TRUBNER'S CULLECriON OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS THE DANISH LANGUAGE E.C.OTTE. 0^9 CORNELL- UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM Cornell University Library PD 3111.089 3 1924 026 542 138 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026542138 TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAI. ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY VIII. DANISH. BY E. C. 0TT£. TRiJBNER'S COLLECTION OF SfflPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF TEE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D. I. HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC. By THE lATE E. H. Palmbb, M.A. Price 5s. II. HUNGARIAN. Bt I. SiNGEE. Price 4s. fid. III. BASaUE. By W. Van Ets. Price 3s. 6d. lY. MALAGASY. By Gr. W. Paekee. Price Bs. V. MODERN GREEK. By E. M. Geldaet, M.A. Price 2s. Gd. VI. ROUMANIAN. By E. ToECEANtr. Price 5s. VII. TIBETAN. By H. a. Jaschke. Price 5s. VIII. DANISH. By E. C. Otte. Price 3^. &d. Grammars of the following are in preparation : — Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and Gaelic, Dutch, Egyptian, Finnish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Turkish, &c. &c. &e. London : TRiJBNER & CO., Ludgate Hill. A SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR DANISH LANGUAGE. E. C. OTTE. LONDON" TKUBNEE & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. 1884. l^All rights reserved^} /CORNELL UNIVEr^SiTY ^s ^ LIBRAR Y // LONDON : PEINTED BY GILBERT AND KIVINGTON, UMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUAKB. CONTENTS. PART I. Modes of Weiting and Spelling Danish and Noewegian (Dansk-Noesk). The Alphabet, &;c. . ... Articles (^Kendeord) . . . . Nouns {Navneord) Adjectives {Tillccgsord) . . . ■ Adverbs {Biord) ..... Pronouns (Stedord) Personal Pronouns .... Possessive Pronouns . . . . Demonstrative Pronouns Ptelative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns .... Verbs (Udsagnsord) . . . . . Irregular Verbs ( TJregelrette Udsagnsord) Prepositions (Forholdsord') Conjunctions (Bindeord) PAGE 1 16 19 21 22 oo 2,3 21 24 23 25 29 32 .3.3 Interjections {JJdralsorA) .... 33 CONTENTS. PART II. On the Chaeactee, Position, and moee peecise tse oe THE DIEFEEENT PaETS OF SPEECH. The Indefinite Article (JJhestemte Kendeord) The Definite Article (De besiemte Kendeord) Adjectives (TillcBffsord) .... The Numerals .... Pronouns (Stedord) ..... Verbs (Jldsagnsord) .... Adverbs (Biord) . . . . Prepositions {Forholdsord) Conjunctions (Bindeord) Composition of Words .... PAGE 34 35 41 42 44 48 59 60 61 62 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. The present work, in conformity with the plan of the series of which it forms a part, addresses itself principally to those, whose grammatical knowledge of other tongues, whether dead or living, enables them readily to master a new language, provided only that its essential and specific characteristics are clearly presented to them. In attempting to fulfil these requirements, we have endeavoured, as far as the limited dimensions of the volume permitted, to indicate the more important of the numerous points of affinity existing between modern Danish (Dano-Norwegian) and its old northern mother-tongue ; and, among these, the origin and process of development of the Affix-Article have been more specially noticed, as bearing upon the most marked characteristic of the Scandinavian tongues. The simple grammatical rules which are common to all cultivated languages have on the other hand been only very briefly touched upon. It will be apparent, therefore, that the present little Grammar in no way aims at superseding more minutely and VIU PREFACE. diffusely elaborated grammatical manuals ; as little does it claim to be a sole and sufficient guide for young beginners, or for those, who have leisure and inclination to gauge their hold of each advancing step on their progress towards knowledge by the test of written exercises, and reiterated self-examination. For this our manual supplies at once too much and too little information. In conclusion, we may further observe, however, that the object of the work will be doubly attained, if it succeed not merely in giving the English student a comprehensive view of the language spoken by Danes and Norwegians, but still more if it should be able to draw his attention to the numerous salient points of resemblance between his own mother-tongue and this kindred form of Gothic speech, which is known to us in modern times as Dansh-Norsh, or "Dano-Norwegian." E. C. OTTE. DANISH GI^AMMAR PART I. MODES OF WRITING AND SPELLING DANISH AND NORWEGIAN (DANSK-NORSK). THE ALPHABET, ETC. Until recently the Danes and Norwegians used no other characters in printing and writing but those known as the Gothic, or German. In the present day, however, the Latin Alphabet is being extensively employed by the best writers of Denmark and Norway, and a new and more rational system of spelling is gaining ground among the ablest cultivators of that special form of Northern speech known as Danish, or Dano-Norwegian {Bansk-Norsk). This com- pound term indicates the common use of this branch of Scandinavian by Danes and Norwegians, and in point of fact it has for centuries served both peoples as their com- mon literary language, and mother-tongue, although each has spoken it with differences of accent, and each has preserved in its current speech modes of expression and construction peculiar to itself. " BansJc-Norsh" and " Svensk" (Swedish) are twin-sister B I DANISH GEAMMAR. tongueSj derived from the Old Northern branch of Gothic, used by the early Northmen^ and still preserved almost unchanged by the natives of Iceland, who alone among Scandinavian peoples have adhered to the language of their ancestors as it was spoken a thousand years ago. This indentity of language between cultivated Norwegians and Danes is due to political, rather than to racial causes ; for although all the Scandinavian peoples retained as late as the eleventh century a sufficiently accurate acquaintance with their common mother-tongue, the Old Northern, to be able to communicate freely together wherever they met in the course of their wanderings, they soon began to adopt special peculiarities of speech, although in unequal degrees. Thus the Swedes, who took less part than the other Northmen in foreign expeditions, and who by their geographical position were the least influenced by contact with other nations of Western Europe, have retained far more of the Old Northern character in their modes of speech than the Norsemen, or the Danes. In Norway the current speech of the nation at large would possibly have preserved as many traces of its origin, if the Norwegian kingdom had maintained, or re- covered, its independence, as Sweden had done. But while the extinction of its native dynasty in the fourteenth century, led to its incorporation with the Danish kingdom, the almost complete extermination of the nobles, and leading free-men during the sanguinary civil wars of the previous century, caused Norway to be early brought into a condition of dependence on Denmark, not warranted by the terms of its union with that kingdom. The result was that the people MODES OF WEITING AND SPELLING. 3 lost much of their old national character, while the current Danish form of speech supplanted more or less thoroughly the genuine Norse dialects, that had sprung up in the various provinces of Norway. For four hundred years the country re- mained under the rule of the kings of Denmark, and when, in 1814, this long protracted union was severed, and Norwa}' was incorporated with Sweden into one joint realm, it possessed no cultivated native tongue, or literature, apart from Denmark. The Dano-Norwegian language which was thus common to both Norwegians and Danes had, however, in the course of time become so deeply affected by Germanizing influences, that it had lost much of the special Scandinavian character, which could still be traced in Swedish, and in the various forms of the " Bondesprag," or peasant language of provin- cial Norway. Of this Danish and Norwegian scholars have long been sensible, and more than fifty years ago a scheme was propounded by the eminent philologist, Rasmus Hask, for the thorough reform of "Dansk-Norsk" (Dano-Norwegian). Rask's system included the adoption of the Latin charac- ters, with the addition of the various marks and 'accents which the Swedes had long used to indicate special vernacu- lar vowel-sounds, and other Northern modes of accentuation. Its most important feature was, however, its proposed rejec- tion, as far as circumstances admitted, of all foreign elements, and its reversion to the Old Northern as the basis of grammatical construction and orthography. His sugges- tions found little favour at the time, but when the Linguistic Congress, which had been called together at the desire of the leading Scandinavian writers and printers, met at 4 DANISH GRAMMAR. Stockholm, in 1869, to deliberate on the best methods for bringing the written languages of the three Northern king- doms into closer harmony with each other, and with their common mother-tongue, the Old Northern, Rask's system was adopted as the main basis of the Orthographic Resolu- tions, unanimously accepted by the delegates. In accordance with the scheme of the Congress, which closely agreed with the system of spelling and writing already in use among the Swedes, it was proposed that the Gothic characters should be discarded in Dano-Norwegian ; that all superfluous letters should be rejected ; that the marks employed in Swedish to indicate special vowel-sounds, as a (for aa), a and 6, should be adopted, and that the spelling of the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish should be governed by the same rules, wherever the nature and root of the words admitted of their being brought into accord. The moving spring of this radical reform of the Scan- dinavian languages was the national desire of giving to the three Northern lands one joint literature equally acces- sible to all. And for a time it seemed as if this object would be speedily attained ; but it must be admitted that the progress of the much needed reform in the mode of writing, and spelling Dano-Norwegian, has not been as rapid and complete as its advocates had hoped. At the present moment the old and the new systems are still running their parallel courses in Denmark and in Norway, for while scientific works almost without exception, and some of the best literary productions of either country, are printed and spelt in accordance with the new system, the MODES Olf WRITING AND SPELLING. 5 popular daily press, and all public notices, and advertise- ments, generally adhere to the German characters, and to the old forms of spelling'. In Norway this uncertainty in regard to the method of writing and spelling the language is intensified by strong national feeling, for while all parties are agreed in desiring to bring back their spoken language to the more genuine Northern forms, of which survivals are to be found in the " Bondesjprog," or peasant-language, there is no agreement as to the special peasant-dialect that should be accepted as authoritative, and no harmony in the manner of carrying out the proposed changes. Thus, while one section of the patriotic party follows H. Ibsen and B. Bjornson in writing their native language in accordance with the strictest rules of the modern system, others, equally zealous, refuse to depart from a single one of the practices which it was the special object of that system to do away with. Both par- ties have, however, one common object in view, which is to make modern Norwegian diverge as much as possible from the older Danish ; and the result of the present ten- dency to take up into the spoken language of the cultivated classes expressions and modes of pronunciation, which till recently were exclusively used by the peasants, is to make Norwegian approximate more closely to Swedish. At present the language is passing through a stage of transition, almost bewildering to foreigners, who must be prepared, for some time to come, to meet in Norway with the most extreme diversity in the mode in which the lan- guage is spoken, and written, by the older and younger DANISH GKAMMAK. generations of cultivated Norwegians. In tte present work we have followed the new system of orthography and printing, as the more rational and simple ; but to the modern alphabet we have subjoined the German characters, owing to their frequent use by the Danish and Norwegian Press. We have also endeavoured to show the leading dif- ferences of pronunciation between Danes and Norwegians, and; where the occasion required it, we have pointed out* some of the comparatively rare cases in which each nation employs some special word, peculiar to itself, to designate one common object. The Dano-Norwegian Alphabet is composed of the following letters, representing the Latin and the German characters : — A "K, called ak, pronounced B S3 C 6 D S bey sey E e F % G @i ave ghey like a in father. as in English. like h before a, a, o, u. as in English at the be- ginning of words, and by the Danes like soft th in the middle, or at the end of words. like a in lady, and like e in bell. It is sounded at the end of words. as in English. like hard ff in English by the Danes, and like Eng- lish y before the soft vowels by Norwegians. I 3 » ee, J 3 » yodt K^ 3> kaw L & )} el MSR >3 em N 31 3i en £) )3 P $ 33 pey Q SI 33 coo MODES OF WMTING AND SPELLING. 7 H S^, called haw, aspirated except before / and v. ee, pronounced as ee in tree ; and i in bit. as y in yell. as in English. when long, as o in bore; when short, as o in dog. as in English. q is always followed by v instead of u. Q;o is pro- nounced the same as Eng- lish qu. like English r. like English s, hard. as in English. as 00 in spoon, or as u in fall. as » in rale, and when pre- ceded by s as w in scom;1. as French u in dwre, and in nwl. A or Aa 2(, called aw „ like aw in ^aw, or like o in sorrow. M '^ „ eh „ like a in Tpale. O o ew (French) „ like eu in soewr, and in pea. The letters w, x and z only occur in the rendering of foreign words. R Dt sy err S @ }} ess „ T % )i tey U U }} 00 „ V 33 39 'oey „ Y ?) }J u (French) „ O DANISH GEAMMAE. Native purists condemn the use of c and q as alien letters. The former they maintain should be rejected before k as unnecessary^ and should always be replaced by h, where, as is the case in genuine Northern words, c has the sound of that letter ; while, where it has the sound of English, or French c before a soft vowel, they prefer to represent it by the letter s. Qit (or qv) is, on analogous grounds, to be rendered by hv, which supply the equivalent sound in genuine Northern letters. In regard to pronunciation, great variations, as already observed, are growing up between Danes and Norwegians; and in the following remarks we will endeavour briefly to notice some of the most prominent national, and recently acquired, differences of sound given to the same letters by the two peoples. By Danes and Norwegians the final d is not pronounced after I, n, r, t, as Hand {hawn), 'hand/ or before t and s. Among Norwegians, however, d never takes the soft th sound common in Danish when it follows a vowel at the end of a word, as med {medth), ' with.' Norwegian final d has the sound of t in most nouns and adjectives, but in some pronouns, as hvad, ' what,' it is not heard. In Danish, g loses its distinctive sound in monosyllables when following a vowel, as mig {met), ' me.' In Norwegian the g before the soft vowels a, e, i, o, y, acquires the sound of English y, asgcerne, {yerne), 'willingly.' In certain parts of Norway hv has the sound of kv, as hvad {kva), ' what.' This peculiarity, which was till lately regarded as a mere provincialism, is now beginning to find MODES OF WRITING AND SPELLING. 9 favour among the general body of cultivated Norsemen. This peculiar sound of the Northern hv brings more clearly into view the affinity between the Old Northern and Latin ; the hvem (Jivem, ' who,' ' whom ') of the rising Norsk gene- ration being identical with quern, while their hvad [hvad, ' what/ ' which ') represents with nearly equal exactness the Latin neuters quid, quod. J is rejected after fc and g before soft vowels in the new system of spellingj but its rejection has by no means met with unqualified approval, and hence one modern dictionary will give gjerne, Itjobe, etc., while another gives game, ' willingly/ Iwhe, ' to sell/ etc. One person will write lijmr (or hjer), and another Icar, ' dear ;■' or one book published at Copenhagen may bear on its title page the name Kjoben- havn, while another gives the same word as Kobenhavn. The combined letters sk, st, which have among Danes the same sounds as in English, are differently pronounced by Norwegians and Swedes. The sh among the latter has the sound of English sh, as Skyds, [shiitz), ' relay of carriages.'' The st when preceding _;' has a less well established sound among Norwegians, some of whom follow the Swedes in giving it the sound oish, or «c^,as Scheme for Stjesrne,' star,' while others, like the Danes, keep to the sound of stierne. In the older forms of spelling much confusion prevailed in the use of vowels, and in the present transition stage of Dano-Norwegian orthography this indefiniteness still exists, notwithstanding the strenuous efforts of the Stockholm Linguistic Congress to establish some fixed rules for vowel- sounds, that might be accepted both in Dano-Norwegian, 10 DANISPI GEAMMAK. and in Swedish. Among such rules we may instance the following, which were adopted by the Danish and Nor- wegian delegates to promote this end : — 1. To avoid the doubling of the vowel wherever it was not required on etymological grounds, and to indicate the necessary lengthening, or accentuation, by the substitution of some other vowel, or by an accent or mark, such as has been in use in Sweden for more than three centuries. Thus double aa was to be replaced by d, as Bad, for Baad, ' boat.' 2. Double e and i were to be represented by the single unaccented vowel in such words 9.s at se, ' to see,' (instead of at see) ; spiste, ' ate,' (instead of spiiste). E when it fol- lowed y was to be replaced by m, as Hjcelpe, 'help,' (instead of Iljelpe). jE was also to replace e before g where the latter had the hard sound, as Mg, ' edge of knife,' (instead of Eg) ; but where the g has the _;' sound before n, the e should be retained, as Hegn, ' rain.' 3. When the e is mute it is to be rejected, as in doe, ' to die,' boe, ' to dwell ; ' and here it may be observed that excepting in these, and a few analogous cases, final e is always pronounced, although with a grave accent only, as Hose (Base), 'rose.' 4. It was recommended on the part of the Danish delegates at the Congress to retain the distinctive vowels and e, the former being used for the opener sound of the letter. Their Norwegian colleagues preferred, however, like the Swedes, not to distinguish the letter by two marks ; and it was agreed that if Danish writers would consent to MODES OF WKITIIW AND SPELLING. 11 represent the letter by one character only, the o, as used in Swedish, should be accepted. From all that has been said of the transition state of Dano-Norwegian writing, the reader will understand that he must be prepared to meet with a perplexing variety of spelling among Danish and Norwegian writers. Tbese orthographic variations extend even to the order in which certain letters are given in dictionaries. Thus the autho- rized -Z)«%«^-i?e^«/^rw»z»(7«-Or^5o^ (Danish Spelling-Manual) of Svend Gruntvig, 1870, gave a for aa after the letter y, followed by w, o and 0. The DansJc Hand-Ordbog, which was issued by the same author in 1872, at the express orders of the Ministry for Education, which recommended its use to all colleges and schools in Denmark, differs however wholly from its predecessor, both as to the writing and place in the alphabet of this letter, for here aa is placed first among the letters, and is no longer represented by a. Another retrograde movement in this dictionary is that 7 is restored to its old place after g or k, when followed by a soft vowel j as Ejobenhavn, ' Copenhagen.' In most other essential points, however, the two dictionaries are in har- mony; and it was announced when the Hand-Ordbog ap- peared, that the object proposed by its publication was not to supersede the Retskrivnings-Ordbog of 1870, but to facili- ate its acceptance by the general public. This aim has not as yet been fully attained, for although, as we have already stated, many of the best writers have accepted, in toto, the reformed system of spelling on which the dic- tionary of 1870 was based, a very large number of Danes 12 DANISH GRAMMAE. and Norwegians seem content with the intermediate stage of reform represented in the authorized Ranihog oi\%l%, which leaves them the use of aa, and of various other supernumerary letters to which long usage seems to have given a fictitious importance. The one great obstacle to the acceptance by Danish and Norwegian writers of the entire system of reform, agreed upon at the Stockhohn Con- gress, is the adoption of the Swedish character a for aa. All other points will probably be in time conceded ; but this innovation in modern Dano-Norwegian has of late been so persistently opposed, that it is difficult to say whether or not the character a will make good its claim to be accepted in the alphabet. The following examples will sufficiently indicate the variations of spelling and writing which prevail at the present moment : — Bt Ar har to Halmr, Et Aar har to Halvaar, (, A year has two half-years. ©t 2iar t)a): to ^aloaar, Hver Vismand har ikhe Vismandsdnden, J -Civery wise- Hver Vismand har ikhe Vismandsaanden, ) • • ,. ( the spirit of SQ'otx asiifmanb ^ar ilh i8itfmant)§aanben, j ^igdom Kvcegetfdr straks dets Kvoeldsmad, '\ The cattle will KvoBgetfaar straks dets Kvceldsmad, y have their evening Sloceget faoer jlraj; itif) Slocelb^malj, ) meal immediately. MODES OF WAITING AND SPELLING. 13 Kobmanden er t Kdkkenet,'\ Kjobmanden er i KJokkenet, ^ The merchant is in the kitchen, .Riobmanbcn er i ^jijffenet, ) Kapteinen, '\ Kaptejnen, or Capfejnen, [■ The captain. .Raptcincn, or gapteincn, ) Vinen er ihke Sur, '"j Viinen er ihke suur, or sur, \- The wine is not sour. SStineiT er iKe fuur, j It may be observed that cumbrous as is the older system of doubling e, i and w, it helps to mark the long sound of the vowel, as Green [Oren), 'twig;^ Sviin (Svln), 'swine;' Huus {Hus), ' house.^ And this is specially important to foreigners, as these vowels, together with y, 6 and 0, have two distinct sounds, one short and open ; as, let, ' easy ; ' lidt, '\\t\\e;' godt, 'good;' Grund, 'foundation ;' Tryk, 'pres- sure ;' gor, ' does ;' — and the other long and close ; as, led, ' tiresome ; ' lide, ' to suffer ;' god, ' good / Gud, ' God ;' ti^k, ' thick ;' geer, ' barks.' Accentuation, or stress, plays an important part in Dano- Norwegian, but is dependent on so many arbitrary rules that it requires a prolonged acquaintance with the tone in which the language is spoken by Danes and Norwegians to enable a stranger to acquire the various modifications of stress, characteristic of their mother-tongue. As a general rule, it may be stated that where the word is of genuine Northern origin.-ithe stress rests on the radical syllable, as, renlig (ren, ' clean') ; urenlig, ' uncleanly.' In 14 DANISH ORAMMAE. words of foreign origin the accent is very commonly on the last syllable, as General, Kollegium. The first syllable very usually takes the accent in North- er*! words, unless they are compounded with the German prefixes, be, er, for (Ger. ver), which are unaccentuated ; as, hegrive, 'to comprehend ;' erindre, 'to vevaevabev;' forrddne, ' to putrefy.' In words compounded of Northern particles, these take the accent; as, forehaste, 'to upbraid;' vedblive, ' to continue.' In compound words the stress is usually thrown on the syllable which marks the leading characteristic of the whole ; as, en Vrcestagdrd, ' a parsonage ;' l^ordsijensbdlger, ' the waves of the German Ocean ;' Frederiks^ojv/, ' the pastle of Frederick.' ARTICLES. {Kendeord.) Two genders are recognized in modern Danish, viz. the Common Gender {Fmllesldti), and the Neuter Gender {IntetJcon) . Articles and adjectives must agree in gender and number with the noun to which they refer. There are three distinct articles, viz. the Indefinite Article {ubestemte Kendeord), and two forms of the Definite Article [hestemis Kendeord), known as the " Noun Article " and the " Adjective Article." AKTICLBS J 5 The Indefinite Article, which precedes the noun, is — COMMON GENDEK. I NEUTER. en, a, an. | et, a, an. This article agrees in gender with the noun ; as, en Mand, e.g., 'a man/ et Barn, n., 'a child.^ The form of the Definite Article, known as the " Noun- Article" {Mavneordenes Xendeord), consists of the following affixes, which are added to, and incorporated with, the noun, in conformity with the gender and number of the latter : COMMON GENDEE. NETJTEB. PLUBAL, BOTH GENDERS. Affix, en, or «, the et, or f, the ene, or 7ie, the. As, Mand, e.g., 'man,' Manden, 'the man;' Kone, e.g., 'woman,' Konen, 'the woman;' .5(3!rM,n., ' child,' JBarnet, 'the child;' Vindue,u., 'window,' Vinduet, 'the window/ Mwnd, pi. 'men,' Mcendene, 'the men;' Koner, pi., 'women,' JTowerne, 'the women;' Fw^j^er, pi., 'windows,' Vinduerne, ' the windows.' The terminal letter of the word, and certain considerations of euphony, determine whether en, et, and ene, or simply n, t and ne are to be employed in the formation of the article affix. The independent form of the definite article, known as the "Adjective Article" {Tillaegs Kendeord), agrees in gender and number with the noun to which it refers, and always precedes the adjective qualifying the latter, never standing in direct proximity to the noun itself. COMMON GENDBB. NETJTEfi. * PLUEAL. B0TH QENDEE. den, the det, the de the. Ben gode Mand, c. g., ' the good man; ' det gode Barn, n., ' the good child/ de gode Drenge, pi., ' the good boys.' 16 DANISH GEAMMAK. Norwegians use Gut, e. g-., in the place of Breng, for ' boy/ For an explanation of the manner in which the various articles have acquired their present form and significance, the reader is referred to Part II. NOUNS. {Navneorcl.) Nouns are of two genders, the Common [Fmlleslcon), and the Neuter, [Intetkon) ; as, en. Seng, c. g., ' a bed; ' et Bord n., ' a table.' Some nouns are used in the singular only; as, Forstand, c. g., ' understanding;' Guld, n., ' gold.' Others are used only in the plural ; as, Forceldre, ' parents ; ' Soskende, ' brothers and sisters.' The plural of nouns are formed in various ways :^ 1. By retaining the same form as the singular ; as, et Dyr, ' an animal ; ' Jlere Byr, ' various animals.' 2. By the addition of e to the singular ; as, Breng, c. g., ' boy,' pi. Brenge, ' boys.' Words ending in unac- centuated er, or dom, and those of one syllable, whose radical vowel does not change in the plural, generally also take this termination; as, Ryiter, c. g., ' rider,' pi. Ryttere; Sygdom, c. g., ' sickness,' pi. Sygdomme; H-us, n., ' house,' pi. Huse. 3. By the addition of er. Under this head fall many nouns ending in a vowel; as, Tree, n., 'tree,' pi. IVceev. Words of foreign origin, as General, ' General,' pi. Generahv, and words ending in ing, hed and skab ; as. NOUNS. 17 Hegning, ' reckoning'/ pi. Regningex ; SmuJcJied, c. g., 'beauty,' pi. SmuMeder; Fe nskab, n., ' Meniship,' pi. Fensiaber. Words ending in e simply take r ; as, Kone, c. g., 'woman,' Tpl.Koner; Mennesie, n., ' creature/ pi. Mennesher. 4. By a change of the radical vowel ; as, Mand, c. g., ' man/ pi. Mc^nd ; Gas, c. g., ' goose/ pi. Gses ; Barn, n., ' child/ pi. Born. In some cases this change is associated with a transposition of the terminal letters ; as, Fader, c. g., 'father/ pi. FisdTQ; Moder,c.g., 'mother/ pl.il/odre. 5. Nouns ending in el, en, or er often drop the penul- timate e ; as, Eiigel, c. g., ' angel,' pi. Eng]e ; Lageti, c. g., ' sheet,' pi. Lagner ; Ager, ' field/ pi. Agve. 6. Words having a double consonant reject one of these ; as, Himmel, c. g., ' heaven,' pi. Hirale ; Mid- del, c. g., ' method/ pi. Middler ; Batter, 'daughter/ pi. Dotre. Words of one or more unaccentuated syllables, ending in a consonant, double the latter in the plural ; as, Bal, c. g., ' ball,' pi. BaWer ; Son, c. g., ' son,' pi. Sonner ; Rig- dom, c. g., ' riches,' pi. Bigdomme. The genitive is the only case which is marked by any special termination, this being made, as in English, by tlie addition of s, without an apostroplie, or es. Nouns ending in any consonant except s or h (a-), and c 18 DANISH GRAMMAR. those ending in e, take « in the genitive ; as Mand, c. g., ' man,' gen. Mands ; Barn, n., ' child/ gen. Barns ; Ko- nerne, pi. 'the women,' gen. Konernes. Nouns ending in s, h (x), and in vowels, excepting e, take es in the genitive ; as, Sus, n., ' house,' gen. iZwses j -S^j c. g., ' town,' gen. B^es ; Bro, c. g., ' bridge,' gen. Broes. Although the common gender includes generally all words designating living beings, — as en Person, ' a person ;' en Sanger, 'a singer;' en Hest, 'a horse,' — certain words which indicate a special class of beings without reference to sex are exceptions to this rule ; as, et Barn, ' a child ;' ET Vmsen, 'a creature;' Kvmg, n., 'cattle.' The words Mandfolk, ' a male,' Fruentimmer, ' a female,' are neuter. To the common gender belong, generally, the names of trees and flowers, and of special products of the vegetable world ; as, en Bog, ' a beech ; ' en Rose, ' a rose ; ' en Blomme, 'a, plum;' Te, e.g., 'tea;' Fin, c. g., ' wine ;' Terpeniin, c. g., ' turpentine.' Definitions of distinct kinds, or parts, of plants are neuter; as, Tree, 'tree;' Blad, 'leaf;' Grms, 'grass;' Korn, 'corn.' Words ending in e, de, ked, skab, dom, when they imply conditions and properties, are generally of the common gender; as, Varme, 'heat;' Hojde, 'height;' Dumhed, ' stupidity;' Ondskah, ' wickedness ;' MandAora, ' manhood.' To the same gender belong, generally, words ending in ning, else, sel, st, en when they indicate some action, or active ADJECTIVES. 19 principle ; as, Lcpsuing, ' reading ; ' Styrehe, ' direction ; ' FcBrdstX, 'traiEc;' Fangsi, 'capture;' Iidien, 'running.' To the neuter gender belong, generally, names of places and metals; as, dei store London, 'great London;' det atcerhe Jczrn, ' strong iron.' To the neuter gender belong also words ending in eri, at, turn ; as, Krammeri, ' trumpery ; ' Kra.t, ' thicket ; ' Xollegiam, ' college.' And words derived from the infinitive of words by discarding the final e ; as, et Skrig, ' a cry,' from at Skrige, ' to cry out.' Some words are of uncertain gender ; as, en, or et Telf, ' a tent;' en, or et Trold, ' a goblin.' As a rule, it may be observed that in such cases of uncertainty the neuter gender is usually to be preferred. Many words have a diflFerent meaning, in accordance with the special gender assigned to them ; as, en Brud, ' a bride ; ' et Brud, ' a rupture,' ' a quarry.' The number of such words, of which we give examples in Part II., is very large. ADJECTIVES. {tlUcegsord.) Adjectives, which must agree in gender and number with the noun which they qualify, generally form the neuter by adding t, and their plural by adding e to the abstract singular form ; as, en god Mand, ' a good man ;' et godt Barn, ' a good child ; ' gode Drenge, ' good boys.' When the adjective is preceded by the independent demonstrative article, den, det, de, it generally takes an e, as den gode Mand, det gode Barn, de gode Drenge. 20 DANISH QBAMMAE. When the adjective ends in e or s, these letters remain unchanged; 2,5, den staMels Mand, 'the poor man/ den lille Mand, 'the little man;' det lille £arn, ' the little child;' det siahheh Barn, 'the poor child.' Adjectives ending in el, en, er, discard the e, when used with the independent article ; as, cedel, ' noble,' den cedle Mand, ' the noble man;' mo^en, ' ripe ;' den modne Blomme, ' the ripe plum ;' mager, ' lean ;' den magre Hest, ' the lean horse.' A similar change is effected when the adjective is used in the plural as a predicate, or absolutely ; as, Blom- merne ere Modne, ' the plums are ripe ;' (Bdle Mcend, ' uoble men.' Adjectives ending in an unaccentuated syllable double the final consonant ; as, slem, or slet, ' bad ;' den slemme (slette) Mand, 'the bad man.' Some adjectives are at once defective and irregular ; as, megen, sing., ' much ;' flere, pi., ' many ;' fa, pL, ' few ;' smd, pi., ' small.' Adjectives may be used independently in the sense of qualified nouns ; as, deil Gode, ' the good ' (man under- stood) ; Be Store, 'the great' (people understood). The comparative degrees are formed as follows : — (1) by the addition to the positive of ere (comp)., e«^ (superl.) ; (2) by the addition to the positive of re (comp.), st (su- perl ), when the word ends in e, and in some other cases, more especially when the radical vowel undergoes a change ; (3) by the use of mere, ' more,' and mest, ' most,' chiefly in words ending in unaccentuated et, and derived from the pasl participle of verbs ; as — ADVERBS. 21 POSITITE. COMPARATIVE. SUPEELATIVE. 1. rig, rich, rigere, rig&st. 2. ringe, slight, ringeie, ringest. 2. sfor, large, sforve, storst. 3. Iroget, variegated. mere hroget, mest brogef. Some adjectives are wholly irregular ; as — god, good, hedre, best, ond, bad, vcerre. varst, lille, little, mindre, mindst. gammel, old, cddre, midst. ADVERBS. {Biori.-) Adverbs are often identical vFith the neuter singular of corresponding adjectives; as, /iwr%t, 'hastily,'' ixova. hurtig , adj., 'hasty.' Adverbs of place and time, negation and aflSrmation, &c. are both simple and compound; as, lier, 'here;' kerfra, ' hence ;' ude, ' out ;' udenfra, ' from outside ;' ilike, ' not ;' j'a, Jo, ' yes ;' sd, ' so ;' sdledes, ' thus ;' slide, ' late ;' drle, ' early ;' tilforn, ' formerly ;' i-dag, ' to-day ;' i-gdr, ' yes- terday.' Some are formed by the addition to other adverbs, ad- jectives, or other parts of speech, of the aflSxes ledes and vis ; as, %eledes, ' likewise ;' uheldig-fis, ' unfortunately ;' stykkexis, ' piece by piece.' Adverbs form their degrees of comparison in the same manner as adjectives ; as — 23 DANISH GEAMMAE. POSITIVE. ofte, often, tit, often, smukt, handsomely. COMPARATIVE. ofteve, tiere, smukkere, SITPEELATIVE. o/test. tiest. smukkest. Some adverbs are irregular ; as, ffoerne, rather, readily, hellere, heist, vel, well, ledre, bedst. Some are defective j as — ude, out, yderst. far, before, fiirst. mindre, less, mindst. The latter are used to express diminutive degrees of com- parison both for adjectives and other adverbs ; as — smuh, handsome, ad/j., mindre smuk, mindst smvk. smukt, handsomely, adv., mindre smukt, mindst smuht. The superlative of adjectives and adverbs acquires addi- tional force when preceded by alter (all, most, very); as, den alter storste Glcede, ' the very greatest joy ;' joa det alter smuhkeste, ' most handsomely.' PRONOUNS. (Stedord.) Personal Peonoqns. Singular. Norn, jeg, I; du, thou; han, he; hun, she; den, det, it. Gen. — — hans, his ; hendes, hers ; _ . .. dens, dels, its. Cases l^iffy^^'} '^^9) thee; ham, him; hende, her; den, det, it. PRONOUNS. 23 Plural. Nominative, vi, we; /, ye; de, they, fienitive, vores,o\rc; Mers, your; deres, their. Other Cases, os, us ; Uder, ye ; dem, them. The reflective pronoun sig, ' self/ is used in both gen- ders for the third person singular. In common parlance the third person plural de, written with a capital D, (De), is employed in the sense of 'you/ when addressing another individual, excepting in cases of near relationship, or close intimacy, when Du, ' thou,' is used, as among Germans. Possessive Pronouns. Siuffular. Min, mit, my ; din, dit, thy ; sin, sit, his, hers, its ; vor, vort, our ; jer, jert, your. Plural, Mine, my ; dine, thy ; sine, his, hers, its ; vore, our ; jere, your. Sin, sit, sine are used exclusively as subjective reflex- possessive pronouns, whilst hans, Aendes are used in an objective sense; as, Hun tog sin Hat, 'she took her (own) hat;' han top hans Mat, 'he took his (another man's) hat.' 24 DANISH GKAMMAE. Demonstrative Pronouns. Singular, COM. GBN. KEUT. den, denne, Mn, sddan, dig, samme. selv, det ^ dette /-this, or that. hint •' sddant "j sligt J such selv, self iegge, both. Plural. r de, these, or those. \ disse, these. ^ hine, those. {sddanne. slige. samme. selv. Eelative Pronouns. 1. Som, " who/ ' whom,' is used for both genders and numbers, and indifferently in the nominative and accu- sative j as, KoneH soM sd mig, ' the woman who saw me ; ' Konen som jeg sd, ' the woman whom I saw.^ 3. Ber, ' who,' ' that,' is used for both genders and num- bers, but only in the nominative ; as, Manden der gih ud, ' the man who went out.' 3. Hvem, ' whom,' is used incorrectly in the nominative instead of hvo, ' who,' and should be employed only in the objective ; hvis, ' whose,' is used only in the genitive. 4. Hvad, ' what,' is used only in the neuter singular. 5. Hvilken, hvilhet, pi. hvilhe, ' which.' In the place of this pronoun, where an interrogative is required, the ex- pression hvad for en (what for a) is often used ; as, Hvad for en Gut (Norweg.) mener de? "What boy do you mean?" VEEBS. 25 IndepinitE Peonoxjns. Singul ar. Plural. al, alt, alle, all. anden, andet, andre. other. ingen, i7itet. itigen. none. mangen, mangt, mange, many. nog en. noget. nogle, some, some one, enhver. snhvert, ... each. en, et, one. man, one; people. Ainanden, each other. hverandre. one another. Nogen and ingen correspond with ' some one/ and ' no one ;' a.s, Mr der Ingen i Buset ? " Is there no one in the house ?" Jo, der er Nogen lijemme, " Yes, there is some one at home.^' Mangen en, mangt et, ' many a one/ are used as in English, but are perhaps of more frequent occurrence in ordinary conversation. Nogle fd, pi., ' some few/ admits of being used as in English. VERBS. {Udsagnsord.) Dano- Norwegian Verbs have three forms, the active, the passive, and the deponent. The principal auxiliaries are at have, ' to have/ and at vcere, 'to be,' which are conjugated by the help of other auxiliaries, as, at shulle , ' shn\\ ;' at ville,' vi\]\;' at matte, 'may/ at hunne, 'can;' — all of which are more or less defective. At blive, 'to be/ 'to remain,' and at fd, 'to 26 DANISH GEAMMAR. get,' (to be under a necessity,) may Le used as auxiliaries ; the former with the verb at vcere, ' to be,' in the con- jugation of passive verbs, and the latter in the sense of ' may,' ' must,' in the conjugation of active verbs. Infinitive. Present, at have, to have. at vcere, to be. Past, at have haft, to have had. at have vwret, to have been. Future, at shuUe have, to be obliged to have j (shall have). at skulle vwre, to be obliged to be ; (will, or shall be). Participles. Present, havende, having. vcerende, being. Past, haft, had. vwret, been. Indicative. T resent Tense, ieg, du, han, hun, har, I, thou, etc., have, hast, has. „ „ „ „ er, „ „ „ am, art, is. vi, I, de, have, we, etc., have. » » )i ere, „ „ are. Imperfect Past, jeg, du, han, hun, havde, I, etc., had (in all persons). „ „ „ „ var, I, etc., was. vi, I, de, vare, we, ye, they, were VEKBS. 27 Compound Tenses. Jeff, du, han, hun, har haft, \, etc., have had. J, „ „ „ vceret, 1, etc., have been. vi, I, de, have, haft, we, etc., have had. „ „ „ „ vceret, we, etc., have been. jtg, etc., shal, or vil have, I, etc., shall, or will, have. „ „ skal, or vil voere, shall, or will be. vi, etc., skulle, or ville have, we, etc., shall, or will have. „ „ sTculle, or ville vcere, shall, or will be. Potential. have, may have. vcere, may be. (for all persons). Imperative. hav du, have thou. V(pr du, be thou. haver I, have ye. vcerer I, be ye. The other auxiliaries — some of which, as at Hive, ' to be,' 'to remain/ at fa, 'to be constrained,' 'to get,' may be used in an independent form — are conjugated as follows : Infinitive. Present Indicative. Sing. Plur. at fa, to get. jeg, etc., far vi, etc., fa. at blive, to be. bliver blive. at slculle, shall. shal sJculle at ville, will. vil ville. at matte, may, md md. at kunne, can, kan kunne 28 DANISH GEAMMAK. Imperf. Past Indie. Past Participle Sing, and Plur. fik, fdet. blev. hleven, llevet. shulde, sTcullef: vilde, villet. mdUe, mdttet. Tiunde, kunnet. Regulab, Verbs {Begelrette Udsagnsord). Regular Dano-Norwegian Verbs admit of being grouped under two heads, which are classified as weak modes of conjugation. These are: (1) Those which take ede in the imperfect past of the indicative, and et in the participle past ; as, at elske, ' to love,' i. p. elskeie, p. p. elsket. (2) Those which add te in the imperf past of the indicative. And t in the p. past, directly to the root of the word ; as, at strceie, ' to strive,' i. p. strmhie, p. p, strcebi. In both these forms, the three persons of the present tense of the indicative always end in r in the singular ; as, jeg, du, han (or Imn), and De, troster, 'I, etc., console,' from at troste, ' to console j' Jeg, etc., sporger, ' I, etc., ask,' from at sporge, ' to ask.' The following examples show the manner in which verbs belonging to these two forms are declined : — Infinitive. Indicative. Present. Imp. Past. at elsJce, to love jeg, etc., elsher, I, etc., love, elshede. vi, etc., els&e, we, etc., love, ^°- all persons). at soge, to seek jeg, etc., soger, I, etc., seek, sogte. vi, etc., soge, we, etc., seek, (for all poreons). Present. ehhende. siigende. VBEBS. 29 Participles. Past. elsket. sogt. The passive of active verbs is formed by adding .? to the infinitive, and to all persons in the simple tenses, or by the use of the auxiliary at vcere, or at blive, 'to be ; ' as — Infinitive, at elskus, to be loved ; and at blive, or at voere, elsket, to be loved. at soges, to be sought ; and at blive, or at vcere, sogt, to be sought. Indicative. Present. jeg, etc., elskes, or bliver elsket. jeg, etc., soges, or bliver sogt. Imperfect Past. jeg, etc., elskedes, or blev elsket. jeg, etc., sogtes, or blev sogt. Compound Tenses, jeg, etc., er, or var, elsket ; jeg, etc., er, or var, sogt. jeg, etc., er, or var, bleven elsket; jeg, etc., er, or var, bleven sogt. jeg, etc., slial, or vil, elskes ; jeg, etc., skal, or vil, soges. Ikkegular Vbubs (Uregelrette Udsagnsord.) The different irregularities of the Danish Verbs which belong to the strong or irregular modes of conjugation, admit of being reduced to certain leading forms, and may be comprehended under the following heads : 30 DANISH GRAMMAE. 1. Those in which the sole difference from weak, or so- called regular verbs, is that the imperfect past of the indi- cative consists of only one syllable, and is not distinguished by the addition of ede, or te, this being in point of fact the one character which all strong verbs have in com- mon; as. Infinitive. Indicative. Present. Imp. Past. Past-Part. a< ^r«(^e, to weep. jeg,k,c., grceder. greed. grcedt. pi. vi, &C., groede. (for all persons) 2. Those which change the radical vowel both in the imperfect past of the indicative, and in the past parti- ciple ; as, at drive, to drive, jeg driver, drev, drevet. pi. vi drive, for all persons) 3. Those which change the radical vowel only in the imperfect past of the indicative ; as, at bide, to bite, jeg bider, bed, bidt. pi. vi bide, (for all persons). 4. Those which take a different vowel in the imperfect past of the indicative, and in the past participle, both of which differ from the radical vowel ; as, at drikJce, to drink, jeg drikker, drak, drukhet. pi. vi drikke, (for all persons.) It will be observed, (1) that in all verbs, whether belong- ing to the weak (or regular), or to the strong (or irregular) groups, the present of the indicative is formed directly from VERBS. 31 the infinitive, to which r is added in the singular ; as^ at give, 'to give,' jeg, dii, han, ovhiin. Be, giver, vi, I, de give. (2) That whatever may be the form of the past imperfect of the indicative, it remains the same for all persons, both in the singular and plural. The strong, or irregular form of conjugation, whose imperfect past of the indicative is always monosyllabic, includes upwards of 100 verbs, and was apparently the more ancient mode of conjugation in the Old Northern. The tendency of modern Danish is to depart from this more characteristic type, and to bring cer- tain verbs, which in older times accorded with the strong form,, under the rules of the regular weak forms of conjuga- tion. Thus we BOW find indifferently vejede and vog for the imperfect past of at veje, ' to weigh ;' gravede and grov for at grave' ' to dig,' &c. Deponent verbs have an active significance, while in most particulars they follow the mode of conjugation required for passive verbs ; as, — Infinitive. Indicative. Present. Imp. Past. Participle. at Hues, to blush, at lyhhes, to succeed. jeg, &c., blues, hluedes, bluets. jeg, &c., lylikes, lykkedes, lykkets. Many deponents can only be used as impersonals ; as, det dages, ' the day is breaking,' (day is coming) ; det mark- nes, ' it is growing dark.' Passives and deponents may be used in an impersonal sense with der, ' there ;' as, der slds, ' there is fighting going on ;' der kappes om Prisen, ' the prize is being contended for.' 32 DANISH GEAMMAR. Some verbs must always be used in a reflective sense; as, at hetahhe sig, ' to beg to be excused.' at beflitte sig, ' to apply oneself.' Some verbs admit of being used either reflectively, or transitively; as, Jeff bader miff, '1 bathe myself;' Jeff bader Bamet, ' I bathe the child.' Some verbs compounded of words of different parts of speech admit of the separation of these components, as, at ihjelsld, or at sld ihjel ; as, soldaten i/iJelsM sin Ven, or soldaten sld sin Ven ihjel, ' the soldier killed (struck dead) his friend.' Some verbs acquire a different meaning when the com- ponent parts are separated ; as, at overdrive, ' to exagge- rate ;' at drive over, ' to drive over (across).' PREPOSITIONS. {ForJwldsord.) The principal prepositions ad, to, at. af, of, from. bag, behind. efter, after. for, for, before. fra, from. for, before. hos, at, with, at the house of. iblandt, blandt, among. iffennem, gennem, through. imellem, mellem, between. imod, mod, against. are med, with. mod, against. noest, next to. cm, about, of. pa, on. samt, together with. siden, since. til, to, of. trods, in spite of. uden, without. under, under. ved, with. CONJUNCTIONS. 33 Various prepositions are compound ; as, bagved, behind. for an, before. henved, towards, indtil, into. CONJUNCTIONS. {Bindeord.) The principal conjunctions are : — og, and, eller, or, hvis, if, in case. samt, together with. enten, either, fordi, because. bade, both, 1i, because. men, but, siden, da, since, when. endog, even, at, that, at ilcke, lest. end, than, (used in the comparison of adjectives). INTERJECTIONS. {Udrdbsord.) Interjections are, (1) imitative sounds, expressive of impressions they are intended to convey; as, Pwf ! knak ! top ! (2) Natural expletives ; as. Ah ! Ak ! ! Fy ! (3) The imperatives of verbs ; as, velkommen ! ' be welcome ;' bort ! ' go away.' (4) Vitiated forms of invoca- tion ; as, HiUemcend / (0, hellige Mcend !) "Oh! blessed Saints ;" Sdmcend ! {Sd sandt som det hellige Evangelium, sd hjcBlpe tnig de hellige Mcend !) " As true as holy Gospel, so help me the Blessed Saints \" S4 DANISH GRAMMAK. PART II. ON THE CHARACTER, POSITION, AND MORE PRECISE USE OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. The Indefinite Article. {Ubestemte Kendeord.) The earlier writings of the Old Northern afford no evi- dence of the use of an Indefinite Article, which was first represented by the pronouns einn, ' one ;' einnhver, ' each one ;' and nokhurr, ' some one.' From the first of these has been derived the present Dano-Norwegian article, en, et, ' a,' ' an,' which is in point of fact an unaccentuated modifi- cation of the existing pronoun en, ' one,'' aad the numeral en, et, ' one.' The indefinite article precedes the noun, or the adjective qualifying the letter, as en Mand, en god Mand, excepting in cases where it is used with the adjectives slig, sddan, man- gen ; or when the adjective to which it refers is preceded by sd, Jivor, altfor, for, and the sentence has an interjec- tional sense, under which conditions it stands between the adjective and noun ; as, slig en Mand, ' such a man !' mangt et Barn ! ' many a child ;' sd vranten en Pige ! " such a cross girl .'' hvor dejligt et Tree. ! 'what a lovely tree V for Iwrt en Sang ! ' too short a song ! ' THE DEFINITE AttTICLB. 35 The indefinite article must be repeated after og, even where the nouns, which it enumerates, are of the same gender ; as, en Mand og en Kone, ' a man and a woman.' This article is not used to designate a rank, or calling, or a distinctive qualification ; as, Er han Grev eller Baron ? " Is he (a) Count or (a) Baron ?" Han ei- Lmge, "He is (a) doctor ;" Hun er Enhe, " She is (a) widow;" Han er Protes- tant, "He is (a) Protestant." The indefinite article may be used with a plural to express an indefinite quantity in the sense of "about," "nearly;" as,Jeg iliver her en tre,fire Tiger, "I shall stay here about three or four weeks." The Definite Articles. {Be bestemte Kendeord.) The agglutination with the noun of the affix-article en or n (m.f.), et or t (n), ene or ne (pi.), which constitutes the most striking characteristic of the Scandinavian tongues, has been derived from the Old Northern, although it does not occur in Old Gothic. It is met with, however, under a modified form in Roumanian and Bulgarian, as well as in Albanian, which must be regarded as more original in structure than either of the former. In the most ancient Icelandic writings the definite noun- article is not to be found, but it would appear that the demonstrative pronoun hinn (m.), hin (f), hitt (n.j, 'that,' was early used after the noun to define the latter, as is still frequently done by Norwegians in the case of the pronouns min, din, sin ; as, Fader min, ' father mine ;' Broder din, ' brother thine ;' &c. The Danes and Norwegians, following 36 DANISH GEAMMAK. the rule of the ancient mother-tongue, originally wrote Mand hin, ' man that ;' IIus kit, ' house that ;' Born hine, ' children those.' And as in Icelandic these demonstrative pronouns, when appended to a noun to give it its definite inflected form, lost the h, and appeared as the aflixes i«» (ra.), in (L), itt (n.), &e., so in Danish the pronoun has become converted into en or n (m. f.), et or t (n.), &c., and now constitutes the simple noun-article. The inter- mediate stage between the older Mand hin, and the modern Manden, 'the man j^ was Mandhen. In their present form these affixes have the precise mean- ing of the definite article " the," but can only be thus used when the noun is not qualified by an adjective; as, Chat- ten er min Broder, " The boy is my brother ;" Suset er hans Kones, " The house is his wife's/' Bornene lege i Haven med ffnnden, "The children are playing in the garden with the dog." The independent adjective-article is : — den, c. g. det, n. de, pi. of both genders. This article is the unaccentuated representative of the demonstrative pronoun den, det, de, derived, like the affix noun-form of the article, from the Old Northern demon- strative pronoun Mnn (m.), kin (f.), kiti (n.), kinir (pi. m.), /dnar (pi. f.), kin (pi. n.), ' that.' It must directly precede the adjective which qualifies the noun ; as, deti lange Gut, 'the tall boy;' det hoje Tree, ' the high tree ; ' de smd Born, ' the little children.' The independent adjective-article may be used in the NOUNS. 37 place of the noun-affixes when special emphasis, or a distinct meaning is to be given to the word ; as^ Aldrig lader den Mand sine Born i Fred ! " The man never leaves his children in peace ! " Siger den Soldat at jeg er dov ? " Does the soldier really say that I am deaf?" In such|cases, however, den, may be considered to be used more in the sense of a demonstrative pronoun than a mere article, although still retaining its unaccented tone. The position of the noun in a simple sentence is the same as in English. The subject precedes, and the object follows, the verb ; as, Manden sld Brengen, " The man beat the boy." In a secondary part of a sentence subject to, or condi- tional on, the preceding part, and in interrogations, the noun, with its article or pronoun, and its qualifying adjective, is invariably placed after the verb ; as, hvis Lxreren var her, vovede disse U7iartige Brenge sig ikke at gore sddant et spektakel, " If the master were here those naughty boys would not dare to make so much noise." Gar Be ikke i Haven i Bag ? "Are you not going into the garden to-day?" The genitive precedes the subject or the object to which it refers ; as, Ben gode Mands smd Born, " The good man's little children." For Guds skyld, " For God's sake." Where several words are used to indicate the noun stand- ing in the genitive, the last only takes #, or es ; as, Victoria, Bronning af Englands Rige, " The dominions of Victoria, Queen of England." The genitive may be used where a comparison between the qualities of two persons or things is made, without repeating the word designating the quality; as, Guldets S8 DANISH GKAMMAK. Pris er hojere en Sblvets, " The price of gold is higher than (that of) silver ; " Kapteinens Heltemod var stijrre end Generalens, "The Captain's valour was greater than the General's." The prepositions ad, af, til, etc., may be used to indi- cate the genitive j as, en Son ad [af, or til) Bronningen, " A son of the Queen." Words expressing weight and quality are placed in direct apposition to the noun which they govern, without taking the genitive case, or using a preposition ; as, et Fund Smor, ' a pound (of) butter; ' et Glas Fin, ' a glass (of) wine.' The objective noun which is used directly in the dative precedes the simple objective ; as, Manden gav Drengen Blommen, " The man gave the boy the plum ; " but where the dative is governed by a preposition, it follows the objec- tive j as, Manden gav Blommen til Dkengen, "The man gave the plum to the boy." Traces of the inflexions of nouns in the Old Northern yet linger in Danish in certain forms of expression, in which the ancient terminations of cases (generally the genitive and dative) have survived; as, ad Hjcertens liyst, 'to one's heart's content ;' at have i Sinde, 'to intend' (have in one's mind); i Live, ' alive;' til Dode, 'till (or to) death.' In the oldest forms of Dano-Norwegian, nouns were classed under three genders, survivals of which are still to be found in the provinces, where the peasants retain the use of the feminine gender for various inanimate objects. Nouns of the common gender acquire a distinct feminine significance, (1) by the addition of inde, or s/ce; as, en NOUNS. 39 Bandser (m.), 'a male dancer;' en Dandser'mie (f.), 'a woman dancer ;' en Hollander, 'a Dutchman j' en Eolldnder- inde, ' a Dutchwoman ;' en %erske, ' a workwoman/ (2) By the use of a characteristic noun or pronoun ; as, en Sondekone, ' a peasant woman ;' en Knnianm, ' a doe- rabbit.' Some nouns have changed their gender in the course of time ; and in regard to others, it may be said that their right gender is undecided, as in the case of Slagis, ' kind,' Helbred, ' health,' Punht, ' point,' which may be used with an article and adjective of the common, or the neuter gender. The older and original form of gender may often be determined by the survival of some idiomatic expression ; as, at gd i Tdget, ' to be in (a cloud), a muddle ;' efterBng- staven, 'literally,' 'according to the letter,' although Tdge, ' a mist,' is now of the common gender, and Bogstav, 'letter,' is neuter. The following list gives some examples of the numerous nouns which vary in meaning in accordance with differences of gender : — en Ark, an ark ; et Ark, a sheet of paper, en Birk, a birch ; etBirJc, Danish provincial jurisdiction. en Bo, a dwelling ; et Bo, an estate. eti Flor, a bloom ; et Flor, gauze. en Fro, a frog j et Fro, a seed. en Gran, spruce-fir ; et Gran, an atom, grain. en Kuld, a cold ; et Kuld, descendant of same parents. 40 DANISH GEAMMAE. en Led, a side ; et Led, a link ; wicket-gate. en Lod, a portion ; et Lod, a plummet, ounce- weight. en Mor, a moor (Ban.) et Mor, moire (silk fabric) . en Nogle, a key ; et Nogle, a ball of thread {Ban.) en Him, a hoar-frost ; et Him, a rhyme. en Segl, a sickle ; et Segl, a seal ; sail [Norw.) en Spand, a bucket ; et Spand, a span ; team of horses ; {Ban.) . bucket, {Norw^ en Som, a seam ; sew- et Som; a nail (Ban.) ing ; nail (Norm.) en Vdr, spring (of et Vdr, a pillow-case. the year) ; en Ore, a piece of et Ore, an ear. money ; In former times there was a larger number of such words than at present, for the tendency here, as elsewhere in Dano-Norwegian, is to simplify and minimize rules and exceptions. Thus many words having different meanings, which were formerly distinguished by differences of gender, are now reduced to one gender, while their special signifi- cance is often indicated by some slight but definite accen- tuation. Danes and Norwegians in some cases use different genders, as Smald, ' crack,' ' smack,' which the former refer to the neuter, and the latter to the common gender. Danish adapts itself with the most facile readiness to the formation of compounds, the gender of which is regulated by that of the last word in the combined group; as, et Moderland (n.), 'a mother-land;' en Klcedehod, 'draper's shop;' Handklmdeib} (n.), ' towelling.' ADJECTIVES. 41 AuJEOTiYES. {Tillcegsord.) Adjectives must agree'in number and gender, both with the noun which they qualify, and with that to which they stand in the relation of predicates ; as, et lidet Hus, ' a little house ;' Vejen var hende for lang, ' the way was too long for her ;' de sode smd Born, 'the dear (sweet) little children!' Generalens Vcsrelser vare ikke sd store som mine, ' the Gene- ral's rooms were not so large as mine.' The plural adjeetives_/«, 'few/ mange, 'many,' alle, 'all,' admit of being used with a singular verb, and without the adjective- article ; as, der hammer fa Mand, ' a few men (man) are coming ;' Klohken er mange, ' it is late, (the clock is many) ;' alle gang, ' every (all) time.' Al, alt (n.), 'all,' legge, 'both,' precede the noun directly, without the adjective-article, while they require the affix- article to be appended to the noun ; as, al Ver&en, ' all the world ;' alt Grcesset, ' all the grass ;' Begge Pigerne, ' both the girls.' Hel, ' all,' ' whole,' may be used with either article ; as, Aele Huset, or det hele Hus, ' the whole house.' Adjectives may be used as, and in the place of, nouns, the latter being understood ; as, hun celslcede den Gode, ' she loved the gogd (man, person) ;' Be Stolie, 'the proud ! (people).' Some adjectives, expressive of worth, or obligation, fol- low the objective noun, instead of standing near the subject- noun ; as, Prwsten er den JEre vcerdig, ' the clergyman is worthy of the honour ;' Soldaten er Generalen intet shi/ldig, 'the soldier owes the General nothing.' 42 DANISH GRAMMAE. Adjectives follow the noun when used as titular distinc- tions ; as, Knud den store, ' Canute the Great ;' Karl den femte, ' Charles the Fifth.' When adjectives are used to represent nouns they fol- low the same rules as the latter in regard to the genitive, which they form by adding s ; as, de Godes Handlinger og de Slettes, 'the actions of the good and the bad.' An apos- trophe is inadmissible here, as in the case of nouns, although in some names, more especially when they are of foreign origin, it is occasionally used, as Darius's. In the following list of the numerals will be found the several forms of numeration, common among Danes and Norwegians respectively. The Cardinal Numbers. These are the same among both peoples up to 30 ; as, Danish and Norwegian. 12. tolv. 13. tretten. 14. fjorten. 15. femten. 1. en, et. 2. io, [tvende). 3. tre, (treiide) 4. fire. 5. fem. 6. selcs. 7. syv. 8. dtte {otte). 9. ni. 10. ti. 11. elleve. 16. seksten. 17. sytten. 18. atten. 19. nitten, 20. tyve. 21. en og tyve. &c. NUMERALS. Banish. Norwegian. 30. tredive. tretti. 31. en og tredive, &c. en og tretti. 40. fyrretyve. fyrti, oxfirti 50. halvtredsindstyve. femti. 60. tredsindsf.yve. sehsti. 70. halvfjoerdsindstyve. sytti. 80. firsinddyve. otti. 90. halvfemsindsiyve. nitti. 43 The higher numbers are the same among Danes and Norwegians ; as. 100 . . . hundrede. ],000 tusinde. 100,000. hundrede tusinde. 1,000,000. ■million^ The cumbrous and verbose manner in which the num- bers between 20 and 100 are characterized by Danes is of comparatively late introduction into Dano-Norwegian, and may possibly owe its origin to an old habit still prevailing in certain rural districts in Denmark of computing by scores, instead of tens, or dozens. The word sind is an old, otherwise obsolete term, meaning ' fold,' or ' turn,' whence tredsinstyve, ' sixty,' resolves itself into three times (or turns) twenty. Until recently the Norwegians, excepting in some parts of the north and west fjelds of the country, followed this method of reckoning, but of late years they have more and more generally reverted to the older, and simpler decimal system followed by the Swedes and Ice- 44 DANISH GBAMMAE. landerSj and in Old Northern, where fimtin, sehstin, &c., ' fifty/ ' sixty/ &e., indicated the number with all possible conciseness. Up to one hundred the lesser numbers pre- cede the greater ; as, en og fyrreiyve, ' 41 / after one hun- dred they follow it, as hundrede og femten, '115.' The ordinal numbers are formed by adding ende, nde, or de to the numeral, according to the finalletter of the word ; as, syv, ' seven,' syvende, ' seventh / tyve, ' twenty / tyvende, ' twentieth / tretien, ' thirteen / irettenAe, ' thir- teenth.' The exceptions to this rule are forste, ' first / anden, ' second / tredje, ' third / fjcerde, ' fourth / sjcette, ' sixth / tolvte, ' twelfth ;' tredivte, ' thirtieth.' The only numbers affected by gender are, den, det, ene, 'the one/ and den anden, det andet, 'the other (second).' The date of the year is thus indicated : atten Jmndrede tre og firsindstyve [otti Norw.), ' 1883.' The day of the month is written as follows: den femte (5fe) April, 'April 5th.' The time of day is thus expressed : Klokken er ti, ' it is ten o'clock / while the parts of the hour are always reckoned, as in German, in relation to the following, and never to the preceding hour ; as, det er halv to, ' it is half- past one / tre Kvarter til ni, ' a quarter to nine.' Pronouns. {Siedord.) Danish Pronouns, which retain more traces of the Old Northern modes of inflexion than nouns, or adjectives, must agree in gender as well as in number and case with the noun to which they refer, excepting where the gram- matical and the natural gender of the word are at variance, PRONOUNS. 45 in which case they follow the latter ; as, Fruentimmeret (n.) Id da HUN gik forii, ' The woman laughed as she went by.' An exception to the agreement in regard to numher occurs in the case o£ the third plural personal pronoun Be when used as ' you/ Be always demanding a singular verb ; as, Kommev de ikke ? ' Are (is) you not coming ? ' Er DE ffal ? ' Are (is) you mad ?' The reflective used with Be must, however, be Bern, plural third person, and not the singular, sig j as, Hvorledes befinder Db Dem ? ' How are you?' ^•■how do you find yourself?') J, 'ye,' han, 'he,' were formerly used in addressing inferiors in rank, but the use of Be is now regarded as imperative for all classes of persons. It should be observed that while Be is always written with a capital B, jeg, ' I,' is written with a small/. In speaking of persons, han and hun, ' he ' and ' she,' hans and hendes, ' his ' and ' hers,' must always be used ; but in referring to animals, den and det, dens and dets, ' it,' ' its,' usually take the place of ' his ' and ' her.' When the demonstrative pronouns den and hin occur together, the former is understood to refer to what is near, (this), and the latter to what is distant, (that) ; as, gd den Vej, iJcJce hin, ' go this way, not that.' Samme, ' the same,' may be used in the place of another objective pronoun ; as, Prcesten gav mig nogle Boger og bad mig IcBse samme, ' The clergyman gave me some books, and begged me to read them.' Stlv, ' self,' may be used in the sense of ' even;' as, selv 46 DANISH GRAMMAR. Kvinder og Born arlejdede pa Murene, ' Even women and children worked on the walls.' Man, (one, they,) can only be used in the nominative, while En, (one,) can only be used in the objective ; as, Man soger Jivad behager En, ' One seeks for that which pleases one.' The use of the possessive pronoun sin, sit, sine (his, her, its), in contradistinction to hans, he7ides, dets (his, her, its), demands careful notice, but as a general rule it may be accepted that sin should refer to the nearest preceding subject-noun, and hans, hendes, to the objective personal noun ; as, hun gih med sine Born til hendes Have, ' She went with her (own) children to her (another woman's) garden.' In such simple sentences the correct use of s«» will always be indicated when, as in the above case, it conveys the sense of ' own ' in connection with the noun. This is also the case in regard to objective nouns ; as, Hendes Fader had hende at tage siN Vogn, og hore til Bys, ' Her father told her to take her (own) carriage, and drive into town.' When the subject-noun is in the plural, the Danes re- place sin by deres, ' their ;' as, Mine Tenner tog deres Born til hendes Have, ' My friends took their children to her garden.' The relative pronouns som and der may be used in- differently ; as, Giv mig den Bog, som (or der) ligger der, ' Give me the book, which is there.' The relative pronoun may be omitted when the noun is governed by a verb, or a preposition ; as, Jeg sd Hesten Be hlihte i Gar, 'I saw the horse which you bought yesterday ;' PRONOUNS. 47 Kender du Manden jeg stod hos ? ' Do you know the man with whom (at whose house) I was ? ' It is also frequently omitted where the predicate verb is preceded by the adverbs ker, ' here/ der, ' there ;' as, Manden her star, er en gammel Ten, ' The man, who stands here, is an old friend ;' Kben der ligger, er syg, ' The cow, which is there, is sick/ In common parlance, hvem, ' whom/ is used in the place of hvo, ' who / as, Hvem er det ? ' Who is that ? ' But in secondary interrogative clauses, Avo is more commonly used. In such cases, however, excepting where the adverbs her and der precede the verb, it must be followed by the relative som, or der ; as, Jeg ved ikke, hvo der gjordt det, ' I do not know who (that) has done it / Hun ser, hvo eb her, ' She sees who is here.' The impersonal pronoun det, ' it,' is used as ' it ' and ' that ' in English ; as, det blceser, ' it blows ;' det glceder mig, ' it charms me.' The final t of det is dropped in ordinary speech. Der, ' there,' with the vowel short, is used in the sense of ' there are,' {il y a,) ' they,' ' one/ etc. ; as, Der er mange Trceer i Haven, ' There are many trees in the garden.' When der is used with a passive, or deponent verb, it acquires the special sense of ' people,' ' they,' and gives to the verb the force of a gerund ; as, Der Iceses i Skolen, ' They are reading in the school / Der danses her i Aften, ' There will be dancing here to-night' The expressions FoUs, sige, de sige, ' people say,' ' they say,' although often heard, are best rendered by man tiger, ' one says.' 48 DANISH GRAMMAR. Selv, selv samme, ' self-same/ may be added to personal and demonstrative pronouns : selv may also be used ad- verbially ; as, Selv min Mand sd hende falde, ' My husband even saw her fall.' Begge, ' both/ is used before the numeral to, ' two ;' as, iegge to, ' both of them.' Sig, reflective pronoun, 'himself,' etc., and sin, reflective possessive pronoun, ' his,' etc., were'originally used to refer to plural as well as to singular nouns ; but during the present and past century they have, especially among Danes, been more strictly limited to the singular ; dem and deres being substituted for them when the subject is in the plural ; as. Be tog deres Hatte, og gih, ' They took their (own) hats and went away.' This practice is regarded by modern grammarians as an objectionable deviation from the genuine Northern rule, due to German influences. The Norwegians more generally follow the older and more correct usage, as do the Swedes. Verbs. ( Udsagnsord.) In a primary, simple sentence, the verb follows the noun or pronoun which governs it ; as, Jeg sd Manden som horn, ind ad Boren, ' I saw the man who came in at the door.' In a secondary or subjunctive sentence, the verb precedes the noun or pronoun by which it is governed ; as, Svis Manden kommer ind, gar jeg ud, ' If the man comes in, I shall go out;' Gar Barnetop ad Treppen, paldee han ned, ' If the child should go up the stairs, he will fall down.' In interrogative sentences the verb, as in English, pre- VEUB3. 49 cedes the noun or pronoun which governs it ; as, Er hun syg ? ' Is she ill ? ' Kommer Mauden ikhe i Dag ? ' Is the man not coming to-day ? ' The tendency of modern Dano-Norwegian is to reject in common parlance the distinctive terminations of the plural in the present indicative ; as, Be har Ret, ' They are (is) right;' Vi ER ikhe i Stand til at komme, ' We are (is) not in a po- sition to come ;' Gutteiife lober op ad Gaden, ' The boys are running (runs) up the street.' A similar process of simplification is apparent in regard to the tenses of verbs, which in the spoken language are, with the exception of a few imperative and optative expres- sions, reduced to the indicative mood, of which the plural form is seldom used. This merging of the two numbers under the singular has been carried especially far by the grammarian Grundtvig, who writes vi han, shal, vil, etc., although the plural forms of these auxiliaries are still very generally used, as vi kunne, skulle, ville, etc. Distinctions of persons which have been lost in modern Danish verbs are occasionally employed in poetry, as du vilt, which represents the Old Northern form of the second person singular. A similar reversion to the old mother tongue is to be traced in such plarals as drukke for drak [drikke, ' to drink'), svande for svandt [svinde, 'to vanish'). The infinitive of verbs may be used as a gerund ; as, I)e far ingen Nytte ved at vcere altfor strenge, ' They will gain nothing by being too strict.' It is also used elliptically, with a transposition of the preposition; as, Han er slet at arbejde for, ' He is bad to work foi' ;' Let er vanshcligt at E 50 DANISH QKAMMAE. shrive om, ' This matter is difificult to write about.' In Danish and the kindred Swedish there is no inelegance in sentences of this kind j but, on the other hand, it is inad- missible to use the present participle in the sense of a gerund, and hence such English forms of expression as ' On seeing me, she ran away/ ' On hearing the man call, the child hid himself,' must be rendered by the use of a tense of the verb ; as, Da Awn, sd mig, lobte Jiun bort ; Sd snart som Barnet hbrte Martden robe, skjulte han sig. The present participle remains unchanged, whether used as an adjective or as a verbal-predicate; as, En rodmende Pige, 'A blushing girl ;' Et rejsende SelsJcab, ' A travelling company ■' Generalinden og Kapteinen horn Tcorende, ' The General's wife and the Captain came driving.' It may also be employed in the following elliptical manner : Mii iboende Hus, 'The house I live in;' Ben afholdende AuJction, ' The auction which is to be held.' In such expressions ithas the force of the Latin future participle. The past participle can be used as an adjective, and must in that case agree in gender and number with the noun ; as, en, reven Kobe, ' a torn cloak ;' et revent Band, ' a rent tie ;' revne Klceder, ' torn clothes.' In accordance with strict grammatical rules the past participles should all agree in gender and number with the subject, where the passive is rendered by the help of blive, ' to be ;' as, Brevet er blevet skrevet, ' The letter has been written ;' Bogeme ere blevne skrevne, ' The books have been written.' In common parlance, however, this form is rejected as pedantic, and wanting in euphony ; and it is VERBS. 51 customary to say, Brevet er ileveu skrevetj Bogerne er bleven skrevne. The present tense of the indicative is used indifiPerently in the present, future, conditional, and subjunctive moods; as, Han kommer i Bag, lian kommer ikhe i Morgen, ' He is coming to-day, he will not come to-morrow ;' Hvis han ilche kommer, gar jeg ikke mecl, ' If he should not come, I will not go ;' Jeg hdber det er savdi, ' I hope it may be true/ The subjunctive or optative is only used in a few expres- sions, such as Gud velsigne Bern ! ' God bless you ! •" Beve Kongen ! ' Long live the king ! ' Sd AjcpJpe mig Gud ! ' May God help me ! ■* The interjections gid (corruption of Gud give) and iare, 'only,'' are used to express a wish ; as, Gid han kunne homme, ' I wish he could come ;' Bare jeg kunne fa Bonden at se ! ' If only I could see the countryman ! ' The Danes have of late followed a German mode of con- struction, regarded as erroneous by Scandinavian gram- marians, which admits of the use of the auxiliary vcere, ' to be,' instead of Aave, ' to have,' in reflective or passive verbs, and in expressing action ; as, Jeg er truffen sammen med ham for, instead of jeg har truffen, ' I have met him before.' Norwegians do not commit this error, which is now being so far modified by some Danish authorities, that an attempt is being made to limit the use of vcere, and to employ it only where a change in the condition of the subject-noun, or a temporary action, is expressed ; as, Han er hort hort, ' He has driven out ;' Han er gdet ud i Haven, t He is gone out into the garden.' When a definite action or permanent act is expressed, the verb have should be em- ployed, in accordance with this distinctive use of the auxili- 62 DANISH GEAMMAE. avies ; as^ Han liar Imnge gaet omltring i Haven, ' He has walked about the garden for a long time -^ Han har kort tyve Mil, 'He has driven twenty miles.' The use of vcere, ' to be/ is indicated where a changed or temporary condition has to be expressed ; as, Barnet er falden tied of Muren, ' The child has fallen off the wall.' BUve, ' to be,' ' remain/ ' become/ serves to give a passive sense to an active verb ; as, Hun llev elsket, ' She was beloved.' And when used in an active sense it loses its character of an auxiliary ; as, Han blev gal, ' He became mad ; ' Kongen bliver i Sj/en, ' The king remains in town ; ' JBliv ihhe vranien, ' Do not be cross ! ' Some verbs, as at sta, can only be conjugated with at have, ' to have ;' others, as at homme, require vmre; as, Han liar stdet pa skibet Siden i Morgen, 'he has been on the ship since this morning;' Ft-uen er kommen til Bys, 'The lady has come to town.' The use of skal, ' shall,' vil, ' will,' is often the same as in English ; but it may be still more exactly defined by saying that the former implies the will of the subject, and the latter the agency of some person, or thing, apart from the subject : as, Jeg skal nok komme Jijem i Aften, ' I shall be sure to come home to-night j' and Min Mand vil ncBjojoe komme hjem i Aften, ' My husband will scarcely come. . . .' The auxiliary at fa implies a necessity or obligation where it is not used in the sense of ' to get ;' as, Han far gd, ' He will have to go ;' Matrosen fk intet at spise Jios Admiralen, ' The sailor got nothing to eat at the Admiral's.' When the auxiliaries vcere and Hive are used impersonally, VERBS. 53 they are followed by an objective ; as. Bet er mig, ' It is I (me) ;' Dei bliver dig ! ' It must be you (thee) I' The defective auxiliaries skulle, ville, burde, turde, lade, are followed immediately by an infinitive present, without the intervention of at, ' to ;' as, Jeg. . ., skal..., ml, or burde komme, ' I shall, will, or ought to come ;' Hun turde iltke tale, ' She did not dare to speak ;' Lad ham gd i Fred, ' Let him go in peace.' The at is similarly dispensed with after verbs which express a function of the senses ; as, Jeg horte Bamet skrige, jeg sa ham f aide, jeg f Site ham slippe fra mine Ecender, ' I heard the child cry,' ' I saw him fall,' ' I felt him slip out of my hands.' All active verbs may be put in a passive form by the transposition of the subject and the object, the former being in that case governed by a preposition; as, Jwgeren skyder Haren, ' The huntsman shoots the hare ;' Haren skydes af Jcegeren, ' The hare is shot by the huntsman.' A passive sense may be imparted to an active verb by the use of the auxiliary at blive, * to be ;' as, jeg elsTcer, ' I love ;' jeg bliver elshet, ' I am loved,' ( instead oijeg elsTces). The s, which now forms the distinctive characteristic of the passive form of Dano-Norwegian verbs, is a survival of the Old Northern st, which represented the still older aflSx sk, contracted from sik, modern sig, which is the reflec- tive pronoun ' self.' Deponents, which are often defective, and must always be conjugated with at have, 'to have,' difier from passives, with which they otherwise agree, by requiring that the participle past shall end in ts ; as, Bet hah lyhlceta Majoren 54 DANISH GEAMMAE. at homme usdret tilbage fra Krigen, ' The Major has been so fortunate as to return unwounded from the war.' Many writers deviate from this rule for the sake of euphony, and prefer the less correct form lykheds. Nice distinctions of meaning are conveyed by the re- spective use of a reflective pronoun, or of the passive form ; as, de sd hinanden i Gar, and de sds i Gar, ' they saw each other yesterday;' the former implying simply that they saw one another, while the latter conveys the meaning that they were brought into close contact with one another, and that they actually met. Certain affixes, as be, er, for, mis, impart a more compre- hensive, or ideal meaning to some primary verbs ; as, at gribe, 'to grasp;' at begribe, 'to comprehend;' at hende, ' to know ;' at erlcende, ' to recognize ;' at tjcene, to serve ;' at fortjcene, 'to deserve;' at danne, 'to create ;' at misdanne, ' to deform.' The three first named of these affixes, be, er and for, are German, and usually occur in verbs derived from that lan- guage ; as, at begribe, ' to understand ;' at erstatte, ' to in- demnify ;' at forscette, 'to misplace.' The /or represents the German ver, and these three alien affixes are unaccentuated; while in the following particles, fore, und, mis, and over, the vowels are accentuated ; as, tovebilde, ' to prefigure ;' uadgd, ' to evade ;' misforstd, ' to misunderstand ;' overkore, ' to drive over.' The same rule of accentuation holds good in regard to nouns and adjectives ; as, Forstand, ' understanding ' (German Verstand); undselig , ' \)as\\i\x\ ;' Over /lot^et^j ' supreme head.' VEUBS. 55 Some verbs compounded of a preposition aflSxed to another verb admit of being decomposed^ although in that case they generally lose their special meaning ; as, at pdtage, ' to assume,' ' to take upon oneself ;' at tage pd, ' to put on (clothes) ;' at ot'erdrage, ' to entrust ;' at drage over, ' to cross over.' Some verbs, on the other hand, retain the same meaning when compounded, and when decomposed ; as, at sammen- IcBge, or at Icege sammen, ' to put together ;' at overgive, or at give over, ' to surrender/ In some verbs composed of an affix, more especially be, er, /or, fore, U7id, the latter are inseparable from the pri- mary verb ; as, at betale, ' to pay ;■" at erholde, ' to obtain ;■" at forsone, ' to reconcile ;' at foresld, ' to propose ;' at mis- forstd, ' to misunderstand ;' at undshylde, ' to exculpate.' In regard to the two distinct classes of verbs which are characterized as svage, or ' weak,' and stcerhe, or ' strong,' it may be observed that the former includes the larger number of foreign verbs, and is gradually being augmented by the addition of verbs originally belonging to the strong group. The weah mode of inflection, which embraces the two con- jugations, taking respectively ede, et, and te, t, in the im- perfect indicative tense and in the past participle, shows less affinity with the Old Northern than the strong mode of inflection, which still includes about a hundred verbs. Many weak verbs of the first conjugation closely follow the more euphonious forms of the corresponding Old Northern; as, at els]ce,els&ede,{rora the older at elska,elsJcadi (imp. ind.). Where the terminations are of less soft sound 56 DANISH QRAMMAK. in the mother-tongue, as in the past part, elskader, and in the various modifications which marked the several persons in the singular and plural, they have either been changed, as elsket (past part.), or they have been set aside, and thus in modern Danish one termination, er or r, is being more and more exclusively applied to all persons of the present indicative. A similar process of simplification is breaking down the distinctive differences of the imperfect indicative in the first and second conjugations of the weak verbs ; and many verbs may be conjugated in accordance with either mode of conjugation, as at hrole, ' to bellow,' which may take either brolede or brolte in the imperfect of the indicative. The strong mode of conjugation, also known as the irre- gular, includes generally only verbs derived from the Old Northern, with which its inflections have more affinity than those of the weak form. Its chief distinctive feature is that the imperf. indicative retains the monosyllabic root of the words, without taking any terminal additions such as mark this tense in weak verbs, although the radical vowel generally undergoes a change either in the imper- fect alone, or both in the latter, and in the participle. This strong form may therefore be classified under the following heads : 1. Verbs in which there is no change in the radical vowel; as, at grade, 'to weep;' greed, imperf. ind.; grcedt, past part. 2. Yerbs in which the radical vowel changes both in the TEKBS. 57 imperf. ind., and in the past participle ; as, at strive, ' to write,' — i. i. slcrev, p. p. shrevet. 3. Verbs in which the radical vowel changes Only in the imperfect tense ; as, at lide, ' to suffer,' — i. i. led, p. p. lidt. 4. Verbs in which different vowels replace the radical vowel in the imperf., and the past participle; as, at drikke, ' to drink,' — i. i. drak, p. p. draklcet. The changes in the radical vowels of irregular verbs aro similarly amenable to certain rules ; thus : 1. ce and e frequently change to a or a in the im- perfect indie. ; as, at trcede, ' to tread,' — i. i., trddte, p. p. trddt ; at bede, ' to pray,' — i. i. bsid, p. p. bedt. 2. i changes to a and to e ; as, at sige, ' to say,' — i. i. sagde, p. p. sagt ; at blive, ' to remain,' — i. i. blev, p. p. hleven, bleone. 3. changes to u ; as, at dolge, ' to endure,' — i. i. dxdgie, p. p. dnlgt. The largest number of irregular verbs form their past tense in a ore; as, at voelge, ' to choose,' i.i.valgte; at synge, ' to sing,' i. i. sang ; at binde, ' to bind,' i. i. bsmdt ; at rive, ' to tear,' i. i. rev ; at shrige, ' to cry out,' i. i. slcreff. Where a verb can be used both transitively and intran- sitively, it usually follows in the first case the ' weak ' (regular), and in the second the ' strong' [irregular) mode of conjugation; as, at Jimnge, 'to hang,' trans, hcengte, intrans. hang, Han hcengte Kjolen pa Trceet, ' He hung 58 DANISH GPAMMAE. his coat on the tree;' Ejolen hang pd Trceet, 'The coat was hanging on the tree.' Many intransitive verbs acquire a transitive character by a mere "umlaut," or change of the vowel ; as, to fall ; at fcelle, to fell. ..fore, . . knikhe, .. Icegge, . . roge, .. scette, at falde, ...fare, ... hnage, ... ligge, ■ ■ ■ ryge, . . . sidde, . . . springe. . . . vdge. . . drive; .. creak; . . lie; .. smoke; . . sit ; .. spring; . . watch; ... sprcenge, . . . vcehlce, . lead. . crack. • lay. . to cure by smoking . set. . burst. . awaken, be awake. Deponent verbs are declined in all their simple tenses like passives, viz., by adding s or es to the corresponding tenses of the active form. In their compound tenses they employ the active auxiliary at have. Their supine is formed by the addition of t or ts ; but, for the sake of euphony,' this rule is frequently disregarded, and des or edes is employed for the older and more correct form ; as, instead of writing Det har lyhhets mig, ' I have succeeded,' we find Bet er lyhhet mig, or Det lyhhedes mig. Verbs having a reciprocative sense assume the passive form when used simply with the subject-noun, or pronoun ; as, de ses, ' they see each other ;' Hans og Jens slds, ' Hans (John) and Jens are fighting.' De sld hinanden, and de slds, convey different meanings ; the former signifying ' they are beating each other,' while the latter implies the more forcible act of fiirhting-. ADVERBS. oy Adveebs. {Biord.) There is a tendency among modern Danish and Nor- wegian writers, in conformity with the Swedish usage, to break up the compound adverbs into their integral parts, more especially when these consist of a preposition and a noun, and thus, for example, to write i Dag, instead of idag, ' to-day ;' i Ar, instead of idr, ' this year ;' til Stede, instead of tilstede, " on the spot/ etc. Similarly, engang is written en Gang, ' once ;' iligemdde, ilige Made, idet- mindste, i det mindste, ' at least,' etc. Certain adverbs, when required to be used in the super- lative, may be expressed by a neuter adjective with a pre- position ; as, pa det hedste, 'best;' pa det aller venligste, 'most friendly' (in the most friendly way). Certain adverbs imply motion, or rest, by the absence or presence of a terminal e ; as, Barnet gar ikke ud, ' The child is not going out;' Barnet star aUerede ude pa Marhen, ' The child is already standing out in the field ; ' At gd hjem, 'to go home;' at vcere hjemme, 'to be at home.' In these cases the final e may be regarded as a survival of an otherwise obsolete ablative form. Certain adverbs of place and time may be put after the noun to which they refer, and used elliptically without a verb; as, Bornene her, 'the children (who are) here;' Oprdret i Fjor, ' the disturbance (which happened) last year.' The adverbs ja and jo, ' yes,' cannot be used indifferently ; the use of the former being required in answer to a question involving no negation, while the latter must be employed 60 DANISH GRAMMAE. in answer to a question expressive of doubt, or denial ; as, Er du der? 'Are you (art thou) there?' Ja ! 'Yes;'— Er du ikhe der ? ' Are you not there ?' Jo ! ' Yes/ Ja is, moreover, used as a frequent and simple expletive, and jo as an ironical interjection ; as, Jeg had min Fader, ja ! honfaldt ham mad Tdrer ! 'I prayed my Father^.nay, implored him, with tears.' Jo ! det var noget smuht ! ' Oh ! indeed ! that was splendid ! ' Peepositions. {Forholdsord.) The Danish prepositions usually govern the objective, but some, as fra, ' from ;' i, ' in,' ' on ;' til, ' to,' are asso- ciated with a genitive, in which we may trace a survival of the original inflexion of the Old Northern nouns. Thus, in the expressions at gd fra Bords, ' to leave the table;' i Mandags, ' on (last) Monday ;' at vmre til Ars, ' to be up in years ;' at gd til Sengs, ' to go to bed,' we have evidence of the early government of cases by prepositions. When fra and til are thus used they convey a sense of motion. I, pa, and am respectively indicate a past, a defi- nite future, and a recurring period ; as, min Broder rejste i Sondags, ' my brother left last Sunday ;' han Icommer hjem ipd Fredag, ' he is coming home next Friday ;' vi tage fd Landet om Lordag, ' we go into the country on the Satur- days.' The prepositions ad and af, which through an inexact mode of pronunciation have lost their distinctive sounds, have in point of fact a totally different meaning — the former implying motion towards, or association, and the latter CONJUNCTION 8, 61 generally motion fronij and disassociation ; as, han vinlcer ad Barnet, ' he beckons to the child / det er en Ven a,d mig, ' it is a friend of mine ;' hun gar af Vejen, ' she goes off the road !' at tage sine Klceder af, ' to take off one's clothes.' The last example affords an instance of the post 'position of a preposition, which is of common occurrence in Danish ; as, Kommer De med? 'Are you coming (with) V Luk Vinduet til, ' Shut the window (to) ;' Det var Drengen, hun gav Blommen til, ' It was the boy to whom she gave the plum / Lcegen gik ham forhi, ' The doctor passed him (by)/ Some prepositions, as hag, 'behind,' for an, 'before,' ncBst, ' next to,' samt, ' together with/ do not admit of this postposition, but must always precede the word which they govern. Some prepositions, and most frequently for, over, om, med, til, ved, govern the present infinitive of verbs, pre- ceded by at, ' to ;' as, Him hommer foe at se mig, ' She comes (for) to see me ;' Jeg glceder mig over atfd den Bog, ' I am glad (over) to get that book ;' Drengen har ikke Lyst TIL at rejse, ' The boy does not care to travel.' Conjunctions. (Bindeord.) The conjunctions at, 'that,' dersom, hvis, 'if,' ndr, ' when,' sd, ' so,' may be omitted before the final clauses of a sentence ; as, Generalen sd han sld soldaten, ' The General saw (that) he struck the soldier ;' Kommer hun her (sd understood), gar jeg hort, 'If she comes here, I shall go away.' 62 DANISH GRAMMAR. Certain proportional conjunctions, iisjo, vary in accord- ance with the character of the sentence ; thus, in a simple statement of comparative proportion, _;o must be followed hy jo, while in a compound sentence, ^o must be followed by desto or des ; as, jo oftere, jo hedre, ' the oftener the better/ Jo oftere han sd hende, og lagde Mosrhe til hendes store Mshvcerdighed, desto mere agtede han hende, ' The oftener he saw her, and observed her great amiability, the more he esteemed her/ In statements of comparison, for which the word end, ' than,' is used, the predicate verb need not be repeated ; as, Min Broder er storre end jeg, ' My brother is taller than I (am).' The same rule applies to som, 'as/ and to Uge- som, ' as/ ' like / as, Min Broder er sd star som jeg, ' My brother is as big as I (am) / Min Broder er Jurist ligesom ieg, 'My brother is a lawyer, as I am.' Composition op Words. Composition and decomposition exercise a great influence on the character of words, and admit of being very largely employed in Dano-Norwegian. Thus verbs may be com- pounded with several different parts of speech ; as, at'hors- fceste, ' to crucify •" (fasten on a cross) ; at fuldstcendiggore, ' to (make) complete / at istandscette, ' to repair ' (put into order) ; at pdtage, ' to assume.' In many such cases the verb admits of being decomposed without losing its meaning, as at scette i Stand, or at istand- scette. Often, however, the verb changes its meaning j as, at ovm-scette, 'to translate/ at scette over, 'to put over/ ' to put across' (a stream^ &c.) COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 63 The composition of nouns may be made in various ways, and more especially as follows : — 1. Without any change in the words; as, Stueddr, Stue, ' room ;' Dor, ' door/ 2. By the rejection of the final vowel of the first word ; as, Kvindfolk, Kvinde, ' woman ; ' Folk, ' folk,' 'kind.' 3. By the addition of e to the first word; as, Fareuld, Far, ' sheep ;' Uld, ' wool.' 4. By the addition of s to the first word ; as, Mindes- mcerJce, ' monument ;' Minde, ' memory ;' Mcerke, ' mark.' 5. By the addition of n to the first word ; as, Rosenbusk, Rose, ' rose ;' Busk, ' bush.' 6. By the addition of er to the first wordj as, Nattergal, * nightingale ;' Nat, ' night,' at gale, ' to crow,' &c. In regard to some of these, and other forms of termina- tion, it may be observed that we have here survivals of older Northern modes of declension ; thus, Ndttar is the Old Northern genitive singular of Natt, ' night,' whence the word Nattergal has derived its now obsolete genitive ter- mination of er. Similarly we have often to look to the Old Northern for an explanation of compound words, either or both of whose component parts may be lost in the modern speech; as, Davre, ' first meal,' ' breakfast ;' Nadvere, ' supper,' (especially in the sense of the Lord's Supper) ; Solhverv, ' solstice.' In the first of these we have a survival of dag- 64 DANISH GEAMMAE, ver^r, dag, 'day,' ver^r, 'meal;' and in the second, we have the Old Northern Nattver^n, ' night-meal ;' while the hverv in Solhverv is derived from the Old Northern hverfa, ' to turn round/ Many compounds have been borrowed directly from Ger- man ; as, Slohrok {Schlafrock), ' dressing-gown ;' Mistbrnrik {Mistheet), ' dung-heap, hot-bed.' The principal terminal affixes which enter into the com- position of nouns have been already treated of, and we will, therefore, only indicate the special meaning attached to some of these terminations. 1. . . .Heit, ' . . .hood,' . . .slcap, '. . .ship/ the former of which is of German, and the latter of Northern origin, are not of precisely the same significance — the first conveying the idea of a property or a quality, and the latter a condition, as, Vildhed, ' wildness ' (ferocity), Vildskab, ' state of un- culture, misrule.' 2. Dom (Old Northern domr,'a. thing, or position of im- portance) indicates a power, as Kongedom or Kongedomme, 'kingdom,' Fyrstendomme (Fyrst/ a prmce'), 'principality.' 3. Else sometimes indicates a property, as Tykkelse, ' thickness ;' but more frequently an action, as Anvendelse, ' application.' A similar idea is conveyed by the termina- tion ning, as Shrivning, ' writing.' These two terminations serve to form nouns from the corresponding verbs, and thus constitute an important characteristic of Dano-Norwegian, distinguishing it from Swedish, in which the participles, and not the root of the verb, serve as the basis of words. The German mode of construction, which admits of using COMPOSITION OF WOEDS. 65 the infinitives of verbs as nouns, as das Schreiben, has found its way into Danish ; as, Hans Shriven er vel god, men hans Lcesen er mddelig, ' His writing is well enough, but his reading is indifferent.' 4. Er {tier) generally betokens an active agent j as, ew Tieiiker, '& thinker/ en Konstner, 'an artist/ It also marks nationality ; as, en Dansker, ' a Dane ;' en Born- holmer, ' a native of Bornholm.' 5. Inde, or ske, are used to indicate female persons,- as, Fijrstinde, ' princess ;' Svogerske, ' sister-in-law.' 6. Eri, in many cases, conveys a disparaging meaning ; as, Noleri, ' loitering about ;' Tyveri, 'thieving.' It also, however, indicates a working or trading place ; as, Bryg- geri, ' a brewery.' Among the various terminations of adjectives, the following may be noted as indicating some special degree or kind of resemblance, or some distinctive character : — (1) agtig, as in gronagtig, ' greenish,' conveys a sense of moderate greenness. (2) har answers to the English 'ful' and 'able;' as, frugthar, 'fruitful;' agthar, ' respectable.' (3) en expresses a quality ; as, doven, ' idle ;' vranten, ' cross.' (4) lig, which is often identical with English ' ly,' is frequently associated with words having a passive significance, while adjectives ending in som convey the idea of some mental condition; a.s, enlig, 'lonely;' ensom, ' solitary.' (In many of these words, as folsom, folelig, ' feelingly,' the distinctions of meaning do not admit of being given in English without circumlocution). (5) The termination sk, which indicates nationality, as nors/c, svensk, dansJc, &c., belongs also to many adjectives conveying an F 66 DANISH GEAMMAH. evil or disparaging meaning; a.s, spodsk,' moekiag;' fjendsi:, 'inimical;' lumsk, 'cunning.' Many of the terminations of adverbs and prepositions in use in Dano-Norwegian point to an earlier phase of the language, when the Old Northern inflections were not yet eradicated. Thus, where adverbs have not been derived immediately from adjectives, they would often seem to be simply an adaptation of an inflected noun ; as, /y ewi, and hjemme, ' at home ;' bort, borte, ' away.' Here, as in such words as ud, ude; ned, nede, etc., the terminal e implies rest, {heimi, Old Northern dative sing., ' home ') : Fruen er hjemme, ' the lady is at home.' The word without this terminal e, and derived from the accusative form of the Old Northern heim (modern Dano-Norwegian hjeni), is used where motion is implied : Fruen gar hjem, ' the lady is going home / Inam, lober ud, ' he runs out ;' han hommer ned, ' she is coming down/ Such survivals are numerous in the modern Scandinavian tongues, and in many instances show the grammatical affinity between Old Northern and Latin. PINIS. A CATALOGUE OF IMPORTANT WORKS, PUBLISHED BY 57 AND 59 LUDGATE HILL. ABEL. — Linguistic Essays. By Carl Abel. 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