BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Hcnrg W. Sage 1891 jk~£Ju H.g ws as 13 Carbonate of lime . 79-0 75-7 94-59 51-1 98-40 44-6 Carbonate of mag- nesia 37 2-50 40-2 0-08 3-6 Silica . 10-4 15 -0 3-6 1-10 51-4 Iron and alumina . 2-0 8-2 1-20 1-8 0-42 "Water, etc., and loss 4-2 1-1 1-71 3-3 0-4 99-3 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 When lime is required for use in the caustic state the limestone must be burnt in order to change the carbonate 1 rrestwich, Geology, vol. i. 96 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. of lime it contains into a state of quicklime. The change resulting from the burning of lime is represented by the following chemical equation : — CaC0 3 =CaO + C0 2 carbonate of lime produces quicklime and carbon dioxide. The burning may be carried out in two ways, either in the clamp or heap, or in the kiln. The former of these two methods is comparatively seldom adopted, owing to the rather unsatisfactory results obtained, and because, the cost of burning the lime is rather greater. It is, however, sometimes convenient when a small quantity of lime is required at any place at a distance from ordinary supplies. The method consists of burning the limestone in the same sort of way as in the case of clay-burning, with the exception that the heap is made much larger, and that the layers of fuel and limestone are considerably thicker. Burning in this way takes a considerable time, and there is great risk of the result being spoilt by stormy weather, and consequently it is not a plan that can be recommended under ordinary circumstances. Kilns for burning limestone are funnel-shaped structures, the wider opening being at the top and a small horizontal opening at the bottom. This is built of masonry and lined with firebrick or stone, which is able to resist the effect of heat. In this kiln a fire is kindled, and alternate layers of coke, or sometimes coal, and limestone are put in from the top. If coal is used special care must be taken that it shall not be placed immediately touching the sides of the kiln, for otherwise it has a tendency to run together and cling to the sides, and so hinder the gradual settling down of the material in the process of burning. As the burning goes on the lowest part of the limestone is gradually con- verted into quicklime, which is removed, when the process is complete, through the opening at the bottom of the kiln, in this way allowing the material above to sink down lower in the kiln. More layers of fuel and limestone are added above, and so the process goes on, limestone and fuel being continually added at the top and quicklime being taken out below. In this way a kiln may be kept at work until repairs are necessary, the actual time varying according to LIMING 97 the construction of the kiln and the materials used. Fig. 14 shows the section of an ordinary limekiln for producing lime in comparatively small quantities. Quicklime is usually applied immediately to the soil, and should preferably be put in heaps on the land and slaked as soon as possible by the addition of water. This slaking must be done gradually, the water being added slowly and stirred with the lime, otherwise the latter has a tendency to set into hard lumps instead of falling to a fine powder. This result of the slaking, namely, causing the lime to become Fig. 14.— Section of Limekiln. very finely divided, is one of the great advantages of using quicklime for application to the soil. A more common plan of slaking the lime, though an inferior one, is to allow it to become air-slaked, that is, to slake itself by means of the rain and the water it is able to take up from the air. This action is necessarily slow, and a long time must elapse before the whole heap becomes air-slaked. During this time the slaked lime most exposed to the air will also take carbon dioxide from the air, and again become carbonate of lime, thus losing the caustic properties of quicklime. It must be 98 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. noted that slaking does not diminish the caustic properties of lime in any degree. The amount of quicklime applied to the land varies a great deal according to circumstances. For instance, the deeper the soil the larger is the quantity of lime that may be applied ; so also in badly-drained land more lime may be applied than on well-drained land, because more is required to combine with the acids in the soil. Again, more lime may with safety be applied on arable land than on pasture land, other things being equal, for in the former case the lime is mixed with the whole of the surface soil to a consider- able depth, but in pasture land it is merely spread on the surface, and for some time at least is only mixed with the first few inches. The actual quantity applied at any one time must also depend on the extent to which lime has previously been used on the land, and the longer the inter- val which has elapsed since the last dressing of lime, the larger the quantity that must be applied. On the average, the quantity applied to arable land in districts where liming is customary is about two tons every five years or the equivalent ; that is to say, if ten years are allowed to elapse between the dressings about four tons will be applied, if fifteen years, six tons, and so on. Generally speaking, on grass land it is better to apply lime in small dressings at short intervals rather than in very heavy dressings at any one time, because lime has a great tendency to work downwards in the soil, and consequently in grass land, where it is never disturbed, it very soon gets too low to be of much use to the plants. In arable land, on the other hand, the ploughing of the land tends to counteract this sinking of the lime in the soil, and so it is kept for a long time mixed with the surface soil. The first effect that caustic lime has when it is added to the soil is that it combines with any acids that may be pre- sent in the land and neutralises them, that is, forms com- pounds which are harmless to the plant. This is a matter of considerable importance, as in many soils, particularly if containing large quantities of organic matter, there is a constant formation of acid, which renders them unfit for the growth of plants, unless these acids be removed by liming, drainage, or other means. Liming is also of particular LIMING 99 importance in manufacturing districts, where there is a large consumption of coal, the smoke of which contains various acid compounds of sulphur, which sooner or later are brought down into the soil and tend to make it sour. In the case of arable land, where the soil is continually being stirred and cultivated, these acids are comparatively easily washed down through the soil, and are removed in the drainage water ; but in grass lands the soil is quite undisturbed, and in many cases these acids accumulate to a serious extent in the first few inches of the soil. If this happens the quality of the grass is very much injured, and sometimes the amount of produce is reduced very materially. The evil effects of smoke on the land can be counteracted by frequent small dressings of lime, which serve to neutralise the acid and so keep the soil in a sweet condition. It must be understood that the action of the acids in smoke is only one of the injuries inflicted by it upon farm crops, and that liming has no effect in counteracting the others. Quicklime added to the soil is also useful by acting upon both the organic and the mineral constituents, and breaking them up to some extent so as to make dormant plant food available for the use of plants. With regard to the organic matter, lime acts chiefly by hastening its decomposition, and so changing the organic nitrogen into the form of ammonia, which readily becomes available for the plant. This, how- ever, is done by the actual destruction of the organic matter in the soil, so that it must be remembered that liming can be done too frequently, for if the organic matter in the soil be reduced below a certain quantity, the physical properties of the soil will be injuriously affected, and further dressings of lime will give little or no result, because there is no organic matter for them to act upon. Accordingly, it is found that the amount of lime used, and the frequency with which it may be applied must depend in great measure on the amount of organic matter in the soil. The same thing holds good with regard to mineral matter, but in a less degree, owing to the comparatively large amount of mineral plant food generally present. Another way in which lime acts when added to the soil is as plant food. This, however, is comparatively unimportant, for most fertile soils contain sufficient lime for the plant's 100 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. requirements, so that the benefit obtained from the use of lime is usually rather because it renders available material which is already present in the soil than because it adds plant food to it. If the soil be deficient in lime, however, the addition of it to the soil in some form is essential. The mechanical action of lime is also worth noticing, particularly in opening the texture of heavy land. Indeed, if liming be frequently resorted to, or if too large a quantity be added at one time, the soil will sometimes become too open in texture, and crops growing during the winter will be liable to be thrown out of land in time of frost. This action of frost is far more noticeable in all soils containing lime than in those where it is deficient. When lime is used in its mild form, unburnt, it is some- what similar in its action to quicklime, but in a less active manner. It breaks up both the organic and mineral con- stituents of the soil to some extent ; but perhaps it acts most markedly in neutralising acids in the soil, and in improving its physical properties. In the case of light land particu- larly the power of the soil to retain moisture is very much increased, while in soils already deficient in organic matter the use of mild lime is preferable to that of caustic lime, as the organic matter is not destroyed to the same extent. The most common form in which mild lime is applied is as chalk. This should be quarried and applied to the land during the autumn or winter, so that it may be exposed to and broken up by the frost, after which it can be spread evenly on the soil. If it is not exposed to the frost, it frequently becomes very hard and gives a great deal of trouble in breaking up and spreading. Various other forms of carbonate of lime are sometimes used. In some districts shell sand is obtained in large quantities, aud is applied to the laud either direct or after burning. The scrapings of limestone roads are also used for application to the land, and act as a dressing of mild lime. Another form in which lime is often used is as gas-lime, that is lime after it has been used for the purification of coal- gas. Gas-lime consists partly of caustic and slaked lime. It also contains carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, and a number of other compounds of lime containing sulphur. Most of these last-named sulphur compounds are poisonous both to LIMING 101 plants and animals, and consequently gas-lime, as it is ob- tained at the gas-works, is not suited for immediate appli- cation to the soil. By exposure to the air, however, for a considerable time, oxidation takes place, and these various substances, such as sulphite of lime, sulphide, etc., are con- verted to sulphate of lime, in which form they are harmless. It must be remembered, however, that sulphate of lime is not often of much value for application to the soil, and consequently its presence in any considerable quantity may be a drawback to the use of gas-lime. The question whether it is more economical to use gas-lime or quick- lime must be determined with reference to their relative price and the distance from which the two materials have to be carted. Weight for weight, gas-lime is not nearly so valuable to the farmer as quicklime, for it contains large quantities of substances he does not require. The poisonous properties of fresh gas-lime sometimes give it a special use for destroying insect pests or weeds. Where used for either of these purposes, a heavy dressing is applied to the land direct from the gas-works, and thus frequently insects or weeds can be got rid of when other means would be useless. It will be understood, of course, that such a dressing can only be applied to the land when free from crops. Some interval also must be allowed to elapse before any crop is sown, in order to allow of the oxidation of the poisonous materials so as to render them harmless. CHAPTER XII MANURING CLASSIFICATION OF MANURES Manuring is, strictly speaking, a temporary improvement, but includes all gradations, from that benefiting a single crop only to one which lasts for many years. This difference depends upon the quickness of the action of the manure and on the power of the soil to absorb it. The immediate effect of a manure depends — 1. On its solubility, and 2. On the suitability of the plant food which it contains for the use of the plant. In deciding the question as to what kind of manuring shall be employed under any given circumstances, the condition of the soil must first be considered, that is, the amount and kind of plant food present. The condition depends principally upon the previous cropping and manage- ment of the land, and also to a great extent upon the rate at which dormant plant food becomes available by means of natural agencies, and upon the absorptive power of the soil. With regard to nitrogen, its influence on the productiveness of the soil depends also on its state of combination and the rate at which nitrification can go on. The preceding season will influence the amount of available nitrogen in the soil, for nitrification proceeds more rapidly in a hot season, while a wet one will wash away a great part of the nitrates formed. For example, after a wet winter the wheat crop is often unhealthy in colour and is very much benefited by a dressing of nitrogenous manure. This is owing to the rain having washed away from the soil the nitrates formed during the preceding summer by the nitrifying organisms. A dry oh. xii MANURING — CLASSIFICATION OF MANURES 103 winter, on the other hand, even if cold, will generally be more suitable for the wheat crop, which will have a stronger, healthier appearance in the spring. Next to the condition of the soil, the requirements of the particular crop to be grown must be considered, and this can only be decided upon with certainty by reference to experience. The chemical composition of a crop is little or no guide to the plant food it requires in manure. For example, the leguminous crops are generally extremely rich in nitrogen, but owing to their exceptional power of obtain- ing nitrogen through the medium of the organisms found in their root tubercles they do not generally depend upon manuring for supplies of this element. It has been found by experiments often repeated that ordinary farm crops on soils of average composition require generally only three constitu- ents of plant food to be added, namely, nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. Occasionally lime and magnesia are also required, but usually these and all the other essential con- stituents of plant food are present in sufficient quantity in the soil. Of the three chief constituents of manures, as a rule, it is not necessary to apply all to every crop grown, and they need hardly ever be applied in quantities sufficient to supply the plant with the whole of the nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash that it requires, for there is always a considerable amount of available plant food derived from natural sources present in a fertile soil. The crop cannot, however, take up all the plant food applied to it, the roots only coming in contact with a comparatively small portion of the soil. As, therefore, part of the manure remains in the soil, it is often a good plan to apply a larger dressing of one or more of its constituents than is apparently necessary for the growth of the crop to which it is applied. The amount of the surplus thus applied must depend on the extent to which it is available as plant food, and its liability to be washed out of the soil. Different kinds of plants vary considerably in their powers of taking up plant food. The difference between plants in this respect is largely due to differences in their habit of growth. For example, barley, which is a fibrous- rooted plant, spreading thickly through the surface of the soil, has been found at Kothamsted to return in the increase 104 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. of the crop about 60 per cent of the nitrogen applied as a top dressing of nitrate of soda, while wheat, which is, com- paratively speaking, a deep-rooted plant, returns only about 47 per cent of the nitrogen applied. As a general result of crop experiments it is found that the best results are obtained by the application of nitrogen- ous manures to corn crops and grass, potash manures to potatoes and leguminous plants, and phosphoric acid to root crops. But it must not be understood from this that nitrogen only is required for corn, potash only for potatoes and leguminous plants, and phosphoric acid only for root crops, but that the general character of the manure applied to corn crops must be nitrogenous, and so on. For example, in so-called corn manures sold by manure merchants, the nitrogen may exist to the extent of from 4 to 6 per cent, and phosphates from 8 to 12 per cent; while in turnip manures there will be from 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen, 20 per cent of phosphates, and 5 per cent of potash. If this system of applying to each crop chiefly that con- stituent which benefits it most be followed, a rotation of manure will result coincident with the ordinary rotation of crops followed almost universally in agriculture. The ad- vantage of this is obvious, for in the period occupied by the rotation, if the latter include representatives of the different classes of crops mentioned above, all the necessary con- stituents of plant food will have been applied to the soil, so that its condition will be maintained, while each separate constituent will have been applied to the crop which requires it most, and will consequently have yielded its greatest possible effect. A marked distinction may be drawn between the effect of nitrogenous manures and those supplying the ash con- stituents of the plant or "cinereals," as they are called. Nitrogen applied to the soil promotes, as a rule, a strong growth of leaf, rather rank, and dark in colour, and some- what retards the maturing and ripening of the seed. Cine- reals, on the other hand, encourage the production of seed rather than leaf, and bring about an earlier ripening and maturing of the plant. Manures. — The manures used on the farm are con- veniently divided into two classes, general and special xii MANURING — CLASSIFICATION OF MANURES 105 manures. General manures are those which contain all the essential constituents of plant food, while special manures are those which are valuable chiefly for one such constituent, though sometimes more are present. Though the general manures contain all the necessary constituents of plant growth, yet they do not necessarily contain them either in the amount or the proportions required by the plant, so that their use may not be economical. For example, if the soil contains an ample supply of nitrogen and potash, but is deficient in phosphoric acid, and a general manure is used, the phosphoric acid only will be of any use, while the nitrogen and potash contained in it will yield no return, and the nitrogen at least will always be liable to waste by drainage. For the economical use of manures considerable knowledge is required, in order to judge of the condition of the soil and the require- ments of the crop ; for it must be remembered that it is the constituent of plant food which is present in the soil in least proportion compared with the requirements of the plant which controls the extent of the crop. If there is enough of this least plentiful constituent for producing a full crop, all will be well ; but if there is not sufficient, a full crop cannot be obtained, even though other constituents of plant food are present in very large quantity. These two classes of manures are further classified as follows : — ' 1. Farmyard manure. 2. Sewage and its products. 3. Seaweed. 4. Leaves and plant refuse. 5. Refuse oil-cakes. 6. Brewers' and distillers' grains. 7. Spent tanners' bark. 8. Sawdust. 9. Peat. I Nitrates. Nitrogenous J Ammonium salts. Manures. | Animal remains. \ Nitrogenous guanos. {Mineral phosphates. Bone phosphates. Phosphatic guanos. Phosphates treated with acids. Thomas phosphate. General Manures. 106 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ch. xn p , , f Potash salts from sea water. Ma S s 1 P otasn s^te f Iom ashes of plants, ures. |^ p otasa g^jg f rom gaiine deposits. Miscellaneous f Magnesia compounds. Manures 1 Soda salts- I Iron salts, etc. CHAPTER XIII PAEMTAED MANURE This, the most important manure used on the farm, consists of the excrement of animals, usually mixed with a certain amount of litter. The composition of farmyard manure and its value depend on the composition of these two parts, and the proportions in which they are mixed. The excre- ment is divided into two parts, solid and liquid, and consists of that part of the food supplied to the animal which is not utilised by it for the production of increase and other purposes, together with the refuse matter resulting from the natural waste of the tissues. The solid excrement consists almost entirely of that part of the food which is not digested by the animal, but which has passed through its digestive system without being much acted upon, while the liquid contains those constituents of the food which have been, as it were, dissolved and taken up into the system, when, after being used in the animal economy, they are thrown out in the urine. Of the three most important constituents of plant food, the nitrogen is found to a certain extent in the solid excrement, but exists chiefly in the urine, in the form of urea, uric acid, etc., which are formed by a kind of slow combustion of the nitrogenous matter of the food in the animal's body. The potash exists in most foods in the form of organic salts, which are easily digested by the animal, and consequently most of the potash is found in the liquid excrement. The phosphoric acid, on the other hand, occurs in foods principally as insoluble mineral salts, and is therefore found in largest quantity in the dung. As the manure made by animals consists essentially of 108 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. that part of the food which they are not able to use, its composition will in the first place depend on that of the food supplied to the animals, so that, other things being equal, the more nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid con- tained in the food the richer the manure will be. But further than this there will be a difference in the com- position of the manure, according to the kind of animal consuming the food, for some utilise a larger proportion of their food for respiration, growth, fattening, or milk pro- duction, and consequently less valuable material remains in the manure. Of the most important farm animals, oxen and sheep have the least power of storing up the valuable constituents of food in their increase of body weight, and therefore the manure contains a larger amount of these con- stituents compared with that originally present in the food. "The following table shows some of the results obtained by Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamsted, in feeding oxen, sheep, and pigs : — Table XX. Food, Increase, Manure, etc., of Fattening Animals. Oxen. Composi- tion of dry matter of food per cent. 100 Total Dry Substance of Food Supply. Amount of each constitu- ent stored np for 100 of it con- sumed. In Increase. In Manure. In Re- spiration. Nitrogenous substance . Non-nitrogenous sub- stance Mineral matter . Total dry substance 19-6 72-9 7-5 0-8 | 5-2) 0-2 29-1 7-4 57-3 1.7-2 1-9 100-0 6-2 36-5 57-3 FARMYARD MANURE 109 Sheep. Composi- tion of dry matter of food per cent. 100 Total Dry Substance of Pood Supply. Amount of each constitu- ent stored up for 100 of it con- sumed. In Increase. In Manure. In Be- spiration. Nitrogenous substance . Non-nitrogenous sub- stance Mineral matter . Total dry substance 19-4 73-6 7-0 0-8^1 7-0 J 0-2 25-1 6-8 60-1 ("4-2 (.9-4 3-1 100-0 8-0 31-9 60-1 Pigs. Nitrogenous substance . Non-nitrogenous sub- stance Mineral matter . Total dry substance 12-4 85-0 2-6 157 J 0-2 14-3 2-4 65-7 fl3-5 \l8-5 7-3 100-0 17-6 16-7 65-7 From these figures it will be observed that oxen store up a smaller proportion of the food they consume in the increase than sheep, and use rather less for purposes of respiration, and therefore a slightly larger proportion of the constituents of the food is returned as manure. Pigs store up a very much larger amount of their food in the increase of their body weight than sheep, and use rather more for respiration, and therefore the proportion returned in the manure is considerably less. It must be remembered that the above figures refer only to fattening animals. Young growing stock will store up a far larger proportion of the constituents of their food, because they require material to form new growth, flesh, bone, and fat, and therefore the manure produced will be, comparatively speaking, very poor. Similarly, cows in milk will yield manure poor in composition compared with that of the food consumed, because part of 110 AGRICULTURE : PEACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. that food is utilised in the production of milk. The actual composition of the manure -will depend not only on that of the food, and the kind of stock consuming it, but on the amount of water present, for the greater the amount of water the less valuable the manure will be per ton. The amount of water varies partly with the nature of the food supplied to the animal. If the food be watery, the propor- tion of water both in the solid and liquid excrement will be greater, and the value of the manure will consequently be less. Mtintz and Girard give the following as the composi- tion of the dung and urine of cows fed in different ways : — Table XXI. Percentage Composition of Manure from Cows fed in Various Ways. Mixed Food. Watery Food. Dry Food. Bung. Urine. Dung. Urine. Dung. Urine. Water . Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash . 80-35 0-36 0-15 25 078 traces 1-57 83-00 0-33 0-24 0-14 0-124 o-oii 0-597 79-70 0-34 0-16 0-23 1-540 0-006 1-690 In the case of iirine particularly these figures show that the presence of large quantities of water in the food causes a diminution in the proportion of the more important con- stituents of the manure. The proportion of water and the consequent composition of the manure also varies according to the kind of animal. Cattle produce more watery manure than sheep, and weight for weight their manure is therefore less valuable. The following analyses of Boussingault show the composition of the liquid and solid excrements, and of the mixed manure of farm animals : — FARMYARD MANURE 111 Table XXII. Percentage amount of Various Constituents present in Manure of Farm Animals. Cows. Solid Excrement. Urine. Mixed Excrement. Water .... Nitrogen .... Phosphoric acid . 85-90 0-32 0-11 1 88-30 0-44 o-oo 2 92-10 0-96 o-oo 84-30 0-41 0'09 Sheep. Water Nitrogen .... Phosphoric acid . 57-60 0-72 0-44 Pigs. 86-50 1-31 o-oi 67-10 0-91 0-16 Water Nitrogen Phosphoric acid . ] 84-00 0-70 0-62 Worses. 97-90 0-23 0-04 93-80 0-37 0-28 Water ..... Nitrogen .... Phosphoric acid . 75-30 0-55 0'30 91-00 1-48 o-oo 75-40 0-74 0-17 The kind and quantity of litter used for bedding affects the value of the manure considerably, and this influence depends, first, on its chemical composition, in so far as the litter contains nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, etc., which add to the amount of plant food in the soil. The following table shows the amount of the most valuable constituents in certain materials commonly used as litter : — 112 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. Table XXIII. Percentages of Certain Constituents of Litter. Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. Wheat straw 0-48 0-23 0-49 Barley straw 0-48 0-19 0-93 Oat straw 0-40 0-28 0-97 Pea haulm .... 1-04 0-38 1-07 Potato haulm (dry) 0-50 o-io 0-30 Heather 0-9 o-io 0-40 Fern . . . . 2-4 0-45 2-42 Rushes 0-4 0-35 1-67 Beech-tree leaves . 0-8 0-24 0-30 Scotch fir needles . 0-6 o-io 0-13 Peat . . . . 1-5 trace o-io As to the physical properties of litter, the most important is that of absorbing moisture and retaining plant food ; in- deed this absorptive power is usually of more importance than the composition of the litter. The importance of the absorptive power will be at once recognised when it is remem- bered that most of the nitrogen and all the potash are found in the liquid manure, and therefore can only be held in this way. The following table shows the relative absorptive power of different materials usually employed as litter : — Table XXIV. Absorptive Power of various kinds of Litter in Pounds of Water per 100 lbs. Wheat straw 220 Barley straw 285 Oat straw . 228 Pea straw . 280 Bracken 212 Heather 145 Dead leaves 200 Pine needles 150 to 200 Peat . 500 to 700 Sawdust . 420 to 450 FARMYARD MANURE 113 The composition of fresh farmyard manure is difficult to ascertain with great certainty, owing to the fact that it is almost impossible to obtain a sample for analysis that fairly represents the bulk of the manure. Dr. Voelcker gives the following as the composition of fresh farmyard manure in its natural state, and also calculated on the dry matter x : — Table XXV. General Composition of Fresh Long Dung {composed of Horse, Cow, and Pig Dung). In natural state. Calculated dry. Water 66-17 *Soluble organic matter 2-48 7-33 Soluble inorganic matter . 1-54 4-55 ■("Insoluble organic matter . 2576 76-15 Insoluble inorganic matter . 4-05 11-97 100-00 100-00 *Containing nitrogen .... ■149 ■44 Equal to ammonia •181 •53 •(•Containing nitrogen ■494 •146 Equal to ammonia •599 ■177 Total percentage of nitrogen •643 1-90 Equal to ammonia •780 2-30 From these figures it will be seen that in the natural state only 4-02 per cent of the solid matter of the manure is soluble, while 29-81 is insoluble, and therefore of little immediate use to the plant. In the same investigation it was also found that very little nitrogen exists in the form of ammonia, either free or in a state of combination. In the manure, the composition of which is given above, the per- centage of ammonia in these two forms was as follows : — 1 Journal R.A.S.E., vol. xvii. 114 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. Table XXVI. Percentage of Ammonia in Long Dung. In natural state. Calculated dry. Percentage of free ammonia Percentage of ammonia in the state of salts . .... •034 ■088 •10 •26 Of the other compounds of nitrogen very few are soluble. It is somewhat remarkable that among the mineral con- stituents of the manure, a considerable amount of phosphate of lime exists in a soluble form, this being 19 J per cent of the whole amount of the soluble mineral matter in the manure, while it forms only 9J per cent of the insoluble ash. The most important of the soluble mineral substances is potash. When farmyard manure is kept for any length of time fermentation takes place, resulting in a loss of weight and a change in its composition. The change takes place prin- cipally in the organic matter. The two main results of this fermentation are, first, a change in the condition of the plant food, rendering it more valuable for the use of the plant, and, secondly, changes liable to cause loss of valuable matter, particularly of nitrogen. The rate of change differs greatly in the liquid and solid excrements. In the urine, when perfectly fresh, almost all the nitrogen exists in the form of organic compounds, only about 0'4 per cent of the total nitrogen being in the form of ammonia ; but fermentation begins almost directly, in the process of which ammonia is formed. On the other hand, in the solid excrement fermentation is comparatively very slow, and but little ammonia is formed. Just as in the case of all other fermentations, the rapidity with which it takes place is controlled to a great extent by the temperature. Miiutz and Girard give the following as the percentage of the total nitrogen which is in the form of ammonia in the urine of cows and horses kept for two months at different temperatures : — FARMYARD MANURE 115 Table XXVII. Percentage of Total Nitrogen existing as Ammonia in Urine after Fermentation. Animal Producing. Mean Temperature. Very low. 12° C. 20° C. 90 80 33° C. Cow Horse . 33 45 83 70 95 90 When the manure is put into a heap further actions take place ; the heap becomes hot, owing to rapid fermenta- tion, and more organic matter disappears. This is due to a kind of slow combustion, in the process of which the carbon contained in the manure forms carbon dioxide, and, as one would expect, the rate of this combustion depends on the freedom with which the air can gain access to the manure ; the more consolidated the heap the slower the combustion will be. The texture and natural character of the manure also affects the rate of fermentation, and that of horses and sheep heats most rapidly, while that of cows and pigs heats comparatively slowly. Another action is the formation of certain organic acids known as humic acid, ulmic acid, etc., which are produced by the decom- position of carbonaceous material. We see, then, that in the fermentation an alkaline substance, ammonia, is pro- duced, as well as the acids just mentioned, and, as is the case whenever acids and alkali come into contact, combina- tion takes place, and salts of ammonia are formed, which are generally of a stable character, and are not liable to loss by volatilisation. An important exception, however, is am- monium carbonate, formed by the combination of ammonia with carbon dioxide, and produced in largest quantity when fermentation is most rapid. Whether volatile or not, it must be remembered, however, that these ammonium com- pounds are very soluble, and that there is still risk of loss by drainage from the heap. Many other compounds are 116 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. formed during the fermentation of the manure, for example, marsh gas, but these are of minor importance. The chief action in fermentation, then, is to burn away the carbon of the manure, and therefore the result is that the fertilising substances are concentrated. Considering the dry material only, the composition of the manure will be very much more valuable, though often on the farm the amount of water will be greater in rotten manure than in fresh, owing to rain falling on it while fermenting, and therefore the amount of the valuable constituents per ton will be rather less. Voelcker gives the following percentages of valuable constituents in fresh and rotten manure re- spectively, calculated on the dry matter : — Table XXVIII. Amount of Certain Constituents of Farmyard Manure per cent of the Dry Material. Fresh. Rotten. Potash Ammonia, in free state . Ammonia, in form of salts 0-938 1-990 1-900 0-100 0-260 1-1820 1-996 2-470 0-189 0-232 It will be seen that each one of the valuable constituents of the manure exists in larger proportion after the process of fermentation, excepting only ammonia in the form of salts. The total ammonia present, however, free and in the form of salts, is greater in the rotten manure. The fact that the amount of potash is practically the same in both fresh and rotten manure will be accounted for by its solubility from the time of the first formation of the manure, in consequence of which it is exposed to loss by drainage during the whole process of fermentation. The loss of weight occurring during fermentation varies considerably, according to the conditions under which the manure is kept. In experiments tried under various con- FARMYARD MANURE 117 ditions, Voelcker found the following percentage of loss in the periods named : — Table XXIX. Loss of Weight per cent of Farmyard Manure on keeping. How kept. 178 Days. 293 Days. ST! Days. In heap exposed . In heap under cover Spread and exposed 28-6 50-4 13-4 297 60 '0 38-7 30-4 62-1 42-4 The facts that we have considered show that the loss of valuable material may take place in two ways, first, by vola- tilisation ; secondly, by drainage, and both these causes must be borne in mind in the management of manure. In order to obtain the best results, farmyard manure should be pro- tected, and if possible both made and kept under cover. Covered yards are superior to open ones for making manure, owing to the protection they give. The gain in the money value of the manure made by fatting cattle, and the gain in the well-doing of the stock kept has been estimated as follows per beast housed per annum 1 : — Economy of food, superior health and well-doing of stock, estimated per head .... ..£12 Superiority of manure, estimated per head . . 14 Economy iu application of same, estimated per head . 5 Saving of litter (straw) to be used as food, 1£ tons per head (at consuming value) 1 10 The first item in the above table is considerably less than the estimate given by many authorities. The advan- tage to the animal is owing to the fact that, being kept warm in winter, less food is required to keep up the heat of the body, and the animal is able to use so much more of the food it consumes for the production of meat or milk. 1 W. J. Moscrop, Journal R.A.S.R, vol. i. T.S. 118 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. As to the superiority of the manure produced considerable difference of opinion is found, but it is frequently estimated that manure made under cover is worth about twice as much as that made in open yards. In the above table it is taken as being 50 per cent more valuable. The economy in the application of the manure is calculated on the sup- position that a medium-sized animal will produce about eight tons of manure during the winter months, whereas about half as much again would be produced in open yards. There is, therefore, an economy to the amount stated in the labour of handling and applying the manure. The gain estimated above presupposes, however, careful management of the manure in all its stages. If it is allowed to get too dry, the air will have free access to it and fermentation will proceed more rapidly in consequence. To avoid this it is necessary to supply stock kept under cover with only small quantities of litter at a time, just enough to keep them dry. In this way it is well trampled in and consolidated. If by any accident the manure becomes too dry it should be moistened with liquid manure if possible, or even with water. Similarly, manure made in boxes must be kept solid, and rather moist, though if the boxes are well made, so as to retain the whole of the liquid part of the manure, there will be less chance of its becom- ing too dry than there is in a covered yard. Manure made in stalls, when removed from the houses, should, if possible, be put into a manure shed, when every endeavour should be made to keep the liquid part of it mixed with the solid. Some drainage from the heap is, of course, certain to take place, and this should be carefully collected in a liquid manure tank, which should also be arranged to receive the drainage from the yards and buildings, though not rain water. It is a good plan, though one often neglected, to pump the liquid manure from the tank over a heap in the shed at intervals, in this way keeping the heap cool and moist, and checking too rapid fermentation. A further point necessary to be observed for controlling the fermenta- tion is that the manure produced by different kinds of stock should be mixed together, so that the comparatively cool manure produced by cattle and pigs may serve to moderate the more rapid fermentation natural to horse manure. xni FARMYARD MANURE 119 As a matter of convenience farmyard manure is generally taken out from the yards and buildings and put up into heaps near the field to which it is to be applied. This is done at any convenient time in the year, and serves to economise labour at the more busy seasons. These heaps should be protected as much as possible from loss by drain- age, which may be done by placing layers of absorbent material amongst the manure, and by putting at the bottom of the heap a thick layer of some such material as burnt clay, ashes, etc. A covering of earth is also frequently given, which serves partly to keep out rain water, and also to prevent the ammonia being-given off from the surface of the heap. In the same way a rough thatch is sometimes put over the heap to protect it from the weather. Another plan adopted for saving the drainage from heaps is to make them in a kind of basin, hollowed out and puddled with clay so as to be water-tight. At the bottom a thick layer of some absorbent material is put, which serves to suck up the liquid draining from the heap. In order to check the fermentation in these large heaps, it is common for the carts to drive on to the top of them before unloading. In this way, by the constant passage of horses and carts over the heap while it is being built, it is consolidated, and fer- mentation is consequently slow. Manure heaps are very often turned by hand, in order to give the manure a better texture for subsequent handling, spreading on the land, etc., but this should only be done if fermentation is very slow and needs to be encouraged, or when the greater part of the fermentation is over. In any case, in turning the heap a loss of ammonia will probably take place. Liquid manure collected into a tank ferments rather rapidly, in the way that has been already described in connection with urine. Ammonia is formed and is of course liable to be lost, owing to its volatile properties. To avoid this, gypsum, a form of sulphate of lime, or sulphuric acid is sometimes added, with the object of " fixing," as it is called, the ammonia, that is, converting it into a non- volatile substance — sulphate of ammonia. The different ways of storing manure have different effects upon its composition. Table XXX. shows the gain or loss of the various constituents of manure kept in various 120 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. ways, as determined by Dr. Voelcker. The composition of the manure when fresh has been given in Table XXV., p. 113. Table XXX. Percentage of Gain or Loss of Farmyard Manure and of its Constituents when kept in Various Ways. 1. Manure in Heap, exposed. Kept 6 Months. Kept 9 Months. Kept 12 Months. Gain. ■ Loss. Gain. Loss. Gain. Loss. Total weight . 28-61 2977 30-45 "Water . 19-09 13-12 14-49 *Soluble organic matter . 0-56 0-40 0-57 Soluble mineral matter . 0-49 0-16 0-24 tlnsoluble organic matter 12-03 17-18 18-17 Insoluble mineral matter 1-43 1-14 3-05 *Containing nitrogen 0-065 o'-oie 0-020 tContaining nitrogen 0-068 0-160 0-160 Ammonia in free state . 0-028 026 0-029 Ammonia in form of salts 0-027 0-060 0-059 2. Manure tinder Shed. Total weight . 50-49 6019 62-09 Water . 38-00 48-88 50-35 *Soluble organic matter . 0-18 0-83 0-44 Soluble mineral matter . 0-18 0-32 o-'ii tlnsoluble organic matter *.. 13-16 15-40 15 V 26 Insoluble mineral matter 0-73 5 V 26 3-85 "Containing nitrogen 0-014 0-042 0-012 tContaining nitrogen 0-036 0-092 0-078 Ammonia in free state . 0-006 0-027 0-026 Ammonia in form of salts 0-030 0-046 0-032 3. Manure spread and exposed. Total weight . 13-49 38-74 42-49 Water . 3-02 23-22 28-46 "Soluble organic matter . 1-17 2-18 2-24 Soluble mineral matter . 0-66 1-14 1-20 tlnsoluble organic matter 15-85 19-29 20-05 Insoluble mineral matter 1-44 7-i'i 9-40 "Containing nitrogen V 12 o'-16 0-18 tContaining nitrogen 0-018 0-16 0-16 Ammonia in free state . 0-024 0-025 0-033 Ammonia in form of salts 0-050 0-050 0-070 xni FARMYARD MANURE 121 This shows the great advantage of keeping manure under cover, for though the bulk and weight diminish con- siderably under cover, there is much less loss of the valu- able constituents of the manure. Roughly speaking, in the case of manure kept under cover there was a loss in the year of about one-tenth of the nitrogen originally present. " In the exposed heap the loss was equal to one-third of the original amount, and when spread and exposed to the weather the loss was about two-thirds. With regard to the application of farmyard manure to the land, the time of doing this and the state in which the manure should be, depend upon the conditions, particularly upon the kind of soil and of crop. As a general rule it may be said that fresh manure, or long dung, as it is often called, is better for heavy soils ; but if it is used it must be applied some time before the plant requires it, that is, in the autumn. In this way time is allowed for the decomposition of the manure in the soil, while, owing to the power that heavy soils have of retaining plant food, there is little chance of its being wasted. In the case of sandy land, on the other hand, if the manure were applied in autumn, as its constituents became soluble they would be washed away to a great extent by the winter rains and so wasted. On such soils, therefore, the manure must be applied just when it is required, that is, shortly before spring growth com- mences. This being. so, there is of course no opportunity for change to take place in the state of the manure in the soil, and it must therefore be in a rotten condition before it is applied. From a purely chemical point of view, taking into account only the composition of the manure, the least loss would probably occur when the manure was carried direct on to the land as soon as made, but this system would seldom be convenient or possible. The crop also has to be considered, because in the case of a quick-growing plant having only a short time in which to obtain its necessary food, that food must be supplied to it in an avail- able form, and therefore if farmyard manure be employed it must be well rotted. Slow-growing crops, on the other hand, require a continuous supply of plant food for a con- siderable time, and therefore fresh manure is more suitable. The immediate effect of an application of fresh manure is 122 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. principally to supply potash to the plant, for, before fer- mentation takes place, potash exists in an available form to a greater extent than the other valuable manurial constitu- ents. In rotten manure, on the other hand, much of the nitrogen has become available, and it is this constituent which has the greatest effect. On the question of whether manure should be left spread on the surface of the land or ploughed in at once, there is a considerable difference of opinion. From a chemical point of view the former plan is probably the more advantageous, for when spread for some time on the surface the soluble plant food contained in the manure is washed into the soil and evenly distributed through it, and in the case of most soils there is sufficient retentive power to prevent loss of valuable material. The important effect of the manure on the physical texture of the soil, either in the case of very strong land or very light, is at least partially lost by this plan, heavy soils being better broken up in texture by ploughing the manure in at once. The quantity of farmyard manure applied varies in different districts and under different circumstances from about 10 tons per acre or less up to 25 or 30 tons per acre, or sometimes more. When applied to grass lands the dressings are usually rather light. On arable laud farm- yard manure is largely employed for the growth of turnips or other root crops, but is also applied to wheat, beans, clovers, and indeed almost all the common farm crops. Besides its action as plant food, the physical effects of farmyard manure are important. These are chiefly the result of the large quantity of organic matter it contains, which affects the power of the soil to absorb and retain moisture and manurial matter. As to moisture the point is well illustrated by the experiments in the continuous growth of wheat carried out at Rothamsted. There it was found that the soil of the plot manured every year with farmyard manure has been so altered in its power of hold- ing water that the drains seldom or never run, though those of the plots not manured or manured only with mineral substances run as usual in time of rain. In districts where little or no corn is grown, and litter is consequently scarce, some system of applying manure in xiii FARMYARD MANURE 123 its natural state has to be adopted. In some districts the plan of " blonging " is followed, in which the manure is mixed with several times its own weight of water in a large tank, and is afterwards distributed over the land by means of gravitation, or more commonly by a liquid manure cart. Even distribution of the manure is thus obtained, but there is more labour in its application and a greater chance of waste of the valuable constituents. In any case, if little or no litter is used, greater care must be taken of the liquid part of the manure, which is more easily wasted, because there is nothing to absorb it. Folding sheep is another way of applying the excrement of farm animals to the surface of the land. The system of folding sheep on roots and other forage crops is most common, and in this case the land is enriched by the addition of dry food to the ration the sheep are given, and also by the organic matter which the crop has stored up during its growth. One important point to notice is that the manure is applied to the soil with the least possible loss. Occasionally another system of folding is adopted, namely, that of keeping the sheep on poor arable, land during the night, the food being supplied during the day. In this way the flock becomes the carrier of manure from the land on which it is fed to the fallows on which it is folded, and the enrichment of the one takes place at the expense of the other. A good dressing of manure applied in this way is given by keeping on the land 1200 to 1500 sheep per acre for one night. The converse of this plan is sometimes adopted, though it does not come strictly under the head of folding. The sheep are then used as carriers of manure to the inaccessible parts of the farm, to which the expense of carting ordinary manure would be too great. CHAPTER XIV SEWAGE AND OTHER GENERAL MANURES Sewage. — The demand for the proper purification of sewage is becoming continually greater, and it is also felt to be a matter of importance that the fertilising material contained in the sewage should be utilised in some way for the production of food for man or for farm animals. The amount of this valuable material is not inconsiderable, as will be seen by reference to the following table : — Table XXXI. Composition of Sewage from Various Sources in Parts per 100,000. No. I» 100,000 Parts. § . J" O EH e o % o o 1 o a at M o u a I c "8 O e 1 4 g-d IS *1 13 .— Seed of Cocks- foot magnified . Special care should therefore be taken to keep it closely grazed, or, if it is made into hay, to cut it early in its growth. It is, however, better fitted for grazing than for cutting. It pro- duces a considerable number of leaves early in the season, and indeed will frequently continue its growth almost all through the winter. This is per- haps partly due to the shelter given to the roots by the sheaths about the base of the stems. Owing to its strong habit of growth it will succeed fairly well under trees, and almost always where trees occur in grass land cocksfoot will be found forming the greater part of the turf under their shade. It is therefore sometimes called orchard grass, owing to its com- mon occurrence in orchards. Crested Dog's-tail (Cynosurus cris- tatus). — This is rather a small grass, which produces a number of fine stems, carrying compact seed-heads of a spike-like nature (Fig. 28, No. 2). It is rather tufted in its growth, the base of the stem is of a yellow colour, and the leaves springing from the root have a crisp texture, are stiff, and usually curving upwards, are broad at the base, and taper rapidly to the point, and have very distinct ribbing on the face, while the back is smooth and shining. The seed is usually small and thick, slightly curved towards the point and terminating in a very short awn (Fig. 30). It is of a distinctly yellow colour, this alone being a ready means of identification. Crested dog's-tail is a native of dry, chalky, or stony fields, occurring both in pastures and meadows. On such soils it is of considerable value, particularly as food for sheep. For cattle, however, Dog's-tail the leaves lie rather too closely on the ground to m&%m allow of their cropping them off very closely. For the same reason, in rich moist soils the plant occupies too much space in proportion to its produce. Another disadvantage of this Seed Fig. 31.— 1, Meadow Fescue. 2, Hard Fescue. 2SS AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. Fig. 32, — Seed of Meadow Fescue mag- nified. / grass is that the stem becomes wiry very early in its growth, so that stock refuse it, and consequently it is almost always able to ripen its seed and there- fore continually increases in proportion to other plants. Meadow Fescue (Festiica i pratensis). — This is perhaps \ one of the most important \ grasses commonly grown. The ) seed-head is branching, and the *l spikelets are long, and fre- ' quently contain 6 or 8 florets (Fig. 31, Xo. 1). The base of the stem at the ground level is of a bright red colour, and the blades of the leaf are ribbed on the face and shining and smooth on the back, tapering gradually for almost the whole of their length. This tapering is much more gradual than in the case of crested dog's-tail, and the texture of the leaf is not so stiff as in that grass. The blade is somewhat keeled and slightly V-shaped in section. The seed is about the same size as cocksfoot, sometimes rather larger, but is less keeled in shape, and is usually less sharp-pointed at the top of the seed. If it is examined closely five veins will be found at the back ; but these are usually not very distinct except near the point. Attached to the base of the seed, lying along its face, is a small stalk or pedicel, which in the complete spikelet serves to support the next seed. This is fto. an important means of distinguishing the meadow fescue seed from that of other plants. It is cylindrical, of about the same thickness throughout, and usually stands out somewhat from the face of the seed (Fig. 32). The seed is very commonly adulterated with that of perennial rye grass {Lolium perennt), which will be Seed of Soft Brome magni- fied. xxvn GRASSES 289 described later on, and the soft brome (Bromus mollis) (Fig. 33), and the rye brome grass (Bromus secalinus), which are both awned. Meadow fescue grows best in moist land of a medium texture. On dry soils it only gives moderate produce, but except in very sandy land it is still a useful plant to grow. It produces a large amount of leaf of very high feeding value, and stock will readily eat even the stems. It pro- duces a very close bottom growth or sole in grass land, and is therefore perhaps better for grazing than for cutting to hay. Tall Fescue (Festuca elatior). — By many botanists this is considered a variety of the meadow fescue, and it is chiefly distinguished from that plant by its larger size and stronger, coarser habit of growth. It forms large tufts in pastures, from which tall, coarse stems rise, carrying a large, spreading seed-head like that of meadow fescue. The stem is of a rich red colour at the base, and the leaves are dark green in colour, are rough and coarse, markedly ribbed on the face, glossy and smooth on the back, and tapering rapidly all the way from the base to the tip. The seed is also very similar to that of meadow fescue, but is furnished with a short awn, and is usually slightly split or forked at the point. Tall fescue will succeed in rather moist soils, particularly on stiff clays. Owing to its coarse appearance farmers often object to its presence in grass land ; but it is a most valu- able grass, and stock eat it very readily and thrive well upon it. Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina). — This is a very small plant which grows in close, compact tufts. The seed-head is small and spreading, the spikelets being sharp-pointed and sometimes slightly awned. The stems are very fine and the leaves are narrow and bristle-like, being closely folded down the mid-rib. The sheath is tufted or split for the whole of its length, this serving as a distinction between the sheep's fescue and the various-leaved and creeping fescues. The seed is small and sharp-pointed, slightly roughened at the edges of its coverings and towards the top. The soil which suits sheep's fescue best is of a light, dry character, as, for instance, on chalk downs or sandy or rocky upland pastures. As its name implies, it is a useful food for sheep, but its 290 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. growth is too small and too close to the ground to allow of its being grazed economically by cattle. For the same reason also it is useless for mowing. It should therefore only be grown on the kind of soil naturally suited to it, as on better land other plants will give a larger produce. Hard Fescue (Festuca duriuscida). — This is sometimes considered as a sub-variety of the sheep's fescue. Many botanists, however, distinguish between them ; but from an agricultural point of view they are very similar. Hard fescue is stronger in its growth than sheep's fescue, still retaining the tufted habit and having a very similar seed- head ; but it is always distinctly awned, the awns being longer than they ever are in sheep's fescue (Fig. 31, No. 2). The leaves are long and narrow, but are softer in texture than those of sheep's fescue, and those rising from the stem are comparatively broad and flat. The seed is like that of sheep's fescue, but is usually larger, and is distinctly awned. This plant is not so suitable for very dry situations as the sheep's fescue, though it will grow fairly well in upland pastures. On moist, deep soils, however, it attains its maximum development, and is very useful in forming the sole or bottom of the pasture, and filling up the spaces between the larger, stronger-growing plants. In its feeding properties it is a valuable plant, and if cut fairly early it produces hay of good quality. It soon becomes woody, however, and is then of very little value. The Various - leaved Fescue (Festuca heterophylld). — This is also sometimes regarded as a variety of sheep's fescue, but it is rather different in some of its characters, and may therefore be considered separately. It also grows in a tufted manner, but is stronger and taller in its growth than either of the last two plants mentioned. The seed- head is larger and more spreading, and is usually more droop- ing in character. The leaves which spring from the root are permanently folded down the mid-rib, and are hard and brist- ling in texture. The leaves on the stem are flat and slightly haired on the upper surface. They also exhibit the same appearance as the meadow fescue, namely, they are ribbed on the upper surface, and are shining and smooth on the lower. The sheath is entire except just in its upper part, that is, it forms a kind of tube surrounding the same. The GRASSES 291 seed is long and narrow, and carries an awn of about the same length as itself. The stalk or pedicel is also long, often nearly half the length of the seed, and if closely examined with a strong magnifying glass is seen to be slightly haired. The various-leaved fescue grows best on medium soils, particularly if they contain a large quantity of humus. Under such conditions it is able to withstand drought well and to give a large produce, but on naturally dry soils, such as sands, it does badly and is not truly permanent. In permanent grass it serves the same purpose as hard fescue in filling up the spaces between the larger plants and in forming the sole of the pasture. Creeping Fescue (Festuca rubra), red fescue or purple fescue. — This plant is much less tufted in its growth than the other small fescues already mentioned, owing to its creeping habit of growth, long stolons extending from the top of the root all through the surface soil, sending up small loose tufts of leaves at intervals. In other respects the plant is very similar to hard fescue. The leaves, which rise direct from the root, are narrow and bristle-like ; those on the stem are flat and slightly haired on the upper surface, also exhibiting the common character of the fescues — the ribbed upper side, and shining and smooth lower surface. The seeds are slightly less conspicuously awned than those of hard fescue, and are usually rather thicker in proportion to their length. It is, however, very difficult, sometimes impossible, to distinguish the two seeds. This plant grows best on rather light soils, which allow of a very free development of its creeping stolons. It suc- ceeds well in shallow soils, not being at all deep-rooted, but does not withstand drought well in very dry soils. It is not a plant worthy of general cultivation, but is useful in upland pastures and in moorland districts. Upright Brome (Bromus erectus). — This is a strong-grow- ing plant, sometimes rather creeping in habit, with tall, smooth stems, carrying a branched but not spreading seed- head. The spikelets are long and narrow, and furnished with awns. The leaf, and often the stem, is finely covered with long whitish hairs, which are most conspicuous on the edges of the blade of the leaf, and incline upwards. The 292 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ch. xxvii seeds are long and narrow, with a little short hair on the back, and a rough awn not more than half the length of the seed itself, which springs from the back of the seed, not from the point. The top of the seed is divided and slightly flattened. This plant occurs only on dry soils, particularly on those of the chalk and some of the oolitic limestones. It is of very little value, as stock will usually refuse to eat it if other food is obtainable. On very dry soils, particularly if shallow, it is perhaps sometimes useful, though it is not ever a plant to be encouraged in grass land. Barren Brome (Bromus sterilis).- — This plant is distin- guished by its very fine wiry stem and wide-spreading seed- head. The spikelets also are long and narrow, and furnished with long, fine awns. The leaves are short, and covered with short, stiff hair. The seeds are long and narrow, with the awn about twice their own length, and the top of the seed is distinctly divided into two sharp prominences. The barren brome occurs chiefly on waste land, and is an indication of poverty or exhaustion of the soil. It is only found in grass land on the poorest sands and dry, rocky soils. It is of no value for feeding purposes, and is therefore not a plant for cultivation. The Rye Brome (Bromus secalinus). — This is a plant of rather large size, which has a spreading seed -head with rather large, flattened spikelets. The leaves of the plant are rather similar to those of the upright brome. The seed is large and broad, and carries an awn about its own length. It is sometimes a troublesome weed on arable land, particu- larly occurring in corn crops, but is not usually to be found in permanent grass land. The Soft Brome (Bromus mollis). — This is rather similar to the last-mentioned plant, but is smaller in its growth, and softer and more downy in its general character. The spike- lets are soft and covered closely with hair, and are distinctly awned (Fig. 34, No. 1). The whole plant, both stem and leaves, is covered with rather coarse hair, and the edges of the leaf are downwards rough, that is, feel rough when the fingers are drawn down the leaf from the point towards the base. The seed is rather flat and carries an awn which rises from the mid-rib of the pale, a short distance from the point. Fig. 34. — 1, Soft Brome. £, Yellow Oat Grass. 3, Creeping Wheat Grass. U, Perennial Eye Grass. 294 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. The soft brome, though occurring commonly under all conditions, is a sign of poverty or exhaustion if present in large quantity. Its seed is, however, a common adulterant or impurity in those of other grasses, and it is therefore frequently introduced unintentionally into pastures, both temporary and permanent. As a feeding stuff it is of little or no value, as stock will never eat it if other food is obtainable. Wild Oat (Avena fatua). — This plant is rather similar to the cultivated oat in its general appearance, but is smaller and produces less leaf in proportion to its size. The seed- head is wide and spreading, the glumes or outer cover of the spikelets being very large, and containing two or three seeds. The seeds are like oats of thin, coarse quality, and they are furnished with a long, twisted, and bent awn, about twice the length of the seed. There is a good deal of long, conspicuous hair about the base of the seed. This plant grows in all kinds of soil, and is a common arable weed, hut is not able to hold its own in competition with other grasses, so that it seldom, if ever, occurs in pastures. Stock seem to relish the plant, but owing to its small bulk it is not worth cultivating. Downy Oat Grass (Avena pubescens). — The seed-head of this plant is finer and more feathery in appearance than that of the wild oat, the spikelets being much smaller, and the whole plant, leaf and stem, is covered with close hairing, from which its common name is derived. The blade of the leaf is not ribbed, but has two median lines similar to those described as occurring on the leaves of the meadow grasses. The seeds are rather like those of the wild oat, but are much smaller. The downy oat grass occurs commonly in dry, upland pastures, particularly on chalk or limestone soils. Stock do not care for the plant, and will refuse it if possible. It is therefore not worth cultivating. Yellow Oat Grass (Avena flavescens). — This is a smaller plant than the last two mentioned, and grows in a very erect manner. The seed-head is branching, and has a stiff, brist- ling appearance (Fig. 34, No. 2). It is readily recognised by its light green colour in the early stages of growth, and its golden or yellow colour as the seed matures, from which the name " yellow " or " golden oat grass " is derived. Both GRASSES 295 the blades of the leaves and the sheaths are covered with fine, soft hair, and are usually of a light yellowish -green colour. The seed is brownish -yellow, having a peculiar membranous appearance, owing to the thin texture of the seed covering. It is divided at the point, and carries a fine, twisted, and bent awn. The pedicel or stalk of the seed is covered with rather long, fine hair, springing out evenly from its sides. It is frequently adulterated with the seed of the wavy hair grass, and may be distinguished from it by the fact that in the wavy hair grass seed there is hairing round the base of the seed itself, and a tuft of hair springing out on each side of the base of the stalk, but not extending up its whole length. The seed usually has a very low germi- nating power. The yellow oat grass grows commonly on dry soils, particu- larly if they contain a good deal of lime. It also succeeds well on sandy soils, on which it is one of the most important plants occurring in grass land. It forms a large number of stems, but in spite of this cattle eat it readily, and apparently do not object to the hair which covers it as much as they do in the case of most hairy grasses. It is perhaps more valuable for sheep than for cattle, but it is also a good grass for making into hay. Meadow Barley Grass {Hordeum pratense).- — The seed- head of this plant is similar to that of four or six-rowed barley, but is much smaller, the spikelets being less per- fectly developed. It produces narrow hairy leaves, rather rough in texture, but does not generally produce any large quantity of fodder. On rich, moist soils it does better, and is readily eaten by all kinds of stock; but in dry soils, where it is more frequently found, its value is very slight, and the stiffness and coarseness of the awns make it an injurious food for live stock, especially if given to them as hay. Its chief use is for feeding early in the year, when quite soft and succulent, and this is particularly the case because its growth takes place early in the season. Creeping Wheat Grass (Triticum repens), also called "couch," "cooch," "twitch," "wicks," "quicks," and a number of other similar names. This plant has a markedly creeping habit of growth, the greater part of the plant usu- ally being underground. It spreads by means of stolons 296 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. through the surface soil, sending out roots at the nodes, and occasionally sending a shoot up into the air. The propor- tion of leaf is very small. The seed-head consists of a central stem, with spikelets placed alternately upon it, the side of the spikelet being next the central stem (Fig. 34, No. 3). The leaf is usually dark in colour, very slightly haired, particularly about the junction of the sheath and blade, and with a very short ligule, which, if examined with a magnifying glass, is seen to be furnished with a row of very short, fine teeth at the edge. The creeping wheat grass occurs commonly in all parts of the country and in all kinds of soil, and forms one of the most troublesome arable weeds. It is on light, free-working soils that it extends most rapidly through the surface soil, doing great harm by exhausting the soil and tending to choke out the cultivated crops. It does not occur in per- manent grass land, as it is usually kept in check by the ordinary grasses. It is most difficult to get rid of, as the creeping stems, if broken, begin to spread again at once, and each knot is capable of forming a point of growth. Bearded Wheat Grass or Dog Wheat {Triticwm caninwm). — This plant is very similar to the creeping wheat grass, but occurs in rather more sheltered situations, being fre- quently found in woods. The lower surface of the blade is much rougher, and if the blade be held up to the light and examined with a lens, a number of white lines will be seen running all down the leaf. The seed carries a long awn, which serves as a convenient distinction between the two plants. This plant has been recommended for cultivation, but it is of low value, and, except in plantations, is certainly not worth sowing. Heath False Brome (Braehypodium pinnatum). — This is not usually an important grass, but occurs commonly in pastures of the limestone formations. It is a tall plant, having a seed-head rather like that of the creeping wheat grass, but longer, with greater space between the spikelets, and the spikelets themselves longer and narrower. The leaves are very slightly ribbed, and both the blade and sheath are covered with hair. In feeding value this plant does not stand particularly high, and in most situations might be replaced by other grasses with advantage. GRASSES 297 Perennial Eye Grass (Lolium perenne). — The seed-head of this plant consists of a central stem or axis, with the spikelets set alternately at either side of it, somewhat like the creeping wheat grass ; but the spikelets are set with their edges turned towards the central stem instead of their sides (Fig. 34, No. 4). The base of the stem is of a red colour, and the leaves are dark green, distinctly ribbed on the upper surface, and shining and smooth on the back, having very much the same appearance as the blades of meadow fescue. They may be distinguished, however, by Pio. 35.— Seed of Perennial Eye Grass Pro. 36.— Seed of Pio. 37.— Seed of Buttercup magnified. . Dock magnified. magnified. being more markedly keeled, and by being of the same width for about two-thirds of their length, after which they taper rapidly to the point. The seed is also very like that of meadow fescue, and is distinguished from it by the pedicel or stalk, which in the rye grass is flattened and rather wider at the top than at the base. It also rests closely against the seed (Fig. 35). The weight per bushel of rye-grass seed is usually 24 to 28 lbs. ; if much lighter than this it probably contains some impurity. The most common impurities are the seeds of Yorkshire fog, soft brome, and rib grass (Plantago lanceo- lata). Other kinds of bromes frequently occur, and the seeds of the dock (Bwmex obtusifolius) (Fig. 36), the sorrel, and varieties of the buttercup (Ranunculus) (Fig. 37). Perennial rye grass grows well under almost all conditions, 298 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. succeeding best, however, in medium or heavy land, particu- larly if moist in character. It is then a true perennial; but in dry soils or dry climates it gradually dies out or maintains its position by seeding itself. Different varieties of the plant also vary very greatly in their value, some, as for instance what is sold under the name of annual rye grass, only producing one crop, and being therefore unfitted for permanent pastures. It is a valuable plant, growing thick and producing good bottom in grass land, while its feeding value is considerable. A good deal of discussion has taken place at various times with regard to the value of the plant, and it has been shown that it frequently occurs in large quantities in first-rate pastures. It is probable, how- ever, that where soil and climate will allow of the growth of such grasses as meadow foxtail, timothy, meadow fescue, etc., rye grass should not be sown in large quantities. It has a great tendency to run to seed, and by so doing to exhaust its strength, after which it is likely to die out or at any rate diminish in produce. Italian Rye Grass (Lolium italicum). — This plant is an annual or biennial, and so is only suitable for growth in temporary pastures. It is strong and rank in its habit, forming large conspicuous .tufts, and is very similar to perennial rye grass, but on a larger scale. The seed-head is similar, except for the fact that the spikelets are awned ; the stem has the same red colour at the base, and the leaf is ribbed on the upper side, and shining and smooth on the lower. The keel of the blade, however, is less marked than in perennial rye grass, and the leaf is flatter and broader. Before it opens, the blade is rolled in the sheath, making the stem approximately round, whereas in perennial rye grass the leaves are folded in the sheath and the stem is more flattened. The colour of the plant is rather lighter. The seed is like that of perennial rye grass, but usually rather lighter, and furnished with an awn nearly as long as the seed itself. The common impurities occurring in Italian rye-grass seed are the same as those in that of perennial rye grass, viz. Yorkshire fog, soft brome, rib grass, dock, sorrel, and the buttercup. There is also frequently an admixture of perennial rye-grass seed. Italian rye grass grows well on almost all soils, preferring, GRASSES 299 however, rather moist, warm loams. It is specially noted for its rapidity of growth and for producing a large quantity of food for stock early in the spring. It is also particularly suited for irrigation and is one of the most common crops for use on sewage farms (see page 126). Though it is commonly a biennial in this country, if it is kept constantly grazed or is always cut very early in its growth it will last longer than if it is allowed to form seed. Owing to its tufted habit of growth it is commonly sown with other plants, often with clover or hop trefoil, but then it often happens that the rye grass ripens before they are ready and therefore becomes woody and of small value before it is made into hay. For grazing, however, there is not the same disadvantage, and a mixed crop will then usually produce more fodder than Italian rye grass alone. CHAPTEE XXVIII THE LEGUMINOUS AND MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS FOUND IN GBASS LAND Broad Ked Clover {Trifolium pratense). — This is a plant, annual or biennial in its growth, which is largely used for temporary leys. The flowers vary in colour from almost purple to pale pink, and are massed together to form oval or rounded flower-heads. The stems are of a green colour throughout and carry very little hair, except on the leaf- stalks, and even there chiefly in the young plant. The stems are usually hollow, but not invariably. The leaves, like those of other members of the genus Trifolium, are composed of three leaflets, which are large and broad, haired all over in the younger stages of the plant's growth, but later only slightly haired at the edges, with a clear white marking on the centre of each leaflet. The stipules, or appendages at the base of the leaf-stalk, are long-pointed and of a membranous character, green-veined, and with long, conspicuous hairs towards the point. Broad Bed The root is thick and less fibrous than that of clover mag- any of the clovers. The habit of growth of the plant generally is rather loose and un- branched. The seed is rounded and oblong, slightly flattened, and varies in colour from purple or red to yellow (Fig. 38). The proportion of yellow seeds, however, should not be large, as they rarely germinate so well as the darker ones. In any case, except in German or Eussian seed, a brownish shade of colour is to be avoided, for either the seed has been harvested in bad weather or it is old seed, of a previous season's chap, xxvin RED CLOVER 301 growth. In either case its germinating power is likely to be low. Common impurities occurring in the seed are the seeds of various kinds of crane's-bill, as, for instance, the jagged- leaved crane's-bill {Geranium dissectum), which are oval in shape and smooth ; the seed of the dock, which is angular and three-sided, pointed at each end, and smooth and glossy, varying in colour from yellowish to almost black ; the seed of rib grass, of the red and white campion {Lychnis diurna and L. vespitina), and of the knap weed {Centaurea nigra). It is also often adulterated with the seed of hop trefoil, from which it may be distinguished by the absence of the pro- jecting tip of the radicle visible in the trefoil seed. There are many kinds of broad red clover used in this country, which vary to some extent in their characters. Probably the best is the English clover, which is hardy and gives a large produce. The seed, if well harvested, is usually of a reddish-purple colour. The Canadian has been used a good deal of late years, and also grows remarkably well, having the habit of making little progress till later than the English clover, but growing very fast when the warm weather fairly begins. The seed is usually of a very bluish-purple colour, individual seeds being either purple or yellow, com- paratively little red seed occurring. Clover seed is also imported from the United States, producing plants rather more hairy than those of the English clover, but apparently not quite so hardy. French clover is also grown in this country, but if brought from the south of France it is very delicate, though the seed produced in the north will succeed quite well in our climate. German and Kussian clover seeds are also imported, and though they frequently grow fairly well, are usually of a brownish colour. One kind, Silesian, is intermediate in its characters between the broad-ribbed clover and the perennial red, which will be next described, being more lasting than the true broad red and later in flowering. Perennial Red Clover {Trifolium pratense perenne). — This plant is usually called cow grass by seedsmen and farmers, though there is some confusion about the term, which has been applied by botanists to another plant. Perennial red clover is very similar to broad red clover, and individual specimens are not always distinguishable. In its habit of 302 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. growth it is usually more branched and not quite so tall as broad red clover ; the root is more fibrous, and the stem solid and more hairy. It also frequently has a red line running its entire length. The flowers are darker in colour and appear some weeks later in the year than those of broad red clover. The leaflets are narrow, of a darker colour, the white marking being less defined or sometimes absent. They are also more thickly haired. The stipules are longer and narrower, though otherwise similar to those of broad red clover. The seed is like that of broad red clover, and cannot be accurately distinguished. It should, therefore, be bought only from a reliable seedsman, as the difference in price offers every inducement to a fraudulent dealer to sub- stitute broad red clover seed for that of cow grass. Cow grass gives a rather heavier cutting than broad red clover, and is therefore used in rotations in some districts, particu- larly in Berkshire and Hampshire. It gives little or no second crop, . however, so that probably broad red clover gives the largest produce in the year. Cow grass is hardier than broad red clover and is rather less liable to clover sickness. It may therefore often be grown where broad red clover would fail. Cow grass is commonly used for sowing in mixtures of seeds for permanent pastures, but it is not usually found in large quantity in grass land. Zig-zag Clover {Trifolium medium), also called marl clover or marl grass, and sometimes cow grass. — The general appearance of this plant is very similar to that of perennial red clover, but it is smaller and distinctly zig-zag in the stem, which bends at each knot ; the flower-head is rather oblong and less compact than that of perennial red clover, and the leaves are narrower, and are not marked with white. The root gives us, however, the most distinctive point of difference, for it is creeping. The seed is rarely sown in- tentionally, the plant occurs naturally in many old pastures, where, mixed with other plants, it is very useful, being a true perennial. It is most common on rather cold clays and in soils containing a good deal of organic matter, attaining its largest development under the latter con- ditions. In its produce it is smaller than perennial or broad red clover. White Clover (Trifolium repens) or Dutch clover. This xxviii WHITE CLOVER 303 is a perennial plant, -with a large tap-root, from the top of which a number of creeping stems spring, which, resting on the surface of the ground, send up leaves into the air and rootlets into the soil. The plant is thus able to with- stand all conditions of weather, in times of drought drawing moisture from the subsoil by means of its main root, while in very wet seasons the main root is of little use to it, and it feeds by means of its surface roots. The leaves are com- posed of three leaflets, which are rather broad and distinctly marked with white in the centre. The leaf-stalks are rather long and ribbed ; the flower-heads are round, consisting of white flowers, which, however, have a distinctly brownish tint. The flower-stems are sufficiently long to carry the flowers above the level of the leaves. The seed is much smaller than that of red clover, more irregular in shape, and of a yellowish or brownish colour (Fig. 39). Good samples are usually of a bright yellow, but if injured by the weather in the process of harvesting, or if they have been kept for any length of time, they are darker, seedofwhit. One of the commonest impurities is the seed of Clover mag- the sheep sorrel (Bumex acetosella), a small seed, ni e ' similar in shape and colour to that of the dock, but of almost exactly the same size as white clover seed. It is therefore difficult to separate it from the clover seed, but it is easily distinguished by its glossy, shining surface, which can be readily seen amongst the comparatively dull seeds of the clover. The seeds of knot grass {Polygonum aviculare) and other members of the genus Polygonum also occur, being of about the same size as white clover seed, but pear-shaped and rather flattened. They are also usually of a grayish- brown colour, quite different from that of the clover. The seed of timothy and that of rib grass also frequently occur. White clover is chiefly useful for grazing purposes, its creeping habit of growth making it unsuitable for cutting to hay. It is particularly good for sheep when mixed with other plants ; if used by itself the sheep must be put on it with great care at first. In very dry, poor soils its growth is always very small, but by manuring, or liming in some cases, it may be so much encouraged as to cause a common belief that liming the land produces the clover. 304 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AXD SCIENTIFIC chap. White clover grows commonly in grass land by the road- sides, but the cultivated variety, the seed of -which is usually sold by seedsmen, is much larger and stronger in its growth than that occurring naturally in waste places. Alsike {Trifolium hybridum) or Swedish clover. — The appearance of this plant is intermediate between that of red clover and white clover, and it has been considered by some botanists to be a cross between the two, hence its systematic name. The stem rests on the ground for a short distance and then rises into the air. It is but little branched, is smooth and hollow ; the flowers are of a pinkish-white colour, never having the brown tint observed in white clover until withering takes place. The leaflets are like those of white clover, but rather larger, and rather sharper-pointed. The stipules or appendages at the base of the leaf-stalk are very conspicuous, and wrap entirely round the main stem, and are not quite so sharp-pointed as in red clover. The seed is like that of white clover in size and shape, but is of a dark green colour. If almost black, as sometimes occurs, the seed has probably been badly harvested or has been kept too long. It is sometimes artificially coloured, and this may be detected by moistening the seed and rubbing it between the folds of a white cloth, when, if it has been artificially coloured, the cloth will be stained. The com- mon impurities occurring in the seed are similar to those mentioned in the case of white clover, with the addition of the seed of the clover dodder (Cuscuta trifolii), a parasitic plant which is sometimes very injurious to clover crops. This seed is rather smaller than that of alsike, rounded in shape, and of a grayish-brown colour. Alsike is a very hardy plant, growing sometimes at great elevations, and having great power of resisting cold or wet. It does not, however, do well in times of drought, yielding only a very small produce. It is much less liable to clover sickness than other kinds of clover, and is consequently often employed where other clovers would fail. It will succeed well on irrigated land, and is, in fact, the only clover well suited for such a situation. It has one disad- vantage owing to its habit of growth, namely, that on damp soils, where the crop grows thick, it is very liable to rot at the bottom, owing to the fact that the stem lies flat on the HOP CLOVER 305 surface of the ground for some little distance before rising into the air. It must, therefore, be cut rather early in moist soils and seasons. Suckling Clover (Trifoliwm minus) or yellow clover. — This is an annual plant occurring naturally on many soils, maintaining its position by constantly seeding itself. It is very small, having a slender stem, small leaflets, and small heads of yellow flowers very similar to those of hop trefoil, but which, on examination with a glass, show the calyx tubes free from hair. When the flower withers the petals still remain on the plant, thus forming another distinction between the suckling clover and hop trefoil. The seed is about- the same size as that of white clover, but is round in shape, and shining and glossy. Suckling clover grows naturally on dry, rocky soils, particularly those containing a good deal of lime, and on such land is very useful, as other larger plants will not generally succeed. It is best used as a pasture plant, as it often keeps growing throughout the season ; but if cut to hay it yields no second crop. Hop Clover (Trifoliwm procumbens). — This must be dis- tinguished from the hop trefoil (Medicago Itcpulina), which is also sometimes called " hop clover." The true hop clover is a larger plant than the suckling clover, more spreading in its growth, with a larger, looser flower-head, the flowers being of a lighter yellow, but also having a calyx free from hair. When the flower withers the petals remain adhering to the plant, and the supposed resemblance of the flower- heads at this stage to hops gives the plant the name " hop clover." Like the preceding clover, it is useful in very dry pastures, particularly those resting on limestone, where it grows well, but it is seldom sown intentionally. Bird's -foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). — This plant occurs naturally in most pastures in the country, and is distinguished by its flower-head, which consists of usually less than half a dozen yellow flowers, frequently tinged with red and sometimes green. They form a crown about the top of the flower-stalk, sticking out from it at right angles. When the flowering is over, long conspicuous seed-pods are produced, and the supposed resemblance of these to the foot of a bird gives the common name to the plant. The x 306 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. stem is angular and free from hair, and the root is spindle- shaped and branches very little, and the main stem which rises from it is very short, but produces a number of branches, some of which ascend directly into the air, while others rest on the ground for some little distance. These stems, however, never root into the soil. The leaves are small and are composed of fine leaflets, of which the lowest pair is very small. The leaflets are dark green on the upper side, and a bluish-green colour below. The seed is rounded and of a brown colour, being a little smaller than turnip seed. The seed of another species of this genus is also sold in the market, the marsh bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus uliginosus), and is useful, as its name implies, for growth in wet places. Its seed is a good deal smaller than that of the common bird's-foot trefoil, and is of a greenish colour, though with an admixture of yellow seeds. Other varieties are also sometimes met with that are not of much importance. Bird's-foot trefoil is very useful in permanent grass lands as making bottom growth, either for mowing or depasturing. It is, however, never sown by itself, as the produce is not sufficiently great ; and it is not often sown in mixtures for permanent grass, as it occurs naturally in moist soils. It specially suits soils containing a good deal of lime, but it does not yield a large produce if the climate be dry. It is a very hardy plant, being often found growing naturally at great elevations, and will yield satisfactory produce on very poor land. When it is used in a green state it should be cut or fed a little before flowering time, for it is said that the colouring matter of the flowers is bitter to the taste, and is not relished by stock. For haymaking, however, it should be in full flower, as it then has its maximum feeding value. Meadow Vetchling (Lathyrus pratensis) or everlasting pea. — The general appearance of this plant is rather similar to that of the cultivated vetch; but the whole plant is smaller and finer in its growth, and the flowers are yellow and grow several together in a head. The leaves are narrower, but like those of the vetch in terminating in tendrils. The plant is perennial, flowering usually in June ; but it lasts well into the autumn, yielding a moderate produce. It is not grown by itself, as it does not yield a xxvni PARASITES OF CLOVERS 307 sufficient crop for the purpose ; but it is very useful grown with other plants, as its creeping habit of growth enables it to fill up the spaces between the other plants, and thicken the crop considerably. It grows naturally on dry, calcareous soils, for, owing to its deep root, it is able to withstand drought. Before considering the miscellaneous plants growing in grass land a word must be said with regard to two parasitic plants injurious to clovers and other leguminous crops. The clover dodder (Guscuta trifolii) forms a tangled growth of small stems or tendrils, wrapping closely round the stems and leaves of the clover, and sending suckers into the tissues of the clover wherever they touch it. The dodder, which sends no roots into the soil and has no leaves, thus lives entirely upon the clover plant, and so gradually destroys it. The dodder forms patches surrounding every centre from which growth commences, and thus rapidly extends until a great part of the crop may be destroyed. Though at first green and not very noticeable, the dodder afterwards becomes of a yellow or brownish colour. When the attack has commenced the affected patches should be cut as closely as possible, and the clover and dodder carried away and, if possible, destroyed. The surface soil should also be dug over, so as to prevent further growth of dodder, and great care must be taken to prevent seed being formed by the parasite. In no case should the crop affected by dodder be allowed to stand for the production of seed. The second parasite to be mentioned is broom rape (Orobanche minor), a plant which sends up a spike of flowers of a brownish -purple colour, growing apparently separate from the clover plant. If the roots of the plant are examined, however, it will be found that the broom rape has attached itself to the roots of the clover, though not very firmly. The inj nry done by broom rape is not usually so great as that done by dodder. Passing on to the miscellaneous plants occurring in grass land, one of the most important is — Rib Grass (Plantago lanceolate/) or narrow - leaved plantain. The flower-head of this plant is a small, compact spike, black in colour except at flowering time, when it puts out a number of stamens of a purplish colour. The flower- 308 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. stalk is ribbed, and the leaves, which are rather narrow, are also ribbed conspicuously in the direction of their length. The seed is brownish in colour, rather long and narrow, and with a groove or channel running down one side, somewhat resembling a grain of wheat in shape, though a good deal longer in proportion. Eib grass grows freely on light soils, and does well in dry climates. It also succeeds well in high, exposed situa- tions. It is commonly sown in permanent mixtures ; but it is not a very good plant for the purpose under most con- ditions, for, owing to the fact that the leaves lie almost flat on the ground, stock are unable to graze the plant closely, and it occupies a large amount of space compared with the produce it yields. For meadows it is less objectionable, as, growing amongst tall plants, the leaves are drawn upwards, and do not occupy so much of the surface. It has this disadvantage, however, for making into hay, that it takes a long time to dry, and becomes of a black colour in drying, to some extent injuring the appearance of the hay when made. Its feeding value is, however, high, and its presence in a sample of hay is no disadvantage for feeding purposes. Burnet {Poterium sanguisorba). — This plant is common in pastures, particularly on soils containing a large quantity of organic matter and some lime. It also is commonly found on limestone land. In general appearance the im- mature plant is sometimes mistaken for sainfoin ; but though the leaves consist of a number of leaflets arranged in the same way as those of sainfoin, the leaflets are of a lighter colour, much broader in proportion to their length, and are toothed at the margin, while the leaflets of sainfoin are entire. The flower-head of burnet is a small, compact spike, usually green or black in colour, except just at flowering time, rather inconspicuous, and altogether different from that of sainfoin. The seed, which is a common adulterant of rough sainfoin, is of a light brownish tint, roughly four- sided and pointed at each end, and covered on all sides with small, jagged points, quite different from the even network covering the husk of sainfoin. Burnet has been used to some extent as a forage crop, but its growth has never been general. It is, however, eaten readily by sheep, and appar- ently with good results. SHEEP'S PARSLEY 309 Yarrow {Achillea millefolia) or milfoil. On light, dry soils, particularly those containing lime, this plant is found commonly. It is deep-rooted, and spreads by stolons below the surface of the soil. The flower-head, which consists of a number of flowers, is white or pinkish, and appears usually about the end of June or later. The leaves are of a very dark green colour, long and narrow, and very finely divided or cut, thus giving the name of milfoil to the plant. The seed is small and rather flattened, and of a silvery colour. It very often has only low germinating power, and is ex- pensive. In consequence of this yarrow is often omitted in mixtures for permanent grass land ; but where sheep are kept in large numbers it is a useful plant, for these animals can graze the plant well in spite of its habit of growing close to the ground. It has an aromatic smell, which apparently is likgd by stock, and it is useful, therefore, as a flavouring matter mixed with other kinds of fodder. Sheep's Parsley (Petiroselinwm sativum). — This plant resembles the ordinary cultivated parsley very closely, but has not quite such a finely-divided and curled leaf as that variety. It is not quite permanent, and should not there- fore be sown in large quantities in permanent mixtures ; but it is useful as giving a flavour to other plants with which it may be growing, and sheep are particularly fond of it. CHAPTER XXIX TBMPOEAET AND PEKMANENT GRASS LAND Temporary Grass Land. — It has been stated in the chapter dealing with rotation of crops that mixtures of grasses and clovers are usually grown in some part of the rotation, and this is particularly convenient as it increases the amount of grass land available either for mowing or depasturing. When the crop has to remain down for one year, less care is needed in the selection of plants to suit the conditions, but for longer periods great care is required in choosing the kind of plant that is adapted to the soil, climate, and situation, and to sow the seed in the quantity necessary to give the best result. Thus, for a one-year ley quick-growing, bulky plants are chiefly employed, so that a full yield of forage may be obtained, but for leys for longer periods, particularly for three years or more, plants maturing more slowly may be employed, in order to maintain the pasture in a thick and free-growing condition until the time comes for breaking it up. Besides choosing plants suited to the conditions of soil and climate, it is also necessary to think of the purpose for which the seed is sown, for if a crop has to be mown, upright plants are required. If, on the other hand, the crop has to be grazed, plants having a creeping habit of growth may be employed to a great extent to fill up the spaces between the more upright plants. The following table gives a number of examples of mixtures employed in various parts of the country for leys for one year : — CHAP. XXIX TEMPORARY GRASS LAND 311 Table XLVI. Mixtures of Grass and Glover Seeds for One-Year Leys. In Lbs. per Aoee. l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. White clover 5* 6 6 5 2 6 Broad red clover 2 6 4 5 10 14 9 Alsike 2 2 Cow grass . Italian rye grass Hop trefoil Cocksfoot . i" 54 1 i'6 2 2 8 "i 3 Timothy . Rib grass . Sheep's parsley 1 14 14 i' l Nos. 1 and 2 are examples from, the Wolds of the East Riding of Yorkshire, both being for grazing purposes ; No. 1 where the seeds are not to be followed by wheat, No. 2 where wheat is to be the next crop. It will be observed that where wheat is to follow a large proportion of clover is employed, whereas where wheat is not next in the rotation grasses are sown to a considerable extent. Nos. 3 and 4 are from the North Riding of Yorkshire; No 3 for grazing purposes for sheep, No. 4 for mowing. Nos. 5 and 6 are from Norfolk, both for mowing purposes, and No. 7 is from the Midlands, also for mowing. It may be noticed that a larger proportion of hop trefoil is usually used on light soils, though for oue-year leys not very much difference is usually made between light and heavy soils. The rib grass and sheep's parsley in Nos. 1 and 2 are not commonly used in any district, but might certainly be employed with better advantage for grazing for sheep than in any other way. Leys for two or three years usually contain a larger proportion of grass seeds and less clover. Perennial rye grass, which is rarely, if ever, sown in a one-year ley, is usually introduced to a certain extent in those of longer 312 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. duration. The folio-wing table gives examples of mixtures for two or three-years leys : — Table XLVII. Mixtures of Grass and Clover Seeds for Two or Three-Tears Leys. In Lbs. pee Acre. l. 2. White clover 2 3 Broad red clover 5 3 Cow grass . 5 2 Alsike 2 2 Hop trefoil 2 3 Italian rye grass 2 1 Perennial rye grass 4 2 Cocksfoot . 2 Timothy 2 Rib grass . 1 Sheep's parsley 1 No. 1 is from the Midlands and No. 2 from the East Riding of Yorkshire, both being for grazing purposes. It will be noticed, particularly in the second example, that the more permanent grasses, cocksfoot and timothy, are sown in considerable quantity, while in No. 1 perennial rye grass is chiefly employed. Rotation mixtures of seeds are almost always sown with the corn crop, barley being perhaps the best for this purpose. The usual time of sowing is in the spring, when the corn crop shows the line of drill distinctly. The seeds are sown broadcast or with the drill, the latter being preferable, as the seed is better covered and more evenly sown than by broadcasting. Covering the seed is of considerable import- ance, as seeds merely scattered on the surface germinate very badly even if not eaten by birds. The following table gives the results of experiments on the germination of grass and other seeds sown at various depths : — TEMPORARY GRASS LAND 313 Table XLVIII. Number of Plants produced per cent of Seeds sown at Various Depths. 1 Italian Perennial Timothy. Bed Rye Grass. Bye Grass. Clover. Surface .... 13-25 14-7 13-5 7-5 J inch .... 59-6 60-6 48-5 65-5 4 „ • 62-2 61-0 54-5 66-5 i „ • ■ • • 63-3 62-0 50-0 59-9 1 „ . 56-0 61-0 44-2 44-4 n„ . . . . 47-5 51-0 23-2 29-6 If a drill is used the small seeds should be sown across the rows of the corn, as by that means a more regular sowing is possible. A light harrow usually follows the drill, or sometimes a light wooden roller, the object being to cover the seed lightly without compressing the soil too much. When the corn crop is cleared, the seeds are often rather weak and thin, but in damp seasons they grow very strongly, and will usually afford food for sheep or for stock in the autumn. Great care must be taken, however, particularly in the case of the clovers, not to graze too late in the autumn, and not to allow any stock upon the seeds in time of frost. At such a time " a sheep has five mouths," as it is expressed, for it destroys as much of the plant by trampling on it when the frost is on the leaves as it does by eating. Every leaf bruised withers and turns black almost immediately. Some- times a light dressing of artificial manure is given to seeds in the spring, particularly when the proportion of grass seeds is high compared with that of the clover. Nitrate of soda is often used in dressings varying from half a hundredweight to a hundredweight per acre. Where it is used, however, great care is needed in feeding stock put on the crop, for it is very likely to make sheep or cattle scour badly. Where the crop is to be cut to hay it is not usually possible to get vol, Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, 5th series, 314 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. much food for stock from it in the spring, but much will depend upon the season, and usually, for a short time at any rate, it may be fed off by ewes and lambs or other stock. The process of haymaking will be described separately. Permanent Grass Land. — The choice of the kinds of seeds to be sown in laying down land to permanent grass, and the quantities of each to be employed, requires very careful consideration with reference to the character of the soil, the climate, and to some extent the purpose for which the grass is to be employed. The plants must also be chosen with reference to one another if the maximum produce is to be obtained. It has been estimated that in a good old pasture there are on the average about forty million plants to the acre, but it is not economically possible to sow sufficient seed to produce such a large number of plants at once, and the plan is generally adopted of sowing seed enough to pro- duce from fifteen to eighteen million plants per acre, and to rely upon the natural thickening of perennial plants for the ultimate occupation of the soil. In laying down permanent grass land it is quite useless to sow the seed of any plant which is not well suited to the soil and climate, for if this is done, in the course of a few years the plants will become thin and weak, and will eventually die out. It is also necessary to sow as far as possible plants which will occupy the soil permanently, either truly perennial plants or those which have the habit of seeding themselves to a sufficient extent to be practically perennial. It is a common plan to mix with the seeds of the perennial plants a certain proportion of those of temporary grasses in order to obtain a large produce in the first few years. This is not, however, a good plan, for the temporary plants will for the first year or two occupy a good deal of space, and prevent the proper develop- ment of the permanent ones, and may indeed choke them out altogether. Then, when the temporary plants die, there is nothing to take their place, and weeds will find their way into the grass land and permanently injure its value. It is, therefore, better to sacrifice something in the produce of the first few years in order to obtain a better final result. As to the purpose to which the crop is to be put, if the land is to be constantly mown, the plants should be chosen as far as possible to mature at the same time, so that they xxix PERMANENT GRASS LAND 315 can be cut when all are at approximately their maximum feeding value. For pasture, on the other hand, it is well to have a mixture of early grasses and late, in order that there may be a regular supply of fodder all through the year. Large-growing plants should also be mixed with smaller ones so as to provide a large top growth and a close bottom growth or sole, and in this way far heavier produce is obtained than where large grasses or small ones only are cultivated. Similarly, deep-rooted plants and shallow should be sown, so as to draw their nourishment from the whole depth of the soil, and not only from the surface layer. The admixture of clovers with grasses is also useful, partly because the former draw for the most part on different con- stituents of plant food from the latter, and partly because clover, by its exceptional power of obtaining nitrogen from the air, helps to supply that element to the grasses, which otherwise would have difficulty in obtaining it. It has been stated that the presence of about 20 per cent of clover in a pasture gives the best results. A very common method of laying down permanent pasture is by using hay seeds, that is, seeds of grasses and other plants collected in hay lofts, or obtained by mowing the seed -heads left ungrazed in the pastures late in the summer or autumn. It is claimed by advocates of this system that by using hay seeds obtained in the same district where they are to be sown, the grasses naturally suitable to that district will be introduced into the new pasture. Against this view, however, there are several very forcible arguments. First, not only the grasses and useful plants native to the district will be introduced, but the weeds occurring in the old grass will be sown with the new. Secondly, if the hay seeds are obtained from a crop that has been cut to hay, it is probable that a great part of the seed will be immature, and will therefore germinate badly and produce weak plants ; and thirdly, if the seeds are obtained by cutting pastures late in the season, the seeds will be those of the plants that have been refused by stock, that is, plants for the most part of very low feeding value. In some cases good results have been obtained by the use of hay seeds, but it is a risky experiment, and is very uncertain in its results. 316 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. In choosing a mixture of grass seeds it is well to observe the kinds of grasses occurring in the best pastures of the neighbourhood where the new pasture is to be made. This will give an idea of the kinds of plants most suited to the district. The following are examples of mixtures of seeds for permanent grass land under various conditions : — Table XLIX. Mixtures of Seeds for Permanent Grass Land, in lbs. per Acre. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Foxtail 10 4 2 2 2 Cocksfoot 7 10 14 3 3 10 Timothy 3 3 3 2 4 2 Meadow fescue 6 3 2 3 4 4 Tall fescue 3 8 4 3 Various-leaved fescue i Hard fescue . 1 i 4 Sheep's fescue 1 4 Sweet-scented vernal grass i Rough-stemmed meadow grass i'i 2 2 3 Crested dog's-tail . 2 2 5 1 4 2 Fiorin .... 14 2 Golden oat grass 1 Italian rye grass 6 5 Perennial rye grass 6 6 Cow grass 2* 2* i 3 1 Alsike . 1 1 1 5 2 3 White clover . 1 1 1 5 2 3 Hop Trefoil . 2 Yarrow .... i' 1 2 4 Rib grass i 1 * Given as perennial red clover lib. Cow grass . lib. Nos. 1 to 3 are mixtures recommended by the late Mr. Faunce De Laune, none of which contain any rye grass, either perennial or Italian. No. 1 is given as suitable for a good, medium soil; No. 2 for a wet soil, and No. 3 for xxix PERMANENT GRASS LAND 317 chalky land. It may be observed that the quantity of the various grasses is regulated according to their suitability for the different kinds of soil. For example, foxtail, which requires a good, rather retentive soil, is sown to the extent of 10 lbs. per acre in the first class, 4 lbs. in the second, and is omitted altogether from the third. Similarly, cocksfoot, which is liable to become too rank and strong in its growth on good land, is sown at the rate of 7 lbs. in the first, 10 lbs. in the second, and in the third, where there is little risk of its attaining very large size, 14 lbs. is sown. So with the other grasses, meadow fescue ranging from 6 lbs. per acre on a good, medium soil, down to 3 lbs. per acre in a wet soil, and 2 lbs. in chalky land. No. 4 is a mixture reported to have given good results in Cumberland, and No. 5 is from Shropshire, where it has been used on stiff soil, while No. 6 has been successfully employed in the West Eiding of Yorkshire on strong land. Nos. 4 and 5 contain a con- siderable amount of rye grass, the chief advantage of which is in lowering the cost of the seed mixture, but, as already explained, it is a doubtful policy to include so large a proportion of a temporary plant such as Italian rye grass. Where rye grass is used, it takes the place chiefly of the more expensive grass seeds, though the proportion of all the permanent grasses must be reduced to some extent. In preparing the land for sowing a permanent mixture of seeds, it is essential to make it rich in plant food and thoroughly clean. The actual method of obtaining these conditions will vary according to the soil and climate, but usually either a bare fallow is given in the previous year, or a crop of turnips or other roots is taken and carefully culti- vated and cleaned all through its growth. Some authorities recommend taking two consecutive crops of roots, so as to clean the land more thoroughly and get it into better condi- tion. On the other hand, it has been occasionally recom- mended to sow the seeds after two consecutive corn crops. This, however, would not generally be a good plan, as there would be a risk of the land being very foul and poor in condition after such a course of cropping. There are three ways of sowing grass seeds for permanent pasture. They may be sown — 318 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. 1. By themselves, in spring or in August or September. 2. With a corn crop in the spring, as is done commonly in rotation seeds. 3. With a forage crop in the spring. When sown by themselves the result is usually very good, though in very dry seasons germination does not take place evenly, and there may sometimes be a failure of plant. As a general result of experiments with different kinds of grasses, Sinclair notes that of all the months of the year, August and September give the best results. If sown by themselves the seed should be put in early enough to avoid the risk of severe frost while it is still in its young stages of growth. Where sown with a corn or forage crop the advantage gained is that the young seeds have shade from the sun and shelter from late frosts until harvest, by which time they have sufficient strength to withstand cold or drought. With a corn crop, however, the soil is exhausted, and after the corn is harvested, is poorer than when the seeds were first sown. Where a forage crop is used, and fed off lightly by sheep, the soil is enriched, and the droppings of the sheep act as a manure to the young seeds. Eape is a common plant to use for the purpose, being sown at the rate of some 3 or 4 lbs. per acre in the spring at about the same time as the grasses. It is fed off during the summer, care being taken not to keep the sheep too long on the ground, nor to feed off the crop in wet weather, for in either case the trampling would be injurious to the seeds. Rye and oats are also grown in the same way, to be fed off by sheep during the summer. The seed should be sown, if possible, by drill, it being very important to cover the whole surface evenly, and, as in the case of temporary leys, to cover the seed at an even depth. It is also important to sow all the different kinds of seed evenly over the whole area, and this can only be done perfectly where they are sown in several lots. The most perfect results are obtained when the large-seeded plants, such as cocksfoot, foxtail, meadow fescue, tall fescue, etc., are sown in one lot; the small -seeded grasses, such as hard fescue, sheep's fescue, crested dog's-tail, etc., in another, xxix PERMANENT GRASS LAND 319 and the heavy seeds, such as the clovers, timothy, and yarrow, in a third. Each of these lots should be thoroughly mixed, and preferably they should be drilled in different directions, so as to make sure of covering the whole surface. After drilling a bush harrowing is given, and a light wooden rolling to compress the soil slightly about the seed. During the first autumn there will not usually be very much food produced for stock, but if the seed has been sown in the spring, and the summer has been a moist one, it may be lightly fed off by sheep, care being taken, as already noticed, to keep stock off the seeds in time of frost. In the following summer a crop of hay is usually cut, care being taken to mow very early in the season to prevent the plants from forming flower and seed, and to cause a thickening of the root and strengthening of the whole plant. The second crop is usually grazed, preferably by young cattle receiving a small allowance of concentrated food, but they should only be kept on the land in dry weather, so as to avoid injuring the young plants by treading. Sheep are sometimes used for the same purpose, but are objectionable in biting out the finest grasses and sometimes destroying them altogether, so that the large, coarse grasses are thus encouraged and the quality of the pasture permanently injured. In the autumn a light dressing of farmyard manure is applied, which acts in the double capacity of a manure to the plant and a protection against the cold, and this dressing will usually be repeated in subsequent years, depending, however, on the kind of stock grazing on the land, and the amount of extra food they obtain. Grass land is occasionally laid down by the process of inoculation. This consists in planting small pieces of turf taken from old grass land on the surface and rolling them in. A seeding of Italian rye grass is then given over the whole, so as to fill up the spaces between the sets and increase the produce for the first year or two. It also serves the purpose in this case of preventing weeds from obtaining a hold in the large spaces between the sets. It is not desirable to pare old grass land in order to plant new, and the plan is therefore usually adopted of cutting narrow strips out of the old turf with a gripping plough and 320 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. chopping these up into small pieces ready for planting. The grips in the old grass soon heal up and little permanent injury is done. The system has the same objections as that of using hay-seeds, namely, that not only the natural grasses are introduced into the new pasture, but also the weeds of the old grass land. This system has not been followed to any considerable extent. It has been chiefly successful on stiff clays. Apart from the question of manuring, the management of pasture land consists chiefly in so regulating the number and kinds of stock fed upon it as to keep the land grazed down evenly and prevent the undue preponderance of any one kind of plant. As already pointed out, sheep tend to destroy the finer plants in grass land, owing to their power of very close grazing, and horses also are bad grazers, for they rarely graze evenly over a pasture, usually feeding down part of the land quite bare and leaving a good deal altogether untouched. With other stock, however, they are often useful, as they will consume rough grasses which other animals will not eat. If a pasture is to be kept quite even it should be rather closely grazed as a rule, and the better condition the land is in and the stronger the growth of the grass the more heavily it should be stocked, other- wise the ranker, larger plants will increase at the expense of the finer ones. It is also important to remove from the pasture in the autumn the bents and rough growth that have not been consumed by the regular stock. In the case of the best pastures this is usually done by means of young store cattle, for of course such food is not good enough for fattening animals. If it is not convenient to graze off the bents, a mowing machine may be lightly run over the surface, so as to cut them off and roughly keep the grass level. Another cause of inconvenience in pastures is the rank growth caused by the droppings of cattle. The tufts caused in this way are rarely grazed by stock unless they are hard pressed by hunger, and so a very uneven surface is eventually produced. To avoid this, the droppings of stock should be spread at rather frequent intervals, and in some cases a clause to this effect is inserted in farm agreements. It is usual to chain-harrow the grass land in the spring, in order to remove any dead plants and withered, xxix PERMANENT GRASS LAND 821 useless material, and so to allow of a free growth of the grasses. It also has the effect of levelling the surface, particularly where mole-hills or ant-hills are common, and rolling is often done with the same object. The chain harrow is also used to collect straw or any other material of the kind that may have been left after the application of farmyard manure. The manure required on pastures will vary according to the kind of stock chiefly fed upon them. Where fatting stock are kept, little manure, if any, will be required, and if the animals receive an allowance of concentrated food the land will be enriched so much by their droppings that no other manure will be required. Where dairy cattle are kept or young stock are reared, it will be necessary to manure the pastures, and phosphates, particularly, are found useful in such cases. Basic slag is a form of phosphatic manure commonly used, and frequently gives good results on grass land. Meadows are usually grazed during the early part of the year, and some time in April or even May are shut up to allow of the growth of a crop for hay. They are usually chain-harrowed and rolled in the spring, so as to level the surface as perfectly as possible and prepare it for the mowing machine and tedder. The manure required depends on the plants present, nitrogenous manures encouraging the grasses and making them grow more strongly, while phosphates and potash manures encourage the growth of clovers and other leguminous plants. Farmyard manure is used to a very large extent and gives good results. It should, however, be used with discretion, and with reference to the condition of the grass. There is a tendency in meadows for the rank, strong grasses to overmaster the finer, smaller plants, and the quality of the produce gradually deteriorates. To avoid this it is a common practice to graze the land occasionally for a whole season, and it is inserted in many farm agreements that the grass land shall be grazed at least once in three years. This keeps the growth more even and prevents the development of large, coarse plants. Haymaking. — With very few exceptions all plants should be cut for haymaking just when they are in full flower Y 322 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. After this the feeding material which the plant contains is gradually concentrated in the seed, and therefore the rest of the plant becomes poorer, and moreover the seed is likely to be lost in the process of haymaking. A considerable formation of woody material also takes place in the later stages of the plant's growth, and its digestibility suffers in consequence. The process of making meadow hay differs slightly from that of making clover hay. In the former case, after the crop is cut, either with a mowing machine or by hand, it is spread on the surface of the ground to dry. If any is cut in the later part of the day it will not usually be touched until the following morning, as there is no time to expose it to the sun and get it together before evening. The portion which is cut early and spread is usually got together into small wind-rows in the course of the afternoon, and these are put into small cocks, called grass-cocks or pooks, for the night. The object of putting the hay into cock during the night is to expose as small a surface as possible to the dew, which would otherwise bleach it and spoil its quality. In case of bad weather also the hay will suffer less in cock than if spread. The next morning, as soon as the ground is dry, the grass-cocks are opened and the hay spread abroad, and after some time has elapsed for drying, it is tedded or turned by hand and again allowed to dry. Towards the end of the day it is raked into wind-rows and finally put up into cocks a good deal larger than those of the previous night. On the following day the process is repeated, the cocks being spread after the ground has got dry, though not very . widely, and if the weather is favourable and the crop is not a very heavy one the hay will probably be ready for carrying some time during the day. If the hay is not ready for carrying it is put into still larger cocks for the night, and will be carried on the following morning. The time when hay may be carried and put into rick depends on the bulk of the crop and its character, whether it contains a large amount of leaf and bottom growth, or whether it is stemmy and benty in its character. If the latter be the case the hay should be carried as soon as possible, and it will be greatly improved if a good deal of heating takes place in the rick. HAYMAKING 323 In many districts it is the custom to put the hay up into summer ricks in the field, that is, small ricks containing, say, half a load or more each. This is an advantage in many respects, as it saves time in the most important part of the year, and the hay can be got together rather sooner than if it is to be put into a large rick, there being less chance of heating and more opportunity for drying in the summer ricks. The final carting and building into ricks may be delayed in this case for some weeks or even months, till any convenient opportunity. In building a rick great care has to be taken to keep the middle as high as possible, otherwise, as the hay settles together the thatch will be- come too flat and will not run the rain off rapidly enough. Hay-ricks are usually left unthatched for a time after they are put up, in order to allow the hay to heat and settle. They are then thatched with straw, or sometimes, where straw is valuable, a wooden or other cover is put over them. In making clover hay the chief point of difference is that the crop must be handled very gently and turned as little as possible, so as to avoid breaking the leaf, which is the most valuable part of the plant for feeding purposes. The crop therefore remains in swath for a day or two after cutting, and is then gently turned over by hand, so as to allow the under-side to dry. Then, after an interval has elapsed it is turned back again and is then carted direct from the rows without putting into cock at all. In this way handling is avoided as much as possible, and the best result is obtained. In both meadow and clover hay, where the weather is unfavourable, the same principles must be followed, but the process will of course be prolonged and the final result will be inferior. Ensilage. — This process of preserving fodder crops with- out previously drying them has long been known, though it is only a few years since it was first adopted in this country on a practical scale. When it was first practised, the fodder was always preserved in a silo, that is, a pit or building, which could be completely filled with the green crop and then heavily pressed. The expense, however, of making silos proved an obstacle to the adoption of the system, for it was found that when they had to be built, 324 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. the average cost was something like £1 per ton of their capacity. 1 More recently it has been found possible to make useful silage in stacks, and this has led to a wider adoption of the process, though it is still by no means common. Two kinds of silage may be made, viz. sour and sweet, the former being produced chiefly where the silo system is adopted, the latter either in silos or stacks, depending upon the system of management. In making sour silage the crop is cut, filled into the silo, and weighted heavily at once so as to exclude the air as far as possible, and in this way to check fermentation and keep down the temperature. The resulting silage is dark-coloured, very sour, and with a strong, offensive smell, but usually it will keep for a long time after it is taken from the silo without turning mouldy. If sweet silage is required, the silo is filled slowly, layers of a few feet in thickness being put into it at intervals of some days, so as to allow the temperature to rise to between 125° and 140°. It is found that this temperature is sufficient to kill the bacteria which otherwise would turn the silage sour, and consequently but little formation of acid takes place, and a sweet, rather fragrant silage is produced, usually of a brown colour, but having the disadvantage that it usually becomes mouldy soon after it is taken from the silo. Sweet silage is usually produced in stacks, however they may be treated, but different parts of the stack will sometimes vary in this respect. It also depends to some extent upon the kind of crop and the condition in which it is got together. In making silage in a silo the crop may either be put in in its natural condition, or it may be previously chaffed. The process of chaffing makes it easier to tread down the contents of the silo firmly, and less pressure is then requisite. With most crops, however, there is no absolute necessity for chaffing before putting into the silo, except where the fodder is rather over-ripe and stemmy or woody in its character. In any case the fodder must be well trodden down, horses being sometimes employed for the purpose, men being also required to tread down with special care about the sides and corners of the silo. If 1 H. M. Jenkins, Journal S.A.S.S., vol. xx. S.S. ENSILAGE 325 this is not done there will be a great deal of waste at the sides from the silage becoming mouldy. When the silo is full it is weighted or pressed by some mechanical means, the pressure being on the average about 1 owt. to the square foot. Care must be taken, however, not to press too heavily, or the juices of the plant will be pressed out and may be wasted. Systems of compressing the silage which give a following pressure are preferable, for otherwise the silos require constant attention at first, owing to the rapidity with which their contents sink in the process of fermenta- tion. Should the pressure be relaxed for any length of time the silage will be completely spoilt. In making silage in stacks the crop is of course got together in its long state, unchaffed, and in building care must be taken to consolidate the sides of the stack as much as possible, otherwise very great loss will ensue. Pressure is then applied, either by weights or by screws or levers, care being taken in this case, as in that of silos, not to press too heavily. There is more waste of fodder in the stack than in the silo system, as some inches round the sides are almost always worthless, but the superior con- venience and economy of the stack system counterbalance this disadvantage. Silage is useful food for all kinds of stock. When it is used for cows in milk care has to be taken that the milk shall not be exposed to the smell of the silage, or it will become tainted in a very short time. It has been found, however, that the mere fact of the cows being fed on silage will not give the milk any unpleasant flavour if it is not exposed to the smell. In experiments carried out at Woburn for the purpose of comparing silage as a feeding stuff with roots and hay-chaff, the results varied according to the materials from which the silage was made. In another experiment for the purpose of comparing the food value of grass made into silage with that of similar grass made into hay, under favourable conditions, it was found that 24 acres of grass made into silage produced the same feeding results as 2-8 acres made into hay. Most of the ordinary forage crops may be used for making silage, but those which are woody or have strong, large stems are objectionable, as they do not readily press together. Fre- 326 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ch. xxrx quently rough growth about roadsides and hedgerows is made into silage, and will make a fairly valuable fodder for stock. It must not be supposed, however, that the process of ensilage will convert poor feeding material into valuable fodder of a high feeding value. CHAPTER XXX WEEDS A weed is usually described as "a plant out of place," and all weeds on farm land are harmful, because they consume plant food which would otherwise be available for the crops. Some weeds may also do harm by smothering the crop amongst which they grow. From an agricultural point of view the weeds of the farm may be divided into two classes : — 1. Annual weeds, chiefly shallow-rooted. 2. Biennial or perennial weeds, chiefly deep-rooted. Amongst the former class the following occur in arable land : — • Blue Bottle (Oentaurea cyanus). White Campion {Lychnis vespertina). Corn Chamomile (Anthemis arvensis). Charlock (Sinapis arvensis). Chickweed (Stellaria media). Corn Cockle (Agrostemma githago). Corn Poppy (Papaver rheas). Fat Hen (Chenopodium album). Fools' Parsley (Mthusa cynapium). Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis). Goose Grass (Galium aparine). Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis). Scorpion Grass (Myosotis arvensis). Shepherd's Purse (Gapsella bursa pastoris). Spurrey (Spergula arvensis). And many of the grasses already described, especially couch, which, however, is a perennial plant. 328 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC chap. In pastures : — Mouse-Eared Chickweed (Cerastium triviaie). Yellow Rattle (Ehinanthus crista-gaZli). These plants maintain their position in the soil by their copious production of seed, and it is therefore easy to understand why most of them are weeds of arable rather than grass land, for in the latter there is much less oppor- tunity for the germination and growth of seeds, especially upon the surface, than there is in arable land. Another way in which these plants often appear in the fields is by the power of their seeds to remain dormant in the soil for a long time, so that even after a considerable time, when they are placed under conditions favourable for germination, the seeds begin to grow, and a crop of weeds will result. The common charlock or kedlock is a familiar example of this, the seed frequently remaining for a very long time in the soil, eventually growing strongly when brought to the surface. When weeds occur in a growing crop the chief method of cleaning the land is to prevent their seeding as far as possible by hoeing, or, as in the case of charlock, by cutting their heads off, if possible. If the land be free from crop as many weed seeds as possible should be made to germinate, by stirring the soil or ploughing it rather shallow, and when growth has commenced the weeds may be killed by the use of cultivators, drags, and harrows. They may then be collected and burnt, if necessary. In heavy land, how- ever, the above system is not so easy to follow, and the usual plan of cleaning the land is by ploughing and working it until the soil is in a rough, cloddy condition, and then to kill the weeds in the clods by keeping the latter as dry as possible, frequently turning them over with the drags. In very heavy land bare fallowing may be necessary, and on some soils bare fallowing is a regular part of the farm work, for it is found that otherwise the soil becomes of a texture very difficult to work, and very full of weeds, especially after a series of wet years. The work of bare fallowing consists essentially of repeated ploughing whenever the weather is favourable, taking great care never to reduce the soil to a fine tilth. Bastard fallows are also frequently employed, the fallowing being done at the end of the WEEDS 329 summer after the growth of some crop, such as vetches. The soil is thus left bare and unproductive for a shorter time. Where creeping weeds, such as couch, occur, they may be conveniently dealt with by forking by hand, unless they exist in very large quantities. "Baftering" is sometimes adopted in very light land, that is, ploughing every other fallow and cleaning the soil so turned over, and then cross- ploughing and cleaning thoroughly again. There is no par- ticular advantage in this system, and it usually takes rather longer than when the whole surface is ploughed at once. Of the biennial and perennial weeds the following are the most important : — In arable land — Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis). Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara). Crane's-bill (various species of Geranium). Dock (Rumex oUusifolius). Garlic (Allium oleraceum). Horsetail (Equisetum arvense). Knot Grass (Polygonum aviculare). Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis). Speedwell ( Veronica officinalis). In grass land — Bedstraw (Galium palustre). Buttercup (various species of Ranunculus). Crow Garlic (Allium vineale). Daisy (Bellis perennis). Dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum). Knapweed (Oentaurea nigra). Ladies' Smock (Cardamine pratensis). Meadow Saffron (Oolchicum autumnale). Moss (various species). Nettle (Urtica dioica). Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). Plantain (Plantago media). Rest Harrow (Ononis arvensis). Rushes (various species). Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex acetosella). Silver "Weed (Potentilla anserina). Thistle (Cardnus, various species). Besides the methods mentioned above for destroying weeds it is important in the case of biennial or perennial plants to prevent, as far as possible, the formation of leaves, 330 AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ch. xxx for when this is done the plant is unable to feed on the air, and store up plant food for future use. Accordingly, by repeated cutting it is eventually so weakened that it finally dies out. Thus, constant cutting of such plants as thistles, so as to destroy their leaves and prevent their forming seed, is a most important part of the management of grass land where they occur commonly. In a similar way constant ploughing destroys the deep-rooted coltsfoot, by preventing the plant storing up food in its thick, fleshy root. It must be understood, however, that in both these cases a single cutting or ploughing is not sufficient, and the process needs to be repeated frequently, sometimes for several years. Plants which have thick, fleshy roots, such as the coltsfoot, dock, etc., may be kept down by collecting the roots by hand in the corn, early in the spring, before they have had an opportunity of forming seed. At that time of year the roots have usually little hold of the ground, and are often seen on the surface of the soil, to which they have been brought in the process of cultivation. Another very important point with regard to the sup- pression of weeds is the use of pure seed, particularly those of clovers and grasses. If a mixture of permanent grass seed contains only 1 per cent of weeds it will add to the soil something like thirty to forty weed seeds per square yard of surface. It should also be remembered that weed seeds contained in "cavings" or cleanings from seeds, if mixed with manure, are frequently not destroyed, but will be carted on to the land with the manure, and so give trouble later on amongst the crops. INDEX Aberdeen yellow hybrid turnip, 221 Absorptive power of soils, 26 Abundance potato, 236 Achillea millefolia, 309 Acidity of soil, cause of, 25 Aecidio-spores, 195 Aethusa cynapium, 327 Agrostemma githago, 327 Agrostis alba, 276, 277 canina, 276 stolonifera, 274 vulgaris, 276 Agrotis eaxlamationis, 227 segetum, 227 4ira ccespitosa, 272, 276, 277 flexaosa, 278 Air, a disintegrating agent, 13 Albuminoids, 2 formation of, 9 Allium oleracewm, 329 vineale, 329 Alluvial soils, 34 .4Zope