T 73.03 Cornell University Library M ilT IK™ ships and shop ,rainin9 3 1924 002 '745 903 This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation with Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access to it (or modified or partial versions of it) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS AND SHOP TRAINING METHODS Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS AND SHOP TRAINING METHODS A REVIEW OF THE METHODS USED IN A NUMBER OF AMERICAN MACHINE-BUILDING PLANTS IN THE TRAINING OF APPRENTICES AND MACHINE OPERATORS WITH A VIEW TO PROVIDING FOR THE FUTURE NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRIES FOR SKILLED MECHANICS, FORE- MEN, AND SUPERINTENDENTS BY .ERIK OBERG EDITOR OF MACHINERY EDITOR OF "MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK" AND "MACHINERY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA" AUTHOR OF "SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES," ETC. FIRST EDITION FIRST PRINTING PROPERTY OF* LIU K ANY NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL INDUSTRIAL AUD LABOR RELATIONS CORNELL UNIVERSITY NEW YORK THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS LONDON: THE MACHINERY PUBLISHING CO., LTD. 1921 Digitized by Microsoft® Machinery Machinery is noted for enterprise and thoroughness. Jte, Machinery M.. i, all for Copyright, 1921, The Industrial Tress, Publishers of Machinery, 110-118 Lafayette Street, New York City Digitized by Microsoft® PREFACE Foe years American manufacturers have been so busy increasing plant facilities, devising more efficient means of production, and designing and building new machinery and tools that but little attention has been given to the training of all-around mechanics, fitting them to become the future mechanical leaders in the machine-building industries. The old-fashioned type of apprenticeship has broken down, and few manufacturers have provided anything to take its place. Recently, however, there has been a general recog- nition of the fact that the future supremacy of American machine-building industries depends upon the systematic and careful training of the men who are to become the skilled machinists, foremen, and superintendents of ma- chine shops ten, twenty and thirty years hence. The need of apprenticeships in American manufacturing plants is evidenced by the great scarcity of skilled mechan- ics and properly trained machinists. Machine operators and specialists have taken their places, but men of general experience are also required. Conditions during the war, and perhaps even more so since the war, have made it ap- parent that the supply of skilled mechanics is limited and that while machine operators can be easily obtained, the all-around machinist and tool-maker is becoming more and more scarce. The only way in which this condition can be improved and the future of the machine industries made secure is by systematic and careful training of young men in specified training courses. It is the object of the present book to describe in consid- erable detail the methods used in several well-known machine-building plants in the country. As the machine tool industry is the basic industry in the whole machine- building field, the examples have been mainly taken from Digitized by Microsoft® VI PREFACE the machine tool field. There are, of course, numerous successful apprenticeships and training courses installed in a great number of leading American machine shops, but those chosen as examples represent in a general way the principles embodied in most of them. ( The book deals not only with regular apprentice systems and apprentice schools, but also with training shops for machine operators that do not serve regular apprentice- ships. A chapter is included on the training of electric welders in order to indicate how specialists in various fields may be trained, and the book concludes with a chapter on the training of women for shop work, based upon the expe- rience of several American machine shops during the war. It is the hope of the publishers and the author of this book that it may stimulate the interest in apprenticeships and training courses and that manufacturers and others inter- ested in this work may be able to obtain from it a compre- hensive idea of what has been done elsewhere in order to bring about more satisfactory means for the training of the men who will be mainly responsible for the output of American machine shops in the future. E.O. Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS Chapter I THE MODERN APPRENTICESHIP PAGES Trade Schools — Apprenticeship Systems — Special Apprenticeships — Supervision of Apprentices — Cost of Apprentice Schools 1-9 Chapter II THE PRATT & WHITNEY CO.'S APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM Qualifications for Admission — Selection of Ap- prentices — Supervision of Apprentices — Trial Period — Shop Training — Class-room Instruction — Course of Study — Theory of Shop Practice— In- structors — Method of Instruction — Compensation . . 10-27 Chapter III THE R. K. LE BLOND MACHINE TOOL CO.'S APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM Selection of Apprentices — Application, Inter- views, and Examinations — The Training Shop — Class-room Training — Course of Study — Records of Apprentices • 28-38 Chapter IV THE TAFT-PEIRCE MANUFACTURING CO.'S APPRENTICESHIP COURSE The Apprenticeship School — Entrance Require- ments — The Shop Course — Class-room Instruction — Recording Progress of Apprentices — General Re- quirements of Course 39-51 Digitized by Microsoft® Viil CONTENTS Chapter V APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOLS IN LOCOMOTIVE AND ELECTRICAL SHOPS PAGES Drafting-room Apprenticeship — Compensation — Shop Courses — Graduate Apprentices— Coopera- tive Apprentice Schools '. 52-57 Chapter VI RECORDING THE PROGRESS OF APPRENTICES Record of Interview — Checking Interviewer's Record — Reports on Progress — Use of Records .... 58-64 Chapter VII THE NORTON CO.'S TRAINING SHOP Advantages of Training Employes — Training Departments — Results of lack of Training — Equipment — Eligibility for Training Department — Methods Used — Training Shop a Production Depart- ment — Promotion from Training Shop to Regular Departments — Compensation — Cost of Training Shop 65-79 Chapter VIII WILLYS-OVERLAND AND EASTMAN KODAK CO.'S TRAINING SHOPS Willys-Overland Training System — Creating In- centive for Promotion — Developing All-around Ma- > chinists — Eastman Kadak Training Shop — Kind of Workers Trained — Character of Training — General Training Shop Conditions 80-91 s Chapter IX TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS Extent' of Training — Primary Instructions and Duties — Progress Made — Recording Progress — Se- lective Courses of Training 92-102 Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS ix Chapter X TRAINING WOMEN FOR MACHINE SHOP WORK PAGES Adaptability to Mechanical Work — Methods of Training — Comparison of Men and Women Work- ers — Kinds of Work Done by Women — Reorganiza- tion of Plants to Accommodate Women Workers — Discipline — Turnover — Inspection by Women — Training Women to Operate Various Types of Ma- chines — Supervision of Women Employes— Train- ing Schools 103-114 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS AND SHOP TRAINING METHODS CHAPTER I THE MODERN APPRENTICESHIP The modern development of the manufacturing indus- tries has firmly established the principles of specialization. Specialized methods have made feasible the employment of a larger proportion of unskilled and semi-skilled men in the industries than was possible in the earlier days, and less attention has been paid to the question of renewing the supply of skilled workers by training apprentices. As a consequence, the scarcity of skilled labor has become appar. ent during the last decade, and during the past few years manufacturers have been forced to consider the problem of reviving apprenticeship systems along lines which will meet the new industrial conditions. In re-establishing appren-^] ticeship systems, however^many difficulties have had to be / overcome. The conditions in modern manufacturing plants ' make it out of the question for the foremen to give the same attention to the apprentices, that was common a generation or more ago.. The changed conditions have also made it neces- sary that the apprentice of today should be trained al«ng broader lines than in the past — he niust be taught sswrne *f the principles on which his work depends,, as well as the mechanical operations, and he must be made to understand not only the methods,, but the reasons for the methods, s« that he can adapt himself to new processes when required. As a consequence, some of the larger companies in the machine-building field have established a more modern type X Digitized by Microsoft® 2 MOERN APPRENTICESHIPS of apprenticeship system in their plants. The apprentice schools of the General Electric Co. at Lynn and Schenec- tady, the New York Central Railway Co., the American Locomotive Works, and the Solway Process Co. may be men- tioned as examples.- Some of these apprentice schools, how- ever, have been developed specifically for training young men for. a special branch of the industry. Trade Schools and Apprenticeship Systems. When it became apparent that steps had to be taken to train skilled mechanics for the machine-building trades, trade schools were thought by many to present the solution of the prob- lem. Some very good trade schools are maintained both by municipalities and by private enterprise, and these contri- bute a part of the training required. So-called half-time schools, which are maintained by the communities in which they are located in cooperation with manufacturing plants have also been tried with good results. In these, two groups of apprentices spend alternately one week in school and the next week in productive work in machine shops. This makes it possible for small shops to give their apprentices an opportunity for training. The expense of the teaching is, as a rule, borne by the public school system. Examples of such schools are found in Beverly and Fitchburg, Mass., and in Springfield, Vt. Schools are also maintained by the cooperation of a number of employers whose apprentices attend classes during a limited number of hours each week ; this has been done in Bridgeport, Conn. Evening schools are also maintained on a larger scale than ever, and tend to facilitate the education of apprentices. However, no one of these methods has proved to be as effective for the train- ing of all-around machinists as the regular shop apprentice, ship system. The real burden of training mechanics rests upon the industries themselves, to whom the supply of skilled mechanics is a necessity, and those companies that have recognized this and have taken steps to develop modern apprenticeship systems are making a real contribution to the solution of the all-important problem of maintaining a supply of skilled mechanics. As far as the machinist's trade Digitized by Microsoft® M«DERN APPRENTICESHIPS 3 is concerned, it has been left largely to the machine-tool builders to develop apprenticeship systems for training all- around machinists who can take their place anywhere in the machine-building field. The machine-tool builders, in fact, have in the past been the leaders in training skilled mechanics, and some of the older and best known machine- tool building plants have maintained apprenticeship systems continually since the time when they started in business. During the past few years this system has been developed along the modern lines made necessary by the changed con- ditions in mechanical practice and methods of management. General Principles of Apprenticeships. Some years ago it was pointed out by C. J. Morrison, chief engineer of Frog, gatt, Morrison & Co., in an article in Machinery, that more attention should be paid to the number of apprentices in relation to the total number of men employed in a plant than had formerly been done. Even where the proper methods of instruction are used there are, in many cases too few apprentices. An extreme example of this condition is seen in a plant which employs 2000 men, and claims to have the most up-to-date and approved methods of apprenticeship, but is applying them* to less than a dozen apprentices. The other extreme is to be found in a plant where there is no regular method of apprenticeship, but where the ratio of learners to skilled mechanics is ten to one. Neither plant is turning out a supply of good mechanics. It is perfectly practicable to work out maximum and minimum ratios for various industries and different localities. After the question as to the number of apprentices has been decided, the methods of instruction and the grades of apprenticeship should be determined. A longer time is re- quired to learn trades requiring considerable skill, and a longer preliminary education is required in preparation for apprenticeship in some trades than in others. All of these factors must be carefully considered and provided for. As too much preliminary education is not likely to be obtained, every encouragement and inducement possible should be given toward a liberal education. In order to be successful, Digitized by Microsoft® 4 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS any method of apprenticeship must endeavor to develop body, mind, character, and skill. The selection of appren- tices is of great importance, and the employer should care- fully investigate the suitability of a candidate for the trade that he wishes to learn. The investigation should take into consideration parentage, character, education and phy- sical condition. The Trial Period. In case a candidate appears favorable in the light of this investigation, he should be taken on trial and given every opportunity to demonstrate his fitness for the trade he has chosen, and also to determine for himself if the trade is to his liking. A trial period of three months would probably suffice in most cases. The importance of this trial period should not be overlooked, as it is important for the employer to secure apprentices who will eventually make good mechanics, and also for the apprentices to be in the trade to which they are adapted. One does not have to look far to find numerous instances of "round pegs in square holes" — of good farmers being turned into poor mechanics. During the trial period, a record should be kept of the work performed, and the candidates for apprenticeship should be under the direction of a shop instructor as much as possible. An opportunity should be given each candidate to observe various phases of the work in order that he may be able to determine his ability for the trade he has chosen. This method, at the same time, enables the employer to deter- mine the desirability of the candidate. Simultaneous Mental and Shop Training. After the ap- prentice is chosen, his education and training should begin at once. As to the methods to be pursued, one can scarcely do better than to quote from Mr. G. M. Basford : "A nother principle is mental trai ning which, to insure_complete_s.ue. cess, must be p arallel and simultaneous with the manual {raining in order that the boy may underst and his work, know his materials, understand his methods, and know the reasons for what he does. For this, "Sight schooTs will not suffice, and it seems fair to say that no recruiting system can approach the ideal which does not provide this mental Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 5 training by taking the school to the boy ; taking it in work - ing hours and compelling his attention to it bein g as vital_a part of his apprenticeship as the trade itself. This requires a substitute for the master of years ago in the form of a shop instructor who is capable of teaching the apprentice the theoretical and practical parts of his trade. It is im- portant that the _ ap_p_rgntke shoald come intn contact with the real problems of jth&jahop. and-thatJie^should. work, as nearly_ja_pflssihle. upon jthe-same-basis--as_ the-workmen, knowing that the product which he contributes is part of of the general product of the plant. He should be taught to consider the commercial question of cost and the problem of management in the organization, so that he may see where the workman and employer fit into the general scheme. In .mental training the same idea appears. This offers no field for the lover of 'pure mathematics,' but it offers a wonderful field for the man with practical ideas 'who understands the apprentice mind and knows the ques- tions which are constantly arising with respect to the work of the shop. Mechanical drawing offers the readiest educa- tional medium, and the development of this subject will lead to a clear view of the entire educational scheme. The brain and the hand must be trained simultaneously." Mr. E. P. Bullard, Jr., who is considered an authority on this subject, speaks of the situation as follows: "The apprentice school is a necessary adjunct to any well organ- ized apprentice system. Few concerns are large enough to support a school of their own, as is done at Lynn and Sche- nectady. Fortunately, however, like industries usually locate in the same neighborhood, so that it is possible for manufacturers employing a similar class of labor to co- operate in the establishment and maintenance of apprentice- ship schools. In Bridgeport, Conn., this has been done very successfully. The members of the local manufacturers' asso- ciation, working in conjunction with the Y. M. C. A., have established a school for apprentices, who attend class two hours per day for five days a week. The boys are pajdj-eg. ular wages for the time they spend in the class room, and Digitized by Microsoft® 6 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS the entire expense of the instructor, who is especially em- ployed for this purpose, is borne by the manufacturers who have boys in the school." Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the necessity of education in connection with shop training. This education must be of a practical nature and particularly adapted to each trade. Moreover, special provision should be made to accommodate the exceptional apprentices who are capable of rising above their fellows. These are the future foremen, superintendents, and managers. In the shop, regular courses must be laid out and rigidly adhered to. The shop instructor should make up a regular schedule so that shifts can be made without delaying the work in the shop. Provisions should be made in the schedules so that apprentices showing a special aptitude for some particular branch of their trade can spend more than the regular allotted time on that branch. National Machine Tool Builders' Apprenticeships. The National Machine Tool Builders' Association has adopted a form of contract for apprentices which provides among other things that the apprentice must first serve a trial period of one thousand_hours, etniivalenL-to— aboxit-foxix- month,'s work, and if he proves satisfactory he will then begin his regular term of service, which will comprise three years of (^90)) hours each. On the completion of the trial period, the apprentice will be given the use of a new equip- ment of machinist's tools which will remain the property of the employer until the term of the apprenticeship has been satisfactorily completed, when_t he tool equipm ent-wiU be giyen_tQ. the apprentice, free of cha rge. The mo ney earn ed during the trial period will be retained jjyjbhe em- ployer u ntlTthe apprentice has^completed his term of ser- vice, at which time this amount will be paid to him. Upon entering the training, the applicants, according to the contracts made by the National Machine Tool Builders' Association, should be at least 17 years of age. Many ma- chine tool builders, however, accept apprentices at the age of 16. Upon the satisfactory completion of an appren- Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 7 ticeship, the apprentice is given a diploma signed by the president and secretary of the Association. Special Apprenticeships. The National Machine Tool Builders' Association at one time adopted a contract for spe- cial apprenticeships for training apprentices in any branch of the machinist's trade. In this case, a trial period of 240 hours, equivalent to about one month's work, will be re- quired, and if the apprentice proves satisfactory, he will then enter upon his term of special training. He is given a set of tools to use during his term of apprenticeship, which, upon the satisfactory completion of the term, is given to him, free of charge. The length of time for train- ing varies with the machines or the work, and the wages, which are given only for comparing rates on different ma- chines, also differ somewhat, as follows : Turning. — Two years, with wages beginning at 12 cents an hour for the first six months, with an increase of 2 cents an hour for each period of six months. , Vertical and Horizontal Boring Mill. — One and one-half J year; wages, 15 cents per hour for the first six months, 17 cents for the second six months, and 20 cents for the third period of six months. Milling. — The same length of training and same wages as for vertical boring mill. Erecting. — The same length of training and same wages as for vertical boring mill. Vise Work. — The same length of training and same wages as for vertical boring mill. Scraping. — The same length of training and same wages as for vertical boring mill. Planing. — One and one-half year ; wages, 12 cents for the first six months, 14 cents for the second six months, and 16 cents for the third period of six months. Drilling. — One year; wages, 15 cents for the first four months, 17 cents for the second four months, and 20 cents for the third period of four months. Grinding. — The same length of training and same wages as for drilling. Digitized by Microsoft® 8 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS Turret Machine Work. — Same length of training and same wages as for drilling. Shops that have tried these special courses are highly enthusiastic over their success. As it is hardly practical to send the special apprentices to school during working hours, a night school giving short courses of instruction on prac- tical subjects should be established. Supervision of Apprentices. The development of charac- ter in both the regular and special apprentices is largely in the hands of the shop instructor who, of necessity, must be a man whose character is beyond reproach. It is first ne- cessary to gain the confidence of an apprentice, and then to try to correct any evil influences by bringing better ones to bear upon him and talking things over with him in a quiet way. While the moral development will make no difference in the immediate shop output, ten years from now it will bring results. The development of honesty and loyalty_in the future generation of mechanics is worth more in dollars and cents than most employers realize. Apprentice clubs are of great assistance in the development of character and are also of much help in an educational way. They may also easily be extended to assist in the physical develop- ment of the members. Wherever practicable such clubs should be formed. The work of organizing the courses of apprenticeship, selecting the lines of education, conducting the clubs and securing the instructors and teachers should come under the direct supervision of some official of a concern, but the details should not be undertaken by him unless he gives up his other duties ; this for the simple reason that he will not have the time to devote to these duties, and the matter is important enough to require the entire time of the best man obtainable. In the case of small shops, several could com- bine and place all of their apprentice problems in the hands of one man. Cost of Conducting Apprentice Schools. There are those who will say, "All this sounds very fine, but it costs too much money." Here is the crux of the whole matter; these Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 9 methods are not money wasters, but money earners. To quote again from Mr. Bullard : "Many large and successful concerns which have had apprenticeship systems in opera- tion for a period of years are unanimous in their statements that apprenticeship systems do pay. If properly instructed and intelligently directed, apprentices pay for themselves as producers during their term of service, as competent skilled journeymen when they have completed their course, and as industrially intelligent foremen and executives later on. The boys who leave at the termination of their appren- ticeship become staunch supporters of the shop where they were trained, always ready to say a good word for it." Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER II THE PRATT & WHITNEY CO.'S APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM The modern aspects of the apprenticeship system of the Pratt & Whitney Co., Hartford, Conn., were developed under the direction of B. M. W. Hanson, formerly vice- president and general manager of the company. In the de- velopment of this system, Mr. Hanson laid down four car- dinal conditions that are essential to the establishment of a successful undertaking of this kind, as follows : 1. The object of the apprenticeship system should be to produce machinists. 2. The working conditions in the factory must be such that the interests of the workmen' and the company are as nearly as possible interwoven. 3. The company will depend upon its apprenticeship system for the future leaders in its factory. 4. Mechanical skill is not the only requirement a good mechanic should have; a great deal of attention must be paid to his moral and physical characteristics as well. Great stress is laid upon the fact that the apprentice should realize that the calling of the machinist is an honor- able and respectable one. In referring to this point, Mr. Hanson may be quoted as follows: "I believe that it is the duty of the management of machine shops to make the machinists's trade an honorable one, and I do not see any reason why the professional mechanic should not have as good a standing as the professional doctor or lawyer. If a doctor or a lawyer gives advice to his patients or his cli- ents, and the latter do not obtain the result expected from the advice, they have to pay for it just the same; but whatever goods the mechanic delivers must be right, or he Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 11 cannot get his pay. If a machine establishment ships a machine that does not do the work for which it is intended, it has to refund the money and take back the machine. Hence, the mechanical man is expected to do whatever he does right, and, considering the fact that more is expected of him than of many other members of the community, why should his work not also be considered as important and as honorable?" In building up its modern apprenticeship system, the Pratt & Whitney Co. has entered upon its task with a some- what different spirit from that existing in the past. The fact has been recognized that it is as important to select the proper material for future mechanics as it is to test and select the material from which machinery is built. In a great many shops, a high-class purchasing agent is employed for buying the materials used in production, but almost anyone is supposed to be capable of hiring men and taking in boys for training. This principle is now recognized as erroneous, and great care is taken in selecting the proper kind of boys for training future mechanics. Supervision of the Apprenticeship System. In the old- time apprenticeship system, the boys were under the direct supervision of the foreman in whose department they were employed and were dependent upon him for all the instruc- tion they received. Some foremen were good instructors and had the ability to train good mechanics; others were poor instructors, and the results were discouraging. Under modern shop conditions, the foremen, whether they are good or poor instructors, have so many other duties relating to the productive efficiency of the shop that it would be impos- sible to expect them to instruct or supervise the apprentices to any extent. All that the foreman can be expected to do is to give the apprentice his work, briefly outline to him the method of procedure, and see that his productive capa- city and habits meet the requirements. In a large shop, also, there are so many departments, and the boys must be distributed under so many different foremen, that if the training were done entirely by the foremen there would be Digitized by Microsoft® 12 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS a great difference in the mechanical education of the boys trained in the same shop. Hence, all the apprentices at the Pratt & Whitney Co. — at times about 135 in number — are directly in the charge of a supervisor of apprentices who is responsible for the operation of the apprenticeship system just as the head of any manufacturing department is responsible for the results of production. The supervisor selects the boys, distributes them to the various foremen throughout the plant, changes them from time to time from one department to another, directs their class instruction, and, in general, acts as their counselor and friend. A special room is set aside and equipped for the use of the boys. This serves both as a class-room and as a lunch and reading room. The supervisor also has his headquar- ters here. The boys come in classes of about twenty at a time for certain periods each week during working hours to receive instruction and training supplementary to that obtained in the regular productive work of the shop. An effort is made during these class hours to give the boys a general understanding of the fundamental principles that underlie all mechanical industries, and to make them appre- ciate their own branch of work, as well as to give them tech- nical and specialized trade instruction. The details of the courses of study are given later on in this chapter. The class-room, as mentioned, also serves as a social center for the boys where they can gather to eat their lunch and to read and play games every noon. The super- visor makes it a point to be present at this hour; he eats his lunch with the boys, and finds in this way an excellent opportunity for gaining their confidence and friendship. This is one of the important features. Qualifications for Admission to Apprenticeship Course. Any boy over sixteen, normally developed, who has success, fully finished the regular grammar school course, is eligible to enter the apprenticeship course. Sufficient physical ma- turity is required, and if a regular grammar school educa- tion is lacking, the boy will not be accepted unless he can show evidence of some other qualifications that are espe- Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 13 cially desirable. An effort is made to obtain boys who have had some high-school education, and allowance is made in the length of the apprenticeship course of those who have completed a full high-school course and who can give a testi- monial as to scholarship. This allowance varies from six months to one year, depending upon the nature of the course pursued while in school. The regular apprentice- ship course is four years, but young men of twenty-one are given a three-year apprenticeship, as their age usually makes it possible for them to acquire an equivalent training in that time; they are, as a rule, more advanced both as regards intelligence and application to their work. In spite of the high requirements for admission, the com- pany has had no difficulty in maintaining the number of apprentices in their works between 130 and 140, which is considered a normal quota. There is also a constant waiting list of apprentices. It is of interest to note that the boys entering the. apprenticeship course are not drawn from the immediate locality only, but many come from distant states at the advice of friends or relatives. Selection of the Best Boys for Training. When a boy ap- plies for an apprenticeship, he is asked to fill out an appli- cation blank, giving, among otheu things, the name of his parent or guardian, his parent's or guardian's occupation, his own age, height, weight and nationality, together with the nationality of his parents. The form also includes ques- tions as to whether he uses tobacco or intoxicating liquors, and as to whether he is naturally of robust health. Ques- tions relating to education have then to be answered, and the reason given for seeking an apprenticeship, and also for selecting the Pratt & Whitney Co. as a place where to serve the apprenticeship. If the boy has had any previous business or mechanical experience, this is also noted on the application blank. When a boy inquires at the employment office concerning an apprenticeship, he is asked to fill out the application blank, and if he appears to be especially desirable, he is interviewed by the supervisor of appren- tices on his first visit. If not, his application is filed and he Digitized by Microsoft® 14 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS is told to call again at some later date. Asking for a second visit has proved an effective method of eliminating those boys who are not in earnest. When the boy finally has been accepted, he is assigned to a manufacturing department where he is required to serve a trial period of three months. The Trial Period. At the end of each month of the trial period, the foreman of the department to which the boy is assigned submits a written report of the boy's progress and general behavior. These reports are made on the special blanks shown in Fig. 1. Thus the supervisor is kept constantly informed as to the boy's ability and prog- 1 n&on. (3eort2e 1 Grade A 9U-IO0 B CD 80-00 70-80 60-70 ~E Below 60 nent .CZT- ~Eurrf}.Lf?.& Interc.t J FtfflUo.loUr Vmj , Locke taUr.-.ui . liH.-n-tfl , iDUKtt dU- Depart Application! In.lu'-lrl.,,,. w£& 1 SUad; J tab L«T ,■ Ap.lludr ). wW" Apt 1 UwiMj 6 U*m ■Btow : > li-li. .i ■''■ (. 1. hi r..ni-!.i.-i,i-,. I Confidence Conduct Accuracy Knowledge of work Initiative 1 — ~ \ < Of rim« : 1 i n itta«« \ vlZt Voiy Well, i TlDubl* Ife-tbH*! M»iA | MUD . l'«- AmiIm 1 A«nui InaccutaM OHhn I Rapbl GMti K] DM VetrflloJ ,,„. ! ,.!, Poor Poor ir>/s£ Vears Beean apprenticeship Jq/7. I ' /j J0- Inn HO. on 70-NO 60-70 Below 6C Shop Record School likjoori-l ri I- 1 1 g./l B ■ B C B C B O C C B A 3-1/ B C C B C B C C C C 3 ■f-/S 3BBBBBC8CBA I40H 5 (>SI 9-Z-S C0CBCBCCCC& /SbS 3S 1-/7 S-Z3 8ABAB43B88A /fjfrj 2 9-/8 /-/e //o s?t- r 8 /'-& /) 8 Ct 8 d ' - 8 /-I7 6*B- c<- a £ / - 8 4-17 A 8 8- C 8 - » a is, 5.30*' Fig 2 Record kept by Supervisor of Apprentices, covering All Reports made by Shop Foremen and Class-room Instructors of this record the statements given in the application blank are entered, so that the card constitutes a complete record for each boy. Shop Training. The shop training of the apprentices is obtained in the regular manufacturing departments of the company's plant. To insure an all-around experience, the Digitized by Microsoft® 16 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS boys are changed from one department to another as often as their progress warrants. The minimum stay in one de- partment is usually six months, and as the boy advances in his apprenticeship, his stay in each department is usually lengthened, as he is then better able to profit by a thorough training in any one specific line. The following outline indi- cates the way in which an apprenticeship may be distrib- uted throughout the plant : Six months, cast iron turning department ; six months, milling department ; six months, steel turning department; six months, assembling depart- Fig. 3. Gages and Tools — Commercial Products — made by Apprentices in the Third and Fourth Yearofthe Course ment; six months, grinding department; nine months, planing department; nine months, tool-room. Owing to a number of variable conditions and also to the variation in the ability of the apprentices, no definite schedule is laid out, but the one given represents an average case. In the shop the boys are directly responsible to the fore- man of the department, who usually assigns them to a sub- foreman or gang boss, who, in turn, selects their work and gives them the necessary instructions. As mentioned, writ- ten reports are given to the supervisor as to the boys' prog- ress and general behavior, and the supervisor seeks by Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 17 frequent visits to the boys, while at their work to keep closely in touch with them. An effort is made to impress the boys with the fact that their progress depends on their effort, and that the grade of work they receive is according to the ability they have shown. Thus, while no boy is accepted as a toolmaker apprentice, every boy is given the promise that if he shows the necessary skill and aptitude he will be given tool-room work before the termination of Fig. 4. A Lesson in Shop Practice in the Class-room his apprenticeship. An example of the work done by tool- room apprentices is shown in Fig. 3. At present a special department is equipped in the company's plant for the manufacture of miscellaneous machine parts, such as vises, turret tools, oil pumps, etc. While operating on a strictly manufacturing basis, most of the work in this department is done by apprentices who begin their training here and are later transferred to the other departments as their skill warrants. Here the boys are under more direct supervi- Digitized by Microsoft® 18 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS sion than in the regular manufacturing departments. When a boy in some other department fails to make the progress expected of him, he is brought back into this department where he can be given the special ^assistance he requires. Class-room Instruction. To supplement the shop work, the apprentices are given class-room instruction four hours each week. A view in the class-room is shown in Fig. 4. In order to interfere as little as possible with their work in the manufacturing departments, these four hours are included in one session, the hours for the different classes being from 8 to 12, or from 1 to 5. The classes consist of from eighteen to twenty boys each. The course of study is divided into four main headings, mathematics, drawing, science and theory of shop practice, the object being to impart as much of an understanding of the principles that underlie all shop work as is possible in the time devoted to this study. In addition to these subjects, a brief course is given in industrial history, commercial geography and civics. . Extent of Course. Considerable time is spent in a re- view of arithmetic. The boys are also taught how to use formulas given in handbooks, and to solve simple shop prob- lems involving elementary geometry and the trigonometry of the right-angled triangle. The problems are selected from the regular shop work, which arouses great interest, as the boy can see the direct application of his mathemat- ical studies to his work. In drawing, the main object is to teach the boys to read blueprints and make simple sketches. During the first year, the boys begin by making simple plates of letters. These are started in the class-room and finished at home, being brought back for inspection and correction. It has been found that the plates of lettering are of great value in teaching the boys to observe correctly and work neatly. The remainder of the first year is devoted to making work- ing drawings of simple machine parts. As a model, the boy is given an isometric projection of the part (see Fig. 5) rather than the piece itself. It has been found that this Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 19 method makes greater demands upon his powers to visualize the piece and select the proper views to present the object. The illustration shown in Fig. 5 is not a picture of the drawing the boy is to make, but simply a picture of the piece in isometric projection from which he is expected to make a regular mechanical drawing showing two or more views, according to the number that are required to present and dimension the piece properly. If a boy seems to have difficulty in visualizing the piece from the isometric draw- ing, a projection screen and a model of the piece itself are ^^ ] ^\~\. \> , .^i \. "V*" jK i \. ^»\ t \~\ Y'^\ ^0>" 1 F £ i s^t ^\^^-~ t y*^s^*$ s^y s^~ i*V iv> 4 * \ *=tf 1 ^"N. 1 y^ DETAILS ^' TOOLPOST REST **<&£-* ^» \ ^ APPRENTICESHIP COURSE. *v. PRATT & WHITNEY CO., HARTFORD, CONN. "\ l\ |30\ SCALE g"=i2" Data Uraipn by Approved Machinery Fig. 5. Example of Isometric Projection View from which Boys work substituted in order to show him clearly how the piece will look in ordinary orthographic projection. During the later years of the apprentice course, most of the drawing work consists of sketching simple tools and machines, and mak- ing finished drawings from them. Throughout the course the standards, rules and drafting-room practice employed 1 in the company's drafting-room are adhered to. The course in science is devoted, during the first year, to the study of the first principles of mechanics and their appli- cation in simple machines. In the second year the elemen- tary principles of heat, light, sound and electricity are Digitized by Microsoft® 20 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS covered. Such subjects as light and sound are dismissed with one or two brief lectures each. The subject of heat, however, is given more consideration, as there is an oppor- tunity in this case to point out the effect, of heat in connec- tion with shrink fits, hot bearings, and- other shop applica- tions. In electricity, special attention is given to different types of motors, their characteristics and advantages, mag- netic chucks and other electrical shop tools. In the third year a brief outline of chemistry is given, followed by a study of the various metals used in the machine shop, and the second half of the third year is devoted to the study of personal hygiene and public sanitation. / Theory of Shop Practice. In the theory of shop prac- tice, explanation of the construction and operation of the various machine tools is given in more detail than would be possible during the regular working hours in the shop. During the first year the lathe serves as the basis of study. Beginning with the preparation of the stock, the boys are taught how to locate and form the centers ; how to hold the work in the lathe ; how to grind and set the tool ; and how to select the proper speeds and feeds. Straight and taper turning, chuck and faceplate work, boring, thread cutting and special forms of turning are then treated in their regular order. Most of this instruction is given in the class-room and illustrated by sketches on the blackboard, but when desirable the class is taken to some machine de- partment and the actual operations are observed and ex- plained. During the second year, a similar study is made of drilling machines, shapers, planers and milling machines, and in the third year grinding machines, small tools, hand tools and operations such as scraping and fitting are studied. During "the fourth year a general review is made of all shop work, and the more difficult problems met with in tool-room work are introduced. At various times special attention is also given to such machines of the company's manufacture as the thread milling machine, the automatic milling machine, the vertical shaper, the spline milling machine, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 21 Instruction in General Subjects. During the last year of the apprentice course a deviation is made from the purely mechanical instruction of the first three years, and a series of lectures covering industrial history, commercial geog- raphy and civics is introduced. These subjects are intended to broaden the boy's conception both of his work and his relation to the community of which he is a part. In the industrial history course he is told of the development of the machine industry, the problems that confronted early mechanics, and, finally, the part played by the company Fig. 6. Apprentices taking a Lesson in Drawing — The Course is intended to teach the Reading of Working Drawings with which he is serving his apprenticeship in the indus- trial history of his country and the world. In commercial geography, he is given an understanding of the sources of raw materials and the markets of the world for finished products, and is given an idea of the problems that have to be solved in obtaining and transporting materials and prod- ucts from one part of the world to another. In civics, a brief outline is given of the nation's develop- ment. The principles of the structure of government — espe- cially of municipalities and state government — are ex- plained. Special stress is laid upon the dependence of a Digitized by Microsoft® 22 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS democracy upon the high standing of each individual's civic spirit. Instructors. The instruction in general subjects, mathe- matics, science, etc., is given by the supervisor, but a large part of the instruction in the theory of shop practice is given by shop men who have been selected because of their personal skill and ability to impart the knowledge of their particular work to others. This idea of enlisting among the corps of instructors a number of shop men, especially A CRANE HOOK If O )] '■:- GEAR 10 P. 30 TEETH. 33 OUTSIDE Dl* LING CUTTER INSTRUCTION SHEET METHODS OF SECTIONING. APPRENTICESHIP COURSE. TT A WHITHEY CO , RARTFOfiO, CONN. Machinery Fig. 7. Sample of Instruction Sheet used in Mechanical Drawing Course sub-foremen, gang bosses, etc., tends to enlarge the circle of men who are personally interested in the welfare of the boys, and this, in turn, is of assistance to the boys in their shop training. This method of instructing the boys in shop practice creates a connecting link between the shop and class-room instruction, and is one of the most valuable features of the apprenticeship course. Division of Time for Different Studies. The four hours devoted to class-room studies weekly are divided among the different subjects as follows: Mathematics, one hour; drawing, one and one-half hour; theory of shop practice, Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 23 one hour, and science, one-half hour. This time schedule is not rigidly adhered to. Whenever special conditions come up, making it desirable to devote either more or less time to any one subject, the supervisor uses his judgment in this respect. The time division given above, however, indicates ■' (.£>*# v ' tec; ■/:,.-/ ,-.' ,-^.v r; <- -;,.., &tf. .'■■'■/:< ■ '■ <'>>$ /■'- err A a ;■ r - ir-i // ,:,?,,,„'? i**1 C A^,- Uty\ ufaA%*u -■■■-■''■, /•■ -■ ' ■-'/>-• ,-, *4 , .-/. ./i-V.--/ pry.- ,- ,/ fy\!£i£ /^rls/i n /,Y;wtf / a , / ' ■ ■ / : : . t /■' .' / '//-■'■ >.//'/. 'i.r/-i :< ?S- &4 H4V&A ■/>.- '■> ■ V ; ./ .-. '/■-"■■■•. ,■ : ■■/ . - ' .-%,- , ■-?■.',.• /-,■/ «i ''' ■■ 9 ■■' , ///.r;^/'^ •'/.•■ ■ ■ //';.- ■ ;■'''/■,■ M - ■ ■ ■'..'/ v.; ■«/'■■■'' ' '///.'. / -'■-' ''^'/.- 't r i-.,,,6 . .■■'• r />:V ' ,'./,.-■ ■/■ /.-.- .:/r/: /■■/■<:*>' . f t ', ',;,,-," //.VYV ■■ ' s i tt *j :c /.* <">(■> ' T' ' **f. " -tti'. "■-': ^■.-r/ ■ tt .^ i.'y f% .■■■■■■ J : r r^ -/ . . . ,■■' .:'..' . -t /; ,, ■■ .■ ■ ■'■•..- , ■ 4 • /■ ! #/) • ' '' ■ /I ' Fig. 8. Sheet from Note-book kept by an Apprentice approximately the length of time that has been found neces- sary to obtain the desired results. Method of Instruction. No regular text-books are used for any of the courses. Instruction sheets have been pre- pared for certain subjects, especially for mechanical draw- Digitized by Microsoft® 24 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS ing (see Fig. 7), but the main part of all instruction is given by means of lectures with the assistance of the black- board. In order to make sure that the boys get full benefit from this instruction, and in order to provide them with a Pi.M£rss Arr/iz»/7£-yVT roe Fijw/MG A Convex St/er/ics, - farrJ'Cwfe/fpj-i'srfpfwfiYY fop/us. J "S mimimimhSiMmmiiiimmiimmiuii Fig. 9. Another Sheet from Apprentice's Note-book on Shop Practice permanent record of their work, they are required to keep a note-book which covers all their school work and which is submitted from time to time to the supervisor for criti- cism and inspection. In order to give added incentive for thoroughness, care and accuracy, a prize is awarded each Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 25 year for the best note-books. The work on these books is done at home in the boys' own time. Some of the boys take great interest in this work and their note-books really be- come handbooks of shop practice, showing considerable abil- ity. Sample sheets from one boy's .note-book are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Compensation. The boys are taught to look upon their apprenticeship as a period of training and are made to Fig. 10. Apprentices in their Third and Fourth Year engaged in Toolmaking at the Pratt & Whitney Plant understand that the apprenticeship course is a school in which their interest must be centered upon what they learn and not upon what they earn. Nevertheless, it must be recognized by anyone who would institute a successful ap- prenticeship system that the rates paid must be sufficiently high to make the boys self-supporting from the start ; other- wise the system would be doomed to failure, as most of the boys could not afford to take a four-year course of this kind unless they could pay their way. There are four classes of apprenticeships at the present time instituted by the Pratt & Whitney Co.: A machinist, patternmaker, molder, and Digitized by Microsoft® 26 MODERN APPRENTICESHIP coremaker apprenticeship, with slightly varying rates of compensation. The machinist apprenticeships are of four and three years duration, respectively. The patternmaker apprenticeship comprises four years. The molder appren- ticeship comprises three years. The coremaker apprentice- ship comprises three years. In each case, a bonus of $100 is paid to the apprentice upon the successful completion of his apprenticeship. Molder apprentices are paid a higher rate than the other classes. The reason for the materially _ agB JBkT I^IH ■siBfiH L fiil WwWmm AfACMIKII'Y Fig. 11. Boys in their Third and Fourth Year employed in Gage Making higher rates of molder apprentices is that, as a rule, these apprentices must be older or stronger than those for the other course, on account of the nature of the work; also, the work is less agreeable, and a special inducement is given in the form of higher wages during the apprenticeship years. The boys often earn much higher wages than those indi- cated by their hourly rates, as they are enabled to increase their earnings both by working overtime and by means of piecework. It is also possible for every boy to obtain a Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 27 higher rate if his record is exceptionally good. Every boy that averages a certain mark for one year both in the shop and the class-room work is given an increase in his hourly rate as long as he maintains this mark. If his rating is still higher, he is given a still greater increase under the same conditions. The boy thus recognizes early in his apprentice- ship that his earning power is dependent upon his own efforts and skill. Activities Outside of Working Hours. In order to add an interest and to maintain a feeling of fellowship outside of the working hours, athletics have been introduced as a feat- ure of the apprenticeship system. Teams have been organ- ized and games are played, schools being chQsen as oppo- ents as far as possible. Places on the teams are dependent on shop and class-room records. There are no "athletic scholarships," and any boy that seeks recognition in these ( athletic activities recognizes that he can gain it only by meeting the requirements of the shop and class-room. All this tends to create a spirit of interest, good fellowship and loyalty, the shop being looked upon not merely as a place to work, but also as a school in which the young man is fitting himself for his life work. It is freely admitted that the object of the apprenticeship system is to train skilled mechanics for the Pratt & Whit- ney Co., and every effort is made to induce the boys to stay with the company upon the completion of their apprentice- ship. Most of them, in fact, do stay, and the foremen of the different departments are instructed to pay the graduated apprentice the market rate of wages commensurate with his proved ability. To determine his ability the supervisor and foreman consult together, and in this way it has been pos- sible to pay wages attractive enough to hold a large number of the boys whom the company has trained. Many of those who leave to go elsewhere for new experience return after a short time to work for the company where they obtained their training. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER III THE R. K. LE BLOND MACHINE TOOL CO.'S APPRENTICE SYSTEM The R. K. LeBlond Machine Tool Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, has developed an apprentice system which combines the best features of the old-time apprenticeship with the best features of the modern trade school. It is recognized that the old-fashioned apprenticeship' where the boy was merely taken into a shop and passed from foreman to fore- man, picking up what training he could according to the ability and inclination of the foreman of each department to impart knowledge to him, no longer meets either the requirements of the industries or of the boy himself. The young men of today are not satisfied to apprentice them- selves if they are not assured of a better training than can be obtained in this manner; and the American industries of the future require men better trained than would be possible if this old system of apprenticeship were used. Under the system employed by the LeBlond Company, the boys not only receive theoretical instruction in an actual school, but they also receive their preliminary shop instruc- tion in a special training shop conducted for this purpose alone. They are not placed in the actual shop departments until they have received enough preliminary training in the operations of the machines to insure their being able to handle the work without too much personal instruction from the foreman. Hence, a boy entering this apprenticeship system receives his education and training in three separate departments: The school-room, where he is given instruc- tion in mathematics and drawing, so that he may be able to perform any ordinary shop calculations and read blueprints readily; the training shop, where he is given preliminary Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 29 training in the use of all standard machine tools; and the factory, where he serves the major part of his apprentice- ship and becomes thoroughly familiar with modern manu- facturing methods. Selecting Boys for Apprenticeship, One of the features characterizing this apprentice school is the care taken to select the right kind of boys for training. Cincinnati being pre-eminently a machine manufacturing city, it is perhaps easier to interest a sufficient number of boys in becoming skilled mechanics than would be the case in other cities. At any rate, there is a sufficient supply of bright, intelligent, well-educated boys to make it possible to select carefully those best fitted for the apprenticeship course. Preference is given to boys having a high-school or equivalent educa- tion, although grammar school graduates with a good school record are also accepted. The course is four years for grammar school graduates and for those who have not com. pleted a high-school course. High-school graduates from accredited high schools serve an apprenticeship of three years only, while graduates of recognized technical schools serve two years only. This treatise deals with the appren- ticeship course only so far as it relates to high-school and grammar-school graduates. The boys must be between sixteen and twenty years of age when beginning the course. Application for Apprenticeship Course, Interviews, and Ex- aminations. The boys make application to enter the ap- prentice course to the regular employment manager, who interviews them and obtains as much information as possi- ble relating to the boy by questioning him and by observa- tion. The care exercised in selecting boys for the course is not limited to matters of education, but relates to many other conditions that have an influence upon the boy's fit- ness for the calling he has chosen. The application blank contains the usual information, giving the boy's name, date of interview, age, address, his father's name and occupation and where employed, the boy's previous education, and where and how long he ha3 been at work, if previously em- ployed elsewhere. It has been found of considerable import- Digitized by Microsoft® 30 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS ance to investigate the father's occupation and the general home conditions, as these have a considerable effect upon the boy's success. Generally speaking, the boys whose fathers are themselves engaged in mechanical pursuits are better satisfied and accomplish more than those who come from families in other walks of life. An opinion of the boy's fitness for the work is also formed by observation, taking into account his general Fig. 1. Training Shop for Apprentices at the Tool Co.'s Plant R. K. LeBlond Machine knowledge of things and his judgment. This is done by bringing up subjects in a conversational way about which the boy might be expected to be informed or upon which he could have formed a judgment. If he shows intelligence and ability of independent thought, it counts in his favor. The employment manager also tries to obtain some ideas as to his mental attitude in general and his opinion about the class of work that he will be doing in the shop. On each of the points brought up he marks him with a certain per- Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 31 centage. By adding these percentages together, a general grading of the boy is obtained, which gives quite an accurate estimate of his qualifications. The interview with the employment manager does not by itself determine the boy's eligibility for the course. He is next sent to the classroom instructor, who examines him in mathematics and who also, if deemed necessary, obtains his Fig. 2. A Class of Apprentices in the LeBlond Plant school record and rating, thereby checking up the boy's statements. The instructor visits his home. After the boy has been approved by both the employment manager and the classroom instructor, he is admitted to the course, but is first accepted for a three months' probation period only, the same as in most apprenticeship courses. The Training Shop for Apprentices. When reporting for work, the boy is first placed in the training shop, which is a separate department in charge of an instructor and an Digitized by Microsoft® 32 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS assistant instructor. The first week in the training shop is devoted chiefly to teaching the use of measuring instru- ments, scales, micrometers, verniers, etc. The boy is also taught the names and purposes of the more common tools used in the shop, such as dogs, mandrels, reamers, drills, taps, milling cutters, standard gages, etc. Having obtained a general idea about these matters, he is given some simple machine work. It has been found that different boys show considerable difference in aptitude in the operation of dif- ferent machine tools, and that some boys will do much better if they are started, say, on a milling machine, while others will do better on a' lathe. By trial, the type of ma- chine tool that the boy likes the best is determined, and he is given his first training on this type of machine. He will remain at this machine for the rest of his stay in the school shop, which varies from two to six weeks, according to the ability of the boy. From the school shop he will then be transferred to that department in the shop for which he has been trained in the school shop. For instance, if he has received training on a milling machine, he will be trans- ferred to the milling department in the shop. A' record of the boy's performance is kept on a blank as shown in Fig. 3. When he has finished his training period in the milling department, he will come back to the school shop and will then receive his preliminary training on the next type of machine, after which he will be transferred to the depart- ment in the shop where that type of machine is used. The special training in the school shop for subsequent depart- ments lasts usually only about one week, but at the time of each transfer from department to department the boy al- ways comes back to the training shop for preliminary train- ing before he is sent to work in the next manufacturing de- partment. Equipment of the Training Shop. The training shop is completely equipped with standard machine tools including three LeBlond engine lathes, one LeBlond chucking lathe, one upright Cincinnati-Bickford drilling machine, one Kern sensitive drilling machine, one LeBlond universal milling Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 33 Name 7f/>(f S 2 6 f ?~e 7/e L£f No. /^^9 Started 7Vovem Z-e* 3-/9/9 Apprentice (%) /^t/ft 2/&q f Student Specialist Experience- /.'/z ■year' aC "So JJ ?1^?j/?}'7fi> 7/*a/i//TZ £o. Jferiro otf &/3/0 Course of Instruction Z7r'/S T^ess 2s /se ?To*-A 7*16*1 e r> Remarks: "&&/"& t^a/ia '7'-r**Sf/e/-ee/ Z?o TV^e.*- tfajif: S^ /£>; /Z/'^£>J.?>rJ:$$M^- - Dept No..—/-a _ -/"/-.SPEED: The rate at which he works, as compared to speed expected. -S-- WORKMANSHIP: The grade of finished work, as compared to standard practice. _/?-- ATTITUDE: Personal interest shown in his work, and his conduct in your department; 3%. , KNOWLEDGE: The Amount of general information he has, in line with his work. A=Very Good. B=Average. C=^Jnsatisfactory. In what does this man excel ? . -__» In what is he deficient ? TM*..G/9/3LQ_ NOTE— Send this Report to Superintendent's Office. Fig. 4. Written Report on Progress of Apprentice given by the Foreman of Each Department to the Superintendent of the Company Digitized by Microsoft® 34 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS machine, one Brown & Sharpe cylindrical grinder, one Brown & Sharpe gear-cutter, one Gray planer, one Atlas arbor press, five vises, together with the necessary equip- ment and accessories, chucks, arbors, cutters, tools, etc. The school shop accommodates twenty apprentices at a time, and is engaged on both production and tool-room work, thereby giving the boys an accurate idea of the work in the shop departments before they are transferred to the shop. Shop Training for Apprentices. The shop work is di- vided approximately as follows: One year in the lathe de- partment, six months each in the drilling department, the milling department, the planer department, and the grind- ing department, gear-cutting department, or tool-room; and one year in one of the assembling departments, making four years in all. At the end of the trial period, when the apprentice agree, ment is signed, the boy is provided free of charge with a tool chest and such tools as are necessary for him in his work. The title to the tool chest and the tools remains with the LeBlpnd Machine Tool Co. until the apprentice has completed his apprenticeship, when the tools are presented to him together with a bonus of $100 arid a diploma. The set of tools provided for the boys entering on their appren- ticeship, is as follows : One No. 1 ball peen hammer, one 7- inch screwdriver, one 4-inch screwdriver, one pair of 6-inch hermaphrodite calipers, one pair of 6-inch inside calipers, one pair of 10-inch outside calipers, one pair of 4-inch out- side calipers, one pair of 4-inch spring dividers, one 12-inch combination square, one oenter-punch, one 3/16-inch pin punch, one 5/32-inch pin punch, one Vs-inch pin punch, one 6-inch scale, one center gage, one 2-foot rule, one thickness gage, one surface gage, one India oilstone, one cold chisel, one gouge, and one tool chest. The value of the tools supplied to the apprentice exceeds $50. The boy signs for these tools and is required to be able to account for them at any time during his apprenticeship period. Other tools are added from time to time during the apprenticeship as they Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 35 become necessary in the apprentice's work. In that man- ner, at the end of the four years, the boy will have tools worth about $100 provided by the firm, which become his property upon the completion of the apprenticeship period. Compensation Paid Apprentices. The subject of com- pensation for apprentices is one of great importance. Many manufacturers have stated that it is difficult to obtain ap- prentices because boys can enter shops with a view to learning to operate one type of machine tools and earn so much more than ordinary apprenticeship wages, that it is difficult to induce young men to enter upon a four-year ap- prenticeship. The R. K. LeBlond Machine Tool Co. has found no difficulty in this respect. In the first place, the course is so planned that it is truly educational, and the boy views it in the same light as he would a technical edu- cation. In addition, he is paid a living wage, which is necessary if the best class of boys is to be attracted under present labor market conditions. Apprentices' wages may have to vary according to locality or conditions, but they must be attractive enough to obtain a good class of appren- tices. The Class-room Training. At the present time there are about 150 apprentices in the LeBlond plant. These are divided into classes of from sixteen to twenty boys to a class. Each class is given classroom instruction twice a week during the regular working hours, for a period of one and one-half hours each time. One of these periods is de- voted to mathematical instruction and the other period to drawing. No effort is made to teach mechanical drawing in the ordinary sense, but the boys are taught to make free- hand sketches, following the rules laid down for mechanical drawing, and are thereby enabled to acquire a rapid and accurate knowledge in the reading of blueprints. The boys are also encouraged to attend night classes in mechanical subjects. Some of the apprentices are diverted from the shop into the drafting-room after they have served at least two full years in the shop. The boys selected for the draft- ing-room training are those who show the greatest pro- Digitized by Microsoft® 36 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS ficiency in the subjects of importance to a machine designer and draftsman. Mathematical and inventive ability, and a general inclination for mechanical drawing, are the main considerations in this connection. In the same manner, those who show the highest degree of mechanical skill are diverted into the tool-room at the end of two years in the general production departments and re- ceive in the last two years a thorough training upon tool- room work. Patternmakers are trained in the same way. They are- given two years' machine shop work, after which the last two years of their apprenticeship are spent in the pattern shop, which has proved ample. Courses in Mathematics. The classroom course in ma- thematics includes a review of grammar school mathema- tics, followed by mensuration, shop problems, cutting speeds, elements of algebra and geometry, trigonometry, logarithms, and the elements of strength of materials, gear- ing, etc. A series of twenty-five lessons or unit instruction books has been prepared, each one covering one subject. These instruction sheets contain brief rules and problems to be solved. One week, the mathematical classroom work is devoted to the solution of these problems by each boy working by himself, and alternate weeks the work is carried on along the lines of regular classroom work, with the whole class instructed as a unit. Examinations. To insure that the boy is obtaining the full benefit of his shop experience, he is given a series of thirty to forty questions relating to shop work at the time when he enters a new department. These questions he answers in writing and must turn in the replies at the time when he is to be transferred to another department. He is required to do most of this work at home, as well as the work required in the solution of the problems on the unit study sheets. As he completes each unit, he is given a test in school to insure that he has thoroughly grasped the sub- ject, and has not obtained merely a superficial knowledge. The Apprentice School Library. An important feature in connection with the apprentice school is the library system Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 37 which has been inaugurated. The company maintains a well-supplied mechanical library, with books indexed and taken care of on the regular public library plan. The boys are permitted to borrow books for home study, and note is taken of the interest that the boys show in this respect. The instructor advises the boys as to the best information obtainable on any one subject, referring them to the book or section of a book that will give them the information they are seeking. Naturally, when a boy is working in the lathe department, he will be encouraged to study books on lathe ADDRESS: * ^?3dy£jc^jji^. Give., C*«.'&, t0JU Neatness of person ■ Cheerfulness Enthusiasm • Courtesy | Health u a <6 M y Ambition thrift j | Honesty 1j Li. Drink Gambling Immoral acts c o •43 s 3 Common sense Leadership Application Tact Home 1 raining 1 •fi < Toward his superiors Toward his associates Toward his instructors | Toward his work Mechanical aptitude Remarks : Signed Date 191 Fig. 2. Form for obtaining Information about Applicant by Mail office to be considered for employment on some work for which he may be fitted. Of course, there may be instances when an apprentice is dismissed at this time, if he is found unsuitable for any work in the plant. A blank such as shown in Fig. 2 is sent out in cases where inquiry regarding applicants is made by mail. These are generally sent to school principals, business men, former employers, and others whose names the applicant may fur- Digitized by Microsoft® 62 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS nish as references. The persons to whom these blanks are sent are asked to check the applicant in regard to the char- acteristics with which he is familiar. When these are re- turned, they are placed on file with the individual's applica- tion, for use in selection when the applicant lives at a dis- tance and a personal interview is not possible. Reports Showing Progress of Apprentice. The foremen in the various sections employing apprentices, including the section specifically devoted to apprentice training, report to r. APPRENTICE RECORD WCSTINQHOUSB ELKCTRIQ * M ANU? ACTUfll N O COMPANY Name Section Machine Tool or .Work Spaed, The irate at which he works as compared with the speed expected. Workmanship. The grade of the finished work as compared to standard practice. Altitude. Personal interest shown in his work and his conduct toward superiors and fellow-workmen [ Knowledge. The amount of general information he has. in line with his work. A i" Very Good _ B g A v erage . - C = Unsatis fac tory in what does this man excel? what is he deficient? Signed Note— Send to fT-dticfttional Department Fig. 3. Record of Apprentices made out by Foremen the Trades Apprentice Committee on blanks prepared for the purpose. The characteristics considered in these reports are speed, workmanship, attitude, and knowledge; and the various degrees of proficiency ax'e indicated by A (Very Good),B (Average), and C (Unsatisfactory). The form on which the apprentice's shop standing is recorded is indicated in Fig. 3. Class-room instructors also report to the committee the progress of the apprentice in shop problems and in mechan- ical drawing. They report their judgment of the apprentice in regard to a number of characteristics concerning which Digitized by Microsoft® MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS 63 it is considered desirable to have information. The form on which this report is made and the characteristics on which the apprentice is graded are shown in Fig. 4. Such qualities as speed, neatness, accuracy, etc., are indicated by numbers 1 to 5 inclusive while the records of examina- tions, class work, home work, etc., are given in percentages. The information thus obtained is combined in a complete apprentice record which is kept in the educational depart- ment and from which the committee determines, in the first APPRENTICE SCHOOL— TERM REPORT Name Term No. . SSSSS Machinist Tool Maker Patten Maker Fouhdryman Electrician ■\ 1. — Excellent — 2. Good— 3. Medium— 4. Poor— 5, Failure — Passing Grade 70% Times Late Mid. Term Examination-: *. Times Absent Final Examination Speed Class Work Neatness Home Work Accuracy Term Average Memory General Remarks: Reasoning Power Observation Effort Attitude Deportment Sign erf Dntc r Fig. 4. Apprentice Class-room Record place, the rating, as indicated in Fig. 1, during the first three months, in order to determine whether or not the regular apprentice contract should be signed, and later, the rating or marking for the apprentice during his course which may entitle him to certain special advancement. Use Made of Records Obtained. The committee meets once a week and at each meeting the records of all appren- tices who have finished eleven months of the apprentice year are brought to the attention of the members. The com- mittee examines the records and grades the apprentices into four classes— A, B, C, and D. If an apprentice is placed Digitized by Microsoft® 64 MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS in Class A, one month is taken from his apprentice course, or in other words, he is permitted to begin immediately on his next year. If an apprentice should be graded as a class A man at the end of each eleven months during the four- year apprenticeship, he would save one month each year and would finish his apprentice course four months ahead of schedule. If he finishes his course as a Class A man he will be accorded a higher rate as journeyman than he would if he finishes as a Class B or Class C man. At the present time, the rate per hour for Class A men is 3 cents higher than the rate for Class B men, and the rate for Class C men, 3 cents lower than the rate for Class B men. If the apprentice is placed in Class B, he will be required to serve his normal time. This class includes the majority of the apprentices. If he is placed in Class C, he is notified that he must show an improvement, and if he should be so defi- cient that he is placed in Class D, he is either discharged or sent to the employment department for suitable work. The system also includes a class attendance record which is kept by the instructor and on which is marked absence and lateness at each lesson. A record is also kept in the class-room of the accuracy with which the apprentice solves his shop problems, so that everything that has bearing upon his work, ability, and personality is properly recorded, and nothing is left to snap judgment. In this way it has proved possible to grade apprentices accurately, and to promote and to give to each a just reward for his efforts. Compared with the more or less haphazard methods in apprentice instruction that have been employed in the past, the system offers such a great improvement that it is well worth studying. It will undoubtedly be of value to other manufacturers who conduct apprentice courses, and may be applied either wholly or in part, according to the requirements in each individual plant. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER VII THE NORTON CO.'S TRAINING SHOP In a series of articles in Machinery, Mr. John C. Spence, Superintendent of the Grinding Machine Division of the Norton Co., Worcester, Mass., has described in detail the methods used by the Norton Co., in training men for shop work. He points out how everybody talks about the neces- sity for increased production, but says that few definite proposals have been made whereby production can actually be increased. It seems to be the opinion of most of those people who advocate increased production that the increase should come merely by the worker doing more of his own accord, and little attention has been given to the duties and responsibilities of the management of an industrial plant in aiding the worker to produce more. In this chapter some of the principles tha,t must be observed in making it possible for the worker to produce more, are pointed out. Hiring Men from Other Plants versus Training Them Yourself. One of the practices in the management of in- dustrial plants that has done much to decrease production, when the whole industry is considered as a unit, is the prac- tice of hiring workers away from other plants instead of obtaining untrained men and giving them the required training for the work to be done. Whenever a skilled worker is hired from another shop, there is merely a trans- fer from one shop to another, which does not in the least help the labor situation as a whole. The neighboring shop which .loses its skilled men in this way is forced to adopt the same plan, and as likely as not will hire other workers back again from the first plant, so that there is merely an exchange of labor. Meanwhile, by these practices some of the workers who otherwise would have learned to stick to a Digitized by Microsoft® 66 TRAINING SHOPS worthwhile job have become rovers, because they find it easy to jump from job to job. This condition is a bad one for the men themselves as well as for the industry. The only remedy is that of training unskilled help to perform whatever class of work is required. Those who have learned the fallacy of hiring men from their neigh- bors, and who years ago adopted a plan of training their own help, know that intelligent, although inexperienced, men under proper conditions of training soon become better producers than the average men available in busy times,, who claim that they have had previous experience in other shops. To provide for proper training it is necessary to have good teachers. Few people are good teachers. Out of twenty foremen it is seldom that more than one would be a really good instructor. This means that in nineteen de- partments beginners placed there would not get the right opportunity to become big earners quickly both for them- selves and for the company. It is, therefore, necessary to have a training department where all beginners pass through the initial training that one or more good teachers can give. This will insure uniform results. To provide such a department, it does not mean that it is necessary to purchase a great deal of new machinery and to incur great expense. As will be explained later, the expense is nominal and will soon be more than balanced by the results obtained. Scope and Advantages of the Training Departments. A training department need not necessarily be confined to the instruction of inexperienced people. In busy times this, of course, would be its main*object, but the true measure of the value of a training department is its work during a period of years representing a fair average of conditions. Almost any manager, superintendent or foreman will ad- mit that there is an advantage in setting up a training de- partment when that scheme offers the only available means of obtaining more help; but, naturally, he wants to know what to do with the training department when the rush is over and help is more plentiful. Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 67 In order to answer this question, take into consideration the fact that in most plants there are several grades of work, some, comparatively simple and others more involved. Now the machines doing the more simple work can be grouped together and to these machines are routed the same class of work that they have been doing in the past, but they are used in a department by themselves as a starting point for beginners, who are then graduated from this job to some- thing more complicated in the main shop. A training de- partment properly conducted should be run as a production department from the outset, because there are several dis- tinct advantages to be gained thereby : First, it avoids the scare which the apprentice frequently undergoes when he is shifted from the training department to a "real job"; and secondly, men already employed in the shop, who are willing workers but whose efficiency falls somewhat short of the desired degree, may be placed in the training depart- ment for a brief period until they have obtained suitable proficiency in their work. While in the training depart- ment, they will still be employed on productive work, and there is no need of , considering their time lost or their work "unproductive." The main reasons for low production rates are (1) lack of tools or materials; (2) physical inability to do justice to the job; (3) lack of training; (4) lack of full informa- tion, even though the worker is trained; and (5) willful restriction on the part of the worker. Lack of Tools or Materials. It is unnecessary to point out that the management alone can be responsible for lack of tools or materials ; yet production is restricted in many instances because the important duties of the management in this connection are neglected. Tools and materials are not ready for the worker when he is ready to start on a new job. In too many places the decision as to what constitutes an economic supply of material to work upon and proper means for doing the work is made by someone who is a good bookkeeper but who does not understand the produc- tive processes in the shop and who does not know that men Digitized by Microsoft® 68 TRAINING SHOPS will work faster when there is plenty of work in sight and when the methods are such as require the least amount of physical exertion. This, subject has been dealt with exten- sively in the past, and gradually employers are beginning to see the necessity for more systematic means for providing the workers with the proper tools and materials for keeping production going. Physical Incapacity for the Job. There are many in- stances where the worker is physically unable to do justice to the job that has been given to him. Every industry should subject the workers to a physical examination before they are put to work, in order to determine whether their health and strength are suited to the work they are ex- pected to do. Such a physical examination, followed by proper medical attention after the employe has gone to work, has two advantages: It will prevent a man who is physically unable to do ' a certain class of work from being engaged upon it ; and it will reduce the lost time due to sickness and injury. This has been proved in many shops where the practice of subjecting employes to a phy- sical examination and of maintaining a shop hospital has been followed. On this subject also a great deal has been written in the past, and details are available for those who wish to study the subject further. Lack of Proper Training. The most important factor of all is the lack of proper training, and it is with this factor that this chapter mainly deals. Quantity production and interchangeable manufacture have changed the conditions of production. Operators, rather than skilled mechanics are employed on the general manufacturing work. In the interchangeable manufacturing industries men are hired to "run" machines. They need not be skilled machinists, and for that reason the old time apprentice system gradu- ally has been discontinued. Even foremen are often drawn from the ranks of the operators, and in most cases these men have not had the advantages of the broader views that go with an all-around training and are not, as a rule, as well qualified for an executive position as is desirable. Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 69 Efforts are being made in. some shops to revive the ap- prentice system, in order to supply the needs for future all-around machinists. In the writer's opinion all-around men can be trained more quickly and better in a special training shop than they can be by old time apprenticeship methods. Complete details will be given in this chapter of the organization and methods used by the training school that was started in December, 1915, at the Norton Co. for the purpose of giving absolutely "green" help a few weeks of intensive training in the elements of work on the various common machine tools — the lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, grinding machine, and shaper. It is not claimed that in a few weeks you can make an all-around machinist; but it is claimed that in this short time a man can be trained to operate a certain type of ma- chine tool much more quickly than he could be taught to operate this machine under the old time apprenticeship system. If he is successively trained in one type of machine tool after the other, with intervals of work on the same types of machine tools in the regular shop departments, he will at the end of two years be as good an all-around ma- chinist as the apprentice who has received four years' train- ing by the old time apprenticeship methods, where he is at the mercy of the teaching abilities of the foremen and his fellow workers in the shop. Reasons for a Training Department. The reasons which led to the establishment of the Norton Co.'s training de- partment may be briefly stated as follows: Good teachers are rare, and when one has been found that meets the re- quirements, all the beginners should be given the advan- tage of being taught by him. The best workman is not always a good teacher, and it is a waste of executive or productive ability to have high-grade foremen or producers instruct beginners when this often can be done by men who are not as important in the productive organization. A high-grade foreman is likely to be a poor teacher, just the same as a professor of higher mathematics probably would fail in attempting to teach beginners arithmetic, Digitized by Microsoft® 70 TRAINING SHOPS because his training and habits of thought have put him entirely out of sympathy with those so far behind him in mental capacity. The training department further insures that all the be- ginners receive the same kind of training, and this training can be regulated to the needs of the whole shop organiza- tion. The training department also affords an opportunity for teaching questions of corporation policy. It is possible in this way to make the employe understand his relation to the shop, and the relation of the shop in which he is employed to the industry as a whole, and to teach him certain economic facts that even foremen sometimes do not appreciate. One of these economic facts is that the money with which the men are paid on each pay-day comes out of their own labor, and if they curtail production, they also decrease the fund out of which their wages are to be paid. When wages become too high in proportion to production, the wheels of industry must stop, because no business can continue to operate in face of a loss. The workers can also be taught to understand that there is more to the expenses of a business than that of paying the wages of the men at the machines. The product made must be sold, and the money for the sold product collected, before there is anything wherewith to pay wages. It would be well if the workers in the industries had a little more appreciation of the difficulties involved in gathering to- gether fifty-two pay-rolls every year. The training depart- ment offers an opportunity for teaching this and for coun- teracting the many false but popular theories of economics that are propagated. It*prbvides an opportunity to teach the truth about the relations of the worker to the industry, and of the industry to the community as a whole. What Does a Training Department Accomplish? While, as already stated, it is not claimed that machinists or even high-class operators are made by the training school method in the short time that each worker averages in the training department — about six or eight weeks — it has been estab- lished that it is possible to obtain a higher grade of boy or Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 71 man to start to work in the shop when he is assured that he will receive an intensive training from the first. It has further been established that better workers can be pro- duced in eight weeks in the training department than the employment department can hire, except, of course, in the case of the few skilled men who may apply for work. It has further been found that the graduates of a training department, when put into the regular shop departments, make better workers than those who have been put into the shop without previous training. Results Obtained by the Norton Training Department. The best proof that can be given of the value of a training department is to record the results that have been obtained by the Norton Co. during the past five years. Records of results are always better than mere arguments in favor of a certain procedure. During the war, 65 per cent of the men employed at the Norton Co. were in the first draft but, thanks to the training school, new workers were trained at such a rate that the company was able to go right along with an ever increasing production in spite of the fact that the draft board was compelled to be drastic in its rulings. When the armistice was signed, over one-half of the workers in the plant had less than four months' experience, and fifteen per cent of the total number of workers were women. Nevertheless, with only twice the number of employes in 1917 and 1918 as compared with the number of employes in 1912 and 1913, the Norton Co. produced and shipped three times as many machines. It is claimed, furthermore, that in these machines the quality of the pre-war period was not only maintained but improved. It should not be understood that all this increase in pro- duction was obtained through the efforts of the training department. In part it must be attributed to other causes, such as the improvement in the manufacturing departments and the encouragement of piece-work. More effort was made to provide drawings and operation sheets that gave complete information as to how the work was to be done, and by a properly conducted piece-work system, the workers were Digitized by Microsoft® 72 TRAINING SHOPS encouraged to put forth the full extent of their ability of production without fear that the piece rates would be cut. Organization of Training Department. At the Norton Co. a separate department has been set aside for the training of machine tool operators. This department is under the immediate authority and control of the superintendent of the machine division, and the same rules that apply to any production department of the shop apply to the training de- partment. The training shop is under the direct supervision of a training supervisor, who has four instructors as his associates. These instructors give their entire time to this department, the idea being to have eight or ten men under each instructor. The Objects of the Shop Training Department. The im- mediate objects of the shop training department may be stated as follows: (1) To carry out a pre-determined policy of instruction; (2) to provide the shop with a good type of skilled workmen; (3) to teach the beginner the proper and safe way in which to operate machine tools ; (4) to instill in the beginner a pride in the honesty of the product, a respect for the rights of his fellow-workers and of the company for which he works, a responsibility of care for the company's property, and a desire to advance beyond the plane of the mediocre workman; (5) to influence the future attitude of the workers toward industry by giving them right impres- sions and correct information from the start; and (6) to provide an opportunity for partly skilled men already in the shop to obtain a more advanced training. Incidentally, the shop training department makes it pos- sible to obtain the following advantages: (1) It removes from the foremen of the production departments the burden of teaching beginners; (2) it decreases the amount of spoiled work in the factory, because of the careful training and supervision of beginners ; (3) it stabilizes the labor turn-over among skilled men by keeping out the floating group of transients ; (4) it assists the employment depart- ment in distributing the men to the best advantage; (5) it provides a means whereby note can be taken of the qualifi- Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 73 cations and abilities of young men entering the shop, which may be of value when inaking promotions in the future; (6) it furnishes a man the means for finding out whether or not he is adapted for mechanical work, provided he is given a proper training; and it saves him the expe- rience of experimenting in the regular production depart- ments where the opportunity is much smaller, and where the humiliation in case of failure is greater. Equipment of the Training Department. The training shop is practically self-contained, that is, it has a complete equipment of the standard types of machine tools, jigs, and fixtures, and small tools, the same as 'would a complete small machine shop. It has its own tool-crib and washroom. The department comprises over 6000 square feet of floor space with the following equipment : 14 lathes 1 speed lathe 5 horizontal milling ma- chines 2 vertical milling machines 2 hand-milling machines 2 two-spindle sensitive drills 2 wheel and lever drill presses 1 shaping machine 1 universal grinding ma- chine A department so equipped can handle sixty-five men at one time, but the usual number is between thirty and thirty- five. The training period averages six weeks, and as soon as the men are sufficiently trained, they are placed in posi- tions open in the regular shop departments. On an aver- age of from four to six men are transferred per week. Starting to Work in the Training Department. Any man or boy over sixteen years of age is eligible for the training department if it is believed that he has the proper qualifica- tions for making a good machinist and a valuable and loyal employe. Before being accepted he is required to pass a Digitized by Microsoft® 2 tool and cutter grinding machines. 1 drill grinder 2 wet tool grinders 1 screw slotter 3 arbor presses 1 straightening press 15 vises 1 gas furnace 160 feet of benches 74 TRAINING SHOPS simple written examination in arithmetic, as it is consid- ered that any man to be a good machine operator must understand the fundamentals of simple calculations. The examples given are simple, and cover ordinary operations in whole numbers, fractions, and decimals. He also must pass a physical examination, after which the training super- visor takes him in hand and has a talk with him during which he clearly defines what the company expects of the prospective machinist and what he, in turn, may expect from the company. He is then given a booklet on safety rules for machine shop employes, and signs a statement saying that he will read it carefully and follow those rules which apply to his work. He is further shown the location of the sub-hospital, how to register on the time clock, how to obtain tools from the tool-crib, and how to get supplies from the stores. His first lesson in actual machine tool operation begins with a practical talk at the machine on the dangers to avoid. This talk is repeated at intervals throughout the course, espe- cially during the first few days. Methods Used in the Shop Training Department. The first training course consists of six weeks of intensive train- ing in work on a machine. In exceptional instances, when the beginner proves to be of a superior type, he may be given a general training on all the various types of machine tools in the training shop, but this is an exception. He nevertheless has an opportunity to obtain an all-around training by passing into the shop from the training depart- ment after he has been trained on the lathe, and then com- ing back into the training shop after a certain period and receiving further training on another machine and so on, as will be described later. In the training shop, charts are posted indicating to the student each progressive operation which he will be taught, in proper sequence for each machine. These charts also con- tain an outline of all auxiliary information, trade mathe- matics, and "shop science" that he should learn in connec- tion with each operation. This places the scope and object Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 75 of the training directly before each man, and partly places upon him the responsibility of seeing that he gets all the training to which he is entitled in the course. These charts, which are based upon Bulletin No. 52 of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, adapted to the needs of the Nor- ton Co., serve also as a guide for the instructors in laying out the operations in proper sequence for each man being trained. A given number of hours for training in each operation is stipulated, but each student must do the work habitually well, before he is permitted to do the next operation. Should he not show increasing aptitude as he advances in the work, the training supervisor explains to him that as he shows no aptitude for the work, it would be better for him to secure a job in some other occupation or trade. He is given an opportunity to secure this new job while still working for the company, so that he may leave the training depart- ment without publicity as to the reason for his doing so, thereby preserving his self-respect. There is at present no class-room work in connection with the shop training. Such instruction as is required is handled by each instructor according to the lay-out of the chart for each operation, and each man being trained is dealt with individually. The operator being trained is ex- pected to insist that he receive the instructions called for by the chart. It is not thought, however, that class-room work does not fill a proper place, provided it is conducted by a practical machine shop man, using throughout the in- struction actual concrete shop problems; the class-room work should always be supplemented with further indi- vidual instruction on the job, in-the same way as explained. The Training Shop an Actual Production Department. It should be understood that the training shop is not a mere school but is an actual production department, aiding in carrying on the regular shop production. The training shop has the authority to divert from the regular shop pro- duction departments twenty-five pieces of any kind of work that affords any training value. An inspector from the Digitized by Microsoft® 76 TRAINING SHOPS regular shop inspection department inspects all the work done in the training shop, and must be absolutely impartial in his judgment because the parts that pass from the train- ing shop enter into the regular manufacturing routine of the shop. In addition to the regular production work, the department takes care of all repair parts for the company's machines ordered by outside customers. An idea of the amount of work turned out by the training shop may be gained from the fact that one inspector is kept busy con- tinuously inspecting work from this shop alone. Promotion from Training Shop to Production Departments. From time to time, sometimes several times a week, the training supervisor and the general foreman of production hold a conference at which they consider the available men in the training shop in relation to jobs that have opened up in the factory. When a man has been chosen for a given job by these two men, the foreman of the department for which he is proposed is informed, and his view is ob- tained. The foreman has the privilege of stating any ob- jection that he has to the man, and may ask for any man in the department that appears to him to be better qualified for the work. t After the man has been transferred to the shop, the train- ing supervisor keeps in touch with him for several weeks, encouraging him and advising him. If the supervisor finds it necessary, he occasionally takes the man back to the training shop for further instruction and training. All-around Shop Training Received in the Training Shop. When a graduate of the training shop has been promoted to a production department, he must remain in this depart- ment at least three months and make a satisfactory record, before he can return to the training department for addi- tional training on another type of machine tool. He must also have shown that he has the ability that makes it worth while for the company to extend to him the added oppor- tunity. He then returns to a production department again, staying there another three months, after which he can return and obtain training on still another machine tool. Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 77 The subsequent training periods usually last only from two to four weeks. In this way an exceptional man can become an all-around machinist in about two years, and will have received, it is believed, a much better training than the ordinary appren- tice receives in four years' time. Such a course of training will be distributed about as follows : 6 weeks' lathe work in the training shop; 3 months in the shop in the lathe department ; from 2 to 4 weeks' milling machine work in the training shop ; 3 months in the milling machine department ; from 2 to 4 weeks' drilling practice in the training shop ; 3 months in the drilling department; from 2 to 4 weeks' training on planer and shaper work in the training shop ; 3 months in the planer or shaper department; from 2 to 4 weeks in the training shop on universal grinding machines ; 3 months in the grinding department ; and finally, from 2 to 4 weeks in the training shop on tool and cutter grinding. At this time the man may claim to be an all-around ma- chinist, and will be able to more than measure up with the average man trained by the four-year apprenticeship method. During the three-month periods when the man is in the shop, he works as a piece-worker and gets the required speed necessary to become a good operator. It is also a test of the ambition of the young man if he wants to come back into the training shop in order to become an all-around machinist. A great many of the men trained do this, while, of course, there are others who, after having received train- ing on one or two machines, will remain operators on those machines continuously. Compensation Paid in the Training Shop. In order to attract the right kind of young man it is necessary that the compensation paid in the training shop be at least sufficient to meet his actual needs of maintenance. The man who returns to the training shop for additional training on other machine tools receives a compensation equivalent to 15 per cent less than the hourly rate that he received in the production department where he was last employed. Digitized by Microsoft® 78 TRAINING SHOPS In addition to the training of young men hired for that purpose, the training department is also open to men already employed in the productive departments, who want to ac- quire additional training on other kinds of machine tools than those which they now operate. These men come into the training department on the condition that they receive 15 per cent less than their hourly rate for the period of their training. In unusual instances, when a man proves to have remark- able qualifications for learning and seems to possess such an /S Record retained by the Training Shop Office, giving Information relating to Each Man ability as to make it advisable to train him as fast as possi- ble on all the different types of machine tools in the training shop, he will remain there continuously for twelve weeks, which time is sufficient to give such a man a fairly good idea of shop work, under the intensive and systematic meth- ods used. It has not been found necessary to keep many records or establish a red tape system regarding the performance of the men in the training shop. The supervisor and the instructors are so closely in touch with the men being trained at all times that very little in the way of written reports or records is kept. The only information that is Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 79 retained by the office of the training shop is a record such as shown in the accompanying illustration, giving informa- tion regarding the more important facts relating to each man that passes through the department. Cost of Training Shop to the Company. The question that will be asked by every manager of a machine shop who contemplates the installation of a training shop will be, "How much does it cost to train an operator in this way?" It has been found at the Norton Co. that the cost of training a man for six weeks is $65. The actual full cost of the training averages $125, but the work turned out by the operator during the six Weeks in the training shop is worth about $60, the difference — $65 — being the actual cost to the company for the training of a competent operator. If this cost is compared with the cost of training a man in the shop departments, including all the spoiled work resulting during the first weeks of his employment, and the time taken by the department foreman in endeavoring to give him in- structions, it will be found that the training shop is by far the cheapest method in which a man can be trained. Fur- thermore, it produces a far superior working force, creates a better spirit throughout the shop, and is apparently the only solution to the problem facing manufacturers of ob- taining skilled help without resorting to the practice — which in the end only proves a boomerang — of hiring skilled men from neighboring shops. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER VIII WILLYS-OVERLAND AND EASTMAN KODAK CO.'S TRAINING SHOPS One of the troublesome problems which confronts the management of present-day metal-working plants is how to obtain the necessary number of capable all-around mechanics. Years ago, this question was of little import- ance, because in order to earn an adequate wage in the machine shop, a boy had to serve a term of apprenticeship, during the course of which he received a thorough ground- ing in the basic principles of mechanics; but today a boy is able to enter the employ of a manufacturing firm and receive sufficient training in about two weeks to enable him to operate a given type of machine engaged on a single operation; and in the performance of this repetition task, he will soon be capable of earning a fair wage, without serving four years' apprenticeship at a nominal rate of pay. This tendency for boys to avoid apprenticeship has been found unsatisfactory for two reasons : From the employes viewpoint it is undesirable, because while he is able to reach a point quickly where he can earn a fairly good wage as a machine operator, there is little possibility of making much further progress, owing to a lack of training in the fundamental principles of mechanics. And from the em- ployer's point of view, the result is equally unsatisfactory because it fails to develpp men possessing sufficient me- chanical knowledge to be able to enter upon more responsi- ble work ; also, men trained as machine operators never can be expected to take the same interest in their work as those having a knowledge of the reasons why certain standards of workmanship must be maintained. A further disadvan- tage of the ordinary machine operator is that he has not the same ambition for promotion as a trained mechanic. 80 Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 81 The Willys-Overland Co.'s Training System. With a view to overcoming these undesirable characteristics of employes who are merely trained for the performance of repetition work, and also to provide a source of semi-skilled labor, the Willys-Overland Co., Toledo, Ohio, has recently established a training shop which is operated according to a carefully developed system of labor training. This training school was described by Edward K. Hammond in MACHINERY. In common with the practice followed in "vestibule" shops, Fig 1. Partial View of the Willys-Overland Training Shop where Advanced Instruction is given in Automotive Machine Shop Work this system keeps the "improvers," as the men taking a course of training are called, engaged upon regular lines of production work. This not only gives them a knowledge of the exact class of machine on which they will be em- ployed upon entering the regular manufacturing depart- ment of the plant, but it also avoids the wasting of material on exercise work, and enables the training shop to be self- supporting, through the value of the product which it turns out. In this connection, it is important to note that the Digitized by Microsoft® 82 TRAINING SHOPS average amount of work spoiled in this training shop does not exceed 1.4 per cent, which includes all pieces that failed to pass the usual process of inspection. This is substan- tially lower than the average rate of spoilage in regular manufacturing departments. The training shop is equipped with all standard types of machine tools which are used in the manufacture of parts of the Willys j Overland car, and the "improvers" are able to obtain instruction in operating any of the machines in which they are interested. How the System is Applied. A brief general statement having been made as to the manner of conducting this training shop, a more detailed description of its functions can now be presented. It has already been explained that the purpose is not only to afford a means of training new employes in the performance of the work on which they will be engaged in the plant, but also to afford a means of "up-grading" the men who are already employed in the factory. Regardless of whether the improver who enters the training shop is just entering the employ of the Willys- Overland Co. or has been on its payroll for a considerable period of time, he will be paid during his period of instruc- tion in the performance of a new class of work at a rate. 10 per cent lower than the regular price paid for the same job in a manufacturing department of the factory. By reducing the rate paid to men in course of training to 90 per cent of the regular rate for the same job, sufficient compensation is made for the lower productive capacity of such men so that the value of the product which they turn out will be sufficient to pay the expense of maintaining the training shop, exclusive of overhead charges. Another highly important function of the training shop is to afford a means of definitely estimating the amount of skill possessed by men who represent themselves as capable operators of a given type of machine, at the time when they first come to the employment office for an interview. Every experienced shop man knows of the serious delays and spoilage of material which are frequently caused by men entering a production department on their own representa- tion that they have received training in a given line of Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 83 work, when they are utterly incapable of handling such work in an efficient manner. By sending all employes through the training shop, regardless of the claims which they make concerning their experience and ability, a reliable opinion may be obtained from the training shop foreman as to the degree of efficiency with which each man can handle the work on which he is to be employed in the plant. The most important consideration in this connection is that the work of all men can be carefully watched in the training shop to prevent the possibility of a lot of pieces being spoiled before the inefficiency of the operator is discovered. Naturally, experienced men who can demonstrate their ability are soon transferred from the training shop to a manufacturing department of the factory. Creating Incentive for Promotion. One of the great fea- tures of this system of labor training is that it serves the double purpose of affording a means for ambitious employes to obtain a thorough knowledge of their trade, while earning a rate of pay that enables them to keep up with American standards of living; and by so doing solves the manufac- turers' problem of securing an adequate supply of fully trained, or so-called "all-around" mechanics. For ordinary classes of machine work, it takes from a few hours to as much as two weeks to train an operator to a point where he is able to attain the rate of production that is required in a manufacturing department of the plant. But after he is sent out from the training shop, it does not necessarily mean that his experience with that institution has come to an end. The future is optional with him, and if he so desires he can come back for repeated courses of training in a number of different classes of machine work until he has finally gained a thorough knowledge of his trade. It is this feature of this system of training which was largely responsible for instituting the 10 per cent reduction in wages paid to "improvers" employed in the training shop. The amount of work done by such men during their short period of training is naturally less than that of ex- perienced operators, so that it is eminently fair for them to be paid a lower wage; but the main object in making the Digitized by Microsoft® 84 TRAINING SHOPS reduction is to deter all employes from seeking an oppor- tunity for additional training in the shop, except those who are possessed of an earnest desire to succeed and are willing to pay for the gratification of this desire by accepting a slightly lower wage during the time they are securing the desired training. Those who are considering the merits of this system with a view to introducing it in their own plants, are likely to ask the question, "How is one to prevent an operator of one of the simplest types of machine tools, Fig. 2. Instruction is given in painting Motor Car Bodies, an Operation which requires Skill and Judgment who has had no other mechanical experience, from attempt- ing to secure training as an operator of one of the more complicated types of machines, where he will earn some- thing approaching the maximum machinists' rate of pay?" Developing All-around Machinists. In other words, this question resolves itself into, "How is the management of a plant in which this system of training is employed, going to arrange matters so that the men will obtain training in all departments of a machinist's trade?" The answer to both questions is, "Where applicants are being considered Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 85 for training in any class of work, the successful candidates will be those who are at present employed on a class of work most nearly allied to the one in which they desire to be trained." This makes it necessary for the man at the bot- tom of the ladder to approach his goal rung by rung, in order to gratify his ambition to reach the top, both as re- gards pay and responsibility. According to the usual system of apprenticeship, a boy is required to sign an indenture contract for a period of four years, at a purely nominal rate of pay; and an actual analysis of his four years' work will show that in many cases a large percentage of the time has been spent- in the performance of classes of work that were profitable to the employer, but where the employe obtained very little expe- rience of value to him. If this contention is accurate, it is fair to assume that a man gaining his experience by this system can take a number of rapid courses in the training shop and alternate this with practical work in manufac- turing departments of the factory, with the result that he will not only secure as comprehensive a training as that given to the apprentice boy, but that he will also earn a very satisfactory average rate of wages during the entire period. Increased Earning Capacity for Ambitious Men. It will be evident to one who gives this plan a brief consideration, that the rate of pay earned by a man who repeatedly re- turns to the training shop for knowledge of more advanced lines of work, is constantly being raised. For instance, a man who is receiving initial training in a job paying 40 cents an hour, earns 36 cents an hour during his training. After he has worked on this job in the manufacturing department for a sufficient period to gain an adequate knowledge of the work, he may return to the training shop to qualify for a job paying 45 cents an hour. During the period of training, he will earn 401/& cents an hour, which* is in excess of the rate he was earning in a manufacturing department; and after being trained, he goes back to the factory at the 45-cent rate. By constantly repeating this practice, he not only gains a wide mechanical experience, but is also able to constantly increase his earning power. Digitized by Microsoft® 86 TRAINING SHOPS This financial incentive is sufficient to act as a spur for those men who would not be tempted to make these repeated changes in order to qualify for advancement into a respsoni- ble position. At specified intervals, lectures are delivered to groups of foremen and other factory executives. The purpose of these lectures is to impress upon foremen the value of improving the quality of labor employed in their respective depart- ments. Incidentally, the quality of service obtained from the foremen is also improved because these lectures impress upon them the fact that their departments are going to be filled with trained men who will be qualified to assume the duties of a foreman. Last, but far from least, the point is emphasized that with a training shop for the development of thoroughly experienced mechanics, any important fac- tory executive positions which become vacant can be filled with men taken from the company's payroll, instead of re- sorting to the practice of seeking them elsewhere. In any plant, there will always be a lot of men who are content to work from day to day and spend their wages as received; but there will also be a certain percentage of the exceptional men who are anxious to succeed; and by emphasizing the possibility of promotion, which is afforded by this system of training, the ambition of such desirable employes will be stimulated instead of allowing them to become discouraged by the numerous obstacles which the regular departmental method of factory management throws in the way of ad- vancement for the rank and file of machine operators. The Eastman Kodak Co.'s Training Shop. In 1918 the executives of the camera works of the Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., concluded that it would be of considerable advantage to have a training room where young. men could receive definite training under a competent instructor for the work in the shops of the company. As there was no suitable space within the factories themselves, which are now overcrowded with the great amount of work being done, arrangements were made with the Rochester Me- chanics Institute to open up a room where men sent by the Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 87 Eastman Kodak Co. could obtain training under an in- structor who also would be in the employ of the company. As a matter of fact, the training school has no direct con- nection with the Mechanics Institute except that it is lo- cated in the Institute building. Class of Help Trained. The training shop has facili- ties for training about eight men at a time, young men from seventeen to eighteen years old being selected. These are either boys who have previously been employed in the Eastman Kodak factories and who have been found to be Fig. 3. General View in the Eastman Kodak Co.'s Training Shop bright and adapted to mechanical work, so that further training for them seems advisable, or they may be boys hired from the outside whose personality and characteris- tics indicate that they constitute good material for the training shop. The training is intensive, and covers any- where from three to four weeks for the best boys, up to seven or eight weeks for those that either have less expe- rience or need longer training. The average may be said to be about six weeks. The training is on high-class machine work of the same kind as is done in the Eastman Kodak plants. In fact, the work performed is all commer- Digitized by Microsoft® 88 TRAINING SHOPS cial work on parts that are used in the product of the com- pany. Each boy is taught the operation of a single machine, as it is not the object to make him an all-around machinist, but only to train him to become an efficient operator on some particular class of work. It is evident that it is not possible in the short time allotted to train him fully in all the operations that may be performed even on one machine, but he is given a fair, all-around idea of the simpler operations that are performed on the machine. He is paid while learning at a rate per week subject to variation Fig. 4. A Turret Lathe Operator with a Few Weeks' Training according to ability, and after being transferred to the shops of the Eastman Kodak Co., it is found that the boys that have been trained in the training shop are able in a short time to earn good mechanics' wages. At the same time it is interesting, from a commercial point of view, to note that the training shop is self-supporting in that the work turned out by the boys covers their pay and the over- head expense, as well as the salary of the supervisor. The training shop was started on a small scale in order to prove its practicability, and it is likely that it will later be enlarged in order to meet the increasing demands for Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 89 skilled operators in the company's plants. While the opera- tion of only one machine, or possibly two, is taught to each boy, it has been found that when he knows the operation of one machine well, he can soon adapt himself to the operation of others, so that, when placed in the shop, if it should be necessary to have him operate other machines, there would be no great problem involved. One foreman instructor is Fig. 5. To learn how to run a Lathe does not require a Four-year Apprenticeship all that is required for the supervision of the boys under training, as there is only a small number. Character of Training. The boys receive instruction in the running of engine lathes, turret lathes, and milling machines, as well as in the use of drilling machines and in the grinding of their own tools. The training shop contains the following machines : No. 1 Kempsmith plain milling machine; No. 2 Kempsmith plain milling machine; 10-inch Mulliner-Enlund toolmakers' lathe ; 16-inch W. P. Davis lathe; 12-inch Hendey lathe; No. 4 Warner & Swasey turret Digitized by Microsoft® 90 TRAINING SHOPS lathe ; three-spindle Sigourney Tool Co.'s sensitive drilling machine; Cincinnati upright drilling machine. In addition to being taught the operation of the machine tools and other simple machine shop work necessary around Fig 6. Young Men, properly taught, operate Milling Machines satisfactorily after from Three to Six Weeks' Training any shop, a lecture is given each day to the boys on the reading of blueprints, and there is also a talk once or twice daily on the care of machine tools. Charts are provided that show how the machines used in the shop must be oiled, indicating the location of the oil-hole. In general, the bovs Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING SHOPS 91 are given instructions in all the necessary elements required for a careful, conscientious, and well-informed operator on simple machining operations on one machine tool. The lathe work comprises a variety of operations such as plain turning, facing, boring, threading, worm-cutting, and shoulder work. The milling includes plain milling, form milling, indexing, the use of vertical attachments, end- milling, and cam milling. The turret lathe work comprises both chucking and bar work, turning, threading, and facing. Any drilling work that is required on the parts being made is also performed by the boys. General Conditions under which Training Shop is Run. The work is properly inspected, the same as it would be in the company's shops, by limit gages; close accuracy is required, as the work being done is of a high-class nature. The training shop is run forty-eight hours a week under regular shop conditions. It is evident that the methods employed not only guarantee a thorough training for the boys, but also give them a better conception of the use and care of machine tools than the boy that just enters the shop in a regular department could ever expect to obtaiii. An- other Valuable feature of this method of training is that the boys have an opportunity to be chosen for the work for which they are best adapted, and receive individual instruc- tion and attention such as only an instructor having a small number of boys can possibly give them. The boys are care- fully tried out as to their abilities, and if a boy does not seem to make good on lathe work, he is transferred to the milling machine, for example. This gives every boy a fair chance, and stamps the system as having been worked out with a view to fair-mindedness and with a definite aim for obtaining the best results with the labor supply at hand. In addition to this training shop, the Eastman Kodak Co. maintains in its regular shop an apprenticeship in the automatic screw machine department requiring one year or eighteen months to complete, and also a tool-room apprenticeship of four years' duration. The apprentices in these courses are required to attend the Mechanics Institute during the evenings. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER IX TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS The arc welding school maintained at the Schenectady works of the General Electric Co. originated during the drive to train men in industrial pursuits demanded by the requirements of the war. The specific purpose for which the school was instituted was to train commercial welders for the Emergency Fleet Corporation. After the exigencies of the industrial program of that period had passed, it was deemed advisable to continue the school as a permanent institution. The school was the first of its kind established in the country, and it attained a reputation for turning out men of high proficiency in the art of electric arc welding. It is at present operated on practically the same basis as when it was first opened. The teaming of men as electric welders is just as essen- tial in obtaining satisfactory results as the training in any other line of trade. The General Electric Co.'s school, as described by Fred R. Daniels in Machinery, is primarily intended for the training of operators of the welding equip- ment that the company sells to its customers. The customer sends his own employes to the school to receive the training. Instruction is furnished without any charge to the customer, other than the transportation and living expenses of his employes and prospective welders. While, therefore, the men trained are usually in the employ of users of the General Electric Co.'s equipment, many also receive instruc- tion regardless of connection with any industrial concern. Scope of the Training. The object of the school is to train men in the manipulation of the arc, and to instruct them in regard to how the equipment should be handled, as well as the proper current values for use with different sizes of electrodes and work. The theoretical explanation Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS 93 of the causes of stresses produced in heated metals and the chemical action of various metals in the weld are not a part of the instruction. A lecture is given once a week by vari- ous members of the engineering and laboratory forces of the company upon the fundamentals of welding and metal- lurgy. These lectures are attended by the students in a body, and an attempt is made to answer all questions which the students ask. All equipment is furnished free of charge either to the student or to his employer. The capacity of the school is sufficient to take care of about twenty men at a time, there being a constant turnover in the personnel of the student body. There is no set time for the length of the course, because the time required may vary greatly for different students. In general, it has been noted that younger men can become proficient welders more readily, and that men above forty years of age do not generally become good and speedy welders. The average length of time required in the instruction, in order to produce a finished welder, is from forty to fifty days, although the entire training is often completed in considerably less time. It is not necessary for the student to receive the full course of instruction. * He may qualify for such welding work as making repairs in castings, carbon arc welding, or recover- ing broken taps and drills from castings, the training for which may be acquired in a very short time. Primary Instructions and Duties, The student upon enter- ing the school, is assigned to one of the booths shown in Fig. 1, and the various courses, of which there are six, are fully explained by the instructor in charge. An attempt is then made by the instructor to ascertain just what courses the various students are desirous of learning, or the special line of work which would be of the greatest advantage to the particular concern from which the new students have been sent. After this has been determined, the basic prin- ciples of arc welding are taught. These principles concern the length of the arc ; the proper way to hold the electrode ; the method of breaking the electrode from the work in case it should become frozen to it; the current values for electrodes of various temperatures; and the combina- Digitized by Microsoft® 94 TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS 95 tion of current value and electrode size for various classes of work. These elementary instructions are then followed by the first four simple exercises in depositing metal and controlling the rate of deposition. Fig. 2 shows of what the various exercises included in the course consist. For example, the first four elementary exercises involve depositing 6 inches of metal on 6 inches of plate; welding parallel rows % inch wide the entire length of the plate, leaving a V£-mch space between each row; laying a second layer of metal on the previously deposited parallel rows, maintaining the same width of spacing; and finally, filling in the i/ 2 -inch spaces with one layer of metal. The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth exer- cises consist of depositing metal in the same manner as the first four exercises but with the plate set at an angle of 45 degrees, the operator making the weld from the bottom up. The next four exercises are performed in like manner with the plate set in a vertical plane, the metal being deposited from the bottom upward. By this time the welder has acquired the ability to manipulate the arc and to judge the rate of depositing the metal with a known amount of cur- rent. Before the student has progressed too far, he is given a week's training on practical work under the supervision of the welding foreman, after which he is started on any special course of study that may have been decided upon. If no provision for the student's further advancement has been made, the right is reserved by the instructors to teach the student the course that seems of most value to the com- pany that will later make use of his services. Procedure after Fundamentals of Course have been Ac- quired. As soon as the students have reached the point where they are capable of performing certain production jobs they are put on this class of work until they have acquired the necessary degree of skill. This method, which enables the student actually to produce, is a factor in re- ducing the maintenance cost of the school. The men are then shifted back to the exercises for more advanced in- struction, and this procedure is continued throughout the course. The complete instruction program includes forty Digitized by Microsoft® 96 TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS x ? Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS 97 specific exercises. The first actual welding, as shown in Fig. 2, occurs in Exercise 13, in which the student is required to make a butt-weld with two Vfc-mch plates in a horizontal position. Exercises 14 and 15 consist of butt- welding with the plates set at a 45-degree angle, and in a vertical position, respectively, the welding in both cases being performed from the bottom of the plates upward. Exercises 16, 17, and 18 consist of butt-welding two 14-inch plates together at an angle of 90 degrees, in three positions — horizontally, at 45 degrees, and vertically, respectively. In the last two cases the weld is made from the bottom upward. Exercise 19 consists of making a horizontal weld in the corner of two ^4-inch plates arranged to form an inverted T. In Exercises 20 and 21, T-welds are made, as shown in the illustration, the work being tipped at a 45-degree angle in one case, and set in a vertical position in the other. The welder is required to deposit four layers of metal and to chip and brush the scale from each layer before adding the succeeding layers. The next four exercises are per- formed with the plate in a vertical plane, the weld being made in a horizontal direction. In the first of these, No. 22, parallel headings are laid, spaced V2 inch apart; the next exercise consists of filling in the ifa-inch spaces in the parallel rows just deposited; and the two following exer- cises consist of depositing row upon row of metal first from the bottom up and then from the top down. In Exercise 26 the plate is placed in a vertical plane, and a 3-inch diameter circle of beading, y± inch wide, is made in the face of a plate, and then circular beading is welded inside and out- side alternately, until the plate is entirely covered. Exer- cises 27, 28, and 29 are lap-weld exercises performed with the plates first in a horizontal position, and then in a verti- cal position and an inverted vertical position, respectively. The last exercise calls for considerable skill on the part of the student, it being the first overhead work that he has been required to do. The next exercise in order, No. 30, is that of butt-welding two plates in a vertical position, making a horizontal joint. Digitized by Microsoft® 98 TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS The student is now required to gain control of the electrode for overhead work, and the remaining exercises illustrated in Fig. 2 are overhead exercises. Exercise 31 is that of depositing 6 inches of metal on 6 inches of plate, the work being placed in a horizontal plane. Exercise 32 consists of making parallel rows of beading, spaced ty? inch apart. In Exercise 33 this i/2-inch space between the parallel rows Fig. 3. Welder at Work depositing Metal just deposited is filled in. An overhead butt-weld with two 14-inch plates is required in Exercise 34, while Exercise 35 consists of making an overhead lap-weld with 5/ 8 -inch plates. The five remaining exercises in the course are not shown, but they are as follows: Exercise 36 requires two men to perform a butt-weld on %-inch plates which have not been beveled for receiving the metal. Both men are required to Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS 99 work together on each side of the work. This is a condition which they will surely encounter in their practical expe- rience, and the exercise enables each man to become ac- customed to the presence of another man on the job, and also to regulate his rate of depositing the metal so that the amount deposited and the heat produced on each side of the Fig. 4. Board for indicating Progress of Students joint will be balanced. The next step, Exercise 37, involves the making of two pens 3 inches square by % inch high, one of which is filled with a %-inch metallic electrode and the other with a carbon arc using a i/ 2 - m ch diameter filling rod. This exercise is furnished so as to enable the student to make a comparison between the metallic and carbon arc for filling purposes. Exercise 38 consists of cutting steel with the use of the carbon arc. Exercise 39 consists of Digitized by Microsoft® 100 TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS welding ys- mc h holes in %-inch plate, both in a vertical and in a horizontal position. The last exercise in the course, No. 40, requires the student to run %-inch beads on cast iron and to make a satisfactory butt-weld. Recording Progress of Student. As previously men- tioned, the work is not limited to exercises, but practice is also given on various odds and ends of practical welding when the students have advanced sufficiently to warrant this. A blackboard is in use in the welding school by means of which the progress of the student is recorded, and from which the relative advance that he has made can be readily seen. This board is illustrated in Fig. 4. The first column of the board gives the name and other identification nota- tions of the students. To the right of this column, spaces are provided for each working day. It is not presumed in any case that more than sixty days will be required to train the student completely, and therefore spaces for sixty days are provided on the board. As the student completes one lesson, a wooden plug bearing the number of that exercise is inserted in a hole in the board under the day on which he has completed the lesson. A number of these plugs are shown in the illustration, and the plugs travel from left to right on the board as the student advances. By this means, the instructor is enabled to tell at a glance just which of the men are most proficient and which need special attention. Selective Courses of Training. As previously stated, there are six courses which may be pursued. One. of these consists of making repairs on steel castings. It is especially recommended to those students who come from foundries and machine shops where a knowledge of the manner of filling blow-holes and repairing defective and worn parts and broken castings is necessary. The students are also made acquainted with the proper allowances to make for contraction and expansion and how to prevent depositing hard and unmachinable welds. The course on repairing cast iron has met with marked success, and although the welding of cast iron is not looked upon with favor by some, yet to make the instruction complete, a course in this branch of the art is included. Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS 101 The welding of steel plates and tanks offers the most complete training, and is especially recommended to the all-around welder. In this course the student is taught flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead welding. He is also taught the proper heat value to use to correspond with the size of electrode, thickness of plates, and angle of work. In the course on welding tanks, the student becomes familiar with the proper precautions to take in preventing warping of the sheets, and the relative amount of metal to deposit to obtain the required strength. There is a course provided in recovering broken taps and drills from castings. Among the various requirements of this course, the student must remove a number of taps and drills in an allotted time. The course in welding high-speed steel to low-carbon steel is difficult and requires close study, due to the difference in melting points of the two metals. The course is particularly useful from a tool-room point of view, and has been the means of saving considerable money due to the cost of high-speed steel and the saving that can be realized by welding low-carbon shanks to high-speed tools. The course in» carbon arc welding and cutting is entirely different from that of metallic welding. With the carbon processes it is necessary to use the carbon arc as a preheater and to take the metal from a filling rod held in the left hand. With the use of the carbon arc, a much higher rate of depositing metal can be maintained owing to the higher values of current which may be used. For cutting large castings, the carbon arc is quite useful, as well as for salvaging scrap material. The student is required to break up the weld that he has made on scrap material, and to examine it and determine where the weakness, if any, lies, as well as, if possible, what has been the cause of the failure. In such a case the aid of the instructor is often solicited, and any doubtful points are cleared up by him. In the course in making tanks, the welder is always present when they are put under pressure test, and may witness the results of his work. If the tank is a failure, the defective weld is examined, the cause of Digitized by Microsoft® 102 TRAINING ELECTRIC WELDERS the deficiency is explained to him, and' a method pointed out by which he may prevent a repetition of his mistake. Every exercise must be thoroughly mastered before the next is at- tempted. Just pointing out the cause of failure will not per- mit the student to proceed — he must demonstrate that he not only knows how to do the work, but can do it as well. Fig. 1 shows a general view of the welding school, from which the location of the individual booths may be seen, as well as an operating panel from which six welders are en- abled to work simultaneously. The progress of the student is carefully noted and a close check is kept on him from the time he enters the school until he leaves. A merit system is in use, and attendance and punctuality are closely recorded. A record of each stu- dent's rating is kept on file in the power and mining en- gineering department of the plant, and may be furnished to any employer who has sent a student for instruction, upon request. There are no certificates or diplomas presented to the welder on leaving the school, but a personal letter is given if desired, in which the particular kind of work for which the student is fitted is stated. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER X TRAINING WOMEN FOR MACHINE SHOP WORK During the war women were trained for machine shop work in numerous instances, and the results obtained were often so satisfactory that women employes have been re- tained in certain departments. In ordinary times there may be no necessity for training women for machine shop work, but in extremely busy times it is found desirable, and it may, therefore, prove of value to place permanently on record some of the methods that have been used and the results that have been obtained by large manufacturing concerns in the past. A complete outline of the methods that were employed during 1917 and 1918 by the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., Providence, R. I., was given by Luther D. Burlingame, industrial superintendent, of the company, in an article in Machinery. When the industrial inventory was taken by the Naval Consulting Board in order to ascertain the resources of the nation for war purposes, a question which was put to each manufacturer was: "To what extent can women be em- ployed to replace men?" This brought widely varying answers. On the part of those who knew to what extent women were being successfully employed in England and on the continent, the answer to this question was very different from what it would have been a year or two earlier, before the success of women in such work, had been demonstrated. Even these employers, however, had little realization of how quickly and effectively" women's work would be able to fill the gaps made in the working forces in our machine shops. It was learned that women, under proper supervision and training, can quickly fit not only into the lines of work which it had previously been thought 103 Digitized by Microsoft® 104 TRAINING WOMEN they were adapted for, but also into many lines which it had been felt could be performed only by trained mechanics. Experience of the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., during the War. Previous to 1917, no women had been employed by the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co. for machine shop operations or for any work connected with the machine shop, the employes holding clerical positions throughout the shop, as well as tool-room attendants, and those employed in the packing and shipping departments having been men. During 1918, about i,000 Women were employed in shop positions. The first step toward the employment of this class of help was to prepare locker and rest rooms at acces- sible points throughout the factory, with suitable provision for their convenience, a serious problem being to find space when every available inch was required for production. These accommodations were finally arranged for with com- paratively little curtailment of manufacturing space, one of the largest of these rooms being located on the roof of a one-story building, reached by a covered passageway. It is estimated that in order to provide" satisfactory accommoda- tions of this kind for women employes the average cost is about $25 and the space required about ten square feet per employe. It was felt, in order to secure and retain the services of the class of girls desired, not only that the legal provisions as to such accommodations for employing women should be met, but also that the condition of the factory should be maintained at a specially high, standard as to cleanliness, orderliness, safety, and discipline. Experience has shown that by starting in on a small scale, beginning in the departments where the work is most directly adapted to the employment of women and gradu- ally extending the work to new departments, much better results can be obtained than by waiting until the emergency is so great that, in order to carry on the work at all, large numbers must be hired during a short period, without allowing time for the individual attention needed. Method of Training. In introducing the employment of women into the machine departments, the company first set Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING WOMEN 105 aside one corner of a room for training. Six girls were employed and each taught a different operation, selecting, first, operations which seemed most suitable for such em- ployes. When they had become proficient enough so that their production was on a commercial basis, they were transferred to the departments of the shop where such work as they had been taught was being done and occupied places among the regular workers. Within a few days a second girl was put beside each of these, and this gave not only a sense of companionship but served as a stimulus to both girls ; to the first to set the pace, and to the second to keep up or excel. Additional girls were taken in as rapidly as they could be assimilated, and their employment spread to all parts of the shop, except the foundry. Comparison between Men and Women Workers. Without doubt, much more attention has been given by foremen and fellow-workmen to the supervision of women's work than has been given to the average male employe in the past, the assumption being that a woman, having less mechanical background and intuition than a man, required more train- ing and more specific instructions. This has been the reason advanced by some foremen in explaining why women were doing better work and had learned more quickly than men. It may be noted, also, that at the time when such comparisons were made, the average man who could be secured was of an unsatisfactory and irresponsible class, as so few trained or competent men were available for posi- tions in the industries, while, on the other hand, in hiring girls, a selection from a large number of applicants could be made, so that it was possible to obtain a much better average having the qualities to make successful workers. Many of the theories held by some officials and foremen regarding the troubles and problems which would arise in the employment of women have been exploded when put to the actual test. For example, it was believed by some that the best results would not be obtained by having men and women work together in the various departments, but that there should be separate departments for each. Expe- Digitized by Microsoft® 106 TRAINING WOMEN rience has shown that there are advantages in having both in the same department, as it tends to hold the same stand- ard of workmanship and speed for women as for men, while it is believed that having a separate department for women may establish a separate and lower standard, the tendency being to make more allowance for women. The results seem to show that it is not at all necessary that separate stand- ards should be established and that in some lines of work even more can be expected of women than of men because of their nimble fingers and quickness of motion. As to questions of discipline, where the two sexes are employed in the same work-room, little or no difficulty is experienced under capable foremanship. Actual results proved that the fears in the minds of some that there would be opposition on the part of foremen and workmen to the employment of women in the shop were ungrounded. It was thought when girls were first employed that practically all the setting-up work would have to be done by men, and that the girls would simply act as operators. It was found, however, even a very short time after the plan had been in operation, that an increasing amount of the work of setting up could be performed by the women employes. Whenever one goes through the shop, girls may be seen sharpening their own tools, and resetting them in the machines after sharpening. In inspection work, a field has been found for women in which they are making an exceptionally good showing. Suitable Kinds of Work. The lines of work felt to be best adapted for women in the machine shop and those in which they were first 'given employment at the Brown & Sharpe works have been referred to. These lines have been extended to include the clerical departments of the shop, such as the routing department, stock-rooms and shipping rooms; positions as tool-room attendants; also light bench work, including riveting, filing, fitting, assem- bling; the operation of bench and speed lathes, drilling, milling, and grinding machines, including surface grinders ; and even general machine work such as operating engine Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING WOMEN 107 lathes, screw machines, gear-cutting machines, etc. Several women are also employed in the toolmaking department. Special Methods and Equipment for Women. In order to obtain the best results in the employment of women it is sometimes desirable to reorganize, both in methods and equipment. Thus in the screw machine department, where a man had formerly been operating four automatic screw machines, a reorganization by which he is put in charge of seven machines with a woman to help gives the required supervision, due to his experience, and at the same time trains one woman assistant in a knowledge of the machine and its operation. In the same department it is found of advantage to use pneumatic chucks for certain screw ma- chine operations, this being of special importance where women are employed, as it avoids the physical work of adjusting the chucks by hand, the average woman being at a disadvantage when performing such work, through being shorter in stature and having a shorter reach than the aver- age man, aside from the question of her physical endurance. It has been found that girls who have had experience working in mills or doing other work where they have acquired qualities of endurance are better adapted for this line of work. The screw machine department probably requires as much physical strength and endurance as any of the work which women have undertaken in the Brown & Sharpe factory, and for that reason, selection of employes in this department is from those who have previously been accustomed to work requiring physical strength. It is also the job where the greatest protection is needed against accidents as well as against oil and dirt. Additional guarding is sometimes necessary on machin- ery, to protect women workers. It must be strongly im- pressed upon each employe that there are points of danger in the machine shop, and that she must be alert and watch- ful to avoid them ; although, in order that she may not be unduly alarmed, it is sometimes pointed out that statistics show that the shop is not so dangerous a place to work as the home. Owing to this special effort in the line of instruc- Digitized by Microsoft® 108 TRAINING WOMEN tion, perhaps as well as to the fact that women are not employed on the whole in as hazardous operations in the machine shop as men, the accident record shows that they have had but four-fifths as many accidents, proportionately, as the men, and that, therefore, they have not proved to be an added hazard, as it was predicted by some that they would be. An up-to-date dispensary gives aid in cases of accident or illness to both men and women, and first-aid departments are established in all parts of the works, including the rest rooms. Discipline. The employment of women introduces new questions of discipline into the factory. It is important to adopt a policy from the beginning which will set and main- tain a high standard, as a small number of objectionable employes of either sex can do much to offset the advantages which would otherwise be obtained from the employment of women. While it is believed to be important to have men as foremen throughout the shop, to be responsible for and instruct in mechanical work, it is also important to have matrons in each department, who will have direct supervision over groups of girls and who will not only act as counselors and helpers for them, but will also be alert to prevent objectionable features creeping into the shop, by cooperating with the foremen in matters of discipline. These matrons can be occupied as producers when not otherwise engaged. Turnover of Force. Although women seem to be more ready to lose time than men, they have on the whole shown more stability and have not been so ready to change their place of employment, 4his greater stability being shown even when taking into account the question of matrimony, where a larger percentage of women than men would naturally be expected to leave at the time of marriage. Of the total number of women hired during one year, 57V£ per cent remained at the end of the year, while of the men hired during the same period, only 361/£ per cent remained. Of those who left, three-fourths went within the first three months — many after a few days' or hours' employment Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING WOMEN 109 only; this applies to both men and women. Among the reasons for women leaving voluntarily, nearly one-third went to take other positions; one-fifth because they were dissatisfied with their work or pay ; and one-sixth on account of poor health, which was a larger proportion than of men leaving because of poor health. Miscellaneous reasons ac- counted for the remainder. Some facts have also been obtained to illustrate the rela- tion of age to turnover, and these show that a larger per- centage have left of those between twenty and forty years of age than those younger or older. The comparatively few hired who were over forty^ years of age (as reported) have shown the lowest turnover. The percentage discharged, however, has been about the same for all ages. Methods Used by the Taft-Peirce Mfg. Co. During the war the Taft-Peirce Mfg. Co., Woonsocket, R. I., trained women machine operators by means of the "vestibule" school. Two general methods have been followed by manu- facturers in training women in machine shop work. One of these methods is to put the women to work in regular manufacturing departments of the factory as soon as they enter the company's employ, while the other is to have a training department in which the novices can learn to operate machines which are used especially for training inexperienced women employes. It is the latter method which has been adopted at the Taft-Peirce plant. Method of Training. The training room is equipped with five 16-inch Reed-Prentice engine lathes, five Brown & Sharpe hand screw machines, and five Brown & Sharpe plain milling machines. The women who are employed are sent into this training room, where they get a little experience in the operation of any one of the three types of machine tools with which the training room is equipped. Regular commercial work is done, and it is aimed, as far as possible, to utilize all of the product of this schoolroom, but during the training period the women are given plenty of time to learn to operate the machines so that they do not become nervous and spoil pieces through an effort to Digitized by Microsoft® 110 TRAINING WOMEN keep up with the rate of production attained by experienced operators in the regular departments in the factory. The length of time which a woman remains in the training room depends largely upon her previous training as well as her natural aptitude for mechanical work, but this period sel- dom exceeds two weeks, and in some cases where the need for an operator is urgent, a woman is sent out to the shop after she has been employed in the training room for only a few days. Training in Inspection. The operation of lathes, hand screw machines, and plain milling machines, by no means represents the entire range of work on which women are employed. Much of the inspection is done by women, and in many cases they have demonstrated their ability to handle this work in an extremely creditable way. They learn to read micrometers and use special gages as easily as men, and the greater nimbleness of the woman's fingers enables her to handle small parts more rapidly than a man. Women are also employed on a great variety of light repe- tition work, such as filing, and 'experience has shown a woman employe to be willing to continue on the same class of work almost indefinitely, while a boy or young man soon becomes restless if he is kept long on the same operation. Provision for Rest and Medical Care. In order to care adequately for the women employes, it has been found necessary to provide a rest room and a room in which the women can eat their lunches; a room is also required in which medical treatment can be administered to those who become ill while at work. Employed at the plant there is a woman who has the title of "supervisor of female labor." It is her duty to go around the plant every day and talk to as many of the women as possible, the object being to learn of any reason for complaint which an employe may have. The woman chosen for this position has had a num- ber of years' experience in settlement work, and as she has only two hundred women to look after, it is possible for her to talk personally with every one of them not less fre- quently than once in two days. Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING WOMEN 111 In some plants where women are employed as machine operators, some uniform style of dress has been adopted to protect them against dirt and danger of being caught in moving parts of machines. For instance, in many plants a cap, blouse, and trouserettes have been adopted as a standard working uniform for women employes, and these garments are usually sold to women at cost. Most of the women wear caps to protect their hair from dirt. This is a measure strongly to be recommended in the case of all women employed in the machine shop. When the idea of giving employment to women in departments of the factory where men are employed was first brought up for discussion, the objection was raised that the presence of women would distract the men's attention from their work. Experience has shown, however, that there was really no need to worry over this point. The women settle down to work in a businesslike manner, and after the novelty of their presence has worn off, the men take little notice of them. Training Women in the Curtiss Airplane & Motor Cor- poration's Plant. In 1918 and 1919 the Curtiss Airplane & Motor Corporation of Buffalo, N. Y., used a comprehensive plan for training women machine tool operators for single- purpose operations' which was described in Machinery in an article by James W. Russell, who was director of pro- duction training in the Curtiss plant. A production train- ing school was organized, under the direction of an instructor familiar with industrial training methods, and equipped with lathes, shapers, power and hand milling machines, and nearly all kinds of machines, fixtures, and mechanical devices commonly employed in - the mechanical industry for the training of women. Previous to the establishment of the training school, the old and expensive plan of sending the newcomer to the foreman was tried, resulting in the usual failure and a large turnover. It was soon demonstrated that the pro- duction training school method was the most economical, as the labor turnover showed a decrease from 50 per cent to 4 per cent, when a survey was made four months after Digitized by Microsoft® 112 TRAINING WOMEN the practice of promoting trainees from the school into the plant was started. Training in Lathe Operation. When the attempt was first made to introduce women as lathe operators, the question arose as to whether it was possible for a woman to run a lathe. In order to answer the question, a woman was care- fully instructed on lathe operation in the production train- ing school of the company. The greatest care was taken by her instructor to insure that she understood what the various handles, levers, stops, gears, screws, feed connec- tions, wrenches and other parts of the equipment were used for. The purpose of the headstock, tailstock, and carriage was also carefully explained, previous to instruct- ing her on the actual operation of the lathe. The methods of centering work, straight and taper turn- ing, chucking, boring, drilling, and reaming Were readily grasped by the operator, as well as the use and reading of micrometers and scales, and the use of calipers. The regu- lar production work was used by the trainee in her development. In a period of about two weeks, this woman was promoted to the metal-working department of the plant proper. Several weeks later she was engaged in cutting screw threads. Discipline. In addition to training women for the vari- ous activities on both wood and metal, the effect of the discipline resulting from the environment of the school is felt in the plant departments. This result is not always recognized for some time, but eventually it will be seen that the employes in general show improvement and attend to their work more faithfully than formerly. Even though a girl does not spend much time in the training department, her limited stay removes her fear of the shop and enables her to learn more quickly when actually placed on produc- tion in the plant. Selection of Instructors. Special care is necessary in selecting the teachers. They must, of course, be expe- rienced in their trade, and able to express themselves clearly in order to impart knowledge intelligently; and they must also be of a sympathetic nature. Women are the best Digitized by Microsoft® TRAINING WOMEN 113 instructors to be in direct contact with other women, as the newcomer will naturally feel that if one woman can do the particular work at hand, she can also do it. In selecting men instructors, great care should be exer- cised, for their character must be above reproach. One instructor can handle from eight to fifteen trainees, depend- ing, of course, upon the character of the work. The method pursued changes somewhat according to the occupation, but the teacher always explains in detail the function of , the machines or tools before starting the trainee to work. Whenever the operator makes an error while in training, she is corrected in a kindly manner and encouraged to do her best. Introduction into Training. Employes are sent directly to the training department of the Curtiss shops from the employment department, and there are no previous indica- tions or evidence as to their individual capabilities. The training department organization, through its system of vocational guidance, is capable of selecting the job for which the girl seems best fitted, or the best fitted girl for a particular job. The applicants are received by a refined, highly qualified woman, who, acts as a supervisor of per- sonal relations. The trainee is then placed on trial in one of the various activities for which she is mentally and physically adapted, or which she has chosen to follow. 'When successful, she is promoted to the production floor and works thereafter under the regular shop foreman. If the girl shows a lack of ability or adaptability while in training, or if she finds that the work disagrees with her, she can at once be transferred to some other class of work. It is obvious that this feature of the system retains many women who would otherwise become dissatisfied and leave if handled under the old system, and thus add to the already enormous turnover of labor in the industries. The Follow-up System. After the school had been open only a few weeks, it was learned that upon promotion, girls were seeking a change in occupation through the depart- ments of the plant. This caused an additional expense,, since the foreman of the department to which the change Digitized by Microsoft® 114 TRAINING WOMEN was made had to break in a newcomer again. As soon as this state of affairs was discovered, a folloW-up system was established, and a close personal relation with the girl was gained. Then, by ascertaining the cause of her uneasiness, and if a good and sufficient reason were given, she would be sent back to the training department to be trained along a different line, thereby saving the "breaking in" expense. This attitude of the training department greatly reduces the number of employes who leave unnecessarily. Nature and Scope of Work Handled by Training School. The work turned out in the training school is a part of the regular production, and must pass inspection. Therefore, the trainee knows that she must be careful, accurate, and rapid before she can justly expect to be promoted into the shop at a higher wage-rate. In addition to the training for all the machine and metal work, the activities of the training department cover other occupations of the aircraft industry, such as work on panels, stabilizers, elevators, rudder assembling, linen covering, and beam mill work, as well as numerous other carpenter jobs, including boat hull parts, struts, propellers, and assemblies. The training of women inspectors for metal and wood parts is covered practically as well as academically. Girls are taught to read blueprints and to use machinists' meas- uring tools, such as the micrometer, scale, calipers, bevel protractor, etc. A course in tracing is also included which covers a period of three weeks' intensive training, whereby the average girl can qualify for a position as a tracer in the engineering department. Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX Page Advanced training course for apprentices 56 Advantages of having training departments for workers 66 Agreement signed by apprentices 43, 55 Applicants for apprenticeship course, method of selecting 13, 29 Application for apprenticeship course, interviews and examina- tions .• 29 Apprentices, agreement signed by 43, 55 graduate 54 importance of selecting right type 38 supervision of 8, 11 Apprentice school library 36 Apprentice schools, cooperative 57 cost of conducting 8 Apprenticeship course, qualifications for admission to 12, 41, 55 Apprenticeship, general principles of 3 modern, the, 1 National Machine Tool Builders' 6 Apprenticeship schools* in locomotive and electrical shops 52 Apprenticeship system, American Locomotive Co.'s 52 compared with trade schools 2 General Electric Co.'s 54 Le Blond Machine Tool Co.'s 28 Pratt & Whitney Co.'s , 10 Taft-Peirce Mfg. Co.'s 39 Checking interviewer's record of applicant for apprenticeship. . 60 Class-room Instruction for apprentices 18, 35, 45 Class-room record of apprentices 62 Compensation for apprentices 25, 35, 53 Compensation for -workers in training shop 77 Cooperative apprentice schools 57 Cost of conducting apprentice schools 8 Cost of maintaining training shop for workers 79 Courses for shop apprentices •" 54 advanced 56 Courses in apprenticeship, extent of 18, 56 Courses in mathematics for apprentices 36 115 Digitized by Microsoft® 116 INDEX Page Discipline of women workers 108, 112 Division of time for different studies, for apprentices 22 Drafting-room apprenticeship 52 Earning capacity, increased, for ambitious men 85 Eastman Kodak Co.'s training shop for workers 86 Electrical shops, apprenticeship in 52 Electric welders, training 92 Equipment and methods, special, for women wr .ars 107 Equipment, of training department for workers 73 of training shop for apprentices 32 Examinations for applicants for apprenticeship course 29 Foremen's records of apprentices 62 General Electric Co., apprenticeship system 54 arc welding school 92 Graduate apprentices 54 Incentive, creating, for promotion of workers through training.. 83 Instruction, class-room, for apprentices 18, 35, 45 for apprentices, method of 23 for electric welders 93 in general subjects, for apprentices 21 Instructors, for apprentices 22 for women workers 112 Interviewer's record of applicant, for apprenticeship 58 Interviews with applicants for apprenticeship course 29, 58 Le Blonde Machine Tool Co.'s apprenticeship system 28 Library for apprentices 36 Locomotive shops, apprenticeship in 52 Low rates of production, reasons for 67 Machine shop work, kinds of, suited to women 106 Machinist, all-around, developed by training workers 84 Mathematics, courses in, f"or apprentices 36 Mental training simultaneous with shop training for apprentices. 4 Method of instruction for apprentices 23 Methods used in training departments for workers 74 National Machine Tool Builders' apprenticeships ;... 6 Norton Co.'s training shop for workers 65 Objects of training department for workers 72 Organization of training department for workers 72 Outside activities of apprentices 27 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 117 _ Page Physical incapacity of worker for job 68 Pratt & Whitney Co.'s apprenticeship system 10 Principles, general, of apprenticeships 3 of Taf t-Peirce apprenticeship school 40 Progress of apprentices, recording 58 Promotion of workers, from training shop to production depart- ments - .' . 76 through training, creating incentive for 83 Qualifications for admission to apprenticeship course 12, 41, 55 Qualifications of workers for admission to training department . . 73 Recording progress of students in electric welding school 99 Records of apprentices, maintaining 15, 37, 47, 58 use made of 63 Reports made on work and character of apprentices 14 Results obtained by training departments for workers 70 School for arc welders, General Electric Co.'s 92 Selecting boys for apprenticeship 13, 29 Selecting right type of apprentice, importance of 38 Shop apprentice courses 54 Shop practice, theory of, for apprentices 20 Shop training, for apprentices 15, 34, 43 simultaneous with mental training, for apprentices 4 thorough, received by workers in training shop 76 Supervision of apprentices 8, 11 Taft-Peirce Mfg. Co.'s apprenticeship system 39 Theory of shop practice for apprentices 20 Trade schools compared with apprenticeship systems 2 Training departments for workers, reasons for 69 scope and advantages of 66 Training electric welders 92 Training of worker, lack of proper 68 Training shop, a production department 75 for apprentices 31 for apprentices, equipment of.' •• 32 for workers, cost of maintaining 79 for workers, Eastman Kodak Co.'s 86 for workers, Norton Co.'s 65 for workers, Willys-Overland Co.'s 80 Training women, in Curtiss Airplane & Motor Corporation's plant 111 for machine shop work 103 Training workers in plant versus hiring them from other plants. 65 Digitized by Microsoft® 118 INDEX , Page Trial period for apprentices 4, 14 Tools and materials, effect of lack of 67 Turnover of force, in employment of -women 108 Women, kinds of machine shop work suited to 106 training, for machine shop work '. 103 Women workers, Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.'s method of training. 104 compared with men 105 provision for rest and medical care for 110 special methods and equipment for 107 Taft-Peirce Mfg. Co.'s method of training 109 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® T 73.03 Cornell University Library M °JjJ r n apprenticeships and shop training 3 1924 002 745 903 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® vlicrosof