HART MEMORIAL LIBRARY CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ENGLISH COLLECTION THE GIFT OF JAMES MORGAN HART PROFESSOR OK ENGIJSH A.a'iHi'an ^'''liniffilllllillillilllSiiMnffl^^^ "ook : 3 1924 027 322 951 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027322951 AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK INFLECTIONS, SYNTAX, SELECTIONS TOR BEADING, AND GLOSSARY BY C. ALPHONSO SMITH, A.M., Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY NEW EDITION Revised and Enlarged Boston ALLYN AND BACON 1898 s COPVEIGHT, 1896, BY C. ALPHONSO SMITH. NartoooB Prres J. S. Oushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A. PREFACE. The scope of this book is indicated in § 5. It is intended for beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not been forgotten : " Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage : And by that time he cometh to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of gram- mer, lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small stickes." — The Governour, Cap. X. Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, than as a gen- eral introduction to Germanic philology. The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions given in the various chapters. The Selections for Beading relate to the history and literature of King Alfred's day, and are suf&cient to give the student a first-hand, though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their intentional employment in the Exercises. For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse iv Preface,. has been, had chiefly to Sievers' Abriss der angelsdchsischen Grammatik (1895). Constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and larger Angelsachsische Grammatik, translated by Cook. A more sparing use has been made of Cosijn's AltwestsdcJisische Grammatik. For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wlilfing's Syntax in den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I. (Bonn, 1894) has proved indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Bright's Anglo- Saxon Reader, and Cook's First Book in Old English. The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose (Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2). Though assuming sole responsibility for everything con- tained in this book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efB.cient assistance that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wiilfing, of the University of Bonn ; Prof. James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia ; Prof. W. S. Currell, of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr College; and Prof. L. M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have each ren- dered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valu- able criticisms and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through the press. C. ALPHONSO SMITH. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, September, 1896. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief difference between the two editions, however, consists in the introduction of more reading mat- ter and the consequent exposition of Old English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of teachers and students of Old English. Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English. Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition. I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wul- fing, Prof. James A. Harrison, Prof. W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of Cornell ; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of Williams College ; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of Vermont, I am indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely appreciated. C. ALPHONSO SMITH. August, 1898. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. — INTRODUCTION. Chapters Pages I. History (§ 1-5) 1 II. Sounds (§ 6-11) 4 III. Inflections (§ 12-19) 10 IV. Order of Words (§ 20-21) 18 v. Practical Suggestions (§ 22-24) 21 PART II. — ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. VI. The a-Declension : Masculine a-Stems (§ 25-30) . . 27 VII. Neuter a-Stems (§ 31-36) 30 VIII. The o-Declensiou (§ 37-42) 33 IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension (§ 43-55) . . 35 X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs (§ 56-62) 39 XI. The Weak or n-Declension (§ 63-66) 44 XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions (§ 67-71) 47 XIII. Pronouns (§ 72-77) 50 XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ 78-87) 53 XV. Numerals (§ 88-92) 57 XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions (§ 93-95) . 60 XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs (§ 96-100) . 64 XVIII. Strong Verbs : Class I, Syntax of Moods (§ 101-108) 68 XIX. Classes II and III (§ 109-113) 74 vii viii Table of Contents. Chapters Pages XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs (§ 114- 121) 78 XXI. Weak Verbs (§ 122-133) 82 XXII. Remaining Verbs ; Verb Phrases with habban, beon, and weoriSan (§ 134-143) ... .90 PART III, — SELECTIONS FOR READING. Prose, Introductory .... 98 I. Tlie Battle of Ashdown 99 II. A Pra-yer of King Alfred . . . 101 III. The Voyages of Ohthere and AVulfstan 102 Ohthere's First Voyage . . . . . . . 103 Ohthere's Second Voyage . . 106 Wulfstan's Voyage . . 107 IV. The Story of Csedmon Ill V. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care 116 Poetry. Introductory 122 VI. Extracts from Beowulf 136 VII. The Wanderer 148 GLOSSARIES. I. Old English— Modern English . . .... 155 II. Modern English — Old English . . . 190 OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK. PART I. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. History. 1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three periods ; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes ; but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has never been lost. 2. The first of these periods is that of Old English, or Anglo-Saxon,' commonly known as the period of full 1 This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term Angli Saxones, Avhich Latin writers used as a designation for the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old Saxons. But Alfred and iElfric both use the term Englisc, not Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far outnumbering the other tribes. Thus Englisc (= Angel + isc) became the general name for the language spoken. B 1 2 Introduction. inflections. E.g. stan-as, stones; car-u, care; will-a, viill; bind-an, to hind; help-a3 (= ath), they help. It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Brit- ain to about one hundred years after the Norman Conquest, — from A.D. 449 to 1160; but there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period. There were four^ distincfc dialects spoken at this time. These were the North- umbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in the midland region between the Humber and the Thames ; the West Saxon, spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most nearly akin to the Mercian ; but the best known of them is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best represented in the writings of Abbot .^Ifric (955 ?-1025 ?). 3. The second period is that of Middle English, or the period of leveled inflections, the dominant vowel of the in- flections being e. E.g. ston-es, car-e, -will-e, bind-en (or bind-e), help-eth, each being, as in the earlier period, a dissyllable. The Middle English period extends from a.d. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period : the Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian ; the Midland 1 As small as England is, there are six distinct dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many Northumbrian survivals. See Tenny- son's Northern Farmer. History. 3 (divided into East Midland and West Midland), corre- sponding to the Mercian ; and the Southern, correspond- ing to the West Saxon and Kentish. London, situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and Wiclif employed. Note. — It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech of London was, in Chaucer's time, a mixture of Southern and Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon dialect) had already begun to fall away ; and this they continued to do, so that "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more Southern than standard English eventually became." See also Morsbach, Ueber den Urspritng der neuenglischen Schriftsprache (1888). 4. The last period is that of Modern English, or the period of lost inflections. E.g. stones, care, will, bind, help, each being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1600 to the present time. It has witnessed compara- tively few grammatical changes, but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their values. 5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue. Introduction. Note. — The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a liranoli of the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the Indo- European) group. They are subdivided as follows: 'North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse. Germanic - East Germanic : West Germanic Gothic. High German • Low German Old High German, (to A.D. 1100,) Middle High German, (A.D. 1100-1600,) New High German. (A.D. 1600-.) f Dutch, J Old Saxon, |. Frisian, [ English. CHAPTER II. Sounds. Vowels and Diphthongs. 6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the macron (~). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distin- guishes words meaning wholly different things: for, he went, for, for; god, good, god, God; man, crime, man, man. Long vowels and diphthongs : a as in father : stan, a stone. EC as in man (prolonged) : sl^pan, to sleep. e as in they : her, here. T as in machine : min, mine. o as in note (pure, not diphthongal) : boo, hook. Sounds. 5 u as in rule : tun, town. y as in German griin, or Englisli green (with lips rounded):' bryd, bride. The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of er in sooner, faster ( = soon-uh, fast-^K). The long diphthongs (se is not a diphthong proper) are eo, le, and ea. The sound of eo is approximately reproduced in mayor ( = md-uK) ; that of le in the dissyllabic pronunciation oi fear (^=fe-uK). But ea = ae-uh,. This diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from ea in fear, hear, etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States (= boR-uh, pce-ufi). 7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that Modern English red, for example, is the shortened form of reed, or that mat is the shortened form of mate. Pronounce these long sounds with increasing rapidity, and reed will approach rid, while mate will approach met. The Old English short vowel sounds are : a as in artistic : habban, to have. 8B as in mankind : deeg, day. e, ^ as in let : stelan, to steal, sf ttan, to set. i as in sit : hit, it. o as in broad (but shorter):' god, God. 9 as in not; iQmb, lamb. u as in fall : sunu, son. y as in miller (with lips rounded)': gylden, golden. 1 Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the lip-opening is rounded ; that is, when the lips are thrust out and puckered as if 6 Introduction. Note. — The symbol f is known as umlaut-e (§58). It stands for Germanic a, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic e. The symbol 9 is employed only before m and n. It, too, represents Germanic «. But Alfred writes manig or monig, many; Iamb or lomb, lamh ; hand or bond, hand, etc. The cedilla is an etymologi- cal sign added by modern grammarians. Consonants. 8. There is little difference between the values of Old English consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, however, require notice : The digraph th is represented in Old English texts by 3 and }j, no consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred, 3 (capital, ©) is the more common : Sas, those; 38et, that; binde3, he hinds. The consonant c had the hard sound of k, the latter symbol being rare in West Saxon : cyning, king ; cwen, queen; cu3, known. When followed by a palatal vowel sound, — e, i, ce, ea, eo, long or short, — a vanishing «/ sound was doubtless interposed (cf. dialectic kHnd for kind}. In Modern English the combination has passed into ch: cealc, chalk; cidan, to chide; \sece, leech; cild, child; ceowan, to chew. This change (c > cA) is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Mod- ern English gun, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels (cf. dialectic gvirl for girT). The combination eg,' which frequently stands for gg, had probably the sound of dge in Modern English edge: ^og, edge; slogan, to say; brycg, bridge. preparing to pronounce to. Thus and u are round vowels : add -ing to each, and phonetically you have added -loing. E.g. gcing, swing. Sounds. 7 Initial h is sounded as in Modern English : habban, to have; halga, saint. When closing a syllable it has the sound of German ch: sloh, he sleiv ; heah, high; Surh, through. 9. An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and voiceless (or surd) consonants. ^ In Old English they are as follows : Voiced. Voiceless. g h, c d t 8, )j (as in J7iough) 3, \> (as in thin) b p f(=v) f S (= Z) B It is evident, therefore, that 3 (Jj), f, and s have double values in Old English. If voiced, they are equivalent to th (in f Aough), v, and z. Otherwise, they are pronounced as th (in iAin), / (in /in), and s (in sin). The syllabic environment will usually compel the student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring between vowels, they are always voiced : 63er, other ; ofer, over ; risan, to rise. Note. — The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is, that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced con- sonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of Assimilation. Thus when de is added to form the preterit of a verb whose stem 1 A little practice will enable the student to see the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant, — din den, for example, but without the assistance of en, — and there will be heard a gurgle, or vocal murmur. But in t, of ten, there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the organs. 8 Introduction. ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced, or assimilated, to t : sf ttan, to set, sf tte (but tr^ddan, to tread, lias tr^dde) ; sleepan, to sleep, slSpte ; dr^ncan, to drench, difncte ; cyssan, to Iciss, cyste. See § 126, Note 1. Syllables. 10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain consonants may form syllables : oven (= ov-n'), battle (= bcet-l^ ; {cf. also the vulgar pronunciation of elm). A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or short. (1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often different from that of the cor- responding strong, or stressed, syllable. Gf. weak and strong my in "I want my large hat " and " I want my hat." (2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong : de-man, to deem; 3u, tJiou; sea-can, to shake; dse-ges, by day. A closed syllable ends in one or more conso- nants : Sing, thing; god, good; glaed, glad. (3) A syllable is long (a) if it contains a long vowel or a long diphthong: dri-fan, to drive; lu-can, to lock; slje-pan, to sleep ; ceo-san, to choose ; (6) if its vowel or diphthong is followed by more than one consonant : i craeft, strength; heard, hard; lib-ban, to live; feal-lan, 1 Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly long. Cf. Modern English at all (= a-tall). Sounds. 9 to fall. Otherwise, the syllable is short: 3e, which; be-ran, to bear; Seet, that; gie-fan, to give. Note 1. — A single consonant belongs to the following syllable: ha-lig, holy (not hal-ig) ; wri-tan, to write ; f se-der, father. Note 2. — The student will notice that the syllable may be long and the vowel short ; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable short. Note 3. — Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables, have regularly become long in Modern English: we-fan, to weave; e-tan, to eat; ma-cian, to make; na-cod, naked; a-can, to ache; o-fer, over. And Old English long vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been shortened : breost, breast ; heelS, health; sliepte, slept; leedde, led. Accentuation. 11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, never on the inflectional ending : brfngan, to bring ; stSnas, stones; b^rende, bearing; idelnes, idleness; freondscipe, friendship. But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger stress : h^ofon-nce, heaven-kingdom ; (Jnd-giet, intelligence; edd-fsest, truthful; g6d-cund, divine; ^all-unga, entirely; bliSe-lice, blithely. But be-hSt, promise; ge-bed, prayer; ge-feallo, joyous; be-s6ne, immediately. Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable : for-giefan, to forgive ; of-Unnan, to cease; a-cnSTvan, to know; wi3-st9ndan, to withstand; ou-sdcan, to resist. Note. — The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix, while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern English words : preference, prefer; cSntract (noun), contrdct (verb); dbstinence, abstain; perfume (^nomi), perfume (verb). 10 Introduction. CHAPTER III. Inflections. Cases. 12. There are five cases in Old English : the nomi- native, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.^ Each of them, except the nomi- native, may be governed by prepositions. When used without prepositions, they have, in general, the fol- lowing functions : (a) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject of a finite verb. (6) The genitive (the possessive case of JModern English) is the case of the possessor or source. It may be called the of case. (c) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called the to or for case. (c^) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case of the direct object. (e) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is the case of the means or the method. It may be called the with or hy case. The following paradigm of mu3, the mouth, illus- trates the several cases (the article iDeing, for the present, gratuitously added in the Modern English equivalents) : 1 Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But it seems best to consider the vocative as only a function of the nominative form. Inflections. 11 Singular. Plural. N. inuS = the mouth. muS-as = the mouths. G. muS-es ^ = of th.' mouth muS-a. = of the mouths. (= the mo««/i's). (= the mouths'). D. mu3-e=Jo ov for the mouth. mu3-uin = to ox for the mouths. A. mu3 = the mouth. mu3-as = the mouths. I. muSe = with or hy means of mu3-um = with or hy means of the mouth. the mouths. Gender. 13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of INIodern English, depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus mu3, mouth, is mas- culine ; tunge, tongue, feminine ; eage, eye, neuter. No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given ; but the gender of every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated in the vocabu- laries by the different gender forms of the definite article, se for the masculine, seo for the feminine, and Saet for the neuter : ae mu3, seo tunge, Saet gage = the mouth, the tongue, the eye.. All nouns ending in -dom, -had, -scipe, or -ere are masculine (cf. Modern English wisc^om, childAooc?, friendship, worker). Masculine, also, are nouns end- ing in -a. Those ending in -nes or -ung are feminine (cf. Mod- 1 Of course our "apostrophe and s" (= 's) comes from the Old English genitive ending -es. The e is preserved in Wednesday (=01d English Wodnes daeg). But at "■ very early period it was thought that John's book, for example, was a shortened form of John his book. Thus Addison {Spectator, No. 135) declares 's a survival of his. How, then, would he explain the s of his? And how would he dispose of Mary's book ? 12 Introduction. ern English good»(ess, and gerundial forms in -ing: see- ing is believing). Thus se wisdom, wisdom; se cildhad, childhood; se fieonAscipe, friendship ; ae fiscere, fisher (man^; se hunta, hunter; seo gelicnes, likeness; seo leornung, learning. Declensions. 14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong to the Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this vowel being then known as the stem-characteristic ; but if the stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vow- els, and as many subdivisions of the Consonant De- clension as there were consonants. All Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended their stems originally in a, 6, i, or u. Hence there are but four subdivisions of the Vowel Declen- sion : a-stems, 6-stems, i-stems, and u-stems. The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its nouns Strong Nouns. Note. — The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm (1785-186.3) in the terminology of verbs, and thence trans- ferred to nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could form its preterit out o£ its own resources ; that is, without calling in the aid of an additional syllable : Modern English run, ran ; find, found; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable : gain, gained ; help, helped. Inflections. 13 15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, with but few exceptions, in the let- ter n (cf. Latin homin-em, ration-em, Greek troiiJLev-a) . They are called, therefore, n-stems, the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns. 16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be no difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem, o-stem, j-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the most part, either been dropped, or fused with ■ the case-endings, long before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a rigid com- parison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Ger- manic group f§ 5, Note). This hypothetic al l anguage, which bears the same ancestral relation to the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues, is known simply as Grernumic (Gmc), or as Primitive Grermanio. Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not ex- pected of the students of this book, but the follow- ing table should be examined as illustrating the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E. = Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English) : 14 Introduction, Strong or Vowel De- clensions II. Consonant Declensions Gmc. staina-z, (1) a-steiDS O.E. etan, . Mn.E. stone. (Gmc. hallo, O.E. beall, Mn.E. hall. ' Gmc. bonirZ, (3) i-stems ■ O.E. ben, Mn.E. boon. ' Gmc. sunv^z, (4) u-stems O.E. sunu, . Mn.E. son. (1) n-stems (Weak [ ^™''' ^""fi'Sn-fe Declension) (2) Remnants of other Con- sonant De- clensions j O.E. 1 l Mn.E. ( («) (6) (c) tung-an, . tongue-s. ■ Gmc. jotriz, O.E. fet, . Mn.E. feet. ' Gmc. frijond-iz, O.E. friend, I Mn.E. friends. ' Gmc. broSr-iz, O.E. broSor, . Mn.E. brothers. Note. — "It will be seen that if Old English eage, eye, is said to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old EnglLsh language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that the word is inflected in a certain manner." (Jespersen, Progress in Language, § 109). This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. The division, therefore, into a-stems, o-stems, etc., is made in the interests of grammar as well as of philology. Conjugations. 17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation. Inflections. 15 The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred remain in Modern English (§ loi, Note). They form their pret- erit and frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the present stem. This vowel change or modification is called ablaut (pronounced dhp-lowi) : Modern English sing, sang, sung ; rise, rose, risen. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different from that of the preterit singular, there are four principal parts or tense stems in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of Modern English. The four principal parts in the conju- gation of a strong verb are (1) the present indica- tive, (2) the preterit indicative singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past participle. Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table : Peesest. Pret. Sing. Peet. Plde. Past Participle. I. Bitan, to bite : Ic bit-e, / bite or shall bite.^ II. Beodan, to bid: Ic beod-e, I bid or shall bid. lo bat, I - bit. lo bead, / bade. ■We bit-on, we bit. We bud-on, toe bade. Ic haebbe ge'-bit- en, I have bitten. Ic hsebbe ge-bod- en, / have bidden. 1 Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the future. The present was used both as present proper and as future. Cf. Modern English "I go home tomorrow," or "I am going home tomorrow" for " I shall go home tomorrow." " The prefix ge- (Middle English y-), cognate with Latin co (con) and implying completeness of action, was not always used. It never 16 Introduction. Pret. Plur, PA6T Parttciple. III. Bindan, to bind : lo bind-e, / bind or shall bind. IV'. Beran, to bear : Ic ber-e, / bear or shall bear. V. Metan, to measure : Icmet-e, [measure or shall measure. VI. Faran, to go : Ic far-e, [ go or shall go. VII. Feallan, to fall : Ic feall-e, I fall or shall fall. Ic bQnd, / bound. Ic baer, / bore. Ic mset, 7 measured. Ic for, / Ic feoU, I fell. We bund-on, we bound. We baer-ou, ?oe bore. We maet-on, toe measured. We for-on, toe tflenf. We feoll-on, we fell. Ic hsebbe ge-bund- en, / have bound. Ic haebbe ge-bor- en, / have I orne. Ic haebbe ge-met- en, I have meas- ured. Ic com' ge-far-en, I have (am) gone. Ic eomi ge-feall-en, / have {am) fallen. 18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of Modern English) form their preterit occurs in the past participles of compound verbs : o]}-feallan, to fall off, past participle dp-teailen. (not o]}-gef eaUen) . Milton errs in prefixing it to a present participle : " What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones, The labour of an age in piled stones ? Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid Under a &t3.T-y pointing pyramid." — Epitaph on William Shakeipeare. And Shakespeare misuses it in " Y-ravished," a preterit (Pericles III, Prologue 1. 35). It survives in the archaic y-clept (Old English ge-olypod, called). It appears as a in aware (Old English ge-vraer), as e in enough (Old English ge-noh), and as i in handiwork (Old English hand-ge-Tveorc). 1 With intransitive verbs denoting change of condition, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of to be rather than to have. See § 139, Inflections. 17 and past participle by adding to the present stem a suffix ^ with d ox t: Modern English love, loved; sleep, slejit. Tlie stem of the preterit plural is nevei" different from the stem of the preterit singular ; hence these verbs have onlj' three distinctive tense-stems, or pv'm- cipal parts: viz., (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle. Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table : Pkbsent. Preterit. Past Participle. I. Fr^mman, to perform : Ic frgmWe, / perform or shaiCperform. Ic fr^m-ede, I per- formed. Ic hsebbe ge-irqm-ed, I have performed. II. Bodian, to proclaim : Ic bodi-e, I proclaim or shall proclaim. Ic bod-ode, I pro- claimed. Ic hsebbe ge-bod-od, / have proclaimed. III. Habban, to have : Ic hsebbe, / have or shall have. Ic haef-de, / had. Ic bsebbe ge-haef-d, I have had. 19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations mentioned. The most important of them are, Ic mseg I may, Ic mihte I might ; Ic C9n I can, Ic cu3e I could ; Ic mot I must, Ic moste I 1 The theory that loved, for example, is a fused form of love-did has been generally given up. The dental ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic sufBx, which became completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages. C 18 Introduction. must ; Ic sceal I shall, Ic sceolde I should , lo eom I am, Ic wges I was; Ic wille I will, Ic -wolde I ivould ; Ic do I do, Ic dyfle I did ; Ic ga /^o, Ic eode I went. All but the last four of these are known as Preterit- Present Verbs. The present tense of each of them is in origin a preterit, in function a present. Cf. Modern English ought (= owed'). CHAPTER IV. Order of Words. 20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the student will feel to be at all un-English ; and the Transposed order, even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place to the Normal order. The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and (3) Transposed. (1) Normal order = subject -|- predicate. In Old English, the Normal order is found chiefly in inde- pendent clauses. The predicate is followed by its modifiers : Se h-wrsel biS micle leessa ]}onne 68re h-walas. That whale is much smaller than other whales; Qnd he geseah twa scipu, And he saw two ships. (2) Inverted order = predicate -t- subject. This order occurs also in independent clauses, and is employed (a) when some modifier of the predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The Order of Words. 19 words most frequently causing Inversion in Old Eng- lish prose are Jja then, )>onne then, and Jjser there : Da for he, Then went he; Bonne aernaS &y ealle toweard Jjsem feo, Then gallop they all toward the property ; ao JjSr biS medo genoh, hut there is mead enough. Inversion is employed (6) in interrogative sentences: Lufast 3u me? Lovest thou me? and (c) in imperative sentences: Cume Sin rice, Thy kingdom come. (3) Transposed order = subject . . . predicate. That is, the predicate comes last in the sentence, being pre- ceded by its modifiers. This is the order observed in dependent clauses : ^ Donne oymeiS se man se )3set swif t- oste hor3 hafaS, Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse (literally, that the swiftest horse has') ; Ne mette he aei nan gebun land, si)});an he frQm his agnum ham for. Nor did he before find any cultivated land, after he went from his own home (literally, after he from his own home wenti). 21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief notice. (1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually pre- cede the predicate : He hine oferwann. He overcame him (literally, Me him overcame) ; Dryhten him andwyrde. The Lord answered him. But substantival datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. 1 But in the Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, in which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except in the case of substantival clauses introduced by J)set. Such clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal oratio recta order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative clause seems to have proved an important factor in the 20 Intro J action. Tlie following sentence illustrates both orders : Hy genamon loseph, (jnd hine gesealdon cipemgnnum, 9nd hy hine gesealdon in Egypta Iqnd, Thei/ took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt (literally, They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him sold into Egyptians'' land^. Note. — The same order prevails in the case of pronomhial nomi- natives used as predicate nouns : Ic hit eom, It is I (literally, / it am) ; DQ hit eart, It is thou (literally, Thoji it art) ■ (2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, usually precedes the noun which it quali- fies: Breoton is garsecges igland, Britain is an island of the ocean (literallj^ oceans island'); Swilce hit is eac berende on wfcga orum, Likewise it is also rich in ores of metals (literally, metals' ores') ; Cyninga cyning, JCing of kings (literally, Kings' king) ; Ge witon Godes rices geryne, Ye knoiv the mystery of the kingdom of Grod (literally, Ye know Grod's kingdom's mystery). A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the genitive : ^ On ealdra manna ssBgenum, In old men's sayings; ^t iSSra strsta ?ndum, At the ends of the streets (literally. At the streets' ends) ; For ealra iSinra halgena lufan, For all thy saints' love. See, also, § 94, (5). ultimate disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The influence of Norman Trench helped only to consummate forces that were already busily at work. 1 The positions of the genitive are various. It frequently follows its noun : Jja beam )3ara ASeniensa, The ehildre.n of the AtliPnians. It may separate an adjective and a noun : An lytel sSs earm, ^1 little arm nf {the) sea. The genitive may here be construed as an adjec- tive, or part of a compound = A little sra-arm ; Mid m9neguni Godes gifum, With many God-c/ifts = many divine gifts. Practical Suggestions. 21 CHAPTER V. Practical Suggestions. 22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and stimulating in proportion as close and constant com- parison is made of the old with the new. The guiding- principles in such a comparison are reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and (2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy. (1) "The former of these is of physiological or natural origin, and is perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same language; and even though different languages show different phonetic habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the particidar laws are true for many languages. (2) " The other principle is psychical, or mental, or artificial, introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and fitful."^ 1 Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, Second Series, § 342. But Jespersen, with CoUitz and others, stoutly contests ," the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between them to explain every- thing in linguistic development." 22 Introduction. (1) Vowel-Shiftings. 23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system into that of Modern English. (1) As stated in § 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to e. This e in Modern Eng- lish is frequently dropped : Old English. Middle English. Modern English. stan-as ston-es Stones sun-u sun-e son sun-a sun-e sons ox-an ox-en oxen swift-ra swifter swifter swift-ost swift-est swiftest loc-ode lok-ede looked (2) The old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to infer the Modern Eng- lish sound ; but our spelling is so chaotic that while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the modern symbol representing the sound. Old English. Modern English. r na = no ; stan = stone ; ban = bone; raA — road; a.c = oak; a o (as in raoM j hal = whole ; ham = home; sawan = to sow; gast = I ghost. ^ But Old English a preceded by w sometimes gives Modern English as in two : twa = two ; hwa = who ; hviram = whom. Practical Suggestions. 23 Old English. Modern Enqlish. e (as in he) i(y) i (y) (as in mine) (as in do) ou (ote) (as in thou) - ee, ea, eo ea. (as in sea) ' he = he ; w§ = we ; 3g = thee ; rae=me; ge = y«; bel=heel; ■werig = weai-y ; gelefan=to believe ; ges = geese. ' min = mine ; 3m = thine ; vnx = wire ; mys = mice ; rim = 7ime (wrongly spelt rhyme); lya = lice; bl=by ; scinan= to shine ; stig-rap = sty-rope (shortened to stirrup, Btigan meaning to mount). Ao = l (lo ; to = too, to; g6s = goose; t58=: tooth; mona= moon ; Aoni=doom ; m6d = mood; -wogian = to woo; sloh = I slew. '8vi= thou ; inl= foul; hus = house; im = now; hvi = how; tvin = town ; nie = our ; iit= out; hlud=loud ; 3iisend= thousand. S : Bee = sea ; msel = meal ; dEelan = to deal ; cleene = clean ; griedig = greedy. ea : eare = ear ; east = east ; diSa.vii= dream; sea.r=year; beatan = to beat. eo : Sreo = three ; dreorig = dreary; aeo = she ; hreod= reed ; deop =: < (2) Analogy. 24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, therefore, to 24 Introduction. Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the majorities. "The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence upon the smaller."! xhe effect of Analogy is to simplify and to regularize. "The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is group-influence, or Analogy — the 'influence exercised by the members of an association- group on one another. . . . Irregularity consists in partial isolation from an association-group through some formal difference."^ Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural end- ings for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted 3 that -as (Middle English -es) would soon take the lead, and become the norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were more an-plurals than as-plurals ; but the as- plurals were doubtless more often employed in every-- day speech. Oxen (Old English oxau) is the sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. 1 Whitney, Life and Growth of Language, Chap. IV". 2 Sweet, A New English Grammar, Part I., § 535. 3 As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer employed nine e»-plurals, and his influence served for a time to check the further encroa,chment of the es-plurals. As soon as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the operation of Analogy is fettered. Practical Suggestions. 26 No group of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular ending ; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines formed their genitive singular in -es (or -s, Modern English 's) after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with es-genitives. The weak preterits^ in -ode have all been leveled under the ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than two hundred have become weak. These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels) : Modern English -s in sons, for example, could not possibly be derived from Old English -a in suna, or Middle English -e in sune (§ 23, (1)). They are cases of replacement by Analogy. A few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the nature of the influence exercised by Analogy : (a) The intrusive I in could (Chaucer always wrote coud or coude} is due to association with would and should, in each of which I belongs by etymological light. (6) Se need not (for Jle needs not) is due to the assimilative influence of the auxiliaries mai/, can, etc., which have never added -s for their third person singular (§ 137). (e) / am friends with him, in which friends is a crystalized form for on good terms, may be traced to the influence of such expressions as He and I are friends. They are friends, etc. (cZ) Such errors as are seen in runned, seed, gooses, ladder, hisself, says I (usually coupled with says he) 26 Introduction. are all analogical formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to call these forms the products of "false analogy." The grammar in- volved is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions ; but the analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally. PAET II. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. The Strong ok Vowel Declensions of Nouns. The a-DECLENSION. CHAPTER VI. (a) Masculine a-Stems. [O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are self- explaining.] 25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or o-Declension of Latm and Greek, contains only (a) masculine and (6) neuter nouns. To this declen- sion belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns. At a very early period, many of the nouns belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the normal declension for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong Declension. 26. Paradigms of se maS, mouth; ss fiscere, fisher- man; se h-wael, whale; se mearh, horse; se finger, finger: 27 28 Etymology and Syntax. Sing. N.A. rau'S fiscer-e hwsel mearh finger^, G. mu^es fiscer-es hw88l-es mear-es fingr-es D.I. mu'S-e fiscer-e liwael-e hwal-as mear-e fingr-e Plur. N.A. mu'S-as fiscer-as mear-as fingr-as G. muiS-a fiscer-a hwal-a mear-a fingr-a D.I. muS-uni fisoer-um hwal-iim mear-um flngr-um No TE. ] For meanin igs of the cases, see § 12. The dative and instrumental are alike in all nouns. 27. The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in -e (fiscere) drop this letter before adding the case endings ; (2) that ae before a consonant (hwaei) changes to a in the plural ; ^ (3) that h, preceded by r (mearh) or 1 (seolh, seal), is dropped before an inflec- tional vowel, the stem vowel being then lengthened by way of compensation ; (4) that dissyllables (finger) hav- ing the first syllable long, generally syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding the case endings. ^ 28. Paradigm of the Definite Article^ se, seo, iSaet = the: 1 Adjectives usually retain se in closed syllahles, changing it to a in open syllahles: h-waet (active), glaed (glad), -wser (icanj) have G. hwates, glades, -wares ; D. hwatum, gladum, ■warum ; but A. hwsetne, glsedne, wseme. Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllahles followed by a guttural vowel, a or u. The se in the open syllables of the singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, both being closed syllables. ^Of. Mn.E. drizz'ling, rememb'ring, abysmal (abysm = abiz''m), sick'ning, in which the principle of syncopation is precisely the same. 3 This may mean four things: (1) The, (2) That (demonstrative), (3) He, s?ie, it, (4) Who, which, that (relative pronoun). Mn.E. de- monstrative that is, of course, the survival of O.E. neuter Saet in its demonstrative sense. Professor Victor Henry (Comparative Grammar of English and German, § 160, .3) sees a survival of dative plural demon- strative Seem in such an expression as in them days. It seems more probable, however, that them so used has followed the lead of Masculine a-Stems. 29 Masculine. Feminine. iVewJer. Sing. N. se (se) seo ■Sset G. «8es «£ere ■Sees D. t'Sm («am) •SSre ■5»m (Sam) A. Sone ■5a «8et I. ■Sy, «on All Genders. ■Sy, «on lur. N.A. «a a. ■Sara D. «J6m («am) 29. Vocabulary. 1 se booere, scribe [boc] . se cyning, king. se daeg, da!/. se fnde, end. se ^ngel, arajfe? [angelus]. se freodom, freedom. se fu^ol (G. sometimes fugles), bird [fowl]. se gar, spear [gore, gar- fish]. se heofon, heaven. se hierde, herdsman [shep-herd]. 9nd (and), and. se sfcg, man, warrior. se seolh, seal. se Stan, stone. se ■wealh, foreigner, Welshman [■wal-nut]. se Tweall, wall. se 'vriSdom, wisdom. se ■WTilf, looZ/. 30. Exercises. I. 1. Dara wulfa muSas. 2. Dees fisceres fingras. 3. Dara Weala cyninge. 4. DSm ^nglum ond S«m hierdvim. 5. Dara this and these, that and those, in tlieir double function of pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless some sucli evolution as, / saiv them. Them what 9 Them boys. An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the article is seen in the -ter of Atterbury (= aet Seere byrig, at the town) ; and Seem survives in thu -ten of Attenborough, the word borough having become an unlnilected neuter. Skeat, Principles, First Series, § 185. 1 The brackets contain etymological hints that may help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked. The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular. 30 Etymology and Syntax. daga §nde. 6. Dgem bocerum qnd Ssem s^cgum Sees cyninges. 7. Deem seole qnd SSeni fuglum. 8. Da stanas Qnd Sa garas. 9. Hwala Qnd meara. 10. Dara ^ngla wisdom. 11. Dees cyninges boceres freodom. 12. Dara hierda fuglum. 13. Dy stane. 14. DSm wealle. II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welsh- men's freedom. 3. Of the king's birds. 4. By the wis- dom of men and angels. 6. With the spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears. 7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of the scribe's wisdom. 9. The whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear. 10. For the bird belonging to (= of) the king's scribe. 11. Of that finger. CHAPTER VII. (&) Neuter a-Stems. 31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only in the N.A. plural. 32. Paradigms of 3aet hof, court, dwelling ; tSset beam, child ; Sset ban, bone ; Sset rice, kingdom. ; Saet spere, spear ; Saet werod, hand of men ; 3aet tungol, star: Sing. N.A. hof beam ban ric-e sper-e werod tungol G. hof-es bearn-ea ban-es ric-es sper-es werod-es tungl-es D.I. hof-e bearn-e bau-e ric-e sper-e werod-e tungl-e Plur. N.A. hof-u beam ban ric-u sper-u werod tungl-u ,' G. hof-a beam-a ban-a ric-a sper-a werod-a tungl-a D. I. hof-um beam-um ban-um ric-um sper-um werod-nm tungl-um 33. The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems (hof) take -u in the N.A. plural; (2) that Neuter siStems. 31 monosyllables with long stems (beam, ban) do not distin- guish the N. A. plural from the N. A. singular; ^ (3) that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or short (rice, spere), have -u in the N.A. plural ; (4) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable short ^ (werod) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a con- sonant and having the first syllable long (tungol) more frequently take -u in the N.A. plural. Note. — Syncopation occurs as in tlie masculine a-stems. See § 27, (4). 34. Present and Preterit Indicative of habban, to have : Present. Sing. 1. Ic haebbe, I have, or shall have.^ 2. 3u haefst (hafast), thou hast, or wilt have. 3. he, heo, hit haefS (hafaS), he, she, it has, or will have. Flur. 1. we habbaS, we have, or shall have. 2. ge habbaS, ye have, or will have. 3. hie habba3, they have, or will have. Pee TE KIT. Sing. 1. Ic hsefde, / had. 2. 3ii hsefdest, thou hadst. 3. he, heo, hit haefde, he, she, it had. Flur. 1. Tve haefdon, we had. 2. ge hcefdon, ye had. 3. hie haefdon, they had. I Note the many nouns in Mn.T;. tiiat are unchanged in the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems, swine, sheep, deer, folk, or analogical forms, fish, trout, mackerel, salmon, etc. '^ Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, of course, ex- cluded. They follow the declension of their last member: gebed, prayer, gebedu, prayers ; gefeoht, battle, gefeoht, battles. 3 See § 17, Note 1. Note that (as in hwael, § 27, (2)) ae changes to a when the following syllable contains a : haebbe, but hafast. 32 Etymology and Syntax. Note. —The negative ne, not, which always precedes its verb, contracts with all the forms of habban. The negative loses its e, habban its h. Ne + habban = nabban ; Ic ne haebbe = lo ngebbe ; Ic ne haefde = Ic nsefde, etc. The negative forms may be gotten, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h. 35. VOCABULAEY. Saet dsel, dale. 8aet deor, animal [deer^]. iSaet dor, door. Sset fset, vessel [vat]. Saet fyr, fire. Sset gear, tjear. iSaet geoc, yoke. @set geset, habitation [set- tlement], Saet heafod, head. 3aet hus, house. Saet lie, body [lich-gate]. Sset lim, limb. on (with dat.) ire. Saet spor, track. Sset -wEepen, vieapon. Saet -wif , wife, woman. Sast vrite, punishment. iSaet word, word. 36. Exercises. I. 1. He hafaS Sses cyninges beam. 2. Da Wealas hab- baS Sa speru. 3. Da wIf habbaS Sara s^cga wSpnu. 4. Du hsef st ^one fugol gnd 'SiBt bus tSses hierdes. 6. HeefS ^ heo 8a fatu^? 6. Haefde he Sses wifes lie on SSm hofe ? 7. He asefde Saes wlfes lie ; he haefde Sees deores heafod. 8. HaefS se cyniiig gesetu on SSm daele ? 9. Se bocere hsef tJ Sa seolas on Seem huse. 10. Ge habbaS freodom. II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have (= Had the woman) the children ? 5. The animal has the body of the woman's child. 6. I shall have 1 The old meaning survives in Shakespeare's " Rats and mice and such small deer," King Lear, III, 4, 144. 2 See § 20, (2), (6). » See § 27, (2). The o-Declension. 33 the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king's houses. 8. Have not (= NabbaS) the children the warrior's weapons ? CHAPTER VIII. The 6-Declension. 37. The 6-Declension, corresponding to the First or a-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. JNIany feminine i-stems and u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The 6-Declension may, therefore, be considered the normal declension for all strong feminine nouns. 38. Paradigms of seo giefu, gift; seo wund, wound; seo rod, cross; seo leornung, learning ; seo sawol, soul: Sing. N. gief-u^ wund rod leornung sawol G. giefle wund-e rod-e leornung^aje) sawl-e D.I. gief-e wund-e rod-e leornung-a (e) sawl-e A. gief-e wund-e rod-e leomung-a (e) sawl-e ur. N.A. gief-a wund-a rod-a leornung-a sawl-a G. gief-a wund-a rod-a leornung-a sawl-a D.I. gief-um wund-um rod-um leornung-um sawl-um 39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (giefu) take u in the nominative singular ; (2) that monosyllables v/ith long stems (wund, rod) pre^sent the unchanged stem in the nominative singular ; (3) that dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns in -ung prefer a to e in the singular. Note. — Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems, See § 27, (4). 34 Etymology and Syntax. 3EI f T (first form) . Pbesent (second form). Preteuit. 1. Ic eom 1. Ic beom 1. Ic wses 2. ■Su eart 2. «ubist 2. iSa wsere 3. he is 3. hebiS 3. he wses 1. we 1. we 1. we 2. gs sind (on), sint 2. ge beo« 2. ge wSron 3. We 3. hie. 3. hie. 40. Present and Preterit Indicative of beon (wesan), to he: Sing. Plur. Note 1. — The forms beom, bist, etc. are used chieflj' as future tenses in O.E. They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson's Promise of May, uses 6e for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and plural ; and there he is frequent in Shakespeare for there are. The Northern dialect employed aron as well as sindon and sind for the present plural ; hence Mn.E. are. Note 2. — Fusion with ne gives neom and nis for the present; nses, neere, neeron for the preterit. Note 3. — The verb to be is followed by the nominative case, as in Mn.E. ; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the predicate noun. The neuter singular Saet is frequently employed in this construction : Dset -wjeron eaU Finnas, They were all Fins ; Daet Bind ^nglas. They are angels; BSet weeron ^ngla gastas. They were angels' spirits. Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say It is I, It is thou, but 1 it am, Thou it art: Ic hit eom, Su hit eart. See § 21, (1), Note 1. 41. see brycg, bridge. seo coBtnung, temptation. seo cwalu, death [quail, quell]. seo for, journey [f aran] . Beo frofor, consolation, comfort. Vocabulary. Beo geoguS, youth. seo glof, glove. seo halignes i holiness. seo heall, hall. her, here. 1 All words ending in -nes double the -s before adding the case endings. The i-Declension. 35 hwt, who? h-wsBT, where? seo lufu, love. seo mearc, boundary [mark, marches i] . seo med, meed, reward. Beo mildbeortnes, mild-hearted- ness, mercy. seo stow, place [stow away] . 3Sr, there. seo Searf, need. seo ■wylf, sAe wolf. 42. Exercises. I. 1. HwSr is tSSre brycge ^nde ? 2. Her sind Sara rica mearca. 3. Hwa lisef S fa glof a ? 4. Daer biS tSaem cyninge frofre t5earf. 5. Seo wund is on Ssere wylfe heafde. 6. Ws habbaS costnunga. 7. Hie neeron on Sffire healle. 8. Ic bit neom. 9. Dset weeron Wealas. 10. Daet sind tSaes wifes beam. II. 1. We shall have the ■women's gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3. He will be in the hall. 4. Those (Oaet) were not the boundaries of the kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the king's scribes. 7. The shepherd's words are full (full + gen.) of wisdom and comfort. 8. Where are the bodies of the children? 9. The gifts are not here. 10. Who has the seals and the birds ? CHAPTER IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension. The /-Declension. (See § 58.) 43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of i-stems in the classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (a) masculine and (J) feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e (from older i). 1 As in vxirdon of the marches. 36 Etymology and Syntax. (a) Masculine /-Stems. 44. These stems have ahiiost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular. 45. Paradigms of se wyrm, worm ; se wine, friend. Sing. N.A. wyrm win-e G. wyrm-es win-es D.I. wyrm-e win-e Phir. N.A. wyrm-as win-as (e) G. wyrm-a win-a D.I. wyrm-um win-um Names of Peoples. 46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural. 47. Paradigms of Sa ^ngle, Angles; 3a NorSymbre, Northumbrians ; Sa leode, people : Plur. N.A. ^ngle NortSymbre leode G. !gngla NoriSymbra , leoda D.I. ^nglam ' Nor'Symbruin leodum (V) Feminine /-Stems. 48. The short stems (fr^m-u) conform entirely to the declension of short 6-stems ; long stems (cwen, wyrt) differ from long o-stems in having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, a preference for -e rather than -a in the N.A. plural. The u-Declension. ,37 49. Paradigms of seo fi-?m-u, benefit; seo cwen, woman, queen [quean] ; seo wyrt, root [wort] : Sing. N. fr^m-a cwen wyrt a. fryn-e cwen-e wyrt-e D.I. fr^m-e cwen-e wyrt^e A. fr^m-e cwen wyrt Plur. N.A. fr^m-a cwen-e (a) wyrt-e (a) G. fr§m-a cwen-a wyrt-a D.I. fr^in-um owen-um "wyrl^um The tf-Declension. 50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (a) masculines and (5) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders (sun-u, dur-u) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the long stems (feld, h(jnd) drop it. The influence of the mas- culine a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the u-Declension (feld, feld-es, etc.). Note. — Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final -u: cf. N.A. plural hof-u, hut beam, ban; N. singular gief-u, but -wimd, rod; N. singular fr^m-u, but cwen, wyrt; N.A. singular sun-u, dur-u, but feld, hQnd. (a) Masculine «- Stems. 51. Paradigms of se sun-u, son; se felA, field: Sing. N.A. sun-u feld G. sun-a feld-a (es) D.I. sun-a feld-a (e) Plur. N.A. sun-a feld-a (as) a. sun-a feld-a D.L sun-um feld-um 38 Etymology and Syntax. 52. (h) Feminine «-Stems. Paradigms of seo dur-u, door ; sgo hqnd, hand: 53. P beo, hit Sing. N.A. dur-u hgnd a. dur-a hgnd-a D.I. dur-a hgnd-a Plur. N.A. dur-a h(jnd-a G. dur-a hQud-a D.I. dur-um hijnd-um aradigm 3f the Third Personal Prone = he, she., it: Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Sing. JSr. he • heo hit G. his hiere his D. him hiere him A. hlne, hiene hie hit All Genders. Plur. N.A. hie a. hiera D. him 54. (i-STEMS.) Be cierr, turn, time [char, chare, chore] . seo deed, deed. se dSl, part [a great deal]. 3a D^ne, Danes. se freondscipe, friendship. seo hyd, skin, hide. Sa iQndleode, natives. Sa Mierce, Merciar}s. 3a Rom'ware, Romans. Vocabulary. 3a Seaxe, Saxons. se st^de, place [in-stead of]. (u-Stems.) seo flor, floor. seo nosu, nose. se sumoi (6?. sumeres, D. su- mera), summer. se winter (G. wintres, D. -win- tra), winter. s§ ■wudu, wood, forest. Note. — The numerous masculine nouns ending in -had, — cild- had (childhood), wifhad (womanhood'), — belong to the u-stems his- torically ; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. ' 39 55. Exercises. I. 1. Da Seaxe habbaS Saes deores liyd on SSm wuda. 2. Hwa heefS tsa giefa? 3. Da Mierce hie' habba«. 4. Hw»r is tSees Weales fugol ? 5. Da D^ne hiene hab- baS. 6. Hwaer sindon hiera winas ? 7. Hie sindon on Sees cyninges wuda. 8. Da Romware Qnd Sa Seaxe hsef- don 6a garas Qnd 8a geocu. 9. Heo is on t5gem huse on wiutra, (jnd on SSm feldum on sumera. 10. Hweer is Sses hofes duru ? 11. Heo^ (= seo duru) nis her. II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the Danes. 2. Art thou the king's son? 3. Has she her' gifts in her^ hands? 4. Here are the fields of the natives. 5. AVho had the bird? 6. I had it.'' 7. The child had the worni in his' iingers. 8. The Mercians were here during (the) summer (on + dat.). CHAPTER X. Present Indicative Endings oe Strong Verbs. 56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by dropping -an of the infinitive : feall-an, to fall; ceos-an, to choose; bid-an, to abide. 57. The personal endings are : Sing. 1. -e Plur. 1. 2. -est 2. -aS 3. -e3 3. 1 See § 21, (1). 2 Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which they stand. Hit, however, sometimes stands for inanimate things of both mascu- line and feminine genders. See Wulfing {I.e.) I, § 238. 3 See § 76 (last sentence). 40 Etymology and Syntax. /■-Umlaut. 58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -eS, but -is and -iS ; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though unac- cented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, a form of regressive assimi- lation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced odm-lowt). The vowel i or j (= y}, being itself a palatal, suc- ceeded in palatalizing every guttural vowel that pre- ceded it, and in imposing still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already palatal. ^ The changes produced were these : a became ?(8e): mfim «*mann-iz), men. Snig (<*an-ig), any. ■royllen « *mxill-in), woollen. mys (<*mus-iz), mice. d^hter (<*dohtr-i), to or for the daughter. fet «*f6t-iz), feet. wiezS « *weax-i3), he grows (■weaxan=Jo grow). hiewS (<*heaw-i8), he hews (hea'wan=to hew). ■wiercan (< *-weorc-jan) , to work. liehtan (<*leoht-jan), to \ a ' ' SB u ' ' y u ' ' y o ' ' ? 6 ' e ea ' ie ea ' ' ie eo ' ' ie eo ' ie The Unchanged Present Indicative. 59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined to the present 1 The palatal vowels and diphthongs were long or short ae, e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the guttural vowels were long or short a, o, u. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 41 stem without modification eitlier of the stem itself or of the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for. In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular : Sing. 1. 2. 3. Ic feall-e (I fall) ■Su feall-est he feall-e« ceos-e {I choose) ceos-est ceos-e'S bid-e (7 ahiile) bid-est bid-e« Plur. 1. 2. 3. we ' ge feall-atS hie . ceos-atS bld-a« The Present Indicative with /'-Umlaut and Contraction. 60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distin- guished from the other forms of tlie present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1) i-umlaut of the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of the vowel of the ending, giv- ing -St and -3 for -est and -e8, and (3) contraction of -St and -3 with the final consonant or consonants of the stem. Contraction. 61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative of such verbs as (1) stQndan (= standan), to stand, (2) cuman, to come, (3) growan, to grow, (4) brucan, to enjoy, (5) blawan, to blow, (6) feallan, to fall, (7) heawan, to heiv, (8) weorpan, to throw, and (9) ceosan, to choose, 42 Etymology and Syntax. become respectively (1) st§nd-,i (2) oym-, (3) grew-, (4) bryo-, (5) blSw-, (6) Sell-, (7) hiew-, (8) wierp-, and (9) cies-. If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d and 3d singular to i (ie) : cweSan to say, stem cwi3- ; beran to hear, stem bier-. But this mutation 2 had taken place long before the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in gen- eral. It is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms proper. If, now, the syncopated endings -st and -3 are added directly to the umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants as almost to defy pronunciation : cwiS-st, thou say est ; stf nd-st, thou standest, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice, become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however, must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the present indicative : 1 The more common form for stems with a is ae rather than § : faran, to go, 2d and 3d singular stem faer-; sacan, to contend, stem 83BC-. Indeed, a changes to g via se (Cosijn, AUwests'dchsische Grammatik, I, § 32). 2 Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony has the advan- tage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It was proposed by Professor Victor Henry (Comparative Grammar of EnrjUsh and Ger- man, Paris, 1894), but has not been naturalized. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 43 (1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is dropped : 1. feall-e {I fall) 1. winn-e {I fight) 1. swimm-e {I swim) 2. fiel-st 2. win-st 2. swim-st 3. fiel-« 3. win-« 3. swim-'S (2) If the stem ends in -3, this is dropped : 1. cwelS-e (7 say) 1. weoT«-e (7 6ecome) 2. cwi-st 2. wier-st 3. owi-« 3. wier-S (3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The -3 of the ending is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the 2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular : 1. st(jnd-e ( = stand-e) (7 sJaud) 1. bind-e (7 6i)id!) 2. st^nt-st 2. bint-st 3. st^nt 3. bint 1. bid-e {I abide) 1. rid-e (I ride) 2. bit-st 2. rit-st 3. bit (-t) 3. rit (-t) (4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are added as in (3), -3 being again changed to -t and absorbed : 1. breot-e (7 6reo!i) 1. feoht^e (I fight) 1. bit-e (7 6rtc) 2. briet-st 2. fieht^st 2. bit-st 3. briet (-t) 3. fieht 3. bit (-t) (5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before -St (to avoid -sst), but is retained before -3, the latter being changed to -t. Thus the 2d and 3d singulars are identical : ^ 1 This liappens also whein the infinitive stem ends in at : 1. berst^e (I burst) 2. bier-st 3. bierst. 44 Etymology and Syntax. 1. ceos-e (/ c7ioose) 1. ris-e (/rise) 2. cie-st 2. ri-st 3. cies-t 3. ris-t 62. Exercises. I. 1. Se cyning fielS. 2. Da wif ceosa'5 6a giefa. 3. Du st^ntst on Seem huse. 4. He wierpS <5£et waepen. 5. Se s^cg hiewS tSa lie. 6. Dset saed grewS Qnd wiexS (Mark iv. 27). 7. Ic stgnde her, gnd Su st^ntst tSSr. 8. " Ic hit eom,'' cwi^S he. 9. Hie beraS Sees wulfes ban. 10. He hie bint, ond ic hine binde. 11. Ne ritst Su ? II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child's gifts? 3. "He was not here," says she. 4. Wilt thou remain in the hall ? 6. The wolves are biting (= bite) the fishermen. 6. He enjoys ' the love of his children. 7. Do you enjoy (=Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the scribe? 8. Will he come? 9. I shall throve the spear, and thou wilt bear the weapons. 10. The king's son will become king. 11. The army (werod) is breaking the doors and walls of the house. CHAPTER XI. The Consonant Declensions of Nouns. The Weak or n-Declension. 63. The n-Declensioii contains almost all of the O.E. nouns belonging to the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic n has been preserved in the oblique ' Brucan, to enjoy, takes the genitive case, not the accusative. It means "to have joy o/ anything." The Consonant Declensions of Nouns. 45 cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing n-stems from the preceding vowel stems. The n-Declension includes (a) masculines, (J) femi- nines, and (c) neuters. The masculines far outnumber the feminines, and the neuters contain only eage, eye and eare, ear. The masculines end in -a, the feminines and neuters in -e. 64. Paradigms of (a) se hunta, hunter ; (If) seo tunge, tongue ; (c) Saet gage, eye : Sing. N. hunt-a tung-e eag-e O.D.I. hunt-an tung-an eag-an A. hunt-an tung-an eag-e Plur. N.A. liunt^an tung-an eag-an G. hunt^eiia tung-ena eag-ena D.I. liunt-um tung-um eag-um Vocabulary. 65, se adesa, hatchet, adze. se eemetta, leisure [empt-iness]. se bQna (bana), murderer [bane]. seo cirice, church [Scotch kirk]. se cnapa (later, cnafa), boy [knave]. se cuma, stranger [comer]. Saet eare, ear. seo eorSe, earth. se gefera, companion [co-farer]. se guma, man [bride- groom i]. seo heorte, heart. se mona, moon. seo nsedre, adder [a nadder > an adder 2]. se oxa, ox. se sceowyrhta, shoe-maker [slioe- wriglit]. seo s\inne, sun. se teona, injury [teen]. biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing 8), to request, ask for. cwelan, to die [quail]. 1 The r is intrusive in -groom, as it is in cart-r-idge, part-r-idge, vag-r-ant, and hoa-r-se. 2 The n has been appropriated by the article. Cf. an apron (< a napron), an auger (< a nauyi'f), an orange (< a norange), an umpire (< a numpire). ' In Mn.E, we say " I request a favor of you " ; but in O.E. it was 46 Etymology and Syntax. gescieppan, to create [shape, ■land-scape, friend-ship]. giefan (with dat. of indirect ob- ject), to give. healdan, to hold. helpan (with dat.) , to help. BC^SSan (with dat.), to injure [soatlie], wiSstQndan (-standan) (with dat.), to withstand. ■writan, to write. 66. Exercises. I. 1. Se sceowyrhta brycS his smettan. 2. Da guman biddaS Ssem cnapan Sees adesan. 3. Hwa is se cuma? 4. Hielpst t5u Seem bgnan ? 6. Ic him lie helpe. 6. Da beam sc^SSaS tSses b(jiiaii eagiim ond earum. 7. Se cuma cwiel(5 on tSaere cirican. 8. Se hunta wiSst^nt tSsem wulfum. 9. Da oxan beratS cSaes cnapan geferan. 10. Se mona ond 6a tunglu sind on SSm heofonum. 11. Da hiintan healdaS SSre nSdran tungan. 12. He hiere giefS 5a giefa. 13. Da werod sc^SSaS Saes cyninges feldum. II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The boy's companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6. The adder's tongue injures the king's companion. 7. The sun is the day^s eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. 9. The men's bodies are not here. 10. Is he not (Nis he) the child's murderer? 11. Who creates the bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He is not writing. "I request you (dative) of a favor" (genitive). Cf. Cymbeline, III, 6, 92 : " We'll mannerly demand thee of thy story." Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 47 CHAPTER XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 67- The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may be divided as follows: (1) The foot Declension, (2) r-Stems, and (3) nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence, wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being then dropped. 68. (1) The nouns belonging to the foot Declension exhibit umlaut most consistently in the N.A. plural. Sing. X.A. se fot {foof) se mgu {man) 'se tolS (tooth) seo cu (cow) Pliir. N.A. fet m^n t&S cy Note. — The dative singular usually has the same form as the N.A. plural. Here belong also seo boc {book), seo burg {borough), seo gos (goose), seo liis (louse), and seo mils (mouse), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only six of the foot Declension plurals : feet, men, teeth, geese, lice, and mice; The c in the last two is an artificial spelling, Intended to preserve the sound of voiceless s. Mn.E. kine (= cy-en) is a double plural formed after the analogy of weak stems ; Bums in The Twa Dogs uses kye. No umlaut is possible in seo niht (night) and se monaS (month), plural niht and mona3 (preserved in Mn.E. twelvemonth and fort- night). (2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit umlaut of the dative singular. Sing. N.A. sefaader sSbrS^or sSomOdor s6odohtor sSoswuster i^faiher) {hroih&r) {mother) {daughter) {sister) D. fseder breSer meder d^hter swyster Note. — The N.A. plural i.s usually the same as the N.A. singular. These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i. Cf. Lat. dative singularpairi, frdtri, mdtri, sorori(<.*sosori), and Greek evyarpl. 48 Etymology and Syntax. (3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in the dative singular: Sing. N.A. se freond {friend) sS feond {enemy) D. Mend fiend Flur. N.A. friend fiend Note. — Mn.E. friend and fiend are interesting analogical spell- ings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals friend and fii^nd, thus giving the double plurals friends and fiends, a second singular was formed by dropping the s. Thus friend and fiend displaced the old singulars frend and fend, both of which occur in the M.E. Ormulum, written about the year 1200. Summary of O.E. Declensions. 69. A brief, ^¥orking summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now be made on the basis of gender. All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or (3) neuter. (1) The masculines follow the declension of mu3 (§ 26), except those ending in -a, which are declined like hunta (§ 64) : Sing. N.A. mvcS N hunta G. muSes G.D.A. huntan D.I. mil-Se I huntan Flur. N.A. miifias huntan G. mu'Sa huntena D.I. milium huntum (2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of hof (§ 32) ; the long-stemmed, that of beam (§ 32) : Sing. N.A. hof beam G. hofes bearnes D.I. hofe bearne Flur. N.A. hofu beam G. hofa bearna D.I. hofum bearnum Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 49 (3) The feminines follow the declensions of giefu and wund (§ 38) (the only difference being in tlie N. ■singular), except those ending in -e, which follow the declension of tunge (§ 64) : Sing. N. G. D.l. A. Plur. N.A. G. D.L giefu giefe giefe giefe giefa giefa giefum wund tunge wunde tungan wunde tungan wunde tungan wunda tuqgan wunda tungena wundum tungum 70. Vocabulary. ac, but. biitan (with dat.), except, hut, without. Be Crist, Christ. se eorl, earl, alderman, warrior. 3aet Englalpnd, England [An- gles' land]. faran, to go [fare]. findan, to find. se God, God. hatan, to call, name, se hlaford, lord [hlaf-TiT-eard]. mid (with dat.), with. on (with ace.), on, against, into. to (with dat.), to. uton (with infin.), let us. Note. — O.E. niQn (man) is frequently used in an indefinite .sense for one, people, they. It thus takes the place of a passive construction proper: And man nam )ja gebrotu pe Jjar belifon, tw^flf cypan fulle. And there were taken up of fragments that remained there twelve baskets full ; but more literally. And one (or they) took the fragments, etc. ; Ond Haestenes 'wTf ijnd his suna twegen raqxi brohte to Qeera cyninge. And Hxsten's wife and his two sons were brought to the king. 71. Exercises. I. 1. Mon hine hgt ^Elfred. 2. Uton faran on Saet scip. 3. God is cyninga cyning Qnd hlaforda hlaford. 4. Se eorl ne gief(5 giefa his fiend. 6. Ic nses mid his friend. 6. Seo modor faert5 mid hiere d^hter on Sa burg. 7. Fiutst Sii ^Sajs 50 Etymology and Syntax. boceres b6c? 8. He bint ealle (all) Sa deor butan Sgein wulfum. 9. Du eart Crist, Godes sunu. 10. " Uton bindan ?5aes bgnan fet," cwiS he. II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Caed- mon. 3. He throws his spear against the door. 4. Thou art not the earl's brother. 5. He will go with his father to England, but I shall remain (abide) here. 6. Gifts are not given to murderers. 7. Who will find the tracks of the animals ? 8. They ask their lord for his weapons (§ 65, Note 3). CHAPTER XIII. Pronouns. (1) Personal Pronouns. 72. Paradigms of ic, /; Sfi, thou. see 5 53. For he, heo, hit, Sing. N. ic m G. mln •Sin D. me ■Se A. me (meo) «e («eo) Dual N. wit (we two) git (ye two) a. unoer (of us two) incer (of you two) D. unc (to or for ■ us two) ino (to or for you two) A. uno (us two) inc (you two) Plur. N. we ge G. user (ure) eower D. lis Sow A. us (asic) eow (eowio) Note 1. — The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No relic of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, the dual is consistently used in O.E. An example occurs in the case ■Pronouns. 51 of the two blind men (^Matthew ix. 27-31) : Gemiltsa unc, Davides Bunu ! Pity us, (thou) Son of David ! Sie inc aefter incrum gelea- fan, Be it unto you according to your faith. Note 2. — Mn.E. ye ( heht > het. Note 2. — A peculiar interest attaches to hatan : the forms hatte and hatton are the sole remains in O.E. of the original Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits : hatte = / am or was called, he is or was called. No other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in the aid of the verb to be (§ 141)- gehat-en, 80 Etymology and Syntax. Contract Verbs. 118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class ; they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthen- ing being the result. The following are the most important of these verbs : Classes. feeSie-en I. 8eon«*3xhan), Sah, 8ig-on, { ^^3^^,^^ II. teon (<*teohan), teah, tug-on, getog-en, to thrive. to draw, go [tug]. to see. to slay. to seize [fang]. 119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of i-umlaut, § 58): V. seon (<*seh-wan), seah, sa^w-on, gesew-en, VI. Blean(<*slahan), sloh, slog-on, geslaeg-en, VII. fon «*fohan), feng, feng-on, gefQng-en, Sing. 1 . Ic 'Seo teo seo slea fo 2. ISu «ihst tiehst siehst sliehst fehst 3. he «ili-5 tieh'S sieh^ slieh« feh-S Plur. 1. we 2. ge ■See's teo« seo« slea'S fo« 3. hie . The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the give n stems. 120. VOCABTJLARy. seo aeht, properly, possession [agan]. a'weg, away [on iweg]. seo fierd, English army [faran]. se hfre, Danish army [h^rgian]. on gehw^aeSre bcjnd, on both sige niman (= sige habban), to win (the) victory. seo spraec, speech, language. Contract Verbs. 81 to rice fon, to come to the throne.'^ Sset -waEl [Val-lialla] l slaughter, se 'waelsliht, J carnage. se -weall, loall, rampart. Sset -wildor, wild beast, reindeer. se •wingeard, vineyard. abrecan,2 abraec, abrsecon, abrocen, to break down. cweSan, cwaeS, cwEedon, gecweden, to say [quoth]. geseon, geseab, gesa-ro-on, gesewren, to see. gro-wan, greow, greoiwon, gegrowen, to grow. oislean, ofsloh, ofslogon, ofslsegen, to slay. sprecan, spraec, spreecon, gesprecen, to speak. Btelan, stael, stolon, gestolen, to steal. stQndan, stod, stodon, gestQnden, to stand. ■weaxan, vreoz, 'weozoh, gevrecixen, to grow, increase [wax]. 121. Exercises. I. 1. ^fter tSeem soSlice (indeed.) ealle m^n sprsecon aiie (one) spreece. - 2. Qnd he cwEetS : " Dis is an f olc, 9nd ealle hie sprecatJ ane spraece." 3. On summn stowum wingeardas growaS. 4. He het tSa nsedran ofslean. 5. Da l^ngle abree- con Sone Igngan weall, Qnd sige nomon. 6. Qnd Sset seed greow (jnd weox. 7. Ic ne geseah Sone rnqn se t5e 6ses enapan adesan stsel. 8. He waes swySe spedig man on ^eem Shtum tJe hiera speda on' heaS, Saet is, on wildrum. 9. Qnd SSr wearS (was) micel waelsliht on gehwseSre hond. 10. Qnd aefter Sissum gefeohte, com J51fred cyning mid his fierde, 9nd gefeaht wiS ealne Sone h^re, ond sige nom. 11. Decs burg hatte^^scesdtin (Ashdown). 12. DSre cwene lie laeg on Saem huse. 13. Qnd se deal t5e SSr aweg com wses swySe lytel. 14. Qnd isss Sreotiene dagas jESered to rice feng. II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. 2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. ' Literally, to take to (the) kingdom. Of. " Have you anything to take to?" (Two Gentlemen of Verona, IV, 1, 42). ^ Brecan belongs properly in Class V, but it has been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r in the root. 3 See §94, (5). ' See § 117, Note 2. . o 82 Etymology and Syntax. 3. They said (s^don) that all the men spoke one language. 4. They bore the queen's body to Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without to) before he went away. 6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things. 8. The boy held the reindeer with (mid) his hands. 9. About six months afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10. He said that there was very great slaughter on both sides. CHAPTER XXI. Weak Verbs (§ is). 122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the grow- ing conjugation in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We in- stinctively put our newly coined or borrowed words into this conjugation (telegraphed, boycotted); and children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say runned for ran, seed for saw, teared for tore, drawed for drew, and growed for grew. So, for example, when Latin dictdre and hrevidre came into O.E., they came as weak verbs, dihtian and brefian. The Three Classes of Weak Verbs. 123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infini- tive alone, to which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so invaded by Class II Weak Verbs. 83 that but three important verbs remain to it : habban, to have; libban, to live; and slogan, to say. Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Clashes II and I. Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs ; that is, those witli infinitive in -r-ian and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian). Class I. 124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively. Note. — The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (= -Ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending in a double consonant (§ 115, Note 2). The weak verb is frequently the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular of the strong verb : Mn.E. drench {=to make drink), lay (=to make lie), rear (= to make rise), and set (= to make sit), are the umlauted forms of drqnc (preterit singular of drincan), Iseg (preterit singular of licgan), raa (preterit singular of risan), and saet (preterit singu- lar of sittan). Preterit and Past Participle in -ede and -ed. 125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double consonants mm, nn, bs, bb, eg (= gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single : ri: n^ri-an, n§r-ede, gen^r-ed, to save. mm: frfmm-an, fr§m-ede, gefrgm-ed, to perform [frame]. nn : 3^nn-an, 3^n-ede, geS^n-ed, to extend. as : cnyss-an, cnys-ede, gecnys-ed, to beat. 84 Etymology and Syntax. bb : s'w^bb-an, sv7f f-ede, gesw^f-ed, to put to sleep. eg : w^cg-an, w^g-ede, gew§g-ed, to agitate. Note. — Lfcgan, to lay, is the only one of these verbs that synco- pates the e: l^cgan, l^gde (lede), gel^gd (geled), instead of Ifgede, gel^ged. Preterit and Past Participle in -de and -ed. 126. All tlie other verbs belonging to Class I. add -de for the preterit and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all stems long by nature (§ 10, (3), (a)) : deel-an, djel-de, gedsel-ed, to deal out, divide [deel]. dem-an, dem-de, gedem-ed, to judge [dom]. gret-an, gret-te, gegret-ed, to greet. hier-an, Mer-de, gehier-ed, to hear. Ised-an, l^d-de, gelEed-ed, to lead. Note 1. — A preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note) changes -de into -te : *gret-de > gret-te ; *met-de > met-te ; *iec-de > iec-te. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the participles : gegret-ed > *gegret-d > gegret(t) ; geleed-ed > gelEed(d). Note 2. — Buan, to dwell, cultivate, has an admixture of strong forms in the past participle : biian, bude, gebiid (byn, gebun). The present participle survives in Mn.E. husband = house-dweller. 127. It includes, also, all stems long by position (§ lO, (3), (5)) except those in mm, un, ss, bb, and eg (§ 125) : Bfnd-an, s?nd-e, gesfnd-ed, to send. s§tt-an, s^t-te, ges§t-ed, to set [sittan]. sigl-an, sigl-de, gesigl-ed, to sail. spfnd-an, spfnd-e, gesp^nd-ed, to spend. tr^dd-an, tr^d-de, getr^d-ed, to tread. Note. — The participles frequently undergo syncope and contrac- tion : ges^nded > ges^nd ; ges^ted > ge8§t(t) ; gesp^nded > gespfnd ; getrf ded > getr^d(d). Weak Verbs. 85 Irregular Verbs of Class I. 128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d ; but, through the influ- ence of a preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note), -ed is generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these verbs are as follows : bring-an, broh-te, gebroh-t, to bring. byc-gan, boh-te, geboh-t, to buy. sec-an, s6h-te, gesoh-t, to seek. s§U-an, seal-de, geseal-d, to give, sell [hand-sel]. taec-an, teeh-te, geteeh-t, to teach. t^ll-an, teal-de, geteal-d, to count [tell]. 3fnc-an, 36h-te, geiSoh-t, to think. Sync-an, 3uh-te, ge3uh-t, to seem [methinks]. wyrc-an, worh-te, geworh-t, to work. Note. — Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently written with an inserted e : bycgean, secean, t^cean, etc. This e indicates that c and g have palatal value ; that is, are to be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c usually passes into Mn.E. ch : taBc(e)an > to teach ; rSc(e)an > to reach ; strg cc(e)an > to stretch. Sec(e)an gives beseech as well as seek. See § 8. Conjugation of Class I. 129. Paradigms of n^rlan, to save; frfmman, to per- form; dselan, to divide: Indicative. Present. Sing. 1. Ic n^rie fr^mme d»le 2. M n^rest fr^mest dslst 3. he n^re« fr^me« d^l« Plur. 1. we ] 2. ge n^riaS fr^mmatS dsla'S 3. hie 86 Etymology and Syntax. Preterit. Sing. 1. Ic n ^rede fr^mede d»kle 2. «u n^redest fr^medest dSldest 3. hen ^rede fr^mede dslde Plm: 1. we' 2. gs ' n^redon f r^medon djeldon 3. hie Subjunctive. Sing. 1. lo Present. 2. «u n^rie fr^mme dsele 3. he , PZur. 1. we " 2. ge ■ n^rien fr^mmen dEelen 3. hie ^ Sing. 1. Ic Preterit. 2. m ■ n^rede fr^mede d»lde 3. he , PZto'. 1. we ' 2. ge n^reden fr^meden dselden 3. hie Imperative. /Sinsr. 2. n^re fr^me dsel Flur. 1. n^ri an fr^mman dielan 2. n^ri a'5 fr^mma'S Infinitive. d£ela« n^rian fr^mman Gerund. dselan rianne (- aims) to fr^mmanne (-enne) Present Participle. to dselanne (-enne) n^riende fr^mmende Past Participle. djelende gen^red gefr^med gedEeled Weak Verbs. 87 Note. — The endings of the preterit present no diiBoulties ; in the 2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe (a) that double consonants in the stem are made single : fr^mest, fr^meS (not *lr^mmeat, *fr^mme3) ; Sanest, 3f neS ; sf test (sf tst), s^teS (sftt); iylst, fylS, from fyllan, to fill; (6) that syncope is the rule in stems long by nature: dselst «d6eleBt), deelS «deele3); demst «demest), demS «demei8); hierst « Merest), hierS «hiere3). Double consonants are also made single in the impera- tive 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by nature take no final -e in the imperative : deel, hier, dem. Class II. 130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian (not -r-ian), the preterit singular in -ode, the past participle in -od. The preterit plural usually has -edon, however, instead of -odon: eard-ian eard-ode, geeard-od, to dwell [eorSe]. Inf-ian, luf-ode, gelui-od, to love [lufu]. ricB-ian, lics-ode, geiica-od, to rule [rice]. sealf-ian, seali-ode, gesealf-od, to anoint [salve]. segl-ian, segl-ode, gesegl-od, to sail [segel]. Note. — These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their -ian was once -ojan. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded from the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of 6. Conjugation of Class II. 131. Paradigm of lufian, to love : Indicative. Subjunctive. Present. Present. Sing. 1. Ic lufie Sing. 1. Ic 2. m lufast 2. m lu 3. he lufa« 3. he Plur. 1. we Plur. 1. we ' 2. ge lufia« 2. gS lu 3. hie 3. hie Etymology and Syntax. Peetekit. Peetbrit. Sing. 1. lo lufode Sing 1. Ic 2. «u lufodest 2. •Su lufode 3. lie lufode 3. he . Plur. 1. we Plur 1. we ' 2. ge luf edon (-odon) 2. ge luf eden (-oden) 3. hie , 3. hie . Imperative. Infinitive. Present Participle. Sing. 2. lufa lufian lufiende Plur. 1. lufian 2. lufia « Gerund. Past Participle. Note. 1. — The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be pro- nounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g : lufie, or lufige ; lufien, or lufigen. So also for ia : lufiaS, or lufigaS ; lufian, or lufig(e)an. Note 2. — In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not infrequent for -ode. Class III. 132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II. Like certain verbs of Class I (§ 128), the preterit and past participle are formed by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d present indicative singular end in -ast and -aS, the imperative 2d singular in -a: habb-an, hsef-de gehsei-d, to have. libb-an, lif-de gelif-d, to live. 8§cg-an BEed-e (saeg-de), geseed (gesaeg-d), to say. Weak Verbs. 89 Conjugation of Class III. 133. P arad igms oi habban, to ha sfcgan, to say. Indicative. Present. Sing. 1. lo lisebbe libbe 2. ■Su hsefst (hafast) lifast 3. he hiEf« (hafa«) lifa-S Plur. 1. we 2. ge habba^ libba« 3. hie Preterit. Sing. 1. Ic hsefde lifde 2. m hsefdest lifdest 3. he hsefde lifde Plur. 1. we ■ 2. ge - haefdon lifdon 3. hie Subjunctive. Sing 1. Ic Present. 2. m hffibbe libbe s?cge sEegst (sagast) sEegS (saga's) s^cgaiS saedest ssedon s^cge Plur. haebben libben s^cgen Sing. 1. Ic ' Preterit. 2. «u hsefde lifde ssede 3. he Plur. 1. we 2. ge hsefdeii lifden sseden 3. hie Imperative. Sing. 2. hafa Ufa saga Plur. 1. habban libban slogan 2. habba« libba« s^cga'iS 90 Etymology and Syntax. habban Infinitive. libban Gerund. ibbane (-erme) to libbane (-enne) Present Participle. hsebbende libbende Past Participle. gehaefd gelifd slogan to s^oganne (-enne) s^cgende CHAPTER XXII. Remaining Verbs ; Verb-Pheasbs with habban, been, AND TveorSan. Anomalous Verbs. (See § 19.) 134. These are: beon (vyesan), waes, WEeron, » to he. ■willan, wolde. woldon. ) to will, intend. don, dyde, dydon, gedon, to do, catise. gan, eode, eodon, gegan. to go. Note. — In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person of the present indicative singular ended in (1) 6 or (2) mi. Cf. Gk. \i-a, cl-fil, Lat. am-o, su-m. The Strong and Weak Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the 6-class. The four Anomalous Verbs men- tioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of the mi-class. Note the surviving m in eom I am, and dom I do (Northumbrian form). These mi-verbs are sometimes called non-Thematic to distinguish them from the Thematic or 6-verbs. Remaining Verbs. 91 Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs. 135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular: Indicative. Present. Sing. 1. Ic eom (beom) wille do ga 2. iSu eart (bist) wilt dest 3. lie is (biS) wille de« Blur. 1. we 1 2. ge Isind(on) willaS doiS 3. hie J Subjunctive. PHESEST. wille willen do don ga gan Note. — The preterit subjunctive of been is formed, of course, not from V7ses, but from w^ron. See § 103, (3). Preterit-Present Verbs. (See § 19.) 136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense (indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, a strong preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs belong to this class. to know [to wit, wot]. witan, \ ' \ wiston, gewiten, [ -wisse, J agan, ahte, ahton, agen(adj.), to possess [owe]. f gecunnen, ] to know, can [uncouth. cunnan, cu3e, ciiSon, lcu3(adj.). cunning]. 92 Etymology and Syntax. durran, dorste, dorston, sculan, Bceolde, sceoldon, f meahte, meahton, magan, \ L nuhte, mihton, motan, moBte, moston, ) - to dare, shall. to he able, may. may, must. Note. — The change in meaning from preterit to present, with retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other languages. Several examples are found in Xatin and Greek (cf. novi and olSa, I know). Mn.E.'has gone further still : ahte and moste, which had already suffered the loss of their old preterits (ah, mot), have been forced hack again into the present (ought, must). Having exhausted, therefore, the only means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the strong and the weak, it is not likely that either ouyht or must will ever develop distinct preterit forms. Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs. 137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative and subiunctive : Indicative. Present. Sing. 1. Ic wat ah cqu (can) dear sceal maeg mot 2. iSQ wast ahst C(2nst(canst) dearst scealt meaht most 3. he wat ah cqu (can) dear sceal mseg mot Flur. 1. we "I 2. ge V witon agon cunnon durron sculon magon moton 3. hie J Subjvuictive. ^-in^.l. Ic 1 Present. 2. 'Sii ■ wite age cunne durre scule(scyle) nisege mote 3. he J Flur. 1. we ] 2. ge I witen agen cunnen durren soulen(scylen) msegen moten 3. hie J Note 1. — Willan and sculan do not often connote simple futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that way. Verb-Phrases. 93 'I'lie Mn.E. use of shall only with the 1st person and will only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly unknown even in Shakespeare's day. The elaborate distinctions drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only cumbersome and foreign to the genius of English, but equally lacking in psychological basis. Note 2. — Sculan originally implied the idea of (1) duty, or com- pulsion { = ouyht to, or must), and this conception lurks with more or less prominence in almost every function of sculan in O.E. . Dryhten bebead Moyse hu he sceolde beran 3a earce, The Lord in- structed Moses how he ought to hear the ark ; ^Ic mann sceal be his andgietes vaseSe . . . sprecan Saet he spricS, and don Sset iSaet he deS, Every man must, according to the measure of his intel- ligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does. Its next most frequent use is to express (2) custom, the transition from the obligar tory to the customary being an easy one : Se byrdesta sceaU gyldan fiftyne mearSes fell, The man of highest rank pays fifteen marten skins. Note 3.- — Willan expressed originally (1) pure volition, and this is its most frequent use in O.E. It may occur without the infinitive : Nylle ic Saes synfuUan dea3, ac ic -wille Saet he gecyrre and lybbe, I do not desire the sinner's death, but I desire that he return and live. The wish being father to the intention, vrlllan soon came to express (2) purpose : He seede Sset he at sumum cirre ■wolde fan- dian hii longe 8aet land norSryhte leege. He said that he intended, at some time, to investigate how far that land extended northward. Verb-Phrases with habban, beon (wesan), and weorSan. Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice. 138. The present and preterit of habban, combined with a past participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect and past perfect tenses : Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Sing. 1. Ic hsebbe gedrifen Sing. 1. Ic hsefde gedrifen 2. 'Sii haefst gedrifen 2. flu hiefdest gedrifen 3. he hsefS gedrifen 3. he hsefde gedrifen 94 Etymology and Syntax. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Plur. 1. we 1 Plur. 1. we 1 2. ge !■ liabbaiS gedrifen 2. ge l liaef don gedrif en 3. Me J 3. hie J The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct object : NorSymbre (jnd East^ngle hsefdon .Silfrede cyninge aSas geseald (not gesealde, § 82), The Northumbrians and East Anglians had given king Alfred oaths; Qnd li3efdon miclne dael Sara horsa freten (not fretenne), and (they') had devoured a large part of the horses. Note. — Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited. Originally, the participle expressed a resultant state, and belonged in sense more to the object than to habban ; but in Early West Saxon habban had already, in the majority of cases, become a pure auxiliaiy when used with the past participle. This is conclusively proved by the use of habban with intransitive verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as o3 8aet hie hine ofslaegenne haefdon, there is no occasion to translate until they had him slain (= resultant stale); the agreement here is more probably due to the proximity of ofslsegenne to hine. So also ac hi hsefdon J>a hiera stemn ges^tenne, btit they had already served out (sat out) their military term. 139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes a change of condition, a departure or arrival, beon (-wesan) usu- ally replaces habban. The past participle, in such cases, partakes of the nature of an adjective, and gen- erally agrees with the subject : Mine welan Jje ic io haefde syndon ealle gewitene Qnd gedrorene, 3fy posses- sions ivhich I once had are all departed and fallen aicay ; ■wseron }ja m^n uppe on l9nde of agane, the men had gone up ashore ; ^nd pa. 6)jre vrSeion hungre acwolen, and the Verh-Phrases. 95 others had perished of hunger ; Qnd eac se micia h^re wees jja Jjser to cumen, and also the large army had then arrived there. 140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present participle with the present and preterit of beon (wesan). The participle remains uninflected : 9nd hie alle on 3one cyning -w^run feohtende, and they all were fighting against the king ; Symle he biS lociende, ne sllepd he n^efre, He is always looking, nor does He ever sleep. Note. — In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine (singular or plural) ; hence no inference can be made as to agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of the nominative masculine (§ 82). By analogy, therefore, the other genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine : -wseron )ja ealle }>a deoflu clypigende anre stefne, then were all the devils crying with one voice. Verh-Phrases in the Passire Voice. 141. Passive constructions are formed by combining beon (wesan) or weorSan with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with the subject : hie wseron benumene aegiSer ge Jjses ceapes ge )3ses comes, they zvere deprived both of the cattle and the corn; hi beo3 abl^nde mid 3sem Jjiostrum heora scylda, they are blinded with the darkness of their sins; and se wselhreowa Domicianus on 3am ylcan geare wear3 aoweald, and the murderous Domi- tian was killed in the same year; (jnd Slpel-wuU aldormqn wearS ofslsegen, and jTJthelwulf, alderman, was slain. Note 1. — To express agency, Mn.E. employs by, rarely of; M.E. of, rarely by; O.E. trqm (fram), rarely of: Se 3e Godes bebodu 96 Etymology and Syntax. ne gecnaewS, ne biS he oncnavren frQm Gode, He who does not recognize God's commands, will not be recognized by God; Bet-wux )}^m TvearS ofslagen Ead-wine . . . fram Brytta cyninge, Mean- lohile, Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons. Note 2. — O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could not, therefore, distinguish between He is being wounded and He is wounded. It was not until more than a hundred years after Shakespeare's death that being assumed this function. WeorSan, which originally denoted a passage from one state to another, was ultimately driven out by beon (■wesan), and survives now only in Woe loortti (= be to). 142. Vocabulary. &a Beormas, Permians. 3a D^niscan, the Danish (men), Danes. iSa Finnas, Fins. iSaet gevrald, control [wealdan]. seo aae, sea. seo scir, shire, district. seo ■wBBlstow, battle-field. agan ■wselstowe gewald, maintain possession of battle-field. se ■wealdend, ruler, wielder. to the geflieman, gefliemde, gefliemed, to put to flight. gestaSelian, gestaSelode, gestaSelod, to establish, restore. gewissian, ge-wissode, ge^wissod, to guide, direct. -wician, wicode, gewicod, to dwell [tjitic = village]. 143. Exercises. I. 1. Qnd 'Saer waes micel vrael geslaegen on gehwaefre hond, ond jEfelwulf ealdormon wearf ofsleegeii ; ond fa D^niscan ahton wselstowe gewald. 2. Qnd fees ymb anne mona)) gefeaht Mlired cyning wij> ealne f one h^re, ond hine gefliemde. 3. He sSde feah peet fast land sie svsripe lang norf) fonan. 4. pa Beormas hsefdon swipe wel gebud (§ 126, Note 2) hiera land. 5. Ohth^re seede feet seo scir hatte (§ 117, Note 2) Halgoland, ]>e lie on (§ 94, (5)) bude. 6. pa Finnas wicedon be fare sae. 7. Dryhten, aelmihtiga (§ 78, Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic bidde Verb-Phrases. 97 Se for Sinre miclaii mildheortnesse tSaet Su me gewissie to Sinmn willan ; and gestaSela min mod to 8iniim willan and to minre sawle Searfe. 8. pa sceolde he SSr bidan ryht- norfanwiudes, for SiSm Jiaet land beag fSr suSryhte, ofpe sec ste in on tSeet land, he nysse hwaeSer. 9. For Sy, me 8yncS b^tre, gif eow swa SyncS, Saet we eac t5as bee on Saet geSeode w^nden 6e we ealle gecnawan maegen. II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these ? 3. The men said that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4. All things were made (wyrcan) by God. 6. They were fighting for two days with (= against) the Danes. 6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained the victory ; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. 7. These men dwelt in Eng- land before they came hither. 8. I have not seen the book of (ymbe) which you speak (sprecan). PART III. SELECTIONS FOR READING. PROSE. Inteoductoey. I. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands, embraces a period extending from Caesar's invasion of England to 1154. It is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in English. " The annals from the year 866 — that of Ethelred's ascent of the throne — to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space, especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a certain roundness and fulness, because the events — nearly all of them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes — are taken in their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the next. Not only is the style in itself concise ; it has a sort of nervous severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and suggests at times the freedom of poetry ; though this purely historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language." (Ten Brink, Earhj Eng. Lit., I.) II. The Translations of Alfred. Alfred's reign (871-901 ) may be divided into four periods. The first, the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to The Battle of Ashdown. 99 881 ; the second, the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893 ; the third, the period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting), from 893 to 897 ; the fourth, tlie period of peace, from 897 to 901. His liter- ary work probably falls in the second period.* The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were (1) Consolation of Philosophy (De Gonso- latione Philosophiae) by Boethius (476-525), (2) Compen- dious History of the Woi-ld (Historiarum Libri VII) by Orosius (c. 418), (3) Ecclesiastical History of the English {Historia Ecclesiastica Anglorum) by. Bede (672-735), and (4) Pastoral Care {De Cura Pastorali) by Pope Gregory the Great (540-604). Tlie chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. Wiilker argues for an exact reversal of this order. Accord- ing to Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) Oroshis, (2) Bede, (3) Boethius, and (4) Pastoral Care. The most recent contribution to the subject is from Wtiliing, who contends for (1) Bede, (2) Orosius, (3) Pastoral Care, and (4) Boethius. I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDO^VN". [From the Chronicle, Parker MS. The event and date are significant. The Danes had lor the first time invaded Wessex. Alfred's older brother, Ethelred, was king ; but to Alfred belongs the glory of the victory at Ash- down (Berkshire). Asser i^Life of Alfred) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth "like a wild boar against the hounds."] 1 871. Her cuom' se h^re to Readingum on Westseaxe, 2 ond pses ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas tip. pa gemette hie * There is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the great king's pen : gif we Sa stilnesse habbatS. He is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for the enlightenment of his people. 100 Selections for Reading. 1 M\%\w\x\i aldorman^ on l^nglafelda, qnd him faer wi)) ge- 2 feaht, ond sige nam. pses ymb iiii niht jEpered cyning 8 ond iElfred his brofur^ fier micle herd to Readingum 4 geleeddon, ond wij) f one h^re gefuhton ; (jnd fSr wees 6 micel wsel geslaegen on gehwEepre h^nd, ond ^felwulf 6 aldormon -wearfi of slasgen ; Qnd pa D^niscan ahton wael- 7 stows gewald. 8 Qnd pass ymb iiii niht gefeaht j^pered cyning ond 9 j351fred his bropur wip alne* pone h^re on ^Escesdune. 10 Qnd hie weerun ° on twsem gefylcum : on oprum wses 11 Bachs^cg ond Halfd^ne pa hSpnan cyningas, gnd on 12 oprum wseron pa eorlas. Qnd pa gefeaht se cyning 13 .ffipered wip para cyninga getruman, ond peer wearp se 14 cyning Bags^cg ofslaegen ; ond Alfred his bropur wip 15 para eorla getruman, ond peer wearp Sidroc eorl ofslaegen 16 se alda," ond Sidroc eorl se gioncga/ ond Osbearn eorl, IT ond FrSna eorl, ond Hareld eorl ; ond pa h^rgas ' begen 18 geiliemde, ond fela pusenda ofslaegenra, ond onfeohtende 19 wSron op niht. 20 Qnd paes ymb xiiii niht gefeaht iEpered cyning ond 21 jElfred his brofiiir wip pone h^re set Basengum, ond peer 22 pa D^niscan sige namon. 23 Qnd psBS ymb ii monap gefeaht spared cyning ond 24 iElfred his bropur wip pone h^re aet M^retune, ond hie 25 wSrun on tuSm' gefylcium, Qnd hie butu gefllemdon, ond 26 longe on dseg sige ahton ; ond pser wearp micel waelsliht 27 on gehwsepere hond ; Qnd pa D^niscan ahton wselstowe 8. gefeaht. Notice that the singular is used. This is the more common construotion in O.E. when a compound subject, composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. See also p. 107, note on ■wses. 18. Qnd fela ]7iisenda ofslaegenra, and there were many thou- sands of slain (§ 91). The Battle of Ashdown. 101 1 gewald ; 9iid }iSr -wear]) Heahmund bisceop ofslsegen, 2 (jnd fela godra mQima. Qnd eefter fissum gefeohte cuom ' 3 micel sumorlida. 4 Qnd fees ofer Eastron gefor ^fered cyning; qnd he 5 ricsode v gear ; ond his lie llf aet Winburnan. 6 pa feng jSllfred jEpelwulfing his brofur to Wesseaxna 7 riee. Qnd faes ymb anne monap gefeaht iElfred cyning 8 wif alne* fone h^re lytle werede'" aet Wiltune, qnd hine 9 longe on dseg gefliemde, ond fa D^nisean ahton wselstowe 10 gewald. 11 Qnd faes geares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wif> 12 fone h^re on fy cynerice be sil))an T^mese, butan fam fie 13 him Alfred faes cyninges bropur qnd anlipig aldormon^ qnd 14 cyninges pegnas oft rade onridon pe m^n na ne rlmde ; 15 ond fees geares waerun^ofslaegene viiii eorlas qnd an cyning. 16 Qnd ]>j geare namon Westseaxe frif wif pone h^re. Consult Glossary and Paeadigms undek Forms given below. No note is made of such variants as y (y) or i (i) for ie (ie). See Glossary under ie (le) ; occurrences, also, of and for (jnd, land for l9nd, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such words should be sought for under the more common forms, qnd, Iqnd. 1 =1 : ealne. ^ _ h^ras. 2 = ealdormgn. ^ _ wseron. ^ = tw»m. 3 = brojjor. « = ealda. i" = werode. II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED. [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation of Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy. Unfortunately, the only extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, Prof. A. S. Cook's normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See Cook's First Book in Old English, p. 163.] 12. biitan jjam J>e, etc., besides which, Alfred . . . made raids against them (him), which were not counted. See § 70, Note. 102 Selections for Heading. 1 Dryhten, selmihtiga God, Wyrlita and Wealdend ealra 2 gesceafta, ic bidde Se for Slnre niiclaii mildlieortnesse, 8 and for 6Sre halgan rode tacne, and for Sanctae Marian 4 msegSliade, and for Sancti Michaeles gehiersumnesse, and 5 for ealra Sinra halgena lufan and hiera earnungum, Sset 6 Su me gewissie b^t Sonne ic aworhte to Se ; and gewissa 7 me to Slnum willan, and to minre sawle Searfe, b^t Sonne 8 ic self cunne ; and gestaSela mm mod to Sinum willan and 9 to mInre sawle Searfe ; and gestranga me wiS Saes deofles 10 costnungum ; and afierr fram me 6a f ulan galnesse and 11 alee unrihtwisnesse ; and gescield me wit5 minum wiSer- 12 winnum, gesewenlicum and ungesewenlicum ; and tsee me 13 Sinne willan to wyrceanne ; Sset ic msege t5e inweardlice 14 lufian toforan ealluin Singum, mid clSnum geSance and 15 mid clgenum llchaman. For Son Se Su eart mm Scieppend, ic and mill Aliesend, min Fultum, mm Frofor, min Treow- 17 nes, and mm Tohopa. Sle Se lof and wuldor nu and 18 a a a, to worulde butan seghwilcum ^nde. Amen. III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHEEE AND WULFSTAN. [Lauderdale and Cottoiiian MSS. These voyages are an original inser- tion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's Compendious History of the World. "They consist," says Ten Brinli, "of a complete description of all the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred's time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian named Ohthere, had quite 3-4. Marian . . . Michaeles. O.E. is inconsistent in the treat- ment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and some- times retain in part their original inflections. Marian, an original accusative, is here used as a genitive ; while Michaeles has the O.E. genitive ending. 17. Sie 3e lot. See § 105, 1. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 103 circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia in his travels, and had even penetrated to theAVhite Sea; the other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haft. The geographical and ethnographical details of hoth accounts are exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and concrete." Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (an micel ea) . On his second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of Norway, entered the Skager Rack (■widaae), passed through the Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (aet Heejium) , modern Schleswig. Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days from Schleswig brought him to Drauseu (TrQso) on the shore of the Drau- sensea.] Ohthere's First Voyage. 1 Ohthere ssede his hlaforde, iElfrede cyninge, faet he 2 ealra NortSmonna norfmest bude. He cwaetS feet he bude 8 on feem lande norfweardum wi}) fa Westsee. He stede 4 feah feet fset land sie swif e lang norf f^nan ; ac hit is 5 eal weste, btiton on feawum sto-wnm styccemseliim wiciaS 6 Finnas, on huntoSe on wintra, (jnd on sumera on fiscafe 7 be fsere see. He sSde fset he eet sumum cirre wolde 8 fandian hu longe fset land norfryhte leege, offe hwaeSer 9 eenig mon be norSan feem westenne bude. pa for he 10 norf ryhte be f sem lande : let him ealne weg feet weste 11 land on Saet steorbord, Qnd fa widsee on Seet baecbord frie 12 dagas. pa waes he swa feor norf swa fa hweelhuntan 18 firrest faraf. pa for he fa glet norfrylite swa feor swa 14 he meahte on fSm ofrum frim dagum gesiglan. pa beag 15 feet land fser eastryhte, offe seo see in on Seet Ignd, he 16 nysse hwaeSer, buton he wisse tSset he tSffir bad westan- 17 windes Qnd hwon norfan, gnd siglde (Sa east be lande 18 swa swa he meahte on feower dagum gesiglan. pa 19 sceolde he tSser bidan ryhtnorfanwindes, for Seem fset 20 land beag fser sufryhte, offe seo see in on Seet land, he 21 nysse hwsefer. pa siglde he fcjnan suSryhte be lande 104 Selections for Heading. 1 swa swa he m^hte' on fif dagum gesiglan. Da Iseg fSr 2 an micel ea up in on faet land, pa cirdon hie tip in on 3 Sa ea, for fSm hie ne dorston forf bi pEere ea siglan for ■t unf rife ; for feem Saet land waes eall gebun on ofre healf e D feere eas. Ne mette he aer nan gebnn land, sippan he 6 f r^m his agnum ham for ; ac him waes ealne weg weste 7 land on pset steorbord, butan fiscerum gnd fugelerum ond 8 huntum, ond paet wSBron eall Finnas ; ond him wees a 9 widsse on Saet beecbord. pa Beormas hsefdon swipe wel 10 gebud hira land ; ac hie ne dorston pgr on cuman. Ac 11 para Terfinna land waes eal weste, buton t5»r huntan 12 gewlcodon, oppe fisceras, oppe fugeleras. 13 Fela spella him SEedon pa Beormas eegper ge of hiera 14 agnum lande ge of paem landum pe ymb hie Utan wffiron ; 15 ac he nyste hwaet paes sopes waes, for paem he hit self ne 16 geseah. pa Finnas, him puhte, ond pa Beormas sprseon 17 neah an gepeode. Swipost he for Sider, to eacan paes 18 landes sceawunge, for p»m horshwsslum, for Saem hie 19 habbaS swipe aepele ban on hiora^topum — pa teS hie broh- 20 ton sume psm cyninge — gnd hiora hyd biS swiSe god to 21 sciprapum. Se hwael bit5 micle leessa ponne oSre hwalas : 22 ne bits he l^ngra Sonne syfan'' §lna lang; ac on his agnum 28 lande is se b^tsta hwselhuntaS : pa beo6 eahta and feo- 24 wertiges ^Ina lange, and pa mSstan f Iftiges ^Ina lange ; 25 para he saede paet he syxa sum ofsloge syxtig on twam 26 dagum. 6. frcjm his agnum ham. An adverbial dative singular witli- out an inflectional ending is found with ham, daeg, morgen, and Eefen. 8. e Sa fr^mdan to sernaS, and nimaS. And pset 4 is mid Estum feaw faet fSr sceal eelces geSeodes man 6 beon forbaerned; and gyf far' man an ban findeS unfor- 6 bserned, bi bit sceolan'' midum gebetan. And feer is mid 1 Estum an msegS fast hi magon cyle gewyrcan ; and fy 8 fgr licgaS fa deadan m^n swa lange, and ne f uliaS, fset 9 by wyrcaS fone cyle bim on. And feah man as^tte 10 twegen fsetels full ealaS o6Se waeteres, by gedocS faet 11 agfer biS oferfroren, sam bit sy sumor sam winter. ^ = selfe. * = medu. ' = sculon. 2 = heo. 5 = ealu. 8 = moton. 8 = fiftiene. ■> = l^ng. 9 = «£er. 5-6. man ... hi. Here the plural hi refers to the singular man. Cf. p. 109, 11. 18-19, eelc . . . motan. In Exodus xxxii, 24, we find " Whosoever hath any gold, let fhem break it off " ; and Addison writes, "I do not mean that I think anyone to blame for taking due care of their health." The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all periods of our language. Paul very sanely remarks {Principien der Sprachgeschichte, § 451) that "When a word is used as an indefimte [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, however, in respect of the external form, a particular number has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this is. . . . Hence a change of numbers is common in the different languages." The Story of Ocedmon. Ill IV. THE STOEY OF CiEDMON. [From the so-ealled Alfredian version of Bede's Ecclesiastical Histoii/. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, Tanner 10. Miller (Early English Text Society, No. 95, Introd.) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, com- posed possibly in Lichfield (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed to the Latin original. " Csedraou, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we know who wrote poetry in our island of England ; and the first to embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had brought into England. . . Undisturbed by any previous making of lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising English song. It was a gi'eat step to make. He built the chariot in which all the new religious emo- tions of England could now drive along." (Brooke, Tlie History of Early English Literature , cap. XV.) There is no reason .to doubt the historical existence of Ciedmon ; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and was seven years old when Coidmon died (a.d. 680)]. 1 In Sysse abbudissan mynstre wees sum bro?5or syndrig- 2 lice mid godcundre gife gemSred Qnd geweorSad, for fon 8 he gewunade gerisenlice leoS wyrcan, fa tSe to aef ^stnisse ' 4 (jnd to arfaestnisse belumpon ; swa Ssette swa hwaet swa 6 he of godcundum stafum purh boceras geleornode, feet he 6 aefter medmiclum feece in scopgereorde mid fa malstan T swetnisse Qnd inbryrdnisse gegl^ngde, (jnd in !^nglisc- 8 gereorde wel geworht forf brohte. Qnd for his leof sgngum 1. Sysse abbudissan. The abbess referred to is the famous Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, which, accord- ing to Bede, means "Bay of the Beacon." The Danes afterward gave it the name Whitby, or "White Town." The surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England's first poet. "The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean, played incessantly upon him." (Brooke.) Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that the introduction of Christianity (a.d. 597) brought into the vocabulary of O.E. . abbudisse, mynster, bisceop, Lseden, preost, sestel, mancus. 112 Selections for Reading. 1 mgiiigra nKjnna mod oft to worulde forhogdnisse 9nd to 2 gejjeGdnisse fses heofonllcan lifes onbaernde wseron. Qnd 3 eac swelce^ monige 6(5re sefter him in Qngelfieode oiigun- 4 non «f^ste leoS wyrcan, ac nsenig hwseSre him fast gelice 5 don ne meahte ; for pon he nalses from m^nnum ne Surh 6 mon gelSred wees paet he Sone leotScrseft leornade, ac he 1 wses godcundlice gefultumod, qnd furh Godes gife fone 8 scjngcraeft onf eng ; ond he for Son naefre noht leasunge, 9 ne idles leofes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne fa an Sa Se to 10 jef^stnisse' belumpon, ond his fa gf^stan tungan gedaf- 11 enode siugan. 12 Wses he, se mgn, in weoruldhade' ges^ted oS pa tide fe 18 he waes gelyfdre ylde, qnd nSfre neenig leo6 geleoriiade. 14 Qnd he for fon oft in gebeorscipe, fonne peer wses blisse 15 intinga gedemed, pset heo* ealle sceolden purh ^ndebyrd- 16 nesse be hearpan singan, ponne he geseah pa hearpan him 17 nealecan, ponne aras he for scome fr^m psem symble, 18 Qnd ham eode to his huse. pa he past pa sumre tide 19 dyde, paet he forlet past htis pses gebeorscipes, ond ut wtes 4-5. The more usual order of words would be ac neenig, h-waeSre, ne meahte Sset don gelice him. 10-11. qnd his . . . singan, and which it became his (the) pious tongue to sing. 14-15. blisse intinga, for the sake of joy ; but the translator has confused laetitiae causa (ablative) and laetitiae causa (nominative). The proper form would be for blisse with omission of intingan, just as for my sake is usually for me ; for his (or their) sake, for him. Cf. Mark vi, 26 : " Yet for his oath's sake, and for their sakes which sat with him, he would not reject her," for Seem. aSe, 9nd for SSm J)e him mid seeton. For his sake is frequently for his Singon (Singum), rarely for his intingan. pingon is regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a person : for my wife's sake, for mines ■wifes Singon (Genesis xx, 11), etc. 18-19. Jjset . . . )33Et he forlet. The substantival clause intro- duced by the second Jjaet amplifies by apposition the first Jjset : When he then, at a certain time (instrumental case, § 98, (2)), did The Story of Ccedmon. 113 i gqngende to neata scipene, fara heord him wees feere 2 nihte beboden; pa be Sa ])isv on geliinpllcre tide his 3 leomu' on r^ste ges^tte ond onslepte, pa stod him sum 4 mon £et purh swefn, ond hine halette (jnd grette, qiul bine 5 be his uomau n^mnde: "Caedmon, sing me hwaethwngu." 6 pa (^ndswarede he, ond cwaeS : " Ne con ic noht singan ; 7 qnd ic for pon of pyssum gebeorscipe lit eode ond hider 8 gewat, for pon ic naht singan ne ctige." Eft he cweetS se Se 9 wis hine sprecende wses : " HwaeSre pn meaht me singan." 10 pa cwseS he ; " Hweet sceal ic singan ? " CweeS he : " Sing 11 me frumsceaft." pa he Sa pas andsware onfeng, pa 12 ongQii he sona singan, in h^renesse Godes Scyppendes, IS pa fers ond pa word pe he nsefre ne gehyrde, para ^nde- u byrdnes pis is : 15 Nu sculon h^rigean^ heofonrices Weard, 16 Metodes meahte ond his modgepanc, 17 weorc Wuldorfseder, swa he wundra gebwees, 18 ece Drihten or onstealde. that, namely, when he left the house. The better Mn.E. would be this . . . that: "Added yet this above all, that he shut up John in prison" {Luke iv, 20). 1-2. Jjara . . . beboden. This does not mean that Cfedmon was a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular attend- ants at the monastery. 13-14. ]7ara fndebyrdnes }>is is. Bede writes Hie est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum, and gives in Latin prose a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in which Caedmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course, not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede's History), but a West Saxon version made also from the Northumbrian, not from the Latin. 15. Nu sculon h^rigean, Noio ought vk to praise. The subject we is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. Observe that it is not the thought that is repeated, but rather the idea, the concept, God. See p. 124. 17. wnndra geh-wses. See p. 140, note on cenra gehwylcum. I 114 Selections for Reading. 1 He ajrest sceop eorSaii bearnum 2 heofon to hrof e, halig Scyppend ; 3 pa middangeard mQuncynnes Weard, 4 eee Diihten, sefter teode 5 flrum foldan, Frea aelmihtig. 6 pa aras he from fSm sl»pe, Qnd eal fa fe he slSpende 7 sgng fseste in gemynde hsef de ; gnd fsem wordum sona 8 mQnig word in feet ilce gemet Gode wyrSes singes to- 9 gefeodde. pa com he on morgenne to feem ttingerefan, 10 se fe his ealdormqn wses : saegde him hwylce gife he 11 onfeng ; ond he hine sona to f iSre abbudissan gelSdde, 13 ond hire fset cySde ond stegde. pa heht heo gesomnian 13 ealle fa gelSredestan m^n ond fa leorneras, (jnd him 14 Qndweardum het slogan faet swefn, Qnd fset leoS singan, 15 fast ealra heora' dome gecoren wgere, hwset oSSe hwgnan 16 fast cumen wSre. pa waes him eallum gesewen, swa swa 17 hit wses, feet him weere from Drihtne sylfum heofonlic 7-9. (jnd jjaem -wordum . . . togejjeodde, and to those words he soon joined, in the same meter, many {other') words of song worthy of God. But the translator has not only blundered over Bede's Latin (eis moxplura in enndem modum verba Deo digna carminis adjunxit"), hut saorifioed still more the Idiom of O.E. The predicate should not come at the end ; in should be followed by the dative ; and for G-ode ■royrSes singes the better O.E. would be singes Godes -wyriSJes. When used with the dative -OT-yrS (weor3) usually means dear {= of worth) to. 16. J?a . . . gesew^en. We should expect frQm him eallum ; but the translator has again closely followed the Latin (visumque est omnibus), as later (in the Conversion of Edwin) he renders Talis mihi videtur by Jjyslic me is geseviren, Talis (Jayslic) agreeing with a following vita (Si). ^Ifric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that John wearS Sa him [=fr9m Drihtene] inweardlice gelufod. It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the force of an adjective, the to relation may supplant the by relation ; just as we say unknown to instead of -unknown by, unknown being more adjectival than participial. Gesewen, therefore, may here be Tlie Story of Ccedmon. 115 1 gifu forgifen. pa r^hton heo* him e. 16. Saet we 3a. These three words are not necessary to the sense. They constitute the figure known as epaiialepsis, in which "the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more intervening words." pa is the pronominal substitute for suma bee. 17. G-edon is the first person plural subjunctive (from infinitive gedon). It and Tw^nden are in the same construction. Two things seem "better" to Alfred: (1) that we translate, etc., (2) that we cause, etc. 19-21. sio gioguS . . . IB . . . hie . . . sien. Notice how the collective noun, gioguS, singular at first both in form and func- tion, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is entirely legitimate 120 Selections for Jteading. 1 nanre oSerre note ne msegen, oS 8one first Se hie wel 2 cunnen !Englisc gewrit artedan : here mqn siSSan furSur 3 on LgedengeSiode Sa Se mon furSor laeran wille, ^nd to 4 hierran hade don wille. Da ic Sa gemunde hti sio lar 5 LaedengeSiodes gr Sissum afeallen wses giond Angel- 6 cynn, ond 6eah monige ciiSon i^nglisc gewrit areedan, Sa T ongan ic -ongemang oSrum mislicum (jnd manigfealdum 8 bisgum gisses kynerlces Sa boc w^ndan on Ignglisc Se is 9 gen^mned on Lteden " Pastoralis," ond on ^nglisc " Hier- 10 deboc," hwllum word be worde, hwilum andgit of and- n giete, swS swse ic hie geliornode set Plegmunde minum 12 sercebiscepe, ond set Assere minum biscepe, ond set Grim- 13 bolde minum maesseisrioste, ond set lohanne minum mses- 14 sepreoste. SiSSan ic hie Sa geliornod hsefde, sw« swse IB ic hie forstod, ond swte ic hie andgitfuUicost ar^ccean 16 meahte, io hie on lEnglisc aw^nde ; ond to selcum biscep- 17 stole on minum rice wille ane ons^ndan ; (jnd on selcre 18 bis an sestel, se biS on fiftegum mancessa. Qnd ic be^ 19 biode on Godes naman Sset nan mon Sons sestel from 20 SSre bee ne do, ne 8a boc from Sgem mynstre ; uncu6 hu 21 longe tiser swse gelSrede biscepas sien, swse swS nii, Gode 22 Sonc, wel hwser siendon. For 8y ic wolde 'Ssette hie eal- in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language known to me that condemns such an idiom : " Spanish ideas of oongruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in the same clause" (Ramsey, Text-Book of Modern Spanish, § 1452). 2. ISre mqn. See § 105, 1. 11-13. That none of these advisers of the king, except Plegmond, a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to reign. Asser, to whose Latin Life of Alfred, in spite of its mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king, came from St. David's (in Wales), and was made Bishop of Sherborne. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care. 121 1 neg Bet Stere stowe wSsren, buton se biscep hie mid him 2 habban wille, o^Se hio hwSr to laene sle, o3t5e hwa oiSre 3 bl write. 1 = bisoeop. '^ = hwiloe. ' = giu. * = For all words with io (lo), consult Glossary under eo (eo). ^ = hiersumedon. ^ = hwilc. ^' = swilce. ^ = sidu (siodu). i" = lieMon. " = sjiyrian. ' = swa. 1' — m^nigu. ^* = witena. 8 = anlipigne. '^ = nanwiht. i^ = witanne. 1. Translate aet Ssere stowe by each in its place. The change from plural hie (in hie . . . -wEeren) to singular hie (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for. 2-3. o33e hvra. o3re bi ■WTite, or unless some one wish to copy a new one (write tliereby another~). POETRY. INTRODUCTORY. I. HISTORY. (a) Old English Poetry as a Whole. NoETHUMBEiA was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Csedmon and his school a.d. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. As Whitby had been " the cradle of English poetry," Winchester (Alfred's capital) became now the cradle of English prose ; and the older poems that had sur- vived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems ^ have come down to us. Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines ; but it includes epic, lyric, didactic, 1 This does not, of course, include the few short poems in the Chron- icle, or that portion of Genesis (Genesis B) supposed to have heen put directly into West Saxon from an Old Saxon original. There still re- main in Northumbrian the version of Ccedmon's Hymn, fragments of the Ruthwell Cross, BecWs Death-Song, and the Leiden Riddle. 122 History. 123 elegiac, and allegorical poems, together with war- ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five elegiac poems (^Wanderer, Seafarer, Ruin, Wife's Com- plaint, and Husband's Message), the Wanderer is the most artistic, and best portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so characteristic of the Old English lyric. Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional particles, or connectives, "which," says Ten Brink, "are the cement of sentence-structure." (6) Beowulf. The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, Beowulf.^ It consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed approximately its present form in Northumbria about a.d. 700. It is a crystalli- zation of continental myths ; and, though nothing is said of England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. The fatalism that runs through it, 1 The word beowulf, says Grimm, meant originally bee-wolf, or 6ee- enemy, one of the names of the woodpecker. Sweet thinks the bear was meant. Bnt the word is almost certainly a componnd of JSeow (cf. O.E. beoTw = grain) , a Danish demigod, and wulf used as a mere sufltx. 124 Poetry. instead of making the characters weak and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. " Fate," says Beowulf (1. 572), recounting his battle with the sea-monsters, " often saves an undoomed man if Ms courage hold out." "The ethical essence of this poetry," says Ten Brink, "lies principally in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him." Note 1. — Many different interpretations have been put upon the story of Beowulf (for argument of story, see texts). Thus MiillenhoS sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner finds the proto- type of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months ; Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates the effluvia. II. STRUCTURE. (a) Style. In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the Queen passes into the banquet hall in Beowulf, she is designated first by her name, ■Weaihjaeow ; she is then described in turn as cwen HroSgares (^Hrothffar^s queeri), gold-hroden (the gold-adorneoT), \>a. freollc wif Structure. 125 (the noble tvomati), ides Helminga (the Helmings' lady~), beag-hroden cwen (tJie ring -adorned queen), mode ge]}un- gen (the high-spirited'), and gold-hrodeu freolicu folo-cwen (the gold-adorned, noble folk-queen) . And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet's verse, not content with simple (uncompounded) words (such as see, lagu, holm, stream, m^re, etc.), he will USe numerous other equivalents (phrases or compounds), such as wajjema gebind (the commingling of waves), lagu- flod (the sea-flood), lagu-strst (the sea-street), swan-rad (the swan-road), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than attributive. It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a parallelism of structure. Note 1. — It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous expressions had already become stereotyped, and were vised, like many of the epithets in the Iliad and Odyssey, purely as padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most critical moment Beowulf's sword failed him, adding in the same breath, iren Sr-god {matchless blade), we conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting." (b) Meter. [Re-reart § 10, (3) .] Primary Stress. Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmi- cally ordered combinations of accented and unaccented 126 Poetry. syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it (^) ; when short, by the breve with the same accent (u). The unaccented syllable or syl- lables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (x). Secondary Stress. A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress falls on a long syllable (i) ; by the breve with the same accent, if the secondary stress falls on a short syllable (i). Nouns : HroSgares (j: i x), feondgrapum (j; i x), freomsegiun (/ i x), Bast-D^na {si, x), Helminga (ii -x), Scyldinga (iix), anbaga (i u x), Ecgjjeowes (^ i x), sinc-fato {li, x). Adjectives : ^ aeghwylcne (i i^ x), Jjristhydig {i i x), gold-hroden (i i x), dreorigne (^ i x), gyldenne (^ix), oSerne (j1 i x), gEesUicum (_i 1 x), -wynsume {li, x), ^nigne (^ i x). Adverbs : ^ unsofte (i 1 x), heardlice (j1 i x), s^mninga (ji i x). 1 It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -lie, and -sum. 2 Most of the adverbs belonging here end in -lice, -unga, and -inga, § 93, (1), (2) : such words as aet-geedere, on-gean, on-'w^g, to-geanea, td-mfddes, etc., are invariably accented as here indi- cated. Structure. 127 The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of present participles (-ende), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.^ Present participles : slaependne (^ i x), \7ia-hycgende (^ ^ i x), fleotendra (^ i x), hreosende (^ i x) . Weak verbs : swynsode (^ u x), ]}ancode (^ ^ x), yiramgeaa (six), sceaw- ian (^ o x), sceavyige (^ i. x), hlifian (^ i x). Resolved Stress. A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented syllable (usually short also) is equiv- alent to one long accented syllable (ux = ^). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be indicated thus, >^ : beeleSa (ux x), guman (ux), gode (jjx), sfle-ful (ux x), ides (ux), fyrena (ux x), maSelode (ux o x), hogode (ux x), maegen-fUen (ux 1 x), bige-)7ihtigne (ux ^ i x), Metudes (ux x), lagulade (ux i x), unlyfigendes (^ ux i x), biforan (x ux), for]}olian (x ux x), baSian (6x x), worolde (u_ x). Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses : sinc-fato (i ux), dryht-B§le (z ux), ferSloca (^ ix), forSwege 1 It Vifill save the student some trouble to remember that this means long by nature (licodon), or long by position (swynaode), or long by resolution of stress (maSelode), — see next paragraph. 128 Poetry. The Normal Line. Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency: (1) Jjeer wees AsSleBa iil^ahtor ; Alyto S'w;^nsode. (2) mode gejjiingen, xn^do-ful setbser. (3) sOna Jjaet onfdiide /yrena hyrde. Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial vowel or diphthong ; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except st, sp, and so, each of which alliterates only with itself. Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may begin with several unaccented sylla- bles (these syllables being known in types A, D, and E as the anacrusis'), but that neither half-line can end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be found that the alliter- Structure. 129 ative principle does not operate mechanically, but that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense. When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief bur- den of the poet's thought. Note 1. — A few lines, rare or abnormal in Iheir alliteration or lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, there is one line with no alliteration : Wanderer 58; three of the type a---b\a---b: Beowttlf 65i, 830, 2746; one of the type a---a\b---a: Beowulf 2744 ; one of the type a---a \ b---c : Beowulf 2718 ; and one of the type a---b\ c---a: Beowulf 27;J8. The Five Types. By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,^ of the University of Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, 1 Sievers' two articles appeared in the Beilrdye zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Liieratur, Vols. X (1885) and XII (1887). A brief summary, with slight modifications, is found in the same author's AUgermanische Metrik, pp. 120-144 (1893). Before attempting to employ Sievers' types, the student would do well to read several pages of Old Engli.sh poetry, taking care to accent- uate according to the principles already laid down. In this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers' work was one primarily of syslematization. Sievers himself says : " I had read Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively could be formulated into a system of set rules." {Altr/ermanische ifetrik, Vorwort, p. 10.) It 130 Poetry. employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpen- dicular line serving to separate the so-called feet, or measures : 1. A j.% \ i-x. 2. B ^i\ ^1 3. C X ^ U X pfDi.U.x I D2 ^ I ^ X 1 I E2 ^ X 1 I ^ It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress ; (3) that A is trochaic, B iambic ; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic ; (5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order. The Five Types Illustrated. [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is cited. B = Beowulf ; W = Wanderer.'] 1. TVPE A, i X I ^ X Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, a secondary stress. (2) ful gesealde, B. 616, ^ x (1) widre gewindan, B. 764, ^ x x (1)1 Gemvmde ^pa. se goda, B. 759, x | ^ x x x (1)1 Bwylce he on ealder-dagum, B. 758, x x x x (1) y}jde swa j^isne eardgeard, W. 85, ^ x x x x (1) -wls-fsest 'wordum, B. 627, ± x (1) gryre-lSoiS galan, B. 787, ^ i (2) sqmod aetgsedre, W. 39, ux x -i X I U X 1 X u X 1 X 1 The first perpendicular marks the limit of the anacrusis. 1 — 1 ox X S. X - - 1^- Jx X -t^ 1. X UX X 1 — 1 ± X Structure. 131 (1) duguSe gnd geogoSe, B. 622, (1) f^ger fold-bold, B. 774, (1) atelic ^gesa, B. 785, (2) gold^vine mirine, W. 22, (1) ?gesan fieon [>*)3ihan: § 118], B. 2737, Note. — Rare forms of A are z i x | j: x (does not occur in texts), zix I ^ 1 (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and^xi | ^x (once, B. 2743(1)). 2. Type B, x .: | x .: Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is x x ^ | x j: (1) (jnd )3a freolic vrii, B. 616, x x ^ | x ^ (2) he on lust ge]}eah, B. 619, x x ^ | x ^ (2) J>a se aeSeling giong, B. 2716, x xux| y. s (2) seah on §nta geweorc, B. 2718, x x ^ | x x ^ (1) ofer floda genipu, B. 2809, x x ^ | x x i5x ( 1 ) lor{>am me witan ne Tpearl, B. 2742, x x x _^ | x x ^ (2) )7aes Jje hire se ■willa gelamp, B. 627, xxxxxji|xx.r: (1) for)]on ne maeg ^^eorjian vria, W. 64, x x x x _: | x j; (1) Nsefre ic Eenegum [=^n'gum] m^n, B.656, x x x ^ | a j: Note. — In the last half-line Sievers suhstitutes the older form sengum, and supposes elision of the e in Neefre (=N£efr-ic: X X j: I X .i). 3. Type C, xi\ ix The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than one. 132 Poetry. (1) (1) (2) (1) (1) (2) (2) (1) (1) (2) (2) Jjaet heo on ienigiie, B. 628, )38Bt ic anunga, B. 635, eode gold-hroden, 6. 641, gemyne mserSo, B. 660, on Jjisse meodu-liealle, B. 639, aet brimes nosan, B. 2804, aet 'Wealh)3eon [ = -)jeov7an] , B. 030, geond lagulade, W. 3, Swa cwaeS eardstapa, W. 6, eala byrmwiga, W. 94, no )3Eer fela bringeiS, W. 54, X X X Z X X ^ X X ^ X ux : X X ux I I X ux X S X uX I I X X _1 X X ^ X X uX - X 6 X S X ^ X 4. Type D, D2 ^ I . Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary stresses (^ x | ^ i x, z x | ^ x i). The secondary stress in D^ falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short. (a) D' ^ I ^ 1 X (1) cwen HroSgares, B. 614, s. (2) deel eeghwylcne, B. 622, ^ (1) Beowulf maSelode, B. 632, i x (2) slat unwearnum, B. 742, s (1) -wrajsra waelsleahta, W. 7, i % (1) wod ■wintercearlg [= w^Int'rcearig], W. 24, ± (1) sohte s^le dreorig, W. 25, j. x (1) ne sohte searo-niSas, B. 2739, x | ^ x Note. — There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of apparent .i x X I ^ o X : V70rd wreeron vrynsume. (The triple alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes our stressing -waeron.) The diificulty is avoided by bringing the line under the A type: Structure. 133 (6) D2 / I ^ X 1 (2) PorS near aetstop, B. 746, ^ | ^ x i (2) eorl furSur stop, B. 762, ^ | j: x i (2) D^num eallum wearS, B. 768, j^ | ^ x i (1) grette Geata leod, B. 626, ^ x | z x i (1) aenig yrfe-weard, B. 2732, ^ x | z x i (1) hreosan brim and snaw, W. 48, ^ x | ^ x i (2) sv7imma3 eft on VT-eg, W. 53, ^ x | ^ x l Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded. (2) Jjegn ungemete till, B. 2722, ^ | j; x x x i (1) hrusan heolster bivTrah, W. 23, ^ x | ^ x x i 5. Type E, E' E2 ^x: .x| The secondary stress in E^ falls frequently on a short syllable, as in D^. (a) El ^ 1 X I ^ (1) wyrmlicum fah, W. 98, ^ i x (2) medo-ful aetbaer, B. 625, ux u x (1) see-bat gesaet, B.634, z i x (1) sige-folca sweg, B. 645, ^ - x (2) NorS-D^num stod, B. 784, ^ i x (1) feond-grapum faest, B. 637, j. ^ ^ (2) -wyn eal gedreas, W. 36, i^y. (2) feor olt gem9n, W. 90, ^ i x As in U^, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded. (1) -win-aerneB ge'weald, B. 655, (1) Hafa nu pnd geheald, B. 659, (1) searo-Jj^ncum besmiSod, B. 776, ; 1 X X I 134 Poetry. Note. — Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases between D^ and E'. For example, in these half -lines (already cited), w^yn eal gedreas ieor oft gemqn For3 near aetstop if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their verbs, the type is D^. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and increase it on the verbs, and we have E'. The position of the adverbs furnishes no clue ; for the order of words in Old English was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well. (6) £2^x11^ This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there being but one instance of this type (1. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in the whole of Beowulf. Abnormal Lines. The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, (!)■ hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines. (1) Hypermetrical Lines. Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the Wanderer. Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The Structure. 135 first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting of (.i x x x ji- | ^ x). (2) Defective Lutes. The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second half -line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be scanned thus : rSbte ongean ^ x | x ^ beaIo-ni3 Tweoll ux i I _'. I — I I Sievers emends as follows : riehte togeanes ±y. y.\ ix = A bealo-niSe \weoll ux i x I ^ = Ei I r ' These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found on almost every page of Old Eng- lish prose. That they occur so rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers' five-fold classification. Note. — All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under the dif- ferent types. If these are mastered, the student will find it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain. SELECTIONS FOR READING. VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF. The Banquet in Heorot. [Lines 612-662.] [The Heyne-Sooin text has been closely followed. I have attempted no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wiilker text seemed to give the better reading. The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers ; but a monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf, nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South Sweden), sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his services to the aged Hrothgar. " Leave me alone in the hall to-night," .says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's proffered aid, and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent in wassail. The banquet scene follows.] 1 pger wses haelepa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, 2 word wseron wynsume. Eode Wealhjjeow forS, 8 cwen HroSgares, cynna gemyndig; 4 grette gold-hroden guman on healle, [6i5] 5 ond [la freolic wif ful gesealde merest East-D^na epel-wearde, 7 baed hine bliSne set pare beor-p^ge, 8 leodum leofne ; he on lust gepeah 9 symbel ond s^le-ful, sige-rof kyning. [620] 10 Ymb-eode pa ides Helminga u duguSe e nu pa. 14 Hafa nu ond geheald husa selest, 15 gemyne mSrpo,'' maegen-^llen cy5, [660] 16 waca wits wraSum. Ne bi6 pe wilna gad, IT gif pu paet ^llen-weorc aldre^ gedlgest." J = heo. * = aglseoan. ' = mxitpe (ace. sing.). ^ = medu-. " = owomon, » = ealdre (instr. sing. ) » = gesprecen. " = Knigum. 2-6. wiste . . cwoman. A difficult passage, even with Thorpe's inserted ne ; "but there is no need of putting a period after ge}3inged, or of translating oSSe by and; He {Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store (gejjinged) for the monster in theJiigh hall, after \_= as soon as] they could no longer see the stoi's light, or [= that is] after night came darkening over all, and shadoiey figures stalking. The subject of cwoman [= cw^omon] is niht and gesceapu. The student will note that the infinitive (scriSan) is here employed as a present participle after a verb of motion (cwoman). This con- struction with cuman is frequent in prose and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion : ic com driian = I came driving. Extracts from Beowulf. 139 The Fight Between Beowulf and Grendel. [Lines 740-837.] [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams " a luster unlovely, likest to fire." The combat begins at once.] 1 Ne ()set se aglseca yldan pohte, [740] 2 ac he gefeng hraSe forman si5e 3 slSpendne rinc, slat unwearnum, 4 bat bau-locan, blod edrum dranc, 5 syn-snSdum swealh ; sona haefde 6 unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [74s] T fet ond folma. ForS near aetstop, 8 nam pa mid haiida hige-))ihtigne 9 riuc on i-a3ste ; reehte ongean 10 feond mid folme ; he onfeng hrat>e 11 inwit-pancum ^nd wi6 eavm gesait. [750] 12 Sona faet onfunde fyrena hyrde, 13 pset he ne mette middan-geardes, 14 eortSan sceatta, on ^Iran m^n 15 mund-gripe maran ; he on mode wearS 1. Tpxt, the direct object of yldan, refers to the contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was wondering how it would result. 7. aetstop. The subject of this verb and of nam is Grendel ; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (rsehte, onjeng, gesset) is Beowulf. 12-13. The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of stimu- lating interest by indirect methods of statement, by suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in their use of negatives (ne, 1. 13 ; p. 140, 1. 3 ; no, p. 140, 1.1), and in the unexpected promi- nence that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because understood ; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the terror produced by Grendel's midnight visits to Heorot, says (11.138-139), "Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more commodiously, sought rest for himself." It is hard to believe that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view. 140 Selections for Reading. 1 forht, on ferMe ; no py Sr frara meahte. [tss] 2 Hyge waes him hin-fus, wolde on lieolster fleon, 8 secan deofla gedraeg ; ne waes his drohtoS JiiBr, 4 swylce he on ealder'-dagum ser gemette. 5 Gemunde fa se goda mseg Higelaces 6 eefen-spreece, Gp-laug astod [leo] 7 ond him faeste wiSfeng ; fiagras burston ; 8 eoten waes ut-weard ; eorl fur))ur stop. 9 Mynte se mSra, hwser he meahte swa, 10 widre gewindan (jnd on weg fanon 11 fleon on f^n-hopu ; wiste his fingra geweald [T65] 12 on grames grapum. pset waes geocor s&, 18 fast se hearm-scafia to Heorute ^ ateah. 14 Diyht-s^le dynede ; D^num eallnm wearS 15 ceaster-buendum, cenra gehwylcum, 16 eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre waeron begen [tto] 1. no . . . meahte, none the sooner could he away. The omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries magan, motan, sculan, and ■willan is very frequent. Cf. Beowulf's last utterance, p. 147, 1. 17. 14. The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine hit of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are with- drawn from our sight ; but we hear the sound of the fray crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a blast ; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former banqueting hall ; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the "terror-lay" of Grendel, "lay of the beaten," and know that Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (gilp geleested). 15. cenra gehwylcum. The indefinite pronouns (§ 77) may be used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns ; but they fre- quently, as here, take a partitive genitive : anra gehwylcum, to each one (= to each of ones) ; Eenige (instrumental) }}inga, for any thing ( = for any of things) ; on healfa gehwone, into halves (= into each of halves) ; ealra dogra gehwam, every day (= on each of all days) ; iihtna gehwylce, every morning (= on each of mornings). Extracts from Beowulf. 141 1 refe ren-weardas. R^ced hlyusode ; 2 fa wses wundor micel, fset se wTn-s^le 3 wiShsefde heafo-deorum, fset he on hmsan ne f eol, 4 fffiger fold-bold ; ac he pses faeste wees 5 innan ond utan iren-b^ndum [77r,] searo-fqncum besmiSod. pSsr fram sylle abeag 7 medu-b^nc mQnig, mine gefrSge, 8 golde geregnad, fSr fa graman wmmon ; 9 faes ne wendon aer witan Scyldinga, 10 fset hit a mid gemete manna eeiiig, [tso] 11 betlie ond ban-fag, tobrecan meahte, 12 listum tolucan, nymfe liges faeSm 13 swnlge on swafule. Sweg up astag 14 niwe geneahhe ; NorS-D^num stod 15 atelic ^gesa, anra gehwylcum, [tss] 16 fara fe of wealle wop gehyrdon, n gryre-leoS galan Godes ondsacan, 18 sige-leasne sang, sar wanigean 19 h^lle haefton.' Heold hine faeste, 20 se fe manna waes maegene strongest [79o] 21 on fSm daege fysses lifes. 22 Nolde eorla hleo aenige finga 28 fone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlffitan, 24 ne his lif-dagas leoda Snigum 10. Notice that hit, the object of. tobrecan, stands for 'win-sfle, which is masculine. See p. .39, Note i. Manna is genitive after gemete, not after eenig. 17-19. giyre-leo3 . . . haefton [= haeftan]. Note that verbs of hearing and seeing, as in Mii.E., may be followed by the infinitive. They heard God's adversary sing (galan) . . helPs captiue bnoail (wranigean). Had the present participle been used, the effect would iiave been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action (the infinitive itself). 142 Selections for Reading. 1 nytte tealde. pser genehost brsegd p95] 2 eorl Beowulfes ealde lafe, 8 wolde freardrihtnes feorli ealgian, 4 mares feodnes, SSr hie meahton swa. 6 Hie tSaet ne wiston, fa hie gewin drugon, 6 heard-hicgende hilde-m^cgas, [soo] 7 ond on healfa gehwone heawan fohton, 8 sS.wle secan : fone syn-scaSan 9 gnig ofer eorSan irenna cyst, 10 guf-billa nan, gretan nolde ; 11 ac he sige-w£epnum forsworen hasfde, [sos] vi ^cga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor''-gedal 18 on ggm daege fysses lifes 14 earmlic wurSan ^ Qnd se ^llor-gast 16 on feonda geweald feor siSian. 16 pa pset onfunde, se fe fela Sror [sio] 17 modes myrSe manna cynne 18 fyrene gefr^mede (he woes fag wiS God), 19 fset him se lic-homa Ijestan nolde, 20 ac hine se modega" mgg Hygelaces 21 haef de be honda ; wses gehwaefer 66rnm [sis] 22 lifigende la?. Lic-sar gebad 23 atol SglSca' ; him on eaxle weartS 1-2. Jjser . . lafe. Beowulf's followers now seem to have seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against the best of swords. Then many an earl of Beowulf s (= an earl of B. very often) brandished his sword. That no definite earl is meant is shown by the succeeding hie meahton instead of he meahte. See p. 110, Note. 5. They did not knoio this (Saet), while they were fighting ; hut the first Hie refers to the warriors who proffered help ; the second Me, to the combatants, Beowulf and Grendel. In apposition with Sset, stands the whole clause, Jjone synscaSan (object of gretan) . . . nolde. The second, or conjunctional, Seet is here omitted before Tpone. See p. 112, note on 11. 18-19. Extracts from Beowulf. 143 1 syn-dolh sweotol ; seonowe onsprungon ; 2 burston ban-locan. Beowulfe wearS 3 guS-hreS gyfeSe. Scolde Gr^ndel fQnan [S20] 4 feorh-seoc fleon under f^ii-hleotSu,' 5 secean wyn-leas wic ; wiste fe geornor, 6 paet his aldres ' wses ^nde gegongen, 7 dogera daeg-rim. D^num eallum wearcS s aefter fam weel-rSse willa gelumpen. [825] 9 Ha2fde fa gefaelsod, se fe Sr feorran com, 10 snotor (jnd swyS-ferhS, s^le HroSgares, n gen^red wi6 niSe. Niht-weorce gefeli, 12 ^llen-mEerfum ; hsefde East-D^num 18 Geat-m^cga leod gilp gelffisted ; [sso] 14 swylce oncyStSe ealle gebette, 15 inwid-sorge, fe hie eer drugon 16 ond for prea-nydum foliam scoldon, n torn unlytel. past waes tacen sweotol, 18 sySSan hilde-deor hgnd al^gde, [835] 19 earm (jnd eaxle (peer waes eal geador 20 Gr^ndles grape) under geapne hrof. i.= ealdor-. ■• = ealdor-. ' = aglseca. 2 = Heorote. " = weoriSan. « = -hli'Su. ' = hsftan. 6 = modiga. ^ _ ealdi'es. Beowulf Fatally Wounded. [Lines 2712-2752.] [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for tlie great victory, lavislies gifts upon Beowulf; but Grendel's raotlier must be reclconed with. Beowulf finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf's lap. Beowulf, having now accom- plished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is with him.] 20. grape = genitive singular, feminine, after eal. 144 Selections for Reading. 1 pa sio ' wund ong^n, 2 pe him se eorS-draca ter geworhte, 8 swelan (jnd swellan. He paet sona onfand, 4 pset him on breostum bealo-nT(5 weoll [2715] 5 attor on innan. pa se geSeling giong/ 6 paet he bi wealle, wis-hycgende, 7 gesaBt on sesse ; seah on ^nta geweorc, 8 hu pa stan-bogan stapulum faeste 9 ece eorS-r^ced innan healde. [2720] 10 Hyne pa mid handa heoro-dreorigne, 11 peoden mserne, pegn ungemete till, 12 wine-dryhten his waetere gelafede, 18 hilde-ssedne, ^nd his helm onspeon. 14 Biowulf ^ ma^elode ; he ofer b^nne spraec, [2726] 5. se seSeling is Beowulf. 7. ^nta gevyeorc is a stereotyped plirase for anything that ocoa^ sions wonder by its size or strangeness. 9. healde. Heyne, following EttmuUer, reads heoldon, thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself in time with the hero, whose wonder was " how the stone-arches . . SMSiara the ever-during earth-hall " : the construction is a form of oratio recta, a sort of miratio recta. 1'he singular healde, instead of healden, has many parallels in the dependent clauses of Beowulf, most of these being relative clauses introduced by Jjara Jje (= of those that ... 4- a singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has doubtless been influenced by the proximity of eorS-r^ced, a guasi-subjeot ; and we have no more right to alter to healden or heoldon than we have to change Shakespeare's gives to give in "Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives." (Macbeth, II, i, 61.) 11. The )3egn ungemete till is Wiglaf, the bravest of Beowulf's retainers. 14. he ofer bfnne spraec. The editors and translators of Beo- wulf invariably render ofer in this passage by about; but Beowulf Extracts from Beowulf. 145 1 wunde wsel-bleate ; wisse he gearwe, 2 fiset he dfeg-hwila gedrogen haefde 8 eorSan wyiine ; ))a wees eall sceacen 4 dogor-gerimes, deaS imgemete neah : 5 " Nu ic siina minimi syllan wolde [2730] gutS-gewffidu, fser me gifetSe swa 7 Snig yi-fe-weard aefter wurde 8 lice gel^nge. Ic Sas leode heold 9 f If tig wintra ; naes se f olo-cyning 10 ymbe-sittendra senig para, [2735] 11 pe mec giiS-winum gretan dorste, 12 ^gesan tSeon. Ic on earde bad 13 mSl-gesceafta, heold mm tela, 14 ne sohte searo-niSas, ne me swor fela 15 aSa on unriht. Ic Sees ealles meeg, [2740] 16 feorh-b^nnum seoc, gefean habban ; 17 for-fani me witan ne tSearf Waldend'' fira 18 morSor-bealo" maga, fonne min sceacetS 19 lif of lice. Nu Su lungre geong" 20 hord sceawian under harne stan, [2745] 21 Wiglaf leofa, nu se wyrm ligeS, 22 swefeS sare wund, since bereafod. says not a word about his wound. The context seems to me to show plainly that ofer (of. Latin supra) denotes here opposition = in spite of. We read in Genesis, 1. 694, that Eve took the forbidden fruit ofer Drihtenes -word. Beowulf fears (1. 2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = ofer ealde riht ; and he goes forth (1. 2409) ofer ■wiUan to confront the dragon. 6-8. JjEer me . . gelf nge, if so be that (peer . . swa) any heir had afterwards been given me (me gifeSe . . aefter ■wnrde) belonging to my body. 19-20. geong [ = gqng] . . . sceawian. See note on eode . . . Bittan, p. 137, 11. 19-20. In Mn.E. Go see, Go fetch, etc., is the second verb imperative (coordinate with the first), or subjunctive (J,hat you may see), or infinitive without to ? 146 Selections for Reading. 1 Bio' nu on ofoste, fset ic eer-welan, 2 gold-Sht ongite, gearo sceawige 8 swegle searo-gimmas, pset ic Sy seft maege [2750] 4 sefter maStJuni-welan mm alStan 5 llf gnd leod-scipe, foae ic iQnge heold." = seo. 3 = Beowulf. 6 = ggng (gang). = geong. 1 = Wealdend.. 5 = morlSor-bealu. ' = Beo. Beowulf's Last Words. [Lines 2793-2821.] [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf's triumph. Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives advice and final direc- tions to Wiglaf.] 6 Blowulf^ maSelode, 1 gQmel on giohSe (gold sceawode) : 8 " Ic para f rgetwa Frean ealles Sane, [2T95] 9 Wuldur-cyninge, wordum s^cge 10 ecum Dryhtne, fe ic lier on starie, 11 fees fe ic moste minum leodum 12 eer swylt-daege swylc gestrynan. 13 Nu ic on maSma hord mine bebohte [2800] 4-5. min . . lif. See note on ^nde-daeg . . minne, p. 137, 11. 16-17. 8-12. The expression slogan ]}anc takes the same construction as ]}ancian ; i.e., tlie dative of the person (Frean) and the geni- tive (a genitive of cause) of the thing (Jjara frsetwa). Cf. note on biddan, p. 45. The antecedent of )>e is fraetTwa. For the position of on, see § 94, (5). The clause introduced by Jjaes \>e {because) is parallel in construction with frsetwa, both being causal modifiers of s^cge Jjanc. The Christian coloring in these lines betrays the influence of pi-iestly transcribers. 13. N'ow that I, in exchange for (on) a hoard of treasures, have bartered {ToehdiAe) the laying down (-l^ge>liogan) of my old life. The ethical codes of the early Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or life-barters. There seems to be here a sug- gestion of the " wergild." Extracts from Beowulf. 147 1 frode feorh-l^ge, fr^mmaS ge nu 2 leoda fearfe ; ne maig ic her l^ng wesan. 8 HataS lieaSo-mEere hlasw gewyrcean, 4 beorlitne sefter bSsle set brimes nosan ; 6 se sceP to gemyndum rnmum leodum [2806] 6 heah hlifian on Hrones naesse, 7 paet Mt S£e-li6end sytStSan hatan ^ 8 Blowulf es ^ biorh ^ fa f e brentingas 9 ofer floda genipu feorran drifaS " 10 Dyde him of healse bring gyldenne [28io] n fioden' fnst-hydig; fegne gesealde, 12 geongum gar-wigan, gold-fabne helm, 13 beah ond byrnan, het hyne brucan well. 14 " pu. eart ^nde-laf usses cynnes, 15 WSgmundinga ; ealle wyrd forsweop [28i5] 16 mine magas to metod-sceafte, 17 eorlas on ^Ine ; ic him aefter sceal." 18 pjet wses fam gomelan gingeste word 19 breost-gehygdum, ger he bSl cure, 1. fr^mmaS ge. The plural imperative (as also in Hata3) shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general, — to his comitatus. 6. The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent expres- sion in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was situated " high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that it might be seen from off the sea." Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury him in the same way. ^neas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a high mound on a head- land of the sea. 7. hit = hleew, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2. 10-11. him . . . Jjioden. The reference in both cases is to Beo- wulf, who is disarming himself (fia-oi>doff) for the last time ; Tpegae = to Wiglaf. Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of tlie dative instead of the more colorless possessive ; him of healse, not of his healse. 17. ic . . sceal. See note on no . . meahte, p. 140, 1. 1. 148 Selections for Reading. 1 hate heatSo-wylmas ; him of hreSre gewat [282o] 2 sawol secean so^-fsestra dom. 1 lo, io = eo, eo. ^ = sceal. " = haten. VII. THE WANDERER. [Exeter MS. " The epic character of the ancient lyric appears espe- cially in this : that the song is less the utterance of a momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated, or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends." (Ten Brink, Early Eng. Lit., I.) I adopt Brooke's three- fold division {Early Eng. Lit., p. 356) : "It opens with a Christian pro- logue, and closes with a Christian epilogue, hut the whole body of the poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were unin- fluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine." The author is unknown.] Prologue. 8 Oft him anhaga are gebideS, 4 Metudes '■ miltse, feali pe he modcearig 5 geond lagulade longe sceolde 6 hreran mid hgndum hrlmcealde sS, 1 wadan wraeclastas : wyrd biS ful arted ! [5] 8 Swa cweeS eardstapa earfepa^ gemyndig, 9 wrapra wselsleahta, winemsega hryres : Plaint of the Wandeker. 10 " Oft ic sceolde ana uhtna gehwylce 11 mine ceare cwlfian ; nis nti cwicra nan, 1. him of hreSre. Cf. note on him . . . Jjioden, p. 147, 11. 10-11. 1-2. For construction of gewat . . . secean, see note on eode . . . Bittan, p. 137, 11. 19-20. 9. The MS. reading is hryre (nominative), which is meaningless. 10. For uhtna gehwylce, see note on cenra gehwylcum, p. 140. The Wanderer. 149 1 pe ic him modsefan miiine durre [lo] 2 sweotule ^ as^cgan. Ic to s6|)e wat 3 fast bi)) in eorle indryhten feaw, 4 pset lie his ferSlocan feeste binde, 5 healde his hordcofan, hycge swa he wille ; 6 lie maeg werig mod wyrde wiCst^ndan £15] 7 ne se hreo hyge helpe gefr^mman : 8 for tSon domgeorne dreorigiie oft 9 in hyra breostcofan biiidac? faeste. 10 Swa ic modsefan minne sceolde 11 oft earmcearig eSle bidseled, [20j 12 freoiiiBegum feor feterum sSlao, 13 sifpan geara iu goldwine miniie u hrusan heolster biwrah, and ic hean ponan 15 wod wintercearig ofer wapema gebind, 16 sohte s^le dreorig sinces bryttan, [26] 17 hwser ic feor of fe neah findan meahte 18 pone pe in meoduhealle* miltse wisse 19 oppe mec freondleasne frefran wolde, 20 w^nian mid wynnum. Wat se pe cunnaS 21 hu slipen bi8 sorg to geferan [30] 22 pam pe him lyt hafaS leofra geholena : 23 waraS hine wrseclast, nales wunden gold, 24 ferSloca freorig, nalses foldan blSd ; 25 gem^n he s^les^cgas and sincp^ge, 26 \m hine on geoguSe his goldwine [85] 27 w^nede to wiste : wyn eal gedreas ! 1. Jje . . . him. See § 75, (4). 18. For mine (MS. in), which does not satisfy metncal require- ments, I adopt Kluge's plausible substitution of miltse ; mUtse ■witan = to show {know, feel), pity. The mjrne wisse of Beoioidf (1. 169) is metrically admissible. 150 Selections for Reading. 1 For pon wat se fe sceal his winedryhtnes 2 leofes larcwidum longe forpolian, 3 Sonne sorg and sltep somod setgsedre 4 earmne anhagan oft gebindatJ ; [40j 6 finceS him on mode paet he his mondryhten 6 clyijpe and cysse, and on cneo l^ege 7 honda and heafod, swa he hwilum ser 8 in geardagum giefstoles breao ; 9 Sonne onwaecneS eft wineleas guma, [45] 10 gesihS him biforan fealwe weegas, 11 bafian brimfuglas, brsedan fef ra, 12 hreosan hrim and snaw hagle gem^nged. 13 ponne beoS fy h^figran heortan b^nne, 14 sare eefter swSsiie ; sorg biS geniwad ; [so] 15 ponne inaga gemynd mod geondhweorfeS, 16 greteS gliwstafum, georne geondseeawaS. 17 S^cga geseldan swimmaS eft on weg; 18 fleotendra ferS^ no pffir fela bringeS 19 cuSra cwidegiedda ; cearo*^ MS geniwad [65] 1. The object of -wat is JjinceS him on mode; but the con- struction is unusual, inasmuch as both Jjset's (Jsaet pronominal before ■wat and Jjset conjunctional before JjinceS) are omitted. See p. 112, 11. 18-19. 5. )>ince3 him on mode (see note on him . . . fjioden, p. 147). "No more sympathetic picture has been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts, — then wakes to look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray." (Gum- mere, Germanic Origins, p. 221.) 17-19. S^cga . . . Q-widegiedda = But these comrades of loarriors = those seen in vision] again swim away \^ = fade away'] ; the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many familiar words ; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old familiar faces, but no voice is heard : they bring neither greetings to him nor tidings of themselves. The Wanderer. 151 1 fam f e s^ndan sceal swife geneahhe 2 ofer wafema gebind werigne sefan. s For pon ic gep^ncan ne mseg geond fas woruld 4 for hwan modsefa min ne gesweorce, 5 fonne ic eorla llf eal geondf^nce, [m] 6 hu hi fserlice fl^t ofgeafon, 1 modge magupegnas. Swa fes middangeard 8 ealra dogra gehwam dreoseS and f eallef ; 9 for ))on. ne mseg weorpan wis wer, ger he age 10 -wintra dael in woruldrice. Wita sceal gefyldig, [65] 11 ne sceal no to hatheort ne to hrsedwyrde, 12 ne to 'wac wiga ne to wanhydig, 13 ne to forht ne to faegen ne to feoligifre, 14 ne njefre gielpes to georn, ser he geare cunne. 15 Beorn sceal gebidan, ponne he beot spriceS, [7o] 16 o)) faet collenferS cunne gearwe 17 hwider hrejra gehygd hweorfan wille. 18 Ongietan sceal gleaw hsele hu gaestllc biS, 19 fionne call fisse worulde wela weste stondeS, 20 swa nu missenlice geond fisne middangeard [T6] 21 winde biwaune ' weallas stondaf, 10. Wita sceal gejjyldig. Either beon (■wesan) is here to be understood after sceal, or sceal alone means ought to be. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, though the omission of a verb of motion after sculan is common in all periods of Old English. See note on no . . . meahte, p. 140. 20. STva nu. "The Old English lyrical feeling," says Ten Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow s-wa nil, " is fond of the image of physical destruction " ; but I do not think these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions. " We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad government and of national tumult which filled the years between the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729." (Brooke, Early Eng. Lit., p. 355.) 152 Selections for Heading. 1 hrime bihrorene,* hrySge fa ederas. 2 WoriatS fa winsalo," waldend licgatS 8 dreame bidrorene'"; dugutS eal gecrgng 4 wlgnc bi wealle : sume wig fornom, [80] 5 f^rede in fortSwege; sumne fugel" ofbaer 6 ofer heanne holm ; sumne se hara wulf 7 deatSe gedeelde ; sumne dreorighleor 8 in eortSscraefe eorl gehydde : 9 yfde swa fisne eardgeard selda Scyppend, [85] 10 of fset burgwara bpeahtma lease 11 eald ^nta geweorc idlu stodon. 12 Se fonne fisne wealsteal -wise gefohte, 13 and fis decree llf deope geondf ^nceS, w frod in fer(5e" feor oft gemon [so] 15 wselsleahta worn, and fas word acwitS : 16 ' Hwser cwom mearg ? hwger cwom mago " ? hwffir cwom maf f umgyf a ? IT liwSr cwom synibla gesetu ? hweer sindon s^le- dreamas ? 18 Eala beorht bune ! eala byrnwiga ! 19 eala f eodnes frym ! hu seo frag gewat, [96] 20 genap under nihthelm, swa heo no wSre ! 21 Stgnde^ nu on laste leofre dugufe 22 weal wundrum heah, wyrmlicum f ah : 23 eorlas fornomon asca fryf e, 17. cwom . . . gesetu. Ettmiiller reads cwomon ; but see p. 107, note on -waes . . . Jja igland. The occurrence of hwser cwom three times in the preceding line tends also to hold cwom in the singular when its plural subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar structural parallelism in seas hides of these lines (Winter's Tale, IV, iv, 500-502) : " Not for . . . all the sun sees or The close earth wombs or the profound seas )iides In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath." The Wanderer. 153 1 wsepeii WEelgifru, wyrd seo maere ; [loo] 2 and pas stanhleofu" stormas cnyssaS ; 3 hrltS lireosende lirusaii bindetJ, 4 wintres wOma, fonue wgn cymet5, 6 uipeS nihtscua, norfan ons^ndeS 6 hreo hseglfare heelepum on andan. [io6] T Eall is earfoSlic eorjian rice, 8 onw^ndeS wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofo- num: 9 her bits feoh Isene, her bi6 freond Igene, 10 her bis mqn ISne, her biS mseg Isene ; 11 eal fis eorfaii gesteal idel weorfeS ! ' " [iio] Epilogue. 12 Swa cwaeS snottor on mode, gesaet him sundor set rune. 13 Til bif se fe his treowe gehealdeS ; ne sceal nSfre his torn to rycene 14 beorn of his breostum acyfan, nemfe he fir fa bote cunne ; 15 eorl mid ^Ine gefr^mman. Wei biS fam fe him are seceS, 16 frofre to Feeder on heofonum, fser us eal seo fifistnung stQndeS. [ii5] ' = Metodes. ^ = cearu. i> = fugol. 2 = earfo>a. ' See bewawan. 12 _ ferhiSe. 3 = sweotole. * See belireosan. '^ = magu. * = medu-. ' = winsalu. " = -hliiSu. '' = ferhlS. 1° See bedreosan. 12. gesset . . . rune, sat apart to himself in silent meditation. 15. eorl . . . gefr^mman. Supply sceal after eorl. I. GLOSSARY. OLD ENGLISH — MODERN ENGLISH. [The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that 8 follows t. The combination se follows ad. Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine) , f. (= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for the cases, nom., gen., dat., ace, and instr. Other abbreviations are sing. (= singular), pi. (= plural), ind. (= indicative mood), sub. (= subjunctive mood), pres. (= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), prep. (= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), part. (= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. (= pronoun), intrans. (= intransitive), trans. (= transitive). Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.] a, ever, always, aye. abbudisse, f., abbess [Lat. abba- tissa]. abeodan (§ 109), bid, offer; him hSl abead 1.38, 9 = bade him hail, wished him health. abrecan (§ 120, Note 2), break down, destroy. abugan (§ 109, Note, 1), give way, start [bow away]. ac, conj., but. acweSan (§ 115), say, speak. acySan (§ 126), reveal, proclaim [cu3]. ad, ra., funeral i:)i7e. adesa, m., adze, hatchet. se (ebw), f., law. eedre (edre), f., stream, canal, vein; blod ednim dranc 13ii, 4 = drank blood in streams (instr.). eefsestnis, f., piety. Eefen-raest, f . , evening rest. eefen-spraec, f., evening speech. aef^Bt (Swffst), law-abiding, pious. eet^stma, see eefsestnis. aebe, ever, alicays. BEfter, prep. (§ 94, (1)), after; Eefter S^m, after that, there- after ; setter SEem 8e, conj., after. setter, adv., after, afterwards. eegh-wa (§ 77, Note), each, every. segh'wilc (§ 77, Note), each, any. leglaeca, see aglseca. 155 156 Glossary. BEgSer (EeghwseSer, aiSer) (§ 77, Note), each, cither; segSei . . . o3er . . . o3er, either . . . or . . . or; SgSer ge . . . ge (§ 95, (2)), both . . and; SgSerge . . . ge . . . ge, both . . . and . . . and. jeht, f., property, possession [agan]. Eelc (§77), each. aelde (ielde) (§ 47), m. pi., men; gen. pi., selda. Eelmihtig, almiyhty. semetta, m., leisure [emjjM-ness] . eenig (§ 77), any ; aenige Singa 141, 22 =for anything. (See 140, 15, Note.) ser,adv., before, formerly, sooner; no Jjy eer 140, 1 = none the sooner ; ^ror, comparative, be- fore, formerly ; eerest, superla- tive, first. ser, conj. (§ 105, 2), ere, before = Eer Ssem 3e. aer, prep, with dat. , before (time) ; ser 8mm 3e, conj. (§ 105, 2), before. Eercebisceop, m. , archbishop [Lat. arohiepiscopus]. Srendge-writ, n., message, letter. Srend-wrreca (-raca), m., mes- senger. serest, adj. (§ 96, (i)), first. aernan (§ 127), ride, gallop [iernan] . serra., adj. (§ 96, i^)), former. ierwela, m., ancient wealth. sesc, m., ash, spear ; gen. pi., asca. .Siscesdiin, f ., Ashdown (in Berk- shire). BBBtel, m., book-mark [Lat. has- tula]. aet (§ 94, (1)), at, in; with leor- nian, to learn, ge3icgan, to receive, and other verbs of simi- lar import, aet =from : 115, 18 ; 137, 8, etc. aetberan (§ 114), bear to, hand. aBtgsBd(e)re, adv., together. aetsteppan (§ 116), step up, ad- vance ; pret. sing. , aetst5p. aeSele, noble, excellent. ae3eling, m., a noble, prince. .S!3elv7ulfing, m., son of Ethel- wulf. iESered, m., Ethelred. afeallan (§ 111), fall. afierran (§ 127), remove [feor]. agan (§ 136), to own, possess. agen, adj. -part., own; dat. sing., agnum [agan]. agiefan (§ 115), give back. aglEeca (Eeglaeoa), m., monster, champion. ahton, see agan. al^tan (§ 117), let go, leave. aldor, see ealdor. al^cgan (§ 125, Note), lay down [licgan] ; past part., aled. Aliesend, m., Bedeemer [aliesan = release, ransoni} . alimpan (§ 110), befall, occur. alyfan (§ 126), entrust, permit. ambor, m., measure; gen. pi., ambra (§ 27, (4)). ambyre, favorable. an (§ 89), one; ana, alone, only ; anra gehvrylcum 141, 15 = to each one. (See 140, 15, Note.) anda, m., zeal, injury, indigna- tion; haele3um on andan 153, 6 = harmful to men. andefn, i., proportion, amount. andgiet (-git), n., sense, meaning. Glossary. 157 andgitfullice, intdliyihUj ; -git- fullicost, superlative. andswaru, f., answer. andwyrdan (§ 127), to answer; pret., and^j^yrde. Angel, n., Anglen (in Denmark) ; dat. sing., Angle (§ 27 (4)). Angelcynn, n., English kin, English people, England. anhaga (-hoga), m., a solitary, wdnderer [an + hogian, to med- itatel. anlipig, single, indiridual. anunga (§ 93, (2)), once for all [an]. apostol, m., apostle [Gr. dniaro- Xos]. ar, f., honor, properly, favor ; are gebideS 148, 3 = waits for divine favor (gen.). arsd, adj., inexarahle. areedan (§ 126), read. ar^cc(e)an (§ 128), translate, expound. arfsestnis, f., virtue. arisan (§ 102), arise. asca, see aesc. as^cgan (§ 132), say, relate. as^ttan (§ 127), set, place. asingan (§ 110), sing. asp^ndan (§ 127), spend, expend. astigan (§ 102), ascend, arise. astQndan (§ 116), stand up. ateah, see ateon. atelic, horrible, dire. ateon (§ 118), draio, drav) away, take (as a journey) . atol, horrihlc, dire. attor, n., poison. atuge, see ateon. a3, m., oath. aSer, see segSer. awfcoan (§ 128), awake, arouse; pret. sing., aTweahte, avr^hte. aweg, away. a'w^ndan (§ 127), turn, translate. a-wrltan (§ 102), write, compose. a-wryrcan (§ 128), work, do, per- form. B. Bachsfcg, m., Bagsac. bsecbord, n., larboard, left side of a ship. bsel, II., funeral fire, funeral pile. ban, n., bone. ban-fag, adorned rmth bones or antlers. ban-loca, m., flesh [bone-locker]. Basengas, m. pi., Basing (in Hantshire). be (bi) (§ 94, (1)), by, about, concerning, near, along, accord- ing to ; be norSan 'paeva -wea- tenne (§ 94, (4)), north if the waste (desert) ; be fullan, /?(?/?/, perfectly. beag, see bugan. beag-hroden, ring-adorned. beah (beag), m., ring, bracelet, collar [bugan]. bealo-niS, m., dire hatred, poison, venom. beam, n., child, son [bairn]. bebeodan (§ 109), command, bid, entrust (with dat.). bebio-, see bebeo-. bebobte, see bebycgan. bebycgan (§ 128), sell. bee, see boo. becuman (§ 114), come, arrive, befall. bedSlan (§ 126), separate, de- prive. 168 G-lossary. "bedreosan (§ 109), deprive ; past part, pi., bedrorene (bidro- rene) [dross, dreary]. befEBstan (§ 127) , fasten, implant. befeolan (§ 110), apply one's self; Sara 3e 3a speda hsebben tSSet hie 3^m befeolan maegen 119, 20 = of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves to it. beforan, pi-ep. with dat., before. begen (declined like twegen, § 89), both. begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat. , beyond. begietan (§ 115), get, obtain, find. beginnan (§ 110), begin. beheonan (behionan) , prep. with dat., on this side of. behreosan (§ 109), fall upon, cover ; past part, pi., behrorene (bihrorene). belimpan (§ 110), pertain, belong. beniman (§ 114), take, derive. b^nn, 1, wound [bana = ?m(r- derer~\ . beon (bion) (§ 134), be, consist. beorh (beorg, biorh), m., mound [barrow] . beorht, bright, glorious. Beormas, m. pi., Permians. beorn, m., man, hero, chief. beor-)3?gu, f . , beer-drinking [Jjic- gan = receive'] . beot, n., boast. beran (§ 114), bear. bereafian (§ 130) , bereave ; since bereafod 145, 22 = bereft of treasure. beren, adj., of a bear, bear. berstan (§ 110), burst, crack. besmiSian (§ 130), make hard (as at the forge of a smith). bft, see wel (§ 97, (2)). betan (§ 126), make good, re- quite; pa.st. part, pi., gebette. b^tera (bftra), see god (§ 96, (3)). betllc, excellent. bftsta, see god (§ 96, (3)). betuh (§ 94, (1)), between. betweonan (§ 94, (1)), between. betynan (§ 126), close, end [tiin = enclosure']. bewawan (§ 117), blow upon; past part, pi., bewaune (bi- ■waune, hevTsivrene). be-wreon (§ 118, 1), enwrap ; pret. 3d sing., bewrah (bi- wraU). bi, see be. bi-, see be-, bidan (§ 102), bide, await, expect, endure (with gen.). biddan (§ 115, Note 2), bid, pray, request (§ 65, Note 3) ; baed hine bliSne 136, 7 = bade him be blithe. bindan (§ 110), bind. bio, see beo (imperative sing.). bisceop (bisoep), m., bishop [Lat. episooijus]. bisceop-stol, m., episcopal seat, bishopric. bisigu, f., business, occupation; dat. pi., bisgum. bitan (§ 102), bite, cut. blTvrah, see bewreon. bleed, m., glory, prosperity [bla-w- an = bloio, inflate]. Blecinga-eg, f., Blekingen. bliss, f.. Miss [bliSe]. bliSe, hlitlip, happy. Crlosmry. 159 blod, n., blood. boc (§ 68, (1), Note 1), f., book. bocere, m., scribe [boc]. bQna (bana), m., murderer [bane] . bot, f., boot, remedy, help, com- pensation. brad (§ 96, (1)), broad. brsedan (§ 126), extend, spread [brad]. brSdra, see brad. braegd, see bregdau. breac, see brucan. breahtm, m., noise, revelry; burgwara breahtma lease 152, 10 = bereft of the revelries of citizens. bregdan (§ 110), brandish, draw [braid] ; pret. Ind. 3d sing., braegd. brenting, m. , high ship. breost, n., breast (the pi. has the same meaning as the sing.). brgost-cofa, m., breast-chamber, heart, mind. breost - gehygd, n., breast- thought, thought of the heart, emotion. brim, n., sea, ocean. brimfagol, m., sea-fowl. bringan (§ 128), bring. brohte, brohton, see bringan. broSor (broiSur) (§ 68, (2)), m., brother. brucan (§ 109, Note 1), use, en- joy (§ 62, Note 1 ; but Alfred frequently employs the ace. with brucan) . brycg, f., bridge. brycS, see brucan. brytta, m., distributor, dispenser [breotan = break inpieces']. buan (§ 126, Note 2), dwell, cul- tivate. biide, see buan. bufan, prep, with dat. and aoc, above. biigan (§ 109, Note 1), bow, bend, turn. bune, f., cup. burg (burh) (§ 68, (1), Note), f., city, borough; dat. sing., byrig. Burgenda, m. gen. pi., of the Burgundians ; Burgenda land, Bornholm. burgware (§ 47), m. pi., burgh- ers, citizens. burh, see burg. biitan (bflton), prep. (§ 94, (1)), without, except, except for, but. butan (buton), conj., except that, unless. butii, both (_= both — two. The word is compounded of the com- bined neuters of begen and twegen, but is m. and f. as well as n.). byn (§ 126, Note 2), cultivated. byrde, adj., of high rank, aristo- cratic. byrig, see burg. byrne, f., byrnie, corselet, coat of mail. bym-wiga, m., byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier. byriS, see beran. C. canon, m., sacred canon, Bible [Lat. canon, Gr. Kaviiv]. cearu (cearo), f., care. ceaster-buend, m., castle-dweller. cene, keen, bold, brave. 160 Glossary. ceosan (§ 109), choose, accept, encounter. cild, n., child. cirdon, see cirran. cirice, f., church; nom. pi., ciric- ean. cirr (cierr), ra., turn, time, occa- sion [ohar, chore, ajar = on char, on the turn]. cleene, dean, pure. clsne, adv., entirely ["clean out of the way," Shaks.]. cludig, rocky [having boulders or masses like clouds']. clyppan (§ 127), embrace, accept [clip = clasp for letters, papers, etc.]. cnapa, m., boy [knave]. cneo (cneo'w), n., knee; ace. pi., cneo. cniht, m., knight, warrior. cnyssan (§ 125), beat. co\leatex'8{iei\x^), proud-minded, fierce. costnung, f., temptation. Crecas (Creacas), ni. pi., Greeks. cringan (§ 110), cringe, fall. Crist, m., Christ. Crlsten, Christian; nom. pi. m., Cristene, Cristne. cuma, m., new-comer, stranger. cuman (§ 114), come. (Seep. 138, Note on 11. 2-6.) cunnan (§ 137), know, can, under- stand. cunnian (§ 130), make trial of, experience [cunnan]. cure, see ceosan. cu3, loell-known, familiar [past part, of cunnan: cf. uncouth]. cu3e, cuSen, cuSon, see cunnan. c'waeden, cweedon, see cweSan. CT!Talu, f., death, murder [cvrel- an]. cwealm-cuma, m., murderous comer. cwelan (§ 114), die [to quail]. cv7en, f., queen. Cwenas, m. pi., a Finnish tribe. cv7e3an (§ 115), say, speak [quoth, bequeath]. cv^ic, living, alive [quicksilver ; the quick and the dead]. cviridegiedd, n., word, utterance [cvireSan and gieddian, both meaning to speak]. cwlSan (§ 126), bewail (trans.). cwom, see cuman. cyle (ciele), m., cold [chill] ; cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = pro- duce cold, freeze. cyme, m., coming [cuman]. cyn(n), ii., kin, race. cyn(n), adj. (used only in pi.), fitting things, etiquette, proprie- ties, coxirtesies ; cyima gemyn- dig 136, 3 = mindful of courte- sies. cynerice, n., kingdom. cyning, m., king. cyssan (§ 125), kiss. cyst, f., the choice, the pick, the best [ceosan]. cySan (§ 126), make known, dis- play, [cu3] ; 2d sing, impera- tive, cy3. deed, f., deed. daeg, m., day. dseg-hT!7il, f., day-while, day ; he daeg-h-wQa gedrogen hcefde eorSan wynne 145, 2 = he had spent his days of earth'' s joy. Glossary. 161 daeg-rim, n., number of days [day- rime] ; dogera daeg-rim 143, 7 = the number of his days. dael, n., dale. Aeel, in., part, deal, division. dead, dead. deaS, m., death. deman (§ 126), deem, judge. D^namearc, see Dfnemearc. D^ne (§ 47), m. pi., Danes. D^nemearc (D^nemearce), f., Denmark; dat. sing., D^ne- mearce (strong) , D^nemearcan (weak). D^nisc, Danish; 3a D^niscan, the Danes. deofol, ni. n., devil; gen. sing., deofles (§ 27, (4)). deope, deeply, profoundly [deop]. deor, n., wild animal [deer]. deorc, dark, gloomy. dogor, n., day ; gen. pi., dogora, dogera, dogra. dogor-gerim, n., number of days, lifetime. dom, m. , doom, judgment, glory. domgeorn, adj., eager for glory [doom-yearnmg]. don (§ 135), do, cause, place, promote, remove. dorste, dorston, see durran. dream, m.,joy, mirth [dream]. dreogan (§ 109), endure, enjoy, spend [Scotch dree]. dreorig, dreary, sad. dreorighleor, adj., loith sad face [hleor = cheek, face, leer]. dreosan (§ 109), fall, perish [dross]. drifan (§ 102), drive. drihten, see dryhten. drincan (§ 110), drink. , M drohtoS (-a3), m., mode of liv- ing, occupation [dreogan]. drugon, see dreogan. dryhten (drihten), ra., lord, Lord; dat. sing., dryhtne. dryht-s^le, m., lordly hall. duguS, f., warrior-hand, host, retainers [do!(^/Uiness]. In duguS and geogoS, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks are represented, the dis- tinction corresponding roughly to the mediaeval distinction be- tween knights and squires. durran (§ 137), dare. duru, f., door. dyde, see don. dynnan (§ 125), resound [din]. dyre (diere, deore, diore), dear, costly. E. ea, f., river; gen. sing., eas ; dat. and ace. sing., ea. eac, also, likexoise [a nickname = an eek-name. See § 65, Note 2]; eac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = also. eaca, m., addition [eac] ; to eacan = in addition to (§ 94, (4)). eage, n., eye. eahta, eight. eala, oh ! alas I ealaS, see ealu. eald (§ 96, (2)), old. ealdor (aldor), n., life; glf 8u Saet ^llenweorc aldre gedi- gest 138, 17 = if thou survivest that feat with thy life (instr.). ealdor-dseg (aldor-, ealder-), m., day of life. 162 Glossary. ealdor-gedal (aldor-), n., death [life- deal]. ealdoimQii, m., alderman, chief, magistrate. ealgian, (§ 130), protect, defend. eall (eal), all; ealne 'weg, all the way (§ 98, (1)) ; ealneg (< ealne weg), always; ealles (§ 98, (3)), adv., altogether, en- tirely. Ball (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = all of : 143, 19 ; 145, 3. ealu (ealo) (§ 68), n., ale; gen. sing., ealaS. ealu-scer-wen, f., mortal panic [ale-spilling]. eard, m., country, home [eorSe]. eardgeard, m,, earth [earth-yard]. eardian (§ 130), dwell [eard]. eardstapa, m., wanderer [earth- stepper] . ■ eare, n., ear. earfoS (earfeS), n., hardship, toil; gen. pi., earfeSa. earfoSlic, adj., full of hardship, arduous. earm, m., arm. earm, adj., poor, wretched. earmcearig, loretched, miserable. earmllc, wretched, miserable. earnung, f., merit [earning]. east, east. eastan (§ 93, (5)), from the east. East-Dfne (§47), East-Danes. easteTveard, eastward. eastrihte (eastrybte) (§93, (6)), eastward. Eaetron, pi., Easter. eaSe, easily. eaSmodllce, humbly. eaxl, f., shoulder [axle]. Bbreisc, adj., Hebrew. ece, eternal, everlasting. ^cg, f., sword [edge]. edor, m., enclosure, dwelling; nom. pi., ederas. edrum, see ^dre. efne, adv., JMsf, only [evenly]. eft, adv., again, afterwards [aft]. §gesa, m.,fear, terror [iwe]. ^llen, n. , strength, courage; mid fine = boldly ; on fine 147, 17 = mightily, suddenly, or in their (^earls^) strength (prime). ^Ilen-iasei8u,f., fame for strength, feat of strength. fUen-weorc, n., feat of strength. fUenwodnis, f., zeal, fervor. fllor-gaat, lu., inhuman monster [ahen ghost]. fin, t, ell [el-bow]. fine, see fUen. flra, adj. comparative, another [*fle cognate with Lat. alius] ; on flran mfn 139, 14 = ire another man. emnlfng (-lang), equally long; on emnlange = along (§ 94, (4)). fnde, m., end. fndebyrdnes, f., order. fnde-dsBg, m., end-day, day of death. fnde-laf, f., last remnant [end- leaving]. fngel, m., angel [Lat. angelus]. i^nglafeld (§ 51), m., Englefield (in Berkshire). Engle (§ 47), m. pi., Angles. ^nglisc, adj., English; on ^ng- lisc 117, 18 and 19 = in English, into English. Engliacgereord, n., English lan- guage. Glossary. 163 fnt, m., giant. eode, see gan. eodorcan (§ 130), ruminate. eorl, m., earl, warrior, chieftain. eorllc, earl-like, noble. eorS-draca, m., dragon [earth- drake]. eorSe, f., earth. eoriS-rfced, n., earth-hall. eorSscrsef, n., earth-cave, grave. eoten, m., giant, monster. eoTW, see 8u. Eo'ivland, n. , Oland (an island in the Baltic Sea) . ^rian (§ 125), plow [to ear]. Estland, a. , land of the Estas (on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea). Bstmfre, m., Frische Haff. Estum, dat. pi., the Estas. etan (§ 115), eat. ?ttan (§ 137), graze [etan]. eiSel, m., territory, native land [allodial]. e3el-v7eard, m., guardian of his country. F. faec, n., interval, space. faeder (§ 68, (2)), m., father. faegen, fain, glad, exultant. fasger (fSeger), fair, beautiful. faelsian (§ 130), cleanse. f^rlice, suddenly [Isex = fear'], tdsst, fast, held fast. faeste, adv., fast, firmly. fsestnung, f., security, safety. faet, n., vessel [wine-fat, vat]. f^tels, m., vessel; aoc. pi., tSetels. faeSm, m., embrace, bosom [fathom = the space embraced by the extended arms]. fag (fah), hostile; be -weea fag wiS God 142, 18 = he was hos- tile to God. tab (fag), variegated, orna- mented. Palster, Falster (island in the Baltic Sea). fandian (§ 130), try, investigate [findan]. faran (§ 116), go [fare]. feallan (§ WT), fall, flow. fealu, fallow, pale, dark; nom. pi. m., fealwe. fea-we (fea, feawa), pl.,/ew. fela (indeclinable), much, many (with gen.). feld (§51), \n., field. fell (fel), n., fell, skin, hide. feng, see fon. f^n-hli3, n., fen-slope. f f n-hop, n. , fen-retreat. feoh, n., cattle, properly [fee] ; gen. and dat. sing., feos, feo. feobgifre, greedy of property, avaricious. feohtan (§ \W), fight. feol, see feallan. feond (§ 68, (3)), m., enemy, fiend. feond-grap, i., fiend-grip. feor (§ 96, (4)), a,A]., far, far from (with dat.). feor, adv., /ar, far hack (time). feorh, m., n., life. feorh-bfnn, f., life-wound, mortal wound. feorh-l^gu, f., laying down of life. (See p. 146, Note on 1. 13.) feorh -seoo, life -sick, mortally wounded. feorm (Horm), f., use, benefit (food, provisions) [farm]. 164 Grlossary. feormian (§ 130), eat, devour. feorran, from afar. feovjrertig, forty; gen., feower- tiges (§ 91, Note 1). ferhS (ferS), m., heart, mind, spirit. ffrian (§ 125), carry, transport [to ferry] ; f^rede in forSv7ege 152, 5 = carried aioay. fers, n., verse [Lat. versus]. fersc, fresh. ferSlooa (ferhS-), m., heart, mind, spirit [heart-locker]. fet, see lot. fetor, f., fetter [fot] ; instr. pi., feterum. feSer, L, feather ; aco. pi., feSra. Herd, f., English army [faraii]. iii, five. fiftiene, fifteen. flftig, fifty; gen. sing., fiftiges (§ 91, Note 1) ; dat. pi., fifte- gum (§ 91, Note 3). findan (§ 110), ^nd. fliiger, m., fiixjer. Finnas, m. pi.. Fins. fiorm, see feorm. firas, m. pi., men [feorh] ; gen. pi., fira ; dat. pi., firum. firrest (fierrest), see feor (§ 96, (4)). first, m., time, period. fiscaS (fiscnaS), m., fishing. fiscere, m., fisherman. fiscnaS, see fiscaS. fleon (§ 118, II.),. ^ee. fleotan (§ 109), float. fl^t, n., floor of the hall. flod, m.,fliiod, ware. folc, Ti., folic, peojde. folc-cwen, i., folk-queen. folc-cyning, va. , folk-king. folcgefeoht, n. , folk-fight, battle, general engagement. fold-bold, n., earth- building, hall. folde, f., earth, land, country [feld]. folm, i, hand [felan =feel}. fon (§ 118), seise, capture, take [fang] ; to rice fon = come to (ascend) the throne. for (§ 94, (1)), for, on account of; for Seem (Se), for Son (3e), because; for Son, forSy, for Ssem (for-Sam), therefore. for, see faran. forbaernan (§ 127), hum thor- oughly [for is intensive, like Lat. per]. forgiefan (-gifan) (§ 115), give, grant. forhfrgian (§ 130), harry, lay waste. forhogdnis, f., contempt. forht, fearful, afraid. f orhwaega, about, at least. forlaetan (§117), abandon, leave. forlet, forleton, see forlaitan. forma, first; forman siSe, the first time (instr.). fomiman (§ 114), take off, destroy. forsp^ndan (§ 127), spend, squander. forst9ndan (-standan) (§ 116), understand. forswapan (§ 117), sweep aivny ; pret. 3d sing, indie., forsweop. forsw^rian (§ 116), forsvenr (with dat.) ; past part., for- sworen. forS, forth, forward. forSolian (§ 130), miss, go with- out (with dat.) [not to thole or experience]. Glossary. 165 forSweg, m., lomj forth ; in forS- ■wege, avay. fot (§68, (l)),m., /oo«. Prsena, m., Frene. fraetTj^e, f. pi., fretted armor, jeirels [fret]. fram, see trqm. frea, m., lord, Lord. frea-drihten, m., lord, master. frefran (§ 130), console, cheer [frofor]. fr^mde, strange, foreign; 3a frgmdan, the' strangers. frgminan (§ 125), accomplish, perform, support [to frame]. fr^msumnes (-nis), f., kindness, benefit. freo (frio),/»-ee; gen. pi., freora (Mora). freodom, m., freedom. freolic, noble [free-like]. freomseg, m.,free kinsman. freond (§ 68, (.3)), m., friend. freondleas, friendless. freondlice, in a friendly manner. freorig, cold, chill [freoran]. Mora, see freo. MS, m., n.,peace, security [bel-fry]. frod, old, sage, prudent. frofor, f., comfort, consolation, alleviation ; fyrena frofre 137, 7 = as an alleviation of outrages (dat.). frqm (fram) (§ 94, (l)),/rom, by. frQm, adv. , away, forth. fruma, m., origin, beginning [frqm]. fnunsceaft, f., creation. fugela, see fugol. fugelere, Ta., fowler. fugol (fugel), m., foxol, bird; gen. pi., fugela. ful, n., cup, beaker. ful, foul. fulian (§ 130), grow foul, decom- pose. full (ful), adj., full (with gen.) ; be fulian, fuUy, perfectly. full (ful) adv., fully, very. fultum, m., help. furSor (furSur), adv. , /jtrt/ien furSum, adv., even. fyl3, see feallan. fyren (firen), f., crime, violence, outrage. fyrhtu, f., fright, terror; dat. sing., fyrhtu. fyrst, adj., superlative, ^rsi, chief. fysan (§ 126), make ready, pre- pare [fus = ready'] ; gu3e ge- fysed 137, 9 = ready for battle. gad, n., lack. geest, see gast. gafol, n., tnx, tribute. galan (§ 116), sing [nightingale]. galnes, f., lust, impurity. gan (§ 134), go. gar, m., spear [gore, gar-fish]. gar--wiga, m., spear-vnrrior. gast (geest), ni., spirit, ghost. gastlic (geestlic), ghastly, ter- rible. ge, and; see eegSer. ge, ye ; see Sii. geador, tngethcr. geSmetigian (§ 130), disengage from (with aco. of person and gen. of thing) [empty]. geaernan (§ 127), gain by run- ning [ieman]. geap, spacious. 166 Glossary. gear, n., year ; gen. pi., geara, is used adverbially = of yore, for- merly. geardeeg, m., day of yore. geare (gearo, gearwe), readily, well, clearly [yarely]. Geat, m., a Gfeat, the Geat (i.e. Beowulf). Geatas, m. pi., the Geats (a peo- ple of South Sweden). Geat-mecgas, m. pi., Geat men ( = tlie fourteen who accom- panied Beowulf to Heorot). gebeorscipe, m., banquet, enter- tainment. gebetan (§ 126), make amends for [b5t]. gebidan (§ 102), wait, bide one''s time (intrans.) ; endure, experi- ence (trans. , with aoc. ) . gebind, n., commingling. gebindan (§ 110), bind. gebreowan (§ 109), brew. gebro'wen, see gebreo'waii. gebiid, gebun, see buan (§ 126, Note 2). gebyrd, n., rank, social distinc- tion. geceosan (§ 109), choose, decide. gecnawan (§ 117), know, under- stand. gecoren, see geceosan. gecringan (§ 110), fall, die [cringe]. gedeelan (§ 126), deal out, give; deaSe gedSlde 152, 7 = ap- portioned to death (dat.), or, tore (?) in death (instr.). gedafenian (§ 130), become, befit, suit (impersonal, usually with dat., but with ace. 112, 10). gedigan (§ 126), endure, survive. gedon (§ 135), do, cause, effect. gedraeg, n., company. gedreosan (§ 109) , fall, fail. gedriht (gedryht), n., band, troop. gedrogen, see dreogan. gedrync, n., drinking. ge^ndian (§ 130), end, finish (trans.). gefaran (§ 116), go, die. gefea, m.,joy. gefeaht, see gefeohtan. gefeh, see gefeon. gefeng, see gefon. gefeohtan (§ 110), figiit. gefeon (§ 118, v.), rejoice at (with dat.) ; pret. 3d sing., geieah, gefeh. gefera, m., companion, comrade [oo-f arer] . geflieman (§ 126), put to flight [fleon]. gefohten, see gefeohtan. gefon (§ 118, vii.), seize. gefor, see gefaran. gefreege, n., hearsay, report; mine gefrsege (instr.) 141, 7 = as I have heard say, accord- ing to my information. gefr^mman (§ 125), perform, ac- complish, effect. gefultumian (§ 130), help [ful- tum]. gefylce, n., troop, division [folc] ; dat. pi., gefylcum, gefylcium. gefyllan (§ 127), fill (with gen.) ; past part. pi. , f . , gefylda. geglfngan (§ 127), adorn. gehatland, n., promised land [gehatan = to promise^. gehealdan (§ 117), hold, main- tain. Glossary. 167 gehieran (gehyran) (§ 126), hear. gehiersunmes, f., obedience. gehola, m., protector [helan]. gehwa (§ 77, Note), each; on healfa gehTvone 142, 7 (see Note 140, 15. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be maso. and the gen. f em. ) . gehwseSer (§ 77, Note), each, either, both. gehwylo (gehwilc) (§ 77, Note), each (with gen. pi. See Note 140, 15). geh'wyrfan (§ 127), convert, change. gehydan (§ 126), hide, conceal, consign. gehygd, 1, n., thought, piirpose. gehyran, see gehieran. gehyrnes, f., hearing; eal iSa he in gehyrnesse geleoruian meahte 115, 14 = all things that he could learn by hearing. gel^dan (§ 126), lead. gelSred, part. -adj., learned; su- perlative, geleeredest. gelafian (§ 130), lave. gelfnge, along of, belonging to (vpith dat.). geleornian (-liomian) (§ 130), learn. gellce, likewise ; in Ulce manner to (with dat.). geliefan (gelyfan) (§ 126), be- lieve ; 8aet heo on eenigne eorl gelyfde 137, 6 = that she be- lieved in any earl. gelimpan (§ 110), happen, be fulfilled. gelimplic, proper, fitting. gelyfan, see geliefan. gelyfed, weak, infirm [left (hand)]. gemde, see gieman. gemet, n., meter, measure, ability. gemetan (§ 126), meet. gemqn, see gemunan. gemunan (§ 136), remember; indie, pres. 1st and 3d sing., gemgn; pret. sing., gemunde. gemynd, n., memory, memorial; to gemyndum 147, b = as a memorial. gemyndgian (-mynian) (§ 130), remember ; mid hine gemynd- gade 115, 15 = 7je treasured in his memory; gemyne mSeriSo 138, 15 = be mindful of glory (imperative 2d sing.). gemyndig, mindful o/(with gen.). genap, see genipan. geneahhe, enough, often ; geneb- ost, superlative, very often. genip, n., mist, darkness. genipan (§ 102), grow dark. geniw^ian (§ 130), renew. genoh, enough. genumen, see niman. geoc, n., yoke. geocor, dire, sad. geogoS, f., youth, young people, young warriors. (See dugud. ) geond (giond) (§ 94, (2)), throughout [yond]. geondhvreorfan ( § 110), pass over, traverse, recall ; iSonne maga gemynd mod geond- hweorfeS 150, 15 = then my mind recalls the memory of kins- men. geondscea-wian (§ 130), survey, review ; geornegeondscea^vad 150, 16 = eagerly surveys them. 168 Glossary. geond35nc(e)an (§ 128), think over, consider, geong (§ 96, (2)), young; gien- gest, (gingest), superlative, youngest, latest, last. geong = gQng, see g9ngan (im- perative 2(1 sing. ). geong (giong), see gQngan (pret. 3d sing.)- georn (giorn), eager, desirous, zealous, stire [yearn]. georne, eagerly, certainly ; -wiste 3e geornor 143, 5 = knew the more certainly. georniulnes, f., eagerness, zeal. geornlice, eagerly, attentively. geornor, see georne. ger^cednes, f., narration [r§c- can]. gerisenlic, suitable, becoming. geryman (§ 126), extend, (trans.) [rum]. gesseliglic, happy, blessed [silly]. gesamnode, see gesQmnian. gesceaft, f., creature, creation, destiny [scieppan]. gesceap, n., shape, creation, des- tiny [scieppan]. gescieldan (§ 127), shield, de- fend. gesealde, see ges^llan. geseglian (§ 130), sail. geselda, m., comrade. gesfUan (§ 128), give. geseon (gesion) (§ 118), see, observe; pres. indie. 3d sing., gesihS. geset, n., habitation, seat. ges^ttan (§ 127), set, place, estab- lish. gese-wren, see seen, geseon (past part.). gesewenlic, seen, visible [seen- like]. gesiglan (§ 127), sail. gesibS, see geseon. gesittan (§ 115, Note2), si«(trans., as to sit a horse, to sit a boat, etc.); sit, sit down (intrans.). geslaegen, see slean (§ 118). gespmnian (§ 130), assemble, collect. gesQmnung, f., collection, as- sembly. gestah, see gestigan. gestaSelian (§ 130), establish, restore [standan]. gesteal, n., establishment, foun- dation [stall]. gestigan (§ 102), ascend, go [stile, stirrup, sty (= a rising on the eye)]. gestrangian (§ 130), strengthen. gestreon, n., property. gestrynan (§ 126), obtain, ac- quire [gestreon]. gesweorcan (§ 110), grow dark, become sad ; For iSon ic geSf n- can ne mseg geond iSas 'woruld for hwan modseia min ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 = There- fore in this world I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow ^^ black as night." (Brooke.) geswican (§ 102), cease, cease from (with gen.). getael, n., something told, nar- rative. getruma, m., troop, division. geSanc, m., n., thought. geSeah, see geSicgan. geSfnc(e)an (§ 128), think, re- member, understand, consider. Cilossary. 169 geSeodan (§ 126), join. geSeode (-Siode), n., language, tribe. geSeodnis, f . , association ; but in 112,2 this word is used to render the Lat. appetitus = desire. gei8icg(e)an (§ 115, Note 2), take, receive; pret. indio. 3d sing., geSeah. geiSungen, part.-adj., distinguished, excellent [Seon, to thrive']. geiSSyldig, patient. geweald (gewald), n., control, possession, power [wield]. ge-weorc, n., work, labor. geweoriSian (§ 130), honor [to attribute worth to]. ge'win(ii), n., strife, struggle. gevrissian (§ 130), guide, direct. gevrltan (§ 102), go, depart. ge^worht, geworhte, see gewyr- can. ge'OTTit, n., writing. Scripture. gewTinian (§ 130) , be accustomed, be wont. ge'wyTc(e)an (§ 128), work, create, make, produce. giefan (§ 115), give. giefstol, m., gift-stool, throne. giehi (gifu), f., gift. gielp (gilp), m., n., boast, boast- ing [yelp]. gieman (geman) (§ 126), en- deavor, strive. giet (git, gyt), yet, still. gif (gjrl), if [not related to give]. gife3e (gyfeSe), given, granted, gifu, see giefu. gilp, see gielp. gilp-cwide, m., boasting speech [yelp-speech]. gingest, see geong (adj.). giohSo (gehiSu), f., care, sorrow, grief. giu (iii), formerly, of old. glsed (gleed), glad. glea'w, loise, prudent. gliTurstaef, m., glee, joy ; instr. pi. (used adverbially), gli^vstafuin 150, 16= joyfully. God, m., God. god (§ 96, (3)), good; mid Mb godvun 115, 12 = with his pos- sessions (goods). godcund, divine [God]. godcundlice, divinely. gold, 11., gold. gold-^ht, f . , gold treasure. gold-fah, gold-adorned. gold-hroden, part.-adj., gold- adorned. goldTvine, m., prince, giver of gold, lord [gold-friend]. gomel (gomol), old, old man. gQngan (gangan) (§ 117), go [gang] ; imperative 2d sing., geong ; pret. sing., geong, giong, geng ; past part., ge- gQngen, gegangen. The most commonly used pret. is eode, which belongs to gan (§ 134). Gotland, n., Jutland (in Ohthere's Second Voyage), Gothland (in Wulfstan's Voyage). gram, grim, angry, fierce, the angry one. grap, f., grasp, clutch, claw. gretan (§ 126), greet, a/ lurk, tiiwh. growan (§ 117, (2)), grow. gryre-leoS, n., terrible song [grisly lay]. guma, m., man, hero [groom ■, see § 65, Note 1]. 170 Grlossary. guS, f., war, battle. gu8-bill, n., sword [war-bill]. guiS-ge^wsede, n., armor [war- weeds]. gu8-hre3, f . , war-fame. gu3--wine, m., swjord [war-friend]. gyddian (§ 130), speak formally,' cliant [giddy ; the original mean- ing of giddy was mirthful, as when one sings]. gyf, see gif. gyfeSe, see gifeSe. gyldan (gieldan) (§ 110), pay; indie. 3d sing. , gylt. gylden, golden [gold]. H. habban (§ 133), have. had, m., order, rank, office, de- gree [-hood, -head]. hsefta, m., captive. haegel (hagol), m., hail; instr. sing., hagle. hseglfaru, f., hail-storm [hall- faring]. haele, see haeleS. heel, f., hail, health, good luck. hseleS (hsele), m., hero, warrior. hset, see hatan. heeSen, heathen. HaeSum (aet HeeSum), Haddeby (= Schleswig). hal, hale, whole. halettan (§ 127), greet, salute [to hail]. Halfd^ne, Halfdane (proper name) . halga, m., saint. Halgoland, Halgoland (in ancient Norway). halig, holy. haliguea, 1, holiness. ham, m., home ; dat. sing., hame, ham (p. 104, Note) ; used ad- verbially in ham eode 112, 18 = went home. hand, see hQnd. har, hoary, gray. hat, hot. hatan (§ 117, Note 2), call, name, command; pret. sing., heht, het. hatheort, hot-hearted. hatte, see hatan. he, heo, hit (§ 53), he, she, it. heaiod, n., head. heah (§ 96, (2)), high; ace. sing. m., heanne. heah-s^le, m., high hall. heahSungen, highly prosperous, aristocratic [heah -|- past part, of Seon (§ 118)]. healdan (§ 117), hold, govern, possess ; 144, 9 = hold up, sus- tain. healf, adj., half. healf, f., half, side, shore. heall, f., hall. heals, m., neck. hean, abject, miserable. heanne, see heah. heard, hard. heard-hicgende, brave -minded [hard-thinking] . hearm-BcaSa, m., harmful foe [harm-scather]. bearpe, f., harp. heaSo-deor, battle-brave. heaSo-meere, famous in battle. heaSo-wylm, m., flame-surge, surging of fire [battle-welling]. hea-wan (§ 117), heto, cut. habban, hof, hofon, gehafen (§ 117), heave, lift, raise. Q-losBary. 171 b^fig, heavy, oppressive. heht, see hatan. helan (§ 114), conceal. hfU, f., hell. helm, m., helmet. Helmingas, m. pi., Helmings (Wealtheow, Hrothgar's queen, is a Helming). help, f., help. helpan (§ 110), help (with dat.). heofon, m., heaven. heofonlic, heavenly. heofoniice, n. , kingdom of heaven. heold, see healdan. heolstor (-ster), n., darkness, concealment, cover [holster]. heora (hiera), see he. heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard]. heoTO-dreoiig, bloody [sword- dreary]. Heorot, Heorot, Hart (the famous hall which Hrothgar built). heoite, f., heart. her, here, hither ; in the Chronicle the meaning frequently is at this date, in this year : 99, 1. b^re, m., Danish army. h^renis, f., praise. hfTglan (§ 130), raid, harry, ravage [hfre]. h^rgiuig, f., harrying, plundering. hfilan (hfrigean) (§ 125), praise. hersumedon, see hiersumian. bet, see hatan. bider (hieder), hither. biera, see be. bieran (byran) (§ 126), hear, belong. hierde, m., shepherd, instigator [keeper of a herd]. hierdeboc, f., pastoral treatise [shepherd-book, a translation of Lat. Cura Pastoralis']. hierra, see beah. hiersumian (hyr-, ber-) (§ 130), obey (with dat.). bige (hyge), m., mind, heart. bige-3ibtig, bold-hearted. bild, f., battle. bilde-deor, battle-brave. bilde-mecg, m., viarrior. hilde-ssed, battle-sated. bin-fiiB, eager to be gone [hence- ready]. bira, see be. bleew (blaw), m., mound, burial mound [Lud^oio and other place- names, low meaning hill]. blaford, m., lord, master [loaf- ward?]. bleabtor, m., laughter. bleo, m., refuge, protector [lee]. blifian (§ 130), riae, tower. blyn, m., din, noise. blynsian (§ 130), resound. hof, n., court, abode. hogode, see hycgan. holm, m., sea, ucean. hqn& (hand), f., hand; on geh- w^aeSre bqnd, on both sides. bord, m., n. , hoard, treasure. bordcofa, m., breast, heart [hoard- chamber]. bors, n., horse. borsb^^sel, m., walrus. brsed-wyrde, hasty of speech [hraed = quick}. braegel, n., garment; dat. sing., brsegle. bran, m., reindeer. braSe, quickly, soon [)'aW»-er]. breo (breoh), rough, cruel, sad. hreosan (§ 109), fall. 172 Glossary. hreran (§ 126), stir. hreSer, m., n., breast, purpose; dat. sing. , hreSre ; gen. pi. , hreSra. hrim, m. , rime, hoarfrost. hrlmceald, rime-cold. bring, in., riny, ring-mail. hri3, f. (?), snow-storm. hrof, m., roof. Hrones naess, literally Wliale's Ness, iDhaW s promontory ; see naess. hriise, f., earth [hreosan: de- posit] . hryre, m.,fall, death [hreosan]. hrySer, n., cattle [rinder-pest]. hrySig, ridned (?), storm-beaten ; nom. pi. m., hrySge. hu, how. Humbre, f., river Humber. hund, hundred. hunig, n., honey. hunta, ni., hunter. huntoS (-taS), m., hunting. huru, adv., about. hus, n., house. hwa, hwaet (§ 74), who 9 what ? STwa hwset s-wa (§ 77, Note), whatsoever ; indefinite, anyone, anything; for hwan (instr.), loherefore. hwsel, m., whale. h-wraelhiinta, m., whale-hunter. hwaelhuntaS, m., whale-fishing. h'wSr, where ? h^wSr . . s^wa, wheresoever ; ■wel hweer, nearly everywhere. hwseSer, whether, which of the two ? hwene, see hwon. hvreorfan (§ 110), turn, go. hvsrider, lohither. hwil, f . , while, time ; ealle 3a h-wile 3e, all the while that ; h'wilum (instr. pi.), sometimes. hwilc (hwylc, h-welc) (§ 74, Note 1), which ? what ? hv7on, n., a trifle; hwene (instr. sing.), somewhat, a little. h'W9nan, when. hy, see hie. hycgan (§ 132), think, resolve; pret. 3d sing. , hogode. hyd, f., hide, .•- rality, good conduct. sie, see beon. siex, six; syxa (siexa) sum, see sum. siextig, sixty. sige, m., victory. sige-folc, 11., victorious people. sige-leas, victory-less, of defeat. sige-rof, victory-famed, victorious. sige-i!(rEepen, n., victtmj-weapon. siglan (§ 127), sail. Sillende, Zealand. sine, n., treasure, prize. slno-fset, n., see 137, 1 [treasure- vat]. sinc-S^gu, f., receiving of treasure [3icgan]. sind, sint, sindon, see beon. singan (§ 110), sing. sittan (§ 115, Note 2), sit, take position. si3, m., journey, time; forman si3e 139, 2 = the first time (instr. sing.). aiSian (§ 130), journey. siSSan, after that, afterwards, after. sl^p, m., sleep. sleepan (§ 117), sleep. slean (§ 118), slay [slow-worm]. glitan (§ 102), slit, tear to pieces. sliSen, savage, perilous. smsel, narrow. smalost, see smael. snaw, m., snow. snot(t)or, wise, prudent. sohte, see secan. SQmod (samod), together. sona, soon. sqng, in., n., song, poem. S9ngcreeft, m., art of song and poetry. sorg (sorh), f. , sorrow. a53, true. so3, 11., truth; to soSe, for a truth, truly, verily. sSS-fsest, truthful, just. s53lice, truly. sped, f., possessions, success, riches [speed]. spedig, rich, prosperous. spell, n., story, tale. speow, see spovran. spare, n., spear. spor, n., track, footprint. spoTvan (§ 117), succeed (imper- sonal with dat.). spraec, f., speech, language. sprecan (§ 115), speak. spyrian (spyrigean) (§ 130), follow (intrans.) [spor]. stSBf, staff, rod; pi. = literature, learning. stselhran, m., decoy-reindeer. stsel'wier3e, serriceahle (see p. 56, Note 2). st^r, n., story, narrative [Lat. liistoria]. staeS, n., shore. Glossary. 181 Stan, m., sto?ie, rock. stau-boga, m., stone-arch [stone- bow]. staudan, see Bt9ndan. stanhliS (-hleoS), n., stone-cUf. stapol, m., column [staple]. starian (§ 125), stare, gaze. stfde, m., place. stelau (§ 114), steal. st^nt, see stqndan. steorbord, n., starboard, riglil side of a ship. st^ppan (§ 116), step, advance; pret. indie. 3d sing. , stop, stilnes, f., stillness, quiet. st9ndan (§ 116), stand. stop, see stfppan. storm, m., storm. stow, f., place [stow, and in names of places] . Strang, see strqng. strongest, see str9ng. strQng (§ 96, (2)), strong. EtyccemEelum, hi're and there. sum (§ 91, Note 2), some, certain, a certain one; he syza sum 104, 25 = he with Jive others. sumera, see sumor. sumor, m. , summer ; dat. sing. = sumera. sumorlida, m., summer-army. sundor, apart. surme, f., sun. Bunu, m., son. Sli3, south, southwards. BfliSSan (§ 93, (5)), from the south; be siiSan, south of (§ 94, (4)). suSeweard, southward. suiSryhte, southvnrd. swa (BV7se), so, as, how, as if; swa STwa, just as, as far us ; swa . . . swa, the . . . the, as . . . as; s^va h-wset swa, whatsoever (§ 77, Note). B'WEes, beloved, own. STvaeS, n., track, footprint [swath] . swaSul, m. ? n. ?, smoke. swealh, see sw^elgan. swefan (§ 115), sleep, sleep the sleep of death. swefn, n., sleep, dream. sweg, m., sound, noise. swegle, bright, clear. swelan, biirn [.sweal]. swelgan (§ 110), siraUow ; pret. indie. 3d sing., swealh; subj., swulge. swellan (§ 110), swell. Sweoland, n., Sweden. Sweom, m., dat. pi., the Swedes. sw^eotol, clear. sv7eotole, clearly. swfrian (§ 116), swear. swete, siceet. swetnes (-nis), f., svieetness. swift (swyft), swift. swilo (swylc) (§ 77), such. svTilce, in such manner, n.t, like- wise ; as if, as though (with subj.). sw^inunan (§ 110), sioim. swin (s^^yn), n., swine, hog. swmsung, f., melody, harmony. svride (swySe), very, exceedingly, greatly. swiSost, chiefly, almost. sw^or, see sw^frian. swulge, see sw^elgan. swuster (§ 68, (2)), f., .Hister. swylce (s'welce), see swilce. swylt, see swift. sw^yn, see swin. 182 Grlosgary. swySe, see sTviSe. s^7yi3-ferh8, strong-souled. sylf, see self. syll, f., sill, floor. syllan, see s^llan. symbel, n., feast, banquet. symle, always. synd, see beon. syn-dolh, n., ceaseless wound, incurable wound. syndriglice, specially. synn, f., sin. syn-scaSa, m., ceaseless scather, perpetual foe. syn-sn£ed, t, huge bit [ceaseless tit]. sySSan, see si33an. syx, see siex. syxtig, see sieztig. tacen, n., sign, token; dat. sing., tacne (§ 33, Note). teecan (§ 128), teach. tam, tame. tela, properly, well [til]. tfUan (§ 128), count, deem [tell] ; pret. 3d sing., tealde. Tfmes, 1, the Thames. teon, arrange, create; pret. sing., teode. Terfinna, m., gen. pi., the Terflns. ieS, see toS. tid, f., tide, time, hour. tien (tyn), ten. til(l), good. tima, m., time. tintreglic, full of torment. to (§ 94, (1)), to. for, according to, as; to hrofe 114, 2 =/or (os) a roof [of. Biblical to wife, modern to boot]. to, adv., too. tobrecan (p. 81, Note 2), break to pieces, knock about. todEelan (§ 126), divide. toemnes (to emnes) (§ 94, (4)), along, alongside. toioran (§ 94, (1)), before. togeSeodan (§ 126), join. tohopa, m., hope. tolicgan (§ 115, Note 2), separate, lie between; 3d sing, indie. = toliS. toliS, see tolicgan. toluoan (109, Note 1), destroy [the prefix to reverses the mean- ing of lucan, to lock]. torn, m., anger, insult. to3 (§ 68, (1)), m., tooth. toweard (§ 94, (1)), toioard. tOTWeard, adj., approaching, future. treo-w, f., pledge, troth. treo-wnes, f., trust. Triiso, Drausen (a city on the Drausensea). tiin, m., town, village. tunge, f., tongue. tiingerefa, m., 6aai^ [town-reeve ; so sheriff = shire-reeve] . tungol, n., star. twa, see t'wegen. twegen, (§ 89), two, twain. twentig, twenty. tyn, see tien. ». 3a, then, when; 3a . . . 3a, when . . . then ; 3a 3a, then when = when. 3a, see se. Seer, there, where; Sser 3eer, there where = where ; &Set . ■ , Grlossary. 183 STwa 142, 4 = wheresoever ; 145, 6 = if so be thai. iSaes, afterwards, therefore, thus, because; see sS. Saet (8aette = 8aet 3e), that, so that. Saiian (§ 130), consent to. Sane, see Sqiic. Sanoian (SQnoian) (§ 130), Sanon, see Sqnan. 3as, see 3es. 3e, see se (instr. sing.) and 3u. 8e (§ 75), w}io, whom, which, that. 8eah, though, although; Seah 3e, though, although. Searf, see Surfan. 3earf, f., need, benefit. 3eaw, m., habit, custom. 3egn (8egen), m., servant, thane, warrior. 3§iic(e)an (§ 128), think, intend. 3emng(-ijng), f., service; the pi. may mean book of service (117, 17). 3eod, f., people, nation. 3eoden, m., prince, lord; gen. sing., Seodnes. Seon (8ywan) (§ 126), oppress [3eow]. 8eow, m., servant. 3eo^7a, m., servant. 3eowotdom (Siowot-), m., ser- vice. 3es (§ 73), this. 3ider, thither. Siderweard, thitherward. 3in (§ 76) , thine. Sing, II., thing; aenige Singa, see 140, 15, Note. 1 (§ 127), arrange, appoint. Sis, see 3es, 8iBBum, see 8ea. Sohte, 36taton, see S^ncean. Solian (§ 130), endure [thole]. 3(jnan, thence. 39110, m., thanks. Sone, see se. 8onne, than, then, when; Sonne . . . Sonne, when . . . then. Srag, f., time. Srea-nyd, f., compulsion, oppres- sion, misery [throe-need]. Sreora, see 3rTe. Siidda, third. Siie (Sry) (§ 89), three. Slim, see Srie. Srlst-hydig, bold-minded. Sritig, thirty. Sro'VTung, f., suffering. Sry, see Srie. 3rym(m), m., renown, glory, strength. SryS, f., power, multitude (pi. used in sense of sing.) ; asca Sry8e 152, 23 = the might of spears. SryS-asrn, n., mighty house, noble hall. 8ry8-word, n., mighty word, ear- cellent discourse. 8u (§72), thou. Siihte, see Syncan. Surfan (§ 136), )!eed;pres. indio. 3d sing., Searf; prct. 3d sing., Sorfte ; for-Sam me V7itan ne Searf AWaldend fira mor- 8or-bealo maga 145, 17 = therefore the Ruler of men need not charge me with the murder of kinsmen. Surh (§ 94, (2)), through. Sus, thus. 8usend, thousand. 181 Grlogsary. Sy, see ae. Syder, see Sider. Syncan (§ 128), seem, appear (impersonal) ; me 3ync3, me- thinks, it seems to me; him Suhte, it seemed to him. V. uhta, m., damn; gen. pi., uhtna. unbeboht, unsold [bebycgan = to seH]. uncuS, unknown, imcertain [un- couth] . under, under (with dat. and ace). underatQndan (§ 116), under- stand. underSeodan (-diedan) (§ 126), subject to; past part, under- Seoded = subjected to, obedient to (with dat.). unforbaerned, unburned. unirl3, m., hostility. ungefoge, excessively. ungemete, immeasurably, very. ungeaeiwenlic, invisible [past part, of aeon + lie]. unlyfigend, dead, dead man [un- living]. unlytel, no little, great. unriht, n., wrong; on unriht, see on. unrihtwlsnes, f., unrighteous- ness. unapedig, poor. un-wearnum, unawares. up (upp), up. upastignea, f., ascension [ati- gan], up-lang, upright. ure (§ 76), our. uases = gen. sing. neut. of user, see ic. at, out, outside. utan, from withotit, outside. iitanbordea, abroad. utg9ng, m., exodus. uton, let us (with infin.) [literally let us go with infin. of purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note) ; uton = ■wuton, corrupted form of 1st pi. subj. of -witan, to go]. iSt-'weard, outward bound, mov- ing outwards. wac, weak, insignificant. ■wacian (§ 130), watch, be on guard; imperative sing., waca. ■wadan (§ 116), go, tread [wade]. vrseg, m., wave. Weegmundlgaa, m. , Wxgmun- dings (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf belonged). wsel, 11., slaughter, the slain. Tvael-bleat, deadly [slaughter- pitiful]. ■waelgifre, greedy for slaughter. ■wsel-rees, m., mortal combat [slaughter-race]. wael-reoTw, fierce in strife. ■mraelaliht (-aleaht), m., slaughter. Tvaelsto'w, f. , battle-field [slaugh- ter-place] ; waelsto-we ge- ■wald, possession of the battle- field. ■wsepen, n., weapon. vy^re, see beon. ■waea, see beon. ■waster, n., loater. ■waldend, see -wealdend. •wan (-WQn), wan, dark. -wanhydig, heedless, rash. wanigean (wanian) (§ 130), bewail, lament (trans.) [whine]. Glossary. 185 warian (§ 130), attend, accom- pnny. ■wat, see -witan. wa3um, m., wave; gen. pi., waSema. ■weal(l), m., xuall, rampart. wealdend (§ 68, (3)), wielder, ruler, lord. ■wealb, m., foreigner, Welshman. wealhstod, m., interpreter, trans- lator. weallan (§ 117), well up, boil, be agitated; pret. 3d. sing, indie, ■weoll. wealsteal(l), m., wall-place, foun- dation. weard, m., ward, keeper. weariS, see w^eorSan. weaxan (§ 117), wax, grow. weg, m., toay ; hys weges, see § 93, (3) ; on vreg, see on. ■wel(l), well, readily. wela, m., loeal, prosperity, riches. Tsrelxn, see -wylm. ■wenan (§ 126), wee», think, ex- pect. wfndau (§ 127), change, translate [wend, -windan]. w^nian (§ 130), entertain; V7qn- ian mid ■wynnum 149, 20 = entertain joyfully ; TVfnede to ■wiste 149, 27 = feasted (trans.). Weonodland (WeonoSland), n., Wendland. ■weorc, n., work, deed. weorold (-weoruld), see^voruld. weorpan (§ 110), throw. weorSan (§ 110), be, become. wer, m,, man [werwulf]. werig, weary, dejected. Tverod, n., army, band. wesan, see beon. Wesseaxe, m. pi., West Saxons; gen. pi. = Wesseaxna. vj-est, west, loestward. westanwind, m., west wind. Tweste, waste. westen, n., waste, desert. WestsEi, f., West Sea (west of Norway) . Westseaxe, m. pi.. West Saxons, Wessex. ■wic, II., dwelling [bailiwick]. -wician (§ 130), dioell, lodge, sojourn [wic]. ■widre, adv., farther, more widely (comparative of -wide). TVidsS, f., open sea. 'wielm (welm), m., welling, surg- ing flood [weallan]. wif, n., wife, woman. ■wig, m., n., war, battle. wiga, m., warrior. wild, wild. ■wildor, n., wild beast, reindeer; dat. pi. = wildnim (§ 33, Note). willa, m., xoill, pleasure ; gen. pi., wilna (138, 16). willan (§ 134 ; § 137, Note 3), will, intend, desire. wilnung, f., wish, desire; for Saere wilnunga 119, 4 = pur- posely. Wiltun.m., TfiWoJi (in Wiltshire). vyln, n., wi7ie. win-sem, n., wine-hall. ■Winbume, f., Wimborne (in Dor- setshire) . •wind, m., loiud. wine, m. , friend. Winedas, m. pi., the Wends, the Wend country. wine-dryhten, m., friendly lord. -wineleas, friendless. 186 Glossary. ■winemalg, m., friendly kinsman. wmgeard, m., vineyard. winnan (§ 110), strive, fight [win]. ■winsael, n., wine-hall. ■win-sfle, m., vnne-hall. ■winter, m., winter; dat. sing. = Tvintra. ■wintercearig, winter-sad, winter- worn. vris, wise. ■wisdom, m., loisdom. wise, wisely. wise, f., manner, matter, affair [in tliis ■wise}. wis-fsest, wise [wise-fast ; of. sliame-faoed = sliamefast]. wis-hycgende, wise-thinking. ■Wlsle, i., the Vistula. WislemuSa, m., the mouth of the Vistula. ■wisse, see witan. wist, f., food, feast. ■wita, m., wise man, councillor. witan (§ 136), know, show, experience. ■witan (§ 102), reproach, blame (with ace. of tiling, dat. of per- son). ■wlte, n., punishment. Witland, n., Witland (in Prussia). TviS (94, (3)), against, toward, with ; ■wi& eastan and ■wiS iipp on emnlange Seem bynum lande, toward the east, and up- wards along the cultivated land; wiS earm gesaet 139, 11 = sup- ported himself on his arm ; ge- n^red ■wiS niSe (dat.) 143, 11 = hadpreserved it fromiagainst") violence. wiSerwinna, m., adversary. wiSfon (§ 118), grapple with (with dat.). ■wiStaabban (§ 133), withstand, resist (■with dat.). wiSst^ndan (§ 116), withstand, resist (with dat.). T^lQnc, proud. wod, see wadan. ■wolcen, n., cloud [welkin] ; dat. pi., wolcnum. ■wolde, see ■willan. ■woma, m., noise, alarm, terror. ■wQn, see ■wan. ■wop, n., weeping. word, n. , word. ■worian (§ 130), totter, crumble. ■worn, m., large number, multi- tude. ■woruld, f., world; to worulde biitan ^gh^wilcum ^nde 102, 18 = world without end. ■woruldcund, vjorldly, secular. ■woruldhad, m., secular life [world-hood]. ■woruldrice, n., world-kingdom, _ world. ■woruldSing, n., loorldly affair. ■wrseclast, m., track or path of an exile. ■wraS, wroth, angry ; foe, enemy. w^ritan (§ 102), write. wTicu, f., week. ■wudu, m. , loood, forest. ■wuldor, n., glory. Wuldorf seder (§ 68, (2)), m., Father of glory; gen. sing., Wuldorf seder. Wuldur-cyning, m., King of glory. ■wulf, m., wolf. vrund, f., wound. ■wund, wounded. Glossary. 187 TiTunden, twisted, woven, con- volute (past part, of Txrindan). ivundoT, n., wonder, marvel. 'v^undrian (§ 130), wonder at (with gen.). 'VTurdon, see weorSan. vTurSan, see -weorSan. wyU, f., she wolf. vryllaS, see -willan. ^Tyn-leas, joyless. vrynn, f., joy, delight. wynsum, winsome, delightful. ■wyTc(e)an (§ 128), work, make, compose. vryrA, f . , weird, fate, destiny. ■wyrhta, m., viorker, creator [-Wright] . wyrm, m. , worm, dragon, serpent. wynulica, m., serpentine orna- mentation. wyr8 (w^eorS), worthy ; see 114, 7-9, Note. ylca, see ilea. yldan (§ 127), delay, postpone [eald]. yldu, f., age [eld]. ymbe (ymb) (§94, (2)), about, around, concerning [wmwhile] ; 3aes ymb iii niht 99, 2 = about three nights afterwards. ytnb-eode, see ymb-gan. ymbe-sittend, one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor. ymb-gan (§ 134), go about, go around, circle (with ace). yrfe-weard, m., heir. yrnan, see iernan. yrre, ireful, angry. yteren, of an otter [otor]. y3an (§ 126) , lay waste (as by a deluge) [y8 = wave}. II. GLOSSARY. MODERN ENGLISH — OLD ENGLISH. A. a, an (§ 77). abide, bidan (§ 102), dbidan. about, be (§ 94, (^l)),ymbe (§94, (2)) ; to Twrite about, wntan be; to speak about (= of), sprecan ymbe ; about two days afterwards, Stes ymbe twegen dagas. adder, nSdre (§ 64). afterwards, fSces (§ 93, (3)). against, mS! (§ 94, (3)), on (§ 94, (3)). Alfred, Alfred (§ 26). all, eall (§80). also, eac. although, Seah (§ 105, 2). always, a; ealne weg (§ 98, (1)). am, eom (§ 40). an, see a. and, gnd (and). angel, fmsrei (§ 26). animal, deor (§ 32). are, sind, sint, sindon (§ 40). army, werod (§ 32) ; Danish army, h^re (§ 26) ; English army, flerd (§ 38). art, eart (§ 40). Ashdown, ^scesdun (§ 38). ask, biddan (§ 65, Note 3 ; § 115, Note 2). away, aweg. B. battle-field, wcelstow (§ 38). be, beon (§ 40) ; not to be, see § 40, Note 2. bear, beran (§ 114). because, for iSsem (3e), for Son (tSe). become, weortSan (§ 110). before (temporal conjunction), »r, ser iSsem tie (§ 105, 2). begin, onginnan (§ 107, (1) ; § 110). belong to, belimpan to + dative (§ 110). best, see good, better, see good, bind, bindan (§ 110). bird, fugol (§ 26). bite, bitan (§ 102). body, lie (§ 32). bone, ban (§ 32). book, boc (§ 68). both . . . and, mgZer ge . . . ge. boundary, mearc (§ 38). boy, cnapa (§ 64). 189 190 Grlossary. break, breotan (§ 109), brecan, dbrecan (§ 114). brother, brotSor (§ 68, (2)). but, ac. by, /rpm (fram) (§ 94, (1) ; § 141, Note 1). C. Casdmon, Coedmqn (§ 68, (1)). call, hatan (§ 117, (1)). cease, cease from, geswlcan (§ 102). child, beam (§ 32). choose, ceosan (§ 109). Christ, Crist (§ 26). church, cirice (§ 64). come, cuman (§ 114). comiort, frofor (§ 38). companion, gefera (§ 64). consolation, frofor (§ 38). create, gescieppan (§ 116). D. Danes, D^ne (§ 47). day, dag (§26). dead, dead (§ 80). dear (= beloved), leof (§ 80). deed, dmd (§ 38). die, cioelan (§ 114). division (of troops), gefylce (§ 32), getruma (§ 64). do, don (§ 134). door, dor (§ 32), dMrw (§ 52). drink, drincan (§ 110). during, on (§ 94, (3)). See also §98. dwell in, buan on (§ 126, Note 2). earl, eorl (§ 26). endure, dreogan (§ 109). England, Bnglalgnd (§ 32). enjoy, 6)'mco)i (§ 62, Note 1 ; § 109, Note 1). every, sale (§ 77). eye, eage (§ 64). F. father, feeder (§ 68, (2)). field, feld (§ 51). fight, feohtan, gefeohtan (§ 110). find, findan (§ 110). finger, finger (§ 26). fire, fyr (§ 32). fisherman, fiscere (§ 26). foreigner, weaZA (§ 26). freedom, freodom (§ 26). friend, wine (§ 45), freond (§ 68, (3)). friendship, freondscipe (§ 45). full, /mZ! (with genitive) (§ 80). gain the victory, sige habban, sige niman. gift, giefu (§ 38). give, giefan (with dative of in- direct object) (§ 115). glad, glmd (§ 81). glove, firZo/(§38). go, gdn (§ 134),/ara?i (§ 116). God, God (§ 26). good, god (§80). H. Halgoland, Hdlgoland (§ 32). hall, heall (§ 38). Modern English — Old Englixh. 191 hand, h<}nd (§ 52). hard, heard (§ 80). have, habban (§ 34) ; not to have, nabban (p. 32, Note). he, he (§ 53). head, heafod (§ 32). hear, hleran (§ 126). heaven, heofon (§ 26). help, fte^pan (with dative) (§ 110). herdsman, hierde (§ 26). here, her. hither, hider. hold, healdan (§ 117, (2)). holy, hdlig (§ 82). horse, mearh (§ 26), hors (§ 32). house, hus (§ 32). I, ic (§ 72). in, on (§ 94, (3)). indeed, sotSlice. injure, sc^San (with dative) (§ 116). it, hit (§ 53). king, cyning (§ 26). kingdom, rice (§ 32), cynerlce (§ 32). land, ZpntZ (§ 32). language, sprSc (§ 38), ggSeode (§32). large, mice? (§ 82). leisure, iemetta (§ 64). let us, uton (with infinitive). limb, im (§ 32). little, lytel (§ 82). live in, huan on (§ 126, Note 2). lord, hldford (§ 26). love, ityfan (§ 131). love (noun), jm/w (§ 38). M. make, wyrcan (§ 128). man, sfcjc (§ 26), mgn (§ 68, (1)). many, miinig (§ 82). mare, myre (§ 64). mead, ?ned« (§ 51). Mercians, Mierce (§ 47). milk, meolc (§ 38). month, monat! (§ 68, (1), Note 1). mouth, mfitr (§ 26). much, micel (§ 96, (3)), micle (§97.(2)). murderer, 6ena (§ 64). my, mire (§ 76). N. natives, li^ndUode (§ 47). nephew, iiefa (§ 64). neTv, relwe (§ 82). Northumbrians, NortSymbre (§ 47)- not, ne. O. of, see about. on, 071 (§ 94, (3)), ofer (§ 94, (2)). one, an (§ 89) ; the one . . the other, ofSer . . otSer. other, otier (§ 77). our, ure (§ 76). ox, oxa (§ 64). place, stow (§ 38). plundering, h^rgung (§ 38). 192 Glossary. poor, earm (§ 80), unspedig(^ 82). prosperous, spedig (§ 82). queen, cwen (§ 49). R. reindeer, hrdn (§ 26). remain, Sidan (§ 102), dhldan. retain possession of the battle- field, dgan wcelstowe gewald. rich, rice (§ 82), spedig (§ 82). ride, ridan (§ 102). S. say, cto«3a!i (§ 115), s^cgan (§ 133). scribe, bocere (§ 26). seal, seo?A (§ 26). see, seon (§ 118), geseon. serpent, nsedre (§ 64). servant, Seowa (§ 61),Segn(^ 26). sHall, sculaii (§ 136; § 137, Note 2). she, !ieo (§ 53). shepherd, hierde (§ 26). ship, scip (§ 32). shire, scir (§ 38). shoemaker, sceowyrhta (§ 64). side, on both sides, on gehwa^re Jignd. six, siex (§ 90). slaughter, icoei (§ 32), wcelsliht (§45). small, lytel (§ 82). son, SMiiJi (§ 51). soul, smool (§ 38). speak, sprecan (§ 115). spear, gar (§ 26), spej-e (§ 32). stand, stqndan (§ 116). stone, Stan (§ 26). stranger, wealh (§ 26), cuma (§ 64). suffer, dreogan (§ 109). sun, sunne (§ 64). swift, swift (§ 80). take, niman (§ 110). than, ao)J!ie (§ 96, (6)). thane, Sefirn (§ 26). that (conjunction), tScBt. that (demonstrative), se, seo, tSaet (§ 28). that (relative), Se (§ 75). the, se, seo, tSmt (§ 28). then, Sa, (Sonne. these, see this, they, hie (§ 53). thing, tSing (§ 32). thirty, iSritig. this, Ses, Seos, Sis (§ 73). those, see that (demonstrative). thou, 3m (§ 72). though, Seah (§ 105, 2). three, Srle (§ 89). throne, ascend the throne, to rice fon. throw, weorpan (§ 110). to, to (§ 94, (1)). tongue, tunge (§ 64). track, spor (§ 32). true, soS (§ 80). truly, soSlice. two, twegen (§ 89). V. very, swiSe. vessel, /OJJ (§ 32). victory, sige (§ 45). Modern English — Old Enylhh. 193 w. wall, weall (§ 26). warrior, s^cg (§ 26), eorl (§ 26). way, weg (§ 26). weapon, wsepen (§ 32). well, loel (§ 97, (2)). ■Welshman, Wealh (§ 26). went, see go. westward, west, westrihte. whale, hw(El (§ 26). what? hwoit (§ 74). when, 3a, Sonne. where? hwser. which, 3c (§ 75). who? ftioa (§ 74). who (relative), Se (§ 75). whosoever, swd hwa swa (§ 77, Note). will, willan (§ 134 ; § 137, Note 3). Wilton, WUtun (§ 26). win, see gain. wine, win (§ 32). wisdom, wisdom (§ 26). wise, wis (§ 80). with, mid (§ 94, (1)) ; to fight with (= against), gefeohtan wis (§ 94, (3)). withstand, wiSstijndan (with dative) (§ 116). woli, wulf (§ 26), wylf (§ 38). 'woman, wlf (§ 32). ■word, word (§ 32). worm, wyrm (§ 45). Y. ye, ge (§ 72). year, gear (§ 32). yoke, geoc (§ 32). you, Su (singular), ge (plural) (§ 72). your, Sin (singular), eower (plu- ral) (§ 76). ENGLISH. Orations and Arguments. Edited by Professor C. B. BRADLEY, University of California, cloth, 385 pages. Price, ^i.oo. The following speeches are contained in the book : — Burke : Webster : On Conciliation with the Col- The Reply to Hayne. onies, and Speech before the Macaulay : On the Reform Bill of 1832. Calhoun : On the Slavery Question. Seward : On the Irrepressible Conflict. Electors at Bristol, Chatham : On American Affairs. Erskine: In the Stockdale Case, Lincoln : The Gettysburg Address. IN making this selection, the test applied to each speech was that it should be in itself memorable, attaining its distinc- tion through the essential qualities of nobility and force of ideas, and that it should be, in topic, so related to the great thoughts, memories, or problems of our own time as to have for us still an inherent and vita! interest. The speeches thus chosen have been printed from the best available texts, without change, save that the spelling has been made uniform throughout, and that three of the speeches — those of Webster, Calhoun, and Seward — have been shortened somewhat by the omission of matters of merely temporal or local interest. The omitted portions have been summarized for the reader, whenever they bear upon the main argument. The Notes aim to furnish the reader with whatever help is necessary to the proper appreciation of the speeches ; to avoid bewildering him with mere subtleties and display of erudition ; and to encourage in him habits of self-help and familiarity with sources of information. A special feature of this part of the work is a sketch of the English Constitution and Government, intended as a general introduction to the English speeches. The collection includes material enough to permit of a varied selection for the use of successive classes in iie schools. ENGLISH. Studies in English Composition. By Harriet C. Keeler, High School, Cleveland, Ohio, and Emma C. Davis, Cleveland, Ohio. lamo, cloth, 210 pages. Price, 80 cents. THIS book is the outgrowth of experience in teaching compo- sition, and the lessons which it contains have all borne the actual test of the class-room. Intended to meet the wants of those schools which have composition as a weekly exercise in their course of study, it contains an orderly succession of topics adapted to the age and development of high school pupils, to- gether with such lessons in language and rhetoric as are of con- stant application in class exercises. The authors believe that too much attention cannot be given to supplying young writers with good models, which not only indicate what is expected, and serve as an ideal toward which to work, but stimulate and encourage the learner in his first efforts. For this reason numerous examples of good writing have been given, and many more have been suggested. The primal idea of the book is that the pupil learns to write by writing ; and therefore that it is of more importance, to get him to write than to prevent his making mistakes in writing. Consequently, the pupil is set to writing at the very outset ; the idea of producing something is kept constantly uppermost, and the fvinction of criticism is reserved until after something has been done which may be criticised. J. W. Steams, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Wisconsin : It strikes me that the author of your " Studies in English Composition "' touches the gravest defect in school composition work when she writes in her pref- ace : " One may as well expect a sea-anemone to show its beauty when grasped in the hand, as look for originality in a child, hampered by the conviction that every sentence he writes will be dislocated in order to be improved." In order to improve the beauty of the body we drive out the soul in our extreme formal criticisms of school compositions. She has made a book which teaches children to write by getting them to write often and freely ; and if used with the spirit which has presided over the making of it, it will prove a most effective instrument for the reform ol school composition work. Albert G. Owen, Superintendent, Afton, Iowa : It is an excellent text. I am highly pleased wi it. The best of the kind I have yet seen. ENGLISH. Introduction to Theme-Writing. By J. B. Fletcher, Harvard University, and Professor G. R. CAR- PENTER, Columbia College. i6mo, cloth, 136 pages. Price, 60 cents. THE lectures that form the basis of this book were delivered by Mr. Fletcher before the Freshman class at Harvard Col- lege in the spring of 1893. These have been rearranged, v^ith ad- ditional matter by Professor Carpenter. The result is a text-book for students who have completed the introductory course in rhet- oric usually prescribed at the beginning of the Freshman year. The fundamental idea of the book is that in practising any of the various kinds of composition the student must decide : — 1 . Just what treatment will be most appropriate to the sub- ject-matter in general. 2. What treatment will most clearly bring out his own indi- vidual ideas or impressions of this matter. 3. What treatment will make this subject most clear to the particular class of readers or hearers which he has in mind. Letter-writing, Translation, Description, Criticism, Exposition, and Argument are each treated in a clear and concise manner, and exercises on each subject are freely introduced. Selections from Oar/y/e. Edited by Henry W. Boynton, Instructor in English in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. i2mo, cloth, 283 pages. Price, 75 cents. THIS volume includes material adequate for the elementary study of Carlyle in his earliest and most fruitful period. It contains the Essays on Burns, on History, on Boswell's Life of Johnson, and selections from Heroes and Hero-Worship. The Notes are planned in the main to give aid rather than information or opinion, and by frequent quotation of illustrative passages, to make the author his own interpreter. The Essays on Burns and on Johnson, with their respective Notes, are reprinted to form volumes of the Academy Series of English Classics, advertised on page i of this catalogue. ENGLISH. B De Quincey's Essays on Style, Rhetoric, and Language. Edited by Professor Fred N. Scott, University of Miclilgan. izmo, 276 pages. Price, 60 cents. THE essays selected are those which deal directly with the theory of literature. The appendix contains such passages from De Quincey's other writings as will be of most assistance to the student. The introduction and notes are intended to re- enforce, not to forestall, research. Principles of Success in Literature. By George Henry Lewes. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Professor FRED N. SCOTT. izmo, 159 pages. Price 50 cents. THE object of reprinting this admirable little treatise on litera- ture is to make it available for classes in rhetoric and literary criticism. Scarcely any other work will be found so thoroughly sound in principles, and so suggestive and inspiring. The value of the present edition is greatly increased by the excellent introduction by Professor Scott, and by a full index, which adds much to its convenience. Professor 0. B. Clarke, Rifion College, Ripon, Wisconsin : Your reprint of Lewes's articles on " The Principles of Success in Literature " puts another sharp and serviceable tool into the hands of the teacher and student of the art of composition. Professor Scott, as well as yourselves, deserves the thanks of all who care for truth and force in working. Spencer's Philosophy of Style and Wright's Essay on Style. Edited by Professor Fred N. Scott. i2mo, 92 pages. Price, 45 cents. THE plan has been followed of providing a biographical and critical introduction, an index, and a few notes, — the latter designed to provoke discussion or to furnish clews for further investigation. 6 ENGLISH. Composition-Rhetoric for Use in Secondary Schools. By Professors F. N. SCOTT, of the University of Michigan, and J. V. Denney, of Ohio State University. i2mo, cloth, 370 pages. Price, ;Ji.oo. IN the preparation of this work the authors have been guided by three considerations. First, it is desirable that a closer union than has hitherto prevailed be brought about between secondary composition and secondary rhetoric. The rhetoric which is found in this book is meant to be the theory of the pupil's practice. Second, it is desirable in secondary composition that greater use be made of the paragraph than has hitherto been done. In this book the paragraph is made the basis of a systematic method of instruction. A third idea which underlies the work is the idea of growth. A composition is regarded not as a dead form, to be analyzed into its component parts, but as a living product of an active, creative mind. In woi"king out these ideas, care has been taken to provide illustrative material of a kind that should be thought-provoking, interesting, and valuable in itself, but not too far above the standard of literary practice. Professor Sophie C. Hart, WelUsley College, Wellesley, Mass. . As a whole I consider it the best book on English Composition for the preparatory school, and shall recommend it to all teachers who send students to Wellesley. Superintendent Mark S. W. Jefferson, Lexington, Mass. : The only rational book on the subject that I know. Apart from the practical manner of approaching the subject, I am delighted with the material chosen for the illustration of principles ; pupils will find enjoyment in every paragraph. Miss Harriet L. Mason, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. : I find it all that I could wish. The book fills a unique place in English text-bookSj and is in the very van of the best teaching of composition. I shall use it during the coming year. Professor Robert Herrick, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. : It is really a long stride in the right direction. It throws overboard much use- less rubbish contained in the secondary school rhetoric, and teaches explicitly how to get material, how to arrange it, and how to present it. ENGLISH. Paragraph-Writing. By Professor F. N. ScoTT, University of Michigan, and Professor J. V. Denney, Ohio State University. r2mo, 304 pages. Price, jSi.oo. THE principles embodied in this worI< were developed and put in practice by its authors at the University of Michigan several years ago. Its aim is to make the paragraph the basis of a method of composition, and to present all the important facts of rhetoric in their application to it. In Part I. the nature and laws of the paragraph are presented; the structure and function of the isolated paragraph are discussed, and considerable space is devoted to related paragraphs ; that is, those which are combined into essays. Part II. is a chapter on the theory of the paragraph intended for teachers and advanced students. Part III. contains copious material for class work, selected paragraphs, suggestions to teachers, lists of subjects for composi- tions (about two thousand), and helpful references of many kinds. The Revised Edition contains a chapter on the Rhetoric of the Paragraph, in which will be found applications of the para- graph-idea to the sentence, and to the constituent parts of the sentence, so far as these demand especial notice. The new mate- rial thus provided supplies, in the form of principles and illustra- tions, as much additional theory as the student of Elementary Rhetoric needs to master and apply, in order to improve the details of his paragraphs in unity, clearness, and force. Professor J. M. Hart, Cornell University : The style of the writers is admi- rable for clearness and correctness. . . . They have produced an uncom- monly sensible text-book. . . . For college work it will be hard to beat. I know of no other book at all comparable to it for freshman drill. Professor Charles Mills Gayley, University of California : Paragraph- Writing is the best thing of its kind, — the only systematic and exhaustive effort to present a cardinal feature of rhetorical training to the educational world. The Dial, March, 1894 : Paragraph-Writing is one of the really practical books on English composition. ... A book that successfully illustrates the three articles of the rhetorician's creed, — theory, example, and practice. ENGLISH. From Milton to Tennyson. Masterpieces of English Poetry. Edited by L. Du Pont Syle, Uni- versity of California. i2mo, cloth, 480 pages. Price, $1.00. IN this work the editor has endeavored to bring together within the compass of a moderate-sized volume as much narrative, descriptive, and lyric verse as a student may reasonably be re- quired to read critically for entrance to college. From the nineteen poets represented, only such masterpieces have been selected as are within the range of the understanding and the sympathy of the high school student. Each masterpiece is given complete, except for pedagogical reasons in the cases of Thomson, Cowper, Byron, and Browning. Exigencies of space have compelled the editor reluctantly to omit Scott from this volume. The copyright laws, of course, exclude American poets from the scope of this work. The following poets are represented : — MILTON, by the L' Allegro, II Penseroso, Lycidas, and a Selection from the Sonnets. DRYDEN . . EpistletoCongreve, Alexander'sFeastjCharacterofaGoodParson. POPE . . Epistles to Mr. Jervas, to Lord Burlington, and to Augustus. THOMSON . Winter. JOHNSON Vanity of Human Wishes. GRAY .... Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, and The Bard. GOLDSMITH Deserted Village. COWPER . Winter Morning's Walk. BURNS Cotter's Saturday Night, Tam O'Shanter, and a Selection from the Songs. COLERIDGE Ancient Mariner. BYRON . . Isles of Greece, and Selections from Childe Harold, Manfred, and the Hebrew Melodies. KEATS . . Eve of St. Agnes, Ode to a Nightingale, Sonnet on Chapman's Homer. SHELLEY Euganean Hills, The Cloud, The Skylark, and the Two Sonnets on the Nile. WORDSWORTH Laodamia, The Highland Girl, Tintern Abbey, The Cuckoo, The Ode to a Skylark, The Milton Sonnet, The Ode to Duty, and the Ode on the Intimations of Immortality. MACADLAY Horatius. CLOUGH . Two Ships, the Prologue to the Mari Magno, and the Lawyer's First Tale. ARNOLD . The Scholar-Gypsy and the Forsaken Merman. BROWNING . Transcript from Euripides (Balaustion's Adventure). TENNYSON CBnone, Morte D'Arthur, The Miller's Daughter, and a Selectiom from the Song.s.