1 ■ : ,; : .,.;.' " ■.'■;■. V Sl\ V; LiBKAKK ^lABa-FAYLOR HALL THE BARNES REFERENCE LIBRARY. THE GIFT OF ^.Ifrefc . a. « - NO. 23233 BS1197 .PS™" Un ' Versl, >"-"'rary old Jf sta ment histo; olin 3 1924 029 282 964 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029282964 Bible Study Textbook Series Old Testament History BY ISMAR J. PERITZ, Ph.D. (Harvard) Professor of Biblical LanguageB and Literatures and Willard Ives Professor of the English Bible, Syracuse University THE ABINGDON PRESS NEW YORK. CINCINNATI 4r 3.-'-') Copyright, 1915, by ISMAR J. PERIT2 First Edition Printed August, 1915 Reprinted September, 1916 The text printed in italics in this volume is taken from the American Standard Edition of the Revised Bible, copyright, 1001, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, and is used by permission. TO CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, LL.D. HARVARD UNIVERSITY INSPIRING TEACHER AND NOBLE FRIEND CONTENTS PAGE Publishers' Announcement 13 Preface 15 INTRODUCTORY Introduction 19 I. Our Interest in Old Testament History. 2. Main Divisions of Old Testament History. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER I. The Sources of Old Testament History 23 3. The Biblical Sources. 4. The Use of the Biblical Sources. 5. Classification of the Biblical Sources. 6. The Hebrew Laws. 7. Old Testament Historical Literature. 8. The Prophetic Literature as Historical Source. 9. The Liturgical Literature. 10. The Wisdom Literature. 1 1 . The Apocalyptic Literature. 12. The Extra-Biblical Sources. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER II. The Land of Palestine 32 13. The Old Testament World. 14. The Boundaries of Pales- tine. 15. The Coast Plains. 16. The Central Plateau and the Valley of Esdraelon. 17. The Valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. 18. The East- Jordan Plateaus. 19. The High- ways of Palestine. 20. The General Character of Palestine. 21. Israel's Neighbors. Suggestions for Study. PART I THE FORMATIVE PERIOD From the Beginnings to the Death of Solomon — 933 B. C. CHAPTER III. The Formation of the Hebrew Tribes 43 J. The Origin of the Hebrew Race 22. The General Contents of Gen. 1 to 11. 23. The Two Ac- counts of the Creation. 24. The Two Accounts of the Flood. 25. The Tables of the Nations. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Patriarchal Tribal Migrations 26. The General Contents of Gen. 12 to 50. 27. The History of Abraham. 28. The History of Jacob-Israel. 29. The Story of Joseph and His Brethren. 30. The Literary and Historical Character of the Patriarchal Stories. Suggestions for Study. 5 6 CONTENTS PAGE j. The Traditions of Genesis in the Light of Contemporaneous History 31. The Original Home and Migrations of the Semites. 32. The Amorite Migration. 33. The Elamite Ascendancy and Gen. 14. 34. The Reign of Hammurabi. 35. The Hyksos-Canaanite Migration. 36. The Tell el-Amarna Period. 37. The Hittites. 38. The Habiri. 39. The Aramean Migration. 40. Jacob- Israel. 41. The Patriarchal Tribal Mode of Life and Settle- ments. 42. The Descent into Egypt. 43. The Presupposi- tions of the Biblical Tradition. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER IV. The Awakening of the National Con- sciousness — Moses 64 1. The Emancipation 44. The Biblical Sources. 45. The Egyptian Enslavement. 46. The Date of the Exodus. 47. The Call of Moses. 48. The Passover and the Exodus. 49. The Crossing of the Red Sea. 50. The Historical Situation. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Life in the Desert 51. The Biblical Data. 52. The Provisions of the Desert. 53. The Hebrew Residence at Kadesh. 54. War with Amalek at Rephidim. 55. The Judicial Organization. 56. The Loca- tion of Horeb-Sinai. Suggestions for Study. 3 . The Religion of the Time of Moses 57. The Covenant at Horeb-Sinai. 58. The Hebrew Pre- Mosaic Religion. 59. The Enthronement of Jehovah. 60. The Legislation at Horeb-Sinai. 61. The Origin of Hebrew Law. 62. The Decalogue. 63. The Ritual Code and the Book of the Covenant. 64. The Ark of Jehovah. 65. The Tent of Meet- ing. 66. Rites and Festivals. 67. The Priests and Levites. 68. The Character and Achievement of Moses. 69. The Meaning of Moses for Subsequent History. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER V. The Conquest and Settlement of Palestine . 96 /. The Biblical Sources 70. The Contents of the Book of Joshua. 71. The Contents of the Book of Judges. 72. The Character of the Biblical Sources. 73. The Two Views of the Conquest. 74. The Framework of the History of the Judges. 75. The Elements of P and J and E. 76. The Sources for the Conquest of South and East Palestine. Suggestions for Study. ■ 2. The Invasion of Palestine 77. The Task of the Invaders. 78. The Southern Occupation. 79. The Occupation of Eastern Palestine. 80. The Occupa- tion of Western Palestine. 81. The War of Deliverance. Suggestions for Study. CONTENTS 7 3. The Tribal Heroes 82. Gideon. 83. Abimelech. 84. Jephthah. 85. Samson. 86. The Settlement of the Danites. 87. The Final Settlement of the Tribes. Suggestions for Study. 4. The Social, Moral, and Religious Conditions during the Period of Occupation 88. The Social Life. 89. Government. 90. Culture. 91. Morals. 92. Religion. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER VI. The Establishment of the Monarchy 122 1. Samuel and Saul 93. The Philistine Aggressions. 94. Samuel and the Kingship. 95. Saul's Victory over the Philistines. 96. Samuel's Break with Saul. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Rise of David 97. David at the Court of Saul. 98. David's Outlaw Life. 99. David among the Philistines. 100. The Philistine Victory and the Death of Saul. 101. The Achievements and Character of Saul. Suggestions for Study. 3. David, King of Judah 102. David's Grief over the Death of Saul. 103. David Made King of Judah at Hebron. 104. Esh-baal, Saul's Successor. 105. David Made King of Israel. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER VII. The Establishment of the National Mon- archy — David 136 106. The Wars of Deliverance from the Philistines. 107. The Establishment of the National Capital at Jerusalem. 108. David's Wars of Conquest. 109. The Organization of David's Kingdom and Internal Affairs, no. David's Family Life. in. Absalom's Rebellion. 112. The Rebellion of Sheba. 113. The Last Days of David. 114. The Character and Achievements of David. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER VIII. The Development of the National Re- sources — Solomon 149 I. The Reign of Solomon 115. The Accession of Solomon. 116. The Policy of Solomon. 117. Solomon's Palace and Temple. 118. The Character and Achievements of Solomon. Suggestions for Study. 8 CONTENTS PAGE 2. Life During the Monarchy 119. Social Life. 120. Culture. 121. Religion. Suggestions for Study. PART II THE PERIOD OF THE PROPHETS From the Division of the Kingdom, 933 B. C, to the Restora- tion under Cyrus, 538 B. C. CHAPTER IX. The Kingdom of Israel 163 From the Division of the Kingdom to the Fall of Samaria — 933-722 B. C. 1. The Division of the Kingdom 122. The Biblical Sources. 123. The Division and Its Causes. 124. The Political Consequences. 125. The Religious Conse- quences. 126. From Jeroboam I to Omri. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Dynasty of Omri 127. The Reign of Omri. 128. Political Events in Israel and Judah to Jehu. Suggestions for Study. 3. The Religious and Social Crisis in Israel 129. Baalism. 130. The Champions of Jehovah against Baalism. 131. The Contest on Carmel. 132. The Theophany at Horeb. 133. The Interview of Elisha with Hazael. 134. The Anoint- ing and Commission of Jehu. 135. Israel and Judah's Decline. Suggestions for Study. 4. The Political Recovery of Israel and Judah 136. The Reign of Jehoash. 137. The Reigns of Jeroboam II and Uzziah. Suggestions for Study. 5. The Social and Religious Life of the Divided Kingdom to the New Prophetism 138. The Biblical Data. 139. The Political and Social Ideals. 140. The Religious and Ethical Ideals. Suggestions for Study. 6. The New Prophetism 141. The Biblical Data. 142. The Character of the New Prophet- ism. 143. The Prophet Amos. 144. The Book of Amos. 145. The Message of Amos. 146. The Elohist Source in the Hexateuch. Suggestions for Study. 7. The End of the Northern Kingdom 147. The Political Changes after Jeroboam II. 148. The Prophet Hosea. 149. The Message of Hosea. 150. The Prophet Isaiah. 151. The Writings of Isaiah. 152. The Syro-Ephraimitic War. 153. The Siege of Samaria. 154. The Prophet Micah. 155. The Fall of Samaria. 156. The Origin of the Samaritans. 157. The Contribution of the Northern Kingdom. . Suggestions for Study. CONTENTS 9 PAGE CHAPTER X. The Kingdom of Judah to the Destruction of Jerusalem, 586 B.C 194 I. King Hezekiah and the Prophet Isaiah 158. Events in Assyria, Egypt, and Babylonia. 159. Hezekiah's Reformation. 160. Isaiah and Sargon's Campaign against Ashdod. 161. The Babylonian Embassy of Merodach- Baladan. 162. The Pro-Egyptian Policy. 163. Sennacherib's Invasion. 164. The Character and Achievements of Isaiah. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Religious Reaction under Manasseh and the Law of Deuteronomy 165. The Character of the Reaction. 166. The Problem of the Prophetic Party. 167. The Law of Deuteronomy. 168. The Purpose of the Law. Suggestions for Study. 3. The Reign of Josiah 169. The Prophets Nahum, Zephaniah, and Jeremiah. 170. The Finding of the Book of the Law. 171. The Great Reforma- tion. 172. The Significance of the Deuteronomic Covenant. 173. The Death of Josiah. Suggestions for Study. 4. The Prophet Jeremiah and tlie End of Judah 174. The Sources. 175. The Earlier Life and Activity of Jere- miah. 176. The Reign of Jehoiakim. 177. Jeremiah's Cour- age. 178. The Rise of Babylonia. 179. The Prophet Habak- kuk. 180. The First Deportation to Babylon. 181. Zedekiah's Reign and Rebellion. 182. Jeremiah's Contest with the Pro- Egyptian Party. 183. The Prophet Ezekiel. 184. The Siege of Jerusalem. 185. The Capture of the King and the Destruc- tion of Jerusalem. 186. The Murder of Gedaliah. 187. The Character and Message of Jeremiah. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER XL The Exile 217 1. The Centers of the Exiles 188. The Exile as a Transition. 189. Fallen Judah and Its Neighbors. 190. The Exiles in Egypt. 191. The Exiles in Babylonia. 192. Ezekiel's Activity Among the Exiles. 193. The Character and Message of Ezekiel. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Literature of the Exile 194. The Literary Activity of the Exile. 195. The Prophetic Literature. 196. The Law of Holiness. Suggestions for Study. 4. The Great Prophet of the Exile 197. The Later Years of the Exile. 198. The Rise of Cyrus. 199. Prophecies on the Downfall of Babylon. 200. The Great Prophet of the Exile. 201. The Character and Message of Deutero-Isaiah. Suggestions for Study. io CONTENTS PAGE 5. The Religious and Social Teachings of the Prophets 202. The Prophet as a Religious and Social Force. 203. The Ethical Monotheism of the Prophets. 204. The Moral and Spiritual Nature of Religion. 205. The Social and Demo- cratic Ideals of the Prophets. 206. The Optimism of the Prophets. Suggestions for Study. PART III THE PERIOD OP THE PRIESTS AND SCRIBES From Cyrus, 538 B. C, to Herod I, 4 A. D. CHAPTER XII. The Restoration of the Jewish Community. 239 (The Persian Period, 538-333 B. C.) J. The Reawakening of the Jewish Community in Palestine — Sheshbazzar 207. The Persian Rulers. 208. The Biblical Sources. 209. The Edict of Cyrus. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Rebuilding of the Temple — Zerubbabel 210. The Rebuilding of the Temple. 211. The Prophet Haggai. 212. The Laying of the Foundations of the Temple. 213. The Prophet Zechariah. 214. The Dedication of the Temple. 215. The Condition of the Jewish Community. 216. The Book of Malachi. 217. Isaiah 56 to 59. Suggestions for Study. 3. The Reorganization Under Nehemiah 218. The Biblical Sources. 219. The Condition of Jerusalem. 220. Nehemiah Governor of Jerusalem. 221. The Opposition. 222. The Completion of the Walls. 223. Nehemiah's Other Reforms. 224. The Reforms of Nehemiah's Second Term. 225. The Character and Achievements of Nehemiah. Suggestions for Study. 4. Ezra and the Institution of the Priestly Law 226. The Biblical Sources. 227. The Return Under Ezra. 228. Ezra's Marriage Reforms. 229. The Reading of the Law. 230. The Adoption of the Priestly Law. 231. The Character of the Priestly Law. 232. The Effect of the Insti- tution of the Law. 233. The Establishment of the Samaritan Community. Suggestions for Study. 5. The Suffering Community and the Problem of Job 234. The Last Decades of the Persian Rule. 235. The Prophecy of Joel. 236. The Problem of the Book of Job. Suggestions for Study. CONTENTS ii 6. The Religious and Social Ideals Under the Law 237. Religious Conceptions. 238. Religious Institutions. 239. Protests Against Particularism. 240. The Jewish Piety of the Psalms. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER XIII. Judaism in Contact with Hellenism 278 (The Greek Period, 333-175 B. C.) 1. The Political Events 241. General Character of the Greek Period. 242. Effects of the Conquest of Alexander the Great. 243. The Conditions Under the Seleucids. 244. The Conditions Under the Ptole- mies. 245. The Syrian Conquest of Palestine. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Literature of the Greek Period 246. The Prophetic Literature. 247. The Chronicler's Ecclesias- tical History. Suggestions for Study. 3. The Wisdom Literature and Its Ideals 248. The Wisdom Literature. 249. The Book of Proverbs. 250. The Book of Ecclesiasticus. 251. The Book of Eccle- siastes. 252. The Psalms of Reflection. 253. The Religious, Moral, and Social Ideals of the Wisdom Literature. 4. Secular Poetry and the Influence of Hellenism 254. The Song of Solomon. 255. The Influence of Hellenism. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER XIV. Judaism in Conflict with Hellenism 292 (The Maccabean Period, 175-63 B. C.) I. The Crisis of Judaism 256. The Biblical Sources. 257. Antiochus Epiphanes. 258. The Hellenistic Jewish High Priests. 259. The Religious Persecu- tions. 260. The Jewish Martyrs. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Booh of Daniel 261. The Origin and Content of the Book. 262. Its Character and Purpose. Suggestions for Study. 3. The Maccabean Uprising 263. The Revolt of Mattathias and His Sons. 264. Judas Mac- cabeus. 265. The Restoration of the Temple Service. 266. The Jews of Egypt. Suggestions for Study. la CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XV. The Rule of the Maccabean Priests. . . . 303 I. The Reestablishment of Religious and National Independence 267 The Wars of Judas. 268. The Establishment of Religious Liberty. 269. The High Priest Alcimus. 270. Judas's Alliance with Rome, and His Death. 271. Jonathan and the Begin- nings of Political Independence. 272. The End of Jonathan. 273. Simon and the Establishment of National Independence. 274. The Death of Simon. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Conflicts Between Pharisees and Sadducees 275. The Rise of the Parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees. 276. John Hyrcanus and the National Growth. 277. The Later Hasmonean Rulers. 278. Alexander Jannaeus. 279. Alex- andra. 280. Aristobulus II. 281. Pompey's Capture of Jerusalem. Suggestions for Study. 3. The Literature and Life of the Maccabean Period 282. The Maccabean Psalms. 283. The Book of Esther. 284. The Book of Judith. 285. The Book of Tobit. Suggestions for Study. CHAPTER XVI. The Jews Under Roman Rule 318 (The Roman Period, 63 B. C. to 70 A. D.) 1. The Loss of Jewish Independence 286. The Rivalries of the Hasmoneans. 287. The Rise of Anti- pater. 288. The Sons of Antipater, Phasael and Herod. 289. The Parthians in Syria. 290. The Reign of Antigonus. 291. The Reign of Herod. 292. The Character of Herod. Suggestions for Study. 2. The Developed Form of Judaism 293. The Scribes. 294. The Legislation of the Scribes. 295. The Synagogue. 296. The Synagogue as a Social Center. 297. The Synagogue Assemblies. 298. The Synagogue Service. 299. Jewish Parties. 300. The Pharisees. 301. The Sad- ducees. 302. The Essenes. 303. Zealots and Herodians. 304. The Conception of God. 305. The Ethical Ideals. 306. The Messianic Hopes. 307. The Messianic Conception of the Suffering Servant. 308. Summary. Suggestions for Study. Selected Bibliography 334 MAPS The Old Testament World. Frontispiece. Modern Palestine, with Ancient Towns and Highways. Facing page 32. United and Divided Hebrew Kingdoms. Facing page 122. Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires. Facing page 136. Palestine During the Greek and Roman Periods. Facing page 292. PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT For some time past there has been a growing conviction of the need of a more complete and comprehensive study of the Bible in all the colleges. Quite recently the matter has received new emphasis and practical direction. A complete course of Bible study has been outlined by a joint committee representing the Eastern and Western sections of the Asso- ciation of College Instructors in the Bible, the departments of colleges and universities and of teacher training of the Religious Education Association, the Student Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A., and Sunday School Council. In harmony with the action just noted The Abingdon Press has arranged for the prompt publication of a series of Bible study texts. The complete course will include the following books: Old Testament History, by Prof. Ismar J. Peritz, of Syracuse University; New Testament History, by Dr. Harris Franklin Rail, President of Iliff School of Theology; The Bible as Literature, by Prof. Irving F. Wood and Prof. Elihu Grant, of Smith College ; Social Institu- tions and Ideals of the Bible, by Prof. Theodore G. Soares, University of Chicago; and The History and Principles of Religious Education, by Prof. F. H. Swift, University of Minnesota. The volumes on New Testament History and The Bible as Literature have been in use during the college year 1914- 1915. Professor Peritz's volume on Old Testament History and Professor Soares' Social Institutions and Ideals of the Bible are now published. The last book in the series, The History and Principles of Religious Education by Professor Swift, is in preparation and will be ready for use in the second semester of 1915-1916. These books have been pre- pared with a view to the requirements of the college course 13 i 4 PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT and the needs of the students. The authors are acknowl- edged experts in their respective fields — scholars and teachers of wide repute. The publishers cordially commend this course to the attention of Bible students and teachers everywhere. The Abingdon Press. PREFACE The present treatment of Old Testament history aims to conform to the object of the series as handbooks to Bible study. The Bible itself is, accordingly, the main primary source. In each section the biblical text, as indicated in the margin, is the basis of the discussion, and requires the first attention of the student. Where the biblical material is most abundant the history is consequently the fullest. But it has become increasingly evident that the material of the Bible is not chronologically arranged, but that accounts centuries apart in their origin and point of view are often found side by side or interwoven with each other. The recognition of this fact is the result of the historical and scientific method of the Bible study of our day. It will account for the order and method here adopted. If the reason for the procedure is not always fully stated, it is due to the design of the series not to deal so much with the process as with the results achieved. Only where silence would leave the biblical situation obscure was it deemed necessary to enter into the discussion of critical questions, and then only in the briefest way possible. The logical movement of Old Testament history which is the outcome of the critical use of the biblical material proves ultimately its strongest justification. But it should not be forgotten that there is strict practical religious value in biblical criticism. For it has become evident that the uncritical use of the Bible in taking every- thing just as it stands has led in large measure to a dis- tortion of God's way in dealing with man. Biblical criti- cism, which accounts for many abnormal situations in Old Testament history, renders an important service not only in making us see just exactly what the Bible is, but also in making us see that God dealt with people in biblical times very much in the same way as he deals with us now. A source of information of highest value in Bible study, 15 16 PREFACE and ranking next to the Bible itself, are the discoveries in Bible lands with which our time has been remarkably favored. Wherever possible, attention has been called to the light from the monuments and other finds upon the biblical passage under discussion. The purpose of Religious Education which underlies this series has naturally determined the choice in the many interests which the Bible offers. The emphasis has conse- quently been placed upon the distinguished personalities, the religious, moral, and social ideas, and fundamental institutions of the Old Testament, rather than upon mere historical events ; and the latter have been dealt with only in so far as they are needed to explain the historical background of the former. Underlying the entire treatment of the subject is the conviction that "God, having of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in a Son," which means that the Old Testament history is a divine revelation preparatory to and culminating in the person and teachings of Jesus Christ, the Prophet of Nazareth. It is, therefore, in the light of the highest stage of the development of divine revelation that the values of Old Testament ideals are here estimated. This will account for the frankness with which the lower moral and spiritual ideals, or, in other words, the faults of the saints of the Old Testament, as well as their virtues, have been pointed out. For he that lives in the broad daylight of divine reve- lation has no need to fear the dangers that lurk in the twilight or the dark. The best evidence of the divine character of biblical religion lies, not in its inception or earlier stages, but in its culmination. The object held in view was to obtain clear-cut moral and spiritual ideals for the religious and moral education of our own time. Syracuse University, 1915. INTRODUCTORY INTRODUCTION i. Our Interest in Old Testament History. Old Testament history is the history of the Hebrews who have prolonged their existence for over three thousand years to the present time on a high level of civilization. The his- tory of such a people deserves our study for its own sake as prompted by our interest in the human race. The out- come of this history is a collection of literature which is full of references to ancient life, and to those interested in antiquity Old Testament history offers a rich field. But the Hebrews did not live merely for themselves; men like Moses, David, or Isaiah have affected the history of civiliza- tion, particularly our own civilization, and if we would know the sources whence came many of the priceless contribu- tions to our civilization, Old Testament history will be to us of great historical interest. Yet, after all, our chief interest is religious. If the Greeks had the genius for art, and the Romans for law, the Hebrews had the genius for religion. The conceptions of a personal God who revealed himself in history, a divinely authoritative code of morals, and the hope of a universal kingdom of God are the contributions of this genius to the well-being of humanity. But this religious interest is enhanced by the fact that Christianity has its roots in Old Testament history. Christ's personal life and teachings presuppose the religious and ethical ideas of the Old Testament. The new element that Christianity brings is represented as the fulfillment of Old Testament hopes and promises, and throughout the entire New Testament the Old Testament is regarded as the preparation for the complete divine revelation in the person of Christ. For this reason an intelligent appreciation of 19 20 INTRODUCTION the character and mission of Christianity requires a knowl- edge of Old Testament history. 2. Main Divisions of Old Testament History. Hebrew history is thus predominantly religious history. Its political aspects are comparatively insignificant, and consist of a series of conquests by Assyria, Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. But while these conquests bring Israel into the vortex of international movements, they are sig- nificant mainly for what drift they gave to the develop- ment of Hebrew religion, the divinely assigned task in the making of civilization. With regard to this religious tendency in Hebrew history, we may divide it into three main periods, as f ollows : I. The Formative Period, extending from its earliest beginnings to the Death of Solomon, 933 B. C. During this period the Hebrew people passed through the various stages of their material development until it had reached its height under David and Solomon. II. The Period of the Prophets, extending from the Division of the Monarchy, upon the death of Solomon, to the Restoration in the time of Cyrus, 933-538 B. C. During this period the Hebrew state passed through various stages of dissolution, ending in the exile. It gave the prophets of Israel the occasion to view religious truth apart from the national life. It aided them to attain to their highest con- ceptions in religion and morals, consisting in a pure ethical monotheism, that is, the belief in one personal and holy God, and a broad universalism. III. The Period of the Priests, extending from the Restoration in the time of Cyrus to Herod I, 538 B. C. 4 A. D. During this period the Jewish national life de- veloped into a church rather than a state, into a hierarchy instead of a monarchy. The emphasis was upon the Law, ritualism, and a narrow exclusivism. The result was the formation of petty sects, each with its own national hopes and aspirations. INTRODUCTION 21 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Consider the various interests that call for the study of Old Testament history as compared with other ancient or modern peoples, and note the particular religious and moral interest. 2. Commit to memory the main divisions of Old Testament his- tory, with the dates ; and regard it as the frame to be filled in with living facts in the subsequent study. CHAPTER I THE SOURCES OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 3. The Biblical Sources. The biblical sources in their present form consist of canonical, apocryphal, and pseudepigraphal collections : 1. The Canonical Scriptures the Hebrews arranged on a different principle from that in the Greek and Latin Bibles, followed in the English Bible, and the arrangement is as follows : (1) The Law. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. (2) The Prophets, (a) The "Former" Prophets — Joshua, Judges, First and Second Samuel, First and Second Kings, (b) The "Latter" Prophets— (a) "Major" Proph- ets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel; (b) "Minor" Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. (3) The Writings. Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, First and Second Chronicles. 2. The Apocrypha contain : First and Second Esdras, Tobit, Judith, The Rest of Esther, The Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, The Song of the Three Holy Children, The History of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, The Prayer of Manasses, First and Second Maccabees. These writings, which in many re- spects resemble the canonical books, the Jews regarded as of inferior inspiration; but the Greek Bible in common use in the early church contained them intermingled with the canonical books. 23 24 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 3. The Pseudepigrapha is the title given to some apocryphal books not included in the Greek Bible or English editions of the Apocrypha, which include : Third and Fourth Maccabees, The Psalms of Solomon, The Book of Enoch, The Assumption of Moses, The Apocalypse of Baruch, The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Book of Jubilees, The Ascension of Isaiah, and the Sibylline Oracles. They belong to the closing centuries of the Old Testament era, and as products of it require attention. 4. The Use of the Biblical Sources. In writing any history our first task is to inquire where we shall find the materials for it. The answer for the Old Testament seems very simple. These are given in the books of the Old Testament. As soon, however, as we examine these writ- ings closely we find that they cannot be used in this simple and direct manner. A careful study reveals certain facts upon which practically all scholars are now agreed. 1. These writings are not simply history, and were not intended as such. They were written for a moral and religious purpose, to show how Jehovah had guided and helped the nation, and by the use of the past to warn the people of sin and to teach them the right way. In one sense they are sermons rather than history as usually conceived. 2. Most of these writings have had a long literary history, and earlier accounts have been combined by later writers, while still later writers revised and edited the material, making changes to harmonize the different narratives. This makes the task of the historian somewhat more difficult. He must tryj as far as possible, to discover the original sources and to determine which elements are the more authentic and the more valuable; nor can he neglect to make use of the valuable material contained in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, the main sources of in- formation for the two centuries preceding the Christian era. 5. Classification of the Biblical Sources. The biblical SOURCES OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 25 material is substantially the literature of the Hebrew people for the period under discussion in which all the various types of literary composition are represented. We may distinguish six types : (1) Law; (2) History; (3) Prophecy; (4) Liturgy; (5) Wisdom; (6) Apocalypse. 6. The Hebrew Laws. Among the earliest literary products of the Hebrews we must place their laws, starting in simple collections and reaching the form of extensive codes of law. These codes are now imbedded in the his- torical narratives of Exodus-Deuteronomy, yet not so but that it is possible to distinguish them. There are seven such codes: (1) The Decalogue, Exod 20. 1-17; Deut 5. 6-21, found in two slightly varying rescensions, and embodying moral requirements; (2) The Ritual Decalogue, Exod 34. 10-26, consisting of simple requirements relating to the religious cult; (3) The Social Code, Deut 2J. 15-26, relating chiefly to social duties; (4) The Book of the Covenant (so called Exod 24. 7), Exod 20. 22 to 23. 19, containing both civil and ritual laws in greater detail; (5) The D enter on- omic Law, Deut 12 to 26. 28; which is an evident expansion of the Book of the Covenant; (6) The Lazv of Holiness, Lev 17 to 26, containing mainly ritual legislation, and characterized by enforcing the requirements on the ground of Jehovah's holiness (19. 2); (7) The Priests' Code, em- bracing all the other legislation in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers not already assigned, being the most extensive, and supplementing them all. A comparison of these codes reveals the fact that they are bodies of laws that originated during the various epochs in Old Testament history, covering the nine centuries be- tween Moses and Ezra, illustrating the various stages of the development in Israel's political, social, and religious life. 7. Old Testament Historical Literature. The making of history precedes the writing of history, and the telling of heroic deeds by word of mouth precedes the more formal recording of historical events. It was so among the 26 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Hebrews. A long period of oral tradition preceded that of written history. The stories of the patriarchs, the achieve- ments of Moses, and the heroic deeds of the conquerors of the promised land were first told or sung by word of mouth. The beginnings of the writing of Hebrew history in poetry may be found in the Song of Deborah (Judg 5) and the songs in Num 21, taken from "the book of the Wars of Jehovah," and Exod 15. 21. In the writing of history in prose we may distinguish the following stages : 1. The accounts of the events leading to the establish- ment of the Hebrew monarchy, contained in the older element of 1 Sam to 1 Kings 2. It is in the reign of David that we first meet an official recorder. 2. The Jehovistic historian (J) who composed a history from the creation to the conquest of Palestine about 850 B. C. 3. The Elohistic historian (E) who composed a similar history about a century later. 4. The Deuteronomistic historian (D) who wrote during the exile and viewed the history of his people from the point of view of the great prophets of the eighth to the sixth centuries, finding its fullest expression in the law of the book of Deuteronomy. This historian, like the prophets, taught that Israel's prosperity was due to faithfulness to Jehovah and its misfortunes to faithlessness. Using this religious estimate as a measure, each event or personality is made to teach a moral and religious lesson. The books of Kings ; the framework of the book of Judges ; Deut 1 to 11; 27 ; 29f . ; and the history of the conquest of Canaan in the book of Joshua are written from this point of view. 5. The Priestly historian (P) wrote during the fifth century B. C, also a history from creation to the conquest of Palestine, but from the point of view of the priest. He emphasizes ritual elements and traces back to the time of SOURCES OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 27 Moses the laws of Israel developed through a period of eight centuries of national life. It was the Priestly historian who gave final form to the Pentateuch or five books of Moses, or to the Hexateuch, including also the book of Joshua. The literary history of this biblical material is as follows: First, J and E were combined ; later D was added ; and, finally, P was added to complete the whole. 6. The Ecclesiastical historian, who lived about 300 B. C, went afresh over the ground covered by the historical books from Genesis to Second Kings, and extended it to nearly within a century of his own time. This work is now con- tained in the books First and Second Chronicles and Ezra and Nehemiah, which were originally all one book. He gives us an instructive glimpse into the method which he used in compiling his historical work, for he mentions a number of the sources from which he drew (2 Chron 16. 11 ; 33. 18; 35. 27). He also used the personal diaries of Ezra and Nehemiah and Aramaic documents which he inserts without translating. This historian adds a fresh point of view of Old Testament history — that of the church- man — and his work has not inaptly been called the "Ecclesi- astical Chronicle of Jerusalem." As additional historical matter we must mention the didactic stories of Judith and Esther, Jonah and Ruth, and the book of Tobit. Of similar character are the Jewish martyr stories, such as the stories of Daniel and the three Jewish youths in Babylon, found in the book of Daniel and in apocryphal books such as the Greek or Septuagint additions to Daniel, consisting of the Song of the Three Holy Children, the Story of Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon ; and third and fourth Maccabees. The purpose of these stories was to fortify Jewish faith against the temp- tations to fall into heathenism. 7. The Maccabean history is given us in two books of rather unlike merit, First and Second Maccabees. First 28 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Maccabees is a historical work of the first rank, but Second Maccabees was written to teach religious lessons rather than history. 8. The Prophetic Literature as Historical Source. Written prophecy, beginning with Amos in the eighth cen- tury and continuing to the sixth, furnishes one of the most valuable historical sources for Hebrew history. It em- braces the prophetical books of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. They are rich in details of the personal histories of the prophets themselves; they reveal the political, social, moral, and religious conditions of their time in most strikingly realistic colors; and they render abundant historical material for all the various phases of national life. The use of the material requires discrimination on account of the fact that the prophetical books are not chronologically arranged. It is often difficult to determine exactly the historical background for certain utterances. They have also undergone editorial revision by later hands, all of which demands that a discriminating method be followed in the use of the material. 9. The Liturgical Literature. Liturgy, which is the expression of public or private devotion, consisting of prayer and religious song, is found early in Hebrew life; but its full development belongs late in the period of the Priests. Its chief product is the collection of hymns in the book of Psalms, sometimes called the hymn book of the second temple. We should include here also the book of Lamentations, and a collection of eighteen psalms, known as the Psalms of Solomon. We must also include the col- lection of songs, suitable for wedding occasions, contained in the Song of Solomon, with which might be compared Psalm 45, celebrating a king's wedding. The subject-matter of these hymns is exceedingly diverse; and as reflecting a great variety of national and SOURCES OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 29 personal sentiments, aspirations, and hopes, they are valu- able historical sources. 10. The Wisdom Literature. "Wisdom Literature" is the designation of those Hebrew writings which deal with universal moral and religious principles, represented by Job, certain Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus (Ben-Sira), Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of Solomon — it is the expres- sion of Hebrew philosophic thought, which is highly prac- tical. Popular proverbs and fables, expressing the result of common-sense experience and observation, are met with early in Hebrew history; and they increase in depth with the growth of the national life. But the systematic dis- cussion of the deeper problems of life is the outgrowth of Jewish contact with a wider world. This literature was the contribution of the sages or philosophers, who formed a distinct class from the prophets, priests, or scribes, and who gave themselves particularly to the study of universal moral truth, reaching the heights of Hebrew intellectualism. For this phase of Old Testament history the Wisdom Literature offers important material. 11. The Apocalyptic Literature. This is the title to a unique form of Hebrew writings, characterized by highly fantastic figures, cast in the mold of prophecy of future events foretelling the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth, accompanied by the reward of the just and the punishment of the wicked. The beginnings of this type of literature are found in the canonical books, Ezek 38 to 39 ; Isa 24 to 27 ; Joel ; Zech 12 to 14 ; and Daniel ; but it reaches its full development in the Book of Enoch, the Assumption of Moses, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Book of Jubilees, the Ascension of Isaiah, and the Sibylline Oracles. Apocalyptic thought gave the dominant note to the Judaism of the two pre- Christian centuries; and in its atmosphere Christianity was born. 12. The Extra-Biblical Sources. Of inestimable value 30 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY for the understanding of Old Testament history, and out- weighing all other extra-biblical sources, are the results of excavations and research in Bible lands. Assyria and Babylonia, Syria and Palestine, Arabia and Egypt, have all yielded richly in monuments with inscriptions, clay tablets and papyri, linguistic aids, identification of sites, a variety of relics illustrative of ancient life, which altogether have brought the ancient civilization, as it were, to life again. It is true that much of the material is, comparatively speak- ing, too fresh and undigested to make the conclusions based upon it completely acceptable to scholars. But the material is constantly increasing, and one discovery aids another. In many cases vagueness and uncertainty have given way to certainty; and, in addition to adding new life and interest, biblical archaeology has proven to be a helpful handmaid to the study of Old Testament history. Litera- ture on the subject will be found in the Select List ap- pended to this volume. Among other extra-biblical sources the works of Josephus occupy the most prominent place. His Jewish War covers the period from Antiochus Epiphanes to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, including the taking of Masada, the last stronghold of the Jewish insurgents against Rome, that is, from 175 B. C. to 73 A. D. His Antiquities is a more pretentious historical work, running parallel with the biblical histories, which he, of course, uses, and extending to the beginning of the Roman war. Josephus participated in the struggle that led to the final destruction of the Jewish state, and should be a reliable source of history for that period. But it is evident that he writes as a partisan, and colors his story. But in many instances he quotes other sources no longer extant ; and while he has to be used with great caution, his work is too valuable to be neglected. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Consider the Old Testament in its character of a library con- SOURCES OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 31 taining a variety of literary productions, and note the place that the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha have in it. 2. Consider the historical origin of these literary productions and note how they must be used for historical purposes. 3. Obtain a clear view of the character of each of the five varieties of literature and note what books or portion of books fall under each variety. 4. Note the character of the extra-biblical sources. CHAPTER II THE LAND OF PALESTINE 13. The Old Testament World. The Old Testament World may, roughly speaking, be said to be inclosed by five bodies of water, namely, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. The countries lying along these waters prominently asso- ciated with Hebrew history are Arabia, in the center, most probably the original home of the Hebrews as of the Semitic race in general ; Babylonia, Assyria, and Mesopo- tamia, lying north in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris; Egypt, in the Nile valley to the south; and the "Isles of the Sea," by which are meant the coastlands as well as the islands of the Mediterranean as far west as Tarshish in Spain. In the very center of the entire region lies Palestine, or Canaan, the land of the Hebrews. 14. The Boundaries of Palestine. The ideal boun- daries of Canaan are "the entrance of Hamath" in the north, the "River of Egypt" in the south, the Great Sea in the west, and the Desert in the east (Gen 15. 18; Num 34. 1-12). This would make Canaan include Syria as far north as the valley of the Orontes, east to the Euphrates, and south as far as Kadesh. But the northern and southern extremes were commonly expressed by the phrase "from Dan even to Beersheba" (Judg 20. 1). Within this defini- tion the land of Canaan was about one hundred and fifty miles long and one hundred miles broad. It divides itself naturally into four zones, the lines running parallel from north to south, and consisting of (1) the Coast Plains; 32 right, 1906, by Charles Foster Kent MODERN PALESTINE WITH ANCIENT TOWNS AND HIGHWAYS THE LAND OF PALESTINE 33 (2) the Central Plateau and the Valley of Esdraelon; (3) the Jordan and the Dead Sea Valley; and (4) the East-Jordan Plateaus. 15. The Coast Plains. These plains run along the shore of the Mediterranean, and vary in width from five miles in the north to twenty-five miles in the south ; the narrowest points are at Carmel, where it is but two hun- dred yards wide, and the so-called "Ladder of Tyre," where it touches the sea. These plains are well watered and extremely fertile, producing a great variety of tropical fruits and cereals. The region has always been sought for its productivity ; and in modern times European Jews have largely colonized upon it. We may distinguish three divisions of these plains : 1. The Phoenician Plain, reaching as far south as Carmel, varying from two to five miles in width. It had good harbors, well utilized by the Phoenician traders and colo- nizers. Its chief cities were Berytus (the modern Beirut), Sidon, Zarephath, Tyre, Achzib, and Accho. 2. The Plain of Sharon extends from Carmel southward to Joppa, and is about sixty miles long. From the Nahr Zerka, or Crocodile River, southward it widens from six to twelve miles. Here and there small groves of oaks are still seen, the remains of extended forests. It is the land of wild flowers, sug- gested by the "Rose of Sharon" and the lily of the valley. In biblical references it is celebrated for its fertility and beauty, and even now possesses rich olive and orange groves. The Aujeh, which passes through it, is, next to the Jordan, the largest river of Palestine. Its main towns in Old Testament times were Japho (the modern Joppa) and Dor, and in New Testament times, Caesarea. 3. The Philistine Plain extends about fifty miles southward of Joppa, and is the widest and most fertile of the plains. Its ancient Philistine cities were Ekron, Gath, Ashdod, Askelon, and Gaza ; but within this plain lay also the ancient Canaanite towns of Libnah and Lachish. The 34 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY latter has yielded rich finds illustrating the old Canaanite civilization. Between the Philistine plain and the mountains of Judah lies a series of low foothills, separated from the mountains by continuous breaks from five hundred to a thousand feet in depth; this is the biblical Shephelah, or Lowland. It was the border land between Judah and the Philistines, and the witness of many a fight between the two rivals. The wadies, or valleys, forming the approach to the Judaean mountains are the Valley of Ajalon, with its Canaanite stronghold of Gezer ; the Valley of Sorek, the Valley of Elah, and the Valley of Zephathah. 16. The Central Plateau and the Valley of Esdraelon. Both the plateaus of western and eastern Palestine are the continuation of the Lebanon mountain range of Syria. The western, or central, plateau divides naturally into the mountains of Galilee, broken by the valley of Esdraelon; the mountains of Ephraim or Samaria, the mountains of Judah, and the Negcb, or South-Country. Ideally, as indi- cated above, the northern border of Israel extended to the "entrance of Hamath," on the Orontes; and then the two Lebanon ranges, Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, would fall within Israel's territory. The southern continuation of the Anti-Lebanon range reaches nigh unto Dan in the snow- capped Hermon. The mountains of Galilee fall into two divisions — upper and lower Galilee. The hills of Upper Galilee rise to a height of between two and four thousand feet and form an upper terrace of rolling elevated plateaus. Lower Galilee constitutes a southern, lower terrace, only nineteen hundred feet high, gradually sloping down to the valley of Esdraelon. Both sections are richly watered from the Lebanons, and exceedingly fertile. The Plain of Esdraelon forms the third and last of the great terraces by which the Lebanons descend southward. It forms an equiangular triangle. Its base runs along Mount Carmel to Jenin for about twenty miles. Along THE LAND OF PALESTINE 35 its northern side, fifteen miles in length, are the hills of Nazareth and Mount Tabor. Its eastern side, also fifteen miles long, extends from Mount Tabor to Jenin. Little Hermon, or Moreh, and Mount Gilboa jut into the plain. The Plain of Jezreel branches from Esdraelon eastward for fifteen miles to the Jordan, to ancient Bethshean. The plain of Esdraelon is watered by the hills which surround it and the river Kishon. In parts it is marshy, but it is an excellent grain field, although at present much neglected. Through it once led the great highway of the nations, and it was their great battlefield; and within it were situated the ancient Canaanite towns of Taanach and Megiddo, recently excavated with splendid results, and the Israelite city of Jezreel. From the valley of Esdraelon to Beershcba, the central range is one mass of mountains, ninety miles long, inter- rupted only by narrow valleys. The northern part is Mount Ephraim, or the Mountains of Samaria, and the southern part, the Mountains of Judah; and the small strip between them is Benjamin. The two mountain regions differ con- siderably in verdure and fertility, becoming more barren and arid as they proceed southward ; and this character is the only geographical means of distinction. The mountains of Samaria are like Lower Galilee — well watered and fer- tile. Here Mount Ebal rises three thousand and seventy- seven feet, and Mount Gerizim almost as much, with the valley of Shechem between them ; Baal Hazor rises thirty- three hundred and eighteen feet; while running in a north- westerly direction to the sea is Mount Carmel, eighteen miles long and reaching to a height of eighteen hundred feet. Along the eastern end of Carmel runs the Plain of Dothan, leading from the maritime plains to the valley of Esdraelon. This was the country of the house of Joseph, Ephraim, and Manasseh ; and its cities of renown were Shechem, Dothan, Shilo, and Samaria. The plateau of Benjamin belongs physically to Judah, and 36 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY it is like it in lack of fertility. Within its territory lay Mizpeh, Bethel, Ramah, Gibeah, and Gibeon; and it pos- sessed the two passes, the Upper and Lower Beth-horon, commanding the ancient highway from the maritime plain. The Mountains of Judah are, with the exception of a few narrow valleys and a fertile plateau south of Hebron, almost barren. The eastern slopes of its mountains, reach- ing to the Dead Sea, are truly called the Wilderness of Judah; the western slopes descend less abruptly to the foot- hills and the maritime plain. South of Hebron, extending to Beersheba, and even Kadesh-Barnea, is what is called the Negeb, or South- Country. It is now a wild and desolate country, seventy miles long and fifty wide, but it was the scene of the patriarchal stories. Large sections of the region are cap- able of cultivation, but it is now the haunt of Bedouins. 17. The Valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. It has been asserted that there is nothing on this planet to match the Jordan valley; no other part of our earth, un- covered by water, sinks three hundred feet below the level of the ocean. Some volcanic disturbance succeeded in creating a rift or ditch one hundred and sixty miles long and from two to fifteen miles broad, which falls from the sea level to twelve hundred and ninety-two feet below it, the bottom of the Dead Sea being thirteen hundred feet deeper still. The Jordan rises in Mount Hermon, and there are four streams, uniting before they enter Lake Huleh, which con- test the honor of being considered the source of the Jordan. Lake Huleh is really only a marsh ; and from its lower end the Jordan enters the great rift, and descends a narrow gorge in one almost continuous cascade, falling six hundred and fifty feet in less than nine miles. Here it enters the Sea of Galilee, which is harp-shaped and twelve or thirteen miles long and eight miles broad, flanked east and west by high hills. The distance from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead THE LAND OF PALESTINE 37 Sea is sixty-five miles, but the many windings make the river twice the length. It is from ninety to one hundred feet broad, and the depth varies from three feet at some fords to as much as ten or twelve feet. The Arabs call the valley of the Jordan below the Sea of Galilee the Ghor, meaning "Rift" ; and its climate and products are those of the tropics. The two principal tributaries of the Jordan are the Yarmuk and Jabbok, both coming from the east. The plain widens near Jericho, and in ancient times was famous for its fertility and tropical luxuriance; but as it approaches the Dead Sea, the desert begins. The story of Sodom and Gomorrah, with its brimstone, fire, and pillar of salt, is a fit introduction to the description of the deso- lateness of the Dead Sea and its valley. The sea is fifty- three miles long and from nine to ten broad ; it is twelve hundred and ninety feet below the level of the Mediter- ranean, and has no outlet, except evaporation. Its waters are beautifully blue and clear ; but five times Salter than ordinary sea water. On its banks is no vegetation, and the flanking hills on both sides are bare. All around it are sulphur and petroleum springs and evidences of volcanic eruptions; yet the region is not without its grandeur and beauty. 18. The East- Jordan Plateaus. The elevated plateau of the eastern side of the Jordan is the southern continua- tion of the Anti-Lebanon range, and rises to a height of from two to three thousand feet. It is well watered and surpasses western Palestine in verdure and fertility. In biblical terms the territory is divided into three main sec- tions, proceeding from Mount Hermon southward, namely, Bashan, Gilead, and Moab. Bashan is the section covered by the Jaulan (or Golan) and Hauran districts, as far south as the Yarmuk river. The southeastern part of the Julan and Hauran produce abundantly wheat and barley in the rich, dark-red soil; the other parts are marked by their extinguished volcanoes and lava beds. Gilead lies 38 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY between the Yarmuk River and the wady Heshban; it is sixty miles wide, and of great fertility, due to the Jabbok. This country played an important part in Old Testament history ; and Jabesh-Gilead, Rammoth-Gilead, and Rabbath- Ammon, are the familiar names of its chief cities. The Land of Moab occupied another sixty miles of eastern Palestine southward; and while it has grain fields, it is chiefly pasture land. The Arnon is its chief river; and it can boast of Mount Pisgah or Mount Nebo, four thousand feet above the level of the Dead Sea, furnishing a splendid point to view the landscape over. 19. The Highways of Palestine. Vital to national and international life are the highways which in ancient times took the place of our railroads. It appears that Palestine had a number of well-defined highways, which after a use of thousands of years still follow the same course. Fore- most in importance were the roads that led from Babylonia and Assyria through Syria and Palestine to Egypt. There were two such roads : one led from Egypt along the mari- time plains northward into Syria and through "the entrance of Hamath" into the Orontes valley to the Euphrates. This appears to have been the way of military expeditions, used not only by Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians, but by the Greeks and Romans, and even by Napoleon. There can still be recognized inscriptions at Nahr El-Kelb, ten miles north of Beirut, which each invader carved into the native rock, and which are, unfortunately, as has been noticed, becoming more and more illegible. The other route led from Egypt eastward to Elath on the Gulf of Akabah, and thence northward through Petra, Edom, Moab, and Gilead, to Damascus; and thence eastward. It is in part the great pilgrim road along the edge of the desert from Mecca to Damascus, now traversed by the Turkish railroad, soon to be completed to Aleppo and Baghdad. A road led from Phoenicia across the Lebanon to Damas- THE LAND OF PALESTINE 39 cus, Palmyra, and the Euphrates ; another from Philistia eastward to Petra and Duma to the Persian Gulf. Within Palestine itself there were roads from Jerusalem to Hebron, Beersheba to Elath; or from Hebron to Gaza. A road to eastern Palestine led from Jerusalem to Jericho, and either crossing the Jordan at Jericho or following the Arabah, or Jordan valley, to Bethshean, and thence across the Jordan. From Jerusalem northward led a road by the way of the mountains of Benjamin and Ephraim ; there was a road from Accho across the plain of Esdraelon, and down the valley of Jezreel; from Jerusalem to the maritime plains by the way of the pass of the Bethhorons. Alto- gether these roads formed a network, connecting the country as a whole and making it the highway of the nations. 20. The General Character of Palestine. It may be summarized in three terms — ruggedness, diversity, and cen- tral location. As one passes through the land, not by train or carriage, but on the back of a beast of burden, one be- comes impressed with the fact that Palestine is essentially a hilly or mountainous country. While here and there is a stretch of level land, it is, on the whole, rugged; not the country that would develop a people loving ease, but requir- ing the qualities of energy and effort. Again, it is a land which contains within a narrow compass a most remarkable diversity of physical characteristics. Within a stretch of country no longer than from New York city to Albany you can find snow-capped mountains in the summertime and the tropics ; rich meadows of wild flowers and the most desolate deserts; the ocean, springs, rivers, lakes, and extinct vol- canoes, lava beds, and hot sulphur springs. And there it lay, the highway between the two most civilized countries of the ancient world. It would seem impossible to find any other country in the world better fitted to produce and train a people with a message to universal mankind ; and it is no wonder that faith has recognized it as the promised land to a chosen nation of God. 4 o OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 21. Israel's Neighbors. On the east side of the Jordan there were three peoples with whom the Israelites felt themselves akin: Edom, in the extremest south; Moab, whose northern boundary was, generally speaking, the river Arnon ; and Ammon, whose territory lay between the Arnon and the Jabbok. On the north their neighbors were the Arameans, with whom they also felt themselves related; and to whom, in fact, they traced their own origin. On the coast plains their neighbors were, on the north, the Phoenicians, who were Semites, and with whom they stood in friendly relations; on the south, the Philistines, whom they regarded as alien and "uncircumcised," and with whom they often came into conflict. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Draw your own map of the Biblical World, embodying in it the international position of Palestine and the highways of inter- national travel. 2. Draw your own map of Palestine, incorporating its main physical features, the principal cities, and the neighbors of the Hebrews. 3- Read Deut 8. 7-9 and 11. 9-12 for the geographical contents. PART I THE FORMATIVE PERIOD FROM THE BEGINNINGS TO THE DEATH OF SOLOMON, 933 B.C. CHAPTER III THE FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES i. The Origin of the Hebrew Race 22. The General Contents of Gen i to n. The biblical historian writes the history of his people from a religious point of view, recognizing throughout the hand of God ; and it is natural that he should trace the origin of his race back to the creative act of God, and make it part of universal history. He is thus led to tell of the creation of the world and man ; of the origin of sin and the develop- ment of man's moral consciousness ; of his primitive occu- pations and the beginnings of the arts of civilization; of a destructive flood and the new start of the human race ; of the formation of families, tribes, and races ; of the founding of cities, states, and nations, and of the rise of different languages. But all this he tells with particular reference to the origin of the Hebrew race, toward which he moves by gradually eliminating the more distantly related elements. The material for his account the author has drawn from various sources ; but he has molded it with skill so as to focus it on his main subject and to bring out the religious, moral and social meaning. 23. The Two Accounts of the Creation. The account Gen 1 to 3 of creation is given in parallel forms : an earlier, prophetic (2. 4b to 3. 24), and a later, priestly (1. 1 to 2. 4a), each having its own style, order of events, and religious concep- tions. The earlier account is characterized by its sim- plicity : God, whom this writer calls "Jehovah," is conceived as acting like man; he "forms" man, woman, and the 43 44 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY animals by the manipulation of his hands, as a potter might form a vessel out of clay; he takes a walk in the garden in the cool of the day; seeks man by calling after him, "Where art thou?"; and makes garments and puts them on our first parents. The writer shows his special interest in social and moral problems by indicating that man was designed for work, and must eat his bread in the sweat of his brow ; that it is not good for man to be alone, but that he needs the divine institution of marriage; and that it is woman's lot to bear children. He depicts man's moral and spiritual nature by showing how sin brings hardships and sorrow, and interrupts man's familiar intercourse with God. The later account is more formal in style, but more elevated in thought. God, whom this writer calls Elohim — "God" — is over and above the world ; and he speaks it into existence by the word of his mouth. This priestly writer views creation in the light of religious institutions. The lumin- aries have as a chief function to aid in the fixing of the festive seasons of the sacred calendar; and the observance of the Sabbath is enforced by God's own rest on the seventh day. The value of these accounts does not lie in any scientific teaching concerning the order of the creation of the universe or the appearing of life upon the globe. The writers' ideas of nature simply reflect the views of the time. Their chief interest is in certain great religious truths, and though they differ in the details, in these great truths they agree. Back of the universe stands God as its personal creator. Man is a creature made in the image of God. The purpose of the creation is to be found in man's lordship over the world. Sin is not from God but is due to man's own responsible choice. Gen 4. i to 6. 4 In the stories of Cain and the descendants to Noah we get glimpses of the roaming restlessness of nomadic life, of its attending insecurity, tribal marks, quarrels, and cry for revenge. The prehistoric ancestors are conceived as FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 45 marvels in length of life and size of stature, which is ac- counted for on the mythological ground that they were the offspring of inter-marriages of divine beings with human kind, "sons of God" and "daughters of men." This pre- historic condition becomes degenerate enough to demand the total destruction of mankind and a new start, which is brought about by the Flood and the rescue of Noah; after which history proceeds on more normal lines. 24. The Two Accounts of the Flood. The story of the Gen 6. 5 to 9. 29 Flood is also given in two versions, but they are inter- woven in one. According to the earlier account, contained in Gen 6. 5-8; 7. 1-5, 7-10, 12, 16b, 17b, 22, 23; 8. ib, 2b, 3a, 4, 6-12, 13b, 20-22, the Flood is caused by a forty days' rain; and two or three weeks after the rain had ceased the olive trees are already above the waters. According to the later and fuller account, contained in Gen 6. 9-22; 7. 6, 11, i3-i6a, 17a, 18-21, 24; 8. ia, 2a, 3b, 5, 13a, 14-19; 9- ^7, the Flood lasts over a year, the waters come from sub- terranean as well as celestial sources, and cover even high mountains. In the prophetic account we meet again the simple or anthropomorphic idea of God : Jehovah repents and is sorry over what he has done; he puts the cover on the ark, and shuts Noah in ; he smells the roasting of the sacrificial meat, and is appeased by it. The priestly writer also again reveals his interest in religious institutions : God's "covenant" with Noah, the ritual prohibition of the use of blood, and the legal status of murder. But both accounts assign sin as the cause of the Flood ; both imply the total extinction of all life and declare that Noah only and those with him were saved through his righteousness. Creation and Flood stories were current among many nations of antiquity; those of nearest resemblance to the Hebrew are the Babylonian. In view of the older civiliza- tion of Babylonia, the latter must be considered as the source of the former. But both in literary form, even though the Babylonian epics are genuine poetry, and in 46 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY elevation of thought the Hebrew surpass the Babylonian. The Hebrew authors know how to purge their sources of the crass mythological and polytheistic elements and to present them in pure monotheistic form, surcharged with highest moral and religious truths. That the Flood story rests upon some historical foundation is probable. It is probably based upon the reminiscence of some memorable and devastating inundation of the Euphrates valley. To the biblical writer it has furnished serviceable material with which to close up the prehistoric period of human history so as to allow him a nearer starting point in tracing the origins of the races of the biblical world and of the Hebrew race in particular. Gen io and ii 25. The Tables of the Nations. Chapters 10 and n furnish some genealogical matter which connects Noah with Abraham. In their present form the chapters are a com- bination of lists whose object it was to classify the known people of the world, and to show their relation to each other and to the Hebrews. The classification is on the basis of the three sons of Noah — Shem, Ham, and Japhet. The Japhites are the northern peoples, located in Asia Minor, Armenia, and along the shores of the Caspian and the Atlantic, representing the Indo-Germanic group. Among them are Gomer, the Cimmerians of the Greeks; Madai, the Medes ; Javan, the Greeks ; Elishah, most probably Cyprus; and Tarshish, Tartessus, the Phoenician colony of Spain. The Hamites represent the southern group, located in Africa and southern Arabia, including the Canaanites of Palestine as well as Cush or Ethiopia and Mizraim or Egypt. The Shemites, or Semites, are the eastern group, all lying east of Palestine; and including among them Assyria, Eabylonia, and Mesopotamia, out of which came Abraham, the ancestor of the Hebrews. We have here no scientific classification of the human race, nor in the story of the tower of Babel a scientific account of the origin of the different languages. The classification is not on the FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 47 basis of race, color, or language, but of geographical loca- tion. This, together with the fact that the names are those of countries, like Egypt or Babylonia, makes it clear that the personal element of the relationship is not to be taken literally ; that is, we are not to suppose that all the Egyptians, for instance, are the literal descendants of one ancestor by the name of Egypt, any more than one can assume that all Americans are the literal offspring of one man by the name of Amerigo. Peoples and nations do not originate in so simple a manner; and there is no reason for sup- posing that the biblical writer thought differently, or that the personal element in his genealogies was not simply to make the relation more objective. The horizon of the list is limited, and yet it is one of the oldest geographical and historical enumerations. But its chief value for biblical history lies in the expression it gives of the Hebrew con- sciousness of the unity of the race and of its relative posi- tion among the races of antiquity. Abraham, the father of the Hebrews, is but the offshoot of a branch of the tree of the races. When he appeared the human race was well advanced in age. Back of him stretches a vast historical past, and back of it in turn a vast prehistoric past. But the connecting link, the author would make us realize, was God; for the God of Abraham was the God of Noah and the God of Adam. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Secure a copy of the Revised Version of the Bible, preferably the American Standard Edition, with wide margin. Let this be your study Bible which you will feel free to mark in various ways to bring out the points in the lessons. 2. Read Gen I to 11 and note the progress from Adam to Abraham. 3. Read the two accounts of creation and mark in your Bible the differences in language and point of view, underscoring the words. 4. Mark in the margin of your Bible the earlier account of the Flood by a J and the later by a P, and read each account sepa- rately. 48 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 5. Summarize the main religious lessons suggested in these eleven chapters. 2. The Patriarchal Tribal Migrations 26. General Contents of Gen 12 to 50. The biblical material divides itself into (1) the history of Abraham, Gen 12. 1 to 25. 18; (2) the history of Jacob, 25. 19 to 36. 43; and (3) the story of Joseph and his brethren, 37 to 50 ; and it covers the period from Abraham's migration into Canaan to the settlement of Joseph's brethren in Egypt. Besides the priestly writer (P) and the prophetic (J), we meet now with a somewhat later prophetic writer (E), who uses the word "Elohim" for "God," and holds an intermediate conception of God between the anthropo- morphic of the Jehovistic and the transcendental of the priestly writer, making angels and dreams the intermedi- aries in communications between God and man. Gen 12. i to 27. The History of Abraham. The history of Abraham in its main elements contains Abraham and Lot's migration from Haran to Canaan, the sojourn and building of altars at Shechem and Bethel, the migration to Egypt and the cap- ture of Sarah, the separation of Lot to the cities of the Plain; Abraham's removal to Hebron, the promise of an heir and the covenant, the expulsion of Hagar, mother of Ishmael; the promise of Isaac, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and the rescue of Lot, the origin of Moab- ites and Ammonites, the birth of Isaac, Abraham at Beer- sheba, Eliezer's mission to Haran for Rebekah, and Abraham's marriage of Keturah, with the names of sixteen Arabian tribal descendants. The main source of infor- mation is the Jehovistic document. The Elohistic con- tains parallel accounts of the capture of Sarah, the expul- sion of Hagar, and Abraham's covenant with Abimelech at Beersheba, while the offering of Isaac is found in this source alone. The Priestly writer has contributed mainly the chronological framework. According to this, Abraham 25- 18 FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 49 is seventy-five years old when he leaves Haran ; ten years later he marries Hagar, and Ishmael is born when Abraham is eighty-six years old ; at the age of ninety-nine he gets the promise of Isaac, which is the occasion of the institu- tion of circumcision. Isaac is born when Abraham is one hundred years old ; Sarah dies at the age of one hundred and twenty-eight and is buried in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, acquired by the right of purchase as the patriarchal burial place, where Abraham also is buried at the age of one hundred and seventy-five. The combination of the chronological framework with the earlier stories, which had evidently separate origins, creates rather strange situations. When, according to J, Abraham's life is in danger among the Egyptians on account of the beauty of Sarah, or when, according to E, he is in the same danger among the Philis- tines, she is over sixty-five or over ninety-six years of age respectively. Abraham laughs at the idea of having children at the age of ninety-nine; but forty years later he marries again and has six sons by Keturah. The history of Isaac does not have a separate existence, but is found combined partly with that of Abraham, his father, and partly with that of Jacob, his son. 28. The History of Jacob-Israel. The history of Jacob- Gen 2 s- 19 to Israel is found in both of the prophetic sources in sub- stantially the same form, with characteristic variations, and contains the birth of the twin brothers Esau and Jacob, Jacob's purchase of Esau's birthright, Isaac's blessing, Jacob's departure to Haran, the theophany at Bethel, the marriage at Haran with Leah, Rachel, Bilhah, and Zilpah; and the birth of their children ; Jacob's prosperity, flight from Laban, covenant with Laban ; the meeting with Esau and the wrestling of Jacob, peculiar to J; the rape of Dinah at Shechem, Jacob's return to Bethel ; and Judah and Tamar (]). The contribution of the Priestly writer is rather meager. Aside from some chronological notes, he empha- sizes as right Jacob's marriage with the Arameans, and 36. 43 5 o OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY as wrong Esau's marriage with the Canaanites (28. 1-9) ; he furnishes a summary of the names of the twelve sons of Jacob by mothers: Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon; Rachel— Joseph, Benjamin; Bilhah— Dan, Naphtali; Zilpah— Gad, Asher, omitting Dinah and counting Benjamin as born in Mesopotamia (35. 22-26; compare verses 16-18). Gen 37 to 50 29. The Story of Joseph and His Brethren. The story of Joseph and his brethren is similarly derived chiefly from the two prophetic documents, and found in its main features in parallel accounts with varying details, while each also contains elements of its own. Joseph sold into Egypt, JE ; Joseph tempted, J ; Joseph as the interpreter of dreams, E; Joseph as governor of Egypt, JE; Joseph's policy during the famine, J; his first meeting with his brothers, E; second meeting, J; the recognition, JE; the establishment of his kinsmen in Egypt, JEP; the blessing of Joseph's sons by Jacob-Israel, JEP (Gen 49. 2-27 be- longs to a later time) ; the burial of Jacob-Israel at Hebron, JP; the latter days of Joseph, E. 30. The Literary and Historical Character of the Patriarchal Stories. The literary charm of the patriarchal stories has won universal admiration, and their religious value cannot be overstated. The patriarchal figures are the embodiment of the popular religious faith and virtue. Abraham is the friend of God, characterized by an un- swerving faith in the unseen, an example of generosity and obedience. Isaac possesses more of the passive virtues; he is quiet and resigned. Jacob is the crafty ; he knows how to drive the sharp bargain and to prosper in spite of diffi- culties. Joseph is the sagacious, pure, and noble. That they are faultless and safe examples in all particulars is nowhere stated; but that they as a whole are looked upon with approval is evident. The stories are in the form of personal histories. But in view of the fact that they deal with the earliest beginnings of a nation's history, with that FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 51 part that is usually little known, the question has been raised as to what extent we have here strict history. The answers that have been given to this question show that it is possible to err in either direction, namely, by over- emphasizing or by underrating the personal element. It is highly probable that the stories were originally trans- mitted from mouth to mouth and retold from generation to generation in public gatherings in the very places associated with their history, as Bethel, Shechem, Hebron, or Beer- sheba, seats of ancient sanctuaries. But such a trans- mission would naturally gather to the stories popular ele- ments, and in the end they would come to reflect in many features the thought and life of later times. This accounts for the literary charm of the stories, for the double or even triple form in which they are often found, and also for their apparently disconnected and independent form. But while allowance must thus be made for their shaping and embellishment, there is reason for believing that there are elements in them that rest upon substantial facts of history. The recent attempt to dissolve the patriarchs into astral or tribal gods has signally failed. Neither has the attempt proved successful to resolve the patriarchal figures into tribal heroes and to see in them not the experiences of individuals, but only the experiences of tribes. It is quite true, as has already been pointed out, that the biblical writers often relate national history in personal terms, and that in many instances the personal relations reflect tribal or national relations. But, on the other hand, the personal element in the patriarchal stories is too definite and pro- nounced to be accounted for entirely in this manner. On the pylons of the temple of Karnak is a list of over one hundred names of places which Thutmosis III conquered in an expedition against Syria about 1470 B. C. Among them are mentioned Jacob-el and Joseph-el; and it appears probable that there existed in Palestine in the middle of 52 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY the fifteenth century B. C. tribes which bore the name of Jacob and Joseph; but the name of Abraham has so far been discovered only as that of an individual. Tribal movements imply personal leadership ; and the biblical tradition which ascribes to Abraham such leadership is perfectly reasonable. The fact that Abraham had a trusty servant like Eliezer and other retainers, which is implied also in the stories of the other patriarchs, would indicate that the biblical writers did not conceive that the patriarchal tribes were composed of only literal "sons" of the patri- archs. By assuming, then, that the patriarchs were historical persons and leaders of tribal movements in the broader sense, it is possible to meet all the reasonable requirements of the biblical tradition. To what extent we are to call the tradition legendary will depend upon the definition of legend. If legend is taken to be baseless fancy, the stories are not legend; but if it be taken that the essence of legend consists of a wonderful personality who has made a deep impression on human life so as to lead to idealization, then they are legends. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Mark in your Bible the account of Abraham, underscoring the names of the places, and make a brief outline of his movements. 2. Treat in like manner the account of Jacob-Israel. 3. Do the same with the account of Joseph and his brethren. 4. State and illustrate the virtues and faults of each of the patriarchs. 3. The Traditions of Genesis in the Light of Contemporaneous History 31. The Original Home and Migrations of the Semites. Recent archjeological research in Bible lands yields consider- able light upon the historical background of the Genesis traditions. The original home of the Semites, to whom the Hebrews belong, appears to have been Arabia, whence by successive migrations they occupied Babylonia, Syria, and FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 53 Palestine. These migrations were racial movements and explain the origin of the Hebrews. Our interest in these movements lies in the fact that they show the high state of civilization that lies back of the Hebrews' coming into Palestine. The earliest of these migrations took place before 3000 B. C. and displaced a considerably advanced non-Semitic civilization both in Babylonia and Palestine. There are biblical references to these prehistoric inhabitants of Pales- tine (Deut 2. 2off. ; Gen 14. 51.), and the excavations at Gezer by Macalister have thrown an interesting light upon that period. Egypt also came very early under the influence of the Semites. Egyptian monuments, dating back to 3400 B. C. and relating to the copper mines of the southern end of the Sinaitic Peninsula, contain figures with clear Semitic features. During the Old Babylonian Supremacy, 3200-2500 B. C, several Babylonian expeditions were undertaken as far as the Mediterranean for building material. 32. The Amorite Migration. A second wave of Semitic migrations brought the Amorites into Syria and Palestine. Both Babylonia and Egypt were kept busy in checking these aggressive invaders. The Amorites held themselves strongly intrenched in Palestine until they were finally driven out or absorbed by the Hebrews. The Egyptian story of Sinuhe, belonging to the Middle Kingdom, 2000 B. C., reveals the closest commercial and diplomatic rela- tions between Egypt and Palestine, and shows that the needs of the Amorite tribes were already those of highly civilized people. 33. The Elamite Ascendancy and Gen 14. The four- teenth chapter of Genesis gives an account of an Elamite invasion of Palestine in the time of Abraham. The Elam- ites were eastern neighbors of the Babylonians and for two centuries they succeeded in holding Babylonia under their sway. 54 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY The expedition is under the leadership of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (v. 17), and it is undertaken to recover the Palestine dependency which had revolted. The battle takes place in the valley of Siddim, near the Dead Sea. The forces of five Palestinian kings are defeated and the con- querors carry away with them much booty. Abram, whose residence is given as the oaks of Mamre, near Hebron, and who is a confederate of the Amorites, comes to their help; and with his retainers defeats the invaders at Dan. He drives them as far as Damascus, and returns with much spoil. Some features of this account have been remarkably verified as strictly historical. Two of the five invading kings can be identified. Amraphel is a faulty transcription of Hammurabi, Arioch, king of Ellasar, is probably Eri-aga, the equivalent of Arad-Sin, king of Larsa. The name of Chedorlaomer can be traced back to an Elamite source. The names of these kings, as well as of the countries, appear strictly historical. The situation also which makes these kings contemporaries and gives to the Elamite the supremacy is in accord with the known facts of Babylonian history. An Elamite invasion of Palestine and a tem- porary supremacy there are in harmony with the known policy of Babylonian rulers of the times ; and the consequent revolt of the Amorite tribes bears also the stamp of historicity. But there are difficulties in the way of making Abraham a contemporary of Hammurabi and the chieftain of Amorite troops. According to the biblical tradition, Abraham is the leader of an Aramean migratory movement ; for the Israelite is taught to say: " An Aramean [Revised Version text "a Syrian"] ready to perish was my father" (Deut 26. 5; compare Gen 25. 20; 28. 5). And the Aramean migration did not take place until several centuries later. It appears, further, this Abraham incident is quite independent of other elements of the Abraham tradition. The Aramean FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 55 Abraham is a peaceful man, content to yield and pay his way as a stranger in a strange land; but the Amorite Abraham is a princely warrior, powerful and dignified. A fully satisfactory explanation of all the features of the account has not yet been given. 34. The Reign of Hammurabi. The Elamite suprem- acy came to ah end and that of Babylon began through the energy and statesmanship of the great Hammurabi, who himself belonged to the Amorite race. The date of Hammurabi is probably about 1900 B. C. He was a great soldier and conqueror, one of the greatest builders and organizers of antiquity. He excelled also as a legislator, and his law code, recently discovered at Susa, containing two hundred and eighty-two laws, covers the widest range of ancient civilization, and anticipates by a thousand years much of the civil legislation of the Old Testament. 1 35. The Hyksos-Canaanite Migration. About two centuries later another Semitic racial migration took place, resulting in the occupation of Palestine by the Canaanites and of Egypt by the Hyksos. These newcomers drove the Amorites northward to the mountains of central Syria, while they themselves occupied Palestine. This accounts for the representation in the Old Testament which makes the Amorite the lesser and the Canaanite the greater con- tingent of the original inhabitants of Palestine during the Israelite conquest. The Hyksos, or "Shepherd Kings," were the fifteenth and sixteenth Dynasties of Egypt (cir. 1650-1580 B. C), and governed the entire country of Egypt. Classical writers have strangely confused them with the patriarchal tribes who went down to Egypt. They were nomads, coming from the east; and their names betray a Semitic language. They adopted the culture of Egypt; oppressed the natives, who hated them as intruders, and called them the "pest." 1 For the Code of Hammurabi, see Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testa- ment, pp. 39S-46S. 56 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY About 1500 B. C. the Hyksos were driven from Egypt into northern Syria. They mingled with the other population of Palestine, producing the race called indiscriminately Amorites (Josh 24. 8, 18) and Canaanites (Gen 24. 3-7). 36. The Tell El-Amarna Period. The struggle against the Hyksos brought to Egypt a period of united effort and splendid achievement, resulting in Egyptian supremacy lasting for a century and a half. It is the period of Pales- tinian history sometimes called the Tell El-Amarna period, from the fact that at a place by that name in Egypt, one hundred and sixty miles south of Cairo, was discovered in 1887 a large number of clay tablets, which proved to be the reports or letters of Egyptian officials to the king of Egypt. The language is Babylonian, which shows it to have been the means of international communication. The letters come from Babylonia, Assyria, the land of the Hittites, Mitanni, Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine, showing the extent of Egypt's sway. One is tempted to go into the details of these letters, but space forbids. The kings addressed are Amenophis III and IV, which fixes the date of the corres- pondence as cir. 1400 B. C. The tone of the letters indicates that Egypt's hold is loosening, and there are numerous calls for help against invaders. Among the three hundred and sixty longer and shorter documents are six letters from Abdihiba of Jerusalem, assuring the king of Egypt of his loyalty and asking help against the unfriendly Habiri. ... So long as the king, my lord, lives, when an officer goes forth I shall say : the land of the king, my lord, is going to ruin. But you do not listen to me, all the princes are lost, and the king, my lord, will have no more princes. Let the king turn his face to the princes, and let the king, my lord, send troops. The king has no longer any territory. The Habiri have devastated all the king's territory. If there be troops in this year, the land will remain to the king, my lord's, but if no troops come, the lands of the king, my lord, are lost. 2 2 See Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, pp. 2698. FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 57 This portion of the letter of the governor of Jerusalem illustrates the nature of the correspondence. It mentions particularly two foes that threaten Egypt's domain in Palestine, the Hatti and the Habiri. 37. The Hittites. That the Hatti are the Hittites of the Old Testament is generally held; but what their race or language was has not yet been determined, except nega- tively, that it was not Semitic. All the Biblical sources regard the Hittites as early inhabitants of Palestine (Exod 3. 8, 17; Num 13, 29). Their original home appears to have been Asia Minor, whence they spread into north Syria and eastward to the Euphrates. They were a highly civil- ized and powerful people; and from 1500-700 B. C. strongly influenced Syrian history. They have left numerous monu- ments and inscriptions, which still await a successful decipherer. 38. The Habiri. There appears nothing in the way etymologically of regarding the name "Habiri" as the equivalent of the Hebrews ; but that they were the Hebrews of the Old Testament; that is, the Israelites, is altogether doubtful. The most that can be said is that they were, like them, Semites, or more particularly, Aramean invaders, probably an earlier wave of migration of the same race. This would accord with the fact that biblical sources give the name "Eber" to the great-grandson of Shem, from whom are traced, after six generations, the Arameans (Gen 10. 21; 11. 14-26; P; Gen 22. 21; J). 39. The Aramean Migration. Several generations, then, after the Habiri of the Tell El-Amarna period, an- other Aramean migration brought the historical Hebrews to Palestine. The name "Hebrew" means one "who has come across," namely, from the other side of the river (Euphrates) ; that is, Haran, either as an immigrant or trader (Josh 24. 21; Gen 11. 31; 24. 4, 7, 10). A part of that migration, represented as under the leadership of Lot, the son of Haran, the brother of Abraham, whose older 58 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY name was Lotan (Gen 36. 20, 22, 29)— Egyptian, Rut en, or Luten — settled on the east side of the Jordan, producing, of course by amalgamation with the resident elements, the nations of Moab and Ammon. The main stock of the new- comers, probably of moderate numbers, represented under the leadership of Abraham, found their domicile in southern Palestine. The clans of Hagar, Keturah, and Sarah, named as wives of Abraham, developed into independent groups of people. Of Hagar came the Ishmaelites, "twelve princes according to their nations," whose home was "the wilder- ness of Paran," bordering on the west on Egypt, with whom they are considered related (Gen 21. 1-21 ; 25. 12-18). Of Keturah came the Midianites (Gen 25. 1-4), and other Arabian tribes, some of them inhabiting the central section of the Sinaitic peninsula, and others the desert lands on the east of Palestine. Of Sarah came Isaac, who is asso- ciated with places in the south of Palestine, Beersheba and the Negeb. Gen 24 The beautiful story of Eliezer's wooing of Rebekah for his master's son Isaac, no doubt, expresses the historical reminiscence that the Isaac group received reenforcements from the original Aramean stock, while others apparently did not. Out of this newer element were formed the groups of Esau and Israel. Esau became the Edomites, situated in the mountains of Seir, on the east side of the Sinaitic peninsula, who, according to biblical tradition, amalgamated partially with Hittite elements of the native population (Gen 26. 34f.) and partially with Ishmaelite stock (28. 8f.). Gen 29 to 33 40. Jacob-Israel. The Aramean relationship of Jacob- Israel is even more pronounced than that of Isaac. He is represented as personally returning to Mesopotamia, where he marries into the family of Laban the Aramean, and comes back to Canaan with wives and children and considerable property. We have evidently here to do with a somewhat later Aramean migration, consisting of clans bearing the names of Leah, Rachel, Zilpah, and Bilhah. FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 59 The sons of Jacob-Israel are grouped into twelve tribes, like the descendants of Nahor and Ishmael. 41. The Patriarchal Tribal Mode of Life and Settle- ments. It is commonly supposed that the patriarchs lived a nomadic life in Canaan, roaming through the length and breadth of it, pitching their tents or removing them frequently, but upon closer examination of the biblical data it is discovered that this is merely a superficial appear- ance. It is in large measure due to the compiler of the stories. These stories, which originally were independent, are now strung together and connected with scenes in different parts of Palestine. They thus produce the impres- sion of constant movement, whereas, in fact, there are only three localities that are associated with them as domiciles, namely, Hebron and Beersheba, and the Negeb in the south ; Shechem and Bethel in the center; and Penuel and Maha- naim by the River Jabbok in the east of Palestine. Neither was the mode of life nomadic, but seminomadic, which constitutes a definite intermediate stage between the settled life of the agriculturist and the roaming life of the nomad in that it contains elements of both, still to be found in eastern Palestine, and represented by the term "Ma-aze." The Bedouin is the nomad, who does not till the soil; the fellahin, the agriculturist ; but the Ma-aze, living along the border of the desert and arable land, is the shepherd who tills the soil as he has opportunity, without settling per- manently. The difference in these three modes of life is illustrated in the story of Cain and Abel (Gen 4. 1-16), which is evidently written from the point of view of the seminomad. It is evident that the patriarchal life is conceived as seminomadic. The patriarchs are shepherds whose flocks consist of sheep and goats, which need daily watering: hence the numerous quarrels over wells; they have "houses" (Gen 27. 15), and apparently till the soil and reap lentils (25. 34). The only question that can be raised is whether 60 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY it correctly represents the tradition or is due to a later conception. But as such a mode of life is not improbable in itself, and there is no evidence to the contrary, there exists no reason for not taking it as embodying historical reminiscence. Of the three localities associated with the patriarchs, Hebron and the Negeb are associated with Abraham and Isaac ; and it would seem to indicate that it was there that the Hebrews succeeded in obtaining a temporary foothold. This region meets exactly with the political and geograph- ical conditions for such a settlement ; for it is the borderland of the desert, less sought after, and has ever been less capable of control. The other two localities are associated with Jacob-Israel. The double name "Jacob" and "Israel," together with the two localities in different parts of Pales- tine, would indicate two tribal movements, originally inde- pendent, but ultimately so fused as to leave the point of fusion indiscernible. The residence of Jacob-Israel in east and central Pales- tine was probably only of short duration — through the eastern part a merely tardy passing through on the way from the Hauran. The residence around Shechem, as appears Gen 34 from the episode of Gen 34, was probably longer. This chapter tells of a conflict between the tribes Simeon and Levi, "sons" of Leah, with the native Canaanites on account of their "sister" Dinah. We have here a reminiscence of patriarchal times, which is reflected also in Gen 49. 5-7. Accordingly, the residence of Jacob-Israel must have been cut short by the conflicts with the Canaanites of the region. These conflicts finally drove them into the more permanent Gen 38 settlement in the south. A similarly early tradition is con- tained in Gen 38, which gives the origin of the chief clans of the tribe of Judah through intermarriages with Canaan- ites of Adullam, Timnah, and Chezib, lying among the foot- hills east of the Philistine plain. In this southern district of Palestine, Hebron and Beersheba, the early scenes of FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 61 Joseph's life are laid (Gen 37. 14, 22; 46. 5), and it is from here the movement proceeded toward Goshen. 42. The Descent into Egypt. The stories of Joseph narrate the descent into Egypt with most fascinating details, and are remarkably true to Egyptian manners and condi- tions. The cause of the migration to Egypt was a famine. It is not necessary to suppose that all of Jacob-Israel par- took in the movement, and, as will appear later, there are reasons for holding that some of Israel remained in their settlement. On the other hand, Egyptian documents have made it clear that Bedouin movements to Goshen were not uncommon, and were sanctioned by the Egyptian govern- ment. In the time of Menerphtah (1225-1215 B. C), an official in charge of the border defense reports to his superior: "We have permitted the Bedouin tribes of Edom to pass through the fortress of Menerphtah in Zeku to the marshes of Pithom in order to keep them and their herds alive in the possession of the king.'' 43. The Presuppositions of the Biblical Tradition. There are two religious presuppositions which underlie the patriarchal stories in their present form : first, that Canaan was the land of the Hebrews by divine promise before they took possession of it; and, secondly, that the migration of Abraham had its motive in religious faith. The temporary foothold that the patriarchs had gained in Palestine, we may hold, was the promise of the full possession of it to their descendants ; and it no doubt exerted no small influence in the subsequent history of the conquest. The memory that their fathers once lived in the land and held it in parts might well have awakened aspirations and hopes concerning it, and stirred their faith to make the effort to obtain it. As to Abraham's religious motive, it is evident that both Babylonia and Egypt about his time saw new movements in religion. In the time of Hammurabi, Marduk, the city- god of Babylon, became the chief god of the Babylonian 62 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY pantheon. One of the effects of this change would be to degrade the god Sin, who had his worship in Ur and Haran, both associated in tradition with Abraham. These changes were deliberately undertaken to unify the state. In some instances the rival shrine was sacked, the images and votive offerings destroyed, and the cult prohibited by the authority of the king of Babylon. In Egypt Amenophis IV, known as the heretic king, deliberately and systematically set to work to establish a new religion over Egypt. He changed his own name in honor of his new faith, and built for himself a new capital on the site of the modern Tell El- Amarna, in order to give fuller expression to the new cult. That these changes in Babylon and Egypt were not made without protest and opposition is evident from the political revolutions that followed, for it is quite evident that not only kings but their subjects also felt deeply on religious matters. In view of these facts, who can feel himself competent to deny the possibility of the religious motive which biblical tradition ascribes to the migration of Abraham? Here we have the picture of a man devoutly religious in his life, seeking for himself and his family a place where he may continue the pure worship of God. Such motive does not necessarily imply the exalted conceptions of the Deity that came into Israel's possession during the more advanced stages in the history of divine revelation, but it signifies the beginning, however simple and imperfect, of the faith as well as the people whose mission it was to bring religious truth to the world. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY i. Consider the causes of tribal movements in general history and find instances other than biblical of the rise of nations from migrations. 2. Read the account of the movements of Abraham from the point of view of a tribal migration and consider (i) Was it an isolated movement? (2) What were its probable causes? and (3) FORMATION OF THE HEBREW TRIBES 63 What other peoples besides the Hebrews trace their origin to Abra- ham? 3. Consider the historical significance of the stories of the relation of Jacob to Laban, and Jacob to Esau. Consult Bible Dictionary, articles "Laban," "Esau," "Tribes of Israel." 4. Consider the relation of southern Palestine to Egypt as re- flected in the Joseph stories and note how the life of the patriarchal tribes and the policy of Egypt comport with biblical traditions. 5. Draw parallels between the migratory movements of the patriarchal tribes and the discovery and early settlements of the American continent and the providential purposes in each. CHAPTER IV THE AWAKENING OF THE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS— MOSES i. The Emancipation 44. The Biblical Sources. The biblical tradition as- cribes to Moses the laying of the foundations of the Hebrew nation and religion. While many details are uncertain, the essential parts have become remarkably confirmed, namely, the residence of the Hebrew tribes in Egypt, the person- ality and leadership of Moses, the exodus, with the crossing of the Red Sea, the covenant at Horeb-Sinai, and the political and religious organization at Kadesh. The biblical material for the period, as contained in Exodus-Deuteronomy, consists mainly of two elements — historical matter in the form of narrative, and legislation in the form of bodies of laws. The latter have already been discussed in Section 6. The narrative element in Exodus-Numbers in its present form is as in Genesis a combination of the three main sources — J, E, and P; in Deuteronomy we now meet a source that stands by itself, having originated in the seventh century, and belonging thus between J, E, and P, designated by D. Like the material in Genesis it is historical tradition which has passed through various processes of popular transformation. Many of the stories were at first units, as, for instance, the story of the circumcision of Moses (Exod 4. 24-26) ; some of them, dealing with common matter, were later combined into groups. In passing through the proc- esses of their literary history many original details have 64 MOSES 65 become indistinct or displaced, or, to avoid offense, trans- formed to meet the conditions of the later conceptions. But the primitive features of many details, which have no meaning in later time, stamp them as ancient, and in many- cases they go back to the time of Moses. The recognition of this somewhat complicated character of the material, which will appear in further discussion, offers most inter- esting, plausible, and in many cases the most satisfactory explanation obtainable of the varying representations met with in the accounts. 45. The Egyptian Enslavement. Throughout the en- Emd 1 tire Hebrew literature constant reference is made to Israel's residence in Egypt, their enslavement and deliverance ; and although the monuments have so far furnished no con- firmation of these events, there can be no reasonable doubt of them, for it may be confidently asserted that no nation would invent such a story of disgraceful slavery regarding itself. But by Egypt we are to understand only Goshen, an eastern district bordering on the Arabian Desert, sharing its character, and belonging to Arabia as much as to Egypt. The land was specially suited for shepherds ; and there the Hebrew tribes might continue their seminomadic mode of life, and feel but lightly the influence of Egyptian culture. It is in this region that Naville found in 1883 at Tell El-Maskhuta, in the valley Tumilat, remains of the store- houses of Pithom — Egyptian, Petom, "house of Etom" — and near it, on Tell Rotab, Petrie discovered the second city Raamses, named "the house of Ramses," in front of whose temple the king himself is represented in the act of slaying with his own hand a Syrian. The number of Israelites in Egypt could not have been very large. The narrative states that two midwives were sufficient for taking care of their births, and we learn from Judges 5. 8 that a century later there were about forty thousand warriors in Israel. These statements are to be preferred to that of Exod 12. 37, which gives the number 66 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY of Israelites at the exodus as six hundred thousand men, implying a total of about a million and a half. Such a number is contradictory to all the probabilities of the geo- graphical and historical background, and probably rests upon a characteristic exaggeration of a later source. It is not necessary to suppose that all the tribes that later constituted national Israel resided in Egypt. That the Hebrews met kindred tribes in the Arabian desert and united with them is clear from the account of the Kenites (Num 10. 29-32; Judg I. 16). In the inscription of Mernephtah, discovered in Egypt in 1896, Israel is men- tioned in connection with the king's conquests in Canaan: Plundered is the Canaan, with every evil, Carried off is Askalon, Seized upon is Gezer, Yenoam is made a thing not existing, Israel is desolated, her seed is not, Palestine has become a (defenseless) widow for Egypt. 1 This would clearly indicate that parts of Israel were al- ready settled, probably in the southern sections of Palestine, before the exodus (compare Section 41). The prominence given to Joseph in Egypt also points to the Rachel tribes, Ephraim and Manasseh, as constituting the chief, though not necessarily the only, contingent; and thus it seems altogether probable that in the ultimate formation of the nation of Israel other elements were added to that of the residents of Egypt. 46. The Date of the Exodus. How long the Hebrews were in Egypt and what is the date of the exodus cannot be absolutely stated. It is now quite generally assumed that it was Rameses II (cir. 1290-1220 B. C.) who was the Pharaoh of the oppression; and Merneptah, his son (cir. 1220-1210), the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Rameses II was the most energetic ruler of the nineteenth Dynasty, a great conqueror and builder, covering Egypt with temples, the 1 See Breasted, A History of Egypt, p. 470, MOSES 67 magnificent remains of which are still to be seen at Luxor and Karnak. He was just such a man as might have enforced labor for his building projects as the biblical builder of Pithom and Raamses, upon whose ruins bricks bearing his name have been found. During the reign of Merneptah attempts were made on the part of his Asiatic subjects to throw off the yoke of Egypt; and the latter part of his reign and the unsettled period following upon his death constituted political conditions of Egypt favorable to the flight of the Hebrews. The date of the Exodus may thus be set about 1200 B. C. It appears, then, that, as the opening chapters of the book of Exodus indicate, we must picture to ourselves the Hebrew tribes, consisting of a limited number, subject to oppression, and given over to dissatisfaction and hopeless- ness, aggravated by a growing consciousness of the loss of their freedom. It was a crisis, calling for a leader with a vision, courage, and faith. 47. The Call of Moses. The historical character of Exod 2 to 4. 6 Moses is not bound up with the details of his childhood and life. It is quite probable that later generations of Hebrews, conscious of what Moses had done for them as a nation, delighted to weave about him strange happenings, much as we do about Washington. 2 But we need to be on our guard not to allow ourselves to be robbed of valuable historical elements embedded in popular tradition. The name of Moses is Egyptian, and its Hebrew meaning a A striking parallel to the story of Moses in the bulrushes is found in The Legend of Sargon, King of Agade. Compare Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, PP- 1352- "Sargon, the mighty king, the king of Agade, am I, My mother was lowly, my father I knew not. And the brother of my father dwells in the mountain. My city is Azupiranu, which lies on the bank of the Euphrates. My lowly mother conceived me, in secret she brought me forth, She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she closed my door; She cast me into the river, which rose not over me. The river bore me up, unto Akki, the irrigator, it carried me. Akki, the irrigator, with . . . lifted me out, Akki, the irrigator, as his own son . . . reared me, Akki, the irrigator, as his gardener appointed me. While I was a gardener the goddess Ishtar loved me, And for . . . — four years I ruled the kingdom." 68 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY but a play upon the word. He appears to have shared the oppression of his people ; and his contact with the culture and learning of Egypt did not make him forget his origin. Of vital importance was his residence in the Arabian desert with the Midianites, among whom he married and had children, and whose priest, Jethro (E Exod 3. 1) or Hobab (J Num 10. 29), was his father-in-law, and where, at Horeb-Sinai, he received the call to his mission. The call of Moses, given by the three sources with varying details, conveys three essential facts : ( 1 ) the Midianite environment as the source whence came the inspiration of Moses; (2) the new element in the religion of the Hebrews, represented by the new name of Jehovah; and (3) the personal element in the experience of Moses through whom the new religious truth was transmitted to his people. The people whom Moses joins are called Midianites, whose descent is traced back to Abraham by Keturah (Gen 25. 2) ; but Moses's father-in-law is also called a Kenite (Judg 1. 16) ; and it would seem that the Kenites were a branch of the Midianites. Now, the Kenites sustain from the beginning to the very end of Israel's national history a very close and influential relation to the Israelites. Moses marries into their priest's family; the priest sug- gests to Moses methods of judicial procedure and ad- ministration (Exod 18) ; the Kenites join Israel, enter with them Canaan, and live among them (Num 10. 29-32; Judg 1. 16; 1 Sam 15. 6; 27. 10; 30. 29) ; Jael, the heroine in the song of Deborah, belonged to the Kenites (Judg 5. 24; 4. 17) ; the Rechabites, descendants of the Kenites (1 Chron 2. 55), stand by Jehu in his attempt to extirpate Baal worship from Israel (2 Kings 10. 15) ; and in the days of Jeremiah, these Kenites are held up by the prophet as illustrious examples of loyalty (Jer 35). It is to be observed that this close relation goes back to the time of Moses ; and Moses when he unites with the Kenites is among relatives, children of Abraham. MOSES 69 It is while Moses is among these Kenites that he learns the new name of God, JEHOVAH. Such is the express statement of P: "I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, as God Almighty [El Sliaddai] ; but by my name Jehovah I was not known to them" (Exod 6. 3) ; and with this agrees also E (Exod 3. 13-14) ; and both these sources have consistently refrained up to this point from using the name "Jehovah" when speaking of God. This fact has served as one of the criteria to distinguish the sources, but from now on fails. But J knows of no such difference; he has used the name "Jehovah" from the account of the creation onward, and says, for instance, "Abraham called the name of that place Jehovah-Jirch" (Gen 22. 14). This obvious divergence has raised the question, Which of the sources has transmitted the correct tradition? Many scholars have taken it that it is E and P who are correct ; that the God of the Kenites was known by the distinctive name of Jehovah, from whom Moses now had learned it, and that it constituted the new element that he brought with him on his return from the Arabian desert to Goshen. With this view, it is pointed out, would cor- respond the fact that in J, which had its origin in the south or in Judah, where the Kenites were at home, the name of Jehovah is familiar throughout. But, on the other hand, this view has to contend with the difficulty that it involves the rather strange situation of the Hebrew tribes rallying under the call of an entirely new God. But it is possible that the difference between the two traditions has been exag- gerated; that there is a measure of truth in both, and a reconciliation possible. All the three sources agree that it is the God of the fathers who appeared to Moses ; E also says that Jehovah is the God of the fathers (Exod 3. 15) ; and it is P alone, the latest of the sources, that says that the name was entirely unknown to the fathers. It would not be unreasonable to suppose that Jehovah was the name of the God of the fathers, perpetuated by some of the ■jo OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY branches of the Hebrew family of tribes, one among other names, like ELYON or SHADDAI, associated in the mem- ory of the Goshen tribes with ancestral history; once used, but in the shifting of tribal movements partially forgotten, but now revived and filled with new meaning. What Moses had thus experienced among the Kenites was a revival of ancestral religion ; in a measure new and yet not quite new ; forgotten in the adverse and foreign Goshen environment, and now once more brought to the Hebrew tribes instinct with a new enthusiasm. The commission of Moses is conveyed in the form of a theophany — that of the burning bush. The symbolisms suggest that it was in the precincts of a sanctuary, on holy ground, that the divine call came to him; while he was engaged in serving his priestly father-in-law at the "moun- tain of God," Horeb-Sinai, Jehovah impressed him with the mission of becoming the helper of his oppressed breth- ren. It was here in the Arabian Desert, in the neighbor- hood of an ancient Kenite sanctuary, among the free kindred of his people, under the influence of a priest of Jehovah, that the conviction took possession of him that Jehovah had called him to make the effort to free his brethren from Egyptian bondage and bring them to the place and people where he himself had realized the presence of God, even to Horeb-Sinai. It was in the way in which God still calls men to serve their fellow men. Man's need is God's opportunity. To aid an oppressed and discouraged people, he providentially prepares a leader by opening his eyes to see superior spiritual and social possibilities, and lets him taste them first for himself ; and then he fires his heart to seek to extend these privileges to those who need them but have them not. Exod s i to 6. i ; The accounts of the execution of Moses's commission, 6. 28 to 7. 1 . . , his hesitancy, his encouragement by the promise of divine aid and the association of Aaron his brother with him, the unbelief of his people, the opposition of Pharaoh, and the MOSES 71 series of divine interpositions, all bear witness to and reflect the recognition of the magnitude of the task and God's gracious providence in Israel's deliverance from Egypt. Our accounts narrate one sign and wonder and ten plagues, which were to convince Pharaoh and coerce him into the permission to allow his Hebrew subjects to go a three days' journey into the wilderness to sacrifice to Jehovah their God. The ten plagues are: (1) blood; (2) frogs; (3) lice; (4) flies; (5) murrain; (6) boils; (7) hail; (8) locusts; (9) darkness; and (10) the death of the first-born. Each of the documents has its own enumeration ; J has six, E four, and P five ; but combined there are ten; it is likely, however, that 3 and 4, and 5 and 6 are duplicated, reducing the number to eight. Modern residents of Egypt have pointed out certain con- ditions which may have formed a natural basis for this series of plagues. It is impossible to determine with exact- ness the precise mode, but whatever the mode of occur- rence may have been, it is plain that these visitations, coming in such an extraordinary series, would be to the Hebrews a clear sign of the interposition of Jehovah, while the proud Egyptians would be humbled by these events and driven to allow the Hebrew slaves to go out of Egypt. 48. The Passover and the Exodus. Associated with Exod «■ x t0 13. 16 the exodus from Egypt is in our biblical sources the insti- tution of the feast of the Passover. In its present form it contains ritual legislation concerning an ecclesiastical institution which has passed through various stages of development. The component elements of the fully devel- oped Hebrew festival are still observable and consist of : 1. The slaying and eating of the Passover lamb. This is probably the earliest element, antedating even the time of Moses; for it is apparently to celebrate this feast that Moses asks the permission of Pharaoh. It originated prob- ably in a pastoral custom in which the first-born of cattle was the victim of a sacrificial feast at springtime, and of 72 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY which the blood was used as a uniting and protecting feature. 2. The feast of Unleavened Bread (Mazzoth). The custom of eating unleavened bread suggests an agri- cultural origin of this feast, as of a harvest festival, like the feast of "weeks," or Pentecost, and the feast of "In- gathering," or Tabernacles, with both of which feasts the Passover is intimately connected in the legislation (Exod 23. 14-17), and to which the ceremony of the waving of "the sheaf of first fruits" (Lev 23. 9-12) points. 3. The feast of the deliverance from Egypt. This constitutes it a historical and national celebration like our Fourth of July or Independence Day. The various features are now here combined : the Passover lamb with the last plague of the slaying of the first-born, and the unleavened bread with the haste of leaving Egypt, while the whole is interpreted historically. In this manner ancient customs of varying origin were later combined and stamped with fresh and national meaning. Exod 13. 17 to 49. The Crossing of the Red Sea. The account of the crossing of the Red Sea offers one of the most instructive examples of the literary combination of the three sources, their respective character, and their value for determining the historical situation. The act of the crossing is described in Exod 14; and the chapter is given below resolved into its component parts in parallel columns. P J E 1 And Jehovah spake unto Moses, saying, 2 Speak unto the chil- dren of Israel, that they turn back and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, be- tween Migdol and the sea, before Baal-zephon: over against it shall ye encamp by the sea. 3 And Pharaoh will say of the children of Israel, They are entangled in the land, the wilderness 15- 21 MOSES 73 P hath shut them in. 4 And I will harden Pharaoh's heart, and he shall follow after them; and I will get me honor upon Pharaoh, and upon all his host; and the Egyptians shall know that I am Je- hovah. And they did so. 8 And Jehovah hardened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he pursued after the children of Is- rael: for the children of Israel went out with a high hand, g And the Egyptians pursued after them, all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, and his horsemen, and his army, and overtook them encamping by the sea, beside Pi-hahiroth, before Baai-zeplwn. 5 And it was told the king of Egypt that the people were fled: and the heart of Pharaoh and of his servants was changed towards the people, and they said. What is this we have done, that we let Israel go from serving us? 6 And he made ready his chariot, and took his people with him: 7 and he took six hundred chosen chariots, and all the chariots of Egypt, and captains over all of them. 10 And when Pharaoh drew nigh, the children of Is- rael lifted up their eyes, and, behold, the Egyp- tians were marching after them; and they were sore afraid: E they said unto Moses, because there were no and the children of Israel cried out unto 11 And Jehovah. 74 75 And Jehovah said unto Moses, speak unto the children of Is- rael, that they go for- ward. and stretch out thy hand over the sea, and divide it: and the children of Israel shall go into the midst of the sea on dry ground, ly And I, behold, I will harden the hearts of the Egyptians, and they shall go in after them; and I will get me honor upon Pha- raoh, and upon all his host, upon his chariots, and upon his horsemen. 18 And the Egyptians shall know that I am Jehovah, when I have gotten me honor upon Pharaoh, upon his char- OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY graves in Egypt, hast thou taken us away to die in the wilderness? wherefore hast thou dealt thus with us, to bring us forth out of Egypt? 12 Is not this the word that we spake unto thee in Egypt, saying, Let us alone, that we may serve the Egyptians? For it were better for us to serve the Egyptians, than that we should die in the wilderness. 13 And Moses said unto the people, Fear ye not, stand still, and see the salvation of Jehovah, which he will work for you to-day: for the Egyptians whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see them again no more for ever. 14 Jehovah will fight for you, and ye shall hold your peace. E Wheref criest thou unto me? 16 And lift thou up thy rod, tots, and upon his horse- men. 21 And, Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; And the waters were divided. 22 And the children of Is- rael went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground: and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left. 23 And the Egyptians pursued, and went in after them into the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his horse- men. MOSES J 24 And it came to pass in the morning watch, that Je- hovah looked forth upon the host of the Egyptians through the pillar of fire and of cloud, and dis- comfited the host of the Egyptians. 2$ And he took of their chariot wheels, and they drove them heavily; so that the Egyptians said, Let us flee from the face of Is- E 75 19 and the pillar of cloud removed from before them, and stood behind them: 20 and it came between the camp of Egypt and the camp of Israel; and there was the cloud and the dark- ness, yet gave it light by night: and the one came not near the other all the night. And Je- hovah caused the sea to go BACK by a strong east wind all the night, and made the sea dry land, And the angel of God, who went before the camp of Israel, re- moved and went behind them: 7 6 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 26 And Jehovah said unto Moses, Stretch out thy hand over the sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots, and upon their horsemen. 27 And Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, rael; for Jehovah fight- eth for them against the Egyptians. E and the sea returned to its strength when the morning appeared; and the Egyptians fled against it; and Jehovah overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea. 28 And tlie waters returned, and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, even all the host of Pharaoh that went in after them into the sea; and there re- mained not so much as one of them. 29 But the children of Israel walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea; and the waters were a wall unto tliem on their right hand, and on their left. 30 Thus Jehovah saved Israel that day out of the hand of the Egyptians ; and Israel saw the Egyp- tians dead upon the sea- shore. 31 And Israel saw the great work which Jehovah did upon the Egyptians, and the people feared Jehovah: and they believed in Je- hovah, and in his serv- ant Moses. The above analysis makes it clear that J and P each have full and consistent accounts of the event of the crossing MOSES 77 of the sea; and that while the account of E is but very fragmentary, it contains features that are clearly distinct from those of the others and characteristic of that source. A comparison of the three accounts reveals three modes of dealing with the water of the sea : with J it is an east wind ; with E the rod of Moses; and with P the outstretched hand of Moses. In the place of the "pillar of cloud" in J, we find "the angel of God" in E. The latter is characteristic of E, who elsewhere also introduces the intermediary appearances of angels ; while characteristic of J are the anthropomorphisms, according to which Jehovah looks down from the cloud upon the Egyptians as an interested spec- tator and clogs (by a slight emendation of the text in the place of "took off") their chariot wheels. But most striking is the difference in the whole aspect of the situation between J and P in regard to the under- lying motive in the miracle. According to P, the whole Egyptian situation is brought to a climactic point by the direct agency of God, resulting in the entire destruction of Pharaoh and all his host, for the purpose of securing for himself honor upon Pharaoh. To this end Jehovah pur- posely hardens Pharaoh's heart ; and, accordingly, Israel goes out of Egypt in defiant rebellion, "with a high hand." Jehovah thus drives the Egyptians to the pursuit of Israel, who are located most conveniently to produce a marked dramatic effect in the scene. When Israel reaches the sea the outstretched hand of Moses divides it, allowing them to cross on dry ground, while the waters form walls on either side of them. But when the Egyptians are in the midst of the sea Moses again stretches out his hand, and the watery walls collapse upon the Egyptians. But, according to J, the Israelites flee out of Egypt and are in great terror of the Egyptians, and chide Moses for having brought them into this dangerous dilemma. But Jehovah brings about their rescue by letting an east wind blow all night, which drives back the waters of the sea, 78 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY allowing them to pass over. But the chariots of the pur- suing Egyptians stick fast in the muddy bottom of the sea ; with the change of the wind the waters return, a panic ensues, and the Egyptians are drowned. Of course in the main features the accounts agree; and in both of them the crossing is miraculous. But in J it is what may be called a providential miracle, caused by a natural occurrence coming at a most critical time; while in P it is a direct act of Jehovah. Chapter 15 contains a poetic account of the same event, probably earlier than the prose accounts; and it is not unlikely that P's walls of water may be traced back to the poetic phraseology of verse 8 : And with the blast of thy nostrils the waters were piled up, The Hoods stood upright as a heap; The deeps were congealed in the heart of the sea. 50. The Historical Situation. The nature of the sources suggests the difficulty of arriving at the exact historical circumstances. The sea that the Hebrews crossed it is generally supposed was the Gulf of Suez; but the exact place of the crossing can no longer be determined. It is claimed that at some early period the Mediterranean and the Red Sea were naturally connected as they now are artificially by the Suez Canal; and that at the time of the Hebrews' crossing the Gulf extended farther north, even as far as the Bitter Lakes. If we knew exactly the width and depth of the part of the Sea that the Hebrews crossed, it would make the task of the historian considerably easier. Following our earliest source (J), we may suppose the event somewhat as follows: There were two ways leading out of Goshen to Palestine (Exod 13. I7f), one known as "the way of the land of the Philistines," leading in northeasternly direction along the coast to Gaza; and the other, known as "the way of the wilderness by the Red Sea," MOSES 79 leading in southeasternly direction over Suez and Akabah. The second route was the less frequented, and more suit- able for Israel's purpose. The Hebrew fugitives had evi- dently succeeded in passing the Egyptian eastern fortifica- tions of "the Wall of the Princes," when their further progress was hindered by the sea. But during the night a strong wind drove back the shallow waters sufficiently to allow the Israelites to ford them. But when the Egyptians, having become aware of the flight of their subjects, at- tempted to follow them, they were defeated by the return of the waters of the sea. The historical character of the deliverance is confirmed by the short and simple poetic utterance of Exod 15. 21 (compare 14. 26) : Leader: "Sing to Jehovah, for he exalted himself highly; People: Horses and chariots he cast into the sea." The verse bears an antique character, and originated con- temporaneously in the recitative repetition, accompanied by dance, and continuing in Oriental fashion for hours, until enthusiasm ends in the exhaustion of leader and chorus. In contrast with it, the longer poem in 15. 1-18 belongs to a later time. In some remarkable manner, and in a most critical period of their history, Jehovah had come to their aid ; and it was to be remembered in all ages to come as the day in which Jehovah brought salvation to his people Israel. It is probable that as time elapsed the event grew into greater significance. For it was the beginning of Hebrew national history as much as the signing of the Declaration of Independence was the beginning of the American Republic. It may relatively have been but a small affair, but its potentialities that future history revealed mark it as an epoch in Hebrew history, the value of which cannot be overestimated; for it was nothing short of the birthday of the Hebrew nation — but it was only the birthday! 80 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Mark in your Bible the subject of this section with its sub- divisions, according to the textbook. 2. Compare the Hebrew and American emancipations relating to (i) the oppression, (2) the leadership, and (3) the festal day celebrating it. 3. Compare the call of Moses with that of other prophets (Isa 6) and note the differences and underlying agreements. 4. Incorporate in your Bible the analysis of the account of the crossing of the Red Sea. 5. Make a brief outline of the historical events. 2. The Life in the Desert Exod is. 22 to 18 5 X _ The Biblical Data. The materials for constructing a history of Israel's life in the wilderness are scanty and scattered. Most of the stories given us are from P, the priestly historian. Here we find elaborate accounts of the tabernacle (Exod 25 to 31; 35 to 40), laws as to priests and worship (entire book of Leviticus), and a highly artificial organization of the tribes, with an extensive list of encampments (Num 1 to 10. 29). We need simply to remember that this source is one of the very latest, and that it is the point of view of this writer to put back into the earliest days the institutions and customs of his own time. The lists of stopping places, even if based on early sources, are of little value, as they can no longer be identified. 52. The Provisions of the Desert. The vital question in the wilderness is whence to obtain water and food; and a number of the stories deal with this theme. Exod is. 22-26 A_t Mara the spring was brackish, but became sweet ; at Elim they found a rich oasis ; the springs of Massah and Meribah are to be identified with those of Kadesh (com- pare Exod 17. 1-7 and Num 20. 1-13). Exod 16. 1-35; The manna and the quails provided bread and meat. Num 11. 4-10, . ., . . 13, 18-243, 31-3S The quail is a migratory bird, well known in the Sinaitic peninsula and all along the Mediterranean shores. Quails MOSES 81 migrate in vast flocks, fly low and mostly with the wind; their wings are too light for their bodies, and they become easily exhausted, and fall a ready prey to man. There are two products of the Arabian Desert of which one or the other may be what is described as the manna of the Bible. One is the exudation of the tamarisk tree, which is of the consistency of wax, melts in the sun, is white in color, and tastes like honey. The other is a lichen, which forms as a crust on stones, then rolls back and loosens, so that it is sometimes driven by the wind, sometimes washed by the rain into heaps; its size varies from a pea to a hazel nut; it is white in color, and, though dry and insipid in taste, is ground like corn, and baked into a sort of bread. Both these products meet with the requirements of the biblical manna. It is an error, however, to think of the Israelites as constantly upon the march or as depending simply upon such sources of food. They had their flocks and herds (Exod 12. 32), which gave them milk and butter, and occasionally meat. For these they needed pasture and water. It is not probable, therefore, that the Hebrews could roam for any length of time far away from pasture lands; and it is altogether probable that, with the exception of some journeys of no great distance, they resided at least for a generation in the fertile region of Kadesh, following there a semiagricultural mode of life. 53. The Hebrew Residence at Kadesh. The char- acter of Kadesh and Israel's residence there are character- istically overshadowed by the stories of the miraculous supply of provision ; but for historical purposes they are of far greater importance. The biblical tradition, however, itself supplies us with hints of this importance. For it is evident that Exod 17. 1-7 and Num 20. 1-13 are but duplicate versions of an etymological story of the name of the place Meribah, found as Meribath (or Meriboth) Kadesh in Num 27. 14; Deut 32. 51; (33. 2, where "the ten thousands of 82 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY holy ones" is a mistranslation of an original Meribath- Kadesh) ; Ezek 48. 28; and some of the most important incidents of the wilderness period are associated with it. Kadesh is now commonly identified with Ain Kades, fifty miles south of Beersheba. Near it are two other springs, a richer one, Ain El-Kederat, probably to be identi- fied with the older Meribah, and a weaker one, Ain Kuseme, perhaps Mara, making the region about Kadesh the richest in water of the whole Sinaitic peninsula. The whole dis- trict is now in the hands of the warlike Azazime Bedouins, who seek to keep travelers in ignorance of it. It was first discovered by Rowlands, an English explorer, and revisited by an American traveler, Henry Clay Trumbull, who was the editor of the Sunday School Times, of Philadelphia, in 1881, who gives the following graphic description of it: It was a marvelous sight ! Out of the barren and desolate stretch of the burning desert-waste we had come with magical suddenness into an oasis of verdure and beauty, unlooked for and hardly con- ceivable in such a region. A carpet of grass covered the ground. Fig trees, laden with fruit nearly ripe enough for eating, were along the shelter of the southern hillside. Shrubs and flowers showed themselves in variety and profusion. Running water gurgled under the waving grass. ... A circular well, stoned up from the bottom with time-worn limestone blocks, was the first receptacle of the water. ... A little distance westerly from this well, and down the slope, was a second well, stoned up much like the first, but of greater diameter. ... A basin or pool of water larger than either of the wells, but not stoned up like them, was seemingly the principal watering place. It was a short distance southwesterly from the second well, and it looked as if it and the two wells might be supplied from the same subterranean source — the springs under the Rock. . . Another and yet larger pool, lower down the slope, was supplied with water by a stream which rippled and cascaded along its narrow bed from the upper pool ; and yet beyond this, westward, the water gurgled away under the grass, as we had met it when we came in, and finally lost itself in the parching wady from which this oasis opened. The water itself was remarkably pure and sweet; unequaled by any we had found after leaving the Nile" (Trumbull, Kadesh-Barnea, pp. 272ff.). MOSES 83 Judging from this description, it was a region well suited to serve Israel, if it did not number over five thousand persons, as a place where they might find, for a time at least, sustenance and a residence for the development of the intermediate stage between Egypt and Canaan. 54. War with Amalek at Rephidim. It is possible Exod I7 - 8_l6 that it was for the possession of this desirable spot that the Israelites had to fight with the Amalekites, who appear as a people of the region between Kadesh and Beersheba, and specially unfriendly to Israel (confer Num 24. 20). Exod 17. 8-16 seems a combination of an etymological story, accounting for the name of Rephidim, meaning "sup- port," and a cultic story, accounting for the existence of an altar and the sacred symbol of the wonder-working rod, both of which are combined in the name "Jehovah-nissi," meaning, "Jehovah is my banner-staff," and which was perpetuated in what appears as a war cry : "Hand at the banner-staff of Jehovah; Jehovah fights with Amalek from generation to generation." 55. The Judicial Organization. The biblical tradition E * od l8 - »-«i furnishes in the form of a family story the origin of I4 . I7) 24 b-3 Israel's judicial organization prior to their entry into Canaan. The scene of the story is laid near the mount of God, that is, Horeb-Sinai, and consists of an account of a visit of Jethro, the Midianite, Moses's father-in-law. There are many details in the story which are obscure; but one important point is clear, namely, it expresses the conscious- ness of Israel's indebtedness to the Midianites regarding fundamentals in their political and religious organization; for though the story is considerably softened down to avoid offense, Jethro is yet the teacher of Moses. We may still discern the double and yet distinct functions of Moses as priest and judge. It would seem that hitherto Moses himself had acted as the sole judge, which is an interesting indication of the relatively small number of the 84 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Israelites; but now he receives assistants. Only the causes," according to the story, are now brought to \ who brings them unto God, by which we must unde that they were decided by the use of the oracular L Urim and Thummim. The manipulation of the saci was a priest's function, and was carried on in com with the sanctuary (see Section 65). The other case decided by appointed officials, chieftains who were h In the account of Numbers these officials are descri' being made fit for their function by being endowec the Spirit of God. This indicates the existence c distinct classes of public functionaries, namely, the and prophet. The priest was guided by the use of mc or ritual means, omens of various kinds, and parti< the sacred lot ; the prophet was in more direct toucl God, and saw his will in dreams and visions, or, as case of Moses, had God speaking with him "face to in other words, the means were psychological, or sp The subsequent religious history of Israel into Testament times is pervaded by conflicts between the of these two classes ; and we may find traces of conflicts already in the stories of early times. Of such nature appears to be the conflict between Aarc Num 12 Miriam and Moses, although the exact point is r together clear. Of similar character is the rebell Dathan and Abiram against Moses, with which is woven an account of the rebellion of Korah against and Aaron. 56. The Location of Horeb-Sinai. The destinat the tribes in starting from Egypt was evidently the " tain of Jehovah," called Sinai by J and P (Exod 18, 20), and Horeb by E (Exod 3. 1; 18. 5). possible sites have been suggested: 1. In the so end of the Sinaitic peninsula, where there are two eight thousand or nine thousand feet high, known a: Musa and Jebel Serbal. But in this region we MOSES 85 Egyptian mines, protected by the government. Further- more, this section of the country was barren, and for these reasons the site does not commend itself as probable. 2. One of the peaks of Mount Seir, east of the eastern prong of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Akabah. In favor of this site is quoted Judg 5. 4f., which connects Sinai with the moun- tains of Edom. 3. Mount Araif, one of the mountains in the desert southwest of Edom, near Kadesh. This site is supported by Deut 33. 2 ; Hab 3. 3a ; and would accord also with the reference to the mountains of Edom in Judg 5. 4f. It would suit also best the expression "three days' journey in the wilderness" (Exod 8. 27), although it is in any case only general. The last view commends itself also on account of the fact that many of the events of the wilderness residence taking place in Horeb-Sinai and Kadesh are so inter- mixed as to find the best explanation in the proximity of these two places. This nearness stands out clearly in the corrected text of Deut 33. 2 : Jehovah came from Sinai, He rose from Seir unto them ; He shined forth from mount Paran, And he came from Meribath-Kadesh. In this passage Sinai, Seir, Paran, and Meribath-Kadesh are synonymous of Jehovah's residence, and present a strong argument for the third site. The political and religious organization of the tribes of the desert period took place during their long residence at Kadesh, and much of what has occurred there has by a later tradition been transferred to Horeb-Sinai, which might be all the easier done if the two places were near each other. It would thus appear that the destination of the tribes in leaving Egypt was Horeb-Sinai and Kadesh, the region south of Palestine, where they might unite with friendly tribes like the Midianites and with those of their 86 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY own nearer kindred that had remained there from patri- archal times. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY i. Examine the biblical data with view to ascertain whether the Hebrew life in the desert was nomadic or semi-nomadic, roaming or settled. 2. Trace on a map the possible routes from Egypt to Palestine, note the location and character of Kadesh, and examine the possible sites of Horeb-Sinai. 3. Endeavor to form a picture of the Hebrew community life in the desert, as to numbers, organization, and methods of subsistence. 3. The Religion of the Time of Moses 57. The Covenant at Horeb-Sinai. Horeb-Sinai was the seat of Jehovah; it was here that Moses had learned of him when he was among the Midianites; and it is to this mount that he brought the Israelites to enter into covenant relations to him. It is here that Jehovah became the God of Israel, and Israel the people of Jehovah. This essential fact is the basis of the remarkable dramatic repre- sentation in the biblical sources. From behind all the many figures of speech we may discern two things: that Jehovah had manifested his claim to Israel by what he had done for them by delivering them from the Egyptian bondage and pursuit; and that Israel's part involved the moral obligation to be true to him. All of this is summarized in the beautiful statement: "Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles' wings, and brought you unto myself. Now, therefore, if ye will obey my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then ye shall be my own possession from among all peoples" (Exod 19. 4f). But we shall fail to apprehend the significance of this historical movement if we interpret it so as to regard it as the result of only a single formal act within a brief space of time; it was through a process of training, gradual and lengthy, that the consciousness of this mutual relation MOSES 87 asserted itself; and Israel's residence at Horeb-Sinai was simply the first stage of this process. 58. The Hebrew Pre-Mosaic Religion. The biblical tradition clearly makes Moses Israel's discoverer of Jehovah and the medium by whom Jehovah becomes the God of Israel. What the religious conceptions of the tribes were prior to Moses is no longer clearly discernible, for the superior force of the Jehovah religion drove the other from the field. Arguing from analogy of the growth of religions in general and the primitive stages of other Semitic religions, it has been concluded that the religion of Jehovah was preceded among the Hebrews by the various stages of animism, fetichism, and ancestor worship; but these manifestations lie far back of the historical period. It appears more probable that what immediately preceded the religion of Moses was a polytheistic nature religion in which the divinity bore the designation of El. For a cuneiform tablet recently found at Boghazkoi, in Asia Minor, speaks of Hani habiri, "the gods of the Hebrews," and the Genesis stories contain numerous names com- pounded with El, as Beth-el, El-olam (21. 33) ; El-roi (16. 13); El-pachad (31. 42, 53); El-shaddai (49. 25; Num 24. 4, 16) ; and compare also El-eljon (Num 24. 16) and El-berith (Judg 9. 46). And not only was Israel's national name compounded with it, as Isra-el, but there is monumental evidence for original forms of Isaac-el, Jacob- el, and Joseph-el. There is evidence also that these Elim were already conceived as individual deities, dwelling at fountains, trees, on mountains, or in sanctuaries consist- ing of simple stone altars, rude stone pillars (mazzeboth), and approached with offerings of animal sacrifices. 59. The Enthronment of Jehovah. But when Jehovah became the God of Israel at Horeb-Sinai and Kadesh he suffered no other god beside him; and Israel learned the first lesson in what has not inaptly been called the intoler- ance of Jehovah, ultimately its highest contribution to 88 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY religious truth, as expressed in its fundamental confession : "Hear, O Israel, Jehovah our God, Jehovah is One" (Deut 6. 4). Moses had first himself come in touch with him at Horeb-Sinai among the Midianites. With the enthusiasm of a young convert he had inspired his discouraged and oppressed brethren to the venture of a flight to him; in a great crisis he had shown himself worthy of the confidence ; and now in the precincts of his dwelling place, the mount of Jehovah, they bound themselves with others to acknowl- edge him as their only God. That this act of the acceptance of Jehovah was accompanied by the enthusiasm of a first religious experience, a genuine religious revival, we may well suppose; and we can appreciate the aptness of the prophets' figure of speech, which compares those "days of her youth" to the wooing of lovers (Hos 2, 14-16; Jer 2. 2). But if we would correctly realize the content of Israel's conception of Jehovah in those early days, we must not neglect the perspective of history. These were days of earliest beginnings, first lessons. The time was yet far distant when it would be said, "God is a Spirit, and those that worship him must worship him in spirit and truth." It is possible that Jehovah was thought of in connection with a volcanic mountain, whose symbols were the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night, terrible to behold or to approach. The earth melts under his tread, and fire devours his adversaries. The storms with thunders and lightnings and earthquakes are his common manifesta- tion. But he is also already the God who moves in history, and can come to the help of those who belong to him. He is a God who makes moral demands, and social law and order are under his sanction. Exod 24; 31. 18; 60. The Legislation at Horeb-Sinai. It has already been pointed out (Section 6) that the biblical material for this period in its present form contains seven distinct codes of law. All these laws are referred by the later writers to Moses, and many of them to this occasion at Horeb-Sinai. 34. i-sa, 27, 28 MOSES 89 Archaeological discoveries show that many of these laws existed long before this with the Babylonians and Egyptians. Others came with Israel's own experience, and the story of Jethro shows how Israel profited by such experience. In all this there is nothing inconsistent with Israel's own conviction that these rules were for her the voice of Jehovah, whatever the source through which they came. Nor is there sufficient ground for denying that the first great expression of these laws for Israel was by the inspired wisdom of Moses. It is no longer possible to determine exactly which parts go back to his time ; but that Moses was a legislator is the uniform ancient tradition, and has become increasingly probable by the finds of the high state of civilization with which he was surrounded. 61. The Origin of Hebrew Law. The origin of Hebrew civil law may still be traced. As difficulties arose between parties, their disputes were settled by judges whose deci- sions became precedents. These were first transmitted orally, but later codified. Religious laws, arising from abuses, had a similar origin and history, for ancient history knows no distinction between secular and religious, and the law codes comprehend both. It would appear that the community life of the tribes around Kadesh was most probably semiagricultural, which would also account for their gradual advances into Pales- tine, when Kadesh became too restricted for their growing numbers. It is the nature of the life at Kadesh that gives the clue to the content of the legislation of this period. A semiagricultural community cannot live long without civil, moral, as well as religious laws. 62. The Decalogue. It is altogether probable that the Exod 20. 1-17; Decalogue in a primitive and simpler form belongs to the Deut s - *""" Mosaic period. Omitting the elements which differ in the two rescensions in Exodus and Deuteronomy, and what appear as other later accretions, the Decalogue consisted of brief words easy of oral transmission or written on stone: 9 o OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY i. I, Jehovah, am thy God ; thou shalt have no other gods. 2. Thou shalt not make a divine image. 3. Thou shalt not take the name of Jehovah in vain. 4. Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 5. Honor thy father and thy mother. 6. Thou shalt not kill. 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness. 10. Thou shalt not covet. The first commandment inculcates the intolerance of Jehovah, which is a characteristic of the Hebrew religion; and its early appearance becomes all the more compre- hensible if the covenant with Jehovah involved the dis- carding of the former gods. The second commandment brings out another characteristic of Jehovah religion, its imageless character, and accords with the simplicity of desert life. The third commandment appears directed against the misuse of Jehovah's name in the common magic rites. The Sabbath day has an ancient origin and history, and its early appearance in Hebrew life is quite probable. The other commandments comport with the requirements of even the simplest community life. But it is possible that the seventh commandment has its origin in the cultic orgies, accompanied by sexual license, associated with the religion of Israel's neighbors, with which Israel had come in con- tact in earliest history, as is witnessed by the stories of the Exod32. 1-35; golden calf and Baal-Peor. It would seem that some of the prohibitions of the social code (Deut 2J. 15-26) have a similar purpose. 63. The Ritual Code and the Book of the Covenant. There are elements in the ritual code and the Book of the Covenant (Section 6) whose origin in Mosaic times is generally assumed ; but to much the objection has been raised that it presupposes an agricultural and settled background. It is true that the latter code reflects a considerably ad- vanced state of society; but when the semiagricultural mode Num 25. 1-18; 31 MOSES 91 of life at Kadesh is recognized more of that code will find a suitable origin in Mosaic times. 64. The Ark of Jehovah. Among the sacred objects E»d 25. 10-22 of the religious cult of Mosaic times the chief place was occupied by the Ark of Jehovah. Its original signification most probably was the throne of Jehovah. The cover of the ark, which was simply a wooden box, consisted of two winged creatures, cherubim, plainly carved; and judging from the expression "Jehovah of hosts, who is enthroned on the Cherubim" (1 Sam 4. 4), Jehovah was considered as seated on the cherubim. When Israel was on the march or in war, the ark led the way ; on starting, a refrain formed the signal: "Arise, Jehovah, that thy enemies flee, And those who hate thee scatter," and on the return to the camp, "Be seated, Jehovah, by the Num 10. 3sf. tribes of Israel." 65. The Tent of Meeting. When in camp the ark Exod 33-7-11; resided in a sacred tent, known as the "tent of meeting," 23 um7 ' 9 ' 9-i: '~ which P has described as a most gorgeous sanctuary (Exod 25fi\), highly idealized. It was probably at this time only a simple tent, distinguished from others by its central position (Num 2. 17) ; and thither the people went to "inquire of Jehovah," that is, to consult the divine oracle. It is most probable that this oracle consisted of two sacred stones, Urim and Thummim, which were used as lots, representing yea and nay, and which were manipulated by means of a linen garment or pocket, called Ephod. It has been suggested that associated with the oracle were the Teraphim, connected with the "veil" of Moses, which the Exod 34. 29-35 latter wore when representing Jehovah, and being origin- ally a covering or mask by which the functionary at the oracle represented the divinity. It is possible that behind Num 17. i-n, the stories of the wonder-working rod of Moses and Aaron aI - 4 " 9 and the related staff or standard on which the serpent was 92 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY raised, we are to find that they were originally sacred objects of worship, for we have good testimony to the fact that the latter was an object of worship as late as the time of king Hezekiah (2 Kings 18. 4), the Hebrews calling it Nehushtan, and burning incense to it. 66. Rites and Festivals. Among sacred rites instituted at this time the chief place belongs to circumcision, for it is evident from Exod 4. 24-26; Josh 5. $&., that neither Moses nor the Israelites were circumcised before this time. The chief festivals were the Sabbath and the Passover. The latter had the signification of a pastoral spring festival, with the sacrifice of the first-born of the flock; whether it already possessed the character of the feast of Unleavened Bread (Mazzoth), or harvest festival of grain, will depend upon how much of an agricultural activity we recognize for this period. The stories of the golden calf and Baal-Peor imply that Israel came early under the influence of the Baal cults; and Kadesh and the Negeb produced fruits as well as grain; and it is not impossible that the three harvest festivals in an early form belong to this time. 67. The Priests and Levites. With the institution of the new Jehovah religion came that of the priesthood, who should perform the functions connected with the sacrifices, Exod 33. 7-n; the ark, and the oracle. It would seem that Moses himself acted as the chief priest, and that Joshua was his servant. The Aaron of the earlier tradition appears in roles of antagonism to Moses; and it is the later tradition that makes him the high priest, and surrounds him with a highly organized hierarchy. The priestly functionaries were the Levites, and their main function, not to sacrifice, but to manipulate the oracle; hence they are distinctively desig- nated as those who wear or bear the Ephod (1 Sam 2. 28; 14- 3, 18). 68. The Character and Achievement of Moses. It would have been strange indeed if the character of Moses should not have been idealized; but making the fullest Exod 32 ; Num 12 MOSES 93 allowance for such grateful tribute of later generations to their illustrious national founder, there can be no doubt of the manysidedness of his character. He appears as leader, organizer, legislator, judge, priest, and prophet. It would seem as if the last term comprises all his functions ; at any rate, it predominates in them all. To have accom- plished what he did, he must have possessed a tireless industry and energy, enthusiasm, wisdom and tact, faith and love. Later generations have added to all these the author- ship of the Pentateuch. For reasons that the content of the Pentateuch itself furnishes, namely, that it is composed of various sources which extend through seven centuries of Hebrew history, Moses can no longer be regarded as its sole author. But if Moses did not write history, he made history, which is by far the greater accomplishment. His achievements may be briefly summarized as follows : He awakened in an oppressed and discouraged people the feel- ing of national consciousness; he cemented them into a band having common hopes and aspirations ; and he united them by the common bond of Jehovah their God, to whom they bound themselves in moral obligations. Moses thus was the founder of both Israel's national and religious life; and became more than the Washington of Israel. 69. The Meaning of Moses for Subsequent History. The manner in which the prophets Amos and Hosea refer to the law of Jehovah, which Israel has forgotten, indi- cates that there was in existence at that time, not indeed the present Pentateuch, but a clearly defined body of truth which they could appeal to as authoritative. These prophets never appear as innovators, but as reformers ; and Hosea, for instance, in making his appeals, quotes in one verse one half of the Decalogue (Hos 4. 2). No period of Hebrew history between Moses and these prophets can lay stronger claim to have given the ideals these prophets appeal to than that of Moses ; and it appears thus as funda- 94 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY mental to subsequent history. Our examination of the period has shown it to have been one of primitive condi- tions; but they were conditions of a state of society, crude indeed in many respects, but simple and as yet unspoiled by decadent civilization ; and for this reason not unsuited to produce certain principles of permanent value and im- portance to society. i. The political ideal of Mosaic times is that of a theocracy, which is a combination of the best elements of democracy and monarchy. The ruler is "called of God," that is, not hereditarily, but providentially raised by his fitness to meet the exigencies of his time, and amenable to popular approval. The administration of law is under religious sanction, and under men upon whom rests the spirit of God, designed to produce social justice. The body politic is free and independent, without class dis- tinctions ; and alert to assert its rights : it is the desert type of government, free and easy as desert life, but, of course, sharing also its limitations. 2. The social ideal was that of the simple life, imposed by the unsettled mode of living in desert regions; its hard- ships and dangers left it free from luxury and effeminacy, drunkenness and debauch. 3. The religious conception of Mosaic times may be termed an ethical henotheism, that is, the recognition of only one God for Israel, or monolatry, the worship of only one God. This is the intermediate stage of development between polytheism and monotheism. All the religious sentiments and cultic acts are concentrated on Jehovah. There is only one sanctuary, and the cult is centralized. Only a comparison with the religions of surrounding peoples can make clear how notable this faith is. There is no image of Jehovah ; no sacred prostitution, which Baal wor- ship had ; there is an absence of the rank spiritism, animism, and magic, so prominent in the cults which later influence the Israelites; and in religious leadership the prophetic MOSES cj5 element, or the moral and spiritual, dominates over the priestly or ritual. In these characteristics of the political, social, and reli- gious ideas of the times of Moses can be recognized many of the ideals of the prophets of whom Moses was thus incipiently a forerunner; and which still justify the order "Moses and the prophets." SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY i. Be sure to read first the biblical passages indicated in the margin at the sections and look up the references given in the text. 2. Obtain a clear conception of the meaning of a covenant. Read article "Covenant" in Dictionary of the Bible and confer Gen 15. 1-21 and Jer 34. i8f. 3. Consider the Hebrew covenant at Horeb-Sinai, noting the two contracting parties and the nature of the mutual obligations. 4. Mark in your Bible the Ritual Code, the Social Code, and the Book of the Covenant, according to section 6, and underscore the main word in each enactment. 5. Consider the origin of Hebrew law as compared with that of other nations. 6. State in your own words the demands of the Decalogue. 7. Consider what were the functions of the Hebrew religious service. 8. Compare the character and achievements of Moses with those of George Washington or those of Abraham Lincoln. 9. Consider the permanent values of the moral and religious ideals of the time of Moses. CHAPTER V THE CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT OF PALESTINE i. The Biblical Sources 70. The Contents of the Book of Joshua. In their present form the books of Joshua and Judges are the con- tinuation of the history of the Hebrew people from the death of Moses to their settlement in Canaan. The contents of the book of Joshua may be summarized by chapters as fol- lows: Joshua assumes the leadership as the successor of Moses ; and makes preparations to cross the Jordan ( 1 ) ; spies are sent to Jericho (2) ; the Jordan is crossed (3); and a memorial of a heap of stones is set up at Gilgal (4) ; the miraculous approach of the Israelites terrifies the Canaanites ; the Israelites celebrate their entrance into Canaan by the rite of circumcision and the keeping of the passover; and are assured of God's presence (5) ; Jericho is miraculously captured, and utterly destroyed, except Rahab (6) ; Achan's sin of taking instead of destroying the spoil of Jericho causes a temporary defeat of the Israelites (7) ; Ai is conquered ; and the law read upon Ebal and Gerizim (8); the Canaanites prepare to stop the conquerors; but the Gibeonites exceptionally choose the wiser course to enter into friendly relations with them by a ruse (9) ; five kings in the south form a confederacy to oppose Joshua and the Israelites, but are totally defeated and destroyed ( 10) ; a northern coalition of kings, led by Jabin, king of Hazor, leads to a battle by the waters of Merom, and to a 96 CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 97 similar defeat and destruction; and the entire land is con- quered (11) ; and a list of conquered kings and territory concludes the story of the conquest (12). Joshua now distributes the conquered land to the tribes (13 to 21) ; the East- Jordan tribes return to their inherit- ance, and conform to the law of one sanctuary (22) ; Joshua bids Israel farewell and renews their covenant with Jehovah ; and dies at the age of one hundred and ten years (23, 24). 71. The Contents of the Book of Judges. The book of Judges consists of three elements: (1) 1 to 2. 5, which apparently continues the history of the conquest after the death of Joshua; (2) 2. 6 to 16. 31, the history of the judges; 1 and (3) an appendix, containing the story of the Ephraimite Micah and the founding of the Danite sanctuary at Laish by the sources of the Jordan (17, 18) ; and the rape of a Levite's concubine by the Benjamites (19 to 21). The story of the book of Ruth is laid "in the days when the judges judged," which accounts for its place after the book of Judges in the Christian Bibles. The Moabite heroine of the story becomes the Israelite ancestress of King David. The nature of the story is such as to fit any of the periods of Hebrew history ; and it suggests social rather than histori- cal conditions ; and its only distinctive historical element is the genealogy of David with which the book closes (see Sections 7 and 239). 72. The Character of the Biblical Sources. If we could take these biblical accounts as purely historical, the construction of the history would be comparatively simple. But upon examination it appears that we have here also a 1 The history of the Judges consists: (l) of an introduction, 2. 6 to 3. 6, in which the oppression of the Israelites by their foes is declared to be a divine punishment for their Baalism, and their deliverance a divine act of grace on repentance; and (2), within a framework, illustrating the same view of history, the heroic acts of the twelve Judges: Olhniel, the hero in a Mesopotamian (or Edomite) oppression (3. 7-1 1); Ehud, the left-handed slayer of the Moabite tyrant (3. 12-30); Shamgar. who slays six hundred Philistines (3. 31); Barak and Deborah, victors over Sisera, captain of the host of Jabin the Canaanite king of Hazor (4, 5) ; Gideon or Jerubbaal, freeing Israel from the raids of the Midianites and Amalekites (6 to 8); Abimelech, the tribal king of Shechem (9); Tola (10. I, 2); Jair (10. 3-5); Jephlhah, the deliverer from the Am- monites (10. 6 to 12. 7); Ibzan (12. 8-10); Elan (12. 11, 12); Abdon (12. 13-IS); and Samson, worrying the Philistines with his herculean feats (13 to 16). 9 8 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY combination of the four main sources of the Hexateuch, with all their characteristics. 73. The Two Views of the Conquest. The most elaborate account of the conquest and settlement of Palestine is that found in Joshua. The story is familiar. Israel crosses the Jordan under Joshua. Jericho and Ai are conquered. The confederacy of the kings of the south is defeated, and then that of the kings of the north. The whole land, thus conquered, is divided among the tribes, those of the East- Jordan returning to their inheritance. Four points are clear in this picture: I. The conquest was national; Israel acts as a whole under Joshua. 2. It was accomplished at one time, within a single generation. 3. It was mainly by warfare. 4. It was complete, the whole land being won. A careful study of the book of Judges reveals quite a different situation, and this is supported by other references. Judg 1 to 2. 5 tells the story of the work of conquest after Joshua's death. Jerusalem was not captured until the time of David (Judg 19. 12; confer 2 Sam 5. 6-9). The Canaanites were not driven out of Gezer until the time of Solomon (Judg 1. 29; confer 1 Kings 9. 16). Beth-shan remained Philistine until the time of David (Judg 1. 27; confer 1 Sam 31. 10). Taanach and Megiddo were still Canaanites in the time of Deborah (Judg 5. 19; 1. 27), and Shechem until the time of Abimelech (Judg 9. 28). More- over, we find constant warnings given to the Israelites against association with the Canaanites, which clearly shows that the latter were living peacefully among the Israelites at a later time. (Judg 3. 1-6 ; 1 Kings 9. 2of. ; Deut 7. 1-5, 22). There is little question as to which of these views is cor- rect. That of Judges is much the older, coming from J, and at the same time has every historical probability on its side. We cannot conceive how Joshua, if he conquered the whole land, north and south, should have left it unoccupied so that the work had all to be done over again after his death, nor where the Canaanites should have come from again so CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 99 quickly if they had all been annihilated. Here again we must distinguish between the original historical facts and the use made of them by later teachers and preachers for religious purposes. The account of Joshua is from the later hand of D. It is a great lesson in the form of history warning Israel against contamination with pagan neighbors. Living centuries after the conquest, this writer saw what the baneful effects of Canaanitish influence had been upon Israel's social, moral, and religious life. He is convinced of two great ideas. First, if Israel had absolutely exter- minated the Canaanites ("devoted" them to Jehovah, Josh 6. 21), the people and the land would have been saved from contamination. Second, if they had thus shown their loyalty and zeal, then Jehovah would have fought for them; they would have simply needed to stand still and see the salva- tion of Jehovah who would have made all walls fall before them. The writer, therefore, for the purpose of his teach- ing, idealizes the history, emphasizing some aspects, dis- regarding others, and picturing events more according to his idea of how they must, or should, have been. At the same time he puts into a few years the conquest that really required generations. The noble religious faith and purpose of the writer and his zeal for pure religion are evident, though his idea of the mission of religion seems cruel and narrow as compared with ours. For us religion is to trans- form as a missionary power ; for him the only safety lay in killing off its enemies. This is the law of Herem, observance of which is to bring success (Josh 1. 7S.), and failure in which is to bring disaster (Josh 6. 18, 21 ; 7. 1, 10-12). 74. The Framework of the History of the Judges. In the book of Judges it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the older stories about the Judges and the introduc- tion and framework, which are much later. These last are from the school of D, the same source as the book of Joshua. The introduction, 2. 6 to 3. 6, gives a summary of the whole period: After the death of Joshua and his generation the IOO OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Israelites forsook Jehovah and worshiped the gods of Canaan; as a punishment Jehovah allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies; but when they repented and cried to him for help, he sent them deliverers. Correspond- ing to this philosophy of history, each of the stories of the more prominent Judges is opened and closed in a similar formal way as this : The Israelites again did that which was evil in the sight of Jehovah ; he delivered them into the hand of such and such an oppressor; when they cried unto him he raised up so and so as a deliverer ; upon which follows the story of the deliverance, closed with the statement : And the land had rest so and so many years (Judg 3. 7-11, 12-15, 30; 4. 1-3; 5. 31 ; 6. 1-7; 8. 28; 10. 6-10). By these means the Deuteronomist enforces the lessons of the prophets of the eighth and seventh centuries, who saw in the downfall of Israel and Judah the visitation and vindication of Jehovah's righteousness. The stories of the Judges them- selves, however, are entirely independent of the framework within which they are now placed, and are of far earlier material. 75. The Elements of P and J and E. In Josh 1 to 12, the element that P contributes is not extensive: a version of the crossing of the Jordan and the account of the observ- ance of the Passover that followed come from this source. But in chapters 13 to 24, the allotment of the tribal terri- tories and the assignment of cities in these territories to the Levites and priests, and the designation of the asylum cities are chiefly from P. The remainder probably belongs to J and E, the oldest, and for historical use the most serviceable material. Some of the stories of the Judges, as of Samson, for instance, are popular tales that have become embellished in transmission. On the other hand, the Song of Deborah, Judg 5, is a nearly con- temporaneous record of the history of the struggle of the Israelites with the Canaanites for the possession of the land, and is a historical source of the first rank. CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 101 76. The Sources for the Conquest of South and East Palestine. As bearing on the history of the conquest, there should be here added also the account of the attempt to invade Palestine from the south, Num 13!, and especially the two detached brief but ancient fragments, Num 14. 44f., and 21. 1-3. The account of the sending out of the spies is a combination of JE and P ; and in its present form aims to account for the fact that Israel did not immediately pro- ceed to capture Canaan, but remained for a generation in the desert. The material for the conquest of the East- Jordan province is in the form of a narrative of a journey from Kadesh by the way of the southern boundaries of Edom to the Jordan, including the accounts of the death of Aaron and Moses (Num 20 to Deut 3. 34). It includes: Num 20. 14-21; Deut 2. i-8a, through the land of Edom; Num 21. 10-20; Deut 2. 8b-23, by the wilderness of Moab; Num 21. 21-32; Deut 2. 24-37, tne victory over Sihon king of the Amorites; Num 21. 33-35; Deut 3. 1-7, the victory over Og, king of Bashan; and Num 32; Deut 3. 12-22, the settlement of the tribes Gad and Reuben, which mainly concern us, as furnishing historical data. The brief accounts of JE may be taken as embodying historical reminiscences ; the material that D furnishes betrays the later point of view, as in the book of Joshua ; while P, in the substance of Num 33-35, deals with the period from the later priestly point of view. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Incorporate in your Bible the main divisions of the book of Joshua. 2. Do the same with the book of Judges. Distinguish the "frame- work" from the stories of the Judges and underscore the names of the Judges. 3. Note particularly that the earlier and later sources are dis- tinguished by the view they take of how the conquest was accom- plished. 4. Estimate the moral and religious value of the later account. 102 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 2. The Invasion of Palestine 77. The Task of the Invaders. Using the material that comes to us from Judges and other sources, we get the following outline picture of the conquest : It was ( 1 ) tribal, one or two tribes together gain their territory; (2) gradual, extending over a period of many generations; (3) mainly peaceful, accomplished often by treaties, intermarriages, and amalgamation; and (4) incomplete, until after many generations had passed away. This view accords better with the task the invaders had to accomplish. The inhabi- tants of Palestine very likely lacked the spirit of union, and had become weakened by vice ; yet they were civilized, trained in warfare, and had fortified cities. The Hebrews were more than mere nomads ; and driven from their desert home by the increase of their numbers, possessed the cour- age of adventurers. But in open warfare they were at a disadvantage ; and to this bear witness the statements that they "could not drive out the inhabitants of the valley, be- cause they had chariots of iron." At times unquestionably they must have made their entrance by force; but more frequently by quiet occupation, by treaties, or intermar- riages, living then side by side with the natives. Having in time gained in numbers and strength, "they put the Canaanites to task work" ; and having finally learned by experience to make war more successfully, they became masters of the land. Following the earlier material, we may consider the occupation of Palestine as having transpired in three stages : the Southern, the Eastern, and the Western. 78. The Southern Occupation. The data for the occu- pation of the south in their present context in Judges and Joshua imply that it took place from the east. Judah and Simeon, joined by Caleb and the Kenites, we are told (Judg 1. 1-21), attack the army of ten thousand men of Adoni- bezek; rout it, overtake and mutilate the king, and capture his capital, Jerusalem. The tribes then move southward, capture Hebron, which falls to Caleb; continuing south- CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 103 ward, they take Zephath, formerly called Hormah. They even invade the Philistine district, and take the cities Gaza, Askelon, and Ekron. The last statement cannot be meant for this period; and it is generally considered an insertion of a late redactor. The capture of Jerusalem in v. 8 is contradicted by v. 21 ; and we know that it was David who first captured it. The whole section looks as if it were a general summary of events that have taken place, but not in the chronological and geographical order here given. On the other hand, if the fragments Num 14. 3<}b-45 and 21. 1-3 are taken together, and independently of the context in which they are found, they tell first of an unsuccessful attempt to invade southern Palestine from Kadesh ; but later of a victory of Israel over the Canaanites of the south as far as Hormah. A comparison of Num 21. 1-3 with Judg I. i6f. shows clearly that they are duplicates ; for both lie within the same district and involve the capture of Hormah, the main difference being that what in Numbers is ascribed to Israel as a whole is in Judges ascribed to Simeon, Judah, and the Kenites. There is much to be said in favor of such an invasion from the south by these tribes. Zephath or Hormah is only about forty miles from Kadesh. Zephath is commonly identi- fied with Sebaita, twenty-two miles north-northeast from Ain Kades ; but it is better to identify it with the mountain ridge Es-Safa, about forty miles northeast of Kadesh. The occupation was under the conditions then existing likely to be far more effective from the south than from the north, and more natural and less arduous than from the east. An eastern invasion implies warfare, for which the Israelites were not as yet prepared ; a southern implies a gradual encroaching upon adjoining territory by a people pressed for room. The story of the spies (Num 13) and Caleb's part in it also favor the approach from the south. Caleb believed that the south of Canaan could be possessed from Kadesh; he obtains his inheritance in the south; and at 2i. io-35; Deut a to 3. 7 104 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Hebron he conquers the three sons of Anak that he had spied out on his expedition. It would seem, then, not unreasonable to suppose that after a considerable residence at Kadesh, some of the Hebrew tribes, and apparently the Leah tribes, Judah and Simeon, together with their confederates Caleb and the Kenites, pushed their way northward, and gained gradually firmer foothold in southern Palestine. The separation from the rest of the tribes at this time is more likely than at any later time ; and it explains the cleavage that existed between the southern and northern tribes in the subsequent periods. Hum 20. 14-21; 79. The Occupation of Eastern Palestine. The ac- count of the occupation of eastern Palestine we have mainly from the point of view of the later nationalism. At the end of their stay in the desert, and still under the leadership of Moses, the tribes as a whole break up at Kadesh to pro- ceed to take possession of the promised land. They ask permission to pass through Edom, but are refused, and, out of deference to their rights, pass through by the way of the Gulf of Akaba. They are not to molest Moab and Ammon ; for it is the country of the children of Lot. But when they reach the territory of the eastern Amorites, they capture Jazer, overcome Sihon, the king of Heshbon, and Og, the king of Bashan, capture their cities, although they were "fortified with high walls, gates, and bars," "utterly destroy- ing every inhabited city, with the women and the little ones" Numsj. 2-24 (Deut 3. 5f.). Moab and Midian are terrified at Israel's success, and send for the aid of Baalam, a soothsayer, to cast a spell upon the victors ; but Baalam recognizes the hand of Jehovah in the movement; and instead of cursing Num32; them blesses them. The conquered country is now given Ddlt 3. 12—22 to Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh. This kind of a conquest, however, has to be qualified by the confession of weakness already referred to ; and there exists a remnant of an older account which confirms the suspicion that the occupation was less sweeping, stating that CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 105 many Canaanites were not conquered. We may suppose, Josh 13. 13 therefore, that the settlement in eastern Palestine was a second stage in the attempt of the tribes to find larger quar- ters in the rich pasture lands of this region. 80. The Occupation of Western Palestine. We have already considered the two conceptions of the conquest of western Palestine (Section 73). According to the one, national Israel, with its right to the land by divine promise, crosses over Jordan dry-shod ; the walls of Jericho fall ; and Jehovah drives its enemies before it as the hornet. But the other view is conscious of limitations and of difficulties to be encountered by a people of courage inspired by faith. J° sh 3. 2 to 5. « As there are various versions of the crossing of the Red Sea, so there are of the crossing of the Jordan ; and here also a providential deliverance has been recognized by a later faith. Josh 3. 16 suggests a landslide, not uncommon along the clayey and overhanging banks of the Jordan. But the Jordan is fordable at various points near Jericho (Judg 3. 28; 7. 24; 12. 5). Of the capture of Jericho also are various Josh 2; 5. 13- accounts, suggesting a providential circumstance. The I5, sending out of the spies, the friendliness of Rahab, and the understanding with her, indicate a well laid plan of capture. The capture of Ai illustrates Israel's sagacity in outwitting J""* 8 its enemies. Of the utmost importance for the understanding of the J° sh0 -3-« process of Israel's occupation of the land is the treaty with the Gibeonites. It involved four of the most important cities of central Palestine, holding a strategic position between the south and the north. The independence of these cities is ascribed to a ruse, which aims to palliate such a religious blunder, as it appeared to a later time, which sees no other reason for their existence than Israel's sufferance. The account of the conquest of southern Palestine in Josh 9. ». 3; ™ Joshua runs parallel with that of Judah, already considered , ]6 3; (Section 78). It represents a later summary of events end- J>» d s »• *-«3 ing with the capture of Jerusalem by David. 106 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY judg i. 22-36 Central and northern Palestine were at first secured in a very partial manner by the various tribes. The house of Joseph, consisting of Ephraim (to whom belonged Joshua) and Manasseh, succeeded with the aid of a guide in finding entrance into Bethel. But the record of the success of the other tribes is very meager, and tells more what they did not than what they did. It contains a list of about seventeen cities, occupying the heart of the land, whose Canaanite inhabitants "would dwell in that land." Concerning the tribe of Dan we are told that the Amorites forced them into the hill country (v. 34). What is then in the book of Joshua ascribed to united Israel under the leadership of Joshua was really accomplished by the various tribes under the leader- ship of the Judges, as told in the book of Judges, and ex- tending over a considerable period of time. This does not necessarily mean that Joshua's leadership lacks historical basis ; but that in characteristic nationalistic fashion the later historian has foreshortened the events of history and ascribed to one generation the task of several. But the book of Judges brings us into scenes that resemble the earlier days of colonial history. The native population, still out- numbering the invaders, have just begun to realize their danger, and at various points seek to ward off their fate. Israel, it is evident, is by no means always victor. Again and again it is vanquished, enslaved and oppressed; but at the crucial moment one of their heroes arises and brings them relief. The primary function of these "Judges," as gathered from their actions, was military leadership ; and it was only the prestige gained by their military successes that brought them secondary functions as arbiters, as their titles suggest, in disputes. As already stated, we have the history of twelve of these "Judges" ; and it appears that their number, as well as the chronological scheme, which is part of the deuterono- mistic framework, is used to give systematic disposition of the material. In correspondence with the view of the Old CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 107 Testament that forty years are equivalent to a generation, the numbers of most frequent occurrence are twenty, forty, and eighty (3. n, 30; 4. 3 ; 5. 31 ; 8. 28; 13. 1; 15. 20; 16. 31). The key to this chronological scheme is found in 1 Kings 6. 1, which reckons four hundred and eighty years, or twelve generations, from the Exodus to the building of Solomon's Temple. But it is practically impossible to make the present figures in Judges and Samuel add up this sum and it would seem that the symmetry of scheme has suffered in transmission. But while it may thus be impossible to give the exact dates and number, or sequence, of these Hebrew champions, the general character of their achieve- ments may still be ascertained. 81. The War of Deliverance. A great crisis in the J ud s4f-; , . . , . , . T . ... Josh 11. 1-20 history of the conquest is narrated in Judg 4 and 5, in the victory of Barak and Deborah over Sisera and the united Canaanites. A duplicate version of this victory is contained in Josh 11. 1-20: in both cases the Canaanites unite under Jabin, king of Hazor, and the battle is fought in the north of Palestine, but in the account in Joshua is a characteristic anticipation under national auspices of what took place at a later time. The account in Judges appears in double form — a prose account, ch. 4, and a poetic, ch. 5, in the so-called Song of Deborah. They vary in some minor details and mutually supplement each other. The poetic account proves itself naturally the earlier, and is, in fact, one of the earliest contemporaneous documents of incalculable historical value, and from the literary point of view one of the finest gems of Hebrew poetry. It conveys to us information of the straitened conditions of the Israelites ; on account of the Canaanite enemy insecurity and danger prevailed. "The highways were unoccupied" (v. 6), "and the travellers walked through by [or crooked] ways." The small army of the Israelites was insufficiently armed ; for Was there shield or a spear seen Among the forty thousand in Israel? (v. 8.) 108 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Like the Indians in Colonial history, the Canaanites would make a final and determinate effort to annihilate the hated intruders; and the conditions in Israel appeared favorable to effort; for not only were they harassed and ill-equipped, but, worst, they were disunited and lacked a common patriotism. Only six of the tribes — Ephraim, Benjamin, Machir, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali — are mentioned as helping the common cause. Judah and Simeon, representing the south, are conspicuous by their absence; Reuben felt he ought to come, but yielded to the temptation of ease and remained Among the sheepfolds, To hear the pipings for the flocks (v. I5f.); and Gilead also stayed away, and Dan preferred to "remain in ships" ; "Asher sat still at the shore of the sea" ; and the singer becomes indignant at the lack of true spirit and cries out : "Curse ye Meroz, said the angel of Jehovah, Curse ye bitterly the inhabitants thereof, Because they came not to the help of Jehovah, To the help of Jehovah against the mighty" (v. 23). But in spite of all the difficulties, Deborah and Barak succeeded in mustering enough to meet the foe. The battle was fought in the valley of Kishon, a swampy region, dis- advantageous to cavalry. A providential rainstorm seems to have come to aid the Israelites: From heaven fought the stars, From their courses they fought against Sisera (v. 20); the battlefield became flooded and disaster overtook the Canaanite : The river Kishon swept them away, That ancient river, the river Kishon (v. 21). Captain Sisera, who flees to the tent of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, falls the victim of foul assassination; CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 109 and Israel passes victoriously the crisis of extermination by the Canaanites. Judging from the psean of victory, a new and exultant spirit fills those who have come "to the help of Jehovah against the mighty." But while this victory settled for Israel the Canaanite problem in Central and Northern Palestine, it brought them by no means a permanent rest, for as the exploits of the other champions would indicate, danger still threatened them at various other points. Seven of the twelve "Judges" appear only of minor importance. The story of Othniel Jw>8 3. 7-« (3. 7-1 1 ) belongs to D ; and an Aramaean domination at this time presents an historical difficulty. If it were possible to see in "Aram" (v. 10) a corruption of "Edom," the story would then point to an invasion from the east upon the south, and make good sense. The story of Ehud (3. 15-29) Judg3. 15-29 points to an uprising of Moab as a result of Israel's eastern occupation, resulting in the capture and recapture of Jericho. The story of Shamgar suggests exploits of Samson ; and the other minor judges are merely named. Of more historical importance are Gideon and Abimelech ; Jephthah and Samson. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Consider the causes leading to the Hebrew invasion of Pales- tine, particularly in view of the difficulty of the task. Read Num l 3- 2 5"33 and note the two different attitudes. 2. Study with the aid of a map the approaches to Palestine from the south and the east. 3. Be sure to examine carefully the biblical passages dealing with the various invasions and note the part each tribe took. 4. Compare the Hebrew settlement with the Colonial period of American history, noting the character of the invaders and the means of conquest. 5. Consider the political and religious effects of the war of deliverance. 3. The Tribal Heroes 82. Gideon. The history of Gideon's exploit against judg6to8 the Midianites is given in two variant versions. The older no OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY and more strictly historical version is contained in 8. 4-ioa. 11 ; 7. i6a.c. ; 17a; 18b. ; ioa.c. ; 20. 21b.; 8. 12-21, and seems only a fragment of a fuller story. According to it, the Midianites, Bedouins of the desert, under their leaders Zebah and Zalmunna, had made a raid on their surefooted camels into western Palestine, and near Mount Tabor had slain two of Gideon's brothers (vv. 18, 19). Gideon, driven by the duty of blood-revenge, gathers to him three hundred of the clan of Abiezer and goes in pursuit of the invaders. Cross- ing the Jordan, he asks aid of the elders of Succoth and Penuel, and when refused, promises vengeance on his return, a promise which he keeps. He overtakes the Midianites, and by a well-laid plan causes a panic at night in the host of the enemy, which is routed, and their chieftain is captured. Gideon, having made sure that they had slain his brothers, now calls upon his young first-born son to fulfill the duty of blood-revenge and slay the chieftains: and when the youth's courage fails, Gideon himself slays them. In the other version the didactic and nationalistic elements appear strikingly prominent. Gideon receives his call through an angelic visitor. His mission is to be national, and he acts also like Elijah as a religious reformer in breaking down the altars of Baal. The warfare is between a mighty invading host of Midianites, Amalekites, and other children of the east, "Like locusts for multitude; and their camels were without number, as the sand which is upon the sea- shore for multitude" (7. 12), and the united forces of the tribes of Manasseh, Asher, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Ephraim. Twice Gideon is divinely assured of success ; and in order to make it clear that the victory is due to Jehovah alone, his army of forty-two thousand is first reduced to ten thousand and again to three hundred by the sign of those who drink without getting on their knees like those who have bowed their knees to Baal. It is thus the number is brought to harmonize with Gideon's three hundred of the clan of Abiezer. The victory is achieved also by causing a panic, CONQUEST OF PALESTINE in but the means is the blowing of the trumpets, instead of the empty jars with torches and the battle cry, "For Jehovah and Gideon" ; and the two chieftains, here named Oreb and Zeeb, are slain, and on this side of the Jordan. The sequence of Gideon's victory has come down to us also in double form. According to the earlier account, Gideon requests the golden earrings of his captives as his spoil; and of the gold he makes an ephod, and sets it up in his city Ophrah. The implication is that he becomes the local ruler. But, according to later account, "the men of Israel" offer Gideon the kingship, which he in the interest of the theocracy refuses with the words : "I will not rule over you, neither shall my son rule over you : the Lord shall rule over you." 83. Abimelech. How nearly the rule of Gideon ap- Judggf. proached a tribal kingdom is seen illustrated in the kingdom of his son Abimelech which was its natural sequence. Abime- lech was Gideon's son by a Canaanite woman of Shechem ; and upon the death of his father, aided by his maternal relatives and hired mercenaries, he murdered seventy of his half-brothers "on one stone" — all except Jotham — and was made king of Shechem. The story of his reign, which has all the marks of antiquity, is one of rivalry, dissension, and bloodshed. Jotham's parable tells his view of his brother's character and origin with stinging sarcasm, and forecasts his evil end. In three years the Shechemites have broken away from him in open rebellion, but are forced back into submission ; and he himself dies ingloriously at the siege of Thebez by the hand of a woman. Thus comes to an end the first real attempt at kingship in Israel ; it was a step in a new direction, indicating development ; but accomplishing little of permanent value. There was not as yet sufficient amalgamation of the Canaanite and Israelite elements for harmony; and the Deuteronomistic editor with insight ascribes the failure to Canaanite religious influence. 84. Jephthah. The deeds of Jephthah are surrounded Judg ut. ii2 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY by the same atmosphere, but the scene shifts from the west to the east of the Jordan, to Gilead. Jephthah, like Abime- lech, was most probably the offspring of the union of an Israelite with a Canaanite woman ; and though energetic and brave, was not allowed to live in peace with his half- brothers, but was driven from home, to live the life of an outlaw. But when their country was in distress his ability was remembered ; he was recalled and asked to aid them. He promises to do so on condition that he rule over them, which he ultimately did in Mizpeh of Gilead, probably the modern es-Salt. The Ammonites, and apparently the Moa- bites (see Judg n. 17, 18, 24), had become restive under the aggressiveness of the Israelites, and taking advantage of their dissensions, had made an effort to regain their loss. Jephthah goes into the battle with the vow that if Jehovah will give him victory, he will sacrifice to him whatsoever comes from the doors of his house to meet him. The victory is won ; his daughter comes forth to meet him, and Jephthah "did with her according to the vow which he had vowed" — words which yield no other explanation than that he took her life upon the altar. And when the Ephraimites seek a quarrel with him he gathers again his Gileadite forces and defeats them and seizes the fords of the Jordan ; and when the fugitives attempt to cross, recognizing them by the failure to pronounce the "sh" in "shibboleth," which be- comes on their tongues "sibboleth," he causes them to be put to death. Jephthah is to all appearance a tribal king in Mizpeh of Gilead, as Abimelech had been in Shechem ; but he had gained it not by heredity, but by conquest, judg 13 to 16 85. Samson. With the stories of Samson we are transferred to the southwestern regions of Palestine, the territory bordering on the Philistines. Samson, who was a Danite, is celebrated for two things, namely, his fondness for Philistine women and his gigantic strength, both of which brought him into trouble. His exploits possess all the fascination of popular heroism; and the stories about CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 113 him must have delighted, as they still delight, those fond of a good story. The stories hang but loosely together and most probably had different origins before they were col- lected into their present setting. The source of his strength is ascribed to the fact that he was a Nazirite from his birth, consecrated to Jehovah and filled with his spirit; but it is also ascribed to his unshaven hair. His relations with Philistine women are regarded as a providential occasion to harass the Philistines. Little or nothing of historic value accrued from the exploits of his misused strength ; and aside from the light the stories throw upon the free inter- course of the Israelites with the Philistines, they furnish no data for the events of history of the period. What Samson really accomplished was to stir up the anger of the Philis- tines, which shows itself in the subsequent period, and to which the stories seem to be the transition. 86. The Settlement of the Danites. In most striking Judg 17, 18 contrast in historic importance is the migration of the Danites and the founding of the northern sanctuary at Dan by the sources of the Jordan (confer Josh 19. 40-48). The tribe at first occupied the hill country in the southwest of Ephraim (Judg 1. 34) where it was hard pressed by the Canaanites. It would seem that at some considerably later time they determine to seek larger quarters, and six hundred of their armed men capture ancient Laish, at the foot of Mount Hermon and call the new settlement Dan. On their way northward they forcibly appropriate the priest and the sacred paraphernalia of the private sanctuary of the Ephrai- mite Micah; by means of which they found the sanctuary at Dan. 87. The Final Settlement of the Tribes. It would seem, then, that about the end of the period of the "Judges," and during a period of two centuries, Israel had succeeded in establishing itself firmly upon its land, in so amalgamating with and gaining control over the native Canaanite popula- tion as to be really masters in their territory. ii 4 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY I. Separate in your Bible the earlier and later accounts of Gideon. Read each account separately and note the points of emphasis in each. 2. Consider the history of Abimelech from the point of view of Jotham's fable. 3. Consider the force of the vow in Hebrew life (see article "Vows" in Dictionary of the Bible) and the sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter. 4. Trace the movements of the Danites on a map and consider the origin of the sanctuary at Dan. 5. Draw a map indicating the location of the Hebrew tribes at this time. 6. Consider the character of the Judge from the point of view of (1) his function, (2) his locality, and (3) his assumption of royalty. 4. Social, Moral, and Religious Conditions During the Period of Occupation 88. The Social Life. The settlement in Palestine affected the life of the Israelites radically. While hitherto not ignorant of field labor, they became now agriculturists with settled abodes, houses, lands, vineyards, and olive yards. Plowing, in simple fashion, sowing and reaping, threshing and winnowing, gathering in grains and fruits into storehouses became the general activity of the people, and were added to that of raising cattle. The Israelites learned from the Canaanites the culture of the fig and sycamore, the making and use of the wine and olive press, the making and repairing of simple agricultural implements, and the making of simple pottery. The houses of the poorer classes were one-roomed clay huts, shared by cattle, with low doors and small openings for windows ; they had no chimneys, the smoke finding its way out of these openings. The better houses were built of sun-dried brick with flat roofs. The furniture consisted of low tables with the floor or chairs for seats ; the room was lighted or heated with oil wicks in lamps of clay ; fallen leaves or the bare ground CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 115 served as beds, the sleeper lying wrapped up in his outer garment ; the utensils for eating and drinking were of wood or clay, but later of metal. The chief food was bread; the flour was ground in a hand mill, consisting of a lower con- cave and an upper convex round stone with an opening on the top, and turning on a wooden peg. The kneading and leavening were done in a wooden bowl, and the baking in earthen ovens, heated with dried dung or brush, and either by laying the dough on heated stones or by slapping it against the heated sides of the oven. Other foods were garden vegetables, fruits and honey, and the produce of the herds and flocks — meat and milk. The clothing consisted of a lower garment of linen with- out sleeves and reaching to the knees, and for those who could afford it of an upper garment of woolen cloth or leather; sandals were worn, and a heavy, turbanlike cover- ing for the head as a protection from the sun. Both men and women wore earrings as amulets, and ornaments. At first village life predominated ; then the cities built by Canaanites were shared with the native population, until they also became Israelite. The cities were walled and had gates fastened with brass or bronze. Open spaces around the gates were used for trading, administration of justice, and general intercourse. The streets were narrow and crooked, dark, dirty, and unpaved, and the refuse was thrown upon the streets to the dogs. The family occupied among the Israelites a most im- portant and influential position, for the tribes were nothing more than the aggregation of families. The family was the preserver and cultivator of religion, morals, and law. In historical times it was patriarchal ; but there are indications that the matriarchate existed at one time, namely, the ease with which half-brother and sister may marry, if not related on the mother's side (Gen 20. 12; 2 Sam 13. 13), the naming of the children by the mother (Gen 30. 6, 8, 11, 13), and the man's marrying into the family of his wife (Gen 2. 24). n6 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY With the matriarchate went a higher position of woman, which changed with the prevalence of the patriarchate. Marriage was a contract involving the purchase of the bride, and the dowry which was the purchase price was paid to the father. Jacob, for instance, serves seven years each for Leah and Rachel. The story of the Benjamites stealing their wives from the maidens of Shiloh (Judg 21. ioi.) illustrates the earlier custom of marriage by capture. Both methods tended to give to woman a dependent position. The desire to preserve the solidarity of the clan limited marriage to the nearest relatives, and there are early instances of marriage with the wife of a deceased father, with sisters, of marriage of nephew and aunt, of uncle and niece, and of half-brother and sister. The notion of the purity of Hebrew blood is unhistorical ; for there is abundant evidence that they intermarried with Canaanites, Moabites, Ammonites, Philistines, and other peoples, and that the blood of national Israel was very much mixed. Polygamy was a legal institution, but practiced only by the rich who could afford the purchase and maintenance of a number of wives, or by rulers and princes who sought by their marriages with other princely houses to strengthen their own. Bigamy was more common, and due to childless- ness, old age, need of additional household help, or desire for larger family. But the jealousies and rivalries of plural marriages must have acted somewhat as a social deterrent, and it is significant that the Hebrew term for a second wife was Zarah, or "enemy" (confer 1 Sam 1. 6). The marital law was decidedly laxer for man than for woman, and the law against adultery, as the meaning of the word indicates, was in the interest of the integrity of a man's children. But it is not to be supposed that these conditions robbed Hebrew life of the romantic element, and we find instances that point to highest types of conjugal love. The children, until married, were under the absolute control of the father; sons were more valued than daughters, and CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 117 the first-born son stood above his brothers in privileges and duties. Slaves constituted part of the family, and whether of native or foreign origin could become integral parts of it, adopting its religion and even sharing in inheritance. 89. Government. From what has been said it is evi- dent that the Hebrew family was a larger and more hetero- geneous aggregation than is commonly known as a family ; in fact, the Hebrew term was "house," and it constituted the unit in political organization. The head of the family had within his group absolute authority; and to disobey it carried with it severance from the group and its protection. A number of these "houses" constituted the clan, at whose head stood a chieftain somewhat like the sheik and possess- ing a rather indefinite authority; and members of the clan celebrated together their sacrificial feasts at their common sanctuary. A number of such clans formed the tribe, whose ruler was freely chosen from those who had distinguished themselves by bravery, wisdom, or wealth ; but he ruled only by consent of the governed. The formation of the clans and tribes, as has already been indicated, was still in progress in this period ; the struggle for foothold, the shift- ing of locations, and the joint occupation of native settle- ments, caused a conglomeration of various elements, of course predominantly Hebrew, out of which came the Israel of Palestine. This explains the growth of some tribes, like Ephraim and Manasseh, the disappearance of others, like Simeon and Levi, and the formation of subtribes, like that of Machir or Abiezer. The "twelve tribes of Israel" is evidently only an artificial enumeration ; and it can be ob- tained only by omitting the tribe of Benjamin or by count- ing Ephraim and Manasseh as one. This tribal grouping had its origin in nomadic life and was well fitted for it; but underwent quite naturally gradual modification with the settlement in Palestine. As well-defined communities arose, under the influence of the example of Canaanite cities, muni- cipal organizations were effected; and we read of "elders n8 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY of the city" (Judg 8. 16) ; and out of the need of concerted action in time of war grew the tribal champion whose leader- ship extended beyond that of his own tribe ; and out of the champion grew the "Judge," or arbiter, in time of peace; and the desire for greater permanence led to the tribal kingship, as of Gideon, Jephthah, and particularly Abime- lech. 90. Culture. The Canaanites among whom the Hebrews settled had reached a high state of civilization ; and that the latter should have come to feel its influence is only natural. It is probable that they learned from them not only agriculture and the simple arts, but also their system of weights and measures and the mode of writing, which the Moabite stone shows was used also by the Moabites. The remains of literature that have been preserved from the period are rather meager. It was not a time of ease and leisure, conducive to writing, but of action, and, correspond- ingly, the period of folklore, whose subject was the heroic deeds of the champions of the conquest, like Gideon, Jeph- thah, and Samson. It was during this period that the patriarchal stories probably took their present shape. They are associated with the familiar places of Palestine, She- chem, Bethel, the Jordan valley, Philistia, Hebron, and Beersheba. Many of them bear the marks of being local legends. They concern the sites of ancient sanctuaries, sacred trees, wells and springs, and ancestral burial places. In these very localities, which had now come into their possession, these stories were told and retold, passing through oral tradition, and taking that perfect form as stories which they have to-day. But written literature also has come down to us from this period in the beautiful poem, the Song of Deborah, bearing all the characteristics of the best type of Hebrew poetry ; and another excellent example of another type of literary composition is furnished us in the parable of Jotham. 91. Morals. In surveying the moral conditions of CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 119 this period it must be borne in mind that it was essentially the age of conquest and pioneering and heroism; and that the sterner elements of virtue as well as of vice showed themselves most prominently. The struggle for existence served to encourage the lower animal passions, and the age for the practice of nobler ideals was yet to come. Ehud's murderous thrust, Jael's treacherous assassination of Sisera, Gideon's blood-revenge, Abimelech's wholesale slaughter of his rivals, and Samson's wanton cruelty and destructiveness reflect a time when might was right. Micah's theft of his mother's silver, and the Danites' theft of the stolen goods and the thief, and all of it in the interest of religion, are not wholesome examples of either religion or ethics. Samson's fondness for Philistine women and the lust of the men of Gibeah ( Judg 19. 22-26) reveal glimpses of a most degraded state of social virtue. But there is a brighter aspect, for the Hebrews could never have succeeded in conquering and absorbing the older civilization of the Canaanites unless they had possessed superior physical and moral qualities. Chief among them were courage, fortitude, aggressiveness, and most probably abstinence from the use of intoxicants, for wine-drinking is associated with wine culture and is agri- cultural ; and, as the story of the Rechabites shows, is not a habit with nomadic or pastoral people. Temperate habits they had brought with them into Palestine, and intemperance they did not acquire until later in contact with the native population. In the earlier times their freedom from this vice was an important asset to their conquering powers. 92. Religion. But Israel's chief inspiration was its faith in Jehovah. Hebrew traditions persist in the thought that Palestine is the promised land to the Hebrews and that the wars of conquest were the work of Jehovah, hence they who failed to participate "Came not to the help of Jehovah . . . against the mighty" ; and hence the war cry, "For Jehovah and for Gideon !" But the conception of Jehovah is simple. He is believed to reside still on Sinai, and to 120 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY come thence to fight for his people (Judg 5. 41.) ; to accept the sacrifice of human beings (Judg 11. 34-40 and compare Gen 22. 1-19), and to inspire Samson with the "Spirit of Jehovah" to accomplish the deeds of violence and revenge. Sacred places are numerous and scattered over the entire land — at Dan, Ophrah, Shechem, Shiloh, and private sanctu- aries also existed (Judg 17). Anyone may act as priest, though a Levite is preferred (Judg 17. 5ff.). The divinity was represented by an image, an ephod (Judg 8. 27; 17. 3ff.), and teraphim, probably households idols (but confer Section 65) were also used. The nature of the religious festival at the sacred shrines is illustrated by the dance of the maidens of Shiloh at the annual "feast of Jehovah," and the pilgrimage of Elkanah and his family (Judg 21. i6ff. ; 1 Sam 1). That the Hebrews came strongly under the in- fluence of Canaanite religions can scarcely be doubted. Many of their ancient sanctuaries and "high places" they adopted, with all their characteristic paraphernalia — altars and asherahs, or sacred posts. The Canaanite conception of Baal as "Lord" of the land and the dispenser of its fruit- fulness was transferred by them to Jehovah, as is clearly seen by such names as Jerubbaal, Gideon's real name (Judg 7. 1). But this change took place gradually, and its baneful effects became apparent only later on, when it aroused the prophetic religious zeal of an Elijah and an Elisha. But at this time the harm was scarcely yet visible ; the change apparently was made with the sanction and by the example of Israelite leaders, and the conception of the "framework" in Judges, regarding Israel's defection from Jehovah to Baal, is the true judgment of a time that understood what the adoption of Canaanite religious ideas and customs had done for Israel. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Review the period of conquest and settlement. 2. Consider the changes the period brought to the Hebrews and note the state of social culture they had now reached. CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 121 3. Make an estimate of the morals of this period and consider by what forces the Hebrews conquered. 4. Consider the religious ideas and customs of this period: (i) Were they joyous or grievous? (2) How did they differ from those of Mosaic times? See Section 69. CHAPTER VI THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY i. Samuel and Saul 93. The Philistine Aggressions. The development of Hebrew national life culminated materially in the estab- lishment of the national monarchy, and the chief charac- ters associated with it were Samuel, Saul, David, and Solomon ; and the contributory causes were the dangers that threatened Israel's existence by the Philistine aggres- sions, and the leadership of Samuel. In Judges we have already met Shamgar and Samson as champions of Israel against the Philistines; but they were evidently but the forebodings of the storm yet to come. It broke out in full force in the days of Samuel. The Philistines, like the Hebrews, were immigrants in Palestine. The prophet Amos (9. 7) says that Jehovah had brought the Philistines from Caphtor as he had brought the Israelites from Egypt. Now the Philistines, a non- Semitic people, had arrived somewhat earlier, probably from Asia Minor and the Greek islands, and had adopted the language of the Canaanites and their customs, except circumcision. They had settled down in that rich section of coast land west of the Judaean hills, and, in addition to agriculture, were engaged in mercantile pursuits, their chief cities lying on the great highway between the Euphrates and the Nile. It would seem that it was the very same desire that prompted Israel to spread in Canaan that brought the Philistines into conflict with them. For in pushing their conquests the Philistines would naturally seek to move along the highway to Damascus and the Euphrates that lay along the coast and the plain of Jezreel. CBP7li|bl, IBOO Ud 1*12. bj CUtlM fo«M Kurt .Th« Hathodlft Book Conoro. Maw Voik will Cincinnati UNITED AND DIVIDED HEBREW KINGDOMS, 1050-586 B. C. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 123 It was in this section of country, at Aphek, where the 1 Sam 4- 1 to 7. ^ battle was fought that brought Israel a repeated defeat, the death of their aged priest and judge, Eli, and the loss of "the ark of the covenant of Jehovah." The story of the fortunes of the ark possesses a unique interest. The sacred object possesses magic power, and, although the spoil of war, really lords it over the Philis- tines. They do not know what to do with it, and in the end are glad to get rid of it. It is just such a story as the Hebrew would wish to tell to show the sorry plight of the uncircumcised Philistines. We are not told why the ark was not returned to its original home in Shiloh, and it appears a legitimate conclusion that the reason was that the Philistines had destroyed the place. The city is not mentioned again in subsequent history, and Jeremiah (7. 12, 14; 26. 6) refers to it repeatedly as an illustration of destruction. The Philistine victory involved apparently the subjugation of central Palestine and particularly the countries of the tribes of Joseph including Benjamin, and its lasting success would have been disastrous to Israel. The Philistine aggression thus meant a crisis, requiring apt leadership and united action. 94. Samuel and the Kingship. The leading figure of 1 Sam 9 to u this crucial time is Samuel. He must have been a man of great foresight and commanding influence, for it was he who brought about the kingship of both Saul and David; and for no other purpose than to cope with this Philistine situation, in which Saul failed but David succeeded. Our biblical sources give us a double and rather variant view of the character and achievement of Samuel, and very much of the same type as that we have met in the previous chapter. The one view accords naturally with the proba- bilities of history, but the other embodies the reflection of subsequent history, and both may be seen strikingly illus- trated in its attitude toward the establishment of the king- ship in Israel. I2 4 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY According to the earlier account, Samuel is a seer (choseh) and a priest possessing divinely given powers- clairvoyance; he meets Saul, a Benjamite distinguished by a fine reserve and stature, and of noble family, who is in search of his father's asses and comes to Samuel to inquire for them. Samuel, guided by a divine insight, recognizes in Saul the man for the crisis who will save the people "out of the hands of the Philistines." He makes Saul stay with him and talks over with him the situation, treats him with distinction at the sacrificial meal at the high place, takes him home with him, and in the morning secretly anoints him king, giving him certain directions and signs for guidance. This interview with Samuel made a most profound impression upon Saul and is significantly de- scribed in the words: "And it was so, that, when he had turned his back to go from Samuel, God gave him another heart" (10. 9). Samuel's signs come true; and Saul meets a band of enthusiasts, called prophets, who under the influence of music give vent to their enthusiasm in physical demonstrations; he falls under their influence and joins with them in their actions, and so "Is Saul also among the prophets?" (For another later version of this saying, see 19. 18-24.) Saul keeps Samuel's instructions to himself, but a month later the occasion arises when they prompt him to action. The city of Jabesh in Gilead is besieged by the Ammonites and is in danger of shameful surrender. The elders of the city send messengers to the trans- Jordan tribes for aid; but while it makes them break out into tears, it fails to stir them to action. But when Saul hears of it the spirit of Jehovah rushes upon him, and his anger is greatly aroused; he takes a yoke of oxen, with which he apparently is plowing, cuts them in pieces, and sends these bloody tokens throughout all the territory of Israel with the words: "Whosoever cometh not forth after Saul and after Samuel, so shall it be done to his oxen." Inspired by his courage, ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 125 the tribes arise "as one man," defeat the Ammonites, and bring relief to Jabesh-Gilead. And the most natural conse- quence of this victory of Saul is his election to the kingdom at Gilgal. This account, which, it must be remembered, is dis- tinguished by its own literary character, is consistent with itself and the historical situation. The kingship was nothing new in Israel; the former champions became rulers, and the rulers, as in the case of Gideon, Jephthah, and Abime- lech, more or less kings. Samuel, therefore, acts in strict accord with the natural development in Israel, when he, on his own initiative and under providential guidance, anoints Saul king in order to cope better with the national danger due to the Philistine aggressions. According to the second account, however, Samuel is a "Judge" who in his old age has appointed his sons judges after him. The elders of Israel, dissatisfied with them and desiring to have a monarchy like the surrounding nations, ask Samuel to appoint them a king. He regards this demand as a most serious offense, religiously equivalent to a rejection of the Kingship of Jehovah himself, and politically a serious blunder, for which the people will have to pay dearly. Jehovah's anger over the demand is demonstrated by thunder and rain in harvest time, and the destruction of Israel is averted only by the intercession of Samuel. The method employed in choice of the king is the lot; and it falls miraculously upon Saul, who is then made king; and Samuel provides the people with a consti- tution of the monarchy. The second account bears all the characteristics of the 1 Sam 7. is to 8. Deuteronomic portion of the book of Judges; it is written from the later point of view of theocracy and out of the experience of the religious and political evils that the kingship had brought with it ; and it fits in with the scheme of the "Judges" that underlies the "framework" of the book of Judges, in which evidently Eli and Samuel were in- 22; 10. 17-24; 12. 1-25 7. 2-12 126 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY eluded. In the same vein are the stories of the childhood i Sam i to 4. ia; and call of Samuel in the house of Eli (i Sam I to 4. la), and the sweeping and marvelous victory over the Philis- tines, anticipating the work of Saul (7. 3-17). They are written with reference to religious instruction and recog- nize and emphasize the divine elements in history. Samuel is not merely the product of chance, but a child born in answer to prayer, dedicated in early life to God's service, called of God to carry forward his purposes; and Israel's oppression by the Philistines is due to their sin of forsaking Jehovah and worshipping the gods of Canaan and their victory over their enemies brought about by God's favor on their repentance in the sending of a divinely raised champion. 1 Sam i 3 t. 95. Saul's Victory Over the Philistines. Saul had been chosen king to deal with the Philistines, who were masters in central Palestine, but, probably conscious of the diffi- culties, he proceeded cautiously. The war broke out un- expectedly through his son Jonathan, who struck down the Philistine garrison in his own town of Gibeah. The Philis- tines now invaded Palestine and encamped at Michmash, which is opposite Gibeah, but separated from it by the deep pass that forms the entrance to the mountains in the south. Saul was at Gibeah, but had only six hundred men at his disposal. The Philistines had cut off the approach from the north and were plundering the country in all direc- tions. Saul's outlook was not encouraging; but Jonathan saved the day. He conceived the idea of crossing over the pass and attacking the Philistine guards at Michmash. He and his armor-bearer descended the steep cliffs into the valley, and climbed up the other side on hands and feet. The Philistine guards were dumfounded at the daring deed and easily overcome; and the whole Philistine army was thrown into a panic. Saul, who perceived the com- motion in the Philistine camp, and learned its cause, now attacks the enemies and scatters them. Desiring to make 15 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 127 a full end of them, he rashly forswears the people from tasting food until evening, which ultimately has most dis- astrous consequences : the people faint and gorge them- selves with raw flesh; and Jonathan, who had not heard his father's vow and had tasted some honey, nearly fell the victim of his folly. But the Philistines were driven from central Palestine. Their yoke was broken, and Saul's choice as king had found justification; but that the victory was only partial and not lasting is seen from subsequent history. 96. Samuel's Break with Saul. Since Saul had met 1 Sam is; 13. s- with success against the Ammonites in the eastern, and the Philistines in central, Palestine, he now proceeds against the Amalekites in the south. He wins a complete victory and slays all the people; he saves the best of the spoil and King Agag, whom Samuel hews to pieces "before Jehovah in Gilgal." The Deuteronomic editor also ascribes to Saul conquests over Edom, Moab, and even the Aramaeans (1 Sam 14. 47). It is quite eviden. that after a time Samuel breaks with Saul. There are two reasons assigned for it. According to one, he disobeyed Samuel in not showing sufficient zeal in enacting the ban on the Amalekites, and according to another he did not wait for the sacrifice until Samuel had come. If they are the real reasons, Saul was not really king, but Samuel. But the accounts appear more an attempt to find the reason than the reason itself, which has to be sought below such symptoms. Saul does not seem to have come up to the expectation of Samuel and the religious element which he represented. There is a strange silence as to what Saul did in the interests of the ark; and he appears no longer in touch with the prophetic bands of enthusiastic patriots. But the break came and embittered Saul's later life, affecting his spirit and energy, and showing itself in fitful turns of anger, jealousy, and melancholia. We are told that "the spirit of Jehovah departed from Saul, 128 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY and an evil spirit from Jehovah troubled him," (16. 14). His public life is now practically ended, and he is over- shadowed by his rival David. Saul's character and achieve- ments must be judged in the light of the conditions of his time. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Do not neglect to read first the Scripture passages indicated in the margin of the textbook. 2. Consider the influence of the Philistines on Hebrew history of this period. 3. Note the earlier and later views of the character and mission of Samuel. 4. Trace on a map the sites of Saul's victory over the Philistines. 5. Consider the causes of Samuel's break with Saul. 2. The Rise of David 1 Sam 16 to 18 97- David at the Court of Saul. There are three passages in First Samuel relating to David's appearance at the court of Saul: 1. Ch. 16. 1-13, containing the account of Samuel's mission to Bethlehem and the anointing of David. It is, as it were, the prelude in which Jehovah's purpose appears as the motif of all that follows. If we take it not as a later reflection, based upon David's success, Saul's jealousy and pursuit of David had good grounds. 2. Ch. 16. 14-23, stating that David, well known as ''skill- ful, a mighty man of valor," was called to Saul to bring him relief by his playing on the harp. 3. Ch. 17, the story of David's killing of Goliath. The difficulties with the last story are that after David is said to be a "mighty man of valor and a man of war," he is again a youth and a stripling; that after he has been at the court of Saul he is not known to Saul nor to Abner; that David takes the head of Goliath and brings it to Jerusalem before he had captured Jerusalem, and that the slaying of Goliath is ascribed to one named Elhanan (2 Sam 21. 19). 1 But it appears most probable that David was drawn to 1 The Chronicler who saw this difEculty tried to straighten it out by inserting the brother of Goliath (i Chron. 20. 5). ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 129 the court of Saul to serve him both as player and warrior ; that a strong friendship grew up between him and Jonathan at the court; that Saul's jealousy was aroused against 'him when the women sang: "Saul hath slain his thousands, And David his ten thousands," and that he attempted in various ways to get rid of him; and all the more so as he became the favorite of the people and in his own household. For Michal, Saul's daughter, loved him, and David became the king's son-in-law. That his son and daughter conspired to aid David against their father was not calculated to quiet his nervous and jealous disposition, and only led him to greater persistency in plan- ning the destruction of his rival. Thus, David was forced to leave the king's court. 98. David's Outlaw Life. The accounts of David's flight and outlaw life are rather full and redundant at some points, and a number of incidents are given in double and variant forms. His flight to Samuel in Ramah (19. 18-24) is a variant version of the proverb, "Is Saul also among the prophets?" (10. 10-12.) The flight to Achish, king of Gath (21. 10-15), where he saves himself by feigning madness, is difficult to reconcile with his later vassalship to the same king (27. 3ff.). Similarly, David's betrayal by the Ziphites and his generous sparing of Saul's life, are given in variant versions in 23. 19 to 24. 22, and 26 respectively. But aside from these double accounts, we have rather full and clear data for this period of David's life. After leaving his house in Gibeah David secretly meets 1 Sam 19 to 22 Jonathan, who assures him of his father's determination to kill him and of his own friendship and loyalty (igf ). Proceeding southward, he comes to Nob, situated a short distance north of Jerusalem, where the priest, Ahimelech, a descendant of the house of Eli, innocently aids him with i 3 o OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY food and the sword of Goliath, for which service the whole priestly family is executed by Saul, except Abiathar, who escapes and joins David, bringing his oracular ephod with him (21. 1-9; 22. 6-23). At the cave of Adullam, to be identified probably with Ad-el-ma in Wady es-Sur, his clan join him and other outlaws, and he becomes the cap- tain of four hundred men (22. 1, 2) ; he finds asylum for his parents in Mizpeh of Moab; and removes to the forest 1 Sam 23. 1-14 of Hereth (vv. 3-5). Three or four miles south of the cave of Adullam lay the old Judsean town of Keilah. The Philistines were besieging it and robbing its threshing floors. This gives David an excellent opportunity to aid his kins- men and inflict a blow upon the Philistines, both of which he accomplished in the relief of Keilah ; but he fails to find safety for himself and his men who had by now grown to six hundred (23. 1-14). He consequently re- sam 23. 19 to moves to the region of Ziph in southeastern Judah, from whence escape into the rocky wilderness was easy. In this region, where David appeared much at home, he succeeds in outwitting the pursuing Saul and showing himself generous toward him. In this region also occurred the romantic episode that led to his marriage with Abigail. It appears that David exacted a certain tribute for the support of his company in return for services he rendered in protecting the property of the inhabitants of the neighborhood. Nabal, whose name means "fool," was one of the wealthiest land owners of the region, and when David heard that he was sheep- shearing near by, asked for a share of the provisions. Nabal had sent a churlish answer, and David was about to punish him for it, when his wife Abigail took matters into her own hands and brought David a rich present in person. Her comely manner so pleased David that, when her hus- band soon afterward died, he married her. By this mar- riage David came not only into rich possessions, but became allied with an influential clan of the land of Judah. Another 24. 22; 26 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 131 marriage in the same neighborhood is recorded with Ahinoam of Jezreel (25. 2-44). 99. David Among the Philistines. Seemingly becom- iSam27to2S. 2; ing tired of the fugitive life, David decided to settle among 29f - the Philistines. He became the vassal of Achish, king of Gath, who assigned to him the town of Ziklag, commonly identified with a place about eleven miles southeast of Gaza. Here he played the double role of pretending to make raids on Judah while making them on the Bedouin tribes of the Negeb (ch. 27). When the Philistines invaded central Palestine David joined the expedition (28. 1, 2). But when encamped in the enemy's country, the Philistines became suspicious of his loyalty and forced him to return. Having returned to Ziklag, he found it sacked and burned by the Amalekites. David overtook the raiders, defeated them, and brought back his own and also much spoil, of which he sent gifts to the elders of Judah (29L). 100. The Philistine Victory and the Death of Saul. 1 Sam 25. ia; 2 a In the meanwhile Saul's affairs were constantly getting 3 ~ 25; 3I worse. Samuel had died ; and Saul had wasted his efforts to hunt down his rival. The Philistines were again in the land. Their army was encamped in the valley of the Kishon, and Saul's along the mountains of Gilboa. As was his custom, he endeavored to find some oracular assur- ance of the outcome of the approaching conflict. But wherever he turned there was no ray of light. Neither in his dreams, nor by the priestly oracle, nor by prophetic word could he find a favorable response. In his distress he turned to what in his better moments he had himself proscribed as superstitious, a woman who professed to be in communication with the spirits of the dead, that he might obtain through her a word of hope from Samuel. But the voice of the dead was made to speak in the note of the living — that the outlook was dark; and Saul went out that night without hope to meet the Philistines in battle on the morrow. With leadership in such despair, what i 3 2 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY else could the outcome be? Israel was defeated, Saul's three sons slain, and he himself, rather than fall into the hands of his enemies, fell on his own sword. The Philis- tines found him dead; carried off his head as a trophy, and hung his body on the wall of Beth-shan. But the men of Jabesh-Gilead, who had not forgotten that the first act of his career was to come to their rescue, gave the king and his princes burial. 101. The Achievements and Character of Saul. How shall we justly estimate Saul? His mission to aid Israel to throw off the Philistine yoke he had failed to accomplish. Why? Saul had zeal, courage, enthusiasm, and devotion, but he lacked in perseverance and good judgment. His rash vow, which nearly led to the sacrifice of Jonathan, and the slaughter of the Gibeonites (2 Sam 21. 1) show lack of balance. His religious enthusiasm had not suffi- cient depth. He was too individualistic; he might have said, like another monarch, "I am the state." This was the cause of the outstanding fault of jealousy, for he estimated everything by the effects on himself. He was not great enough to lose himself in a greater cause or to submit his will to that of another, or to see others succeed, and had the capacity to make enemies more easily than friends. He was a soldier rather than a general, and had the narrow outlook of a peasant rather than that of a king. Much of the failure, no doubt, was due to his malady, which, how- ever, was both cause and effect. Yet he did not labor altogether in vain. His victories over the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites showed what could be done under efficient leadership, and in this respect he prepared the way for his successor. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Compare the various accounts of David's appearance at the court of Saul and consider the qualities likely to bring David into prominence. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 133 2. Follow on a map David's movements during his outlaw life and among the Philistines. 3. Consider the various causes leading to Saul's defeat and death. 4. Estimate the character and achievements of Saul as compared with his predecessors. 3. David, King of Judah 102. David's Grief Over the Death of Saul. Our 3 Sam 1 biblical historian, who writes in the interest of King David's great personality, records the effect that Saul's death had upon David before he states the effect it had upon national Israel. The impression that the biblical account as a whole makes in reference to David's relations to Saul is that though he is fully aware that he is the rightful successor of Saul, he will leave the matter in the hands of Providence, and take no step which would hasten his kingship while Saul is alive. Consistent with this view is the account of the effect which the news of the battle of Gilboa had upon him. He receives it, not as the welcome report of the death of an enemy, but as the sad tidings of the death of a friend and of disaster to Israel. The bearer does not receive the reward which he evidently expected, but, rather, the punishment merited by one who, on his own confession, had "slain Jehovah's anointed." David weeps and fasts and mourns the loss in an elegy of highest poetic merit. There is no reason to suspect the genuineness of this grief, although his death served to make David's progress easier. 103. David Made King of Judah at Hebron. Nor did 2 Sam 1. 1-7, n; David's grief hinder him from taking a step forward in his ambition. He removes to Hebron, where the men of Judah anoint him king. He certainly creates a friendly feeling by sending a congratulatory message to the men of Jabesh-Gilead for burying Saul. At Hebron David remains seven years and a half, and his household increases there to six wives and six sons. 104. Esh-Baal, Saul's Successor. The Philistine vie- 2 Sam 2. 12 to 3. tory had driven Saul's army to the east of the Jordan 3-2-5 3- 6-39 134 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY where it was rallied by Abner, Saul's general, in Gilead. Esh-baal (i Chron 8. 33; 9. 39), changed later in derision into Ish-bosheth (Baal becoming bosheth, "the shameful thing"), a young son of Saul who had escaped slaughter, and probably a minor, was made king in Gilead, with Abner as the regent. There are now two kingdoms in Israel, one in Gilead and one in Judah, both subject to the Philistines, rivals, and in deadly combat with each other, and repre- sented respectively by the generals Abner and Joab. In one of the bouts Abner slays Joab's brother Asahel, and the combats are called off for a time. But war between the two rival houses breaks out again and continues, David steadily growing the stronger. Esh-baal's kingdom in Gilead could scarcely have been extensive; neither does its king seem to have possessed much force. To make matters worse, a petty quarrel ensued between the king and Abner over one of Saul's concubines. Abner feels offended, and determines to play into the hands of David. David agrees to treat with Abner on condition that he bring with him Michal. While on his errand in Hebron, Joab takes the opportunity of treacherously slaying Abner, thus avenging the death of his brother and at the same time destroying a possible rival. David disclaims all responsibility for the shameful deed and laments the death of Abner, which gains him friends. 2 Sam 4 Abner's intrigues had weakened Esh-baal's hold on his kingship, and, emboldened by his helpless condition, two of his captains conspired against him and slew him. They brought the news to David, hoping to receive reward from him. David, however, consistent in his attitude of friendliness toward the family of Saul, ordered the con- spirators executed. a Sam s. 1-5 105. David Made King of Israel. There was now but one thing to do. Israel needed a king; there was but one candidate in the field. He had been in the public eye for years ; the people knew who he was and what he could do. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY 135 His fitness to meet the situation expressed itself in the phrase that he was a man after God's own heart. What wonder, then, that the tribes of Israel came to Hebron and made David king of Israel? SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Read the elegies of David as throwing light upon his character as a friend and poet. 2. Note David's skill as a diplomat and enumerate the various steps he took to gain the kingship of Israel. 3. Note the parts played by Abner and Joab and compare their characters. CHAPTER VII THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NATIONAL MONARCHY— DAVID 1 06. The Wars of Deliverance from the Philistines. Saul had been made king to bring Israel deliverance from the Philistines, but he had failed in his mission. In assum- ing the kingship of Saul, David assumed the dead king's task; and David succeeded where Saul failed. As long as David remained king of Hebron the Philistines seemed still to regard him as a mere vassal and left him un- molested, but when he was raised to the kingship of Israel 2 Sam 5. 17-25; they took it as the signal for war. The biblical material 8 - l;21, „ relating to this war is somewhat scattered, but when viewed 15-22; 23. 8-39 ° , together stands out in considerable detail. It evidently consumed the time and energy of the earlier part of David's reign. The Philistines, as usual, invaded central Palestine, and from thence spread all over the land, in the valley of Rephaim. David, hardly as yet prepared for the war, wisely retreated southward, and made the stronghold of Adullam his headquarters. During this time occurred the daring feat of the three heroes who fought their way through hostile ranks to bring David a drink of water from his native Bethlehem. He denied himself, however, on second thought, its use, as it had been bought with the "jeopardy of their lives." When his army had grown sufficiently strong he attacked the Philistines and defeated them. But once more they gathered in the valley of Rephaim. This time he succeeded in coming upon them in their rear unawares and drove them to the vicinity of Gezer. But even then their power was not yet broken. 136 DAVID 137 The brief notices contained in the list of David's heroes point to many another battle and heroic deed. They tell how David, waxing faint in combat with a Philistine giant, was nearly slain, but was rescued by Abishai; and among the deeds of valor is mentioned that Elhanan slew Goliath. But the repeated blows that David inflicted on the Philis- tines finally told. He not only drove them out of Israelite territory, but even captured their chief city, Gath (2 Sam 8. 1, and compare 1 Chron 18. 1) and thus most signally settled the Philistine problem. Israel now was in free possession of its country and had a chance for growth. 107. The Establishment of the National Capital at Jeru- 3 Sam s- 6-14; ;•* YouJuui CLmLi.1,,.11 " Copjr, B bt_lKll3 and 1912, b/ Churl** Fo. PALESTINE DURING THE GREEK AND ROMAN PERIODS JUDAISM IN CONFLICT WITH HELLENISM 293 book as produced in this period, it becomes a valuable source for the history of the period. First Maccabees is a source of highest value for the period from the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death of the high priest Simon, that is, from 175 to 135 B. C. Second Maccabees consists of different elements : 1 to 2. 18, contain two letters concerning the feast of Dedication, of altogether doubtful authenticity; these are followed by the author's preface to his history, stating that his work is an abridgment of the five books of Jason of Cyrene (2. 18-32) ; chs. 3 to 15 deal with the period from Seleucus IV to the death of Nicanor, that is, from 187-161 B. C, starting thus earlier than First Maccabees, and continuing only as far as 1 Mace 7. 50. But while treating of the same events, the historical value is far inferior ; the author evidently writes mainly for religious edification ; but he nevertheless throws an inter- esting light upon the period. 257. Antiochus Epiphanes. If the process of Hellene ization had been allowed to have its natural flow, the proba- bilities are that Judaism would not have become the only exception to succumb to it. But as it happened, the very attempt to hasten the process resulted in a revolt that saved Judaism, and gave it a new force and growth. The chief agent to bring about this result was Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 B. C). He was the son of Antiochus the Great and the successor of his brother Seleucus IV, and of such erratic temperament that his appellative Epiphanes, the "Illustrious," was changed into Epimanes, the "Madman." His desire for spreading Hellenic culture was most in- ordinate; and when the Romans had balked him in effort to subdue Egypt he returned to Syria to vent his chagrin upon the Jews in the effort of forcing them into Greek life and religion. 258. The Hellenistic Jewish High Priests. Antiochus was aided in his endeavor by the high priests who were his own appointees. Since the Persian period the high priest 294 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Ecclus 50. 1-20 2 Mace 4. 7-50 1 Mace 1 2 Mace 5. 1 to 6. 11 had become the civil as well as the religious head of the Jewish community; and though the Gerousia, a senate of elders, shared his authority, he was personally responsible for the payment of the taxes, which made the office one of dependence upon the foreign ruler. It was this relation between high priest and king — the temptation to designing and unscrupulous men to buy the king's favors and yield to his wishes — that helped to bring about the crisis of Judaism through Antiochus Epiphanes. The high priests up to this time had been faithful to their trust as guardians of the Law and proud and zealous defenders of their ancestral religion. Ben-Sira could sing the praises of the high priest Simon II, who "in his days strengthened the temple." His successor Onias III, who was the high priest when Antiochus Epiphanes came upon the throne, evidently belonged to the same pious party. But the unscrupulous element of the Hellenistic party, represented by the family of Joseph the taxgatherer, had by now grown sufficiently strong to make the effort to get the high priesthood under their control. Evidently aided by them (confer Josephus, Antiquities xii, 5. 1), Jason succeeded in getting Onias III deposed and himself ap- pointed in his place. All this was accomplished by the gift of large sums of money to the king with the promise to aid him in Hellenizing Jerusalem. A Greek gymnasium was built in Jerusalem; the priests neglected the temple services to attend the games; and the high priest even sent three hundred drachmas of silver to Tyre for a sacrifice to Hercules. After three years a certain Menelaus suc- ceeded in supplanting Jason by larger gifts to the king. Menelaus showed even greater zeal to forward the Hellen- izing of the Jews, and even conspired to have Onias mur- dered, because he had rebuked his ungodly zeal in the interest of the foreign customs (confer Dan 9. 26; 11. 22). 259. The Religious Persecutions. Taking occasion in the strife between Jason and Menelaus, Antiochus Epiph- JUDAISM IN CONFLICT WITH HELLENISM 295 anes, on his return from Egypt (170 B. C), came with his army against Jerusalem, slew thousands of Jews, and plun- dered the rich treasures of the temple. Two years later (168) he came again on his return from Egypt, after the Roman general had drawn a circle around him, and bade him to submit to the Senate's decision to give up the con- quest of Egypt or take the consequences, and to make up his mind before he stepped out of the circle. He decided to yield, but he made the Jews suffer for the rancor of his soul. It appears that nothing short of the total abolition of the Jewish religion was planned. The three most dis- tinctive features of Judaism, circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath day, and abstinence from the eating of swine's flesh, were absolutely prohibited on the pains of death. Antiochus appointed the chief fiscal agent, Appolo- nius, to carry out the plan. His orders were that Jerusalem should be made a Greek city. With view to these inno- vations, the city should be strongly fortified by the building of a citadel ; the inhabitants that would not yield should be strenuously dealt with : the men killed, women and children sold as slaves, and Greeks brought in to take their places. The climax of the program was reached with the building of an altar to the Olympic Zeus on the site of the Hebrew altar; and on the 25th of Kislev, December, 168 B. C, the first sacrifice of a swine was offered within the sacred precincts of the temple of Jerusalem, the act being called by the pious "the abomination of desolation" (Dan 11. 31 ; 12. 11 ; compare Mark 13. 14). 260. The Jewish Martyrs. It was now that Jewish 2 Macc 6 - « t0 faith and morals were put to a bitter test, but came forth most glorious victors. The martyr stories of this time read like Foxe's Book of Martyrs, and they portray as noble a religious heroism as the best in early church or Reformation history. The author of Second Maccabees furnishes us with two of these stories of the aged Eleazar, and of the mother and her seven sons, all of whom most 296 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY heroically suffered tortures and death rather than even by dissimulation betray their faith. It is evident that the heathen worship involved licentious and immoral practices (2 Mace 6. 4) as formerly that of Baalism, and that the Jewish champions defended social purity as welt as reli- gious faith. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Consider the date of the writing of the book of Daniel and its character as a source of history. 2. Obtain a general view of the contents of First and Second Maccabees and compare their value as historical sources. 3. Consider the purpose of Antiochus Epiphanes and account for the willing cooperation of the Jewish high priests. Look up the references. 4. Read the accounts of the religious persecutions and of the Jewish martyrs and note the Jewish religious enthusiasm. 2. The Book of Daniel 261. The Origin and Content of the Book. It was out of this period of religious persecution that the book of Daniel came with its mission to aid the faithful in their conflict. It is an apocalypse, which means a "revelation." The characteristic of this form of prophecy is that the author views his own time from a distance; it represents a crisis in history. The description is highly symbolic; it predicts the overthrow of the ungodly and the victory of the righteous, and its purpose is to encourage those who are being tried by persecution. The discovery of the nature of this species of biblical literature has thrown a flood of light upon the understanding of the book of Daniel, and when read in the light of the persecutions under Antiochus Epiphanes the essential features of the book become per- fectly intelligible. Its two central thoughts are: (1) God will rescue and reward those who refuse to yield to the temptation to deny their Jewish faith by defiling them- selves with eating forbidden food or worshiping heathen JUDAISM IN CONFLICT WITH HELLENISM 297 gods; and (2) the power of Antiochus Epiphanes will be broken, and the kingdom of God established. The first thought is illustrated by the story of Daniel and the three young Hebrew captives who thrive by abstaining from the defiling food of the king's table and live on herbs and water (Dan 1); by the story of Daniel's superior wisdom by which he announces the successive rise and fall of four world empires— the Babylonian, the Median, the Persian, and the Greek — and their overthrow by the coming kingdom of God, and by the stories of the deliverance of the three youths from the fiery furnace and of Daniel from the lions' den, and the humiliation of the powerful king (chs. 3 to 6). The second thought is illustrated by a series of four visions in which the dream of chapter 2 is developed. Under the symbols of "four beasts" the "ancient of days," and the "son of man," Jewish history is traced through the Babylonian, Median, Persian, and Greek periods, cul- minating in the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, to be superseded by the establishment of the kingdom of God through the agency of a heavenly messenger, the guardian angel of Israel (ch. 7). A second vision under the symbols of a ram with two horns and a he-goat with a succession of horns, describes the overthrow of the Median and Persian empires by Alexander the Great, the rise of Antiochus Epiphanes, and the desecration of the temple, lasting a limited time (ch. 8). A third vision aims to explain Jere- miah's perplexing prediction of the seventy years of cap- tivity by taking the seventy years to represent seventy weeks of years, that is, four hundred and ninety years. The outlook again culminates in the time of stress of Antiochus Epiphanes, when the daily sacrifices cease and the altar to Zeus is erected, followed by the establishment of the kingdom of God (ch. 9). The fourth vision (chs. 10 to 12) is virtually a survey of the history from Alexander to Antiochus Epiphanes, without names and dates, which when these are supplied, becomes a very valuable historical 298 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY document. After an elaborate introduction describing how the information is revealed (10. I to n. i), the history begins with the conquest of Persia by Alexander and the division of his empire into four parts after his death (n. 2-4). Hints are given of the relations of the Ptolemies and Seleucids, mentioned as kings of the south (Egypt) and north (Syria) respectively. Verse 5 refers to Ptolemy I and his subordinate Seleucus I ; v. 6, to the marriage of Antiochus II to Bernice, daughter of Ptolemy II, and the alliance which was the result, but which failed of its pur- pose because Antiochus II was poisoned by his former wife, and Bernice and her child and adherents murdered. Verses 7-9 relate to the successes of Ptolemy III, brother of Bernice, against Seleucus ; vv. 10-19 give the history of Antiochus the Great, with allusions to his defeat at Raphia, his victory at Banias, the favor with which the Jews regarded him, and the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra to Ptolemy V to obtain control of Egypt, his defeat by the Romans, and his violent death. Verse 20 relates to Seleucus IV, whose death was the result of a plot by his general Heliodorus. Verses 21-45 deal with the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in greatest detail. He is described as a despicable person who obtained his king- dom by intrigue, overcame all opposition, set aside "the prince of the covenant" (Onias III), and reigned by the power of bribes (vv. 21-24). His first invasion of Egypt succeeds and ends in the plunder of Jerusalem (vv. 25-28). His second invasion is frustrated by the interference of the Romans, whence he turns with anger against Jerusalem and is aided by Jewish apostates (vv. 27-30). The sanctuary is defiled, the offerings cease, an abominable altar to Zeus is erected (v. 3if.). Many are led to deny their faith, while others remain steadfast, but suffer persecution and martyrdom; a little help comes, but the trials of martyrdom are needed to refine the community (vv. 33-35)- His arrogance and viciousness grow; he gives up his own reli- JUDAISM IN CONFLICT WITH HELLENISM 299 gion, and his end comes after a victory in Egypt, while he is encamped on the Philistine plain (vv. 36-45). Then after all the trials, the Messianic age will come; the dead will rise to receive their fitting rewards or punishments ; the pious teachers (Chasidim) who have helped many to turn to righteousness shall have a special reward (12. 1-3). The apocalypse closes with final instructions (vv. 4-12). 262. Its Character and Purpose. The perusal of the book reveals clearly its practical purpose to encourage to faithfulness those who were tempted by persecution to give up their faith and pure life. But this practical message is conveyed in a form that has greatly influenced the reli- gious and national hopes not only of Judaism but also of Christianity. From henceforth the apocalyptic element be- comes strongly prominent in the outlook for the future. Out of it have come the whole series of eschatological conceptions : the conflict between God and Satan, good and evil angels ; the coming Judgment Day, which divides the world into the age that now is and that which is to come; the bodily resurrection, the heavenly character of the Messiah, and heaven and hell. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Read Dan 1 to 6 and note how the lesson of faithfulness to religious faith and customs is enforced. 2. Read the first vision (ch. 7), note its relation to chapter 2, and its character as a synopsis of history. 3. Read the second and third visions (ch. 8f) in the same manner. 4. Read the fourth vision (chs. 10 to 12) with the aid of the outline in the textbook. 5. Consider the character and purpose of the book of Daniel as a whole. 3. The Maccabean Uprising 263. The Revolt of Mattathias and His Sons. In this J Macc 2 - I " z8 crisis of Judaism it was religious faith and enthusiasm that dared to undertake what might humanly speaking have been considered as the impossible, to withstand the Syrian 3°o OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY I Mace 3. 1-37. 1 Mace 3. 38 to 4. 35 2 Mace 8. 3-36; 11. 1 to 12. 1 oppression. The revolt originated with Mattathias, a priest living at Modem, about sixteen miles northwest of Jeru- salem, and his five sons, John, Simon, Judas, Eleazar, and Jonathan, each of whom played an important part in sub- sequent history. The occasion was when the royal official had come to call to the heathen sacrifice. Mattathias re- fused to participate, killed a Jew who was sacrificing and also the official, broke the altar to pieces, and fled with his sons into the mountains. The extreme zeal for the Law made fighting on the Sabbath day unlawful. But when some of the fugitives, who were pursued by the Syrians, allowed themselves with wives and children to be totally exterminated rather than fight on the Sabbath, the party of Mattathias took action to declare self-defense on the Sabbath lawful. A company of Hasideans (Chasidim) now joined the fugitives; and they moved about the country, killing Jewish apostates, breaking down the heathen altars, forcibly circumcising Jewish children, and stirring up the spirit of revolt. 264. Judas Maccabeus. Upon the death of his father, Mattathias, Judas, with the surname Maccabee, the "Ham- merer," became leader of the movement, distinguishing him- self by energy and enthusiasm. He defeated the Syrians under Appolonius, slaying him personally, and appropriating his sword, which he carried in all the future battles. Again he defeated them under Seron at Bethhoron. When Antiochus Epiphanes went on his Persian expedition he appointed Lysias as regent, leaving him half of his army, and ordering him to utterly root out the revolting Jews. Lysias sent forty-seven thousand soldiers into Judaea, placing Ptolemy, Nicanor, and Gorgias as generals over them. The Syrians encamped near Emmaus, and so sure were they of victory that slave traders accompanied them to carry off the Jewish captives. Judas collected his troops at Mizpeh ; and what they lacked in equipment and numbers, they made up in holy enthusiasm. While a detachment JUDAISM IN CONFLICT WITH HELLENISM 301 under Gorgias was in search of Judas the latter attacked the main army at Emmaus, and defeated it; and when Gorgias on his return learned of the defeat, he fled to Philistia; and Judas's victory was complete (165 B. C). The following year Lysias himself came into Judsea with a still larger army. At Bethzur, south of Jerusalem, Judas met him with an inferior force; but defeated him, and drove him back to Syria. 265. The Restoration of the Temple Service. Tudas 2 Macc *■ 36 ~ 6i; . . 2 Macc 10. 1-9 now could give his attention to Jerusalem. Although the citadel was still occupied by Syrian soldiers, he could keep them in check, while he set to work to reestablish the divine service according to the Law. He removed every vestige of heathenism, purified all that had been defiled by its contact, tore down the pagan altar and built a new one. Exactly three years after the temple had been defiled by the offering of the first heathen sacrifice the regular Jewish sacrifices were again begun to be offered, December, 165 B. C. The celebration that accompanied it has perpetuated itself in Chanuka or the feast of Dedication (confer John 10. 22), to our own day, the Jews celebrating it about Christmastime by the symbolic kindling of lights for eight days. Judas further took measures to fortify Jerusalem and Bethzur against attacks from Idumoea. The crisis of Juda- ism had thus been successfully passed, but the struggle was by no means over. 266. The Jews of Egypt. In most striking contrast with the Seleucids was the treatment that the Ptolemies of Egypt accorded to the Jews. Instead of hindering them in the pursuit of their religious customs, they even aided them. When the Jewish high priest, Onias IV, was driven from Jerusalem, in 170 B. C, he came to Egypt. Here he was welcomed and aided to build a Jewish temple at Leonto- polis in the nome of Heliopolis by Ptolemy IV, which was patterned after the temple of Jerusalem (compare Section 190). This action had important bearings upon the develop- 3 02 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY ment of Judaism in the pre-Christian centuries, supplying it with its more liberal tendencies. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Read the passage in I Mace relating to the family of Mattathias and their zeal for orthodox Judaism. 2. Read the passages in I and 2 Mace relating to the earlier wars of Judas and follow his movements on the map. 3. Consider the origin of the feast of Dedication and its historical significance. 4. Note the condition of the Jews in Egypt. CHAPTER XV THE RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS i. The Reestablishment of Religious and National Independence 267. The Wars of Judas. The success of Judas stirred » Macc 5; up the envy of the petty enemies surrounding the Jews, 3S . I2 . 2 _ 4 ° 5 ' I4 which showed itself in the cruel maltreatment of Jewish people who dwelt in their midst. The cry for help from his oppressed brethren could not go unheeded. He was thus forced to take up arms against the Edomites, Joppa and Jamnia, the Ammonites, Gilead and Galilee. He severely punished the offenders ; and where he could not provide pro- tection against future attacks, as in Galilee and Gilead, he transferred the whole Jewish population to Judaea. While Judas and his brother Simon were absent on their mission of help occurred the first defeat of the Jewish forces. Joseph and Azarias, who had been left in charge of the army in Judaea, attempted against the strict orders of Judas to engage the Syrian forces under Gorgias at Jamnia ; and were defeated. But Judas soon made good the loss by the capture of Hebron from the Edomites and Ashdod (Azotus) in the Philistine plain, destroying the emblems of pagan worship. 268. The Establishment of Religious Liberty. But 'Mace 6; _ .2 Mace 9. 1-29 ; now serious reverses began. Antiochus Epiphanes had died 10. 9 -i 3; 13. 1- on his expedition to Persia (164 B. C), and had appointed Philip as regent. But Lysias, who was the guardian of the heir to the throne, Antiochus V Eupator, assumed the con- trol of the empire ; and being urged by the Syrian garrison 303 22 3°4 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 1 Mace 7; 2 Mace 14; 15 1 Mace 8. 1 to 9, of the citadel of Jerusalem and the Hellenistic party of Jerusalem to come to their help against Judas, he mobilized a vast army, and invaded Judaea from the south. Judas's army was defeated at Beth-zacharias, his brother Eleazar killed, Bethzur taken, and Jerusalem invested. All seemed lost. But, strange to say, Lysias now offered Judas most favorable terms of peace. Philip, his rival, had returned from Persia, and was at the doors of Antioch; and Lysias was anxious to return. He offered Judas absolute reli- gious liberty, on which terms the latter was ready to submit ; for though it left Judaea still subject to Syria, it brought them the prize for which they had fought for five years — the right to worship the God of their fathers according to the Law. The attempt of Antiochus Epiphanes had failed, and the Jews were no longer threatened by that danger. An important consequence was that Jewish struggles against the Syrians became henceforth political rather than religious. 269. The High Priest Alcimus. A change of kings in Syria brought to the Jews a renewed conflict. Demetrius, son of Seleucus IV, who had been held as hostage, escaped from Rome, seized the Syrian throne, and had Antiochus V and Lysias slain. The Hellenistic party, with the priest Alcimus as leader, won over to them the new king, who appointed Alcimus high priest, and sent Bacchides with an army to establish him in Jerusalem. Judas, who saw the danger of Hellenism in Alcimus, opposed him, and was gaining on him, when the former applied once more to Demetrius for help. But Nicanor, who was sent, was killed in the battle of Adasa, and his army defeated, leaving Judas master of the situation. 270. Judas's Alliance with Rome, and His Death. Realizing the need of outside help to cope with the Syrian power, Judas sought alliance with Rome, which was granted ; and the announcement of the alliance was sent to Demetrius as a warning. But it arrived too late. Within two months of the death of Nicanor, Demetrius sent a strong force into RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 305 Judasa under Bacchides. The Jews were frightened by the overwhelming size of the army and deserted Judas. In the battle of Berea, probably about nine miles north of Jeru- salem, Judas with but a handful of faithful followers was defeated and himself slain (161 B. C). Judas was one of the greatest of the Maccabees and one of the great heroes of Old Testament history. He was a courageous and zealous champion of religion and morality : the best product of the priestly period, somewhat like the scrupulous and pious Puritan warriors of the times of Oliver Cromwell. His one great achievement for which he must ever be remembered was that he fought for and won religious freedom for his people (confer 1 Mace 3- 3-9)- 271. Jonathan and the Beginnings of Political Inde- pendence. Jonathan was chosen to succeed in leadership upon the death of his brother Judas. He bore the surname Aphus, which in Syriac signifies the "Diplomat" ; and it characterizes the means by which he advanced. The first two years, while Alcimus the high priest lived, he had to content himself with carrying on a guerrilla warfare against the Syrians under Bacchides, who supported Alcimus. But upon the latter's death Bacchides made peace with Jonathan, who set up an independent rule at Michmash, and carried on an aggressive movement against the Hellenistic party. In the struggle for the Syrian throne between Alexander Balas, a low pretender, and Demetrius, Jonathan sided him- self with the first. Each of the rivals outbid the other with granting favors. Demetrius gave Jonathan authority to collect an army to aid the king. Jonathan upon this took possession of Jerusalem, without committing himself to help the Syrian king. Alexander Balas surpassed Demetrius by appointing Jonathan high priest. Jonathan promptly accepted the office, and became formally the chief ruler of the Jews (153 B. C). When Demetrius heard that Jonathan was favoring his rival he offered him still 1 Mace 9. 33-73 1 Mace 10. 1-66 i Mace 10. 67 to 11. 19 306 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY greater privileges, as exemptions from taxes and three Samaritan districts. Jonathan refused to yield to the temp- tation, and as subsequent events proved, wisely, for Alex- ander defeated Demetrius, who lost his life, and became king of Syria (150 B. C). In the same year Jonathan was still more highly honored by Alexander Balas. At Ptole- mais, the wedding took place between Cleopatra Ptolemy, Philometor's daughter, and Alexander Balas. The Egyptian king was present and Alexander appointed Jonathan civil and military governor of Judaea, and made him sit by his side. What Judas had fought for and not obtained in spite of his strenuous efforts, Jonathan had granted to him by favor ; and the efforts of the Hellenistic party to discredit him with Alexander failed. During the subsequent changes in the Syrian succession, Jonathan employed the same diplomatic skill to advance the Jewish cause. He took the side of Alexander against Demetrius II, defeated the latter's forces under Appolonius in the Philistine plain, and received from the former the 1 Maccii. 20-74 c j t y f Ekron as a reward. When Demetrius II became king of Syria Jonathan felt himself strong enough to demand from him what Demetrius I had offered him, namely, the three Samaritan districts, Ephraim, Lydda, and Ramathaim, and exemption of all taxes, which the Syrian king dared not to refuse. When with Tryphon, who had secured control over Alexander Balas's young son Antiochus, another aspirant to the Syrian throne arose, Jonathan found it profitable to aid Demetrius II, on condition that he would remove the Syrian garrison from the citadel of Jerusalem. But when Demetrius kept not his promise Jonathan went over to the side of Tryphon and Antiochus, who granted him all that Demetrius had promised, and even more, for, in addition to leaving Jonathan the civil and ecclesiastical chief of the considerably enlarged Judaea, he appointed his brother Simon military governor of the country from the Ladder of Tyre to the borders of Egypt. 14. 49 RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 307 272. The End of Jonathan. The two brothers now 1 Mace 12. 1 to conjointly made their power felt from Hamath in the north I3 ' 3 ° to Bethzur in the south. Jonathan even renewed his brother Judas's friendly relation with Rome. But Tryphon, who as- pired to the Syrian throne, deemed Jonathan's growth in power dangerous. Under the guise of a friendly confer- ence he decoyed him to come to Ptolemais. Here he seized him and held him prisoner, exacting heavy tribute on his release, but never releasing him, and ultimately treacherously murdering him (142 B. C). 273. Simon and the Establishment of National Inde- 1 Macc n- 31 to pendence. The Maccabean movement had begun with the endeavor to free the Jewish religion from restraint. Judas had accomplished that task. But the Maccabeans soon felt that unless their state was free also, their religion would be dominated by Hellenistic influences. It was Jona- than's task to more fully secure the freedom of religion by working for the independence of the state. It was now Simon's task and glory to make the Jewish state and reli- gion fully independent. He had been chosen his brother's successor as high priest. He first made various well-directed efforts to strengthen the fortifications. He next turned from the treacherous Tryphon to Demetrius II, who was only too willing to forget and forgive the past, and accept the fealty of Simon, and to reward him most generously. The Jewish state was declared fully exempt from taxes, and by that action its political independence was acknowl- edged. The event was signalized by taking it as the era whence to date time, and by the coinage of Hebrew money. Simon also succeeded for the first time in getting possession of the Jerusalem citadel, the Acra. The period that fol- lowed was remarkable for its general peace and prosperity,, as well as for the pious zeal with which the Law was observed. For the time being the priestly ideal of the theocracy had been realized. In grateful recognition of what had been accomplished by the Maccabeans, or Has- 308 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY moneans, the office of high priest was formally made legiti- mate and hereditary in their family by official action of the representatives of the people, and Simon was declared to be high priest, civil governor, and military leader of the nation, "for ever, until there should arise a faithful prophet" (i Mace 14. 41). It seems quite probable that Psa no is the product of this time and celebrates this great event in Jewish history; for at no other time can there be found a personage that so well deserved to be sung as combining in him the three great qualities of priesthood, kingship, and martial glory. The declaration of Jehovah to my lord; Sit thou (enthroned) on my right hand, Until I make thy enemies the stool of thy feet. Jehovah will extend thy strong scepter out of Zion, Rule thou in the midst of thy enemies. Thy people volunteer for the day of thy army on holy mountains, From the womb of the morn hast thou the dew of thy youths. Jehovah has sworn and will not repent: "Thou art a priest forever, after the manner of Melchizedek." The Lord is at thy right hand, He smites kings in the day of his wrath. He sits in judgment among the nations, He fills (the land) with dead bodies, He smites the head of a great land, From the brook by the way he will drink, Therefore will he lift up his head. 1 Mace I5 ; 16 274. The Death of Simon. The reign of Simon was made distinguished also by a treaty with Rome. And when Antiochus VII endeavored to regain control over the Jewish state he met with a successful resistance from Simon. But it was a cruel and warlike age, and Simon was not to die a peaceful death. His own son-in-law, Ptolemy, seeking to make himself ruler of Judaea, treacherously slew the aged Simon and two of his sons at a banquet ; one, John Hyrkanus, his son and successor, succeeded in escaping from a like fate. RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 309 With Simon passed away the last of the five great sons of Mattathias, by whom Judaism was not only saved from annihilation but developed into a political power not unequal to that of David and Solomon. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Read the passages relating to the wars of Judas and follow his movements on the map. 2. Read the references, note by what means Judas obtained reli- gious liberty for the Jews, and consider the importance of his achievement. 3. Note the causes of the revival of Hellenism. 4. Note the beginnings of the interest of Rome in Jewish affairs. 5. Estimate the character and achievement of Judas. 6. Read the references and note by what means Jonathan fur- thered the cause of the political liberty of the Jews. 7. Consider the achievement of Simon and review what the sons of Mattathias accomplished altogether for their nation. 2. The Conflicts between Pharisees and Sadducees 275. The Rise of the Parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees. The movements of historical events crystal- lized certain tendencies, which during this time had become definite enough to assume distinct names, namely, Pharisees and Sadducees, so familiar in New Testament times. The Pharisees were the product of the emphasis upon the Law and the spiritual descendants of the scribe Ezra. Before the Maccabean uprising they were known as the Chasidim (Hasideans) or "Pious"; and the Maccabees themselves belonged to that circle of thought. It stood for Jewish nationalism under the Law. In striking contrast with it was the Jewish element that had more liberal tendencies toward outside culture. In a milder form it was willing to change Judaism to correspond with Hellenic culture ; but in the extreme form it was ready to aid the efforts of an Antiochus Epiphanes to displace the Jewish religion by that of the Greek. The Maccabean revolt did away with the latter extreme. What was left now was the milder form of the 310 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY friendliness toward Hellenism, which was represented by the aristocratic members of the priestly families of the Zadokites (sons of Zadok the high priest, Ezek 40. 46), hence called Sadducees. The opposite tendency of the antagonism to Greek culture took form in the Pharisees, who, as their name, the "Separatists," indicates, would have nothing to do with it ; and pursued on principle an exclusive policy. The Chasidim, from whom the Pharisees sprang, were a strictly religious party, taking an active part in politics only when their religion was in danger. So when Judas had obtained religious freedom their interest in the further struggles waned and they gave him but an indif- ferent, or no, support in his and his followers' attempts to secure political freedom. This was also the attitude of the Pharisees. They were no political party, but a religious sect, intent on living most scrupulously according to the strictest interpretation of the Law. The Sadducees, on the other hand, had definite political aspirations; and they sought to further them by gaining foreign royal favor in aiding the spread of Greek culture among the Jews. The ruling party of the Maccabees or Hasmoneans had natur- ally Pharisaic predilections, but in time their desire for political freedom outstripped their religious interests; and when the Pharisees failed to give -them support they did subsequently make common cause with the Sadducees. 276. John Hyrcanus and the National Growth. The biblical material now begins to fail us, and we are dependent mainly upon Josephus (Antiquities xiii, 8-10). The rule of John Hyrcanus (135-104 B. C.) was long, and from the point of view of material progress, highly prosperous. He asserted over against the Syrians Jewish independence, and his alliance with the Romans aided him therein. He sub- dued the Samaritans and destroyed their temple on Mount Gerizim. The Idumxans he forced into accepting Judaism. The boundaries of the Jewish state were as extended as in the most prosperous days of Solomon. But the latter part RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 311 of his reign was marred by his break with the Pharisees, who cast a slur upon his birth by suggesting that his mother had been a captive in the days of Antiochus Epiphanes and that, if he would be absolutely conscientious in the observance of the Law, he should resign from the high priesthood, and content himself with the civil office. This angered him so that he became the opponent of the Pharisaic orthodoxy and advanced the spread of the liberalism of the Sadducees, thus preparing for conditions of New Testa- ment times. 277. The Later Hasmonean Rulers. Aristobulus I, the son of John Hyrcanus, who ruled but one year (104- 103 B. C), was the first of the Hasmoneans to assume the title king (Josephus, Antiquities xiii, 11). His Hebrew name was Judah, which he changed into the Greek Aristo- bulus, indicating his tendencies toward Hellenism, the spread of which he favored. This, however, did not prevent him from forcing the inhabitants of Galilee into Judaism. In order to secure his throne he starved his mother to death in prison, imprisoned his brothers, and through jealousy caused the death of his best-beloved brother. His family tragedies mark a decided degeneration in morals and genuine piety, and indicate the trend toward national dissolution, which, as in the days of the Hebrew monarchy, was caused by moral weakness. 278. Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 B. C.), the oldest brother of Aristobulus, is a further illustration of the down- ward tendency of the ruling Hasmoneans (Josephus, Antiquities xiii, 12-15). His numerous military expedi- tions lacked in sufficient moral force to win him the aid of the Pharisees, who had no sympathy with mere wars of conquest. The spectacle of the warrior high priest engaged in what they considered needless bloodshed, and profligate in life, embittered them. It found expression on a festival occasion of the feast of Tabernacles, when the people pelted him with the citrons used in the ceremonial, 3 i2 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY while he was engaged in the temple service. He retaliated by ordering his soldiers to fall upon the multitude, and six hundred were slain (Josephus, Antiquities xiii, 13. 5). The antagonism developed into civil war, and Alexander, who was victorious, punished the Pharisees, according to Josephus, in the most barbarous fashion in the world. While he was publicly feasting in Jerusalem with his mis- tresses, he ordered eight hundred of them to be crucified, and while they were yet living, the throats of their wives and children cut before their eyes (xiv, 2). His own end came through a sickness brought on by his drunkenness. Alexander Jannseus had succeeded in extending the boun- daries of the Jewish state beyond that of his predecessors. In the south it included Idumasa; in the north, Seleucia, by the waters of Merom; the coast cities were all under Jewish sway, except Askalon; and on the east side of the Jordan he had captured even such Greek cities as Hippos, Gadara, Pella, Dium, and others. But his vicious char- acter outweighed his material successes ; and his reign brought no permanent good. 279. Alexandra (76-67 B. C), Alexander Jannaeus's widow, became his successor by his will, and she appointed her oldest son, Hyrcanus, high priest (Josephus, Antiquities xiii, 16). It appears that Alexander had learned before his death the mistake he had made in antagonizing the Pharisees, and advised his widow to favor them. The reign of Alexandra was consequently the golden age of Pharisa- ism. They were the supreme power in the state, and the laws that had been abrogated in the two previous reigns were reinstated. The Gerousia had now again come into power as a governing body, composed of both Pharisees and Sadducees but with a predominance of the former. Alexandra's younger son, Aristobulus, represented the latter, and even before the death of Alexandra had succeeded in gathering their strength around him, and was well on his way of seizing the government. RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 313 280. Aristobulus II (67-63 B. C), immediately upon the death of his mother, took forcible measures to wrest the government from his brother Hyrcanus II, who as the elder brother and occupant of the high priesthood, was the legitimate heir. The struggle for the throne between these two brothers ultimately resulted in the loss of Jewish independence to the Romans. Aristobulus succeeded in making Hyrcanus resign in his favor both the kingship and priesthood. But Antipater, an Idumaean, the father of him who later became Herod the Great, undertook to defend the cause of the deposed Hyrcanus by advising him to flee for protection and aid to Aretas, king of the Nabateans. Aretas invaded Judaea in the interest of Hyrcanus, defeated Aristobulus, and drove him to take refuge in the temple stronghold. 281. Pompey's Capture of Jerusalem. It was at this point that the Romans began to take a more direct part in Jewish history. Pompey, who was victoriously marching through Asia, sent Scaurus into Syria in 65 B. C. Both brothers appealed to him for aid ; he espoused the side of Aristobulus, and made Aretas give up the siege of Jeru- salem. When Pompey had come to Damascus both brothers and representatives of the people appeared before him. Hyrcanus complained to him that his brother had deprived him of the right of succession ; Aristobulus gave the in- efficiency of his brother as the reason for his ambition, while the people pleaded for the restoration of the old order, the abrogation of the monarchy, and government by the high priest only. Pompey deferred action until he should come to Judaea. But the warlike actions of Aristo- bulus forced him to go against him, which resulted in the capture of Jerusalem, during which many Judoeans lost their lives. He appointed Hyrcanus high priest over a much reduced Jewish state, and took Aristobulus and his family captive to Rome. Thus Judzea after only eighty years of independence came under the yoke of the Romans 314 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY (63 B. C), who ultimately made an utter end to its national existence. But the fault of it in the main lay with the Jews themselves, who had departed not only from the ideals of their great prophets, but even of their great priests, who with all their narrowness were inspired by a true patriotism and a high morality. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Consider the origin of the parties of the Pharisees and Sad- ducees. 2. Read the reference to Josephus and note the extent of the Jewish state under John Hyrcanus and the cause of his break with the Pharisees. 3. Read the reference to Josephus and note the growth of Hellen- ism under Aristobulus. 4. Read the reference to Josephus and note the political success and the moral degeneracy of the Hasmoneans as illustrated by Alexander Jannseus. 5. Consider the reign of Alexandra and why it was the golden age of Pharisaism. 6. Consider the causes that led to the Roman capture of Jeru- salem. 3. The Literature and Life of the Maccabean Period 282. The Maccabean Psalms. That the Maccabean struggle which originated in religious enthusiasm and patriotism should have expressed itself in religious lyrics is intrinsically probable. But its best evidence is that some of the psalms fit this historical background better than any other. This is now most generally acknowledged to be true of Psalms 44, 74, 79, and 83, which voice the feelings of the pious Jewish sufferers of the period of the persecution under Anfeiochus Epiphanes, when the sanctuary was pro- faned and the sacred meeting places, the synagogues burned (74. 7f.) ; when they found themselves pursued by enemies all around (83. 4ff.) ; felt themselves as sheep given as food to their enemies (44. 9-16) ; and scofnngly and cruelly maltreated (79. 2ff . ; quoted 1 Mace 7. 17). But coming RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 315 also from the subsequent period of victories and exaltation, voicing sentiments more optimistic and buoyant, we must consider Psalms no, already mentioned above (Section 273), and 85, and probably many others, in which, however, the allusions are too subtle for definite dating. But that the period contained motives for lyrics in feelings of revenge and hatred against political and religious enemies, within and without the nation, cannot be questioned. They might either express themselves in originating poetry or by the use of older hymns ; but whichever way it happened, the Psalms, which were now constantly used in worship and otherwise, express the Jewish thought and life of the Maccabean period ; and much can be learned from them that throws light upon the period. Professor B. Duhm, who represents the extremest atti- tude in favor of Maccabean Psalms, makes the following suggestions as to their origin ; and it may prove helpful to read them with the historical background in view : Psalms of the period of the Maccabean struggles: 74, 24, 83, 118, 149, 44, 77, 55, i2f., 35, 69a, 79, 69b. Psalms of the period of the Hasmonean high priests: 101, HO, 85, 99, 60, 66a. Psalms from the period of the Hasmonean kings : 2, 45, 2of., 61, 63, 72, 84b, 132, 89, 18, 144a, 144b, 68. Psalms of the period of the struggles of the Pharisees against the Hasmonean kings : 18, 21, 63, 89, 132, representing a friendly- attitude toward these kings; 17, 9f., 14, 56, 57a, s8f., 64, 82, 92, 94, 140, representing the antagonistic attitude. 283. The Book of Esther. The book of Esther reflects Esther the feelings of elation of the Jewish people of the period that followed the unsuccessful attempt of Antiochus Epiphanes to make an end of the Jewish nation and religion. Haman's plan to destroy in one day the entire Jewish population of the Persian empire (3. 8, 13) is the counterpart of what Epiphanes had endeavored to do (1 Mace 3. 34-36). The story pictures with evident delight, in the form of an 316 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY occurrence in the days of Xerxes, how through Jewish intrigue and skill the plan was frustrated and brought to culminate in the destruction of their enemies by the very means they had devised. There shines through the entire plot a spirit of satisfaction that the enemy had been repaid; and it conveys very much the same sentiments as Psa 35- 7ff- : For without cause they spread for me their net, Without cause they dug for me a pit. Let unawares destruction come upon them ! Let the net they have spread ensnare them ! Let them fall into their own destruction ! Then will I rejoice in Jehovah, And shout for joy over his help. The religious element, however, is conspicuously absent from the book, and the name of God is not mentioned in it. It is of the nature of the so-called imprecatory psalms, without their religious spirit. Its moral tone is very low; and there is not a noble character in the book. The Chris- tian Church has never taken kindly to it, and that the Jews favor it highly is due to the fact that it gives suitable expression to the hatred which they must often have felt on account of the persecutions they have had to endure. The object of the book was evidently to explain the feast of Purim, the nature of which is fully given in the book itself (9. 20-25). It was a time of merry-making, and it has perpetuated itself to the present time. 284. The Book of Judith. The book of Judith is a parallel to the book of Esther, but it has a pronounced religious character. It is a story, possibly based upon some his- torical fact, but written with the purpose to inculcate reli- gious ideas, current among the pious Jews of the Maccabean period, and consequently giving light upon the thought of that time. Judith is an ideal Jewish woman, of the type of the Pharisees, strictly living according to the require- ments of the Law. It expresses the Jewish consciousness RULE OF THE MACCABEAN PRIESTS 317 of superiority to the Gentile world, its hatred for it, and its delight in taking revenge. Its worst fault is that it considers God as making common cause with the most cruel forms of taking vengeance, showing a lack of insight into the highest type of ethical and spiritual religion. 285. The Book of Tobit. The book of Tobit is a Tobit somewhat different illustration of the type of Pharisaic piety. It presents the picture of the Pharisaic ideals of pious family life. Among its virtues are strict adherence to the observance of the Law, and especially the avoidance of intermarriage with those who are not of the Jewish nation and faith. Other marriages bring a curse, but the marriage of those of like Jewish faith results in blessings. God's providence is over them that live according to his Law ; evil angels cannot harm them, and good angels pave their way for them. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Examine the Psalms mentioned in section 282 and note to what extent they may be regarded as reflecting the Maccabean period. 2. Read the book of Esther, note its origin and character, and value its ethical spirit. 3. Read the book of Judith and note what ideals it represents. 4. Read the book of Tobit and compare its ideals with that of the book of Ruth. CHAPTER XVI THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE (The Roman Period, 63 B. C. to 70 A. D.) 1. The Loss of Jewish Independence 286. The Rivalries of the Hasmoneans. The rivalries of the Hasmoneans, Jewish sympathy with them over against Rome, and the crafty policy of Antipater, brought about conditions which resulted in the passing of the rule of Judaea into the alien power of the Idumaean Herod. Pompey had left Judaea, consisting of Judaea, Galilee, and Persea, under the high priest Hyrcanus II (63-40 B. C.) subordinate to a Roman governor of the province and tributary to him ; but the Jews were restive. The first revolt took place under Alexander, Aristobulus's eldest son, who had escaped from Rome, and had gathered a force against Hyrcanus, and was put down by the Roman governor Gabinius in 57 B. C. The result was that the Jewish territory was divided into five administrative districts, leav- ing to Hyrcanus only the care of the temple, thus stripping him of all political power (Antiquities xiv, 5). The next year Aristobulus and his son, Antigonus, escaped from Rome, and raised another revolt, which was no more suc- cessful. A third revolt under Alexander failed also. Hyrcanus and Antipater, who had shown themselves on the side of Rome, were rewarded. Hyrcanus was restored to his former domain, and Antipater came into high favor (Antiquities xiv, 6). 287. The Rise of Antipater. The Roman hand was heavy upon Judaea. Crassus, on his way against the Par- thians, robbed the Jewish temple of its treasures, breaking 318 THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 319 his solemn oath that he would be content with what was given him voluntarily. Cassius put down a Jewish revolt, and sold thirty thousand Jews into slavery. In the mean- while Antipater, who used Hyrcanus simply as his tool, furthered his own interests by ingratiating himself with such as could help him. Caesar, after his defeat of Pompey (49), freed Aristobulus and sent him as his representative to Syria with two legions, but the followers of Pompey poisoned him; and Aristobulus's son, Alexander, fell as a victim of the Roman civil war (Antiquities xiv, 7). When Caesar made his expedition against Egypt Antipater and Hyrcanus rendered him very valuable services, and when he came to Syria he rewarded them both, against the remonstrance of Antigonus, the surviving son of Aristo- bulus, making Hyrcanus ethnarch, with restored political power, and Antipater procurator of Judaea, and allowing also the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem which Pompey had torn down (Antiquities xiv, 8). But it was really Antipater who was the ruler, rather than the weak Hyrcanus. 288. The Sons of Antipater, Phasael and Herod. Antipater appointed his sons Phasael and Herod as gover- nors of Jerusalem and Galilee respectively. Herod, who was at this time about twenty-five years of age, showed already remarkable energy and aggressiveness. He drove out a body of bandits who made the country insecure and executed its leader. The latter action offended the Sanhe- drin, who claimed the power to decide such cases. They made Hyrcanus bring Herod to trial, but the Romans interfered, and Herod appeared throughout the trial more as a conqueror than a suppliant for mercy (Antiquities xiv, 9). Upon the murder of Cresar (43 B. C), Cassius came to Syria to collect troops and funds. Herod's aid was prompt, and brought him Cassius's favor. But a certain Arabian, Malichus, found Antipater in his way of advancement, and bribed Hyrcanus's butler to poison him. Herod obtained Cassius's consent to revenge his father's 3 20 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY death, and had Malichus slain (Antiquities xiv, n). But the ambitions of Antipater had well advanced and were now securely in the hands of his two sons, Phasael and Herod. Antigonus now once more (42 B. C.) made the attempt to seize Judaea, but Herod defeated him (Antiquities xiv, 12). But a greater danger threatened Herod and his brother, when Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antony, and the latter came into Syria. The two brothers had been accused before him by representative Jewish nobles. But as Hyrcanus appeared as their defender and he himself had on earlier occasions enjoyed the hospitality of their father Antipater, they rather gained by these efforts, for Antony appointed Herod and Phasael tetrarchs of the Judaean territory. 289. The Parthians in Syria. Antigonus again re- newed his attempt to seize the government of Judaea, but this time with better success. The Parthians had con- quered Asia, and were in northern Syria. Antigonus per- suaded them to make him king of Judaea, and through their aid succeeded in getting possession of the persons of Hyrcanus and Phasael. The former he mutilated to make him incapable of holding the high priesthood, and the Parthians carried him off into their country; the latter committed suicide in prison. Herod succeeded in rescuing his family and himself by flight (Antiquities xiv, 13). 290. The Reign of Antigonus. Antigonus (40-37 B. C.) had but a short and stormy reign. Herod went to Rome to appear before Antony and Augustus to secure help against Antigonus and the kingship for his wife Mariamme's brother, a grandson of Aristobulus and Hyrcanus. But the Romans deemed Herod the better man; and by the action of the Senate he was made king (40 B. C). He now returned to Judaea, and during the following three years engaged in a series of efforts to secure his kingdom. With the aid of a Roman army under Sosius, he finally succeeded THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 321 in breaking through the walls of Jerusalem. Antigonus was captured and carried by the Romans to Antioch, where they executed him. With him the last of the Hasmonean rulers came to an end (Antiquities xiv, 14-16). 291. The Reign of Herod. From a mere political point of view, the long reign of Herod (37 B. C. to 4 A. D.) was one of great achievements. He was a Hellenistic ruler with all the good and evil that the term implies. He sought to be a friend of the Romans and to spread their culture. The kingdom of Judaea was in his day probably more respected among other nations than at any other time. The position which he occupied in the Roman empire was that of a rex socius, that is, an allied king. He was under the empire and under obligations to aid it, but within his kingdom he was entirely independent. His was, generally speaking, a peaceful reign. He was politic enough not to antagonize the Pharisaic party by interfering with their punctilious observance of the Law. But at the same time he on his part showed his predilections for Hellenic culture. He was a great builder with aesthetic tastes. His greatest building achievement was the temple, which was a most magnificent series of structures in Greek and Roman style, requiring a lifetime for its completion. He built or rebuilt the cities of Samaria (Sebaste), Csesarea, Antipatris, Phasselis, and numerous castles, citadels, and towers in various parts of his kingdom. In Jerusalem he built himself a strongly fortified palace, the tower of Antonia, and pro- vided the city with a water supply. In Jerusalem and else- where he built theaters, amphitheaters, baths, gymnasiums, and introduced the Olympic games. He also introduced the study of Greek literature and philosophy. He was an Idumaean, that is, a descendant of the Edomites, who had been forced on the point of the sword to become Jews, but whose conversion was but superficial. He was thus but a half-Jew and personally out of sympathy with the Pharisees. 322 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 292. The Character of Herod. Herod's moral char- acter was of the worst type. He murdered or was the means of murdering, successively members of his own family, Aristobulus, his wife's brother, one of the Has- monean heirs ; Joseph, his sister's husband ; Hyrcanus II, the mutilated high priest ; his wife, Mariamme ; her mother, Alexandra; his sister's husband, the sons of Sabba or Baba, the last Hasmonean heirs ; his sons, Aristobulus and Alexander, and Antipater. He was a cruel tyrant, and evi- dently insanely jealous. Herod may be taken as an illustra- tion of the political vicissitudes of the Jewish nation, but as a product of the spirit and religion of the Old Testament he was clearly a monstrous incongruity. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Read the references to Josephus and note the cause of the weakness of the Hasmoneans and the rise of Antipater. 2. Read the references to Josephus and trace the earlier career of Herod. 3. Consider the reign and character of Herod and account for his lack of moral character. 2. The Developed Form of Judaism 293. The Scribes. The most representative class of Judaism in its fully developed form was the scribes. At the beginning of the Christian era they were regarded as the authoritative religious teachers, having taken the place of the prophets and priests of former times. The order of the scribes originated with the institution of the Law by Ezra, who was the first to bear this title. Law when it is to be scrupulously obeyed requires detailed explanation. At first the priests furnished it, but gradually it fell in the hands of specialists, who formed an independent religious profession, called scribes, lawyers, and teachers of the Law. When the priesthood became Hellenized the scribes saved Judaism from extinction by their zeal for the Law. Their growing prestige is seen from the title "rabbi," meaning THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 323 "teacher" or "master," which they assumed, and from the honor which they claimed: "The honor of a friend should reach as high as the respect for thy teacher, but the respect for thy teacher as high as the fear of God," was one of the sayings of the Jewish Fathers (Aboth, 4. 12). Schools were established for the instruction in the Law in connection with the synagogues, and the courts of the temple were used, where the scribes officiated as teachers. 294. The Legislation of the Scribes. Besides teaching and administering the Law, the scribes also made new laws. Its starting point, of course, was the Law of Moses ; but it soon became independent of it, and even in spirit often contravened it. The legislation was divided into negative and positive. The motto of the former was: "Make a fence around the Law" (Aboth, 1. 1). When a thing in itself lawful was likely to lead to the transgression of the Law it was prohibited, as, for instance, the drinking of wine of heathen people, for it might have been used in connection with a heathen sacrifice (compare 1 Cor 8. 4ff. ; 10. 23ft. ; Rom 14. 13). This kind of legislation was called geseroth, or "fences," and its object was to prevent the transgression of the Law. The positive legislation related to matters of ritual, forms of prayers, the fixing of the festal calendar, dispensations regarding vows, etc. We may see many of these new laws already in full force at the begin- ning of the Christian era. The law of the phylacteries and fringes is mentioned in Matt. 23. 5. The dietary laws relat- ing to forbidden foods and ceremonial handwashings are often referred to (Matt 15. 10-20; Acts 10. 1-16). The Sabbath was particularly hedged about with new legisla- tion. Out of the references to the Sabbath in the Old Testament thirty-nine principal acts of labor were system- atized. These were called "fathers," and out of them were evolved new laws, called "children"; and both were made equally binding; thus plucking a few ears of corn was regarded as much of a violation of the Sabbath as 324 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY reaping and plowing (Matt 12. if.). This legalism touched every detail of the daily life, and its tendency was to become increasingly more exacting. 295. The Synagogue. Closely associated with this legalism of the scribes was the institution of the synagogue. The term has a narrower and broader meaning: in the broader meaning a synagogue is a local community in its corporate capacity and as under religious and more or less civil jurisdiction; in the narrower, it is the building with its assemblies and services. Naturally, the two mean- ings often merge into one. The synagogue as an organized religious community originated in the local government. When the assemblies first began, and when buildings were first set aside for this specific purpose, cannot be definitely stated. They probably originated during the exile. The introduction of the Law and the activity of the scribes, together with the rise of Jewish communities outside of Jerusalem, must have given occasion for them. No refer- ence to the institution of the synagogue, however, is met with in the canonical or apocryphal books of the Old Testa- ment, except Psa 74. 8, where most modern scholars find in the words "sacred meeting places" a reference to it, and take it as belonging to the Maccabean period. But at the beginning of the Christian era the synagogue is already a well-known institution with a hoary past : "Moses from generations of old has in every city those that proclaim him, being read in the synagogues every Sabbath" (Acts 15. 21) ; and the Gospels contain many references to it. 296. The Synagogue as a Social Center. As distin- guished from the temple, the synagogue was a more demo- cratic institution with social functions, including not only the religious but also the civil and municipal affairs of the community. Where the population was mainly Jewish, the synagogue officials were identical with those of the town or district. Members of the synagogal community were subject to discipline by its government. The local govern- THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 325 ing body was called "court" or "council" (Matt 5. 22), and it was composed of twenty-three members in larger towns, and in smaller, of seven, who were called "elders" or rulers." The methods of punishment were, scourging, excommunication, and death; to be "put out of the syna- gogue" (John 9. 22; 12. 42), meant more than merely exclusion from the synagogue service, it meant exclusion from the social and religious intercourse, that is, from community life. 297. The Synagogue Assemblies. The primary func- tion of the synagogue assemblies was the popular instruction in the Law. Worship, in the narrower sense, was only a secondary object. Both Josephus and Philo call the syna- gogues "schools," and in the New Testament the chief function of the synagogue is "to teach" (confer Matt 4. 23; Mark I. 21 ; 6. 2). But in the earlier times the syna- gogue was called "the assembly of the common people," and corresponded more nearly to the "gate" as a common, meeting place. After the destruction of the temple the synagogue assumed more and more the former's function of worship. But at the end of the first century A. D. it was still possible to class sitting in the synagogues (like sitting in the market place) with sleeping away the morn- ing, drinking wine at noon, and playing with children, as bringing failure in life (Aboth, 3. 14). 298. The Synagogue Service. For conducting the synagogue service an official, strictly speaking, was not necessary; any competent Jew could officiate. The main part of the service was the reading of the Law, followed by the reading of the Prophets, and the explanation of the lessons read. 1 2gg. Jewish Parties. The various forms into which Judaism had differentiated may be seen in the names of parties, which meet us about the time of the rise of Chris- 1 For a fuller discussion of the entire Bubject, see the writer's article "Synagogue,'' in Encyclopaedia Biblica. 326 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY tianity. Besides the great body of the people, we meet with Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, and Herodians. 300. The Pharisees. The Pharisees were the religious aristocracy, the orthodox party, and its chief character- istic was the strict observance of the Law, according to the interpretation handed down by tradition through the scribes. The close association of the Pharisees and scribes indicates that they both represented a common cause. The scribes were the professional Pharisees, a select body within the larger circle, whose duty it was, as stated above, to look after the academic interests relating to the Law. The Pharisees were "Separatists," and they formed an inner circle within the people ; they called their members chaberim, or "Associates." Upon the outside Gentile world they looked with contempt ; the Sadducees they hated as sinners ; and the ordinary Jew they regarded as 'am haarez, or "common people." As a whole they represented the legal- ism of Nehemiah and Ezra carried to its logical extreme. 301. The Sadducees. The Sadducees were the polit- ical aristocracy, and from the religious point of view, the Liberal party. They were priests and held the temple and its services sacred; but they were in favor of Hellenistic culture. Theologically, they differed from the Pharisees in denying the authority of the traditional interpretation of the Law, that is, the oral Law as distinguished from the written Law ; in denying the existence of angels and spirits, the resurrection of the body and the immortality of the soul, and a fatalistic conception of the moral world. 302. The Essenes. The Essenes represent a fuller development of the Pharisaic conception of holiness by separation, with a mixture of elements from foreign cults. In their asceticism and communism the Essenes were a monastic order. Admission to the order was made difficult by periods of probation, lasting one year, and a further two years. When admitted the novitiate had to take a solemn oath that he would honor God, do his duty toward man, THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 327 to do no one an evil, to hate the unjust and aid the righteous, to be in subjection to civil authority, not to be overbearing in authority, not to dress with extravagance, to speak the truth and to correct liars, not to steal nor obtain profit falsely, to be frank with members of the order, but not to reveal their secrets, even if tortured to death, not to mis- represent their doctrines, to withhold from robbery, and to keep secret the sacred books and the names ef the angels (Josephus, Wars, ii, 8. 7). The Essenes wore white gar- ments ; bathed often, and always before the communal meal, which appears to have had a sacred character. Their daily life was strictly regulated and employed in useful effort; they held to a community of property, discarded slavery, marriage, oaths, and sacrifices. Their attitude toward the sun is described by Josephus as follows : "Before sunrise they allow no unholy word to proceed from their lips ; but they offer certain prayers, which they have received from their forefathers, as if they were praying for its rising" (Wars, ii, 8. 5). They distinguish themselves from the Pharisees by emphasizing the immortality of the soul over against the resurrection of the body, but apparently share their idea of fatalism. It must appear that the Essenes represent a highly sig- nificant moral movement within Judaism; and we can scarcely fail to see some striking resemblances between it and the movement represented by John the Baptist. 303. Zealots and Herodians. The Zealots were Phari- sees who were too impatient to pursue the waiting policy in leaving to God the establishment of the Jewish govern- ment for which they longed. They, accordingly, favored a national uprising against Rome ; and they found a leader in Judas the Galilaean, who caused a revolt when Cyrenius the Roman governor took the census for the collection of the Roman tribute (Acts 5. 37; and compare Luke 2. 2). Their hatred for the Romans grew with their failure to accomplish their purpose. They became cruel bandits and 328 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY were largely responsible for the ultimate destruction of the Jewish nation by the Romans (Josephus, Wars, iv, 3. 9; 5. 1 ; 6. 3 ; vii, 8. 1 ) . The Herodians were Sadducees who favored the Herodian family as Jewish rulers. 304. The Conception of God. The religious and ethical conceptions of Judaism, as we meet them at the beginning of the Christian era, are far from being formulated into a system. They were the result of an extended process of development, and as they contained elements from various sources and periods, they would hardly have absolute consistency. The conception of God represented the accumulation of the contributions of all the preceding periods, and it in- cluded: (1) the monotheistic conception of the oneness of God, implying that there exists only one God and that he is the God of the Jews; (2) the transcendence of God, expressing his greatness and might by which he is exalted above the world; (3) the spirituality of God, involving his omniscience, righteousness, goodness, and mercy, faithful- ness, and holiness, and particularly the quality which em- phasized his character as the rewarder of the pious and punisher of the wicked, or the God of judgment; (4) the national character of God, as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who chose Israel and gave it the Law; and (5) God as the creator and preserver of his creatures. There are some faint anticipations of the Fatherhood of God, going beyond the national to the individual sense; and men are called God's children (Psalms of Solomon, 17. 30; Enoch, 62. 11). But more characteristic is the dread with which the naming of God is avoided and the use of substitutions, as "Heaven" (1 Mace 3. i8f., 50, 60; 4. 10, 24) ; compare the phrase "kingdom of heaven" for "kingdom of God" (Matt. 5. 3; Luke 6. 20) ; the "Name," the "Voice," the Shekinah, or "Glory," and others. The proper name "Jehovah" (or, more properly, "Yahwe") came into such disuse that its pronunciation has been entirely THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 329 lost. On the whole, the dominant Jewish conception was that of his distance from man, and herein it radically differed from that of the prophets. 305. The Ethical Ideals. The emphasis upon the Law and its strict observance very naturally affected the ethical ideals of Judaism. The parable of the Pharisee and pub- lican (Luke 18. oif.) describes both the good and evils of the ideals. The keeping of the Law tended to make men moral; it kept them from being extortioners, unjust, adul- terers, and from many other sins ; and the life of the conscientious Pharisee, as we may see it illustrated in the life and character of Paul before his conversion, was no doubt in many respects exemplary, and incomparably better than that of those who knew no such restraints. But the emphasis came to be placed upon ceremonialism, the Sab- bath, formal prayer, fasting, tithing, foods, and ablutions, leading to a mechanical formalism. When one reads the regulations as to how and when to recite one of the sub- limest ethical passages in the Old Testament, containing the words : "Hear, O Israel : Jehovah our God, Jehovah is One: and thou shalt love Jehovah thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might" (Deut 6. 4f), and notices the rabbinical quibbling over the ques- tions whether it is to be recited standing or lying, audibly or inaudibly, as early in the morning when one can dis- tinguish between the colors of sky-blue or leek-green, and finds no reference to its ethical import, one realizes how shallow, after all, must have been the ethical interest in keeping the Law. The conscientious Pharisee would find it an impossible task to keep all the details, and be com- pelled to live under the dread of an offended God; and the unconscientious Pharisee would make his legalism the cloak to hide his real character. On the whole, then, the priestly ideals of righteousness were a retrogression from those of the prophets, who looked for the day when the ethical law should be written upon men's consciences. 330 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 306. The Messianic Hopes. The general tendency of Old Testament history and thought had been to stimulate certain expectations of a future condition which had their central thought in the person of the Messiah. At the be- ginning of the Christian era these hopes had assumed, generally speaking, two different forms, which for con- venience of review may be distinguished as ( 1 ) the national hope, and (2) the apocalyptic hope. The national hope has "the son of David" as the central figure of the Messianic kingdom. It implies a national restoration of Israel; its sphere is this earth purified with Palestine, Jerusalem, and Zion as its center ; and its sub- jects are the Jews in contrast with the Gentiles. This con- ception is easily recognized in its general features as that of the prophets. It found its fullest later expression in the Psalms of the Pharisees, commonly called the Psalms of Solomon, proceeding from the period of 70-40 B. C. The following selection is an illustration of its character : Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the son of David, in the time which thou, O God, knowest, that he may reign over Israel thy servant ; And gird him with strength that he may break in pieces them that rule unjustly. Purge lerusalem from the heathen that trample her down to destroy her, with wisdom and with righteousness. He shall thrust out the sinners from the inheritance, utterly destroy the proud spirit of the sinners, and as potter's vessels with a rod of iron shall he break in pieces all their substance. He shall destroy the ungodly nations with the word of his mouth, so that at his rebuke the nations may flee before him, and he shall convict the sinners in the thoughts of their hearts. And he shall gather together a holy people, whom he shall lead in righteousness; and shall judge the tribes of the people that hath been sanctified by the Lord his God. And he shall not suffer iniquity to lodge in their midst; and none that knoweth wickedness shall dwell with them. For he shall take knowledge of them, that they be all the sons of their God, and shall divide them upon the earth according to their tribes. THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 33 r And the sojourner and the stranger shall dwell with them no more. He shall judge the nations and the peoples with the wisdom of his righteousness. Selah (Psalms of Solomon, XVII, 23-31 ; edited by Ryle and James, p. I37ff.). The apocalyptic hope has "the Son of man coming on the clouds of heaven," conceived as a heavenly being, as its central figure. In the place of national Israel appears here universal mankind ; instead of Palestine, heaven and earth, and the entire cosmic forces ; the earthly world is displaced by a heavenly world ; the age that is now gives way to the age that is to come ; mortality gives way to immortality ; the old world passes away and a new one is made ; a general judgment, prepared for by the resurrection of the dead, determines the eternal bliss of the righteous and the eternal damnation or annihilation of the wicked. This con- ception is the product of the Jewish apocalyptic writers who multiplied considerably from the time of Daniel (see Section 261). As illustrative of this Messianic conception, we may take the following passages from the Book of Enoch : "And there I saw One who had a head of days, and His head was white like wool, and with Him was another being whose countenance had the appearance of a man and his face was full of graciousness, like one of the holy angels. And I asked the angel who went with me and showed me all the hidden things, concerning that Son of Man, who he was, and whence he was, and why he went with the Head of Days? And he answered and said unto me: "This is the Son of Man who hath righteousness, with whom dwelleth righteous- ness, and who reveals all the treasures of that which is hidden, because the Lord of Spirits hath chosen him, and his lot before the Lord of Spirits hath surpassed everything in uprightness for ever. And this Son of Man whom thou hast seen will arouse the kings and the mighty ones from their couches and the strong from their thrones, and will loosen the reins of the strong and grind to powder the teeth of the sinners. And he will put down the kings from their thrones and kingdoms because they do not extol and praise him, nor thankfully acknowledge whence the kingdom was bestowed upon them. And he will put down the countenance of the strong and shame will cover them; darkness will be their dwelling 332 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY and worms their bed, and they will have no hope of rising from their beds because they do not extol the name of the Lord of Spirits" (Enoch, XLVI, 1-6). "And one portion of them will look on the other, and they will be terrified, and their countenance will fall, and pain will seize them when they see that Son of Man sitting on the throne of his glory. And the kings and the mighty and all who possess the earth will glorify and bless and extol him who rules over all, who was hidden. For the Son of Man was hidden before Him and the Most High preserved him in the presence of His might and revealed him to the elect. . . . And all the kings and the mighty and the exalted and those who rule the earth will fall down on their faces before him and worship and set their hope upon that Son of Man, and will petition him to supplicate for mercy at his hand" (Enoch, LXII, SB.). It must, however, be admitted that while it is possible, broadly speaking, to recognize these two different concep- tions, as indicated, they are not always consistently dis- tinguished in the literature, but the two features are often blended into one. 307. The Messianic Conception of the Suffering Servant. There existed, however, another Messianic conception, which the Old Testament had furnished, but which had attracted but little or no attention. It was the ideal of the Suffering Servant of Jehovah (see Sections 201 and 236). It was not of such a nature as to appeal to many ; and it may well be questioned whether it was current at all as a Messianic conception in the thought even of the most spiritual few prior to the rise of Christianity. But it was in the thought of Him whose uniqueness consisted among other things in embodying in his ideals the best ele- ments of the Old Testament. It was Jesus the Prophet of Nazareth who evidently made the Suffering Servant his Messianic ideal; and through him self-sacrificing service to humanity — even unto death — has become the central teach- ing of Christianity. 308. Summary. We have now surveyed the entire sweep of Old Testament history, and its marked tendencies THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE 333 have appeared. We have seen how during the first period the material development was uppermost; and how the Hebrews emerged from it with a well-organized national government. We have seen also how the second period brought Israel with the dissolution of its state the conscious- ness of its national mission to be the missionaries of the noblest moral and spiritual ideals to the world. But we have further seen how during the third period the tendencies to formalism and particularism nearly undid the mighty work of Israel's prophets. Here our task is ended, although the historical movement itself has not ceased ; for Christianity is the outcome of Old Testament history. In the rise of Christianity the prophetic and priestly ideals of the Old Testament came into a fresh conflict. Pharisaism was the most formidable antagonist of the gospel. But in Christianity prophetism carried off the victory and started on its divine mission to conquer the world for God. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 1. Consider the origin of the scribes and how they became the religious leaders in the place of the prophet, priest, and sage. 2. Consider the object and character of the legislation of the scribes. 3. Consider the origin of the synagogue and its place in the Jewish life of this period. 4. Read Luke 4. 16-30 as illustrating a service in the synagogue. 5. Consider the Jewish parties and obtain a clear view of the principles of each. 6. Consider the prevailing conception of God at the end of the Old Testament period and wherein it differed from the prophetic conception. 7. Consider the ethical ideals of the type of a Jew like Paul before his conversion. 8. Consider the prevailing Messianic conceptions and the Old Testament basis for the Messianic conception of Jesus. 9. Summarize the movement of Old Testament history as a prepa- ration for Christianity. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Text The Revised Version of the Bible, American Standard Edition. The Apocrypha, Revised Version. 1894. The Uncanonical and Apocryphal Scriptures. W. R. Churton. London, 1884. Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. R. H. Charles. Two volumes. Oxford, 1913. The Student's Old Testament. C. F. Kent. Six volumes. New York, 1904-1914. Five volumes are now ready: 1. Narratives of the Beginnings of Hebrew History. II. Israel's Historical and Biographical Narratives. III. The Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets. IV. Israel's Law and Legal Precedents. V. The Songs, Hymns, and Prayers of the Old Testament. To be published, VI. Proverbs and Didactic Poems. This series contains the biblical text in an original translation, classified, and chronologically arranged, with full introductions. It is the most comprehensive work, representing the results of the critical study of the Old Testament. Commentaries The Bible for Home and School. Edited by Shailer Mathews. New York, 1909. The Cambridge Bible for School and Colleges. Edited by A. F. Kirkpatrick, 1889 — . The Century Bible. Edited by W. F. Adeney. New York, 1901— . The Expositor's Bible. Edited by W. R. Nicoll. New York, 1887—. The Westminster Commentaries. Edited by Walter Lock. 1889 — . The International Critical Commentary. New York. Edited by C. H. Briggs, S. R. Driver, and A. Plummer. New York, I89S-. Commentary on The Apocrypha, by H. Wace. Two volumes. Lon- don, 1888. The Messages of the Bible. Edited by F. K. Sanders and C. F. Kent. New York, 1898—. This is an original and popular commentary on the Bible in which the books of the Bible are grouped according to a natural classifica- tion, their contents arranged in the order of their appearance, and a scholarly yet popular paraphrase is given in plain English. 334 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 335 Old Testament Histories A History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel. Two volumes. London, 189S. History, Prophecy, and the Monuments. J. F. McCurdy. Three volumes. New York, 1896. History of the Hebrew People. C. F. Kent. Two volumes. New York, 1896. History of the Jewish People. Two volumes. New York, 1898. The Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods. C. F. Kent. 1899. The Maccabean and Roman Periods. J. S. Riggs. 1905. Old Testament History. H. P. Smith. New York, 1903. Old Testament History. G. W. Wade. New York, 1904. The Background of the Gospels or Judaism in the Period between the Old and New Testaments. W. Fairweather. Edinburgh, 1908. Contemporaneous History Early History of Syria and Palestine. L. B. Paton. New York, 1901. A History of Babylonia and Assyria. R. W. Rogers. New York, 1902. A History of Babylonians and Assyrians. G. S. Goodspeed. New York, 1904. The First Empires. W. S. Boscawen. New York, 1906. A History of Egypt. J. H. Breasted. New York, 1905. A History of the Ancient Egyptians. 1908. Life in Ancient Egypt. A. Erman, translated by H. M. Tirard. London, 1894. Explorations in Bible Lands Explorations in Bible Lands. H. V. Hilprecht. Philadelphia, 1903. The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia. T. G. Pinches. London, 1903. The Latest Light on Bible Lands. P. S. P. Handcock. London, 1913- Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament. R. W. Rogers. New York, 1912. Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions. M. Jastrow. New York, 1914. Biblical Geography The Historical Geography of the Holy Land. G. A. Smith. New York, 1 90 1. Biblical Geography and History. C. F. Kent. New York, 1911. 336 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY Old Testament Literature An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. S. R. Driver. Ninth edition. New York, 1913. A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. G. B. Gray. New York, 1913. A History of the Literature of Ancient Israel. H. T. Fowler. New York, 1912. The Bible : Its Origin, Its Significance, and Its Abiding Worth. A. S. Peake. New York, 1914. The Bible as Literature. Irving F. Wood and Elihu Grant. New York, 1914. Old Testament Religion The Theology of the Old Testament. A. B. Davidson. New York, 1904. The Religion of Israel. H. P. Smith. New York, 1914. The Religion of Israel to the Exile. K. Budde. New York, 1899. Jewish Religious Life After the Exile. T. K. Cheyne. New York, 1898. Old Testament Prophecy. A. B. Davidson. New York, 1903. Prophecy and the Prophets. F. C. Eiselen. New York, 1009. The Beacon Lights of Prophecy. A. C. Knudson. New York, 1914. Israel's Messianic Hope. G. S. Goodspeed. New York, 1900. Judaism and Christianity. C. H. Toy. New York, 1800. Eschatology — A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity. R. H. Charles. Lon- don, 1913. The Ethics of the Old Testament. H. S. Mitchell. Chicago, 1912. The Ethics of Jewish Apocryphal Literature. H. M. Hughes. Lon- don, 1909. Bible Dictionaries Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings. Five volumes. New York, 1898-1904. Dictionary of the Bible. Hastings's One Volume Edition. New York, 1909. Encyclopaedia Biblica. Edited by T. K. Cheyne and A. S. Black. Four volumes. New York, 1899-1903. Standard Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by M. W. Jacobus. New York, 1909. Hi lllllilil]