f37 dimmU Uniwwitg Jiliiaig BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME EROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Hcnrg W. Sage 1891 .,%Lo'^o^- ■V'\..\X\-\.:3 Date Due GN817 .P37"'" ""'""""" '-'""'^ ®'°?.S..,ffi5(.±';,9nz,e,,ages in Italy and Sicil olin 3 1924 029 949 140 ^ ' V^' \ 1 THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES IN ITALY AND SICILY BY T. EMC PEET CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1909 I? /-[.. HENRY FROWDE, M.A. PUBUSHBB TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXEOED LONDON, EDINBUEGH, NEW YORK TOKONTO AND MBLBOUENE V3 PREFACE For attempting to give to English readers an account of the prehistoric civilizations of Italy no apology can be needed : it has too .long been the cry of our archaeologists that no such attempt has been made. For carrying out the task in a manner much less complete than might have been desired I can only plead that circumstances have required its completion within a short and limited time. Naturally a considerable part of the book consists in the presentation in an English form of work already done by ItaHan archaeologists. The appearance in the Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana of Professor G. A. CoUni's three magnificent brochures on the palaeohthic, eneohthic and bronze ages respectively, marks a new era in the study of Italian prehistoric archaeology, and any later work on the same periods must in some sense be based upon them. I have therefore had not the sHghtest hesitation in adopting the main lines of Professor Colini's classification of the material of the three periods in question, at the same time making the necessary modifications required by later discoveries. The literature of the subject is very considerable and widely scattered. Those who require a short summary of the prehistoric periods in Italy wiU read Pigorini's article, Le pill antiche civilta delV Italia} Those who are interested especially in the ethnological side of the question will find it fully dealt with in Modestov's book, and those who desire to see the material fully illustrated will consult Montelius's vast and, as yet, unfinished work. The lake-dweUings are well treated by Munro, though, owing to the rapid progress of discovery, some of his work is even now out of date. ' In Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, vol. xxix. A 2 4 PREFACE But he who would have first-hand knowledge must dive into a mass of Italian publications, often very obscure and difficult to obtain. It is for those who need to know some- thing of prehistoric Italy — and indeed the ever-increasing proofs of its connexion with the Aegaean and North Greece make it more and more indispensable for a Mediterranean archaeologist — and have neither time nor opportxmity to search out and unravel such publications, that the present work is intended. It may appear to some that an undue proportion of the work has been devoted to the civilizations of Sicily. It seemed, however, advisable to treat these very fully, not only because they are of such intrinsic interest and impor- tance, being in many respects in advance of those of the Italian mainland throughout the prehistoric periods, but also because Sicily, in view of its close connexion with the Aegaean, is of almost more importance than Italy itself to the general Mediterranean archaeologist. Did I attempt to testify my gratitude to all whose help has made the work possible my task would be a long one. My first thanks are due to the foremost of Italian prehistoric archaeologists, Professor Pigorini, for his continual interest and assistance, for permission to photograph in the Museo Preistorico, and to reproduce illustrations from the BuLlettino di Paletnologia Italiana. Scarcely less is the debt I owe to his assistants at the Museo Preistorico, Professors Colini and Paribeni ; to the late Professor Brizio, and to his successor at Bologna, Professor Ghirardini, to Signer Alfonsi at Este, to Professor Campanini at Reggio-Emilia, to Dr. Gabrici at Naples, and, last but not least, to Dr. Paolo Orsi, who continues to do me the greatest kindnesses. And even now the fist is far from complete. To the Reale Accademia dei Lincei I am indebted for permission to reproduce illus- trations from the Monumenti Antichi ; and to that warmest of friends, Dr. Domenico Ridola, for his kind hospitality at Matera, archaeologically the most interesting town in Italy. PREFACE 5 Among Englishmen I have to thank Dr. Duncan Mackenzie for reading the portions of the work deaUng with the megahthic monuments and with Sardinia in particular ; Mr. A. J. B. Wace for reading those portions which relate to Thessaly and North Greece ; Mi'. Henry Balfour for numerous suggestions and improvements, especially in the earher chapters. Professor J. L. Myi-es has been my kind adviser throughout, and much of the form of the work iwS entirely due to him. For Figures 61 and 62 I am indebted to Dr. M. Mayer, for Figure 159 to Dr. Robert Munro, and for Figure 46 to the Committee of the British School at Athens, through G. A. Macmillan, Esq. Dr. Orsi kindly supplied me with the original of Plate I, fig. 6, and Signor Alfonsi with those of Plate III, figs. 13-19 and fig. 21. I cannot refrain from mentioning the extraordinary kindnesses I received during my tour through the museums of Central and North Europe, in particular from Professor Montehus, Dr. Sophus Miiller, Dr. Hubert Schmidt, Dr. Hoernes, Dr. Vassits, and Herr Vejsil Curcid. Finally I have to thank the Craven Committee in the University of Oxford for the grant which enabled me to begin work in 1906, and for their kind interest in my work throughout. My debt to Dr. David Randall-Maclver is one which I cannot attempt to pay in words. T. ERIC PEET. Takgibbs, Jan. 19, 1909. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029949140 CONTENTS PAGE Inteoduction 15 CHAPTER I The Palaeolithic Period 21 CHAPTER II Neolithic Cave-dwellings 3fi CHAPTER III Neolithic Hut-toundations 88 Appendix : The Hitt-foundations of Monte Loffa, near Beeonio 112 CHAPTER IV Neolithic Burials 113 CHAPTER V The Neolithic Period in the Islands . . .123 CHAPTER VI Neolithic Material 145 CHAPTER VII Problems of the Neolithic Period . . . .163 CHAPTER VIII Eneolithic Dwellings and Cemeteeies . . .185 CHAPTER IX The Eneolithic Period in the Islands . . . 200 CHAPTER X Eneolithic Mateeial 240 CHAPTER XI Rock-tombs and Megalithic Monuments . . . 269 8 CONTENTS CHAPTER XII pag:e Problems of the Eneolithic Period .... 278 CHAPTER XIII The Early Lake-dwellings 289 CHAPTER XIV The Teeeemare 331 CHAPTER XV Beonze Age Hut-Settlements and Caves of North Italy 372- CHAPTER XVI The Beonze Age in South Italy .... 400 CHAPTER XVII The Bronze Age in Sicily and Sardinia . . . 432 CHAPTER XVIII The Racial Problem . . ... 492 CHAPTER XIX Mycenaean Influence in Italy 511 GLOSSARY OF ITALIAN WORDS . . . .517 INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES . . ... 519 INDEX TO PLATES 527 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 Chelleen implement 2 ChelUen implement 3 Chelleen implement 4 Chelleen implement 5 ChelUen implement 6 Moustirien borer 7 MousUrien borer 8 Monstirien borer 9 Moitsterien borer 10 Mousterien borer 11 MousUrien borer 12 Mousterien borer 13 Mousth'ien scraper 14 Mousterien scraper 15 Mousterien scraper 16 Mousterien scraper 17 Mousterien scraper 18 Mousterien flake 19 Mousterien disc 20 ' Hour-glass ' vase, Ligurian caves 21 Square-moutbed vase, Ligurian caves 22 Square-moutbed vase, Ligurian caves 23 Footed vase, Caverna dell' Acqua 24 Neolitbic ovoid cup, Ligurian caves 25 Pintadera from tbe Caverna dell' Acqua 26 Flint borer from Breonio 27 Flint spearhead (?) from Breonio . 28 Forms of ' freak ' flints, Breonio . 29 Freak flints, Breonio 30 Fragments of incised ware, Matera 31 Fragments of painted ware ' a fasce larghe ', Matera 32 Vase from neolithic hut-foundations, Eeggio 33 Vase from neolithic hut-foundations, Reggio 34 Vase-fragment with impressed leaf- ornament, neolithic hut-founda- tions, Reggio 35 Neolithic vase from Alba Cuneo . 36 Designs on imported painted ware, Matera 37, 38 Vases from neolithic burials at Taranto 39 Incised vase, ViUafrati .... 40 Fragment of incised ware, ViUafrati . < 41 Qloclcenhecher or bicchiere a campana, ViUafrati 42 Incised vase, Moaida ..... PAGE 23 23 24 25 26 10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS WOUBE PAGE 43 Inverted-oonioal vase, Moarda 128 44 Flint knives, Stentinello 130 45 Designs on incised ware, Stentinello 131 46 Incised designs common to Cretan and Sicilian neolithic pottery 136 47 Neolithic arrowhead, San Cono, Sicily 142 48 Neolithic scraper (grattoir) of flint 146 49 Neolithic flint ' rectangular ' knife ...... 146 50 Neolithic flint borer 146 51 Transverse arrowheads (?) and rhomboid flints .... 147 52 Neolithic knife-saw {coltello-eega) 148 53 Sections down central plane of (o) adze {ascia) and (6) hatchet {accetta) 151 54 Flat celt of polished stone, Eeggio 151 55, 56 Polished stone celts found near Bologna .... 152 57 Polished stone celt, Reggie 153 58 Chisel of polished stone, Reggio 153 59 Cylindrical stone celt from Magisano 154 60 Small stone celt used aa chisel, Vibrata Valley .... 154 61, 62 Neolithic vases of Aegaean form from Matera . . . 158 63 Almond-shaped lancehead (?). Derived from Chelleen type . . 177 64 Willow-leaf lancehead (?) from the Gargano. "Derived iiomChellhn type 178 65 Implement of derived Chelleen type ...... 179 66, 67 Implements of derived Chell&en form ..... 180 68, 69 Implements of derived Chelleen form .... 181 70 Adze derived from Chellhn form 182 71 Chisel of derived Chell&en type 182 72 Tranchet or coupoir, front and back views ..... 183 73 Narrowed form of tranchet 183 74 High-handled cup, Pietrarossa 202 75 Imported ornament of bone, CasteUuccio 204 76 So-caUed dolmen-grave, MonteraceUo 207 77 Early form of high-footed basin 215 78 Painted cup 215 79 Painted cup 216 80 High-footed basin 216 81 Painted jar 217 82 Painted cup 217 83 Painted 'hour-glass' cup ........ 217 84 Typical painted patterns from Sicily and Chaeronaea . . .218 85 Incised and punctured potsherd, Gala Farina .... 220 86 Sese, Pantelleria 224 87 Typical nuraghe ; elevation, section and ground-plan . . . 227 88 ' Giant's Grave,' Sardinia 231 89 Rock-tomb, Sardinia ; section and plan 233 90 Bock-tomb, Sardinia ; section and plan 234 91 Rough flake of flint 241 92 Flint knife 241 93 Flint piercer 241 94 Trapezoid scraper of flint 242 95 Flint knife 242 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 11 PIGUEB p^GB 90 Geometric flint implement 242 97 Flint saw 243 98 Flint saw 243 99 Flint lancehead{?) 243 100-103 Flint arrowheads 244 104 Obsidian arrowhead 245 105 Flint arrowhead, Ca' di Marco 245 106 Flint dagger 245 107, 108 Flint daggers 245 109 Flint dagger 245 110-113 Flint daggers 247 114 Polished stone celt, Remedello 248 115 Polished stone celt, Remedello 248 116 Polished stone celt, Remedello 249 117 Stone hammer-axe, Sgurgola ....... 249 118 Stone hammer-axe 250 119 Section of stone club-head 251 120 Section of stone club-head 251 121 Bone arrowhead 252 122 Bone awl 252 123 Reconstruction of stone celt hafted in stag's-horn . . . 253 124 Copper celt with edges slightly flanged 255 125 Copper celt imitating stone prototype ...... 255 126 Copper celt with slight flanges 255 127 Long celt of copper 250 128 Copper celt 256 129 Flat celt of copper 257 130 Copper celt imitating stone prototype ...... 257 131 Copper celt 257 132 Broad celt of copper ......... 257 133 Long celt of copper 257 134 Copper dagger, Santa Cristina 258 135 Copper dagger .......... 258 136 Copper dagger with well-marked rib 258 137 Copper dagger with broad rib 259 138 Copper dagger with weU-marked rib 259 139 Copper dagger with well-marked rib 259 140 Copper dagger 260 141 Copper dagger, unusual form 260 142 Copper dagger, Monteracello 260 143 Copper borer . . . . . . . . . . . 260 144 Slip of Cardium shell for sewing on garment .... 262 145 Marble pendant (?), Remedello 262 146 Stone pendants, Monteracello 262 147 Conical bead with converging holes ...... 262 148 Silver pin, Remedello 262 149 Incised vase, Remedello 265 150 Lnverted-conical vase, Monte Bradoni ...... 265 151 Vase, Cantalupo Mandela 266 152 Cup, RemedeUo 266 153 Inverted-conical vase, Remedello 266 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Arqu^ SIGUEE 154 Bowl with decoration of incised bands, Sardinia 155 Dolmen, Terra d'Otranto 156 Schndbelkanne of Aegaean type from Sardinia 157 Harpoon of stag's-horn, Brabbia . 158 Triangular dagger, Polada 159 Flint saw set in wood, Polada 100 Crescent handle, Cataragna . 161 Flint arrowheads and irassard from Mincio 162 Fhnt saws from Mincio .... 163 Objects of bone, horn and stone from Lake 164 Incised potsherd, lake-dwelhngs 165 Celt with flanged edges, lake- dwellings 166 Types of flat copper daggers, lake-dweUings 167 Axe with curved cutting-edge, colidlo-ascia 168 Rough ossuaries, cemetery of Monza 169 Bronze-hilted short sword, Caseina Ranza 170 Plan of terramara of Castellazzo . 171 Bronze daggers, terremare 172 Bronze-hilted triangular dagger, Castione 173 Ribbed sword of bronze, Povegliano 174 Short-tanged sword, terremare 175 Bronze sword with fianged hilt, Fucino 176 Bronze sickle ...... 177 Bronze arrowhead with flat tang . 178, 179 Bronze spearheads, terremare . 180 Bronze chisel 181, 182 Bronze awls set in bone handles . 183 Bronze pins ...... 184 Bronze two-spiral pin .... 185 Bronze pin 186 Violin-bow fibula, Peschiera . 187 Bronze pendant, Lake Garda 188 Comb of bone ..... 189 Bone needles ...... 190 PoUsher of bone ..... 191 Bone arrowheads ..... 192 Bone object of unknown use 193 Stick or sceptre of wood 194 Section of small conical vase, fischietto . 195 Axe-shaped handle, ansa ad ascia . 196 Horned or crescent handles, terremare . 197 Clay figurines of animals, terremare 198 Terracotta spindle- whorls, terremare 199 Sections of earthenware spindle-whorls . 200 Net-sinkers or loom-weights of earthenware 201 Stones used for grinding grain 202 Bronze pin, Povegliano .... 203-6 Rock- drawings, Liguria PAGE . 267 . 270 . 287 , 294 . 302 . 302 305 , 307 , 307 . 311 . 317 319 , 319 . 319 . 326 . 329 . 333 . 345 346 . 346 . 347 347 . 349 349 349 . 350 . 350 . 351 . 351 . 351 . 352 . 352 . 353 353 . 353 354 . 354 . 355 . 357 . 357 . 359 . 360 . 360 361 . 362 . 363 385 . 393 . 395 . 398 . 403 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13 211 212, 214 215 210 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 and plan Cozzo Pantano FIGUKE 210 Vases from the Grotta di Pertosa Vase-handles of South Italian type 213 Bronze knives, Taranto Bronze (?) halberd, Cologna Veneta Dagger from Fojano Flat celt with side projections, Siena Late Minoan vase, Mlocoa Short sword, Milocca Rock-tomb at Cozzo Pantano ; section Yellow-faced ware .... Yellow-faced ware, Cozzo Pantano High-footed basin of incised grey ware. Grey ware, Cozzo Pantano Mycenaean vase, Cozzo Pantano Bronze sword, Cozzo Pantano Section of rock-tomb with shaft- entrance, Thapsos Plan of circular rock-tomb with five niches, Thapeos Plan and elevation of entrance to tomb, Thapsos Mycenaean pyxis, Thapsos Mycenaean amphora, Thapsos Late Mycenaean vase, Thapsos Large jar with relief-strip ornament, Thapsos Incised grey ware, Thapsos . Ladle with liigh handle, Thapsos Incised grey ware, Thapsos .... Ladle of incised grey ware, Thapsos Ladle of fine grey ware, Thapsos ... High-footed basin, Thapsos .... Incised grey ware, Thapsos . Bronze sword, Thapsos ..... Section of tJbolos-tomb, Molinello . Simple flattened-bow fibula, Cassibile . Fibula serpeggiante con due occhidli, Cassibile Harp-shaped fibula with eye (ad arpa), Cassibile Fibula a gomito (elbow-shaped), Cassibile Broken-backed fibula, Cassibile Feather-pattern ware, Cassibile Feather-pattern ware, Cassibile Bronze vessel, Cannatello Horn-shaped object of earthenware, Cannatello Plan of rock-tomb, Pantalica Plan of rock-tomb with bench, Pantalica Eock-tomb, Pantalica Section of rock-tomb, Pantalica Violin-bow fibula, Pantalica Arched or simple bow fibula, Pantalica Bronze knife, Pantalica .... Bronze-hilted Same-shaped knife, Pantalica . Bronze razor-knife, Pantalica Polished red ware, Pantalica Polished red ware, Pantalica PAGE , 407 , 408 , 423 . 429 . 429 . 435 . 435 . 436 . 437 , 437 , 438 . 438 . 439 . 439 440 . 440 . 441 442 . 442 . 442 . 443 . 443 444 . 444 . 444 . 444 . 445 . 445 . 445 446 . 447 . 447 447 447 447 449 449 450 450 454 454 454 454 450 456 457 457 457 458 458 14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE 262 Polished red ware, Pantalioa 263 Polished red ware, Pantalioa 264 Polished red ware, Pantalioa 265 Plan of Royal Palace at Pantalioa 266 Bronze razor of mainland type, Grammichele 267 Pyxis of grey ware, Caltagirone . 268 Four-handled jar, Caltagirone 269 Bronze axe ad occMcllo' . 270 Bronze sword, Plemmirio 271 Bronze spearheads . 272 Beads of glass-paste 273 High-footed basin, Cassibile 274 Jug with design in red on ochre, Pantalica . 275 Askos with geometric decoration, Pantalica . PLATES : to foUow page 528. PAGE , 459 . 459 . 459 460 , 461 461 461 466 467 469 473 475 477 477 MAPS: 1. Italy during the Neolithic and Eneolithic Periods. 2. The Po Valley in the Bronze Age. 3. Italy in the Bronze Age, 4. Sicily: Sites of the Neolithic Period. INTRODUCTION The object of the work was twofold : firstly, to describe Object of the prehistoric civilizations of Italy, and secondly, to ^^q^J'J'^ determine their relations to those which flourished con- temporaneously in the Aegaean and the Mediterranean generally, and in Central Europe. In order to achieve the second part of this object it was necessary to attack Italy firstly from the Mediterranean side, and secondly from Central Europe. I therefore began by spending some months in Greece, Crete and the Aegaean, and afterwards moved on to Sicily and South and Central Italy, watching closely for similarities and analogies with the Aegaean. When this had been done I adopted the same method with regard to Central Europe. This task proved much longer than I had expected, and, as a result, it became necessary to abandon the idea of including the early iron age in the work. To this I hope to return later. For the present its inclusion would but have impaired the completeness of the rest of the work. Turning to what may be called the internal part of the book, i. e. that which deals directly with the material actually found in Italy itself, the method of working has been to keep Method theory and fact strictly apart. In deahng with any par- ?^ *^^^h ticular excavation, I have begun by describing the material evidence. found and the manner of its finding, making use in all cases of the original reports of the excavators ; only afterwards have I endeavoured to discuss the place of this material in the series and the problems to which it gives rise. The consequence of this arrangement is that the reader has before him in every case the material actually found, and is at liberty to test by his own criteria the conclusions here drawn from that material. Of the criteria on which my judgements have been based. Value of it may be advisable to give the main outhnes. Material "'^*'''°^^ 16 INTRODUCTION kinds of excavated may be at once divided into two classes, that evidence. fQ^nd in regular explorations conducted by competent archaeologists, and that found in ill-regulated explorations Irregular and by incompetent diggers. The second tjrpe of material, ^jqj^ ' of which there is a comparatively large amount in Italy, is of very hmited value to the archaeologist. It seldom proves anything more than that such material was at some particular date in use in a certain spot. This indeed is occasionally a fact of great value, but in most cases the lack of the necessary details as to stratification &c., makes such material a source of confusion and error rather than of fresh knowledge. Thus it will be found in the following pages that material gathered from irregular excavation has seldom been accepted as affording definite evidence of any- thing but its own presence in a particular spot. For example, the grave of Parco dei Monaci aiiords no evidence of crema- tion in South Italy, and the ' lake-dweUing ' of Offida does not prove that the terremare-iolk ever inhabited Picenum. Had the peasant who turned up the Parco dei Monaci grave spoken of ' burnt bones in a vase ' cremation would have been probable ; had he produced them it would have been certain. But he did neither, and the fact that he saw no unbiurnt skeleton is of no value as evidence either for or against cremation. Regular Even the material found in properly-conducted excava- excava- tions varies in value as evidence according to the nature of tlOn. . , . , . r 1 mi the site on which it was found. The ty^Dcs of site which usually present themselves in Italy are five in number, viz. caves, hut-foundations, lake-beds, terremare, and graves. Caves. In some respects caves are the most reliable sites. They often continued in use over long periods, and present a defi- nite stratification, sometimes made more definite by periods of desertion, during which the deposit already accumulated by man became covered by stalagmitic formations or bv continual falls of rock from the cave roof. Thus we can often definitely affirm that one mass of material found in a cave is decidedly earlier than another taken from a higher level in the same cave. But unfortunately such certainty is not always possible. In too many caves mixing INTRODUCTION 17 has taken place : the cave has been partially cleaned out at different periods in antiquity, the deposit has been disturbed by animals or carried away by man to fertihze the fields. Or again, burials may have been made in the deposit, pre- senting us with such intricate problems as those of the Balzi Rossi caverns (pp. 37-45). Hut-foundations often serve as reliable evidence. Even Hut- in the case of sites which continued long in habitation the *?^°da- ° _ tions. remains of successive hearths afford a certain amount of definite stratigraphical evidence. Careful digging and the use of exposed sections may extract quite rehable results from such a site. An excellent example of this was to be seen in July, 1906, at Brizio's excavation outside Porta Saragozza, Bologna. Objects dredged up from lake-beds, even when lying among Lake- the piles of a lake-dweUing, must be accepted with great caution. Even if they all belong to the lake-dweUing they may cover a long period. And nothing is more probable than that a few objects of far later date should be dredged up with the rest. Terremare offer more satisfactory evidence. They were Te, often destroyed and rebuilt twice within the same moat and rampart. But even here, though the deposits were formed on more or less dry soil, there seems to be some difficulty in keeping the strata distinct. Certain it is that no single terramara has enabled us to assign the tjrpes of bronzes or pottery found to various periods in the life of the settlement. Graves may for our present purpose be divided into two Gra classes, those which after a single burial were closed once and for all, and those which could be reopened for successive burials. The former, simple graves cut in the soil, are of very high value as evidence, for we may be sure that all objects found in them were in use at a single moment of time. For the arrangement of types according to their period they are perhaps the most rehable guide we have. Graves which might be reopened, such as rock-tombs, are of comparatively small value, as they may contain burials and objects of very different periods. rre- mare 18 INTRODUCTION Two other types of find remain to be considered, hoards of bronzes and flints found alone. In the case of hoards of bronzes it must never be assumed that the various types found were in use contemporaneously. All the evidence goes to prove that bronzes, perfect and imperfect, were stored together over long periods of time, either as reUgious offerings or in order to be melted down and re-cast. To suppose that two types found in the same hoard are of necessity contemporary is an assumption which finds its reductio ad absurdum in the assigning to a single period of aU the dozens of types which occur in the San Francesco hoard. Flints picked up on the surface of the ground afford no particle of evidence as to date. Though their form be Chelleen they may, for all evidence to the contrary, belong to the bronze or the iron age. No flint can be assigned to the palaeolithic period unless found in an undisturbed stratum geologically assignable to that period. These criteria may sound discouraging, but it is quite certain that such logical bases are indispensable if sound conclusions are to be drawn. Besides, excavation in Italy has yielded such a store of rehable evidence that we have no need to depend on that which is less rehable. By using only the evidence which is certain we can rely upon getting correct results ; by using that which is doubtful we may in a few cases get a true conclusion, but we shall more often arrive at nothing but error. FinaUy it must be noted that in our attempt to assign material to its place in the chronological series we are not entirely dependent on the evidence of actual excavation, for the typological method has now been admitted to its proper place in archaeology. It is not necessary to describe the method here, for those who are not acquainted with it may find it admirably treated in Oscar Montelius's Dietypologische Methode, where several of his most fruitful illustrations are taken from prehistoric Italy. Thus it is evident a priori that the socketed bronze celt is derived from the winged, and this from the flanged, and this again from the flat type. INTRODUCTION 19 Even here caution is necessary, and one must always be ready to admit that any tjrpe and its first or even later derivatives were in use side by side.^ If properly used, however, the typological method is of great value in correcting and fiUing up the blanks in the evidence given by excavation, and it is upon the joint employment of this and the excavation reports that I have rehed in the following pages. ' See Pitt- Rivers, Evolviion of Culture. B 2 The following ia a Hat of the publioationa most frequently referred to in the text, together with the contractions by which they are for convenience repre- sented : — Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana. (B. P.) Notizie degli Scavi di Antichitd. {Not. Scav.) Memorie. della Seale Accademia dei Lincei. (Mem. Ace. Line.) Rendieonti della JReale Accademia dei Lincei. (Bend. Ace. Line.) Monumenti Antichi, pubblioati per cura della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. {3Ion. Ant.) Brizio, Epoca Preistorica. Published as an introduction to Storia Politico d' Italia. (Ep. Preist.) Modestov, Introduction a Vhistoire romaine. French translation, 1907. (Modestov, Introd.) Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italic depuis V introduction des metavx.. (Montelius.) Munro, The Lake-dwellings of Europe. (Munro.) Mittheilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, AtheniscJie Abtheilung. (Ath. Mitth.) Mittheilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Eomische Abtheilung. (Bom. Mitth.) Atti del Oongresao Internazionale di Scienze Storiche, Eoma, 1903. Vol. v, Archeologia. (Atti Congr. Int.) Zeitschrijt fiir Ethnologic. (Zeit. Eth.) Annual of the British School at Athens. (B. S. A.) Papers of the British School at Rome. (B. S. R.) Journal of Hellenic Studies. (J. H. S.) 'Eifyrj^epis 'ApxaiokoytKri, {'E(p. 'Apx.) Mayer, Le Stazioni preistoriche di Molfetta. (Mayer.) CHAPTER I THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD Foe the existence of man in Italy in the tertiary period The evidence has from time to time been adduced, but it has t^'^t'^jy • 1 1 1 1. period, never withstood the test of criticism and examination.^ A deposit of the pliocene period from Colle del Vento yielded bones at first thought to be human, but later admitted to be anthropoidal. To the pUocene also was attributed a human skeleton from Castenedolo. This gave rise to a long discussion, and, after a careful examination of the place and circumstances of the find, it seemed almost certain that the skeleton was of quite modern date, introduced into the phocene deposit in which it was found. Finally, at Monteaperto, near Siena, were found bones of a creature of the whale type, marked with regular incisions. However, it was pointed out that these were lying in a deep-sea deposit which contained no signs of human industry, but numerous teeth of a carnivorous fish, to which the incisions are un- doubtedly due. There is abundant proof that Italy was inhabited by man Quatern- at an early date in the quaternary period. Up to the present ^""y. very little scientific exploration of these early deposits has been undertaken, and the evidence for the period is scattered and often unreKable. It has, however, been sifted by Cohni in his usual masterly fashion in an article on the Valle deUa Vibrata at present in progress,^ on which the present treat- ment of the question is in part based. As a basis for division and arrangement it is convenient Division to take MortUlet's French palaeolithic series consisting of ° ■^^®^" five types, Chelleen, Acheuleen, Mousterien, Solutreen and Mortil- Magdalenien, making no assumptions whatsoever as to the '^^ ? much disputed question of the chronology. Of these types 1 B. P., vii, p. 96 ; xiii, p. 68 ; xv, p. 89. ' B. P., xxxii, pp. 117 and 181. 22 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Absence from Italy of Solutreen and Mag- dalenien periods. Reasons for this. CheUeen and Mous- terie.n. the two which are most frequent in Italy are the CheUeen and the Mousterien. Implements of modified CheUeen form, which answer to the French Acheuleen, do occur, but scarcely form a definite and distinct series. The Solutreen as a palaeo- Hthic period is unrepresented, though weU-worked imple- ments of Solutreen type are found in certain neolithic deposits. Of the Magdalenien period there is not a trace in Italy. The absence of remains of the Solutreen and Magda- lenien periods is explained by Pigorini as follows : — ^ While these two cultures, or at any rate the latter, pre- vailed in Central Europe, Italy was already falling imder the influence of a new people who came by sea, and brought an advanced and developed civihzation with them. In accordance with this view is his theory that the Kjokhen- moddings of Jutland and Denmark were formed by families descended from the old CheUeen race migrating northwards from Western Europe. At the same time tribes of Hyper- borei, moving southwards across Belgium and France in pm'- suit of the reindeer, left their traces in the remains known as Magdalenien. Contemporary with both these events, the formation of the Kjukhenmoddings of Denmark and the descent of the Hyperhorei, was the appearance of new families in Italy bringing with them the neolithic culture, the most conspicuous innovations of which were the pohshing of stone and the use of pottery. The invaders, then, of Central Europe to whom the Magdalenien civihzation was due did not penetrate the barrier opposed by the Alps. Thus the two types with which we have to deal are the CheUeen and the Mousterien. We shall examine very briefly their chief characteristics and their distribution, asking at the same time whether any attempt at approximate chrono- logy can be made. It must be noted that in speaking of CheUeen or Mousterien types we do not mean to imply that the implements in question are palaeohthic in date, except where this is definitely proved, but only in form. A. Chel- Uen im- plements. The CheUeen implements of Italy may be divided into two tjrpes according as the greatest thickness lies at the 1 B. P., xxix, pp. 193-5, especially the footnotes. THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 23 base or near the centre.^ The former type is generally made Tjpe i. from a rolled pebble of flint or quartzite, the length varying from 6 to 19 cm. This type is the more common of the two, and is more roughly worked than the other. The base, which is adapted to the hand, often shows the surface of the pebble from which the implement was made. Two sub-types may be distinguished. The first is roughly oval in form, and the point is broad and rounded (fig. 1). The Figs. 1, 2. CkeUeen implements. Scale |. (Colini, Bull. Pal.) second is triangular, with straight edges and a well-marked point (fig. 3). The second main type of ChelUen implement is more care- Type 2. fully worked. Usually it is elliptical in shape, with regularly curved sides and a rather duU point (fig. 4). Occasionally, however, the form is an elongated ovoid with a point sharpened by minute flaking (fig. 2). In both types it must be noticecj that the two sides, which are both worked, seldom have the same convexity (cf. fig. 5), while in some cases we find the well-known twisted edge shown in fig. 4 (right side). ' B. P., xxxii, pp. 125 sqq. 24 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Other types. These are not the only forms found, though they are the most stable and perhaps the earliest types. In the implements from several of the great ItaHan centres of flint-working we see not only examples of much finer work- manship, recaUing that of the Acheuleen period in France, but also signs of the adaptation of the implements to special uses, by means of minute flaking at particular points. Distribu- tion a. Vibrata Valley. Fig. 3. ChelUen implement. Scale i. (Colini, Bidl. Pal.) The distribution of the ChelUen implement in Italy is not difiicult to ascertain. The VaUey of the Vibrata has yielded numerous examples, but unfortunately it is impossible to ascertain their original stratification, as they are found in recent aUuvial deposits produced by the denudation of the surrounding hills. Along with these implements were found points and flakes of Mousterien type. The probability, based on evidence from other sites, is that all the true ChelUen THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 25 forms found in the valley are of palaeolithic date. This is, however, not a certainty. Mousterien types, on the other hand, often survived into neolithic times, and this may have teen the case with some of the Vibrata examples. Such implements do appear to have been found in the neolithic ■deposits of the valley. Ghelleen forms are recorded from other parts of the Abruzzi and also from the Marche. In the latter district isolated Fia. 4. Ghelleen implement. Scale f. (Colini, Bull. Pal.) examples have been found, but for the Abruzzi the evidence is more satisfactory. The chief centre of the stone-working industry seems to have been near La Maiella, in the neigh- bourhood of Chieti. The implements of La Maiella, made b. La from rolled pebbles of flint or rarely quartzite, mostly con- form to the main types, but some, of forms more advanced and delicate, are precisely parallel to those which in France are termed Acheuleen. Compared with the implements of the Vibrata Valley those of La Maiella exhibit greater finish and more regularity of shape. Unfortunately none of these implements were found in deposits which justify any 26 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. conclusions as to their age, and any date which we may assign to them must be a mere matter of analogy. We may conclude that in the Marche and Abruzzi the Chelleen industry not only extended over a wide area, but underwent considerable development. On the bank of the c. imoia. Santerno near Imola (Emiha), Chelleen and Mousterien were Fig. 5. Chelleen implement. Scale 5. (Colini, B^tll. Pal. found associated in such a way as to estabhsh their contem- poraneity. They were found in the quaternary deposits of the second terrace of the river, d. umbri.n. Various parts of Umbria have yielded Chelleen forms whose position was not ascertained. In some cases, however, we are able to say exactly from what stratum they come. At Busco, S. Egidio and Petrignano, they were found in sand or sandy gravels left by the quaternary alluvium of the Tiber and the Chiascio. In other places they occurred on the surface, where the surface happened to consist of quater- I THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 27 nary alluvium, on the terraces of the Tiber and several of its tributaries. In the lowest and therefore latest alluvial deposits the Chelleen forms were always associated with the Mousterien. In the island of Capri Chelleen forms were found alone, «. Capri. certain flakes found with them being far too shapeless to be called Mousterien. The fauna with which the implements were associated included Elephas antiquus. Rhinoceros ticho- rhinus (?), Ursus spelaeus, Felis tigris (?), and the hippo- potamus. Thus Chelleen man must have lived in Capri in the old quaternary period. Similar evidence comes from Terranova, near Venosa, in the North of the Basihcata. Chelleen implements were found together with remains of Cervus elaphus, Hyaena spelaea, Ursus spelaeus, Felis spelaea. Hippopotamus amphibius major and Elephas antiquus. In North Italy Chelleen forms seem to be rare. A few f. Liguria. isolated examples are quoted, e. g. from the Grotta delle Pate in Liguria, and from the Euganean hiUs, while it is certain that at Breonio and at Rivoh the Chelleen industry g- ?r«?"'?. . and Kivoli. m a modified form existed during the neolithic age. Prom the islands only one Chelleen form is yet recorded, t. Sicily. It was found in Sicily, in the district of Trapani. Besides the examples from Venosa and Capri, South Italy has yielded many others. The bulk of these come from the i- Gargano. peninsula of the Gargano, in which district palaeohthic forms were made until very late. The conclusions to be drawn from our material are not General numerous. As in Prance, so in Italy, the Chelleen imple-^j^^g " ments are found sometimes alone, sometimes with the Mous- terien, and, in some cases at least, belong to a quaternary period which had a warm chmate and whose fauna included the elephant. We have as yet no evidence from Italy itself for the hj^othesis that the Chelleen period was definitely earher than the Mousterien. Again, though implements of Acheuleen type occur, they are never accompanied by the objects which distinguish deposits of this type in Prance. The Chelleen industry had a long hfe in Italy, and Pigorini contends with much plausibihty that the arrival of neo- hthic people and industries did not altogether destroy it. 28 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. In particular, he describes as direct descendants of the Chelleen implements two forms, the Solutreen spearhead and the flaked axe found in neolithic deposits at Rivoh, and in the Valley of the Vibrata and elsewhere. Did Pigorini suggests further that the Chelleen man, whom he mtf o^le ^^^^^ *° ^® *^® earliest inhabitant of Italy, came from Africa.^ manoome ^^ g^ppoj,^.g ^jjjg j^jg^ ^y pointing to the distribution of the Africa ? Chelleen implement in Africa, where it is found in Algeria and Tunis, in the NUe valley, in Somaliland, in the French (Colini, Bull. Pal.) and Belgian Congo, in Cape Colony, Natal and the Transvaal, and also in the neighbourhood of the Victoria Falls. B. Mous- The distinguishing characteristic of the Mousterien imple- tenen ments of Italy is that they are made not from rolled stones ments. but from artificially struck flakes of flint.^ The working, which is sometimes quite fine, is usually Umited to one face of the implement, while the other is untouched and shows 1. 'Points.' the bulb of percussion. In Italy the Mousterien implements are of four forms, points (punte), scrapers, discs and large retouched flakes. The points are formed of flakes which taper towards one end, while the other end, formed by the plane of percussion, is left blunt to be held in the hand (figs. 6-11). The lower face is of course plane or nearly so, 1 B. P., xxix, p. 192 " B. p., xxxii, pp. 181 sqq. I THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 29 and the upper surface is worked in longitudinal flakes. Some- times the point and edges are finely retouched. The shape varies from oval to triangular, hut admits of endless varieties, and is often very irregular. The point is often unsym- metrically placed, as in fig. 12. Plate I, fig. 1, gives some examples of neohthic date. The scrapers also are made by 2. Scrapers. working on one face only. One of the longer edges is worked to a fine cutting or scraping edge by minute fiaking, while the opposite edge is usually left unworked. The cutting-edge is almost always convex. The forms are trapezoid, ovoid or segmental, the arc in the latter case forming the sharpened a 10 U Figs. 9-11. Mousterien borers. Scale f. (Colini, Bull Pal) edge (figs. 13-17). The so-called flakes do not conform to 3. Flakes. any definite shape. They are usually rather broad, and are retouched at the point and on one or both edges (fig. 18). The discs are, unhke the other implements described, worked i. Discs. on both faces. Their general appearance may be gathered from fig. 19. Rosa states that implements of these four types were found Distribu- in the VaUey of the Vibrata, sometimes in company with *^°°- Chelleen types, sometimes alone, and sometimes in neohthic a. vibrata T 1 , r ■ -, 1 Valley. deposits. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, we must admit that at least a certain proportion of these implements are most probably of neolithic date. Mousterien shapes are well represented in various parts of b. The the Marche, though we have no evidence to show in what stratum they lay. In the Abruzzi the district of Chieti has c. chieti. yielded numerous examples of this industry. It is stated 30 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. that Chelleen and MousUrien implements were here found together in alluvial gravels fifty metres above the present level of the river Alento. There seems, however, to be some reason for doubting this statement. The wide diffusion of the Mousterien types in the Marche and Abruzzi shows that the industry had a firm hold on this part of Italy, so that Fig. 12. Mousterien borer. Scale J-. (Colini, Bull. Pal.) Date of the Mous- terien imple- ments. Datable deposits. the existence of Mousterien forms here in neoUthic times occasions no difficulty. The examples we have so far mentioned give no clue whatsoever as to their date. There are, however, in Italy deposits from which more definite conclusions can be reached. In the Valley of the Vibrata, on the quaternary terraces of the river Santerno near Imola and in the pleistocene alluvia THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 31 of the Tiber, we saw that Mousterien implements were found together with Chelleen. We have now to examine deposits in which Mousterien types were found alone. The most i. Trarer- important of these lie between Parma and Enza at Traver- FlGS. 13-17. Moiisth-ien scrapers. (Colini, Bull. Pal.) Fig. 13, scale fj. Fig. 14, scale f. Fig. 15, scale f. Fig. 16, scale ,*. Fig. 17, scale f. setolo and Lesignano dei Bagni ; others occur in the Balzi Rossi caves in Liguria. In the former case the implements were found in a stratum abounding in pisohtes, lying between the quaternary deposit and the modern alluvia. They are finely preserved and show no signs of rolling. The materials 32 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAF. 2. Balzi Rossi. 3. Eome. used are jasper, flint, quartzite and resinite, and the imple- ments, to judge from the excellence of the work, belong to an advanced period of the Mousterien industry. In some of the Balzi Rossi caves, notably the fourth and sixth, were found Mousterien points and scrapers of flint, limestone and sandstone, in the lowest strata. The fauna of these strata included Ursus spelaeus, Hyaena spelaea and a Rhinoceros. In the lowest levels of the fifth cave Mousterien implements were associated in an early quaternary deposit with bones of a rhinoceros and an elephant. In other caves in Liguria Mousterien forms were found together with objects of pre- Fici. 18. Mousterwn flake. Scale f. (Colini, Bull. Pal.) Fig. 19. ilouilerien disc. Scale f. (Colini, Bull. Pal.) sumably later date, such as worked bones. Some of these no doubt belong to the early neohthic period. The district around Rome has yielded important remains of the Mousterien type from the quaternary gravels of the Tiber and its tributary the Aniene. The gravels in question are said to be of the post-pliocene period. If this is so the high antiquity of the implements is beyond dispute. Numer- ous isolated objects of this type have been found in various locahties near Rome, but their exact position when found is not known, and their palaeolithic date cannot be with certainty affirmed. South Italy has nelded considerable remains of Mousterien I THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 33 type, but they are usually found on the surface. Patroni records the finding of Mousterien flints in the cave of the 4. Cosenza Torre della Scalea, near Cosenza. The cave was completely filled with a breccia, which, in addition to the flints, contained bones of elephant, hippopotamus and cave hyena. The inhabited caves of Sicily often contain rough imple- Mous- ments of Mousterien tjrpe, but the evidence for their age is ^T*.^" ^ uncertain, and they are probably in many cases of neohthic date. We know from the flints of San Cono that in Sicily the palaeolithic forms persisted into the later stone age. However^ in the cave of Carburanceli near Palermo three distinct deposits were found. The uppermost was of Roman date ; the next contained flints and bones of existing animals. The lowest, 0-80 metre thick, contained ashes, shells, Mous- terien flints, together with bones of Elephas antiquus and Hyaena crocuta. Beneath this deposit was a layer of sand resting upon the floor of the cave. Mousterien objects also occur in other Sicihan caves, such as that of S. Teodoro, near Messina, but in no cave is their contemporaneity with the elephant certain, except in that of Carburanceli. Finally, it must be noted that on the Gargano Mousterien On the forms have been found along with Ghelleen on the surface, Gargano. while isolated examples prove the presence of this industry in Tuscany and in the Euganean hills. The conclusions to be drawn from this survey are mainly General negative. In the light of present evidence we have no proof cpnolu- that the Mousterien industry was later than the Ghelleen. It is certain that in some parts of Italy both flourished side by side. Both were in some districts in existence in the old quaternary period, before the disappearance of the elephant and the rhinoceros, and both persisted in a more or less modifled form into neolithic times. Besides these two palaeoKthic types of remains found in ^^^^^^_ Italy, the Chelleen and the Mousterien, there are still two Hthic more to be considered. These are, firstly, the implements types- of the type found in the deposits of the Balzi Rossi caves ^^^} in Liguria. The caves themselves are to be described under type. 34 THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. the neolithic period, because it seems certain that they were used as a place of burial by the neoKthic people of Liguria. The great bulk, however, of the deposit found in the caves belongs probably to an advanced period of the palaeolithic age, and the flint implements found are therefore described here. Secondly, we have to consider a series of implements which almost certainly represent a continuation of the Chelleen and Mousterien industries during the true neoHthic period. Such implements are found at Rivoli and Breonio, in the province of Verona, in the Vibrata Valley, and on the Gargano promontory. The question of these survivals is treated in Chapter VII. The flint implements of the Balzi Rossi caves constitute a special class. In some respects they recall those of the Mousterien type, though the work is often much finer. They cannot be exactly paralleled from the French palaeoUthic series. The absence of the fine laurel-leaf lanceheads prevents our classing them as Solutreen, and the fine bone-work of the Madeleine period is entirely lacking here. Indeed both these French periods are unrepresented in Italy. On the other hand, it has been shown that these deposits of the Balzi Rossi caves are not neolithic, though some of the flint tj^es are to be found in neolithic times. We must therefore construct a third group of palaeolithic imple- ments, a group apparently later in date than the earliest Chelleen and Mousterien in Italy. Unfortunately the material from the latest excavations in these caves is as yet unpub- Use of lished, and we are thus unable to describe it in detail. It prepared jg g^arply separated from the older palaeolithic material by the fact that it contains implements based on the use of regular rectangular flakes of flint taken from a prepared Forms, core. They are triangular or trapezoidal in section, and are generally left just as they come from the core, or merely ■0.. Knife. sHghtly flaked on the long edges. In this simple form they b. Scraper, serve as knives. At other times, however, one of the ends is rounded off by minute flaking on one side only to serve as a scraper. In some cases both ends are worked in this I THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD 35 way, and we thus get a double scraper ; or again, one end i^- Borer. of the flake is adapted for scraping, while the other is brought to a sharp point.^ All the implements so far described are types which continue in use during the neohthic period. The pecuharity of the deposit under discussion is, however, the combination of such neolithic types with others which are of quite different nature. They include a series of very d. Fine small dehcate borers, worked in small flakes on one face only, and several larger lanceheads worked minutely along e. Lance- part of the edges on the upper face. It must be noticed that ®* ^' none of these types is peculiar to this deposit, and it is only their combination with one another and with certain objects of bone and shell, together with the absence of pottery, that necessitates their being attributed to a special period of the late palaeoHthic age. 1 See Mortillet, Mu-see Prthisiorique, PI. XVIII, figs. 138 and 141-3. c2 CHAPTER II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS The Cave- It has already been seen that palaeolithic man in Italy dwellers, m^de his home almost invariably in natural caverns. The neohthic age in Italy is undoubtedly marked by the appear- ance of a new race, who bring with them the art of pohshing stone, the industry of pottery-making and the custom of dweUing in huts. Hut-dweUings, however, entailed some labour and afforded little protection from severe weather. It was, therefore, only to be expected that when these people found a suitable cave ready to hand they used it in pre- ference to building huts. Thus the first neohthic people who came to Italy took up their position partly in the caves, especially those of liguria, partly in the open, particularly in Emiha, where they built huts. Caves of The practice of hving in caves, however, was not limited to the palaeolithic and neohthic periods. There are caves in Italy which were inhabited during the transition from the stone to the bronze period, e. g. the cave on Monte Bradoni, near Volterra, while others, such as those of Fame, near Bologna, and Frasassi, near Ancona, were still in use in the full bronze age. For the present we hmit ourselves to dealing with the most important caves which contain remains definitely attribu- table to the true neohthic age. Caves in- We must, however, notice two points. In the first place, habited gome caves were inhabited in various periods, sometimes and de- . . • i , r ^ aerted al- contmuously. Sometimes with longer or shorter periods of temately. desertion. This may be either an advantage or a disadvan- tage to the archaeologist. If the periods of desertion have been long, the remains of man in various times of occupation may be definitely separated by strata of stalagmite or other various periods. CHAP. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 37 natural formation. In this case even careless digging can separate the different periods. But if the periods of desertion have been short there is no such guide, and any but the most accurate excavation must end in mere confusion. Examples of this will be seen later. In the second place, caves were often used for burial. Cave- Some served alternately or successively for burial and for ^""^'• habitation, some for one or the other use alone. But in cases where a cave has been used for both purposes it is often of the most extreme difficulty to determine the chronological relation of a grave to the stratum of remains of habitation in which it actually Hes, for we cannot decide at what depth from the then surface the body was laid. Inhabited caverns abound in almost every part of Italy Geogra- and the islands. For archaeological purposes it is difficult to 5^','''^! group them, for though aU possess certain characteristics in tion. common they show such considerable local differences that systematization is impossible. We cannot even divide them according to the use which they served, for the great majority were used both for hving and for burial. We are therefore compelled to classify geographically. In the northern half of Italy two important groups of A. North- caves at once demand our attention, those of Liguria and ^™ Italy, those of the Apuan Alps in Tuscany. The caverns of Liguria may immediately be divided into The two groups, those whose contents are mainly palaeohthic, ^a'*'^s.°f and those whose contents are mainly neolithic, and which contain little or no palaeohthic material. The first group consists of the Balzi Rossi caves, the second of numerous caves of which the most important are Arene Candide, PoUera and Del Sanguineto. The caves of the Balzi Rossi contain a deposit which is a. The clearly the result of inhabitation. In this deposit, however, ^^ki are found burials. Now the deposit, as we shall see, is late caves. palaeohthic in character. If the graves are of the same date we have evidence for the existence of a careful burial rite in palaeohthic times, a fact of vast importance. If, however, the burials are later they fall into line with other cave-burials 38 NEOLITHIC! CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. of the neolithic period. We must therefore examine the evidence afforded by the caves themselves. The Balzi Rossi caves are situated on the sea coast between Mentone and VentimigUa, just on the Itahan side of the frontier.^ They lie in a mass of Jurassic limestone, and are almost all at the same level, about 27 metres above the sea, from which they are separated by a sloping beach. The caves examined are ten in number. As early as 1786 they had been discussed from the geological point of view, but the first archaeological researches on a large scale were those carried out by Riviere during the years 1870-5. The result of these excavations was to prove that the first six caves had been used as habitations by early man. The first, fourth, fifth and sixth were also used for burial. The ninth contained only animal remains. Riviere maintained that the whole of the material found belonged to the palaeohthic period, the two hundred thousand stone implements representing between them the Mousterien, Solutreen and Magdalenien industries, while the rare objects of bone belonged to the last alone. The human skeletons found by Riviere were six in number. The first came to hght in 1872, in the fourth cave. It lay at a depth of 6-55 metres, in a deposit which, according to Riviere, had never been disturbed. The body was in an easy position on the left side, its feet towards the North of the cave. The head was shghtly raised on a pillow of rough stones, the left hand was up to the head, and the legs were slightly bent and crossed. Round the head lay many shells of species Nassa neritea and twenty-two canine teeth of stags, pierced for stringing. More shells lay by the calf of the leg. At the forehead was found a bone piercer or dagger, and behind the skull two long fhnt knives. Both the skeleton and the objects which accompanied it were coloured by a layer of iron peroxide, which was thickest on the skull. The animal remains found near the body included Felis spelaea, Ursus spelaeus and Rhinoceros (tichorhinus ?). Riviere inferred that the burial was contemporary with these extinct animals. ^ Issel, Liijiiria Geologka e Preistorica, pp. 247 sqq. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 39 The sixth cavern jdelded three human skeletons. This i,. m Cave cave, which was completely emptied by Riviere, originally ^ ^' contained a deposit 6-50 metres deep. Remains of successive hearths were clearly visible, and it was on one of these, at a depth of 3-75 metres, that the first skeleton was found. Its feet pointed towards the North of the cave, and the left knee was slightly bent. The body had been buried in a covering of animal hide. The funeral furniture consisted of a flint knife at the left shoulder and various bracelets (all in posi- tion) of shells and teeth. The second body, incomplete as was also the first, lay at a slightly higher level. It was placed on the left side of the remains of a hearth. The ornaments consisted of pierced teeth and shells, and the whole deposit was, as in the last case, coloured with iron peroxide. The third skeleton was, unlike the others, that of a child. There were neither ornaments, funeral furniture, nor red colouring. In the years 1874 and 1875 two skeletons of young chil- c. in Care dren were discovered in the first cavern. They lay close together at a depth of 2-70 metres. Above one of them was found the remains of a belt made of over a thousand shells of Nassa neritea. Both bodies were buried in the extended position, lying north-east and south-west. There was no red colouring and no funeral furniture, except possibly one flint scraper. Riviere's conclusions were briefly as follows. The Balzi Riviere's Rossi deposits examined by him were undisturbed, and ^onclu- 11 1 sions. belong from top to bottom to one period, the quaternary. The inhabitants were contemporary with Hyaena spelaea, i. Fauna. Ursus spelaeus, Felis spelaea, Rhinoceros tichorhinus and a species of Elephas. The weapons of stone are all of palaeo- 2. impie- I'l'i 111 .1- 1 iciu/r menfcs all hthic date and belong in the mam to the end of the Mous- paiaeo- terien and the beginning of the Solutreen periods, in spite of the fact that the worked bones point to the Magdalenien age. In the lowest strata of the deposits flint weapons were almost entirely replaced by those of gres and limestone. The latter are not markedly older than those of flint, because they are accompanied by the same fauna ; they were made by the cave-men at their first arrival, before they had found 3. Burials suitable deposits of fiint. The burials are contemporary Kthic. 40 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. with the strata in which they were found. The dead were buried wrapped in skins, with their ornaments upon them, flint implements being sometimes added. They were buried in the cave where they had lived, and their famihes continued to Uve there. Sometimes the body was left in the position in which it lay at the time of death, at others it was laid on the cave-hearth with the head shghtly raised. No atten- tion was given to orientation, but a layer of iron peroxide was strewn over th^ remains. Children were buried without any of the rites observed in the case of adults. The skulls were all of the Cro-Magnon type. Problems These results did not pass unchallenged. They were fol- raised by lowed by a long series of disputes and discussions which are cxcava- not even now at an end. The history of the question is too tions. long to be given here. It has been admirably treated by Colini.i r£\^Q four main questions to which Riviere's results give rise are as follows. Firstly, were the deposits undis- turbed at the time of the excavation ? Secondly, are they all of quaternary date, and, if so, to what period can they be referred ? Thirdly, are the tombs contemporary with the deposits in which they were found ? Fourthly, are the skulls of Cro-Magnon type ? 1. Were The first question need not detain us long. Eyewitnesses posits'un- agree in stating that before Riviere's excavations the deposits afthe''^'^ had been tampered with in modern times, though the extent moment of of the damage is uncertain. De Mortillet agrees that mixing tion? had already taken place in the neohthic age. He points out that the fauna is mixed, and that species are found in the same stratum which could not possibly have been con- temporary. Much of the confusion was, he thinks, caused by the digging of the graves in neohthic times. 2. To what With regard to the second question there is more diffi- \^f°^^° culty. In 1872 De Mortillet decided that the deposits of belong? ^}je caves belonged to the period of the reindeer, although the remains of that animal had at that time not been found there. The industry represented, according to De Mortillet, was therefore the MagdaUnien. De Nadaillac supported this in the main, but hinted that several periods might be ' In B. p., xix. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 41 represented by the deposits. Hamy pointed out that the worked bone implements of the Magdalenien period were rare in the Balzi Rossi caves, and, when they occurred, were not worked in the same way as those of La Madeleine. He suggested several points of resemblance between Balzi Rossi and Cro-Magnon. In 1876 De Mortillet modified his views. Observing that in the lower strata, where Riviere reports implements of gres and limestone, the grattoirs, lanceheads and borers are never found, he attributes these strata to the Mousterien period and the upper strata to the Solutreen. The bone objects from near the surface he now judged to be, like the graves, neohthic. Pigorini held a view strongly opposed to this. He showed that much of the material from the Balzi Rossi was identical with that from the neolithic caves of Arene Candide and argued contemporaneity. He denied in particular that the Solutreen industry was repre- sented. An almost fiercer battle raged with regard to the age of 3. To what the burials. Pigorini, arguing from the rites of red colora- Ihe'buriais tion, and of burying the bones when already stripped of'"^^™^? the flesh, rites which are observed in neolithic graves in Italy, declared that the burials were neolithic. It should be noted that the employment of the second of these rites is based only on Riviere's statement that the bones of one of the bodies in the sixth cave were found partly incomplete and out of anatomical connexion. Others held the bmrials to be palaeolithic. They pointed to the depth at which the bodies were found, and recalled Riviere's assurance that there were no signs of the graves having been sunk into an already accumulated deposit. Cartailhac even tried to prove that the rite of stripping the flesh off was usual in France in the Magdalenien period. As to the fourth question there is little difficulty. The i. Of what skuUs found by Riviere are of the Cro-Magnon type. The thrsMis? heads are long and the face broad at the top and across the middle, while the orbits are rectangular and set low. Pigo- rini, noting that the neolithic skulls of Arene Candide are precisely similar, argues that the Balzi Rossi graves are also neolithic. Issel, who thinks the graves palaeohthic. 42 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. maintains that the palaeoUthic type of skull lasted on into neolithic times in Liguria. Such were the diversities of opinion arising out of the discoveries of Riviere. Since Riviere wrote, the fifth cave, called Barma Grande, has been explored thoroughly. The deposit contained remains of hearths, charcoal, burnt earth, cinders, split bones, flint implements, flakes and cores. In 1884 a skeleton was unearthed at a depth of 8-40 metres. It was extended on its back, and the head was covered with red ochre. The furniture consisted of two flint knives. In 1892 three more skeletons appeared. They were exactly orien- tated with the feet to the West. Two lay on the left side, the third on its back. The furniture consisted in each case of a fine flint knife, placed in two cases in the left hand. One of the bodies had also an ornament of bone or horn. The usual ornaments of sheUs and the usual red covering were observed. The skulls, so far as could be ascertained, were of the Cro-Magnon t3rpe. These discoveries did nothing to solve the old problems, but merely raised them afresh. If they did contribute any new evidence it was that noted by Evans when he says that no bones of extinct species were found associated with the burials. As a summing up of the evidence from the point of view of Italian archaeology, that of Colini is well worth repeating. After giving very sound reasons for using great reserve in accepting Riviere's statements, he states the following con- clusions : — The deposits of the various caves differ in date. The various strata found comprise both a quaternary and a pre- sent-day fauna, but the bulk of the material is of the period known in France as that of the reindeer. Mixing of strata has taken place in some of the caves. In some cases it is of modern origin, in others it is ancient, and was caused by the sinking of graves in an already formed deposit. To the idea that the bodies were left on the cave-floor and that the deposit accumulated over them Colini gives no credence whatsoever, and he adds that the fauna found in proximity to a body has no chronological value for determining the II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 43 age of the burial. Some of the objects found in the upper strata are certainly neoUthic, e.g. potsherds, a pohshed axe, a stone ring &c., and perhaps also some of the bone objects. The bulk of the deposit is palaeolithic. The lower strata contain objects of Mousterien type, the upper strata contain later objects, but there are no Solutreen flints or MagdaUnien worked bones. The ^ost-Mousterien flint implements have parallels in neolithic deposits in other parts of Italy, espe- cially in the Valley of the Vibrata. The tombs are probably of the early neohthic period, and therefore later than the greater part of the deposit in which they are found. After this the controversy broke out once more, the The special point at issue being the age of the burials. In 1906 q°^^^^^ the International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology was 1906. held at Monaco, and a visit was paid to Balzi Rossi caves with the object of clearing up some of the uncertainties. The results have been described by Issel,^ and form at pre- sent the last words on the subject. During several years previous to the meeting of the con- Excava- gress systematic excavations had been in progress, princi- gedingthe pally in Caves IX and I. In Cave IX four strata could be Congress. distinguished. The lowest consisted of a quaternary breccia Cave ix. of marine shells and pebbles. Above this lay a stratum containing a fauna suited to a warm climate, including Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros Merchii and a Hippopotamus, all typical of the middle quaternary. Issel does not tell us whether any implements were found here. The third stratum consists of a red clay with pebbles and masses fallen from the roof, representing a period when the cave was unoccu- pied by man. The upper layers of this stratum contain charcoal, cinders and remains belonging to the fauna of the later quaternary. The animals are those of a colder chmate, and include Rhinoceros tichorhinus, reindeer, wild goat (stambecco) and marmot. The fourth stratum con- sists of a stalagmitic formation covered by recent clays and falls of roof. Issel notes that the few specimens of reindeer found in the Balzi Rossi were probably killed at a distance and brought in. It is at least clear that the animal was 1 B. P., xxxii, pp. 87 ff. 44 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. rare at the time in Liguria. No burials were found in Cave IX. Cave I. The other cave, Cave I, yielded more important results still. The deposit was mainly formed by man and consisted of hearthstones, charcoal, cinders, flints &c. In the upper strata occurred bone awls, pierced shells, and flints of various forms, often small and finely worked. In the lower strata the implements were larger and rougher, seldom of flint, usually of sandstone or limestone. Most of them were scrapers and points of Mousterien type. At a depth of 7-75 metres were found two human skeletons in a stratum containing Ursus spelaeus and Hyaena spelaea. They lay in a trench sunk through a hearth-place. A rough stone sup- ported on two others protected the skulls. A third skeleton lay 60 cm. higher, in a layer containing remains of the same animals as those among which the other grave lay, together with those of the marmot. It lay on a bed of charcoal and ashes. A block of stone protected the feet, and another at one time covered the skull. A fourth skeleton lay 6 metres above the others, in a stratum free from the remains of the great carnivorous animals and containing the wUd goat and common stag. The two skeletons found at the greatest depth have certain similarities to the Cro-Magnon type, but their pecuUarities are such as to place them in a class alone. They have certain negroid characteristics. other Recent excavations in the fifth cave confirmed the idea of a definite progression in the archaeological material. In the lower strata the implements were rougher in type, and were usually of sandstone and quartzite rather than of fiint. In the sixth cave two distinct sets of fauna were recognized, the earher comprising a Rhinoceros and an Elephas, the later the stag, wild goat, boar, horse, fox and reindeer. The burials already referred to were found in the upper stratum. Issel's Issel sums up as follows. In some at least of the caves cono u- ^j^g fauna comprises species suited to a warm interglacial climate and species suitable to a cold chmate, that of the last glacial expansion. The objects from the upper layer belong to the age of the reindeer, but cannot be called either sions. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 45 Solutreen or Magdalenien. He adds : ' It is now clearly proved from the stratigraphical conditions, especially in the cave " dei Bambini " (Cave I), that the human skeletons are all contemporaneous with the strata in which they were buried, that therefore they are all truly quaternary, though The between them there may be great disparity of age. . The paSeo- hypothesi? of a burial of neolithic folk in a palaeohthic '^^ deposit is therefore definitely excluded.' All the skeletons found are of Cro-Magnon type, except the two from the lowest level of the first cave. Whether these results follow from the evidence we can Dq these scarcely tell, until Cartailhac has published the material conciu- in fuU. At present it is questionable whether an advocate jq^ from of the neoMthic burials will be convinced by Issel's very the curtailed reasoning,^ and unless the observations taken ^^' ^"'^^ ' were very much fuller than any described in this report the question can hardly be regarded as settled. From the Balzi Rossi with their unsolved problems, it is b. Neo- a rehef to turn to the other Ligurian caves with their de- J^ves of finitely neolithic deposits. Liguria. The cave of which we have the fullest information is that l- Grotta della called Grotta della PoUera, explored by Morelli (Map I, 7)." PoUera. It was proved beyond doubt that the cave was used both a. The as a habitation and as a burial-place. There were in alP'''''''^' nine strata containing remains of human industry, and intervals of natural deposit separating these point to periods . when the cave was not in use. The very earhest remains in the cave, i. e. those contained in the stratum which hes directly above the sohd rock, show a fauna which is not only quaternary but falls fairly late in that period. There is in this stratum no sign of Elephas primigenius, Ursus spelaeus or Felis spelaea. On the other hand, it does contain Cervus elaphus, Cervus capreolus, Ursus arctos, Felis lynx and ' Nevertheless, Colini has the following note : ' The most important result, however, of these excavations was to ascertain that in these caves the remains of the dead during the palaeolithic age and the full quaternary period were buried according to rites analogous to those observed for the neolithic age in the oaves of Arene Candide, PoUera, Acqua &c.' ' See his description in Mem. Ace. Line, ser. 4% vol. iv. 46 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. Sus scrofa. This gives us a rough estimate of the terminus a quo. The uppermost stratum contains Roman remains, and it is clear that the cavern must have been inhabited after the Roman conquest of Liguria by Fulvius. In all the successive periods the centre of the cave was used as a hearth, for it is here that the most conspicuous signs of fire are found at all depths. The total deposit is more than 4-50 metres thick. Bone objects were common in every stratum, and took very varied shapes, arrowheads with wings, needles, daggers, lanceheads &c. The lanceheads are triangular and care- fully sharpened at the tip. Small pieces of bone of circular section, coming to a sharp point, were used as heads of arrows or darts. The daggers are similarly shaped, but are larger. One is still fitted into its cyUndrical handle of horn. In addition to these must be mentioned wedge- shaped chisels, polishers of cylindrical shape with blunt end, smoothers, broader in form and used perhaps for making pottery, and finally long smoothed pieces of bone which MoreUi calls hairpins. The excellence of the bone implements is one of the great features of the cavern. Even teeth are worked. A boar's tusk shaved down to about half its original thickness is provided with a hole at the pointed end and with two at the other. It looks rather like a needle for coarse work, such as net-mending, though the number of holes is against this. A very similar example, however, has only the one hole at the point. Particularly striking is a pig's canine tooth hollowed towards one end so as to form a small spoon. Stone objects were numerous. Among those of flint were the usual long knives of triangular section, straight or curved, and retouched in some cases on the edges. Arrow- heads were most exceptional. Morelli quotes no certain example. Issel mentions two, one almond-shaped and the other with wings and tang, in Rossi's collection. Amerano states that the latter of these forms is represented in the uppermost strata. Besides these implements were found a few scrapers and nuclei of flint. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 47 Polished axes and adzes are common, numbering over Polished sixty. The material used is generally green stone, especially ^ °"'^' jadeite. The forms are the quadrilateral, the trapezoidal and the triangular, and the cutting-edge is curved. The poUshing is never carried out over the whole surface. One of these axes was found still fixed in a handle of stag's-horn. We must also notice what Morelli calls an axe with two cutting-edges. A similar implement, more finely finished, was found in the lake-dwelling of Lagozza.^ That these implements were used as axes seems unhkely. The example from the cave is too short to have been attached to the handle by the middle so as to form a double axe. It seems more likely that they were implements of ritual use. Two of these axes were of the chisel type, being narrow and almost cylindrical in form. Among the most interesting of the objects are several stone rings, now broken, of various kinds of stone. One of these was triangular in section and had the outer circumference keenly sharpened, though in places spoilt by use. This implement must have been a club-head (cf. PL II, fig. 14). The material is a green stone (serpentine ?). The other four rings, one of marble, another of limestone and not sharpened at the edge, are no doubt armlets. Two beads of stone were cylindrical in form, and a frag- ment of a broken armlet seems to have been pierced to serve as a pendant. Numbers of large pebbles were found in the cave. Some Pebbles. of these were certainly employed in grinding. The stones on which the grinding was done are mostly long, with the ends rounded ; but it is curious that those found below 3 J metres from the surface are rougher and shorter, and have a slight hollow in the centre. One of these took the actual shape of a mortar, being hoUowed and carefully rounded on the edges. Several pieces of limestone were pierced to be used perhaps as net-sinkers or weights. Smoothed slabs of stone furnished with a hole for suspension look like hones for sharpening bone or copper tools, and the pieces of pumice stone found in the cave may have ' B. P., xiii, Tav. II, fig. 2 48 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. served a similar purpose. Fragments of red and yellow ochre were used to adorn the person. d. Objects Of copper there were two daggers and an awl. One of of metal, ^j^^ daggers is triangular, with two projections near the heel and a short rounded tang with two rivets. It is strengthened by a flat rib which occupies nearly the whole breadth of the blade, leaving only a narrow margin at each side. It measures 12 X 2-5 cm. (fig. 141). The other dagger is nearly rhomboid in form. However, the sides towards the heel curve out slightly and are continued by a thin tang. The length is 9-8 cm. The awl is roughly square in section, thickest at the centre and pointed at both ends. e. Shells. SheUs were largely used for ornament. Many are simply pierced to hang as pendants or on necklaces. One fragment seems to have formed part of an armlet, produced by grinding away the most convex part of the shell so as to leave a ring. Five examples of Triton nodiferum have had the apex artificially removed, perhaps to form musical instruments. To these must be added three small hooks, two perforated discs, and some spoons (?) made by rounding the sharp edges of a Spondylus. I. Pottery. The pottery is all hand-made, and is of two qualities, coarse and fine. The clay contains small grains of quartz, and the surface of the vase is often smoothed over with a piece of wood or bone before baking. Some of the finer vases have acquired a good brown shining surface by exposure to smoke followed by poUshing. They were all cooked at the open fire. Issel has classified the forms, and finds that the pottery of the other Ligurian caves usually Forms. Conforms to his classification. Type I, spherical and ovoid vases. These are truncated at the top and usually flattened at the bottom. Type II, sphero-cylindrical and ovate-cylindrical. The lower half is spherical or ovoid, and the upper half cylindrical. Type III, ovate-conical and conical-cylindrical. In the former case the lower part is ovoid and the upper splayed out conically, while in the latter the lower half is a truncated inverted cone, and the upper is cyhndrical. Type IV, cylindrical vases. These vary in dimensions, but all appear to have been used for II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 49 cooking. Type V, vases with a distinct foot, e.g. fig. 23. These are often of the tjrpe called biconical or ' hour-glass ' (fig. 20). Type VI, vases with square mouths. These are a peculiarity of the Ligurian caves. The shape of the bodies of the vases varies (figs. 21 and 22). Type VII, vases with a keel. This class includes all vases which show a marked ridge or keel at the point where the two parts of the vase meet. The simplest example is the form com- ao aa Fig. 20. ' Hour-glass ' vase. Ligurian caves. (Bull. Pal. ) Figs. 21, 22. Square-mouthed vases. Ligurian caves. Scale |-. (Bull. Pal.) posed of two truncated cones set base to base. Type VIII, bowls. These are rather flat in form, with a rim often gracefully splayed out. Beneath the keel there is some- times an incised decoration of concentric arcs of circles. Type IX, cups. These are usually hemispherical or semi- ovate, small in size and without handles (fig. 24). The handles show great variety. Often they consist of Handle mere protuberances of hemispherical or conical form, left unpierced or with one or more holes. The most developed 50 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS CHAP. form of this type is tubular and horizontal. In the upper and middle strata was found the axe-shaped handle, and in one case this is concave at the top, so that it resembles the crescent handle of the terremare. Sometimes the vases were suspended by holes in or near the rim. Ornament. The Ornament is of three kinds, consisting of rather deep incisions, of strips of clay in relief, or of stamped designs. The incisions are usually of a very simple type, the stamped ornament consists of a series of comma-shaped forms, and the rehef-strips may be vertical and horizontal, plain or marked with the finger. One piece of painted ware was found. The clay is pure, and the simple ornament consists as 34- 25 Fig. 23. Footed vase, Caverna dell' Acqua. Scale J. (After Bull. Pal.) Fig. 2-t. Neolithic ovoid cup. Ligurian caves. .Scale f. {Bull. Pal) Fig. 2.5. Pintadera from the Caverna dell' Acqua. Scale -J. (Bxill. Pal.) of black bands. The surface is polished. There is every reason to think the vase imported. Issel describes as lamps several shallow vases with thick walls and a tubular appendage. Three other objects of clay seem to be attempts at the plastic rendering of animal forms. This cavern has, like others in Liguria, yielded several pintaderas or stamps for adorning the skin (fig. 25). They were dipped in a mixture probably of red ochre, and the flat side being applied to the skin left its design in colour. The other objects of clay included a few spindle-whorls and some loom-weights or net-sinkers. These last are spherical and pierced through the centre. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 51 Morelli discovered three interments in the cave. Each h. Burials. body was laid in a layer of prepared beaten earth, on the left side and with the knees contracted. Roimd it was constructed a rough oval casing of stones set on edge, with slabs laid across the top. About these slabs lay a mass of charcoal, cinders, bones and sherds, remains of the funeral feast. In one of the skeletons the left hand was held up to the head. Near the skull lay a sherd with a piece of red ochre upon it, while at the hip was a poUshed adze of green stone. Under the left side lay a goat's skull, and at the feet some bones of stags. A number of other skeletons have since been found in the cave, sometimes protected by stone casing, sometimes not. The most usual objects of funeral furniture are pohshed axes, flint knives, shells and pieces of red ochre. One grave contained part of a fine vase of pure clay with vertical black strips painted in groups of three on a yellow ground. The skulls are dohchocephalic, with square orbits and dental or even facial prognathism. They strongly resemble the Cro-Magnon type and are similar to those of the Arene Candide cave. Very similar remains were found in the cave delle Arene 2. Grotta delle Candide, which hes not far from the last, slightly west of ^g^e Finalmarina (Map I, 4). The cave is nearly 60 metres in Candida, length, cut into halves by the lowness of the roof at its centre. It contains a deposit 3-20 metres deep, regularly a. strata. stratified. There are six or seven distinct strata, each consisting of a bed of brown earth containing charcoal, ashes, pottery, bones &c., and a bed of white earth con- taining fallen pieces from the roof. In the centre the remains were mixed in a veritable breccia, marking probably the position of the hearth. Issel's first investigations took place in 1864. In 1874 b. Graves. he found at a depth of 40 cm. a hearth of blackened stone, and at 1-60 metres a grave cased with stone blocks. Seven other graves were found in 1876. The pottery is of two types, Roman and neolithic. The c. Pottery. D 2 52 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. first is wheel-made, and appeared only near the surface. The neolithic pottery is hand-made, of rough clay containing particles of gravel, baked in the open fire to a brown or red tint. A few finer examples have a black polished surface. The forms are similar to those of PoUera, as are also the ornament and the handles. Two of the latter should be noticed, one a long quadrangular protuberance, and the other a semi-circular protuberance with crenate or waved edge. Other objects of terracotta were a spindle-whorl, pinta- deras, and two idols, both of which were in a fragmentary condition. In the first the body is rectangular, broken off at the waist. The arms are mere stumps, the breasts well marked, the neck distinct, and the head spherical. The features are only faintly represented, and the eyes are marked by pieces of charcoal. Of the other there only remains a circular body with the breasts clearly marked. The stone objects comprise a few pohshed axes of green stone, a double chisel of diorite, and implements of flint and obsidian. The flint arrowheads are not common and are roughly worked. One flnely flaked example, however, in Rossi's collection forms an exception to this. The example in question is lozenge-shaped and almost tanged. Fhnt knives are common, often with double cutting-edge, and double scrapers (grattoirs) occur. One short knife is of obsidian. Other stone objects are a ring-shaped club-head of jade, similar to that of PoUera, stone polishers, mortars and grinders, besides pieces of red ochre and pumice stone. Of bone were heads of spears, javelins, and arrows, the latter sometimes winged, polishers, and a spindle-whorl incised with concentric circles. Besides shells pierced for stringing and tubes of fossil Dentalium, there were small discs of shell intact or pierced with one or two holes, g. Human Human remains were not infrequent. Many bones were ""^^ found left in disorder by peasants who had disturbed the deposit in the cave. Some of the bones showed tooth- marks and signs of fire. Issel thus describes the first untouched grave discovered : The skeleton lay at a depth of 1-60 metres, protected by a casing of rough stone blocks. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 53 and in a layer of white earth. Near the skull lay an unworked piece of stag's horn, some pieces of red ochre, once contained in a vase now disintegrated, and a poKshed axe of jadeite. On the thorax lay a boar's tusk with two holes at the base. The graves of babies and young children were without the h. Graves. casing of stone and seldom contained much furniture. Nearly all the bodies found lay on the left side, the legs contracted, the left hand under the head and the feet towards the sea. One skull showed a large irregular patch of red ochre on the forehead. A body in Rossi's collection was accompanied by the following objects : a bone disc, a pen- dant made from a valve of Pinna, and a fragment of a large Pectuncuhts. The results obtained in this cave in every way confirm those given by the Grotta deUa Pollera. The next of the series, the Caverna dell' Acqua, is of 3. Caver- greater interest because of the light which it throws on ^^^^^' cave-dwelling in general. The cave (Map I, 3) consists of two parts, an outer chamber, which is light and dry, and an inner. In the latter lay a deposit which con- a. strata. tained ashes, bones of animals, including Ursus spelaeus, and a black fhnt scraper of Mousterien type. This deposit is considered by Amerano to be palaeolithic. The other chamber contained neolithic remains. Two human skulls b. Bones. and many human bones were exhumed, together with remains of stag, roebuck, ox, sheep, pig &c. The pottery c. Pottery. is hand-made, usually covered with a shp, polished and occasionally ornamented with incised or rehef work. The shapes are similar to those of the Pollera cave. The use of strainers, vases pierced with a number of small holes, should be noted. The objects of stone include poUshed axes d. stone of green stone, knives of flint, part of a stone ring, grinders, polishers &c. There were also bone awls and e. Objects daggers, pierced shells, and a pintadera of terracotta. A f. painted painted vase was of pure clay, with designs in black on dirty ^^®' white. The design consisted of triangles. The contents of a tomb preserved in the Rossi collection include a skeleton of a baby, potsherds, a piece of sandstone, a fragment of red ochre and a bone spearhead. But the interest of dell' Acqua lies not so much inside the 54 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. g. The cave as without. Researches within the cave itself had con- outside the vinced Amerano that the neolithic Ligurians lived not in """• caves but in the open, using the caves only for burial and for temporary habitation. In order to test this he examined the earth close to the mouth of the cave, and discovered a thick stratum of black earth containing remains precisely similar to those in the cave.^ The pottery was hand-made and usually had a poUshed sKp. The forms were those of the caves, and included vases with square mouths. A frag- ment of a pintadera was also found. Amerano discusses at some length the objection that this stratum contains only refuse cleared from the cave itself, and decides that the deposit collected on the spot where it now hes. His con- clusion is that the Ligurians lived in the open, probably in semi-subterranean huts, and used the caves mainly as burial-places. As to the rest of the Ligurian caves, II Sanguineto, Ber- geggi, and I Colombi, a few notes must suffice. 4. Caver- The Caverna del Sanguineto, also known as Caverna deHa na del_ Matta (Map I, 5), contains a deposit consisting of the usual neto. remains of hearths, ashes, charcoal, bones &c. The vases are of the forms distinguished in the Pollera cave. The square-mouthed vase seems to have been common. Parti- cularly noticeable were a vase with crenate or waved rim and an incised fragment in which the incisions were filled with a white substance. Issel mentions three human skulls side by side. In the Rossi collection are remains of some six or seven bodies, three of which were those of babies. The funeral furniture of one of the babies con- sisted of a flattened-spherical bead of yellow amber. According to Issel, the human bones sometimes showed traces of fire. 5. Grotta The Grotta di Bergeggi gave remains of the usual type (Map I, 6). It contained six tombs, four skeletons being complete and of similar type to those of the other caverns. The contents of a tomb now in the Rossi collection are a few potsherds, a Murex trunculus pierced at the apex, a small piece of worked shell, and several unworked shells, chiefly 1 B. P., six, p. 174. geggi- II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLIKGS 55 Patella. Issel mentions a polished axe of amphibolite, an arrowhead of jasper, and knives of hght flint. Similar remains were gathered in the Caverna dei Colombi, 6. Caver- which lies in the island of Palmaria(Map I, 28). Rossi's col- q'''j^\- lection includes knives of flint, a flake of jasper, lanceheads of bone, a pierced shell and a human vertebra. Summing up the results of these excavations, we may The Ligu- assert that during the neohthic period the coast of Liguria "^^ °^ J^f was inhabited by a race of men who lived partly in the open, partly in caves. They buried their dead in caves, laying the body usually on its left side in a contracted position, in some cases protecting it with a casing of rough stones, and providing it with considerable funeral furniture, usually including pieces of red ochre. Akin in some respects to these Ligurian caves, though Caves of differing from them in others, are the caves of the Apuan *. . , . . , Apuan Alps (Map I, 27), which lie just to the north of Pisa. Several Alps. caves in these mountains were examined by Regnoh some years ago.^ One of the most important is the Grotta dei Goti, 1. Grotta which lies in the district of Farnocchia. In a mass of river ®' ° '■ gravel united by calcareous infiltration were found numerous remains. The bones of animals included those of the cave-bear, stag, marmot, and ox. Of human remains only one tooth was found. Nothing, however, must be argued from the absence of bones, as, some ten years before the excavation, an inhabi- tant of Farnocchia, attracted by the usual legend of buried treasure, dug over much of the earth in the cave and threw out all the bones he found. The remains of human industry were few; a few teeth of animals, adapted for cutting or piercing, several fragments of pottery similar to the coarse type in the Grotta all' Onda, and eight rough flakes of stone. The deposit also contained fragments of charcoal. The cave was used, according to Regnoli, during the period of the cave-bear as a habitation,^ but the presence of the human •■ Regnoli, Ricerche nelle Alpi Apuane, 1867. ^ Regnoli's report, however, by no means proves this. 56 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. tooth suggests that it also served for burial. Had the deposit remained undisturbed by the treasure-seeker we should no doubt have had much more satisfactory evidence on the point. Fortunately, however, there is no such doubt regarding 2. II Ta- the next cave, that called II Tamaccio, which Ues among maccio ^j^g Apuan Alps near Casoh. Excavations to the depth of a metre at various points of the floor yielded no results. However, in the left side of the cave as one enters is a small recess, only 72 cm. high, the entrance to which was guarded a. Burials, by large stones. These removed, and the earth within the recess examined, it was found that the recess had been used as a burial-place. Two huge boulders blocked it up at the back, and the impossibility of moving them put an end to further excavation in the recess. The human bones were comparatively numerous. They were mixed up in a stratum containing pieces of charcoal, shells, pottery, and bones of ox, stag, sheep, pig (?) and bear. A few of the bones belonged to birds. The land shells included Helix of various species and Cyclostoma elegans. The marine shells were three Patella and two Pectunculus. b. Pottery. Sixteen sherds of pottery were found, similar to those of the Grotta all' Onda. One was of the finer pohshed type, c. Sling- the rest of the coarse kind. Forty-six clay balls of about the size of cherries form a remarkable feature of the deposit. They are of natural clay, not strengthened by the addition of sand or grains of quartz, and lightly fired. Regnoli suggests that these are not sling-stones but ritual objects of some kind. This is certainly supported by their small size (the so-called sling-stones at Alba are many times larger), and by their technique. The qualities naturally essential in a shng-stone are compactness and hardness, both of which are absent from these objects, owing to poor cook- ing and lack of quartz fragments. d stone Stone was rare, and there were gathered only a core of obipcts. jasper and a polished river pebble, probably of diorite. It is manifest from the absence of remains in the main chamber of the cave that it was not used as a dwelling-place, e. Altar (?). but solely as a sepulchre. In connexion with this must be II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 57 mentioned a large block of limestone found near the left wall of the cave, 10 metres beyond the recess. The form of the block resembles that of ' the seats one sees in scenic representations of a prison or a garden '. On the more level surface, presumably the upper, are two roughly circular holes, one slightly above the other. Their diameter is about 20 cm., and they are fairly deep and well polished. Between the two runs a channel 30 cm. long. The description sounds like that of a rough hbation-table, rather resembhng those of Minoan Crete. It also suggests the rough tables in the megalithic monuments of Hagiar Kim, in Malta. ^ Careful excavation in the neighbourhood of this libation-table failed to reveal remains of any kind. This seems to show that we have to deal not with a cult of the dead but with a sacrifice at the time of interment, the total remains of the sacrifice being buried with the body. Just as this cave is the most important of the group as far as regards the disposal of the dead, so the Grotta all' Onda is the most important for the study of the habits and civiHzation of the living. It is a large cave at the foot of Mount Matanna. The 3. Grotta floor is covered by a deposit consisting of three separate ^ ° ^' strata. The upper consists of vegetable earth containing ^- strata. pieces of limestone. The middle is of grey earth, mth rare fragments of charcoal and bone. The lowest begins at 20 cm. from the surface and is 14 cm. in thickness. It is of an intense grey tint, and contains all the remains described below. In a retired part of the cave were found a lower jaw and b. Burials. several other bones belonging to two children of not much more than a year in age ; remains of two older persons were also discovered. The animal bones included those of the c. Bones. cave-bear, stag, roebuck, pig, marmot, badger, wolf, dog, ox, goat and sheep. Remains of birds were rarely found. Shells, both fresh-water and marine, were abundant. No vegetable remains occurred, except pieces of charcoal. Of bone were made a number of awls or borers, and some d. Bone pointed weapons evidently used as spearheads. These last ments. were each worked from half a bone, which had been split ' Mayr, Die vorgeschichilichen Denhmdler von .¥aK«, Tafel VII, 1. 58 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. down the middle in such a way that the concave inner sur- face of the bone would be of use in securing it more firmly to the stick. Two fish-bones perforated at one end were pro- bably used for sewing. Plat broad pieces of large bones, which are now observed to be smooth on the surface, are undoubtedly polishers used in finishing the finer pottery. Teeth of the bear, pig and dog were employed for boring and for pohshing, while a canine tooth of the pig was worked into a small but very sharp knife. Two sharp objects of horn seem to have been used as awls. e. Polished Of polished stone are a hatchet of jade, another probably of diorite, and a polisher of omphacite (?). A number of rolled pebbles, mostly of serpentine and Jurassic limestone, were used for grinding and pounding. f. Flint. The more common stone weapons were made of various silicious materials, e.g. fiint, jasper, carnelian, or else of obsidian. Rectangular knives of triangular or trapezoid section are common, the smaller examples being often of obsidian. Similar implements carefully flaked to a dull round edge at one end, and sometimes also chipped along the sides, look like scrapers. One example is of elegant curved shape. Arrowheads are of two kinds, those of triangular shape, worked on one face only, and those with wings and tang, worked on both faces. The occurrence of both tjrpes is of interest, as showing a combination of the earlier and later phases of the neohthic culture. The best of the arrowheads has not, however, the finish of those belonging to the eneo- lithic^ period. In conclusion must be mentioned a broad rectangular knife, running to a dull point at one end and with a deep inset in each side towards the top. g. Oma- Among objects probably used as ornaments were a wolf's tooth with a hole in the fang, a small disc of terracotta pierced in the centre, and numerous shells, of Patella, Gardium and Pectunculus, all bored for hanging. Three spindle-whorls of terracotta were found. h. Pottery. The pottery of this cave, now Ijdng in the Geological Museum at Pisa, has been specially studied and described by Cohni.^ The series is so important for the studj- of ' See p. 185. ' B.P.. xxvi, p. 190. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 59 Italian neolithic pottery in general that it is necessary to examine it in detail. Among the fragments collected three different quaUties Three of ware are to be noticed. The first is rough and coarse, ^^^^' the second is smoother, the outside of the vases being worked over with a flat implement, while in the third quality the outside of the vase is covered with a thin brown or black shp and finely pohshed until it is bright and shining. The clay used for all qualities is dark grey, mixed with grains of sand or quartz or with small particles of organic matter. In some of the finer vases the clay is purified. The coarser vases were apparently used for cuUnary pur- Coarse poses. They include jars with spherical body, contracted at "'*'^'^' the neck and w;ith the rim splayed out. Other vases stand on a fiat bottom, with walls rising vertically or sloping out. The handles are usuaUy of the ' ribbon ' type, made of a broad ring of clay bent round and apphed vertically. In some cases horizontal tubular handles are used. The rough vases are decorated with ridges running around the body, some- times pitted with the finger. The vases of medium fineness still preserve the grains of sand or quartz in the clay, but they are smoothed over the surface both inside and out, while the firing is fight and incomplete. The most usual shapes are cups and bowls of inverted-conical, cyhndrical or hemispherical form, with rims simple or thickened or splayed out. The place of the handle is often taken by a horizontal tongue of clay, rectangular, rounded, or ended like a swallow's tail. These protuberances still show the mark of the fingers used in moulding them and in attaching them to the vase. Occasionally we find a short vertical ridge with horizontal holes bored through it for the passage of strings. The ornament consists of impressed or relief - work. Around the rim is often seen a row of short parallel Relief- marks made by impressing a stick-end on the wet clay, or ornament, a row of crescent-shaped impressions made by the thumb- nail (PL I, fig. 3). A very few sherds show a number of pits made by a blunt stick-end and arranged in some simple scheme. The relief-work generally consists of a row of small knobs attached just below the rim, or formed by pinch- 60 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. ing up the surface of the still damp clay. Sometimes a few larger knobs are arranged at wide intervals around the body of the vase. Fine ware. The fine vases are well fired, though the clay is not invari- ably purified. The walls are sometimes moderately thick. After a preliminary firing a coat of fine clay was applied to the surface and finely polished, after which the vase was again fired, though in some cases the second firing was omitted. The handles consist often of a tongue of clay set horizontally, or a protuberance pierced with string-holes. One of the most important forms is the so-called hottiglia, a flattened-spherical vase with a narrow neck and string-holes round the body (cf. PI. II, fig. 10). This form afterwards re- mained common in eneohthic times. Ornament consisting of Incised knobs was common. Two pieces, however, show incised orna- ornament. ^^^^ consisting of bands fiUed with hatching and arranged in definite patterns. This is exactly similar to the ware of the San Bartolomeo cave in Sardinia, of Moarda in Sicily, of Matera, and elsewhere in Italy. In my opinion this type of ornament reached Italy from abroad only towards the end of the neolithic period and flourished during the eneohthic, under which head I have accordingly discussed it (p. 266). The two examples in question are so badly executed that they may well be attempts to copy from imported specimens. Two other caves in the Apuan Alps remain to be men- 4. Grotta tioned, those of Ugazzi and Guerra. The former Ues near ?f^ '^. Monte Argentario, in the province of Pisa. It was probably used as a burial-place, as several fragments of human bones were found in it. Five well-made arrowheads of flint and two stone pendants are the sole remains preserved. 5. Grotta The Grotta della Guerra lies in the Alps of Corfino, Gar- della^ fagnana. It contained bones of the ox, pig, sheep, and stag, together with shells of the genus Helix, and may therefore have been used as a habitation. Instruments of horn and bone were found, showing a great similarity to those of the Grotta air Onda. Of stone were a jasper blade used as a saw, and six arrowheads of jasper or flint, some of them being very small. The pottery included several of the small II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 61 earthenware balls which occur in the Grotta del Tamaccio, and a large biconical spindle-whorl, an object which dates the deposit or part of it to the latter part of the neolithic period, if not later. RegnoU also explored two other caves not actually in the 6. Grotta Apuan Alps. The Grotta di San Gorgonio (Map I, 30), in the Q^f o^jo island of Gorgona, was probably used as a dwelling-place, containing as it does numerous split bones of animals and shells of Patella and Trochus. Stone implements are rare. Of the two flint arrowheads one is formed from a fine flake by chipping the edges on one surface only. The other remains consist of a flint borer, a rectangular pendant of schist, and several pieces of limestone, bored perhaps to serve as net-sinkers. The pottery bears a close resemblance to that of the other caves in Tuscany. The Grotta di Talamone hes in the Tuscan Maremma. 7. Grotta The notice of the excavation is very incomplete, and scarcely allows any safe inference as to the use to which the cave was put. The contents of the deposit point rather to a burial- place than a habitation, and in fact Colini quotes the cave as one used exclusively in the former capacity. The animals represented are the beaver, cave-hyena, ox, stag, porcupine, horse, boar, badger, fox, sheep and hare. One bone may have belonged to the rhinoceros, but Regnoli puts a query against it, and in view of the other contents of the cave his doubt is well grounded. The human bones consist of a piece of a thigh with signs of gnawing upon it. This must not be taken as a proof of cannibahsm, as many of the animals whose remains were found in the cave are known to have the habit of gnawing bones, particularly the porcupine and beaver. Thus in Tuscany as in Liguria we find a group of caves Caves of which were used during the neolithic period both for habita- .^"^"^''y tion and for burial. The pottery found in all the Tuscan general, caves is of much the same type, and we are justified in behev- ing that all these cave-dweUers enjoyed one and the same Compari- civihzation. This civihzation, though probably in the main ^i^osgQf contemporary with that of the Ligurian caves, differs from Liguria. 62 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. it in many particulars, especially in respect to its pottery. Besides more general differences, we may note the absence in Tuscany of the square-mouthed vases and pintadera so frequent in Liguria. Burial. Unfortunately the disturbed state of the deposits has left us no evidence as to the exact position in which the dead were laid in these caves of Tuscany, so that we can institute no comparisons with Liguria on this point. Obsidian. A feature which both groups of caves have in common is the presence of implements of obsidian. As this is not found in a native state either in Liguria or Tuscany, both these districts must even at this early date have had trade-con- nexions with Sardinia or the Lipari Islands, or some other of the obsidian-bearing islands. Rock- But it was not always that neolithic man had the good shelters, fortune to find a suitable cave ready to his hand. In these cases, rather than hve out in the open, he often preferred to seek the shelter of a vertical or, still better, an overhanging cliff. North Italy has given two good examples of this. The first, that of Dos Trento, is, to be precise, just over the Austrian frontier, and the other is near Susa, on the Mont Cenis tunnel route. 1. Dos The rock-shelter of Dos Trento^ lies under the north-east Trento. gide of the rock of that name (Map I, 15). Its floor is formed by the flattened summit of a huge slope of detritus forming a kind of buttress to the mountain, and a projecting mass of rock provides a roof. The length of the shelter is about SOmetres and its depth from 4 to 8 metres. The floor is covered by a fire-blackened stratum from 0-50 to 1-20 metres thick, containing charcoal, ashes, and remains of human workman- ship. Towards the top of the slope of detritus, i. e. just below the dwelhng, were found numerous bones of animals, remains of food thrown away by the inhabitants. Most of the site has already been destroyed in carting stone for embank- ment work, and the only objects which survive are a few flints, including an arrowhead, several sherds, and four axes of chloromelanite. These fortunately are enough to 1 B. P., xvi, p. 132. II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 63 fix the date of the station with great probabihty to the advanced neoUthic period, though it may possibly be later. Fortunately there is no such imcertainty as to the date 2. Vayes. of the other rock-shelter, that of Vayes, in the vaUey of Susa. No one who has crossed the Alps by the Mont Cenis route will forget the view into the valley in which Susa lies. Ten years ago Prof. Taramelli, thinking this valley a likely place for neolithic remains, had searched it with some success. It was not, however, until 1902 that he was able to make any definitive excavations there. ^ Near Vayes (Map I, 1) a. The exists a large quarry of gneiss, in which remains still un- ''^°^' ' touched a small rook-shelter formed by a huge fall of rock ages ago. This rock-shelter was found to have been inhabited by neohthic man, and both within the shelter and close to it various objects have been recovered from the earth. In the shelter itself was found a thick stratum of dark earth containing charcoal, animal bones broken in pieces, pot- sherds, and other remains of everyday hfe. The animal remains, which included bones of the ox, stag, wild goat, hare &c., show that the inhabitants of the shelter were hunters and pastoral people. The stone implements include a number of fine polished b. stone adzes, axes and chisels, the materials used being jadeite, '' diorite and amphibohte. From some part of the quarry comes also a fine wedge-shaped hammer-axe with a hole for the handle. The objects of bone consisted of the usual borers brought c. Bone to a sharp point and highly polished. ments. The pottery is of a very interesting type and deserves d. Pottery. description in detail- It was very fragmentary, but three types were distinguishable : a type with a rough surface. Rough used mostly for large vases, a tjrpe with surface merely ^^^' smoothed over, and a type with surface poUshed. The coarse tjrpe included large jars with flat bottom and rounded sides, the decoration being limited to ridges of clay standing out in rehef, and pitted with the finger or with a blunt stick. Sometimes, however, there was no ridge, and the ornament consisted of a ring of circular impressions round the vase. ' B. P., xxix, pp. 1 and 125. 64 NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS chap. Medium The medium type, which was most used, is of half -purified *^P^' clay, and the surface is covered with a coat or shp of finer clay, which is then smoothed over. These vases are better baked than the former, being fired in some cases to a red colour throughout. The handles were usually of the ring shape, set horizontally on or near the rim, but in some cases their place was taken by rough knobs, which, no doubt, were less liable to break off. A common ornament in this class is the ridge of clay in slight relief, slashed across at short intervals with a fairly sharp cutting implement. Sometimes, however, the ridge is in higher relief, and quite deep pits are made in it at short intervals with a blunt stick-end. Again, the ridges may form simple patterns around the body of the vase, festoons, or a series of Vs. Moreover, akin to this ridge-decoration is that produced by cutting up thin strips of clay and laying them over the surface of the finished vase. The effect is much the same as when the ridge is moulded in making the vase, but the relief is a Httle more marked. One vase, besides a pattern of ridges at right angles, is also adorned with a number of ring- shaped impressions made by the end of a tubular stalk. This has an exact parallel at Alba Cuneo. A simple orna- ment consists of a large protuberance of clay on the surface of the vase. Finally, the vase may be worked with a stick- point with great regularity and care, so that it shows a square pattern Hke that on a golf-ball, or a very similar result may be obtained by tracing out with a stick a number of parallel furrows and then another set at right angles to the first. Finer type. The finest vascs were of purified clay, covered with a shp, usually brown, which was finely pohshed. The waUs of these vases were thin, and as a rule they were without ornament. The rock-shelter of Vayes may be with certainty attri- buted to the early neoUthic period in Italy. Unusual . tvt i t i remains Before leavmg North Italy we have to deal with two in the gites of an entirely different type from those so far examined. district, ^'ot that the method of living was here necessarily different, II NEOLITHIC CAVE-DWELLINGS 65 for it is still with caves and rock-shelters that we are to deal. But the material found on these sites, and especially the flints, differs so completely from all other neolithic remains that it must be placed in a class by itself, and probably attributed to a different people. The sites in question, Breonio and Rivole, or Rivoli, lie to the east of Lake Garda, in the province of Verona. We must now examine them in detail, taking first that of Breonio (Map I, 14). The Monti Lessini, which he north of Verona and east of Breonio. the Lago di Garda, afford a natural refuge to a primitive people. Consequently it is not strange to find that they abound in archaeological remains. These remains are remarkable in many senses, and to a great extent have no parallel in Italy. The earUest inliabitants of the Monti Lessini appear to a. Cares or have been cave-dwellers. From present appearances they shelters. lived not always in deep natural caves, but often under the shelter of overhanging leaves of rock. The most impor- tant of these abris sous rocher is that of the Scalucce at Molina, which was excavated in 1876. The archaeological stratum which lay at the foot of the chffs contained numerous animal bones, the remains of food, and two human skulls. The most interesting objects found are the fhnt imple- b. Flint ments. First and foremost must be mentioned the flaked '^'^ ^xes (PL I, fig. 4). These are rectangular or oval in form, worked roughly all -over, though in places the core still shows, and brought to a sharp convex edge at one end. But the remarkable fact is that the edge is frequently formed by working on one side only, while the other side shows apparently one large flake chipped off (see fig. 66). This is more noticeable in some cases than in others ; indeed sometimes the edge appears to have been obtained by fairly fine flaking on both sides. Side by side with these axes we find the tranchet or coupoir, ^.Traneha. 3, triangular or trapezoidal adze, flat and unworked on one face, and roughly flaked on the other, which is convex E-p. Preist., p. xliii. ^ B. P., xix, p. 162. Ill NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 97 these was found a human skeleton, but there is no doubt that it belongs to a later period. The stone and terracotta remains were very numerous. Axes and adzes are made either of green stone, such b. Axes of as chloromelanite, jadeite and nephrite, or of commoner material such as schist. Their shapes are most variable. Some of the smaller examples are almost triangular, but the more usual form is trapezoid with the edges rounded off. A noteworthy feature in both large and small examples is the thinness of the implements from back to front. In some cases the cutting-edge is rounded. Pohshing is usually confined to the cutting end of the weapon, the upper end being merely smooth, though sometimes the whole surface is beautifully polished. A few examples are so narrow as to deserve the name of chisels (cf. fig. 58). These vary between roughly 7 and 17 cm. in length, and are well pohshed. Of club-heads pierced with a hole there is no sign. Of flint were found knives, flaked straight off the core, c. Flint, showing in some cases the weathered surface of the original flint nodule. These are between 7 and 9 cm. in length. Some more finished examples are of triangular, trapezoid or polygonal section, flat on one side and often tapering at one end. The arrowheads are unworked on one side, while on the other they are sparingly chipped. Most show signs of a tang, and are of great interest as showing the perfect neohthic form in its earher stages. A complete example worked on both sides was found, presumably among the other objects, but it shows a degree of work- manship unique in this settlement. One example of the rhomboid occurs. There are examples of the usual scrapers and borers. Flint cores were numerous. Among the other products of stone were fragments of d. other . obiects of bracelets very carefully pohshed. A rather large stone ring stone. with a smaller hole in the centre may have been one of the well-known disc-shaped club-heads (cf. PI. II, fig. 14). Spherical pebbles of from 3 to 5 cm. in diameter looked like sling-stones. Larger pebbles were no doubt used for grinding. Two of these are of flattened-spherical shape, and another is rectangular ; all three are of fine dark stone well 98 NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS CHAP. polished. Lastly must be noticed a flat rectangular piece of polished sandstone with a hole at each end ; it measures 7-50 cm. by 1-90 cm. and is perhaps a brassard, serving as a protection for the wrist against the impact of the bow- string (cf. fig. 161). Tottery. The pottery is aU made of a rough grey-black clay full of particles of quartz and other foreign matter. The surface is usually burnt red, but occasionally it is grey or yellowish. There is no sign of poUshing. The shapes are difficult to ascertain. Some have a flat base and straight f. Its han- dles. Fig. 35. Neolithic vase from Alba Cuneo. Scale \. convex or concave sides. One is of an inverted cone shape standing on a slight conical foot. A whole vase which has been preserved consists of a flattened sphere with a pro- noimced keel, short cyhndrical neck and rim rounded off outwards (fig. 35). The handles are usually broad rings attached vertically. Less common are horizontal tubes to serve as string- or stick-holes. In addition to this we have a beautiful series beginning with a small tongue or knob to rest the finger under. Next this has a small string-hole bored in it, but is still a mere tongue in essence. The tongue now enlarges, and we have a handle, horizontal, leaning shghtly upwards, but stni showing its origin, and not yet attaining to the true handle of cylindrical section. On one vase we have three such handles, small, and placed side by side. in NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 99 The ornament consists often of slight ridges of clay g. its oma- running roughly horizontally round the vase. These are, while damp, either pitted by a blunt stick or by the finger- end all round, or else slashed vertically or slantwise with a sharp instrument. In nearly every case the vertical slashes end on each side of the ridge in a little round hole, and the whole ornament irresistibly suggests that it meant to indicate the seams of a leather vessel. The slashes on the ridge, which are very superficial, would represent the thread ; and the holes at the end would be those pierced by the awl or perhaps the needle. Another ornament was made by taking a fairly sharp pointed stick and Tvith a side movement raising a sUght knob of clay, making a corresponding depression in the surface beside it. The finger-nail sometimes served for this purpose. Finally, a few vases are ornamented with incisions ; these are usually sharp and superficial and consist of lines, parallel, or forming a lattice or elementary dog-tooth pattern. Rarely the incisions are deeper and scored with a blunter point. One vase has a thickened rim marked outside with a series of close vertical notches. To the Mst of terracotta objects must be added two spindle-whorls, one biconical, with the cones base to base, the other cylindrical and flat. It is impossible to determine now the exact nature of Probable this village at Alba. Beyond the statement that there were ^^^^^ separate hearths the excavator gives us no clue. But it is tillage. probable that each hearth stood in the centre of a wicker hut built wholly above ground. Thus we cannot assert that the half-subterranean hut was invariable in North Italy. What Chierici had done for North Italy Rosa, about the South same time, did for South. That is to say, he proved that -^^^'^ in the early neolithic period man inhabited huts half sunk work, in the earth. Just as Chierici found a fruitful district for his researches in Reggio, so Rosa found a rich field in the y^^^g^^^ Vibrata Valley on the Adriatic coast (Map I, 36). Indeed, Valley. g2 100 NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS chap. no spot in Italy is richer in remains of the prehistoric periods than this valley. It contains numerous rehcs of the palaeo- lithic period, as we have already seen ; its hut-foundations belong to every period from the early neoHthic down to the iron age, while two at least of its caverns were inhabited during the eneolithic or early bronze age. It was first explored by Rosa in the early seventies, and the results were pubUshed, but without sufficient illustration.^ At present a much fuller and better treatment of the material by CoHni is in progress,^ and when this is complete we shall, no doubt, be able to assign the various remains to their proper period. Its At present we are concerned with those remains which neolithic belong to the neohthic age. These consist of hut-foundations remains. ° ° n- • i and workshops {ofjicine) for making flint implements. The hut- Rosa reports in all 336 hut-foundations of the neohthic villages, period. These seldom lie separately but are for the most part united in fifteen settlements or villages. The appear- a. Form of ance of the hut-foundations is as foUows. After removing a stratum of surface soil a dark circular patch is seen. This patch is the surface of a deposit of dark earth containing charcoal, potsherds, bones, flints &c., representing the rubbish allowed to accumulate in the hut. On removing this earth, the original shape of the hut-foundation is seen. It is conchoidal or cylindrical according as its walls are slanting or vertical. The depth varies from 0-60 metre to 1-66 metres and the diameter from 2 metres to 4. In some cases a short fiight of steps cut in the earth leads down into the hut. The covering of the hut must have con- sisted of a structure of branches or wicker-work, supported on strong piles and covered with clay, for remains of the piles and of the clay occur among the refuse. In the centre of the hut lay the fireplace, consisting of blocks of sandstone marked by the heat. In one case two huts were found close together, connected by a passage partly subterranean. b. Date. The majority of these huts belong to the later phase of 1 Archivto per V Antropologia e la Etnologia; vol. i, pp. 378, 457 ; vol. ii, pp. 117, 219 &c. ; vol. iii, p. 336 ; vol. iv, p. 190. " B. P., xxxiii, pp. 100 sqq., pp. 193 sqq. Ill NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 101 the neolithic period, though some are much earher. Some of the earhest yielded objects very similar to those of the oldest huts of Reggio-Emilia and elsewhere, while the later examples contained arrowheads and daggers of flint minutely flaked, which were unknown in the Reggian huts. In huts of various periods occurred objects which show c. Paiaeo- that the palaeolithic type of stone industry did not entirely vivaJs!"' die out in the Vibrata Valley.^ Such objects are, for example, the celts of flaked flint (cf. PI. I, fig. 4) and the scrapers and points of Mousterien type (cf. figs. 13-17, and PI. I, fig. 1), objects which have no paraUel whatever in the Reggian huts. The inhabitants were not only a hunting but also a pastoral people, who domesticated the sheep, goat, ox, pig and horse, the last of which was unknown in Reggio-Emiha. Rosa, in his earhest reports on the excavations, also spoke d. Work- of a number of remains which he called ofjlcine or work- ^ °^^' shops. These consisted of large numbers of flints in various stages of manufacture lying practically at the surface of the earth. It was then supposed that these flints marked spots specially set apart for the manufactiu'e of fhnt im- plements. Further excavations, however, did not entirely support this hypothesis. It was found that these officine also contained remains of daily hfe, potsherds, bones &c., in fact, that there was Httle difference between the deposit found in them and that found in the huts. Cohni, in fact, now proposes to take these so-called officine as the remains of huts built on the level soil, without the more usual subterranean foundation. Similar officine were found by Chierici among the huts of Reggio-Emilia, and seemed from their contents to be more recent, so that it was suggested that to the habit of hving in half -subterranean huts succeeded that of living in huts built on the surface. Such an explana- tion will not suffice for the Vibrata examples, as the officine contain material of aU phases of the neolithic period. We must, therefore, on Colini's hypothesis, admit that both ' It should be remembered that in the Vibrata Valley we have no implements known with certainty to be of palaeolithic date, though palaeolithic forms occur on the surface. objects. 102 NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS chap. types of hut were in use contemporaneously, a supposition which is by no means improbable. . FUnt The material gathered from the huts and officine is characteristic of all periods of the neohthic age. The survival of palaeoHthic methods is seen in the axes and adzes of flaked flint, oval or triangular in form, sometimes so narrow as to be mere chisels. These seem to point to a continuation of the CheUeen industry, which is perhaps also to be detected in some of the larger spearheads. The Mousterien industry is represented by the oval or trapezoidal scrapers.^ To the early neolithic industry belong the rhomboid and other ' geometric ' flints, — the trapezoid form (fig. 94) is very common — bones, long knives, scrapers single or double-ended. To the middle and later part of the period we may assign ovoid, spherical and disc-shaped club- heads, the wedge-shaped axe with a hole for the handle, the wedge-shaped axe with a furrow for attaching the handle by cords, and the true hammer with a hole in the centre. The axes, adzes and chisels of pohshed stone may belong to any part of the neolithic period. To the later phase must be attributed a series of arrow and lanceheads, or daggers of very varied forms, and perhaps the flint fish-hooks. A number of obsidian knives should be specially noted, as the raw material must have been imported. Small discs of hmestone bored through the centre may have served as pendants. The objects of bone included pohshers and borers of the usual types. I. Pottery. The pottery was, as is usual in neohthic stations, of two types, a coarse and a fine. The coarser vases are of clay mixed with grains of sand or quartz, are well fired, and have rather thick; walls. The surface is smoothed over with a flat stick or piece of bone, but not pohshed. The chief forms are the truncated-inverted-cone, the hemi- spherical or ovoid cup or basin, and the large jar with hp curved out. The handles include the tubular type (a cana- letto) the broad verticaUy-set ring shape, in which the edges are sometimes raised, and the axe-shaped type {ad ascia) (cf. fig. 196). The ornament consists of conical knobs, of ' On these palaeolithic survivals, see pp. 177 to 184. Ill NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 103 ridges raised on the surface of the vase, or of impressions made by the finger or with a stick. Some of the vases which apparently belong to this class are on examination seen to be of finer clay. Among these are two important shapes, a basin standing on a conical foot and a flattened-spherical vase with cylindrical neck, the so-called hottiglia (cf. fig. 32). The finest vases of all are covered with a black shp and weU polished. The surface occasionally turns red or brown during the firing. Thus at quite an early date in the history of Italian Conolu- archaeological research it had been shown, thanks to Chierici ^io^s. and Rosa, that both in North and South Central Italy neohthic man lived in huts, sometimes half sunk in the earth. Later research has added to these results and we may Hut- now assert the existence of such hut-villages all along the ■^J^l?'?^^ Adriatic slope of Italy from above Ancona to below Bari. Adriatic The most northerly of this fine of settlements is that slope. of Fano ^ (Map I, 33) near Pesaro. Signor G. Castellani 1. Pano. reported in 1 877 the finding of some sixty arrow- and lance- heads, cores and flakes of flint, and pohshed axes of green stone. Two years later he found fragments of rhomboid flints in a settlement half-way up a hiU facing the sea. This spot yielded no arrowheads, but gave knives and borers of flint with fine flaking. On a higher part of the same hill were found other flints, including arrowheads. The absence of the arrowhead indicates that some at least of the huts of Fano are of early neolithic date. The material at Bologna includes a large number of chippings and fragments of the usual rectangular flint knives, together with sherds of pottery, some of which are ornamented with a line of indentations made by the finger. The next station lies not far to the south of this at Jesi 2. Jesi. (Map I, 35), near Ancona, where, on a farm about a mile from the railway fine, was found a small village of hut- foundations.^ None of them were more than a metre in 1 B. P., ui, p. 128 ; v, p. 96. ' Not. Scav., 1893, p. 191. 104 NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS chap. depth and all had been disturbed by agricultural work. It was, however, ascertained that the cavities were conchoid in form and of circular plan on the surface. They lay about 4 metres apart and were arranged in two rows. Each hole contained the usual mass of dark earth, with, in the centre, a thick reddened stratum baked hard by fire. The dark earth contained sherds of vases hand-made and cooked at an open fire, shapeless flakes of flint and bones of the ox and pig. The vases were in the main rough in form and texture, but a few sherds were of a fine polished ware. 3. Lago di Moving further down the Adriatic slope we next come Lesina. ^^ ^^^ villages of the Vibrata Valley, and after these to those on the edge of the Lago di Lesina. The shores of this lake (Map I, 49) were examined by Nicolucci many years ago.^ At two places at least, namely Camerata, on the south of the lake, and Pischino on the west, remains of a. The huts, hut-villages were found. In the former place the huts had been arranged in rows and their place is now marked by conchoidal cavities in the soil, about 2J to 3 metres in diameter and 60 cm. deep in the centre. These cavities were fiUed with a thick black earth containing charcoal, a few animal bones, potsherds and flints. At Fischino the same orderly arrangement of the huts was apparently not b. Flints, followed. The stone implements were almost invariably of flint. They included flaked axes of the palaeolithic type found in the Vibrata Valley, borers, saws, knives, rhomboids, discs worked on one side only and scrapers of the MousUrien type, besides spherical masses of flint used for pounding and as sling-stones. Only one fragment of a polished axe was found. One hut contained a few small knives of obsidian, and also the only bone implement discovered, a poHsher. Lanceheads and arrowheads did not occur in the huts themselves, but only in the numerous workshops (officine) which lay close by. The arrowheads were worked sometimes on one face, sometimes on both, and were usually oval, almond-shaped or triangular. A single example was of the type with one wing only. c. Pottery. The pottery, which was very much broken up, was ' Nicolucci, Eicerche preistoriche nei diniorni del Lago di Lesina. m NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 105 exceedingly rough and heavy. The clay was very porous and was mixed with grains of quartzitic gravel. The baking was imperfect and the surface, which was never pohshed, was generally black, occasionally with patches of red. The palaeohthic appearance of the flints led Nicolucci to d. Date, attribute the settlement to the palaeolithic period. Now, however, we may confidently assign the huts to the neolithic age. This is proved by the presence of pottery, and indeed by the existence of the huts themselves. Moreover, the absence of the arrowhead in the huts makes it probable that they belong to the earher part of the neolithic period. The workshops may be later than the huts.^ Our next station, Macchia di Mare, is not far from Lake 4. Mac- Lesina. On the northern slope of the promontory of the °^'* ^^ Gargano (Map I, 52), on the road from Peschici to Rodi, a neolithic site was discovered by Benucci.^ From his account it seems that no signs of the huts were found, but that under the surface soil a thick stratum of dark earth occurred. This contained fragments of charcoal and bone, together with numerous implements of fhnt. The latter in- cluded celts, borers, knives, lanceheads, arrowheads mostly leaf-shaped though occasionally triangular, chisels, saws, ovoid and discoid scrapers and pendants. It is difficult to ascertain from the scanty details given by Benucci any idea of the stratification or of the exact shapes of the implements. It is clear, however, that the implements as a whole had many palaeohthic characteristics, for the pohshed celt is absent and is replaced by the flaked axe of flint. Benucci notes especially a small triangular celt ' of Danish type '.^ Besides this the ovoid and discoid scrapers seem to be of the same type as those of the Vibrata VaUey, which are a continuation of the Mousterien form. The pottery of Macchia di Mare was in a very fragmentary condition. The clay was black and coarse, mixed with small grains of quartz and badly cooked. The surface was bright red. One fragment was incised with three parallel ' Are they perhaps surface huts, as in the Vibrata VaUey ? " A. Benucci, Vela delta pietra nd Qargano. ^ Obviously a tranchet. 106 NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS chap. lines. The commonest form was the basin of inverted-cone shape. In the same spot was also found a grave. It was in the form of a small hollow in the soil. The upper part was filled with the black stratum containing charcoal, bones &c., while underneath lay the skeleton in the huddled-up position. In the grave were an obsidian knife and a large flat stone with a smaller round one used undoubtedly for grinding. 6. The Our next station lies on the Isole Tremiti, in the Adriatic Tremiti gg^^ (Map I, 51), north of the promontory of the Gargano. On one of these islands, that of San Domino, remains of the neoHthic period have been found.^ No actual settle- ment was discovered, but the pottery and stone implements give some idea of the neolithic civilization of the island. The pottery is very fragmentary, but clearly belongs to the same class as the earher ware of Molfetta. That is to say, it is ornamented all over with the help of bone or stick- points, or edges of shells, while the clay is stiU wet. Among the commonest ornamental motives is the tremolo (cf. PI. II, fig. 4), and it is probable that the decoration also covered the handles. Some of the vases were rough both inside and out ; while others were carefuUy polished, inside or outside, or both. One fragment appears to have had a white fiUing inserted in the incisions to make the ornament stand out better. This pottery belongs to the group which includes that of Stentinello, Matrensa, Molfetta, Taranto and Matera. The closest parallels to the Tremiti specimens are to be found at Molfetta, in Sardinia, and in the Ligurian caverns, in all which places the tremolo pattern is common. Besides the pottery a few stone weapons were found. Among these are two of the ordinary green stone pohshed axes. Much more interesting are an axe and a chisel of flaked flint, such as are found on Monte Gargano close by. These fiaked-fhnt weapons mark apparently a continuation of a palaeolithic industry and perhaps of a palaeolithic people in neohthic times. It is to be hoped that further researches will be undertaken in the island, for in a limited area there 1 B.P., xxxiii, pp. 1, 188. Ill NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 107 is every opportunity of gaining some new light on this as yet unsettled point. Passing further down towards the heel of Italy we arrive 6. Mol- at the Pulo of MoKetta, with the hut-village of which we^®**^- dealt in the last chapter. We may therefore move on to the last station of our hne of villages, namely Matera. 7. Matera. One of the hiUs which borders the Gravina of Matera is The known as the Murgecchia. This was evidently the site of *'^'^'J°^®® a neoHthic settlement. Towards the Gravina it is steep Murgeo- and inaccessible ; on the ' other side, where the slope is °'^'*- gentle. Dr. Ridola has discovered two concentric semi- circular trenches cut in the rock about 20 metres apart. He explored a dozen metres of the inner trench and found it to have been fiUed up with masses of rubbish, including potsherds and lumps of burnt clay, once used to cover huts of wicker-work. The pottery was of all the three types found in the Grotta dei PipistreUi. The ware painted in broad bands on a yellow surface was particularly common. It seems natural to suppose that the trenches served as a defence to a hut-viUage which lay within them. It is remarkable, however, that neither trench has a greater average breadth than 1| metres. At the same time, sup- posing a rampart of stone to have been erected on the inner edge of either trench they would form a serious obstacle. The trench found by Dr. Ridola on the Murgia Timone Trench when excavating rock tombs of later date, and partly ^m.„ia explored by Patroni, was possibly of a similar nature. It Timone. certainly contained neohthic potsherds, for some are still left on its banks, but, unfortunately, Patroni does not fuUy describe its contents. It is of the utmost importance that these trenches should be further explored. Serra d'Alto is a low hiU lying behind the Murgecchia. Serra At its base Dr. Ridola found a number of circular hut- *°- foundations, some of which penetrated a considerable depth into the soil. The pottery found in these included, in addition to the usual neohthic incised ware, several frag- ments of a fine painted ware. Larger quantities of this last were found on the top of the hill by peasants planting trees, but whether in a hut-foundation or in a trench is 108 NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS CHAP. not known. The clay is fine and covered with a whitey- yellow sUp, on which the patterns are painted in brown, the whole surface being afterwards slightly poHshed. The vases appear to be hand-made. Figure 36 will give an idea of the patterns.^ The most remarkable feature is the extraordinary way in which small triangles are strewn about the design, apparently without reference to the rest of the scheme. The ornament is arranged on the upper part of the body of the vase ; as will be seen from the Fig. 36. Designs on imported painted ware, Matera. Scale illustration it includes the spiral and the maeander. This pottery is not local, indeed it does not belong to a fabric whose origin is known. A few fragments occur at Molfetta, but elsewhere it is rmknown. From the general appearance of the ornament I am inclined to refer its origin to some point of the Balkan peninsula, possibly Epirus. It offers some points of comparison with the neolithic ornament of Sesklo and Dimini as also with that of Gahcia. The technique, however, is not precisely the same. For the present it must suffice to leave open the question of its ' The sketches are quite rough, but give the essential points of the designs. Ill NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 109 origin, merely affirming that it is certainly imported, and probably from across the Adriatic. It bears not the shghtest resemblance to any known Aegaean pottery. Here, again, further excavation is vital, not only in order to complete the vases of which fragments have been fomid, but also to determine the nature of the cavity in which the find occurred. Our survey of the hut-vUlages of the Adriatic slope is The hut- now complete. We have seen that they extend in a Kne '^iU'^ges m from above Ancona almost to the heel of Italy. All have common characteristics, yet there are strong local differences. The palaeolithic appearance of much of the flint work at a. Local Macchia di Mare, Lago di Lesina and in the Vibrata Valley J^gg"''^^'' cannot be overlooked and causes these villages to contrast with the rest just as the rock-shelters of Breonio and Rivoli do with the other caves of North Italy. The significance of these palaeolithic features will be discussed in Chapter VII. From the objects found we can form some idea of the b. The life and habits of these hut-dwellers. They were in the j '„ •^ . dwellers first place hunters. This is proved by the quantities of hunters, bones of stags and wild boars found in the huts. In the c. and a second place they were a pastoral people who domesticated ^gQ„°g* the ox, the sheep, and the goat. In this connexion it is The dog worthy of notice that apparently the dog was unknown ^''^^'^t- to them, for no sign of it has ever been found in the huts. Brizio finds no reason for siu^prise in this absence, stating that the dogs they possessed would natxu'ally be few in number, and that thus there is an a 'priori probabiUty of the absence of their remains. He finds it impossible — why, it is hard to see — that a pastoral people should be without dogs. To others the absence of the dog in these early huts is a fact of great chronological value, for in later huts it is almost invariably present. That the hut- dwellers were an agricultural race is highly improbable. No object has been found in the huts which can even be put down as an agricultural implement, though the existence of flat and rounded stones used for grinding points to the use of some form of grain or nut, not necessarily cultivated. no NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS chap. d. The One of the most important features of the earhest neolithic an^M^f hut-foundations is the complete absence of the arrowhead neolithic of flint. Chierici, who explored the Reggian huts with weapon, extreme care, asserts that in the huts themselves not a single arrowhead was found, and deduced the, fact that the bow was unknown to these people when they entered Italy. This, of course, is not conclusive proof, but it is very nearly so when one remembers the vast quantity of flint weapons over which the observation extends. Others, however, find- ing it extraordinary that the bow should be unknown to these primitive people, point to the fact that on the surface of the son near the huts numerous arrowheads were dis- covered. It is scarcely necessary to insist on the worthless- ness of this evidence for scientific purposes. To assume that materia] found near the huts belongs to the same period is absurd, and even if Chierici's deduction was not absolutely certain this last is worse, it is dangerous and misleading. Cohni, who treats the point with his usual care and minuteness,^ expresses his conviction that the arrowhead is a late neohthic and eneohthio weapon. It is true that arrowheads were found at Alba Cuneo, and in a hut at CoUina Reggiana ; but there superposition has taken place, as the bulk of the material found was early neohthic. He points to similar superposition in the huts of Campi Costiere and Donegallo and at Campeggine. In the last case two arrowheads were found at a depth of 5 metres : this statement comes from a letter from Brizio to Cohni. But as Chierici found not a single arrowhead at Campeggine, Colini accepts most of the huts there as being early neohthic. As a hst of huts where the weapon is absent and which we may thus assign to the older period of the neohthic age he gives those of Albinea, Rivaltella, Castelnuovo di Sotto, Calerno, certain of those of the provinces of Piacenza, Brescia, Mantova and Modena, and the oldest of those of Vibrata Valley and the district round Lake Lesina. In these two last cases it must be noted that man evidently ' B. P., XXV, pp. 247-8. Ill NEOLITHIC HUT-FOUNDATIONS 111 continued to live there in the later neolithic period, for arrowheads are found there sporadically. That the caverns of Liguria, and of the Apuan Alps and e. Hut- the earliest hut-foundations of Italy, were due to one and ™d cave- the same race can be gathered from the similarity of the Q^e objects found in them. In all cases we find remains of a people, hunting and pastoral people, whose chief implements are the polished axe of green stone, the rhomboid flint and the rectangular knife, and who use vases of very similar forms, while to judge from a pintadera found in a hut at Campeggine, the use of pigments for ornamenting the person was known in Reggio as well as in Liguria. There are, of course, considerable local differences, but taken as a whole the remains are so homogeneous as to leave no doubt that they belong to a single people. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III THE HUT-FOUNDATIONS OF MONTE LOFFA NEAR BREONIO In addition to the caves of Breonio already described, a number of remarkable hut-foundations have been found. They are sometimes referred to as belonging to the neolithic period, but I have not ventured to include them in the chapter as I do not beheve they are neoUthic at all. The difficulty of dating such remains has been alluded to else- where, and whoever reads the report of the excavations at Monte Loffa ^ will see the utter impossibihty of attempting to date the settlement exactly on the basis of the present evidence. De Stefani explored seven huts. The largest of these lay on the edge of a slope and consisted of two rect- angular rooms, one lower than the other, connected by a short flight of steps. The rooms were sunk in the ground and bordered with slabs of limestone which just reached the present level of the soil. The objects found are described in some detail, but in many cases they seem to have occurred not in but outside the huts. Thus the whole report is rendered scientiiically useless. The flints appear to have included some of the strange ' freaks ' so common in this district, and a few poKshed stone axes were also found. The floors of the huts were covered with remains of animal bones, and the hearths were still distinguishable. Among the other finds are several objects of iron, a fibula of Certosa type — admittedly found outside the huts — two wheel- made spindle-whorls of clay, some terramara pottery and a few remains of glass cups. It should also be noted that in the Museum of Verona, where the objects now he, the fragments of terramara-wa,Te are marked as coming from under the huts. He would be bold who attempted to date these dwelling-places with such data before him. The material as it now exists represents several periods, but the impression one gets on the whole is that the bulk of it is at least rather late iron age. There is nothing to point to neohthic times except a few of the flints and the polished axes, all of which may quite well belong to the bronze age. ' Atli dell' Accademia d'Agrkotlura di Verona, ser. 3, vol. Ixii. CHAPTER IV NEOLITHIC BURIALS In dealing with the neoUthic caves of Italy we saw that A. Cave- it was not unusual to bury the dead in caverns. This, ^^^^°^- however, was not the only method of burial in use. It was B. Burial perhaps even more customary to lay the dead in trenches ^'°^ trench- hollowed in the bare earth (tombe a fossa). A very typical instance occurs at Fiumane (Map I, 55) in 1- Fiu- the comune of Gesualdo, province of AveUino, where several ^^'^^' skeletons lay in the bare earth at a depth of 1-20 metres.^ The tombs were arranged in fairly regular rows so as to a- Tombs in rows- form a small cemetery. Of the two tombs carefully explored one contained a male skeleton with the legs doubled up b- Con- tracted and the face turned towards the East. Within reach of position. the right hand was a flint dagger, and near the left a large tujg"™'" vase. The other tomb contained a skeleton, probably that of a woman, with an earthen jar. Most of the tombs contained three or four round polished pebbles of limestone, about the size of hens' eggs. These may, perhaps, have been sling-stones. Two of the daggers seem to have been broken before being laid in the tomb. Here, just as in the cave-burials, the body was laid in the contracted position and accompanied by vases and other objects of funeral furniture. The arrangement of the tombs in rows is interesting. In some instances the bones of the skeleton are found out of their natural position. Thus at Corona de' Coppa 2. Corona (Map I, 47), in the province of Campobasso, was discovered '^^ Coppa. a trench-tomb containing a skeleton, the bones of which Secondary were in great disorder.^ This renders it probable that this was a case of secondary burial and that the bones were laid here only when deprived naturally or otherwise of 1 B. P., xxiv, p. 239. 2 B. P., xxiv, p. 234. PEET H 114 NEOLITHIC BURIALS chap. the flesh. Two flint daggers accompanied the body, one of which was probably intentionally broken at the moment of burial. Thus in trench-burials, just as in caves, it was apparently possible to choose between the use of the contracted position and that of disarticulation, probably following a temporary interment. .3. Col- A third variant is to be seen at CoUecchio, near Parma lecchio. (jyjap I, 20), where, at a depth of about a metre, a skeleton Squatting was discovered, apparently in a squatting attitude, with ■* ' " ^' face to the east.^ According to the account of the peasants who found the grave, it was in the open earth, without any lining of stone. The furniture consisted of two long arrowheads of flint and a chisel (?) of stone, lying under the feet, and two fine axes, presumably of poUshed stone, found one behind the neck and one at the right side. So much for the position of the body. Sometimes, how- ever, it was apparently felt that the skeleton laid in the bare earth was in too exposed a position, and, just as happened in some instances of cave-burial in Liguria, rough slabs of stone were employed to protect it. For example, 4. Alatri. at Alatri (Map I, 45), province of Rome, a rectangular tomb was found several metres below the present surface.^ Tombs It was lined with large stones and covered with slabs of stones™ limestone. The skeleton was accompanied by at least four fine arrowheads, with wings and tang. Three of these were almost certainly broken before being placed in the grave. S.Cavone. A more remarkable example at Cavone,^ province of Tomb Caserta (Map I, 46), was actually cut in a stratum of Hme- with stone stone gravcl. Its breadth was about a metre, but it pene- biocks. trated 3 metres into the hill and was covered with large blocks of stone which formed a kind of vault. The skeleton lay on its back with feet to the East. By its side lay two flint daggers, two flint lanceheads broken before deposition, eighteen triangular arrowheads with tang, and three rough vases, one behind the head, and the others beside the arms. • B P., ii, p. 77. 2 B. p., iv, p. 163 ; xxix, p. 151, note. » B. P., xxiv, p. 235. IV NEOLITHIC BURIALS 115 This example of the actual cutting of the trench in a soft rock is at present almost unique.^ But the best-known examples of graves with linings of 6. Taran- slabs are those of Taranto (Map I, 59), where the excavation *°' was carefully done and the furniture properly studied. The tombs lie at a spot called Punta del Tonno.^ Tomb I is roughly square, and is formed of large blocks of stone set on edge ; it has no cover. Tomb II consists a. stone- of a small cavity or niche cut in the earth down to solid tombs. rock, and closed by a large stone set on edge. Tomb III is elliptical in form and is hoUowed in the open soil. Tomb IV is quadrilateral, lined with large rough stones, and open above. At Bellavista, in the same neighbourhood, numerous graves were found, consisting of cylindrical pits, hoUowed in the surface earth or in the tufaceous subsoil, and some- times hned with rough blocks. In both stations the rite is that of secondary burial, b. Second- and in some cases the sktdl is marked with a red pigment. ^^ A flint knife also showed traces of the same colour. The bones were occasionally deposited in a stratum of specially prepared earth. Fhnt and obsidian are both used for implements, the c. Flint. former occurring in the shape of long knives and knives with toothed edges. The pottery is of two kinds, one made of blackish clay d- Pottery. and the other of a finer quality, burning to a bright colour. The ware is often polished. In regard to forms it resembles the early unpainted pottery of Matera. The most common shape is an ovoid cup with horizontal cylindrical handle, (fig. 37), which occurs in the Grotta dei Pipistrelli at Matera and also at Paterno in Sicily. A flat vase with similar handle and body shaped Hke a frying-pan also finds an exact parallel in a hut-foundation at Matera. Figure 38 gives another common shape. These graves at Taranto are interesting in several par- ' Trench-graves cut in soft tufo occur at Le Socoie, province of Eome ; see £. P., xxiv, p. 235. '' B. P., xxxii, pp. 17 ff. h2 116 NEOLITHIC BURIALS CHAP. ticulars. In the first place, they throw a new light on South ItaHan neolithic pottery, and in the second, they prove that the use of red pigment to adorn the body was not peculiar to Liguria and Latium but extended into South Italy. V.Andria. Another fine series of South Italian vases came from neolithic burials at Andria (Map I, 54), in the province of Bari. Three skeletons were found at a depth of 1-50 metres.'^ It was impossible to tell whether they had been laid in separate graves side by side or in a single one. Above FiQS. 37 and 38. Vases from neolithic burials at Taranto. Scale J. (Quagliati, Bull. Pal.) The pot- tery. the skeletons was a rough block of limestone, but it is uncertain whether it had been intentionally placed there as a stele or as a covering for the grave. The skeletons ^ lay each on its side with the legs contracted, and the head to the South- West, resting on a stone. No implements of stone or metal were found, but there were several almost complete vases, besides fragments of others. All the vases were small, of purified clay, hand-made, and polished within and without. The ornament consists of hori- B. P., xxxi, pp. 153 ff. The one skull measured was dolichocephalic and pentagonoid, of index 74-4. IV NEOLITHIC BURIALS 117 zontal bands of incised work or pointilU. The forms include hemisplierical cups and a small bowl with an ansa cilindro-retta. Both these sets of burials, those of Taranto and those of Andria, show the importance in the eyes of the neohthic people of providing the dead with suitable funeral furniture. From the large proportion of vases it is possible that the majority of the skeletons found belonged to women. With a man it would seem more natural to bury weapons or implements of some kind. This, indeed, was actually done. We have already seen examples at Fiumane, Collecchio and elsewhere. Another occurs at CamigUano, in the 8. Cami- comune of Montalcino (Map I, 39), province of Siena, where gliano- there was found a trench-tomb containing four skeletons.^ The furniture consisted of two flint arrowheads and several Furniture, vases. Among the latter were two large bowls with rims turned in, and knobs on the upper part of the body at equal distances from one another. Two other vases are roughly ovoid, one completely covered with knobs (PI. II, fig. 7), and the other with knobs in vertical hues on the body (PL II, fig. 6). A fifth vase is of depressed-spherical form, with knobs round the body, and a cyhndrical neck. The clay is sometimes coarse, smoothed on the surface ; sometimes it is fine and is polished to a good black lustre. Unfortunately, few of these examples give us data for determining whether different objects were reserved for male and female burials. This almost certainly was the case, for it has been observed in the eneoHthic burials, which seem to preserve all the rites of neolithic times. We may now draw from our survey of the available evidence some general conclusions as to the burial rites ^^ ., ,. , . . Unifor- of neohthic times. mity of There is no fact which points so strongly to the homogeneity burial- in race of the neolithic inhabitants of Italy as the uniformity through- in burial customs which prevails in the peninsula. out Italy. The methods of burial practised were two.^ The dead Tw^°^^®^ ' B. p., xxiv, p. 233. ^ I fail to understand what Pigorini means when he says that in neolithic 118 NEOLITHIC BURIALS chap. body was laid to rest either in a cave or in a grave dug in the bare earth. It is, however, clear that these two methods were due to the same people, for in both cases similar rites are observed in the burial. If any reason, apart from that of convenience, must be found for the difference we may suggest that perhaps cave-dweUers preferred to bury in caves, and hut-dweUers in the bare earth. It will be evident to any one who has read the account of the various burials given in this chapter that, in the first place, there was a very elaborate cult connected with the burial of the dead, and, in the second place, that this cult was observed in very many parts of Italy. It is, indeed. The probable that it was universal. This cult included six neolithic ^gpy striking customs, besides, of course, that of inhumation. customs. These customs were not all observed in every burial, but we find them in parts of Italy so far apart that they must have been known to the whole neoHthic population, perhaps even before they entered the country. 1. Stone- The first of these is the custom of hning the simple trench- lined grave with rough slabs of stone. This custom is far from usual ; instances are given by Cohni from the Trentino, from the valley of Aosta, from Alatri, and from the provinces of Caserta and Campobasso, and they cover so large an area that we may assume the custom to have been generally known, if not generally practised. Particularly interesting is the use of stone slabs in several of the burials of the Ligurian caverns. This would afford strong evidence, if we had not already suflBcient, for attributing the cave- 2. Burial dwelhngs and the hut-viUages to a single race. Secondly furm ure. jj^^g^ ^,3 noticed the deposition with the body of a number a. Ideas of of objects such as flint weapons, pottery &c. We can afuture scarcely be wrong in assuming that this custom points to a beUef in a future life of some kind, as it is known to do among tribes by whom it is practised to-day. In the earlier times the body was buried in a rook- hewn sepulchre whenever a suitable rock- faoe lay to hand. There is not a certain example of a neolithic rock-grave in Italy. If Pigorini is here speaking of the end of the neolithic period, the so- called eneolithic age, then the statement is correct. But we have no evidence that the neolithic people when they entered Italy already used the artificial grotta : in fact, all our available testimony is to the contrary. IV NEOLITHIC BURIALS 119 part of the neolithic period the skeleton of a man is generally b. Com- accompanied by a polished stone axe or one or more flint the'fumi-^ knives, while in the later part of the neolithic age it becomes *"'^«- usual to equip the dead with daggers and arrow- or lanceheads of flint, which were not yet in use in the earlier period. Thus in the Balzi Rossi caves flint knives are the most usual grave furniture, while in the various late neolithic graves of South Italy a flint dagger is almost always present. It would be interesting to know whether the vases contained c. Provi- food for the next world or even for the journey thither. fo"i°^ I do not know of any case in which remains of food have been found in the vases, and it is certain that sometimes the vases were purposely laid in the grave upside down. The dead were, in some instances, apparently buried in their d. clothes clothes, or at least in part of them. In the Balzi Rossi caves one body had clearly been wrapped up or clothed in a skin, remains of which were still visible. The objects deposited with the body are not merely e. Careful thrown haphazard into the grave, but are carefully placed the'obfects. in fixed positions. Thus a dagger is either in the grasp of, or within reach of, the right hand; and a vase is very often laid near the head. In fact, the objects are placed as far as possible according to the use for which they are destined. Besides being provided with his arms and implements of f. Orna- work the dead was also given the ornaments which he had '"^ ^' worn in hfe, necklaces of teeth or shells, &c. In the case of a child the burial furniture is generally g. Fumi- sUght, especially in the Ligurian caves. It is sometimes to duUren. limited to a mere flake of fhnt. There are, however, excep- tions. A child's grave, about a mile from Enza,^ contained a fine necklace of thirty-four stone beads. Each bead is ring-shaped, and has its fiat faces shghtly inclined to one another to allow it, when strung, to fit closely into the curve of the necklace. The third custom is that of contracting or doubhng up 3. Con- the body in the grave. This may take several forms. ^^^°^°^ The body may be contracted into as small a space as possible body. 1 B. P., iv, p. 41. 120 NEOLITHIC BURIALS chap. by bending the arms, legs and back. Sometimes a body contracted in this manner is buried in a vertical position and we thus have the so-called embryonic posture. Again, the contraction may be Hmited to the doubUng up of the legs at the knee, and perhaps, also, the bending of the arms. A favourite position is for the body to be laid in a more or less contracted posture on its left side with the feet to the South, the face thus looking towards the East. 4. Scarni- Fourthly, must be noted the rites of scarnitura and of tura and secondary burial. It has sometimes been noticed that secondary •' j- i • burial. the bones of the skeleton are damaged or He out of their natural connexion. This has sometimes been assigned to disturbance of the grave by moles or by agricultural work. But there were cases in which these explanations could not be correct, and besides this, similar facts had been noted in other countries. It was therefore necessary to suppose that the bones when laid in the grave were already in part separated from one another and out of position. This could be brought about in several ways. The bones may have been stripped of their flesh while the body was newly dead, or the body may have been left in a temporary grave until the soft parts had disappeared, and then laid in the tomb in which it is found. We do not know the origin of this custom in Italy, nor can we even tell whether it was confined to any particular class or kind of persons. It occurs in widely separated parts of the peninsula, so that it is not a mere local variation of the burial rite. 5. Use of Fifthly, there is the custom of depositing red pigment ■ with the body. Sometimes the bottom of the grave was strewn with red powder, as in the Ligiu-ian caves or at San Cono in Sicily. Sometimes, however, the bones of the skeleton were tinted with red ochre. This last rite is, of course, connected with that of scarnitura, as it was only after the flesh had been removed that the appUcation of a pigment to the bones was possible. Skulls coloured in this way are said to haye been found at Villafrati in Sicily. Sometimes, too, the objects laid in the grave are painted red ; for example, a vase coloured with a red pigment is said to have been found at Capaci in Sicily. IV NEOLITHIC BURIALS 121 Sometimes pieces of ocra rossa are laid in the grave, perhaps with stones used for grinding them. We know that some form of colouring the person with red ochre was practised by these neolithic people, for we still have the instruments (pintaderas) with which the pigment was stamped on to the skin. We cannot, however, tell why this pigment played such a great part in the burial rites, whether it was to be used for ornamental purposes in the next world, or, as by some savage tribes to-day, for a disguise to conceal the dead from devils or enemies whom he might meet there. The sixth custom to be remarked is that of breaking 6. Break- the objects placed in the grave. Mint implements (daggers pS °* °^- and arrowheads) and even polished axes of green stone burial. have frequently been f otmd broken in two beside the skeleton. Unless we suppose these breakages to be due to the weight of earth above them, which seems quite impossible, or to previous rifling of the tomb, which is almost equally so, we must admit that the objects were broken when placed in the tomb. It is generally said that they were intentionally broken at the moment of the ceremony. Similar circum- stances have been noted elsewhere, especially in Egypt under the New Empire. A suggested explanation of the Egyptian examples is that in order to enable the implement to reach the other world it was necessary to force its ka or spirit to leave this world by breaking it. If this is the real explanation of our examples we get a curious hght on the neoHthic belief in a future world, for it seems to foUow from the breaking of the objects that the next world was regarded as in some sense unmaterial ; otherwise a broken axe would have been a useless gift. At the same time we cannot, in the Itahan cases, prove that the breaking was part of the ritual, and we must admit the possibihty that, when the deceased had such, broken implements were sometimes buried with him from motives of economy. The examples here given wiU suffice to show that with Religious the burial of the dead was connected a wide and important "leas. ritual, some part of which was always observed. From this we may argue that this neoHthic race possessed a body of fixed and definitive religious ideas, including that of 122 NEOLITHIC BURIALS chap, iv a future life of some kind. These ideas were firmly rooted in the race, for, as we shall see, they survived almost unaltered into the eneolithic period in various parts of Italy, and even in the iron age we find on the Adriatic coast-slope and also in Calabria the preservation of the rite of con- tracted burial,^ and sometimes also of that of lining the grave with blocks of stone.^ Two other points in connexion with the neoHthic burial customs, viz. the question of partial cremation, and that of cannibalism, wiU be dealt with under the eneolithic period, for the neoUthic remains known to us give no data for discussing either. Trepan- In the cavern of the Arene Candide in Liguria a small Jiing. ^gp q£ bone pierced in the centre was found. It was formed from a portion of a human skull and from its worn appearance had probably been carried on the person as an amulet. These discs are the result of the operation of trepanning which was performed during Hfe, probably in order to release an evil spirit supposed to be imprisoned in the head. Examples of both trepanned skuUs, and of discs are known from the caves of France, and Cartailhac gives some instances from the Spanish peninsula. In Italy we have no specimen of a trepanned skull, but we have three examples of the discs, which were eventually worn as amtdets to ward off evil spirits. One has already been mentioned. The other two were found in a terramara of the bronze age.* This use of human bones as amulets is seen elsewhere in Italy. The PoUera cave in Liguria yielded a finger-joint pierced with a hole, and a similar object was found in a hut-foim- dation near Cremona. In a cave at Casan near BeUuno a disc of bone pierced in the centre occurred ; it was made from the ball of a human thigh-bone. Finally, in a cavern in the province of Aquila, was found a piece of a human occipital bone, but although it was smooth with use there was nothing to show that it had been an amulet. 1 3Ion. Ant., v, pp. 105-7. ' B. P., viii, p. 93. ' B. P., ui, p. 63. CHAPTER V THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD IN THE ISLANDS Throughout the prehistoric periods the Itahan islands, The civi- especially Sicily and Sardinia, played a part in the advance ligation of civilization which cannot be over-estimated. To any one islands, who has studied the progress of excavation in these islands during the last few years the impossibihty of deaHng with them, except in special chapters, will be apparent. As Contrasts a result of their position they fell under the influences with that which often scarcely affected the Italian mainland, while, mainland, on the other hand, they escaped the great immigrations from Central Europe which characterized the Italian bronze age. We shall deal with Sicily first, as being the most important I. Sicily. of the islands, afterwards deaHng with what Kttle is known of the neohthic age in Sardinia and Pianosa. By Professor Orsi, to whose untiring labours our knowledge Orsi's of prehistoric Sicily is almost entirely due, the pre-Hellenic Periods, period in the island, excluding the palaeolithic, is divided into five divisions. To the first of these he gives the name Sicanian ; the other four are called respectively First, Second, Third and Fourth Siculan periods. For the present we shall use these names merely as convenient distinctions to mark the periods, without discussing whether they are legitimate or not. The latter question may be more con- veniently treated after their main characteristics have been described. Two cautions, however, are necessary. In the first place, this division into periods is based upon excavations limited almost entirely to the south-east portion of the island. But at the same time it is to be noted that discoveries in other parts of Sicily, so far from contradicting Orsi's system, have tended to confirm it. In the second place, the divisions 124 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. The Sica- nian or neolithic period. Von An- drian's work. Caves used for dwelling and for burial. are not in every case hard and fast, for we find, naturally enough, periods of transition from one division to another. Indeed, it is not unlikely that the progress of discovery will ere long render it possible to draw much finer distinctions of time and to subdivide the periods accordingly. Though the evidence at om: disposal is as yet small we may affirm the general proposition that neohthic man in Sicily lived both in caves and in the open. And, as on the main- land of Italy, so here, too, are found caves containing human bones so arranged, in some cases at least, as to leave no doubt that the bodies had been carefully inhumed. Our knowledge of the cave deposits is mainly due to Von Andrian, who, in addition to collecting the scattered material already to hand, conducted excavations himself in several of the most important locahties.^ Caves used by neohthic man are found in most parts of the island, and, according to Von Andrian, their contents, despite local differences, form a remarkably homogeneous group. This statement, in view of the slender nature of the evidence and the necessity nowadays of drawing rather minute distinctions within a period so long as the neohthic, must be accepted with some reserve. Indeed, we shall give very strong reasons for dividing this neohthic or Sicanian period into two distinct parts. But before this can be done it is necessary to examine the remains which have been investigated. A. The Von Andrian's work extended over two districts, that Palermo of Palermo and that of Syracuse. Its chief result was to prove that the caves of this locality were used in the neolithic period for habitation and for burial. 1. Grotta ^OT instance, the Grotta Puleri (Map IV, adjacent to 164) Puleri. in the district of Termini-Imerese contained human bones and potsherds. An instrument of bone seems to have been found, but as to the presence of stone tools there is some disagreement.^ The human remains consisted of two lower jaws and some teeth. Separated from these by two ' Von Andrian, Prcihistorische Stitdien aus Sicilien. ^ Von Andrian, p. 34. V IN THE ISLANDS 125 heaps of stone was found a human skeleton which was not preserved. There were no bones of animals. The pottery was of rough clay with grains of quartz added ; it was polished within and without. Usually the colour is dark and the firing poor, but the technique varies consider- ably. Some of the vases have graceful shapes and walls of even thickness. The handle is often carefully shaped. Von Andrian adds that the vases with ornament were in the minority, and that the ornament was usually im- pressed, as on the bell-shaped cup at ViUafrati (see below, fig. 41). It is scarcely necessary to point out that here we have Used for a cave used not as a habitation for the hving but as a burial- place for the dead. Every sign of habitation is lacking, while the presence of human bones and pottery points to burial. Somewhat similar facts were noted in the caves of Villa- 2. vaia- frati (Map IV, 163) lying not far from Corleone, which is ^^^^l^ due south of Palermo, and are three in number.^ They are called respectively Porcospina, Buffa I and Buffa II. The material from the first Kes in the museum at Palermo, and comprises pottery, stone implements, and human re- mains. Buffa I is very much destroyed and has not been examined. Buffa II was excavated during Von Andrian's visit to Sicily. The deposit contains human and animal remains in some confusion, but it was noted that the skulls lay sHghtly apart from one another, and that each was surrounded by a number of human bones. ^ It is evident Used for from this that the cave was used for burial. This is con- firmed by the absence of ashes and charcoal, which are the invariable signs of human habitation. Numerous potsherds were found. They were of the usual types, some rough, some comparatively fine, often polished and ornamented with incisions or impressions (figs. 39 and 40). Among the ' Von Andrian, pp. 36 sqq. ^ Of four skulls well enough preserved to be measured, one was dolichocephalic (Index 73-9), one was sub-brachycephalic (81-9), the third decidedly brachy- cephalic (92-0), and the fourth, reconstructed from fragments, appeared to have an index of about 81-0. 126 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. vases was a bell-shaped cup (fig. 41).i The stone imple- ments were not very numerous. None of these four caves allows us to assert that caves 3. Grottawere used as dwellings. Remains, however, of a slightly Gerace. different type were found in the Grotta Gerace ^ (Map VI, 164), near that of Puleri. The deposit is a mixture of earth, ashes, potsherds, stone weapons, bones, &c. The Fig. 39. Incised vase, Villafrati. Scale c. J. Fig. 40. Fragment of incised ware, Villafrati. (After Von Andrian.) Fig. 41. Glockenbecher or bicchiere a campana. Villafrati. Scale c. 4. vases are often rough and have few traces of ornament. A few painted fragments, however, suggest that in date we are on the borders of the neolithic and the succeeding period. Some of the pottery is of fuier make and has a good polished black surface. The stone weapons are of flint or obsidian. One fragment of polished stone was found. The animal bones were numerous and showed signs of ^ The German Qlockenhecher, and the Italian bicchiere a campana. • Von Andrian, p. 35. V IN THE ISLANDS 127 burning. A few human bones were found and a few of these too were marked by fire. The phenomenon also occurs in other neolithic caves of Italy, especially in Liguria and Sar- dinia. Its significance is discussed elsewhere, p. 197. Judging by its contents this cave must have been used Used for as a dweUing-place and a burial-place too. But the notices toTaMta- of the excavation are too vague to afford much basis for '■'°"- reconstruction. Such were the discoveries made by Von Andrian. Since that time our knowledge of the district, and especially of its pottery, has been increased by a fortunate discovery at Moarda near Monreale (Map IV, 162) ; among a mass of bones, 4.Moarda. mostly human, were found three flint weapons, a number of fragments of pottery and a few complete vases.^ The clay is blackish-grey, and the walls of the vessels are often relatively thin. The ornament is incised, sometimes rather deeply, and consists of bands fiUed with hatching or cross- hatching (fig. 42). The handle running to a point at the top occurs, and the form shown in fig. 43 is common. The deposit occurs in a kind of rock-shelter, at the base of a perpendicular cliff rising from the gentle slope of the hill. Originally the place was, no doubt, more protected than it is now, and it may have been perhaps a true cave. In the Syracuse district Von Andrian's explorations lead B. Syra- to very similar results. On the sea coast just north of °"^^ "'^' Syracuse he examined several caves. The most important of these are La Seggia, La Scorosa, Dei Molinari and I Due Paperi^ (Map IV, 193). La Seggia seems to have been used for a long time as i. La a habitation. There are no human bones, proving that^^^gia. the cave was never used as a place of burial. The weapons and tools of flint and obsidian are carefully worked. A long thick knife of rhomboidal or trapezoidal section was found, together with shorter knives of triangular section. In obsidian we have short knives, 20 to 46 mm. long, of rectangular, triangular or rhomboidal section. The arrow- heads or lanceheads vary in size and finish, one beautiful ^ Not. Scav., 1884. Von Andrian, pp. 74 sqq. 128 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. example showing the incurved base and minute flaking on the edges. The pottery is as usual of two tjrpes, rough and fine. The latter is sometimes incised with simple geometrical designs. La Scorosa yielded remains very similar in type, and due undoubtedly to the same group of people. There were a few signs of ashes and some human bones. The cave was therefore probably used as a burial-place. The caves of the Dei Molinari group yielded only stone Molinan. implements of similar type to those of La Seggia and La 2. La Scorosa 3. Dei 4-a 45 Fig. 42. Incised vase, Moarda. Scale c. J. Fig. 4.3. Inverted-conical vase, Moarda. Scale c. J. 4. I Due Paperi. Scorosa, but they have never been fully explored and no inference can be drawn from the finds. The cave called I Due Paperi contained a deposit of great interest. It comprised rough potsherds, a stone chisel of pohshed serpentine, arrowheads, flint knives, ob- sidian flakes, a clay spindle- whorl, two small ornaments and some human teeth. There were signs of fire to be seen both in the patches of hard red earth and in the cinders found in it. Von Andrian dismisses at once the idea that we have to deal with a dwelling-place, for the cave is very inaccessible, and its roof is very low, especially in the part where the deposit was found. V IN THE ISLANDS 129 The stone implements resemble those of La Seggia. The pottery is all plain. The spindle-whorl is depressed-spherical with a marked keel. Of the ornaments one is a disc of clay with four holes, and the other a rolled pebble pierced artificially.^ A little further from Syracuse itself, the district around c. Modica Modica (Map IV, 190) was found to be singularly rich in district, early remains. Besides the Grotta San Lazzaro examined by Von Andrian, which contained material now known to be not neohthic but Siculan I, some remains were found by Maugini in the Cava d' Ispica (Map IV, 198). He 1. Cava calls them neohthic and mentions an axe and a hammer '^' ^®P^°^- and a piece of hard limestone. He also speaks of finding the remains of a megahthic monument with bones under it, showing, in his opinion, that it served as a grave of some dignity among the primitive people.^ In Modica itself, in a spot called Vignazza, were found 2. Vi- some thousands of flint and obsidian knives, mostly in gnazza. fragments, several clay spindle-whorls, potsherds — some with designs in lines — borers of bone and sling-missiles of terracotta and stone.^ With these remains were found animal and human bones, and pieces of carbon. The nature of this station does not appear, nor from the mention of ' potsherds with designs in lines ' can we assign it to any definite period. Such were the few and unreliable facts known with regard Later to the neolithic period in Sicily when the discovery by ^^^g^^^^j^,^^ Orsi of the settlements of Stentinello and Matrensa com- pletely altered the situation. The settlement of Stentinello (Map IV, 185) lay to the Stenti- north of Syracuse on the edge of the sea, which has already ^^^^°- washed away part of the fringe.* It apparently consisted i. The site, of a number of huts of which all trace has disappeared, placed on a plain dominated all round by heights. ' Other remains of the neolithic period have been found in the vicinity of Syracuse and are described by Orsi ia B. P., xv, pp. 48-58. " B. P., viii, pp. 25-7. ' Maugini, Scoperte preistoriche in Sicilia, p. 4. ' B. P., xvi, pp. 177 sqq. PEET J 130 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. The inhabited part apparently occupied a rough square of more than 300 metres in each direction, but only a small proportion of this space has been excavated. In two natural hollows leading down to the sea was found a thick black earth containing spht bones, stone implements and great masses of pottery. 2. stone Among the work in stone, flint knives are the most mrate. numerous objects. They are rectangular flakes varying in length from 3 to 20 cm., and usually trapezoid in section (fig. 44). They show very little working and very Httle variation from the type. A few indeed are somewhat pointed towards one end and apparently served as spear- heads. Other knives are badly chipped on the edges by Fig. 44. Flint knives, Stentinello. Scale f. (Orsi, Bull. Pal.) constant use, and some of these were without doubt used as saws, which is confirmed by the shining pohsh which friction has imparted to their two edges. Of obsidian are numerous fragments and some knives of similar rectangular shape but much shorter. The fragments of three axes of basalt were also found. The most complete was practically cylindrical in shape. Finally, we have an eUiptical slab of lava, apparently used for grinding food of some kind. The chief facts that strike one in regard to the work in stone are the absence of fine flaking of any kind, of the arrowhead, and of the polished axe of hard green stone such as nephrite. 3. Bone Ob- The Only object of worked bone is part of a thin poUshed ]ects. eUiptical slip, perhaps a vase-poHsher. 4. Pottery. In complete contrast with the poverty of the stone forms The clay, is the wcalthof design shown by the pottery. The clay IN THE ISLANDS 131 is of two types only, a finer, used for nine-tenths of the vases, and a coarser, differing from the former only in containing a larger proportion of limestone grains. The grains contained in the finer clay vary in size according to the thickness of the vase for which they were intended. The baking is good and complete, though not quite even. It clearly took place in an open fire. The colour of the clay in fracture varies from black in the thinner vases to red in the thicker, but the surface is almost invariably blackish- grey. Most of the finer vases have a fine glossy polish. Fig. -io. Designs on incised ware, Stentinello. (Orsi, Bull. Pal.) The ornament at first gives mainly the appearance of The orna- being incised in the damp clay with a not very sharp pointed ™™ ' instrument (fig. 45). The incisions are generally grouped quite closely and fiUed with a very pure white substance. The Stentinello ware, however, differs from all other white incised pottery in that, owing to the closeness of the incisions and their breadth, the ornamented surface often shows almost more white incrustation than dark background (PI. I, fig. 6). I 2 132 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Methods of On closer examination it becomes clear that much of this ™^' ornament, even when it appears to be incised, is in reality stamped, or at least produced by some mechanical means. Orsi has given special attention to this question and makes a hst of the methods in use at Stentinello. Simple graving- tools consisting of points producing fine incisions or deep furrows, according to their shape, are used mainly to ornament coarser vases. An equally simple means was the use of the finger-nail or of a spUt tube of wood to produce arc-shape impressions, sometimes displacing a small quantity of the clay by means of a lateral movement. A series of incisers (stecche) must also have been used, consisting probably of bone, with flat or rounded points of various shapes. The combination of several of these points would form a kind of comb to be used in drawing series of parallel lines. Orsi also suggests the possibility of smaU woven mats (graticci) of twigs or corn-stems, used to impress Stamping, a close network -pattern on the clay. But most striking of all is the use of real stamps cut into various patterns. The extraordinary regularity of most of the decoration puts the existence of these beyond aU doubt. They may have been of stone, wood, bone or other material, but unfortun- ately none have come down to us. The forms impressed by these instruments are many. Concentric squares, con- centric elUpses, and concentric rhomboids, often fourteen or fifteen in number, are the most graceful. Lines with fine toothing on one or both sides, rows of small circles, rows of rhomboids with points at their centres, and net- shaped patterns are all produced by this method. One would almost suspect, if it were possible in neoHthic times, the use of a rotating wheel with the pattern raised on its rim. No description can convey any idea of the charm and grace with which all these elements are welded together into an ornamental system. Petersen divides the fabric into three classes, according to the way in which the ornament is arranged.^ We may have a single ornament element, possibly repeated, or a combination of several elements without a definite part of the surface being reserved for 1 Horn. Mitth., xiii, 1898, pp. 175-6, fig. III. Arrange- ment of ornament V IN THE ISLANDS 133 each, or lastly, an employment of various elements, each having a definite limited sphere, and arranged with a view to obtaining contrast between plain and ornamented parts of the vase surface. This division is not entirely convincing. Between the first two classes there is merely an accidental difference, while that between the second and third, to one judging either from Petersen's illustrations (loc. cit., p. 163, fig. Ill), or with the whole material before his eyes, seems arbitrary. As far as it is possible to gather from the frag- ments the ornamental elements were almost invariably arranged round the vase in horizontal bands. Thus we may have a band of dog-tooth ornament, or a band of horizontal or vertical zigzags, or four rows of chain work. A band need not, indeed, continue right round the vase, but at the same time there is no sign of attempt to divide the surface up into distinct panels (Hoernes' Rahmenstil). Owing to the fragmentary state of the pottery very Forms. little can be gathered as to the shapes of the vases. It is certain that some of them were large hemispherical vessels of rougher make, used, no doubt, for holding water or provisions. Of the vases of medium size the most usual were hemispherical basins, with firm ring handles. The smaller vases vary considerably in form. There are inverted- conical cups, with sides curved gracefully out, hemispherical basins, shallow bowls with a distinct keel round the middle, and conical vases with a ring-foot. The handles vary but Mttle. Most usual is the vertically- Handles, set ring-shaped handle of ribbon type, very solidly attached. Knobs or tongues to be used in holding the vase do occur, but not commonly. The passion for covering the handle with ornament should be noticed. Finally, there were found three fragments of plastic work 5. Figur- in terracotta. The first is the fore-part of a quadruped ' perhaps originally attached to a vase. It is very ' geo- metrical ' in shape ; the head, now lost, was fastened to the body by a small peg, and a furrow incised round the neck represents a collar. The second fragment is apparently the torso of a human figure ; it is cylindrical in form, flattened at the shoulders. The third is the head of a horned animal. 134 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. The whole surface except the horns and the eyes, these latter marked by circles, is covered with a mass of incised hnes, which cross and re-cross, giving the idea of a shaggy coat of hair. The head is pierced for hanging. 6. Bones. The bones found at Stentinello include those of the goat, sheep, ox (both large and small varieties), pig and dog. Matrensa. The settlement excavated by Orsi at Matrensa (Map IV, 195) in 1898-1900 contains material similar to that of Stentinello. It still remains unpubhshed, however. It is indeed to be seen at the museum at Syracuse, but, until the excavator is able to give us his account of it, it would be unfair to enter into details. The settlement was a village in the open. The industrial remains were found at the bottom of several great trenches 12 to 30 metres long, about 3 metres broad, and 4 metres deep.^ They consist of pottery and stone implements, and are mingled with animal bones. The pottery is precisely similar to that of Stentinello, but besides showing many new geometrical designs it has given us several complete vases. The flints show the same lack of variety as at Stentinello. The potsherds shown in PL I, fig. 6, are from Matrensa. I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Orsi for the origiaal photograph. Stenti- , It wiU be obvious to any one who will compare the neUo type gtgntinello and Matrensa vases with those found in the ofpotteiy. Differs Palermo district at ViUafrati, Moarda and elsewhere, that *^°vii'^^* the two groups are entirely different fabrics. In the first frati- the ornament is incised with a rather blunt point, or with Moarda. special implements on the still damp clay. In the second it is sharply incised, and the designs are arranged in bands which are either singly or doubly hatched. Moreover, the Stentinello-Matrensa material has earher characteristics than the Villafrati-Moarda, especially as the latter includes the bell-shaped cup, which is a late neolithic product. The two We may therefore divide the neolithic period in Sicily types of jjj^o two parts, an earher and a later. The earlier includes mark two ^^ those settlements in which pottery of the Stentinello periods, type has been found. The chief stations of this class are ^"""'^ ^' 1 Not. Scav., 1900, p. 208. V IN THE ISLANDS 135 Stentinello itself and Matrensa. The same type of pottery- occurs in smaller quantity in the caves of Corruggi,^ La Seggia and La Scorosa.'-^ A few fragments in the SjTacuse museum are marked as coming from near Megara Hyblaea, and at Paterno there are several pieces which bear some resemblance to the StentineUo sherds. The second and later division consists of such remains Period II. as those found in the caverns of Moarda, Puleri and ViUafrati. Here there is very little in the pottery that reminds us of Stentinello. The clay is different, the ornament shows a different taste, and the shapes are more advanced. The old method of ornamenting by means of stamps has gone, and is succeeded by a system of incised bands filled with single or double hatching, and worked into not very compli- cated patterns. La order to determine the relation of these two ceramic Affinities types to one another, we must first determine the relation °' *^^®^ , . . . two types of each to other neolithic fabrics in the Mediterranean, and, of pot- if necessary, elsewhere. *®''y- Any one who will examine the neolithic pottery of the jj^jj^^ museums of Syracuse and Candia, will see at once that ware. the Stentinello ware may weU belong to the same context ^^ejanneo- as the neoUthic ware from below the floors of the palace at ^^^^^ ^iri>- Knossos,® and elsewhere in Crete. Unfortunately, neither the Sicihan nor the Cretan ware is as yet fully published or illustrated, so that comparison is difficult (fig. 46). In compari- both systems of ornament, however, we may notice the use of straight Hnes toothed deeply on one or both sides {a, b), straight lines with short strokes crossing them and straight lines with strokes set on each side (c, d), forming a feather pattern, or with longer strokes on one side only (e). Passing to more compUcated patterns we find common to both the placing of rhomboids side by side in rows (/), the use of zigzag " The Grotta Corruggi near Pachino was undoubtedly used as a dwelling iu neolithic times. It contained a deposit of shells and bones, probably remains of food, together with a stone axe, a few flakes of obsidian, and a number of flint implements of rough workmanship. See Not. Scav., 1898, p. 35. = Von Andrian, op. cit., Tav. V, figs. 5, 6, 11, 14, 15, 16. ' J. H. S., 1901, xxi, p. 96, fig. 30 ; J. H. S., 1903, xxiii, PI. 4. 136 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. lines set parallel to one another (g), and of hatched triangles {h). Characteristic of both groups is the method of setting a running pattern of some kind just below the rim, and drawing below this again numbers of closely set parallel, vertical, or sloping lines {i). In both is seen a love of broad ribbon handles covered with incised ornament. In both, too, we have the combination of the ribbon handle with others, which are merely developed string-holes, and as i M i m ii m i Miii ' i II 1 1 U i,i,i,i,i|i,i|i,i|i,i,i,i|i,i,i,i c l llllll l ll II I Hi l l cl e AA4/U Flo. 46. Incised designs common to Cretan and Sicilian neolithic pottery. (B. S. J.) far as can be deduced from the evidence of fragments there is some similarity in the forms. Finally, we must notice that the technique is similar. In both cases we have a good clay, well fired, incised with white filling, and finely polished until the surface shines. Contrasts. But in Contrast to these similarities there are two great differences. In Crete, towards the end of the neoUthic period, side by side with simple incised patterns we find others formed of incised bands with points, a style which is entirely lacking in Sicily. V IN THE ISLANDS 137 Moreover, there is in Crete no sign of the elaborate system of stamps used at Stentinello and Matrensa. From these differences it seems probable that while both sets of pottery had a common ancestor they developed on rather different lines, and we should be very bold if we attempted to deduce one from the other. Further, the Cretan ware developed in Crete itself, and in the 8 metres of neoKthic deposit at Knossos it can be seen passing through various stages of development ; in Sicily we see the fabric at one single moment of its existence. We cannot tell in the light of present excavation whether it appeared suddenly ready- developed in the island, or whether it passed through various stages before it reached the perfection in which we find it at Matrensa and Stentinello. In point of date the Sicilian ware would probably come Date of the towards the end of the neohthic series of Knossos. type.' This may be inferred from the advanced character of the ornament. It is true that the Matrensa vases have simple rims, while some of the Cretan specimens have rims which are shghtly turned out. This, however, is scarcely a fair criterion of date, except in a single district. More- over, on the mainland at Matera among the vases ornamented in the Stentinello technique, and therefore probably con- temporary with those of Stentinello, are some which repro- duce forms usual in the early Cycladic period, as for example, in the cave-burial of Haghios Nicolaos ^ in East Crete, in the early tholos at Haghia Triadha,^ and in the earhest cist graves. From these parallels we may infer that the Stentinello ware is contemporary with the later part of the Cretan neolithic period, rather than the earlier. The later type of pottery, that seen at San Cono, Villa- Affinities frati, Moarda, Puleri, in which the hatched band is the ^.^^f base of the ornament, also has its affinities with foreign Moarda wares. Pigorini, as early as 1882,^ called attention to this ware. pottery, and instituted comparisons with the pottery of the dolmens and artificial grottoes connected with them. ' B. S. A., ix, p. 341, figs. 1 a and 2 c. ^ Memorie del R. 1st. Lomhardo di Scienze e Lettere, vol. xxi, 5, p. 249, PL VIII and IX. ' B. P., viii, pp. 29-35. 138 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Chrono- logical parallels between Sicily and Italy. An earlier and a later group in Italy also. Early pottery of Upper Italy and SicUyonly ckrono- logioaUy parallel. Conclu- sions. Affinities of Sicily with the Aegaean. He pointed especially to the bell-shaped cup (bicchiere a campana) of Villafrati. This cup is the most charac- teristic vase shape in the dolmen civilization, and occurs in France, Spain, Portugal, Bohemia, Denmark and England. Besides the shape of this particular vase the ornament of others points in the same direction, especially the use of hatched bands. We have thus determined the groups of pottery to which the two SicUian series are most closely related. But in what relation do they stand to the Itahan group ? In North Italy we have two groups, the earher represented by the oldest hut-foundations of Reggio, by the caverns of Liguria and the villages of Fano and Alba Cuneo, the later by the eneohthic tombs of the Brescian province, the cavern aU' Onda and other stations. The latter group corresponds, chronologically at least, to the later Sicihan group. The bell-shaped cup occurs at Ca' di Marco,^ and the hatched-band technique in the Grotta all' Onda.^ Into the same context comes, of course, the pottery of the Grotta di Sant' EHa in Sardinia. The earlier North Itahan group is said by Cohni to have its parallel in the StentineUo- Matrensa series. This seems to me most doubtful. In the Reggian hut-fomidations stamped ornament does indeed occur, but is very simple, and bears no resemblance to that of Sicily, while at Alba Cuneo there is no stamped work at all. On the other hand the favourite North Italian technique of applying relief-bands of clay and marking them with the fingers is utterly unknown at StentineUo. Surely the nearest Itahan parallels to StentineUo are to be found not in North Italy at aU. but in the south at Molfetta, Matera and the Isole dei Tremiti, where the Sicihan technique, even if not found in its perfect form, was at least used. The conclusions which can be drawn from this are as foUows. At a certain point in the neohthic period' part of Sicily was inhabited by men who used a type of pottery having affinities with the neolithic ware of Crete and possibly '■ B. P., xxiv, Tav. XI, figs. 6 and 11. » B. P., xxvi, Tav. V, fig. 1. V IN THE ISLANDS 139 other parts of the Aegaean. The origin of this ware may very possibly be due to an immigration of people by sea, perhaps from Africa. The presence of similar pottery in South-east Italy may mean that such an immigration affected this district as well as Sicily, or it may simply mean that the technique was introduced from Sicily itself, perhaps when it was past its prime. Can we, finally, determine the relation of these two Relation Sicilian groups to one another. In the present state of S j^,*;^® *'^° our knowledge it would be rash to advance any theory, wares to We know nothing of the later history of the Stentinello °^^^, ware. It is impossible, however, that the later ware is directly derived from it. The new style is far more probably due to a foreign influence which affected the islands strongly, and the mainland of Italy less strongly. This influence was perhaps that of the people who built the megaUthic monuments. Petersen, who touches on this point in his masterly Villafrati critique of the Sicihan pottery, is not very clear on the ornament matter .1 He attempts to show that the ornament of the derivative later group, i. e. that of Villafrati, is a continuation of the from tha,t earher. This is, of course, faciUtated by his division of nello. the Stentinello ornament-system into three types, a division which, as we have already noticed, is not entirely satis- factory. He then points out that the pottery of La Seggia and La Scorosa — which he places in the later group — is of the second StentineUo type, and that that of Villafrati and Moarda is a developed form of the third Stentinello type. But surely La Seggia and La Scorosa do not belong to the later group at all, but to the earher. And, moreover, there is an immense gap between the ornamental system in the most advanced examples of Stentinello, and that seen on the vases of VUlafrati and Moarda. While admitting that there is nothing to prevent the StentineUo forms of design from having to some extent influenced those of Villafrati — though I fail to see sure signs of it — I feel certain that there are differences in the latter due to the introduction of a new taste from abroad. Indeed, the fact that an exactly ^ Bimische Mittheilungen, 1898, pp. 150 sqq. 140 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. similar element appears suddenly at a certain period on the Italian mainland, seems to demand this explanation. General conclu- sions. 1. Stenti. nello period. a. Method of living. b. Burial. •2. ViUa- frati period. a. Foreign trade. b. Burial. Cave- burial. Trench- tombs. Sciri. San Cono. The picture which we are able to form of neolithic Sicily is far from complete. Only a fraction of the island has been explored, and some of that in a desultory fashion. A few facts, however, emerge from the darkness. At Stentinello we see neolithic man, Hving in perishable huts in the open, leading a pastoral, possibly also an agricultural life, producing pottery which shows a most advanced taste, and yet, as regards stone implements, limited almost entirely to the axe of basalt and the flint or obsidian knife. As to the method in which the dead were buried we have no evidence, for, though the cavern of La Scorosa con- tained both skeletons and Stentinello pottery, the two are not necessarily connected. Judging from the unpublished material we may, at Matrensa, have a slightly more advanced form of the same civiHzation. The later history of this phase we are unable to trace, for next time the veil is Hfted it is to show us something almost entirely new, a more advanced neohthic culture with incised pottery of dolmen type. We have no evidence for supposing that this new type of pottery was due to the immigration of a new race. Certainly no such immigration can be proved, and it is perhaps more likely that, as in Italy, this new culture was due to the estabUshment of closer relations with foreign countries. During this later neolithic period caverns were probably used as habitations. The dead, as we have seen, are often buried in caverns during this period. But another method of burial was also in use, namely interment in trench-graves, in the bare earth {tombe a fossa). An example of this occurs at Sciri, near Licodia-Eubea (Map IV, 178). The skeleton was incomplete, the skull and several bones being missing. The furniture consisted of a fine polished axe and a rough unpolished unornamented vase. A very similar tomb was found at San Cono ^ in the 1 B. P., XXV, pp. 53-66. V IN THE ISLANDS 141 same district (Map IV, 177). It was roughly round, and at the bottom a recess was cut in the side to hold the folded legs of the body. The bottom of the grave was strewn with a red substance, probably the ocra rossa of the Ligurian caves and elsewhere. The skeleton was represented only by a few fragments. The furniture consisted of four vases, a flint knife, a flake of obsidian, and two elhptical slabs of basalt, the last used to grind red ochre. The vases are of poor clay, dark grey in colour, hand-made and cooked at an open fire. The ornament consisted of incisions filled with a white -paste. The best preserved vase has below the rim a row of hatched triangles side by side. From this row hang festoons consisting of singly-hatched bands, and a similar band crosses each festoon as a chord crosses its arc. This vase is sufl&cient to show that the grave belongs to the later (Villafrati-Moarda) period.^ Of the fife of this later period we know httle. The art c. Method of working stone has, however, advanced since the days ° '^'"^' of Stentinello, for at San Cono - has been found a flint- Flint- working settlement, which shows types of implements and SMi*Cono. a perfection of working quite unknown in the earlier period. There are several axes in basalt and poKshed green stone, but the majority of the objects are of flint. These include several axes, the usual rectangular knives, borers, saws, scrapers and a number of arrowheads. These last, owing to their great rarity in Sicily, are of particular interest. The shapes are various. Some examples are worked on one face only, others on both. They are triangular with straight or incurved base (fig. 47), and with straight or convex edges, or they are leaf-shaped, or winged and tanged. Sometimes there is only one wing. Some are very roughly flaked, others show quite fine work and toothed edges. None, however, can be compared in fineness with the work of the eneoHthic period in Italy. A few objects of obsidian were gathered. ' CaSci, however, attri butes the grave to the Stentinello period on the evidence of the pottery I ^ B. P., r, pp. 33-43. 142 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Ethno- logical problems Such are the main outlines of the neoUthic period or periods in Sicily. Can we draw any ethnological conclusions ? CoUni beUeves that we can.i ' The similarity in respect of habits, customs, methods of dweUing and industrial products between the neolithic civihzation of Italy and that of Sicily shows that they are not only chronologically parallel, but that they are due to peoples ethnically related.' The truth of this statement depends on the degree of the ethnical Neolithic affinity. No doubt the neoUthic people of Italy and of Sicilians gipiiy Ijq^Jj belong to one great stock, but there seems to nearly be no evidence for considering the neohthic Sicilians (Orsi's related to Sicani) any more closely related to the neolithic people of Italy than to those of Crete or Greece. In fact a comparison than to Italian people. Sicily and the Western Mediter- FiG. 47. Neolithic arrowhead, San Cono, Sicily. Scale y. {Bull. Pal.) of Sicihan and Itahan neohthic material affords more points of contrast than of similarity. The rarity in Sicily of the arrowhead, of huts with foundations hoUowed in the earth, of flint work with fine re-touching, of relief ornament on the pottery, of the ansa cilindro-retta. of the rhomboid flint, are surely points which cannot be passed over. We must also beware lest we misinterpret Colini's assertion that the Sicilian neolithic civihzation is connected in many respects with that which flourished contemporaneously on the shores of the Central and Western Mediterranean, especially in Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and South France. If by the neohthic civilization of Sicily is meant that seen at Stentinello, this statement is surely false, for the special ' B. P., XXX, p. 157. V IN THE ISLANDS 143 affinities of that civilization are with Crete and the Aegaean. If, however, the statement refers to the civihzation seen at Villafrati and Moarda it is perfectly true. In the present state of our knowledge nothing is more important than to reahze and ever keep in mind these two different phases of the Sicilian neolithic period. Even in equating these two phases in point of time OTth the neolithic and eneohthic phases in Italy ^ itself we must use caution. The VUlafrati-Moarda pottery, when it appears in Italy, seems to be accompanied by the earliest weapons of copper. But in Sicily no copper has as yet been found with this pottery, and the metal is indeed rare, even in the period which succeeds that of ViUafrati-Moarda, i.e. in that known as Siculan I. This does not prove the chronological equation unsound, but it suggests that it ought not to be used until further proof of its soundness is forthcoming. The material at our disposal for the study of the neohthic II.|^Sab- period in Sardinia is scanty and unreliable. dinia. At Monte Urpino (Map I, 68), near Cagliari, however, Monte the remains of a neohthic settlement were f ound.^ Obsidian Urpino. was found in great quantities and of two different quahties, "' the transparent striated and the closer-grained opaque. With this material were made small rectangular knives and arrowheads of various shapes. The .almond and olive- leaf are the common forms, but the winged form with or without a tang is not rare. A few knives and flakes of b. Flint. ordinary ffint were also found. Of stone were gathered e. stone. two fragments of axes of polished grey stone, and club- heads with a hole in the centre. The pottery is baked d. Pottery. in the open fire, blackened within and reddish without. In some cases the surface is covered with a black slip and afterwards polished. The clay always contains particles of quartz. The remains of food consisted of the following sea-sheUs, >=. Sheik. Cardium Lamarcki, Ostrea lamellosa, Pectuncuhis pilosus, 1 Cf. Colini in B. P., xxx., p 157. ' B. P., xxiv p. 45. 144 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD chap, v Spondylus gaederopus, and an indeterminable species of the genus Mytilus. Two shells pierced at the apex must have served as pendants, or as part of a necklace. A small pendant of limestone was also found. Loddo and Taramelli suggest that the settlement belonged to manufacturers of stone implements who may perhaps have used as dweUing-places the caves close by, which it is hoped are shortly to be examined. The settlement is by no means isolated, as neohthic remains have been found in Cagliari itself, at Is Arenas and at Terramaina. It seems possible that the neolithic inhabitants of Sardinia arrived by sea and founded their earhest settlements on the heights around Caghari. Burial. We have also evidence that caves were used for biu-ial Cave of in this period. In the cave of S' Oreri, province of CagUari (Map I, 67), human remains,^ badly preserved, were found mixed with potsherds, shells and animal bones. The objects gathered among the deposit included nuclei, knives, scrapers and lanceheads of obsidian, a polished axe of diorite, a shell used as a pendant, and several complete vases, including one of the tripod basins typical of the eneoHthic material of the caverns of Cape Sant' Elia. Another cavern, Grotta del Bandito, was * found near Iglesias in the same province.^ There is, however, some doubt as to the date of the burials which it contained. No further material is as yet at hand, and it is to be hoped that excavation in this important island wiU be pushed on as rapidly as possible. III. PiA- In the island of Pianosa (Map I, 40) it is possible that the NosA. neohthic period is represented by certain caverns, some- times natural, sometimes enlarged artificially, containing in some cases burials and in others remains of habitation. Each cave contained several burials, and in one case the skeleton was fornid in the contracted position. But as one of the skuUs was marked with oxide of copper it may be that some of these burials, at least, belong to the eneolithic period. > B. P., s, p. 1. * B. p., XX, p. 34. CHAPTER VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL The majority of the objects found in the neohthic stations Neolithic have been shortly described with the sites themselves, "i^*^'^''''!- It may, however, be worth while to attempt to group together and illustrate the more important of these objects, discussing the various special points of interest to which they give rise. We may conveniently divide them into objects of stone, of bone and of earthenware. The stone objects consist of two classes, those which are A. Stone produced by flaking, and are almost invariably of flint or o'']®'^*^- obsidian, and those which are produced, or at least finished, by pohshing or grinding, and are never of flint. The material most generally used for flaked implements i. Objects is flint, which occurs in large quantities in most parts of ^^^ ^^ Italy. The neohthic people introduced into Italy the custom j,,. of using carefully prepared cores, the outer flakes of which had been removed and discarded. Thus a series of long regular flakes could be struck off and the work of reducing was hghter. In the palaeohthic period the use of prepared cores was unknown, except to the people who inhabited the Balzi Rossi caves in the most advanced stage of the era. The commonest of all neohthic implements is the reet- 1. Knives. angular knife, which consists of a simple unworked flake of triangular or trapezoidal section, varying in length from a couple of centimetres to more than sixteen (fig. 49). Its breadth is always less than 3 cm. This simple rectangular flake gave rise to a long series of implements. It might be 2. Borers brought to a point by flaking along the edges near one end, scrapers. the working being always confined to the upper, i.e. the faceted face (fig. 50). In this form it probably served as a borer for piercing skins, wood &c. Sometimes one or PEET ^ 146 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL CHAP. even both ends were rounded off by small flaking on the top face and the implement became a scraper (fig. 48). Occa- sionally one end served as a scraper and the other as a borer. S.Geome- From the rectangular flake, too, is derived the whole Rhomboid." series of so-called geometrical implements. The most im- portant of these is the rhomboid flint, which is produced by cutting off a long flake by chipping two parallel lines 1-8 49 Fig. 48. Neolithic scraper {grattoir) of flint. Pig. 49. NeoUthio flint ' rectangular ' knife. Fig. 50. Neolithic flint borer. Scale |. Scale Scale obliquely across it (flg. 51 c and d). The flakes so often found with a notch in one side are probably early stages of this process.^ It is remarkable that this flint is almost always right-handed, that is to say, if it be laid with its plane side down and in a vertical position, the transverse edges run downwards from right to left. Exceptions to this are extremely rare (fig. 51 c). The rhomboid flint was apparently brought into Italy by the neolithic people ' B. p., i, p. 2. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 147 at their immigration, as it occurs in all the earhest hut- foundations of the peninsula. In SicUy and Sardinia it is as yet unknown. The use of this implement has never been ascertained, but it is thought by some to have served to arm a javelin or spear. Closely related to this is the Trapezoid, trapezoid flint (cf. fig. 94), which, however, may belong only to the later part of the neolithic period, as we have no examples which can be proved to belong to the earlier stages. The hut-foundations of Vho di Piadena and of the Vibrata Valley supply numerous examples, and the form continued in use during the eneohthic period. In FiQ. 51. Transverse arrowheads (?) and rh'omboid flints. Scale c. f. the same class must be placed the implement shaped hke Segmental a segment of a circle, the chord representing the cutting- edge. This is found only in Central and Upper Italy, while a special form with a short tang projecting from the centre of the arc is limited to the northern lakes and the Trasimene district (fig. 51 a and 6). This implement first appears in the later stages of the neohthic period, and lasts through the eneohthic and even into the early bronze age. Various opinions have been held with regard to the use of the trape- zoid and segmental instruments. Castelfranco called them both ' arrowheads with transverse edge ', and many consider them to have been used as javehn-heads. K 2 4. Saws. 148 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL CHAP. These small ' geometric ' implements are not peculiar to Italy. They occur in the neolithic hut-foundations of Belgium and South-East Spain, in the dolmens and burial- caves of Portugal and France, and in the Round Barrows of Great Britain. The so-called saws of the neoUthic period are of two types.^ The first type is very similar to the scraper of the M ousterien -peviod (fig. 17), indeed it is probably a survival of the same form. It is worked on one face only, and is oval or segmental with a convex cutting-edge. This form EtG. 52. Neolithic knife-saw (coltello-sega). Scale }. {Bull. Pal.] 5. Arrow- heads. occurs in the early neolithic huts of the Vibrata Valley. The second type is simply the rectangular knife, minutely flaked on one or both of the edges (fig. 52). The ends of the implement are either rough or pointed, squared or rounded off. This coltello-sega presents very much the appearance of a knife which has had its edge damaged by long use, but may be distinguished from this by the regu- larity of the flaking and the polished condition of the edge, due to friction. The rectangular and bow-shaped saws, flaked on both sides, belong more to the bronze age than to the neolithic, and are there described. The arrowheads may, in the Kght of recent research, be assumed to belong only to the later phase of the neolithic 1 B. P., xxii, p. 206. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 149 period in Italy. In the earliest hut-foundations and cavern deposits it is quite absent. When, however, it does appear it takes an extraordinary variety of forms. It may be oval or almond-shaped, triangular, concave at the base, winged and tanged. The form with a single wing is rather rare, occurring in the Vibrata VaUey and in the early bronze age pile-dwelling at Polada. It should be noticed that in Reggio-EmUia, in the Vibrata Valley, and near the Lake of Lesina the arrowhead is invariably lacking in those huts which have the appearance of greatest antiquity. Similar facts have been noticed in the Ligurian caves, where, more- over, the arrowhead is rare even in the later deposits. In Sardinia it occurs in rock sepulchres of late neoHthic or eneoUthic date, but in Sicily it is rare, and has not been found in graves. At San Cono, however, a number of arrowheads of triangular form, sometimes with concave base, were found, and two of the latter form occurred in the village of CasteUuccio. Even if there is any doubt as to the arrowhead, it is 6. Daggers. beyond dispute that the fhnt dagger was unknown in the earlier part of the neoHthic period. It belongs more strictly to the eneohthic period, under which it wiU be more fully described. We have, however, certain graves of the late neoHthic period, in South Italy especially, which have yielded flint daggers of two distinct types. Some are of the ordinary eneoHthic kind, worked fibaely on both faces and finished by minute flaking on the edges. Others, however, are worked only on one face, the other face being left just as it was struck from the core.^ Even on the upper face the work is often mainly confined to the edges and the original faceting is plainly visible. This rougher type of dagger is practicaUy Hmited to South Italy, where, however, it is not uncommon. Up to the present no example of a flint dagger of any kind has been found either in Sardinia or in Sicily. Speaking of the original neoHthic flint industry as a whole, Develop- it may be said that its motto was economy of labour, ^^q^^, Among aU the types of flint implement which can with industry. ' B. P., XXV, Tav, XII, XIII, and XIV. 150 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL chap. certainty be attributed to the earlier part of the period, there is not one in which the flaking was carried out over the whole surface. The discovery of the use of prepared flint-cores had made this unnecessary, but it had also caused what must be admitted to be a set-back in flint-working. In early neolithic deposits there is no flint-work to compare with that of the palaeohthic period, except that of such stations as Rivoh or Breonio, where the palaeolithic industry was continued. In the later neoUthic period, however, the art of minutely flaking the whole surface of the implement was revived, and produced flint daggers and arrowheads which for regularity and beauty are fit to compare with any of the palaeolithic products. Whether this improvement was a development within the country itself, or whether it was introduced from abroad we cannot say as yet. b. Obsi- The distribution of objects of obsidian in Italy is a ques- '^'^"" tion of great interest and importance.^ This material was used in neoUthic, possibly early neohthic, and eneoMthic times, only just surviving into the bronze age. It is common in the manufactured form in Sardinia, Sicily, Pantelleria, Pianosa, Elba. In South Italy it occurs in the Grotta del Diavolo, at Matera, in the cave of Nicolucci near Sorrento, in the huts of Lesina and the Vibrata Valley, in the island of Capri and sporadicaUy elsewhere. In Central and North Italy it is rarer, being found sporadicaUy in the Marche, in Tuscany, in the Grotta all' Onda, in the Modenese, in the Ligurian caves, and in the early bronze age lake-dweUings of Lake Varese. The raw material is found in PanteUeria and the Lipari Isles (Map I, 63), in Ischia and Procida, in the Pontine Archipelago (Map I, 56), in the Campi Flegrei and in Sardinia. Thus we have further evidence of the extensive trade relations which bound together the various parts of Italy even as early as the neoUthic period. The obsidian foimd in flakes and cores at Matera seems, judging from its transparency and lustre, to be from Melos and not ItaUan. Chemical analysis alone can decide this point. 1 Cf. B. P., XXV, p. 218. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 151 The implements of polished stone usually included under 2. PoMsh- the term axes are in reality of three types. When both . ^*°"'' •^ 1 "^ -"^ . imple- faces of the implement are convex and about equally inclined ments. to the centre-plane the implement is probably a hatchet, a. Hat- and was set in a handle in such a way that the cutting- ^^^es' edge was in a hne with the direction of the handle. If, on and the other hand, one face is comparatively flat and the other chisels, convex, the implement is more probably an adze, and was set with its edge transverse to the handle. The distinction is shown by the side views in fig. 53 a and b. Finally, S3 5^ Fig. 53. Sections down central plane of (a) adze (ascia) and (6) hatchet (accetia). Fie. 54. Flat celt of polished stone, Reggio. Scale c. I. the very narrow examples, sometimes sharpened at both ends, can only be called chisels. There is, however, no difference, except in the curve of the faces, between hatchets and adzes. Both may be oval, triangular, trapezoid or even rectangular, and the cutting- edge may be much curved, or almost straight (figs. 54-8). In length they run from about 4 cm. to 15, and in rare cases to 20. In South Italy the prevailing type of axe is so thick as to be almost cylindrical (fig. 59). This form, usual in the Aegaean and in Greece, is naturally to be expected in South Italy. The Itahan axes differ greatly in the quality of the working. Technique- 152 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL CHAP. In a few cases the whole surface is carefully poKshed, in many the cutting-edge alone is polished and the rest of the implement left rough. These poKshed axes were used in Italy throughout the neolithic and eneoHthic periods, extending into the bronze age, when they are not rare in the lake-dwellings and some of the terremare. Apparently no development took place in the forms, and the examples of the eneohthic and bronze periods are indistinguishable from those of the neolithic. 55 56 Figs. 55 and 5(i. Polished stone celts found near Bologna. Scale c. ^. Specially worthy of notice are a number of very small examples, of which fig. 60 is one of the largest. They cannot well have been used as axes for heavy and rough work, and may have been set in a handle as chisels. They occur in the Grotta aU' Onda, in the Vibrata Valley, and in other parts of South Italy. These poUshed axes are in some cases of local stone, such as sandstone, hmestone and basalt, which were ill-adapted for this use ; in other cases they are of harder stones, jadeite, nephrite, diorite, chloromelanite &c., which must have been imported from other parts of Italy or even from abroad. Its origin. The question of the origin of the supply of raw material Material for polish ed axes. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 153 for these axes is a difficult one. It may be noted at the outset that, while axes of jadeite and chloromelanite are common in the peninsula, those of nephrite are rare. Exactly the opposite is true of Sicily, while in Sardinia axes of chloromelanite are as yet imknown. Four main theories have been proposed with regard to Is the the origin of these Itahan axes.^ Gastaldi suggested long f^**,^"^' ago that such rock might yet be found in the Alpine regions, while others beheved either that the rock was imported Suggested continually from some common source in Asia, where it ^porta- 1 • 11 1- 1 • ^^°^ from occm-s, or brought into the country by the neolithic people the East Fig. 57. Polished atone celt. Reggio. Scale c. |. EiG. 58. Chisel of polished stone. Reggio. Scale c. ^. at their first coming. Others even thought that the weapons were imported ready made. Against the last must be set the fact that at Alba Cuneo and elsewhere in Europe proofs have been found of the working of the material on the spot. That the neohthic people brought the rock with them leaves unexplained the immense number of these implements, and their persistence into the bronze age, while against a common source theory is the fact that the Italian examples differ widely in chemical composition. Besides, the preva- lence of nephrite in particular districts suggests the existence of several sources in Europe itself. Thus we are reduced to the probabiUty that the material is more or less local. Nevertheless, up to quite recently, all attempts to find ' See Issel in B. P., xxvii, p. 1. 154 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL CHAP. these rocks in position in Europe in any quantity had failed. Nephrite was indeed found in pebble form in Switzerland and Styria, and in erratic blocks in Germany, while in Silesia it occurred in position. But the Styrian and Swiss examples are suspected of being the remains of neolithic axes, and Silesia is outside the area of distri- bution of implements of nephrite. Chloromelanite was, Fig. 59. Cylindrical stone celt from Magisano. Scale r. ;;. Fig. 60. Small stone celt used as chisel, Vibrata Valley. Scale \. Bull. Pal.) (Colini, Jadeite in Italy. until lately, not known in a raw state in any part of the world. Jadeite has for many years been known in the form of pebbles in Piedmont and Switzerland. However, in 1900, Franchi proved that jadeite and chloromelanite occurred in position in various parts of the western Alps and the Ligurian Apen- nines.i Moreover, he was able to show by chemical examina- tion that the rocks used in the station of Alba Cuneo were ' Alti del Cony. hit. di sc. star., Roma, 1903, vol. v, pp. 357-71. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 155 identical with those found in the Alps not far away. Thus the local origin of jadeite and chloromelanite in at least some parts of Italy is certain, though the same cannot yet be regarded as proved in the case of nephrite. Among the more unusual objects of stone are the club- b. Club- heads. These are sometimes disc-shaped with a broad ^^^^" hole through the centre, and the outer circumference shaped! sharpened.^ The example given in PI. II, fig. 14, is of polished green stone, probably jadeite, and was found alone near Bologna. Similar club-heads occurred in the cave of the Arene Candide and in that of PoUera, in the Vibrata Valley and at Alba Cuneo. These implements are by some con- sidered to be bracelets (when the hole is large enough), or pendants, but exactly similar weapons are used to-day in South-east New Guinea.^ In the Vibrata VaUey occur ' club-heads ' shaped hke thick arm-rings. In some cases the hole is so narrow that they are almost certain to be club-heads (cf. PI. II, fig. 14) ; others, however, might be arm-rings, for they resemble exactly the marble examples found on skeletons at Rossen in Saxony. The spherical 2. Spherical and ovoid forms of club-head are more usual in Italy,' being found in the Vibrata Valley, in the Ligurian caves, in Sicily and Sardinia. None of these types are pecuhar to Italy, even the rare disc-type with sharpened edge occurring in Denmark and at Rossen in Saxony. It is difficult to determine at what period the wedge- c. Ham- shaped axe with a hole for the handle (PI. II, fig. 17) "ler-axes. first appeared in Italy. An example from Vayes, in the valley of Susa, would appear to date it very early in the neohthic age.* But this example was not obtained from a regular excavation, and, as the form is generally absent in early neohthic deposits, it is possible that it only made its appearance in the later stages of the period. The example figm'ed was found near Bologna. The more ' See Colini in B. P., xxix, pp. 164-6, notes 36-42. " loo. olt., p. 165; Haddon, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, -vol. xxx. ' loc. cit., pp. 162-3. * B. P., xxix, p. 5, fig. A. 156 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL chap. developed types in which the head is separated from the body by a neck are mostly eneolithic. There is also found in Italy a rounded wedge-shaped axe with no hole, but a furrow round the middle to enable a handle to be tied on with cord of some kind. Rosa gives an example from the huts of the Vibrata VaUey.^ d. Bras- At Alba Cuneo was found what is, I beUeve, the only sard.s. neolithic example of the so-caUed brassard as yet known in Italy.2 It is a rectangular sUp of thin weU-polished sandstone, 7-50 cm. in length, with a hole at each end. Such objects are usually supposed to have been fastened on the wrist to protect it against the recoil of the bow-string. It is, however, very uncertain whether the bow was known at Alba, as the so-caUed arrowheads are very dubious. These brassards are common in Italy in the eneolithic period, especially in Sardinia, and in the bronze age, when they were in use in the lake-dwellings.' They are not uncommon in other parts of Europe, being found in Spain, England, Switzerland — where they are, however, rare — and in the eneolithic graves of Bohemia. B. Ob- As neohthic man was in the main a hunter he had large jects of stores of bone always to hand. These served to supply him with large numbers of implements. But it cannot be said that bone-working reached at all a high level among the neohthic inhabitants of Italy. 1. Borers. The most usual forms are the borer and the polisher. The first was obtained by merely pointing a small piece of bone, the joint end serving generally as a handle. Two fine examples from Breonio are shown in PI. I, fig. 5. ■2. Polishers. The poHsher was simply a flat piece cut from a larger bone and rounded at one end. It served, no doubt, for giving the fine glossy surface so usual on neohthic vases. In the Ligurian caves, especially those of PoUera and Arene Candide, bone was used for other purposes as well as these. In describing these caves we noticed spearheads, 1 B.P., xxxiii, Tav. XVII, Bg. 7. ' B. P., xix, p. 166. " Of. B. P., xxvii, Tav. VII, figs. 9, 10, 12. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 157 arrowheads, daggers and knives of bone. These are, how- ever, exceptions, and in general the most striking fact about the bone-working industry is the paucity of forms employed. The most important section of the objects of earthenware C. Ob- is formed by the pottery. This has been very fully described J®°*?^ °* in dealing with the several sites in which it is found. It ware. remains, however, to add a few general remarks on the 1. Pottery, subject. In the fixst place, this pottery as we at present know it, is Three divisible into three great groups. The first may be called ™^''^ the southern group. It includes aU that pottery of which g , the StentineUo ware is the best known example, that is to ern group, say, pottery ornamented with incisions and impressions made while the clay is still damp^ (PL I, fig. 6). These incisions and impressions are usually made, not with the finger, or a rough piece of stick, but with instruments specially made for the purpose. There are great local differences in this ware. At Matrensa and StentineUo the incisions are filled with a white paste, and form quite com- plicated schemes. At Molfetta the schemes are simpler, the white filling is absent, and the so-called tremolo pattern (PI. II, fig. 4) is very common. The distribution of this southern ware is as follows. In Sicily it occm's at Matrensa, StentineUo, in small quantities near Paterno, near Cafano, in the caves of La Seggia and La Scorosa near Syracuse, and in the Grotta Corruggi near Pachino. In Italy we find it at Molfetta near Bari, at Matera, in the Tremiti Islands, and in small quantities in the ligurian caves. Finally, in the museum at Taranto are a few sherds found within the city itself, while several fragments with the tremolo pattern have been found in a cave in the Capo S. EUa in Sardinia. The affinities of this pottery with that of Crete have been Affinities noted in deahng with SicUy (p. 135). The ItaUan examples So^^^gm of the ware help to make this even more evident. At pottery ^ This criterion is not absolute. The finer incised ware at Matera, which in its designs is closely related to that of StentineUo, is incised after firing, fig. 30. 158 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL CHAP. with that Matera was found a vase, ornamented in the StentineUo tech- °* *^® nique, reproduced in fig. 61 (after a restoration by Mayer). Aegaean. This is a well-known Aegaean shape, occurring with very slight modifications in the cist-graves of the Cyclades, at Hissarhk, and in the neoUthic burial of Hagios Nicolaos in East Crete.i At Molf etta were commonly found vases of the form shown in fig. 62. This type, including the holes in the neck, occurred among the pottery of the early iholos tomb at Haghia Triadha in Crete. At Molfetta, too, is foimd the 63 Figs. 61 and 62. Neolithic vases of Aegaean form from Matera. (Mayer, Staz. preist. di Molfetta.) bowl with incurved rim so common in Hissarhk II, in the Cyclades and in the neohthic strata at Knossos. b. North- Quite distinct from this group is what may be called the ern group, northern pottery. Here the ornament consists mainly of knobs and ridges of clay raised on the surface of the vase. These ridges are sometimes formed in moulding the vase itself (PL I, fig. 3), more rarely they consist of strips of clay added after the vase is complete ; they are often pitted with the finger-tip, or cut into squares with a fairly sharp stick or bone. At other times there is no ridge, but the vase is surrounded by a line of little pits, or its surface is pinched up into a number of knobs. This method of ornamentation betrays a taste utterly different from that of the southern ware, among which such types of adornment are unknown. It is true that even among the northern ' B. S. A., ix, p. 341, figs. 1 o and 2 c. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 159 ware incised work is found, as at Alba Cuneo and Rivoli, but it is of the simplest type, and shows no such abUity in producing geometrical patterns as we see at StentineUo. The northern ware extends over the whole of North Italy, and as far south as the Valley of the Vibrata. It is indeed found at Molfetta, but in the later station, the pottery of the' earlier settlement being of the southern tjrpe.^ In the third type of pottery the ornament consists of c. Band- incised bands and stripes arranged in various patterns over *^''*™*^' the vase (figs. 41, 154, and PI. II, fig. 8). This ware appears to have entered Italy only towards the end of the neoHthic period, and to have flourished during the succeed- ing period, the eneohthic, under which it is more fully described (p. 266). It succeeded southern pottery in the south and northern in the north. Thus it is found in Sicily at Moarda, ViUafrati and elsewhere; in Italy at Matera, in the Grotta all' Onda and in Sardinia. It is often accompanied by the bell-shaped cup, and is generally spoken of as ' pottery of the dolmen type '. But to return to the two true neohthic types. I have Affinities attempted to show above (p. 133) that the southern type of <^l^etwo represents a tradition totally different from that seen in the groups, northern, being, in fact, closely aUied to the neohthic wares a. The of Crete and the Aegaean. This I tried to prove by pointing Southern out a number of shapes and ornamental motives common to to South Italy, Sicily and the Aegaean. The presence of ^^g^^^-n similar pottery in Sardinia and liguria is then perfectly natural, for we know from other evidence that both were in communication with the Aegaean at a very early period. The northern ware, on the other hand, presents few b. Xorth- points of contact with Aegaean pottery, and is far more ^™ P°*' closely related to the neohthic wares of Central Europe. ed to that A few points are particularly worthy of note with regard °f Central to this northern pottery. In the first place, it seems that from the very outset \ ,. . -11 nature. neohthic man in Italy was wont to mix the clay with small i. xhe grains of quartz, in order to give it greater consistency, and "^'"y- to prevent it from cracking in the firing. Chierici, how- ' Mayer, Stazioni preistoriche di Moljetta, Tav. Y\Xl. 160 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL CHAP. ever, notes that at Calerno (Reggio) this was not done. The pottery is always hand-made, and the degree of the firing very variable. Most of the vases are smoothed over the surface with a fiat piece of wood, stone or bone, and some are coated with a slip of fine clay and then brightly polished. 2. Handles. One of the most remarkable features is the development and variety of the handles. This distinguishes Italian neolithic pottery from aU other wares. Often the handle is a mere knob, sometimes with a string-hole, which may be vertically or horizontally pierced, or we may have a small tongue of clay projecting from the body of the vase and taking various shapes. The ha^ndle may be formed by taking either a broad sUp (nastro), or a cylindrical stick of clay (bastoncino), and bending this up to form a bow or an ear-shape, and then fastening it on to the vase vertically or sometimes, in the case of the bow-shape, horizontally. The handle a ccmaletto consists of a rather narrow hole bored partly through the wall of the vase, which is raised to a rounded knob at that point, while that a tubetto has the appearance of a small horizontal tube attached to the body of the vase (ef. PI. II, fig. 10). Finally, the ordinary broad ear-shaped handle may end in a small knob or an upright cyUndrical projection of considerable height. This last, which occurs in the Reggian huts,^ is the ansa cilindro- retta, which became so common in the huts of the bronze age in that locality (PI. VI, fig. 5). The decoration has already been sufiiciently treated. It should be noticed that when incision occurs it is generally of the simplest kind, as at Alba and RivoU. Even in the Reggian huts,- where it is more developed, the schemes are simple, parallel straight fines, concentric semicircles, and once a row of false ruiming-spirals. A few of the shapes deserve special note. The simple ovoid or hemispherical cup has a wide distribution in Italy (fig. 24). It is remarkably common in the Ligurian caves, and occurs also in the hut-dwellings of Reggio, in both stations at Molfetta, and also in Sicily. Its shape, ill-adapted for standing, probably caused it to die out before the bronze 1 5. P., iii, Tav. I, fig. 8. ' B.P., iii, Tav. I. 3. Orna ment. 4. Shapes a. Ovoid cup. VI NEOLITHIC MATERIAL 161 age. It has numerous parallels among the Bandkeramik of Central Europe, and is found with incised spiral decoration (Bogen- und Spiralkeramik) at Rossen and Flombom in South Grermany and at Podbaba and elsewhere in Bohemia. The vases with quadrangular mouth are, in Italy, pecuhar b. Square to the Ligurian caves, where, however, they are not rare vase, (fig. 21). Outside Italy they have, I beUeve, only been found at Tordos in Transylvania, and at Sesklo and Dimini in Thessaly. The hacino, a basin set on a high conical or trumpet-shaped c. High- foot, is not common in Italy. Cohni records an example from b^in. the Vibrata hut-viUages, and a broken specimen from Alba Cuneo is preserved in the museum at Rome. The Ligurian caves have furnished examples in which the foot is almost as large as the upper part (fig. 20). The hacino is a very early form in the Mediterranean, whence it probably extended to Sicily, where it became very common in the First and Second Siculan periods, appearing even in the neolithic period at Matrensa. There are a few examples iu Italy in the bronze age, and in the early iron age the form became very common in cemeteries of the Este, Golasecca and Novilara type. The Moarda type, which, strictly speaking, is not a hacino at aU, (fig. 43), occurs in the Grotta aU' Onda, in the huts of Reggio, in the cave of Gabrovizza near Trieste, and continues in use during the eneoHthic period, for ex- ample at Remedello. It has an exact parallel among the older Winkelhandkeramik of South Germany, especially at Worms. Finally, we must notice the so-called hottiglia, a flask-shaped d. Flask, vessel.^ In its simplest form it consists of a spherical body with a cylindrical neck, which varies in height. The body is, however, often flattened and tends to develop a keel around the middle. Both shapes are fotmd in the Reggian huts (figs. 32 and 33), while one or the other appears at Alba Cuneo, in the Ligurian caves, in the island of Pianosa ^ (an ovoid specimen), at CamigMano (PI. II, fig. 7), and in several eneohthic tombs (PI. II, figs. 10, 11, 12). The hottiglia 1 Cf. Colini in B. P., xxix, p. 178 sqq. ^ Chierici, Antichi monumenti delta PiaiMsa, Tav. VII, fig. 7. PEET L 162 NEOLITHIC MATERIAL chap, vi occurs in Spain at El Garcel and Cueva de los Toyos.^ In Central Europe it occurs in Saxony along with Schnur- keramik. From its wide distribution Colini judges this form to have been part of the old heritage possessed in common by the neoUthic race before they entered Europe. 2. Clay Apparently the making of clay figurines, or indeed the figurines, representation of animal forms in any medium, was prac- tically imknown to the neoHthic Italians. Indeed, the clay quadrupeds of the terremare are virtually the first manifesta- tions of the plastic art in Italy. In two places, however, we do find clay figurines even in the neoKthic age, at Stentinello in Sicily, where there were two fragments of animals and a human torso,^ and in the Arene Candide cave in Ligima,^ where two rough human figures occurred. It is possible that the Sicihans of the neolithic period brought the plastic art with them into Italy, while the Itahans of North Italy, who were probably another branch of the same race, did not. This would explain the total absence of figurines in Italy except for the two Ligurian examples, which I beheve to be due to trade with or influence from the Aegaean.* 3. Pinta- The pintaderas or earthenware stamps for colouring the *'*"*• skin with red ochre have already been described (fig. 25). They occur in the following localities in Italy ; in the Ligurian caves, where they are common ; in a hut at Cam- peggine (Reggio) ; near Bari (one example of uncertain pro- venance).^ Outside Italy they are known in the Canary Islands, in the eneolithic settlement of Priesterhiigel near Brenndorf, and in the tumuli of Phrygia. In the museum at Vienna is a round pintadera from the Theresienhohle near Duino in the Austrian Kiistenland.^ A probable pintadera was found at VinSa in Servia' and another, of bone, in a tomb in Derbyshire along with fragments of red ochre.^ ' Siret, Les premiers ages du metal datis le Svd-Mst de VEspagne, Tav. II. ^ B, P., xvi, Tav. VI, figs. 9 and 14. ' Issel, Liguria geologica e preistorica. ' Palaeolithic (?) steatopygous figurines are said to have been found in the Balzi Rossi caves. See B. P., xxxiv, pp. 68-9, fig. I. See also Evans, Proceedings of the Brit. Assoc, 1895, pp. 834-5. ' Mayer, Stazioni preistoriche di Molfetta, Tav. Ill, 19. ' Hoernes, Drgeschichte der iildenden Kunst, p. 287, fig. 100. ' Vassits, Der prahistorische Fundort Vinca in Serbien, p. 182, Taf. IV, fig. 23. « Man, 1906, 44. CHAPTER VII PROBLEMS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD In treating the arrowhead in connexion with the hut- 1. Divi- foundations, we saw that this weapon gave us a criterion ^^^^^^ for dividing the neolithic age into an earHer and a later trnnc period, since in the oldest settlements the arrowhead is p^^^od. never found. Orsi, writing in 1882, gave a scheme in which Orsi's the neolithic period was divided into three sub-periods.^ The first was that of the Reggian huts, marked by the presence in large numbers of the rhomboid flint, and the absence of arrowheads and of all fhnts worked in minute flakes. The second was that of the stations in the open, marked by the appearance of the dog, the arrowhead, the toothed saw of flint and the art of fine flaking. The third period, just later than or even in part contemporary with the second, was that of the lake-dwellings of Lombardy. I am not prepared to accept this division in its entirety. This divi- In the first place, the Lombard lake-dweUings are rather ga°?sfa°- attributable to the eneoMthic and bronze ages than to the tory. neolithic. In the second place, the existence of ' settlements in the open ' in anything like large numbers is more than questionable. But although we may quarrel with the name of the period, the facts on which the division is based are highly valuable and may be accepted as they stand. Can we, however, arrive at a hard and fast division by any other route ? Unfortunately this is not possible. It has already been shown that the neolithic stations of Sicily can be divided into two groups, an earher and a later. The earher includes Stentinello and Matrensa, and is distin- guished by its stamped and incised pottery ; the later includes the caves of ViUafrati and Puleri and the settle- ment at Moarda ; its pottery is of quite a new tj^e — a kind of Bandkeramik — and its forms include the bicchiere a 1 B. P., viii, p. 216 L 2 164 PROBLEMS OF THE chap. Colini's campana. Now Colini makes a similar division of the neo- periods, ij^jj^p pottery of tlie mainland.^ His first group, chrono- logically parallel with that of StentineUo and Matrensa, includes that of the huts of Emilia, Fano, Vibrafca, and Alba Cuneo, together with that of the ligurian caverns. His second group is represented in the Grotta aU' Onda, at Santa Cristina, and at Ca' di Marco, and includes the Band- keramik and the bicchiere a campana. This division is not the same as that of Orsi. Two of the three stations representative of Colini's second group ar& not neoMthic at aU, but early eneoUthic, and one is led to- suspect that the BandTceramik and the bicchiere a campana reached Italy only at the very end of the neohthic period, and that the pottery of which they form a part reached its highest development only after copper had become known. In other words, when Colini's second period began Orsi's- second period was probably somewhat advanced, and the arrowhead and the finely-flaked objects of flint were already in use. It is true that the example of the bicchiere a campana- at Villafrati in Sicily seems to belong to the neolithic period there, but this proves nothing with regard to the ItaHan examples. It is probable that the period represented by ViUafrati and Moarda is parallel to the end of the neolithic- and the beginning of the eneohthic period on the mainland. Sub-divi- The result of these comparisons seems to be as follows, sion mis- -jj^g neohthic period in Italy is a period of advance and not of rest. Between the arrival of the neolithic folk in the country and the appearance of metal, the flint industry con- A period tinned to develop. The advance was probably gradual, and of gradual though we may speak of early and late neolithic, it is impos- sible to draw a definite line of separation. ' What is certain, however, is that settlements in which arrowheads and minutely-worked flints occur are comparatively late. Those in which we find Bandkeramik are probably on the limits of the eneohthic period, if not entirely within it. 2. Or Having studied the remains of the neohthic period it is ^^^"■^ now natural to ask to what race they are to be attributed, 1 B.P., XXX, p. 157. ^i NEOLITHIC PERIOD 165 or whether we are even able to connect them with a definite weeb people. THE NEO- T TTTTTf^ In the first place, everything points to the fact that, with people ? a few exceptions, the stations we have examined are due An invad- to a new race which entered Italy at the end of the palaeo- ™^ ^^°''' lithio period. It wiU be remembered that in the palaeolithic age man in Italy hved in caves or in the open, was ignorant of the arts of making pottery and of polishing stone, and, as far as we can see, had no fixed rites in connexion with the burial of the dead. At a certain point all this is suddenly Break changed. A period begins in which men five sometimes in between caves, more often in half-subterranean huts. They are no lithic and novices in the art of pottery-making, for they have dis- ^leolithic covered that the clay fires better if mixed with small grains ^^'^'° of sand or gravel, and they produce forms which are far from rudimentary. They not only know how to poHsh stone, but they employ special kinds of green stone not used in palaeoHthic times, and their most general implement is an axe or adze which takes certain definite forms never found among the palaeoHthic flint axes. They have definite and fixed rites in connexion with the burial of the dead, inhum- ing the body in the contracted position, lying on one side, in a grave dug in the bare earth. Finally they are a pastoral people, whereas the palaeoHthic inhabitants Hved by hunt- ing the wild beasts which shared the country with them. But we may go further than this. With the exception of such stations as Breonio and RivoH, which are probably due to survivors of the palaeoHthic stock, the neoHthic settle- ments contain no forms common to them and the palaeo- Hthic deposits, nor even forms which have obvious palaeo- Hthic prototypes in Italy. In fact, between the palaeoHthic and neoHthic periods there is a complete break. Now change in any given district may be due to internal Possible development, to trade relations with other districts, or to '^^^^^ ° the immigration of new people. In the first two cases the break, change must be gradual, old forms must survive or we must be able to see the stages by which they passed into the new. When nothing of this sort is perceptible, when the immigra- break is complete, as it is in Italy, we can only decide that *'™ *^^ 166 PROBLEMS OF THE chap. only pos- the third cause of change was at work, i. e. that an immigra- ^\a^^ T' ^^""^ ^'-"^^ place. This immigration may not have been the work of a year, or even of a century, nor need it have all been from one single direction. Nothing is more certain, however, than that it did occur, and that in the caverns of liguria and the hut-foundations of Reggio Emilia it left some of its earliest traces. The newcomers did not com- pletely efface their predecessors. We do not know what parts of the peninsula were inhabited at the moment of their arrival. However this may be, it seems probable that the old palaeohthic folk were suffered to Uve on, or at least succeeded in Uving on, up among the mountains around Verona, in the Vibrata "Valley, and on the Gargano pro- montory. Origin of Assuming, then, the immigration of a new people, can we the new- (jjgcover the direction from which they came, or any name comers. by which they may be known ? Method of In order to decide this question it is necessary to co-ordi- attackmg ^^^ ^^^ results of archaeology, anthropology and philology, problem. Those who desire to gain an acquaintance with all the aspects of the question should consult Modestov's Introduction <) VHistoire Romaine, chapter iii, where it is very fully treated. A. Evi- Here the archaeological side of the question must take first dence of pi^Qg^ though we shall have to ask whether our results agree ology. with those arrived at by the other sciences. The The district known in modem Italy as Liguria is a narrow Ligures. ^^^^ ^f coimtry bordertag the Bay of Genoa. In Roman times Liguria was more extensive. It reached on the North as far as the Po and included portions of what are now Piedmont, Lombardy, Emilia and Tuscany. It was in- habited by the Ligures, a race whom the Roman writers agree in caUing antiqua.^ The Greek geographers give to the Ligures an even wider distribution than this, for they place them also in the South-East of Gaul. Another people charac- terized as ' ancient ' by the old writers are the Iberi, who were the early inhabitants of Spain and Portugal. There was, however, some confusion between the names Iberi and Ligures. Sometimes the people of Spain are included among 1 Cf. Li-ry, V. 35 ; Pliny, N. H., iii. 17 (21), 123. vn NEOLITHIC PERIOD 167 the Ligures,^ sometimes the Rhone is the boundary between the two peoples, sometimes the inhabitants of the country between the Rhone and the Pjrrenees are a mixture of both.^ But the general idea we get from the various confused pas- sages is that the Iberi are for Roman and Greek writers the earUest inhabitants of the Spanish peninsula, as thelAgures are of the Italian. Can we then give the name of Ligures to the invaders who Are the brought to Italy the neoUthic civihzation, that is to say, ^^^^^^^^'^ were the people of the caves of Liguria and of the hut-foun- Ligures? dations the ancestors of those known to the Romans and Greeks as Ligures. It seems probable that they were. We have seen that Liguria itself was one of the great strongholds of the neohthic civihzation, and we shall see later that Liguria was a part of Italy which was practically unaffected by the invasions which revolutionized Italy at the beginning of the bronze age. Diodorus Siculus^ gives an account of the primitive state in which the Ligurians of the mountains were still living even in his time : vvKTepivovcTL 6' fTTi r^j \(apas vnavicas y-iv 'iv ricnv euTeXicnv fTTaij\e B. P., X, pp. 133 ff. ; xi, pp. 138 ff. ^ B. P., x, p. 133 ; xxiv, p. 1. VIII AND CEMETERIES 187 the tombs of babies contained no furniture except a few flakes of flint. The tombs consisted of trenches, usually ovoid in shape, b. Their hollowed in the open earth to a depth of from 060 to 1-00 ^'^'*''^' metre. The bottom is often concave, and in the side of the wall is cut a small recess to receive the folded legs of the body. This lies usually on the left side, the head turned c. The to the left and the legs contracted. The right hand hes " ^' in front of the pelvis, often grasping a dagger, while the left is either up to the head or stretched along the body. Rarely the body lay on the right side, or on the back with legs stretched out, a position observed to be more common in the graves of women. In one case only was the corpse in the squatting posture, that is to say, sitting as opposed to Ij^ng. In the case of bodies in the usual position, i.e. on the left side and contracted, the skull lay towards the North- West or North-North-West, and the face was turned in a direction between North and East. Extended bodies almost always lay with head to the East and face turned upwards. Only two graves contained more than one body. Of these one contained two adults one above the other, and the second two babies similarly placed. In most cases d. Disarti- it is clear that the bodies were buried with the flesh stiU on, but in a few graves lay incomplete skeletons or bones lying out of their natural position. This may be accounted for, partly by the miprotected nature of the graves, but there can at the same time be little doubt that some, at least, of the bodies were artificially deprived of the soft parts before being placed in the grave. Even if this strange rite — common among the people in question — be denied in the case of Remedello, it is at least certain that some of the bodies were buried here after lying elsewhere for a con- siderable period after decease. The graves were provided with no covering of wood or stone, but beneath the body was strewn a layer of blackish earth with traces of carbon. The tomb was filled up with this same earth. To Judge by traces of cloth found on the surface of a dagger the dead were btiried clothed. In a few rare cases there was no furniture, more often ENEOLITHIC DWELLINGS CHAP. e. Furni- ture. Grave LXVIII. The Re- medello hut-foun dations. Date of Reme- dello. there were only a few flakes of flint. Sometimes, however, the furniture was considerable. In such instances it was always (with two exceptions) arranged in an orderly and methodical fashion. This will best be gathered from the detailed account of Grave LXVIII which follows (I abridge Colini's account). The grave contained the skeleton of an adult, probably male, well preserved and with good teeth. The trench in its present condition is 1-29 metres long and 0-72 broad. The skeleton is contracted, head to North-West and legs to South-East, lying on the left side, with the right arm folded over the belly and the left on the breast. A broad triangular dagger of flint with curved edges and sharpened, point Hes at the side of the skeleton within reach of the right hand, the base towards the hand and the point turned upwards. Four arrowheads of flint he before the face, resting side by side with points upwards, i. e. in a direction parallel with the body. Above these lies a copper axe also parallel with the body. To the left of the skeleton and transverse to it hes an axe- handle of stag-horn. In other graves the positions of the various objects differ, but the arrangement is always careful and always based upon the natural position of the objects when in use. Close to the cemeteries were found remains of hut-foun- dations consisting of roughly circular holes in the ground, about 3 metres in diameter and 1'35 metres deep. These are similar to those which characterize the neolithic people of Italy in almost every district. They contain objects identical with those found in the cemeteries. The holes, it must be noticed, form only the central part or hearth of the huts, which would themselves be of a somewhat large size. Thus at Remedello we have a hut-village and a cemetery precisely ^similar to those of the neohthic period, except for the advanced nature of the material which they contain. In the huts half-concealed in the ground, in the careful details of the trench-graves we seem to trace the remains VIII AND CEMETERIES 189 of the neolithic people of Italy, but that we have got just beyond the neohthic period in point of date is clear from the objects of copper. The most characteristic of the products of human industry Reme- f ound at Remedello are primitive flat celts and daggers '^f^° ^yP** of copper, polished celts of green stone (jadeite and chloro- material. melanite), and daggers and arrowheads of flint worked in minute flakes, and of a very perfect type. We are now at liberty to assign to the Remedello or Other eneolithic period all stations which contain material of ®|*^® °* this same type, and to ask what further Mght they throw period. on the nature and customs and race of the people who left them. The Remedello cemetery had only been excavated four l. Ponta- years when it was shown to be no isolated phenomenon ""^^^^^ by the discovery of a similar necropolis at FontaneUa (Map I, 10), a few miles to the South. Here were found a. Graves. thirty-six tombs consisting of trenches dug in the earth to a depth of from 0-30 to 75 metre.^ The posture of b- Bodies, the skeletons shows complete resemblance to that seen at Remedello. They are almost invariably contracted and lying on the left side. The head is to the West, while the face looks east or north-east. In rare cases the body lies on the right side, or even supine, but even in this last case the legs are often contracted. The arms are in various positions ; sometimes the right holds the handle of a dagger while the left hes extended along the side. In one case the left hand must have been upstretched to support the head. One grave contains two skeletons in very close proximity. Signs of provisional burial are not wanting, though here, as at Remedello, it was the exception rather than the rule. The furniture is of the usual type, consisting c. Furni- in some cases of a few flakes or a core of fhnt with perhaps a bone awl. More usually, however, there were flint daggers, lance- and arrowheads, pohshed stone axes and pottery. Copper was rare and was represented by four or five awls and a triangular dagger. The furniture was always care- fully placed in position. Personal ornaments were rare, 1 B. P., xxiv, p. 220. 190 ENEOLITHIC DWELLINGS chap. though boar's tusks and shells of the genus Conus were, no doubt, used in that capacity. The presence of two such cemeteries as those of Remedello and Fontanella seem to show that the district of Brescia and Mantua was an important centre of this eneohthie civilization. This is supported by the discovery of three more sets of tombs near Remedello, one at Santa Cristina, one at PaneseUa, and the other at Ca' di Marco. 2. Pane- At Panesella, near Volongo (Map I, 11), two trench-tombs ®® *■ were found containing bodies in the contracted position. One of the graves contained seven flint arrowheads lying on the breast of the skeleton, a polished axe of green stone and a triangular dagger of metal. The other grave contained a flint dagger and arrowhead and a stone axe. Another tomb found in the locality is probably to be referred to the same period, for although it yielded no object of copper the stone weapons were of an advanced type. A fourth tomb gave a triangular fhnt dagger, an axe of serpentine and a mattock of stag's-horn. .■?. Ca' di The grave found at Ca' di Marco (Map I, 9) is of pecuhar Marco, interest. It contained no metal and is attributed to the eneolithic age on the ground of containing beU-shaped cups {bicchieri a campana) decorated with bands of white- filled points. The cups were accompanied by flints which bear no resemblance to the finished products most typical of the Italian eneolithic age, and the grave is probably one of the earliest of the period. The body lay on the left side, head to the North, face to the East, legs contracted and hands under the chin. Fixed in the earth at the edge of the trench and forming a rectangle were four large wooden piles which may originally have supported some sort of covering for the tomb. 4. Santa Two very similar graves were found at Santa Cristina, Cnstina. province of Brescia (Map I, 8). Close to the graves were found two circular holes 30 cm. in diameter, filled with dark earth. Similar holes, it will be remembered, were found at Ca' di Marco, where they were supposed to have been the sockets of piles used to support a roof over the graves. The only objection to a similar explanation at vin AND CEMETERIES 191 Santa Cristina is the diameter of the holes. The graves faced roughly east and west, and the furniture was in both carefully arranged along the south side. In one grave were a broken cup with punctured ornament, a knife of flint and a dagger of copper. In the other were a bell-shaped cup with punctured decoration in bands, and a flat axe of copper. The dagger is precisely similar to one from the cavern of Sant' Eha in Sardinia. This type of eneohthic burial, first studied in the neighbour- hood of Brescia and Mantua, is, however, not pecuhar to that district. We are able to trace it in many parts of Italy. Moving south from Brescia and Mantua we first find it again in Emiha at Cumarola and Bosco di Malta. At Cumarola, near Modena, in 1856, forty skeletons came 5. Cuma- to Hght (Map I, 25). They were buried in the open earth '^°''^- at a depth of over 3 metres. The graves were arranged in two parallel rows, and the bodies aU lay with the head to the South. The fru-niture was placed in position. It consisted in each case of a copper lancehead or dagger on the right side, and an arrowhead of flint on the left. In some cases was added an axe of copper or serpentine, or a stone club-head. A skeleton exhumed in 1861 had on the breast a rectangular piece of cloth, on which were fastened small pieces of copper wire. A flat axe of copper and a dagger of copper or bronze completed the furniture. At Bosco di Malta, near Bologna, were found eneohthic 6. Bosoo graves (Map I, 26). The accounts of the find are confused, ^^ Malta, but it is clear that at least two graves were discovered. The skeletons were accompanied by fhnt arrowheads, and one had in addition rough vases and a fragment of a flat copper axe, and a chisel. Further south we find the same type of grave on the 7. San Adriatic coast at San Rocco (Map I, 34), in the province of ^°<'oo. Ancona, where an inhumed skeleton was unearthed in 1873.^ It lay in the naked earth with the head towards the East. The furniture, placed in the usual careful manner, consisted of three knives, a spearhead and twenty-six arrowheads of ' B. P., xxiv, p. 216. 192 ENEOLITHIC DWELLINGS chap. flint. During the work which resulted in the discovery, though whether in the grave itself does not transpire, were found an axe of copper and a terracotta spindle-whorl. Two more sets of burials, at Poggio Aquilone and Rinaldone respectively, enable us to trace the same type of remains down the Tiber Valley. 8. Poggio At Poggio Aquilone (Map I, 38), in the province of Perugia, Aquilone. ^ rustic unearthed a skeleton buried in the open earth. It is not known in what posture the body lay, nor whether it was accompanied by any pottery. The furniture included a knife, a dagger, and four lanceheads of fUnt, a stone hammer, and a dagger and axe of copper. 9. Rinal- At Rinaldone (Map I, 41 ), near Viterbo, three trench-graves °'^^' were found by peasants, but the position of the skeletons was not observed.^ One contained a stone hammer and a club-head, together with nine flint arrowheads. The second contained six flint arrowheads, a club-head, two pohshed stone axes, and a vase a bottiglia with cylindrical neck (PI. II, fig. 10). The third grave yielded twenty-two flint arrowheads, two club-heads, two flat axes of copper, three copper daggers and fragments of a fourth, and, finally, a flattened spherical vase with short cyhndrical neck and handles in the form of long string holes (PI. II, fig. 11). It must be noticed that one of the daggers is of unusually large size (length 7- 15 cm.), with rounded base, and is ribbed down the centre. The type is not common in Italy in the eneoHthic period, but it occurs frequently in the bronze age. Finally, we are able to trace the same type of eneolithic 10. Toppo burial as far south as the Samnite country. At Toppo S.Fihppo. g Eilippo near Benevento (Map I, 48) a single tomb was found. ^ It consists of a trench cut in the open earth, about 1-30 metres deep, and containing the skeletons of three persons all in the extended position. Each was equipped with a vase which lay behind the skull, and two held flint daggers. One of these daggers is 18-3 cm. long, worked by flaking on the upper side only. The point, however, which is very sharp, is minutely flaked on the 1 B. P., xxix, pp. 150 ff. " B. p., xxxi, pp. 1-13. VIII AND CEMETERIES 193 lower side also. A similar example was found quite lately at Castel Malnome, near Rome, where there are probably eneolithic tombs. These daggers worked on one side only are a product of the late neohthic age in Italy, but are almost pecuhar to the centre and South. They form a good example of those local peculiarities which suggest the existence of very large weapon factories supplying and setting the fashion to great tracts of country. Of the vases one (PI. II, fig. 12) is of the bottiglia shape with a cyUndrical neck, typical of the neohthic period. The second is of similar form, except that the neck slopes inward. It is paralleled only at MoHetta. The third, a handled beaker, occurs at RemedeUo and is common in the bronze age in North Italy (PI. II, fig. 13). The evidence of the cemeteries we have examined proves Eneo- that in the eneohthic period the old neolithic rite of inhuma- ^Jyj|°| tion in trench-graves still prevailed in many parts of Italy i. xrench- from Brescia to Samnium. *°™''^" The trench-grave, however, was not the only type of 2. Rook- grave used in this period, for we have in Central Italy, tombs, at Sgurgola, Cantalupo Mandela and Camerata, examples of rock-hewn sepulchres. These were apparently imknown to the neohthic people in Italy, and form one of the innova- tions of the eneohthic age. The first of these rock-tombs to be discovered was thatRock- of Cantalupo Mandela (Map I, 42). In a huge rock of^®^ travertine rising above the level of the surrounding ground chres. were discovered two artificial grottoes, one only 110 metres a. Canta- above the surface of the ground, the other at a height of ^^°' 7 metres. The upper ceU was 0-30 metre high, 1-75 long, and 0-75 wide, the lower was shghtly larger. As part of the face of the rock has been quarried away — and indeed, the discovery of the cells was due to this — ^it is clear that the grottoes must have been some distance from the exposed face, and must have been entered by long passages. The cells themselves were of very rough workmanship and were not squared up at the angles. The upper grave contained two skeletons, one extended, PEET N 194 ENEOLITHIC DWELLINGS chap. the other slightly contracted. The fiirniture consisted in all of a rough vase and about twenty flint points, arrow- or lanceheads. In the lower grave lay three extended skeletons side by side. At the feet was a heap of bones of the hare, dog, pig, stag and ox. No furniture was found. b. Sgur- Some years later a somewhat similar discovery was made 8°1^- at Sgurgola, in the province of Rome, where a grave was found which consisted in a niche opening off from the bottom of a pit cut in the travertine ^ (Map I, 44). Within the niche was found a skeleton. The skuU was in parts coloured with a bright red pigment, and two of the arrow- heads belonging to the furniture were similarly treated. In the case of the skuU the fact is doubly important, as it proves that the body before burial must have been stripped of the flesh. Both this and the red paint are characteristic of the Ibero-Liguri, or neolithic people in Italy, and indeed elsewhere. In the grave were also found a vase, sixteen arrowheads, a stone hammer and a copper dagger, all of typical eneolithic form. c. Came- At Camerata, in the province of Aquila, was found another grotto containing furniture of the RemedeUo type (Map I, 43). We are told that it was hewn in the tufa and closed with pieces of the same material. It contained a skeleton, eighteen arrowheads of flint and a copper axe. These graves prove indubitably that during the eneoUthic age the dead were buried, not only in the naked earth as at RemedeUo, but also in artificial grottoes. Unfortunately the evidence is scanty and the observations are incomplete, so that we are not in a position to compare the form and workmanship of these tombs with that of the true and carefully examined artificial grottoes of the BasUicata, Sicily, Pianosa and Sardinia. Nevertheless, the existence of such tombs, whatever their form, is a fact of immense importance as we shall see later. But yet a third manner of burial was practised in this ' B. P., xxiv, p. 208. rata. VIII AND CEMETERIES 195 period. As in the neolithic age so in the eneohthic the bodies A third of the dead were sometimes buried in natural caves. In P^f ,°* bunal. Etruria we have a group of three caves which, in the period Cave- under discussion, served for burial. These are the Buca ^"''i^^l- deUe Fate, the cave on Monte Bradoni and the Grotta di CasteUo. The cavern called Buca delle Fate Mes on Monte Tignoso, a. Buca near Leghorn (Map I, 31). It is entered by a narrow Sf^® and difficult crack, and it is extremely improbable that it was ever used as a dwelling-place. On the floor of the cavern lies a deposit of bones, human and animal, in complete confusion. With these are large numbers of worked objects, flint instruments, poMshed stone axes, borers of bone and horn, pottery and pieces of metal. Among the latter was an ornamental ring of copper. It seems probable that this cave was used as a bone receptacle, and that the bodies were not introduced until deprived of the flesh. The objects found would naturally be the burial furniture, and the animal bones the result of a sacrifice or funeral banquet to the dead. Indeed Cocchi, who examined the cave, believed that he had found the spot on which such feasts took place at a short distance from the opening of the cave. On Monte Bradoni, near Volterra, in 1897, remains of b. Monte the eneohthic period were found in a cave^ (Map I, 32). ^^ °^^' At the sides were strewn human bones in disorder, with five or six skulls intact. One vase and several fragments, all of very rough clay, were found, together with two arrow- heads of flint, foui copper daggers of the triangular eneohthic form, a few other pieces of copper and three buttons, perhaps of tin, each with two converging holes. The pottery is, as usual, of two types, one rough and the other fine, with a black pohshed surface. Its shapes can scarcely be made out as it was very broken. The only ornament consists of raised strips of clay pitted at equal distances by the finger of the potter. Among the handles is to be noticed one of the usual ribbon-shape with a small knob above. One of the pieces of copper consisted of a thin narrow 1 B. P., XXV, p. 301. n2 196 ENEOLITHIC DWELLINGS CHAP. di Castello. lamina ending in a semicircle. Of great interest are the buttons of tin. They are conical with two converging holes in the side, forming a passage for the thread (cf . fig. 147). They show that tin was already known, but only as a precious metal. The shape occurs in the pile-dwelling of Polada, and also in the turf-pits of Brescia, but the materials used there are bone and amber respectively. It is known in England, Scandinavia, Austria, France and Spain, and in the two latter countries it occurs in the dolmens, o. Grotta The Grotta di Castello Ues near Vecchiano, in the Monti Pisani (Map I, 29). It contained numbers of human bones mixed in a sohd mass with manufactured objects, animal bones and land and sea shells. The products of industry included arrowheads of eneohthic type of jasper and flint, spindle-whorls of terracotta, and pottery of finer and coarser kinds. Besides these were found beads of marble, and a dog's tooth pierced for a pendant. Finally there came to hght a copper dagger-blade, triangular with a strong central rib. It is clear from these three caves that the RemedeUo civihzation was also enjoyed by famihes who still buried their dead in caverns, probably after a provisional burial or a removal of the flesh from the bones. We have thus found that during the period under consideration three methods of burial were in use, viz. interment in the open earth, deposition in artificial grottoes, and heaping of the skeletonized corpses in natural caves. But before leaving the burials of these people we must deal with one more burial-cave which has been held by some to prove that both cremation and cannibalism were prevalent in the eneolithic period. This is the cave called La Tana deUa Mussina, in the province of Reggio Emiha (Map I, 24). The products of human industry include polished axes and flint weapons of advanced type, as well as instruments of bone. But the pottery, though in part recaUing that of the neolithic age, has, according to Chierici, affinities with that of the terremare, and an awl and a rivet of bronze, the latter of a type usual in the bronze age, make it unlikely that the whole of the deposit is of eneohthic date. The d. La Tana della Mussina. vin AND CEMETERIES 197 human bones found belong to eighteen persons of various ages, and were found mostly near or upon a hearth, mixed with the bones of animals. Chierici observed that not a single skeleton could be completely reconstructed, and that the skulls were usually broken and often bore traces of fire. This raises two very important questions, that of canni- balism and that of cremation. With regard to the first, we have in Italy several caves i. Canni- in which masses of human bones were foimd strewn about in a stratum containing charcoal and remains of animals, and the human bones themselves sometimes showed traces of fire. The caves in which remains of this kind have been found are those of Arene Candide in Liguria, Capo S. Eha in Sardinia, Diavolo in the Capo di Leuca, Salomone and S. Angelo in the Valle deUa Vibrata, Lazzaro in Sicily, I Colombi in the island of Palmaria, and La Mussina in Reggio Emilia. Traces of fire on the bones were found at Capo S. Eha, Lazzaro, La Mussina, and Arene Candide. Thus the evidence for cannibahsm is threefold, and consists of the incompleteness of the skeletons, the traces of fire on the bones, and the finding of the bones in a mass of animal remains and charcoal. The weakness of this evidence need hardly be pointed out. We have only to remember that the rite of scarnitura, or stripping of the flesh from the bones, was practised among these people, and that caves were often used as receptacles for the bones together with the remains of a funeral banquet, in order to see that the evidence is indecisive. With regard to the traces of fire on the skulls something 2. Crema- more must be said. If this deposit belonged to the bronze age, as I believe it must, the practice of cremation, or at least partial cremation, may have been copied by these aborigines from their neighbours of the terremare, who cremated. Such an explanation would not sufl&ce for other cases of the practice, however, and it seems preferable to attribute the burning of the skulls either to the exposure of the corpse in close proximity to a ritual fire or to the lighting of fires over the already buried body, either to clear the air 198 ENEOLITHIC DWELLINGS chap. of the cave for a new funeral feast or to prepare the feast itself. Admitting here, too, that the evidence is not decisive, we must not fail to note that similar facts are to be observed in natural and artificial grottoes and in megahthic cells both in France and in Spain. Eneo- But we have dealt at sufficient length with the burials dwellings °^ *^® eneohthic period, and it is now time to ask what is known of the habitations of the period. 1. Hut- Unfortunately, what is known is very Httle. We have, ages, however, seen that at Remedello there existed a hut-village of the old neolithic type, the huts being half sunk in the earth. It is probable, too, that among the many huts excavated in North Italy and attributed to the neoUthic age, some are, despite the absence of metal, of eneohthic date. Among the hut-foundations which can be safely attributed to the eneolithic period are those of the VaUe della Vibrata, a. FowjA) and of the jondo Nazari, near Marendole, in the Veneto. The latter are in a district where hut-foundations of the bronze age are commonly found, yet as they yielded a copper flat axe it seems probable that some of them, at least, are eneohthic.^ The form and size correspond closely with that of the hut-foundations of Remedello. b. Vibrata The hut-foundations of the Valle deUa Vibrata cover Valley. a period extending from the neolithic to the early iron age. From this district come axes and dagger-blades of typical Remedello form. 2. Caves. But it is probable that side by side with the practice of living in huts that of living in caves still continued. There is no very definite evidence on this point from Italy, though the Ligurian caves have yielded a few implements of eneolithic type. But in Istria we have certain proofs that caves were inhabited in the eneohthic period. San Can- The natural cavern of San Canziano (Map I, 16) hes in ziano 1 t.1 1 \ X- ' / a remarkable chasm or abyss near Trieste. At times it is subject to inundation by an undergroimd river which flows through the abyss. It contains remains of almost aU periods. Above a palaeoHthic stratum hes a thick layer ' I find, however, by inquiry on the spot, that this axe was not actually found in a hut-foundation. VIII AND CEMETERIES 199 of river-mud, and above this again a stratum which appears to belong to the late neoUthic or eneoUthic period. The objects of flint are mostly rough, but there is one spearhead with fairly fine flaking, and a pair of polished axes of stone. Borers and other implements of bone are common. The pottery is rough, ornamented with relief-strips of clay pitted with the finger, or with knobs of clay, or with very roughly scratched incisions. Above this stratum, though divided from it only by a fine film of mud, were found a flat celt and a dagger, both of copper. Both objects are of tj^ical eneoUthic form, and show that the cavern was inhabited during the eneolithic period. Mar- chesetti thinks that these two objects are very little later than the deposit underlying them, in fact he is incHned to term the whole deposit eneohthic. But we have now exhausted the evidence as to the habitations and graves of the mainland, and must pass on to those of the islands. CHAPTER IX THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD IN THE ISLANDS Eneo- The pictiare we have been able to draw of the eneolithic .^ civilization on the mainland cannot be called really complete, tion and it is therefore the more satisfactory that this period P *^^ is so weU represented in the islands, notably Sicily, Sardinia, Pianosa and PanteUeria. At the same time it must be noted that the civilization which we find in these islands, especially in Sicily and PanteUeria, shows remarkable contrasts with that of Italy itself. A. Sicily. As Sicily is in many respects the most important of the islands, we shall consider it first. The part of SicUian pre-history included in this chapter is that called by Orsi First the First Siculan period, the period which succeeds the '^d^ neoMthic age as seen at StentineUo, and later at Moarda and Villafrati. In placing it in this part of the work I do not wish it to be assumed that it is entirely parallel to the eneoMthic period on the mainland, though in the main it certainly is so. 1. The Of this period we have traces in various parts of the island. Palermo jj^ ^j^g Palermo district, as early as 1880, several rock-hewn a. Capaci, tombs Were found at Capaci, in the plain called La Gachia^ (Map IV, 161). A circular shaft widening below gives access at the bottom to a circular chamber lying to one side of the shaft and rather deeper. The roof of the chamber is vaulted. The graves were mostly rifled by labourers, and little has survived. A few vases, however, are now at Palermo, and show a very primitive style. One is incised with lines bordered with dots, and is also coloured with a red pigment. 1 Not. Scav., 1880, p. 356. €HAP. IX ENEOLITHIC PERIOD IN THE ISLANDS 201 The importance of this discovery was that it proved Eock- the existence in Sicily of rock-hewn tombs of a very early *'°^^^- date. Its importance now in the light of further discovery is that it shows the rock-tomb to have been in use in the west of the island as weU as in the East. Even to-day we know httle more about the First Siculan period in the Palermo district. At Villafrati ai CoUi (Map IV, 163) remains have indeed been found, but there seems to be no reliable information with regard to them. They ^^J^}^^' consisted of ' small painted idols, bichrome vases, stone weapons, and skulls painted with vermilion '.^ It is to be presumed that these idols, being in the company of bichrome pottery, belong to some station or grave of Siculan I, and not to the neoUthic deposits at Villafrati. Petersen describes them as zwei mykenische idoletti.^ From the Girgenti district we have more satisfactory, 2. Gir- though not complete evidence. S^nti In the hill of Pietrarossa, which Ues on the railway between ^ pjetra- CampobeUo and Licata (Map IV, 169), was found a natural ™ssa. cavern.^ An excavation to a depth of 2 metres revealed two distinct strata of ashes, mixed with shells and bones. Below this were three human skeletons, mingled with a large number of vases. The periods represented by the finds in and around the cavern seem to be several, and the excavation was too limited to have much scientific value. The cavern was apparently used both as a hving-place and as a sepulchre, though doubtless at different times. The important facts are that the cave yielded an axe of pohshed stone, one of copper, to be referred to later, and bichrome pottery of Siculan I type (e.g. fig. 74 from which the paint has faded). At PassareUi, in the same locality, was found a double b. p^ssa- tomb hewn in the rocky surface of the ground. It was entered by a pit, and contained numerous human remains, including seventeen skulls. The pottery was of the usual bichrome type. From this it appears that both caves and artificial rock- ' S. P., xix, p. 48. ' Rom. Mitth., ziii, p. 191. = Not. Scav., 1879, p. 231. 202 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAPj tombs were used for burial in this period. The period itself is dated by the presence of the bichrome pottery, which, as we shall see later, is tjrpical of Sicilian I. <;. Naro. To the Same period must belong the material from Naro, near Girgenti, which lies in the Palermo museum, and still remains unpublished (Map IV, 168). It consists mainly of pottery of two classes, painted and unpainted. The painted ware is of the usual type. The forms include the high basin on a conical foot, with numerous variations which run into one another, a series of cups, and a few forms pecuhar Fig. 74. High- handled cup, Pietrarossa. Scale f. (After CoHni, Bull. Pal.) d. Monser- rato, Mon- teaperto and Monte Sara. to this station. The remarkable feature is the obvious survival into this period of the earUer shapes found in the neolithic caves of West Sicily, and the material, if published, would be recognized at once as one of the strongest arguments for denying any radical ethnical change in Sicily between the Sicanian and the First Siculan period. Later research has revealed three distinct cemeteries of rock-tombs in the neighbourhood of Girgenti, at Monserrato, Monteaperto, and Monte Sara (Map IV, 165). In these the tombs are not reached by a shaft as at Capaci, but are cut in a vertical face of rock and entered by a narrow doorway. The vases from Monteaperto are of interest as being perhaps the earUest known to us of the Siculan I painted style. They are painted in brown on a yellow IX IN THE ISLANDS 203 or pink ground, and resemble closely those of CasteUuccio, though they do not show the same wealth of design. They include the biconical or ' hour-glass ' vase with three handles, and a series of biconical cups with tall handles (figs. 77 and 78). These last sometimes have a distinct conical foot, a variety so far pecuhar to -this cemetery. With the vases were found five small stones and two shells of the genus Helix, all pierced to be used as ornaments. But it is in the Syracusan district, i. e. in the south-east 3. Syra- comer of the island, that the First Siculan period has, thanks °y^® . to Orsi, been thoroughly studied. Von Andrian was, I beheve, the first to call attention a. Grotta to the existence of painted pottery in this district. He L^zzaro. carried out a hasty excavation in the Grotta San Lazzaro, about 2J hours south-east of Modica, in the ravine called Cava Lazzaro^ (Map TV, 197). It contains a few human and a large number of animal bones. Stone implements are rare. The pottery is either rough or painted in the usual First Period style. Signs of fire were scarce. The great interest of the deposit is that it proves the use of caves during the First Period, though for what purpose is uncertain. The presence of human bones points to burial. But the large numbers of animal bones and potsherds point to a home for the Mving. It is quite probable that it was used for both purposes either contemporaneously or successively, as were several caves on the Italian mainland. Although our knowledge of the cave is very imperfect, it is probable that the periods represented in it are two, viz. late neoKthic and First Siculan periods. But it remained for Orsi, by his excavations in the cemetery and village of CasteUuccio (Map IV, 191), to give us the b. Cas- first definite ideas of the civihzation of the period. In cemetery the cemetery called that of Cava deUa Signora he explored thirty-one graves of this period.^ They are rock-hewn chambers cut in a vertical face i- The of rock and entered by a horizontal corridor or dromos. The burial-chamber is circular or elhptical, and the dromos is very short. Occasionally the grave consists of two ' Von Andrian, pp. 79-82. - B. P., xviii, pp. 1 ff. 204 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. 2. Burial rite. chambers connected by a short passage. The entrance to the grave is small, and is closed by a large slab of stone. Each chamber contains many skeletons ; in one case at least twenty-six were found. As the chambers are small, the bodies were perhaps deposited when already despoiled of the flesh. They are invariably in the squatting position. 3. Pottery. The pottery is of two types, rough or painted. The latter, which is rare, is of the usual First Period type(cf.figs. 77-83). The rough pottery is generally grey ia colour. Fhnt knives are common, and are found at the head of the skeleton. Obsidian does not occur. A large axe of basalt and two daggers of eneohthic type were found in the earUer and secret excavations in the necropohs. 4. Other objects. Fig. 75. Imported ornament of bone, Castellucoio. Scale c. §• (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) 0. Cas- tellucoio village. 1. Rubbish heap. Pendants are common, and vary in form. They often consist of small axe-shaped pieces of hard rock. Small beads of calcareous rock also abound. Much more important are several tubes of bone, about 14 cm. long, carefully carved on the outside in a pattern consisting of a row of segments of spheres (fig. 75). These are beyond all doubt an importation (see below, p. 286). The cemetery being exhausted, Orsi turned his attention to the village.^ No traces of huts were found, but a large rubbish-heap was carefully explored. It consisted of a thick layer of burnt wood, bones, vegetable remains, pottery and implements of various kinds^. The bones include a tooth of the horse, an animal unknown at StentineUo. 1 B. P., xix, pp. 30 ff. IX IN THE ISLANDS 205 Of stone we have axes of basalt, varjdng in shape from 2. stone the ovoid to the flat trapezoid shape. Obsidian is lacking. °^i^^- In flint are numerous long knives, and many chips, flakes and fragments. The arrowhead occurs only twice. The pottery is of three kinds. Firstly, rough grey ware 3. Pottery. of the usual First Period forms. Secondly, a ware made of purer clay and covered with a yellow or reddish shp. The predominating shape is a large ovoid jar with ridges of clay in reUef. Thirdly, painted ware, covered with a slip of deep red, cream, or dirty white colour, the latter being pecuUar to this site. The ornament is geometric, and is executed in dark-brown paint. This pottery wiU be more fuUy dealt with later in the chapter. The cemetery of CasteUuccio may be said to have fixed the type of the First Sicilian period. From the necropoHs d.Melilli. of Melilli,^ discovered about the same time, we learn some further details as to the burial customs of the period (Map rV, 182). Here the usual type of tomb is a circular or i- The elliptical chamber about 1-50 metres in diameter, entered by a small door or more correctly ' window '. There is no true dromos. Sometimes the burial-chamber proper is preceded by an antechamber. The roof is either flat or concave, and the ceU is less than a metre high. The rectangular form of cell occurs only once. The edges of the ' window ' are often rebated to receive the closing slab. Each tomb contained several bodies, and the rite of 2. The rite. scarnitura, or removal of the flesh from the bones before burial, was possibly practised. At the entrance of the tomb was placed a large basin, perhaps containing water. Vases of rough grey ware sur- roimded the bodies. Occasionally the ware with deep red surface and geometrical patterns was found. At the head of each body was a flint knife. Pendants 3. Objects. of various forms and of various stone are very common. Small flat pieces of stone pierced at both ends were possibly wrist-guards for archers. A tubular spiral of bronze and a ring of bronze wire were also found. ^ B.P., xvii, pp. 53 ff. 206 ENEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Burial rite of period. Varia- tions of it e. Monte Racello. Grave 1. Graves 2 and 3. Artificial chambers. Graves 4 and 5. Enlarged caves. Grave 5. Two periods. We may thus assert that the usual method of burial during the Eirst Siculan period was inhumation in rock- hewn tombs. The corpses were probably deprived of the flesh before burial, and several were interred in the same tomb, each with a considerable provision of funeral furniture. We must not, however, jump to the conclusion that this method of burial was invariable. That it could be and was actually varied has been proved by later discoveries. At Monte Racello (Map IV, 189), for example, where the groimd is of a broken character, the method of burial has been adapted to circumstances. The result is that we find artificial rock-chambers, natural caverns enlarged, and graves formed on the surface of the soil by fitting together slabs of rock. Grave No. 1 is a chamber of irregular rectangular plan, hewn in a soft conglomerate, resembUng a natural cavern more than an artificial chamber. It contained remains of some fifty skeletons together with vases and flint knives. The vases are mostly typical of the Eirst Siculan period, both as regards technique and form. Graves 2 and 3 are both artificial chambers, and contain respectively about twenty and about ten skeletons. Graves 4 and 5 stand side by side, and were formed by enlarging a natural cavity. No. 4 had been rifled years ago by peasants, but yielded pottery of the Eirst Period type, together with fragments which can only have belonged to high-footed basins of type common in the Second Period. In the same grave was a portion of an almost flat triangular dagger of copper with rounded heel, and two thin fragments of bronze (?) plate. Grave No. 5 contains two distinct strata of remains. The lower consists of numerous skeletons, pottery of the First Period, flint knives, pendants of stone of various shapes, a tube of spiral copper wire, and a small piece of bronze (?) plate. The upper stratum held fewer skeletons. The furniture consisted in unpainted vases of the type of the Second Period, an ' hour-glass ' cup with one handle, a stone bead, a piece of thin copper or bronze plate, and a copper dagger similar to that of Grave 4 (fig. 142). • B. P., xxiv, p. 191. IX IN THE ISLANDS 207 There does not appear to be a great difference in time between the two strata in this grave. The lower belongs to the pure First Period. The upper has strong reminiscences of that period, but also contains objects which belong rather to the second. We thus trace here the transition from the earher period to the later, and the circumstance is a strong piece of evidence against those who wish to make an ethnological severance between the two. Grave 6 is a shapeless rock-hewn chamber. Graves 8 and 9 are of a new and interesting type (fig. 76). Graves They are formed of slabs of limestone set on edge in such Fig. 76. .So-called dolmen-grave, Monteraoello. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal. a manner as to form a kind of roughly rectangular case, noimen No. 8 is trapezoidal, and in one side a kind of window ^^' is formed by cutting a square piece out of the top of the slab that forms that side. At present the slabs project a few centimetres from the ground. Originally, Orsi supposes that the whole was covered by a mound of earth. The object of the construction was to imitate the rock- chamber, as is evident from the preservation of the " window ' or entrance.^ The slab that closed it was found within. On the rock-floor of the grave lay the skeleton, together with a few insignificant potsherds. Grave 9 is of similar construction, but forms a rectangle 2-05 metres by 1-18 * These tombs are by some supposed to have been a kind of dolmen. See Chapter XI. 208 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. metres. The height of the slabs is 62 to 72 cm. This grave had been rifled. Hut* Close to the cemetery of the Monte Racello was found what ti™?^" Orsi calls a hut-foundation. In contrast with those of Italy, which are usually hoUowed in the ground, this was raised above the soil. It had apparently consisted of two circles of stone blocks, the outer set on edge, the inner laid flat. Within these again was a half -circle of smaller stones, giving the idea of a low seat running round inside the hut. The greatest radius of the whole construction, which was circular, is about 3 metres. Within the circle was found a stratum containing remains of large vases. Two of these vases stood one at each end of the semicircular ' seat '. Other remains were pieces of basalt axes, flint knives, flakes of flint and obsidian, shells and a terracotta horn (cf. fig. 250). Objects similar to the last are found in deposits of all three periods in Sicily, e. g. at Castelluccio, Cannatello, and Finocchito. An example also occurs in the island of PanteUeria. Burial in At Monte Racello we have seen the use of artificially disused enlarged caves for burial. At Monte Tabuto (Map IV, 188) mines. the dead were actually buried in disused flint-mines.^ Monte f. Monte Tabuto itself rises close to Comiso, in the province of Sjrracuse. Tabuto. j^ ^j^g g-^g which slopes down to the road from Canicaras to Annunziata lie the openings of several grottoes or galleries first noticed in cutting the road. All the grottoes were formed by the extraction of a stratum of flint nodules which Gallery 1. lies between two layers of hard hmestone. The flrst gallery is entered by an artificial opening in the face of the rock, measuring 2-20 metres by about 1 metre in height. This penetrates the rock horizontally for 2 metres and then widens out into a spacious but low cave 7-50 by 4-50 metres, with a pillar left in the centre to support the roof. The cave when explored was almost filled with refuse and earth and fallen blocks from the vault. The lowest stratum gave a f ewrough sherds, some flint flakes, and a single Burials, fhnt knife. The upper stratum contained a mass of decom- posed skeletons, in number at least forty, mixed with » B. P., xxiv, pp. 165 ft. IX IN THE ISLANDS 209 potsherds belonging to the First J Siculan period. Orsi supposes that this cavern was used as a burial-place for workmen killed by falls of roof or by other accidents in the neighbouring mines. The presence of a single SicUian- Geometric vase of the Fourth Siculan period is curious. Close by the gallery just described, and originally connected GaUeries 2 with it, is a complex of three, forming a network of narrow ' *" passages. Only one skeleton was found. Remains of the flint industry were very numerous, and in addition to hundreds of flakes included ten finished knives. Vases, some entire, others completely broken, were found in extraordinary profusion. Some of these were large un- painted tubs, decorated with strips of clay in rehef, and having two or four handles. These large vases were used probably to hold water, and the finer vases with painted decorations are in part cups used for drinking it. The fifth gallery is in many respects the most remarkable Gallery 5. of all. It penetrates about 50 metres into the mountain, and yet at scarcely any point is it more than a metre in height. The wide but low entrance is divided into three by two pilasters, one of natural rock and the other of artificially placed blocks. This entrance leads to a spacious chamber with natural rock-pillars left to support the roof. The floor-stratum contained rough flakes of flint, fragments of pottery, and worn-out axes of basalt. At the inner end was a skeleton in a distended position, accompanied by a spindle-whorl, an ' hour-glass ' cup, some flint flakes, part of a flint knife, and a perforated shell of the genus Gypraea. A passage leads from here to a smaller chamber, where about thirty damaged vases were found. Beyond this again is another large chamber with rock-pillars, followed by three more which it was impossible to examine more than superficially. In the second of these about six skeletons were found immediately above the breccia which formed the flooring. Besides the galleries already mentioned there were others SmaUer of smaller dimensions. Two of these, however, appear to have been originally intended as flint-mines, but the flint failing to appear they were turned into graves. The 210 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. first, in area 2 metres by 3 metres, and 2-25 metres in height, contained about ten decomposed skeletons, with four ' hour- glass ' cups, a smaU shell, and two flint knives. The second is much larger, and contained at least a hundred skeletons, with a single flint knife and the fragments of an ' hour- glass ' cup. It must have been used as a place of burial for the poorer classes, who could neither afford a private tomb nor an allowance of funeral furniture. The With regard to the burials in these flint galleries in general, bunais. -^ jj^g^y. ^g g^i^ ^y^^^ most if not all of them are of about the same date as the galleries themselves. It is quite possible that some of the bodies are those of workmen killed in the mines, but we need scarcely suppose this in every case, as the disused galleries doubtless formed a cheap and convenient burial-place for the colony iu whose hands the mining industry lay. Pottery. The presence of so many vases is curious, and it seems almost incredible that aU these fine painted cups were used for the purpose of carrying water to thirsty workmen. The vases are certainly designed for everyday use, to judge from their forms, which include the amphora and hydria, shapes quite unknown in contemporary graves. As regards technique, the use of white paint should be noticed ; it is laid over the usual black ornament to pick out further detail, but it is always in quite thin lines. Method of The gaUeries were hewn out with the basalt axes found worn out in considerable numbers, but it is also possible that fire and water were used to facihtate the extraction of the material. Some of the flint may well have been sent away just as it came from the mines, but some was worked on the spot, perhaps at the very mouths of the galleries, to judge by the flakes found just within them. Burial in Even the discoveries of Monte Tabuto did not exhaust the circular varieties of burial practised in the period, for sometimes when the Sicihans could find no suitable rock-face in which to hollow burial-chambers they made the closest imitation they could by hollowing circular pits in the soil, and either allowing the natural rock to form a lining to them or bringing detached slabs for that purpose. IX IN THE ISLANDS 211 Two examples of this were accidentally found by Orsi g. Gela. in exploring the great Greek cemetery of Gela.^ One consisted of a nearly circular pit (diameters 1-35 and 1-50 metres, depth 0-65 metre), hollowed in the soil. The bottom was covered with four thin slabs of stone, and other stones were used to solidify the sides. It contained eight skeletons with the skuUs to the circumference of the pit, and in the centre a fine bichrome vase, a large flint knife, a shapeless flake, and several pieces of a heavy black «tone (limonite). A second grave, also circular, was cut through the sandy soil to reach the rock. It contained twelve skeletons, a bichrome cup, four flint knives with some fragments and flakes, and a large number of the many-shaped stone pendants or amulets so common in the First Period. We have now exhausted our evidence as to the burial General rites of the period, and are in a position to sum up the ^p'^''^"- general conclusions to be drawn from it. to burial The chief distinguishing feature of the period is the advent ''"stoms. of the rock-hewn chamber-tomb. The chamber is almost ro^jj. always circular or elliptic, and is entered by a small door tomb. or window. The latter is square or trapezoid, and its "' ^^^' edges are rebated to receive the large stone which closes it. The roof of the chamber itself is vaulted or flat. In rare cases the groimd-plan is square with rounded edges. Sometimes there are two chambers opening into one another, or one chamber with a recess hollowed in the wall. The bodies were generally placed in these chambers in b. The a sitting attitude, engaged upon a banquet, signs of which are seen in the setting of a large high-footed basin in the centre, and of smaller cups around it for ladhng out the hquid. Each body seems to have been equipped, just as in life, with its arms and ornaments. The number of bodies found in a single grave is generally surprisingly large, and in one case it is over a hundred. It is usually supposed that the bodies were deposited in the grave when already deprived of flesh, either naturally, by a temporary burial, or artificially (scarnimento), for otherwise it is thought that ' B. P., xxvii, pp. 154 ff. 02 212 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. c. Method of hollow- ing the chambers. d. The shaft- tomb. 2. Sur- vival of cave- burial. 3. Pit- tombs. Sim- plicity of the tombs. Excep- tions to this, a. Castel- luccio. the graves would not have held such large numbers. This- cannot be regarded as decisive. It must be remembered that between successive burials there would often elapse a long period, during which the previously buried bodies would have become reduced to skeletonic form. Thus, until we have more definite evidence, the case for scarnimento in Sicily must be regarded as not proved. The discoveries at Monte Tabuto throw some hght on the method of excavating the sepulchres. The implement most used was the axe of basalt, of which several worn specimens were found. At Cava Cana Barbara and Valsavoia occurred scrapers consisting of slabs of hard and rough lava or basalt, which were no doubt used to smooth over the walls and vault of the grave after the main work had been accomphshed with the basalt axes. When a face of rock suitable for the opening of a chamber- grave could not be found, a small circular pit was sunk in a flat rock surface (cf. fig. 226). At the side of this and at a lower level was excavated the chamber, to which access was gained from a hole in the side of the pit near the bottom. The sepulchres of Ciachia, near Capaci, are of this type.^ At Monte RaceUo we find natiu-al grottoes which have been artificially shaped to form camera-graves. This forms a link with the cave-burials of the neohthic Sicani. And indeed this latter system persists in the present period, for skeletons accompanied by pottery belonging apparently to this period have been found in the Grotta Lazzaro and in the Grotta di Pietrarossa, and also in that of Gala Farina. Finally, in the territory of Gela, where the rock is covered by a tliick deposit of gravelly soil, the camera-grave is replaced by a shallow pit lined with rough blocks of stone. It is worth remarking that all the rock-tombs of the period are of very simple construction, closed by a slab of stone, and that there is no sign of the architectural embeUishments which occur in the Second Siculan period. It is, however, to be noted that two of the closing-slabs in the cemetery at CasteUuccio have simple spiral designs roughly sculptured ' In the East of Sicily, however, this type apparently does not appear until the Second Siculan period. IX IN THE ISLANDS 213 upon their surface. Moreover, a tomb in the ravine called b. cava Cava Lazzaro ^ shows a remarkable ornamentation on its ^'''^^*''"- front. The burial chamber is circular, and is preceded by a wide-open padiglione shaped hke a segment of a circle. This padiglione is 3-50 metres wide, 0-59 metre deep, and 0-90 metre high. In its curved sides are roughly hewn in the sohd rock eight pilasters, four on each side of the door of the burial-chamber. Six of the pilasters bear at the top an incised circle with centre marked, and three are marked down the front with a fishbone pattern.^ A similar c Cava arrangement of pilasters was recorded by Orsi in the tombs '"*™*™- of the First Period at Cava Lavinaro, near Modica.^ In these cases, however, the pilasters were only five in number and were quite unomamented. Although we possess so much evidence as to methods Method of burial in this period, we are singularly badly informed ?^ '^■^®'^" as to the homes of the living. In the village at Castelluccio no dwellings were found, and the ' hut ' at Monte RaceUo is somewhat doubtful.^: Nor have we any certain evidence for stating that caves were used as habitations, if we except the doubtful case of the Grotta San Lazzaro. Nevertheless, the material recovered from the various Material sites enables us to reconstruct to some extent the civilization ^°^'^^- of the period. It may be said that if we except the pottery there is a great poverty of forms in this material. The flint implements are practically limited to the old i. Flints. neolithic rectangular knives, of which Sicily has given beautiful examples, and the borer. The minute flaking which is so common in Italian eneoHthic deposits is rare in Sicily. The flaked dagger is absent, and the arrowhead is represented in this period by occasional examples such as the two at Castelluccio.* Even after the rise of vase-painting and of rock-hewn 2. Meta). graves metal did not come into common use. It is true that the continual rifling of graves has naturally played greater havoc with metal than with other materials, yet ' Ausonia, 1907, p. 7. " loo. cit., fig. 2. ' Not. Scav., 1905, p. 432, fig. 18. ' B. P., xix, Tav. V, fig. 25. 214 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD chap. even the undisturbed burials point to its rarity. The cavern of Pietrarossa yielded the only flat celt as yet known in Sicily. It is of copper, rather thick, with one face almost flat and the other convex, a type common in South-East Spain. In the cemetery of Castelluccio occur two minute specimens — evidently models — of flat axes. They are of copper, narrow in the body and widening towards the blade, the sides being curved. This is a shape very rare in Italy. From the graves of Monte Racello come two copper daggers. They are roughly triangular with rounded base, two rivet- holes, and a central rib (fig. 142). One, however, at least belongs to the transition to the Second Period. In the burial-chamber at IsneUo, near Palermo, was found another dagger of copper described as ' a lancehead of rough copper, about the size of a dagger-blade of primitive form, with two rivet-holes at the base '.^ In addition to these weapons must be noted a few small pieces of bronze or copper, conical buttons at Castelluccio, a piece of wire of quad- rangular section at Isnello, and tubes of spiral wire and various fragments of copper or bronze plate. This rarity of metal is remarkable chronologically. The period is truly called eneolithic, for the implements used are mainly of stone, and only a small number are of copper or bronze. Now on the mainland of Italy the period marked by the occurrence of pottery very similar to that of the dolmens is a period in which copper weapons play a considerable part, e.g. at Remedello and FontaneUata. In Sicily, however, this pottery, e.g. at Villafrati, is appar- ently neohthic, and even in the succeeding First Siculan period metals do not become at aU common. This means that if the chronological evidence of this pottery is valid ^ Sicily must have been very backward in the use of metals, a curious fact when we remember its position. 3. Orna- The use of pendants of stone seems to have been general ments (fig. 146), and small model celts were worn in this way. The small beads of a resinous substance are not amber but a local product of an inferior kind. 1 B. P., xxii, p. 305. ^ Repeated rifling of the tombs makes this reservation necessary. IX IN THE ISLANDS 215 The chief features of the pottery of Period I are the 4. Pottery. almost complete disappearance of incised ornament and the advent of a series of painted ware. This latter is pecuUar to the period, and vanishes almost entirely before the beginning of Period II. Thus the ware of the First Period falls at once into two classes, rough and painted. In the rough ware the clay is coarse, and the surface-colour a. Rough is a rich dark grey, which lasts throughout all four periods. ^*™' There is no sign of the wheel ; indeed it may be said Rg. 77. Early form of high-footed basin. Scale |. (After Oiai, Bull. Pal.) Fig. 78. Painted cup. Scale |. (After Orsi, Bull Pal] that until we reach the geometric ware of Period IV the wheel never occurs. In rare examples the clay burns to yeUow or yellow-grey. The forms are in part those found among the painted ware, in part different and more primitive. As we shall see later, they show a considerable resemblance to those of the neohthic period as represented not by Stentinello and Matrensa but by Moarda and Villafrati. The painted ware forms a class distinct from ah. others b. Painted in the Mediterranean, though not perhaps without relation "*™' to some of them. The clay is pinky-yeUow. On the surface is laid a slip, which is either of a dull ochre (varying to 216 THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD CHAP. Affinities of this pottery. dirty white at Castelluccio) or of a rich dark brick-red. On this the design is painted in black or very dark brown. The type of ornament found on these vases will be much better gathered from the figures given (77-83) than from a long description. Suffice it to say that the motives are in the main rectilinear, though a few simple curved elements appear. The general arrangement of the design is vertical, rather than horizontal, and vertical ribs sometimes divide the vase surface into separate compartments, each of which 73 SO a. Sur- vival of neolithic elements. b. Foreign elements. Whence did they come ? EiG. 79. Painted cup. Scale f. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) Fio. 80. High-footed basin. Scale J. (After Orsi, Bvll. Pal.) contains a complete ornamental scheme. As Petersen has so admirably shown, this ware preserves in its ornament some of the tradition of the StentineUo and of the Moarda pottery.^ But there are other decorative elements which cannot be explained in this way, and which seem to be new to Sicily in this period. The use of paint itself is a novelty. Whether it was discovered in the island we cannot say, for the rough coloiu-ed sherds of the Gala Farina cave are not sufficient to represent an early stage in a locally invented system. That is to say, the painted ware appears suddenly in fuU perfection. Knowing as we do the close ' mm. JUitth., xiii, 1898, pp. 180-6. IX IN THE ISLANDS 217 connexion of Sicily with the Aegaean at this period, we shall find no difficulty in supposing that the use of paint was introduced from somewhere in that area or near it. Fresh discoveries in Sicily may, however, at any moment occur to make this external explanation unnecessary. It is natural to look to the Aegaean, as being an early The home of painted pottery, in the hopes of finding the origin ^^gaean ? of some of the Sicilian ornament. From Crete, perhaps rather unexpectedly, we get Uttle satisfaction. No type of Minoan ware hitherto known shows much affinity to the Sicilian, and as yet no Early or Middle Minoan vases or fragments have been found in Sicily. Rg. 81. Painted jar. Scale ^. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) Fig. 82. Painted oup. Scale c. J. (After Orsi, BnU. Pal.) Kg. 83. Painted ' hour-glaas ' cup. Scale |. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) In North Greece, however, has of late been discovered North a type of pottery which shows greater affinity with this Cireece ? Sicihan ware than does any Aegaean pottery. This ware was first found by Tsoimtas at Sesklo and Dimini, in Thessaly, but the first pubUshed examples were those found by Soteriades at Chaeronea.^ The ware is for this reason usually known as Chaeronea ware. It has since been foimd by Messrs. Wace and Droop at Zerelia, in Thessaly,^ and is also beheved to occur around Pharsala. In fact it seems to have quite a wide distribution in Thessaly and North Greece generally. The vases are covered with a white ^ Ath. Mitfh., 1905, p. 115 ; 1906, p. 392. 'E is rudimentary, but in the later it is either long and spike- shaped. Fig. 171. Bronze daggers, terremare. Scale f. |. shaped (PI. IV, fig. 15), or else flat with raised edges. The type with a broader base and a pair of rivets is perhaps related to the older form with round heel, though the blade itself Js usually leaf-shaped. The triangular dagger with broad base, which we have Type (c) already seen in the lake-dwellings, was also in use by the "''"^" "• terramara people. The handle is often in one piece with the^blade, which is usually flat and incised with a triangular pattern similar to that shown (fig. 172). The form is com- mon in Central and even Northern Europe. A hoard of daggers of this type was found at Castione Marchesi ^ and another at Ripatransone. 1 B. P., ii, p. 44. 346 THE TERREMARE CHAP. C.Swords. The swords of the terremare are not numerous, and belong to a very few tjrpes. The typical terramara-swoid is a rather broad type with a round heel with rivets and a short spike-shaped tang. The section of this sword may vary. In the inhumation graves at Poveghano, which are con- temporary with the terremare, though unconnected with them, we find this type with a distinct rib down the centre (fig. 173). This Povegliano sword — there is also a second example, broken — is the nearest approach we have in Italy Type 1. a, terramara sword. Modified type at Pove- gliano. 17a 173 Examples of terra- mara sword. Fig. 172. Bronze-hilted triangular dagger, Castione. Mariotti, Bull. Pal.) Fig. 173. Ribbed sword of bronze, Povegliano. Scale J. Scale (After to the strong-ribbed Aegaean rapier ,i but it is much heavier, and was probably a cutting weapon. Three terremare have given examples of this short-tanged sword, viz. Castiglione di Marano, Castione dei Marches!, and Redii (a damaged and uncertain specimen). In these examples the rib is very broad, almost covering the blade, ' Some of the. Sicilian swords are much nearer to the Aegaean type (see Chapter XVII). The Museo Preistorico at Rome possesses examples of long rapier swords said to have come from a nuraghe near Sassari in Sardinia. XIV THE TERREMARE 347 and passing into the edge nearly imperceptibly. The end is pointed, while the edges are convex, curving in slightly just below the hilt (fig. 174). Another shorter sword from Castione appears to have a Type i.i round heel but no tang, while a damaged example from s^ord. \JA- ns Kg. 174. Short-tanged sword, terramara type. Scale c. f. Fia. 175. Bronze sword with flanged hilt, Fucino. Scale J. Pigorini, Not. Scav.) (After Bigarello, in the province of Mantua, resembles the usual type, except that the rib is shghtly more marked, so that the section is rhomboid. All these swords differ entirely from the Mycenaean, Cretan and Sicilian types, and probably have their origin somewhere in Central Europe, though it does not for a moment follow that our examples are actually imported. 348 THE TERREMARE chap. Type 2. A Completely different tvpe of sword is that in which the Bronze- r j j r i • i i hiited tang is long and flat, with its edges raised, and rivet-holes ■"^'^"'^ down the centre (fig. 175). The handle was formed hy riveting plates of bone or wood on to both sides of this tang. In some cases the tang has a shght prolongation on to which the pommel was fitted. I do not know any example of this from terremare, but it occurs at Montegiorgio, at Ficulle in Umbria, at Aquila, and near Lake Fucino, where Modified there are several examples. A similar sword with hUt of Pove- a slightly modified form also occurs at Povegliano.^ This giano. type of weapon (Naue's Type II) has a wide distribution in Europe. Its origin is uncertain, for the examples from the Cyclopian house at Mycenae and from Muliana in Crete do not by any means prove it to be Aegaean. J. L. Myres, to whom I am indebted for kind information on this point, thinks that this type was possibly of South Danubian origin and intruded into Italy about the period of the break-up of Mycenaean commerce in the Aegaean, or perhaps a little earlier. Type 3. Another type of sword is seen in the short examples of Cascina Ranza Cascina Ranza. The hilt is of bronze and the blade is ^^"^ ■ concavo-convex on both edges (fig. 169). This is thought by Montelius to be a development by lengthening of the triangular broad dagger, the incised ornament of which it certainly preserves. It is a common form in Central Europe and Scandinavia. In Italj? it is probably not very far from its original home. D. Several of the objects previously described as daggers Knives, equally well deserve the name of knives, especially the blunt-ended examples of Lake Garda. As knives we may certainly class the concavo-convex implements with only one cutting-edge which appear probably in the later strata only of the terremare (cf. PI. V, fig. 1). E. Ra- The razor is always trapezoid or rectangular in form, ^"'^^^ usually divided up the centre and with two cutting-edges (PI. IV, fig. 18). P. Sickles. The sickle is a familiar implement in the terremare. It is almost invariably of the same form and seems to be an 1 B. P., ix, Tav. Ill, fig. 15. XIV THE TERREMARE 349 Italian specialization of the type (fig. 176). At Toscanella, in a bronze age hut-village, was found a copper sickle of much more primitive type, while other forms occurred in [77 [78 [79 Rg. 176. Bronze sickle. Scale c. J. R:g. 177. Bronze arrowhead with flat tang. Scale c. }. Figs. 178 and 179. Bronze spearheads, temmare. Scale -J. the hoard of Manduria near Taranto,^ at Gardone near Brescia,- and at Limone near Livorno. ^ B.P., xxix, Tar. VIII, figs. 1, 3, 4, 5. • Now in the museum at Brescia. 350 THE TERREMARE CHAP. G. Arrow- Arrowheads have either a simple tang (fig. 177) or a small heads. socket to help in firm hafting. Spearheads vary very Mttle. heads. '^'^^ conical socket reaches as far as the point, and the wings are convex and occupy about two-thirds of the socket length, sometimes rather more (figs. 178, 179). I. Chisels. Chisels have quite a modern appearance (fig. 180). The stem is round or square, and the tang is sometimes set in 180 Fici. 180. Bronze ohiael. Scale c. J. !PiGS. 181 and 182. Bronze awls set in bone handles. Scale c. J. J. Borers, a bone or horn handle. Small bronze borers are also fre- quently set in ornamented bone or horn handles (figs. 181, 182). Needles are of modern shape, though rather more coarse and often with the eye further from the end. Bronze pins take most varying forms. The figures (figs. 183 to 185) will save tedious description. The two-spiral pin is interesting as being a Cycladic form found at Syros.^ Several of the terramara types had heads of bone or stag's- 1 'E. Basins and dishes. c. Cups .ind jugs XIV THE TERREMARE 357 from their form, evidently ladles (PL IV, figs. 8 and 9). It is to this group of vases that ornamentation and elaborate handles are most usually applied. A frequent vase in the terremare is the biconical jar with d. The a sUght out-turned neck (PI. IV, fig. 10). This is somewhat v^""'"''' similar to the ViUanova ossuary of the early iron age. Its use in the terremare was not whoUy sepulchral. Among rarer vases are the shovel-vase (PI. IV, fig. 7), e. Shovel of which Gorzano gave examples, the spoons and the fischietto. This last is a small conical vase •with a hole at i.Fischiaio. the apex (fig. 194). It resembles the Cretan filler ^ but has 184- 195 Fig. 194. Section of small conical vase, fischietto. Scale -i. FiG. 195. Axe-shaped handle, ansa ad ascia. Scale c. -J-. no handle and is very small, seldom more than 10 cm. in length. These objects are considered by Pigorini to be whistles. Colanders or strainers consisting of low cyhndrical g.strainers. or inverted-conical vases pierced with many holes are occa- sionally found. At CasteKranco deU' Emilia a large vase h. Bucket was shaped exactly like a bucket and decorated with strips of clay running round the surface in a parallel horizontal series. In several terremare, including Gorzano, we find an i. spouted ovoid cup with a spout and a handle diametrically opposite ''^^'^' to it. A basin set on a high trumpet-foot is not uncommon. An example from Montale has a hole through the foot. Besides these must be noticed a very large number of j- Ritual mmiature vases, much too small to be of actual use, though ' B.S.A., ix, p. 311, fig. 9. 358 THE TERREMARE CHAP. almost invariably reproducing in a clumsy style the shapes of the ordinary ware (PI. IV, fig. 2). These vases are not peculiar to the terremare, for they occur also among the western lake-dwellings at Polada. At Polada, too, is found the spoon of earthenware, and at Polada and Cataragna the fischietto. It is impossible to suppose that all the vases of this miniature type were made as playthings for children, and it seems probable that they served some ritual purpose, being used in some kind of religious banquet, perhaps set before the gods themselves. Haadles. One of the chief features of terramara pottery is the remarkable variety and development of the handles. Often they are of quite simple form, made by curhng a ribbon or stick of clay into a ring, and attaching it to the vase vertically or horizontally. Occasionally we find a pierced knob or a narrow tubular handle. A simple handle rising high above the rim is not uncommon. But the ingenuity of the potter was more generally shown in elaborating the handles of the finer vases, especially the cups and ladles. The lower part of the handle was a simple vertical ring ; but above this it was prolonged and developed into a pair of horns or a crescent, the ansa lunata or cornuta (fig. 196). It is this handle that forms one of the chief distinguishing marks of the terramara people in Italy, and it has a very important significance, as we shall see later (Chapter XVIII). This upper part of the handle, without ever losing its essential form, was capable of infinite variety, and the figures will give some idea of the way in which it was treated. Many have mshed to give this handle a ritual significance. This would certainly be very difficult to prove, and the apphcation of the form to such hundreds of common vases is rather against such an interpretation. We may rather see in it an example of the tendency in the lake-dwellers of Italy, of Hungary and of Bosnia, to elaborate the upper part of the vase handle, even in preference to adorning the vase itself. The terremare give rare examples of another handle of the same group, viz. the axe-shaped handle (fig. 195). The ornament can almost be divided into two classes according as it is applied to rough or fine ware. Rough a. Jns licnata. b. Ax.- shaped handle. Orna- ment. XIV THE TERREMARE 359 vases are occasionally completely covered with small knobs a. ciay of clay, or small circular depressions made with a rounded j "t° '^ ^" stick-end. The use of a horizontal row of knobs, some distance apart, around the vase below the rim is not un- common (PI. IV, fig. 12). Frequent, too, is the application b. Reiief- of rounded strips of clay in rehef . Sometimes a single *^ '^'^"'' strip encircles the vase below the rim. At others, concentric semicircles are laid on the shoulder or body. Vertical Fig. 190. Horned or crescent handles, lenemare. strips are less common, though they occur at Castione, and three short parallel vertical strips below the rim are occasionally seen. The strips are rarely pitted. On the finer vases we have three types of ornament : c incision shallow incision, which is rare ; furrowed designs (PL IV, fig. 6), which are usual ; and large knob-shaped projections, seemingly made in modelling the vase, and not attached afterwards (PI. IV, fig. 10). Incision is seen at Castione, where the designs are simple dog-tooth patterns, or groups of short parallel lines. By using a thicker implement to 360 THE TERREMABE CHAP. work with the potter could pass naturally from incision to furrowing [canalatura) (PI. IV, fig. 4). This is especially frequent on the bottom, inside or out, of shallow open cups, where it is helped out by circular impressions made with the stick-end. The pattern is simple, and is arranged radially round a central impression (PI. IV, fig. 5). Furrow- ing is also common on handles and on the shoulder of the biconical vases, where concentric semicircles are a favourite pattern ; these are often arranged round and even on a large projecting knob, as in PI. IV, fig. 10, where, however, the furrows approach incision. It is curious that in miniature \'T.C.. 197. Clay figurines of animals, terremare. Scale c. J. 198- Terracotta spindle-whorls, terremare. Scale c. J. Other ob- jects of earthen- ware. Spindle- whorls. Net- sinkers( ?) copies of such knobbed vases the knobs are represented so large as to spoil the whole proportion of the vase. Among the objects of earthenware must be included spindle-whorls, net-sinkers and figurines. Spindle-whorls are innumerable (figs. 198, 199). They take almost every conceivable form, and are in most cases ornamented with incision or furrow. They are generally of fine clay, with a good but unpolished surface. The objects represented in fig. 200 are of rough yellow clay, and are sometimes classed as net-sinkers, as they seem too heavy for loom-weights. It is, however, doubtful XIV THE TERREMARE 361 whether the terramara folk fished at all, as they lived far from the lakes, and marshes offer little opportunity for the use of heavy nets. Finally we have to mention the small figurines (fig. 197). Figurines. At Castellazzo these represented both men and animals, but elsewhere animals only are found. They are not uncommon. The animal is hard to identify, but in some cases it seems to be perhaps a pig. It should be noticed that these are the first plastic representations which occur in Italy, if we except a few neolithic figurines. They are of very rough make, and the clay is left unpolished. Amber is occasionally found in the terremare. At Castione Amber, we find small beads, spherical or discoid, while at Castione, Montale and Casinalbo we have much larger discs, usually Fig. 199. Sections of earthenware spindle-whorls. Scale c. thinned-off towards the circumference. These last are sometimes taken to be spindle- whorls, but they were much more probably mere ornaments. From the comparative rarity of amber in the terremare we may infer that they lay just off the edge of one of the great amber routes from the Baltic to the Aegaean, a fact which is borne out by their position. In fact they succeeded in just tapping the trade as it passed the head of the Adriatic. In the terramara of Montale were found two beads of Glass- dull glass-paste. One is conical, and light blue in coloiir, P'^^*''- the other is globular and white. Presumably these were found in the true relic stratum. They are certainly not a native product, and must have been imported. Possibly they found their waj- up from the Aegaean via the Balkans. The examination of the material ^ihich we have just 362 THE TERREMARE CHAP. 1. Agri- culture. Culture carried out, together with a consideration of the animal °* ^^^ and vegetable remains found in the terremare, enables us folk. to draw a fairly complete picture of the people who inhabited these settlements. It was in agriculture and metallurgy that they chiefly surpassed their neohthic predecessors in Italy. Wild fruits still served as food, such as filberts, acorns, wild apples, pears and cherries. But besides these we find remains of flax, beans, two types of wheat (Triticum vulgare hibernum and turbidum), and the vine (Vitis vinifera L.). This last, however, is not the true vine of cultivation, and we have no evidence that these people used it to produce wine. The grain was pounded with hand-mills of stone of the type of fig. 201. The flax was probably used, as in Switzerland, Fia. 200. Net-sinkers or loom-weights of earthenware. Scale c. 2. Metal lurgy. 3. Hunt- ing. to produce clothing-stuffs. The abundance of the spindle- whorls proves that it was at least made into thread. The metaUic industry of the terramara folk consisted in the casting of bronze in stone and perhaps clay moulds. The art of hammering out bronze plate in order to make bronze vases was unknown to them, and appears in Italy only when the civilization of the terremare has passed into that of Villanova. Moulds for casting bronze objects are not rare among the terremare. They are generally of sandstone or limestone (PI. V, 13). We have also crucibles of cylindrical form, in which the metal was fused. But wliile the terramara folk practised agriculture and worked bronze, they had not ceased to be hunters. They still relied on the chase to provide for many of the needs of everyday life. They pursued the stag, deer, wild boar XIV THE TERREMARE 363 and bear. These animals furnished them with horn and bone for making implements, with skins to clothe themselves, and with flesh to eat. Many animals, however, they had domesticated, including the ox, sheep, goat, pig, cat, fowl and duck. The dog helped to watch the cattle, and the horse and perhaps the ass were driven in the modern fashion, with reins and bits. It is uncertain whether the terramara folk were fishers or not. In the terremare a few remains of fish have occurred, and at Montale a hook of bronze. The harpoon of Lake Garda may be much later, and the so-called net-sinkers referred to above may be Fig. 201. Stones used for grinding grain. Scale c. J. loom-weights. The question must be therefore regarded as stiU unsettled. 1 Our task of delineating the life of the inhabitants of the Methods terremare is now complete, and it only remains to ask whether °* burial, we can throw any Hght on their methods of burial. In other ^^^.j^^ ^^' words, have we any graves or cemeteries which can with actually absolute certainty be attributed to these people ? connected ^ Strobel's complete list of the fauna of the terremare is as follows : — Erinaceus europaeiis L., Ursus Arctos, Vulpes vulgaris Briss., Canis familiaris (with varieties Spaletti Strub., pahistris Bat., matris optimae). Lupus vulgaris. Melts vulgaris, Alaries foina L., Felis catus, Sus scrofa (ferus) L., Sus palustris Rut., Asinus africanus Sans., Equus caballus, Capreolus vulgaris, Cervus elapJiiis, Dama platyceros, Cervus tarandus, Hircus aegagrus L., Hircus palustris, Oria aries L., 0. palustris Riit., 0, capricornus, O. musimonis. Bos primigenius, B. domesticus, B. brachyceros, Lepus timidus, Mus silvaticus, Histrix cristata L., Castor fiber, Frugilegus segetum. Callus domesticus L., Ciconia alba, Ardea cinerea, An-ser segetum. Anas hoschas L., Emys europaea, Bxtxo, Esox Indus L. 364 THE TERREMARE chap. ■with No one will venture to doubt the connexion with the knoTO terramara of Castellazzo of the two cemeteries found just terremare. p j r\ 1. Castel- without its moat, and already shortly referred to. Une lazzo. lay south-south-east of the settlement, and the other immediately outside the western moat.^ The former, 90 metres square, contained a number of rough ossuaries Teira- filled with burnt bones. These vases, however, lay not Aelif " upon the soil but on a platform supported by piles and surrounded by a moat 10 metres wide. The pile-structure was reached by a wooden bridge across the west side of the moat. This cemetery was in fact a ' terramara of the dead ', where the departed were laid to rest in a dwelling similar to that in which they had lived. The west cemetery was not fully explored, but there was no sign of the pile-structure noticed in the other. The burial This evidence enables us to affirm with certainty that the cremltfon. people of Castellazzo cremated their dead and buried the bm-nt remains in ossuaries, sometimes depositing these on a pile-structure similar in form to the terramara itself. .Signifl- The importance of these facts cannot be overrated. Castellazzo Siucc the terramara folk cremated it is unUkely that they cemeteries, ^gpg ^^^g same people as the Liguri of neohthic times.^ Further, the use of a terramara of the dead suggests that a terramara was a survival of some form of lake-dwelling, and not a mere hut-village raised on piles to avoid floods. The existence at Castellazzo of a second cemetery, not built on piles, proves that the pile-structure of the first had a merely ritual significance. It is to be wished that a comparative examination of the two cemeteries had been carried out, in order to determine whether the same class of people were buried in both. Need of The excavations at Castellazzo afford excellent evidence evidence, ^s to the form of the terramara cemeteries, but leave many details to be filled up. Fortunately, these are in a great measure supplied by two other cemeteries, each of which can be definitely connected with a terramara. These ' Rend. Ace. Line., November 20. 1893. ' Both this point and the next will be more fully discussed in Chapter XVIII. XIV THE TERREMARE 365 cemeteries were found at Monte Lonato and Casinalbo respectively. In examining some pre-Roman traces at Monte Lonato 2. Monte (Map II, 89), province of Brescia, a number of urn-burials Lonato. were found only slightly below the level of the soil.^ Each tomb consisted of a mound of stones arranged in a circle, though no traces of any covering remained. In each lay various vases containing burnt human remains ; each vase was closed with the broken bottom of a larger vase, and the fragment was in its turn surmounted by a stone. In and around the tombs were found other fragments of vases. The urns contained nothing but the burnt bones and a few insignificant fragments of bronze. The urns are of Shape of forms common in the terremare. We notice that the ritual shape of urn so common in the sepulchres of the bronze age in the West of North Italy is at Lonato not in general use. We have indeed vases of double-cone shape, but the upper cone constitutes the neck rather than a part of the body, and the high rim essential in the ossuaries of the Monza group is here quite lacking. In fact, at Lonato the vases used for the burial of the dead are still, as at Copezzato (see below), of shapes used in ordinary life. When we ask to what settlement the cemetery belonged, we have not far to seek. On the hill at the foot of which the graves he were found traces of a settlement, the exact nature of which has not been ascertained, but which yielded objects typical of the terramara civilization. Even if this geographical evidence should be thought indecisive, we can still prove the connexion of the cemetery with the terramara people, for all the pottery found in it is of manifest terramara type. All the forms can be paralleled ; the ornament, consisting of shallow furrows encircling the vase in its upper part, or of small strips of clay in relief, shaped hke a crescent or a wavy line, is tjrpical of the terramara period ; finally, all doubt is removed by the existence of the horned handle. The only bronze of any account is a pin of typical terramara form. Xot. Scav., 1878, p. 75, Tav. III. 366 THE TERREMARE chap. Results of Besides confirming the use of cremation this cemetery tion^ar^* demonstrated three points : firstly, that the terramara graves Lonato Were sometimes marked by circles of stones ; secondly, that vases of ordinary everyday form might be used as ossuaries ; and thirdly, that very little funeral furniture was buried with the ashes. 3. Casin- New features are revealed by the necropolis of Casinalbo ^"^°' (Map II, 132), which lies 200 metres south-west of the terra- mara of Casinalbo. The urns, found at a depth of 0-50 to 80 metre, were packed so closely together that in a space of Two layers 1 sQuarc metre thirty of them were counted. They were of urns. J. ./ J arranged in two layers, one above the other, and it was noticed that the bases of the ossuaries in the upper layer had often penetrated the tops of those in the lower. All the ossuaries were deposited in the bare earth, with no other protection than an inverted basin or a flat or round stone over the mouth. They contained nothing except burnt bones, and in rare cases an accessory vase. Are some of The pottery corresponds perfectly to that of the terremare later than^ and the Cemeteries of Monte Lonato, Bovolone &c., with the rest ? ^j^g exception of one vase. This is a cup with black pohshed surface similar to that of some of the terramara vases ; it is ornamented with simple geometrical designs, and also with studs or buttons of bronze. The use of bronze studs on pottery is well known in the iron age burials of the Second Period at Este,^ but it has not been foxmd among the deposits of the terremare} In fact this vase, even if not of the iron age, can only be attributed to the very latest period of the bronze age. Now several of the ossuaries at Casinalbo are manifestly later than those usually found in terramara cemeteries, verging as they do towards the ritual Villanova form of the iron age. Had the excavator informed us whether all the later vases came from the upper stratum of burials we should have been able to determine whether the two strata represented different periods, a point of considerable importance. B. Ceme- The discovery of these three cemeteries of CasteUazzo, j^^'®^^®'^ Monte Lonato and Casinalbo, each of which is actually ' Mon. Ant., vii, p. 122. ' I.e., pp. 115-16. XIV THE TEBREMARE 367 connected with a terramara, enables us to assign to the ten-emare same people other necropoleis of the same type, even though ^iggo* ^' the terremare to which they belong are as yet unknown, ed. Such are the cemeteries of Bovolone, Copezzato and Cres- pellano, in each of which the pottery found is all of terramara type. Each of them gives us some new point of detail, while in general confirming our previous results. At Bovolone (Map II, 109), province of Verona, vases l. Bovo- containing burnt human bones were found in 1876 by road-^°^®- makers, and at the end of the year a systematic excavation was carried out.^ The first ossuaries found were at a depth of 1-50 metres ; those found later were nearer the surface, about 0-90 metre from the present level, arranged apparently in two parallel rows. Some stood among remains of the pyre, which formed a compact mass, sometimes sticking to the vase itself. The urns were usually covered with an inverted basin, and sometimes accompanied by accessory vases. They were not protected in any way whatsoever, but lay in the bare earth, as at Casinalbo. They contained Rarity ot nothing but the burnt remains, nor were objects found in nlture. "^" the earth around them, with the exception of a few sherds, a piercer made of the horn of the roebuck, and bones and teeth of ox, horse, pig, stag, roebuck and sheep. Among the sherds are, however, mentioned t^1'o handles of finer clay than the ossuaries, and of the horned or crescent shape common in the terremare. Here we find that the remains of the funeral pyre were sometimes interred with the ossuary containing the calcined bones, and we have confirmatory evidence as to the rarity of funeral furniture. We have noticed the arrangement of the ossuaries in two o. Cres- layers at Casinalbo. This feature reoccurs at Crespellano pellano. (Map II, 136), on the road from Bologna to Bazzano.- Here, as at Casinalbo, the urns ^^^ere so tightly packed that in order to extract one whole it was often necessary to break its neighbours. They M^ere covered each with an • B. P., vi, p. 182 ; Sot. Scav., 1881, p. 129 ; Bulhttino ddV Instituto, 1881, p. 3. ^ Brizio, Ep. Preist., Ixxx-lxxxi. ZiltO, 368 THE TERREMARE chap. inverted bowl, and this again by a rough stone. They contained merely calcined bones, and out of the whole number of ossuaries only four insignificant fragments of objects came to light. The biconi- Most of the vases belong, as at Monte Lonato, to the ssuan . Qp(jjj^g^j,y rough household series of terramara pottery. A few, however, are of the later bioonical form (PI. IV, fig. 10), and it is possible that this was even now becoming the stereotyped form for the ossuary. 3. Copez- Though our conception of a terramara cemetery is now approaching completeness we may still gather a few points of importance from the necropolis of Copezzato, which is^ perhaps the earliest of the group (Map II, 113). The ground on which the cemetery hes now forms part of the bed of the river Taro in winter, and is only visible during the summer.^ Owing to the nearness of the river it was impossible to ascertain the Hmits of the cemetery Distiibu- in all directions. Measuring from East to West, tombs were interments, indeed found over a distance of 100 metres, but at the extremities they were only scattered, and the majority of the interments were contained in a comparatively small area towards the centre. The urns contained nothing whatever except burnt human remains, and in rare cases a few small vases. The urns were placed so close to each other that, as elsewhere, in extracting one it was often impossible to avoid destro3dng its neighbours. In some cases a small iu:n was- placed within a larger, each containing a separate mass of burnt bones. Owing to the damage caused to the deposit by the river, it was for the most part impossible to say whether the urns were originally provided with any sort of covering. It is noticeable that in some cases an inverted basin lies within the urn, affording a certain amount of Paucity of protection to the bones beneath it. Among the bones nituiM-. in one urn was found a burnt fragment of a stag's-horn wheel, such as are commonly found in the terremare used as pin-heads, and in another urn a whetstone damaged by fire. The pottery is of the usual terramara forms and 1 B. P., xvl, p. 21 ; xvii, p. 140. XIV THE TERREMARE 369 technique, and is undoubtedly earlier than that of the Early date. other cemeteries of the group. The urns nearly aU consist of ordinary vases such as were used in everyday life (PI. IV, fig. 1), and the biconical vase, which undoubtedly came to have a ritual significance, is rare (PI. IV, fig. 3). In the central part of the cemetery only one layer of iu:ns was found. Towards the western extremity of the cemetery, however, three cases occurred in which an urn was placed vertically over another, the lower being covered with an inverted basin. It is unfortunate that more accurate observations were Was each not taken at this excavation. We have seen that, except umited'^ ^ at the centre of the cemetery, the burials were few and^°^tgd scattered, but we have no evidence as to whether the outer buiiaiarea? burials differed in type or date from the more central. Thus the observation loses any value it may have had. The close packing, often in two layers, of terramara graves suggests that when a cemetery was to be formed a very hmited space was set apart and probably consecrated. The hmitation of the area is natural among a people who needed land for agricultural purposes. What happened when the area was filled is a question which careful excavation might have solved at Copezzato, but which, as it is, still remains un- answered. We are thus able to form a very clear idea of the manner Chief in which the terramara folk buried their dead. The body ^^^^'^^^ was cremated, and it may here be noticed that there is not terramara a single inhumation cemetery of this date in the whole of timial ° •' . rites. of the area occupied by the terremare} The ossuaries in ^ Qjema- which the burnt remains were placed were at first ordinary tio"- vases used in everyday hfe, but later they tended to approxi- ossuanes" mate to a fixed biconical type, which before the beginning of the iron age had become almost universal. It was noticed at Bovolone, Copezzato and Crespellano ' In view of tlie incorrect notion (wliioli for some curious reason has gained currency in England) that the terramara people inhumed their dead, I cannot insist too strongly on the universality of cremation among them. Professor Ridgeway's statement that ' inhumation was universally practised by the people of the Terramara culture' (Who were the Romans? p. 16) is a direct reversal of the facts. PEET A a 370 THE TERREMARE chap. c. Only the that the pieces of burnt human bone were rather large, mentsof and the urns contained nothing in the way of finer ash. piaced^in"^ This of course is easily explained, for, the body being the urns, cremated at an open fire, it would be impossible to gather from among the remains of the pyre any but the larger fragments of the bones. d. Paucity StiU more important is the almost complete lack of objects furniture, intentionally deposited with the remains. Gozzadini men- tions this point in connexion with Crespellano, and it is also noticeable at Lonato, Pietole Vecchio,^ Bovolone, e. Acces- Casinalbo and Copezzato. An exception was, however, sory rases. , . , . . . _,, sometimes made m favour oi accessory vases. These were probably always placed within the ossuary. This was certainly the case at Copezzato ; at Bovolone the ossuaries were ' associated with ' accessory vases ; at Casinalbo the tombs consist of an urn ' usually accompanied by one or two bowls '. It is impossible to argue with certainty from the phrases used in the last two cases, whether the accessory vases were actually within the urns or not, and we must be satisfied to leave the question undecided. f. Close We have already noticed the custom of placing the urns the urns. Side by side and as close together as possible. At Cres- pellano, it is true, they were separated from one another by a thin slab of stone, and at Lonato they were surrounded each by a heap of stones, but in all other cases they stood in the bare earth, usually in actual contact with one another. Gozzadini, describing the double layer of urns at Crespellano, says that a section of the deposit gave one the impression of being in a ' potter's warehouse, where all his wares are g. Were the piled '. This raises a curious question. Assuming that above all the urns were not buried at one time, e. g. after a great ground? battle, how does it come about that the urns could be placed in contact with one another ? The answers suggested by Pigorini are two. Either the urns were not buried at aU, but merely placed on the surface, or they were buried up to the neck. Pigorini himself inchnes to the second hjrpothesis. It does indeed, seem that one of these explanations must be ' This cemetery does not merit special description. See B. P., vi, p. 192, note 15. XIV THE TERREMARE 371 correct, for in no other way can we possibly explain how in several cases at Copezzato smaller ossuaries containing bones were deposited within the larger. If we suppose that at least the opening of the larger ossuary remained above ground, covered perhaps by a basin or stone, then it is easy to see how later burials could be introduced into the original urn. Later burials were also observed in some of the urns of Timmari, on the borders of Apuha, in a cemetery which is rather later than these of North Italy. When it was desired to deposit a second layer of urns above the first, an artificial platform of earth would be heaped up just high enough to cover the latter, and the new urns laid upon the surface just formed. If we accept either of Pigorini's hypotheses the question h. was whether a rude tombstone existed above the urns practically mark ^^ vanishes. The urn, or at least its neck, formed its own ^°^l^^^ tombstone. The stone which in some cases surmounted it served as a covering, rather than a mark. In any case, if any rigorous rule existed as to the marking of tombs, it seems curious that the lu-ns should be packed together in a veritable mass, or placed above, or within one another in such a way as to preclude distinction. A a 2 CHAPTER XV BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY Bronze The comparative brilliance of the civilization of the lake- age civili- (j-^^ellings and terremare is apt to bhnd our eyes to the zationnot .„ ..,• • i-in -ii^ confined not insignificant civilizations wluch ilourishea contempora- to terre- ^eously in North Italy. The ground occupied by the sites so far dealt with comprises only Piedmont, Lombardy, Western Emilia and a small corner of the Veneto. It therefore remains to treat of Liguria, the Veneto, Eastern EmHia, the Marche, Umbria, Tuscany and Latium, in order that our survey of the northern hah of Italy may be com- plete. We shall begin with Eastern Emilia. I. The Beonze Age in Eastern Emilia. Eastern On the eastern edge of the terramara country, or even Emilia, -vothin this country, were found some years ago a series Hut-vil- of stations which were erroneously taken for terremare, but t^k^^ ^^' ^^^^ i^ reaUty are groups of hut-foundations. The mis- terremare. take was indeed very natural. The exact nature of a terra- mara was as yet not known. The posts which formed the walls of the huts might well be mistaken for piles, and much of the material found is identical with that of the 1. Chiavi- terremare. Thus, even when Munro wrote in 1890, the chetto. station of Chiavichetto (Map II, 91) was beUeved to be a true terramara. More accurate research into the precise nature of the terremare has since disproved this. To discover the real nature of these stations and to see how the error arose, we must shortly examine the most important of them, Monte Castellaccio, Eiastri and Romei, and Demorta. As early as 1873 a settlement was discovered on the CHAP. XV BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS, ETC. 373 plateau of Monte Castellaccio ^ and was described as a terra- 2. Castel- mara (Map II, 142). The station reaUy consists of a number l^<=<'i°- of hut-foundations. The so-caUed piles are merely the hut?^ upright posts which formed the framework of the walls. These posts were sunk about a metre into the soil and were from 8 to 20 cm. in diameter. Several fireplaces were found. They consist of clay hardened and baked by the fire. Very interesting is the discovery of several pits, b. Eetuse circular or oval, 60 cm. deep. The circular pits vary in '^^^' diameter from 65 cm. to 160 cm. The largest oval pits had a diameter of 3-60 metres. All the pits were filled with refuse consisting of charcoal, bones, sherds &c. Near a fireplace one of these pits was always to be found, except in two cases. The two fireplaces in question were the only two around which the refuse was allowed to accumu- late. The hut-foundations were in two distinct layers. The earher group had been destroyed and covered with earth ; the later group was then built on the newly formed level. Among the remains found in the excavations objects of c. Bronze bronze were very rare. They included, however, an axe ° ^^'^ ^' with flanged sides, a sickle and three daggers, aU of terra- mara type. Of the pottery, some resembles that of the terremare, d. Pottery, showing, for example, the ansa lunata. The rest is more primitive in type and included several neohthic forms of handle, including the cilindro-retta. Other objects found were saws, knives, arrowheads &c., of flint, perforated stone axes, implements of stag's-horn, spindle-whorls of terra- cotta, amber and stone beads, and shells pierced for hanging. The most striking facts about this site are the absence of a pile-structure and the presence of bronzes and pottery of terramara type, together with pottery showing resemblance to that of the neohthic period. Somewhat similar facts were noted at Fiastri and Romei 3. Fiastri (Map II, 123-4). Chierici, writing in 1875," referred to these ^^^^^_ settlements as terremare. In 1877,^ however, when the characteristics of a terramara were becoming better known, 1 Munro, p. 205. ^ B. P., i, p. 115. 3 B. P., iii, p. 108. 374 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. he was able to point out that neither station was a true terramara, though the material found in both was partly of terramara type. Apparently no actual hut-foundations were found, and the settlements would seem to have lain in the open. 4. De- An even more perplexing example occurred at Demorta , ■ (Map II, 110), in the province of Mantua. The remains a. The hut- . ' ' n i i i . . , village. consist of a Stratum oi dark earth contammg the usual mass of carbon, bones, pottery &c., and clear signs of hearths.^ Chierici, who excavated the deposit, was in doubt as to its real nature. It produced remains showing very close analogies to those of the terremare, and on this ground Chierici finally decided to caU it a terramara. But, in the first place, it is very much smaller than a terramara should be, covering only a third of a hectare, while a terramara should cover at least 3 hectares. In the second place, there was no sign whatsoever of piles. These facts seem conclusive, and the settlement is now considered to be a hut-vfilage. b. Pottery. The most important remains consist of the pottery. All the vases are hand-made and baked at an open fire. They are of two kinds. The one is of purified clay, merely dried, with a black surface smoothed with a flat stick-end. This type includes better-shaped vases, and is more frequently ornamented, than the other. The most common form is a basin or open cup with a high handle, sometimes horned. The ornament consists of rows of impressed dots or of lines incised with a blunt point. These are arranged in bands, triangles, rectangles, zigzags, or in patterns copied from basket-work. The rougher vases are of coarser clay but are sometimes well baked, perhaps by use over the fire. They are ornamented with knob-Uke protuberances or by strips of clay applied in relief. Very tjrpical of this settlement is a horned handle in which the horns are cut off short, called by Chierici ansa a mazzuolo. This type has already been mentioned as occurring at Lagazzi (p. 298). c. Flints. The fhnts are mostly knives and saws. The latter are » B. P., iii. p. 97 ; xxix, p. 77. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 375 rectangular, carefully worked in small flakes, and easily recognized by the polish which the used edge has acquired. Two arrowheads with concave base, and a fragment of a lancehead or dagger, complete the Hst. Among miscel- laneous objects are four spindle-whorls, a disc of clay, the lower stone of a hand-miU, and five upper stones, two of which are reduced to discoid form by minute flaking ; all these objects are typical of the terremare. As to the date d. Date. of the settlement there can be no doubt. The pottery belongs to the terramara period. The flints point to the same period, for two arrowheads with concave base and four flint saws were found at Fiastri, together with terramara bronzes and a homed handle. These discoveries made it clear that on the eastern Hmit To whom of the terramara country, and even within it, flourished '^ *,.'® ■^ civiliza- a civiUzation ia many respects akin to that of the terremare, tion due ? yet in others differing from it entirely. In order to ascer- tain the true nature of this civUization, and the people to whom it was due, it was necessary to excavate more sites ia the same district, i. e. in Eastern Emilia. It was to this Brizio's work that the late Professor Brizio devoted so much of his 7°. °'^ this pro- time and interest. Much of his work is unfortunately stfll blem. unpubhshed, but the fruit of his excavations is to be seen in the Bologna museum. The sites at which this type of civihzation has been studied Other lie at the foot of the Apennines close to the line of the^j^jg^° modem railway (the ancient Via Emilii Lepidi), and extend roughly from Modena to Forli. Bologna itself seems to have been one of the chief centres. 5. Bolo- (Map II, 135), for here we have several sites quite close toS°'^- the citv walls. For instance, at Castel dei Britti ^ was found a. Castei 1 . . . - 1. • i ji . dei Britti. a deposit consistmg of two distmct strata, the uppermost being 3 metres in thickness, and containing remains of hearths. The pottery of the lower stratum was quite rough, while that of the upper, though badly baked, was sometimes polished. The ornament included rehef strips of clay, pro- tuberances and crenate rims, while among the handles were ansa lunata and cilindro-retta. The other objects found ' Brizio, Monumenti archeologici delta promncia di Bologna. 376 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. included worked bones, arrowheads, axes, and knives and scrapers of flint. b. Villa At Villa Bosi, again, fourteen hut-foundations were exca- vated. They contained a fine bronze knife, flint imple- ments, rough vases decorated with strips of clay in relief, and fine black vases sometimes with ansa lunata. Even more important were the hut-foundations which Brizio excavated in 1906 outside the Saragozza gate. Owing c. Porta to his death the material has never been pubHshed. The foundations were of the usual conchoid form, and appeared to be in two series, one above the other. The hearthstones still remained in position in some of the huts. The material found included a number of bronze pins of terramara form and a large mass of pottery. The ansa cilindro-retta was very common indeed, as also was ansa lunata. The few incised sherds are very important. Two show what are apparently simple maeanders. The style of the incision is shown by the rough sketches in fig. 209 a, c. A third piece, a large fragment of a biconical vase, shows a spiral incised in a jagged line with a blunt point. In fact these few sherds show a type of ornament similar to that called ' Siculan ' in South Italy, at Matera, Pertosa and elsewhere. Some of the vessels, e. g. the ladle with ansa cornuta and the spouted cup, are clear terramara forms. There are also several earthenware figures. Some are quadrupeds similar to those of the terremare, but a few represent birds with long necks and are quite foreign to the terremare. Some of the pottery is ornamented with a combination of shallow broad grooving (canalatura) and circular depressions, a style found in the terremare. d. Trebbo Closcly connected with this Bolognese group of settle- Sei Vie. ments is that of Trebbo Sei Vie, in the comune of Castenaso (Map II, 137), at first described as a terramara, but which certainly cannot have been such.^ Hearth-places were found resting on the original soil, and there was no vestige of a pile-structure. The settlement was, in other words, a hut- village. It belongs apparently to the bronze age, and indeed to an advanced period of that age. The bronzes are remark- 1 B. P., xxii, p. 251. XV AND CAVES OF NOETH ITALY 377 ably fine, and include winged axes, daggers, razors, pins, spearheads, cliisels, together with two fibulae, one of violin- bow and the other of leaf shape. All these bronzes are typical of the terremare. The pottery, although it included the ansa cilindro-retta, was mostly terramara ware. A few pieces of incised ware occurred, including one example of the punctured-band ware so common in South Italy (PL VI, fig. 10). Thus in aU these settlements around Bologna we find the Mixed same curious mixture of terramara and other material that ™^terial on tnese occurred in such stations as Monte CasteUaccio. sites. Exactly the same facts are to be noted in the more Jlore easterly sites of this type, which he in the neighbourhood ®.^^''®"y of Imola and Forli. The most important of these are Prevosta, Bertarina and ToscaneUa. At Prevosta (Map II, 141), which lies near to Imola, was 6. Pre- discovered in 1883 a village of hut-foundations.^ It extended ^'°^*^- over a surface of about 20,000 square metres. Twenty huts were carefully explored. They were all approximately a. The huts. circular, with diameters varying from 3 to 8 metres. In the centre of each was found a large hole which had contained the fireplace, and around which lay ashes, char- coal and animal bones. One only of the huts was double in form, shaped hke a figure 8. The smaller half had evidently been used to hold the ashes and the refuse of the larger, which formed the dweUing-place. At the bottom of one hut were found a borer of bronze and other fragments of the same metal. The pottery, according to Brizio, was all of the usual b. Pottery. terramara type, and included many examples of ansa cornuta. Among the material, however, which now Hes at Bologna, are numerous examples of ansa cilindro-retta and two frag- ments of a large vase adorned with spirals in rehef. This proves that there is another element besides that of the terremare in the material of this village. The hut-viUage of Bertarina (Map II, 143) is pecuharly 7. Berta- interesting because of its situation. It hes 2J kilometres ^"^^• south-east of Forli, on a terrace of land between two branches tion. ' Brizio, Ep. Preist., pp. xxxiv-xxxv. 378 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. of a river.i If this terrace be dug to a depth of 1-20 metres a stratum of dark earth is encountered, from 40 to 50 cm. b. Huts, in thickness. This contains the remnants of a number of hut-foundations. They are of the type usual in Italy, hollowed in the ground. They were not raised on piles, for not only does the present position of the remains con- tradict this, but the clay hearths were sometimes found unbroken above the debris, which proves that they cannot have fallen into their present position from a height. The holes corresponding to the huts were usually circular and of diameter 1 to 1-30 metres ; one example was oval, of diameters 2 metres and 3 metres. Around the holes and close to them were found the sockets of piles, once driven into the virgin soil. Four of these, at intervals of 80 cm., followed the Une of the oval hut, shghtly outside the hole. There is no doubt that these piles were not used to support the huts as in a terramara or lake-dwelling, but were the actual skeleton of the hut-walls themselves. One hut-foundation showed very clearly the complete circle of piles which formed its wall. The spaces between the piles were no doubt filled up with wickerwork or thatch, covered with clay or even hides. A similar method of construction would be followed in building the roof. The material found shows the same mixture of neolithic and terremare types seen at Castellaccio. 0. Pottery. The pottery is practically all of terramara type. There are the usual two quahties, the one of rough clay usually covered with a shp, and the other of finer make. All the vases are hand-made and baked at an open fire. The typical terramara ornaments are present : raised ridges running horizontally or vertically, either smooth or sUced across at close intervals ; impressions of the finger round the rim ; shallow furrows running in groups round the vase. The handles include both the ansa lunata so typical of the terremare and the cilindro-retta, a heritage of the neoHthio people of North Italy. The last was very characteristic of this settlement, occurring in great quantity at all depths. d. Bronze. Btonze objects were not common. They included several 1 Munro, p. 133. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 379 pieces of im worked bronze, a dagger of terramara type, an arrowhead with a socket, two dagger rivets &c. Fhnt implements were numerous, and included knives, e. runt. scrapers and arrowheads. Several cores of obsidian were also found, together with stones used for pounding and grinding. The settlement was bounded on two sides by rivers, and f. The there is some trace of a moat on the third side. It was ^°^ ' stiU inhabited at the beginning of the iron age. The most important site of this group is perhaps that of 8. Tosca- Toscanella (Map II, 140), in the Imolese. It is a hut-village ''®'^*- of the usual type. The most striking feature is that it contains clearly two distinct sets of objects. The first are beyond aU doubt of terramara type, and might, as far as appearance goes, have been found in any terramara. Among these may be noted a. Bronzes. the bronzes, e.g. a triangular dagger of the early type, later leaf-shaped daggers, sometimes with handle cast in one piece with the blade', an axe with edges strongly raised, two tanged arrowheads, the usual pins, needles and borers, and finally two violin-bow fibulae. All these, except the first- mentioned, point to the fairly advanced- bronze age, and even the first is a form which we know to have survived. The bone objects are also of terramara type. Among them we may mention handles for borers, covered with incised concentric circles, smoothers or pohshers, arrowheads, bits, and a bone wheel of the usual type. A certain portion of the pottery belongs to the terramara b. Pottery. type. We may note the usual cups, a set of small ' ritual ' vases, and numerous anse cornute. But together with this material was found pottery of a very different kind. The ansa cilindro-retfa was very common indeed (PL VI, fig. 5). This does of course occa- sionally occur in terremare, but it is in reality a neohthic form. Even more convincing is the occurrence of the handle of Marendole type (PL VI, fig. 3), which is never foimd in terremare. In the varying of these two handles the most amazing resource was shown, and the number of distinct forms is very large. On the other hand, the treatment of 380 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. the ansa cornuta at Toscanella (PI. VI, figs. 6 and 7) is very stereotyped. Note finally the spouted vase (PI. VI, fig. 4), which, however, may be a development of the terra- mar a vase with a spout. In the matter of ornament, much of the Toscanella pottery cuts itself off entirely from that of the terremare. We may note a series of sherds showing finely incised patterns (PI. VI, fig. 9). The schemes, which are very varied and far from simple, are always arranged in horizontal bands, so far as can be judged from the fragments. Sometimes they remind one of the so-called ' Siculan ' ware of South Italy, especially that of the Vibrata Valley, and on one fragment is seen the punctured-band ware so common at Pertosa and Matera. These sherds have usually a dark brown or a black polished surface, and the incisions, though varying in fineness, are never coarse. Another method of ornament consists in the apphcation of rehef-strips and small knobs of clay. It is true that the same method of ornament is occasionally used in the terre- mare, but the apphcation is different, as will appear to any one who will compare them in the original. At Toscanella the relief is used- to give definite patterns, and sometimes the rest of the vase is covered with clay knobs. Vases ornamented in this way are generally large, and have a rough bright red surface. In conclusion, we note as a curiosity a copper sickle of un-Italian shape, pubUshed by Mosso, and described as coming from Brizio's excavations at Toscanella. The form is rather like that of the early Aegaean sickles. All the stations described in this chapter agree in two sites not particulars. In the first place, they are not terremare but ordinary hut-villages, and in the second place, they contain They con- a mixed material. Any one who has followed the descrip- tain a i^\qt^ jjgj-e given of the material of these stations wiU be convinced of the existence in it of two elements, one of which is clearly due to terramara infiuence, while the other is something utterly different, an element which the terre- mare cannot possibly account for. A ghmpse at the material of these stations in the Bologna museum is sufficient. Side c. Copper sickle. These mixed material. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 381 by side with terramara bronzes are neolithic flints, and terramara vases alternate with incised ware that shows quite a different art. What, then, is the explanation of this strange mixture, What is and who were the inhabitants of these caves and huts ? ^teexpla- The question is not difficult. We will assume for the moment a hypothesis which we hope to justify later, namely that the lake-dwellings and terremare were the homes of a people who entered Italy early in the bronze age, and who differed in race from the neohthic people of the country. It is, then, obvious that the people who hved in huts during The sites the bronze age were the descendants of the old neolithic due to old . neolithic folk. The immigration of the new race did not entirely race drive the old race out of the Po VaUey. They continued to hve in dwellings of the old type, but they adopted much that was useful from the new-comers. It was from these under in- last that thev received their first knowledge of bronze, at ^^^^°^ °^ •> ° terremare. any rate all their bronze implements are of terramara type, and they also employed a considerable quantity of terramara pottery. Whether they made this themselves or imported it ready-made we can hardly say. Supposing, however, that they traded for it, it is difficult to see what they can have given in exchange, except perhaps flints. Such stations are distinguishable from terremare not by Analysis their form alone but also by their contents. Much of the °.* ,°i^*®"j •' rial loiina material gathered in them is indistinguishable from that of in these the terremare ; but there are always along with this certain stations. objects which are foreign to the terremare, and which are ^^^ easily recognizable as survivals from neohthic times. Thus types. in several of these stations we find pottery types which are ^- . Neoli- clearly neohthic, together with others which are just as vivals. clearly terramara forms, one of the most notable instances These being the occurrence in several stations of both ansa cilindro- ^ p^jt^j.^ retta and ansa lunata. The evidence of flints supports this. t. Flints. In most of these stations the objects of flint are not only very much more numerous than those of bronze, but they are of types which belong to the neohthic period in Italy, and are rarely found in the terremare. Thus we must conclude that, supposing the hypothesis of a new race to 382 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. be true, we have here, in the caves and hut-settlements, the remains of the old race, hving apparently side by side with the new-comers, and enjoying the advantages of their more advanced civilization. If, however, this hypothesis be false, the question just discussed does not even arise, for, if no new race came in before the beginning of the iron age, settlements dated to the bronze age can only belong to the old race. Brizio's Brizio, who believes the terramara people to be not a new theory, jg^^g j^^^ ^]jg qJ(J neoUthic folk in a later stage of advance, finds great difficulty in accounting for these survivals among the terremare of an element clearly distinct from them. He ingeniously gets rid of them by explaining them as marking the transition stage between. the neohthic period Objec- and that of the terremare. Two considerations make this ions 01 . (jgy^Qg impossible. In the first place, the material of these villages stands to true transition material as a mechanical mixture stands to a chemical compound. That is to say, the material is a combination of two elements which are not blended. If this were a transition stage we should find terramara forms of bronzes and vases coming into being, or developing towards the type afterwards to be f oimd in the terremare. There is nothing of this. What we find is terra- mara objects in entirely strange surroundings, and always in their developed forms. In the second place, Brizio's view involves a hopeless difficulty of chronology. AU the stations, or at least the majority of them, contain bronzes which belong to the fuU or even late terramara period. Examples of this are the fibulae of Trebbo Sei Vie and ToscaneUa, and the knife with fiat tang and raised edges of ToscaneUa. How can these stations mark a transition to a stage of which they are the full development ? What actually happened was that the terramara folk arrived in Italy with pottery and bronzes already developed, so that these appeared quite suddenly among the neolithic people of North Italy. Hut- We have already seen that some of the hut-foundations dwelling commonly supposed to be of neolithic date may and probably do belong to the early bronze age. In fact, our evidence XV AND CAVES Or NORTH ITALY 383 seems to show that the custom of dweUing in huts half in the concealed in the ground began in the neolithic age and ^^°^^^ continued in vogue among the neolithic people right through the bronze age and into the early iron age. Though these and even people modified their culture when they came into contact ^^^®:. with the new race they did not modify their method of living, for they continued to live, as in the neolithic period, not only in huts but even in caves. This was proved by Grotta the excavation in 1881 of the Grotta del Fame, or del ^^^ , Farneto (Map II, 139). This cavern lies 11 kilometres south-east of Bologna, and its entrance is 30 metres above the present level of the Zena.^ The cavern itself is a.The cave. about 18 metres in length, with an average breadth of 8 metres. Beneath it lay another smaller cavern, which originally communicated with the upper, and in which several objects fallen from the upper were found. This lower cave was, however, not inhabited. In the excavations conducted by Brizio in 1881 a large mass of material was found. The flints numbered about 200, of which some twenty b. Flints. were attributed on account of their size and the roughness of their working to the palaeoHthic period, an attribution which is extremely doubtful. Most of the smaller flints were mere flakes, only three having a definite oval form. These might be either lance- or arrowheads. Of polished stone only one implement was found, a ' hammer ' of chloro- melanite. A few stones used for grinding were also found. The objects of bone were all of t3rpes usual in the terre- c. Bone mare, and included daggers made from the cubital bones ° ■'^'^ of the ox and stag, arrowheads, needles, polishers, and picks of stag's-horn. Close to the cavern, though not actually within it, were d. Bronzes. found two axes with flanged edges, of the usual early terramara type. That the inhabitants of the cave were acquainted with the art of casting bronze is clear from the presence of an earthenware crucible with minute fragments of metal stiU visible on its inner surface. The pottery bears in part a most striking resemblance e. Pottery. ' Brizio, La Grotta del Fame nel comune di San Lazzaro presso Bologna. 384 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. f. Animal remains. a. Cereals. h. Ossu- aries. Continua- tion of the neo- lithic oivi' lization in the bronze to that of the terremare (PI. VI, fig. 2), while, on the other hand, it has certain neohthic characteristics. The neohthic element is still shown in the ansa cilindro-retfa, while the numerous anse cornute point to the terremare. Other handles are a type of ansa ad ascia shghtly curved outwards and a handle consisting of a broad vertical tongue of clay rolled over at the top (fig. 211 b). Incised decoration is of two kinds, produced with a sharp point {graffito) (PI. VI, fig. 8), or with a blunt implement (a stecca). Among the graffiti are zigzags and groups of parallel fines, while the finest piece of stecca work is a spiral. Several of the vases are of a black or brown poHshed surface, and both in technique and in form are indistinguish- able from those found in the terremare. The animal remains are those of the roebuck, pig, dog, stag, ox, sheep, goat and fowl. In the excavation of 1872 had been found also those of the horse and wolf. Later excavations have done much to complete our picture of the inhabitants of the cavern. Unfortunately the results remain unpubfished owing to the death of the excavator, Brizio. The most important particulars, as far as can be ascertained, are the following. Carbonized remains of wheat and other vegetables, including acorns, have been found. These show the inhabitants to have been not entirely ignorant of agriculture. In a division of the cave lying far removed from the entrance were found no remains of habitation but an immense series of broken vases arranged along the cave- wall. These are apparently ossuaries, and are often orna- mented with the concentric semicircles in refief which occur so frequently on the terramara ossuaries. This does not for a moment prove that the cave-men cremated their dead, but only that the cave was at some period, probably later, used for burial by people of terramara race. With all this evidence before us we are justified in asserting that in Eastern Emilia the neohthic civilization of the Liguri continued during the bronze age, though it underwent cer- tain modifications due to the influence of the new people of the terremare. But however great these modifications might be, we should XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 385 not expect them to affect the burial, which among these Burial Liguri was so constant and immovable. Unfortunately we ■■''* ®*''^ have no bronze age burials in Eastern Emilia, but there is tion. one not far away which is undoubtedly to be attributed to the same people and period. Fig. 202. Bronze pin, Povegliano. Scale o. J. Poveghano hes 16 kilometres to the South- West of Verona Pove- {Map II, 107). In 1876-7 fourteen inhumation burials were gliano. discovered there.^ Each body lay with feet to the West in a simple trench hollowed in the soil, at a depth of 0-50 to 1 metre. In some of the graves it is said that ' charcoal and cinders ' were observed. Montehus suggests that these may be the remains of wooden coffins. Most of the graves 1 Montelius, p. 200. PEET B b 386 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. Conclu- sion. The Marche. Isolated finds. contained bronze swords or daggers ; others, those of women perhaps, contained bronze pins and amber beads. A curved flint saw and two flint lanceheads were found in the men's graves. The bronzes recall very strongly those of the terremare. They include two pins with rounded heads, thickened below the neck and pierced, two with a head of three rings (fig. 185), and two of the type figured (fig. 202). There are six swords and several daggers. Of the swords one is similar to fig. 175, the blade swelling slightly towards the centre back and front, and the tang being flat with flanged edges. Two have a rather marked square rib down the centre (fig. 173), while a third has no rib, but shows fine incised work on the blade. The daggers show the usual terramara form with convex edges. ^ In conclusion we may sum up as follows. The terramara folk at the time of their immigration did not expel their predecessors the Liguri from North Italy. These latter continued to live and to bury in their old fashion right up to the confines of the terramara country. They continued to- use pottery and flints of neohthic types, but side by side with these they used pottery and bronzes of the types introduced by the terramaricoli or terramara-dweYlers.'^ II. The Bronze Age in the Mahche. In this district we are not without evidence of a bronze age, and we can even to some extent distinguish its periods. The first is marked by the finding in many localities of the ' It is said that ossuaries containing burnt bones were also found in this cemetery. The evidence on this point is unsatisfactory. Confusion has probably taken place with cremation burials of iron age date. " This type of settlement, viz. the village not built on piles, but yet showing material similar to that of the terremare and lake- dwellings, is beUeved by Colini to exist as far north as the Trentino. For Orsi has described four settlements at Castello di Tierno, Castel Pradaglia and Entiklar (see Archivio slorico per Trieste, VIstria, ed il Trentino, vol. ii, 1885), and at I Monticelli, near Pergine (Trentino) (see B. P., xxii, pp. 290-1). But the most important site of this type in the district is the rock-shelter of Colombo di Mori {Map II, 100), (see B. P., viii, p. 180). Orsi, the excavator of the site, assigned it to the neolithic period, but Colini believes it to be later, as the pottery appears to him to resemble that of the terremare. Judging by the published figures the resemblances do not seem to me very striking, and I should prefer to await further evidence. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 387 flanged celt. Colini has given a complete list, which included a. Earlier examples from all parts of the district.^ At Fermignano '"^^^ *^^' (Urbino) a considerable number of these celts were found together in a hoard.^ Nothing else was found with them. To the earher part of the bronze age must also be referred the twenty-five daggers that form the hoard found at Ripa- transone.^ They are of the well-known triangular type, some with handles of bronze, others without. A similar dagger, though of copper and with a central rib, was found at Ascoli-Piceno. The later stages of the bronze period are represented by b. Later winged celts from various localities, two swords with flanged ^11"^" tang from Montegiorgio, another from Falerone (Ascoli), a dagger with similar tang from Caldarola (Macerata), and finally a pin with spiral head from Rotella (Ascoli).* But fortunately we have more satisfactory evidence for Inhabited the bronze age in the Marche than these isolated discoveries. ®'*''^^* We have seen how in Eastern Emiha the civihzation Continua- of the neolithic Liguri continued during the bronze age, *|°'^ °^ infiuenced, however, by that of the terremare. Now the lithio oivi- northern boundary of the Marche is the southern boundary Jizftion of Eastern Emiha, and it would therefore not be surprising by the if the same civilization prevailed on both sides of the terremare. border. And indeed it does. Just as in Emilia we find huts and caves containing a material partly resembling that of the terremare, so, too, we do in the Marche. In the neighbourhood of Arcevia have been found a Hut- number of hut-viUages of this period.^ villages. At Le ConeUe, 4 kilometres east of Arcevia (Map III, Le 145), a section of a hut-foundation was laid bare in cutting Conelle. the road to Piticchio.^ The foundation itself is hollowed a. The huts, in the gravel. It is 4-50 metres in diameter and 4-20 in depth. Its most remarkable feature is that it possessed two ' Atti Gongr. Int., 1903, p. 30. ' B. P., i, pp. 38-9. ' B.P., xiv, p. 75. ' AM Oongr. Int., p. 30. * Brizio, Ep. Preist., pp. xxxv-xxxvii ; Brizio, II sepolcreto gallico di Monte- fortino, pp. 15-27. ' Mon. Ant., ix, p. 623 ; Not. Scav., 1891, p. 241. E b 2 388 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. floor -levels, the upper separated from the lower by about 70 cm. of gravel. The upper is of simple concave shape, but in the lower the archaeological stratum, which is a metre in thickness, is concave above, flat below, and restricted in the middle. In fact a section of the whole has the form of a wine-glass set on a very low foot. It is evident that at some period the floor-level was raised artificially by laying down a bed of gravel, perhaps after a partial coUapse of the walls. There was no apparent difference in type or period between the material found in the upper and b. Flints, lower strata. The flints were of fine workmanship, and included arrowheads of oHve-leaf and almond shape, and c. Hearths, javehn points. Among the remains in the lower stratum were found pieces of clay, level on the upper surface, which was hardened by repeated cooking, and rough on the lower. These, which lay in the centre of the circle, are without d. Animal doubt the remains of the hearth. Around them lay broken animal bones and potsherds. The animals represented B. Pottery, include the ox, wild boar and dog. The pottery is of two types, rough and fine. To save useless description we may accept Brizio's statement that ' both in material and in ornament the vases recall those of the terremare ; the ansa cornuta, however, characteristic of these stations, was lacking ' f. other Other remains found are mattocks of stag's-horn, stone remains, j^ammers, two fragments of discoidal spindle-whorls, a shell (Pectunculus) pierced for hanging, and a stag's-horn awl- handle incised with small circles. AU these are objects typical of the terremare. One small fragment of terracotta looked like the end of an ansa cornuta. It may be added that on the surface of the plain, and quite close to the hut examined, were found specimens of ansa cornuta, cilindro- retta and ad ascia. These no doubt lie on the surface of another hut-foundation, and other signs prove that a village of such huts existed. Similar Remains of simflar villages were found at Crocefisso, viUages Ponte del Goro and La Pieve, all in the neighbourhood of else- , where. Arcevia. These villages are precisely similar to those of Emilia. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 389 They contain the same mixture of terramara and other Mixed material, and are to be attributed to the same people in the "latenal. same stage of development. It is interesting to note that remains of the same kind Similar occur in the cave of Frasassi, which hes in the province p™^™® ^ m a cave, of Ancona, near Fabriano (Map III, 146).^ It was first Frasassi. noticed in 1872, but the earliest excavation of any extent was made by Scarabelli in 1879. In his report the strata are said to be two, one Roman "and the other of the bronze age. In the latter, however, were found three small sticks of bronze which proved to contain lead, a metal not used in alloy until the iron age. Chierici therefore supposed that the cave represented various periods. Pigorini was inchned to assign the whole of the lower deposit to the iron age. However, after the pubhshing of ScarabeUi's results, several more objects were found in the cave. These included anse luimie of the usual terramara types. It can therefore no longer be doubted that the cave was inhabited during the bronze age, and that its inhabitants were affected by the influence of the terramara folk. Among the finds in the bronze age stratum were clay spindle-whorls, pyramidal loom-weights, and a borer of stag's-horn. It is certainly remarkable to find such strong terramara Terra- influence so far from the actual seat of that civilization, ™'^™ ^' riuence. and it is natural to ask whether we cannot find some outpost Did terra- or colonv of terramara folk in the Marche to account for ™"™ ^°^^ the strength of this influence. Now it is certain that at Marche ? some period of the bronze age there was a large movement of terramara folk towards South and Central Italy. It is believed by some that this movement in part took place through the Marche, and in support of this they point to a remarkable discovery made many years ago. Two kilometres north-east of Offida (Piceno) hes a closed Offida. valley ,2 now dry except for a small stream at its bottom, but once a lake (Map III, 149). In this valley, at a depth ' Mem. Accad. Line, aer. 3% 1880, p. 78. B. P., vi, p. 165 ; xx, p. 28 ; xxi, p. 109. Not. Scav., 1893, p. 325. - AUevi, Ofpda Preutoricn, pp. 31-5 ; B. P., \, p. 73. 390 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. a. The of 5 metres from the surface, was found a wooden platform 'raft'. ^g mg^j.gg \yj i^^ apparently orientated. It consisted of large tree-trunks laid at intervals of about 1-30 metres, upon which were arranged crosswise smaller branches. The interstices were filled up with rushes, twigs and lake mud, and a layer of moss covered the whole. Beneath the platform lay 3 metres of clay, the lower strata of which contained the remains of everyday life of the dwelling above, consisting of animal bones, charcoal, potsherds, fhnts &c. b. Flints. Among the flints are mentioned two lanceheads, which, ' if roughness of flaking were a true criterion, would go back to the palaeolithic age ' ; an almond-shaped arrowhead worked on one side only ; a fragment of a piercer ; a rect- c. Bones, angular knife of triangular section. The bones were all split into small pieces for the extraction of the marrow, and the only animals recognized were the ox and the stag. d. Moulds. Of great importance are pieces of moulds for casting bronze. They belong apparently to two separate moulds, one for e. Pottery, a simple flat axe and the other for a winged celt. The vases are of two types. The larger are of impure clay, black within, yellowish or reddish without. The smaller are of pure clay, black in fracture but reddish on the surface. Only three of the fragments foitnd were entirely black. AU this pottery is hand-made. Only one handle was found, and f. Bronze. ^^^^ was Semicircular. FinaUy, about twenty pieces of raw bronze were found, weighing from 150 to 700 grammes, and cast in circular moulds. Offidanot T^i^^s settlement at first leads us to suppose that the a terra- people of the terremare must have inhabited the neighbour- settle- hood of Offida. Unfortunately we have to rely on the very ment. incomplete evidence afforded by Allevi's account. None of the finds have been published, nor have further researches ever been undertaken. To begin with, we have no evidence whatever that this settlement was built by terramara folk. It is not a terramara at all. It is built on a natural lake. It has no moat, no wall, no buttress. Above all, it is not supported by piles. I quote Allevi's own words as to this last point : ' I did not meet with any beams which might have served to support the platform. The structm^e, then, XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 391 is not a pile-dwelling in the true sense of the word ; it had no piles, but rested perhaps on artificial islands, on sup- ports consisting of stone, branches, mud, or perhaps— and this seems to me more probable — floated like a raft (a thing not unparalleled in Italy and elsewhere), rising and falling with the water.' The structure, then, is not a terramara or even an ordinary pile-dweUing. This being so, and in the absence of other evidence, it would be rash to attribute it to the Italici. It is far more likely to be due to the Ihero-Liguri of the place, who, seeing that the lake afforded a safe site for a settlement, adapted their dwelling to the circumstances. We must therefore conclude that though, as we shall No evi- see in the next chapter, a body of the terramara folk did dence pass through the Marche towards the end of the bronze italici age on their journey south, yet at present we have no inhabited evidence that they made their home there for any length jiarche. of time. III. The Bronze Age in Liguria. Of the bronze age in Liguria we have as yet only incom- Liguria. plete records. There are, however, some objects, found Sporadic sporadically, which must belong to the bronze age, for f^^- example, the axe with flanged edges and an almost circular inlet in the heel, or the winged axe, with the wings almost forming a socket. These two objects represent the early and late periods of the bronze age respectively. To the later may be assigned a concavo-convex knife and perhaps a simple bracelet. Amerano, followed by Colini, assigns some of the Ligurian Pottery. pottery to the bronze age, on the ground of its likeness to that of the same period in other parts of Italy. The most convincing examples are the so-called fischietti or whistles of terramara type, and the open hemispherical cups with distinct neck and lip turned out. On the whole, it is best to regard nothing as certain Scarcity concerning the bronze age in Liguria. The bronzes and° ., ° n e evidence, some of the pottery do indeed suggest the influence of 392 BRONZE AGE HUT- SETTLEMENTS chap. the Italici of the lakes and the terremare, but the evidence is too sHght to be of much value. Having regard to the reputation of the Ligurians as seamen, and to their wide trade-relations in neohthic times, it is possible that their bronze age, when better revealed to us, may show a phase of its own due to foreign influence. There is good reason to beheve that during the bronze age the Ligurians continued to inhume their dead, for the earliest cremation cemeteries there belong to the iron age, and do not go back beyond the fifth century b. c.^ Rook-en- To the bronze age belong some at least of the remarkable grayings rock-engravings of the Monte Bego district.^ They occur in several valleys, Valle d'Inferno, Valle di Valauretta, Valle di Fontanalba and Valmasca. The figures vary ia height from 5 cm. to 1-76 metres, and are incised on smooth slabs of rock, horizontal, slanting or vertical, probably with metal or stone chisels, aided by maUets. Sometimes they are cut into the Uving rock, sometimes into the fallen Objects masses lying close by. The simplest represent manufactured repre- ./ o ./ x r sented. objects, arrowheads, spearheads, axes, daggers, sickles and halberds (fig. 203), some, perhaps, of stone, others certainly of metal. From more complex objects, such as a cart and a harrow, we pass on to figures of oxen drawing ploughs or harrows, sometimes with a human figure guiding the plough (fig. 206), and occasionally another preceding it. The human figure also occin's in other combinations. It is usually a man holding up a hafted axe or halberd (?) (fig. 205) much bigger than himseK, or brandishing a javelin. The most intricate designs of all have been with great probability interpreted as figures of sheepfolds and huts &c. It is impossible to discuss here the whole question of these drawings and their afiinities to those of other localities outside Italy. A few results, however, may be briefly indi- cated. Date. The drawings may undoubtedly be attributed to the ' Eend. Ace. Line., 1899, pp. 153-4. ^ Bioknell, The Prehistoric Roclc-Engravincjs in the Italian Maritime Alps, 1902 ; Further Explorations in the Prehist. Bock-Engravings in the It. Mar. Alps, 1903. B. P., sxiv, p. 265 ; xx^•ii, p. 217 ; xxviii, p. 234. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 393 bronze age in part, if not altogether. Some of the imple- ments represented are certainly of bronze age types, and others, though probably of stone, may belong in date to the bronze age. The frequent appearance of the bull (fig. 204) and the ploughs and harrows reveals an agricultural and pastoral people. They could not, however, have carried Their pur- on their everyday pursuits in the wild desert valleys in ^°**' which the drawings are found, and therefore these places may well have been the scene of a cult of some kind. Their existence in such inaccessible regions is then explained as due to a desire to avoid the risk of destruction, and perhaps to the awe usually shown by primitive man for the more ao3 206 ao4- 205 Res. 203-206. Rock-di-a wings, Liguria. (After Issel, Bull. Pal.) savage aspects of nature. At the same time, it is possible that their purpose was not religious at all ; they may represent the history of a people, or may even, by an official document of some kind, record arrangements between tribe and tribe, or between man and man. In either of these cases one would expect the drawings to be of the nature of pictographs, and to express definite ideas according to a conventional code. And this may well be so, for many of the drawings cannot be explained as mere copies of objects, but seem to belong to a conventional scheme of some kind. On the whole, the most probable hypothesis is that of a rehgious cult, for this is the only one which explains the appearance of these signs in such a strange locality. Finally, it must be mentioned that the drawings show some analogy to the marks on many of the West European 394 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. dolmens and menhirs, and also the rock-drawings in Asia Minor, the Canaries, and Morocco, but until the comparisons have been properly made on a large scale it would be merely misleading to attribute any value to the resemblances. IV. The Bronze Age in the Veneto. The Of the history of the Veneto in the bronze age we know eMto. ]^ii\q^ and that little presents difficulties and problems. bronze We have already dealt with the lake-dweUings of Arqua, ^S^ Fimon and elsewhere, and we have seen in Chapter XV that dwellings terramara influence is very strong in that part of the district and terre- which borders on Lombardy, and it is quite possible that there were actual terremare in this region. But the cemetery of Povegliano has already warned us to expect in these districts an element quite distinct from Hut- that of the lake-dwellings and terremare. Accordingly, it founda- jg ^q surprise to find at Marendole, near Este, a village Maren- of hut-foundations (Map II, 105). dole. Several hut-foundations with hearths were found, and also a number of cylindrical refuse-pits.^ In none of these were bronze objects discovered, but close by, in the archaeo- logical stratum, occiu-red a chisel and a knife, the latter Pottery, of terramara type. The most important objects found were the vases, which differ in respect of their handles from Handles, any Other group known in Italy. The handles in question are shown in fig. 207. And they may be named the ' beaked ', the ' crested ', and the ' bilobate ' handle respectively. The bilobate probably had its origin in the crested, which was sometimes pierced with a small hole in the upper part. The beaked handle occurs in Italy at Marendole, ToscaneUa, Coppa della Nevigata,^ and at Earneto, this last being a rather doubtful case. The crested type occurs at Maren- dole and ToscaneUa, and the bilobate at Marendole, Pertosa and Arqua ; the last example is, however, differently made. ' Cordenona, AntichiUi preistoriche della regione Euganea, 1888 ; B. P- xxiii, p. 66. ■' There are no examples from here in the museum at Rome, but there are two at Naples. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 395 The bilobate handle also continued in vogue in the iron age stations of the east slope of Italy. Cordenons was, I believe, the first to point out the fact Similar that these three handles occur on both sides of the Adriatic, ^*^dls.^ m Istria The beaked form has been found in the early bronze age and castellieri of Istria, and both the crested and the bilobate Bosnia, occur in the same period in Bosnia. There is at Marendole one specimen of ansa cornuta, but it is of curious form, with no exact parallel in the terre- mare. Ansa cilindro-retta is quite common at Marendole. Cordenons explained, probably rightly, the similarity Explana- between the Marendole handles and those from across the *j°'^ °^ this. Eio. 207. Crested, bilobate and beaked handles, Marendole. Scale c. i. Adriatic by the supposition that the inhabitants of both districts were of the same race.^ The discovery of beaked handles at Coppa deUa Nevigata, and of the bilobate type at Pertosa, though this last may not actually belong to the bronze age part of the deposit, and of both beaked and crested forms at ToscaneUa, complicates the problem very considerably. Indeed the whole of the Adriatic slope of Italy exhibits some remarkable features of similarity with the northern Balkans, a point which will be dealt with in the next chapter. At the end of the bronze age in the Veneto an entirely 2. Later new type of pottery suddenly appeared, quite distinct ^°'^^^ ' B. P., xxiii, p. 80. 396 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. age in the from the Marendole ware, and from what we have termed Veneto. terramara ware. The questions to which this pottery gives rise cannot be fully discussed here, as they belong more strictly to the iron age. The main facts, however, are as Cana- foUows. At Canavedo, near Este (Map II, 106), were dis- covered remains of hut-foundations with pavements of beaten clay.^ The pottery found among these remains differed very completely from that of Arqua. Its chief peculiarities were the use of relief ornament and of patterns formed by pressing string or cord against the wet clay. New, too, was the use of the maeander as an ornamental element, and the appearance of the so-called alare, or ' fire- dog ' of earthenware, always found above the hearths. The bronzes show that the settlement was parallel with the graves of Period I in the great cemeteries of Este. Lozzo At Lozzo Atestino (Map II, 103) was found another settle- Atestino. ment of a similar type, showing signs of rather greater antiquity.^ The pavements of beaten earth were bounded by a course of rough stones, which formed the foundation of the hut-waUs. Objects of fhnt were very common, and, although most of the pottery was of the new or ' Canavedo ' type, some examples of the older ware were found. The most interesting object of bronze was a chisel which must belong to the full bronze age, even if it be no later. It is most probable that this settlement belongs to a transition stage between the bronze and the iron ages. It is a httle earUer than the first Atestine Period of the iron age, and for those who attribute the civihzation of the iron age in Este to a new people it would mark, perhaps, the first appearance of this folk. V. The Bronze Age in Latium, Tuscany and Umbria. Latium, Evidence as to the bronze age in these districts is not Tuscany very abundant, and consists mainly of isolated finds. It jjrjj^ is, however, sufficient to show us a bronze age civilization parallel in some respects to that developing at the same 1 B. P., xiii, p. 15G, 185. " Xot. Scav., 1903, p. 537. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 397 time in other parts of Italy, at least in respect of the metal implements in use. At the same time there are, as will be seen, certain phenomena which are not explicable as due to the influence of the bronze civilization of North Italy^ i.e. of the lake-dwelhngs and terremare. The very beginnings of the bronze age are represented l. Earlier by the grave of BattifoUe, which is the only bronze age "^^^^^^ burial as yet known in these districts. At BattifoUe (Map III, 148), near Farneto (Cortona), Battifoiie. on the slope of a hill, a trench-tomb was discovered.^ It contained a skeleton in bad condition. Near the head lay a small vase containing a flint dagger, near the shoulders two axes of bronze, and by the left side a dagger of bronze.^ The flint dagger is of the usual eneolithic form with a tang, and is remarkably short (8 cm.). The copper dagger is narrow except at the heel, where it broadens out and is rounded. It is of a shape which occurs in eneolithic times and lasts on into the bronze age, occurring in the lake- dweUings of MercTirago, Polada, Varese, and in the hut- foundations of the Valley of theVibrata. The axes are both almost rectangular, cvirving out slightly towards the cutting- edge, which is convex. One is of unusual length (19 cm.), and the edges are beaten so as to form a shght flange. The other is 9 cm. in length, and, for its size, thick and massive. The edges are slightly flanged. Both these forms are more advanced than those of Remedello, and are, in fact, early examples of the true flanged axe of the bronze age, to the beginning of which the grave must be attributed. The rectangular axe with flanged edges is not common in Italy, and hence the importance of this grave. The form occurs in France and in Central Europe, including the Swiss lake-dweUings, but it is wanting in the Eastern Mediterranean and, so far, in Spain. This certainly suggests that very early in the bronze age Tuscany was within reach of the metal exports of Central Europe, though the lake-dwellers 1 Not. Scav., 1894, p. 168. ^ Colini describes all three metal objects as being of copper, from which I presume that since the report here quoted was made they have been analysed. 398 BRONZE AGE HUT-SETTLEMENTS chap. who had descended from Switzerland into Lombardy may well have been intermediaries on the route. Isolated Passing on to isolated finds, the early part of the bronze age is in these districts, as usually in Italy, marked by the axe with flanged edges, common in Umbria and not rare in Tuscany and Latium, sometimes occurring in hoards. Umbria has also yielded bronze arrowheads with a tang, and others of copper, closely imitating flint prototypes. To the early period also belong several broad daggers of eneolithic type with rounded ends set with rivets, or with a pierced tang. Some of these are of copper, and may belong to the eneolithic age. To these forms have to be Fk;, 208. Halberd(?), Montemerano. Scale c. J. added daggers with the same broad blade and handle of bronze, some of them bearing fine incised fines on the blade. Hoard of But the most interesting weapons belonging to the earfier raerano. bronze age were found in 1893 at Montemerano, near Saturnia (Map III, 147). It is not known whether they belonged to a hoard or a burial. Three of them are ordinary flanged axes with semicircular inlets in the base. Another is a blade of a dagger (?), with three ribs down the centre. Another weapon is roughly triangular (fig. 208). It is 19 cm. in length, has a strong central rib, and two rivets at the heel. The traces of a wooden handle were at first still to be seen. From these it is clear that the handle met the blade not at right-angles but obliquely. The weapon is thus not a dagger, but was probably set in a long handle to form a halberd. To this we shall have to recur. XV AND CAVES OF NORTH ITALY 399 To the latter part of the bronze age must be assigned 2. Later several swords of type fig. 175 with flanged tang, and bi'onze a dagger also of form common in the terremare. A number of winged axes mark the same period, and in their more advanced examples lead up to the end of the bronze age, signahzed by three vioUn-bow fibulae. CHAPTER XVI THE BRONZE AGE IN SOUTH ITALY The Until the last few years the story of South Italy in the bronze bronze age was almost a complete blank. AU the know- South ledge we possessed came from the work of Rosa on the Italy. hut-foxindations of the bronze age in the Valle deUa Vibrata, from two or three hoards, and from a not very large number of isolated bronzes. Even now it cannot be said that our knowledge approaches completeness.^ The discoveries of the last few years have been of vast importance, but he would be rash who dared to lay down the main hnes of bronze age development in the South with anything hke the precision with which they can be laid down in the North. Its two Nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish in the bronze eements. ^^^ ^^ South Italy two main elements, firstly a native or South Italian element, and secondly a ' foreign ' element due to the influence and even immigration of terramara folk from North Italy. I. The The native element is known to us from three groups of Native gj^^jg^ ^be hut-villages of the Vibrata Valley, the caves of MENT. Campania, and the rock-tombs of Matera. The bronzes found in these various sites are few in number and usually of types common in North Italy, so that they afford no basis for classification. The pottery, however, is of a peculiar type, and it is this that justifies us in including these sites under a single head. We must now proceed to ask what can be ascertained as to the nature of this South Itahan civilization. A. Hut- In the first place, the practice of dwelling in huts haK dwellings, gunk in the earth was in use in the bronze age as in the neolithic. Indeed, it would seem that in the Valley of the ' For attempts at construction see B. P., xxvi, pp. 6 ff. ; xxix, pp. 84 B. XVI THE BRONZE AGE IN SOUTH ITALY 401 Vibrata, where we have aheady seen neohthio hut-villages, the same people continued to dwell undisturbed in the bronze age. A number of these bronze age huts in the Vibrata VaUey Vibrata (Map III, 150) have been excavated. The bronzes found ^^^^®y- included axes, a sickle, daggers, and arrow- or lanceheads. "' '°"^^' The axes are of the flanged type. One is very small and has no notch at the top. It is undoubtedly a very early form, and belongs rather to the eneolithic period than to the bronze. The daggers are either of the terramara type, narrow ribbed and expanding slightly at the heel, or of the flat broad type with round base. Some very tiny examples of the last must be arrow- or lanceheads. Of arrowheads proper we have two types, one with rib and tang, the other with socket. There is also a fragment of a sickle, too small to aUow of its form being determined. The pottery is of red or greyish fracture with a fine b. Potteiy. poHshed black face.. One piece only is pohshed bright red. The vases appear to have been mostly cups of graceful forms. The handles show great variety. They include a very high ribbon form, cilindro-retta, cornuta and ad ascia. The ornament is that usual in the bronze age of South Italy. It consists of incisions and punctures. There are the usual maeanders and spirals drawn in bands of dots bordered by lines. Besides this there are maeander and rhomboid patterns drawn in single lines, often very care- lessly (fig. 209). More unusual in this type of pottery is the use of cross-hatching (see fig. 209 h and i). FinaUy must be noticed two animal heads plasticaUy c.Figurines. rendered in terracotta. One is an ox with long horns, and the other may be a goat. Both are remarkably well rendered, and are far in advance of the plastic animal figmes of the terremare. But as in North Italy so in South hut-viUages were not B. Cave- the only type of habitation in use, for caves still served dwellings, for this piu^jose. The most important lay in the neighbour- hood of Naples and in the mountains to the South-East of that district. They are four in number : Felci in the island FEET c c 402 THE BRONZE AGE IN SOUTH ITALY chap, xvi of Capri, Nicolucci near Sorrento, and Pertosa and Zachito among the hills. 1. Grotta The Grotta delle Felci (Map III, 160) is in reahty a huge Felo^' natural cleft in the rock.^ The deposit is of the type usual a. stone ^ inhabited caves. It includes knives of both flint and objects. obsidian, the latter substance being imported, as it is not found in the island. These knives have either straight or toothed edges. Other objects of stone are club-heads of diorite, sharpening-stones of sandstone, shng-missUes of hme- stone, and possibly a bracelet, of limestone also. Primitive mills consist of a lower flat stone on which the substance to be ground was laid, and large rounded pebbles with which the grinding was done. Some of these grinders are marked with red ochre, and from this we may infer that here, as in Ligurian caves and elsewhere, the substance was used for ornamental purposes. b. Pottery. The pottery is of impure clay mixed with quartz, and the firing is bad. The fracture is black, but at the surface the clay has bturnt red. Among the handles are ribbon shapes applied vertically or horizontally, and cord shapes apphed horizontally, also simple knobs and a kind of ansa cornuta. The ornament consists partly in bands of clay in reUef or rows of small protuberances on the surface, partly iu inci- sions. These last include maeanders and spirals, sometimes with punctured zones. One fragment has a fine shining black surface on which are incised geometrical designs filled with a white substance. Of the forms the most important are small handleless ' hour-glass ' vases, ovoid cups with splayed-out rim and rather high-set cord handle, a fine scodella or basin, with a distinct foot, incurved rim, and fine transverse fluting round the keel, and finally a shallow cup or ladle of typical South Itahan form, with the usual tongue-like handle rising from the rim. All this pottery and its ornament is clearly of the South Italian type. De Blasio assigns it without hesitation to the neohthic period. Later discoveries have made such an attribution almost impossible. The material is in the main so similar to that of Pertosa that a chronological parallel » B. P., xxi, pp. 58 ff. ; Tav. III. Fig. 209. Fragments of South Italian incised ware. (Partly after Patroni, Mon. Ant.) c c 2 404 THE BRONZE AGE chap. is certain. In any case, the fluted and footed scodella is rather too advanced to be a neolithic form. We must therefore conclude that at least a part of the material reaches the bronze age. o. Bones. Among the bones in the cave were several belonging to human beings. The one skull was doUchocephahc with an index of 72. This Here, then, in the island of Capri, we find the same type simifar^to °^ pottery incision as in the huts of the Vibrata Valley. that of The designs are usually in bands bordered by two lines and t h \ filled up with points, and the most usual patterns are the spiral and the maeander. The incisions are often filled with a white substance which serves to show them up more clearly (cf. fig. 209 e, /). 2. Grotta Exactly the same ware is found in the second cave of this Nioolucci. group (Map III, 159), the Grotta Mcolucci, near Sorrento.^ It contains a true archaeological stratum protected by a a. Pottery, stalagmitic formation above it. The pottery is of two kinds, rough and fine.^ The vases of finer clay are smoothed on the surface with a polisher. The handles consist often of mere knobs, but there are several examples of ansa cornuta. The ornament is either simple incision (zigzag, dog-tooth &c.), or strips of clay in rehef, pitted with the finger-tip, or slashed across at short intervals with a sharp tool. One fragment at least shows a maeander incised in freehand. This fact, and the type of the pottery in general, serve to connect it with the typical bronze age ware of South Italy. Other objects of terra- cotta are spindle-whorls of flattened-spherical form, and cylindrical weights. h stone Of flint are rectangular knives with two facets on the upper side, and arrowheads of fairly fine work with tang and wings. Other stone objects are made of a kind of sandstone ; they consist of three arrowheads, one tri- angular with straight base and the others almond-shape, » B. P., xiv, p. 65. ■" Lorenzoni distinctly states that some are made on the wheel. If this is really the case its importance cannot be overestimated. The use of the wheel in the age of bronze is not known in Italy. But it is probable that the vases in question came from a later stratum in the cave. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 405 a piercer, two polished axes, sling-stones and pounders. Finally there are pohshers made of bone, and a two-pronged c. other hairpin of bronze. This latter was found under the stalag- "^'J^'^'"'- mitic deposit among the rest of the archaeological material. The cave was therefore inhabited in the bronze age. At d. Date, the same time it is quite possible that some of the material goes back to the eneoHthic or even neolithic period. The presence of an ansa cornuta so far from its supposed home, the terremare, constitutes a distinct puzzle. It will be dis- cussed in dealing with the whole question of the ansa cornuta in Chapter XVIII. Of stiU greater interest (Map III, 156) is the Grotta di 3. Grotta Pertosa, from the strange fact of its containing a pile- f^ ^^^' structure. It lies in a small hill of the same name in the district of Caggiano (Salerno).^ A stream now flows through the cave, which is long and narrow. It is clear that this a. The pile- stream already existed in prehistoric times, for the whole ^^™'''™'^- floor of the cave is covered with a kind of raised wooden stage or palafitta. The structure of this stage is as follows. Four piles were driven into the ground at the corners of a square. Their tops were abruptly pointed. Four beams were then forked at each end and each beam was laid across a pair of the piles, so that the forked end of the beams fitted on to the sharpened tops of the piles. The four beams thus formed the four sides of the square. Crossbeams were now laid above them, and the stage was then paved with a layer of oak-bark, reeds and other material. This stage formed only a single unit of the palafitta, which was completed by adding similar squares round the first after the manner of a draught-board. The pottery found in the cave was in a somewhat broken b. Pottery. condition. Several vases, however, were reconstructed with certainty. The most typical shapes are shown in fig. 210. Particularly noticeable are the scodella or basin (fig. a), very similar to the later Greek shape, the tongue-handled vase (fig. h), and the double handle in fig. 211 cZ. A set of ' Patroni, Caverna naturale con avanzi preistorici in provincia di Salerno, in Mon. Ant., ix ; Caruoci, La grotta preistorica di Pertosa, Salerno, Napoli, 1907 ; Pigorini, B. P., xxxiv, pp. 5-7. 406 THE BRONZE AGE IN SOUTH ITALY chap, xvi miniature vases is also remarkable. They must have served some ritual purpose. Remains of large household vessels were also found. Some are pierced with a number of small holes, and were evidently used as strainers. A large bucket- shaped vase was reconstructed. All these vases are hand- made, of rather impure clay, incompletely cooked, and varying in colour from reddish to grey or brown tints. The ornament is of two types, relief ornament or incised ornament. The former consists of knobs or bands of clay, the latter marked at close intervals with the nail or finger- tip of the potter. The latter consists of patterns formed of incised bands filled with points (fig. 209 h, d, e, /, g). The most striking figures are the spiral and the maeander. Originally the incisions and points were filled with a white substance now often lost. c. stone Objects of stone are uncommon. A hand-mill, consisting ° '^'^ ^' of an upper and a lower stone, and two flint knives were the most important pieces found. d. Bone Boucs Were shaped into borers and poUshers. A shoulder- and horn. ]jqqq qJ g^jj q^ j^g^^j been toothcd to form a kind of comb. There were also- two spindle-whorls of stag's-horn, one of which is in the form of a truncated cone. Two objects similar in shape to this last, but made of terracotta, were judged to be the heads of ornamental hair- pins. Other objects of terracotta are a pierced disc and a large ring, both perhaps worn as pendants. o. liroiize. The only objects of bronze were an axe with flanged edges of terramara type, and a broken awl in a bone handle. f. i nunii. The fauna includes the hare, wild cat, fox, dog, bear, pig, wild boar, ox, sheep, goat, stag and wild goat. Problem There is no possible doubt that this cave was inhabited ofthepile- ]j„ jj^gjj 3^^ some period of the bronze age. The presence stmcLiirG ox of a stream of water in the cave itseK made it a desirable place for settlement, but necessitated the building of a pile- structure. This palafitta has been taken by some to prove that the people who built the lake-dweUings of North Italy descended into South Italy and settled at Pertosa, among other places. The mere use of piles is not sufficient to prove this. The excavator speaks as follows : ' This pile-structure, Fig. 210. Vases from the Grotta di Pertosa. 408 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. at the moment of excavation and observation on the spot, gave me the impression of a work carried out by people not accustomed to such tasks, who found themselves obliged to solve a new problem presented by the unusual conditions of the cave, and merely contented themselves with driving in piles in the roughest manner imaginable.' In other words. Fig. 211. Vase-handles of South Italian type. the pile-structure is not an essential but an accidental feature of the settlement. 4. Grotta Similar material to that of Pertosa was found in the Grotta del Zachito^ close by (Map III, 157). Particularly interesting was the finding of lumps of clay lying on the stone slabs on which they were to be moulded into vases. ' Atii Congr. Int., p. 221; Archivio per V Antropologia e V Etnohgia, xxxiii, fasc. 2, pp. 197 5. del Zaohito. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 409 But of far greater importance is the presence of remains of the camel, a beast which one would imagine can only have come from the South and by sea.^ Similar remains were found in a neighbouring cavern, 5. Grotta that of Frola, but the finds were few in number. ^^ Prola. So far we have discovered that in certain parts of South C.Burials. Italy hut- and cave-dweUings were both in use in the bronze age, and though we cannot definitely assign both to one and the same people, it is highly probable that they were both due to the descendants of the old neohthic race which we beUeved to be spread over Italy. The most tangible fact is that in aU these sites the same type of incised pottery is found. Now although the burials connected with these sites have not yet been found, it is remarkable that there is one set of interments in South Italy which has yielded this same pottery. On the Miu'gia Timone at Matera (Map III, Matera. 153) he several rock-hewn tombs containing inhumations. Indeed the whole Murgia is covered with remains of a most interesting character. Patroni ^ described these remains under the term ' The Siculan Village at Matera ',^ a term which it is best to drop, as it has led to nothing but mis- understanding. They include several so-called hut-founda- tions, a trench apparently filled with refuse, and three rock chamber-tombs . The ' hut-foundations ' can be very quickly disposed of, i. So- as they are not hut-foundations, as Patroni supposed, but f*'!®? graves. They consist of a cassetta or case of squared blocks dations of stone containing the body and covered with a circular ^^e mound of rough stones. Both the Murgia Timone and the Murgecchia are covered with these mounds, which are similar to those examined by Jatta in Apulia,* and belong like them to the iron age. ' See, however, Pigorini in B. P., xxxiv, p. 8 ; B. P., xiv, p. 65 ; Tav. XI. Patroni, Un villaggio Siculo presso Matera neW antica Apulia, in Mon. Ant., vol. viii. " Patroni attributed this ' village ' at Matera to the Siouli of the mainland, who, he thinks, at a certain period passed in considerable numbers into Sicily, where they left the civilization of the Second Siculan period. This will be fully discussed elsewhere (Chapter XVII). ' B. P., xxx, pp. 32 B. 410 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. 2. The trench. Not a road 3. The rook- tombs. Tomb I. Stone circle. Burial- chamber. Skeletons in the shaft. The trench has been traced along a rather winding course for 164 metres, with a width of 1-80 metres and a depth varying from 0-80 to 1 metre. It is hollowed in the surface rock and runs very close to two of the rock-chambers, though it is in no real connexion with them. The contents of the trench give no clue as to its origin. They do, how- ever, prove that at some period a definite effort was made to fiU it up, for they include, besides general refuse, several stones and masses of rock which must have been brought from a distance. Patroni thinks that the trench was most probably a road. The refuse includes a few rough flints, small knives of obsidian, pottery of the two types found in the ' huts ', poUshed stone axes, and bone points. Patroni is certainly in error here. The trench must have the same object as those on the Murgecchia (see p. 107), which, as they were circular, can hardly be roads. Dr. Ridola, who first discovered the trench and examined a few metres of it, has long ago shown that it is earher than the graves, whose stone circles in some cases lie directly over it. There are even now neohthio potsherds lying on its edge, among the earth extracted from it by Patroni. The rock-tombs so far published are three in number.^ The most important of the graves (No. I) was marked on the surface of the ground by a circle of large \mworked stones. The diameter of the circle is 6-65 metres. The tomb is entered by a roughly square pit hollowed in the tufa rather north of the centre of the circle. This pit is 1-50 metres deep and widens towards the bottom. It opens on its south side into a completely subterranean rock- chamber. This chamber is roughly 2-50 metres square with rounded corners. The roof is irregular and dips slightly in the centre. In the floor a shallow pit has been cut, leaving a margin at the edges. The margin thus left forms a low stone bench. The hne of symmetry of shaft and chamber lies north and south. In the shaft remains of twenty-two skeletons were found, with numerous objects of funeral furniture. Patroni, from considerations of space, thinks ■ Another rook-tomb on the same hill is shortly to be published by Dr. Ridola, its excavator. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 411 that the bodies were deprived of the flesh before burial. The chamber had been much disturbed by moles and other animals, and it was impossible to ascertain the number of . the skeletons. The funeral furniture was considerable. Tomb II was marked above ground by two roughly Tomb II. concentric circles of large stone blocks. The shaft was cylindrical. Out of it opened two chambers, one to the The buriai- North and one to the North-East. The former was roughly <=''*'"''^"- rectangular with rounded angles. The latter was trape- zoidal with a column left in the centre to support the vault. Both chambers had apparently been rifled, and contained only a few bones and potsherds. The trapezoidal chamber was probably a later addition to the original tomb. The third tomb, first discovered by Dr. Ridola, is of Tomb III. curious construction. Its shaft was not sunk in the rock, but use was made of the already existing trench described above. The chamber was opened off the north side of the trench and two small waUs were nm across the trench to East and West of the opening, so as to make a kind of square shaft. The usual circle of stones marked the grave above ground. The rectangular rock-chamber had been rifled. The objects said to have been found in this tomb, however, stiU exist, but give rise to great difficulties, as they are of much later appearance than those of the other tombs. Tomb I yielded several objects of bronze. These included Objects rings, simple and spiral, buttons, and a dagger. There were *°'"i^- also globular beads of a green or blue glass-paste, un- doubtedly imported, others of a resinous substance, not amber, and finally two of rock-crystal. Flint flakes were common, but finished implements were almost entirely absent. Among various ornaments may be noticed two discs of bone, a pierced boar's tusk, and a few sea- sheUs. The pottery from this tomb, identical indeed with that Pottery. in Tomb II, is aU of one type, the brown ware found in the ' huts '. The red ware of the ' huts ' is absent from the tombs. These vases of brown clay are hand-made, incompletely cooked, and polished on the svu-face. The brown often reaches a grey-black tint. Chiefly to be noticed 412 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. are the tongue-handle (cf. fig. 211), and the occurrence of the punctured-band decoration in incised work. The objects said to have been found in Tomb III include several fibulae of the broken-backed form. This is not a bronze age type at all, and if the tomb really contained these fibulae the burial deposit must, in part at least, belong to the iron age. The burial rite of South Italy. Incised pottery common to all sites. Its orna- ment. Technique Designs. Distribu- tion. Date. We have now ascertained that the burial-rite of the bronze age in South Italy was at least in some cases inhumation. Further than this we cannot go, and it must be remembered that the existence of the rock-tomb in place of the old neolithic trench-grave is not free from difficulties. In all the varying sites we have described there is, how- ever, one element which is constant, and that is the incised pottery. We must therefore follow up this clue in the hope that it may lead us to more tangible results with regard to the bronze age people of South Italy. The most striking feature about this South ItaUan pottery is its ornament. This consists generally of incision and puncture. The ornamental element is usually drawn in with two parallel lines and the space between filled with points. Both the incisions and points are in most cases filled with a white paste, which enables the design to show up clearly on the black ground. The ornament sometimes covered the whole vase, sometimes was arranged in hori- zontal bands. The most favourite designs are the spiral, maeander, rhomboid, chessboard pattern and dog-tooth. Examples are given in fig. 209. This pottery is found in the caverns of Pertosa and Zachito (Salerno), in the Grotta delle Felci in the island of Capri, and in the Grotta Nicolucci near Sorrento, in the underground rock- tombs at Matera, in the terramara at Taranto — where it is doubtless imported — and at Coppa deUa Nevigata. Further up the Adriatic we find it in the Vibrata Valley, at Toscanella Imolese, at Trebbo Sei Vie (one fragment), at Porta Saragozza in Bologna, in the Fame cavern, and at Bertarina.^ The date of this ware is not difiicult to fix. Its occurrence ' It is, however, very rare in sites north of the Vibrata. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 413 in the terramara at Taranto (see below) shows that it was in use late in the bronze age. In the neolithic settlement beneath the terramara it is absent. In the Vibrata Valley it is more difficult to date, but it probably belongs to the early bronze period. I have been unable to find any certain neohthic examples, and I therefore attribute it to the bronze age as a whole. It seems improbable that this pottery, which continues Not a to be found in site after site, should be wholly imported, develop- Nor does it appear to be a development of the StentineUo from ware of Sicily and South Italy, for, in the first place, it ^^^^^^^ does not occur in Sicily ; in the second place, the technique is utterly different ; and in the third place, we know that StentineUo ware was succeeded by something quite different, viz. dolmen ware. We must therefore ask whether foreign influence was accountable for the rise of this ware in Italy. The type of ornament found on these vases has suggested Parallels, various parallels. In comparing types of ornament it is not sufficient to compare the mere technique ; what ought Criterion to be compared is the general spirit of the ornament. If parallel, we chose to regard the ornament in question as merely a series of designs worked out in points and bordered by lines, the cavities being then filled with a white substance, we may find several parallels in the Mediterranean. But to parallels based on such general definitions we must not give more value than they deserve. For instance, we may Egypt compare this ornament with that of predynastic Egypt ^ or and Crete, of the neohthic age at Knossos.^ In both these cases there are certain similarities, but the general impression given is very different. Above aU, we notice the absence in both cases of the spiral and the maeander which are so essential to the South Italian pottery. With regard to the spiral on incised ware we may speak with certainty both for Egypt and Knossos, in the latter of which it does not appear until Early Minoan times.* ' DiospoUs Parva, 1898-9, frontispiece and Plate XIV. ^ J. H. S., xxi, pp. 78 sqq. ; xxiii, pp. 158 sqq., and Plate IV. ' J. H. S., xxvi, p. 259. As for the maeander there is, as far as I know, no example in the Egyptian incised series. In the Candia Museum there is a 414 THE BRONZE AGE chap. Spain and Similarly we may compare our Italian ware with that of Troy. Ciempozuelos ^ in Spain or that of Hissarlik.^ Agaia we get certain resemblances, but the same difference of spirit. In fact the most that we could argue would be that even if we could assume the examples of Egypt, Crete, Spain and Troy to belong to one widespread family of neoHtbic ceramics, then the South Italian ware might be a remote AVhite- descendant of that family. At the same time, we should filling no \)Q Qji Qijj. guard against setting too much store by the fact of the white-fining, a technique which appears in various places at various dates. In Egypt itself this white-filled ornament appears, besides in the predynastic period already mentioned, in the third, twelfth, and thirteenth to seven- teenth or eighteenth dynasties.^ Not of At Knossos the particular variety of this incised work retan -^^riijch we have called 'punctured-band work', only occurs near the top of the neohthic deposit. It seems to be a direction which this technique took only in its later stages. Now at the beginning of the period called Early Minoan I in Crete incised work practically dies out, the punctured- band technique completely so. So that unless we can sup- pose this technique to have reached Italy before the end of the Cretan neohthic period, we must not attempt to explain the Itahan series from the Cretan. At present we have no examples in South Italy which can be dated so early as this, and, what is more, the total absence of the ware in Sicily * speaks against direct derivation from Crete. And finally, had the technique come from Crete in neohthic times, how explain the spiral and maeander, which in Crete were, to judge from present evidence, unknown at the time ? Bosnia We are thus left to ask whether there is any other example Servia ^^ *^^ style of decoration with which we may institute fragment from Knossos bearing part of a pattern which may possibly have been a maeander, though Dr. Mackenzie doubts it. ' Boletin Real Acad. Hist., vol. xxv ; Zeit. Eih., 1895, p. 119. ' Dorpfeld, Troja urtd Ilion, vol. i, p. 251. ' Diospolis Parva, p. 14. * There is one fragment from the Trapani district, now at Palermo. It shows >i white-filled maeander, but the absence of further details as to its finding makes it scientifically valueless. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 415 comparisons. The answer comes at once if we turn to the Balkan peninsula. At Butmir, near Serajevo, and at Close re- Jablanica in Servia,^ and elsewhere in the same district, ontaUan* we have pottery of the same type. The specimens from n^al'^ajg Butmir ^ in particular are remarkably similar to those of Pertosa and Matera. This time we have no mere resem- blance in technique, but the spirit of the design is the same in both cases. No one can examine the Pertosa examples Combina- without being struck by the curious combination of rect- rictenguiar angular and curved design, e.g. the spiral and maeander, ^"''j '^"''^'^'^ which sometimes occurs on the same sherds. Now this combination is typical of all the early pottery of the Balkans. It is noticeable in the painted ware of Sesklo and Dimini * in Thessaly, and in that of the mounds of Bulgaria.* In both cases the most prominent feature of the design is the wonderful skill shown in the interweaving of the rectangular and the curved, especially the maeander and the spiral. It is scarcely time as yet to hazard any view as to the relations, chronological and otherwise, between the incised and the painted wares of the Balkans.^ What must be insisted on here is the close analogy between these Bosnian and Servian wares as a whole and those of South Italy. How then is this analogy to be explained, and in what relation to the Balkan wares are we to place the South ItaHan series ? Everything seems to point to its being Italian slightly later in beginning than that of Butmir. In Italy slightly we have no undoubted neohthic examples. I would there- Banian*" fore suggest that the Itahan ware is derived directly from the ^1°^^^^^ Balkan. Not that the specimens we possess are necessarily from it imported. The original models were imported and the style was imitated and developed in Italy itself. A visit to Belgrade confirmed these ideas as to the Balkan Servian origin of this pottery. At the museum Dr. Vassits showed ^^^^ me card after card of incised ware — as yet impubhshed — - ' Vassits, Die neoUtische Station Jablanica. ' Radimsky and Hoernes, Die neoUtische Station von Butmir. ^ Tsountas, At npoiffToptnat ' AKpoTr6\€iS Ai^-qv'iov KoX SetrwXov. * Revue Archeologique, 1901, p. 328; Bulletin de Correspondance Eellenique, 1906, p. 360. ' See Classical Review, for Dec, 1908. view. 416 THE BRONZE AGE chap. from Servian sites. Almost every sherd reminded one of some Italian example, and it may be added that here white- filHng, not seen at Butmir, was almost invariable. Trade We have elsewhere seen that at a very early period Adriatic, there was a considerable trade carried on across the Adriatic, and that painted pottery was, in the late neohthic age, imported from the southern Balkans into South Italy. This trade probably did not cease with the neohthic age but continued to introduce into Italy the pottery of the Balkans, no doubt at various points of the coast. The view here proposed, namely, that this pottery had a Balkan origin, is confirmed by its distribution, which includes the whole of the Adriatic slope from Bologna down to Taranto. Coiini's This view concerning the origin of the incised ware of South Italy partly falls into line with that expressed by Cohni.^ ' It seems to me,' he says, ' reasonable to suppose that this industry in South Italy, so remarkable for its ornamental motives, was developed among the neohthic peoples or their descendants, under the influence, direct or indirect, of the eastern civilizations where those elements had their origin.' This I should accept almost unaltered, but I think we can now be more precise. The influence under which these people developed this style was the direct influence of the western Balkans. Originally this style may have been an import, even in the Balkans, though it is improbable, but with that we are not concerned ; in this case the movement which brought it to Servia and Bosnia did not affect Italy, which only received as it were a kind of backwash from this direction. Spiral With this incised ware is occasionally found rehef-orna- orna- ment. Thus at Pertosa we have a spiral in reUef, and there is a similar fragment from the Pulo of MoKetta. In Italy the spiral is virtually confined to the class of South and East Itahan incised ware, until after the end of the bronze age. Examples occur at Pertosa, Matera, Mohetta, Bologna (Porta Saragozza), Prevosta, Fame and the Vibrata Valley. ' B. P., xxix, p. 98. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 417 Another example occurs in the hut-foundations of Cam- peggine, not necessarily early neoUthic, and another incised on a piece of horn in the terramara of Gorzano. The maean- der too, except among this pottery, is unknown in Italy until the end of the bronze age, when it appears in the Veneto. But it may be asked whether no vase forms can be Vase- associated with this type of ornamentation. It is a striking fo™^ "i 1I1C136Q fact that both at Matera and Pertosa we find the ladle or ware, basin with a high vertical tongue-handle. Examples of this High- have been given in figs. 210 b and 211. Now this handle is jadie.*^ apparently very early in South Italy, as is shown by certain examples at Matera.^ It was, however, adopted by the terramara folk at Taranto, for it is very common there, and it is always in the same technique as the rest of the terra- mara pottery, besides which it takes many varieties of form. In this terramara, too, it is associated with punctured-band ware, and the same fact is to be noted in the Grotta Salomone in the Vibrata VaUey. Thus we may assert that in South Italy the tongue-handle, although not necessarily having the same origin as the incised ware, usually accompanies it.^ Now in the huts of CasteUaccio in North Italy we find a similar handle without a hole, and in the cave of Far no occurs not only this form but also the more developed form with the hole. It may be added that the simpler form occurs at Manfredonia in South Italy (Bologna Museum). This handle therefore occurs both in North and South Italy in coimexion with punctured-band ware, and we may conjecture that it was a product of the same people. It was, however, an earher product. At Matera it occurs in late neoUthic sites, where incised ware of the type ia question was wanting, and it fives on at Matera until the bronze age, being found together with incised ware in the rock-hewn graves. This confirms the idea that the incised ware is due to the neohthic people in a more advanced stage of civihzation. The clue afforded by the South Itahan pottery has thus ' Now in Dr. Ridola's museum at Matera. ' See Colini in B. P., xxsiii, p. 122. PEET J) ^ 418 THE BRONZE AGE chap. Conclu- not been followed quite in vain. It has led us to two Eions. •gj,^j^^g conclusions. In the jBrst place, it is probable that the civiliza- bronze age remains found in South Italy are due to the S°'^th' descendants of the neolithic inhabitants of the country, due to In the second place, it is almost certain that these people old neo- ^^re connected by trade with the people who then inhabited folk. Bosnia and Servia. b. Trade This connexion with the Balkans had begun long before with the |.jjg bronze age, and probably lasted throughout it. History of In the neolithic age we have sherds of painted pottery this trade. ^^ Molfctta and Matera which were certainly imported from somewhere in North Greece or Thessaly. In the early bronze age we have along the whole Adriatic slope of Italy this incised and punctured ware, which seems to have its origin in Balkan models. In the later bronze age we have the fibula and Naue's Type II sword, which are probably of Balkan origin.^ Finally at Marendole, ToscaneUa and Coppa della Nevigata^ we find handle-forms (beaked and crested) known in the North-East Adriatic. AU this tends to show that the Adriatic was in early days, like many other seas, not an obstacle but an assistance to commerce and development. II. The Out survey of the native element in South Italy is now marY cotoplete and we are free to examine the foreign or terramara Ele- element. Two questions arise. Firstly, how far did the Influence influence of the terramara civUization affect South Italy, distin- and secondly, did any of the terramara folk actually immi- gjjm ^"^ grate into South Italy ? immigra- Let US first take the question of terramara influence. tion. j^ jg remarkable that the few bronzes known to us from A. Terra- sporadic finds in South Italy are all of types usual in the mora ^ j j ir influence, terremare. Thus in the Abruzzi the earlier part of the Bronzes bronze age is, as in the Marche, represented by the axe mara with flanged edge and the triangular dagger with hilt of type- metal. At Camposacro, in the comune of Loreto Aprutino, were found in 1862 more than ten of these daggers, made of bronze, and in some cases bearing the fine incised work ' See later in the chapter. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 419 so usual in the North Italian examples,^ while at Trani, near Bari, was discovered a hoard of axes with flanged edges. Similar weapons occur sporadically in various parts of South Italy, and in the Abruzzi they are particularly fre- quent. Among the daggers are some of the broad type with rounded base, a shape really belonging to the eneolithic period. Others are of the true terramara forms, some with the flanged hilt. The winged axe of the terremare is also represented, while sickles of terramara form were found at Ortucchio (Aquila) and Controguerra (Teramo). Now as these forms are not Aegaean at aU we are tempted to believe that the terramara folk, possessed as they were of an advanced knowledge of bronze-casting, set the fashion, so to speak, to the rest of Italy and that their bronzes . penetrated as far even as South Italy and were copied there. So much for terramara influence. But can we prove B. Terra- immigration ? r™*™ For some years Pigorini has suggested that towards the tions into end of the bronze age the terramara folk partly abandoned South the Po Valley and that some of them penetrated to South pigorini's Italy. This hypothesis was supported by three instances theory. of burial in South Italy where, in place of the old neohthic ^^j^ j^ rite of inhumation, the terramara practice of cremation was South thought to have been employed. ^^' The first of these burials was found at Nocera de' Pagani i- Nocera (Salerno), (Map III, 158). A tomb belonging to the bronze ^ '^™' age was found about fifty years ago.^ Brunn, in his report, says that it contained various knives and daggers of bronze and ' a long piece of flint shaped Hke a knife '. Oddly enough, he forgets to teU us whether the remains were cremated or inhumed. Three of the daggers were of the broad triangular type with bronze handle, similar to that fotmd at Parco dei Monaci. The bronzes of this grave are indeed of terramara types, but as we do not know whether the burial was a cremation or not we cannot infer the presence of the terramara people. ' B. P., ii, pp. 50-1. • Bulhtiino delV Istituto, 1859, p. 65 ; B. P., xvi, p. Ui ; xxix, p. 85. D d 2 420 THE BRONZE AGE chap. 2^Parcodei Some years later, however, another tomb containing typical terramara bronzes was found at the Parco dei Monaci (Map III, 155), near Matera. The tomb has, despite its great importance, never been published in full. I cannot even find a definite statement as to the nature of the burial rite. QuagHati speaks as follows with regard to this tomb.^ ' Doctor Ridola assured me that the three objects were found together in a rectangular trench-tomb hoUowed in the tufa of the Parco dei Monaci, together with fragments of a cinerafy urn and of at least two other vases.' From the mention of an ossuary one would presume cremation, though it is not stated expKcitly.^ But in that case why is the tomb rectangular ? The objects of metal are a leaf -shaped dagger of copper . or bronze ; a triangular dagger with metal handle, of North Itahan type, probably of copper ; and a flanged axe of copper. The absence of definite information as to the nature of the burial rite quite invahdates any evidence this tomb might have given as to the presence of terramara folk. 3. San At San Benedetto m PerilHs (Map III, 151) (Pehgni), it is Benedetto. , , . , . , ! , ^ ■, rr, beyond question that a cremation- burial was found. To prevent misconception I quote the report in full.^ ' At Campo Rotondo the graves discovered were con- structed of tiles and lay in the vaUey, but at CoUe Brigmle, on high ground, in land belonging to Messrs. Centi, of Aquila, the tombs were made without tUes. One discovered last year contained a cinerary urn which was broken. The fragments which I saw are of badly-fired clay, half black, half reddish. No object lay among the burnt bones. SKghtly above the ossuary, about 20 cm., lay horizontally a bronze sword of length 0-65 metre and breadth 007 metre.' This sword is of the tjrpe of figure 175 and is quoted by Colini as belonging to the bronze age. The report is, of course, quite inadequate, but it is clear that most of the burials in the locaUty belong to the iron age. It is thus probable 1 B. P., xxii, p. 289. ' I found at Matera that the peasant who dug the grave spoke of a large vase but did not mention burnt bones. He found no traces of a skeleton. = Not. Scav., 1892, p. 485. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 421 that the one in question is of the same period, and that it is the grave of an Italico who, dying among strangers, was buried in the fashion of his race. In any case the grave is but poor evidence for the presence of Italici in the true bronze age. Thus of the three graves which might have been taken These to prove the presence of the Italici or terramara folk in Braves do „ , _ , not prove bouth Italy, two are not proved to be cremations and the terramara third probably belongs to the iron age. If a terramara ™™'gra- immigration was to be proved new and better evidence had to be produced. This evidence came at last in 1899 when QuagHati dis- The terra- covered a terramara at Taranto^ (Map III, 154). It lies ^^™^^* to the North-West of the city, not far from the gates. Over a surface of rock, now being quarried for building pxurposes, lay 2 metres of soil and deposit, mostly the refuse of human habitation. In this three strata were The strata. distinct. The upper stratum contained remains of huts, stratum. with Mycenaean and proto-Corinthian pottery, and a figurine of the usual Mycenaean female type. Below this lay the terramara, and below that again a neolithic deposit con- taining hut-foimdations with stone hearths, potsherds, and refuse of flint- and obsidian-working. The middle stratum was very carefully examined. It Middle soon became evident that this stratum contained the remains of a pile-structure. The remnants of a large Kie- wooden platform were unearthed, covered with a flooring of trodden clay and supported beneath by a number of piles varying from about 10 to 35 cm. in diameter. In parts this pavement was covered with masses of sun-baked clay, evidently the remains of huts. Careful excavation Hut«. succeeded in revealing five huts built upon the platform. The second hut, which gave the most complete results, was Hut ii. rectangular with an out-curving wall or apse at the west end. At the east end was a small portico, and, adjoining it, in the north-east corner, a kitchen. The rest of the house formed one large room 15-50 metres by 5 metres. The walls of this room could still be traced, though httle remained I Not. Scav., 1900, p. 411. 422 THE BRONZE AGE chap. in position. They are of branches, twigs, reeds and leaves, covered inside and out by a coating of clay. The roof, of similar construction, appeared from the markings on the clay fragments to have had a central longitudinal beam and to have sloped on either side. Around all sides of the hut except the east front, where lay the portico, ran a bank of pure clay, 3-60 metres broad, and rising 30 cm. from the platform. Quaghati supposes either that this bank served to drain off the water from the roof, or that its entire edge marked the limit of the house taken in the larger sense. In the kitchen were found the hearth-stones and numerous remains of cooking, together with an earthen- ware stove. This last was bucket-shaped, covered in with a clay top pierced with holes, and had a square opening in the side, near the bottom. Remains of two similar vases were found in the hut. Lower pile- Beneath the floor of this hut, and at a depth of about half a metre from it appeared the remains of another plat- form supported on piles, showing that at some period the structure had been rebuilt and the level raised, just as in the North Itahan examples. The Quagliati was able to determine the exact nature of wo'rfe" ^^^ defences of the terramara. On the west side, which ran north and south, he found a moat, wall and buttress. ITie moat was roughly 5 metres broad with a depth of 3 metres from the surface. It was in part hollowed in the soft rock. Outside it, curiously enough, ran a rough wall of limestone set without mortar. It was 5 metres broad and nearly 1 metre high. Its purpose must have been to increase the depth of the moat. Within the moat lay the rampart. This consisted of a nucleus of large stones, not in courses, covered with clay and with the tufa-refuse acquired in digging the moat in the rock. Behind the rampart lay the buttress or contrafforte, of unworked lime- stone carefully laid in courses. This buttress was almost a metre high and 2-70 metres in breadth. ijjjQ EinaUy, the decumanus or east-to-west road was dis- streets. covered. Its breadth was about 2 metres. Bronzes. The bronzes of the terramara are of remarkable interest. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 423 The double razor, the vioUn-bow fibulae, the winged axe and the sickle can all be exactly paralleled in the terremare of Emilia. But the dagger with bronze hilt with raised edges is not a terramara type, although a few somewhat similar forms have been found in the terremare. The Tarentine example (fig. 212) is very similar to an example from the Knossian cemetery.^ The one-edged knife of Taranto (fig. 213) is another form which is unknown in the earliest terremare. It occurs both at Mycenae (not in the shaft-graves) and at Knossos in the L.M. Ill cemetery.^ This form perhaps originated in the Balkans and only reached North Italy in its developed form, concavo-convex and generally with a socket. There is, therefore, a strong 218 Figs. 212 and 213. St3 Bronze knives, Taranto. Scale (212) | ; (213) |. (After Quagliati, Not. Scav.) connexionB.' probability that these two bronzes were imported. The fibulae need not be imported at aU, and, if they are, it is by no means certain that they came from Mycenae, as is sometimes asserted. Connexions with the Mycenaean world are generally Mycenaean considered to be demonstrated by the finding in the terra- ' mara of a clay idol, supposed to have been imitated from a Mycenaean type.* It is true that this figure is not a close copy of either of the usual Mycenaean forms, and that no Mycenaean idols or pottery were found except in the stratum above this. It may, however, have been suggested by, even if not actually copied from, a Mycenaean example. At the ' Evans, A. J., The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos, fig. 90. » Op. cit., fig. 71. " Quagliati in B. P., xxvi, p. 287. fig. 2. 424 THE BEONZE AGE chap. same time, in view of the close comiexion of Italy with the Balkans, where such figurines were common, it would he well not to decide too hastily. Incised The other remarkable feature of this terramara is the ^' occurrence there of several pieces of the incised and pimctured pottery of South Italy. This was certainly imported, pro- bably from the surrounding country. Terramara It is worthy of noticc, too, that although some of the ordinary ware was a black bucchero which seems identical Red- with that of the northern terremare, much consists of a finely ware. ^ polished red ware, wholly unknown in the North. The same vase sometimes shows red and black in patches. The crescent handle is not uncommon but is simple in form, and never shows the fantastic developments seen in the North Italian terremare. The Since this discovery at Taranto I doubt whether any discovery archaeologist will venture to question Pigorini's statement proves " I. terramara that towards the end of the bronze age a body of terramara immigra- people left the Po VaUey a.nd marched southwards as far as Taranto.^ The complete similarity in form of the Tarentine terramxira with those of North Italy seems to put this beyond aU doubt. This was only part of a greater move- ment, says Pigorini, in which these people pressed down into Latium and Tuscany, where they developed the civiliza- tion of the early iron age.^ This last statement I leave undiscussed as it belongs to a later period. But of the invasion of the South there is no doubt. We have another Other proof of it in the cremation necropohs of Timmari,^ which, proofs, though slightly later than the Taranto terramara, shows the unman, ppgggjjgg ^f ^he same race at the moment of the transition to the iron age. It is possible that this invasion left signs Offida and as it passed at Offida (see p. 389), and that Coppa deUa Ne^ata. * Nevigata belongs to the same context. On this point, however, one must reserve judgement until the sites have been properly excavated and pubHshed. On the ground of the advanced type of the bronzes at ' B. P., xxvi, p. 21. * Not. Scav., 1888, p. 240. ' Mon. Ant., vol. xvi. Part I ; Not. Scav., 1900, p. 345. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 425 Scoglio del Tonno Pigorini assigns this invasion from the Date of north to the end of the bronze age. This is no doubt ^'^^ ™™'" approximately right, and, at a time when I had only seen the Tarentine material in Rome, I accepted the view as it stood.^ Representative selections, however, are always perilous, as they never give the proportions of types to one another. Thus a visit to the museum at Taranto brought out two facts which were not evident at Rome. In the first place, a large proportion of the pottery is pohshed red ware, and, in the second place, two unusual types of handle not only occur but are very common, viz. the tongue- handle and the handle with raised edges (fig. 211 c, e, / and g). Now in the northern terremare red polish does not occur, and both these handles are absent. What is more, both are known to be South ItaHan forms, the tongue-form being common in almost aU deposits containing South ItaHan punctured ware, and the other occurring in the Grotta del Diavolo. It is true that a kind of tongue-handle was found in the terramara of Gorzano,? but it is unique, and moreover not of true southern form. At Taranto these handles take varying forms and look as if they were thoroughly understood by the potters. Moreover, the clay and poKsh show that they are not imported. Therefore they must have been adopted by the terramara invaders from the natives of South Italy. The same is probably the case with the red ware. I question whether these native elements could have been so thoroughly assimilated by the invaders except in the lapse of a considerable time. Besides, the opening of trade relations with the Aegaean was probably not the work of a moment. We may there- fore suppose that these people had inhabited South Italy for some little time previous to the abandonment of the terramara at Taranto. Whether they came early enough to account for the grave of Parco dei Monaci with its early bronzes is hard to say, as we have so Httle exact evidence for the chronology of terramara bronzes. Pigorini is inclined to estimate the influence of the terra- ' B. S. R., iv, p. 285. ' Coppi, Terramara di Oorzano, 1871 ; Tav. XXX, fig. 35. 426 THE BRONZE AGE chap. Terra- mara folk as very powerful. He attributes to their influence flue"^ '"", the building of the pile-structure in the Pertosa cave, and Pertosa. gives to it a ritual significance. If I understand him rightly, he thinks that the cave was not a dwelling but a centre of worship. It is certain that some of the Pertosa pottery is suspiciously hke that of the terremare ; the ritual vases, the basin on a high stem, the large bucket- vase, the strainers and the cups, all remind one of North ItaHan examples. Simple anse lunate have also been found. Direct On the whole, I stiU uphold what I attempted to show mara *^o years ago,^ that direct influence of the terramara people influence in South Italy was never very strong, and had no very ^ lasting effect there in the iron age, though during the later strong in bronze age they had a considerable colony at Taranto. l?^ But even since the discovery of the terramara at Taranto New fresh evidence on this question has been produced. In the evidence, newspaper L'Oggi, pubhshed at Bari, on May 3, 1905, was Coppa described by Jatta the finding of a settlement of the bronze ^^a age at Coppa della Nevigata (Map III, 152), at the foot of ' the Gargano, between Manfredonia and Fontanarosa. This settlement was attributed by Jatta to the terramara folk who penetrated into South Italy. The material, partly at Naples, partly at Rome, includes a bronze pin, plain bronze arm-rings, and a bronze one-edged knife with the handle cast in the same piece. The pottery, some of which was Pottery, ornamented in the South ItaUan punctm:ed-band style, includes a number of small ritual vases, one of which con- tained wheat, and a number of larger vases or their frag- ments, with very varied handles. Some of these were anse lunate of simple types. There also occurred the tongue handle (a nastro) and the beaked handle of Marendole and Toscanella (cf. fig. 207), and several other forms unknown to the terremare. In the same stratum — so far as I can Mycenaean ascertain — with these objects were found fragments of Mycenaean pottery (L. M. Ill), and also of a geometric painted ware which seems new. There are certainly terra- mara elements in this station, and it is said that it was defended by a rampart. ' B. a. R., iv, pp. 283 fE. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 427 To some this discovery may appear to simplify the South Difficul- Italian problem. In reality it complicates it. Even if the tiesraised theory of an immigration of terramara folk can explain aU discovery, the facts noted at Taranto it cannot explain all those of Coppa della Nevigata. The pottery of the latter station in particular strikes one by its divergence from, rather than its likeness to, that of the terremare. This divergence hes, of coiu-se, partly in the presence of red poUshed ware and of South ItaHan incised ware. But in addition to this there Pottery are large numbers of handles at Coppa della Nevigata jg]f°P^* which are foreign to the terremare, and which moreover are Nevigata some of them common in Bosnia, in the pile-dweUings of °'°s^ly Donja-dohna and Ripac, at Debelo-Brdo, and elsewhere, in Bosnia. We may instance the bilobate handle, two distinct forms of the beaked handle, and the plain vertical ribbon-tjrpe with a rectangular projection above. Moreover, the crescent or horned handles are of precisely those forms which occiu: in Bosnia, though, unfortunately, no contemporary lake- dwelling' has yet been dug there. Unless these similarities are mere accident we must suppose either that these handles were common to South Italy and Bosnia in early days and were adopted from the earlier inhabitants by the terramara folk when they descended, or that these people when they arrived there established connexion with Bosnia, or that they came not from North Italy at all but from Bosnia itself. In the light of present knowledge it would be foohsh to adopt definitely any of these three hypotheses. In the meantime none of them can be rejected, not even the last, fanciful though it may appear. Scientific excavation at Coppa della Nevigata, with careful attention to stratification, might do much towards solving the problem. From the sketch we have given of the bronze age in Foreign Central and Southern Italy it might perhaps be inferred [JJ^^^^^°^^ that the trend of this civilization was completely deter- Italy. mined by the influence of the pile-dwellers in North Italy. This is not entirely the case. In the eneohthic period trade relations with foreign parts, especially the Aegaean, had existed. These seem to have continued in the bronze 428 THE BRONZE AGE chap. Foreign age, for we find bronzes of this period which were quite ronzes. certainly not introduced by the terramara folk. The hal- The halberd of Montemerano ^ in Tuscany, is one of terd of these (fig. 208). The distribution of the halberd as at merano. present known includes Spain, the British Isles, Prussia and Scandinavia. There is, in the British Museum, a halberd said to have been found near Cremona, but it resembles the Irish examples so closely that its Itahan origin is extremely doubtful. MonteUus claims that the repre- sentation of the halberd is to be found among the rock- engravings of Liguria,^ but on this point it is impossible to be quite certain. Of the known examples the Tuscan halberd bears most resemblance to those of Spain and may well have been imported from that country. It is not known in the lake- dweUings or terremare. Halberd In the museum of Este is a halberd of which fig. 214 is ofCologna g, sketch. It has a strong rib down the centre and was fitted obhquely on to the staff. It was found on the Trestini farm in the comune of Cologna Veneta. With it was found part of a dagger of primitive and unusual type, which probably dates the find, like that of Montemerano, to the early part of the bronze age. Fojano At Fojano (Val di Chiana, Tuscany) was found a dagger dagger, -which has no exact parallel in Italy (fig. 215). It is of copper, 23 cm. in length, with a very slight rib, and is roughly triangular. The heel is trapezoidal in shape and has two rivet-holes on each side. Colini quotes parallels from the eneolithic cemetery of Sagh-el-BagUeh in Egypt, and from a hoard at Guttidai in Sardinia, where it was associated with flanged axes. The form has more affinities with those of the eneolithic period in Italy than with those of the bronze age, but it may well belong to the beginning of the latter period. Even if it were with certainty known to be imported it would be impossible to guess at its provenance. To this must be added a flat copper celt from near Siena.^ 1 Not. Scav., 1907, p. 669, fig. 3. ^ Die Chronologie der dltesten Bronzezeit, pp. 205-8. ' Now in the Muaeo Pieistorioo at Kome XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 429 It has an almost rectangular outline, with two projections, Siena one on each edge, near the middle (fig. 216). These no doubt °®'*- served for hafting the celt. That they were not in the nature of a stop-ridge is shown by the fact that in some examples they are not both at the same level. Other examples occur at Caltanisetta in Sicily, and near Catania, also at Abini in ai5 ai6 Fia. 214. Bronze (?) halberd, Cologna Veneta. Scale J. Fig. 215. Dagger from Fojano. Scale %. Fig. 216. Flat celt with side projections, Siena. Scale c. i. Sardinia and Allumiere in Latium. There is a further speci- men in the museum at Turin. This type of axe is found in places as widely separated as Ireland, Granada in Spain, Dodona, and Heldersleben in Central Europe, though the shapes vary locally. In the same deposit with the halberd of Montemerano Monte- was found a dagger with three ribs down the centre of the ™^i''''°o ^° . dagger. blade.'- This, again, is not a terramara or lake-dwelling tj^e. 1 Not. Scav., 1907, p. 669, fig. 3. 430 THE BRONZE AGE chap. It does, however, occur in the so-called Mycenaean graves of lalysos in Rhodes, though the example is a sword rather than a dagger. It may thus be of Aegaean origin. These examples seem to show that certain influences were acting on the west coast of Central Italy at the beginning of the bronze age which were not due to the pile-dweUing folk of the North. Later im- None of the weapons we have examined, however, takes ported yg jjj^Q ^j^g later bronze age. Can we find bronzes of a later bronzes. . , , . , ■ .7 rm period which prove a similar case ? Ihe most important are The two : the vioUn-bow fibula and the sword with a wide bronze *• tang with raised edges. It is generally suggested by ItaUan archaeologists that the fibula was imported into Italy from Greece, and that it reached the terremare round the North of the Adriatic, i. e. via the Balkans. This seems to be very doubtful indeed. It is true that the fibula is found very early in Mycenae, but it is at a period when the influence of the future invaders (from the North [?]) was already making itself felt. There is no particle of evidence for supposing that the fibula originated at Mycenae or elsewhere in the Aegaean, and from what we know of Aegaean dress there is certain evidence against this view. The most widely accepted theory at present is that the fibula first appeared somewhere in the Balkans,^ whence it spread on one side down to Greece and on another across to Italy. Even to the gold-plated fibula of Peschiera it is not necessary to give an Aegaean origin, for this type of metal-work may weU have been known in the Balkans. Thus it becomes very doubtful whether the violin-bow fibulae found in various parts of Italy need to be explained as due to terramara influence at aU, and it seems equally probable that they were imported across the Adriatic and afterwards imitated locally. Naue's As to the sword, I have already mentioned J. L. Myres's Type II view that it is of South Danubian origin. He points to its distribution in Italy, where it is found chiefly in the valleys of the Adriatic coast, e. g. at Montegiorgio, Arezzo, FicuUe, Aquila, Lakes Fucino and Trasimene and, in a rather different ' Cf. the early examples at Taline and Borik in Bosnia ; Mitth. aus Bosnien und Hercegovina, I, p. 88, fig. 90. XVI IN SOUTH ITALY 431 form, at Povegliano, and finally in Calabria and Apulia (Naue's specimen)^ This distribution makes it probable that the form was imported across the Adriatic by the same current perhaps which brought the fibula. Thus it is improbable that either the Type II sword or the fibula was the outcome of Mycenaean trade. That, how- ever, Mycenaean trade did affect Italy in the later part of the bronze age we shall see in Chapter XIX. For the present we may conclude that in the early part of the bronze age the dominant influence in Italy, as far as bronze-work was concerned, was the pile-dwelling folk. Even at this time, however, other and foreign influences were at work, though we can only trace them dimly by means of a few sporadically found bronzes. ' B. P., xxii ; Tav. Ill, fig. 3. CHAPTER XVII THE BEONZE AGE IN SICILY AND SARDINIA In Chapter IX we examined the civihzation which pre- vailed in Sicily during the earliest age of metals, the age Second termed by Orsi the First Siculan period. We have now to Sioulan treat the succeeding period, that known as the Second Siculan period, corresponding to the fuU bronze age in the island. The coast The most important feature of the period is the rise of a settle- number of flourishing stations on the south-east coast of Sicily, carrying on a Kvely trade with the great centres of the Aegaean civilization. In the interior, up the river valleys which end on this strip of coast, arose other settlements in many respects no less flourishing than those of the coast. To these as well as to the former we shall have to devote our attention. Excava- But before beginning this task it will be well to premise limited in *^^* *^® civilization we are about to study must not be extent, taken as typical of the whole island of Sicily. It is only in the south-east corner, Orsi's sphere of labour, that excava- tions have been made, and to assume that the same civiliza- tion prevailed elsewhere in the island would be totally unjustified. A. The Throughout the range of history the Great Harbour of settle- Sjrracuse has been famous for its safe anchorage. We can now ments. go further back and assert that even in prehistoric times it Position, was a trading centre of importance. Around its shores lay several settlements of the Second Siculan period. So far as we know, none of these lay actually on the site of the town of Syracuse, but one occupied Plemmyrium, and its graves were actually used for burial by the Athenians, during the siege. To the South of the harbour lay the settlement of MUocca or Matrensa, while to the West, on the edge of CHAP. XVII THE BRONZE AGE IN SICILY, ETC. 433 the marshes, lay that of Cozzo Pantano. Thus round the great harbour were three settlements of this period. Another lay slightly north of SjTacuse on the small island of Thapsos, and a fifth still further north at Molinello, close to the modern Augusta. South of Syracuse lay the settlement of Cassibile, which, however, was some slight distance up the river vaUey, and in several respects differs from the other stations of this group. Further south than this we find no sites, but it is clear that the trading-vessels rounded Cape Passero, for we find Aegaean imports on the south coast in the neighbourhood of Girgenti. But we must now describe these sites more fully. The Type of remains left to us consist in almost all cases of rock-hewn . remains. tombs. The burial-chamber itself is completely subterranean, and the entrance consists of a horizontal corridor or vertical shaft, according as the rock-face chosen for the tomb is vertical or horizontal. At Plemmirio (Map IV, 194) the grave is usually entered 1. Plem- by means of a trapezoidal pit or shaft.^ At the bottom of ™"^'°- this a smaU door or window leads into the burial-chamber, graves. sometimes through a rough ehiptical anteroom. The chamber itseK is circular, with flat or fholos-sh.a,ped roof, and varies from 1-50 to 3-50 metres in diameter. Around it open a number of elliptical nicchioni or niches, often with rebated entrances. The floor of the chamber is much below the level of that of the pit, and the descent is faciUtated by rough steps in the rock. Occasionally a rough bench cut in the rock runs round the wall. It was impossible to form any safe estimate of the number b. Bodie?. of bodies in each sepulchre owing to later disturbances. The pottery has a grey surface and is incised in the manner c. Pottery. typical of the period (cf. Thapsos). The bronzes included both the long ' Mycenaean ' rapier d. Bronzes. (fig. 270) and the sword with concavo-convex edge. An obsidian knife, beads of a resinous substance (not «■• other objects. amber), of glass, bronze and bone, and a bone or ivory comb, were among the smaller objects. The use of a vertical shaft to enter the tomb at Plemmirio 1 B. P., xvii, p. 116 ; Xot. Scav., 1899, p. 26. PEET E e 434 THE BRONZE AGE chap. was a natural consequence of the fact that the rock in which the graves were cut was horizontal, i. e. formed the siu-face of the ground. 2.Milooca. At Milocca^ (Map IV, 195) we have the other type of tomb, cut in a vertical face of rock and therefore entered by a horizontal corridor. A single tomb had been discovered here as early as 1871. It was not, however, until 1898 that the Thoios sepulchre was scientifically examined by Orsi.^ It proved to be a thoios or bee-hive tomb, entered from a vertical shaft at its side. Round half the circumference of the tomb ran the usual low bench of rock and in one side lay an elliptical niche. The skeletons were found lying with legs shghtly Late bent up. The vases included two high-footed basins of Vases. local grey ware and two Late Minoan amphorae. The earher of these (fig. 217) may just belong to the end of the Later Palace period (L. M. II),* but the other is certainly L. M. III. A short sword with sharp point and central rib, shght tang and three rivets, rather recalls some of the weapons from the Knossian L. M. Ill cemetery (fig. 218). other Several other tombs of the same type were found close by, but all had been sacked. One, however, contained burials belonging to both the First and Second Siculan periods. The skeletons were about twenty in number and were laid in superimposed strata so that the highest nearly touched the flat vault. The upper bodies were accompanied by the pottery usual in the Second Period. But almost on the bot- tom was a sherd of painted ware of the First Period, while actually on the rock floor lay a few fragments of bronze ornaments, two flint knives, a pendant of limestone and three beads of blue glass-paste. Thus the earliest burials in the grave must belong to the transition from the First to the Second Siculan period. This is proved by the combination of objects on the floor of the tomb, for while the painted sherd excludes the Second Period, except its very beginning, so the bronzes and glass beads exclude all but the last stage of the First Period. ■ Jlilocca is the same place as Matrensa, where, it will be remembered, neolithic remains exist. To avoid confusion we may refer to the neolithic site as Matrensa and the bronze age site as Milooca. ' ' B. P., xxix, p. 136. ' I now doubt this. xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 435 We now pass on to the necropoleis of Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which are in many respects the most important of this group. The Cozzo del Pantano is a tongue of Mmestone which 3. Cozzo runs east and west within the marshy ground west of the Great Harbour of Syracuse ^ (Map IV, 192). In the steep north and south faces of the ridge are to be seen a number Pantano. ai7 318 Fio. 217. Late Miuoan vase, Milooca, Scale i. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) Fia. 218. Short sword, Milocoa. Scale J. "(After Orsi, SiUl. Pal.) of rock-tombs of the Second Siculan period. The chambers are entered by a shallow cutting in the vertical rock-face, and a true dromos or entrance corridor is never found. The Tomb- chamber itself, rarely preceded by a small antechamber, is ^^^' always circular ia shape and has a vault which is either flat, sHghtly curved, or worked into the form of a Mycenaean tholos (fig. 219). Occasionally one or more elliptical niches ' Mon. Ant., ii, p. 1. E e 2 436 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Ritual. (be) are opened in the wall of the chamber proper at a little height from the floor : a low ridge or bench of Hving stone (a a) is sometimes left around a part or the whole of the perimeter of the tomb. The grave was closed by a large slab of rock, to receive which the edges of the doorway were sometimes rebated. The closing was, in one case at least, reinforced by a masonry of small stones built up outside it. The cutting which gave access to the tomb was often open to the sky, and ended outwards in a small trench serving to carry off any rain-water that might lodge in front of the door. One tomb, found intact, is particularly interesting for the arrangement of the bodies. The three bodies had originally been seated on a bench which runs round hah the cir- FiG. 219. Rock-tomb at Cozzo Pantano ; section and plan. Orsi, Mon. A7ii.) (After Period I. cumference. The vases consisted of a very large jar, three high-footed basins, three small jars or cups and a small bowl for serving round liquid. Evidently the bodies had been arranged as at a feast. Relation to These graves, although by their contents belonging to the Second Period, show many points of resemblance to those of the earher period. Although the painted vases of Period I have disappeared, the shape of the graves stiU remains cir- cular, and numbers of bodies, perhaps stripped of the flesh, are deposited in one tomb. The number in one case amounts to sixty-eight, some of these being actually buried in the outside cutting. The pottery is of several types. Of the grey ware some pieces are rough and unadorned while others are ornamented with thin bands of clay in reUef or with incisions. The flgures will give some idea of the types. The great feature Pottery. xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 437 of the local pottery is the large high-footed basin which occurs in several forms, sometimes with a high tongue- handle forked at the top (fig. 222). The small jug (fig. 223) is important, for in its handle, pierced from above, Patroni finds a parallel to certain handles from the so-called Siculan Italian tombs at Matera. The yellow-surface ware occurs in both *"^ °^^^' its usual forms (figs. 220 and 221), and there is also one example of the brush- or feather-work ware so usual at Cassibile. 320 aa; Fig. 220. Yellow-faced ware. Scale f. (After Orsi, BitJl. Pal) Fig. 221. Yellow-faced ware, Cozzo Pantano. Scale J. (After Orsi, -Vo«. .4n(.) The most important vase is a Mycenaean two-handled cup Aegaean (fig. 224), in blood red on pale ochre. It is of the decadent ™^°' °' style and according to Cretan chronology would belong to the Late Minoan III period. Its closest analogies are the cups from lalysos in Rhodes. The bronze fibulae are of two types, either the plain violin- Fibulae, bow with two knobs on the bow or the curved bow with a cusp (serpeggiante a gomito). The other objects of bronze include a long sword of the Mycenaean rapier type, rhomboid in section (fig. 225), similar to but broader than that found at Plemmirio, and three shorter swords or daggers of similar 438 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Date. 4. Thap- sos. section but broader in proportion, and in two cases having a short tang. Orsi, relying on the Mycenaean analogies, attributes the cemetery to the twelfth and eleventh centuries b. c. Not far north of Syracuse lies the small rocky island of Thapsos (Map IV, 183), joined to the shore by a narrow tongue of sand which is covered at times by the sea.^ Along the north and part of the east coast of this island lie upwards 022 Fig. 222. High-footed basin of incised grey ware, Cozzo Pantano. Scale ^. (After Orsi, 3Iov. Ant.) Fig. 223. Grey ware, Cozzo Pantano. Scale f. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Tombs. Two types of tomb. of 200 tombs of the Second Siculan period. The greater num- ber of these lie at a distance of between 5 and 50 metres from the sea, the entry of which has reduced many of them to a deplorable condition. The whole cemetery has been subjected in various ages to the depredations of bronze- hunters who, not content with extracting the metal from the tombs, broke up the vases and even disturbed the bones. The graves are usually hewn in a perpendicular face of rock, in which case they are entered by a passage or corridor ending in a small door (finestra). But in a few cases where the rock formed the surface of the earth and offered no ^ Mon. Ant., vi. xvn IN SICILY AND SAEDINIA 439 perpendicular faces, entry was obtained by a vertical shaft, from the bottom of which a small opening gave access to a completely subterranean chamber as at Plemmirio (fig. 226). The shape of the chamber is usually elliptical or circular. Theburiai- A raised bench cut in the living rock often runs round a part ''''^"'''^''■ at least of its circumference, and, as at Cozzo Pantano, elliptical niches are often hewn in the walls (fig. 227). The roof is either flat, slightly round, or of the Mycenaean tholos 33 + iQl 235 Fig. 224. Mycenaean vase, Cozzo Pantano. Scale J. (Mtex Oi:sl. Mon. Ant.) Fig. 225. Bronze sword, Cozzo Pantano. Scale ^-. (After Orsi, iloii. Ant.) form. The chamber itself was often preceded by a spacious antechamber now wholly or in part open to the sky. The construction of these antechambers forms a special feature of the graves of Thapsos and was rather elaborate. The figure given (228) shows one of these antechambers in grormd- plan and in prospect. It will be seen that across it runs a solid mass of masonry constructed with carefully squared blocks and without mortar. The blocks marked a a are upright pillars which no doubt supported an architrave and 440 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. were closed by a vertical slab. Behind the pillars may be seen the doorway of the tomb proper, trapezoid in shape and rebated to receive the closing slab. In another grave of very similar construction the two pillars are left standing 336 337 Fig. 220. Section of rook-tomb with shaft- entrance, Thapsos. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 227. Plan of circular rock-tomb with five niches, Thapsos. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Use of masonry. in living rock, and the door of the chamber proper is of the Egyptian type with ' ears '. The use of masonry in these tombs raises an important question. We have seen that in other cemeteries similar though usually simpler constructions are found. Is the XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 441 art of building with carefully squared blocks natural to the Siculi of this time or did they acquire it from abroad ? We must remember that buildings in stone are very unusual in the period, in fact the only example known is the royal palace at Pantalica. Certainly the ordinary Siculan did not live in a stone-built house, but in a hut of wood or straw. 338 Fio. 228. Plan and elevation of entrance to tomb, Thapsos. (After Orsi, Jlon. Ant.) It is a significant fact, too, that it is on the coast that these masonry-adorned tombs occur most frequently and in their most finished form, and in connexion Avith the tholos form of chamber. Further, the contents of the graves, both of Thapsos and Cozzo Pantano, show every sign of close contact with the Mycenaean civilization of the Aegaean. It seems therefore natural to suppose that the tholos was not indi- genous to Sicily, but was introduced from Crete or the Ritual. 442 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Greek mainland. In this case it is probable that the use of masonry came from the same som-ce. The burial rite at Thapsos hes midway between that of the First Period and that of the Third. Graves with numerous burials are not at all unusual, more than twenty skeletons occurring in several cases. On the other hand, many tombs contain only a few bodies, and mark the tran- sition to the single or family burials of the Third Period. Many of the skeletons are found in the crouched position. 339 331 Fig. 229. Mycenaean pyxis, Thapsos. Scale | (After Orsi, Hon. Ant.) Fig. 230. Mycenaean amphora, Thapsos. Scale}. {Mtev Oisi, Mon. Ant.) Pig. 231. Late Mycenaean vase, Thapsos. Scale J. (After Orsi, Mon, Ant.} Pottery. while others are stretched out with merely the legs bent up. The dead are always left as at a banquet. Every tomb con- tains its large high bowl to hold liquid, its cups for dipping and drinking, and its high-footed basins, once fiUed with food. The pottery, laying aside two fragments of the painted ware of Period I, may be divided into four classes, rough ware, yeUow-faced ware, Mycenaean ware, and fine grey ware. The rough ware need not be described, and the yellow- xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 443 faced ware only occurs in one of its forms, the inverted Rough and conical basin (fig. 220). facedware. The Mycenaean vases are twenty-four in number, and Mycenaean consist of thirteen amphmae (fig. 230), three pyxeis (fig. 229), ^"®' three jugs or flasks (fig. 231), one Biigelkanne, and four vases of uncertain shape. AH these vases are of the most decadent style, painted in lustrous brown or red on a buff sHp. In Cretan chronology they would belong not only to the Third Late Minoan period but to the very end of that period. They are, as a whole, distinctly more debased than the lalysos vases. 333 333 Fi6. 232. Large jar with relief-strip ornament, Thapsos. Scale c. -fc (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 233. Incised grey ware, Thapsos. Scale c. J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) The usual Siculan grey ware takes particularly elegant Grey in- forms at Thapsos. The figures give some of the more important shapes (figs. 232-239). The large funeral basins with high foot and trapezoid handle are particularly notice- able (fig. 238). The incisions are carried out with a not very fine point. The schemes used are generally simple and often executed in sets of two or three parallel Hues. Occasionally we find bands filled with dots and bordered by straight lines. Patroni quotes this as evidence that the remains of the Second Siculan period are due to a people who descended from South Italy at the close of Period I. These are the people who make the punctured band-ware of Matera and Pertosa. Patroni sees in the examples of 444 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Thapsos the continuation of this type of decoration. Else- where I have tried to show the improbabiUty of this hypo- thesis (see below, p. 485). In a few cases the incisions form naturalistic designs as in the birds of fig. 239. Figurines. Two idols of local clay must be mentioned. One represents the human figure, the other an animal. Neither suggests imitation from the usual Mycenaean figurines. 337 33 + Fig. 234. Ladle with high handle, Thapsos. Scale c.J. [Mter Oisi, Mon. Ant.) Flo. 235. Incised grey ware, Thapsos. Scale |. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) EiG. 236. Ladle of incised grey ware, Thapsos. Scale f. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fio. 237. Ladle of fine grey ware, Thapsos. Scale J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Metal. Objects of metal are extremely rare, the successive depre- dations having allowed little to escape. The finest bronze is a sword (fig. 240), 29 cm. in length. Another short sword or dagger is 183 mm. in length, has a rounded point, and is of a much flatter type. An armlet of bronze has a central rib of semicircular section, other im- One grave which contained a Mycenaean amphora also ]^ects^ ° ' yielded a spherical bead of amber and several fluted beads of a kind of glass-paste or enamel. Similar beads of paste XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 445 occur at lalysos, Cameiros, and in tholos tombs on the Greek mainland. This cemetery, with its elaborate tombs, and its numerous Mycenaean vases, reveals a civilization of a very advanced 339 338 34-0 Fig. 238. High-footed basin, Thapsos. Scale c. 4. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 239. Incised grey ware, Thapsos. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 240. Bronze sword, Thapsos. Scale c. J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) type, in close touch with that of the Aegaean area. It represents a single period, of no very great length, correspond- ing to the moment of greatest dispersion of Mycenaean vases in the Mediterranean.^ ' To prevent possible misconception it must be added that the two 446 THE BRONZE AGE IN SICILY, ETC. chap, xvii 5. Moli- nello. Tombs. Contents. On the western edge of the harbour of the modern Augusta, lies the hill called Molinello (Map IV, 181). Here were examined eight graves, two in 1892, and six in 1902.^ The burial chambers are hewn in the rock, and are usually round, preceded by a small antechamber. The vault is in some cases pointed, so that the whole tomb is of bee-hive form (fig. 241). A curious feature is a protruding ledge, which runs round the vault, at a short distance below its vertex. One tomb contained, beneath a Greek burial of much later date, three bodies with the legs bent up, and among the pottery was a late Mycenaean amphora. Another tomb Fig. 2-1:1. Section of tholos tomb, Jlolinello. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) 6. Cassi- bile. Tomb- type. consisted of a natural cavern enlarged and shaped artificially. It contained six bodies. The pottery found in these tombs was mostly plain, or incised grey ware. The tombs of the Cassibile are about 2,000 in number, and he in the river valley not very far from the sea (Map IV, 196).^ The graves examined were 160 in number. They represent a transition from the elliptical to the rectangular tjrpe. The elliptical form is, perhaps, the more usual, and the rectangular form seldom includes the stone bench, ■ geometric ' skyphoi found in this cemetery belong to a secondary bmial in Tomb 8. The original Sioulan burial lay much lower, beneath a thick stratum of earth. It was impossible to examine it owing to the rising of sea-water within the grave. ' Not. Scav., 1902, p. 416 ; Arch. Star. Sic, 1893, xviii, p. 20. ' Mon. Ant., ix, pp. 1 sqq. s4-a 344- FiG. 242. Simple flattened-bow fibula, Cassibile. Scale c. J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 243. Kbula serpeggiante con due occhiMi, Cassibile. Scale e. J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) FiQ. 244. Harp-shaped fibula with eye {ad arpa), Cassibile. Scale c. J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fie. 245. Kbula a gomito (elbow-shaped), Cassibile. Scale c. ^. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 246. Broken-backed fibula, Cassibile. Scale c. ^. (After Orsi, JI/om. ^ni.) 448 THE BRONZE AGE chap. or capezzale, typical of the Third Period ^ tombs. Tombs consisting of several chambers combined are rare at Cassi- bile, as also tombs of larger size, perhaps because of the extreme hardness of the rock. There is no trace of the tholos, nor of the tomb architecture of the coast cemeteries. The doors of the tombs are usually closed with quite rough blocks of stone, though their edges are carefully rebated. One fine example has four successive rebates, and the sides and the lintel are all slightly concave. Transi- The burial rite is also transitional between the Second and ritual. the Third Periods. Only one skeleton was found in the crouching position. The rest are laid on one side, stretched fully out, or with the legs bent. Burials of many bodies together are unknown ; sixty-five chambers contained single skeletons, thirty-four contained two, eight contained three, and three contained four. Bronzes. Among the funeral fvirniture the fibulae call for attention. The true violin-bow form is lacking, but two of its direct descendants, the elbow-shape [a gomito) (fig. 245), and the harp-shape (fig. 244) occur. Closely allied to these is the form serpeggiante ad occhio (fig. 243). The simple bow- shaped fibula is common, the bow being thin or thickened, round, square or flat (fig. 242). A model axe threaded on to the pin of a fibula copies the usual form of this period. The knives number six of leaf -shaped type, twelve of flame- shape, and two razor-knives. The personal ornaments include, besides the fibulae, a bronze belt-clasp, bronze buttons and biconical beads, a gold ring similar to that found at Pantahca, and beads of carnelian. Pottery. The pottery is mainly of the feather- or brush-work type, patterns being painted in red or brown, on a cream ground, and the whole polished by the addition of a coat of some resinous substance (figs. 247, 248). The most important of the forms is the high-footed basin which appeared in almost every grave, chrono- As to the chrouology of the Cassibile burials there is little logy- difficulty. Everything tends to place them late in the ' Orsi'a Third Siculan period corresponds with the first two or three centuries of the iron age in Sicily. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 449 Second Siculan period. We have seen how the burial rite and the grave form point to this date. The material found agrees with this. We have not reached the Third Period, for the biconical bead of bronze is rare, and the ship-fibula (a navicella) and geometric pottery are absent. We are not in the early part of the Second Period, for the viohn-bow fibula has had time to develop. Besides, the feather-work pottery of Cassibile is rare in the north cemetery at Pantalica, but commoner in those of Ffiiporto and Cavetta, which are later ; i. e. it belongs to the transition Pig. 247. Feather-pattern ware, Cassibile. Scale |. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 248. Feather-pattern ware, CaasibUe. Scale J. (Aitex Otsi, Mon. Ant.) to the Third Period. We must therefore put Cassibile late in Period II. In conclusion, it is well to note the ab- sence of foreign influence — there is no Mycenaean work at all, and with the exception perhaps, of the carnehan beads, there is nothing which might not well be of local make. This cemetery, although from its position it is tempting Peculiari- to group it with those of the coast, differs from them in many c^ag,^iig particulars, and has more affinities with those of the interior shortly to be discussed. We shall be able to explain these affinities later. Here we must be content with saying that the question is simply one of date. PEET J" f 450 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Leaving the region of Syracuse, and passing round Cape Passero, we come to two important sites near Girgenti, 7. CaWare ^]jg ancient Agrigentum. As early as 1896 limited excava- natello. tions had been made at Caldare and Cannatello. At Caldare 34© 350 Fia. 249. Broaze vessel, Cannatello. Scale J. (After Orel, Bull Pal.) ¥ia. 250. Horn-shaped object of earthenware, Cannatello. Scale J. Caldare. (Map IV, 1 66) ^ a vaulted tomb of circular plan yielded two bronze vases (fig. 249), perhaps imported, and two blunt-ended swords, to which we shall have to return later. At Cannatello (Map IV, 167) ^ remains of hut-foundations ' B. P., xxiii, p. 8. ' B. P., xxiii, p. 106. XVII IX SICILY AND SARDINIA 451 were discovered, but the excavations were not very fruitful. Subsequent excavations carried out by ]Mosso at Caldare and Cannatello have done much to increase our knowledge of the early Sicilian civilization.^ At Caldare he excavated a rock-cemetery of the usual Siculan type, which does not call for special description. Less than half a mile from these graves was found the remains of a prehistoric hut- viUage. The huts had apparently been built up against a mass of rock, the quarrying of which had destroyed several of them. It was, however, ascertained that the huts had a floor of beaten clay over a stratum of large stones. The remains found on the hut floors were of the Second Siculan period. Underneath one of these floors were found fragments of pottery of the First Siculan period, shomng that there was an earlier settlement on the site, and affording evidence for the view that there was no violent break or change of population between the First and Second Periods. The most interesting find in the huts was a female idol of terracotta. More extraordinary still were the discoveries made by Canna- Mosso at Cannatello. Here was found a kind of circular ^^^° piazza with a diameter of 60 "metres, covered with a pavement of large rough stones. This piazza was not sensibly raised The above the level of the surrounding plain, and was not in '""^^"^ any sense a fortress, although it was probably surrounded by a pahsade. Trenches dug radially from its centre Huts. brought to light the remains of six huts, four circular, one shaped like an 8, and the last, which stood almost at the ■centre, roughly square. This last measured 6-04 metres by 4-70 metres. In all four corners were sockets for the poles Square which had supported the roof, and four sockets were also found along a line across the centre, parallel to the shorter sides. The pavement of the hut was of beaten clay. Around the sides ran a wall of three courses of rough stones set without mortar, resting not directly upon the pavement but upon a plinth of clay. The stones were so chosen and laid as to give an approximately flat surface on the ' J/on. Ant., xviii, p. 573. rf 2 452 THE BRONZE AGE ohap. inner side. A trench dug close by the hut revealed potterjr of the first Siculan period, at a level well below that of the pavement of the hut itself, other huts. Of the other huts none had any vestige of walls, except that which was shaped like an 8. Mosso was unable to determine whether the circular huts were more recent than the square one, or vice versa. Not far from this piazza is another hut-village, and, leading to it, a road formed of rough blocks of stone. The largest blocks are placed on the outside, and the smaller form a filling within these. The width of the road is about a metre. Leading off from the piazza towards the South- West was a road 3-80 metres in width. At the side of this road, and at a distance of 12 metres from the circumference of the piazza, lay another hut, and just beyond it were the The sane- remains of what Mosso describes as a primitive sanctuary, ""^' or temple. The first object found was a round table made of earthenware tUes, each shaped like the quadrant of a circle. This table, whose radius was 22 cm., was marked above by smoke. Not far from the table lay a rough slab of limestone, and beside it three of the earthenware horns (fig. 250), common in the First and Second Siculan periods, seven shells of the genus Pectunculus, and a number of white pebbles. These terracotta horns have long been suspected by Orsi to have a religious significance, and indeed, in view of the extraordinary combination of objects found in this spot there can be hardly any doubt that we are in the presence of a sanctuary of the early Siculans. Mosso justly compares the finding of sea-shells, including Pectun- culus, in the temple repository at Knossos,^ but he is perhaps a little bold when he ventures to call the round object a Hbation-table. Other objects of note were found in the sanctuary. The white pebbles already mentioned lay upon a stratum of grey gravel, similar to that of the river Naro, which flows not far from CannateUo. A number of knuckle-bones of oxen and sheep also came to Hght, together with a stone pestle and several fragments of a fine pohshed black ware' not known elsewhere in Sicily. Mosso suggested. 1 B. 8. A., ix, p. 42. xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 453 that the pestles served to grind red ochre, several pieces of which were found in the course of the excavations. The pottery found at CannateUo was of two periods, Pottery, that is to say, it included pieces which could be definitely assigned to the First or to the Second Siculan period respec- tively. Unfortunately, Mosso does not teU us whether the pottery from the floors of the huts was of the earher, or the later of these two periods. In any case, he has proved beyond aU doubt that between the two periods there was no violent break, and that the piazza at CannateUo was built over the remains of an earlier settlement. Leaving the coast and advancing into the interior, roughly B. Settle- westward from Syracuse towards Girgenti, we come upon ™-ents in four vast cemeteries of this period, PantaUca, Badia di interior. Grammichele, Montagna di Caltagirone and Monte Dessueri (see Map IV). They lie in various small river valleys, but are all four on the main pass which leads from Syracuse to Girgenti, and the West of the island. These four cemeteries represent a period shghtly later than those on the coast, and we shall find that the material they have jdelded is in many respects new to us. We shall, in describing them, adopt the natural geo- graphical order, moving westward from Sjnracuse and beginning with Pantalica. Moimt Pantalica (Map IV, 180) is described as a rocky i. Pan- bastion cut off on all sides by deep valleys.^ Its sides tahca. nm down sometimes very abruptly to these valleys in alternate terraces of rock and grass. To the prehistoric Sicilian these vast rock-faces must have appeared an ideal spot for the opening of chamber-tombs, and indeed, every side of the moimtain has been utilized for that purpose. Five groups of sepulchres can be distinguished. These are Tomb- caUed respectively North, North- West, South, Ffiiporto and s^oups Cavetta. The first two belong to the Second Siculan period, the last three belong, in part, to the Third Period, in part to the period of transition from the Second to the Third. ' Mon. Ant, jx, p. 33. 454 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. North- West group. Noith group. Filipoito group. The North-West group contains about 600 graves, of which only fifty yielded results. The usual shape of the chambers is elliptical, though rectangular exampleis are not unknown. Sometimes several chambers open off a central corridor. Of the North group, numbering about 1500, some 200 were examined. Elliptical chambers are the most common, the rectangxilar form is less usual, though a form midway between the two is not uncommon. The doorway of the cells is often trapezoidal, and is sometimes rebated to hold more firmly the single slab which hermetically seals the tomb. The slab is often reinforced and occasionally even replaced by masonry (fig. 254). In some cases several 25t 25Z 253 iho. Fio. Fig. Pic, L'oi'. 253. 2.J4. Plan of rock-tomb, Pantalica. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) Plan of rock-tomb with bench, Pantalioa. (After Orsi, 3Ion. Ant.) Rock-tomb, Pantalica. (After Orsi, 3Ion. Ant.) Section of rock-tomb, Pantalica. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) chambers open off a corridor, which is sometimes so large as to rather deserve the name of a chamber (fig. 251). The Filiporto group reveals three main types of grave. The first is roughly semicircular, with a flat roof, a form already known in the Second Period (fig. 253). The second tyjje is rectangular with a raised bench or pillow of rock (capezzale) (fig. 252), on one or both sides ; the entrance corridor is deeply cut into the rock. This is the most usual form in the Third Period. The third type consists of a long corridor from which open off several trapezoidal chambers. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 455 The sepulchres of the Cavetta group are similar to those Cavetta of the Filiporto. A unique example, however, consists of ^™"^' a corridor descending by four steps into a central chamber in the walls of which open five other chambers, not all at one level, but in two layers or stories. Orsi has not yet been able to publish the contents of the south south group, and so we do not know the details of the ^''°"^' tomb forms. It Avill be seen that the forms given extend from the Tomb- circular or elliptical type of the First Period, to the rect- ^^^^' angular type with its capezzale of the Third. As pecuhar to Pantalica should be noted the groups of chambers opening into a central corridor. The tholos form found in the cemeteries of the coast is lacking. The attitude of the bodies marks a transition, just as Transi- do the tj^es of the tombs. The crouched attitude occurs rJtuai. as in Period I, but more usually the body is laid flat, with the legs and even the arms bent. The burial of many persons in one chamber is also declining. In the North and North- West groups it is not unusual to find from five to seven skeletons in a tomb, and one example contains fourteen. In the Filiporto and Cavetta groups, however, three is the largest number of skeletons found together. The funeral furniture consists of types which will be dealt with more fully in discussing the Second Period in general. Three kinds of knives occur, the lanceolate or leaf-shaped, Bronzes, the flame-shaped, and the knife-razor (figs. 257-9). Of the fibulae one is of vioHn-bow type (fig. 255), twenty-six are simple bow type (fig. 256), and two are serpeggianti ad occhio. Other articles of ornament or toilet are an arm-ring, finger-rings of bronze, three bronze mirrors similar to those found in Mycenaean graves, three beads and a ring of gold, an armlet and rings of silver, and a bead of glass paste. The mirrors, the objects of silver and gold, and the paste bead must all have been imported from some centre of the Mycenaean civfiization. The pottery must also be left for more general treatment. Pottery. Sufiice it to say here that the most typical ware at PantaUca is the red-surface ware (figs. 260-4). 456 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. In conclusion, it is necessary to remark that the mountain of Pantahca with its thousands of tombs has proved a veritable mine of bronze, and perhaps of rarer metals, to the successive depredators of ages. Any argument, there- fore, based on the absence of particular tjrpes, or on their relative frequency must be used with the utmost reserve. The royal To the people who used these cemeteries Orsi also attributes ?'anta-° ^ building which he has discovered and excavated at lica. Pantahca. Fig. 255. Violin-bow fibula, Pantalica. Scale c, J. {After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fig. 256. Arched or simple bow fibula, Pantalica. Scale c. J. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) The ruins. Its ruins are now insignificant, and are rendered more difficult to disentangle by the fact that they were re-adapted to habitation in Byzantine times. The plan of the ' palace ' is a rectangle, lying north-west and south-east, and 37^ metres by 11| (fig. 265). The stone is a hard sheU- bearing Hmestone, not found nearer than several kilometres from the spot. The style is almost megahthic, especially in the south-east division. The blocks, often of more than a cubic metre, and sometimes of more than 2 cubic XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 457 metres in content are fairly accurately squared, and fit closely together. Within this south-east division, or room, were found five pieces of sandstone moulds for casting metal. Two of these had been used to cast flat celts. These moulds were found among a mass of charcoal and ashes. The pavement of the room consists of a trodden mass of cinders, burnt bones, straw and potsherds. The latter were of the red-polished ware. Outside the east wall were found similar potsherds, and fragments of axes with trans- 257 258 S59 FiQ. 257. Bronze knife, Pantalica. Scale ^%. (After Orsi, Jloyi. Ant.) Fis. 258. Bronze-hiltedflame-shaped knife, Pantalica. Scale f. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) Fie. 259. Bronze razor-knife, PantaUoa. Scale |. (After Orsi, 3Ion. Ant.) verse sockets {accette ad occhio). These, and a few other fragments of bronze, combined with the moulds found within, prove that this room was devoted to the casting of bronze. The rest of the palace is worse preserved than this room. Five and possibly six rooms are distinguishable, together with a corridor. It may seem bold to question the excavator's definite Do they statement that this building belongs to the Second Siculan sfcuiari'ii? period, but those who have experienced the difficulty of finding the chronological relation of walls to the soil in which 458 THE BEONZE AGE CHAP. they lie, will, no doubt, prefer to remain sceptical. Is it not possible that the ' palace ' is a building of later date, founded on a spot which had previously been inhabited in the Second Siculan period ? This can only be decided by a minute examination of the ground, not only within the building, but also around it, an examination which it is to be hoped will some day be made. If the Sicihans of this time were in the habit of raising masonry of this almost indestructible tjrpe, it is remarkable that no other example has survived. It is even more remarkable that the people aeo 261 Figs. 260-61. Polished red ware, Pantalica. Scale J. (After Orsi,'iVo». .4jii.) should have lived in mere huts as we know they did at Cannatello. Use of At the same time, both at Thapsos and Pantahca we find Sicuia^^ii." funeral architecture of no mean type. In view of this fact, and of the relations between Sicily and the Aegaean, where architecture was already at an advanced stage, it would be foolish to deny outright the possibility that the ' palace ' belongs to the Second Siculan period. Judging by the necropoleis we have so far examined, we might have believed that the rock-hewn chamber was the only kind of grave in use at this period. That this is not 2. Gram- the case is shown by the cemetery of MoUno della Badia, near miohele. Qrammichele,! the next in order, west of Pantalica (Map IV, > B. P., xxvi, p. 96. xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 459 175). To hoUow rock-tombs in the hard lava of the Etnaean district was impossible, and the dead were laid in simple Trench- trench-graves lined and covered with slabs of local sandstone. ^*^'^- The skeletons were laid on the back and fully extended. The absence of any contraction of the limbs is curious, and Orsi suggests that it was forced by the narrowness of the 362 363 as4- FiGS. 262-4. Polished-red ware, Pantalica. (After Orsi, Hon. Ant.) Fig. 262, scale i. Fig. 263, scale c. i. Fig. 264, scale r^^. graves, sandstone slabs of greater width being unobtainable. One skeleton was buried in an ovoid jar of the usual type. This is the only case of such a burial as yet known in Sicily. Pottery was extremely rare in the graves, but it included a jug vnth. feather-work in red on buff, and two askoi. The fibulae include aU the well-known Sicihan types, Bronzes. viohn-bow, serpeggiante and arched-bow shapes. Some of these are finely incised. Ornaments were numerous, and 460 THE BEONZE AGE CHAP. Later graves. included amulets, rings, chains, buttons, and pendants of various kinds. To these may be added an ivory comb, similar to that found at Plemmirio. The bronze knives are either flame-shaped or leaf-shaped, sometimes with a bronze handle. Two small votive axes were, no doubt, worn as pendants, perhaps amulets. The rectangular razors (fig. 266) are of great interest from their resemblance to the Italian types. Finally, we may note a series of bronze cylinders and tubes. The former are thickened at the ends, and pierced at each end with a hole. Nothing is known as to their use. A few of the tombs of this cemetery seem to contain objects more appropriate to the Third Siculan period than 3. Calta- girone. Tholos tombs. Fig. 265. Plan of Eoyal Palace at Pantalica. {After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) to the Second, and we may therefore consider it as marking a transition stage. West of Grammichele lies the modern town of Caltagirone (Map IV, 176). La Montagna is the name given to a group of heights immediately to the North of the town. In the rock faces on the south side of these hills he over a thousand Siculan graves, forming a cemetery inferior in size only to those of Pantahca, CassibUe and Dessueri.^ The great pecuharity of this cemetery is that it contains graves of the beehive shape, hitherto believed to be restricted to the necropoleis of the coast region. Graves consisting of several chambers are rare, as are also the niches and stone benches or pillows. The entrances to the tombs were usually barred not with a large slab but with rough masonry set without mortar. Rectangular chambers were entirely lacking. The 1 Not. Scav., 1904, p. 65. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 461 number of skeletons found in the same tomb was in two cases as many as six, but single burials were by far the most usual. Owing to repeated plunderings the bronzes found were Bronzes. not numerous. They included, however, a fine sword, and several knives and daggers of the usual types. Fibulae were rare, being only five in number, of which three belong to the full Second Period, while two point to the end of that period, or the beginning of the Third. Two complete rings of gold and fragments of a third were also found. Most of the vases are of an unpolished grey or yellow tint, pottery. Incised grey ware is almost absent, and ' feather-work ' is rare. Polished red PantaUca ware is not uncommon. 267 Fig. 266. Bronze razor of mainland type, Grammichele. Scale J. Fia. 267. Pyxis of grey ware, Caltagirone. Scale |. (After Orsi, Not. Scav.) Fig. 268. Four-handled jar, Caltagirone. Scale |. (After Orsi, Not. Scav.) Each tomb contains a four-handled jar (fig. 268) and a high-necked flask (fig. 264). This jar form is a speciahty of Montagna ; elsewhere it occurs at Dessueri, and there rarely. There is also one example at Cassibile. Among other forms should be noted the askos (cf. fig. 262), the pyxis (fig. 267), and the basin with tubular foot. Orsi dates the beginning of the cemetery to the middle Date. of the second millennium b. c, and thinks that it continued in use for several centuries, perhaps, six or eight. I doubt, however, whether any tomb in this cemetery is as early as 1500 B. c. (see p. 462). West of Caltagirone lies the last of our necropoleis of the interior. 462 THE BRONZE AGE chap. 4. Monte In the rocks of Monte Dessueri (Map IV, 170), province Dessuen. ^f Caltanisetta, lies a vast necropolis of rock-tombs. In 1902 over one hundred of these were explored by Orsi, but the material is at present unpubhshed. It belongs to much the same period as those of PantaUca and Cassibile, Second Siculan period, with slight indications of the transition to the Third. The fine series of bronzes includes swords, knives, razors and fibulae. The pottery, on the other hand, is rather poor. Coast and The cemeteries we have described fall geographically into sTte"°'^ two groups, those of the coast, and those of the interior. Orsi noticed this long ago, and he also noticed the complete absence of Mycenaean vases in the necropoleis of the interior. This absence he explains geographically, by supposing that the interior settlements were not affected by the Mycenaean influence which acted so strongly on the coast. This explana- Differ- *^°^ ^^^^ ^^^ seem to me to be satisfactory. In the first ence in place, it is incredible that this influence should not penetrate not due to ^^^'^ *^® interior, seeing that Monte Dessueri, the most position, distant from the coast of these stations, is not 60 miles from SjTracuse. And, in the second place, how explain the fact that at Cassibile, a coast station, not a single Mycenaean vase occurs. but The true explanation of the facts is probably as follows. rather ^jj ^j^g interior stations show traces of the transition to the to date. Third Siculan period. The rarity of foreign imports in them is thus due, not to their position, but to their date. In fact, the greater part of these cemeteries, or at least of Dessueri, Pantalica and Grammichele, is later than the calamity which cut short the expansion of the Mycenaean trade in the Aegaean. This would also explain the contrast between the native pottery of the coast and that of the mountains. Thus the reason why Pantalica red-polished ware is not found on the coast is that it was not invented until our coast cemeteries were out of use. Similarly, the incised grey ware, common on the coast, had disappeared before the time to which most of the mountain cemeteries belong. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 463 The bronzes teU a similar tale, but, owing to the numerous sackings which nearly all the graves have undergone, the argument ex silentio is useless. As regards date, I should be inclined to move back the dates Date, of the coast cemeteries to fourteenth and thirteenth centuries B. c. as against Orsi's twelfth and eleventh (for Cozzo Pantano). This latter date, twelfth and eleventh, is probably about that of the necropoleis of the interior. But it is of course impossible to be precise. The stations above described enable us to form some The idea of the life and culture of the Second Siculan period. ^?''°'^'^ Previous to Mosso's excavations we knew little as to the period, form of the habitations of this time. Near Catania, however, P^ell- at a village called Barriera, were found signs of habitation, including pottery of Period II, in several caves, and near the same spot are remains of circular hut-foundations. At MonteraceUo Orsi found part of a ' hut ' of circular or elliptical form, the base of which consisted of two concentric layers of stones. But the lack of aU signs of a fireplace, and of animal bones, leaves the destination of this structure rather doubtful. In date it probably belongs to the end of Period I. If, however, we have not too much evidence as to the Graves. dwellings of the living, we are well informed as to those of the dead. They consisted most usually of artificial Rock- chambers hewn in the soft hmestone which so often out- crops in Sicily. They were usually circular in form, and entered by an open corridor or a shaft, according as the surface of rock to be worked was vertical or horizontal. The shaft type of entrance occasionally occurs at Plemmirio, while at Thapsos it is common (fig. 226), and at Milocca universal. In almost aU the cemeteries the grave proper is preceded by an antechamber (fig. 219). We often find, too, niches in the walls of the chamber (figs. 219, 227), used for burial purposes, and low benches or pillows of stone running round the edge of the floor (fig. 219). In the cemeteries of the coast the tholos or beehive-tomb Tkoios is not unusual (fig. 241). This is a novelty of the Second °™ ' 464 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Rect- angular tomb. Ritual. Period and was no doubt introduced from somewhere in the Aegaean. That it also penetrated into the interior is shown by its existence at Caltagirone. At PantaHca we find tombs consisting of a corridor from which open off chambers on either side, or of a large chamber with two layers of niches in its walls one above the other. Further proof of connexion with the Aegaean is perhaps to be found in the graves of Thapsos, where the slab which usually serves to close the door is replaced by a mass of masonry made of closely-fitting blocks set without mortar (fig. 228). Towards the end of the period the rectangular chamber characteristic of Siculan III begins to make its appearance (fig. 252). The dead are no longer deposited in such large numbers as in the First Period, and, as the period advances, the number of skeletons in each grave tends to decrease until single burials become almost the rule. With this Orsi is inchned to associate the cessation of the rite of scarnimento or removal of the flesh before burial, which he holds to have prevailed in Siculan I. We have seen that this rite is by no means proved, and it is more probable that the decrease in the numbers in each grave is due in part to the increased facility in hoUowing out the rock, due to the introduction of metal implements. The dead are stiU, in some cases, buried in a sitting or huddled position, but the extended posture with the knees bent slightly is more frequent. The head often rests upon the low stone bench which commonly surrounds the chamber. The banquet of the dead is still kept up in an elaborate fashion. In the centre of the chamber stands the great high-footed bowl which no doubt contained liquid, and each body is provided with a long-handled cup with which to dip. We must now turn to examine the material of stone, metal and earthenware with which the graves have fur- nished us. 1. Flint. The flint and obsidian knives so commonly deposited with the dead in Siculan I are gradually disappearing, and only occur in the earlier graves of this period, such as those Material. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 465 of Milocca. The axe of basalt, however, still continues in use, and no doubt serves, by the side of that of bronze, for hoUowing out the rock-graves. The plundering of the tombs in various ages has deprived 2.Bronze. them of most of the bronze objects they once contained, but fortunately we still have a sufficient number to form a good estimate of the bronze industry of the period. More- Hoards of over, the finding of several hoards of bronzes has helped ''^°°^^^- to make our series more complete. One of the most im- portant is that of Tre Canali, near Vizzini,^ where, with Tie pieces of unworked metal and lanceheads of rather advanced ^^ '" form, were found broken fibulae of the harp-shape (cf. fig. 244) pecuhar to the Second Period. At Modica (Map IV, Modka. 190) ^ was found a hoard containing axes of various forms, lanceheads, fibulae of the Second Period, two short swords with T-shaped hilts of bronze, and other pieces, some perhaps of the early Third Period. A hoard discovered at Giarra- Giarrataua. tana (Map IV, 187)* included fine lanceheads, fibulae of the Third Period, and numerous pieces of impure copper, evidently fragments of masses cast in fixed forms for com- mercial purposes. These hoards are of little use for dating purposes, as the objects found together may be of most varied date. They do, however, show that the strange custom of hoarding bronzes was in use in Sicily as elsewhere. Whether the objects were collected to be recast is hard to say, especially as the hoards contain some quite perfect specimens of imple- ments. We have now to classify according to use and form the whole mass of bronzes acquired from graves and hoards. From the example at Pietrarossa we know that the plain a. Celts, flat copper celt was known in the First Siculan period. A flat celt from Modica has a small projection on either side to assist in hafting. The winged celt of North Italy is unknown in Sicily and is replaced by the true hatchet (fig. 269), which in North Italy does not appear until the beginning of the iron age. Small models of these imple- ments were used as pendants, sometimes threaded on the ' B. P., xiv, p. 167. " B. p., xxvi, p. 166. » B. P., xxvi, p. 267. PEET Q or 486 THE BRONZE AGE chap. pin of a fibula. A peculiarity of this hatchet in Sicily is that it often has a small knob at the top, originally, perhaps, due to a defect in casting, and afterwards perpetuated as an ornament or as useful in hafting. The hoard of bronzes at Modica also included two socketed hatchets, both with a transverse hole through the socket. The North Italian celt with slightly-flanged edges is very rare indeed in Sicily. In fact, nothing shows better than the axes the difference in civiUzation between the two districts, b. Dag. A dagger, of length 21 cm., was found at Milocca (fig. 218). gers. j^ jg Qf rhomboidal section with pointed end, triangular tang and two rivets. On each side of the central rib lies another less marked. Fig. 269. Bronze axe ad occMello. Scale c. J. At Thapsos occurs a dagger with both faces slightly con- vex, straight edges, round blunt point, and a slight tang, with two rivets below it. c.Swords. Swords are most common in the coast cemeteries, though, owing to the completeness with which they have been plundered in all ages, it is unadvisable to rely on the evidence of present excavation. 1. Rapier. Among the earliest is the true rapier, a long thin sword adapted for thrusting. The blade is strengthened with a very well-marked rib, and there is a small tang to aid in fixing the handle, and three rivets. A fine example, of length 76 cm., occurs at Plemmirio (fig. 270), and a shorter one at Thapsos. These examples bear a close resemblance to those both of the Mycenaean shaft-graves and of the Knossian cemetery, without being identical with either. They probably mark a development of the shaft-grave type in which the rib xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 467 sword. has become slightly less pronounced and the hilt end rather modified. More common in Sicily is a rather broader sword of rhom- 2. Broader bold section, in which the point stiU survives, though the ' heaviness of the blade seems to adapt it more for cutting than thrusting. Such are the examples of Milocca, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos (figs. 225, 240), and perhaps also Fig. 270. Bronze sword, Plemmirio. Scale J. (After Orsi, Bull. Pal.) that of Caltagirone, where the point is almost rounded. The short tang and the three rivets recall the Cretan swords, but in the latter one rivet is always in the tang itself, which is never the case in Sicily. The edges of this t3rpe of sword may be sMghtly convex or slightly concave, or may have a double curve as at Caltagirone. The same form with the point quite rounded is seen in Gg2 468 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Origin of Sicilian swords. d. Knives, 1. Pointed Imife. 2. Olive- leaf knife. 3. Flame- shaped knife. Handles. two swords from Caldare, though the tang and rivets remain unaltered. Different from all these is the sword from Cannatello with convex edges and a very broad rib. One may surmise that the sword reached Sicily from some part of the Aegaean, and that the Sicilians, not having the necessary adroitness to use a true rapier, gradually modified the form until they arrived at a fairly heavy cutting weapon. To distinguish the pointed knives from the daggers is impossible. The central rib is only slightly marked, and the section is rhomboidal, while the tang is arc-shaped or triangular. The general form is a triangle. These are Aegaean shapes and can be paralleled freely. An example from Monte Dessueri exactly resembles one in the Zafer Papoura cemetery.^ In Italy they appear in eneohthic times and last well into the bronze age. Besides these we find flat knives of ohve-leaf form. These are common to the bronze age of the Aegaean and of Italy, especially of the eastern pile dwellings. Finally, we have flame-shaped knives. These are not always of the true concavo-convex shape. Often they are straight knives turned up at the end, only slightly thicker at the non- cutting than at the cutting-edge (fig. 258). This type is, as far as I know, peculiar to Sicily and may well be a local product. From this a number of gradations lead us to the true concavo-convex form common in the late Aegaean bronze age. In Italy it does not appear until towards the end of that period, but it is common in the iron age. The handles of aU these knives are interesting. Some- times the knife ends in a slight tang, in other cases the tang forms the handle, and was merely overlaid on each side with a plate of bone, wood or ivory. In one case the ivory handle ends in the head of an animal, as in examples from the Aegaean.^ In another case a handle of this shape is of bronze, fused in one piece with the blade (fig. 258). Other bronze handles end in a segment of a circle or in a ring. Not least important is the flat bronze tang, flanged Evans, A. J., The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos, c. g., from the Diotaean cave in Crete. g.76. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 469 at the edges and set with two plates of bone or ivory (fig. 257). It is a form common on swords of Central Europe and Northern and Central Italy, where it is by some held to be native (see p. 348). The discovery of this type in Sicily and Crete may be thought to leave this judgement rather uncertain. The question is not yet definitely settled, and it may be that, despite the similarity of the handles, the sword and dagger have different origins. The form of the Sicilian razor is pecuhar to the island e. Razors, (fig. 259). At Grammichele, however, occurs a rectangular form which is not uncommon in Italy, whence it was perhaps imported (fig. 266). TPia. 271. Bronze spearheads. Scale c. J. Two types of spearhead are common (fig. 271). Both f. Spear- are of the socketed form. But in one the blade is of about '^eads. half the length of the socket, in the other it is nearly as long. In the latter we usually find two holes pierced in the foot of the blade to secure the fastening on to the shaft. This latter form is absent in Italy, but a somewhat similar type occurs in the Late Minoan III graves at Zafer Papoiu-a, though without the holes. It is probable that the Sicilian examples are taken from models imported from the Aegaean, a hypothesis which on chronological grounds is very reason- able. The former type is of universal distribution. Here, again, we find in the bronze age a weapon which in Italy does not appear until the end of the terramara period, and has its full development only in the iron age. The fibulae of the period may be divided into the following g.Fibulae. types :— 470 THE BRONZE AGE chap. 1. Violin-bow. This occurs in three forms, either with a knob at each end of the bow (fig. 255), or with a flattened piece in the middle, or with a high bow of thin wire. The former shape is found at Cozzo Pantano and is perhaps an importation. The two latter come from Badia, and are probably a httle later, the bow rising a little towards the clasp end, so that pin and bow are not quite parallel. 2. Serpeggiante con gomito. This appears first at Cozzo Pantano, and is common at Cassibile (fig. 246). It is a form which develops out of the violin-bow shape. In very- advanced forms it is found at Bologna in the graves of period Benacci II, and in the fonderia di San Francesco. But outside Sicily I know no example whatever of the simple form. 3. Harp shape. This resembles the last, and is un- doubtedly a stage between it and the original viohn-bow (figs. 244 and 245). This occurs in the geometric tombs of Kavousi in East Crete. Fig. 245 is also called a gomito. 4. Arched bow, often with two knobs at the sides (fig. 256). The form with two knobs is of very wide distribution. In Italy it occurs in the transition from the bronze to the iron age at Tolfa and Allumiere. In Crete we find it in the geometric tombs of Kavousi and Mouliana. It also occurs at Assarlik in sub-Mycenaean graves, and in Central Europe. In many cases (once in Sicily) the bow is straightened out at the end so as to descend vertically to the clasp ; the flattening of this straight portion leads to the true geometric fibulae with large incised catch-plate. The simple bow without knobs is widespread in Italy and the Aegaean. The earhest examples are perhaps those of the sub-Mycenaean graves of Salamis. Thera, Aegina and the Argive Heraeum have given examples. The bow is sometimes thickened slightly in the Sicihan examples. In one case, in the bronze hoard of Giarratana, it is quite thick, as in so many Italian types. 5. Arched {fow, wire twisted like a rope. This is a favourite shape in the Aegaean, for example at Thera, Kavousi and the cave of Psychro. 6. Arched bow vertically flattened. This type is also found at Kavousi, the Argive Heraeum and in Cyprus. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 471 7. Bow flattened horizontally to form a bent leaf shape (fig. 242). Occurs in Italy and at Kato Zakro in Crete. 8. Bow made of squared wire : (a) With edges horizontal and vertical. (6) With edges turned through an angle of 45°. Form h is known at Kavousi and at Kition in Cyprus. 9. The serpeggiante ad occhiello, which occurs in the later graves of the period, belongs to Period III (fig. 243). AH the forms described may be ornamented with fine incised work, as, for example, figs. 255 and 256. The catch- plate is in all cases short and never takes a spiral form. The question of the provenance of the fibulae found in Origin of Sicily in Period II is difficult and of great importance. It |i°H'*° is important because on it depends in part the answer to the question what were the main currents acting on Sicily during the period. The vases and some of the swords prove the presence of strong Aegaean influence ; do the fibulae merely corroborate this, or do they prove something new ? It is usually stated that the violin-bow fibula in Sicily, Violin- the earliest form that appears, is a Mycenaean import.^ bowfibula Now it may be true that it was brought into Sicily from cenaean some Mycenaean centre, but it is far from certain that it product, is a Mycenaean product. We have, indeed, at Mycenae the ordinary violin-bow form, the same form with flattened bow, and also with a wire spiral disc beyond the catch- plate. But so far aU the evidence points to the fact that the Mediterranean peoples, among whom are the Mycenaeans and the Cretans, did not wear a garment which demanded a fibula to hold it, but a closer-fitting garment, probably developed out of the loin-cloth. On the other hand the great race who, towards the end of the bronze age, pressed southward from Central Europe, seem to have worn a loose garment caught up by a pin or fibula at the shoulder. Thus, at present, to say that the fibula was invented in Origin of the Mycenaean world is an unwarranted assumption, not °"^'^- even backed by probabihty. It has been suggested that it had its origin in the Balkans, perhaps somewhere near the top of the Adriatic, and that it was from here that it ' a. Colini, B. P., xxx, pp. 260-3. 472 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. How did it roach Sicily ? 3. Orna- ments. a. Gold rings. b. Bronze mirror. c. Pen- dants. reached the Italian terremare. It certainly seems very un- likely that the terramara examples came from Mycenae direct, for Mycenaean influence in North Italy in this period is by no means proved. As far as Sicily is concerned we cannot speak definitely about the fibula. It is tempting to believe, as many do, that it was actually brought by the ships that brought the vases, but it is only a hypothesis. We must be quite pre- pared to find that it came from quite another source, perhaps the Adriatic coast of the Balkans. Further excava- tion alone can decide. What is less uncertain is that, once arrived, the fibula was adopted and imitated by the Sicilians, who probably even developed special forms of it for themselves. Besides articles of use the period is rich in articles of ornament and luxury. The gold rings of Pantalica, Cassibile, Dessueri and Calta- girone are probably derived from originals of Aegaean provenance. All are very thin and light in type, and have no exact parallel in the Mediterranean. The pattern of intertwined curves on one of the Caltagirone examples is, however, clearly Mycenaean in origin. Other rings, made of bronze, are probably of native manufacture. Those made of thin wire and found on the skulls of several skeletons at Thapsos may be ear-rings. The same cemetery also yielded two bronze bracelets of simple type. At Gram- michele rings and bracelets were not uncommon, and one of the latter is of spiral form, with four coils, and fine incisions on the outside face. Under this head may be mentioned the bronze mirror from Pantalica, which is certainly an Aegaean import. The mirror probably reached the Aegaean later than the date of the Mycenaean shaft-graves. In the lower town of Mycenae and in the Knossian tombs it is not uncommon. Among ornaments, too, must be placed the model axes of bronze, already known in the First Period, and generally worn as pendants. The other pendants of Period I con- sisting of discs of stone perforated at the centre have now almost disappeared and their place is taken by imported XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 473 articles from the Aegaean. These include pierced discs of ivory and beads of glass-paste. The beads are of various d. Beads. shapes known in the Aegaean (fig. 272), and were worn in the form of necklaces. The ribbed bead (fig. 272), for example, occurs both at Knossos, in pit-cave No. 66,^ and also in tomb 66 at Enkomi ; ^ and indeed almost all the Sicilian forms can be paralleled. Some of the SicUian beads e. Amber. are of amber, but we cannot say whether the material came to Sicily direct or by way of the Aegaean ; probably the latter. To the Aegaean may also be ascribed an ivory comb f. ivory. from Plemmirio with a false-running spiral pattern upon it. At Grammichele is a very similar comb with two rows of incised concentric circles. Fig. 272. Beads of glass-paste. Scale 1. (After Orsi.) Finally we must mention, whether as ornaments or objects g. ciay of ritual significance, the clay miniatures of vases and chairs found at Thapsos. In the same cemetery occurred also two clay human figurines and the head of an animal. The pottery of the Second Sioulan period may be divided 4. Pot- into seven kinds. The ordinary rough ware, which was of ^'^^J- „ „ J 1 1- Rough course in use in all the stations, is usually of a dark grey ware. colour, occasionally burning to yellowish- or greyish-red. This ware, as we shall see later, preserves in a great measure the tradition of the neolithic and First Siculan periods, though towards the end of the period it begins to assume new forms. In three of the coast cemeteries occurs an unusual type 2. Yeiiow- of ware. The clay is reddish-yellow throughout and theT^^^e. surface, which in cases shows signs of polish, is now mainly Tough. Only two shapes occur, figs. 220 and 221, the ' Evans, A. J., The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos, fig. 81 a. " Murray, Smith and Walters, Excavations in Cyprus, fig. 305. 474 THE BRONZE AGE chap. latter being exactly like the top of the former. No other shape is found. It is also significant that these two shapes never occur in any other clay. The ware is only found at Milocca, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos. Nevertheless, it does not seem to be imported, for the incised work round the rims has its origin in neolithic times and is found at Villa- frati. 3. My- Mycenaean ware occurs in the coast stations, Thapsos,. ware. Milocca, Molinello, Cozzo Pantano and Girgenti, and at Caltagirone in the interior. The more usual forms are four : 1. Three-handled amphora (fig. 230). 2. High-footed kyliz (fig. 224). 3. Low pyxis (fig. 229). 4. Biigelkanne. The forms will be recognized as typical of the period of the lower city at Mycenae, or of the cemetery of Zafer Papoura at Knossos. The ornament is also late, in some cases showing natural forms highly conventionalized, in others being purely geometric. An amphora from Milocca, Grave I, shows, however, a much more naturahstic design. Comparing it with the Cretan series, it would be placed at -the end of the Palace Style, i. e. quite at the end of Late Minoan II. Keeping in mind the presence at Plemmirio of the true Mycenaean rapier, which occurs on the Acropolis at Mycenae but not at Zafer Papoura, I should place the first grave of Milocca within those two limits, considering the vase in question to be the earliest of the Mycenaean series in Sicily. See, however, p. 434, note 3. i. Incised Fine grey ware is practically confined to the stations of the coast, Plemmirio, Molinello, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos (figs. 232-9). In the north cemetery at Pantahca there is one fragment, while at Cassibile it is entirely absent. The surface is a fine grey-black, and the ornament consists of simple relief work, or incisions. The designs are usually elementary. Often they consist in parallel groups of two, three, or four lines, running down the vase. Round the rim are sometimes double festoons. Vertical bands hatched or filled with points, are not rare. Exceptionally, we grey ware. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 475 find attempts at animal figures, a bird, for instance, or a man. Relief-work occurs in the upper half of the tall- footed basins, and consists of graceful curves, which merge into the pointed handles. Among the shapes the most striking are the high-footed basins, which form part of the burial furniture of every grave (fig. 273). They show great variation in size and form. Next to these come a number of jars, with low and wide necks, and handles pointing upwards. Another no. 273. High-footed basin, Cassibile. Scale f (After Orsi, 3Ion. Ant.) form of jar has a narrower and often higher neck, with two horizontal handles. Other shapes are the narrow- necked jug, the high-handled open cup, the basin or ladle (fig. 234), and the pyxis (fig. 267). A strongly marked feature is the handle found on the ladle or the high basin, rising to two points at the top (figs. 234, 238). To this must be added the beak for pouring out, sometimes fxirnished with a filter, sometimes made in the form of a thin tubular spout. Many of the small jars are provided with Hds, sometimes discoid, sometimes in the form of a segment 476 THE BRONZE AGE chap. of a sphere. The latter form is a characteristic of Calta- girone. 5. Red- A kind of red-pohshed ware occurs very commonly in ware. the earher, and occasionally in the later cemeteries of Pantalica, and also, though not so abundantly, at Caltagirone and Monte Dessueri. The body of the vase is completely covered with a brick-red slip, and the surface is then poUshed, as Orsi thinks, with some forms of wax or resin. The vases are sometimes left plain. In other cases they are fluted vertically, or incised with vertical groups of several parallel lines (figs. 260-4). The high-footed basin occurs, as in the grey ware (fig. 261), but its upper half is nearly globular and it is not so open at the top. In addition we find the pear-shaped amphora (figs. 260, 264), sometimes with a long narrow neck, the pear-shaped jug (fig. 263), the askos (fig. 262), and a series of small saucers or basins. Orsi suggests that the technique of this ware shows an attempt to imitate the bright surface of imported bronze vases. But we should have expected such imitation to occur on the coast where, as Orsi himself holds, the foreign imports were much more frequent. He also reminds us of the fine red-faced ware of the bronze age in C3rprus, but he does not press the point. 6. Feather- We come next to a curious type of pottery for which it is ware.™ difficult to find a name. The ground of the vase is covered with a dirty white or yellowish slip. On this are painted, as with a feather or thick brush, rough curves in red or brown. They are arranged sometimes to form a palm-tree pattern, sometimes, inside bowls, to resemble a pin-wheel in motion, sometimes quite at random, with the sole object of covering the surface. Finally, the vase is polished with wax or resin (figs. 247-8). This ware is without rival at Cassibile. In the later cemeteries of Pantahca it is common; at Monte Dessueri and Caltagirone it occurs sparsely. It is found at Badia, and has not quite disappeared at Finocchito. A terminus a quo is given by the appearance of a fragment at Cozzo Pantano. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 477 Orsi has suggested that the palm-tree pattern (fig. 247) was suggested by Mycenaean models. But in the first place it resembles no Mycenaean pattern, and in the second place the whole series of patterns, not very varied, is as utterly conventional as it can be. It seems much more likely that the style originated accidentally in the red-faced Pantalica ware. The painter roughly smearing on the red pigment with a feather or brush made an art of carelessness, and thus evolved a new type of ornament. At least, it is certain that between the two types of ware no difference of colour or polish can be detected. 2 74- 275 Rg. 274. Jug with design in red on ochre, Pantalica. Scale J. (After Orsi, 3Ion. Ant.) Fig. 275. Askos with geometric decoration, Pantalica. Scale f. (After Orsi, Mon. Ant.) In the north cemetery at Pantalica are two vases with 7. Geo- geometric painted ornament. One is a jug, painted in ,vare. red-brown on orange (fig. 274). On the shoulder is a motive of suspended ' wisps ', which suggest the suspended semi- circles of sub-Mycenaean geometric ornament in Cyprus and Crete. The vase is undoubtedly either imported or copied from a foreign model. The other vase is a cup, apparently of potter's clay. Inside it are painted a cross and a row of festoons. It 478 THE BRONZE AGE chap. probably belongs to the as yet little known sub-Mycenaean period. In the same case with these is an amphora of Pantalica type with a few red bands on a yellow ground. It may have come from one of the later cemeteries at Pantalica. In any case it illustrates the earliest beginnings of Sicilian geometric ware. At Pantalica (South and Cavetta) occurs the ashos (fig. 275) with triangular decoration on the shoulder, which Orsi suspects is of Cypriote origin. It also occurs in the Third Period at Finocchito. At Caltagirone we find a simple rather globular jug with trefoil mouth, with hatched triangles on the body. One of the Caltagirone examples is of very rough ware and may have been a local copy of an imported model such as the other. The geometric painted ware of Pantalica (South) belongs to the true Third Period and need not be discussed here. It is closely connected with the Greek geometric wares {Dipylon &c.), and is of a different type to that which we are here discussing. As for the chronological order of these various wares the evidence seems to point to the following chronological succession"! — 1. Rough grey ware, all periods. 2. Yellow-faced ware. 3. Fine grey ware, usually incised. 4. Mycenaean ware. 5. Red-polished ware. 6. Feather ware. 7. Early geometric ware. The first four are contemporary. The fifth is more advanced, while (6) and (7) mark the beginning of the transition to the Third Siculan period. The accompanying table shows the distribution of this pottery in the various stations. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 479 YeUow- Fine Mycen- Red- Feather- Geo- Station. Period. Type. surface grey aean pol- ished pattern meiric ware. ware. ware. ware. ware. ware. TVIilocca . . . Early 2 Coast + + _ Plemmirio . . Early 2 Coast + Cozzo Pantano . 2 Coast + + _ Thapsos . . . 2 Coast + + + + Pantalioa, N. . 2 Mountain + + _ Caltagirone . . Late 2 Mountain = + =: + Cassibile . . . Late 2 Mountain 1 Dessueri . . . Late 2 Mountain = _ _ Pantalioa, S. 1 „ Filiporto L „ Cavetta J Early 3 Mountain + + + + = signifies very rare. — „ not common, + „ not unusual. + + „ very common. It is now necessary to deal with a question of which mention was made in Chapter IX, the question as to the words Sicani and Siculi, and the races of Orsi's SiciHan periods. The problem is this. What is the distinction between the peoples known to the ancient writers as Sicani and Siculi ? Were they two races of which one succeeded the other in Sicily, and if so, which of Orsi's periods are to be given to the Sicani and which to the Siculi ? Those who desire to study the literary evidence in full will find it excellently discussed in Freeman's History of Sicily, vol. i, note 4. Here I shall only quote those passages which bear more directly on the archaeological side of the question. Thucydides, after refusing to deal in legends of Kyklopes and Laistrygones in Sicily, proceeds as follows (vi. 2) : — ' The Sicanians appear to have succeeded these early races, although, according to their own account, they were stiU older ; for they profess to have been children of the soil. But the fact proves to be that they were Iberians, and were driven from the river Sicanus in Iberia by the Ligurians. Sicily, which was originally called Trinacria, received from them the name Sicania. To this day the Sicanians inhabit the western parts of the island. ' The Sicels were originally inhabitants of Italy, whence Who were the Sicu- lans of Period II! Siculi and Sicani. Tradi- tion. 1. The Sicani. Thucy- dides. 480 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. Philistus and Ephorug. Dionysius. 2. The Siculi. Hellanicus Philistus. Dionysius. they were driven by the Opici and passed over into Sicily . . . There are Sicels still in Italy. . . . They entered Sicily with a large army, and defeating the Sicanians in battle, drove them back to the southern and western parts of the country ; from them the island, formerly Sicania, took the name of Sicily. For nearly three hundred years after their arrival, until the time when the Hellenes came to Sicily, they occupied the most fertile districts, and they still inhabit the central and northern regions.' ^ The main statements then are these. (1) The Sicani and Siculi were distinct even in his day. (2) The Sicani are immigrants from Iberia. (3) the Siculi are immigrants from Italy. Philistus, quoted by Diodorus,^ supports the story of Iberian origin, whereas Ephorus, quoted by Strabo,'' speaks of Iberi and Sicani as distinct in the island. According to Dionysius * the Sicani, yevos 'll3ripi,K6v, had been but a short time in the island when the Siculi arrived ; and, finally, Pausanias ^ seems to imply that both Sicani and Siculi came from Italy. With regard to the Siculi, Thucydides, Philistus and HeUanicus agree in bringing them over from Italy. Hellanicus, whom Dionysius quotes,^ gave two migrations from Italy into Sicily, first that of the Elymians, and second that of the lapygians under King Sikelos ; the latter immi- gration took place five years after the former, in the third generation before the Trojan war. PhiUstus dates the immigration eighty years before the Trojan war and calls the immigrants Ligurians.' Coming to later tradition, we have first the remarkable statements of Dionysius.® Firstly, he tells us that the earUest known inhabitants of Rome were the Siculi, an indigenous people. These, he continues, are driven out of Rome by Pelasgi and Aborigines (?), and he adds the valuable statement that there was still in his day a quarter in Tibur called /ne'poy SifceXto);'. Finally, the Siculi after wandering over the whole of Lower Italy, and being repulsed every- Jowett's translation. V. 25. 3. " i. 22. V. 6. = vi. 2. 4. - i. 22. ' ap. Dion., i. 22. ' i. 9. xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 481 where, cross into Sicily, and settle first in the West and then in many other parts. Diodorus^ brings the Siculi over from Italy in a body to Diodorus. occupy the Etnaean country deserted by the Sicani, who, terrified by eruptions of the mountain, had fled to the West of the island. Finally, we have the Roman tradition of Sicani and Siculi Sicani in Italy itself. and TT -1 • 1 , J .. - . Siculi in Vergil m several passages [Aen. vu. 795 ; xi. 317 ; Italy. viii. 328) speaks of Sicani in Italy, but his evidence is almost Vergii. worthless, as it seems certain that both he and his com- mentator Servius confused Sicani with Siculi. Phny^ includes the Sicani among the tribes who assembled on the Alban Mount. We have much surer evidence for the Siculi in Italy, piiny. Phny gives the Siculi as one of the peoples of South Italy ,^ while Dionysius applies the epithet Sikel to several ItaUan Dionysiua ; towns, including Falerii and Crustumerium.* Festus ^ has Festus. the well-known tale of the Sacrani of Reate, who expel the Ligures and Siculi from the Septimontium. Varro * Varro. explains a presumed similarity between Roman and Sicilian words by the remark ' a Roma quod orti Siculi, ut annales veteres nostri dicunt ', and we have akeady quoted Thucydides' remark that in his day the Siculi still lived in Italy in Calabria. From all this mass of rather tangled evidence certain Summary points stand out clear. Firstly, tradition and observation "^^g^^g distinguished two elements in Sicily, viz. Siculi and Sicani. Secondly, tradition connected the Sicani (the earUer of the two) with the name Iberian. Thirdly, tradition insisted on an invasion of SicUy by Siculi from Italy. Fourthly, observation showed that Siculi stDl hved in Calabria in Thucydides' time, and tradition affirmed them to have also hved in Latium and on the site of Rome. It is the work of the archaeologist to inquire whether the Archaeo- evidence at his disposal supports in any degree the accuracy g°^^^gjjj,g_ of these traditions. ' T. 6. ' N.H., iii. 9. ' N. H., iii. 10. ' i. 21 ; ii. 35. > § 321. » L. L., V. 101. PEET Hh 482 THE BRONZE AGE chap. Steam Let US start with the question of the connexion of the ""•^gfj^y *■ (Sicawi with the word Iberian. The Sicani, being, as all agree, the first inhabitants of the island, must be identified No direct with the people of Stentinello and Matrensa. Now the coimexion archaeological evidence is against any direct connexion of Spain in these people with Spain, which is the country meant by the Stenti- Iberia of the tradition. Their affinities are rather with period. *^® Aegaean and perhaps North Africa. They are not the people from the river Sicanos in Iberia. But in the more western part of Sicily, near Palermo, Were the we have signs of a civilization rather akin to that of the Villafrati dolmens and rock-graves of the Spanish peninsula. Are people a ° ^ Spanish these the Sicani ? We note in the first place that they folk ? cannot be the Sicani of tradition, who are the ' first dwellers in the isle ', for their civihzation is later than that of Stenti- nello. Nor can we prove that they were immigrants at all. The similarities with Spain are due to that great wave of influence which affected the coast districts of all Western Europe, bringing with it dolmens and dolmen pottery. That it was accompanied by immigration is probable, though we have as yet no evidence for it in Sicily. Origin of May not the origin of the tradition lie rather in the ancient the tradi- confusion between Iberians and Ligurians, two names given to the immigrants into Spain and Italy in the neohthic age. And is it not possible that the Stentinello folk, who, we have tried to show, reached Sicily without traversing Italy, were recognized as another branch of the Italian stock (Liguri), and therefore confused with the Iberi. Thus would arise the tradition that the Sicani were Iberi, which at first did not mean that they came from Spain, but merely that the Liguri saw in them a likeness to, and withal a difference from, themselves. Then foUow naturally the error of supposing that they came from Spain because called Iberi, and the invention of a Spanish river Sicanos to clinch the matter. Such might well be the explanation of the tradition, if indeed it is worth trying to explain. There is certainly little room for it in the region of archaeological fact. xvn IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 483 We now come to the more important question of the iSiculi in invasion of SicuU from Italy. If this tradition is true I*^ly- we ought to be able to distinguish two very different types of remains in Sicily, for the Sicani and Siculi are, according to the tradition, of different origin. Moreover, we ought to find, at some period of pre-history in Sicily, a sudden change due to this immigration, and, what is more, the new material (Siculan) in Sicily ought to resemble that left behind in Italy by the emigrants. It may be said at once that none of these conditions No Bigns seem to be satisfied. In the early days of excavation in°^^?™" South-East Sicily Orsi divided the prehistoric periods into five SicUy which he called Sicanian, Siculan I, Siculan II, Siculan III ^^°?^ and Siculan IV, That is to say, he recognized an archaeo- No racial logical difference between the neoHthic (Sicanian) period break be- and the eneolithic (Siculan I), corresponding to the ethno- neolithic logical difference spoken of by tradition. At this time he period attributed these two periods to two successive immigrations i^n i. of people, the earlier being the Sicani, an Ibero-Ligm-ian Orsi's race, differing (diversa) from the later, the Siculi} As time '^'^^'^• went on new discoveries led Orsi to modify this opinion, and in 1895 ^ he declared the Siculi and Sicani to be two branches of the same people, or even one people with two sHghtly varying names. Finally, he confirms this, saying that the Siculi of Siculan I, identical in a more restricted sense with the Sicani of tradi- tion, are a branch of the great Mediterranean stock and therefore of Libyan or Iberian race, coming from Africa and spreading thence over Sardinia and Corsica, and also into the Italian mainland, at least, its Tyrrhenian coast. He further asserts that the distinction between Sicani and Siculi is purely one of convention, and has no more than a chronological value.^ With this last statement of opinion of Orsi's, if I under- Sound- stand it rightly, I am inchned to agree entirely ; partly ^^®!,°^ because coming from the excavator himself, who alone is later acquainted with every detail of the discoveries, it is oi*^^°^- 1 B. p., xvi, p. 198. ^ B. P., sxi, p. 84. = 2Ion. Ant, ix, pp. 111-13. Hh 2 484 THE BRONZE AGE chap. peculiarly high authority, partly because no other hypothesis seems tenable, as we shall shortly see, and partly because the result is in keeping -with our observations of the neolithic Evidence age in Italy. We saw that the early neolithic civilization *'^°?^, J in South Italy was closely akin to that of Sicily and not mainland ^ ^ ^ ^ supports to that of North Italy. It is therefore probable that the this. whole neolithic population of South Italy and Sicily im- migrated into those parts by sea, probably from Africa, whereas the Liguri seem to have entered from the North, possibly coming from Africa by way of Spain. This view has the immense advantage of explaining how Siculi or Sicani ever came to be in Italy at all. It may be that these people at first held land as far north as Rome, though the absence of neolithic pottery there makes it impossible to say. It is not improbable that the Liguri kept pushing their border further to the South, and indeed I am inclined to see signs of this in the pottery of Molfetta, which in the earlier station is of southern type and in the later of northern. If this is so it may be true that South Italians under pressure from the North were from time to time forced into Sicily, but that a great immigration ever took place and altered the appearance of the civihzation in Sicily is untrue, as we shall see. The double name Siculi and Sicani may well be nothing more than a local difference ; possibly Siculi were originally the Sicilians in Italy, and Sicani those in Sicily. Or, more probably stUl, they were two names for the same folk in different parts of Sicily. Tradition certainly places the two peoples in separate regions. The confusion between the two in Italy is then natural, and whether we hear of Siculi or Sicani in Latium is indifferent. What is meant is the neolithic race of South Italy and Sicily. Was there For those who wish to make a racial break at some ®^®.'" ,* point of Sicihan pre-history and to carry out the tradition of break in the great immigration from Italy it is necessary to fix the Sicily ? point at which the break occurred. Modestov follows Orsi's what ' earlier hypothesis, now abandoned by its author, and makes period ? ^he chasm lie between Sicanian and Siculan I, while Patroni 1 Modes- tov thinks places it between Siculan I and Siculan II. Both these after the hjrpotheses are impossible. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 485 To take first that of Modestov. His arguments are neolithic three.^ Firstly, the ancient tradition distinguishes Sicani^^'^^- and Siculi and brings the latter from Italy ; secondly, in tov's Siculan I, we have the sudden appearance of rock-graves ; '^'.^^• thirdly, in the same period painted pottery is found for^endT' the first time. The two latter arguments are quite value- its weak- less. In the first place, both rock-graves and painted "^^^• pottery appear in various parts of the Mediterranean just about this date and are therefore only to be expected in Sicily, and in the second place, in order to make the argu- ments vahd, Modestov ought to have shown us that these rock-graves and this painted ware already existed in South Italy when the Siculi crossed over. Unfortunately there is no sign of the latter and but little of the former at this time in South Italy. In other words Modestov's hypothesis is left without any support beyond a set of not too coherent traditions. Patroni's theory ^ puts the invasion from Italy at the 2. Patro- end of Siculan I.* He asserts that a new funeral rite begins "' ^ ^ "^^^ ' with the Second Siculan period. This is not true ; nothing His argu- could be more gradual than the development in the t3rpe New ** of the burial-chamber throughout all periods. The occur- '^""n' rence of transition-graves such as those Valsavoia and Period ii. Rivetazzo is fatal to this argument. The pottery, says New type Patroni, is new in the Second Period. It is true that paint disappears, but the tradition of the design is continued (see below, p. 487). It is also as well to remember that painted sherds have been found in early graves of the Second Period, e. g. at Milocca. The chronology offers Patroni another ciirMio- argument. The first Mycenaean influence in Sicily, he says, °^^' was brought by the Siculi from Italy. The earUest My- cenaean material in Sicily dates about 1300 b. c. according to Patroni, and this, he says, agrees with the Hterary evidence which puts the invasion eighty years before the Trojan war. But note that this is the date of Phihstus and HeUanicus, and that Thucydides disagrees, putting the ' Introduction, p. 135. ' Anthropologie, 1897, pp. 129 and 294. ' It has been suocessfuUy answered by Peterson in Edm. Mitth., xiii, pp. 171-4. 486 THE BRONZE AGE CHAP. The Siadi in South Italy. invasion 300 years before the coming of the Greeks to Sicily. In any case the value of such dates is infinitesimal. Among other arguments Patroni notes analogies between the pottery of Siculan II and six vases of uncertain origin now at Reggio, and mentions the existence of rock-tombs at Matera in South Italy. The last is a more important point. But it is doubtful whether we can see at Matera the Siculi before their immigration into Sicily. In the first place the Materan graves belong to the very end of the bronze age, whereas the Siculan migration took place, according to Patroni, at the beginning of that period.^ Secondly, the Matera graves are rectangular, a form not known in Sicily untU the advanced stages of Siculan II. Finally, the beginning of Siculan II is marked by the appearance of incised grey pottery (see p. 474). Patroni has yet to show that this came from Italy. The incised and punctured ware found at Matera and Pertosa, and falsely called Siculan, has not the remotest resemblance to the incised ware of Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, neither in technique, spirit, design nor anything else. The punc- tured technique almost universal in the South Itahan ware is most rare in Sicily, and the maeanders and spirals of which the ItaUan is so fond are unknown to the Sicilian. The truth is that the two kinds of pottery in question have a totally different origin and history. Unfortunate, too, is Patroni's comparison of the raised hut-foundations of stone at Matera with that of Monteracello in Sicily, for the Materan examples are not hut-foundations at aU, but graves. Thus Patroni's attempt faUs as that of Modestov did. All evidence is against the bringing in of a people from Italy to account for either Siculan I or II. We have dealt with the evidence from Italy and must now say a word No break as to that from Sicily itself. We have already noticed between j^^^ ^j^q gj,g^ three periods in Sicily succeed each other periods in gradually and without a break, and how in certain ceme- Sioily. teries the transition is clearly visible ; how the grave ' There is little doubt that there are earlier rock-tombs at Matera, but the few which have been examined do not yield the incised pottery on which Patroni relies. Both theories unsatis- factory. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 487 advances from the round form to the square ; how at a certain point both were in use side by side ; how Aegaean and North Greek influences caused changes and modifica- tions which at first sight provoke wonder ; how the placing of the dead as at a banquet continues from Siculan I to Siculan II ; how the men of the Second and Third Siculan period did not object to using a grave containing burials of the First. But perhaps the most valuable and incontrovertible Petersen's evidence of all is that afforded by Petersen in his critique ^'®^- of the pottery of early Sicily. His method was to examine His work the ornamental motives of the pottery, whether painted 2? .*. or incised, from aU three periods, Sicanian and Siculan I pottery. and II, supporting his conclusions by arguments from vase- forms and handles. The result of his research was to prove beyond doubt that the pottery of Sicily underwent a gradual development from that of Stentinello to that of Thapsos or Pantahca. His evidence cannot be given in full here and the reader must refer to R. M., xiii, 175-91. I shall, how- ever give some of his chief points, making a few additions rendered possible by later discoveries. Firstly, the shapes of the pottery of Siculan II are either i. Con- the same as, or developments of, those of Siculan I, with ^'^^'^g^jj a few exceptions which are at once recognized as imported Sioulan I Aegaean forms. Note that the high-footed basin found at ^^^ H- Castelluccio continues throughout the Second Period, some- a. in vase- times preserving its open form, sometunes — and this only later — tending to take a globular form. An example from Cassibile (Sic. II, fig. 273) is almost indistinguishable from one at Valsavoia (Sic. I, late). The globular four-handled jar so common at Caltagirone and Dessueri is a direct survival of a shape at Castelluccio. Again, the whole rich series of unpainted cups and small jugs seen first in the Castelluccio village lasts virtually unmodified down to the end of Siculan II, every necropolis giving examples of two or three of the Castelluccio forms. The large ovoid pithos of Monte Tabuto (I) is still in use at Cozzo Pantano (II) and preserves its characteristic ornament of clay ridges in rehef (cf. fig. 232 from Thapsos). 488 THE BRONZE AGE chap. b. In vase The evidence of the handles points in the same direction. The trapezoid handle of Thapsos (fig. 236), is a survival of that of Castelluccio, and the Cozzo Pantano handle (fig. 222) is also found in an elementary form at Castelluccio. Another favourite handle in Siculan II consists of an inverted V-shaped ridge of clay applied to the vase so as to leave no hole between. This is a development of a Castelluccio form, as also are the scrolls of clay in relief found so often on the basins at Cozzo Pantano. Finally, we may add the occurrence in Siculan I, II and III of the small horn-shaped objects of clay (fig. 250). This is now known to be an object with a reUgious significance, and therefore its occurrence in aU three Siculan periods is the more remarkable. 2. Con- So much for the striking similarities between Siculan I tinuity g^jjjj jj -^g have now to compare Siculan I with the between „. . . , __ _ Sioanian pre-Siculan or Sicaman period. Here Petersen is again and Sicu- qyiite convincing, though I think he fails to preserve the clear distinction between StentineUo and Moarda ware. The latter is surely intrusive and has Uttle connexion with even the more developed forms of the other. Nevertheless both wares bequeathed to Sicily elements of form and ornament which lasted into the Siculan periods. Evidence Had it not been that attention was too closely fixed on from the ^jje east part of the island, the continuity of the Sicanian museum. ^^^ First Siculan periods would probably never have been questioned. The Syracuse museum suggests the break between the two, the Palermo museum disproves it. In this museum Ues the material from rock-graves of the First Naro and Siculan tjrpe at Naro near Girgenti, and Capaci near Palermo. apaci. ijij^g Capaci vases are incised in precisely the same manner as those of Villafrati, and one vase is smeared with red paint and may possibly mark the beginnings of the SiciMan painted ware, though it may, on the other hand, have had merely a ritual object. Both at Capaci and also at Naro, where painted ware is found, there are several vase-forms which have been handed straight down from the neolithic period. We have, both at Naro and Capaci, the conical vase on a foot which is sometimes high, sometimes rudi- XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 489 mentary. This, we remember, occurred at Moarda, Villa- frati, and even earUer at Matrensa. Or, again, at Villafrati, we find a hemispherical vase with an inverted-conical neck and two side handles. This appears again at Naro. Besides this, we have at Naro an almost spherical vase with cyhn- drical neck and curious high handle, and a similar form with diflferent handle and very high neck. Both are forms which occur at Villafrati. Finally, at Naro, we find an almost globular little pyxis with two lateral string-holes, an old Villafrati type, and several pointed handles of Moarda type. But besides these similarities between stations of the two periods we have other evidence equally conclusive in at least two stations showing the transition from one period to the other. The burial-cave of Fico, near Isnello (Palermo), Cave of yielded small fragments of copper; ovoid or pear-shaped club-heads of pohshed stone ; a bone button with converging holes ; and a series of vases, including several of the forms common to Naro and Villafrati. The cave of Pietrarossa has already been mentioned (p. 201). Along with a flat celt of copper were found painted vases of Period Siculan I. Two vases from this cave, one given in fig. 74, belong to the forms noticed above as passing from the earher period into the later. Thus it seems clear that, just as there is no violent break Pos- between Siculan I and Siculan II, so there is none between "^ j;^ J^j the neohthic or Sicanian period and Siculan I. It wiU be break in noticed that the similarities to which I have pointed to*^^^^'*"^' prove continuity between the neolithic and the First Siculan period period are drawn mainly from material of the Villafrati '*^®'^- and not of the Stentinello type. At present I do not see that we have sufficient evidence to prove continuity between the Stentinello period and those which follow it. The pottery of the ViUafrati period in fact seems to come into another context altogether, being clearly of the dolmen type, which has apparently no connexion with the Aegaean wares to which I have suggested that Stentinello ware is related. Those archaeologists who, rightly or wrongly, believe the rock-grave to be due to the same people as the 490 THE BRONZE AGE chap. dolmen, and who suppose both to have been brought to Europe by an immigration, might with some show of reason suppose such immigration to be marked in SicUy by the Villafrati period. This supposition would of course imply a sharp break between the StentineUo period and the VUlafrati. As, however, I am as yet satisfied neither as to the identity of rock-graves with dolmens nor as to the presence of the latter in Sicily (despite the Monteracello discovery), I am no more desirous to assert the existence of such a break than I am to deny it. Only further evidence as to the dolmen period in general and the StentineUo and Villafrati periods in particular can make decision possible on this point. My- We may conclude this chapter by shortly recapitulating cenaean ^^le evidence for Mycenaean iofluence in Sicily. We use the influence n i » i i . i in Sicily, word Mycenaean rather than Aegaean because, at the period in question, the centre of power in the Aegaean had shifted from Crete to the mainland, probably in a great measure to Mycenae. But it does not follow that what we call Mycenaean imports should have come direct to SicUy from Mycenae itseK. In close proximity to the modern town of S3nracuse, and round the fine harbours in its neighbourhood, lay the Siculan settlements of Thapsos, Cozzo Pantano, Milocca and Plemmirio. Here Aegaean ships landed and distributed- to the Siculi the products of Mycenaean industry. But the foreigners did more than this : they apparently taught the native Siculi the art of building beehive tombs in place of the flat or round-vaulted chambers previously in use, and they taught them to close up the entrance with walls of heavy masonry set without mortar. The Mycenaean vase from Girgenti^ makes it probable that Aegaean vessels also rounded the cape and deposited their wares on the south coast ; but of this we must await further proof. In the Syracusan district they certainly did a very considerable trade, as we may see from the vases, gold rings, glass beads, ivory combs, and the bronze mirror, ' See Ausonia, 1907, pp. 9-10. XVII IN SICILY AND SARDINIA 491 found in the various cemeteries. Whether the earlier swords were direct importations is uncertain, as we have no exact parallels in the Aegaean, and the case of the fibula must also be left open. No doubt it came from abroad, whether from the Aegaean or elsewhere we cannot say. Of the bronze age in Sardinia we know Httle or nothing. It Sardi- is very probable that at least some of the nuraghi described ^^' in Chapter IX belong to this period, but as yet proof is lacking. That bronze was worked in the island is clear both from the blocks of raw copper found there and from the occurrence of numerous moulds. It is probable that a large number of the bronze figurines of warriors belong to this period.^ ' See Mon. Ant., xi. Plates 11-14. CHAPTER XVIII THE RACIAL PROBLEM The race The data of the bronze age in North Italy have given rise question, ^q ^^q completely different theories with regard to the peoples to whom the various settlements are to be attributed. These two theories may be associated for convenience with the names of their two greatest ItaUan exponents, Pigorini and Brizio respectively. It is now necessary to explain what these two theories are, and to ask whether either suits the facts better than the other. The data. The facts to be explained are these. In the neoHthic a Neoii; period we find in North Italy a race of people whom all thic period. '^ .... are agreed to call Liguri or Ibero-Liguri, dwelling in huts and caves. They are doUchocephahc and practise inhuma- tion. At the beginning of the bronze age, or even earUer, appear in North Italy a number of lake-dwellings, the in- habitants of which probably cremated their dead. b. Bronze Rather later we find, mainly in Emiha and East Lom- ^"'° ■ bardy, a number of pile-dwellings on dry land, the inhabitants of which invariably practise cremation. Among these, or near to them, we also have villages of huts containing material which is partly of terramara type and partly not, but as yet no burials have been found which can be connected with them. But before proceeding to discuss the question at issue we must very shortly anticipate the history of the early c. Transi- iron age in North Italy. At Bismantova and Fontanella age" *° "°" Mantovana we find cemeteries which seem to mark a transition from the bronze age to that of iron.^ The burial rite is cremation, and the ashes are placed in biconical urns similar to those sometimes used in the latest terramara cemeteries. The ashes, however, are more often accom- ^ This early iron age cemetery at Fontanella must not be confused with the eaeolithic cemetery near the same spot. CHAP. XVIII THE RACIAL PROBLEM 493 panied by objects than in the terramara cemeteries, and these objects are more advanced than those found in the terremare themselves, including as they do the true bow fibula {ad arm semplice) and the crescent-shaped razor (rasoio lunato). Similar transition-graves are found among the western lake-dwellings, e. g. at Moncucco. At a period slightly later than this, i. e. at the beginning d. iron age. of the iron age proper, we find in North and Central Italy six distinct groups of cemeteries. Their position and extension I have shown elsewhere.^ They are called (in some cases after the names of their most important ceme- teries) the Golasecca, Este, Villanova, Latian, Tuscan and Novilara types. In all of these except Novilara we find that the earliest iron age graves contain cremated remains, laid in urns usually of the type called Villanova, a type which many beheve to be a development of the biconical ossuary of the late terramara cemeteries and of Bismantova. In the group which takes its name from Novilara the old neoKthic custom of inhumation continued. The whole of viUanova the culture represented by these groups, setting aside that ^^"° ' of Novilara, is usually included under the name Villanova. This name has been adopted because Villanova near Bologna was the first place at which this tjrpe of early iron age cremation cemetery was studied. At the same time it must be remembered that each group shows considerable local differences which serve to distinguish it very clearly from the rest. Such are the facts with which we have to deal. We now The proceed to examine the two theories held with regard to *f ^p^'^^ these facts, giving, where possible, the original words of rini and their chief advocates, Pigorini and Brizio. Brizio. I take first that of Pigorini, which I hope eventually 1. Pigo- to show to be the only one tenable. It may be briefly '^''^'' summed up as follows : — The hut- villages and caverns of the neolithic age in a. The neo- North Italy were inhabited by a doHchocephaUc race people. (called usually Ibero-Liguri) who inhumed their dead. At the end of the neolithic age a new race appeared in 1 B. 3. E., vol. iv, PI. XXXVIII 494 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap. North Italy, a race of Aryan stock, which cremated its dead. b. inva- This race planted the first lake-dweUings in Lombardy. bronze In the full bronze age another invasion of the same stock age people, ^qq^ place and covered the east part of North Italy, planting the lake-dwellings of the Veneto and the terremare of Emilia. These people did not exterminate their predecessors, who continued to live side by side with them in huts and caverns, preserving much of their old civilization, but also imbibing c. Spread of the new culture. At the end of the bronze age part of the * '^ ° ■ new people deserted the Po VaUey, crossed the Apennines, and entered Tuscany and Latium. It is to this new people, which Pigorini calls Italici, that the five groups of early iron age cemeteries are due. Pigorini's In order to avoid aU possible misunderstanding, the state- chief passages in which Pigorini explains his theory are quoted, quoted. In B. P., xxix, p. 200, he says (I abridge the passage sHghtly) — a. The lake- ' At the time when the neoHthic people on the edges enter of the European continent were building dolmens and "rope- hollowing artificial burial-chambers in the rock, a remarkable event was happening in Central Europe.' From Wurtem- berg and Savoy to Bavaria and Austria were beiag planted in the lakes the earhest lake-dweUings. Their inhabitants combined the flat celt of copper with weapons of stone, and the earliest settlement therefore corresponds with the end of the neolithic age ; but there is nothing to induce us to derive these people from those previously hving in Europe, On the contrary ' this sudden change of scene in the heart of Europe reveals without doubt a new race, which must have arrived by way of the Danube Valley, tempted by the long stretch of lakes. Around them the old people remained independent, and it was these who left the evidence of their uninterrupted supremacy in the megahthic monuments, which, especially in the North, continued for a long time b. They in- to be erected.' ' But the barrier of the Alps did not Umit ay. ^^ ^j^^ South the empire of the new-comers, who descended into Lombardy and occupied its marshes and lakes, with their chief seat perhaps on Lake Varese. In those days xvin THE RACIAL PROBLEM 495 Italy and the islands were thickly populated with people of different origin ' (from that of the new-comers), ' some of whom possessed the neoHthic civihzation, others, and these more numerous, having that marked by the use of copper.' This first invasion of Italy by pile-dweUers gradually c. They enlarged its borders, reaching Ivrea in the West and the i^^iy!^ '" river Chiese in the East, though to the South it never reached the Valley of the Po. Its further expansion was in fact d. Second prevented by the arrival in Italy of another branch of the itliy^.'°" ° same race.^ This people reached Italy not, as their fore- runners, from the North over the Alps, but from the East. Their route had lain along the Valley of the Danube. Arrived in Croatia, Moravia and Lower Austria, they had spread out like a fan, some penetrating into Bosnia and others into what is now North-East Italy. Here they first settled on the lakes, and, when these proved insufficient for their numbers, spread into the provinces of Mantua, Brescia and Cremona.^ Finally, they crossed the Po and planted their dwellings right up to the foot of the Apennines. The exact form in which the division between the eastern and western lake-dwellings is here given we have akeady seen reason for doubting. This point is, however, qmte unessential to the theory taken as a whole. These quotations only take us into the bronze age. In Bull. Pal., xxi, p. 39, Pigorini continues his theory in very clear words. ' For me not only the terramara folk but also the people e. These to whom belong the tombs of VUlanova type are Italici. ^^^^^^^^^^ Between the one people and the other there is no difference people oi except that of date. The former Hved in the age of bronze ^^^^^^^nd and the latter in the early iron age. Thus the Italici later'of the of the ViUanova period cannot be said to have descended J^j'™°^* from somewhere and occupied the lands of the terramara folk, for they are the terramara folk themselves in a later and more advanced state of civiMzation. No one in Italy has even imagined that the Italici of the later (ViUanova ?) period hved in pile-dwellings, for the simple reason that there are at present no facts in support of such an assertion. ' My idea is as follows. The Italici who occupied the f. They lake-dweUings of the Veneto and the terremare left the Po ™'^*'^« » loo. cit., p. 202. ' loo. oit., p. 203. 496 THE RACIAL PROBLEM CHAP. Latium and Etruria. g. Later develop- ments in the Po Valley. 2. Brizio. a. Lake- dwellings and terre- mare built by the old neolitbic folk. b. The northern invaders, the Vmbri. Valley, though only in part, at the end of the true bronze age, to cross the Apennines. The passage took two direc- tions. One immigration, apparently the earUer, followed the mountain pass, arrived in the Sabine country, from which it descended to the Alban Hills and the left branch of the Tiber, where it founded Rome. The other immigra- tion made for Etruria, and spread as far as the district of Tarquinia. 'The districts of Upper Italy were abandoned by these people in the following order — the Veneto, Eastern Lom- bardy, and Western Emiha as far as the Panaro. The district, however, lying between the Po, the Panaro and the Adriatic, was never abandoned by the Italici, as is proved by the long series of their cemeteries belonging to various periods of the early iron age, reaching from Savignano in the Modenese to Verrucchio in the district of Rimini, and having their chief centre at Bologna. ' The lands on the left bank of the Po and in Western Emilia, whence the Italici emigrated, did not remain un- inhabited but were gradually occupied by the inhabitants of the neighbouring districts. Thus in the Veneto the habitations and cemeteries of the Italici are succeeded by graves of lUjrrian type which are to be connected with those of Istria, Styria and Carinthia, while in the provinces of Mantua, Parma and Reggio they are followed by tombs of the type usually found in the district of Milan and Lodi.' Brizio's theory is, shortly expressed, as follows. The huts and caves of North Italy were inhabited in neohthic times by a dolichocephalic race which inhumed its dead. At some period still in the neolithic age some at least of these Ibero-Liguri adopted the habit of Hving in pile-dwellings, either in the lakes or on dry land. Thus all the lake dwellings and terremare are due to the old neohthic people of the huts and caves. Hut-settlements such as Castellaccio and Bertarina, which by Pigorini are attributed to the Ibero- Liguri under the influence of this new terramara folk (Italici), mark, according to Brizio, a transition stage between the earUest hut-villages and the terremare. In the district lying to the West of the river Panaro he thinks that the terremare lasted almost down to the fifth century B.C. But the territory east of that river was at a certain period occupied by northern invaders, the Umbri, who also occupied xviii THE EACIAL PROBLEM 497 the Veneto, and who Hved in hut-villages and practised cremation. They eventually spread into Latium and Tuscany. In Emilia both the terramara folk and the Umbri were conquered by the Etruscans at the beginning of the fifth century b. c. The following quotations, mainly from Brizio's Epoca Quota- Preistorica, will help to make clear the details of his theory. j'°'^^ Speaking of the change in the method of living of the Brizio. Liguri he says : ^ ' The reason why the hut-dwellers, especially those of the a. The Po Valley, gave up their primitive half-subterranean dwellings fj'jfml^utg is easily found in the fact that the ridges on which the huts to lake- stood, being surrounded on every side by rurming water, ^ue to"^^ were easily and often subject to floods. . . . Each flood would floods. have the effect of lowering the level of the ridges and raising the bed of the streams which surrounded them, thus render- ing inundation easier and more frequent. It was to avoid these inconveniences, which repeated themselves with in- creasing frequency, that families of hut-dwellers had to abandon their early homes and establish themselves in the midst of lakes.' As to the period at which this change took place we may quote the following : ^ ' . . . the lake-dwellings ' of the Veneto ' (as well as of b. Some Lombardy) ' were founded for the most part in the d^^|iiin„g neohthic age, and, arguing from that of Fimon, by a people areof neo- in the same state of civilization as that of the caverns ''"^"^ '^^''^■ and huts.' Of the lake-dwelling of Pacengo in Lake Garda he says : ^ ' The lake-dwelling goes back, as do those of Lombardy, to c. Lake- the stone age. But it lasted very late, up to about the end ftiifta"?ise of the sixth century b. c' in sixth ' The lake-dwellers of Lake Varese continued for some 3™'"''^ time to hve in their primitive lake-villages.* Only later, a. Reasons when they had come into contact with the new Umbrian ^^^^^^^^^ peoples, who probably introduced a new kind of habitation, lake-dwei- did they abandon them, and even then perhaps not all of ii°gs. them, to go back to living in villages on dry land. The same fate must have befallen the inhabitants of the eastern ' Ep. Preist, p. xlii. ' op. cit., p. li. ^ op. cit., p. liii. ' op. cit., p. Iri. PEET I i 498 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap. lake-dwellings, who continued to live in lake-settlements even after families of Umbrian stock had settled in other parts of the district, that is to say in the lands around Este.' e. Dui'ation ' I think that in the case of the terremare the fact already Inarl.^' noticed in connexion with the lake-dwellings of Lombardy and the Veneto repeats itseK, that is to say, they lasted, always inhabited by their primitive builders, until they came into contact with other peoples who invaded the Po, i.e. first with the Umbrians and then with the Etruscans.'^ f. Burial ' The terramara folk at a relatively late period practised mara MkT ^uly Cremation ; previously they had had a mixed rite of inhumation and cremation, and earlier still they preferred inhumation, burying the dead with his arms and ornaments.' ^ g. Eeason ' The reason why these Liguri changed their primitive change of ^i*® ^^ inhumation for that of cremation is to be sought rite. in the relations which sprang up at the end of the age of stone between them and other peoples, who immigrated into Italy at that time, and who, together with the use of bronze, brought the exclusive rite of cremation.' ^ h. Terre- ' Sincc there exists a bond, a continuity and succession w!qt?i?i of civilization between the hut-dweUings and the terremare, nut-awell- . iiiiiiii ii ings due to it Stands to reason that both should be attributed to the same peopfe^ people, the more so as the special form of the true terremare was a necessary consequence of the places where they were built.'* The following passages relate to the invasion by the new people, the Umbri or Umbro-Latini : — i. The in- ■ The Umbro-Latini, having become masters of new Umbri territory, allowed a few tribes and villages of Liguri to remain here and there, especially around Bologna, and, recognizing the Panaro as the western limit of their posses- sions, spread towards the East and the South.^ Eastward they reached Rimini ; to the South they crossed the Apen- nines, occupied not only the whole Mediterranean district from the Ajuo to the Tiber, but reached Latium and the Alban Hills, where they founded Alba Longa. i-ji"3H'5'}ce ' The Liguri on the other hand, now outnumbered in the on Ugwioi Bolognese territory, became absolute masters of all the terremare. vast region from the Panaro to the Trebbia, and there remained until historical times. During this long period both the Liguri of the ' Bolognese and those acros the Panaro accepted certain elements of culture imported from ' op. cit., p. Ixxix. » op. cit., p. Ixxxv. • op. cit., p. xci. * op. cit., p. Ixxxvii. ^ op. cit., p. xcii. XVIII THE RACIAL PROBLEM 499 the Umbri, including agriculture and the use of metals, and in order to conform better to the more civilized customs of the Umbri gave up their primitive rite of inhumation in the contracted posture to adopt that of cremation.' ' The two civilizations, that of Villanova and that of the k.Ten-emare terremare, advanced contemporaneously for several centuries, '^°"'''"^:,„ , . .. -,. . 'Ill nil poraneous each m its own district, until both were suppressed by the with Etruscans in the fifth century b. c' ^ citation Finally, two quotations as to the original home of the i- Original Umbri. Some years ago Brizio spoke of the Umbri ' coming the Umiri. from the same cradle in Asia from which the Liguri had perhaps broken off, though many centuries before '.^ In Epoca Preistorica the Umbri are spoken of as ' having settled in Central Europe and especially Hungary, where metal-working rose and flourished early'. The difference between the two theories may be expressed Conflict as follows. Pigorini brings in a new race, the Italici, at the ^^g™^™ beginning of the bronze age. This race builds the lake- theories, dwellings and terremare and its civiUzation develops gradually into that of Villanova. Brizio, however, brings no new race in until late in the bronze age. The Umbri then appear, bringing with them the Villanova culture ready- formed. The terramara culture is thus due to the old Liguri and is a cul-de-sac. We must now proceed to consider which of the two Diffioul- theories is the more tenable, and this I propose to do by g^j^io's showing the insuperable difficulties which beset that of theory. Brizio.^ The first difficulty arises out of the very nature and 1. Terre- form of a terramara. According to Brizio many of the ^^^g^, Liguri must at some period have ceased to hve in huts tiaUy a and begun to build terremare, there beiag no true lake- ^u^viva . dweUings in Reggio. Now the very construction of a terra- mara shows it to be not a novelty but a survival. It is not the form of village that would be chosen by a people ' op. cit., p. xciii. " Monumenti archeologici delta provincia di Bologna, p. 10. » It is in all reverence that I attempt this criticism of the views of one who no longer lives to defend his case, and from whom I experienced the greatest personal kindness. I use his name as that of the ablest and greatest exponent of the ' Ligurian ' theory of the terremare. I i 2 500 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap. used to dwell in a dry district and now compelled to cope with a marshy one. It is, on the other hand, exactly what one would expect from a people used to dwelling in lakes and marshes, and now confronted with the problem of forming a settlement on dry land. The custom of time immemorial has had its cumulative effect on their minds. After the security afforded by dweUing on piles and surrounded by water they cannot bring themselves to settle down in exposed huts, and therefore they attempt to reproduce as far as they may the conditions under which they lived in the lakes. Terramara In this context the ' tervamara of the dead ' at CasteUazzo dead. becomes of great importance. We do not know what form the cemeteries of these people took in the days when they stiU dwelt in lakes. Whatever it may have been, there is surely only one interpretation of the pile-built cemetery at CasteUazzo, and that is as a survival from the days of true lake-dwellings. Even supposing it possible that the old hut-dwellers of neoUthic Italy built in later days pile- dweUings for the living, by no possible stretch of imagination can we represent them as building them for the dead. The fact is that the theory which attributes the terremare to the Ibero-Liguri involves an obvious reversal of facts. A terra- mara is a fact which presupposes not only lake-dweUings but ages of lake-dwellings. Terremare This argument, namely, that the terramara denotes a survival, is supported by the fact that it is often found in positions wholly unsuited to it, that is to say, on hills. Pigorini collects the instances of this,^ and cites the terremare of Roteglia, Castellarano, Castelnovo Fogliani and Montata dell' Orto. Two of these, Castelnovo and Montata, have all the essential characteristics of terremare, orientation, quadrilateral shape, rampart, contrafforte and moat, be- sides, of course, the pile-structure. That of Roteglia has the rampart and the pile-structure, while that of Castel- larano has only the pile-structure. The building of a terramara on a hiU shows a t3rpe of dwelling surviving in circumstances in which it is unsuitable or at least ' B. P., xxix, page 203, note 40. on hills. XVIII THE RACIAL PROBLEM 501 unnecessary, not a type newly invented to cope with altered conditions. ■ Finally, why, if the Ihero-Liguri built the terremare, did 2. Use of they surround them with fortifications consisting of a moat, elaborate a rampart and contrafforte ? One answer which has been works, given to this is that these fortifications were not set up against human foes but against floods. Two considerations, not against however, are fatal to this argument. In the first place, °° **' simple hydrostatic reasons show that for this purpose a moat is at least useless, if not dangerous. The pressure at any point on an object under water varies directly as the depth of the water at that point. Therefore, by digging a moat outside the rampart, the latter is subjected at its base to a very heavy and quite unnecessary pressure. In the second place, even admitting that the condition of the land in question seems to have undergone great changes in short spaces of time, how did the inhabitants of the hut- foundations manage to survive these floods. That they did so we can certainly argue from the existence in the terramara country of hut-foundations, the contents of which show them to belong to the same date as the terremare. We may instance the hut- villages of Fiastri and Romei. If it is rephed to this that not aU points in the district were subject to floods, then why did the Ihero-Liguri choose the cumbrous expedient of building terremare instead of the more simple one of settling on a safer spot ? Surely reason suggests that if the plains in which the people lived suddenly became subject to floods they would take to higher ground. But instead of this we are asked to beheve that they preferred to give battle to the elements and hold their ground, building, be it added, constructions displaying a knowledge of such work which could only be possessed by a race accustomed for generations past to deal with vast problems of hydrostatical engineering. The theory of floods cannot explain the presence of the but against rampart and the moat.^ They are defensive constructions against enemies. Now, supposing that the Ibero-Liguri built the terremare, why did they need these elaborate 1 Above all at Taranto, where there could be no floods. 502 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap; defence-works ? We can point to few hut-settlements that have even a wall to defend them. Why, then, this sudden change of custom ? It could only be explained by the arrival of a new and hostile race, which is the very thing which on the hypothesis itself has not happened. If, how- ever, we ascribe the terremare to a race of invaders who have perhaps to force their way in by arms, we can under- stand the need of defence-works. Even supposing their advance to have been unopposed, which is unlikely, at least in its earlier stages, the moat and rampart explain themselves as simple survivals, as an attempt to reproduce artificially the natural security afforded by dwelling in the water. The hypothesis of the Italici seems to leave no fact un- explained. That of the Ibero-Liguri, in order to explain anything at all, gives to a series of interconnected facts an order which is manifestly the reverse of that in which it was developed. S.Chrono- But there are other considerations which prove fatal to ^rffi*^ 1 ^^^ theory of Brizio. It involves, in the first place, two ties of chronological absurdities. One of these we have already Brizio'a discussed in Chapter XV. It was pointed out that the very stations which he takes as marking the transition from the neohthic to the terramara period are themselves coeval with quite advanced terremare, and that the material which they contain is not a transition material at all. In the second place, he asserts that the terremare were still being inhabited west of the Panaro at a time when the Vihanova people (his Umbri) were already enjoying the early iron age culture east of the river. And we are asked to believe that, despite the fact that these two peoples lived side by side, separated only by a river, no communication took place between them, for no terramara has ever yielded material of ViUanova type, not even a single ViUanova fibula. 4. How Most difiicult of all to explain on Brizio's hypothesis is does ^\^Q change of burial rite between the neolithic and the terra- JBrizio explain mara age. When we are told that a people change their rite crema- from inhumation to cremation we are certain to ask for very definite evidence. And yet such a change must have occurred, if, as Brizio asserts, there was no change of popula- tion? xvin THE RACIAL PROBLEM 503 tion. Brizio supports his hypothesis by affirming that the Cremation change was gradual, and to prove this he cites the cemetery duced |ra- of Poveghano Veronese, where, among inhumation graves, *^"^"^' some ossuaries containing burnt burials were found. He takes this to represent a transition stage when both methods were in use. In the first place, the cremations at Povegliano are almost certainly later than the inhumations, and belong probably to the iron age, and, in the second place, the furniture which accompanied the bodies is extremely late and belongs to the very end of the terramara period, whereas in the true terramara cemeteries, which are certainly earher than this, cremation is invariable.^ Brizio also points to two discs made from human skulls, one from the terramara of Montecchio and the other from that of Montata. These recall the similar disc found in the Ligurian cave of the Arene Candide. He argues from this that the terramara people were Liguri because they preserved this old rite of carrying human amulets, and, moreover, that they inhumed their dead. It is scarcely necessary to point out that the discs found in the terremare need not belong to ferra?nara people at all, and that even if they do it is stiU possible to cremate a body even after removing a piece of bone from the skull. The fact that the terramara people cremated, and probably Cremation the lake-dwelling people too, though this cannot be proved Brizio's for the earlier part of the bronze age, is the great stumbling- '^ypott'esis. block for all who folloAV Brizio in the opinion that the terramara folk were Ihero-Liguri. Without a change of population they have to account for a change in burial rite. And it is not a mere change from inhumation to cremation. We knov/ that the Liguri buried with the corpse a plentiful supply of objects, probably for use in the next life. Examine a terramara cemetery and we find that nine out of ten ossuaries contain nothing but the burnt bones and the ashes of the pyre. In other words the deposition of objects with the remains was not a part of the terramara ritual. This points to a change not only in rite but also in the ideas which underlie that rite ; it can surely only be accounted for by a change in population. ' op. cit., p. Ixxxv. 504 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap. 5. Terra- Brizio further asserts that the material found in the lake- terv"snot dwelHngs and terremare is a natural development of that a conti- of the neolithic period. He points out that many of the nuation neohthic flint forms survived in the pile-dweUings, and lithic. that the wearing of shells as ornaments still continued.^ Nothing is more natural. When bronze had once appeared the stone industry ceased to develop any further, and men contented themselves with the flint forms which already existed. And besides, what more probable than that the pile-dwellers imported large quantities of flints for rough work from the natives of the district in return for their precious bronzes. Had Brizio not carefully excluded pottery from his material he would never have ventured to speak of continuous development. The earliest pottery of the lakes is in complete contrast with that of neolithic times. The art of producing a fine polished surface is not to be seen in the lakes ; the forms have altered completely and so, too, has the ornament. Nor is this the decadence of neolithic ware, for this last was still being produced not far from the lakes in the eneolithic settlements of Brescia and elsewhere. It is a new type of pottery brought in by a new people. 6. Brizio But Brizio's h3rpothesis has yet another disadvantage, external -'-* ^^^^ *° *^^® account of the great movement which towards evidence, the end of the neolithic age was taking place in Europe, Similar J mean the establishment of the lake-dwellings of Central facts in . T !> 1 Central Europe. It IS not a very extraordinary tact that men ""'^'^' should choose to defend themselves by living in lakes ; but that they should begin to do so in several adjoining countries at about the same date is likely to be more than a coincidence. Having failed to account for the civilization of the terremare by internal development, we naturally ask whether it can be correlated with this great movement in Central Europe. Swiss Pigorini, many years ago, pointed to the similarities d^eUines ^^^^^^^ t^6 lake-dwellings of Piedmont and Lombardy and those of Switzerland, and derived the former from the latter. The resemblances are considerable. In the first place ' op. oit., p. Ixxxviii. xvni THE RACIAL PROBLEM 505 cremation is common to both. It is true that the Swiss a. Crema- lake-dwellings have yielded numerous inhumation burials. At Auvernier a stone cist was found containing a number of skeletons with two stone celts and three early bronzes. But at S. Prex were found inhumations alternating with cremations. Moreover, Munro quotes an article by Heierli proving that in the transition from the stone to the bronze age cremated bodies were buried in urns under earthen mounds. This evidence, however, must not be overrated, for, in the first place, we cannot definitely affirm that the earhest Swiss lake-dwellers cremated, and, in the second place, neither can we affirm the same of the earliest Italian lake-dwellers, though the rite was universal among them in later times. It is sometimes asserted that the Italian lake-dwelhng b. Brachy- f oik resemble the early Swiss lake-dwellers in being brachy- '^^^ ^* ^' cephalic. It is true that Virchow (quoted by Munro) ^ says that in the earliest Swiss lake-dwellings only brachycephalic skulls are known, and that in later times a dolichocephalic type appears and tends to predominate over the other. But in Italy we have no such data. No lake-dweller's skull has ever been found, for the simple reason that the people practised cremation. In 1864 Mcolucci declared the terra- mara folk to be brachycephahc on the evidence of two skulls found at Gorzano.^ Unfortunately these were shown to be Roman. If, with Pigorini, we admit that the terramara people were the ancestors of the Romans then there is no further difficulty, they must have been brachycephalic since their descendants were ; but to admit this at the present stage of inquiry would be to beg the question. Thus at present the comparison of the Italian lakes with p- simiiai- the Swiss gives us many probabilities but no certainties, material. There is, however, a considerable similarity in the material from the two districts. When we come to the terremare, however, the evidence Pile- becomes much more satisfactory, and seems to prove beyond j^^^^jj^^* all doubt that the terramara civihzation was brought to ' Munro, p. 537. * Pigorini, in B. P., xxi, p. 118. The whole of this article is important. 506 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap. Danube Italy by a new people from the Danube ^^alley. This i& valley. clear from the occurrence in two parts of that valley of stations showing resemblance to the terremare in the material they contain. These two regions are Hungary and Bosnia. Unfortunately excavation is yet young in both these coun- tries and we do not know all the details to be desired. Hun- Along the edge of the Danube, above and below Buda- Uem- Pesth, about twenty so-called terremare are known. They mare ' are settlements built on piles, but their exact shape is as yet uncertain and there is no mention of a moat or wall. Nor indeed were these necessary, as the settlements were Toszeg. generally built in flood-land. One of the most important is that of Toszeg, which contains three strata, neolithic, early bronze age and fuU bronze age. In all three were hearths with pyramidal clay ' loom- weights ' around them, used apparently to support cooking-pots over the fire. It was ascertained that at least the two lowest strata had been structures supported on piles. Pottery. It is above all on the pottery of these terremare that Similar to I wish to insist. It is a kind of hucchero with a polished terremare. ^' black surf acc, rarely faded to yellow-grey, and it is in general a. Surface, appearance indistinguishable from that of the Italian terre- b. Orna- mare. Equally convincing is the ornament. It consists '"*'" ■ in incisions, usually so broad as to merit the name of furrows. In fact, it is the canalatura of the Italian terremare (cf . PI. IV, fig. 5). With this are combined, just as in Italy, small circular pits, knobs of clay stuck on to the vase-surface and larger knobs modelled with the vase itself (cf. PI. IV, fig. 10). Particularly reminiscent of the terremare of Italy is the ornament applied to the bottoms of vases, especially flat basins or ladles. In the centre is a large circular depres- sion raising a corresponding hill inside the vase ; around this, arranged symmetrically along two diameters at right angles, is a scheme of furrowed semicircles and small circular pits (cf. PI. IV, flg. 5). A good example of this occurs at Toszeg and another at Sarkad. We may note, too, the furrows which encircle the large projecting knobs just as in Italian c. Earthen- examples. Finally, we have also earthenware animals, sets ngiirines. of ritual vascs of miniature size, and of shapes known in the XVIII THE RACIAL PROBLEM 507 Italian terremare, small fillers or fischietti identical with those d. Eituai of Italy (cf. fig. 194), the small earthenware spoon, and ''^^'■ last of all the ansa cornuta. This evidence is surely over- e. Ansa whelming and proves that the Italian terremare are closely "'"'""'''• connected with those of Hungary, and have a Danubian origin. Even in Bohemia, where terremare are as yet unlcnown, Bohemia. we find a civiUzation closely resembhng the Italian and having perhaps the same origin. In the graves with squatting skeletons the Itahan lake-dwelling cup is common. At Chlum u Podbofe occurs a bowl with three short vertical strips of clay near the rim, a favourite Italian device (cf. PL III, fig. 11) ; in bronze age hoards we find both forms of terramara dagger, the triangular and the leaf-shaped, Bronzes of together with the bronze-hilted dagger and the celt vnth t^e!"""^" flanged edges or with wings. At Korno Ivymburk we find the pin with three circles at its head (cf. fig. 185) and at Budehostice the double-edged razor, which, it may be noted here, is also found at Pilin, in Hungary.^ The evidence Bosnian from Bosnia is unfortunately far less satisfactory than that P^^' . m -1 1 -1 1 dwellings. from Hungary. Two pile-built settlements are known, but neither is early enough in date to be of much assistance to us. The pile-dweUing of Donja Dolina- was constructed 1. Donja on the bank of the Save. It had an outer wall or defence- ° "^^' work built out into the river to defend it against the stream, but this structure offers little similarity to the defence- works of a terramara, and to insist on the comparison would merely be to distort facts. The settlement belongs b. Date, to the iron age and is attributed to the sixth to third cen- turies B. c. In close proximity to the pile-dweUing are c. Ceme- cemeteries of the same date, containing both burnt and unburnt burials. The material found in the pile-dweUing, d. Material. as might be expected from its date, does not show very close affinities with that of the terremare. In the pottery, however, I think we can trace certain survivals of forms perhaps in use among these people before they parted to descend into Italy and Bosnia respectively. The most ^ All this material from Bohemia is in the museum at Prague. ' Mittheilungen mis Bosnien iind der Hercegovina, vol. ix, p. 3. 508 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap. striking of these are the shovel-vase (cf. PL IV, fig. 7) and the spoon-vase. Besides these must be noticed many vases with furrowed ornament on the bottom, arranged along two diameters at right angles, exactly as in the terramara vases (cf. PL IV, fig. 5). 2. Ripad. The pile-dwelling of Ripai, somewhat earlier than that of Donja Dolina, belongs to the late bronze age.^ It is built across what is now a broad stream and has none of the essential characteristics of a terramara. The position of the piles, however, showed that a regular arrangement was adopted in building and that a wide road had been left down the centre of the structure with cross-roads running off from it at intervals at right angles. The objects found in the pile-dwelling do not, of course, show great similarity with those found in the terremare ; we may notice, however, the presence of small terracotta figures of animals similar to those of the terremare? Bosnian In both the pile-dweUings under discussion the typical po ery. crescent-handle of the terremare is not uncommon.^ As a whole the bronze age pottery of Bosnia is, hke that of the terremare, a black polished ware. More rarely it is grey or brown. The black ware is more frequent at Ripae than at Donja Dolina, and occurs almost invariably in vases with the crescent handle. Compari- j^ would be foolish to attempt to argue much from these between data. There are indeed indications that in origin the Bosnia Bosnian bronze age civilization was in some way bound North ^P "^ith that of the civilization of the terremare. The same Italy. tradition seems to be shown in the pottery, and there is considerable similarity in the bronzes ; in the settlement of Motke, for example, occurs a bronze sickle of the terra- mara type.^ It must, however, be admitted that no pile- dwelling of the earlier part of the bronze age has yet been found in Bosnia, and that those few stations which can be definitely assigned to this period are ordinary villages • op. cit., vol. V, p. 29. ' op. cit., V, PI. XXIV, 6gs. 116-20. = op. cit., ix, PI. XXV, figs. 5, 6, 8, 9 ; PI. XXVII, figs. 4 and 7. I am indebted to Herr Vejsil Curcid for many of these details with regard to Bosnia. ' op. cit., vol. vi, p. 21. XVIII THE RACIAL PROBLEM 509 without any pile-structure. At the same time it is quite possible, to judge by the survivals, that further excavations will bring to light settlements akin to the terremare either in structure, or in respect of the material which they contain, or both. Meanwhile we can only insist on the significance of the finding of pile-structures in a country not naturally fitted for them, and the strong probability that their pre- sence there is the result of a vast invasion of the upper Danube Valley, in which Hungary and Italy were also involved. Much doubt has been cast on the value of the a7isa lunata Ansa or cornuta as evidence for the Central European origin of ™""'"- the terramara people. The facts are as follows : — ^Ansa Jjp^'^'"''"' lunata in a simple form is found in the lake-dwellings of Eastern Lombardy and the Veneto and in the terremare, in bronze age hut-foundations and caves in the terramara country, and as far south as the cave of Erasassi, and finally in Central Italy in the Vibrata Valley, and in Campania at Pertosa and in the Grotta Nicolucci near Sorrento. Pigorini 2. Origin, thinks this handle an importation of the terramara folk and takes it as a proof of their distinction in race from the Liguri. Brizio, however, who denies this distinction, says that the handle was already known in neolithic times in Italy, but none of the pretended neolithic examples are certain. The Erasassi, Monte Loffa, Colombo di Mori and Farneto examples all belong to the bronze age and are due to terramara influence, and the same explanation is possible in the case of the Campanian examples. The anse lunate of Coppa della Nevigata and Taranto are probably due to the terramara people themselves, though it is curious that the forms in these two stations are not very varied and are exactly those forms which occur in Bosnia. This maj^ be mere coincidence, and in any case it is as yet too soon to draw any inference from the fact. There is, in fact, no vestige of proof that ansa lunata was 3. Probably known to the neolithic people of Italy. Outside Italy this uthic form. handle occurs in Bohemia, Lower Austria, Thuringia (late), ' See especially B. P., sv, p. 65. 510 THE RACIAL PROBLEM chap, xviii 4. Distribu- Styria, and the lake-dwelling of Cortaillod, and is common in Europe. the pile-dwellings of Hungary and Bosnia. We have every reason to connect it with the lake-dwelling people of Central 5 When Europe, who ultimately built the terremare of Italy. The did it enter i i i i, i -, t ■• t ^ n • i. Italy ? lirst lake-dwellers who entered Italy did not bring it, for it is absent in Piedmont and West Lombardy. I am inclined to think that it entered Italy from the North-East even before the terramara people came, perhaps with an immigra- tion of people of the same race who settled on the lakes of the Veneto and spread the ansa lunata as far west as Polada. In other words, this handle probably had its origin in the Danube Valley and barely reached Switzerland. Thus the first invaders of Italy, who probably came from Switzerland, did not bring it, and it arrived with a second invasion of the same people from further east, where the form originated. The terramara people, who would be yet a third branch of the same folk, brought it yet again, probably in more developed forms. Conolu- In conclusion, as to this most involved and debated "'""^ question we may sum up as follows. The internal evidence for the identification of the lake-dwelling and terramara people with an invading race from Central Europe is over- whelming. That these people cremated at their first arrival in Italy is not proved, but very probable ; that they invariably cremated in the full bronze age is absolutely certain. That they were brachycephahc is a necessary consequence of their identification with the cremating brachycephahc race of Central Europe, and is based upon no direct internal evidence. That the ansa lunata was a special property of this people, or of the branches of it which settled in the East of North Italy, is beyond dispute. The external evidence derived from the Swiss lakes makes it probable that the earhest invasion took place from Switzerland or thereabouts, but does not amount to proof. On the other hand an examination of the Hungarian and Bosnian finds makes it practically certain that the terramara people of Italy came from the Danube Valley. CHAPTER XIX MYCENAEAN INFLUENCE IN ITALY About Mycenaean influence in Italy much has been said 3Iy- and written. At first, in the early days of research in ^nfl^g^e Italy, this influence was if anything underrated, whereas in Italy, now the tendency seems to be to overrate it. We have to™ ver^'^ seen examples of this. The fibula in its earliest form, the rate it. viphn-bow shape, has often been regarded as a Mycenaean import. In Sicily it was thought to come direct from Greece, Avhfle the terremare were said to have received it from Greece by way of the Balkans. It has been pointed out that the evidence is rather against than in favour of such a view. Again, the sword which Naue classed as Type II is another product which has been attributed to the Mycenaean civihzation without sufficient evidence. We must therefore ask what certain proofs we have of relations between the ItaKan bronze age civilization and the late Aegaean, generally caUed Mycenaean, corresponding in the main to the period of reoccupation of the later palace at Knossos (L. M. III). In the first place, Mycenaean vases have been found in My- various parts of Italy. The Sicilian examples have been ! amply treated. At Taranto very late Mycenaean ware Italy. occurred in a separate stratum overlying the terramara. ^- |"^''^,q Similarly, late fragments were found at the settlement of 3_ coppa Coppa Nevigata, whether in the main relic stratum or above ^gj,^„g^t^ it we have not yet been informed. The occurrence of geometric ware of an unknown type along with this is in keeping with the fact that the Slycenaean sherds are of the very latest type. Mayer, in his account of the excavations at the Pulo of 4. Moi- ■ fetta ? SIoKetta, speaks of and figures Mycenaean sherds.^ His ' Mayer, p. 141. On a second visit to Bari I found some of the sherds which he figures as Jlycenaean. They are certainly not Mycenaean at all. oenaean vases in 512 MYCENAEAN INFLUENCE IN ITALY chap. 5. Oria. e. Torcello, My- oenaean trade up the Adriatic. Supposed My- cenaean building at Nesa- zio, near Trieste. figures are not convincing and no Mycenaean fragments are to be found in the Bari museum, where, however, all the material is in confusion and not yet exhibited. But even on chronological grounds alone it is impossible that there should be Mycenaean ware at the Pulo of Molfetta. Furtwangler and Loeschke figure two Mycenaean vases from Oria in Apulia.^ They are Bilgelkannen with very late ornament, and were brought away by Lenormant from San Cosimo, near Oria. The same authors mention a vase at Berlin from the von KoUer collection at Naples, and two others from the Campana collection in the Louvre, all supposed to have been found in Lower Italy or Sicily. R. M. Dawkins has described four vases now in one of the small museums on the island of Torcello, in the lagoon of Venice.^ They are of a late Mycenaean type and are said to have come from one of the adjacent islands in the lagoon. If these vases were really found where they are said to have been they give a proof of Mycenaean trading right up to the top of the Adriatic. In the lower part of the Adriatic we have proofs of such trade at Taranto, Oria, Coppa Nevigata, and on the opposite coast in the islands of Cephallenia and probably Ithaca.^ It is interesting, though not surprising that the south-east corner of Italy was throughout all the prehistoric periods perhaps the greatest centre of trade in the country. Finally must be considered certain fragments of supposed Mycenaean architecture found in Istria. They were dis- covered in excavating an iron age cemetery at Nesazio.* There is not the least doubt that they are older than the cemetery itself, for when this was formed they were already in fragments. This is proved by the fact that one piece was found actually inside a grave, while another supported the stone which covered a grave and a third was incor- ■ Myhmische Vaseii, p. 48, and Taf. XXII, No. 164. ' J. H. S., xxiv, 1904, p. 125. ' Eevue ArMologique, xxxvii, p. 128. Cf. also the Mycenaean tombs found on Cephallenia in 1908. * See Atti Oongr. Int. Roma, 1903, vol. v, pp. 147-56, where some good photographs are reproduced. XIX MYCENAEAN INFLUENCE IN ITALY 513 porated in the retaining- wall which surrounded the cemetery. They must originally have formed part of a building which once stood near the site, and, already destroyed, was used in the formation of the cemetery Stichotti describes the fragments as of three types, bases i- Architee- or plinths, covering-slabs, and beams or pilasters. The ments. bases are ornamented on three of the sides and are rough- chiseUed on top, from which it may be inferred that they were surmounted by a pillar of some sort. The pilasters are noticeable as having only one face and part of one side worked, so that they must have been set actually against the masonry. One fragment of a pilaster bears the lower part of a human figure in high relief. Stichotti believes that they are the remains of a building, the core of which was of rubble or brickwork, set on a plinth or base of worked stone, and covered in parts with pilasters and slabs of stone. He insists especially on the resemblance of the technique to that of woodwork. The ornament usually consists in running spirals arranged 2. Spiral in graceful designs. The simplest is a row of ordinary running spirals. More complex is a pattern of two parallel rows of running spirals, with the tangents or runners in the two rows running in opposite directions ; or in two parallel rows joined all along by cross-tangents. An elegant pattern is a row in which alternate spirals are replaced by two smaller ones side by side. Finally must be men- tioned a pattern of hooked crosses fitted into one another to form a veritable maze, and pairs of spirals joined by a curve in such a way that the whole resembles a Greek Omega. One of the phnths has above it the feet of a human figure, 3. statues. the rest of which is broken off, and beside them an object like a truncated cone with a triangular area hollowed out in its surface both front and back. Stichotti sees in this the remains of some kind of shrine and recalls the cone or aniconic image which is found between the horns of con- secration in Cretan shrines.^ ' See A. J. Evans, Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult in J. H. S., 1901, esp. figs. 11 and 19. PEET K k 5U MYCENAEAN INFLUENCE IN ITALY chap. Finally must be mentioned three fragments of statues in the round. The figures are stiff and rather flat, and are somewhat similar in style to the early Greek archaic work. In fact the moulding of the better-preserved of the figures may be well compared to that of the archaic statues generally called ApoUo. 4. Remains With regard to these Nesazio fragments the following cenaeJii. couclusions are almost certain. Firstly, if the statues belong to the same date as the building, this can hardly be earlier than the beginning of the sixth century B.C. In any case, even if the statues are later than the building, the fragments of figures actually attached to architectural pieces prevent our dating the building much earlier than this. Secondly, the spiral decoration, however much it recalls Mycenaean motives — and indeed it does very strongly — cannot for chronological reasons be called My- cenaean. Whether it is even a direct survival of Mycenaean influence in Istria we cannot yet say with certainty, but it must not be forgotten that around the north part of the Adriatic the spiral had been a favourite motive even in neolithic days. Thus whoso wishes to prove the existence of Mycenaean influence in Istria will have to adduce much better evidence than the fragments of Nesazio, which are little earlier than the cemetery which they were used to build. Novilara A confirmation of this late date is to be found in the stdai. stelai from Novilara, near Pesaro.^ A stele of stone, covered on one face with well-executed spiral ornament, was found many years ago, though the exact spot is not certain. Another stele with a dialect inscription and a border of similar spiral work was found later between two graves in the iron age cemetery at Novilara. The finding of a spiral border to an inscription shows that this type of ornament was stfll in use in the northern part of the Adriatic at a comparatively recent period. C'onclu- On the whole it may be said that the evidence for My- sions. cenaean influence in Italy is rather slender. It is beyond doubt that the south-east corner of the peninsula carried ' Mjn. Ant., v, pp. 171-4, figs. 2, 2 a. 3. 3 a, 25, 28-30. XIX MYCENAEAN INTLUENCE IN ITALY 515 on a considerable trade with the Mycenaean Aegaean, and if the TorceUo vases can be trusted this trade must have been continued up to the north shores of the Adriatic. Beyond this and the fact that Sicily fell strongly under Mycenaean influence little can be said. On the western coast there is as yet no sign of Mycenaean trade, and the evidence given by Colini for Mycenaean influence in the terremare is very inconclusive.^ The fibula and Naue's Type II sword are probably not Mycenaean at all ; the clay figurines are found among terramara folk in Hungary and Bosnia, and do not for a moment presuppose Mycenaean influence. At the end of the bronze age such influence may, as Colini suggests, have begun to make itseK felt. But on the whole the evidence tends to show that the terramara folk brought their civilization with them and developed it on their own lines, with little dependence on the higher culture of the Aegaean. 1 B. P., xxix, pp. 71-3. Kk 2 GLOSSARY OF ITALIAN WORDS AccMa. A hatchet, set with its cutting-edge parallel to its handle. (Contrast ascia.) Ansa. A handle. Ansa a bastoncino. A handle formed by bending into shape a cylindrical stick of clay. Ansa a canahtto. A handle consisting of a narrow string-hole pierced in the thickness of the vase wall. Ansa ad ascia. A handle with an axe- shaped projection above. Ansa a mazziiolo. An ansa lunata with horns out off short. Ansa a nostra. (1) A handle formed by bending into shape a strip of clay of ribbon shape. (Opposed to ansa a bastoncino.) (2) A broad tongue-shaped handle, set above the rim of a ladle. Ansa a twbetto. A handle consisting of a small tube of clay fastened against the vase wall. Ansa cilindro-retta. A handle with a vertical cylindrical projection above it. Ansa cornuia. A handle with a pro- jection above it shaped like a pair of horns. Interchangeable with ansa lunata. Ansa lunata. A handle with a cres- cent-shaped projection above. Area limitata. The enclosed area within the eastern half of a terra- mara. Argine. The rampart of a terramara. Ascia. An adze, set with its cutting- edge at right angles to its handle. (Contrast accetta.) Bacino. A basin or bowl, usually on a high foot. Bicchiere a campana. A cup shaped hke an inverted bell. Biddazze. Stone huts found in the neighbourhood of nuraghi. Bottiglia. A vase shaped like an Italian wine-flask. Bucchero. A type of black polished pottery used in several parts of Italy during the so-called Etruscan period. Camera. A room or chamber. Hence tomba a camera, a tomb in the form of a room, whether brick-built or hewn in rock. Canalatura. ' Furrow ' ornament prc- duoed on pottery by incising with a blunt stick-end. Capanna. A hut. Capezzale. A head-rest. In rock- tombs, the low bench of rock on which the head of the corpse lay. Cassetta. A coffin constructed in the ground by setting slabs of stone together, more or less accurately. Coltello. A knife. Goltello-ascia. A celt with broad curved cutting-edge of almost semi- circular form. (See fig. 167.) Coltello-sega. A flint knife with saw- like edges. Gomune. A division of an Italian provincia. Contrafforte. The wooden or stone buttress supporting the rampart of a terramara. Covolo. A small rock-shelter. Eneolitico. A name given to the earliest age of metals in Italy. (See p. 185.) Fascia. A band. Pottery ' a fasce larghe ', pottery with broad bands of paint upon it. Fibula. A clasp made on the safety- pin system. Fibula ad arco di violino. Fibula shaped like a vioUn-bow. Fibula ' ad arco semplice. Fibula shaped like a segment of a circle, i.e. with an arched bow. Fibula ad arpa. Fibula shaped like a harp. Fibula a qomilo. Fibula with bow shaped like a bent arm. Fibula a navicella. Fibula with arched bow and long catch-plate, resem- bling a ship with long bowsprit. Fibula serpeggiante. Fibula with one or more cusps in the bow ; the so- called broken-backed type. Finestra. A window. Hence any 518 GLOSSARY OF ITALIAN WORDS apertvire, especially in a rook- tomb. Finestrino. Diminutive of finestra. Fischietto. Literally a wliistle. Hence a terramara vase of a type by some believed to have served as a whistle. More probably a strainer. Fonderia. A foundry for metals. Fondo. (1) The bottom, of a vase &c. (2) The foundation. Hence fondi di capanne, hut-foundations. Forno. An oven. Tomba a forno, a rock-cut tomb shaped like an Italian oven, i.e. circular in plan and pointed at the top, like a beehive. Fossa. A ditch or trench. {1) Tomba a fossa, a grave in the form of a rectangular or nearly rectangular trench. (2) The moat of a terra- mara. Gigante. A giant. Hence torrtie di giganti, tombs of expanded dolmen type in Sardinia. Orafiti. Incisions of any kind, usually on stone or pottery. Orotta. A cave. Iberi. Used as a general term for the race of neolithic Spain. Ibero-Uguri. The neoUthie race of Spain and Italy, assuming it to have been one and the same. Jmpasto. The prepared clay of which pottery is made. Italici. A name given to the terra- mara folk by those who believe them to be a race of invaders. Liguri, The neolithic race of Italy, which was dolichocephalic and prac- tised inhumation. As used by most Italian archaeologists it is synony- mous with Ibero-Uguri. Nicchia. A niche, especially in a rock' tomb or nuraghe. Nicchione. A large niche. (The in- tensive ending has very little force.) Nuraghe. A type of prehistoric stone dwelling found in Sardinia. Occhio. Literally, an eye. Hence a hole in a fibula, an axe &c. Occhiello. Diminutive of occhio. Ocra rossa. Red ochre. 0/jicina. A workshop for flint imple- ments. Padiglione. The unroofed approach to a rook-tomb. Palafitta. (1) Originally the piles and staging of a lake-dwelling or terra- mara. (2) Used in the special sense of a lake-dwelling as distinguished from a terramara. Pasta. The prepared clay of which pottery is made. Piazza. A large paved open space. Pietre fitte. ' Fixed stones,' i.e. men- hirs. Pintadera. A stamp used to impress a pattern in colour on the body. Pozzo, pozzetto. (1) A pit or well. Tomba a pozzo, a grave in the form of a narrow pit, usually circular in plan. (2) Used also for the shaft which gives access to an vmderground rpck-tomb. Punta. A sharp-pointed implement of flint, roughly worked. Basoio. A razor. Bipostiglio. A hoard of bronzes or other valuable objects. Sbieco. The cutting-edge of an im- plement is said to be a sbieco when the two planes that form it have different inclinations to what would be otherwise the plane of symmetry of the implement. Scarnimento. Cutting the flesh off the dead body before burial. Scarnitura = Scarnimento. Scodella. A basin. Sese. A type of stone-built tomb found in Pantelleria. Sicani. Used to represent the neo- lithic people of Sicily. Siculi. The people who inhabited Sicily, and, according to some. South Italy also, in the bronze age. Stecca. A small stick or piece of wood. Tana. A cave, literally the hole or lair of an animal. Terramara. A pile-dwelling built on dry land, trapezoid in form, orien- tated, and surrounded by a ram- part and moat. Tremolo. An undulating line. Tufa or tufo. A volcanic rock. Umbri. A name given to the iron age inhabitants of North Italy (the Villanova people) by those who consider them to have entered Italy towards the end of the bronze age. INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES The more important references are in black figures Abba meiga, 230. Abini, 286, 429. Abruzzi, the, 29, 179, 183, 418-19. Aoqua, Cavema dell', 53-4. Addeu, 228. Adriatic Sea, 361, 395, 416, 418, 430-1, 471-2, 496, 514. Aegaean, 86, 109, 139, 151, 158-9, 162, 217, 284, 285-6, 288, 346, 348, 361, 380, 430, 441, 445, 463-4, 468-9, 470-1, 473, 482, 487, 490-1, 515. Aegina, 470. Africa, 172-3^-5, 482-3-4. Agrigentum, 450. Alatri, 114, 118. Alba Cuneo, 64, 96-9, 138, 153-6, 159-61, 164, 264. Albairate, 326. Alba Longa, 498. Alban Hills, 496, 498. Alban Mount, 481. Albinea, 90, 93, 94-5, 110. St. Alento, River, 30. Algeria, 170, 172. Allumiere, 429, 470. Alps, 153, 4, 494-5. Ancona, 191. Andria, 116. Anghelu Ruju, 234^6, 257, 266, 268, 284. Aosta, valley of, 118. Apennines, 494-5-6, 498. Apuan Alps, 55-61, 88, 111. Apulia, 183, 230, 409, 431, 512. Aquila, 122, 348, 430. Aras, 226. Arcevia, 178, 387-8. Arene Candide, Grotta delle, 51-8, 122, 155-6, 162, 197, 503. Arezzo, 430. Argive Heraeum, 470. Arno, River, 498. Arqua, Lake, 290, 310-14, 315-16-17- 18, 322, 328, 394, 396. Ascoli-Piceno, 387. Asia, 153, 172. Asia Minor, 173-4, 394. Assarlik, 470. Augusta, 433. Austria, 196, 263, 314, 494-5, 609. Auvemier, 505. Badia di Grammichele. See Gram- michele. Balearic Is., 270, 272. Balkans, 86, 108, 361, 396, 415-16, 418, 423-^, 430, 471-2, 511. Baltic, 361. Balzi Rossi, 31-2, 33-5, 37-45, 119, 145, 171, 182. Bandito, Grotta del, 144. Bara, 230. BardeUo, 294. Bari, 162, 169, 512. Barriera, 222, 463. Basilicata, 194, 269. BattifoUe, 397. Bavaria, 494. Belgium, 148, 169, 170. Belgrade, 415. Bellavista, 115. Benevento, 192. Bergeggi, 54. Bertarina, 377-9, 412, 496. Bigarello, 347. Bismantova, 492-3. Bodio, 294. Bohemia, 138, 166, 161, 169, 170, 263, 268, 507, 509. Bologna, 155, 191, 375-7, 416, 470, 496, 498. Bor, II, 308. Bosco di Malta, 191. Bosnia, 314-15, 358, 395, 415, 418, 427, 495, 506, 507-9, 510, 515. Bovolone, 366, 367, 369, 370. Brabbia, 264, 294-5, 316, 318, 320. Brandenburg, 169. Brenndorf, 162, 169. Breonio, 27, 65-70, 109, 112, 150, 156, 164, 177-8, 180-1, 183-4. Brescia, 190-1, 193, 195, 342, 504. British Isles, 268, 428. Brittany, 268. Buoa delle Fate, 194, 241. Budehostice, 507. Bulgaria, 416. Bunannaro, 233. 520 INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES Buaco, 23. Butmir, 415-16. Ci' di Cioss, 318. Ca' di Marco, 138, 164, 190, 241-2-3, 264, 267, 322. Cagliari, 144, 238. Calabria, 122, 431, 481. Gala Farina, Grotta di, 212, 216, 220, 22''— 3 Caldare, 450-1, 468. Caldarola, 387. Calemo, 90-1, 93, 95-6, 110, 160. Caltagirone, 453, 460-1, 464, 467, 473-4, 476, 478, 487. Caltanisetta, 429. Cameiros, 445. Camerata, 104, 193, 194. Camigliano, 117, 161. Campania, 400, 509. Campeggine, 90, 92-3, 94, 110, 162, 169, 417. Campi Costiere, 110. Campi Flegrei, 150. Campo Real, 169. Campo Rotondo, 420. Camposaoro, 418. Canary Is., 162, 169, 394. Canavedo, 396. Cinuatello, 208, 281, 450-3, 468. Cautalupo Mandela, 193, 265, 269, 275-6. Capaoi, 120, 200, 202, 212, 220, 488. Capri, Is., 27, 150, 404. Capriano, 295. Carhuranoeli, 33. Carinthia, 496. Casale Zafanella, 298. Casan, 122. Cascina Ranza, 319, 323, 328-30, 348. Casoina Veronese, 290, 308-9, 317. Casinalbo, 352, 366, 367, 370. Cassibile, 433, 437, 446-9, 460-2, 473^, 476, 487. Castel dei Britti, 375-6. Castelfranco dell' Emilia, 357. Castellacoio, 373, 377-8, 417, 496. Castellarano, 500. C'lstellaro, 352. C'astellazzo, 332-7, 339, 341, 361-2, 500. Castello, Grotta di, 196, 243, 252. Caatello di Tierno, 386. Castelluccio, 149, 203-5, 208, 212, 213-14, 216, 252, 263, 282, 285-6, 487-8. Castel Malnome, 193. Castelnovo Fogliani, 500. Castelnuovo di Sotto, 90, 95, 110. Castel Pradaglia, 386. Castenedolo, 21. Caatiglione di Marano, 346. Castione, 260, 328, 330, 332, 334, 337- 8, 344, 345, 346-7, 352, 354-5, 359. Catania, 222, 429, 463. Cataragna, 304-5, 316, 320, 358. Cattabrega, 324, 326. Cava Cana Barbara, 212, 221-2, 263. Cava d' Ispica, 129. Cava Lavinaro, 213, 285. Cava Lazzaro, 203, 213, 285. Cavetta, 449, 453, 455. Cavone, 114, 273. Cazzago, 294. Cefalu, 250. Cephallenia, 512. Central Europe, 159, 161-2, 255, 283, 347-8,397, 429, 469, 470, 494,498, 504, 510. Chaeronea, 85, 217-19. Chamblandes, 169. Chiascio, 26. Chiaviehetto, 372. Chiese, River, 495. Chieti, 25, 29, 179, 180. Chlum u Podbofe, 507. Ciachia, La, 200, 212. Ciempozuelos, 414. Cimelie, Le, 224. Coarezza, 323, 324-5, 326. CoUe Brignile, 420. Colleoohio, 114, 117. CoUe del Vento, 21. CoUina Reggiana, 110. Cologna Veneta, 428. Colombi, Cavema dei, 55. Colombo di Mori, 386, 509. Como, Lake, 290, 295. Conelle, Le, 178, 387-8. Controguerra, 419. Copezzato, 368-9, 370-1. Coppa della Nevigata, 394-5, 412, 418, 424, 426, 427, 509, 511-12. Corona de' Coppa, 113. Corruggi, Grotta, 135 n., 157. Corsica, 270, 272, 483. Cortaillod, 510. Cozzo Pantano, 433, 435-8,439,441, 463, 467, 470, 474, 476, 486-7-8. Cremona, 122, 342, 428. Crespellano, 324, 367-8, 369, 370. Crete, 57, 79, 135-6-7-8-9, 142, 157- 8-9, 170, 172, 174-5, 217, 282-3-4- 5-6, 348, 414, 441, 443, 467, 469, 470-1, 477, 490, 513. Crimea, 169, 172. Croatia, 314, 495. Crocefisso, 388. Cro-Magnon skull-type, 40-2. Crustumerium, 481. Cueva de los Toyos, 162. Cumarola, 191, 249. Cyolades, 158, 169, 172, 350. Cyprus, 281, 283, 285, 470-1, 476-7. INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES 521 Danube, River, 306, 314-15, 430, 494- 5, 506, 509-10. Diavolo, Qrotta del, 75, 150,197, 425. Dimini, 85, 108, 161, 217, 288, 415. Dipylon, 478. Debelo-Brdo, 427. Demorta, 298, 374-5. Denmark, 138, 155, 172, 181, 268. Derbyshire, 162. Dnieper, River, 169. Dodona, 429. Donegallo, 110. Donja Dolina, 315, 427, 507, 508. Dordogne, 169. Dos Trento, 62. Due Paperi, 128. Duino, 162. Eastern Emilia, 372-86, 397. Egypt, 121, 170, 174, 250, 413-14, 428. Elatea, 85. El Ai^ar, 282. Elba, Is., 150, 256, 285. El Garcel, 162. Emilia, 164, 166-7, 191, 342, 423, 492, 494. Emilii Lepidi, Via, 375. England, 138, 148, 156, 170, 196, 263, 271, 283. Eutiklar, 386. Enza, 119. Epirus, 108. Este, 161, 396, 493. Etruria, 194, 496. Euboea, 281. Falerii, 481. Falerone, 387. Fano, 103, 138, 164. Fame, Grottadel, 36, 383-4, 394,412, 416, 417, 509. Fameto. See Famd. Fate, Grotta delle, 27. Felei, Grotta delle, 169, 402-4:, 412. Fermignano, 387. Fiastri, 373-4, 501. Fioo, Cavema di, 489. Fieulle, 348, 430. Filiporto, 449, 453, 454, 455. Fimon, Lake, 289, 290, 309-10, 314, 315-16-17, 328, 394, 497. Finoechito, 476, 478. Fisohino, 104. Fiumane, 113, 117. Flombom, 161. Fojano, 428. Fontanella, 189-90, 214, 245-6, 251, 279, 321, 492. Forli, 377. France, 122, 138, 148, 169, 170-1-2, 174, 181, 196, 237, 240, 263, 268, 271, 283, 328, 397. Frasassi, Grotta di, 36, 389, 509. Frola, Grotta di, 409. Fucino, Lake, 348, 430 Gabrovizza, 161. Galicia, 108. Garda, Lake, 289, 296-308, 315, 317, 323, 328, 343, 348, 351, 497. Gardone, 349. Gargauo, 27, 33, 71, 106, 166, 177- 8-9, 180-1-2. Gela, 211, 212, 220. Genoa, Bay of, 166. Gerace, Grotta, 125. Gerofin, 328. Germany, 154, 161, 264, 267, 268. Giara, La, 228 ff. Giarratana, 465, 470. Gibraltar, 174. Ginerreddu, 228. Girgenti, 201-2, 450, 474, 490. Golaseeca, 161, 323, 324, 326, 330, 493. GoTzano, 357, 417, 425, 505. Goti, Grotta dei, 55. Grammichele, 453, 458-61, 469, 470, 473, 476. Granada, 429. Great Britain, 172. Greece, 151, 173-4, 430, 442, 445, 511. Grossgartach, 267. Guerra, Grotta della, 60. Guttidai, 428. Haghia Triadha, 83, 137, 158, 281, 283. Haghios Nikolaos, 137, 158. Hagiar Kim, 57, 285. Heldersleben, 429. Hissarlik, 158, 250, 286, 414. Hungary, 169, 170, 283, 306, 314-15, 358, 499, 506-7, 509-10, 515. lalysos, 430, 437, 445. Iberia, 479, 482. I C!olombi, 197. Imola, 377. Indian Ocean, 168, 174. Ireland, 429. Is Arenas, 144. Ischia, 150. Iseo, Lake, 295-6, 318, 328. Isnello, 214, 250, 489. Isolino, 321. Istria, 198, 395, 496, 512-14. Ithaca, 512. Ivrea, 495. Jablanica, 415. Jesi, 103-4. Kato Zakro, 471. Kavousi, 470-1. 522 INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES Kiev, 172. Kition, 471. Knossos, 135-7, 158, 174, 286, 413-14, 423, 434, 452, 466, 473-4. Korno Ivymburk, 507. Kumasa, 282-3. Kiistenland, 162, 169. Lagazzi, 252, 281-2, 297-301, 303, 322, 374. La Pieve, 388. La Sooro3a, 83, 128, 139, 140, 157. La Seggia, 83, 127, 129, 139, 157. Latium, 116, 176,269,273,396-9,424, 481, 484, 497. Lausanne, 169. Lazzaro, Cava, 203. Lazzaro, Grotta, 197, 203. Lengyel, 169. Lesignano dei Bagni, 31. Lesina, Lago di, 89, 104^5, 109, 110, 149, 150, 177, 182. Leuca, Capo di, 197. Liguria, 37-55, 88, 106, 111, 116, 127, 138, 149, 150, 155, 156, 159-62, 164, 166, 168, 171, 175, 182, 243, 250, 284-6, 287, 318, 391-4, 428. Limoue, 349. Lipari Is., 150. Livorno, 194. Lodi, 323, 330, 496. Lombardy, 163, 166, 289, 314, 328, 398, 492, 494, 496, 498, 504, 509-10. Loreto Aprutino, 418. Losa, 230. Lozzo Ateatino, 396. Lugarico Viejo, 282. Lugherras, 230. Maccacari, 342. Macchiadi Mare, 105-6, 109, 177, 183. Maggiore, Lake, 280-2. Maiella, La, 25. Malkenburg, 268. Malta, 57, 272, 285, 269-70. Manduiia, 349. Manfredonia, 417. Mantua, 190-1, 342, 496. Marche, the, 29, 160, 386-91. Marendole, 198, 254, 394, 395, 418, 426. Matera, 60, 77-81, 82, 84, 86, 106, 107-9, 115, 137, 150, 157-8,267-9, 273, 284, 376, 400, 409-12, 415- 16-17-18, 437, 443, 486. Matrensa, 82, 106, 134, 135-7, 140, 157, 161, 163-4, 175-6, 215, 284, 482, 489, 432. Mattacciosa, 230. Megara Hyblaea, 135. Meilen, 289. JVIelilli, 205, 263. Mella, River, 343. Melos, 150. Mensano, 256. Mercurago, 289. 290-1, 397. Milan, 496. Milocoa, 432, 433, 463, 465-6-7, 474, 485. Minoio, 308. Moarda, 60, 85, 127, 134r-5, 137 .. . 143, 488-9, 159, 161, 163-4, 200, 215-16, 266, 268, 489. Modena, 191, 331. Modica, 129, 213, 465-6. Moerigen, 328. Molfetta, 77-8, 81-6, 106-7, 108, 157, 159-60, 176, 193, 217, 236, 266-7, 284, 416, 418, 484, 511-12. Molinari, dei, 128. MoUneUo, 433, 446, 474. Molino della Badia. See Grammichele. Moncuoco, 323, 493. MondeUo, 169. Mouserrato, 202. Montagna di Caltagirone. See Calta- girone. Montale, 354, 357, 361. Montata dell' Orto, 334, 336, 340-1, 342, 500, 503. Monteaperto, 21, 202. Monte Bego, 392. Monte Bradoni, 36, 95, 194r-5, 241, 263-4, 322. Monte Castellaocio, 178. Monteochio, 503. Monte della Pace, 238. Monte Dessueri, 453, 460-1, 462, 468, 473, 476, 487. Montegiorgio, 348, 387, 430. Monte Loffa, 112, 509. Monte Lonato, 365, 366, 370. Montemerano, 398, 428-30. Monteracello, 206-8, 212, 214, 258, 263, 271, 277, 282, 463, 486, 490. Monte Sara, 202. Monte Tabuto, 208-10, 212, 487. Monte Tignoso, 194. Monte Urpino, 143. MonticeUi, Is., 386. Monti Lessini, 65. Monti Pisani, 196. Montirone, 329. Monza, 323, 324, 325-6, 327. Moravia, 169. Morbilian, 171. Morges, 328, 495. Morocco, 394. Motke, 508. Mouliani. See Muliana. Muliani, 348, 470. Mulinello. See Molinello. Murgecchia, 107, 409, 410. Murgia Timone, 84, 107, 409-12. INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES 523 Mycenae, 281, 285, 348, 423, 430, 466, 472, 474. Mycenaean, 79, 85. Naples, 401. Naro, 202, 488, 489. Nazari, fondo, 198, 254 Nesazio, 512-14. New Guinea, 155. Nicolucci, Grotta di, 150, 404-5, 412, 509. Nile, 172-3. Nocera dei Pagaui, 419. North Greece, 217, 287, 418. Novilara, 161, 493, 514. Numidia, 174. Nurra, 230. Offida, 16, 389-391, 424. OgUo, River, 343. Onda, Grotta all', 57, 138, 150, 152, 159, 161, 164, 267. Oria, 512. Ortuccliio, 419. Pacengo, 308, 497. Padua, 180. Palaikaatro, 172, 287. Palermo, 124-5, 200, 482. Palestine, 271. Palmaria, Is., 197. Palmavera, 280. Panaro, River, 496, 498, 502. Panesella, 190. PantaUca, 235, 441, 448, 453-8, 460-2, 464, 472, 476-7-8, 487. Pantelleria, Is., 150, 208, 223-5, 269, 271, 274. Pareo dei Monaci, 16, 260, 419, 420, 425. Parma, 331, 496. Passarelli, 201. Passero, Cape, 433, 450. Patemo, 115, 157, 220. Pertosa, Grotta di, 84, 236, 376, 394, 402, 405-8, 412, 415-16-17, 426, 443, 486, 509. Pesaro, 514. Pesohiera, 305-8, 328, 430. Petrignano, 26. Petsofa, 286. Phaestos, 281. Pharsala, 217. Phrygia, 162, 169. Pian di Palma, 271. Pianosa, Is., 144, 150, 161, 194, 238-9, 241, 269, 273, 279, 280, 284-5, Piedmont, 154, 166, 314, 504. Pietole Veochio, 370. Pietrapertosa, 76. Pietrarossa, Grotta di, 201, 212, 214, 254, 465. Pilin, 507. PipistrelU, Grotta dei, 77-80, 83, 107, 115, 273. Plemmirio, 433-4, 437, 439, 463, 466, 473-4. Plemmyrium, 432. (See also under Plemmirio. ) Po, River, 166, 314-15, 342-3, 381, 419, 424, 494-5-6-7-8. Podbaba, 161. Poggio Aquilone, 192, 249. Polada, 95, 149, 195, 252, 301-4,312, 316, 318-19, 320,322, 358,397,510. PoUera, Grotta della, 45-51, 122, 155-6, 258, 264. Pomonte, 256. Ponte del Goro, 388. Pontine Is., 150. Porta Saragozza, 376, 412, 416. Portugal, 138, 148, 169, 170, 268, Povegliano, 330, 346, 348, 385-6, 394, 431, 503. Prana Omus, 226. Prevosta, 377, 416. Priesterhiigel, 162, 169. Procida, 150. Prussia, 170, 428. Psyohro, Cave of, 470. Puleri, Grotta di, 124, 135, 137, 163. Pulo, II, 77, 81-6, 107. See also under Molfetta. Punta del Tonno, 115. Pyrenees, 167. Red Sea, 168. Redu, 346. Reggio- Calabria, 486. Reggio EmiUa, 89-96, 101, 138, 149, 160-1, 163, 166, 175-6, 182, 196, 264 496 499. Remedello,' 161, 171, 186 sqq., 193, 198, 214, 240-1, 243, 245-6, 251, 254, 256, 261-2, 264, 265, 268, 278-9, 321-2, 303, 397. Renate, 295. Rhodes, 430, 437. Rhone, River, 167. Rimini, 498. Riualdone, 192. Ripai-, 315, 427, 508. Ripatransone, 344r-5, 387. Rivaltella, 90, 96, 110, 168. Rivetazzo, 222, 485. RivoU, 27, 70, 109, 150, 159-60, 164, 177-9, 181, 183-4. Rogorea, 323, 326. Romanelli, Grotta, 76. Rome, 32, 193, 480-1, 496-7-8. Romei, 373-4, 501. RotegUa, 500. Rotella, 387. Rossen, 155, 161. 524 INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES Rovere di Caorso, 339, 341. Russia, 170, 172. Sagh-el-Baglieh, 428. Saint Prex, 505. Salamis, 470. Salomone, Grotta di, 74, 197, 417. Samnium, 193. San Bartolomeo, 60, 169, 235, 237, 251-2, 254, 256, 258, 268. San Benedetto in Perillis, 420. San Canziano, Caverna di, 169, 198, 254 252 278. San Cono,'l20,'l37, 140-1, 149, 169, 267. San Ciosimo, 512. San Domino, 106. San Francesco, 470. San Gorgonio, Grotta di, 61. Sanguineto, II, 54. San Lazzaro, Grotta, 129, 203, 212, 252, 286. San Leo, 256. San Lorenzo in Nuoeto, 343-4. San Roeco, 191. Santa Cristina, 164, 190-1, 235, 257, 264 267 283 Sant' Augelo, Grotta di, 74^5, 197. Sant' Egidio, 26. Sant' Elia, 138, 157, 191, 197, 233, 236, 237-8, 242, 246, 261, 264, 266, 278, 284. San Teodoro, 33. Santerno, River, 26, 30. Sardinia, 85, 106, 127, 143-4, 147, 149, 150, 153, 155, 156, 159, 169, 174, 191, 193, 225-39, 258, 261-2, 263, 266-8, 269, 272, 274, 275-6, 279-80, 281-2, 283, 284-5-6, 322, 428-9, 483, 491. Sarkad, 506. Saturnia, 270. Save, River, 507. Savignano, 496. Savoy, 494. Saxony, 162, 268. Scalucoe di Molina, 65. Scandinavia, 170, 196, 263, 268, 275, 319, 348, 428. Sciri, 140. Scoglio del Tonno, 425. Sarajevo, 415. Serra d'Alto, 86, 107-9. Servia, 162, 415, 418. Servirola, 351. Sesklo, 85, 108, 161, 217, 288, 415. Seville, 169. Sgurgola, 168, 171, 193, 195, 249, 264, 269, 275-6, 279, 280, 318. Sicania, 479-80. Sicily, 123^3, 147, 150, 152, 155, 159-62, 171-2, 174-6, 186, 193, 200-25, 246, 248, 252, 262, 265, 267-8, 269, 273, 276, 279-81, 283, 284-5-6, 413-14, 432-91. Silesia, 154. Siphnos, la., 287. Sona, 342. S' Oreri, 144. South Europe, 276. Spain, 122, 138, 148, 156, 162, 166, 169, 170, 173, 176, 196, 198, 214, 237, 263^, 268, 282-3, 397, 414, 428-9, 482, 484. Stentinello, 79,82, 106, 129-34, 135- 7-9, 140-3, 157, 179, 162-4, 175-7, 200, 215-16, 282, 284, 286, 413, 482, 487-8-9. Styria, 154, 496, 510. Su Cadalauu, 229. Sweden, 171, 181. Switzerland, 154, 156, 170, 172, 289, 314, 316, 397-8, 504, 510. Syracuse, 127, 203, 432 ff. Talamone, Grotta di, 61. Tamaccio, II, 56. Tana della Mussina, La, 196-7, 242, 251-2. Taranto, 115-16, 157, 284, 412, 417, 421-4, 425-6-7, 509, 511-12. Tarmassia, 342. Tarquinia, 496. Terra d'Otranto, 270, 274-5. Terramaina, 144. Terranova, 27. Thapsos, 433, 438-45, 458, 463-4, 466-7, 473^, 486-7-8. Thera, 470. Theresienhohle, 162. Thessaly, 85, 108, 161, 217, 287-8, 415, 418. Thuringia, 509. Tiber, River, 26, 192, 496, 498. Timmari, 424. Tolfa, 470. Toppo San Klippo, 192, 264, 322. Torcello, 512, 515. Tordos, 161. Torre della Scalea, 33. Toscanella, 349, 379-80, 382, 394-5, 412, 418, 426. Toszeg, 506. Trana, 290, 328, 330. Trani, 419. Transylvania, 161. Trapani, 27. Trasimene, Lake, 147, 430. Traversetolo, 31. Trebbia, River, 498. Trebbo Sei Vie, 376, 382, 412. Tre Canali, 465. Tremiti, Is., 106, 236, 284. Trentino, the, 118, 386. INDEX TO PLACE-NAMES 525 Trestini, fondo, 428. Trieste, 161, 198, 254. Trinaoria, 479. Troy, 285, 287. Tunis, 175. Tuscany, 150, 166, 396-9, 424, 497. Tyrrhene Sea, 318. Ugazzi, Grotta degli, 60. Umbria, 396-9. Urzulei, 286. Val di Chiana, 428. Valle di Fontanalba, 392. VaUe d'Infemo, 392. Valle di Valauretta, 392. Valmasoa, 392. Valsavoia, 212, 221, 485, 487. Varese, Lake, 150, 246, 289-90, 292-5, 318, 320-1, 328, 397, 494, 497. Vayes, 63, 155. Vecohiano, 196. Veneto, II, 198, 290, 314, 316, 342, 394-6, 417, 494-5-6-7-8, 509-10. Venice, 512. Verona, 166. Verucchio, 496. Vhb di Piadena, 147. Vibrata Valley, 24, 29, 74, 89, 99-103, 104, 109-10, 147-8-9, 150, 153, 155, 156, 159, 161, 164, 177-81, 183, 197, 198, 250, 254, 256, 273, 278, 397-8, 401, 404, 416-17, 509. Vignazza, 129. Villa Bosi, 376. Villafrati, 120, 125, 134-5, 137-8 . . . 143, 159, 163-4, 169, 200, 201, 214- 15, 220, 264, 268, 271, 474, 488-90. Villanova, 357, 362, 493, 495, 499, 502. Vinca, 162. Virginia, Is.. 292-3. Viterbo, 192, 248-9, 250, 256-7, 263-4, 318. Vizzini, 465. Volongo, 190, 251. Volterra, 194. Western Europe, 275, 393, 482. Worms, 161, 169, 268. Wurtemburg, 494. Zachito, Grotta del, 408-9, 412. Zafer Papoura, 468-9, 474. Zena River, 383. Zerelia, 217. Zurich, Lake, 289. INDEX TO PLATES PLATE I. NEOLITHIC PERIOD. Fig. I. Mousterien punte, Vibrata Valley. Scale I. Fig. 2. Solutrfen lanceheads, Rivoli. Scale about J. Pig. 3. Decorated potsherds, Grotta all' Onda. Scale about J, (After Colini, Bull. Pal.) Fig. 4. Flint celts, Breonio. Scale about J. Fig. 5. Bone borers, Breonio. Scale f . Fig. 6. Incised potsherds, Matrensa. (After Orsi.) PLATE II. NEOLITHIC AND ENEOLITHIC PERIODS. Figs. 1-3. Neolithic painted potsherds, Molfetta. Scale f. Figs. 4, 5. Neolithic incised potsherds, Molfetta. Scale |. Figs. 6, 7. Neolithic vases, Camigliano. Scale |-. Figs. 8, 9. Eneolithio vases, cave of San Bartolomeo. Scale ^.^■ Figs. 10, 11. Eneolithic vases, Viterbo. Scale J. Figs. 12, 13. Eneolithic vases, Toppo San Filippo. Scale ^. Fig. 14. Stone club-head, near Bologna. Scale f. Fig. 15. Copper chisel, San Leo. Scale j. Fig. 16. Flint arrowhead, San Leo. Scale i. Fig. 17. Perforated axehead, near Bologna. Figs. 18, 19. Flint daggers, Remedello. Scale f . Fig. 20. Stone hammer-axe, Viterbo. Scale about J. Pig. 21. Stone club-head, Viterbo. Scale about -J. PLATE III. POTTERY PROM LAKE-DWELLINGS. Figs. 1, 2. Castiglione delle Stiviere. Scale 4. Figs. 3, 4. Castiglione delle Stiviere. Scale J. Figs. 5, 6. Castiglione delle Stiviere. Scale J. Figs. 7, 8. Castiglione delle Stiviere. Scale -}. Pigs. 9, 10. Castiglione delle Stiviere. Scale J. Figs. 11, 12. Lagazzi. Scale about i. Figs. 13-19. Arqua. Scale about J. (After Alfonsi.) Fig. 20. Polada. Scale J. Fig. 21. Arqua. (After Alfonsi.) Fig. 22. Polada. Scale J. PLATE IV. TERRAMARA PERIOD. Pig. 1. Ossuary, Copezzato. Scale J. Fig. 2. Ritual vases, Montale. Scale J. Fig. 3. Ossuary, Copezzato. Scale J. 528 INDEX TO PLATES PLATE IV. TERRAMARA V'ERIOT)— continued. Fig. 4. Furrowed potsherds, Mincio. Scale about \. Fig. 5. Furrowed vase-bottoms, terremare. Scale about \. Fig. 6. Furrowed vase, terremare. Scale J. Fig. 7. ' Shovel ' vase, terremare. Scale J. Figs. 8, 9. Ladles with ansa lunata, terremare. Scale J. Figs. 10, 11. Ossuaries, Crespellano. Scale ^. Figs. 12, 13. Vases, terremare. Scale ^. Figs. 14-16. Bronze knives, Peschiera. Scale about J. Pigs. 17, 18. Bronze razors, Peschiera. Scale about J. PLATE V. TERRAMARA PERIOD. Figs. 1-3. Bronze celt and knives. Lake Iseo. Scale about J. Figs. 4-6. Bone piercers, terremare. Scale f. Fig. 7. Stag's-horn hammer, terremare. Scale |. Fig. 8. Stag's-horn ' bits ', terremare. Scale J. Fig. 9. Winged celt, Peschiera. Scale J. Pig. 10. Perforated stone hammer, Castione. Scale f . Figs. 11, 12. Bone pin-heads, Besenzone. Scale f. Fig. 13. Mould for casting bronze sickle, terremare. Scale J. PLATE VL HUT- VILLAGES AND CAVES, BRONZE AGE. Figs. 1, 2. Vases, Grotta del Fam6. Scale 1. Fig. 3. Crested handles, Toscanella. Scale f. Fig. 4. Spouted vase, Toscanella. Scale ^. Fig. 5. Vase with ansa cilindro-retta, Toscanella. Scale ^. Figs. 6, 7. Crescent handles, Toscanella. Scale about J. Fig. 8. Incised pottery, Grotta del Fame. Scale about ^. Fig. 9. Incised pottery, Toscanella. Scale about J. Fig. 10. Potsherds, Trebbo Sei Vie. Scale i. Oxford : Printed at the Clarendon Press by Horace Hakt, M.A. Plate I Neolithic Period Plate II Neolithic and Eneolithic Periods Plate III Lake-d-welling Pottery Plate IV Lake-dwellings and terremare Plate V Lake-dwellings (figs. 1-3) and terremare Plate VI Bronze Age, hut-villages and oaves MAP 1 ITALY IN THE NEOLITHIC AND ENEOLITHIC PERIODS MAP 1 Acqua (cavern), 3. Alatri, 45. Alba Cuneo, 2. Albinea, 23. Andn'a, 54. Anghelu Euju, 65. AjDuan Alps, 27. Arene Candide, 4. Bergeggi, 6. Bosco di Malta, 26. Breonio, 14. Buca delle Fate, 31. Ca' di Marco, 9. Calerno, 18. Camerata, 43. Camigliano, 39. Campeggine, 21. Cantalupo Mandela, 42. Castello (G-rotta di), 29. Castelnuovo di Sotto, 17. Cavone, 46. Collecchio, 20. Corona de' Coppa, 47. Cumarola, 25. Diavolo (Grotta del), 62. Dos Trento, 15. Fano, 83. Fiumane, 55. Fontanella, 10. Gargano, 50. Giara, 66. Gorgona Is., 30. Jesi, 35. Lecce, 60. Lesina (Lago di), 49. Lipari Is,, 63. Macchia di Mare, 52. Matera, 58. Molfetta, 53. Monte Bradoni, 32. Monte Urpino, 68. Nurra, 64. Palmaria Is., 28. Panesella, 11. Pianosa Is., 40. Pietrapertosa (Grotta di), 57. Poggio Aquilone, 38. Pollera, 7. Pontine Is., 56. Pulo di Molfetta, 53. Eemedello, 12. Einaldone, 41. Eivaltella, 22. Eivoli, 13. Eomanelli (Grotta di), 61. San Canziano, 16. Sanguineto, 5. San Eocco, 34. Santa Cristina, 8. Sant' Elia, 69. Sant' Ilario, 19. Sgurgola, 44. S' Oreri, 67. Tana della Mussina, 24. Taranto, 59. Toppo S. Pilippo, 48. Trasimene (Lake), 37. Tremiti Is., 51. Vayes, 1. Vibrata, 36. ITALY DURING THE NEOLITHIC — AND — ENEOLITHIC PERIODS MAP 2 THE PO VALLEY DURING THE BRONZE AGE Based partly on Pigorini's map in Helbig's Die Italikerin der Poebene Albairate, 84. Arqua, 104. Baragalla, 126. Bazzano, 137. Bertarina, 143. Bissone, 85. Bodio, 74. Bologna, 135. Bovolone, 109. Brabbia, 75. Ca' di Cioss, 92. Campeggine, 122. Canavedo, 106. Capriano, 78. Casoina, 97. Cascina Eaiiza, 83. Casinalbo, 132. Castelfranco, 133. Castellacoio, 142. Castellarano. 129. Castellazzo, 119. Castelnuovo rogliani. 116. Castione, 118. Cataragna, 95. Cattabrega. 82. Chiavichetto, 91. Coarezza, 76. Collecohio, 120, Colombare Bersano. 115. Colombo di Mori, 100. Copezzato, 113, Crespellano, 136. Deniorta, 110. Fame, 139. Fiastri, 124. Fimon, 101. Fontoga, 102. Formiffine, 127. Gorzano, 130. Gottolengo, 90. Iseo, 87. Ivrea, 71. Lagazzi, 93. Lagozza, 77. Lodi, 86. Lonato, 89. Lozzo Atestino, 103. Maccacari, 111. Marendole, 105. Mercurago, 72. Monoucco, 81. Montale, 131. Montata dell' Orto, 117. Monza, 80. Parma, 121. Peschieva. 96. Pietole, 94. Polada, 88. Povegliano, 107. Prevosta, 141. Eogorea, 79. Eomei, 123 Roteglia, 128. Rovere di Caorso, 114. Saline, 99. San Lorenzo in Nuceto. 144, Savana di Cibeno, 125. Savignano. 138. Sona. 98, Tarmassia, 108, Toscanella, 140, Trana, 70. Trebbo Sei Vie, 137. Varese, 73. Viadana. 112. 10 40 40 /(J, Kilometres The Po Valley IN THE Bronze Age + TjC/}/!/fMffff/f E) Cjjve. MAP 3 MAP 3 ITALY DURING THE BRONZE AGE. Battifolle, 148. Conelle, 145. Coppa della Nevigata. 152. Felci, 160. Frasassi. 146. Matera, 158. Montemerano, 147. Nicolucci, 159. Nocera dei Pagani, 158. Offida, 149. Parco dei Monaci. 155. Pertosa, 156. San Benedetto in Perillis. 151. Taranto, 154. Vibrata Eiver, 150. Zachito, 157. ITALY DURING THE BRONZF ACE MAP 4 SICILY IN THE PRE-HISTORIC PERIODS Barriera, 172. Calafarina (Grotta), 200. Caldare, 166. 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