as i6o THE NEIV BRAZIL they grow old enough to learn, making no distinction in their treatment as members of the great human family, but offering them the best opportunity to become useful citizens when they grow up. The Retreat for Orphans receives only legitimate children of poor and honest parents, giving them the comforts of a good home, and an education ; this branch of the work is also in affiliation with the orphanage of Santa Theresa. • Among other hospitals and charitable institutions, the most important are the orphans' asylums in all the principal cities; the Casa de Sao Jose inaugurated in August, 1888, in Rio de Janeiro ; the marine hospital on the Ilha das Cobras, and the infirmary for beriberi at Copacobana, established for the benefit of the navy, in 1890; the hospital Sao Sebastido, Asylo Sao Francisco dc Assis, and several foundling asylums. The hospitals established in the large cities by the Portuguese benevolent societies are models of equipment, neatness, and general comfort. The hospital Bciicficiciicia Portiigue{a of Para is one of the best in Brazil. The Strangers' Hospital in Rio, and the English Hospital at Mangabeira de Cima in Pernambuco, are two of the best foreign hospitals. Under the administration of the war department are a number of military hospitals and chemical laboratories necessary for army purposes. The Military Hospital of Andarahy, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, is thoroughly equipped for medico-chirurgical treatment with all modern conveniences. The Military Chemical Laboratory, also in Rio, furnishes medicines and utensils to all the military phar- macies of the republic, to the ambulances, and to all the subordinate establishments of the Department of the Interior and Justice. Thus, in all the public benefactions that modern science places at the disposal of gov- ernments, Brazil, progressive and compact, stands prominently forth among the nations. Poverty and sickness, the two most terrible foes of the human family when they com- bine forces, lose much of the bitterness of their sting, for blessed charity, liberally adminis- tered, throws a protecting mantle over helpless victims. Brazil has fewer beggars blocking her thoroughfares than most countnes of the warm southern zone, where Nature is so prodigal of her gifts that man ceases to appreciate them, or to observe the laws of economy and industry which she exacts from the natives of less favored climes. ■TTTjmliris ;fip MACKENZIE COLLEGE, SAO PAULO. PEDRO AMERIGO. HONOR AND COUNTRY. CHAPTER X MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE |0 evident is the influence of mental culture upon the life and manners of a people, and so important is its relation to human progress and development, that no adequate idea of the real advancement of a nation can be gained with- out a knowledge of its achievements in this direction. The musical schools, art-galleries, and great libraries of Europe bear witness to the steady march of civilization in those countries, covering centuries ; and, in proportion to the high character of similar institutions in the New World, it is possible to trace the growth of national im- provement on this side of the Atlantic. America has made wonderful progress in the production of good literature, and some of her writers rank with the best in the history of the world; in music and art her record has not been so remarkable, though there are musical composers and painters of America worthy to be named with the great masters of Germany and Italy. Brazil may, with just reason, be proud of her contribution to the grace and beauty of intellectual accomplishment in the western hemisphere, which has produced no greater com- poser than Carlos Gomes, no greater sculptor than Rodolpho Bernardelli, no greater dramatist than Jose Alencan None of her poets have sung sweeter songs to softer music than the gifted but unfortunate Gongalves Dias. Whether in the realm of music, art, or literature, Brazil is equally prepared to establish her right to an honorable position. Music is a pas- sion with the Brazilians, many of whom are endowed with magnificent voices carefully trained, and gifted with exceptional talent in musical composition or its interpretation. They are particularly devoted to the Italian masters. The librettos of the operas of Carlos Gomes, the great Brazilian composer, are in Italian, and Italian opera furnishes the favorite subjects in all the theatres throughout the country. Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Bahia, Pernambuco, Para, and Manaos have grand-opera houses visited every season by noted European artists. The first great musical composer on the American continent, Carlos Gomes, the creator of the Brazilian opera, achieved a distinction among the living masters of musical 163 164 THE NEIV BRAZIL composition sufficient to place his name in the same rank as Rossini, Verdi, Meyerbeer, Bellini, and Donizetti. The story of his life is similar to the record of many men of genius who have earned the laurels of fame at the cost of much privation and sacrifice. A Brazilian de par sang, as were his ancestors for several generations, the distinguished composer was a Paulista by birth, his native city being Campinas, the birthplace also of President Campos-Salles. He was born in 1839, and at a very early age gave evidence of wonderful genius, which was fostered and encouraged by his father, a musician and composer. Before reaching fifteen years of age, he was a favorite in all the musical PEDRO WEINGARTNER. COUNTRY BALL. entertainments of his native town, where his excellent interpretation of the best composers, and his splendid soprano voice, won enthusiastic praises. It is said that the inspiration to compose music came to him upon seeing, for the first time, the opera // Trovatore. As soon as an opportunity presented itself, he entered the Musical Conservatory at Rio, where he became an indefatigable student. At the age of twenty, he composed the music for a college song written by one of the students of the University of Sao Paulo, Senhor Bittencourt Sampaio, which has been popular ever since ; he also wrote several modinhas that are still sung everywhere in Brazil. In 1867, at La Scala of Milan, he gave to the world his master- piece, the grand opera O Guaraiiy, taken from Alencar's celebrated romance of the same MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 165 name, and presenting a story of the Indians of Brazil, whicli, for thrilling interest, compares favorably with Verdi's Aida. So great was the fame of the young composer in the years that followed the appearance of his chef-d'oeuvre, that some of his operas took precedence in popular favor for a time over those of the greatest living masters in Europe. His Fosca was performed fifteen times during the grand-opera season of 1872 at Milan, whereas Verdi's AuU was presented on but six occasions; his Salvator Rosa and Maria Tudor have been counted among the greatest successes in Italian opera. He was the composer of the tri- umphal hymn for the United States Centennial Exposition. Though he may be said to follow the Italian school, there is a certain flavor of western freshness and novelty in his treatment that does not belong to the European masters. Returning to his native land, after triumphs that had made him famous throughout two continents, Carlos Gomes took charge of the Musical Conservatory of Para, where he died in 1898, his funeral being attended with all the pomp and ceremony be- fitting the occasion. Brazil, however, had produced a musical genius nearly a century before the birth of Carlos Gomes, in the person of Jose Mauricio Nunes Garcia. He was first brought into promi- nence after the arrival of King Dom Joao VI. in Brazil. In the royal retinue was the great musician and composer, Marcos Portugal, author of the composition known in all lands as the Portuguese Hyuiu. This distinguished celebrity came as royal chapel-master to the king, who was very fond of music, and much given to the celebration of pompous religious ceremonies, and it was through the maestro's influence that the young Brazilian was first presented to the king, who immediately recognized his wonderful gift. From the accounts of his biographers, Jose Mauricio was a self-educated musician and composer, Inaving enjoyed few, if any, of the advantages of instruction. He was too poor to provide himself with a harpsichord, and it is said that when giving lessons, by which he earned a livelihood, he was at first obliged to accompany the solfeggios with a banjo arranged with metallic chords. His financial affairs were, however, improved considerably by an appointment which was given him as musical director of the cathedral in Rio, though he continued his classes, giving lessons at home to a class of free pupils for thirty-eight years. His students used to wear a red and blue cockade in their hats, and were exempt from' military service. When the king returned to Lisbon, he invited Jose Mauricio to accompany him, but the musician would not leave his native land. He composed some notable pieces of sacred music, among them the Funeral Synipliouw — which was executed at his own b\xx\-d\,— Requiem, THE BERNARDELLI BROTHERS. 1 66 THE NEIV BRAZIL ^ CARLOS GOMES. Te Dciim, and other works. He was born in the State of Minas Geraes about 1742, and died in Rio in 183 1. A pupil of Jose Mauricio, tlie celebrated musician Francisco Manoel da Silva, was the founder of the Conservatory of Music at Rio. His compositions were very popular, and he had the good fortune to number among his pupils the great musician and composer Carlos Gomes. The National Conservatory of Music in Rio has been an important factor in the education of Brazilian musicians, it is to- day in a flourishing condition, some of its pro- fessors enjoying national fame. The director is Dr. Leopoldo Miguez, and among the members are the well-known musicians Carlos de Mes- quita, Francisco Alfredo Bevilaqua, Frederico do Nascimento, Alberto Nepomuceno, D. Luigia Guido, and others. The Para Conservatory has also produced many excellent musicians, Senhor Villacy, one of its students, having won exceptional honors in Paris and other foreign cities. The history of art in Brazil embraces a record of nearly three centuries, though its greater development began with the establishment there of the Portuguese court and the immediate organization of a school of fine arts under the direction of some of the most celebrated teachers in Europe. Prior to that time, several works of art had been produced to which Brazil could point with pride. Among the eadiest of these were the landscapes of two Dutch painters who flourished during the seventeenth century while the northern part of Brazil was in possession of Holland. In the eighteenth century, Jose Leandro de Car- valho, born at Rio, was the first Brazilian artist of note, succeeded by Jose de Oliveira, Joao de Sousa, Raymundo da Costa, Manoel Dias de Oliveira Braziliense, and others. The founding of the school of fine arts at Rio de Janeiro eady in the nineteenth century con- tributed greatly to the development of artistic talent. Among the distinguished pupils of this school were Simplicio de Sa, painting-master to the Emperor Dom Pedro II., and Correa de Lima, whose pupils numbered some of the greatest painters of Brazil, including the celebrated historical painter De Mello Corte-Real, Victor Meirelles, who painted The First Mass ill Brazil, Tlic First Battle of Giiararapes, The Naval Battle of Riaeliuelo, Passage of Humayta, and other famous canvases, and Pedro Amenco de Figueiredo, to whose genius Brazil owes several of her best creations on canvas. This institution, now known under the name of the Escola Naeional de Bellas Aries, has among its present members the famous sculptor, Rodolpho Bernardelli, its president; his brother, Henrique Bernardelli, author of the celebrated painting, Mother, which represents a Brazilian mother of the poorer classes, MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 167 draped like a Madonna, nursing her babe on a bench by the wayside ; Pedro Americo, who ranks among the best painters of the century, his Ypiraiiga, Battle of Avjy, and Honor and Country bringing him international fame; Pedro Weingartner, unsurpassed in genre, his Oblique Lines having a touch of humor which gives additional effectiveness to the study of character, while his Country Ball is charming in its natural expression ; Modesto Brocos, one of the most versatile of artists, producing portraits, landscapes, and figures, as well as genre, whose painting Manioc, an excellent composition, demonstrates both artistic judgment and sound academical training ; Rodolpho Amoedo, famous as the painter of Tiie Departure of Jacob; D'Almeida, author of During tlie Rest, which is a delightful study in pose and expression, the model enjoying a little coquetry during the relaxation, which seems thor- oughly appreciated by the artist; Arsenio da Silva, Aurelio de Figueiredo, Agostinho da Mofta, Abigail de Andrade, Bertha Worms, are prominent artists. The academy has a rich collection of celebrated paintings, more than five hundred, both ancient and modern ; the most valuable of these include canvases by Velasquez, Van Dyck, Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Paul Veronese. Sculpture has an inspired interpreter in the famous Rodolpho Bernardelli, author of Christ and the Sinning Woman, The Coquette, the bronze statues of Pedro Alvares Cabral, MODESTO BROCOS. MANIOC. 1 68 THE NEIV BRAZIL PEDRO WEINGARTNER, Diiqiie dc Caxias, General Osoiio, and Jose de Alciicar, in the city of Rio, and some furtlier masterpieces. As early as tlie eigliteentli century, Minas Geraes had a sculptor of talent, Antonio Jose da Silva, whose works were greatly praised by Saint-Hilaire. In architecture, Brazil shows some traces of the Dutch occupation, though nothing worthy of admiration. The aque- duct of Carioca, built at Rio, in 17^0, by the Portuguese, is a fme example of the architectural work of that period, but the effect is almost entirely lost by its partial disappearance and the changes made in that locality since it was built. The churches and convents of Brazil afford a good idea of the architectural methods of the times in which they were built. Two of the most distinguished architects of the colonial period were Silva Lisboa, who came to Bahia from Portugal in 1 76 1, and Lande, of the same period, who took up his residence in Para. The magnificent carvings to be found in the interior of most of the old churches were done by artists espe- cially trained for this work, including Simao da Cunha and Jose da Conceicao, sculptors of the monastery of Sao Bento, and Valentim da Fonseca, author of the carvings in the interior of the churches of Carmo and Sao Francisco in Rio. Rio de Janeiro has some attractive specimens of architecture, such as the Hospital of the Misericordia, the Post-office, Bolsa, Treasury building. Palace of Agriculture, and many handsome private residences. Sao Paulo has a monument of architectural as well as historical interest in the Museum of Ypiranga. The government buildings in Bahia; the Lauro Sodre Institute in Para; the magnificent theatre, costing two million dollars in gold, which stands on a commanding site in the city of Manaos; the Palace of Justice in Manaos; the Lyceum of Arts and the church of Boa Vista in Pernambuco ; and the palace of the governor of Minas Geraes at Bella Horizonte, — are among the finest examples of the archi- tecture of Brazil. Brazilian literature is especially rich in poetry and romance. The transforming touch of fancy is so gracefully and lightly applied by these gifted people, even to the most common- place events, that beauty grows out of apparently plain and insignificant material, and the rhythm of sweet sound renders enchanting the harshest truths. Sentiments of patriotism, friendship, love, or sorrow are made to thrill with divine feeling by the precious power of their impassioned verse. The following stanza is taken from the "Song of the Exile," written by the best-known and best-loved of Brazilian poets, Gongalves Dias. It is the " Home, Sweet Home " of the Brazilian people, and is, perhaps, quoted oftener than any other patriotic ballad in the language: " Minha terra tern paimeiras Onde canta o sabia, E as aves que aqui gorgeiao Nao gorgeiao como la, " MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 169 [Mine is tlie country where the pahn-trees rear Their stately heads toward the azure sky, And where, in accents ever soft and clear, The sabia sings her hymn of melody ; Here, in my exile, say what warblers rare Can with the sabia's notes their own compare ?] The English adaptation of which William G. Abbott, formerly British consul-general at Rio de Janeiro, is the author, expresses the sentiment of the poem, but does not in any sense reveal the exquisite delicacy of touch in the original, nor its plaintive rhythmic melody. The following lines are given to convey an idea of the poet's beautiful conception, the stanza above quoted being the opening one of the poem : " Our skies are strewn with stars, our fields with flowers, Our woods resound with bird and insect life. Our life's a dream of love in fairy bowers. Where Nature's lavish gifts are ever rife : Bright land of palms ! where the sweet sabia sings. The exile's heart to thee still fondly clings. " Friendless, alone, at niglit, 1 dream of thee ; My slumbering senses wrapped in peace and bliss, I see the palms ; the sabia's melody Falls on my ears ; once more I feel the kiss Of lips I love; 1 wake, the vision's gone. The sabia to his native woods has flown. " O radiant vision ! fatal were thy charms ! My heart, till death, to thee is closely bound. Last night I dreamt I held thee in my arms ; This morn I woke : despair was all 1 found. The sabia's voice was mute, the palms were dead, A tangled wilderness remained instead. " 'Twas surely some magician's potent hand Which shed this mystic glamour all around. Scattered bright flowers broadcast o'er the land. Built up the palms, and, filled with tuneful sound. The sabia singing as if mad with joy, — Passionate longing, without alloy. " Spare me, O God, until in peace 1 lie Asleep forever in the land 1 love. Then may the sabia carol joyfully. Perched in the palms, my resting-place above. So gathering in the first-fruits of my love, No longer homesick, e\'ery heart-ache past, Bearing the sheaves for which in grief 1 strove, A plenteous harvest may 1 reap at last." PEDRO AMERICO. lyo THE NEW BRAZIL Gongalves Dias was born in the town of Caxias, State of Maranhao, on the 2d of August, 1824; he was educated at Coimbra University, and graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Laws. At the time of the appearance of his first collection of poems, he occupied the chair of Brazilian history in the Imperial College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro. In these poems many incidents in the history of Brazil were used as material, and most of them have a distinctively American character. They were received by the Brazilian and the European public with immediate appreciation, the celebrated Portuguese author, Herculano, especially praising one of them, entitled Her Evcs,d& "the most delicious lyrical composition which I have read in my life." Recognizing his literary ability, the Brazilian government sent the poet to Europe, commissioned to collect manuscripts and documents relative to the history of Brazil. During his stay abroad, he wrote Os Tymbiras, published in Leipzig, and sixteen new poems, afterward collected and published in a second volume of verse. He also wrote a Dictionary of ihc Tiipy Language. On his return to Brazil, he joined a scientific commission of exploration, and made a voyage up the Ami^zon, gathering much valuable material, but at the expense of his health, which was completely broken down when he re- turned to Rio the following year. He never recovered strength from that time, though he lived for three years longer, a constant sufferer, but an indefatigable worker as long as it was possible for him to hold a pen. As a last hope, a second voyage to Europe was decided upon by his friends and medical advisers, and in 1862 he §ailed from Pernambuco for Lisbon. While in Lisbon, he translated Schiller's Bride of Messina and added ten cantos to his poem Os Tymbiras. But his strength rapidly failing, he begged to be taken home to his native land, that he might die among her "palmeiras," within the sound of the "sabia's song," under the blue skies of his beloved Brazil. The inspired poet seems to have had a prophetic vision of the fate that awaited him, for in one of his poems he wrote: "Adieu to my friends of Maranhao 1 so departs the exile ; some day the waves will toss his remains up on the sands of the beloved shore whence so lately he has taken his departure, and where the cold ashes seek a resting- place." And the mourn- ful prediction was veri- fied. The vessel in which he took passage was wrecked, and when the captain went to the cabin to rescue the poet, if possi- ble, he found that he had expired. The ship sank on November 3, 1864, STUDIO OF A BRAZILIAN ARTIST. MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 171 FERRAZ D'ALMEIDA. DURING THE REST. carrying to the mysteri- ous depths of the sea the mortal remains of one of the most gifted poets of his day — Antonio Gongalves Dias. Of poets contempo- rary with Gongalves Dias, several names stand out prominently among the many graceful writers of this period: DomingosJose Gongalves de Magalhaes wrote verses distinguished for their lofty patriotic sentiment ; Araujo Porto- Alegre, Baron of San An- gelo, is best known by his epic on Columbus ; Castro Alves, a Bahian, has been compared to Hugo in the vigor and fire of iiis style when portraying the misfortunes of the slaves and the evils of serfdom ; Casimiro de Abreu is counted among the best lyric poets of the Portuguese language ; Odorico Mendes made excellent translations of Homer and Virgil. Next to poetry, the Brazilian writer is at his best in fiction. In this field, the distinguished names are Jose de Alencar and Joaquim de Macedo. The Giiamny of Alencar has passed through several editions, has been translated into many languages, and was, as has been said previously, the subject of Carlos Gomes's famous opera O Gitamiiy. Both his Giiarany and his celebrated prose poem Imcciihi are based upon Indian lore. Alencar made a great reputation as a romancist, dramatist, journalist, and political orator, and a statue to his memory stands in one of the prominent squares of Rio. He was born in 1829, and died in 1877. Macedo's T/ie Bniiicftc is said to have had the largest sale of any book ever pub- lished in Brazil ; besides numerous romances, he also wrote some dramatic pieces, and a poem, A Ncbiilosj. Bernardo Guimaraes, in the romances O Gjiimpeiro [the diamond- seeker], O Scnu'ihiiisfj, and A Escrava I{LUira, has portrayed in clear coloring the life and manners of the State of Minas Geraes. In the novel As Mcmorias dc ///;/ Sargento de Militias, Almeida has given an interesting national romance of the colonial period. Martim Penna is entitled to the honor of having created the national comedy. The poets Magal- haes, Alencar, Gongalves Dias, Agrario de Menezes, and Pinheiro Guimaraes all contributed to the drama, but did not meet with much encouragement in their efforts owing to the preference shown for the works of foreign dramatists. Of historical \\'riters, there are the \\-ell-known authorities, Varnhagen, Visconde de Porto-Seguro, author of A Historia Gcnil do Bi\i{il, and other important works; and Jose 172 THE NE^ BRAZIL Maria da Silva Paranhos, Barao do Rio-Branco, who is regarded generally as the greatest modern authority on the history of Brazil. Macedo has written the most popular history of Brazil. Caetano da Silva, Homem de Mello Ignatius Accioli, and Moreira Pinto are also among her best historical writers. On scientific subjects, valuable contributions have been made by Dr. Couto de Magalhaes, author of many learned treatises on ethnology and archeology, who has few superiors in scientific knowledge in any country ; Dr. Barbosa Rodrigues, director of the Botanical Garden at Rio, and the writer of important works on anthropology, ethnology, and botany; Dr. Joao Baptista de Lacerda, director of the National Museum ; and Ferreira Penna, Ladislao Netto, and Peixoto. A passing glance at the history of Brazilian literature in the early colonial days reveals its distinctively Portuguese character, with scarcely a touch of Brazilian coloring. Bento Teixeira Pinto was the first Brazilian writer of note ; he flourished in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and published many works in both poetry and prose. In the seventeenth century, the brothers Euzebio and Gregorio de Mattos, of Bahia, wrote a number of impor- tant works, the latter being known as the "Brazilian Rabelais." Among their contemporaries PEDRO WEINGARTNER. BY OBLIQUE LINES. MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 173 were Botelho de Oliveira, Diogo Gomes Car- neiro, who enjoyed a royal pension as the chronicler-general of Brazil, Rocha Pitta, the first historian of note, and the dramatist Jose Borges de Barros. The eighteenth cen- tury produced the famous dramatist Antonio Jose da Silva, born at Rio de Janeiro, in 170^, but early removing to Lisbon, where he became the principal humorous writer for the Portuguese theatre during his day. He fell a victim to the Inquisition in 1739. The first writers to develop a distinctively Brazilian character in their productions were the poets of the "Arcadia Ultramarina," a literary society founded during the last quarter of the eighteenth century, at Rio de Janeiro, by Jose Basilio da Gama and Silva Alvarenga, the latter a protege of the viceroy Dom Luiz de Vasconcellos e Souza, whose kindness, aided by the efforts of Bishop Castello Branco, had made it possible to establish such an institution. Modelled after similar societies in Europe, it was an influential organization in the early history of Brazilian literature, numbering among its members all the writers of talent in Rio during that period, including Antonio Cordovil, Domingos Vidal Barbosa, Joao Pereira da Silva, Balthasar da Silva Lisboa, Ignacio de Andrade Souto Maior Rendon, Manoel de Arruda Camara, Jose Ferreira Cardoso, Jose Marianno da Conceicao Velloso, and Domingos Caldas Barbosa ; and leading poets of Minas Geraes, such as Jose de Santa Rita Durao, Claudio Manoel da Costa, Alvarenga Peixoto, Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, and others — the Minas poets forming also a celebrated literary society known as the Escola dc Minas, or the Minas school of poets. The little group of Minas poets includes many names famous in Brazilian history, not alone for their contributions to its poetry, but also for their share in its first strike for inde- pendence. One of them, Alvarenga Peixoto, at a gathering in Gonzaga's house, where Tiradentes had offered a toast to the independence of Minas and of Brazil, responded by an appeal to arms and improvised a national flag, on which the emblem was a genius breaking the chains which bound him, with the device "Libertas quae sera tamen." Alvarenga Peixoto, Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, and Domingos Vidal Barbosa were banished; Claudio Manoel committed suicide in prison. In the Minas school of poets was born the first purely national and patriotic poetry in Brazil. Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, best known HENRIQUE BERNARDELLI. MOTHER. 174 THE NEW BRAZIL under the poetic name of Dirceu, the Brazilian Petrarch, was the chief of the Minas poets. His impassioned verses A Marilia are known by heart to every lover of poetry in Brazil. It was on the eve of his marriage to his beloved Marilia that the Tiradentes plot was dis- covered, and, being deeply involved therein, he was doomed to perpetual exile. This terrible fate unbalanced his reason, and he died under the cloud of hopeless delusion. In the charm of their imagery, their loving tone, the harmony of diction, and the beauty of versification revealed in them, these poems of Dirceu to Marilia rank with the most charming in the Portuguese language. Two very important works appeared toward the close of the eighteenth century, which gave additional lustre to the literary activity of this period: the celebrated botanist. Friar Velloso, published his Flora Fluminciisc, universally quoted by botanists in treating of South American plants, and Moraes e Silva gave to the people his Dictionary of tlie Portuguese Language. The opening of the twentieth century finds a prominent group of celebrities contributing to the literary treasure store of Brazil. Of these, a number of names are also associated with the history of the empire, as Joaquim Nabuco, Affonso Celso, Doria Taunay, Silva Costa, Moreira Pinto, Machado de Assis, Teixeira Mendes, Pereira Barreto, Silvio Romero, and Santa Anna Nery. Of the younger generation, the best known are: Jose Verissimo, Olavo Bilac, Aluisio de Azevedo, Alberto de Oliveira, Luiz Guimaraes, Rodrigo Octavo, Joao Ribeiro, Valentim Magalhaes, Luiz Delphin, Coelho Netto, Raymundo Correa, Luiz Murat, Julia Lopez de Almeida, Zalina Rolim, and Mariquinhas de Andrade. RODOLPHO AMOEDO. THE DEPARTURE OF JACOB. o O q; f- tu Q_ tu U < < a. < tu a. Q o y 1 1 CHAPTER XI ORATORY AND THE PRESS |ANKIND has always been swayed by the power of oratory, and among all nations and in every age this gift has been held in the highest esteem. The greatest statesmen and philosophers of the world owe much of their fame as leaders of the multitude to its important influence in making cold reason palatable and uncompromising truth acceptable. The convincing power of an argument is enhanced by the sublime art of eloquent speech, even bad logic being often effectively concealed by the embellishing graces of pure diction, elegant phrasing, the charm of pleasing metaphor, the rhythm of mellifluous sound, the concord of well-balanced periods. The finished orator knows every vibration of the human heart as the musician knows his instrument, and touches its chords at will, bringing forth the beauty and sweet- ness of exquisite harmony or the crash and din of irritating discord. In every great climax of history, the orator has played an important part, often precipitating events by the irresist- ible force of impassioned appeal and the goading power of bitter satire. The Brazilian people have been called "a nation of orators," and in the various crises through which the country has passed they have admirably sustained their right to the title, numbering among their leaders men who have known every secret in the art of com- manding the attention of the masses and arousing them to activity of thought and deed. Inheriting from their Portuguese ancestors a vocabulary of inexhaustible richness, they have learned something, too, from those grand "amateurs of speech," who, centuries before the foot of civilized man invaded their forests, drew inspiration from its highest sources, and dignified their phrases with the pure imagery that nature supplies. A ready command of language, and a certain grace in the use of it, is the possession of every Brazilian, from the statesman and scholar to the poorest beggar in the street. The political leader address- ing his party is not more careful in the choice of \\'ords than the lottery-vendor appealing to his public; the protest of an indignant "cabby" will express the finest sarcasm without any display of that vulgarity of speech so common to the same class in other countries; 177 1 78 THE NEIV BRAZIL the most illiterate persons exchange remarks, complimentary or otherwise, with punctilious politeness. In the forum of public debate, there is no delicate turn of phrase, no exquisite flower of fancy in the illimitable garden of poetry, that the Brazilian orator does not know how to appropriate for the adornment of his argument. He is skilled in the thrust and parry of fine points and in the dexterous use of phrases that cut deep without leaving ugly surface wounds as a protest against their brutality. Even the little street gamin's slang is as soft as silk in comparison with the harsh boisterousness of the young ragamuffin in the metropolitan centres of Europe and North America. A street beggar will implore "the sweet lady with the beautiful eyes" to give a penny "for the love of God." Oratory in Brazil found its earliest expression in the Church, Fathers Nobrega and Anchieta bearing the palm in this ac- complishment in the seventeenth century, though among their immediate successors were many cele- brated rhetoricians. When King Dom Joao VI. founded the Royal Chapel in Rio, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, new lustre was shed on the art, and many aspirants came forward; the most remarkable being Friar Francisco do Monte Alverne, who became court-preacher, the king also appointing him professor of rhetoric in the Royal College. The stirring events of 1822 brought into prominence many gifted orators, chief among them the illustrious Dom Jose Bonifacio de An- drada, the eldest of three famous brothers, distin- guished for their patriotism and the superiority of their intellectual qualities. Born at Santos, in the State of Sao Paulo, June 13, 1763, the "Father of Brazilian independence," as some of his biogra- phers have called the eldest and most ambitious of the three Andradas, was educated at the University of Coimbra, in Portugal, the cele- brated school which has given Brazil some of her greatest leaders in oratory and states- manship. A tour of Europe followed, during which he wrote several important works on scientific and polifical subjects. His patriotic efforts in behalf of Brazilian independ- ence are historic, and deserve the admiration of all lovers of liberty. He assisted in the preparation of the petition to Dom Pedro to remain in Brazil, headed the deputation from Sao Paulo which waited upon the regent to urge his acceptance of the invitation, and, later, when appointed Minister of the Interior and of Foreign Affairs by Emperor Dom Pedro, bent all his energies to bring about the freedom of Brazil from the yoke of Portugal. After the establishment of the empire, his ministry was dismissed, presumably because of DR. BERNARDINO DE CAMPOS. ORATORY AND THE PRESS 179 its strong anti- Portuguese policy; but the emperor lost many friends by this action, and many more when a sentence of banishment was pronounced against the great leader. At Bordeaux, France, where his exile was spent, Dom Jose Bonifacio published a volume of poetry entitled Poems of Aincrko Elysio, which contains many choice literary gems. In 1829, he was permitted to return to Brazil, and was well received by the emperor, who, upon his abdication, appointed Dom Jose Bonifacio de Andrada guardian of his son Dom Pedro, and of the imperial princesses. Under the regency, this office was taken from him and bestowed upon the Marquis of Itanhaem, the aged patriot retiring to the island of Paqueta, where he resided until a short time before his death, which occurred at Nictheroy, April 6, 1838. During the last years of his life, he enjoyed, unsolicited, a liberal pension from the government in recognition of his great services to his country, pensions being granted also to his daughters after his death. He is described by those who knew him best as a man of lofty ambition and unflinching integrity, a patriot and a scholar of the highest rank, a brilliant statesman and leader, though less distinguished as a parlia- mentary orator than his brothers; withal, a phi- losopher, able to face any fortune with dignity and fortitude. On the fiftieth anniversary of Brazilian independence, September 7, 1872, his statue was unveiled in the Largo de Sao Francisco, Rio de Janeiro, Emperor Dom Pedro II. presiding at the ceremony. Martim Francisco and Antonio Cados de Andrada were associated with their brother in the events fol- lowing the declaration of Brazilian independence, and were banished with him. Martim Francisco was afterward prominent in political affairs as a deputy to the second legislature from the province of Minas Geraes; and both brothers, as deputies to the fourth legislature from the province of Sao Paulo, in 1840, put themselves at the head of the party in favor of granting Dom Pedro II. his majority and handing over to him the reins of government. When the emperor formed his first cabinet, Martim Francisco de Andrada was appointed Minister of Finance, but this cabinet lasted only eight months. Although devoting much time to politics, the Andradas wrote several important works on science, particularly mineralogy. Among Brazilian orators, Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcellos holds a high rank; his con- vincing eloquence, together with his statesman-like ability, made him a leader in political affairs for many years under the empire. He was one of the directing powers in the framing of the criminal code of Brazil, as well as of some of the most important civil laws DR. JOAQUIM FRANCISCO DE ASSIS BRASIL, MINISTER TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. i8o THE NEI4^ BRAZIL placed on the statute books during that period. For several years after the abdication of Dom Pedro I. he \\ais the popular idol of the Liberal party, and there was not an important law or a political institution that did not owe something to his counsels and labors. His star of success declined from the hour when, separating from the Liberals, he joined the Marquis of Olinda in forming the new Conservative party; and when, as Prime Minister, he sent to the Chambers a decree of adjournment during the exciting crisis attending the declaration of the second emperor's majority, so bitter was the feeling against him, that his house was stoned. He died in 18^0, of yellow fever. One of the most famous diplomats of his day, a finished courtier and a statesman of recognized ability, Filisberto Caldeira Brant Pontes, Marquis de Barbacena, occupied a posi- tion of the highest trust under the first emperor, having been chosen to conduct diplomatic affairs of an extremely delicate and complex nature, requiring the possession of extraordi- nary mental gifts, as well as the graces of a pleasing address. These advantages the marquis could claim in an eminent degree. A direct descendant of John III., Duke of Brabant, this young scion of nobility was equipped with rare advantages. He had a bril- liant intellect and a princely share of those personal attractions which are a ruling power everywhere. Living in a style of great magnificence all his life, he especially enjoyed enter- taining eminent personages who visited Brazil. On one occasion. Prince Jerome Bonaparte was his guest, and at another time he received the English Admiral Popham, relieving the financial embarrassment of that gallant offi- cer, after a shipwreck necessitating repairs and additional supplies, by a loan of £10,000. He was an enthusiastic advocate of inde- pendence, and, after the accession of Dom Pedro L, was elected a representative from Bahia to the Brazilian Parliament. During his diplomatic career, he was successful in negotiating an important loan in London, in finding a suitable spouse for his emperor, and in managing very difficult situations arising out of the efforts to place the young Queen Maria H. on the throne of Portugal. He was a military officer of high rank, though his generalship has been criticised in consequence of his failure in the Cisplatine war. He was for a time Minister of Finance, but his ability as a financier has been ques- tioned, and some blame attached to him because of the heavy expenses attend- ing his foreign negotiations; in diplomacy, DR. FERNANDO MENDES DE ALMEIDA. JR.. EDITOR "JORNAL DO BRAZIL," RIO DE JANEIRO. ORATORY AND THE PRESS i8i DR. JOSE CARLOS RODRIGUES, EDITOR "JORNAL DO COMMERCIO," RIO DE JANEIRO. however, he had few superiors, and his harshest critics have been forced to acknowledge his genius as an elo- quent and convincing orator. Fond of costly apparel, and possessing a hand- some personality, he was an adornment to the Senate, of which he was long a member. The present Visconde de Barba- cena, son of the marquis, is the oldest living diplomatist. He was born at Bahia, on July 3, 1802, and has nearly reached the age of ninety-nine, not only in possession of all his faculties, but physically more active than an average man thirty years his junior. When his father was the Brazilian financial agent in London, he acted as interpreter between him and Nathaniel Rothschild during the negotiations for the first Brazilian loan of £30,000,000. Fond of chemistry, he was a favorite pupil of Faraday, and as soon as nominated, joined the Royal Institution of Great Britain, of which he is the oldest living member. He was present at the coronation of George IV. and a guest at the great banquet following it. \r\ i825', he was appointed secretary of legation in London, and in 1840, ihargc d'affaires in Holland. In 1848, he was ap- pointed president of the province of Rio de Janeiro, and in that capacity was the first authority in Brazil forcibly to stop traffic in slaves, having seized and liberated a cargo of them while being landed in the bay of Rio. He was personally engaged in the organization of some of the earlier Brazilian railways, and he still devotes himself with all the zeal and activity of a young man to the various enterprises in which he is interested. Antonio Francisco de Paula e Hollanda Cavalcanti de Albuquerque was one of the most fearless political leaders that the troublous times of the first empire produced. It is said that he never hesitated to express his opinions, "sometimes with unsophisticated frankness," as one writer says. In both the Conservative and the Liberal parties he had enemies, whom he attacked with impartial freedom. He was Prime Minister and Minister of Finance in the Forty Days' cabinet, formed after the first Dom Pedro's abdication, and was one of the prime movers in the agitation to declare the majority of the young emperor, in 1840. His influence as a politician was great, and the expression of his convictions was never restrained by the fear of consequences. In the Senate, on one occasion, he said of the two parties most 1 82 THE NEIV BRAZIL bitterly opposed to each other: "There are not in Brazil two things more alike than a Liberal and a Conservative." When a certain important financial question was under discussion at another time, he exclaimed impatiently: "Of money we have enough and to spare. What we want is sense!" which was no less trying to the delicate susceptibilities of his colleagues than his abrupt declaration: "Mr. President, the country is in a bad state, and will not mend till some minister is hanged!" As a warm advocate of the liberty of the press and the staunch defender of its rights and privileges on all occasions, this eccentric statesman won many friends among the journalists. The regent of the empire during the minority of Dom Pedro II., Diogo Antonio Feijo, more popularly known by his ecclesiastical title, Father Feijo, was a successful public leader, and began his career as a priest and a teacher in the towns of Campinas and Itu, in the State of Sao Paulo, where he was born. His first entrance into the arena of politics was made when he was elected Deputy from Sao Paulo to the Cortes at Lisbon, in 182 1, where he attracted attention by a powerful and feadess speech in defence of Brazilian rights. He was afterward elected to the national legislature of Brazil, taking his seat among the members of the Liberal opposition. At the first session, he created a sensation by proposing the abolition of clerical celibacy, and the next year published his reasons in a pamphlet on the subject. He was appointed regent of the empire in 1835', the highest office in the government at that time, refusing, on the day before this appoint- ment, the bishopric of Marianna. When Vasconcellos deserted the Liberals, and formed the new Conservative party opposed to the regency, he attacked Father Feijo with the most powerful weapons of the parliament and the press, and the regent resigned, rather than compromise in any particular under the pressure put upon him, and retired to Sao Paulo, where he died in 1843. He is remembered as a great statesman, and an orator of ability. Honorio Hermeto Carneiro Leao, Marquis de Parana, a native of Minas Geraes, first entered parliament in 1830, as a Liberal; by his activity and energy, he acquired great influ- ence with his party. After the abdication of the first emperor, he was an important leader in the deliberations of the Moderate Liberals, who controlled the political situation at that time. When the death of Dom Pedro I. disrupted the party that had clamored for his return, and the remnants were gathered together to help to form a new party in opposition to the regent. Father Feijo, the Marquis de Parana was influential in directing its policy; and, several years later, when called upon to form a ministry, he succeeded in uniting the Liberal and Conservative parties. Seeing the tendency of political affairs, and believing that a policy of conciliation would bring about the best results, he requested "the loyal co-operation of every Brazilian, irrespective of party," and, after a determined struggle, carried out his new political programme as he desired. He was a statesman who appeared to the best DR. RUY BARBOSA. ORATORY AND THE PRESS 183 advantage in the hour of a crisis. The unexpected always called out his reserve power with telling effect. He possessed unbounded energy and activity. As Prime Minister at the outbreak of the Paraguayan war, Francisco Jose Furtado was distinguished for his prompt and efficient methods in dealing with the problems that faced the country at that time, as well as for his qualities as an earnest and able orator. His cabinet was Liberal, he himself being one of the staunchest adherents of that party. His great speech in the Senate in defence of the appeal to the crown from ecclesiastical condemnation ex infonnata conscicntia is still remembered as a masterpiece of force, logic, and eloquence. He was a native of Piauhy, though his eady life was spent in Maranhao. He died in Rio, in 1870. GROUP OF DISTINGUISHED EDITORS OF AMAZONAS. Alves Branco, the Visconde de Caravellas, one of the Liberal leaders in parliament during the time of the first emperor, no doubt owed much of his power and influence to his ora- torical gifts. He possessed a deep, sonorous voice, great facility of expression, an eloquence that charmed all, and a magnetic force that was irresistible. Francisco de Paula Souza e Mello, or, as he was known in parliament, Paula e Souza, and the Visconde de Caravellas, have been called by a Brazilian historian "the invincible fortresses of the Liberal party." Calmon, the Marquis d'Abrantes, was known as the "canary," from the suavity of his speech, which is said to have been more pleasing than convincing, however. Lino Cou- tinho's oratory abounded in brilliant epigrams, and was a model of graceful style. His severe satire was an effective weapon against his enemies in padiament, and his popularity with the visiting spectators is said to have earned for him the title of "the Deputy of the galleries." Ledo was also one of the favorite speakers, possessing an elegant, somewhat 1 84 THE NEIV BRAZIL SENHOR ANTONIO FONTOURA XAVIER, CONSUL-GENERAL TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, tance is Souza Franco ? replied : " Yes, only one ; but the first." florid style. The Marquis de Paranagua was one of the foremost orators in the first empe- ror's time. Rodrigues dos Santos, a graduate of the Law School of Sao Paulo, was an able and eloquent orator and a clever journalist. He published the Yplraiiga, in the interests of the Liberals, and was, in i85'4, appointed professor of the Sao Paulo Law College. Souza Franco, a native of Para, was a gifted orator and a successful editor, being associated with the Diario de Peniambuco, and editor of the Vo{ do Biberibi'. He left the Conservative for the Liberal party early in his career. It is related that some one remarked to Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcellos : " Of what impor- He is only one in the Chamber." To which the statesman That was surely a reputation worth having. Another orator of distinction was the Barao de Itamaraca, of Pernambuco, a man of remarkable genius, gifted with a magnetic voice, fluent speech, great purity of style, and moderate and agreeable gesture. Among other notable names recorded in the annals of Brazilian politics in former years are Visconde de Rio-Branco, celebrated as one of the greatest statesmen and scholars of Brazil ; Alvares Machado, Nabuco de Araujo, and Ferreira Vianna. The leading orators of the present day are Joaquim Nabuco, Andrade Figueira, Fernandes da Cunha, Gusmao Lobo, Dr. Assis Brasil, Ruy Barbosa, Quintino Bocayuva, Bernardino de Campos, and Serzedello Correia. The name of Dr. Joaquim Nabuco is especially prominent among anti-slavery orators. Dr. Bernardino de Campos, one of the foremost statesmen of Brazil, belonged to the group of Liberals who formed the first Republican party, of which he was the chosen representative in the Provincial Assembly of Sao Paulo in 1888. A native of Minas Geraes, he removed with his parents to Sao Paulo when quite a child, and was educated in the law school of that city. At the first Republican Congress, he was elected Speaker of the House, and in 1892 was made president of the State of Sao Paulo, his administration of this office being marked especially by improvements in the methods of education, sanitation, agriculture, rapid transit, and other progressive measures. When Dr. Prudente Moraes became President of the republic, the services of Dr. Bernardino de Campos were invaluable in solving the difficult financial problems that faced the administration. Recently, the gratitude of the Brazilian nation has been won by the distinguished diplomat, Dom Jose Maria da Silva Paranhos, Barao de Rio-Branco, whose services have been of inestimable value and importance in the settlement of the Guiana boundary dispute. ORATORY AND THE PRESS 185 DR. JOAQUIM NABUCO, MINISTER TO ENGLAND. In recognition of his great worl<, tl^e Brazilian gov- ernment, has bestowed high honors upon him, grant- ing a liberal gift and an annuity, and advancing his diplomatic rank to that of envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Germany. In an oration pronounced in his honor, Senhor Serzedello Correia said of the illustrious minister: "Yes, the right of Brazil [to the contested territory] was indisputable, and its basis indestructible, thanks to the efforts of our forefathers, to the labors of Caetano da Silva, to the splendid vindication of the Visconde d' Uruguay, to the zeal of our chancellerie, and to the persistent endeavors of the governors of Para ; but it needed some one who could combine all this into one powerful whole. This work has been accom- plished by the Barao de Rio-Branco, doubly immor- talized: in the memory of his father, and by the grandeur of the services rendered by him in defending the integrity of the national territory." The influence of journalism has been most important in the educational and literary development of Brazil, as well as in its political advancement. When the freedom of the press was established, early in the nineteenth century, an impetus was given to literary activity, productive of widespread results. The first newspaper established was the Ga{cij do Rio, in 1808, followed by the review, O Patriota, under the editorship of Ferreira Guimaraes, in 181 3. At Bahia, the Idadc dc Oiiro was established in 181 1. Per- nambuco had a newspaper in 18 17, but it was confiscated after the revolution there. During the first days of independence, newspapers appeared with remarkable rapidity. Rio had O Conciliador, edited by Silva Lisboa; O Rcvcrhcro, by Cunha Barbosa and Ledo; O Espellio, O Rcgiilador, O Correia do Rio, Tamoyo, and the ScutinclLi. At Maranhao, the Conciliador wds founded during this period; at Recife, the Aurora Pcniamhiicana, and two new journals were added to the first one at Bahia. A few years after the first emperor's accession, Rio had 9 newspapers; Bahia, 4; Recife, ^; Minas, ^; Maranhao, 3; and Nictheroy, Ceara, Para, Sao Paulo, and Rio Grande do Sul, one each. In 1824, the Spcciador was founded at Rio, and changed, in 1827, to the Jornal do Commcrcio, the principal newspaper in Brazil to-day. It owes much of its earlier success to the judicious direction of Junius Villeneu\'e. This gentleman, as well as his successors, Senhors Picot and Manoel Moreira de Castro, was careful to secure the services of com- petent editors and reporters ; among the contributors to the paper in its early days being such leading political writers as Justiniano Rocha, Francisco Octaviano, and Visconde de Rio-Branco. The present management of the jornal do Commcrcio is under the direction of Senhor Dom Jose Carlos Rodrigues, a prominent leader in national affairs and a scholar of 1 86 THE NEfV BRAZIL wide reputation. Otlier successful and prominent newspapers in tine capital are the jornal do Brasil, owned and edited by Colonel Fernando Mendes de Almeida; O Pai{, Imprensa, Ga{eta da Notlcias, A Nottcia, A Rcpublica, Ga{eta da Tardc; the French paper, UEtoile dii Slid, and the English weekly papers, Rio News and Brazilian Review, are among the most pop- ular foreign publications. Several prominent journalists have contributed to give the press of Brazil importance and interest. Of these, the best known or remembered are the famous Andrada brothers, who published the Tamoyo; Justiniano Rocha, Cunha Barbosa, Joaquim Serra, Ledo, Octaviano, Guimaraes, Soares Lisboa, Ferreira de Menezes, Medrado, Ferreira de Araujo, Maciel Pinheiro, Patrocinio, Quintino Bocayuva, Jose Carlos Rodrigues, and Ruy Barbosa. The Revista Bra{ileim, edited by Jose Verissimo and published by Laemmert, is the best literary magazine in Brazil, and the official organ of the Brazilian Academy, an organization founded somewhat upon the methods of the French Academy. In giving the history of the press in Brazil, it is necessary, also, to speak of the papers edited by women. The first that claims attention was established in Rio de Janeiro by Dona Violante Atabalipa Ximenes de Bivar. Her first venture was the Jornal das Senlioras, the first "woman's journal" in Brazil. Later, she published the Domingo, a weekly literary paper. There is a bright, clever little magazine published to-day in Sao Paulo, in the interests of women and the feministe cause, the Mensageira, owned and edited by Senhora Presciliana Duarte de Almeida. The history of this paper is a high tribute to the enterprise of this Brazilian woman. Convinced of the necessity for a woman's paper in Brazil, and having no money with which to equip a publishing house, she pluckily set to work to prepare the first issue in manuscript, making fifty or more copies. The idea proved a good one, money came in for subscriptions, and, to-day, it is a most creditable monthly periodical, receiving contributions from prominent women writers in Brazil and France ; a branch office is established at Paris. O Familia is the name of a first-class journal, edited and published by Senhora Josephine Alvares de Azevedo. There are several others in different parts of the country. The daily newspapers of Brazil have not adopted the "woman's page," though they very often publish fashion items or social news in addition to the folhetim, or feuilleton, which is a feature of all Latin newspapers. IN THE HEART OF THE TROPICS. CHAPTER XII NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE AND MANUFACTURES 'OMPRISING a territory that covers one-fifth of the western con- tinent, and is larger in extent than the United States of America, Brazil possesses almost unlimited natural resources, and en- joys a monopoly of trade in several important products. The Amazon forests supply the world with rubber; from central and southern Brazil comes the greater part of the world's coffee; while in the vast interior many of the best dyewoods and medicinal herbs known to science are exclusively found. The country is divided into five natural regions, of which the least known — though since the recent settlement of the Guiana boundary-line the most generally discussed — is that which lies between the basins of the Amazon and the Orinoco where the latter takes its rise, an extensive territory com- posed of plateaus covered with virgin forests, and having here and there vast plains, almost unknown to civiliza- tion. This region possesses immense stores of mineral wealth. The Amazon plain, the great central table-lands, the tropical coast country, and the temperate zone of southern Brazil contribute a great variety of products to foreign markets. From her equatorial for- ests come the famous mahogany, rose-wood, and satin-wood; the valuable wood of the samaumira, or silk-cotton tree, whose enormous branches spread over a vast area; the white gutta-percha from the sap of the nmssaraiidfiba; the fibre for mats, brushes, and brooms, obtained from the leaves of the carnaJiiiba, and the yellow wax and potash extracted from it, as well as the excellent substitute for cork made from the spongy heart of its trunk. 189 BRAZILIAN WATER-CARRIER. I go THE NEIV BRAZIL The castanha-tree, which abounds in the State of Para, growing to a height of a hun- dred feet and upward, yields the brazil-nut of commerce ; these nuts grow at the top of the tree in hard shells about the size of cocoanuts, and each shell contains from fifteen to twenty-five nuts, and falls, when ripe, with great danger to the gatherers, who are obliged to remain in their cabins during the " windfalls." A nut similar in flavor and manner of NATIVE PALMS. growth to the brazil-nut is the sapucaia, which grows in a shell as big as a man's head, but differs from the castanha in that the shell of the sapucaia opens when ripe, letting the nuts fall to the ground ; they seldom, however, appear in the market, as the monkeys and birds devour them as they fall. Valuable gums, resins, oils, and essences are found in this section, which is also rich in botanical treasures of a purely ornamental character, such as the orchid, for new specimens of which hunters are constantly searching the forests. Of NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE AND MANUFACTURES 191 food products, the Amazon region supplies in abundance the cocoanut, chocolate, cocoa, tapioca, rice, beans, and mandioca. The cacao plantations flourish in a wild state, the largest crops being found along the borders of the Amazon and the Tocantins. The tree yields two crops annually, and will continue to produce for three-quarters of a century. The cacao industry is growing constantly. The great inducement to its cultivation is that it requires few hands, and those at a time when the usual forest occupation is in abeyance. The process of culture is very simple. The planter keeps his young orchard free from undergrowth until the trees can protect the ground by their own shade, usually A PEASANT GROUP. three or four years. By this time, they begin to bear, the fruit growing directly from the trunk and main branches, attached by a short stem. In July and August the ripe fruit is gathered in baskets, the oval-shaped outer shell is cut open, and the pulp washed off the seeds, which are spread on mats to dry in the sun, being turned from time to time. Most of the seed is exported in this form, though some is made into chocolate. Mandioca is the product of a straggling shrub about five feet high, with knotted branches and thinly set, palm-shaped leaves. The roots of this plant furnish the farinha, or staple flour of Brazil, used in many different ways upon every table in the land. When these 192 THE NEM/ BRAZIL roots, which in shape are some- what lil■ < < < H z UJ U w [- z o < H CO O DQ M H Z O a. 1 B i CHAPTER XIII COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION USINESS relations between Brazil and foreign countries were first established less than a century ago, when King Joao VI., upon the arrival of the Portu- guese court at Rio de Janeiro, opened her ports to the world's commerce for the first time, the trade previously having been exclusively with Portugal, the mother-country. At that date, the value of Brazilian exports was about twenty million dollars in gold, her imports amounting to ten million dollars. According to the latest statistics, Brazil now exports goods to the value of about one hundred and fifty million dollars, while her imports are worth more than one hundred millions, gold value. Under the improved conditions that the country now enjoys, it is possible to predict a much more remarkable advance in trade during the present century, upon which she enters with such excellent promise. The best market for Brazilian products is the United States, to which are exported annually cargoes amounting in value to nearly a hundred million dollars gold; the Brazilian imports from the United States amount to about fifteen million dollars gold, though the growing friendly relations between these two countries, and, in conse- quence, the better understanding of each other's requirements, will, no doubt, result in an important addition to their trade, especially as regards the Brazilian share of purchases. In the choice of diplomatic representatives, both countries have been particularly fortunate, the Brazilian minister to Washington, Dr. Assis Brasil, being one of the most popular foreigners at the American capital, while the American minister to Brazil, Hon. Charles Page Bryan, is held in very high esteem in Brazilian political and social circles. An important commercial treaty has just been arranged between the two countries, materially improving their trade relations. Besides the immense quantities of coffee and rubber exported from Brazil, and her precious minerals, the chief products that contribute to her revenue are yerba mate, grown mainly in the southern States, and exported to Argentina, Europe, and North Amer- ica ; sugar, which is cultivated in all the coast countries from Bahia to Maranhao, though principally in the State of Pernambuco, and is supplied to Argentina and the United States; 199 200 THE NEPV BRAZIL cotton from Alagoas and Pernambuco; tobacco, of which Bahia is the great exporting centre; cocoa from all the coast country, shipped to Europe and North America;- hides from the south and the interior States, the inland plateaus furnishing excellent pasturage for cattle ; dyewoods and medicinal and cabinet woods from the Amazon, and also from the coast country, especially Bahia ; and fruits in abundance. Brazil imports manufactured goods in cotton, silk, woollen, and linen, chiefly from Europe, though the various Brazilian cotton- mills are constantly reducing the amount of imported cotton goods; arms and ammunition from the United States, Belgium, and England; material for railway construction, including locomotives, rails, cars, etc., chiefly from the United States, though there is one large national factory that builds railway carriages ; coal, which formerly came from England almost exclu- sively, amounting to millions of tons, though the United States is now proving an important competitor for this trade, and promising coal-fields are being opened up in several Brazilian States; wheat from the United States and Argentina, and wheat flour from the United States, Argentina, England, Austria, and Chili, the three last named supplying only a small amount; wines from France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal; hardware, cutlery, glass, and farm implements, chiefly from England and Germany; flne leather, boots and shoes, from France; electric ma- chinery from the United States; iron and brass from Europe, and canned goods from Argen- tina and the United States. In addiflon to the above, are various kinds of paper from France, kerosene from the United States, cement from Germany and Belgium, and minor arflcles. An important factor in the success of those countries which enjoy the most satisfactory trade relations with Brazil is their readiness to observe the demands of the Brazilian market and to appreciate the peculiar condiflons governing its supply. Apropos of this subject, a humorous description is given, by an English traveller, of a cargo he saw unloaded by a British vessel at Rio, in 1810. He says: "Skates, furs, overshoes, and other arflcles useless to the inhabitants were piled on the wharf, while quantities of merchandise lay on the beach for want of warehouses, and the people made free use of everything, filing down brass pans and selling the filings as gold, at so much per ounce, to the very merchants who had brought in the goods." The countries that have secured the largest share of Brazilian trade have established banks in Brazil under their own control, built their own steamship lines, and opened in various Brazilian cifles business houses under the management of their own merchants. The " commercial traveller," so prominent a figure in the mercanflle world of the United States, does not accomplish such satisfactory results in seeking custom among Brazilian merchants as does the manager of a local branch establishment belonging to a foreign house. The reason is apparent when it is explained that a great number of adven- turers, posing as accredited representatives of foreign business houses, have brought the commercial traveller into disrepute by their unscrupulous methods and overwhelming ignorance even of the first requirements of a foreign business representaflve, including a knowledge of either Portuguese or French, and, at least, a certain degree of politeness in manner and speech. It is a great mistake to imagine that business can only be done "as they do it in our country," to quote some of the foreign failures in this capacity. And COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION 20 1 it is also a mistake to insist upon supplying articles that are not called for, simply because they are the newest and most stylish, in the opinion of those who offer them for sale. The most successful foreign merchant, in building up a business in Brazil, is the one who estab- lishes a branch house there and supplies it with the goods which experience proves to be most salable according to Brazilian ideas and tastes. In order to give an impetus to the demand for those articles of manufacture not generally in use at the present time, especially in the nature of farm implements and machinery, it has been suggested by a careful student VIEW ON THE CENTRAL RAILWAY. of the existing conditions, that a permanent exhibition, established in the principal agricultural centres by a syndicate of capitalists, manufacturers, and others interested, and designed to show samples of all articles of use to the agricultural population, would be effectual if prop- erly managed. One advantage which the established merchant possesses over the travelling salesman is in the dispatching of goods through the custom-houses, the merchants being permitted to have their own clerks dispatch their goods, while, otherwise, an authorized despachante [a sworn custom-house broker], working at an established tariff of charges, 202 THE NE^ BRAZIL RAILWAY BRIDGE AT CASTRO, STATE OF PARANA. must be employed. A grave obstacle to Amer- ican competition with European exporters to Brazil is the fact that freight rates to Brazil are higher from the United States than from Euro- pean ports, merchants claiming that it is cheaper to ship from North Amer- ica via Europe than direct to Brazil. Several important steamship lines carry passengers and freight between Brazil and foreign ports. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company's vessels make fortnightly trips from England to South America, calling at the European ports of Rochelle, Corunna, Oporto, and Lisbon, at the Cape Verde islands, the Brazilian ports of Pernam- buco, Bahia, and Rio, and at the leading ports of Argentina, Uruguay, Chili, and Peru. The "Royal Mail" line of steamers, from England to South America, also makes fortnightly trips. An Italian line of steamers, "La Ligure Brasiliana," connects the European ports of Genoa, Marseilles, Barcelona, and Lisbon with the chief cities of the Amazon, Para and Manaos; this line, which was established through the enterprise of the celebrated Italian statesman, Signor Gustavo Gavotti, has, for the accommodation of passengers, some of the finest ships in the transatlantic service, thoroughly modern in every respect, with electric lights, electric fans in the saloons and state-rooms, and an orchestra to supply music on board. The Rio .4ma{onas and the Re Umberto, which sail in alternate months, are under the command of courteous and attentive officers, who leave nothing undone that may contrib- ute to the comfort of their passengers. The Hamburg-American line of Germany also has steamers running to Para and Manaos monthly. The pioneer line in the steamship service from England to Brazil was the Lamport & Holt, the first steamer leaving Liverpool for Rio de Janeiro nearly half a century ago. Besides the line from England, there is now a fort- nightly service of passenger steamers of this company from New York to Rio, calling at Pernambuco and Bahia, and freight vessels are constantly on the ocean carrying the com- merce of these ports. While their passenger steamers are not so large as the ships of the great transatlantic lines, they are very commodious and well furnished, affording all the ad- vantages of good ventilation, which is a very important consideration in voyages across the equatorial line. Among other companies operating steamship lines to Brazil are the "Prince," "Norton," and "Sloman," from New York to Rio de Janeiro, several French lines COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION 203 from Havre, the Panama Railroad Company's steamers from New York to Colon, connecting with Royal Mail steamers for all South American ports, and the "Booth" and "Red Cross," with an average, together, of six steamers per month, three of their boats leaving Liverpool via Lisbon and Havre for Para, Manaos, Ceara, and Maranhao, and returning to New York via the West Indies, while three start from New York for the Amazon, returning to Liverpool. For the purposes of interstate travel and commerce, Brazil has several steamship lines of her own. With a navigable system of water ways covering fifty thousand miles, the principal method of transportation between the various points of her immense territory is by steamer, though extensive railway facilities meet all requirements where a water way is not available. The main artery of navigation in Brazil is the mighty Amazon, the first system having been established, in i85'3, between Manaos and Para, now extending up the river as far as the Peruvian border. A steamboat ascends the Amazon in a fortnight, while a sailing vessel requires from three to four months going up and about two months return- ing. The principal ports along the river from Para are Santarem, Obydos, Manaos, and Teffe. The city of Manaos, the rapidly growing and prosperous capital of Amazonas, has had direct service with Liverpool since 1874, with New York since 1882, and with Rio de Janeiro since 1884. The main tributaries of the Amazon are navigable over a great part of their course. Vessels can ascend the Madeira as far as the falls of Santo Antonio, and again beyond them to the interior of Matto Grosso, this being the popular means of communica- tion with outside ports for western Matto Grosso and eastern Bolivia ; the distance from Para to Matto Grosso over this route is about two thousand miles. The tributary Purus is navigable about a thousand miles, as far as the Acre. The Rio Negro carries vessels for three hundred miles, up to the town of Santa Izabel. The Tocantins, Xingu, and Tapajos are navigable for hundreds of miles, interrupted, how- ever, by cascades. Since September 7, 1867, the Amazon has been open to merchant ships of all nations. The usual route for transportation from southeast Matto Grosso to outside ports is by the Paraguay River and its tributaries, navigation be- ing uninterrupted from Buenos Aires to Cuyaba, PARANA RAILROAD BRIDGE OVER THE IGUASSU RIVER. 204 THE NEW BRAZIL the capital of Matto Grosso, a distance of about two thousand miles. In 18^8, the river Paraguay was opened to foreign merchant ships. A Brazilian steamship line, the " Lloyd- Brazileiro," runs regularly between Rio de Janeiro and Curumba, in Matto Grosso, via La Plata and the Paraguay River route, connecting with smaller boats for Cuyaba, requiring a month for the trip. The same company has a line of steamers between Rio de Janeiro and Manaos, on the Amazon, the trip requiring about two weeks, and covering over three thousand miles. The vessels are of English manufacture, built expressly for the coast trade; they are well constructed, and are commanded by polite and experienced officers. Another Brazilian line, the "Navega^ao Costeira," under the proprietorship of the Messrs. Lage Brothers, connects Rio de Janeiro with all southern Brazilian ports, including Santos, Paranagua (the sea-port of Curytiba), Florianapolis, Rio Grande do Sul, and Porto Alegre. The boats of this line are very commodi- ous, comfortable, and clean, having well- supplied tables, and officers thoroughly acquainted with the obligations of their position. Other native steamship lines are "Viagao do Brazil," " Companhia Pernambuco," "Esperanga Maritima," and "Espirito Santense de Navegagao a Vapor." Besides the larger water ways, there are boats plying up and down all the smaller rivers and streams. The railroad systems of Brazil, already completed, ten years ago ex- ceeded in mileage those of any other South American country, notwithstand- ing the great difficulties of construction which are encountered in all efforts of railroad engineering within the territory. During the last ten years of the republic, the trackage has been doubled. There are now sixty-three separately operated railways, the length of line under traffic being nearly ten thousand miles. The Federal government operates five lines, with a length of twelve hundred and eighty-seven miles; the State governments, four lines, with a length of one hundred and ten miles; guaranteed com- panies, nearly five thousand miles, and other companies about three thousand miles. The government has leased several of its railways to companies, experience proving that those lines pay better dividends under such management than under government control. '^^.: VIADUCT ON THE PARANA RAILWAY. COMMERCE Af^D TRANSPORTATION 20^ The first railroad track in Brazil was laid in i85'4, at Maua, the landing for boats taking passengers to and from Rio across the bay to connect with conveyances between that point and Petropolis. The line was opened to traffic in 18^6, running, at first, only from the landing to the foot of the mountains, though it has since been extended up the mountain' and beyond Petropolis, now forming a part of the Leopoldina system. In honor of its pro- moter, Visconde de Maua, the pioneer of railroad building in Brazil, this line was called the Maua Railway. Next to the Maua, the Recife and Sao Francisco Railway is the oldest in Brazil, and, with the exception of the Copiapo Railway in Chili, the oldest in South America. The Visconde de Maua was also one of the promoters of this line, which was subsidized by the government, the eoncessionnaire being Mr. Alfred de Mornay, an English engineer, who se- cured his grant in i85'2, and, in i85'4, turned over the privileges to the Recife and Sao Francisco Railway Company, the plan at that time being to connect Recife [Pernambuco] with the Sao Francisco River above the Paulo Af- fonso rapids, though this project, which would require a railroad nearly five hundred miles long, has never been accomplished. The construction of the road was begun in 185^, and was com- pleted in 1862. It is paying good divi- dends. In 18^8, a section of railroad was opened from Rio de Janeiro to the town of Belem, about thirty miles; a few years later, the government bought it, and completed the work across the mountains of the Serra do Mar, giving the railroad the name "Dom Pedro II.," by which it was known until rechristened under the republic the "Central Railway of Brazil." The "Central," as it is familiarly called, now connects the Federal capital with the chief cities of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, has a trackage of nearly a thousand miles, extending to the heart of the richest gold-mining region, and is the most important railroad in Brazil, with the largest income and expenditure, and enjoying a monopoly of the terminal facilities 'at the port of Rio. It also controls most of the suburban traffic of the capital. The estimated cost of this system to the government was about one hundred and twenty- five thousand dollars, gold, per mile. It has three tracks for ten miles out of Rio, and a SCENE ALONG THE PARANA RAILROAD. 206 THE NE^ BRAZIL THREE-RAIL TRACK ON LEOPOLDINA RAILROAD, STATE OF RIO. double track three miles farther. Besides suburban trains every few minutes, seven trains a day run as far as the junction of the Sao Paulo and Minas divisions, two trains a day leave for the end of the Minas line, four trains daily reach Juiz de Fora and Barbacena, in the State of Minas, and two trains a day to and from Sao Paulo. The passen- ger coaches are modern in style and very comfortable, the sleep- ing-cars being fitted up with all necessary conveniences. The Grand Central Station in Rio is a handsome modern depot, Railroad fare is cheaper than in metropolitan in appearance and complete in arrangement. some other countries, but baggage is charged extra, except small hand-bags. The most profitable railway in Brazil is the Sao Paulo, first opened in 1866, from Santos to Sao Paulo and Jundiahy, a distance of about a hundred miles. This line passes through the most productive coffee region in the world, and connects all the other railroads of the State with the sea-port. It pays an annual dividend of over ten per cent., and its freight rates on coffee are lower than those of any other railroad in Brazil. From Santos to the city of Sao Paulo an ascent of two thousand six hundred feet is made within five miles, divided into four planes of equal length, the trains being pulled up and down by cables operated by stationary engines. The track is being duplicated for the better accommodation of the enormous traffic. It is broad-gauge and double, and cost one hundred and fifty thousand dollars per mile for construction, including terminals. The gross income is said to be about forty thousand dollars a mile. Other lines of railway in the State of Sao Paulo are the Paulista, connecting the Sao Paulo Railway with the city of Campinas, and by branch lines with other interior towns; the Soracabana, running west from the capital and covering the southern part of the State, one of its branches being extended toward the Parana fron- tier, with the object of connecting with the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande, which, when com- pleted, will give a continuous line of railway from the Rio, Minas, and Sao Paulo systems down through the States of Parana and Santa Catharina to Rio Grande do Sul; and the Mogyana, extending from Campinas into western Minas, within about fifty miles of the State of Goyaz. This line will probably be built as far as Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso, which is now reached only via La Plata. The State of Rio is gridironed by the Leopoldina system of railways, which has more mileage than any other line in Brazil, and ranks next COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION 207 in importance to the Central. It is owned by an English company, and consists of two lines, one of which connects the city of Rio de Janeiro with Petropolis, Sao Jose, and Rio Preto by ferry from Rio to Maua, and thence by rail over the Serra da Estrella, passing through a region renowned for the beauty of its scenery; the other line crosses the Serra de Boa Vista from Nictheroy, and by numerous branches extends to all the chief towns of this State, southern Minas, and the western part of Espirito Santo. The Parana Railroad, connecting the State's chief sea-port, Paranagua, with the capital, Curytiba, and towns farther inland, is a masterpiece of engineering, surmounting the serra without the aid of cogs or cables, by means of trestles, bridges, tunnels, and innumerable curves. There are seventeen tunnels in all on the road up the mountain. The Parana Railroad was built by a French company, and opened to traffic in 1883. it is now under Swiss management, and is extending its tracks far into the interior of the State. A great deal of the yerba mate of Parana is shipped over this road to the sea-port of Paranagua. The State of Bahia has six separate railroads, of which the Central, running from Bahia harbor, opposite the city, up the Paraguassu valley to the Bahia diamond-fields and crossing a territory rich in sugar and tobacco, is the most important from a financial standpoint. The Bahia and Sao Francisco Railway is nearly three hundred miles in length, connecting the city of Bahia with the river Sao Francisco at the town of Joazeiro, where a line of steamers VIADUCT ON THE SERRA BETWEEN SANTOS AND SAO PAULO. 208 THE NE^V BRAZIL makes further connection up the river and its tributary, the Rio das Velhas, a thousand miles into the interior of Minas Geraes, near the diamond-fields of that State. Besides these lines, there are railroads from Para to Braganga, sixty-five miles; from the river Itapicuru to the river Paranahyba, in the State of Maranhao; from Fortaleza to Baturite, in Ceara, fifty miles; and from Camocim to the interior of the same State, a hun- dred miles; the Natal and Nova Cruz, in Rio Grande do Norte, seventy-five miles; the Parahyba and Independencia, fifty miles, in the State of Parahyba; the Great Western, ¥"' 4. "^^u. *^u CABLE ROAD BETWEEN SANTOS AND SAO PAULO. seventy miles, and the Pernambuco Southern, ninety miles in length, in the State of Pernambuco; the Alagoana Central, running from Maceio to the interior of Alagoas for a distance of a hundred miles, and the Paulo Affonso, connecting the lower with the upper Sao Francisco around the famous falls; the Santo Amaro, Nazareth, and Caravellas, in the State of Bahia; the Espirito and Caravellas and the Cachoeiro Railway, in the State of Espirito Santo; in southern Brazil, the Dona Theresa Christina, in the State -of Santa Cath- arina; the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande from the western terminus of the Parana Railway, COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION 209 north and south, one hundred and fifty miles, designed to connect the southern system of railways between Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul; and the Uruguayana, extending from the river port of Taquary half-way across the State of Rio Grande do Sul ; the Cruz Alta, branching from the Uruguayana, is to extend northward to connect with the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande; the Rio Grande Southern connects Pelotas with the interior of the State. As will be seen from a study of the railways already in operation, very little extension is needed to complete a system that will extend from the extreme north of Brazil to its southern boundary. In the interior, new lines are under construction in the States of Goyaz and Matto Grosso, and efforts are being made to induce the investment of capital necessary to complete the abandoned work on the Madeira River, which requires only a short line to greatly facilitate transportation from the heart of the continent to the Atlantic sea-board via A RIVER-BOAT WITH NATIVE INDIAN OARSMEN. this route. Notwithstanding the almost insurmountable difficulties of construction, railroads now cross all the principal mountain ranges, the engineering feats on some of the lines being most remarkable. The highest point of altitude reached by railway in this country is at Ouro Preto, in the State of Minas Geraes, five thousand feet above the sea. There are several imposing railway viaducts, notably the one crossing the Paraguassu between Cacho- eira and Sao Felix, in Bahia, and another, more than a mile long, where the coal mines of Tubarao, in Santa Catharina, are located. The transportation facilities of Brazil by vigorous extension keep pace with the needs of her growing commerce. As foreign trade increases, and especially as the relations of the three Americas become more intimately connected, the problem of transportation presents new features, demanding the most careful attention. At the Pan-American Congress, which 2IO THE NE^ BRAZIL was held in Philadelphia in 1890, it was suggested that the commercial interests of all the countries on the American continent would be advanced by the construction of a great Pan- American railway connecting North, Central, and South America, utilizing existing railways where possible. It remains to be seen whether such a plan will ever be realized; but, in the meantime, Brazil has overcome the most serious obstacles in railroad building, and is now, as has already been stated, rapidly pushing her various lines toward the interior. A bill was recently presented to the Brazilian Congress authorizing the Araraquara Railway Com- pany to build a line from San Jose do Rio Preto, in the State of Sao Paulo, to Cuyaba, in Matto Grosso, crossing the Paranahyba River just north of its confluence with the Rio Grande, and at the point marked by the junction of the four States of Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. The guarantee required from the government by the company constructing this road includes a privileged zone of twenty kilometres on each side of the centre of the line for a period of fifty years ; the right of making necessary dis- appropriations ; and exemption from customs on materials. These contemplated new lines and the extension of existing roads will, without doubt, lead to the rapid development of vast resources as yet untouched and will consequently materially improve the commercial importance of the country, leading inevitably to an increase of facilities for foreign trans- portation, by the organization of large steamship companies and a quicker service between foreign ports and Brazil. Complete telegraph and submarine cable systems connect the chief towns and cities of Brazil. The government telegraph lines have a total length of 12,000 miles, with 25' ,000 miles of wire. A submarine cable of about three thousand miles extends from Para to Montevideo, another cable connecting Brazil with Europe via Cape Verde and Lisbon. ^^!«»l^ ^i^v VIEW OF HARBOR AT SANTOS. o o PJ a. CHAPTER XIV THE STATE OF RIO CITUATED in a fertile region, and possessing tlie advantages of a moderate climate favored alike by the mountain air and the sea-breeze, the State of Rio borders, on three sides, one of the most famous harbors in the world, and constitutes the only outlet for the overland traffic of the Federal capital and district, a complete net-work of railways penetrating every section of its territory and connecting its towns and cities with each other and with the great metropolis. Chief among its cities is the world-famed Petropolis, not only renowned for the beauty of its scenery and the salubrity of its climate, but having especial importance as the summer capital of the republic, and the permanent residence of the foreign diplomatic corps in Brazil, as well as the favorite summer resort of residents of the Brazilian metropolis. Situated in the Serra da Estrella, it presents an enchanting picture in the variety and charm of its Alpine effects. It is particularly attractive in the first blush of morning, when, as some one has exquisitely described it, "the sun rises in all his splendor above the seven hill-tops, lighting up the dull, grassy green of the orange-groves, the tall, feathery crests of the graceful palms, the huge banner-like leaves of the banana, the spiky columns of the cactus, the great rocks that stand isled in the sea of vegetation, and the rainbow plumage of the humming-birds and butterflies that hover enjoyingly on the warm, voluptuous air, till all above and below is a dazzling blaze of glory." One can im- agine nothing more delightful than in the early morning hours " to take a horseback ride along the smooth road, with all the glories of tropical vegetation poured out like a flood over the great mountain walls on each side; to see the little river dancing and leaping among the black, broken rocks below, now flashing its foam in the sunlight, now slinking 213 DR. QUINTINO BOCAYUVA, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE OF RIO. 214 THE NEI4^ BRAZIL shyly away beneath the shadow of overhanging trees ; to watch the broadening sunshine roll across the endless range of woods, tree-top after tree-top catching the glow till the whole forest is one sea of splendor ; to feel the fresh mountain breeze stirring your blood till it leaps through your veins, making mere existence an enjoyment." Any one who has seen the place will readily recognize a description of that picturesque patli, with its " over- arching leaves of brightest crimson, crumbling walls alive with glittering lizards, and great boulders of black rock down which the living green of the trailing fern pours itself in a RIVER SCENE IN PETROPOLIS. silent water-fall, and huge bell-like convolvuli twining lovingly round the maimed stumps of the felled trees." During the social season, which is from December to May, Petropolis is the scene of continued gaiety, its drives thronged with carriages and its homes brilliant with various festivities. Originally founded in 184^, as an agricultural colony with a small German population, the city has grown to be the Versailles of the Brazilian capital ; as the favorite resort of wealth and fashion, and an important educational centre, it has some advantages above all other Brazilian cities. It is unique as the only city outside of a national capital that is the permanent residence of the foreign diplomatic corps. This distinction was first THE STATE OF RIO 21^ gained when, in consequence of a yellow-fever epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, ihe diplomatic body sought shelter in this beautiful spot, twenty-eight miles from the capital and three thousand feet above its level. At first, only nine months of the year were spent here, during which daily visits were made to and from the city; but this routine being very tiresome, the chiefs of diplomatic missions petitioned their governments to authorize the establishment of permanent residences in Petropolis. All the legations are now located there except the Italian, which is built upon a beautiful site among the hills of Tijuca, where PRINCIPAL AVENUE OF PETROPOLIS, BATHED BY RIO PIABANHA. its distinguished minister. Count Antonelli, dispenses charming hospitality. As the residence of about twenty foreign diplomatic representatives, Petropolis is one of the most important small cities in the world. Situated in the midst of rich tropical verdure, and affording an endless variety of effects in landscape and architecture, some of its most charming features are derived from the legation villas, which, as a rule, are located most attractively, sur- rounded by gardens and well-trimmed lawns. The German legation, presided over by one of the most honored of European diplomatists, Count D'Arco Valley, occupies a par- ticularly picturesque spot ; the American legation, whose quarters are the official residence of Minister Charles Page Bryan, is established in a beautiful mansion, a typical Brazilian 2l6 THE NEfV BRAZIL country-house, with broad verandas and spacious grounds, better known, perhaps, than any other foreign resi- dence in Brazil, from the genial hos- pitality dispensed on all occasions by its distinguished chief; the Japanese legation has an admirable site, and is the frequent scene of delightful gather- ings, the resident minister. Dr. Okoshi, and his accomplished wife being great favorites in social and diplomatic circles. Just opposite the residence of the American legation is situated the pal- ace which was the summer residence of the second emperor, a large and commodious building with extensive grounds, at present the property of Isabel, Condessa d'Eu, and used for a young ladies' seminary. Several of the city's schools and colleges are conducted under foreign management, among the most important being the German college for boys, to which youths from all over Brazil are sent for training ; and the American college for giris, an excellent institution under the direction of Miss Watts, an American resident in Brazil for neariy twenty years, and during that time devoted to educational enterprises. The present president of the State of Rio, Dr. Quintino Bocayuva, resides in Petropolis. As statesman, orator, and journalist, Dr. Bocayuva, who is a staunch republican, has wielded an important influence in Brazilian politics from the first days of his public career. Pro- gressive and enterprising in his efforts for the advancement of his country's best interests, he gives close attention to every detail of his present high office, laboring by every means in his power to promote those conditions most favorable to the growth and prosperity of the State. In addition to the interest that attaches to the summer capital as a fashionable resort, the seat of foreign diplomatic missions, and an educational centre, it has many commercial attractions in the nature of large spinning-mills, factories, and breweries. The population numbers about twenty-five thousand. From Petropolis an old turnpike-road extends to Juiz de Fora, in the State of Minas, a distance of nearly one hundred and fifty miles, a highway which was first opened after the construction of the Maua railway, for the purpose JAPANESE LEGATION, PETROPOLIS. THE STATE OF RIO 217 of bringing down the produce of tlie interior. Although the Cen- tral Railway now carries all this traffic, the road is still a favorite drive-way. A railroad connects Petropolis with Nictheroy, a busy city of thirty thousand people, lying on the eastern shore of the bay of Rio, opposite to the Fed- eral capital. Nictheroy, an Indian name signifying " hidden water," was an Indian settlement at the time of the discovery of Brazil. It is to-day a thriving and pros- perous city, with extensive busi- ness enterprises, its cotton-mills and match factory employing thousands of workmen. It is divided into three wards, or dis- tricts : Praia Grande, the business section ; S. Domingos, where the old palace of the President is situated, as well as a number of picturesque villas and chacaras; and the magnificent suburb Ica- rahy, famed for its baths, beautiful drives, and enchanting scenery. By a charter of May 10, 1819, the name Villa Real da Praia Grande was given to this city, and in 183^ it was made the provincial capital, under its present title. The municipality includes the six parishes, Joao Baptista, S. Lourengo, Nossa Senhora da Conceigao da Jurujuba, Sao Sebastaio de Itaipu, S. Gongalo, and Nossa Senhora da Conceigao de Cordeiros. Seven public squares, or pragas, ornament the city, of which the Pinto Lima, with its verdure-clad garden, is the most attractive. The streets are broad, well paved, well lighted, and traversed by a complete system of street railways, or " bonds." Many handsome public buildings have been con- structed, including the charity hospital, Asylo de Santa Leopoldina, the new marine hospital of Santo Isabel in Jurujuba, the municipal chambers, hospital of Sao Joao Baptista, Pyro- technic Laboratory, Normal School, theatres, and churches. The Barcjs ferry connects Nictheroy with Rio de Janeiro. Among the flourishing towns that reflect more or less the life of these larger cities are Campos, Macahe, Sao Joao da Barra, Itaborahy, Rezende, Nova Friburgo, and the celebrated mountain resort, Theresopolis. Campos, with a population of about twenty thousand, is the largest and richest of these towns. It is built on a plain over OLD DILIGENCE ROUTE TO PETROPOLIS. 2l8 THE NEIV BRAZIL which the sea-breeze blows with refreshing coolness. Three railroads respectively con- nect it with the Federal capital, the State of IVlinas Geraes, and the State of Espirito Santo. The municipal building is a neat edifice, containing, among other important features, a valuable library, besides which there are two smaller libraries open to the public, the property of particular societies. The town is situated on the banks of the Parahyba, an iron bridge crossing the river at this point. By means of a grand canal, Campos is con- nected with the sea-port Macahe, a railway also uniting the two towns. Among the successful institutions of Campos are the Society of Agriculture, benevolent societies, hospitals, the Jockey Club, and musical, dramatic, and dancing societies. Three news- papers are published here, and the professions are well represented. Macahe is a sea-port of considerable importance, having a regular line of steamers that connect it with Rio de Janeiro and near coast towns ; it is an enterprising town, and the centre of a fertile district where coffee, sugar, and fcijao [the black bean] are grown in great quantities. The Quissaman sugar factory in this municipality produces about forty thou- sand bags of sugar a season, and one of the growing industries is the manufacture of bricks. The Swiss colony of Nova Friburgo is the oldest immigrant settlement in Brazil, having been established, in 1819, on the site of the present progressive little city of that name. The location of the colony could not have been better chosen, as the climate is perfect, the soil rich and fertile, and the scenery indescribably beautiful, the approach by railway rivalling in some aspects the marvellous grandeur of the route to Petropolis. The feats of LIBRARY, PETROPOLIS. THE STATE OF RIO 219 1 1 ^ ^ N-*.^ i^M ^^, ,^^ ^ SMt^^^al^^^^^H ^^^^^VcoH^^^^ J :.'-^^f ■ ■'>'^T^ ir^"c« ■■%« ^^^^ '^^K^ ^-j«. ji ' ■ J^&&f^.- . ■■: ■ .-v--yiC#^ 1 1 ■■' B^j^fe J ■'..:■' m.:. m W ' X WfiMBEgi^^ i f '"■. -^wsmmi. ■ . H|^Mig&^3^ '^ 1;^ ^v^ JP^^^Pl 4.,;-;g ;?.-'-;%',»p§^;. P^g^ ^ '' \.'"i*OV-*i.L;.,^i' "~\ >. ,=■,*-::. ■ 1't^'^^'^ !f ^' v-:>.#f ;?:|^P|f ■^^- . ^■.:>. . , ■■ ? 'X "rV^ii- f;-^"-^'f ^/"^f • :^ - -• -'"^'.r-'i*::^ '''':3K-:c ■'■■"' ^^ " ,' ■ '^_m ^- r'. ■■-.„.\\l':*' .„ ■..:,; i«?a* ^mML.¥m Kfer---:;:.i 1 # p-;?^^^ W' ■ "^- '.- 'rS:- '-' ' '^ Hi^ ■"-'" P^y^'.v ,.:,,^3^. ^^w ■ 4^^;s« HP '• ' 1 • "" • Jl^^ffi^^Bfi 1 ^^fSe^iSS^Mm Efc v'J^HhSHH ^ "^ --^laa^aHl .■, ■■■■■: : ' 1 . . :f4£'' i' . -'";■;'. .. :,:'►■*!■■■■,:■?>■ IKI' ' P*^ GERMAN LEGATION, PETROPOLIS. engineering accomplished on the line of the Leo- poldina in this vicinity are remarkable ; the Fell sys- tem is used in making the ascent of the serm for a distance of about ten miles, and an eleva- tion of nearly four thou- sand feet is reached at the highest point, or Alto da Serra, from which the town is scarcely ten miles distant, with an altitude of about three thousand feet. Nova Friburgo is the centre of a productive coffee district, and within easy distance of the Federal capital, where many of its wealthy proprietors spend the winter season. Sao Joao da Barra, named from a church erected at this place by the Portuguese settlers at the beginning of the seventeenth century and dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, is a growing town, of about ten thousand inhabitants, situated on a tongue of land, about a mile square, at the mouth of the Parahyba River. The large sugar-refineries of Usina Barcellos give additional importance to its manufacturing industries, which include several mills and other enterprises. To Sao Joao da Barra belongs the honor of having nurtured one of the great poets of Brazil, Casimiro de Abreu. Itaborahy, a little town not far from Nictheroy, is famous as the birthplace of the distinguished romancist Joaquim Manoel de Macedo. Rezende, named in honor of the viceroy Conde de Rezende, under whose administra- tion the town was founded a hundred years ago, is built on the right bank of the river Parahyba, in one of the most beautiful locations imaginable ; three surrounding hills, upon the summit of each of which a pretty little church has been erected, give a charming effect to the scene. On the opposite bank of the river is the suburb of Campos Elyseos, with its neat little railway station on the line of the Central. There are innumerable growing towns and villages dotting the landscape throughout the State, among others Cabo Frio, S. Fidelis, Cantagallo, Parahyba, Mage, Vassouras, Valenga, Pirahy, Barra Mansa, Angra dos Reis, Paraty, Sapucaia, Rio Preto, and others. Besides the extensive cultivation of coffee, sugar, and cotton, the State of Rio yields good harvests of feijao, millet, fruit, and garden-stuffs; hides and lumber are also among the valuable 220 THE NEW BRAZIL products. The State of Rio was separated from the national capital and district, in 1834, by the decree of the acto addicional of the Constitution, and Nictheroy was made its capital. In the development of its cities and towns, Rio has had many advantages, not only because of excellent railway communication, and the inviting charm of natural beauty, but also in its proximity to the Federal capital, and the great harbor to which ships of all nations come ; so that residents are constantly in touch with the outside world, living, so to speak, on the great highway of ocean travel. The climate of the State is, naturally, much more delightful and pure in the mountains than on the lowlands along the coast; MOUNTAIN DRIVE-WAY, PETROPOLIS. but, taken altogether, it is of average healthfulness. Yellow fever, which is popularly supposed to be endemic in Rio, made its first appearance, as stated elsewhere, in 1849, on a slave-ship, and was totally extinguished ten years later, not visiting the State again until 1869, when it was brought in by an Italian ship, the Crcola del Plalci. Since then, it has remained in gradually decreasing force up to the present time, though in some years, even in the hottest summer months, from December to May, there are only a few sporadic cases. With the constant effort of the government to stamp out the plague, there is good reason to believe that it will soon disappear permanently. Foreigners in Rio sometimes catch the fever through a disregard of simple rules of health, and many are victims through the THE STATE OF RIO 221 devitalizing effects of constant fear and dread. Under ordinary circumstances, the risi< to healtl-i is no greater ttian tliat encountered in any country, during a Inot season, from the many diseases that affect a debilitated system. The greatest difficulty is experienced in making the average stranger recognize the necessity for moderate living in a climate where every undue tax upon the system reduces the power of physical resistance so necessary for a successful battle with any disease. The high percentage of mortality among yellow- fever cases is due in a great measure to the fact that only a couple of days is necessary for 3i 1 d ■'*. ^-^ ' M % Aj^^^m=«__ ijyg.^ Wl ■^^p^^lflrf^ ;■■; ■'^^ ^\ ;- .'*^^^^__^^^_^™_ PRESIDENT'S PALACE, PETROPOLIS. the attack to reach a crisis, and nine out of ten victims put off the necessary treatment until too late, not realizing the nature of their illness. Yellow fever has always been a bugaboo of terrible dimensions to the European or North American visiting Rio for the first time ; but to those who know the real conditions it has less terror than the grippe of colder climates, since it is more easily avoided. Petropolis, Theresopolis, Nova Friburgo, and many other towns are entirely safe from contagious fevers, and are wonderfully free from sickness of any kind. 222 THE NEW BRAZIL Several important islands in the harbor of Rio belong to the State, of which the Ilha das Flores is the most important, having a large immigrant station and adjoining buildings. Two light-houses, the Cabo Frio and S. Thome, protect the mariner from the rocks at these points. In general development and commercial importance, Rio ranks among the first States of the Union. Its area is about thirty thousand square miles, and the length of its coast- line a little more than five hundred miles. Several ranges of mountains cross the State, of which the chief are the Serra dos Orgaos and the Serra da Estrella ; the river Parahyba is the principal water way in the northern part, for some distance marking the dividing-line between Rio and Minas Geraes. Although there is considerable forest land, the territory under cultivation is quite extensive, coffee being grown everywhere in the State, on the plains as well as along the sloping hill-sides. Rio coffee grown in this State is of prime quality, and the yield sometimes reaches an average of five or six pounds to the tree. Sugar and cotton plantations are numerous and under the highest cultivation. With the increasing net-work of railways, the commercial facilities of the State are constantly in- creasing, and a rapid growth in' population is assured in consequence of the opportunities offered to immigrant colonies of an industrious class. AMERICAN LEGATION, PETROPOLIS. PJ Q Z N u Qi m Q O Q < w O O < tt. o < Q z N < P. CHAPTER XV COFFEE P^RAZIL produces two-thirds of all the coffee in the world. Ten million bags annually, or more than eight hundred thousand tons, are the average pro- duction. The vast wealth represented by this resource may be imagined from the amount paid annually by the United States of America alone for coffee, which reaches nearly a hundred million dollars in gold. Some of the best qualities of coffee on the market come from Brazil, the government sparing neither labor nor expense to introduce the best plants obtainable, free of charge to the planter, besides keeping up costly experimental stations for testing them. Nearly all the States of Brazil pro- duce some coffee, though Sao Paulo is the coffee State par excellence, and the richest region in the world for this valuable product, the estimated num- ber of coffee-bearing trees on its vast plantations reaching hundreds of millions. The great " Dumont" fa{enda, which belongs to an English syndicate, contains more than a hundred thousand acres of the best lands in the State of Sao Paulo, and has six million coffee-trees under cultivation. The profits of this enormous enterprise are said to reach the important sum of seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars in gold annually. The plantation has its own private railway connecting with the main line sixteen miles away. It gives support to more than a thousand families. The largest plantation, however, is the " Palmeiras," nearly forty miles long and thirty miles wide, and containing over three hundred thousand acres. Many of the coffee estates present attractive features aside from their commercial importance, and 225' BARAO GERALDO DE REZENDE. 226 THE NEH^ BRAZIL most of them have associations that lend the charm of sentiment to their surroundings and history. Near the town of Campinas the fazenda of Barao Geraido de Rezende, with half a million coffee-trees adorning its fertile hill-sides, presents an esthetic aspect in its magnificent "casa" and gardens, inviting envy by the wonderful collection of rare orchids and the eight hundred different varieties of roses that bloom in its flower-beds. Within the mansion are all the evidences of luxurious and artistic tastes: a well-filled library, curious and costly statuary and bric-a-brac, fine old tapestries and carpets, paintings, music, and all that is needed to harmonize with the elegance and comfort of a handsomely appointed establishment. The broad acres of the Prado estate possess an interest of singular char- acter through their intimate relation to the dramatic scenes of abolition days; it is impossible to contemplate the splendid picture of that flourishing forest of coffee-trees without seeing, in imagination, the glorious day when its princely proprietor, with a word, liberated his great army of slaves, setting an example to posterity by the free renunciation of a claim which the law of the land held to be honorable, but which the higher monitor within his own breast convinced him was wrong. In any country, such an adherence to principle at the expense of material possessions would command universal admiration. Other large planta- tions tell a similar story, for when the famous decree of emancipation was put into effect, in 1888, there were whole sections where planters were already paying wages for the labor on their farms. Many of the former slaves remained with their employers under the changed conditions, and pathetic stories are related of faithful and willing servants like the loyal old soul who, acting as spokesman for his brethren when their mistress gave them the papers that assigned to them their freedom, exclaimed, with feeling, as he tore the documents to pieces: "We have never been slaves while we worked for you!" Since the emancipation of the slaves, Italian laborers have been employed in large numbers on the coffee fazendas, and, as a rule, they give perfect satisfaction, readily ac- quiring the language and finding the climate altogether agreeable. The demand for labor is always greater than the supply, and constant efforts are made to increase immigration and colonize the coffee and other agricultural districts of the States. An idea of the immense army of workers necessary to move the coffee crop may be gained from a statement of the extent of this industry in two of the principal States. There are 1 5^,07^ plantations in Sao Paulo, of which 1 1,234 have upward of 5'o,ooo trees; 1844 have from 5'o,ooo to 100,000, 999 between 100,000 and 200,000, and ^97 from 200,000 to ^00,000 trees. On these planta- tions are 1703 machines for cleaning coffee, of which 1243 are operated by steam and 460 by water. In the State of Minas Geraes, there are nearly three thousand plantations, 64 of which have over ^00,000 trees each, 1243 of the machines running by steam and ^00 by water power. Some of these plantations raise exclusively fine Java coffee from imported Java seeds; others grow only Mocha, and some produce the Bourbon variety recently introduced into Brazil. From beginnings so small as to seem of utter insignificance, the coffee culture of Brazil has grown to such enormous proportions as to eclipse all competition, being sufficient to COFFEE 227 A COFFEE-TREE. meet the principal demand of the whole world, which, within less than two centuries, has increased from a single wagon load to about forty thousand car loads. Although of comparatively recent fame, the history of this now universal beverage is very ancient, Abyssinia and Ethiopia having used it as a medicine apparently from time immemorial, introducing it into Persia during the ninth century and into Arabia about the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Arabians seem to have been the first to drink coffee as a beverage, their writers of the end of the fif- teenth century referring to it as a popular refreshment among the brain-workers in the city of Aden. From the Orient it gradually became known elsewhere, being offered for sale in Constantinople in i5'5'4, in Venice in 1615', and in Germany in i5'82. About the middle of the seventeenth century, the first coffee-house was opened in England, and by the middle of the eighteenth century the culture of coffee was making good progress in America, having been begun first at Martinique, in the West Indies; a few years later at Para, Brazil ; and afterward in Rio, Sao Paulo, and other southern States of this country. About the middle of the eighteenth century, a Franciscan monk, Friar Villaso, brought some coffee- plants to Rio, and cultivated them in the garden of the monastery of Sao Antonio. A little later, Dom Joao Alberto Castello Branco, chancellor of the court of Rio, established a coffee farm from plants furnished by the Capuchin monks and by an Englishman named Hopp- man, who afterward cultivated the product on a large scale on his plantation in the vicinity of Engenho Velho. Once begun, the culture of this product in Brazil spread rapidly, and as early as 1767 a Jesuit missionary in Amazonas reported that the people even of that remote section were making extensive experiments in coffee-growing. According to excel- lent authority, the first coffee plantation of importance was laid out by Father Antonio Lopes da Fonseca on his estate in Campo Grande; others were soon afterward established at Rezende, and Sao Gongalo, in the State of Rio; then the neighboring States of Sao Paulo and Minas began the culture ; and the Capuchins having given some settings to a planter of Villa Vigosa, the new enterprise was thus introduced into Bahia. The history of coffee export from Brazil begins in 18 17 with the shipment of about sixty thousand bags, though two bags are said to have been sent to a foreign market as early as the first year of the nineteenth century. The rapid decline of coffee-planting in the West Indies and its failure 228 THE NEPV BRAZIL in Ceylon and other parts of the East leave Brazil to-day with few strong competitors, and open up possibilities for the foreign investor that can scarcely be offered elsewhere. To the ambitious farmer the opportunity is worth, consideration. It is said that a small coffee orchard of from five thousand to ten thousand trees may be made to yield a splendid income by the cultivation of other crops at the same time, not interfering with the success of the principal product. Under proper management, coffee can be produced, as has been proved by some of the large companies who have investments in Brazil, at a greater profit than the western American farmer realizes on his corn at thirty cents or his wheat DRYING COFFEE. at eighty cents a bushel. It is a singular fact, that, while North American capital has been looking up the coffee industry in the far East, it has failed to study the fine opportunities in Brazil, where large sums have been invested by the English and Germans with eminently satisfactory results. The epicure who sips his ccife iioir with critical daintiness, can scarcely appreciate the care and delicacy of treatment necessary to bring about perfect results, from the time the little seed is planted in the red soil of sunny southern hill-sides to the important moment when the delicious beverage is served to his fastidious palate in a style according to the highest traditions of the caterer's art. Perhaps it would give zest to enjoyment if he COFFEE 229 could call up in imagination the graceful little green coffee-trees nodding to the sway of soft breezes under the sapphire skies of their native land; the picture of peasant groups, with their "homely joys and destiny obscure"; the luxury and extravagance of the rich homes where fa{ciidciws live like princes; the whir and din of the factory which converts the red berries into the coffee of commerce; the eager mart of traders and shippers, and the busy wharves where great ships wait to carry a precious burden across the seas. Every detail of the evolution of this delicious beverage possesses a distinctive charm. The nature and development of coffee affords material for description worthy of the most gifted pen. First, from the seed-beds where only the choicest beans are planted, the little shoot springs PICKING COFFEE. up, rapidly clothing itself with the richest verdure; every month it grows and spreads a little, until it has reached a couple of feet in height, when it is ready to be transplanted, and to begin its career as a full-fledged tree. The coffee-tree is an evergreen, growing to a height of from five to twenty feet, according to variety, usually having a single trunk, though in Brazil it is often found grow- ing from six or seven slender stalks. The leaves are long, smooth, and dark green in color, the blossoms growing in fragrant white bunches in the axils of the branches. The fruit grows in clusters varying from half a dozen to a dozen, and having very short stems or none at all. When ripe, it resembles a medium-sized cranberry. The coffee-bean of 230 THE NEM/ BRAZIL SCENE ON A COFFEE FAZENDA. commerce is the seed of this fruit, every berry having two seeds, or beans, shaped like irreg- ular half-spheres, lying imbedded in its yellow, sweetish pulp, with their flat surfaces together so as to form almost a perfect sphere, separated only by a thin "parch- ment skin." When the berry is dried, the pulp hardens into a shell or pod. There is seldom a time of the year when blossoms are entirely absent, and sometimes the fruit in all its stages, from the blossom to maturity, is found on the same tree. Coffee may be grown in climates free from frosts, where the soil is neither too dry nor too moist, these extremes being fatal to its culture. It is usually planted on the mountain slopes, a thousand feet or more above sea-level, but has been successfully grown also on fertile flat lands properly drained. The trees begin to bear when from three to five years old. The "Bourbon" variety will produce a good crop the third year, and the "Java," planted on the same land, will yield a satisfactory crop the fourth year. From the sixth year abundant harvests may be gathered up to the twentieth, after which the yield is less, until the fortieth, or, in some instances, the fiftieth year, when production ceases altogether. The average crop of a healthy tree from five to fifteen years old is about four pounds to a tree, though some plantations in favorable years have grown six and even ten pounds to the tree. An idea of the natural advantages which Brazil possesses as a coffee-growing country may be gained by comparing these averages with the records of some other coffee countries where the yield is little more than a pound per tree. During the harvest, a coffee plantation is the scene of constant activity. The trees begin to blossom in September, and by April or May the fruit is ripe and ready for the pickers, who present a business-like appearance with their great baskets strapped on their shoulders, apparently eager to enter the arena of competition, where, like "pickers" the world over, they work for reputation, as well as money, the fame of being "the fastest picker in the State" having a charm no less potent to their limited ambition than are the superlatives that attract their fellow-men in higher fields of human endeavor. An honest incentive that lightens labor and offers a happy goal to human effort gives dignity to any toiler, however humble his position. In large plantations, the space necessary for the various processes of COFFEE 231 treating the coffee from the time it is gathered and taken to the terrciro until ready for market embraces a surface of several acres, with mills, warehouses, stables, and machine- shops. The employes of the farm and factory include hundreds of families. The larger cafe^ales have a complete outfit for drying, shelling, and sacking the coffee. Nearly all the processes of preparation seek first the removal of the outer pulp by maceration in water, then the drying of the seeds, and finally the removal of the thin parchment-like skin that still envelopes them after the outer pulp has been taken off. By an additional process, the coffee is divided into classes according to form and size, as "Mocha," "Martinique," and other "sorts." The cafe{ale of a large fazenda is one of the most interesting establishments imagi- nable when converted into a hive of industry by the arrival of a harvest of the precious fruit. The first operation to which the berries are submitted is known as pulping, which is done by a machine that consists of a revolving iron cylinder set with teeth and covered on one side by a curved sheet of metal against which it impinges as it turns, the bottom of the cylinder being perforated so that the beans fall through, when free from the pulp, into a canal of flowing water that carries them into the fermenting tanks for the removal of the saccha- rine matter that must be washed off before they can be dried. There are usually three of these tanks, of which two are receiving cisterns, each large enough to accommodate the greatest possible daily gathering, and the third a cleansing tank, nearly as large as the other two combined; a good-sized outlet is provided with a sieve fine enough to retain the beans when the water is drawn off, without becoming clogged with the saccharine scum. After fermentation, the coffee passes into the cleansing tank, where the last trace of the saccharine matter is removed, and the beans are prepared for the drying process. All Brazilian fazendas have drying terraces made of cement, where the coffee is spread out in thin layers so as to have the full benefit of the sun's heat. Men with rakes are kept constantly busy turning the beans, to hasten the drying, which sometimes requires several weeks. An artificial method is occasionally employed by means of steam heat, but it is said that no other process is so satisfactory as the sun's rays. When the beans are dry, the "parchment skin" is re- moved by passing them between heavy rollers arranged for the purpose, the chaff being cleared away by a winnowing A GROUP OF COFFEE-PICKERS. '■y- THE NEIV BRAZIL process. The coffee is afterward separated into different grades, this operation being per- formed usually by women and girls, who work at a long table arranged for the purpose. Then the coffee is put up in coarse sacks, and sent to the nearest station for shipment to one of the sea-ports. Rio de Janeiro and Santos are the principal shipping ports for coffee, from which the Brazilian coffees receive the names "Rio" and "Santos" coffees. During the busy season, the warehouses have a lively appearance. The narrow streets are blockaded with wagons loaded with coffee; scores of stout-shouldered carriers hurry back and forth, taking on their heads the sacks from the wagons to the warehouses, SAO ANTONIO COFFEE FAZENDA, STATE OF SAO PAULO. while darting in and out among the wagons are women with sieves for scooping up the beans spilled on the ground in unloading, who often sell their little hoard for quite a consid- erable sum. In the warehouses the coffee is emptied out in great piles, and repacked in bags of uniform weight, sometimes by machinery, though generally by hand, the men employed in this work attaining great dexterity. At the wharves, carriers are busy unload- ing from the cars to the ships, policemen patrolling the landing to guard against any infringe- ment of the law, especially to prevent stealing, as there is a great temptation to the sluggish conscience in the many opportunities offered to indulge such a propensity. Fights and COFFEE 23? brawls are of rare occurrence, the disposition of the Brazilian, even among the lowest classes, being peaceable and good-natured. The best coffees known to commerce are "Mocha" and "Java," specified as "mild" coffees. The beans of the Arabian Mocha are small and of a dark yellow, while those of Java are larger and of a pale yellow, or a brown, the brown Java beans being older and more valuable. Brazilian coffee is divided, commercially, into many grades, the fine grade consisting of regular-sized beans, free from hulls or other extraneous matter, while the lowest grade is not carefully assorted and may contain broken and defective beans as well as hulls, sticks, and other rubbish, which give it a cheap value in the market. In view of FAZENDA NOVA LONGA. the constant effort of the government of Brazil to maintain a high standard of excellence in the culture of coffee, it is discouraging to know, that, while the inferior grades are recognized abroad in their true origin, the best qualities are frequently sold as Arabian Mocha, Java, or other Oriental coffees, sometimes even being shipped from Europe to Egypt, and thence to Arabia, for repacking in Mocha fashion, with the result that good Santos coffee, first sold in Brazil at five cents per pound, brings a retail price of forty-five cents a pound in foreign markets, after its transformation into " real Arabian Mocha." in the raw state in which it is shipped the coffee has little flavor, the caffeine, a peculiar brown oil which gives coffee its characteristic aroma, being developed by the process of roasting. The Brazilians, who understand perfectly the nature of coffee, say 234 THE NEIV BRAZIL that its quality, its flavor and aroma, cannot be enjoyed to the full measure of its possibilities unless it is kept several years before using, always in a perfectly dry atmosphere. Some connoisseurs maintain that coffee is at its best after being kept eight years in this way. To make a good cup of coffee, the beans should be roasted and ground afresh each time, and never boiled, but reduced to fine powder and compressed in a woollen bag through which hot water is poured, so that a percolation rather than a decoction is the result. Coffee that has been gathered at least two years is used in preference to new coffee. The varied operations through which the coffee passes before it can be said to have "arrived" are altogether in keeping with the character of its destiny, the important role it plays in the progress of human affairs. " Coffee and pistols " has passed into a proverb significant of the close association of this beverage with the supreme moments of life ; the " coffee- house " and the " cafe " have always been famous as the rendezvous of great men and the favorite resort of cabals ; the dainty little coffee service in every home is intimately related to the sweetest and bitterest memories of life, and hearts have throbbed with courage or broken in despair under whispered words punctuating the pauses between sips of this divine nectar " when love was young and hopes were high." In the homes of Brazil, where hospitality finds its sweetest expression, every guest is invited to enjoy a cup of coffee so perfectly prepared as to realize fully the famous formula of the immortal Talleyrand: ''Noir comme le diable, chaiid comme Vcnfer, pur comme un ange, donx comme V amour." COFFEE-GATHERER'S CABIN. o <: O '< CO H < PJ O < < tu I H CHAPTER XVI SAO PAULO T' ^HROUGH all the varying fortunes attending the growth and advancement of Brazil, Sao Paulo has had such an important share that its history is indissolubly woven with the history of the nation. The civilization and devel- opment of central and southern Brazil especially have been largely due to the sturdy and energetic people of this terri- tory, from the very earliest days, when, under the govern- ment of the redoubtable Ramalho, the Mamclucos, or pioneer Paulistas, rendered valuable assistance to Martim Affonso in settling the present State of Sao Paulo, which took its name from a mission founded by the Paulist priests on the site of the present State capital ; overcoming every obstacle, the State has grown and prospered under all conditions, and, to-day occupies a distinguished place as the most important of the Brazilian Union. Possessing extraordinary interest as the richest coffee-growing region in the world, it is further renowned as a great educational centre and as having a political constituency of the most important influence. The State covers an area of seventy-five thousand square miles, of which two-thirds is under cultivation, chiefly divided into coffee plantations, though the agricultural possibilities are almost unlimited, sugar, cotton, and tobacco constituting important articles of export, while increasingly favorable results are attending the fruit-growing interests, and the vineyards of the State are constantly improving in value. The mineral resources also are extensive, and include gold, silver, precious stones, copper, iron, and coal, iron is found in enormous quantities, especially in the mountains of 237 GARDEN SCENE, SAO PAULO. =38 THE NEIV BRAZIL Aragoiaba and Ypanema, where large foundries and smelting-works are located ; and the immense cattle-farms of the State are in a prosperous condition. From its situation, Sao Paulo derives many advantages commercially, bordering the Atlantic Ocean on the southeast, the State of Rio on the east, Minas Geraes on the north, Matto Grosso on the west, and Parana on the south, and being in direct railway communi- cation with them. A considerable extent of the northern, western, and southern limits is traced by the river Parana and its tributaries, the Rio Grande and Rio Paranapanema. A natural division of the State is made by the mountain chain, Serra do Mar, which crosses it near the southeastern border, parallel with the sea-coast, toward which it descends abruptly, leaving merely a narrow strip of lowland between, which is the only part of the State liable to malarial conditions, the climate of the interior being every- where salubrious and equable. The course of the Serra do Mar is marked by wild and rugged moun- tains, extensive valleys, impetuous streams, and the varying landscape presented by flourishing coffee- fields adorning the hill-sides and rich cattle-farms dotting the valleys. In the west, the country con- sists of a high plateau, part of which is practically a term incognita, though offering great reward to the bold pioneer who shall dare to penetrate its fast- nesses. The river system of the State is excellent, the Tiete, with innumerable tributaries, crossing it from the Serra do Mar to the Parana River, of which it is one of the most important tributaries, passing through the State capital, watering vast coffee planta- tions in the central part and traversing the unknown territory of the west. In addition to the water ways of the Tiete and the boundary rivers, the populous section of the southeast is completely drained by the Rio Pardo, Iguape, Parahyba do Sul, and Mogy- guassu. Excellent railroad facilities throughout the State greatly aid in its development, every town of importance being connected in this way with the capital city, and through it directly with the Federal capital. The city of Sao Paulo, the capital of the State, within a quarter of a century has increased its population tenfold, from a town of twenty thousand inhabitants to a flourish- ing commercial and educational centre with a population of more than two hundred and fifty thousand. The municipal government is of the most advanced and progressive char- acter, evidences of broad and liberal methods appearing in all the details of the adminis- tration. The city is one of the largest and most attractive in Brazil, being especially noted DR. RODRIGUES ALVES, PRESIDENT OF SAO PAULO. SAO PAULO 239 VIEW OF SANTOS AND HARBOR. for its handsome public buildings, well-kept parks, and beautiful suburbs. The olde| sec- tion still preserves its identity as a product of Portuguese civilization, in the narrow streets bordered by low-built houses having facades of ornamental tiles in various designs. A superb viaduct connects the old with the new city, called the Viaducto Cha, or " tea viaduct," from the extensive tea-gardens formerly culti- vated in the valley beneath. Truck-gardening and fruit-growing have quite superseded the culture of tea, and the view from the viaduct now shows a more attractive variety of scene, thoroughly rural but charmingly diversified. The greater part of the city is of modern construction, having broad, well-paved streets crossing one another at right angles and divided into squares of handsome commercial buildings, palatial residences, colleges surrounded by beautiful lawns and gardens, or pretty cottages nestling under embowering trees. The chief seat of educational activity in Brazil, Sao Paulo is essentially a "college town," maintaining altogether nearly eight hundred educational institutions. Of these, the most celebrated are the Academiii dc Dircito, or Law School, the Faculdadc dc Med/c/iu, the Escola Polytcchuica, and the Normal School, all of which offer free instruction on the most liberal plan. The government also maintains a bacteriological institute, a pharmaceutical laboratory, and a laboratory for chemical analyses. The Gymnasio of Sao Paulo is con- ducted according to thoroughly modern methods, as are all the public schools of the city. The Lrccit do Sagrado Cora^o de fesits and the Scminario das Ediicjiidjs are excellent schools, occupying handsome and well- appointed buildings. As an in- dication of the standard of edu- cational advancement in Sao Paulo and the general appre- ciation shown for the benefits of higher education, it is stated palacete of conselheiro antonio prado, sao paulo. 240 THE NEIV BRAZIL IMPOUNDING DAM, SAO PAULO WATER-WORKS. that at a recent banquet held in that city thirty of the guests were graduates of the highest universities on the American continent. As in most college cities, the streets are beautified by numerous shade-trees, and the parks attract general admira- tion by their inviting appear- ance. Many of the large squares in the business portion of the city are surrounded by hand- some buildings of modern con- struction, several stories in height. In the Largo do Palacio, as the name indicates, is situated the State president's palace, a commodious and elegant structure, fronting a beautiful tropical garden. The palace of the State Treasury, the offices of the departments of the Interior, Agriculture, and Jus- tice, and the Post-office, also face the Largo do Palacio. The Thesoiiraria Geral de Fa{eiida is a magnificent edifice of attractive architectural design and distinctly metropolitan appear- ance, devoted to the uses of the Department of Finance. The Largo Municipal, which takes its name from the municipal palace overiooking it, is one of the most important squares of the city. The oldest park is the Jardim Publico, originally created by royal charter in 1790, though not completed until 1825-, when it was opened to the public by order of the first president of the province, Visconde de Congon- has do Campo. Scarcely less beautiful than the parks are the extensive grounds belonging to some of the public institutions, of which there are several espe- cially devoted to charity, as the Portuguese hospital, two laza- rettos, and the asylum for the poor. The suburbs are particu- lady attractive for their many charming drives, bordered by handsome villas or fine public edifices. In the suburb of rua florencio d'abreu, sao paulo. S.-IO PAULO 241 Arouche, the Sdiifj Qisj dc Miscricordu, one of the principal hospitals of the city, is a conspicuous feature of the landscape, its grand proportions and impressive architectural style commanding especial attention. The Episcopal Seminary, an excellent institution founded by Bishop Antonio Joaquim de Mello, and the State Penitentiary, a massive but gloomy pile, are situated in the suburb of Luz. The Hospcdaria de Immigrantes, in the Braz district, offers excellent accommodations to the new arrivals from foreign countries, who are to settle in the various farming colonies of the State, and it is one of the very important institutions of the government. Liberdade is the most picturesque suburb, and possesses PUBLIC SOL'ARE IN SAO PAULO. more than ordinary interest as the site of the chief botanical garden of the State, and the location of the head-quarters of the Sao Paulo water-works s\-stem. But the principal point of interest for all \-isitors to the cit\' is Ypiranga, the magnihcent monument erected, in 188^, on the spot where the proclamation of the independence of Brazil was made in 1822: it is the finest work of architecture in Brazil, designed not only to commemorate this glorious e\'ent, but also to ser\'e as an institution of learning. The museum of Ypiranga contains treasures of great historical and scientific interest, man\' curious and \-aluable relics, also some of the finest paintings of Brazilian artists. In the department of taxidermy are preseived more than six hundred specimens of humming-birds, those dainty little exquisites 242 THE NEIV BRAZIL of the forest who build their nest so very tiny that they are obliged gradually to spread it out as the nestlings grow, until, by the time the little ones are ready to take flight, it is per- fectly flat. The Loiivadeiis [Praise God] grasshopper, that regularly makes its way to the top of a bush or tree and puts up its feelers in an attitude of prayer, is another curiosity of which many specimens are preserved in this museum; and of butterflies the collection is apparently endless in variety. Curiosities have been culled from every available source of the mineral as well as of the animal kingdom, the classifica- tion being so systematically arranged as greatly to facilitate inspection. The action of the red sand of this district on the marble of the edifice has given it something of the appearance of old ivory, greatly enhancing its effectiveness. From the porticoes of Ypiranga a splendid view of the city is presented, with its spires and towers gleaming in the sunlight. The church architecture of Sao Paulo is similar to that in other cities, the Jesuit style predominating, especially in the older churches. Its theatres are well- appointed, following the French in general style, the favorite being the Sao Jose, frequently visited by excellent European companies. The Mercado Municipal, or city market, is quite a feature of the shopping district, having everything for sale, like the department stores of other countries. The various railway stations and the hotels are centrally located. A com- plete system of street railways connects all parts of the city, and extends to its suburbs. Other modern improvements which the citizens enjoy are : the benefits of electric lighting, gas, a splendid water-works system, drainage, telephone communication, district-messenger service, and mail delivery. The chief manufacturing industries include spinning and cotton mills, ice factories, gas-works, foundries, match factories, furniture factories, and establish- ments for cleaning, dyeing, and renovating all kinds of fabrics. The city has been the chief scene of action in many stirring events of Brazilian history, and the home of some of the STREET IN CAMPINAS, STATE OF SAO PAULO. SAO PAULO 243 COL. FERNANDO PRESTES, EX-PRESIDENT OF SAO PAULO. country's greatest heroes. It was the birthplace of the poet Alvares de Azevedo, and has been the chosen residence of many renowned scholars and statesmen. Its several newspapers reflect the spirit of the people, are ably published, and thoroughly up-to-date. Ranking next in importance to the State capital, the city of Santos is the great commercial sea-port of Sao Paulo, and one of the most important in South America, the enormous shipments of coffee from this point giving it a world-wide reputation. The town was founded by Braz Cubas in the middle of the sixteenth century, and received its name from Santos Hospital, established by the founder a few years earlier, the first charitable institution in Brazil. Braz Cubas was one of the most distinguished pioneers of Brazil, where he spent the greater part of his life, and died at the advanced age of a hundred years. His descendants are counted among the leading families of Sao Paulo. This ancient city was also the birthplace of the celebrated Andrada brothers; of Bartholomeu Lourengo de Gusmao, the inventor of the air-ship who gave the first practical demonstration of its power, the experiment taking place before the king, in Lisbon, in the year 1709; and of Visconde de Sao Leopoldo, the first president of the province of Rio Grande do Sul, founder of the flourishing colony of Sao Leopoldo in that State, prominent in the organiza- tion of the Law Colleges of Sao Paulo and of Olinda (the latter since removed to Pernam- buco), and one of the founders of the Historical Institute of Brazil. So that, aside from its commercial interest, Santos possesses the proud distinction of having been the cradle of some of Brazil's greatest men. But its commercial importance outweighs every other claim at the present time, and there is little to indicate the haunts of the scholar in its busy streets lined with warehouses and crowded with heavy wagons. Its docks are constantly thronged with workmen, loading and unloading the ships that visit its port from all parts of the world. Several street-car lines cross the town, which is com- pactly built, and ornamented with many attractive buildings. The custom-house, theatre, hospitals, and churches con- stitute the chief public institu- tions. From the neighboring HOSPITAL DE isoLAMENTo, SAO PAULO. hill of Montsorrat, on the summit i i!'|[ r fo 1 [■ ?l_ ,f ^44 THE NEIV BRAZIL of which is one of the oldest shrines in Brazil, Nossa Senhora de Montserrat, a superb panorama of the city and harbor of Santos is presented to the view. Across the bay from Santos is situated one of the most delightful resorts in Brazil, the sea-side city of Guaruja. It is built upon a huge knoll, shaped like half an orange, and surrounded by high hills covered with virgin forests. This charming retreat overlooks the ocean, and is bordered by a delightful beach unrivalled in its bathing facilities and fanned by Neptune's most soothing breezes. It was created through the enterprise of a few public- spirited men of Sao Paulo, prominent among them being Dr. Guillermo Ellis and Dr. Elias Fausto, who bought the ground and built a town of more than fifty cottages, imported from -*i*^^^«W»iifctoi^; RESERVOIR DA LIBERDADE, SAO PAULO. the United States, to which have been added many others of brick, cement, and stone. Every house is provided with electric lights and has running water and perfect drainage. A large hotel, a theertre, and a Casslno, or club, afford accommodation and amusement to all their guests or members. At the hotel, an orchestra supplies music during each meal and in the evenings. The town is lighted by electricity. The transportation from Santos is made by steamboat and railway, requiring half an hour for the trip. The residents of the State of Sao Paulo fmd this beautiful resort a most attractive spot in which to spend the hot months of summer, and, with the many attractions that are offered to increase its popularity, there is valid reason for regarding it as the coming Newport of Brazil. S^O PAULO MS Of all the cities of the State, none retains more charming memories and traditions or shows greater growth and activity than the model town of Campinas, the birthplace of President Campos-Salles and the cradle of Brazil's greatest composer, Carlos Gomes, it is beautifully situated, in the centre of a rich coffee district, on the line of one of the main arteries of railway travel, and in a climate unsurpassed for its healthfulness. With a population of about forty thousand, it has all the municipal improvements enjoyed by cities of double its population. The streets are broad, and handsomely paved with stone; gas is used for lighting purposes; the water-works system is excellent; telegraph and telephone com- munication is established ; there are ice factories, machine-shops, cotton-mills, and other BEACH AT GUARUJA, STATE OF SAO PAULO. industries of the kind ; and in educational matters the city is particularly progressive, having several important colleges, among others the Ciilto a Scicncij and the Coma dc McUo; a far- reaching charitable work is carried on by the hospitals Miscricordia and Bcuiftccncij Portit- gik'{j : a large public library is open to all readers ; three daily newspapers are published, one of which has been established for a quarter of a century; one of the principal churches, Conceigao, was erected in 1820, and is famous for the magnificent carving of its altars and interior decorations, all the wood being native cedar, hand-carved in beautiful designs. Like Campinas, the city of Piracicaba enjoys a wide reputation as the home of one of Brazil's great men, having the honor to number among its residents the former president, 246 THE NEI4^' BRAZIL Dr. Jose Prudente de Moraes Barros. It occupies a picturesque site on the banks of the Piracicaba River, a branch of the Tiete, and one of its greatest natural attractions is the cas- cade that the river forms here, offering a charming variety of scenery. The fertility of the soil in this locality is remarkable, producing coffee, sugar, and cereals in abundance. The American school of Piracicaba is one of the most successful in the State. Itu, also an important town in many respects, is historically interesting as the birthplace of such illustrious Brazilians as Father Feijo, Paula Souza, and the celebrated 'painter Ferraz de Almeida, Jr. It is situated on the left bank of the river Tiete, and is the thriving centre of a rich agricultural district, as well as the seat of important educational institutions, in- cluding the college of S. Luiz and that of Nossa Senhora do Patrocinio, founded, about the middle of the nineteenth century, by Bishop Antonio Joaquim de Mello. Among other large agricultural or manufacturing towns is Jundiahy, an important rail- way junction and shipping centre. Taubate is especially noted as the location of valuable petroleum wells recently discovered, and of extensive gas-works, and is an attractive place of residence because of its healthful climate, excellent schools, hospitals, and churches. Rio Claro, Limeira, Mogy-mirim, Casa Branca, Mococa, Franca, and Araraquara are thriving and progressive towns. Porto Feliz, Capivary, Itapetininga, Tatuhy, Botucatu, Itapeva, and Sorocaba have important agricultural interests, Sorocaba being also famed for its large cattle market. Jacarehy is the centre of valuable pasture-lands, and Lorena is one of the most picturesque little cities of the State, and a progressive commercial centre. Silveiras, Queluz, Ca^apava, Franca, Iguape, and Itapetininga are important towns commercially. HOTEL AND CASINO AT GUARUJA. SJO PAULO 247 LARGO DO PALACIO, SAO PAULO. Although very extensive, the production from agricultural and mineral sources is not a tithe of what the State is capable of yielding if thoroughly developed, though the exports are constantly increasing, especially of fruits, wine, cattle, lumber, cereals, and iron. The mines are, as yet, comparatively little worked, but, with the increasing population that results from immigration, systematically encouraged, the future of the mining industry is very promising for Sao Paulo. The inhabitants of the State of Sao Paulo are estimated at about two millions, and its great wealth has been largely accumulated within recent years, during which the population has grown with remarkable rapidity. With the wisdom of good government, the money of the State has been employed in improving the sanitary conditions of the less favored localities, with the happy result that a host of country towns, formerly decimated by fevers as a result of bad drainage, are now absolutely free from such diseases, and even where the work has been only partially completed the percentage of mortality has been materially reduced. In Santos it is especially desirable that good sanitary conditions should exist, and gratifying efforts are being made toward this consummation. The attractions offered to foreign immigration by the government of Sao Paulo have found reward in a substantial way; and though the national government, in 1897, withdrew entirely all subventions for immigration, yet nearly thirty thousand immigrants have been 248 THE NEir BRAZIL introduced into the State since that time, and the foreign colonies are all in a prosperous condition. The railway.' trackage of the State covers thousands of miles, and is con- stantly being extended. Harmony prevails in political affairs under the excellent leadership of the State president, Dr. Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, whose renowned adminis- trative ability gives him a leading place among the statesmen of Brazil, and whose unfailing zeal in the ser\-ice of his country has won the highest admiration and esteem of the Bra- zilian people. In every official capacity in which he has served the nation during the years of his active political career, Dr. Rodrigues Alves has proved the disinterested character of his efforts, his unimpeachable integrity and sound judgment. The State of Sao Paulo has been particularly fortunate in the choice of presidents, having been honored in every case with administrative officials of the very highest type. The honorable predecessor of the pres- ent executive. Colonel Fernando Prestes de Albuquerque, a native Paulista, was, like his successor in office, an advocate of republicanism and one of its most enthusiastic propa- gandists for a long time before witnessing the triumph of the cause so dear to every citizen of the New World ; and during all the years following the establishment of the republic Colonel Prestes has been an indefatigable promoter of its interests, his efforts being espe- cially directed toward the advancement of the State of Sao Paulo. Among other great leaders who have stood at the helm in this State in the past are such celebrities as Dr. Pru- dente Moraes, Dr. Bernardino de Campos, and Dr. Campos-Salles. Sao Paulo has taken no backward steps in all its career, and progress within the past ten years has been phenomenal. At a similar rate of development in the future, there is no limit to the success that may- attend its advancement during another decade. FOUNTAIN LIBERDADE, SAO PAULO. en UJ O Qi O < D CHAPTER XVII MINERAL WEALTH AND VEGETATION T^HE glitter of gold and the flash of gems have possessed a singular fascination for mankind from time immemorial, and the intimate relation these treasures bear to the joys and sorrows of the human family furnishes the subject of many enchanting myths, traditions, and romances. Human nature has not greatly changed throughout the ages in its predilections, the same instinct that was illustrated in the sacred guarding of the treasure in the garden of the Hesperides still existing in the motive of the twentieth- century miser; the "golden apple" is as in- valuable an aid in securing the good offices of Venus nowadays as it was N\'hen Paris won Helen of Troy; the irresistible magnet- ism of costly jewels is as potent with the modern belle as it was \\"ith the distinguished guest of King Solomon; and, in various guises, the popular idol of society is, as it has alwax's been, no other than the much- worshipped golden calf of Israel's camp. This universal attraction toward the precious prod- uct of the mines has given to the gold and the diamond fields a special charm ; and every epidemic of the " fever " \\'hich in\'ariably folloN\'s gold discovery has had the inevitable accompaniment of prodigal N\'aste and barbaric display. But of all the fabulous tales related of silver kings and bonanza princes, the palm for extravagance belongs to the history 2^1 THE COQUILLA-NUT PALM. 2p THE NEW BRAZIL DIAMOND MINER'S HUT. of early mining days in Brazil, wfien horses were shod with gold; when lawyers supported their pleadings before the judge with gifts of what appeared at first sight the choicest oranges and bananas, but proved to be solid gold imitations of these fruits; when guests were entertained while at dinner by the discovery of gold peb- bles in their soup instead of grains of corn; when a nugget was the most convenient medium of exchange in the money-market. Tradition has woven a very interesting story about the first discovery of the precious metal in Brazil, with a touch of the supernatural that entirely rescues this important event from the un- attractive realm of the commonplace. It is, that, as early as the sixteenth century, a scr- fiiiic'jo, or backwoodsman, of Sao Paulo, having heard that gold and precious stones were to be found in the interior of Goyaz, organized a band of followers and proceeded as far as Villa Boa (now the city of Goyaz), where he encountered several hidians decked out in gorgeous array and wearing costly gold ornaments. He demanded of them to be taken to the place where the gold had been found ; and upon their refusal to give up the secret, the scrtiVncjo, with a great display of anger, took from his pouch a flask of rum, poured out a quantity, and set fire to it, exclaiming, in a voice of thunder: "See! Thus I will burn up all your rivers, if you do not show me where your gold is to be found I " The Indians were panic-stricken at this sight, and cried out, in superstitious terror: ''Auhangncra! Auhan- giicm!" meaning "wizard." Their leader was brought to terms without further difficulty, a guide was secured, and the party proceeded at once to the place, where they obtained a large amount of the precious metal. From more authentic sources it is learned that gold was discovered in the seventeenth century in the States of Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo. About the middle of the eighteenth century, the gold output was at its height, the revenue from this product being enormous. It is said that, in a certain district, five thousand pounds' weight was panned from placers within the area of a square mile in one year, and from another region a hundred pounds' weight was collected in one night. In the year 1792, the gold registered in Rio de Janeiro was three hundred and sixty thousand pounds in weight, and, from recent researches among old archives, an English authority has put the total amount of the gold output of Minas Geraes at the enormous value of two hundred MINERAL WEALTH AND VEGETATION 29 million pounds sterling. The most important gold explorations in Brazil have been made in the State of Minas Geraes, and though the production during the nineteenth century did not equal that of the eighteenth, it has never ceased to be profitable and give good returns for the amount of capital invested. At Morro Velho, in this State, the largest mines in Brazil, the property of the Saint John del Rey Company, have been worked for the past fifty years, yielding during that period twenty-six million dollars' worth of gold. Modern machinery is used in these mines, and many difficult and costly improvements have been made within recent years. The ore yields six-tenths of an ounce per ton, and the annual output is fifty thousand ounces. Another important company is the Aiirifcra, with which Dr. Urbano Marcondes is prominently idenfified. Probably no other part of the world contains such varied mineral wealth as the State of Minas Geraes, which, in addition to its inexhaustible gold and diamond deposits, has manganese mines that rank among the most important in the world, supplying the great steel mills of Europe and North America. From the largest of these mines, the " Usina Wigg," located about three hundred miles north of Rio de Janeiro, on the line of the Cen- tral Railway, twenty thousand tons were shipped to the Carnegie Steel Company in 1897; and the supply is apparently unlimited. This State is also rich in deposits of topazes and of amethysts, found chiefly near Ouro Preto; of onyx unequalled in beauty, and of marble and granite in x'anous qualifies and colors. Silver, copper, iron, mercury, mica, and petroleum are among the rich products of the State, which is still in the early stages of mineral development notwithstanding its wonderful record. The present tendency toward an im- portant revival of gold mining in Brazil is likely to result in an enormous " boom " when the real facts become known regarding its wealth. The gold mines of Bahia, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, Sao Paulo, Para, and Amazonas are sources of wealth that have scarcely been touched, the mining industry in these States being still in its infancy. New gold discoveries are constanfiy being made in e\'ery State of the Union, and in those regions where gold and diamonds ha\'e been found but ha\-e not \'et been worked, owing to their inaccessibility, the newly-constructed rail- wavs are extendin*-^' their banana-trees in a private garden 2^4 THE NE^ BRAZIL lines rapidly, thus facilitating the means of reaching remote districts that have for so many centuries kept their precious stores hidden in the heart of the continent. Not only is the outlook promising for gold mining, but for the diamond fields as well ; the States of Bahia, Goyaz, Minas, and Matto Grosso, especially, offering inducements for the development of their diamond resources. The Brazilian diamond mines have been famous for nearly two centuries, and the story of their discovery is related in various ways. According to some authorities, they were first found by the gold miners, who regarded them as mere curiosities, and used them as counters in gambling, until a worthy friar, happening to observe this base use of Fortune's favorite bauble, informed the governor of the province, who immediately notified the king. The discovery was first officially reported in Lisbon in 1729, and the first gems were sent to Rome by Joao V. as a present to the pope. Several of the most cele- brated diamonds of the world have since been found in Brazilian mines. The " Braganza," the most highly prized of the crown-jewels of Portugal, was taken from Caethe, about the middle of the eighteenth century. Connoisseurs differ as to its value, and its weight has been variously stated, but it is world-renowned as a rare and beautiful gem. The "Regent," named in honor of Dom Joao VI., and worn by him on all great occasions, was found in 1 79 1, under circumstances of peculiar interest. Three men, convicted of a capital offence, had been condemned to spend the remainder of their days in the far west of Minas, and forbidden, under penalty of death, to enter a city. After wandering about for several years, searching for treasure in the apparently vain hope of some day being able to purchase their pardon, they suddenly came upon this diamond, weighing nearly an ounce. Recognizing its great value, and eager to test its power as a means of securing their pardon, they told their secret to a priest, begging him to accompany them to the city and to intercede for them with the governor, submitting to him the precious stone they had found. As a result they were granted their pardon and permitted to return to their homes, though they received no further reward. The " Estrella do Sul," also a product of Minas Geraes, and now the valued possession of a great Oriental potentate, has a history similar to that of the "Regent." It was picked up at Bagagem by a poor negro slave, who gave it to her master as the price of her freedom. It afterward proved to be worth fifteen million dollars, and still ranks among the most costly gems in existence. Aside from its intrinsic worth, it possesses a unique value as representing the highest price ever paid for the blessed boon of human liberty. In a rough state, this precious stone weighed two hundred and fifty carats, and, when cut, about half that amount. It was discovered in the year 18^4. The history of diamond mining in Brazil and the modern processes of the industry present many interesting features. The great centre of the diamond district is a town of ten thousand inhabitants, situated in the State of Minas, about six hundred miles from Rio de Janeiro, and named, from its chief product, Diamantina. It was originally a gold-mining camp, until the discovery of diamonds early in the eighteenth century transformed it in appearance and character. For a hundred years after their discovery the mining of diamonds in Brazil was a monopoly of the crown, all diamond mines being declared State property by MINERAL PVEALTH /iND VEGETATION 2^? the king of Portugal; and it was only after the abdication of the first emperor of Brazil that private diamond mining was legalized by the national government, in the year 1832. The methods of mining pursued by the government officials in charge of this valuable property of the State were extremely careless and shortsighted, the main object, apparently, being to get the greatest amount of treasure possible with the least delay. As a result, there are large deposits of diamond-bearing gravel which can never be mined because buried under the detritus of other workings. Diamond-bearing gravel is usually found in the interstices of the rocks and boulders that block the current of the mountain streams in their first steep descent down the narrow MANGO-TREE. ravines near the summit of the scira, before they reach the broader bed of the river below. An experienced miner easily recognizes it by the presence of certain other minerals which are only found where the diamond is indicated. The following description of the four distinct methods of diamond mining practised in the Diamantina district is taken from an official report of Hon. Charles Page Bryan, United States Minister to Brazil, to the State Department in Washington, containing an account of a visit made by the secretary of the United States legation, in 1899, to these diamond fields: 2[;6 THE NEIV BRAZIL "The diamond is a lieavy mineral, its specific gravity being about 3.6, much greater than that of ordinary rock. When the mother-deposits in the high scrra were eroded and washed into the streams, the diamonds and other heavy minerals were separated from the bulk of the detritus by the action of the water. The heavy gravel thus left at the bottom and caught among the boulders is the jormaQao, or diamond gravel. There are more than thirty minerals of which some are always found in it, among them tourmaline, specular iron, disthene, rutile, gold, and various phosphates. The fonih^ao is prospected for in the dry season, and as soon as found is dug out and piled near the water. When the rains interrupt the digging, the miners work up the gravel. The operation is very simple. The gravel is first washed in a bacii, an excavation a yard wide and a yard and a half long, on the bank of a pond or stream. Its lip is a few inches above the surface of the water, and it deepens slightly to the rear. A cubic foot or more of gravel is placed in the back end, and the workman dashes water against it out of a large concave wooden plate, giving it a peculiar rotary fling. This rapidly separates the lighter and larger stones from the smaller and heavier ones. When concentration by this rough method is as complete as possible, the gravel is worked with the hatea. This unique instrument is a wooden dish, about thirty inches in diameter, with a sort of pit at the bottom. Filling the batca with the concentrate and water, the workman agitates the contents, whirling and shaking them, meanwhile pouring and scraping the lighter gravel from the top as fast as he separates it. The operation is very similar to old-fashioned gold panning, but requires even greater skill on account of the danger of losing diamonds. It is said that a man may be a first-rate gold panner and yet useless for diamond washing. At the end of the process, the diamonds are simply picked out by hand from the re- maining minerals. Their peculiar lustre makes them easily recognizable even by a tyro. The Brazilian method of washing alluvial gold is substantially that described above. By its use, practically all the diamonds and placer gold which Brazil has produced have been obtained. PAPAW-TREE. MINERAL PVEALTH AND VEGETATION 2^7 "The second method of mining is that practised in the beds of the larger streams. The opening of one of these mines is an extensive and complicated undertaking, requiring the employment of thousands of dollars and hundreds of men. At the beginning of the dry season, a spot is selected which is believed, from tradition or ancient documents, to be virgin. Just above the spot selected, a rude dam is erected, and also a sluice around it, through which the waters of the river are turned. The bed thus exposed is usually found to be of sand, largely the detritus of ancient workings. This sand is carried out, a shovelful at a time, in little wooden pans on the heads of negroes. Naturally, such a process is tedious and expensive. The work could be done many times more cheaply and quickly with dump-carts or even with wheelbarrows. The excavation is often carried to a depth of thirty or forty feet before bed-rock, where the formagao is to be found, is reached. The work has to be done in great haste, because the first heavy rains in September and October wash a\\'ay the whole structure and fill up the excavation. One famous spot in the Jequitin- honha, called the ' Poco de Moreira,' reputed to be virgin and fabulously rich, was unsuc- cessfully attempted several times in the early part of this century. Every time, before the bottom was reached, the rains came and destroyed what had been done. A few years ago, Antonio de Lavandeyra, a Cuban engineer, by the use of modern methods and pumps, succeeded in reaching and uncov- ering the bed-rock. The practical results were a good example of the discouraging uncertainty of diamond mining; only four diamonds were found. "The gravel found is carried out of the exca^'ation and placed in piles until the enforced leisure of the wet season gi\'es a con\'en- ient opportunity to ^^als]^ it. If the ground is ^'irgin, the miners are likely to get a rich re\\'ard; if the gra^^el has been ^^'ashed before, theyjose all they have expended. The ri\-er mining is usually' carried on by a local expert, wlio forms a company to ^\•hich his speculati\''e neighbors and friends subscribe. "The third kind of diamond mining is from the giipiams, or deposits of gravel found on the slopes and sides of the \'alleys. TYPES OF HALF-BREED INDIAN WOMEN. 2^8 THE NEIV BRAZIL The finding of these is largely a matter of chance. Some of them have proved wonderfully rich. From one, the 'Gupiara da Pava-Pes,' more than one hundred and sixty thousand carats were taken in one season. It covered an area of not more than six acres, and was probably the richest small deposit of diamonds ever found. Even this was not thoroughly worked over. Last year, two negroes doing a little casual washing on their own account found twenty carats. "The fourth kind of mining is that in the conglomerates and beds of clayey rock which are found high up in the serra. These beds are almost certainly the source of the alluvial diamonds, in just the same way that quartz veins are the source of placer gold. Contraband miners discovered that they were diamondiferous. These daring fellows, mining by stealth and in small parties in the little streams, followed them up to their sources. To their surprise, they continued to find diamonds clear to the top of the scrra, and finally in the country rock itself. The conglomerate, or clay, is, of course, far less rich than the alluvial gravel in which the gems have been concentrated by the action of water, but in compen- sation the quantity is much greater. Much of it is hard and compact and difficult to work, but some is soft enough to wash away readily in running water. After the Brazilians had taken the diamonds out of the weathered surface, they proceeded to work the deeper deposits in the following manner, which is the only method they know: "They collected rain-water in pools on the tops of the plateaus and led it by ditches to a favorable outcrop of the diamondiferous deposit, there cutting out great gullies in the soft rock. The action of the water separated the formaQao from the bulk of the debris, and this was further treated in much the same way as the alluvial gravel. This method was extremely slow and vexatious, because sufficient water for effectively washing away the masses of rock could only be collected a few days in each year. Ten working days is a good average for a twelvemonth, and whole seasons pass without a single day's wash- ing. Nevertheless, fortunes have been made in this kind of mining, and some of these chapadii mines, as they are called, have been continually worked for nearly a century. "The only noteworthy attempt to apply modern scientific methods to diamond mining in Brazil has been made eight miles from Diamantina by a French corporation, the Com- panhia da Boa Vista, the managing director in charge being an American citizen of Cuban birth, Mr. A. Lavandeyra, formerly one of the engineers of the Panama Canal. The diffi- culties which Mr. Lavandeyra has successfully surmounted have been very great. ^ The same conditions are to be encountered in no other kind of mining, and the methods of meeting them had to be thought out from the beginning. Even the diamond mining of South Africa affords no precedents. Work on this enterprise was begun in 1898, and is not yet finished. That it will be successful seems almost certain, unless reasonable expectations prove to be unfounded." Valuable information relative to the nature and quality of the mineral deposits of Brazil has appeared in various scientific journals of Europe and America from the pen of Professor Orville A. Derby, of Sao Paulo, who has given special attention to this field of research. MINERAL WEALTH AND VEGETATION 2^9 In addition to the wealth of gold and precious stones found in nearly every State of Brazil, rich treasures exist in copper, iron, lead, silver, and zinc. Bahia has never been thoroughly prospected or even explored, and no scientific mining has been done; yet, in addition to her gold and diamond mines, which yield great wealth even under the most primitive methods of development, there are rich silver, copper, and zinc mines. ^^- THE BAMBOO PAL.M. manganese ore deposits, and enormous mountains of limestone sufficient to supply all the cement and lime used in the country, though this article is imported in large quantities. Although granite and porphyry exist in abundance, suitable for building, monumental, and statuary ^\'ork, nearly all the marble used in Brazil is brought from Italy. There are two large manganese mines in Bahia, with an estimated capacity of seven hundred thousand 26o THE NEIV BRAZIL tons, shipping large quantities of this product to North American marl»■ tu o O d: w > O pi a; O Di < tu Q < O < CHAPTER XVIII MINAS GERAES AVING been the cradle of the republican sentiment in Brazil, the chief centre of many important national events, and the home of some of the greatest patriots and poets whose names embellish the pages of Brazilian history, the State of Minas Geraes, like that of Sao Paulo, possesses an important political as well as commercial influence. These two States were united under one government from 1709 until 1720, when they became separate capitanias, though remaining closely allied in their adherence to the principles of progress and inde- pendence, and alwaiys standing together as leaders in the promotion of their country's highest interests. The commercial history of Minas Geraes is no less interesting than its political record, and presents many features that are of extraordinary importance. The discovery of valuable gold and diamond mines, in the eighteenth century, led to great industrial activity and contributed to the development of the State in many ways, though the heavy demands made upon the revenue by the crown prevented a realization of the full measure of benefit which, under more favorable circumstances, \\'ould have placed it among the most prosperous sections of the world. Under the existing government, the conditions are quite different, and with the near prospect of a great revival in the mining industry, as well as the development of its agricultural products, a future of the greatest prosperity and wealth seems assured. Although Minas Geraes is one of the interior States, the easy access to the port of Rio de Janeiro and the excellent railway facilities afford ever}^ advantage in the promotion of trade relations; while in climate and location there is no State of Brazil more favored. It lies in the heart of a rich mineral and agricultural region, and its boundary-line is marked by six important States ; on the south are Sao Paulo and Rio, the latter also extending to form part of the eastern boundary NX'hich further includes Espirito Santo and a narrow strip of southern Bahia ; on the north, the \\^hole length of the State is bordered by Bahia ; and the western limit is defined b\' the States of Goyaz and Matto Grosso, though the latter mereh- touches the extreme \\'estern point where the 265 266 THE NE14' BRAZIL confluence of the Rio Grande and Parana- hyba forms the Parana River. The area of Minas Geraes is about two hundred and tlfty thousand square miles, the greater portion of which is an elevated plateau, forming part of the great central table-land of Brazil. Crossing the State from north to south is the mountain chain of Serra da Mantiqueira, taking various names accord- ing to the district it traverses, as Serra do Espinhaco, Serra Branca, Serra das Canas- tras, the last-named being especially noted as the source of the great Sao Francisco River, while the Serra do Espinhaco is re- markable as the source of the Rio das Velhas and the Rio Doce, which drain the most important gold and diamond lands of Brazil. The fertility of the soil permits the cultivation of all kinds of products, and upon the grassy plains of the upper plateaus cattle-raising is particularly favored by the conditions of climate and vegetation. Even in the high scrras, the sheltered valleys produce sugar-cane, Indian corn, rice, and bananas. The process of agriculture is still quite primitive in many sections, a bountiful harvest of Indian corn being gathered from farms of which the only culture consists in simply burning off the underbrush from a new piece of land, making holes with a sharpened stick, and dropping into them the seed, leaving to nature all further responsi- bility as to results. Sugar-cane also grows without cultivation. The Sao Francisco valley is very fertile, yielding large crops of tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane, cotton, rice, mandioca, yams, sweet potatoes, and black beans, ox feijoes; Irish potatoes, rye, barley, and vanilla are also grown; and fruit is plentiful, of excellent quality and great variety. Southern Minas is one of the great coffee-producing districts of Brazil, and Mangabeira rubber is exported from this locality in increasing quantities every year. Cattle, pigs, CASCADE NEAR BELLA HORIZONTE, STATE OF MINAS GERAES. MINAS GERAES 267 sheep, Lind poultry are abundant everywhere in the State, which is especially noted for the superior quality of its dairy produce from which the principal markets of Brazil are supplied. "Minas cheese," "Minas eggs," and "fresh IVlinas milk" are familiar signs in the grocery stores of Rio de Janeiro, which gets its chief dairy supply from this source, with the excep- tion of butter; that is largely imported from Europe. The manufacture of wine is a growing industry in IVlinas Geraes, the demand for home consumption increasing with the supply; grapes of several different varieties are cultivated, of which the " Isabella " is the most popular for wine-manufacturing purposes. According to the best authorities, the ferruginous THE MOUNTAIN CITY OF OURO PRETO, STATE OF .WINAS GERAES. nature of the soil and the abundance of gra\'el adapt it especially to the heeds of viticulture, which promises to be one of the most successful industries in Brazil. In addition to the manufacture of wine, considerable capital is invested in cotton factories and in breweries. There are unlimited opportunities for the small farmer in Minas Geraes. The country is comparatively little developed as regards its agricultural and fruit products ; and yet, \\i"ier- e\-er the soil has been turned, the results have pro\'ed more than satisfactory. The whole Sao Francisco Milley is a fertile garden, and the time is not far distant ^^'hen it will be a densely populated farming region of great wealth and productiveness. It is necessary that immigration should be invited to the State, and also that modern methods of agriculture 268 THE NE14^ BRAZIL should be introduced ; but neither of these requirements offers any difficulties of fulfilment, as the climate is salubrious and agreeable to foreigners and the importation of machinery is easily effected, especially since the recent legislation in favor of lowering the duties on certain kinds of implements. The government of this State gives special attention to educational matters, and the schools are placed under efficient management, their interests regarded as of the first importance, and compulsory attendance made a feature of legislation. Under the Depart- ment of Superior Instruction, the Free School of Law was established in 1892, and an advanced School of Pharmacy; the secondary courses are taught in the Grmiiasio Miiiciro, modelled after the Gymiiasio Nacioiul, and having schools in Ouro Preto and in Barbacena ; and primary instruction is given in more than two thousand schools. There are eight normal schools, and several institutions exist under the charge of the Department of Special Instruction, such as the School of Mines, referred to in a previous chapter; the Collegio Mineiro, Lyceu de Artes e Officios, Seminario de Marianna, Collegio das Irmas de Caridade [College of the Sisters of Charity], and others. The population of the State is about three millions, largely distributed in the rural dis- tricts; there are several thriving cities, but none of very large population. The present capital of the State is Bella Horizonte, a new and model city, built purposely for a State capital, and laid out in broad avenues, parks, and public drive-ways. Although scarcely four years since its first corner-stone was laid, the city numbers twenty thousand inhabitants. Its public buildings are of magnificent construction and modern architecture, particularly the Governor's Palace, which is a stately edifice of white stone, with marble porticoes and staircases, the design of the interior presenting many features of peculiar attraction. The avenues and streets cross at right angles, and run due north and south and east and west, the principal thoroughfare being the Affonso Penna, one hundred and fifty feet broad and two miles long. The city is lighted by electricity, has an excellent system of water-works, good drainage, and other modern improvements. It is situated in the centre of a rich region, at the distance of a day's journey from Rio by the Central Railway. The former capital of the State, Ouro Preto, is a picturesque mountain town of twenty thousand inhabitants, situated on the slope of one of the mountains of the Serra de Ouro Preto at a height of about four thousand feet above the level of the sea in the basin of the Rio Doce, and not far from the head-waters of the Rio das Velhas. It is one of the oldest cities of Brazil, having been an important centre of government when Minas Geraes was a capitania of Portugal and, as the possessor of enormous wealth, one of the mother-country's most carefully-guarded strongholds. But the chief interest attaching to this quaint old town is derived from its share in the memorable events connected with the Tiradentes conspiracy, and the fate of the little company of poets whose dream of liberty was so ruthlessly shat- tered by the cruel sentence of a rigorous court. In the principal public square, appropriately named " Praga da Independencia," stands a marble column, surmounted by a statue of the martyred Tiradentes, commemorating the execution of the patriot; the pedestal of the MINAS GERAES 269 monument is the original stone whicln was used as a pillory for the condemned, and to which he was bound when publicly scourged upon the very spot now marked by the splendid column. Many historic places formedy belonging to celebrated Mineiros are pre- served because of their associations ; the house of Claudio Manoel da Costa is still to be seen, with the very balcony in which were gathered the enthusiastic plotters for liberty on so many occasions; also the Casa dos coiitos, where he was arrested. The Casj dos ouvidorcs, where " Dirceu " wrote his impassioned verses to "Marilia," and the modest little house where Marilia knelt at the window for long hours in the hope of seeing again her JUIZ DE FORA. STATE OF MINAS GERAES. banished lo\'er, are among the interesting sights to all \'isitors who know the stor\' of the cit\''s past; and the locality where once stood the home of Tiradentes, \\\-\\c\\ was destroyed, is guarded as sacredly as is the public square that was the scene of his execution, w\\en his head was exposed on a pike as a warning to all rebellious spirits. This cit\' N\-as the home of the great statesman Vasconcellos and of the poet Guimaraes, and is the birthplace of many prominent Brazilians of to-da\'. In addition to its buildings of exclusi\-ely historic interest, Ouro Preto has se\-eral churches and schools of importance. The School of Mines, as already stated, is one of the best institutions of the kind in existence, besides which the city has the Lyceu Mineiro, Escola de Pharmacia, and other educational establishments. 270 THE NEIV BRAZIL The city of Juiz de Fora, in tlie southern part of the State, is an important industrial and commercial centre, containing about twenty thousand inhabitants. It is located on the main line of the Central Railway, in a region of great productiveness, and is blessed with a climate of mild and salubrious character. It is of comparatively modern growth, dating from the middle of the nineteenth century; its streets and buildings are of substantial and handsome appearance, its numerous educational and chantable institutions are in a flourish- ing condition, and the municipality enjoys the advantages of such modern improvements as electric lighting, good pavements, a street-car system, and water-works. One of its most important establishments is the immigrant station, which provides every convenience for the foreign colonist until finally settled in the land as a permanent resident. The German and the Italian colonies in Minas Geraes are large and prosperous settlements. Among the chief manufacturing industries of Juiz de Fora are cotton-mills, breweries, machine-shops, and factories of various kinds. An important centre of the cattle industry, as well as of other pastoral products, Barba- cena, with a population of ten thousand, is a rapidly growing town, and its progress extends not only along commercial, but also educational lines; the climate is cool and invigorating, and the soil is of remarkable fertility. Diamantina, famous as the centre of the diamond industry in Minas Geraes, is, aside from its importtmce as a mining town, honored as the seat of a bishopric, and can claim some of the finest educational and charitable institutions in the State. Factories are estab- lished here for cigar-making, cotton-weaving, and lapidary-work; and there are several breweries. The location of Diamantina is delightful, and the climate fine. Among the flourishing towns of the State are Sao Joao d'El Rey, with twelve thousand inhabitants, the centre of valuable gold mines, and having manufacturing interests comprising, to enumerate a few, spinning-mills, pottery- works, and breweries; Cataguazes, in the coffee region of the southeast; Baependy, noted for its tobacco and its mineral waters; Rio Branco, with sugar plantations and refineries ; Christina, in the neighborhood of tobacco-farms and plantations of cereals ; Marianna, the seat of one of the oldest bishoprics in Brazil ; Sabare, in the sugar district, famous also for its gold fields ; Itabira, Arassuahy, Campanha, Queluz, and others. The president of the State is Dr. Francisco Silviano de Almeida Brandao, and the vice- president. Dr. Joaquim Candido da Costa Sena. All the officials of the government are men well known in the higher political circles of Brazil, having been identified with the history of the republic in various ways, through the services of loyal patriotism. Dr. Almeida Brandao is one of the leaders of to-day in Brazilian affairs, a man of firm principles and honest purpose, and a statesman of great ability. During his official career as chief executive of the State of Minas Geraes, Dr. Brandao has shown himself an earnest advocate of progress and improvement in every department of his administration. The distinguished vice- president. Dr. Costa Sena, is esteemed as one of the foremost politicians of the State, and in his high office he enjoys the confidence of the people to the utmost degree. Senator M1N.4S GERAES 271 Alcides Medrado is counted among the great men of Minas Geraes, his influence in political matters being of prominent importance, while his superior social qualities win him the good will of all parties. The courtly and learned State secretary of finance, Dr. David Campista, is a type of the modern Brazilian gentleman who has travelled extensively, read a great deal, is a connoisseur of art, and a favorite in society. He is a finished orator, and was honored as the official speaker on the occasion of the inauguration of the Tiradentes monument in 1894, Dr. Moreira Pinto, at that time president of the State, having the ceremony in charge. The director of the Secretaria de Fazenda, Dr. Theophilo Ribeiro, is another distinguished Mineiro, especially esteemed for his valued contributions to historical and scientific knowl- edge ; he is an ardent admirer of American institutions, and has translated several important \\'orks by North American authors. The State of Minas Geraes, which has given to Brazil many of her great men in science, literature, art, and politics, was the birthplace of the present Minister of Foreign Affairs, MORRO VELHO, MINAS GERAES. Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes. The progress of the State has always been of a character to commend the judgment and patriotism of her people, who represent in some respects the best type of the Brazilian character. Bold and fearless as pioneers \\'hen the country needed men of such mettle to open up the unknown regions of the vast interior and civilize their savage inhabitants, the Mineiros have shown equally noble characteristics in the more peaceful tasks of social and political life. There has never been an occasion in the history of Brazil when the natives of this grand old State have faltered in the face of their country's need, or hesitated to risk all that life holds dearest in the loyal, faithful, unflinching, patriotic discharge of duty. From the earliest days of their history they have been devoted adherents to the principles of political independence, and have sho\\m a proud and determined resist- ance to every effort to infringe upon their hea^■en-born rights, or to treat their sacred 272 THE NEIV BRAZIL privileges with contempt. Ever appreciating the gracious advantages of intellectual training, they have given special attention to their educational institutions; the results being apparent in the literary advancement of this section, to which the world owes many great statesmen and poets. From Gama and Durao, the originators and chief inspiration of the little group of poets who formed the " Escola de IVlinas," to the last of that brilliant but ill-fated com- pany, Claudio Manoel da Costa, Antonio Gonzaga, and Alvarenga Peixoto, the history of literature in Minas shone with a lustre which was reflected in the life and thought of their contemporaries, not only in Brazil, but throughout the mother-country. J/illa Rica, written by Manoel da Costa on the subject of the old town of Ouro Preto, is vivid with local color; A Manila has made Gonzaga famous for all time ; and in the exquisitely dainty verse of Alvarenga Peixoto some of the rarest gems of genius are preserved. In the commercial life of the republic, none of the States commands a more important place or promises a greater future than Minas Geraes, with its wonderful store of riches, both hidden and in plain view; the delights of its sunny skies and fragrant atmosphere; the incomparable blessing of its abundant rivers, ample forests, and "the cattle upon a thousand hills." A SYLVAN SCENE, MINAS GERAES. o m a. cu pj S o oi P-. w a: CQ CHAPTER XIX BAHIA B' '0 m ►AH I A represents the oldest European civilization on the American continent; for, although the discoveries of Co- lumbus antedate those of Cabral and Americus Vespucius, the latter N\'ere the first to make known the existence of a western continent, Columbus resting in the belief that his discovery meant nothing more than a short route to the Indies and an easier access to Oriental treasure-stores; in the capitanias of Portuguese America, colonial government was an accomplished fact nearly half a century before the first successful colonies were es- tablished in North America. When Americus Vespucius reported the existence of a new continent, after exploring the coast of Brazil in the service of the Portuguese government, during the year following Cabral's discovery, it was not known that this great body of land was merely the southern part of the same continent on which Columbus had set up the standard of Spain ten years before; the uni- versal belief \\'as that it constituted a new division of the earth, supposedly lying south of Asia, and its discovery \\'as regarded as vastly more important than that of Columbus when the name "America" was given to it, in honor of the famous pilot, — the name at first applying to Brazil, then to South America, and finally to the whole continent. According to historical precedence, the Brazilians have the first right to the title of "Americans." ^7^ MONUMENT SEGUNDO DE JULHO. 276 THE NEIV BRAZIL ^tt«^ jia^iBP»^ PRAgA IN LOWER CITY, BAHIA. It was about a year after the first discovery of Brazil that the Portuguese fleet, accompanied by Americus Vespu- cius, and commanded by Christovam Jacques, entered the magnificent har- bor of Bahia, which was named by the discoverers, in honor of the feast- day on which it was first seen, "Bahia de Todos os Santos " [Bay of All Saints]. The settlement of the new territory began a few years later, and the present city of Bahia was founded in I ^49, thirty-five years earlier than the foundation of San Augustine, the oldest city in the United States of America. Bahia was the chief seat of colonial power from i5'49 to 1762, and during that time was the official residence of all the high functionaries representing the crown: the governor-general, the ouvidor, the supervisor of the exchequer, and the capitao-nwr, or overseer of the coast. The colonial capital was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in 1762, but the progress of Bahia was not retarded by the change, development being rapid and uninterrupted everywhere in the territory, which even at that day had a world-wide commercial importance as the centre of rich mineral wealth and of great agricultural resources. The State of Bahia enjoys many natural advantages. It has an area of nearly two hundred thousand square miles, with seven hundred miles of coast-line, and its climate is generally healthful and moderate, a great extent of the territory being mountainous, with plateaus two thousand feet above sea-level, while the whole State is intersected by magnificent rivers that drain every part of it. On the coast the weather is warm all the year round, the hottest months being from December to April, when this locality is subject to malarial diseases; in the interior the climate is far more temperate, and fevers are unknown, the natural conditions being similar to those existing in the adjoining States of Goyaz, Minas Geraes, and Piauhy; its coast climate resembles that of Espirito Santo to the south, and Sergipe, Alagoas, and Pernambuco to the north. The mineral wealth of Bahia, as previously stated, is inexhaustible, though practically undeveloped. New dis- coveries in this direction are constantly being made. Near the town of Prado, in the southern part of the State, an American mining engineer recently found valuable deposits of monazite sand, rich in thorium silicate, which is now being exported in large quantities to Germany and Austria, where the thorium is prepared that fills an important place in the manufacture of incandescent lights. This sand is estimated to be worth a hundred dollars BAHIA 277 DR. LUIZ VIANNA, EX-GOVERNOR OF BAHIA. a ton. The State is rich in vegetation, the commercial products from this source includ- ing various kinds of hardwood for cabinet purposes, and fancy woods used in the man- ufacture of umbrella-handles and walking- sticks ; the medicinal plant iiijihi(j, from the leaves, roots, and stems of which a vegetable mercury is extracted; araroba, furnishing an excellent caustic powder, sold in England under the name of Goa powder; the balsam of the capahfiba; and several kinds of oils, resin, and wax. The coquilla-nut palm furnishes the fibre used in the manufacture of brushes and brooms. The nuts are shipped in enor- mous quantities to the Orient, where they are carved and ornamented to furnish the rosary beads and crosses sold in all parts of the \\'orld, from the kernel of the nut a fine quality of lubricating oil is extracted, and from the fibre of its leaf-stalks the brooms and ropes of commerce are made; the seeds, which are called coquilla-nuts, grow in clusters, in a similar fashion to the banana fruit, and are three or four inches long, brown in color, very hard, and of sufficient thickness to be turned into door-knobs and various other kinds of handles, as well as the beads and crosses which form such an important feature of their usefulness. The discovery of the great possibilities existing in the coquilla-nut is due to Mr. S. S. Schindler, who practically enjoys the monopoly of this trade. On his immense plantation, within a few hours' distance of the city of Bahia, which embraces a territory of one hundred thousand acres, three thousand men and women are employed in cultivating, gathering, and shipping the product of the coquilla-nut palm, the nearest port of shipment being named for the owner, — who is one of the principal landowners in Brazil, — Port Schindler. Mr. Schindler was also the first to discover nuiigiibeim rubber in Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and other States, and to attract attention to its great commercial impor- tance. From the root of the wild quince the material is supplied for the fancy walking- sticks and umbrella-handles that are in uni\-ersal demand. The agricultural industries of the State are in a flourishing condition. Tobacco is produced in large quantities, about twenty thousand tons being exported annually, and the cigar and cigarette factories employ about ten thousand men, women, and children. Coffee forms one of the sources of revenue, the receipts from this industry amounting to about a hundred thousand dollars annually. Rubber is exported in increasing quantities e\-erv year, and it is said that the unexplored interior of the State contains vast forests with an abundance of rubber-trees 278 THE NEIV BRAZIL which will yield rich harvests as soon as the difficulties of transportation have been overcome sufficiently to make this source of wealth available. Cotton is grown with little cultivation, and the cotton factories of the State furnish employment to thousands of work- men. The most important of these is that of Pereira, Monteiro & Co., in the city of Bahia, and it is conducted upon a plan which guarantees the best advantages to both em- ployer and employe. A model village accommodates the workmen and their families, who enjoy the benefits of free schools, an amusement hall, regular weekly musical concerts, lectures, and classes in art, music, and fencing, and free medical treatment and legal advice. More than a million dollars capital is invested in this enterprise, which operates six mills, employs two thousand hands, and produces nearly a hundred million yards of cotton annually. The sugar plantations are in good condition, and several refineries exist in various parts of the State. The Rio Fundo factory crushes annu- ally more than fifty thousand tons of sugar-cane, producing about four thousand tons of sugar, half a million litres of rum, and fifteen hundred pipes of molasses. The quantity of cane crushed at the Iguape factory during the year averages about twenty thousand tons, producing a thou- sand tons of sugar, eighty thousand litres of rum, and eight hundred pipes of molasses. The cultivation of cacao has prospered won- derfully in the southern districts from Valenga to Alcobaga, especially in Ilheos, Cannavieiras, and Belmonte. The nature of the plant requires a damp soil, containing a considerable amount of clay and having a thick layer of vegetable mould. The exportation of this article of commerce in- creases annually, amounting to thousands of tons. Mandioca is grown in every part of the State, chiefly for the home market, which it has supplied extensively ever since colonial days, when the cultivation of the product was made obligatory by law. The fertility of the soil guarantees the best results from the cultivation of all kinds of cereals, from truck-gardening and fruit-growing; but very little effort has been expended in this direction, and large quantities of corn, beans, rice, potatoes, onions, and similar table necessities are imported. Cattle and hides are shipped from Bahia in large quantities, the value of the trade in hides reaching a quarter of a million dollars annually. The manufactures of the State include, besides extensive cotton-mills and tobacco-works, several match factories, tanneries, saw- mills, foundries, and other enterprises of similar importance. SENHOR S. S. SCHINDLER, BAHIA. BAHIA 279 PANORAMA OF BAHIA FROM THE BAY OF ALL SAINTS. The population of the State of Bahia is about two and a half mil- lions. The great commercial, social, and educational centre is the ancient and picturesque city of Sao Salvador da Bahia, to-day one of the most popu- lous and progressive cities of the Brazilian Union, and the capital of a State whose wealth of natural resource promises to make it renowned in every port of the commercial world. Bahia, as the city is familiarly called, is the Crescent City of Brazil, and is not unlike its northern sister in other features besides the outline which half encircles the shore of the Bay of All Saints. The circumstances of its growth and devel- opment present some features similar to those which attended the history of . New Orleans in early slavery days, though the African types seen in the creole city afford no such evidences of material prosperity as appear in the costly jewels that hang about the neck, encircle the arms from shoulder to wrist, and fill the fingers to their tips, on the person of a Bahian negress "of quality." The Brazilian city has the advantage over New Orleans in location, too, being partially built on a high bluff and divided into two sections, — the Cidadc Baixj, or " lower city," lying close along the bay shore and contain- ing all the commercial houses, factories, and machine-shops of the metropolis; and the Cidadc Alta, or "upper city," divided into beautiful residence quarters, parks, avenues, and suburban resorts. Communica- tion between the two parts of the city has been established by means of incline railways, hydraulic elevators, and by a well-paved street curving along the mountain-side. In the lower city are situated the Al- fandega, or custom-house; the Post-office, the arsenals of war and the marine, public markets, warehouses, and other institu- CATHEDRAL, BAHIA. tlous of '1 busluess cliaracter, as 28o THE NEH^ BRAZIL well as the Orphans' Asylum and the home for mendicants. The Governor's Palace is situated in the upper city, near the entrance to the Lacerda elevator, and within a few minutes' ride of the lower city. It is a modern building of attractive architectural design and spacious dimensions. The Senate building and the municipal building occupy com- manding sites in the upper city. There are neady a hundred churches and church institu- tions, among which the Cathedral possesses particular claims to attention as one of the oldest buildings in America, having been originally erected as a Jesuit college in the sixteenth century, though rebuilt and improved at various times since. As stated elsewhere, several of the churches of Bahia are celebrated for their costly interiors as well as for their historic associations. Among other important public buildings are those devoted to the Faculdade de Medicina, and the Academia de Bellas Artes, referred to elsewhere; the Bibliotheca Publica, which contains upward of twenty thou- sand volumes; the Fac- uldade de Direito, or free school of law, established in 1 891; the Lyceu de Artes e Officios, inaugu- rated in 1872, with day and night schools, and having a popular library connected with the insti- tution ; an ecclesiastical seminary and a seminary for preparatory studies; the Instituto Historico e Geographico da Bahia, inaugurated, in 18^6, by Archbishop Romauldo Antonio de Seixas; the Instituto Bahiano de Agricultura, established in 1859; Hospital da Santa Casa da Misencordia, Museum, Hospital IVlilitar, and numerous theatres and schools. The city is beautified by many public squares, pn^as, and largos, of which the principal is the Praga da Constituigao, containing the Governor's Palace and other administrative offices ; in the Largo Quinze de Novembro the Cathedral is situated, also the Faculdade de Medicina, the famous convent of Sao Francisco, and several other churches; the Nazareth praga, beautified by the handsome new charity hospital erected here a few years ago ; the Praga dos Martyres ; Largo Duque de Caxias, in the midst of which stands the majestic monu- ment of white Carrara marble and bronze, a hundred feet in height, named Segundo de Julho [second of July], which commemorates the date of the country's political independ- ence; the Largo da Graga, where the ancient monastery of that name is situated; the THEATRE, BAHIA. BAHIA 281 RUA DO COMMERCIO, BAHIA. square named for the celebrated Bahian poet, Castro Alves; the Pra^a do Riachuelo, with the handsome edifice of the Com- mercial Association overlooking it, and in the centre a stately bronze monument on a pedestal of marble, capped with eight volutes upholding a sphere on which stands the angel of Victory, bearing a palm in one hand and a laurel in the other, symbolizing the victory of the Bra- zilian armies in the Paraguayan war which the monument commemorates. Exceed- ing all the other parks of the city in extent and luxuriance of foliage, in its variety of attractive and entertaining accessories, and a popular resort on feast-days and other holidays, is the beautiful garden in the parish of Victoria, overlooking the sea, the Passeio Publico, which contains, among other interesting features, a magnificent marble monolith, set up to commemorate the opening of Brazilian ports to foreign commerce in 1808. Four systems of street railway traverse the city, connecting it with the picturesque suburbs of Rio Vermelho, Itapagipe, Barra, Plata, Forma, and Retiro. The shrine of Nosso Senhor do Bomfim, which attracts thousands of visitors annually, is situated in the suburb of Itapagipe, on the crest of a beautiful hill overlooking the sea. The State is dotted with innumerable small towns and cities, rapidly growing in size and number, but as yet in the early stages of commercial de- velopment, with a few excep- tions. The principal cities of more than twenty thousand inhabitants are Feira de Santa Anna, especially noted for its cattle-market; Bomfim, a thrix- ing commercial town in ter- ritory particulariy adapted to wine-growing, cacao culture, and wheat-farming ; and Mara- gogipe, about thirty miles from MUNICIPAL PALACE, BAHIA. the State Capital, the centre of ■^^ssss^iwaP^ — ' 282 THE NE^ BRAZIL a rich coffee ciistrict, and of valuable mines of gold and iron. There are several busy little cities of ten thousand and upward in population, such as Santo Amaro, situated about ten miles inland from the harbor of Bahia, and noted for its tobacco factories and distilleries ; Alagoinhas, an important railroad terminus and the commercial centre of a large district; Cachoeira, on the bank of the Paraguassu River, not far from the capital, a flourishing city with cotton and spinning mills, and united by a bridge with the neighboring town of Sao Felix, which has one of the best cigar factories in the State ; Jacobina, rich in gold mines and having extensive cotton-fields and yerba-mate plantations, also famous for the BRIDGE CROSSING RIO UNA, STATE OF BAHIA, manufacture of f^oiabada, or guava jelly; and Ilheos, from which are exported large quan- tities of coffee and cacao, the surrounding territory being also rich in petroleum and other combustibles. Nazareth, Valenga, Caravellas, Caetite, and Joazeiro, on the Sao Francisco River, connected by railway with the city of Bahia, and Lengoes, are prosperous commer- cial and manufacturing towns. The governor of Bahia is Dr. Severino dos Santos Vieira, recently elected to succeed Conselheiro Luiz Vianna. At the time of his election. Dr. Vieira held the portfolio of Minister of Public Works in the cabinet of President Campos-Salles, which he resigned in order to accept the honors of his present office. Dr. Vieira is admired as a political leader BAHIA 28^ of experience and tact, and esteemed as one of the prominent statesmen of Brazil. Under liis judicious administration, tine progress of the State of Bahia is unquestionably assured. The reins of government passed happily from one wise executive to another when Dr. Vieira succeeded Dr. Luiz Vianna. The former governor won high admiration for his judicious qualities as a leader, and during the term of his official career as governor of one of the most important States of Brazil he was noted for keen intelligence and progressive methods. Both the present governor and his predecessor are native Bahians, devoted to the best interests of their State and anxious to promote its advancement, realizing that efforts made toward its development politically, educationally, and commercially will be RESIDENCE OF SENHOR JOSE DA NOVA MONTEIRO, BAHIA. rewarded in results that cannot fail to place this favored territory among the most important of the world's commonwealths, and thus to honor all who have the good fortune to be associated with the record of its prosperity. From Bahia have come many of the great men who have added lustre to the history of their country. Castro Alves, the poet; Marquis d'Abrantes, the silver-tongued orator ; Zacarias de Vasconcellos, the statesman ; the illustrious Visconde de Rio-Branco ; Alves Branco, Gregorio de Mattos, Barao de Cotegipe, Nabuco de Araujo, Agrario de Menezes, are among the distinguished Brazilian names in literature, statecraft, and journalism belonging to patriots and scholars cradled in the luxuri- ance which Nature lavishes with a free hand upon the smiling fields and forests of Bahia. The future holds out the promise of great wealth to this prosperous and growing State, and 284 THE NEIV BRAZIL rich blessings wait upon tlie energy and activity of its people, whose industrial advance- ment is no more marked than the charm and grace of their social life and customs. In no city of Brazil are more beautiful homes to be found, and nowhere is gracious hospitality dispensed with more pleasing compliment. European custom prevails in social life to a certain extent, though the same spirit of New-World freedom which has set its impress upon the political and commercial institutions of the country is to be observed in a growing tendency toward social emancipation. It is no longer forbidden to ladies to go shopping or visiting unattended; and even young ladies are sometimes seen alone on the streets, though the chaperon system is so thoroughly rooted in the social life of all Latin nations that changes in this respect are necessarily conservative. Nothing can be more delightful than the social occasions graced by the presence of representative Bahian society of the best class. Music and dancing are inevitable accompaniments, and the soft glances and seductive tones that animate conversation between times, are often superior in eloquence to the brilliant wit that distinguishes their more exclusively intellectual assemblages. The little tete-a-tetes between dances, that so greatly facilitate the archery of Cupid in North American drawing- rooms, are unknown in Brazil; yet eyes may speak the universal language of youth and love regardless of the tongue's limitation, so that these gatherings are always in favor with the young people, particularly as the opportunity for mutual converse is even still more restricted in the quiet home circle, where the whole family must share the secret of every expression. Among the poorer classes the fiesta is the great opportunity for social display, and to the visitor the scenes that attend these anniversaries are particularly captivating for their unique charm. Bahia possesses many social characteristics siii generis, and in this respect also it is like the Crescent City of North Amenca. The city has a population of two hundred thousand inhabitants. HOUSE OF THE SENATE, BAHIA, CHAPTER XX ESPIRITO SANTO, SERGIPE, AND ALAGOAS T^HE three States, Espirito Santo, Sergipe, and Ala- goas, form part of the coast country of Brazil, and are sub- ject to the conditions of soil and climate prevailing in this region. Espirito Santo forms a narrow strip of land on the sea-coast, about two hundred and fifty miles in length and eighty miles in width, north of the State of Rio, east of Minas Geraes, and south of Bahia. In the northern and eastern parts of the State are flat plains covered with lux- uriant vegetation and having innumerable small lakes and marshes, on the borders of \\'hich grow various palms, myr- tles, and cacti. Beyond this low land, which skirts the coast-line as far as the Rio Doce, dividing the State into two regions, extend high scrras branching off from the main chain of the Mantiquiera and taking various names in different sections. This mountainous region is watered by swift and turbulent streams that swell in rainy seasons to surging torrents. The climate is moist and \'ery warm along the coast, but aoreeable in the interior, and generally healthful. The soil is particularly adapted to the 287 A LAKE SCENE NEAR VICTORIA. >88 THE NEfV BRAZIL cultivation of coffee, sugar, cotton, and cereals, and offers excellent inducements for colonization. Mandioca, fcijocs, rice, cacao, and fruit are cultivated throughout the State. The forests supply the most valuable woods of commerce, such as rose-wood; the pcroba, much used in cabinet-work and in ship-building; the genipapo, a very elastic wood of a peculiar lilac color; the itapkiiru, having the appearance of rose-wood seamed with yellow fibres; and many other varieties for general building purposes. The capital city, Victoria, occupies an admirable location on the shores of Espirito Santo harbor, from its high bluff commanding a fine view of the ocean. It numbers about twenty thousand inhabitants, and is one of the principal ports on the line of the various steamers of the Brazilian coast trade, as well as of transatlantic steamers visiting Rio de Janeiro, from which it is less than three hundred miles distant. The entrance to the harbor of Espirito Santo is guarded by TYPICAL COUNTRY CONVEYANCE. two lighthouses, the Santa Luzia and the Francez, which increase the picturesqueness of the scenery, in addition to their usefulness as protective agencies. Besides the capital city, which is particularly attractive for its numerous churches and convents, the town of Anchi- eta, founded by Father Anchieta in the seventeenth century, is interesting for its antiquities; Itapemirim is a promising sea-port town; and Sao Mathens, with a population of ten thou- sand, is one of the thriving small towns of the State. The importance of immigration for the State of Espirito Santo is apparent. The climate is excellent, the soil fertile, the shipping facilities unsurpassed; it remains to develop its possibilities by establishing energetic farming communities throughout the State, and in this way opening up the great resources of a district which belongs to the most fertile zone in Brazil. The governor of the State is Dr. Jose de Mello Carvalho Moniz Freire, an able and progressive administrator. ESPIRITO SANTO, SERGIPE, AND ALAGOAS 289 Occupying a small though remarkably fertile territory between Bahia and Pernambuco are the two adjoining States of Sergipe and Alagoas, similar in climate and resources, and yet differing in many important characteristics. Sergipe covers a territory of forty thousand square kilometres, and has a population of nearly four hundred thousand inhabitants. The chief industries consist in the cultivation of cotton, sugar, and cereals; oils, resins, and timber constitute an important source of revenue. Educational facilities are constantly promoted by the government, and there are ten good colleges in the State for higher instruc- tion, a normal school, and more than two hundred public schools for general instruction. The capital city is Aracaju, attractively situated on the bank of a river and at a distance A PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY. of about ten miles from the sea-coast. It has a population of twenty thousand, and is laid out in broad and well-shaded streets, with three public squares, or pra^as. Its principal institutions are the charity hospital of Nossa Senhora da Conceigao; the Atheneu Sergipense, an advanced school, inaugurated in 1871; the Gabinete de Leitura; numerous churches and chapels; spinning-mills, soap-factories, and iron-works. The palace of the governor, Senhor Olympio de Campos, occupies a beautiful location on one of the principal pragas of the city. The town of Riachuelo, situated a few miles from the capital, is a flourishing town, and Lagarto, Larangeiras, Maroim, and Sao Christovam are important centres of the sugar trade. The land in the coast country of Sergipe is particularly adapted to sugar 290 THE NEIV BRAZIL growing; and in the interior districts cattle-raising is an important source of revenue. The State of Alagoas is well advanced commercially and socially; its agricultural lands, and especially its cattle-farms, are under excellent management, and the exports from this State are remarkable in quantity and variety, considering its limited extent, covering a territory of only twenty-five thousand square miles. It is quite mountainous, and traversed by numer- ous small rivers; the climate, though warm, is very healthful and delightfully tempered by sea-breezes. The chief products are cereals, cotton, sugar, dyewoods, and various oils and essences. In the western part of the State are cattle ranches of considerable importance. Within recent years the exportation of products from this State to foreign markets has been steadily increasing, and the outlook is most promising for its future commercial relations, especially with North American markets, to which are shipped annually large quantities of sugar and dyewoods. The manufacturing industries of the State are rapidly developing, and include sugar refineries; establishments for the manufacture of vinegar; tobacco and cigar works; factories for making alcohol; cotton factories; pottery- works; saw-mills; soap factories; and an increasing number of smaller factories for making shoes, furniture, leather, and various articles equally in demand. The capital of Alagoas, and the principal city of the State, is Maceio, a prosperous centre, situated a few miles inland from its sea-port, Jaragua, and presenting altogether the appear- ance of a progressive modern city, keenly alive to the necessity for continual improvement in every feature of municipal life. The governor of the State, Colonel Francisco Manoel dos Santos Pacheco, an active and energetic leader, has his official residence in this city. Alagoas possesses an especial claim to honor as the birthplace of Marechal Floriano Peixoto, to whom the republic is indebted for gallant services. PRIMITIVE METHOD OF THRESHING BEANS, INTERIOR OF THE FRANCISCAN CHURCH, BAHIA. WOOD-CARVING OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXI RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES IN their antiquity, in the charm of their traditions and customs, and in the artistic value of their ornamentation, the old churches and shrines of Brazil possess a fascinating attractiveness. The history of religion in Brazil presents many con- trasts to the records of the Church preserved in the annals of other Catholic countries. The liberal spirit of the Brazilian people is shown no less in religious than in secular matters. Since the inauguration of the republic, the Church and State have been separate, and absolute freedom of worship is assured to every citizen ; but even under the empire, when the Roman Catholic was the established church, Brazil was distinguished among all the Latin countries for its independ- ence of church ruling in secular matters or when such ruling did not accord with the national view of religious affairs. On several occasions, measures were adopted by the State to curtail ecclesiastical authority; during the regency, it was once proposed to establish the Brazilian Church independent of Rome ; at another time, the papal nuncio in Brazil was censured through the press for utterances not consistent with the dignity of his office ; and when certain bishops tried to override the civil law by issuing decrees to forbid the burial of Free- masons, they were arrested, tried, and condemned to imprisonment, \\'ith hard labor. In early colonial days, however, the Church was a more important power, its missionaries exerting a widespread influence in the new country. The order of the Jesuits, which was 293 HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP JOAQUIM ARCOVERDE. OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 294 THE NE^ BRAZIL CHURCH OF SANTA ANNA, PARA. founded just about the time of the first colo- nization of Brazil, sent out two apostles who devoted their lives to the cause of Christianity in this benighted land, — Father Nobrega and Father Anchieta; the story of their labors fills many an interesting page in Brazilian history, and may be read in some of the greatest in- stitutions now flourishing in the blessed name of charity, as well as in the sacred ruins of edifices built centuries ago and dedicated to religious worship. The church which first served as the episcopal see in Brazil was built by these priests, and named the "Ajuda," in the same year that the first governor- general, Thome de Souza, landed in Bahia and founded the city. When the bishop arrived, three years later, the Jesuits gave up their chapel to him and removed to Carmo, where they built a small hospital and a hermitage, the Ajuda serving as a cathedral church until the construction of the present church of Se, which was begun in i^^^, and was never completely finished. Soon after the Jesuits removed to Carmo, they found it necessary to return to the city, and having secured the necessary funds, they proceeded at once to build the Collegio, the first Jesuit college in America, which was endowed by King Dom Sebastian in i ^64, though not completed until about ten years later. When Pombal expelled the Jesuits from Brazil, the college, by royal decree, was made a cathedral during the repairing of the church of Se, and this prerogative was never withdrawn. The old edifice is one of the interesting sights of Bahia. Authorities differ as to the priority of the chapels Victoria and Graga, but both these structures belong to the first half of the sixteenth century. It is related that when Martim Affonso was in Bahia in 1^31 he was present at the marriage of one of Caramuru's daugh- ters, the ceremony taking place in the church of Victoria, in which the following epitaph is still preserved: " Here lies Affonso Rodrigues a native of Obydos, the first that married in this church, in 1^31. His wife was Magdalena Alvares, the daughter of Diogo Alvares Correa, the first inhabitant of this capitania. He died in 1^61." The chapel of Graga was erected by Catherine Alvares Paraguassu, who made it over by deed of gift to the Benedictines in 1^82; it was converted into a monastery, and rebuilt, nearly two centuries later, by Abbot Peixoto. An interesting story is related regarding the building of this chapel. It is said that upon the return of her husband, Caramuru, from a shipwrecked vessel where he had been rendering aid to the unfortunate, Paraguassu RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES ^9^ entreated him to go back and save a woman whom she had seen in a vision and who was at that moment among the Indians, praying that she would send for her and build her a place of shelter. Caramuru obediently set out in quest of the woman, but failing to find her after a third search, he was returning, quite discouraged, when his glance suddenly rested upon an image of the Virgin that an Indian had found on the shore and had thrown into a corner of his hut, and he took it home. Paraguassu was satisfied with this fulfil- ment of her vision, and ordered the chapel to be built and the image to be placed therein, where it was greatly venerated as "Our Lady of Graga." Paraguassu lies buried in this chapel, and the following epitaph still marks her last resting-place: "Tomb of Dona Catharina Alvares Paraguassu, Lady that was of the Capitania of Bahia, which she and her husband Diogo Alvares Correa gave to the King of Portugal, having built this chapel of Nossa Senhora da Graga, which she gave, with the ground annexed, to the Patriarch Sao Bento, in the year 1^82." The ancient abbey of Montserrat, which is sfill one of the picturesque features of the neckland of Itapagipe, Bahia, was built early in the seventeenth century, though by whom is a mystery. Its origin is attributed by some authorifies to a Spaniard, but this is also said to apply to another abbey of Montserrat, in the town of Santos. One of the most important of these early churches, from the magnificence of its present appearance, its wonderfully ornamented interior, and the costliness of its gilded carvings, is the Franciscan monastery of Bahia. It was built by Franciscan friars, the first of the order ha\-ing come from Portugal in i ^8^, in response to an in- vitation from the doiiatorio of Pernam- buco, and, after founding the convent of Our Lady of Olinda, they removed to Bahia. The work of building the present monastery was begun by the laying of the foundation-stone in 1686, the church in connection with it being begun in 1708 and finished in 1713. All the ornaments of the church were finished in 1723. The cloister is built with thirty-six arches, every pillar being made of a single stone. Around the walls are Dutch files ornamented to represent scenes in ancient sacred and profane history. The wonderful car\'- ing in the interior of the church N\'as the work of a Franciscan monk of Bahia, Friar Luiz de Jesus. CATHEDRAL, MARANHAO. 296 THE NEIV BRAZIL r ■ A y ■•^'i 9 I The church has seven elaborately carved and gilded altars, on which, in accordance with the obligations of the order, seven thousand three 'hundred and fifty-eight Masses w^ere said every year until ij^^. About fifty Franciscans lived in the monastery up to the year 18^6, when the emperor prohibited the admission of novices, and the order declined until, in 1892, it was recruited by the arrival of several monks. At present, its occupants number thirty-five, among others the scholady and courteous Friar Bahlmann, from whom the description of the monastery was obtained. The most remarkable feature of the architecture is the dado of Dutch tiles that surrounds the cloister, and may be seen from the patio. Fabulous sums have been offered by curio hunters for these tiles, which are of Delft porcelain, each tile having been painted and finished separately, but so care- fully that the general design was perfect when the tiles were placed in position. The tiles sur- rounding the lower walls represent a succes- sion of scenes from the works of Homer and other ancient writers, while those of the upper gallery represent Biblical scenes. It is prob- ably the only work of the kind in existence in America. A shrine of great antiquity and interest is that of Bomfim, in the suburb of Itapagipe, Bahia, erected in i75'4, and one of the most popular shrines in Brazil to-day. In it are pre- served many curious relics and symbols, such as are found in similar churches of Europe. The fiestas celebrated at this shrine are re- nowned for their magnificence and for the thousands of participants who assemble on such occasions. Although Bahia was the great centre of religious worship in earlier days, and is still the stronghold of the Catholic Church in Brazil, the erection of places of worship began simul- taneously with the discovery of the country, in every territory of the dominion. In Rio de Janeiro many old churches still exist that were built in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as those of Sao Sebastiao, Sao Bento, and the Candelaria. In Pernambuco, Sao Paulo, Ceara, and Maranhao there are to be found several chapels that date from the eighteenth century, and church fiestas are celebrated in every State of the Union, which are the survival of these earlier days, preserving, in a wonderful degree, the traditions and history of their inauguration. During the fiesta of Bomfim, the devoutly religious practise the greatest humility, entering the sacred chapel on their knees and performing numerous CHURCH OF NOSSA SENHORA DO CARMO. PERNAMBUCO. RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES 297 SHRINE OF BOMFIM, BAHIA. rites that prove their desire to be rid of the sins of the flesh. A very picturesque fiesta is celebrated in Bahia by the donkey-drivers and water-carriers, who form a procession, sometimes a mile long, on their way to the church, the chief feature being the donkeys, which are gorgeously decorated with flowers and foliage. The impression which remains with the by-stander after witnessing one of these processions is that the donkey-drivers and water-carriers are the happiest and most contented of people. The chapel of "Senhor dos Passos," in Florianopolis, Santa Catharina, has a most interesting history, and its fiestas are attended with great religious demonstrations. It was built in 176^ by Dona Joanna de Gusmao, a sister of the renowned aeronaut, in accordance with a vow made while on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Our Lady of Neves, on the shores of the Iguape River, where she was miraculously cured of a terrible illness. Dona Joanna made a pilgrimage on foot, and unattended, throughout the whole of southern Brazil, seeking alms with which to build this chapel and to institute the Sisterhood of the Passos, until, at the age of eighty, her pilgrimage having succeeded in its purpose, she became the directress of the institution, where she died in 1780. The most elaborate religious fiesta celebrated at the present day in Brazil is that of " Nossa Senhora de Nazareth," in the city of Para. It occurs in the month of October, and attracts thousands of visitors to the city, lasting about two weeks, during which the place is given up to religious and social entertainments. The origin of this shrine and its attend- ing obser\'ances is similar to the history of other celebrated shrines throughout the N\'orld. It is described by various writ- ers, and related by the people of that region, without impor- tant deviations in the main points of the tradition. One day, about noon, two hunters, fatigued by their chase through the forests in the neighborhood of Para, sought rest under the RUINS OF CARMELITE CONVENT IN OLINDA, PERNAMBUCO. ShadC Of Z tXQQ. They WQXQ PraK> «. •: I I Inii;-' 298 THE NBI4^ BRAZIL discontented and disgusted not to liave found so much as a toucan in the woods where game of all kind abounded. Their dogs, tired out like themselves, were stretched out under the same tree. In a few minutes they were asleep, overcome by exhaustion. During his sleep, one of the hunters was visited in his dreams by a woman who spoke to him and told him to search in a thicket close by, where he would find an image of the Virgin of Nazareth. On waking, he went at once to the mysterious place, and while he searched the thicket, his dogs, plunging into the midst of a cluster of palms, began to bark excitedly. He ran to them, and to his great surprise dis- covered near the trunk of the oldest palm a beautiful statue. Happier than if they had killed a thousand deer, the hunters took their way back to the town, carrying with them the glorious image, which they hastened to present to the governor, who placed it in the chapel of his palace. The news of this dis- covery spread throughout the town. The faithful prayed the governor to expose to the ven- eration of the people this sacred image of Our Lady, the patron of the town, and it was decided that the next day the doors of the chapel should be open to the public. But, alas 1 the next day, when they opened the chapel, the image had disappeared. The poor hunters who had started the news were grieved because they feared they would be taken for liars. They went again to the thicket, and were overjoyed to find the statue in the same spot where they had first seen it. The governor and the people also went to the thicket, and the image was taken back to the palace with great pomp. The next day it had disappeared again, and again they found it in the same place and carried it back to the town. Three or four times the same miracle took place. Then the bishop, with the consent of the governor, decided CHURCH OF SAO FRANCISCO, CAMPOS. RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES 299 that they should erect a little chapel on the spot where they had found the statue and place it therein. The chapel was built, and the altar marked the location of the mysterious bush. The faithful gathered from all parts. Miracles were so numerous that soon the little chapel was replaced by a large church, with a covered vestibule for pilgrims. Every year after- ward, great popular pilgrimages celebrated the fiesta of the Virgin of Nazareth. The pilgrimage is still continued to this day, though the forest has been transformed into broad avenues and the shrine is situated in a fashionable quarter of the large city which has grown up around it. Every year, ip remembrtmce of the ancient miracle, the holy image is carried „:m£.0'Mi^r. y's;. ■.5. SECTION OF DADO OF PAINTED DUTCH TILES ORNAMENTING THE WALLS AROUND THE PATIO OF THE FRANCISCAN MONASTERY, BAHIA, AND REPRESENTING SCENES IN SACRED AND PROFANE HISTORY. from the chapel of the president's palace to the church of Nazareth. Many of the faithful who formerly knelt at the feet of the miraculous statue still relate wonderful stories of what they beheld on arriving in the early morning, the tunic of the saint still covered with turf. Devotees often met during the night a beautiful child of about twelve years of age, with transparent skin, eyes marvellously bright, golden hair, and an angelic voice. The fisher- men also saw this vision of beauty, who was frequently accompanied by two smaller and younger children. Sometimes she spoke to these fishermen, and counselled them not to sell their fish too dear and to keep always a good quality. Others have caught a view of 300 THE NEH^ BRAZIL her playing alone on the church square or on the highway. It was the Virgin of Nazareth who thus gladdened the hearts of her people with fleeting glimpses of her glorious presence. As long as the worship of Our Lady of Nazareth was maintained in all its purity and ardor, and as long as the chapel remained open day and night to the faithful, the pest was a thing unknown in Para. But the time came when a revolution broke out, the insurgent "Cabanos" paying no reverence to the sacred church of the Virgin, which was marred during their bitter strife, and from that day the saint has been seen no more outside the chapel; — no one has since met the beautiful child with the golden hair. But cholera and small-pox have visited the city. Then, contrary to the wishes of the old-time worshippers, a fine church was erected on another site ; soon a comet appeared in the sky — it was the fore- runner of a new pest, the terrible hcrihcri. Nevertheless, the good Virgin does not remain deaf to the prayers of the truly faithful ; her miracles are still numerous, and even the incredulous are reminded of her power in the day of danger. The principal feature of this church fiesta is the "Cirio," a procession insfituted and regulated by an ordinance from Dom Francisco de Souza-Coufinho, governor of Para under Portuguese rule, from 1790 to 1803, which specified, among other things, the order of precedence to be observed by the various civil, military, and ecclesiastical authorities who were to follow in the procession "with meditation and prayer." The purpose of this procession was for the transporting of the holy image of Our Lady of Nazareth from the Governor's Palace to the chapel of Our Lady of Nazareth. Every one takes part in this procession; some, it is true, out of curi- osity or to enjoy the spectacle, but many out of religious fervor, desirous of offering public proofs of their gratitude to the holy Virgin, to whose intercession they attribute miraculous cures, or a rescue from death, or whose answers to their prayers for loved ones in danger have wrought miracles in their behalf. First in the procession is a car, representing a fortress, from which fire-works and rockets are exploded with great eclat. Then follows a long cavalcade, presenting a striking and rich appearance ; after the cavalcade, another car or float, representing the miracles of Dom Fuas Roupinho, and of the barque S. Jodo Baptisto ; then a boat carried on the shoulders of the Sailors' Union and of others who have vowed, on account of some miraculous rescue, to assist in carrying the boat full of children who CHURCH OF NossA sENHORA DE NAZARETH, PARA. reprcscut di shlpwrecked crew RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES 301 CHURCH OF MONTSERRAT, BAHIA. miraculously saved after days of strug- gle, hunger, and discouragement; next in line come the angels, on horseback, bearing bright oriflammes with the dates of miracles and the names under which these miracles are known ; these are followed by carriages filled with members of the best families in the city, all dressed in brilliant costumes and having their carriages handsomely decorated ; the procession of carriages ends with the coach of the governor, accompanied by his secretary and his aide-de-camp, who are followed by the bishop. The procession closes with a fairy-like coach, shaped something in the style of a royal crown, all purple and gold, in the centre of which stands the venerated image of the Holy Virgin. The coach is guarded on both sides by the directors of the fiesta, and the populace, taking hold of the long ribbons of red silk attached to the vehicle, draw it along with great respect and devotion, regarding it as a great honor to have this privilege. Many interesting instances of devotion are presented at these processions. Sometimes delicately nurtured women of high birth will follow in the long line of worshippers, having their feet bare and wearing a gown of sackcloth or other coarse material. Some enthusiasts have been known to crawl on their knees the whole distance from the palace to the chapel, about a mile. The city garrison, artillery and infantry, end the procession proper, though an in- terminable throng follows, crowding and pushing, to get a sight of the image, or to receive the bishop's blessing as his coach stops now and then in the course of the march. Each of these followers carries an offering for the altar emblematic of the nature of the particular cure for which there is special reason to be grateful to the blessed Virgin. It may be a wax arm, showing in ghastly red where a mortal wound had been made, and signifying that the bearer had been miraculously saved from the fatal effects of a terrible injury to the arm. Wax heads, spotted in red to indicate eruptions, or little wax figures covered with an imita- tion of small-pox marks, typify the particular form of disease overcome through the inter- cession of Our Lady of Nazareth. So dense is the throng during this procession, and so frequent are the delays, that it often requires three or four hours for it to pass a certain point. The best view is always to be had on the Avenida da Republica, where the crowd is thickest and the street broadest, also the delay most prolonged. During the remaining days of the fiesta, there are daily amusements of all sorts, the fund collected going into the treasury of the church for charitable purposes. At Cuyaba, in the province of Matto Grosso, the fiestas of Pentecost are sumptuously observed. The director of the fiesta is chosen by lot. On the eve of the day to be 302 THE NEM^ BRAZIL celebrated, he sallies forth accompanied by a band of music and some friends, and carry- ing the insignia of his office,— a silver crown, sceptre, and banner. He goes to solicit offerings, which usually amount to about a thousand dollars, sometimes more. The day of the ceremony, this leader, who takes the title of Emperor, proceeds to the church in the centre of a square made by four planks of wood, the ends of which are carried on the shoulders of the most distinguished personages of the town ; on a silver plate the sceptre and crown are borne, the banner preceding the procession. In the evening, there is a grand illumination, including fire-works, extending all along the route from the door of the PATIO OF THE FRANCISCAN MONASTERY, BAHIA. church to that of the " Emperor," where a rich altar is raised. After the religious ceremony, there is a free distribution of food and drink for the poor, and even small cakes for every- body. The authorities receive special gifts, consisting of immense cakes ornamented with flowers and ribbons. Then there are bull-fights, balls, plays, — everything at the expense of the " Emperor," who sometimes pays as much as two thousand dollars or more for the entertainment. At Cuyaba, it is said, the episcopal church possesses a miraculous image of the " Senhor Bom Jesus." It was found on the island of Manoel-Homem, on the Rio Grande, two hundred and twenty-five leagues from the capital where it is worshipped RELIGION AND SOME OLD CHURCHES 303 to-day. The island takes its name from a celebrated criminal, Manoel-Homem, who took refuge there. He found there the sacred image, and guarded it with devotion. The place, situated at the confluence of two rivers on the route of voyagers from Sao Paulo to the mines of Matto Grosso, was too exposed to the eyes of the curious ; the criminal resolved to seek a shelter safer for his person. Before plunging farther into the interior, however, he built a little cabin, where he placed the image. A merchant found it there ; he tried in vain to remove it, finally calling his friends to his aid ; even then, all efforts proved useless, though the statue was of wood and weighed only a few pounds. CHURCH OF NOSSA SENHORA DO CARMO, PArA. Another traveller was more fortunate, and, in consequence, the statue now enjoys the place of honor in the cathedral. But although the observance of traditional religious custom? remains to a certain extent, there is a growing freedom of sentiment which is widespread. Protestantism has gained a foothold in many States, and the teachings of Auguste Comte have a large fol- lowing. The Positivists, led by Benjamin Constant, were particularly prominent in the affairs of the revolution. To their influence has been attributed largely the first move- ment to^^'ard the separation of Church and State; the adoption of the motto "Ordcm e Progrcsso" on the flag, and the use of the words "Sdiidc c Fnih'ni/dade" at the head of 304 THE NEIV BRAZIL official correspondence. There was a conflict of opinion at the time of the legal suppres- sion of the use of the cross in courts of justice, which took place in 1892, but it was of little importance. At present, the attitude of the government and the people is one of the greatest tolerance, even encouragement, to all religious institutions, regardless of creeds. Handsome churches of all denominations have been erected in the larger cities, and there is scarcely a village without schools and hospitals under the charge of more than one denomination. In southern Brazil the Protestant Episcopal Church has more than five hundred communicants, and is growing in strength and influence through the zealous labors of its honored bishop, Right Reverend Lucien Lee Kinsolving, S.T. D., who was chosen for this position by the American House of Bishops and consecrated in Saint Bar- tholomew's Church, New York, January 6, 1899. The Presbyterian Church is well repre- sented in the principal cities, and the Methodists have many churches and schools. As modern thought stamps its impress upon religious as well as secular institutions, the more picturesque features of religious worship, its fiestas and pageants, are disappearing from the popular customs ; but there is something so very attractive in these symbols of devotion that one is loath to think of their falling into disuse. CHAPEL OF NOSSA SENHORA DA GRACA, BAHIA, BUILT BY PARAGUASSU. CHAPTER XXII PERNAMBUCO N' [OWHERE does the glowing sun of the tropics shed its radiance more brightly than upon the fruitful forests and fields of Pernambuco, touching the rich greens of the luxuriant foliage into deepest tones, and bathing the gorgeous blossoms in a flood of dazzling brilliance. Under the bluest of skies the fair land smiles in the midst of the rich treasures that Nature has poured into her lap, distributing them to a gratifying extent to all parts of the wodd through the medium of ships that constantly fill the harbor. A peculiar charm belongs to Pernambuco, not only in natural beauty, but in the absorb- ing interest of its history. Some authorities assert that the Spanish navigator Vicente Yanez Pinzon landed on the Pernambucan coast several months before Cabral set up the royal stand- ard of Portugal at Porto Seguro, in the present State of Bahia. According to certain data pre- seiA'ed in the Arch:eological and Geographical Institute of Pernambuco, Pinzon disembarked at Cape S. Agostinho, the most easterly point of Brazil, on January 28, 1^00, giving to the ne\\-h--disco\'ered land the name of SjiiAi ALir/'j Jj Consoldg~m. After a brief exploration of the territoiy, he continued his \'oyage northward; the next visit to the coast was made by Andre Gongah'es, sent out by the king of Portugal to continue the explorations initi- ated b\' Cabral. The settlement of the capitania of Pernambuco was effected chiefly under the direction of its first grantee, Duarte Coelho, who paid special attention to its OLINDA LIGHTHOUSE, PERNA.MBUCO. 3o6 THE NEIV BR.-IZfL agricultural development, introducing, as previously stated, the culture of sugar-cane early in the sixteenth century. The history of the State is remarkable, not only from the singular circumstances surrounding its growth and development, but also through the unparalleled records of distinguished valor that fill the annals of its past. The unyielding resistance to the Dutch invasion, especially, under conditions that seemed absolutely hopeless, affords proof of a spirit of the proudest independence; instances related of splendid courage and sublime patriotism exhibited by the leaders of the Pernambucan forces during that time rival the most thrilling accounts of ancient heroism. The famous retreat of Xenophon was not more remarkable than the consummate tact and coolness of the Indian Camarao under GOVERNOR'S PALACE, PERNAMBUCO. similar overwhelming odds; the brave Henrique Dias has few equals even among the world's greatest heroes; the daring of the Spartan Leonidas was not more reckless than the indomitable courage of those intrepid soldiers, Pedro de Albuquerque, Agostinho Nunes, and Salvador de Azevedo;'in generalship, IVliltiades was scarcely superior to the invincible Per- nambucan leaders Vidal de Negreiros and Mathias de Albuquerque; and the mother of the Gracchi might have learned a lesson in self-sacrifice and patriotism from the Brazilian matron, Dona Maria de Souza, who, after having lost her three eldest sons in the war, called to her side her two remaining boys, both less than fifteen years of age, and in a voice choked by emotion, but firm with determination, said to them: "My sons, I have PERN.-IMBUCO 307 DR. SIGISMUNDO ANTONIO GONCALVES. GOVERNOR OF PERNAMBUCO. just received news of the death of your three brothers, who have fallen in battle. What duty demands of you is to imitate their example in patriotism. Go, my chil- dren, take your swords, and, if need be, offer up your lives in defence of your country and your king!" The sturdy resistance opposed to the forces of the imperial government which were sent to demolish the "Fed- eration of the Equator" was another evidence of the unbending resolution of these lovers of liberty. And in later years, when the Voluntarios da Patria were called out to fight in the Paraguayan wiw, the " Leoes do Norte" [Lions of the North], as the Pernambuco troops were named, responded with amazing readiness, appearing among the first on the scene of battle, with the letters "V. P." worked in gold on their coat-sleeves, which were interpreted, according to the sentiment of the hour, to signify "I'oliinfdn'os da Patm" "Kiinos Partir!" [Let us go forward!] "/7:\7 Pernambuco!" 'Talor (' Pafr/of/sDio!" "/7//,s,';7//('j, Pcrccrsos!" [Ven- geance, Villains!] or "Tk for/a, Pa fn'c /OS !" [Victory, Countrymen!] The distinguished ser- vices rendered by these soldiers are remembered \\-ith gratitude by the \\'hole Brazilian nation. In peace, as well as in war, the honor of Pernambuco has been worthily upheld by its loyal and devoted people. Socially, there are few States of the union that have enjoyed similar ad^'antages. Previous to the Dutch conquest, the city of Olinda, which is now the principal suburb of the State capital, \\'as the centre of wealth and fashion in Brazil, and its university was the chief seat of learning in America. The Dutch invaders destroyed this city, though their governor, Maurice de Nassau, who estab- lished his colonial capital at Re- cife, devoted particular attention to the intellectual development of the country, inviting the lead- ing scholars and artists of Europe to visit his Brazilian possessions, and bestowing liberal patronage upon institutions for educational ad^■ancement. The influence of Maurice de Nassau's government PONTE DE BOA \'ISTA, PERN'AMBrCO. 3o8 THE NEIV BRAZIL was beneficial from this standpoint, and lias no doubt contributed to make Pernambuco the progressive State that it is, and always has been, intellectually. The University of Olinda has been removed to Recife, where it is celebrated as one of the best educational institu- tions in Brazil, in addition, the State supports an excellent Normal School, the Collegio de Artes, the Gymnasio, about six hundred primary and secondary sc-hools, and numerous charity asylums. A very important collection of volumes is preserved in the library of the Instituto Archeologico e Geographico, which occupies one of the handsomest buildings of the State capital, and contains complete records of the history of Pernambuco in the form of documents, historical paintings, and interesting relics. '-sh«si;5ffe-'?^i-few-' DERBY MARKET, PERNAMBUCO. But while the social and educational development of the State has received special attention, the commercial interests have not been neglected, in some respects, Pernambuco is the most important State of northern Brazil. Although not the largest, it covers a territory of fifty thousand square miles in the most fertile region of the tropics; its sea-port is visited by the ships of all nations, which are freighted from the rich stores of the country with sugar, cotton, tobacco, and hides; the harbor, which is formed by a coralline reef, is among the wonders of the world. The coast country, which is low and flat, is adapted to the culture of rice and sugar; about fifteen miles inland the land becomes hilly, and is especially suitable for the growth of tobacco, coffee, and cotton; on the extensive table-lands that cover the remote interior, cattle-raising is the chief industry. Sugar is the most important source of revenue to the State. At one time, it constituted the principal article of export from Brazil, though it has since been superseded in value, commercially, by coffee and PERN A MB U CO 309 rubber. The outlook is very favorable for the sugar-product, however, as the home market is constantly increasing the demand, and a high protective tariff prevents foreign competition. Extensive cotton-fields are under cultivation throughout the State, and the cotton export trade is very large, though the southern States of North America are strong competitors in the European cotton market. Rice is still in the early stages of development as a commer- cial product, though the crop is growing each year, and will, without doubt, be one of the most important articles of export in the near future, the climate and soil favoring its culti- vation to an unlimited extent. Tobacco is grown in many localities, principally on the STREET SCENE IN PERNAMBUCO. table-lands, although its culture has declined since cotton-growing has become popular, owing, possibly, to the less amount of labor required in the cultivation of cotton, to its immediate sale, and to the better price it brings in the market. Indigo was formerly ex- ported in large quantities, also cinnamon ; other exotic plants, which \\'ere propagated from the specimens grown in the Botanical Garden of Olinda during the eighteenth century, are cultivated to a sufficient extent to form important articles of export. From the same source originated many of the fruits that are now shipped from Pernambuco. The pineapple of this region is particularly noted for its delicious flavor, ^\■hich is superior to that of any other locality. The mango is also found here in excellent quality, equal to that of Bahia, which 310 THE NEM^ BRAZIL RESIDENCE AT DERBY, PERNAMBUCO. is the largest mango-producing State in Brazil. The mango is not a fruit that lends itself readily to aesthetic preparation by the fastidious, presenting many dif- ficulties in the process of paring and eating its juicy, fibrous, cling-stone conglomerate. For- tunately, there are forks manu- factured exclusively for use in this process which would else offer a problem to table man- ners and dignity. Oranges, bananas, grapes, and caju also comprise fruits in the production of which the State has acquired an enviable celebrity. Itamaraga, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, and lying a few miles north of Recife, is famous for the abundance and fine flavor of its mangoes. Off the northwest- ern coast, the island of Fernando de Noronha is situated, about a hundred miles from the capital. It is a national penal settlement, and is a source of revenue to the government through its important phosphate deposits. On the island are also fortresses and heavy guns for protective purposes. The customs' receipts at the port of Pernambuco amount annually to about four million dollars. The greatest activity is noticeable in the capital city, which is also the chief sea- port, during the shipment of the sugar crop. The streets of the city proper — that is, of the Recife section, there being four sections in all— are crowded with carrcgadors and carts unloading and loading sacks of sugar. "Recife" is the name given to the commercial part of the city, which is divided from the other three by the channels of the Beberibe and Capi- baribe rivers, which further divide the two sections of Santo Antonio and Sao Jose, on the island of Antonio Vaz, from the quarter of Boa Vista on the mainland. The different parts of the city are connected by handsome bridges which give it an attractiveness that is entirely distinct from the character of other Brazilian cities. In addition to the commercial features of the Recife section, there are several fine old churches and a number of prac^as that beautify it. The Praga do Commercio, on the " Lingueta," as the extreme end of the peninsula is called, is particularly interesting in appearance and general character. It is the Wall Street of the stock-brokers and capitalists; the market of hucksters; the favorite stamping-ground of traders; the resort of idlers, and the popular haunt of political aspirants. Nothing is either of too great or too little importance for a place on the Lingueta, whether it be the arnval of a world-wide celebrity or the final escape of an abused cur; the loss of money, jewels, children, or friends is never an assured fact until a barren search of the Lingueta proves it to be so. In the beautiful quarter of Santo PERNAMBUCO 311 RECIFE LIGHTHOUSE, PERNAMBUCO. Antonio, formerly Mauritzstadt, is situated the Governor's Palace, overlooking a beautiful park. At a short distance away are the handsome buildings of the Mu- nicipal Chambers, the theatre, the Archseological and Geographical Institute, the Normal School and the Lyceum, the Casa da Miseri- cordia, and the v/ar arsenal, a number of magnificent churches and schools, and the umbrageous gardens of the Campo das Prin- cezas and Praga Dom Pedro II. The Lyceum is especially worthy of note, the courses in art and sculpture being advanced and thorough. In Sao Jose are many of the public works, railroad stations, the public market, and several historic churches. Boa Vista is the favorite residence quarter of the capital, and the location of the higher colleges, hospitals, and asylums. The population of the city is about two hundred thousand. It is a railway centre of importance, and a municipality blessed by the advantages of such modern im- provements as electric and gas lighting facilities, good water- works system, drainage, street- car service, and telegraph and telephone communication. The cable service of Pernambuco is exceptionally fine, connecting the cities of South America with every part of the world. It has no less than ten cable lines to foreign parts. A few miles from the city, in a moun- tainous district, watered by the Beberibe River, and connected with the capital by a railroad, lies the picturesque old city of Olinda, "the beautiful," as the name implies. Once the gay and wealthy metropolis of the State, it is now nothing more than a beautiful suburb of Recife, a favorite resort, during the disagreeable season, for resi- dents of the city. There are many prosperous small towns scattered throughout the State, ranging in population from five to ten thousand citizens. The government of the State, under the wise administration of Dr. Sigismundo Antonio Gon- galves, is progressing favorably PRACA MANOEL piNHEiRo, PERNAMBUCO. In all soclal, educatloual, and 312 THE NEIV BRAZIL commercial affairs. This distinguished governor is a native of the State of Piauhy, though an alumnus of the celebrated School of Law at Pernambuco. After graduation, he was appointed a magistrate of Pernambuco, and received the office of chief judge of the tribunal of Pernambuco. During his political career. Dr. Gongalves has represented the States of Pernambuco and Goyaz in the National Congress, and the State of Pernambuco in the Senate. A prominent journalist, he has been the chief editor of the Jornal do Recife ever since his college days. During the presidency of Dr. Prudente Moraes, he was offered the portfolio of Agriculture, which he declined, as well as the office of Director of the Law College of Pernambuco. He is esteemed and honored as an eminent leader. OA VISTA, CITY OF PERNAMBUCO. The intellectual advancement of the State is due not only to the liberal methods of the administration, but also to the public-spirited efforts of its leading scholars. In this respect, various educational institutions owe a great measure of their success to the present vice- president of the Municipal Council of Recife, Dr. Francisco Augusto Pereira da Costa, a native Pernambucan, and a graduate of the Law School of Recife. The learned doctor has held several important offices since the beginning of his professional career, having been secretary of the government of Piauhy, director of the Lyceum of Pernambuco, director of the Secretaria of the Chamber of Deputies of Pernambuco, a member of the Historical and Geographical Institute^of Brazil,_the Archseological and Geographical Institute of Pernambuco, and similar societies in Bahia, Rio, Alagoas, and other cities. At the Paris PERNAMBUCO 313 Exposition of 1889, \\e was awarded a medal for important scientific exhibits. Numerous works of literary and historical value have been the product of his prolific pen. His book Seleda Permmhucana is filled with historical and romantic incidents relative to his native State that are of absorbing interest. Another writer of note is Dr. Oliveira Lima, author of Pcnhimbiico e Scu Dcscnvolvimciito Historico, a concise and accurate description of the his- torical development of the country. Of the prominent statesmen of Brazil, two members of the Federal cabinet are Pemambucans,— Dr. Rosa e Silva, the Vice-President, and Dr. Epitacio Pessoa, Minister of Justice. Not only among the leading scholars and states- men of the present day are there to be counted many Pernambucans, but in the past his- tory of the country some of the most illustrious names recorded in the annals of Brazilian THEATRE. PERNAMBUCO. politics, as well as of military glory, belong to natives of this progressive and cultured community: the Marquis de Olinda, several times minister of the empire; Jose Ignacio de Abreu Lima, a fearless advocate of constitutional reform under the first emperor, who suffered death for his imprudence; the noble young hero of the Paraguayan war, Antonio Augusto de Araujo Torreao, who, like his young countryman, Joaquim Rodrigues Torres, of Itaborahy, gave up his life in defence of his native land, falling under the enemy's fire at the battle of Riachuelo before the hour of victory came for the Brazilian fleet. The Pernambucan is the proudest of Brazilians, and with reason. Courage and patri- otism have been dominant traits of his character from the earliest days of Brazilian history, and in all that has contributed to the country's advancement educationally and politically this State has exercised an important and beneficent influence. Geographically, the position 314 THE NEIV BRAZIL of its sea-port gives it tlie greatest strategic importance as the most easterly point of South America. In the development of trade relations between South America and other countries, it cannot fail to play an important part, even aside from the commerce of its own State. Many foreigners visit the port of Pernambuco every year, and it is not unusual to see half a dozen nationalities represented in the hotels of its attractive suburbs, especially at Derby, which is one of the most picturesque places imaginable, with pretty villas, shaded groves, rippling streams, artistic little bridges half buried in a bower of green, and gaily painted canoes skimming the water's surface. This suburb enjoys the distinction of pos- sessing one of the best hotels in South America ; the Derby Hotel is thoroughly modern in every respect, and conducted upon a metropolitan plan in regard to service. The Derby market is one of the most extensive establishments of this kind in Brazil, and is well equipped for the large business that is daily transacted. The suburb owes its attractiveness to the enterprise of a very progressive citizen, Senhor Delmiro Gouveia, the owner, who has per- sonally directed everything in connection with its development. He lives in a handsome resi- dence which he has built on one of Derby's many beautiful avenues. Celebrated travellers who have visited Pernambuco have been charmed with the hospitality of the people, their cosmopolitan interests, and the many pleasing features of their social custorhs. Life is not such a " rough-and-tumble " fight for the necessities as it is in less favored climates, and consequently there is more leisure for real enjoyment in the observance of social amenities. The foreign resident soon learns the art of gaining leisure, and loses a great deal of the bustling, restless activity that is characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon especially ; while the new arrival will speedily succeed in realizing for himself some of that genuine enjoyment in living which is the divine privilege of every Pernambucan. ifltllii i HOTEL DERBY, PERNAMBUCO. NATIVE FAMILY. CHAPTER XXIII PARAHYBA, RIO GRANDE DO NORTE, AND PIAUHY |ORTH of Pernambuco the two States of Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte lie bordering on the Atlantic, marking the extreme northwestern limit of the South American continent; and along the western Pernambucan boundary extends the State of Piauhy, which reaches the northern border of Bahia, touches the eastern part of Goyaz, and constitutes the whole of the western boundary of Ceara and of the eastern boundary of Maranhao. In some respects, the history of the development of these three States is similar, though they also differ in climate and natural resources. The general climate of the State of Parahyba is hot and dry, though tempered by sea-breezes. In the interior the conditions are favorable for cattle-raising, and, near the coast, cotton, sugar, and cereals are extensively grown. It is, in fact, one of the principal cotton-growing States of Brazil. The southern part of the State is watered by the river Parahyba do Norte, and the western section by the Rio das Piranhas and its tributaries. The Serra da Borborema divides the river basins of these water ways. The capital city, Parahyba, is situated on a hill overlooking the estuary of the Parahyba River, and connected with its sea-port, Cabedello, by railway. It has several attracti^•e public buildings, among others the State president's palace, municipal buildings, and many churches. The heavily thatched straw huts of Cabedello give this little port a distinctively tropical appearance. The president of the State of Parahyba is Dr. Antonio Alfredo da Gama e Mello. Rio Grande do Norte, bounded on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, is favored by a salubrious climate and a fertile soil, though its sea-ports are difficult of access owing to the turbulent surf that dashes over all barriers and makes disembarkation during some parts of the year almost an impossibility. The chief products of the State are cotton, sugar, cereals, tobacco, and hides. Few States of Brazil offer greater inducement for development; the soil is so remarkably fertile, especially in the valley of the Ceara-mirim Ri\'er, in the northeast, that abundant harvests are gathered with scarcely any labor of cultivation. If a railway could be made to connect this State with the larger sea-ports and thus ameliorate the 3i8 THE NE^ BRAZIL SCENE IN PIAUHY. conditions of transpor- tation, it would, witliout doubt, greatly improve its commercial development. The capital and chief sea- port of Rio Grande do Norte is Natal, situated near the mouth of the river Potenay. It was founded during the six- teenth century, by Jero- nymo de Albuquerque. Besides the usual educa- tional and charitable in- stitutions that are found in all Brazilian cities, Natal has an important commercial society for the promotion of agriculture and other industries. Spinning and cotton mills are established in the capital and in several other towns. The city also contains seven churches, two theatres, and an excellent hospital, the Casa da Misericordia. Natal has a population of fifteen thousand inhabitants. In addition to the products previously mentioned, the State exports lumber, oils, resins, cheese, and the wood of the carnahuha, which grows abundantly in this region of Brazil. Under the progressive administration of the present governor, Dr. Joaquim Ferreira Chaves, the State enjoys every advantage for the promotion of its welfare. The most important of the three States, commercially, is that of Piauhy, extending north and south from the third to the twelfth degree south latitude, and embracing a territory re- nowned for its advantages as a cattle-raising region. The cli- mate is generally healthful, re- markably so in some localities, as that of Jaicos, in the east, where, according to statistics filed in Rio de Janeiro in 1888, there were at that time eight men ranging from one hundred and ten years of age upward, and many more who were the monjolo iprimitive grist-mill]. PARAHYBA, RIO GRANDE DO NORTE, AND PIAUHY 319 centenarians. The cattle industry, whicln promises to be a source of great wealth to the State, is not yet developed to the extent which the conditions of climate and soil favor for its growth. There is no apparent reason why the vast plateaus that rival in natural advan- tages the celebrated sheep-farms of Australia should not support the cattle- and sheep industry suificiently to make this region of Brazil one of the strongest competitors in this branch of the world's trade. During the first part of the eighteenth century, the cattle- farms were in a flourishing condition, the Jesuits having more than four thousand square leagues of land in use for cattle-raising for the labor of which they employed six hundred slaves and twice as many Indians. When the order was expelled, the crown :of Portugal took possession of these farms, which have gradually passed again into the ownership of the State or of private proprietors. The great demand of the State is for immigrant colonies to utilize its valuable resources. The agricultural industries are developed only to a mod- erate degree, owing largely to the difficulties of transportation, railway communication not having been established in this State to a considerable extent. An additional disadvantage exists in the limited length of sea-coast, less than twenty miles, and the comparative insig- nificance of its chief sea-port, Parnahyba, on the Iguarassu branch of the Parnahyba River. This river constitutes the dividing-line between Piauhy and Maranhao, and is the :main artery of traffic in the western part of the State, its tributaries draining the entire territory in their descent from the scrras that mark the eastern and southern boundaries. Cotton and tobacco are exported in considerable quantities, and the cultivation of cereals, sugar, rice, and man- dioca receives increasing attention. Valuable medicinal plants, dyewoods, oils, essences, and resins are found in the interior, which produces large quantities of the canicihiiba fibre, herons' plumes, mangabeira rubber, and other important articles of commerce. Extensive deposits of iron, copperas, alum, potash, and saltpetre are found in various parts of the State, which is also rich in stone quarries of superior quality, and is known to possess the more tempting minerals, gold and silver. All these natural products require the labor of a large population of energetic and active people; the population of Piauhy is scarcely half a million, though the territory throughout which the inhabitants are scattered covers nearly a hundred thousand square miles. The capital of Piauhy is Therezina, situated on the right bank of the river Parnahyba, opposite the town of Cajazeiras, in Maranhao. It was founded in 1852, and at first received the name of Chapada do Con'sco [stroke of lightning], from the frequent electrical storms of this locality. The city has several beautiful parks, the principal one being the Praga da Constituigao, in the centre of which a handsome marble monument has been placed in honor of Senator Saraiva, by whom the site of the capital was chosen. The city was named for the wife of the second emperor. It is well built, having fifteen broad and regular streets, well shaded and bordered by modern buildings for residence or business purposes. The population is about thirty thousand. The Governor's Palace, a two-story building of attractive architectural design and commodious capacity', is one of the principal public buildings of the city, which has also three churches, a lyceum attended by one hundred 320 THE NEIV BRAZIL and fifty students, a hospital, an official printing-office, a fine theatre and public market, as well as a post-office and telegraph office. Among the manufacturing industries are a large factory for making cotton and thread, operated by steam, with more than a hundred looms; an iron foundry, employing a large number of workmen; a soap factory; and machines for assorting and pressing cotton. A navigation company controlling five steamers, and insurance companies for maritime security, are among the important enterprises of There- zina. The city is connected by telegraph with the Federal capital. The second city in importance is Parnahyba, about two hundred miles down the river from the capital. It is the commercial port, and the site of the custom-house and its dependencies. Dividing the Parnahyba from the Iguarassu is the island of Ilha Grande, on the northern extremity of which rises the majestic rock Pedra do Sal, a favorite resort because of its excellent climate. Other cities of the State are Amarante, a town of twenty thousand inhabitants, and Oeiras, the ancient capital, in the interior of the State, the birth- place of the distinguished statesman Jose Furtado. The governor of Piauhy, Dr. Raymundo Arthur de Vasconcellos, is desirous of improv- ing, in every possible way, the facilities for advancing the trade of the State and developing its latent resources. The State is nearly six hundred miles in length from north to south, having the benefit of a diversified climate, influenced by the sea-breezes on the coast and the altitude of the interior. It is tropical, but many Europeans find it agreeable, and the outlook is most promising for immigration and investment. The States of Parahyba, Rio Grande do Norte, and Piauhy are all suitable for the culti- vation of cotton and cereals, and, in the interior districts, for the raising of live stock. With a larger population, the products of the States would rapidly multiply and the greatest prosperity result, not only to the States themselves, but to the country at large. OX-TEAM, PIAUHY. o -J D < IX O '< (/) u, O UJ H < H en < Q a, en O I H <: H Z < Qi O CHAPTER XXIV AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION HATEVER fruits in different climes are found, Tliat proudly rise or humbly court the ground, — Whate\'er blooms in torrid tracts appear, Whose bright succession decks the varied year, — Whatever sweets salute the northern sky With vernal li\-es that blossom but to die, — These here disporting own their kindred soil, Nor ask luxuriance from the planter's toil : While sea-born gales their gelid wings expand. To w'innow fragrance round the smiling land. Goldsmith : The Traveller. Farm-life in Brazil presents many inviting aspects. The arduous and unremitting labor that is necessary to ensure a satisfactory harvest in less favored zones is unknown to the Ui{cndciro of this "smiling land." On the other hand, there are few Brazilian plantations that have been made to yield the abundance of which their fertility is capable, since the spontaneous growth of everything that is planted tends to foster an indifference to the aid of the artificial means employed in northern countries to "force a churlish soil." The farming implements and machinery used so extensi\'ely throughout Europe and North America are unknown in many agricultural districts of Brazil, which are culti\-ated in the most primitive fashion, though with such happy results that one cannot help speculating upon the enormous possibilities that lie in the introduction of more modern methods. Undoubtedly, the greatest success would follo\\- the systematic de\'elopment of the soil according to its particular quality and adaptability; the cultivation of a \'ariety of crops on the farms, rather than the exclusi\'e growth of one fa\'orite product; the use of modern machinery and implements for facilitating farm-\\-ork and sa\'ing valuable time. The greatest progress in agriculture has been made in the southern and central coast States, particularly in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Parana, Sao Paulo, Rio, and Minas Geraes. The 3^3 324 THE NE^ BRAZIL last-named, although separated from the sea-coast by a narrow strip of land, has the soil and climate of the coast States, except in the extreme west, where the conditions are similar to those governing the other interior States, Goyaz and Matto Grosso. Rio Grande do Sul is one of the most prosperous farming States in Brazil. Immigra- tion has been the means of establishing thriving communities of Germans, Italians, Aus- trians, and people of other nationalities, engaged in the cultivation of the various cereals, fruits, and vegetables that grow in abundance in this territory. Every month of the year has its particular routine of farm labor, as in all agricultural sections: January is the usual time for harvesting wheat, barley, rye, and similar products; for sowing millet, /^^)'io, and A CHEERFUL GROUP AT THE HOSPEDARIA. sweet potatoes; for planting beets, artichokes, celery, pease, onions, cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, lettuce, turnips, beans, parsley, mustard, and radishes; also for grafting, especially after heavy rains. In February, new ground is ploughed, and the fields from which the harvest of the previous month has been gathered are prepared for the winter and spring crops. During this month, also, the grapes are gathered, and the manufacture of wine begins. In March, the farmer sometimes plants pease, mixed with other products, which, while they are growing, serve as a prop to the pea- vines; the last of the season's grapes are usually gathered in this month. April is the month for harvesting millet, rice, potatoes, and tobacco, and for sowing barley, oats, and pease. In May, wheat is planted, and the AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION 32? transplanting of young trees is effected, this being also tlie best month for fertilizing the vineyards. June finds the busy farmer at work with his pruning-knife, also giving close attention to any signs of insects molesting his vines or trees; and in July he cuts the shoots intended for grafting the next month. Annuals and bulbous plants are sown in July. The month of August is particularly a busy time, as it is the season for sowing wheat, rye, barley, and, on the higher lands, millet, fcijao, etc.; tobacco is sown, to be transplanted in October. Rice, mandioca, and fcijao may be planted in October, and in November and December, sweet potatoes; December marks the beginning of the harvesting of wheat, barley, rye, etc., and in many localities this is the best month for planting sweet potatoes. DISEMBARKING OF IMMIGRANTS FROM STEAMER AT PARA. Although this rule may not be followed exactly, it represents the order of work observed by the majority of southern Brazilian farmers. In the coast States of central Brazil many products of a more tropical nature are cultivated, while some that appear in the above list are not suited to the soil and climate of such States as Bahia, Pernambuco, and Para. The facilities for farm labor are not so complete in the more tropical States, where Nature has done most of the work connected with the harvest, and the farmer has been content with the simple task of dropping the seed and gathering the fruit. In the growth of cacao, which thrives at its best in southern Bahia, it is only necessary, as stated else- where, to have a special soil. The cotton plantations require little attention, but with even ^26 THE NEIV BRAZIL •i^Sm^ - ,^ A ... ' y -. . POLISH COLONIST'S HOUSE IN PARANA. moderate cultivation they yield enormous harvests. Tobacco ripens in three months, and when properly cared for it is a well-paying product, yielding three crops annually. Sugar- cane, so prolific in the northern coast States, receives scarcely any attention, so spontaneous is its growth. But enough has been previously said to give an idea of the riches of the agri- cultural lands of Brazil. Everything points to great possibilities of expansion and prosperity. The government is desirous of advancing these possibilities by immigration and the encour- agement of foreign investment, though, naturally, at the same time, careful not to imperil the highest good of the people or to embarrass an independent and growing nation by too liberal a foreign policy. The climate and soil offer advantages that cannot fail to attract foreign colonies and foreign capital, when once known and appreciated. The facilities for transportation are good, and efforts are constantly being made for their improvement; excellent sea-ports meet the growing needs of a large export trade; prejudices of race and religion do not exist in Brazil to the same extent as in some other countries, and the foreigner is treated with consideration whether his native land be Germany, England, Italy, Russia, France, or North America, all these countries being represented in Brazil. The people are not subject to such disturbed political conditions as exist in many Latin republics, and the questions of taxation and a fluctuating currency are not beyond the possibilities of satisfactory solution. Every successive administration seeks to improve the laws that are designed to benefit the farmer, and to increase the land values of the country. Although the imposition of interstate import and export taxes is regarded by some economists as inimical to the best interests of industrial enterprise, there are many who commend the system, and believe that it does not lessen the opportunities for good investments in this field. The tendency of present legislation is so decidedly in favor of modern reforms, that no law will remain long on the statute books unless proving a national advantage. For the benefit of foreign trade and the convenience of foreign residents, there are several banks in different cities of Brazil under the ownership and management of foreign companies. The principal English banks are the London and River Plate and the London and Brazilian, with branches in all the large cities; German banks are numerous in Rio and in southern Brazil; there are no American banks in Brazil. In regard to the healthfulness of the country, enough has been said to dispel the pop- ular error among foreigners, that the climate in general is unfavorable to immigration. As AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION r-1 TYPICAL BLUMENAU COTTAGE. a matter of fact, the vital statistics prove tiiat even in Rio de Janeiro, wliicli is sup- posed to be one of the worst fever-stricken cities in Brazil, the average death-rate is only two and four-fifths per cent, of the population, while that of Santos, as well as of other much maligned sea-ports, is still lower. Foreign residents in Brazil do not complain of the climate. In proof of the earnest desire of the government to add to the agricultural pop- ulation by encouraging foreign immigration, it is only necessary to follow the efforts made in this direction and to read the record of national expenditures for this purpose. Under the administration of the Department of Industry and Public Works, this branch of government affairs has received special attention through the establishment of an immi- gration bureau in connection with the Directoria Geral de Industria, of which Dr. Thomaz Cochrane, Secretary of the Presidency, is the director. The immigrant station on the Ilha das Flores, in the harbor of Rio, is a feature of this institution, and throughout the Union numerous similar hospcdarias dc iinmigniutcs are conducted upon the same principle under State control. When the immigrants arrive, they are given board and lodging at the hos- pedaria until ready to go to their destination, whither they are conveyed at the government's expense. A superintendent takes the names of all new arrivals and the place to which they desire to be sent, answers all questions regarding the country, wages, climate, etc., and attends to the comfort of the strangers. An agent of the Inspector of Lands and Colo- nization, who speaks the lan- guage of the immigrants, receives them as they land, extending, in the name of the government, the hospitality of the island, while another official directs them to their temporary lodgings, and ex- plains the rules of the establish- ment. In Para the immigrant station is a model of neatness, and the State's inducements of- fered to foreign settlers are lib- eral in the extreme. Everything ■ ■ Ml ■ 1 H li 1 1 S p AMAZON RIVER SCENE. 328 THE NEIV BRAZIL is done to give the newly arrived colonist an opportunity to establish himself, and even the luxury of tobacco is furnished to him free of cost for the first year, in addition to the neces- sities of life, which are. provided without restriction. Dr. Mendonga, who has charge of this establishment, has succeeded in settling large colonies in various parts of the State from this station. In Pernambuco, Bahia, Juiz de Fora, Sao Paulo, and in all the southern States these stations are supported by the government, which has spent many millions of dollars in this enterprise. In the States of northern Brazil the more successful colonies have been those brought from southern Europe, the natives of colder climates finding the equatorial region more enervating than southern Brazil, to which they have in consequence given the preference. On the other hand, twelve thousand persons removed to Para from other parts of Brazil in 1898. The present tendency of Brazilian immigration is from southern Europe to northern Brazil, and from northern Europe to southern Brazil. The Germans and the Italians constitute the largest foreign population. The population of the State of Parana numbers about a hundred thousand foreign settlers, including fifty thousand Poles, principally settled in the valley of the Iguassu in the communities of Sao Matheos and Rio Claro, though other Polish colonies of growing importance have been established at Thomaz Coelho, Lamenha Lins, and Abranches, near Curytiba; at Lucena and Antonio Olintho, near the Rio Negro, and at Prudentopolis, on the Guarapuava road; numerically, the Polish colonies are the most important in this State and, next, the Italian colonies, with a population of twenty-five thousand, established near Curytiba; the Germans are comparatively few in Parana, about ten thousand, principally engaged in mercantile busi- ness; and of the English, Russian, French, and other nationalities besides those previously named, the number is limited, though additions to the English colonies have been made since the improved railway facilities of the State and the promising outlook of the yerba- mate and other industries. Santa Catharina has the most prosperous German colony in Brazil, at Blumenau, which was named in honor of the founder, who established it in the year 18^1; its present population is fifty thousand, and its exports amount to large sums annually, the production of tobacco and cigars being one of the impor- tant industries, and supplying principally the markets of Ham- burg and Bremen; about ten million cigars are manufactured yearly, and five hundred tons of butter are exported, besides FIRST GLIMPSE OF THEIR ADOPTED LAND. frults, hams, cheesc, etc. AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION 329 PUBLIC BUILDING IN BLUMENAU. The first foreign colony in Brazil, founded at Nova Fri- burgo by the king, in 18 ig, was composed of Swiss farm- ers, who were reinforced by the arrival of a number of German immigrants in 1824; and the same year the Ger- man colony of Sao Leopoldo, in Rio Grande do Sul, was founded, which is now a large and prosperous community of about ten thousand inhabit- ants, with churches, schools, and manufacturing interests. Several thousand Italian, Bel- gian, and French immigrants arrived during the same year and settled the colonies of Santo Amaro, in Sao Paulo, and Rio Negro, in Parana. Sao Paulo was rapidly colonized, and as early as i860 numbered forty-five German settlements. Almost simultaneously with the founding of the Blumenau colony, and in the same State, the Duke de Joinville, who had married Princess Dona Francisca, the sister of the second emperor, settled a colony on a tract of land set aside for this purpose out of the princess's marriage dot. From the year 1873, immigration increased annually, the government offering every encourage- ment, especially in Sao Paulo, where immigrant stations were established, after the abolition of slavery, for the accommodation of foreign colonists, with capacity to board and lodge four thousand persons for a week. It was at this time that the hospedarias of the Ilha das Flores and other immigration head-quarters were established. In the year 1 891, nearly a quarter of a million European colonists landed in the three ports of Rio, Santos, and Florian- opolis, of which the greater number were Italians; in 1893, the Italians in Brazil numbered more than half a million. The Germans constitute the chief foreign population of southern Brazil. This source of immigration was checked for a time by the promulgation of the Von der Heydt law, which prohibited Prussian emigration to Brazil, though its repeal in 1896 resulted in a revival of the exodus. Of the five hundred thousand, or more, Germans now living in Brazil, less than five hundred owe allegiance to Germany, nearly all having become Brazilian citizens, devoted to their adopted country. Immigration during the present century will no doubt be greatly stimulated by the progressive policy of a government that is seeking not only to fill its territory with an energetic and enterprising foreign population, but also so to frame its laws and administer its economic affairs as to attract to its shores the most desirable class of citizens, both as immigrants and investors. There is plenty of room for colonization purposes. Though, as yet, few North American colonies have settled 330 THE NEPV BRAZIL here, except those of Santarem, in Para, and Santa Barbara, in Sao Paulo, which were formed just after the war of the Confederacy, the interests of immigration from this source are receiving every attention by the Brazilian Consul-General to the United States, Senhor Fontoura Xavier, while American interests in Brazil are assured of the very best protection from the United States Consul-General to Brazil, Mr. Eugene Seeger. With a population as thickly settled as that of Portugal, Brazil could accommodate five hundred million people, and with the same population to the square mile as Belgium, there would be capacity for more than a billion. The valley of the Amazon alone, according to Agassiz, could comfort- ably shelter three hundred millions. There is no immediate danger, therefore, of crowding THE LATEST ARRIVALS FROM OVER THE SEA. Brazil, and there is every reason why the country should have the benefit of a vast popula- tion in the process of developing her boundless resources and solving other problems of a great nation's advancement. There are special evidences of her willingness to encourage the enterprises that benefit a rural population. In the year 1900, the expenditure of the Department of Agriculture of the State of Sao Paulo exceeded a million dollars gold; the State of Minas Geraes has for some time given special attention to favorable measures of taxation ; steps have been taken in Pernambuco for the founding of a new agricultural bank; in a recent message, the president of Rio Grande do Sul urged the introduction of a variety of agricultural products to which the climate and soil are especially suitable, at the .■AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION 331 same time calling attention to the excellent results that have followed the liberal distribution of plants and seeds furnished by the government, and referring, in terms of satisfaction, to the great progress made in viticulture. The idea prevails among foreigners that only a few tropical commodities are grown in Brazil, but an examination of the shipping lists proves that such is not the case. Although the full possibilities of the country have not been de\-eloped, owing to the vast extent of territory in proportion to the limited population, yet the principal products of both the tropical and the temperate zone are cultivated, and, as the importance of raising a diversity of crops is more and more realized, the tendency is clearly improving in the right direction. Apiculture is among the new enterprises of southern Brazil, and it is said that the output of honey since the inauguration of this industry has proved eminently satisfactory. Poultry farms ha\-e been established on a large scale in some sections, this trade offering ^m S mm E= Mfe '^k PANORA,\\A OF ALE.WQUER. ON THE AAIAZON RIVER. exceptional opportunities for inwstment, as the English market furnishes an unlimited demand. A distinct ad\'antage to the Brazilian farmer engaging in this enterprise is that during the months when the shipments are largest the prices in the European markets are highest, the difference in the seasons accounting for this feature of the trade. In Amazonas the go\-ernment is seeking to encourage the culti\'ation of many products that should be gi'own there instead of imported from other States. Minas Geraes is constantly branching out in new fields, and, as an illustration of the success attending this effort, it is stated that the exportation of potatoes last >-ear was more than a million kilos, and the shipment of dair\- produce exceeded all pre\ious records. It is not to be inferred, from a statement of the superior natural adN'antages of Brazil, that unlimited wealth is to be secured b\' an\' and e\'er\- foreigner who may seek his fortune there; the usual difficulties that hamper the progress of a stranger, especially if 332 THE NEIV BRAZIL unacquainted with tiie language and customs of tlie country, will be found no less trying in Brazil than in other foreign countries; but the enterprising spirit that is able to surmount obstacles of minor importance in a determination to accomplish the best possible results will not be deterred from investigating opportunities, whether with a view to commercial or agricultural investment. As political affairs always bear a close relation to the con- ditions surrounding foreign immigration, or the investment of foreign capital, it is important to know that the present government favors the adoption of every measure that will pro- mote the best foreign relations. Within a short period the national finances have been so greatly improved that, instead of the deficit which for years appeared in the annual budget, the last returns show a substantial surplus of national receipts over national expenditure, most creditable to the administration, tending to increase confidence both at home and abroad, attracting the attention of capitalists and offering inducements to immigration. The future prospects of the republic depend largely upon the ability to secure immigra- tion of such a character that the results will justify the efforts made in this direction. The prime necessity of all the Brazilian States is a greater population to work their mines, cut down their impenetrable forests, cultivate their fertile lands, and increase the amount and variety of their manufactures. Whatever tends to invite capital and labor and thus to increase the means of developing any territory of Brazil is to be regarded with favor ; for growth and prosperity can only come through the energetic work of many hands, united in ambitious and hopeful endeavor. But there is every indication that a few years will witness vast improvement in the facilities for developing this fruitful land. ** -^-^ 4l^toi w^s^m ^■Litf - - ^^ . -- STEAMER LANDING IMMIGRANTS IN SANTOS HARBOR. CHAPTER XXV CEARA DENOWNED as the great national health resort for consumptives, Ceara enjoys also the distinction of having developed in her people a character for energy and industry that is unsurpassed in northern Brazil. The CL\i/riiscs, as the natives of this State are called, have made much greater progress than some of their neighbors :who have had the advantage of more favorable conditions. This quality has shown itself when they have made their home in other States, as was the case when Ceara was visited by a very dry season in 1879, and a great number emi- grated to Para and Amazonas, where their energy was felt in many improvements that followed their arrival: to their industry and intelligence was largely due the development of the great rubber interests of these States; they were the first to open up to traffic the Purus, Acre, Javary, and other rivers of the richest rubber regions. Financially and industrially, Ceara is a prosperous State, its budget always showing a good surplus, and its sources of revenue constantly increasing. As the real home of the Manitoba rubber-tree, which is next in value to the Para rubber-tree, a future of unfailing prosperity is assured to the commercial interests of the State. Hundreds of thousands of these trees have been planted in various districts, and will be fit for tapping within two or three years. The extraction of this product offers fewer difficulties than are encountered in collecting Para rubber, as it grows best on hill-sides, which are much more healthful and VENDOR OF CEBOLLAS. 334 THE NEfV BRAZIL p w ' ^JflB^s ^wBfe^^^^BB hi^hI nfe ^^ ^.t#. i'^'l^^^nl ■ Hh^^^^^'" ■ i''*'''^^ '" -^'*»^ k ^^ .x:^ rffefe:^ ^^&«, ^^ - mmaP ^^^^^^^R STREAMLET IN CEARA. easier of access than the swampy forests of the Hevea brasilicnsis. Situated within the tenth degree of latitude south of the equator, the climate, though tropical, is gen- erally salubrious, and the even temperature, dry atmosphere of the interior, and refreshing and invigorating nights contribute to make it an ideal resort for those who suffer from diseases of the respiratory organs. The area of Ceara is about five thousand square leagues, and the length of coast-line one hundred and twenty leagues. On the eastern boundary the State adjoins Rio Grande do Norte and Parahyba; on the south it is bordered by Pernambuco; the western limit is marked by a chain of serras separating it from Piauhy. Three natural divisions of the State influence its climate and productions, — the coast land, the slopes of the semis, and the interior pla- teaus. The coast region, extending from ten to fifteen miles inland, is subject to moist sea-breezes, and the soil is particulady adapted to the cultivation of cotton, the fibre of which here possesses superior silky qualities, with singular flexibility and resistance. The introduction of the product dates from colonial days, when it was grown exclusively for domestic purposes, though at present it forms an important article of export, and thriving plantations extend along the whole course of the principal river, the Jaguaribe, and its tributaries. This part of the State is also suited to the cultivation of sugar-cane, which, in the valley of Aracape, between the capital and Baturite, reaches the extraordinary height of from twenty to thirty feet, measuring three inches in diameter; in some districts sugar plantations last ten years or more without being replanted, and the industry is still prac- tically undeveloped, though a recent revival of interest in this direction has resulted in the adoption of measures for increasing the output of the commodity on some of the more important plantations. Corn and manioc, or mandioca, thrive in various kinds of soil, espe- cially the former, which is planted with good results in the clayey covering of the rocks as well as in the soft sand, and produces enormous crops, growing most abundantly in the Serra Grande. It is said that in some years the harvests of corn are so much greater than the facilities for moving the crop, that immense quantities are abandoned to animals. Mandioca, which derives its best qualities from the conditions of soft, porous, and some- what deep soils, humid and alkaline, warmed by the strongest rays of a tropical sun, is produced in the best qualities in Ceara. In the neighborhood of lagoons and marshes rice CEAR/I 33^ grows abundantly. The soil and climate of the scnas are suited admirably to the needs of the coffee-plant, and tobacco grows in this State along the sandy borders of rivers where the land is just washed by the overflow; soil already exhausted by the cultivation of sugar- cane will produce good tobacco. According to the most reliable authorities, the best tobacco is raised from seeds grown in the nursery, the young tree being transplanted to an appro- priate soil after a month or two, and placed at intervals of about three feet, so that an acre of land may contain as many as from three to four thousand plants. Calculating that each plant will produce ten leaves, the crop would amount to about eight hundred pounds per acre, which, at a fair market price, certainly seems to warrant the extensive cultivation of the product. In the opinion of Dr. Jose Freire Bezerril Fontenelle, who has given the most careful study to the industrial possibilities of Ceara, the culture of tobacco offers great opportunities for very profitable development. The vegetation on the sciras and extended interior table-lands is abundant, including the most valuable dyewoods, medicinal plants, woods for ornamental purposes, fibrous, resinous, oleaginous, and other varieties, consti- tuting an important source of revenue. The carnahuba grows here in abundance, the extraction of carnahuba wax being one of the most prosperous industries. The chief wealth of the interior districts of Ceara is derived from the cattle trade, which thrives wonderfully under the influences of a salubrious climate, an even temperature, and freedom from pestilential marshes. From the earliest days, this industry has been success- fully engaged in, which no doubt accounts for the peculiar fact that the inland plateaus were settled long before the coast territory. The cattle are allowed to run absolutely at large, with scarcely any attention whatever; yet, in spite of this careless method, the trade flour- ishes. With improved conditions, the quality and price of Ceara cattle and hides would undoubtedly become more satisfactory. Sheep and goats thrive in this State, the latter especially bringing a high price in the market. The extent of the mineral wealth is unknown, but it is un- questionably great. The commerce of Ceara was restricted, in consequence of limited transportation facilities, until, in 1866, the establishment of di- rect lines of steamers between Fortaleza, the capital, and Liverpool, railroad bridge of acarahu, ceara. 336 THE NEIV BRAZIL resulted in an immediate growth of its export and import trade. The Commercial Associa- tion of Ceara is a wide-awake and progressive organization, desirous of extending the foreign relations of the State by every possible means. Manufacturing interests are not neglected, there being several iron foundries, brick and tile works, wineries, and cotton- mills. Lacemaking is an important industry. The largest cotton factory of the State is that of Fortaleza, established in 1884, with a capital stock of about four hundred contos [one hundred thousand dollars gold], through the enterprise of the present honored State presi- dent. Dr. Antonio Pinto Nogueira Accioly, assisted by Dr. Antonio Pompeu de Souza Brazil and Dr. Thomaz Pompeu de Souza Brazil. During the first year, the factory produced two hundred thousand yards; now, the annual production is more than two million yards. RAILROAD BRIDGE OF CHORD. CEARA. Besides this cotton factory, there are three others of prominence, one of which was founded by Hollanda, Gurjao & Co., in 1889, with a capital of two hundred and fifty contos; another, in Baturite, belongs to a company with a capital of three hundred and fifty contos, and the third, devoted to the manufacture of hosiery, employs a capital of one hundred contos. Education receives careful attention, and every town of importance is provided with free public reading-rooms and libraries, usually under the direction of literary societies. At Fortaleza, which, like other capitals of Brazil, is generally known by the name of the State, being called familiarly Ceara, the public library contains nearly ten thousand volumes. The chief scientific society of the State is the Instituto Hlstorico do Ceara, which publishes a magazine devoted to scientific knowledge. The State maintains a normal school and four CEAR.A ?37 Latin schools, a lyceum, reorganized since the establishment of the republic in accordance with the plan of instruction followed by the Gymnasio Nacional of the Federal capital, and more than three hundred primary and secondary schools. The census of 1890 gives to the State of Ceara a population of eight hundred thousand inhabitants. The largest city is Fortaleza, the capital, with a population of fifty thousand. It is built in regular blocks, though it is not so well paved as many other cities of the same population. Its water-supply and drainage facilities need improvement, and the ever-recurring problem of building a satisfactory breakwater is of the first importance. The city is connected by railway with the interior towns of Baturite and Quixada; and the public works in the nature of viaducts, bridges, etc., constructed on the line of this, as well as other railroads, are most creditable RAILROAD DEPOT, CEArA. to the business enterprise of the government. The public buildings of the capital are attractive and commodious, solidly built, and centrally located. The Governor's Palace is constructed with a view to the needs of a tropical climate, with airy salas and an attractive patio surrounded by broad, cool verandas. The charity hospital, or Casa da Misericordia, inaugurated, in 1862, by Senator Nunes Gongalves, who was at that time the president of the province, is a handsome building, with capacity for five hundred patients. It has five infirmaries, three of which are for men and two for women patients. There is also an insane asylum, under State protection, as well as an asylum for mendicants. The college buildings are well equipped with necessary appurtenances, and the churches of the city present a creditable appearance. A street-car system, with trackage covering fifteen miles, is one of the city's flourishing enterprises; telegraph communication connects all the chief 3^8 THE NEIV BRAZIL towns of the State with the capital, and, tlirough it, with every State of the Union; and a complete telephone system facilitates business throughout the city. Other important towns of the State are Baturite, the centre of a rich and salubrious region; Aracaty, on the eastern bank of the Jaguaribe River, a prosperous little city of thirty thousand inhab- itants; Crato, Granja, Maranguape, Quixeramobin, and Sobral; Camocim, an excellent sea- port, connected with Sobral by railway; and a number of smaller towns are rapidly growing in importance and population. Dr. Antonio Pinto Nogueira Accioly is the president of the State, a gentleman of distinguished ability; the vice-president is Dr. Ernesto Deocleciano de Albuquerque, one of the best known and most highly esteemed statesmen of Ceara. Dr. Thomaz Pompeu de Souza Brazil is the president of the chief educational institution of the State, the Academia Cearense, which owes to his intellectual efforts a great measure of its success. The little town of Mecejana, about ten miles from the State capital, is espe- cially honored as having been the birthplace of the great Brazilian dramatist and romancist, Jose de Alencar. Politically, Ceara has always maintained an attitude of fearless independence. In 1824, republican principles triumphed for a brief moment, though crushed by the superior force of the imperial government; in 1888, Ceara set the example to all Brazil by freeing her slaves. To-day, as in former times, this State is among the leaders of political enterprise and progress. DAM OF OUIXADA. CEARA. CHAPTER XXVI MARANHAO |ARANHAO has a history that reveals in bright colors the brave spirit and unwavering patriotism of a people who have given to Brazil some of its most distinguished leaders, and to whom is due the successful issue of many of its severest struggles against invasion and oppression in the early days of its history. The territory of Maranhao was originally bestowed on the great Portuguese historian and statesman, Joao de Barros, in i5'34; but two expeditions sent out by him to colonize the capitania ^\'ere shipwrecked, and the attempt was abandoned. The first successful effort to establish a settlement was made by the French under the direction of La Ravardiere, in 1612, on the island of Sao Luiz, where the present State capital is situated, named Sao Luiz in honor of King Louis XIII. of France, though it has always been more commonly known as Maranhao. The French were expelled a few years later by the in- trepid Brazilian warrior, Jeronymo de Albuquerque Maranhao, a nephew of Duarte Coelho, of Pernambuco. In recognition of his services, the brave soldier was appointed uip/Llo-inor by the Portuguese governor-general Alexandre de Moura, under whose administration the di\'ision of the Brazilian government into the two States of Maranhao and Brazil \\'as made in 1624, during the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns. This di\-ision was still in effect, as stated elsewhere, when the kingdoms were separated, though the State of Brazil \\'as made a \'ice-royalty the same \'ear, 1640, and in 177^ the two \\'ere united under the name of Brazil during the administration of Marquis de Lavradio. The go\-ernor-general of the State of Maranhao, which comprised the capitanias of Ceara, Piauhy, Para, and other north Brazilian provinces, had removed his residence, many years before, to Para, leaving the L J pit'io-mor to govern in Maranhao, until, in i75'4, subordinate go\'ernors were appointed under a uip/fJo gi-ucral, and the subsequent separation of the States, as abo\'e mentioned, was followed b>' the division of the whole country into provinces, a system which remained in force throughout the imperial regime. During the Dutch iuN'asion, Maranhao was the scene of manv heroic conflicts, one of her greatest leaders in this wix being the brave cap- tain Antonio Teixeira de Mello, whose memory is still honored in the annals of Maranhao. 339 340 THE NEIV BRAZIL The social and industrial progress of the State has been as creditable as the record of its political advancement. The climate is healthful, except in some of the low lands, where intermittent fevers are prevalent during the rainy season. The soil is fertile and yields profit- able harvests of cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee, and cereals. Cattle-raising flourishes on the plateaus of the interior. The State is mountainous in the southern part, gradually sloping northward, and forming extensive plains along the sea-coast. Several large rivers drain the territory. The eastern boundary is defined by the Parnahyba, which takes its rise in the Tabatinga Mountains at the junction of the four States of Goyaz, Bahia, Piauhy, and MUNICIPAL PALACE, MARANHAO. Maranhao ; the western border is marked partly by the Tocantins and partly by the Gurupy. In the interior of the State the chief rivers are the Mearim, navigable in winter for two hun- dred miles, with several important tributaries ; the Itapicuru, navigable for five hundred miles; the Monim, Tury-assu, Uru, and Cururupu. The most populous sections of the State are along the coast and in the vicinity of the navigable rivers, the reason being apparent in the greater facilities provided in these districts for the transportation of products. The popu- lation of Maranhao is about half a million, the capital city of Sao Luiz having forty thousand inhabitants. The city is located on the island of Sao Luiz, and is one of the most attractive in northern Brazil. It has been called " a city of little palaces," from the modest size but solid MAR-'INHAO MI structure of its edifices, wliicli are remarkable rather for their substan- tial appearance than for any architectural magnifi- cence. The most ambi- tious attempt at architect- ural grandeur is seen in an unfinished palace kno^-n as the PiiLicio de Lagn- mas [Palace of Tears], from the sad incidents connected with its his- tory. Tradition says that the foundation was laid hundreds of years ago ; and its story has been handed down for generations to the residents of the city. It is related that the land on which the crumbling pile of masonry now stands was originally the property of a widow and her beautiful daughter, though mortgaged to the chief Shylock of the place, who answered the mother's agonizing appeal for leniency by naming a price which honor forbade her to consider, and CASA DA PRACA, MARANHAO. LARGO DO CARMO, MARANHAO. 34^ THE NEM/ BRAZIL to which she replied with a bitter curse upon the wicked usurer. As a result, she was forced to give up her home, and, in consequence, suffered untold privations, which unbal- anced her mind and led to her daughter's suicide. The old miser began at once to build the stately palace which was to replace the widow's cherished home; but fatality followed fatality, until, in sheer superstition, the work was abandoned, the owner himself succumb- ing to mortal illness and dying in terrible agony. At various subsequent periods, the attempt to build the palace has been renewed, but with such disastrous results that it has never reached completion, and now there is not even to be found a purchaser for the land, nor any one who is willing to take the slightest responsibility touching the final disposition of 'mm »« Sh, S>i sft ^h » MK MX mit iill ■ 1 .J^'». COTTON-MILLS, MARANHAO. the property, which remains a gruesome warning to all misers and immoral usurers. The city is beautified by broad, shaded streets and many pragas, of which the handsomest is that of Carmo, the site of the celebrated church and convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo, superior in size to the church of Carmo in Rio de Janeiro, honored as the last resting- place of the distinguished journalist, Joao Francisco Lisboa, who, as the editor of the Jonial lie Timon, won national fame among the political writers of his time. The Praga do Palacio, in which are situated the palace of the president, the bishop's palace, the municipal buildings, and other legislative offices, overlooks the old fort of Sao Luiz, better known as the baliiarte, or great bastion, divided into two parts, named respectively Sao Cosme and Sao Damiao. MARANHAO M3 In the PraQa dos Reme- dies stands a handsome monument, erected to the memory of one of Maran- hao's most illustrious sons, the great lyric poet of Brazil, Antonio Gon- (^alves Dias. It is a mar- ble column representing the palm-tree, which the poet loved so well, the capital of the column carrying out the design in a tuft of palm-leaves wrought in the sculptor's best art; the height of the monument is about seventy-five feet. On the four sides of the pedestal are medallions of the famous Maran- henses, Joao Lisboa, Sotero dos Reis, Gomes de Souza, and Odorico Mendes. Near to the Praia da Trinidade stands the cathedral, one of the largest in Brazil, in the crypt of which lie buried all the past bishops of Maranhao and many of the presidents ; the convent of Santo Antonio, situated near the cathedral, is famous as having been the scene of the LARGO DOS REMEDIOS, MARANHAO. GAZOMETRO, MARANHAO. 344 THE NE^r BRAZIL inspired offices of many noted friars, and is honored as the last resting-place of the renowned botanist Dr. Correa de Lacerda. Near the Largo Fonte das Pedras the gas company has its chief establishment, the Ga{ometro, constituting one of the most conspicuous evidences of modern enterprise in the capital. The educational and charitable institutions are numerous, among the most important being the Escola Popular Onze de Agosto,,the Lyceu Maranhense, Casa da Misericordia, Asylo de Meninas Desvalidas [orphans' asylum], Hospital Benificencia Portugueza, and numerous seminaries. The manufacturing interests of the capital are vari- ous, the most important being the cotton-mill of Santa Izabel, organized by Senhors Carlos Ferreira Coelho, Crispim Alves dos Santos, Apolinario Jansen Ferreira, and Candido Jose Ribeiro, the present director of the enterprise being Senhor Alves dos Santos. The factory has five hundred looms, and employment is furnished for a thousand operatives. The second city of the State in importance is Caxias, the birthplace of Gonc^alves Dias, a prosperous city of thirty thousand inhabitants. Situated on the banks of the Itapicuru River, and commanding a large share of the commerce of the interior, especially in cotton, tropical plants, and cattle, Alcantara, a city of twenty thousand inhabitants, lies on the northwestern shore of the bay of Sao Jose, which separates the island of Sao Luiz from the mainland. It is a sea-port, and is especially famous for the exportation of fine cocoanuts. Mongao, on the river Pindare, is a thriving market for the cattle brought in from the interior plateaus, and even from the valley of the Tocantins. Itapicurii-mirim is also a grow- ing cattle-market. The port of Bareirinhas, in the eastern part of the State, is gaining im- portance through the extensive manufacture of brandies. Vianna is a rich agricultural centre. The president of Maranhao is Dr. Joao Gualberto Torreao da Costa, under whose judi- cious administration the affairs of the State have progressed with gratifying success. PIER AT MARANHAO. P;! ^Bl: < Q_ d o z -ear i6i^, when Alexandre de Moura was sent to gox'ern this territor\-. He dro\'e out the French from Maranhao, at the same time sending Castello Branco as commander-in-chief of the government forces to Para, where he was successful in gaining possession of the forts, and soon afterward laid the foundation of the present capital cit\' of the State, which is familiariy called Belem, or Para, though the correct title is Santa Maria de Nazareth de Belem do Grao Para, in honor of the patron saint, Our Lady of Nazareth. Following Castello Branco, the most notable of the early go\'ernors was Pedro Teixeira, to whom belongs the great honor of having extended the limits of Portuguese possessions in Brazil to the ri\'er Napo, one of the remote tribu- taries of the Amazon, and also the distinction of gi\ing to science the first geographical map M7 348 THE NEPV BRAZIL ESTRADA DE NAZARETH, PARA. of the Amazon region, with scientific notes of the great river. The voyage was begun in 1637, lasting two years, and after the return of the expedi- tion Teixeira took charge of the government, in 1640. Expedi- tions up the Amazon during the eighteenth century brought many scientific celebrities to Para, whose writings are filled with enthusiastic praise of this wonderful country. La Con- damine, who made the voyage in 1 74 1, returned to his native land and wrote important scientific works concerning this region, giving the first information to European countries regarding its most important natural products, including rubber. Caspar de Lima discovered quinine in the country about this time, and gold was found in the Tapajos River; Joao de Azevedo explored the Tapajos River from Matto Grosso, thus establishing communication between the two States. A few years later, under the administration of Governor Mendon^a Furtado, who was a brother of the Marquis de Pombal, a system of military colonization was introduced, and the military settlements Araguaya and Araguary were established. The handsome palace of the governor, among the finest public buildings in Brazil, was constructed from the design of the celebrated architect, Lande; and the first industrial establishments of the State were founded. As early as 1760, arrangements were completed for constructing the navy-yard, in which, during recent years, have been built some of Brazil's best men- of-war and gun-boats, among others the gun-boat MiWaos, which is doing good service. The first census was taken in 1800, showing a population of eighty thousand inhabitants, of which twelve thousand belonged to the capital city; the present population of the State is six hundred thousand, and the capital has more than one hundred thousand inhabitants. The inauguration of steam navigation on the Amazon River in i8p and the opening of the Amazon to ships of all nations in 1867 were powerful influences in the development of the State. When the republic was formally proclaimed in 1889, Para was among the first to accept the situation ; a governmental junta, composed of Dr. Justo Chermont, Colonel Bento Fernandes, and Commander Nascimento, was proclaimed, and Para was declared a Federal State. Dr. Justo Chermont was appointed governor in December, 1889, remain- ing in office until January, 1891, when he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in the cabinet of President Deodoro da Fonseca. Senator Justo Chermont is one of the principal political leaders of Para, and has been honored with many high official positions both in the State and the national governments. The family of Chermont is one of the best known in parJ 349 Brazil, and all the brothers have been prominently identified with the political and com- mercial progress of their native State, Para. Dr. Pedro Chermont is a Federal Deputy and a very successful lawyer; Col. Theodosio Chermont, a graduate of Cornell University, New York, is at the head of important commercial enterprises, and has a law practice that extends to various foreign countries; Dr. Antonio Chermont, an editor and journalist of ability, wields an important influence through his newspaper, which is one of the most popular in the State. The new Constitution of the State was promulgated June 23, 1891, and the following day Dr. Lauro Sodre was elected governor. Dr. Sodre is especially esteemed as one of the foremost promoters of education in the State, to whose energy are largely due the splendid educational institutions of which Para is deservedly proud; the Lauro Sodre Institute is only one of many excellent schools founded during his official term. As president of a committee for increasing immigration, Dr. Sodre was also identified with the important progress which has been made recently in this direction. \n February, 1897, Dr. Lauro Sodre was succeeded in the office of governor of the State by Dr. Jose Paes de Car\'alho, under whose administration both foreign trade relations and the internal development were constantly advanced. One of his most important measures was the placing of the State budget on a gold basis, whilst formerly it had been computed in currency. He was also most assiduous in his efforts to promote immigration and to encourage the agricultural development of the State. Socially as well as politically Dr. Carvalho enjoys a high place among his countr\'men ; he is a polished and courteous gentleman, of distinguished mental gifts and superior conversational ability, and is greatly admired not only among his own people, but in foreign countries ; he is an accomplished linguist, speaking English, French, German, and Spanish with equal facility. The present go\'- ernor of Para is Dr. Au- gusto Montenegro, one of the leading states- men of Brazil, an orator of convincing power and a logician of unfailing re- source. He is progress- ive in his ideas, and is desirous of advancing the best interests of his State by a judicious and careful administration of its gov- ernment. Dr. Montenegro entered upon his present the custom-house, para. ??o THE NEIV BRAZIL official duties at the beginning of tlie new century, an auspicious opportunity for the inauguration of an era of great prosperity such as Para is certain to enjoy, not only during the present government, but through every year of the century upon which it enters with so much promise. Dr. Montenegro has been a prominent figure in political life from the first days of his public career, and, as he is still a young man, the future offers particularly brilliant prospects for the realization of his highest ambitions. No other arena of activity presents better advantages for the fulfilment of high aims and the reward of earnest en- deavor than are to be found by the youth of Para in their native State, which has already given to Brazil many of her great scientists, statesmen, orators, and journalists. ESTRADA SAO JERONYMO, PArA. Situated in the heart of a rich territory, watered by that great inland sea, the Amazon, and nurtured under the sunniest of skies. Para must inevitably grow and flourish, especially under the influence of the twentieth-century enterprise which will be engaged in its devel- opment. The State is the third largest of Brazil, being exceeded in extent only by Amazonas and Matto Grosso ; it covers more than a million square kilometres, or a territory sufficient to accommodate more than half the population of Europe. By the recent settlement of the Guiana boundary question, the area of the State has been greatly increased. It is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, being separated from the Guianas by the Oyapoc River, PARA 3?' the Serra do Tumuc-Humac, and the Serra do Acarahy ; on the east by the States of Maranhao and Goyaz ; on the south by Matto Grosso, and on the west by Amazonas. In the south- eastern part of the State are the highlands belonging to the great central table-land of Brazil ; here the climate is temperate, while in the low and marshy lands there is great heat and humidity. According to Humboldt, the climate is "more equable than that of any other observed part of the New World." The temperature varies but few degrees FOYER OF LA PAZ THEATRE, PARA. from 2^" centigrade; the trade-winds and the rains cool the atmosphere, making the nights very pleasant all the year round. The State is watered by innumerable rivers and small streams \_igdrjpes] that find an outlet in the great Amazon. One of the most important of these is the Trombetas, which rises in the Serra do Acarahy, in Guiana, and enters the Amazon near the western boundary of the State, at a place called Obydos, a flourishing port and the centre of a rich agricultural section ; the Trombetas is navigable for a hundred and fifty miles, and has several tribu- taries, of which the most important are the Jamunda, marking part of the boundary-line 3P THE NEIV BRAZIL between the States of Para and Amazonas, and the Cuminan, which comes from the highlands of Bra- zilian Guiana and dashes down over the highest cat- aracts found in this region. The rivers Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantins, which flow into the Amazon from the south, water the entire southern portion of the State, as well as Goyaz and Matto Grosso, where they take their rise. All of them are obstructed by rapids in the higher courses, though naviga- ble at intervals almost throughout their whole ex- tent. The Tocantins, with a length of sixteen hun- dred miles, is the most important of the three as a highway for traffic ; it is fringed with forests of castanha-trees, and the cacao and rubber industries are extensively carried on in this region. In the upper courses of the river the climate is particulariy delightful, and the mineral wealth is said to be abundant. The Xingu frequently widens in its course, forming great lakes, and in the upper waters it doubles back on itself in a huge curve, forming rapids and cataracts that interrupt navigation at this point. This river is much shorter than either the Tapajos or the Tocantins, though the extent of navigable distance, excepting the falls, just referred to, is greater. The Tapajos enters the Amazon a few miles below the mouth of the Trombetas, at the port of Santarem, a prosperous shipping centre and the residence of many North Americans who settled there after the war of the Confederacy. The Xingu forms, at its mouth, part of the estuary of the Amazon, and the Tocantins enters the Para River south of Marajo Island, forming, according to some authorities, a river system entirely separate from that of the Amazon and its tributaries. Marajo Island covers an area of more than forty thousand square kilometres, the distance from east to west being one hundred BOSQUE MUNICIPAL, PAR/(. PARA 3^3 and thirty miles, and from nortli to soutli one hundred miles; it contains a number of towns and villages, its pasture-lands support three hundred cattle ranches, and from its forests are taken some of the best qualities of Para rubber, though its rubber-trees have been overworked because of their easy accessibility to the shipping port. Of all the Brazilian States, Para has the greatest extent of sea-coast, nearly seven hun- dred miles. Numerous lighthouses along the coast and on the river-bars protect the pilots in these waters. It is said that only the most experienced river pilot, and one who has been especially trained for this particular river, can safely be relied upon to manage the course of a steamer on the Amazon, in consequence of the constantly shifting river-bed, the islands that form and disappear mysteriously, and the unaccountable frequency of the sand-banks, especially at low tide. Through its geographical position, and the extent of its navigable rivers, the State of Para affords an outlet for a great deal of the trade of northern Brazil, and also of the republics of Bolivia, Peru, and Venezuela. The commerce passing through the port of Para, according to navigation statistics, shows an increase within the last quarter of a century at the rate of nearly three hundred per cent., no other country having shown such remarkable progress except the United States of America. The revenue of the State government is nearly five million dollars annually. Rubber alone contributes to THEATRO DA PAZ, PARA. 3^4 THE NE14^ BRAZIL PUBLIC GARDEN, PARA. the State and municipal incomes nearly twenty-five per cent, of their total, the annual rub- ber shipment through this port amounting to twenty-five thou- sand tons. Next to rubber, the culture of cacao is one of the most important sources of rev- enue. Along the margins of the Amazon and the Tocan- tins the cacao crops are most abundant; the development of the product offers peculiar in- ducements, as the planting is easy, and in this region the tree bears fruit after three years' growth, continuing to produce, for fifty years or more, two crops annually, if kept clean. The annual export of cacao averages thousands of tons. Brazil-nuts are exported in large quantities, and the supply is practically unlimited. Man- dioca is cultivated in every part of the State, the farinha constituting an important article of food ; from Para it is shipped to Amazonas, where the products of agriculture have hereto- fore received comparatively little attention in consequence of the great wealth of the rubber trade, which has absorbed every other interest. From the forests of Para many of the finest qualities of hardwood are exported for cabinet purposes, and this industry is still in its infancy; the abundance and variety of this product must sooner or later attract the attention of commerce to the extent of increasing the demand and providing ways and means to introduce it on a more extensive scale to the markets of the world. From the palms that abound here, delicate fibres that are as fine as silk and stronger than linen are extracted, and used for hammocks, mats, baskets, and hats, though the full range of their usefulness has never been measured. The medicinal plants, dyewoods, gums, and oils found in the State are sufficient to meet the greatest demand. Clays of beautiful and varied colors, suitable for fine pottery, are found throughout the Amazon district. Cattle-raising is an increasing source of revenue, especially in the southeast of the State. Gold and precious stones have been found in the high land, also marble, slate, and clays fitted for ornamental purposes. The manufacturing industries of Para include sugar-refineries, saw-mills, brick- yards, soap-works, etc. The social, educational, and commercial centre of the State is its capital city, Belem, or as it is more generally called, especially by foreigners, Para. There is an alliterative pro- verb with respect to Para indicative of the fascinating charm which the city possesses for strangers: "Oiiem vai para Para para" which is interpreted; "Who goes to Para stays there." Another version of the same saying signifies; "Who comes to Para is glad to PARA 3^5 SENATOR JUSTO CHERMONT, PARA. stay; who drinks lIssji goes never away." The assa'i is a native beverage made from the fruit of the assai palm, producing large black berries which resemble grapes; it is very refreshing, and is one of the most popular drinks of this region. This picturesque and charming city offers many attractions to the foreign visitor, in its beautiful tropical gardens, broad avenues shaded by trees of apparently impenetrable foliage; the delight of its spacious bay fanned by cool breezes most inviting to the beach or the boating party makes life very pleas- ant in this rich equatorial city. The wealth that has poured into Para within recent years has resulted in changing it within a dec- ade from a quiet little city of fifty thou- sand to a modern metropolis of more than twice that number of inhabitants. It is one of the most delightful places of residence in northern Brazil ; the mean annual temperature is about 80° Fahrenheit, and it is an agreeable fact that during the time of day when the heat is greatest the cooling sea- breeze is strongest; also, during the hottest months of the year there are afternoon showers, lasting about an hour, that cool the atmosphere. During the day, the parks, avenues, and drives are deserted, and the only evidence of activity is seen in the commercial streets and along the docks and wharves ; but in the evening the city puts on holiday dress, and all is gaiety and pleasure. In the Praga da Republica, which is one of many beautiful parks ornamenting the city, an orchestra plays two or three evenings a week. The leading opera- house, Theatre da Paz, which is one of the finest in South America, ox'erlooks the pra^a; large and fashionable audiences attend nightly, and excellent European companies are en- gaged e\'ery season by the government to give a series of operas, the Italian being the favorite school. Handsomely dressed women may be seen promenading in company with their escorts, who are always relatives, and a long line of elegant carriages stands every evening for hours in front of the fashionable social clubs, one of which is the "Sport Club," situated in the most attractive section of the city, while the members pass away the e\'ening at billiards, bowling, gymnastics, fencing, or the more restful entertainment of cards or books. On the ladies' evenings the club-rooms are transformed into reception-rooms, decorated with flowers and \'ines, and a programme of music usualh' takes the place of more athletic pastimes. In the library and reading room the principal foreign as well as Brazilian magazines and newspapers are on file. For visitors there is a unique attraction 3^6 THE NEW BRAZIL in the museum and the botanical garden, which differ in many respects from similar institutions elsewhere, particularly in the great variety of rare specimens which belong exclusively to the Amazon regions, especially of the animal world. Nowhere are to be seen reptiles larger or of more variegated coloring; and it is impossible to imagine any- thing more gorgeous than the plumage of the araras, toucans, and parrots that are as much at home here as in the freedom of their forest haunts ; the luxuriance and brilliant coloring of foliage and blossoms seen in the botanical garden are typical of the prodigality of Nature in everything that grows in this favored zone. THE PALACE, PARA. In the public buildings, as well as other government improvements, the city gives proof of large expenditure, but at the same time judicious investment; some of the handsomest structures have been erected for educational purposes. Public instruction comprises pri- mary, secondary, normal, technical, and professional courses. The first is given in five hundred elementary and primary schools, in the Amparo Orphan Asylum for gids, and in the lowest grade of the Institute of Mechanical Arts; secondary instruction is given at the Para Lyceum, in three courses, including a course organized according to the plan of instruc- tion of the Gymnasio Nacional, a course of surveying, and a commercial course ; technical and professional instruction is given in the Para Institute of Mechanical Arts, which is a free boarding-school for minors, under military conditions, where gratuitous instruction in PARA 3?7 mechanical arts is given. There are five workshops in connection with the Institute, equipped respectively for the worl< of carpenters, blacksmiths, tailors, tinsmiths, and, under one roof, shoemakers, curriers, and tanners. When the pupil's education is finished, he serves a term in the State militia, after which he obtains his discharge or promotion. The school buildings are creditable to the city, and several are particularly handsome establish- ments. The old palace of the governor, built during Pombal's time, is still one of the attracti\-e edifices of the city, though the new palace adjoining it, and used by the legislative assembly and the municipal officials, is also an ornament to the capital. The Alfandega, or custom-house, one of the modern additions to the commercial quarter of the city, presents AVENIDA DA REPUBLICA PARA. a fa\'orable aspect from the ba\'. The churches and hospitals are worthy of especial men- tion, particularly the old cathedral, and the hospitals Caridade and Beneficiencia Portugueza; the last-named takes care of about two hundred patients on an a\-erage, and is one of the model institutions of the kind. Tramways connect e\'ery part of the city, which is lighted b\' electricity, has complete telephonic and telegraphic communication, and is well pro\'ided with newspapers, of which there are fwe dailies and numerous weeklies. The city has eight banks. A splendid public library- containing ten thousand volumes, some of ^^•hich are in French, English, and German, as well as in Portuguese, ranks among the community's intellectual attractions. A charming feature of the cit\' of Para is the magnificence of the 3?8 THE NEH^ BRAZIL vegetation in the tropical forests which surround it, and the picturesque view that stretches out before it in the broad open harbor with its busy traffic. The city lies on flat land, and seen for the first time from the steamer entering the harbor the impression predominating is one of color rather than form; it is "the white city" before one has had time to decide whether it is large or small, old-fashioned or modern. A nearer view modifies this impres- sion, and reveals a busy commercial sea-port, with the evidences of Portuguese occupancy in the narrow streets and houses decorated with ornamental tiles. The spacious pragas, and the towering trees that ornament the broader and more modern avenues of the city, heighten the picturesque general effectiveness. Besides the capital, and the thriving ports on the Amazon, Santarem and Obydos, the State has a number of growing cities. Braganga, connected with the capital by railway, is a prosperous town of twenty thousand people; Cameta, near the mouth of the Tocantins, has an important trade in castanha-nuts, cacao, and other products; Monte Alegre is noted for the salubrity of its climate ; Pinheiro is a favorite suburb of Belem, with which it is to be connected by railway, and there are many other towns of rising importance. The immigra- tion bureau of the State is making every effort to attract foreign colonies, and the outlook for the future in this respect is favorable. Apropos of this subject, one is doubtless justified in introducing the incisive and eloquent language of Coudreau : " Progress is indefinite ; no race is its perpetual keeper. It is like a legacy, bequeathed by the race which disappears to the one which succeeds. Its course is onward; it has already moved westward toward Europe ; it has already actually moved from Europe to America. Why should not centuries to come see upon the banks of the Amazon their most magnificent flourishing, as early centuries saw their manifestations upon the banks of the rivers of Egypt and India?" DOCKS, PARA. CHAPTER XXVIII THE RUBBER INDUSTRY fOT until 1736, when the famous scientist La Condamine introduced rubber into Europe, was this product of the Amazon forest known to the civilized world, and about thirty years later it was first put into practical use by one of the great artists of England. For half a century its sphere of usefulness was limited to the erasure of pencil-marks, from which it took the name "rubber"; until the celebrated invention of Mackintosh marked the beginning of a new era in its his- tory, which Goodyear's discovery of the vulcanizing process, in 1843, has since made one of unlimited importance. It may now be regarded as of universal necessity, and indispen- sable to the comfort of millions of people, so quickly and to so many purposes have its advantages been applied in the course of modern invention. A failure of the rubber crop would be one of the greatest disasters that could overtake the commercial world, and yet, only half a century ago, rubber was counted among the luxuries, outside of Brazil. Long before the civilized people of Europe and America knew anything of the uses of rubber, especially of its water-tight properties, the Amazon Indians employed it to make bottles and other vessels for holding liquids, as the names seringa and borracha, by which rubber is called in the Amazon country, indicate; though borracha, meaning a bottle, is said also to refer to the shape in which it is exported. The rubber-trees are known to the natives as seringuciras, and rubber-gatherers are popularly called scrin- gnciros. The botanical name Hcvca giiiancnsis was given to the plant, in 177^, by the French scientist Aublet, who studied it in Guiana, reporting that the natives there knew it by the name //t'lv, the Indians of other sections calling it seringa and caout-choiic. About the beginning of the nineteenth century, the English and German botanists gave the name siphouia to the rubber-trees of Para, though the present botanical appellation is Hevea brasilieusis. In general appearance, the rubber-tree of the Amazon forest is altogether different from the Ficns elastica of India, with its glossy dark-green lea\'es, and resembles rather the 361 362 THE NEIV BRAZIL ^riV-S**-- HUT OF A SERINGUEIRO. European ash in both bark and foliage. It grows to a height rang- ing from fifty to a hun- dred feet, and has an average girth, at a metre above the ground, of about five feet, the trunk being free from branches for almost half its height. The blossoming season is August, and in Decem- ber and January the seeds ripen and fall, eadier in the case of old than of young trees. The seeds grow, sometimes three or four together, in a hard shell that hangs by a short stalk from the upper and outer branches and explodes with a loud noise when ripe, scattering its contents in all directions. Of the many varieties of the scringucini, the most valuable to commerce is known in rubber districts as casca pretd [black bark], and grows in those forests that are neither permanently flooded nor yet on high land, but where a certain amount of drainage exists, as along the periodically inun- dated banks of the Amazon tnbutaries, especially in the south, where are found the rich- est rubber-producing regions at present known. On the river Acre, one of the branches of the Purus, the trees are so prolific that one hundred of them will furnish as much as a ton of rubber per annum. North of the Amazon, the Rio Negro and Rio Branco tributaries yield a considerable quantity. The territory at present known to produce "Para rubber" covers over a million square miles, and it is believed that further exploration will prove this estimate to be far below the actual area. With such an extensive field to draw from, it is not likely that much will be done for some time toward planting and culti- vating rubber, particulady as the tree requires from fifteen to twenty years to reach maturity, which is a long time for capital to lie idle; although it is said that companies have already been formed with such a project in view. In its wild state the rubber- tree grows among other trees of the forest promiscuously, not in clusters or groves of its own. One of its peculianties is that it will not grow satisfactonly on cleared and open ground, as it requires the shade of other trees and the still air from the time its growth begins until it is an adult tree. Not only is the quality of the milk affected by a lack of these advantages, but the tree itself has been known to die soon after a clearing of the ground around it. THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 363 According to some authorities, the milk, or, as it is scientifically known, the Liicx, is quite different from the sap, and is only of nutritive value when used as a reserve of water in cases of drought, its extraction not being in any way harmful to the life of the tree, as is sometimes reported. If allowed to rest a few years, even a completely exhausted tree will recover itself, and instances are known where trees that have been tapped at intervals for fifty years still yield an abundance of milk. The rubber is collected in the dry season, between July and January, the processes of extraction and curing being more than ordinarily interesting because of their very primitive character. The "tapping" of the tree marks the beginning of the scriiigite/ro's work. Having built his little hut and equipped himself with the necessary utensils, consisting of an axe, a knife, cups, clay, and a calabash, he starts out for the rubber-tree, sometimes cutting his way through dense undergrowth and again sinking knee-deep in mud or up to his waist in water. Arrived at his destination, he attaches the cup to the tree, and with his axe makes a gash in the bark, being careful not to penetrate the wood. The axe used for this purpose is very small, less than an inch wide, and wedge-shaped in order to prevent its making too deep a cut in the tree; usually an upward blow is given, making an oblique in- cision about six feet above the base of the trunk. This operation is repeated at intervals of about a foot in a line all round the tree until fi\'e or six cups have been placed, into which the milk flows slowK'. The next day a row of in- cisions is made just belo^^' the first, and so rubber-tree. 364 THE NEIV BRAZIL on day by day until the ground is readied, when the same programme is begun again, this time between the former rows. A good tree will yield to a height of twenty feet or more. Each day an experienced scriuguciro can tap as many as a hundred trees, providing they are comparatively close together. Some gatherers tap in the morning and return to collect the milk in the evening, while others tap in the evening and collect in the morning. An expert collector will gather as much as seven pounds of rubber a day in the lower Ama- zon region, but about three times that amount in the richest districts of the upper Amazon. Rubber-trees differ greatly in their yielding capacity, some being very quickly exhausted, while others continue to produce for many years; from some the daily yield is much greater than from others, and some do not yield to their full capacity when first tapped. A systematic division of labor is made on all the great rubber estates by which each col- lector has his hut and utensils provided and a given territory to work, the trees being connected by paths, or cstradas, which pass a hundred hevcas or more, forming a loop that takes the collector back to his starting-point when his allotted share of the day's tapping is finished. As the latex exudes from the tree, it resembles milk both in color and consistency, the caoutchouc corresponding to the butter properties in milk; the fluid part of it consists of water with very small quantities of albuminous matter, organic acids, and phosphates in solution. The seringueiw usually begins tapping about day-break, after a cup of coffee, which serves his needs until nine or ten o'clock, when this part of his work is done and he is ready for breakfast. After breakfast, he returns to his estrada, taking with him a bucket into which he empties the cups from each tree, getting back again to his hut about noon or a little later, when he proceeds to prepare his day's collection for the market by a process of evaporation which, though primitive, has been proved to be the best and least expensive yet discovered for freeing the rubber from those elements that, if allowed to remain, would cause putrefaction and destroy its elastic properties, making it worthless as an article of commerce. Even if the latex is left standing over night, it loses some of its value by fermentation and has to be sold as second-class, so that it is a regular part of the day's work to smoke the rubber each day as it is collected. A fire is built of palm-nuts, the uniciiri being the best for the purpose, though if the nuts are not obtainable ordinary wood chips are made to serve instead; a funnel-shaped chimney is then placed over the fire, through which the hot smoke rises in a dense column, and the operator, seating him- self beside a bucketful of the latex, pours some of it over a paddle-shaped stick which he then holds in the smoke, turning it round and round until it dries, repeating the operation until a large ball has been formed. Sometimes a pivot is arranged and a rotary motion secured which does faster work than the operator in smoking the balls; but the paddle- smoked rubber is preferred because it is usually more thoroughly dried and cured, although this method is very injurious to the eyes, total blindness being known to result from it in some cases. An expert man will be able to work two estradas a day, having four estradas in his territory which he works on alternate days; it is said that such a workman can collect as much as a ton of rubber a year. The season for collecting rubber lasts only about five THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 36? or six months at the longest, though during tlie intervening months employment may be secured in gathering brazil-nuts, sarsaparilla, and other products of the forest, that are marketed during this time. The most of these laborers, however, spend in the winter what they make in the summer. It is not an uncommon sight on the steamers plying up and down the Amazon to find a scrin^nciro transformed after a few months' work into "a gentleman of means," though half a year later will usually find him again penniless on his way to the rubber camp, so improvident are these hard-working children of the forest. No doubt the irresistible attractions of the city, long denied, prove too much even RUBBER-GATHERERS IN THE AMAZON COUNTRY. for the stoutest purse, and, like their sea-faring brethren after a long absence from port, they fall easy victims to the sharpers who are constantly on the lookout for such prey, and part with their hard-earned money before appreciating the value of Poor Richard's warning against paying too dearly for their whistle. On the other hand, instances are related of poor laborers going into the rubber district without a penny and earning enough in the course of time to enable them to purchase property and establish themselves in business. So much depends upon the man in any sphere of life. The demand for labor is so far in excess of the supply in these regions, that the proprietors of large estates find great difficulty in filling the requirements of the market. 366 THE NE^ BRAZIL There are usually three distinct qualities of rubber sold to commerce: the fitie, which has been thoroughly dried and smoked and is free from putrefaction; the medium, or eiitre- fuic, which has either been burnt during the smoking process or has been insufficiently smoked and in consequence has putrefied; and the sernambi, which consists of scraps mixed with peelings from the bark of the tree and miscellaneous sorts. The raw rubber is subject to a loss of weight during its transportation that is frequently a source of annoyance to shippers. This loss is so variable that no exact figures can be made a reliable basis of calculation, and unless the consignor and consignee have perfect faith in each other's integ- rity, there is often occasion for doubt regarding the actual weight of the shipment, which is sure to be different from the invoiced statement of the amount as it left the shipper's hands. Rubber that is kept in the camps in remote sections and only shipped once a year loses only about a tenth of the weight that is lost by newly made rubber shipped as soon as cured. A loss of three or four per cent, is quoted as the average in shipments from Manaos, a thousand miles up the Amazon River, to foreign ports. Some of the best qualities do not show so great a reduction, while there are inferior kinds of rubber that double that percentage of lost weight in transit. Brazil practically controls the rubber trade of the world, reaping a revenue from this source that reaches an average of fifty million dollars a year. The States of Amazonas and Para are the great rubber-producing regions, and their supply is said to be absolutely inex- haustible, though the scarcity of labor limits the amount exported, so that as the demand increases the price is raised, being nearly double to-day what it was twenty years ago, notwithstanding that the supply has increased enormously within that time, so great is the universal call for "more rubber." The world's total supply of rubber does not exceed sixty thousand tons, though the constantly increasing use of this article of commerce points to an unlimited demand, so that as a source of revenue it promises even greater value in the future than at present; and the wealth of Brazil, estimated by the possibilities of this product alone, may be regarded as almost incalculable, restricted only by her ability to gather the harvest. Foreign capital is employed to a considerable extent in the development of this vast treasure store. An American, Mr. Charles R. Flint, of Flint, Eddy & Co., long ago recognized the advantages to be gained by judicious investment in this direction, and early in the eighties visited the Amazon country, buying large tracts of rubber lands and es- tablishing houses for handling the crude rubber industry. Since that time, the various organizations with which he has been identified as the chief leader have handled crude rubber to the value of over two hundred and fifty million dollars in gold. The Rubber Goods Manufacturing Company of the United States, and the American Cycle Company, both organized by Mr. Flint, in 1899, are among the largest purchasers of rubber in the world. Rubber has been called the "Cinderella of civilization;" crowded into obscurity by her more gaily decked sisters of the forest, she eclipses them all in real worth, the fairy Prince of Commerce seeking in vain elsewhere for a queen so admirably fitted to wear the crystal emblem of universal travel and unique destiny. CHAPTER XXIX AMAZONAS A MAZONAS is the largest and one of the ^"^ richest of the Brazilian States. Its area is nearly two million square kilometres; it extends from the fifth degree north latitude to the tenth degree south and from the fifty- fourth to the seventy-seventh degree west longitude. It is bounded on the east by Para, on the north by Venezuela and Guiana, on the west by Colombia and Peru, and on the south by Bolivia and Matto Grosso. Unique in the character of its history and the ap- parent greatness of its destiny, the State of Amazonas has reversed the order of prog- ress in other civilized countries of the globe, having been the favored haunt of the scien- tist and the scholar centuries before the com- mercial world awoke to a realization of its industrial possibilities. The record of its ear- lier days is filled with anecdotes of world- wide celebrities who visited its shores, buried themselves in its forests, and found it a terrestrial paradise. The little home where Agassiz spent many happy years is still pointed out among the chief attractions of the city of Manaos ; scholars whose names are honored in the proudest capitals of the world, are remembered here with many familiar little incidents that marked their visit; while the plodding centres of Europe have been busy with the problems of commerce, the gentle students of nature have found, over and over again, without being able to convince their more " practical " brethren, the richest country toward 367 COLONEL SILVERIO NERY, GOVERNOR OF AMAZONAS. 368 THE NEPV BRAZIL which the eager emissaries of trade have ever set their faces. Humboldt said long ago, in respect to commerce, which successively crowded the ports of the Ganges, the Euphrates, and the Nile, that it would find on the Amazon the greatest wealth of all, declaring "it is there that one day, sooner or later, will concentrate the civilization of the globe." The first sign of this coming greatness appeared when steamships were employed to carry its pro- ducts to foreign lands and when the mighty river was opened to free navigation ; especially was the last act a boon to the country, well deserving of the commemoration it has received from the State by the recent erection of a handsome monument in one of the RUA DO INSTALLAgAO, MANAOS. prominent squares of the city of Manaos. Everything favors a great future for Amazonas, which is rich in animal, vegetable, and mineral wealth, and accessible in every part, of its vast territory by means of the most extensive water way in the world. The majestic Amazon, which, from an impetuous little mountain stream sixteen thousand feet above the sea, watering the Peruvian valley of Huantar, between the Cordilleras of the Andes, less than a hundred miles from Lima, broadens into a spacious river two thousand miles above its entrance to the sea, toward which, after leaving the Andes, it flows with leisurely move- ment, receiving tribute from left and right in the currents of innumerable affluents, gradually widening throughout its course until it forms an estuary more than two hundred miles wide AMAZONAS 369 II II II II II - II ill U 11 !! GOVERNOR'S PALACE. MANAOS. at its mouth. The mighty and peerless Amazon is the natural link between the Atlantic and the Pa- cific sea-boards of the southern hemisphere; while through its tribu- taries, the Negro from Venezuela, the Madeira from Bolivia, the Jurua, Purus, and Javary from Peru, the ](;a and Japura from Colombia, the Napo from Ecuador, the Tocantins from Goyaz, and the Tapajos from Matto Grosso, the gigantic river possesses the requisite means of transportation to develop the region through which it makes its stately progress to the sea as the most important commercial highway of the western world. By the Brazilians the Amazon has been named the Rio-Mar, or " river-sea," and the various explorers who have given accounts of its vast expanse and \\'onderful volume have referred to it as an inland sea, the Mediterranean of America, or similar titles indicati\'e of its immensity. To the north, the basin of the Amazon is united with that of the Orinoco by the Cassiquiare River, which flows either into the Rio Negro or into the Orinoco accord- ing to the strength and direction of the tide ; and to the south, in the State of Matto Grosso, the Amazon plain joins that of La Plata. With the construction of a few short canals, water communication ^\^ould be uninterrupted from the Caribbean coast down through the heart of the continent to the estuary of La Plata; and modern engineering will no doubt soon find a \\-ay to extend na\'iga- tion o\'er the short dis- tance that remains be- tween the head-waters of the Amazon and the Pacific Ocean. The en- tire basin of this mighty ri\-er co\'ers an area of seven million square kilo- metres, of which a part OLD PALACE OF GOVERNOR, MANAOS. belongs to Peru, Ecuador, 370 THE NEIV BRAZIL and Bolivia. At its source, the river is named the Maranon; on the border of Brazil, it takes the name Solimoes; and after its confluence with the Madeira, it becomes known as the Ama{on.. It is three thousand five hundred miles in extent, and so level is its course that throughout two-thirds of its length the channel slopes little more than two hundred feet. It is wider and deeper than any other river in the world. Although the surface is placid, showing little apparent current, the average depth is from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet, and in some places it has a depth of two hundred and fifty feet ; the width varies from a mile and a half at Tabatinga, on the Peruvian border of Brazil, to four miles at the THEATRO DO AMAZONAS, MANAOS. mouth of the Madeira, and, again, to less than a mile as it passes the "narrows" at Obydos, though it is twelve miles wide below Santarem, where it receives the tributary Tapajos. According to generally accepted authorities, the estuary of the Amazon encloses the island of Marajo, and has a total width of two hundred and fifty miles. Some authorities claim that the real mouth of the Amazon is north of Marajo Island, the river forming an archipelago just below the confluence of the Xingu, and emptying into the sea through three channels, none of which are much used for navigation. A succession of narrow channels connects the main river with the Para estuary south of Marajo Island, the last of these, the Breves, being scarcely one hundred and fifty feet wide, and almost completely embowered in AMAZONAS 371 POLICE STATION, MANAOS. overhanging foliage. So great is the conflict between the cur- rent of the river at its mouth and the incoming tide of the ocean, that great billows, from ten to fifteen feet high, surge in at the northern entrance, es- pecially, following each other with deafening noise, particu- larly during the time of the equinoctial gales, when the cur- rent is strongest ; this tide from the sea is perceptible as far up the river as Obydos, about five hundred miles. Through- out the lower course of the river are innumerable channels forming islands close to the shore, which during the dry season are the favorite haunt of the beautiful herons and other birds native to this region ; these low-lying lands are called var{cas, or " flood-plains," and they disappear during the rainy season when the tides are high. The principal rise of the tide takes place in February on the Solimoes, in April on the Amazon proper, and in June on the Para. The level then falls until October, when a second rise of less importance begins, which lasts until January. These annual rises correspond with the rainy seasons of the regions watered by the great ri\-er and its tributaries, the equatorial rains of the northern lati- tude recurring at a dif- ferent time of the year from those of the south. A learned professor \'ery beautifully expresses it: " In this oceanic river the tidal action has an annual instead of a daily ebb and flo\\'; it obeys a larger orb, and is ruled by the sun and not by the moon." During the rainy season on the PUBLIC MARKET MANAOS. upper Amazon, the tide 37- THE NEIV BRAZIL sometimes rises to a height of from forty to fifty feet, submerging the forests and converting a vast territory into an inland sea. The Amazon basin receives more rain during the year than any other region of the same extent on the globe, and the volume of water it carries to the ocean is estimated at the enormous rate of a hundred thousand cubic meters per second, the water of the great stream coloring the Atlantic for hundreds of miles from its mouth. The dull opaque yellow of the main stream is tinged with various mixtures as it receives its immense tributaries, of which there are a dozen that extend each over a course of more than a thousand miles; the largest of these enter the river from the south, such as the Tocan- tins, Xingu, and Tapajos, in the State of Para, and the Madeira, Purus, Jurua, and Javary, in Amazonas, the last four, which have an average length of sixteen hundred miles, watering a territory im- mensely rich in rubber- trees. The Madeira is the greatest southern tribu- tary, having a length of more than two thousand miles from its head- waters in Bolivia, one branch rising near the MONUMENT IN MANAOS COMMEMORATING THE OPENING OF NAVIGATION ON THE AMAZON TO ALL NATIONS. border of Chili and the other close to the Argentine boundary; it passes through a country rich in rubber, and is the great natural highway of traffic between the interior and the North Atlantic sea-board; for about six hundred miles navigation is uninterrupted, then a series of rapids obstructs it for about a hundred and fifty miles, after which there are no further obstacles to vessels going by this route to Bolivia and Matto Grosso. The water of the AMAZONAS ^73 RUA MUNICIPAL, MANAOS, Madeira is of a milky color, and at its junction with the Amazon it has a width of about two miles and a depth of seventy feet, making quite a perceptible change in the flow of the cur- rent where it enters the river, a few miles below the city of Manaos. The Purus is nearly as long as the Madeira, and is navi- gable to its source, a distance of about nineteen hundred miles; it is said to be the fabled Amani- mayii, or "serpent river," of the Incas. The Javary marks the boundary between Amazonas and Peru, and is about fourteen hundred miles long. Of the northern tributaries, the Rio Negro is the largest and most important, having a length of fifteen hundred miles and an average breadth of nearly two miles for the first half of its course, and of from ten to fifteen miles for the remainder, which is channelled with islands; the name of this river, which takes its rise in the mountains of Colombia, is singularly appropriate, the water having a rich dark chocolate color which is not changed even at the confluence of the Rio Branco, whose milk-white tide is quickly lost in the greater current; the water is light golden when placed in a white vessel, and has a de- lightfully satiny feeling which makes bathing in it an especial luxury and overcomes any prejudice against its color, that, though decided, does not interfere with its perfect transparency. The Rio Negro constitutes the chief highway of com- merce between Brazil, Venezuela, and Guiana. The second in impor- tance of the Amazon's BENJAMIN CONSTANT INSTITUTE, MANAOS. nortliem tributarles is ai. .. ijiti,mi/l 374 THE NEIV BRAZIL the Japura, a thousand miles long, and having a delta which, although the principal mouth is only three hundred feet N\'ide, connects it with the Amazon by a series of small channels for two hundred miles; it, also, rises in the mountains of Colombia, and passes through a territory rich in dyewoods, medicinal plants, cacao, castanha-nuts, and minerals. The Iga, another northern tributary of importance, is said to be very rich in precious minerals. The principal tributaries that enter the Marailon division of the Amazon are the Ucayali, Huallaga, Pastassa, and Napo. There is a host of minor branches large enough to be considered of importance in any other river system, but lost by comparison with the immensity of WATER-WORKS AT CACHOEIRA GRANDE, MANAOS. contiguous rivals. It is almost impossible to gain, from description or from figures, an adequate idea of this wonder of the natural wodd, which is just now beginning to awaken universal interest in its- unlimited possibilities, and to change the vacant stare of incredulity into the clear sight of serious appreciation. There is no country on the globe that has the same outlook for commercial development as Amazonas. The climate is equable, and although the temperature is high, yet, owing to the constant evaporation due to the plentiful rains and the prevalent trade-winds, the actual heat is not so great as the latitude and the comparatively low land would lead one to suppose. Professor Agassiz was enthusiastic in AMAZONAS 37^ his praises of tlie climate and tlie country, of which he wrote to a friend: "I have the pleasure to repeat, in spite of all that may be said to the contrary, that I know of no country in the world so full of attractions, more fertile, more salubrious, and more fitted to be the focus of an immense immigration than the magnificent valley of Amazonas." That part of the State which lies to the north of the Amazon is considerably higher and less marshy than the territory to the south; in the extreme north and west are mountainous regions, rich in mineral products, and on the banks of the Rio Branco, near its head-waters, are extensive grassy plains suitable for cattle-raising. The southern half of the State is regarded as the more valuable commercially, as it is in this region that the famous rubber- trees which supply the markets of the world with this product are most abundant and of VIEW OF MANAOS AND THE RIO NEGRO. the best quality. The wealth represented by this valuable resource offers such alluring reward to the investor, that the people of the State have become absorbed in its develop- ment almost to the exclusion of other enterprises. And yet, although the revenue from this resource is enormous, as shown elsewhere, there are other products which, if given equal attention, would yield very handsome returns. The greatest difficulty is found in securing sufficient labor to develop the country, the present population of Amazonas being scarcely half a million inhabitants, of whom more than a tenth are residents of the city of Manaos. Yet the inducements to immigration, especially of an agricultural class, are excellent; the climate and soil favor the growth of every kind of cereal, and are especially suited to the cul- tivation of rice, sugar, tobacco, beans, and similar products. The fertile region of the Nile 376 THE NEIV BRAZIL JARDIM PUBLICO, MANAOS. enjoys no greater natural advan- tages in the periodical overflow that serves the double purpose of irrigation and fertilization than does the vast alluvial plain of the Amazon, periodically inun- dated by floods which cover a large area with a vegetable deposit at regular intervals. The absence of droughts or of insect plagues, from which some of the best farming regions of the wodd suffer, is an additional blessing. But until the popula- tion increases materially it is not likely that the attention of the people will be diverted from the rubber trade and the com- mercial interests represented by various other natural products. Of these, the castanha- nuts are among the more important; in the Amazon country they are collected on much the same plan as that followed by the rubber-gatherer. The forest is divided by paths, or estradas, which lead past three or four hundred trees, two men generally working a path together, and collecting on an average a thousand barrels a season, though the pro- duction varies greatly from year to year. Cacao grows wild in this State, but so little attention has been paid to its cultivation that even the home market is sup- plied from other sections. Birds, heron plumes, or- chids, and the various hardwoods, dyewoods, and medicinal herbs are among its valuable pro- ductions, and it is rich in tropical fruits. There is practically no limit to the wealth of Amazonas, and the remarkable advancement made within the past few years is, in some respects, unparalleled in INTERIOR OF THEATRE, MANAOS. AMAZONAS Ml the history of States. The capital city, Manaos, situated on the left bank of the Rio Negro, eight miles from the Amazon and a thousand miles from the Atlantic coast, is a conspicuous example of the rapid improvements that have been made. It is the social, educational, political, and commercial centre of the State, and in appearance is one of the most attractive of cities. Its streets are broad and well paved, the principal ones with asphalt blocks, and the others with granite cubes. It is lighted by electricity, and many of the private houses have installations. An excellent system of water-works is in use, the property of the government. The principal streets of the city are traversed by an electric street railway, fifteen miles in extent, having a loop line that runs around the city through the picturesque suburbs of Cachoeirinha, Flores, and other resorts, along the road to which the car passes through beautiful arbors of green, dense thickets of the richest tropical foliage, and avenues of magnificent palms ; past flourish- ing fields of maize and feijocs; over two handsome iron bridges that cross the river on the outskirts of the city, offering one of the most attractive of sylvan scenes. This railway was built by the Manaos Railway Company, of New York, under a concession from the government of Amazonas giving exclusive rights for thirty years and convey- ing the privilege of passenger and freight busi- ness. It is as thoroughly equipped as any trolley road in South America, the cars being of modern style and construction, the power- house and car sheds of steel structure, and the entire system a credit in every way to the progress of the community. The government buildings, erected at a cost of millions of dollars, are unsurpassed in size and attractiveness by any other State buildings of the country. The new palace of the governor is a model of architectural beauty and commodious construction ; the Palace of Justice, situated on one of the main avenues, is a stately edifice of white marble representing an enormous expenditure. The Theatro Amazonas is one of the handsomest in America ; it \\'as built at a cost of two million dollars gold, and is a particularly striking evidence of the great material prosperity of the State and the capital. Occupying a commanding site on the Avenida Eduardo Ribeiro, it is one of the most conspicuous features of the landscape as \ie\\'ed from the harbor, \\hen the sun gilds its magnificent dome, lighting up the national colors of the costly ornamental tiles that MONSIGNOR COUTINHO. VICE-GOVERNOR OF AMAZONAS. 378 THE NEPV BRAZIL • I OFFICES AND CARS OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY, MANAOS. cover it like a protecting handeira. The theatre is built of stone, the entrances and supporting pillars are finished in Italian marble, and the interior is decorated in the richest fashion, the allegorical paintings that ornament the ceilings of the foyer and the auditorium being the work of the celebrated Italian artist De Angelis. The various churches of the city are built principally in the Jesuit style of architecture, and the educational institutions, most of which have spacious and modern buildings, are equipped with the latest conveniences for school pur- poses, especially the Gymnasio, a capacious stone edifice with marble portico and finishings, having large recitation halls, gymnasium, and other essential and desirable features, and the Benjamin Constant Institute for girls. The public library contains more than four thousand volumes in Portuguese, French, and Eng- lish. The museum is particularly interesting for its varied collection of Amazonian curiosi- ties, in the form of Indian weapons, an Indian telephone of ancient usage which resembles a hollowed tree-trunk, Indian musical instruments made of beetles' wings, animals' teeth, etc., and countless antiquarian specimens. The public mar- ket, no less useful than the school in its relation to the mens saiki in corpore sano, is one of the most creditable of the city's buildings, and an indispensable feature of the shopping district; it is spacious, cool, and well- ventilated, a prime necessity in this climate. The press is well represented, and there are half a dozen wide-awake dailies in suburban view, manaos. AMAZONAS 379 charge of active and well-informed journalists; the newsboys are as progressive as any of their metropolitan confreres, and have all the airs of the London or Paris newspaper vendor of tender years and wide experience. The citizens of Manaos have many luxuries of especial value in an equatorial climate; many of the public offices, as well as private homes, are fitted up with electric fans, and the supply of ice is ample, there being two establishments for the manufacture of that gelid desideratum. A favorite resort in the evenings is the Jardim Publico, where an orchestra furnishes music from six o'clock until midnight; in the centre of the garden a fountain has been constructed which has a unique charm for every visitor, in the huge pcixc-hoL [cow-fish] which is so tame that it will take food from the hand, and so large that it resem- bles a gigantic cow with the fins and tail of an ungainly-looking fish; there are about five thousand species of this amphibious monster, which is found nowhere except in the Ama- zon. The piirjqiie, or electric fish, is another curiosity of the Amazon River, which abounds in fish and turtles. The piranicfi, weighing from one hundred to two hundred pounds, is the " silver king " of these waters, and, like the famous tarpon of North America, it is caught with hook and line, harpooned, or shot with bow and arrow, though differing from the tarpon, which is hunted only for sport and is not edible. The pirarucu is a favorite dish with the Brazilians, being dried and shipped from Manaos to all parts of the country. In the vicinity of the city several truck-farms have been cultivated with success, and the poultry is of an excellent quality. As the needs of a rapidly growing city become more imperative, the various enterprises branch out on a larger scale. There are several factories and machine-shops which are constantly increasing the number of employes in proportion to their growing business. The city is remarkably free from sickness: yellow fever occurs only in a sporadic form, and the usual complaints of a hot climate are not REV. YOSE LOURENCO DA COSTA AGUIAR, BISHOP OF AMAZONAS. 380 THE NEIV BRAZIL common. In a great measure this healthfulness is due to careful attention on the part of the government, which has provided a good system of drainage, as well as a garbage crematory of modern manufacture, a valuable agency in disposing of the city's rubbish. The governor of the State of Amazonas is Colonel Silverio Nery, a member of one of the most distinguished families of Brazil, and widely known both in his own country and in Europe as a prominent statesman and political leader. Under his administration, the State is making the satisfactory progress to which its unlimited resources and great wealth entitle it. Colonel Silverio Nery succeeded Colonel Joaquim Ramalho, Jr. Monsignor Coutinho, one of the most highly esteemed scholars of Brazil, is the vice-governor. Among other leading men are the "Pciisador" [thinker]. Colonel Eduardo Ribeiro, under whose administration as MANAOS, STATE OF AMAZONAS. governor many public improvements were inaugurated ; Major Pedro Freire, prominent in the promotion of the educational interests of the State; and the learned Bishop of Amazonas, his Reverence Jose Lourengo da Costa Aguiar. The foreign interests in Amazonas are very extensive, and continue to increase as the splendid opportunities for investment multiply. Many important enterprises have been established by English, German, and North American syndicates. Mr. Charles R. Flint, of New York, has been closely identified with the development of the rubber trade of the Amazon country, and is interested in many of the modern improvements of Manaos, which he regards as one of the coming great cities of America. The Manaos Railway Company is one of Mr. Flint's enterprises; the electric-light plant was furnished by him; a company in AMAZONAS 381 which he is largely interested laid the asphalt pavements. Mr. Flint is the head of the great exporting house of Flint, Eddy & Co., and of the American Trading Company, which has branches and agents in every country throughout the world, and the most extensive con- nections for the exporting of manufactured goods; he is treasurer of the United States Rubber Company, which has a capital of fifty million dollars; chairman of the Board of Directors of the Rubber Goods Manufacturing Company, with a capital of twenty-five million dollars, and director of another rubber company with a capital of ten million dollars. During a visit to Manaos in 1884, Mr. Flint became acquainted with the conditions of the country and foresaw its vast possibilities, and since that time the various organizations with which he has been associated have handled hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of crude rubber. The fact that a financier so famous for his successful undertakings should have seen at once the promising future of the Amazon city, and sought investment in its municipal improvements, is a guarantee of the good prospects of this rich and prosperous HARBOR OF MANAOS. centre. The administration of Mr. Flint's enterprises in Manaos is in the hands of Mr. E. M. Backus, a gentleman of capable business qualifications and the pleasing manner which is so important a factor in success of any kind. Among other foreign investors in Manaos, the Amazon Telegraph Company of England occupies an important place. Its affairs are con- ducted under the management of Mr. R. H. Mardock, who is highly esteemed by the Brazilians, among whom he has made many friends. The company is engaged in per- fecting telegraphic communication between Manaos and Para, which, although established by cable several times, has been frequently interrupted owing to the peculiar conditions of the Amazon river-bed, that constantly changes its position. The work is, however, very satisfactorily under way, and will soon be completed by land lines. A curious phenomenon of the Amazon country, which has been explained in various ways, is known to the natives as the "Frost of Saint John." It occurs usually during the last week of June, and is noticeable as far down the river as Manaos, being ushered in with a rain-storm during which the thermometer drops to about i^° Fahrenheit, and 382 THE NEIV BRAZIL the water of the Amazon is so cold that the fish die by hundreds. According to one theory, this cold weather is due to the descent of large quantities of ice and snow from the Upper Andes, accompanied by high winds. During the few days that this frost continues, the people wear overcoats and wraps, and among the poor there is great discomfort, as the change of from 60° to 70° is so rapid that its effects are naturally very marked on the system, unprepared for such a shock. It is as keenly felt as a "blizzard" in colder climates. On the other hand, it serves a good purpose in destroying the germs of fever which cannot survive such a lowering of the temperature. The outlook for the Amazon country is most promising from every standpoint. There are more than a hundred steamers navigating the river, an English company alone employ- ing half that number. All the European and American companies have lines of steamers calling at Manaos, and every year brings new colonists to the State. Labor being scarce and wages high, there is a good opportunity for immigrants, especially from tropical countries less favored by nature. There are about a hundred English-speaking residents in Manaos, and in other towns of the State several European families have settled. The Italian colonies are increasing in numbers, and there are several flourishing small towns in the State that have been populated chiefly by foreign immigrants. With the increased facilities for trans- atlantic travel afforded by recent additions to the number of steamship lines calling at Manaos, the new-comers will no doubt rapidly change the small villages into thriving cities, and the capital itself into a teeming equatorial metropolis. BRIDGE AT CACHOEIRINHA. MANAOS. CHAPTER XXX MATTO GROSSO AND GOYAZ /\/lORE than one-fourth of the entire territory of Brazil is comprised in the two States of Matto Grosso and Goyaz. Together they extend over an area of seventy thousand square leagues, constituting an important part of the great central table-land of Brazil and mark- ing the dividing-line between the two gigantic river systems of the South American continent, — the Amazon and the La Plata. The his- tory of their discovery and development is similar in some respects to that of the interior districts of neighboring States. The Paulistas were the tust to penetrate the depths of their forests and to navigate their innumerable rivers in an effort to settle the country; after the discovery of gold in these States in the eighteenth century, the immigration of hosts of eager gold hunters and diamond seekers rapidly peopled the territory, and these temporary settlers were followed by more permanent colonists. Both States originally belonged to Sao Paulo, until, about the middle of the eighteenth century, each was made an independent capitania; Matto Grosso under the administration of Rolim de Moura, and Goyaz under Marcos de Noronha, afterward Conde dos Arcos. The numerous stories related of the discovery of gold in these States indicate the abundance of the metal found by early explorers. Of Matto Grosso it is said that the first gold was found by an Indian slave sent out from the camp of his Paulista masters to search for honey for their evening meal ; night came without the return of the slave, and the rage of his masters was at its height when he appeared long after midnight; they \\^ere about to administer the severest punish- ment, when he suddenly spread out before their astonished gaze a handful of gold nuggets, weighing altogether about two pounds, telling them, at the same time, that at the place where he had gathered them the ground was covered with hundreds more of the same 38? CAYAPO INDIAN CHIEF. ^86 THE NEIV BRAZIL ; ■ •.! -t -i jst' se«^Ki' '":>^a^) '^l ■\ \ mWm^^'^ ■-■ * W-W:^ hy_ Ig^^g^ sBk ^ "> -'^■^- ''-^! ^i .4.' ' ^ii^ ^F-''^ f^l;;;^ "^^p t i^^l0.| .^3^;: ' ■' ^±-."V3_^. ■,:;! ',''"■ **}■, ■•-*"^; i^s^^ RRMVc9^^ ^^""^ ll^:^ -^— ^ * ^aFP ^^-'iHirfHia PICTURESQUE COUNTRY ROAD. kind. The honey was forgotten in the richer prize, and early the next morning he led them to this El Dorado, the very spot upon which the present capital of the State, Cuyaba, is situated; they were in transports of delight when they saw the glittering gold scattered about in profu- sion, and began at once to gather it by handfuls, returning to their tent in the evening with more than two hundred ounces as the reward of their day's work. According to excellent authority, the gold secured from this locality toward the close of the eighteenth century amounted in one month to twelve thousand pounds' weight, taken from diggings of less than three feet in depth. Equally marvellous tales are related of the early mining days of Goyaz,the story of "Anhauguera! " being applied by some authorities to the incidents connected with the expedition of the adventurous Paulista, Bueno da Silva, who, in 1682, set out for this region in search of gold, accompanied by his little son, twelve years old, and a numerous company of followers; it is said that he returned with great wealth, presenting a thousand ounces of gold to the Sao Paulo govern- ment, which subsequently appointed his son capitao-mor of the district. The mining of those pioneers was attended by the greatest danger, in consequence of the hostility of the Indians, who destroyed whole settlements of the gold diggers, effectually checking the industry. Now that modern enterprise is opening up this rich territory by the construc- tion of railroads to traverse even the most remote sections, the prospect is excellent for a revival of mining on a larger scale, and perhaps with even more astonishing results. The general aspects, as well as the resources, of Matto Grosso and Goyaz are similar in some respects. Both States have an extensive area of mountainous regions and plateaus, and in each there are low-lying tracts of land along some of the river-courses. Goyaz extends farther north than Matto Grosso, though not so far south, and its area is less, covering twenty thousand square leagues, while Matto Grosso has fifty thousand square leagues. The outline of the two States, which together occupy the most central position on the map of South America, is, very appropriately, heart-shaped; the apex is formed by the southern part of Matto Grosso where it touches the boundaries of Sao Paulo, Parana, and the republic of Paraguay; Goyaz touches the western limits of Minas Geraes, Bahia, Piauhy, and Maranhao; Matto Grosso marks the eastern boundary of Bolivia and the southern boundary of Amazonas; and both States extend north as far as the southern boundary of Para. When, in the near future, the railway systems of South America traverse MATTO GROSSO AND GOYAZ 387 the continent in every direction, the importance of these central States as busy highways of traffic will be of the first degree; for, in whatever direction transcontinental lines are built, they must pass through this section in order to unite the farthest limits. Aside from this fact, their own wealth must attract both railways and capital, for both States are rich in minerals and vegetation, while the conditions of climate and soil greatly favor agricultural development. The mineral wealth of Matto Grosso includes gold, iron, silver, platinum, copper, lead, diamonds, agates, mica, limestone, fine qualities of plastic clay, granite, and marbles. Hard- woods used for cabinet purposes, dyewoods, medicinal plants, and rubber are exported in increasing quantities annually. Sugar-cane, coffee, tobacco, rice, and other staple articles grow with little cultivation. Immense herds of cattle graze on the plateaus and hill-sides, the exportation of hides forming one of the chief sources of revenue. Yerba mate of the finest quality comes from this State, the natural conditions favoring the growth of this product especially; the flavor of the yerba mate grown in Matto Grosso is delicious, and as the demand for this drink increases in European and North American markets, the devel- opment of the industry may be expected to constitute one of the most important features of agricultural progress in the near future. Even now, the extensive yerba-mate plantations are scarcely adequate to the demand for the product, though there is practically no limit to the territory in which the yerba may be successfully cultivated, and every year finds the investments in land for this purpose increasing, particularly in the southern part of the State. Although the principal means of transportation from Matto Grosso at present is either via La Plata Ri\'er and its tributaries or the Madeira and the Amazon, yet every indication points to the early completion of railway communication between Matto Grosso and Rio de Janeiro, which will greatly facili- tate the export trade. Steamers that make the voyage to Matto Grosso tvj La Plata stop at Co- rumba on the southwest- ern frontier, where the business of the custom- house, or Alfjiidcgj, of the State, is transacted. Corumba is a busy little city, occupying a pictur- esque site on the brow of a hill overlooking the river; it is the chief ship- ping port for a large ter- ritory, and has a thriving BAIAO, ON THE RIO TOCANTINS. 388 THE NEIV BRAZIL trade with the interior towns and villages. From Corumba to the State capital, Cuyaba, a distance of several hundred miles, the trip is made by smaller steamers via the Sao Lourengo branch of the Paraguay River. The scenery along this route is intensely tropical, and vegetation presents the most exaggerated specimens to be found on the face of the globe; the same is true of the Guapore River banks, where, according to scientific authority, a commission appointed by the government to explore this region, in 187^, discovered a climbing palm, belonging to the Calamus procumbens variety, which measured seven hun- dred feet in length and was scarcely half an inch thick. The foliage of trees and vines of every description grows to incredible proportions; nowhere else are such gigantic water- lilies to be found as the Victoria Regia of these regions; the cotton-tree grows wild, the long silky fibre of its blossoms making a most admirable substitute for feathers in filling pillows or cushions. The capital of Matto Grosso is Cuyaba, a city of about thirty thou- sand inhabitants, situated in the central part of the State, a mile or two from the steamboat landing, with which it is connected by street cars. The city was founded, soon after the discovery of gold, early in the eighteenth century, upon the site of the richest deposit. It lies between the hills of Boa Morte and Prainha, and is traversed by a small stream, an affluent of the Sao Louren(;o. So rich is this region in gold, that specimens of the precious metal are frequently found even in the streets after a heavy rain. The city is progressive, and has many modern improvements, such as street-car lines, water-works, a very beautiful prac^a, overlooking which are the government buildings and the palace of the bishop; excellent schools, includ- ing the Lyceu Cuyabano and the Collegio Sao Joao Baptisto, and a number of charitable institutions, one of which is an orphan asylum for boys, numbering three hundred bene- ficiaries. The government of the State is progressive and liberal, the president, Colonel Antonio Pedro Alves de Barros, being an administrator of acknowledged ability. Goyaz, as well as Matto Grosso, has in prospect a great future, not alone through the development of its mines, but through the promotion of agricultural industries. The soil and climate are adapted to the cultivation of a variety of products, especially tobacco, sugar, cotton, and cereals, though cattle-raising and mining are the chief sources of wealth at present. Wine-growing is an increasing industry in the southern part of the State. The chief highways of traffic between Goyaz and the outside markets are the Tocantins River ANCIENT INDIAN POTTERY. MATTO GROSSO AND GOYAZ 389 and its tributaries, which connect it with the sea-port of Para, and the Paranahyba River and its tributaries, which carry the products of the southern districts to the ports of the Parana River. The climate of Goyaz is dry and moderate, and generally healthful; the State is traversed by several mountain ranges and watered by large rivers, in the heart of the chief mountain range a territory has been surveyed for the future national capital, though it is not likely that a change will be made from the present site until more satisfactory railway communication has been established, at least between the most important points. The cap- ital city, Goyaz, famous as the Villa Boa of the early gold-mining days, is picturesquely WEAVING BASKETS FOR CARRYING PRODUCE. situated in the valley of the Araguaya, the twin confluent of the Tocantins, near its source in the high mountains of the Serra Dourado, where it is separated only by a narrow ridge from the source of the Tocantins, the two streams watering different valleys through the whole length of the State until joined in a single current at its extreme northern limit. The city is the centre of the cattle industry, of important wine-manufacturing interests, and of the chief culture of tobacco, of which this State produces a very superior quality, greatly in demand. The population of the State is about three hundred thousand, and of the capital, twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Among the public buildings are the president's palace, 3 go THE NEIV BRAZIL constructed during the administration of Conde de Sao Miguel ; the hospital of Sao Pedro de Alcantara, founded in 1826; the bishop's palace, cathedral, hospitals, and numerous schools, one of the most important of which is the Seminario de Santa Cruz, founded in 1873 by the Reverend Bishop Joaquim Gongalves de Azevedo. Besides the capital, there are several prosperous small towns : Pyrenopolis, formerly Meia Ponta, with thriving cotton factories and spinning-mills ; Santa Luzia ; Jaragua, a beautiful town near the head-waters of the Tocantins ; and Bomfim, with important gold mines. The political affairs of the State are administered with judgment and tact by the present executive. Dr. Urbano Coelho de Gouvea, who, in his official capacity as president of the State, enjoys the confidence and esteem of the people in the highest degree. A few years will undoubtedly witness wonderful progress in the two States of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, which are both rich in natural resources, and capable of unlimited development, requiring only the encouragement of a closer communication with the outside world, which the construction of projected railway lines will certainly accomplish. Immi- gration can be more easily promoted under such conditions, and the benefits resulting would inevitably justify every effort directed toward such a consummation. GARUPA, STATE OF PARA, ON AMAZON RIVER. CHAPTER XXXI YERBA MATE CUYAS AND BOMBILLAS. npRAVELLERS and explorers in South Amer- ican countries have long since learned the good qualities of yerba mate as a refreshing and invigorating beverage. Darwin thoroughly appreciated its value, and in letters to his friends, as well as in the pages of his Journal of Researches, written after his South Amer- ican journey, he lauds it as an "ideal drink." From time immemorial the Guarany Indians have known its virtues; and when the discovery of the New World was followed by colonization, and the Jesuits entered upon their work of re- ligious teaching among the settlers and in the camps of the natives, it was not long before the wonderful plant was recognized by the new-comers as possessing desirable properties both for use as a beverage and as a preservative of health. It was the priests who first observed that these dusky sons of the forest were able to withstand to an amazing degree all kinds of hardships, going without solid food for days at a time, deriving all their sustenance from the chewing of this yerba mate, or, as they called it in Guarany, caa. The holy fathers experi- mented with the herb, and found it so good that they established mate plantations and taught the Indians to cultivate it. Later, immense mate forests, or verbales, were dis- covered in all the southern States of Brazil, the most valuable being those of Parana and Matto Grosso, which are to-day the great sources of the yerba-mate supply for the markets of the world, though the territory within which the plant will grow may be said to extend from Minas Geraes to Rio Grande do Sul and from the Paraguay River to the Atlantic Ocean. In the early days of the industry, every mission had its yerbale under cultivation, the Jesuits directing the labors of the Indians, who were carefully drilled in 391 392 THE NE^ BRAZIL their work, dividing attention between the cad mini, or best quality, and the cad nana, of inferior worth. The yerba mate is not an herb, but a shrub, even a tree, about the size of an orange- tree, though its boughs are more slender. It sometimes grows to a height of twenty-five feet, the trunk measuring over three feet in circumference. The principal yerbales are situated in the remote country districts, far from towns, and the ycrbateiros, or mate- gatherers, are obliged to make a long trip across the country before reaching their desti- nation. The time for collecting mate usually begins in December, and continues until August. Iheyer- bafeiros set out with their provi- sions, tools, and cattle, prepared to establish a camp for the season in the mate forest. The picking, dry- ing, and packing were previously performed on the grounds, but since the perfection of machinery suit- able for the proc- ess of drying and packing, this part of the work has been done in large central mills, to which the product of an entire dis- trict is taken. Under the old system, the yerbateiros usually travelled in companies of twenty or thirty, forming quite a little settlement wherever they erected their huts. Their first work consisted in preparing an open space about six feet square, beating the ground hard and smooth with mallets. Then they cut the mate and placed it in the clearing, building a fire around it to give it a preliminary roasting, after which it was arranged on a frame-work of poles with a fire underneath for a second roasting, this process requiring great care, as the aroma of the mate depended upon it; the required amount of heat was only learned by long experience. After two or three days of drying, the leaves were reduced to coarse powder, and packed in serons, or bags of raw hide, which shrank when TRANSPORTING YERBA MATE. YERBA MATE m MATE BLOSSOMS. exposed to the sun, thus completing the preparation of the mate for shipment. The preliminary roasting is still done on some of the yerbales in large copper pans over a slow fire, after which the mate is put in bags and stored away until it is shipped to the harbor of export in wagons drawn by long trains of mules or in the river-boats that carry this freight in great quantities. More than twenty million people in South America drink mate daily, and find it a more acceptable beverage than tea or coffee, having none of the deleterious effects of these drinks even wiien taken to excess, but, on the contrary, promoting digestion, soothing the nerves, and giving immediate activity to the brain. According to high scientific author- ity, it is the only beverage which leaves absolutely no bad after-effects upon those who drink it in large or small quantities. Its dynamic value is enormous; by its use the cow- boys of the plains and soldiers in battle are enabled to endure the most terrible fatigue and even to live for days without solid food. During the Paraguayan war, it was an indispen- sable agent in preserving the lives of the fever-stricken armies, and many times it formed the sole means of sustenance during long and wearisome marches. The importance of this fact has been so impressed upon government officials in foreign countries that extensive experiments are now being made with this drink in the armies of France and Germany, it is said, with altogether satisfactory results, and it has been recommended to the United States government by some of its officials in South America as a valuable drink for its soldiers in the hot climates of Cuba and the Philippines. As a safeguard against insomnia, it is highly spoken of, and in those countries where it is a constant beverage such affec- tions as gout and indigestion are unknown. As a drink, it is especially beneficial to those of sedentary habits and to brain- workers who find the use of coffee or tea harmful to the nervous system. In certain parts of South America, where mate is the only drink, the people present an appearance of healthy , acti\'it\', freshness, and good phys- ical condition which cannot be attributed solely to the influence of climate or circumstances, but seems rather to be the result, in RIVER-BOAT LOADED WITH YERBA MATE. 3 great measure, of abstemious :>:? 394 THE NEIV BRAZIL habits, fostered by an absolute freedom from the use of intoxicants — which are seldom in demand among mate-drinkers — or of tea and coffee, so harmful under some conditions, and their consequent benefit from the therapeutic qualities of the yerba mate, which they drink in unlimited quantities. Gaiuhos, guanaco hunters, miners, and soldiers are contented with rations that include nothing more than a hard piece of bread or a bit of dried beef, providing they are well supplied with mate. In every sphere of life and in every circle of society the South Americans enjoy this excellent beverage. In some homes it is the custom to take mate several times a day, sipping it from the cuvti through a bombilla. The cuya is a diminutive calabash, usually about the size of an orange, with a small opening, through which the mate is put in and hot water poured over it, often not larger than just sufficient to admit the bowl of the bombilla. Cuyas are of every shape and size, some rich- ly ornamented and others of the most primitive manufac- ture. The bombil- las, or, as the name signifies, "little pumps," are util- ized similarly to the "straws " through which North Amer- icans sip their lem- onade, though quite different in appear- ance, being usually made of metal, with a small perforated bulb or strainer at the end, in order that the tea may be imbibed without any of the mate leaves being drawn into the mouth. There is wide latitude for the indulgence of individual taste in the selection of a cuya and bombilla, some of which are very handsome and elaborate, beautifully carved, and mounted in silver or gold. After every few sips, a fresh supply of hot water must be poured over the tea- leaves, to which sugar and cream are added if preferred. In most homes of the better class, a neat little servant stands ready to replenish the cuya as required. A custom of the mate countries, which is symbolic of the most cordial hospitality, consists in passing the cuya around, so that every one present may partake of the beverage, usually through the same bombilla, after the manner of the "pipe of peace." Foreigners quickly learn to enjoy the mate, sometimes following the native custom of taking it from the cuya, but quite as often ,^- INDIANS CARRYING YERBA MATE TO THE MILL. YERBA MATE ^9S using a cup and saucer in "five-o'clocl<" style. Altliougli it is an acquired taste to some extent, tliere are few who do not become confirmed mate-drinl