e>tate College of ^sricuUure git Cornell ®nibersitp Stliata, JBt. g. ILibrarp Cornell University Library HD 6983.G72 Cost of living in American towns.Report 3 1924 013 862 028 \\^\ '/) is made up as follows: Italians 468, Greeks 41, Portuguese 40, and Spaniards 3. 26 French budgets and 21 Syrian have been also included here. The budgets of some of the smaller nationalities are not evenly distributed, the bulk being as a rule confined to one particular occupation, 29 of the Greek out of 41, and 17 of the Syrian out of 21, for instance, being those of textile workers. The Itahan budgets are more or less evenly distributed. In the building trades out of 47 Itahan budgets, 27 are those of bricklayers and plasterers. Of 48 in the metal trades 13 are those of steel workers, and 20 those of persons working in the engineering and aUied trades. 26 boot and shoe makers and 39 tailors account for most of the budgets classified under the clothing trades. The various occupations connected with transport absorb 57 of the bud- gets, of which more than half are those of carters and porters, while 18 come under dock and river- side labour. The food, drink and tobacco group is largely represented — there being 53 budgets from millers, bakers, confectioners, &c., or 21 per cent, of the total of the budgets of all nationahties rep- resented engaged in these trades. The number of Itahan budgets classified under general labour is 66 or 14 per cent, of all the Itahan returns. The Itahan gang-labourer and navvy in the United States of America is often either single, or if ma,rried has left his wife m his native land, and therefore does not come withm the purview of this division of the enquiry, which relates only to workpeople with families. The Slavonic and allied peoples Group (E) is made up of 9 separate nationalities, the principal of which are Poles (199), Bohemians (144), Hungarians (84), Russians (61), Croats (52), Gahcians (32) and Lithuanians (22). The Russians and Galicians form 15.5 per cent, of the whole. The budgets present this char- acteristic m their occupations, that 63 out of a total of 93 or 68 per cent, are those of steel workers, quarry or general labourers and that the number of those received from really skilled workers' amongst the remainder is very small. AMERICAN BtlDGETS. xliu Of the other members of the group, 505 in all, 118 or about 23 per cent, were either steel works labourers or general labourers. In the building trades, all the returns for bricklayers and masons are those of either Poles or Bohemians, and in the other branches the majority are Bohemians. In the metal trades, the budgets of furnacemen and steel workers are made up of 29 Poles, 15 Bohemians, 15 Hungarians, 13 Gahcians, 12 Russians and 8 Croats. The returns for moulders are nearly all of Poles. 22 Bohemians, 10 Croats and 10 Poles make up the bulk of the returns from engineering operatives. The textile trades are almost unrepresented. In the clothing trades group the budgets of 18 Bohemian, 20 Lithuanian and 10 Polish tailors are included. In the occupations connected with transport the number of returns in each sub-division is in about the same proportion as in most of the other national groups. The budgets from Poles predominate, furnishing 22 out of the total of 46. Cabinetmaking is represented by 10 Bohemian and 11 Polish budgets. The food, drink and tobacco trades are not very strongly represented. Out of a total of 31 budgets, 13 are from Poles, 9 from Bohemians and 7 from Hungarians. The group of budgets of general labourers is made up of 7 Bohemian, 13 Croat, 13 Galician, 6 Hungarian, 30 Polish and 16 Russian. In the Jewish Group {F), by far the greater proportion of the budgets are provided by natives of Russia (chiefly of Southern Russia) ; Poland, Germany, Austria and Roumania supply nearly all the rest. Out of 82 engaged in the building trades 29 are plumbers, painters or paperhangers, 31 are carpenters and joiners and 10 bricklayers or masons. In the metal trades the percentage of budgets received from Jews is low and nearly half of them are operatives in engineering works, such as fitters, &c. There are 6 steel workers. Twenty-three per cent, of all the silversmiths, &c., found among the budgets are Jews. In the textile trades budgets the Jew is as little represented as the negro, but in those classed under the clothing trades his preponderance is overwhelming — 35 boot and shoe makers, 246 tailors and 41 others, nearly all furriers, making a total of 322 in one group alone, so that 42.5 per cent, of all the Jewish budgets belong to this group of trades, and 45 per cent, of the budgets of all nationalities classed under the clothing trade are Jewish. In the occupations connected with transport the Jewish budgets number 20, and 15 of these are of carters or "expressmen." In printing and bookbinding the proportion of Jews represented in the budgets is very little below that of the Americans and British. Cabinetmaking is also fairly weU represented. The food, drink and tobacco group of occupations contains 86 Jews, just half of whom are tobacco workers, mostly cigar hands; the proportion of Jewish leather workers in the budgets is also rather high. Only 13 out of a total of 758, or 1.7 per cent, of the total, are placed in the category of general labourers. About haK the budgets of Negroes (group G) returned as engaged in the building trades are of bricklayers or masons or their labourers, very largely of the latter. Out of 46 returns from negroes set down to the metal trades 23 are of blastfumacemen and steel works labourers. The small number of negro budgets representing the textile trades are all those of labourers attached and in the clothing trades those of cobblers and tailors. Two-thirds of the returns classified under the transport trades are of carters or porters, and it is noticeable that 31.4 per cent, of the whole of the negro budgets belong to this group of occupations. The next Table shows, for the several nationahty groups, the number of budgets in each income class, beginning with a total family income of less than £2 and proceeding by increments of £1 to a weekly income of £8 and above. Trial was made of a more extended classification with smaller increments, but it was apparent that the unwieldiness of the resultmg Tables would have defeated rather than assisted the object m view. No useful group under 35s. could be formed, and "under £2" was therefore taken as the starting point. In this lowest class, apart from the "broken families," the average family incomes range from 33s. 6^d. in the case of the Southern negroes, with average earnings of the husband at 29s. 2id., to 37s. 5id. in the case of the Northern negroes with average earnings of the husband at 29s. Bid. In both cases the average earnings of the husbands are the lowest and those of the wives (3s. 7d. and 5s. 7d. per week respectively) the highest, the latter figures being, an indication of the extent to which negro women, xHt GENERAL REPORT. who very rarely live in the homes of their employers, are occupied La domestic service. In the Jewish budgets this class "under £2" is but little represented, and there are no Scandinavian budgets in this class. IV. — Number of Budgets in each Income Glass by Nationality Groups. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Nationality. Under £2. £2 and under £3. £3 and under £4. £4 and under £5. £5 and under £6. £6 and under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and over. All In- comes. A. American-British: CI 1 Northern 67 32 13 15 532 116 7 163 35 195 182 119 115 90 1,036 131 12 246 89 151 162 242 96 50 545 109 9 167 73 73 82 148 39 28 437 80 4 123 61 50 59 88 20 18 224 42 1 60 28 29 33 57 13 12 131 27 243 43 3,215 (2 ) Southern 580 (3.) American (Southern) (broken 46 B GcrmciTi 43 17 15 20 36 4 5 89 32 26 25 63 2 21 906 C Sca/ndxTiCLvicLTi 335 D South EwovedTi 60 35 5 14 52 599 E Slavonic and allied peoples 598 F. Jewish 758 G. Negro: (1.) Northern Group 303 276 Total (AU Nationalities) 293 1,554 2,215 1,273 940 499 298 544 7,616 3.9 20.4 29.0 16.7 12.3 6.6 3.9 7.2 100.0 It will be noticed that the largest group of budgets (29 per cent, of the whole) is that showing an income of £3 but not exceeding £4 a week, and that 66.1 per cent, of the families have a weekly income of £2 but less than £5, and 82.3 per cent, one of under £6 per week. Forty-six of the American (Southern) budgets in which the family unit was incomplete, with, e. g., husbands sick or dead and elder sons acting as heads of famihes, have been treated separately (as examples of "broken families"). The lowest income group, under £2 per week, comprising less than 4 per cent, of the budgets, largely represents general and undefined labour. The detailed examination of the various composite budgets formed by racial grouping, to which reference has been made in the foregoing pages, would hardly be in conformity with the main com- parative objects of the present enquiry, and would, moreover, tend to overweight this General Report with detail. It has been necessary, therefore, to select from among the ten composite budgets the one that, as possessing the greatest completeness and relevancy, would lend itself most usefully to analysis. It is evident that the budget marked out for this purpose, both on account of its wider statistical basis and because of the nationalities of which it is composed, is that of the American-British (Northern) group (A. 1). In the following pages, therefore, the contents of this budget are set out and com- mented upon with some degree of fulness. In the following Table (V.) the general results of this composite American-British (Northern) Group budget are summarised by income classes, and corresponding Tables for the remaining nme nationahty groups— American-British (Southern) Group; the small American (Southern) Group of broken families; German; Scandinavian; South European; Slavonic and aJhed peoples; Jewish; and Negro (Northern and Southern) Groups— are included in the Appendix to this General Report (pp. Ixxxii-xc). Brief supplementary notes have been added in each case. In addition, the detailed Tables of expenditure on food, and, so far as possible, of quantities consumed, relating to these nine groups, are given in the Detailed Statistical Tables (pp. 404-421). An examhiation of the various composite budgets will show that they are of unequal coherence and completeness, and this fact has, indeed, been already indicated by the list of nationalities com- prised in some of the groups— especiaUy those of the Slavonic and allied peoples and those of Southern Europeans. It will be seen, however, that the various budgets display in their general features broad similarities and broad differences. AMERICAN BUDGETS. V. — Summary of Budgets of American-British (Northern) Group. xlv No. of Budgets [Total 3,215] , Percentage of total No. of Budgets.. Average No. of Children living at home Average No. of Persons living at home Average Weekly Earnings of Hus- band Average Weekly Earnings of Wife . . Average Weekly Earnings of Chil- dren — Male Female Average Weekly Other Income Average Total Income Quantity of Meat, Poultry, and Fish purchased per capita per annum . . Food bill* per capita per week Percentage of Family Income spent on: — (1.) Meat (including poultry and fish) (2.) Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, beer and spirits) (3.) Rent (4.) Food* and Rent combined... Percentage balance after paying for Food* and Rent Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 67 2.08 1.78 3.78 £ s. d. 1 13 6J Oil 3i 6 7 1 16 lb. 109. 25 s. d. 4 lOi 12.95 51.39 19.53 70,92 29.08 £2 and under £3. 532 16.55 2.06 4.08 £ s. d. 2 7 4* 1 OJ Hi 9 11 2 11 0* lb. 145. 08 s. d. 5 Hi 13.49 47.62 17.74 65.36 34.64 £3 and under £4. 1,036 32.22 2.46 4.54 £ s. d. 3 2 3i 1 2J 2i 2 1 2 7 3 9 10 lb. 160. 11 s. d 6 9J 12.22 44.15 16.66 60.81 39.19 £4 and under £5. 545 16.95 2.88 5.02 £ s. d. 3 10 5i 1 li 7 7 3 6 5 9 4 8 5 lb. 165. 15 s. d. 7 3 11.36 41.19 15.34 56.53 43.47 £5 and under £6. 437 13.59 3.07 5.27 £ s. d. 3 18 6i 2 3 12 2i 5 lOi 8 4i 5 7 3 lb. 173. 58 s. d. 7 8i 10.50 37.78 14.04 51.82 48.18 £6 and under £7. 224 6.97 3.63 5.82 £ s. d. 3 18 8 13 1 4 7i 13 8 10 9 6 8 Hi lb. 176. 33 s. d, 7 lOJ 9.82 35.53 12.01 47.54 62.46 £7 and under £8. 131 4.08 3.82 6.10 £ s. d. 4 2 li 1 9i 1 12 9 15 5 16 5 7 8 6 lb. 195. 42 8 4i 10.23 34.49 12.04 46.53 63.47 £8 and over. 243 7.56 4.20 6.38 £ s. d. 4 11 9i 16 3 12 1 6 14 3 6 9i 10 6 10 lb. 211. 90 s. d. 9 2} 8.28 28.40 9.91 38.31 61.69 * Including meals away from home. It may be desirable to warn the reader that in all general Tables of food expenditure and food consumption the family, that is, all persons sharing in the family food, irrespective of the age of its members, has, as in the preceding enquiries, been taken as the unit; that the composition of the family in every group tends to vary greatly with income; and that in all cases, although in varying proportions, the supplementary earnings of children and occasionally the "other" sources of income assume large proportions in the higher income classes. The summary Tables, of which the foregoing is a specimen, have been especially compiled to keep these and similar points prominently in view, in order that the budgets may be interpreted always with as full an appreciation as possible of what they do not, as well as of what they do, indicate. American^British Budget (Northern Group). — The following Tables present the results of an analysis of the budgets of the 3,215 families (Group A. (1)), containing 15,824 persons, the heads of which were bom either in the United States, Great Britain, Ireland or Canada. The particulars are derived from the 22 towns which for the purposes of this enquiry have been considered "Northern," and thus exclude those received from the Southern group. The group to be considered is made up of 2,278 American-born famihes, 436 Irish, 227 English and Welsh, 189 Canadian (mostly of French descent), and 85 Scottish. The total number of persons comprised in the group includes 9,003 children (of whom 4,675 are male and 4,328 female) and 466 other relatives and boarders sharing the family food. 93294^-S. Doc. 22, 62-1 4 xlvi GENERAL EEPOET. The ratio of male to female children is in the case of the American-born families as 1.08 is to 1, and in the case of those born in the United Kingdom as 1.12 is to 1; while among the Canadians the relation is reversed, being as 0.87 is to 1. The following Table gives the average incomes and detailed expenditure upon food of the families to which the returns relate. VI. WeeHy Expenditure per Family on Food — American^British {Northern) Group. Number of Budeets. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Cliildren living at home Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten " Rve " Other Flotrr, Wheaten " Rye ' ' Buckwheat and other Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti... Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Corn Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (freah and salt) Bacon, Ham Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) Milk (condensed) Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molases and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles, Condiments.. Fruits and Jams Other Items Meals away from home Total. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (10 67 £ s. 1 16 L78 3.78 1 18 d. H £2 and under £3, (2.) 532 £ s. d. 2 11 OJ 2.06 4.08 ^ ^ 2i 2i 2i 2f 0} 3} li 9 H ^ lOf Si 2f 2 01 3J 7 4i OJ 2i Oi 3 11 4i ei oi lOJ 1 1 5J 1 Oi d. 5i 2i Oi 3} 0} OJ 1 7 4i li 2i ^ 4i Oi 3i 14 li ^ 1 5} 2i lOi Si 1 1 1 8i Of lOJ li li 9i 3 2J 5f 7i 8i 1 Oi 2i ^ 4 4i 61 3i £3 and under £4. (3.) 24 3i 1,036 £ s. d. 3 9 10 2.46 4.54 d. U 2i Oi 5 Oi Oi li lOi 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 6i 2i 3i 4i 5i li 3i 2 5i 6i 8i 7i 3i Oi 6i 4 5i 7i 8i 3 Oi Oi 4i 9 4i lOi 7 11 li Of li 2i li li 81 30 10 £4 and under £5. (4.) £5 and under £6. (5.) 545 £ s. d. 4 8 5 2.88 5.02 s. d. 1 Hi li Oi 36 7i Oi 1 li Hi 6i 2f 3i 5 8i 2 3| 31 1 8i 7i 4 3i 101 1 "" 1 10 2 3i 3i 7 4i 6i 91 9i Oi Oi 5i 1 Hi 41 3i 9 Hi If 1 4 21 3 1 6} 11 Hi £6 and under £7. (6.) 437 £ s. d. 5 7 3 3.07 5.27 d. Oi 2 01 10 Oi 11 11 1 11 81 2} 1 4 5i 9f If 41 3 101 9 Oi Oi 41 4 1 5 1 1 1 8 5 8i 8i lOi 3 li 1 1 5f 2i 4 5i 9| 1 ] 2 4i 2 31 71 21 7i 40 6i 224 £ s. d. 6 8 Hi 3.63 5.82 s. d. 2 0} 21 1 2i 01 1 li 31 8 21 4i 5| Hi 3 4i 4i 2 9i 2 ^ 8i 7i 9i 51 7i lOi 1 " 3 2 2 01 6 1 1 6i 5i 4 10 Hi li 2i 71 2i 41 1 Hi 2 1 11 45 9i £7 and under £8. (7.) 131 £ s. d. 7 8 6 3.82 6.10 s. d. 2 4 li 01 2 li 01 Oi If 1 4J 10 31 41 5} 2 51 2i 51 5 2 2f 101 6 31 1 9i 1 lOi 1 lOi 0- 9i 71 1 1 111 1 ■ 4 Oi li 11 2 3 1 1 7 6i 5 1 Oi li 3i 1 9 2i 4i 51 2i £8 and over. (8.) 243 £ s. d. 10 6 10 4.20 6.38 d. 7i 3i Oi 21 01 2 2 7i 3 4i ei 4 41 -4f 7 7 9i 01 91 1 2i 11 61 5i li 11 21 01 li 8 Hi 31 4 01 4i 31 8i 2i 51 3 2J Hi 58 9 JrfwL^e^onVw iTathteTs'ofX^^^ *,f ^""""^ f^"^- ^^^ total number of these was 466, of whom about one Xi-"eTi^i^hX^^re°counti^^^^ "'^^^ "^^"^'^ P^^"^'^^^ '°' ^°-'l -^ lodging-and not their weekly AMERICAN BUDGETS. xlvii In an even more striking degree than in the case of the European enquiries, although mainly because of the actual amounts of the supplementary earnings and not because of the different propor- tions in which these stand to the total family income, the higher incomes are due, not so much to increased earnings of the husband as to the contributions of children of wage-earning age. This is made evident from the following figures: — VII. Composition of Family Incomes in American-BritisJi {Northern) Group. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. (2.) £3 and under £4. (3.) £4 and under £5. (4.) £5 and under £6. (5.) £6 and under £7. (6.) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) Average Earnings of Husband ' * Earnings of Wife £ s. d 1 13 64 Oil 34 6 7 £ s. d. 2 7 44 1 04 54 114 34 11 £ s. d. 3 2 34 1 24 10 2 04 104 2 7 £ s. d 3 10 54 1 14 1 44 6 84 3 5 9 £ s. d. 3 18 64 2 3 12 12 1 4 10 8 44 £ s. d. 3 18 8 13 1 104 1 54 15 Hi 10 9 £ s. d. 4 2 14 1 94 2 64 1 6 lOi 18 9 16 5 £ s. d 4 11 94 16 " Earnings of Children — Under 16 1 74 16 and under 21 21 and over 2 1 2 17 04 " Other Income 14 94 Total 1 16 2 11 04 3 9 10 4 8 5 5 7 3 6 8 114 7 8 10 6 10 The average number of children living at home for all income classes shown in the above Table is 2.80. The difference between the weekly earnings of the husband in the highest and lowest income classes shown in the Table is £2 18s. 2,d., whereas the difference between the two extremes of the total family income is £8 10s. 10^., the total earnings of the children in the highest income group exceeding those of the father by 6s. W^d. Even so, the scales of the father's earnings are relatively much higher than those shown in any of the preceding enquiries of this series undertaken by the Board of Trade, and it may be convenient, there- fore, at this stage to express those given in the Table in the terms of some familiar type of wage-earner. Thus, as compared with New York, and making no allowance for periods of unemployment, the average earnings of the husband as given in column 1 (33s. 6^^.) are almost equivalent to the wages of the lower rated labourers in machine shops; those in column 2 (47s. 4^\d.) to those of porters employed on the electric railway; in column 3 (62s. S^cZ.) to those of stablemen employed in breweries or of lower rated cabinetmakers; those in column 4 (70s. b^d.) slightly exceed the rate for hodcarriers; those in columns 5 and 6 (78s. &^d. and 78s. M.) are slightly below the usual rate for painters; the average in column 7 (82s. l\d.) is slightly in excess of the usual rate for ironmoulders ; and the figure in column 8 (91s. QJcZ.) corresponds with the lower general ranges for stonemasons and stonecutters. The proportion of the weekly income of the family suppHed by the children begins to be important in the incomes between £4 and £5, when it reaches 12.5 per cent, of the total, rising in the next class to nearly 17 per cent., and passing from 30 to 33 per cent., until in the highest class it accounts for 47.7 per cent, of the total family income. It is noticeable that the average earnings of the wife are never very large, and vary but little. In the income classes £5 and under £6 and £6 and under £7 (Nos. 5-6) the earnings of the hus- band are practically the same and, since there is a falling off in the relatively unimportant earnings of the wife, while "other income" shows an increase of only 2s. ^d., the position of the families with incomes of 'between £6 and £7 weekly is seen to be almost entirely due to greatly increased earnings of the children. . -„ . . , The average number of children per family in each of the components of the American-British (Northern) group is as follows :— British-born, 3.17; Canadian, 3.04; American, 2.66. The number of children earning and their average earnings show great variations— in the British-born group 28.4 per cent are earning and the average weekly earnings per male child, both earning and not earning, amount to £] Os Id. and per female child to 9s. Hd.; for Canadian famihes 18.4 per cent, are earning and the averao'es are 10s. llhd. and 6s. U.; and for American, 17.8 per cent, are earning and the averages are 9s \U and 4s. Zd. respectively, or, put in another way, the children of parents born in the United Kingdom earn 29.6 per cent., in Canada 19.5 per cent., and in the United vStates 15.8 per cent, of the total family incomes as shown by the budgets. In the British-born families the average earnings of the husbands in the class of incomes between £6 and £7 are lis. below the previous class, the male children con- tributing on an average £1 12s. Id. and the female £1 3s. U. each, or a total of £2 16s. Id. as against £3 Is. 2d. earned by the husband. This is less than the husband's average earnings in the class of incomes between £4 and £5, and in the income class £7 to £8 xlviii GENERAL REPORT. the husband only averages 2id. more than in the class between £5 and £6. Among the Canadian famiUes the two highest income classes are made up in much the same way. In the American famihes the husband's earnings do not in any case fall below or even decline to those of a lower income class, but in the class between £6 and £7 the average earnings of husbands are only 2s. lO^d. higher than in the previous one, and those of the children considerably more than double. Among both Americans and British, however, the importance of the children as supple- mentary wage-earners in the higher ranges of family income is abundantly manifested. The percentage of famihes owning the houses in which they live rises rapidly when the total income reaches £4 weekly, exceeding 35 per cent, in the highest income group but one, and falling somewhat in the highest group, while the average for all the budgets is a fraction below 15^ per cent. The following Table sets out the results obtained in this group with reference to the question of ownership* : — VIII. Percentage oj Families owning the Houses tJiey occupy — American-British (Northern) Group. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 1.49 £2 and under £3. 2.82 £3 and under £4. 6.85 £4 and under £5. 20.36 £5 and under £6. 24.03 £6 and under £7. 30.36 £7 and under £8. 35.11 £8 and over. 32.92 All Incomes. 15.46 In all cases of ownership the stated rental of a similar house has been credited to the weekly income and debited again as rent paid, this sum to a large extent accounting for the "other income" which, it will be noticed, fluctuates with the percentage of houses owned. The chief other items are payments made either by boarders who shared the family food, or lodgers. The practice of taking boarders is so frequent that the rejection of all budgets including them would have involved the sacrifice of a large amount of otherwise valuable material. The "other persons," most of whom are boarders, are equivalent to 0.15 persons per family, or about 3 per cent, of the whole. About one-third of those thus reckoned were in fact older children, as to whose earnings particulars were not furnished, but instead the amount paid into the family purse as boarders. The purchase of the house by the tenant, especially in certain towns, and the charges on incomings thua incurred, explain the presence of boarders in many cases, whUst in others boarders perhaps merely supply the means of occupying larger and more comfortable premises — a practice not unknown in London and elsewhere. It will be observed that in columns 1-5 (Table VII.), comprising 81 per cent, of all the budgets, the "other income" ranges from Id. to 8s. i^d. per week. The highest amount under this heading is shown in column 7, where it is 16s. 5d., equivalent to about 11 per cent, of the total family income. In the largest income-class, that is £3 and under £4, the average amount of "other income" which, as stated above, includes credited rent, is 2s. 7d., equivalent to about 3^ per cent, of the total income. For the whole of the budgets of the American-British (Northern) group the average amount under this heading represented a httle over 6 per cent, of the total income, and of this less than one half was derived from boarders. * The figures for all the national groups are given below :- Nationality. American-British, Northern Group American-British, Southern Group. . , American, Southern (broken families) . German Scandinavian South European Slavonic and allied Peoples ." . . Jewish Negro, Northern Group Negro, Southern Group Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 1.49 3.13 15.38 1.67 1.92 £2 and under £3. 2.82 6.03 14.29 6.13 6.67 7.69 2.52 5.22 7.78 £3 and under £4. 6.85 6.87 16.67 18.29 11.24 8.61 8.64 1.65 10.42 32.00 £4 and under £5. 20.36 21.10 22.22 27.54 19.18 12.33 34.15 5.41 25.64 42.86 £5 and under £6. 24.03 23.75 26.83 45.90 10.00 37.28 4.55 25.00 72.22 £6 and under £7. 30.36 26.19 5L67 42.86 13.79 48.48 26.32 30.77 £7 and under £8. 35.11 40.74 53.49 58.82 13.33 50.00 8.33 £8 and over. All Incomes. 32.92 39.53 51.69 50.00 26.92 40.00 19.05 7L43 15.46 16.90 17.39 25.83 26.87 9.02 19.06 6.46 12.21 27.17 AMERICAN BUDGETS. xlix The following Table, extracted from that printed on p. xlv, sets out by income classes the percentage of the weekly income expended on food and rent respectively, the percentage balance remaming after these items have been met, and the average weekly food bill fer capita: — IX. Percentage of Weelcly Family Income Expended on Food and Rent — AmericannBritish (Northern) Group. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. £3 and under £4. £4 and under £5. £5 and under £6. £6 and under £7. £7 and under £8. £8 and over. Percentage of Income spent on Food, exclud- ing; wine, beer and spirits. Percentage of Income spent on Rent. 51.39 19.53 47.62 17.74 44.15 16.66 41.19 15.34 37.78 14.04 35.53 12.01 34.49 12.04 28.40 9.91 Total --. 70.92 29.08 s. d. 4 lOf 65.36 34.64 s. d. 5 Hi 60.81 39.19 8. d. 6 94 56.53 43.47 s. d. 7 3 51.82 48.18 s. d. 7 8i 47.64 52.46 s. d. 7 lOi 46.53 53.47 s. d. 8 4f 38.31 Percentage balance after paying for Food and Rent. Food Bill per capita per week. 61.69 s. d. 9 24 Despite the considerable rise in the number of persons per family, the fall in the percentage of income spent on food is more or less regular until the highest group is reached. Excluding this the range of difference is 17 per cent., including it 23 per cent. The weeldy balance left for clothing, fire and light, alcoholic drinks, tobacco and all other expenses ranges from 29 per cent, of the income m the lowest class to about 62 per cent, in the highest, with an average for the 3,215 families of a little under 47 per cent. Combining the second, third and foiirth income classes, which together comprise 2,113 families or 654 per cent, of the total, the average income is £3 9s. lO^d.; the average weekly food bUl, excluding alcohol, is £ 1 10s. T^d., and the average weekly rent 1 Is. Qd., leaving an average weekly balance for other piirposes of £1 7s. Qd. or 6s. lid. per capita. Concerning a few of the various items included in "other expenses" — fuel and light and alcoholic drinks — some information was collected on the budget forms, but as regards fuel and to a less extent Hght, the difficulty of furnishing accurate weekly data made it impossible to derive any useful informa- tion from the returns supplied. In the case of beer, cider, spirits, &c., many particulars were also furnished but not such as to yield reliable general figures. A few remarks on the margins of income shown by the budgets are included in Part II of the General Report dealing with international compari- sons. The average number of rooms occupied ranges from 3.73 in the lowest income class to 6.65 in the highest, with an average for the whole group of 4.96, the corresponding numbers of persons per room being 1.01, and 0.96 and 0.99 respectively or practically one room to each person in the whole group. The components of the group show certain differences which are worthy of note. Thus the average weekly food biUs per capita are 6s. 6d. for the Canadian families, 7s. 3d. for the American, and 7s. 6d. for the British-born, and the weekly rent per family lis. lOd., 13s. and 13s. 8d. respectively. The average number of persons per family is practically the same for both British-born and Canadians, viz., 5.27 and 5.23 respectively, while for the Americans the figure is 4.78. The average percentage of income spent on food shows httle variation, being 39.4 by the British-born, 38.7 by the Americans and 38.2 by the Canadians. The average nimaber of persons per room for all the British families is 1.04, for all the Canadian 0.99 and for all the American 0.97. The average weekly rent per room paid by the British-born families is 2s. 8id., by the American 2s. 8d. and by the Canadian 2s. 3d. The average rent por room for the whole group is 2s. 7id.* this figure agreeing almost exactly with the general predominant figures as shown on p. xxii. . , „ , ■ , ,i r- i . • , ,i The following Table shows, for those articles for which the figures were obtained, the average quantities of each consumed. All children hvmg at home, of whatever age, and all other persons shar- ing the family food have again been included. * The average rents per room for the other nationality groups are as follows:— ^_,^ „„,„ American-British (Southern), 2s. lid. ; American (Southern), Broken Families, 2s. l^d. ; German, 2s. 7d. ; Scandmavian, 2s. 7id ■ South European, 2s. lOd.; Slavonic and allied Peoples, 2s. efrf.; Jewish, 3s. 2id.; Negro (Northern), 2s. e^d.; and Negro (Southern) 2s 3*5. The relatively high figure for the Jewish group is explained by the large number of Jewish budgets furnished from New York, and the South European figure is similarly affected. 1 GENERAL EEPORT. X. Weekly Consumption per Family of Certain Articles of Food. — American^British (Northern) Oroup. Number of Budgets . Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten " Rye " Other..., Flour, Wheaten 1 9.52 " Rye Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 67 £ s. 1 16 1.78 3.78 lb. 5.02 0.65 Buckwheat and other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts . . . Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti.. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese MUk (fresh) Milk (condensed). Eggs 0.21 0.88 0.96 0.80 0.37 0.60 0.77 15.69 0.18 L38 3.59 0.39 1.55 1.04 0.38 0.27 0.03 0.68 LOS L14 0.08 pints. Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate. Sugar Molasses and Syrup lb. 0.24 qts. 2.96 lb. 0.54 No. 9.03 lb. 0.21 0.63 0.02 3.56 pints. 0.25 £2 and under £3. (2.) 532 £ s. d. 2 11 Oi 2.06 4.08 lb. 6.53 0.96 0.05 7.94 0.04 0.26 0.68 L57 L37 0.42 0.67 0.96 17.43 0.43 L24 5.09 0.69 1.94 1.26 0.46 0.51 0.30 1.13 1.16 L35 0.09 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.31 qts. 3.75 lb. 0.71 No. 14. 49 lb. 0.27 0.77 0.04 3.78 pints. 0.33 £3 and under £4. (3.) 1036 £ s. d. 3 9 10 2.46 4.54 lb. 7.64 0.87 0.13 8.99 0.07 0.31 0.73 2.19 1.80 0.53 0.91 1.23 18.59 LOO Lll 6.04 0.91 2.15 1.46 0.80 0.69 0.54 1.40 L29 L74 0.05 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.45 qts. 4.77 lb. 0.76 No. 19.90 lb. 0.28 0.93 0.07 4.45 pints. 0.40 £4 and under £5. (4.) 545 £ s. d. 4 8 5 2. 88 5.02 lb. 8.74 0.74 0.16 10.51 0.06 0.41 0.81 2.38 L95 0.57 0.89 1.40 21.18 1.46 L27 6.71 L23 2.17 1.83 0.91 0.75 0.72 1.64 L48 2.15 0.06 pints. 0.04 lb. 0.56 qts. 5.46 lb. 0.78 No. 24.09 lb. 0.36 0.99 0.10 5.67 pints. 0.45 £5 and under £6. (5.) 437 £ s. d. 5 7 3 3.07 5.27 lb. 9.09 0.85 0.10 1L77 0.09 0.57 0.93 2.73 2.26 0.56 0.96 1.48 22.99 1.38 1. 35 7.81 L48 2.24 1.81 LOO 0.82 0.89 L54 L54 2.36 0.09 pints. 0.05 lb. 0.60 qts. 5.92 lb. 0.68 No. 25.34 lb. 0.38 L07 0.12 5.81 pints. 0.41 £6 and under £7. (6.) 224 £ s. d. 6 8 Hi 3.63 5.82 lb. 9.06 0.96 0.38 14.10 0.08 0.49 LOO 3.07 2.24 0.47 L09 1.56 24.83 1.91 L60 7.93 2.04 2.81 2.26 L15 0.84 0.83 1.88 1.81 2.65 0.09 pints. 0.05 lb. 0.69 qts. 6.79 lb. 0.72 No. 28.88 lb. 0.45 L09 0.15 6.81 pints. 0.56 ■ This figure includes boarders and relatives sharing the family food. Cf. Note £7 and under £8. (7.) 131 £ s. d. 7 8 6 3.82 6.10 lb. 10.02 0.68 0.12 13.47 0.09 0.32 1.23 3.33 3.01 0.72 L02 L59 29.98 L50 L70 9.38 2.43 2.81 2.53 L23 L19 L37 2.00 L82 3.01 0.13 pints. 0.08 lb. 0.73 qts. 7.04 lb. 0.89 No. 3L53 lb. 0.48 LIO 0.21 7.20 pints. 0.57 on p. xlvi. £8 and over. (8.) 243 £ s. d. 10 6 10 4.20 6.38 lb. 1L27 L51 0.21 13.80 0.12 0.89 L27 3.86 3.80 0.64 L17 L67 27.98 2.92 1.54 10.43 2.53 3.32 3.06 L33 LOl 1.83 2.49 2.01 3.27 0.02 pints. 0.09 lb. 0.82 qts. 8.08 lb. 0.57 No. 34.39 lb. 0.46 L38 0.21 7.28 pints. 0.54 The following paragraphs contain comments on the consumption of various articles of food, as set out m the above Table. The particulars given will be found to refer either to the budget group as a whole; or to the three components of the group-American, British-born or Canadian; or to the various mcome classes as set out in the above Table. Occasionally reference wiU be made AMERICAN BUDGETS. to certain sub-groups formed on the basis of nationality and town into which a large number of the budgets fall. These sub-groups, 37 in number, have been formed whenever in any single town either of the components furnished not less than 25 budgets. WJieaten Bread.~The consumption of bought wheaten bread, although affording no criterion of the well-being of the family, does in fact rise more or less steadily with income, from 1.3 lb. per capita in the lowest income class to 1.8 lb. per capita in the highest. The average per capita con- sumption for the whole group is 1.7 lb. weekly. The components of the group show the following differences. The Americans average rather more than 1.7 lb. per capita weekly, the British-born 1.6 lb. and the Canadians 1.4. The smallest quantity of bread per capita, accompanying a high consumption of flour, is found m the lowest income class of the British budgets (0.66 lb.) and the largest among the Canadians with incomes between £7 and £8, viz. 2.6 lb. per capita weekly. The bread consumption of the lowest income class among the Canadians is also relatively high (2.3 lb.). Rye Bread. — The consumption of rye bread purchased at the bakers is smaU and somewhat irregu- lar, not averaging on the whole quite 1 lb. per family weekly, and of this 80 per cent is consumed by the American-born families. The per capita weekly consumption for the components of the group is as follows— American 0.21 lb.; British-born 0.13 lb.; Canadian 0.03 lb. The relatively high figure of the American consumption may probably be explained by the presence among them of families of German or Eastern European descent. Rye bread in this group, as in others, appears to be pur- chased by families with incomes of every range and its consumption to be entirely a matter of inherited or acquired taste. WJieaten Flour. — ^The average consumption of wheaten flour per family is 10.4 lb. weekly or 2,1 lb. per capita. The range is very small, from 2.5 lb. per capita in the lowest income class to 2.2 lb. in the highest. The differences in the flour consumption of the components of the group are also small. The American returns average 2.1 lb. per capita weekly, those of the British-born 2.2 lb. and of the Canadian 1.8 lb. The consumption of rye and buckwheat flour is almost insignificant. Adding together the weights of flour and bread of aU kinds as given in the budgets, the figure for the whole group is 4.1 lb. per capita weekly; for the Americans 4.2 lb.; for the British-born 4.0 lb. and for the Canadians 3.4 lb., in the last case nearly f lb. below the average of the group. The con- sumption of both bread and flour shown in the Canadian returns is lower than that of either of the other components. With regard to bread substitutes, the difference in the movement of the per capita expenditure is very marked as compared with that of bread, the latter rising only from 3.57d. per capita in the lowest income class to A.QTd. in the highest; while the former shows a corresponding movement of from 1.78d. per capita to 4.93cZ. The position is set out in the following Table : — XL — Average Weekly Consumption and Expenditure per capita on Bread, Flour, Cakes, cfcc. — American-BritisJi {Northern) Group. „ J f Consumption Bread tExpenditure _,, rConsumption ^lo™ {Expenditure Kolls, Cakes, Biscuits, /Consumption &c. \Expenditure Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2 1.50 lb. 3.98d. 2.58 lb. 4.90tZ. 0.47 lb. 1.78d. £2 and under £3. 1.85 lb. 4.87d. 2.02 lb. 3.92d. 0.72 lb. 2.88d. £3 and under £4. 1.90 lb. 5.07rf. 2.07 lb. 3.96tf. 0.88 lb. 3.75tZ. £4 and under £5. 1.92 lb. 5.12d. 2.19 lb. 4.18d. 0.861b. ZMd. £5 and under £6. 1.91 lb. 5.10d. 2.36 lb. 4:A6d. 0.95 lb. 4.08d. £6 and under £7. 1.79 lb. 4.82d. 2.52 lb. 4.81d. 0.91 lb. 3.99d. £7 and under £8. 1.77 lb. 4.91d 2.28 lb. 4.34d. 1.04 lb. 4.38d. £8 and over. 2.04 lb. 5.61d. 2.32 lb. 4.47d. 1.20 lb. 4.93d. RoUs, Cakes, Biscuits and other forms of fancy bread form a constant and important item in the cereal food consumption of American households, amounting to 0.9 per capita weekly in this group. The particulars furnished for British-born famihes show rather more than the average, and those for Canadian Httle more than half the amount, or 0.5 lb. per capita weekly. Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. — The consumption of these articles per family rises slowly with the income, but the average per capita is almost constant throughout, something less than ^ lb. weekly. The differences shown by the components of the group are insignificant. Di GENERAL REPORT. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c. — There is a small rise in the -per capita consumption of these articles with the income. The average per capita is 0.18 lb. weekly, and again no material departure from the general average is shown by the components of the group. Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. — The average weekly consimiption of these articles is almost exactly \ lb. per capita for the whole group, but it is somewhat higher in the middle income class than at either end of the series. Potatoes are an important constituent of the dietary, showing an average of 21 lb. per family weekly for all budgets together, or 4.3 lb. per capita. There is no material difference between the components of the group in their per capita consumption. Dried Peas and Beans (chiefly the small haricot, sometimes known in the United States as "Navy beans") are used in considerable quantity. The American and British-born famihes use about a quarter of a pound per capita weekly, the Canadian 0.4 lb. Vegetables. — It is not possible even to estimate the quantities consumed, but the expenditure on green vegetables rises steadily with the income from 9d. per family in the lowest income class, to 2s. 7d. in the highest, so that, allowing for different size of family, the expenditure per capita is just doubled in the latter class. The expenditure on Sweet Corn and Sweet Potatoes is somewhat irregular, but tends to rise with the income. The former is sold very largely in the "cob" and the price of both is de- pendent upon season and locality. The Canned Vegetables are chiefly tomatoes, for which 5d. per can, weighing about 2^ lb. gross, or three cans for Is. O^d., are very general prices. "String beans," that is French beans canned, are also largely used but cost about double. The American families consiune much more sweet potatoes, an acquired taste and a Southern rather than a Northern food, than either the British-born or Canadians. The expenditure per capita on sweet corn and fresh and canned vege- tables is highest in the American returns and lowest in the Canadian. The average consumption of Fresh Milk is a little over one quart per capita weekly, being 56 qts. per annum for the whole group. Of the components the American returns show an average of 54 qts., the British one of 61 qts., and the Canadian one of 66 qts. The average consumption of Condensed Milk is for the whole group 0.15 lb. per capita per week. For the components the figures show but little difference, although the range witlin the group is very- great. In 14 out of the 37 sub-groups of not less than 25 families each into which, on the basis of nationahty and town, the budgets fall, the quantity is 0.10 lb. per capita or less; 16 sub-groups use 0.10 lb. and less than 0.20 lb., and in the remaining 7 the consumption ranges from 0.20 lb. to 0.40 lb. per capita per week. The average consumption of Butter per capita per week is for the whole group 0.42 lb. The differ- ences between the components are insignificant, the Canadian returns showing a slightly higher con- sumption than the others. Within the group the range is considerable, from 0.64 lb. as shown by the American returns from Duluth to 0.27 lb. by those of Americans in St. Louis. Out of the 37 sub-groups of more than 25 budgets each, 16 have a consumption of 0.40 lb. and less than 0.50 lb. per capita per week. Lard, Suet and Dripping.— The consumption of these fats averages for the whole group 0.29 lb. per capita per week. Of the components the British-bom average 0.20 lb.; the Canadians 0.30 and the Americans 0.33. Cheese.— The average consumption of cheese of all kinds is, for the group, 0.11 lb. per capita per week, the Americans and the British-born each showing an average almost equal to that of the group, and the Canadians an average of 0.09 lb. Eggs.— The consumption of eggs is for the whole group 4.6 per capita weekly (237 per annum). Of the components the returns from the British-born show an average of 5.1, from the Americans one of 4.4 and from the Canadians one of 4.3 per capita weekly; equivalent to 265, 229 and 224 per annum respectively. The 37 sub-groups show a very wide range of consumption from 8 eggs per capita weekly to 2. In four sub-groups the average is above 7 eggs per capita weeldy; m two it is practically 7; in ten It IS above 5 but less than 6; in ten more it is above 4 and less than 5; in nine it is above 3 but less than 4, and in two only is the average less than 3. The gross annual consumption of eggs in the United States is very large, and that by the 3,215 famihes now under consideration, estimated on the basis of the budgets, would itself amount to 312,500 dozens. The total number of eggs produced in the whole of the United States during 1909 is estimated at about 1,400,000,000 dozens. AMERICAN BtlDGETS. liii Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, cfec— Coffee, as contrasted with tea, may be regarded as the national domestic beverage. The average consumption of coffee per capita per week is 0.20 lb. for the whole group. Of the components the American returns show a weekly consumption of 0.23 lb. -per capita, the British 0.12 lb. and the Canadian 0.09 lb. The American budgets obtained in Pittsburg, with 0.31 lb. per capita per week, show the largest consumption, followed by six sub-groups of Americans with an average weekly consumption per capita of over 0.25 lb. The smallest consumption is shown by British returns from Lowell, viz., 0.03 lb. There are nine sub-groups at the lower end of the scale using less than 0.10 lb. of coffee weekly, and of these only one is American. The 106 American families in Muncie, which often provided the minima in foodstuffs, are 11th on the list in coffee consumption, usiug 0.23 lb. per capita per week, or 0.03 lb. above the average of the whole group, and but little short of the general American average as shown by the budgets. The average consumption of tea per capita per week is, for the whole group, 0.07 lb. Of the components the returns from British-born families show an average of 0.10 lb., from Canadians one of 0.09 lb. and from Americans one of 0.06 lb. The consumption of cocoa and chocolate relatively to both coffee and tea is very small, about 1 lb. per capita per annum for the whole group. The average weekly consumption of sugar per capita is, for the whole group, 1.06 lb. Of the components the American and Canadian returns show an average of 1.03 lb. and those of the British- born 1.13 lb. The range within the group is, as usual, very considerable, viz., from 1.44 to 0.78 per capita. Out of the 37 sub-groups of 25 budgets or more, 22 show a consumption of at least 1 lb. per capita weekly, and the mean for the remaining 15 sub-groups is 14 oz. per capita weekly, or 45.5 per annum. The average consumption of molasses and syrup per capita per week for the whole group is 0.09 pints. Meat. — The average consumption of all meat, including poultry and sausage, shown by the budgets, is 14.4 lb. per famUy weekly, or at the rate of 152 lb. per capita per annum; if fish be included the amount is increased to 168 lb. The range of consumption is very great, from 100 lb. in the lowest income class to 192 lb. in the highest. If fish be included these figures become 109 lb. and 212 lb. respectively. Of the components of the group the Canadian returns show the lowest meat consumption, with 138.75 lb. per capita per annum (excluding fish), as against 155.5 lb. and 152 lb. as shown by those of the British-born and of Americans, respectively. Transport and the refrigerating car tend to weaken the significance of the aggregate consumption figures yielded by the budgets for different areas. For the various geographical groups of towns,* however, the following are the figures of annual consumption per capita: — New England Towns 146.6 1b. Other Eastern Towns (including New York) 156.0 " Central Towns ._. 146.6 " Middle West Towns... 160.2 " When these aggregate figures are analyzed, the most important local differences shown are in the consumption of mutton and lamb, pork, and bacon, ham, &c. Thus, while the consumption of beef is at its lowest in the Central and Middle West groups of towns with percentages to the total meat consumption of 45.0 and 45.1 respectively, and reaches its maximum proportion in the New England towns with 50.7 per cent., the minimum and maximum percentage of mutton and lamb differ much more considerably between the various groups of towns, the respective figures being 4.9 per cent, in the Middle West group and 13.1 in that of New England. Pork, on the other hand, is at its maximum in the Middle West towns with 19.2 per cent, of total meat consumption and at its lowest ia the Other Eastern towns (including New York) at 10.7 per cent. The consumption of bacon, ham, &c., is also at its m.aximum in the Middle West group of towns, where it accounts for 13.6 per cent, of the total meat consumption shown by the budgets, but was at its miuimum in the New England towns with 9.9 per cent. Local variations are also great in the cases of veal, sausage and poultry, but these forms of meat enter less into the family dietaries. * For purposes of comparison the following figures relating to American-British budgets in the Southern towns are appended: Annual Consumption per capita ..Vo. Percentage Consumption of each kind of Meat. Beef. 62.4 42.3 Mutton and Lamb. 3.1 2.1 Pork. 30.2 20.4 Bacon, Ham, &c. 31.2 21.1 Veal. 3.1 2.1 Sausage. 9.9 6.7 Poultry. 7:8 5.3 Total. 147.7 100.0 liv GENERAL REPORT. The following Table sets out the quantities and percentages of the different kinds of meat as shown by the budgets derived from the various geographical groups of towns: — XII. — Consumption of different Kinds of Meat. — By Geographical Groups of Towns. New England Towns. Other Eastern Towns (including New York). Central Towns. Middle West Towns. Annual Consumption per capita. Beef Mutton and Lamb Pork Bacon, Ham, &c.. Veal Sausage Poultry lb. lb. 76.4 66.0 19.2 8.3 16.6 27.0 17.7 19.2 7.8 10.9 5.7 8.8 12.5 6.2 lb. 72.3 7.8 30.7 21.8 12.5 10.9 4.2 Percentage Consumption of each kind of Meat. Beef Mutton and Lamb' Pork Bacon, Ham, &c.. Veal Sausage Poultry 50.7 13.1 16.0 9.9 2.5 3.5 4.3 49.0 45.0 12.3 5.7 10.7 18.4 11.3 13.1 5.0 7.5 3.7 6.0 8.0 4.3 45.1 4.9 19.2 13.6 7.8 6.8 2.6 The average consumption of beef per capita per annum is, for the whole group, 71.7 lb., and the component nationalities show no important deviation from this figure; the returns from the British- born showing an average of 75.9 lb., from the Americans one of 70.3 lb. and the Canadians one of 69.8 lb. The average consumption of pork, fresh and salt in the whole group is 24.1 lb. per capita per annum; of the components the British returns show an average of 19 lb., the American one of 25 lb. and the Canadian one of 34 lb. The average consumption of bacon per capita per annum is, for the whole group, 18.5 lb.; for the components: British-born 19.7 lb., American 18.9 lb., and Canadian 9.4 lb. Combining the figures for pork and bacon, the British returns show a consumption of 38.8 lb. per capita per annum, the Canadian 43.1 lb. and the American 43.9 lb., and when thus combined there is but little dift'erence in the consumption shown. The average consumption of mutton and lamb is only 13.3 lb. 2Jer capita per annum for the whole group. Of the components, the British-born show an average of 18.9 lb., the American one of 11.6 lb. and the Canadian of 9.4 lb. The range of consumption is very great. The average consumption of veal for the whole group is 9 lb. per capita per annum. For sausage the average per capita per annum is 7.75 lb. The American average is 8.5 lb., show- ing a slightly larger consumption than the Canadian (7.75 lb.), while that of the British-born falls to 5.8 lb. There are only three town groups of 25 or more budgets in which the consumption of sau- sage exceeds 15 lb. per capita per annum and in 19 such town groups the consumption is 6 lb. or less; in six of these it is below 3 lb. The relative proportion of each kind of meat to all meat in the whole group is set out below:— '^I'i-l-— Percentage Consumption of eacli Kind of Meat.— American-British (Northern) Group. Beef, fresh and corned. 47.1 Mutton and Lamb. 8.8 Pork, fresh and salt. 15.8 Bacon, Ham, &c. 12.2 Veal. 6.0 Sausage. 5.1 Poultry. 5.0 Total. 100 Among the component nationahties the Canadians, according to the budgets, use the largest proportion of beef, viz., 50.4 per cent., whilst the British-born show a consumption of mutton and lamb much greater than that used by either of the others, viz., 12.2 per cent., as against 7.6 per cent, m the American returns and 6.8 per cent, m the Canadian. There are also great differences in the consumption of pork, which forms 24 per cent, of the whole in the case of the Canadians, 16 per cent, ot the Americans and 12 per cent, of the British-born as set out in the budgets. COMPARISON WITH BEITISH TOWNS. Iv Fish is of considerable importance in these dietaries, the returns from the British-born showmg a consumption of 0.42 lb. per capita per week, the Canadian one of 0.33 lb. and the American one of 0.27 lb. If fish be included with meat the average annual consumption of all meat per capita for the whole group is, as already stated, raised to 168 lb. The local figures of quantity of fish consumed reflect mainly differences in the degree of facility with which fish can be obtained, all the towns showing the highest consumption being within easy reach of the Atlantic sea-board. The actual consumption per capita per annum as shown by the budgets of the various geographical groups of towns is as follows : — • New England Towns 23.9 lb. Other Eastern Towns (including New York) 22.9 " Central Towns... .'. 9.4 " Middle West Towns 12.0 " The annual per capita consumption of and expenditure on all meat and fish and the percentage of income spent on such food is as under in each of the income classes: — XIV. — Consumption of and Expenditure on Meat and Fish. — American-BritisJi (Northern) Group. Annual Consumption per capita. Weekly Expenditure per capita Percentage of income Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 109 lb. Is. 2id. 12.95 £2 and under £3. 145 lb. Is. 8id. 13.49 £3 and under £4. 160 lb. Is. lOJrf. 12.22 £4 and under £5. 165 lb. 2s. Od. 11.36 £5 and under £6. 174 lb. 2s. lid. 10.50 £6 and under £7. 176 lb. 2s. 2d. 9.82 £7 and under £8. 195 lb. 2s. 6d. 10.23 £8 and over. 212 lb. 2s. Sirf. 8.28 The predominant range of consumption of all meat, poultry and fish j^^r capita per annum is from 140 lb. to 190 lb., 23 local nationality sub-groups of at least 25 budgets each, comprising 2,201 families, falling within this range. The corresponding predominant range excluding fish and poultry may be taken as from 120 lb. to 160 lb. per capita per annum. The consumption of meat of all kinds as shown by the budgets is in general high and much above European standards. As a rule nationality and occupation greatly influence the figiires, and locality has been seen to be not without its effects, but when it is considered that in the lowest income class of the group budgets under consideration the purchase of all meat and fish is 109 lb. per capita per annum (notwithstanding the fact that out of 119 children only two are earning and the remainder are of low average age), while it approaches double this figure in the highest income class, it is obvious that meat is regarded as a very important feature of the family dietary. A general tendency for food consumption per capita to rise with income is shown in the budgets, but in this there is no regularity. On the whole it is more marked as regards the first three income classes, that is, for those earning up to and under £4 per week, but even in these classes in some com- modities as, for instance, pork, bacon and ham, sugar, lard, suet and dripping and coft'ee, it is hardly apparent in the budgets. As regards the total meat consumption itself it is only in the classes with family earnings averaging less than £4 per week that the consumption tends to move consistently with income. In addition to the large meat consumption, one of the most striking features of the American- British budgets is the great variety of food consumed and the relatively small proportion which the family food bill bears to total income. PART II —COMPARISON OF WAGES, HOURS OF LABOUR, RENTS AND RETAIL FOOD PRICES IN THE UNITED STATES WITH THOSE IN ENGLAND AND WALES AND OF BUDGETS IN THE UNITED STATES WITH THOSE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. An attempt must now be made to compare the statistical data collected in the United States with regard to wages and hours of labour, rents, retail prices and household expenditure, with similar data relating to this country. The method of index numbers furnishes the most suitable device by which these summary com- parisons can be made and it will be again used. Attention must, however, agam be drawn to the imperfections of a method which, because necessarily hmited to the presentation of purely statistical Ivi GENERAL REPORT. data is unable to reflect those elements of the problem concerning which a corresponding body of data may not be available or which cannot be statistically measured or described. Ihe following inustra- tions may be mentioned of factors relevant to such a comparison m regard to which a merely numerical statement of kiternational conditions is apt to fall short of completeness: (a) as regards wages and hours possible differences in the continuity of employment and the strenuousness of the service dema^rd (% as regards rents, the relative standard of dwelling accommodation provided; (c) as re3s prices Se qualities of goods which a given expenditure secures; and (d) as regards family foSd elpS ure d?fferences in national habit and taste, and m the conditions of spPply,-. T° f ,^« extent such shortcomings will be indicated in the following pages. Although the limitations of the realdgSance of statiltical comparisons and the fact that they can rarely ZklZst^tSi^ the sL^plest and most concrete phenomena, convey more than approximate truths, must, therefore, be always borne in mind, such comparisons are nevertheless of great and proved value. Wages. Just as for the purposes of internal comparisons of wages and hours of labour it was necessary to choose occupations tliat were followed most universally, so is it m respect to international comparisons and^ as in the preceding foreign enquiries, the building, engineering and printing trades have been chosen for this purpose. Rouglly speakmg, these three trades i-epresent m toth countries those which JaSamong the more highly organised and the more highly skilled, and, ^It^o^f^^/he position of the wage-earner in the first mentioned is probably relatively somewhat stronger m the Umted States than in England and Wales, owing to the more rapid expansion that is taking place in the former country the three trades do not appear to occupy a substantially higher relative position m the economy of that country than they do in this; nor does it appear that the selection of their predominant rates for pur- poses of international comparison is less suitable than in the other foreign enquiries undertaken by the Board of Trade. The predominant weekly wages in the United States in the three trade-groups above mentioned, as represented by the towns selected for investigation, have been given for February, 1909 on page xvi and the corresponding particulars for England and Wales for October 1905 will be found on page xx^iii. of the Report on "Cost of Living of the Working Classes" in the United Kingdom. Brmgmg together the data for the two countries we have the following comparisons: — Predominant Weekly Wages of Adult Males in certain Occupations in England and Wales and in the United States. Occupation. Building Trades*: — Bricklayers Stonemasons Carpenters Joiners Plasterers Plumbers Painters Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers. Engineering Trades: — Fitters Turners Smiths Patternmakers Labourers Printing Trades: — Hand Compositors (Job Work) Predominant Range of Weekly England and Wales (October, 1905). 37s. 6rf. to 40s. ed. 37s. 2d. " 39s. 4d. I 36s. 2d. " 39s. id. 36s. 6d. " 41s. M. 35s. Ad. " 39s. 9d. 31s. 6d. " 37s. ed. 24s. id. " 27s. 32s. to 36s. 32s. " 36s. 32s. " 36s. 34s. " 38s. 18s. " 22s. 28s. to 33s. United States (February, 1909). 110s. to 125s. 96s. 3c?. " 110s. 68s. 9d. " 90s. 100s. " 119s 87s. 6rf. " 112s 65s. " 85s 50s .2d. .ed. 68s. 9d. ^63s. id. to 74s. ed. 67s. 8d. " 85s. 74s. ed. " 91s. 37s. ed. " 43s. id. 8d. 9d. Ratio of Mean Predominant Wage in the United States (February, 1909) to Mean Pre- dominant Wage in England and Wales (October, 1905) taken as 100. 68s. 9d. to 81s. 3d. [The Building Trades Arithmetic Meansf JThe Engineering Trades. [All above Occupations. . . son 285 270 210 210 280 266 217 231 203 203 225 231 203 246 243 213 232 * The wages stated for the building trades are for a full week in summer in both countries. t In arriving at the trade and general index numbers, bricklayers and stonemasons have been regarded as one occupation and carpenters and joiners and fitters and turners as two respectively, as in the earlier foreign enquiries. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. IVU The level of wages in the building trades was the same in England and Wales in 1909 as in 1905, but the rates in the engineering trades had been raised by about IJ per cent, between October, 1905, and February, 1909, and those of compositors by about 2^ per cent. The eflFect of these changes would be to lower the mean ratio for the trades represented in the above Table from 232: 100 to 230: 100. In the building trades the rates for the United States are based upon actual returns from employers, but many of these returns embody the locally accepted standard rates in this relatively highly organised group. In so far as this is the case the standard would generally represent the maximum of a group of trades that is one of the most highly paid in the United States, and departures from it would be to a point below rather than one above the rates quoted. Various circumstances are tending, however, to maintain the strong position of wage-earners in these trades, especially the rapid mcrease of population and the accompanying expansion of towns, resulting from a great volume of immigration that is composed in general of a class of labour that does not enter the skilled branches of the building trades to any considerable extent. The exceptionally high rates for bricklayers deserve notice, and it may be observed that the relative importance of this class of artisan is somewhat over-weighted in the index number for the building trade group, even though combined with that for stonemasons. In England the bricklayer is numerically more important in the building trades than in the United States, partly because of the greater extent to which timber and, in the case of large structures, iron and steel are used in the latter country. Although it might thus seem that influences are at work tending to weaken the economic position of the bricklayer in the United States, these influences are more or less counteracted by the fact that the bricklayer is almost entirely a town product, since the recruiting ground provided by the rural districts and by the small centres of population in England is relatively unimportant in the United States, owing to the great predominance there of frame buildings. While the position of the bricklayer is thus different in the United States and although as a class he is relatively far less important numerically than the much lower paid carpenter, it will be observed that the building trade group as a whole commands a high range of wages, the arithmetic mean of the index numbers for the group being 243 as compared with 213 in the engineering trades. In the case of the engineering trades the Enghsh wages are the standard time rates recognized by the unions concerned, the American ranges, on the other hand, being based, in the absence of standard rates, on returns obtained from employers of actual earnings in an ordinary week, and consequently the two sets of figures are not strictly comparable. It has been already pointed out that in this group of trades the lines of demarcation between the skilled fitters and turners classed as machinists in the United States and the less skilled or semi-skilled machinists engaged on minutely sub-divided tasks are often loosely dra-wTi. The labour employed in the latter case is frequently composed of the newer immigrant classes and the rates paid to men who may still be roughly classed as machinists are not infrequently lower than those quoted in the Table, which are for the skilled mechanic only. In the printing trades the rates for hand compositors engaged on job printing are given. The American figures represent predominant time rates ascertained to be paid in practice, while those for England and Wales are, as in the case of the engineering trades, the standard time rates recognised by the trade unions. In no case in the Table are the comparative ranges seriously complicated by the distinction as between time and piece rates, and in the case of the building trades and of the printing trades not at all. Neither are the comparisons invalidated by differences in the character of the work done by those who fall into similar classes in the two countries. It will be seen that in the building trades the mean of the predominant range in the United States is in no case less than double that of the corresponding Enghsh grade of wage-earner. For the whole group the ratio is 243: 100. In the engineering trades the index numbers are in no case less than double the English figure, and the combined ratio is 213 : 100. For the compositors the ratio is 246: 100, as compared with 232: 100 for all the occupations included in the Table. It will be remembered that each of these ratios is subject to slight modification in view of the different dates to which the returns relate, the extent of such modification being indicated in the paragraph immediately following the Table above. The question arises as to whether any such ratio as that given above fairly represents the level of wages for adult males in the towns investigated in the United States as compared with that of the towns covered by the corresponding enquiry in England and Wales- or whether a ratio based unon the same occupations as have been used in the Iviii GENERAL REPORT. preceding international comparisons is one that may either exaggerate or minimise the existing differences. While the combined ratio yielded by the figures in the above Table appears to give an approximately correct general indication of the relative rates of remuneration for town occupations as between the two countries, so far as they can be determined within the limits of the present enquiry, the compara- tive figures appear to be somewhat weighted in favour of the United States and should not be pressed to an undue extent. It must be remembered that for the reasons stated above the position of the buUd- ing trades in the United States involves the selection of a group of occupations for comparative purposes that is probably slightly favourable to the United States, and the whole basis of comparison is not a very wide one. The proportion of unskilled or of semi-skilled labour employed in industry in the United States is greater than in this country and it may be noted that this fact would affect the com- parison of trades as a whole, while it is clear that, in order to ascertain the comparative level of wages in the two countries — taking into account the proportions employed at high and low rates in both cases — a general census of wages would be required. Although the proportion of those who may be roughly classed as the unskilled or semi-skilled in comparison with the skilled workers is greater in the United States than in England and Wales, it should be observed that the evidence of the town reports indicates that the proportion of men in the community who in an industrial classification would fall below any of these three classes as repre- senting a class of relatively unemployable labour, be it through premature deterioration or through old age, is smaller than in this country. The comparatively recent character of American urban development and a rapid growth of population, largely due to the influx of those in the prime of life or who, having passed the more uncertain years of childhood, have not yet reached their prime, are the main general considerations that underlie the above conclusion. Hours of Labour. The usual hours of labour in February, 1909, in the various branches of the selected trades^ building, engineering and printing — in the towns investigated in the United States, have been set out in the first part of the General Report on page xix. The following Table summarises the averages of the predominant hours of labour in England and Wales and in the United States for the different trades compared: — Weekly Hours of Labour of Adult Males in certain Occupations in England and Wales and in tJie United States. Occupation. Building Trades*: — Bricklayers Stonemasons Carpenters Joiners Plasterers Plumbera Painters Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers. Engineering Trades: — Fitters Turners Smiths Patternmakers Labourers Printing Trades: — Hand Compositors (Job Work) Average Hours of Labour per week (excluding intervals). England and Wales (October, 1905). 53 52 53 53 53i 53-1 52i 53 53 53 53 53 52i Arithmetic Means. The Building Trades The Engineering Trades . All above Occupations .. United States (February, 1909). 46 46i 47i 46i 47i 47i 48i 56J 56 56i 56i 49 Ratio of Average Hours of Labour in the United States (Febru- ary, 1909) to those in England and Wales (Octo ber, 1905) taken as 100. 89/^ 90 90 87 89 89 93 106 106 106 106 106 93 89 106 96 * The hours of labour stated for the building trades are for a full week in summer in both countries. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. lix In the United States the length of the working week in the building trades does not, as a rule, vary between summer and winter, and when there is any seasonal curtailment it is nearly always during the height of the summer when leisure is most welcome and not in the winter because the hours of light are too few for a full day's work. Thus it is occasionally found that the working weeks in the hottest summer months are slightly shorter than during the rest of the year. No adjustment of the figures shown in the above Table is required to allow for the difference of date to which they refer, since changes in the hours of labour in the building and engineering trades and for compositors in England and Wales between the dates of the two enquiries amounted in each case to less than ^ per cent. The index numbers arrived at in respect of the trades enumerated may, therefore, be accepted without modification. It will be seen that the average hours of labour per week range in the different occupations in the building trades from 52 to 53^ in England and Wales, and from 46 to 48f in the United States. The weekly working time in England and Wales averages about 6 hours longer than in the United States in the case of skilled men, but only 3f hours longer in the case of hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers. The arithmetic mean of the index numbers in the whole group of building trades is 89, showing a working week in summer about 11 per cent, shorter than in England and Wales. As regards the engineering trades, the hours are distinctly longer in the United States than in the building trades in that country, ranging from a minimum of 54 hours to a maximum of 60, the average being about nine hours per week longer than the average in the building trades. As compared with England and Wales the average hours in the engineering trades are also somewhat longer — by 3 or 3 J hours per week — the English average being 53, and the ratio of average hours in these trades in the United States to that in England and Wales 106 : 100. Among compositors the American working week is on an average about 3^ hours shorter than in England and Wales, the average hours being 49 as compared with 52^, and the corresponding ratio 93 : 100. The average of the index numbers given in the last column of the Table is 96, showing that in respect of the three groups of trades combined the hours in the United States are about 4 per cent, shorter than in England and Wales. The question again arises as to whether the combined ratio thus obtained is one from which a general conclusion can be drawn as to the hours of labour in the two countries, and in this case there is little doubt that the percentage figure is somewhat low for the United States. Although in a general survey it is probable that the respective levels shown in the above Tables might be somewhat unduly favourable to the United States, the comparison as between the three selected trade-groups themselves is a fair one, and it therefore provides a basis of calculation of the hourlj^ rate of wages similar to that which has been made in the preceding foreign enquiries. Thus for the trades under consideration, the weekly wages for the United States as compared with England and Wales being approximately as 230 : 100 (regard being had to the different dates of enquiry), and the hours of the usual working week being as 96 : 100, it follows that the average hourly earnings of the American workmen are, to those of EngUsh workmen in the same trades, approximately as 240 : 100. In the building trades the ratio is as 273 : 100 and in the printing trades it is 258 : 100, while in the engineering trades it falls to 198 : 100. Housing and Rents. Although the predominant type of working-class dwelling in both the United States and in England and Wales is that accommodating the single family, the exceptions to this prevailing rule are far more numerous in the former country, and the scale upon which the tenement house provision made in the greater part of the City of New York departs from the more common practice is without counterpart in England and Wales. In addition to New York, in which exceptional conditions prevail and in which over considerable areas an exceptional measure of eongestion exists, there are a few other towns in which dwellings occupied by three or more famihes are conspicuous types, as against the noteworthy instances offered in this country by the central parts of London and by Plymouth and Devonport; while houses constructed for two families, corresponding to those characteristic of Newcastle and the Tyne district, are common over a wide area of the United States. While the classes of dwellings in the occupation of the working classes in the United States are thus considerably more composite than in England and Wales, the difference in the material of which Ix GENERAL EEPORT, they are constructed is still greater, frame or timber houses being the more usual type in the former country. Brick-built houses have been seen to be the chief local types in only a few towns, including Philadelphia and Baltimore, although they predominate in the central parts of some others, including the borough of Manhattan (New York) and Boston. Partly owing to the increasing cost of timber and to the fire-prevention clauses of municipal by-laws, brick-built dwellmgs are also in general tending to become relatively more numerous, but, as stated, up to the present time the frame house is the more usual type. This difference from EngUsh conditions affects, however, relative durability more than either convenience, comfort or rentals. In the absence of any more satisfactory basis of comparison of housing accommodation, the simplest interpretation of standard has been again adhered to in the number of habitable rooms, and although in a few cases the accommodation provided by some local type of dwelling caused slight difficulty in enumeration, the basis adopted has generally been found convenient and free from ambi- guity. In one respect it proved favourable to the United States, inasmuch as sculleries, which were not counted as rooms, are common in Enghsh dwelhngs but exceptional in American. As compared on the basis of the number of habitable rooms, however, it would seem from the following Table, showing the number of towns in which predominant rentals for dwellings of certain sizes were procured, that on the whole the accommodation provided in the American home is somewhat more liberal than in that of England and Wales. Table showing the numbers of towns in England and Wales and the United States from which sufficient numbers of returns of rents for workmen's dwellings of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 rooms were obtained to enable predominant rents for each class of dwelling to be stated. Country. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Num- ber of 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Towns inves- tigated. England and Wales 1 19 5 44 19 73 28 68 25 30 20 73 United States * 3 1 28 * Dwellings occupied by coloured tenants are excluded. In both countries the dwelling of four rooms is the only type found in every case, though that of five rooms is in both cases very general. On the other hand, the six-roomed dwelhng is relatively far more represented in the American returns, 71 per cent, of the American towns showing a predominant rental for dwellings of this size, as compared with only 41 per cent, of the towns in England and Wales. Moreover, in the United States a predominant figure is shown in no town for single-roomed dwellings as compared with one in England and Wales, viz., London, while predominant figures for two rooms are shown in only five American towns, or 18 per cent, of the whole, as compared with 19 towns, or 26 per cent, of the whole, in England and Wales. Predominant rentals for three-roomed dwe llin g.'; are shown in 68 per cent, of the American towns visited, and in 60 per cent, in the case of England and Wales. While, therefore, the dwellings of larger size are more frequent in the United States, and those of smaller size are slightly less frequent, and while the single-roomed dwelling is in no case a common type, in both countries the point of concentration is greatest in the four-roomed and five- roomed dwellings, and in both cases, therefore, these may be regarded as the more predominant types. As regards the size of rooms, comparison has been found to be impossible, though the measure- ments ascertained by the mvestigators seemed to indicate that except in New York, where rooms are apt to be exceptionally small, the more general dimensions of rooms in the American towns were somewhat greater than those usual in English towns. Any difference in the size of rooms does not, however, account for the difference in predominant rentals as between the two countries, which, as will be seen below, shows an excess of something over 100 per cent, in the more usual rents paid in the United States as compared with England and Wales. In the following Table the predominant rents for dwellings of three, four, five and six rooms in the United States, as given in the Table on p. xxii, are set out m comparison with those given for England and Wales in the Eeport on "Cost of Livmg of the Working Classes" in the United Kingdom (Cd. 3864, p. xiv.). COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. bd Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings in England and Wales and in the United States. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Predominant Range of Weekly Rents. Ratio of Mean Predominant England and Wales. United States. Rent in the United States to that in England and Wales, taken as 100. Three rooms 3s. 9d. to 4s. &d. is. &d. „ 5s. ed. 5s. M. „ 6s. 6d. 6s. 6d. „ 7s. 9d. 6s. 9d. to 9s. 7d. 8s. 8d. „ 12s. lis. 6d. „ 14s. lid. 13s. „ 17s. id. 198 Four rooms 207 Five rooms 220 Sit rnnms. . . . , . 213 Arithmfitin Mfism 209 It will have been seen from the earlier part of this Report that American working-class tenants are liable to no direct taxation, the tax on real estate, which forms the main source of municipal revenue, being always, and the water rate in nearly every case, paid by the landlord, whatever the ultimate incidence of these charges may be. From the tax on personalty working-class tenants are, as a rule, exempt. In the United States, as in England and Wales, therefore, the rent paid by them is, as regards rates and taxes, an inclusive charge, and to this extent comparison on the basis of expenditure is free from complication. In this comparison of rents, weekly figures have been quoted, but it should be observed that in the United States rents are generally paid monthly and not weekly. The differences shown throughout the Table are great and the most usual minimum figure in the United States exceeds the maximum in England and Wales for dwellings of the same size in no case by less than 2s. 3d. per week, and in one case by 5s. 3d. It will be observed that the ratios of the mean predominant rents in the United States towns are considerably higher as compared with England and Wales in the case of dwellings of larger size, the mean of the ratios for five-roomed and six-roomed dwellings being 216 "5 as compared with 202-5 for those of three and four rooms. The disparity is apparently connected with the tendency to which attention has been drawn for the standard of accommodation in the United States to improve markedly, especially in the case of dwelMngs occupied by the more highly paid industrial classes, and for the modern dwellings to be not only more highly rented but to contain more rooms. A further basis of comparison of rents as between the two countries is afforded by taking the mean of the various predominant ranges and comparing the average rent per room for the whole series. By this method the weekly rent per room in the United States is found to be 2s. 7id.,* as compared with Is. 3d. in England and Wales, equivalent to a ratio of 210:100. In the above comparisons the several predominant rents stated are founded in each case neither on all the towns visited nor on the same towns, since ranges of dwellings of the various sizes shown in the Table were not obtainable in all towns. An alternative comparison may be made by re-working all the index numbers for the rents of the American towns to the basis used for the towns of England and Wales, viz., rents in the Middle Zone of London, that is, a very extended area, the inner bound- aries of which are about two miles from the centre of London and the outer limits about four miles from that centre. This has been done in the following Table: — Bents Index Numhers in Descending Order. London (Middle Zone) = 100. Town. New York . . St. Louis Pittsburg — Memphis.... Cincmnati. . Brockton . . . Boston Birmingham Newark Index Number. 160 159 151 150 145 136 132 130 128 Town. Philadelphia Minneapolis-St. Paul Atlanta New Orleans Savannah Chicago Louisville Milwaukee Lawrence Index Number. 127 123 122 115 114 114 113 108 106 Town. Cleveland.. Paterson. . . Providence Detroit Augusta . . . Fall River. Baltimore.. Lowell Muncie Index Number. 102 99 96 94 93 90 85 84 71 93294^8. Doc. 22, 62- Cf. pp. xxii and xlix. jlxii GENERAL BEPORT. The mean index number on the above basis (of the rents of the Middle Zone of London) for all the towns investigated in England and Wales is 56.2; for the above American towns 116.6. The ratio of the American to the English mean is thus 207 : 100, about the same as the mean ratio of the predominant rents for each class of dwelling and as that obtained by comparing the general aver- age per room as given above. This ratio will be taken as representing the level of rents for working- class urban dwellings in the United States as compared with the level of such rents in England and Wales. ^^ Although a difference is shown in the above Table amounting to no less than 89 points, the high prevailing range is a marked feature of the Table and in only eight cases, including none of the larger towns save Detroit and Baltimore, does the rents index number fall below that of the Middle Zone of London. New York heads the list with an index number of 160 and the separate figure for the bor- ough of Manhattan, 175, would show a still higher excess over that of the Middle Zone of London. The corresponding figure for Brooklyn is 141. Applying the comparison to Philadelphia and Balti- more, two towns in which the housing conditions approximate somewhat closely to those of England and Wales, inasmuch as the more usual type of working-class dwelling is for single families and brick- built, the ratios show that in the former town the tenant might expect to have to pay 27 per cent, more rent than in the Middle Zone of London; whereas in Baltimore, well-known as one of the cheaper towns of the States, he would probably pay 15 per cent. less. The three zones into which London was divided show, however, a range of from 86 in the case of the Outer Zone, including certain areas of Greater London lying outside the County, to 118 in that of the Central Zone, the Middle Zone, being taken as 100. These three zones were again sub-divided and the parts show a range from a minimum of 79 in certain outlying north-eastern parts — largely residential industrial neighbourhoods and "dormitories" for London itself — to a maximum of 125 in the western portion of the Central Zone. A further basis of comparison is thus afforded, and Muncie is the only American town in which rents were found to fall below any portion of the whole of the London area, while in ten towns at the other end of the scale the range o'f rentals exceeded those of the most expensively rented district of London, that is, the western portion of the Central Zone, by from 2 points in the case of Philadelphia to 35 points in that of New York as a whole, or 50 points in that of the borough of Manhattan. With regard to the other towns in England and Wales, Croydon and Plymouth and Devon- port, with index numbers of 81, and Newcastle-on-Tyne with one of 76, are the solitary examples out of the 73 towns in which rents were investigated in which the index numbers exceed those for the lowest-rented town in the United States Table, and Muncie, with the exceptionally low index num- ber of 71, is the only town in which the level falls below those of the English towns just mentioned. In order to illustrate other important Enghsh comparisons that may be made with the United States figures, some of the index numbers for the great centres of population in England and Wales may be quoted, such as Liverpool 65, or just under half the Boston figure; Manchester and Salford 62, a little less than half of that Philadelphia; Birmingham, Bradford and Cardiff 59; Leeds and Nottingham 56; Sheffield 55; Bristol 53, or about 38 per cent, lower than that of Baltimore; and, finally, the index number for Hull, Leicester, Norwich and Preston, which is 48, or just half the representative figure for Providence. The explanation of the higher rentals in the American towns investigated must be looked for in various directions, but principally in the higher cost of building as expressed by labour and mate- rials, in the more generous allowance of ground space per dwelling, except m congested areas, in the more modem character of a greater proportion of the fittings and conveniences of the dwelling, as illustrated by the more frequent provision of bathrooms, in a higher general level of material pros- perity that is able effectively to demand such increasing variety and completeness of accommoda- tion, and in the shorter life that is expected from the individual dwellings. From what has been said as to the modern character of much of the accommodation provided in American dwellings it follows that the elementary requirements of water and of a water-carriage sew- erage system are, as m this country, generally found. The exceptions rarely appertain to towns COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Lxui as a whole, pronounced sanitary defects being more common in particular quarters of towns, some- times consisting of older and deteriorated properties, as in part of St. Louis, and sometimes in newer districts of the more rapidly extending cities where building has outrun the sewerage and water systems of the locality, as in parts of Duluth. Save in such exceptions as those mentioned, especially in respect to the greater extent to which h(^ses in multiple occupation are found, and in the unusual extent to which, in some foreign districts largely frequented by more recent immigrants, the boarder or the lodger class tends to create over- crowded conditions, the greatest comparative defects of the American dwelHng and of its surroundings are largely normal to an earher stage of urban development, and consist not in their internal arrange- ments and sanitary standard but in an external bareness frequently noticeable; in the absence of gardens even when, as is common, building plots are spacious; in unmade roads, and in an irregular and ragged development that impresses, even more than in l^ngland and Wales, often with a sense of incompleteness and sometimes with that of private carelessness and administrative neglect. The rental figures obtained in the United States are, as stated, for February 1909 and the ques- tion arises as to how far these may be comparable with the rentals for England and Wales collected for October, 1905. No exact answer can be given to this question, but there is a considerable amount of evidence to show that if the American figures had been collected for February, 1907, that is for a period two years earlier than that actually selected, they would have shown in many places a somewhat higher level, inasmuch as the industrial depression which followed the financial crisis of October, 1907, and continued throughout the following year led to a decline on the levels reached during the preceding period of prosperity and active immigration. Taking into account the further fact that, even in the United States, rents do not move on a latge and general scale rapidly, it seems highly improbable that any possible variations due to the different dates at which the particulars were collected in the two countries would affect appreciably the general comparisons presented. It is believed, therefore, that for practical purposes the ratio given above of 207 : 100 may be taken as representing with approxi- mate accuracy the level of rents paid by the working classes in the United States and England and Wales respectively. Ketail Food Prices. The predominant prices paid in February, 1909, for various articles of food by the working classes in the 28 towns investigated in the United States have been set out in the Table on page xxix. In certain cases, including the principal articles of consumption, and representing about 61 per cent, of the cost of all articles that enter into the ordinary household expenditure for food in the American- British (Northern) Budget and about 66 per cent, for those enumerated in that of the United Kingdom, a comparison is possible as between American and Enghsh prices. In some cases the rise in the prices of articles which it is thus possible to compare, including that which has taken place in the period subsequent to February, 1909, has attracted much attention in recent years both in the United States and in many other countries, and the percentage increase in several of the commodities in the United States has been very marked. Various explanations of this increase are offered, some internal and others of more general significance, but it would be irrele- vant to attempt to discuss in this Eeport either their individual or their relative importance. It is, however, pertinent to draw special attention to the general tendency that has been manifested in the United States for prices of agricultural food produce to advance rapidly from the comparatively low level that prevailed in that country even ten years ago. In most of these cases internal conditions have made the range of prices of meat and dairy produce in the United States somewhat higher than that of England and Wales, but the most significant fact with regard to the relative prices of meat as between the two countries is not so much that they are now on the whole, very slightly higher than in England, but that there has been a large advance from the relatively low level at which they stood only a few years ago. It is with this low internal level of comparatively recent years that domestic comparisons in the United States are almost inva- riably and naturally made. Ixiv GENERAL EEPOET. The comparisons of retail prices of food as between the United States and England and Wales, made possible by the present enquiry, are set out in the following Table : — Predominant Retail Prices in England and Wales and m the United States. Commodity. Predominant Range of Retail Prices. England and Wales (October, 1905). United States (February, 1909). Ratio of Mean Predominant Price in the United States (February, 1909) to that in Eng- land and Wales (October, 1905), taken as 100. Sugar per lb, Cheese " Butter " I Potatoes per 7 lb. Flour Bread per 4 lb. Milk per quart. Beef per lb. •I Mutton " I Pork Bacon " 2d. Id. Is. to Is. Id.* Is. 2rf.t 2\d. to Z\d. 8rf. 4irf. Zd. 7id. 5d. 7Jrf. 4rf. 7id. 7d. lOd. ' 5irf. ' Ad. '■ 8Kt 6rf.* 9d.X ■5d.* Sid. M. 2id., 3d. lOd. Is. Ad. to \s. 5irf. bid. " 8irf. \\\d. "Is. \\d. lOfrf. " UK A\d. " 4K I 6rf. " 8d. I 6id. " Sid. bid. " 7\d. 8irf. " lOrf. 144 143 126 233 139 223 129 104 116 81 116 * Colonial or Foreign. t Danish. % British or Home-killed. The predominant prices in the above Table for England and Wales are taken from the Table on p. xxiii. of the Report on "Cost of Living of the Working Classes" in the United Kingdom. , In the case of beef and mutton it has been again thought sufficient, as in the other foreign enquiries, to take the mean of the predominant prices of "British or home-killed" and "Colonial or foreign" meat as being typical of the prices paid by the British working classes; the exact proportion of "Colonial or for- eign" meat consumed by the working classes is not known, but it almost certainly exceeds 40 per cent. The price of "Colonial or foreign" butter has been combined with that of "Danish." It is not possible to bring up to date the individual English prices stated in the foregoing Table, but records of retail prices in London are available and form a sufficient index of the general course of prices in this country. So far as the items shown above are concerned, the retail prices in London in February,1909, as compared with October, 1905, showed an advance of 10 per cent, in the price of cheese, 17 per cent, in flour, 8 per cent, ia bread, 6 per cent, in British beef and 12 per cent, in foreign beef; the prices of potatoes, milk, foreign mutton and pork were the same at the two periods, while those of sugar, butter, British mutton and bacon were respectively 7, 2, 7 and 3 per cent, lower at the later date. Taken as a whole, these figures, after due allowance for the varying degrees of importance of the articles included has been made, indicate that retail food prices were 3 or 4 per cent, higher in England and Wales in February, 1909, than they were in October, 1905. An examination of .the Table shows that the prices in the United States that most nearly approxi- mate, at the respective dates to which the prices apply, to those of England and Wales relate to beef, mutton, bacon and pork, which were, respectively, in the first case 4 per cent., in the next two cases 16 per cent, higher and in the last case 19 per cent, lower than in this country, pork thus affording a soHtary example in the Table of a lower price level in the United States. In regard to the other items, a great disparity is shown, as a rule, as between American and English prices, the general features of which are unaffected by any difference that may be traceable to the different period to which the actual figures of the Table refer. The greatest differences are shown in the case of potatoes (which were the same price in London in February, 1909, as in October, 1905), and bread (which was 8 per cent, dearer), American prices being in both these cases more than double those of England and Wales. As will be seen later, the consumption of potatoes per family, as shown by the American budgets, is somewhat greater than that shown by the budgets of the United Kingdom, and the difference in price has, therefore, an increased effect upon family expenditure. In the case of bread, the effect is not so great, inasmuch as the average consumption of bread in the shape of the bought COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. IxV loaf is not much more than a third of that shown in the budgets collected in the United Kingdom (8i lb. as compared with 22 lb.), the difference in price being thus, in the case of the American consumer, of correspondingly diminished importance. The quantities are, mdeed, such as to leave the average total weekly expenditure for baker's bread, without taking into account bread substitutes, at a some- what lower figure in the American budget than in that of the United Kingdom, in spite of the fact that the price of bread is more than double. The five items not as yet referred to — sugar, cheese, flour, milk and butter — show excesses ranging from 44 down to 26 per cent. Had the figures for both countries been given for February, 1909, the differences shown would have been slightly greater in the case of sugar and butter; less in the case of cheese and flour, and unaltered in the case of milk. In the last case, therefore, the difference in favour of England and Wales may be put at Id. per quart or 29 per cent. The other items in which relative prices were unaltered as between October, 1905, and February, 1909, were potatoes, for which the mean price per 7 lb. in the United States was 7d. as compared with 3d. in England and Wales or an excess of 133 per cent.; and pork, for which the mean prices were Q^d. in the United States and 8d. in England and Wales or an advantage to the American consumer in this case of 19 per cent. In the comparisons made so far no account had been taken of the difference in the quantities of the various commodities that are consumed, either in an average working-class family in the same country or in similar families in both countries. Internal comparisons in the cost of living in the United Kingdom were arrived at by comparing the cost, in the various towns investigated, of maintaining what had been found by investigation to represent, as regards food, an average standard of living in British working-class families. Thus, the measurable quantities that made up this standard having been ascertained and local predominant prices having been obtained, variations in the local cost of living were calculated by seeing how much it would cost in the different towns investigated to purchase the quantities of meat, bread, butter, sugar, &c. included in the average budget. Within the borders of a single country in which approximately similar habits of housekeeping prevail, and in which approximately similar commodities are consumed and procurable, this method answers well. It becomes, however, less satisfactory when applied to different countries, partly because the range of comparable commodities tends to be narrowed down; because national differences in the practice of housekeeping, as, for instance, in marketing, in cooking and in thriftiness, tend to obscure the issue; and because the assimaption, well founded in the case of a single country, that general domestic housekeeping habits will as a rule persist no matter in what town the family is living, becomes weaker when different countries are concerned. It is obvious, for instance, that, when a person changes one country for another, even though the same commodities may be obtainable in both countries, differences in local custom, in climate, in the varying importance or attractiveness of alternative com- modities, and in other ways, may affect domestic habits and weaken the power or the desire to adhere to a past dietary. Thus, if the quantities shown in the average British working-class dietary be taken and the ques- tion be asked what would it cost the same family to maintain the same dietary in another country, it is clear that the influence of environment and the tendency to conform to changed conditions can- not be allowed for in the answer. The test is insular in character and to that extent defective. On the other hand, if predominant prices have been obtained for the two countries under comparison, and the problem be to determine what it would cost an average family in one country to maintain an accepted standard of living at the prices prevailing in another country, the hypothetical basis of any such calculation is manifest. Defects and limitations of this kind are, in fact, inherent in any attempt to compare international and to some extent even internal local conditions as regards industrial and social standards, and they are indicated here in order that the following comparisons may be inter- preted and apphed with as clear a conception as possible of the assumptions they involve and the elements of the problem of adjustment and adaptation to which they necessarily fail to give due weight. The following Table shows the comparative cost in the two countries of the articles in the average British budget for which comparative prices can be given and the adjustment which the difference of date requires. The adjustment has been made by applying to the costs stated (in the penultimate column of the Table) for each commodity the percentage changes indicated for that commodity on page Ixiv. Ixvi GENERAL EEPOET. Cost of the Average British Working-man's Budget {excluding commodities for which comparative prices cannot he given) at the Predominant Prices paid hy the Working Classes of (1) England and Wales and {2) the United States. Commodity. Quantity in Average British Budget. Predominant Range of Retail Prices. England and Wales (October, 1905). United States (February, 1909). Cost in Pence of Quantity in Column 2. England and wales United States. Sugar Cheese... Butter. . . Potatoes . Flour.... Bread MUk Beef Mutton. . Pork Bacon. .. 5Jlb. Jib. 2 1b. 17 1b. 101b. 22 1b. 5qts. 4ilb. lilb. ilb. li lb. 2d. per lb. Td. per lb. Is. IJd per lb.* 2id. to Z^d. per 7 lb. 8d. " lOd. per 7 lb. 4J(f. " 5idper41b. Zd. " 4c?. per qt. 6id. per Ib.f 6id. per lb. t 7id. to Sid. per 11 7d. " 9(f. per lb. lb. 2frf., Zd. per lb. lOd. per lb. Is. 4d. to Is. 5id. per lb. 5id. " 8i(i. per 7 lb. Hid. to Is. lid. per 7 lb. lOfrf. " ll^rf. per 4 lb. 4id. " iid. per qt. 6d. to 8d. per lb. 6irf. " 8id. per lb. bid. " 7 id. per lb. 8id. " 10(i. perlb. d. lOi 5i 26i 7i 12} 27i 17i 30i 9i 4 12 d. 15} 7i 33i 17 17i 61} 22i Sli 11 3} 14 Total Cost of the Above. 163i 234J T„^„^ M,„v,v,<..= /England and Wales, Oct., 1905; United States, Feb., 1909. maex JNumDers ^Adjusted for Feb., 1909 100 100 143 138 *Mean of Colonial or "Foreign'' and Danish. t Mean of British or Home-killed and of Foreign or Colonial. According to the Table it appears that the EngUsh housewife would have had to pay 234:id. at Amer- ican prices for the same quantities of those articles of food which cost at English prices in October, 1905, IQS^d., or as adjusted to the prices of February, 1909, about IGQ^d.; her weekly expenditure in the United States would thus be raised on the adjusted prices about 5s. 5d. per week, or 38 per cent. Of this total increase, however, about 2s. l^d. is due to the much higher price of baker's bread in the United States, an item that, as has been seen, does not enter largely into the workman's budget in that country. The explanation of more than half of the balance of the difference is found in the comparative costs of potatoes, in which the excess in the United States would be equivalent to an expenditure of about Q^d. per week, and of butter, in which the corresponding excess would be about 7id. per week. Allowing for the adjusted prices as between the two countries, beef, mutton, pork and bacon combined would have cost about l^d. more in the United States. The hst of commodities is not exhaustive, but on the basis of comparison adopted it is sufficiently complete to give a fairly accurate indication of the difference in the cost of food in the two countries, although the over-weighting of the comparative index numbers by bread is in itself a defect. The most important of the items omitted is tea, which is dearer in the United States than in England— Is. 8d. to 2s. S^d. per lb. in February, 1909, as compared with Is. id. to Is. 8d. in October, 1905 — but which is supplanted there, as in Germany, France and Belgium, by coffee as the customary domestic beverage. Coffee, for which no predominant price is available for England, is relatively cheap in the United States as compared with tea, the predominant price being from lOd. to Is. O^d. per lb. It has, therefore, been thought fairer to omit tea in arriving at a comparative cost at American prices of the average British budget. The other most important items omitted are fish and vegetables, for neither of which can any useful basis of comparison be obtained, and eggs, which have been also regarded as non-comparable because of the variety of brand and quaUty. In the articles omitted there is, however, nothing that further weakens the figures given in the Table, and the ratio of 138 : 100 will, therefore, be taken as giving, with reasonable accuracy, the ratio of the cost of food in the average British working-man's budget at American prices, as compared with its cost at English prices in February, 1909. The above index numbers represent the change in family expenditure that would result if either in the United States or in England an average British workman's family continued to purchase the main articles of food to which it was accustomed, and paid American prices for them, leaving out of question either the power or the desire to adjust expenditure to any new channels by which changed price conditions might be accompanied. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixvii Useful and suggestive though the above index numbers are, it is highly important, as has been already emphasized, to realise exactly what they mean and the limitations of their meaning. Their significance will be made more evident if the converse calculation is set out, namely, as to what the average American workman, as reflected in the budgets analysed on pages xliv-lv, woiild have to pay if he purchased the commodities set out in the above Table, in the quantities shown to be ordinarily consumed in the United States, at English prices as compared with American. This question is answered in the following Table : — Cost of the average American Working-man's Budget {excluding commodities for which comparative prices cannot he given) at the Predominant Prices paid hy the Working Classes of (1) England and Wales and (2) the United States. Commodity. Quantity in Average American* Budget. Predominant Range of Retail Prices. Cost in Pence of Quantity in Column 2. England and Wales (October, 1905). United States (February, 1909). England and Wales. United States. 5ilb. ilb. 2 1b. 211b. lOi lb. 8ilb. 5J qts. 6ilb. 11 lb. 2ilb. IJlb. 2d. per lb. 7d. per lb. Is. lid. per Ib.t 2id. to3Jd.per71b. 8d. „ 10d.per71b. 4id. „ 5id.per41b. 3d. , , 4d. per qt. 6|d. perlb.J 6|d. per lb.:: 7Jd. to 8Jd. per lb. 7d. ,, 9d. per lb. 2|d.,3d. perlb. lOd. per lb. Is. 4d. tols. 5Jd. perlb. 5|d. „ Sid. per 7 lb. Hid. to Is. lid. per 7 lb. lOid. „ Hid. per 4 lb. 4id. ,, 4}d. perqt. 6d. ,, 8d. per lb. 6id. „ 8id. perlb. 5id. „ 7id. perlb. 8id. „ lOd. perlb. d. lOi 3i 26i 9 13i lOi 18i 45i 8 18 14 d. 15 CliGese 5 33i "Potatoes .. 21 Flour 18i Bread 23 Milk 24 Beef . 47i Pork 14| 16i Total ^"ot "f t^o A Virnro _ 177i 227} ■NT T,„ /England and Wales, ^N"™^«^nAdjustedforFeb.,i9 Oct., 1905; 09 United States, Feb., i L909 100 100 128 Inde3 125 * i. e. American-British (Northern). t Mean of Colonial or "Foreign" and Danish. j Mean of British or Home-killed and of Foreign or Colonial. The total cost of the average food budget at English prices adjusted to February, 1909, is about 182id., or 3s. 8id. less than that for the same articles and quantities if bought at American prices. In comparing the quantities shown ia the second column in the two Tables, it will be observed that the only considerable differences shown are in the case of bread, beef and pork; while as between the last and penultimate columns in the two Tables, there is, save in the three cases mentioned, a striking uniformity, either in the amounts themselves or ui the ratios, or in both of these. In the case of bread the amount consumed by the average British family costs about 2s. 5ld. at adjusted English prices and 5s. lid. at American prices, whereas the amount consumed by the average American famUy costs only about lid. at adjusted English prices and Is. lid. at American prices — a difference on the last amount of 3s. 2id. In addition to the omission from the Table of tea, coffee, fish, vegetables and eggs, for the various reasons stated, the most important additional item which cannot be compared but which enters appre- ciably into the American average budget is that of bread substitutes in the shape of cakes, biscuits, rolls, &c. These represent nearly 4^ per cent, of the average total expenditure on food, and per capita an expenditure about three times as great as shown in the average British budget. The ratio of the total cost of the articles of food enumerated in the Table at American prices to their cost at English prices is 128 : 100, or, adjusted to February, 1909, as in the preceding Table, as 125 : 100 as compared with 138 : 100 in the case of the quantities of the same articles as specified in the British budget when a similar calculation is made. Of the two ratios, that framed upon the constituent quantities of the average British budget may be regarded as more directly concerning the working-class consumer in this country, and 138 : 100 wiQ, therefore, as already stated, be taken as representing from his point of view the relative levels of the cost of food in the United States and in England and Wales in February, 1909. Ixviii GENERAL EEPOET. Budgets. In Part I. of the General Eeport and on pages Ixxxi-xc and 404-423 particulars are given of certain composite budgets constructed from the returns of household income and expenditure obtained in the towns investigated. The analyses there shown have proceeded always on the basis of race or nation- ality and LQ four cases on that of area, a broad sub-division as between North and South having been made in the case of the American-British budgets (including those of American-bom families and families of which the heads were born in the United Kingdom and Canada) and the Negro budgets. In addition to these four groups other composite budgets were given for German, Scandinavian, South European and Slavonic groups, as well as for families which, as regards wage-earners, were representative of the Jewish communities, this budget being derived mainly from the budgets of Eus- sian Jews and others of Eastern Europe. A small group of American (Southern) budgets was added, illustrative of the circumstances of "broken families." (See p. xliv.) The task of obtaining an adequate representation of the habits of domestic expenditure over so varied a field as that indicated above has been accomplished completely neither in any single case nor with an equal degree of completeness in all cases. The results for the various income classes in each group, however, show a general coherence as regards, for instance, the average earnings of hus- bands and the supplementary earnings of children, the average rents paid per family and amount spent on food, and the percentages of total expenditure spent on these two items, indicating that approxi- mately correct general results have been in all cases obtained. The warning given in the preceding Eeports of this series must, however, be repeated, that any figures derived from the general averages of the various composite budgets would be misleading as regards both internal conditions and international comparisons. In the collection of the various series of budgets, both in the United Kingdom and in foreign countries, no limit of income was fixed, and, while budgets were especially sought and always obtained in by far the largest numbers from families that might be termed normal, the returns from families in which the supplementary earnings were large were accepted if in other respects they were con- sistent, and represented working-class conditions. In spite of the care exercised in the collection of data, it cannot be assumed that the budgets show the various income classes in their correct proportions in any of the countries investigated. The statistical basis for determining those pro- portions does not, indeed, exist, and thus, as between country and country, recourse has necessarily been had to a basis of comparison that is, after aU, more instructive than general comparisons would be — were such available — namely, that of selected representative income classes. The composite nationality budget groups furnished by the American enquiry are, however, rele- vant in different degrees to what has been already described as one of the main objects of the present enquiry, namely, the comparison of conditions between the United Kingdom and the United States, and in the following pages reference will be made almost solely to the American-British (Northern) budget of which special mention has been already made. This budget is based upon returns obtained from the whole field of inquiry, exclusive of the six southern towns; it is based upon the largest body of data and thus from this point of view is the most rehable and satisfactory; and at the same time it represents sections of the population of the United States whose dietaries are likely to be most com- parable with those of the home population. The actual composition of this budget, afterwards referred to as the American budget, both as regards nationalities and occupations, has been already described and various further analytical particulars concerning it are also given in Part I. of this General Eeport. When, however, the task of comparison is thus narrowed as between the budgets for the United Kingdom and this American group, difficulties supervene that have been either absent or less seri«us in the case of the preceding Board of Trade enquiries, since the comparison of a series of classes formed on the basis of a common range of incom'e is impossible. In the case of Germany, France and Belgium the classes with incomes under 25s. and of 40s. or over per week were omitted in the international comparisons, the classes selected for this purpose being those with incomes of 25s. and under 30s.; of 30s. and under 35s. ; and of 35s. and under 40s. While, however, in the United Kingdom about 70 per cent, of all the budgets collected were of famUies with incomes less than 40s. per week, of those collected in the United States for aU nationaUties COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. Ixix (and not for the American budget alone, in which the corresponding figure is a Httle over two per cent.) less than four per cent, fell within this range, and while in the United Kmgdom about hah the budgets were of families with incomes under 35s. per week, in the United States the number falling beneath this figure is almost negligible, comprising only 1.4 per cent, of the whole and therefore too small a number to form a separate uicome class. The difference, if not of standard at least of nominal range of income, as between the two countries, and not only as regards the American budget itself, is manifest, and although it cannot be concluded on the basis of this negative evidence that incomes of less than 35s. per week are insufficient to maintaia an ordinary family under American urban conditions, it is at least probable that families maintaining a position of independence upon an income below this sum are excep- tional. It may be noted in this coimexion (1) that ia the recent enquiry into the standard of living of working-class families in New York City, made under the Russell Sage Foundation, the opinion (from the American standpoint) is expressed that an average of less than 48s. per week does not provide the necessary minimum for a normal famUy of five living in that city; and (2) that, as appears on page xvi, the predominant ranges of wages throughout the whole field of the present enquiry for hod carriers and bricklayers' labouerers were from 50s. to 68s. 9d. per week; and those for labourers in the engineering trades from 37s. Qd. to 43s. 9d. per week. In the Americam budget it will be observed that the average weekly income per family in the lowest income class, "under £2," is 36s. The points in connexion with which budget comparisons have been especially attempted in the previous investigations have been (a) as regards the percentage of income spent on all food (exclusive of alcohol); (&) the percentage of income spent on similar items of food in both countries; and (c) the quantities consumed and amounts spent on similar items. The pages immediately following will be concerned with these three bases of comparison. The percentage spent on food in the various income classes in the United Kingdom ranges from 67.35 to 57.01, or from 66.18 to 61.04 if we exclude the lowest income class (under 25s.) and the highest income class (40s. and over), which, although numerically the most important among the budgets collected, comprises the largest proportion of supplementary wage-earners. The figures for the United States are very different and range, for the eight income classes into which the budgets have been divided, from 51.39 to 28.40 per cent., or from 47.62 to 37.78, omitting the lowest income class and the three highest classes in which (as in the highest income class in the United Kingdom), the supplementary wage-earner is largely represented. The comparative position may be set out in tabular form as follows : — Expenditure on Food. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Average Weekly Family Income. Average Number of Children living at home. Expenditure on Food (excluding Wine, Beer and Spirits). Average amount. Percentage of income. United Kingdom. 25s. and under 30s 30s. - " 35s 35«. " 40s 26s. llfrf. 31s. UK 36s. Gid. 17s. lOJrf. 20s. 9irf. 22s. 34^. 66.18 65.04 61.04 United States. ^•2 ariH nndpr £3 51s. Oid. 69s. lOd. 88s. 5d. 107s. 3d. 2.06 2.46 2.88 3.07 24s. 3id. 30s. lOd. 36s. 5d. 40s. 6id. 47.62 £Q " £4 44.15 £4 " £5 41.19 £5 " £6 37.78 A point in the foregoing Tables which at once attracts attention is the much greater difference that is shown between the various famUy incomes in the two countries than between the amounts actually spent on food, and consequently the much greater margin of income available in the American group after expenses for all food (other than alcohol) have been met. Ixx GENERAL EEPORT. Before attempting to examine the significance of this point, it will be convenient to proceed to the second and third of the three bases of comparison noted on the preceding page, namely, the pro- portionate amounts spent on similar items of food, and actual consumption. In comparing the proportionate expenditure on various items of food in the two countries, and ascertaining thereby in which direction in every 100 shillings spent purchases are similar and dissimilar in the two countries, a general comparison of the percentage of the total family food bill spent per family and'per capita on the articles that make up the domestic food budget has been prepared and is shown in the foUowmg Table. The particulars are for 1904 and 1909, respectively, and in the interval price levels have changed slightly (compare p. Lxiv.). There is, however, no reason to suppose that the respective percentages shown would have been appreciably affected thereby. Percentage per Family of Total Food BiU and Proportions per Capita spent on Certain Articles. Per Family. Per Capita. Food Items. United Kingdom, 1904 (5'.6 per- sons). United States, 1909 (4.92 per- sons) . Difference [(+)or (-)m United Kingdom]. United Kingdom, 1904. United States, 1909. Difference [(+)or (-)m United Kingdom]. Bread and Flour 15.92 1.83 28.43 4.44 5.65 2.41 1.99 9.44 4.07 5.09 5.00 1.39 4.35 2.40 1.20 6.39 10.66 4.37 28.03 6.00 5.42 1.17 2.27 7.46 4.72 12. 18* 1.98 3.09 3.44 0.47* 0.70 8.04 +5.26 -2.54 +0.40 -1.56 +0.23 +1.24 -0.28 +1.98 -0.65 -7.09 +3.02 -1.70 +0.91 +1.93 +0.50 -1.65 2.84 0.33 5.08 0.79 1.01 0.43 0.36 1.68 0.73 0.91 0.89 0.25 0.78 0.43 0.21 1.14 2.17 0.89 5.70 1.22 1.10 0.24 0.46 1.52 0.96 2.47* 0.40 0.63 0.70 0.10* 0.14 1.63 +0.67 -0.56 Meat Hacon and Fish. . -0.62 -0.43 Fresh Milk. ... -0.09 +0.19 Lardj Suet, Dripping -0.10 Butter +0.16 Potatoes Other Vegetables and Fruits (including Dried Fruit) Tea -0.23 -1.56 +0.49 -0.38 Sugar . . +0.08 +0.33 Pickles and Condiments +0.07 —0 49 Other Items t 100. 00 100. 00 17.86 20.33 —2.47 * Jam has been grouped with fruits in the American budgets, but the consumption of jam in the United States is not large, t Including meals away from home. It will be observed that the average number of persons in the American budgets is 0.68 less than in those of the United Kingdom. Exact comparison in respect to age and proportionate contribution made to the family income by the children as between the American budgets and those of the United Kingdom is not possible, but the data available show that in these respects there is a general similarity. The actual amounts spent on food per capita in each income class in the two sets of returns are as follows :— Average Food BiU per Capita. United Kingdom. United States. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Average Food Bill per Capita. Limits pf Weekly Family Income. Average Food Bill per Capita. Under 25s. 25s. and under 30s. 30s. " 35s. 35s. " 40s. 40s. and over. 2s. did. 3s. iid. 4s. Od. 4s. lid. 4s. 7id. Unde £2 and £3 £4 £5 £6 £7 £8ai ;r£2. under £3. £4. £5. £6. £7. £8. id over. 4s. lOid. 5s. Hid. 6s. 9ic;. 7s. 3d. 7s. Sid. 7s. lOid. 8s. iid. 9s. 2id. COMPARISON WITH BRITISH TOWNS. « Ixxi Reverting to the preceding Table, it will be observed that marked and important mstances of divergent proportions spent on the different items as between the two sets of budgets are found, on the one hand, in the cases of bread and flour and tea, in which much larger percentages are shown as being spent in the British home, and, on the other hand, m those of vegetables and fruit, cakes and rolls, &c., and coffee, in which a lower percentage is spent. Genuine differences in national habits are thus reflected, more bread and fewer bread substitutes being consumed in the United Kingdom than in the United States; tea and not coffee being the British national domestic beverage; and canned vegetables entermg much less into the national dietary in this country than in the United States. If the percentages of bread, flour and bread substitutes be added together the total is 17.75 for the British and 15.03 for the American budget, showmg an excess of only 2.72 in the former case. A few other differences may be noted. Thus in every 100s. expended for food as shown by the budgets for the United Kingdom, nearly 2s. more would be spent in butter, about Is. 3d. more in cheese, and about lid. more in sugar. On the other hand, according to the American budgets the total expendi- ture on eggs of 6 per cent, represents an excess of about Is. 7d. But, with the possible excep- tion of bread and flour and vegetables and fruits, the general similarities shown in the two sets of percentages are far more striking than the diiferences. In the case of fresh milk and meat of all kinds, including fish, the percentages are almost identical; for the last -item about 28s. in every 100s. being absorbed in both series of budgets. When the various meats are analysed certain differences in relative quantities consumed appear, although as regards beef, the most important item of aU, the proportions are very similar, that is, something less than one-half of all meat in both cases. The consumption of mutton and lamb (in the United States the distinction between mutton and lamb is not consistently made in the retail trade) shows on the other hand a great difference, a much larger proportion be^pg consumed in the United Kingdom than in the United States. The general quality of mutton is markedly superior in this country. Bacon accounts for about 17 per cent, of the meat consumption as shown in the budgets collected in the United Kingdom, and pork for only 6 per cent. ; whereas in the American budgets the proportions are reversed, being 12 per cent, for bacon, ham, &c., and 16 per cent, for pork, or for the two items combined about 23 per cent, and 28 per cent, in the respective countries. Other meat, including tinned meats, tripe, &c., thus accounts for some- thing over 10 per cent, in the budgets of the United Kingdom. In the American budget the analysis shows for veal and sausage 6 and 5 per cent, respectively in each case of all meat consumed, and for poultry — an item that in earlier investigations has appeared appreciably only in the French working- class dietaries — approximately 5 per cent. In general, however, as regards the direction in which that part of the family income which is spent on food is concerned, a marked similarity of general practice is shown as between the United States and the United Kingdom. FinaUy, the more difficult and more important comparison must be attempted of absolute and not relative consumption of different articles of food, or, when quantitative comparison is impossible, of the actual amount spent. It is in this connexion that the disparities in total family income in the two countries present special difficulty, since the most instructive comparisons would necessarily be as between groups of famiUes with approximately similar incomes. There are, it is true, two income classes included in the budgets of the two countries in which the average incomes are almost the same. In the United Kingdom the famiUes with incomes of 35s. and under 40s., and those with 40s. and over per week, with average incomes of 36s. 6id. and 52s. O^d. respectively, compare very closely so far as these averages are concerned with those in the two lowest income classes in the American budgets, namely 36s. and 51s. O^d. The adoption of these two classes, and these two alone, for detailed comparison is open, however, to serious drawbacks. In the first place, in the case of the United Kingdom, the two classes of famihes with the highest incomes would have been chosen and in the United States the two lowest income classes, one very small, comprising only 67 budgets and largely composed of general labourers and workpeople of indefinite occupations, and the other showing an average for the husband's earnings that still leaves it, as a whole, within the range of the remuneration of unskiUed labour. Further a comparison based solely on these two sets of budgets would be inadequate owing to the composition of the families in the various classes, those in the United Kingdom having an average of 3.4 and 4.4 children hving at home, yielding in the former class some, and in Ixxii GENERAL REPORT. the latter large, supplementary earnings, while those in the United States have averages of 1.78 and 2.06 children, with the father in both classes practically the sole support of the family. The inadequacy of a comparison based solely on the above income classes is brought out more clearly in the following Table showing the composition of the above families and the average weekly expenditure on food per family and per capita. Table I. (A) United King- dom. United States. (B) United King- dom. United States. Limits of Weekly Family Income Average Weekly Family Income Average No. of Persons per Family ^ Average Weekly Expenditure for all Food (exclusive of alcohol) per Family. Ditto per capita 35s. to 40s. 36s. &\d. 5.4 22s. Z^d. is. \\d. Under 40s. 36s. 3.78 18s. M. 4s. lOjd 40s. and over. 52s. Oid. 6.4 29s. 8(f. 4s. lid. 40s. to 60s. 51s. 0\d. 4.08 24s. ^d. 5s. lljrf. It will be observed that the amounts spent on food in the American families, although considerably less in both cases, provide for a greater weekly expenditure fer capita of Q\d. and Is. 3fd. in the two income classes. In the above cases the selected families have total weekly incomes that are approximately equal, but a more suitable basis of comparison of food consumed in the two countries is provided by certain income classes in which the amount actually spent on food weekly is almost the same. -A table corre- sponding to the preceding one is given, illustrating some of the points of similarity and dissimilarity in the famihes that can be compared on this basis. Table II. Limits of Weekly Family Income Average Weekly Family Income Average No. of Persons per Family Average Weekly Expenditure for all Food (exclusive of alcohol) per Family. Ditto per capita . . . i (C) United King- dom. 40s. and over. 52s. Q\d. 6.4 29s. Srf. 4s. 7K United States. 60s. to 80s. 69s. lOd. 4.54 30s. IQd. 6s. 9ii i> Wife II 11 II Children — Male Female. „ Other Income Total Income Quantity of meat, poultry and fish purchased per capita per annum. Food-bill* per capita per week Percentage of Family Income spent on: — Meat (including poultry and fish) Food of all kinds* ('excluding wine, beer and spirits). Rent Food* and Rent combined Percentage balance after paying for food and rent. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. a.) jE2and under £3 (2.) 35 5.85 1.86 3.86 £ s. d. 1 13 8) 5| 5J 4 6 1 15 5i lb. 128. 39 s. d. 4 6 13.34 49.12 17.29 66.41 33.69 182 30.43 2.30 4.34 £ s. d. 2 6 5 19 9 4 1 11 2 11 2 lb. 153. 14 s. d. 5 5J 13.77 46.37 15.87 62.24 37.76 £3 and under £4. (3.) 162 27.09 2.77 5.05 £ s. d. 2 16 7 1 11 3 10^ 15 5 7 3 9 4i lb. 172. 43 s. d. 6 2J 13.74 45.10 14.35 59.45 40.55 £4 and under £5 (4.) 82 13.71 3.05 5.61 £ s. d. 3 1 2i 2 5J 7 4 3 li 14 1 4 8 2i lb. 185. 90 s. d. 6 5J 12.71 41.03 12.80 S3. 83 46.17 £5 and under £6 (5.) 59 9.87 3.49 6.27 £ s. d. 3 11 2 7J 17 8 9 4 16 5 6 lb. 191. 57 s. d. 6 8 12.55 39.12 10.90 50.02 49.98 £6 and under £7 (6.) 33 5.52 4.36 7.09 £ s. d 3 9 3J 10 12 8 18 4 18 8 6 10 Oi lb. 188. 45 s. d. 11.84 36.87 9.57 46.44 53.56 £7 and under £8. (7.) 20 3.35 4.50 6.85 £ s. d. 4 9 7i 12 1 10 12 14 7 8 5i lb. 204. 10 s. d. 8 5i 10.42 39.02 10.33 49.35 50.65 £8 and over. (8. 25 4.18 4.56 6.76 £ 8. d. 3 16 10 6 3 7 5 2 6 5 13 5J 10 4 7i lb. 195. 73 s. d. 8 5 7.46 27.78 8.50 36.28 63.72 *Including meals away from home. This group Is composed of 598 families, of which 199 are Polish, 144 Bohemian, 84 Hungarian 61 Russian, 52 Croatian, 32 GaUclan, 22 Lithuanian, 2 Eou- manian and 2 Servian, derived from 20 different towns. The bulk of the Pohsh budgets are from Detroit (29), Milwaukee (29), New York (29), Pittsburg (29), St. Louis (19), and Boston (18); of the Bohemian budgets, 87 are from Chicago, 25 from Cleveland and 16 from Baltimore; 34 of the Hungarian, 47 of the Russian and all the Croatian and GaUcian budgets are from Pittsburg; and 20 of the Lithuanian are from Baltimore. Of the total number of budgets in this group, 207 were obtained from Pittsburg. The 598 famihes contain atotaIof3,112 persons, of whom 914 are male and 823 female children and 183 "other persons ' ' sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1 is to 0.90. The husband's earnings form 95 per cent, of the total family income In the lowest income class; after that the percentage falls rapidly to S3 In the 6th class, rises to 60 m the 7th class, and then falls again t» 38. For the whole group the percentage is 70. The children's earnings are not important until the 6th class is reached, where they form 26 per cent, of the total Income. In the highest class the percentage Is 66, and for the whole group, 18. The wives' earnings as wage- earners are unimportant. The "other income," which is derived chiefly from boarders and the credited rent of houses owned, forms nearly 10 per cent, of the total income, and is most Important in classes 6 and 6, In which the number of boarders is highest. The percentage number of houses owned is high in the last five income classes, ranging from 34 in the 4th to 50 in the 7th. For the whole group the flgure is 19. The average number of rooms occupied per family is 3.96, and the average number of persons per room 1.3. The consumption of wheaten bread purchased at bakers' shops is 6.3 lb. per family or 1.22 lb. per capita weekly. The quantity of rye bread used is almost exactly equal to that of wheaten bread, viz., 1.20 lb. per capita weekly. Neither in the case of wheaten bread nor in that of rye does the consumption appear to bear any relation to the amount of income. The average quantity of wheaten flour consumed per family per week amounts to 9.1 lb. tor the whole group. The consumption rises rapidly from 4.7 lb. in the lowest class to 13.8 lb. in the 7th. class and faUs to 8.9 lb. in the highest class. The combmed quantity of rye flour, buckwlieat flour and "other flour" amounts to 1.6 lb. per family weekly. By far the largest consumption is shown by the Bohemian budgets. Theconsump- tlon otall bread and flour is 4.51 lb. per capita weekly. The average expenditure on green and canned vegetables is much lower than in the American-British Northern Group (Is. 2id. as against 2s. 3J(2. per family per week). The average consumption of all meat, including sausage and poultry but excluding ^ft, amounts to 15.8 lb. per family per week or 168. 3 lb. per capita per annum, the minimum being 122.3 lb. in the lowest income class and the maximum 181.5 lb. in the 7th. class. Of the meat consumed 36.7 per cent, is heej, 23.0 per cent. pork, and 11.8 per cent, sausage. Pork, bacon, ham and sausage together form 44.3 per cent, of the total quantity of meat consumed. The largest consumption of meat is shown by the Lithuanian families in Baltimore and by the Hungarian and Croatian families in Pittsburg. As regards the remaining foodstuffs no striking difference in the general averages for the group from the American standard of hvmg is observed except in the case of Imtter. The consumption of butter amounts to 0.98 lb. per family per week as against 2.05 lb. in the American-British Northern Group. This defl- ciency is only partly made up by the use of other fats. The quantity of butter rises rapidly from 0.36 lb. per family in the lowest group to 2.10 lb. in the highest. The quantity consumed by the Lithuanian families is less than i lb. per family per week. The expenditure on meaU away from home is unusually high in the 7th. and 8th. income classes, amounting to 6s. 9f i. and 10s. IJd. per lamily per week respectively. Ixxxviii GENERAL EEPOBT — APPENDIX II. (F.) JEWISH GROUP. No. of BudgetB [Total 758] Percentage of total No. of Budgets Average No. of Children living at home. . . . „ „ PersonB „ „ Average Weekly Earnings of Husband . . . Wife „ „ ,, Children — Male Female. „ Other Income , Total Income , Quantity of meat, poultry and fish purchased per capita per annum. Food bill* per capita per week Percentage of Family Income spent on: — Meat (including poultry and fish) Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, beer and spirits). Rent Food * and Rent combined Percentage balance after paying for food and rent. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1-) 5 0.66 se £,2 and under £3 (2-) 119 15.70 2.45 4.50 £, s. d. 2 9 6i lOJ 4i 7 Oil 2 12 5i lb. 145. 86 s. d. 5 6i 13.82 47.49 21.53 69.02 30.98 £3 and under £4 (3-) 242 31.92 2.79 4.88 £ s. d. 2 19 9J 1 4i 3 5i 2 li 2 3 8 lb. 173. 94 s. d. 6 4i 13.88 45.42 18.40 63.82 36.18 £4 and under £5. (4.) 148 19.53 3.36 5.49 £ s. d. 3 7 Oi 8i 8 9 7 11 3 5 4 7 10 lb. 190. 79 s. d. 7 li 14.20 44.61 17.15 61.76 38.24 £5 and under £6 (5.) 88 11.61 4.10 6.19 £ s. d. 3 14 8 1 lOi 18 Hi 8 7i 2 5i 5 6 7 lb. 181. 43 s. d. 6 11 12.65 40.20 14.77 54.97 4S.03 £6 and under £7 (6.) 57 7.52 4.71 6.88 £ ». d. 3 10 4 3 1 1 6 10 18 7 8 9i 6 7 7i lb. 186. 52 s. d. 7 6i 12.15 40.71 12.58 53.29 46.71 £7 and under £8; (7.) 36 4.75 4.28 6.25 £ s. d. 4 5 1 2 5 1 14 4i 112 4 6i 7 7 7 lb. 198. 59 s. d. 8 1 10.45 34.28 12.91 47.19 62.81 £8 and -over. (8.) 63 8.31 4.93 7.11 £ s. d. 4 10 6* 2 4 3 9 1 1 9 8i 9 IJ 10 lb. 217. 26 s. d. 8 Hi 9.73 31.83 10.48 42.31 S7.69 ♦ Including meals away from home. This group Is composed ol 758 Jewish families from all countries, but chiefly from Russia. The budgets were obtained from 16 diflerent towns, Including New York (271), Chicago (95), Baltimore (63), Boston (54), Newark (48), St. Louis (46), Pittsburg (36), Cleveland (35), Philadelphia (31) and Brockton (26), These 758 budgets contain a total ol 4,152 persons, oJ whom 1,417 are male and 1,146 female children and 87 "other persons" sharing the family food. The ratio of male to female children is as 1 to 0.81. The bulk ol the budgets (67 per cent, of the total) show incomes of between £2 and £5, and there are only 5 budgets with incomes under £2. The contri- bution of the husband towards the family income ranges from 94 per cent, of the total income in the lowest class to 45 per cent, in the highest class. The children's earnings begin to be important in class 4, where they form 19 per cent, of the family income, but the general percentage is 24. The earnings of the wife are not important in any income class. The "other income," which is derived chiefly from boarders and the credited rent of houses owned, Is lower in this group of budgets than in any other. It is only Important in the 6th. and 8th. Income classes, in which it amounts to 8s. Did. and 9». IJd. respectively. These classes also have the highest percentages of houses owned, the figures being 26 per cent, in the former class and 19 in the latter. For the whole group the percentage number of houses owned is only 6. The average number of rooms occupied per family is 4.5, equivalent to an average of 1.2 persons per room. The most noticeable peculiarities of the Jewish dietary as shown by these budgets are the total abstinence from pig's flesh, the large quantity of poultry, fish, fresh milk, eggs and rye bread consumed, and the comparatively small consumption of flour, potatoes, sausage, lard, suet and dripping and cortdensed milk. The average quantity of wheaten bread amounts to 7.7 lb. per family or 1.41 lb. per capita weekly. Bye bread is consumed to a somewhat greater extent than wheaten bread, the average quantity being 8.3 lb. per family or 1.63 lb. per capita weekly. The quantity of rye bread tends to fall as the income rises, while in the case of wheaten bread the figures move in the opposite direction. Home-baking appears to be little practised among Jewish families, the average consumption of wheaten flour per family per week amounting only to 5.0 lb. for the whole group. The average consumption of all bread and flour amounts to 22.0 lb. per family or 4.01 lb. per capita weekly. The quantity of cakes, rolls and biscuits consumed is very large, the average quantity per family per week amounting to 7.5 lb., as compared with 4.4 lb. in the American-British Northern Group. The weekly average consumption of Irish potatoes Is 15.4 lb. per family and 2.80 lb. per capita. Sweet potatoes are very little used in this group, except by the Jewish famUies in Baltimore. The average consumption of all meat, includhig sausage and poultry but excluding fish, amounts to 15.7 lb. per family per week, or 148.9 lb. per capita per annum, the extremes being 119.7 lb. in the second income class and 183.7 lb. in the eighth. Of the meat consumed 65.0 per cent, is beef, 19.8 per cent. poultry, 8.0 per cent, veal, 4.0 per cent, mutton, and 3.2 per cent, sausage. The consumption of fish is very high, amounting to 3.5 lb. per family per week or 32.9 lb. per capita per annum. Lard, suet and dripping are not used at all by the great majority of famUies in this group, the average consumption per family weekly for the whole group amounting only to 0.37 lb. The average quantity o! fresh milk consumed amounts to 8.1 qts. per family or 1.48 qts. per capita weekly. Only a very small quantity of condensed milk is consumed by these famUies, the average being 0.15 lb. per family per week. A large consumption of eggs is one of the chief peculiarities of the budgets in this group. The average quantity per family rises rapidly from 16.7 eggs per week in the lowest income class to 44,8 in the highest, For the whole group the average is 27.5 eggs per week. The average expenditure on iruals away from home, as shown by the budgets, is higher hi this group than In any other. In the first 3 Income classes It Is comparatively unimportant, but In the highest class it amounts to 6». 2J'"v »" ^^ . ^ ..,.__ ^ „„„„* „.,*=,,* ;■, otitt inAf>Tnn ..io== t>i.> >iiir»,oct nnn<.,iTnr». •ine average w<»^.j. ^,.^^~..~~ "_ " ., ■ „ ,^^ ^ 2.05 lb. Cheese is not eaten to any great extent m any income class, the highest consump. tag figures for the Amencan-Bntish Northern Group are ^-^^ '"■? tion Lounting to 0.39 lb. per family weekly m income class No.J. The . remaining portion of the negro shown by the separate income consumed per family per week is 10.5. The small quantities of milk and eggs consumed are the most salient features of the [ts.; no great deviation from this average ia of' the lowest class, in which the quantity amounts to only 0.89 qts. The average number of eggs '^T»t"The average weekly quantity of fresh milk consumed per family is 2.56 qts.; no great deviation from this average ia .>,^. » r -: - „":f:;„.„t m the case of the lowest class, in which the quantity amounts to only 0.89 qts. The average shown by the separate mcome cla^ "^j^^* "^J" consumption is shown ui class No. 1 (5.8). the next lowest being 8.9 in class No. 2. xc GENERAL REPORT — APPENDIX H. (G. 2.) NEGKO (SOUTHERN) GROUP. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1-) £2 and under £3. (2.) No. of Budgets [Total 276] Percentage of total No. of Budgets Average No. of Children living at home. ,, „ Persons • „ „ Average Weekly Earnings of Husband. . „ „ ,. Children- Male Female „ ,, Other income Total Income ' Quantity of meat, poultry and fish pm-chased per capita per annum. Food bill* per capita per week Percentage of Family Income spent on: — Meat (including poultry and fish) Food of all kinds* (excluding wine, beer and spirits). Rent Food* and rent combined Percentage balance after paying for food and rent. 52 18.84 1.79 3.79 s. d. 9 2i 3 7 5 2* U 1 13 6i lb. 131. 20 s. d. 3 Hi 13,52 44.50 13.80 58.30 41. 70 £3 and under £4. (3.) 32.61 1.83 3.90 £ s. d. 1 19 5i 5 9 2 2 3 1 8i 2 9 4 lb. 152. 98 s. d. 5 li 12.24 40.44 11.45 51.89 48.11 £4 and under £5 (4.) 50 18.12 2.10 4.20 £ s. d. 2 6 6 8 6i 9 34 8i 4 1 3 9 li lb. 170. 92 s. d. 6 li 11.02 37.27 12.36 49.66 50.34 £5 and under £6. (5.) 28 10.14 3.21 5.29 £ s. d. 3 14 9 1 6 Hi 3 5 7 1 4 7 lOi lb. 178. 88 g. d. 6 4 12.41 38.18 11.57 49.75 50.25 £6 and under £7. (6.) 18 6.52 2.78 4.83 £ g. 3 15 8 12 11 d. ^ 7 7i 4 5 7 11 lb. 212. 47 s. d. 7 21 10.41 32.18 11.31 43.49 66.61 £7 and under £8 (7.) 12 4.35 9 5 1.81 ■a a, o £8 and over. (8.) 21 7.61 £ 4 12 2 11 1 1 5 10 10 d. 8 3 3i 3i 1 9 18 7 lb. 264.63 g. d. 8 7i 9.40 26.43 9.19 35.62 64.38 * Including meals away from liome. This group is composed of 276 Negro families from six Southern towns, viz., New Orleans (75), Memphis (50), Savannah (50), Atlanta (42), Augusta (38), Birmingham (21). These 276 budgets contain a total of 1,218 persons, of whom 320 are male and 326 female children and 32 "other persons" sharing the family food. The male and female children are in almost exactly equal proportion. In income classes 1-5 the earnings of the husband form much the most important part of the total family income, the percentage contribution ranging from 87 per cent, of the total family income in the lowest class to 70 per cent, in the 5th. In the 3rd., 4th., and 5th. classes the percentages are very nearly equal. In the highest class, which was derived mainly from Memphis, the contribution from other sources is very large and the husbands' earnings only form 45 per cent, of the total income. The children's earnings begin to be important in the 3rd. class, in which they form 14 percent, of the total family Income. In the 4th. and 5th. classes the figure remains almost stationary, but in the highest class it rises to 36. The wives' earnings are an important item in these budgets, forming slightly over 10 per cent, of the total family income tor the whole group. The "other income," which is derived almost entirely from the credited rent of houses owned, forms nearly 8 per cent, of the total family income for the whole group, and is highest in class 8, where it forms nearly 13 per cent. The percentage number of houses owned is low in classes 1 and 2, but the figure for all the other classes combined is exactly 50 per cent. The average nimiber of rooms occupied per family is 3.74, and the average number of persons per room 1.2. The most marked differences between the dietary of Negro families in Southern towns and that of white families in the same towns, as shownby the budgets, consist in the smaller quantities of iaier's bread, Irish potatoes, butter, fresh milk and eggs, and the larger quantities of maize meal, rice and fish consumed by the Negro families. Most of the wheaten bread consumed by these families, with the exception of those in New Orleans, is baked at home. The quan- tity of wheaten bread purchased at bakers' shops only amounts to 3.71b. per family and 0.84 lb. per capita weekly. Rye bread and "other bread" are practi- cally not used. The average quantity of M)?iea(e)i/ZoMr consumed in the whole group amounts to9.9 lb. per family and 2.25 Ib.percapiia weekly. Theweekly consumption of all bread and flour per capita is 3.24 lb. The figure for the whole group of the Southern white families is 4.19 lb. Maize and maize meal are iinportant articles of diet in the Southern towns. The average weekly consumption for the whole group amounts to 6i lb. per family. Of rice, barley, sago, i£ c, 31 lb. are consumed per family per week. The average family consumption of Irish potatoes amounts to 5.4 lb. (1.23 lb. per capita) weekly, as compared with 10.3 lb. in the Southern white families. Sweet potatoes, &C., are consumed to a greater extent than Irish potatoes, espe- cially in the highest income class, the general average consumption being 1.35 lb. per capita weekly. The average consiunption of all meat, including sausage and poultry but excluding fish, amounts to 13.0 lb. per family per weekot 152.8 lb. per capita pa annum. 36.7 per cent, of this meat is beef and 43.1 per cent, pig-meat of aU kinds. Sausage and poultry are consumed to a much less degree, while mutton and veal are practically not used. The average consumption of dee/ amounts to 4.75 lb. per family per week or 56.0 lb. per capita per annum; the corresponding figures for pork, bacon, & c, are 5.59 lb. and 65.8 lb., the maximum consumption being in the 8th. income class (73 lb. per capita per annum), and the minimum in the 5th. class (47 lb. per capita per annum). Poultry is used chiefly by families within the higher ranges of income. Fish is largely consumed, the average weekly quantity amounting to 1.91 lb. per family, while the annual consumption per capita is 22.5 lb. Butter is consumed to a much less extent than lard, suet and dripping. The average weekly quantity is 1 lb. per family for the whole group, and rises from 0.49 lb. In the lowest income class to 1.77 lb. in the highest class. The consumption of lard, suet and dripping ranges from 1.99 lb. per i^mlly per week in the lowest income class to 4.12 lb. in the highest, with an average for the whole group of 2.57 lb. The weekly quantity of fresh milk consumed per family is 0.74 qts. in the lowest income class, 1.56 qts. in the 3rd. class, and 3.09 qts. in the highest class. The corresponding figures for the Southern white group of budgets are 1.22, 2.84, and 5.50 qts. Condensed milk is largely consumed by these families. The average weekly consumption per family rises from 0.81 lb. in the lowest income class to 1 .73 lb. In the highest class. The average number of eggs consumed per capita per annum is 68 in the lowest income class and 216 In the highest. The corresponding flgoies for th* Southern wiite group of budgets are 78 and 256. BtJDGETS. XCl UNITED KINGDOM— CONDENSED BUDGETS. Average Weekly Expenditure on Food and Consumption oj certain Articles oj Food hy WorTcmen's Families in the United Kingdom, 1904. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Number of Returns . Average Weekly Family Income . Under 25s. 261 s. d. 21 4J 25s. and under 30s. 289 s. d. 26 llf 30s. and under 35s. 416 s. d. 31 Hi 35s. and under 40s. 382 s. d. 36 6i 40s. and over. 596 s. d. 52 0^ Average Number of Children living at home. 3.1 3.3 3.2 3.4 4.4 Expenditure. Bread and Flour Meat (bought by weight)* Other Meat (including fish) - - . Eggs - Fresh Milk Cheese Animal Fatsf - -- Potatoes Vegetables and Fruits .- Farinaceous Foods other than bread and flour, t Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, &c Sugar - Other Items§ Meals away from from home Total Expenditure on Food s. d. 3 Oi 3 2i 7i 5i 8 4| 1 8 8f 4| 4i Hi 8 1 1 li 14 4| s. d. 3 3| 4 If 8| 8i Hi 5^ 2 1 9f 1 2i 10 1 4i 2i 17 lOi s. d. 3 3i 5 If 10 11 1 31 6 2 Ah lOi 10 6 1 4i lOf 1 71 4 20 9i s. d. 3 4i 5 1 1 1 5 4i 6 2 6i lOi llf 5f 1 5i Hi 1 lOi 6| 22 3i Consumption. Bread and Flour lb. Meat of all kinds (including an allowance for fish) „ Eggs No. Fresh Milk pmts Cheese lb. Animal Fatsf „ Potatoes - » Sugar )) 28.44 6.42 6.2 5.54 0.67 2.05 14.05 3.87 29.97 7.57 8.7 7.72 0.70 2.47 15.84 4.62 29.44 8.66 11.3 9.85 0.79 2.67 16.11 4.79 29.99 9.25 12.0 10.34 0.77 2.87 15.87 5.21 * Including bacon. . . t Butter, margarine, lard, suet and dripping. 1 Rice, tapioca, oatmeal. j n ^i. -j. n § Currants, raisins, jam, marmalade, treacle, syrup, pickles, condiments and other items. . s. d. 4 7 1 3i 2i 4 1 4f 1 7i 8 3 8i 1 U 1 3f 7 1 10^ 1 3 2 6i 9 29 8 37.76 11.87 16.3 12.63 1.02 3.96 19.93 6.70 xcu TOWN REPORTS. PAGE. NEW YORK - 1 ATLANTA 48 AUGUSTA -- 61 BALTIMORE - - 72 BIRMINGHAM -- -- 87 BOSTON --- - 99 BROCKTON 117 CHICAGO.... 128 CINCINNATI 152 CLEVELAND 161 DETROIT 172 DULUTH - 185 FALL RIVER 197 LAWRENCE J 208 LOUISVILLE 219 LOWELL 231 MEMPHIS 243 MILWAUKEE 257 MINNEAPOLIS-ST. PAUL.. 270 MUNCIE 283 NEW ORLEANS 288 NEWARK.. 299 PATERSON 308 PHILADELPHIA 316 PITTSBURG 337 PROVIDENCE 357 ST. LOUIS 370 SAVANNAH : 381 TOWN REPORTS. NEW YORK CITY, New York, the largest city of the New World, is situated at the south-eastern corner of the State of the same name. Philadelphia hes 90 miles by rail to the south-west; Boston 234 miles to the north- east ; Buffalo, on Lake Erie, the second largest city in the State, 440 miles to the north-west ; while Pitts- burg and Chicago to the west are distant respectively 439 and 908 miles. The last-named city can be reached in 18 hours by the best trains and, in general, New York, with the possible exception of Chicago, has at its disposal the completest railway service in the States. Manhattan, or New York proper, as it is still apt to be regarded, was the scene of the original settlement from Europe in the 17th century, and the first City Charter under English law dates from 1665, when the population was about 1,500. New York has thus a history which stretches back some 250 years, and of this history Manhattan has been the focusing point. As the city exists to-day, Manhattan is one of its five constituent boroughs, but the selection of the name of "New York" for the whole city is a recognition of the greater distinction of the history of Manhattan itself, and of its present supremacy. Brooklyn, on the Long Island shore, the other great borough, became part of the city on January 1st, 1898, and was also first settled in the 17th century. In 1816 it was first incorporated as a village, and it was not iintil 1834, when the population was about 30,000, that it was raised to the rank of a "city." From 1854-1896 seven other towns, with an aggregate estimated population of about 114,000, had been annexed to Brooldyn prior to the absorption of the whole in the greater unit of New York. The other boroughs — the Bronx, Queens, on Long Island, and Richmond — derive their inportance rather from what they may become than from what they either are or have been. They are, with the exception of the southern districts of the Bronx which, separated only by the Harlem River, lie adjacent to Manhattan and are in effect a northern continuation of that borough, still comparatively tmdeveloped, and although containing less than one-seventh of the population of New York, they comprise between them about 227 square miles, or more than two-thirds of its total area. Even these figures do not indicate the extent of the undeveloped areas of the city, since much of Brooklyn, which itself contains about 78 square miles, is, apart from its marsh lands consisting of some 17 square miles, still open country. The absorption of the Bronx, the only borough of the five on the mainland, but separated from Manhattan "Island" only by a narrow river, began in 1874, when the population of some 35,000, scattered in 50 villages, became part of the then City of New York. Further absorptions took place m 1895 and m 1898. The place of most note in Queens County, now coterminous with the borough of that name, was Long Island City, incorporated in 1871, but for the most part the new borough is still a collection of isolated towns and villages with much open ground, including some 12 square miles of marsh land. The borough of Richmond is to-day even a more rural community than Queens, and the fact that it is an island — it is the Staten Island of the maps — which it takes twenty minutes to reach from Manhattan, will probably make it one of the last parts of the city to increase in population rapidly. The climate which New York enjoys, in spite of occasional blizzards in the late winter, heat waves in the summer, and a liability to sudden changes of the thermometer, is one of its great natural assets. The mean temperature is about 52 degrees Fahrenheit, the coldest months being January, February and December when the mercury generally drops to zero, and when the mean is apt to be just about freezing point. March also is a cold month, with a recorded mean temperature for 39 yearsof 37.2 degrees. June, July and August are the hottest months of the year, when the mean shade temperature ranges 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 7 2 NEW YOKE CITY. from 70 to 75 degrees. Somewhat more than half the possible hours of sunshine are enjoyed, and even in January and December, when the total number of hours is lowest, this ratio is almost maintained. The natural conditions of abundant sunshine and clean and wholesome air, although often sacri- ficed in other ways, are not fouled by smoke, hard anthracite coal being almost exclusively burnt. The great waterway of the Hudson, the channel of the East River opening up into the lower reaches of Long Island Sound, and the proximity of the open Atlantic are further natural safeguards against the risks of a congested population which all great urban centres incur, and to some of which certain areas of New York itself have been and are notoriously subjected. The City of New York, as it exists to-day, comprises within its great area of 327 square miles a very varied territory — ^secluded bays as well as crowded pleasure resorts; miles of piers, but also many miles of open shore and river bank; natural woodland and quiet villages, as well as the most highly priced building sites and the most congested urban areas in the world. Of this great municipality — more than two-and-a-half times the size of the County of London — Manhattan is, as stated, still the centre, and had it not been for the chance that the Hudson river divides the States of New York and New Jersey the area of the city would presumably have been still further extended, so as to embrace a collection of cities and districts in the neighbouring State — Jersey City, Hoboken, and others — that are as truly parts of the organic whole of New York as are Brooklyn and Long Island City. The most important transitional change of the moment is indeed the linking-up of Manhattan with its surrounding areas, whether these lie in the State of New York or that of New Jersey. The process is, it may be noted, at once accentuating and relieving some of the problems with which the City of New York is confronted. It is facilitating extension and development, but also concentration; it is increas- ing the power of movement outwards, but 4lso inwards. The human tide both ebbs and flows, and many are feariag that in new forms the problem of congestion will still persist. Meanwhile New York grows apace, and not only in population and in wealth, in the extent of its banking operations and of its manufactures, as a great centre of distribution, and as the chief port of entry from Europe alike of commodities and of persons, but also in letters, in its press, in music and in the drama it has assumed a position that is in essence metropolitan. The growth of many of the cities of the Middle West is, it is true, considerably more rapid than is that of New York, and the remoteness of the city from the great centres of primary production is probably destined to be a permanent handicap. To some extent this is counteracted by the railway system of which New York is a point of great concentration; by the Erie Canal, which establishes a direct connexion with the Great Lakes and thus with the agricultural States of the Middle West and North; and by the ramifications of the financial, manufacturing and commercial interests which are concerned with the continued prosperity of New York. But the centre of population in the United States has been moving slowly westward, and the trend of manufacture is towards the centre of pro- duction of raw material and of food. Should these two great tendencies become more marked, or should the influx of immigrants be checked either by restrictive legislation or by other causes, it is UDiprobable that the rate at which New York has been expanding wiU continue, and ultimately its position in the States is not unlikely to be challenged. But meanwhile it is supreme and is growing at a pace that if continued will make it in a few years the greatest city in the world. The population of the area included in the present city of New York increased from about 80,000 in 1800 to nearly 700,000 in 1850, and in 1910 it exceeded 4i millions. From 1850 the increase has been continuous in every borough, and, while the greatest rate of increase is shown by the comparatively new district of the Bronx, by far the greatest actual increase took place in Manhattan and Brooklyn, the former increasing more than fourfold in the 60 years 1850-1910, and the latter nearly twelvefold. NEW YORK CITY. The following Tables give the figures of population, as returned at the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910, for the area at present comprised iu the City of New York and for each of the constituent boroughs : — Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. New York City. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1, 478, 103 1, 911, 698 2, 507, 414 3, 437, 202 4, 766, 883 433, 595 595, 716 929, 788 1, 329, 681 Manhattan. 942, 292 1, 164, 673 1, 441, 216 1, 850, 093 2, 331, 542 222, 381 276, 543 408, 877 481, 449 The Bronx. 37, 393 51, 980 88, 908 200, 507 430, 980 14, 587 36, 928 111, 599 230, 473 Brookljm. 419, 921 599, 495 838, 547 1, 166, 582 1, 634, 351 179, 574 239, 052 328, 035 467, 769 Queens. 45, 468 56, 559 87, 050 152, 999 284, 041 11, 091 30, 491 65, 949 131, 042 Richmond. 33, 029 38, 991 51, 693 67, 021 85, 969 29.3 31.2 37.1 38.7 23.6 23.7 28.4 26.0 39.0 71.0 125.5 114.9 42.8 39.9 39.1 40.1 24.4 53.9 75.8 85.6 18.1 32.6 29.7 28.3 The figures show that the position occupied by Manhattan among the other boroughs, as measured by population, is less preponderating than formerly, and the explanation of this is found m the mcreasing absorption of land there for non-residential purposes; m the higher value of land; in the relatively small amount of land still available for building; and in a competition of other areas that is mcreasing as these become more accessible. . , vi .i ^ xi -j.- • j. • j In spite 7i the strength of these influences it is, however, miprobable that the position mamtamed by Manhattan among the other boroughs of the city will be greatly altered for some time to come and still less that it will be threatened. To a great extent it concentrates the controlling forces of the city-financial, commercial, manufacturing, social and governmental-and rough y its position as contrasted with that of the other boroughs may perhaps be compared with that filled by London north of the Thames in relation to the south. Almost every feature which the outside world associates 4 NEW YORK CITT. with New York is in Manhattan — Wall Street, for instance, Broadway, Fifth Avenue and Central Park. Near the southern end is found that new but already well-known cluster of amazing buildings which, purely utilitarian in design and purpose and forming here and there forbidding canons of masonry, have grouped themselves into an unconsidered and unforeseen grandeur of mass and outline, and are a concrete demonstration of the great place that Manhattan has secured for itself in finance, in commerce and in industry. Manhattan is also the point at which most of the great volume of ocean and coastwise traffic converges ; Brooklyn playing in this respect a role that is second in importance even to that of Jersey City and Hoboken on the New Jersey side of the Hudson. As compared with the other boroughs, the railway facilities of Manhattan are also incomparably more important, and recent great engineer- ing achievements tunnelhng the Hudson are making them increasingly so. Finally, Manhattan affords by far the most extensive field of employment. The chief centres of wholesale trade are there, while south of Fourteenth Street are concentrated half the factories of New York. In this last fact is found the chief explanation of the congested districts for which Manhattan is notorious, for although the motives that lead their occupants to fill these crowded areas are highly complex, the dominant explanation is found in the industrial opportunities which living in them secures. Although to a great extent a "dormitory" for Manhattan, Brooklyn, also plays an important part as a centre of employment. The United States Navy Yard is there, and along the East River are many large industrial enterprises. In some districts centres of the distinctive factory industries of New York are also forming, as notably of the clothing trade in the Jewish settlement at Brownsville. But, in general, the tendency has been for industries needing relatively little space and much labour to be concentrated in the lower sections of Manhattan, and for the large works and for less "intensive" industries to be established elsewhere, for the present chiefly in Brooklyn. Queens is in this con- nexion relatively unimportant, in spite of the industrial character of Long Island City, and so also are the boroughs of the Bronx, which, is, however, the centre of the piano industry, and Richmond. The following outline map ' shows the relative positions of the five constituent boroughs of the city:— ' Not printed. NEW YORK CITY. 5 The foreign elements entering into the population of New York reflect the normal complexity of most American cities not situated in the South or Far West; but the fact that the very large major- ity of the total number of American immigrants land at New York makes the question of the alien assume special prominence there. This is illustrated not so much by the fact that the cosmopolitanism of the city is greater than that of many others, but rather by the great size of a few of its foreign quar- ters and by the part which New York plays as a channel tlrrough which year by year great numbers of aliens pass. For many the port of arrival is also the place of settlement. But whether they pass on, or linger, or stay, whether the main movement is further inland or, as in the exceptional winter of 1907-8, largely eastwards to Europe, the conditions of many sections of New York are in various ways inevitably affected by the arrival and departure, migration and settlement, year by year of great masses of aliens. The character of the immigration has changed in recent years, the movement from Ireland and Germany, although still considerable, being now much less marked than that from the countries of Southern and Eastern Europe, which, first becoming important towards the end of the 19th century, is still in full flood. During the years 1904-8 nearly 1,600,000 immigrants, according to the Report (1909) of the State Commission of Immigration, gave New York State as their destination, and of this number the following races were represented by 20,000 and upwards : — Italian (North) 48,853 Magyar 38,944 Greek 37,552 Slovak. _ 22,357 Scotch 22,2'52 French 21,532 Italian (South) 434,178 Hebrew 403,772 German 105,988 PoUsh 105,573 Irish 75,532 Enghsh 69,911 Scandinavian — . 51, 816 Of the total number of immigrants about twice as many males as females came, and about four- fifths of the total arrivals were between the ages of 14 and 44, a range that has to be borne in mind in interpreting the vital statistics of America. As regards occupations, about half a million of the immigrants were described as labourers, in- cluding about 200,000 farm labourers and 300,000 others. Of those of both sexes returned as following other callings, it is significant, m view of the magnitude of the garment industry in the City of New York, that tailoring is responsible for over 81,000. Other trades that are conspicuous m the returns are ckrpenters (34,280) and shoemakers (25,258); 188,243 were returned as servants, and 421,119, mainly women and children, as of no occupation. The number of labourers is large, but in view of the fact that immigration is regarded as having affected the rates of skilled labour throughout the country to so much less a degree than those of the unskilled, the great variety of skilled occupations in the returns, represented often by considerable numbers, is somewhat unexpected. In 1900 unfortunately the last year for wliich these figures are available, out of the 98 per cent, of white population of New York City, 36.7 per cent, were foreign-born and 39.9 per cent. American- born of foreign parents (i. e. having one or both parents foreign-born), leaving 21.4 per cent. American- born of American-born parents. _ Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 25.4 per cent, were born in Germany, 21.7 per cent, m Ireland, 12.2 per cent, in Russia, 11.5 per cent, in Italy, 9.3 per cent, in Austria-Hungary and 7.1 per cent, in Great Britain. t .-u u The figures of recent immigration quoted above will give some rough indication of the changes that the Census of 1910 is likely to show in such figures as those quoted for 1900.* ^ , , , The concentration of much of the manufacturing and commercial activity of New York below Fourteenth Street, and the tendency thus caused for population to concentrate upon the more adja- cent areas have been already mentioned. These economic influences with others concurrent, although being counteracted to some extent by the disadvantages of congested areas and by the steady increase in the faciUties offering bv which people can circulate torn district to district, are becoming more marked year by year. The chances of employment are, however only one among many circum- stences that deUmine the character of a district, and they are themselves largely due to anterior Muences often traceable to the chances of historical localisation and also largely to geographical me vital Btatistics";^^;^^;^^^^^ ^J^^ percentage of births, when both parents T''^tT,tl ' ' 40 4 to 33 4 During the same decade the number of Italian parents n2y qi'^^Sr In Kriir^^^^^^^ °*^- *°-^S'^ '^'*^°"^"'^' '"* '"^ '''' *'^^ ""^ *""' ""^ '^' '"*• 6 NEW YORK CITY. and physical characteristics. In the case of Manhattan, special force attaches to the influence of physical formation, since a city with its heart at the end of a narrow strip of land surrounded on three sides by broad, and, until 1883, when the "Old" Brooklyn Bridge was built, by^unbridged rivers, was clearly destined, if it grew and prospered, to be confronted by the problem of congestion in some greatly accentuated form. To what may, under the circumstances, be called the natural risks of growth and prosperity have been added those arising from the necessity, unexampled and unforeseen, of assimilating the masses of people who poured into the city. To a great extent these have been foreign immigrants, but room has had to be made also for a domestic inward drift, and to this double stream, accompanied by the natural increase of its own population, is mainly due the problem of con- gestion, which remains the most distinctive social fact in the urban life of New York. The chief centres of congestion are in some of the lower wards of Manhattan. In 1900, e. g., the Census figures showed four contiguous wards with a total area of 611 acres and more than 450 persons to the acre. The maximum density shown by any ward at that date was 653.4, and the average for the borough 147.2. Counts for individual tenement-house blocks naturally reach much higher figures. Thus, the results of a count of the tenement-house population made by the Tenement House Depart- ment in the autumn of 1902 showed for the Tenth Ward, which had the highest figures of density in 1900, no fewer than six blocks with a population of more than 1,000 to the acre. Out of the 48 blocks in the ward, more than half had a density of over 600 to the acre. The variations shown by the dijfiferent blocks is noticeable even in such a crowded area as this, the range being from 228 persons to the acre to a maximum of 1,089. Even such a figure as the last fails to represent the point that has been occasionally reached, and the Federation of Churches has on record counts of special blocks made in 1905 that showed 1,672 (in a notorious block since greatly improved), 1,456 and 1,422 persons to the acre. In the districts in which these blocks are found the streets are not narrow, but, even remembering that the above figures are exceptional, and that some allowance might be made for a share of the street area, they are of an appaUing character. Conditions are, it is true, tending to mitigate the pressure upon this quarter of the city, but it is still excessive, and explains a recent expression of opinion in the Federation of Churches Bulletin, June 4, 1909, that "the horror of herding people to- gether, a thousand to the acre, is one of New York's most disgraceful mal-adjustments of to-day." The districts of exceptional congestion are highly localised, being all within about two miles of the southern end of the borough. A map of Manhattan shows at this part a curving easterly projection, and it is here, where the borough is about 2^ miles in width, in the heart of the district known as the "Lower East Side," that these most crowded areas are found. The dominating people segregated here is Jewish, and mainly Russian. Bordering it on the west, encroaching it to the north and along 11th Street, having already pressed through to the East River, are large and complex ItaUan colonies. In some parts of this area the ItaUans may be said to be taking possession, partly from force of num- bers, but partly also from the fact that the Jews prosper more quickly and move. On the whole the increase in the number of Italians in the lower parts of Manhattan is probably a sign of less rather than of greater economic strength. It is noteworthy that the whole of the district to which reference has been made is within walking distance of the pier at which immigrants land from Ellis Island. It is thus the district which most readily offers in a strange land an environment that is not strange, but one in which faces, language, customs, shops, places of religious worship, associations of many kinds, often friends, relatives and old neighbours, can be most quickly reached. Geographical position again affords much of the clue to the special forms which these localities have taken. In the past Irish and Germans have in their turn taken much the same road, and on the western side there is a district still largely occupied by the poorer Irish. The abnormal density of the population in the Lower East Side has been emphasised because it is the dominating fact affecting the local life in its every phase. It would be very misleading to con- elude, however, that, although so crowded, the picture is unrelieved; that the neighbourhood is one from which those living there are anxious to escape; that the general death-rate is excessive; or that it is just a "poor" neighbourhood, lacking colour, animation and brightness. The reverse is the case, and on the surface the impression often conveyed by it is indeed stimulating rather than depress- ing. Poverty is not much in evidence; shops are bright; there is no lack of places of amusement; restaurants of some pretension are not hard to find; a street organ attracts a larger crowd of children NEW YORK CITY. 7 than would be seen in a Whitechapel (London) street, dancing with the same zest and skill. Groups in a local playground on a summer's day impress the onlooker not with a sense of squalor and neglect, but with evidences of the exercise of much parental care. The general impression conveyed is one of movement, and movement is a characteristic note of the district. Some are tied to it; others, who could quit if they would, stay on from one or more of the many attractions that it offers, and these include most of the organised amenities of the city. Others, however, leave it, and, accompanying the permanence of the general characteristics of the area, the dominating fact is change. In its major human elements, it is rather as a stream than a pool that it can be best understood. It is no more stagnant than is New York itself. Thus, it does not lack hfe and interest. It is almost too fuU of these. But it is without nature; without any chance of repose and quiet; the air is stale; rents are high; and rooms are generally small and often dark. Next to the central fact of congestion, it is the interior planning of the great bulk of the dwelhngB of the people that appals. But even as regards these, though in the aggregate they include perhaps the worst variety of human habitation that has ever been constructed on a large scale in a great city, it would again be unjust to conclude that even the worst types of housing provision of the district were accompanied by no redeeming features. To a considerable extent material well-being has over- come the normal obstacles to decent living created by the dwellings. It was, it is true, possible and easy in the course of the present enquiry to enter dwellings in which, whether the structure itself or the position of the occupiers was considered, the conditions prevailing were deplorable. But the more usual experience was to be impressed by the decency and comfort of the individual home. To a more detailed description of the housing conditions it will be necessary to return in a later section. Here it is only desired to emphasise the complexity of this whole district — "abysmal" as it has been described as to its planning and structures; so essentially "alive" as to its people. The Jewish district of the Lower East Side is the largest and the most generally recognized, but others exist in various parts of the city, in some cases representing merely the overflow from this, in others the settlements of its more prosperous members. Of the latter the Jewish districts in the bor- ough of the Bronx are the best illustration, and of the former the overflow into Williamsburg in Brook- lyn, following on the completion of the Williamsburg Bridge in 1903, or the flight over wide intervening areas and the establishment in Brownsville, also in Brooklyn, of the new, remote and distinctively Jewish quarter there. In all there are at least six well-defined Ghettos in the City of New York. The Italian districts near the Jewish Ghetto of the Lower East Side display similar characteristics, so far as the dwellings are concerned, and somewhat similar ones as regards their complexity. Segrega- tion here runs less exclusively on the lines of race and religion, and more on those of smaller areas of origin. And there is an even greater mobihty, although in the case of the Italians it is, as has been stated, more exclusively industrial and economic than social in its origin. The class of the general labourer is much in evidence, and, although the standard of different streets and areas varies more than it does in the Jewish quarter, the general impression is probably well founded that the level of well-being is somewhat lower. A general indication of this may perhaps be found in the increasing number of Italian women who undertake home work in the clothing trades, and in one district it is among the Itahans that a considerable amount of child labour is employed in the homes on artificial flower making. Although, in spite of the great influx of recent years, the number of Italians in New York is con- siderably less than that of the Jews, the number of colonies they have formed is greater, the explanation of this being largely due not simply to the segregating instincts of the race, and the rapidity with which they follow up new fields of employment, but to the minuter sub-divisions, mainly on the lines of the districts or places of origin, into which they tend to group themselves. In some cases a single Itahan district can be thus sub-divided by those who are able to penetrate beneath an apparent uni- formity of type. In others, an isolated colony may be found, as in some outlying quarter of the Bronx where a feast day, with the accompanying procession, illuminations and religious services, may reveal, even to the outsider, the tiny, distant area from which the great majority of those around him have been drawn. • , i,t • i t i ,, ■• t>.t In the case of the Italians the largest solid colony of to-day— the typical Little Italy of New York— represents an overflow from the older centre and is found to the north-east of Central Park above 98th Street, lying east of Lexington Avenue. It lies towards the north of what is known as the Great East Side— the vast tenement-house area lying roughly between the East River and Third Avenue. The position of Little Italy may be cited as one of several illustrations that New York presents of the influence of contourupon the character of districts. Here the land slopes towards the river east 8 NEW YORK CITY. of Second Avenue, and also drops away after 85th Street has been passed, going north, and it is in the hollow thus formed that this great Itahan colony has grown up— a relatively poor district m a part of the city that is relatively undesirable and inconvenient. Apart from the Jews and ItaUans, there are no well-defined foreign districts of first-rate unpor- tance or of great magnitude. In the case of the above races segregation really means that m their own districts they form the overwhelming majority of the population. In other mstances there are districts in which some section of foreigners may be especially m evidence, as, for instance, the Bohemians, the Germans, or the Irish. But, with the possible exception of the Bohemians, there are now no large areas other than those occupied by the Jews and Italians that are occupied by par- ticular races. Such other instances of well-defined segregation as exist are small, and generally of numerical unimportance, such as that of the Chinese off Chatham Square, or of the Syrians found stm further to the south of Manhattan. The Negro districts are also relatively unimportant, although well defined. They are widely scattered, but in Manhattan it is not until the neighbourhood of 59th Street, west of Ninth Avenue, is reached that any large coloured colony is found. The best known are those occupying West 61st to 64th Streets, west of Amsterdam Avenue, and certain streets further north in Harlem. In Brooklyn there is at least one distinct coloured district, but the negroes hving .m the Bronx are more scattered. The Negro population of New York, in spite of the industrial bar- riers that exist there, although less composite than the native-born white American population, or even the more recent groups of European immigrants, yet contains within itself most of the elements- professional, trading and industrial— that go to make up the life of other and more normally situated communities. The Negro wage-earners, like the great majority of those of every other race in New York, are mainly tenement-house dwellers, and it may be noted here that in no case does type of dweUing dif- ferentiate races. These may be indicated by locahty, by number of rooms occupied, and by other of the various factors that make up the standard of the home, but the general type of dwelling is almost aU-prevailing — that of some form of tenement house. Instances of segregation of various degrees of importance have been mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs, but the composite character of most districts has been also emphasised. Other than the few nationalities that have been mentioned, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to indicate definite locaUties inhabited by this or that race, and none would be harder to find than that occupied exclusively by the "American" working man. In a few cases, in addition to differences of race, special influences making for segregation intervene, as, for instance, in those of the Irish and the ItaUans, whom industrial competition, as well as differences of temperament, tends to keep apart. But, in general, fusion — of which New York is only one of the hundred ethnological laboratories that America is providing — is probably a far greater force even in New York itself than permanence and separateness of type. As a small but instructive illustration of the composite groups that are living side by side, the following Table taken from the Eeport of the City and Suburban Homes Company (1909) may be cited: — Nationalities of Tenants of Three Estates of the City and Suburban Homes Company. Nationality. American Austrian Bohemian Canadian Danish Dutch English Finnish French German Hebrew Hungarian Irish Norwegian Scotch Swedish Swiss Others (including Alsatian, Armenian, Assyrian, Belgian, Cuban, Greek, liindu, Italian, Polish, Roumanian, Russian, Servian and Spanish). Estate 1. 240 6 7 2 17 4 47 6 11 222 7 eg 73 7 11 75 10 Estate 2. 171 2 3 2 1 30 15 40 1 62 18 14 5 7 Estate 3. 94 13 17 2 2 1 5 1 9 153 159 14 3 17 1 17 NEW YORK CITY. Attention has been already directed to the fact that in the Ghetto of the Lower East Side, in spite of the congestion, the death-rate is not excessive. In this is found a tribute not only to the hygienic practices of the Jewish people, but also to the general health administration of the city. The Department primarily responsible is that of Health, but important supplementary influences are those of the Department of Education, through the indirect influence exercised by the schools, the Department of Street Cleansmg, the Tenement House Department, and, in the campaign against tuberculosis to which much attention is now being directed, the Department of PubHc Charities (as controllmg the pubUc hospitals of the city). In addition, there has been active cooperation with various voluntary bodies. The general mortality tables indicate a marked improvement in the health conditions of New York in recent years, and the rates for typhus, scarlet, malarial and typhoid fevers, small-pox, measles, diphtheria and croup are among those that show the most appreciable declines. On the other hand, the figures for cancer and pneumonia are less satisfactory. The death-rate from pulmonary tuber- culosis in recent years has ranged from 2.10 to 2.44 per 1,000 of population, the average for 1898-1907 being 2.24, as compared with 2.76 for the previous decade. Reference will be made later to the very active anti-tuberculosis campaign that is being carried on. The course of infantile mortality has been irregular. The figures are based upon the number of births actuaUy reported, and the rates are therefore somewhat exaggerated. In 1907, for example, 120,722 births were reported throughout the city, whereas in the opinion of the Department of Health a truer figure would have approximated to 130,000. The number of births recorded is being gradually made more complete, but it is admitted that a considerable number still escape registration. Thus a comparison of the rate for the Greater City in 1898, when the figure given was 24.1 per 1,000 of population, with that for 1907, When it was 28.2, the highest recorded, may reflect not so much an actual increase in the rate, although this too may have resulted from the character of recent immigration, as more effective administration. The same considera- tion would apply to the separate figure for Manhattan and the Bronx, which is given as 29.2 for 1907. Subject to these qualifications, the recorded birth-rates per 1,000 of population and the infantile mortahty rate per 1,000 births recorded are shown, for the years 1903-7, in the following Table, which also presents the death-rates per 1,000 of population for the same period. The birth and death rates relate to New York City as a whole, the infantile mortality rates to Manhattan and the Bronx only: — Year Birth-rate recorded per 1,000 of Population. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 25.1 25.5 25.8 26.9 28.2 Death-rate per 1 000 of Population. 18.0 20.0 18.3 18.4 18.5 Infantile Mortality per 1,000 Births recorded. 144 155 154 149 143 Although the ratio of native to foreign-born females is estimated at roughly seven to four, the number of children born to native-born mothers as recorded was 38,361, and to foreign-born mothers, 82,361. These figures have led to the msertion on the authority of the Bureau of Records of the Department of Health of a significant calciilation which goes to show (statistical accuracy is not claimed) that the birth-rate for the foreign-born is between three and four times as high as that for the native-born. "It is obvious," the comment of the Bureau runs, "that the foreign mothers are not shirking the responsibflities of sex, while the native-born mothers are willing and anxious to forego to a considerable extent the honours, pride, and happiness of motherhood." The argument is empha- sized by reference to two blocks, one predominantly Itahan in which the birth-rate was 47 per 1000, and another predominantly Jewish in which the rate was 43.7. The anti-tuberculosis campaign, to which reference has been made, is being carried on in many cities in America, and nowhere with more vigour than in New York. For this great local activity there are perhaps definite local explanations, especially the congested conditions under which large numbers of the people are Uving, and the character of the dwellings. The absence of the open grate is another source of danger, and the whole position is complicated by the presence of large numbers of foreigners, some especially ignorant of hygienic rules, and all having to learn the use of a dietary that is to some extent new, and to adapt themselves to a fresh environment, to a different chmate, and in most cases to a more strenuous life. 10 NEW YORK OITT. Compulsory notification of tuberculosis was partially introduced in 1894, and was extended in 1897. At the present time it is estimated that in Manhattan and the Bronx 90 per cent, of the recog- nised cases are reported. Special tuberculosis dispensaries hare been established, either by the City or by philanthropic bodies, and the whole of Manhattan is now divided up into districts, cases being referred to the local dispensaries for treatment and supervision. The Department of Health acts as a clearing house and over-lapping is to a great extent avoided. During 1907, 5,870 new patients were examined at the various dispensaries in Greater New York. Nurses are attached to these and many patients are visited in their own homes, 6,801 such visits being paid in 1907. There is power of com- pulsory removal, and during 1907 35 cases of pulmonary tuberculosis "were removed to Kiverside Hospital by force as being nuisances and dangerous to those about them." Various other provision is made and other methods are adopted: the free examination of sputum; the free disinfection of rooms; the enforcement of the regulations forbidding spitting in public places; in addition to educa- tional measures of various kinds, such as the delivery of lectures, the issue of leaflets and exhibitions.* The last exhibition was held in the winter of 1908 and was widely advertised. A comprehensive series of lectures was arranged, and the exhibition, which was attended by large numbers, became an important vehicle of propaganda. The opening meeting, at which the Mayor of New York and the President of the Board of Health took part, was also the annual meeting of the Charity Organisation Society, and the occasion- may be cited as illustrating the constructive policy that characterises much of the work of the Associated Charities of America. The key-note of most that is being attempted in connexion with tuberculosis is prevention, and preventive effort, as distinguished from that which is primarily curative or remedial, is characteristic of much that is being attempted in New York in the domain of social amelioration generally. Apart from administrative municipal effort, notably through the medium of the Health, Education and Tenement House Departments, perhaps the branch of the Charity Organisation Society for the Improvement of Social Conditions is at once the most important and the most characteristic. Of this branch the two chief divisions are (1 ) the Tenement House Committee formed to improve the condi- tion of tenement houses, mainly by securing proper legislation and by the enforcement of existing laws; and (2) the Committee for the Prevention of Tuberculosis, formed to aid in every way the movement for the prevention of this disease. Preventive social effort takes, however, manifold forms, as in the promotion of savings and the granting of loans; in benefit societies; in the provision of education and special training; in the direct attempt to improve social conditions; and in the establishment of social settlements, clubs, libraries, reading-rooms and museums. It is noteworthy that the various agencies thus classified and grouped under the general heading of "Preventive Social Work" take up some seventy pages in the New York Charities Directory for 1909, a little volume in which the long enumeration of agencies — philanthropic, educational, religious and administrative — considered relevant to such a directory cover some 650 pages. Among the preventive agencies two characteristic ones may be mentioned: the Industrial Removal Office and the Educational Alliance. The former was established to relieve the Jewish congestion in New York and, in general, to diffuse the Jewish population widely throughout the States. During the first seven years of its operation since its foundation in 1900, nearly 41,000 persons have been sent to no fewer than 1,000 cities and towns ia all parts of the country. The Alliance has much the same general objects in view — the assimilation and Americanisation of the Jewish people — and the distinctive methods adopted are industrial training and general education in English, in American history, &c. The classes for adults in English, held in connexion with the Baron de Hirsch Fund, are attended by very large numbers. The general aim of "Americanisation" is also prominent in much that is undertaken by the Social Settlements which have so multiplied in the United States during the last twenty years, and which are in most cases found in, or in close proximity to, foreign districts. About sixty have been established in New York City. The New York Federation of Churches also owes much of its vitaUty to the same great influence — the immense civic and racial problem presented by the necessity of assimilating year by year a large and complex population. Although the various centres of preventive work are absorbing much thought and effort, organisa- tions that have curative and remedial ends in view are far more numerous and their general classification falls much into line with that which would be adopted for older communities. Thus, the directory to which reference has been made enumerates agencies for the care and relief of needy families in their own homes, be it by material relief, by the provision of employment, by nursing and the care of the sick, or in other See Appendix, pp. 488=491. NEW YORK CITY. 11 ways; relief for destitute, neglected and delinquent children; relief iq permanent and temporary homes for adults; relief for the sick, and relief for the defective. Many hundreds of agencies are enumerated, some almost entirely voluntary in character, working through the medium of the home, and others, both voluntary and "official," through mstitutions. In Manhattan and the Bronx the Charity Organisation Society is itself the chief co-ordinating centre. Among other agencies that may be mentioned is "The New York Association for Improvmg the Condition of the Poor," primarily eleemosynary in character, but, like the Charity Organisation Society itself, developing, as, for instance, through the New York Milk Committee, on constructive lines. The United Hebrew Charities is the chief centre for work, very varied in character, among the Jewish poor. In Manhattan and the Bronx this exists as a separate organisation, but in Brooklyn the corresponding agencies are affiliated to what is there the chief centre, namely, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. The Provident Loan Society, with loans in 1908 averaging £5 15s. Id. and reaching to the number of nearly 300,000, the Children's Aid Society, the branches of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and other activities connected with various religious bodies, the numerous hospitals and homes — municipal, subsidised and entirely voluntary, and the societies formed in the special interests of this or that nationality are among the other organisations or groups of agencies that illustrate the great field that has to be covered by charitable and cognate effort. The contrasts in hfe presented by New York, although perhaps not so complete as those, for instance, of London or Paris, are never- theless vivid and exacting, and in the aggregate the practical response made on behalf of those who are the more necessitous or helpless, or who are themselves, although free from criminality, harmful elements in society, is not unworthy of a great and wealthy community. On the side of public administration those Departments which are the most relevant to this enquiry — Education, Health, in which the sense of collective responsibility finds perhaps its most striking manifestations, and Housing — have been already mentioned. On the whole municipal effort is confined to those matters — communication, drainage, health, the protection of life and property, and education — over which public control is regarded as almost essential under modern urban conditions. Thus none of the larger public utilities, save water, are municipal, gas, electric light, telephones, the surface car system and the elevated railways being all in the hands of private corpora- tions, subject to such public control as is exercised through the conditions laid down when the various concessions were granted, and to the thoroughness with which these conditions are enforced; and also as regards gas, electric lighting and transit facilities, to the powers exercised by the Public Service Commission. The latter body, the outcome of various stages in the direction of public control dating from as far back as 1859, was created by the State legislature in 1907; and its main function may be described as that of securing for the public efficient and co-ordinated service on the part of those corporations with which it is concerned. The powers of the Commission are most important in connexion with rapid transit facilities. In these great extensions are contemplated, and as regards administration concern questions which are perhaps at the moment, with the exception of finance, more vital to the development and unity of New York than any other. In this respect, therefore, the task of co-ordination is of first-rate importance, and since no fresh scheme of underground or elevated railway service can be adopted without the sanction of the Public Service Commission, it is on this body that the extension of existing facilities to a great extent depends. As regards municipal control the "Subway," which is the underground railway of New York, occupies a middle position. This electric system, which began to run in 1904, and is the most used of all the crowded transit facilities in New York, traverses the whole length of Manhattan, bifurcatmg at 104th Street to Bronx Park. To the South the very heart of the City is served, and since 1908 the line has been carried by a tunnel under the East River to Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn. The longest distance traversed is about 15 miles, and the uniform fare is 2^d. Between 96th Street and Brooklyn Bridge Station the line is doubled for an express service. The law requires a minimum speed of 30 miles per hour for the express trams, and the average speed of the whole service in 1907 was 17.66 miles per hour, as compared with 14.75 miles on the Manhattan elevated railways, and 7.08 on the Manhattan surface cars. Thus, relative rapidity of travel as well as the course taken by the Subway increases its importance to the community. 12 NEW TOEK CITY. For this great undertaking, for which the sanction of the State legislature had to be obtained, corporate bonds to the amount of about £10,000,000 have been already issued. The whole contract for construction, equipment and operation was taken over by the lessees, now the Inter-Borough Rapid Transit Company, to whom the Subway is rented. Extensions have been sanctioned both to the North in the Bronx, and to the South along Fourth Avenue in Brooklyn. It may be noted that the public motor-omnibus service is in an early and apparently inactive stage of development in New York, a cumbrous and relatively expensive five-penny service in Fifth Avenue, along which no tram line is allowed, being the chief instance of this means of locomotion. Among the striking undertakings of the city the bridges take a leading place, and those constructed over the East River are famous. The Brooklyn Bridge, opened in 1883, has been followed by the Wil- liamsburg Bridge, opened at the end of 1903, and by the Queensborough Bridge, opened in 1909. The Manhattan Bridge crossing the river only a few hundred yards north of the old Brooklyn Bridge is nearly completed. The Brooklyn and Williamsburg bridges are most used, and the former, traversed by Elevated Railway, surface cars, vehicles and pedestrians, is daily the scene of great congestion. This is largely owing to the fact that the Manhattan side is at present a terminus for the enormous volume of traffic con- verging there; but the new Manhattan Bridge and a project now approaching completion, by which these two bridges and the WUhamsburg Bridge will be made parts of a loop system, are expected to give considerable rehef . Queensborough Bridge, when opened was not Unked with any transit system whatever, but this comparative waste of a great enterprise is not likely to continue for long, and the effect of this bridge in opening up extensive areas in the borough of Queens is destined to be of great importance. These three bridges, the subway tunnel to Brooklyn, and the two tunnels already completed under the Hudson River, are stiU supplemented by ferry services both to B ooklyn and Queens and to the New Jersey side. But bridges and tunnels are already and are destined to be still more completely in the future, the chief channels of inter-communication between Manhattan, the other boroughs, and New Jersey. It is by them that physical unity is being completed and the area of development extended. In the same way the use of the Belmont tunnel under the East River at 42nd Street, constructed but so far unused because of legal obstacles, and the completion of the great enterprise of the Pennsyl- vania Railroad Company, by which its whole system will be not only brought into direct communication with Manhattan but also with Long Island, may possibly still further tend to ease the congestion of Manhattan and will certainly hasten the development of outlying districts. Of the great thoroughfares in Manhattan, Broadway alone traverses the whole borough. From the southern end it runs due north for more than two miles as far as East 10th Street, but from that point for more than three miles to West 79th Street it trends in a north-westerly direction, thus breaking a scheme of rectangular planning otherwise almost unrelieved. Fifth Avenue, starting at the south end from Washington Square, about two miles from the Battery, almost bisects Manhattan, and streets lying on either side are distinguished as "East" and "West" accordingly. At first commercial in character, with a sprinkling of the older hotels and flanked by two or three of the most select residential streets in New York, the Avenue, always retaining an air of structural distinction, soon becomes one of the chief centres of the garment industry. Factories, offices and warehouses are numerous here, and in the dinner hour the employees of the neighborhood, mainly Jewish men, throng the pavements. Above 23rd Street the character changes, and the beginning of that part which forms the best-known shopping street in New York, and thus in America, is reached. Hotels, restaurants, clubs, churches, pubhc and other buildings are numerous in this section of the Avenue. At and facing Central Park a long range of private mansions begins. Above Central Park the Avenue is still mainly residential in character, but on a less imposing and increasingly modest scale, and further north houses in multiple occupation are reached. The lateral streets occur at intervals of 200 feet, and, including the street spacing, about twenty of the building "blocks" thus formed go to the mile. The regular planning of the streets begins about two miles north of the Battery, and the three to eight mile distances from the Battery itself are reached at 24th, 44th, 63rd, 83rd, 102nd and 121st Streets. To the city boundary at the north of the Bronx the distance is nearly 16 miles. NEW YORK OITY. 13 Most of the lateral streets in Manhattan are 60 feet in width from building to building, with path- ways 15 feet wide, but at irregular intervals twenty of them, like most of the Avenues, are 100 feet in . width, and these become in almost every case important thoroughfares for shopping and other purposes. The other Avenues of Manhattan, most of them important centers of retail trade, run parallel to Fifth Avenue. To the north, across the Harlem River, the borough of the Bronx at furst maintains much of the character of that part of Manhattan from which it is divided by the river, and Third Avenue itself is directly continued in the northern borough. While the extension of Manhattan has necessarily proceeded in a northerly direction, Brooklyn from the outset has had much greater room for expansion, and its comparative freedom from physical barriers has been an important contributory cause of the relatively uncongested conditions that pre- vail there. From the business centre of Brooklyn, focussing in Fulton Street and round the City HaU, the great thoroughfares can radiate freely to the north and south and to the east. The pubhc parks and open spaces of New York City cover nearly 8,000 acres, and the enumeration, large and small — some being really only city squares — includes over 100 names. Central Park in Manhattan, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, Forest Park in Queens and the Bronx, the Van Cortland and the Pelham Bay Parks in the Bronx are the largest. Foresight in park provision has been best exemphfied in the last-named borough, which contains three of the largest and most beautiful parks and more than half the park area of the whole city. Manhattan, although possessing the famous Central Park with 843 acres and having a few more acres of park land than Brooklyn, has in view of its great population the most inadequate provision, and the need of open spaces there would be far more urgent were it not for the insular formation of the borough. South of Central Park, which begins at a point nearly five miles from the Battery, the most important open space is a Httle park of some 21 acres at Battery Point abutting on the Hudson and East rivers. Apart from this no open space in this area, which as has been seen covers the most thickly populated section of the city, is more than eleven acres in extent, and such small open spaces as exist are few in number. A few playgrounds are maintained and these, although falhng behind the high standard set by the model system of Chicago, and lacking the distinctive pubhc haUs of those admirable centres, are greatly used. Special provision is made for the children, and at one playground visited in the course of this enquiry on a hot Saturday morning the seats thronged by adults, the enclosure and equipment of gymnastic apparatus for the boys, the reserve for girls with its equipment, and the roofed-in construction for children — with dolls-house, sand-heap and other attractions — were note- worthy features. For the children an attendant was in general charge. The foregoing are under the Park Department of the City, but in the more crowded parts some supplementary provision is made by the Board of Education in the form of vacation playgrounds, afternoon playgrounds for mothers and babies and evening roof playgrounds. In all, for the season of 1908, some ninety centres of these various descriptions were provided. Similar provision is also made by a few of the Social Settlements, but when all is said, the streets both in Manhattan and Brooklyn bear daily witness to the undue importance which these still retain as substitutes for open spaces. Other forms of pubhc provision are the New York public library, based on four great benefactions, with numerous branches m Manhattan, the Bronx and Richmond; the Brooklyn public library, and the Queens Borough public library; baths — floating and interior; a municipal lodging house; a few markets — mainly wholesale; nine recreation piers, retained and opened for this use from May to September by the Department of Docks and Ferries, and a municipal ferry to Staten Island. Public conveniences are still conspicuous by their absence, there being only some fifteen in the whole city. As regards the government of the City of New York, the form and constitution are, like those of the majority of American cities, determined by the State legislature. The Charter under which the present city exists dates from 1902, and by this Charter and by supplementary and amending legis- lation, the modes of election or appointment of city representatives and executive officers, and the various departments of city government and their powers are determined. The Board of Aldermen is the chief representative body and consists of a President elected on a general ticket, of 73 members elected for the various aldermanic districts of the city, and of the Borough Presidents — an office that is distinctive of the New York municipal constitution. Although the Board is regarded as the body in which the legislative power remaining with the City is vested, the Mayor of New York has the power either of suspensory, or, in the case of the granting of a concession, absolute veto 14 NEW YORK CITY. over its decisions. Its spending power is also mainly subject to the recommendations of a much smaller body called the Board of Estimates and Apportionment. This latter Board is at present composed of the Mayor, the Comptroller — the head of the Department of Finance, the President of the Board of Aldermen and the Borough Presidents. The first three are elected by the whole constituency and" the rest by the respective boroughs — all for a period of four years. Voting power on the Board is unequal, the chief members casting three votes each, the Presidents of the Boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn two votes each and the other Presidents one vote each. The central figure of the Executive of the City is the Mayor, and in his office great powers, not only legislative, largely through the power of the veto, but also of nomination and removal, are vested. The scheme of government as regards the whole City includes a series of Departments, the heads of most of which are Commissioners appointed and removable by the Mayor. Among other Depart- ments to which this arrangement applies are those of the Police, Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, Bridges, Parks (with three Commissioners), PubHc Charities, Fire, Docks and Ferries, Taxes and Assessments, and Tenement House. The Department of Health is presided over by a Board of three — the Commissioner of Health appointed by the Mayor, the Police Commissioner and the Health Officer of the Port — the last appointed by the Governor and Senate of the State. The Department is divided into two Bureaus — Sanitary and Registration — and the Superintendent of the great organisation modestly described by the former title is the Chief Executive Officer of the whole. The Public Education system is again exceptional, general control being vested in a Board con- sisting of 46 members appointed by the Mayor for a five years term, one-fifth retiring annually. The chief control of the actual administration is in the hands of a Board of Superintendents — the Chief and eight Associates — themselves appointed by the General Board, but the vast system requires much devolution and an elaborate organisation. On July 31st, 1908, there were 490 Elementary Schools and 19 High Schools under the control of the Board. The average daily attendance at all schools during the years 1907-8 was 545,098, and the total expenditure for school purposes, including new buildings, for the year ending July 31st, 1908, was £7,857,962. A distinctive feature of New York government consists in its recognition of a certain degree of borough autonomy, the whole of the City being divided up into 25 Local Improvement Districts, the "local board" for which consists of the Aldermen resident therein and the President of the borough within which they fall. It is through the medium of its President that the borough as a municipal unit finds its chief political recognition. The powers ahke of the local boards and of the Presidents themselves are concerned mainly with the maintenance and improvement of streets and roads and the system of drainage and sewerage, and in the issue of building permits. In the latter function respon- sibility is shared with the Tenement House Department, to which plans of tenement houses have also to be submitted for approval. Local expenditure is subject to various constitutional checks that have not always in practice been found to work well. The Borough Presidents report to the Mayor of New York, but are removable not by him but by the Governor of the State. In 1908 the total appropriation of the City Budget was nearly £30,000,000. Current expendi- ture is met to a great extent by temporary loans raised on "revenue bonds," payable in the current or succeeding year, but in the long run and apart from this device the main income is derived from the taxation of real estate. Among other sources of income, the following may be mentioned: taxation of certain forms of personal property, special taxes on bank shares, special assessments for local improvements. State subsidy for schools, licenses, and water, pier, Subway and other rents. Roughly, about three-fourths of the total expenditure is ultimately met by the taxation of real estate. The basis of assessment of this is market value, and in New York, with perhaps greater com- pleteness now than elsewhere, an analysis of the assessment is made as between land and "improve- ment" (or building) values. The relation between the two varies greatly in different parts of the city, as, for instance, between Lower Broadway and some outlying section of Queens or the Bronx, and whereas in the latter districts the value of the improvements might easily exceed by many times the value of the land, on some sites of the -former district it would be practically impossible, no matter what the height or what the elaborateness of the structure, to erect a building of a value equal to that of the land. In 1909 the general percentage of land value to total assessed value of ordinary real estate in Manhattan was 66.4 as compared with 47.2 in Brooklyn. NEW YORK CITY. 15 Assessments axe made amiually, and the real estate market is taken as the chief guide. In the assessment of buildings figures per square foot of floor surface are adopted as "factors" of cost, and these figures, necessarily different for different classes of buildings, and ranging from about 4s. 2d. to 41s. Sd. per square foot, give by the simple method of calculation adopted an approximation to the total figure of assessable value required. For the purpose of this calculation it is essential that par- ticulars both as regards the size of the building plot and class of structure, including the number of floors, should be available, and for the general task of assessment accurate maps under constant revision. The "factor" or basis for calculating the value of buildings for assessment purposes naturally varies greatly for different classes of property, but as an illustration it may be mentioned that ia one thickly-populated district tenement houses in its better localities, with dwellings letting at from 16s. 8(Z. to 20s. 10<^. per month per room, were assessed at from 5s. 5d. to 5s. lOdl. per square foot of their floor surface. Thus, disregarding, as is done in practice, spaces left vacant for light and air, if such a dwelling in this district was five stories high, 60 feet deep, and occupied a building plot 25 feet wide, the assessed value per square foot would have to be multiplied by 60 by 25 by 5 to get the assessable value of the building, which would thus in the above instance be from £2,031 to £2,187 10s. Exemptions include federal and municipal property, churches, hospitals, &c., and the total values thus omitted in 1909 were put at £270,000,000. The figures are large, but those for the total assess- ment are still more imposing, as the following Table shows : — Assessed Value of Real Estate in the City of New York (1909). £ Manhattan 961, 342, 976 The Bronx 96, 396, 668 Brooklyn, 282,252,050 Queens 64, 190, 126 Richmond 13, 980, 618 Total 1,418, 162,438 Assessment values have, it may be noted, no legal validity save for taxation purposes, and the ratio of assessment to actual selling value in New York would vary in dinerent parts of the city, largely according as market values were stationary or not. The general ratio can, however, probably be ap- proxinaately stated as 85 per cent. The tax-rate, which varies slightly between borough and borough because they are situated in different counties, and because the relatively small county expenses are a county charge, was, in 1909, for Manhattan and the Bronx 1.68 per cent, of the assessed values, and for Brooklyn 1.74 per cent. The assessment of personal property is admittedly incomplete and inaccurate, and the valuation for 1909 was about £92,000,000. Seventy-five per cent, of the property assessed as personal is in the borough of Manhattan. Pubhc municipal indebtedness is Mmited by a general provision of the Constitution of the State of New York to 10 per cent, of the assessed value of real estate, and, as at present calculated, the city has in recent yeats approached the hmit thus imposed. Occupations, Wages and Houks of Labour. Like many other cities of the first magnitude. New York is a large centre of manufacture, but, important as its occupations faUing under this general heading are, its leading characteristic even as a centre of employment is found rather in its commercial and trading supremacy than in its productive enterprises. As a great emporium, the city of New York is unrivalled in America, but some of its most important industries find their chief explanation in the ordinary demands of a vast population and in the structural requirements of a great and expanding community. With the exception of the garment industry, New York is the centre of no other of great magnitude which produces for a wide outside market; and trade and transportation — the occupations provided largely by a great port and a great railway and commercial centre — absorb, as is indeed a common experience, by far the greatest single aggregate of the occupied classes. 16 NEW YORK CITY. Some conception of the magnitude of New York as a sea-port may be derived from the following summary, relating to the years 1905-9: — Year ended June 30th. Tonnage Entered and Cleared in the Foreign Trade. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. Number of Passengers arriving at the Port. 1905 Tons. 18, 942, 380 20, 390, 953 21, 855, 946 24, 094, 744 24, 395, 136 141, 589, 428 152, 989, 755 177, 853, 532 143, 378, 320 162, 356, 030 109, 317, 918 126, 491, 732 130, 822, 887 146, 054, 774 126, 508, 225 989, 504 1906 1, 068, 847 1907 1, 263, 042 1908 843, 597 1909 894, 577 Since 1900, as is shown by the Table on page 3, the City of New York has grown rapidly, and the expansion will doubtless be reflected when the occupation figures of the Census of 1910 are available, but there is no reason to suppose that the relative extent of the respective fields of employment is inaccurately indicated by the results of the Census of 1900. The following table is therefore given, showing in large groups the number of persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in occupations in the City of New York in 1900, the last year for which complete occupation figures are available: — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in New Yorlc City in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making Hat and Cap Making Other Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Glass Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupatious 98, 877 58, 775 7,592 4,055 12, 241 2,619 61, 994 21, 100 29, 186 2,211 45, 155 75, 789 405, 675 98, 531 178, 671 407 1,790 11, 112 656 1,046 1,379 80, 542 1,111 8,753 83 8,435 17, 221 65, 318 1,714 167, 870 99, 284 60, 565 18, 704 4,711 13, 287 3,998 142, 536 22, 211 37, 939 2,294 53, 590 93, 010 470, 993 100, 245 346, 541 1, 102, 471 367, 437 1, 469, 908 Probably the industry that will be found to have made the largest advance will prove to be the garment industry, of which New York, although steadily pressed by the increasing competition of Chicago and other places, remains by far the chief centre in America. It may be noted that in this industry, in which wages enter largely as an element of the cost of production, and in which, therefore, an abundant supply of suitable labour is a prime condition of expansion, the City of New York is espe- cially favoured as being the port of arrival for the vast majority of immigrants from Europe. As measured by the value of their products, the following are some of the other more important manufactures: printing and pubhshing; tobacco, cigars and cigarettes; bread and other bakery prod- ucts; malthquors; foundry and machine shop products; millinery and lace goods; fur goods; musical instruments; and there are very large single estabhshments for sugar refining, copper smelting and refining, and petroleum refining. As New York City is the chief point of disembarkation for the whole country, its industrial popu- lation naturally reflects much of the cosmopoUtanism of the American population, and reference has been already made to some of the larger foreign districts of the city. No recent figures are, however, available to show in which trades the various nationalities are mainly absorbed, and in this respect the Census figures for 1900 are less instructive than in the general indication they give of the relative magni- tude of the occupations, since changes in the nationalities employed are apt to proceed more rapidly NEW YORK CITY. 17 than those affecting the relative importance of occupations or industries themselves. But, remem- bering that such changes are in active progress and that this constant tendency to an alteration in the personnel of the rank and file of industry is one of the characteristic industrial phenomena of America, the following figures may still be usefully given. For the reasons mentioned they will illustrate in some cases rather the racial complexity of the occupied classes in the City of New York than their relative numerical importance : — Number of Males of 10 years of age and over engaged in certain Occupations in New Yorlc City in 1900, classified according to Parent Nativity. Occupations. Masons (brick and stone) Carpenters and Joiners Plasterers Plumbers and Gas and Steam Fitters. Painters, Glaziers and Varnishers Machinists Tailors Boot and Shoe Makers and Repairers. Piano and Organ Makers Upholsterers Printers, Lithographers and Pressmen. Bookbinders Bakers Tobacco and Cigar Factory Operatives Steam Railway Employees Street Railway Employees Engineers and Firemen (not locomo- tive). Draymen, Hackmen, Teamsters, &c.. Labourers (not specified) Number of Persons of Native Parent- age. 1,542 5,182 376 3,163 4,536 3,315 627 607 266 349 5,322 680 479 404 3,465 1,429 3,791 10, 659 10, 043 Number of Persons having either both parents born as specified or one parent born as specified and one parent native. Germany. 2,087 7,623 510 3,463 8,597 5,375 9,372 2,716 1,704 1,538 5,694 1,137 7,606 3,773 1,695 1,231 3,092 13, 055 12, 517 Ireland. 4,656 4,970 1,847 6,342 4,111 2,999 ■ 1, 143 1,164 192 346 4,923 746 807 201 4,339 3,718 5,930 19, 367 39, 807 Great Britain. 1,448 2,792 501 1,351 2,022 1,913 444 379 101 174 1,951 284 307 321 776 333 1,526 2,117 2,290 Italy. 2,319 1,305 428 189 750 295 4,843 4,206 191 32 401 123 643 518 333 51 193 1,486 22, 690 Russia, Austria- Hungary and Poland. 229 2,583 97 862 4,021 801 36, 735 2,480 157 529 1,252 387 1, 532 4, 965 357 158 258 1,543 6,319 Scandina- vian and Other Countries, including Pensons of Mixed Foreign Parentage. 632 5,449 2C0 1,244 3,098 2,543 2,930 689 311 373 1,978 310 686 1,507 866 455 1,789 2,836 4,865 Total. 12, 913 29, 904 4,019 16, 614 27, 135 17, 241 56, 094 12, 241 2,922 3,341 21, 521 3,667 12, 060 11, 689 11, 831 7,375 16, 579 51, 063 98, 531 Particulars are given in the Table on pages 22-23 as to the length of the working week in various industries, and the predominant range under normal conditions is shown to be from 44 to 54 hours. In the building trades a 44-hour week is generally recognised, that is, eight hours on the first five days in the week and a half-day on Saturday. Apart from this important group of trades a short working Saturday is exceptional, but, with a working week of varying length, the following are instances of other trades in which or in sections of which the Saturday half-holiday is recognised : clothiers' cutters and trimmers; cigarmakers; lithographers; carriage builders; and wire workers. By some firms the half-holiday is observed in the summer months but not at other times of the year, the hotter weather and seasonal depression not infrequently tending to coincide. Longshoremen, when engaged by the day or week, when the regular day is from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m., including an interval of one hour, and teamsters are instances of occupations in which a comparatively long working day prevails, while the employees of the Consolidated Gas Company, with their day and night shifts of 12 hours, including one hour for meals, and half a day off when the shift is changed fortnightly, may be mentioned as illustrating a still longer working week. The holidays generally observed are some six or eight in the year, the most usual being — New Year's Day, Memorial Day (falling in May), Independence Day (July 4), Labour Day (the first Monday in September), Thanksgiving Day (a day in November proclaimed annually by the President of the 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 8 18 NEW YORK CITY. United States) and Christmas Day. Less generafly recognised are Lincoln's birthday (February 12) and Washington's birthday (February 22). The gradual change in the character of Labour Day may be noted, the tendency being for it to become less of a day of demonstration or of propaganda and more of an ordinary holiday, when wage-earners hardly less than others participate in the usual attrac- tions or avaU themselves of the opportunities for rest that offer. As regards the method of remuneration a clear general distinction between time and piece rates is difficult to draw owing to the normal tendency of the former to be based on measured output and of the latter to conform approximately to the time required in execution. In some occupations, such as certain branches of the garment industry, the adoption of a "time-task" system may obliterate any essential distinctions between the two methods of payment, but, in general, payment appears to be by time rather than by piece. Among piano workers and cigarmakers, however, piece work is the more generally accepted method. The same plan is also adopted by some sections of bookbinders, wood- workers and coopers ; among a few printers, and in various sections of the garment industry, as often among machine operators, pressers and finishers. The building trades and foundries and machiae shops are iastances of fields of employment in which, while there is scope for the adoption of either method, wages are almost always calculated by time. The "premium" system appears to be unrecognised. In spite of the fact that the organisation of labour is to some extent handicapped by the position of New York as the port of arrival of great numbers of immigrants year by year, the trade unions are on the whole able to maintain a considerable degree of effectiveness. To some extent this is probably explained by the exceptional importance of maintaining labour organisations at as high level of efficiency as possible in a market that might easily if neglected become one of the most disorganised in the country. But the normal difficulty of the situation is lessened — (1) by the fact that the more skilled and thus, cseteris paribus, the more highly organised trades are not those which are most affected by the labour that arrives from Europe, and, (2) probably to a still greater extent and certainly more fundamentally by the general prosperity of the city, by its rapid expansion, by the number and variety of its enter- prises, both pubhc and private, by the fluid character of much of its own population, and thus by its power to absorb year by year large numbers of new comers. In its activity, growth and prosperity are thus found the main explanations, alike of the frequently high prevailing rates of wages, and of a degree of strength, maintained by its labour organisations which, under the conditions involved by a com- munity so vast and so cosmopolitan, is noteworthy. Naturally the strength maintained is not uniform; the building and printing trades may be mentioned as among the most completely organised large groups, and the garment workers as a great industry in which active organisations are able to secure the adhesion of but a small percentage of the total occupied. It is noteworthy that the strikes among tailors which have come to be regarded as almost aimual occurrences usually take place among the unorganised section of the trade — a phenom- enon which is explained by trade unionists as being due to the inferiority of the conditions under which non-members work. Save for the existence of the United Hebrew Trades — an association of nearly 50 different unions, or branches of unions, and claiming a total affiliation of some 28,000 members — the trade unions in the City of New York are grouped on the customary plan laid down by the American Federation of Labour. Thus each trade has its own office or address, and in the large unions with various branches or "locals," an office which in relation to these branches is itself a centre. These various local units are grouped into what constitutes the real urban unit — "The City Central," which is itself affiUated to the national and international organisation known as the American Federation of Labour. To this Federation the United Hebrew Trades already mentioned are also alfihated. The local trade unions were somewhat weakened by the depression of 1907 and 1908, but in Septem- ber of the latter year the total membership was 239,538, of whom 7,135 were women. The total mem- bership is scattered through 704 organisations. This large number is to some extent explained by the sectional organisation that takes place either on the basis of a particular locality, largely that of the borough, or on the basis of nationality. Thus, as illustrating the latter point, among compositors, one NEW YORK CITY. 19 of the most effectively organized of all the groups, there are ia addition to the English-speaking socie- ties, including the branch of the International Typographical Union known as "Big Six," with its membership of over 6,000, separate societies or branches for the Yiddish, Hungarian, Bohemian and Italian printers. Figures are furnished to the State Department of Labour and are published, but always in a form that makes it impossible to connect particulars with any individual organisation. The number and membership of different societies in the main groups in September, 1908, were as follows: — Number and Member sM-p of Labour Organisations in the City of New York in September, 1908. Group of Trades. Number of Organisa- tions. Number of Members. Males. Females. Building, &c Transport Clothing and Textiles Metal, Machinery, and Shipbuilding Printing, Bookbinding, &c Woodworking and Furniture Food and Dnnk Theatres and Music Tobacco , Restaurants, Trade, &c Public Employment Stationary Engine Men Miscellaneous Total , 217 76 79 75 37 42 33 13 13 22 47 28 22 704 84, 175 30, 228 20, 381 13, 889 20, 276 7,954 9,858 11, 138 5,330 4,514 12, 759 8,422 3,479 232, 403 16 2,701 994 40 1,148 2,150 15 11 60 7,135 The principle of the joint trade agreement is widely recognised, and although necessarily limited in its application not only to the trades that are organised on both sides, but also often to sections only of such trades, it is taking its place as one of the most important ways in which industrial peace may be either restored or maintained. The creation of a Trade Agreement section of the National Civic Federation, of which the headquarters are in New York, and the recent appointment at the head of this section of one of the best known and most respected trade unionists in America, is significant in this connexion, as is also the importance given to the collection of such agreements by the Bureau of Mediation and Arbitration, a branch of the State Department of Labour in which this responsibility is vested. The scope of the agreements necessarily varies, but in addition to such points as wages, hours and working rules, the question of union preference is generally dealt with, while the machinery is fre- quently provided for the settlement of disputes and, according to the requirements and character of the trade, also the question of apprenticeship. Among the trades or occupations in which, or in important sections of which, written and formal agreements are in effective operation may be mentioned: — the building trades, printing trades, mould- ers, coopers, bakers and confectioners, garment workers, portable hoistiag engineers and teamsters. Probably the most important body of ordinary trade agreements exists in the building trades, their special interest being due to the superior agreement by which their effectiveness is being ensured, and by which even in sections of the trade in which no agreement may exist, industrial peace is being maintained. The superior agreement is known as the Joint Arbitration Plan between the Building Trades Employers' Association and the Unions of the Building Trades of the City of New York. The inception of the Plan is traced to the unsettlement which prevailed in these trades prior to 1903, and to the forma- tion then of a general association of building trade employers. In New York, as in most other American cities these trades are more sub-divided than in England, and at the present time the Board of Govern- ors of the Association in New York is composed of representatives of a least 32 allied associations. 20 NEW YORK CITY. Prior to 1903 organisation on the side of wage-earners was more complete and more concentrated than on that of employers, and the normal effect of more united action on the part of the latter has followed. The Plan of Arbitration was originally enforced by a lock-out, and was thus in a sense compul- sory, but two years after its acceptance a joint conference was held at which the Plan was considered and amended, since when it may be regarded as a voluntary agreement. According to the rules of the Plan all disputes in trades in which trade agreements eicist shall, if not otherwise adjusted, be at once referred to a General Arbitration Board, and all disputes in trades which have no agreements shall be similarly referred. Many hundreds of such disputes have been thus adjusted, and in the demai'cation of work as between different sections of the trade, and thus in the removal of the vexed question of "overlapping," much has also been effected by the present machinery. The employers who are parties to the Arbitration Plan and to an agreement under it agree to employ members of trade unions only, afld individual action — be it a strike against a member of the Association or a lock-out by such a member — is prohibited. The keynote of the Plan is a complete and representa- tive organisation on both sides, combined responsibility, and, if necessary, united action.* The following figures of female employment are drawn from the same source as those given on page 17 for males, and the comments given there apply both as to the significance and as to the limitations of the particulars given. Numbers of Females of 10 years of age and over engaged in certain Occupations in New YorTc City in 1900, classified according to Parent Nativity. Occupations. Tailoresses Seamstresses Dressmakers Milliners Laundresses Artificial Flower Makers Boxmakers (Paper) Bookbinders Tobacco and Cigar Factory Operatives Servants and Waitresses Numbers of Persons of Native Parent- age. 612 1,982 6,174 1,360 4,089 117 582 902 127 16, 637 Number of Persons having either both parents born as specified, or one parent born as specified and one parent native. Germany. 3,568 3,112 8,252 2,063 2,882 433 717 670 463 18, 639 Ireland. 756 3,338 11, 624 1,590 6,618 195 1,008 1,791 423 43, 767 Great Britain. 124 572 2,009 440 423 25 100 254 28 3,123 Italy. 3,831 1,015 1,498 97 299 301 136 34 663 790 Russia, Austria- Hungary and Poland. 5,500 6,600 3,762 1,236 589 488 353 90 4,592 10, 244 Scandina- vian and Other Countries, including Persons of Mixed Foreign Parentage . 678 1,489 4,195 865 1,202 112 198 345 141 10, 763 Total. 15, 069 18, 108 37, 514 7,651 16, 102 1,671 3,094 4,086 6,437 103, 963 An important change in female employment that has been taking place in recent years has been the increasing number of Italians who have been entering the tailoring trade. This movement has been marked both among male and female Italians, and has been accompanied by a drift away from the trade of considerable numbers of Jews, also of both sexes. But the displacement of Jewish women and girls by the Italians has been the most well-defined change, and a trade union official went so far as to assert that "without a doubt in New York City to-day there are a hundred Italian women and girls to one Jewess, who a few years ago practically controlled the women's branches of the clothing industry." It is by the Italian women that nearly all the finishing homework is now done. As between " home " and "factory " the normal tendency is that when all parts of a commodity can be made by a machine the factory generally monopolises the work. Thus, in the ready-made tailoring most of the operations are carried on in the factory, while bespoke work, which is widely scattered through- out the city, is much more frequently a home industry. In this branch of the trade most women, often * For text of the Plan of Arbitration see Appendix, pp. 441-3. The text of agreements in the New York printing trade is also given on pp. 430-6. NEW YORK CITY. 21 German, are employed in making vests, coats and trousers being mainly made by men. Blouses which can be made mostly on the machine are mainly factory products, as also are ready-made dresses, waists and skirts. Homework in the dressmaking trades, again widely scattered, is mainly custom work, and is followed by various nationalities— Italians, Germans, Jews, etc., but more American women are said to be found among dressmakers than in any other women's industry. The bespoke tailor-made ladies' garments are also said to be for the most part home or "tenement house" products, and their manufacture is frequently connected with a workroom attached to a shop. Underwear or white-work, and aprons, which can be completed on the machine, are other instances of industries in which there is now little inducement, unless in times of exceptional pressure, to send the material out to the home. On the other hand both feather making and artificial flowers illustrate opposite conditions. In both these cases the operatives are mainly Italian women and girls, the former industry being localised mainly in "Little Italy" on the Upper East Side, and the latter, in which some French are also engaged, being found rather in the Lower West Side. A special inspection by factory inspectors in 1907 of children working in tenements in two Italian streets in this district showed that, out of 90 found engaged more or less intermittently on homework, 84 were employed in artificial flower making. Cigarette making is also to a considerable extent a female home industry, and is largely a Jewish occupation localised in the Lower East Side. The regulation of homework, which in the City of New York is deflned as "tenement made articles," is vested in the Bureau of Factory Inspection of the New York State Department of Labour. Upon this Bureau devolves the duty of registration, licensing, inspection and enforcement. Employers giving out work are required to keep a register of the names and addresses of persons so employed, and before giving out the work to ascertain from the office of the Commissioner of Labour whether or not the house at the address in question is licensed. A list of licensed tenement houses is pubhshed frequently, and that for July, 1909, contained several thousand addresses, besides some 400 in respect of which licenses had been refused, practically always on sanitary grounds, and about the same number in respect of which hcenses had been cancelled or revoked. Almost all the licensed houses are in Manhattan and Brooklyn, and the greatest number are in the former borough. The list of homeworkers, which is unlikely to be complete, contains a total of a httle less than 19,000 names. The plan of licence and inspection, reinforced by favourable economic tendencies — especially the increasing sectionalism of the work and the greater use of power — have by common consent greatly ameliorated the conditions of tenement house employment, and it is claimed by some whose sympathies are with the operatives that the old-fashioned "sweat-shop" has been abolished. But it is also contended that as regards the long hours and the pressure the old conditions are tending to be reproduced in some of the workshops, especially in those of the garment industry itself, in which a task system of remunera- tion is being adopted. In a prosperous, growing, and to a great extent new community, such as is the City of New York, in which the prevaiUng standard of expenditure is high; in which, as will be seen, house-room is expen- sive; in which considerable sections of workers are strengthened by effective trade union action; in which the prevailing minimum for unskilled labour is from 37s. 6d. to 50s. per week, and which is itself moreover, the chief radiating point for half a continent still in the early stages of an immense development, it is natural to expect that the predominant rates of wages will be relatively high, and in many trades relatively uniform. And this is the case. But also in a great and complex community such as New York, with an almost constant infusion of the "greener" element seeking its market in strange and, for a time at least, adverse surroundings; with the inevitable element of the relatively inefficient that great cities in America, as in Europe, tend to attract and to hold; and with that minority of famihes which, handicapped by misfortune, by vice by siclcness or by other causes, bulks large in great communities, it is inevitable that the annual earrings of the chief breadwinner, and even of the whole family, should in many instances fall to a low and insufficient level. The number and activity of the various charitable agencies at work, to which reference has been made, are themselves reminders of the prevalence and even of the serious numbers of these "poor" members of the community. But the larger facts and the pre- dominant characteristics of the industrial situation are otherwise, and, in as far as these are indicated 22 NEW YORK CITY. by prevailing rates of wages, are reflected in the following Table, in which the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour of adult males in certain principal occupations in February, 1909, are given: Predominant WeeHy Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building trades: — Bricklayers Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers .- Painters Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers. Plasterers' Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops:- Ironmoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers Tailoring Trades: — Cutters Trimmers Machine Operators. Pressers Woodworking and Furnishing Trades:- Cabinetmakers Polishers Varnishers Upholsterers Labourers Piano Making: — Woodworking Machinists. Bellymen Ac tion Regulators Polishers Varnishers Printing and Bookbinding Trades: — Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine {Ni'^7wOTk ' Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors PrBHsmPn/^y^^"'^®'^ Presses ■^■^^^^nSmall Presses Bookbinders Brewing*:— Cellar and Kettle Men. Wash-house Men Route Drivers . Stable Men Cigarmaking: — Cigarmakers. Packers... J ^ Transport Trades: — Longshoremen Regular Labourers General Drivers, Teamsters- One horse Two horses 128s. 4d. 91s. 8d. to 100s. lOd. ns.Sd. „ 114s. 7d. 103s. 2rf. „ 114s. 7rf. 126s. Id. 114s. 7d. 103s. 2d. 80s. 3d. 68s. 9d. lis. 6d. 81s. Zd. 66s. 8d. to 81s. Sd. 90s. to 112s. 6d. 90s. „ 112s. 6d. 33s. M. to 50s. 54 54 54 54 54 83s. 4c?. to 100s. 75s. to 83s. id. 58s. 4c?. to 104s. 2d. 50s. ,, 75s. 48 to 54 48 „ 54 52 „ 59 52 „ 59 62s. ed. to 75s. 58s. id. „ 75s. 45s. lOd. „ 62s. 6d. 50s. to 75s. 37s. 6d. 53 to 59 53 „ 59 59 59 53 to 59 62s 6d. to 83s, id. 75s. to 91s. Sd. 75s. ,, 83s. 4rf. 75s. ,, 81s. 3rf. 62s. 6d. to 75s. 54 54 54 54 54 116s. 8d. to 125s. 129s. 2d. 48 48 87s. 6d. 95s. lOd. 100s. 75s. 75s. to 87s. 6d. 48 48 48 48 48 75s. 66s. 8d. 75s. 62s. 6d. 54 54 62 62 45s. lOrf. to 66s. 8d. 75s. to 83s. id. 44 to 54 44 „ 54 Is. Sd. per hour. 54s. 2d. to 62s. 6rf. 60 50s. „ 54s. 2d. 54s. 2d. „ 62s. 6d. Variable 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 ■ In addition to the money wages, free beer is allowed. NEW YORK OITY. 23 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Public Services: — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning- Pa viors Paviors' Labourers and Rammers Road Menders Road Sweepers Drivers Water Works (Municipal)- Labourers. Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light Works (Company) — Wiremen Wiremen's Helpers Meter Testers Electric Railways (Companies) — Motormen — Ist year After 1st year ConductorsJ — 1st year 2nd year , 3rd „ After 3rd year. Guards§ — 1st year After Ist year 125s.*; 125s.t 100s.*; lOOs.f 50s.*; 37s. 6rf. to 43s. Qd.t 62s. ed* 64s. Id.* 50s. 80s. 6rf. to 87s. ed. 52s. 6d. " 59s. 6d. 62s. 6rf. 62s. ed. to 75s. 75s. to 87s. 6c;. " 52s. 6d. „ 56s. 3d. ed. to 60s. to 62s. ed. 45s 47s. ed. to 50s. 50s 50s 52s, 55s 48 48 48 48 48 48 77 77 54 54 48 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 Electric Tramways (Company)— Motormen — 1st year 2nd year 3rd „ After 3rd year. . Conductors — Ist year After 1st year. Daily Rate of Wages. 8s. Ad. to 9s. 5d. 8s. 4d. „ 9s. lOd. 8s. 9d. „ 10s. 3rf. 9s. 2d. ,, 10s. lOd. 8s. id. „ 9s. 8s. 4c?. ,, 10s. 3d. 10 hours per day; 6 or 7 days per week. * Municipal employees. t Correspond to Guards in this country. t Contractors' men. § Correspond to Porters in this country. With regard to the rates quoted for the building trades, it may be noted that in some branches these tend to vary slightly as between borough and borough, but in three cases only is this different rating recognized by the trade unions, namely, in those of the carpenters, painters and plumbers. When such differences exist the rates for Queens and Richmond boroughs are always shghtly lower than any of the others; thus in these boroughs the rate for carpenters is 4s. 2d. per day lower than in Man- hattan and 2s. Id. lower than in the Bronx or Brooklyn, and the rate for plumbers 2s. Id. per day lower than in the other three boroughs. In the rates accepted and certified by the Municipal Board of Estimate and Apportionment the city has been regarded as a unit since 1907, local differences of the kind just mentioned not being recognised, and it may be noted that under present conditions, with the inter-communication between out-iying parts becoming more complete and the homogeneousness of the city increasing, the differences themselves are tending to lose their past validity. Among ironmoulders about 1,600 men were working under trade agreements in Manhattan and Brooklyn and about an additional 1,400, representing in all perhaps 75 per cent, of those employed in New York and vicinity, under an agreement that establishes the nine hours workmg day. The closed shop agreement was in operation in about six shops. The rates for machinists quoted in the Table are for inside workers. There is very little piece work, but complaint was made of the competition of the newly arrived immigrant. In the New York ready-made clothing trade the more general practice adopted by manufacturers is to put out the whole or the greater.part of the work to sub-contractors. Direct employment is said to be on the increas.e, but at present the characteristic method when the material has been prepared by the cutters and trimmers is for all later processes to be executed by middlemen. The main explanation of this extensive devolution is economic, for by it the so-called manufacturer is left comparatively free to concentrate attention on his function as distributor, and is relieved of the task of finding, selecting and controlling by far the greater part of the labour he reqmres. As one result of this 24 NEW YORK CITY. plan, although some of the New York clothing manufacturers rank as the largest in America, great factories are the exception. " The normal discrepancy between weekly rates and annual earnings, common to many trades, is apt to be of special importance in the garment industry, subject as it is not only to the more cyclical variations in trade activity but to recurring seasonal changes. It may be noted that irregularity of employment does not uniformly or even necessarily indicate a lowering of the weekly average, and that as against the slack seasons of enforced idleness may often be set the periods of lengthened working weeks — in some trades with earnings increased by the payment of overtime rates. The question is not infrequently also complicated by intervening periods of voluntary idleness, and by temporary changes of employment. But in general a weekly rate has to be discounted before the true yearly earnings can be calculated from it. In the garment industry the following extracts from notes made with reference to individual firms visited will serve to indicate the complexity of this question of annual earnings. "A very high quality of ladies' coats and mantles made. Cutters' rates 100s. to 108s. id. per week; high in this kind of work because they do not get regular work all the year The trade is very seasonal — six months very busy and six months slack. Very high earnings are made (with overtime) in the season by operators." "Ladies' cloaks and skirts, good quality. Dull season in May, June and July, and December and January. Operators, according to the books, make £8 6s. 8d. to £12 10s. in busy weeks during the season." "Work does not stop entirely in the dull seasons but earnings are about half the predominant rates for two months in the year." "Machine operators earn 75s. to 150s. per week in the busy season, four months of the year; 41s. 8d. to 50s. another four months, and 25s. to 33s. 4d. in the slackest season." "Horn's 7 to 12 and 1 to 6. Saturday 1 to 4. In summer on Saturdays 7 to 12. Work steady for eight months. April to June rather slack, but September to October espe- cially, when work is for about two-and-a-half to three days per week." Among the machine operators the workers are mostly Jewish men, and the cloakmakers form the most strongly organised section; but even among them not more than 20 per cent, are supposed to be in the trade union. Piece work is the most common method of remuneration, and the basis of negoti- ation for fixing rates in a trade in which changes are constant and the scope for variation great is the Shop Committee. The reliable quotation of rates of wages is made difficult owing to the frequent practice of the men paying their own helpers. Economically machine operators are thus often sub-contractors on a small scale, working themselves and employing others, and are not simply wage-earners. The earnings on piece work show great disparity, reflecting the scope there is for variation due to the amount of work to be done and to differences in individual skill and aptitude. Many finishers are women and girls, whose earnings range from about 16s. 8d. to 50s., the more usual rate being from 33s. 4(Z. to 4is. 8d. per week. In one workshop, in which trousers were being made on a plan so highly sectionalised that each garment went through some 24 pairs of hands and about half the finishing was put out, female inside workers receiving 3d. per pair were said to be earning 33s. 4:d. per week. By some companies engaged on coastwise traffic, longshoremen are paid Is. O^d. per hour, but Is. 3d. is the more generally recognised rate of the Port. On street construction work men engaged on wood and asphalte roadways are paid at considerably lower rates than the grades quoted in the Table — from 62s. 6^. to 75s. per week for the more skilled men, and from 43s. 9d. to 62s. 6d. for others being quoted. With regard to tramway employees it may be mentioned that in Manhattan, where a "pay as you enter" car is being introduced, in which, while the task of seeing that the fares are paid is simpler, the earning power of the car is said to be greater, wages are paid at the rate of 7id. per day higher than those paid on the older and for the present more usual type of car. On these the conductor still collects, han- dles and registers the fares, and does not simply manipulate the receptacle into which in the new cars the coin has to be dropped by the passenger. Housing and Rents. The number of families per dwelling-house of every description in Manhattan, according to the Census of 1900, was 4.9, or nearly double the number shown anywhere else in the United States. The exceptional character of the housing conditions thus revealed is much less marked for the other popu- lous boroughs, the corresponding figures for Brooklyn being 2.2 and for the Bronx 2.1 . But New York as a whole, for which the figure is 2.9, is to a great extent a city of tenement-house dwellers. NEW YORK CITY. 25 Figures are not available to show with exactitude either the number of persons housed in tene- ments or the accommodation they secure, and did official returns exist the calculation would still be complicated owing to_ the comprehensiveness in New York of the term "tenement house," since according to the Tenement House Law all "apartment houses" (anglice flats), even those of the most expensive type, are, if occupied by three or more famihes, "tenements." It may be noted, however, that in the Census made by the Tenement House Department in 1902, 380,618 "apartments" or sets of rooms were scheduled in Manhattan, of which about 12 per cent, were rented at 24s. per week and upwards, whUe in Brooklyn out of 143,131 " apartments " scheduled about 3^ per cent, were thus rented. Thus at that time in these two boroughs there were roughly about 475,000 of the more cheaply rented tenements. Up to the end of 1908 plans for 21,761 buildings containing 253,255 tenements had been filed under the new Tenement House Law. The large expenditure in recent years on "apartment houses" makes it very probable that considerably more than 12 per cent, should be deducted from this total to allow for the more expensive types of dwelling. In forming a general estimate, a further deduction would also have to be made for demohtions and reconstructions of older properties, and on the other hand a slight addition for tenement house properties constructed before 1902 in the three boroughs not included in the Tenement House Census of that year. Taking these various considerations into account it is improbable that the number of tenements that may roughly be considered to be in working- class or similar occupation falls far short of 700,000. It may be noted that the number of houses of this description, that is of which the average rental of tenements is less than 24s. per week, and thus of those which according to the regulations are supposed to be inspected monthly, is estimated a,t about 68,000. Thus whatever the exact numbers may be, it is clear that the tenement house provision made in New York and what is known as the tenement house problem are of vast dimensions. In no borough in accessible districts is the single-family house occupied by wage-earners to an extent which affects the general situation, and the only type of dwelling affording accommodation for less than three families that will demand special comment is the two-family house of Brooklyn. There is little doubt that a demand for small self-contained houses at a moderate rental exists, but under present conditions it is practically ineffective. "If single-family houses for wage-earners existed," said an estate agent in the Bronx, "I could rent a hundred to-day. But it is a demand that cannot be met, even at a rental of thirty or thirty-five dollars a month" (28s. lOd. or 33s. 8d. a week). In this connexion an experiment in Brooklyn of the "City and Suburban Homes Company" will be noted (vide pp. 40, 41), but it is in the borough of Queens that the chief hope hes of securing a large extension of this form of housing provision for wage-earners. Even there successful develop- ment on these lines is contingent on the provision of more efficient transit facilities. At least one important scheme is, however, already in contemplation there that includes such accommodation and that may have an important influence on the form of building extension destined to take place in that borough. The two-family house at Brooklyn to which reference has been made is a distinct and locally important type. In some districts the occupiers are, to a considerable extent, wage-earners, but the rapid construction of houses of this description which is proceeding in some of the outlying districts is still mainly for middle rather than working-class occupation. The houses are usually 2 or 2^ stories high, the former with a cellar for heaters, coal storage, &c.; the latter with a basement containing a parlour and kitchen, and generally let with the ground floor. In the two-story and cellar houses the ground floor would often contain five rooms and a bathroom, and the first floor, six rooms and a bathroom and the rent, varying with the style of dwelling and situation, might be for the smaller sets of rooms from 16s. 4cZ. to 24s. per week, and for the larger from 18s. 3d. to 26s. 5d. It follows from the foregoing that in the only boroughs in which at the present time there is a large population — in Manhattan, the Bronx and Brooklyn — the wage-earners live, as a general rule, in tenement houses of one description or another. The type of tenement dwelling found in New York varies greatly, differing according to period of construction and according to locality. Thus, as regards Brooklyn certain broad local differences may be distinguished in the smaller number of stories, the larger number of frame houses, and of houses erected for private use that have been diverted, often illegally, to multiple occupation that 26 NEW YORK CITT. are found there — features that illustrate, as regards the more central parts of that borough, its slower rate of development and transition. As regards the Bronx, distinctive features are found in the comparative absence there of tenements containing two or even three rooms, and the relatively large num- ber of tenements called by the superior title "flat," illustrating the more uniformly high level of well- being maintained among wage-earners in that borough. Finally, as regards Manhattan, with the exception of certain areas in the Lower South West Side, certain general characteristics illustrate the greater concentration of population there, and the higher value of its land, such as the greater size of the unit of construction, the greater number of ' 'rear houses," the more solid grouping, especially in the Lower East Side, of that particular type of dwelling for which New York is notorious, and up to the present time the risk that has been run of prolonging, if not perpetuating, the evil of congestion by the relatively rapid construction of the larger type of modern tenement house. The tenement house in New York dates back for many decades, and the general hnes of its evolu- tion have been determined by commercial considerations and by that pressure of population upon a limited area to which reference has been already made. The normal risks of the situation resulting from physical conditions, and, until comparatively recent years, from the restricted mobiUty of occupiers were greatly accentuated by an artificial conven- tion which fixed, in building plots that were as a rule a hundred feet deep, the common width at twenty-five feet. The ingenuity of architects and builders was thus constantly being directed to the problem of turning to the most effective use sites that were admirable for self-contained dwelKngs with small gardens, but which became exceedingly ill-adapted to the requirements of a large and rapidly increasing industrial population. The rectangular symmetry of the plan upon which by far the greater part of Manhattan was laid out, as far back as 1807, made the repetition of types the more inevitable when once those were discovered that seemed sufficiently suitable and proved profitable. Differences from period to period turned partly on size, but perhaps equally on the attention given to ventilation and light, and it is noticeable that as devices were adopted by which these two last advantages were, or were believed to be, secured, the depth and height of the building tended to increase. Amongst the earhest and simplest types was a double-fronted dwelfing with two sets of apartments on each floor of four rooms each, running en suite from street to yard. Thus each tenement not in a corner plot contained two rooms dependent on borrowed fight, and when constructed with nothing but a door through which this fight could come, it is clear that the accommodation it offered was of a low order. When, further, the conveniences were placed in the yard, generally one to two families, and when 'rear houses, generally with two tenements of two rooms on each floor, were constructed at the end of the plot, often built back to back with other rear houses occupying a corresponding position as regards the front houses built on the opposite side of the block, the general housing conditions apt to result had many undesirable features. When, however, as is now often found, the type of dwelfing above mentioned, without a rear house, has the water-closet with an outer window, and when large windows open between the interior or "dark" and the exterior rooms, dwelfings are found tfiat are superior in some essential respects to later types and even to some that are being built at the present time. For, when judged by the New York standard, this older type has the great merit, apart from the risk of overcrowding of the individaul tenement, of being incompatible with an abnormal congestion of population. One such house of five stories visited on the East Side, with its sofid brickwork and good plumbing, and with two rooms out of the four of fair size (14 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 2 inches and 14 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches), gave much more desirable accommodation, even though it had a four-storied rear house behind it, than many much more modern dwellings that were seen, conformity with the existing regulations being compatible with the evasion of a larger number of the canons of good housing than the above dwelfing displayed. Varieties of air shaft help to distinguish the dwelhngs that followed the block type, the first being generaUy roofed in, and most of them difficult of access for cleaning and inadequate both for fighting and for ventilation. The earlier forms were smafi, but the shaft, when once open at the top, soon expanded lengthwise and became a distinctive feature of probably one of the worst types of dwelfing that has ever been designed and constructed on a large scale in modern urban communities. Its introduction made it possible to construct a considerably deeper house than formerly, and although this had the incidental NEW YORK CITY. 27 adyantage of eliminating the "rear house" on these particular sites the remedy was worse than the disease. A depth of not less than 90 feet out of the 100 was sometimes occupied by the dweUing, which usually contained four tenements on each floor, two of four rooms in the front and two of three rooms at the back. The stairs and hallways were in the centre of the building and were thus entirely dependent upon borrowed or artificial hght, and were difficult to ventilate. Water-closets were in the hall outside the tenements, one being shared by two famihes. Bathing facilities were not provided, but cold water was laid on to each tenement. The most characteristic and the most objectionable feature of these dwellings was the shaft to which reference has been made — an indentation on either side of the building some 50 or 60 feet in length, and usually for the greater part of the distance only 28 inches wide. The only pomt at which this width was greater was for about 16 to 18 feet at the centre where the windows of the water- closets were constructed, and here the shaft was about six feet in width.* It will be observed, there- fore, that it is upon the narrow part of the shaft that the windows of living or bedrooms open, and that thus, since on one floor of a pair of typical houses there are fourteen rooms, the outlook for ten of these is upon a slit not more than twice 28 inches in width. When it is further remembered that the houses are usually constructed of five, six, or sometimes seven stories, and that the shaft is there- fore often some sLxty or more feet in height, the full demerits of this design begin to be appreciated. In duphcated dwellings of this description, six stories in height, the windows of sixty rooms and twenty-four water-closets would look out upon a single shaft. The following official comment upon the construction just described is extracted from the First Report of the Tenement House Depart- ment (1902-3):— "The ostensible purpose of the shaft is to provide hght and air to the five rooms on each side of the house which get no direct light and air from the street or yard; but as the shafts are narrow and high, being inclosed on aU four sides, and without any intake of air at the bottom, these rooms obtain, instead of fresh air and sunshine, foul air and semi-darkness. Indeed, it is questionable whether the rooms would not be more habitable and more sanitary with no shaft at all, depending for their light and air solely upon the front and back rooms, into which they open; for each family, besides having the foul air from its own rooms to breathe, is compelled to breathe the emanations from the rooms of some eleven other families. Nor is this all; these shafts act as conveyers of noise, odours and disease, and when fire breaks out serve as inflammable flues, often rendering it impossible to save the buildings from destruction." The foregoing type of house was first constructed about thirty years ago, and up to the passing of the present Tenement House Law of 1901, was the predominant type of tenement house being erected in Manhattan. Although so faulty in design that houses of this type meet with almost universal condemnation, and although few features of a dwelling can be more repellent than one of their neglected and littered shafts, it is upon these shafts, upon the darkened and ill-ventilated rooms and interior stairways, and upon the congestion which these dwellings promote, that fair hostile criticism chiefly concen- trates. In several respects undesirable features of the original designs can be mitigated as, for instance, by the construction of interior windows between outer and interior rooms, or, as is com- pelled by the administration, by the insertion of glass windows opening on the hallways to ensure better lighting. In general, in these dwellings as in others, a sanitary standard is now maintained that, although it may be said to have been forced perhaps upon owners, and certainly upon the administration, by the very magnitude and urgency of the problem with which they were and are confronted, and by the grave risks of disease and epidemic that would speedily follow from neglect or slackness, is creditable to all concerned. Other earlier types of dwellings wiU be indicated in a later page where reference is made to con- crete illustrations of dwellings visited in coimexion with this enquiry. For the most part further essential differences will, however, be found to consist rather in matters of arrangement in detail than in general structure. There is great variety in plan, in the number of stories and the number of tenements on each floor, in the depth of the building, and to a less extent in the number of rooms per tenement, but such differences always derive much of then- importance from the way in which they react on the essential requirements to which reference has been made, that is, as to whether they do or do not help to minimise congestion and to secure the maximum of sunlight, fresh air and breathing space pos sible. * In shape the plan of these buildings is not unlike a dumb-bell, and "dumb-bell" has thus come to be the name by ■which the type is known. 28 NEW YORK CITY. Reference may now be made to the most important step directly connected with the housing question that has so far been taken, by which it was hoped that the evils of congestion would be miti- gated and the maximum of hygienic provision possible be secured. The opinion is general that housing conditions in New York ten years ago were far worse than they are to-day, and supported by the steady rise in the standard of an effective demand, by active com- petition between different and sometimes newly developed areas, and by a hastened centrifugal move- ment, the chief legislative instrument by which this improvement has been secured has been the Tenement House Act of 1901. Ithough some of the provisions of the Act are somewhat specious in character, and although it has to be borne in mind that many of the conditions imposed can only be regarded as desirable when compared with others anterior that were particularly undesirable, the passing of the Act was never- theless a great achievement and indicated a considerable advance in pubhc opinion on housing matters. The following selection from contrasts drawn between the old and the new conditions secured by the Act will serve the double purpose of indicating still further, not only the seriousness of some of the defects which were checked, but also the narrow hmitations that New York conditions still con- tuiue to impose upon dwelling construction. Thus, instead of 75 per cent, of other than corner sites not more than 70 per cent, could be occupied by the building; instead of there being no limit to the height of buildings in narrow streets, this height was limited to one-and-a-half times the width of the street; instead of having yards 10 feet deep the minimum depth was raised to 13 feet; instead of air shafts 28 inches wide courts which could in no case be less than 6 feet in width were required. Cellars were now defined as stories more than half below the level of the kerb of the street, and basements as those partly but not more than half below this level. The occupation of one tenement on a cellar floor is, it may be noted, legal, but the occupier must be a janitor, and, if the tenement is in the front part of the building, the ceiling must be not less than 4 feet 6 inches above the kerb level of the street. The minimum floor space for any living room was fixed at 70 square feet, and in every tenement one room had to be not less than 120 square feet in size; bedrooms could no longer be passage rooms, and for each tenement a private water-closet had to be provided. Rear houses could no longer be constructed. Rear houses are, it may be noted, the New York substitute for courts and alleys. In the English sense these are non-exisitent and they are, indeed, incompatible with the rectangular block planning adopted. But a rear house, double-fronted, of four or five stories, is in essence a court of little dwellings vertically instead of horizontally arranged. The conditions laid down by the Act for the avoidance of risk from fire are of great value, and, in the opinion of some, constitute its most useful features. By these conditions, inter alia, staircases and stair-halls must be constructed of fireproof material throughout; the first tier of beams must be of iron or steel with fireproof flooring, and every tenement must have direct access to a fire-escape stairway at an angle of not more than 60° with a drop ladder from the lowest balcony of sufficient length to reach a safe landing place beneath. Fire-escapes are a conspicuous feature in every tenement-house street in which there are both front and back tenements, and indicate at once the general character of the housing accommodation it contains. It is laid down that access to the fire-escapes must not be obstructed in any way and the enforcement of this regulation constitutes one of the constantly recurring difficulties of the administration; room space being often so restricted that the little balcony from which the fire-escape starts becomes a tempting place on which to put some box or other possession not liable to injury from exposure to the weather. Bedding is often aired there and in the heat of the summer the balconies themselves are constantly slept on. But misuse of this kind — if it be misuse — detracts but little from the general merits of the fire-prevention clauses of the Act. The passage space made necessary by the well-intentioned condition that bedrooms were not to be passage-rooms has been an important contributory influence tending to restrict the size of separate rooms in the new tenements to the legal minimum and, especially in Manhattan, to increase the size of individual buildings as a whole — tendencies that indicate two of their greatest defects. From the outset, largely owing to the value of land there, those New York houses erected in Manhattan have been mainly of six stories, and the tendency to build to this size soon made itself felt, although not to the same extent, in the Bronx. Conditions laid down in the new Act for the prevention of fire tended, it may be noted, to fbc the maximum height at six stories save in the form of expensive "apartment houses," since buildings of more than this height have to be of fu-e-proof construction throughout, and are thus much more costly. NEW YORK CITY. 29 Apart from the limitation thus imposed, however, the tendency towards the erection of the larger type of tenement house, and thus the recovery in floor space of what was lost in courts, has made itself felt and is one of the considerations tending to modify the satisfaction felt at first when the Act of 1901 came into, operation, and the confidence with which the multiplication of what are known as the New Law houses was regarded. Only in a very limited and strictly relative sense would this type of house be now described as an "unqualified success," to quote from the First Keport of the Tenement House Department, where, reflecting the same satisfaction, we also read that in the Lower East Side it was "a Sunday diversion of the people to take their families and friends to see the new houses and to wonder at and admire the light rooms, the bath tubs, and the other improvements." In the Third Report a new note and one of warning makes itself heard; it is pointed out that there is no legal limitation upon the number of families who may occupy any floor of a tenement house. "From this freedom there has-been evolved an almost unlimited number of arrangements, so that as many as four apartments [i. e. tenements] have been provided on each floor of a house 25 feet wide and as many as eight on each floor of a house 50 feet wide. The occupation of these buildings by so many families on a floor, however, is by no means desirable, for they are so planned as to comply with the bare letter of the law, providing only such accommodations as are legally indispensable and necessitating unabating, vigilance to secure their maintenance in conformity with the requirements of the statutes." In the Fourth Report (1907-8), it is stated "that the erection of tenement houses in excess of four stories in height outside of the borough of Manhattan, except in rare instances, is considered to be wholly unwarranted and prejudicial to the best interests of the City." There is a reference to the ' 'cheap and medium grade of five and six storied tenements which have proven to be so harmful and obnoxious." But it is also pointed out that "notwithstanding the experience of Manhattan, some of the other boroughs are threatened with a similar afliiction through a continuance by many large operators of the same policy of heedless and greedy construction." Up to the present time, however, the difference in the type of new dwelling maintained between Manhattan and Brooklyn is very marked, since, while in the former borough from 1902-8 80.51 per cent, of the new tenements were six stories in height, and no fewer than 99.73 per cent, were five stories and upwards, in the latter borough only 6.13 per cent, were of five or more stories. The corre- sponding percentage in the Bronx was 62.98. It is obvious, however, that under the present Act, in those districts in which circumstances might further the construction of the larger type of new buildings, existing congestion might be rather intensified than counteracted, or that new congested areas might even be created. The administration of the law is placed in the hands of the Tenement House Department, the magnitude of the housing problem in New York having been held to justify the creation of this special branch of the administration, in spite of some overlapping of functions thereby involved. The two main tasks of the Department are connected (1) with existing dwellings — "to maintain in a safe and sanitary condition the tenements of the city"; and (2) to see that new dwellings con- form to the new law — "to supervise the erection of tenements." The staff included in 1909 a Commissioner, two Deputy Commissioners and about 300 Inspectors of various grades. Although the number of Inspectors seems large, and although in the new buildings erected under improved conditions, in the alterations to old ones, in the removal of nuisances and in other more indi- rect ways much good work has been accomplished, experience has proved that the ground is far from being adequately covered. This partial failure has followed in a degree from the magnitude of the task from its delicacy, from the latent hostility which the Department has often had to encounter, from a certain timidity that has resulted, from the form of legal procedure adopted when action is taken and from the inadequacy of the funds appropriated to the services of the Department. Very much of the Inspectors' time has been taken up in enforcing, and in endeavouring to enforce, compliance with notices served for violation in the case of old buildings. Often these have been ineffectual for a long period even for years, and in these and other ways a formidable list of shortcomings has resulted, including especially in Brooklyn, many cases of non-compliance with the law in the case of new buildings themselves. According to the last Report of the Department, although more than 230,000 orders of various kinds had been complied with during 1908, at the end of the year more than 85,000 violations were pending. In a recent sympathetic but critical report on the administration of the Department, pre- 30 NEW YORK CITY. pared by the Bureau of Municipal Eesearch, in which it is said that over 66,000 violations were pending on 1st May, 1909, it is stated with special reference to the infrequent inspection of tenements subject to monthly visits, and to the admission that complete inspection of these had not been made as often as once a year, that this failure to cover the ground is due in large part to "the vast accumulation of uncomplied-with violations." ^ Though the aggregate defect which such figures and statements imply is very large, the measure of excellence that New York holising conditions now display — bad though these conditions still often are — is under the circumstances perhaps more striking than their shortcomings, and signs of improve- ments that are being gradually effected in a situation of unparalleled difficulty and seriousness meet the observer on every hand. In New York, where rents are relatively high, where the size of rooms is apt to be small and where a large and cosmopolitan population converges, a certain amount of overcrowding is almost inevit- able. The legal minimum air-space is laid down at 400 cubic feet for each adult and 200 cubic feet for each child occupying any room, but save in gross departures from these modest requirements that may happen to be discovered the law is not enforced. No general statistics are available bearing on this question, but there is a consensus of opinion that the risks are more often incurred among foreigners, especially the later immigrants, and among the lower classes of the coloured population. Among the former the Italians are especially mentioned, and their claimishness, the large numbers that have arrived in most recent years, the low hygenic standard with which many of them are at first content, form a priori grounds for thinking that the charges are not without founda- tion. On the other hand, the ease and rapidity with which many of them move either according to the season, or from district to district, or even from America to Italy, make it probable that crowded conditions are among the elements of impermanency that characterise so' many of the social conditions of the United States. Large masses of the foreign immigrants, others as well as Itahans, are indeed like an industrial army on the march, moving as units or in detachments from place to place. Thus in certain districts and periods such an evil as that of overcrowding is apt to become excessive and even threatening in its extent, but it is also specially apt to alter both in area and in intensity, and, even if available, general statistics could give, especially perhaps for such a centre as New York, but a momen- tary picture of conditions unusually Hable to change. The following figures may be quoted from the recent careful study of a small selection of New York families made under the auspices of the Russell Sage Foundation under the direction of a representa- tive Committee and edited by Professor Chapin. The 318 families used in the final comparisons in this study each consisted of four or more persons and had incomes ranging from £125 to £229 a year. Among these, all families occupying less than four rooms, or if occupying more than three rooms show- ing a ratio of more than 1 J persons per room, were regarded as Mving under overcrowded conditions. On this basis, which is of course arbitrary and goes considerably beyond the legal standard, 160 famihes out of the 318 — which were representative of some eight national groups — were so described. It should be noted that the enquiry, although not confined to these, concentrated most of its attention on families with both parents Mving and having from two to four children, and with incomes not exceeding £229 a year. Among the particulars of domestic expenditiure furnished in connexion with the present enquiry the number of rooms occupied was obtained and the results show, for 64 families in which the head of the family was either English, Scotch or Welsh, an average of 1.05 persons of all ages per room; for 149 American families, 1.12 persons; for 271 Jewish families, 1.23 persons; for 86 German famihes, 1.24 persons; for 87 Irish families, 1.26 persons; and for 110 Itahan families^ 1.60 persons per room. Although the tenement house is the prevailing type of dwelling in New York, enough has been said to indicate that the appearance, structure and surroundings of these dwellings differ greatly in different parts of the city. As regards the streets, the greatest differences are those existing between the smaller thorough- fares in the older and more central parts of Manhattan and Brooklyn and the wider and more sys- tematic block-planning found a little farther out. But nowhere are streets really narrow or tortuous. Most of the streets in the more crowded areas of Manhattan are asphalted. Brooklyn as compared with Manhattan is somewhat amorphous, and even in some of the more central parts untidy streets and houses proclaim districts of which the destiny is still undetermined. In this neighborhood the business and non-residential area is extending. Eesidentially, the general tendency, especially for that part of the borough lying west of Prospect Park, is to become increasingly industrial in character, although the recognised feature of Brooklyn— a great interminglmg of streets NEW YORK CITY. 31 of different status — still holds good even in the more central parts, and although a few districts in that part of the city occupied by a relatively wealthy class are maintaining their past character. Probably the largest area occupied by a uniformly industrial class is that lying to the north of the Brooklyn Broadway — Jews and Italians and others nearer the river and largely German-Americans and others farther east. The character of much of this district has been affected by the Williamsburg Bridge and by the fact that it lies vis-a-vis across the East River to the most congested portions of Manhattan. It is across this area in Brooklyn that the centrifugal movement from Manhattan and the flight to Brownsville, already mentioned as a comparatively new Jewish district, has taken place. As regards the material of which dwellings are composed, the generic differences are as between brick, often painted and often with a good, deal of stone- work introduced, and frame, and it is very significant that whereas in almost the whole of Manhattan frame houses are rare exceptions, in Brooklyn they are common even in the older and more central parts. Again, a more formative period in urban development is illustrated. Not a few of these frame houses are of a poor type, but others are well-constructed and in good order, and rows of them, often three stories in height with two families on a floor, constructed on the block system with tenements of four rooms running through from front to rear, are among the characteristic types of Brooklyn tenement houses. Generally, whether brick or frame, bare barrack-like structures are the exception in New York. Something has been already said with reference to the complex considerations external to itself that go to make up the advantageousness or disadvantageousness of a dwelling — such as nearness to or distance from the place of employment, convenient shops, schools or open spaces. In this respect the whole city may be regarded as a unit offering as compared with rural areas its own aggregate of advantages and disadvantages, and under existing conditions the rapid increase in its population is a sufficient demonstration of its attractive power. But the sub-divisions of this great unit are of infinite variety, and while as regards the ultimate effect of locality on the nominal range of working-class rentals the uniformity is more striking than the differences they present, the real differ- ences, could they be adequately measured, would be found to be far greater. Race segregation tends to divide the city to some extent into areas that are at any given moment practically noncompeting, with the general result, however, not so much that rents differ to any very great extent from district to district for tenements of the same nominal size, but rather that the less desirable areas and structures ' are apt to be occupied, apart from the coloured race, by some of the less indigenous populations. When, as a result of this segregation, some particular area becomes the scene of a demand that is, in relation to the city, exaggerated, artificial and abnormal, then local and abnormal rent conditions result. But, as has been said, the most manifest effect of this is not so much the payment of abnormally high rentals, although this also occurs when favourable economic conditions are taken advantage of, as differences in the class of accommodation which is tolerated. To some extent this is due to timidity, to ignorance of conditions prevailing elsewhere, and to lack of enterprise; but to some extent also to custom, to the "herding instinct," and to a certain liking that comes for areas full of jostling crowds, of bustle and animation, where shops that suit are close at hand, and where the employer or sub-contractor more habitually seeks his labour supply. But, although every area thus tends to have some compensation for whatever may be its special drawbacks, the inferiority of the actual accommodation often secured by the poorer alien classes in the crowded districts is an outstanding fact of the situation, and affords one of the numerous illustrations of the ways in which immobility, ignorance and relative poverty are often handicapped. It may be noted, however, that were it possible on a large scale to provide a superior class of accommodation in the more crowded and poorer down-town quarters of the city, very many of those at present living there would be immediately driven out by the rents that would be demanded. Nor is it, from the general point of view, an altogether undesirable feature of the situation that the outward pull on the central and more congested population should make itself vigorously felt. As regards the internal differences of the dwellings, these vary hardly less than do those which are mainly questions of environment. It may be noted that a considerable amount of whitewashing and repainting appears to be done and done frequently, not on liberal but on effective lines. It is done cheaply; it is not durable, but it makes for a cleanly appearance, while the smallness of the rooms tends to foster if not a positive tidiness, as on board ship, at least the negative virtue oS avoidmg the accumulation of useless belongings. Among the poorest, although not the darkest or least hygienic type of dwelling that New York contains may perhaps be singled out a two or three-roomed apartment on the top floor of a four- 32 NEW YOEK CITY. storied rear house of an old description. Such a dwelling, especially if built back to back with a similar building, would have no through ventilation unless, as is sometimes found, a rough window had been broken through between the two houses in the partition walls of the stairways. The inner room or rooms would be mere cupboards with borrowed light. Cold water, probably at a small sink in the living room, would be almost the sole "improvement" supplied. The water-closet might be in the yard, more probably in the corridor or, as often now under the present law, entered directly from the tenement but still shared with one other family living on the same floor, anH having corresponding means of entry from their own tenement. The outlook of the one light room would be on a narrow backyard and on the back windows of the tenement house facing on the street — that is, of the "front" house. The yard on washing days might be the drying ground for some 16 to 20 families, and from all the lower windows as from the yard itself the suspended linen would block out most of the strip of sky visible at other times. Such tenements as those described would rent in the Lower East Side and a little northwards (and it is there that they are most often found) at from 6s. 9d. to 8s. 8d. per week. From such tenements an improving standard may be traced till it reaches among small tenements excellent accommodation, with steam heat, hot and cold water supply, cooking range, bathroom, wash tubs, private water-closet, dumb waiter or service lift, speaking tube, electric bells and automatic switch for opening the street door. From a hygienic point of view steam heat is not above suspicion, and many excellent tenements are without it; when such have neither it nor a hot water supply, a set range with hot water fittings is very frequently provided. Gas is generally laid on and is much used for cooking, especially in the summer, and in the steam-heated apartments all through the year. "Quarter" ( = shilling) meter slot machines are in common use. For fuel, still required in the great majority of cases, bins — or com- partments — ^for individual tenants are very frequently provided in the basement. They are locked and for many, probably for most, tenants the ton of coal is or could be the unit of purchase. The provision of wash tubs has been mentioned; and these, single or double, are a common feature of the New York tenement. They are inconspicuous, and when not in use can generally be covered and converted to either sideboard or table purposes. Provision for drying linen varies, a clothes-line stretched from the window to the long poles that are so common a feature along the back yards of New York tenement houses being by far the commonest method. The lines, doubled, are worked on pulleys and manipulated from the windows. A substitute for the poles is now very occasionally found in expanding and contracting rods attached to the balcony of the individual tenement. Koof lines are much less common than the poles, but are, for instance, the only form of open-air drying allowed in the well-managed dwellings of the City and Suburban Homes Company, where also lines across the courts — insanitary, unsightly and illegal, but constantly found even in New Law houses — are strictly forbidden. Steam-heated dryers in the basements are also provided in some of the dwellings of the Company just mentioned, but these are at present exceptional luxuries. It will be Evident that the completeness with which what are often referred to as " all improvements " are found in the individual tenement will vary greatly, and thus also the rents. It will suffice in this place to state that, when really provided, tenements of more than five rooms will be, over almost the whole of New York, rented at more than 24s. a week, and thus fall beyond the range of dwelling that is in general occupied by wage-earning families. In the newer dwellings of the City and Suburban Homes Company, which represent the high-water mark of excellence yet reached by small working- class apartments, four rooms are rented at from 16s. lOd. to 22s. Id. per week. Two negative characteristics which, in addition to rentals, roughly differentiate dwellings in the occupation of wage-earners from others, are the absence of lifts other than the small service lifts already mentioned, and the fact that so far they are not fitted with electric light. Although, as has been indicated, it is easy to discover housing areas in which the accepted stand- ard is low and appears to be stationary, the general fact is undeniable that a better supply and an effective demand are making themselves felt in ways that probably more than any other influence are ultimately destined to hasten on the improvement of housing conditions in New York. On the side of supply- are the new districts, the competition of which is measurably increasing in intensity year by year; the owners who feel the pressure of this competition; the New Law buildings which, whatever their defects, are undeniable improvements on the worst earlier types, with their tiny rooms, borrowed lights and defective sanitary arrangements; the improvements in the older buildings that NEW YOEK CITY. 33 are being steadily enforced by the administration; and the example of such undertakings as those of the City and Suburban Homes Company. As regards demand, the depression and the immigration to Europe in 1908, following on extensive speculative building, brought about a change in the relation- ship of landlord and tenant that at any rate for the moment conduces to the same, end, as do the more permanent influences of iavention, advertisement and the various efforts that are being made to extend the knowledge of hygienic conditions. Finally, in effective combiaation with all such influences is the high standard of material well-being that is in general maintained in New York. The following particulars of notes made on individual dwelKngs visited in the course of the present enquiry are inserted by way of illustration of types and conditions to which more general reference has been made. Lower East Side: — (1.) — Five-storied rear house built back-to-back. Two rooms. Cold water. Water-closet now in corridor. Very small, dirty, corner air-shaft of oldest pattern. Occupier Jewish costermonger. Rent 6s. 9d. per week. Ten apartments in all; range of rental 5s. 9d. to 7s. 8d. per week. (2.) — Back tenement of three rooms in tenement house of dumb-bell shape. Range with hot- water fittings supplied. Water-closet in passage. Dimensions: — kitchen 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches; bedrooms 12 feet by 10 feet and 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches; height 9 feet 8 inches. Eatchen and one bedroom with window on narrow shaft. In Jewish occupation. Rent 13s. 6d. per week. Front four-roomed tenement also in Jewish occupation. Dimensions: — living room 10 feet by 11 feet 6 inches; kitchen 10 feet by 11 feet 6 inches; two bedrooms 8 feet 6 inches by 8 feet; height 9 feet 8 inches. 'Windows of kitchen and bedrooms looking on filthy narrow shaft. Water-closet in passage. Rent 15s. 5d. per week. (3.): — Two-roomed tenement. Dimensions: — 16 feet 6 inches by 12 feet by 8 feet 5 inches and 7 feet by 8 feet 8 inches by 8 feet 5 inches. Window in second room looking on new square shaft as ordered by Tenement House Department. Occupier Jewish machinist. Husband, wife and one child. Fair comfort. Rent 9s. 7d. per week. Range of rent of other tenements 8s. 2d. (top floor) to 10s. 7d. per week. The building is an old-fashioned flve-storied block house, formerly four rooms through, but each side now divided into two two-roomed tenements. Thus four families on each floor. (4.) — Three light rooms, including one at corner with three windows. Occupier Russian metal worker. Rent 15s. 5d. per week. (5.) — Rear house off one of the principal streets. Two stories. Two two-roomed tenements on each floor. On ground floor — (i) Bootmaker. Not self-supporting. Earnings put at 25s. per week. Child asleep in small dark room with many ffies swarming on its face. Linen far from clean, (ii) Widow. Both apartments squalid. Rents 7s. 8d. and 8s. 8d. per week. On first floor — (i) Tailor (ill), wife and three children. Rooms bare, (ii) Woman and son. Rooms comfortable. Rents 9s. 7d. and 8s. 7d. per week. Water-closet on stairs, one for two famUies. Occupiers Russians. On the first floor of the same house fronting the street a prosperous Russian dressmaker was occu- pying an excellent tenement of six rooms (one used for business) at a rent of 42s. id. per week. (6.) — On third floor. Four rooms and bathroomr Small rooms. Occupier Russian pocket- book maker. Three in family. Rent 17s. id. per week. In same house on fourth floor, flve rooms and bathroom. Russian family. Invalid wife. Fairly comfortable. Rent 21s. 2d. per week. (7.) — Five-storied New Law 25-family house. Hot water supply. Range supplied. Twenty tenements of four rooms and five of three rooms, total occupants 124. Seventeen tenements with bathroom. Rents, four rooms from 15s. 5d. to 22s. Id. and three rooms from 12s. 6d. to 13s. Qd. per week, according to floor and position. (g ) — Rear house, two rooms. Dimensions: — 15 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet and 9 feet by 8 feet by 8 feet. Cold water supply to wash tub and sink. Gas. Range and gas-cooking bracket supplied by tenant. Water-closet, one for two families. Rent 9s. 2d. per week. (9 ) — Rear house, ground floor. Three rooms, two dark. Mess indescribable. Husband, wife and four children. Rent 7s. 8^^. per week. (10.) — Rear house, first floor. Three rooms. Cold water supply to wash tub. Range bought by tenant. Water-closet on landing. Rooms tidy. Woman and child. Rent 7s. 8d. per week. (11.) Two rooms. Dimensions: — kitchen 15 feet by 14 feet by 8 feet; bedroom with borrowed light 9 feet 6 iaches by 8 feet 6 iaches by 8 feet. Water-closet on stairway. Rent 7s. 8d. per week. 93294^8. Doc. 22, 62-1 9 34 NEW YOKK CITY. (12.) — On top floor of five-storied New Law house in one of the most crowded and best known streets of the Lower East Side. Five rooms and bathroom. Hot water supply. Comfortable. Russian family. Rent 25s. per week. (13.) — In tenement house of five-and-a-half stories. Four back rooms. Small. Rather untidy. Russian family from East End of London five years ago. Two years there. Husband (painter), wife and seven children. Bedding on balcony and two children sleeping there. Rent 17s. id. per week. South West Side: — -(1.) — -Large New Law house, built two years previously. Three-roomed tenement. Cold water. Private water-closets. Weekly rents, two at 10s. 7d., four at lis. Id., four at lis. 6d., one at 12s., one at 12s. 6d., one at 13s., five at 13s. 6d., one at 13s. lid., ten at 14s. 5d., one at 14s. lid. and two at 15s. 5d. (2.) — In Italian district, near Washington Square. Two rooms on the third floor front of 18- family house. Husband, wife and six children. Rooms bare. One almost entirely taken up by the bed. Rent 10s. Id. per week. (3.) — In old private house with three stories and basement. Two rooms; one large, 13 feet by 15 feet by 10 feet. Cold water, sink and water-closet on landing. Rent 9s. 7d. per week. (4.) — In old private house. Four rooms on ground floor; one 12 feet by 12 feet by 10 feet; two dark, and one really a big cupboard. Cold water supply. Water-closet in yard. Rent 13s. 6d. per week. On first floor for five rooms the rent was 15s. 5d. per week. (5.) — On ground floor of old house of two-and-a-half stories. Four rooms. Water-closet in little garden. Greenery; occupier proud of it. Rent 16s. 4d. per week. (6.) — Old house. Two rooms (one very small) and alcove, let as three rooms. Rent 9s. 7d. per week. In the same house two back rooms. Rent 7s. 8d. per week. Occupiers Italians. In passing eastwards from the district in which the above dwellings are situated (the only one in Manhattan in which any considerable number of small houses are found) a marked contrast in the prevailing type appears. The large tenement houses are no longer the exception but become the predominant type, and, while buildings are more elaborate, more ornate and more modem, the sense of comparative openness is lost. There is less sky, less freshness, more congestion. It is the beginning of the transition from the Lower West to the Lower East Side. North of 14th Street: — (1.) Five-storied house. Two famihes to floor. Block plan. No shaft, but well built and in good order. Private water-closet now, with window on yard. Dimensions of tenement on second floor: living room (two windows to street) 14 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 2 inches; two bedrooms (dark, with interior windows 3 feet by 5 feet to living room and kitchen) 8 feet 5 ruches by 8 feet; kitchen (with two windows on yard) 14 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches. Rents per week, mainly according to floor — five at 15s. 5d., two at 17s. 4:d., two at 16s. 4:d. and one at 14s. 5d. per week. Occupiers — Americans and mixed. In the rear, four-storied house. One tenement of three rooms on each floor. Rents 7s. 8d. to lis. 6d. per week. Size of building lot 25 fe^et by 100 feet. (2.) Three rooms back. Dimensions: kitchen (windows on yard) 10 feet 2 inches by 13 feet; bedrooms 10 feet by 12 feet and 7 feet 6 inches by 8 feet (windows on slit shaft). Cold water only. Water-closet on corridor. Room full of furniture and ornaments. Occupier Bohemian. Rent 8s. 8^. per week. Front apartment, with three rooms, looking on slit shaft. Rent lis. Id. per week. (3.) In large New Law house for 30 families. Three rooms. Hot water supply. Rooms bare. Occupier, Russian carpenter and family. Rent 12s. 6d. per week. Another tenement of four rooms, hot water supply and bath. Jewish. Comfortable. Rent 15s. 5d. per week. In Little Italy: — (4.) (a.) New Law house. Hot water supply for half day. Rents per week. Four rooms, front. One tenement at lis. Id., and four tenements at 12s. Three rooms, front. One tenement at 10s. 7d., and tour tenements at lis. 6a!. Three rooms, back. Eleven tenements at 7s. 3d. to 10s. Id. Three rooms, looking on court. Five tenements at 7s. 8d. to 8s. 2d. The slight difference in the rents of the tenements with the front outlook as between three and four rooms is noticeable. Letting in this house had been difficult. (6.) Three rooms at back of ground floor of- 24-family house. Cold water. Water-closet in corridor. Gas (quarter meter). Dimensions: 11 feet by 10 feet; 10 feet by 10 feet; 6 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches; height 9 feet 6 inches. Coal bin in cellar. Husband barber. Wife and two young NEW YORK CITY. 35 children. Rent 6s. Zd. per week. A 6 feet open shaft in this house; very dirty at foot, as also was yard behind house. Cleaned twice a week, but said to be httered at once. Complaint by janitress of tenants who "will throw things out to save bringing them down." Dumb waiter provided, but broken and not used. (c.) In 115th Street. Three-storied brick house. Three rooms. Dimensions: kitchen 12 feet by 13 feet; bedrooms 9 feet by 8 feet and 7 feet by 8 feet (no bed); height 9 feet. Cold water supply and water-closet on corridor, one for two families. Two dark rooms. Oilcloth on floor. Pictures on walls, and general air of care and comfort in kitchen. All room.s clean. Coal bin in cellar. Buy by ton or half ton, or by 4^. a pail "if short of money." Used quarter meter for gas. Husband, rag dealer. Eent 9s. Id. per week. In this house, six rooms deep, four tenements of three rooms on each floor. Two front at 9s. 7d. and two back at 7s. M. per week. Building on 25 feet front lot. Building depth 63 feet. {d.) Three-roomed tenements, front. Cold water supply. Water-closet in corridor, one for two families. Rent 10s. Id. per week. For back apartments of same size, 9s. Id. (e.) Three-roomed tenements. Cold water. Wash tub. Water-closet on corridor. Dimensions 11 feet 2 inches by 12 feet 6 laches; 12 feet 2 inches by 13 feet 4 inches; 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 5 inches; height 8 feet 9 inches. Rent 9s. 2d. per week. Back rooms: 10 feet 2 inches by 14 feet 6 inches; 9 feet 7 inches by 9 feet 3 inches; 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 3 inches. Plenty of furniture. Untidy. Cheerful. Making macaroni for 1.' ne consumption. Italian. Rent 7s. 8d. per week. The above two tenements illustrate the sub-division of single six-roomed through apartments into two of three each. The alteration is comparatively easy if the water-closet is on the landing. In that case there is little to do besides closing the inner door of the middle pair of rooms and putting in an extra sink. The alteration is still simpler if the sink is also on the landing. (5.) Four rooms in New Law house. Living room 12 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet. Two bedrooms and kitchen, very small. In avenue with elevated railway. Rent lower in consequence, 12s. 6d. per week. (6.) Four rooms in model dwelling. Fair sized kitchen. Hot and cold water. Steam heat. Gas (slot meter). Husband (waiter) and wife. One lodger. Rent 23s. 4cZ. per week. (7.) In 20-family house, dumb-bell shape. Hot water ranges supplied. Wash tubs. Water- closets in yard. Clean and in good order. Cisterns in separate frost-protected chamber. Three and four rooms. Of the three-roomed tenements, two rooms, and of the four-roomed tenements, three rooms looking on to narrow shaft. Dimensions of the four-roomed tenements: good front room 11 feet 8 inches by 15 feet; kitchen 8 feet by 11 feet; bedrooms (two) 8 feet by 9 feet; height 9 feet 2 inches. Tenants coloured. Rent according to floor; of four-roomed tenement (front), 12s. 6d. to 14s. 5d.; of three-roomed tenement (back), 9s. 7d. to lis. 6d. per week. (8.) Five-storied tenement house, built about 15 years ago. Five-roomed tenement, with bath and steam heat, built through from front to back. Dimensions: 8 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 6 inches; 8 feet 6 inches by 10 feet; 8 feet 6 inches by 11 feet; 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; 8 feet 6 inches by 10 feet; height, 9 feet. Occupiers of all nine houses (70 apartments), American, Irish and German. Rent per" week— ground floor, 19s, 3d.; first floor, 23s. Id.; second floor, 22s. Id.; third floor, 21s. 2d.; fourth floor, 20s. 2d. (9.) In New Law House for 30 families. Five rooms and bathroom on second floor. Hot water supply. Dimensions, exclusive of private haUway: living room 12 feet 9 inches by 11 feet; kitchen 12 feet by 7 feet; parlour or bedroom 11 feet by 12 feet 6 inches; bedrooms 11 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches, and 10 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches; bathroom 6 feet by 4 feet; height 9 feet 1 inch. Husband Irish, carpenter; wages 91s. 8d. a week. Wife (despondent) and five children. No signs of want, but many of unsatisfactory home. Rooms bare of furniture. Rent 19s. Sd. per week. The whole house was divided into three, four and five-roomed tenements. Rents lis. 6d. to 12s. Qd., 13s. nd. and from 16s. 4:d. to 19s. 3d. per week respectively. (10.) Six-roomed tenement with bathroom, in house about 20 years old. Four rooms looking on narrow shaft. Hot water supply. Dimensions : 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 8 inches ; 8 feet 8 inches by 8 feet7inches; 10 feet 4 inches by 10 feet 6 inches; 7 feet by 10 feet 6 inches; 13 feet by 13 feet; 12 feet by 9 feet; bathroom 4 feet by 4 feet 6 inches; height 9 feet. Occupiers, husband (barber), wife, four children and one lodger. Coloured. Rent 22s. Id. per week. 36 NEW YORK CITY. The Bronx: — (1.) Five rooms and bathroom. Cold water flat. Block or "railroad" type. Dumb waiter. Bathroom and water-closet built out and entered from kitchen. Two entrances to tene- ment from public corridor. Eooms en suite. Dimensions: parlour (two windows on street) 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 9 inches; two bedrooms (curtained windows, on narrow shaft) 8 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches and 7 feet 1 inch by 10 feet; dining room (window on same shaft) 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet; kitchen 11 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 6 inches. Comfortable rooms. Many pictures. Occupier, German painter, thirty years in America. Three in family. Rent 16s. ^d. per week. (2.) Large New Law house in Italian quarter. Hot water supply in winter and "once a week" in summer. Three-roomed tenement. Dimensions: kitchen 15 feet by 9 feet; two bedrooms 9 feet by 8 feet; height 9 feet. Husband (labourer, not strong), wife and five children. Rent 8s. Sd. per week. Big cellars for coal. All compartments locked. Italian bakery in cellar. Clean, white loaves; Is., Sd., Zd., and under. (3.) In four-storied house, with shops on ground floor in Italian quarter. Two families on floor. Four-roomed tenement front to back. Cold water supply. Wash tubs. Water-closet on corridor. Dimensions: kitchen 14 feet by 11 feet 9 inches; two bedrooms 8 feet by 8 feet, both with borrowed light; sitting room 15 feet by 11 feet 9 inches; height 9 feet 6 inches. No carpets, as usual. Tidy, comfortable and fairly clean. Husband (labourer in ice works, earning 9s. 5(Z. a day), wife and four children, one of the last a machinist out of work. Rent 12s. 6(Z. per week. (4.) Frame tenement house. Four rooms (two dark) and bath. Cold water. Wash tubs. Private water-closet. Rent lis. Qd. per week. (5.) Attractive new house. 31 families. Steam heat. Bathrooms. Occupiers, Americans and some Jews. Rent three-roomed tenement, 14s. 5d. to 15s. 4d.; four rooms, 17s. 4(Z. to 21s. 2d.; five rooms, 21s. 2d. to 24s. per week. (6.) Six-roomed back tenement in New Law House. Steam heat. Hot water supply. Dimen- sions: kitchen 8 feet by 11 feet; dining room 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; drawing room 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; three bedrooms 7 feet by 12 feet; 7 feet 6 inches by 11 feet; 8 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches; height, 9 feet 2^ inches. Comfortable, but, as often in houses of this type, rooms very small. Passages would add something to floor space of apartment. Rent (dropped from 24s. in 1908) 21s. 2d. per week. (7.) Five rooms and bathroom in back tenement in New Law house. Steam heat. Dimensions (without passages) : kitchen 7 feet 3 inches by 10 feet 7 inches; dining room 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; parlour 10 feet by 12 feet; bedrooms 7 feet 3 inches by 11 feet, and 8 feet by 9 feet 1 inch; height 9 feet 3 inches. Occupier, American, eleven years in New York; motor man, leaving for New England for farm. Rent 19s. Zd. per week. In the same house, a front six-roomed tenement, with baths, was 27s. lid. per week. Two years previously, 30s. 9(Z. BrooTclyn: — (1.) In a central area likely to be absorbed for business uses : four rooms in a four-storied brick tenement house. Cold water supply. Water-closet in yard. Irish-American occupier, waiter. Rent 13s. Qd. per week. (2.) In a similar district. Two rooms in a two-storied rear frame house, old. Dimensions: 12 feet by 12 feet, and 6 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches; height 8 feet. Occupiers, coloured longshoreman and wife. Rent 6s. Zd. per week. (3.) In a central district mainly occupied by Irish and Italians. Two rooms in three-storied tene- ment house. Cold water supply. Water-closet in cellar, in fair order (two for six families). Dimen- sions: kitchen 12 feet by 14 feet; bedroom 8 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches; height 8 feet. No yard. Occupied by Itahans. Rent 6s. Qd. per week. (4.) Three rooms on second floor of a three-storied frame house. Cold water Water-closet in yard. Rent 10s. \d. per week. (5.) In a convenient district, two New Law brick dwellings, with hot water supply. Five rooms and bathroom. Ten at 14s. bd. per week, twenty-five at 15s. 5d., five at 16s. 4\d. 4d. „ 6d. 3id „id. ejrf. to8rf. 4d. „ bd. Sd. ,, lid. lOd. „ lid. 5d. „ Sd. id. „ 6d. lid. M. to lOd. 9rf. „ lOd. M. „ &d. M. ,,'ld. 6irf told. A\d „ 5d. ed , 6id. Id. to8rf. Id. ,, 8rf. 7d. Id. to %d. 5rf. ,, eid. 48 ATLANTA. Atlanta, the capital of the State of Georgia, is so situated as to be within comparatively easy reach of the ports both on the Gulf of Mexico and on the south-east Atlantic coast. This position has proved of great commercial importance. In addition to being a railway centre marking the intersection of several lines communicating with the South, the South-East and the Middle West, Atlanta presents many features in its appearance and in its activities which suggest a metropolis. No competing city lies within a radius of many mUes, and it is therefore the centre on which practically the whole of the financial, commercial and administrative business of a very large area converges. Besides being the capital Atlanta is also the largest city of Georgia. Owing to its varied industrial and commercial activities, and the wide social range which its citizens represent, Atlanta has the appearance of being larger and more influential than would be inferred from its population, which in 1910 numbered 154,839. The following Table shows the population of the city as returned at each of the Federal Censuses of 1870-1910: — • Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 21,789 37, 409 65, 533 89, 872 154, 839 1880 15, 620 28, 124 24, 339 64, 967 71.7 1890 75.2 1900 - -- - - -- 37.1 1910 72.3 In 1900 the area of the city was lOf square miles. On 1st January, 1906, a new ward containing a population of about 8,000 was taken into the city limits, and on 1st January, 1909, further territory consisting of about 12 square miles was added to the city area, the extent of which is now about 24 square miles. There has been practically no immigration into Atlanta in recent years, the Census of 1900 showing that only 2.7 per cent, of the white population were foreign-born and only 5.0 per cent, had foreign- bom parents. The proportion of persons of negro descent was not so great as in some southern cities, but was very considerable, being neaily 40 per cent. A cleavage exists between the two racial elements in the population which is evident in many aspects of the social and industrial hfe of the city. Everywhere the distinction of colour is rigidly observed, and racial feeling shows itself to as marked an extent in Atlanta as in any other city of the South. This feeling is probably the resultant of many forces, some of which are without doubt economic in their character. The negroes form, broadly speaking, the class of unskilled workers, whose interests seldom, in any city, coincide exactly with those of the classes above, and the line between skilled and unskilled labour being always obscurely drawn, the encroachment of the one class of workers upon the field of the other is almost everywhere a fertile source of dispute and jealousy. In Atlanta, however, these industrial differences exist between two races, one of which is held to be much the social inferior of the other, and a bitterness is apt to ensue, and the quarrel to be magnified, to an extent which would be unlikely were the personal elements simpler. The social separation of the two races is everywhere emphasised-^in the tramcars, in the churches and the theatres, at the baseball ground and even in the public parks and libraries; and in all cases the negro is either excluded or made to occupy a position of marked inferiority. Much of this reaction against the negro is merely an expression of the soreness left by the Civil War, and of the no less painful period of "reconstruction" which followed. The feeling is, however, held by many to be cumulative, and in Atlanta, where the new industrial development of the South is active, where new industrial conditions and relationships are being shaped and where, therefore, the new 'post-bellum relationship between the two races is less effective and less understood, the difficulties of the situation are more than usually marked. Though the spectacle is not rare, the position of a white man and a negro working side-by-side at the same or similar occupations is obviously fraught with unpleasant possibilities in the shape of industrial friction. The social separation, therefore, tends to bring about an economic separation also, and this again, by marking off a definite class of negro occupations, has the effect of makmg the social differences themselves still wider. ATLANTA. 49 As is well known, Atlanta was almost wholly destroyed by fire during the Civil War. Like many such calamities the disaster has given no occasion for ultimate regrets. The rebuilding of the city was carried on with vigour, and the growth of population has since been rapid. In appearance the city is very modern and in many ways suggests the North rather than the South. It is claimed that this outward appearance of brisk activity and enterprise accurately expresses the business spirit of the city, and that while the native of Atlanta is a true Southerner, holding fast by Southern traditions and ideals, he takes the greatest pride in being progressive and enterprising. Much is said to be due to climate, which having regard to latitude — which is that of Fez in Morocco — is cool. The city stands on a plateau, 1,050 feet in height, which is formed by the eastern slope of the Alleghany Mountains, and to this situation are due the comparatively cool summers. In Atlanta the business man's day begins early, before 9 o'clock in the morning, and seldom ends before 6 in the evening. The siesta observed in some Southern cities, where business is suspended between two and four in the afternoon, is not known, luncheon being usually taken early, seldom after two o'clock. The centre of the city is occupied by the principal shopping thoroughfares and by a number of very tall buildings in which most of the commercial and financial business of the city is transacted. The city is supposed to be laid oilt on a regular plan having as its features concentric circles joined by radii, but it is very difficult to discern any such plan in actuality. Two or three of the main streets are long and straight, but otherwise there is little regularity. Some of the residential districts of Atlanta are very attractive. As a rule there is an abundance of trees, while the Southern style of domestic architecture is distinguished by a pleasing freshness and light elegance. There is no other city or town near Atlanta competing with it as a residential centre for its wealthiest citizens, and Peachtree Street, a long, handsome and fashionable thoroughfare, contains a number of residences both expensive and tasteful. In strong contrast to the well-kept appearance of the Peachtree Street quarter of the city, however, are two industrial districts, one near the large cotton mill in the south of the city, and the other near the cotton and furniture factories of the north-east. These bear evidence to Atlanta's character as a manufacturing city, as distinct from its importance as a commercial and administrative centre. The city here has an untidy and depressing appearance; the houses are for the most part poor and often squalid, and the roads are rough and ill-paved. The arresting features in these districts are the factories and railway sidings: the dwelling houses are merely incidental, grouped about on plots wherever there is room. The coal used in Atlanta is a soft bituminous product chiefly from the Alabama fields. This yields a good deal of smoke, which is accountable for much of the dirt in the manufacturing portions of the city. In the city as a whole the streets are of fair width. The main streets are laid with asphalt or stone setts, whUe the less frequented and residential thoroughfares are macadamised or not paved at all. There are a few parks or open spaces, the best of which are restricted to white people, but the city cannot be said to be well provided for in this respect. The parks are not easily accessible, except by car, to the great bulk of the working-class population. Atlanta possesses a complete and efficient trolley car system. Within the city itself and for some distance beyond there is a uniform fare of 2id. The pleasant little town of Decatur, some six or seven miles from Atlanta, can be reached for this fare. Buckhead and Eastpoint are also about the same distance from Atlanta and within the 2id. zone. The farthest point accessible by trolley car is Marietta, a small town about 20 miles distant, from which the line of the Alleghany range can be seen. The fare to this terminus is Is. Bid. The car lines, as well as the gas and electric lighting undertakings, are controlled by private enterprise. The water supply, taken from the Chattahoochee Eiver, is owned by the city. A minimum charge of 2s. 6d. per month is made for every house supplied, this entitling the user to 5,000 gallons, a quantity not often exceeded by working-class households. For each additional 833 gallons 5d. is charged. A modification of the charges is made where there are two or more dweUings under one roof, each let at not more than 5s. 9d. per week: the whole building is then charged as one house, the hmitation as regards quantity still, of course, applying. This is of some importance in considering the subject of working-class housing in the city. The sanitary administration of Atlanta is under the care of a Board of Health consistmg of the Mayor and of citizens elected by, but not from, the City Council, one citizen being elected for each of the nine wards About half of the members of the Board are usually medical practitioners. The Board maintains two departments, the Health Department and the Sanitary Department. The first is in charge of a medical man and is concerned with the isolation of infectious diseases, the remedying of various defects in houses, and the supervision of slaughter-houses and dames. The Samtary Depart- ment is in the charge of a chief Sanitary inspector, and is concerned mamly with the removal of house 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 10 50 ATLANTA. garbage, the cleansing of streets, &c. and the supervision of houses with regard to nuisances arising more particularly from filth and neglect than from defects of drainage, &c. There is no regular system of house inspection, and in the poorer districts of the city broken pipes, sodden earth and accumulations of rubbish give evidence here and there of insufiicient supervision. Some indication of the health of the city is furnished by the following statistics, in regard to which it must be remembered that about 40 per cent, of the population consisted of coloured persons: Year. 190-1 1 1905 j 190G I 1907 1 1908 { Race. White.... Coloured, White.... Coloured. White.... Coloured. White... Coloured, White.... Coloured Number of Deaths. 1,053 1,253 1,128 1,206 1,182 X299 1,275 1,258 1,076 1,031 Number of Deaths under One Year. 198 261 232 240 192 217 220 207 164 190 Number of Deaths from Tuber- culosis. 115 165 108 171 111 161 114 114 113 114 Owing to doubt in regard to the aggregate population figures, the rates yielded by the various numbers in the above Table are not very conclusive. It is clear, however, in view of the fact that the negroes constitute only about 40 per cent, of the total population, that the mortahty among the coloured race is very much heavier than among the white, and the infantile mortahty is probably very excessive. In studying the mortahty figures for the negroes and whites respectively, however, it must be remembered that there is not merely a difference of race, but also, on a general view, an important difference of economic standing, the coloured section of the population being almost identical as mentioned above, with the unskilled labouring class, whose low standard of living is the result, in !)i'Bd at least, of a condition of relative poverty, and is not whoUy due to any disregard of the laws of decency and health peculiar to the race. Vital statistics relating almost solely to the lower section of the population in a large city would always compare unfavourably with those for the more prosperous section, or for the city as a whole. Some account of the system of local taxation in Atlanta may be usefully given. There are two taxing authorities, namely, the city, which is concerned almost solely with its own finance, and the county, which collects on behalf of the State as well as itself. Both authorities levy a tax on real and personal property. Realty is charged nominally on its full value, personalty on the basis of 60 per cent, of its value as declared in the statements required of the tax-payers. In the city the realty which was assessed in 1908 amounted to £35,178,414, and the personalty to £5,995,717. It will easily be inferred that in practice the incidence of the tax on realty is much heavier than on personalty. Not only is personalty taxed on a lower basis of assessment and subject to a number of statutory exemptions, e. g., bonds of the United States Government, but it is clear that the ease, with which personal property can be under-valued or concealed has a very powerful effect on the jdeld of the taxes, and places real property in a relatively unfavourable position. This relative disadvantage at which real property stands must have an important effect upon rentals, since an investor would certainly take into consideration the fact that real property cannot, and personal property can, to some extent at least, escape, and he would not select the former unless he saw his way clear to a return that would compensate him for this difference. The rate of tax on property levied by the city in 1908 was 1\ per cent. The city taxes also comprise an annual tax for sanitary purposes of 12s. 6d. Fait Avenue. — Ten red brick houses, containing six rooms and bathroom, hall and vestibule, let at 13s. 6d. per week. Three marble steps led to the front door, and there were marble trimmings to the windows. The houses had small yards, cellars with earthen floors, closets (vaults) in the yards and hot and cold water supplies. The front and middle rooms downstairs measured 13 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches, and the Idtchen 14 feet square. Upstairs the front room measured 13 feet 6 inches square, the middle room 14 feet by 7 feet 9 inches, the back room 14 feet by 8 feet 6 inches and the bathroom 7 feet 6 inches by 4 feet 9 inches. Eastern Avenue. — Sixteen red brick houses looking upon Patterson Park, built in 1909, and all for sale at from £310 to £335, the rental value being from 13s. 6d. to 14s. 5d. per week. The houses had marble steps and facings, and vestibules with hall passage running back to the stairs. The dimen- sions of rooms were: downstairs — front room 13 feet by 9 feet; middle room 13 feet by 9 feet; kitchen 13 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, with a height of 9 feet: upstairs — front room 12 feet 6 inches square; middle room 12 feet 3 inches by 7 feet; back room 14 feet by 10 feet; bathroom (parallel to back room) 10 feet by 4 feet, with a height of 9 feet in each case. Grove Street. — Ten houses containing four rooms and a small scullery, occupied by Poles, and let at 7s. 8d. per week. The staircase was in the back room, the water and convenience in the yard. The front room measured 12 feet by 11 feet 3 inches by 8 feet 3 inches, and the back room was smaller to the extent of the staircase space at one side. The upper rooms were both like the front room below. West Hoffman Street. — Six two-storied red brick houses, containing six rooms, occupied by negro waiters, draymen, &c. The kitchen measured 12 feet by 9 feet, the middle room 12 feet square and the front room 16 feet by 9 feet, the height being 8 feet 3 inches. The bathroom upstairs was 5 feet square. The staircase was between the front and middle rooms, and the convenience in the yard. Preston Street. Twelve houses with eight rooms, two in each of three floors, and two in the base- ment floor. Two negro families hved in several of these houses, each family having, as a rule, four rooms, one of them a basement, and paying half the rent or 6s. 3d. per week. The front rooms were 12 feet square, and the back rooms 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet. Walnut Alley.— About forty red brick houses, containing two basement rooms and two rooms on each of the other two floors, let at 8s. 4cZ. per week. The occupants were negroes. The back basement room measured 13 feet by 8 feet 9 inches, and the front 12 feet by 10 feet and the height was 7 feet 9 inches. The upper rooms had the same dimensions except that they were about 6 inches higher. The stairs were in the back rooms and the hydrants in the yard. Oxford Street —Some fifty houses of eight rooms, occupied by negroes. Two rooms were basement ...ms The houses were generally rented to single families, who sublet four rooms at half the rent. There were wooden steps in the front and rear leading up to the doors of the first floor. The front measured 16 feet by 12 feet, and the back rooms 12 feet square, with a height of 8 feet. rooms. rooms 84 BALTIMORE. Dolphin Street. — Twelve good two-storied houses in red brick, with six rooms and bathroom, situated alongside a tramway line and occupied by negroes. The houses had marble steps and window trimmings, also vestibules and hall passages, and good cellars. The frontages measured 13 feet, and the measurements of the first floor rooms were as follows: — Front room 16 feet 6 inches by 12 eet, middle room 12 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 6 inches and back room 9 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, with a height of 8 feet 6 inches. The bathroom ran parallel to the last-mentioned room. Alice Anna Street. — A tenement house near Fell's Point Market occupied by fourteen families, twelve being Polish and two German. Eight families occupied three rooms each at a rent of from 4s. 10(Z. to 5s. M. per week, five occupied two rooms at from 2s. l\d. to 3s. Ad. per week and one room was let at Is. 5d. The ground floor was used as a stable, and the entrance — broad enough for the passage of a cart — was ill-paved and dirty. At the back of the yard were two small houses, containing two stories and four rooms, let at 4s. lOd. Three privies and two hydrants served for all tenants. The dimensions of one of the three-roomed dwellings were: front room 16 feet by 13 feet, middle room (dark) 14 feet by 13 feet and back room 12 feet by 13 feet, the height being 8 feet. The tenants belonged to the unskilled labouring class. Albemarle Street. — A house inhabited by three German-Jewish tenants, of whom one was a baker, another a carpenter and the third a "junk dealer" or ragman. Two of the tenements contained three rooms and let at 7s. 8d., and there was a two-roomed tenement on the ground floor, let at 6s. 9d., the dimensions of these rooms being 18 feet by 12 feet 6 inches and 18 feet by 15 feet respectively, with a height of 9 feet. One convenience was provided for the three families, but each tenement had a water-tap. Two other tenements of three rooms and one of four rooms all let at 7s. 8d. The dimensions of the rooms in the four-roomed tenement were: 14 feet by 15 feet, 14 feet by 15 feet, 7 feet by 8 feet and 15 feet by 12 feet, the height being 9 feet. This was formerly a single-family house occupied by weU-to-do people, but was now tenanted by Russian Jews. Trinity Street. — A house occupied by two ItaUan families, the husband in one case being a mason, who occupied three rooms on the ground floor, the dimensions being 15 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet, 14 feet by 12 feet by 9 feet and 10 feet by 8 feet by 9 feet. There was no corridor in front, but a rear entrance with passage, where the stairs were found. The closet was on the vault system. West Gross Street. — Twenty houses in a row, aU with six rooms and bathroom, eighteen being owned or in course of purchase by the occupiers. The rents of the remaining two houses were 14s. 5d. and lis. 6d. respectively. The frontages measured 13 feet. Each house had a vestibule and hall passage running back to the door of the middle room. The closet was on the vault system. The dimensions of the rooms were as follows: — Ground floor — front room 14 feet by 9 feet; middle room 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches; kitchen 15 feet by 9 feet 6 inches. Upstairs: — Front room 15 feet by 13 feet; middle room 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches; back room 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 3 inches, the height in every case being 8 feet 6 inches. Among the occupants were two engineers, a railway con- ductor, a granite worker, a tailor. Most were Germans or of German descent. Retail Prices. Baltimore is a noted food-supply centre. Fruits, vegetables, dairy products, poultry and meat are produced in the fertile districts of the State of Maryland, and the shores of the Chesapeake are especially favourable for these branches of agriculture. The city is remarkable among the large cities of the United States for the abundance and varied character of its retail markets. In the principal districts of the city are covered markets where all kinds of meat, vegetables, fruits, butter, eggs and other important foodstuffs are sold. Of the eleven markets the Lexington, Fell's Point, Belair, Centre Cross Street and Lafayette Markets are the most frequented and in them working people make a large part of their purchases. All are open on Saturdays and one or two other days in the week. The streets which surround the markets are lined with a great variety of provision shops and other stores, the prices of which are influenced by the market quotations. The number of butchers' stalls is very great, and all grades of meat are sold in them. BALTIMORE. 85 There are no co-operative societies, but some "multiple" firms have several branches One with seventy-five branches in other parts of the United States, and deaUng in coffee, tea and sugar has sixteen local shops. Two other general grocery firms have respectively seven and eleven shops in various parts of the city. In addition there are two important general shops, with large meat and grocery departments, which attract the custom of the workpeople. Food prices have risen to a notable degree in Baltimore in the course of the last eighteen years In 1892 the Maryland Bureau of Statistics began to collect regularly from ajiumber of retail dealers the prices of the medium qualities of certain articles of general consumption. The average prices for 1909 showed an increase of 51.46 per cent, over those of 1892. The prices of 1909 were ascertained from 230 retail dealers m various parts of the city, and related to the medium quality of thirty-six different articles, comprising various descriptions of meats, fish, groceries and provisions and coal. Twenty-six of these articles were higher in price in 1909 than in 1908, and six were lower, while in the case of the remaining four, the average price was the same in each year. The monthly average prices at the most important market in Baltimore were also collected in 1908 and in 1909 for 108 articles, which included meats, game, poultry, fish, vegetable, fruits, butter and eggs. Of these 108 articles, which are described as supplying "the table of the average home," 67 showed an increase in price in 1909 as compared with 1908, 38 showed a slight decrease and 3 were unchanged. Groceries and other Commodities. Tea is drunk to only a limited extent, coffee being the popular beverage. The tea mostly used is a China blend, and it is often bought in packets of four oz. for l^d. The coffee in general use comes from Brazil. Sweet potatoes are plentiful and are largely eaten, especially by the negroes. Vegetables (notably tomatoes, peas, spinach, cabbage and potatoes) and fruits are also abundant and cheap. Bread is largely baked at home, but less in summer than in winter. The buying of bakery bread is, however, on the increase. The loaf sold at 2\d. weighed as a rule from 14 to 15 oz.; when put into the oven it weighed about 1 lb. It must be remembered, however, that wheaten bread does not constitute as large an item in the dietary of the American as of the Englishman or Frenchman. Maize bread and other substitutes are largely eaten. Boneless hacon is most generally bought, breakfast bacon with the rib in not being in much demand. American, Swiss and Limburg are the principal cheeses, but Swiss cheese is much dearer than the other two, being usually retailed at from Is. Zd. to Is. b^d. per lb., while the American costs from Qd. to \Qd., and the Limburg \Qd. per lb. The last-named is largely eaten by the German working people. By municipal regulation the ton of coal must weigh 2,240 lb. when sold in the city. Baltimore is an important coal market. The following Table shows the predominant prices of certain principal commodities of the qualities mostly consumed by the working classes in February, 1909: — Predominant Prices paid hy the Worlcing Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea per lb. Coffee II Sugar: — White Granulated , , Brown i > Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless , , Eggs : ' perls. Cheese, American pe"" ^"■ Butter "„ 11. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten— Household ,, Bread, White per 4 lb Milk.. Pei^ l^^'"^' Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Kerosene pergallon Predominant Price. Is. Sd. to 2s. ed. 9d. ,, lOd. 2ld., 2|rf. 2W. 9d. to lOd. 9, 10 9rf. to lOd. Is. 2id. ,, Is. 5id. 5hd. ,, Id. Is. OK ,, Is. Ofrf. lOJrf. ,, ll^rf. ■ Aid. Is. 6|d. to Is. -lU.* Is. 6|rf. ,, Is. ^d.■\ Is. l\d. ,, Is. lQ\d.% bid. ,, 6rf. * By the ton of 2,240 lb t By the half-ton (1,120 lb.). t By the bushel (80 lb.). 86 BALTIMORE. Meat. A large percentage of the meat consumed in the city comes from the West, although the home- killed meat forms an appreciable proportion of the whole, and commands better prices. It is said that the finer grades of Western meat are not sent to Baltimore. It is chiefly beef that comes from the West, the mutton, veal and pork being obtained for the greater part from the local centres. There is no municipal abattoir at Baltimore, but there are two large private abattoirs and a number of minor ones. The working people eat for the most part beef and pork, veal and mutton being in but slight favour. The shin is often sold whole at from Is. b\d. to Is. IQ^d., according to its weight. Chuck roast, round steak, with plate and brisket, are the principal cuts of beef bought, while dry salt pork, spare rib and ham are very popular. The subjoined Table shows the predominant prices paid for the chief cuts by the working classes in February, 1909: — PredomirMnt Prices paid by the Working Glasses in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Round ,, Ribs prime , , Ribs second cut ,, Chuck or short ribs. . Steaks^Round „ Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Plate, Brisket {|-f„--- -3^ Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal:— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork:— Fresh — Loin ,, Spare rib ,, Shoulder ,, Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled).. Dry salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked .... Predominant Price per lb. Id. Id. 6d. 5df. 7d. Sd. 4d. Sd. 3d. 3d. 6d. 4d. 7id. 9d. 5d. 4rf. lOd. 7id. 7id. 5d. id. 7d. 5d 7d. M. 6d 7d. M. to 7K „ 8i. „ 7d. „ ed. „ nd. „ 9d. „ 5d. „ 4d. „ 4d. „ 4rf. to 9d „ 6d. „ lOi „ lOd. „ 6d. „ 5d. to lid. „ 9d „ lOd „ 6H „ 6d. to8d. 5d. to 7d. „ 9d. „ nd. „ nd. „ 8id. „ 7K Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Baltimore is 92, for other food it is 99 and for food prices as a whole 97. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 86. 87 BIRMINGHAM. Birmingham, which is now the largest city in the State of Alabama, has attained its present importance owing to the active development of the mineral resources of the State during the last twenty years. The city proper is the business centre of an important mining district in Jefferson County, where coal, iron ore and limestone are found in close proximity and in great abundance. Birmingham people claim that the local conditions for the production of pig iron are superior to those found in any other part of the world, but the development of this industry has been hindered by the fact that the principal markets for iron and steel lie in the northern portions of the United States. As no waterways are available for the commerce of the Birmingham district, producers of heavy commodities like pig iron and coal find their advantages in production counteracted by the heavy cost of transport to the more distant markets. The future development of the coal and iron industry is therefore dependent to a large extent on the development of the resources and population of the Southern States. The following Table shows the growth in the production of coal, coke and pig iron in the State of Alabama (which for this purpose practically means the district of which Birmingham is the commercial and railway centre) since 1877. The figures are those collected by the State Inspector of Mines: — Coal. Coke. Pig Iron. 1877 Tons of 2,000 lb. 196, 000 ' 1, 950, 000 5, 893, 771 14, 424, 863 Tons of 2,000 lb. Tons of 2,240 lb. 36^823 1887 1897 325, 020 1,443,017 3, 096, 722 261,394 947, 831 1907 1, 686, 674 The city of Birmingham and the smaller townships adjacent lie in a valley which runs east and west. The southern side of the valley is bounded by a steep escarpment of red rocks, indicating the presence of iron ore. Towards the north-west are the coal mines extending over a considerable area. Limestone is quarried towards the north-east. The iron and steel works are situated at various points in the valley, the largest being at Ensley, which is about ten miles from Birmingham. In Birmingham itself and the immediate suburbs there are several important smelting works and also a number of foundries and machine shops producing cast iron pipes, engines and sugar-milling machinery, In North Birmingham, brick and fireclay works and saw-milling are of importance. The textile indus- tries have obtained little foothold as yet in Birmingham, but there is a large cotton mill a short distance away. The Table given above, showing the production of coal, coke and pig iron, affords a better indication of the growing importance of Birmingham than the population, though this has increased remarkably, as is seen from the Table below. Eesidential suburbs have sprung up, and beyond them have grown small detached townships, such as Ensley, Pratt City and Bessemer, which are only a few miles distant from the city. Birmingham is thus the commercial, shopping and social centre for a wide district. The Census fio'ures for 1880-1910 for the city proper are shown in the following Table:— Year. Population. Increase . Percentage Increase. 3,086 26, 178 38, 415 132, 685 1880 1 eon 23, 092 12,237 94, 270 748.3 lonn 46.7 iqif) 245.4 88 BIRMINGHAM. In the year 1900, 52.3 per cent, of the total population consisted of American-born whites, 43.1 per cent, of persons of negro descent and only 4.6 per cent, of foreign-born whites. These figures relate only to the population comprised within the city limits. In the outer districts, near the mines and the large iron and steel works, there are now some colonies of Italians and Slavs, who do not form as yet a large proportion of the population, though their numbers are hkely to increase. Opinions differ amongst employers as to the comparative merits of negro and East European labour, but some companies, at least, prefer Slavs or Hungarians, the latter particularly having a reputation for steadi- ness, and also possessing the physique which is required for heavy labour in the iron works. Wliether they can be attracted in large numbers at the existing level of wages paid to unskilled labour remains, however, to be seen. ItaUans are employed to some extent on railway construction and maintenance. They are not fond of underground work in the coal mines, but are employed to some extent in surface work. One of the mine managers stated that ItaUans, owing to unfamiliarity with the hazards of coal mining, are "too easily scared" by small accidents which the negro takes more philosophically, saving the management much worry and expense. Another point in the negro's favour is that he spends his earnings freely at the mining companies' stores, whereas the Italian frequently lives frugally and saves aU he can, remitting the money to Italy. Within the city limits practically all the unskilled labour is performed by negroes, but it would not be true to say that aU negroes are unskilled labourers. In the buUding industry, which is dis- cussed in more detail below, they have a footing in the skilled occupations, and there are negro doctors, lawyers, ministers, schoolmasters and even bankers. Educational facilities for negroes in Birmingham are, however, rather meagre, the schools being understaffed and overcrowded. Money is not voted readily for negro education, though for white children handsome and well-equipped schools are provided. Education is not compulsory for either race, but in the city the great majority of white children attend school. The climate and physical characteristics of all this region are quite favourable to the health of white men. Birmingham is from 700 to 800 feet above the sea-level, and the soil is of a porous nature, readily absorbing moisture. The surrounding country consists mainly of low, thickly-wooded hills and narrow valleys, altogether different from the low-lying level ground of the "black belt" further south. Although Birmingham, like Atlanta, is in nearly the same latitude as Fez in Morocco, the climate is essentially temperate. During a large part of the year the temperature is cool and the air bracing, and even in summer the nights are seldom hot. Pine woods are found to a considerable extent in the surrounding country, but in Birmingham itself and the immediate vicinity most of the trees are deciduous. In the middle of March there are no more leaves to be seen than in England at the same time of the year. For a city whose rate of growth is both rapid and fluctuating, it is impossible to obtain vital statistics of a thoroughly reliable character for years far removed from the date of the last Census. According to local estimates of population, the death-rate has kept at about 21 to 22 per 1,000 of the •population during the last few years, though it fell to 18.5 in 1908. The death-rate among white people alone during the same period was appreciably lower, probably 15 or 16 per 1,000. The total number of deaths in 1908 was 1,109, and the following Table shows some of the principal causes of mortality :— Mortality from some of the Principal Causes in 1908. Violence (includiag accidents) Tuberculosis Pneumonia Broncho-pneumonia Typhoid... Cancer . Acute intestinal disorders of children under 5 years White. 63 31 26 10 32 28 37 Negro. 68 111 47 16 21 8 35 Total. 131 142 73 26 53 36 72 Two facts attested by these figures are particularly noticeable, viz., the large number of deaths from violence and the heavy mortality amongst negroes from tuberculosis and lung diseases. Nearly 12 per cent, of the total deaths were due to violence, mainly accidents on the railways at level crossings BIRMINGHAM. 89 and in steel works, &c. The mortality from this cause in 1908, though heavy, was less than in previous years, and the report of the Health Officer suggests that the principal cause of the reduction has been the prohibition of the sale of alcohohc liquors, which came into force on January 1st, 1908. It is not easy to determine as yet how far prohibition has operated in this direction, because the year 1908 was one of exceptional trade depression, hence fewer accidents would be expected in view of the much smaller number of railway wagons in use and the almost complete stoppage of production in some of the iron and steel works. It is also probable that there was a much smaller floating population in Birming- ham in 1908 than in the previous years of trade activity, for negroes remain on the plantations when the coal and iron works are not actively employed. There is good reason, however, for believing that prohibition has not been meffective. The return of the number of convictions at the Birmingham City Court for certain offences m 1907 and 1908 given below shows a greater diminution in 1908 than can well be accounted for merely by the difference in the state of trade: — Convictions for Various Offences in 1907 and 1908. White Persons. Coloured Persons. Total. 1907. 1908. 1907. 1908. 1907. 1908. Assault and Battery . _ . 339 7 492 1,535 16 235 8 316 516 14 610 37 804 735 96 282 25 443 172 42 949 44 1,296 2,270 112 517 Assault with intent to Murder 33 Disorderly Conduct 759 DmnkftTiTiess 688 Wife-beating 56 It is noticeable that, allowing for relative numbers, drunkenness appears to be more prevalent amongst the white population than amongst the negroes, and that the effect of the prohibition law has been less marked in the case of the former than the latter. The business portion of the city is built of brick and steel. Already there are several tall blocks of office buildings, of the kind known as "sky-scrapers," and a new block, taller than any already existing, was in course of erection at the time of the investigator's visit. The offices in these tall buildings are of a superior kind and are largely occupied by the iron and steel and coal mining companies, estate agents, lawyers, &c. ; doctors and dentists also have their consulting rooms and surgeries in them, and it may almost be said that the commercial and professional hfe of the town, in its larger aspects, is concen- trated in these imposing office blocks. In a city in which every dweUiug house has some space around it, the question of parks is not very pressing. Birmingham, however, has several small parks, the principal one some 5 or 6 miles from the center of the city. A drainage system has been carried out in practically the whole area of the city proper, but most of the suburbs are still imperfectly served in this respect, for no regulations have compelled builders to keep to the land adjacent to paved and sewered streets, so that houses have been erected anywhere within reach of the widely radiating tramway system. In their desire to obtain cheap land and plenty of room people do not mind sacrificing the convenience of made roads and sewers for a few years. When districts become sufficiently inhabited the roads are made and the sewers follow sooner or later. Water has to be procured from the begiiming, however, and as wells are not available in most places, the supply of the Water Company has to be taken. The charges are rather high, probably on account of the large area which needs to be covered in order to reach a limited number of houses. The rate of charge by meter is Is. 6cZ. per 1,000 gaUons for quantities not exceeding 25,000 gallons per month; for a larger consumption the price per gaUon is reduced according to a scale. Most of the domestic supply, how- ever is not charged by meter. The scale of charges varies in the different suburbs, each of which has made its own bargam with the Water Company. For the city the charge for domestic consumption, m so far as it applies to houses of the kmd occupied by wage-earning families, is as follows:- Per annum. Dwellings of three rooms and less 33s. 4j. Each additional room up to ten rooms 4s. ^d. ™-^ ,. 20s. lOrf. Water-closet .„ „, Bath ^^'- ^^- 90 BIRMINGHAM. Thus a house having five rooms and water-closet, without bath, would be charged 62s. 6d. per annum, or about Is. 2d. per week, while with a bathroom the charge for such a house would be about Is. 6d. per Week. The water charge is nearly always paid directly by the tenant. The electric fighting system, the gas works and the tramways are all owned by one company. The charge for gas is 4s. 2d. per 1,000 cubic feet. The tramways have 112 miles of track and a 2JJ. fare for any distance is charged over nearly the whole system. The mmiicipal revenue is derived partly from the usual general property tax, and partly from ficences. A State law prohibits the city from levying a tax of more than one per cent, per annum on the assessed capital value of property for municipal purposes. The State and county taxes, however, amount to 1.35 per cent., so that the total levy is 2.35 per cent., of which the city retains less than half. To make up a sufficient revenue the city has an elaborate schedule of licences for all kinds of businesses and professions. Banks pay from £42 to £94 per annum, according to the amount of their capital, surplus and undivided profits; dry-goods stores pay from £3 to £63 according to the value of the stock, barbers' shops pay 12s. 6d. per chair, &c. The Tramway Company pays £875 per annum, and the railway companies £365 each. The Water Company is charged £3,646, and the Telephone Company £521. Lawyers, doctors and dentists pay from £5 to £26 according to their gross business receipts. The licences yield rather more than the ordinary property tax; this reverses the usual position in American cities. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Laboue. Birmingham is more important as the centre of a manufacturing and mining district than as a manufacturing city and the Census statistics for the city alone do not do justice to the industries which in reafity give the place its importance. According to the Census of 1900 trade and transportation, and professional and domestic service gave employment to the largest number of people, but metalworking and engineering and the building trades were also largely represented. The Census statistics may be summarised as follows: — Numier of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Birmingham in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Textile Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupations 1,127 1,532 21 67 76 84 127 205 924 5,725 1,647 2,153 13, 688 370 1 5 370 24 4,373 5,162 1,127 1,532 24 67 446 85 132 213 932 6,095 1,671 6,526 18, 850 Coal Mining. — Both wlfite and coloured men are employed in the coal mines as pick miners, but practically all the labourers are coloured. Payment is by the ton. Is. 8d. per ton of 2,000 lb. being a common, j)rice at the time of the investigation, the rate having been reduced in most mines in 1908, when a great strike resulted in the defeat of the miners. Unskilled helpers, paid either by time or piece, but mainly by time, are often employed by individual miners, who thus take somewhat the same position as foremen, and in this way make high earnings when they are themselves good managers. It is said that the best miners are those from Great Britain, who came to this district many years ago and were able to turn to advantage their knowledge of mining methods in the British coalfields. I I I I BIRMINGHAM. 91 The rapid development of the industry in recent years has led to the employment of large numbers of Southern white Americans and negroes who have had to gather their knowledge as best they could. These men, on the whole, are less skilful than those who have been brought up to mining from their youth. Partly owing to differences in skill and experience, and partly owing to the fact that unskilled helpers are frequently employed, there are wide differences in individual earnings. These differences are further accentuated by the fact that many of the men, especially those of coloured race, work irregularly. A miniug manager stated that owing to irregularity of attendance he was compelled to have from 30 to 40 per cent, more men on his books than he was hkely in ordinary circumstances to need at any one time. The average hewer earns from 10s. 5d. to 12s. 6d. per day and usually works from three to five days per week, but many men, including some coloured men, earn higher amounts. The hours are variable, and depend largely upon the men themselves, but the usual day's work averages about eight hours. The wages and hours of labour stated in the Table on p. 93 are for a full week of six days. Blast Fwnaces. — ^The labour employed in blast furnaces is almost entirely coloured, and of a com- paratively unskilled type. A few white supervisors, mechanics and engineers earn skilled rates of wages, but the majority of men employed earn less than 8s. 4(i. per day. Two shifts of twelve hours each are worked seven days per week. The furnaces mostly he a few miles beyond the city boundaries. The largest plant is at Ensley. BdUing Mills. — ^Most of the iron smelted in the Birmingham district is sent away as pig iron, but some is converted into steel and rolled into rails and plates. Labour in the rolling mills is mainly coloured, though some Slavonic and Itahan unskilled labour is employed.' White men act as head rollers and as foremen and superintendents, but coloured men are employed as heaters and catchers, and have very high earnings. Coking Ovens. — Work is done entirely by negroes, who can stand the heat better than white men. The nature of the work, in fact, specially suits the negro, as constant attendance is not required. The work of pulling and loading is hard while it lasts, but the duration of actual work is not great. Pullers and loaders are paid by piece. Foundries and Machine Shops. — There are a few machine shops and foundries, the most impor- tant of the latter being those which produce cast iron pipes, and of the former those which are engaged in making engines, sugar-nulling machinery, &c. The railway companies also have repair shops which employ a considerable number of mechanics. Moulders in general machine shops have a recognised rate of 13s. lid. per day of ten hours. Both moulders and machinists are mainly union men, and the rate of pay is about the same for the two occupations. No half-holiday on Saturday has yet been secured in machine shops, and, indeed, at the time of the investigator's visit the question of introducing a Saturday half-hohday even into business offices was only just being taken up. The skilled men are aU white, and the labourers are all coloured men. Building Trades. — About half the bricklayers in Birmingham are said to be members of the trade union, which includes a small number of coloured men. It is not owing to the existence of any very sympathetic feelmg between the white men and the negroes that the latter are allowed to join the union; it is simply because the white men feel that their interest demands that coloured men should be organised so far as possible, so as to prevent them from cutting down the rates of wages. Wherever a sufficient number of coloured men can be organised, they are encouraged to form a union of their own, affiliated to the white men's unions, but where there are not enough to form a separate union, they are allowed in the South, to become members of the white men's organisations. Union brick- layers are employed principally by the larger contractors, and are paid 2s. 7id. per hour, working eight hours per day Non-union men, who are mainly coloured, work mne to ten hours per day, earning from 12s 6d to 16s. Sd. per day. A few are paid the full rate of 20s. lOd. per day, and some earn less than 12s 6d per day, but the majority come withm the range quoted. It is not uncommon for non-union coloured bricklayers to work by contract or piece work; their work is largely on founda- tions of frame houses, where good finish is not required. In spite of the mild climate m wmter, brick- layers are said to have almost as much irregular work as m the North. Rain is very heavy when it falls and stops outdoor work, and further irregularity is due to the fact that the demand for brick- layer' work comes mainly from builders of large premises, tor which there is not a continuous demand. Stonemasons and stonecutters do not form a large class. ft u r™ Camenters are the most important class of men employed in the buildmg of frame houses. The distnct^mot have a membei^Mp of about 600, includmg a small umon of coloured men. The umon 92 BIRMINGHAM. rate of pay is Is. 8d. per hour, and eight hours per day are worked for six days per week. A consider- able number of coloured carpenters, estimated at 300, are outside the unions, and there are a few non-union white carpenters. The non-union men include a large number of rough carpenters, who are paid rates as low as lOd. per hour, and work usually ten hours per day. Plasterers are almost all coloured men, who have a fairly strong union. They have an eight- hour day, with a half-holiday on Saturdays, making 44 hours per week. Non-union plasterers often are paid by piece and their earnings vary considerably. Plumbers are all white men, and practically all are organised. The ordinary day is eight hours, but only seven hours are worked on Saturday for a full day's pay. Structural iron workers are all white men. Painters are a numerous body, as all frame houses have to be painted periodically. The white men are mainly unionists, and at the time of the investigation they were asking for Is. 8d. per hour; rather less than half had already received that rate and the remainder were still receiving Is. 5id. per hour. The non-union coloured painters are numerous, being estimated at 600 to 700. They earn from lOd. to Is. 3d. per hour and work ten hours per day. General unskilled labourers in the building trades earn from 4s. 2d. to 5s. 2id. per day, and usually work ten hours. Labourers attached to skilled men as helpers are paid various rates. When union labour is employed, there is a sharp line between the skilled men and the unskilled, the latter receiving from 5s. 2id. to 6s. 3d. per day. When the Hne of division is less definite, helpers may get as much as 8s. 4:d. per day. Hod carriers, who are employed mainly in connexion with plasterers, have a union, but it is not strong. Members of the union receive Is. O^d. per hour or 8s. Ad. per day, which is the maximum figure. For non-union hod carriers the range is from 5s. 2id. to 6s. 3d. per day. Practically aU the unskilled labour in the building trades is coloured. A few Italians, Greeks and Syrians are employed, but they are an insignificant factor. Among employers opinions differ strongly on the question whether coloured men are likely to displace white men in the skilled occupations in building. Those who employ one or the other exclu- sively are satisfied that their policy is right. For the better class of buildings, especially large business buildings, good houses and hotels, white men are employed, but builders of small houses of a plain type find coloured men capable of doing aU that is required, and to a certain extent even able to do work of a good class, in which case they can command corresponding rates of pay. The buUding and mining industries are the two in which the white and coloured races come into the most direct competition with one another, yet it cannot be said that in either of these industries a situation exists which occasions any very serious friction. No doubt in both industries the white men would like to monopolise the skilled work for themselves, but they recognise that that is impossible, and make the best of the situation. In ordinary times there is a tolerable modus vivendi, tolerable at least so far as the white men are concerned, for they make it quite clear that their connexion with the coloured men is purely a matter of business and involves no social recognition whatever. From the point of view of the coloured men the position is by no means so satisfactory, though admittedly better than it might have been. It is in the mining industrj^ that the relations between the two races, though working side by side in direct competition, are smoothest. They acted together in the great strike of 1908, and in fact the good feeling between the white and coloured men was used with great eflPect by the opponents of the strikers, who charged the white miners with disloyalty to their race. The system of piece work is doubtless a factor which contributes towards the avoidance of racial friction; under this system the inefficiency of one set of men does not tend to lower the standard rate of wages for all in the same degree that it might do if time rates were paid. White coal miners, more- over, have less delicate tastes and modes of life and are less imbued with social ambition than the skilled men in the building trades. Many of the latter are Northern men, unaccustomed to contact with a large mass of negroes from childhood, and having as a rule lived in cities, they are more influ- enced by the desire for social equality with the commercial classes, and they are apt to feel that this social equality is endangered by any suspicion of association with negroes. Printing Trades. — ^Union rates of wages are general in the printing trades. The rate for com- positors on day work is 2s. S^d. per hour, and on night work 2s. 6d. per hour. The machine compositors working on the morning newspapers are on piece work and earn from 20s. lOd. to 25s. per day. BIRMINGHAM. 93 Municipal and Public Services. — Street construction work is done by contractors. Scavenging and road sweeping is done by convicts hired by the city from the State authorities. These men work with manacles on their legs. Motormen and conductors in the employ of the tramway company are all white men, and are paid on a scale beginning at '&d. per hour for the first six months and increasing to 8|(^. per hour for the second six months; in the second year they are paid i Brown >> Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ,, Eggs per Is. Cheese, American per lb. Butter '> Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten — Household ,> Bread, White per 4 lb Milk per quart Coal, Bituminous per cwt. Kerosene per gallon * By the ton of 2,000 lb. Predominant Price. Us. Id. to 2s. Qd. lOd. 3d, Zld. 2\d. to Zid. 9d. „ Wd. 12 „ 14 lOd. Is. 3d. to Is. bid. 7d. „ 9id. Is. OJd. „ Is. lid. lOd. „ Is. Oid. 6d. 9J(f. to Is. O^d.* 9d. Meat. The meat supply of Birmingham comes mainly from distant packing centres, especially from Kansas City and Chicago, but some comes from Texas. It is usually sold in retail shops, but a few 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 13 98 BIBMINQHAM. butchers have shops in a private market. The mining companies do not always sell meat at their commissary stores ; in mining districts this business is in the hands of private firms to a greater extent than the provision trade. The predominant retail prices of the different cuts of meat in Birmingham and the immediate neighbourhood in February, 1909, are shown in the subjoined Table, based upon returns furnished by butchers : — Predominant Prices paid hy the Working Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Round , „ Ribs prime ,, Ribs second cut. .. . „ Chuck or Bbort ribs Steaks — Round ,, Sirloin Flank Plate, Brisket — Fresh Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal: Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork:— Fresh — Loin ,, Spare rib ,, Shoulder „ Chops Dry salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. 7id. to 8K 6K „7id. 6irf. 7id. Sid. 3|rf. to 5d. Sid. „ 5d. IQd. 5d. to 7id. 7\d. to Is. 0\d. \0d. ,, Is. OJrf. 7id. 5d. lOd. Ihd. 7hd. Ad. to 6i . Brown >> Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ,< Eggs perls- Cheese, American per l"- Butter "-11. Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten — Household .. Bread, White per 4 lb. Milk per qiiart. Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Kerosene per gallon. Predominant Price. Is. Sd. to 2s. Id. Is. 3d. „ Is. 5Jd. 2id. ■7Jd. to 9d. 8„ 10 lOd. Is. 5id. Id. Is. OU- to Is. 2id. Hid. A\d. to 4|rf. Is. 9|d.*; 1«- lOid. to 2s. 3dt U. to l\d. * By the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the bag of 25 lb. 116 BOSTON Meat The greater part of the meat supply of Boston of every kind, except possibly veal, is Western, and most is not only Western-reared but Western-killed and Western-dressed. The abattoir is at North Brighton, on the site of a cattle market once well-known throughout New England, and all killing is done there. The amount thus killed has increased somewhat in recent years, partly owing to the Jewish regulations as regards "Kosher" meat, and the larger number of Jews now Uving in Boston and district. But the great bulk of the meat consumed still comes dead from the West. The grade of meat that Boston secures is said to be relatively high. Mutton, in any case under that name, is httle consumed, "lamb" being the common designation. It is worthy of note that in the State Labour Bulletin for December, 1907, where retail prices for various commodities sold in Massachusetts cities are given, prices for "lamb" alone are quoted. The following were the prices most commonly paid for various cuts of meat by the working classes of Boston in February, 1909: — ' Predominant Prices paid hy the WorTcing Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Ribs prime ,, Ribs second cut . . . ,, Chuck or short ribs. Steaks — Round , ,, Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Brisket, "Fancy" , Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Veal:— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork:— Fresh — Loin ,, Spare rib „ Shoulder ,, Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked . . . Predominant Price per lb. 7irf. to 9d. 7K 5rf. to Q\d. lOd. to Is. OJrf. Is. Oirf. Ad. to bd. 2id. „ id. 7d. „ 7id. 7id to M. bd. „ 6d. 7id. „ 8d. lOd. „ Is. Oid. 6d. Is. 3cf. 7id. to lOd. lOd. to Is. Oid. bd. id. to bd. 6}rf. to 7K bd. bd. to bid. 7id. 7d. 7d. to 7id. bd. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Boston is 105, for other food it is 105 and for food prices as a whole 105. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 99. Boston is an important fish market but the volume of its domestic exports robs the city itself of any particular advantage from the point of view of local consumers that might otherwise be derived from its large local supphes. The fish is mainly haddock, cod, hake, pollack and, principally in June and July, mackerel; the total value of fresh fish landed by American vessels in 1908 being put at something over half a miUion sterhng. The following are usual retail prices for fresh fish: — Haddock Z\d. per lb. ; cod Zd. ; cod steaks, from large fish, Qd. ; hahbut from l^d. to %d. ; and mackerel, accord- ing to size and season, at prices equivalent to about bd. per lb. As regards poultry, which according to the regulations must be sold dressed, ordinary prices were 10<^. per lb., but in September, 1909, when it was stated to be dearer than ever known, fowls were being sold at \\\d. and chickens at Is. Q^d. per lb. 117 BROCKTON. Brockton, the principal centre in the United States for the manufacture of fine grade shoes, is situated in Massachusetts, about 20 miles south of Boston. It was not incorporated as a city until 1881. Originally it formed part of the town of Bridgewater and later, in 1821, was itself constituted a town under the name of North Bridgewater. In 1874 it adopted its present name. Various stages in the rapid growth of the population of Brockton since 1870 are shown in the following Table: — Year. Popiilation. iDcrease. Percentage Increase. 1870- 8,007 13, 608 27, 294 40, 063 56, 878 1880 5,601 13,686 12, 769 16,815 70.0 1890_ 100.6 1900 46.8 1910 . . 42 The area of the city is 21^ square miles. The chief thoroughfare, Main Street, runs in a straight line from north to south throughout the whole length of the city, and the built-up section of the city extends only for a comparatively short distance to the right or left of this central street. A short dis- tance to the east of Main Street, and running parallel to it, is the railway line. On the far side of the line the appearance of the city is less inviting than on the western side, and it is there that most of the non-Enghsh-speaking people, other than the Swedes, are found. Though of rapid growth, the city is on the whole well paved, and presents a less unfinished appearance than some cities of older date in the same State. With the exception of the High School and the City Hall there are few buildings of any pretensions. In its outward appearance the city gives an impression of prosperity and comfort on the part of its workers, and this impression is confirmed by closer investigation. Though scattered instances of dilapidated or ill-kept houses are to be found, it may be said that the city is wholly without slums, as that term is usually understood. This pleasing characteristic is no doubt due in part to the recent growth of the city, but much must also be allowed for the fact that Brockton is engaged mainly in an industry in which most of the employees are well paid. The appearance of the city owes something also to the fact that most of the manufacturers and heads of concerns trading in Brockton have their homes there, and their presence accounts for a number of choice residences which, with their gardens, tend to relieve the monotony of appearance characteristic of many industrial centres. The influence of the close proximity of Boston, though clearly perceptible in certain branches of the city's activities, is not so well marked as in some of the other industrial centres in Massachusetts, the directing force behind most of the Brockton enterprises being largely exercised in the city itself. Brockton may be contrasted with such Massachusetts cities as Lawrence and Lowell as regards the elements of its population. According to the Census of 1905, the only non-English-speaking nationahty represented by more than a thousand persons v/as the Swedish. Though no fewer than 12,275 persons out of a total population of 47,794 were shown to be foreign-born, over half of this number consisted of English-speaking immigrants not readily distinguishable from the native popula- tion. Of the total foreign-born population, 27.4 per cent, were born in Canada (only one-quarter of these being French Canadians), 23.3 per cent, in Ireland, 20.3 per cent, in Sweden, 9.3 per cent, in Great Britam, 6.3 per cent, in Eussia and 5.4 per cent, in Poland. The English, the EngHsh-speaking Canadians and, to a less extent, the Irish become readily assimilated to the Americans themselves in their mode of Hving; the Swedish people also maintain a standard of life at least as high as that of the Americans; so that the proportion of the population which is composed of those national elements which are usually most closely associated with poverty in American cities is not large. The industrial importance of the city is derived entirely from its manufacture of boots and shoes. Beyond this industry and such directly dependent trades as the manufacture of shoe "findings," few manufactures are represented to any extent in the city. The predominance and the magnitude of the boot and shoe industry are shown clearly by statistics pubhshed by the State for the year 1908. The total output of all industries in the city was stated at £9,314,874 and of this sum £7,349,349 was due to boots and shoes, £559,614 to boot and shoe findings and £588,428 to boot and shoe cut stock. 118 BROCKTON. The municipal activities of Brockton are confined to the ordinary services undertaken by a modern American city, municipal trading being limited to the maintenance of the water supply; this supply, which is considered to be very satisfactory, is obtained from Silver Lake, some distance from the city. The city is served by an elaborate system of electric tramways which is controlled by a company operating over the greater part of Massachusetts. Boston, Providence and other points even more distant can be readily reached. The electric light and power supply and the gas works are also under the control of private companies. The charge for electric light current in the early part of 1909 was lOd. net per kilowatt-hour, but since July of that year this charge has been reduced to T^d. At present electricity for lighting or for other domestic uses has not made its appear- ance to any appreciable extent in working-class homes. The charge for gas is 5s. per 1,000 cubic feet, a discount of 5d. on this price being allowed for prompt payment. A considerable number of pre- payment meters are still in use, but for some time past they have not been supplied or replaced, their use bing considered by the company to be unsatisfactory on many grounds. The number of gas stoves known to be in use in the city at the time of the investigation was nearly 6,000. The financial system of the city need not be described at length, being generally similar to that of the larger cities of Massachusetts dealt with in this volume. The tax-rate on real and personal property in 1909 was 2.06 per cent, of the assessed value, and in 1908, 2.09 per cent. In 1906, the last year for which comparative statistics are available, the rate was 1.97 per cent. Only two of the thirty-three cities in Massachusetts showed a higher rate than this, and both of these had less than 25,000 inhabitants each. The per capita valuation in Brockton was, however, comparatively low, being £147 16s. It is probable that this low valuation is due as much to a lack of stringency in the assessments as to the character of the population. Very few of the taxpayers make declarations or returns of their personal property. The assessments are almost always made on hypothetical amounts, and there is no doubt that these are in most cases weU below the actual amounts strictly liable. In addition to a sum of £164,041 raised by taxation, £890 was derived from licence duties and £3,568 from special assessments on account of improvement works. The small amount derived from the licence duties is accounted for by the fact that with the exception of a break of twelve months the city has, for more than 20 years, prohibited the sale of intoxicants. The interruption in this period of prohibition occurred some years ago, and according to all accounts the reversion to the previous practice was made with remarkable unanimity. The private charities of the city are not organised, diflFering in this from so many American cities. Public assistance is controlled by the City Government and the principles of administration and relief are generally similar to those in other cities of the State. Indoor relief is given at the City Home, a comfortable, neatly furnished house, with farm lands attached, on the outskirts of the city. The number of inmates of both sexes is usually about 100, nearly all of whom are of very advanced age. Outdoor relief to those who have a settlement in the city is usually given in kind, the value of the weekly supphes being about 8s. 4(Z. in summer and 12s. 6d. in winter for each family assisted. The articles supplied, according to the needs or wishes of the family assisted, comprise flour, butter, sugar, tea, coffee, potatoes, beans, rice, oatmeal, meal, crackers, soap, pork, salt fish and lard. The goods are supplied from the City Store and it is said that the quantity given for 8s. 4d. is more than could be obtained at a retail shop for that sum. Shoes are also supplied for children in deserving cases, and on the whole there is a good deal of elasticity in administration. The total number of families assisted in 1908 — a year of exceptional distress — was 377, representing 1,526 persons. The sanitary administration of the city is under the control of a Board of Health, consisting of a chairman, a health officer (who is a medical man) and an executive officer. The staff consists of two bacteriologists, a plumbing and sanitary inspector, an inspector of meats and provisions and a city physician. The total numbers of births, deaths, deaths under one year and deaths from tuberculosis of all kinds for the period 1904-8 are shown in the following Table: — Year. Births. Deaths. Deaths under One Year. Deaths from Tuberculosis. 1904 914 1,104 1,159 1,430 1,426 567 609 568 676 605 100 96 109 143 137 74 1905 1906 1907 1908 86 61 50 52 BROCKTON. OcctTPATioNS, Wages and Hours of Labour. 119 The importance of the boot and shoe industry in Brockton has been already referred to. Apart from this and cognate industries, the largest single enterprise is a colour-printing establishment. The purely industrial character of the city, to which testimony is afforded by the comparatively small percentage of people engaged in professional pursuits, is shown by the following Table of occupations based on the results of the Federal Census of 1900: — Number of persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in Brockton in 1900. Occupations. Males. Females. Total. Building Metalworking and Engineering Textile Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Food, Drink and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupatior 3 830 371 21 6,254 77 80 113 133 858 2,762 476 1,075 13, 050 1,959 374 107 20 67 529 10 1,416 4,492 830 373 29 8,213 451 80 220 153 925 3,291 486 2,491 17, 542 It will be seen from the above Table that 47 per cent, of all persons employed in work for gain were engaged in the staple indusi-ry of the city. Later figures, based on a State enquiry in the year 1908, are even more significant. These figures relate only to persons employed as manual workers in manufacturing industries, and show that of such workers 82 per cent, were engaged directly in boot and shoe manufacturing, while a large percentage of the remainder were engaged in trades auxiliary to the chief industry. The following are the full details : — Number of Wage-earners employed in 1908 in the Manufacturing Industries of Brockton. Wage -earners Employed. Industry. Average Number. Smallest Number. Greatest Males. Females. Total. Number. 9,264 503 367 66 140 146 819 3,814 228 200 168 13, 078 731 567 234 140 146 960 9,598 615 432 213 113 130 792 14, 692 Boot a.iid Shoe Cut Stock 845 723 248 Lasts 158 T^'oiiTiHrv and Mafhinp Shor» Products 172 Other Induatriea ill 1,150 11, 305 4,551 15, 856 11, 893 17, 988 The above Table shows that if the marufacture of fancy and paper boxes be regarded as one dependent on the shoe industry, the number of workers employed in manufactures having no obvious connexion with boot and shoe manufacture is less than 7 per cent, of the total. Reference to the last two columns of the Table will show that in the boot and shoe trade a great fluctuation occurred in the numbers employed during the year. This feature of the statistics is no doubt explained to a large extent by the general depression of trade which passed over the country in that year, but much is accounted for by the occurrence of trade disputes. The year 1908, indeed, compares very unfavourably with the previous year. In 1907 the average number of wage-earners in the manufacturing industries reported in the city was 18,338, the difference between this total and that for 1908 being almost entirely due to the falling off which occurred in the leading industry. In 1907, too, the fluctuation in the 120 BROCKTON. numbers employed was much smaller than in 1908. The greatest number employed in the boot and shoe factories in the former year was 16,558, while the smallest number was 13,098. The boot and shoe trade in Brockton is highly organised, and practically all the manufacturers recog- nise agreements with the men's unions. The trade imion stamp system has "been developed with considerable success. There is little doubt that the manufacturers regard the stamp as an asset of some value for advertising purposes and as a quid pro quo for their concession of union claims. The agreement, known as the "union stamp agreement," is entered into between the manufacturer and the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union, the international organisation which forms a co-ordinating body for the unions concerned with special branches of the trade. The principal provisions of the agreement are that "the union agrees to furnish its union stamp to the employer free of charge, to make no additional price for the use of the stamp, to make no discrimination between the employer and other firms, persons or corporations who may enter into an agreement with the union for the use of the union stamp and to make all reasonable effort to advertise the union stamp and to create a demand for the union stamped products of the employer, in common with other employers using the union stamp." On the other side the employer agrees to hire as boot and shoe workers only members of the union. It is further agreed that the union will not cause or sanction any strike, that the employer will not lock out his employees while the agreement is in force and that all questions of wages or conditions of labour which cannot be mutually agreed upon shall be submitted to the Massachusetts State Board of Conciliation and Arbitration. In addition to the Boot and Shoe Workers' Union there are no fewer than thirteen unions con- cerned with special branches of the trade, viz., those of the vampers, lasters, sole fasteners, skivers, heelers, edgemakers, finishers, treers, packers and dressers, sole leather cutters, stitchers and cutters and also a mixed union. It may readily be surmised that with this somewhat elaborate organisation the number of questions arising for settlement is considerable. Most of the negotiations between the employers and the men take place through the Manufacturers' Association, to which the majority of the firms belong. The number of references to the State Board of Arbitration is great. In 1908 no fewer than 75 separate decisions were given by the Board in matters submitted by Brockton concerns, several firms figuring a number of times in this total. The general feeling appears to be that this organisation of industry is an advantage to both sides, and certainly the progress of the city under this regime has been marked, for it is too early yet to judge whether the set back of 1908 was the first step of a gradual decline, or merely a temporary disturbance in which Brockton was not the only participant. The advance made by Brockton as a boot and shoe centre and the rapidity with which the volume of its output has grown show at least that industrial prosperity, measured by the usual standards, has been concurrent with the frank recognition of the men's unions. On the other hand, it is sometimes argued that the concession of the high union rates of wages has resulted in the transference to other centres of many of the cheaper grades of work. There appears to be no doubt that the average yearly earnings of the boot and shoe operatives are higher in Brockton than in any other boot and shoe centre in Massachusetts. It is claimed, indeed, that they are higher than in any other centre in the world. According to the State Bureau of Statistics, the average yearly earnings in 1908 of workpeople of both sexes engaged in this trade were £136 5s. ia Brockton, £122 7s. in Haverhill, £124 5s. in Lynn and £114 10s. in Beverley, all these cities being important boot and shoemaking centres. If, however, it is true that high rates of wages have resulted in the loss to Brockton of certain of the cheaper kinds of work, such a change is probably only an aspect of a tendency which, according to local information, has in fact been at work, namely the gravitation to the city of the most efficient labour in the country. There seem accordingly to be adequate grounds for the belief that a development has taken or is taking place which might be foreseen in the light of ordinary theory. High rates of wages, once established, have developed or attracted labour of a quality for which alone such wages can be commercially paid, and the labour previously available has been obliged either to bring itself up to the new standards of efficiency or to seek employment elsewhere. If such be the industrial phase through which Brockton is passing, it would go far to explain those favourable features in its appearance and economic fife to which references are made elsewhere in this report. In 1908 the number of industrial disputes in Brockton was large and unusual. One in particular was very serious for the city, inasmuch as it resulted in the virtual removal to other centres of a large firm, and the consequent dismissal of over 2,000 workers. The dispute in this case, coming after a number of years of remarkably harmonious relationships, had its origin in a somewhat technical point. BKOCKTON. 121 The matter was submitted to arbitration by the State Board, whose decision was distasteful to the men. The Boot and Shoe Workers' Union then gave notice, as they were technically quite entitled to do, that they would terminate the "union stamp agreement" and this action caused a good deal of bitterness that was responsible for further quarrels. In its annual report the Board of Arbitration, commenting on the dispute, says, "It is the opinion of the Board that industrial peace is retarded in this instance by relatively small matters and that to set them aside would result in a renewal of the friendly and contractual relations which accomplished much benefit to the community during the past ten years, and contributed to the high repute of the parties." At the time of the investigation reasonable hopes were entertained that the matter would be settled and that the firm would re-estabhsh itself in the city. Meanwhile, the effect of the dismissal of so many workers had created a good deal of dis- turbance in the economic life of the city. The strength of the trade union position in the shoe industry in Brockton has not been without effect on the other trades of the city, most of which are effectively organised. Trade union rates are paid in all branches of the building trades, and the amount of non-union labour employed is probably insig- nificant. In the printing trades the union rates are generally paid or exceeded, though not all the shops are staffed exclusively with union labour. The machinists are organised, but in Brockton as in many other cities wide differences of skill, &c., are a difficulty in the way of the estabUshment and enforcement of a high minimum rate. The union rate for machinists is 62s. &d. per week, a rate which, when compared with the rates paid locally in other occupations, is somewhat low. In practice, how- ever, this rate is often exceeded. The machine shop industry in Brockton is small; there is no general foundry in the cit}-, casting work being sent to Bridgewater or elsewhere. Not the least effective union in the city is that of the labourers. This union has had a large measure of success in fixing the rate of wages for general unskilled able-bodied labour at the rate of 56s. Zd. per week. As in other American cities the unions show a marked singleness of purpose in carrying out the primary objects for which they exist, being very little identified with aims other than those directly concerned with wages and hours of labour. The sick and death benefits are the only exception to this general policy. In the Painters' Union the sick benefit is 20s. \0d. per week for a maximum of eight weeks in any one year. The death benefit varies from £10 8s. Ad. to £62 10s. according to length of membership. This may be taken as fairly typical of the building trade unions. There are no out- of-work benefits other than strike pay. The subscriptions to the unions are usually 10^. per week. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in the principal trades and occupations in February, 1909: — Predominant WeeMy Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in Feb- ruary, 1909. Building Trades: — Bricklayers Stonemasons Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Painters Hod Carriers, Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers General Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops: — Machinists Blacksmiths Labourers Printing Trades: — Newspaper — Compositors, Hand and Machine— Day work. . . Book and Job — Hand Compositors 1, /Small Presses Pressmenjcyiinder Presses Predominant Weekly Wages. 110s. 100s. 82s. 110s. 91s. 8d. 75s. 70s. 56s. 3d. 62s. 6c?. to 67s. 6d. 62s. 6d. 37s. 6d. to 43s. dd. s. 4d. to 91s. 8d. 72s. lid. 66s. 8d. 79s. 2d. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. 48 48 48 48 44 48 48 48 54 54 54 48 48 48 48 122 BROCKTON. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Boot and Shoe Trades: — Outside CuttersjH^^-;;;;;--;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; Outsole Cutters Upper Cutterega^;;;;;;-;;;:::;;:;;:;;;:;;;:;;;:: Goodyear Welters and Goodyear Stitchers Lasters and Pullers-over Edge Trimmers and Edge Setters Vampers Heelers Treers Public Services: — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Municipal)^— Paviors Paviors' Labourers Road Menders Scavengers Drivers, Teamsters Water Works (Municipal) — Laboiu-ers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Stokers Linemen Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors* — 1st year 2nd year 3rd, 4th and 5th years 6th and 7th years After 7 years 75». 87«. 6(f. 68s. 9rf. 62s. 6rf. 75s 91«. 8d. tol04«. 2d. 68*. 9rf. „ 83s. 4rf. 100s. ,, 104s. 2d. 70s. lOd. „ 91s. 8d. 83s. 4d. „ 100s. 62s. 6d. „ 75s. 87s. 6d. 56s. 3c?. 56s. 3d. 56s. 3d. 56s. 3d. 56s. 3d. 72s. lid. 56s. 3d. 72s. lid. 62s. 6rf. 56s. 3d. 61s. 3d. 64s. 2d. 67s. Id. 70s. 72s. lid. 54 54 54 54 54 48 51 to 54 48 54 54 54 48 48 48 48 48 48 56 48 56 48 48 70 70 70 70 70 • 678. Id. was the rate received by the majority of the men. Taking wages at New York as the base, =100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Brockton are — building trades, skilled men 88, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 102; foundries and machine shopSj skilled men, 75, unskilled labourers 97; printing, hand compositors (job work) 83. In the above Table the hours of labour of the workers in the boot and shoe trade have been given as accurately as possible, but in regard to the piece workers there is considerable doubt as to the usual number of hours worked in an ordinary week. Many of the piece workers appear to have a good deal of freedom in their comings and goings, and their hours of work were variously estimated at from seven to nine per day. There is good reason, however, for putting the hours of the goodyear welters and stitchers and the edge trimmers and setters at 48 per week, and for assuming that the other workers mentioned in the Table usually work the full nominal hours of 54 per week. Cutters are usually employed on time work, and the rates stated above are the recognised standard rates. Edge trimmers and edge setters are piece workers, the usual rate for trimming being Is. O^d. per dozen pairs. Lasters are sometimes employed on piece work and sometimes on time work. The standard rate per day is 12s. 6d. Goodyear welters and stitchers are invariably piece workers, the rate for welting averaging about 9id. per dozen pairs, and for stitching about lO^d. per dozen pairs. The majority of treers are employed on piece work, but some are employed on time work. Heehng is paid at piece prices, and is divided between four sets of workers, known respectively as heelers, slu^ers, shavers and breasters. The heeler, so- called, employs a boy to assist him; the payment is a matter of private arrangement, but is usually about 4s. 2d. per day. The net earnings of all four classes are about the same. Vampers consist about equally of men and women, and are employed both £is piece and time workers. The rates given in the Table are those applicable, as nearly as can be ascertained, to men. Women also find employment in many operations in the closing and treeing rooms. The variety of operations is so great and the range of payment so wide that there is much difficulty in stating the predominant earnings of these female workers. For women closers or stitchers the most usual rates appear to range from 50s. to 62s. 6d. BKOCKTON. 123 per week. For other women no rate can be quoted. At one factory women employed on "table" work earned from 31s. 3d. to 50s. per week, while another firm stated that none of the adult women employed earned less than 43s. 9d. per week. Housing and Rents. At the tune of its incorporation as a city in 1881 the population of Brockton was less than 14,000, while in 1910 it was 56,878. The number of its inhabitants has thus quadrupled in less than thirty years. The evolution of Brockton from a small country town into a considerable city is therefore com- paratively recent, and the city has not to contend with any evil legacy in the shape of large blocks of dwellings, built according to the loose standards of bygone days, such as characterise older and larger cities. A number of old tenements and cottages are, of course, to be found, but these are for the most part scattered and nowhere present a serious problem. Practically all the residential buildings in Brockton are of the familiar American "frame" or wooden type, detached, enjoying a generous measure of ground space, and exhibiting a variety of treatment in their outward design. The working-class dwellings may be classified into two fairly distinct types. The first is a tenement in a house with gables or sloping roof, which contains attics. Such houses are, generally speaking, the older type, but, with a certain variety of treatment which often makes them of attractive appearance, they are still being built. As a rule they contain two separate dwellings, the attics being shared by the tenants on the two floors below. Occasionally, however, the attic floor is converted into a separate dwelhng. The attic rooms are as a rule lighted quite adequately by ordinary or perpendicular windows, their chief drawbacks being the sloping roof and a tendency to be very cold in winter and very hot in summer. The second type of working-class tenement house is a square-built house, without attics, containing as a rule three separate dwellings, that is, one on each floor. As regards convenience and general desirability, these present as wide a variation as the houses of the first type. Though differing rather widely as regards external appear- ance the two types of houses may be conveniently considered together so far as the character of the individual tenements is concerned. The usual number of rooms in working-class tenements is five, but four and six are also common. Practically all the tenement houses have both front and back entrances, there usually being two inde- pendent staircases. Most of the houses are detached; there are very few semi-detached dwelHngs and practically no "terrace houses." The ground space surrounding the buildings varies a good deal both in extent and appearance, but is usually ample from a health point of view. As regards frontage the houses at the higher rentals are made attractive by deep porches or balconies. With few excep- tions the residential buildings are of wood, but otherwise the architecture of the better types of the two-family "gable" houses is not unlike that of the cottage revival style to be observed in the out- lying suburbs of London and other large English cities. In the case of such a house there is nothing to tell an inexperienced observer that it is occupied by two working-class famifies and is not the resi- dence of a well-to-do citizen. About the three-tenement houses of the second type described above there is no similar doubt or ambiguity. Inside the tenements the arrangement of the rooms is similar to that common in almost all New England cities, the chief characteristic being an absence of any passage or corridor joining the separate rooms of the tenement. As a rule all the rooms communicate with each other, an arrangement which economises space and facilitates warming. The latter consideration is important, for not only is the winter severe but American habit usually requires hving rooms to be maintained at a temperature of at least 70 degrees, while heated bedrooms are regarded as a moderate comfort that should be within reach of every self-respecting workman. On account of wide variations it is difficult to give any standard or normal measurements of the various rooms. Usually, however, the kitchen is large, about 14 feet square being a size frequently found. The bedrooms are often small, especially in the tenements containing six or more rooms. The height of the rooms in the typical houses is always sufficient, 9 feet being usual. No instances of rooms without windows were observed. The conveniences or "improvements" in the tenements vary with the rental. Well within the range of dwellings of a strictly working-class type are such conveniences as bathrooms well fitted with porcelain' baths and basins, basement furnaces supplying heat by means of hot air or steam to the several tenements in the house, hardwood floors and fixed china cupboards, and electric bells and speaking tubes communicating between the kitchens and the front street doors. All these conven- iences are found together only in the tenements at the higher rentals ; but few of the artisans' homes are 124 BROCKTON. destitute of all of them. It may be said that in most of the working-class dwellings a bathroom — usually containing also the "toilet" — is a common feature. Another very usual convenience is a slate or stone set tub in the kitchen. It is as a rule rectangular in shape and about 3 feet 6 inches long, divided into two partitions, so that both hot and cold water can be used at the same time. Where these are found there is always a water heating system also. In the less expensive tenements this is worked by the kitchen stove, but in those at the higher rentals a basement furnace supplies the hot water for domestic uses as well as heat for the rooms. The furnaces are usually maintained by the individual tenants, a slow combustion system being the most common, but in a few cases in working- class tenements, and in many cases in middle-class tenements, the heat is suppUed by the landlord, who charges an inclusive rent. In the case of a tenement of four or five rooms, the fact of heat being supplied would make a difference in rent of about 2s. 1 Id. per week. As has just been indicated these cases are not common among working-class tenements and they have not been considered in the sta^ tistics of predominant rentals shown below. No important modification need be made in the above description of typical working-class houses in Brockton when attention is confined to the non-English-speaking population. The most important and numerous section of this population are the Swedes, who maintain a standard of housing accom- modation quite equal to that of the English-speaking people. With regard to the Eussians and Poles, and other nationalities that in other American cities generally exhibit a standard of life which is in contrast very low, it is a matter of importance that in Brockton there is no old or densely crowded district which it might be supposed, by analogy with other cities, would become their distinctive quar- ter. That there should be a tendency to cohere in groups even in Brockton is to be expected, yet these colonies are not in the centre of the city but weU towards the outskirts, where at the present time there is no strong temptation to economise ground space at the risk of health. Their dwellings are for the most part the old two-family houses and the three or six-tenement blocks. The special conveniences or improvements indicated above are not generally present, and, inside, the houses may exhibit a poverty of furniture in strong contrast with the comfort of the American skilled artisan's home, but otherwise the housing conditions of the poorer foreign immigrants are not exceptional to those of the city as a whole. The rents most usually paid in Brockton for accommodation of a working-class character are as follows : — Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Four rooms. Five rooms. Six rooms _ . Predominant Weekly Rents. lOs. Id. to 14s. bd. 12s. %d. „ 17s. ^d. lbs. 5d. „ 19s. 3d. These rents include the charge for water. The level of rents at New York being represented by 100, the rents index number for Brockton is 83. Many people of the working class own their homes. Recent figures showing what proportion they bear to the total are not available, but the United States Census of 1900 showed that 33.9 per cent, of all homes in the city were owned, either free or encumbered, by their occupiers. It must be borne in mind that tenements are the prevailiag type of housing accommodation for working-class families, and that since two or three families to a house is the usual rule it is not possible for more than a certain proportion, less than half, of the famihes so accommodated to be themselves the owners of their homes. The actual proportion shown by the Census is therefore remarkably high. Of aU the homes which were owned, about two-thirds were encumbered with mortgage or other charges. Retail Prices. The shopping facihties in Brockton appear to be exceptionally good on account of the presence in the city of several very large shops and "markets" doing trade on a strictly cash basis. It is claimed, indeed, that the shops in Brockton serve not only strictly local needs but also attract custom from towns at a considerable distance. The scene inside the two or three largest of these cash "markets" is almost always a busy one. Each consists of a large shop in which are numerous counters at which BROCKTON. 125 all imaginable foodstuffs in season, including vegetables, fruit, meat and provisions, groceries, bread and cakes, are sold. Overhead is a network of wires conveying the bills and money from each sepa- rate counter to the cashier, while in a gallery at one end or side is a small office from which the pro- prietor or manager can watch the proceedings over the whole shop. These shops cater for all classes of trade, both as regards the various social grades and the different nationalities. Separate shops maintained by foreigners for the benefit of their fellow-countrymen are not an important feature in Brockton, though a few exist at which the more distinctively national articles of food can be obtained. Oroceries and other Commodities. As elsewhere in the United States the weight of the loaves of iread sold for the same price varies considerably with different shops, while even at the same shop it is not certain that all the loaves of the same price and quality weigh the same. Loaves were sold at 2id. and 5d., and a number of tests of relative weights showed that the 2id. loaf represented the better bargain, yet in spite of this the 5d. loaf was reported at several of the shops to be the more popular. It was said to be a "better" loaf than the cheaper kind. "Grey" or rye bread is popular among the Swedes. As a rule its price is the same as that of ordinary wheaten bread. The Swedes, Uke most Americans, drink coffee in preference to tea, and also show a marked taste for beet as distinct from cane sugar, the most favoured kind being imported from France and selling at from 4d. to 5d. a pound. There is some variation in the price of milk, this sometimes being a line in which "cutting" is prac- tised. The most usual price is i^d. per quart, though many shops sell at i^d. and in a few cases it can be purchased at the shop itself, that is to say undelivered, for Sid. per quart. Practically all the milk used in the city is obtained from the neighbourhood. As is usual in a number of Massachusetts cities the mUk supply is the subject of a good many rculations by the city authorities. Numerous samples are taken from the cans of dealers in the course of the year and subjected to an examination with a view to ascertaining the number of bacteria per cubic centimetre, and pressure is brought to bear upon the dairy-keepers and merchants both by means of prosecutions and publicity. The 1908 report of the bacteriologist concerned with milk inspection shows that the average bacterial count of samples of milk taken from the dealers purveying milk in wagons is much less than that of samples taken from shops. In the first case the average per cubic centimetre was 570,000 and in the second case 1,419,000. Of 556 samples taken from wagons 87 per cent, showed a count of less than 500,000, while the corresponding proportion of 269 samples taken from shops was 68 per cent. The percentage of samples of and above 5,000,000 was 2.9 in the case of wagons and 4.8 in the case of shops. An unusual practice prevails in Brockton with regard to the sale of coal. The coal is always nomi- nally the same price. During April, however, a discount of 2s. Id. per short ton of 2,000 lb. is allowed, in May the discount is reduced to Is. 8d., in June to Is. 3<^. and so on, the discount being reduced by 5d. each»month until it comes back to the winter price on the 1st of October. The most popular kinds of coal which are sold among the working classes are probably the "White Ash," the "Lehigh Ecrg" and the "Shamokin Stove." The first is the cheapest and was sold in February, 1909, at a net price of 32s. Shd. per short ton of 2,000 lb. The Lehigh Egg is a very hard coal and is popular among those who have basement furnaces ; in February it cost 33s. ^d. net per short ton. The Shamokin coal cost 35s 5d net per short ton. Practically no coal is hawked about the streets. It is common for the grocery and provision shops to sell half-bushel bags of coal, containing from 35 to 40 lb., for Wd., but at a few shops they may be obtained for 9d. This method of buying cannot be said, however, to be the most usual among the working classes. As a rule, the accommodation for coal provided in the tenements is ample, and it is probable that in normal times the majority of the working classes are in a position to buy a large quantity at once. 126 BEOCKTON. Coke is sold in small bags weighing about 20 lb. The most usual price for this quantity is M., but at a few places it can be obtained for 5d. The following Table shows the predominant prices paid by the working classes in February, 1909, for certain articles of food, other than meat, for coal and for kerosene: — Predominant Prices faid hy the Working Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea per lb . Coffee ,, Sugar: — White Granulated „ Brown ,, Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless , Effis:— Fresh per Is. Storage „ Cheese, American per lb. Butter ,, Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten — Household ,, Bread, White per 4 lb. Milk per quart Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Kerosene per gallon Predominant Price. 1«. 8d. to 2s. &d. 1«. 0\d. „ Is. bid. 2id. „ 3d. 2ld. „ 3d. 9d. „ lOd. 7„8 10 „ 12 9d. „ IQd. Is. 4d. ,, 1«. SJd. bid. „ Id. Is. 0\d. „ Is. 2id. Uld. „ Is. old. 4|rf. Is. 9id. to Is. llfd.* 6d. to 7id. By the ton of 2,000 lb. Meat. The beef sold in Brockton is almost entirely Western-dressed. Mutton or lamb and pork are obtained both from local sources and from the West, but the proportion of local to Western-dressed sheep consumed is not large. It is said that little mutton properly so called is consumed in the city. Beef, pork and lamb, in this order, are probably the most popular forms of flesh food in the city as a whole. Veal is obtained almost entirely from local sources. Western-dressed veal is held ia low esteem, and when sold is cheap. Western calves fetch only 4:d. per lb. at a time when local or "native" calves fetch 6d. to 7d. The principal meat trade of the city is centred in the large shops or "markets," which have already been described. There are apparently no shops in the city where meat alone is sold, though at some stores the trade in groceries, provisions, &c., is subordinated to the sale of meat. A few particulars in regard to the local method of cutting meat may be added. Rounds of beef are almost always cut into steaks, never sold as joints. When cut as steaks, three different cuts are usually recognised — top, bottom, and vein. The top cut is usually id. to 5d. per lb. more than the bottom cut. The vein cut is only slightly dearer than the bottom cut. Plate and brisket of beef are usually only sold "corned" or salted. The brisket is usually boned and rolled and known as*" fancy" brisket. In regard to lamb or mutton, the most usual method of cutting is to sell the forequarter in one piece and not to cut the breast, neck and shoulder separately. Similarly ui the case of veal, the breast and neck are usually sold as a forequarter. The distinction between rib chops and loin chops of veal is not general. Veal cutlets are often known locally as veal "steaks." Dry salt pork is sold but little in Brockton. Hams and shoulders are usually smoked. The following Table shows the prices most generally paid by the working classes for certain cuts of beef, mutton or lamb, veal and pork in February, 1909: — BROCKTON. Predominant Prices paid hy the Working Classes in February, 1909. 127 Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Ribs prime ,, Ribs second cut. . . ,, Chuck or short ribs. Steaks — Round „ Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Brisket, "Fancy" Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Veal:— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork:— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder ,, Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked — Predominant Price per lb. 9d. to lOd. 8d. „ Qd. 5d „ Id. M. „ Is. op. Is. Oi and several of the newest occupy sites on the city boulevard, broad grass plots separating them from the side walk.. Considering the large number of factories and works situated within the city or adjacent to it, the air of Detroit is remarkably free from smoke. This fact is due to the vigilance, of the city smoke inspector and to the adoption by a large number of firms of mechanical stokers and of various smoke-preventing devices. During 1909 the number of convictions obtained against residents and firms for violations of the smoke ordinance was 31, and of these 19 were suspended on account of the abatement of the nuisance. Efforts are being made to deal with the owners of steamers passing up and down the river, these at pres^ ent being the principal offenders in this respect. Detroit is well furnished with parks and open spaces, covering a total area of about 913 acres. The largest of these. Belle Isle Park, having an area of 707 acres, and situated on an island of the same name in the river, is a favourite resort on Sundays and holidays. The Water Works Park, covering 70 acres, is a picturesque pleasure ground, containing artificial lakes in addition to reservoirs with a total capacity of 33 milhon gallons; there are also numerous pleasure resorts within easy reach of the city by steamer. The advantages enjoyed by Detroit of healthy location in the. vicinity of large lakes, of a dry sandy soil, of generally favourable housing and sanitary conditions, and of a large proportion of young, sturdy immigrants in the population, all contribute to keep the death-rate of the city at a comparatively low figure. The number of deaths which occurred during the five years July, 1903 to June, 1908, was as follows: — Year. Number of deaths. 1903^ 4,799 1904-5 4,730 1905-6 5,178 1906-7 6,214 1907-8 5,930 Compulsory registration of births was not enforced prior to 1906. In the year 1906-7, the number of births reported was 8,704, and in the following year it was 9,496. Deaths of infants under one year old numbered 1,222 in the year 1906-7, and 1,201 in the year 1907-8. A public clinic and also a hospital have been estabhshed for the treatment of cases of consumption. In the clinic patients are examined and receive medical advice, and, where unable to purchase sufficient nourishment, they are also provided free with eggs and imlk. During the year 1909, 3,450 dozen eggs and 10,415 quarts of milk were distributed in this way. Facilities for the open air treatment of con- sumptives have also been provided by the erection of 12 tents and cottages. At present the full extent to which tuberculosis prevails is not known, but the State Legislature during the winter session of 1909 passed a law which requires that ui future all cases of tuberculosis shall be reported to the local Boards of Health. Medical inspection of children attending schools is also carried out by the Health Department, and in this work 27 doctors and two nurses are engaged. During 1909, 50,501 children were examined, and of these 3,499 were excluded from school. Hitherto the examination for physical defects has been con- fined to cases referred to the doctors by teachers and principals, but a special examination of 300 children in one school showed that nearly 70 per cent, were suffering from one or more physical defects, and as a consequence of this discovery the Health Department has decided upon carrying out, during 1910, a complete physical examination of every child entering school, and the keeping of records on the card sys- tem. The nurses of the Health Department visit the homes of all children excluded from school on account of contagious diseases, for the purpose of advising the parents as to the proper treatment and, where necessary, of persuading them to secure medical attention. DETROIT. 175 The municipal enterprises include street construction, paving and cleaning and the water works* The gas works, electric light and power works and tramways belong to private companies. The price of gas is 3s. 4d. per 1,000 cubic feet. Electric cars connect all parts of the city and also numerous outljdng townships. Interurban traffic is served by a system of fast cars. City fares are imiformly 2^d. for any distance, and in most cases a transfer from one line to another can be claimed for this fare. Workmen's tickets are issued at the rate of eight for Is. O^d., and are available between the hours of 5.30 and 7 a. m., and 4.45 and 5.45 p. m., one fare serving for a maximum distance of 12 miles. The work of street construction, paving and cleaning is managed by a salaried commissioner appointed by the mayor for a period of four years. The electric hght and power works and the water service are each managed by a board of honorary commissioners nominated by the mayor, and approved by the City Council. It is claimed for this system that it admits of these undertakings being controlled by business men with special knowledge of various departments of the work, and with special interest in their economical management, who would not consent to take part in election contests and to assume responsibility for the general work of the City Council. Moreover, it is held that men of exceptional ability and good local standing are by this means more likely to be secured for continuous service than would be the case if they had to rrni the risk of municipal elections. Detroit is well supplied with schools for elementary and higher education. Attendance is com- pulsory in the case of elementary schools, and is enforced by a staff of "Truant Officers." The children of Roman Catholic parents as a rule attend their own parochial schools, which are maintained entirely by church dues. Six manual training centres and six high schools are maintained by the Board of Education, the curriculum- in the high school including sciences, mathematics and ancient and modern languages. Evening schools have also been established where mechanical drawing and mechanical drawing and mathematical calculations, useful in various trades, as well as subjects usually found in commercial courses, are taught. Classes have also been formed for students who desire to prepare for Civil Service examinations. Manj- free public libraries are maintained by the city. Occupations, Wages and Houks of Labour. The industry which gives employment to the largest number of men in Detroit is the manufacture of motor cars and their accessories. This industry is mainly in the hands of a few large firms. The work is highly specialised, and the latest and most costly machinery is used for the duplication of the various parts of the mechanism of the cars. The extent to which machinery is utilised makes it unneces- sary to employ more than a relatively small proportion of skilled mechanics, who superintend the more compHcated and costly machines. The buildings are of recent construction, well hghted and heated, and work generally is conducted under healthy conditions and with no small degree of personal comfort. Clean, well-kept washing rooms, cloak rooms and storage places for bicycles are provided for the employees. Another highly specialised industry, in which conditions similar to the above prevail, is the manu- facture of adding machines, carried on in one large factory employmg over 1,000 men. Baths are provided for the workpeople, meals are served at cost price in lunch rooms on the premises, and a large hall on the top floor is set apart for social entertainments. The manufacture of stoves comes next in importance to that of automobiles and is carried on principally in four large works. Being an older industry, the buildings and general conditions of work do not reach the same modern standards as those prevailing in the manufacture of motor cars. Copper and brass rolling is carried on by two firms employing together over 900 men, three-fourths of whom are unskilled workers. The manufacture of steel tubes, radiators, structural iron work and general machinery completes the list of the metal working mdustries. Chemical manufacture is the only remaining industry of considerable importance as far as the num- ber of men engaged in it is concerned, the total being nearly 5,000, and is mainly confined to the making of carbonate of soda, along with various by-products and of drugs. This industry is largely carried on by two large works, in one of which, the drug factory, considerable interest is taken in the social welfare of 176 DETROIT. the employees, provision being made for the supply of free coffee, tea and milk, and for social enter- tainments, while financial support is also given by the firm to its own baseball and bowling clubs. The following Table shows the distribution of the workers of Detroit by industry, age and sex according to the factory inspector's report for 1908: — Indus tries. Automobiles, Carriages and Wagons Stoves Other Metal, Engineering and Shipbuilding Clothing and Boots and Shoes Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Chemicals Tobacco Food and Drink , Other Total Males. 9,766 3,606 16, 185 2,280 4,703 2,795 4,919 973 3,900 7,360 56, 487 Females. 272 89 1,296 6,189 468 928 1,943 4,652 1,047 2,322 19, 206 Total. 10, 038 3,695 17, 481 8,469 5, 171 3, 723 6,862 5,625 4,947 9,682 75, 693 Children under 16 years included in Total. 77 91 475 368 303 137 103 340 96 354 2,344 The factory legislation of the State of Michigan regulates to some extent the conditions and hours of labour in the case of males under 18 years of' age and of females, also the sanitary condition of fac- tories and workshops, hotels, shops and public buildings. The law limits the number of working hours to 60 per week for the above two classes (except that the law does not apply to shops emplojdng not more than ten persons) and prohibits the employment of females other than members of the family as barmaids, or in danciag or furnishing music for hire in saloons or bar rooms. Children are not allowed to work under the age of 14 years, and the employment of illiterates under the age of 16 years is also forbidden. School attendance is compulsory up to the age of 16 years, but children who have received an eighth grade diploma from the public school, or whose work is necessary for the support of their parents, may be employed on attaining the age of 14 years, provided they have obtained the permission of the school authorities. The provisions relating to factories and workshops require the removal of dust from the atmos- phere and the provision of washing and dressing rooms. The minimum time allowed for the mid-day meal is 45 minutes. It is also provided that no room or apartment in any tenement or dwelling house may be used for the manufacture of clothing, artificial flowers, cigarettes or cigars without a permit from the factory inspector, who must be satisfied on inspection of the premises that not less than 250 cubic feet of air space is allowed for each person employed, and that proper provision is made for light, heating and ventilation. All firms which put out to contract the above classes of work must keep a register of the names and addresses of all such persons to whom the work is so put out on contract, and this register must be produced on the demand of the factory inspector or his deputy. If it be discovered that garments which have been made under such conditions that they are a danger to public health are imported into the State the authorities may take such action as is deemed necessary for the pro- tection of the public. Local health officers are required to notify the factory inspectors of cases of contagious or infectious diseases^ found in the above premises. Infringements of the law are punish- able by fine or imprisonment, or both, at the discretion of the court. The administration of the factory laws devolves upon the State Commissioner of Labour and a staff of factory inspectors, including women. The report of visits paid during 1908 to 176 establish- ments employing females in Detroit states that all were found satisfactory as regards conditions of safety, light, heating and ventilation, and all except four as regards sanitation. The number of females employed in these 176 establishments was 13,527 and the average daily wage paid was 5s. Several industries at Detroit afford opportunity for the employment of a large number of women and girls, notably cigarmaking, which is largely in their hands, men acting mainly as overseers. ■ Over 4,000 females are employed in local factories. In one of the largest of these a dining room ia provided DETBOIT. 177 for the use of the employees and a musician paid to play the piano during meal times. Food is fur- nished at nominal charges, and excellent facilities for washing and dressing exist. The manufacture of clothing and overalls employs over 1,500 women and girls, most of whom belong to the local branch of the Garment Workers' Union, which has secured ui^ion conditions of labour, while employers in return have the right to affix the union label to every garment made in the factory. The manufacture of boots and shoes and of drugs also occupies a considerable amount of female labour, the number of females employed in the largest drug factory being about 1,000. The remainder of the women and girls engaged in indutsry are found in laundries and other miscellaneous establish- ments, whilst the better educated are engaged in office work as typewriters, bookkeepers, &c. The hours of labour in general vary from 48 to 60 weekly according to the industry. In the building trades the rule is an eight-hour day, or 48 hours per week, except in the case of labourers and some of the structural iron workers, who work 60 hours. In the printing trades the houra range from 42 to 48 weekly. In the metalworking and engineering industries hours vary from 54 to 60 per week and the Saturday half-holiday is not generally observed. A large chemical firm made an important change in the hours for process men in 1903. The system of working twelve-hour shifts night and day was altered to one of three shifts of eight hours each without any reduction in the wage paid for the shift. During the six years in which this eight-hour shift has been in operation it has been fomid that the output per shift has not decreased and that the men work more regularly than was the case under the old system. The holidays observed are New Year's Day, Decoration Day (May 30), Independence Day (July 4), Labour Day (first Monday in September), Thanksgiving Day (November) and Christmas Day, Wages are not paid for these days. Most of the branches of the building, engineering and printing trades have local unions, and with few exceptions these are affiliated to the American Federation of Labour. The unions, however, with the exception of those of the compositors, stove polishers and garment workers, have not succeeded in forcing conditions of labour on employers, with the result that the "open shop" is the rule in Detroit and uniform rates of wages are rare. The union of metal polishers, buffers and platers has effected an agreement, which is renewed annually, with all the local firms in the stove industry. A Con- ciliation Committee exists on which both sides are represented. Disputes are submitted to a com- mittee of two, one representing the employers and the other the union, and pending the decision of this committee no workman may be discharged or may leave work. The union limits the piece earnings of members to 16s. 8d. per day and any member whose earnings exceed that amount is fined £5 4s. 2d. by the union for each offence, the object of this rule being to prevent any reduction of the piece rate. Time rates prevail exclusively in the buUding trades and are the rule in the foundries and machine shops except in the case of moulders, who are in many cases paid by the piece. In the stove industry piece rates are common, especially for moulders, polishers and mounters, the latter being the men who put together the various parts of the stove. In the shipbuilding industry piece rates are common for occupations connected with hull construction excepting that of the angle-iron smiths. Time rates generally prevail in the motor car factories and in the copper and brass rolling mills, where, however, the casters are paid only by the piece. In the chemical industry time rates only are paid. In the printing trades time rates are general, except in the case of machine compositors in newspaper offices, who work on time and on piece rates according as circumstances require. The lower limits of the range of wages stated for these men in the Table on p. 179 are the minimum rates of wages required by the men's union for 42 hours' work. Workmen of American and German descent form the bulk of those engaged in skilled occupations. A considerable amount of unskilled labour is performed by the Poles, but a large number of them are engaged in semi-skilled occupations and they also form a large proportion of the moulders and metal pol- ishers. Hungarians, Belgians, and Italians belong to the more recent section of the immigrants and are almost without exception unskilled labourers, the Hungarians and Belgians being largely employed in the chemical works and foundries, whilst the Italians are engaged in excavation work of various kinds. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 18 178 DETEOIT. The following Table shows the predominant wages and hours of labour in the principal industries in February, 1909: — Predominant Weekly Wages avA Hours of Labour of Adult Males in (he Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades: — 100s. to 110s. 100s. 60s. to 70s. 100s. 81s. 3d. to 93s. 9d. 62s. 6d. „ 75s. 60s. „ 70s. 37s. 6d. „ 50s. 68s. 9d.»; 75s.t 63s. to 68s. 9d. 63s. „ 66s. 3d. 68s. 9d. „ 87s. 6d. 40s. „ 45s. 75s.*; 104s. 2d.t 48s. 4d. to 54s. 5d. 36s. „ 43s. 9d. 88s. 9d.*; 92s. 9d.^ 72s. 4d. to 78s. 9d. 73s. 9d. „ 81s. 3d. 86s. 3.d. 41s. 8d. to 46s. 8d. 75s. 81s. 2d. f 68s. 9d.*; \ 100s. to 104s. 2d.t 77s. 6d. 62s. 6d. 83s. 4d. 68s. 9d. 66s. 8d. 40s. to 50s. ; 78s. 2d. to 93s. 9d.*: t 87s. 6d. „ lOOs.t 62s. 6d. „ 75s. lOOs. „ 116s. 3d. 68s. 9d. 75s. to 87s. 6d. lOOs. 62s. 6d. to 68s. 9d. 43s. 9d. 75s. to 87s. 6d. lOOs. „ 125s. 62s. 6d. 50s. 43s. 9d. 37s. 6d. to 43s. 9d. 42s. 9d. to 51s. 4d. 36s. „ 40s. 6d. 48 Stonemasons and Stonecutters .... 48 GarpenterB 48 48 Plumbers 48 48 and 60 PainteiB - 48 60 Foundries and Machine Shops: — Ironmoulders 60 MachiniBta 54 to 60 Blacksmiths , 54 „ 60 Patternmakers 54 „ 60 Labourers 54 ,, 60 Motor Car Shops:— Iromnoulaers . .. ... 60 Other Skilled Men — see text. Machine Operators and Semi-skilled Assemblers 54 to 60 Labourers 54 " 60 Ironmoulders 59 Machinists 59 Blacksmiths 59 59 Labourers 59 60 Platers, Heavy- 59 Shipbuilding 1 60 59 Platers, Lighl^ Boilermaking Shipbuilding 60 Rivetters — Shipbuilding 60 Caulkers 60 Holders-up 60 Labourers 60 Manufacture of Stoves: — } 60 60 Mounters 60 60 Patternmakers 60 Polishers 48 to 60 Buffers 60 60 Copper and Brass Rolling Mills: — Brass Rollers 60 Casters 45 to 48 Casters' Helpers 45 . 48 Wire Drawers : 60 60 Other Helpers and Labourers 60 Chemical Works: — Process Workers 54 to 56 Labourers 54 *Time wages. t Piece earnings. DETROIT. 179 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Houra of Labour. Printing and Bookbinding Trades: — Newspaper — Machine Compositors {Sf^n'Sk.-.-;;.v. ::::::::: Pressmen (Day work) Book and Job — Hand Compositors Pressmen (Cylinder Presses) Bookbinders Public Services: — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Municipal) Paviors Paviors' Labourers Road Menders ScEC^ngers Boad Sweepers Drivers Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Gas Fitters Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Electricians Linemen Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways — see text. 87s. erf. to 100s. 96s. Sd. „ 116s. &d. 87s. 6rf. 70s. lOd. to 75s. 75s. „ 87s. ed. 70s. lOd. „ 83s. 4d. 80s. 43s. 9d. 43s. 9d. 56s. 3d. 43s. 9d. 43». 9rf. 43s. 9d. 50s. to 53s. 6rf. 55s. 41s. 3d. 68s. 9d. 75s. 56s. 3d. 43s. 9d. 42 to 48 42 „ 48 42 „ 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 84 60 60 56 48 56 48 Taking wages at New York as a base, =100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Detroit are— building trades, skilled men 81, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 64; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 80, unskilled labourers 101; printing, hand compositors (job work) 83. In the buUding trades, union rates of wages are not the rule and the rates quoted in the Table are for men of ordinary abUity. Superior bricklayers and fast workers are paid as high as 120s. per week. Comparatively little stone work is done and cutters are expected to act as masons also. Carpenters doing the best class of interior finish are paid higher rates, ranging to 80s. per week. Structural iron workers are not a very numerous class, and their work being of a dangerous character some of the more reliable men who raise and fix girders in position receive 80s. per week. The lower rates of wages paid to labourers are for men who fill the hoists with bricks; mortar mixers and others doing semiskilled work receive the higher rates. Building operations can be carried on for nine or ten months of the year. Wages are generally paid fortnightly. In the motor car industry the work varies considerably. Among the most highly-skilled men are those termed " tool and die makers," who are principally engaged in the work of testing; these men are comparatively few in number and their earnings are high, the general range being from 72s. 6d. to 84s. 7d. per week. Equally high wages are earned by the trained machinists in charge of the automatic machines, the management of which requires considerable knowledge and skill. Machine operators do little more than feed the machines of which they have charge. A large class of assemblers is em- ployed in putting together various sections of machinery; some of this work demands Httle or no skill and the wages are the same as those paid to labourers. Others who fit together the more complicated parts receive the same rates as machine operators, as owing to the perfection of the machinery which turns out those parts the assemblers as a rule are not required to do any bench work. Tramway men are paid ll^d. per hour during the first year. Is. in the second and Is. O^d. after the second year. They spend nine hours daily on the platform but are considered to be on duty for 12J hours. They are not provided with uniforms and the superintendent may require a man with whose appearanjce he is dissatisfied to buy a new outfit. As a rule a new suit is bought each summer and win- ter, the cost ranging from 37s. 6d. to 58s. 'id. The earnings of female workers, mostly girls, engaged in the making of workmen's overalls vary from 25s. to 41s. 8d. per week of 48 hours. The piece work system prevails in this industry. Girls en- 180 DETROIT. gaged in cigar factories are also paid by the piece and earn on an average from 33s. 4 Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ,, Eggs:— Storage perls. Local Fresh , , , Cheese, American per lb. Butter II Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten — Household ,, Bread, White per 4 lb. Milk per quart Coal:— Anthracite per cwt. Bituminous » Kerosene per gallon. Predominant Price. Is. 5Jrf. to Is. M. Is. OJrf. „ Is. Zd. 2ld., Zd. 2id. 7id. to lOd. 13 „ 14 9 „ 10 lOd. Is. Sd. to Is. id. 5id. ,, 7d. lOK 10} to lljtf. 4}d. Is. 7id.*; Is. 9}rf.t Hid. to Is. SJd*; Is. Id. to Is. bd.l 6d. By the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the quarter-ton (500 lb.). 184 DETROIT. Meat. The meat supply of Detroit is obtained from the State of Michigan and from Chicago packing* houses. The local supply comprises from 900 to 1,500 head of cattle, about 5,000 sheep and 1,200 calves weekly. There is no public abattoir, but meat inspectors examine all animals offered for sale in the local stock yards and also the dressed meat from Chicago in the storehouses. The mode of cutting meat does not differ materially from the New York standard. The better cuts of beef and mutton are bought by those who follow the American style of living. Pork and veal are principally consumed by the Poles, who also purchase the cheaper cuts of beef for boiling. The following Table gives the predominant prices paid by the working classes in February, 1909:— Predominant Prices paid hy fhe WorTcing Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Koasts — Round „ Eibs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs _ Steaks — Round „ Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Plate, Brisket {K" Vomed Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast. Loin Chops .- . Shoulder Neck Veal:— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork:— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops - Corned (wet salt or pickled), . Dry salt Ham --. Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. 5id. to &\d. 6d. ,, 7 id. 5d. „ 7d. 4:d. „ 5d. 5id. „ 6id. Id. „ 7id. 4d. „ 5d. 3d. „ id. 3d. „ id. 3id. „ id. 7d. to 7id. id. „ 5d. 7id. „ lOd. 9d. „ lOd. 6d. „ 7 id. id. „ 5d. 9d. to lOd. 7d. „ 8d. 7d. „ 8d. iid. „ &\d. iid. „ 5d. 6d. to 7d. iid. „ 5d. 5d. „ did. 6d. ,, 7id. 6d., 6id. 5id. to 6d. 6id., 6id. 5d. to 5id. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Detroit is 82, for other food it is 94 and for food prices as a whole 91. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 83. 185 DULUTH. The city of Duluth, which derives its name from a French explorer of the seventeenth century named Jean du Luth, is situated in the State of Minnesota at the extreme western end of Lake Superior and about midway between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, in latitude about 47°N. It is the third largest city of the State, ranking next to Minneapolis and St. Paul. To the west of Minnesota lie the great agricultural and grarmg regions of North and South Dakota and Montana, and also some rich tracts of timber land, whilst 80 miles to the north-west of the city are the exceptionally productive iron mines of the Mesaba Range, the exploitation of which may be said to have been only begim. Owing to its connexion with the great trans-continental railway systems of America and of Canada, Duluth is able to tap these great natural resources of the North-West, whilst its situation at the head of the chain of Great Lakes has made the city, in spite of a rigorous winter chmate, the commercial gateway between East and West. Opposite Duluth is the small city of Superior, in the State of Wisconsin, on the south bank of the River St. Louis, which separates the two and flows into a fine land-locked harbour on Lake Superior. Both cities form one great port and possess spacious docks of modem construction opening on to the river and the harbour; the commercial and jobbing firms, however, have their headquarters mainly in Duluth. The bulk of the trade is in grain and flour, iron ore and coal, much of which is carried in steamers of over 10,000 tons. By means of the most modern equipment these large steamers can be loaded with iron ore in three or four hours, whilst the introduction of the "clam-shell bucket" worked by machinery has reduced very materially the time required to unload a cargo of coal. The following statement of cargo received and shipped illustrates the rapid growth within recent years of the business of the great port Duluth-Superior: — Year. Cargo received (Tons of 2,000 lb.). Cargo ehipped (Tons of 2,000 lb.). Total Value. 1895 2, 035, 465 3, 085, 184 4, 212, 704 6, 147, 714 7, 840, 023 6, 594, 915 6,815,410 4, 289, 886 8, 640, 061 18, 463, 441 23, 023, 707 26, 946, 682 17, 202, 247 25,713,891 & 19, 791, 667 28, 147, 749 40, 989, 913 52, 479, 134 59 902 020 1900 1905 1906 1907 1908 46,482,150 54,481,075 1909 During 1909 5^ million short tons of coal entered the port, whilst the shipments included over 50 milUon bushels of wheat, 9 milhon bushels of barley and flax seed, 4 million barrels of flour and 22 milhon tons of iron ore. Grain is stored locally in 24 enormous elevators, the newest of which are constructed of reinforced concrete as a protection against fire. Their total capacity is nearly 30 million bushels, and by the use of an ingenious system of shoots large steamers can be loaded in the course of a few hours. While commercial and shipping activities predominate at Duluth, industry is also of growing importance. At present industrial enterprise is principally confined to lumber sawing and wood- working, to the smelting of ore, and to the manufacture of lumber mill and mining plant and general machinery; flour milling was formerly an important industry, but it has moved to other centres, principally to Miimeapolis. In the neighbouring city of Superior are a large shipyard where lake steamers are built and repaired, repairing shops for the Great Northern Railway and a few small manufacturing works of various kinds. In consequence of the enormous deposits of iron ore within the State of Minnesota and the rich- ness of the new mines of the Mesaba Range, where iron is found so close to the surface that it is scooped out by steam shovels, the Steel Corporation has recently acquired land at Duluth for the erection of a large plant estimated to cost £2,500,000 in order to smelt and work the ore close to the source of supply. Another company has built electrical works on the river St.^ Louis, close to the 186 DULUTH. city, where there is a fall of 378 feet, for the purpose of distributing electric power to manufacturing concerns. Both the foregoing enterprises point to very considerable industrial expansion in the near futxire. The following Table shows the population of Duluth according to the Federal Censuses of 1870- 1910:— Year. ■ Population. Increase. Percentage in- crease. 1870 - - - 3,131 3,483 33, 115 52, 969 78, 466 1880 - 352 29, 632 19, 854 25, 497 11.2 1890 850.8 1900 60.0 1910 - 48.1 Out of a total of 64,942 inhabitants, at the date of the State Census of 1905, 38,017 or 58.5 per cent, were American-born and 26,925 or 41.5 per cent, were foreign-bom. Of the latter 25.7 per cent, were bom in Sweden, 22.9 per cent, in Canada, 14.7 per cent, in Norway, 7.9 per cent, in Finland and 7.1 per cent, in Germany, the remainder being mainly from Great Britain, Ireland, Poland, Austria and Russia. In addition to the immigrants from Sweden and Norway, a large number of the American- born inhabitants are also of Scandinavian parentage, principally Swedes, for the whole State of Minne- sota was originally settled by people of that nationality. Being a distributing point for labour required in mines, lumber camps and in railway construc- tion over the north-eastern part of the State, Duluth attracts a large number of foreign immigrants, groups of whom may be seen daily standing in the vicinity of the various employment registries. When their seasonal work is over, or when the monotony of camp life becomes unindurable, many men return to Duluth for a "spree," and the hard earnings of months may be spent in the course of a few days. In the circumstances it is not surprising that cases of intoxication appear numerous to the visi- tor. Conspicuous in appearance and character amongst this class of workers is the "Lumber Jack," who is notoriously good-natured and proud of the social recognition he can command amongst his own class so long as his pockets are full. The population is distributed over an area 22 miles long from east to west and half a mile wide on an average. The city boundaries embrace, in fact, a series of small towns extending along the steep slope of the hills which line the north bank of the river St. Louis and the head of Lake Superior. In the heart of the city, close to the harbour and the docks, is situated the business centre. The eastern portion of the city fronting the Lake is mainly occupied by handsome residences of the wealthy inhabi- tants, while the west end is predominantly working-class in character. Two picturesque suburbs have grown up on the eastern and north-eastern confines. Lakeside and Woodland, both of which are occupied by the business and professional classes and are connected with the centre by a service of electric cars. A working-class district. West Duluth, lies several miles from Duluth proper and is likewise connected with the latter by electric cars. Between these two places lie the docks of more recent construction, the lumber mills, ironworks, foundries and machine shops. On the extreme western limits', at a distance of 15 miles from the centre of the city, lies the small suburb of Fond du Lac, communication with which is maintained by a motor train service. The general aspect of the city and suburbs as viewed from the harbour is very picturesque, par- ticularly in the summer time, when the hill-sides are covered with thick f ohage. The city is laid out on the usual rectangular plan, with steep avenues rising from the water's edge to the crest of the hills, and crossed at right angles by streets most of which are lined with trees. Lake Avenue bisects the city proper, and all avenues east and west of it are numbered consecutively. Tall blocks of ofllce buildings, varying from six to ten stories in height, and mainly brick structures of the steel-frame type, rise in the business portion of the city. Fine stone buildings, notably the County Court House, the Post Office and the High School, are conspicuous, as is also the building of the local Board of Trade, which contains one of the important "Grain Pits" of the country. Handsome hotels and churches assist in imparting a substantial and prosperous appearance to this city, which has grown up with such remarkable rapidity. DULUTH. 187 The more important vital statistics of Duluth as registered for the period 1904-8 are given in the following Table : — Year. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Number of Births. 1,440 1,354 1,517 1,684 1,750 Number of Deaths. 717 834 940 961 882 Number of Deaths under one year. 133 173 211 200 178 Number of Deaths from Tuberculosis. 124 76 96 101 105 The situation of Duluth is peculiarly healthy, as the steep sloping ground on which the majority of the houses stand affords a natural fall for the drainage, and at the same time exposes almost every house to the healthful breezes from Lake Superior. A small percentage of the sewage is treated in septic tanks, the remainder being discharged into the lake, where a constant current carries it away from the area of possible contamination to the water supply, which is drawn from a point in the lake eight miles east of the centre of the city. Municipal enterprises include street cleaning (paving and construction being let out by contract), the water service and the distribution of gas. The supply of gas is obtained by contract from a local undertaking which manufactures gas as a by-product; the price to householders is 3s. IJd. net per 1,000 cubic feet. The electric hght and power works and the street tramways belong to private com- panies. The tramway company charges a uniform fare of 2id. for any distance within the city limits, one transfer to any branch liae being allowed. No workmen's tickets are issued, nor is there any reduction in price on the purchase of a number of tickets. The city is well supphed with parks and open spaces, and a movement is on foot to provide a number of playgrounds for children. The total area covered by the parks is about 400 acres, and the largest of these, Lincoln Park, the Cascades and Lester Park, preserve some fine natural woodland and waterfalls. Two of these parks are situated close to the homes of the working people. In addi- tion to these parks there is an open strip of land seven miles long fronting the lake, and separating it from the harbour, with entrances for shipping at its northern and southern ends. On this ground pine trees grow in abundance, and the sandy beach is a favourite resort for family picnics during the summer. Many bungalows have been erected there for summer residence, some owned by mechanics, and electric cars run for three miles along this peninsula. Across the shipping entrance at the Duluth end, passengers and vehicles are conveyed free by a suspended transporter worked by electricity, the first of the kind erected in America. Duluth possesses many well buUt pubhc schools. Education is free and compulsory between the ages of eight and sixteen years, attendance being enforced by truant officers, who also act as factory inspectors, but these officers are authorised to issue labour permits to children who have attained the age of fourteen years, and whose employment is necessary for their own maintenance or the support of parents. The centre for secondary education, which is also free, is the High School, a fine stone buildmg erected at a cost of about £100,000. The final examination of this school at the end of a four years' course gives admission to the State University. Two centres for technical instruction are also provided, with a four years' course in which practical instruction is given in moulding, forging, ma- chine construction and woodworking. The curriculum also includes mathematics, physics, drawing (freehand and mechanical), surveying, commercial law, typewriting and shorthand. The city of Superior is connected with Duluth by railway, by electric cars and, during the period of open navigation, by a ferry service of small steamers across the harbour. Owing, however, to the high car fare, which is 5d. each way, and to the frequent delays caused by the opening of the swing bridge for the passage of steamers, few business or worldng-class people of Duluth fiind it practicable to reside in Superior, although the rent level is generally lower in the latter city. Apart from the activities at the docks, and at the large shipbuilding yard, where work fluctuates greatly, Superior is of httle importance industrially at present, its manufacturing concerns being small and miscellaneous in char- acter. The population in 1907 was a little over 40,000. Superior is well laid out in rectangular blocks, with broad streets nearly all lined with trees, while in the centre of the city are many handsome official and business buildings. 188 DULTJTH. Occupations, Wages and Houks op Laboub. The two most important industries at Duluth, from the point of view of the numbers employed, are those of himber sawing and dock labour. In the former nearly 1,200 men are engaged, whilst nearly 800 men are enkployed in the allied industries of sash and door making and general woodworking. At the docks about 1,400 men are employed in the handling of coal, iron ore, grain, and general freight. The following Table shows the distribution of the industrial population of Duluth in 1907, according to figures supplied by the State Bureau of Labour; but no figures were available for the building trades: — Industries. Number of Workpeople. Males over 16 years old. Females over 16 years old. Juveniles under 16 y^ars old. Total. Dock Labour Woodworking: — Lumber Sawing Sash and Door Making Matchmaking General Woodworking Foundries and Machine Shops Smelting Works General Metal working Printing and Bookbinding Leatherworking , Food Products Clothing Trades Laundries Other Industries , Total 1,400 1,160 414 68 173 445 262 123 209 93 335 217 77 838 5,814 93 38 23 75 209 258 85 781 1 7 19 5 41 1,401 1,161 421 180 178 445 262 124 251 118 411 427 335 924 6,636 Owing to the ingenious labour-saving devices used, the number of dock labourers is not large relatively to the amount of tonnage handled. Ore trains come direct to the dock side, and the ore drops through the trap doors at the bottom of the wagons into "pockets," which are large cavities in the side of the dock, each capable of holding over 220 tons of ore. Through a shoot attached to each pocket the ore pours direct through the hatchways of the steamer into the hold. As many as 36 shoots are sometimes in action simultaneously for one steamer, and 9,000 tons of ore have been loaded in the short time of an hour and a half. A small gang of men attend to the levers which work the trap-doors and the shoots. Trimming the ore in the hold is seldom resorted to, the voyage through the lakes being generally calm. The device used for unloading coal is the "clam-shell bucket," worked by machinery. The bucket, suspended from a huge rig or metal beam, descends into the hold and fills mechanically, after which it is hoisted and travels along the beam to the point of discharge on the dock side, where it opens and drops its contents. Few men are required to complete the work done by the "clam-shell" in the hold. The sawing of lumber is an industry which is only carried on during the season of open navigation. In the lumber mills ingenious labour-saving machiaery, which runs day and night, is in use, converting logs into planks, laths and shingles with a surprisingly small amount of waste. The sawn timber is stacked alongside the docks to be loaded on to steamers by the longshoremen or "lumber shovers," as they are called. Owing to the many processes involved, for each of which there is a special machine, attended by one or more men, this mdustry gives employment to a large amount of unskilled or semi- skilled labour during seven months of the year only, many of the men seeking employment during the remaining five months in the forest lumber camps. Comparatively high wages are paid to men who sim- ply feed the machines, since smartness and some degree of skill are frequently necessary in order to utilise fully the high rate of speed at which the machinery is run. Sawyers especially are paid high wages, as the lives of other men depend on their nerve and judgment, and consequently their work is not comparable with that of English sawyers. These men manipulate levers controlling machinery which fixes the logs in position on a travelling carriage and moves the latter to and fro in front of the band saw. Standing on this carriage are two or three men who by means of levers set or adjust the log to the band saw according to the thickness of the planks required. This work is controUed by DULDTH. 189 signs from the sawyer, whose judgment decides how best to utilise each log. The high speed at which the carriage runs may be appreciated from the fact that 2,000 to 2,600 logs are sawn daily by one machine in ten hours, a rate of 200 to 250 per hour, and serious accidents are only averted by skill and nerve on the part of the sawyer who regulates the movement of this carriage. Gang sawyers tend a stationary machine in which a row of saws work vertically in cutting up whole logs into planks. This work is not attended with danger hke the carriage, but the gang sawyer has to superintend several helpers. The planks are carried on rollers to other machines which strip off the bark and are attended by "edger men," after which they pass to the trimming machines and are there cut to the required lengths by circular saws made to rise and disappear under the action of levers. Many other processes complete the work done in a lumber mill manned for the most part by unskilled labour. The lumber industry appears destined to dechne as the forest areas within reach become depleted. The iron and steel industry, however, promises to increase in importance owing to the advantages accruing from the smelting and working of the metal close to the ore mines. One factor of importance which is favourable to local industry is the low freight rates for coal brought by steamers from Penn- sylvanian ports on Lake Erie. As the ore-carrying steamers going east would in many cases have to return under ballast, specially low rates are offered westward and coal is accordingly carried at one-third of the eastward rate. At present only one concern is engaged in the smelting of ore, but it is anticipated that in the near future the new works of the Steel Corporation will employ about 2,000 men. The making of logging machinery used in lumber camps and of lumber mill and mining plant is carried on mainly by three &ms. The long severe winter at Duluth and the closing of navigation during the months when Lake Superior is frozen over — from December to the middle of April — naturally cause the protracted suspension of many local activities. Work ceases altogether in the lumber saw mills and also at the docks except for a small number of men engaged in loading coal wagons from the supply accumulated during the period of navigation, and even this work is hable to frequent interruption when railways happen to be blocked with snow. Building operations are not entirely suspended, though as a rule bricklayers and masons cannot count on more than eight months of work during the year. More building is carried on in the winter than was formerly the case, but as the mortar has to be heated the extra expense is only entailed where urgent reasons exist for finishing the work in hand, and this appHes principally to the erection of blocks of business buildings, whose proprietors are anxious to let the premises as soon as possible. Lum- ber camps in various parts of the State provide opportunities of employment in winter, but the arduous nature of the work, the monotony of the camp hfe and the crowding together of so many low-class foreigners, together with other objectionable features, make these camps unattracitve to a consider- able portion of the local workmen, who prefer to accept poorer-paid work near home when this can be had, or even to manage to get through the winter with no work at all, particularly when hving in their own homes. The following Table shows the predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in February, 1909:— Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in tTie Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades: — Bricklayers . Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers Painters Navvies Bricklayers' and Plasterers' Labourers 130s. 120«. 112s. 6d. 90s. 125s. 125s. 87s. 6d. to 100s. 87s. 6d. „ 90s. 50s. 67s. ed. 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 60 54 190 DULUTH. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Foundries and Machine Shops: — Ironmoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers Lumber and Woodworking Trades: — Sawyers Gang Sawyers , Setters Edger Men Trimmer Men Millwrights Cabinetmakers Pliers, Sorters, Labourers Printing Trades: — Newspaper- Compositors, Hand and Machine iNSi^work Book and Job — Hand Compositors Dock Labour — see text. Public Services: — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning — Paviors (Contractors' Men) Paviors' Labourers (Contractors' Men) Boad Menders (Municipal Employees) Bead Sweepers ( ,, ,, ) Scavengers (Municipal Employees) Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Heater Men and Gas Tenders Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Linemen Stokers Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors 78«. 9d. to 81s. 3d. 78«. 9d. „ 87«. 6d. 758. ,, 79«. lid. 92s. 2d. „ 93s. 9d. 45s. ,, 50s. 150s. 68s. 9rf. to 75s. 68s. 9d. „ 75s. 66s. 3d. „ 68s. 9d. 50s. „ 62s. ed. 75s. 62s. ed. to 75s. 50s. „ 56s. 3d. 92s. to 95s. IQd. 100s. 75s. to 90s. lOd. 56s. 3(f. 50s. 50s. 50s. 50s. 55s. to 60s. 52s. 6d. 43s. 9d. 81s. 3d. to 87s. 6d. 60s. Id. 50s. 6d. 64s. 4d. to 67s. 5d. 54 to 59 54 „ 59 54 „ 59 59 54 to 69 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 48 48 48 to 54 60 60 48 48 48 48 84 70 48 84 77 73i Taking wages at New York as the base, = 100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Duluth are — building trades, skilled men 103, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers 98; foundries and machine shops, skilled men 95, unskilled labourers 113; printing, hand compositors (job work) 95. At the freight docks "boss" stevedores in some cases undertake the work from sea captains or shipping firms on the tonnage basis, and engage labourers at an hourly rate. Several railway and shipping companies have their own superintendents to look after the work and pay the labourers a fixed hourly rate. The usual rate of wages paid to dock porters is Is. Ifd. per hour. At the ore docks employment is constant during open navigation and is suspended for the remainder of the year. From the opening of the season to July 1st the hourly rate is lOd., from July 1st to November 1st it is Hid., and for the rest of the season Is. O^d. A ten-hour day (60 hours per week) is worked, and overtime is paid for at the rate of Is. O^d. per hour until July 1st and Is. 3d. .DULUTH. 191 for the rest of the season, while Sunday rates are Is. 3d. and Is. S^d. for the corresponding periods. For night work shghtly higher rates are paid. At the coal docks employment is constant on the whole, owing to the work of trans-shipment in addition to unloading, and is paid at the rate of lOd. to Hid. per hour, a ten-hour day being the rule, while for casual work rates of Is. l^d. and Is. 3d. per hour are paid. Coal heavers receive 2s. 6d. per hour, but cannot count on more than three days' employment in any week. At the grain elevators, where work is more casual, a uniform rate of Is. O^d. per hour is paid. The wages of longshoremen are not included in the Table owing to the intermittent character of their work. They are the only class of dock labourers who are organised in a union. This union, which has branches at aU the principal ports on the Great Lakes, controls the loading and unloading of lumber at aU these places and imposes a stringent regulation to the effect that union men may only be employed for unloading lumber from any ship if union labour was employed for loading the same. Captains are consequently careful to employ only union men for loading lumber when these can be obtained. When, however, the supply of union men is insufficient, and non-union labour has to be engaged, the captain is obhged to keep a flag flying at the masthead. While this flag is flying any union man who appears can require to be substituted for a non-union man. As soon as the last non-union man has left the ship the flag is hauled down. The union scale, which is thus effectively enforced, is 2s. Id. per hour for a ten-hour day. Overtime is paid for at the rate of time and a half. The union secretary estimates the average weekly earnings during the season of open navigation at 83s. 4d. Tramway motormen and conductors are paid according to a scale ranging from lO^d. to Is. O^d. per hour, the maximum rate being paid only to men who have served over five years; early in 1909 the predominant rates were lO^d. and lid. per hour, the average hours of labour being about 10^ daily, seven days a week. The men are not supphed with uniforms. The wages paid for unskilled labour frequently rise during harvest time, from the end of July to the end of August, when from 15,000 to 20,000 men are generally required in North and South Dakota, where harvesters are paid 8s. id. to 12s. 6d. per day in addition to board. During summer, railway construction is conducted on a large scale in this part of the States. The effect of these conditions is to force up wages for common labour at Duluth from July onwards, a rise of 2s. Id. to 4s. 2d. per day being frequent according to the supply available. One of the local railway companies employing the largest number of ore dock labourers has a sUding scale for wages as the season advances, the rate rising from 8s. id. to 10s. 5d. per day. The introduction of labour-saving devices at the docks and the advent of Austrian and Italian immigrants in increasing numbers each year threaten to neutrahse the above conditions, especially as these immigrants live cheaply by herding together in boarding houses, where one of their number attends to the catering and the cooking of food, and as their general standard of life is much lower than that of the Scandinavians and Finns, who have hitherto formed the bulk of the immigrants. Time rates are the rule in Duluth, except in the shipbuilding and boilermaking trades, where piece rates are frequent. Although a number of union rates are recognised no wages agreements are in force at Duluth, and the "open shop" is the rule. Building contractors established the principle of the "open shop" after a recent conflict with the unions, otherwise union rates and conditions have remained practically unaltered in these trades for some years. Wages are generally paid fortnightly, or twice during the calendar month, and by cheque. A large percentage of these cheques are cashed in the saloons on pay days, the saloon keepers being supphed with the necessary money by the local breweries. This system is considered to lead to more drinking than would be the case if wages were paid in cash. The usual American holidays are observed, but not strictly, and the Saturday half-holiday is exceptional. The eight-hour day obtains generally in the building trades and for compositors. Work- men in the building trades are expected to have their tools in order, and no time is allowed for preliminaries when working hours begin. In the foundries and machine shops from 54 to 59 hours per week are worked, while at the lumber mills and docks a ten-hour day or 60-hour week is universal. 192 DULtJTH. HousiKG AND Rents. Working-class houses are situated mainly in the west end of Duluth proper and in West Duluth, which is a district quite detached from the city, but they are also found scattered over the central por- tion of the city, in alleys, over shops and in tenement blocks, though they are not numerous there owing to the higher rents which prevail generally. The various nationalities do not congregate in particular localities excepting the Austrians and Italians, who are not sufficiently numerous, however, to need special consideration. A large proportion of working-class people live in houses which they are gradually purchasing on the instalment system, a practice which leads to a considerable increase in the amount of daily travel by cars to and from work, as houses are selected for other reasons than proximity to the place of employ- ment. As the tramway cars are every evening crowded with workmen retvuning home it is evident tha^t a large number are in the habit of using this means of locomotion. The large majority of those who are purchasing their homes are Scandinavians, who, though Americanised to a very considerable extent, still retain the frugal habits of their race and especially the strong desire to possess their own homes. Local agents foster the purchase system by tempting offers of easy payments. The usual size of a plot of ground for a workman's cottage is 25 feet by 125 feet and the cost from £52 to £83 according to situa- tion. A frame hoiise consisting of four rooms costs from £167 to £208 and a six-roomed house from £250 to £313. One local land company is developing an outlying district, called Duluth Heights, which is reached by a steep grade railway worked by gravitation. This company offers building plots at from £26 to £31 on condition of a cash deposit of 41s. 8d., the balance, with inteiest, being payable in 60 monthly instalments. The same company offers to build houses of several types at from £167 to £250 each after a cash deposit of from £33 to £50, the remainder of the purchase money, with interest, taking the form of a monthly rent of from 58s. 4d. to 66s. Sd. payable until the amount is paid oflF. Dm-ing sickness payments may be suspended for a maximum period of three months on production of a doctor's certificate stating that the purchaser is unable to follow his employment. If from any other cause than sickness the purchaser should fail in his payments for more than one month the company may require the immediate payment of the balance due, or may rescind the contract, in which case all previous payments made by the purchaser are forfeited. Agents are said on the whole to be lenient with purchasers and the success of these enterprises would seem to corroborate this statement. With the exception of men employed in. the building trades, particularly carpenters, who are able to do a por- tion of the work of construction themselves, comparatively few of the American-born workmen seem to be able to purchase their own homes and at the same time to maintain their higher standard of life. Lumber companies supply all the exterior and interior framework of fittings for houses already prepared, so that the work of construction is considerably facilitated. The Scandinavians have a natural aptitude for woodworking, and this fact, together with their frugal habits, undoubtedly accounts for the fact that so many of them succeed in securing their own homes within a reasonable time. The United States Census of 1900 showed that the percentage of homes owned free by their occupants at Duluth -was 24.2 and that of homes owned encumbered 11.5, the remaining 64.3 per cent, being rented. Since 1900, however, the system of house purchase has grown in popularity, and the difficulty of finding rented dwellings which existed in most working-class districts at the time of the investigation would seem to indicate that the percentage of rented dwellings is lower now than ten years ago. The predominant type of rented dwelling is, in the case of less skilled workmen, a flat of three or four rooms and, in the case of better-paid mechanics, one of five or six rooms. These flats are fre- quently fovmd in tenements but more generally on the ground and first floors of two-storied houses, in many of which the owner occupies one floor and lets the other in order to pay off the purchase money more rapidly. There are comparatively few rented houses in which the tenant does not sublet one or more rooms. Extremely varied conditions obtain as to situation, structure and conveniences, and these are all reflected in the rents charged. Flats in divided houses are rarely self-contained, the front entrance serving both for the downstairs and the upstairs flat, but a separate back entrance to the first floor flat, reached by outer stairs, is fairly common. As the downstairs occupier has the advantage of the use of the porch or verandah the rent charged is usually higher than that for the first floor flat. The water-tap and sink are as a rule in the kitchen on each floor, and a food pantry and several clothes closets are common features. At the rear of the house is a drying ground, with wood sheds and privies. DULUTH. 193 Sometimes a bathroom and water-closet are shared hy both tenants. A divided house has usually three or four rooms on each floor. A certain number of flats are found in tenement blocks three stories high, the ground-floor flat being in some cases a semi-basement, owing to the sloping ground on which the block is built. These latter dwellings, however, are not sufficiently numerous to form a class by them- selves, and the same remark applies to the houses adjoining back alleys. The tenement blocks of the older type are frame built and have a common yard with wood sheds and privies. Access to the dwellings is by a common entrance and passage on the ground floor. Stairs lead from the passage to landings on the floors above, where the flats are ranged on both sides of long passages, which are not infrequently poorly lighted. Sometimes water-closets shared by several families are situated on the landings. Each flat has a water-tap and sink in the kitchen and one or more clothes closets. In most cases each room receives direct light. Modern flats, mostly of five or six rooms, are found in rows of two-storied brick houses, in tenement blocks also of brick, or over shops. Each flat is self-contained and furnished with a bathroom in which the water-closet is placed. In most cases they have food pantries and clothes closets and are wired for electric light. Conveniences for washing and for storing wood and coal are provided either on the open ground at the rear or in the basement. A vestibule or lobby is also a common feature. Tiers of narrow wooden stairs at the rear give the upstairs tenants access to the yards. Owing to the great variety of housing which prevails in Duluth predominant dimensions of rooms cannot be given. Measurements taken in a number of dwellings of normal character, however, showed living rooms to vary in size from 10 feet by 10 feet to 12 feet 6 inches by 15 feet with a fairly general height of 9 feet. Bedrooms vary from 9 feet by 10 feet to 10 feet by 15 feet. In five and six-roomed dwellings a small bedroom is often found measuring from 7 feet by 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet by 10 feet, the height being generally 9 feet. Frame houses of the more modern kind have a stone foundation. The most modern houses and flats have a large cement basement containing one or more furnaces for heating the rooms above by means of pipes. As a general rule working-class tenants heat their dweUings by means of a stove in which anthracite coal is burnt. As the rooms all open into each other the heat from this stove warms the whole dwelling. In the kitchen is another stove for cooking, in which soft coal or wood is burnt. Both stoves are always the property of the tenant. No statistics are available as to the amount of overcrowding that exists at Duluth, but an inspec- tion of all the working-class neighbourhoods justifies the conclusion that at present this is not a serious evil. In West Duluth and the west end of Duluth most of the working-class houses have abundance of air and light owing to their being as a rule detached or semi-detached, the buildings standing 6 feet apart, and having open ground or yards in the rear. The alleys separating the back yards of houses are required to be not less than 16 feet wide. There is, however, a tendency to erect a second house on a building plot, the front house being removed back towards the alley to make room for the additional structure. Tenement blocks in a number of cases cover too large a proportion of the building plot, to the detriment of light and ventilation, and this tendency becomes more marked towards the centre of the city where land is dearer. Duluth has not yet developed a slum district, but the tendency just men- tioned, unless checked, will inevitably produce serious congestion in the future. Water-closets are fairly general in sewered streets but a large number of privies are met with in various parts of the city. Garbage cans have to be provided by the tenants and both these and the privies are emptied at the cost of the tenants by scavengers licensed by the sanitary authorities. The emptying charge is 5d. per garbage can and 8^d per cubic foot for privies. Sometimes in tenement blocks one large garbage can is used by several tenants, and the periodical charge of Is. O^d. for emptying this is divided amongst them. City water is supplied to all houses except those in streets high up the hill sides and those in some of the streets in West Duluth, in which cases water has to be obtained from the nearest supply available. The following Table shows the predominant weekly rents paid for working-class dwellings in Duluth in February, 1909:— 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 19 194 DULUTH. Predominant Rents of Working-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Three roomsjSliVrn::::;: Four rooms — Old fOld Five rooms | Partly Modern. [Modern Six rooms — Modern Predominant Weekly Rents. 6s. 9cZ. to 7s. Zd. 13s. U. „ 15s. 5d. 7s. Sd. lis. 6d. 15s. 5d. 20s. 2d. 21s. 2d. lis. 6d. 15s. 5d. ISs. 3d. 24s. 25s. The above figures include the water charges, which in the case of flats are nearly always paid by the owner. Rents are paid monthly and in advance. In the centre of the city rents are often considerably higher than those quoted in the Table, but workiag-class dwellings are not sufficiently numerous in that quarter, and conditions are too varied, to justify separate classification. In the small district of West Duluth rents are lower than in Duluth proper, partly owing to its dis- tance from the centre and its proximity to works employing mainly unskilled labour, but owing also to the more primitive conditions of the locality, few of the streets being sewered, and stone foundations to houses being rare. Few mechanics reside in this district. Four-roomed flats cost from 7s. 3d. to 7s. 8d. weekly here, and six-roomed dwellings of the older type from 9s. 7d. to lis. 6d., semi-modem ones from 12s. 6d. to 14s. 5d. and modern ones from 16s. 4d. to 19s. 3d. Retail Prices. The food supplies of Duluth are nearly all brought a considerable distance, there being little agri- culture or market gardening ia this part of the State. The grocery and provision trade is entirely in the hands of local dealers: the "multiple" shop is unknown, and the few "department stores" cater for the better class customers. A small co-opera- tive society commenced business in December, 1908, and in June, 1909 its membership numbered 215. A member's share costs 41s. 8d. and the limit of investment is fixed at £10 8s. id. On these shares interest at 6 per cent, is paid, and on purchases a dividend of 1^ per cent, was paid for the first half year. The credit system prevails almost universally, and biUs are paid half-monthly or monthly, accord- ing as wages are paid by local firms. Groceries and other Commodities. In the matter of groceries and provisions no marked differences of taste prevail between the American and Scandinavian portions of the population, but the latter exercise greater frugality. Comparatively httle bread is sold owing to the prevailing habit of baking at home. Both wheaten and rye breads are sold, the latter in smaU quantity to those Scandinavians and Slavs who retain their taste for it. Wheaten loaves are sold at the uniform price of 2id. ; the predominant weights in June, 1909, were found to be from 12 to 14 oz. per loaf. Rye loaves, ranging from 1 J to 2 lb. in weight, cost 4:d. per loaf. One local firm has obtained almost a monopoly of the milk trade. In winter the price is 4j£Z. for single quarts and Hd. where two or more quarts are bought daily. Small cowkeepers on the outskirts supply their neighbours with mUk at 4s. 2d. for 12 or 13 quarts. In summer milk is id. per quart cheaper. The Health Department in its annual report publishes for each milk dealer and cowkeeper separately the results of the inspection made by its officers, stating in the case of each dealer the per- centage of butter fat found in samples obtained, and in the case of each cow-shed the number of marks assigned for cleanliness and sanitary conditions. Coffee, principally ground and roasted, is consumed to a far greater extent than tea. White granulated sugar is the only kind in general use, and is usually sold in quarter-dollar, half- dollar and doUar bags. Brown sugar is used for cooking and for making candy. Bacon comes almost exclusively from the Chicago packing-houses. As local supplies of eggs are meagre the only kind in general use are cold storage. DUI.UTH. 195 Creamery hutter is the kind mostly in demand, costing Is. 3d. to Is. 5^(1. per lb. A small amount of local farmers' butter is sold at Is. O^d. per lb. Potatoes (Irish) are brought long distances to Duluth, by rail when navigation is closed. They are sold mainly by the peck. Both anthracite and bituminous coal are used, the former predominating. The latter is only used for cooking purposes by the poorer classes, and even these often prefer slab wood from the lumber mills, purchasing it from hawkers at prices varying according to the distance from the nulls, the situation on the hillside and the size of the load. Anthracite coal is sold only by the short ton of 2,000 lb., the half-ton and the quarter-ton and the price of the kind mainly in demand is 32s. S^d. per (short) ton, 17s. Sid. per half-ton and 9s. 7d. per quarter-ton, delivered. The whole trade is in the hands of a few companies. An extra charge of Is. O^d. per ton is made for delivery in West Duluth and in streets high up the hillside. This extra charge affects a considerable number of working-class people. Bituminous coal (Hocking Valley Lump) is sold at 19s. 9^d. per (short) ton, lis. O^d. per half-ton and 6s. B^d. per quarter-ton. The price of hardwood is 25s. per cord unsawn and 28s. l^d. sawn. An additional 4s. 2d. per cord is charged for cartage. Coke is not much used. The local firm which produces it requires it for the blast furnaces. Predominant Prices paid iy the WovTcing Classes in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea per lb Coffee ,, Sugar: — White Granulated ,, Brown „ Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless , Eggs per Is Cheese: — American per lb Brick ,, Butter ,, Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb Flour, Wheaten — Household „ Bread, White per 4 lb MUk per quart.. Coal:— Anthracite per cwt Bituminous " Kerosene per gallon. Predominant Price. Is. %d. to 2s. Id. \0d. „ Is. Oirf. 3d 3d. l\d. to lOd. 8„ 12 9rf. „ lid. lOd. Is. 3d to Is. ^d. bid., ed. llid., llfd Hid 4Jd. to 4|d Is. 9J- d*; 1 s. llidt; 2s. l|dt Is. IJd.*; Is. 2}dt; Is. 5idt TJd to 8id *By the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the half-ton (1,000 lb.). t By the quarter-ton (500 lb.). Meat. Very little home-killed meat is sold at Duluth, stock raising not being carried on to any extent in the north-eastern part of the State. The principal sources of supply are the packing centres of St. Paul Chicago and Omaha, and the meat is all chilled or frozen. Large Chicago firms have extensive cold storage premises at Duluth, using the city as a distributing center for the mining districts. There are only two local abattoirs, both small, and these are visited by the meat inspector, as also are the butchers' shops of the city. Meat is sold almost entirely in separate shops and is rarely seen inside grocery shops. The method of cutting beef, veal and lamb does not differ materially from that practised generally in other cities. The chuck is the portion of the forequarter remaining after the first six ribs and the plate (the thin half of the forequarter) have been cut away. Mutton and veal are cut similarly to beef. Beef and pork are mainly in demand amongst working-class buyers, mutton or lamb and veal being consumed to a small extent only. Scandinavians have a decided preference for lean meat and are also large consumers of fish, principally fresh-water herring md. to 2id. per lb.), lake trout and white fish {did. per lb.). 196 DULUTH. The following Table shows the predominant prices paid by the working classes for various cuts of meat in February, 1909 : — Predominant Prices paid hy the WorJcing Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Round ,, Ribs prime ,, Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs . Steaks — Round ,, Sirloin Shin without bone - Flank Plate, Brisket] |-f^----;^^-J Mutton or Lamb: — Leg Breast Loin Chops. Shoulder Neck.. Veal:— Cutlets. Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck.. Pork:— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder. „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled).. Dry salt. Ham Shoulder, salt or^moked Predominant Price per lb. &d. to 7i(Z. 7^d. Q\d. to 7^d. 5d. ,, 6id. 7id. 9d. to lOd. 5d. 2id. to id. 2ld. „ 3d. 2ld. „ 3d. 7id. 4(Z. 7id. to 9d. 7id. ,, 9d. bd. ,, 7^d. Ad. ,, 5d. 9d. 7id. l^d. to 9d. bd. bd. &\d. bd. bd. 6J up.- airi over the kitchen. The measurements of the downstau's rooms were: Front room 15 feet 6 inches by 15 feet by 10 feet; second room 16 feet by 15 feet by 10 feet; kitchen 13 feet 6 mches by 15 feet by 10 feet; the upstairs rooms measured respectiyely 13 feet by 12 feet by 10 feet and 13 feet by 9 feet by 10 feet. The stairs were m the kitchen, and there was a good garden, but the water supply was from a cistern and a public pump, while the closet was on the vault plan. Dwellings of Negroes :—S'evm«^ Street— A house, four rooms deep, contaming six families, each occupying two rooms, the tenements bemg let at 5s. 9d. per week. The rooms measured 16 feet or 16 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 6 mches by 11 feet. The water-tap was in the corridor of the first floor, and the water-closet was in the middle of the corridor, but with no outside ventilation. Ninth Street.— A negro "ark" of two stories and one room deep, with a gallery running round the outside. The building contained 34 rooms, each let at 3s. 2d. per week. All rooms were of the same size, measuring 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches by 10 feet, and in most cases accommodated a family. There were two closets (on the vault system) and one water-tap for the entire house. Pearl Street.— A large house known as the "Tin House," occupied by 32 families, of which only four rented two rooms. The rooms, which were let at 2s. Qd. per week, measured 13 feet by 17 feet by 10 feet 6 mches. One water-tap and four closets (vault system) served for all the tenants. There was no provision for through ventilation in the case of quite half the tenements. Centre Street. — A two-roomed first-floor dweUing let at 5s. 9d. per week . The front room meas- lu-ed 16 feet by 13 feet by 10 feet, and the kitchen 13 feet by 14 feet 6 inches by 10 feet. YorTc Street. — A first-floor dwelling of three rooms let at 7s. 8d. per week. All the rooms meas- ured 15 feet by 15 feet by 8 feet. The water supply was obtained from the yard, and the closet (vault system) was also outside. Zane Street. — Two single-storied cottages, each with four rooms, let to two families, each having two rooms. In each case the two front rooms cost 5s. 9d. per week, and the two back rooms 4s. lOd. per week. The rooms measured 14 or 16 feet by 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet. Water was obtained from a well, and one closet (vault system) served two families. Although there are ten sanitary inspectors the inspection of houses is not carried out with any regu larity or system. Neither the mimicipality nor any private company has undertaken any housing schemes for the benefit of the working classes. There are some building loan societies or companies which do an extensive business. In the case of one important company of the kind the amount of the loan is taken out in $100 (£20 16s. 8d.) shares, upon which dividends at the rate of 7^ per cent, per annum are credited to the borrower, who also pays weekly 0.1 per cent, of the loan by way of instal- ment and 0.13 per cent, of the loan in interest, which is at the rate of about 6| per cent, per annum. The percentage of homes in Louisville owned free of encumbrance by their occupiers at the time of the Census of 1900 was 20.0, while a further 6.4 per cent, were owned encumbered. Among the working classes the Germans specially show a desire to own their homes. Little interest was shown by the municipality in the question of the housing of the people untfl 1909, when a Commission was appointed to investigate the condition of the tenement houses. The report of this Commission, as issued the same year, showed that no serious overcrowding of building sites existed; out of 200 houses investigated only five were on plots that had less than 30 per cent, of vacant space. As regards the overcrowding of houses it was found that of a total of 699 households 317 or 45 per cent, lived in single-roomed tenements, which accommodated in the aggregate 661 per- sons, whUe 227 or 32 per cent, occupied two rooms. Eegarding as overcrowded all rooms containing two or more persons, 46 per cent, of the rooms answered to this description. The privy system was found to be almost general; the 775 families included in the districts studied were provided with 166 privy compartments and 29 water-closet compartments, the latter being found in 24 houses. The 228 LOUISVILLE. vaults were left to a considerable extent in a very unsatisfactory condition. The water supply was quite insufficient. Of 41 families resident in one district four had hydrants, and the others either depended on cisterns or had to obtain their drinking water from neighbours. In another district 47 taps served for 178 families. The rent per room was ascertained for 602 tenements, and it was foimd that 66 per cent, of the tenements were held on weekly rentals of from Is. lid. to 3s. 4(Z. per room; in 9 per cent, of the tenements the cost was from Is. to Is. 11<^. per room, in 7 per cent, the cost was from 3s. Ad. to 3s. lOd. and in a further 7 per cent, it was from 3s. lOd. to 4s. id., the rent per room in the remaining 11 per cent, being 4s. 4d. and over. Of the nationalities resident in the tenements inves- tigated the Americans formed 32.3 per cent, of the whole, negroes 52.5 per cent, and other nationalities (principally Russians, SjTians, Italians and Germans) 15.2 per cent. Retail Prices. No co-operative societies exist in Louisville, and there is but one retail market with about a score of dealers in meat, poultry, vegetables and some groceries. One "multiple" firm with branches in many parts of the United States is represented by a single shop, where tea, coffee, sugar and a few other articles are sold. The trade of the workpeople is thus in the hands of the small dealers in the various districts, who as a general rule combine a meat and poultry trade with that of a general grocery shop. Groceries and other Commodities. Tea is not an article of universal consumption among the wage-earning classes; it is drunk for the sake of change, and at the evening rather than at the morning meal. It finds also a less sale in winter than in summer, when cold tea is a popular beverage amongst all classes. Indian or Ceylon teas are not much in demand; a blend of China tea is almost exclusively sold. Coffee is always drunk at least once a day. Sugar is rarely sold by the single pound, inducements being very generally offered to take large quantities. Thus in 1909 from 18 to 20 lb. of white granulated sugar were often sold for 4s. 2d., while Is. O^d. purchased only 4 lb. In addition to the ordinary American variety, a strong-smelling Limburg cheese is very popular with the Germans; it is sold at lid. per lb. Bacon with rib in is practically unknown, boneless bacon called "smoked breakfast" bacon being the kind in general demand. Potatoes were unusually dear in February, 1909. Sweet potatoes are more eaten by the negroes than by the whites. Canned vegetables have a large sale; two 2 lb. cans of tomatoes are sold for l^d.; two 1 lb. cans of stringed beans for 7§d. Aid. „7d. Hid. Hid. 5id. Is. Wid.* Is. Oid. to Is. 2d.* M. ■ By the ton of 2,000 lb. MILWAUKEE. 269 Meat. Part of the meat supply is local and part comes from Chicago, and there is severe competition both in price and quality between the packers of both places, the customers reaping the benefit whilst this competition continues. Inspection of meat is carried out by officers of the Health Department. Meat is sold almost exclusively m butchers' shops, and is invariably hung in cold chambers. The method of cutting differs little from that general in American cities. The consumption of meat in order of unportance is beef, pork, veal and mutton, the last-named being little in demand. The cuts of beef most in favour are chuck ribs, pot roast and round steak, flank and brisket being largely bought for stewing. Corned beef is also much in demand. The following Table shows the prices most generally paid for certain cuts of meat in February, 1909:— Predominant Prices paid ly the Worlcing Classes in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Round ,, Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut . „ Chuck or short ribs . Steaks — Round ,, Sirloin Shin without bone Flank Plate, Brisket \t^ff^ J ' [bait or corned Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck Veal:— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck Pork:— Fresh — ^Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder „ Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) . Dry salt Ham - Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. Qd. to7d. U. „ 8d. Hd. „ 7d. 5d. „ Qid. Qd. „ 7id. Id. „ 9d. 4:d. „ 6d. 3d. „ 3id. 3d. „ 3hd. 3d. „ 4(Z. Id. to8d. 3U- „ ^d. &id. „ 9d. 8d. „ u. 6id. „ Id. U. „ Qd. 8d. to IQd. 7id. „ 9d. U. „ 9d. bd. „ Qid. 5d. 7d. to 7id. U. „ 5d. 5U. „ 6id. Id. „ 7id. Id. 7d. 5U- to 7U. Hd. „ Qd. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Milwaukee is 87, for other food it is 95 and for food prices as a whole 93. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 86. 270 MINNEAPOLIS— ST. PAUL. Minneapolis and St. Paul, or "The Twin Cities," as they are called, because of their contiguity, are the two largest cities in the State of Minnesota. They are situated on the River Mississippi, at the head of navigation, a little over 400 milbs north-west of Chicago. St. Paul is the older city of the two and is the seat of the State Legislature, but it has been outstripped in growth by its younger rival Minneapolis, the population of which in 1910 was 301,408, whilst that of St. Paul was 214,744. Both cities are important collecting and distributing centres for the great territory of the north- western States east of the Rockies and are served by the same railway systems, four of which connect them with the Pacific coast and seven with Chicago, whilst "Lake and Rail" routes, which utilise the Great Lakes at several points, provide direct communication with the Canadian and American cities of the East. The River Mississippi also forms another valuable trade route to St. Louis, New Orleans and other Southern cities. As a wheat market Minneapolis holds the premier position in the country, wheat being the prin- cipal cereal product not only of the State of Minnesota but also of the adjoining States of North and South Dakota. The city is not only the market to which the grain is shipped but also the financial centre from which the money is sent out to purchase and move the enormous grain crops of the North-West. Manufacturing industry is of growing importance in both cities, the enterprises of Minneapolis comprisiag flour milling, the construction of machinery and the making of windows, doors, sashes and general interior woodwork; whilst those of St. Paul, which are very varied and conducted on a correspond- iagly smaller scale, include manufactures of machinery, boots and shoes, fur garments, linseed oil, saddlery and harness, slaughtering and meat packing. In both cities there are large railway shops for the repair of locomotives and cars and the construction of new parts, also many large printing works. Minneapolis claims to be the seat of the largest flour milling industry in the world and is known as the "Flour City." The Falls of St. Anthony on the River Mississippi, which supply 40,000 horse power to the mills, are largely responsible for the great development of this industry. In each year since 1897 the annual output of flour has exceeded thirteen million barrels, produced by a score of miUs in the neighbourhood of the Falls. The largest of these nulls consumes daily over 60,000 bushels of wheat, which are converted uito some 16,000 barrels of flour. For the working of the mills two immense turbine water wheels furnish 3,000 horse power, which is supplemented by an 1,800 horse power steam engine. The following Table shows the growth of population ia the Twin Cities since 1870, the figures being those of the Federal Census : — Minneapolis. St. Paul. Year. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. Population. Increase. Percentage Increase. 1870 13,066 46, 887 164, 738 202, 718 301, 408 20, 030 41,473 133, 156 163, 065 214, 744 1880 33, 821 117,851 37, 980 98, 690 258.8 251.4 23.1 48.7 21, 443 91, 683 29, 909 51,679 107.0 1890 221.1 1900 22.5 1910 31.7 In 1905 persons of foreign birth constituted 29.6 per cent, of the total population of Minneapolis and 28.9 per cent, of that of St. Paul. From the following statement it will be seen that, while in Minneapolis persons bom in Sweden and Norway are between four and five times as numerous as MINNEAPOLIS ST, PAUL. 271 persons born in Germany, in St. Paul the number of persons born in Germany is about equal to the number born in Sweden and Norway: Country of Birth. Sweden Norway Germany Canada Ireland Austria- Hungar}'. . . Great Britian Russia and Finland All other Countries. Percentage of Foreign-bom Population formed by Per- sons bom in Countries stated in Column 1 in Minneapolis. 33.0 19.3 11.7 10.1 4.2 4.9 4.6 5.0 7.2 St. Paul. 20.9 7.3 27.9 10.0 9.0 6.8 5.4 3.6 9.1 During recent years comparatively few German immigrants have come to the Twin Cities, and the Scandinavian immigration is much less pronounced than when the State was originally settled by people of that race. To-day immigrants from Austria-Hungary, Russian Jews and Poles, and Italians form the bulk of the immigrant class and supply the demand for unskilled labour. A consid- erable class of so-called "Transients" are found at Minneapolis, men who jBnd temporary work on farms during the harvest, and in mines, lumber camps and railway construction in various parts of the State. These men spend the intervals of unemployment in the lodging-houses and saloons of the city. A considerable number of the more recent immigrants show no disposition to settle in the country, being desirous of returning to their homes after having accumulated sufficient money with which to purchase small farms or to start in business there. The Germans and Scandinavians are markedly frugal and thrifty, and those of the second genera- tion are found in all ranks of business and professional life. The population of both cities is spread over a large area, that of Minneapolis being about 53 square miles, and that of St. Paul about 55 square miles. The following Table summarises the birth-rates and death-rates of Minneapolis and St. Paul for the years 1904-8, the rates being based on figures supplied by the State Board of Health: Year. Birth-rate per 1,000 of Population. Death rate per 1,000 of Population. Minneapolis. St. Paul. Minneapolis. St. Paul. 1904 17.2 17.2 18.1 # 18.0 18.4 » 19.0 * 18.7 9.1 9.4 10.0 10.1 11.3 10.7 1905 10 1906.... 11.1 1907 •. 11.4 1908 10.9 * Figures not available. Mainly owing to the large proportion of immigrants the age composition of the population is not normal, about one-third of the total population of each city consisting, according to the State Census of 1905, of males of 21 years of age and over. The death-rate is thus exceptionally low. The climate of the Twin Cities is dry and healthy. The extremes of heat and cold are consider- able, however, the summer shade temperature frequently registering over 90 degrees whilst the winter temperature often falls to 20 degrees below zero. The death-rate from tuberculosis diseases during the five years 1903-7 averaged 1.21 per 1,000 of population in Minneapolis and 1.30 in St. Paul. The Health Department is co-operating with philanthropic agencies in combating the ravages of consumption. Expectoration in cars and on pavements is punishable by fine, and sanitary ofl&cers have police powers in dealing with cases. Sputum is examined free in the city bacteriological lab- oratory and an out-door camp for consumptives has been established for the summer months. Doctors are required to notify all cases of tuberculosis coming under their professional notice, and premises which have been occupied by consumptives are systematically fumigated. 272 MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. An important factor in the preservation of infant life is stated to be the strict enforcement of the city ordinance which provides that milk cannot be sold in the city unless coming from cows which have been inspected and have passed the tuberculin test. Pamphlets have also been freely circulated by the Health Department giving instruction to mothers on matters of feeding, clothing, bathing, fresh air and sleep. A copy is sent to the mother of every new-born child in the city. In 1908 a notable experiment in the medical inspection of school children at Minneapolis was undertaken jointly by the Associated Charities and the City Women's Club. Out of 1,400 children examined only 11.43 per cent, were found to be in perfect health, while 88.57 per cent, needed remedial attention of some kind, 31.43 per cent, suffering from malnutrition and 57.14 per cent, requiring special treatment. The publication of these facts has led to the establishment by the school authorities of a complete system of medical inspection for all the public schools. Minneapolis is divided by the Mississippi into two unequal portions known as East and West Side respectively, the greater part of the municipal area being on the West Side. The city is laid out in broad streets on the rectangular plan, and the streets in the residential neighbourhoods of all classes are lined with trees. The commercial and business quarter lies on the west bank of the river and contains many imposing blocks of brick and stone buildings ranging from five to twelve stories in height. Large "department stores" of the latest and best American type, handsome banks and hotels all emphasise the prosperity of this rapidly growing city of the Middle West. The most im- portant official buildings are the Post Office and the City Hall and Court House, containing the munici- pal and county offices. The latter building covers a site 300 feet square, is five stories high, built of large blocks of red granite, and surmounted by a tower 400 feet high. The entire cost of the building was between £600,000 and £700,000. The western portion of the city near the boulevards and parks is occupied by handsome stone residences and blocks of modern flats, whilst the districts in the south, north and east are occupied by the frame houses of the less prosperous citizens. A very effective system of electric Hghtirig has been installed in the main thoroughfares in the centre of the city. A series of lakes and parks, with connecting boulevards, skirts the southern and south-western portion of Minneapohs, including a fine drive along the western bank of the Mississippi, past the Minne- haha Falls. The aggregate area of the existing parks and open spaces is 2,465 acres, but it is intended that the system of parks shall eventually encircle the city. Lake Amelia Park and Lake Harriet Park are the two largest, the area of each exceeding 400 acres, of which area the greater part is water. St. Paul is built on hilly ground and the major portion hes on the eastern bank of the Mississippi, but both portions have highly picturesque surroundings. Being an older city than Minneapolis the central or business quarter has narrower streets, but it contains many fine blocks of office buildings, "department stores" and several large hotels. The most striking architectural feature of the city is the State Capitol, which houses the State legislative and administrative bodies. The building occu- pies a commanding site on the highest point of the city, the base is built of Minnesota granite, and the superstructure is covered with Georgia white marble and surmounted by a dome, while marble pillars and mural paiatings adorn the interior. The entire cost of the building was about £1,000,000. The total area of the parks and open spaces of St. Paul is 1,478 acres, the two largest parks being Phalen and Como Parks, the area of each exceeding 400 acres. In both cities there are many play- grounds for children, and in St. Paul a small island in the river is used for the provision of pubUc baths for children. The chief pubHc utility services in municipal hands in the two cities, in addition to drainage, are street cleaning and maintenance and the water supply, whilst the services for the supply of gas and of electric light, power and traction are private enterprises. The water supply of Minneapolis is obtained from the Mississippi and is unffltered, in consequence of which serious outbreaks of typhoid have occurred from time to time, so that a large number of the citizens prefer to buy drinking water from local firms, which supply pure spring water in bottles. Notices in the pubhc Press give warning whenever the river water is found by the health authorities to be contaminated. At present a commission is investi- gating the whole question of water supply and considering the advisabihty of securing new sources. At St. Paul the water supply is obtained from one of the many lakes in the vicinity, and is filtered before distribution. A noteworthy feature of the social life of both cities is the restriction of public-houses to certain areas. In the case of Minneapolis this restricted area practically coincides with the central business district. As a result, the low-class pubhc-houses are out of sight of the large majority of the children of the workers, and cases of drunkenness are mainly noticeable amongst the "Transients" who lodge MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. 273 temporarily in down-town tenements. In the case of St. Paul these restricted areas are distributed irregulariy over the city and result not from any system of local option but from the pressure of pubUc opinion in the different wards upon the members of the City Council, which has power to close the public-houses in any given area without compensation. With more or less success the sale of intoxi- cants is forbidden on Sundays in hotels and public-houses in both cities. The educational system comprises primary and secondary schools and a State University situ- ated midway between the two cities and attended by about 5,000 students. In the secondary or high schools, in addition to literary, commercial and other studies, a four years' course in manual train- ing is given, and a course of domestic science for girls also forms part of the curriculum. No fees are charged either in the schools or the university, liberal grants being given by the State, which possesses large tracts of land and draws a large revenue from mining royalties. In the neighbourhood of the University is the Agricultural Experimental Station, which is doing much to foster more scientific methods of agriculture and of dairy farming in the State. Occupations, Wages and Hours of Labour. Minneapolis. — Although flour milling is the industry for which Minneapolis is best known, it em- ploys less labour than does engineering, about 8,000 men being employed in the various foundries, machine shops and railway works. Much of the machinery manufactured is for farming, milling , and general purposes. The railway shops are engaged far more in repairs than construction. Wood- working comes next in importance to engineering in the number of men employed, over 5,000 men being engaged in this industry. The sawing of logs, formerly one of the leading local industries, is now carried on nearer to the forests, but MinneapoHs still continues to be a large emporium for timber, which is manufactured into doors, windows, sashes and general interior fittings, and furniture. Printing and bookbinding employ 2,200 men and 600 women, a large amount of work being done for other towns. Flour milling gives employment to over 2,000 men. Science and modern machinery have en- tirely transformed this industry. In the old process of milling the aim was to grind as finely as possible and thus to produce the maximum quantity of flour in the first grinding. The modern miUs accomplish this end by gradual reduction. After the wheat has been freed from foreign substances and screened so as to remove all impurities, it goes to the first set of rollers. These rollers are set just close enough to break the grain, it being desired to get as little flour as possible from the first break. The rollers are of corrugated steel and so set that one revolves about three times as fast as the one paired with it, thus grinding as well as crushing the grain. The product of the break is passed through a set of sieves, which separate it into coarse bran, middlings and a smaU amount of flour. The coarse bran is sent to a second set of corrugated roUers, which break it stiU finer, after which it again goes through the sifting process. This breaking and sifting is continued through two to five more sets of rollers, each set crushing the bran finer than the preceding one until the floury part of the grain is entirely separated from the bran. The middlings obtained from the first break, after being put through a purifying machine to remove impurities, are passed through a set of smooth roUers which reduce the particles to a smaUer size. This is called the first reduction. The product is sieved and the fiour thus obtained is the finest quality or "First Patent." The middhngs from this sifting process, together with those of the second break, are passed through a second set of smooth rollers for the second reduction and then sifted again. This process is followed until the flour has been entirely removed from the mid- dlings. The flour obtained from each successive reduction is slightly darker than, and of an inferior quality to, that of the preceding one. The product of the final operation is so fine that it has a tend- ency to clog in the meshes of the bolting cloth, and centrifugal force and brushes are employed to force the flour through this cloth. The whole process, from the time the wheat enters the first machine until it is packed, is automatic. The work of millmg is carried on in large and lofty buildings, the first process beginning on the top floor, from which the product descends floor by floor until it finally reaches the ground level, where it is packed. Exhaust pipes carry off the major portion of the fine dust which rises from the machin- ery, and the air of the mills is thus comparatively clear. Of the remaining industries, the making of clothing, including fur goods, hosiery, and knitted goods, gives employment to 1,100 men and 2,000 women, while in the manufacture of food products (other than flour) 2,000 men and 1,200 women are employed. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 2A 274 MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. St. Paul. — The principal industries of St. Paul are engineering, which employs about 6,000 men, including over 3,000 men in the railway shops, and printing and bookbinding, which employ 2,400 men and about 1,000 women, as St. Paul, Uke Minneapolis, prints for a large area. Woodworking employs 1,700 men. The clothing trades, including the manufacture of fur goods, for which St. Paul is famous, employ altogether over 1,000 men and about 1,600 women in more than 100 establishments. Several boot and shoe factories employ about 900 men and over 400 women in the aggregate. A local branch establishment of one of the Chicago meat-packing firms employs 1,600 men, the total number of persons in the food preparation trades being over 4,000. Minneapolis — St. Paul. — The following Table, compiled from figures supplied by the State Bureau of Labour, shows the industrial distribution of workpeople employed in establishments subject to inspection in the Twin Cities in 1909: — Numher of Workpeople employed in Establishments subject to Inspection in Minneapolis and St. Paul in 1909. Foundries and Machine Shops Railway Shops General Machine and Metal Work (including Agricultural Implements) Woodworking Printing, Bookbindingand Publishing Clothing, Fur Goods, Hosiery and Knitting Boot and Shoe Making Flour Milling Other Food Preparation Industries Other Industries Total Males over 16. 4,469 6,343 3,327 6,857 4,593 2,174 1,093 2,159 5,386 11, 736 48, 137 Females over 16. 91 24 261 286 1,585 3,585 598 45 1,919 5,033 13, 427 Juveniles under 16. 3 2 8 16 59 12 24 41 57 222 Total. 4,563 6,369 3,596 7,159 6,237 5,771 1,715 2,204 7, 34G 16, 826 61, 786 With few exceptions, the later immigrants are employed at first as labourers or as machine feeders. The latter are found in large numbers in the sash and door factories, where they are under the supervision of workmen who adjust the machines for the class of work required and are paid slightly higher rates of wages. All that is required of foreign workmen in these factories is rapidity in handling the material, so that the fuU output of the machinery may be maintained. The more intelligent are gradually advanced until they can be trusted to manage machines, when they are paid higher rates of wages. Slavs from Austria-Hungary, Poles and Swedes may be found in the same factory. Many of these immigrants work as moulders' helpers, and when they show aptitude are taught the simpler operations of machine and bench moulding. As their skill and intelligence develop, they are entrusted with more complicated work at higher pay. In the machine shops they begin as "handy men" and drill press men, and as they give evidence of capacity are promoted to better work. On the whole, they are said to be sober, industrious and eager to embrace every opportunity of increasing their earnings. The growth of immigration and the adoption by employers of the above methods of work have seriously weakened the power of the local trade unions, particularly those of the moulders and machinists, who have failed to maintain their union rates of wages. In the railway car shops the car carpenters are mostly Scandinavians, who have little skill beyond that involved in the ordinary handhng of hammer and saw. • The labour laws of the State of Minnesota contain various provisions restricting the hours of labour, and deahng with conditions in factories and workshops prejudicial to health and safety. In the case of children under 16 years of age, the hours of labour must not exceed ten in any one day, while in the case of adults, unless a shorter time be agreed upon, the standard day is fixed at 10 hours, and for all hours worked in excess of this number extra pay must be given. No female may be employed in a mercantile establishment more than 58 hours in a week, or in a manufacturing or mechan- ical establishment more than 10 hours in any one day except for the purpose of arranging for a shorter day's work for one day each week, but the total hours worked in any week may not exceed 58. For the noonday meal sixty minutes at least must be allowed unless the Commissioner for Labour sanctions a shorter interval. The employment of children under 14 years in factories, mills and workshops, or in or about mines, is forbidden, and their employment in any business or service whatever MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. 275 is forbidden during the ordinary school terms. , Children between the ages of 14 and 16 years may not be employed in any business or service whatever during school terms unless an employment certificate has been procured from the Superintendent of Schools, who must forward a hst of children employed to the Commissioner of Labour every month. No person under the age of 16 years may be employed before 7 a.m. or after 7 p.m. except on Saturday and during ten days before Christmas. Certain occupations prejudicial to health or morals are closed to persons under 16 years of age. A system of factory inspection by inspectors of both sexes appears to be in effective operation. Trade unions exist for practically all the branches of the building, engineering and printing trades, and for the flour milling industry. With the exception of the printing trades, however, none of the unions are strong enough to impose their conditions on employers, and the principle of the "open shop" is generally maintained. Time rates of wages are the general rule in Minneapolis and St. Paul, the machine compositors, who are paid sometimes by time and sometimes by piece, constituting the sole exception among the occupations included in the Table below. One small firm has introduced the premium-bonus system for moulders, only a small percentage of whom, however, are able to increase their earnings as a result. Moulders employed by other firms are paid by time. As a rule, wages are paid by the calendar month or semi-monthly and by cheque. Workmen in the building trades, however, are paid in cash weekly at Minneapohs and fortnightly at St. Paul, The season in the building trades runs from the beginning of April into November, but work is frequently carried on in winter (the mortar being heated) when contracts for business premises have to be completed to time. In foundries and machine shops the wages paid to moulders show a wide range, as no two firms do the same class of work, and men are paid according to their skill. Machine moulders, who receive wages lower than those stated in the Table, are not a numerous class. As regards the wages of machinists, there is much variation, there being no recognised system of apprenticeship quahfying men to receive any particular rate of wages. The simplest class of work is done by "handy men" and drUl press men, whose rates range from 50s. to 62s. 6c?. per week. The wages quoted for machinists are for vice and lathe men of ordinary ability ; those whose wages exceed the limit stated in the Table are not a mmaerous class, and are experts in certain lines or possess all-round training. In railway repair shops work is more uniform than in the other machine shops, and accordingly rates of wages show little variation. In the printing trades the rates of wages and hours of labour of hand and machine compositors on newspaper work at St. Paul are regulated by agreement between leading newspaper companies and the trade union, while at Minneapolis there is no agreement, but union rates of wages are usually paid. For compositors employed by the day, the vSt. Paul agreement stipulates Is. lOid. per hour on day work and 2s. Id. per hour on night work, seven hours constituting a minimum day's work. For those employed by the week the scale is 91s. 8d. for day work and 104s. 2d. for night work, a week's work consisting of 48 hours. The union rate at Minneapolis is 95s. lOd. for day work and 108s. id. for night work for a week of 48 hours. Machine compositors, whether on time or piece work, generally receive wages in excess of those required by agreement or by the union. Wages and hours agreements exist covering several occupations in the book and job printing and bookbinding trades at Minneapohs, but there are no agreements in these trades at St. Paul. The Minneapolis rate for compositors on day work is Is. Qid. per hour. The wages for pressmen and their assistants vary considerably according to the number and kind of presses operated. The bookbinding scale is also very detailed, but the rates for most of the workmen are either Is. 5d. or Is. 7d. per hour, the week's work consisting of 49 hours. In the woodworking factories the wages of cabinetmakers show a wide range, running from 56s. 3d. to 100s. per week. Of those doing superior work, however, three-quarters receive 75s. per week, whilst of those engaged on ordinary work the great majority receive from 62s. 6d. to 68s. 9d. The setters are men who in large factories adjust machines to various grades of work for the feeders and sawyers. Work in the flour mills is fairly continuous the whole year round, Minneapohs being well supplied with large stores of both winter and spring wheat, and wages show considerable uniformity. Work is carried on in three eight-hour shifts daily, but millwrights, loaders, packers and nailers, and labourers do not work on the shift system. Packers and nailers, though nominally working a nine-hour day, more generally work only eight hours. The wages and hours in the brewing industry are entirely regulated by agreement. 276 MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. The same company works the tramways in both cities. Motormen and conductors are paid according to a scale ranging from lO^d. to Is. O^d. per hour, the rate increasing ^d. per hour for each year of service. As the proportions of the total number of men receiving the various rates were fairly equal, the whole range of payment has been quoted. The company does not provide uniforms. The following Table shows the predominant wages paid to adult males in the principal trades and industries of Minneapolis — St. Paul, with the corresponding hours of labour, in February, 1909: — Predominant WeeMy Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Houra of Labour. Building Trades: — Bricklayers Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers Painters Bricklayers ' Labourers Plasterers' Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops: — Ironmoulders Machinists Drill Press Men and Handy Men Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers Railway WorJcs: — Locomotive Shops — Machinists Blacksmiths Blacksmiths ' Strikers Boilermakers Boilermakers ' Helpers Labourers Car Shops — Cabinetmakers Carpenters Car Repairers Labourers Woodworking — Sash and Doormaking: — Cabinetmakers Machine Operators {leeders'-V;;;.".".': Frame Makers Labourers Printing and Bookbinding Trades: — Newspaper — Hand Compositors {^^^^^orV Machine Compositors gfy^^;^^;^- Book and Job — Hand Compositors p— n gS^e^eT!!:::::: Bookbinders Flour Milling: — Millers, Bolters and Grinders Machine Tenders Smutters Millwrights Packers and Nailers Oilers Loaders Labourers 120s. 100s, 100s. to 112s. 6d. 90s. 112s. ed. 112s. 6c?. 100s. 85s. 45s. to 56s. Sd. 50s. „ 67s. ed. 68s. 9rf. to 90s. 68s. 9d. ,, 75s. 8d. 50s. „ 62s. 6d. 68s. 9d. „ 80s. 3d. 74s. ed. ,, 90s. 41s. 3d. „ 50s. 90s. 90s. 51s. 3d. to 52s. lid. 93s. 5d. 49s. ed. to 50s. Sd. 41s. 8d. ,, 42s. 9d. 71s. 3d. to 75s. 63s. 9d. 42s. 9d. to 50s. M. 41s. 3d. „ 43s. 9d. 62s. ed. to 75s. 62s. ed. „ 75s. 37s. ed. „ 50s. 56s. 3c?. ., 62s. ed. 43s. 9d. „ 50s. 78s. 9c?. 87s. ed. 95s. lOd. 95s. lOd. 75s. 79s. 47s. 69s. 5d. to 95s. lOd ,, 108s. 4rf. ,, 104s. 2c?. ,, 116s. 8c?. to 81s. 3c?. „ 93s. 66s. 8(?. 83s. id. 70s. 58s. 47s. to 52s. 75s. ,, 75s. ed. 54s. ,, 62s. 6c?. 47s. 55s. 50s. to 55s. 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 54 48 to 54 54 to 60 55 „ 60 55 „ 60 55 „ 60 55 „ 60 55 „ 60 53 to 54 53 „ 54 53 „ 54 53 „ 54 53 „ 54 53 „ 54 59 59 53 to 59 59 60 60 60 60 60 42 to 48 42 „ 48 39 „ 48 36 „ 48 48 to 49 48 „ 49 48 „ 54 49 48 48 48 60 48 48 54to( 60 MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. 277 Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Bremng:— ■Brew-house, Malt-house, Wash-house and Cellar Men. 75s. 56s. 62s. ed. to 66s. 8d. 66s. 8d. „ 70s. lOrf. 43s. 3d. to 50s. 48s. Id. „ 54s. 2d. 62s. 6c?. 81s. 3d. 40s. to 56s. 3d. 50s. 57s. M. 43s. 9d. to 51s. Id. 74s. 6d. to 86s. 6d. 69s. 9d. „ 72s. 50s. 58s. 2d. to 69s. 3d. 48 Beer Bottlers 48 Baking:— Bench Men 60 Oven Men 60 General Drivers, Teamsters: — One horse 60 Two horses 60 Public Services: — Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning (Municipal) — 48 ^^^^'^HBrick and Stone " '"■ 48 Paviors' Labourers, Road Menders and Road Sweepers. ... 48 Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers . ... 48 Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers 77 Labourers . . 66 to 70 Switchboard Men 84 54 Labourers 60 Electric Tramways (Company) — 66J Taking wages at New York as the base, =100, in each case, the wages index numbers for Minne- apohs — St. Paul are — building trades, skilled men 97, hodcarriers and bricklayers' laborours 74; foun- dries and machine shops, skilled men 88, unskilled laborours 109; printing, hand compositors (job work) 89. Housing and Kents. Minneapolis. — Practically all the working-class dwellings are situated within the city, and are distributed all over its area, with the exception of the business centre and a district in the west which is occupied by the mansions and villas of the wealthy inhabitants. A network of tram-hnes reaches all parts of the city, and the fare being uniformly 2id., the cost of travelling to and from work has Uttle or no effect on the relative rent level of different localities, rent being determined by other Con- ditions. Certain districts, however, are predominantly working-class in character. Thus, the South Side is mainly occupied by the poorer yet respectable Scandinavians, who are mostly Swedish, and in this locahty are found the principal churches of the Swedish Lutheran faith, but also several Nor- wegian churches. The northern district is also to a large extent working-class in character, and is inhabited by the families of men working in lumber yards and sash and door factories. The poorest class of labourers, and particularly the later immigrants of the Slavonic race, live in a small district fringing the western bank of the Mississippi, one portion of which, called "The Flats," situated below the Falls of St. Anthony, lies very low, and is at times flooded by the river. A large district on the East Side of the river, close to some large woodworking factories and rail- way shops, employing a considerable number of well-paid mechanics, represents the aristocracy of labour, so far as housing conditions are concerned. In this district the overwhelming majority of the houses are being purchased by the occupants on the instalment plan. They are pretty frame build- ings of two stories, detached, and having open grass plots both at the front and back. In other local- ities, this habit of purchasing the home is characteristic of a large section of the working-class popula- tion, especially the Scandinavians, who are home-loving to a remarkable degree. Although Amer- icanised to a considerable extent, the Scandinavians still retain the frugal habits of their race, denying themselves many ordinary amusements, and generally maintaining a simpler standard of dietary and clothing than American workmen of the second generation. According to the Federal Census of 1900, 28.7 per cent, of the homes in the city were in that year owned by their occupiers, 16.1 per cent, of 278 MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. all homes being owned free of debt, and since that date the percentage of house owners amongst the working classes has probably increased. There are no co-operative or philanthropic building societies, all the purchases being effected through private agents, who foster the system of house purchase, accept- ing payment by easy instalments, a plan which lessens the risk of bad debts. In times of depression many agents make loans to purchasers, whilst they have always the ultimate right of foreclosure when the debt is mounting too high. The State Law of Exemption, which prevents the distraint of furni- ture up to a certain value, and the legal difficulties in the way of ejecting tenants naturally cause agents to encourage the purchase system, and none of them has a large rental list. A common prac- tice with agents is to accept an initial deposit of 10 per cent, of the toal value of a house and site, and to receive the balance in monthly instalments as low as 41s. 8d. By this means an ordinary house, together with the land, can be bought outright as a rule in ten or twelve years. When, however, the local taxes, special assessments for the cost of street-making and improvements (a large number of streets are still unmade) , and the heavy cost of repairs to frame dwellings are taken into considera- tion, it is evident that house-ownership entails considerable self-denial on the part of those who are not receiving the higher wages of skilled mechanics. The usual size of a site is 40 to 50 feet by 100 to 150 feet, and the cost of such a site varies from £50 to £125, according to situation. The aver- age cost of a frame house of four rooms is about £175, and of one of six rooms from £300 to £425, modern conveniences such as bathroom and basement with heating furnace not being included. Sometimes houses are bought in combination with life insurance. Two marked results of this system of house purchase are variety in style of construction, a matter to which agents pay special attention, and the clean and well-kept appearance of the dwellings which are being bought by their occupants. Broadly speaking, the working-class housing conditions make a very favourable impression. The prevailing custom of erecting detached houses secures healthy conditions as regards light and ventila- tion, particularly as MinneapoUs is a new city, and is spread over a large area with many intervening open spaces. Congestion of dwellings such as obtain in older cities is almost non-existent. Broad streets and wide passages between back gardens are the general rule, and trees are planted along both sides of aU streets in residential districts. There is no large slum area, although houses in a more or less dilapidated condition are by no means infrequent, and there are small blocks of tenement dwellings which leave much to be desired in the matter of cleanliness and sanitary conveniences. The heavy cost of sewering so large an area as Minneapohs covers and laying of water pipes accounts for some- what primitive sanitary conditions in certain locaUties, but these cannot be said to be typical. The only available figures bearing on the question of congestion of population are those of the Federal Census of 1900, which showed that the percentage of famihes at that date living in dwelling-houses occupied by one family was 56, in dwelling-houses occupied by two famihes 31 and in dwelling-houses occupied by three or more families 13. Observation of conditions in all parts of the city made in the course of the investigation leads to the conclusion that this favourable state of things still continues. As the great majority of the houses are built for sale there is no approach to uniformity as regards either appearance, design or dimensions, the aim of the builders and agents being to present as much variety as possible in any given street in order to make the houses attractive to purchasers. Eented dwellings also vary to such an extent that predominant types can hardly be said to exist. The two- storied frame cottage approaches a predominant type as far as it is possible to generalise, but as a rule it is occupied by its owner. Generally speaking this house is detached and set back from the pavement at varying distances; an open grass plot in front runs unbroken from one end of the street to the other; and each house has open ground behind where the wood shed and in the older type the privy are situated, more modem dwellings having instead of the latter a water-closet in the bathroom. A verandah or "porch" usually extends along the front of the house. The floor of the dwelling usually rests on a stone or cement foundation, raised about three feet above the ground. Lobbies or vestibules are common, and on the ground floor the rooms consist of parlour, dining room and kitchen-scullery, which contains the smk and stove or gas-cooker, the stove being invariably the property of the occupier; a food pantry is also a common feature. The floor above is divided into three or four rooms and in dweUings of the more modern type contains also the bathroom with water-closet. Clothes closets are usually provided, and the walls as a rule are papered. A cellar or basement is general, this in more modem houses having a MINNEAPOLIS ST. PAUL. 279 cemented floor and containing a heating furnace and laundry facilities. The whole house is heated by the furnace, from which hot air pipes are carried to all the rooms above, steam pipes being only met with in the more expensive houses or blocks of flats occupied by the well-to-do classes. Rented dwelUngs are mainly flats of from three to six rooms. The labouring classes generally occupy flats of three or four rooms in dwelHngs of the older type, whilst mechanics occupy flats of the more modern kind with from three to six rooms. The prevalence of the bathroom and water-closet m the latter class of dwellings is a marked feature in Minneapohs. Flats are found in two-storied frame dwellings, in rows of brick structures or in detached blocks of two and three stories, and often over shops. Large frame-built tenement blocks exist, but are not numerous. The three or four-roomed flat of the older type is usually found in a seven-roomed frame house, having three or four rooms on each floor. First floor tenants frequently have to carry water and wood upstairs, in which case the inconvenience caused is compensated for by a lower rent being charged, sometimes as much as Is. lid. per week less than that for the downstairs flat. One front entrance serves both flats, but separate back entrances are generally provided, wooden stairs with a small landiag leading from the open ground behind to the upstairs flat. In many cases water and sink are supplied to upstairs tenants, but the water-closet or privy is as a rule shared by both families. Modern flats are frequently situated in a brick tenement block having one main entrance admitting to a hall, where flats are entered right and left, while stairs ascend to landings on the upper floors. These flats are conveniently arranged, but as the blocks are built rather close together, defective lighting is fairly frequent, since the lateral windows look out upon the wall of the adjacent block a few feet away. At the back flights of wooden steps with a landing at each floor give access to the various flats from the courtyard. Bathrooms with water-closets are invariably found in these flats. Measurements of rooms in typical dwellings taken in various parts of the city varied from 1 1 feet by 12 feet to 11 feet by 16 feet for larger rooms and from 6 feet by 9 feet 6 inches to 9 feet by 12 feet for smaller ones, the height being from 7 to 8 feet. Modem flats furnished with steam heating, the charge for which is included in the rent, are nearly all occupied by fairly well-to-do households; occasionally a compositor or superior mechanic may be found amongst the tenants, but as a rule working people who can afford the high rents of such flats prefer to purchase their own homes. The older type of dwelling is heated by a stove in the hving room in which anthracite coal is usually burnt; the kitchen stove, in which bituminous coal is burnt, being used for cooking only. Gas cooking stoves were observed to be in common use. Building regulations do not apply, as regards the structures, in the case of dwelling houses, and builders are not even required to submit plans for approval before beginning operations. The require- ments of prospective tenants or owners are the only conditions which builders feel bound to consider. The collection of ashes and garbage is undertaken by the city, but metal cans to contain the refuse have to be provided by the owners or the tenants. The sanitary inspection of houses is regularly exercised by a staff of officers belonging to the Health Department. Whenever dwellings are found to be in an insanitary state and the owners or agents neglect to obey the instructions of the Health Department, a large card is aSixed to the wall stating that the dwelling is unhealthy and should not be occupied until put in a sanitary condition. This method of dealing with recalcitrant owners is said to be very effective. Taxes are levied by the municipal authority upon real and personal property, one tax levy cover- ing all State, County, and City purposes. Under personal property are included household furniture and effects of every kind, wearing apparel and dogs. Every citizen is required annually to make a written and detailed declaration of the value of his personal property, and the various items are revised by the assessor. Eeal estate is assessed at from 45 to 55 per cent, of its actual value, personal property at its full value, less a deduction of £21 ; the tax-rate has varied during the last five years from 2.45 to 2.89 per cent, of the assessed value. St. Paul. — The foregoing description of housing conditions in Minneapohs will serve also to indicate the general conditions prevailing in St. Paul. In the style and character of the houses, and in the gen- eral level of accommodation, there are no material differences, while the rents charged for similar dwellings were found to be the same in both cities. 280 MINNEAPOLIS — ST. PAUL. Minneapolis — St. Paul. — The following Table shows the rents most generally paid by working class tenants in Minneapolis and St. Paul in February, 1909: — Predominant Rents of WorJcing-class Dwellings. Number of Rooms per Dwelling. Three rooms Four rooms. Five rooms - Six rooms - _ Predominant Weekly Rents. Older Dwellings. 5s. 9d. to 7s. 8d. 7s. 8d. „ 9s. Id. 9s. Id. „ 12s. %d. lis. %d. „ 17s. 4 (iii.) Long loaf (about 24 inches long and 4 inches section), 2 lb. 8 oz 5d. „ ( „ 15 „ 4 „ ), lib. 2oz 2id. „ ( „ 11 „ 5 „ ),14oz Hd. Round loaf (14 inches diameter), 2 lb, 8 oz 5d. (17 „ ),5lb.8oz.... iOd. Macaroni which is of course largely in use among the Italians, is retailed at the large cash stores at 4id. per lb. (3 l b. for Is. Ojd.) first quahty, and 3^^^. per lb. (4 lb. for * This is the most popular. 368 PROVIDENCE. Is. Oid.) second quality. Broken macaroni is sold at 2id. per lb. Olive oil is also largely used, and the kind sold is usually of good quality. The coal commonly used in Providence is a small anthracite known as "White Ash." In Feb- ruary, 1909, the price was uniform among nearly all retailers, namely 30s. 2id. per ton of 2,000 lb. or 8s. l^d. per quarter-ton. There is also a considerable trade in coal sold by the "basket," this measure containing about 80 lb. The uniform price for a basket of coal was Is. 8d., a rate which differs little from that for larger quantities. The basket, however, is not the smallest unit by which coal is purchased. Most grocery shops sell bags of coal containing about 17^ lb. and selling at a uniform price of 5d. Coke also is sold to a very large extent by grocers. The weight of a bag varies somewhat more than that of a bag of coal, the usual weight being from 16 to 17^ lb. The usual price of a bag of coke is 5d., though in a few shops it may be obtained for id. The predominant prices of various articles are shown in the following Table: — Predominant Prices paid by the WorHng Glasses in February, 1909. Commodity. Tea per lb. Coffee , , Sugar: — White Granulated „ Brown ,, Bacon, Breakfast — Boneless ,, Eggs per Is. Cheese, American per lb. Butter „ Potatoes, Irish per 7 lb. Flour, Wheaten — ^Household , , Bread, White per 4 lb. Milk per quart Coal, Anthracite per cwt. Kerosene per gallon Predominant Price. Ig. Oid. to Is. 8d. lid. „ Is. OJrf. 2id. 2id. lid. 8 9d. Is. 2d. 5id. Hid. lOd. 3(f. 3d. M. 12 lOd. Is. 4d. Id. Is. Ofrf. IS. Oicf. i\d. Is. 8Jrf.*; Is. 9Ht; 2s. id.X lid. * By the ton of 2,000 lb. t By the quarter- ton (500 lb.). t By the basket (80 lb.). In the above Table the predominant price of bread is based upon the returns of bakers having either a mixed trade or a trade exclusively among the EngHsh-speaking classes. The cheaper bread made by the Italian bakers is not sufficient in quantity to affect materially the predominant price for the city as a whole. Meat. The meat consumed in Providence is mostly Western-dressed, with the exception of veal, most of which is local. , Much variation exists in regard to the price of veal, since much which is too young or too old to provide good eating is put on the market and sold by the poorer-class butchers. One butcher questioned was selling the best cuts of veal at Sd. per lb. at a time when medium quality calves were worth 6|(?. per lb. whole. The local method of cutting up meat requires no special comment, being generally similar to that adopted in other New England cities. Rounds of beef are not often sold for roasts, but are usually cut into steaks. As regards mutton, the front leg usually goes with the breast and is not sold separately as a shoulder. The consumption of meat among Italians in Providence appears to be somewhat less than among the same nationality in many other American cities, and is decidedly less than among American and British working-class famiUes in Providence, though it probably cannot be considered low from Euro- pean standpoints. It must be borne in mind that in Providence the Italians find their chief employ- ment in the textile mills, where the work, although often arduous and unpleasant, makes no particularly great demand on muscular energy. The Italians usually buy the cheapest cuts of meat. PROVIDENCE. 369 The foUowing Table shows the predominant prices of the principal cuts of meat as sold at working- class shops in rrovidence: — ° Predominant Pnces paid by the Working Glasses in February, 1909. Description of Cut. Beef:— Roasts — Ribs prime „ Ribs second cut „ Chuck or short ribs Steaks — Round ,, Sirloin.: Shin without bone Flank Brisket, "Fancy" Mutton or Lamb : — Leg Breast Loin Chops Shoulder Neck; Veal:— Cutlets Rib chops Loin chops Breast Neck. Pork:— Fresh — Loin „ Spare rib „ Shoulder ,, Chops Corned (wet salt or pickled) . Dry salt Ham Shoulder, salt or smoked Predominant Price per lb. 8d. to 9d. 7 id- „ Sd. 5d. „ Id. 7 id. „ nid. Is. Oid. „ Is. 3d. Ad. ,, bd. 2 id. 6d. to 6id. 7id. to 9d. id. ,, 5d. ' &d. „ 7 id. 9d. „ Is. Oid. 5d. 2id. to 3id. 9d. to Is. 3d. 7id. „ Is. Oid. 9d. „ Is. Oid. bd. 3id. to bd. Qd. to 7id. bd. bd. Qid. to Sd. &d. bd. to 7d. %d. „ 7d. bd. Prices at New York being taken as the base, = 100, in each case, the index number for the price of meat at Providence is 103, for other food it is 95 and for food prices as a whole 97. For rents and food prices combined the index number is 88. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 30 370 ST. LOUIS. St. Louis, in the State of Missouri, lies on the western bank of the Mississippi, 20 miles below the junction of that river with the Missouri, nearly 300 miles by rail south-south-west of Chicago, and over 1,000 miles by rail from New York. Originally a French fur-trading post, and subsequently a great river port, when river traffic was at its height, it is now a railway, distributing and manufac- turing centre of growing importance. The main east and west traffic goes through Chicago, but St. Louis holds an important position in relation to the increasing traffic between the northern and southern portions of the Mississippi Valley, and to that of the rapidly growing States of the South- West, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The extensive coal fields of Southern Illinois lie close at hand across the river, furnishing cheap fuel for manufacturing purposes. The city has a broad front on the Mississippi, extending almost twenty miles. Inland the city boundary forms an arc, the greatest distance of which from the river is about seven miles, enclosing an area of 62^ square miles. Practically aU this land is well above the level of the river, rising gradu- ally higher towards the west, but with no hOls steep enough to form any obstacle to the expansion of the city. At present the river is spanned by only one road bridge, upwards of a mile in length, across which tramway cars are run far into the State of Illinois; but as a toll of 2id. is charged for the journey over the bridge alone, there is not very much inducement for working men employed in St. Louis to live on the other side of the river, while the low-lying character of the land renders it unattractive as a residential place for the wealthy. The city of East St. Louis is on that side of the river; it has its own industries (meat-packing in particular) and can scarcely be regarded as a suburb of the larger city, nor can it ever be incorporated with St. Louis, inasmuch as it lies in a different State. The movement of population which has resulted everywhere from the introduction of electric traction has been, in St. Louis, towards the south, west and north, where suburban building has taken place to an enormous extent. The tramways in 1908 had 350 miles of single track withia the city boundary and 120 miles within the county area outside the city. The municipal boundaries are so wide, however, that they include very nearly all the population which depends on the city for employ- ment. The steam railways have not developed suburban traffic, and as it takes fully three-quarters of an hour to reach the city limits in any direction by tramway car from the centre, and as the cars are always overcrowded in the mornings and evenings, there is not much inducement for people to live further out. Population has grown rapidly since 1880, as the following Table shows. Additions were made to the area included within the city limits from time to time in the decades 1880 to 1890 and 1890 to 1900, but since the latter year there has been no further addition. Year. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Population. 310, 864 350, 518 451,770 575, 238 687, 029 Increase. 39, 654 101,252 123, 468 111,791 Percentage Increase. 12.8 28.9 27.3 19.4 At the Census of 1900 74.5 per cent, of the population were returned as American-bom and 19.3 per cent, as foreign-born whites, but since that date there has been a considerable influx of immi- grants from South-Eastem and Central Europe, viz., Italians, Poles, Hungarians, Bohemians, Russian Jews and Greeks. Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 52.8 per cent, were born in Germany, 17.4 per cent, in Ireland, 6.5 per cent, in Great Britain and 5.1 per cent, in Austria-Hungary. Until the last decade, St. Louis received its immigrants in two streams, one from the Southern States, the other from the Northern. The former stream, which was strongest in the first half of last century, con- sisted of American-born whites and negro slaves; the latter stream, which predominated during the second half of the century, consisted of Americans of British descent and of more ST. LOUIS. 0171 recently arrived Germans^ The German stream has declined very much in recent years and has been replaced by mimigrants from South-Eastern Europe. Most of the labour employed on the street and tramway construction is Slavonic and Italian, and the same races supply the unskilled labour of the car shops, foundries, and brickworks. Negroes who m 1900 fonned 6.2 per cent, of the total population, are employed largely as carters and at the whlrves on the river front and to some extent on street work. In the buUding trade they constitute the great majority of hod carriers, having the muscular strength required for this work. Germans and men of German descent are found both as employers and employed in the great breweries, but they are met with m most trades and professions. Of the original French mfluence, practically nothing remams except m the names of streets and pubhc places. ^ j b ■ ^^'i.^'^l^^ f^^ °f S*- .Lo"i«' ^ear the river, used to be the German quarter, and to some extent it IS so still; but latterly this quarter has been mvaded by the newer hnmigrants, whilst the Germans have tended to move still further south, where newer and better housing accommodation is found The blavomc and Italian immigrants are found in small scattered communities in many parts of the city, especiaUy m the older and comparatively inferior districts round the centre and towards the river front. A few isolated communities are found in the more outlying parts, where large works exist. There is, for instance, a considerable body of Italians near the brick works in the extreme west The death-rates for the years 1903-7, based upon the local estimates of population, have been as follows:— 1903, 17.3 per 1,000 of population; 1904,16.8; 1905,14.9; 1906,14.0; 1907,14.5. It is noticeable that the rate of mortality shows a tendency to decline. In regard to this the 'report of the Health Department for 1908 states— "The general decrease in disease and death-rate may be very properly attributed to the increased efficiency m the city's sewer system, the oUing and general elimina- tion of ponds, the marked progress m street paving and cleaning, the excellent water supply and the more rigid enforcement of the general .sanitary and quarantme laws." Sanitation is stiU by no means all that might be desired. The old-fashioned privy-vault system is still extensively used. Although the sewer system in 1908 embraced 639 miles of sewers, many uncon- nected vaults exist in the older crowded districts and most of the connexions which exist in these dis- tricts are untrapped. The Italian settlement near the brick worfe, being situated in an outlying district, has no sewer connexions, and the vaults are emptied only once a year, so that they overflow for some time before that operation takes place, causing offensive streams along the roadside. The inhabitants of this district, who happen to be occupied to a large extent in the manufacture of sewer pipes, have petitioned to have sewers put in, but so far without success. The sanitary conditions of the city generally, in fact, are such as would lead one to expect a higher rate of mortality than is actually experienced. There are two important facts which possibly help to explain the moderate death-rate. One is that St. Louis, like all the rapidlyrgrowing cities in America, has not a normal proportion of infants and old persons in its population. The other is the fact that the immigrants — largely South Italians and Eussian Jews — who occupy the worst tenement districts in the city come from conditions which are often much worse than those of their present surroundings, and it is probable that in the course of generations they ,have acquired some degree of immunity from the diseases incidental to overcrowding and defective sanitation. On coming to America these people are also much better fed and it is not surprising to find that they are fairly healthy. Further, St. Louis, in the main, is a town of detached buildings, having a sufficiency of air and light. There are comparatively few of the tall closely-packed tenements which are found in New York, and this circum- stance must have a favourable influence on the rate of mortality. Of the public services the water supply is undertaken by the municipality, being drawn from the river some miles above the town. Gas, electric lighting and tramways are in the hands of companies, but the municipality draws revenue from them. Parks are not very conveniently situated. Forest Park, where the great Exhibition was held in 1904, is a splendid domain, but to reach it entails a considerable journey. There are a number of small parks here and there and recently several recreation grounds for children have been opened in the more crowded districts. These grounds are equipped with gymnastic apparatus and appliances for games and amusements, which are under the supervision of a director and assistants employed by the municipality. 372 ST. LOUIS. Occupations, Wages and Houks of Labour. The following Table shows the distribution of occupations in St. Louis as recorded at the Federal Census of 1900. As might be expected in a great mercantile centre, large numbers of persons are employed Lq "trade and transportation" and in "professional, domestic and personal service": — Number of Persons of 10 years of age and over engaged in Occupations in St. Louis in 1900. Occupations. Building Metalworking and Engineering Textile Leather Boot and Shoe Making Clothing Woodworking and Furnishing Paper and Printing Brick and Tile Glass Food, Drink, and Tobacco Other Manufacturing and Mechanical Pursuits Trade and Transportation Labourers (not otherwise specified) Professional, Domestic and Personal Service and Agricultural Pursuits All Occupations Males. 15, 995 14, 978 339 1,079 4,383 2,964 5,789 3,630 950 452 8,836 14, 931 69, 191 20, 663 26, 662 190, 842 Females. 54, 506 Totals. 28 53 576 16, 023 15,031 915 30 1,109 1,777 10, 871 207 6,160 13, 835 5,996 1,232 2 4,862 952 12 464 1,900 1,602 10, 736 16, 533 8,761 434 77, 952 21, 097 27,021 53, 683 245, 348 The foregoing Table may be supplemented by a return for 1907, based on figures published by the Bureau of Labour Statistics of the State of Missouri, showing in greater detail the numbers employed in the important manufacturing industries of St. Louis: — Industries. Males over 16 years. Females over 16 years. Children under 16 years. Total. Boot and Shoe Making Car Works Foundries and Machine Shops Brewing Tailoring Brick and Tile Making Printing and Bookbinding. . . Furniture Tobacco 7,109 10, 083 6,836 6,156 2,310 4,008 2,649 3,015 1,700 4,107 296 68 624 4,059 8 1,217 120 1,439 593 20 40 1 64 88 99 43 21 11, 809 10, 399 6,944 6,781 6, 433 4,104 3,965 3,178 3,160 The building trade has been very active during the greater part of the last decade, owing to the growth of population and to the demand for better housing. The stream of immigrants has consisted mainly of peasants and of miscellaneous workpeople who are unable to work at the skilled trades, even in building, for as a rule they have not been accustomed to the kind of building in vogue in American cities. This immigration, therefore, has been a factor tending to raise rather than to lower wages in the skilled trades, and above all in the building trade, because all these new arrivals increase the demand for houses. The strength of the demand for skilled workmen naturally tends to raise the level of wages, not only in the ordinary way in which an increasing demand for a commodity tends to raise its price, but also by enabling trade unions to secure a firm footing and to enforce their rates. All branches of the building trade in St. Louis are strongly organised. The various unions are rep- resented on the Building Trades Council, and they support one another in cases of dispute. The depression of 1907 had not very much effect on the majority of the recognised rates. Bricklayers, however, suffered a reduction from 2s. lid!, to 2s. ?,^d. per hour, but the former rate was restored in the summer of 1909. The plasterers' labourers, who have a union, were unable to maintain their rate of 2s. ^\d. per hour all through the period of depression. Throughout the building trade the working hours are 44 per week. ST. LOTJIS. 373 In the brewing and printing trades also the unions are very strong. Brewery workers have printed agreements fixing wages and hours. The eight-hour day is recognised in most departments, but drivers' hours are liable to be longer. Koute drivers, according to the agreement, ' ' shall not make more than two trips per day, but on short routes more if necessary, six days to constitute a week's work; they should also clean their team on Sunday between the hours of 7 a. m. and 9 a. m." Other drivers "shall not exceed eleven consecutive hours, including one hour for meals. Stablemen and extra drivers working seven days per week shall receive one hoHday every two weeks." Both in job and newspaper printing union rates of pay are general. Where they are departed from, it is only because some particular kind of skilled labour is scarce, and the best men are paid more than the union rate. Machine compositors in the newspaper offices are paid by piece, and earn very high wages. The strain, however, is rather severe, so that many men do not regularly work six days per week, the maximum number allowed. Nominally the hours are eight per day, but compositors in the newspaper offices usually work rather less. Pressmen in job offices have a long schedule of rates for different kinds of presses, but the majority of the men earn the highest rate of 93s. 9tZ. per week, and some receive more than the union rate owing to scarcity of experienced men. The importance of this industry is great and is growing, as the city is acquiring an increasingly metropolitan character. There are three large car building works in St. Louis, employing about 10,000 men altogether, when in full employment. At the time of the enquiry business was very duU in this trade, and the works were almost closed. Steel cars for the mineral traffic on railways are one of the most important manu- factures, and tramway cars also are made in great numbers. Piece work is very general in this indus- try, and the range of earnings is somewhat wide. Unskilled labourers are largely recruited from the stream of newly arriving immigrants who cannot speak English, and whose usefulness is therefore Hmited. The wages of this class of unskilled labour are influenced more than those of any other class by the state. of trade. During the period of great activity in 1907 better wages were paid to the raw immi- grants. The poorest earnings for men are made by such immigrants, who begin their industrial training by feeding bolt-threading machines, being paid by the piece. A few earn up to 6s. 3d. per day, but the majority earn about 4s. 2d. per day of ten hours. In the foundries and machine shops a considerable variety of work is done. The car building firms have their own foundries and machine shops, and there are a number of general machinery works and stove foundries. Some of the principal works produce woodworkmg machinery, air-compressors, hoists, dynamos and motors and railway pneumatic brakes. There is practically no apprenticeship system in St. Louis, and consequently the fine between skilled mechanics and semi-skilled machine hands is not clearly drawn. There is, in fact, an unusually wide range of pay for machmists, varying from 8id. to Is. lOd. per hour, though a range of from Is. Oid. to Is. 4^^. includes the majority. The premium bonus system is in operation at one rather large works, and is being experimented with at another. Earnings under this system are apparently much higher than those of the majority of time workers, but as the system has been tried so partially and for so short a time as yet, it is unpossible to draw any conclusion as to the ultimate effect which it would have on the earnmgs of machmists if it were more generaUy adopted and maintamed for a considerable period. In St. Louis the arrangement is that the worker receives half the value of the time which he saves. The supposition is that he is rated at the hourly wage which he would receive if he worked only by time, but m the absence of any recog- nised standard time rates, it would be impossible to say whether, as time went on the hourly rates would continue to be unafl^ected by the existence of the premium system. Part y for this reason the system is not regarded with favour by the trade unions, which, however, have httle if any mfluence amongst machinists in St. Louis. In machine shops the usual hours are 54 per week. The brick and fireclay works are situated at the extreme west of St. Louis, where a good quality ol clay is found. Clay miners earn about 58s. 4cZ. per week on piece work, and tile moulders about 62s. 6d. Most of theother labour isunskilled, andis paid by time at Sd. per hour. A large proportion of the workers in this industry are Itahans, many of them from the north of Italy, though m recent years southern Italians and Sicilians have been introduced. 374 ST. LOUIS. Almost throughout the boot and shoe industry, piece work is the rule and good earnings are made. Upper cutters, who work entirely by hand, are now mainly on piece work, but until recently time rates were paid. Outsole cutters use machines, and are mainly paid by time. The list of occupa- tions in this trade for which wages are given in the Table below is not exhaustive. Work is very much subdivided, so that it was not practicable to include the whole range of male occupations, but the list selected covers the more important skilled operations. Operations for which only a few men are required in any one factory, and miscellaneous helpers and learners, have not been included. Amongst other occupations omitted are those of lining cutting, for which earnings are much less than for up])er cutting, and rough stuff cutting, i. e., cutting the inferior parts of the leather for the inside of the soles and heels, work often done by youths, together with various minor operations connected with lasting and finishing. It is probable that if the wages of all males had been taken, the average rate of earnings would have been less than the average of the occupations for which earnings are quoted. The Bureau of Labour Statistics of the State of Missouri takes a yearly census of wages which enables it to give roughly the distribution of earnings in various manufacturing industries. The fol- lowing figures relating to the St. Louis boot and shoe trade in 1907 are taken from the report of the Bureau for 1908:— Weekly Earnings of Wage-earners, sTcilled and unskilled, in the Boot and Shoe Trade in 1907. Limits of Weekly Earnings. Males over 16 years. Females over 16 years. Children under 16 years. Under 12s. 6i 12s. M. and under 16s. 8rf. 16s. 8rf. ,, 20s. lOrf. „ 2os. ,, 29s. 2d. „ 33s. id. „ 37s. 6d. „ 41s. 8c?. „ 50s. ,, 62s. 6rf. ,, 83s. 4d. „ 104s. 2d. and over Total. 20s. lOrf., 25s 29s. 2d... 33s. 4d... 37s. 6d... 41s. Sd.. 50s 62s. 6c?... 83s. 4d... 104s. 2d. 244 326 314 462 485 518 514 852 ,167 ,584 ■ 482 161 7,109 104 173 363 495 579 539 423 418 494 326 187 4,107 94 211 128 101 59 593 Motormen and conductors on the tramway cars are paid on a scale which begins at 10^?. per hour for the first year, rising ^d. per hour each year until the maximum of Is. O^d. per hour is reached. In February, 1909, more than half the men were stated to be earning Is. O^d. per hour. Street construc- tion and paving are done by contract. Granite paviors have a strong union, and receive 2s. Qd. per hour, working eight hours daily. Wood block and brick paviors are not organised to the same extent; they receive Is. 3d. to Is. 5id. per hour and work ten hours daily. The predominant weekly wages and hours of labour in certain principal trades and industries of St. Louis are shown in the following Table : — Predominant Weekly Wages and Hours of Labour of Adult Males in the Principal Occupations in February, 1909. Predominant Weekly Wages. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Building Trades: — Bricklayers Stonemasons Stonecutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Iron Workers 119s. 2c?. 110s. 103s. 2d. to 114s. 7d. 110s. 137s. 6d. 114s. 7c?. to 137s. 6c?. 110s. „ 119s. 2d. 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 ST. LOUIS. 375 Predominant Weekly Wa^es. Building Trades— cont. Painters Hod Carriers and Bricklayers' Labourers Plasterers' Labourers Foundries and Machine Shops: — Iromnoulders Machinists Blacksmiths Patternmakers Labourers Cor Building: — Steel Car Builders Box and Tramway Car Body Builders... Machine Woodworkers Painters Labourers Printing and Bookbinding Trades: — Newspaper — Hand Compositors {N^g^work. Machine Compositors|^^yj^^^''j,j.^- T, [Day work Pressmen|j^jg>^^ ^^^^ Book and Job — Hand Compositors Machine Compositors Pressmen (Cylinder Presses) Bookbinders 91«. 8d. to 103s. 2d. 77s. lid. „ 82s. Qd. 9l3. M. 78s. Qd. 56s. Zd. to 74s. 3rf. 76s. 6rf. ,, 90s. 87s. 6d. ,, 94s. M. 37s. M. „ 43s. 9d. 65s. to 77s. 6d. 50s. „ 70s. 45s. „ 62s. 6d. 50s. „ 66s. 9d. 31s. 3d. „ 33s. 9d. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. Brick and Fireclay Works: Tilemoulders Kiln Firemen Clay Miners Labourers Boot and Shoe Making: — Upper Cutters Outsole Cutters Inseamers (Goodyear Welters). Goodyear Stitchers McKay Operators Lasters and Pullers-over Edge Trimmers and Setters — Treers Brewing: — ,, , .^ Cellar Men, Maltsters, Kettle Men and Fermenters. Wash-house Men Bottlers Fillers and Corkers Firemen Boiler Washers Engineers Oilers Freight Handlers Ice-plant Workers Labourers Dravmen — „, . . _ . City Drivers and Four-horse Shipping Drivers. Stablemen and Extra Drivers Two-horse Bottle-Beer Drivers One-horse Bottle-Beer Drivers Tobacco Manufacture:- Lumpmakers Twisters Wrappers-off Labourers 44 44 44 54 54 54 54 54 60 50 to 60 50 ,, 60 50 „ 60 50 „ 60 96s. Ud. 46 108s. 9d. 45 to 47i 18s. 9rf. to 137s. 6d. 39 „ 42 37s. 6rf. ,, 156s. Zd. 43 „ 47i 81s. 3d. 50 81s. 3d. 47i 76s. 48 100s. to 104s. 2d. 48 93s. 9d. 48 66«. Sd. to 79s. 2d. 48 62s. 6d. 60 50s. to 65s. 8d. 70 to 72 58s. id. 48 40s. 60 62s. ed. to 79s. 2d. 59 75s. 59 87s. 6d. to 116s. 8rf. 59 75s. ,, 87s. 6d. 59 62s. 6d. „ 70s. lOd. 59 62s. ad. „ 75s. 59 83s. id. „ 100s. 59 61s. id. „ 69s. 5d. 59 72s. lid. 48 68s. 9d. 48 50s. 48 56s. Zd. 48 70s. 56 62s. 6d. 58i 95s. lOd. 56 62s. 6d. 48 to 56 55s. 48 50s. 48 50s. 48 72s. lid. Variable 54s. 2d. j» 62s. 6d. ») bis. 2d. j» 41s. Zd. 60 61s. Qd. 60 62s. 6d. 60 36s. 8d. 60 376 ST. LOUIS. Puhlic Services: — Street Construction and Paving (Contract) — Paviors (granite) Paviors (wood and brick") Paviors' Labourers Road Menders Drivers Road Sweepers (Municipal) Water Works (Municipal) — Labourers Gas Works (Company) — Gas Stokers Labourers Electric Light and Power Works (Company) — Switchboard Men Dynamo Men Stokers Overhead Linemen Labourers Electric Tramways (Company) — Motormen and Conductors Predominant Weekly Wages. 120«. 48 75s. to 87s. 6rf. 60 43s. 9d. to 45s. 60 35s. to 43s. 9rf. 60 43s. 9c;. 60 37s. 6rf. 48 50s. 48 72s. lid. 84 43s. 9d. 70 68s. 9rf. to 83s. 4d. 56 to 70 86s. ed. 70 65s. Sd. 84 72s. Id. to 93s. 9rf. 48 to 70 43s. 9d. „ 50s. 60 „ 70 72s. lid. Predominant Weekly Hours of Labour. 70 Taking wages at New York as the base, =100, in each case, the wages index numbers for St. Louis are — ^building trades, skilled men 108, hod carriers and bricklayers' labourers (negroes) 117; foundries and machine shops, sldlled men 89, unsldlled labourers 97 ; printing, hand compositors (job work) 87. Housing and Rents. The strong German influence which prevailed in St. Louis at an early period of its history and the proximity of good brickmaking clay probably account for the fact that brick flats predominate instead of the frame houses which are so common in America. The type of dwelling most commonly inhabited by the working classes is a flat of three rooms. La a red brick building, generally two stories in height, but sometimes three stories, each fiat, as a rule, going right through from front to back, an arrangement which enables the middle rooms to be Hghted from the side, though it may be rather imperfectly in many cases where the space between two buildings is narrow. A great many of the buildings, especially the more modern ones, contain only two flats, one on each floor, this being what is usually known in America as a "two-family house." Comparatively few buildings contain more than four flats when the building has two stories, or more than six flats when it has three stories, and in these cases front and back flats are seldom found. Large blocks of flats with front and back tene- ments are rare, and even continuous terraces are not very numerous, in comparison with small detached blocks, except in the more central districts. At the Census of 1900 the average number of famiHes per dwelling-house in the city as a whole was 1.5. The proportion of families living in dwelling-houses occupied by one family was 41.4 per cent., whilst 40.2 per cent, hved in dwelling-houses occupied by two and 18.4 per cent, in dwelling- houses occupied by three or more famihes. At the same date 14.2 per cent, of all homes were owned free by their occupiers and 5.6 per cent, were owned encumbered, 77.6 per cent, being rented. Like most large and growing cities St. Louis has its slum districts, where old houses are insanitary and overcrowded, and no very active steps have yet been taken by the authorities to deal with structural defects. A private association, the Civic League, has caused a careful investigation to be made in one district, proving the existence of the evils which are almost invariably found in the older portions of great cities, and a particularly bad state of sanitation. The trouble in St. Louis, as else- where, is that many of the old and unsatisfactory buildings are on land which is becoming valuable for business purposes, and the owners are therefore unwiUing to spend money on repairs and structural alterations. The following paragraph from the report of the Housing Committee of the Civic League summarises their conclusions regarding the district which they investigated : "In St. Louis the old residences down town on . Washington Avenue and Olive Street are m process of rapid elimination, after a period of dilapidation, cheap rents and cheap boarding houses, by large wholesale mercantile establishments. Wash, Carr, ST. LOUIS. 077 Biddle and O'Fallon Streets are waiting for the factories. Meanwhile, the aged houses are in a state of almost complete decrepitude, and the system of sanitation held over from the time of village gardens and stable lots has scarcely altered to suit the conditions of even town life, and is outrageouTly ineffec- tive m a crowded city. ■' The Committee further express the opinion-which the present investigation confirmed-that the same evils, though m a lesser degree, are to be found in half a dozen other sections of the city." New building regulations are now in force, but it is only very recently that a law has been passed prohibiting dark rooms, of which there is a considerable number, many being found even in what are in other respects, quite good modern flats. Sanitary regulations also have been adopted, and as there IS a corps of mspectors to see to their enforcement they should ensure good conditions in new buildings, but the expense of remedying the structural defects of old houses has yet to be undertaken. Fortunately smce the introduction of electric tramways there has been ample facHity for the growth of the city, so that excessively close buUding is not generally found outside the old quarters. The ground-floor flats of houses occupied largely by Poles and other foreign immigrants, in the quarter which was originally the German quarter but which now contains many nationaUties, consist of a front room, entered directly from the street without passage or hall, a middle room, ' entered through the front room, and a small Idtchen. The two principal rooms are commonly about thirteen feet square. The kitchen varies considerably in size, but is usually smaller than the other rooms, and is used only for cooldng and washing. The upper story flat is similar, excepting that entrance is obtained by a staircase at the rear of the building, and the kitchen is the room by which the flat is entered. The rents of such flats range from 6s. > ""■ 'Fancy" Brisket. RETAIL PRICES. 401 (D.) Mutton or Lamb. Town. Atlanta Augusta Baltimore , Birmingham Boston , Brockton Chicago Cincinnati Cleveland Detroit Duluth Fall River Lawrence Louisville Lowell Memphis Milwaukee Minneapolis— St. Paul Muncie New Orleans New York N e walk Paterson Philadelphia Pittsburg Providence St. Louis Savannah Leg. Per lb. lOd. lOd. 6d. to 9d. lOd. 7Jd. to 9d. Id. „ M. 6d. „ 1\d. 7d. „ M. 6rf. „ M. 7rf. ,, 7JcZ. 7id. Id. to M. 7\d. „ lOd. 7id. „ 8id. 7Jd. „ 9d. 7K „ 10(i. 7d. „ 8d. 7id. Is. Oid. 8d. to lOd. 6Jd. „ Sd. 7d. „ 9d. 6id. „ 7d. 7d. „ M. 9d. 7\d. to M. 7id. SJrf. to lOd. Breast. Per lb. 7id. id. to 6d. 5d. „ 7id. Sd. „ M. id. ,, 6d. 3d. „ iid. 5d. id. id. to 5d. id. 5d. 5d. 5d. to 7^(f. id. „ 6d. 5d. „ 7\d. 3id. „ i\d. 3d. „ 5d. 6Jd. 5d. id. to 5d. id. ,, 5d. 3d. „ 3id. 3d. „ 3id. 6id. id. to 5d. 5d. „ 6id. 7id. Loin. Per lb. lOd. lOd. 7id. to lOd. 7id. to Is. Oid. 7id. to 8d. Gd. „ Sd. M. „ 9d. lOd. ,, lid. 7d. „ 9d. 7 id. „ lOd. 7 id. „ 9d. 7d. „ 9d. 7id. 7id. to Sid. 6d. „ 8d. 7 id. „ lOd. 6|d. ,, 9d. 7 id. „ 9d. lOd. 7id. to lOd. 8d. „ lid. 9d. „ lOd. 7d. „ 8d. 8d. „ lOd. 9d. 6d. to 7id. 7 id. „ lOd. lOd. Chops. lOd. lOd. 9( lOd. lOd. Per lb. to Is. 0}d. „ Is. Oid. I. to lOd. to Is. Oid. „ Is. Oid. Is. OJd. to Is. 3d. 6d to 9d. lOd. to Is. Oid. 8d. to 9d. 9d. „ lOd. 7id. „ 9d. 7id. „ lOd. lOd. to Is. 3d. lOd. lOd. to Is. Oid. lOd. 8d. to 9d. 7id. „ 9d. lOd. to Is. Oid. lOd. lOd, to lid. lOd. „ lid. 8d. 8d. to lid. lOd. 9d. to Is. Oid. 7id. to lOd. lOd. Shoulder. Per lb. ejd. to Sid. 7id. 5d. to 6d. 7id. 6d. 5d. to 7d. 5d. „ 7d. 5d. „ 7id. 6d. „ 7d. 6d. „ 7id. 5d. „ 7id. 5d. ,, 6d. 5d. „ 7id. 6id. „ 7id. 6d. 5d. to 7id. 6id. „ 7d. 6id. 7id. 5d. to 7id. 5d. 7d. 5d. 5d. 6id. , 9d. , 6d. , 6d. , 7id. 5d. 6id. 6id. to 7id. Neck. Per lb. 5d. 5d. id. to 5d. 5d. 4d. to 5d. id. „ 6Jd. 4d. ,, 5d. 4d. „ 5d. 4d. „ 5d. 4d. „ 5d. 3id. „ 5d. 5d. 3d. to 5d. 5d. 4d. to 6d. 4d. „ 5d. 5d. „ 6id. 5d. 4d. to 6d. 4d. „ 6d. 3d. „ 4d. 4d. „ 5d. 5d. „ 6id. 2id. „ 3id. 5d. 5d. (E.) Veal. Town. Cutlets. Rib Chops. Loin Chops. Breast. Neck. Atlanta Augusta Baltimore Birmingham Boston Brocklon Chicago Cincinnati Cleveland Detroit Duluth Fall River Lawrence Louisville Lowell Memphis Milwaukee Minneapolis — St. Paul. Muncie New Orleans New York Newark Paterson Philadelphia Pittsburg Providence St. Louis Savannah Per lb. lOd. to Is. Oid. lOd. lOd. to lid. lOd. is. 3d. Is. 2d. Sd. to lOd. lOd. „ lid. lid. 9d. to lOd. 9d. lOd. to Is. 3d. lOd. „ Is. 3d. lOd. „ Is. Oid. lOd. „ Is. 2d. lOd. 8d. to lOd. 9d. lOd. 9d. to Is. Oid. lid. Is. to Is. Oid. 9d. to Is. lOd. to Is. Oid. lOd. „ Is. Oid. 9d. ,, Is. 3d. lOd. „ Is. Oid. lOd. „ Is. Oid. Per lb. lOd. 7id. to lOd. 7id. , 9d. 7id. 7id. o lOd. lOd'. to Is. Oid 6d. to 7id. 7id. , 9d. 8d. 7d. to8d. 7id. 8d. o lid. 8d. , lOd. 7id. 8id. 1 lid. 7id. 7id. t 9d. 6id. , 7id. 7id. , 9d. 7id. , lOd. 8d. , lOd. 8d. , lid. 7d. , 8d. 8d. , 9d. 9 d. 7id. to Is. Oid 7. ^d. 1( )d. Per lb. lOd. 7id. to lOd. 7id. „ lOd. 7id. lOd. to Is. Oid. lOd. „ Is. 2d. 6d. to 9d. 7id. „ 9d. 8d. „ 9d. 7d. „ 8d. 7id. „ 9d. 9d. ,, Is. 9d. „ Is. 7id. 9d. to Hid. 7id. ,, lOd. 8d. „ 9d. 7id. „ 9d. 9d. 7id. to lOd. 9d. ,, lOd. lid. lOd. lOd. lOd. 9d. to is. Oid. 7id. to 8fd. lOd. 9d. Per lb. Per lb. 5d. to 7id. Sid. „ 7id. 5d. 5d. „ 6id. 4d. to 6d. 4d. „ 6id. 4d. „ 5d. 5d. id. „ 5d. 5d. to 6d. id. „ 5d. 5d. „ 6d. id. „ 5d. 6id. 5d. „ 6id. 5d. to 8d. 5d. „ 6id. 4id. „ 6id. 4id. „ 5d. 5d. 5d. 5d. to 7d. 4d. to 5d. 5d. „ 6d. 4d. 6id. „ 7id. 5d. to 6id. 4d. „ 6d. 4d. „ 5d. 5d. „ 6id. 4d. ,, 5d. 5d. „ did. 5d. id. „ 5d. 4d. to 5d. 5d. „ 6id. 5d. „ 6{d. 3id. „ 5d. 2id, „ 4d. 6d. „ 8d. 6d. ,, 7d. 6d. „ 8d. 6d. „ 7d. 4d. „ 6d. 4d. „ 6d. 6d. 6d. 6id. to 7id. 6id. 5d. 3id. to 5d. 6}d. 5d. „ 6}d. 5d. to 7id. 5d. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1- -32 402 RETAIL PRICES. (F.) POEK. Town. Fresh. Loin. Spare rib. Shoulder. Chops. Atlanta Augusta Baltimore Birmingham Boston Brockton Chicago Cincinnati Cleveland Detroit Duluth Pall River Lawrence Louisville Lowell Memphis Milwaukee Minneapolis — St. Paul Muncie New Orleans New York Newark Paterson Philadelphia Pittsburg Providence St. Louis Savannah Per lb. T^d. to Sid. TJd. „ lOd. Id. „ %d. 7id. 6}rf. to 7id. M. „ 7 id. 6d. „ Id. ed. „ 7 id. Sd. 6d. to 7d. eid. 6d. to 7id. Id. „ 7 id. 7id. 6d. to 7id. 7id. 7d. to 7id. eid. 7M. 7ld. 6id. to 7d. 9d. Per lb. 6id. to 7id. 7id. 5d. e{d. 5d. 5d. 4d. to 5d. iid. ,, 5d. bd. „ ejrf. Aid. „ hd. 5d. 5d. Per lb. eid. to 7id. 6id. „ 7 id. bd. „ 7d. eid. Sd. to bM. 8d. 7d. 7d. 7id. ed. eid. 7id. 8d. Sd. lOd. 7id. 7id. IQd. bd. to 6W. 4d. ,, ed. 6id. id. to bd. bd. bd. to eid. bd. „ eid. Aid. „ bd. id. „ ed. id. „ ed. bd. bd. to eid. bd. bd. eid. to 7id. bd. bd. iid. eid. bd. eid. ed. bd. 7d. bid. bd. bd. to bid. bd. „ ed. bd. „ eid. bd. eid. bid. to eid. bd. eid. bd. to 7id. ed., eid. 6d. to 7id. bd. „ 7d. ed. eid. to 7id. bd. bd. eid. to 7id. Per lb. 7id. to lOi. 7id. 7d. to 9rf. 7id. 7id. Sd. ed. to 7id. eid. ,, 7 id. Sd. „ Sid. ed. „ 7 id. eid. „ 7 id. 6id. „ 7 id. 7d. „ Sd. 7id. 7d. to Sd. 7id. 7d. to 7Jrf. eid. „ 7 id. 7id. 7id. 7d. to Sd. 8d. „ 9d. 7d. „ Sd. 7id. „ Sd. 7id. „ lOd. eid. „ Sd. eid. „ 7 id. Sid. „ lOd. Town. Corned (wet salt or pickled). Dry Salt. Ham. Shoulder, salt or smoked. Atlanta Augusta Baltimore Birmingham Boston Brockton Chicago Cincinnati Cleveland Detroit Duluth Fall River Lawrence Louisville Lowell Memphis Milwaukee Minneapolis — St. Paul. Muncie New Orleans New York Newark Paterson Philadelphia Pittsburg Providence St. Louis Savannah Per lb. ed. to 7id. 7d. ed. to 7d. ed., eid. 7id. Sd. ed., eid. eid. to 7W. ed. „ 7d. eid. „ 7d. eid. „ 7 id. bid. „ 7d. eid. 7d. eid. to 7id. 6id. „ 7 id. Per lb. eid. to 7id. bid. ,, eid. ed. ,, 7 id. eid. Per lb. ed. to Sd. eid. ,, 7 id. Sd. bid. to ed. eid. „ 7id. ed. „ 7d. 7d. to Sid. 7 id. ,, Sd. 7d. ,, 7id. eid. „ Sid. ed. „ 7id. eid. to 7id. 7d. eid. 7d. eid. to 7id. eid. „ 7 id. 7d. to Sd. eid., eid. 7id. eid. to 7id. 7d. eid. to 7id. 7id. bid. to 7Jrf. eid. „ 7 id. 7id. „ 9d. 7d. to Sd. 7d. „ 9d. ed. „ Sd. 7d. eid. to 7id. ed. eid. 7d. 7id. to M. ed. „ Sd. 7d. „ Sd. eid. „ Sd. bd. „ 7d. eid. eid. to 7id. 7d. to Sd. 7 id. „ Sd. ed. „ Sd: eid. „ Sd. 7id. ed. to 7c?. ed. „ 7 id. Per lb. ed. to 7id. eid. „ 7 id. bd. bd. to ed. bd. ,, eid. iid. „ eid. ed. „ 7d. bd. „ bid. bd. iid. to bd. bd. „ bid. bd. „ eid. iid. „ bd. bid. ,, 6}rf. iid. „ ed. iid. „ bid. bd. „ eid. bd. to eid. ed. „ 7d. bd. „ 7d. bd. „ ed. eid. „ 7id. bd. iid. to bd. RETAIL PRICES (G.) Potatoes, Milk, Coal and Kerosene 403 Town. Atlanta. Augusta . . Baltimore. Birmingham. Boston Brockton . . . Chicago Cincinnati . . Cleveland . . Detroit Duluth Fall River . Lawrence . Louisville . Lowell . Potatoes, Irish. Memphis Milwaukee Minneapolis — St. Paul Muncie New Orleans New York Newark Paterson Philadelphia Pittsburg Providence . St. Louis. . Savannah . Milk. Per 7 lb. f,{d. &id. ^d. to 7d. 7d. „9id. Id. bid. to 7d. 5id. „ 7d. 5id. „ Id. Id. b^d. to Id. bU; M. M. to Id. bid „ Id. Id. „ %\d. 6id. „ Id. Id. „ 8id. Aid „ 7d. bid. Id. Id. Id. to 9id. Id. „ l\d. Id. „ 9id. Id. „ 8d. bid. „ Id. b\d. „ 7rf. 7d. %\d. to 9irf. Per quart. 6d. 6d. 4|rf. 6(i. 4id. to itid. Aid. A\d. A\d. to Aid. A\d. A\d. to Aid. Aid. A\d. to Aid. 4i(i. Aid. 6d. 3W- Aid. Zid. to Aid. 6d. Sid. Aid. to Aid. Aid. Aid. Aid. to Aid. Aid. Aid. 6rf. Coal. Unit of Sale.* Ton i-ton 80 lb. i-ton Ton i-ton 80 1b. Ton /Ton \25 lb. Ton Ton. /Ton \80 lb. Ton /Ton li-ton Ton I i-ton ll-ton i-ton [ton U-ton I J- ton Ton [Ton \ i-ton li-ton 1,800 lb. Ton Ton Ton 180 lb. /Ton \801b Ton Ton Ton 3,800 lb. [Ton i-ton. 801b. /Ton Ifton Ton Price. Anthracite. Per cwt. Is. 6irf. to Is. 7id. Is. 6Jd. „ Is. &id. Is. lid. „ Is. lOid. Is. did. Is. lOji. to 2s. 3d. Is. 9id. ,, Is. Uid. Is. 9|d. Is. 7W. Is. 9|d. Is. did. Is. Uid. 2s. lid. 2s. Old. to 2s. lid. Is. 9d. Is. 9(f. Is. lOid. is. I0\'d. Is. lOid. 2s. Oid. Is. lOid. 2s. Oid. Is. 9d. to Is. did. Is. 2d.; Is. ejd. Is. bid. Is. bid. Is. bid. Hid.; Is. bd. Is. 8id. Is. did. 2s. Ad. Bituminous. Per cwt. Is. Oid. Is. 2d. Is. bid. Is. Aid. did. to Is. Oid. Hid. to Is. Oid. SJd. ,, UK Is. Oid. lO^d. to Is. Hid. to Is. 3id. Is. Id. to Is. bd. Is. l{d. Is. 2|d. Is. bid. Hid. Is. Oid. Is. Oid. to'ls. 2d. Is. 3id. ,, Is. 4d. Hid. „ Is. 3id. Is. Oid. Is. 6id. 8d. to 9id. 7d to 9d. 7d. ,, 9d. Is. 6id. Kerosene. Per gallon. 9d. 9d. bid. to 6d. 9d. 6d. to 7id. 6d. „ 7id. bid. „ 6d. } 4|d. „ Sid. 6d. 6d. 7id. to 8id. 7id. „ 9d. 7id. „ 7fd. 6d. „ lid. lid. „ Sid. 5id., 6d., 9d. 6d. 6d. 7id. to 9d. 6d. 7id. to 7id. 6d. „ 7id. 6d. „ 7id. 5id. „ 6d. 7id. „ 9d. } 7id. 6d. to 9d. 9d. * The ton iB of 2,000 lb., except at Baltimore and Philadelphia, at which towns it is of 2,240 lb. 404 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WOKKING-CLASS FAMILIES. (A. 1.) American-British (Northern) Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. q.) £2 and under £3. (2.) £3 and £4 and under under £4. £5. (3.) (4.) 1,036 545 £ s.d. £ s. d. 3 9 10 4 8 5 2.46 2.88 4.54 5.02 £5 and under £6. (5.) £6 and under £7. (6.) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family * 67 £ s. 1 16 1.78 3.78 532 £ s. d. 2 11 Oi 2.06 4.08 437 £ s. d. 5 7 3 3.07 5.27 224 £ s. d. 6 8 Hi 3.63 5.82 131 £ s. d. 7 8 6 3.82 6.10 243 £ «. d. 10 6 10 4.20 6.38 Bread, Wheaten » Rye ,, Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other... Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti... Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peaa and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned)...; Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal ge Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Su"ar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments. Fruits and Jams Other Items Meals away from home Total. s. d. 1 li li 1 6 OJ li 4i 2i IJ 2i 2J 1 2f Oi 3J li 9 4i 2 li 3i 10| 8i 2| 2 Oi 3} 7 1 4i OJ 2i 1 OJ 3 11 4i 6i Oi lOi 1 1 5i 1 Oi s. d. 1 5i 2i Oi 1 3i Oi Oi 4i li 2i 3i 1 4f Oi 3i li 1 li 4i 3 1 5| 1 2i lOi 3i 3 2i 5i 7} 1 8i 1 Oi 2i 1 4i 4 1 4i 6i 8i Oi lOi li li 9i li 3i s. d. I 8i 2i Oi 1 5 Oi Of li lOi 6i 2i 3i 4i 1 5i li Si 2 1 5i 6i 3 8i 6i 4 5i 7i 8i 2 3 Oi Oi 4i 1 9 4i 1 lOi 7 11 li 1 Oi li 2i 1 li li 8i 18 6 24 Si s. d. 1 Hi li Oi 1 7i Oi 1 li Hi 6i 2i 3i 3i 3i 1 8i 7i 4 3i lOi 1 3i 1 3i 7 4i 6| 9i 10 2 9i Oi Oi 5i 1 Hi 4i 2 3i 9 Hi li 1 4 2i 3 1 6i li Hi 30 10 36 5 s. d. 2 Oi 2 Oi 1 10 Oi li li 1 li 8i 2i 4 5i 1 9i li 4i 3 1 lOi 9 Oi Oi 4i 4 5 1 1 1 8 5 8i 8i lOi 3 li 5i 9i 1 1 3i 1 7i 2i 1 7i 40 6i 2 Of 2i 1 2 2i Oi 1 li 1 3i 8 2i 4i 5i 1 Hi 3 4i 4i 2 2 9i 5 2 1 4i 1 8i 1 7i 9i 5i 7i lOi 1 Oi 3 6 1 1 6i 2 5i 4 2 10 Hi 1 li 2i 1 7i 2i 4i 1 Hi 2 1 11 45 !)i s. d. 2 4 li Oi 2 li Oi Oi li 1 4i 10 3i 4i 5i 2 5i 2i 5i 5 2 2i lOi 6 3i 1 9i 1 lOi 1 lOi 9* 7i 1 1 Hi 1 Oi 4 li li 7 2 6i 5 1 Oi li 3i 1 9 2i 4i 2 1 3 2 2 51 2i s. d. 2 7i 3i Oi 2 2i Oi 2 2 7i 3 4} 6i 2 4 41 4i 7 2 7 9i 7 1 2 2 Oi 9i 1 2i 11 6i 5i li li 4 2i Oi li 8 2 Hi 3i 3 4 1 Oi 1 4i 3i 1 8i 2i 5i 2 3 2i 4 Hi 58 9 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— con^mued. (A. 1.) American-British (Northern) Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. 40S Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) £2 and under £3. (2.) £3 and under £4. (3.) £4 and under £5. (4.) £5 and under £6. (5.) £6 and under £7. (6.) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) Nimiber of Returns Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten „ Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye - , , Buckwheat and Other. . . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Bolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti . . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil. Cheese . Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed). Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate . Sugar 67 £ s. 1 16 1.78 3.78 lb. 5.02 0.65 9.52 0.21 0.88 0.96 0.80 0.37 0.60 0.77 15.69 0.18 L38 3.59 0.39 L55 1.04 0.38 0.27 0.03 0.68 LOS L14 0.08 pints. Molasses and Syrup lb. 0.24 qts. 2.96 lb. 0.54 No. 9.03 lb. 0.21 0.63 0.02 3.56 pints. 0.25 532 £ s. d. 2 11 Oi 2.06 4.08 lb. 6.53 0.96 0.05 7.94 0.04 0.26 0.68 L57 L37 0.42 0.67 0.96 17.43 0.43 L24 5.09 0.69 L94 L26 0.46 0.51 0.30 L13 L16 L35 0.09 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.31 qts. 3.75 lb. 0.71 No. 14.49 lb. 0.27 0.77 0.04 3.78 pints. 0.33 1036 £ s. d. 3 9 10 2.46 4.54 545 £ s. d. 4 8 5 2.88 5.02 lb. 7.64 0.87 0.13 8.99 0.07 0.31 0.73 2.19 1.80 0.53 0.91 1.23 18.59 LOO LU 6.04 0.91 2.15 L46 0.80 0.69 0.54 L40 L29 L74 0.05 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.45 qts. 4.77 lb. 0.76 No. 19.90 lb. 0.28 0.93 0.07 4.45 pints. 0.40 lb. 8.74 0.74 0.16 10.51 0.06 0.41 0.81 2.38 L95 0.57 0.89 L40 2L18 L46 L27 6.71 1.23 2.17 L83 0.91 0.75 0.72 1.64 L48 2.15 0.06 pints. 0.04 lb. 0.56 qts. 5.46 lb. 0.78 No. 24.09 lb. 0.36 0.99 0.10 5.67 pints. 0.45 437 £ s. d. 5 7 3 3.07 5.27 lb. 9.09 0.85 0.10 1L77 0.09 0.57 0.93 2.73 2.26 0.56 0.96 L48 22.99 L38 L35 7.81 L48 2.24 L81 LOO 0.82 0.89 L54 L54 2.36 0.09 pints. 0.05 lb. 0.60 qts. 5.92 lb. 0.68 No. 25.34 lb. 0.38 1.07 0.12 5.81 pints. 0.41 224 £ s. c 6 8 Hi 3.63 5.82 lb. 9.06 0.96 0.38 14.10 0.08 0.49 LOO 3.07 2.24 0.47 L09 L56 24.83 L91 L60 7.93 2.04 2.81 2.26 L15 0.84 0.83 1.88 L81 2.65 0.09 pints. 0.05 lb. 0.69 qts. 6.79 lb. 0.72 No. 28.88 lb. 0.45 L09 0.15 6.81 pints. 0.56 131 £ s. d. 7 8 6 3.82 6.10 lb. 10.02 0.68 0.12 13.47 0.09 0.32 L23 3.33 3.01 0.72 L02 L59 29.98 L50 L70 9.38 2.43 2.81 2.53 L23 L19 L37 2.00 L82 3.01 0.13 pints. 0.08 lb. 0.73 qts. 7.04 lb. 0.89 No. 3L53 lb. 0.48 1.10 0.21 7.20 pints. 0.57 243 £ s. d. 10 6 10 4.20 6.38 lb. 1L27 L51 0.21 13.80 0.12 0.89 L27 3.86 3.80 0.64 L17 L67 27.98 2.92 L54 10.43 2.53 3.32 3.06 L33 LOl L83 2.49 2.01 3.27 0.02 pints. 0.09 lb. 0.82 qts. 8.08 lb. 0.57 No. 34.39 lb. 0.46 L38 0.21 7.28 pints. 0.54 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 406 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WOKKING-CLASS FAMILIES— continued. (A. 2.) American-Beitish (Southern) Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at borne. Average Number of Persona Familv.* per Bread, Wheaten „ Rye „ other Flour, Wheaten >> Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese .-... Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed) Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 32 £ s. d. 1 14 7i L81 3.84 s. d. 6i Oi 1 8i 8 2i Of 2J 5J 1| 61 3J 5i Oi 10 5i 1 5 2i lOi 1 ^ 1 2 4i 10-1 8J Of 2| 4i 6J 6i 1| 9 Oi 9} 3J 1 2 li £2 and under £3. (2.) Total 16 6J 23 6i 31 10 35 7i 116 £ s. d. 2 9 lOi 2.33 4.42 s. d. Hi Oi Oi 1 8J OJ 7 3i 1 4 7* 3i 9 7i 7 1 11 7J 2 li li 1 3 1 4 2i 5i 2i 6 1 li 1 ^ Oi OJ 5 9 7i llj 8 lOf OJ 111 5i 2i 4} OJ 3 £3 and under £4. (3.) 131 £ s. d. 3 10 6i 2.68 4.84 s. d. 1 6J Oi OJ 2 2i Oi li 7i 7J 2i 4i 8 3J 1 Oi 8J 6i li 1 3 9J 3 6i 2 1 7 1 8J 1} 4J 3i 6i 1 7i 2 2i Oi OJ 5i 1 li 7i 1 5i 4 1 li li 1 3i 5J 3f 6J 1 6i £4 and under £5. (4.) 109 £ s. ( 4 7 5 3.07 5.16 s. d. 1 7i li Oi 2 Oi Oi OJ 6i 8J 2 4 8 5J 1 li 9i 6J 2i 1 5J 1 Oi 3 8i 2i 1 9* 1 llj 3 5 6i 9i 1 6J 2 7J li 8i 1 li 8 1 8i 5i 1 Oi IJ 1 5i 6i 4i lOi IJ 7 £5 and under £6. (5.) 80 £ s. d. 5 7 11 3.43 5.60 £6 and under £7. (6.) s. d. 1 9i Oi Oi 2 4J t li 5J 11 2J 4 8i 5 1 2 Hi 6J 2 9i Oi 3J 1 1 4 2i 2 4i 1 10 2 6i 8i 7i 1 9 2 lOi OJ li 8 1 3J lOi 1 8J 4i 1 li Ij 1 7i 8i 4 llj 2i 1 9i 40 4i 42 £ s. d. 6 8 3 3.92 6.09 s. d. 1 10 OJ Oi 2 2J Oi Oi 6 3J 3i 5i 7J 6i 1 li lOi 7J 2J 1 11 2i 8i 5 6 4i OJ 6i 1 5j 8J 1 11 2 9J li OJ lOi 1 Oi 10 2 OJ 5 1 5 1 1 8i 7i 6 1 4 3J 8 43 7J £7 and under £8. (7.) 27 £ s. d. 7 8 5 4.11 6.48 s. d. 2 2 2 3 IJ 2i 6J 1 4i 2J 7i lOJ 6i 1 5J 1 Oi 7i 3i 2 4J 1 2 5 llj 3i 2 4i 2 lOi 1 Si 1 2i lOi 1 Hi 2 lOi 3 OJ lOi 1 5i Hi 2 1 7i 1 4i 2i 1 10 7i 5i 1 3J OJ 1 5i 49 5} £8 and over. (8.) 43 £ s. d. 10 3 lOi 4.04 6.37 s. d. 2 7 Oi OJ 2 9 li 8 1 OJ 3i 6i 1 li 6J 1 4i 10 8J 4J 3 1 1 4 6 9 3i 2 lOi 3 Oi 6 li 9i 2J If 3i li 2i llj 2 Oi lOJ 2 6i 7i 1 7 3 1 11§ 8i 6 1 5i 3 2 5J 58 OJ * This figure includes boarders sharing ihe family food. t Value under \d. BUDGETS. 407 IV .-BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMlhlES-continued. (A. 2.) Amerioan-Beitish (Southern) Group. Weekly Consumptioii per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. (2.) £3 and under £4. (3.) £4 and under £5. (4.) £5 and under £6. (5.) £6 and under £7. (6.) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) 32 £ s. d. 1 14 7i 1.81 3.84 116 £ 8. d. 2 9 lOJ 2.33 4.42 131 £ s. d. 3 10 6J 2.68 4.84 109 £ s. d. 4 7 Si 3.07 5.16 80 £ s. d. 5 7 11 3.43 5.60 42 £ s. d. 6 8 3 3.92 6.09 27 £ 3. d. 7 8 5 4.11 6.48 43 Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children livins; at home. Averap:e Number of Persons p'jr Family.* £ s. d. 10 3 lOJ 4.04 6.37 lb. 2.37 0.22 lb. 4.20 0.12 0.05 10.74 lb. 9.28 0.14 0.19 13.32 0.10 0.47 5.31 1.62 0.61 0.92 2.31 1.47 10. 37 7.35 2.01 5.60 0.26 2.63 2.93 0.25 0.84 0.31 0.91 3.21 1.76 0.02 pints. 0.04 lb. 0.54 qtf.. 2.84 lb. 1.35 No. 16.85 lb. 0.16 1.28 0.07 4.53 pints. 1.34 lb. 7.45 0.57 0.14 12.79 0.07 0.26 4.27 1.62 0.45 0.83 2.42 2.13 10.42 7.55 2.23 6.13 0.25 3.03 3.01 0.34 0.90 0.65 1.60 3.31 2.09 lb. 7.77 0.14 O.OS 14.76 0.03 0.50 4.05 1.82 0.57 0.80 2.15 . 1.32 12.68 10.75 2.09 6.97 0.26 3.92 3.11 0.24 1.00 1.00 1.27 3.40 2.25 0.04 pints. 0.07 lb. 0.81 qts. 3.73 lb. 1.92 No. 18.78 lb. 0.17 1.25 0.12 6.40 pints. 1.87 lb. 8.19 0.34 0.07 13.78 0.12 0.19 4.57 1.85 0.78 1.08 2.40 2.97 10.81 8.45 2.23 9.26 0.55 2.38 3.61 0.32 1.14 1.94 1.29 3.92 2.16 0.12 pints. 0.03 lb. 1.06 qts. 2.17 lb. 1.75 No. 25.05 lb. 0.18 1.53 0.06 6.91 pints. 1.51 lb. 9.78 0.97 lb. 11.56 Rve 0.18 Other 0.34 Flour Wheaten 10.19 19.83 17.23 Rvp Buckwheat and Other 0.1!) 5.19 0.91 0.28 1.21 2.44 1.81 6.79 6.67 2.76 3.92 0.15 2.13 2.37 0.28 0.81 0.23 0.98 2.43 1.10 0.03 pints. 0.04 lb. 0.49 qts. 2.01 lb. 1.26 No. 11.34 lb. 0.13 1.07 0.08 4.18 pints. 1.06 0.85 5.56 2.53 0.77 1.37 3.46 2.18 16.07 10.88 2.20 9.36 0.41 3.74 4.51 0.11 1.30 1.48 1.83 3.80 2.19 0.15 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.99 qts. 3.30 lb. 1.98 No. 25.04 lb. 0.24 1.45 0.13 7.62 pints. 1.80 0.41 5.53 0.64 0.17 0.80 1.64 0.81 5.23 2.83 2.30 2.65 0.27 1.60 2.07 0.16 0.35 5.88 2.31 0.98 Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti Rice Barlev Sao^o &c 1.29 4.66 Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals 2.49 14.63 Sweet Potatoes, &c 10.08 Dried Peas and Beans 2.83 10.68 Mutton and Lamb 0.47 Pork (fresh and salt) 4.68 4.61 Veal 0.66 Sausage .. . 2.04 Poultrv 2.63 Fish of all kinds 0.78 1.87 0.55 2.14 Lard, Suet, Drippinf 4.08 Butter 3.20 0.07 Olive Oil pints. 0.03 lb. 0.26 qts. 1.22 lb. 1.18 No. 5.78 lb. 0.06 0.87 0.01 3.11 pints. 0.92 pints. 0.07 lb. 0.81 qts. 2.95 lb. 1.42 No. 20.43 lb. 0.20 1.20 0.13 6.09 pints. 1.41 pints. 0.10 Cheese lb. 1.11 Milk (fresh) qts. 5.50 lb. 1.79 EesB No. 31.40 Tea lb. 0.27 1.64 0.14 7.66 Coffee Susar pints. 1.85 * Thio fio-ure includes boardere sharing the family food. 408 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMnAES—conHnued. (A. 3.) American (Southern) — Broken Families. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* ♦ Bread, Wheaten .. Eye ,, Other Flour, Wheaten >, Rye ,j Buckwheat and Other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Eolla, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomai^arine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) (condensed) . Tea , Coffee.... , Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments. Fruite and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 13 £ s. d. 1 12 llj 2.46 3.46 s. d. 1 01 1 9i H 8 Oi li 3i 4i 2 4J 7| 4i 9i 3i 1 1 lOi 1 Oi li li 3J 10 lOi OJ 4 9i 4i Hi li 9i lOi 2 1| 2i 17 2 £2 and under £3. (2.) £ s. d. 2 9 7 3.00 4.29 8. d. 1 7 Hi 2i 2i OJ 3i 2i 9i 1 8i 6i 3i 1 Oi 2i 3 5 Oi 7i 9i 0| 1 1 1 3i li 2i 2^ 7i 1 Oi 4i Hi Oi 1 2i 4i li 4i li ^ 21 Oi £3 and under £4. (3.) 12 £ «. d. 3 14 6i 3.00 4.17 £4 and under £5. (4.) 9 £ ». d. 4 8 6 3.78 «. d. 1 6 2 Oi 6i 7i li 3i 7 4i 1 1 , 9 5i li 1 8 1 2i 2 5i 4i 3 Si 1 3i Oi li 7i Si 5 Oi 2 6i 9i 6i 1 2i 3i 1 4i Oi 11 2i 3 9i 4i 4i 32 Oi s. d. 2 Hi 2i 1 8i Oi 7i 7i 2i 4i 1 6 4i 1 Oi 6i 7i 1 1 1 li 9 3 lOi 8i 2 lOi 2 5i 1 4i 5i 9* 1 oi 1 3 2 8i 2 Hi lOi 1 5i 9i 1 8 1 6i 1 3i 5i 2 3i 44 li £5 and under £6. (5.) 3 £6 and under £7. (6.) 3 £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) 01 o 3! * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. 409 IV.-BUDGETS OF WORKING-CI^SS FAMIhlES-continued. (A. 3.) American (Southern)— Broken Families. Weekly Consumption per Family, Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten .. Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten ." „ Rye „ Buckwheat and Other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil. Cheese Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed). Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate. Sugar Molasses and Syrup. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 13 £ s. d. 1 12 Hi 2.46 3.46 lb. 5.03 10.69 0.46 6.31 0.10 0.27 1.35 1.50 0.58 4.79 5.84 1.73 1.90 1.54 2.15 0.18 0.31 0.54 2.19 0.69 £2 and imder £3. (2.) £ s. d. 2 9 7 3.00 4.29 lb. 7.14 5.89 1.00 2.29 0.14 0.71 0.64 3.29 0.14 5.30 6.17 1.14 5.64 0.14 1.00 1.50 £3 and under £4. (3.) 12 £ s. d 3 14 6 3.00 4.17 £4 and under £5. (4.) lb. 6.82 12.77 0.14 2.29 1.00 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.37 qts. 2.27 lb. 0.74 No. 10.92 lb. 0.05 0.85 3.35 pints. 0.42 pints. 0.06 lb. 0.29 qts. 0.83 lb. 1.31 No. 13.71 lb. 0.14 1.14 0.04 4.34 pints. 1.30 0.17 4.67 1.50 0.46 0.75 1.98 1.21 10.33 6.70 1.58 4.00 0.58 6.03 2.19 0.08 0.25 1.13 1.46 3.00 1.73 pints. 0.15 lb. 0.69 qts. 3.11 lb. 1.13 No. 14.50 lb. 0.15 1.58 0.02 3.67 pints. 0.59 £ s. d i486 3.78 4.89 lb. 14.33 0.89 11.61 0.22 6.28 1.44 0.78 1.11 4.89 1.89 10.61 5.33 2.64 5.89 0.94 4.92 4.22 1.94 1.42 1.11 1.96 2.50 2.00 pints. lb. 2.39 qts. 2.03 lb. 1.94 No. 18.00 lb. 0.27 1.94 0.11 7.39 pints. 0.74 £5 and under £6. (5.) £6 and under £7. (6.) tS o £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) o 3 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 410 BUDGETS. IV.— BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— conimued. (B.) German Group. Weekly Expenditure Per Family. Number of Returns . Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Fam- ily* Bread, Wheaten » Rye ,, Other Flour, Wheaten .. Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed) Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. 15 £ s. d. 1 16 0+ L73 " 3.67 s. d. Hi 9 1 4 Oi Oi 2i 2 Of 4J li loi Oi 3i 9 2i 2 7 IJ 1 2i 6 2 2J 21 9i 1 IJ Oi 3i 1 4i 2i 9| 3i ^ li 8 li 3 4i Of 18 4i £2 and under £3. (2.) 163 & s. d. 2 10 lOJ 2.26 4.27 s. d. 1 4i lOi (t) 1 2 Oi OJ 1 6i 5i 1} 4i 2i 1 3i 1 4i li 1 Oi 3i 2 Hi 4i 1 3i 8i 5i 7i 2i 4i 8i 1 2i 0| 0} 4i 1 4i 3i 1 2i 2| Hi 0| 9 2i 2f 6| Of 6i 24 4| £3 and under £4. (3.) 246 £ s. d. 3 9 2i 2.44 4.54 1 4i 9i Oi 1 3 Of Of 1 11 8i 2i 4i 3i 1 6i If 3i li 1 5f 4i 3 7f 6 1 6i lOf 11 7i 5 6i 9i lOi 1 0| 5i 1 9i 2i 1 7f 3i 1 1 li lOi li 2i 1 Oi Oi 11 30 7f £4 and under £5. (4.) 167 £ a. d. 4 8 Oi 2.88 5.01 B. d. 1 5i 9 Oi 1 3i Oi Oi 1 10 9 If 4i 3i 1 9 1 3i li 1 8i 4| 3 Hi 8i 1 lOi 1 li Hi 6i 8i 6 9i 2 4i Si 1 11 4i 3i 34 5i £5 and under £6 (5.) 123 £ s. d. 5 7 5 8.38 5.47 s. d. 1 7i 7i 1 1 6i li Oi Oi 2i lOi 2i 5i 3f 1 11 li 4i 2i 1 7i 6 4 4 lOf 1 7 1 Oi 1 4i 6i Hi 8 lOi 2 8 Oi 1 8 2 3 2i 2 4 4i 1 4i 2i 1 1 IJ 8f 38 9i £6 and under £7. (6.) 60 £ s. d. 6 8 4 3.73 5.95 s. d. 1 5i 1 Oi Oi 2 li 1 Oi Oi 1 3i 1 3i 2i 4i 8 2 8f 2 4i 2i 2 6i 6i 5 Of 10 2 5i 1 5i 1 8i 7i 9 7 1 Oi 3 7i li 8i 2 6i 4 2 8i 6i 1 9i IJ 1 8i li 8i 1 lOi li 2 3i 47 4i £7 and under £8. (7.) 43 £ s. d. 7 7 5 3.72 5.86 s. d. 1 7 1 Oi Oi 1 6i If Of Oi 2i 4i 2i 4| 5i 2 If 3i 4 2 1 lOf 5i 4 lOi 1 4i 2 li 1 3 1 3i 1 9i 11 2 Hi Oi 2 6i 2 8i 4i 2 7i 5i 1 6i 2 1 3 2* 3i 1 llf li 3 5 61 47 Oi £8 and over. (8.) 89 £ s. d. 10 16 3 4.65 6.72 s. d. 2 Oi 7i Oi 1 lOi Oi 1 li 1 8 1 11 3 5i 4i 3i 2i 4 4i 2 2 8 5 8i 1 2 1 1 1 9i 7 6 6i 9i Oi Oi Oi 2 9i 2 lOi 2 3 8 6 1 lOi 2i 1 4 2i 4 2 2i li 4 3i 55 7i * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. t Value under Ji BUDGETS. 411 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIE^-continued. (B.) German Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Number of retiorns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persona per Family.* Under £2. (1.) 15 £ s. d. 1 16 Oi 1.73 3.67 £2 and under £3. (2.) 163 £ s. d. 2 10 10} 2.26 4.27 £3 and under £i. (3.) 246 £ s. d. 3 9 2i 2.44 4.54 £4 and under £5. (4.) 167 £ s. d. 4 8 Oi 2.88 5.01 £5 and under £6. (5.) 123 £ s. d. 5 7 5 3.38 5.47 £6 and under £7. (6.) 60 £ s. d. 6 8 4 3.73 5.95 £7 and under £8. (7.) 43 £ s. d. 7 7 5 3.72 5.86 £8 and over. (8.) 89 £ s. d 10 16 4.65 6.72 Bread, Wheaten » Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye „ Buckwheat and Other... Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Bims, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti . . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Laid, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomargarine OUve Oil. Cheese. Milk (fresh) " (condensed) . Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate. Sugar lb. 4.37 4.22 9.46 0.07 Molasses and Syrup. 0.13 0.60 0.67 0.13 L12 0.40 n.37 0.13 1.13 5.47 0.27 2.10 0.83 0.27 0.40 0.40 L43 0.85 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.43 qta. 3.43 lb. 0.41 No. 10.00 lb. 0.14 1.00 0.05 2.80 pints. 0.28 lb. 6.00 4.76 0.01 7.55 0.20 0.37 0.58 L50 1.48 0.38 L06 0.68 18.25 0.59 1.33 5.06 0.66 2.14 1.04 0.78 L26 0.27 0.85 1.28 0.90 0.07 pints. 0.06 lb. 0.47 qta. 3.97 lb. 0.63 No. 12.83 lb. 0.12 1.08 0.04 3.19 pints. 0.46 lb. 6.22 4.07 0.18 8.23 0.37 0.32 0.66 2.45 2.20 0.55 1.05 0.94 2L36 LOG L04 6.17 0.77 2.52 L17 L34 1.15 0.59 Lll L38 1.44 0.09 pints. 0.05 lb. 0.64 qts. 5.18 lb. 0.44 No. 17.94 lb. 0.14 1.15 0.08 3.66 pints. 0.34 lb. 6.53 3.77 0.18 8.60 0.25 0.27 0.70 2.09 2.57 0.34 0.94 0.91 23.35 0.67 LOS 6.55 L06 2.99 L41 L44 L04 0.88 L09 1.38 L84 0.08 pints. 0.09 lb. 0.67 qts. 6.05 lb. 0.65 No. 20.37 lb. 0.16 L27 0.10 4.28 pints. 0.53 lb. 7.49 3.22 0.48 10.00 0.52 0.14 0.50 2.99 2.88 0.54 1.20 1.03 25.66 L23 L29 7.00 L40 2.55 L31 2.01 1.01 1.17 L42 L60 2.04 0.02 pints. 0.08 lb. 0.80 qts. 6.45 lb. 0.42 No. 24.71 lb. 0.21 L47 0.14 4.48 pints. 0.37 lb. 6.81 5.08 0.10 12.86 0.47 0.06 0.33 3.45 3.53 0.58 1.01 0.82 29.48 0.93 L45 7.94 L12 3.84 L90 2.54 L21 L20 L28 L66 2.75 pints. 0.10 lb. 0.85 qts. 7.10 lb. 0.69 No. 28.03 lb. 0.24 L75 0.10 5.21 pints. 0.31 lb. 6.90 5.24 0.09 10.32 0.88 0.47 0.58 3.52 3.88 0.57 LOS L22 29.70 2.19 L30 7.14 2.01 3.22 L46 L94 L53 1.92 L70 L60 2.34 0.02 pints. 0.25 lb. 0.72 qts. 7.66 lb. 0.72 No. 28.12 lb. 0.21 1.58 0.12 5.33 pints. 0.49 lb. 8.91 2.98 0.22 12.12 0.21 0.48 0.96 4.25 5.78 0.67 L32 LOl 30.59 L94 L23 8.77 2.19 3.85 L98 2.46 L65 2.06 L68 LSO 3.19 0.06 pints. 0.10 lb. L04 qts. 8.16 lb. 0.33 No. 39.28 lb. 0.22 L85 0.12 5.53 pinta. 0.39 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 412 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— continued. (C.) Scandinavian Gbotjp. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family * Bread, Wheaten „ Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten » Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . .. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping B utter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed) Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) o £2 and under £3. (2.) 35 £, s. d. 2 11 11 2.06 49 s. d. 8i 4i 25 5 2i 1 li 4i 4i 1} SJ 4J 1 Of Oi 3 1 3 1 8i 3i 4i 3 7i 5i 2 2i Of 5i 8i 24 0} 4 1 Hi 3 1 84 2i 1 1 OJ 24 1 7i £3 and under £4. (3.) 89 £ s. d. 3 9 64 2.54 4.60 s. d. 7i 6i £4 and under £5. (4.) 73 £ B. d. 4 8 34 3.04 5.15 £5 and under £6. (5.) 61 £ s. d. 5 6 10 3.59 6.02 1 10 3i Of Oi 7J 44 14 4 6 1 4 Oi 3i 1 1 Oi 5i 3 li lOi 1 ej 10 5 5 3i 9 7i 2 Hi Oi Oi 6 6f s. d. 94 6f Oi 1 8 34 04 Oi 8i 74 2 44 54 1 7i Oi 34 li 1 4i 7i 3 34 1 1 2 2i 1 11 2i 1 "" 1 1 24 2 2i 2i 2i 24 Oi 4i 30 5 Oi 5i 114 1 3 74 2 ' 2 1 1 1 14 54 6i 9i 7 8i Oi 04 2 2 24 4i 24 34 If 34 3i 2i 10 35 4i s. d. 8 .li Oi 2 6 44 04 Oi 9i 3i 2 3| 6i 1 104 1 34 ' 1 4 1 2 1 9i 5 8 7i 84 4 34 Oi 04 2i 2i 64 If 44 Oi 14 6i li 1 8 2i 1 5 3i 7i 24 3 4 14 39 94 £6 and under £7. (6.) 28 £ s. d. 6 8 44 3.78 5.89 s. d. 54 74 2 5i 6i 04 Of 9i 54 2i 5 7i 1 lOi li 3 14 1 74 94 9i 4i 9i 3i 9 5 4 1 1 1 loi 104 4 5i li 9 Hi 2 71 4 9i 2f 11 4i 34 1| 04 4i 43 9 £7 and under £8. (7.) 17 £ s. d. 7 7 74 4.23 6.35 8. d. 9i 1 Oi 2 5i 24 0, Oi li lOi 84 2i 4i 64 1 6 14 54 3i 1 11 10 5 10 11 1 lOf 114 1 li 24 6 1 If lOi 4 74 04 64 3 8 04 2 Hi 3i 1 2 2 3 4i 4 4i 3i 3 5i 3 48 64 £8 and over. (8.) 32 £ 8. d. 10 64 3.69 6.00 8. d. 1 3 7i 2 64 2 14 Oi lOi 84 li 54 5i 10 3 4i 4i 2 Oi 6 5 Oi 2 "" 2 1 9 64 1 " 1 1 4 04 34 5i 2i 4 H Oi 2i 1 2 Hi 2i 3 4i 5i 1 7i 24 1 lli 2 24 2 34 5i 4 li 51 94 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMlLmS-continued. (C.) Scandinavian Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. 413 Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Nimiber of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten „ Rye „ Other Floiu-, Wheaten » Rye „ Buckwheat and Other. . . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts... Bolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti.. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish; Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleom^irgarine Olive OU. Cheese. Under £2. (1.) s 11 o Milk (fresh) „ (condensed). Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate. Sugar Molasses and Syrup. Limits of Weekly Family Income. £2 and under £3. (2.) 35 £ s. d. 2 11 11 2.06 4.09 lb. 3.30 L86 8.90 L59 0.49 0.83 0.87 L61 0.34 0.84 L43 13.71 0.40 L09 5.20 L09 L96 0.95 0.47 0.74 0.34 L61 0.84 L80 pints. 0.02 lb. 0.44 qts. 5.92 lb. 0.53 No. 17.77 lb. 0.09 0.93 0.06 4.50 pints. 0.42 £3 and under £4. (3.) £ s. d. 3 9 6} 2.54 4.60 lb. 2.68 2.38 n.47 L86 0.34 0.49 L57 L13 0.32 0.95 L90 18.10 0.20 L09 5.26 1.47 2.61 L19 0.65 0.81 0.37 L87 1.04 2.36 0.02 pints. 0.02 lb. 0.61 qts. 7.62 lb. 0.40 No. 2L08 lb. 0.09 1.15 0.11 5.14 pints. 0.52 £4 and under £5. (4.) 73 £ s. d. 4 8 3i 3.04 5.15 lb. 3.27 2.55 0.14 10.77 L92 0.24 0.38 L87 L84 0.38 LOS L75 22.73 0.27 L07 5.25 L56 2.27 L29 L77 0.87 0.64 L45 L02 2.96 0.07 pints. 0.02 lb. 0.80 qts. 8.02 lb. 0.35 No. 24.12 lb. 0.10 L29 0.15 5.38 pinfa. 0.35 £5 and under £6. (5.) 61 £ s. d. 5 6 10 3.59 6.02 lb. 2.85 0.67 0.06 16.07 3.01 0.21 0.56 L56 0.98 0.41 0.84 L80 27.73 0.58 L13 6.26 2.03 3.53 L60 L27 0.76 0.86 1.18 L22 3.48 0.02 pints. 0.03 lb. 0.71 qts. 9.61 lb. 0.18 No. 29.31 lb. 0.09 L38 0.17 6.74 pints. 0.59 £6 and under £7. (6.) 28 £ 8. d. 6 8 4} 3.78 5.89 lb. L83 2.90 15.38 3.95 0.21 0.39 L77 L70 0.48 L12 2.31 25.23 0.70 L07 7.13 L91 2.96 L63 L07 0.78 0.89 2.09 L54 3.44 pints. 0.04 lb. 0.90 qts. 9.13 lb. 0.33 No. 3L29 lb. 0.14 L57 0.13 7.75 pints. 0.67 £7 and under £8. (7.) 17 £ s. d. 7 7 7} 4.23 6.35 lb. 3.51 4.81 0.06 15.07 L35 0.12 0.94 2.25 2.47 0.41 LOO L69 2L15 L47 L88 8.88 L35 2.79 L29 L77 0.65 0.59 2.59 L53 3.79 pints. 0.02 lb. 0.74 qts. ILOl lb. 0.10 No. 33.77 lb. 0.15 L21 0.19 9.82 pints. 0.59 £8 and over. (8.) 32 £ s. d. 10 ^ 3.69 6.00 lb. 5.41 3.07 15.57 L31 0.75 0.50 2.13 2.76 0.30 L39 L49 26.69 2.91 L59 7.53 2.72 3.42 2.00 L17 0.95 L47 2.61 L81 3.24 0.06 pints. 0.11 lb. L30 qts. 8.86 lb. 0.41 No. 35.56 lb. 0.24 L52 0.13 8.52 pints. 0.54 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 414 BUDGETS. rV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— cow^mwed. (D). South European Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 60 £, s. d. 1 13 94 2.33 4.33 £2 and imder £3. (2.) 195 £ s. d. 2 10 Oi 2.85 4.92 £3 and under £4. (3.) 151 £ ». d. 3 8 9 2.93 5.09 £4 and under £5. (4.) 73 £ s. d. 4 8 1 3.66 5.96 £5 and under £6. (5.) 50 £ s. d. 5 6 5i 3.82 6.14 £6 and under £7. (6.) 29 £ *. d. 6 7 8i 4.55 6.90 £7 and under £8. (7.) 15 £ s. d. 7 7 11 4.41 6.60 £8and over. (8.) 26 £ s. d. 9 11 2 4.54 7.27 Bread, Wheaten •> Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten >• Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other. . . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti... Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Corn Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomai^rine Olive OU Cheese Milkffresh) (condensed) Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total. «. d. 2 Of Oi 8| t Oi 4i OJ 1 Oi 4J Of 6 Oi 5| Oi 8J 3i 1 8J 2i 3i li 4i 3i Oi 5| 8 2i Oi 9 7i 1 li 1} 8 li 7 Oi 7| Oi OJ 6i 16 7 (. d. 1 lOJ IJ Oi 1 2i Oi Oi li 4i 2 1 7} 4 li 8 Of 5| a. d. 2 3 li li 1 4i s. d. 3 3i 2i li 1 3 s. d. 3 9i li Oi 1 5 1 li 3i 2 2i 3| 6f 3i 7| 4i 4| 7J 8i 6i Oi 1 2i Hi 1 5i 2i 1 3| 2i 8i Oi 8i 1 li 8 li 4i Oi Oi 6 5i 1 6i 4i 1 11 1 6i li 1 9i 4i 2 6i Hi 8i 6 Hi 4i 6i 9i lOi 9i Oi 6 2 8i Oi li 8 5i 1 10 7 li 1 Oi li 8 2i 1 lOi 7 2 11 3 10 8i 1 Oi 6 7i 1 2i Hi 1 5} Oi 2 Oi 2i 1 7i 3i lOi 1 9i Oi 2i 1 1 li 8i 6i 7i 3 li 2 2 Oi 1 3i 1 5i li 7i Oi li lOi 5i 2 7i 6i li 1 3i 3 10 5 2 8i 6i 3 4i 1 9i 9i 9i 1 Oi 8i 5i 1 1 lii 1 5 t 2 li 1 6 2 2i Oi 2 7 3i 11 li Hi Oi 3i 1 8i Oi 2 4i s. d. 5 7i 2i Oi 1 6i Oi Oi 0* 6i 4i 2 5i 8 Oi 1 8 li 1 5i 7i 4 Oi 5i 3 8i 4 9 11 8i 1 2 5i lOi 1 5 1 1 2 3i 4i 2 8 2 Oi 2 9i Oi 2 2i 3i 1 Oi Oi 4i 2 8i li 1 2i «. d. 3 2i 6 1 3 Oi 1 lOi 7i 1 9i 4i li 1 If Oi lOi 3i 2 8i 5i 4 2i 2 lOi 1 li 1 2 Oi Hi 9i 1 8i 1 4i 1 6i 3 7i 1 6i 2 lOi 1 3 2i 3i lOi li 1 2i li 4 2 9i 3 2 23 9i 30 3i 39 8i 44 li 54 9 52 5i g. d. 4 3i 4i 1 5i li li 1 2i 8i 1 10 8 li 1 2i 3i 1 Oi 4i 3 Hi 1 2 6i Oi li 8i 1 8i 4 1 8i J 10 1 4i 2 6i Oi 2 8 1 11 3 3i 5J 3 5 li 1 6i 4i 1 5i Oi 4i 2 6i 2 Oi 59 2i * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. t Value under \d. BUDGETS. 415 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMTLIES— continued. (D.) South European Group. Weekly Consumption per Family, Limits of Weekly Family Income. Number of Returns . Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten „ Bye „ Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other... Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits - - . Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti . . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c - - - Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter <• Oleomargarine Olive oil . Cheese Milk (fresh) „ (condensed) . Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate . Sugar Under £2. (1.) 60 £, g. d. 1 13 9J 2.33 4.33 lb. 9.58 0.20 4.94 0.03 Molasses and Syrup. 0.26 0.81 0.12 3.73 L20 0.23 5.10 0.30 2.16 3.50 0.43 0.55 0.20 0.60 0.46 0.06 1.41 1.51 0.15 0.02 pintfl. 0.59 lb. 0.54 qts. 3.16 lb. 0.30 No. 7.55 lb. 0.08 0.71 0.03 2.85 pints. 0.11 £2 and under £3. (2.) 195 . s. d. 10 Oi 2.85 4.92 lb. 9.12 0.74 0.29 7.84 0.16 0.13 0.90 1.02 0.62 5.14 1.15 0.49 7.08 0.69 1.92 3.85 0.51 0.98 0.37 L06 0.66 0.52 L84 1.42 0.42 0.02 pints. 0.86 lb. 0.78 qts. 4.09 lb. 0.51 No. 14.59 lb. 0.11 0.78 0.05 3.18 pints. 0.19 £3 and under £4. (3.) 151 £ I. d. 3 8 9 2.93 5.09 £4 and under £5. (4.) lb. 11.08 0.79 0.73 8.96 0.28 0.48 L49 L54 4.74 1.25 0.26 11.71 0.95 2.15 4.18 L53 1.08 0.73 L52 0.56 0.70 2.11 L67 0.62 0.05 pints. LIO lb. 0.99 qts. 4.93 lb. 0.37 No. 18.05 lb. 0.13 0.85 0.05 3.30 pints. 0.13 73 £ s. d. 4 8 1 3.66 5.96 lb. 15.44 1.02 0.07 7.51 £5 and under £6. (5.) 0.04 0.83 L74 1.83 5.36 L89 0.38 11.56 1.52 2.61 4.95 4.50 1.36 0.94 1.49 0.74 0.81 2.72 L92 L07 0.03 pints. L54 lb. 1.24 qts. 7.68 lb. 0.56 No. 23.45 lb. 0.09 LOl 0.10 4.50 pints. 0.18 50 £ s. d. 5 6 5J 3.82 6.14 lb. 19.26 0.80 0.56 9.04 £6 and under £7. (6.) 0.14 1.17 2.40 1.81 7.97 2.04 0.66 14.94 3.24 3.07 5.42 2.69 1.31 1.25 L62 1.15 0.64 2.73 L86 1.10 0.01 pints. 1.58 lb. L28 qts. 6.20 lb. 0.11 No. 28.96 lb. 0.14 0.90 0.10 4.15 pints. 0.14 29 £ s. d. 6 7 8J 4.55 6.90 lb. 27.87 L19 . 0.07 9.93 0.24 0.21 0.28 L25 1.33 6.79 2.07 0.24 22.25 L40 5.75 5.62 7.45 1.40 0.99 1.71 0.62 1.10 3.50 2.38 1.62 0.28 pints. 2.28 lb. L62 qts. 7.84 lb. 0.12 No. 24.10 lb. 0.14 LIO 0.10 5.30 pints. 0.06 £7 and under £8. (7.) 15 £ s. d. 7 7 11 4.41 6.60 . lb. 17.57 2.09 7.33 £8 and over. (8.) 0.13 0.33 2.53 2.93 5.03 L07 0.53 12.57 0.67 3.50 6.20 4.30 L50 L33 3.10 L23 0.93 4.57 2.53 L17 pints. 2.83 lb. L23 qts. 8.44 lb. 0.18 No. 34.53 lb. 0.14 0.81 0.12 4.97 pints. 0.39 26 £ s. d. 9 11 2 4.54 7.27 lb. 22.10 2.62 8.67 0.39 0.96 2.62 2.26 5.12 L96 0.39 14.44 3.92 3.35 5.27 7.27 L83 LOl 2.62 0.41 2.04 4.23 2.71 L81 0.01 pints. 2.42 lb. L57 qts. 9.51 lb. 0.93 No. 36.00 lb. 0.06 L40 0.19 5.84 pints. 0.06 • This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 416 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMJJ^mS— continued. (E.) Slavonic and Allied Peoples Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Returna. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten „ Rye ,, Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye , , Buckwheat and Other . . . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Corn Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) (condensed) Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar Pickles and Condiments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 35 £ s. d. 1 15 5i L86 3.86 s. d. 1 3i 8i lOi 3i 3i 4 2 2} 4i 2i 1 li Oi 3i 0} 6 IJ 2 2 IJ 9i 3| 2i lOJ 2| ^ 6i 2i 0| 2J 1 3 2} 7i li lOi 9 Oi 2i 2i OJ 1 17 5 £2 and under £3. (2.) 182 £ s. d. 2 11 2 2.30 4.34 8. d. 1 2 1 2J Oi 1 Oi 1 Oi 2i ^ 5i 3i 5f li 1 3i Oi 4i Oi 9i 2i 2 4i 4 9* 1 6 9i 2i 4i 8i 9J IJ 1 2i 1 6i 2i 1 3i 2 lOi Oi 9i li 2i 5i 1 6i 23 8i £3 and under £4. (3.) 162 £ s. d. 3 9 4i 2.77 5.05 «. d. 1 6i 1 3i Oi 1 6 li Oi 2i 9i 7i 3i 6i 2i 1 7i li 5 1 11 4 3 3i 6i 1 Hi 1 9i lOi 6 7i lOi 1 li 2i 1 4 1 lOi 3 1 7i 3 1 Oi Oi 1 Oi li 2i 9i li 1 li £4 and under £5. (4.) 31 3i 82 £ s. d. 4 8 2i 3.05 5.61 s. d. 1 7i 1 Oi 1 7i li Oi li Hi lOi 4i 7i 3i llli li 5 1 Hi 5 3 6i 10 2 5 1 li 1 3i 9i 5i 9i 1 Oi 1 7i 1 li 5i 2 3 li 2 4i 3i 1 2i li 1 2 li 3i lOi 1 1 li 36 2i £5 and under £6. (5.) 59 £ s. d. 5 6 8i 3.49 6.27 s. d. 1 2i 1 9i Oi 1 lOi 3i 1 li 1 1 2i 2i 6 3i 2 li li 4i li 1 2 5i 4 li 9i 3 1 5i 1 4i 11 Hi 9i li n 1 Oi 5 2 9i li 2 9i 6i 1 2i li 1 3 1 3i 1 2i li 1 5i 41 9 £6 and under £7. (6.) 33 £ s. d. 6 10 Oi 4.36 7.09 ». d. 2 4i 1 lOi 1 1 Hi li li li 1 5 1 3i 3 7i 3i 2 2i 2 5i 1 1 2 8 4 2i 7i 3 9i 1 10 1 3i 1 7i lOi 1 li 1 li 2 4 1 8i 2 lOi Oi 2 9i 6i 1 5i 2 1 6i li 5i 1 6 li 1 3i 47 Hi £7 and under £8. (7.) 20 £ a. d. 7 8 5i 4.50 6.85 s. d. 1 7i 1 5 Oi 2 2i 6i li li 1 10 1 6 5| 8i 5i 3 Oi 3i 4i 3i 1 2i 6i 4 li lOi 3 1 7i 7i 9i 1 3i 9J Si Oi 2 7i 3 4 1 5i li 5 4i 1 Hi li 7i 1 Oi li 6 9i 57 Hi £8 and over. (8.) 25 £ «. d. 10 4 7* 4.56 6.76 s. d. 1 lOi 1 2i li 1 5 4i 3 3 1 5i 2 IJ 3 8i 5i 2 li 2i 7i 2i 9i 5 5 Oi 1 6i 4i 3 9i 9i Oi 8i li 2 10 3 2i 2 10 7i 1 4 4i 1 5i li 5 1 4 li 10 li 56 lOi ' This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BUDGETS. 417 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMlLmS-continued. (E.) Slavonic and Allied Peoples Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Number of Returns . Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Nimiber of Persons per Familv.* Flour, Bread, Wheaten „ Rye Other Wheaten „ Rye „ Buckwheat and Other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts RoUs, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti . . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c 6atmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine OUve OU. Cheese . Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed). Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate . Sugar Molasses and Syrup . Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 35 £ s. d. 1 15 5i L86 3.86 lb. 5.50 3.29 4.68 L94 1.77 0.93 0.39 0.47 1.19 0.62 13.05 0.83 0.98 4.71 0.20 L47 0.49 0.34 L85 £2 and under £3. (2.) 0.45 L03 0.36 0.26 pints. 0.11 lb. 0.34 qts. 3.28 lb. 0.41 No. 6.37 lb. 0.06 L20 3.01 pints. 0.11 182 £ s. d. 2 11 2 2.30 4.34 lb. 4.92 5.86 0.31 6.79 0.68 0.14 L29 L47 1.57 0.77 L50 0.55 16.97 0.56 L33 4.54 0.55 3.06 L05 0.84 1.50 0.32 0.91 L28 0.57 0.14 pints. 0.14 lb. 0.39 qts. 4.47 lb. 0.39 No. 13.75 lb. 0.11 1.19 0.02 3.29 pints. 0.25 £3 and under £4. (3.) 162 £ s. d. 3 9 4i 2.77 5.05 lb. 6.70 6.20 0.20 9.65 L07 0.35 L42 2.10 L90 0.82 L56 0.84 2L49 L41 1.51 5.94 0.90 3.36 L47 L23 L74 0.67 L45 L64 0.84 0.18 pints. 0.11 lb. 0.51 qts. 5.61 lb. 0.55 No. 17.82 lb. 0.15 L28 0.04 4.31 pints. 0.34 £4 and under £5. (4.) 82 £ s. d. 4 8 2i 3.05 5.61 lb. 6.98 5.06 10.27 1.20 0.28 0.83 2.48 2.61 0.92 L82 0.99 25.02 L58 1.54 6.58 1.39 4.09 L67 2.01 L78 0.64 L91 2.04 1.26 0.10 pints. 0.12 lb. 0.76 qts. 6.57 lb. 0.29 No. 24.99 lb. 0.16 1.46 0.08 4.70 pints. 0.33 £5 and under £6. (5.) 59 £ g. d. 5 6 8i 3.49 6.27 lb. 5.30 8.98 0.31 11.64 2.14 0.42 0.67 2.72 3.89 0.64 L51 LIO 26.23 L29 L42 7.33 L30 4.84 2.29 2.15 L92 L30 L97 2.07 L27 0.14 pints. 0.05 lb. 0.70 qts. 8.17 lb. 0.32 No. 30.63 lb. 0.26 1.41 0.08 5.11 pints. 0.18 £6 and under £7. (6.) 33 £ s. d. 6 10 OJ 4.36 7.09 lb. n.42 9.39 0.39 12.77 0.87 0.39 0.80 3.49 3.58 0.65 1.83 L14 28.03 2.00 L53 7.56 1.08 5.83 2.51 L94 3.20 1.21 2.36 2.08 L83 £7 and under £8. (7.) 20 £ s. d. 7 8 5i 4.50 6.85 pints. 0.10 lb. L02 qts. 8.29 lb. 0.13 No. 28.73 lb. 0.27 L73 0.11 6.36 pints. 0.41 lb. 7.44 7.72 0.30 13.80 3.65 0.60 0.85 4.89 4.65 L30 1.78 1.31 38.90 2.85 1.40 8.14 L45 4.95 2.15 2.68 3.28 1.28 2.98 3.30 2.08 0.05 pints. 0.16 lb. 0.74 qts. 8.74 lb. 0.20 No. 39.65 lb. 0.56 1.43 0.24 7.26 pints. 0.19 £8 and over. (8.) 25 £ s. d. 10 4 7i 4.56 6.76 lb. 8.14 6.09 0.55 8.92 2.64 L17 L26 3.40 7.88 0.60 2.14 L12 25.08 1.64 2.12 5.54 L61 4.70 2.27 2.14 2.56 2.60 4.02 2.04 2.10 0.16 pints. 0.08 lb. L14 qts. 8.83 lb. 0.60 No. 26.40 lb. 0.31 L18 0.23 5.62 pints. 0.24 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. •33 418 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILmS— continued. (F.) Jewish Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Keturns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten , „ Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye , , Buckwheat and Other Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts , Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. . . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Corn , Green Vegetables, &c , Canned Vegetables , Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c , Veal Sausage Poultry Fish of all kinds , Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter , Oleomargarine , Olive Oil Cheese Milk^fresh) ,, (condensed) Eggs Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total Under £2. m 3 CO o Limits of Weekly Family Income. £2 and under £3. (2.) 119 £ s. d. 2 12 5i 2.45 4.50 s. d. lOi 1 9 1 7 Oi Oi 6i 10 0| 4i 2J Hi Oi 3| li Hi Of 4 2i 1 8i 2J 1 2i lOi li 1 7i Of 3i 2 3i Oi 1 6i 3i 6i If llf Oi 2i 10 2 8| 24 11 £3 and under £4. (3.) 242 £ s. d. 3 8 9 2.79 4.88 d. 7i Oi 9 Oi Oi OJ 7i 1 Oi li 5i 3i 1 1 4 li 1 Oi 1} 5 5i 2i 6} 3i 9 3 li 2 2i 4| 2 3 Oi 2 3i 5i 8J 1 2 Oi Oi 3 1 2 n lOi 31 2i £4 and under £5. (4.) 148 £ s. d. 4 7 10 3.36 5.49 s. 1 1 d. 6i li 9i Oi OJ Oi 9i 4i 1 6i 4 1 3i li 4i ■ 2i 4i 1 3i 6 4i 6i 1 Oi 4i 2 '^ 1 2 6i 6i li 14 6i 2 1" 2 8 5i llj 3 1 2i Oi 3i 1 3i li 2 li 39 2i £5 and under £6. (5.) £ s. d. 5 6 7 4.10 6.19 s. d. 2 li 1 6i Oi 10 Oi 1 li 9i 1 8i Oi 6 3i 1 4i 2i 3i 3i 1 5 2i 7 ■ 2i 3i lOi 4 2 Hi 1 8i 2i 2 lOi li 6i 2 7i li 9i 7 lOi 3i 2i 1 3 4i 3 4i 42 lOi £6 and under £7. (6.) 57 £ s. d. 6 7 7i 4.71 6.88 2 3i 2 3 2i 1 3 Oi li Oi 9i 1 1 li 6i 5i 1 '"' lOi 3 4i 2i 2 Oi 5i 7 6i 7i Oi 7 8i Oi 4 7i li 9i 2 Hi Oi 3 6i 11 1 Oi 4i 1 7i li 4 2 2 Oi 3 Hi 51 Hi £7 and under £8. (7.) 36 £ s. d. 7 7 7 4.28 6.25 d. 4i 9i Oi 1 Oi li li ^ 2i 8i 1 1 li 6i 4i 1 " 5i 3i 4i 5i 1 7i 4i 6 4i 1 6i 1 2| 6i 6i 2 3i 3 Oi li 7i 3 1 Oi 3 3i 9i 1 Oi 4i 1 2 Si 3 lOi 7i 1 4i li 50 £8 and over. (8.) 63 £ s. d. 10 9i 4.93 7.11 li 9i 2i 1 2i Oi li 1| 1 7 8i 9i 1 8i 2i 5i 3i 2 Oi 7i 10 2i 1 li 1 6i 3i 4 li 2 Si 2i 3 lOi 2i 10| 4 Oi li 4 3 8i 1 3 4 1 lOi li 5i 2 li Si 6 2i 63 10} ' This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. BXJDGET8. 419 IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— conimuei. (F.) Jewish Group. Weekly Consumption per Family. Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Fam- ily.* Bread, Wheaten Rye „ Other Flour, Wheaten „ Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other... Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits , Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti.. Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals. Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal Sausage Poultry Pish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping Butter Oleomargarine Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1-) OUve oil. Cheese. Milk (fresh) „ (condensed). Tea Coffee Cocoa and chocolate . Sugar Molasses and Syrup. p< £2 and under £3. (2.) 119 £ s. d. 2 12 5i 2.45 4.50 lb. 3.91 9.39 0.59 3.63 0.15 0.29 L35 2.75 0.14 L07 0.71 12.02 0.68 1.08 7.22 0.14 LOS 0.29 L64 2.26 0.24 L18 £3 and under £4. (3.) pints. 0.11 lb. 0.63 qts. 6.81 lb. 0.05 No. 16.67 lb. 0.15 0.55 0.25 4.07 pints. 0.17 242 £ s. d. 3 8 9 2.79 4.88 lb. 6.71 8.25 0.28 4.39 0.06 0.25 0.37 L71 4.25 0.32 L52 Lll 13.41 1.05 L24 9.24 0.34 £4 and under £5. (4.) 0.87 0.47 2.38 3.02 0.26 L61 pints. 0.14 lb. 0.71 qts. 6.91 lb. 0.16 No. 24.18 lb. 0.21 0.73 0.10 4.40 pints. 0.07 148 £ ». d. 4 7 10 3.36 5.49 lb. 7.62 7.60 0.91 4.91 0.07 0.30 0.37 2.24 5.52 0.20 1.62 L19 15.99 1.22 L42 10.37 0.77 L49 0.56 3.31 3.63 0.28 L96 £5 and under £6. (5.) 88 £ s. d. 5 6 7 4.10 6.19 lb. 9.21 7.39 0.08 5.16 0.16 0.51 0.91 2.17 7.25 0.19 L56 0.78 16.08 1.98 L05 n. 67 0.43 £6 and under £7. (6.) 57 £ s. d. 6 7 7i 4.71 lb. ,10.07 9.61 L29 7.82 0.21 0.96 3.11 6.04 0.31 L71 L60 22.51 2.84 L49 12.28 0.98 pints. 0.14 lb. 0.87 qts. 8.51 lb. 0.17 No. 28.44 lb. 0.20 0.93 0.19 4.76 pints. 0.10 L24 0.52 3.70 4.05 0.48 2.09 pints. 0.12 lb. 0.98 qts. 8.21 lb. 0.20 No. 29.93 lb. 0.26 0.82 0.28 5.07 pints. 0.23 £7 and under £8. (7.) 36 £ s. d. 7 7 7 4.28 6.25 lb 10.00 8.76 0.31 6.30 0.59 1.03 3.03 7.07 0.31 L86 L19 17.89 2.81 L57 9.81 2.01 L46 0.87 4.49 4.59 0.81 2.55 pints. 0.16 lb. L33 qts. 8.95 lb. 0.11 No. 34.18 lb. 0.37 1.08 0.24 6.68 pints. 0.24 L83 0.75 4.58 4.87 0.65 2.23 pints. 0.09 lb. L17 qts. 9.48 lb. 0.12 No. 35.83 lb. 0.33 LOl 0.25 6.74 'pints. 0.17 £8 and over. (8.) 63 £ s. d. 10 9i 4.93 7.11 lb. 13.98 8.14 0.92 6.84 0.06 0.71 L07 4.13 9.80 0.50 2.06 1.87 18 75 L44 L58 15.70 L47 2.17 0.43 5.35 4.59 0.55 2.85 pints. 0.26 lb. L36 qts. 12.87 lb. 0.25 No. 44.83 lb. 0.28 L26 0.23 7.94 pints. 0.23 'This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 420 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WORKING-CLASS FAMILIES— continued. (G. 1.) Negko (Northern) Geoxtp. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Number of Returns. Average Weekly Family Income Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per Family.* Bread, Wheaten „ Rye „ Other , Flour, Wheaten ,, Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals - Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peae and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, &c Canned Vegetables Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal ge Poultry Fish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter Oleomargarine Olive Oil Cheese Milk(fresh) ,, (condensed) Eggs '. Tea. Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate Sugar Molasses and Syrup Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments. Fruits and Jams Other items Meals away from home Total. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 14 £ s. d. 1 17 5J 2.07 3.93 s. d. 5* 1 5i 3i 2J Oi IJ 3 2 9 3 3 8 6i 1 Of 10 5} 1 5i 2| 3i 8 11 1 Of 5} 34 8i 0} If 6J 15 9i £2 and under £3. (2.) 115 £ s. d. 2 9 6i 2.22 4.30 s. d. 10 (t) 1 5i Oi 3i 4i li 1 3* 2| lOi 4i 3i 1 1 2i 4i 1 61 4i 1 3i 1 8i If 6} 7i lOi 1 1 H OJ 0} 1| 10 2 lO.i 3i 5i OJ Hi 2J IJ 9} li 9 21 9 £3 and under £4. (3.) 96 £ s. flf. 3 8 5 2.91 5.01 s. d. 1 3i (t) 1 9 OJ 4 4J 2J 2i 5i 3i 1 2i 4i 3| li Hi 7i 2 7i 9i 1 6i 2 3i 5i 1 5 1 2i 111 1 6 Oi 1 2J 1 2| 2i 1 2 4i 9i 1 1 Oi IJ li 7i 3i 7 28 li £4 and under £5. (4.) 39 £ s. d. 4 8 1 3.16 5.31 s. d. I 2i 1 11 Oi 4i 6i li 2i 6i 5i li Hi 9i 3 6i 1 Oi 1 2 9 4i 7i 2 Oi 1 6i 1 4 1 11 1 3i 94 3i 1 2i 7i 7i Oi 1 3i 2 2i 9i 2 1 ^ 33 5i £5 and under £6. (5.) 20 £ s. d. 5 7 1 3.70 6.05 s. d. 1 4i 2 71 2i 4i 8i 3i 2i 6 5i 1 1 9i 7 Hi 2 3 1 6i 7 7i 2 2i 2 3i 1 7i 2 H 2i 3i 1 Oi li 1 4i 54 9i li 1 5i li u 1 Oi 2i 3 5i 40 li £6 and under £7. (6.) 13 £ s. d. 6 8 Oi 4.16 6.62 s. d. 9i 3 9 Oi 8i 8i Oi 3i 8i 4i 1 7i 9i 8 3i lOi ' 3i 8 li 6i Oi 1 2 1 2 2 6i Oi 6i 7i 8i 7i 3i 1 li 2 1 4i 6 9i 2i 1 9 2} 3i 6i li 4i 39 li £7 and under £8. (7.)' sa Rye ,, Other Flour, Wheaten .. Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other . . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti . . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Beef (fresh and corned) Mutton and Lamb Pork (fresh and salt) Bacon, Ham, Brawn, &c Veal. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. (1.) 14 £ s. d. 1 17 5i 2.07 3.93 lb. 2.13 Sausage Poultry Pish of all kinds Lard, Suet, Dripping. Butter '. . Oleomargarine 8.39 2. 4G 0.56 0.04 0.31 0.76 0.71 9.44 2.91 L02 L96 L68 0.71 2.23 £2 and under £3. (2.) 115 £ s. d. 2 9 6J 2.22 4.30 £3 and under £4. (3.) lb. 3.66 0.03 8.85 0.54 0.25 2.34 L71 0.79 Olive Oil Cheese Milk (fresh) ,, (condensed). Eggs pints. Tea Coffee Cocoa and Chocolate . Sugar Molasses and Syrup. lb. 0.20 qts. 0.89 lb. 0.34 No. 5.79 lb. 0.22 0.37 3.04 pints. 0.03 0.09 2.75 0.83 0.34 0.21 0.87 0.74 11.10 4.31 1.17 2.95 0.57 2.10 2.70 0.24 1.09 0.78 2.24 L80 0.88 0.02 pints. 0.01 lb. 0.19 qts. 2.24 lb. 0.32 No. 8.91 lb. 0.16 0.54 0.03 3.77 pints. 0.58 96 £ s. d. 3 8 5 2.91 5.01 £4 and under £5. ' (4.) lb. 5.70 0.01 10.45 0.27 2.89 0.94 0.44 0.50 L28 L16 15.06 4.65 0.99 4.63 3.39 2.66 2.96 0.49 1.03 1.74 2.58 L79 1.14 0.02 pints. 0.07 lb. 0.26 qts. 3.19 lb. 0.38 No. 1L75 lb. 0.22 0.83 0.05 4.62 pints. 0.40 39 £ s. d. 4 8 1 3.16 5.31 lb. 5.14 11.64 0.36 3.23 1.25 0.39 0.51 L28 2.10 16.95 7.42 L69 6.17 L53 L65 4.30 0.56 1.34 2.39 3.40 2.50 1.53 £5 and under £6. (5.) 20 £ s. d. 5 7 1 3.70 6.05 lb. 5.98 15.85 pints. 0.06 lb. 0.35 qts. 2.05 lb. 0.52 No. 1L31 lb. 0.33 0.61 0.04 5.42 pints. 0.50 1.10 3.23 L74 0.63 0.57 1.54 L78 15.51 10.09 2.24 5.45 L25 3.25 2.55 0.83 1.14 2.43 4.24 2.95 1.44 pints. 0.13 lb. 0.39 qts. 2.55 lb. 0.26 No. 12.60 lb. 0.22 0.78 0.11 6.40 pints. 0.37 £6 and under £7. (6.) 13 £ s. d. 6 8 Oi 4.16 6.62 lb. 3.48 £7 and under £8. (7.) 23.12 0.31 6.39 L77 0.18 1.15 1.87 L27 2L73 10.33 2.39 5.08 L54 4.04 3.37 0.85 2.42 2.85 3.54 2.53 L54 pints. lb. 0.33 qts. 2.75 lb. 0.34 No. 13.39 lb. 0.25 0.82 0.12 7.35 pints. 0.74 £8 and over. (8.) d m o * This figure includes boarders sharing the family food. 422 BUDGETS. IV. BUDGETS OF WOEKING-CLASS FAMILIES— continued. (G. 2.) Negro (Southern) Group. Weekly Expenditure per Family. Limits of Weekly Family Income. Under £2. £2 and under £3. ■(2.) £3 and under £4. (3.) £4 and under £5. (4.) £5 and under £6. (5.) £6 and under £7. (6.) £7 and under £8. (7.) £8 and over. (8.) Number of Retuma. Average Weekly Family Income. . . , Average Number of Children living at home. Average Number of Persons per family.* 52 £ s. d. 1 13 6J 1.79 3.79 90 £ 8. d. 2 9 4 1.83 3.90 50 £ s. d. 3 9 li 2.10 4.20 Bread, Wheaten „ Bye „ Other Flour, Wheaten ,, Rye ,, Buckwheat and Other. . Maize and Maize Meal Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts Rolls, Buns, Biscuits Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti. . Rice, Barley, Sago, &c Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals . Potatoes (Irish) Sweet Potatoes, &c Dried Peas and Beans Sweet Com Green Vegetables, . >> rs •3 a d ,4„,-„t„ The Company ^11 furnish all opportunity possible for the apprentice to secure a complete knowledge of the machinists trade during L apprenticeship. He may servejhreeyeam^njhediffere^ and sp ^ial jobs and he shall not serve * See also apprenticeship clauses in "wages agreements, working rules, etc.," Appendix I. A. 444 APPENDIX I. more than six months on any one machine or special job, and one year on the floor, the course and time allotted to each class of work for the regular machinist apprentice will be as follows: — Machines (Small Lathes, Shapers, &c.) 6 months. Floor 9 Rods and Driving Wheels 3 Pistons and Guides 3 Valve Motion 3 Air Brakes and Injectors 3 Machines (Large Tools, Lathes, Planers, Blotters and Boring Mills) 9 Roundhouse 6 Test Work and Drafting Office 6 If an apprentice fails to qualify for or does not desire the experience in Test Work or Drafting Office, the time allotted for this work will be equally distributed between floor work and large machiue tools. It will be the duty of the General Foreman to see that each apprentice is advanced to the different classes of work and it will be the privilege of the apprentice to call his attention in writing whenever transfers are not made in accordance with the above schedule. Apprentices in shops not equipped with a Testing Department or Drafting Office, may, if they desire, be transferred to Milwaukee Shops for the last six months of their apprenticeship. An apprentice is to be governed by all shop rules and regulations that are in effect during his term of service or appren- ticeship. At the expiration of an apprentice's term of service a certificate will be issued to him stating the class of work he has fin- ished. (2.) TERMS OF APPRENTICESHIP FOR MACHINISTS EMPLOYED BY A PROVIDENCE ENGINEERING FIRM. Applicants for admission to apprenticeship must be not less than sixteen nor more than eighteen years of age. They must be physically sound, of good moral character, and have received an education equivalent at least to that required for graduation from the public grammar schools of the City of Providence. Application must be made in person; and, if accepted, the applicant's name will be registered and due notice given when he will be required to commence work. 3. The first six hundred and sixty hours (twelve weeks) of service shall constitute a term of trial. If the apprentice shall, during this term, prove satisfactory, and shall before the expiration thereof, execute, together with his father or guardian, — or it he have no father or guardian, then with some other responsible party, — an agreement in the form hereto annexed, then his apprenticeship shall date from the beginning of the term of trial and shall continue for the full term, unless sooner terminated as hereinafter stated. 4. Apprentices will be required to serve for the term of four years, — each year to consist of two thousand seven hundred working hours, which with the usual working week of fifty-five hours, is equal to two hundred and ninety-five working days. The remaining working days in each year wUl be allowed apprentices for recreation, at such time or times as the Company shall direct. 5. Apprentices will be required to perform their duties with punctuality, diligence and fidelity, and to conform to the rules and regulations which are or may be adopted for the government of the shops. 6. Apprentices are not allowed to use tobacco in the shops during working hours. 7. Apprehtices shall make up lost time at the expiration of each year, at the rate of wages paid during said year; and no year of service shall commence untU the apprentice shall have fully made up all time lost in the preceding year. 8. The Company reserves the right, whenever the state of business demands it, to shorten the hours of labour, or whenever for any reason it shall stop the works to suspend apprentices wholly or in part; and the making up of time so lost shall be at the discretion of the Company. 9. The Company also reserves the right, in its sole discretion, to terminate its agreement with any apprentice, also to' discharge him from its employment for non-conformity with its rules and regulations, want of industry or capacity, indifference to his duties or improper conduct within or without the shops. 10. Apprentices will be paid for each hour of actual service (not including time allowed for recreation or time when work is suspended) the following wages:— for the first year, eight cents [4d.]; for the second year, ten cents [5d.}; for the third year, twelve cents [6d.]; and for the fourth year, fourteen cents [7d.]. If the Company shall terminate the apprenticeship during the time of trial, it will pay at the rate of eight cents [4c?.] per hour for the time worked. 11. Wages wUl be paid on the regular pay-days of the Company, as they may be established from time to time. 12. The Company will faithfully instruct the apprentice in the machinist's art and trade, in their shops, during the term of apprenticeship. 13. Graduates of the Providence Manual Training High School, well recommended by the Principal, may have their term of apprenticeship shortened at the discretion of the Company. APPRENTICESHIP. 445 (3.) APPRENTICESHIP CLAUSES OP THE MEMPHIS TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION, No. U. Sec. 12. This Union insists that proprietors and foremen, in making their selection of apprentices, shall employ boys of studious and moral habits, and recommend the indenture or full term contract system whenever practicable. After the first six months of apprenticeship this Union shall have control of and use its best effort for the moral, technical and practical training of apprentices in offices under its jurisdiction. Sec. 13. The continuance of the term of apprenticeship of any apprentice after the first six months shall be contingent upon a satisfactory report from a committee of the Union relative to such person's educational and moral qualifications. Sec. 14. Four years shall be the minimum term of service for an apprentice. Sec. 15. Apprentices, upon entering offices under the jurisdiction of this Union, shall be registered by the Recording Secretary of this Union, and the term of apprenticeship shall date from such registration. A record shall be kept of such appren- tices and a certificate issued to each, which certificate shall be presented to the union when application is made for membership, said certificate to be as follows: — Certificate of Apprenticeship. (Memphis Typographical Union No. 11.) This is to certify that has on this date entered the employ of as an apprentice. Chairman of Office. Recording Secretary. Date Sec. 16. In offices where more than one apprentice is employed they shall be classed as senior and junior apprentices; the senior apprentice may become a probationary member of this Union at the end of his third year of apprenticeship, and shall receive two-thirds of the wages of a journeyman at the existing scale of prices. Application for probationary membership shall be accompanied by the regular initiation fee. A ballot for apprentice applicants shall be taken in the same manner and gov- erned by the same rules as those applying to the admission of journeymen. All apprentices, upon their admission, shall sub- scribe to the following obligation: — "I, , do most solemnly promise that I will never divulge to any person or persons whom- soever, under any circumstances, anything I may see or hear at the meetings of this Union, or which may come to my knowledge through other means touching any business or legislation intended. All this I promise without any mental reservation." Sec. 17. Offices employing less than three journeymen regularly shall be entitled to only one apprentice. Offices employing more than three and less than fifteen journeymen regularly shall be entitled to two apprentices, and no office shall be entitled to more than three apprentices. Offices having more than three apprentices must have a separate and distinct foreman to each department. Sec. 18. All apprentices employed on daily or weekly newspapers, job or book offices must be employed the last two years of their apprenticeship on the case, and at all the intricate handiwork of the craft. More speciScally speaking, this means that during the last two years of apprenticeship all apprentices in newspaper offices must be given an opportunity to thoroughly leain the different branches of newspaper work, with the exception that durmg the last six months they shall be given an opportunity to learn the typesetting machine; and in book and job offices they must be given an opportunity, during the last two years of apprenticeship, to learn those two branches of the craft by practically composing book or commercial job work at leastfour hours each day. Specializing apprentices is not considered advantageous to the apprentice and should be discomaged. Sec. 19. During the last two years of apprenticeship the apprentice shall furnish the Chairman of the office with proofs and specimens of his work at least once every three months, which shall be properly indorsed by the Chahman and foreman and referred to the Investigating Committee, together with any other information bearing thereon. In offices where there is no Chairman, such proofs and specimens shall be submitted to the Chairman of the Executive Board. Sec. 20. No apprentice shall leave one office and enter that of another employer without the written consent of his first employer or the President of the Union, and the date of each change of offices by the apprentice shall be recorded on the books of the Union. Sec. 21. Any member of this Union who knowingly invites, entices or in any way influences an apprentice to use mtoxi- catmg liquors or drugs to gamble or otherwise debauch or debase himself; or any member who participates with such appren- tice m drinking gambling, or other debasing practices, shall, upon conviction thereof, be deemed guilty of conduct unbecoming a union man and shall be fined $5.00 for the first offence, and $10.00 for each succeeding offence. Sec 22 Any apprentice or boy employed as "cub " in any union office who, prior or subsequent to such employment, has formed habits of immorality-Kirinking, gambling, etc.-and who persists in those habits, shall be recommended by the executive officers of this Union for discharge. (4.) APPRENTICE RULES IN THE CHICAGO BUILDING TRADES. Apprentice Rules adopted by the Joint Arbitration Board of the Carpenters' and Builders' Association and the Carpenters' Executive Council of Chicago and Cook County. Carpenters' Apprentices. -Sec. 1. Each responsible party to this agreement shall have the right to teach his trade to appren- tices ani the said apprentices shall serve four years as prescribed in the apprentice rules as agreed upon by the Jomt Arbitration Board and shall be subiect to the control of the said Arbitration Board. Board and ^^^"^^^^siu be under the jurisdiction of the Joint Arbitration Board, which has the authority to control them and protect fhStZi^ slject to approved indentures entered into with tiieir employers and the rules adopted by the Joint Board. 446 APPENDIX 1. Sec. 3. The applicant for apprenticeship shall not be more than seventeen years of age at the time of making application, except under conditions satisfactory to the two Presidents. Applicants more than seventeen years old must bring satisfactory proof of having worked at the trade. Sec. 4. The contractor taking an apprentice shall engage to keep him at work in the trade for nine consecutive mouths in each year, and see that during the remaining three months of the year the apprentice attends school during, January, February and March, and a certificate of attendance from the principal of the school attended must be furnished to the Joint Arbitration Board as a compliance with this requirement, before he is allowed to work during the coming year. Sec. 5. A contractor taking an apprentice shall keep him steadily at work or school; failing to do so, he shall pay him the same as though he had worked for him. Sec. 6. In case an apprentice at the end of his term of four years, for want of proper instruction in his trade, is not a pro- ficient workman, and if, after a thorough investigation the Joint Arbitration Board finds that the contractor to whom he was apprenticed did not give him proper instruction and an opportunity to learn his trade, he may be required to serve another year, with whom he and the Joint Arbitration Board may determine and at a rate of wages (less than minimum) in his trade they may determine; the difference between said rate and the minimum scale in his trade shall be paid him through the Joint Arbitration Board by the contractor to whom he was apprenticed. Sec. 7. A contractor entitled to an apprentice may take one on trial for two weeks, provided that applicant holds a permit from the Joint Arbitration Board, and if after said trial, conditions are satisfactory to both parties, they will be required to sign indentures agreeable to the Joint Arbitration Board. If not satisfactory the contractor is not bound to indenture him, but he will be required to pay the boy six dollars per week for the two weeks. No boy will be allowed a trial with more than two contractors, or a contractor with more than two boys, consecutively. Sec. 8. The rate of wages of an apprentice at the date of indentme shall in no case be less than $312 for the first year, $364 for the second year, $442 for the third year, and $572 for the fourth year, payable in lawful money of the United States, and shall be paid in fifty-two weekly instalments at the following rate per week of: $6 [25s.] for the first year, $7 [29s. 2d.] for the second year, $8.50 [35s. 5d.] for the third year and $11 [45s. lOd.] for the fourth year. Sec. 9. The issuing of permits for an apprentice to work for another contractor when the one to whom he is apprenticed has no work, shall be left to the Joint Arbitration Board. Sec. 10. All apprentices shall report to the Joint Arbitration Board at its meetings on the first Thursday of January and April of each year. Sec. 11. The contractor shall not have more than two apprentices at any one time. Sec. 12. Contractors shall be allowed apprentices on the following basis: Yearly average of four journeymen, one apprentice. Yearly average of ten journeymen, two apprentices. It is agreed by the parties that this agreement shall be in force between the parties hereto until April 1, 1912. (5.) MINOR'S LICENCE IN THE CITY OF BOSTON. City of Boston. — Revised Regulations o/1898. Chapter 2, as amended by the Regulations o/1900. Chapter 1, and the Regulations of 1902, Chapters 1 and 3. Minors' Licences. Sec. 1. No minor between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one years shall, in any street or public place of the city of Boston, work as a bootblack, or sell or expose for sale any books, newspapers, pamphlets, fuel, fruits, provisions, ice, live animals, brooms, agricultural implements, hand tools used in making boots and shoes, agricultural products of the United. States, or the product of his own labour or the labour of his family, unless he has a minor's licence, granted to him by the mayor and aldermen of said city, and issued to him by the clerk of committees of said city, for so working, or for so selling said articles, nor unless he com- plies with the terms of such licence. Sec. 2. The clerk of committees of the city of Boston shall receive the application of the parent or guardian of a minor, or of any responsible citizen of Boston, for a licence for such minor to work as a bootblack, or to sell any or all the articles enum- erated in the preceding section, and shall, when the mayor and aldermen pass a vote to that effect, issue a minor's licence and badge to such minor to go about from place to place in the city of Boston, and on the sidewalks in said city, to sell newspapers, or to work as a bootblack, or in the streets and other public places in said city to sell any or all of the other articles enumerated in the preceding section. Every such licence shall be issued and accepted on the condition that the minor shall comply with the terms of the following section, and said section shall be printed in the licence. Sec. 3. The minor shall conform to the statutes, the ordinances of the city of Boston, and the regulations of the board of aldermen of said city; shall surrender his licence and badge to the clerk of committees of said city when notified that his licence has been revoked; shall not transfer or lend his licence or badge, nor furnish any unlicensed minor with newspapers or other articles to sell; shall not sell newspapers in or on any part of a street other than the sidewalk, nor in or on a street car without the permission of the company operating such car; shall not at any time while engaged in working as a bootblack, or selling articles in pubUc places, congregate with other persons, nor make any unnecessary noise, nor in any way disturb or annoy persons as they pass, nor obstruct free passage on any sidewalk, crosswalk or entrance to any public place, nor occupy any stand with any other person, nor allow any unlicensed minor to assist or accompany him, nor allow idle persons to assemble or congregate around him, or around any stand occupied by him, nor so work or sell in any other place than that specified in his licence, when a place is so specified, nor at any time while so working or selling, fail to wear conspicuously in sight the badge furnished to him by said clerk of committees, nor fail to exhibit his licence to any police or other officer of said city if requested by him so to do. Any minor who violates any of said terms will be deprived of his licence and badge, and be fined. FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS. 447 C— FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS. (1.) RULES OF THE EMPLOYEES' BENEFIT ASSOCIATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY, CHICAGO (CONTRIBUTORY) (Organised September 1, 1908). Object. 1. The object of the Benefit Association is to provide its members with a certain income when sick, or when disabled by accident, either on or off duty, and to pay to their families certain definite sums in case of death; to create and maintain a fund which shall belong to the employees, be used in payment of benefits to them, and cost them the least money possible consid- ering the benefits received. Organization. 2. International Harvester Company, International Harvester Company of America, and subsidiary companies, have associated themselves with such of their employees as may join the same in the formation of this Benefit Association. 3. The Benefit Association is in the executive charge of a Board of Trustees consisting of members representing the plants and departments of the International Harvester Company, the International Harvester Company of America, and subsidiary companies, and a Superintendent. The headquarters of the Superintendent will be at the general office of the Company in Chicago. 4. Definitions of terms. 5. The Benefit Fund will consist of contributions from emmbere of the association, income or profit from investments, gifts or legacies to the Fund, and such contributions as may be made by the Company from time to time. Company's Contribution. 6. At the end of each year, if the average membership in the Benefit Association during that year has equalled 50 per cent, of the average total number of employees in the Companies' manufacturing plants, the Company will contribute $25,000.00 to the fund, and if such average membership has equalled 75 per cent, of such total number of employees, the Company will contribute $50,000.00 to the fund. The Company agrees to temporarily advance funds when necessary for payments of bene- fits at due date; to guarantee the safety of the fund and to pay semi-annual interest on the average balances at foiu' per cent. Handling of Fund. 7. The contributions from members shall be used only for the payment of benefits due to members of the Association, and the expenses of administration. If a surplus shall accumulate it shall remain under the control of the members of the Associa- tion, through their representatives on the Board of Trustees, and if a deficit arise the Company will make temporary advances to pay same. Board of Trustees. 8. There shall be a Board of Trustees of thirty members to be chosen annually in December, to serve for one year from the first day of January next succeeding and until their successors shall take office, as follows:— One half shall be chosen by the employees who are members of the Association; one representative to be chosen by employees from each Works, including the Works of subsidiary and affiliated companies and the field force of the Sales and Collection Departments of the International Harvester Company of America. An equal number shall be chosen by the Board of Directors of the Company. The President shall be ex-offlcio, a member and chairman of the Board of Trustees, and entitled to vote. He shall have the power to appoint a temporary chairman to serve in his absence. The number of Trustees may be increased or decreased after the first year by a majority vote of the Trustees, but at all times one-half shall be elected by the employees and one-half appointed by the Company. The Superintendent of the Association shall be Secretary of the Board. He shall have no vote. The Board of Trustees shall appoint and have general supervision over the Superintendent, and of the operations of the Association, and see that they are conducted in accordance with its regulations. Trustees shall hold stated meetings, quarterly, on the fourth Thursday of January, April, July and October, at the general office of the Company, Chicago, and shall meet at other times at the call of the Chairman. , ,. It shall be the duty of the Chairman to call special meetings of the Trustees upon the written request of seven of its ""^Wecessary travelling expenses of Trustees, actually incurred, and pay or wages of such members for time engaged in travelling to or from meetings of the Board and attending same, shall be paid by the Company. Annual Reports. 9. The Fiscal Year of the Association shall begin with the first day of January of each year. The first fiscal year shall be from September 1, 1908, to January 1, 1910. . , , . j ,. v. * The condition of the Fund at the close of each year shall be audited and reported on by a competent person or persons , t At IT L.C. h.r tbP Trustees elected by the members of the Association. A detailed report, mcludmg all receipts :Sst™elT:il£ '^^TZXtnL^^^ers may procure copies on application. The books shall be open at all times to members. 448 APPENDIX i; Superintendent. 10. The Superintendent of the Benefit Association shall be appointed by the Trustees. Under the direction of the Board, he shall have charge of all business of the Association; employ necessary clerks and other assistants; prescribe the forms and blanks to be used; certify all bills and pay rolls; sign all orders for payments of benefits, furnish to the Board such reports as they may require, and decide all questions properly referred to him. He shall have authority to appoint physicians, medical examiners, and visiting nurses, and shall have general supervision of all medical and surgical affairs of the Association. Medical Examiners. 11. Medical examiners shall make the required physical examination of applicants for membership in the Benefit Asso- ciation, prepare applications, report the condition of sick or injured members, decide when members are disabled and when they are able to work, whether any disability shall be considered a relapse or original disability, and whether cause of disablity shall be classed as due to sickness or accident, and perform such other duties as may be required of them by the Superintendent. Medical examiners of the Association shall in each case make an examination of disabled members in order to report intelligently, and each member must choose and pay for his attending physician. No bills for medical or surgical attendance are paid by the Association unless the medical examiner finds it necessary to provide additional or different medical or surgical treatment, or to remove patient to a hospital in order to make possible reasonably prompt recovery. Bills to cover such cases will be paid by the Association after proper certification by the medical examiner. Membership. 12. All einployees of the International Harvester Company, International Harvester Company of America, and subsidiary companies who apply for membership and conform to the regulations, shall be members of the Association. 13. Eligibility. — (a.) Any employees in service on or before September 20, 1908, may become a member of the Association without medical examination and without age limit at any time prior to January 1, 1909. (6.) Thereafter, any employee not over forty-five years of age may, upon passing a satisfactory medical examination and upon approval of his application by the Superintendent, become a member. (c.) Further, any employee over forty-five years of age may, upon passing a satisfactory medical examination, and upon approval of his application by the Superintendent, become a member under the same regulations, except that the death benefits in such cases shall be only $100.00. 14. Temporary Lay-off. — ^Any member who is temporarily relieved from service for a period not exceeding ninety days may retain his membership during such absence by paying his contributions each month in advance, the amount of contri- butions during such absence to be based upon previous two months average contributions. 15. Leaving Service. — ^When a member resigns from the service or leaves the service without notice, or absents himself without notice (unless he afterwards gives reasons satisfactory to the Superintendent), or is discharged, or is laid off for a period longer than ninety days, — his membership in the Association shall terminate with his employment, and he shall not thereafter be entitled to any benefits except for disability beginning and reported before such termination of employment and continuing without interruption. Any employee leaving the service who has been a member of the Benefit Association for one year, or who was a member of the Association January 1, 1909, and has been in the service five years, may continue his membership in respect only of the minimum death benefit which he has held during the last year of employment, or of any smaller amount, upon making supplementary application therefor before termination of employment or within five days thereafter. 16. Reinstatements. — ^Any member paying full contributions during temporary leave of absence may be reinstated within ninety days without physical examination. If any member contributing for death benefits only is re-employed, he shall resume full membership upon passing a satis- factory physical examination. Applications. . 17. Membership in the Benefit Association shall be based upon an application in the following form: — Application for membership in Employees' Benefit Association of International Harvester Companj'. No Dept. or Works To the Superintendent of Employees' Benefit Association of International Harvester Company: I, , being years of age, and residing at No Street, in the City of , in the County of , and State of , now employed by do hereby apply for membership in said Employees' Benefit Asso- ciation, and agree to be bound by the regulations of said Association, a copy of which has been by me received, and by any other regulations of said Benefit Association hereafter adopted and in force during my membership. I also agree, request and direct that said Company, by its proper agents, and in the manner provided for in such rules, shall, during the continuance of my employment, apply as a voluntary contribution from any wages earned by me under said employment two (2) per cent, of my wages for the purpose of securing the benefits provided in the regulations for a member of said Association. FACTOEY BENEFIT FUNDS. 449 Unless I shall hereafter otherwise designate in writing with the approval of the Superintendent of the Benefit Association, death benefits shall be payable to my wife (husband), if I am married at the time of my death; or, if I have no wife (husband) living, then to my children, collectively, each to be entitled to an equal share, including as entitled to the parent's share the children of any dead child, or if there be no children or children's children living, then to. if living, and if not living, to my father and mother jointly, or the survivor; or if neither be living, then'to my next oV kin,' pay- ment in behalf of such next of kin to be made to my legal representative; or if there be no such next of kin, or if proper claim is not made to the Superintendent within one year from the date of my death, the death benefits shall lapse, and the amount thereof shall become and remain a part of the Benefit Fund. I also agree, for myself and those claiming through me, to be governed by the regulations providing for final and conclusive settlement of all claims for benefits or controversies of whatever nature, by reference to. the Superintendent of the Benefit Asso- ciation, and an Appeal from his decision to the Board of Trustees. I also agree that any untrue or fraudulent statement made by me to the Medical Examiner, or any concealment of facta in this application, or any attempt on my part to defraud or impose upon said Benefit Association, or my resigning from or leaving the service of said International Harvester Company, International Harvester Company of America, or subsidiary company, or my being relieved or discharged therefrom, shall forfeit my membership in the said Benefit Association, and all righta, benefits and equities arising therefrom, except that such termination of my employment shall not (in the absence of any of the other foregoing causes of forfeiture) deprive me of any benefits to the payment of which I may be entitled by reason of disability beginning and reported before and continuing without interruption to and after such termination of my employ- ment, nor of the right to continue my membership in respect of death benefit only, as provided in said rules. I certify that I am correct and temperate in my habits; that, so far as I know, I am now in good health, and have no injury or disease, constitutional or otherwise, except as shown in the accompanying statement made by me to the Medical Examine, which statement shall constitute a part of this application. In witness whereof I have signed my name hereto at , in the County of , State of this day of A. D. 19..; this application to take effect on such date as may be designated by said Superintendent. Signature of Applicant. Witness: The foregoing application is approved at the office of the Superintendent of the Employees' Benefit Association, Inter- national Harvester Co., at Chicago, Illinois, this day of A. D. 19. . ; to take effect the day of A. D. 19. . Superintendent of Employees' Benefit Association. Applications shall take effect on the date when approved by the Superintendent, and a Certificate of Membership shall be issued. j^ote. — For employees who are not required to pass a medical examination upon application, part of clause (a) and part of clause (6) referring to medical examination will be waived. 18. Physical Defects.— It any applicant for membership has physical defects which would prevent the approval of his appli- cation if presented unconditionally, his application may nevertheless be approved; provided that he executes an agreement in writing, satisfactory to the Superintendent, to the effect that he shall not be entitled under his membership to any benefits for disability caused by, arising from, or growing out of such defects; such agreement to be attached to and to be made a part of his said application, and such modification of the prescribed forms of application is hereby authorized. Contributions. 19. The word "Contribution " wherever used in these rules shall be held and construed to mean such designated portion of the waives payable by the Company to an employee as he shall have agreed in his application that the Company shall apply for the p Jpose of securing to him the benefits of the Benefit Association, or such cash payments as it may be necessary for a member to make for said purpose. 20 Contributions from wages— Due Dato.— Contributions for any month will be due on the 1st and the 15th of that month, and will ordinarily be deducted from the member's wages due on these dates, or on regular pay days at each Works. The Contributions shall be two per cent, of the wages received by the employee, and the Company shall make additional deductions at the same rate to cover absences not exceeding seven days. If any member's contribution is omitted from the pay roll in error, the fact that such deduction has not been made shall not debar him or his beneficiary from benefits to which they would otherwise be entitled, and contribution shall be deducted from next pay roll. 21 Ca,h Payment of Contributions. -Wh^^z. a member has no wages on the pay roll, any contributions due from him must be paid in cash, in advance, to the Superintendent, otherwise he wUl be m arrears. A member contributing for death benefits only shall make such cash payments dnect to the Supermtendent. 22 Amount of contribution for Death Benefit 0«Z;/.-Members who have left the service of the Company and retam their membersCfor Ith benefits as herein provided, shall contribute ten centsper month, m advance, for each one hundred dollars of death benefit, on the basis of last year's salary, but not more than $2,000.00. ^ ^. v., .. v. .,, , .,. ,r V. „ „i,„ii „nt mnlrp contributions for any time when declared disabled by the 23. Contributions During Disability .-Uemhers shall not make contributions lor ^ y p„„trih„tion shall be made Medical Examiner, except as provided in the regulations. When full wages are paid the usual contribution shall be made. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 35 450 APPENDIX I. 24. Arrears. — ^When a member is in arrears he shall be entitled to no benefits, and if in arrears two months his right to reinstatement without physical examination shall cease without notice. 25. Maximum, Benefits. — No member shall be allowed to contribute or receive benefits on the basis of more than $2,000 annual comipehsation, but ii his salary exceeds said amount, his contributions and benefits shall be calculated on said sum. Benefits. 26. The following benefits shall be paid to memjDers or beneficiaries entitled thereto, in accordance with the provisions of the regulations: 27. Sickness Benefit. — (a.) Payment for each working day, except for the first seven days of disability classed as due to sickness, for a period not longer than fifty-two weeks, at one-half of member's average wages on the basis of the last sixty days worked. A relapse shall constitute part of the disability in computing term of disability. (6.) Establishing Claims for Sickness Benefit.— To establish a claim for sickness benefits there must be positive evidence of acute or constitutional disease sufficient to cause disability. (c.) Causes of Disability which shall be Classed as Due to Sicl-ness. — Disability resulting from infection of a cut, abrasion, scratch, puncture, or other wound, or from any injury, not immediately disabling, and not reported at the time of the occurrence of the accident causing the injury, or from poison, however taken into or acting upon the body, or from any overdose of medicine or drug taken by mistake, or from surgical operation necessary for the removal of some defect which would otherwise probably produce disability, or from sunstroke, or frost bite, shall be classed as due to sickness. (rf.) Pregnancy. — Benefits for disability due to pregnancy shall be limited to three months and said benefits shall be paid in a lump sum, provided in all cases, however, claimant shall have been a member of the Employees' Benefit Association for nine months. 28. Accident Benefits. — (a.) Payment for each working day or part of working day of disability classed as due to accident (either when at work or off duty) for a period not longer than fifty-two weeks at one-half of member's average pay, on basis of last 60 days worked. (6.) Establishing Claims for Accident Benefits. — To establish a claim for accident benefits the accident must be reported immediately upon its occurrence, and there must be external, positive and visible evidence of physical injury by accident sufficient to cause immediate disability. In cases of alleged sprain, strain, wrench, and the like, where physical proof of disabling injury is lacking, the member must furnish substantial history, satisfactory to the Superintendent, of violence accidentally inflicted sufficient and liable to cause disabling injury, otherwise accident benefits will not be allowed. 29. Benefits after Termination of Service. — A member entitled to benefits for time after termination of service shall not be entitled to benefits on account of sickness beginning or injury occurring during such time, nor on account of death occurring in such time, unless directly due to the sickness and injury and occurring during the disability existing at the time of such termination of service, or unless he continues his membership in respect to death benefit only, in accordance with the foregoing. Special Benefits in Case of Seriovs Accident. 30. Feet and Hands. — If a member receives accidental injuries producing the immediate severing of, or necessitating, in the opinion of a Medical Examiner of the Association, the amputation of a hand or foot at or above the wrist or ankle, he shall receive a total amount equal to one j'ear's average wages. In case of loss of both hands or both feet, or of one hand and one foot, he shall receive twice the above benefits, or a total amount equivalent to two years' average wages. 31. Eyes. — If a member receives accidental injuries resulting in the total and irrecoverable loss of sight of one eye, he shall receive a total amount equal to one-half his average yearly wage. For the total and irrecoverable loss of the sight of both eyes, he shall receive the total amount of two years' average wages. 32. Lump Settlements. — In case of any grave injury or chronic sickness where the member desires to accept a lump siiin in lieu of the benefits which might become due to him or on his account, and in full of all obligations of the Benefit Association aiising from his membership, the Superintendent shall have authority to make full and final settlement with such member on such terms as may be agreed upon in writing. All such settlements shall be reported to the Trustees at its next meeting. 33. Limitations. — No member shall be entitled to disability benefits from the Association and a pension from the Company at the same time, but he may retain his membership for death benefit without regard to pension. No member shall be entitled to receive benefits from sickness and accident disability at the same time. 34. Relapse. — In case of relapse in sickness disability occurring within two weeks, or a succession of sickness disability upon an accident, which lasted one week or more, the first seven days shall not be deducted in computing time of sick benefits; and where such immediately preceding accident disability lasted six days or less, the number of days to be deducted shall be seven, less the number of days of such accident disability. 35. Payments. — Benefits on account of continued disability will be paid semi-monthly. Benefits for short periods of disability will be paid as soon as the amount due can be determined. Benefits shall be paid only to the disabled member, or in accordance with his written order, when approved by the Superin- tendent, or to his legal representative. Benefits shall be paid in conformity with the financial methods of the Company on orders drawn by the Superintendent, upon his receiving such documents respecting claims as may be required by him. FACTORY BENEFIT FUNDS. 461 Death Benefits. 36. Death from Siehness. -Pnyment in case of death classed as due to sickneBs, of an amount equal to one year's average 37. Death from Occident.— Payment in case of death classed as due to accident, of an amount equivalent to two years' average wages. 38. Establishing Claims far Death Benefits.— Claims for death benefits must be made within sixty days after the death of the member. To establish a claim for accident death benefit there must be external, positive, and visible evidence of physical injury by accident sufficient to cause death; death due to other causes shall be classed as due to sickness. 39. Payment of Death Benefits.— Death benefits, together with any unpaid disability benefit, shall be payable to the beneficiary of a deceased member upon proof of claim. A part of the death benefit (not to exceed one hundred dollars) may, at the discretion of the Superintendent, be paid before final settlement, to meet funeral or other urgent expenses incident to the death of a member. 40. Suicide.— U a member commits suicide before the end of the first year of his membership the beneficiary shall receive in full satisfaction of all claims only such amount as the member has contributed for death benefits. Disability. 41. Wherever the word "Disability" is used in these regulations, it shall be held to mean physical inability to work, by reason of sickness or accidental injury, and the word "Disabled" shall apply to members thus physically unable to work. 42. The decision as to when members are disabled and when they are able to work shall rest with the Medical Examiner of the Association, and his decision shall be final and binding upon the member, subject to the provisions of the regulations. 43. Notification. — ^Whena Works member becomes disabled, he shall notify his timekeeper immediately or cause him to be notified ; other employees shall notify their superior officers. In reporting disability, the member shall give his house address. If he fails to give notice until he recovers, he shall not be entitled to benefits unless he proves his disability to the satisfaction of the Superintendent and gives satisfactory reason for failure to give notice. If he gives notice during disability, but delays in so doing, he shall not be considered disabled before the day on which notice is given, unless he proves his disability before that dly to the satisfaction of the Superintendent and gives satisfactory reason for delay in giving notice. If a member becomes disabled when away from home, whether on business for his employer or on leave of absence, he shall not be entitled to benefits unless he reports his disability immediately and proves it to the satisfaction of the Superin- tendent. 44. Re-ports. — ^When a member becomes disabled, he shall also, unless unable on account of his disability, report imme- diately to the Medical Examiner at his office, during business hours. A disabled member not confined to the house by his disability shall also report at the Medical Examiner's office from time to time as requested, and keep any other appointments made by the Examiner. Members who avoid the Medical Examiner or neglect to report or keep appointments shall not be entitled to benefits. If a member who has been reported as able to work by the Medical Examiner is not able to work on the day set, he shall immediately notify his timekeeper, and the Medical Examiner, and report to the latter in person if possible; otherwise he shall not be considered disabled after the day set for his return to work. 45. 46senc€.— When a disabled member wishes to leave home, he shall obtain from the Medical Examiner written approval of absence for a specific time, shall furnish him satisfactory proof of disability, while absent, and report immediately to him on his return, otherwise he shall not receive benefits while absent. 46. No Benefits when Disability is Due to Intoxication, ftc— Benefits shall not be payable for disability directly, indirectly or partly due to intoxication, or the use of alcohohc liquors as a beverage, or to immoderate use of stimulants or narcotics, or to unlawful acts or immoralities, or to venereal diseases, however contracted, or to the results thereof, or to urcthntis, orchitis, epididymitis stricture or glandular swelling or abscess in the groin, however caused, or to fighting, unless in seh-defence against unprovoked assault, or to other encounter, such as wrestling, scufffing, fooUng, and the like, or to injury received in any brawl, or in any liquor saloon, gambling house or other disreputable resort. During any such disabiUty coming under this rule a member may contribute for and be entitled to death benefits only. Examination. 47 Members shall not be entitled to benefits if they decline to permit the Medical Examiner to make or have made by any other physician such examination as he may deem necessary to ascertain their condition when claimmg disability. Disabled members must take proper care of themselves and have proper treatment. Benefits will be discontmued to members who refuse or neglect to follow the recommendations of the Medical Exammer. (2) PENSION SYSTEM OF THE INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY AND SUBSIDIARY COMPANIES ^ '' (NON-CONTRIBUTORY). The Board of Directors after careful consideration of the subject and an examination of the various pension systems now in opetion have a^pToved the following plan as the best and most liberal for employees who by long and faithful service have ""?hrDtTtrs'e::SrtS-pension Fund as an evidence of their appreciation of the fidelity, efficiency and loyalty of ^"inlTadministration of this pension system are associated International Harvester Company, International Harvester Company of America, and subsidiary companies. 452 APPENDIX I Pension Board. 1. Administration. — The adminietration of the pension fund shall be in charge of a Pension Board consisting of five mem- bers who shall all be officers or employees of this Company or of affiliated or subsidiary companies, and shall be appointed annually by the Board of Directors of this Company, to serve for one year and until their successors are appointed and shall qualify. 2. Officers. — ^The Pension Board shall elect a Chairman and a Secretary from among its members, and the Treasurer of this Company shall be ex-officio Treasurer of the Fund. The Board may make and enforce rules for the efficient administration of the pension fund, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors. The Pension Board shall control the payment of pension allowances under the rules hereinafter stated. 3. Quorum. — A majority of the Pension Board shall constitute a quorum for all purposes. 4. Representation. — The members of the Board shall be so chosen that the principal departments of the business shall have representation. Pension Fund. 5. The Treasurer of the Company shall be the custodian and Treasurer of the fund, and additions shall be made to said fund yearly, or from time to time according to the aggregate pension allowances and the amount available in the pension fund for payment of the same. Should the aggregate pension allowances exceed $100,000 in any one year, thenunless the Board of Directors increases the yearly amount usable for pensions, a new rate shall be established proportionately reducing all allowances. Payments from this fund shall only be made in accordance with and by direction of the Pension Board. Eligibility. 6. The Pension Board may authorize the payment of a pension to any retired employee on the following basis: — (a.) All employees of this Company and of subsidiary and affiliated companies, engaged in any [capacity, are eligible to pensions as hereinafter stated. (6.) All male employees who shall have reached the age of sixty-five years and have been twenty or more years in the service, may, at their own request, or at the discretion of the Pension Board, be retired from active service and become eligible to a pension. (c.) All male employees who have been twenty or more years in the service shall be retired at the age of seventy yeftrs on the first day of the calendar month following that in which they shall have attained said age, unless at the discretion of the Pension Board some later date be fixed for such retirement. Persons occupying executive positions are exempt from maximum age limit. {d.) All female employees who shall have reached the age of fifty years and have been twenty or more years in the service, may at their own request, or at the discretion of the Pension Board, be retired from active service and become eligible to a pension. (e.) All female employees shall be retired at the age of sixty years, on the first day of the calendar month following that in which they shall have attained the age, unless at the discretion of the Pension Board a later date be fixed for such retirement. Persons occupying executive positions are exempt from maximum age limit. Definitions. 7. The terms "service" and "in the service" apply to all employees of the International Harvester Company, or of any affiliated or subsidiary companies which are now or may hereafter be owned or controlled by it, and of the International Har- vester Company of America, who have received a stated and regular compensation from any of said companies. The term of service shall be reckoned from the date of commencing with the original company whose property and business shall have become those of the International Harvester Company, or any subsidiary companies, or of the International Harvester Company of America. 8. Temporary Alsence. — ^A temporary lay-off on account of illness or of reduction of force is not to be considered as a break in the continuity of service, but when such absence exceeds six consecutive months it shall be deducted in computing the length of active service. 9. Leaving Service. — If a person, after leaving the service for more than two years, shall be re-employed, he shall be con- sidered in his relation to the pension system as a new employee. Pension Allowances and Conditions. 10. Am/)unt.~The sums which the Board of Pensions may authorize to be paid monthly to employees retired at the age limit shall be as follows:— For each year of active service an allowance of one per cent, of the average annual pay during the ten years next preceding retirement; but no pension shall exceed $100 per month, or be less than $18 per month. 11. Payment.— (a.) Pension allowances shall be paid on the first of each month from the date of retirement until the death of employee. (6.) At the discretion of the Pension Board these allowances may be continued to widows and orphans of a pensioner foi a limited period. (c.) Pension allowances shall be non-assignable, and an attempted transfer or pledge of the same shall not be recognised by the Pension Board and may in its discretion work a forfeiture thereof. (d.) Pension allowances may be suspended or terminated by the Pension Board in cases of gross misconduct, or of any violation of the Rules, or, at its discretion, may be paid to some member of the family. (e.) The acceptance of the pension shall not debar any retired employee from engaging in any other business which in the judgment of the Pension Board is not prejudicial to the interests of this Company or of any affiliated or subsidiary company, but he cannot re-enter service. (/■) No payments for pensions shall be approved by the Pension Board until payments from any relief fund operated bv this Company, or any affiliated or subsidiary company, shall cease. PROVIBKNT FUNDS AND CHARITIES. 453 Pension~Eow Computed. 12. The amount of pensions granted on account of advanced age will depend, as before stated, on two conditions: the number of years the person has served the Company, and the amount of his average wages per year for the ten years next pre- cedmg retirement. Thus, for illustration, if the average pay per year for the last ten years of active service equals $600.00, and if the service has been continuous for twenty-five years, the pension would be twenty-five per cent, of $600.00, or $150.00 per year, or $12.50 per month. Since the minimum pension has been fixed at $18.00 per month, then to this regular percentage $5.50 would be added, making the minimum sum of $18.00. In special cases where the term of service is less than twenty years, the pension and the amount of same, if any, will be determined solely at the discretion of the Board of Pensions. Department Heads are expected to keep informed of the whereabouts and physical condition of former employees receiv- ing pensions, and axe required to advise the Secretary of the Board of Pensions of the death of the pensioner, and of any other circumstances which would affect his monthly payment. A physical examination by a Company surgeon, or in case of female employees, by a surgeon approved by the Board of Pensions, will be required of employees who wish to be retired on a pension allowance because of incapacity. How to Secure a Pension. 13. An employee wishing to apply for a pension should first take up the subject with the Superintendent at the works where he is employed, or the head of the department in which he is serving, or with a member of the Pension Board. A form will then be furnished , which must be filled out and signed , giving the necessary information concerning the applicant's age, length of service and wages. This formal application must be signed by the Works Superintendent, or head of department employing applicant, and then sent to the Secretary of the Pension Board at his office. No Contractual Rights Conferred. 14. Neither the establishment of this system nor the granting of a pension, nor any other action now or hereafter taken by the Pension Board, or by the Officers of this Company, shall be held or construed as creating a contract, or giving to any officer, agent or employee a right to be retained in the service, or any right to any pension allowance, and the Company expressly reserves, unaffected hereby, its right to discharge without liability, other than for salary or wages due and unpaid, any em- ployee, whenever the interests of the Company may in its judgment so require. D.— MTTTXTAIi PROVIDENT FUNDS AND ASSOCIATED CHARITIES. (1.) CONSTITUTION OF THE PROVIDENT LOAN SOCIETY OF NEW YORK (BxtracfB). Article /.—The name by which this Society shall be known is "The Provident Loan Society of New York." Article II. — Its objects are to aid such persons as the Society shall deem in need of pecuniary assistance, by loans of money at interest upon the pledge or mortgage of personal property. Article III. — Section 1. The following persons shall be members of the Society:— (1) Its incorporators. (2) Such persons as its incorporators may associate with themselves at the meeting held to organize the Society on April 25, 1894. (3) Any per- son who may hereafter become a holder of a certificate of contribution to the Society of not less than $500, and who may be elected a member by the vote or assent in writing of three-fourths of its Board of Trustees or of all the members of its Executive Committee. Section 2. The Mayor of the City of New York, the Comptroller of the City of New York, the President of the Police De- partment, the President of the Department of Charities, and the President of the following named societies, viz., the Charity Organization Society of the City of New York, the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, the Society of St. Vin- cent de Paul, and the United Hebrew Charities, shall be ex-offieio members of the Society. Article IV.— The business and affairs of the Society shall be managed by a board of fifteen Trustees, all of whom shall be members of the Society, &c. „ , m Article K— The officers of the Society shall be a President, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. They must all be Trustees. . . , The Trustees may appoint, from time to time, such other officers or agents as they may deem expedient. Article VI.—The Trustees shall elect at the same meeting at which officers are elected an Executive Committee of four, m addition to the President, Secretary, and Treasurer, who shall be ex-officio members of such Committee. Members of this committee shall hold office for one year and until their successors are elected. This committee shall exercise all the powers of the Board of Trustees, between the times of its meetings, which can be lawfully delegated^ _ irticle VII -The annual meeting of the Society shall be held on the first Monday of February m each year. Special meetings may be held at any time upon die call of the President or any ten members of the Society. Regular meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be held on the first Monday of February, April, and November. Special meetmgs of the Trustees may be held upon the call of the President or of any five members of the Board. ^, , „ . , ^.. , Article X. -Money for the corporate purposes of the Society shall be obtamed from the followmg sources.-l. Gifts or be- quests; 2. Contributions made on condition that the contributor shall receive a Certificate for the amount given entitling the holder thereof to such amount, not exceeding in any year lawful mterest on the sum contributed as the Trustees may deter- mine to pay pro rata to certificate-holders out of earnings; 3. Loans at a rate of mterest not exceeding the lawful rate. ArtkkA The Society shall not charge or receive any interest on loans made by it of a greater amount than one-half of the interest which pawnbrokers are now authorized to charge by law. 454 APPENDIX I, (2.) CONSTITUTION OF THE ST. LOUIS PROVIDENT ASSOCIATION. Article 1. — The ABsociation shall be called the "St. Loiiis Provident Association," and shall be composed of such annual contributors to its funds as shall be elected to membership by the Board of Directors. Article 2. — The object of this Association shall be to look after the interests of the poor of St. Louis, not otherwise provided for by churches or other benevolent bodies; to provide them with suitable employment, when expedient, and otherwise to aid them in such ways as shall be deemed most judicious. Article 3. — The powers of the corporation shall be exercised by a Board of thirty Directors. The officers of the Association shall be a President, Vice-President, a Secretary and a Treasurer. The Secretary and Treasurer need not be Directors of the Association. The President and Vice-President shall be chosen from the Members of the Board. Articles 4 to 8 deal with matters of administration. Principles, Objects and Methods. This Association adopts and shall be conducted upon and under the following fundamental principles, rules and regula- tions: — Section 1. (1st) In the case of all persons who are proper claimants upon the care of the Association, its charities shall be dispensed irrespective of religious belief, politics or nationality; Provided, however, to avoid interference with the sphere of other charitable associations, and to prevent applicants from receiving assistance from various charities at the same time, all applicants who are connected ynth an existing church or society, shall, in extreme cases, be visited and helped at once, whereupon a letter from the General Manager, with stamped envelope for return shall be sent to the church they may attend, or to such charity which seems to be more especially designed for them. If this letter is returned by such church or society, with the reason of retu.sal in writing thereon, the case shall then be entitled to further investigation by this Association. (2nd) No person representing this Association in any capacity whatever, shall use his or her position for the purpose of proselytism. (3rd) The ultimate aim of this Association is the physical and moral elevation of the indigent, and so far as it is compatible with this design, relief of their necessities to be extended. (4th) So far as practicable for poor persons, who are capable of being wholly or partially self-supporting, employment to be the basis of relief, and for the unskilled, industrial training to be provided, the design being to make the poor a party to their own improvement and elevation in all practicable forms and extent of self-help. (5th) Investigation before relief to be made invariably, except in cases requiring temporary emergent aid; in such cases subsequent investigation to be made. Section 2. This Association is organized for the general purpose of promoting the welfare of such of the poor, the suffering, and the friendless in the City of St. Louis as are not otherwise provided for by the churches or other benevolent bodies or municipal charitable institutions; to provide safeguards against imposition upon the benevolent community by irresponsible societies and unworthy applicants; and to discourage and repress street begging and all forms of mendicancy and pauperism. Specific objects and methods of the Association include. the following provisions; — (1st) The establishment and maintenance of Provident Institutions for the purposes of temporary employment and industrial training and economic instruction; or shelter for the homeless; of aid to working women in the temporary care of their children; of encouragement to thrift, by inculcating habits of provident savings; and such other forms of aid to the poor and unfortunate as shall tend to create and foster the sentiment of self-respect and the purpose of self-dependence. (2nd) The Administrative Office of the Association to constitute a Central Bureau of Information concerning the conditions anl wants of the poor of the city, and on reference of particular cases for inquiry by persons having a legitimate interest therein to investigate the same, without charge, and report its results. (3rd) To advance the general welfare of the poor by promoting social and sanitary reforms, and the enforcement of municipal sanitary regulations and ordinances relating to factories and tenement houses. (4th) To check the evils of overlapping of relief by promoting and fostering cordial correspondence, and harmonious and efficient co-operation between the municipal authorities, the public and private charities, the churches and benevolent indi- viduals, and so far as may be desired and sought to act and serve as a centre of inter-conimunication between them. (5th) To promote the welfare of the really needy, and the worthy poor, by the exposure of deliberate imposture and fraud, and prosecution of such offenders. (6th) The collection and diffusion of knowledge on all subjects connected with relief of the poor, and the maintenance of a free library of information on these subjects. (7th) To encourage and promote attendance at school of children of proper age, and requiring that they be placed at school by parents who are beneficiaries of the Association unless unavoidable circumstances prevent. Main Departments. 1.— Central Office. — 1. A Btueau of Information concerning the charities of the city. 2. A medium of educational pro- paganda in the principles of organized charity. 3. An office for the general direction of the work of the Association. 4. Investigation Department. — Investigations are made for private persons, hospitals, dispensaries and other institutioQS. For this purpose and to ascertain whether new families that make application are suitable for care, the Association maintains a special corps of investigating agents in connection with the Registration Bureau. 5. Registration Bureau. — A confidential record of all investigations made by the Association, and of the action taken on behalf of families under its care. Information is given through the Central Office or by mail to those who have a legitimate charitable interest in the families concerned. PROVIDENT FUNDS AND CHARITIES. 455 wor "• HrreLfi~l7e™:i:t^^^ ^^•^ *^-^^^- ^- ^ -'^ '— «-. -d to te.t thai, wilHogness to \f~TT'' "^I'^'lrt *'"'°'""' '^'^'^^ '°'' '^°°'^^^" ^^'^^ -d girls out of employment. lY.— Workroo-msfor Unshilled Women.— Under champ of the qowi„„ tj n ■.. ^ women who need training in sewing and factory ^o^'^.^^^^ZH^^Z^, '^^Tr.llir'' ''^''''-' ''' VL-Promc^^nt Pennj/ Savings Bank.-For the encouragement of small savin<.8 ^"--^""^-'---''Tl^-. Charities Directory," published bi-annually, gives reliable information concerning the various S^nSfrluTs " "''''"*""' °' '^' "*^' ^"' "^^^ ^^-^^^"^^^^ ^^=* '" P-bl-t«d ^t --sional intervals, warning yi"-~^!*.™'^;7^ ''^''■"'^'^^ "^--^^y °* ^PPli^d «°^i°l°gy- ah who are interested in charitable subjects are made welcome IX.-Vtnhng Nurses DepaHment.-TxBined nurses employed to visit and care for sick poor X-Day Nursery. -B^y Nursery for children (infants up to six years). Care and instruction given. Charges, 5 cents a day Xl.-Jfen s Lodger-Shelter for homeless men. Opportunity given to men to earn supper, bath, lodging and breakfast for three and one-half hour's work in wood yard. o ^luu oieaKiasi, Xll.-Cheap Baths/or Men, Women and Childreri.-Shower or hot baths. Hot and cold water. Charges, 5 cents for adults children accompanied by parents free. 'luuiiii, (3.) BY-LAWS OP THE BROOKLYN BUREAU OF CHARITIES (Extracts). The "Brooklyn Bureau of Charities," organized in 1878 and incorporated in 1887, and the "Union for Christian Work in the City of Brooklyn," organized in 1866 and incorporated in 1871, were consolidated May 1, 1901, with the approval of a Justice of 4iie Supreme Court under the name of "Brooklyn Bureau of Charities," pursuant to Chapter 559, Laws of 1895. Article I.— Name.— The name of this Society shall be Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. Article II.— Objects.— The general objects of the Society shall be to promote the welfare of the poor, the suffering, and the friendless in Brooklyn; and the methods shall include: The promotion of cordial co-operation between Benevolent Societies, Churches, and individuals. The maintenance of a body of Friendly Visitors to the poor. The encouragement of thrift, self-dependence, and industry. The provision of temporary employment and industrial instruction. The collection and diffusion of knowledge on all subjects connected with the relief of the poor, and the maintenance of a free library of information on these subjects. The prevention of imposition and the diminution of vagrancy and pauperism. Article III. — Management. — Section 1. The property and management of the Society shall be vested in a Board of twenty- four Directors whose term of office shall be three years, or until their successors are chosen. Eight Directors shall be elected at each annual meeting to fill the places of those whose terms then expire. Articles IV. to VII. relate to membership, meetings, officers, and executive committee. Article VIII. — District Conferences. — Sec. 1. A District Conference shall be established so soon as practicable, in each Ward or other convenient division of the City. At the formation of a District Conference and whenever asked for by the Board of Directors or Executive Committee, the roll of membership of the Conference shall be submitted to the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee, and shall be subject to their approval. Sec. 2. Each District Conference shall include all Friendly Visitors of the Society acting in the District, and all officers and members of Committees of the Society residing in the District. Sec. 3. Each District Conference shall hold its annual business meeting in the second week in November. Each District Conference may elect its own officers and adopt such by-laws and rules as may further the objects of this Society, subject always to the supervision and approval of the Board of Directors and not in conflict with these By-Laws or such as the Directors may hereafter adopt. Minutes of all meetings shall be preserved. Sec. 4. No Conference shall have authority to pledge the funds of the Society to any purpose whatever, nor shall it solicit or receive funds for the purpose of almsgiving; but it may collect money for the expense of its meetings and necessary stationery. Sec. 5. The President or Secretary of each Conference shall submit to the Board of Directors, on or before the first day of May, an Annual Report of the work done by the Conference, which shall include the names of all Officers and Committees, and of all Friendly Visitors who have visited cases within the previous year, a classified statement of all cases reported or treated in the Conference during the year, and a statement of expenses and receipts of the Conference. Sec. 6. The Secretary of each District Conference shall report to the General Secretary at the Central Office, the names and residences of officers or memberr of Committees, when chosen, and of Friendly Visitors whenever added to the Conference, and the names and -residences and the description of all cases reported by Friendly Visitors of the Conference. Article IX.— Friendly Visitors.— Section 1. Any person willing to visit the suffering and needy in the district of a Con- ference, for the purposes named in Article II., may be enrolled as a Friendly Visitor of that Conference by a vote of the Con- ference, and may be dropped by the same vote. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of a Friendly Visitor to visit the poor and distressed as a friend; to examine, in the spirit of kindness, the causes of their trouble; to do what can be done to remove those causes; to become acquainted with the ability which each may have, and aid in developing it and in finding ways in which it may be employed in self-help; through friendly 456 APPENDIX 1. intercourse, sympathy, and direction to encourage self-dependence, industry and thrift; to recommend whatever may be possible and wise to alleviate the sufferings of those whose infirmities cannot be cured or removed; if material aid be necessary to obtain it from existing organizations so far as possible; and in every case to promote in all practicable ways the physical and moral improvement of the families in the Visitor's charge. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of each Friendly Visitor to report to the Secretary of his or her District Conference from time to time, a detailed account of each case in his or her care and the progress made in treatment of the case. Sec. 4. No Friendly Visitor shall use his or her position for any purpose of proselytism. Article X. — Temporary Employment Agencies, etc. — Section \. Wood Yards, Laundries, Work Rooms or other agencies for furnishing temporary employment to persons in need and for Industrial Education, and any other undertakings or instrumen- talities for carrying out the declared purposes of the Society, may be established under direction of and by vote of the Board of Directors. What the Soaety does for those desiring to bestow aid. Maintains a registry containing information, accumulated through more than thirty years, relating to applicants for aid in Brooklyn. Information from the Registry is freely offered to inquirers charitably interested in relieving distress. Preveuts duplication in benevolent work, saves waste of gifts upon those seeking aid under false pretences, and increases the benefit which individuals and organizations can render to those needing help. Conducts Conferences in different portions of the city, for the consideration of methods for helping the poor. Offi;rs its services freely to all, whether contributors or not. What everyone can do to help the Society. Patronize the wood yards and the laimdries of the Biu-eau and thus afford the self-respecting poor opportunity to help themselves. Send a contribution, as generous as possible, to the Treasury of the Bureau. Donations in goods of any kind, groceries, provisions, clothing, old linen and cotton cloth for the visiting niurses, rags for weaving into carpets, furniture, books and'peri- odicals can be put to good use, and will be called for if notice is sent to one of the offices. Employ men and women for odd jobs at manual labour through the Bureau. Opportunities for addressing envelopes and other simple clerical work especially solicited. Visit the offices, industrial agencies, and day nurseries, and take a personal interest in the beneficiaries. The children in the Day Nurseries afford opportunity for much helpful service to themselves and the families to which they belong. Help to arrange conferences among your friends and neighbours for considering the best methods of relieving and preventing distress, and arrange if possible to visit one poor family. Report to the Bureau every case of distress commg to your knowledge E.— BTJILDING AND LODGING HOUSE REGULATIONS. (1.) CHICAGO BUILDING ORDINANCE— EXTRACTS FROM REGULATIONS RELATING TO TENEMENT AND APARTMENT HOUSES (CLASS VI.). Classification of Bvildings. — "In Class VI. shall be included every tenement and apartment house; that is to say, any house or building or portion thereof which is used as a house or residence for two or more families living in separate apartments. ' ' Thickness of Walls of Class VI. — Buildings of Class VI. shall conform to the following requirements: — The thickness of enclosing walls of buildings of Class VI. shall be made in accordance with the following table, to wit: — Stories. Basement and 12345G789 10 1112 One-story 12 8 Two-story 12 12 8 Three-story 16 12 12 12 Four-story 20 16 16 12 12 Five-story 20 16 16 16 12 12 Six-story 20 20 16 16 16 12 12 Seven-story 24 24 20 20 16 16 12 12 Eight-story 24 24 24 20 20 16 16 12 12 Nine-story 28 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 12 12 Ten-story 28 24 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 12 12 Eleven-story 28 28 24 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 12 12 Twelve-story 32 28 28 24 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 12 12 Provided, however, in buildings of steel skeleton fireproof construction, thickness of walls shall be governed by the pro- visions of section 510 of this chapter. Fire Escapes. — Every tenement house four or more stories in height shall be provided with a fire escape or fire escapes, such as are required by the statutes of this state and the ordinances of the city. In every case each separate apartment shall have direct access to at least one such fire escape unless such apartment shall have direct access (without passing through any other apartment) to at least two separate flights of stairs leading to the ground, one of which is placed in front and one in the rear of such building, and one of which may be placed outside of the building; but where such separate apartment shall not have access to two flights of stairs, then there shall be a metal stairway between the balconies of every such fire escape, securely fastened to the walls of the building, not less than two feet wide, with a proper hand rail, instead of the usual vertical ladder. Every court in which there shall be a fire escape shall have direct and unobstructed access along the surface of the ground to a street, alley, or yard, opening into the alley or street, without entering into or passing through or over any building unless by a four-foot wide fireproof passage on the court or ground level. APPENDIX I. 457 h.v/a'ftLni^Sr/"". •^"'' 0/ ^«^-tio^.-ie«5ui..^n«,._Every now existing and every new tenement house shall T Lrlr.^ I stairs which shall extend from the entrance floor to the top story. Such stairs and the public halls in every tenement house shall each be at least three feet wide in the clear, and every apartment shall be directly accessible from both BUchflightB of sUirs If any existing tenement house be s. altered as to increase the number of apartments therein, or if such building be increased m height, or if the halls and stairs therein be damaged by fire or otherwise to an extent greater than one-half the original cost thereof, the entrance, stair halls, entrance halls and other public halls of the whole building shall be made to conform to the requirements of this chapter as to new tenement houses. Railings and Guards.-ln every tenement house all stairways shall be provided with sufficient railings and guards. Stairs in Non- Fireproof Buildings, Eighty to Om Hundred and Twenty Sooms.-Every new non-fireproof tenement house containing over eighty rooms, exclusive of bath rooms, shall have one additional flight of stairs (over and above the flights herein- before provided for) for every additional eighty rooms, or fraction thereof ; but if such building contains not more than one hundred and twenty rooms, exclusive of bath rooms, at the owner's option, in lieu of an additional stairway, the stairs and public halls throughout the entire building shall be at least one-half wider than is provided in sections 395 and 402 of this chapter. Stairs in Fireproof Buildings, Orm Hundred and Twenty Rooms and upward.— ^very new fireproof tenement house con- tainmg over one hundred and twenty rooms, exclusive of bath rooms, shall have one additional flight of stairs (over and above the flights hereinbefore provided for), for every additional one hundred and twenty rooms or fraction thereof; but if such build- ing contains not more than one hundred and eighty rooms, exclusive of bath rooms, at the owner's option, in lieu of an additional stairway, the stairs and public halls throughout the entue building shall be made at least one-half wider than is provided in sec- tions 395 and 402 of this chapter. Entrance to Stairs.— Treads and Risers.— Every flight of stairs required in a tenement house shall have an entrance on the entrance floor from a street or alley, or from a yard or court which opens into a street or alley. All stairs except rear stairs, in new tenement houses, shall have risers not more than seven and three-quarters inches high and treads not less than nine and one-half mches wide, exclusive of nosings, except in winding stairs, where all treads at a point eighteen inches from the strings on the wall side shall be at least nine and one-half inches wide, exclusive of nosings. Stairs and Stair Halls. — Over Three Stories. — Fire-resisting Glass. — The stairs and stair halls in all new tenement houses more than three stories and basement high shall be constructed of incombustible material throughout, except that the treads of stairs (not less than one and three-fourths inches thick) and all hand rails may be of hard wood. All windows in stair halls in new tenement houses more than three stories and basement high opening on inner courts or shafts, shall be of good quality fire-resisting glass. Stair Hall Enclosed in Masonry. — Requirements and Exceptions. — (As amended Feb. 18, 1907). In every new non- fireproof tenement house all stair halls shall be enclosed on all sides, with the walls of solid masonry of the same dimensions and thickness as specified for enclosing walls. All windows in such stair halls shall have metal frames and sashes, glazed, fire-resist- ing glass and such windows shall be stationary. This section shall not apply to tenement houses which are not more than three (3) stories and basement high with only one apartment on each floor. Frame Buildings not to be Enlarged. — No wooden frame tenement house within the fire limits shall be enlarged either by adding to its height or to its superficial area. Space Occupied on Lot. — Plat Measurements. — No new tenement house, alone or with other buildings now or hereafter erected, shall occupy above the first story more than eighty-five per centum of the area of a corner lot or more than ninety per centum of the area of such corner lot, if such corner lot is bounded on three sides by streets or alleys, or more than seventy-five per centum of the area of any other lot, provided that the space occupied by fire escapes, constructed and erected according to law and not more than four feet wide, shall be deemed unoccupied. At the time of applying for a permit for the erection of a new tenement house the applicant shall submit a plan of the lot showing the dimensions of the same and the position to be occupied by the proposed building, and the position of any other building or buildings that may be on the lot. The measurements shall in all cases be taken at the top of the first story and shall not include any portion of any street or alley. Height— How measured.— The height of a new tenement house shall not by more than one-half exceed the platted width of the widest street on which it abuts. Provided, however, that any distance the building sets back from the lot line shall be added to the width of the street in making this computation, but no existing tenement house shall be increased beyond such height Such height shall be the perpendicular distance from the grade nearest the house to the highest point of the roof (not including as part of the roof any cornice or bulkhead less than eight feet high, or any elevator inclosure less than sixteen feet high). Where such street grade varies, the mean or average grade thereof opposite such house shall be the datum from which such height shall be measured. AlUy or Yard in Rear.-At the rear of every lot containing a new tenement house (unless the rear of such lot abuts upon a public alley at least ten feet wide) there shall be a yard open and unobstructed from the earth to the sky, except by fire escapes not more than four feet wide, constructed and erected according to law; every part of such yard shall be directly accessible from every other part thereof; such yard shall on comer lots (as above defined) have an area of at least eight per cen um of the super- ficial area of the lot, and shall on other lots have an area of at least ten per centum of the superficial area of the lot. Every such 458 APPENDIX I. yard shall be increased one per centum of the superficial area of the lot for every story above three stories in height of the tene- ment house situated thereon, and in no case shall such yard separate any building on such lot by less than ten feet from the rear line of the lot as the nearest point of approach of such building to such rear line. For the purpose of construing and enforcing this section, the rear of the lot shall be held and deemed to be that part of the lot that is farthest from the line of the street upon which the proposed building will face, and in case where the proposed building will stand upon a corner lot or tract of land abutting upon two streets and an alley in all such cases the proposed building or buildings may extend from the front to the rear of such lot or tract. Nothing herein contained shall conflict with or modify any other provision of this ordinance. Courts. — Porches. — Every court of every new tenement house shall be open and unobstructed at every point thereof from the bottom thereof to the sky, save by fire escapes or stairs or landings constructed and erected according to law and projecting not more than four feet into courts, which courts shall communicate directly without obstruction into a street, alley or yard. Where porches are constructed in courts, the amount of area of unobstructed space in such courts shall be exclusive of space occupied by stairs and porches. No rear porch shall be constructed which is more than eight feet in width where the con- struction is of combustible material, and no such rear porches shall be inclosed with other than incombustible material aa defined in section 506 of this chapter. Habitable Rooms. — Windows. — Vent Shafts. — (As amended Nov. 25, 1907). In every new tenement house every habitable room, excepting water closet compartments and bath rooms, shall have all windows open direct upon a street, alley, yard or court. The total area of the windows opening from such room (other than water closet compartments and bath rooms) upon a street, alley, yard or court, shall be at least one-tenth of the floor area of that roonj, and the top of at least one window shall be not less than seven feet above the floor, and the upper half of that window shall be made so as to open its full width. No window in any such room (other than pantries, water closet compartments and bath rooms) shall have less than ten square feet glass area, and in no such water closet compartment or bath room shall the total window area be less than three square feet glass area, or the width of any window less than one foot; and when any window ventilating any water closet compartment or bath room in any new tenement house opens into a vent shaft, no window from any room other than a water closet compartment, bath room, pantry or hall shall open into such vent shaft. ■Sizes of Inner Cowrts.^Lot Line Courts. — The "inner courts" of all new tenement houses as defined in section 389 of this chapter shall have areas and minimum widths in all parts not less than the widths and areas, as follows: — Buildings. Square feet. Least width. 2 stories 100 6 feet 3 stories 120 7 feet 4 stories 160 8 feet 5 stories 250 12 feet 6 stories 400 16 feet 7 stories 625 20 feet 8 stories 840 24 feet "Lot Line Courts'' shall have areas and minimum widths in all parts not less than one-half of those specified in the above table of "inner courts.'' Sizes of Outer Courts. — The "outer courts" of all tenement houses defined in section 389 of this chapter shall have not less than the following widths for their minimum in all parts: — Buildings. Least width. 2 stories 3 feet 3 stories 3 feet 6 inches 4 stories 4 feet 5 stories 8 feet 6 stories 6 feet 7 stories 10 feet 8 stories 12 feet If the outer or lot line court has windows on opposite sides of the same, the least widths given in the above table for outer courts shall be doubled. Sizes and Height of Rooms. — Attic and Janitor's Rooms. — In every new tenement house, all rooms, except water closet compartments and bath rooms, shall be of the following minimum sizes: In each apartment there shall be at least one room containing not less than one hundred and twenty square feet of floor area, and every other room shall contain at least seventy square feet of floor area. Each room shall be in every part not less than eight feet six inches high from the finished floor to the finished ceiling, but an attic room need be eight feet six inches high in but one-half of its area; provided, that in a base- ment apartment used for janitor's use only such room or rooms shall be not less than eight feet high in the clear. Changes in Existing Rooms. — No room in any now existing tenement house shall hereafter be constructed, altered con- verted or occupied for living purposes unless it contains a window having a superficial area not less than one-twelfth of the floor area of the room, which window shall open upon a street or alley or upon a yard or court having a superficial area of not less than twenty-five square feet; or unless such room adjoins another room in the same apartment, which other room shall have such a window opening upon such a street, alley, yard or court, and between which two adjoining rooms there shall be a sash window having at least fifteen square feet of glazed surface, the upper half of which shall be so made as to open easily. Windows. — Courts. — Attic. — No room in any now existing tenement house which has no such window, as aforesaid open- ing upon a street or alley upon a yard or court having a superficial area of not less than twenty-five square feet, shall hereafter be constructed, altered, converted or occupied for living purposes, unless it contains a floor area of at least sixty square feet and also at least six hund ed cubic feet of air space; nor unless every part of the finished ceiling of such room be at least eight feet BUILDING REGULATIONS, ETC. 459 tT'^ndZcZLT. °' '^l^""X"^ floor thereof ; provided, that an attic room need be eight feet high in but one half of its ollrM f t'p " l'"^ ^°'" '''"''°'' "'" ^^""^'^ hMt^tion other than as a sleeping room. r,.J^?-^ltZ^°- ^^'•f'^-^^VTr '" ^'''' ""''^"''' '^''"^^ ^1^^" be so occupied that the allowance of air to each fwX ^^ltl7^ T '". room shall at any time be less than four hundred cubic feet for each such person more than twelve years old and two hundred cubic feet for each such person at the age of twelve years or under. _ Alcoves.-(M amended Feb 18,- 1907). Alcove rooms must conform to all the requirements of other rooms, except that in one or two story exismg buildings which it may be desired to raise or alter, every alcove shall be deemed a separate room for all purposes within the meaning of this ordinance, except such an alcove, as adjoining another room, has at least twenty per centum of entu-e wall surface of alcove opening to another room Light in Halls ~Recesses.~Returns.~Doors m.-In every new tenement house every public hall shall be lighted by at least one window in each story opening directly upon a street, alley, yard or court, or by a skylight. Such window shall be so placed that light may pass directly thorugh it and the hall to the opposite end of the hall, or else there shall be at least one window opening directly upon a street, alley, yard or court in every twenty feet in length or fraction thereof of every such hall, except m so much of any entrance hall as lies between the entrance and the flight of stairs nearest the entrance. In any such public hall, recesses or returns, the length of which do not exceed twice the width of the hall, will be permitted, without an additional window, but otherwise each recess or return shall be regarded for the purposes of this section as if it were a sepa- rate hall. Any part of a public hall which is shut off from any other part by a door or doors shall be deemed a separate public hall within the meaning of this section. Windows in Public Halls.~In every new tenement house one at least of the windows provided to light each public hall or part thereof shall have a glass area of at least twelve square feet. Inner and Outer Vent Shafts.— Dimensions.— Inner or outer vent shafts of all tenement houses as defined in section 389 of this chapter shall be of the following dimensions:— Building. Feet. Width. 2 stories 22J 3 feet 3 stories 27 3 feet 4 stories 36 3 feet 5 stories 48 5 feet 6 stories 72 6 feet 7 stories 96 8 feet 8 stories 120 8 feet Cellar and "Basement. ^Ceilinjs. — Ventilation. — (As amended Nov. 25, 1907). All cellars and basements shall be ventilated at each end, and where boilers or furnaces are located the ceiling over the boiler or furnace extending for two feet beyond boiler or furnace in each direction, shall be covered with metal lath and plastered, or any other incombustible material approved by the commissioner of buildings. Damp-proofing. — Basement Walls and Floors. — Every new tenement house shall have all its outside walls below the adja- cent ground level plastered on the outside with Portland cement or treated with other approved danjjfc-proofing material, and such walls, as high as the ground level, shall be laid in cement mortar. The basement or cellar shall have a floor of Portland cement concrete not less than three inches in thickness. Cellar Changed for Living Purposes. — Requirements. — Height.— In no now existing or new tenement house shall any room in the cellar be constructed, altered, converted or occupied for living purposes; and no room in the basement of a tenement house shall be constructed, altered, converted or occupied for living purposes, unless all of the following conditions of this chapter be complied with, and at least one-third of the height of the basement shall be above grade for building; provided, in each case it shall be at least four feet above the street grade. Such rooms shall be at least eight feet six inches high in all now existing or new tenement houses in every part from floor to ceiling, except as provided for janitor's use only in section 417 of this chapter. Water Closet. — There shall be appurtenant to such room or apartment a water closet conforming to the regulations and ordinances of the city relating to water closets. Sinks. Requirement. In every new tenement house there shall be in each apartment at least one proper sink with running water. In every now existing tenement house there shall be on every floor, at least, one proper sink with running water, accessi- ble to all the tenants of that floor, without passing through any other apartment, if there be not one such sink in each apartment. In no tenement house shall there be woodwork inclosing sinks located in the public halls; the space underneath sinks shall be left entirely open. Access to and Windows in Water Closets.— Artificial Light.— In every new tenement house there shall be a separate water closet in a separate compartment within each apartment accessible to each apartment without passing through any other apart- ment, provided that where there are apartments consisting of only one or two rooms there shall be at least one water closet for every two apartments. Every water closet compartment in every new tenement house shall have a window opening upon a street alley yard, court or vent shaft, and every water closet compartment in every existing tenement house shall be venti- lated by such a wiildow, or else by a proper ventilating pipe running through the roof. Every water closet compartment in every tenement house shall be provided with proper means of artificially lighting the same. If fixtures for gas or electricity are not provided in any such compartment, then the door thereof shall have ground glass or wire glass panels or transoms. Sanitary Requirements. -^0 drip trays shall be permitted in new tenement houses. All water closet fixtures in every new tenement house shall be constructed and set up conformably to the requirements of the department of health. All privy vaults used in connection with any existing tenement house shall be replaced by water closets, constructed and set up in con- formity with the provisions of this ordinance, whenever connection with a pubhc sewer is m any way practicable, and the department of health of the city shall be the sole judge as to the practicability of such connection with the pubhc sewer At le^t one such water closet shall be provided for every two apartments in each existing tenement house and such water closets may be located in the yard if necessary. If so located, long hopper closeta may be used, provided all traps, flush tanks and pipes be protected against frost. 460 APPENDIX 1. Stairways. — Fire Escapes to he free from Incumbrance. — No incumbrance of any kind shall at any time be placed before, upon or against any stairway, stepa or landings or fire escapes in or upon any tenement house. All fire escapes upon tenement houses shall be kept in good order and repair, and every exposed part thereof shall at all times be protected against rust by durable paint. Access to Water Closets. — In every apartment of three or more rooms in every new tenement house convenient access from the outer door of the apartment to every living room and to every bedroom and to every room used as a bedroom and to at least one water closet compartment shall be provided other than through any bedroom or room used as a bedroom. Changes or Alterations. — Permits. — Every new tenement house and all changes or alterations in any existing tenement house shall conform to the requirements of this chapter. No new tenement house shall be begun, nor shall any changes or alterations in any existing tenement house, such as are referred to in this chapter, be begun until a permit therefor shall have been issued by the building department of the city. Such permit shall be issued only upon an application by the person for whom the building is to be erected or altered, and after approval of the plans and specifications of such tenement house or such changes or alterations by the health department of the city whenever such approval is required by law or ordinance. Notice to be sent to Commissioner of Buildings to Inspect. — Certificates to he issiud. — Notice to Inspect to be filed. — It shall be the duty of the owner, or his agent, when a tenement house is in course of erection, to notify the commissioner of buildings of the city when the building is or will be ready for lathing, and the commissioner shall, within three days of the time specified, cause an inspection to be made, and if the construction is found to be in accordance with the requirements of this chapter, he shall issue, or cause to be issued, a certificate to that effect; otherwise he shall cause the penalties provided in section 445 of this chapter to be enforced. The commissioner shall file for reference the notice received and shall also file a copy of the certificate in the office of the building department. Yards, Courts, etc. — ^Any tenement house not conforming in itself and in its yards, courts, areas and shafts to the requirements of this chapter shall not be occupied, or if found occupied, shall forthwith be vacated upon notice from the commissioner of buildings; and such tenement house shall not again be occupied until made to conform in all respects with the provisions of this chapter, notwithstanding the issuance of a building permit for the erection or alteration of such btiilding. Penalty for Violations. — Any owner, lessee, tenant, occupant or agent of any tenement house, or any architect, contractor, builder, or foreman superintending or in charge of the work of construction of any tenement house, violating, disobeying, neglecting or refusing to comply with or resisting the enforcement of any of the provisions of this chapter shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than two hundred dollars for each offence; and any violation of any provision of this chapter, if continued after the first fine is imposed, shall, for every week of such continuance, be punished by an additional fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than two hundred dollars. Provisions of this Chapter not to Apply to Existing Buildings except under Certain Circumstances. — -Nothing in this chapter contained shall be considered as reqmring alterations in the construction or equipment of buildings in existence at the time of the passage of this ordinance and which at the time of their construction were built in compliance with the ordinances then in force, unless such Bftildings shall not have sufficient or adequate means of egress therefrom or ingress thereto by reason of insufficient or inadequate stairway or stairways improperly located or insufficient or inadequate elevators or elevator equip- ment, doors, fire escapes, windows or other means of egress or ingress. If, however, it is desired to enlarge or in any manner materially modify the construction of any existing building, or to make any change in its use or occupation which will transfer it from one class, as defined by this chapter, to another class, then before such enlargement or structural change or modification of building is made, or before such change in its use or occupation may be made, the entire building shall be reconstructed or modified in such manner as to bring the same, when enlarged or altered, or when occupied for its new and different purposes, into accordance with the provisions of this chapter. Commissioner shall Notify. — Where it shall appear to the said commissioner that any such building has inadequate or insuffi- cient means of egress therefrom or ingress thereto, as aforesaid, he shall notify the owner, agent or person in possession, charge or control of such building of such fact and direct him forthwith to make such alterations and changes in the construction or equipment of such building as are necessary to be made in order to promote the safety of the occupants of such building and of persons using the same and of the public. (2.) BUILDING REGULATIONS OF BOSTON. Statutes of 1885. An Act in relation to the Preservation of Health in Buildings of the City of Boston. Chapter 382. — Sec. 1. Every building in the city of Boston used as a dwelling, tenement or lodging house, or where persons are employed, shall have at all times such number of good and sufficient water closets, earth closets, or privies as the board of health of said city may determine, but the occupants of any two or more of any such buildings may use such closets or privies in common, provided the access is easy and direct; and said board shall not require more than one such closet or privy for every twenty persons. Sec. 3. (As amended by Chapter 450, Section 3, of Acts of 1889.) Every building hereafter converted into or used for a tenement house or lodging shouse shall in addition to all other requirements of law conform to the provisions of this act, and every such building shall be carefully inspected at least twice a year under the direction of the board of health, and whenever said board has made an order concerning said building a re-inspection shall be made within ten days after said board has been informed that the order has been complied with. BUILDING REGULATIONS, ETC. 461 IZ'^^'.^JZ Z^ ^f^^^ "^fl^^ll ^^'''T '''^'''''' '■'^'^'^^g *'^^°^gl^ «^«^y fl^o'- ^th an open fireplace or grate, '^ r.i™ fTJ^i! TT r ^ °r ^^r''' "'''""•'y^' *°^ •^^'^'-y ^^^^^ly ^^^ -* of apartments; Bhail have prope convemenceB and non-combustible receptacles for aehos and rubbish; shall have water furnished at one or more places in such house or m the yard thereof so that the same may be adequate and reasonably convenient for the use of the occupants thereof; and shall have the floor of the cellar properly cemented, so as to be water-tight. Sec. 12. Every such building used for a tenement or lodging house shall have suitable receptacles for garbage end other refuse matters and shall not be used as a place of storage for any combustible article, or anv article dangerous to life or detri- mental to health; nor shall any horse, cow, calf, swine, pig, sheep, or goat be kept in said building. Sec. 13. Every such building, and the yard, court, passage, area, and alleys belonging to the same, shall be kept clean and free from any accumulation of dirt, filth, garbage, or any refuse matter, to the satisfaction of the board of health. Sec. 14. (As amended by Chapter 450, Section 5 of Acts of 1889). The tenant of any lodging house or tenement house shall thoroughly cleanse all the rooms, floors, windows, and doors of the house, or part of the house, of which he is the tenant to the satisfaction of the board of health, and the owner or lessee shall well and sufficiently, to the satisfaction of said board whitewash or otherwise cleanse the walls and ceilings thereof once at least every year, in the months of April or May, and have the privies, drains, and cesspools kept in good order and the passages and stairs kept clean and in good condition. \A'henever there shall be more than eight families living in any tenement house in which the owner thereof does not reside, there shall be, when required by the board of health, a janitor, housekeeper or some other responsible person, satisfactory to said board, who shall reside in said house and have the charge thereof. Sec. 15. The owner, agent of the owner, and keeper of any lodging or tenement house, or part thereof, shall, when any person in such house is sick of fever, or of any infectious, pestilential, or contagious disease, and such sickness is known to such owner, agent, or keeper, give immediate notice thereof to the board of health, and thereupon said board shall cause the same to be inspected and cleansed, or disinfected, at the expense of the owner, in such manner as they may deem necessary; and may also cause the blankets, bedding, and bed clothes used by any such sick person to be thoroughly cleansed, scoured, and fumigated, and in extreme cases to be destroyed. Sec. 16. The halls on each floor of every siich building shall open directly to the external air, with suitable windows, and shall have no room or other obstructions at the end, unless sufficient light and ventilation is otherwise provided for said halls in a maimer approved by the board of health. Sec. 17. No person shall, without a permit froia the board of health, let or occupy, or suffer to be occupied, separately as a dwelling or place of lodging and sleeping, any cellar or underground room whatsoever, unless the same be in every part thereof at least seven feet in height, measured from the floor to the ceiling thereof; nor unless the same shall have been so let or occupied before the passage of this act, nor unless the same be for at least one foot of its height above the surface of the street or ground adjoining, or nearest to the same; nor unless there be, outside of and adjoining the said vault, cellar, or room, and extending along the entire frontage thereof, and upwards from six inches below the level of the floor thereof, up to the surface of the said street or ground, an open space of at least two feet and six inches wide in every part; nor unless the same be well and effectually drained by means of a drain, the uppermost part of which is one foot at least below the level of the floor of such vault, cellar, or room; nor unless there is a clear space of not less than one foot below the level of the floor, except where the same is cemented; nor unless there be appurtenant to such vault, cellar, or room, the use of a water closet or privy, kept and provided as in this act required, nor unless the same have an external window opening of at least nine superficial feet clear of the sash frame, in which window opening there shall be fitted a frame filled in with glazed sashes, at least four and a half superficial feet of which shall be made so as to open for the purpose of ventilation : provided, however, that in case of an inner or back vault, cellar, or room, let or occupied along with a front vault, cellar, or room, as a part of the same letting or occupation, it shall be a sufficient compliance with the provisions of this act if the front room is provided with a window as hereinbefore provided, and if the said back vault, cellar, or room is connected with the front vault, cellar, or room, by a door, and also by a proper ventilating or transom window, and, where practicable, also connected by a proper ventilating or transom window, or by some hall or passage, with the external air; provided, further, that in any area adjoining a vault, cellar, or underground room, there may be steps necessary for access to such vault, cellar, or room, if the same be so placed as not to be over, across, or opposite to said external window, and so as to allow between every part of such steps and external wall of such vault, cellar, or room, a clear space of six inohes at least, and if the rise of said steps is open; and provided, further, that over or across any such area there may be steps necessary for access to any building above the vault, cellar, or room, or to which such area adjoins, if the same be so placed as not to be over, across, or opposite to any such external window. Sec. 18. (As amended by Chapter 450, Section 6 of Acts of 1889). The board of health may by a vote limit the number of occupants in any tenement or lodging house, or in any part or parts of the same, and shall in such case cause a notice stat- ing such number to be affixed conspicuously in such building and served on the owner, agent or person having the charge thereof If the number is exceeded said board may order the premises vacated, and they shall not be again occupied until said board shall so permit, upon being satisfied that the vote will be complied with. Said board may make such further regulation as to overcrowding, ventilation and occupation of such houses and the cellars thereof and of buildings where persons are employed, not inconsistent with other laws, as they deem proper. Sec 19 Every owner and agent, or person having charge, of a tenement or lodging house shall leave his address with the board of health, and shall have legibly posted on the wall or in the entry of such tenement or lodging house the name and address of such owner and of the agent or person having charge of the same; and service upon parties whose address is out of the city, of any papers or notices required by this act, or any act relating to the preservation of heal h, or by any proceedings to enforce any of their provisions, shall be sufficient, if made by sending a copy of such paper or notice through the mail to the address of the person or persons so designated as owner, agent, or person having charge of such tenement or lodgmg house; and service upon parties whose address is in lie city, by leaving such copy at said address. 462 APPENDIX I. Sec. 20. Every officer of the board of health, and every officer upon whom any duty or authority is conferred, shall have free access to every part of any lodging or tenement house, when required, in the proper execution of the duties of his office Sec. 21. Any court having equity jurisdiction, in term time or vacation, may, on the application of the board of health, by any suitable process or decree in equity, enforce the provisions of this act, and may, on such application, issue an injunction to restrain the use or occupation of any building or structure in the city of Boston, erected, altered, or used in violation of this act. Sec. 22. Any person violating any provision of this act shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or by confinement in the house of correction not exceeding sixty days, unless another penalty is specifically provided herein. Sec. 23. Every member of said board of health, and every inspector acting under said board, shall before entering upon the duties of his office take and subscribe an oath before the city clerk of said city that he will faithfully and impartially discharge such duties, and the city clerk shall make and keep a record of such oath . Every member of said board and every such inspector who enters upon and discharges such duties without having taken and subscribed such oath shall be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars, but such omission shall not render invalid any act or proceeding of said board. Sec. 24. This act shall take effect upon its passage. Statutes of 1897. An Act/or the further Protection of Public Health in the City of Boston: as amended by Section 1 of Chapter 222 of the Acts of 1899. Chapt, 219. — Sec. 1. Whenever the board of health of the city of Boston shall be of opinion that any building or any part thereof in said city is infected with contagious disease, or by reason of want of repair has become dangerous to life, or is unfit for use because of defects in drainage, plumbing, ventilation, or in the construction of the same, or because of the existence of a nuisance on the premises which is likely to cause sickness among its occupants, said board may issue an order requiring all per- sons therein to vacate or cease to use such building or part thereof stated in the order, for reasons to be stated therein as aforesaid. Said board shall cause said order to be affixed conspicuously to the building or part thereof, and to be personally served on the owner, lessee, agent, occupant or any person having the charge or care thereof; if the owner, lessee or agent cannot be found in the said city, or does not reside therein, or evades or resists service, then said order may be served by depositing a copy thereof in the postoffice of said city, postpaid and properly inclosed and addressed to such owner, lessee or agent at his last known place of business or residence. Such building or part thereof shall be vacated within ten days after said order shall have been posted and mailed as aforesaid, or within such shorter time, not less than forty-eight hours, as in said order may be specified, and said building shall be no longer used; but whenever said board shall become satisfied that the danger from said building or part thereof has ceased to exist, or that said building has been repaired so as to be habitable, it may revoke said order. Whenever in the opinion of the board of health any building or part thereof in said city is because of age, infection with contagious disease, defects in drainage, plumbing or ventilation, or because of the existence of a nuisance on the premises which is likely to cause sickness among its occupants or among the occupants of other property in said city, or because it makes other buildings in said vicinity unfit for human habitation or dangerous or injurious to health, or because it prevents proper measures from being carried into effect for remedying any nuisance injurious to health, or other sanitary evils in respect of such other buildings, so unfit for human habitation that the evils in or caused by said building cannot be remedied by repairs or in any other way except by the destruction of said building or of any portion of the same, said board of health may order the same or any part thereof to be removed; and if said building is not removed in accordance with said order said board of health shall remove the same at the expense of the city. Sec. 2. The city of Boston shall pay the damages sustained by the owner of the building by the destruction of the same, or part thereof, as determined on agreement between said board of health and said owner, and if they cannot agree the same shall be determined by a jury of the superior court for the county of Suffolk, on petition of said owner or board within one year after said destruction, in the same manner as damages are determined for the taking of land in laying out streets and highways in the city of Boston. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage. (3 .) BOSTON LODGING HOUSE REGULATIONS. Statutes of 1894. An Act to Regulate Public Lodging Houses in the City of Boston. Chapter 414. — Sec. 1. Every building in the city of Boston not licensed as an inn, in which ten or more persons are lodged for a price for a single night of twenty-five cents or less for each person, shall be deemed a public lodging house within the mean- ing of this act. Sec. 2. The board of police for said city may license persons to keep public lodging houses in said city. No fee shall be charged for such license, and it shall expire on the thii'tieth day of April next after the granting of the same. Every such license shall specify the street or other place, and the number of the building, or give some other particular description thereof, where the licensee shall exercise his employment; and the license shall not protect a person exercising his employment in any other place than that so specified. Sec. 3. No such license shall be granted until the inspector of buildings of said city has certified that the building is provided with sufficient means to escape in case of fire, and that suitable appliances are provided for extinguishing fires and for giving alarm to the inmates in case of fire; and said inspector may from time to time require such alterations to be made or such addi- tional appliances to be provided as may in his judgment be necessary for the protection of life and property in case of fire. BUILDING SOCIETIES. 463 Sec. 4. No such license shall be granted until the board of health has certified that the building is provided with a sufficient number ot water closets and urinals, and with good and sufficient means of ventilation; and said board may from time to time require the licensee to thoroughly cleanse and disinfect all parts of said building and the furniture therein, to the satisfaction of said board. Sec. 5. In every public lodging house a register shall be kept in which shall be entered the name and address of each lod^^er, together with the time of his arrival and departure, and such register shall at all times be open to the inspection of the police. Sec. 6. The keeper of every public lodging house shall at all times when required by any officer of the building department, the health department, or the police department, give him free access to said house or any part thereof. Sec. 7. Whoever presumes to keep a public lodging house, or is concerned or in any way interested therein, without being duly licensed as hereinbefore provided, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars; and any keeper of a public lodging house who violates any of the provisions of this act shall be punished by a fine of one hundred dollars, and the licensing board shall immediately revoke his license. Sec. 8. This act shall take effect upon its passage. Rules for Lodging Homes, March 22, 1896. Ordered, That the following regulations be and the same are hereby adopted by the Board of Health for th« government of lodging houses: — 1. The means for light and ventilation shall be satisfactory to the Board of Health and beyond the control of lodgers. 2. All floors and stairways must be sound, smooth, and either painted or shellacked. 3. There shall be allowed no less than 300 cubic feet of space to each lodger in sleeping-rooms. 4. Open and spacious dormitories shall be preferred. 5. Single or small rooms are forbidden except by special permit of the Board of Health. 6. No carpeting shall be on floors or stairways. 7. There shall not be less than two horizontal feet between the sides of any two beds. 8. All bedsteads must be single and of iron. 9. Blankets will be required and "comforters" will be prohibited. 10. Mattresses shall be covered with a waterproof covering. 11. No person shall be permitted to retire or sleep in his day clothing. 12. No person who is not clean shall be allowed to retire without a bath. 13. A new applicant for lodging shall not be lodged unless he shall have first taken a shower bath. A lodger shall not be lodged for more than seven consecutive nights unless he shall have taken a shower bath. For the purpose of this section a "new applicant " shall be interpreted to mean a person who has not been lodged at the same place the night previous. 14. Water-closets (one to every 20 lodgers), lavatories and shower bath, with hot and cold water, all with open plumbing, shall be furnished on each floor, and the floors to same shall be of marble, slate or concrete. 15. All movable receptacles for excretions are prohibited. 16. Smoking in sleeping-rooms is prohibited. 17. All stairways, fire-escapes, and other means of exit in case of fire shall be in accordance with the statutes and ordinances on that subject, and to the satisfaction of the Building Commissioner. 18. Stoves for heating are forbidden except by special permission of the Board of Health. 19. The use of portable kerosene lamps is prohibited. 20. A reliable watchman shall be in attendance at all hours of the night. F.— WOBKING MEN'S BUILDING SOCIETIES. (1.) CONSTITUTION OF BALTIMORE "ROYAL OAK" PERPETUAL BUILDING ASSOCIATION. Article 1. — Na-nie and Object. This Association shall be known as the "Royal Oak Perpetual Building Association of Baltimore Otty," and shall have for ita object the accumulation of a fund from which to make loans to members who wish to acquire a homeetead, or to meet any other financial need. Article 2. — Number of Shares. Sec. 1. The number of shares of stock in this Association shall be limited to 5,000. Sec. 2. The par value of each share shall be $130.00. Article 3. — Time and Place of Meeting. The Place of Meeting of this Association and of the Board of Directors shall be in the city of Baltimore. There shall be held an annual meeting of the shareholders of the Association, between the 1st and 15th of December of each year, at such place as the Board of Directors shall select, to hear the annual report of the President, and transact any other business that may arise. Special meetings of the Association shall be called by the President, on the written request of ten members. The weekly payments shall be made to the Secretary on such an evening of each week as may be designated in the by-laws from time to time. 464 APPENDIX I. Article 4. — Membership. Sec. 1. This Association shall be composed of those persons of legal age and standing, who shall sign this constitution and subscribe to oue or more shares. Minors may hold shares through their legal representatives. Sec. 2. All members will be allowed to vote or participate in the proceedings of each meeting of the Association in person or by proxy. Minors or females shall only vote through those legally authorized to represent them. Article 5. — Officers. Sec. 1. The affairs of the Association shall be managed by twelve Directors who shall elect from among themselves a Pres- ident, a Vice-President, a Treasurer and Secretary. The Directors shall be elected at the annual meeting of the Association and hold office until their successors assume charge. The Board of Directors shall fill all vacancies that may occur. Sec. 2. The following officers shall be required to furnish bond: The President, in the sum of not less than $1000.00. The Secretary, in the sum of not less than $1000.00. The Treasurer, in the sum of not less than $2000.00. The sufficiency of the securities offered shall be considered by a special Committee of three members of the Association, to be appointed by the Board of Directors. Article 6. — Board of Directors. The Board of Directors shall manage all the affairs of the Association, subject to the constitution and by-laws of the Asso- ciation. They shall invest the funds of the Association from time to time, in any manner which they consider most advanta- geous to the Association. Article 7. — Removal of Officers. Any officer of this Association may be removed or suspended for cause, by the vote of two-thirds of the shareholders present at any regular or special meeting of the Association. Article 8. — Shareholders, Diies, Fees, etc. Sec. 1. Shareholders shall pay for each and every share they hold in this Association an entrance-fee of 25 cents, and the sum of 25 cents every week thereafter until the weekly dues and dividends shall on each share amount to $130.00. Sec. 2. All money received shall be in bankable funds. Sec. 3. If a member in arrears shall resume his payments, they shall be credited in the following order: firstly, all fines and advances made, if any, by the Association to protect the property given as security, as fire insurance, taxes, water rent, etc.; secondly, the dues, the oldest arrearage to be deducted first, until the arrears are paid. When the fines amount to as much as the weekly dues paid on unredeemed shares, such shares shall be forfeited to the Association, and the holder thereof shall to that extent cease to be a member. Sec. 4. Whenever the weekly dues paid by a member, together with the dividends thereon, shall amount to the sum of $130 per share, the holder of such share or shares shall draw that amount in cash as soon as there is sufficient money in the treasiu'y not otherwise appropriated, and he shall be bound to accept the sum of $130 per share as soon as such amount is avail- able. He shall, however, be entitled to six per cent, interest per annum on deferred payments, but shall not be entitled to further dividends. Sec. 5. Any transfer of shares will be subject to a transfer-fee of 25 cents per share. No assignment of shares shall be valid unless attested by the Secretary, who shall record the same on the books. Article 9. — Division of Profits. Sec. 1. The profits of the Association shall be ascertained semi-annually up to the first of each May and November, and shall be held for six months as a Reserve Fund against losses that may occur in the meantime. This Reserve Fund shall then be divided pro rata among all shareholders, according to the amounts that stood to their credit when said profits were ascertained and which holdings have not been withdrawn in the meantime. Sec. 2. No distinction in crediting the dividends shall be made between free and redeemed shareholders. Article 10. — Withdrawal of Free Shares. Sec. 1. Any member may withdraw his free shares upon a written notice to the Board of Directors and shall be entitled to the amount standing to his credit, less the amount of fines that may be charged against him, provided, there are sufficient funds in the treasury not otherwise appropriated previous to his withdrawal. Sec. 2. He shall be entitled to six per cent, interest per annum from date of notice of withdrawal, if not paid off within 60 days, but in that case he shall not be entitled to any dividend, except such which has already been declared and credited to his account previous to notice of withdrawal. Article 11 . — Redemption of Shares, Loans, etc. Sec. 1. Every member shall be entitled to a loan of $130.00 on each of his free shares, upon giving satisfactory security. Sec. 2. Applications for loans shall be made in writing, stating the security offered, and shall be accompanied by $1.50 to defray the expenses of three members of the committee who will be appointed to visit the premises offered as security. In case this property is located outside the old city limits, the amount to be paid shall be determined by the Directors. BUILDING SOOIKTIES. 465 Sec 3. If Batkfactory security be not given within four weeks' time, the money shaU revert to the Association, and the mem- ber shall pay interest and all expenses incurred by reason of his application for a loan Sec. 4^ Members who have redeemed their shares shall pay weekly, besides their regular dues, the sum of 15 cents interest for every $130 received until the amount of dues and dividends paid on their redeemed shares shall equal the sum advanced. Their sectinty will then be released. Sec. 5. Members receiving loans must bear all expenses incident to the transaction Sec 6. They must produce evidence that all incumbrances in arrears are paid. The property must be kept insured against loss by fire m a company acceptable to the Board, and. the policies shall be so framed that all losses are payable to the Associa- tion to the extent of its interest. The mortgager shall at any time, when demanded, produce receipts showing that all incum- brances on the property have been paid. Should he fail to do so, the Association may pay the incumbrance and deduct same from the mortgager's weekly dues until such outlay is refunded, or foreclose the mortgage. Sec. 7. If any member, who has received a loan, fails to pay the weekly dues for eight (8) weeks, the Association may compel payment by the sale of the mortgaged property. Sec. 8. Holders of free shares may withdraw the amount paid on account of each of their free and unpledged shares, and the dividend shaU cease on the account withdrawn. In case they should take an equal or less number of new shares immediately after receipt of the money on the withdrawn shares, they shall be entitled to re-enter without paying any new entrance-fee. Sec. 9. Members who have mortgaged their property or given other security for loans advanced on redeemed shares, may obtain a release by paying to the Association the difference between the sum standing to their credit and the full par value of their redeemed share or shares, provided they pay a withdrawal fee on the following basis: If released within one year from the time the loan was made, the withdrawal fee shall amount to Three Dollars per share. If released within the second year, $2.50 per share, third „ 2.00 „ ,, fourth „ 1.50 ,, fifth „ 1.00 If released after five years and before the regular time, fifty cents per share. Article 12. — Fines. Sec. 1. Should a member neglect to pay his weekly dues by the time specified, he shall be subject to a fine of five (5) cents p.er share for each failure. Sec. 2. Any member absenting himself from the annual meeting shall be liable to a fine of fifty (50) cents, unless excused by sickness or absence from the city. Article 13. — Alterations. This Constitution shall not be altered or amended unless by an affirmative vote of over one half of all the shares held by the members. (2.) CONSTITUTION OF MEMPHIS WORKING MEN'S BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATION. Article 1. Sec. 1. This Association shall continue to be known as the Workingmen's Building and Loan Association of the City of Mem- phis, and shall have for its object the accumulation of a fund, which may be loaned on good security to the members thereof, to aid them in procuring homes, and such other investments as are provided for in this Constitution. Article 2. — Stock. Sec. 1. The stock of this Association may be issued in successive series of 200 dollars per share, the number of shares in each new series to be determined by the Board of Directors. Article 3. — Membership. Sec. 1. The members of this Association shall be white residents of the United States, who shall have subscribed for one or more shares of stock and signed this Constitution; unmarried women and minors may own stock in this Association when repre- sented by a guardian or competent agent, who may exercise all the rights and privileges that would otherwise belong to said woman or minor; married women may hold stock in this Association free from the debts or claims of their husbands; no one person shall hold more than fifty shares of stock in this Association. Sec. 2. Each member shall be entitled to one vote only, and no member shall be permitted to vote by proxy on any business matter; Provided, That the officers shall be elected either in person or by proxy by a majority of the votes cast, each share repre- one vote. Sec. 3. Members can transfer their shares to others by notifying the Secretary, and paying a transfer fee of ten cents for each share transferred, the purchaser to sign the Constitution. Sec 4 Any member wishing to withdraw one or more shares of his or her stock, which is not pledged to the Association, shall give thirty days' notice in writing, to be filed with the Secretary. At the expiration of said thirty days, the withdrawing stock- holder shaU be entitled to receive the amount actually paid in on such stock, and such proportion of profits that may have accrued as the Board of Directors may determine to be just and equitable, deducting from the amount all dues, fines and penal- ties that are charged against the withdrawing stockholder; Provided, That at no time shall more than one-half the funds in the treasiu-y be subject to the demands of withdrawing stockholders without the consent of the Board of Directors. 93294^8. Doc. 22, 62-1 36 466 APPENDIX I. Sec. 5. Upon the death of a stockholder, the legal representativea may continue to enjoy the rights and privileges that belonged to the deceased by signing the Constitution and fulfilling the obligations that would have devolved on the deceased, or they may withdraw the stock of the deceased under the provisions of Sec. 4 of Article 3 of this Constitution. Sec. 6. All stock upon which dues, fines, penalties or interest are unpaid is hereby declared to be pledged to the Associa- tion to secure the payment of the same. Sec. 7. Members failing to pay their instalment dues shall be fined on each share five cents per month for each and every month's dues until paid. Sec. 8. In case of non-payment of instalments or interest by borrowing members for the period of six months, it shall be the duty of the Board of Directors to enforce the terms of the deeds of trust held as security in accordance with the provisions of an Act of the Legislature passed March 19, 1875, approved March 23, 1875. Article 4. — PayTnent of Instalments. Sec. 1. On each share of stock there shall be paid an instalment of one dollar per month in advance, and any person wishing to subscribe for stock subsequent to the issue of a series shall pay up all instalments which may have become due in the series in which the said stock may be taken or issued, and such premiums as the Board of Directors may require. Article 5. — Officers. Sec. 1. The officers of this Association shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer and seven Directors, two of whom shall be the President and Vice-President of the Association, who shall be elected annually by ballot, at the regular annual meeting of the Association, and shall hold their office for the term of one year, or until their successors are qualified. Article 6. — Duties of Officers. Sec. 1. It shall be the duty of the President, and in his absence the Vice-President, to preside at all meetings of the asso- ciation and Board of Directors; to preserve order therein; to administer the laws of the Association, and perform such other duties as may be prescribed in this Constitution or the by-laws in pursuance thereto. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the Secretary to keep accurate minutes of the proceedings of the Association and Board 'of Directors. He shall keep a strict and correct account with the members, receive all moneys paid to the Association, pay the same over to the Treasurer at least once a month, taking his receipt as voucher therefor; he shall hold himself responsible for the correctness of his account, and perform such other duties as may be required by the Directors. To secure the faithful performance of his duties he shall enter into a bond, with two stu-eties, in a sum not less than five thousand dollars, and shall receive for his services such compensation as the Board of Directors may allow. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to receive all moneys paid to the Association from the Secretary, giving him a receipt for the same. He shall pay all drafts ordered by the Board of Directors, attested by the President and Secretary. He shall keep a correct account of all moneys received and paid out, and his books and accounts shall be subject at all times to the inspection of the Directors. He shall, when requested, make a report of the financial affairs of the Association. To secure the faithful performance of his duties he shall enter into a bond, with two or more sureties, in a sum not less than ten thousand dollars. He shall deliver over to his successor in office all moneys, books, papers and properties of every kind belonging to the Association within two weeks after the election and qualification of his successor; and for the faithful performance of his duties he may receive such compensation as the Directors may allow. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the Board of Directors to have charge of all the business of the Association, and to constantly look after its welfare. They shall have full control of all contracts, bonds, deeds, mortgages, moneys, papers, books and property of every kind belonging to the Association. They may appoint an attorney and all other agents whose services may be required, ,and regulate their compensation. They shall fill all vacancies until the next annual election. Their meetings shall be held monthly for the transaction of business, and such meetings shall be open and free to all the members of the Association. No compensation shall be allowed the Directors. Article 7. Sec. 1. At the stated monthly meetings of the Directors, the funds on hand, not otherwise appropriated, if to the amount of two hundred dollars or more, shall be offered for loan. Sec. 2. Every member shall be entitled to a loan not exceeding the par value of any number of shares held by him or her. Provided, however, that no member shall be entitled to a loan on more than fifteen shares at one bidding. Sec. 3. Choice of priority of loan shall be bid of premium, and the member bidding the highest premium for priority or privi- lege, shall have the first choice of loan, when the remaining funds, if any, shall be loaned in like manner. Sec. 4. Interest on all loans shall be at the legal rate of interest from the time of making said loans, and shall be paid in monthly instalments in advance, and at the same time that the regular dues are paid; and such loans shall be for the purpose of enabling the borrower thereof to secure a home, or for the purchase of other real estate, or for the improvement of the same, and for no other purpose whatever, and the loan shall be secured by deed of trust on unencumbered real estate. Sec. 5. No member shall be entitled to bid on or receive a loan, or to vote on any question whatever who is in arrears for monthly instalments, interest, fines or penalties. Sec. 6. Securities must be offered within five days after the loan is granted, and when approved and accepted by the Board of Directors, the borrower shall be entitled to the loan; or the money may be invested by the Board of Directors for the benefit and under the direction of the borrower. HOUSE AGREEMENTS. 467 Sec. 7. Should the securities, from any cause whatever, be found defective, insufficient or unsatisfactory to the Directors, the loan shall not be made, and in case a loan is awarded to a member, and said member shall fail or neglect to offer security, or shall offer security that is not approved, the proposed borrower shall be charged with one month's interest and all necessary expenses, and the money reloaned at the next stated meeting. Sec. 8. Should it be ascertained that members having taken a loan are using the same for any purpose not contemplated in this Constitution, it shall be discretionary with the Directors as to further loans to said members. Sec. 9. All claims for dues, interest, fines, expenses and penalties shall be held as a lien against the stock of delinquent members, and when there are six months' dues remaining unpaid the stock shall be declared forfeited and revert to the Asso- ciation; Provided, the holder of said stock shall be entitled to receive the same amount that would be paid to stock withdrawn at the time payments ceased to be made, less all claims held by the Association against said stock. New stock may be issued instead of any stock cancelled or withdrawn, under the direction of the Board of Directors. Article 8. — Surplus Funds. Sec. 1. If at any time there should be a surplus fund on hand, the Board of Directors may invest the same in the purchase of real estate and erection of buildings thereon, in the name and as the property of this Association, and they may sell or dispose of the same in their discretion for the benefit of the Association; but no money or property shall be disposed of under this Article except by a three-fourths vote of all the members of the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Should the Board of Directors deem it expedient, funds may be used in retiring unmatured stock. Article 9. — Liquidation. Sec. 1. When the stock of the oldest series shall reach its ultimate or par value, and all losses and gains adjusted thereto, there shall be paid to each member holding unpledged shares the sum of two hundred dollars per share. And all securities held in trust on stock pledged for loans, shall be quitclaimed and satisfied, and the said shares revert to the Association; Provided, that all claims, of whatever kind, against the stock or securities of any member, must be fully paid up before such stock shall be redeemed or securities cancelled. Sec. 2. If after the liquidation as provided for in Sec. 1 of this Article, there should be a surplus still remaining, the same shall be divided pro rata to their respective interests among all the members of such series. Article 10. — Amendments. Sec. 1. The Association shall have power to make and adopt such By-laws, Rules and Regulations as they may deem expe- dient, not repugnant to this Constitution. Sec. 2. This Constitution shall not be altered or amended, except at an annual or special meeting, and after one month's notice in writing, and published at least three times in two daily newspapers published in the city of Memphis, and then by an affirmative vote of at least three-fourths of all the members present. Amendment to the Constitution. Sec. 3. The Association may issue prepaid and paid-up stock in shares of one hundred dollars each, subject to such by-laws as may be adopted; Provided, that the total amount of such stock outstanding at any time shall not exceed $100,000. G.— HOUSE AGREEMENTS. (1) BALTIMORE. This Agreement, entered into this day of 190 .. . .between , Agents, and ""'witaesseth, that the said , Agents, doth let unto the said the property known as for "the "term of .'.".'!.' .' beginning on the day of 190 at the rate of dollars per month payable in advance in sums of doilajson the day of each unless this lease be sooner terminated as here- The said covenants to pay the said rent when due and payable; that wiU not assign this "lease "or" sublet "the premises hereby demised without permission in writing of said Lessors; that will keep the said premises in order and repair during the said term or any succeeding term hereunder; and when vacatmg will sur- render said premises in the same condition and in as good order as when received, ordinary wear and tear excepted; that will do nothing to impair or contravene policy or policies of insurance on the said premises or increase the present mte" "of "i'nsurance thereon; that will comply with all City Ordinances; that. will pay all meter water rent« and all other water rent except the charge to house alone; that -will use the premises only for the purpose of . and agrees that no lettering or signs shall be pamted on the wails of said premises without permission in writing of the said Lessors. In cale the said rent or any part or portion thereof be at any time due and unpaid the said , .Agents, shall have the right to distrain for and by all lawful means recover the same. 468 APPENDIX I. Upon any default by the tenant in any covenant or condition hereof, this lease at the option of the said , Agents, shall be at an end and thereupon the said shall be and hereby agrees to become a tenant from to at $ per and to remove from and quit the said premises immediately after days' written notice being served upon said tenant or tacked or left on the premises aforesaid. In case of a partial damage to the said premises by fire, so as to materially affect the usefulness of said premises for which they are demised, the same shall be repaired aa speedily as possible at the expense of the said Lessors, and a partial abate- ment of the rent shall be made until said damage has been repaired. In case of the total destruction of the said premises by fire or of such damage as shall render the same totally unfit for occupancy, this lease upon the surrender and delivery to said Lessors of said premises by said tenant together with the payment of the rent then due and a proportionate part thereof to date of such surrender terminate and be at an end. And it ia mutually understood and agreed that either said Lessors or Lessee may terminate this lease at the expiration of said term or of any succeeding term hereunder by a written notice served at least days prior thereto, and in such event the said Lessors shall have the privilege to post the premises ' ' For Sale " or " For Rent " ten days prior to expiration of term, and the said Lessee agrees to show the premises. If no such notice be given, this agreement shall continue in force after the expiration of the said term or succeeding term for another term of months, subject to all covenants and conditions of this contract. Signed and sealed, &c. (2) LOUISVILLE. Lease. — • , the undersigned, this day of , 190 , rent from , lessor , the following described property in the city of Louisville, Ky. : to be used for by commencing , 190 , for month , and to continue thereafter from month to month, and by the month only, at the will of the lessor. . or , with the privilege to either party to terminate this lease by giving to the other a one month's written notice to commence to run at the beginning day of the rental month following the serving of the notice. In consideration of which agree to pay, as rental, the sum of Dollars and Cents, in advance, on the first day of each and every rental month. Said rental to be paid promptlv, as other moneys when due, without any demand or notice being made for the same, at the office of , Agent for said lessor. . , or elsewhere in Louisville, Ky., that the lessor. . may at any time require. Should fail to pay any month's rent when it becomes due, then the said lessor. . . has the right to enter and take possession of the premises, and no notice to quit or demand shall be necessary to recover possession. agree further: — Not to sublet any part of the premises without the written consent of the lessor. Not to deface, destroy, remove, or permit the same, any part of the premises; nor to throw any slops, waste or rubbish into the water closets, privy vault, on the roofs or about the premises anywhere. 1 agree to keep no dogs, chickens or such like that may be objectionable to the lessor. . . To keep good order about the premises, and not to permit the visiting of any improper persons there. hereby lease the premises in its present condition, and any repairs needed at any time during occupancy, agree not to demand of the lessor. . . nor hold said lessor. . . liable in any way, on account of the same. That upon the violation of any of the conditions of this lease by myself the said lessor. . . has the right at any time to declare this lease void and forfeited and to enter into possession of the premises without any demand or notice being given. Witness, &c. H.— LAWS AND REGULATIONS RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION AND SALE OF FOOD. (1) FEDERAL FOOD AND DRUGS ACT.* (This Act was passed June 30, 1906, and came into operation January 1, 1907.) An Act for preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating trafiic therein, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, Sec. 1. That it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture within any Territory or the District of Columbia any article of food or drug which is adulterated or misbranded, within the meaning of this Act; and any person who shall violate any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and for each offence shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not to exceed five hundred dollars or shall be sentenced to one year's imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court, and for each subsequent offence and conviction thereof shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars or sentenced to one year's imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. * In addition to this federal law the various States, with few exceptions, have general food laws, for the most part of ecent date. Since the passing of the National Food and Drugs Law of 1906 about 30 States have enacted new food laws. , POOD REGULATIONS. 469 Sec. 2. That the introduction into any State or Territory or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or from any foreign country, or shipment to any foreign country of any article of food or drugs which IB adulterated or misbranded, within the meaning of this Act, is hereby prohibited; and any person who shall ship or deliver for shipment from any State or Territory or the District of Columbia to any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or to a foreign country, or who shall receive in any State or Territory or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or foreign country, and having so received, shall deliver, in original unbroken packages, for pay or otherwise, or offer to deliver to any other person, any such article so adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or any person who shall sell or offer for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories of the United States any such adulterated or misbranded foods or drugs, or export or offer to export the same to any foreign country, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and for such offence be fined not exceeding two hundred dollars for the first offence, and upon conviction for each subsequent offence not exceeding three hundred dollars or be imprisoned not exceeding one year, or both, in the discretion of the court: Provided, That no article shall be deemed misbranded or adulterated within the provisions of this Act when intended for export to any foreign country and prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is intended to be shipped; but if said article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, then this pro- viso shall not exempt said article from the operation of any of the other provisions of this Act. Sec. 3. That the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labour shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions of this Act, including the collection and examination of specimens of foods and drugs manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia, or in any Territory of the United States, or which shall be offered for sale in unbroken packages in any State other than that in which they shall have been respectively manufactured or produced, or which shall be received from any foreign country, or intended for shipment to any foreign coimtry, or which may be submitted for examination by the chief health, food, or drug ofiicer of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, or at any domestic or foreign port through which such product is offered for interstate commerce, or for export or import between the United States and any foreign port or country. Sec. 4. That the examinations of specimens of foods and drugs shall be made in the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture, or under the direction and supervision of such Bureau, for the purpose of determining from such examinations whether such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act; and if it shall appear from any such exam- ination that any of such specimens is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause notice thereof to be given to the party from whom such sample was obtained. Any party so notified shall be given an opportunity to be heard, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed as aforesaid, and if it appears that any of the provisions of this Act have been violated by such party, then the Secretary of Agriculture shall at once certify the facts to the proper United States district attorney, with a copy of the results of the analysis or the examination of such article duly authenticated by the analyst or officer making such examination, under the oath of such officer. After judgment of the court, notice shall be given by publication in such manner as may be prescribed by the rules and regulations aforesaid. Sec. 5. That it shall be. the duty of each district attorney to whom the Secretary of Agriculture shall report any violation of this Act, or to whom any health or food or drug officer or agent of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia shall present satisfactory evidence of any such violation, to cause appropriate proceedings to be commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the United States, without delay, for the enforcement of the penalties as in such case herein provided. Sec. 6. That the term "drug," as used in this Act, shall include all medicines and preparations recognised in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary for internal or external use, and any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for the cure, mitigation, or prevention of disease of either man or other animals. The term "food," as used herein, shall include all articles used for food, drink, confectionery, or condiment by man or other animals, whether simple, mixed, or compoynd. Sec. 7. That for the purpose of this Act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated: In case of drugs: First. If, when a drug is sold under or by a name recognised in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the standard of strength, quality, or purity, as determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharma- copoeia or National Formulary official at the time of investigation: Provided, That no drug defined in the United States Phar- macopoeia or National Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision if the standard of strength, quality, or purity be plainly stated upon the bottle, box, or other container thereof although the standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary. Second. If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which it is sold. In the case of confectionery: If it contains terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or other mineral substance or poisonous colour or flavour, or other ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt, or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. In the case of food: First. If any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously afiect its quality or strength. Second. If any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the article. Third. If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. 470 APPENDIX I. Fourth. If it be mixed, coloured, powdered, coated, or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. Fifth. If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may render such article injurious to health: Provided, That when in the preparation of food products for shipment they are preserved by any external application applied in such manner that the preservative is necessarily removed mechanically, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for the removal of said preservative shall be printed on the covering or the package, the provisions of this Act shall be construed as applying only when said products are ready for consumption. Sixth. If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died other- wise than by slaughter. Sec. 8. That the term "misbranded," as used herein, shall apply to all drugs, or articles of food, or articles which enter into the composition of food, the package or label of which shall bear any statement, design, or device regarding such article, or the ingredients or substances contained therein which shall be false or misleading in any particular, and to any food or drug product which is falsely branded as to the State, Territory, or country in which it is manufactured or produced. That for the purpose of this act an article shall also be deemed to be misbranded: In case of drugs: First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of another article. Second. If the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed, in whole or in part, and other con- tents shall have been placed in such package, or if the package fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or ace- tanilide, or any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein. In the case of food: First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article. Second. If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser, or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed in whole or in part and other contents shall have been placed in such package, or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any mor- phine, opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any deriva- tive or preparation of any of such substances contained therein. Third. If in package form, and the contents are stated in terms of weight or measure, they are not plainly and correctly stated on the outside of the package. Foiuth. If the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement, design, or device regarding the ingredients or the substances contained therein, which statement, design, or device shall be false or misleading in any particular: Provided, That any article of food which does not contain any added poisonous or deleterious ingredients shall not be deemed to be adul- terated or misbranded in the following cases: First. In the case of mixtures or compounds which may be now or from time to time hereafter known as articles of food, under their own distinctive names, and not an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article, if the name be accompanied on the same label or brand with a statement of the place where said article has been manufactured or produced. Second. In the case of articles labeled, branded, or tagged so as to plainly indicate that they are compounds, imitations, or blends, and the word "compound," "imitation," or "blend," as the case may be, is plainly stated on the package in which it is offered for sale: Provided, That the term blend as used herein shall be construed to mean a mixture of like substances, not excluding harmless colouring or flavouring ingredients used for the purpose of colouring and flavouring only: And provided further, That nothing in this Act shall be construed as requiring or compelling proprietors or manufacturers of proprietary foods which contain no unwholesome added ingredient to disclose their trade formulas, except in so far as the provisions oi this Act may require to seciu-e freedom from adulteration or misbranding. Sec. 9. That no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this Act when he can establish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler, jobber, manufacturer, or other party residing in the United States, from whom he purchases such articles, to the effect that the same is not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, designating it. Said guaranty, to afford protection, shall contain the name and address of the party or parties making the sale of such articles to such dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions, fines, and other penalties which would attach, in due comae, to the dealer under the provisions of this Act. Sec. 10. That any article of food, drug, or liquor that is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, and is being transported from one State, Territory, District, or insular possession to another for sale, or, having been transported, remains unloaded, unsold, or in original unbroken packages, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories, or insular possessions of the United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale, or if it is intended for export to a foreign country, shall be liable to be proceeded against in any district court of the United States within the district where the same is found, and seized for confiscation by a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is con- demned as being adulterated or misbranded, or of a poisonous or deleterious character, within the meaning of this Act, the same shall be disposed of by destruction or sale, as the said court may direct, and the proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States, but such goods shall not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this Act or the laws of that jui'isdiction: Provided, however. That upon the payment of the costs of such libel proceedings and the execution and delivery of a good and sufficient bond to the effect that such articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the provisions of this Act, or the laws of any State, Territory, District, or insular posses- sion, the court may by order direct that such articles be delivered to the owner thereof. The proceedings of such libel cases shall conform, as near as may be, to the proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in any such case, and all such proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the United States. FOOD REGULATIONS. 471 Sec. 11. The Secretary of the Treasury stall deliver to the Secretary of Agriculture, upon his request from time to time, samples of foods and drugs which are. being imported into the United States or offered for import, giving notice thereof to the owner or consignee, who may appear before the Secretary of Agriculture, and have the right to introduce testimony, and if it appear from the examination of such samples that any article of food or drug offered to be imported into the United States is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or is otherwise dangerous to the health of the people of the United States, or is of a kind forbidden entry into, or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the country in which it is made or from which it is exported, or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect, the said article shall be refused admission, and the Secretary of the Treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the destruction of any goods refused delivery which shall not be exported by the consignee within three months from the date of notice of such refusal under such regula- tions as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe: Provided, That the Secretary of the Treasury may deliver to the con- signee such goods pending examination and decision in the matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of the full invoice value of such goods, together with the duty thereon, and on refusal to return such goods for any cause to the custody of the Secretary of the Treasury, when demanded, for the purpose of excluding them from the country, or for any other pur- pose, said consignee shall forfeit the full amount of the bond: And provided further, That all charges for storage, cartage, and labour on goods which are refused admission or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee, and in default of such pay- men shall constitute a lien against any future importation made by such owner or consignee. Sec. 12. That the term "Territory" as used in this Act shall include the insular possessions of the United States. The word "person" as used in this Act shall be construed to import both the plural and the singular, as the case demands, and shall include corporations, companies, societies, and associations. When construing and enforcing the provisions of this Act, the act, omission, or failure of any officer, agent, or other person acting for or employed by any corporation, company, society, or association, within the scope of his employment or office, shall in every case be also deemed to be the act, omission, or fail- ure of such corporation, company, society, or association, as well as that of the person. Sec. 13. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of January, 1907. (2.) MUNICIPAL POOD REGULATIONS OP CLEVELAND. Title I.— Cattle, &c. Sec. 1. No person shall sell or offer for sale the meat or other product of any cattle, sheep, or swine other than that bear- ing the official stamp or license of the Government inspector or of the City Inspector. Sec. 2. No person shall slaughter any cattle, sheep, or swine, except in the slaughter houses licensed by the Board of Health, or in the slaughter houses under government inspection. Sec. 3. It shall be unlawful for any person in the city of Cleveland to engage in the business of slaughtering animals for food, packing them for market or rendering the offal, fat, bones or scraps from such animals, or any dead carcase, or any ani- mal matter whatsoever, or to engage in the manufacture of or production of fertilizer or glue, or the cleaning or reiidering of intestines, unless he shall, upon recommendation of the Chief Veterinarian have obtained a permit for such business. The City Clerk is hereby authorized to issue a permit for such business only.to such person or persons who have first applied in writing for the same to the Superintendent of Sanitation and are by him recommended; such permit to be signed by the Mayor. In all such cases the application shall specify the place and the character of the business for which a permit is desired, and the applicant shall pay into the City Treasury for such permit, when the same covers four footed animals, the sum of ten dollars per annum, and when the permit is limited to the slaughtering and preparation for food of chiokens, ducks, geese, tur- keys, game birds and other fowls, the sum of two dollars per annum, which said sum shall be credited to the sanitary fund. Sec. 4. Any proprietor or other person in charge of any slaughter house or abattoir, upon making application to the Health Office for a permit shall file a sworn statement, that said slaughter house or abattoir complies in every way with the sanitary regulations of the Board of Health, and specifically with the following requirements: (a.) All killing floors to be constructed of cement or closely joined, oiled boards. All other floors to be constructed of cement or of closely joined, sound boards. All killing floors to be supplied with sufficient supply of hot and cold water. All floors to be so constructed that they can be readily flushed and drained. (6.) Vats for holding blood to be constructed of non-absorbent material, (c.) Tankage for offal to be sufficient and of a design approved by the Chief Veterinarian. (d.) All rooms except the cooler to have one square foot of window space for every four square feet of floor space, (e.) All yards, where animals are kept before slaughtering, to be covered, paved and drained. (/.) All coolers to be provided with proper ventilation subject to the approval of the Chief Veterinarian. (g ) Proper toilet facilities for all employees, including wash stands with hot water, and sanitary closets, to be provided, (ft.) The building to conform to the provisions of the building code for such class of construction. Anv person making Tpplication to the Health Office for a permit to slaughter and prepare for food chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, game birds, and other fowls shall file a sworn statement that the place for slaughtering and preparing the same com- plies with the following requirements: , , . (a.) To have a cement floor, at least 10 X 12 feet in area, properly drained and connected with a sewer. (6.) ,To contain a receptacle for scalding, having a hood, and proper vent. (c.) To be provided with sufficient coops having closely joined, sound floors. , _ . 472 APPENDIX I. Sec. 5. No person Bhall bring into the city for sale or oiJer for sale, or shall sell or offer for Bale, the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry which is blown, tainted, heated, soured, raised, stuffed, putrid, impiu-e, or which for any other reason is unfit for human food. Sec. 6. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry which is diseased, unsound, unwholesome, or which for any other reason is unfit for human food. Sec. 7. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, or game which, when killed, were within two weeks of parturition. Sec. 8. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry which may have died from accident or disease and which has not been properly killed or slaughtered, bled, cleaned and dressed. Sec. 9. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, the meat of any calf which when killed, was less than four weeks old. Sec. 10. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any pig, which, when killed, was less than five weeks old. Sec. 11. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale the meat of any lamb, which when killed, was less than eight weeks old. Sec. 12. No person shall carry or transport through any street, alley or thoroughfare the carcase or meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry, except it be covered so as to be thoroughly protected from dust and dirt. Sec. 13. No person shall keep any cattle, sheep, swine, game, fowl or poultry in any place in which water, food, and ventilation are not sufficient for the preservation of a healthy and safe condition. Sec. 14. Any person having for sale the meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl, or poultry, shall keep the place in which it is stored or offered for sale in a cleanly and wholesome condition, and free from noxious odours. Sec. 15. No person shall permit the carcase, body, or meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, fowl or poultry to lie or hang or be offered for sale outside of any market or similar place, or in any open window or doorway. Sec. 16. No person shall keep the carcase, body or meat of any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, fowl or poultry, in any refrigerator or ice box except such as is constructed in accordance with the provisions of Sec. 5, Title XII., Part II., of the Plumbing Code. Sec. 17. No person shall sell, or offer for sale, any cattle, sheep, swine, fish, game, fowl or poultry or the meat thereof, which any Government or City Inspector or Market Superintendent or assistant thereof has condemned. Title II. — Rules Governing the Inspection of Meat by the Meat Inspectors. Sec. 1. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall offer for sale or sell any carcases, parts of carcases, or meat pro- ducts, which cannot by marks, brands, labels or transfer slips be identified as being duly inspected and passed by an Inspector of the Board of Health or of the United States Government. Sec. 2. No carcases, parts of carcases, or meat products, which cannot by marks, brands, labels or transfer slips, be identified as being duly inspected and passed by an Inspector of the Board of Health or of the United States Government, shall be allowed to enter a slaughtering establishment. Sec. 3. The slaughtering of animals shall be conducted on week days, between the hours of 6.30 a. m. and 5.30 p. m., except in certain cases of emergency, when permission to slaughter may be granted by the Chief Veterinarian, or except in the case of injury or other extraordinary cases, when it is necessary to kill animals out of established hours, in which case the car- cases of all such animals, with the viscera attached, and all other viscera identifiable, shall be held for inspection and duly identified by the inspector or his assistants at the abattoir with a signed statement from the manager of the abattoir, stating the whole number of e.ach head of animals so slaughtered. No slaughtering shall be conducted on Sundays after 12 o'clock, noon, except in cases of emergency, without the permission of the Chief Veterinarian, such permission to be obtained 24 hours in advance. Managers of abattoirs shall inform the inspector in charge or his assistant when slaughtering has been concluded for the day, and the hour at which it will begin on the following day. Sec. 4. An ante-mortem examination shall be made of all animals arriving at the stock yards and intended for slaughter at abattoirs, at which the Board of Health has established inspection, when said animals are weighed; or, if not weighed, this inspection shall be made in the pens. All animals found upon ante-mortem examination to be affected with any of the con- ditions or diseases named below shall be marked by placing in the ear a metal tag bearing the words: "Cleveland Rejected," and a serial number, or by such other marks as may be necessary to insure their indentification. (a.) Hog cholera. (6.) S*ine plague. (c.) Anthrax or charbon. (d.) Rabies. (e.) Malignant epizootic catarrh. (/.) Pyaemia and septicaemia. (g.) Mange, or scab (unless the animals are satisfactorily dipped.) (h.) Actinomycosis, or lumpy jaw. (i.) Pneumonia, pleurisy, enteritis, peritonitis, and metritis. (j.) Texas fever. (k.) Tuberculosis. (I.) Hemorrhagic septicaemia. (m.) Blackleg. (n.) Animals in an advanced stage of pregnancy (showing signs of preparation for parturition) or which have recently (within ten days) given birth to young. (o.) Any disease or injury which, causing elevation of the temperature or affecting the system, of the animal, will make the flesh unfit for human food. FOOD REGULATIONS. 473 (p.) Animals too young and immature to produce wholesome meat. (g.) Animals which are badly bruised, injured, or show tumors, abscesses or superating (sic) sores. (r.) Animals too emaciated and anaemic to produce wholesome meat. Such rejected or condemned animals shall at once be removed by the owners from the pens containing animals which have been inspected and found to be tree from disease and fit for human food, and shall be satisfactorily disposed of. WTxen animals so tagged are taken to an inspected establishment for slaughter, they shall be accompanied by a permit signed by the inspector in charge of the yards; this permit shall, upon the arrival of the animals at the abattoir, be delivered to the inspector on post-mortem duty at the time, and the animal shall be duly identified by an employee of the abattoir to such inspector on the killing floor and before the skins are removed. ■^Tien the animals are not inspected in the stockyards the inspector in charge of an establishment or his assistant shall carefully inspect all animals about to be slaughtered in the pens of said estabUshment and no animal shall be allowed to pass to the slaughtering room until it has been so inspected. Animals rejected when showing signs of preparation for partiurition shall not be slaughtered, nor for ten days after partu- rition. Pregnant and parturient animals may be removed by permit for stock or dairying purposes except when they are affected with or have been exposed to the contagion of any disease. Sec. 5. The inspector or his assistant shall carefully inspect at the time of slaughter all animals slaughtered at said estab- lishment and make a post-mortem report of the same to the Health Office. The head, tail, caul, or fat enclosed in the omentum of the animal and the entire viscera shall be retained in such manner as to preserve their identity until after the post-mortem inspection has been completed, in order that they may be identified in case of condemnation of the carcase. Should the carcase of any animal on said post-mortem examination be found diseased or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall be marked with a condemnation tag, the same to be attached with wire and sealed, and the diseased organs or parts thereof, if removed from the carcase, shall also be marked with a condemnation tag. The condemnation tag shall accompany the condemned carcase or its parts into the tank. Sec. 6. All animals rejected on ante-mortem examination and all animals passed on ante-mortem examination which are slaughtered at inspected abattoirs, and are found upon post-mortem examination to be affected with any other diseases or conditions named below shall be disposed of according to the following instructions. It is to be understood, however, that owing to the fact that it is impracticable to formulate rules covering every case, and to. designate at just what stage a process becomes loathsome or a disease becomes noxious, the final disposition of those not specifically covered by these rules will be left to the judgment of the inspector in chai-ge. [List and description of diseases.] Sec. 7. All inspected abattoirs shall provide a suitable room in which condemned carcases and parts shall be held until such time as the inspector or his assistant may be present to supervise the tanking thereof. Such room shall be arranged for locking with a padlock, which will be furnished by the Health Office, the key of the same to remain in the possession of the inspector or his assistant. (a.) If, after inspection has been established a reasonable length of time, the abattoir management does not provide a suitable retaining room of sufficient size, or fails to tank condemned carcases regularly on the day of their condemnation, such condemned carcases shall be saturated with kerosene, as described below, and locked on the rail pending their final disposition. Sec. 8. All condemned carcases and parts shall be tanked as follows: After the lower opening of the tank has been sealed by an inspector the condemned carcases and parts shall be placed in the rendering tank in the morning, and immediately a sufficient force of steam shall be turned into the tank to destroy effect- ually the meat "for food purposes before the kilUng for the day is completed; or the condemned portions may be placed in the ta,nk at the close of the day, or when killing is suspended, and both ends of the tank sealed, after which steam shall be turned into the tank until the meat is destroyed. Wire and lead seals shall be provided by the Health Office for sealing tanks. (a.) A sufficient quantity of low grade offal (uteri, floor scrapings, trimmings from gutters and benches, skimmings from catch basins, unemptied intestines, omasa, paunches emptied but not washed, &c.), shall be tanked with all condemned carcases (except those tanked for lard) to effectually render the ultimate product unfit for human food, or, if such offal cannot be obtained, the carcases may be thoroughly slashed with a knife, then saturated with kerosene and placed in the tank. (b ) The seals of tanks containing condemned material shall be broken by an inspector, when the tank is emptied during regular hours, and at other times satisfactory arrangements for the breaking of such seals shall be made with the inspector in charge. Sec 9 When an establishment has no facilities for thus destroying condemned carcases, such carcases shall be removed from the premises, upon numbered permit, issued by the inspector in charge, to rendering works designated by him, and there destroyed under his supervision in the manner described above. Sec 10 Carcases may be taken to the cooling room after marking with the condemnation card, in cases where only a portion of the carcases is condemned, and when such portion cannot be removed without damage to the carcase until it is properly chilled After chilUng, the condemned portions shall be cut out and removed to the tank or to the retaining room, as provided for whole carcases Condemned parts that can be removed without damage to the carcase shall be tanked as descnbed above. Sec 11 All condemned carcases and parts shall be disposed of only in the presence of an inspector, and the report of the disposition shall be made by him upon the blank form provided therefor. , , , , Sec 12 All carcases or portions thereof that are condemned by the inspector shall be disposed of or rendered unfit for food in any manner that the inspector in charge shall indicate. In case any person fails to comply with these instructions, the Board of Health shall have the power to revoke his licence. Sec. 13. No persons shall remove tags, labels, or brands from condemned carcases or parts thereof. 474 APPENDIX I. Sec. 14. Carcases or parts of carcases which leave an official establishment shall b^ marked by the inspector with a numbered label or brand issued by the Health Office for this purpose, and a record of the same shall be sent to the Health Office. (a.) Carcases or parts of carcases which go into the cutting room of an abattoir or are used for canning purposes shall not be labeled. Those which are to be shipped from one abattoir to another for canning or other purposes shall not be labeled. (6.) Managers of abattoirs shall give due notice to the inspector or his assistant of all intended shipments and of all expected receipts of meat in cars, and no meat or meat products shall be received at an official establishment unless the inspector or his assistant has full knowledge concerning the same. (c.) The seals upon cars in which meat is received at official abattoirs may be broken when it is necessary to unload such cars during the absence of the inspector or his assistant, provided the seals which are broken, together with a memorandum of the initials, number and contents (pieces and weight) of such car be promptly delivered by the owners or managers of the abattoir to the inspector or his assistant. Sec. 15. Each article of food product, whether in cans, barrels, firkins, kits, boxes, canvas, or other wrappers, made from inspected carcases, shall bear a label containing the official number of the establishment from which said product came, and also a statement that same has been properly inspected. Sec. 16. No stamps, tags, labels, &c., shall be allowed to remain loose about the abattoir or office, and inspectors are instructed to use such additional safeguards, as in their judgment will be necessary properly to account for every stamp, tag, label, &c., issued, and to have the work of affixing so carefully supervised that nothing but inspected products will be marked. (a.) Any stamps, tags, seals, or labels damaged or not used shall not appear upon the reports as having been affixed to inspected articles, but shall be returned to the inspector in charge and a report made as to the reasons for their retvurn. (6.) No meat or food product shall contain any substance which lessens its wholesomeness, nor any drug, chemical, or dye (unless specifically provided herein), or preservative, other than common salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and saltpetre. Inspection and sampling of prepared meats and meat food products by employees of the Department of Health and Sanitation shall be conducted in such manner and at such times as may be necessary to secure a rigid enforcement of this regulation. Sec. 17. Reports of the work of inspection carried on in every establishment shall be daily forwarded to the Health Office by the inspector in charge, on such blank forms and in such manner as may be specified by the Board of Health or the Super- intendent of Sanitation. Sec. 18. The inspector in charge shall promptly notify the Superintendent of Sanitation of any changes in the firm names of the official establishments at his station. Sec. 19. Whenever an abattoir suspends operations, the inspector shall promptly notify the Superintendent of Sanitation of all employees whose duties are eaffected by such suspension, and forward his recommendation as to the number to be fur- loughed without pay. During such suspension only such employees shall be retained as are actually necessary to supervise the shipments of inspected products from the abattoir. Title III.— Milk. Sec. 1. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any milk without a permit from the Super- intendent of Sanitation. Sec. 2. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any milk which has been, obtained from any milk dealer, dairyman or other person not having a permit or the official licence based on the approval of the Chief Veterinarian. Sec. 3. Any dairyman, milk dealer or other person, upon application to the Health Office for a permit to sell or deliver milk shall file a sworn statement giving his name and address, the number of cows he owns or has charge of, the average amount of milk (estimated) which he sells each day, the names, addresses and licence numbers of all persons from whom he buys milk, the average amount of milk (estimated) which he buys from them each day, the average amount of milk (estimated) sold by each of them each day and the number of cows owned by or in charge of each. Sec. 4. No persons shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any milk: (a.) Containing more than "88 per cent." of water or fluids. (6.) Containing less than "12 per cent." of milk solids, (f.) Containing less than three per cent, of fats. (d.) From which any part of the cream has been removed, (c.) Having a specific gravity of less than 10 and 29 hundredths (10.29). (/.) Containiag any boracic or salicylic acid, formaldehyde or other foreign chemical. (g.) Containing any pathogenic bacteria. (h.) Containing bacteria of any kind, more than 500,000 per cubic centimeter, (t.) Drawn from any cow having a communicable disease, or from a herd which contains any diseased cattle, or from a herd the attendants of which. are afflicted with or have been exposed to any communicable disease. (j.) Drawn from any cow within 15 days before or after parturition. (i.) Drawn from any cow which has been fed on garbage, refuse, swill, moist distillery waste, or other improper food. (Z.) Having a temperature, or which has been kept at a temperature higher than 55 degrees Fahrenheit, (m.) Which has existed or has been kept under conditions contrary to the provisions of this Code. Provided that the first five sub-di-NTsions of this Section shall not apply to milk sold under the name of "Skimmed Milk," as provided in Section 5, of this Title, Sec, 5. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or sell or offer for sale, milk from which the cream has been removed, either in part or in whole, unless sold as skimmed milk, and unless on both sides of the vehicle from which 8iif;h milk is sold, in letters not less than one inch in height the words ' ' Skimmed MUk, " or if not sold from a vehicle, upon each and every vessel from which such milk is sold, there be painted a bright, red hand in width at least one-tenth the height of said vessel, or displayed in plain and legible manner, the words "Skimmed Milk." FOOD EEGULATIONS. 475 Sec. 6. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or sell or offer for sale, any so-called skimmed milk containing less than nine and three-tenths per cent, of milk solids. Sec. 7. No person shall ship or store any milk in any basement, cellar, refrigerator, milk house, dairy, or other place unless such place have one square foot of window space to each four square feet of floor space. Such place shall be provided with a cement floor, property drained and shall contain a vat made of non-absorbent material large enough to store all milk Windows and doors shall be provided, from May Ist to September 30 inclusive, with sound screens, of mesh sufficiently fine to keep out flies and other insects. Sec. 8. No person shall store any milk in any basement, cellar, refrigerator, milk-house, dairy, or other place which is within 15 feet of any closet or privy vault or cesspool or any horse or cow stable or any chicken or poultry yard or coop. Sec. 9. Every person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery wagon or other vehicle, shall keep the same at all times in a cleanly condition and free from any substance liable to contaminate or injure the purity of the milk Sec. 10. Every person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery wagon or other vehicle, shall keep the name of the owner thereof, and the number of the wagon licence, in letters not less than two inches in height, upon the side of said delivery wagon or other vehicle. Sec. 11. Every person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery wagon or other vehicle, shall, from May 1st to September 30th inclusive, have and keep over said delivery wagon or other vehicle, a covering of canvas or other material, so arranged as adequately to protect the contents thereof from the rays and the heat of the sun. Sec. 12. No person shall bottle any milk upon any delivery wagon or vehicle, or in any other place than a milk house, dairy or other building where milk is regularly stored and sold. Sec. 13. No person or dealer shall give, furnish, sell, or offer for sale, or deliver any milk, buttermilk, whey, sour milk, skimmed milk or cream in quantities less than one gallon, except in sanitary bottles, sealed with a suitable cap or stopper, and except where the milk is sold at the milk-house or dairy, when the same may be dipped (and the dipped milk shall not be carried on the street in any other than a covered vessel), but the milk-house, dairy or other place in which milk is handled or stored shall be located no less than 15 feet from any water closet or privy vault or cesspool, or any horse or cow stable or any chicken or poultry yard or coop, and the milk house, dairy or other place shall be a room which is not used for any other pur- pose than the handling and storing of milk. Sec. 14. No person shall transfer any milk intended for sale from one can, bottle, or receptacle into another can, bottle, or receptacle, on any street alley or thoroughfare, or upon a delivery wagon or other vehicle or in any exposed place in the City of Cleveland, except in a creamery, milk depot, or in the enclosed premises of the customer of the dealer in milk Sec. 15. No person shall remove from any dwelling in which exists any case of communicable disease, any bottles or other receptacles which have been or which are to be used for containing or storing milk, except with permission of the Health Officer. Sec. 16. No person shall use any milk ticket more than once. Sec. 17. No person shall keep any cow without a permit from the Health Office. Sec. 18. No person or dealer shall sell, offer for sale or deliver any milk, buttermilk, whey, sour mUk, skimmed milk, cream, Dutch cheese or other milk product in quantities exceeding one gallon unless the can or receptacle containing the same is securely sealed by lock and chain, wire or other contrivance equally efficient, provided, however, that the persons or dealers engaged exclusively in the wholesale delivery or sale of milk, buttermilk, whey, sour milk, cream, skimmed milk, Dutch cheese or other milk product from wagons not carrying milk in bottles, may deliver the same from unsealed cans or receptacles; and provided, further, that said wagon or wagons shall have inscribed conspicuously thereon in plain letters, not less than three inches in height, the words: "Wholesale Delivery." Title IV. — Rules Governing the Inspection of Milk by the Dairy Inspectors. Sec. 1. The dairies of all persons shipping milk for sale in Cleveland will be inspected and rated according to the following provisions: — (a.) Cows. Condition and Healthfulness— Perfect Score 10. (Two points will be deducted if cows are in poor flesh, and eight points if not tuberculin tested.) Cleanliness — Perfect Score 5. (All cows clean, 5; good, 4; fan-, 3; medium, 2; poor, 1; bad, 0.) (b.) Stables Construction of Floors— Perfect Score 5. (If the floor is of cement or stone flag in good repair, 5; brick or matched board in good repair, 4; ordinary wooden floor m good repair, 3; one half wood and one haU cement, 3; half wood, cement or other material and half dirt, 2; any material in poor repair, 1; if no floor allow 0.) Cleanliness— Perfect Score 5. , , . .„ , . .• . ,• ^ . , (If stables are thoroughly clean, including windows, walls and ceiling, 5; deduction will be m proportion to dirt, cobwebs, &c.) Light— Perfect Score 5. , ^ c 4. o t ^ (F^r four square feet per cow 5 points will be ^ven; 3 square feet per cow, 4; two square feet per cow, 3; one square foot per cow, 2; six square inches per cow', 1; less than six square inches per cow, 0.) Ventilation— Perfect Score 4. ^- c ^ , i: .n 4.- -i ^^ ■ j (If ventilation is good 4 points will be given; deductions will be made m proportion for lack of ventilation; if all windows are closed and no attempt at ventilation is made will be allowed. ) 476 APPENDIX I. Cubic Space per Cow — Perfect Score 3. (If five hundred cubic feet per cow, 3 points will be allowed; less than five hundred and over four hundred cubic feet per cow, 2; less than four hundred and over three hundred cubic feet per cow, 1; less than three hundred cubic feet per cow, will be allowed.) Removal of Manure — Perfect Score 2. (If manure is hauled to the fields daily, 2 points will be allowed; removed thirty feet from stable, 1; otherwise, 0.) Stable Yard— Perfect Score 1. (If stable yard is in good condition and well drained, 1 point will be allowed; otherwise, 0.) (c.) Water Supply. For Cows — Perfect Score 5. (If cows are supplied with pure running water, 5 points will be allowed; running well water from wind mill or otherwise, 4; ordinary well water, 3; pond or other muddy water, 0.) For Milk House — Perfect Score 5. (If milk house is supplied with pure, clean running water, 5 points will be allowed; pure well water, 3; otherwise, 0.) (d.) Milh House. Construction — Perfect Score 5. (If the floor is of cement or tight boards well drained, if the walls and ceiling aie sound and the milk house is well lighted and ventilated and not attached by doorway to any other building, 5 points will be given; if the milk house is in a barn or house, 2 points will be deducted and deductions will be made in proportion to deficiency in construction, light and repair. If there is no milk house will be allowed.) Equipment — Perfect Score 5. (If hot water is installed for cleaning utensils, 1 point will be given; proper pails used for no other purpose, 1; proper strainers, 1; aerator (sic), 1; soda or washing powder for utensils, 1; 1 point will be deducted for absence of any.) Cleanliness of Interior — Perfect Score 5. (If the interior is absolutely clean, including windows, 5 points will be allowed; good condition, 4; medium, 3; fair, 2; poor, 1; bad, 0.) Care and Cleanliness of Utensils — Perfect Score 5. (If all utensils are thoroughly clean and kept on suitable racks, 5 points will be allowed; 2 points will be deducted for absence of rack; deductions will be made for rusty utensils or careless washing. The lighting and ventilation of the milk house together with its location in regard to other buildings will be taken into consideration.) (e.) Milkers and Milking. Health of Attendants — Perfect Score 5. (If the attendants are all in a healthy condition, 5 points will be allowed; if any of the attendants are sick or a contagious disease exists in the family, will be allowed.) Cleanliness of Milking — Perfect Score 10. (If milking is done in special suits for milking, with clean, dry hands and with attention to cleanliness of udders and teats before milking, 10 points will be given; all of the above except special suits, 7; in addition 4 points will be deducted for unclean teats or udder and 3 points for dirty hands; if wet milking is done, will be allowed.) (f.) Handling the Milk. Prompt Cooling — Perfect Score 5. (If milk is poured from pail into cool receptacle as soon as milked, 5 points will be given; if poured into can and can is put into cold water as scon as filled, 2; otherwise, 0.) Efficient Cooling — Perfect Score 5. (If the milk reaches a temperature of 60 degrees before being shipped, 5 points will be given; a temperature of 65 degrees, 3; a temperature of 70 degrees, 1; above 70 degrees nothing will be allowed.) Storing at Low Temperature — Perfect Score 5. (If milk is stored at a temperature of 60 degrees, 5 points will be given; a temperature of 65 degrees, 3; a temperature of 70 degrees, 1; above 70 degrees, will be allowed.) Sec. 2. All dairies will be scored by the inspector upon a card in the following form: — Owner or lessee of farm Town State Number of cows Quarts of milk produced daily Is product sold at wholesale or retail? If shipped to dealer give name and address Permit No Date of inspection 190 Cows. Perfect Score. Condition (2) \ ,„ Health (8) / ^" Cleanliness 5 Stables. Construction of floors 5 Cleanliness 5 Light 5 Ventilation 4 Cubic space per cow '. 3 Removal of manure (2) 1 „ Cleanliness and drainage, stable yard (1) J 477 FOOD RKGULATIONS. Water Supply. For cows For milk house ° ■• 5 Milk House. Construction Equipment "".".'..[.]][.[[ f Cleanliness [ ^ Care and cleanliness of utensils. . . 5 Is house detached? Lighted?".'.".'. ■.".■.".■.".■.■. Ventilated?'. '. '..'..'...'.['.[.'.'........ .'.'.'.'.\ Millers and Milking. Health of attendants '. e Cleanliness of milking '.'.'...'. in Hand', ng the Milk. Prompt cooling c Efficient cooling !!!."!!!.!!!!!!!!!!!.' 5 Storing at low temperature '.'.'.'....'.'. 5 Total score iqq Sanitary conditions are — Excellent Good Medium Poor Suggestions by inspector Milk or cream from dairies falling below 45 in the rating as indicated above, will be excluded from sale in Cleveland during .908; milk or cream from dairies falling below 50 will be excluded from sale in Cleveland during 1909. Title V. — Vegetables, Fruit, Bread, Pastry, Confections, &c. Sec. 1. No person shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, any decayed or damaged vegetables or fruit. Sec. 2. No person shall manufacture, or shall bring into the city for sale, or shall sell or offer for sale, bread stuffs, cake, pastry, candy, confections or other articles of food: (a.) Containing any substance which lowers, depreciates, or injuriously affects its quality, strength, purity or whole- someness. (6.) Containing any cheaper or inferior substance than it is represented to contain, (c.) Which is in imitation of or sold under the name of any other article. (d.) From which any valuable or necessary ingredient has been abstracted or omitted. (e.) Which is coloured, coated, polished, powdered or by any other means is made to appear of greater value than it is. Sec. 3. No person shall expose, sell or offer for sale, any bread stuffs, cake, pastry, candy, confectionery, or dried fruits, outside of any building, in any open window or doorway, or on any sidewalk, street, alley, or thoroughfare, except they be covered so as thoroughly to protect them from dust and dirt. Sec. 4. No person or dealer shall sell, offer for sale, or deliver any oysters in quantities less than five gallons, except in earthenware crocks or vessels of non-absorbent material. Sec. 5. No person shall sell or offer for sale any butter or cheese except the same be covered so as to protect it thoroughly from dust and dirt. Title VI. — Bake Shops and Confectionery Establishments. Sec. 1. Any place used for producing, mixing, compounding or baking, for selling or for the purpose of a restaurant, bake- shop, or hotel, any bread, biscuit, crackers, rolls, cake, macaroni, pie, or any food products, of which flour or meal is the prin- cipal ingredient, shall be deemed a bake shop. The regulations of this title shall apply also to places, rooms orbuildings where candy is prepared or manufactured. Sec. 2. Any place used as a bake shop shall be provided with floors of closely-joined impervious material which can be thoroughly cleaned. Sec. 3. Every baker or other person in charge of any bake shop shall keep the floors, side walls, ceilings, woodwork, fixtures, tools, machinery and utensils in a thoroughly clean and sanitary condition and every bake shop shall be provided with adequate ventilation so as to insure a free circulation of air at all times. Sec. 4. The door and window openings of every bake shop shall, from May 1st to September 30th inclusive, be provided with sound screens of mesh sufficiently fine to keep out flies and other insects. Sec. 5. The side walls and ceilings of every bake shop shall be well plastered or sheathed with metal, wood or tile. All plastered walls or ceilings shall be kept lime washed or calsomined or shall be painted with oil paint, and all wood work in every bake shop shall be well oiled and painted and washed clean. Sec 6 Every bake shop shall be provided with adequate plumbing, including suitable wash stands and water closets. No water closets shall be entered from or shall be in direct communication with the bake shop. Every wash stand in a bake shop shall be provided with clean towels at all times. j . , , , . „ . , Sec. 7. No person shall sleep in a bake shop, and the sleeping places of persons employed m bake shops shall be kept sepa- rate from the place where flour or meal or food products are handled or stored. Sec. 8. No domestic animals shall be permitted in a bake shop or place where flour or meal is stored m connection with a bake shop. 478 APPENDIX I. Sec. 9. Every owner or person in charge of a bake shop shall be required to keep himself and his employees in a clean condition and suitably clothed while engaged in the production, handling, or selling of bakery products, and shall provide a dressing room separated from the bake shop and from the place where flour and meal is stored or kept. Sec. 10. Receptacles for expectoration of impervious material, cleaned at least once in every 24 hours, shall be maintained and kept by the person in charge of every bake shop and no attendant or other person shall spit on the floor, side walls or on any place in such a bake shop. Sec. 11. Smoking, snuffing, or chewing tobacco is forbidden in a bake shop. Notice forbidding all persons to use tobacco or to spit on the floor or side walls shall be posted in every bake shop. Sec. 12. No person who has tuberculosis, a venereal, or other communicable disease shall work in a bake shop and no per- son in charge of such bake shop shall require, permit, or suffer such a person to be employed. Sec. 13. Every bake shop which shall not be kept in a cleanly condition, free from rats, mice and vermin, and from matter of an infectious or contagious nature, is hereby declared to be a public nuisance and it shall be the duty of the Superintendent of Sanitation to cause the same to be abated. (3) MUNICIPAL REGULATIONS RELATIVE TO THE HANDLING AND SALE OF MILK IN CHICAGO. (i.) Milk Depot. Licence. Rule 1. Application for Licence. — Application for a milk licence shall be made in writing to the Commissioner of Health. Such application shall set forth the name and residence of the applicant, if an individual, and the names and residences of the principal officers if the applicant is a corporation, together with the location of the place for which such licence is desired. Such application shall also state whether the milk is to be sold in a store, depot, or also from a delivery wagon. It shall fur- ther state whether the milk and cream is to be sold in bottles exclusively or in bulk and bottles. It shall also state if cow^s are to be kept, and if so shall state the number. Rule 2. Inspection and Investigation of Previous Record. — No application for licence shall be approved by the Com- missioner of Health after May 1, 1908, if the records of the milk division show that the dep6t, store or any part of the establish- ment in which the business is to be conducted is in an unsanitary condition. If the applicant's record is not on file in the ofiice, or if he is newly engaging in the milk business, an inspection of his place shall be made within five days after making the application, to determine the sanitary conditions. No application for licence shall be approved if applicant has a bad record. The applicant if refused a licence on account of bad sanitary conditions, or for repeated adulterations of milk and cream may make application to the Commissioner of Health for a hearing. The Commissioner of Health may then recommend the the applicant for a licence, if he is satisfied that the regulations of the Department will be complied with in the future. Rule 3. Revoking of Licence. — If at any time after the granting of such licence the holder fails to comply with the sani- tary regulations of the Department, or repeatedly sells or offers for sale, or has in his possession for the purpose of selling, milk and cream below the grade prescribed by the ordinances or rules of the Department of Health, the Chief Food Inspector shall recommend to the Commissioner of Health that his licence be revoked with or without further notice. Said Commisioner of Health may grant the defendant a hearing, if he deems this necessary. Rule 4. Re-issuing of Revoked Licence. — If all the regulations of the Department have been complied with the Com- mis.'iioner of Health may recommend that the licence be re-issued. Rule 5. Licence Exhibited. — Every milk dealer shall post his licence in a conspicuous place on the premises for which it has been issued. Milk Depdts. Rule 6. Definition. — By "Milk Dep6t" is meant any place, house or room where milk is received from the farm, or large wholesale dealer in bottles or cans and prepared for distribution. The milk dep6t shall not be used for any other purpose, nor shall any other business be conducted therein. Rule 7. Where to be Established. — No milk dep6t shall be established or maintained in a room or rooms which commimi- cate directly with any living rooms, kitchen, sanitary closet, laundry or stable and places where aninaals are kept or slaugh- tered. No milk dep6t shall be maintained which communicates in any way with a horse or cow bam and shall be separated therefrom by an air and odour proof partition or wall. After May 1st, 1908, milk dep6ts shall not be maintained in any build- ing where horses and cows are kept. The immediate vicinity of the milk depdt, especially the place within ten feet of the doors and windows thereof, shall be kept free from the accumulations of rubbish, garbage, manure and any other putref jong, decomposing, infectious and bad smelling substances. Rule 8. Construction. — The floor shall be smooth, free from crevices and defects, and water tight. When below the street level it must be constructed of impervious material, such as cement, asphalt or tiles laid in cement. It shall be well drained and the drains must be trapped and ventilated. The walls and ceilings shall be smooth, tight and free from imneces- sary projections, niches, &c., and kept well painted or lime washed. Windows. — Glass space corresponding to fifteen per cent, of the floor space shall be provided. All windows must be so located as to admit light freely, and be unobstructed. Screens. — Between May Ist and November 1st all windows shall be provided with fly and dust screens and all doors shall be provided with self-closing door screens. Ventilation. — All depdts shall be provided with adequate ventilation by means of windows, air shafts, air ducts or other mechanical apparatus, if required, so as to ensure free circulation of fresh air at all times. Rule 9. Wash Rooms. — Wherever milk is bottled or otherwise prepared a separate room shall be maintained for the pur- pose of receiving, storing and cleaning cans, bottle? and utensils, known as the "wash room." This shall be separated from that part of the milk dep6t where the milk is stored and bottled, known as the "milk room," by a complete partition and door. The wash room shall be so located that dirty utensils do not have to pass through or be received in the room where the milk is handled or prepared. The floor of the wash room shall be so arranged that its drainage does not run into the mUk room. Dirty cans and utensils shall not be taken into, kept, or stored in the milk room. FOOD REGULATIONS. 479 Rule 10. Appliances.— Vats shall be constructed preferably of impervious material and should have a smooth inner surface. They shall be provided with dust-proof covers and be drained indirectly into the sewer. The water in the vats shall be kept clean, sweet and free from sediment and odour. The vats shall always be kept clean, free from dust, slime, sediment or milk crusts. The temperature of the water shall not be above fifty degrees P. Refrigerator and Ice Boxes.— The inner wall of the compartment of the refrigerator and ice boxes where the milk is kept shall be smooth and preferably metal or porcelain lined. The floor shall be drained indirectly into the sewer. The milk com- partment shall be kept clean and free from any odour. Nothing but milk, cream and butter shall be stored in the ice box. Bottling Machine.— The bottling machine shall be so constructed that it can readily be taken apart and cleaned, especially the springs and plungers. It shall be cleaned thoroughly every day, and when not in use it shall be kept covered with a clean cloth. Drying Racks.— Drying racks shall be provided on which bottles can be placed in an inverted position, for proper drainage and drying. In no instance shall bottles be inverted in bottle cases for the purpose of draining and drying. Pasteurizers and Separators. — Pasteurizers and separators shall be so constructed that all parts, including pipes, can be readily cleaned and sterilized. These appliances must be kept scrupulously clean, inside and outside, at all times. Rule 11. Utensils. — All shipping cans, bottles, dippers, skimmers, measures, strainers, stirrers and other utensils must be so constructed that all parts are absolutely free from spaces where milk can accumulate or soak in, so that it cannot be removed by simple washing. The surface coming in contact with milk and cream must be smooth and free from excessive rust. All utensils must be kept scrupulously clean, inside and outside, at all times. Utensils must be kept in good repair and free from rough surfaces of any kind. When not in use they should be kept dry, inverted and on specially provided racks or hooks, when possible. Bottle caps must be kept in clean, covered, dry and dust proof receptacles. Rule 12. Maintenance and Care. — The floor shall be kept clean and scrubbed. Dry sweeping and dusting is not to be permitted. The walls and ceiling, shelves, windows and all other surfaces must be clean and kept free from dust by washing or wiping with a damp cloth. Unnecessary articles such as boxes, old utensils, reserve stock, blankets, harnesses, lanterns, paint cans, oil cans, and other articles not required in the milk business shall not be kept in the milk dep6t. Dogs and cats should be kept out. Children should not be permitted to play or gather in the milk dep6t. Rule 13. Attendants. — ^Every person in charge of such milk depot shall keep himself and his employees in a clean condi- tion and cleanly clothed while engaged in the bottling, pouring, measuring, and skimming of milk. Smoking, snuffing or chewing of tobacco is forbidden in a milk dep&t, and a plain notice shall be posted forbidding all persons from using tobacco or spitting on the floor. Rule 14. Communicable Diseases. — ^No person with consumption, venereal diseases or communicable skin disease shall work in a milk dep6t or engage in the handling of milk. When typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, small pox, measles or chicken pox occur in the house or families of any one engaged in the handling of milk, it shall be the duty of the milk dealer to notify the Division of Food Inspection at once of this fact, so that the necessary regulations can be enforced in co-operation with the Bureau of Contagious Diseases to prevent, the spread of disease. No one afflicted with or convalescent from typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, small pox, measles, chicken pox, or any other communicable disease shall engage in the handling of milk or cream, nor enter a milk dep6t. Wh?n typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria or small pox exists in the house or families of any one engaged in the handling of milk, he shall at once discontinue his work in the milk depot and vehicles. The dep6t and wagon shall be declared infected, if any one with or convalescent from typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or small pox, or residing in a house or apartment where these diseases exist, has worked therein, together with all milk and cream therein, except such cans as are still properly sealed and closed and have not been opened since they were closed and sealed in the country. No person convalescent from contagious disease or living in houses or premises in which contagious disease exists shall re-engage in the handling of milk until the Bureau of Contagious Diseases has enforced suitable quarantine regulations and the necessary disinfection°has been done by the department. No individuals residing in a quarantined house or place shall be permitted to enter a milk dep6t. Rule 15 Operation.— All milk shall be stored at a temperature not above fifty degrees F. No can or bottle of milk shall be completely submerged in impure water or water from impure or insanitary ice. Impure ice, especially such ice sold for refrigerating purposes only, must not come in contact with milk and milk utensils or be used in water of milk vats. Sour milk must not be permitted to stand in the farmers' cans. Nothing except milk, cream or butter shall be permitted m the milk vats, ice boxes, and coolers. Returned empty bottles and other utensils must be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized before being taken into the milk room. City Dairies. No cow or cows shall be kept in the city for the purpose of producing milk, except in conformity with the following rules:- Rule 36. Permit to keep Cows required.-A permit to keep cows must be secured from the Health Department for each loca- tion, mLtg thereby each bam or closely related system where such cows are to be kept. The application for this permit must show: — (a) thenumber of cows; (6) the cubic feet of air space; (c) the facilities for disposing of manure; (d) the ventilation; (e) the distance from human habitation; (/) the facilities for excluding flies. 480 APPENDIX I. Rule 37. Location. — No cows shall be stabled within thirty feet of a residence, the distance being measured in a straight line from the nearest point of the stable to the nearest point occupied by a person. Rule 38. Construction. — A permit shall not be issued unless the facilities are such that the stable shall have ample venti- lation, to wit: three thousand cubic feet of fresh air per cow or other animal per hour, or unless the stables are clean, well lighted and capable of being so maintained. Manure and urine must be cared for so as not to become a nuisance. The bam must be so constructed that flies cannot reach the animal or the manure. Rule 39. Revoking of Permit. — ^The permit shall be cancelled if the premises are not kept clean, or the manure is allowed to accumulate, flies breed or congregate therein, or the place becomes or is allowed to become a nuisance. Rule 40. Cows must be Free from Tuberculosis. — Cows kept for the purpose of producing. milk shall be tested with tuber- culin once each year. The results of such tests shall be open to the inspection of the Health Department at all times. No tubercular cow or markedly under nourished cow shall be allowed in any herd or stable, except a special permit be granted therefor. The milk from such cows shall be pasteurized at a temperature not less than one hundred and seventy-five degrees F. for more than thirty seconds in a stream not more than one-quarter of an inch thick before it shall be deemed fit for human food. Rule 41. Keeping and Care of Milk. — Milk from cows held in the city shall not be kept in the same room with the cows or any other animal, nor in any place ventilating into such room. Rule 42. Standards of Purity for such Milk. — The milk in all particulars shall conform to the same rules and regulations as those pertaining to country produced milk. Rule 43. Maintenance. — ^The stables shall be cleaned every day. The manure shall be hauled away every day from May 1st to October 1st and once a week for the remainder of the year, provided the stable is within two hundred feet of a house. If the distance to the nearest house is over two hundred feet then it shall be hauled away not less often than once a week. Rule 44. Keeping of Cows. — No cows shall be confined in any yard or tethered on any street or common within thirty feet of any dwelling, church, school, store or hall. Where an owner tethers a cow on a street or common he shall maintain the tether zone free from anything which may make it a nuisance. ' Rule 45. Maintenance of Nuisance Prohibited. — Nothing in these rules shall be construed as allowing the maintenance of a nuisance. Rule 57. Sanitary Standard for Milk. — All milk sold, offered for sale, kept with the intention of selling or sent to the city for the purpose of selling must be free from dirt, foreign material and sediment. Not more than a perceptible sediment shall be left on a piece of white linen cloth four inches square when a quart of well mixed milk is strained through it. Milk on arrival in the city must not contain more than one million bacteria per cubic centimeter from May 1st to September 30th and not over five hundred thousand bacteria per cubic centimeter between October 1st to April 30th. Milk for delivery to the consumer shall not contain an excessive number of bacteria. The sale of jnilk containing over three million bacteria per cubic centimeter is prohibited and the dealer selling or offering tor sale such milk shall, after three examinations of his milk on suc- cessive days by the bacteriologist and showing bacterial counts above three million, is prohibited from selling milk until the method of production and handling of his milk supply has been properly regulated by the department. The sale of milk containing tubercle, typhoid, diphtheria or other pathogenic bacteria is prohibited. The sale of milk containing excessive numbers of putrefying and gas producing miscroorganisms is prohibited. Milk Delivery and Milk Vehicles. Rule 23. Transported in Closed Receptacles and in Covered Wagons. — Milk shall not be transported in open or improperly closed cans and receptacles. It shall be properly protected from the dust and the sun's rays with adequate covering. This covering shall be clean, non-odourous and free from dust. Wagons used for the delivery of milk to consumers shall be covered with material that will allow of washing and shall always be kept clean. The interior of the wagon shall be kept clean, free from milk crusts and odoiu: of any kind. Drivers' seats shall be divided off from the compartment or compartments where the milk and cream are kept. The compartments where milk and cream are kept shall be tight and opened only when neces- sary for the removal of their contents. Rule 24. Preparing and Bottling of Milk on Street Prohibited. — Milk and cream shall not be prepared or bottled in the street or in a vehicle. The distribution of milk and cream into specially constructed pouring cans shall be done in the milk dep6t, and is prohibited upon the street. Milk for delivery in bulk shall be carried in covered pouring cans, provided with a spout or faucet. Milk shall not be dipped from farmers' or stock cans for delivery to the consumer. Ptule 25. Temperature of Milk. — The milk for delivery to the consumer on the wagons shall not be above seventy degrees F. Rule 26. Utensils. — Here the same rules shall apply as for utensils used in the milk dep6t. See Rule 10. Rule 27. Attendants and Communicable Diseases. — Same rule shall apply as for milk dep6ts. See Rules 13 and 14. (ii.) Stores. Licence. Rule 1. Application for Licence. — As above. Rule 2. Inspection and Investigation of Previous Record. — As above. Rule 3. Revoking of Licence. — As above. Rule 4. Re-Issuing of Revoked Licence. — As abo-\'-e. Rule 5. Licence Exhibited. — As above. FOOD EEGULATIONS. 481 Stores. Rule 28. Definition.— These shall include all places and rooms where milk is sold together with other foodstuffs, such as groceries, meats, bakery goods, delicatessen articles and confectionery. Rule 29. Location.— Such stores must be separated by tight fitting doors and a complete partition from living rooms, kitchen, laundries, sanitary closet, sleeping rooms and from places where horses, cattle, fowl and other anunals are kept or slaughtered. Rule 30. Construction.- Stores where milk is sold must be properly lighted and ventilated. Between May 1st and Novem- ber 1st the windows must be fitted with fly screens and the doors with self-closing door screens. Rule 31. Appliances.— Vats shall be the same as those required for milk depSts. See Rule 10. The cover of the vat shall be so constructed that the dust does not fall into the box when the lid is raised. Ice Boxes and Refrigerators.— The compartment where milk and cream is kept shall be separated by an impervious water and odour proof partition from all other compartments and by a non-leaking partition from the ice chamber. The inner surface of this compartment where milk and cream is kept shall be smooth and preferably metal or porcelain lined. The floor shall be similarly constructed. Free and adequate drainage shall be provided; the drain connecting indirectly with the sewer shall be trapped and ventilated. The ice box shall be kept scrupulously clean at all times and entirely free from any odour. Milk and cream shall not be kept in ice boxes with any other foodstuffs except butter. Milk shall not be kept in the ice box for the purpose of souring or making cheese. All milk and cream kept in such ice boxes shall be considered as milk and cream for sale and hence must be up to the standard required by the City Ordinance. Unclean utensils, cans and bottles shall not be kept in the ice box. The doors and covers of such ice boxes shall be dust proof and so constructed that upon opening the dust on the outer surface does nor fall into the milk compartment. Rule 10. Appliances. — ^As above (Ist clause). Rule 32. Utensils. — ^Utensils shall be kept in the manner as required for milk dep6tB. See Rule 10. Rule 11. Utensils. — As above. Rule 33. Maintenance and Care. — ^The entire place shall be kept in a good sanitary condition and free from unnecessary articles, garbage and rubbish. The air shall be kept pure and free from deleterious odour. In the immediate vicinity of the vat and ice box, to a distance of at least flve feet, no fermenting or putrefying substances or things with deleterious odours shall be kept, such as cheese, pickles, sauer kraut, fresh, salted and smoked fish, soap, aromatic oils. Kerosene and kerosene cans shall be kept fifteen feet distance from the milk boxes. Rule 34. Communicable Diseases. — Same rules as for milk dep6ts. See Rule 14. Rule 14. Communicable Diseases. — As above. Rule 35. Operation. — All milk shall be stored at a temperature not above fifty degrees F. No can or bottle of milk shall be completely submerged in impure water or water from impure or insanitary ice. Sour milk must not be permitted to stand in the farmers' cans. Empty cans and bottles must be cleaned and washed with hot water before returning to the wholesale dealer or farmer. In selling bulk milk stir up the contents of the can thoroughly and thus prevent unintentional skimming. Rule 57. Sanitary Standard for Milk. — ^As above. An Ordinance Prohibiting the Sale of Bulk Milk in Stores — Passed by the City Council June 2^, 1908. Sec. 1. No person, firm or corporation shall sell, offer for sale, expose for sale or keep with the intention of selling any milk or cream in stores or in other places where other merchandise than milk or cream is sold unless the milk or cream is kept, offered for sale, exposed for sale, or sold in tightly closed and capped bottles or receptacles of a similar character, such as shall be ap- proved by the Commissioner of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 2. Any person, firm or corporation who shall violate any of the provisions of Section 1 shall be fined not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars for each offence. Sec. 3. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after its passage and due publication. (iii.) Ordinance requiring Tuberculin Test of Cows. Be it ordained by the City Council oj the City of Chicago: Milk. Sec 1 No milk cream, buttermilk or ice cream shall be sold, offered for sale, exposed for sale or kept with the intention of selling within the' City of Chicago after January 1st, A. D. 1909, unless such milk or cream or the milk or cream contained in buttermilk and ice cream, be obtained from cows that have given a satisfactory negative tuberculm test withm one year; the cows having been satisfactorily tested shall be marked "tuberculin tested" and shall be numbered and a certificate shall be filed with the division of milk inspection of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago upon forms furnished by the Commissioner of Health giving the number, a brief description of the animal, the date of the taking of said test and the name of the owner Said certificate shall be signed by the person making such test; provided, however, that from January 1st, 1909, for a period of five years, to wit, until January 1st, 1914, milk or cream or buttermilk and ice cream made from milk or cream, obtained from cows not tuberculin tested or not free from tuberculosis, may be sold within the City of Chicago if the milk or cream from said cows is pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 37 482 APPENDIX 1.. Sec. 2. Any milk, cream, buttermilk or ice cream offered for sale, exposed for sale or kept with the intention of selling within the City of Chicago which shall be found within the City in violation of Section 1, shall be forthwith seized, condemned and destroyed by the milk and food inspectors or other duly authorized agents or employees of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 3. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after January 1st, 1909. Butter. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of Chicago: Sec. 1. No butter shall be sold or offered for sale or kept with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago after January Ist, 1909, unless such butter be made from milk or cream obtained from cows that have given a satisfactory negative tuberculin test within one year; provided, however, that from January 1st, 1909, for a period of five years, to wit, until January 1st, 1914, butter made of milk obtained from cows not tuberculin tested or not free from tuberculosis may be sold in the City of Chicago if the milk or cream from which such butter was made was pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 2. It shall be unlawful to sell any butter in the City of Chicago, unless there be stamped on the package in plainly legible letters of not less than one-eighth inch type: "Made of milk (or cream) from cows free from tuberculosis as shown by tuberculin test," or, "Made from nlilk (or cream) pasteurized according to the rules and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago." Sec. 3. Any butter offered for sale, exposed for sale or kept with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago, which shall be found within the city in violation of this ordinance, shall be forthwith seized, condemned and destroyed by the milk and food inspectors or other duly authorized agents or employees of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 4. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after January 1st, 1909. Cheese. Be it ordained by the City Council of the City of Chicago: Sec. 1. No domestic cheese shall be sold or offered for sale or kept with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago after January 1st, 1909, unless such cheese be made from milk or cream obtained from cows that have given a satisfactory negative tuberculin test within one year; provided, however, that from January Ist, 1909, for a period of five years, to wit, until January 1st, 1914, domestic cheese made of milk obtained from cows not tuberculin tested or not free from tuberculosis, may be sold in the City of Chicago if the milk or cream from which such cheese was made was pasteiuized according to the rules and regu- lationa of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 2. It shall be unlawful to sell any such cheese in the City of Chicago unless there be stamped on the package in plainly legible letters of not less than one-eighth inch type: "Made of milk (or cream) from cows free from tuberculosis as shown by tuberculin test," or "Made from milk (or cream) pasteurized according to the niles and regulations of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago." Sec. 3. Any cheese offered for sale, exposed for sale, or kept with the intention of selling in the City of Chicago, which shall be found within the city in violation of this ordinance, shall be forthwith seized, condemned and destroyed by the Tnilk and food inspectors or other duly authorised agents or employees of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Sec. 4. This ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after January 1st, 1909. (4) BAKERY ORDINANCE OF CHICAGO. Sec. 1. Any place used for any process of mixing, compounding or baking, for sale or for purposes of a restaiu-ant, bakery or hotel, any bread, biscuits, pretzels, crackers, buns, rolls, macaroni, cake, pies, &c., or any food product of which flour or meal is a principal ingredient, shall be deemed a bakery for the purposes of this ordinance. Sec. 2. No person, firm or corporation shall establish, maintain or operate any such bakery without having first been licensed so to do by the city, except that no licence shall be required for the purpose of conducting a private bakery in the kitchen of a dwelling, where the baking is done in an ordinary kitchen range. Every person or corporation establishing, maintaining or operating any such bakery shall annually, on the first day of May of each year, pay a licence fee of $5 per year for a licence for each bakery so maintained, which licence shall be issued for a period ending with the first day of May following; provided, however, that upon furnishing proof satisfactory to the Commissioner of Health and to the City Collector that the applicant was not theretofore liable for the licence fee and maintained no bakery without a licence prior to the date fixed in the application, a licence may be issued for the unexpired half of a municipal year upon payment in advance at the rate of Five Dollars per year, as hereinbefore specified. Sec. 3. Any person or corporation desiring to establish, maintain or operate a bakery, as defined in this ordinance shall make application in writing to the Commissioner of Health for a licence. Such application shall set forth the name and resi- dence of the applicant if an individual, or the names and residences of the principal oflBicers of the applicant if a corporation, together with the location of the place for which such licence is desired. Such application shall also state the maximum- number of persons to be employed in such bakery, the. number of Moms or apartments therein, and any other facts concerning the proposed bakery which the Commissioner of Health may desire to have stated in such application. Sec. 4. Within five days after the receipt of such application it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Health to make, or cause to be made, an examination of the place described in such application, for the purpose of ascertaining whether the location of such proposed bakery, the construction and lighting thereof, the amount of space therein and the sanitary arrange- ments are sufficient so that the public health or the health of the persons to be employed in such proposed bakery will not be endangered. FOOD REGULATIONS. 483 If the said Commissioner shdU be satisfied that the proposed bakery will be kept and maintained in accordance with the proYisions of this ordinance, he shall transmit such application to the Mayor, with his approval endorsed thereon; whereupon the Mayor shall issue, or cause to be issued, to such applicant upon payment to the City Collector of the licence fee herein required, a licence authorizing such applicant to keep, conduct or maintain a bakery at the place described in such appHcation, for and during the period of such licence. No license for the keeping of a bakery shall be issued unless the application for such licence shall be approved by the Commissioner of Health. Sec. 5. If at any time after the granting of such licence the Commissioner of Health shall certify to the Mayor that the public health or the health of the persons employed in any such bakery is endangered by the maintenance of such bakery, it shall be the duty of the Mayor to revoke the licence therefor. Sec. 6. Every such licence granted under the provisions of this ordinance shall be posted in a conspicuous place in the bakery for which such licence is issued. Sec. 7. Every place used as a bakery shall be kept in a thoroughly clean and sanitary condition as to its floors, sidewalls, ceilings, woodwork, fixtures, furniture, tools, machinery, and utensils. All rooms used for that purpose shall be provided with adequate ventilation by means of windows, air shafts or air ducts and other mechanical apparatus, if required, so as to insure a free circulation of fresh air at all times. The doors and window openings of every such bakery shall, during the summer season, be fitted with self-closing wire screen doors and wire window screens. The sidewalls and ceilings shall be well plastered or sheathed with metal or wood sheathing or tiled. All plastered walls and ceilings shall be kept well lime- washed or calcimined, or shall be coated with oil paint, and all interior woodwork in every such room shall be kept well oiled or painted with oil paint and washed clean. Every such bakery shall be provided with adequate plumbing and drainage facilities, including suitable wash sinks and water closets. No water closet shall be entered from or shall be in direct communication with a bakery. Sec. 8. No person shall sleep in a bakery, and sleeping places of the persons employed in a bakery shall be separate from the rooms where flour or meal or food products are handled or stored. If the sleeping places are on the same floor as the bakery the Commissioner of Health shall require them to be maintained in a dry and sanitary condition. No domestic animals, except cats, shall be permitted in a bakery or place where flour or meal is stored in connection with a bakery, and suitable provisions shall be made to prevent nuisance from the presence of cats. Every owner or person in charge of such bakery shall be required to maintain himself and his employees in a clean condi- tion and suitably clothed while engaged in any process of manufacturing, handling or selling of bakery products. Cuspidors of impervious material and kept in clean condition shall be provided and maintained by the person in charge of every bakery, and no employee or other person shall spit on the floor or sidewalls of the bakery or place where the food products of such bakery are stored. The smoking, snuffing or chewing of tobacco is forbidden in a bakery. Plain notices shall be posted in every such place forbidding all persons from using tobacco or spitting on the floor. No person who has consumption, scrofula, or venereal disease, or any communicable skin disease, shall work in any bakery, and no owner or person in charge of such bakery shall require, permit or suffer such person to be employed in any bakery. Sec. 9. No person, firm or corporation shall store flour or meal for the use of such establishment or for the manufacture of food products except in dry and well ventilated rooms. Every bakery and room used for the storage of materials and food products shall be so arranged that the shelves, cupboards, trays, troughs, bins, cases and all other appliances for handling and storing the same can be easily removed, perfectly cleaned, and no such materials or products shall be stored in rooms having floors below the street level at a distance less than one foot above the floor .of the room. Sec. 10. Every bakery which shall not be kept in a cleanly condition and free from rats, mice and vermin and from matter of an infectious or contagious nature is hereby declared to be a public nuisance, and it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Health to cause the same to be abated. Sec. 11. No bakery shall be established after the passage of this ordinance in any room, basement or cellar in which the clear height between the finished floor and the finished ceiling is less than eight feet and six inches, or in any basement or cellar which is not well drained and thoroughly dry, or in any such location which is not in such communication with the outer air as to allow of adequate lighting and ventilation without the use of windows opening directly upon the street, side- walk or alley, and no such bakery shall hereafter be established in any room or place, the floor of which is at a depth greater than five feet below the street, sidewalk or alley level adjacent to the building. The floor below the street level in all bakeries shall be constructed of impervious material, cement or asphalt, or of tiles laid in cement, and may, if desired, be covered with a hardwood floor having tight joints. (Sec. 12 is cancelled by an amendment of June 22nd, 1908.) Sec 13 The Commissioner of Health and the inspectors and employees of the Department of Health, shall have the right at all times to enter and inspect and make such record of the condition of any bakery as they may deem necessaxy, and if such inspection shall disclose a lack of conformity with this ordinance the Commissioner of Health shall require such changes, alterations and renovations as he may deem necessary to restore compliance with this ordinance. Sec 14 Any person or corporation violating any of the provisions of this ordinance shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars for each offence. Every day on which any such bakery shal be maintained, kept, earned on, or operated in violation of the terms of this ordinance shall be consfiued as a separate and distinct offence. Sec 15 Sections 187 and 188 of Chapter 13 of the Revised Municipal Code of Chicago of 1905 are hereby repealed. Sec' 16. This ordinance, excepting as hereinbefore provided, shall take effect from and after its passage, approval and due publication. 484 APPENDIX 1. (5) MILK "SCORE CARDS" ADOPTED BY THE INSPECTORS OF THE NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. (The Annual Report of the Department of Health for the administrative year ending December Slst, 1907, states (p. 140): — "The success of the Score Card system in its practice has been best shown, perhaps, by the action of a number of the larger milk companies in giving notice to their patrons that in the future the full contract price will apply only to those dairies scoring 60 per cent, or over; a somewhat lower price being given for milk from dairies scoring under 60 per cent, and the milk from dairies scoring under 50 per cent, not bemg accepted at all. In certain instances a premium is paid for the milk from dairies scoring 70 per cent, and over.") (i.) Dairy Inspection Score Card. 184 F— 1908. Perfect Score 100 per cent. Score Allowed per cent. FileNo • Department op Health. City of New York. Dairy Inspection. Division of Inspections. 1. Inspection No Time A.P.M.Date 190 2. Dairyman P.O. Address 3 . Township County State 4. Owner Party Interviewed 5. Milk delivered at Formerly at 6. Creamery on R.R Branch Miles to N.Y 7. Creamery operated by Address 8. Distance of farm from creamery Occupied farm since 9. No. of Cows No. Milking No. Quarts produced 10. All persons in the households of those engaged in producing or handling milk are free from all infectious 11. Date and nature of last case on farm 12. A sample of the water supply on this farm taken for analysis 190 and found to be. 13. Size of cow bam, length feet. Width feet. Height of ceiling 14. Dairy Rules of the Department of Health are posted Stable. 15. Cow stable is located on elevated ground with no stagnant water, hogpen, or privy within 100 feet 16. Floors are constructed of concrete or some non-absorbent material 17. Floors are properly graded and water-tight 18. Drops are constructed of concrete, stone or some non-absorbent material 19. Drops are water-tight 20. Feeding troughs, platforms or cribs are well lighted and clean 21. Ceihng is constructed of and is tight and dust proof 22. Ceiling is free from hanging straw, dirt or cobwebs 23. Windows No total square feet There is 2 square feet of window light for each 600 cu. ft. air space 24. Window panes are washed and kejjt clean 25. Ventilation consists of which is sufficient 3, fair 1, insufficient 26. Air space ia cubic feet per cow. (600 and over-3) (500 to 600-2) (400 to 500-1) (under 400-0) 27. Interior of stable painted or whitewashed on which is satisfactory 2, fair 1, never 28. Walls and ledges are free from dirt, dust, manure or cobwebs 29. Floors and premises are free from dirt, rubbish or decayed animal or vegetable matter. . 30. Cow beds are clean 31. Live stock, other than cows, are excluded from rooms in which milch cows are kept 32. There is direct opening from barn into silo or grain pit 33. 'Bedding used is clean, dry and absorbent 34. Separate building is provided for cows when sick 35. Separate quarters are provided for cows when calving Perfect. Allow. FOOD REGULATIONS. 485 36. Manure is removed daily to at least 200 feet from the bam ( ft ) 37. Manure pile IS so located that the cowa cannot get at it 38. Liquid matter is absorbed and removed daily and....;;.V;.aliowed to" overflow and saturate ground under or around cow bam Cow Yard. 39. Cow yard is properly graded and drained. 40. Cow yard is clean, and free from manure. Cows. Date. .190 41. Cows have been examined by Veterinarian. Report was 42. Cows have been tested by tuberculin, and ail tuberculous cows removed .'..'.'. !!!!!!!!!!!! 43. Cows are all in good flesh and condition at time of inspection 44. Cows are all free from clinging manure and dirt. (No. dirty ') 45. Long hairs are kept short on belly, flanks, udder and tail 46. Udder and teats of cows are thoroughly cleaned before milking 47 . All feed is of good quality and all grain and coarse fodders are free from dirt and mould 48. Distillery waste or any substance in a state of fermentation or putrefaction is fed 49. Water supply for cows is unpolluted and plentiful Milkers and Milking. 50. Attendants are in good physical condition 51. Clothing of milkers is clean 52. Hands of mUkers are washed clean before milking 53. Milking is done with dry hands 54. Fore milk or first few streams from each teat is discarded 55. Milk is strained at and in clean atmosphere 56. Milk is cooled to below 50° F. within two hours after milking and kept below 50° F. until delivered to the creamery. 57. Milk from cows within 15 days before or 5 days after parturition is discarded Utensils. 58. Milk pails have all seams soldered flush 59. MUk pails are of the small mouthed design, top opening not exceeding 8 inches in diameter. Diameter 60. Milk utensils are rinsed with cold water immediately after using and washed clean with hot water and washing solution 61. Racks are provided to expose milk pails to live steam or to the sun 62. Milking stools axe clean 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. Milk House. Milk house has hog-pen, manure pile or privy within 100 feet - Milk house has direct communication with. building Milk house has sufficient light and ventilation Floor is properly graded and water-tight ; - Milk house is free from dirt, rubbish and all material not used in the handlmg and storage of milk ","■■; ; 1 Milk house has running or still supply of pure clean water Ice is used for cooling milk and is cut from Water. wholesome and uncontaminated. 70. Water supply for utensils is from a. - - ■ located feet deep and apparently is - .pure, wholesome and un< 71. Is protected against flood or surface drainage ;•--.--; V " " ; i" 72. Privy or cesspool is. ...... - -located within 100 feet ( , . -feet) of source o water supply. 73 Steble, barn-yard, pile of manure or other source of contamination is located within 200 feet ( feet) of source of water supply Perfect. Allow. Inspector of Foods. 48b APPKiVUlX 1. Perfect Score 100. Score allowed per cent. Creamery Report. Date 190 Miies to n'.'y. (ii.) Creamery Score Card. 175 F — 1908 Department of Health. City of New York. Division of Inspections. File Inspection No Time A. P. M. Location P. O. Address , County State , On R . R Branch Owner Address Operator Address Manager. ., is licensed. Number of help All persons engaged in handling milk are free from any infectious disease. Number of patrons Average Butter Fat test for dairies at present Milk received daily Lbs., Qts., Cans. Milk train leaves daily at A. P. M. Arrives at N. Y. Milk Platform. Method of Pasteurizing Machine used : Cream is made by hand -skimming, separating Living quarters are located in Creamery. Butter, Cheese, Condensed Milk, Casein or Milk Sugar are made on the premises. Depai'tment of Health Rules are posted. Name... Address. Name... Address. Shipments to Customers. 1 Cans Milk 1 / Cases Cream / 1 Cans Milk \ j Cases Cream / Marks. Marks. 1. Premises surrounding creamery are clean 2. Receiving room is partitioned oft from main milk room 3. Weigh vats and storage tanks are , covered when in use 4 . Milk handling room is used exclusively for handling milk 5. Is separate from where cans are washed 6. Is separate from where engine or boiler is located 7. Is well lighted by windows _ 8. All odours and steam are carried to the outside air 9. Walls and ceiling are sheathed and dust-tight 10. Are painted with some light coloured paint , 11. All ledges are clean and &ee from dust and dirt 12. Floors are free from dirt, rubbish or pools of drainage 13. Are made of concrete, stone or some non-absorbent material 14. Are water-tight '. 15. Are so graded that all drainage is discharged at one or more points. 16. Strainers in floor are at least 6 inches in diameter 17. Space beneath creamery is dry 18. Is fi'ee from waste or rubbish 19. Drains are of earthenware or iron 20. Are water-tight 21 . Are continuous from the floor level to point of disposal 22. Are protected against freezing 23. Drainage is satisfactorily disposed of 24. Milk pumps and pipes for milk, can be readily taken apart 25. Are thoroughly cleaned daily 26. All steam and water pipes are painted and clean 27. Milk vats are in good repair 28. All tin joints are soldered flush 29. Are thoroughly cleaned daily 30 . Milk cans are washed with hot water and washing solution 31. Are rinsed out with clean water 32. Are exposed to live steam for at least two minutes 33 . All milk is protected from dust and dirt while in pools 34. Is protected while in mixing vats or over aerators 35. Is received at a temperature not above 60° F. 36. Is kept below 50° while held or handled on premises 37. Cooling tanks are water-tight ^ 38. Are made of some non-absorbent material ' 39 . Are supplied daily with clean water or filled with clean ice 40. Water supply is ample for all the needs of the creamery 41. Water supply is apparently free from all contamination and is from. . . 42. Storage tank for water is cleaned regularly 43. Is covered or protected against dirt 44. Attendants are cleanly in their habits 45. Garments worn by such employees are clean 46. Privy, water closet, earth closet, tight vault is satisfactorily located. 47. Is in a cleanly condition 48. Spitting or smoking in any part of the building is allowed Remarks Perfect Score. 2 2 4 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 5 2 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 5 10 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 100 Allowed. .Inspector of Foods. I'OOD REGULATIONS, (iii.) MUk Store Score' Card. Department op Health- City of New York. Address Borough of Permit No Granted Name Business Date of Inspections 487 190. Perfect Score. 1 General surroniidiTij^s are clean, 10. Fairly clean, 5. Dirty, 10 9 Vpntilation 19 ffood 2 Fair. 1. Bad. 2 ^ T.iff'hliTio' is fyood 2 Fair 1 Bad 2 2 2 A A+tjinrlflTits nrp flirnarPTitlv frpR from rontao*ious disease .................... 8 4 3 2 10. Store is selling milk exclusively, 15. Is selling milk, dairy products, and goods in sealed packages, 10. Is selling milk and bakery products, 8. Is selling 15 4 5 13 Milk during sale is kept in a clean, properly drained ice box, used only for milk 15 15 Other foods kept in ice box, 8. Milk kept in a clean, well covered ice tub, 10. 14 TTtensiLi are clean. 5. Dirty, 5 1^ Aro stprilizpd before use 2 lA ftoQma nrp floldprpd flush,. -.-.--.---•--- * 1 17. Milk kept at a temperature of 45° P. or below, 15. 45° to 50°, 10. 50° to 55°, 3. ^^° nr nhnvp 15 iQ A iQ<^+r»mptpr IS iiRpd in testlns the milk 1 2 19 A thermometer is used in testing lue miiii. 100 Remarks: Dealere Supplying Milk. • Inspector. 488 APPENDIX I. K.— THE CRUSADE AGAINST TTTBEBCITLOSIS IN NEW YORK. The following measures operative in New York are enumerated in "The Campaign against Tuberculosis in the United States," compiled under the direction of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, by Philip P. Jacobs (New York, 1908), pp. 388, 389:— "The revised Sanitary Code of 1898 contains complete prohibition of promiscuous spitting in publie. The law, how- ever, is very poorly enforced, as a general rule. "After a period of preliminary study and observation lasting seven years, the Board of Health passed a series of resolu- tions on February 13th, 1894, designed to assist in the accomplishment of its aims for the suppression of this disease. One of these resolutions involved the reporting of certain classes of tuberculosis. In compliance with it, 4,166 cases were reported in 1894: 5,818 in 1895, and 8,344 in 1896, and the Department was enabled without opposition, or the imposition of undue hardship upon individuals, to extend its educational work and protect a large number of persons from exposure to infection. By the year 1907 the Department was receiving annually reports of over 22,000 cases. "In order to establish more firmly, and to extend the work carried on under the resolutions above mentioned on January 19th, 1897, the following amendment to the Sanitary Code was adopted by the Board of Health. "Section 153. — ^That pulmonary tuberculosis is hereby declared to be an infectious and communicable disease, dangerous to the public health. It shall be the duty of every physician in this city to report to the Sanitary Bureau in writing, the name, age, sex, occupation, and address of every person having such disease who has been attended by, or who has come under the observation of, such physician for the first time, within one week of such time. It shall also be the duty of the commissioners or managers, or the principal, superintendent, or physician of each and every public or private institution or dispensary in this city, to report to the Sanitary Bureau in writing, or to cause such report to be made by some proper and competent person, the name, age, sex, occupation, and last address of every person aflSicted with this disease, who is in their care, or who has come under their observation within one week of such time. It shall be the duty of every person sick with this disease, and of the authorities of public and private institutions or dispensaries, to observe and enforce all the sanitary rules and regulations of the Board of Health for preventing the spread of pulmonary tuberculosis." (In the present Sanitary Code, Sections 133 and 138, all forms of tuberculosis are considered to be infectious and communicable . ) "The objects in view were both to prevent the extension of pulmonary tuberculosis, and also to promote the recovery of those already suffering with the disease. The Health Department estimates that 85 per cent, of all living cases are reported. This system of registration has resulted in a steady reduction of the death-rate from tuberculosis, in spite of the large increase in population. "The activities of the Health Department of Greater New York may be summarised along the five following lines: — "1. All cases of pulmonary tuberculosis occurring in the city of New York are registered at the Department of Health. "2. Every p^son suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis is furnished with instructions as to the measures to be taken to prevent its extension. "3. AU premises which have been occupied by persons suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis are, on death or removal, disinfected with formaldehyde, or renovation is ordered. "4. Charitable assistance or hospital care is provided so far as is possible for all cases wishing or requiring such assist- ance or care. "5. The general public is educated as to the nature of the disease, the precautions to be taken against its spread, the advisability of institution and sanatorium treatment, &c. "The Health Department conducts three special tuberculosis clinics, a hospital for advanced cases, and a sanatorium for incipient cases. The Department of Charities conducts a large hospital on Blackwell's Island, and is building a hospital of eight hundred beds on Staten Island. "The educational work of the Health Department includes the distribution of literature in large quantities, holding of exhibitions, and the giving of free public lectures." The New York Department of Health has published a "Handbook of Help for persons suffering from pulmonary tuber- culosis (consumption)," in which the following occurs: — What to do for Persons Suffering from Pulmonary Tuberculosis. 1. Diagnosis. The first step to be taken in a suspected case of pulmonary tuberculosis is to make sure that the patient is suffering from the disease. Any person, child or adult, suffering from persistent cough, loss of weight, &c. (see Section II), should be referred to their own physician for examination. If unable to pay a private physician they should be referred to one of the special tuberculosis dispensaries. (See Directory of Dispensaries and Clinics, Section VI.) In the Borough of Manhattan ample and excellent provision is made for the diagnosis and treatment of cases of pulmonary tuberculosis by the Association of Tuberculosis Clinics. This consists of seventeen special dispensaries, each caring for all patients coming from a certain section of the city and each having a capable staff of attending physicians, and also a staff of nurses who visit the patients at their homes in order to see that the necessary precautions are observed, that the advice given is followed out, and that any untoward circumstances be abolished as far as possible. All applicants living outside of the dispensary district wherein they seek dispensary care are refused treatment at the said dispensary of original application, and are referred by card to the dispensary caring for the district of their residence. So TUBEROTILOSIS. 489 that before referring the patient to one of these dispensariea care should be taken that the patient goes to the proper dispen- sary. Patients who can only attend at night are given treatment at the Manhattan and Brooklyn Climes of the Department of Health. An early physical examination by a competent physician, or at a special tuberculosis dispensary, often discloses the unsuspected presence of tuberculosis, which, if treated in time, may be arrested. Neglect and carelessness have much to do with the high death rate from tuberculosis. Last year 10,147 persons died m New York City from this largely preventable and often curable disease. 2. Examination of Sputum. Send a specimen of sputum to the Department of Health, 55th street and Sixth avenue, New York City, or to one of the drug stores throughout the city acting as a supply station of the Department. (A directory of these drug stores will be sent on request.) The examination of the expectoration or sputum from suspected cases of tuberculosis is essential for diagnosis. Many heretofore unsuspected cases are recognized in this way. The Department of Health examines such specimens free of charge, sending the report to the attending physician, the organization, institution or layman forwarding the specimen, or to the patients themselves if there is no physician in attendance. No charge is made for the examination. Well-corked sputum jars and blank slips for information can be obtained free at any of the numerous drug stores throughout the city which are depots for the diagnostic outfits, antitoxin and vaccine issued by the Department of Health. After obtaining the specimen in accordance with the instructions given on the sputum slip, the specimen and slip are to be left at the same drug store, whence they will be taken to the Diagnosis Laboratory of the Department of Health, examined and the report sent as stated above. In connection with the examination of sputum two things must be borne in mind: 1. The failure to find tubercle bacilli in the sputum does not mean that the person has not tuberculosis. Bacilli do not usually appear until the disease is moderately well advanced,' and are usually absent in early or incipient cases. The bacilli may not be found on the first one or two examinations, and be present later. So several specimens should be sent in doubtful cases. 2. The number of bacilli found has little or no relation to the extent of the disease. Sputum from very early cases may show innumerable bacilli, while that from old chronic cases may fail to contain them at all. But the more numerous the bacilli and the more profuse the expectora- tion, the more dangerous the patient is to others. 3. The Treatment of Tuberculosis at Home. Refer cases to one of the special tuberculosis clinics. {See Section III, 1 and Section VI.) As a rule, sufferers from pulmonary tuberculosis are better off in sanatoria or in hospitals than at their homes. In some cases, however, the patient will not or cannot leave the city, being forced to continue at work, &c. Such patients, if unable to pay a private physician, will receive free treatment and advice at one of the special tuberculosis dispensaries. Nurses visit them at their homes and give full oral and written instructions as to how they should live and what precautions they should take in order to avoid transmitting the disease to others. Medicines are furnished free, also paper spit cups, &c. Arrangements are also made for daily outings on ferry boats ("day camps") by the Health Department, Vanderbilt, and Bellevue tuberculosis chnics. 4. Charitable Assistance. Refer cases to one of the various charitable organizations. In cases where it seems advisable to give charitable aid to the patients or their families in the form of money, groceries, coal ice &c. the various large charitable organizations should be notified by letter or telephone; for non-Jewish cases either the Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, 105 East 22d street; or the Charity Organization Society, 105 East 22d street; for Jewish cases, the United Hebrew Charities of the City of New York, 356 Second avenue; for Brooklyn cases, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities, 69 Schermerhorn street, Brooklyn, &c. Visitors are sent to investigate the case and proper steps are taken to give relief. 5. The Removal of Early Favourable Cases to Sanatoria. Refer cases to the Department of Health, or to one of its borough offices. The best results in the treatment of tuberculosis are obtained by the provision of plenty of fresh air, rest and suitable food, together with such medicines as may be required. All these requirements are best met by treatment in a country sanatorium, such as the N. Y. State Hospital for Incipient Tuberculosis at Ray Brook in the Adhondacks, the Otisville Sanatorium of the ^^Almos't all thTcountry sanatoria receiving cases from New York set a limit on the class of cases received, only incipient or early favourable cases being taken. , , ,. x. ,i, ^. e i ■ t a ■ n Bv incipient tuberculosis is meant the very eariy stage of the disease, where the amount of lung mvolved is very small (usually the extreme upper portion of one lung), where there is no fever or other constitutional disturbance, and m which the putum does not contain any tubercle bacilli. The presence of tubercle bacilli in the sputum usually means the softening and breaking down of the lung and that the disease has progressed beyond the incipient stage. "Eariy favourable" Jases ^y show Xger amount of involvement of the lung and bacilli in the sputum, but should have no fever, and should be in fair physical health and able to do light work if requu-ed. ,. ^ , . ■ ■ , , ■ v. u A? fs of the greatest importance that treatment should be begun early application for admission to a sanatorium should AS 11 IB oi B „r.r.Ti the diaenosis of pulmonary tuberculosis bemg confirmed. As these patients often feel so tl^toTr^uZZ^oetron^e Cavity of L disease and of the great importance of the earliest possible treat- ment. This must ';-;;;f *«^d - .^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Adults of the Department of Charities, foot of East .«.. 'TTJuTS Stun There the patients are examined as to their financial resources, and eligibility as ritdSzeXft H sulbt; they are then'referred to one of the official State examiners for examination. Only the 490 APPENDIX I. earliest and moat favourable cases are admitted to the New York State Hospital for Incipient Tuberculosis at Ray Brook in the Adirondacks. It is useless to try to obtain admission for advanced cases to any of the free sanatoria. Early favourable cases (where the patients are able to do light work) are sent to the Sanatorium of the Department of Health at Otisville, N. Y. More advanced cases with tubercle bacilli in the sputum are sent to Riverside Sanatorium of the Depart- ment of Health on North Brother Island. Treatment in all of these institutions is free. Where it is desired that the patient be admitted to one of the semi-private sanatoria (Adirondack, Loomis, &c.) communication should be held directly with the institution. {See Section VII.) A word of warning must be spoken here against the practice of sending patients with tuberculosis to the South or South- west or to the "country" without having made definite plans for their future, or arrangements for their medical care. It is far better for an advanced case to remain in one of the city hospitals until the end than to put him to the expense and exhaus- tion of a long trip taken for no purpose. Further, such patients, ignorant and untaught as to the necessary precautions to be taken constitute active sources of danger to those about them, and a number of communities in the West and South-west have protested vigorously, and with right on their side, against the promiscuous unloading upon them of cases of tuberculosis from the East. With no money, and no opportunity to make money, they are worse off by far than at their homes. 6. Hospital Care for Advanced Cases. Application for the admission of cases of tuberculosis to the large tuberculosis hospitals in New York City (Metropolitan, St. Joseph's, Seton and St. Vincent's, Staten Island) should be made to the Department of Charities (telephone 3350 Madison). The Department of Health will also arrange for the admission of. patients to such hospitals, but time is lost thereby. In Man- hattan, in case of emergency, such as destitution, &c., where an ambulance is required, patients can be sent directly to Belle- vue Hospital, 26th street and East River, by telephoning the hospital in whose ambulance district the patient Uvea. These hospitals furnishing ambulance service and their districts are as follows (list). 7. Forcible Removal of Dangerous Cases. Notify the Department of Health, 55th street and Sixth avenue. New York City. Telephone 4900 Columbus. When the health of children or others is menaced by the presence of a person with pulmonary tuberculosis who cannot or will not take the necessary precautions regarding the destruction of sputum, &c., or is careless about expectoration, the Depart- ment of Health has the power to remove such person, by force if necessary, to Riverside Sanatorium, on North Brother Island, and to detain the patient there as long as may be necessary. Simple destitution is not sufficient ground for such removal, however, and such action is only taken in extreme cases. On receipt of the telephone message an inspector visits the case at once and recommends suitable action. 8. Disinfection of Premises, Bedding, &c. » Notify the Department of Health. The Department of Health disinfects premises vacated by persons suffering from pul- monary tuberculosis. Such disinfection consists of formaldehyde fumigation of the rooms and the removal of the bedding and clothing used by the patient. Formaldehyde does not injure clothing, pictures, and other property. The bedding and cloth- ing are disinfected by heat and are returned or destroyed, as may be desired. There is no charge for this service. When prem- ises are in very bad condition, and the medical inspector of the Department reports to that effect, an order is issued by the Department against the landlord or agent, requiring the necessary painting, papering, whitewashing, &c., to be done before the premises are re-occupied by new tenants. Cardinal Maxims fob the Tubebculous. The tuberculous patient under treatment at home by a private physician or by one of the special tuberculosis clinics is, of course, given full directions as to his mode of hfe, precautions to be observed, &c. But certain of the instructions are of prime importance and will bear almost indefinite repetition. Everyone coming in contact with persons suffering with tuber- culosis should, therefore, lay stress on the following points to the family as well as to the patient. 1. Pulmonary tuberculosis is not an incurable disease. If treatment is begun early most cases can be cured by good food, fresh air and rest, and such medicines as the doctor pre- scribes. These conditions are best obtained in the country sanatoria. Time or money should not be wasted on advertised cures or advertising doctors — they are worthless. 2. The instructions given the patient and his family by the doctor and the nurse should be followed out in every particular. 3. It is not dangerous to live with a person suffering from tuberculosis if the matter coughed up by him, be promptly destroyed, and he covers his mouth while coughing. If the sputum coughed up be rendered harmless he may frequently not only do his usual work without giving the disease to others, but may also thus improve his own condition and increase his chances of recovery. The sputum should not be expec- torated upon the floor, carpet, stove, wall or sidewalk, but always, if possible, in a cup for that purpose. The cup should con- tain water, so that the matter will not dry, or better, carbolic acid in a five per cent, watery solution (six teaspoonfuls in a pint of water). This solution kills the germs. The cup should be emptied into the water closet at least t^yice a day and care- fully washed with boiling water. When the patient is away from home the matter coughed up should be received in a pocket flask made for this purpose. If cloths must be used they should be immediately burned on returning home. If handkerchiefs TUBERCULOSIS. 491 be used (worthless cloths, which can be at once burned, are far better) they should be boiled at least half an hour in water by ^emselves before being washed. When possible, the matter should be received into cups or flasks. Paper cups are better tiian ordinary cups, as the former, with their contents, may be burned after being used. A pocket flask of glass, metal or paste- board is also a most convenient receptacle to spit in when away from home. Cheap and convenient forms of flasks and cups may be purchased at many drug stores. Patients too weak to use a cup should use moist rags, which should at once be burned. If cloths are used they should not be carried loose in the pocket, but in a waterproof receptacle (tobacco pouch), which should be frequently boiled. The patient's soiled wash-clothes and bed linen should be handled as little as possible when dry, but should be placed in water until ready for washing. 4. Great care should be taken by the tuberculous to prevent their hands, face and clothing from becoming soiled with sputum. If they do become thus soiled they should be at once washed with soap and hot water. 5. A tuberculous patient should never swallow his expectoration. 6. He should have his ovm bed, and, if possible, his own room. He should not kiss other members of the family, and as far as possible his personal belongings (towels, pipes, &c.) should be used by him alone. 7. He should always have an abundance of fresh air — the windows should be open day and night. 8. No dry dusting or cleaning should be allowed. Rooms should be cleaned daily, but in order to prevent the raising of dust all floors should be well sprinkled before sweep- ing, and all dusting, &c., done with damp cloths. 9. No children should play on the floor of a room used by tuberculous patients. Such children are prone to develop tuberculous meningitis, enteritis, &c. Since the Department of Health began its campaign against spitting, and has removed advanced cases to hospital, fur- nished sputum cups, and enforced disinfection of rooms vacated by persons with tuberculosis the death rate from tuberculosis in children under fifteen years has fallen from 7.10 per 10,000 to 2.6. 10. Excessive use of alcoholic drinks is harmful in tuberculosis. Even beer and malt liquors should be taken only on the advice of the doctor. 11. Unnecessary exertion should be avoided. The more rest the better. 12. A hopeful, cheerful disposition is one of the best remedies for pulmonary tuberculosis. How TO Avoid Contracting Pulmonary Tuberculosis. The first and most important rule to be observed in order to avoid contracting tuberculosis is to keep as strong and healthy as possible. When the tubercle bacilli get into the body or lungs of a weak or sickly person they often grow and produce tuberculosis. Of the greatest importance for the maintenance of good health are fresh, pure air in the home, school room and work room, proper food, cleanliness, temperance in all things, leading a regular life, and living out of doors as much as possible. Fresh, pure air can be obtained by (a) keeping out of doors and avoiding dust; (6) by admitting plenty of fresh air several times a day to the room in which one lives or works or studies; (c) by keeping at least one window of the bedroom open all night; and (d) by cleaning with damp cloths or brooms (never use a dry broom or duster) to prevent the dust from arising in the room. j . ■ • Whenever a cough, no matter how slight, lasts more than two weeks, one should go to a doctor or dispensary and have his lungs examined. Putting the fingers, coins or pencils into the mouth are practices which should be strictly avoided. Everyone should take a warm bath with soap at least twice a week and those who can should have a cold bath every morning. , . ■ ■•■ The excessive use of alcoholic drinks is most injurious, as it weakens the body so that it cannot resist disease germs. Catching of colds can be avoided by (a) always having plenty of fresh air night and day and taking a cold bath every morning- (b) keeping aWay from and complaining of persons who have a cough and who spit on the floor or sidewalk; (c) avoiding exposure to cold or damp after such diseases as measles and whooping cough; (d) keeping the feet dry and avoiding exposure to colds or winds when very warm or very tired; and (e) avoiding close, overheated rooms crowded with people. 492 APPENDIX I. L.— RACIAL CLASSEPICATION OF IMMIGRANTS. In its official documents the United States Immigration Commission publishes the following list of "the principal countriee of birth of the residents of the United States and the races within each country": — United States: Finland: Russia: American White. Finnish. Armenian. American Negro. France: Finnish. American Indian. German. French. Hebrew. Austria- Hungary : Hebrew. Lithuanian. Bohemian (Czech), Germany: Polish. Bosnian. German. Russian. Bulgarian. Croatian. Dalmatian. Hebrew. Polish. Scotland: Scotch. German. Greece: Servia * Hebrew. Greek. Servian. Hervat. Macedonian. Herzegovinian. India: East Indian or Hindu. Spain: Italian (North). Magyar (Hungarian). Spanish. Sweden: Swedish. Montenegrin. Ireland: >% Moravian (Czech). Irish. Polish. Scotch Irish. Switzerland: Roumanian. French. Ruthenian (Russniak). Italy: German. Servian. Italian (North). Italian (North). Slovak. Italian (South). Slovenian. Japan: Turkey in Asia: Armenian. Belgium: Japanese. Greek. Dutch. Korea: Koreans. Hebrew. Flemish. French. Syrian. Turkish. Bulgaria: Bulgarian. Mexico: Mexicans. Tin-key in Emope: Bulgarian. Macedonian. Montenegro: Greek. Canada: Montenegrin. Hebrew. Canadian, English. Servian. Macedonian. Canadian, French. Montenegrin. Netherlands (Holland): Servian. China: Dutch. Syrian. Chinese. Flemish. Turkish. Denmark: Norway: Wales: Danish. Norwegian. Welsh. England: Portugal (Azores, Cape Verde): West Indies (Cuba, Porto Rico, Hayti, English. Portuguese. Bahamas): Hebrew. Cuban. Irish. Roumania: English. Scotch. Hebrew. Negro. Welsh. Roumanian. Spanish. M.— THK EMPLOYMENT OF NEGROES IN SKILLED TRADES. The following are extracts from an article on "The Negro Skilled Mechanic in the North," by Mr. R. R. Wright, junior, in "The Southern Workman" for March, 1909:— "According to the Census of 1900, there were then 275,116 Negroes in manufacturing pursuits on the mainland of the United States. Of these, 51,144 were in Northern States and 223,972 in Southern States. In other words, there were 311 Negroes in this class of occupation to every 10,000 Negroes in the country: there were 562 Negroes following mechanical pursuits in the North to every 10,000 Negroes in the North, and 283 Negroes following such pursuits in the South to every 10,000 Negroes in NEGROES. 493 Sri*"'*^\J^V°"°''i?^^^^t' *^^'c ^""^ *^' ^''^^^^ ^^^^ ^^°^^ °* 1900, gives the principal occupations pursued by Negroes of this class in the North and South;— f t- f f j Principal Skilled Occupations op Negroes, North and South. Census op 1900. Occupations. Males, Total in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits Blacksmiths Boot and shoemakers and repairers Brick and tile makers Carpenters and joiners Charcoal, coke, and lime burners Coopers Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Iron and steel workers (not otherwise specified). Machinists Marble and stone cutters Masons (brick and stone) Miners and quarrymen Painters, glaziers, and varnishers Plasterers Plumbers, gaa and steam fitters Printers, lithographers and pressmen, &c Saw and planing-mill employees Tailors Tobacco and cigar factory operatives Turpentine distillers Whitewashers Woodworkers (not specified) Wo.\:en. Dressmakers Seamstresses Tobacco and cigar factory operatives Continental United States. 241, 934 10, 083 4,506 9,931 21, 067 3,861 2,953 10, 215 12, 642 1,258 1,252 14, 370 36, 439 5,749 3,748 1,192 1,119 33, 156 1,531 10, 232 5,688 2,355 1,518 12, 514 11, 451 5,117 North. 43, 991 1,140 707 8,489 1,664 598 185 2,531 3,788 427 295 4,452 8,851 1,261 1,209 317 471 558 413 839 2 934 221 4,235 1,724 167 South. 197, 943 8,943 3,799 6,442 19, 403 3,263 2,768 7,684 8,854 831 957 9,918 27, 588 4,488 2,543 875 648 32, 598 1,118 9,393 5,686 1,421 1,297 8,279 9,727 4,950 Per cent, in the North. 18.2 11.2 15.7 34.1 7.9 15.5 6.3 24.8 29.9 39.9 23.6 20.9 24.3 21.9 32.3 26.6 42.1 1.7 26.9 8.1 (*) 39.6 14.6 33.8 15.1 3.3 * Less than one-tenth per cent. " This table shows that in nearly every one of the more important mechanical trades in which Negroes are engaged, there is, in proportion to the Negro population in each section, a larger number of Negro mechanics in the North than in the South. The Negroes of the North form a little more than ten per cent, of the total Negro population, but in some trades they form more than four times as large a proportion of the Negro workers in these trades. More than two-fifths of the entire number of Negro printers and pressmen, and almost as large a proportion of Negro iron and steel workers, and of Negro whitewashers, live in the North; more than a third of the dressmakers, and of brick and tile makers, and more than one-fourth of the stationary engineers and firemen, plumbers, gasfitters, and tailors are in the same section. " In the principal occupations the Negroes form a smaller percentage of the total number of Negroes in the trades, in the following occupations only: carpenters and joiners, in which they form 7.9 per cent.; coopers, 6.3 per cent.; tobacco and cigar feictory operatives, in which they are 8.1 per cent.; saw and planing miU employees, of whom there were 1.7 per cent.; and turpentine distillers, in which only two Negroes were returned in the North. The results of this table are probably directly opposed to the observations of many people. But this is so because the observations have been largely in the cities. The large proportion of Northern Negroes is in the cities and the manufacturing and mechanical pursuits are largely city pur- suits. A more accurate comparison between the North and the South would therefore consist of a presentation of conditions among Negroes in the cities of each section. " Confining the comparison to the cities,* there is not the large preponderance in favour of the North as shown in the former table. Indeed in most of the trades, the Southern cities stUl have a larger number of workmen than the cities of the North and and also a larger proportion. But the increase in the number of mechanics in the Northern cities is more uniform than in the Southern cities. There has been a gradual increase of Negro mechanics in the Northern cities, while on the other hand the increase in the Southern cities is considerably slower, and in many cases there is actual decrease. In Boston, in only four of the trades mentioned was there a decrease; namely, among the blacksmiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, machinists, and tailors. In Philadelphia and Indianapolis, there was a decrease in two trades; namely, among boot and shoemakers, brick- makers and potters in Philadelphia, and cabinetmakers, upholsterers, and marble and stone-cutters in Indianapolis. In Cin- cinnati' there was a decrease in only one trade, that of carpenters and joiners, while in Pittsburg and Chicago, there was a decrease of Negro workmen in none of the trades. The total decrease in the Northern cities was 279 as against a total increase of 2 366 being a net increase of 2,087 Negro mechanics during the decade from 1890 to 1900. On the other hand, of the Southern cities Atlanta Georgia decreased in blacksmiths and wheelwrights, cabinetmakers, and upholsterers, carpenters and joiners, plasterers and 'printers, engravers, &c. Baltimore decreased in blacksmiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, brick- makers and potters, butchers, caipenters and joiners, plumbers, gasfitters, and tailors; Nashville, Tenn., decrease m black- smiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, brickmakers a nd potters, butchers, carpenters and jomers, machinists, marble * Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Indianapolis in the North, and Atlanta (Georgia), Baltimore, New Orleans,' Memphis, and Richmond (Virginia) in the South. 494 APPENDIX I. and stone cutters, brick and stone masons, painters, glaziers, and plabterers; New Orleans decreased in boot and shoemakers, carpenters and joiners, iron and steel workers, machinists, tailors, and dressmakers; Memphis, Tennessee, decreased in plas- terers and printers. Richmond, Virginia, decreased in blacksmiths and wheelwrights, boot and shoemakers, cabinetmakers and upholsterers, carpenters and joiners, iron and steel workers, machinists, marble and stone cutters, painters, glaziers, etc., plasterers, plumbers, gasfitters, and tailors. The total decrease in the six Southern cities was 1,887, while the total increase was 1,754, a net decrease of 133 Negro mechanics in Southern cities. This comparison shows important tendencies; the North slowly but surely increasing, the South struggling to hold its own. "Although there has been a general increase of Negroes in skilled mechanical trades in the North during the past two decades, yet, as compared with the white population, the Negroes of the North fall far short of having their proper propor- tion of mechanics. The Negroes are 4,8 per cent, of the total population of Philadelphia, but they torm. only 1.2 per cent, of those in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits; 3.5 per cent, of the Negroes of Pittsburg are engaged in this class of occupations, while the Negroes are 5.3 per cent, of the population. In Boston the proportion of Negro population is 2.1 per cent, of the whole population, while employees in manufacturing and mechanical trades are only 0.7 per cent.; in Chicago the Negroes are 1.8 per cent, of the total population, and 0.6 per cent, of the total workers are in mechanical trades; in Indianapolis 9.4 and 3.2 per cent, are the respective percentages of the Negroes in the total population and in mechanical pur- suits; and in Cincinnati the percentages are respectively 4.4 and 1.5. Of these cities Philadelphia has the smallest proportion and Pittsburg the largest, other cities having about one-third their proper proportion of Negroes in manufacturing and mechan- ical pursuits. "The cause of the scarcity of Negroes in the trades is often said to be chiefly race prejudice; but there are other causes which are much 'more easily described. In the first place, there are the very meagre opportunities for Negroes to learn trades. In the North there are but few schools where the Negro boy or girl can learn a mechanical trade. It follows that it is practically impossible for the large proportion of Negro children born in the North to learn trades. The North therefore has to depend most largely for its Negro mechanics upon Southern sources; and it remains a fact that the large proportion of Negro mechanics in the North are of Southern birth and training. Another reason why there are tew Negroes in the North in mechan- ical trades is the competition that exists in the North. Negro workmen are not infrequently deficient in one or both of the things most necessary in competition — speed and accuracy. As a rule, the Negro who has learned his trade in slavery, and his son who learned under him in the South, cannot do work with the same accuracy and finish as the white workman in the North; or if they can do the work with the same degree of accuracy, they generally take a much longer time to do it. Still another reason is that in the North conditions of work contain less of the personal element, and every man is expected to work regularly, to report promptly, and to let nothing interfere with his work. Many Negroes who have had opportunities in the North have lost them because they have not learned the lessons of regularity and punctuality. A fourth very important reason has to do with labour organizations. As a rule Negroes are ignorant of the value of labour organizations, or, if they know their value, they are quite unable to organize themselves. They complain generally because they are excluded from, or rather not heartily invited into, laboin- unions; and their efforts have generally ended with their complaints. Yet they have not usually proved that they are desirable imion members, either by organizing themselves or by any active, intelligent interest in labour union affairs in cases where they are admitted to white unions. They have not (largely because of lack of numbers but also because of former training and lack of industrial intelligence) made themselves a desirable quantity for the labour unions, except in some rare and notable cases; and the unions do not yet see that they should hand over to them the privileges and advantages which it has taken them years of struggle and agitation and organization to gain. "Notwithstanding the difficulties, there is a steady increase in Negro mechanics and they are gradually learning, in the school of hard experience, how to overcome many of the obstacles which now hinder them. The extent of the progress among Negro mechanics is not known to the public. For, in a city like New York, or Chicago, or Philadelphia, where tens of thou- sands of mechanics are employed, a hundred Negroes would hardly be noticed; and if they increased to a hundred and fifty the increase, though fifty per cent., would create no stir. If they were transferred, however, to a small Southern town they would be very conspicuous; but as it is now, a million or more people in the large city are absolutely ignorant of them, and one finds out about them only through special investigation. Furthermore, if some of these Negro mechanics in large Northern cities should do the same amount of business in the Southern towns that they naw do in New York, or Chicago, or Indianapolis, or Philadelphia, they would be rated as most successful contractors. But in the environment in which they are placed, where the building business often averages over a million dollars per week, they are practically lost, and it is difficult for the casual observer to measure their progress. "Yet, in a few trades in some cities of the North, Negroes form a larger proportion of the workmen than they do of the popu- lation. For example, in Pittsburg, where the Negroes are 5.3 per cent, of the population, they formed at the Census of 1900 more than 20 per cent, of the brick and tile makers, about 9 per cent, of the stationary engineers and firemen, 14 per cent, of the brick and stone masons, 8 per cent, of the plasterers, over 10 per cent, of the paper hangers; and of the iron and steel workers, who constitute Pittsburg's chief skilled mechanical workers, the Negroes comprise 3.9 per cent. In Chicago 1.8 per cent, of the population are Negroes, but 3.1 per cent, of the plasterers, 5.5 per cent, of the paper hangers, and 17.4 per cent, of the white- washers are Negroes. In New York the Negroes are 1.8 per cent, of the population but comprise 5.7 per cent, of the stove, furnace, and grate makers. "The gaining of a foothold in the North has been no easy task for the Negro mechanic. Every large Northern city has scores of men who were rated as mechanics in their Southern homes but who are now engaged in domestic and personal service. In Philadelphia, for example, there are fully twice as many Negroes, who claim to be mechanics, working in other lines of endeavour, as are following their trades. The fierceness of competition, and the 'struggle for existence' can be well illustrated by recounting the experiences of the Negro mechanic in the North. His chief problem is to get work. Often he has come from a section where there was plenty of work, and where he had but little difficulty in securing it, where every contractor knew him NEGROES. 495 and he knew every contoactor; or he may have been a contractor himself. But in the large city it happens often that there are two or more men who want every job. If he is not a first-class mechanic he generally gives up and enters one of the numerous avenues of domestic and personal service, where competition is not so great. Necessity drives him to this. If he has more than the average pluck and the average skill, he still continues to hunt work. Occasionally he succeeds as a journeyman. But in the majority of cases, if he is a carpenter, bricklayer, painter, plasterer, or connected with some other branch of the building trades, he becomes a "contractor" in that branch, and takes small jobs of repairing and altering. In the large cities there are scores of these jobbers who seldom hii-e anyone, and who rarely have any one job of as much as a thousand dollars. Yet they make a living." N.— NATIONAL NEGRO BUSINESS LEAGUE. The following draft constitution for local branches is published by the National Negro Business League (president, Mr. Booker T. Washington): — "We, the coloured citizens of desiring to stimulate greater activity and growth in business enter- prises among our people in the city of and vicinity, and feeling the need of constant co-operation and confer- ence for mutual advice among the members of the race already engaged in business, and to encourage others of the race to go into business and to promote an interest on the part of the race to give support to business enterprises conducted by its mem- bers, and also desuing to co-operate with The National Negro Business League, have formed this organisation and framed the following Constitution." [Here follow clauses dealing with Title, Officers, Duties of Officers and Committees.] Memhership. "All persons of good character over sixteen years of age, who are engaged in some kind of legitimate business, or other honourable calling or who believe in stimulating and giving support to enterprises shall be eligible to membership by a majority vote of the members present at the meeting at which said name or names are proposed. The membership beginning only after the joining fee, cents or dollars has been paid." [Other clauses follow dealing with Time of Meeting, Order of Business, Expulsion of Members, and Quorum.] The National Negro Business League also publishes the following: "Suggestions for organising and maintainiag Local Business Leagues " : — Organisation. In o^anising Local Leagues, great care should be taken to select the most responsible as well as reliable business men and women in the community. They should be duly impressed that a Business League must not go down for want of interest. Meetings. There should be held under the auspices of each Local League, at least one public meeting during the year, in which some- thmg informing and encouraging should be said concerning the business uprising among negroes of the community. Business men and women should be invited. To interest White People. Successful and well disposed white business men should be invited from time to time to talk to the League on business matters, and in this way, have the new things, and progressive things in business matters explamed. Business Direction. Each Local League should aim to know everything that is proper for it to know concerning the various kinds of business carried on in its community, and if possible, know the financial standing of the business men and women, such as the amount of business done methods, number of people who get employment, salaries, or wages paid, &c. ; if this is done, it will be possible to get such reports at the National Conventions as will be of great value as evidence to the negro s progress. Memhership. <.„„,„oH in business or having retired from business, or deshing to promote busmess enterprises, is eligible to A^y person engaged mb™s or h^^^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^j ^2.00, or a life membership fee of Srofby ZSC^^^^^s.^^^^^^^^^ f-- regular/organised and chartered Local League, under the auspices of The National Negro Business League. Serving the Community. A well organised and wide awake Local League ca._be of great service to the town or city in which it is organised. Some of the things that a^e possible for i* f j° ^^^'^^^^^^'^^^o are intelligent, trained, and qualified to fill responsible places as (1.) To keep a lis of the y^^^'^^^^ "&Tlt^l way a Lefgue can do much in getting suitable occupations for as clerks accountants, salesmen, janitors, porters, occ., in i.u y 5 . many as are competent, especially so in Northern States. 496 APPENDIX I. (2.) In protectiag the community against fraudulent schemes, as false Stock Companies, that are gotten up solely for the purpose of defrauding coloured people. (3.) In fostering an interest in civic affairs, such as sanitation, clean yards, cultivating pride in making attractive in appear- ance the home districts of our people, and in other ways, showing an interest in everything that may make up a better com- munity life. How to organize a Local Business League. 1. Consult with a half dozen of the business people of yova community. Do not wait for another to do this, make it your business. 2. Show them the advantages to be derived from an interchange of ideas and the wisdom of holding such meetings. 3. Call a public meeting through personal invitations and notices through the churches. 4. Get the ministers and professional men interested. 5. Hold the meeting and proceed with the business, even if only a few are present. 6. Let the person who took the lead in having the meeti^jg called state its object and tell of the value of a Local Negro Business League. 7. Choose some person to preside for the time being and another to keep the minutes. 8. A committee of five should be appointed on constitution and while this committee is looking over the constitution already prepared by the National Organiser to see if changes are necessary and what these should be, the meeting can spend its time in listening to short addresses on business and the importance of working together. 9. The committee on constitution should report as soon as possible. 10. If the committee reports favourably on the constitution submitted, let it be adopted. When the vote is finally taken on the constitution, it should be done by a rising vote. 11. Immediately after the adoption of the constitution the election of officers should be proceeded with, and the following should be the initial corps of officers: — President, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer. These officers shall be elected for one year, or until their successors are elected and qualify. A separate vote should be taken on each officer. 12. The time and place of regular meetings should be determined at this meeting. The meetings should begin at 8 o'clock and adjourn not later than 10 o'clock. Promptness and punctuality should be the rule of the League. 13. The Secretary of the League, immediately after its organisation should write promptly to the National Organiser, sending Viitti detailed information as to the business status of negro business persons and the list of officers and members, with their addresses. 14. A half hour should be devoted to the discussion of one of the following subjects:- - Suggested Subjects for Discussion. 1. How to unify the Coloured people in the business interests of the community. 2. What the professional men, ministers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, &c., can do to assist the business men and women. 3. What the business men can do to assist the professional men. 4. Patronising negro business enterprises. 5. What new business can be established in the community. 6. How can the business enterprises already established be improved. 7. How to secure additional country trade. 8. If a bank does not exist, can one be established and supported? 9. If a millinery establishment does not exist, can one be established and supported, &c., &c.? 10. If a shoe store or gent's furnishing store does not exist can one be established and supported? 11. If a drug store does not exist, can one be established and supported? UNEMPLOYMENT. 497 APPENDIX IL UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. Any attempt to form a numerical estimate of the amount of industrial unemployment existing in the United States at a given date would prove futile, owing to the fact that comprehensive statistics on this subject, or even such partial statistics as would justify general deductions are not available. This is a branch of labour statistics with which the Federal Department of Labour has not dealt hitherto, while only two State Labour Departments publish periodical returns of trade union unem- ployment in any way analogous to those collected by the British Board of Trade since 1887, and published in the Labour Gazette since 1893. The Bureau of Statistics of Labour of the State of New York has, since June, 1899, published quarterly percentages of unemployment among members of the trade unions of that State and, since June, 1903, similar percentages have been calculated monthly (but published half-yearly) by that Bureau for certain representative unions in the State. The Bureau of Statistics of Labor of Massachusetts has, since March, 1908, collected trade union statistics of unemployment at the end of each quarter, and these are published in the State Labour Bulletin. Monthly percentages of unemployed were published regularly by the American Federation of Labour from January, 1900, until October, 1909. These percentages were based upon returns furnished by certain of the trade unions affiliated to the Federation, but as the aggregate membership of the unions reporting formed less than 4 per cent, of the total officially known membership of the trade unions of the United States, the results could not be regarded as representative of the American labour market. Such periodical statistical data of an official character as are available are, therefore, limited to the trade union unemploy- ment retiums published for the States of New York and Massachusetts. The fact that these States contain less than one-seventh of the total population of the United States would alone make it unsafe to apply the results of the returns to the country generally. But the acceptance of the retiu'ns as adequately representing the condition of the labour market in the States themselves is also open to serious objections, and these objections apply with additional force to any use of the figures for the purpose of international comparison. The membership of the trade unions reporting their unemployed in the two States forms but a small fraction of the total number of wage-earners in these States. The latest complete official classification of occupied persons in the United States is that based on the Federal Census of 1900, and comparison shows that the membership of the unions in the State of New York reporting in December, 1909, formed only about 5 per cent, of all persons of 16 years and over engaged in trade and transportation, and in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits in 1900, while in the metal trades alone the pro- portion was 5.6 per cent., and in the textile and clothing trades 4.4 per cent. Similarly, the membership of the Massachusetts imions reporting at the same date formed about 13 per cent, of all persons of 16 years and over engaged in trade and transportation and in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits according to the Census of 1900; while the ratio in the metal and textile trades separately was 9 and 6 per cent, respectively, though in the clothing trades a proportion of 21.9 per cent, was reached. The objections to the use of figures for the purpose of international comparison are still stronger. An indispensable con- dition for the trustworthiness of statistics of this kind is that the returns should be confined to trade unions paying unemployed benefit' otherwise the possibility of inaccurate enumeration is considerable. The British, like the German, figures relate exclusively to unions of this kind, and those of Denmark almost wholly so; of the workpeople included in the French returns about 30 per cent, belong to unions paying unemployed benefit; the proportion in Belgium is about 84 per cent., and in Norway 65 per cent. In the trade unions of the United States, however, this form of benefit is still rare, and it is a reasonable inference that the completeness of the enumeration of their unemployed members would be seriously affected in consequence. A further important consideration that invalidates international comparison is the disproportionate manner in which the various trades are represented in the statistics for the different countries. From this standpoint the returns both for New York and Massachusetts might be assumed to have a tendency to make the general percentage of unemployment in these States appear unduly high. This results from the fact that in these returns, as compared with the returns for certain European countries, under-representation is given to certain trades which are not specially liable to great fluctuations in employment, and a decided over-representation to trades in which the contrary tendency prevails. Of industries in which, in the United Kingdom, comparatively little absolute unemployment (as distinguished from partial employment or short time) occurs, the textUe industry was represented in the British returns by 17 per cent, of the total membership of unions reporting in December, 1909, and in the Massachusetts returns by only 7 per cent.; while the coal mining industry was represented in the British returns by 20 per cent, of the total membership, and not at all m the New York and Massachusetts returns. ,- , j , , On the other hand the building and woodworking trades, which are specially exposed to cyclical and seasonal unemploy- ment were represented by 34 per cent, of all members reported in New York and 23 per cent, in Massachusetts; while the proportion was 13 per cent, in the United Kingdom. Again, the transport trades, in which likewise there is much fluctuation, were represented by 16.7 per cent, in New York State and 18 per cent, in Massachusetts, while they had no representation m the ^"*Mdwl7between the trades which normally represent the two extremes of minimum and maximum unemployment may be named the metal trade group; here the membership of the trade unions reportmg at the same date formed 8.1 per cent, of L whole in New York and 6 per cent, in Massachusetts, while the correspondmg proportion m the United Kmgdom was 38 per cent. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 38 498 APPElSfDIX II. It ia obvious, therefore, that the statietics for New York and Massachusetts give a relatively very large representatioE to trades which are characterised by violent fluctuations of employment, i. e., the building and woodworking and transport trades. So important, indeed, is this representation in the case of New York that the omission of the figures for these trades from the retvums for December, 1909, would reduce the unemployed percentage by nearly two-fifths. While, for the reason stated, no statistics of unemployment exist which can be accepted as representative of the country as a whole, there is evidence that periods of trade depression produce in the United States a temporary displacement of labour which is at least as serious as any that occurs in European countries. At the same time it is desirable to bear in mind certain aspects of the question of unemployment in the United States which are to some extent peculiar to the country and which have an important bearing upon the difficulties, social and personal, which a period of industrial depression creates. Thus there is at all times a considerable interchange of labour between different trades. The American workman is very adaptable, and the rapid growth of industry especially when accompanied, as is the case, by an increasing sub-division of labour, enables and at times compels him to change from one occupation to another. In times of industrial depression this movement from one class of employment to another takes, in general, a downward direction; that is to say, the more skilled workman who, as such, is not needed for the time being, takes the place of the less skilled workman, and the latter in turn displaces the unskilled labourer. Hence there is a tendency for the greatest burden of unemployment to fall upon the lowest stratum, and that is composed in the main of foreigners. For this reason unemployment is far less conspicuous and less vocal than in this country. In some large American towns foreign labour is represented by as many as two or three dozen different nationalities and languages, and this diversity, with the antipathies which often accompany it, leads to disunity and to a certain inarticulateness in a matter of common concern like unemployment. Moreover, there is probably always the consciousness in the mind of the more recent immigrants, and especially of the less established classes among them, that their presence in the country' is a matter for which they themselves are responsible, and this takes some force out of their grievance; if they are not satisfied with the prevailing conditions they should return home. Experience shows that in times of severe depression the immigrant aliens do, in fact, return to Europe in large numbers. A large proportion of them are youi]g unmarried men, and during the crisis of 1908 very many of them went home. This was also the case with a considerable proportion of the married men whose families had remained in Europe, and the effect of this return stream of migration was greatly to relieve the pressure of unemployment in certain parts of the States. The ret\u:ns of the American Immigration Department show that during the year July, 1907, to June, 1908, 395,073 alien emigrants (i. e., departing aliens, whose residence has been in the United States, who intend to reside permanently abroad) left the country, while the number of alien immigrants who arrived in that year was 782,870, as compared with 1,285,349 in 1906-7 and 1,100,735 in 1905-6. Further, in periods of trade depression competition in the industrial labour market is sensibly relieved owing to the fact that many opportunities for alternative employment exist in the States, and, in case of need, are freely embraced. The great towns and the important manufacturing industries of America are of more recent growth than those of England, hence a much larger proportion of the native-bom urban workers come from the country. Often they have parents or other relatives living on farms, and in times of depression young men go on these farms, where they make themselves useful in return for board and lodging. Even if they have no friends in the country, they can often get work there in summer. In the same way the negroes in the iron and steel and coal mining industries of the South who were thrown out of work in 1907 were in request on sugar and cotton plantations. The supreme position of agriculture in the States also tends to give great importance to this outlet for the superfluous labour of the towns. It may be noted also that wages in the United States are high relatively to the cost of food, with the result that in a time of depression earnings may suffer a considerable diminution before the level of actual privation is reached. SPECIMEN FOKMS. 499 APPENDIX III. Confidential. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY .• I. — Building Trades. Predominant Rates of Wages and Hours of Labour in 1909 of the principal classes of Adult Able-bodied Wage-earners employed by the undermentioned firm. NOTE.-Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential, and will be used only for statistical purposes. No individual return will be published. Principal Classes of Wage-earners. (The Rates of Wages quoted should be those for able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 55 years.) Foremen Bricklayers Stonemasons Stone Cutters Carpenters Plasterers Plumbers Structural Ironworkers Painters Labourers — Hod Carriers Bricklayers' Labourers Masons' Labourers Plasterers' Labourers.. Approximate Number of Men of each Class to which this Return refers. Usual Mode of Payment. T— Time. P— Piece. Predominant Rates of Wages per Hour or Week* gener- ally paid in Feb- ruary, 1909. cts. Usual Number of Working Hours per Week (meal- times and over- time excluded) in Summer. * In the case of workmen not paid by time please state the amount most fre- quently earned by them (by piece, task, &c.) during an ordinary week, in summer, without overtime. Remarks. Name of Firm. Address. Date. 1909. * On all the forms it was stated that the information asked for was for the use of the British Labour Department, London, England. 500 APPENDIX III. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. Confidential. II. — ^Foundries, Machine Shops, Boileb-Making, Ship-Buildins, &c. (New Work, Not Repairs.) Predominant Weekly Rates of Wages and recognised Hours of Labour in February, 1909, of certain classes of Adult Able-bodied Wage- earners employed by the undermentioned firm. (Paiticulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will only be used for statistical purposes. No individual return will be published.) Classes op Wage-earners. (The Rates of Wages quoted shoTild be those for able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 55 years.) Approximate Num- ber of Men of each Class to which this Return relates. Usual Mode of Payment. T— Time. P— Piece. Predominant Rates of Wages* for a full ordinary week (without overtime) in February, 1909. Usual Number of Working Hovirs per Week, meal- times and overtime excluded. Time Workers. Piece Workers. Foundries and Machine Shops — $ cts. $ cts. Iron-moulders Fitters Turners (metal) Pattern-makers Boiler-maiing, Ship-building, &c. — (Please strike out the portion of the above heading which does not apply). Foremen Angle-Iron Smiths: — Shin-buildinsr . Platers (Heavy): — Boiler-making Platers_(Light):_— Ship-building Rivetters: — Ship-building Holders-UD . - - , , . . Labourers ... Remarks. * The average weekly amount of any bonus earned under the premium system should be added to the ordinary weekly wages. Name of Firm Address . Date. 1909. SPECIMEN FOEMS. 501 Confidential. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY III. — Public Utilities. Predommant Weekly Rates of Wages and mual Hours of Labour in 1909 of the principal classes of Adult Male Able-hodied Wage earners employed by* City. * Please state whether Municipality or Company, giving name. State Principal Classes of Wage-earners (between the ages of 21 and 55 years). Approximate Number of Men of each Class to which this Return refers. Usual Mode of Payment. T-Time. P-Piece. Predominant Weekly Rates of Wages for a full ordinary Week, without overtime, in February, 1909. Usual Number of Working Hours per Week (mealtimes and overtime excluded) in Summer. Street Construction, Paving and Cleaning. Foremen Pavers Pavers ' Helpers Road Menders Scavengers Road Sweepers Drivers, Teamsters. Foremen. . Labourers. Waterworks (distribution) . Gasworks. Foremen. . Stokers Labourers. Electric Light and Power Works. Electricians. Fitters Stokers Labourers... Tramways. (Electric, Steam, Horse — please strike out the words which do not apply). Drivers (Motormen). Conductors Remarks. Date. .1909. Signed. 602 APPENDIX III. Confidential. WAGES AND HOURS FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. IV. — ^Various Trades. Predominant Weekly Rates of Wages and Usual Hours of Labour in February, 1909, of the principal classes of Adult Male Able- bodied Wage-earners employed by the Undermentioned Firm. N. B. — As the rates of wages may show a wide range, you are asked to state the rates paid to a majority of the wage-earners in each class. Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will be used only for statistical purposes. No individual returns will be published. Principal Classes op Wage-earners. (The Rates of Wages quoted should be those for able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 55 years). Approximate Num- ber of Wage-earners of each Class to which this Return relates. Usual Mode of Payment. T— Time. P— Piece. Predominant Rates of Wages for a full ordinary Week, without overtime, in February, 1909. Usual Number of Working Hours per Week (mealtimes and overtime excluded). Time Workers. Piece Workers. Foremen Shilled Workmen— (Specify the Occupations) Other Workmen — Labourers $ cts. $ cts. Teamsters, Drivers — (One horse) (Two horses) Remarks. Name of Firm. Address... DaU. .1909. SPECIMEN FOKM8. 503 Confidential. RENT FORM USED IN ENQUIRY. Rent of Dwellings in the Occupation op Wage-Earning Families in the Month op February, 1909. City. . Ward. .State. Number and Name op Street. Note. — Use separate line for dwellings which differ in num- ber of habitable rooms or in rent. 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8 9 10 State Type of Dwelling: sin- gle, two family house, flat, or tenement; front or rear. Number of Habitable Rooms in each Dwelling. {Include kitchen, garret and basement; but ex- clude vestibule, bathroom, wash- house, cellar, etc.) Rent per Calendar Month, February, 1909. cts. What Charges does the Rent include: Water, Heating, Light, &c. (state amounts)? Number of Dwell- ings of the same Rental containing the same number of Habitable Rooms. Supplementary particulars. State predominant nationality of occupiers in above neighbourhood: ^i. • rv * i. Where possible give rents per calendar month mUctoDer, 1905 (indicating by the marginal numbers as above the dwellings to which these rents refer); Other remarks: 504 APPENDIX III. PKICES FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY. Confidential. 1. — ^Meat. Ketail Prices of Meat of the Qualities most generally consumed by Wage-earning Families City State Source of 'particulars furnished: for example, Retail Store, Market , Name Address Date. Note. — Particulars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will be used only for statistical purposes. No individual return will be published. Description. Prices per lb. in February, 1909. Maximum. Minimum. Most General. Remarks. Please indicate here, in addition to other remarks, any local peculiarities of cut or name that may affect price. Also state whether home-killed, chilled or frozen. Beef:— Fresh: Uoasts — Round per lb. ,, Ribs prime ,, „ Ribs second cut ,, „ Chuck or short ribs „ Steaks — Round ,, „ Sirloin Shin without bone ,, ,, with bone ,, Plate ,, Brisket ,, Flank „ Bouillon (for soup) ,, Salt (or corned) : Plate Naval ,, Brisket ,, Mutton or Lamb: — Leg „ Breast ,, Loin...'. ,, Chops ,, Shoulder ,, Neck „ Veal:— Cutlets ,, Rib chops ,, Loin chops ,, Breast ,, Neck Fork:— Fresh — Loin ,, Spare rib ,, Shoulder ,, Chops ,, Corned (wet salt or pickled). ,, Dry saBt ,, Salt — Ham ,, „ Shoulder SPEOrMEN FOEMS. 505 PRICES FORMS USED IN ENQUIRY Confidential. II. — Groceries, &o Retail Prices of Commodities of the auaUties most generaUy consumed by Wa-e-eaming Families. <^*2' State Source of particulars furnished— (for example: Retail Store, Market, Etc.): Name... Address. Date. (Note:— Particulajs furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will only be used for general and statistical pmposea. No individual return will be published.) Commodity. Tea Coffee Sv^ai — Loaf White Granulated Brown Breakfast Bacon — Rib in Boneless Eggs Cheese (state kind) Butter — Fresh Oleomargarine Potatoes — Irish Sweet Flour (Wheaten — Household) Bread (Wheaten) Milk (state whether delivered (D) or not). Milk — Condensed Coal — (state kind) Coke Kerosene Unit of weight or measure to which the prices given apply. per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. per doz. per lb. per lb. per ID. per lb. per half peck [7J lbs.] per lb. per bag of 24^ lbs. per loaf of lb. per quart. per can of lb. per bushel [80 lbs.] per half bushel [20 lbs.] per gallon. Prices in February, 1909. Maximum $ cts. Minimum $ cts. Most general $ cts. Remarks. 506 APPENDIX III. Qonfidential. BUDGET FORM USED IN ENQUIRY. Paet I. Income and Expenditure of a Wage-earning Family. Statement showing Total Weekly Income and Weekly Expenditure on Food, Rent, dee. (AU'particuiars furnished will be regarded as strictly confidential and will not be published; the information they contain ia required solely for statistical purposes. Names need not be given.) 1. City State. 2. Occupation of head of' family 3. Total niunber in family living at home (Husband. Wife Number. A^es. Children ...Male, aged .Female, aged 4. Average Weekly Income: — (a) Earnings of the Husband: From principal occupation $. From supplementary occupation $. (6) Earnings of the Wife (c) Earnings of the Children: — Male, number at work Female, number at work. Amounts earned by each Amounts eiir: i . bv each I*. (d) Other regular income of the family (specify nature) $. Total Income of Family $ . 5. House Rent per calendar month (N. B. — Should the house belong to the family, please state the rent of a similar house in the neighbourhood. $. 6. Number of habitable rooms occupied, including the kitchen (N. B. — Vestibules, bath rooms, wash houses, cellars, &c., not to be counted. SPECIMEN FORMS. 507 BUDGET FORM USED IN ENQUIRY. Part JI. Confidential. Details of Household Expenditure of food &c., for an ordinary week in 1909. (N.B.— You are particularly requested to strike out all articles of food in the following list which are not habitually used in your household.) Articles of Food. Weight or Measure of Quantity Consumed per Week. Cost per Week. Articles of Food. Weight or Measure of Quantity Consumed per Week. Cost per Week. Bread— Of Wheat lb. Of Rye lb. Other lb. Flour— Wheat lb. Rye lb. Buckwheat and other lb. Com and Cornmeal lb. Cakes, Crackers, Doughnuts, etc. . -lb. Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits lb. Macaroni, Noodles, Spaghetti, etc. lb. Bice, Barley, Sago, etc lb. Oatmeal and Breakfast Cereals lb. Potatoes (Irish, etc.) lb. Sweet Potatoes, Yams, etc lb . Dried Peas and Beans lb. Sweet Com lb. Green Vegetables — Salad, Tomatoes, etc $ eta. Olive Oil pint Cheese lb. Milk— fresh quart Milk — condensed lb. Ekks number TSa lb. Coffee lb. Cocoa and Chocolate lb. Sugar lb. Molasses and Syrup pint Vinegar, Pickles and Condiments pint Fruits (fresh, dried, and canned) and Jams lb. Other articles of food not specified above:— Beer and Cider pint Spirits pint Coal bushel [80 lbs. Coke half bushel [20 lbs. Wood $ cts. Canned Vegetables lb. Meat— Beef (fresh and corned) lb. Mutton and Lamb lb. Pork (fresh and salt) lb. Bacon, Ham, Headcheese, etc -lb. Veal lb. Sausage lb. Poultry lb. Fish of all kinds lb. Lard, Suet, Dripping lb. Butter lb. Oleomargarine lb. Kerosene gallon Total $ Average weekly cost of Meals consumed away from home (in Restaurants, Eating-houses, etc.) . Average weekly cost of lighting if gas is used 508 INDEX TO GENERAL REPORT. {For Index to Town Reports, see pp. 511-533.) Accommodation, Housing, xx-xxvui, xHx; lix-lxiii; Ixxxii, Ixxxiv-xc. ,, „ Comparison with England and Wales, Ux-lxiii. Agreements, Collective, xv. Agriculture, x, xi; xvi. Alien Immigration, see "Immigration," '^Race Problem," and "Population, Foreign and Jewish." American-British Groups of Budgets, xl-lv; Ixviii-lxxv; Ixxxi-lxxxiii. ,, ,, ,, (Northern Group): Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixviii-lxxv. Area of Investigation, x. Budgets, xxxviii-lv; Ixviii-lxxv; Ixxxi-xci. „ Analysis of: American-British Groups, xl-lv; Ixxxi-lxxxviii. European, South, Group, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxvi. German Group, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxiv. Jewish Group, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxviii. Negro Groups, xl, xK, xliii, xUv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxix, xc. Scandinavian Group, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxv. Slavonic, &c.. Group, xl-xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxvii. ;, Classification of (sec also Analysis of Groups above): By Geographical Groups of Towns, xl, xli. By Incomes, xliii, xliv. By Nationalities, xl-xliii. By Occupations, xl-xliii. '„ Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixviii-lxxv. „ United Kingdom, Ixviii-lxxv; xci. Building and Loan Associations, xxvii. „ Engineering and Printing Trades: Hours of Labour, xix, xx; Iviii, Ux. „ Index Numbers — Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. Wages, xv-xix; Ivi-lix; Ixxviii-lxxx. „ Index Numbers — American Towns and Groups, xvii-xix, xxxvii, xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi, Ivii, Ux. Children, Earnings of, xlv, xlvii, xlviii; Ixxxi-xc. Cities, see "Towns." Climatic Conditions, x; xxxix. Clothing, Ixxiv, Ixxv. Coal, Prices of, xxix, xxxii. Collective Agreements, xv. Comparison with British Towns, Iv-lxxvi. Congestion of Population, xxiv-xxvi, Ixii, Ixiii. Co-operation, xxxiii. Credit System, xxxii. Date of Enquiry, ix. Earnings, see "Wages" and "Income of Working-class Families." Engineering Trades, see "Building, Engineering and Printing Trades." England and Wales {see also "United Kingdom"): Comparison with United States, Iv-lxvii. European, South, Group ^of Budgets, xl-xlii, xUv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxvi. Expenditure of Working-class Families, xlv, xlvi, xlix, li, lii, Iv; Ixix-lxxvi; Ixxxi-xci. ,, „ ,, ,, Comparison with United Kingdom, ixix-lxxvi. Food, Consumption of and Expenditure on, xxix-xxxiv, xlv, xlvi, xlix-lv; Ixvi, Ixvii; Ixix-lxxv; Ixxxi-xci. ,, ,, ,, ,, Comparison with United Kingdom, Ixvi, Ixvii; Ixix-lxxv. Food Prices, see "Prices (Retail)." Foreign and Jewish Population, xi-xvii, xxi, xxvii, xxxix, xl. German Group of Budgets, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxiv. Heating of Dwellings, xxiv, xxxii, Ixxiv. Hours of Labour, xix, xx; Iviii, lix. „ Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. „ Index Numbers — Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. INBEX TO GENERAL REPORT. 609 Housing Accommodation, xx-xxvii, xlix; lix-lxiii; Ixxxii, Ixxxiv-xc. „ and Eents. xx-xxviii, xxxv-xxxviii, xlv, xlviii, xlix; lix-lxiii; Ixxvi; Ixxviii-s •» I. _ Comparison vnth. England and Wales, lix-lxiii. „ Ownership Particulars, xxvii, xlviii; Ixxxii, Ixxxiv-xc. „ Provision, xxvii. Immigration, xi-xv {see also "Foreign and Jewish Population"). Income of Working-class Families, xliii-xlviii; Ixviii, Ixix; Ixxxi-xci. Index Nimibers: Hours of Labour — Comparison with England and Wales, Iviii, lix. Prices, Retail — American Towns and Groups, xxxi-xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixiv, Ixvi, Ixvii. Rents — American Towns and Groups, xxv, xxvi, xxxvi-xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixi-lxiii. Eents and Retail Food Prices Combined — American Towns and Groups, xxxv-xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixxvi. Wages — American Towns and Groups, xvii-xix, xxxvii, xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi, Ivii, lix. Jewish Group of Budgets, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxviii. ,, Population, see "Foreign and Jewish Population.". Kerosene, Prices of, xxix, xxxii. Labour, Hours of, see "Hours of Labour." Licences, see "Taxation." Loan Associations, Building and, xxvii. Local Taxation, xxviii; Ixi. Municipal Taxation, xxviii; Ixi. Nationalities included in Budgets, xl-xliii. Nationality Question, see "Race Problem." Negro Groups of Budgets, xl, xli, xliii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxix, xc. ,, Population, xiii-xv, xvii, xxi, xxiii, xxvii, xxxix, xl. Oil (Kerosene), Prices of, xxix, xxxii. Overcrowding, see "Population, Congestion of." Population, Agricultural, xi. ,, Coloured, see "Population, Negro." „ Congestion of, xxiv-xxvi; Ixii, Ixiii. „ Foreign and Jewish, xi-xvii, xxi, xxvii, xxxix, xl. „ Negro, xiii-xv, xvii, xxi, xxiii, xxvii, xxxix, xl. ,, Urban, (Proportion of Total), xi. ,, White, Number of, xii. ,, of Towns Investigated, ix, x. Prices (Retail), xxviii-xxxviii; Ixiii-lxvii; Ixxvi; Ixxviii-lxxx. „ „ Comparison with England and Wales, Ixiii-lxvii. ,, ,, Index Numbers: American Towns and Groups, xxxi-xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixiv, Ixvi, Ixvii. „ „ Changes in, Ixiii, Ixiv. Rents and Food, (Combined), xxxv-xxxviii; Ixxvi; Ixxviii-lxxx. Printing Trades, see "Building, Engineering and Printing Trades." Prohibition Laws, xxviii. Race Problem, xi-xvii, xxi-xxiii, xxxix, xl. Rates and Taxes, see "Taxation" and "Water Rates." "Real" Wages, xxxvii, xxxviii. Rents and Housing, xx-xxviii, xxxv-xxxviii, xlv, xlviii, xlix; lix-lxni; Ixxvi-xc. Comparison with England and Wales, lix-lxm. „ Index Numbers: ... ... American Towns and Groups, xxv, xxvi, xxxvi-xxxviu; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ixi-Ixiii. „ and Food Prices Combined, xxxv-xxxviii; Ixxvi-lxxx. Retail Distribution, Machinery of, xxxiii. ,, Prices, see "Prices (Retail)." Scandinavian Group of Budgets, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxv. Slavonic, &c., Group of Budgets, xl-xliv, xlviii, xlix; Ixxxvii. South European Group of Budgets, xl-xlii, xliv, xlviu, xhx; Ixxxvi. 510 INDEX TO GENERAL KEPOKT. Taxation, Local, xxviii; Ixi. TenementB, see "Housing." Towns Investigated, List of, ix. „ ,, Population of, ii, x. Trade Agreements, xv. „ Unionism, xv. Travelling Expenses (Workmen's), Comparison witli England and Wales, Ixxv. United Kingdom (see also "England and Wales"): Comparison of Budgets with United States, Ixvlii-lxxv. Condensed Budgets, xci. ges, xiv-xix; xxxvii, xxxviii; Ivi-lviii; Ixxvi; Ixxviii-lxxx. ,, Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi-lviii; Ixxvi. ,, Index Numbers: American Towns and Groups, xvii-xix, xxxvii, xxxviii; Ixxviii-lxxx. Comparison with England and Wales, Ivi, Ivii, lix. „ Relation of, to Rents and Food Prices, xxxvii, xxxviii ,, Agreements, xv. Water Rates, xxiv, xxviii. „ Supply, xxiv. Welfare Work, xv. Women, Earnings of, xlv, xlvii; Ixxxi-xc. 611 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. A. Accidents, Industrial, at — Birmingham 88, 89; Milwaukee 261, 262; Pittsburg 343. Accident Insurance and Benefit Funds and Employers' Liability at— Chicago 142, 143; Fall River 201; Milwaukee 261. Amusements at (see also "Libraries") — New York 2, 6, 10, 13; Atlanta 58; Baltimore 74; Boston 103; Chicago 133; Detroit 176; 177; Louisville 222; Mil- waukee 257, 258; Philadelphia 320; Pittsburg 339, 341, 354; Providence 362, 365; St. Louis 371; Savannah 382. Ankylostomiasis : Birmingham 96. Apprenticeship at — New York 19; Chicago 134, 138, 139; Milwaukee 262. Arbitration (see "Conciliation and Arbitration"). Area of — New York 2; Atlanta 48; Augusta 61; Baltimore 74; Birmingham 87, 88; Boston, 101; Brockton 117; Chicago 129; Cleveland 161; Detroit 172; Duluth 186; Louisville 220; Memphis 243; Milwaukee 257; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; New Orleans 288; Newark 299; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 316; Providence 357; St. Louis 370. Atlanta 48-60. Augusta 61-71. B. Bacon : Consumption of, at — Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Chicago 150; Detroit 183; Memphis 254. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cin- cinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Pater- son 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Supply, Sources of, at — Detroit 183; Duluth 194; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281. Bakeries: General Notes on, at — Baltimore 78; Chicago 139. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 55; Baltimore 79; Chicago 139, 141; Louisville 223; Memphis 250; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Providence 363. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17. Wages in, at — Atlanta 55; Baltimore 79; Chicago 139, 141; Louisville 223; Memphis250; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277 ; Providence 363. Baltimore 72-86. Beef: Consumption of, at — Augusta 69, 71; Baltimore 86; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cleveland 171; Detroit 183, 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206- Louisville 229; Memphis 254; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis — St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; Newark 307; Pater- son 314; Pittsburg 356; Savannah 393. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46, 47; Atlanta 60; Augusta 71; Baltimore 86; Birmingham 98; Boston 116; Brockton 126, 127; Chicago 151; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 171; Detroit 184; Duluth 196; Fall River 206, 207; Lawrence 218; Louisville 230; Lowell 242; Memphis 256; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 296, 298; Newark 307; Paterson 315; Philadelphia 336; Pittsburg 356; Providence 369; St. Louis 380; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — New York 46; Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Detroit 184; Louisville 229; Lowell 242; Memphis 255; Newark 306; Pittsburg 356. Birmingham 87-98. Births at — New York 9; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73;- Boston 103; Brockton 118; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Law- rence 209; Louisville 220; Lowell 231; Memphis 244; Milwaukee 258; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; Muncie 283; Newark 299; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 319; Providence 359; Savannah 384. 512 INDEX TO TOWN EEPOBTS. Biscmt Manufacture: Wages, &c., in, at — Baltimore 78. Blast Furnaces (see "Iron and Steel Industry"). Bleaching Trades (see "Dyeing and Bleaching Trades"). Board (see "Housing: Lodgings, Board and"). Boilermaking (see "Engineering and Metal Treades"). Bonus Systems (Wages) at — New York 18; Boston 108; Cincinnati 155; Lowell 236; Memphis 247; Milwaukee 262; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275; Pittsburg 345; St. Louis 373. Bookbinding Trade: General Note on, at- — Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; Pittsburg 346. Hours of Labour in, at — • New York 22; Atlanta 55; Baltimore 79; Boston 107; Chicago 141; Detroit 179; LouisvUle 223; Memphis 249; Minne- apolis—St. Paul 275, 276; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 847; St. Louis 375. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17, 20; Duluth 188; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; St. Louis 372. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19; Cincinnati 156; Minneapolis — St. Paul 275. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22; Atlanta 55; Baltimore 79; Boston 107; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 154; Detroit 179; Louisville 223; Mem- phis 249; MinneapoHs- St. Paul 275, 276; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 346, 347; St. Louis 375. Boot and Shoe Industry: General Note on, at — Brockton 117, 119-122; Cincinnati 156; Detroit 177; Lowell 236; St. Louis 374. Hours of Labour in, at — Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 156, 157; St. Louis 375. Output of, at — Brockton 117; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Fall Eiver 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Pateraon 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — Brockton 120, 121; Cincinnati 156. Wages, in, at — Brockton 120, 122, 123; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 154, 157; St. Louis 374, 375. Boston 99-116. Bread, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 43, 44, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 69, 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 125, 126; Chicago 149, 150; Cincinnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 194, 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 228, 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 296, 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334, 335; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 367, 368; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 392. Brewing Industry: General Notes on, at — Baltimore 77; Chicago 139; Milwaukee 260, 263; New Orleans 293; Pittsburg 346; Providence 362, Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22; Baltimore 77, 79; Chicago 139, 141; Cincinnati 156, 157; Louisville 223; Milwaukee 262, 264; Minne- apolis—St. Paul 275, 277; New Orleans 294; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 347; Providence 368; St. Louis 373, 375. Output of, at — Milwaukee 260. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Chicago 139; Milwaukee 260; Pittsburg 346; St. Louis 372. Trade Unions in, at — Baltimore 75; Cincinnati 156; Louisville 222; Milwaukee 262; Newark 301; Philadelphia 322; Pittsburg 343, 346; Provi- dence 362; St. Louis 373. Wages in, at — New York 22; Baltimore 77, 79; Chicago 139, 141; Cincinnati 154, 157; Louisville 222, 223; Milwaukee 262-264; Minne- apolis—St. Paul 275, 277; New Orelans 294; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 322, 324; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347; Providence 362, 363; St. Louis 373, 375. Brick and Tile and Pipe Works: General Notes on, at — Augusta 64-66; Baltimore 75, 77; Birmingham 87; Memphis 248; St. Louis 373. Hours of Labour in, at — Augusta 66; Baltimore 78; Memphis 248, 249; St. Louis 375. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 613 Brick and Tile and Pipe Works — cxmt. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— Augusta 64; Baltimore 75; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; St. Louis 372. Wages in, at — Augusta 66; Baltimore 78; Memphis 249; St. Louis 373 375 Brockton 117-127. Building Regulations (see "Housing"). Building Societies (see "Housing"). Building Trades: General Notes on, at — Atlanta 54; Augusta 64-«6; Baltimore 76; Birmingham 88, 91, 92; Boston 108; Chicago 133; Detroit 179; Duluth 189; Lowell 236; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275; Muncie 284; New Orleans 292; Newark 301; Paterson 311; Pittebuig 343, 344; Providence 362; St. Louis 372; Savannah 387. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17, 22; Atlanta 54; Augusta 64, 65; Baltimore 75, 76, 78; Birmingham 91-93; Boston 105, 107, 108; Brockton 121; Chicago 134, 140; Cincinnati 156; Cleveland 166; Detroit 177, 178; Duluth 189, 191; Fall River 202; Law- rence 212, 213; Louisville 221, 222; Lowell 237; Memphis 247-249; Milwaukee 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 293; Newark 301, 302; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 322, 323; Pittsburg 344, 347; Providence 363; St. Louis 372, 374, 375; Savannah 387. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; PhUadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 18, 19; Atlanta 54; Augusta 67; Baltimore 75, 76; Birmingham 91, 92; Brockton 121; Chicago 133, 134; Cincinnati 156; Detroit 177; Fall River 203; Lawrence 212; Louisville 222; Lowell 236; Memphis 247, 248; Mil- waukee 262; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275; New Orleans 292; Newark 301; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 322, 323; Pittsburg 343, 344; Providence 362; St. Louis 372; Savannah 387. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22, 23; Atlanta 54; Augusta 62, 64, 65; Baltimore 75, 76, 78; Birmingham 91-93; Boston 106, 107; Brockton 121; Chicago 134, 140; Cincinnati 156; Cleveland 166; Detroit 177-179; Duluth 189, 191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 212, 213; Louisville 222; Lowell 236, 237; Memphis 247-249; Milwaukee 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 292, 293; Newark 301, 302; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 322, 323; Pittsburg 343, 347, 348; Providence 363, 364; St. Louis 372, 374, 375; Savannah 387. Butter, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cin- cinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Cabinet Makers (See "Furnishing Trades".) Canning and Bottling Industry (see also "Meat Packing"): General note on, at — Baltimore 77. Hours of Labour in, at — Baltimore 79; Pittsburg 347. Output of, at — Baltimore 77. Wages in, at — Baltimore 77, 79; Pittsburg 347. Car, Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Industry: General notes on, at — Augusta 61; Chicago 137; Detroit 175, 179; Louisville 221; Memphis 247; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274; St. Louis 373. Hours of Labour in, at — . ,. r, -r. , Augusta 65; Chicago 141; Cleveland 165; Detroit 178; Louisville 223; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276; St. Louis 373, 375. Output — Detroit 172. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Augusta 61, 64; Chicago 137; Detroit 176; Memphis 247; St. Louis 372, 373. Augusta 65; Chicago 137, 141; Cincinnati 154; Cleveland 164; Detroit 177-179; Louisville 223; Milwaukee 264; Min- neapolis—St. Paul 276; St. Louis 373, 375. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 39 514 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Carpet and Rug Industry: Houis in, at — Philadelphia 324. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at^ Lowell 234; Philadelphia 321. Trade Unions in, at — Philadelphia 323. Wages in, at — Philadelphia, 324. Charcoal, Price (Retail) of, at — Pateison 314. Charities and Social Societies and Settlements at — New York 10, 11, 13; Atlanta 51; Augusta 63; Baltimore 82; Boston 103, 109; Brockton 118; Chicago 131; Cleveland 163; Lawrence 214; Milwaukee 259; Philadelphia 320, 325; Pittsburg 339, 341; Providence 359, 367. Cheese, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 149, 150; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 228, 229; Low- ell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Chemical Trades (see aUo "Fertiliser Industry," "Cotton-seed OU Industry" and "Varnish-making Industry"): General Note on, at — Baltimore 77; Detroit 172, 175-177. Hours of Labour in, at — ■ Baltimore 79; Detroit 177, 178. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Detroit 172, 175-177; Memphis 246. Wages in, at — Baltimore 79; Detroit 177, 178. Chicago 128-151. Children and Young Persons, Employment of, at — New York 7, 21; Atlanta 53, 56; Augusta 64; Brockton 122; Chicago 133, 143; Detroit 176; Duluth 187, 188; Mil- waukee 259, 261, 265, 266; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275; New Orleans 293; Paterson 310, 311; Providence 362; St. Louis 372, 374. Cigar Industry: General Notes on, at — • Detroit 176, 177; Louisville 221; Pittsburg 346. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22; Louisville 224; Philadelphia 324. ■ Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17, 20; Detroit 176; Louisville 221. Trade Unions iu, at — Boston 106. Wages in, at — New York, 18, 22; Boston 107; Cincinnati 154; Detroit 179; Louisville 224; Philadelphia 324. Cinciimati 152-160. Cleveland 161-17L Climate of — New York 1; Augusta 61, 66, 67; Birmingham 88; Milwaukee 258; Minneapolis — St. Paul 271; New Orleans 290; Savannah 383. Clothing Trades {see also "Boot and Shoe Industry" and "Hat, Cap and Millinery Trades"): General Notes on, at — New York, 16, 20, 21, 23; Baltimore 75, 76; Boston 108; Chicago 129, 137, 138; Cincinnati 155, 156; Cleveland 162, 165; Detroit 177; Louisville 221; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22-24; Altanta 56; Baltimore 78; Boston 105, 107; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 156; Cleveland 166; Detroit 179; Louisville 223; Philadelphia 322, 324. Output of, at — Chicago 129. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 20, 21; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cin- cinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176, 177; Duluth 188; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 18, 19, 24; Atlanta 54; Boston 108; Chicago 137; Detroit 177; Philadelphia 323. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22-24; Baltimore 77, 78; Boston 107, 108; Chicago 137, 138, 141; Cincinnati 154, 156; Cleveland 162, 164r-166; Detroit 179; Louisville 223; Philadelphia 324. INDEX TO TOWN KEPOETS. 515 Coal Mining Industry: General Notes on, at — Birmingham 87, 88, 90-92, 97; Pittsburg 337, 338, 344. Hours of Labour in, at — Birmingham 91, 93; Pittsburg 344, 347. Output of, at — Birmingham 87; Pittsburg 337. Trade Unions in, at — Pittsburg 343-345. Wages in, at — Birmingham 90-93, 97; Pittsburg 343, 344, 347. Coal, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 45, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 125, 126; Chicago 150 Cincinnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229 Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 297 Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334, 335; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 379, 380 Savannah 392. Coffee, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 296, 297 ; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Coke, Prices (Retail) of, at — Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Lowell 241; Providence 368. Coking Industry: Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — Birmingham 87, 91, 93. Collective Agreements {see "Trade Agreements"). Commerce (see also "Trade" and "Transportation") at — New York 15, 16; Baltimore 72; Boston 99, 103, 104; Duluth 185; New Orleans 289; Philadelphia 317; Savannah 382, 383. Conciliation and Arbitration at — New York 19, 20; Atlanta 54; Brockton 120, 121; Chicago 134, 139, 140; Detroit 177; Milwaukee 263. Co-operation at — ■ Birmingham 96, 97; Boston 114; Duluth 194; Lawrence 216, 217; Milwaukee 258, 266; Philadelphia 325. Cotton Trade: Export of, at — Savannah 382. General Notes on, at — Atlanta 52, 53; Augusta 61; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 87; Fall River 199-201; Lawrence 208, 209, 211; 212; Lowell 233, 235; New Orleans 293; Providence 358, 364. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 55; Augusta 64-66; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Lowell 237, 238; New Orleans 293; Providence 363. Output of, at — FaU River 199; Lawrenoe 210; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Atlanta 52; Augusta 61, 63; Baltimore 75; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Lowell 234, 235; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Philadelphia 321; Providence 360, 361. Spindles and Looms, Number of, in, at— Fall River 200. Trade Unions in, at — Atlanta 53; Fall River 201; Lowell 235. Wages in, at — Atlanta 53, 55; Augusta 64-66; Fall River 201-203; Lawrence 213, 214; Lowell 285-238; New Orleans 293; Providence 363, 364. Cotton Compressing, &c.: Wages, Hoius, &c., in, at — New Orleans 291, 292. Cotton Warehousing: Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — Memphis 248, 250. Cotton-seed Oil Industry: General Note on, at — Memphis 247; Savannah 385. Hours in, at — Memphis 248, 249. 516 INDEX TO TOWN KEPOETS. Cotton-seed Oil Industry-^cont. Output of, at — Memphis 247. Persons occupied, Number of — Augusta 63. Wages in, at — Memphis 249. Credit Purchasing at — New York 42; Augusta 69; Boston 114; Detroit 182; Duluth 194; Fall River 205; Lawrence 216; Milwaukee 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280; Philadelphia 333. Death Benefits at — Brockton 121; Chicago 143; Savannah 387. Deaths at — New York 9; Atlanta 50; Augusta 62, 63; Baltimore 73; Birmingham 88,89; Boston 103; Brockton 118; Chicago 132; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 198; Lawrence 209; Louisville 220; Lowell 231; Memphis 244; Milwaukee 258; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; Muncie283; New Orleans 290; Newark 299; Paterson309; Phila- delphia 318, 319; Pittsburg 340; Providence 359; St. Louis 371; Savannah 384. Detroit 172-184. Dietary of Foreign and Jewish NationaUties, at — Chicago 149, 150; Cleveland 170,171; Detroit 182-184; Duluth 194, 195; Fall River 206; Louisville 228; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 267, 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 280, 282; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334; Pittsburg 355; Providence 367, 368. Dietary of Negroes at — Augusta 69; Louisville 228, 229; Memphis 254, 255; New Orleans 297; Savannah 391, 393. Dietary of Working Classes at — Augusta 69; Chicago 149, 150; Cleveland 170, 171; Detroit 182-184; Duluth 194, 195; Fall River 206; Louisville 228, 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 254, 255; Milwaukee 267, 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 280-282; Muncie287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 367, 368; St. Louis 379; Savannah 391-393. Diseases, Industrial, at — Birmingham 96. Diseases, Prevalence of. Preventive Measures and Mortality due to, at — New York 9, 10; Atlanta 50; Augusta 63; Birmingham 88, 96; Brockton 118; Chicago 132, 147; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 174, 176; Duluth 187; Fall River 198, 199; Lawrence 209; Lowell 220; Memphis 243, 244; Milwaukee 258; Min- neapolis—St. Paul 271, 272; Muncie 283; New Orleans 290; Newark 299; Philadelphia 318, 319; Pittsburg 340; Providence 359; St. Louie 371; Savannah 384. DistiUing Industry: General Notes on, at — Baltimore 75, 77; Louisville 221. Hours of Labour in, at — Baltimore 79; Louisville 224. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Baltimore 77. Wages in, at — Baltimore 79; Louisville 224. Dock Labom:: General Note on, at — Baltimore75, 76, 78; Cleveland 165; Duluth 188; Memphis 248; Milwaukee 263; New Orleans 291, 292; Savannah 386. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17; Boston 107; Cleveland 165, 167; Duluth 190, 191; Milwaukee 263; New Orleans 292; Savannah 386, 388. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Duluth 188. Trade Unions in, at — Boston 106; Duluth 191; New Orleans 291, 292; Savannah 386. Wages in, at — New York 22, 24; Baltimore 78, 79; Boston 107; Cleveland 165, 167; Duluth 190, 191; Memphis 248; Milwaukee 263; New Orleans 291, 292; Savannah 386, 388. Drink Industry {see also "Brewing Industry," "Distilling" and "Saloons"): General Note on, at — Baltimore 75, 77; Louisville 221; Milwaukee 260, 263; New Orleans 293; Pittsburg 346; Providence 362. Hours of Labour in, at — • New York 22; Baltimore 77, 79; Cincinnati 156, 157; Louisville 223, 224; Milwaukee 262; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 277; New Orleans 294; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 347; Providence 363; St. Louis 373, 375. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 517 Drink Industry — cont. Output of, at — Milwaukee 260. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75, 77; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342, 346; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19; Baltimore 75; Cincinnati 156; Louisville 222; MOwaukee 262; Newark 301; Philadelphia 322; Pittsburg 343, 346; Providence 362; St. Louis 373. Wages in, at — New York 22; Baltimore 77, 79; Cincinnati 154, 157; Louisville 222-224; MUwaukee 262-264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 277; New Orleans 294; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 322, 324; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347; Providence 362, 363; St. Louis 373, 375. Duluth 185-196. DweUings (see "Housing"). Dyeing and Bleaching Trades: General Notes on, at — Lowell 235; Paterson 310, 311. Hours of Labour in, at — Paterson 311; Providence 363. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Lawrence 211; Lowell 234; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Providence 360, 361. Trade Unions in, at — Lowell, 235. Wages in, at — Paterson 311; Providence 363. E. Earnings (see "Wages"). Education at — New York 14; Atlanta 51, 56; Augusta 62-64; Baltimore 72, 74; Birmingham 88; Boston 100, 102, 103; Chicago 133, 143; Cincinnati 154; Detroit 173, 175, 176; Duluth 187; Lawrence 208, 210; LouisvUle 219, 220; Lowell 234; Memphis 244, 247; MOwaukee 257-259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 273, 275; Newark 300; Philadelphia 319, 320. Education, Technical, at — AtlantaSl; Augusta 62; Chicago 133, 143; Detroit 175; Duluth 187; Fall Eiver 199; Lowell 234; Memphis 244, 247; MUwaukee 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273; Newark 301; Pittsburg 338, 339, 341. Eggs, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cin- cinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Electric Lighting and Power Supply at— New York 11; Atlanta 49; Augusta 63, Baltimore 74; Birmingham 90; Boston 103; Brockton 118; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 154; Cleveland 163, 166; Detroit 173, 175; Duluth 186; 187; Fall River 199; Lawrence 210; Louisville 220; Lowell 233; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272; Muncie 284; New Orleans 290; Newark 300; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 319; Pittsburg 340; Providence 358; St. Louis 371; Savannah 384. Electric Lighting Rates at — Brockton 118; Lawrence 210; Lowell 233; Pittsburg 340. Electric Tramways and Railways (see "Tramway and Railway Systems"). Electricity Works: General Notes on, at — Boston, 108; Cleveland 166. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 80; Birmingham 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 142; Cincinnati 157- Cleveland 166, 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; LouisvUle 224; Lowell 238; Memphis 25o| Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 294; Newark 303; Paterson 312; Phila- delphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. 518 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Electricity Works — cont. Wages ia, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 80; Birmingham 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 142; Cin- cinnati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 238; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 294; Newark 303; Pat«rson 312; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. Employment Bureaux (see "Labour Bureaux"). Engineering and Metal Trades (see also "Iron and Steel Works"): General Notes on, at — Baltimore 76; Birmingham 87, 91; Chicago 128, 129, 136, 137; Boston 108; Brockton 121; Cincinnati 155; Detroit 172, 175,179; Duluth 189; Fall River 200; Lawrence 210, 212; Louisville 221; Lowell 233, 236; Memphis 247; Milwau- kee 259, 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273-275; Muncie 284; New Orleans 292; Newark 301; Paterson, 308, 311; Philadelphia 320; Pittsburg 345, 346; Providence 362, 364; St. Louis 373; Savannah 385, 387. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22, 23; Atlanta 54, 55; Augusta 64, 65; Baltimore 78; Birmingham 91, 93; Boston 105, 107; Brockton 121; Chicago 135, 137, 140; Cincinnati 156; Cleveland 165, 166; Detroit 177, 178; Duluth 190, 191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 222; Lowell 287, 238; Memphis 247, 249; Milwaukee 262-264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 293; Newark 301, 302; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 322, 323; Pittsburg 347; Providence 363; St. Louis 373, 375; Savaimah 387. Output of, at — Chicago 128, 129; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 23; Atlanta 52; Augusta 61, 64; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 129,133,136; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 175, 176; Duluth 188; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louis- ville 221; Lowell 234, 236; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 259, 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300, 301; Paterson 310, 311; Philadelphia 320, 321; PittBburg342, 345, 346; Providence 360-362; St. Louis, 372, 373; Savannah, 385. Trades Unions in at — New York 19; Atlanta 54; Augusta 67; Baltimore 76; Birmingham 91; Brockton 121; Cincinnati 155; Detroit 177; Fall River 203; Lawrence 212; Lowell 236; Memphis 247; Milwaukee 262; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275; New Orleans 292; Newark 301; Philadelphia 323; Pittsburg 346; Providence 362; St. Louis 373; Savannah 387. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22, 23; Atlanta 54, 55; Augusta 65; Baltimore 78; Birmingham 91, 93; Boston 107, 108; Brockton 121; Chicago 135, 137, 140; Cincinnati 154-156; Cleveland 164-166; Detroit 177-179; Duluth 190, 191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 212, 213; Louisville 222; Lowell 237; Memphis 247-249; Milwaukee 262-264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-276; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 292, 293; Newark 302; Pat«rson 311; Philadelphia 323; Pittsburg 343, 347; Providence 362-364; St. Louis 373, 375; Savannah 387. Exports at — New York 16; Baltimore 72; Boston 99; Cleveland 161; Duluth 185; New Orleans 289; Philadelphia 317; Savannah 382, 383. Factories, Working Conditions in, and Factory Inspection (see also "Wages," "Hours," and "Welfare Work") at — Atlanta 56; Cincinnati 155, 156; Cleveland 163, 165; Detroit 175-177; Fall River 201; Milwaukee 261; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275, 280; New Orleans 293; Pittsburg 343; Providence 362. FaU River 197-207. Female Labour (see "Women and Girls"). Fertilizer Industry: General Notes on, at — Atlanta 53, 54; Augusta 66; Baltimore 77; Savaimah 385. Hours at — Atlanta 54, 55; Savannah 388. Wages in, at — Atlanta 54, 55; Savannah 388. Finance, Municipal (see "Municipal Undertakings, Properties, and Finance"). Fish: Consumption of, at — Boston 116; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 267; New Orleans 297. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47; Baltimore 85; Boston 116; Duluth 195; Milwaukee 267; Philadelphia 336. Supply, Sources of, at — New York 47; Boston 116; Memphis 255; Philadelphia 336. INDEX TO TOWN EEPOETS. 519 Floiir Milling Industry: General Note on, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 273, 275. HoTurs of Labour in, at — Louisville 223; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276. Output of, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 270. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274. Trade Unions in, at — Minneapolis — St. Paul 275. Wages in, at — Louisville 223; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276. Flour, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cin- cinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 228, 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 296, 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Food, Drink, and Tobacco Trades (see also "Meat Packing"): General Notes on, at — New York 21; Baltimore 75-78; Chicago 139; Detroit 176, 177; Louisville 221; Milwaukee 260, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 273, 275; New Orleans 293; Pittsburg 346; Providence 362. Hours of Labour in, at— New York 22; Atlanta 55, 56; Baltimore 77, 79; Chicago 139, 141; Cincinnati 156, 157; Louisville 223, 224; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 262, 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275-277; New Orleans 294; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 347; Providence 363; St. Louis 373, 375. Output of, at — Baltimore 77; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis — St. Paul 270. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17, 20; Atlanta 52.; Baltimore 75, 77; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Duluth 188; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis- St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342, 346; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19; Baltimore 75; Chicago 135; Cincinnati 156; Louisville 222; Milwaukee 262; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275; Newark 301; Philadelphia 322; Pittsburg 343, 346; Providence 362; St. Louis 373. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22; Atlanta* 55; Baltimore 77-79; Chicago 139, 141; Cincinnati 154, 157; Detroit 179; Louisville 222-224; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 262-264; Minneapolis- St. Paul 275-277; New Orleans 293, 294; Newark 301, 303; Phila- delphia 322, 324; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347; Providence 362, 363; St. Louis 373, 375. Food Habits (see "Dietary"). Food Inspection, and Regulations as to the Sale of Food, at — New York 42^6; Atlanta 59; Augusta 69, 71; Birmingham 97; Boston 116; Brockton 118, 125; Chicago 132, 135, 149, 150; Cincinnati 153, 159; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183, 184; Duluth 194, 195; Fall River 199, 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 233; Memphis 256; Milwaukee 268, 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 280-282; Pittsburg 355; St. Louis 379; Savannah 383, 392, 393. Food, Prices (Retail) of, at— New York 41-47; Atlanta 58-60; Augusta 69-71; Baltimore 84-86; Birmingham 96-98; Boston 114-116; Brockton 124- 127- Chicago 148-151; Cincinnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170, 171; Detroit 182-184; Duluth 194-196; Fall River 205- 207- Lawrence 216-218; Louisville 228-230; Lowell 240-242; Memphis 254^256; Milwaukee 267-269; Minneapohs— St Paul 280-282; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 296-298; Newark 306, 307; Paterson 313-315; Philadelphia 333-336; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 367-369; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 391-393. Food, Regulations as to the Sale of {see "Food Inspection, &c."). oreign an^^ wis^ 5 7 16 17, 20, 21; Atlanta 48; Baltimore 76, 77; Birmingham 88, 92; Boston 105; Chicago 129, 136; Cincin- nati 155- Cleveland 162; Detroit 177; Fall River 198; Lawrence 208, 209; Louisville 221; Lowell 235, 236; Memphis 243 248- Milwaukee 260, 261, 263, 265; Minneapolis-St. Paul 271, 274; New Orleans 290, 292; Newark 301; Pater- son'309,'311; Philadelphia 321, 322; Pittsburg 344-346, 348; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 371, 373; Savannah 381. PoTfitm and Jewish Population (see also "Parent Nativity") at— Foreign ''^^f^^ ^^ j^^^^J-^g ^ t^ 62; Baltimore 73, 76; Birmingham 88; Boston 100, 102; Brockton 117; Chicago 129; Cincinnati 153- Cleveland 161, 162; Detroit 172, 173; Duluth 186; Fall River 197, 198; Lawrence 208, 209; Louis- ville 219- Lowell 231 232- Memphis 243; Milwaukee 257, 258; Minneapolis-St. Paul 270, 271; Muncie 283; New Means 289, Newark 299; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 318; Pittsburg 338; Providence 358, 360; St. Louis 370. 520 INDEX TO TOWN EEPORTS. Fuel (see '.'Coal," "Charcoal" and "Wood"). Fur Industry: Persons Occupied, Number of, etc., in, at — Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274. FumiBhing Trades-:- Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Chicago 141; Minneapolis — St. Paul 276. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Mil- waukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Wages in, at — New York 22; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 154; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276. G. Gas Rate at — New York 46; Augusta 63; Birmingham 90; Brockton 118; Cincinnati 154; Cleveland 163, 169; Detroit 175, 182; Duluth 187; Lawrence 210; LoweU 233; Muncie 284, 286; New Orleans 290; Pittsburg 340; Providence 358. Gas Supply at — New York 11; Atlanta 49; Augusta 63; Baltimore 74; Birmingham 90; Boston 103; Brockton 118; Chicago 133; Cinciu- nati 154; Cleveland 163; Detroit 175; Duluth 187; Fall River 199; Lawrence 210; Louisville 220; Lowell 233; Mem- phis 246; Milwaukee 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272; Muncie 284; New Orleans 290; Newark 300; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 319; Pittsburg 340, 346; Providence 358; St. Louis 371; Savannah 384. Gas Works: General Note on, at — New Orleans 293. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17, 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 80; Birmingham 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 142; Cin- cinnati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; LoweU 237; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; New Orleans 294; Newark 303; Paterson 312; Phila- delphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Lovus 376; Savannah 388. Wages in, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 80; Birmingham 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 142; Cincin- nati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Mem- phis 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; New Orleans 293, 294; Newark 303; Paterson 312; Phila- delphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. Geographical Situation of — • New York 1; Atlanta 48, 51; Augusta 61; Baltimore 72; Birmingham 87; Boston 99, 100; Brockton 117; Chicago 128; Cincinnati 152; Cleveland 161; Detroit 172; Duluth 185; Fall River 197; Lawrence 208; Louisville 219; Lowell 231; Memphis 243; Milwaukee 257; Minneapolis — St. Paul 270; Muncie 283; New Orleans 288; Newark 299; Paterson 308; Philadelphia 316; Pittsburg 337; Providence 357; St. Louis 370; Savannah 381. Glass Trades: General Notes on, at — Muncie 283, 284; Pittsburg 342. Hoin-s of Labour in, at — Muncie 285. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16; Baltimore 75; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; St. Louis 372. Wages in, at — • Muncie 284, 285. Groceries, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 43-46; Atlanta 58, 59; Augusta 69, 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 114, 115; Brockton 125, 126; Chicago 149, 150; Cincinnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 194, 195; Fall River 205, 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 228, 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 280, 281; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 296, 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334, 335; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 367, 368; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 391, 392. H. Harbour Labourers {see "Dock Labourers"). Hat, Cap and Millinery Trades: General Note on, at — Baltimore 75, 77. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 56; Baltimore 78; Philadelphia 322, 324. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 521 Hat, Cap and Millinery Trades— cont. Output of, at — Baltimore 77. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16; Fall River 200; Newark 300. Trade Unions in, at — Philadelphia 323. Wages in, at — Baltimore 77, 78; Philadelphia 324. Health, Public (see "Hygienic Regulations, &c. "). Historical Retrospect of — New York 1; Atlanta 49; Augusta 61; Baltimore 74; Boston 99, 100; Brockton 117; Detroit 172; Duluth 185; Louis- ville 219; Lowell 231; Memphis 243; Milwaukee 257; New Orleans 288; Newark 299; Paterson 308; Philadelphia 316, 817; Pittsburg 337; Providence 357; Savannah 381. Holidays at — New York 17; Augusta 64, 65; Baltimore 76; Boston 105, 106, 108; Chicago 134, 138, 139; Detroit 177; Duluth 191; Louisville 221, 222; Memphis 247; Milwaukee 262, 263; Newark 301; Philadelphia 322; Pittsburg 343-345. Home Work at — New York 7, 20, 21; Boston 108; Chicago 137, 138; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 165; Detroit 176; Milwaukee 261. Hosiery Manufacture: General Notes on, at — Lowell 233; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273. Hours of Labour in, at — • Lowell 237; Philadelphia 323. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Lowell 234; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; Philadelphia 32L Wages in, at — Lowell 237; Philadelphia 323. Hours of Labour at — New York 17, 22-24; Atlanta 54-56; Augusta 64-66; Baltimore 75, 76, 78-80; Birmingham 91-95; Boston 105, 107, 108; Brockton 121, 122; Chicago 134-143; Cincinnati 156, 157; Cleveland 164-167; Detroit 176-179; Duluth 189-191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 212, 213; Louisville 221-224; Lowell 237, 238; Memphis 247-250; Milwaukee 261-264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-277; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 292-294; Newark 301-303; Paterson 310-312; Philadelphia 322-324; Pittsburg 341, 344-348; Providence 363, 364; St. Louis 372-376; Savannah 383, 386-388. Housing and Rents at — New York 7, 24-41; Atlanta 49, 50, 52, 53, 56-58; Augusta 67-69; Baltimore 74, 80-84; Birmingham 89, 94-96; Boston 102, 108-114; Brockton 123, 124; Chicago 131, 143-148; Cincmnati 152, 157-159; Cleveland 162, 163, 167-169; Detroit 173, 174, 180-182; Duluth 191-194; Fall River 198, 203-205; Lawrence 208, 212, 214-216; Louisville 220, 224-228; Lowell 232, 233, 236, 238-240; Memphis 244, 250-254; Milwaukee 258, 265-267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271-273, 277-280; Muncie 283, 285, 286; New Orleans 288, 290, 294-296; Newark, 299, 300, 303-306; Paterson 308, 312, 313; Philadelphia 317, 318, 320, 325, 333; Pittsburg 339, 340, 348-354; Providence 358-360, 364-367; St. Louis 371, 376-379; Savannah 383, 388-391. Housing: Accommodation at — New York 24-41; Atlanta 52, 56-58; Augusta 62, 67, 68; Baltimore 80-84; Birmingham 89, 94-96; Boston 108-114; Brockton 123, 124; Chicago 144-148; Cincinnati 157, 158; Cleveland 167-169; Detroit 180-182; Duluth 192-194; Fall River 198, 203, 204; Lawrence 208, 214-216; Louisville 224-228; Lowell 238-240; Memphis 250-253; Mil- waukee 265-267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277-279; Muncie 285, 286; New Orleans 294-296; Newark 303-306; Paterson 312, 313; Philadelphia 318, 325-332; Pittsburg 339-341, 348-354; Providence 364-367; St. Louis 371, 376-379; Savannah 388-391. Individual Dwellings visited. Description of, at — New York 33-38; Baltimore 83, 84; Boston 110-113; Cleveland 168, 169; Louisville 226, 227; Memphis 251-253; Paterson 313; Philadelphia 330, 331; Pittsburg 351-354. Inspection of, at — New York 29, 30; Atlanta 49, 50; Augusta 69; Boston 113; Newark 306; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 328; Pittsbuig 354; St. Louis 377; Savannah 383. Lodgings, Board and, at — Baltimore, 81; Chicago 147, 148; Duluth 191; Lawrence 216; Lowell 233, 239; Mil-vjaukee 265, 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 273; Philadelphia 320; Pittsburg 341, 348-354. Ownership at — New York 40; Atlanta 57; Augusta 62, 69; Baltimore 80-82; Birmingham 96; Boston 110, 111; Brockton 124; Cincin- nati 152, 159; Cleveland 162, 167, 169; Detroit 173, 180, 182; Duluth 192; Fall River 205; Louisville 227; Lowell 240; Memphis 244, 254; Milwaukee 258, 265, 266; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 278; Muncie 286; Paterson 313; Philadelphia 317, 332, 333; Pittsburg 354; Providence 366; St. Louis 376, 378. Provision of, by Building and similar Societies and Companies- New York 40; Baltimore 82; Boston 112, 114; Chicago 144; Duluth 192; Fall River 205; Louisville 227; Memphis 254; Milwaukee 266; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278; Philadelphia 328, 330, 332, 333; Providence 3fiv 622 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Housing — cont. Provision of, by Employers, at — Atlanta 52, 53; Augusta 68; Birmingham 96, 97; Chicago 131; Lawrence 212, 214, 216; Lo-well 236, 238, 239; Pittsburg 354; Providence 360. Purchase Systems {see also "Provision of, by Building and Similar Societies and Companies"), at — New York 40, 41; Cleveland 162, 167, 169; Detroit 182; Duluth 192; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278; Muncie 286; Paterson 313; Pittsburg 354; Providence 366; St. Louis 378. Regulations at — New York 25, 27-30; Baltimore 81, 82; Boston 111, 112; Chicago 144r-147; Cincinnati 158; Fall River 205; Louisville 220; Memphis 253, 254; Milwaukee 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 279; Newark 304-306; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 328, 329; Pittsburg 350; St. Louis 377. Statistics of, at — • New York 24, 25, 29, 30; Atlanta 58; Augusta 69; Baltimore 74, 80, 82; Birmingham 96; Boston 110, 114; Brockton 124; Chicago 144, 147; Cincinnati 159; Cleveland 168; Detroit 180; Duluth 192; Fall River 205; Louisville 224, 227, 228; Lowell 238, 240; Memphis 250, 254; Milwaukee 265-267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277, 278; Muncie 286; New Orleans 290, 294; Newark 300, 303; Paterson 312, 313; Philadelphia 325, 326, 328, 332; Pittsburg 348, 349, 354; Providence 366; St. Louis 376. Sub-letting at — Baltimore 81, 83; Detroit 180, 181; Duluth 192; Louisville 225; Memphis 252; Milwaukee 258, 266; Paterson 313; Phila- delphia 328; Pittsburg 350; Providence 366; St. Louis 377. Hygienic Regulations, Administration and Practices, and Sanitary Conditions (see also "Housing"). New York 9-11, 14; Atlanta 49, 50; Augusta 62, 63, 69; Baltimore 73, 74; Birmingham 89; Boston 101, 103, 110, 112, 113; Brockton 118; Chicago 131, 132, 137, 138, 146, 149; Cincinnati 153; Cleveland 163, 168; Detroit 174, 176, 181; Duluth 187, 193, 194; Fall River 198, 199; Lawrence 210; Louisville 225, 227; Lowell 233, 239; Memphis 243, 254; Milwaukee 258, 259, 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 272, 278, 279, 281; Muncie 283, 284; New Orleans 290, 295; Philadelphia 318; Pittsburg 340, 349, 350; Providence 359, 367; St. Louis 371, 376, 377; Savannah 383, 384, 389, 391. Immigration into — New York 5; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73, 76, 77; Brockton 117; Chicago 129; Cincinnati 153, 158; Cleveland 162; Detroit 173; Duluth 191; Pall River 197, 198; Lawrence 208, 209; Lowell 231, 232; Milwaukee 258; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; New Orleans 289; Newark 299; Paterson 308, 309; Philadelphia 318; Pittsburg 338, 348; St. Louis 370, 371. Imports at — New York 16; Baltimore 72; Boston 99; Cleveland 161; Duluth 185; Milwaukee 257; New Orleans 289; Philadelphia 317; Savannah 382. Industrial Diseases at — Birmingham 96. Infant Mortality at — New York 9; Atlanta 50; Augusta 62; Boston 103; Brockton 118; Chicago 132; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 198; Lawrence 209; Lowell 231; Memphis 244; Milwaukee 258, 266; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272; Muncie 283; Philadel- phia 319; Providence 359; Savannah 384. Insurance, Workmen's, and Benefits {see "Accident Insurance," "Old Age Pensions," "Sick Funds," and "Unemployment Funds"). Iron and Steel Industry {see also "Engineering and Metal Trades"): General Notes on, at — Baltimore 76; Birmingham 87, 88, 91; Chicago 128, 136; Cleveland, 161, 164; Muncie 283; Pittsburg 337, 342, 343, 345. Hours of Labour in, at — Birmingham 91, 93; Chicago 140; Cleveland 164, 166; Pittsburg 345, 347. Output of, at — Birmingham 87; Chicago 128; Pittsburg 337. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Baltimore 76; Chicago 136; Milwaukee 259; Pittsburg 337, 345. Trade Unions in, at — Cleveland 164; Pittsburg 343. Wages in, at — Birmingham 91, 93; Chicago 136, 140; Cleveland 164, 166; Pittsburg 343, 345, 347, 348. J. Jewellery and Gold and Silver Trades: General Notes on, at — Newark 301; Providence 358, 361, 362, 364. Hours of Labour in, at — Newark 301, 302; Providence 363. INDEX TO TOWN EEPORTS. 523 Jewellery and Gold and Silver Trades— co7i£. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Providence 360, 361. Wages in, at — Newark 302; Providence 363, 364. Jewish Dietary {see "Dietary of Foreign and Jewish Nationalities"). Jewish Labour (see "Foreign and Jewish Labour"). Jewish Population (see "Foreign and Jewish Population"). Kerosene, Prices (Retail) of, at— New York 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cin- cinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. "Kosher" Meat (see "Dietary of Foreign and Jewish Nationalities"). Labour and Employment Bureaux at — Baltimore 76; Boston 106; Detroit 180; Fall River 203; Milwaukee 262; Pittsburg 342. Labour, Foreign and Jewish (sec "Foreign and Jewish Labour"). Labour Legislation — Atlanta 56; Augusta 64; Boston 108; Chicago 143; Detroit 176; Milwaukee 259, 261; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274; New Orleans 293; Paterson 310, 311; Providence 362. Labourers and Unskilled Workpeople (see also "Dock Labourers"): General Notes on, at — Atlanta 48, 50, 54; Augusta 64, 65; Baltimore 75-78; Birmingham 88, 90, 91; Boston 108; Chicago 129, 136, 137, 146; Cleveland 162, 165; Detroit 173, 175, 177; Duluth 188; Memphis 247, 248; Milwaukee 260, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 274; New Orleans 290, 292, 295; Newark 301; Paterson 309, 311; Pittsburg 342, 345; Savannah 381, 386. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 22, 23; Atlanta 54, 55; Baltimore 78-80; Birmingham 91-94; Boston 107; Brockton 121; Chicago 134, 136, 139-142; Cincinnati 156; Cleveland 165-167; Detroit 177-179; Duluth 189-191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 212, 213; Louisville 222, 223; Lowell 237; Memphis 249, 250; Milwaukee 263, 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276, 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 293, 294; Newark 302, 803; Paterson 311, 312; Philadelphia 322-324; Pittsburg 345, 347, 348: Providence 363, 364; St. Louis 372, 373, 375, 376; Savannah 386-388. Persons Occupied, Number of, at — New York 16, 17; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133, 136; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 175; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Mil- waukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions of, at — Brockton 121; New Orleans 292; Newark 301; Pittsburg 344; St. Louis 372. Wages of, at — NewYork22,23; Atlanta54, 55; Baltimore 78-80; Birmingham 88, 90-94; Boston 107, 108; Brockton 121; Chicago 136, 140-142; Cincinnati 156; Cleveland 165-167; Detroit 178, 179; Duluth 189-191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 222, 223; Lowell 237; Memphis 249, 250; Milwaukee 263,264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 276,277; Muncie 284,285; New Orleans 292-294; Newark 301-303; Paterson 311, 312; Philadelphia 323-325; Pittsburg 345, 347, 348; Providence 363, 364; St. Louis 372, 373, 375, 376; Savannah 386-388. Lamb (see "Mutton and Lamb"). Laundries: Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 56. Persons Occupied in, at — Duluth 188. Lawrence 208-218. Leather Trades (see also "Boot and Shoe Trades" and "Tanning"): General Notes on, at — Louisville 221; Milwaukee 259, 260; Newark 302; Pittsburg 342. Hours of Labour in, at — Louisville 223; Milwaukee 264; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 324. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16; Baltimore 75; Boston 105; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Duluth 188; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Mil- waukee 259, 260; Newark 300; Philadelphia 321; St. Louis 372; Savannah 372. 524 INDEX TO TOWN EEPOETS. Leather Trades — cont. Trade Unions in, at — Milwaukee 262; Newark 301. Wages in, at — Louisville 223; Milwaukee 264, 265; Newark 301, 303; Philadelphia 324. Legislation, Labour (see "Labour Legislation"). Libraries and Eeading Rooms, at — New York 10, 13; Baltimore, 74; Boston 103; Chicago 133; Detroit 175; Lawrence 210; Louisville 220, 222, 224; Lowell 233; Memphis 246; Newark 300; Philadelphia 319; Pittsburg 341; Providence 362; Savannah 384. Licensed Premises (see "Saloons"). Lighting {see "Electric Lighting and Power Supply" and "Gas Supply"). Lithography: Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 17. Live Stock Markets (see "Meat Packing"). Local Taxation (see "Taxation"). Lodgings (see "Housing"). Longshoremen (see "Dock Labourers"). Louisville, 219-230. Lowell, 231-242. Lumber and Timber Trades: General Note on, at — Augusta 64; Duluth 188, 189; Memphis 248; Savannah 383. Hours of Labour in, at — Duluth 190, 191; Louisville 223. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Augusta 64; Duluth 188. Wages in, at — Augusta 65; Duluth 190; Louisville 223. H. Machine Construction (see "Engineering Trades"). Markets at — New York 42; Baltimore 74, 84, 85; Birmingham 96, 98; Boston 103, 114; Brockton 124; Cincinnati 159; Cleveland 170; Fall River 205; Lawrence 216; Loiiisville 228; Memphis 254; New Orleans 291, 296; Newark 306; Philadelphia 334; Pittsburg 355; St. Louis 379; Savannah 384, 392. Meat: Consumption of, at — Atlanta 59; Augusta 69, 71; Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cleveland 170, 171; Detroit 183, 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 218; Louisville 229; Lowell 242; Memphis 254, 255; Milwaukee 269; Mmneapolis— St. Paul 281, 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 307; Paterson 314; Pittsburg 356; Provi- dence 368; Savannah 393. Inspection of, and Regulations as to Sale of, at — New York 46; Augusta 71; Brockton 118; Chicago 135, 150; Cincmnati 153; Detroit 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Louisville 229; Lowell 233; Memphis 256; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis — St. Paul 282; Pittsbiu-g 355; Savannah 392, 393. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 46, 47; Atlanta 59, 60; Augusta 71; Baltimore 85, 86; Birmingham 98; Boston 116; Brockton 126, 127; Chicago 151; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 171; Detroit 184; Duluth 195, 196; Fall River 206, 207, Lawrence 218; Louisville 230; Lowell 242; Memphis 256; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 296, 298; Newark 307; Paterson 315; Philadelphia 335, 336; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368, 369; St. Louis 380; Savannah 393. Regulations as to Sale of (see "Inspection, &c." above). Supply, Sources of, at — New York 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 71; Baltimore 84, 86; Birmingham 96, 97; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 171; Detroit 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 218; Louisville 229; Lowell 242; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Pater- son 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 393. Meat Packing and slaughtering: General Note on, at — Chicago 128, 131, 134-136; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 165. Hours of Labour in, at — Chicago,135, 136, 141; Cleveland 166; Louisville 223. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Chicago 136; Cleveland 165; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274. Trade Unions in, at — Chicago 135, 136, ges in, at — Chicago 134-136, 141; Cleveland 166; Louisville 223. INDEX TO TOWN EEPOETS. 625 ^*» Medical Inspection of School Children: Detroit 174; Milwaukee 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272. Memphis 243-256. Metal and Engineering Trades (see "Engineering and Metal Trades"). Milk, Prices (Retail) of, at— New York 45, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 125, 126; Chicago 150; Cmcmnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 194, 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334, 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 392. Milling, Com and Flour (see "Flour Milling"). Milwaukee 257-269. Minimum Wage Conditions (see also "Trade Agreements"): In Municipal Contracts at Philadelphia 323. Mining Industry: General notes on, at — Birmingham 87, 88, 90-92, 97; Pittsburg 337, 338, 344. Hours of Labour in, at — Birmingham 91, 93; Pittsburg 344, 347. Output of, at — Birmingham 87; Pittsburg 337. Trade Unions in, at — Pittsburg, 343-345. Wages in, at — Birmingham 90-93, 97; Pittsburg 343, 344, 347. Minneapolis— St. Paul 270-282. Mortality Rates (see "Deaths" and "Infant Mortality"). Multiple Stores at — New York 41, 42; Altanta 59; Augusta 69, 71; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 96; Boston 114; Brockton 124-126; Chicago 130, 148; Cincinnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 182; Duluth 194; Fall River 205; Louisville 228; Memphis 254; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 280, 281; Muncie 286; Newark 306; Paterson 313; Philadelphia 333; Pittsburg 355; Providence 367; St. Louis 379. Muncie 283-287. Municipal and Public Employees: General Notes on, at—; Birmingham. 93; Cincinnati 156; Milwaukee 263. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 78, 79; Birmingham 93, 94; Boston 105, 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 157; Cleveland 165, 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Memphis 249, 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 294; Newark 302, 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 3£c3. Trade Unions, at — New York 19. Wages of, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 78, 79; Birmingham 93, 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincinnati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Memphis 248-250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 294; Newark 302, 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. Municipal Taxation (see "Taxation"). Municipal Undertakings, Properties, and Finance at— New York 11-15; Atlanta 49-51; Augusta 63; Baltimore 74; Birmingham 90; Boston 103, 104; Brockton 118; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 154, 156; Cleveland 163, 166; Detroit 175, 181; Duluth 187; Fall River 198, 199; Lawrence 210; Louisville 220; Lowell 233, 234; Memphis 245-248; Milwaukee 259, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 279; New Orleans 290, 291; Newark 300, 302; Philadelphia 319, 320; Pittsburg 339-341, 346; Providence 358, 359; St. Louis 371; Savannah 383, 384. Musical Instrument Trades: Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — New York, 17, 18, 22. Mutton and Lamb: Consumption of, at — Augusta 69, 71; Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cleveland 171; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Louis- ville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Newark 307; Pittsburg 356. Prices (Retail) of, at— New York 47; Atlanta 60; Augusta 71; Baltimore 86; Birmingham 98; Boston 116; Brockton 127; Chicago 151; Cincm- nati 160- Cleveland 171; Detroit 184; Duluth 196; Fall River 207; Lawrence 218; Louisville 230; Lowell 242; Mem- phis 256; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 298; Newark 307; Paterson 315; Philadelphia 335, 336; Pittsburg 356; Providence 369; St. Louis 380; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Detroit 184; Lowell 242; Memphis 255. 526 INDEX TO TOWN EEPOETS. N. Negro Labour at — New York 8; Atlanta 48, 54; Augusta 62-66; Baltimore 76-78; Birmingham 88, 90-92; Boston 105; Cleveland 162; Louisville 221; Memphis 244, 247-249; New Orleans 290, 292, 293; Philadelphia 321-323; Pittsburg 338, 339, 344; St. Louis 371; Savannah 381, 385-388. Negro Population at — New York 8; Atlanta 48; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73, 80; Birmingham 88; Boston 100; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 172; Louisville 219; Memphis 244; New Orleans 289; Newark 299; Pittsburg 338; St. Louis 371; Savannah 381. New Orleans 288-298. New York 1^7. Newark 299-307. Occupations, Numbers engaged in various, at — New York 16, 17, 20; Atlanta 52; Augusta 63; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133 Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164, 165; Detroit 176; Duluth 188; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221 Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 259, 260; Minneapolis-St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300 Paterson 310; Philadelphia 320, 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Occupations, Wages, and Hours of Labour at — New York 15-24; Atlanta 51-56; Augusta 63-67; Baltimore 74-80; Birmingham 90-94; Boston 101, 104-108; Brockton 119-123; Chicago 133-143; Cincinnati 154-157; Cleveland 164-167; Detroit 175-180; Duluth 188-191; Fall River 199-203; Lawrence 210-214; Louisville 220-224; Lowell 234^-238; Memphis 246-250; Milwaukee 259-265; Minne- apolis-St. Paul 273-277; Muncie284, 285; New Orleans 291-294; Newark 300-303; Paterson 310-312; Philadelphia 320-325; Pittsburg 342-348; Providence 359-364; St. Louis 372-376; Savannah 385-388. Oil, Prices of {see "Kerosene"). Oil and Grease Industry: Wages in, at — Cleveland 164. Old Age Pensions: Boston 103, 108; Chicago 142, 143; Providence 362. Overcrowding {see "Housing" and "Population Congestion"). P. Paper Trades: General Note on, at — Lawrence 210. Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 56. Persons occupied. Number of, in, at — New York 16, 20; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Parent Nativity at — New York 5, 17, 20; Atlanta 48; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73; Boston 102; Chicago 129; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 172; Duluth 186; Louisville 219; Lowell 231, 232; Milwaukee 257; Newark 299; Philadelphia 318; Pittsburg 338; Providence 360, 361. Parks, Playgrounds and Open Spaces at — New York 13; Atlanta49; Baltimore74; Birmingham 89; Boston 100-103; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 154; Cleveland 163; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 199; Lawrence 208, 210; LouisvUle 220; Lowell 233; Memphis 245; Mil- waukee 258, 259; Minneapolis-St. Paul 272; Newark 300; Philadelphia 319, 325; Pittsburg 341, 355; Providence 357; St. Louis 371; Savannah 382. Passengers, Number of, arriving at Ports of — New York 16; Baltimore 72; Boston 99; Philadelphia 317. Paterson 308-315. Pensions, Old Age {see "Old Age Pensions"). Philadelphia 316-336. Pittsburg 337-356. Playgrounds {see "Parks, Playgrounds and Open Spaces"). Poor Relief {see also "Charities"): New York 10-11; Atlanta 51; Boston 103; Brockton 118; Lawrence 214; Providence 359. Population of — New York 1-3, 5-8; Atlanta 48; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73; Birmingham 87, 88; Boston 101, 102; Brockton 117, 123; Chicago 129; Cincinnati 152, 153; Cleveland 161; Detroit 172, 173; Duluth 186; Fall River 197, 198; Lawrence 208, 209; Louisville 219; Lowell 231, 232; Memphis 243; Milwaukee 257, 258; Minneapolis-St. Paul 270, 271; Muncie 283; New Orleans 289, 295; Newark 299-301; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 317, 318; Pittsburg 337, 338; Providence 357; St. Louis 370; Savannah 381. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 527 Population, Congestion of, at — New York 6, 29-31; Augusta 68; Baltimore 82; Boston 102; Chicago 144, 146-148; Cincinnati 158; Detroit 180; Dulutli 193; Lawrence 214; Louisville 227; Lowell 239, 240; Memphis 252; Milwaukee 258, 265-267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278; New Orleans 295; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 318, 328; Pittsburg 339, 348, 349; Providence 366, 367; St. Louis 376. Population, Foreign and Jewish, of— (see also "Parent Nativity"). New York 5-8; Altanta 48; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73, 76; Birmingham 88; Boston, 100, 102; Brockton 117; Chicago 129; Cincinnati 153; Cleveland 161, 162; Detroit 172, 173; Duluth 186; Fall River 197, 198; Lawrence 208, 209; Louisville 219; Lowell 231, 232; Memphis 243; Milwaukee 257, 258; Minneapohs— St. Paul 270, 271; Muncie 283; New Orleans 289; Newark 299; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 318; Pittsburg 338; Providence 358, 360; St. Louis 370. Population, Negro at — New York 8; Atlanta 48; Augusta 62; Baltimore 73, 80; Birmingham 88; Boston 100; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 172; Louisville 219; Memphis 244; New Orleans 289 ; Newark 299; Pittsburg 338 ; St. Louis 371; Savannah 381. Pork: Consumption of, at — Atlanta 59; Augusta 69; Baltimore 86; Brockton 126; Cleveland 171; Detroit 183, 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 218; Louisville 229; Memphis 254, 255; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis — St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; Newark 307; Pittsburg 356; Savannah 393. Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47; Atlanta 60; Augusta 71; Baltimore 86; Birmingham 98; Boston 116; Brockton 127; Chicago 151; Cin- cinnati 160; Cleveland 171; Detroit 184; Duluth 196; Fall River 207; Lawrence 218; Louisville 230; Lowell 242; Memphis 256; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 298; Newark 307; Paterson 315; Philadelphia 336; Pittsburg 356; Providence 369; St. Louis 380; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Louisville 229; Lowell 242; Memphis 255; Newark 306; Pittsburg 356; Savannah 393. Potatoes, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 45, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 334, 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Poultry, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47; Baltimore 85; Boston 116; New Orleans 297; Philadelphia 336 . Consumption of, at — Detroit 183; Memphis 255; New Orleans 297; Paterson 314. Power, Electric, Supply {see "Electric Lighting and Power Supply"). "Premium" System (see "Bonus System"). Prices (Retail) at — New York 41-47; Atlanta 58-60; Augusta 69-71; Baltimore 84-86; Birmingham 96-98; Boston 114-116; Brockton 124-127; Chicago 148-151; Cincinnati 159, 160; Cleveland 170, 171; Detroit 182-184; Duluth 194-196; Fall River 205-207; Lawrence 216-218; Louisville 228-230; Lowell 240-242; Memphis 254-256; Milwaukee 267-269; Min- neapolis—St. Paul 280-282; Muncie 286, 287; New Orleans 296-298; Newark 306, 307; Paterson 313-315; Phila- delphia 333-336; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 367-369; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 391-393. Printing and Allied Trades: General Notes on, at — Baltimore 77; Boston 108; Chicago 138; Lawrence 212; Lowell 236; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; Muncie 284; Pittsburg 346. Hoiu-s of Labour in, at — New York 22; Atlanta 55; Augusta 65, 66; Baltimore 79; Birmingham 93; Boston 105, 107, 108; Brockton 121; Chicago 138, 141; Cincinnati 157; Cleveland 166; Detroit 177, 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 221, 223; Lowell 237; Memphis 247, 249; Milwaukee 262, 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275, 276; Muncie 285; New Orleans 293, 294; Newark 301, 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 322, 324; Pittsburg 346, 347; Providence 363; St. Louis 373, 375; Savannah 387. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— New York 16, 17, 20; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133, 138; Cin- cinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Duluth 188; Pall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291;. Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at New York 18, 19; Atlanta 54; Augusta 67; Baltimore 75, 77; Birmingham 92; Brockton 121; Chicago 138; Cincinnati 156- Detroitl77; FallRiver203; Lawrence212; Louisville 222; Memphis247; Milwaukee 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275; Muncie 284; Newark 301; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 323; Pittsburg 343, 346. 528 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Printing and Allied Trades — cont. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22; Atlanta 55; Auguata 65, 66; Baltimore 79; Birmingham 92, 93; Boston 107, 108; Brockton 121; Chicago 138, 141; Cincinnati 154, 157; Detroit 177, 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 212, 213; Louis- ville 222, 223; Lowell 237; Memphis 247,249; Milwaukee 262-264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275,276; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 293, 294; Newark 301, 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 323, 324; Pittsburg 343, 346, 347, 348; Providence 363; St. Louis 373, 375; Savannah 387. Professional, Domestic and Personal, and Hotel and Restaurant Service and Agricultural Piusuits: General Notes on, at — Atlanta 52; Augusta 64; Baltimore 76. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 20; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Profit Sharing and Industrial Co-partnership at (see also "Bonus Systems") — Boston 114; Chicago 142, 143; Fall River 203; Louisville 222. Prohibition at — Atlanta 51; Augusta 63; Birmingham 89; Brockton 118; Fall River 199; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 293; Savannah 384, 385. Providence 357-369. Provident Societies {see also "Accident Insurance," "Old Age Pensions," "Sick Funds," and "Unemployment Funds") at— Providence 362. R. Racial Feeling at — Atlanta 48; Augusta 62, 66; Baltimore 80; Birmingham 88, 91, 92, 95; Chicago 136; Louisville 220, 224; Memphis 244, 250; New Orleans 290; Pittsburg 351; Savannah 381, 392. Railway Coimections of: — New York 1; Atlanta 48; Augusta 61; Baltimore 72; Boston 99, 109; Chicago 128, 139; Cincinnati 152; Detroit 172 Duluth, 185; Fall River 197; Lawrence 208; Louisville 219; Memphis 245; Milwaukee 257; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270; Newark 299, 300; Philadelphia 316; Pittsburg 337, 340; Providence 357; St. Louis 370; Savannah 381. Railway Works: General Notes on, at — ■ Augusta 61; Baltimore 76; Birmingham 88, 91; Chicago 136,137; Memphis 247; Milwaukee 262,263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274, 275; St. Louis 373; Savannah 385. Hours of Labour in, at — Augusta 64, 65; Birmingham 93; Chicago 140,141; Louisville 222; Memphis 249; Milwaukee 262-264; Mirmeapolis — St. Paul 276; St. Louis 373, 375. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Augusta 61, 64; Chicago 137; Louisville 221; Memphis 247; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; St. Louis 373. Trade Unions in, at — Atlanta 54; Milwaukee 262. Wages in, at — Augusta 65; Birmingham 93; Chicago 137, 140, 141; Louisville 222; Memphis 249; Milwaukee 262-264; Minneapolis St. Paul 275, 276; St. Louis 373, 375. Rates (see "Taxation," "Gas Rates," and "Water Rates"). Rente at — New York 25, 31-41; Atlanta 58; Augusta 68, 69; Baltimore 81-84; Birmingham 95, 96; Boston 109-114; Brockton 123, 124; Chicago 145, 148; Cincinnati 158, 159; Cleveland 168, 169; Detroit 181, 182; Duluth 192, 194; Fall River 204, 205; Lawrence 215, 216; Louisville 225-228; Lowell 239, 240; Memphis 251-254; Milwaukee 267 Minneapolis— St. Paul 277,279,280; Muncie 286; New Orleans 295, 296; Newark 304, 305; Paterson 312, 313; Philadelphia 326-332; Pittsburg 343, 349-355; Providence 365, 366; St. Louis 377-379; Savannah 389-391. Retail Prices at — New York 41-47; Atlanta 58-60; Augusta 69-71; Baltimore 84-86; Birmingham 96-98; Boston 114-116; Brockton 124-127; Chicago 148-151; Cincinnati 159-160; Cleveland 170-171; Detroit 182-184; Duluth 194-196; Fall River 205-207; Lawrence 216-218; Louisville 228-230; Lowell 240-242; Memphis 254-256; Milwaukee 267-269; Min- neapolis— St. Paul 280-282; Muncie 286-287; New Orleans 296-298; Newark 306,307; Paterson 313-315; Philar delphia 333-336; Pittsburg 355, 356; Providence 367, 368; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 391-393. Roads and Streets, Construction, Maintenance and Cleaning of. Men employed in: General Notes on, at — Birmingham 93; Cincinnati 156; Detroit 175; Duluth 187; Lawrence 210, 212; Memphis 248; Milwaukee 259; Min- neapolis—St. Paul 272; Newark 302; Pittsburg 346; St. Louis 371, 374; Savannah 382. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 529 Roads and Streets, Construction, Maintenance and Cleaning of, Men employed in~cont Hours of Labour at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 79; Birmingham 93; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincin- nati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Pall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Mem- phis 249, 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 293, 294; Nswark 302, 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 374, 376; Savannah 388. Trade Unions — Newark 302; St. Louis 374. Wages of, at — 1^^ Ui, «u New York 23, 24; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 79; Birmingham 93; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincin- nati 156, 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Memphis 248-250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 293, 294; Newark 302, 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 234; Pittsburg 348; Providence 364; St. Louis 374, 376; Savannah 388. Saloons, at — Atlanta 51 ; Augusta 63 ; Chicago 131, 139, 148 ; Duluth 191 ; Fall River 199 ; Memphis 246 ; Milwaukee 267 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271-273; New Orleans 293; Philadelphia 320; Pittsburg 338, 341, 355; Savannah 384, 385. Sanitary Conditions {see "Housing" and "Hygienic Measures"). Sanitary Wares, Manufacture of: Wages, Hours, &c., in, at — ■ Louisville 222. St. Louis 370-380. Savannah 381-393. Sawmills (see "Woodworking"' and "Lumber"). Segregation of Foreign Races: New York 6-8, 31; Atlanta 56, 58; Augusta 67; Baltimore 80; Boston 110, 111; Brockton 124; Chicago 131,144; Detroit 173, 180; Duluth 192; Fall River 198; Lawrence 209, 215, 216; Louisville 224; Lowell 232, 240; Memphis 244; Mil- waukee 258; New Orleans 288; Philadelphia 318, 321, 326; Pittsburg 348, 355; Providence 358, 365; St. Louis 371; Savannah 388, 389. Shipbuilding Trades: General Notes on, at — Baltimore 76; Cleveland 165; Detroit 172; Philadelphia 320; Savannah 385. Hours of Labour in, at — Baltimore 78; Detroit 178; Savannah 387. Organisation in, at — New York 19. Output — Detroit 172. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Baltimore 76; Cleveland 165; Detroit 176. Vessels built at — Baltimore 76. Wages in, at — Baltimore 78; Detroit 177, 178; Savannah 387. Shipping at — New York 16; Baltimore 72, 74; Boston 99; Cleveland 161, 165; Duluth 185; New Orleans 289; Philadelphia 317; Savan- nah 381, 382. Shoemakmg {see "Boot and Shoe Industry"). Sick Funds and Benefits at— Brockton 121: Chicago 142, 143; Fall River 201; Milwaukee 258; Providence 362; Savannah 387. Silk Trade: Genera) Note on, at— Paterson 308-311. Hours of Labour in, at — Paterson 310, 311. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Paterson 310: Philadelphia 321. Wages in, at — Paterson 310, 311. Slaughterhouses (see also "Meat Packing"). New York 46; Augusta 71; Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Cincinnati 160; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Memphis 256; New Orleans 297: Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 355. Small Holdings at— Lawrence 215; Memphis 243. 93294— S. Doc. 22, 62-1 40 530 INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. Social and Charitable Societies and Settlements {see "Charities and Social Societies and Settlements"). Spirit Distilleries {see "Distilling Industry"). Steel Works {see "Iron and Steel Works"). Stevedores {see "Dock Labourers"). Streets, Arrangement and Features of, of — New York 12, 13, 30, 31; Atlanta 49; Augusta 61, 67; Baltimore 74; Birmingham 96; Boston 100, 103; Brockton 117; Chicago 129-131, 133; Cleveland 163; Detroit 173, 174, 180; Duluth 186; Fall River 199; Lawrence 208; Louisville 220; Lowell 231, 239; Memphis 245; Milwaukee 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 272, 278; Muncie 283; New Orleans 288, 295; Newark 299; Paterson 308; Philadelphia 316, 318; Providence 357; Savannah 381, 382. Streets and Roads, Construction, Maintenance, Cleaning of and 'Men Employed {see "Roads and Streets, Construction, Mainte- nance and Cleaning of"). Sub-contracting at — New York 23, 24; Baltimore 76; Boston 108; Chicago 137, 138; Cleveland 165; Detroit 176; Philadelphia 328. Sugar, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46; Atlanta 58, 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 125, 126; Chicago 150; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 228, 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 296, 297; Newark 806; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 835; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 379, 380; Savannah 392. T. Tailoring {see "Clothing Trades"). Tanning Trade: General Notes on, at — Louisville 221; Milwaukee 259, 260. Hours of Labour in, at — Louisville 223; Milwaukee 264; Newark 303. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — Milwaukee 259, 260, 265. Wages in, at — Louisville 223; Milwaukee 264, 265; Newark 303. Tapestry and Curtain Industry: Wages and Hours in, at — Philadelphia 323. Taxation at — New York 14, 15, 39; Atlanta 50, 51; Augusta 68, 69; Baltimore 74, 82; Birmingham 90; Boston 103, 104, 113; Brockton 118; Chicago 148; Cleveland 161; Detroit 182; Fall River 199; Lawrence 210; Louisville 220, 226; Lowell 234; Memphis 246, 254; Milwaukee 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 278-280; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 320, 332; Providence 358, 359; Savannah 384, 385. Tea, Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 44, 46; Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Baltimore 85; Birmingham 97; Boston 115; Brockton 126; Chicago 150; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 170; Detroit 183; Duluth 195; Fall River 205, 206; Lawrence 217; Louisville 229; Lowell 241; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 268; Minneapolis— St. Paul 281; Muncie 287; New Orleans 296, 297; Newark 306; Paterson 314; Philadelphia 335; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368; St. Louis 380; Savannah 392. Technical Education at — Atlanta 51; Augusta 62; Chicago 133, 143; Detroit 175; Duluth 187; Fall River 199; Lowell 234; Memphis 244, 247; Milwaukee, 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273; Newark 301; Pittsburg 338, 339, 341. Tenements {see "Housing"). Textile Trades: General Notes on, at — Atlanta 52, 53; Augusta 61, 65; Baltimore 75; Birmimgham 87; Fall River 199-201; Lawrence 208, 209, 211, 212; Lowell 233, 235, 236; New Orieans 293; Paterson 308-311; Providence 358, 360, 364, Hours of Labour in, at — Atlanta 55, 56; Augusta 64-66; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Lowell 237, 238; New Orleans 293; Paterson 310, 311; Philadelphia 322-324; Providence 363. Output of, at-^ Fall River 199; Lawrence 210; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16; Atlanta 52; Augusta 61; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati, 155; Cleveland 164; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234, 235; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Spindles and Looms, Number of, in, at — Fall River 200. INDEX TO TOWN EEPOETS. 531 Textile Trades — cont. Trade Unions in, at — Wagfs'i^ Jt- "' '^*^^°'^ ^^' ^^' ^^" ^^^" ^°^'' ^^^''""'^ ^^^' ^°^'" -^^' Philadelphia 323; Providence 361. Atlanta 53, 55; Augusta 64-66; Fall River 201-203; Lawrence 213, 214; Lowell 235-238; New Orleans 293; Paterson 310, 311; Philadelphia 323, 324; Providence 361, 363, 364. Theatre and Music Trades: Organisation in, at — New York 19; Philadelphia 322. Timber Trade (see "Lumber and Timber Trades"). Tobacco Trades: General Notes on, at — New York 21; Detroit 176, 177; Louisville 221; New Orleans 293; Pittsburg 346. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22; Louisville 224; Philadelphia 324; St. Louis 375. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— New York 16, 17, 20; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19; Boston 106. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22; Boston 107; Cincinnati 154; Detroit 179; Louisville 224; New Orleans 293; Philadelphia 324; St. Louis 375. Trade Agreements at — New York 19, 20, 23; Atlanta 54; Augusta 65, 67; Baltimore 75-77; Boston 106; Brockton 120; Chicago 134, 138-140; Cincinnati 156; Detroit 177; Fall River 201; Louisville 222; Memphis 247; Milwaukee 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 275; Muncie 284; Philadelphia 322; Pittsburg 343, 344, 346; Providence 362; St. Louis 373. Trade and Transportation (see also "Commerce"): General Notes on, at — Augusta 65; Baltimore 75, 76, 78; Chicago 139, 140; Cleveland 165; Duluth 188; Louisville 221; Memphis 248; Mil- waukee 263; New Orleans 291, 292; Pittsburg 342, 346; Savannah 386. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 17, 22; Boston 105, 107; Chicago 139, 140, 141; Cleveland 165, 167; Duluth 190, 191; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 263, 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; New Orleans 292, 294; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 346, 347; Providence 364; Savannah 386, 388. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133, 139; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 164; Duluth 188; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246, 247; Milwaukee 260; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321; Pittsburg 342, 346; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19; Boston 106, 108; Chicago 140; Duluth 191; New Orleans 291, 292; Providence 362; Savannah 386. Wages in, at — New York 22; Baltimore 78, 79; Boston 107, 108; Chicago 139, 140, 141; Cleveland 165, 167; Duluth 190, 191; Memphis 248, 250; Milwaukee 263, 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; New Orleans 291, 292, 294; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 346, 347; Savannah 386, 388. Trade Unions at — Nc-7 York 18-20, 24; Atlanta 53, 54; Augusta 67; Baltimore 75-77; Birmingham 91, 92; Boston 106; Brockton 120, 121; Chicago 133-138, 140; Cincinnati 155, 156; Cleveland 164; Detroit 177; Duluth 191; Fall River 201, 203; Lawrence 212; Louisville 222; Lowell 235, 236; Memphis 247, 248; Milwaukee 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274, 275; Muncie 284; New Orelans 291, 292; Newark 301, 302; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 322, 323; Pittsburg 343-346; Providence 361, 362; St. Louis 372, 373; Savannah 386, 387. Trading Stamps at — New York 42; Boston 114. Tramway and Railway Employees: General Notes on, at — Baltimore 78; Birmingham 93; Boston 108; Cleveland 166; Detroit 179; Memphis 248; Milwaukee 263; Minneapolis — St. Paul 276; New Orleans 293; Providence 364. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 78, SO; Birmingham 93; Boston 107, 108; Brockton 122; Chicago 140, 142; Cincinnati 156, 157; Detroit 179; Duluth 190, 191; Pall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 238; Memphis 248; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 284; New Orleans 294; Newark 302; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 346; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. Number of, at — New York 17. Trade Unions of, at — Philadelphia 322. 532 INDEX TO TOWN REPOETS Tramway and Railway Employees — cont. • Wages of, at — New York 23, 24; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 78, 80; Birmingham 93; Boston 107, 108; Brockton 122; Chicago 140, 142; Cincinnati 156, 157; Cleveland 165, 166; Detroit 179; Duluth 190, 191; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 238; Memphis 248; Milwaukee 263; MinneapoKs— St. Paul 276, 277; Muncie 284; New Orleans 294; Newark 302; Paterson 311; Philadelphia 324; Pittsburg 346; Providence 364; St. Louis 374, 376; Savannah 388. Tramway and Railway Fares — New York 11, 39; Atlanta49; Augusta63; Baltimore80; Birmingham 90, 95; Boston 103; Chicago 133; Cleveland 163; Detroit 175; Duluth 187; Fall River 203; Lawrence 208; Louisville 220; Memphis 250; Milwaukee 259, 266; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Philadelphia 322; Pittsburg 340; St. Louis 370. Tramway and Railway Systems {see also "Railway Connections") at — ■ New York 11, 12, 39; Atlanta 49; Augusta 61, 63; Baltimore 74; Birmingham 89, 90; Boston 101-103, 109; Brockton 118; Chicagol30, 131, 133; Cincinnati 154; Cleveland 163; Detroit 175; Duluth 186, 187 ; Fall River 197, 199, 203; Lawrence 208, 210; Louisville 219, 220; Lowell 233; Memphis 245, 250; Milwaukee 259; Minneapolis— St. Paul, 276; Muncie 284; New Orleans 288, 290, 291; Newark 300; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 316, 317, 319, 324; Pitts- burg 339, 340; Providence 358; St. Louis 370, 371; Savannah 384. Transport (see "Trade and Transportation"). Travel, Cheap, for Workpeople — Detroit 175. Truck System, at — Atlanta 52; Birmingham 88, 97; Pittsburg 355. Tuberculosis, Preventive Measures against. Treatment of, and Mortality due to, at — New York 9, 10; Atlanta 50; Augusta 63; Birmingham 88; Brockton 118; Chicago 132, 147; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 198; Lawrence 209; Louisville 220; Memphis 244; Milwaukee 258; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271, 272; New Orleans 290; Newark 299; Philadelphia 318; Providence 359; Savannah 384. U. Unemployment and Slack Seasons at — New York 24; Augusta 67; Baltimore 75, 77; Birmingham 89, 91; Brockton 119; Chicago 134, 135, 137, 139; Cincin- nati 156; Cleveland 165; Detroit 179; Duluth 188-191; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211, 214; Lowell 234, 235; Mem- phis 248; Milwaukee 262, 263; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; Muncie 284; New Orleans 291; Paterson 310; Philadel- phia 322, 325; Providence 361, 362; St. Louis 373; Savannah 386. V. Varnish Making: Wages, Hours, &c. in, at — , Newark 302, 303. Veal: Consumption of, at — Augusta 69, 71; Baltimore 86; Brockton 126; Chicago 151; Cleveland 171; Detroit 183, 184; Duluth 195; Fall River 206; Louisville 229; Memphis 255; Milwaukee 269 ; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; Pittsburg 356. 'Prices (Retail) of, at — New York 47; Atlanta 60; Augusta 71; Baltimore 86; Birmingham 98; Boston 116; Brockton 126, 127; Chicago 151; Cincinnati 160; Cleveland 171; Detroit 184; Duluth 196; Fall River 206, 207; Lawrence 218; Louisville 230; Lowell 242; Memphis 256; Milwaukee 269; Minneapolis— St. Paul 282; Muncie 287; New Orleans 298; Newark 307; Paterson 315; Philadelphia 336; Pittsburg 356; Providence 368, 369; St. Louis 380; Savannah 393. Supply, Sources of, at — New York 46; Baltimore 86; Boston 116; Brockton 126; Detroit 184; Lowell 242; Paterson 314; Providence 368. Vegetables and Fruits, Prices (Retail) of, at — New Yosk 45; Baltimore 85; Boston 115; Louisville 228; Lowell 241; New Orleans 296; Philadelphia 334. Vital Statistics of — New York 9; Atlanta 50; Augusta 62, 63; Baltimore 73; Birmingham 87-89; Boston 101-103; Brockton 118; Chicago 132; Cincinnati 153; Detroit 174; Duluth 187; Fall River 198; Lawrence 209; Louisville 220; Lowell 231; Memphis, 244; Milwaukee 258; Minneapolis— St. Paul 271; Muncie 283; New Orleans 289, 290; Newark 299; Paterson 309; Philadelphia 318, 319; Pittsburg 340; Providence 359; St. Louis 371; Savannah 384. W. Wages at — New York 18, 21-24; Atlanta 54, 55; Augusta 62, 64-66; Baltimore 75-80; Birmingham 88, 90-94, 97; Boston 101, 106-108; Brockton 120-123; Chicago 134-142; Cincinnati 154-157; Cleveland 162, 164-167; Detroit 176-179; Duluth 189-191; Fall River 201-203; Lawrence 212-214; Louisville 222-224; Lowell 235-238; Memphis 247-250; Milwaukee 262-265; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-277, 280; Muncie 284, 285; New Orleans 290-294; Newark 301- 303; Paterson 310-312; Philadelphia 322-325, 335; Pittsburg 343-348; Providence 361-364; St. Louis 372-376; Savannah 386-388. INDEX TO TOWN REPORTS. 533 Wages Agreements (see '.'Trade Agreements"). Wagon and Carriage Railway Works (see "Car, Carriage, &c. Works" and "Railway Works") Water Rate at— ' New York 39; Atlanta 49; Augusta 68; Baltimore 82; Birmingham 89, 90, 95; Boston 113; Brockton 124; Chicago 148; Cincinnati 159; Detroit 182; Duluth 194; Fall River 205t Lawrence 210, 215; Louisville 226; Memphis 254; Mil- waukee 267* Minneapolis— St. Paul 280; Muncie 286; Newark 305; Paterson 313; Philadelphia 332; Providence 358; St. Louis 379: Savannah 383, 391. Water Supply at — ' New York 11; Atlanta 49; Augusta 63; Baltimore 74, 81; Birmingham 89; Boston 101, 103; Brockton 118; Chicago 133; Cincinnati ISI; Cleveland 163; Detroit 175; Duluth 187, 193; Fall River 199, 200'; Lawrence 210; Louisville 220, 225; Lowell 231, 233; Memphis 243; Milwaukee 258, 259, 267; Minneapolis— St. Paul 270, 272; Muncie 283, 284; New Orleans 290, 295; Newark 300; Paterson 308, 309; Philadelphia 319; Pittsburg 340; Providence 358; St. Louis 371; Savannah 383. Waterworks Employees; General Note on, at — Memphis 248. Hours of Labour of, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 79; Birmingham 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincin- nati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Mem- phis 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 294; Newark 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 324; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. Wages of, at — New York 23; Atlanta 55; Augusta 66; Baltimore 79; Birmingham 94; Boston 107; Brockton 122; Chicago 141; Cincin- nati 157; Cleveland 167; Detroit 179; Duluth 190; Fall River 202; Lawrence 213; Louisville 224; Lowell 237; Mem- phis 250; Milwaukee 264; Minneapolis— St. Paul 277; Muncie 285; New Orleans 294; Newark 303; Paterson 312; Philadelphia 324; Providence 364; St. Louis 376; Savannah 388. Welfare Work, Employers and (see also "Housing, Provision of, by Employers") at — Atlanta 53, 56, 58; Chicago 131, 136, 142, 143; Cleveland 163, 165; Detroit 175-177; Louisville 222; Lowell 236; Milwaukee 262; Pittsburg 354, 355; Providence 362. Wharf Labourers (see "Dock Labourers"). Women and Girls, Employment of, at — New York 7, 16, 20, 21, 24; Atlanta 52, 53, 56; Augusta 63-65; Baltimore 75-77; Birmingham 90; Boston 105, 106, 108; Brockton 119, 122, 123; Chicago 133, 135-138, 143; Cincinnati 155; Cleveland 165; Detroit 176, 177, 179; Duluth 188; Fall River 200, 203; Lawrence 211, 212, 214; Louisville 221; Lowell 234, 238; Memphis 246, 247; Milwaukee 260-262, 265, 266; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; Muncie 284; New Orleans 291, 293; Newark 300, 301; Paterson 309, 310; Philadelphia 321, 322; Pittsburg 342, 346; Providence 360, 362, 364; St. Louis 372, 374; Savannah 385, 388 Wood (Fuel), Prices (Retail) of, at— Atlanta 59; Augusta 70; Duluth 195; Savannah 392. Woodworking and Furnishing Trades: General Notes on, at — Augusta 64; Birmingham 87; Chicago 138; Duluth 188, 189; Louisville 221; Memphis 247, 248; Minneapolis — St. Paul 273-275; New Orleans 293. Hours of Labour in, at — New York 22; Atlanta 55; Augusta 65, 66; Chicago 138, 141; Duluth 190, 191; Louisville 223; Memphis 247, 249; Minne- apolis—St. Paul 276; New Orleans 293, 294. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at — New York 16, 17; Atlanta 52; Baltimore 75; Birmingham 90; Boston 105; Brockton 119; Chicago 133; Cincinnati 155 Cleveland 164; Detroit 176; Duluth 188; Fall River 200; Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Memphis 246 Milwaukee 260; Minneapolis— St. Paul 273, 274; New Orleans 291; Newark 300; Paterson 310; Philadelphia 321 Pittsburg 342; Providence 360, 361; St. Louis 372; Savannah 385. Trade Unions in, at — New York 19; Chicago 138. Wages in, at — New York 18, 22; Atlanta 55; Augusta 65, 66; Chicago 138, 141; Cincinnati 154; Duluth 190; Louisville 223; Memphis 249; Minneapolis— St. Paul 274-276; New Orleans 293, 294. Woollen and Worsted Industry: General Notes on, at — Lawrence 208, 209, 211, 212; Lowell 233, 236; Providence 360. Hours of Labour in, at — Lawrence 213; Lowell 237; Philadelphia 323; Providence 363. Output — Lawrence 210; Lowell 233. Persons Occupied, Number of, in, at— . , , , . „„, ^ ■■, oar. qci Lawrence 211; Louisville 221; Lowell 234; Philadelphia 321; Providence 360, 361. Wages in, at — ^ . , „,_ Lawrence 213, 214; Lowell 237, 238; Philadelphia 323; Providence 363. Workmen's Cheap Tickets (see "Travel, Cheap, for Workpeople"). Worsted Industry (see "Woollen and Worsted Industry"). COST OF LIVING IN AMERICAN TOWNS. REPORT OF AN ENQUIRY BY THE 1 BOARD OF TRADE / INTO / WORKING CLASS RENTS, HOUSING AND RETAIL PRICES, TOGETHER WITH THE RATES OF WAGES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL TOWNS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDUM AND A COMPARISON OP CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE UNITED KING-DOM. Prwpittfii to ^arltampnt hg fflnrnmanh nf l|iB iKafPstg, [SEAL OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OMITTED IN THIS PRINT.J LONDON: PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. FEINTED BY DAELING AND SON, Limited, Bacon Street, E. 1911.