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THE CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 
 
ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
THE 
 
 CHRISTIAN ETHIC 
 
 WILLIAM KNIGHT, LL.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS 
 
 LONDON 
 
 JOHN MURRAY 
 
 1893 
 
TO 
 
 THE RIGHT REVEREND 
 
 THE 
 
 BISHOP OF SALISBURY, 
 
 WHOSE SUGGESTION 
 
 IT IS 
 
 PUBLISHED, 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED, 
 
 WITH 
 SINCERE REGARD. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It is impossible to understand the Christian 
 Ethic aright without some knowledge of the 
 antecedent moral systems of the world, 
 especially the Semitic and the Greek ; nor 
 can we estimate it truly, unless we take note 
 of the fact that it came into the world " as a 
 grain of mustard seed," destined to grow and 
 develop ; and that, in the course of its evolu- 
 tion, it has been influenced collaterally by a 
 thousand things, that have conjointly and 
 successively made it what it now is. In 
 other words, some knowledge of its relation 
 to the past and the future is essential to an 
 adequate understanding, both of its origin 
 and its significance for all time. 
 
 The type of character and action, which is 
 distinctively the product of the Christian 
 Religion, has^ — like every. other development 
 of the life of mankind — a historical basis ; 
 and its highest vindication will perhaps be 
 
viii Preface. 
 
 found to be its subsequent outcome, or the 
 results it has wrought out. If its incoming, 
 and its evolution — more especially its " in- 
 creasing purpose " — have developed new- 
 ideals, and created types of character pre- 
 viously unknown, these ideals and types 
 become historic witness-bearers to a fact of 
 immeasurable value to the future of the world. 
 This litrie book is issued as a partial 
 answer to the question, "What are the 
 distinctive features of the Christian Ethic, as 
 distinguished from the other moral systems 
 of the world?" It must be noted at the 
 outset, however, that it is a total mistake to 
 divide the philosophy, or the science, of Ethics 
 into two sharply contrasted sections — the one 
 dealing with the natural, and the other with 
 the supernatural — or the one Pagan, and the 
 other Christian. If there be a fundamental 
 chasm, or " great gulf fixed," between these 
 two — if, in other words, the Christian super- 
 seded the natural Ethic of the world — the 
 discussion of their mutual relations would 
 end, much in the same way as a province is 
 
Preface. ix 
 
 annexed by a victorious army. Throughout 
 the Middle Ages the chasm between Nature 
 and the Supernatural was widened in an un- 
 natural manner ; and, during that remarkable 
 period in the development of the human mind, 
 Ethics — while subordinated to Theology — 
 was manacled by artificial fetters. If, how- 
 ever, one aim of the Christian religion be the 
 restoration of harmony between Nature and 
 the Supernatural, it will be seen that the 
 mediaeval tendency was not only unscientific, 
 but was at the same time retrograde. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the teaching 
 of the Founder of Christianity was primarily 
 moral teaching, while it involved elements of 
 dogm;i and of experience as well. It is to 
 be noted at the same time that our inquiry 
 into the distinctive features of the Christian 
 Ethic does not affect, or even trench upon, 
 theological dogma. It may perhaps be found 
 that its_JEthic has occasionally saved thei 
 Christian dogma from crystallising, under the 
 rigidity of tradition, by introducing a vital and] 
 progressiv e elem ent, alongside of that which is 
 
X Preface. 
 
 fixed and stationary. On the other hand, 
 and reciprocally, the intellectual or doctrinal 
 aspects of the Christian Ethic have given con- 
 sistency and strength to its morality ; and its 
 recognition of the Divine in relation to the 
 human, has sometimes saved it from becoming 
 both meagre and diffuse. The two things 
 — morality and dogma — are at once inde- 
 pendent, and inter-dependent. They are 
 organically connected as coefficients. When 
 one of them has been vital and strong, it has 
 always been helpful to the other. If there is 
 no historic instance in which the decay of 
 religious belief has promoted morality, there 
 is certainly none in which ethical decay has 
 been helpful to religion. The absence of the 
 latter may not always, or at once, have 
 undermined morality, but it has never ad- 
 vanced it ; although, it is essential to a strong 
 and stable Ethic that all unverifiable dogmas 
 in reference to Religion be candidly exposed, 
 and deliberately set aside. 
 
 We are bound, however, by the supreme 
 necessities both of the intellect and of the 
 
Preface. xi 
 
 heart, to retain all that is verifiable in the 
 sphere of dogma ; and we find, historically, 
 that much belonging to that sphere has 
 been helpful to the moral life of mankind. 
 Suppose, e.g., that there is conclusive evi- 
 dence, not only of a mora.1 order existing 
 independently of the individual, but also of a 
 moral Centre toward which individual effort 
 tends, and of an infinite Orderer who from 
 that centre controls the moral sphere, such a 
 fact must, in a very important way, influence 
 the conduct of the race. 
 
 To begin with, nioraUaw may be regarded 
 as the result of the long-continued effort of 
 society to conserve itself — of the individual 
 to adjust his relations to the organism of 
 which he forms a part, and of human society 
 to adjust its relations to the individual units 
 composing it — so that the largest and the 
 highest possible good may result to every 
 member in the body corporate. But if 
 that be a radical — and perhaps the pri- 
 mitive — idea of morality, it is not neces- 
 sarily the whole of it. It would require 
 
xii Preface. 
 
 many volumes to indicate the amount of 
 moral life, evolved and developed in the 
 world, before the introduction of Christianity. 
 
 To suppose that the Christian Ethic was 
 altogether new is to disregard the most 
 obvious facts of history. " Doing justly, 
 loving mercy, and walking- humbly," were 
 recognised and honoured in the earlier 
 systems, and these virtues were practised 
 far and wide, long before the commence- 
 ment of our era. 
 
 No dispassionate student of history can 
 however doubt that the incoming of the 
 Christian Ethic has resulted in the formation 
 of a new type of character and conduct, 
 which may be literally described as "a new 
 heaven in a new earth ". Perhaps supreme 
 amongst its results has been its influence in 
 retining and ennobling the relations of the 
 sexes. The ideals of manhood and woman- 
 hood, their mutual relations — each one de- 
 veloping the other, and bringing out all 
 that is noblest and best in it, each being 
 nevertheless distinct from the other. 
 
Preface. xiii 
 
 For woman is not undeveloped man 
 But diverse — 
 
 these things were never taught in the same 
 way by any antecedent system. The Christian 
 virtues of constancy, patience, tenderness, and 
 devotion between the sexes have given rise 
 to altogether new phases of character— the 
 trust of the child, the devotion of the mother, 
 che self-sacrifice of the sister for the brother, 
 the toil of the father for his son, and of the 
 son at times for his parents. All this has 
 been the product of a new process of evolution 
 within the Christian brotherhood, but it was 
 not evolved out of the antecedent Ethic of 
 the world. 
 
 It is vain to think of exhausting the dis- 
 cussion of this subject : its ramifications are 
 endless, and are both theoretical and practical. 
 The aim of the present volume will have 
 been met, however, if it induces others to 
 pursue research within a field which is not yet 
 wrought out. Its adequate discussion demands 
 wide knowledge and deep reverence. The 
 attempt to determine what the Christian 
 
xiv Preface. 
 
 virtues are calls for the exercise of candour, 
 sympathy, courage, and fair-mindedness, es- 
 pecially toward opponents ; while, at the same 
 time, the investigator goes on his own way, 
 and takes his special path, till the end is 
 reached. 
 
 The consideration of Ethics as a branch 
 of Philosophy, of Science, and of History, I 
 reserve for future discussion. 
 
 WILLIAM KNIGHT. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 Preface, - vii 
 
 I. Prolegomena, i 
 
 11. Divine Fatherhood and Human Brotherhood, - 17 
 
 III. The Immortality of the Individual,- - 31 
 
 IV. The Nature of Evil, 41 
 V. Aspects of Duty, 51 
 
 VI. The Universal Aim of Christianity, - 57 
 VII. Virtues which are a Development of the 
 
 Character of Christ, 61 
 VIII. Self-Sufficience and Humility, - 6g 
 IX. Devotion to Others, 78 
 X. Social Equality ; Christian Socialism ; Phil- 
 anthropy, - 89 
 XI. The Forgiveness of Injuries, 99 
 XII. The Passive Virtues, hi 
 
 XIII. Farther Characteristics of Christian Virtue, 113 
 
 XIV. "The hate of Hate, the scorn of Scorn," 121 
 XV. The Relation of Christianity to Wealth and 
 
 Poverty respectively, 130 
 
 XVI. Addenda, 141 
 
 Appendix I., The Individual and the Social Idea, 153 
 „ II., The Correlation of the Moral 
 
 Forces, 159 
 
 ,, III., Authority and Confession, - i6g 
 
 ,, IV., Bibliography, - 174 
 
THE CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 PROLEGOMENA. 
 
 When Nature is separated from the Super- 
 natural by a sharp line of demarcation, what 
 is common to those systems of morality which 
 sprang up before the Christian era, and the 
 greater one, in the atmosphere of which the 
 modern world lives, is apt to be forgotten. On 
 the same ground the Philosophy of Religion, 
 and the science of Comparative Theology, are 
 frequently ignored. It is thought by many 
 that Christianity superseded Philosophy, and 
 made it superfluous ; more especially that it 
 suppressed the antecedent Ethic of the world. 
 It may be as well therefore, before drawing 
 out the distinctive peculiarities of the Christian 
 Ethic, to consider this view of the case, in a 
 few preliminary paragraphs. 
 
 t 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 (i) The first point to be noted is that 
 Christianity was not an entirely new product, 
 springing up de novo, or descending de ccelo ; 
 and that, in consequence, there is much in its 
 moral teaching that is common to it, and to the 
 ethics of Greece and the East. It appeared 
 as a new development, working strictly on the 
 lines of antecedent history, and was of neces- 
 sity " the heir of all the ages," systems, and 
 philosophies of the past. It also freely 
 assimilated elements kindred with its own, 
 wherever it found them. It was not only 
 the culmination of Judaism; but, as the uncon- 
 scious "desire of all nations," it was the com- 
 pletion, and the fruit, of much that had gone 
 before it. It would have told against Chris- 
 tianity, and not in its favour, if it had set 
 itself in antagonism either to the Philosophy, 
 the Art, or the Religion of the past ; and we 
 find very curious parallels between much 
 connected with its origin and that of other 
 religions, while there were many things in 
 the life, the character, and the aims of its 
 Founder, that were kindred with the genius 
 
Prolegomena. 
 
 of apparently antagonistic systems. But its 
 secret affinity with everything true and good 
 beyond itself is only a sign of its width of 
 sympathy, and its world-embracing character ; 
 while it may also be evidence of its universal 
 destiny. 
 
 (2) A. second feature in the Christian Ethic 
 is its unique combinations; or its union of prin- 
 ciples, which are elsewhere antagonistic, or 
 very partially harmonised. We shall find, as 
 we proceed, that it brought out of obscurity, 
 and set its seal of recognition upon, a group 
 of virtues, which were merely guessed at in 
 earlier times. We shall find that what was a 
 rudimentary or obscure germ, in other systems, 
 is raised by it to a central place ; while many 
 of the miscellaneous rules of duty, scattered 
 precepts or counsels — which occur more as 
 suggestions, than as developed principles else- 
 where — are brought to a focus in Christianity, 
 and are illumined by their alliance with the new 
 elements evolved and illustrated in its ethic. 
 
 (3) A third point is that Christianity gave 
 to the world certain moral ideas, which it has 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 been the task of subsequent centuries to de- 
 velop, the full significance of which could not 
 possibly be known at the beginning of its 
 history. In the first century of our era it was 
 impossible to foresee the latent possibilities 
 of growth, and the vast power of expansion, 
 that lay within it. This is significantly 
 brought out in one of the symbols used by 
 its Founder, viz., the parable of the mustard 
 seed. We may take as one illustration of it, 
 the union of the human and the Divine, or 
 the reconciliation of the natural and the super- 
 natural, by means of which all the dualism — 
 which remained unsubdued in the Greek 
 morality — is overcome ; and human life is re- 
 constituted, not so much from its base up- 
 wards, as from Its centre outwards. That 
 idea was expressed in the earliest Christian 
 records ; but ages of development, and of 
 controversy, were required, before its import 
 could be adequately understood. It may be 
 that its full significance is only now being 
 discerned, and that further developments will 
 unfold it still further. 
 
Prolegomena. 
 
 As another illustration, take the universal 
 element in the Christian religion, or its 
 mission to the masses of mankind. That 
 too was announced at the first, but its full 
 extent is only now being understood, in the 
 union of Christian socialism with the aristo- 
 cratic ideal. The same thing is to be seen in 
 the more refined types of virtue which are 
 being developed, and which have been very 
 slowly evolved, in the course of the ages ; so 
 that we may say, without exaggeration, that if 
 — as St. Augustine put it — there was a Chris- 
 tianity before Christ, Christianity is still ex- 
 panding and developing, and that it is growing 
 with the growth of Christendom. 
 
 A historical fact of some importance may 
 be mentioned in this connection, viz., that 
 while the philosophy of Stoicism influenced 
 the Jewish modes of thought, and coloured 
 the teaching of its schools — while it also in- 
 directly influenced the first Christian teachers 
 — the Stoics, on the contrary, received nothing 
 from Christianity. Stoicism was the philoso- 
 phy of the Pharisees. It was the philosophy 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 in which St. Paul was educated ; and, in his 
 address on Mars Hill at Athens, he showed 
 that he was acquainted with one or other (or 
 with both) of the Stoic poets, Aratus and 
 Clean thes. Now, when it is said that Chris- 
 tianity received some things from Stoicism, 
 and that we have no evidence that Stoicism 
 received anything from Christianity, the 
 statement may seem derogatory to the latter; 
 but it is the very reverse. It is a sign of its 
 immense superiority, because of its power of 
 receiving and assimilating what was good 
 outside of itself. Stoicism was rigid, inelastic, 
 unassimilative, non-eclectic. From this came 
 its sterility, and its final decline. Christianity, 
 on the contrary, allied itself with all it found 
 true in the previous thought of the world. 
 From this has come its hold on the future, its 
 power of growth, its inextinguishable fertility, 
 its immortal youth, and its rejuvenescence 
 from age to age. 
 
 (4) The fourth point is that, in comparing 
 the Christian Ethic with previous and subse- 
 quent systems, the primary question is not 
 
Prolegomena. 
 
 whether the result in moral practice has invari- 
 ably been higher in Christendom than it has 
 been amongst the disciples of other and com- 
 peting creeds. The question to be first con- 
 sidered is the relative merit of the systems 
 themselves. It is unquestionably true that a 
 system, the adoption of which makes no dif- 
 ference tQ the practical life of a people, can- 
 not be regarded as intrinsically more excellent 
 than one that is intellectually or morally its 
 inferior ; but no unbiassed student of history 
 can deny that the practical life of Christendom 
 has, on the whole, shown an immense advance 
 upon the morals of pre-Christian ages and non- 
 Christian lands. The primary question, how- 
 ever, is not whether isolated instances of noble 
 conduct, or even of practice as heroic as the 
 Christian, have been seen beyond its frontier. 
 That may be at once admitted. Self-sacrifice, 
 generosity, constancy, patience, and purity of 
 life have all been seen under other types of 
 civilisation. Nay, it must also be admitted 
 that Christianity displaced, for a time, some 
 of the earlier virtues, which had been 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 developed under the antecedent systems, or 
 at least threw them into the shade. Take, 
 as one example of this, the Greek virtue of 
 patriotism, in its finer phases. For ar time, 
 that virtue had no glory to the eye of Chris- 
 tendom, because of a glory that excelled it ; 
 and, however intense and glowing, it was a 
 narrow — if not a provincial — virtue ; while 
 the larger philanthropy of the Christian 
 Ethic displaced it inevitably. 
 
 In connection with this it may be noted — 
 both as a psychological and historical fact — 
 that the wider any emotion becomes in the 
 course of its development, it necessarily loses 
 some of the intensity it had in its narrower 
 sphere. Thus, something was lost for a time 
 at the birth of Christianity, which the world 
 possessed before. The Christian Ethic, how- 
 ever, is not to be blamed for this. It is 
 rather to be honoured : first, because its 
 inmost spirit is conservative of goodj wherever 
 it finds it ; secondly, because it invariably adds 
 to the good it finds a fresh element of its 
 own ; and thirdly, because without such a 
 
Prolegomena. 
 
 temporary displacement of an old virtue, a 
 new one could not possibly arise. 
 
 Take, as another example of the displace- 
 ment of a virtue, one belonging to the class 
 which Aristotle would have regarded as an 
 intellectual, rather than a moral virtue, viz., 
 that passionate eagerness with which the finer 
 spirits in Greece pushed on in their quest for 
 speculative truth. That was an intellectual 
 virtue of the first magnitude. But it was 
 necessarily cast into the shade at the birth of 
 Christianity. The new Religion so mono- 
 polised and absorbed its votaries that they 
 could not fail to ignore much that was good 
 in the previous speculation of the world. It 
 was part of the genius and mission of Chris- 
 tianity that it appealed, not to the educated 
 few, but to the masses of the uneducated ; who, 
 in their religious training, needed the pictorial 
 and the concrete, rather than the speculative 
 and the abstract. It magnetised these men, 
 and drew them on in fervid allegiance ; 
 and thus its earliest disciples embraced the 
 Christian religion in an unreflective manner. 
 
lo The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Religious intuition, rather than philosophic 
 second-sight, directed them ; and all, who thus 
 adopted the new Religion, of necessity for the 
 time being abandoned Philosophy. 
 
 From this it will be seen in what sense 
 Christianity set Philosophy aside, or rather 
 why a speculative or rational view of Chris- 
 tianity was impossible in the first Christian 
 age. The leaven of the new Religion — with 
 vast ideas lying latent in it, hidden in their 
 germs — could not possibly have laid hold of 
 the human heart, and taken root in the world, 
 if it had entered into it in a philosophical 
 form. Its individual disciples, and the world 
 at large, required to seize it first of all by in- 
 tuition — by unsophisticated feeling, and the 
 response of the heart — while reflection upon 
 it followed afterwards ; and long time was 
 required for the development of its contents, 
 the evolution of its latent germs, and the 
 comprehension of its vast significance. 
 
 (5) The next preliminary point is a corol- 
 lary of the last, viz., the futility of the 
 charges which have been advanced against 
 
Prolegomena. 1 1 
 
 Christianity on the ground of its aggressive 
 attitude. Every new movement of civiHsa- 
 tion — each philosophy, nay, every literary, 
 social, or political scheme — is, and must be. 
 to a certain extent, antagonistic to its pre- 
 decessors. In proportion to the originality, 
 or the uniqueness of its origin, it must be 
 iconoclastic ; because, its very raison d'etre 
 is the inadequacy of the past. It was there- 
 fore inevitable that the primitive heralds and 
 missionaries of Christianity should come into 
 collision with much that was good in other 
 religions, that they should sometimes ignore 
 that good, and be occasionally blind to the 
 excellences they came across. How, for 
 example, could St. Paul be expected to do 
 what the modern world calls "artistic justice" 
 to the art of Phidias, and of the Periclean age ? 
 We cannot conceive him getting into raptures 
 over the Venus de Milo or the Castellani 
 Aphrodite, had he chanced to see them. 
 When he preached on Mars Hill he was 
 fronting the wondrous Parthenon, with its 
 unrivalled symmetry of form, and perfection 
 
12 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 of detail. It is very questionable if he ever 
 glanced at the frieze with its marvellous 
 statuary in the metopes. He would have 
 been probably quite indifferent to the literary 
 and philosophical merits of Plato's Republic, 
 or to Aristotle's Ethics either as a rrianual of 
 duty or a work of art. We cannot imagine 
 him having any interest in, if he could ever 
 have had leisure to read, the " tale of Troy 
 divine,' or the Antigone of Sophocles ; any 
 more than he could have anticipated the 
 future, and been able to appreciate such 
 things as the Divina CoiuTnedia of Dante, the 
 music of Palestrina, the sonatas of Beethoven, 
 or the poetry of Tennyson. But there is no- 
 thing strange in this. It was inevitable every 
 way. Each religious system destined to live 
 — and worth living — has necessarily come into 
 collision with much that was excellent in the 
 systems it supplanted. It might be possible 
 for a system, not destined for life and practice, 
 but for contemplation only, to be scrupulously 
 fair to everything around it. Speculation can 
 be catholic, and comprehensive ; contempla- 
 
Prolegomena. 1 3 
 
 tion can be eclectic ; but a moral system, that 
 is to leaven imperfect human nature, must 
 come into collision with imperfection ; and 
 therefore, in the initial stages of its career, 
 it cannot be absolutely impartial. The im- 
 partiality, which some systems rank as a 
 cardinal virtue, would at that stage lead to 
 indifference and the loss of enthusiasm, if not 
 to positive stagnation. 
 
 (6) Further, and as a sixth preliminary 
 point, it is only now, after ages of controversy 
 and conquest, that we are able to see the 
 Christian Ethic in its completed character, 
 and to eliminate the essential from its acci- 
 dental elements. We cannot ascertain all the 
 specific features of its morality by a mere 
 examination of the Biblical records. In these 
 documents we have no detailed summary 
 even of the chief points of Christian doctrine. 
 Hence the need of the subsequent labours of 
 the creed-builders, of the moralists, and of 
 the systematic theologians of the Church 
 catholic. They have drawn out for posterity 
 many elements that were latent at the first, 
 
14 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 and have made explicit what was then the 
 implicit possession of the world and the 
 Church. In addition to this, it was necessary 
 that the new Ethic should incarnate itself (as 
 it were) — that its leaven should have time to 
 work, and to influence humanity — before all 
 its various elements could be accurately un- 
 folded and determined. It is for this reason 
 that, in trying to get a comprehensive view of 
 the genius scope and tendency of the Chris- 
 tian system, we must take the whole subse- 
 quent history^ of Christendom into account ; 
 and further, that while reading and interpret- 
 ing those documents which record its origin, 
 partly in the light of that to which it has 
 given rise, we must not contemplate any 
 of its isolated types — in other words the 
 various sects which have arisen, with their 
 peculiar " notes " of doctrine or of dogma — 
 but we must look to that catholic and cosmo- 
 politan Church, which is independent of party. 
 It is often said that such a Church does not 
 exist ; and that we must all be sectarian, 
 whether we know it, or know it not. To this 
 
Piolegomena. 1 5 
 
 it may be replied by a simple counter state- 
 ment, viz., that it is possible to get beneath 
 the dialect of the sects, and to apprehend 
 what is central in the Christian Ethic, as well , 
 as what is radical in its Theology. It may 
 require some moral insight to do so, but we 
 have neither to ascend into heaven, nor to go 
 down into the deep to find it, because the 
 thing is near at hand. We only require a 
 sympathetic spirit, and a heart "at leisure 
 from itself". 
 
 To discover the characteristic features of 
 this new Ethic, we must first of all examine 
 the history of its origin ; that is to say we 
 must know it, as unfolded in the books which 
 form the New Testament canon ; and it is 
 the subject-matter, or moral contents of these 
 books — -rather than their origin — that here 
 concern us. Next, we must become ac- 
 quainted with the contemporary records of 
 historians and critics, both friends and foes. 
 Then, the details which have survived of the 
 lives of those men, who were its earliest dis- 
 ciples and advocates, should be known ; and 
 
r6 . The Christian Ethic. 
 
 next, the subsequent history of Christendom, 
 and the influence which it has exerted for 
 eighteen centuries on the thought, the life, 
 and the civilisation of the world. We must 
 also take into account the numerous Institu- 
 tions, which have sprung up in the wake of 
 Christianity; and all the varied work that has 
 been done in the world with a philanthropic 
 aim, which has been its unmistakable fruit — 
 although the workers may not always have 
 known of it. Finally, we must note the moral 
 atmosphere which surrounds the modern 
 world, and which we all unconsciously breathe, 
 altho gh many of those who breathe it are 
 ignorant of the source whence it comes. All 
 these things must be summed up, and taken 
 together, in order to ascertain what the world 
 owes to Christianity, and what the distinctive 
 features of its morality are. 
 
 So much for our preliminary questions 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DIVINE FATHERHOOD AND HUMAN 
 BROTHERHOOD. 
 
 Looking back from the vantage ground of 
 the nineteenth century we find that in Chris- 
 tianity we have a new body of moral doctrine, 
 due to at least two separate causes. 
 
 In the first place, moral life has been 
 evoked, and nourished, through the recog- 
 nition of certain truths — both as to the 
 Divine Nature, and the human — which were 
 previously known only in fragment ; but which 
 have been brought out explicitly in the Chris- 
 tian Ethic, and have been harmonised with 
 each other. 
 
 These are (i) the truth of Monotheism, 
 
 transfigured by Christianity into that of the 
 
 Divine Fatherhood ; (2) the moral unity of 
 
 the race, transfigured by Christianity into the 
 
 universal Human Brotherhood ; and (3) its 
 
 moral destiny, illumined by Christianity in 
 (17) 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 the form of Personal Immortality- There is 
 further (4) the teaching of Christianity as to 
 the nature of Evil, especially the distinction it 
 draws between sins and faults ; (5) its teach- 
 ing as to Duty, more particularly its positive 
 character, as compared with the negative 
 spirit of Hebraism ; and (6) Its method of 
 Reformation or Recovery, by the unification 
 of the Divine and the human natures. 
 
 In the second place, there were certain 
 virtues connected with the life and the teach- 
 ing of Jesus, which are pre-eminently Christian, 
 because they were first exhibited in moral har- 
 mony by Him. To these two sources the 
 distinctive features of the Christian ethic may 
 be traced. 
 
 Turning to the first class of virtues — or 
 those which were due to the recognition of 
 truths or ideas, lying previously in shadow 
 or merely guessed at — the first point to be 
 noted is the monotheistic root of the Chris- 
 tian Religion. Much of its morality arose out 
 of the recognition of God, as morally related 
 to the individual. It was not based upon an 
 
The Divine Fatherhood. 19 
 
 abstract doctrine of virtue ; nor did it appear, 
 in the first instance, in the form of an elabor- 
 ated system, but as a new Life, due to the re- 
 cognition of God in conscience. Hence it is 
 that Christian morality culminates in piety. 
 While Hellenic piety was in a sense the bloom 
 of its morality, Christian ethic was from the 
 very outset, the flower of devotion, or the 
 blossoming of piety. This characteristic it 
 owed partly to the noble elements it received 
 from Judaism; and if we would discover all its 
 distinctive characteristics, we must compare it 
 not only with the Greek, but also with the 
 Hebrew morality ; while we contrast them both 
 with the Oriental. To take the latter first. As 
 compared with the Asiatic quicksand of an ethic 
 unconsolidated by religion, Jewish morality 
 was " founded on the rock " of monotheistic 
 belief The doctrine of " I am that I am " — 
 or of the Eternal as a recognisable Being re- 
 lated to the individual — lay at the root of the 
 Hebraic righteousness ; and it was reiterated 
 by the prophets and seers of Israel for genera- 
 tions. In other words, the "doing justly," 
 
20 The Christian Eihic. 
 
 and " loving mercy " was indissolubly asso- 
 ciated with " walking humbly with God ". 
 The Monotheism of the Jew, however, was 
 not the final solution of the mystery of the 
 Divine Nature and character. While Chris- 
 tianity took up this Monotheism, which it 
 Inherited, it did more than merely assimilate 
 It. It interwove with it the further idea of 
 the Divine Fatherhood, an idea which was 
 first articulately taught, and practically borne 
 witness to, by the Founder of the Christian 
 religion. The foreshadowings of this idea, 
 which occur in Hebrew literature, were casual 
 guesses, surmises, or figures of speech. It 
 only became apparent in the light of that 
 unique Life, which, when revealing the wealth 
 of the filial nature, at the same time disclosed 
 the paternal. 
 
 It is also to be noted that the Christian 
 Ethic recognised, and Included, a truth which 
 lay within the early Pantheistic systems, viz., 
 that the finite and the Infinite were capable 
 of union, there being no absolute chasm 
 between them. Hebraic theism pure and 
 
The Divine Fatherhood. 21 
 
 simple, looking upon the Divine and the 
 human as two natures standing apart, with a 
 wide chasm between them — natures between 
 whom a contract could be made, or a covenant 
 adjusted — did not fully recognise the counter 
 truth of the unity of the two. Pantheism threw 
 emphasis on that truth, but it accomplished 
 the union of the two natures — the finite and 
 the Infinite — by silencing one of them, or ex- 
 tinguishing it. If the finite disappears and is 
 lost to view, there can be no reconciliation of 
 the one with the other. 
 
 Pantheism may be described in all its 
 forms as the supersession of the finite by 
 the Infinite, which remains all in all and 
 Lord of all. In the Buddhist Pantheism it 
 may be said that the Divine was levelled 
 down to the human. Unity was reached, 
 but philosophic dualism was illegitimately 
 abolished. In the Greek Pantheism, on the 
 other hand, Nature was levelled up to the 
 Divine. Unity again was reached, but 
 dualism was with equal illegitimacy set aside. 
 In the Greek religion sundry powers within 
 
2 2 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Nature, rather than above or beyond it, were 
 worshipped ; but the life of the worshipper 
 was in no sense a process of elevation by 
 moral acts. In the Jewish Monotheism 
 religion was recognised as a moral process of 
 union with God ; but the union brought about 
 was, to a certain extent, incomplete. In the 
 Christian Ethic it was completed. The unity 
 of the Divine and the human was recognised, 
 while their union was accomplished by a 
 moral process ; and so, the earlier Judaism 
 was transcended rather than abolished. Pan- 
 theism and provincial Monotheism were at 
 once surpassed, and blended in a higher 
 unity ; while the /B/og tc'Xeioc was found, not 
 in the mere expansion of germs existing in 
 human nature from the first — which was the 
 Greek ideal of a harmonious life — but in a 
 process of discipline, in the course of which the 
 higher elements in our nature transfigure the 
 lower ones. This, however, is to anticipate. 
 Returning, it is easy to see how the 
 recognition of the unity of God in the Chris- 
 tian Ethic bears upon moral practice, if we 
 
The Divine Fatherhood. 23 
 
 compare it with the Polytheistic or the 
 Pantheistic worship of Greece, or the Zoroas- 
 trian worship of Persia. The obvious moral 
 deduction from a Polytheistic, a Pantheistic, 
 or a Manichean creed is the palliation of evil. 
 If there are many Gods within the universe, 
 or two eternally warring Principles — one 
 good and the other evil — the votary of each 
 might justify his actions by the characteristics 
 of the Deity, or Principle, he serves. If a 
 virtuously disposed Greek strove after 
 wisdom with Minerva as patroness, he 
 might afterwards find his cruelty sanctioned 
 by Mars, or other tendencies condoned, as he 
 entered the temples of Dionysius or Aphro- 
 dite. In contrast with this it is very evident 
 how a genuine Monotheistic belief must in- 
 fluence practice, and how by means of it the 
 moral law must gain new strength. 
 
 Christianity, however, did much more than 
 merely announce the unity of God, it added 
 the sublime idea that this one God was, at 
 one and the same time, above man, and yet 
 kindred to him ; and, in a profound sense, the 
 
24 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Father of mankind. If the relation between 
 the human nature and the Divine is in any 
 realisable sense whatsoever, the relation of 
 sonship and paternity, the unity of the 
 two natures is undoubted. But this concep- 
 tion of the relationship of man to God was 
 only guessed at, by one or two minds, in the 
 earlier religious periods, Indian, Semitic, and 
 Greek. At the very best it was a surmise. It 
 was never an explicit belief, until the Christian 
 era commenced ; and, when at length it be- 
 came a regulative conviction within the 
 Christian Church, the moral attitude of the 
 finite nature toward the Infinite was funda- 
 mentally changed. 
 
 The radical point, however, in the contrast 
 between the Hebraic and the Christian Mono- 
 theism is this : that although the former did not 
 merge the finite in the Infinite — but conserved 
 them both — it at the same time placed so vast 
 an interval between them that the counter 
 truth of their unity was lost to view ; while 
 Christianity brought that truth explicitly, and 
 very vividly, to light. The Hebrew notion was 
 
The Human Brotherhood. 25 
 
 that God was above on the heights, man 
 below on the earth ; and that they could 
 occasionally have intellectual recognition, 
 moral conferences, and hours of fellowship. 
 The counter idea, of the Infinite as. at one 
 and the same time, above, beyond, and with- 
 in the finite its interpenetrating essence, 
 as well as its source and goal — was new to 
 the world at the commencement of the 
 Christian era. 
 
 The second truth — brought out and illu- 
 mined by Christianity — was the moral unity of 
 the human race ; and it was dealt with, very 
 much in the same way as the first. It was 
 raised and transfigured into the doctrine of 
 the universal brotherhood of mankind. If 
 the worship of man be directed toward a 
 multitude of separate Divinities, the humanity 
 that worships will be similarly divided ; but 
 with the unity of God there will naturally be 
 associated the unity of man. If the Divine 
 nature is paternal, and there is only one 
 Father, it will follow that there is but a single 
 
26 The Christian Eihtc. 
 
 family, and that all its members are fraternally 
 related. The moral corollary of this is one 
 which has not been always realised. It is 
 that the jealousies of individuals, the rivalries 
 of tribes, and the antipathies of nations will 
 be abolished in the feeling of universal friend- 
 liness, or good-will between man and man. 
 Tribal sentiment, and national feeling, will not 
 be extinguished ; but they will be taken up 
 into, and held in alliance with, a new idea of 
 brotherhood. Patriotism as such — the kind 
 of Patriotism which was a distinctive virtue in 
 Greece — will be merged in Philanthropy; and 
 here we find a compensation, for the loss of 
 the narrower virtue, which had been for a 
 time set aside by Christianity. It was tem- 
 porarily displaced, having "no glory, because 
 of the glory that excelled it " in the new 
 Philanthropy ; in other words, because a lower 
 truth, as to man's nature and relations, was 
 merged in a higher and a wider one. The 
 inferior was taken up into the superior, and 
 was glorified by its alliance with it. It is 
 easy to see how a new type of virtue would 
 
The Human Brotherhood. 27 
 
 naturally arise from this recognition of the 
 universal brotherhood of the race, and also 
 how comprehensive its range would become, 
 if it penetrated all social life, abolishing 
 individual hatreds, local jealousies, and both 
 tribal and national revenge. 
 
 Before advancing to a third idea, one result 
 arising from the recognition of the two already 
 mentioned should be noted. It is the uni- 
 versality of religion. Out of the twin ideas of 
 the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood 
 of man comes that of the common relation of 
 all men to God ; and, therefore, the univer- 
 sality of religion. We have no longer, a 
 philosophic life and religion for the cultivated 
 classes on the one hand, and, on the other, a 
 life and religion for the uneducated masses. 
 The realm of abstract contemplation, and 
 esoteric thought, is one that can only be 
 entered by the avenue of speculation ; and 
 must therefore, to a large extent, be the 
 luxury of the privileged few. It is a realm 
 to which the majority of mankind, the " dim 
 common populations " — hewers of wood and 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 drawers of water for the rest — must in the 
 main ' be strangers ; but, one point in the 
 teaching of Christianity which revolutionised 
 the world is this, that the highest kind of life 
 is within the reach of every one, and can be 
 realised by the illiterate peasant, as well as by 
 the erudite and the noble. 
 
 This should perhaps have a place of its 
 own amongst the distinctive features of the 
 Christian Ethic instead of being set down as a 
 corollary or deduction from the two former 
 ones. At the same time it should be noted 
 that it arises out of them, and especially out 
 of their combination ; and it is a further 
 corollary of them that " the way to the blessed 
 life" — or to the union of the human nature with 
 the Divine — is not along the path of mere 
 self-development, but along that of self-con- 
 quest, and even of self-renunciation in the 
 service of others. Not that the Christian 
 Ethic is, in any sense, indifferent to culture. 
 The very reverse is the case ; because, before 
 any one can give himself away adequately in 
 the service of others, he must have something 
 
The Human Brotherhood. 29 
 
 to give, and must therefore be something 
 worthy of bestowal. One cannot spend him- 
 self to any purpose on behalf of others, unless 
 what he spends has a certain value ; and 
 thus, paradoxical as it may seem, — and it is 
 indeed one of the paradoxes of the Christian 
 Ethic — he must cultivate himself, in order that 
 he may succeed in transcending himself ; while, 
 contrariwise, he must devote himself to others, 
 in order that he may adequately fulfil the end 
 of his persona] existence. It comes to this, 
 he must " die, in order that he may live ". 
 
 A long chapter might be written in illustra- 
 tion of this. It has been the subject-matter 
 of a thousand homilies in Christian literature ; 
 and it is important to note how far superior the 
 Christian Ethic is, in this respect, to earlier 
 moral systems, and ■ especially to Stoicism. 
 In its initial stage. Stoicism narrowed the; 
 fulness, and broke up the harmony of life, by 
 repressing the freedom of its powers ; while itj 
 ended in the mutilation of human nature, the 
 withering of the emotions, and even the ex- 
 tinction of the passions. Christianity, on the 
 
30 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 other hand, enjoined no kind of crucifixion, 
 except of things that are intrinsically evil ; 
 its aim being the transfiguration of the pas- 
 sions. The end it contemplated was the 
 restoration of humanity, and the increase of 
 Its powers. Its very aim was defined as 
 " that we may have life, and that we may 
 have it more abundantly " ; this new and 
 more abundant_j[ife it proposed to secure, 
 through the regulation of the lower elements 
 of our nature by the higher ones ; the Divine 
 transfiguring the human, and abolishing its 
 discord and disorder. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 THE IMMORTALITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 We now reach the third idea, brought to 
 Hght, emphasised, and illumined by Chris- 
 tianity. It is that of Immortality, or the 
 survival of the individual after death. It has 
 been said that it is to Christianity alone that 
 we owe the doctrine of Immortality. Such a 
 statement, however, is altogether incorrect. 
 Immortality was recognised in Egypt and the 
 East, as well as in Greece, long before the 
 Christian era ; but it was entertained more as 
 a hope than as a conviction ; as a possibility, 
 amounting sometimes to a probability, but 
 not taking rank as an article of belief Among 
 the Greeks it was on the whole the shadowy 
 surmise of a few speculative men. The 
 masses thought very little about it. Living 
 in the present, and satisfied with what it 
 
 brought them, they took no thought for the 
 (31) 
 
The Christian Ethic. 
 
 morrow. The few, who did give serious 
 thought ty the future, were rather reluctant to 
 think that their friends had ceased to live, 
 than persuaded that they still existed. The 
 continued felicity of a few eminently noble 
 men, and the continued misery of a few 
 exceptionally bad ones, seemed a natural 
 sequel to their life on earth - a sort of reap- 
 ing as they had sown ; but we search the 
 Philosophy, the Literature, and the Art of 
 Greece in vain for anything like an articulate 
 statement on the question of Immortality. 
 It is true that Plato represents Socrates as 
 speaking of it very nobly in the Phcedo — in 
 those conversations with his friends in the 
 prison— and also in the Apologia. Plato's 
 was perhaps the loftiest Greek utterance on 
 the subject ; but, with all its loftiness, it did 
 not rise into the atmosphere of clear convic- 
 tion. As early as the days of Homer we see 
 that the Greek mind entertained the notion 
 of a shadowy sort of existence after death ; 
 but the future life was thought of as a gloomy 
 sepulchral state, in which the dead pined for 
 
Immortality. 33 
 
 the loss of their previous Hfe and their former 
 society. In the poems of Pindar a ray or two 
 of brighter Hght is shot in upon the darkness. 
 In ^schylus the curtain again falls, Sopho- 
 cles does not raise it, Euripides draws it closer 
 down ; and the sublime speculations of Plato on 
 the subject are a series of Ideal longings, and 
 imaginative forecastings, having no definite 
 link of connection with our life as it now is.* 
 Then we find that the usual inscription on 
 the Greek tombs in the Kerameicus was a 
 simple x°^^P^' farewell ; or, if they extended 
 further, they spoke of the feelings of the 
 bereaved, rather than the destiny of the 
 departed. The almost universal feeling of 
 the masses on the death of their relatives 
 was that of irreparable loss. In this respect 
 almost all Athenian tombs tell the same tale ; 
 and in the Roman world the epithets applied 
 to death were such as these ; it was " hard," 
 " cruel," " relentless," etc. It was repre- 
 
 * This is only a subsidiary instance of the flaw which 
 hes at the heart of Plato's Ideahsm, with all its magni- 
 ficence and suggestiveness. 
 
 3 
 
34 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 sented as a hunter snaring men, or symbolised 
 as a cup-bearer with poison in his cup. When 
 we pass from Greece to Palestine we find 
 here and there isolated instances of a larger 
 hope, but we find no widespread conviction 
 on the subject. There are noteworthy ex- 
 pressions in the Psalter, such as "Thou wilt 
 not leave my soul in Hades," " I shall be 
 satisfied when I awake with Thy likeness " ; 
 but to the Jew the being " gathered to his 
 fathers," meant being gathered in the same 
 burial-place. No doubt cases occurred in 
 which the higher hope was entertained. We 
 find individual expressions which go further 
 than Plato's sublimest thoughts upon the 
 subject, or than Seneca's saying that it was 
 " Nature's privilege to die " ; but these were 
 entertained only by a few, and they were 
 vague, at their highest and best.* 
 
 If now we contrast the sentences in which 
 death and the dead are referred to in Roman 
 
 * I have an impression, which however I cannot verify, of 
 being indebted— more than twenty years ago— for the ideas 
 embodied in this paragraph, to a friend now deceased. 
 
Immortality. 3 5 
 
 literature about the time of the Christian era 
 with the statements of St. Paul, or even with 
 the inscriptions in the Catacombs at Rome, 
 the difference is seen at once. What was only 
 guessed at in Greece and Palestine by a few — 
 as the tide of intuition ebbed and flowed within 
 them — was announced as a fact at the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era ; and a belief in 
 Immortality has entered ever since as a regula- 
 tive element into the creed of Christendom. 
 
 In these ethical studies we do not need to 
 raise the question of how this belief in Immor- 
 tality was " first brought to light". That is a 
 strictly theological question, and our present 
 inquiry only indirectly and incidentally touches 
 on theology. What the moralist has to do, — 
 in the first instance at least, — is to note the his- 
 torical fact, and to try to estimate its effect. And 
 the fact which he has to note, and to estimate, 
 is this, that ever since the departure of Christ 
 from the world, a belief in the immortality of 
 the individual has risen in the firmament of 
 human conviction, and has never disap- 
 peared ; although it has been very variously 
 
36 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 interpreted and explained. This may be 
 illustrated by four lines from Tennyson's In 
 Memoriain. The ancients might have said, 
 and some of them did virtually say : — 
 
 I blame not Death because he bare 
 The use of virtue out of earth ; 
 
 but none of them added, or could have 
 added : — 
 
 I know transplanted human worth 
 Will bloom to profit otherwhere. 
 
 That is the difference ; and as Jean Paul 
 Richter said, the whole moral temperature 
 of the world has been raised by means of it. 
 It is easy to see how this conviction adds 
 dignity and value to the present life, wherever 
 it is cherished, however it may be interpreted, 
 and on whatsoever grounds believed. If the 
 good and evil which we do not only live after 
 us, in the issues to which they gave rise, but 
 also live on in the lives of their originators, 
 and if the present life be only the prelude 
 to another, the former assumes a new moral 
 significance. If it be but one act in a drama 
 "of which"- — as Jouffroy put it — " the pro- 
 
Immortality. 37 
 
 logue and the catastrophe are awanting," 
 then the isolated moments of present ex- 
 perience are bound together by a new con- 
 necting thread. If we detach the present 
 from the future, or substitute the shadowy 
 hopes of Hebraism and Hellenism for the 
 Christian idea of immortality — if we fall back 
 upon the doctrine of the annihilation of the 
 individual, and the survival only of the race, 
 the Buddhist absorption in Nirvana, or the 
 Pantheistic merging of the individual in the 
 all — we remove one of the strongest incen- 
 tives to a noble life, and take away one of the 
 most powerful of the moral levers which now 
 move the world. 
 
 It is unnecessary to raise the question, in 
 what form is this belief to be entertained by 
 us ? Are we to believe in the recognition of 
 others after death as we recognise them here? 
 Are we to combine the doctrine of pre-exist- 
 ence with that of posthumous existence ? and 
 are the whole details of the doctrine of im- 
 mortality verifiable throughout, or from root 
 to branch conclusive ? What we have to 
 
38 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 note, and to emphasise, is the practical effect 
 of the belief, in whatsoever form it is enter- 
 tained, the immense power of the conviction 
 over human life as it now is. The possibility 
 of living a lofty life without it cannot be 
 denied ; nor can it be denied that it is a 
 nobler thing to do the right from the simple 
 conviction that it is right, than to do it be- 
 cause thus only can we expect felicity. But 
 then, Christendom does not follow duty from 
 the mercenary motive of reward in a life to 
 come. That is one of the spurious charges 
 sometimes brought against it by the ignorant 
 or the hostile. Its belief in immortality is a 
 disinterested belief , and it is clear that with 
 this conviction superadded to the two already 
 mentioned — that is to say, with the prospect 
 of continuous existence in a life to come, 
 added to a belief in the Divine Fatherhood 
 and the human brotherhood — all the virtues 
 of the present life will receive fresh stimulus 
 and nutrition, especially amid the disasters, 
 the reverses, and the losses of experience. 
 That is a result which the world owes to 
 
Immortality. 39 
 
 Christianity. If, 
 
 In a season of calm weather, 
 
 Though inland far we be, 
 
 Our souls have sight of that immortal sea 
 
 AVhich brought us hither, 
 
 Can in a moment travel thither, 
 
 and we can also say, with the same poet, 
 
 that 
 
 When the great and good depart 
 What is it more than this, 
 That man who is from God sent forth 
 Doth yet again to God return ? 
 
 we see the force of the question with which 
 he concludes his Elegiac Stanzas : — 
 
 Such ebb and flow must ever be, 
 Then wherefore should we mourn ? 
 The future brightens on our sight, 
 For on the past hath fallen a light 
 That tempts us to adore. 
 
 Let a student of history try to estimate the 
 effect of the entrance of this belief into the 
 world — as it finds expression, not only in the 
 creeds of the Church, but also in all the higher 
 European literature — let him try to sum up 
 
40 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 the amount of moral force which it has given 
 to human Hfe, and he will find it immeasur- 
 able. It has given a new motive for action 
 to multitudes ; it has nerved men and women 
 by the thousand in the discharge of tasks 
 from which flesh and blood shrank back ; it 
 has founded a new type of heroism ; while 
 the mere prospect of their own continuance 
 and enlargement has exalted and trans- 
 figured every one of the virtues. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE NATURE OF EVIL. 
 
 We have already seen what the main idea of 
 the Christian Ethic is, first as to the Divine 
 nature, second as to human nature, and third 
 as to human destiny. We now reach a fourth 
 point that is a distinctive characteristic, viz., 
 its conception of evil, or that disturbance of 
 human nature, which all moral systems recog- 
 nise, although they interpret it very variously. 
 There would be no need of any ab-extra 
 teaching on this subject, if our nature were 
 not in some way disorganised. If in a per- 
 fectly normal state, it might be left to the 
 mere evolution . of its powers, untaught by 
 rules, unguided even by examples. But 
 ours is no such automatic life of orderly 
 development, moving as the seasons or the 
 planets do. It is, in many ways, disorganised ; 
 
 although the disturbance may be a sign both 
 
 (41) 
 
42 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 of its vast latent possibilities, and of its 
 destiny. 
 
 Every moral system deals, in one way or 
 another, with this question of evil ; discussing 
 what it is, whence it is, and whither it tends. 
 They try to explain its nature, if not its origin. 
 Perhaps the Christian view of the subject may 
 be summed up thus : — 
 
 (i) Evil is not a positive substance in 
 human nature, else it would have been the 
 creation of God, a direct product of the 
 Divine causality. It is not an element 
 existing as a fixed quantity, external to the 
 moral agent, although it exists in the wills 
 of other agents. It is not a quantitative 
 cosmic essence, with a realm of its own, 
 outside the characters that experience it. 
 Were it so, the Christian Ethic would be 
 involved in a dualism as pronounced, and as 
 fatal, as that of Zoroaster. Evil is not 
 admitted by Christianity to such a rank as 
 that. It is not even admitted into the realm 
 of things positive, however terrible its reality. 
 On the contrary^as St. Augustine pointed 
 
The Nature of Evil. 43 
 
 out so well — it is a defect, or privation, a 
 shortcoming, a missing of the mark. It is 
 more than mere weakness, or folly ; more 
 even than a wound to the spirit of the wrong- 
 doer. It is a blight within him, and a break 
 in the moral order of things ; while the act 
 of transgression, at the moment of wrong- 
 doing, obscures the consciousness which the 
 wrong-doer had of the relation in which he 
 stood to the Law and its source, bringing 
 in chaos, as well as turning things upside 
 down. Nevertheless evil is not a positive 
 substance or entity. Transgression, as the 
 word implies, is due to the excess of a thing 
 that is in itself good — originally and naturally 
 good ; but every act, by which the human 
 spirit steps across the boundary of the mean 
 — which was so admirably wrought out by 
 Aristotle in his Ethics — is an act of trans- 
 gression. It obscures his consciousness of, 
 and for the time being affects his relation to, 
 the Being from whom the law emanates, and 
 of whose character it is the expression. It 
 does not follow from this, however, that 
 
44 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 evil can ever itself become a substance, or 
 thing in itself — a Ding-an-sich. to use the 
 Kantian term — an essence external to the 
 will of the agent ; or a substance that can 
 increase, and multiply, and have a realm of 
 its own. 
 
 It is important to observe what follows 
 from this. What has just been stated might 
 seem at first to minimise the nature of evil ; 
 but, since as it represents it as the inroad into 
 human nature of an element which has no 
 natural affinity with man, and is not a neces- 
 sary part of his constitution, it holds out the 
 prospect of its separation from his nature, and 
 its possible extinction. If we believe that 
 evil is a positive substance within the universe, 
 we must believe it to be an eternal element 
 there, which can never be eliminated. But 
 if it be — as St. Augustine taught — essentially 
 a " privation" or defect, we may warrantably 
 believe 'that it has no real or necessary affinity 
 with us, and may therefore hope for its ulti- 
 mate removal, and entire abolition. The way 
 in which the Christian Ethic endeavours to 
 
The Nature of Evil. 45 
 
 eliminate it — viz., by the "expulsive power" 
 of a new emotion or affection — we shall con- 
 sider later on. 
 
 (2) The next point to be noticed is that the 
 Christian Ethic reduced the various forms of 
 moral evil to t he common principle of sel- 
 fishness ; and that, by so doing, it gave to 
 the world a very large and fruitful moral 
 generalisation. It showed — as no other 
 system has shown — that whenever a man 
 transgresses, he is selfish ; and also that, in 
 being selfish, he is suicidal, that he ultimately 
 injures himself. Contrariwise, that when we 
 forget ourselves, and find our duties multiply 
 as our relations to others increase, we escape 
 from the thraldom of evil ; that, while our 
 acts of service to others increase, instead 
 of being fettered by them, we are more and 
 more emancipated, being freed from the 
 bondage of a merely personal life. In other 
 words, according to the Christian Ethic, con- 
 centration upon self is always tyrannical ; 
 while the "service" of others is "perfect 
 freedom ". Christianity has taught the world 
 
46 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 that all transgression, if we trace it to its root, 
 is — in one form or another — an act of selfish- 
 ness. Outbursts of passion and temper, for 
 example, show that we have exaggerated 
 ideas of our own importance ; disregard for 
 the feelings of others invariably arises from 
 an inordinate fondness for one's own ; envy 
 and jealousy have the same root ; while all 
 excess in the indulgence of appetite, desire, 
 or emotion, is equally — and even more obvi- 
 ously — a form of selfishness. 
 
 Before passing from this, it may be added 
 that, while all evil may be traced back to 
 selfishness of one kind or another, it is quite 
 possible to deny self, without doing it from a 
 moral motive, or for a moral end. In other 
 words, there may be a selfish denial of self 
 The worth of any act which suppresses self 
 depends upon the worthiness of the end be- 
 yond self, contemplated by it ; for example, 
 whether it be the good of another, or his or 
 her selfish pleasure. Some persons have been 
 known to deny themselves in the spirit of the 
 miser, in order that their families might have 
 
The NaHtre of Evil. 47 
 
 more to spend upon themselves. An ascetic 
 life of self-crucifixion may be very much 
 easier to some persons than the self-discip- 
 line, which knows how to use the world 
 without abusing it, and which follows to its 
 end the ideal of self-development, through 
 all hindrance and difficulty, with a disinter- 
 ested view to the ultimate good of others. 
 (3) As to the relative magnitude, and the 
 moral import, of the various faults and trans- 
 gressions which human nature exhibits, al- 
 though we have no list of them drawn out in 
 detail in the Christian Ethic — any more than 
 we have an elaborate list of the virtues, such 
 as Aristotle attempts — we have certain dis- 
 tinctions drawn which are of vast moment, 
 and perhaps of greater value than any that 
 are to be found in Aristotle. Such, for ex- 
 ample, as the following : Hatred, malice, 
 vindictiveness, revenge, hypocrisy, and per- 
 fidy are branded in the Christian Ethic with 
 a far deeper stigma, than those faults which 
 are due to mere frailty of moral feeling, to 
 feebleness of will, or the impulses of passion. 
 
48 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 The Christian Ethic palliates none of these ; 
 it makes light of no moral fault, but it dis- 
 tinguishes things that differ. It condemns 
 the Pharisee, more than the publican ; the 
 self-righteous, and the self-sufficient, more 
 than the frail. Christendom has not as yet 
 perhaps fully learned this lesson, which was 
 given to it nineteen hundred years ago. 
 Certainly it does not always practise it, be- 
 cause the judgments meted out against the 
 latter class of faults are frequently far too 
 severe, while the former are practised by 
 those who condemn the latter, with incon- 
 sistent frequency. 
 
 (4) The next point is the attitude which 
 the Christian Ethic assumes toward trans- 
 gression, in contrast with its attitude toward 
 the transgressor. There is no laxity toward 
 the former ; but there is unlimited forbearance 
 and charity toward the latter. Its relation to 
 the one is antithetic, in the severest form ; 
 while to the other it is sympathetic, in the 
 very tenderest degree. In the Christian 
 Ethic, as unfolded in the words and deeds of 
 
The Nature of Evil. 49 
 
 Christ, we find an uncompromising rigour and 
 
 hostility toward everything base ; but we also 
 
 find a new and marvellous clemency, a unique 
 
 graciousness of action toward those who have 
 
 been the victims of evil. To put it otherwise, 
 
 if Christ surpassed all other moralists in the 
 
 stringency of his ideal, He was the first 
 
 moralist who divinely relented towards the 
 
 offender ; and He made the force of the 
 
 moral law more binding through his very 
 
 graciousness of action — the two things going 
 
 on together simultaneously. 
 
 It is easy to see how, out of the union of 
 
 these two things, would arise his hopeful 
 
 a ttitude t owards mankind. There is no trace 
 
 in anything He said or did of the desponding 
 
 cry that " all things are out of joint "—no 
 
 touch of that pessimism which abandons 
 
 itself to a belief in the necessity of evil, or of 
 
 that cynicism that scorns what it cannot cure 
 
 — but there is everywhere the very radiance of 
 
 hope in reference to mankind at large, and 
 
 the patience of hope in following out the case 
 
 of each individual man, woman, and child. 
 
 4 
 
50 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 In the same connection we should note his 
 calm confidence in the final coming of the 
 Kingdom of Righteousness, or the victory of 
 moral order in the world, which grew stronger 
 as the sorrows of his personal life increased, 
 and its tragedy was consummated. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 ASPECTS OF DUTY. 
 
 From the points in the Christian Ethic as to 
 the nature and characteristics of evil I pass 
 to its teaching in reference to Duty, its inter- 
 pretation of Duty, and the mutual relation of 
 the several duties. To take the last of these 
 first. 
 
 (i) Having already seen how it unified 
 the various forms of evil, we may now note 
 how it distinguishes the separate duties. It 
 is specially clear in the distinction it draws 
 between the eternal and the temporal in duty, 
 in other words between rules of right and 
 ceremonial statutes. It contrasts, as no pre-^ 
 vious Ethic had done, things which are wrong j 
 in themselves, and things which are prohibited 
 for a purpose ; in other words, moral faults 
 and ritual offences. It threw special empha- 
 sis on the difference between those imperial 
 (51) 
 
52 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 laws, which are meant to govern the whole 
 universe of moral agency, and the provincial 
 edicts which have been issued for a time, or 
 for a race. This was a new kind of teaching, 
 although the way had been prepared for it by 
 some of the seers in Palestine, and in Greece 
 — the teaching that put morality always in the 
 foreground and ceremony always in the back- 
 ground, and which did this with a precision 
 that was consistent from first to last. In this 
 connection we must not forget that there has 
 been sometimes a contrast between Christian 
 Ethics and the Ethics of Christ, because many 
 of the systems professedly Christian— and cer- 
 tainly many of the sects — have just reversed 
 the process, putting ceremonial in the fore- 
 ground, and leaving morality out of view. 
 
 (2) A second point, in the teaching of 
 Christianity as to Duty, is its positive_charac- 
 ter, in contrast with the negative spirit of 
 former systems. It changed the " thou shalt 
 not" of the old morality into the " thou shalt " 
 of the new. No one can read the New Testa- 
 ment without perceiving that the attitude of 
 
Aspects of Duty. 53 
 
 Christianity as to Duty is entirely different 
 from the Hebraic negativeness ; and in this 
 respect, the Sermon on the Mount is only a 
 sample of what pervades all the recorded 
 parables, addresses, and conversations. A 
 large part of ancient virtue, — whether Greek, 
 or Roman, or Hebrew, — consisted in abstin- 
 ence from evil, rather than in the practice of 
 good. The Christian Ethic, on the other 
 hand, changed the moral code from a series 
 of prohibitions into a set of demands ; its aim 
 being not so much to curb the evil in man, as 
 to evoke the good, and to quicken into life 
 every latent germ or seed of righteousness. 
 
 (3) In the next place, this positive law of 
 Duty is, in the Christian Ethic, connected 
 with a personal Lawgiver revealed in con-| 
 science. Christianity does not attempt to 
 prove this ; it merely asserts it. It appeals 
 to it as a fact which can be experientially 
 known by the intuition of the unsophisticated 
 heart. It affirms that man is not a law unto 
 himself, but that he can find within his own 
 nature a law superior to himself — a law that 
 
54 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 - is " in him, yet not of him " — not that he is 
 under a law which his own will has imposed 
 upon itself, (which was Kant's theory); or one 
 which external secular authority equal to his 
 own has imposed upon him, (which was 
 Hobbes's theory). He is under law to the 
 God revealed to him in conscience ; but 
 this may be interpreted as his own highest 
 self, in its highest possible act, recognising 
 the presence, and bowing before the authority, 
 of the Divine within it. Christianity thus 
 interprets the whispers of the human con- 
 science. They are, on the one hand, " the 
 voice of one crying in the wilderness " of 
 human nature, " prepare ye the way of the 
 Lord, make straight in the desert " (of 
 your hearts) "an highway for your God" ; 
 and that is, in other words to say they 
 are the utterances of unrest, showing that 
 man's nature is disordered, and that it 
 needs readjustment. But they are, on the 
 other hand, the voice of one saying " Lo ! I 
 come " to do this very thing, to prepare the 
 highway for you, to reorganise your nature. 
 
Aspects of Diity. 55 
 
 and reclaim it for the right and the true. 
 This theistic interpretation of conscience 
 changes it from the rigid and even frigid 
 thing which it is in many systems, from its 
 being a cold moral imperative — as in the 
 Stoic, and even in the Kantian Ethic — into 
 a living commandment, emanating from an 
 eternal source which is, at one and the same 
 time, within ourselves, and yet above us all. 
 
 (4) In virtue of the close link which 
 Christianity thus establishes between morality 
 and religion, it will be seen that the Founder 
 of Christianity stands to Christendom in a 
 relation quite different to that in which the 
 founders of the sects of Philosophy, and of the 
 schools of Art and Science, stand to their 
 disciples. The greatest teachers of antiquity 
 sought to develop in their pupils a principle 
 which would in time make them independent 
 of their preceptor. If possible, wiser than he 
 had been ; and part of the instruction given 
 in the nobler schools was to rise superior even 
 to its own tradition, relying on the progress of 
 rational light. But almost the final word of 
 
56 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 the Founder of Christianity to his followers 
 proclaimed their dependence upon Himself — 
 " without me ye can do nothing " — even 
 while He told them that it was expedient 
 that He should leave them personally. Thus 
 the personality of the Teacher became the 
 centre and focus of the Christian Ethic. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 THE UNIVERSAL AIM OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 The universal aim of Christianity has been 
 already alluded to, but, as this is a point of 
 special importance in weighing its moral 
 significance, it may be assigned a place of 
 its own as a sixth feature in the Christian 
 Ethic. 
 
 The point to be signalised is this. The 
 Christian religion was not deposited in the 
 minds and hearts of a few initiated followers, 
 that it might grow up as a body of doctrine to 
 be professed by them esoterically, cherished 
 within the precincts of a select school, and by 
 a select body of men, It was meant, on the' 
 contrary, to be both a Religion and a Life for 
 all mankind, a morality for the race at large. 
 It was meant to abolish the exclusiveness of 
 privileged orders, to overthrow their caste, to 
 
 break down the barriers between alien races, 
 
 (57) 
 
58 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 and to unite men of the most diverse 
 tendencies in one vast human brotherhood ; 
 and it entered upon its mission with what 
 was — despite occasional excesses — a subHme 
 propagandist ardour. 
 
 The second feature in the Christian Ethic — 
 already partially discussed — was its doctrine 
 of the brotherhood of the human race. What 
 is now referred to is not to be identified with 
 that. It is rather its missionary attitude, 
 and its being intended for the whole world ; 
 a Religion and an Ethic meant to unite 
 men in fellowship v/ith one another, by first 
 uniting them to God, and by disclosing their 
 common relationship to the Infinite. We 
 need not ask, in this connection, if it has 
 always succeeded in doing so ; because no 
 religion has as yet been universally recog- 
 nised ; and po.ssibly none will ever be uni- 
 versally adopted, in external form. At the 
 same time, the spirit of the Christian Ethic 
 has entered as a leaven, into every type of 
 civilisation which has become aware of its 
 existence ; and it is by such a process of 
 
The Universal Aim. 59 
 
 leavening, and not by mere formal intel- 
 lectual assent, or doctrinal allegiance, that its 
 successes are to be computed. 
 
 If, now, we look at the characteristics of 
 the Christian Ethic, and after comparing them 
 with the characteristics of any other great 
 system of antiquity, ask which is the more 
 cosmopolitan — which is for a time, and which 
 for all time — the answer is not difficult to 
 find. Plato was essentially Greek, Aristotle 
 — in his Ethic at least — was distinctively 
 Athenian. The Stoics, with all their cosmo- 
 politanism, were shut up, austerely though 
 nobly, within themselves. Buddha was of 
 the East ; Zoroaster was Persian to the core ; 
 while the greatest of the Hebrew prophets 
 was essentially Semitic, with a local colour in 
 his moral teaching and aspiration. In con- 
 trast with all this, when reading the early 
 Christian documents, and breathing the at- 
 mosphere of the first Christian age, we find 
 that we have come into a moral territory, 
 which has a far wider area, a larger scope, 
 and a much richer adaptability. There is 
 
6o The Christian Ethic. 
 
 no phase of our perplexed modern life, for 
 example, to which Christianity has not some- 
 thing directly to contribute. In this connec- 
 tion it may be noted how it addresses each 
 one individually, without the intervention of 
 a class. The Christian " sacerdos " is not 
 the member of a privileged class, who is able 
 to lift responsibility from the individual, open- 
 ing to him the gates of the kingdom of 
 heaven, and dispensing its favours mechani- 
 cally. Some sects in Christendom have 
 claimed this sacerdotal power ; but the claim 
 is a corruption of the Christian Ethic, 
 which has no place in its constitution, is alien 
 to its spirit, and inconsistent with its genius. 
 In the union of these things — the universal 
 mission to all mankind, the appeal to the 
 special wants of each individual, and the 
 assertion of the direct moral responsibility 
 of each to God — the Christian Ethic is 
 absolutely unique. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 VIRTUES WHICH ARE A DEVELOPMENT OF 
 THE CHARACTER OF CHRIST. 
 
 We now enter upon the consideration of a 
 class of virtues which date from the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era, in a sense 
 in which those already considered do not, 
 viz., those which are more distinctively a re- 
 flection of the character of the Founder of 
 Christendom ; and which are, in a specific 
 sense, Christian virtues. They were not 
 absolutely new creations, from root to branch, 
 never seen in rudimentary germ elsewhere ; 
 but, in their developed form, they are dis- 
 tinctively new, because their development 
 has been the result of Christian influence 
 alone. Several of them have sprung up (to 
 speak in a figure), only under the sunlight and 
 the warmth of that group of truths already 
 mentioned. Others, which had a place in 
 
 earlier systems, when transplanted to the 
 (6i) 
 
62 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Christian soil, have assumed new form and 
 colour. They have been enlarged, strength- 
 ened, and glorified by their new alliances. 
 As flowers, when taken from a wilderness 
 to garden-ground, undergo a change in many 
 of their features — and sometimes even evolve 
 a new type of beauty — so the character of 
 the virtues which men practise alters, in the 
 course of their alliance with others. Here we 
 may fearlessly apply the principle of evolution. 
 It is by innumerable minute changes, and the 
 ceaseless play of multitudinous forces in the 
 natural world, that new organisms are de- 
 veloped ; and it is by similarly minute and 
 imperceptible changes that human character 
 is evolved. The blending of the streams of 
 influence that form it is incessant ; and it 
 sometimes happens that, in the course of the 
 process, an old virtue is so completely trans- 
 formed as to be almost unrecognisable.* 
 
 Suppose a cultivated Athenian youth in 
 the first Christian century — who had been 
 
 * See Appendix ii., "The Correlation of the Moral 
 -Forces" (p. 159). 
 
Virtues distinctively Christian. 6 
 
 J 
 
 educated in the Academic or Stoical Philo- 
 sophy, and had consistently practised the 
 virtues of these systems — to have embraced 
 Christianity on conviction, what would hap- 
 pen ? The old virtues of his Academic or 
 Stoical novitiate would not be uprooted, or 
 extinguished. He would continue to practise 
 them, but they would immediately undergo a 
 transformation. It is possible that, for a time, 
 they would have no special interest to him, 
 because of the new attraction he had found 
 in Christianity ; but he could never despise 
 them, if his life had been either noble or 
 genuine before. To have done so would have 
 been to act the part of a traitor ; and to be 
 disloyal, not only to his past career, but to the 
 Divinity working within him. The old virtues 
 would be displaced, but not destroyed ; and 
 the Christian Ethic came, to the disciples of 
 earlier systems, " not to destroy, but to fulfil " 
 — in other words to evoke the gooJTtTound, 
 and to transfigure it by its alliance with other 
 truths which it disclosed, and the fresh life it 
 unfolded. 
 
64 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 It might be difficult, or perhaps impossible, 
 for such a disciple — if he raised the question, 
 long after he had embraced Christianity — to 
 tell how much he owed to it, and how much 
 to the earlier training of his youth. His 
 enthusiasm and sense of supreme indebted- 
 ness, might lead him to say — in a strain of 
 happy hyperbole — that he owed everything 
 to the later gift ; but our -most valuable 
 inheritances are always the most subtle ones. 
 They cannot be split up into bits and parcels, 
 and set down so much to this and so much to 
 that antecedent influence. While, therefore, 
 he would be conscious of debts — spreading 
 over a wide area, and reaching him from 
 many sources — he would know in particufar 
 that his life had been touched to new and to 
 fine issues by the incoming of the Christian 
 Ethic. Although he had never seen its 
 Founder, the influence of his personality 
 would be felt in many ways, creating new 
 thoughts, feelings, and actions, while it re- 
 created old ones. 
 
 We have already noted one intellectual 
 
The Question of the Ages. 65 
 
 feature, in the message of Christianity to the 
 world, viz., its proclamation of the essential 
 unity of God and man. In other words, the 
 remoteness of the one from the other, and 
 the supposed chasm between them, was 
 bridged over, not by a mere announcement 
 of their identity, but by an exhibition of it, 
 as that identity came to light in the life of its 
 Founder. Heaven was revealed upon earth 
 in Him. 
 
 Ancient philosophy had been striving to 
 abolish the antagonisnT_between the lower 
 and the higher elements in man — to con- 
 quer the dualism of nature and the super- 
 natural, and to reconcile the human with the 
 Divine. It had failed. Christianity was a 
 new answer to that question of the ages : 
 "How can these two be reconciled?" It 
 reconciled them, by making them one. 
 It ended the discord, and took away the 
 sense of separation, by disclosing a higher 
 unity underlying them. In ancient Meta- 
 physic there was an unbridged chasm between 
 the ideal and the real : and in ancient Ethics 
 
 5 
 
66 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 there was "a great gulf fixed" between the 
 human and the Divine. Both of them were 
 removed by Christianity, in its exhibition of 
 the union of nature and the supernatural. 
 Suppressing neither element, but conserving 
 each, it abolished their antagonism. 
 
 This was effected in and by the life of its 
 •Founder, and the corollary is significant. It 
 is that his relation to the human race is an 
 exceptional one ; and that the relation of 
 Christendom to Him is a relation of excep- 
 tional indebtedness. The recognition of this 
 fact will develop a certain type of character 
 in those who recognise it, and this type will 
 be distinctively Christian. 
 
 There is an important difference, however, 
 between the type of virtue thus arising and 
 that which arose from direct contact with the 
 personality of Christ (such as occurred in his 
 lifetime), and also between it and that which 
 is due to the unconscious breathing of the 
 atmosphere in which Christendom now lives 
 and has its being. The contrast is this. 
 
 The virtues, which arise from contact with 
 
The Master of Christendom. 67 
 
 personality, are always more intense and 
 glowing than the others are. They are not 
 intellectual features of temperarnent, but 
 moral excellencies of character ; and, as a 
 consequence, they rouse to practical action, 
 in a way that the former never do. It is 
 this class of virtues which we have now to 
 consider, viz., those distinctive ones which 
 were first seen in the unique life of the 
 Founder and Master of Christendom, and 
 which, ever since his departure, have been 
 leavening the life of the human race. 
 
 Before mentioning them in detail it may 
 be noted that the Christian Ethic is, in one 
 sense, just the __deye.l_Qpment of that which 
 existed in the life of its Founder, its con- 
 tinuation, expansion, and fruition ; and it is 
 for this reason that the story of his life is 
 of such value to the world, every incident 
 which reveals it being full of the profoundest 
 ethical significance to posterity. The in- 
 fluence of his character — transmitted not, 
 mechanically but vitally — works on in the' 
 world, as a permanent element in its civilisa- 
 
68 . The Christian Ethic. 
 
 tion ; while those who are indebted to it are 
 sometimes entirely ignorant of its source. 
 The difference between the type of character, 
 which results from a recognition of truths 
 distinctive of Christianity, and that which 
 results from the moral assimilation and re- 
 production of its spirit, will thus be apparent. 
 The latter is so peculiarly the type of Chris- 
 tian virtue that the very motto of its Ethic 
 might be : " Let the same mind be in you that 
 was also in the Founder of your faith ". 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 SELF-SUFFICIENCE AND HUMILITY. 
 
 What then were the virtues which dis- 
 tinguished that Hfe, and have therefore be- 
 come cardinal elements in the Christian code? 
 The late Dean of Westminster once described 
 the virtues of the Roman world as patriotism 
 and imperial courage ; those of Palestine as 
 resignation, reverence, and faith ; those of 
 Christianity as universal kindness, consecra- 
 tion, sincerity, and humility. It was a sug- 
 gestive classification of the various elements 
 in each, but perhaps the latter list may be 
 made somewhat larger. 
 
 Before expanding it, however, two things 
 may be noted. The first is that many of the 
 Christian virtues shade into one another, by 
 fine and delicate gradations, so that they are 
 at times difficult to distinguish ; and we are 
 even liable to error by a cross-division, or 
 (69) 
 
70 The Christiaii Ethic. 
 
 repetition of them. Whenever the leaven of 
 the Christian Ethic enters into a character 
 that was previously uninfluenced by it, a new 
 development takes place ; and thus, there may 
 be almost as many virtues as there are moral 
 situations, each differing only by the finest 
 shade from those which border it, or are 
 allied to it. This is a point of much 
 importance practically ; because, in our judg- 
 ment of others, we often imagine things 
 to be awanting which are really present in 
 another form. They are transformed, through 
 the correlation of the Christian moral forces ; 
 and they may be strange to our eye, merely 
 because the character in which they exist is 
 very different from our own. The immense 
 variety in the type of these Christian virtues 
 is sometimes puzzling to the novice, and may 
 be " a stone of stumbling " to the uninitiated. 
 The second prefatory remark bears upon 
 the whole group of the Christian virtues, viz., 
 that they exhibit a harmony of opposites ; 
 that is to say, many principles or tendencies, 
 which were antagonistic in earlier systems, 
 
Self- Sufficie nee. 71 
 
 are found to be in unison here. They are 
 brought together at a focus, and are harmon- 
 ised ; while they afterwards appear as com- 
 plements to one another. 
 
 In proceeding now to classify the distinc- 
 tively Christian virtues, they might be divided, 
 as Aristotle marked out one section of his list ; 
 viz., into one group containing the virtues 
 connected with the moral estimate of self, and 
 a second containing those connected with an 
 estimate of others ; or the list might be drawn 
 out in a more miscellaneous manner, without 
 regarding this distinction. In what follows, 
 Aristotle's classification will be followed prac- 
 tically, by the statement, in the first place, of 
 two virtues belonging to the former class, 
 viz., the estimate of self; and by proceeding, 
 in the second place, to those connected with 
 our estimate of others. Not to encumber the 
 list, however, with4:oo many sub-divisions, the 
 entire series may be numbered as we proceed, 
 I, 2, 3, 4, etc. ; and two of them will be men- 
 tioned in this chapter. 
 
 ( I ) There is the virtue of self-sufificience — 
 
72 The Christian Ethtc. 
 
 a very different thing from self-sufficingness 
 — the latter being the vice against which the 
 former stands contrasted. This Christian 
 self-sufficience arises out of the relationship 
 to God which Christianity disclosed — all sense 
 of distance being abolished, and the idea of a 
 chasm between the finite and the Infinite 
 removed. As a result of the belief that God 
 is within the individual, so that he has not 
 " to go up into heaven, or to descend into the 
 deep" to find him — there being "no more 
 near nor far " — there arises a self- re lianc e, 
 which is really a reliance on God, on the In- 
 finite within the finite. This self-sufficience 
 will spring up in every character less or more, 
 in which the union of the Divine and the 
 human is realised, and its apprehension is 
 thorough ; the havi ng a root in one's self 
 being due to the fact that we are rooted and 
 grounded in another than self. A noteworthy 
 result ensues. The realisation of a new moral 
 centre at once raises its possessor above the 
 accidents of life, and makes him to a certain 
 extent superior to misfortune. This has a 
 
Humility. j^ 
 
 resemblance to the Greek virtue of aurapKeta ; 
 but it is that old virtue in a new form. It is 
 avTapK^ia glorified and transfigured, in the 
 light of the fact that we " live and move and 
 have our being " in God. This is the first 
 virtue. 
 
 The second is its moral opposite, but not 
 its contradictory. It is humility, or a lowly 
 self-estimate, the TaTreLvo^poarvvq of the New 
 Testament. If anything approaching to this 
 had been practised in Greece, it would have 
 been considered mean and paltry, or the sign 
 of a craven spirit. Throughout the ancient 
 world it was reckoned a weakness to be 
 humble. The strong were usually arrogant 
 in their strength, and their self-assertion was 
 inconsistent with humility. 
 
 Here, however, as in the former case, it is 
 incorrect to say that there was no germ of 
 humility, in the virtue of the ancient world. 
 We have already seen that in Greece, and 
 more especially in Palestine, th e germs of 
 that which grew into virtues distinctive of the 
 Christian Ethic — when fostered by its sun- 
 
74 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 light and its heat — were occasionally found ; 
 but neither the Greek nor the Hebrew virtue 
 was the same as the Christian, for two reasons. 
 In the first place, it had to be shown, by a 
 living example, that the more divine a char- 
 acter was the more profoundly it could stoop ; 
 and that the more lofty it was the further it 
 could descend. In the second place, the 
 Christian virtue of humility — or the lowly 
 self-estimate which is conjoined with avra/j/ceta 
 — springs from a conviction which we do not 
 find in Greece ; although we find it amongst 
 the Jews, expressed frequently in the Psalter, 
 VIZ., the immense interval between the ideal 
 and the actual, between aspiration and attain- 
 ment, or intention and realisation. It is to a 
 belief in an infinite standard on the one hand, 
 and on the other to those 
 
 Fallings from us, vanishings. 
 Blank misgivings of a creature 
 Moving about in worlds not realised, 
 
 that we owe this virtue of avTapKeua. It is 
 not true — as has sometimes been rashly said 
 — that pride was ever exalted to the rank of 
 
Humility. 75 
 
 a virtue in Greece; but the sober self-estimate, 
 which the Greek moralists inculcate, is a very 
 different thing from the attitude of lowliness, 
 mental and moral — the prostration of self 
 because of faulty practice, or a consciousness 
 of evil and weakness in the will — which is 
 distinctive of the Christian Ethic. 
 
 And these two things go together in its 
 moral system. Self-sufficience, or a sense of| 
 the worth of the individual from his relation 
 to the Infinite — which is really a reliance on 
 God w"ithin man — and humility deepening 
 into a sense of humiliation, because of un-, 
 worthiness, failure, and demerit. Each of 
 these, thus united, enhances the other. They 
 are like the light and the shadow, the latter 
 of which is keen in proportion to the intensity 
 of the former ; or, like the mountain and the 
 valley, the one of which is deep because of 
 the height of the other. 
 
 It may further be noted that, in its finest 
 phases, the virtue of humility arises not so 
 much from an examination of one's own 
 character, leading to the conclusion that one 
 
76 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 has seriously failed. Such introspection is 
 not always healthful, and it often becomes 
 morbid. Humility in self-estimate is not due 
 to the fact that one has been carrying on a 
 process of analysis, and has found out a long 
 catalogue of defects. It is rather due to the 
 fact that one has not been thinking of self at 
 all, but has rather begun to think of others, 
 and in some degree to live for them. Here 
 again we may note the harmony and unity of 
 these virtues, and how naturally one of them 
 leads on to another. Self-sacrifice for others, 
 whenever it takes possession of an individual, 
 leaves little time for reflex thought about 
 one's self ; and it thus breeds the noblest 
 kind of humility. 
 
 Before leaving these two virtues, which 
 bear upon an estimate of self, it need hardly 
 be remarked that each of them if pushed out 
 of its place — ^or pushed across the mean — 
 degenerates easily into a vice. All the vir- 
 tues may thus degenerate and become vices, 
 as Aristotle has very clearly shown. It is 
 important, however, to note what the vices 
 
Self-Sufficience and Humility. 'j'j 
 
 are to which these virtues lead when they are^ 
 in excess. The one — that of self-sufficience 
 — if too intense, or if it stands alone, rises 
 into haughtiness, or the vice of pride. The 
 other— the virtue of humility — if too intense, 
 or if it stands alone, sinks into weak-minded- 
 ness, or the vice of morbid self-prostration. 
 
 So far the two virtues which belong to, or 
 arise out of, the estimate of self. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 DEVOTION TO OTHERS. 
 
 The third virtue in this second branch of the 
 Christian Ethic, is one which carries the 
 individual away from self altogether. It is 
 that of love for and devotion to others, 
 arising out of a recognition both of their 
 worth and their needs ; the relation of all to 
 the Infinite being the same, and all being 
 members of a single family. If in human 
 nature there be but one body corporate, with 
 many members — each different from the rest, 
 and having wants which only others can 
 supply — it is clear that each is intended to 
 aid the rest, as opportunity arises. This 
 virtue is the aydiTT] of the New Testament. 
 It is not so much the glorification of the 
 Greek epojs, as its complete transfiguration. 
 It has its intellectual root in the recognition 
 
 of the common relation of all to God, and in 
 
 (78) 
 
Devotion to Others. 79 
 
 that brotherhood of the race already referred 
 to. 
 
 Here again it is desirable to note the rela- 
 tion of virtue to virtue in the Christian Ethic. 
 As it manifests itself in experience, the one 
 we are now considering is a purely unselfish 
 virtue. When genuine it is never practised 
 because it is a pleasant thing to practise it, or 
 because of the delight arising from the fellow- 
 ship of kindred minds and hearts. It is rather 
 because we are units in a corporate body, 
 in which " the hand cannot say to the eye I 
 ha.v'e no need of thee, nor the head to the 
 foot I have no need of you " ; in other words 
 it is due to what is aptly called the solidarity 
 of the race. In this solidarity we find the 
 intellectual root of the moral virtue ; and the 
 realisation of the common relation of all to 
 the Infinite may render some of the more 
 difficult tasks of philanthropy easier. Most 
 persons,, however, are stirred up to the practice 
 of these duties, simply by the presence of evil 
 around them. The discovery of ignorance 
 and misery, of pain, sorrow and loss, arouses 
 
8o The Christian Ethic. 
 
 in all genuine and unsophisticated hearts the 
 desire to render help, and, if possible, to 
 relieve. This may be said to be the chief 
 centrifugal force in human nature, which 
 carries us out from ourselves, and counteracts 
 the centripetal force which carries us inwards. 
 These two forces, working in harmony, keep 
 human nature turning on its axis, so to speak, 
 and revolving around the sun of the Christian 
 moral system. 
 
 It may be noted at this stage how different 
 the virtue we are considering is from the 
 highest form of its antecedent germ in the 
 Greek ethic, viz., the Platonic. It is not due 
 to mere intellectual admiration, although 
 admiration may foster and expand it. It is 
 not to be confounded with that noble friend- 
 ship which existed in the Pythagorean 
 brotherhood, and was a cementing bond in 
 the freemasonry of Plato's Republic. It is an 
 emotion that is quickened into life by a per- 
 ception of the losses and evils of which others 
 are the victims ; and its outcome in all its 
 nobler forms is a moral fire of enthusiastic 
 
Devotion to Others. &i 
 
 devotion to them, which leads to the giving 
 up of time, ease, and personal enjoyment, in 
 order to remedy losses, to avert evil, and to 
 mitigate disaster. 
 
 The virtue we have been considering is a 
 direct result of the practice of what Chris- 
 tianity calls the second of the "great com- 
 mandments," viz., love to man ; but we may 
 sub-divide it, because its ramifications are 
 numerous, and branch out into many separate 
 virtues in detail. 
 
 ( I ) There is, first of all, a regard for human 
 life as such, a recognition of the sacredness 
 of life. If the phrase, made use of by the 
 early Christian writers, that we are temples 
 in which Divinity may dwell, be a valid 
 figure of speech ; or if, to change the illustra- 
 tion, within the body of every slave some 
 fragment of a divine original lies hid — a like- 
 ness which may be deciphered, by those who 
 have the eye to see it, as a palimpsest is read 
 through all the erasures and disfigurements 
 of copyists — this idea at once enhances the 
 
 sacredness of human life as such. Under the 
 
 6 
 
82 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 earlier civilisations the value of life was 
 scarcely recognised. The slaughter of thou- 
 sands of human beings was little thought of, 
 and the reckless expenditure of life was 
 witnessed with comparative indifference even 
 I by the educated classes. However else they 
 might be regarded, the masses were at least 
 good fighting material, and their military 
 value was reckoned up with far more callous- 
 ness than Napoleon was in the habit of estimat- 
 ing his battalions. It is difficult for the modern 
 world to realise the indifference to physical 
 life which existed in ancient times. In many 
 tribes, before a youth was allowed to marry 
 he had to kill some one, in order to prove his 
 courage, an enemy if possible ; but, if no enemy 
 was at hand, then the first person he came 
 across. We see something like this still 
 existing amongst contemporary savages ; but, 
 so far as it has departed from our western 
 civilisation, its departure is most certainly due 
 to the introduction of the Christian Ethic. 
 The reckless waste of human life — which was 
 a widespread vice in ancient times — has been 
 
Devotion to Others. 83 
 
 supplanted to a large extent in Europe by the 
 recognition of the value of life ; and this has 
 introduced a new element into warfare, in 
 so far as it has turned the brutal strife of 
 savages into wars of chivalry. 
 
 (2) Secondly, we find in the Christian 
 Ethic a new estimate of, and reverence for, 
 the body as the ally of the, soul. The Chris- 
 tian Ethic has also taught us to think little of 
 the body, and its wants, subordinating these 
 to the higher interests of the spirit; but there 
 is at the same time a reverence for the body, 
 which is one of the main safeguards of virtue. 
 That attention to it, and care for it, which 
 Christianity inculcates — while they are the 
 very opposite of senseless devotion to it — are 
 undoubted virtues, which lead on to much 
 else that is good. E.g., the maintenance 
 of physical health and bodily vigour — so 
 far as practicable — is a duty, no less than the 
 maintenance of moral and mental health. 
 This was doubtless recognised, and even em- 
 phasised, in the Hellenic ideal of many-sided 
 culture ; but there were many elements at work 
 
84 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 in the Greek world, which were antagonistic 
 to it. The Cynic and the Stoic teaching 
 opposed it ; and asceticism, in all its phases, is 
 alien to that harmony of body and soul, which 
 is a root-principle in the Christian Ethic. 
 
 (3) In the third place, there is the recogni- 
 tion of woman as man's equal, and not his 
 slave ; the equality of the sexes-, not in the 
 sense that everything should be equalised — 
 because in that case we would live in the 
 most dreary world of monotony and common- 
 place — but in the sense that equal rights and 
 duties should be recognised, and provision 
 made for their accomplishment. To what 
 source does the modern world owe this idea, 
 and its gradual though tardy realisation ? It is 
 almost entirely the product of the Christian 
 Ethic, and to the leaven of its moral ideal, 
 mingling with and helping forward the 
 general progress of the race. In Greece — 
 the land of ancient splendour, and intellectual 
 renown — women had scarcely any sphere ex- 
 cept the domestic one, which was " cabined 
 cribbed confined" within a monotonous round. 
 
Devotion to Others. 85 
 
 There were certainly some cultivated women 
 in Greece ; poets, artists, and even philo- 
 'sophers. The same is true of other 
 countries ; but it was not until the leaven 
 of the Christian Ethic had time to per- 
 meate the world, and to transform its 
 earlier ideals, that anything like justi ce w as 
 done to wonien. It is only quite recently that 
 approximate justice has been done to them 
 in some directions, and more is perhaps to 
 follow ; but the improvement of their posi- 
 tion in the modern world — while partly due 
 to the general progress of enlightenment, 
 partly to their own proved capacity for 
 higher things, and the achievements they 
 have won for themselves — is mainly the result 
 of silent influences, which have emanated from 
 the fountainhead. 
 
 (4) A fourth element in the Christian Ethic 
 — under this head — is its regard for Humanity 
 in the two extremes of feebleness ; for old age 
 on the one hand, and for childhood on the 
 other. We may not forget that, in the De 
 Senectute and elsewhere, there are many noble 
 
86 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 things said of Age, and of what the aged can 
 be and do ; but the common feeling of anti- 
 quity beyond the Christian frontier was that 
 the aged were burdens, or cumberers of the 
 ground, their time being past ; and so, indif- 
 ference to them was common. On the other 
 hand, children were felt to be incapable of 
 anything that was worth taking note of. The 
 idea that those in middle life, or in the full 
 vigour of their powers, had anything to learn 
 from old age — that the period of the decline 
 of life should hdve a special lesson for man- 
 hood, and that there was a duty which the 
 younger generation owed to the elder — these 
 were new to the world at the incoming of the 
 Christian Ethic. In the case of children, it 
 seemed almost absurd that their seniors 
 could learn anything from them, until the 
 world had experience of a Divine Child- 
 hood ; but since then it may be truly said 
 of Christendom that "a little child has led 
 it ". This is a distinctive feature of the 
 Christian Ethic. Not only parents, but all 
 men and women may be taught the pro- 
 
Devotion to Others. 87 
 
 foundest lessons by the ordinary life of 
 children, their guileless unsophisticated ways, 
 their innocent gladness, their dependence, 
 and their trustfulness. 
 
 (5) A fifth point is regard for the weak and 
 the unprotected, for those who are beneath 
 us in the accident of fortune. Goeth e con- 
 trasted the Christian with other religions on 
 the ground of its re verenc e fqrjwhat is beneath 
 us ; others inculcating reverence for what is 
 above us, and for what is on our own level ; 
 Christianity showing — for the first time in 
 History — reverence for what is underneath, 
 or lower than ourselves. It was a poor* 
 analysis, if meant to signalise the central 
 feature of Christianity ; but, it certainly 
 threw emphasis on a real feature of it. 
 And under it, widened out — as Goethe him- 
 self would probably have widened it — we 
 must include regard for creatures other than^ 
 the human, sympathy for example with the^ 
 brute creation. To what do we owe our 
 " Societies for the prevention of cruelty 
 to animals".'' They are a purely Christian 
 
88 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 development. What is expressed in the 
 Hnes — 
 
 He prayeth best, who loveth best, 
 All things both great and small ; 
 For the dear God, who loveth us. 
 He made and loveth all, 
 
 is a distinctive outgrowth of the ethics of 
 Christianity. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 SOCIAL EQUALITY; CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM; 
 PHILANTHROPY. 
 
 A PLACE by itself in the Christian Ethic 
 ought perhaps to be given to the special 
 way in which it recognises the fundamental 
 equality of men — in so far as they share a 
 common nature and inheritance — an idea 
 which, more than anything else, has given a 
 progressive death-blow both to the caste and 
 the slavery of the world. This, however, 
 must not be identified with the motto in- 
 scribed on the socialistic banner. It is a 
 truth without any political significance what- 
 soever, and it may be held as firmly by the 
 most advanced Liberal as by the most Con- 
 servative partisan. It may be equally recog- 
 nised in both the great political organisations, 
 which have throughout the ages competed 
 for the suffrage of mankind ; and each of 
 
 these errs, if it arrogates to itself exclusively 
 
 (89) 
 
90 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 any one of the distinctive features of the 
 Christian reHgion. 
 
 The historic fact to be noted is that this 
 idea of the fundamental equahty of men — 
 when one goes beneath accidental differences 
 and social distinctions — has dealt, and was 
 intended to deal, the death-blow already 
 referred to. It is of course unhappily true 
 that the odious spirit of caste still lingers 
 in many quarters ; and that, in some of its 
 worst features, it mars the catholicity of 
 Christendom. There is perhaps no greater 
 hindrance to the development of the Christian 
 Ethic than the obstinacy with which this spirit 
 clings to certain sects and coteries, and even 
 tarnishes the religious life of thousands. 
 There are some persons who would rather 
 renounce religion, than come into close 
 quarters with the poor and the degraded, if 
 it involved subsequent toil in their behalf. 
 They act as if there was, if not a separate 
 religion, at least a distinct ritual or religious 
 service for them, and another for the poor 
 and the vulgar. Notwithstanding of this — 
 
Philanthropy. 9 1 
 
 lamentable enough as a fact — it remains 
 true, that by the entrance of Christianity 
 into the world, and by the special genius of 
 this religion, the principle of caste has been 
 broken down. It has been destroyed by that 
 element in the Christian Ethic which has 
 made it true — as a great religious writer puts 
 it — that " in the heraldry of the universe, the 
 blood of Agamemnon is less noble than the 
 spirit of the saint ". 
 
 The equality referred to under this head is 
 not advanced in the spirit of that Communism, 
 of which the watchword is : Take from others, 
 level down, and thus make all men equal. 
 Its watchword is not 'take from,' but 'give 
 to ' others. The maxim of Communism is : 
 " Take from him who has more than you, and 
 equalise all men as citizens of the world ". 
 That of the Christian Ethic is : " Give to him 
 who has less than you, and thus equalise all 
 as brethren in one family ". The one advo- 
 cates reduction and diminution, levelling 
 uniformly down ; the other advocates en- 
 largement and expansion, levelling up con- 
 
92 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 tinuously. There is surely an important 
 difference between these two things. In 
 this connection it is worthy of note that a 
 sentence — recorded by St. Paul as having 
 been spoken, on an occasion of which he 
 gives us no particulars, — is really one of 
 the central mottoes of the Christian Religion, 
 because it embodies one of its most charac- 
 teristic principles. The saying is : " It is 
 more blessed to give than to receive ". It 
 is obvious that one must have something, 
 before he is in a position to give any- 
 thing away. Just as one must cultivate 
 himself, in order to be able to transcend 
 himself, — in other words, in order to any 
 self-sacrifice worthy of the name — so, he 
 must possess, before he can confer. One 
 characteristic of the Christian Ethic however 
 is this, that it regulates both the process of 
 acquisition and the act of bestowment ; or, 
 the temporary retention, and the ultimate 
 giving away, both of what we are, and of 
 what we have. 
 
 Another point to be noted, under this head. 
 
Philanthropy. 93 
 
 is the peculiar kind of interest in others, and 
 regard for them, which has led to the organised 
 philanthropy of the world, viz., the love of the 
 unlovely. It is a distinctive feature in the Chris- 
 tian Ethic, which has fed the stream of all its 
 charities, constantly and unobtrusively. When 
 it has become intense and glowing, this same 
 characteristic has been the parent of almost 
 all the remedial institutions of the modern 
 world. 
 
 It is sometimes forgotten that the hospitalr 
 the asylum, the reformatory, the convalescent 
 home, the orphanage, and even " unions " for 
 the poor are all distinctively Christian institu- 
 tions ; while the gaol, and the prison, are 
 distinctively pagan. This is not said in any 
 disparagement of the latter. Far from it ; 
 first, because we owe so many good things to 
 Paganism ; and, secondly, because the gaol is 
 still quite as much needed, as the hospital or 
 the reformatory is ! But the difference is 
 this, that the conception of punishment — a 
 necessary one doubtless — lies at the root of 
 the _gaol ; while the conception of recovery. 
 
94 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 or restoration, lies at the root of the reforma- 
 tory.* 
 
 Another thing to be noted is the spirit in 
 which all this interest in others, and work on 
 their behalf, is to be carried on. The spirit 
 of the Christian Ethic in philanthropic work 
 is this : " Do good from the love of doing it, 
 from the desire to help others, hoping for no- 
 thing in return". The work has to be done 
 not from the hope of reward — which would 
 
 * I do not forget that there were asylums for the insane 
 amongst the Moslems : and that in ancient Egypt, in 
 India, in China, and even in Mexico, we find dis- 
 pensaries ; (although only one is recorded in Greece). 
 But these remedial institutions were not the dominant 
 note or characteristic of any type of civilisation before 
 Christ ; and the difference between those which did exist 
 anterior to the Christian era, and those which arose subse- 
 quently and were created by it, is best seen when we come 
 to the fourth century, and find the noble Roman Lady 
 Fabiola devoting her great fortune for the building of 
 the first great Noo-oKo/ieTov, or infirmary for the poor and 
 homeless sick. The act was contagious, and creative of a 
 new type of beneficence ; leading St. Ba sil to build his 
 magnificent hospital at Casarea in Cappadocia, and to 
 there being at Constantinople in St. Chrysostora's time 
 as many as 600 trained nurses for the sick. 
 
Philanthropy. 95 
 
 tarnish it from root to branch — but from the 
 desire to increase the su m total of good in the 
 world, rejoicing in its increase, and glad that one 
 is privileged to be an instrument in its accom- 
 plishment ; a concurrent motive being the 
 honour of admission into the rank of workers 
 in the great hierarchy — a satisfaction always 
 serene, in proportion as the doer of the work 
 forgets that he has done it. 
 
 This is not meant to extinguish interest in 
 one's self, or in the aims and ambitions which 
 are strictly personal. In this respect — as in so 
 many others — Christianity did not "come to 
 destroy, but to fulfil". It may even be 
 granted that, when living for others ex- 
 tinguishes all life for self — or, to adopt the 
 technical language of the hour, when altruism 
 so completely conquers egoism as to anni- 
 hilate it — the very principle, thus vainly 
 glorified, breaks down and disappears. If 
 every person in the world lived exclusively 
 . for every one else, there would be a speedy end 
 to self-sacrifice. If each one tried to subordin- 
 ate or to eliminate himself, with the view of 
 
96 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 helping others, who would remain in the 
 position, not of the helper, but of the helped? 
 Not one. The very virtue would be evolved 
 out of existence ! 
 
 But further, as we do not always succeed 
 in knowing what is best for ourselves, it is 
 not likely that we shall succeed — i.e., if we 
 attempt to practise this Utopian plan of living 
 for others exclusively — first, in knowing what 
 is best for them, and secondly, in carrying it 
 out. Most of us come to rash conclusions as 
 to what it is best for other lives to achieve ; 
 because, in the first instance, we make crude 
 guesses as to what they really are. It may 
 perhaps be said that it is impossible for any 
 one — however nearly related, by ties of blood 
 or of friendship — to know what is the noblest 
 ideal of life, for any other human being ; al- 
 though by slow degrees he may surmise what 
 is best for himself In any case however 
 unless he begins by having, not only some 
 interest in, but also a very considerable regard 
 for, himself, he is totally unfitted for being 
 either a guide or a help to others. In giving 
 
Philanthropy. gj 
 
 advice of any kind, the adviser is presumed 
 to have passed through an ordeal of some 
 kind, the experience of which warrants him 
 in offering it. It is only because he has found 
 it advantageous to himself, or to others, that 
 he is justified in giving it : but he is always 
 liable to err, and can never be sure that his 
 advice is wholly wise. 
 
 Let it be granted that " he who loses his 
 life saves it," and that "he who saves his life 
 loses it " ; the saving, at the cost of losing, 
 implies that the life itself was worth saving, 
 and was therefore possessed of intrinsic value. 
 No human being is called upon, by the Chris- 
 tian Ethic, to sacrifice himself entirely for the 
 sake of others. So far as he is summoned to 
 practise self-denial, it is in a social, fraternal, 
 or communistic interest ; and it is a sacrifice 
 meant to destroy the baser self, while it expands 
 and enriches the higher. It is indeed self- 
 evident that a doctrine of self-sacrifice which 
 ends in the collapse and disintegration of 
 human character, \s felo de se. It may even, 
 be characterised as intellectual imbecility, and 
 
 7 
 
9 8 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 moral lunacy ; because to conserve and 
 develop, to strengthen and enrich individual 
 character is the very highest ethical end ; 
 while, at the same time, the conservation and 
 development, the strengthening and enrich- 
 ment of other lives is secured by means of it. 
 It may also be noted that the highest feature 
 or characteristic of the Infinite, disclosed to 
 the world in Christianity, viz., the act of 
 descending to the finite — a descent, with a 
 view to a subsequent ascent, along with the 
 finite — has in turn created a new type of 
 virtue in the life of the finite. If, as already 
 indicated, it may be taken as a rule of the 
 brotherhood, " Let the same mind be in you 
 that was also in your Founder," the living for 
 others — stooping to them in incessant acts of 
 service, spending effort, and " being spent," 
 in toil on their behalf — is at once raised to the 
 position of a cardinal virtue in the Christian 
 code. Such altruism becomes an instinctive, 
 as well as an elemental, principle of life. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE FORGIVENESS OF INJURIES. 
 
 We come now to a virtue which may in one 
 sense, like the preceding ones, be deduced 
 from the general principle of love to one's 
 neighbour — so comprehensive a virtue is that 
 which the Christian Ethic calls the " second 
 great commandment " ; although it seems 
 better to give this virtue a place by itself, 
 both from its importance, and from its having 
 manifold phases and ramifications. 
 
 It is the virtue of forgiveness, the forgive- 
 ness of injury. It is obvious that this might 
 be regarded, either as a corollary, or as the 
 outcome, of " loving our neighbour, as we love 
 ourselves " ; for we could not do this, t.e., 
 we could not love our neighbour fully and 
 genuinely, without forgiving him ; but then, 
 the act of forgiveness, and still more its 
 spirit and temper, is so different from other 
 (99,^ 
 
lOO The Christian Ethic. 
 
 aspects which the love of one's neighbour 
 assumes, that this imperial virtue deserves 
 to occupy a place of its own, in the general 
 hierarchy. 
 
 As in the case of the virtue of humility, 
 already referred to, it is to be noted, in the 
 first place, that we find illustrations and 
 traces of it before the Christian era, and 
 beyond its frontier. It is commended in 
 classical literature. We find it referred to 
 by Plato, Aristotle, Epictetus, and Plutarch. 
 But the difference between the virtue, as 
 taught and practised in Greece,* and as taught 
 and practised in Christendom is this. A Greek 
 forgave injuries or affronts, either because it 
 annoyed him to be compelled to carry out re- 
 taliation, or because he thought it beneath his 
 dignity to do so. It was a worry, a trouble, 
 and a vexation, to take the steps necessary to 
 punish the offender. It interfered with peace 
 of mind ; and thus the root of abstinence from 
 
 * See (i) Plutarch's Account of Pericles. (2) Plato's 
 Representation of Socrates in the Crito, where he affirms 
 that it is wrong to injure those who injure us. 
 
Forgiveness. i o i 
 
 revenge was arapa^ba, or the love of ease. 
 Anger, on the other hand, was a perturbation 
 of mind, an excitement, the indulgence of 
 which was not " good form," or was unworthy 
 of a noble nature. Now this comes very 
 near to a virtue, but it is not the virtue of 
 the Christian Ethic. The scorn to wrong 
 another, because it is inconsistent with the 
 self-respect of a noble nature, is not the same 
 thing as aversion to it, because of the respect 
 due to one's fellow-men. 
 
 In this distinction a second aspect of the 
 virtue we are considering comes to light. 
 A negative abstinence from revenge is not 
 the same thing as a positive forgiveness of 
 the injury inflicted. The one is a passive, 
 and the other is an active virtue. Again, the 
 act of forgiveness is practised in Christendom, 
 mainly because an inward moral necessity 
 constrains the agent, irrespective of the merit 
 or the demerit of the objects receiving it. 
 The principle of universal charity includes 
 enemies, as well as friends, within its scope. 
 It matters nothing to one who practises this 
 
I02 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 virtue what the character of the persons who 
 receive his forgiveness may be — what they 
 have been, or what they have done, in the 
 past. In other words, the bestowal of for- 
 giveness in the Christian Ethic is not based 
 upon the merits of the recipient, but upon the 
 duty of granting forgiveness to every one 
 who may have inflicted an injury, whatever 
 his conduct may have been ; and it is prac- 
 tised because the features of a wayward 
 brother are recognised under any wrong done 
 by him. We owe it to the diffusion of this 
 ethic in Christendom, that the old fierce- 
 ness of human struggle, and the savage re- 
 prisals of barbaric life, have been to a great 
 extent abolished. No doubt much of the 
 latter tendency remains, within nations and 
 communities that are nominally Christian ; 
 but the higher virtue has, to a large extent, 
 abolished the lower, and pervaded the modern 
 world by its spirit. 
 
 A third point to be noted under this head 
 is that, according to the Christian Ethic, the 
 virtue is incumbent upon nations in their 
 
Forgiveness. 103 
 
 corporate capacity, as well as upon sects, 
 comtnunities, and individuals. It is extremely 
 difficult, however, to instil this principle into 
 the mind and heart of any nation. Some, 
 who think it a duty to practise the virtue of 
 forgiveness in their private capacity towards 
 individuals, consider it not only legitimate 
 that one nation should keep up a grudge 
 against another, but that it fosters patriotism 
 to do so. Were this the case, it might be 
 said in reply, "Better that national spirit 
 were extinct ; than that the world should 
 continue to practise the revenge, which is 
 supposed to nourish it". It is not necessary, 
 however, that the virtue of patriotism should 
 be extinguished, in order to make room for 
 the one we are now considering. Patriotism, 
 as such, has no necessary connection with 
 revenge ; while all its finer features are 
 blunted by the presence of the spirit of 
 retaliation. 
 
 A fourth point in connection with this 
 virtue of forgiveness is that it is equally 
 incumbent upon all, no one being exempted 
 
I04 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 from it on the ground of rank, or talent, the 
 amount of debt owing to him, or services 
 rendered by him, or any other reason what- 
 soever. This universahsing of the virtue 
 deepens and intensifies it. 
 
 A fifth point is that it is incumbent for 
 ever. In other words, we must not only 
 forgive once, and cease to do so, if the 
 offence be repeated ; but we must forgive 
 " unto seventy times seven," as the writer 
 of the Gospel puts it. The moral range of 
 the virtue is thus as wide as the Infinite, 
 both in space and in time. It covers all 
 cases, and it is meant to last for ever. As a 
 matter of fact or experience, so soon as it 
 takes hold of a human spirit, it soon shows 
 the signs of immortality. " Many waters 
 cannot quench it." Even the worthlessness 
 of its recipient does not make those who 
 have begun to practise it raise the question 
 cut bono ? What is the use of continuing it ? 
 Its continuance arises out of its very nature. 
 
 It may be noted that this feature character- 
 ises all the Christian virtues, when they are 
 
Forgiveness. 105 
 
 genuine. They soon give evidence of their 
 immortality; and this maybe explained, either 
 by the fact already mentioned, that it was 
 the Christian religion which first "brought 
 immortality to light " ; or by the inherent 
 quality of each virtue, as it springs into 
 being, and is gradually developed. In their 
 purity and genuineness these virtues give 
 evidence that they are not meant for a 
 day, or a year, or an age ; but for all time. 
 They thus carry the evidence of their own 
 destiny upbound with them. It must not 
 be imagined from this that they are never 
 changed. Every virtue, and every element 
 in human nature, undergoes incessant modi- 
 fication. At the same time, no virtue ever 
 dies ; it is only transformed. If a virtue is 
 to last, it must expand ; it cannot therefore 
 remain at a stationary point, or of a uniform 
 character. Stagnation is death ; and moral 
 no less than physical life differentiates itself, 
 in a continuous process of change and de- 
 velopment. In the course of this transforma- 
 tion of the virtues, inferior elements, which 
 
io6 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 were present in them — from passing causes, 
 and their relation to the life of sense — are 
 removed ; very much as dross is taken away 
 by the refining heat. In the process of what 
 may be called moral alchemy amongst the 
 virtues, it is a property of the fire to harden 
 some things, while it melts others ; to con- 
 solidate the good, while it consumes the evil. 
 All the Christian virtues, however, are of the 
 asbestos type ; which the fire, which tries 
 everything, cannot turn to ashes. 
 
 Passing from this, a sixth and a much 
 forgotten aspect of the Christian Ethic comes 
 out, not only in granting forgiveness, but in the 
 receiving of it. There are some persons, who 
 are ready enough to forgive others but who are 
 too proud to receive forgiveness themselves. 
 They will not accept it ; although they are quite 
 well aware that they have injured those who 
 are willing to forgive them. This may be 
 taken in connection with a maxim already 
 quoted, viz., " it is more blessed to give than 
 to receive ". If it be so, one may not " covet 
 earnestly this best gift" for himself alone. He 
 
Forgiveness. 1 07 
 
 must rejoice in it, as exercised by others 
 toward himself ; that is to say he must be 
 willing to be at times in the inferior position 
 of a receiver, in order that the greater blessed- 
 ness of a giver may be enjoyed by others. 
 Thus, the whole realm of the Christian 
 commonwealth is bound together, by the 
 reciprocal tie of giving and receiving. The 
 moral agent, who has learned that it is more 
 blessed to give than to receive — and who is 
 practising the virtue — must be equally willing 
 to receive those kindly offices, the giving of 
 which imparts a greater blessedness to 
 others. Why should he monopolise the 
 luxury of giving, and be after all selfish in 
 his beneficence? It is evident that were one 
 to insist on being always the giver, and never 
 the receiver, he would arrogate to himself the 
 higher place or office — a claim that is disal- 
 lowed by the Christian Ethic. 
 
 There is not much likelihood, however, 
 of this kind of selfishness becoming common 
 in Christendom. There are few who try 
 to monopolise the luxury of giving. The 
 
io8 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 ordinary failing is all the other way, and 
 some do not believe it possible to practise 
 the virtue of giving and receiving unselfishly. 
 Thomas Carlyle once said to me that he did 
 not think there were two men in Christen- 
 dom, one of whom could give, and the other 
 receive a benefit, without some loss to the 
 moral integrity of both. He thought that the 
 mere act of receiving a favour injured the 
 recipient, either making him craven-spirited, 
 or letting hin*! feel himself an inferior ; while 
 the act of giving similarly injured the giver, 
 by imparting to him a false sense of superior- 
 ity. This opinion may be based upon a sur- 
 face truth, but it is a truth which, when pushed 
 to excess, becomes a total falsehood. It is 
 not only possible, it may be quite easy — and 
 even become habitual — to, grant a favour 
 without the smallest feeling that by so doing 
 you are making the recipient your debtor, or 
 placing him in a position of inferiority for the 
 time being. And why ? Simply because the 
 Christian virtue we are dealing with does not 
 allow a moment's comparison between one's 
 
Forgiveness. 109 
 
 self and others. It is an impulse or instinct, 
 which tends toward and rests in others, which 
 is satisfied with the act of bestowment, and 
 has no underlying after-thought tending back- 
 ward to self. On the other hand — although 
 it is perhaps more difficult — one may receive 
 a favour, and rejoice in it, without the slightest 
 sacrifice of moral integrity. It is a poor kind 
 of pride that leads a man to refuse a benefit, 
 because it won't be said of him that he has 
 been indebted to any one. 
 
 Sometimes, however, a dislike to feel — 
 or at any rate to own — indebtedness to 
 other people lingers long in noble natures. 
 Strong men, who glory in the fact that they 
 are " self-made," often wish the fact to be 
 known that they have had no " patrons " ; 
 and, in emphasising the fact, they would 
 rather scatter gifts profusely, than receive a 
 single benefit themselves. This, however, is 
 contrary to the spirit of the Christian Ethic, 
 in which a sense of indebtedness is a funda- 
 mental element. It is also an inconsistent, 
 if not a foolish, attitude to assume ; because 
 
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112 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 of patience under suffering ; the endurance 
 of pain, for example, without complaint ; and 
 — what is to some temperaments much more 
 difficult — the endurance of wrong, without 
 resentment against the doer of it. Patience, 
 while exposed to misrepresentation, and oblo- 
 quy, or unmerited neglect, is another aspect 
 of the same virtue. 
 
 There is no doubt that such virtues were 
 either unknown, or were scarcely known, 
 in Greece. To see how clearly they are a 
 Christian outgrowth we have only to recall 
 the story of that life of sorrow, which taught 
 the world both how to endure loss, and how to 
 be superior to misfortune, how to bear insult 
 and misrepresentation in silence, and how to 
 suffer without a spark of resentment against 
 the person inflicting it. It is a virtue very 
 hard to practise. It is seldom seen in its 
 purity ; but, so far as it is seen in Christen- 
 dom, it is entirely due to its Founder, that the 
 virtue exists, or is practised at all. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 FARTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF CHRISTIAN 
 VIRTUE. 
 
 Certain characteristics, which result from the 
 practice both of the virtues just mentioned, 
 and those discussed before them — features 
 which colour and eradiate all Christian mor- 
 ality — may now be pointed out. 
 
 I. The first may perhaps be best described 
 as acting because one is divinely necessitated to 
 act, constrained by a sense of inward honour, 
 and by the feeling so well expressed in the 
 phrase — for which we have no exact equiva- 
 lent — noblesse oblige, impelled by the twofold 
 motive of self-respect and self-forgetfulness. 
 This by degrees imparts an intensity to life's 
 aims, the feeling of being consecrated to great 
 causes, a sense of being not one's own but of 
 being dedicated to what is much nobler than 
 individual or personal interests could ever be, 
 
 the conviction that one has a purpose to fulfil 
 8 (iT3) 
 
114 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 which may help forward the general life of 
 the race and lift it upward. It leads one to 
 see that he lives in this world not so much 
 for personal enjoyment as for the general 
 weal, that he exists to carry out the purposes 
 of a great commonwealth, and to advance the 
 welfare of the universal brotherhood. It also 
 tends more and more to self-abnegation ; 
 because the particular agency, by which these 
 large ends are accomplished, is felt to be of no 
 consequence so long as the ends themselves 
 are reached. The workers mav be ignored, 
 but what of that ? It is their ultimate destiny, 
 in any case, to be forgotten ; and, so long as 
 the work is done, what does it signify by 
 whom it is done, or who gets the credit of 
 doing it? In its nobler forms this virtue — 
 like others we have been considering — is rare 
 in Christendom, but it is one of those which 
 are eminently distinctive of the Christian 
 character. 
 
 2. A second characteristic of Christian virtue 
 is this, that very much of it is — to speak in a 
 figure — set, of necessity, in the minor key. 
 
Farther Characteristics. 1 1 5 
 
 There is a plaintiveness — a sad, and even a 
 sombre tone — occasionally mingled widi its 
 joyousness. It has been brought forward as 
 a charge against it that it has an affinity with 
 sadness. In reply to such a charge it need 
 scarcely be said that the Christian Ethic is not 
 out of sympathy with the glad, the bright, and 
 the triumphant elements in human nature, or 
 with the gay and the humorous ; but its moral 
 range is very wide, and it makes room for 
 the " miserere nobis," as well as for the 
 ''hallelujah chorus". This is an unquestion- 
 able sign of the breadth, and not of the 
 narrowness of its sympathy. Its recogni- 
 tion of the alien elements which have marred 
 human nature, the discord and the blight 
 which we formerly considered, is one of the 
 notes of its catholicity. An ethic and a 
 religion, the first and the last notes of 
 which are those of joy exclusively, is less 
 catholic and comprehensive, than one which 
 takes in the sad as well as the joyous 
 elements in existence, and of which the 
 motto is "sorrowing, yet alway rejoicing". 
 
1 1 6 The Chi'istian Ethic. 
 
 3. The width of the Christian Ethic is also 
 seen in its unconquerable aspiration, its effort 
 to rise superior to all the disorder it bewails, 
 and to approach continually nearer to its own 
 ideal. In this respect, the desideriuni of 
 Christianity is one of its most distinctive 
 features. Its confessions of failure are in- 
 variably blent with a passionate yearning 
 after the unattained ; and this yearning may 
 be said to be prophetic of attainment yet in 
 store. All fruitless regrets are disallowed 
 by it ; partly because they waste time, and 
 enervate the spirit ; partly because they dis- 
 tract the mind, and sometimes paralyse the 
 will. It is thus that hope and aspiration, 
 with the confidence of final attainment, al- 
 ways follow the sense of temporary defeat, 
 in the alternating experiences of Christen- 
 dom. The recognition of a nobler ideal, both 
 of action and of experience, than any we 
 have reached — our moral vision enlarging as 
 our inward horizon changes — gives rise to 
 a belief that our ideal will be progressively 
 realised. 
 
Farther Characteristics. 1 1 7 
 
 This is a distinctive note of the Christian 
 temperament. It is dissatisfied — divinely dis- 
 satisfied — with all attainment. It "forgetswhat 
 is behind " it, in thought, feeling, and action ; 
 and it " reaches out to what is before," always 
 believing in its ultimate realisation. Its goal 
 is not a stationary point, but one which ever 
 moves on, knowing nothing of the "hitherto, 
 and no further ". All its insight recorded in 
 the creeds, all its life expressed in work or 
 deeds of service, are but steps in a ladder of 
 never-ending progress. There is thus no 
 finality, either in the creed of Christendom, or 
 in the Christian Ethic. A relative finality 
 was announced, and disclosed, at the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era ; but — as we 
 have also seen — Christendom is still develop- 
 ing, both intellectually and morally. What 
 may be revealed in the future, both as to the 
 Divine nature and the human, in the slow 
 evolution of the ages, no one can now antici- 
 pate ; and what may yet be attained in ex- 
 perience — in the fulness of the times when 
 "God is all in all" — is as far beyond the 
 
1 1 8 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 horoscope of our present vision, as it is be- 
 yond our customary hope. 
 
 We may connect this with a point formerly 
 discussed, viz., that revelation of the Infinite 
 within the finite, from which Christian morality 
 takes its rise. It is not difficult to see how, 
 starting from this and returning to it again — 
 it being, in a real sense, the alpha and the 
 omega of the system — there should be an in- 
 variable element of hope, underneath the sense 
 of failure; a calm belief in the "increasing 
 purpose " of the ages, and indefinite progress 
 in store, both for the individual and the race 
 at large. 
 
 It is important to contrast this with the 
 finished perfection which was the aim of 
 Greek art, Greek philosophy, and Greek life 
 generally — the clear-cut completeness which 
 was never wholly realised. There is in 
 Christendom, on the contrary, an acknozv- 
 ledged incompleteness, which comes from a 
 wider survey and a deeper study of the facts 
 of human life ; but which ne\ertheless out- 
 soars all actual attainment, and is unaffected 
 
Farther Characteristics. 1 1 9 
 
 alike by success and by disaster — never un- 
 duly elated by the one, or unduly depressed 
 by the other. This feature is stamped in- 
 effaceably on all the higher Christian art. 
 In Robert Browning's Old Pictures in Flor- 
 ence we find it very significantly unfolded ; 
 as in many of his other poems, of which 
 Apparent Failure and Abt Vogler may serve 
 as examples. The former poem. Old Pictures 
 in Florence, may be described as an exposi- 
 tion in verse of the following thesis, viz., that 
 the essence of Greek art lay in its effort to 
 reach, and its success in reaching, a finished 
 although a limited perfection ; while the 
 specialty, and even the secret, of Christian art 
 has lain in its profound sense of imperfection, 
 which has nevertheless striven to reach, and 
 to a certain extent has succeeded in reaching, 
 something beyond itself. In one sense the 
 ideal of both was perfection ; but the specialty 
 of the Christian, in contrast with the Greek, 
 ideal is this, that the former permits of no 
 repose within the limits of the finite, and of 
 no contentedness with an earthly boundary. 
 
I20 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Through all its partial embodiments there 
 runs an aspiration after excellence unattained ; 
 in other words, an everlasting ascent, through 
 failure, toward perfection. 
 
 It is noteworthy that this has impressed a 
 certain sadness on the Christian countenance — 
 in all its most characteristic types — in contrast 
 with the refined joyousness of the Greek, and 
 the robust valour of the Roman face ; but it 
 is a sadness inseparable from the pursuit of 
 the loftiest ideals. A significant fact, how- 
 ever, remains ; the sadness referred to is neither 
 austere, nor morose, nor petulant, nor despond- 
 ing. It is that Divine sadness, which arises 
 from the glimpse of far-off possibilities yet in 
 store, of ideals that are believed in although 
 they are unreached, and are passionately loved 
 though unattained. This is seen, in many 
 characteristic and even monumental aspects, 
 both in the poetry, and in the art of Christen- 
 dom. Its hymns, its litanies, its music, the 
 very architecture of its churches, all show the 
 blending of a sense of loss, with a belief in 
 the Divine ideal, and aspiration after it. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 " THE HATE OF HATE, THE SCORN OF SCORN." 
 
 An important point to be now noted is the 
 spirit or attitude towards others, which the 
 Christian Ethic inculcates, in the course of 
 this aspiration, on the part of the individual, 
 to reach his ideal. It is that of unenvious 
 delight in what others are achieving, an ad- 
 miration of success as reached by them, while 
 those who observe it do not, and jaerhaps 
 cannot, themselves succeed in similar attain- 
 ment. In this connection the words are 
 applicable — 
 
 Unless he can 
 
 Above himself erect himself. 
 
 How poor a thing is man. 
 
 The total elimination of envy, or " grudging 
 the good of one's neighbour," is, like some of 
 the rest, a rare virtue in Christendom. There 
 are so many different types of envy. For ex- 
 ample, when none is felt for what others 
 
 (I2I) 
 
122 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 possess in the form of material substance, envy 
 may be cherished for their reputation or their 
 talent, for their influence or their fame, for 
 their friendships or their enjoyments. It. 
 must however be put, in the very forefront of 
 the Christian Ethic, that it demands a pure un- 
 envious delight, in the contemplation of good 
 achieved, of power realised, of influence won, of 
 fame possessed, of talent exercised, or of en- 
 joymentfelt by others, while thosewho perceive 
 these things themselves have none of them. 
 
 Further, there must, according to the 
 Christian standard, be the total absence of 
 indifference, and still more of scorn for any- 
 thing that is done, or is esteemed by others, 
 unless its pursuit is in any way base. A 
 character, moulded after the Christian type, is 
 wholly devoid of scorn, except towards things 
 that are base, or evil, or unworthy. It is not 
 cynical, and indulges in no sarcasm, and shows 
 no contempt for the ideas of others, although 
 these may be very different from its own. It 
 is, as our poet puts it — 
 
 Dowered with the hate of hate, the scorn of scorn. 
 
The scorn of Scorn. 123 
 
 It may perhaps be said of this habit of 
 scorn — which is developed in many strong 
 men — that it is one aim of the Christian 
 Ethic to eradicate it. The tendency to 
 satirise others, and to dwell upon their 
 faults — whether in trivial gossip, or more 
 elaborate denunciation — it supplants by a re- 
 cognition of the good that may underlie the 
 evil. The former may be described, in order 
 to give it emphasis, as a Carlylean fault — 
 because it was conspicuous in our great nine- 
 teenth-century critic of men, and of institu- 
 tions ; and it is a tendency not to be utterly 
 condemned. We must by all means denounce 
 the evil we find around us, as well as that 
 which exists within ourselves ; but we must 
 endeavour even more earnestly to help those 
 who are the victims of it, and who are often 
 more anxious than we suppose to be freed 
 from the evil, which it is so easy to detect, 
 and to satirise. We must rec ogn ise the good 
 that is hidden away — often in strange places 
 — beneath the evil, and behind the pettinesses 
 and the meannesses of life. These two may 
 
1 24 • The Christian Ethic. 
 
 very easily co-exist, and co-operate ; on the 
 one hand, a lofty ideal of personal action, with 
 a scorn — at least for one's self — of all that falls 
 below it; and, on the other, the utmost tender- 
 ness toward those who happen — perhaps from 
 no fault of theirs — to be below it. 
 
 We may recall in this connection what was 
 formerly said as to the attitude of Christianity 
 toward evil, and its attitude toward those who 
 are the accidental victims of evil ; the one 
 being antithetic, and the other sympathetic. 
 The hatred, or even the detestation, of all 
 shams, of unrealities and unveracities of every 
 kind — which Carlyle emphasised so well — 
 should never be transferred to the persons of 
 those who are practical shams, or living un- 
 realities — however painful their presence may 
 be. The latter is rather a burden to be 
 borne in silence. What is the use of getting 
 into a rage — as our modern prophet used so 
 frequently to do — at the multitudinous fools 
 of the world ? That is not the way to help 
 any one of them to be a wise man. To put 
 him into the pillory, and pelt him with angry 
 
Satire. 1 2 5 
 
 missiles, merely irritates and injures the fool. 
 By this is not meant that Christianity is 
 opposed to satire, or severe fault-finding ; 
 quite the contrary. At its very origin it was 
 said that it came " not to send peace on earth 
 but a sword " ; but perhaps the case may be 
 put most accurately thus, that — according to 
 the Christian Ethic — no one has a right to be 
 a censor of wrong, who does not at the same 
 time endeavour to help others to escape from 
 wrong, and to conquer the faults which he 
 condemns. If the renovating power of the 
 Christian Ethic is seen in its opening up the 
 possibilities of nobler life to all men, it is evi- 
 dent that each should take some part in helping 
 others toward this consummation ; and while 
 the fire of moral indignation is most excellent 
 and useful when directed to its natural objects, 
 if such indignation be the sole feeling which 
 one cherishes toward his fellows — and the 
 result be only scorching and burning — alas ! 
 for our human nature, and for those who have 
 helped to scorch it. Misanthropy is, in every 
 form, an evil ; and, as practised in some in- 
 
126 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 stances, it is tantamount to a disbelief in any 
 divine element, or in the Divine Presence, 
 within human nature. 
 
 Further, we may note the egotism that is 
 involved in the way in which some good 
 people set about the work of castigating 
 others, so soon as they have detected any 
 slight evil around them. If they have found 
 that Society, or Literature, or the current of 
 Politics require the leaven of some new influ- 
 ence, to make them higher and better, to give 
 them i-meLKeia, or sweet reasonableness, they 
 [ imagine that it is only by the adoption of a 
 special panacea — their own specific — that the 
 evil can be met, and the good be done. There 
 is much unconscious egotism, in what passes 
 current as Christian activity and philanthropy. 
 
 Not to dwell on this, some desiderata in 
 the working out of the Christian ideal in the 
 nineteenth century may now be indicated. 
 
 In cultured circles it requires some courage, 
 not so much to admit that one belongs to the 
 Christian brotherhood, as to carry out its 
 ideal calmly and unobtrusively, in the midst 
 
Desiderata. 1 2 7 
 
 of alien or antagonistic influences ; and one 
 of the chief difficulties in our complex modern 
 life is how to unite catholicity of spirit with 
 religious earnestness. It has always been 
 found extremely difficult to combine the 
 recognition of good in others with energetic 
 protest against evil of all kinds. The Chris- 
 tian brotherhood, however, is bound by the 
 inner spirit of the religion it professes, to 
 recognise th e fragments of go od which exist 
 almost everywhere — wheat in the midst of 
 tares, germs of excellence in alien systems, 
 points to be admired even in what are other- 
 wise repellent characters — if not in the evil 
 and the base. It is its duty to seek out the 
 latent g ood ; and if possible to evoke it, in 
 all quarters, and in every character. At 
 the same time, it is bound to bring forward, 
 and to exhibit, the noblest possible standard 
 of action, while it recoils from baseness of 
 every kind, and draws the line — sharp, dis- 
 tinct, and clear — between the two camps of 
 light and darkness, the right and the wrong, 
 the good and the evil. It is not easy to 
 
128 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 combine these two things. It is much more 
 difficult than any one can imagine, until he 
 tries to put it in practice ; and it is a more 
 arduous task to do so, than to throw one's 
 self with enthusiasm into any great cause, 
 or enterprise, or venture. Nevertheless, it is 
 much more necessary. 
 
 Some voices worthy of all deference have 
 been telling us that the great need of our 
 time is the diminution of class-barriers, the 
 destruction of artificial hindrances to the in- 
 fluence of class on class, the widening out of 
 sympathy throughout the entire social fabric, 
 and throughout the world. That, doubtless, 
 is much needed. We ought all If jwssible 
 to be builders oi bridges, spanning over the 
 chasms that have been artificially made, and 
 are artificially fostered, in the circles in which 
 we move ; but, as we do so, — and while we 
 strive to widen our sympathy, not only by- 
 way of extension to the ends of the earth, 
 but also Intensively through every stratum 
 of society — our own ideal of conduct, our 
 standard of action, should simultaneously rise. 
 
The Personal Ideal. 129 
 
 It should not be lowered by an iota, while 
 we strive to see the good that is in every 
 other character, to evoke that good, and to 
 be instructed by its very difference from our 
 own. The£ersonal ideal should^ expand — 
 enlarged by what it receives from without, 
 as well as from within, and assimilates from 
 every quarter — while the individual increas- 
 ingly forgets himself, and merges the work 
 and the worker together in 
 
 That one far-off Divine event 
 
 To which the whole creation moves. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE RELATION OF CHRISTIANITY TO WEALTH 
 AND POVERTY RESPECTIVELY. 
 
 A POINT in the Christian Ethic, somewhat 
 difficult to determine, is its relation to wealth 
 and to poverty respectively. We have, on 
 the one hand, such sayings as these : " Blessed 
 are the poor," " It is easier for a camel to go 
 through the needle's eye, than for a rich man 
 to enter the kingdom of heaven " ; and, on 
 the other hand, " To him that hath shall be 
 given, and he shall have abundantly ". Ac- 
 cording to the first view, not only the love of 
 money, but its possession, is regarded as a 
 hindrance to the highest kind of life ; accord- 
 ing to the other, it is a trust to be laid out, 
 with a view to its own increase, and that it 
 may be utilised for the benefit of others. 
 
 One solution of the difficulty may be that 
 these opposite advices, as to wealth, were 
 (13°) 
 
Wealth and Poverty. 131 
 
 addressed to men of different temperaments 
 and tendencies ; and the relation in which the 
 Christian Ethic stands to the possession of 
 money may depend almost entirely on the 
 uses to which money is put. To some char- 
 acters its possession is a blessing, to others it 
 is a curse, and to others it is 
 
 Something between a hindrance and a help. 
 
 But it was no part of the aim of Christianity to 
 abolish the distinction between rich and poor, 
 either in the way of levelling up, or of level- 
 ling down. To try to make all poor persons 
 rich, and all relatively rich persons poor, would 
 be an utterly futile experiment. Even as a 
 temporary arrangement, it would be an ex- 
 tremely dull one, " flat, stale, and unprofit- 
 able " to humanity, and it could not possibly 
 last ; because differences would begin to re- 
 assert themselves, so soon as the levelling 
 process was completed. There is no evi- 
 dence, however, that the existence even of 
 great extremes as regards wealth — on the 
 one hand, the vast fortune of the millionaire. 
 
132 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 and, on the other, the condition of the day- 
 labourer, whose whole earnings are needed 
 for the maintenance of himself and his family 
 — is inconsistent with the aims of the Chris- 
 tian Ethic. We have already seen that it is 
 a fundamental principle in that Ethic that 
 " it is more blessed to give than to receive ". 
 At the same time, Christianity regulates the 
 act of receiving, as well as the process of 
 giving ; and, besides being Utopian and un- 
 workable, the socialistic levelling up, and the 
 communistic levelling down — if they may be 
 so distinguished — would make both the giving 
 and receiving impossible. If all men are 
 made absolutely equal, there is no room 
 for either the one or the other. As things 
 at present stand, however, there are such 
 varieties in the social strata of the world 
 that, while "one gives, and the other re- 
 ceives," the giver is the " more blessed " 
 of the two ; and yet, on the other hand, the 
 receiver may say that he "has nothing, and 
 yet possesses all things" ; that he " is poor, 
 and yet makes many rich," by affording them 
 
Wealth and Poverty. 133 
 
 the opportunity, and therefore the blessedness 
 of giving. 
 
 It was a far-reaching perception of a per- 
 manent feature, in the social life of the world, 
 which led to the saying " The poor ye have 
 always with you ". Ever since it was spoken, 
 the poor have been " always with us " ; and 
 the two classes have co-existed — with inter- 
 mediaries manifold — for the nineteen centuries 
 of the Christian era. As a matter of fact it 
 may be said that, it has been supremely good 
 for the rich — although they have not always 
 seen it — that the poor should exist around 
 them ; and it has been equally good for the 
 poor — although, for obvious reasons, it has 
 been still less frequently realised by them — 
 to have the rich always around them, and 
 above them. 
 
 Reverting for a moment to the inevitable 
 state of things in human life already referred 
 to — vh., that so long as men and women 
 differ in physical power, mental force, tact, 
 skill, and faculty of any kind, so long will 
 there be differences in the social strata — and 
 
134 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 therefore inequalities in wealth — it may be 
 noted as a specialty in the Christian Ethic 
 how it proposes to regulate, on the one hand 
 the use of wealth, and on the other the uses 
 of adversity or poverty. 
 
 It utilises each for the sake of the other. 
 If the poor are to be helped by the rich, 
 the rich are at the same time to be helped 
 by the poor ; and, in truth, they need it 
 quite as much. The existence of a profound 
 underlying social bond between the two — a 
 bond which connects them organically — is re- 
 cognised in the Christian Ethic. It is even 
 intensified ; while, at the same time, it is 
 purified from the taint of selfishness. If the 
 " brother of low degree is to rejoice in that he 
 is made rich, and the rich in that he is made 
 low," it is not that the one is to rejoice in the 
 mere accession of wealth, and the other in its 
 diminution ; but it is that the coming and the 
 going of these things — their temporary rise 
 and fall, or ebb and flow — are the sign of 
 a hidden bond which connects the two ; in 
 other words, they are evidence of the unity 
 
Wealth and Poverty. 135 
 
 and the solidarity of the race. Thus the 
 ideal, which the Christian Ethic proposes, is 
 not the abolition of the two extremes of 
 wealth and poverty. It is rather the bridging 
 over of the chasm, which has so frequently 
 and painfully divided them ; the recognition 
 on the one hand, that poverty may be an 
 estate of honour — it was that in which the 
 Founder of the Christian Religion lived — 
 and, on the other, that riches may be more 
 truly a source of wealth to its possessor, if he 
 spends a great deal of it in helping the poor. 
 
 It is no doubt one of the desiderata in 
 the Christian Ethic — clearly involved in its 
 origin, but not as yet realised in any work- 
 able scheme — how to minimise the vast in- 
 equalities of wealth and poverty which exist 
 in the world. It may safely be affirmed, 
 however, that they will not be minimised, by 
 a drastic process of change, or by any " radical 
 reform " ; but rather by the slow evolution of 
 moral forces, which now lie latent, but may 
 by-and-bye emerge, and co-operate to effect it. 
 
 A similar point of much importance is 
 
1 36 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 the way in which Christianity deals with 
 the possession of wealth, in relation to 
 its use. It is a total mist&.ke to suppose 
 that it is hostile either to the acquisition, 
 or to the retention of wealth ; although it 
 may be said to be more interested in its 
 diffusion than its accumulation. Under no 
 possible circumstances could wealth be dis- 
 tributed, unless it was first amassed ; and it 
 has been already mentioned as a character- 
 istic feature of the Christian Ethic that it 
 regulates, at one and the same time, its acquisi- 
 tion, retention, and diffusion. Primarily it 
 regards all possession, of whatsoever kind, 
 as a trust, to be spent by its owner for 
 the benefit of others. If we "are not our 
 own," what we have is possessed by us, 
 only in order that it may be used to advance 
 the general welfare. It is obvious that the 
 tenure of property by every individual is 
 limited at the best ; but the idea that 
 the legal owner of wealth is merely its 
 steward, and that he is bound by the highest 
 charter of privilege to spend it on others, — 
 
Wealth and Poverty. 137 
 
 without thinking that by so doing he is the 
 " munificent donor " he is sometimes supposed 
 to be, or is represented as being, — that is the 
 Christian idea. And as soon as the practice 
 of giving to others becomes habitual, it will 
 be recognised as the normal practice for all 
 well-developed lives, and for every highly 
 cultivated nature. Its opposite will be re- 
 garded as abnormal ; and selfishness of every 
 kind will be looked upon not only as un- 
 generous, but as unnatural, a sort of violation 
 of the laws or the order of Nature. 
 
 The way in which the Christian Ethic 
 deals with the ivant of wealth is, however, 
 quite as significant as the way in which it 
 regulates its possession. The earliest mission 
 of Christianity may be said to have been to 
 the poor, not only because, at the outset of its 
 career, it consecrated the state of poverty for 
 all time ; not only because it abolished class- 
 distinctions, in disclosing the common relation 
 of all men to the Infinite ; not only because 
 it proved that noblest virtues are possible 
 under conditions of extremest want, and suf- 
 
138 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 fering ; but also — and perhaps more especially 
 — because it established a new relationship 
 between the poor and the rich. On the one 
 hand, it removed all envy on the part of the 
 poor towards the rich, and took away the 
 false sense of inferiority which the poor 
 often feel because of their social distance 
 from the rich ; on the other hand, it destroyed 
 the false notion of superiority, which the rich 
 so often feel because of their artificial distance 
 from the poor. Before its introduction, the 
 poor and the rich hardly ever met on equal 
 terms. That they now do so, and have done 
 so to such good purpose for eighteen centuries, 
 is very largely due to the abolition of social 
 chasms, and the bridsfingr over of intellec- 
 tual differences, accomplished by Christianity. 
 That men and women meet familiarly, not 
 because they are equals in fortune, any more 
 than because they agree in opinion, but be- 
 cause they are on a level as regards character, 
 intellect, refinement, and width of sympathy, 
 is one of its beneficent results. 
 
 One of the noblest of the primitive Apostles 
 
Wealth and Poverty. 139 
 
 wrote : "I know both how to be abased, and 
 how to abound " ; and it is to the influence 
 of his example, and more especially to that 
 of his Master, that the attitude of the poor 
 towards the rich in Christendom is not one of 
 cringing inferiority ; while, at the same time, 
 the poor have been taught to recognise and 
 honour those differences, which the possession 
 of wealth creates. Whatever it may be in 
 practice, it is clear that the teaching — which 
 is now a commonplace of our modern 
 era — that the possession of wealth is a 
 secondary matter, that our humanity itself is 
 greater than anything which that humanity 
 can possess — that " kind hearts are more 
 than coronets," that " the rank is but the 
 guinea stamp," is, in a very significant sense, 
 a result of the leaven of the Christian Ethic. 
 
 I do not think it was any part of its aim to 
 abolish the distinction of rich and poor, and 
 to equalise men socially in the matter of 
 possession. Certainly, it has not succeeded 
 in doing so ; but Christianity has minimised 
 the distinction, by disclosing a deeper unity 
 
140 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 beneath it, a unity undreamed of in the older 
 civilisations. It has proved to the rich, that 
 the poor are as necessary to them, to give 
 them a sphere for work and well-doing ; as 
 the rich are needed by the poor, to aid them 
 in difficulty or distress. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 There are sundry other aspects of the 
 Christian Ethic, which have not been dealt 
 with in the preceding sections, the discussion 
 of which is necessary to an adequate treat- 
 ment of the subject. 
 
 I. One of them is its attitude toward of- 
 fenders ; or, to use its own words, " those who 
 despitefully use you, and persecute you". The 
 subject was indirectly dealt with, in the chapter 
 on the virtue of Forgiveness, but it demands 
 an ampler discussion by itself 
 
 In the form of non-resistance to injury, as 
 developed in certain sects — through a mis- 
 taken view, if not a travesty, of the teaching 
 of the Sermon on the Mount — it has re- 
 sulted in an attitude of weak prostration 
 before opponents, utterly inconsistent with 
 
 heroism, or even with true manliness. In 
 (141) 
 
142 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 its original 'and genuine phase, however — 
 as illustrated in the life of its Founder — 
 it is one of the noblest of human virtues. 
 The Christian Ethic is not opposed to all 
 resistance to injury. It even ordains the 
 most resolute and determined struggle to 
 redress the wrongs that exist around it, and 
 the sacrifice of time, wealth, health, and even 
 of life itself, in the effort ; but the crusader 
 spirit is on the whole inconsistent with 
 its moral aim. The crusader spirit may be 
 described as one which, seeks to conquer and 
 reclaim, by the forthputting of external, and 
 even of extirpating agencies. The Christian 
 spirit desires to effect the same end, by the 
 development of the interior forces of moral 
 effort and persuasion. 
 
 2. In this connection, another feature of the 
 Christian Ethic may be noted, viz., its almost 
 immeasurable patience, in reference to the 
 development of the human race, and the 
 absence of irritation or disappointment at 
 any delay in the realisation of its own ideals. 
 As a recent poet expressed it : — 
 
Gambling. 143 
 
 we are hasty builders, incomplete ; 
 Our Master follows after, far more slow. 
 And far more sure than we, for frost and heat 
 And winds that breathe, and waters in their flow, 
 Work with him silently. 
 
 3. An important, but somewhat difficult, 
 point in the Christian Ethic is its relation to 
 such things as gambling, betting, etc. Its at- 
 titude to almost every form of sport is one of 
 genial sympathy ; although it is usually found 
 that, when the Christian Ethic takes possession 
 of a character, there is less time left, than before 
 existed, for the development of the " play- 
 impulse " ; and, contrariwise, as the sportive 
 instinct grows, the more distinctive features 
 of the Christian Ethic are less cared for. It 
 must, however, be explicitly stated that Chris- 
 tianity is not hostile to any kind or form of 
 sport, except to what is intrinsically cruel. 
 That it is opposed to the latter is unquestion- 
 able ; but the reason why such things as bull- 
 fights, bear-baiting, cock-fighting, and pugil- 
 ism generally, are inconsistent with the Chris- 
 tian Ethic is because suffering, cruelty, and 
 
144 ^■^^ Christian Ethic. 
 
 swagger — with all their attendant evils — are 
 invariably attendant elements in these sports. 
 On the other hand, that hunting and horse- 
 racing, that deer-stalking, salmon-fishing, or 
 grouse-shooting are inconsistent with the 
 Christian Ethic has no warrant — either in 
 reason, or in experience. That one should 
 devote his leisure to such things as golf, or 
 tennis, or cricket, or billiards, is no more to 
 be condemned than that another should spend 
 his leisure in riding or driving, in long country 
 walks, in hill-climbing, or in gardening. 
 
 When we come to gambling and betting, 
 however, we are in a different moral region 
 altogether ; and without affirming categori- 
 cally that these things are disallowed by the 
 Christian Ethic, it may be said that they are 
 discouraged by it. They are discouraged no 
 less by the highest ethical ideal of Greece ; and 
 it is mainly on the ground of their triviality, 
 or irrationality, that — under either standard 
 — they are to be set aside. It is said that it 
 adds an interest to a game of whist, or of 
 golf, if there is a considerable stake dependent 
 
Betting. 1 45 
 
 on it ; and also that it makes a player play his 
 very best. The latter may sometimes be the 
 case ; but, if so, its root or ground is selfish ; 
 and it would certainly be a higher stage, in 
 the moral development of the race, if all 
 games were played from the interest involved 
 in them, rather than from any collateral gain 
 dependent upon them. When betting de- 
 generates to a lower level — and extends to 
 the chance of others winning games, in which 
 the better takes no part, or to the likelihoods 
 of a horse-race, or the duration of a Parlia- 
 ment — it is nearly as puerile as when an idler 
 at a club bets on the relative speed with which 
 two rain-drops on an outside window will fall 
 to the foot of a pane of glass. 
 
 4. This leads to a still larger subject, which 
 can only be mentioned, at the close of our 
 discussion of these addenda. It is the function 
 of the Church, as a vast spiritual agency, 
 working towards the re-formation of character, 
 and the re-construction of society. Only a 
 narrow philosophy can be blind to this, only 
 a meagre science can ignore it. It is difficult 
 
146 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 indeed to sum up what, in this respect, the 
 Church has done for the world ; — and every 
 branch must be included within the Church 
 catholic and cosmopolitan ; for in the case of 
 the sects, with their inevitable differences, 
 " the eye cannot say unto the hand, I have no 
 need of thee, nor again the head to the feet, 
 I have no need of you ". I refer to the debt 
 which the modern world owes to Christendom 
 for the elevation of human life, for the refine- 
 ment of character, for the lessening of selfish- 
 ness, for the development of courtesy, for the 
 ennobling of the relations of the sexes, for the 
 increase of honour, and the amount of mutual 
 respect and goodwill in the world. What the 
 leaven of this ethic has done to supplant the 
 selfish jostling of individuals and communities, 
 to subdue base passions in the multitude, to 
 lessen class-interests, to uproot the ambitions 
 that are sordid, and to restrain those that are 
 in excess — all this is matter of simple history. 
 And the goal is not yet reached. It is 
 impossible now to foresee what may be in 
 store for humanity through the operation of 
 
Capital and Labour. 147 
 
 those benign forces which still lie latent in 
 Christendom. 
 
 For example, we may look for the solution 
 of many of the disputes between capital and 
 labour, or at least to the lessening of friction 
 between them, to the influence of this ethic, 
 when it has more thoroughly leavened society. 
 It is not opposed, as some imagine, to all 
 strife between men and their masters, or the 
 operatives and the employers of labour. It 
 even recognises a value in these contests, if 
 they are carried on with due regard to justice, 
 to the common good, and to the liberty of all. 
 They have often been pernicious to society, 
 and injurious to both the combatants : but 
 at the same time they have developed new 
 energy and resources, and even created a 
 demand for fair-dealing and generosity. One 
 function of the Christian ethic is to regulate 
 these conflicts, not to suppress or extinguish 
 them, and to develop the highest good of 
 each class by means of the strife which occurs 
 periodically between them : adding to the 
 efficiency and to the profits of labour by the 
 
148 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 diminution of excessive toil, by hours of re- 
 creation — in which health-giving sports may 
 take the place of mere ease, or animal in- 
 dulgence — and thus adding to the capital 
 both of employer and employed. If the 
 principle of the Christian Ethic — that the 
 conservation and development of one's own 
 life is not possible without an equal regard 
 for other lives around it — were acted out con- 
 tinuously, these conflicts between capital and 
 labour would become a social blessing, instead 
 of a constant menace to society : and how to 
 evoke an interest in the welfare of others, who 
 may seem rivals rather than friends, how to 
 stimulate and increase it, is one of the chief 
 problems which the modern Church has to 
 face. One thing is clear, that it cannot be 
 done by legislation, or by statute, nearly so 
 well as by the voluntary action of individuals 
 and of society. It is by personal effort, and 
 individual labour spontaneously put forth, that 
 Christianity has achieved its most beneficent 
 ends. 
 
 Few things could be more helpful, in the 
 
Moral Evolution. 149 
 
 work now indicated — as well as in the effort 
 to realise the whole of that ideal, which has 
 been outlined in preceding chapters — than a 
 belief in the correlation of the moral forces.] 
 A brief discussion of this subject will be found 
 in Appendix ii. (p. 159). The fact that all 
 the moral forces of character are interchange- 
 able or convertible, that in the energy of one 
 there is prospective promise of the energy of 
 all, and that each is as necessary as any other 
 to the efficiency of the whole, may become 
 one of the strongest inducements to their 
 practice, under circumstances that seem hos- 
 tile to their growth. The far-reaching prin- 
 ciple of evolution may here be accepted as 
 the best buttress of the Christian Ethic. What 
 Christendom now is has been evolved out of 
 what it once was, by a multitude of co-operat- 
 ing causes. If, on the one hand, we have 
 evidence of the strongest kind, showing us 
 the working of a principle higher than 
 Nature in the conscious life of the race — and 
 introducing elements into that life from a 
 Source which transcends itself — on the other 
 
150 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 hand, in its incessant transformations, we 
 have evidence of untold possibilities in store. 
 According to the Christian Ethic it would 
 seem that one may " have nothing, and yet 
 possess all things ". Certain it is that the very 
 loftiest ideal that can be framed by the human 
 intellect comes quite naturally within the hope 
 of realisation by the poorest of the race. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE SOCIAL IDEA. 
 
 [The following is an extract from a letter, written to me 
 nearly thirty years ago, by Dora Greenwell of Durham. 
 She was a poet, and also remarkable as an essayist on 
 the problems of the Higher Life. The Patience of Hope, 
 Two Friends, Lacordaire, Colloquia Crucis, and many 
 other of her books, possess singular interest ; and her 
 letters were even more suggestive than her books. This 
 one deals with a problem in Christian Ethics, and speaks 
 for itself.] 
 
 'gM April, 1866. 
 
 ' I think a noticeable feature in Christianity is that it 
 gives room for two tendencies, ever conflicting in human 
 thought, both of which are clearly essential to the true 
 social idea. The collective principle— Church or Catho- 
 lic — which has been urged so strongly by modern poets 
 and thinkers, witness Lamartine, Lamennais, and Maz- 
 zini, that they have gone far to place, as a French 
 writer says, " all morality, all social prosperity, even 
 genius itself, in the annihilation of the individual and the 
 progress of the race ''. In other words, they made 
 individualism the centre of the evil principle— source 
 (153) 
 
154 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 of all ill. When it is evident that individualism (witness 
 J. S. Mill's powerful reclamation) iT1hejxue_salLjQf_the 
 earth, alone able to lead, to revive, to awaken. A man 
 often serves society best, by making the best of himself. 
 Thoreau says, speaking of professed philanthropists, " / 
 want the flower and fruit of a tnan, I desire that some 
 fragrance be wafted over from him to me, and that some 
 ripeness should flavour our intercourse". He asks for 
 an unconscious bounty, the outflowing of what a man is, 
 costing nothing, and beyond all cost ; and he says else- 
 where " d^)injg^ good is one of the professions^ that are 
 full ". — " Probably / should not deliberately and con- 
 sciously forsake my particular calling to do the good 
 which society demands of me to save the universe from 
 annihilation ! " 
 
 'Many persons, it is evident, and Thoreau amongst 
 them, will never be of any value whatever, except by 
 just being what they were made to be, and doing the 
 work that they were born to do. They cannot be ground 
 in the social mill, or grind in it, except like Samson, with 
 fettered and defiant strength. " The care_jof^ Chr istian- 
 jty," says Bishop Warburton, " is^for particulars." Now 
 in many a philosophy, in Platonic for example, there is a 
 tendency to sacrifice the parts for the good of the whole. 
 
 Let the individual wither, 
 
 And the race be more and more. 
 
 ' But, when all is said in favour of the collective social 
 principle, every one feels, in the very depth and ground 
 of his nature, that^ is^mething in the scale of exist- 
 ence, to at least two beings, himself and God. No one 
 
The Individual and Social Idea. 155 
 
 really agrees with Carlyle's paradoxical dictum : " And 
 what after all is thy happiness, who toldest thee thou hadst 
 a right to be happy ? " A sacred, an inalienable right, is 
 man's, if not to happiness — as that, in the present order, 
 must be in some degree accidental, and dependent on cir- 
 cumstance—at leasLjo Joye^_care, and protection from 
 God. Where is this claim so abundantly Justified as in 
 the records of the early Church ? The Old Testament is, 
 on this account, even more profoundly comforting than 
 the New, in times of danger or of sharp affliction. The 
 Divine care is so remarkably disclosed, the Divine good- 
 ness and severity shown, in the guidance, chastening, and 
 deliverance of individuals, not only in his care of kings 
 and prophets, and evidently selected persons, from Abra- 
 ham to Daniel, but in his pity for poor, forsaken, discon- 
 solate men and women, grieved in soul and harassed by 
 unkindness. " So this poor man cried, and the Lord 
 heard him, and saved him out of all his troubles.'' 
 
 ' " Behold the eye of the Lord is on them that fear him, 
 upon them that hope in his mercy. To deliver their souls 
 trom death, and to keep them alive in time of dearth." It 
 is this sense of w hat H erder calls "the insight, foresight, 
 and oversight of God," that has made the Book of Psalms 
 the~greatest poetry-book of the human race. They are 
 founded upon a sense of friendship, and an established 
 personal relation, with God — a familiar and friendly con- 
 fidence, upon which Herder considers man's first religious 
 ideas to have been founded, and to which God Himself 
 invited man. 
 
 '"Compared with the Psalms," he says, "as regards 
 the soul's wants, the fairest poetry of the Greeks is but 
 
156 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 glittering and external, and the Celtic, much as I love it, 
 is but like a glorious cloudy evening sky, displaying much 
 that is magnificent in earth and heaven ; but without sun, 
 without God, without aim — showing us no path. 
 
 ' " The God of the Hebrews, who takes interest in all his 
 works, and looks after them in a human manner, is not 
 the God of the modern Deist. The Hebrew conception 
 is that of a God who thinks and feels with man, one 
 towards whom friendly and child-like love is a possible 
 and a natural feeling. The primitive idea of God, as 
 developed in the Psalms and Book of Job, is that of a 
 House-Father, a. Being always at work, who keeps every- 
 thing going by daily continual interlocution. He is the 
 Father of the dew, giving snow like wool, and scattering 
 the hoar-frost like ashes. He is one who takes all crea- 
 tion under his individual superintendence. This gives 
 to Hebrew and Eastern poetry in general a child-like 
 simplicity, a reference to God, a confidence in Him, ever 
 strengthening, ever renewing itself. His mercies are over 
 all his works. Nothing is too small for God's care, 
 nothing too feeble. He is represented as nourishing the 
 life of plants and trees, quickening them with dews — 
 'the cedars of Libanus which He hath planted'. He 
 hears the young, ungainly ravens who call upon Him. 
 He helps the wild-goat in the time of her solitary, painful 
 travail. To Him there is nothing that is savage, dumb, 
 despised. The lions, roaring after their prey, seek their 
 meat from Him. Of the wild ass it is said : ' God has 
 made his home in the wilderness, and the barren land 
 his dwelling' The hawk flies through his wisdom, 
 through Him the eagle makes his nest on high. Even 
 
The Individual and Social Idea. 157 
 
 the great deep, the abode of monsters, is his ; He loves 
 the hateful crocodile. Behemoth is the chief of his 
 ways, i.e., his excellent masterpiece " (Herder's Spirit 
 ^>f Hebrew Poetry). 
 
 'Then, as regards the opposite pole of human thought — 
 the aggregate and social — what magnificent breadth and 
 space Christianity unfolds for its development, above all 
 in the Apostolic Epistles, where tjie each and the all seem 
 mutually inclusive ; and Christ is each to each, and, in 
 Him, each is all. 
 
 ' While Christianity takes some part of life, as in a 
 sacrament, and through it consecrates the whole of 
 life, some one Person, as our Saviour — and through 
 Him redeems humanity, there are also some selected 
 persons, who are " the salt of the earth," regenerating, 
 stimulating the otherwise spiritually inert mass. While it 
 saves the whole through the part, the world through the 
 Church, it also admits another mode of rehabilitation, 
 which no one urges so boldly as Mazzini — that of the 
 individual thrpu^i the species. Speaking of Art, he says : 
 It demands universality, it must no longer be concealed 
 in the narrow sphere of individuality. The progress of 
 ideas has by little and little altered the point of view of 
 Philosophy, Science, and Policy. Its end will no longer 
 be the individual, but society ; the man will yield prece- 
 dence to humanity. Individuality will still be jacred, for 
 it is an essential element of humanity, but it must hence- 
 forth harmonise with the social conception. Instead of 
 contemplating the individual only in his individual internal . 
 life — his own sphere, independent, insulated — the artist 
 will have to study him in his internal and external life ; at 
 
158 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 once, in his place, and with his mission in Creation. In a 
 word, nianjn_relation with God th rough hu manity will be 
 his theme. The action of the law of our existence cannot 
 be concentrated in ourselves, its development must tend 
 withoid. The desire for moral unity, Mazzini says, is 
 characteristic of the present age. 
 
 ' Speaking of Lord Byron's heroes, he says finely : 
 There is about Ihem a terrible unity. Self in each of 
 them is mighty and fierce, each to himself is worth the 
 whole world, and if society constrained him he could set 
 his strength to break it piecemeal. Each is the solitary 
 man-king, free, but with nothing free beyond him. Are 
 they happy in the uncontrolled plenitude of their facul- 
 ties, breathing existence at every pore, active, daring, a 
 flaming energy willing to snatch the whole of hfe } No ! 
 What shall they do with their freedom ? On whom, and for 
 whom, shall they spend their exuberant life ? They are 
 alone. Here is the secret of their sadness, their impo- 
 tency. They have never thought of that humanity which 
 is thronging around them, which has thronged before 
 them, and which will throng after them. They have 
 never thought on the place they occupy between the past 
 and future, on the continuity of labour which unites 
 generations, on the grand object of common perfection 
 tobe realised by common efforts, on the life yet lived 
 upon earth by him, who, living and dying in hope, works 
 with and watches over his brothers by transmitted thought. 
 Alone they stand before God. Alone in the face of the 
 universe, cowed by its grandeur, before which the indi- 
 vidual shrinks ; gifted with a liberty they know not how 
 to use, with an active strength they know not how to 
 
Correlation of Moral Forces. 159 
 
 apply, with a fulness of life whose object they know not, 
 they lead an angry, vain existence. They die, as they 
 have lived, alone ; nor will Nature, whom they have so 
 much loved, mourn over their tomb — 
 
 Nor earth, nor sky shall yield a single tear, 
 No cloud shall gather more, nor leaf shall fall, 
 Nor gale breathe forth one sigh, for thee, for all. 
 
 God, he says, has condemned to barrenness all Philosophy 
 that confines itself within the circle of individuality. 
 "Love," Michelet says, "is the grand emancipating prin- 
 ciple." An inferior degree of love seeks to captivate and 
 subjugate another individuality to its own ; a higher love aims 
 at enlarging, developing, and raising that which it loves.' 
 
 No. 11. 
 
 THE CORRELATION OF THE MORAL FORCES. 
 
 \The following is an Address which I gave to " the Ethical 
 Society^' London, in 1890. It was afterivards pub- 
 lished in the National Review.] 
 
 In discussing the question of the correlation of the 
 moral forces, I start from what may be assumed as a 
 demonstrated doctrine, viz., the convertibility of the 
 physical ones. The interchangeability of these forces 
 is one of the conclusions of modern science, equal in 
 importance to the doctrine of Evolution — to which it is 
 closely kindred — and equal in evidence to the law of 
 Gravitation. 
 
 The first question I put is this : Is it legitimate to 
 infer, from the above scientific axiom, the convertibility 
 
t6o The Christian Ethic. 
 
 of all force ? and, from the unity of the material and the 
 mental forces, their ultimate identity ? 
 
 In answer, I think it is not : for the obvious reason 
 that the chasm between the physical and the vital has not 
 yet been bridged by Science ; and although Speculative 
 Philosophy has tried from the time of the Eleatics to 
 throw a plank across it, in its doctrine of unity-minus- 
 difference, neither Parmenides nor Plotinus, neither 
 Erigena nor Spinoza nor Hegel (to take representative 
 names from successive schools and periods), has proved 
 to the satisfaction of the philosophical world that monism 
 of this type is the last word in Metaphysics. I therefore 
 set aside the question as to whether the physical, the 
 vital, and the conscious forces can be unified. Embraced 
 within a single category of thought, and labelled by the 
 •common name of " Force," they can, of course, be easily 
 talked of as one ; but there certainly remains a funda- 
 mental trinity within that unity, and it is enough or 
 my present purpose to say that the question — both as a 
 scientific and as an ontological one — is still sub judice. 
 
 Let us, then, provisionally assume — without going into 
 either the metaphysics or the physics of the controversy 
 — that there are three realms of force, which have not 
 yet been reduced to unity by the rigour of speculative 
 reason, or by the experiential and inductive proofs of 
 science : (i) the sphere of the physical forces, which are 
 all inter-related, and convertible inter se ; (2) the realm 
 of the vital force or forces ; and (3) the sphere of self- 
 conscious and volitional force, in which intellectual ele- 
 ments blend with moral ones. Let us suppose that there 
 is no discovered track, which is also a transit-path be- 
 
Correlation of Moral Forces. 1 6 1 
 
 tween these several realms or spheres ; but only the 
 bridge of a common name. What may be suggested 
 as highly probable is this : that as, in the first of the 
 three spheres, the doctrine of interchangeability is now 
 almost as clearly demonstrated as is the law of natural 
 selection, it may be concluded, by analogy, that it is the 
 same in the two other realms ; and, therefore, that all 
 life is radically and organically one, and that all self- 
 conscious energy — mental, moral, and volitional — is, at 
 its root, the same. 
 
 Adequately to discuss the first of these correlaries, one 
 would require to be familiar with data, on which only 
 experts have a right to speak. The question of the 
 germ-theory of life, and of disease, must be left to 
 specialists in biology and physics. The problem now 
 raised is much narrower. It refers to the sphere of con- 
 sciousness alone, or, perhaps, it should rather be said, to 
 the field of Human Nature alone. Within that sphere, 
 there are both conscious and sub-conscious states ; and, 
 in the field of consciousness, there may be a further 
 limitation of the problem, viz., to the moral area of 
 experience. Within this sub-section, we may examine 
 the springs of conduct seriatim, and their outcome in 
 character : that we may see whether they are originally 
 one — howsoever different their developed phases may 
 be, and whether we may conclude that they are all con- 
 vertible inter se. 
 
 In discussing it, it is scarcely necessary to say that the 
 old notion of " faculties " as separate powers of human 
 nature, is given up by every modern psychologist. It 
 was a convenient way of naming and differentiating cer- 
 
1 62 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 tain aspects of energy in consciousness, to speak of them 
 as faculties ; but the idea of our being endowed with 
 separate and independent powers — of sense, memory, 
 imagination, reason, feeling, and will — is no longer 
 tenable. 
 
 It is more congenial work, however, to try to raise the 
 down-trodden reputation of a discarded theory — and to 
 show the truth from which it sprang — than, in a com- 
 bative mood, to expose the error' to which it gave rise ; 
 and this old doctrine of the faculties was only a pic- 
 torial, and somewhat picturesque, way of stating an un- 
 doubted truth in reference to those phases of activity, 
 which differ so greatly in their outcome, although their 
 origin may be the same. Whether the intellectual and 
 the moral powers are one at their root, and have grown 
 out of something wholly unlike their present state, is a 
 question we need not raise. It might rather enhance the 
 wonder of their origin, than detract from their present 
 greatness, if we had valid evidence that there was but 
 one " rock whence they were hewn," and one " pit out ' 
 of which they were dug " ; since, in their present multi- 
 tudinousness and variety, they are the phases of a single 
 ego, which is the residuum at the basis of all energy in 
 man. This, however, would not prove their interchange- 
 ability. The determination of the latter question is one 
 both for Psychology and for Metaphysic : and perhaps 
 its solution will be easier, after we have settled the minor 
 question of the interchangeability of the moral forces, and 
 the unity of the realm to which these forces belong. 
 
 It is not necessary, with a view to its solution, that we 
 have a list of the several virtues, drawn out on perfectly 
 
Correlation of Moral Forces. 163 
 
 adequate psychological lines. We may take any list — 
 the Platonic, the Aristotelian, the Stoic, the Zoroastrian, 
 the Buddhist, the Christian — or a perfectly miscel- 
 laneous one, such as the following — courage, temperance, 
 candour, liberality, friendship, magnanimity, honour, 
 justice, courtesy, tenderness, chivalry, humility, grace. 
 It would be quite possible to go on, dividing and sub- 
 dividing, or mingling and interchanging the virtues, till 
 we had — instead of those mentioned — ten times their 
 number ; and yet each would seem different from the 
 rest, owing to the circumstances in which it has to be 
 exercised, or the objects which respectively call it forth. 
 Thus diverse in character and outcome, they may, never- 
 theless, be all one in origin, the varying phases of a 
 single virtue, in its separate modes of manifestation ; 
 just as the chemical and physical forces — heat, light, 
 electricity, etc. — are the separate modes of a single 
 protean power. 
 
 In helping us to answer the question raised, the evolu- 
 tion of the moral sense, within historical experience, is an 
 all-important element. It has been afifirmed that all the 
 virtues which have arisen are the result of the efforts of 
 man to increase and multiply his own resources, and the 
 resources and possibilities of his race ; self-maintenance, 
 and race-maintenance — in the widest and richest sense 
 of the terms — having been the motive forces at work in 
 the evolution of his powers, and therefore in the gradual 
 differentiation of his faculties. If this be a warrantable 
 position to take up, it will abolish the controversy between 
 the egoists and the altruists, by vindicating each ; and by 
 showing that both tendencies — the centripetal and the 
 
164 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 ■centrifugal — were at work from the first, under many 
 disguises and aliases. 
 
 It may be noted that the want of any explicit link of 
 connection between the developed products, or the wide 
 chasm which may seem to separate them now, is no evi- 
 dence against a common parentage. Suppose that one par- 
 ticular virtue has been in active exercise for a time, or that 
 the generic virtue of self-maintenance and race-mainten- 
 ance has been working in one particular channel for a time, 
 it is inevitable that it must at length cease to exercise 
 itself, and intermit its energy for a period. Every virtue 
 exhausts itself, by its very activity and strength. In fact, 
 it is never quite the same, during any two successive 
 moments of experience ; and when it reasserts itself, after 
 temporary rest, it does so with the alliance of other ele- 
 ments, which it has received both by inheritance and 
 by contagion. It therefore appears, of necessity, in a 
 different guise from that which it formerly assumed. Not 
 only is the same virtue — supposing the virtues to be 
 separate and independent — changed in character at 
 each new period in which it is exercised, so that 
 courage, temperance, and courtesy differ in a boy, in a 
 young man, in one in middle Hfe, and in an old 
 man ; but when the virtues reappear in the field of 
 consciousness, they come back blent with many elements 
 that were not there before. They are inevitably altered 
 "for better for worse, for richer for poorer" The 
 distant inheritances of character — which reach us from 
 paternal and maternal sources — show themselves, now 
 in this peculiarity of action or demeanour, and again 
 in that ; but it is always the same moral ego that is 
 
Correlation of Moral Forces. 165 
 
 developing, and differentiating itself, in these successive 
 experiences. 
 
 As a new element in the case we must not overlook the 
 sudden, and curiously strong, reactions that occur in moral 
 experience. How are we to explain these ? The rapid 
 development of a virtue, which seems the opposite of all 
 that had gone before it, in the character which exemplifies 
 the change ; e.g.., a selfish nature becoming generous, 
 or a cynic hopeful, or a sot comparatively temperate. 
 It is not that the old tendency has wrought itself out, 
 and satiety followed, determining reaction the other way ; 
 it is rather that a reaction in experience, and a return to 
 a truer and a healthier view of conduct, prove that the 
 underlying force in character is one and the same. 
 
 In this connection it should be noted that ethical 
 lessons are very seldom taught directly. A certain result is 
 produced, by passing through an ordeal which has been 
 keen or arrowy — say a great disaster, or an experience of 
 wrong. Its effect may at first be unperceived, because it 
 is occult and subterranean, working inward ; but the 
 original moral force may reappear afterwards as a new 
 virtue of a totally different kind — as distinct as light is 
 from heat, or as both are from electricity. 
 
 It is too obvious to require illustration that, given a 
 moral agent, with a certain character, and subject to 
 certain conditions, a particular class of virtues will be 
 evolved ; and that, given the same agent, with the same 
 character, and different conditions, a different set of virtues 
 will be evolved. If this be admitted as a matter of fact, 
 the corollary is that the motive force, which in the main 
 regulates conduct, and differentiates the virtues, comes 
 
i66 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 from within ; and that, this dynamic source or seat of the 
 virtues being one, the virtues themselves may be traced 
 back on the last analysis to a common root. 
 
 Another point to be noticed is that destructive agencies 
 are at work in the moral world, which are correlated with 
 the productive or constructive ones, to further the general 
 weal. This suggests, remotely if not nearly, the unity of 
 the virtues. Every one knows how elaborate are the con- 
 trivances in the realm of Nature to inflict pain, injury, 
 ruin, and death, among the organisms underneath man. 
 But this arrangement, by which 
 
 Nature, red in tooth and claw, 
 
 destroys its weaker physical specimens, is paralleled in 
 the equally elaborate plan by which the weaker members 
 of the human race are crushed aside, after much suffering, 
 defeat, neglect, and loss. It is part of a destructive pro- 
 cess, at work in the cosmos, and which has probably 
 always existed in it. Alongside of this, however, there is 
 a constructive process at work — a strictly conservative 
 force, sometimes evolved out of the other by reaction. 
 This new force enters the arena, " not to destroy, but to 
 fulfil"; but, whilst it does so, its mode of working seems 
 an evidence of the unity of all the moral forces, of their 
 interchangeability, and almost of their ubiquity. 
 
 The doctrine of the unity of the virtues is an old one 
 in the literature of Philosophy. Its germs are to be found 
 in the Vedas, and in Buddhism. It became expHcit in 
 the Zend-Avesta. Zoroaster unified the good and the evil 
 principles, in two great areas or diametrically-opposed 
 spheres of action. Socrates — to pass over earlier Greek 
 
Coi'relation of Moral Forces. 167 
 
 writers — held that all virtue was one, and had its root in 
 knowledge; while the Cynics, and the Stoics, more em- 
 phatically, announced the same theory. In Stoicism the 
 doctrine exploded in a series of paradoxes, such as that 
 if a man possessed a single virtue he possessed all the 
 virtues. Virtue to the Stoics was an indivisible, homo- 
 geneous, inelastic, organic whole. Either you had it all, 
 or you had it not at all. There was no state half-way 
 between a virtue and a vice, and no middle place between 
 no virtue and all the virtues. Rudimentary, developing, 
 and evolving virtue was not understood by the Stoics ; 
 and, in consequence, there were no " degrees of com- 
 parison ' in their view of moral excellence. Hence the 
 arbitrary division- of mankind into two classes, as sharply 
 marked as in the ethics of Zoroaster; and hence the 
 further paradox that the good do nothing evil, and the 
 bad do nothing good ; that all good actions are equally 
 good, all evil ones equally evil — no distinction between 
 faults and crimes being recognised. In short, there was 
 no scale in Stoicism, either of virtue or of vice. But, with 
 this forgotten scale recognised, the truth out of which the 
 Stoic paradoxes sprang must not be forgotten ; and, if 
 adequately understood, this ancient doctrine of the unity 
 of the virtues, and their convertibility, may be one of the 
 most powerful incentives to their pursuit in the modern 
 world. If one may legitimately believe that the moral 
 excellence, after which he strives in vain, is nevertheless 
 an integral element in the nature he inherits, and there- 
 fore a latent possibility of his life, — only requiring the 
 removal of existing hindrance, and the presence of some 
 magnet, to draw them forth, — there is a large amount of 
 
1 68 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 good cheer in the prospect. The possibihty of dormant 
 virtues springing into activity, or of dull ones being 
 quickened by transference, adds a new interest to the 
 moral life, and its aspiration after unrealised ideals. 
 
 The evidence which experience gives of the indestruc- 
 tibility of the moral forces tends towards the same result. 
 No morally good act ever dies. It perpetuates itself, in 
 other forms, as well as after its own likeness. As 
 ! Browning represents Abt Vogler saying : — 
 
 \ There shall never be one lost good ! What was, shall live as 
 i before ; 
 
 The evil is null, is nought, is silence implying sound ; 
 
 What was good shall be good, with for evil so much good 
 more. 
 
 The correlation of the forces may thus be seen, in 
 personal experience ; but the same conclusion may be 
 reached from a study of the way in which they operate in 
 society at large. If moral life in the individual be funda- 
 mentally and organically one, it is so a fortiori in society ; 
 where many units combine to forward the general weal, 
 by co-operation and inter-communication. All the social 
 ' forces are solidaires. The energy which enthusiasts pos- 
 sess, in collectively working out a great cause, is just the 
 sum of the energy of the individuals who compose the 
 group ; but whilst they combine to effect a common end, 
 they all differ inter se. The moral force at work in the 
 organisation is composite ; but it works to a single end. 
 The energy which each unit brings, into what may be 
 called the commonwealth of the forces, "while it is dif- 
 ferent from that which every other brings, is at the same 
 time convertible into it ; and the special form it assumes 
 
Authority. 169 
 
 is often a matter of apparent chance or accident. That 
 which, in a particular profession, becomes a force tending 
 to the strength of that profession would — if its author had 
 entered on a different calling — have differentiated itself 
 accordingly, and gone to increase the sum-total of energy, 
 in labour of another kind. 
 
 If it seems difficult to carry out this principle in refer- 
 ence to the race at large, it may be noted that between 
 the individual and the race there lies the nation ; and 
 that the solidarity and convertibility of national forces 
 may be obvious when those of the race are less patent to 
 the eye. 
 
 No. III. 
 AUTHORITY AND CONFESSION. 
 
 As I have said some things in the preface to this book, 
 and elsewhere, which might be construed as hostile to 
 Catholicism, I desire to point out, in a third appendix, 
 one or two of the elements which have helped to con- 
 solidate and strengthen our modern life, and which have 
 been due to the development, not so much of dogma as 
 of moral practice, within the Church Catholic. 
 
 The first of these is the spirit of deference to Authority, 
 respect for the wisdom and attainments of the past, while 
 at the same time " forgetting what is behind, and reaching 
 out to what is before ". No Protestant who understands 
 the mighty incubus which medicevalism came at length to 
 exercise over the thoughts and ideals of humanity — its 
 repression of individual liberty, and the rights of reason — 
 can doubt that the Reformation of the sixteenth centiiry 
 was a historical necessity. On the other hand, the 
 
1 70 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 enormous power for good which the Catholic Church 
 exerted during these middle ages — the kindliness of its 
 voice, the helpfulness of its hand, and the way in which 
 it guarded those characters which it leavened and con- 
 trolled — are authentic facts of history. If it repressed 
 human nature in certain directions, it was, for the most 
 part, in directions in which repression was most salutary. 
 
 No one who appreciates goodness, devotion, and self- 
 control, and who reads history with candour and dis- 
 crimination, can doubt what I have ventured to call 
 " the enormous power for good " which the Church 
 exercised during those centuries. It is indeed difficult to 
 imagine to what 'depths European society would have sunk 
 in the middle ages but for the influence of Catholicism, 
 both in restraining and in purifying human life. In this 
 respect Christendom has assuredly been " the salt of the 
 earth " as well as " the light of the world ". 
 
 It need hardly be said that the virtue of deference to 
 Authority can easily be carried too far. It can, and it 
 often has, become slavish, mechanical, unreal, and there- 
 fore immoral ; and such a travesty and caricature of it 
 was, to a certain extent, and in certain hands, the curse of 
 the middle ages. But, in its extravagance, it was merely 
 an instance — on a vast historic scale — of the abuse of 
 a good thing. Deference to Authority is, in itself, salu- 
 tary ; it is only evil when carried to excess, when accepted 
 slavishly and practised blindly. But what would mediaeval 
 society have been without it ? As a remedy must be 
 suited to the constitution of a patient, a moral agency 
 that is to be remedial, or even conservative of good, 
 must be adapted to those amongst whom it is to operate ; 
 
AtUhority. 171 
 
 and while the adoption of the principle of free inquiry 
 gave the European mind a start forward at the Reforma- 
 tion, it did not supersede the counter-principle of deference 
 to Authority, but rather made it more needful in the long 
 run, to save the world from eccentricity, vagary, and whim. 
 
 Surely this attitude of mind, this practice and custom 
 of deference, has done much for the world, and is in 
 itself most rational and wise. If a child should defer to 
 its parents, and the inexperience of youth should yield 
 to the wisdom of age — if in Scholarship, Science, Art, 
 Medicine, we all defer to Authority, and place confidence 
 in experts, why not in Religion ? The insurgent spirit, 
 which breaks away from the fetters of tradition, only to 
 find itself out in the individualistic sea, storm-tossed, and 
 without rudder or compass, or (a worse predicament) in 
 the ocean of self-conceit and opinionativeness, is rebuked 
 by the stern facts of history, by the evolution and the 
 continuity of Christendom, by the vast legacy it has 
 handed down — (an ever-increasmg inheritance) — as well 
 as by the restraint it puts on the idiosyncrasy and the 
 caprice of the individual. 
 
 It is the easiest thing in the world for each new comer 
 into it to think himself or herself wiser than those wTio 
 have gone before ; but, a priori, it is an extremely im- 
 probable hypothesis that it should fall to the lot of a 
 single individual to initiate a wisdom higher than that 
 possessed by the millions who have preceded him ; and, 
 a posteriori, it is invariably found that the originators of 
 new wisdom, the founders of systems which contain a 
 certain amount of truth, are unjust to those that have 
 preceded their own. We have already seen that there 
 
172 The Christian Ethtc. 
 
 is no such thing as finality— a " hitherto and no farther "■ 
 — either in opinion or action ; but if the exercise of 
 intellectual freedom in the breaking of unnatural 
 fetters has created any virtues, deference to Authority 
 has been the parent of many more. It has led to 
 modesty, docility, generous appreciation, humility — to- 
 '' wise passiveness " and devout receptivity — to the up- 
 ward look of trust — to aspiration and the onward efforts- 
 of the will. 
 
 The moral debt which the world owes to the Roman 
 Church is immeasurable ; but perhaps none of its cere- 
 monies have done more for the preservation and elevation 
 of European morals than the practice — so much mis- 
 understood, if not misrepresented — of Confession. Many 
 Protestants imagine that the Catholic is taught to confess 
 only to the priest, and that he is by the priest absolved. 
 On the contrary, he makes confession only to the Unseen 
 and the Infinite, the priest being merely the channel through 
 whom the confession is made ; and who has himself to 
 confess, in the same way, through others, to the Unseen. 
 And the custom, which — with all its humiliation — Catho- 
 lics come to feel so helpful, that, viz., of periodically 
 practising confession, has unquestionably been an aid to 
 the Higher Life during the centuries in which it has been 
 practised. The turning of the eye inwards, scrutinising^ 
 the springs and the motives of conduct, and after the 
 discovery that one has erred this way or that, has "left 
 undone those things which he ought to have done, and 
 done those things which he ought not to have done," 
 confessing it all, not to any human medium, but to the 
 Infinite, through the guarded and gracious channel of the 
 
Confession. 173 
 
 finite ; and after Confession — keeping nothing back, and 
 being genuinely penitent for all — receiving absolution, in 
 the sense of finding the burden lifted from the back, and 
 a new step forward made possible, with a sense of freedom 
 gained, and life renewed, not by forgetfulness of the past, 
 but by rising " on the stepping-stones of the dead self to 
 higher things " — all that has been an immeasurable bless- 
 ing to the world. 
 
 The gain of Confession to all penitents is fourfold — 
 (i) That of self-knowledge; yvioOi o-eauroV, might be said 
 to be the first word it addresses to those who practise it. 
 (2) The demand for thorough sincerity, or absolute truth- 
 fulness, in unfolding to the eye of the Infinite what has 
 transpired, or been acted, in the depths of the personal 
 life. [In this connection it may be noted that while 
 recourse must be had to some medium, a common 
 practice with penitents in the Roman Church is to resort, 
 not to priests who know them, but to those by whom 
 they are unknown, in order that the confession may be 
 made absolutely to the Unseen.] (3) Reparation for 
 wrongs done to others is made easier and more natural. 
 None who make a practice of genuine confession can 
 continue to harbour grudges, or to cherish hatreds, against 
 their fellow-men. (4) A fresh start is given to the moral 
 life, when — after everything is told, and burdens are 
 removed — a new beginning is made, an impulse forward 
 received, aspiration quickened, upward movements made 
 easier, and the ideals of life developed in every direction 
 under happier auspices than before. 
 
 To have familiarised the masses with the duty of abso- 
 lute sincerity in this matter of Confession —to have 
 
1 74 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 educated the organic conscience of the Church to feel 
 that reserve on the one hand, and exaggeration on the 
 other, is a sacrilegious act — to have taught them that in 
 the presence of the Unseen, the Divine, and the Infinite, 
 all disguises and pretence, as well as trifles, must be laid 
 aside; and, after unreserved explicitness, a "new de- 
 parture " in the higher life may be taken, is surely a 
 service of the highest value to humanity at large. And 
 if the aim of Confession has been to give self-knowledge, 
 release, and rest — to give hope, and a new impulse in 
 well-doing, as well as a glimpse of larger ideals of 
 conduct — the result of the practice, tested by historical 
 fact, has surely coincided with these aims. The 
 practice has tended to raise the moral life of Europe. 
 It is needless for a Protestant to quote statistics. The 
 point to be noted is the influence of Confession as a 
 moral safeguard ; and I think that all open-minded 
 historians will admit that it has tended in an upward 
 direction. 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 [The following List of Books, which deal directly or 
 indirectly with the Christian Ethic, may be of use to 
 students of the subject. They are arranged chronolo- 
 gically.] 
 
 De Imitatione Christi, by Thomas a Kempis, cir. 1468. 
 
 Translated frequently. 
 Les Provinciales, ou Lettres ecrites par Louis de Montalte 
 
 a un provincial de ses amis et aux RR. PP. 
 
Bibliog7'aphy. 1 7 5 
 
 /^suites sur le sujel de la morale et de la politique de 
 ces phres (1657). Translated by Rev. J. M'Crie, 
 1846, 1848, 1875. 
 
 Ductor Dubitantiuin, by Bishop Jeremy Taylor, 1660. 
 
 Pensees, by B. Pascal, 1669. Translated very often. 
 
 Prcelectiones de obligatione Conscientice, by Bishop Sander- 
 son, 1678. 
 
 Die Christliche Morale by F. V. Reinhard, 1788-1815. 
 
 Ueber den Geist der Sittenlehre Jesu und seiner Apostel, 
 by Johann Wilhelm Schmid, 1790. 
 
 Philosopkische utid biblische Moral, byC. F. Staudlin, 1805. 
 
 Biographia Literaria, by S. T. Coleridge, Chapter xxiv., 
 1817. 
 
 System der Christlichen Lehre, by C. I. Nitzsch, 1829. 
 
 Lehrbuch der Christlichen Sittetilehre, by De Wette, 1833. 
 
 Christliche Moral, by C. Daub, 1 840-1. 
 
 System der Christlichen Sittenlehre, etc., by H. Merz, 1841. 
 
 Christliche Ethik, by C. A. von Harless, 1842. 
 
 Endeavours after the Christian Life, by James Martineau, 
 
 1843- 
 Die Christliche Sitte, etc., by F. E. D. Schleiermacher. 
 
 Edited posthumously by Jonas in 1843. 
 De r Influence du Christianisme sur le Droit civil des 
 
 Romains, by J. Troplong, 1843. 
 Die Grundbegriffe der Ethischen Wissenschaften, by Gust. 
 
 Hartenstein, 1844. 
 Introduction to " William Law's Remarks on the Fable 
 
 of the Bees,'' by F. D. Maurice, 1844. 
 System der Christlichen Moral, by Philip Marheineke, 
 
 1847. 
 Theologische Ethik, by Richard Rothe, 1845-48. 
 
176 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Saint Paul et Sineque, by A. Fleury, 1853. 
 
 Essai historique sur la Societe civile dans le monde 
 
 Rotnain, et sur la transformation par le Christian- 
 
 isine, by C. Schmidt, 1853. 
 Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, Galatians, 
 
 Romans, with Critical Notes and Dissertations, by 
 
 B. Jowett, Vol. ii., 1855. 
 Die Grundbegriffe der Christlichen Sittenlehre, by C. F. 
 
 Jager, 1856. 
 Dialogues on Divine Providence, by a Fellow of a College, 
 
 1856. 
 Etude Critique sur les rapports supposes entre Sinique 
 
 et Saint Paul, by C. Aubertin, 1857. 
 The Epistles of St. John ^ a Series of Lectures, by F. D. 
 
 Maurice, 1857. 
 " Seneca und Paulus," by C. F. Baur, in the Zeitschrift 
 
 fi/r Wissenschaftliche Theologie, 1858. 
 Christliche Sittenlehre, by Ch. F. Schmid, 1861. 
 Handbuch der Christlichen Sittenlehre, by Adolf Wuttke, 
 
 1861. 
 Thoughts on Personal Religion, by E. M. Goulburn, 1862. 
 Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, by F. D. Maurice, 
 
 1862. 
 Religious Duty, by F. P. Cobbe, 1864. 
 Studies, Ethical and Social, by Frances Power Cobbe, 1 865. 
 Ecce Homo, 1866. 
 
 Die Ethik Luthers, by C. E. Luthardt, 1867. 
 Seekers after God, by F. W. Farrar, 1868. 
 ^' St. Paul and Seneca," an Appendix to Vol. iii. of 
 
 Bishop Lightfoot's Epistles of St. Paul {the Epistle 
 
 to the Philippians), 1868. 
 
Bibliograph) '. lyj 
 
 The Gospel and Modern Life, by J. Llewelyn Davies, 1869. 
 Christ in Modern Life, by Stopford A. Brooke, 1872. 
 General Principles of Christian Ethics, b)' W. Mann (an 
 
 abridgment of C. F. Schniid's Ethik), 1872. 
 Social Morality, by F. D. Maurice, 2nd ed., 1872. 
 The Conscience, by F. D. Maurice, 2nd ed., 1872. 
 Christianity and Morality, by H. W'ace, 1876. 
 Theologische Ethik, by J.C. K. von Hofmann, 1878. 
 Grundriss der Christlichen Ethik, by J. P. Lange, 1878. 
 Die Christliche Ethik, by H. Martensen, 1878. 
 Geschichte der Christlichen Sitte, by H. J. Bestmann, 1880. 
 Grundriss der Glaubens und Sitfenlehre, by O. Pfleiderer, 
 
 1880. 
 The Manliness of Christ, by Thomas Hughes, 1880. 
 The Foundation of Morality, by S. Leathes, 1882. 
 Laws of Life after the Mind of Christ, by J . H . Thom, 1883. 
 Systetn der Christlichen Sittlichkeit, by Fr. H. R. Frank, 
 
 1884-87. 
 Christ and Democracy, by Charles W. Stubbs, 1884. 
 Christliche Sittenlehre, by A. Dorner, 1885. 
 Discipline of the Christian Character, by R. W. Church, 
 
 1885. 
 Godliness and Manliness, by J. \y. Diggle, 1887. 
 Creed and Character, by H. Scott Holland, 1882. 
 Social Aspects of Christianity, by B. F. Westcott, 1887. 
 The Religion of Humanity, by J. Arthur Balfour," 1888. 
 The Relation of Ethics to Religion, by Robert Potter, 1888. 
 Christianity in relation to Science and Morals, by Malcolm 
 
 MacColl, 1889. 
 The Province of Christian Ethics, by Vincent Henry 
 
 Stanton, 1890. 
 
178 The Christian Ethic. 
 
 Principles of Natural and Super 7iatural Morals, by Henry 
 Hughes, 1890. 
 
 Right and Wrong, by W. G. Lilly, 1890. 
 
 Morality in Doctritie, by W. Bright, 1892. 
 
 Christian Ethics, by Newman Smyth, 1892. 
 
 The Relation of Christian Ethics to Philosophical Ethics, 
 by John Dowden, Bishop of Edinburgh, 1892. 
 
 Our Moral Nature, by James McCosh, 1892. 
 
 " The Special Importance of the Study of Christian 
 Ethics for the Church in the Present Day," an 
 article in the Economic Review (April, 1893), by 
 R. L. Ottley, being a paper read at the Church 
 Congress in 1893, reprinted with Addenda. 
 
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24 LIST OF WORKS 
 
 EAE (Gbokgb). The Country Banker; His Clients, Cares, and 
 
 W"rk, f'-iin the Experience of Forty Years. Crown 8vo. 73. 6d. 
 
 E AM SAY (Prof. W. M.). The Historical Geography of Asia 
 Minor. Witli 6 Maps, Tables, &e. 8vo. IS-. 
 
 KASSAM (Hobmdzd). British Mission to Ahyssinia, Illustra- 
 tions. « Vols. 8iro. 28s. 
 
 BAWIjINSON'S (Canon) Five Great Monarchies of Chaldsea, 
 Assjrria, Media, Babylonia, and Persia. With Maps and lUastratiomi. 
 SVoU. 8vo. 42j. 
 
 Herodotus, a new English Version. See page 12. 
 
 EAWLINSON'S (Sir Henkt) England and Eussia in the East ; a 
 Series of Papers on the Condition of Central Asia, Map. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 EEJECTED ADDEESSES (The). Br James and Horace Smith. 
 Woodcute. Post 8vo. 3s. Gd. ; or Popular Edition, Fca\}. Svo, Is. 
 
 EENTOSr (W.). Oatlines of English Literature. With illustra- 
 tive IMiigrams. Crown 8vo. S.-;. 6eZ. (Uni?. Extension Series.) 
 
 EICAEDO'S (David) Works. With a Notice of his Life and 
 Writings. By J. R. M'Culloch. 8vo. 16^. 
 
 EIPA (FiTHEtt). Eesidence at the Court of Peking. Post 8vo. 2«. 
 
 EOBKETS (Dr. E. D.). An Introduction to Modern Geology. 
 With Colonred Maps and Illustrations. Crown Bvo. Es. (Univ. 
 Extension Series. ) 
 
 EOBEETSON (Cahon). History of the Christian Church, from the 
 Apostolic Age to the Reformation, 1517. 8 Vols. Post Svo. t*s. each. 
 
 EOBINSON (W.). English Flower Garden. An Illustrated 
 Dictionary of all the Plants nsed, and Directions for their Cnltiire and 
 Arrangement. With nnmerous Illustrations. Medium Svo. ISs. 
 
 The Vegetable Garden ; or, the Edible Vegetables, 
 
 Salads, iind Herbs cultivated in Europe and America. By M. ViL- 
 MORis-AjjuRiEUX. W ith 760 Illustrations. Svo. ISs. 
 
 — Sub-Tropical Garden. Illustrations. Crown 8to. 5s, 
 
 Parks and Gardens of Paris, considered m 
 
 Relation to other Cities. 350 Illustrations. Svo. ISs. 
 
 ■ God's Acre Beautiful ; or, the Cemeteries of the 
 
 Future. With 8 Illustrations. 8vo. 7s. td. 
 
 Garden Design. Illustrations. Svo. 5s. 
 
 ROMANS, St. Paul's Epistle to the. With Notes and Commentary 
 
 by E. H. GiFFORU, D. D, Medium Svo. 7.«. frf. 
 EOME. [See Gibbon — Liddell — Smith — SinDESTs'.] 
 
 EOHILLY (Hugh H.). The Western Pacific and New Guinea. 
 
 2nd Edition. With a j\Iap. Crown Svo. 7.^. Gd. 
 BOSS (Mrs.) The Land of Manfred, Prince of Taventum and King 
 
 of Sicily. Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 EUMBOLD (Sir Horace). The Great Silver Elver : Notes of a 
 
 Residence in the Argentire Republic. Second Edition, with Additional 
 
 Chapter. With Illustrations. Bvo. l;;.^. 
 
 BUXTON (Geo. F.).Travelsin Mexico; with AdventuresamongWild 
 Tribes and Animals of the Prairies and hoeky Mountains. Post Svo. 8«. 6d. 
 
 ST. JOHN (Charles). St. John's Wild Sports and Natural History 
 of the Highlands of Scotland. A New Edition, thoroughly revised. 
 AVi'h hitherto unpublishi d Nutes by the Author. Edlteri, with a Memoir 
 of tha Author, by the Rev. .M. G. Watkins. With Portrait of Mr. St. 
 John and several nesv Illustrations. Medium Svo. 12s. 
 
 (Bayle). Adventures in tfie Libyan Desert. 2s. 
 
PUBLlSHliU BY MR. MURRAY. 25 
 
 ST. MAUR (Mils. Alqebnon), Lady Seymouk. Impresaions of a 
 Tenderloot, during u Journey in search of Sport in tho Far West. 
 Witli Map untl lllusti-ations. Crown Si o. 12s. 
 
 SALE'S (SirKobert) Brigade in Affghanistan. Willi an Account of 
 the Defence of Jellalabad. By Kbv. G. K. Gleiq. Postbvo. 2». 
 
 SALMON (Prop. Geo., D.D.). An Introduction to tlie Study of the 
 New Testament, and an Investigation into Modern Biblical Criticism, 
 based on tlie most recent Sources of Information. Crown ovo. 9«. 
 
 Lectures on the Infallibility of the Church. Post 8vo. 9s. 
 
 SCEPTICISM IN GEOLOGY; and the KeaFons for it. An 
 
 assemblage of facts from Nature combining to refute the theory of 
 " Causes now in Action." By VEitn-'iBR. Woodcuts. Crown avo. 6«. 
 
 SCHLIEMANN (Dk. Henry). Ilios: the City and Country of 
 
 the Trojans. With an Autobiograpliy. Illustrations. Iinpeiial 8vo. 
 
 bOs. 
 Tiryns : A Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of 
 
 'I'ijyns, discovered by excavations in 188^5. With lUustrailais. 
 
 Medium 8vo. 42s. 
 SCHREIBER (Lahy Chabioitk). English Fans and Fan Leaves. 
 
 Collected and Uesciibed. With 160 Hates. Folio. ll.la.Net. 
 Foreign Fans and Fan Leaves. 
 
 French, Italian, and German, chiefly relating to the French Kevo- 
 
 lution, Collected and Described. 160 Plates, i'olio. 71. It. Net. 
 
 Playing Cards of Various Ages and 
 
 C'unlries. Vol. I., Ensli'h and Scottish ; Dutch and Flemish. With 
 141 Plates. Folic, tl. It's. ad. Net. 
 SCOTT (Sir Giibert). The Eise and Development of Mediaeval 
 
 Arcliitecture. Witli 400 Illustrations. 2 Vols. Medium Svo. 42s. 
 SBTOUN (GiBRiEL). Birncraig. Episodes in tho life of a Scottish 
 
 Village. Crown Si'o. 5s. 
 SHAIUP (Prinoipal) and his Friends. By Professor Wm. 
 
 KsiGHT, of St. Andrews. With Portrait. 8vn, l.5s; 
 SHAW (T. B.). Manual of English Literilure. Post Svo. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Specimens of English Literature. Post 8 to. 5s. 
 
 SHAW (K. Normak). [See Arohiteotuee.] 
 SMILES' (Samubi,, LL.U.) WORKS :— 
 
 British Enqinkers ; from the Earliest Period to the Death of 
 
 the Stephensons. Illustrations. 6 Vols. Crown Svo. 7». 6d. each. 
 George Stephenson. Post Svo. 2s. 6rf. 
 James Nabmyth. Portrait and Illustrations. Post 8yo. 6s. 
 Jasmin : Barber, Poet, Philanthropist. Post Svo. 6s. 
 Scotch Naturalist (Thos. Edward). Illustrations. Post Svo. 6s. 
 Scotch Geoloqist (Robert Diok). Illustrations. Svo. 12s. 
 Selt-Help. With Illustrations of Conduct and Persever- 
 ance. Post Svo. 6s. In French. 5s. 
 Chaeacteb. a Book of Noble Characteristics. Post Svo. 6s. 
 Thrift. A Book of Domestic Counsel. Post Svo. 6s. 
 Duty. With Illustrations of Courage, Patience, and Endurance. 
 
 Post Svo. 6s. 
 Industrial Biooraphy. Iron-Workers and Tool-Makers. 6s. 
 Men op Invention. Post Svo. 6s. 
 Life ahd Labour. Post Svo. 6s. 
 
26 LIST OF WORKS 
 
 SMILES' (Samuel, LL.D.) Works — continiic-d. 
 
 The Hhohenots; Their SetUemeats, Cburches, and Indus- 
 tries in England and Ireland. Grown 8^0. 7s. Sd. 
 Bot's VoTiGE RocKD THE WoEiD. lUustratioDS. Post 8to. 6«. 
 
 SIEMENS (Sir Wm.). The Scientific Works of: a Collection of 
 Papers and DisroursOH. Edited hy E. F. Bambkr, C.E. Vol. i. — 
 Heat and Metallurgy: ii. — Electricity, &c.; iii, — Addresses and 
 Lectures. Plates. 3 Vols. 8vo. l'2g. each. 
 
 • (Dk. Werner vos). Collected Worts of. Translated 
 
 hv K. F. BOMBER. Vol. i. — Seientiiic Papers and Addresses, ii. — 
 Applied tfcienCf. Wttli Illustrations Svo. 14*. 
 
 SIMMONS' Constitution andPractice of Courts-Martial. 15.?. 
 
 SMEDES (ScSAN Dabnet). A Southern Planter. Memoirs of 
 Thomas Uabney. Preface by Me. Gladstoxe. Post 6to. 7«. 6d. 
 
 SMITH (Dr. George) Student's Manual of the Geography of tiiitisb 
 India, Physical and Political. Maps. Post Svo. 7a. 6d. 
 
 Life of Wm. Carey, D.D., 1761-1834. Shoemaker atiH 
 
 Missionary. Professor of Sanecrit, Bengalee and Maratbee at the College 
 of Fort William, Calcutta. Illustrations, Post Svo, 78. &d. 
 
 Life of Stephen Hislop, Pioneer, Miseionary, and Naturalist 
 
 in Central India, 1841-1863. Portraif. Post Svo. 7s, fid. 
 
 The Conversion of India, from Pantienus to tke present 
 
 t:me, 193— 1S93. With lllustr»tons. Cro«n Sto. 
 
 ' (Philip). History of the Ancient World, from the Creation 
 
 to the Fall of the Roman Empire, A.D. 476. 3 Vols. Svo. Sl>. 6d. 
 
 (R, Boswobth), Mohammed and Mohammedanism. 
 
 Crown Svo. 7$. 6d. 
 
 SMITH'S (Sir Wm,) DICTIONARIES:— 
 
 DioiiONABT OF THE BiBLK ; its Antiquities. Biography, 
 
 Geography, and Natural History. New and Revised Edition, lllns- 
 
 trations. 3 Vols. Svo. £4 4i. 
 Concise Bible Diotionabt. Illustrations, 8to. 21s. 
 SuALLEB Bible Diotionabt, Illustrations, Post Svo, 7s, 6d. 
 Oebistiah Antiquities. Comprising the History, lutti- 
 
 tulions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church, Illustrations. 2 Vols. 
 
 Medium Svo. SI. 13<. 6d. 
 Chbistian Biogbapht, Liteeatdke, Sects, and Doctrines ; 
 
 from the Times of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. Medium Svo. 
 
 Now complete in 4 Vols, 61. 16s. Gd. 
 Obeek and Roman Antiquities. Including the Laws, Institu- 
 tions, Domestic Usages. Painting, Sculpture, Music, the Drama, &c. 
 
 Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 2 Vols. Med.Hvo. 3U. od. each. 
 Geeek and Roman Bioqbapht and Mvthology. Illustrations. 
 
 3 Vols. Medium Svo. il. is. 
 Gseee and Roman Geogbapbt. 2 Yols. Illustrations, 
 
 Medium Svo. 56s. 
 Atlas of Ancient Geogbapht — Biblical and Classical. 
 
 Folio. 62. 61. 
 Classioal Dictionary op Mythology, Biooeaphy, and 
 
 Geooeapht. 1 Vol. With 750 Woodcuts. Svo. 18«. 
 Shalleb Classical Diot. Woodcuts. Crown Svo. 7s.. 6d. 
 
 SmALLEE DiOTlONAEY OP GbEEK AND RoMAN AnIIQUIIIES. 
 
 Woodcuts. Crown Svo. 78. 6d. 
 Smaller Latin-English Diotionaby. 12mo, 7s. Sd. 
 
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 27 
 
 SMITH'S (Sir Wm.) DicTiONiKiES — continued. 
 
 Complete Latin-Enolish Dictionabt. Wilh Tables of the 
 Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, Money, and a Dictionary of 
 Proper Names. 8vo. 16«. 
 
 Copious amd Critical Bholish-Latin Diot. 8vo. 16*. 
 
 Smaller English-Latin Dictionary. 12mo. 7«. 6d. 
 SMITH'S (Sib Wm.) ENGLISH COUKSE:— 
 
 School Manual of Enqlish Gbammak.with Copious Exercises, 
 Appendices and Index. Post 8vo. Da, tid, 
 
 Peimaky Enolish Grammar, for Elementary Schools, with 
 carefully graduated Parsing Lessons. 16mo. Is. 
 
 Manual of Enolish Composition. With Copious Illustra- 
 tions and Practical Exercises. 12mo. 3a. 6d. 
 
 Primary History of Bbitain. 12tno. 2«. 6d. 
 
 School Manual of Modebn Geogbapby. Post 8vo. 5«. 
 
 A Smaller Manual of Modebn Geooraphy. 16mo. 2s. Sd. 
 SMITH'S (Sir Wm.) FRENCH COURSE:— 
 
 French Principia. Part I. A First Course, coutainiiig a 
 Grammar, Delectus, Exerci.Hes, and Vocabularies. 12mo. S«. 6d. 
 
 Appendix to Pbenoh Principia. Part I. Containing ad- 
 ditional Exeicises, with Examinai ion PHpers. 12mo. 23. 6d. 
 
 French Principia. Part II. A Reading Book, contaloirg 
 Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural Hibtory, and Scenes from the 
 History of France. With Grammatical Questions, Notes and copi<us 
 Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 4s. 6d. 
 
 French Pkinoipia. Part III. Prose Composition, containing 
 Hints on Translation of English into French, the Principal Kules of 
 the French Syntax compared with the English, and a Systematic Course 
 of Exercises ou the Syntax, 12mo. 4«. 6d, [PostSvo. Cs. 
 
 Student's Feenoh Grammar. With Introduction by M. Littre. 
 
 Smaller Grammar of tee French LANGOAaE. Abridged 
 from the above. l2mo. 3*. 6d. 
 SMITH'S (Sir Wm.) GERMAN COURSE :— 
 
 German Peihcipia. Part I. A First German Course, contain- 
 ing a dammar. Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies. 12mo. Ss.Gd. 
 
 German Principia. Part II. A Reading Book ; containing 
 Fables, Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the History of 
 Germany. With Questions, Notes, and Dictionary. 12mo, 3j. 6d. 
 
 Practical German Grammar. Post 8vo. 3^. 6d. 
 SMITH'S (Sib Wm.) ITALIAN COURSE :— 
 
 Italian Principia. Parti. An Italian Course, containing a 
 Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, with Vocabularies, and Materials 
 for Italian Conversation, 12mo. 3a. 6d. 
 
 Italian Principia. Part II. A First Italian Reading Book, 
 
 containing Fables, Anecdote?, History, and Passages from the best 
 
 Italian Authors, with Grammatical Questions, Notes, and a Copious 
 
 Etymological Dictionary. l2mo. 3». ed. [Children). 
 
 SMITH'S (Sir Wm.) Young Berinhkr's Finsr Latin Course (for 
 
 I. A First Latin Book. The Kudimeets of Grammar, Easy 
 
 Grammatical Questions and Exercises with Vucahularies, 12mo. 2s. 
 n. A Second Latin Buok. An Easy Latin Ktading Book, 
 with an Aiihlysis of the Sentences, Notes, and a Dictonary. 12mo. 2s. 
 
 III. A 'J'HIRD Latin Book. The Principal Rules of Syntax, 
 with Easy Exercises, Ques:ions, Vocabula: ies, and an English-Latin 
 Dicliioary. 2s. 
 
 IV. A Fourth Latin Book. A Latin Vocabulary for Beginners. 
 ArrangeJ according to Subjects and Etymologies, 12a:o. 2s. 
 
28 LIST OF WORKS 
 
 SMITH'S (SiE Wm.) latin COURSE. 
 
 Pkinoipia Latina. Part I. Firet Latin Course, containing a 
 
 Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise Bnok, with Vocabularies. 12mo. 3«. 6d. 
 *,* Id this Edition the Cases of the Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns 
 
 are arranged both as in the OBDiNABr Gbammaus and as in the Public 
 
 School Pbimbb, together with the correspouding Exercises. 
 Appendix to Peinoipia Latina. Part I. ; being Additional 
 
 Exercises, with Examination Papers 12mo, 2s. Gd. 
 Pbincipia Latina. Part II. A Reading-book of Mythology, 
 
 Geography, Roman Antiquities, and History. With Notes and Die. 
 
 tionary. l2mo. Ss. 6d. 
 Pkinoipia Latina. Part III. A Poetry Book. Hexameters 
 
 and Pentameters; Eclog. Uvidianffi; Latin Prosody. 12mo. 3b. Gd. 
 
 Pkinoipia Latina. Part IV. Prose Composition. Rules of 
 Syntax, with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises 
 on the Syntax. 12rao. 3a. 6d. 
 
 Pkincipia Latina. Part V. Short Tales and Anecdotes for 
 Translation into Latin. A New and Enlarged Edition. 12mo, Bs,6d, 
 
 Latin-Eholibh Vooaeclaky and JfiKBT Latin-English 
 Dictionary FOE PH.EDRUS, CoeneliusNepob,andCje8ab. 12mo. 2s. 6d 
 
 Siddent'b Latin Gkammak. For the Higher Forms. A new 
 and thoroughly revised Edition. Post 8vo. Os, 
 
 Smaller Latin Grammae. New Edition. 12mo. 3s, 6d. 
 SMITH'S (SirWm.) greek COUKteE:— 
 
 Initia GKiiCA. Parti. A First Greek Course, containinga Gram- 
 mar, Delectus, and Exercise-hook, With Vocabularies, IZmo. Ba.Gd. 
 
 Appendix to Initia Gr.«oa. Part I. Containing additional 
 Exercises, With Exaniin.ition Papeis. Post 8vo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Initia Ge.eoa. Part II. A Reading Book. Containing 
 Short Tales, Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History. 
 12mo. 3s. ed. 
 
 Initia Grmo.. Part III. Prose Composition. Containing the 
 
 Rules of Syntax, with copious Examples and Exercises. 12uio. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Student's Greek Grammar. For the Higher Forms. 
 
 Post 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Smaller Greek Grammar. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Greek Accidence. 12mo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Plato, Apology of Socrates, &e. With Notes. 12mo. 3.s. 6d, 
 SMITH'S (Sir Wm.) SMALLER HISTORIES :— 
 
 Soriptdrb History. Maps and Woodcuts. 16mo. 2s. Sd, 
 
 Ancient History. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3fl. 6d, 
 
 Ancient Geooraphy. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. Sd. 
 
 Modern Geography. 16mo. 2s. Sd. 
 
 Gebeob. With Coloured Map and Woodcuts. 16mo. 3«. 6d, 
 
 Rome. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. 16mo. 3«. 6d. 
 
 Classical Mythology. Woodcuts. 16mo. Ss.6d. 
 
 England. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. 6d, 
 
 English Literature. 16mo. 3*. 6d. 
 
 Specimens of English Litbeatdre. 16mo. 3s. 6d. 
 SOMERVILLE (Maky). Physical Geography. Post 8vo. 9s. 
 
 Connexion of the Physical Sciences. Post 8vo. 9s. 
 
 SOUTH (John F.). Household Surgery ; or. Hints for Emergen- 
 cies. With Woodcuts. Fcap. Bvo. 3s. 6d. 
 SOUTHET (RoBT.). Lives of Bunyan and Cromwell Post Svo. 2«. 
 
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 29 
 
 STANHOPE'S (Eakl) WORKS :— 
 
 HisTORT OF England from the Eeion of Qdeeh Akhb to 
 
 THE Peace OP Vbrsaillkh, 1701-83. 9 Vo?b. Post 8vo. 5«. each. 
 
 Notes of Conversatiohs with the Ddke op Well'hgtou. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 7b. Gd. 
 Miscellanies. 2 Vols. Post. 8vo. XSn. 
 British India, from its Origin to 1783. Post 8vo. 3». 6rf. 
 Histort of " Forty-Five." Poit 8vo. 3«. 
 Historical and Critical pssAYs. Post 8to. 8«. 6d. 
 Retreat from Moscow, and other Essays. Post 870. 7s. 6rf. 
 Life of Conde. Post 8vo. 8«. 6rf, 
 Story of Joan of Arc. Fcap. 8vo. Is. 
 Addresses on Various Occasions. 16mo. Is. 
 [See also Wellington.] 
 STANLEY'S (Dean) WORKS:— 
 
 Sinai and Palestine. Coloured Maps. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Bible in the Holy Land ; Extracts from the above Work. 
 
 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
 Eastern Church. Plans. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 Jewish Church. From the Earliest Times to the Christian 
 
 Era. Portrait and Maps. 3 Vols. Crown 8vo. 18s. 
 Church op Scotland. 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
 Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinthians. 8vo. 18«. 
 Life of Dk. Arnold. Portrait. 2 Vols. Cr. 8vo. 12s. 
 Canterbury. Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 65. 
 Westminster Abbey. Illustrations. 8vo. 15s, 
 Sermons Preached in Westminster Abbey. 8vo. 12«. 
 Memoir op Edward, Catherine, and Mary Stanley. Cr. 8vo. 9s, 
 Christian Institutions. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 Essays on Church and State ; 1850 — 1870. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 Sermons to Children, including the Beatitudes, the Faithful 
 
 Servant. Post 8vo. .Is 6if. 
 STANLEY (Dean) Life of, [See Bradley and Protuero.] 
 STEPHENS (Kkv. W. K. W.). Life and Times of St. John 
 
 Chrys:)Stom. A Sketcli of the Church and the Empire in the Foui th 
 
 Century. Portrait. 8vo. Is. ad. 
 STREET (G. E.), K.A. Gothic Architecture in Brick and Marble, 
 
 With Notes on North of Italy. Illustrations. Royal 8vo. 26s. 
 
 Memoir of. By Arthur E. Street. Portrait. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 8']' CART (ViLLiEHS). Egypt after the War. With Descriptions of 
 
 the Homes and Habits of the Native i, 4c. Coloured Illustrations 
 
 and Woodcuts. Royal Svo. 31s. 6ti 
 Adventures Amidst the Equatorial Forests and 
 
 Rivers of South America, also in the West indies and the WiMs cf 
 
 Unrida; to which is added" Jamaica Revisited." With Map and 
 
 Illustrations. Royal Svo. -'Is. 
 STUDENTS' MANUALS. Post 8vo. 7s. 6rf. each Volume :— 
 Hume's History of England from the Invasion of Julius 
 
 Cffisav to the Revolution in 1688. Revised, and continued to the 
 
 n reaty of Berlin, 1878. By J. S. Bbewkb, M.A, Coloured Maps and 
 
 Woodcuts. Or in 3 parts, price Ss. t-'tf. each. 
 *•* Questions on the above Work, 12mo. 2s. 
 History of Modern Europe, from the Fall of Constantinople 
 
 to the Treaty of Berlin, 1873. By B. Louoe, M.A. 
 
30 LIST OF WORKS 
 
 STUDENTS' MANUALS, ^s.ed. each Yolvue -.—continued. 
 Old Te8tament Histort ; from the Creation to the Keturn of 
 
 the Jews from Captivity. Woodcuts. 
 New Testament History. With an Introduction connecting 
 
 ttie History of the Old and New Testaments. Woodcuts. 
 EocLESiASTioAL HisTOKT ; a History of the Christian Church. 
 
 By Philip Smittt, B.A, With numerous Woodcuts. 2 Vols. Part I. 
 
 A.D. 30—1003. Paet II., 1003-1614. 
 
 English Church History. By Canon Perry. 3 Vole. 
 
 Mret Ferind, a.v. 596—1509. Sccondt, Period, 1509—1117. Jhird Period. 
 1717—1834. 
 
 Ancient History of the East ; Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, 
 
 Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phoenicia. By Philip Smith, B.A. 
 
 Geography. By Canon Bevan. Woodcuts. 
 
 Modern Geography ; Mathematical, Physical and Descriptive. 
 
 By Canon Bevan, M. A, Woodcuts. 
 History of Greece ; from the Earliest Times to the Boman 
 
 Conquest. By Wm. Smith, D.C.L. Woodcuts. 
 *»* Questions on the ahove Worlc, 12mo. 2i. 
 History of Rome ; from the Earliest Times to the Establish- 
 ment of the Empire. By Dean LiDuELL. Woodcuts. 
 History or the Eomah Empire; from the Establishment of 
 
 the Empire to iheieign of Comm dus. By J. B. Bury. Viifh Coloured 
 
 Maps and many Illustrations. 
 Gibbon's Decline and Pall op the Eoman Empire. Woodcuts, 
 Hallam's History op Europe during the Middle Ages. 
 Hallam's History op England ; from the Accession of 
 
 Henry VII. to the Death of George II. 
 History of France ; from the Eirllest Times to the Fall 
 
 of the Second Empire. By H. W. Jebvis. With Coloured Maps and 
 
 Woodcuts. 
 English Language. By Geo. P. Marsh. 
 English Literature. By T. B. Shaw, M.A. 
 Specimens op English Literature. By T. B. Shaw. 5s. 
 Geography of British India. Political and Physical. By 
 
 George Smith, LL.D. Maps. 
 Moral Philosophy. By Wm. Fleming. 
 STURGIS (Julian). Comedy of a Country House. 6s. 
 
 Count Julian. A Tragedy. Crown Svo. 2a. 
 
 SWAINSON (Canon). Nicene and Apostles' Creeds; Their 
 
 Literary History ; together with some Account of "The Creed of St. 
 
 Athanasius," 8vo. I6s. 
 TACITUS. [See Quill.] 
 
 TEMPLE (Sir Richard). India in 1880. With Maps. 8vo. 16s. 
 
 Men and Events of My Time in India. 8vo. 16«. 
 
 Oriental Experience. Essays and Addresses delivered 
 
 on Various Occasions. With Maps and Wnodcuts, fivo. 16*. 
 
 Life in Parliament. From 1862 to 1892 inclusive. 
 
 Crown Svo. 7s. Brf. 
 THOMAS (Sidney Gilchrist), Inventor; Memoir snd Letters. 
 
 Edited by it. W. Burnje. Portraits. Crown Svo. Qs. 
 THOMSON (J. Arthur). The Study of Animal Life. With many 
 
 Illustrations. Crown Svo. 5.9. (Univeroity Extension Manuals.) 
 THOKNHILL (Make). The Personal Adventures and Experiences 
 
 of a Magistrate during the Indian Mutiny. Crown Svo. 12s. 
 
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 31 
 
 TITIAN'S LIFE AND TIMES. By Crowe and Cavaioaselie. 
 
 Illustrations. 2 Vols. Svo. 21>. 
 TOCQUE VILLE'3 State of Society in France before the Revolution, 
 
 1789, and on the Causes which led to that Event. Svo. 12«. 
 TOZBR (Kev. H. F.). Highlands of Turkey, with Visits to Mounts 
 
 Ida, Athos, Olympus, and Pellon. 2 Vols. Crown Svo. 24f. 
 
 Lectures on the Geography of Greece. Post Svo. 9». 
 
 TRISTRAM (Canon). Great Sahara. Illustrations. Crown Svo. 1S«. 
 Land of Moab : Travels and Discoveries on the East 
 
 Side of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. Illustrations, Grown Svo. 16«. 
 TWINING (Louisa). Symbols and Emblems of Early and 
 
 Mediieval Christian Art. With 500 Illustrations. Crown Svo. 6». 
 TTLOR (E. B.). Researches into the Early History of Mankind, 
 
 and Development of Civilization. 3rd Edition. Svo. 12«. 
 — Primitive Culture : the Development of Mytholoey, 
 
 Philosnohy, Relielon. Art. and Custnm 2 Vols. Pvn. 3rd Edit. 21s. 
 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION MANUALS. Edited by Pko- 
 
 FEPsoR Wm. Knight (St. Andrew's). A series of Manuals dealing 
 
 with Literature, Science, Philosophy, HL-Jtory. Art, &c. Crown Svo. 
 
 Prospectus wUh/i(Jl particitlayrs icill he forwarded un appUcntioiL 
 An IsTRonnoTioM to Modebn Geology. [See IJobekt.".] 
 Tbe Eeaim of Nature. [See Mii,i.] 
 The Stuiy of Anisul Li(e. [See Thojisok.] 
 The Elements of Ethics. [See MuiiiHEJD ] 
 English Colonization and liMriKE. [See Caldecott.] 
 The Fine Arts. [Sie Baldwin Biiown.] 
 The Usk and Abuse or Monet. [See Cunningham] 
 TflE Philosophy of tbe Bbautiftjl. [See Knight.] 
 French Liteeaiuee. [See Kefnf.] 
 
 The Rise op the British Dominion in Indh. [See Ltall.] 
 The Physiology of the Senses. [See McKfni'Iiick ] 
 Chapters in Modebn Botany. [See GiiDdfs.] 
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