CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library GN738 .A94 1890 Pre-historic times, as illustrated by an olin 3 1924 029 911 959 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92402991 1 959 PEE-HI8T0EIC TIMES, AS ILLUSTKATED BY ANCIENT REMAINS, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF MODEM SAVAGES. SIE JOHN LUBBOCK, Baet., M.P., P.O., D.C.L., LL.D., F.K.S., PRINCIPAL OF THE LONDON WOEKINO MEN'S OOLLESB ; PKESIBENT OF THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE; AND VICE-CHAIRMAN OP THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. FIFTH EDITION. WILLIAMS AND NOEGATE, 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COTENT GARDEN, LONDON; And 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. 1890. First Edition, 1865. Fifth „ 1890. V LONDON : PEINTBU BY 0. OREEN AND SON, 178, STRAND. PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. TN this Work I present to the public some essays on Pre-Hstoric Archaeology, part of which have appeared in the Natural History Eeview, viz. that on — The Danish SheU-mounds, in October, 1861. The Swiss Lake-dwellings, in January, 1862. The Flint Implements of the Drift, in July, 1862. North American Archaeology, in January, 1863. Cave-men, in July, 1864. Messrs. Williams and Norgate suggested to me to republish these articles in a separate form ; and I was further encouraged to do so by the fact that most of them had re-appeared, either in France or America. The conductors of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles did me the honour to translate those on the Danish SheU-mounds and the Swiss Lake -dwellings. The latter also appeared in Silliman's Journal; and the article on American Archasology, with the exception of vi PREFACE. the last paragraph, was reprinted in the Smithsonian Eeport for 1862.* At first I only contemplated reprinting the papers as they stood ; but having, at the request of the managers, delivered at the Eoyal Institution a short course of lectures on the Antiquity of Man, it was thought desirable to introduce the substance of these, so as to give the work a more complete character. My object has been to elucidate, as far as possible, the principles of pre-historic archaeology, laying spe- cial stress upon the indications which it affords of the condition of man in primeval times. The tumuli, or burial-mounds, the peat-bogs of this and other coun- tries, the Ejokkenmoddings or shell- mounds of Den- mark, the Lake-habitations of Switzerland, the bone- caves and the river-drift gravels, are here our principal sources of information. In order to qualify myself, as far as possible, for the task which I have undertaken, I have visited, not only our three great museums ia London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, but also many on the Continent, as, for instance, those at Copenhagen, Stockholm, Lund, Flensburg, Aarhuus, Lausanne, Basle, Berne, Zurich, * The article on Cave-men was also translated in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Fifth Ser. vol. ii., and that on North American Archaeology in the Eevue Archeologique for 1865. PREFACE. VU Yverdon, Paris, Abbeville, etc., besides many private collections of great interest, of which I may particu- larly specify those of M. Boucher de Perthes, Messrs. Christy, Evans, Bateman, Porel, Schwab, Troyon, GiUi^ron, Uhlmann, Desor, and, lastly, the one recently made by MM. Christy and Lartet in the bone-caves of the Dordogne. Sometimes alone, and sometimes in company with Messrs. Prestwich and Evans, I have made numerous visits to the Yalley of the Somme, and have examined almost every gravel-pit and section from Amiens down to the sea. In 1861, with Mr. Busk, and again in 1863, I went to Denmark, in order to have the advantage of seeing the Kjbkkenmoddings themselves. Under the guidance of Professor Steenstrup, I visited several of the most celebrated shell-mounds, particu- larly those at Havelse, Bilidt, Meilgaard, and Fanne- rup. I also made myself familiar with so much of the Danish language as was necessary to enable me to read the various reports drawn up by the Kjokkenmodding Committee, consisting of Professors Steenstrup, Wor- saae, and Forchhammer. Last year I went to the north of Scotland, to examine some similar shell- mounds discovered by Dr. Gordon, of Birnie, on the shores of the Moray Firth, which appear, however, VIU PREFACE. to belong to a much, later period than those of Denmark. In 1862, M. Morlot very kindly devoted himself to me for nearly a month, during which time we not only visited the principal museums of Switzerland, but also several of the Lake-habitations themselves, and par- ticularly those at Merges, Thonon, Wauwyl, Moossee- dorf, and the Pont de Thiele. In addition to many miaor excursions, I had, finally, last spring, the advantage of spendiag some time with Mr. Christy among the celebrated bone -caves of the Dordogne. Thus, by carefully examining the objects themselves and the localities in which they have been found, I have endeavoured to obtain a more vivid and correct impression of the facts than books, or even museums, alone could have given. To the more strictly archseological part of the work I have added some chapters on the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages, confining myself to those tribes which are still, or were, when first visited by travellers, ignorant of the use of metal, and which, have been described by competent and trustworthy observers. This account, incomplete as it is, wiU be found, I think, to throw some light on the remains of savage life in ages long gone by. PREFACE. IX Fully satisfied that Eeligion and Science cannot in reality be at variance, I have striven in the present publication to follow out the rule laid down by the Bishop of London, in his excellent lecture delivered last year at Edinburgh. The man of science, says Dr. Tait, ought to go on, "honestly, patiently, diffidently, observing and storing up his observations, and carry- ing his reasonings unflinchingly to their legitimate conclusions, convinced that it would be treason to the majesty at once of science and of religion if he sought to help either by swerving ever so little from the straight rule of truth."* Ethnology, in fact, is passing at present through a phase from which other sciences have safely emerged ; and the new views with reference to the Antiquity of Man, though still looked upon with distrust and apprehension, will, I doubt not, in a few years be regarded with as little disquietude as are now those discoveries in astronomy and geology which at one time excited even greater opposition. I have great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to many archeeological friends for the liberal manner in which their museums have been thrown open to me, * Lecture on Science and Revelation, delivered at Edinburgh. See the Times, November 7th, 1864. X PREFACE. and for much, valuable assistance in other ways. My thanks are due to Professor Steenstrup for many of the figures by which the Work is illustrated. Others, through the kindness of Sir W. E. Wilde, Mr. Franks, and Dr. Thurnam, have been placed at my disposal by the Society of Antiquaries and the Eoyal Irish Academy. To Professor Steenstrup, Dr. Keller, M. Morlot, and Professor Eiitimeyer, I am indebted for much information on the subject of their respective investigations. Finally, Mr. Busk, Mr. Evans, and Professor Tyndall, have had the great kindness to read many of my proofs, and to them I am indebted for various valuable suggestions. Chiselhdrst, February, 1865. PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. TN preparing a New Edition of Pee-histoeic Times, I have endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid unduly increasing the size of the book ; and although the present "Work will be found to contain a great number of new facts, some of the chapters being indeed almost re- written, still it is only increased in size to the extent of one hundred pages. Nearly half of these are occupied by the addition of more than seventy new figures, which will tend to diminish, rather than increase, the time occupied by its perusal. This course has compelled me. to omit all reference to many researches of much merit and interest, while in other cases I have been obliged to treat the labour of years in a few short sentences. The true force of the evidence in support of archaeological conclusions is thus materially weakened, by being deprived of its cumulative character ; but I have endeavoured in many cases to meet this objection by the introduction of statistical tables. XU PREFACE. Since the First Edition was published, I have visited the principal German and Italian museums, and have been in correspondence with the most active archeeo- logists both in Europe and also across the Atlantic. I cannot attempt here to express in any suitable manner my gratitude for the assistance which I have received. Every museum which I have visited has been thrown open to me with the greatest liberality, and every archaeologist whom I have consulted has given me the readiest and fullest information. No one can be more sensible than I am of the many shortcomings of this Work. Those, however, Avho perceive them most clearly, will, I am sure, be disposed to judge them leniently, because they will best be able to appreciate the difficulty of keeping pace with a science which has so many and such enthusiastic votaries.; the results of whose earnest labour are to be found scattered through a number of periodicals, published in many different countries and in various tongues. High Elms, Down, Kent, March, 1869. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Division of Pre-historic archaeology into four periods — First disco- very of metal — Allusions to bronze in ancient writers — Lucretius — Tiefenau — Find of iron objects at Nydam, in Slesvick — Owner's marks — Inscriptions at Nydam — Nature of archceological evi- dence — Statistics — Pottery of the different ages — Bronze weapons not of Roman origin — Geographical distribution of bronze wea- pons — Summary of argument — Bronze weapons not Saxon — Hallstadt i CHAPTER II. ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN ANCIENT TIMES. Bronze celts — Bronze swords — Bronze spears — Bronze fish-hooks and sickles — Bronze knives — Bronze ornaments — The metal- lurgy of the Bronze Age — Gold ornaments — List of Bronze objects — Dress — Burial during the Bronze Age — Hut-urns — Pen-pits — Picts' houses — Beehive houses —The Burgh of Moussa — Staigue fort, Kerry 27 CHAPTER III. THE BRONZE AGE. Similarity of bronze implements in different countries — The Bronze Age and the Phoenicians — Ancient voyages — Himilco — Pytheas — Phffinician colonies and commerce— Copper — Tin — Traces of Baal worship in Northern Europe — Objections to the Phoenician theory 60 xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE USE OF STONE IN ANCIENT TIMES. PAGE The great abundance of stone implements— Stone implements used after the discovery of metal— Materials preferred— Jade— Flint — Grimes' Graves— Pressigny— The fracture of flint— Modem flakes— Manufacture of flakes in Mexico, and among the Esqui- maux — Ancient manufactories — Stone axes — Pierced hatchets — Scrapers— Shell-moundaxes— Chisels— Awls— Spears— Daggers —Sling-stones— Arrow-heads— Saws— Bone implements— Awls — Harpoons — Flint finds 79 CHAPTER V. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS AND TUMULI. Tumuli — Menhirs — Stone circles — Mention of stone circles and tumuli in ancient history — Megalithic monuments not Druidical — Abury — Silbury Hill more ancient than the Roman road — Stonehenge — Carnac — Megalithicmonuments in India — Modern Indian dolmens — Modes of burial in tumuli — Use of tumuli as dwellings — Yurts and gammes — Hut -burial among modern savages — Picts' houses — The mound-builders — Long barrows — Objects buried with the dead not always intended for actual use — List ofinterments — Tabulated interments — Statistics — Models of implements sometimes buried — Barrows belong to very dif- ferent periods — Difficulty of determining the period to which a tumulus belongs — Danish tumulus in the Island of Moen — Description of a barrow at West Kennet — Pottery from the West Kennet tumulus — Breton tumuli — Sepulchral pottery — Rock sculptures — Bones of animals in tumuli — Sepulchral feasts — Sacrifices — Pre-historic races of men — Desirability of pre- serving megaUthic monuments . . ... 113 CHAPTER VI. THE ANCIENT LAKE-HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. Lake-dwellings mentioned by Herodotus — Modern Lake-dwellings — Irish crannoges — Pile-dwellings in other parts of Europe — Lake-dwellings found in most of the Swiss lakes — Attempt to make a census — Construction of the platforms — Comparison of Lake-dwelHngs of different periods — Condition of the objects CONTENTS. XV PAOE found — Preparation of the piles — Number of the piles used — Description of the remains at Wauwyl — Weapons and imple- ments of the Lake-men — Implements of bone and wood — Pot- tery — Dress — The fauna of the Lake-dwellings — Comparison of bones belonging to wild and domesticated races — Oxen — Absence of extinct species — Aurochs — Elk; — Ibex — General character of the fauna — Comparison of the different Lake villages — The flora — Grain — fruits — flax — Ancient agriculture — Scarcity of human remains — Objects of bronze — The worship of Lakes — Pottery of the Bronze Age — Inhabitants of the Lake villages — Character of the objects found in different Lake villages — Anti- quity of Lake villages i8i CHAPTER VII. THE DANISH KJOKKENMoDDINGS, OR SHELL-MOUNDS. Danish tumuli — Kjokkenmoddings, or shell-mounds — Description of the shell-mounds — Distribution of the shell-mounds — Shell- mounds in Scotland — Shell-mounds in other countries — Flora of the Danish shell-mounds — Fauna of the shell-mounds — Con- dition of the bones — Prevalence of certain bones — Habits of the mound-builders — Flint implements — Absence of polished flint implements — Food of the shell-mound builders — The Fuegians — The relation of the shell-mounds to the tumuli — The opinions of Messrs. Steenstrup and Worsaae — Antiquity of the shell- mounds 227 CHAPTER VIII. NORTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY. Bibliography— Classification of antiquities— Implements— The use of copper — Ancient copper-mines — Pottery — Ornaments — Forti- fications — Earthworks — Enclosures — Sacred enclosures — Earth- works of the Scioto Valley— Aztalan— Vitrified walls— Modern earthworks — Chunk yards — Sepulchral mounds — So-called sacrificial mounds — Grave Creek mound — Temple mounds — Animal mounds — Rock carvings — Wampum — The mound- builders — Evidence of ancient population — Traces of ancient agriculture — Antiquity of the remains — Condition of the bones — American forests — Indications of four periods — Man and the mastodon — Antiquity of man in America 253 xvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. QUATERNARY MAMMALIA. PASE Succession of species— The cave-bear— The cave-hyasna— The cave-lion— The mammoth— Existence of the African elephant in Europe — The quaternary species of rhinoceros — Rhinoceros Tichorhinus- The musk-ox— The hippopotamus— The Irish elk —Wild horses— The reindeer— The aurochs— The urus— Elk- Lemming — Snowy owl — Mollusca — Links between existing species — Climate of the quaternary period — Probable fluctua- tions of climate . . .... . 288 CHAPTER X. CAVE-MEN. Caves in the South of France — Belgian caves — Kent's Hole — ■ Brixham cave — Sicilian caves — Gibraltar caves — Aurignac — Wokey Hole — Caves in the Dordogne — Fauna of the Dordogne caves — Absence of domestic animals — Flint implements — Rela- tive antiquity of the remains — Absence of polished implements — Bone implements — Representations of animals — Drawing of reindeer and mammoth — Sculpture — Habits of the cave-dwellers — Human remains — The Engis skull — The Neanderthal skull — Cave-men . . . 311 CHAPTER XI. RIVER-DRIFT GRAVEL-BEDS. M. Boucher de Perthes — Mr. Prestwich and Mr. Evans — Mr. Frere's discovery in 1800 — Similar discoveries elsewhere — Similar dis- coveries in other countries — Antiquity as shown by physical geography — The questions at issue — Evidence derivable from the flints themselves — The forgeries — Character of the true drift implements — Drift implements never ground — Scarcity of human bones — Scarcity of men in ancient times — Proportion of men to other animals in the Hudson's Bay Territory — The mammoth and rhinoceros — Characteristics of the drift-beds — Physical geogra- phy of the Somme Valley — St. Acheul — Organic remains — Mineralogical constituents of the river-drift gravels — Objections to the proposed theory — Ice action — Fresh-water origin of the gravels— Inapplicability of cataclysms— Alteration of the river level — Gradual excavation of the valley — The lower level gravel- beds — Their fauna — The peat — Objects found in the peat Relation of the loess to the gravel— Continual changes of river courses — Elevation of the land — Recapitulation . . .341 CONTENTS. Xvii CHAPTER XII. ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. PAGB Historical evidence — Ethnological evidence— Evidence derivable from physical geography— The vegetation of Denmark— The cone of the Tinifere— The Valley of the Thi^le— The formation of Egypt — The gradual elevation of the country, owing to the annual deposit of Nile mud—Mr. Horner's Egyptian researches —Age of the Mississippi delta — Lapse of time, as indicated by the change of climate— Sir J. W. Lubbock on the earth's axis- Effect of a change in the Gulf-Stream— Astronomical causes- Precession of the Equinoxes— M. Adhdmar's argument— The cupola of ice at the South Pole— Objections to M. Adh^mar's theory — Probable effect of precession — The excentricity of the earth's orbit— Date suggested for the glacial epoch— Effect of rivers on the level of continents — The oWiquity of the ecliptic— M. Adhdmar on changes in the sea-level — Geological changes in the Quaternary period — Geological time — Reported evidence of man in the Pliocene period — Miocene man .... 383 CHAPTER XIII. MODERN SAVAGES. The untrustworthiness of tradition — Tendency to the marvellous — No evidence of degradation — Progress among savages — Hottentots: dress; food; weapons; metallurgy; customs; cha- racter ; Bushmen — Veddahs — Andaman Islanders — Australians : houses ; food ; rock-engravings ; canoes ; implements ; clubs ; spears; throwing-sticks ; the boomerang; fire; clothes; orna- ments ; tattooing ; initiation ceremonies ; games ; superstition ; modes of burial; language; marriage — Tasmanians — Fiji Is- landers: food; weapons; houses; temples; religion; canoes; pottery ; games ; agriculture ; women ; dress ; tattooing ; burial ; customs ; parricide ; horrible rites ; cannibalism ; character of the Fijians — Maories: food; dress; ornaments; tattooing; houses ; fortifications ; weapons ; canoes ; burial ; music ; cha- racter; religion; cannibalism — Tahiti: implements; fish-hooks; nets ; baskets ; mats ; bark-cloth ; dress ; canoes ; music ; furni- ture ; weapons ; food ; fire ; cookery ; ava ; a chief's dinner ; solitary meals ; surgery ; modes of burial ; Oberea's moral ; government ; ideas of right and wrong ; the Arreoy society ; general character — The Tongans 426 & PAGE xviii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. MODERN SAVAGES — continued. Esquimaux: tents; houses; lamps; absence of cleanliness; stores of food; cookery; difficulty of obtaining water; fire; implements and weapons; modes of hunting and fishing; sledges; boats; scrapers; clothes, ornaments, cheek-studs; music; drawings; religion ; modes of burial ; things buried with the dead ; charac- ter — North American Indians : dress; ornaments; labrets; the practice of head-moulding ; religion ; social position of women ; character; cruelty; infanticide; implements; weapons; boats; fire ; dwellings ; agriculture ; maize ; rice ; animal food ; burial ; art — Paraguay Indians — Patagonians: stature; huts; dress; weapons; food; burial; x€^\%\oxi.—Fuegians: huts; implements; weapons; food; stature; habits; mode of fishing ; cannibalism; absence of religion ; canoes ; dress ; fire 492 CHAPTER XV. MODERN SAVAGES — concluded. Skilfulness of savages — Varieties of implements — Neatness in sew- ing — Art of drilling — Important works erected by savages — Differences in the Stone Age — Different lines of civilization — Differences of weapons — Isolation of savages — Geographical distribution of weapons, etc. — Differences between savages — Different uses for the dog — Different modes of obtaining fire — Different modes of burial — Descent of property — Differences in prevalent sounds — Differences in signs — Ideas of decency — Ideas of virtue — Deification of white men — Curious customs — Social position of women — Savages and children — Moral and intellectual inferiority of savages — Poverty of savage languages Deficiencies in numeration — Absence of religion — Rudiments of rehgion — Lowideas of the deity — Witchcraft — General wretched- ness of savages 543 CHAPTER XVI. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The higher animals — The primitive condition of man — Diffusion of man — Early races of man — Natural selection applied to man — The influence of mind — Increase of happiness — Sufferings of savages — Superstitious terrors — Self-inflicted sufferings — The blessings of civilization — The diminution of suffering — The diminution of sin — The advantages of science — The future . 583 Appendix .... 503 Index 6i2 DESCEiraON OF THE FIGUEES. 1. Ancient Danish arrow-head, with owner's mark. Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron Age, p. xiii, fig. 35. 2. Modem Esquimaux arrow-head, with owner's mark. In my collection, one-half natural size. 3. Owner's marks from various ancient Danish arrows. Denmark in the Early Iron Age, pp. i — xiii. 4. Copper (?) celt from Waterford — 6 inches long, 3|^ wide at the broader end, and i^ at the smaller, which is about i-i6th thick. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 363. 5. Winged celt, or Paalstave, from Ireland. Ibid. p. 373. 6. Socketed celt from Ireland, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. p. 385. 7-9. The three principal types of celts, and the manner in which they are supposed to have been handled. Ibid. p. 367. 10. Kalmuck Axe. Iron. In the collection of the late Dr. Klemm. 11. Copper (?) celt from Ireland, one-half of the actual size. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 363. 12. Half of a celt-mould from Ireland. It is of mica slate, 6^ inches long, 4 wide, and presents upon the surface the apertures by means of which it was adjusted by the other half. Ibid. p. 91. 13. Decorated celt from Ireland — S}4 inches long, 4 wide at the blade end, and half-an-inch thick. Ibid. p. 365. 14. Simple celt from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, No. 178. 15. Ornamental celt from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 179. 16. Socketed celt from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 195. 17. Bronze celt, Naples. In my collection, one-half nat. size. 18. „ „ Le Puy. „ „ two-thirds nat. size. 19. Stone Axe, Denmark. „ „ „ „ 20. Modem African Axe. „ „ one-sixth nat. size. 21. Iron sword from a cemetery at Brighthampton in Oxfordshire, one- eighth of the actual size. Archasologia, vol. xxxviii. pi. 2, fig. i. 22. Sword from Ireland — 23^^ inches long, i^ wide in the centre of the blade, which is margined by a grooved feather edge. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 444. XX DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 23. Sword from Sweden, one-fourth of the actual size. Nilsson's Skandinaviska Nordens Ur-invanare, pi. i, fig. 7- 24. Sword from Switzerland, one-fifth of the actual size. In the museum of Col. Schwab, Mitt. Ant. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xii. H. 3. 25. Sword from Concise on the Lake of Neufchatel, one-fourth of the actual size. In the Museum of Col. Schwab, Mitt. Ant. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xiii. H. 3. 26. Sword from Scandinavia. Atlas for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, pi. 4, fig. 42. 27. Sword from Denmark, found in the Treenhoi tumulus. Afb. af. Danske Oldsager og Mindesmaeker, H. 5. 28. Sword from Denmark, one-sixth of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, No. 121. 29. Sword from Denmark, one-sixth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 123. 30. Hilt of sword from Denmark, one-fourth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 128. 31. Hilt of sword from Denmark, one-fourth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 127. 32. Bronze dagger-blade from Ireland — io|^ inches long, by 1% wide. The four rivets by which it was fastened to the handle are still in situ. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 448. 33. Bronze dagger from Ireland, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. p. 458. 34. Bronze dagger-blade from Ireland, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. p. 463. 35. Bronze spear-head from Ireland — \i% inches long, by lYz broad. Ibid. p. 499. 36. Bronze spear-head from Ireland — 13^ inches long,- by 2X broad. Ibid. p. 496. 37. Bronze knife from Denmark, one-half of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, No. 167. 38. Bronze knife from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 169. 39. Bronze knife from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 166. 40. 41. Bronze knives from the lake-village of Estavayer, on the lake of Neufchatel, one-half of the actual size. Keller, Mitth. der Antiq. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xiii. Abth. 2, H. 3i pl- S. figs. 19, 20. 42-45. Razor-knives from Denmark, one-half of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, Nos. 173, 172, 171, 175. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. Xxi 46. Small bronze knife in a leather case, from Denmark, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. No. 164. 47. Bronze knife, actual size, Denmark. Ibid. No. 170. 48. Bronze knife, found by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, at Thebes. Lee's Keller, p. 276. 49. Bronze bracelet from Cortaillod, on the Lake of Neufchatel, one- third of the actual size. Troyon's Habitations Lacustres, pi. 1 1, fig. 28. 50. Bronze bracelet from Cortaillod, on the Lake of Neufchatel, one- third of the actual size. Ibid. pi. ii, fig. 18. 5 1-54. Bronze hair-pins from the Swiss lakes, one-half of the actual size. Keller, /. c. Zweiter Bericht, pi. 3. 55. Bronze awl from the Swiss lakes, actual size. Ibid. pi. 3. 56-60. Various small objects of bronze frorh the Swiss lakes. Ibid. pi. 3. 61. Bronze celt, one-half nat. size. Showing the line of junction of the two halves of the mould in which it was cast. Found at Aylesford, Kent ; and presented to me by Sir G. W. Dasent. 62. Bronze brooch, Mecklenburg, three-tenths nat. size. Showing the manner in which it has been mended. Lisch. Alterthiimer, H. vii. pi. 4, fig. 2. 63. Bronze celt. Showing the air-vents bent over. 64. Gold torque, consisting of a simple flat strip or band of gold, loosely twisted, and having expanded extremities which loop into one another. It measures ^}i inches across, and was found near Clonmacnoise, in Ireland. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 74. 65. Gold fibula, one-half of the actual size. The hoop is very slender ; the cups deep and conical. Ibid. p. 56. 66. Smooth, massive, cylindrical gold ring, with ornamented ends, one- half of the actual size. Ibid. p. 52. 67. Gold fibula, one-third of the actual size. The external surfaces of the cups are decorated with circular indentations surrounding a central indented spost. There is also an elegant pattern where the handle joins the cups. It is 8^ inches long, and weighs 33 oimces, being the heaviest now known to exist. Ibid. p. 60. 67*. Iron ornament, Africa. 68. Inscribed celt. Museum Kircherianum, Rome, one-half of the actual size. Rossi Rap. Sugli. Stud, e SuUe Scop. Paleo. nel bacino delle, Campagna Romana. 69. Woollen cap, one-third of the actual size. Found with the bronze sword (fig. 27) in a Danish tumulus. Afb. af. Danske Oldsager og Mindesmaerker. Madsen, H. 5. xxii DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGUKES. 70. Another woollen cap, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 71. A small comb, one-third ofthe actual size. Foundwith the preceding. 72. A woollen cape, one-third ofthe actual size. Found with the pre- ceding. 73. A woollen shirt, one-third ofthe actual size. Found with the pre- ceding. 74. A woollen shawl, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 75. A pair of leggings, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 76. Hut urn. Albano. 77. Urn apparently representing a lake -dwelling. In the Munich collection. Lisch. Die Alterthiimer Unserer Held. Vorzeit, H. x. T. 3. 78. Group of beehive houses, Scotland. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. vol. i. part xii. 79. The Burgh of Moussa. Shetlands. 80. Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry. From a model in the collection ofthe Royal Irish Academy. 81. Flint core or nucleus, from which flakes have been struck, Jutland. One-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 82-84. Three views of a flint flake from the Kjokkenmodding at Fanne- rup, in Jutland, one-half of the actual size, a represents the bulb of percussion, which is also shown by the shading in fig. 84. In my own collection. 85. Arrow-shaped flake from Ireland. It is worked up at the butt end, as if intended for a handle. Catalogue of Royal Irish Academy, p. 72. 86-88. Flakes from a Danish shell-mound, actual size. In my own collection. 89. Minute flint flake from Denmark, actual size. In my own collection. 90. Sections of flakes, a is that of a simple triangular flake ; b is that of a large flat flake split off the angle from which the smaller flake a had been previously taken. Consequently the section is four- sided. 91. North American two-bladed knife, made of two flakes. Reliquiae Aquitanics, p. 43, fig. 16. 92. Australians making flakes. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Repertory. May, 1866. 93. Australian flake, one-half actual size. In my own collection. DESCEIPTION OF THE FIGURES. xxiii 94. Flake from the Cape of Good Hope, actual size. In my own collection. 95. Head of New Caledonian javelin, one-half of actual size. In my own collection. 96. New Caledonian javelin, one-sixth actual size. In my own collection. 97. Stone celt or hatchet. Formed of felstone, 5 ^ inches long and 2 broad. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p, 41. 98. Stone celt or hatchet, actual size. Found in the river Shannon. One of the smallest yet found in Ireland. Ibid. p. 45. 99. Stone celt with a wooden handle, Monaghan, Ireland. Ibid. p. 46. 100. Stone celt with wooden handle, one-third actual size. Found at Concise. From Desor. loi, 102. Danish axe, re-ground. One-half actual size. From my own collection. 103. Skin-scraper from Bourdeilles in the south of France, actual size. Found by me. 104. Ditto, under side. 105-107. Skin-scraper used by the modern Esquimaux of the Polar basin, within Behring's Straits, actual size. It was fastened into a handle of fossil ivory. In the Christy Museum. 108. Flint axe from the shell-mound at Meilgaard, in Jutland, actual size. Upper surface. In my own collection. 109. Ditto, under surface. no. Ditto, side view. 111. Modern New Zealand adze, actual size. Upper surface. In the British Museum. 112. Ditto, under surface. 113. Ditto, side view. The New Zealand adze is partially polished; this is not the case with the Danish adze, because flint naturally breaks with a smooth surface. The projection in fig. 1 10 is acci- dental, and owing to some flaw in the flint. They generally have the under side flat, as in fig. 113. 114. Hollow chisel from Denmark. In my own collection. 115. Danish dagger. In my own collection. 1 16. Flint dagger, one-half of the actual size. This beautiful specimen was found in a large tumulus with a second imperfect dagger, a rude flint core, an imperfect crescent-shaped knife, one or two flakes, two amber beads, and some bits of pottery. Denmark. In my own collection. xxiv DESCRIPTION OF THE FiaURES. 117. Another form of flint dagger. Also from Denmark. In my own collection. 118. Oval tool-stone. Cat of Royal Irish Academy, p. 94. 1 19. Triangular flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 19. 120. Indented flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 20. 121. Barbed flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 22. 122. Leaf-shaped flint arrow-head, actual size. Showing the gradual passage into the spear-head. Ibid. p. 22. 123. French arrow-head, actual size. In my own collection. 124. North American arrow-head, actual size. In my own collection. 125. Fuegian arrow-head, actual size. From Nilsson's Stone Age. 126. Stone saw in wooden handle, Switzerland, one-half actual size. After Keller. 127. Bone pin or awl from Scotland, actual size. 128. Bone chisel, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection. 129. Bone harpoon, actual size. Afb. af. Danske Olds. og. Mindesmaerker, 5 Heft. 130. Ancient bone harpoon, actual size. Dordogne. After Christy and Lartet. 131. Bone scraper, North America. Reliquise Aquitanicae, part v. p. 43, fig. 26. 132. A tumulus of the Stone Age, at Roddinge in Denmark. It con- tains two chambers. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, pi. 4. 133. Ground plan of ditto. 134. Stone circle, Denmark. Ibid. pi. i. 135. Dolmen, Denmark. 136. Stone circle. Ibid. pi. 2. 137. Kit's Coty House, near Maidstone. After Cof Forbes Leslie : Early Races of Scotland. 138. Carnac, Brittany. From a drawing by Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 139. 140. Indian Dolmens. After Captain Meadows Taylor. 141. Summer and winter dwellings in Kamschatka. Atlas to Cook's Voyage, pi. 77. 141*. Laplander's gamme or hut. 142. KumbecephaUc skull from Derbyshire. After Bateman: Ten Years' Diggings, p. 146. DESCRIPTION or THE FIGURES. XXV 143- Ground plan of a sepulchral chamber in a large tumulus on the Island of Moen. Ann. for Nordiske Oldkyndighed, 1858, p. 204. 144. Brachycephalic skull from the same tumulus, one-quarter of the natural size. 145. Ditto, side view. I am indebted for these two drawings to the kindness of my friend Mr. Busk. 146. Interior of the sepulchral chamber in the long barrow near West Kennet. Archseologia, vol. xxxviii. p. 405. 147. 148. Flint scrapers from the above tumulus, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 149. Flint flake from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 150. Flint implement from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 151. Fragment of pottery from the same, two-thirds of the actual size Ibid. 152. Fragment of pottery from the same, actual size. Ibid. 153-155- Fragments of pottery from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 156. Fragment of pottery, actual size. Ibid. 157. Urn from Flaxdale barrow. The original is 14 inches in height. Bateman's Ten Years' Diggings in Celtic and Saxon Grave- hills, p. 280. 158. 159. Two vases from Arbor Low, in Derbyshire. Ibid. p. 283. 160. Drinking cup from Green Low. Ibid. p. 286. i6l. Sculptures on the Lower Rock at Auchnabreach, Argyllshire. After Sir J. Y. Simpson : Proc. Soc. Ant. Sc. vol. vi. p. 23. 162. Crannoge in Ardakillin Lough, near Stokestown, county of Ros- common. It is constructed of stones and oak piling. The top line shows the former highest water level ; the second, that of the ordinary winter flood ; the third, the summer level. 163. Section of the lake-dwelling at Niederwyl. From Lee's Keller, pi. 16, fig. 2. 164. Swiss axe of serpentine, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection. 165. Spindle whorl, actual size. FromWangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection. 166. Piece of pottery, showing the impressions of the finger-tip, and the marks of the nail, actual size. Lake of Zurich. 168. Piece of tissue, actual size. From Robenhausen. In my own collection. 169. Portion of the vertebra of a cow. c xxvi DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 170. Corresponding portion of the vertebra of a bison. 171. Bronze pin, actual size. Found in a shell-mound near Elgin, and now in the museum at that place. 172. Flint awl from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 173-175. Lance-heads (?) from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 176. Rude flint axe from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 177. Copper arrow or spear-head, Cincinnati, one-third actual size. Whittlesey: Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. vol. i. pi. 16, fig. 6. 178. Copper lance-head, Ontarragon, one-third actual size. Ibid. fig. 4. 179. Molar tooth of £■. a?z/zy««j, one-third actual size. After Lyell. 1 80. Molar tooth of the mammoth, one-third actual size. After Lyell. 181. Flat stone implement of uncertain use, actual size. La Madeleine. 182. Stone implement, resembling in some respects those characteristic of the drift gravels, actual size. From Moustier. In my own collection. 183. Ditto, seen from the side. 184. Ditto, seen from the other side. 185. A cylindrical piece of reindeer horn, on which are engraved two outlines of fishes, one on each side. La Madeleine, Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 186. Piece of the palm of a reindeer's antler, on which is engraved the head and neck of an ibex. Laugerie Basse, Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 187. Group of figures. Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 1 88. Group of reindeer. From a photograph presented to me by the Marquis de Vibray e. 1 89. Poniard of reindeer horn. From the cave at Laugerie Basse. 190. The Engis skull seen from above. Huxley's Man's Place in Nature, p. 126. 191. Ditto, seen from the front. 192. The Neanderthal skull, seen from the side, one-half natural size. 193. Ditto, seen from the front, one-half natural size. 194. Ditto, seen from above, one-half natural size. Ibid. p. 139. The outlines from camera lucida drawings by Mr. Busk ; the details from a cast and from Dr. Fiihlrott's photographs. a, glabella ; b, occipital protuberance ; d, lambdoidal suture. 195. Rude flint implement from the drift gravel at Hoxne, one-half actual size. After Frere: Archasologia, 1800, pi. 15. 196. Ditto, side view. 197. Another specimen. After Frere. Ibid. 198. The same, side view. 199. 200. Stone implements, Madras. From specimensfound andpresented to me by Mr. BruceFoot. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. XXvii 201. Section across the Valley of the Somme at Abbeville, after Prest- wich ; the proportion of the length is reduced to one-third. 202. Section of St. Acheul, near Amiens. 203. Section taken in a pit close to the Joinville station. b. Red angular gravel, containing a very large sandstone block. d. Grey subangular gravel. 204. Diagram to illustrate deposit of loess and gravel. a Loess corresponding to and contemporaneous with the gravel a. *' Loess „ „ „ „ b. c Loess „ „ „ „ c. 1. Level of valley at period a. 2. Level of valley at period b. 3. Level of valley at present. 205. Australian knife. Presented to me by A. W. Franks, Esq. 206. Australian club, one-fifth of the actual size. 207. Australian spear and spear-caster. After Eyre. 208. Australian boomerang, one-sixth of the actual size. 209. Tasmanian fire-sticks, one-third actual size. From specimens presented to me by Mr. Robinson. 210. New Zealand patoo-patoo, one-fourth of the actual size. In my own own collection. 211. Stone axe with wooden handle, one-fourth of the actual size. In my own collection. 212. South Sea axe of ceremony. In my own collection. 213. South Sea fish-hook, one-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 214. Esquimaux knife. From a specimen presented to me by Mr. Flower. 215,216. Esquimaux knife. In my own collection. 217. Esquimaux arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. 218. Esquimaux spear-head, actual size. Ibid. 219. Esquimaux bone-harpoon, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. 220. Esquimaux cheek-stud of stone. Presented to me by Dr. Rae. 221-223. Drawings on Esquimaux bone implements. Presented to the Ashmolean Museum, by Captain Beechy, 1832. 224. Dacotah fire-drill-bow. From Schoolcraft's Indian tribes. 225. Iroquois fire-pump-drill. From the same. 226. Fuegian harpoon, one-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 227. 228. Ogham stones. Found in Kerry. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 135. DESCEIPTION OF THE PLATES. The three great tumuli at Upsala, popularly supposed to be those of Odin, Thoa, and Freya. {Frontispiece.) Diagram of Abury. {To face page lii,-) P LATE I . {To face page 80. ) Fig. I. A flint axe from a tumulus, one-third of the actual size. 2. Another form of stone axe, with a hole for a handle, one-third of the actual size. 3. A flint saw, one-half of the actual size. 4. A flint dagger, one-sixth of the actual size. 5. A flint chisel, one-half of the actual size. 6. One of the " cores" from which the flint flakes are splintered, one-half of the actual size. 7. One of the flakes, one-half of the actual size. 8. 9. Rude axes from the Kjokkenmodding at Havelse, one-half of the actual size. 10. Flint axe from drift at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville, one- half of the actual size. 11. Flint axe from Abbeville, showing that the part stained white is parallel to the present surfaces, and that the weathering has taken place since the flint was worked into its present shape ; one-half of the actual size. 12. Sling-stone from the Kjokkenmodding at Havelse, one-half of the actual size. Plate II. {To face page •^'i'^^ Sketch of mammoth, on a piece of ivory found at La Madeleine in the Dordogne. Plate III. {To face page 341.) A flint implement found near Abbeville, slightly reduced. In my own collection. The artist has been so careful to present a faithful image of this specimen, that he has even copied exactly my rough memorandum as to the place and date of its discovery. PRE-HISTORIC TIMES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. THE first appearance of man in Europe dates from a period so remote, that neither history, nor even tra- dition, can throw any light on his origin, or mode of life. Under these circumstances, some have supposed that the past is hidden from the present by a veil, which time will probably thicken, but never can remove. Thus our pre- historic antiquities have been valued as monuments of ancient skiU and perseverance, not regarded as pages of ancient his- tory; recognized as interesting vignettes, not as historical pictures. Some writers have assured us that, in the words of Palgrave, " We must give it up, that speechless past ; whether fact or chronology, doctrine or mythology ; whether in Europe, Asia, Africa, or America ; at Thebes or Palenque, on Lycian shore or Salisbury Plain : lost is lost ; gone is gone for ever." Others have taken a more hopeful view, but in attempting to reconstruct the story of the past, they have too often allowed imagination to usurp the place of research, and have written in the spirit of the novelist, rather than in that of the philosopher. Of late years, however, a new branch of knowledge has arisen; a new Science has, so to say, been born among us, which deals with times and events far more ancient than any which have yet fallen within the province of the archaeologist The geologist reckons not by days or by years ; the whole six B 2 DIVISION OF PEE-HISTOEIC thousand years, which were until lately looked on as the sum of the world's existence, are to him but one unit of measure- ment in the long succession of past ages. Our knowledge of geology is, of course, very incomplete ; on some questions we shall no doubt see reason to change our opinion, but on the whole, the conclusions to which it points are as definite as those of zoology, chemistry, or any of the kindred sciences. Nor does there appear to be any reason why those methods of examination which have proved so successful in geology, should not also be used to throw light on the history of man in pre-historic times. Archaeologv forms, in fact, the link between geology and history. It is true that in the case of other animals we can, from their bones and teeth, form a definite idea of their habits and mode of life, while in the present state of our knowledge the skeleton of a savage could not always be distinguished from that of a philosopher. But on the other hand, whUe other animals leave only teeth and bones behind them, the men of past ages are to be studied principally by their works ; houses for the living, tombs for the dead, fortifications for defence, temples for worship, imple- ments for use, and ornaments for decoration. From the careful study of the remains which have come down to us, it would appear that Pre-historic Archaeology may be divided into four great epochs. I. That of the Drift ; when man shared the possession of Europe with the Mammoth, the Cave bear, the "Woolly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This we may call the " Palaeolithic" period. II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period character- ized by beautiful weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone ; in which, however, we find no trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for ornaments. This we may call the " Neolithic " period. ARCHEOLOGY INTO FOUR PERIODS. 3 III. The Bronze Age, in which Bronze was used for arms and cutting instruments of all kinds. IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc.; bronze, however, still being in common use for ornaments, and frequently also for the handles of swords and other arms, though never for the blades. Stone weapons, however, of many kinds were still in use during the Age of Bronze, and even during that of Iron, so that the mere presence of a few stone implements is not in itself sufficient evidence that any given " find " belongs to the Stone Age; In order to prevent misapprehension, it may also be well to state, at once, that, for the present, I only apply this classification to Europe, though, in all probability, it might be extended also to the neighbouring regions of Asia and Africa. As regards other civilized countries, China and, Japan for instance, we, as yet, know but little of their pre- historic archaeology, though recent researches have gone far to prove that the use of iron was there also preceded by bronze, and bronze by stone. It is evident, also, that some nations, such as the Fuegians, Andamaners, etc., are even now, or were very lately, in an Age of Stone. It is probable that gold was the metal which first attracted the attention of man ; it is found in many rivers, and by its bright colour would certainly attract even the rudest savages, who are known to be very fond of personal deco- ration. Silver does not appear to have been discovered until long after gold, and was apparently preceded by both copper and tin; for it rarely, if ever,* occurs in tumuli of the Bronze Age ; but, however this may be, copper seems to have been the metal which first became of real importance to Man ; no doubt owing to the fact that its ores are abundant in many countries, and can be smelted without difficulty; and. that, while iron is hardly ever found except in the form * Horse ferales, p. 60. b2 4 FIRST DISCOVERY OF METAL. of ore, copper often occurs in a native condition, and can be beaten at once into shape. Thus, for instance, the North American Indians obtained pure copper from the mines near Lake Superior and elsewhere, and hammered it at once into axes, bracelets, and other objects. "Tin also early attracted notice, probably on account of the great heaviness of its ores. When metals were very scarce, it would naturally sometimes happen that, in order to make up the necessary quantity, some tin would be added to copper, or vice versd. It would then be found that the properties of the alloy were quite different from those of either metal, and a very few experiments would determine the most advan- tageous proportion, which for axes and other cutting instru- ments is about nine parts of copper to one of tin. No implements or weapons of tin have yet been found, and those of copper are extremely rare, whence it has been in- ferred that the art of making bronze was known elsewhere before the use of either copper or tin was introduced into Europe. Many of the so-called "copper" axes, etc., contain a small proportion of tin; and the few exceptions indicate probably a mere temporary want, rather than a total ignorance, of this metal. The ores of iron, though more abundant, are much less striking in appearance than those of copper. Moreover, though they are perhaps more easily reduced, the metal, when obtained, is much less tractable than bronze. This valuable alloy can very easily be cast, and, in fact, all the weapons and implements made of it in olden times were cast in moulds of sand or stone. The art of casting iron, on the other hand, was unknown until a comparatively late period. In the writings of the early poets, iron is frequently charac- terized by the epithet jroXuK/iTyTos, and its adjective, o-iS^peos, is used metaphorically to imply the greatest stubbornness. While, however, these facts tend very much to remove the ALLUSIONS TO BEONZE IN ANCIENT WRITEES. 5 d primal improbability that a compound and comparatively expensive material like bronze should have been in general use before such a common metal as iron, we must, of course, seek elsewhere for evidence that it was so. Hesiod. who is supposed to have written about 900 B.C., and who is the earliest European author whose works have come down to us, appears to have lived during the transition between the Bronze and Iron Ages. He distinctly states that iron was discovered later than copper and tin. Speaking of those who were ancient, even in his day, he says that they used bronze, and not iron. Tots 8 -qv )(^d,X.Kea fiev Tev^^ea. ^d\KeoL 8e re oikoi, T^aAK^ 8 dpyd^ovTO fi,iXa,^ 8 ovk ecTKe criSrjpo's. It is also significant that the word x«''^'