CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library E 178.2.C94 History ili rnade,; i |SJfti| l 3 1924 028 703 191 - DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTED IN U..S.A. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028703191 Date Due LAND ICELAND, /''"tie/ Ericsson~~~~lOOO rr t: ORKNEY IS. »„ eal, 1500 Zs^=^£S^^2=£il^' 1 J?U= == ==^= = = == = Chawplai^J603j^J. sv -•^.return /^--.£ AZORES „ 93 / Ll !5« • Q (discovered i«2}.;__!_Ll; / /w ar FRANCE/ .VaUadotid J r S P A- 1 N ->^Barceloiia 0' Madrid <^ O ^„ 7498 -* ^ :x — -* xi_— *<="" S=" " MADEIRA IS — -z — — ; — ; — ; ~V ' *\ {disc. HIS) Co/ " m6 " s (* y«toS5 — H5T~ Columbus,^- 1 ~-_ a **£°*?~^' 1499 cape^verde/s. " "Tespuc/'us, j / luwbus SWesW a *, ^ *? 40 : I ^ Longitude West from Greenw 01 lam a EnptaTlng Co.. N.Y. in n«< »h J-it j n i.^ i iirt"u>> I u * * ^t ttitjiitritu > ^ >>* t i>* ut.-^i u> u vrt iti w ww Wftitf 'tvt^u t*H t j it n i.< Kt40ftH"» n 1 1 1 1 nlj\uri h u^n-mi t uin n n^ u tn» >> > u 1 1 ) i* * i u ■ i'i >'^ « >■ > v*'-' ^ m m >- n »i ui t □ History Made Visible A Synchronic Chart AND STATISTICAL TABLES OF United States History By George E. Croscup, B. A. WITH A CHRONOLOGICAL TEXT By Ernest D. Lewis, A. M. Instructor in History, High School of Commerce, New York City STUDENTS' EDITION, ENLARGED NEW YORK WINDSOR PUBLISHING COMPANY MCMXI ■l C9/-J- f\%*Z1* I Copyright, 1910, by Windsor Publishing Company Copyright„1911, by Windsor Publishing Company Entered at Stationers' Hall All rights reserved First Printing, March, 1910 Second Printing, Enlarged, June, 1911 Third Printing, " October, 1911 PREFACE The Chart which forms the basis of this volume is an attempt to make visible the outlines of the four centuries of American History, in a manner that the exact proportions of time embraced in its successive periods may be seen at a glance. The synchronic plan of the Chart, intended to show not only contemporaneous events but also their place in time, will be readily apprehended. Along the top of the Chart the dominant nation of each century is indicated, as well as the names of the sovereigns and the contemporaneous events in the history of the three European nations that were concerned in the discovery and settlement of the New World. Without an understanding of these events and the political systems from which they sprang, the external forces which to a great extent shaped early American history cannot be intelligently comprehended. For example: our colonial period cannot be clearly understood unless studied in connection with the contem- porary rule of the Stuarts in England, and the prolonged struggle of the people for political and religious freedom. Following the Periods of American History and their Leading Features, the wide horizontal band extending from the large key map toward the right through the center of the Chart traces primarily the territorial development of the nation. Beginning at the extreme right where the final product is given, each State may be traced back by parallel lines through earlier nationality, as shown by color, to its origin. Acquired territory is there shown by a light blue color, and its subsequent formation into States by a darker blue. The color representation of the different na- tionalities is explained upon the Chart. The supplementary diagram in colors inserted at page 75 will, it is hoped, be of some value in tracing certain phases in the political and territorial development of the nation. The chronological text furnished by Mr. Lewis contains all essential events and will be found particularly adapted for "ready reference." Mr. Lewis also prepared the Bibliography on pages 4 and 5, Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and IX, the Index, and the Suggestive Questions, page 117. These questions are intended to show the character of the information which may be gained from the Chart. In the preparation of the Statistical Tables in Part II, as well as the chapter on Territorial Expansion, much assistance was rendered by the Department of Commerce and Labor, through the courtesy of Mr. 0. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Sta- tistics. The author also takes this opportunity to make due acknowledgment of his indebtedness to many friends whose suggestions were of much service during the prep- aration of the work. New York, Oct., 1910. G. E. C. In the chronology an attempt has been made to include events of considerable im- portance only. Legal and constitutional events, as well as treaties, are printed in ordinary italics, or italic CAPITALS, according to their importance. LARGE and small capitals are used to indicate the relative importance of other events. Fre- quently the facts explanatory of an event are given in small type. It is hoped such information may be of value. Little or no attention has been paid to crimes or calamities, such as fires and storms, while the admission of states and territories is reserved for another place in the volume. Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and IX treat chronologically special topics in our national history. They are accompanied by tables and quite a few extracts from documents. E. D. L. NOTE TO ENLARGED EDITION The favor with which this work has been received has induced the authors to make not only a revision, but also an enlargement of the text along special lines, that it may be better adapted to edu- cational requirements, as well as of more service to the general reader. The original matter has been increased over one-third, permitting a fuller treatment of Con- stitutional Development, as well as of Political Parties, the Tariff and Slavery. The statistics have been brought up to the latest available date, and the Census returns for 1910 on Population have also been incorporated. In response to repeated requests the Index has been expanded and reset in a smaller type, thereby increasing the matter more than six-fold. It is hoped these improvements will render the book of greater value especially to teachers, whose best interests the authors are always anxious to serve, and from whom suggestions as to further improvements will always be welcome. G. E. C. New York, May 8, 1911. E. D L BIBLIOGRAPHY iNote "Suggested Readings" at the beginning of each chapter GENERAL HISTORIES Avery, E. McK. A History of the United States and Its People. 7 vols, (to be completed in 16 vols.). Cleveland: Burrows. A popular and readable survey, checked up by historical scholars. The maps, illustrations, and autographs are exceed- ingly interesting and valuable. Bancroft, G. A History of the United States. 6 vols. $15.00. New York: Appleton. Does not quote authorities, but is an excellently written history to the year 1789. The author is fre- quently partial in his views of men and events. Channing, E. History of the United States. 2 vols. $2.50 each. New York: Macmillan. Other volumes are to be published. The two already issued, dealing with colonial history, are ex- cellently written and historically accurate and fair. Elson, H. W. History of the United States. $1.75. New York: Macmillan. A valuable one-vol- ume history for the general reader. Hart, A. B., editor. Epochs of American History. 3 vols. $1.25 each. New York: Longmans. The three volumes include The American Colo- nies by R. G. Thwaites, Formation of the Union by A. B. Hart, and Division and Re- union by W. Wilson. The volumes contain much condensed information, well stated. They have excellent maps. Hart, A. B., editor. The American Nation. 28 vols. $2.00 each. New York: Harper. A coopera- tive history written by American scholars of eminence for general use. They are generally excellent and are accompanied by judicious bibliographies and helpful maps. The last volume is a carefully prepared index for the series. Higginson, T. W. Larger History of the United States. $3.50. New York: Harper. An en- tertaining series of essays. Hildreth, R. A History of the United States. 6 vols. $12.00. New York: Harper. A stand- ard authority on the early history of the coun- try to about 1820. Emphasis is laid on the political events and two volumes reflect a strong Federalist bias. Johnston, A. History of the United States. $1.00. New York: Holt. An excellent one-volume history by a scientific historian of exceptional ability. McMaster, J. B. History of the People of the United States. 7 vols. $2.50 each. New York: Ap- pleton. Lays emphasis on the social, political, and economic questions from the year 1783. Covers the period ending with 1860. A stand- ard authority. Schouler, J. History of the United States Under the Constitution. 6 vols. $13.50. New York: Dodd. Covers the period from 1789 to 1865. Most serviceable large work for these years, though containing little information on the social side and written in a cumbersome style. Sparks, E. E. The United States of America. 2 vols. $1.50. New York: Putnam. An entertaining work, which lays considerable stress on social and economic events. Wilson, W. History of the American People. 5 vols. New York: Harper. A popular and well- written survey, accompanied by many illus- trations. COLONIAL PERIOD Eggleston, E. The Beginners of a Nation. $1.50. New York: Appleton. A series of interesting and extremely readable essays, accompanied by a discussion of authorities. Fiske, J. The Beginnings of New England. $2.00. Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. 2 vols. $4.00. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies. 2 vols. $4.00. Boston: Houghton. These volumes are clearly and entertainingly written. They are based on the researches of others and are not always ac- curate. Lodge, H. C. Short History of the English Colonies. $3.50. New York: Harper. Combines politi- cal and social history. Large array of facts, concisely stated. Parkman, F. A series of volumes on the French and English Colonies in America. 12 vols. $2.00 each. Boston: Little, Brown. Great detail, many facts, and a standard authority. Written with a style that has made the volumes literary classics. The volumes include: Pioneers of France in the New World; The Jesuits in North America; La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; The Old Rigime in Canada; Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV; A Half-Century of Conflict; Montcalm and Wolfe; The Conspiracy of Pontiac; The Oregon Trail. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD Carrington, H. B. Battles of the American Revolu- tion. $3.00. New York: Barnes. A thor- oughly reliable military history accompanied by accurate maps. Fiske, J. The American Revolution. 2 vols. $4.00. Boston: Houghton. Lodge, H. C. The Story of the American Revolution. 2 vols. $6.00. New York: Scribner. Graphic and vigorous style. No references or author- ities are given. Sloane, W. M. The French War and the Revolution. (American Historical Series.) $1.00. New York: Scribner. Discriminating and accurate. Agreeable style. Trevelyan, Sir George O. The American Revolu- tion. 4 vols. $2.00 (4th vol., $2.50). New York: Longmans. An exceedingly interesting and readable history, giving much biographical and diplomatic information. CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD For books on Civics, see page 55. Adams, H. History of the United States, 1801-1817. 9 vols. $18.00. New York: Scribner. Most valuable history of the period. Detailed, with much attention to diplomatic relations. Bryce, J. American Commonwealth. 2 vols. $4.00. New York: Macmillan. First among descrip- tions and criticisms of American political and social institutions. A definitive edition was published in 1910. An abridged edition in one volume ($1.75, New York: Macmillan) lacks the illuminating comparisons of the two- volume edition, but is valuable. Fiske, J. Critical Period of American History. $2.00. Boston: Houghton. The "critical period" is the period between 1783 and 1789. Johnston, A. History of American Politics. 80 cents. New York: Holt. Best brief presentation of the political phases of American history. Walker, F. A. Making of the Nation. $1.00. New York: Scribner. Pure and lively style. Schol- arly and lucid. y Bibliography CIVIL WAR AND SUBSEQUENT PERIOD Andrews, E. B. The United States in Our Own Times, 1870-1903. 2 vols. New York: Scribner. Popular style, picturesque, lively, narrative; no pretense to critical research.. Burgess, J. W. The Civil War and the Constitution. 2 vols. $1.00 each. New York: Scribner. Burgess, J. W. Reconstruction and the Constitution. $1.00. New York: Scribner. Both of these volumes are marked by Professor Burgess' grasp of constitutional law. Davis, J. Rise and Fall of the Confederate Govern- ment. 2 vols. $10.00. New York: Appleton. Probably the most scholarly recital of the "states' rights" arguments. No personal rem- iniscences; controversial rather than descrip- tive. Dodge, T. A. A Bird's-Eye View of Our Civil War. $1.00. New York: Houghton. A very serv- iceable military history. Dunning, W. A. Civil War and Reconstruction. $2.00. New York: Macmillan. Constitutional and legal studies of high value, written with judi- cial temper and in an interesting style. Fite, E. D. Social and Industrial Conditions in the North During the Civil War. $2.00. New York: Macmillan. A scholarly and valuable book. Rhodes, J. F. History of the United States, 1850-1877. 7 vols. $17.50. New York: Macmillan. Schol- arly, impartial; a standard authority; notes and references of great value, SPECIAL HISTORIES Bogart, E. L. Economic History of the United States. New York: Longmans. A good review, ac- companied by suggestive topics and selected references for further reading. Coman, K. The Industrial History of the United States. Rev. ed., 1910. New York: Macmil- lan. $1.25. A standard authority. Day, Clive. A History of Commerce. New York: Longmans. $2.00. The chapters on the United States are valuable and are accom- panied by full bibliographies. Dewey, D. The Financial History of the United States. New York: Longmans. The best book on the subject. Foster, J. W. A Century of American Diplomacy. Boston: Houghton. $3.50. The best account in a single volume of American diplomacy. Hill, F. T. Decisive Battles of the Law. New York: Harper. An exceedingly interesting account of "eight legal contests affecting the history of the United States between the years 1800 and 1886." Stanwood, E. A History of the Presidency. $2.50. Boston: Houghton. A valuable review of all the presidential elections, including an ac- count of candidates, platforms, votes, and other interesting details. Stanwood, E. American Tariff Controversies. 2 vols. $5.00. Boston: Houghton. A valuable work, written from the protectionist stand- point. Taussig, F. W. Tariff History of the United States. New York: Putnam. $1.25. An excellent volume, but for the period since the Civil War should be read in connection with Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies, HISTORICAL AIDS : BIBLIOGRAPHIES - Careful bibliographies accompany the various vol- umes of the American Nation Series. In addition the following special guides are of value: Andrews, C. M., Gambrill, J. M., and Tall, L. L. A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries. New York: Longmans. Pages 85- 154 deal with American history. A brief de- scription and criticism is attached to the titles of the chief volumes of general interest. Channing, E., and Hart, A. B. Guide to the Study of American History. Boston: Ginn. The body of this very helpful volume consists of topics accompanied by carefully selected readings divided into three groups: general readings, special readings, and sources. Larned, J. N., editor. The Literature of American History. Chicago: A. L. A. Pub. Board. A carefully annotated list of over 4,000 titles_ of works dealing with American history. It lists nothing later than 1899, but several supple- ments have been issued by the A. L. A. Winsor, J., editor. Narrative and Critical History of America. 8 vols. Boston. A cooperative narrative history of the colonial and consti- tutional period, accompanied by a critical review of the sources. HISTORICAL AIDS : MAPS Most all general histories and those dealing with special periods are supplied with maps. In addition the following may be used: Hart, A. B. Epoch Maps Illustrating American His- tory. Rev. ed. 60 cents. New York: Mac- millan. HISTORICAL AIDS : SOURCE BOOKS Callender, G. S. Selections from the Economic His- tory of the United States. 1765-1860. Boston: Ginn. Contains extracts from contemporary writers, throwing interesting light on such subjects as commerce, transportation, manu- factures, currency, organization of labor and capital, etc. Harding, S. B. Select Orations Illustrating American Political History, $1.25. New York: Mac- millan. A collection of thirty-four orations that affected our country's history. Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contempo- raries. 4 vols. $2.00 each. New York: Mac- millan. Selections from contemporary letters, diaries, etc., which add interest to the matters discussed in narrative volumes. The same author has also published a useful one-volume collection of extracts under the title Source-Book of American History. 60 cents. New York: Macmillan. MacDonald, W. Documentary Source-Booh of Ameri- can History. $1.75. New York: Macmillan. Contains selections from documents of histor- ical importance. This is a condensed volume. The author has issued the following series, the publisher remaining the same: Select Charters and Other Documents, Illustrative of American History, 1606-1775 ($2.00); Select Documents, etc., 1776-1861 ($2.25); Select Statutes and Other Documents, etc., 1861-1898 ($2.00), BIOGRAPHIES There are several series of biographies, among which may be noted the American Statesmen Series ($1.25 each, Boston: Houghton) ; and the American Crisis Biographies ($1.25 each, Phila- delphia: Jacobs); the "True" Biographies ($2.00 each, Philadelphia: Lippincott). The first-named is composed of books of more even merit. A few only of the many individual biographies in these series are noted here: Lodge. H. C, George Wishington, 2 vols. [States- men]; Morgan, GeoRGE, The True Patrick Henry ["True"]; Ford, P. L., The True George Washington. ["True"]; Lodge, H. C, Alexander Hamilton [States- men]; Morse, J. T., Jr., Thomas Jefferson [States- men]; Sumner, W. G., Andrew Jackson [Statesmen]; Lodge, H. C, Daniel Webster [Statesmen]; Dodd W.' E., Jefferson Davis [Crisis]; Pendleton, L., Alexan- der H. Stephens [Crisis]; Von Holst, H.,' John C. Calhoun [Statesmen]; Morse, J. T., Jr., Abraham Lincoln, 2 vols. [Statesmen]; Hart, A. B., Salmon P. Chase [Statesmen], CONTENTS PAGE Bibliography 4-5 PART I— THE LEADING EVENTS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER I. Period of Discovery 7 From 1492 to 1607—115 years II. Colonial Period 10 From 1607 to 1763—156 years I. Time of Settlement, 1607 to 1689 10 II. Time of Consolidation, or The Anglo-French Struggle for America, 1689 to 1763 14 III. Revolutionary Period 17 From 1763 to 1789—26 years I. Time of Dispute, 1763 to 1775. . 17 II. Revolutionary War, 1775 to 1783 19 III. Settling the Constitution, 1783 to 1789 22 IV. National Period 23 From 1789 to Present Time I. Time of Expansion, 1789 to 1849. 23 II. Slavery Struggle, 1849 to 1877 . . 33 (A). Preliminary Quarrel, 1849 to 1861 33 (B). Civil War, 1861 to 1865. . . 36 (C). Time of Reconstruction, 1865 to 1877 38 III. The United Nation, 1877 to Pres- ent Time 42 PART II— NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT V. Territorial Expansion 49 VI. Constitutional Government: Its Rise and Development in the United States 55 I. Colonial Beginnings, 1606 to 1643 55 II. Growth of the Federal Idea, 1643 to 1765 56 III. Establishment of the National Constitution, 1765 to 1789 58 IV. Development of the Constitution, 1789 to 1840 69 V. National vs. Federal Govern- ment, 1840 to 1865 73 VI. Recent Development, 1865 to 1911 74 VII. Political Parties, Their Rise and Fall 75 CHAPTER VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. PAGB The Tariff, Its Rise and Develop- ment 79 Slavery, Its Rise and Fall 83 Insular Possessions 89 State and Territorial Statistics .... 92 Ratification of the Constitution 92 The National Flag 93 Presidential Elections, from 1789. . . 94 Presidential Cabinet Officers, from 1789 100 Justices of the United States Supreme Court 102 Indians of the United States 102 Population of the United States. 103 I. Population of States, 1900 and 1910.103 II. Population of Cities, 1890 to 1910. . 104 Immigration 106 Religious Bodies 108 Progress of the United States 110 I. Area; Population; National Debt; Receipts; Expenditure; Postal Re- ceipts; Wealth; Wealth per Capita; Money in Circulation; Money per Capita 110 II. Capital of National Banks; Depos- its in National Banks; Deposits in Savings Banks; Imports; Exports; Value of Manufactured Products; Farms; Value of Farm Products; Wheat Produced; Corn Produced. . .111 III. Cotton; Wool; Cane Sugar; Cotton Ussd in U. S.; Sugar Used in U. S.; Value of Farm Animals; Gold; Sil- ver; Copper; Pig Iron 112 IV. Steel ; Tin Plates; Petroleum; Coal; Railroad Mileage; Vessels; Tonnage Built; Tonnage in Domestic Trade; Tonnage in Foreign Trade; Tonnage on Great Lakes 113 Comparative Statistics 114 I. Areas; Population; Wealth 114 II. National Debts; Revenue; Ex- penditure 115 III. Imports; Exports; Railroad Mile- age 116 Suggestive Questions to be answered from the Chart 117 Index 119 ILLUSTRATIONS, CHARTS, AND MAPS Routes of Early Navigators to America. Inside Front Cover The National Capitol Frontispiece page Map of the United States facing 7 ^Principal English, French, and Spanish Explorers, 1492-1605 8 Early Settlements in Virginia, Map of 10 Early Settlements south of New Amsterdam, Map of 11 Early Settlements in Connecticut, Map of 12 The Retreat of Washington 16 Bunker Hill and Vicinitv 19 New York and its Vicinity, 1776 23 Yorktown, Map of 21 Students' Ed. PAGE The St. Lawrence Frontier, 1812 27 The Niagara Frontier, 1812 28 Mexico, Map of Seat of War, 1848 33 The Civil War in the West, Map of 37 The Civil War in the East, Map of 38 The Naval Battle of Santiago, Map of 44 A Series of Thirty-one Maps showing the Terri- torial Expansion of the United States 49-54 Chart of the National Period facing 75 Possessions of the United States, Map showing. . . 89 Increase of Population, 1900 to 1910, Map show- ing -. 103 Chart of United States History at end of Volume THE LEADING EVENTS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER I PERIOD OF DISCOVERY From 1492-1607—115 years LEADING FEATURES: — The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama opened an era of enlarged maritime adventure. SPANIARDS completed their explorations, conquests, and settlements in the West Indies, Mexico, and the southern portion of the present United States. ENGLISH and FRENCH explored, claimed, and made unsuccessful attempts at settlement in the North. The sea power of Spain was broken and her period of decay began. SUGGESTED READINGS: Channing, History of the United States, I, 1-160; Fiske, Discovery of America, I, Chaps. 1, 2, 3, 5, 8-10; II, Chaps. 7, 12; Bourne, Spain in America (The American Nation Series), 20-189; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, I, Nos. 1-49. AT the time of its discovery the American Continent was occupied by native In- dians. Legends tell of explorations by Asiatics, Irish missionaries, and Norse sea- men. The best authenticated legends deal with the last named. Lief Ericsson, following the track of earlier Norse discoverers, came upon the North American mainland, either at Nova Scotia or New England, in the year 1000. These discoveries came to naught on account of : 1. The unsettled condition of Eu- rope; 2. The prevalence of the Black Death; 3. The absence of instruments of navigation; 4. The fact that the outlook of Europe was toward Asia and the East. EARLY EXPLORATIONS ALONG THE ATLANTIC SEA- BOARD 1492 — Christopher Columbus, an Italian, with the backing of Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail from Palos, Spain (August 3) . —COLUMBUS DISCOVERED AMERICA (October 12), landing at one of the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. During the following three months he visited the islands of Cuba and Hayti. Had he continued west, the Gulf Stream would have doubtless carried him to the North American Continent. 1493 — Columbus returned to Spain with the accounts of his voyage and discovery. He be- lieved he had reached the coast of the Indies. — Pope Alexander VI issued a bull, called The Bull of Demarcation, dividing all newly- discovered lands between Spain and Portugal. The dividing line was finally drawn 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Many nations paid no attention to this divi- sion line. — Columbus headed a second expedition, consisting of 1,500 persons, many of them nobles. He founded the town of Isabella on the island of Hayti, and discovered the "Wind- ward group of islands, and also the islands of Jamaica and Porto Rico. 1496 — The colonists of Hayti preferred charges against Columbus and he returned to Spain. 1497— JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the ser- vice of Henry VII of England, DISCOVERED THE COAST OP NORTH AMERICA, prob- ably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian. 1498 — Sebastian Cabot, on a second voyage, probably explored the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Carolina. These voyages were not followed by any attempt at colonization. Political conditions in England at the time interfered with serious work of colonization. (See Chart.) — Columbus made a third voyage, discover- ing the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. He sailed back to Hayti and there was seized by an agent of the Spanish government, who carried him to Spain a prisoner. 1499 — Vasco Da Gama doubled the Cape op Good Hope and reached India. Another route to India was thus revealed. 1500 — Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia. 1502 — Columbus, freed from prison, made a fourth voyage. He explored the coast of Central America and Panama. He returned to Spain discouraged and died four years later in the belief that he had discovered India by sailing west. United States History 1507-1534 PRJNCIPAI/ ENGLISH , FRBNCH S? SPANISH EXPLORERS 1492-1605 1507— The name "AMERICA" was first applied to a portion of the American Con- tinent. Waldseemuller, a German professor, used it in a French geography. Americus Vespucius, an Italian, wrote a letter to a friend claiming to have discovered a part of the South American coast in 1499, and an account of this voyage was published. The new continent, therefore, was named after him by Waldsee- muller, who had read the account. 1511 — Spain completely conquered Cuba under Governor Velasquez. — The capital of Porto Rico, San Juan, was founded by Ponce De Leon, the first Spanish Governor of the island. 1512 — Ponce De Leon, seeking a legendary fountain of youth, discovered Florida, so named because he landed on Easter Sunday, the Spanish "Feast of Flowers." exploration op interior begun 1513 — Balboa crossed the Isth- mus of Panama and discovered the Pacific, which he took pos- session of, with its coast and islands, for Spain. This discovery made it clear that the new land was a new continent and not Asia. 1519-1521 — Cortez conquered Mexico for Spain. This conquest led to the establishment of Spain's Empire in the new world. The mines brought great wealth to Spain and formed the basis of Spanish prosperity in the following years. Cortez and other Spanish conquerors brought martial glory to themselves but treated the natives, in Mexico and elsewhere, with the utmost cruelty. 1519 — Pineda, another Spaniard, discovered the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico and located the mouth of the Mississippi. 1520 — Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain's service, discovered the strait named after him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean {Mare Pacificum). 1521 — Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after his death, con- tinued westward and completed the first cir- cumnavigation of the globe in 1522. — Ponce De Leon made the first attempt at a settlement on the main- land of the United States. His Florida company failed. — De Ayllon, a Spaniard, ex- plored the Carolina coast. 1524 — Verrazano, sailing in the service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear. Verrazano antedated his voyage in order to give Prance a prior claim to the new world ; therefore scholars have doubted the authenticity of his expedi- tion. Francis I, however, took formal possession of the Atlantic seaboard which he called New France, but events in France interfered with any immediate settlements. (See Chart.) 1525 — Gomez, for Spain, explored the At- lantic coast from Maine to Carolina. 1526 — De Ayllon planted a colony which failed on account of Indian attacks. The colony is supposed to have been near the later English settlement at Jamestown. The Spanish advance along the coast northward was checked at this time and most of their explora- tions continued to be headed for the interior. 1528 — Narvaez made the second Spanish at- tempt to colonize Florida. Narvaez was ambitious to establish a large empire but perished with all but four of his followers, who, led by de Vaca, wandered westward to the Pacific. (See map inside cover.) 1534 — Cartier, a French master -pilot, touched Newfoundland, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and landed at Gaspe. 1535-1606 Period of Discovery 1535 — Cartier, in search of a northwest pas- sage, ascended the St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids and Mont Real. 1539 — Coeonado and a force of Spaniards marched northward from Mexico to Colorado and Kansas and discovered the Grand Canon of the Colorado River. Many of the Spanish expeditions were in search of the "Seven Cities of Cibola." These cities were supposed to be extremely wealthy. Coronado found that they were only the Pueblos of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico. — De Soto, at the same time, led an army of about a thousand into northwest Florida. He reached the Mississippi in 1541. 1540 — Alarcon, in command of a side ex- pedition for Coronado, also reached the Colo- rado River and the Grand Canon. 1541 — Roberval and Cartier made an un- successful attempt to establish a French colony on the St. Lawrence. 1562-1565 — Ribault and Laudonniere found- ed a colony of French Huguenots near the St. Johns River, Florida. 1565— The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, FOUNDED ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida. Menendez had orders to destroy utterly the French colony at St. Johns. (See 1562.) The religious motive for the massacre is found in Menendez's state- ment that the French colonists were killed "not as Frenchmen, but as heretics." The failure of this colony put an end to any extended Huguenotic attempts at colonization. (See Chart.) 1568 — De Gourges, a Frenchman, killed all Spaniards left on the St. Johns River, "not as Spaniards but as murderers." Doubt has been cast on this deed of vengeance. If it took place it did not have the sanction of the French government. ENGLAND AND HER EARLY EXPLORATIONS 1576-1578 — Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find a north- west passage to Asia. It was about this time that England and Spain were at odds, and England allowed her famous sea rovers to plunder Spanish treasure ships and Spanish settlements in the Indies. (See Chart.) The earliest of these rovers was John Hawkins. 1578 — Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He had previously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England. 1582 — Spanish monks planted missions in New Mexico and Arizona. These Spanish missions, and later ones in Cali- fornia, give another side of the Spanish conquest. 1583 — Humphrey Gilbert landed at St. John's, Newfoundland, and took possession of the country for England. Queen Elizabeth was financially interested in many of the expeditions which followed, and she knighted most of the men who commanded expeditions. Gilbert lost his life when returning home from this expedition. 1584 — Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. The expedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth. Raleigh was a half-brother of Humphrey Gilbert, and a favorite courtier of Queen Elizabeth. He was the most famous of the individual promoters of American colonization. 1585 — Raleigh sent an expedition under Sir Richard Grenville, who established a col- ony on Roanoke Island, off the Carolina coast. Grenville left the colony, leaving Ralph Lane in command. Sir Francis Drake picked up the starving remnants of the colony and took them back to. England. — John Davis, an English navigator, made three attempts to find a northwest passage be- tween these years. His name was given to Davis Strait. 1587 — Raleigh despatched another expedi- tion, consisting of two ships with 150 men and women, to Roanoke Island. John White was the Governor. These settlers were intended to be the nucleus of a home-seeking colony. Virginia Dare, the first white child born in 'America, was born here. The colony, needing supplies, Governor White went to England. Conditions in England delayed White's return until 1590. He then found no settlers at Roanoke and the log dwellings in ruins. The fate of the colony, called the "Lost Colony," has never been explained. Tra- dition has it that the settlers were adopted by th& Indians and their identity lost. — Cavendish, an English sailor, followed the course of Drake. 1598 — A Spanish settlement was planted by Onate near Sante Fe, New Mexico. 1602 — Gosnold, an English merchant, made a settlement at Buzzard's Bay, R. I. Other English expeditions followed in the same direction under Pring and Weymouth. Weymouth especially gave such glowing descriptions of the climate and resources that organized capital was at once interested. Mere discovery, exploration, and casual settlement gave way to definitely orga- nized and supported colonies made up of groups of settlements. 1603 — Champlain entered the St. Lawrence. The French occupation op Canada began with Champlain. His maps, reports, and settlements stimulated French enterprise. FIRST FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA 1605 — Champlain founded Port Royal (An- napolis, N. S.), and sailed in an exploring ex- ' pedition as far south as Cape Cod. 1606 — In England there was organized the Virginia Company for the purpose of estab- lishing trading colonies in America. The King granted the charter to London and Plymouth merchants. The main company was divided into two sub-companies, called the London Company and the Plymouth Company. The London Company was granted all land between the 34th and 38th degree of latitude, while the Plymouth Com- pany's limits were 41st to 45th degrees; the inter- vening land was to go to the company that first made settlement in it. It was a mercantile company with exclusive rights of trade, but also had extensive rights of government and administration. It was similar to a series of such companies that England, had organized for trade in various parts of the world. 10 United States History 1607-1619 CHAPTER II COLONIAL PERIOD From 1607-1763—156 years "With this Period the actual history of the United States begins. It is conveniently sub- divided as follows: (a) Time of Settlement From 1607 to 1689 — 82 years (b) Time of Consolidation From 1689 to 1763 — 74 years SECTION I TIME OF SETTLEMENT 1607 to 1689—82 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Channinq, History of the United States, I, 160- 537; II, 1-213; Tyler, England in America (The American Nation Series) ; Andrews, Colonial Self-government (The Amer- ican Nation Series); Eggleston, Beginners of a Nation; Hart, American History Told by Contempora- ries, I, Nos. 44-172. • LEADING FEATURES:— Twelve of the original Thirteen Colonies were established (Georgia following in 1733). New England and Virginia increased in population and in- fluence. The power of the Eastern Indians was broken, and border contests began with the French who occupied the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Valleys. ENGLISH COLONIZATION 1607 — The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine. The leader was Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed. — The London Company made a successful settlement, THE FIRST PERMANENT ENG- LISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I. The settlement had from the start great difficulties: 1. The immigrants were adventurers, broken gentle- men, and criminals; 2. The situation of the settle- ment was undesirable on account of malarial condi- tions; 3. The colonists gave their attention to seeking gold, finding a passageway through the continent, and hunting adventure; 4. The industrial, system, according to which all labored for a common store, did not encourage thrift; 5. The government was cumbersome. There was to be a home-council in England and another in the colony, both of which were appointed by the King; 6. The incompetence •of the King's appointees. The ability of John Smith helped the colony through some of its early difficulties. He compelled the colo- nists to work and secured the friendship of the Indians. 1608 — Champlain added Quebec to the list ■of French settlements in the north. 1609 — Henry Hudson, employed by the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies. 373 X< \gorTc ^»o % ^v - ^"•V\ v* Veto 1 ! ^Wcape Charl es Cape Henry EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN VIRGINIA — Champlain discovered the lake named after him. Various conditions led the later settlements of the French to extend into the west instead of to the south. Champlain was partially accountable for this because he antagonized the powerful Iroquois tribe of Indians, who thereafter blocked French advance southward. 1611 — Tobacco was first cultivated by Virginia colonists. 1614 — The Dutch established trading sta- tions on Manhattan Island and at Fort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions New Netherland. 1615 — Champlain searching for a western waterway discovered Lake Huron after forc- ing his way up the rapids of the Ottawa River. 1617 — The Dutch made their first settle- ment in New Jersey at Bergen. 1619 — The first slaves were sold in Vir- ginia. (See p. 83.) 1620-1634 Colonial Period 11 — Virginia settlers procured a share in their government by the establishment of the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, called The House of Bur- gesses. The Puritans in England were already quarreling -with the King (see Chart), and they were anxious -to establish political freedom in America. Twenty- -two representatives of the various Virginian planta- tions sat with the General Counsellors in this new House of Burgesses. 1620— The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11 and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22). During the religious strife in England (see "Chart) a number of Puritans had been driven from England to Holland. They did not desire to become Dutch- men and arranged with some merchant-adventurers in England to transport them to America. — The "Council for New England" suc- ceeded to the possessions of the Plymouth Com- pany in North America from 40° to 48° of latitude. —The FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA was estab- lished at Plymouth. The Pilgrims, before landing, signed an agreement •called " The Mayflower Compact." By this compact they established themselves into a body politic, agreeing to be governed by the will of the majority. This is evidence that the Pilgrims did not intend to be temporary residents in the new world. (See p 55.) 1622 — Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of land between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers from the Ply- mouth Company, and made a settlement at «3aco, Maine. — An Indian attack was made on James- town. 1623 — The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM. — The Dutch erected Fort Nassau on the Delaware River. — John Mason established the first settlement in New Hampshire on the Piscataqua River. 1624 — Virginia was made into a royal colony. In the English troubles between King and Puritan King James found much opposition among the Puri- tans of the Virginia Company, and, therefore, took over the control of the colony. Charles I, however, who immediately succeeded him, did not take away any of the liberties which the colonists had previously gained. 1626 — Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Island from -the Indians for $24. 1627 — The Swedes settled in Delaware. — The Puritans bought over the stock of the mercantile company that had sent them to America. 1628 — The permanent settlement of Massa- chusetts Bay Colony, in New England, began by the settlement of Salem under John Endi- cott. '«3* *fc* «£ '<>> jotni EARLY SETTLEMENTS SOUTH OF NEW AMSTERDAM 1629 — The Massachusetts Bay Company was organized. It was granted land by the New England Council and its management was in the hands of Puritans. They sent over in this year and years following hun- dreds of English Puritans who hoped to find political and religious liberty in America. (See Chart.) — New Netherland instituted the "Patroon System." According to this system any person who should Bend fifty adults to New Netherland could have land fronting either on the Hudson or the Delaware, sixteen miles on one bank, or eight miles on both, and extending into the interior. Furthermore, the lord-patroon was given rights of a feudal lord — such as making laws, limiting hunting and fishing rights, and requiring all corn to be ground at his mill. One of the greatest of these families was the Van Rensselaer family, which demanded feudal rights in New York as late as 1840. — Mason and Gorges divided their lands. Gorges named his share New Hampshire. 1630— BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in New England met there October 19. 1633 — Connecticut was settled at Windsor, on the Connecticut River, by Pilgrims. The Dutch had already erected a trading fort at Hartford. Both were overawed by later ar- rivals from Massachusetts Bay. 1634 — Lord Baltimore sent out Leonard Calvert, who made the first permanent settle- ment in Maryland at St. Mary's. The first Lord Baltimore, a Catholic nobleman, obtained in 1632 a charter to Maryland from King Charles I. Baltimore wished to make Maryland a refuge for Catholics, who were persecuted by all religious sects in England. — Nicollet discovered Lake Michigan for the French. He traversed Lake Huron and went through the Straits of Mackinaw. 12 United States History 1636-1660 EAELY SETTLEMENTS IN CONNECTICUT 1636 — Puritans emigrated from Massachu- setts Bay to the Connecticut River. There were various causes for this emigration from Massachusetts Bay: 1. The aristocratic government of Massachusetts Bay was much disliked; 2. There was not enough available fertile land; 3. There was need for frontier posts against the Dutch and Indians ; 4. Ambitious leaders desired an opportunity for their abilities. The Connecticut towns three years later drew up the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. By 1653 there were twelve towns in Connecticut. — Settlement op Rhode Island by ROGER WILLIAMS. Williams was persecuted in Massachusetts Bay because: 1. He believed in entire separation of Church and State; 2. He claimed that the colonists had no right to their lands except through Indian purchase. The opposition of the Puritan ministers, who con- trolled the government, caused him to be driven from the State. He was befriended by the Indians and founded a settlement at PBOVIDENCE. — Harvard College was founded. 1637 — The Pequot Indian War occurred in Connecticut. The Pequots extended from the Hudson to Narra- gansett Bay. They were a menace to Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and Plymouth, who sent out a joint expedition against them, under Mason and Underhill. These leaders slaughtered thousands of the Pequots. 1638 — A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware. — Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island. Mrs. Ann Hutchinson opposed the religious govern- ment of Massachusetts Bay and held that every person could make his peace with God without the intervention of an established Church. The Puritans, therefore, expelled her from the colony. — Two extremely conservative Puritans, Baton and Davenport, settled New Haven. It.was a strict "Bible Commonwealth." 1639 — The first printing press was set up at Harvard College. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the first American book was "The Bay Psalm Book." 1641 — Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted a series of Colonial laws known as the Body of Liberties, 1643— TEE FIRST INTER- COLONIAL UNION IN AMERICA. 1. The confederation was called "THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND"; 2. It included Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut colonies; 3. It was formed for protection against French, Dutch, and In- dians; for "mutual help and strength," because England was not able at this time to protect the colonies (see Chart) : and to spread the Gospel; 4. Each colony had two representatives, though military quotas were based upon popula- tion. This worked an injustice to the largest colony, Massachusetts Bay; 5. All matters were decided by three-quarters vote of the Com- missioners. 1645— Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in a rebellion, and during a year the Puritan Clayborne ruled Maryland. — Massachusetts established free schools sup- ported by the State. 1649— J. TOLERATION Act was passed by the Maryland Assembly. Though religious toleration had been introduced into other colonies previously by individual proprie- tors or governors, this was the earliest legislative en- actment in America asserting the principle of religious toleration. — Virginia became a refuge for Cavaliers. Governor Berkeley, who had been Governor since 1642, had Charles II proclaimed as King and invited him to assume the administration of Virginia. (See Chart for English political history.) 1652 — Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the Puritan Commonwealth. 1653 — The settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, was made by Virginia pioneers. 1655 — Stuyvesant conquered New Sweden with its center on the Delaware River. Holland was given a free hand after the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which terminated the "Thirty- Years' War" in Europe. Sweden definitely aban- doned American colonization to England and Holland after her defeat. 1658 — Massachusetts made it a capital of- fense for any Quaker to return to the colony after expulsion. The Quakers believed that a man's religious belief should be determined by his conscience and not by Church authority. They believed in absolute religious and political equality, and desired to become martyrs to the cause of religious toleration. Under the Massachusetts law of 1658 four Quakers were put to death on the Boston Common. 1660 — The restoration of Charles II in Eng- land (See Chart) brought about the return of Berkeley in Virginia. The restoration was welcomed by the Cavaliers of Virginia, but the Massachusetts Puritans delayed a year before proclaiming Charles king. A second influx of Puritan immigrants followed the restoeation. 1662-1682 Colonial Period 13 —A rigorous NAVIGATION ACT was passed by the Government of the Restoration. During Cromwell's administration (see Chart) a navigation act had been passed for the purpose of stifling the commercial rivalry of Holland. The Act of 1660 was for this same object, but also for the pur- pose of aiding the English merchants and manufac- turers. According to the Act all English possessions could allow only English or Colonial vessels entrance to their ports; certain articles, produced in the col- onies, such as sugar and tobacco, were known as "enumerated" goods, .and were to be shipped to England only. An addition to the Act, some time later, required the colonies to purchase all goods from England direct. These acts were not rigorously enforced and a system of illicit trade grew up, which was carried on throughout the inter-colonial wars. 1662 — Connecticut was granted a liberal charter by Charles II, and to the colony was added the neighboring colony of New Haven. 1663 — Rhode Island was granted a new charter and Providence added to it. The charters of these two colonies were so liberal that they continued to be the fundamental law of Connecticut and Rhode Island to 1818 and 1842. Their citizens practically enjoyed complete self- government, except that laws might be annulled by the King and Council. The Rhode Island charter also provided for religious equality. — Carolina was granted to a company of nobles. 1664 — King Charles granted to his brother, the Duke of York (afterward King James II), large tracts of America, including the Dutch possession of New Netherland. — Commissioners from England arrived in Massachusetts to pass on complaints made to the King by the northern settlements and Rhode Island. Massachusetts prepared for armed resistance, and the Commissioners' forces were too small to compel acquiescence. The invasion of England by the Dutch diverted England from Massachusetts' affairs. (See Chart.) — Richard Nicolls, in command of an Eng- lish FLEET, TOOK NEW NETHERLAND without fighting (Aug. 27). The name, New Nether- land, was changed to NEW YORK, and for the first time all the Atlantic coast, from Maine to Florida, came under English control. — New Jersey was granted by the Duke of York to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car- teret. Elizabeth, New Jersey, was settled this year. 1668 — Father Marquette planted a mis- sionary station at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. This was the first permanent French set- tlement in the Northwest. The situation in France (see Chart) permitted of renewed Colonial effort. Three different classes now undertook the task of spreading French influences: 1. The Jesuit missionary; 2. The fur traders and trappers; 3. The soldier or explorer who desired to extend the political sway of France, rather than to further her religious or commercial interests. 1669 — John Locke drafted a constitution for Carolina. This document, known as The Grand Model, provided for titles of nobility and a feudal organization of society, but never went into effect. 1670 — Charleston, South Carolina, was set- tled. 1673 — Marquette reached the upper waters of the Mississippi and sailed down that stream for nearly a thousand miles. — A Dutch fleet reconquered New Nether- land and Dutch supremacy was temporarily restored. 1674 — New Netherland was permanently made English by a European treaty of peace. Sir Edmond Andros was made Governor. 1675— KING PHILIP'S WAR broke out in New England. The Indian chieftain, Philip, had united all the Indians of New England in a general assault upon the whites. This was the most serious of all the Indian wars of the Colonial period. The power of the Narragansett tribe, which was at the center of the rebellion, was broken at the battle of South Kingston, Rhode Island (December 19). The death of King Philip put an end to the war (1676), and so many Indians were killed that New England was freed for some time from Indian attacks. 1676— BACON'S REBELLION broke out in Virginia. This rebellion, headed by Nathaniel Bacon, was an attempt to overthrow the autocratic government of Berkeley, who had installed his friends in offices and refused to take active measures against the Indians, because he and his friends were interested in the fur trade. Bacon captured and burned James- town, but his movement fell to pieces upon his death soon after. Governor Berkeley executed so many of the remaining rebel leaders that the King recalled him. 1677 — Maine became a part of Massachu- setts through purchase from its nominal Eng- lish owners. 1679 — English Commissioners were sent over by King Charles to investigate the disobedi- ences of the Massachusetts colony. — New Hampshire was formally separated from Massachusetts and was made a royal province. 1681 — William Penn secured a charter and a grant of land from Charles II, which in- cluded Delaware and Pennsylvania. Penn was a Quaker and wished to establish an asylum for his Quaker friends, many of whom immi- grated to the new world. 1682 — Penn came to America in person and established a constitutional government, which contained many liberal features. He pur- chased land from the Indians and FOUNDED PHILADELPHIA. — La Salle explored the Mississippi to its mouth. He claimed not only the land watered by the Mississippi, but also the territory drained by its tribu- taries. He named the vast region "Louisiana" after Louis XIV of France. 14 United States History 1685-1702 1685 — New York became a royal colony. 1686 — The charter of Massachusetts Bay was annulled and Sir Edmond Andros was appointed Governor over all New England. Andros gradually took possession of the various colonial governments, including New York. His administration in Massachusetts was especially severe. He invalidated land titles; he overthrew the Congregational churches; and intrenched on the privileges of legislature and courts. 1688 — New Rochelle, in New York, was colonized by Huguenots. Religious conditions in France (see Chart) caused the migration of many Huguenots to other American colonies, especially the Carolinas and Virginia. Fail- ure of the French government to allow them to settle in New France gave the English colonies a desirable addition to their population. 1689 — Andros was driven out of Massa- chusetts Bay and the New England colonies reestablished their former governments. — A rebellion under Jacob Leisler occurred in New York. SECTION II TIME OF CONSOLIDATION OR THE ANGLO-FRENCH STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA Prom 1689 to 1763—74 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Channing, History of the United States, II, 214-599; Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict; Parkman, Struggle for a Continent; Thwaites, France in America (The American Nation Series) ; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, II, Nos. 1-136; LEADING FEATURES:— The Colonies grew in power, in mutual acquaintance, and in self-reliance. The struggle between Eng- land and France for possession of the New World filled the period and came to an end with the expulsion of the French. 1689 — Frontenac, the ablest of the French Governors of Canada, was again sent out as Governor by Louis XIV. Frontenac's energetic policy, in dealing with the English and the Indians, forced the English colonists into concerted and offensive action. —KING WILLIAM'S WAR (1689-1697). The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR BEGAN. This marked the beginning of a contest which con- tinued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America. 1690 — The French and their Indian allies attacked the Northern frontier. Massacres occurred at Schenectady, New York; Salmon Falls, New Hampshire; and other places. • — Representatives of the various English colonies met at Albany to arrange for co- operation and defense. — Two Colonial expeditions were sent against the French in Canada. A naval force which was commanded by Sir W'l- liam Phips, of Maine, took temporary possession of Nova Scotia. It then advanced up the St. Lawrence against Quebec, but was easily repelled. A land expedition, sent north against Montreal, was also- compelled to retreat. 1691 — Massachusetts was granted a new but less independent charter. The old Plymouth settlement was now permanently incorporated with Massachusetts. Maine and Nova Scotia were also included in its government, but New Hampshire became once more a separate province. — Delaware was separated temporarily from Pennsylvania. 1692 — The Salem witchcraft delusion reached its height. More than twenty persons were executed and hundreds were imprisoned throughout Massachusetts as witches before sanity was restored. — "The College of William and Mary" was established in Virginia. 1693 — Penn was temporarily deprived of his proprietorship in Pennsylvania. 1694 — French and Indian raiders massacred the population of Durham, N. H. 1695 — Rice was planted in South Carolina for the first time. — The French erected a fort at Kaskaskia, the first permanent settlement within the pres- ent State ot Illinois. 1696 — Andover, Mass., was sacked by the French and Indians. 1697— The TREATY OF RTSWICK closed the first inter-colonial war. No territorial, or other change, was recognized by the treaty. 1699 — William Kidd, the noted pirate, was arrested and afterwards hanged. — Biloxi was founded as the French capital of Louisiana. Mobile became the permanent capital two years later. 1701 — Yale College was established in Con- necticut. — The first important military colony in the North Central region was established by the French at Detroit. — Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania, which remained in force until 1776. 1702— QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-1714). The second inter-colonial war began be- tween France and England, and the frontiers were again harried by the Indians. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Eng- enders retaliating. — Spain, being allied with France, the col- onists of South Carolina conducted a partly successful expedition against the Spaniards at St. Augustine. The town was plundered but the fortress held out. 1703-1753 Colonial Period 15 — The capital of Louisiana was removed by the French to the Mobile River, near Mobile, and the first settlement in the present Ala- bama was thus begun. 1703 — The Carolinians attacked the Indian allies of the Spaniards and slew many. 1706 — The French and Spaniards united in a retaliatory attack on Charleston. Their fleet was beaten off after a severe battle. 1707 — The New England colonists sent an expedition against Canada in revenge for the Indian massacres; it failed. 1709 — A public slave market was set up in New York City. 1710 — An expedition, sent by all the north- ern colonies, captured Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, and named it Annapolis after Queen Anne. 1711 — A large force of British and Colonials sailed up the St. Lawrence, intending to con- quer Canada. Most of the ships were wrecked and the expedition failed. — The Tuscarora Indian tribe massacred over a hundred North Carolina settlers. They were driven from the South. 1712 — A negro plot to burn the city of New York was discovered, or suspected, and nine- teen negroes were executed. 1713 — Queen Anne's "War was ended by the TREATY OF UTRECHT. This was the "First important treaty in the diplo- matic history of the United States." Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay were given to Eng- land ; fishing rights in the north were reserved to the French. 1715 — This year closed the great Indian war in Carolina. The Yemmasees were de- feated. A lasting peace was then concluded between the English and the southern Indians. 1716 — The English westward movement of population began. 1717 — New Orleans was founded by the French. 1729 — The city of Baltimore was founded. — North and South Carolina were finally and permanently divided into two provinces. — The most extensive of all the Indian mas- sacres within the United States' limits oc- curred at the French settlement at Natchez in Louisiana. The town was suddenly surprised and out of about six hundred inhabitants only twenty-six escaped. All the rest were slain or carried off as prisoners. — New York and Philadelphia were con- nected by a regular stage line running once a fortnight. 1733 — Georgia, the last of the thirteen origi- nal colonies, was settled as a buffer against the Spaniards to the south. Savannah was the first settlement. The colony was controlled by a body of trustees, but the philan- thropist, James Oglethorpe, was the leading spirit. He tried to make the colony a refuge for debtors. 1735 — Yincennes, in Indiana, was settled by a number of French colonists. A few settlers had probably erected a fort here as early as 1705. — John Peter Zenger, a German editor of New York, was tried for libel and acquitted. Zenger had criticized the English government in his paper, 'the New York Weekly Journal. He was arrested and ably defended by Andrew Hamilton, a Scotch lawyer from Philadelphia. As a result of his acquittal, the muzzle was removed from the colonial press and great freedom in political discus- sion went on down to the Revolution. 1739 — George "Whitefield, the celebrated re- ligious reformer, traveled around the colonies preaching; a widespread religious revival was the result. 1740 — General Oglethorpe, with the aid of an English fleet, attacked St. Augustine, but was repulsed. 1741 — A second negro plot to burn New York City was suspected and numerous hang- ings and burnings of negroes followed. 1742 — The Spaniards attacked Georgia. They were completely defeated by Oglethorpe ; the war ended the next year. 1744— KING GEORGE'S WAR (1744- 1748), the third inter-colonial war, broke out between England and France. 1745 — Louisburg, the Gibraltar of the North, the chief fortress of Cape Breton, was besieged and captured by a New England force under William Pepperell. 1748— The TREATY OF AIZ-LA-CHA- PELLE closed King George's War. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. 1749 — The Ohio Company was formed to colonize the Ohio valley; it received a grant of a vast tract of land from King George. 1750 — The English Parliament passed a law limiting the erection of iron mills and forges in America, so as to compel the im- portation of wrought iron from England. This policy had been used already in connection with other manufactured products, but only in this in- stance was an infant industry stifled. It was a part of England's mercantile policy to confine the colonies to the production of raw materials. 1752 — Benjamin Franklin became famous for his discoveries in electricity. 1753 — George Washington was sent by Gov- ernor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, to order the French pioneers out of the Ohio valley. The English based their claims to this region on the charters which made the Pacific Ocean the west- ern boundary of colonies set up along the Atlantic seaboard. France claimed the same territory as a result of the discovery of the interior riverways, claiming all lands watered by a river and that watered by all its tributaries. 16 United States History 1754-1763 Ft.fTontenacj THE EETEEAT OF WASHINGTON 1754— THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-1763), the foubth and last intee-co- lonial wae, broke out between the French and English. — A fort begun by the English, on the present site of Pittsburg, was taken by the French and named Foet Duquesne. A relief expedition, under Washington, was besieged in Fort Necessity and compelled to retire. —A COLONIAL CONGRESS MET AT ALBANY to organize a union of all the col- onies for defense against the French and In- dians. Franklin presented a plan of union which was rejected by the colonies, Decause the home govern- ment was given too much power. It was also re- jected by the home government because the colonies were allowed too much independence. 1755 — Genebal Beaddock led an English army against the French in Ohio. They were ambushed and wholly defeated, Washington saving the remnant of the army. — A Massachusetts officer removed the Aca- dians because their French sympathies made them dangerous. — The Iroquois Indians, aided by the colo- nists, defeated a French and Indian army on Lake George. 1756 — Montcalm captured several forts along the New York frontier. 1757 — The Massachusetts Colonial Legisla- ture quarreled with the Governor over the quartering of troops in the colonies. At the same time Pennsylvania quarreled with the Governor over the question of the Governor's right to veto tax bills. The whole period was marked by such quarrels, a greater number of which had to do with the Governor's salary. 1758 — The French defeated an English army on Lake Champlain ; but the English conquered the entire Ohio valley, and for the second time captured the great fortress of Louisburg. 1759 — The English conquered the entire Lake Champlain region, and GENERAL WOLFE, scaling the Heights of Abeaham, CAPTURED QUEBEC. The opposing gen- erals were both mortally wounded in the battle. 1760 — MONTEEAL SUEEENDEEED TO THE ENG- LISH, AND THE CONQUEST OF CANADA WAS COM- PLETED. — George III became the King of England. George III tried to rule both England and the colonies without any attention to the wishes of the people. His obstinacy and narrow-mindedness helped to drive the colonies into revolt, and secured for them the sympathy of many leading Whigs in England. 1761 — The navigation laws of 1651 and 1660, which had been unenforced, weee now EEVIVED. Warships were placed along the coast to stop the trade which had grown up with France, Spain, and their West Indian colonies. — The "Writs of Assistance" were issued as a means of assistance in the enforcement of the navigation acts. They caused bitter dissatisfaction in New Eng- land, which had become the centre for smuggling. These Writs of Assistance were general search war- rants given to customs officials in which they them- selves could enter the name of any person suspected of concealing smuggled goods, which were not de- scribed, and they, therefore, could break into and search any house at any time. — James Otis, the leading lawyer of Massa- chusetts, made a celebrated speech in Boston denying the right of the English government to issue Writs of Assistance, or even to pass an act of trade which levied a tax on the colonies. Of this speech John Adams said : "It breathed into this nation the breath of life." 1763— TEE TREATY OF PARIS ended the French and Indian War. France relinquished to England all her possessions on the mainland of North America east of the Mis- sissippi River except New Orleans; Spain ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana, cap- tured during the war; and France ceded to Spain the territory west of the Mississippi. — The King by a proclamation reserved most of the land between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi for Indian tribes, thus limiting colonial expansion westward. 1763-1768 Revolutionary Period 17 CHAPTER HI REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD From 1763 to 1789—26 years This Period, which saw thirteen rebellious and discordant Colonies welded into a single independent nation, is naturally subdivided as follows : I. Time of Dispute From 1763 to 1775 — 12 years II. Revolutionary "War From 1775 to 1783 — 8 years III. Settling the Constitution From 1783 to 1789 — 6 years SECTION I TIME OF DISPUTE From 1763 to 1775—12 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Howard, Preliminaries of the Revolution (The American Nation Series) ; Frothingham, Rise of the Republics, Chaps. 5-8 ; Fiske, The American Revolution, 1 ; Trevelyan, The American Revolution, I; Hart, American History told by Contemporaries, II, Nos. 132-159. Leading Features: — The attempt of the Parliament of England to regulate and to tax the Colonies aroused ever-increasing antago- nism, the strife gradually centering about the stamp and tea taxes and about Boston. The Colonies were drawn together by their com- mon cause and need. 1763 — Patrick Henry appeared in the "Par- sons' Cause," and vindicated the right of the colonies to manage their own affairs. The scarcity of the tobacco crop had caused a law to be passed in Virginia, in 1755 and again in 1758, which fixed the price of tobacco at two pence per pound. These laws fell heavily on the parsons, whose salary was paid in tobacco ; with the price of tobacco low, they would, therefore, get little money. They appealed to England against the laws of 1755 and 1758, and the King upheld their plea. Patrick Henry opposed the Crown, asserting that "by annul- ing or disallowing acts of so salutary a nature, from being the father of his people (the King) degenerates into a tyrant, and forfeits all rights to his subjects' obedience." — The western Indians arose under Pontiac. They were not suppressed until 1765. 1764 — King George III, and his friends in Parliament, demanded that the American Colonies pay a share of the English debt in- curred during the French and Indian War. The Colonial assemblies were asked for contribu- tions which they refused. Parliament then asserted its right to tax the colonies, though they had no rep- resentatives in Parliament; thus discussion arose over taxation without representation. — The city of St. Louis was founded. — Brown University was chartered. 1765 — Parliament passed the "Quartering Act," requiring the colonists to supply living quarters to an army of British soldiers. — The STAMP ACT was passed by Parlia- ment, putting a stamp tax on all newspapers, pamphlets, and many kinds of legal docu- ments. This Act caused rioting and such active resistance throughout the colonies that the tax could not be collected. The younger element of the population organized for active resistance. They adopted the name "Sons of Liberty" and the motto "Liberty, Prosperity, and No Stamps." — Patrick Henry introduced a resolution in the Virginia Assembly denying the right of Parliament to legislate on the internal con- cerns of Virginia. — The Stamp Act Congress met at the suggestion of Massachusetts. (See p. 59.) 1. It issued a "declaration of rights," especially objecting to taxation by Parliament; and 2. It sent petitions to the King and to both houses of Parlia- ment. 3. It established a precedent for union. 1766 — The Stamp Act was repealed by Rockingham's ministry on the advice of Pitt. At the same time the conciliatory effect of this repeal was spoiled by the passage of the Declaratory Act; it maintained the right of the English Parlia- ment to tax if it desired. 1767— Townshend, the Chancellor of Ex- chequer, brought in a bill for taxes on tea, glass, wine, oil, paper, lead, and painters' colors. The duties collected were to be used in paying the salaries of the governors and judges, thus rendering them independent of the Colonial assemblies. Writs of Assistance and trial of revenue cases by admiralty courts were both provided for in Townshend's plan. The Massachusetts Circular Letter, 1768, and the Vir- ginia Resolution, 1769, condemned the act. — Parliament temporarily deprived New York of its legislative rights because the New York Legislature had refused to supply quar- ters for British troops. — Mason and Dixon's line was drawn set- tling the disputed boundary between Penn- sylvania and Maryland. 1768— A NON-IMPORTATION AGREE- MENT was adopted by the merchants of Bos- ton, who refused to import anything from England until the obnoxious taxes were re- pealed. These Non-importation Agreements spread through the other colonies. — The Massachusetts Legislature was dis- solved by George III, and an army of British soldiers was quartered in Boston. 18 United States History 1769-1774 1769 — Lord North repealed all the taxes ex- cept that on tea, which was retained for principle's sake. English merchants, suffering from the "Non- importation Agreements, "had petitioned Parliament to repeal the taxes, but the retention of the tea tax caused the conciliatory effect to be lost. — Spanish missionaries established their mis- sions in California ; San Diego was the earliest of them. 1770 — The "Boston Massacre" was a seri- ous encounter between citizens and British soldiery in which several Bostonians were shot by the soldiers. So great was the anger of the Boston people that Samuel Adams was able to threaten rebellion if the British soldiers were not removed from the city. They were temporarily withdrawn. 1771 — In North Carolina some of the people had united as regulators to resist the royal Governor's tyranny. Fifteen hundred regu- lators were defeated by a thousand of the militia at Alamance Creek. About thirty were slain and the leaders were hanged. — Tennessee was settled at Watauga. 1772 — The British revenue cutter Gaspee was burned by Rhode Islanders. The Gaspee had been attempting to enforce the navigation acts. She had run ashore in Narra- gansett Bay, and the men of Providence captured the crew and burned the vessel. A commission was appointed to investigate the affair and persons accused were liable to be taken to England for trial. Though the leaders were well known, it was impos- sible for the commission to get evidence against any one. 1773 — As a result of the Gaspee incident, the Virginia House of Burgesses appointed a COMMITTEE OF CORRESPONDENCE to keep in touch with other colonies. Other Colonial Legislatures soon made provision for committees of the same sort. — The "Boston Tea Party" took place in Boston. King George had sent tea to America, offering the tea for sale at prices lower than before the tax. The colonists, however, quite generally refused to take the tea at any price, and some Boston people disguised as Indians seized the tea ship and threw the tea overboard. 1774 — To punish Boston, Parliament passed the BOSTON PORT BILL, closing the port of Boston to all shipping and removing the seat of government to Salem. At the same time General Gage, commander of the soldiers in Boston, was made Governor of Massa- chusetts. Massachusetts was looked upon as the leader in the expressions and acts of hostility to England that had occurred in the previous years. The first measures of repression were, therefore, leveled against her. The Boston Port bill, which was one of the five so-called "Intolerable Acts," closed that port from June 1 to all commerce, save in fuel, food, and military supplies, until such time as the King, in council, should decide that commerce might safely be resumed. The act remained in force until Decem- ber, 1775. —The second "Intolerable Act," the REGU- LATING ACT, remodeled the charter of Massachusetts in order "to take the execu-. tive power from the hands of the democratic parts of the government." This act was the first attempt of Parliament to change a Colonial charter. It really did away with free government, taking the appointment and re- moval of almost all of the judicial officers out of the hands of the people, and practically prohibiting town meetings. This united the opposition in all colonies, since it implied that their charters could all be altered at will by Parliament. — The third "Intolerable Act" provided that English officers, or magistrates, charged with murder, or other capital offenses, in a particular colony should be tried in either some other colony or in England. — The fourth "Intolerable Act" was the QUARTERING ACT. This was an act of enforcement to be taken in connection with the three previous coercive acts. It called for the billeting of soldiers on the people who failed to voluntarily provide suitable quarters. —The fifth "Intolerable Act" was the QUEBEC ACT. This act extended the boundaries of Quebec to the Ohio River, taking in what are now the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and established an arbitrary form of government within it. —The FIRST CONTINENTAL CON- GRESS, consisting of delegates from twelve colonies, met at Philadelphia (September 5). This Congress was the direct result of the English acts of coercion. All colonies sympathized with Massachusetts and responded to her call for a Colonial Congress. This Congress was merely deliberative and advisory, having no power to act, but it served to draw the colonies much closer together: 1. It issued a declaration of rights; 2. It formed the "American Association," which provided for the better carrying out of the non-importation agree- ment; 3. It forwarded a petition to the King and an address to the colonists ; 4. It provided for another Congress to meet in 1775. — King George forbade the exportation of military stores to the colonies. — The Massachusetts Provincial Congress met. General Gage had previously arrived m Boston with a number of soldiers. Their presence and petty acts of oppression aroused the people. He summoned the General Court to meet at Salem/ but put off the date of assembling. The delegate^ met without him and his counsellors and prepared^ for war. They provided for the appointment of a com- mittee of safety, and issued a call for 12,000 vol- 1 unteers, pledged to be ready for the field at a minute's! notice. The volunteers were, therefore, popularly | known as "Minute Men." — The settlement of Kentucky and Tennes- see, which had been going on in previous years, led to Lord Dunmore's War against the Indians of the Northwest. The Indians were defeated at the battle of the Great Kanawha and their opposition was thus re- moved to the occupation of lands beyond the Alleghanies and the winning of the west. 1775-1776 Revolutionary War 19 SECTION II REVOLUTIONARY WAR 1775 to 1783—8 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Fiske, The American Revolution, I, 136-344; II, 1-286; Van Tyne, The American Revolution (The American Nation Series) ; Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, II; Fbothingham, Rise of the Republic, 403-568; Hart, A merican History told by Contemporaries, II, Nos. 159-220. Leading Features: — The strife, begun by both in full confidence of victory, fluctuated with the defeat of the Americans at New- York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, and the capture of the English armies at Saratoga and Yorktown. After this last decisive American victory, two years were spent in negotiation before the final treaty of peace. 1775 — Massachusetts was declared by the English Parliament to be in a state of re- bellion. — Lord Howe was sent to America with a fleet and with offers of conciliation. These provided that Parliament would not tax, except by commercial duties, if the colonies would contribute a fixed amount, for the support of the army and Colonial officials, which should meet Parliament's approval. — An expedition was sent out from Boston to seize the powder in the surrounding towns, and to arrest the two chief "traitors," John Hancock, president of the Massachusetts Legis- lature, and Samuel Adams, the "man of the town meeting." The countryside was warned by Paul Eevere. Hancock and Adams escaped. At Lexington the British troops fired on the assembled "mlnute men," killing eight op them. —At Concord the British destroyed the military stores. Their advance guard fired on the Americans, and was fired on in return. Two soldiers were killed, the rest retreated. Thus armed resistance began (April 19). BUNKER HILL AND VICINITY The British troops, retreating from Concord, were pursued and fled back to Boston, their disorderly retreat covered by Lord Percy. The New England militia immediately besieged the British in Boston. —THE OPENING EVENTS OP THE "WAR were confined to New England and the North. They included: — The capture of the British forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point by the militia of Vermont, "Green Mountain Boys" (May 10 and 12). The Battle of Bunker Hill, fought just outside of Boston (June 17) — the British, twice repulsed, finally captured the hill, but lost a thousand men. The Siege of Boston, July 3, 1775— March 17, 1776. The Canadian expedition under Montgomery captured Montreal, but failed in an attack on Quebec. —The SECOND CONTINENTAL CON- GRESS met at Philadelphia, May 10. It im- mediately voted to raise 20,000 men for de- fense, and chose George "Washington Com- mander-in-Chief. The powers of this Revolutionary Congress were uncertain. It had no legal existence and no settled form of government back of it, but: 1. It acted as the central government during the war; 2. It acted as a military council; 3. It declared independence; 4. It drew up the Articles of Confederation; 5. It provided for the organization of State governments. 1776— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1776 centered in the Middle States, with one British expedition despatched to the South and one to the North. The chief events were: The Evacuation of Boston (March 17). Gage with all his troops and loyalist citizens sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. The repulse of the British fleet and army which attacked Charleston, South Carolina (June 28). Failing to subdue the South, the English remained away until late in the war. The Battle of Long Island (Aug. 27). Sir William Howe compelled Washington to retreat to the Harlem Heights, and New York was occupied by the British (Sept. 15). The reoccupation of Crown Point by the British as a result of the defeat of Arnold in two naval expe- ditions on Lake Champlain (Oct. 11 and 13). The Battle of White Plains (Oct. 28) ; the cap- ture of 3,000 Americans at Fort Washington (Nov. 16). The evacuation of Fort Lee (Nov. 20), and the retreat of Washington across New Jersey to Pennsylvania (Nov. 28). The capture of the Hes- sians at Trenton (Dec. 26). Washington recrossed the Delaware at night and surprised the garrison of 1,000 men. He outgeneralled the British during the next few days and defeated them at Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777). — The Continental Congress, on May 10, provided for the establishment of State gov- ernments. It recommended that each colony "adopt such government as shall, in the opinion of the representa- tives of the people, best conduce to the happiness and safety of their constituents in particular and of America in general." State conventions were im- mediately called in most of the colonies to make constitutions. They were generally modeled on the old Colonial charters minus English control. —THE DECLARATION OF INDEPEND- ENCE was passed by Congress on July 4. The rough draft of the Declaration was written by Jefferson, and included an attack on the slave trade (later eliminated). The Declaration consisted of two parts: 1. A statement of American political theories, chiefly derived by Jefferson from Locke's 20 United States History 1777-1778 NEW YORK AND VICINITY 1776 "Essay on Government"; 2. A list of the train of abuses that brought on the war. — The Cherokee Indians attacked the Caro- linas. After three months of fighting their power was completely broken. — San Francisco Bay was discovered by the Spanish and settled by them near San Fran- cisco. 1777— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1777 centered around the British attempt to gain control of the Hudson Valley and separate New England from the Southern and Middle states. The attempt failed, partly because General Howe, through an error, failed to cooperate with General Burgoyne; occupying Philadelphia instead. The two movements may be considered separately. BURGOYNE'S CAMPAIGN:— General Burgoyne led a British army southward from Canada in June, advanced down Lake Champlain, took Ticonderoga, but found further advance vigorously contested by General Schuyler, who so impeded the English army that it took fifty days to cover seventy-five miles; a side expedition into Vermont was defeated by Colonel Stark at Bennington (August 16) ; a Canadian relief expedition, under St. Leger, was compelled to turn back; Burgoyne finally reached Bemis Heights, and was defeated by the Americans under Gates (who had succeeded Schuyler), in two engagements (Sept. 19 and Oct. 7). According to the Saratoga Convention his army was to surrender and to be transported from Boston to England in British transports, and was not to j engage in war against America unless exchanged.;! The agreement was not lived up to; instead the cap- 1 tors confined "the convention troops," first in Cam-| bridge, and then marched them into the interior of Pennsylvania and Virginia. Some results of the surrender were: 1. It secured substantial aid from France; 2. It kept the English troops fighting France in Europe; 3. It led to English proposals of peace. HOWE'S CAMPAIGN:— General Howe left New York by sea in August to attack Philadelphia; he defeated Washington at Brandtwine (Sept. 11); Philadelphia was captured (Sept. 27); Congress fled from the city; Washington attacked the British and was defeated at Germantown, Pa. (Oct. 4); Washington's troops went into winter quarters and suffered much misery at Valley Forge. OTHER MILITARY EVENTS DURING 1777:— A British marauding expedition burned Danbury, Conn. (April) ; Forts on the Hudson, near West Point, were captured by a. force from New York (Nov.)l —The "STARS AND STRIPES" were adopted by Congress as the American flag (June 14). — The "Conway Cabal" was formed to place Gates, instead of "Washington, in su- preme command. It failed. —"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION" were drafted by Congress. The confederacy was to be called "The United States of America." It was some time before the various States ratified the articles. 1778— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1778 were widely diffused. They included: The evacuation of Philadelphia (June 18) by General Clinton (who had succeeded^ General Howe); the unsuccessful attack of Wash-if ington on Clinton's retreating columns at Monmouth* (June 28); the American forces were badly disorga- nized by the disgraceful retreat of General Charles Lee at the beginning of the engagement. The frightful massacre by Tories and Indians at Wyoming, Pa. (July 4). The failure of an attempt of the Americans to unite with the French fleet under Count d'Estaing in an attack on Newport (Aug. 22-29). Another massacre (at Cherry Valley) by Tories and Indians (Nov. 11). The capture of Savannah by a British fleet (Dec. 29). IN THE WEST meanwhile the American leader, Clark, captured the British posts in the Northwest Territory at Vincennes and Kaskaskia. This en- abled the Americans to claim this region at the close of the war. — Lord North's Conciliatory Proposals were not accepted by America. The English Parliament offered complete freedom from taxation except duties imposed for the regula- tion of commerce. — The Treaty of Alliance with France was entered into. This treaty was the work of Benjamin Franklin. ' It provided for: 1. French acknowledgment of American independence; 2. Offensive and defensive alliance against England; 3. Guarantees of posses- sions of both in America. This gradually involved England in a general European war. (See Chart.) — Franklin was appointed "Minister Pleni- potentiary" to France; America's first for- eign minister. 1779-1783 Revolutionary War 21 1779— THE MILITAEY EVENTS OF 1779 included a great variety of movements. Among the chief encounters there may be included the following: The British ravaged the coast of Vir- ginia in May and of Connecticut in July. The Americans, under General Wayne, stormed the fort at Stony Point, on the Hudson (July 15). Paul Jones, in the Bon Homme Richard, made a daring foray upon the English coast and defeated a large English ship, the Serapis (Sept. 23). The British made a sortie from Savannah to Charleston, S. O, but retired. The Americans and the French fleet made a com- bined attack on Savannah (Oct. 9); it failed and Count d'Estaing and his fleet left the coast. 1780— THE MILITAEY EVENTS OF 1780 were quite generally confined to the South. The main encounters were as follows: — Charles- ton, S. C, was besieged by a British fleet of 10,000 men under General Clinton; Charleston and 5,000 American militia men were captured (May 12). General Gates was sent to help the falling American cause in the South, but was utterly defeated by General Cornwallis (Aug. 16) at Camden — all Georgia and most of South Carolina were left in British hands, and the Revolution seemed lost in the tar South, but loyalist marauders treated the Americans so cruelly that by degrees the whole people were roused against the oppressors. General Arnold attempted to betray West Point to the British; his treachery was exposed by the capture of the British spy, Andr6 (Sept. 23). A company of backwoodsmen defeated a large force at King's Mountain (Oct. 7), and the patriots began to rally again. The bands of Sumter and Marion harassed the British, 1781— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1781 were again chiefly confined to the South. Generals Greene and Morgan superseded Gates in command of the Americans in the South; Morgan defeated the British under Tarle- ton at Cowpens, S. C. (Jan. 17) ; General Arnold, in the employ of the British, ravaged Virginia (Jan.); Greene, facing the overwhelming forces of Corn- wallis, conducted his celebrated retreat of 300 miles across North Carolina, drawing Cornwallis after him. He fought an indecisive battle at Guil- ford Court House (March 15), and compelled Corn- wallis to fall back to the coast at Wilmington. Greene now left Cornwallis and returning into South Carolina, with the aid of the "partisan" leaders, especially Marion, he recaptured post after post from the British, caused them heavy loss in an indecisive battle at Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8), and forced their remaining forces to take refuge in Charleston — this remarkable and triumphant cam- paign ranks Greene next to Washington among the generals of the Revolution. Cornwallis concentrated his forces at Yorktown (Aug.). In September a French fleet under Count De Grasse entered Chesapeake Bay. Washington, who was maneuvering against Gen- eral Clinton at New York, secured the aid of French troops under Rochambeau and managed to with- draw the bulk of his army unsuspected; by rapid marches Washington hurried south into Virginia and confronted Cornwallis at Yorktown — the British were thus besieged, both by land and sea ; a French column and an American one under Alex- ander Hamilton stormed the chief British defenses and CORNWALLIS SURRENDERED HIS EN- TIRE ARMY OF 7,000 MEN (Oct. 19). _ The defeat of Cornwallis, coupled with the declara- tion of war against England made by Spain and France in 1778 and 1779, strengthened the opposition In England against George III and practically put an end to hostilities. — The "Articles of Confederation" pre- viously adopted by Congress were formally ratified by all the States and became the LEGAL GOVERNMENT of the Colonies. The Confederation as created was not a nation, but only a league of sovereign States. The articles had several fundamental weaknesses- 1. The ex- ecutive was a commission ; 2. Congress was given no power to collect revenue for the support of a Federal Government or the payment of debts; 3. Congress lacked power to regulate commerce; 4. Congress had no army to enforce the laws that it made. — The American troops around New York and Philadelphia mutinied because of lack of supplies; but returned to duty again. 1782— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1782 consisted in the evacuation of southern cities by the British and in the general cessation of hostilities. General Wayne defeated the British in Georgia and shut them up in Savannah, which was evacuated (July 11); Charleston was evacuated (July 11); preliminary articles of peace were signed (Nov. 30). — Holland acknowledged the independence of the United States (April 19). The other European countries followed the next year. 1783 — Congress proclaimed, on April 11, "the cessation of hostilities on land and sea." The definitive treaty was signed at Paris September 3. It provided: 1. That the boundaries of America should be similar to those of the colonies under the treaty of 1763 and the King's proclamation of the same year; thus the northern boundary followed the southern boundary of Canada. From the point where the 45th parallel reached the St. Lawrence it followed the channel of that river to the .Great Lakes and connecting waters to the northwest corner of the Lake-of-the- Woods, and thence due west to the source of the Mississippi River; 2. That Congress would recommend the States to pass relief acts for loyalists; 3. That the United States was to have fishing rights off Newfoundland; 4. That private debts should be payable at the close of the war; 5. That the British armies were to be withdrawn at once from all posts in the United States, taking no negroes with them; 6. That the navigation of the Mississippi was to be free to sub- jects of both countries. 22 United States History 1783-1788 — Washington resigned his commission and returned to private life. — Congress was driven from Philadelphia by an army of half-drunken and mutinous soldiers. The army, however, was disbanded (June 23). — The officers of the American army founded the Society of the Cincinnati. SECTION III SETTLING THE CONSTITUTION 1783 to 1789—6 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Fiske, Critical Period; McLaughlin, The Confederation (The American Nation Series); Frothingham, Rise of the Republic, 569-610; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, III, Nos. 10-82. Leading Featubes : — The feeble central gov- ernment of the States resulted almost in anarchy. A strong central government was at length devised, and ivas put in force with the election of Washington as President. This period has been aptly called the ' ' Criti- cal Period." The poverty of the country and the lack of a strong central government gave rise to rebellions and to commercial rivalries which threatened the existence of the newly- created nation. The great men whom the war had brought to the front saved the country, and the period, which began in gloom, ended with a hopeful outlook toward the future. 1784 — The ordinance of 1784 was passed by Congress for the government of the North- west Territory. This territory originated out of the cessions of Western lands made by the various states of the Atlantic seaboard. Maryland had refused to ratify the Articles of Confederation unless these lands were given up, and Congress had urged the states to transfer their Western land claims to the United States. New York first ceded her Western territory in 1781 and the other States slowly followed. Before all the cessions were made Congress passed the ordinance for the general government of the territory and its creation into new states. — Connecticut passed a State law for the abolition of slavery. — The first daily newspaper in American was established in Philadelphia. — Samuel Seabury was consecrated as the first bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. — The first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church were ordained this year, Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury. • — Pittsburg was founded. 1785 — Cotton began to be exported to Eng- land, chiefly from Philadelphia. 1786 — Shays 's rebellion broke out in Massachusetts. This rebellion was named after its leader and had for its purposes: 1. The overthrow of the courts, which were proceeding against delinquent debtors; and 2. The issuance of a larger quantity of irredeem- able paper money. —Rhode Island withdrew her representa- tives from the Congress of the Confederation. —Delegates from five States met at An- napolis, September 11, to provide for some method of cheeking the anarchy that threat- ened the states. This Convention was the result of a previous meeting at Alexandria of representatives of Vir- ginia and Maryland to settle commercial difficul- ties on the Potomac River. At Washington's sug- gestion they asked other states to meet them at Annapolis. At this meeting the delegates adopted a resolution offered by Hamilton urging the State Legislatures to select delegates for a Constitutional Convention which should revise the Articles of Con- federation. — The frontiersmen of Western North Caro- lina, now Tennessee, formed a government of their own, seceded from Carolina and called their state Franklin or Falkland. 1787— TEE ORDINANCE OF 1787. This was the final act for the organization and government of the Northwestern territory. Leading promoters of the Ohio Company were responsible for its enactment; among them were General Rufus Putnam, Samuel Parsons, and Rev. Manasseh Cutler. Its important provisions included: 1. Civil rights and religious liberty were granted to the inhabitants; 2. Representative government was provided for; 3. Admission to the Union was to follow as soon as the inhabitants numbered 60,000 free persons (not less than three or more than four states were to be created out of the territory); 4. There was to be " neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said Territory otherwise than in the punishment of crimes"; 5. The thirty-sixth section of each township was put aside to aid education; 6. Division of estates among all heirs was required. —The CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION met in Philadelphia in May. Washington was the presiding officer and after four months of secret debate the Constitution of the United States was completed and offered to the individual states for adoption. The work of the Constitutional Convention was made possible by three great compromises: 1. The Connecticut compromise ended the rivalry between large and small states; the Senate was to be arranged with equal representation from each state, while the House of Representatives was to consist of represen- tation according to population; 2. The three-fifths compromise between the North and the South pro- vided that slaves for representation and taxation should be counted at the ratio of five blacks to three whites; 3. The commerce compromise gave to Congress the power of regulating commerce, provided the slave trade was permitted until 1808. 1788 — Ohio was first permanently settled at Marietta. — The Constitution was established June 21. Nine states were necessary to the establishment of a Constitution and New Hampshire made the ninth state. There had been a great deal of opposi- tion to ratification, the chief objections being that the rights of the people were not enumerated and that the central government was too strong. Much of this opposition was explained away by the Federalist, a remarkable serial paper written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay, explaining and defend- ing the proposed Constitution. ^For an account of the Constitution see pages 55-74 inclusive. 1789-1790 National Period 23 CHAPTER IV NATIONAL PERIOD From ]789 to Present Time The National life of the United States divides naturally into three periods as follows ; I. Time op Expansion From 1789 to 1849 — 60 years II. Slavery Struggle and Its Adjustment From 1849 to 1877 — 28 years (a) Preliminary Quarrels . . From 1849 to 1861 — 12 years (b) Civil War From 1861 to 1865— 4 years (e) Time of Reconstruction . From 1865 to 1877 — 12 years III. United Nation, Its Growth as a World Power , From 1877 to Present Time SECTION I TIME OF EXPANSION From 1789 to 1849 SUGGESTED READINGS: Burgess, The Middle Period, I, 1-349; Bassett, The Federalist System (The American Nation Series); Channing, The Jeffersonian System (The American Nation Series); Babcock, American Nationality (The American Nation Series) ; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, III, Nos. 83-189. LEADING FEATURES:— The government was established by Washington, organized by Hamilton, and then made Democratic by Jef- ferson. Andrew Jackson headed a further and yet more Democratic reorganization. The sentiment for Union grew stronger, fostered by Clay and Webster. Seventeen new states were admitted. Two serious ivars were waged, that of 1812, against Great Britain, and the Mexican War. Several enormous additions of territory were made, including the Louisiana territory, Florida, Texas, Oregon, and northern Mexico. Inventions changed the face of civil- ization. Steamboats, canals, railroads, tele- graphs were established. Manufactures began. New industries followed upon new inventions, such as the cotton gin, the mowing machine and the sewing machine. The general pros- perity and advance were such as earth had never before known. ADMINISTRATIONS OF GEORGE WASHINGTON Born, Westmoreland County, Virginia, February 22, 1732; died, at Mount Vernon, Va., December 14, 1799; Surveyor; Planter; Commanded a regiment in the French War, 1755- 1759; Delegate to Continental Congress, 1774-1775; made Commander-in-Chief of American Army, 1775; President of the Constitutional Convention, 1787; President of the United States, 1789-17 97. Married, 1759, Martha (Dandridge) Custis,— no children; Episcopalian. FEDERALIST; April 30, 1789 to March 4, 1797. Seat of Government, New York City. Phila- delphia after December 6, 1790. 1789 — The first Congress of the United States assembled in New York City (April 6) with delegates from all the states except North Carolina and Ehode Island. — Washington was inaugurated April 30, 1789. The oath of office was administered on the balcony of Federal Hall, in Wall street. Washington retired to the Senate chamber, where he read the first inau- gural address to both houses of Congress. — Congress enacted the first tariff law (see p. 79 and Chart, p. 75). This was essentially a revenue raising bill, but as it acted as protection to some industries it may be considered as the germ of the protective tariff system of the United States. — Congress created the first executive de- partments. The Departments were: State, War, and Treas- ury — the .\ttorney General's office was not made a Department. The original officers for these places were Jefferson, Knox, Hamilton, and Randolph — - two Northerners and two Southerners. — The first ten amendments, constituting a "bill of rights," were sent by Congress to the states for ratification. All the states gave their consent in the course of two years. - — North Carolina adopted the Constitution in November. — A convention of members of the English, or Episcopal, Church gathered in Philadel- phia and formed an association of "The Prot- estant Episcopal Church in the United States of America." —The "First General Meeting" of the Presbyterian Church in America was held in Philadelphia. — Cincinnati was founded. 1790 — Hamilton issued his "First Report on Public Credit." Much of the success of the new government was due to Hamilton. His financial measures may be gathered under the following headings : 1. The full pay- ment of the foreign debt; 2. The "funding" of the domestic debt, to be paid at par; 3. The assumption of the state debts; 4. The establishment of an excise tax; 5. The organization of a United States bank; 6. The establishment of a protective tariff United States History 1791-1796 — A bill for the assumption of the State debts was passed by Congress. It led to acrimonious debates between members of Congress from North and South, and finally re- sulted in a compromise. Jefferson, the leader of the opposition, agreed to support the bill, if Hamilton, its sponsor, would agree to the location of the national capital on the Potomac. — Rhode Island adopted the Constitution. It was the last of the original thirteen to ratify. — A National Thanksgiving Day was pro- claimed by the President in November and be- came an annual religious holiday. — The first official census gave the popula- tion of the United States as nearly 4,000,000, including about 700,000 negroes. — A steamboat invented by John Fitch, pro- pelled by oars, made several trips from Phila- delphia to Trenton. — General Harmon was defeated by the In- dians of the Northwest. 1791 — The First National Bank of the United States was established. Hamilton led the federal majority, while Jefferson was the leader of the Democratic-Republican minority. The debate in Congress brought out distinctly the difference between the two parties. The Federal- ists supported the measure by an appeal to the "doctrine of implied powers" (see p. 75), while the Democratic-Republicans insisted on a strict con- struction of the Constitution. Provisions:— 1. Capital was $10,000,000, one-fifth of which was to be subscribed by the government; 2. It was to have banking privileges for twenty years ; 3. Four-fifths of its capital was to be invested in government bonds; 3. The specie reserve was to be equal to one-third of its note issue. The results of the establishment of the first national bank were: 1. It restrained the issue of state bank notes; 2. It provided a safe and ample currency; 3. It assisted in the management of the public revenue; 4. It raised the credit of the United States. — Congress passed an internal revenue law laying an excise on domestic whiskey. This tax was not successful, a large amount of the taxation going to pay the cost of collection. It was introduced by Hamilton for the purpose of estab- lishing the power of the United States government over taxation. It led to the Whiskey Rebellion of a later date. — General St. Clair was defeated by the Miami Indians. — Valuable coal mines were discovered in Pennsylvania, and the coal mining industry began with the formation of the Lehigh Coal Mine Company. — Hamilton issued his famous "Report on Manufactures." This report summarized all the arguments favorable to protection and answered all arguments in opposi- tion. It was for years the source of stock arguments in favor of protection. 1792 — Congress established the first govern- ment coining mint at Philadelphia. In the previous year Hamilton had sent a report to Congress providing for mints, and also for the use of the decimal system with the silver dollar as the official unit. He also suggested the use of heads of the Presidents on the coins, and advocated the estab- lishment of the double standard of coinage. — "Washington was reelected President, though the campaign was embittered by party strife. — The Columbia river of Oregon was dis- covered and partially explored by an Ameri- can ship under Captain Gray. — A coinage act of this year provided for bimetallism at the ratio of fifteen to one. 1793 — Washington issued a "Neutrality Proclamation. •" In the European troubles (see Chart) between England and France, American aid was confidently expected by the latter. — The recall of the French Minister, Genet. " Democratic" societies after the French model had been established throughout the country, and Genet, misled by the sympathy for France, attempted to fit out privateers on American soil, and to establish admiralty ports for the condemnation of prizes. After the issuance of the neutrality proclamation, he publicly appealed to the people, and openly defied the government; his recall followed. —Congress passed the FIRST FUGUTIVE. SLAVE ACT. (See p. 84.) — Eli "Whitney invented the cotton gin. This invention was such a labor-saving device that the growing of cotton soon became the dominant industry of the South. The demand for slave labor was, therefore, increased enormously 1794 — A treaty with England was nego- tiated by John Jay. Difficulties regarding the British surrender of posts in the Northwest, the taking from America of slaves, and regarding England's failure to open the British West Indies to American trade on the one side; the failure of the American states to properly care for the loyalists, and failure of individuals to pay debts to the Englishmen on the other hand, had led to strained relations. ■ — Congress authorized the building of six frigates. These became the basis of the Amer- ican navy. — General "Wayne completely defeated the Miami Indians in the battle of Fallen Tim- bers. The treaty of Greenville, made the fol- lowing year, secured peace in the Northwest. — The "Whiskey Rebellion" broke out in Western Pennsylvania and was suppressed by state troops under national direction. 1796 — The presidential election of this year resulted in the choice of the Federalist, John Adams, for President and the Democratic-Re- publican, Jefferson, for Vice-President. This election revealed a weakness in the electoral machinery. Under the law each Presidential elector had two votes, and the nominee receiving the second- highest vote became Vice-President. The Federalists expected to elect their Vice-President with their second votes, but, as they failed to unite, Jefferson's vote exceeded that of any other candidate and he became Vice-President. The refusal of Washington to accept a third term established the precedent of but one re-election. — A daily newspaper in America was begun in Boston. 1797-1803 National Period 25 ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS Born, In Massachusetts, October 30, 1735; died, July 4f 1826; Teacher; Lawyer; graduated at Harvard, 1755; Mem- ber Continental Congress; Signer of Declaration of Inde- pendence; Commissioner to France; with Franklin and Jay negotiated Treaty of Peace with Great Britain, in 1783; Minister "o England, 1785-1788; Vice-President, 1789-1797. Married, 1764, Abigail Smith,— three sons, two daughters; Congregationalism FEDERALIST; March 4, 1797, to March 4, 1801. 1797— The XYZ affair. The French revolutionists refused to treat with commissioners sent by America, and representatives, using the initials X, Y, and Z, demanded tribute, and a bribe. It was on this occasion that Pinckney said ; "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." President Adams laid the correspondence before Congress, and the entire country was aroused. 1798 — "Washington was appointed Com- mander-in-Chief for the seemingly inevitable war with France. — The Federalists in Congress secured the passage of the ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS which caused that party's downfall. These laws gave the Government power to banish foreigners from the country, and to suppress obnox- ious newspapers. The rabid criticisms of the Gov- ernment in the newspapers had misled the Federalist majority; they mistook newspaper criticism for treason. As the laws were against the fundamental American ideas of free speech, and the right of asylum to immigrants, they were regarded by the people as proving all the charges of tyranny urged against the Federalists. — The Virginia and Kentucky resolutions appeared. These resolutions were especially aimed at the Alien and Sedition Laws. While containing much that was unobjectionable, they suggested the right of the state to nullify a law of the United States. — The eleventh amendment was added to the Constitution. (See p. 70.) 1799 — Actual warfare with France went on upon the seas. The depredations of France gave rise to the so- called "Spoliation Claims." — Washington died at his home at Mt. Vernon. 1800 — The treaty with Napoleon temporarily put an end to the trouble with France. Napoleon Bonaparte was first Consul (see Chart). He agreed to abandon the French claim that America was still bound by the treaty of 1778 to engage with France in offensive war against England, in exchange for the abandonment of the American claim for pay- ment of the " spoliation claims," arising out of previous attacks upon American shipping. He really made peace that he might be the more able to seize Louis- iana which he was then planning to do. — The presidential campaign of 1800 re- sulted in no choice, and an election by the House of Representatives followed. The choice of the Democratic-Republican Jefferson caused the downfall of the Federalist party. The imperfect machinery of the election law was again exhibited. The Democratic electors each cast their two votes for Jefferson and for their vice- presidential choice, Aaron Burr. Thus each had the same number of votes and the Federalists declared the election a tie. Many of them strove to make a bargain with Burr and give him the election over Jefferson, despite the known will and intention of the people. Hamilton prevented his party from con- summating this trickery. — The seat of government was formally transferred to the new-built city of Washing- ton. — A government census showed the popula- tion of the country to be over five million. New York had become the largest city and contained sixty thousand people. — The Judiciary Act was passed by the Federalistic Congress in the last days of Adams's administration. By election the Federalists had lost control of the legislature and executive branches of the government, but by the creation of new courts to which leading Federalists could be appointed they hoped to hold on to power. The act was much opposed by the Repub- licans, and repealed on the accession of Jefferson. — John ^Marshall, of Virginia, was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Presi- dent Adams. Marshall held his office for thirty-four years. During this time 1,106 opinions of the Court were filed, and in 519 of these Marshall delivered the opin- ion of the Court. He thus laid the foundation of our constitutional law, and exerted a powerful influence upon the development of a strong national government. ADMINISTRATIONS OF THOMAS JEFFERSON Born, in Virginia, April 13, 1743; died, at Monticello, Va., July 4, 1826; Lawyer; graduated at William and Mary Col- lege, 1762; admitted to the Bar, 1767; Member of the Con- tinental Congress, 1775-1776; Signer of Declaration of Inde- pendence; Member of Legislature of Virginia and leader in important legal reforms, 1776; Governor of Virginia, 1779; Member of Congress, 1783; Minister to France, 1784-1789; Secretary of State, 1790-1794; Vice-President, 1797-1801; Founder of the University of Virginia. Married, 1772, Martha (Wayles) Skelton, — one son, five daughters; Liberal in religion. DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1801, to March 4, 1809. 1801 — Jefferson chose Albert Gallatin as his Secretary of the Treasury. A vigorous policy of retrenchment in the financial administration resulted, especially through the reduction in the size of the army and navy, and through the cutting down of civil expenses; internal revenue taxes were abolished, but fortunately there was a large increase in custom duties. — Jefferson made many political removals from office. The spoils system belongs to Jackson's time, but its beginnings are to be found in Jefferson's administration. — War was declared against Tripoli, one of the North African pirate states, because of piracy against American vessels. 1803 — The territory of Louisiana was pur- chased by the United States from Napoleon for $15,000,000. (See p. 50, map 7.) This territory had belonged first to France, had been transferred to Spain in 1763, and surrendered back to France in 1800. (See Chart.) Napoleon in getting Louisiana had intended to establish a great Western Empire, but the soldiers he sent to accomplish his purpose were defeated in San Domingo by the ravages of the fever, and the brilliant military exploits of a negro leader. His attempt being a failure, he was willing to sell the entire strip of ter- ritory, though the United States was only negotiating for a strip at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The purchase led to: 1. Discussion as to the constitution- ality of such a purchase; 2. Serious territorial dis- pute; 3. The creation of states in which the slavery struggle began. 26 United States History 1804-1811 1804 — A twelfth amendment was added to the Constitution. It provided for the election of President and Vice- President on separate ballots, and that, in case of a tie, the House of Representatives should choose one man for President out of the first three highest. — In the presidential election, Jefferson re- ceived OVER NINETY PER CENT. OF THE ELEC- TORAL vote, so successful and universally satis- factory had been his administration. — Hamilton was killed in a duel by Aaron Burr. — Captains Lewio and Clarke crossed the Rocky Mountains and in the next year BEACHED THE PACIFIC BY WAY OF THE COLUM- BIA River in Oregon. — Zebulon Pike penetrated the Rocky Moun- tains. He published an account of his ex- peditions which made him famous. 1805 — The piratical attacks of the North African states were suppressed, and peace was made with them by Commodore Preble. — England enforced the rule of 1756, which "prohibited all trade by neutrals with the colonies of an enemy, and allowed British cruisers to capture all neutral vessels engaged in any such trade." This was aimed especially at the American trade with the French West Indies, and was practically a declaration of war. 1806 — England and France at war (see Chart) began a series of decrees and orders forbidding all ships, including American, from entering European harbors in the possession of the enemy. These acts, which included the British Orders in Council, and Napoleon's Berlin and Milan Decrees, ruined American commerce. — England asserted the right to search American vessels for deserters from British ships and the right to impress the British sea- men found. Desertion from English vessels were numerous, ■due to higher wages and better treatment on Ameri- can vessels. But England did not stop by taking deserters. She asserted the doctrine "once a British ■citizen, always a British citizen," and carried off thousands of legitimately naturalized American citizens. 1807 — The. Leopard, a British frigate, over- hauled the American frigate Chesapeake as she sailed out of Chesapeake Bay and on her refusal to be searched the British frigate poured three broadsides into the American vessel and compelled compliance with her de- mands. Bitter feeling was aroused in America, and the English government disavowed the action of its admiral, but refused to give up the principle of the right of impressment. — In retaliation against the French and Eng- lish restrictions on American commerce, Con- gress passed the EMBARGO ACT, forbidding all American ships to leave port for foreign countries. — Aaron Burr, having planned to establish an independent empire west of the Mississippi, was tried for treason, but not convicted. — Robert Fulton solved the question of PRACTICAL STEAM NAVIGATION by running the Clermont regularly between New York and Albany. — An act prohibiting the slave trade went into effect. The abolition of the British slave trade by Act of Parliament, at nearly the same time, made the Ameri- can Act more effective. 1808 — Jefferson refused further election to the presidency and Madison, nominated by the Democrats, was easily elected. administrations of JAMES MADISON Born, in Virginia, Mare! 16, 1751; died, June 28, 1836; Lawyer; graduated at Princeton, 1772; Member of Continental Congress, 1780; Member of Legislature of Virginia; with Jay and Hamilton wrote the Federalist; Member of First Con- gress; Secretary of State, 1801-1808. Married, 1794, Dolly (Payne) Todd,— no children; Episco- palian. DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN, March 4, 1809, to March 4, 1817. 1809 — The Embargo Act was repealed. It had ruined the commerce and shipbuilding in- dustry of New England and her citizens turned their attention to manufacturing. The Embargo Act was also important because the Republicans made use of the doctrine of "implied powers" in defending the passage of the act. — A Non-intercourse Act, a milder measure than the Embargo, was passed, permitting American ships to go abroad but forbidding them to trade with either France or England. If, however, either of these nations withdrew her objectionable trade restrictions, the Embargo might be lifted so far as that nation was concerned. The Minister from England, Erskine, offered the with- drawal of England's Orders in Council; but his act was disavowed by the British government. 1810 — Congress passed Macon Bill No. 2. This opened trade with all nations, but if either England or France should withdraw her obnoxious decrees, non-intercourse would be put into effect with the nation still discriminating against us. — The Pacific Fur Company, founded by J. J. Astor, began trading with the Indians of the Pacific coast and exploring and occupying the "Oregon Territory." In the following year the company erected its headquarters at Astoria in Oregon. 1811— The Little Belt, a British vessel watching our coast, attacked the American ves- sel, The President. Again England made reparation but nothing was said about im- pressment. — The Indians, under Tecumseh, attacked the Americans and were defeated by General Harrison at Tippecanoe in Indiana Territory. This movement, it was thought, had received the support of the British in Upper Canada. — The first steamboat west of the Allegha- nies was built and operated on the Ohio River. 1812-1815 National Period 27 war with england 1812 — "War was declared against England June 18. It has been called the Second "War for Independence. The reasons for the war may be summarized as follows : 1. The Orders in Council (revoked just before the war, but too late to affect the course of events) ; 2. The impressment of American seamen ; 3. The alleged British intrigues with the Indians, especially Tecumseh; 4. The blockade of American ports and seizure of American vessels in connection with the enforcement of the Orders in Council and the right of impressment; 5. The British attempts to alienate New England (the John Henry Affair) ; 6. The generally unfriendly attitude of British states- men ; 7. The appearance in Congress of new men, chiefly from the South and West, with no particular attachment for England and anxious for war (" War Hawks".) — In the campaign of 1812 the Americans made an unsuccessful invasion of Canada but won several great naval battles. The land events included: The surrender of Detroit by General Hull (Aug. 18), and the defeat of an American expedition to Niagara at Queenston (Oct. 13). The naval events included: The capture of the British Alert by the American ship Essex; the Guer- riere by the Constitution; the Frolic by the Wasp; the Macedonian by the United States; and the Java by the Constitution. — The tariff was increased to secure revenue for the war (see p. 80). — The first cotton mill at Fall River and the first rolling mill at Pittsburg were erected. — Life insurance was introduced into Amer- ica, in or about this year, at Philadelphia. Many people made religious objection to it. — Madison was reelected President by a substantial majority. The Federalists nominated Clinton of New York. He was defeated by an electoral vote of 128 to 89, but he carried his own State, through the political management of Martin Van Buren. Massachusetts also was carried by the Federalists. Thus the Government failed to get the sanction it needed for a successful war from these two rich States. 1813 — In the campaign of 1813 the Ameri- cans made a successful invasion of Canada. As in 1812, the war was both on land and water. The naval battles, however, included fresh-water as well as salt water encounters. Side expeditions of the British blockaded the Atlantic seaboard. The land events included: The Americans were defeated at Frenchtown on the Raisin River — Proc- tor's Indians massacred the wounded; the victory of General Harrison on the Thames River — Tecumseh was killed, and the territory lost by Hull regained; York (Toronto) was captured by the Americans under General Pike ; the Americans moved on Montreal but were defeated at Chryslers Field, and retreated. The naval events included: The victory of Lieutenant Perry over the British fleet on Lake Erie (Sept. 10) ; the blockade of the Atlantic seaboard by the British; the capture of the Chesapeake by the British frigate Shannon (June 1), Captain Lawrence was killed during the encounter ; the capture of the American ship Pelican by the Argus; the victory of the American ship Hornet over the Peacock and the Enterprise over the Boxer; American privateers were remarkably successful. 1814 — In the campaign of 1814 the Ameri- cans were generally victorious, though Britain, freed from the Napoleonic danger, was able to spare many of her best troops for use in America. Land events: The Americans captured Fort Erie, and won the battle of Chippewa (July 5) ; under General Scott there was fought the bloody but inde- cisive battle of Lundy's Lane (July 15); the British defeated the Americans at Bladensburgh, and entered Washington (Aug. 25) — they burnt all of the public buildings; the British attack on Baltimore was re- pulsed ; a large body of English veterans were landed in Louisiana, and attacked New Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815) ; in this battle, which took place before the news of the treaty of peace reached the combatants, Jack- son won a remarkable and decisive victory. Naval events: On Lake Champlain, Captain McDonough completely defeated a British fleet stronger than his own (Sept. 11); this checked a serious invasion of the enemy; the Constitution cap- tured the British ship Cyane and Levant; the Hornet also captured the Penguin; the American ship Presi- dent was compelled to surrender to the English squadron. — During the attack on Baltimore, Key wrote "The Star Spangled Banner." —"TEE HARTFORD CONVENTION" was held during the last year of the war by disaffected New Englanders. It practically declared the right of nullification and proposed to retain a portion of the Federal taxes for the defense of New England. The action of the Hartford Convention caused the complete disappearance of the Federal party. —A TREATY OF PEACE WAS MADE AT GHENT (December 24), the end of the Napoleonic wars having removed the cause for England's offensive policy at sea. The provisions included: 1. A return of captured territory; but, 2. Nothing was said about impress- ment, and 3. No compensation was secured by the Americans for ships captured previous to 1812. The results of the war were: 1. An increase of debt ; 2. An outburst of national patriotism ; 3. The removal of America from participation in European politics; 4. The development of manufacturing; and 5. The establishment of the protective tariff policy. 1815 — The southern British army attacked New Orleans before the news of the peace reached America. General Jackson defeated THEM IN A REMARKABLE AND DECISIVE BATTLE (January 8). — A brief naval war was conducted against the North African pirate states. United States History 1816-1824 x% A R I ADMINISTRATIONS OP JAMES MONROE Born, in Virginia, April 28, 1758; died, in New York City, July 4, 1831; Statesman; a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Revo- lutionary War; Member of Congress under the Confedera- tion; Senator from Virginia in the First Congress; an op- ponent of the Federalists; Envoy to France, 1794; Governor of Virginia, 1799-1802; one of the Commissioners who made the Louisiana Purchase; Secretary of State under Madison, 1811-1817. Married, 1786, Eliza Kortwright,— two daughters; Episco- palian. DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1817, to March 4, 1825. 1816— The Second National bank was char-> tered. 1817 — The first Seminole War began against the Creek Indians of Alabama and the Seminoles of Florida. The first force sent against the Indians failed to master them, and General Jackson went against them. — The Erie Canal was commenced, to unite the Atlantic with the Great Lakes via New York. 1818 — General Jackson, in pursuit of the Seminole Indians, again invaded the Spanish territory of Florida and took possession of it. He was officially rebuked but publicly ap- plauded. — Pensions were granted to the surviving soldiers of the Revolution. — United States and Great Britain agreed to a joint occupation of Oregon. 1819 — An important military post to pro- tect the settlers entering the far Northwest was established at Fort Snelling in Minnesota. — The first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic went from Savannah to Liverpool and thence to Russia ; but it traveled most of the way by sail. 1820 — The slavery question came promi- nently before the country as a result of a bitter congressional debate over the admission of the state of Missouri. The so-called MIS- SOURI COMPROMISE was agreed to. It had happened in previous years that one slave- state had been admitted to every free state admitted. In 1820 Maine desired admission as a free state and Missouri as a slave state. There was great objection, in the North, however, to the extension of slavery- north of the Ohio River. Clay appeared as a com- promiser between the hostile faction, and 1. Mis- souri was to be admitted without mentioning slavery;: but, 2. Slavery, thereafter, was to be prohibited north of 36° 30' in the jest of the Louisiana pur- chase; 3. Maine was to be admitted as a free state. — The country went through a period of financial depression. It was caused chiefly by overproduction, excessive business activity resulting from the war, and com- mercial rivalry of Great Britain. — Little Rock was selected as their eapitol by the new settlers of Arkansas. — Monroe was elected practically without opposition and the entire absence of a strong minority has led the period to be called "The Era of Good Feeling. " (See Chart, p. 75.) 1821 — The purchase of Florida was com- pleted in this year. (See p. 51, map 13.) Spain accepted $5,000,000 in payment and agreed to a boundary line Known as the "boundary line of 1819." This boundary line excluded from the sale the territory of Texas. — The colonization of Texas by Americans was begun by Stephen Austin. — An attempt was made to erect a home for American slaves in Liberia. The attempt did not prosper. 1822— The United States acknowledged the independence of the South American Republics which had revolted from Spain. 1823— The "MONROE DOCTRINE," that neither South nor North American territory should hereafter be considered open to Eu- ropean colonization, appeared in one of the President's messages. While Spain had been too weak to hold her colonies, there was a suspicion that aid might be given her by the other European powers. To forestall such an action was the purpose of the administration in pro- mulgating this doctrine. — The pirates of the "West Indies were al- most exterminated by a squadron under Porter. 1824 — The first protective tariff was adopted by Congress to aid the New England manu- facturers. (See p. 80.) — A treaty with Russia fixed the southern boundary of Alaska at 54° 40' north latitude. At this time both England and the United States claimed the Pacific coast south of Alaska. 1825-1830 National Period 29 —A treaty for TEE SUPPRESSION OF THE SLAVE TRADE was made with Eng- land, the countries agreeing to aid each other and employ their warships in capturing slavers. — General Lafayette made his celebrated ■visit to America as the guest of the nation. — Flannel, which had always before been woven by hand, was made by machinery in Massachusetts. Its price was rapidly reduced and its use became common. — The PRESIDENTAL ELECTION OP 1824 Was thrown into the House of Representatives be- cause no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes. The election consisted of a fight between four lead- ers of the Democratic-Republican party: Crawford, Adams, Jackson, and Clay. Crawford received the "machine" nomination; that is, he was nominated by congressional caucus of his party. The other candidates were put up by the legislatures of different states. Jackson received a plurality of the electoral -votes but not a majority. In the House of Repre- sentatives, the supporters of Adams and Clay united, and the former was elected. Jackson and his friends insisted that the election of Adams was the result of a "corrupt bargain," especially in view of the fact that Clay was immediately appointed Secretary of State. The opposition to Adams interfered se- riously with his administration, and led to the election of Jackson four years later. ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS Born, in Massachusetts, July 11, 1767; died, February 23, 1848; Lawyer; son of John Adams; Minister to Holland, 1794; Minister to Portugal, 1796; Minister to Prussia, 1797; XJ. S. Senator from Massachusetts, 1803; Minister to Russia, 1809; one of the Commissioners at Ghent, 1814; Minister to England, 1815; Secretary of State, 1817-1825; Member of Congress from Massachusetts, 1831-1848. Married, 1797, Louisa Catherine Johnson, — three sons, one daughter; Congregationalist. NATIONAL REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1825, to March 4, 1829.- 1825 — The Erie Canal was completed. It made New York City the metropolis of Amer- ica. It was popularly spoken of as "Clinton's Ditch." — The practice of homeopathy in medicine was introduced into America from Denmark. 1826 — Both John Adams and Thomas Jef- ferson died this year on July 4. — The Anti-Masonic party entered politics this year. (See p. 76 and Chart p. 75.) It arose out of the abduction and death of William Morgan, accused of revealing Masonic secrets. 1827 — A "gravity railroad" was completed in the coal mines at Mauch Chunk, in Penn- sylvania. — Lithographic printing was begun in America at Boston. 1828 — The "tariff of abominations" was enacted. (See p. 80.) — The construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was begun. — The first locomotive in this country was brought from England and ran on a coal rail- road at Honesdale, in Pennsylvania. — "Webster's Dictionary, by Noah Webster, of Connecticut, was first published this year. — The presidential election of this year re- sulted in the defeat of John Quincy Adams for reelection. He and Clay had come to be considered the leaders of the new "National Republican Party," later called Whig. (See Chart p. 75.) They believed in a liberal construction of the Constitution, and a high tariff, while the Jacksonian Democrats were generally strict constructionists, but men of various views, enlisted under the banner of Jackson, and the party was looked upon as the party of the masses. Its policies were determined by Jackson during his two administrations. administrations OF ANDREW JACKSON Born, in North Carolina, March 15, 1767; died, June 8, 1845; Lawyer; Member of Congress from Tennessee, 1797; U. S. Senator, 1797-1798; Judge, Tennessee Supreme Court, 1798-1804; Major-General of Tennessee militia, 1801-1814; conducted victorious campaign against the Indians, 1813- 1814; won victory of New Orleans, 1815; Governor of Florida, 1821-1823; U. S. Senator from Tennessee, 1823-1825. Married, 1791, Rachel (Donelson) Robards, — no children; Presbyterian. DEMOCRAT; March 4, 1829, to March 4, 1837. 1829 — Jackson introduced the "spoils sys- tem" into national politics. This system was introduced from the states of New York and Pennsylvania, the idea being that to the victor should go the spoils of office. The result was that Jackson made a clean sweep of his enemies, and appointed political and personal favorites to office. It thoroughly debauched the civil service of the nation. Jackson surrounded himself with a group of personal advisers who were nicknamed the " Kitchen Cabinet." — An American built locomotive, constructed by Peter Cooper, of New York, was tried on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, but not used regularly. — The Delaware and Hudson Canal and also the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal were completed this year. — Galvanized iron was invented by Dr. John Revere, of New York. 1830— The famous WEBSTER - HAYNE DEBATE occurred during this year in the Senate. The difference between the ideas of these two leaders expressed the different views concerning government held in the North and South, which eventually led to war. Hayne insisted that the government was a compact entered into by sovereign states, while Webster maintained that the Constitu- tion was an instrument of the government created by the sovereign people of the United States. He established the National Ideal. — A commercial treaty with Great Britain opened to the United States all the British ports in the West Indies and South America. — A commercial treaty with Turkey opened the Black Sea to American ships. — The Mormon Church was established by Joseph Smith at Manchester, N. Y. — The city of Chicago was founded. —THE FIRST STEAM RAILROAD FOR PASSENGERS in America was begun be- tween Charleston and Savannah, and a loco- 30 United States History 1831-1836 motive, built in New York and called the Best Friend, ran this year upon the portion of the line near Charleston. — The first astronomical telescope in Amer- ica was erected at Yale College. 1831 — An insurrection of blacks broke out in Virginia, led by Nat Turner. Over fifty white people were massacred by a band of 200 marauders, mostly negroes. The marauders were all captured or slain by state troops. They seemed to have been urged suddenly to revolt, but a wide- spread plot was suspected. Many people blamed the Abolitionists of the North, claiming that their agita- tion was responsible for the insurrection. — "William Lloyd Garrison began the publi- cation, in Boston, of the Liberator, his cele- brated anti-slavery paper. — The state of Pennsylvania completed its famous "freight line" from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. Part of the way was by canal, part by horse rail- road. The Alleghany Mountains were traversed by means of a railroad with stationary steam engines for hoisting. — A steam railroad line was completed in New York between Albany and Syracuse. A locomotive built in Nbw York City ran upon the road regularly at a speed exceeding a mile in three minutes. — Joseph Henry invented and operated at Albany, N. Y., an electric apparatus for pro- ducing sounds at a distance. This was the source of Morse's electric telegraph. 1832 — The presidential election of this year turned upon the rechartering of the National Bank. Jackson was the candidate for the Democratic-Republicans, and Henry Clay for the National Republicans. The election of Jackson led to the attack upon the National Bank which speedily followed. — A tariff bill passed this year increased the customs duties (see p. 81), and was responsible for an attempt at nullification in South Caro- lina. A convention of South Carolinians declared (Nov. 19) the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 "null and void," summoned the state troops to arms to prevent the enforcement of the law, and declared that if attacked they would withdraw from the Union. Jackson issued a proclamation declaring such disunion senti- ments to be treason, and Congress enacted a Force Bill giving him needed authority and money to enforce the law. 1833 — The tariff struggle led to the estab- lishment of a "Compromise Tariff," the work of Clay, the "Great Compromiser." (See p. 81.) South Carolina gave up the nullification idea, but gained a tariff reduction. — Jackson vetoed the bill for the recharter- ing of the Second National Bank. His fundamental objections to it were: 1. It was undemocratic; 2. It was a political machine. —THE "BLACK HAWK" INDIAN WAR occurred in Illinois. The tribes of the Sacs and Foxes refused to be removed west of the Mississippi, and under their chief, Black Hawk, ravaged the frontier. They were finally defeated and crushed by General Atkinson. — The upper Mississippi was explored and its sources discovered by Schoolcraft. — The earliest street-car line in an American city was built in New York and ran from the City Hall northward to Fourteenth street. — Massachusetts until this year paid her ministers. The discontinuance of this custom marked the final separat t on of church ani> state in America. — Jackson caused the "Removal of De- posits" from the National Bank. This meant that United States funds were no- longer deposited with the National Bank, but instead in certain state banks favored by the government, which were popularly known as "Pet Banks." 1835 — William Lloyd Garrison, the aboli- tionist of Boston, was maltreated by a mob. For a couple of years there had been a marked! anti-abolitionist movement in the North. — The second and most serious Seminole War began in Florida. The Seminole Indians, under their noted half-breed chieftain, Osceola, refused to abandon their lands and move westward beyond the Mississippi. Major Dade and over a hundred U. S. troops were ambushed and slain. General Thompson and other whites were massacred. 1836 — The presidential election of this year resulted in the choice of the Democratic Van Buren over General William Henry Harrison, the candidate of a combination of Whigs and Anti-Masons. — The National debt was extinguished as a result of the large proceeds from the pro- tective tariff. — Texas rebelled against Mexico and estab- lished an independent Republic. The Mexican president, General Santa Anna, was defeated at the battle of San Jacinto by General Sam Houston, the great Texan leader. The rebels then sought admission to the United States as a state, but were rejected by the opponents of the further exten- sion of slavery. — The House of Representatives passed the "Gag Resolution" providing that all petitions dealing with slavery should be immediately tabled. John Quincy Adams, then a member of the House, vigorously opposed this as a violation of the con- stitutional right of petition. It was rescinded in 1844. — Ex-President Madison died. — Gas was used for lighting the streets of Philadelphia. — Friction matches began to be used. — Jackson, as one of his last presidential acts, issued the famous "Specie Circular." This circular provided that payment for the public lands should be made in specie only, on account of the depreciation of the state bank notes. It was partially accountable for the financial panic of the following year. 1837-1842 National Period 31 ADMINISTRATION OP MARTIN VAN BUREN Born, Kinderliook, N. Y., December 5, 1782; died, July 24, 1862; Lawyer; Member of New York State Legislature; Attorney-General of New York, 1815-1819; U. S. Senator from New York, 1821-1828; Governor of New York, 1828- 1829; Secretary of State, 1829-1831; Vice-President of the United States, 1833-1837. Married, 1807, Hannah Hoes, — four sons; Reformed Dutch. DEMOCRAT; March 4, 1837, to March 4, 1841. 1837 — Congress passed an act distributing the surplus among the various states. After various attempts to relieve the swollen treasury, Calhoun proposed to loan without interest the surplus funds to the states in proportion to their representation in Congress. The money was said to be "deposited" to avoid the constitutional objection that Congress had no power to raise money by general taxation to pay over to the states. Only three payments were made when the panic of 1837 emptied the treasury. — A great financial panic spread over the entire country. The various causes for this panic were: 1. "Wild- cat" banking; 2. Jackson's financial measures; 3. Overspeculation in Western lands; 4. Overstimula- tion of industrial production in the various states. — Texan independence was recognized by the United States, and an American minister appointed to the new republic. — The abolitionist editor, Lovejoy, was killed at Alton, 111. — The Seminole chieftain, Osceola, was cap- tured by treachery. Many of his followers submitted, but the rest con- tinued to resist removal from Florida. — Many Americans aided the Canadians, who were in revolt against England. The British loyalists made reprisals. — Samuel F. B. Morse, of New York, suc- ceeded in operating a completed electric TELEGRAPH. 1838 — The steamships Great Western and Sirius began the regular steamship traffic across the Atlantic. The Cunard Line of steamers was formally estab- lished the following year. — Twelve thousand Mormons established themselves in Illinois and built their city of Nauvoo. Here their leader, Smith, first established polygamy among them as part of their religious faith. 1839 — A screw steamship, invented by John Ericsson, crossed the ocean from England to America. 1840 — The Independent Treasury Act was passed by Congress. It provided for the care of the Government money in sub-treasuries established by the Government itself. — The first successful daguerreotype por- traits were made in New York City. — The presidential election of this year was marked by stump-speaking, processions, and other means of influencing voters. The Whigs especially used these methods, and succeeded in electing as president General William Henry Harrison and John Tyler, a Southern Demo- crat, for Vice-President. The panic of 1837 did much, to defeat Van Buren's efforts to succeed himself. ADMINISTRATION OF WILLIAM H. HARRISON Born, in Virginia, February 9, 1773; died, April 4, 1841; Soldier; educated at Hampden-Sidney College, Va. ; served under Wayne against the Indians, 1793-1794; Secretary of the Northwest Territory, 1798-1799; Delegate to Congress, 1799-1800; Governor of Indiana Territory, 1801; defeated Indians at Tippecanoe, 1811; Major-General U. S. Army, 1813; recovered Ohio and Michigan from the British, 1813; Member of Congress, 1816-1819; Minister to Colombia, 1828- 1829. Married, 1795, Anna Symmes, — six sons, four daughters; Episcopalian. WHIG; March 4, 1841, to April 4, 1841. 1841 — The death of Harrison caused the presidential office to fall to Vice-President Tyler. Harrison's death was greatly due to the hordes of office-seekers who besieged him. The Whigs had finally defeated the Democrats and were clamorous for place. The aged Harrison paid the penalty of the "spoils system's" exhaustive demands. ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN TYLER Born, in Virginia, March 29, 1790; died, January 17, 1862; Lawyer; educated at William and Mary College; Member of Congress, 1816-1821; Governor of Virginia, 1825-1826; TJ. S. Senator from Virginia, 1826-1836. Married (1), 1813, Letitia Christian,— three sons, four daughters; (2), 1844, Julia Gardiner, — five sons, two daugh- ters; Episcopalian. WHIG; April 4, 1841, to March 4, 1845. — The "Whigs and the new President im- mediately disagreed and the "Whigs in Con- gress, under the leadership of Clay, violently antagonized Tyler. The direct cause of their disagreement was the establishment of a National Bank. The Independ- ent Treasury was at once abolished, but all attempts of the Whig leaders to establish a National Bank met with the opposition of the President. All the cabinet eventually resigned. — The Canadian boundary troubles con- tinued during this year. — Relations with England were complicated by the "Creole Affair." The Creole was a slave-ship whose crew mutinied and carried 135 slaves to the British West Indies. The slave-holders in Congress demanded that the slaves that had been set free by England should be returned to the United States. — Horace Greeley issued the first number of the New York Daily Tribune, on April 10. It was a small sheet and sold for one cent. 1842— The ASHBURTON TREATY, ar- ranged by Lord Ashburton and Daniel Web- ster, established a boundary between the United States and Canada on the north along the line of what is now the northeastern boundary of Maine. — The Seminole war was ended by Gen- eral "Worth and the Indians were removed be- yond the Mississippi, except a few who hid in the Florida everglades. 32 United States History 1843-1846 — "Dorr's rebellion" occurred in Rhode Island, in opposition to the limitations of the suffrage. Rhode Island still retained as its state constitution the old colony charter, fader this the vote was ■confined to land owners possessed of a certain amount of property and to their eldest sons. Thomas Dorr led a party which demanded popular suffrage. A new constitution was prepared and voted on by the people. Dorr and his followers claimed it had been adopted and proceeded to form a state government. The old charter party likewise formed a government ■which was upheld by United States troops. Dorr was declared a traitor to Rhode Island, was arrested and imprisoned, but afterwards restored to liberty and honor when his party triumphed the following year. — Major John C. Fremont, "the path- finder," was sent out by the government to ex- plore the far "West and find a path across the Rocky Mountains, leading to Oregon. — The first submarine telegraph was con- structed by Samuel Morse in New York City, connecting Governor's Island with the main- land. The cable was broken by the shipping the day after it began operating. — Lieut. Charles "Wilkes, commanding the IT. S. Exploring Expedition, discovered the Antarctic Continent, now known as Wilkes' Land. — A higher tariff act was enacted. (See p. 81.) 1843 — The occupation of Oregon began and crowds of settlers went westward from Mis- souri. 1844 — The presidential campaign of this year centered around two questions: (1) The annexation of Texas, and (2) The Oregon question, a dispute regarding the northern boundary of Oregon. The Whigs were opposed to the admission of the independent state of Texas to the Union, partly because it would bring on war ' with Mexico, and partly because the South earnestly desired Texas to come in as a slave state in order to extend the area of slavery. The Oregon question arose out of the discoveries of both England and America in the Northwest and the claim to the same land which they had jointly occu- pied since 1818, i.e., from 42° to 54° 40'. The Demo- crats favored fighting for the territory, and adopted the campaign motto, "Fifty-four-forty or fight." The Whigs tried to divert the issue to the tariff and failed ; their candidate Clay was defeated by Polk. ADMINISTRATION OP JAMES K. POLK Born, North Carolina, November 2, 1795; died, June 15, 1849; Lawyer; educated at the University of North Carolina; Member U. S. Congress, 1826-1839; Governor of Tennessee, 1839. Married, 1824, Sarah Childress,— no children; Presbyterian. DEMOCRAT; March 4, 1845, to March 4, 1849. — A commercial treaty was made with China by which the Americans were allowed to trade and to reside in Shanghai and other ports. — Morse's electric telegraph was put into practical operation. The first message, "What hath God wrought, was flashed between the two cities, Washington and Baltimore. The next line connected New York and Philadelphia, but was not established until 1846. — The Mormons of Illinois came into armed conflict with the people of that state. 1845 — Texas was admitted to the Union, the bill for its admission being signed by President Tyler on March 3. (See p. 52, map 17.) Texas was thus formally incorporated in the United States without going through the territorial stage. Petroleum was discovered in "Western Penn- sylvania. 1846— The OREGON TREATY fixed the boundary line between the United States and British America in the Northwest at the 49th parallel. (See p. 52, map 18.) — The tariff act op 1846 was passed by the Democrats. It is usually known as the "Walker tariff. It was a step toward free trade. (See p. 81.) —WAR WITH MEXICO WAS DE- CLARED MAY 12 "by the act of Mexico" (according to the statement of the President). After Texas was incorporated a territorial dispute immediately arose. Mexico claimed the Neuces River as the southern boundary of Texas, while the United States claimed the Rio Grande as the boun- dary line. The territory between the two rivers was, therefore, in dispute. General Taylor was ordered to occupy the region and his advance forces were attacked April 24, and war followed. The war was bitterly opposed by the New England people, who feared that any new annexations would be slave territory. With most of the people the war was popular. — The campaign in northern Mexico. Fort Brown, built by General Taylor on the north bank of the Rio Grande, was besieged after the skirmish of April 24; General Taylor marched to its relief, met and defeated a much larger Mexican army at Palo Alto (May 8), and at Resaca de la Palma (May 9), marching across the river Rio Grande into Mexico. General Taylor seized Matamoras (May 18) and then stormed and captured the strongly protected city of Monterey (Sept. 21-24) ; a truce followed and the Mexican general, Santa Anna, made preparation for the defence of the city of Mexico; early in the next year he returned and attacked Taylor, but was defeated at Buena Vista. — The occupation op New Mexico and California by the army and navy. General Kearny, with the land forces, marched to Sante Fe, which he took possession of (Aug. 18). He then marched overland to southern California, defeated the Mexicans at San Pascual, and occupied San Diego (Dec. 6). American sailors in California set up an independ- ent state of California (June 14), and were protected by the explorer, General Fremont. The naval forces under Commodores Sloat and Stockton took possession of Monterey (July 7) and San Francisco (July 9). — The Mormons under Brigham Young established a city on the present site of Flor- ence, Nebraska. Those who were left behind at Nauvoo were driven out during the next year. — Elias Howe patented the sewing machine, 1847-1849 National Period 33 MEXICAN CAMPAIGNS — An attempt was made by the "WILMOT PBOVISO" to exclude slavery from any ter- ritories to be acquired from Mexico. (See p. 85.) 1847 — The campaign in southern Mexico. General Scott was in command of the expedition against the city of Mexico which was started in February; the city of Vera Cruz surrendered March 29, the fleet assisting; the land force, advancing into the interior, defeated the Mexicans in the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo (April 17 and 18); after taking possession of La Puebla, the advance arrived before the city of Mexico; the following fortifications were then taken: Contreras, Molino del Rey, and finally Chapultepec; the Mexicans had also been defeated at Churubusco, and after the taking of the fortresses Santa Anna and his counsellors fled. 1848— The TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO closed the war with Mexico. (1) By this treaty Mexico sold for about $18,000,000 all the northern half of her territory, includ- ing the region now occupied by California, Nevada, most of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, a part of Colo- rado. (See p. 52, Map 19.) (2) The boundary of Texas was fixed at the Rio Grande. — The presidential election resulted in the choice of the "Whig candidate and military hero, General Taylor. The Democratic nominee, Cass, of Michigan, stood on a platform which favored the settlement of the question of slavery by popular sovereignty. Those who favored the principle of the "Wilmot Proviso" united to form a new party, known as the Free Soil Party (see p. 76), and nominated ex-President Van Buren. They polled over a quarter of a million votes. — The Oregon territory was organized by a bill which prohibited slavery in that territory. — The Mormons established themselves in Salt Lake City, Utah. — A canal connecting the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was completed. It was the beginning of Chicago's greatness. —GOLD WAS DISCOVERED IN CALI- FORNIA (January 23) at Sutter's Mill. Thousands of men, called "forty-niners," flocked to California in the search for gold. Forty million dol- lars' worth of gold was found by the end of the year. This practically decided the slavery question for the Southwest, for most all of the men who went there in search of wealth were laborers who would have objected seriously to having slaves working by their side. But there was little danger of such a situation arising, because the slave-owner had to stay with his slaves on the old plantations. The young men who went West from the South went alone. SECTION II THE SLAVERY STRUGGLE From 1849 to 1877—28 years This Period falls naturally into three divi- sions, as follows : (a) Preliminary Quarrel, From 1849 to 1861—12 years (b) Civil War, From 1861 to 1865— 4 years (e) Time of Reconstruction, From 1865 to 1877—12 years '(A) PRELIMINARY QUARREL From 1849-1861—12 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Chad wick, Causes for the Civil War (The Ameri- ican Nation Series) ; Smith, Parties and Slavery (The American Nation Series); Hart, Slavery and Abolition (The American Nation Series) ; Burgess, The Middle Period, 349-474; Rhodes, History of the United States, I; II, 1-416; Hart, American History Told by Contempora- ries, IV, Nos. 1-75. LEADING FEATURES .-— Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act as part of a com- promise between the contending forces. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which followed, marked the height of Southern success. Lincoln's election threatened Southern defeat, and seces- sion began. administration of ZACHARY TAYLOR Born, in Virginia, November 24, 1784; died, July 9, 1850; Soldier; entered U. S. Army, 1808; served against the In- dians during the War of 1812; in Black Hawk War; dis- tinguished in Mexican War. Married, 1810, Margaret Smith, — one son, three daughters; Episcopalian. WHIG: March 4, 1849, to July 9, 1850. 1849 — A constitutional convention, held at Monterey, Cal., applied for the admission of the state of California to the Union as a free state. 34 United States History 1850-1853 If admitted, the Southern majority in the Senate would be in jeopardy. The President, a Southern man, recommended the admission of the state with its free constitution, and the South was very much agitated. It was demanded that California be divided in the middle and that the southern half be made a slave state, or that the Missouri Compromise line be extended beyond its original limits, the Louisiana purchase, to the Pacific Ocean. Secession was freely threatened if California was admitted as a free state. 1850— President Taylor died (July 9) and was succeeded by the Vice-President, Millard Fillmore. ADMINISTRATION OF MILLARD FILLMORE Born, in Cayuga County, N. T., January 7, 1800; died, March 9, 1874; Tailor; Lawyer; Member of Congress, 1833- 1835, 1837-1843; Vice-President of the United States, 1849- 1850. Married (1), 1826, Abigail Powers,— one son, one daughter; (2), 1858, Caroline (Carmichael) Mcintosh; Unitarian. WHIG: July 9, 1850, to March 4, 1853. — The trouble between the North and the South was temporarily allayed by the passage of a series of measures commonly called the COMPROMISE OF 1850. A convention of leading Southern statesmen in the early part of the year had solemnly declared that a state had the abstract right to secede from the Union. To avert the dangers that threatened the country, Clay and Webster pleaded for the passage of the compromise measure. In its final form the Compromise of 1850 consisted of five sepa- rate bills: (1) California was admitted as a free state. (2) New Mexico and Utah were organized as ter- ritories, no mention being made of the existence of slavery in either. (3) The northwestern boundary of Texas was fixed as at present, a sum of $10,000,000 being paid to the state for relinquishing its claims on New Mexico. (4) A fugitive slave act was passed which provided that a master or his agent could take a supposed fugitive from the state in which he was residing without a jury trial in that state. It im- posed fines on those who interfered with the capture or rendition of fugitive slaves. It compelled all citizens who were summoned to aid in the capture of fugitives to give their assistance, and it provided that the fee received by United States marshals for negroes who were declared to be fugitives should be $10 ; for others, $5. (5) The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia. —The CLAYTON -BULWER TREATY with England was agreed to. The annexations of the United States in the West caused a renewal of interest in the construction of a canal across Central America. England had just acquired a protectorate over the Mosquito Indians inhabiting the eastern terminus of the most practi- cable route for such a canal. To secure the with- drawal of England from that territory, the treaty was made which provided that: (1) Neither government was to obtain exclusive control of the ship canal. (2) "Or occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any dominion" over any part of Central America. (3) Both governments guaranteed the protection and neutrality of the canal. — A filibustering expedition from New Or- leans landed in Cuba under General Lopez. After some successes Lopez fled, but many of his followers were imprisoned by the Spanish author- ities. They were afterward surrendered to the United States. 1851 The ATTEMPT TO CARRY OUT THE FUGI- TIVE SLAVE PROVISION OP THE COMPROMISE OP 1850 caused intense opposition in the North from the very start. (See p. 86.) "The execution of the Fugitive Slave Law tiid more to arouse the moral sentiment of the Northerners than the arguments of the abolitionists had done in twenty years." Beginning with the famous case of Shadrack, numerous instances occurred of interfer- ence with officers of the law attempting to secure fugitives. Again, many Northern states passed "Personal Liberty Laws," which forbade state officers to aid in the capture of negroes and prevented citizens from taking part in the return of fugitives. Also, the Northerners assisted in the operation of what was known as the "Underground Rail- way," by which fugitive slaves were conducted from house to house until they reached safety in Canada. — The three-cent postage law was passed. — A law was passed in Maine forbidding the making or selling of intoxicating liquors. — San Francisco organized a Vigilance Com- mittee to deal summarily with cases of law- lessness and disorder. — General Lopez headed another filibuster- ing expedition against Cuba, where he was de- feated, captured, and, with fifty of his fol- lowers, executed. — Louis Kossuth, the great Hungarian leader in the European struggle for liberty, was aided to escape from Turkey by the United States government. He visited America and was everywhere made a guest of honor during this and the following year. 1852 — Daniel Webster, last of the great leaders of the "compromise" period, died (October 24). Calhoun and Clay were already dead, and the leadership or the nation for the great slavery struggle devolved upon younger men. — Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, "Uncle Tom's Cabin," published in book form in March, much intensified the anti- slavery sentiment of the North, (see p. 86.) — The presidential election resulted in the choice of the Democratic candidate, General Franklin Pierce. He was favorable to the South, and thus polled a united party vote. The Whigs were disorganized. They nominated a popular military chieftain, General Scott, but the Free-Soilers drew votes from them, and their failure to take a definite stand on slavery lost them much Northern support. administration op FRANKLIN PIERCE Born In New Hampshire, November 23, 1804; died October 8, 1869; Lawyer; graduated at Bowdoin College; Member of Congress, 1833-1837; U. S. Senator, 1837-1842 ; Brigadier-General in Mexican War. Married, 1834, Jane Means Appleton,— three sons; Episco- palian. DEMOCRAT, March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. 1853 — Pierce was inaugurated as President. He constructed his cabinet chiefly of Northern Democrats, but Colonel Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was his Secretary of War. — The "Gadsden purchase" was arranged by treaty with Mexico. (See p. 53, map 22.) This added to the United States a coasiderable slice of territory along the southern boundaries of what are now Arizona and New Mexico. 1854-1857 National Period 35 — Dr. Elisha Kane headed an Arctic ex- pedition which reached what remained for a long time the ' ' farthest north. ' ' — Commander Ingram compelled an Aus- trian brig to surrender Martin Koszta, an American citizen visiting Turkey. 1854^The KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL was passed this year. It was a most important cause of the Civil War. (See p. 86.) The bill was brought in by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, a Northern Democrat. Claiming that the compromise of 1850 had displaced the compromise of 1820 regarding slavery in the territories, Douglas proposed that the Northwest should be divided into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, both north of 36°, 30', and that each territory should decide for itself whether slavery should be permitted or not (the doctrine of "Squatter Sovereignty"). The immediate results of this bill were : ( 1 ) The crea- tion of a new anti-slavery political party in the North, called at first Anti-Nebraska Men (see p. 77) and (2) The outbreak of Civil War in Kansas (see p. 86). — Japan was opened to American trade through a treaty negotiated by Commodore Perry. — A Reciprocity Treaty was made with Canada. It opened the markets of each country to most of the natural products of the other free of duty, and increased the privileges of American fishermen on the British-American coast. The treaty was abro- gated by the United States in 1866. — An American vessel, the Black Warrior, was seized by Spain, charged with aiding filibusters in Cuba. — William Walker headed a filibustering expedition into Nicaragua. He was defeated and sent back to San Francisco. —The "OSTBND MANIFESTO," issued this year, was the result of efforts made to acquire Cuba. The American ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain, at the request of President Pierce, met at Ostend and drew up a dispatch which declared that the sale of Cuba by Spain and its purchase by the United States was desirable ; but that, if Spain refused to sell, the United States would be compelled to "wrest it from her." — The Republican party took its name this year. Its organization had begun immediately after the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It was descended from the Free-Soil party, and gradually absorbed: 1. Dis- satisfied Whigs; 2. Know-Nothings ; 3. Abolition- ists; 4. Dissatisfied Democrats. (See p. 77.) 1855 — Civil war broke out in Kansas be- tween the slavery and non-slavery factions. The "New England Emigrant Aid Company" sent many Northern settlers into Kansas. Emigration from the Southern states was not heavy, but bands of Missourians, called "Sons of the South," crossed over to establish the government and hold the best land until actual Southern settlers should appear. Rival governments were set up, and war followed. Law- rence was sacked by the pro-slavery forces, and in revenge John Brown and his followers massacred some "Sons of the South" at Pottawattamie (1856). The situation gave rise to the term, "bleeding Kan- sas." 1856 — Indian troubles in Oregon led to the massacre of many settlers. The Indians were finally subdued by General Wool. — In the Senate, Senator Sumner, having sternly denounced several senators, notably Butler, of South Carolina, in a speech called the "Crime Against Kansas," was assaulted and beaten senseless by a nephew of the South Carolina representative, who was thereupon honored as a hero through the South. — The presidential election of this year cen- tered around the slavery struggle and resulted in the election of the Northern Democrat, James Buchanan. The Know-Nothing party (see p. 77) divided the Northern vote and carried the election in Mary- land. The Republicans nominated Fremont, and carried most of the Northern states on a platform which declared against any extension of slavery. The Democrats claimed that the slavery question was not an issue. — The San Francisco Vigilance Committee completed its work of restoring order, and disbanded. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN Born, in Pennsylvania, April 23, 1791; died, June 1, 1868; Lawyer; Member of Congress, 1821-1831; Minister to Russia, 1831-1833; U. S. Senator, 1834-1845; Secretary of State, 1845-1849; Minister to England, 1853-1856. Unmarried; Presbyterian. DEMOCRAT, March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1861. 1857— The DRED SCOTT CASE increased the slavery antagonism. Scott was a negro who sued for his freedom under peculiar circumstances. The United States Supreme Court decided that no negro, free or slave, was a citizen, and, therefore, could not bring any suit at law. The decision included the implication that the old Missouri Compromise had always been uncon- stitutional in its discrimination against slavery. — A constitution was drafted by the pro- slavery legislature in Kansas and submitted to the vote of the people. The people were not really permitted to vote on the constitution itself, but only whether they would have it with or without slavery. The Free-Soil people refused to vote for it at all, and thus the votes "with slavery" exceeding those "without," slavery was declared established. This farce was upheld by the Democrats in Congress. — Another financial panic swept over the country. The causes for the panic were: 1. Overcapitaliza- tion and overbuilding of railroads; 2. Rise in prices and mania for speculation, following gold discoveries in Australia and California; 3. Diminishing of specie reserve ; 4. Poor crops in America and excellent ones abroad; 5. Bad state banking; 6. Temporary dimi- nution of gold output in 1857. The whole country was practically bankrupt. — The first complete line of railroad from the Atlantic to the Mississippi was completed this year, connecting Baltimore with St. Louis. — The Mormons broke out in rebellion be- cause Congress refused them admission into the Union as the state of Utah. The rebellion was suppressed and troops remained to pre- serve order until 1860. 36 United States History 1858-1861 1858— LINCOLN AND DOUGLAS engaged in a series of joint debates in connection with the senatorial election in the state of Illinois. In the most celebrated of these debates, that at Freeport, Lincoln compelled Douglas to support his doctrine of "popular sovereignty," as against the Dred Scott decision, and thereby forced him to lose his chances for the presidency. — The first Atlantic Cable was success- fully laid after repeated failures (August 5). Great public rejoicings were instituted in both England and America; but the wires proved in- sufficiently protected, and after one month of service they FAILED TO WORK. — Gold was discovered in California, and excitement and rush of miners similar to that of 1849 ensued. — Silver was discovered in Nevada, and other valuable mineral deposits in other states. 1859— JOHN BROWN LED A RAID INTO VIRGINIA, hoping to arouse the slaves and establish a black republic. He was seized after a sharp fight by United States troops, was tried, and executed. The people of the South believed Brown to have been sent out by Northern abolitionists. They felt almost as if civil war had been begun against them. The North regarded Brown as a martyr, and marched to the Civil War with the well-known song of "his soul is marching on." — The people of Kansas framed another constitution prohibiting slavery. This one was legally adopted and accepted, and Kansas began to ask admission as a state. 1860 — The presidential election, resulting in the selection of Abraham Lincoln, caused the secession of the Southern states. The Democrats were divided in the election. The Southern Democrats went to the extreme by declar- ing that Congress must protect slavery in the terri- tories by every means in its power. The Northern Democrats would not go so far and held a separate convention. Two anti-slavery candidates were put in nomination: Bell, of the "American" party, which declared Union to be paramount to all other issues, and Lincoln, the nominee of the Republicans, who flatly pledged themselves to legislation in restriction of slavery. Lincoln received only a plurality of the popular vote, about two-fifths of the whole, but he had a majority of the electoral vote. — The South Carolina Legislature called a state convention, which on December 20 se- ceded from the Union. Six other states joined her during the next few months. — A compromise measure suggested by Crit- tenden failed of acceptance. — The Prince of "Wales visited the Eastern cities as the nation's guest. 1861 — The delegates from five seceding states drew up a constitution for the Con- federate States of America. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, became president, and Stephens, of Georgia, vice-president. The underlying causes of the secession and the Civil War were 1. The Doctrine of Popular Sover- eignty, and 2. Slavery. (B) CIVIL WAR From 1861-1865—4 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Hosmer, The Appeal to Arms (The American Nation Series); Outcome of the Civil War (The American Nation Series); Dodge, Bird's-eye View of the Civil War; Rhodes, History of the United States, IV; V, 1-475; Hart, American History Told by Contempora- ries, IV, Nos. 75-140. LEADING FEATURES:— The Northern troops were at first repelled in their invasion of Virginia; but the Confederates were slowly forced back in the West, where the surrender of Vicksburg marked their downfall. At the same time Lee's defeat at Gettysburg crushed their hopes in the East. The remainder of the war showed the South in hopeless struggle against the enveloping forces of Grant and Sherman. ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN Born, in Kentucky, February 12, 1809; died, April 15, 1865; Farm Laborer; Salesman: Merchant; Soldier; Sur- veyor; admitted to Bar in 1836; Captain in Black Hawk War, 1832; Member of Legislature, 1834-1842; Member of Con- gress, 1847-1849; joint discussions with Stephen A. Douglas, 1858. Married, 1842, Mary Todd,— four sons; Presbyterian. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1861, to April 15, 1865. 1861— The CIVIL WAR BEGAN WITH THE FALL OF FORT SUMTER (April 11- 15). The Confederates bombarded it and compelled its surrender. Lincoln immediately called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the armed assualt upon the Union (April 15). April 19 he proclaimed a block- ade of the South. — The secession of four more Southern states followed the fall of Sumter: Virginia (April 17), Arkansas (May 6), North Carolina (May 20), and Tennessee (June 8). — May 13, Great Britain recognized the Confederate states as belligerents. — The first clash of armed soldiers oc- curred at Big Bethel, Va., where a small Union force was defeated (June 10). The United States troops entered Virginia June 1, and General Beauregard summoned the South to "repel the invaders." — Captain Lyon gathered a Union force, and by a series of small victories saved Mis- souri to the Union (June-August). — General McClellan drove the seces- sionists out of western Virginia, gained a decisive victory at Rich Mountain, and saved to the Union that portion of the state which is now West Virginia (July). — The first Confederate Congress met at Richmond (July 20). —THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1861 in- cluded : The defeat and retreat upon Washington of the Union troops which engaged the Southern army at Bull Run; the bombardment and surrender of the forts at Beaufort, S. C. 1862-1864 National Period 37 — General Fremont, commanding the United States forces in Missouri, issued a proclama- tion declaring all slaves of rebels were freed (August). Lincoln cancelled this, so as not to antagonize the border states. — Captain Wilkes arrested the two Confed- erate commissioners, Mason and Slidell, on board a British ship (November 8). These commissioners were going to England to seek aid for the Confederacy. The British government protested against their seizure and made ready for war, hurrying troops to Canada. The commissioners were surrendered and proceeded to England, but accomplished nothing of importance. — The first telegraph line to the Pacific, joining St. Louis with San Francisco, was built this year. CIVIL WAR IN THE SOUTHWEST 1862— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1862 included: The captures of Fort Henry (Feb. 6) and Donel- son (Feb. 16) by General Grant after his demand for " unconditional surrender"; occupation of Nash- ville, Tenn., by General Grant (Feb. 23); the retreat of the Confederates before Grant after the battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing (April 7); the duel of the Monitor and Merrimac, resulting in (1) the maintenance of the Southern blockade, and (2) the disappearance of wooden ships of line; the surrender of Island Number Ten, a Confederate stronghold on the upper Mississippi (April 9); Admiral Farragut forced the surrender of New Orleans; the march on Richmond was begun under General McClellan (the Peninsular Campaign), but after the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days' Battle before Richmond the Union army withdrew (July 2); General Lee ad- vanced toward Washington, defeating the Union forces under Pope at the second battle of Bull Run (Aug. 30), but retreating after the encounter at An- tietam Creek, where McClellan's forces were vic- torious; McClellan 's successor, Burnside, followed up the retreating Confederates and attacked them in an entrenched possession, losing 13,000 men, "the hor- hcr op Fredericksburg" (Dec. 14); the Confed- erate General Bragg made two raids northward and was forced back on both occasions (Perryville, Oct. 8, and Murfreesboro, Dec. 30 to Jan. 2, 1863). 1863— L INCOLN '8 EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION declared all slaves free within the rebellious states (Jan. 1) . —THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1863 may be best reviewed by separating the op- erations of the two divisions of the Union army. The Army of the Potomac: General Hooker in command, moved southward in Virginia, but was re- pelled by Lee, with heavy loss, at Chancellorsville (May 2—4) ; Lee pushed north into Pennsylvania and was compelled to retreat after the unsuccessful charge of Pickett at the battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the war (July 1-3). The Army of the West: General Grant in com- mand, besieged Vicksburg, which surrendered July 4, giving the entire Mississippi valley to the Union forces; Bragg defeated Rosecrans in the bloody bat- tle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20); Grant arrived with reinforcements and forced Bragg's retreat after the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge (Nov. 24-25). — In New York City there were "draft riots." Drafting had to be resorted to to get soldiers. Mobs seized possession of portions of the city, negroes were killed, much plundering followed. The militia were called out and some hundreds of people, mostly rioters, were slain (July 13-16). — West Virginia, the loyal portion of Vir- ginia which had refused to secede, was ad- mitted to the Union as a separate state, the thirty-fifth to be admitted. — An Indian outbreak among the Sioux in Minnesota, begun with savage atrocities the preceding year, was quelled by General Pope, after severe fighting. 1864— THE MILITARY EVENTS OF 1864 may be best reviewed by separating the opera- tions of the two divisions of the Union army. The Army of the Potomac : Grant was made Com- mander of all the Union forces and took command in Virginia; Grant began his "hammering campaign"; Grant fought Lee in the Battle of the Wilderness (or Chancellorsville) (May 5, 6), at Spottsylvania (May 10-12), and at Cold Harbor, where he was repulsed from the impregnable defenses; Grant then circled Richmond and besieged Petersburg for the remainder of the year ; a side expedition under Sheridan stopped the Confederate raids into the Shenandoah Valley. Early was defeated by him at Winchester (Sept 19). The Army of the West: Sherman led the Union forces southward through Tennessee into Georgia; the Confederates, under Johnston, made a brave re- sistance and battles were fought at Dalton (May 7), at Resaca (May 12), at Kenesaw Mountain (June 14 to June 27); Johnston was removed by Jefferson Davis; General Hood, his successor, was completely defeated and Atlanta was occupied by Sherman (Sept. 2); Hood marched north into Tennessee to divert Sherman, but was met by General Thomas, who ad- ministered a crushing defeat at Nashville (Dec. 15); Sherman continued south on his famous march through Georgia to the sea; he captured Savan- nah (Dec. 21). — To secure revenue for prosecuting the enormously expensive war, Congress passed an extremely high tariff bill and an "Internal Revenue Law," taxing almost every business by means of licenses, the tax being specially heavy for liquor dealers, theatres, and other forms of amusement. An income tax was also established. (See p. 82 and Chart p. 75.) 38 United States History 1864-1865 ChamlgersWg. { # Tork' p x X ism y'z y^ii I — — — a sj&M^H. G %£l b . a ^'^ •iIHa5to*s|-4#|V7/ ^ Havre a^Grace CIVIL WAR IN THE EAST — The presidential election of this year turned upon the question of further aggres- sive warfare. Lincoln was again the Republican nominee, while the Northern Democrats nominated General McClel- lan. Their platform declared for Union, but urged an effort to stop the war by offering the South con- ciliatory terms. They protested against Lincoln's usurpations of power, for under stress of the necessity of war he had gone far beyond anything expressly authorized by the Constitution. The Republicans declared for the suppression of rebellion "without compromise" and the' complete abolition of slavery. They carried all the voting states except New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky. — Nevada, where the silver mines had brought a rapid influx of population, was ad- mitted to the Union as the thirty-sixth state. — The money - order department of the United States postal system was established this year. 1865— THE MILITARY EVENTS OP 1865 completed the crushing of the Southern armies. The chief events were: Sherman crossed the rivers between Savannah and Charleston; he captured Columbia, S. C. (Feb. 19), and Charleston (Feb. 18); Grant pressed the siege of Petersburg and Lee re- treated (April 3). —LEE SURRENDERED HIS ARMY AT APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE (April 9) ; Johnston surrendered his army to Sherman (April 26) ; THE WAR WAS OVER. The United States flag was restored on Port Sumter, April 14, exactly four years after it had been hauled down. —PRESIDENT LINCOLN WAS SHOT by an assassin in Ford's Theatre in Washington (April 14) and died next morning (April 15). — Jefferson Davis was captured and im- prisoned (May 11). (C) TIME OP RECONSTRUCTION Prom 1865-1877—12 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Dunning, Reconstruction, Political and Eco- nomic (The American Nation Series) ; Rhodes, History of the United States, V; VI, 1-191; Burgess, Reconstruction and the Constitution; Haht, American History Told by Contempora- ries, IV, Nos. 141-168. LEADING FEATURES:— The Union hav- ing been made indissoluble, the Southern states were slowly restored to their rank within it. Military government was withdrawn step by step. After the disputed election between Hayes and Tilden the South became once more wholly free, ''within the Constitution." ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON Born, in North Carolina, December 29, 1808; died, July 31, 1875; Tailor; Statesman; Member of Congress, 1843- 1853; Governor of Tennessee, 1853-1857; TJ. S. Senator, 1857- 1862; Military Governor of Tennessee, 1862-1865. Married, 1827; Eliza MeCardle,— three sons, two daughters; Methodist (not a church member). REPUBLICAN; April 15, 1865, to March 4, 1869. 1865 — President Johnson, during the inter- mission of Congress, reorganized the South along the general lines laid down by Lincoln. (1) He declared its ports open to peaceful trading (May 22) ; (2) He published an Amnesty Proclama- tion excluding from pardon certain rebel leaders (May 29) ; (3) He provided for the release of Southern prisoners of war who should take an oath of allegiance (July 29); (4) As commander-in-chief of the army he appointed provisional governors and allowed the qualified voters to select a legislature which was advised to abolish slavery, to abandon the right of se- cession, and to repudiate their Confederate debts; (5) The states were then ready for readmission into the Union. This general plan of reconstruction was known as" the "President's Plan" in distinction from that developed by Congress when it met in December. — "Vagrant Laws," or "Black Codes," were passed in several states of the South and aroused much feeling in the North. It was maintained by many persons in the North that the South was not willing to give freedom to the slaves, and the "Vagrant Laws," which regulated the conduct of the negro with great minuteness, confirmed them in their feeling. Mississippi, Louis- iana, and South Carolina enacted especially harsh laws. —The THIRTEENTH CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT was submitted to all the states, was approved, and became a law in December. It abolished slavery, but did not confer the suffrage on negroes. (See p. 88.) — Congress refused (Dec. 29) to admit members to Congress from those seceding states which had followed the plan of re- organization laid down by the President, and provided for a Joint Committee of Recon- struction to devise a different plan. 1866-1868 National Period 39 1866— Congress introduced the FREED- MEN'S BUREAU BILL and the CIVIL BIGHTS BILL. Congress in the preceding year had organized a Freedmen's Bureau within the war department for the purpose of caring for the negroes in the process of transformation from slavery to freedom. In February, 1866, Congress passed a bill continuing it for two years and enlarging its activities. The veto of this bill by the President helped solidify the Congressional opposition, and when in July another bill of even wider scope was vetoed by the President, Congress passed it over his veto. The Civil Rights Bill introduced in March was passed, despite presidential opposition (April 9). The Civil Rights Bill endeavored to counteract the anti-negro legislation of the South. It made the negroes "citizens" of the United States and forbade all legal discrimination against them, but it did not give them votes. The vetoes of these two bills completed the break between the President and the "Radicals ' ' in Congress. —The FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT was proposed to the states by Congress in June. This amendment carried out the provisions of the Civil Rights Bill, which Johnson had declared uncon- stitutional. The amendment furthermore provided that, if any state should deny the franchise to any citizen, the representation of that state should be diminished accordingly. It also required the repudi- ation of all Confederate debts. (See p. 88.) — Tennessee ratified the fourteenth amend- ment and was readmitted to the Union. — During the months of August and Sep- tember, President Johnson made his famous "swinging around the circle" tour. Ostensibly this trip was for the purpose of laying the corner-stone of the Douglas monument in Chicago, but it developed into a campaign trip during which the President denounced Congress and its leaders, especially Stevens t in strong and vituperative language. — The ten Southern states refused to RATIFY THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT. This only confirmed Congress in its determination to thoroughly "reconstruct the South." — The association of the G. A. R. (Grand Army of the Republic) veterans was begun at Decatur, 111. (April 6). — The French evacuated Mexico at the sug- gestion of Secretary of State Seward. During the progress of the Civil War the French overran Mexico, on account of that country's inability to pay its debts, and eventually instituted an impe- rial government there with Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, as emperor. This was a flagrant violation of the Monroe Doctrine, and aroused much indigna- tion in the North, as Napoleon III, of France, was friendly to the idea of Southern independence. Noth- ing could be done, however, until the close of the war, when American troops were marched toward Mexico and the French withdrew. —THE ATLANTIC CABLE, after several previous attempts, WAS AT LAST SUC- CESSFULLY LAID (July 27) by the big steamer Great Eastern. A cable had been laid in 1857, but it failed to work long. The political and commercial importance of this connection between America and Europe can scarcely be overestimated. Since 1866 several other cables have been laid across the Atlantic and across other wide waterways. — An Irish organization, called the Fenian Brothers, invaded Canada, starting from Buf- falo (June 1) and from Ogdensburg, N. Y. (June 7). The Fenians were a body of men of Irish birth who felt animosity against Great Britain. The greater part of them had served in the Union Army, had become accustomed to fighting, and now wished to turn their arms against the British. After a short skirmish with the Canadian troops, they returned to America. The government of the United States had been slow about taking measureSj to prevent this breach of the peace. 1867— ALASKA WAS PURCHASED FROM RUSSIA for $7,200,000. The formal transfer of the territory was made October 7. (See p. 54, map 28.) — Secret societies, such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Ca- melia, were instituted in the South. "The explicit purpose of these organizations was to preserve the social and political ascendency of the white race." They, therefore, terrified and coerced the freedmen in all possible ways and still further intensified the hostile feeling of Congress. — Congress, after the failure of the South- ern states to ratify the fourteenth amendment, passed "THE GREAT RECONSTRUCTION ACT" (Mar. 2), which, with supplementary acts, embodied the Congressional plan of re- construction. This plan provided that: 1. The ten unreconstructed states of the South were to be divided into five mili- tary districts, each of which was to be controlled by a general of the army; 2. These commanders were to respect such laws only as were not hostile to the freedmen, and were to make out a list of voters; 3. The voters should elect a convention which should draw up a constitution, including a provision for universal manhood suffrage; 4. This constitution should be ratified by the registered voters, and also by Congress; 5. The legislature then elected must ratify the fourteenth amendment. These steps completed, Congress could admit the states to the Union. As the lists of voters prepared by the military commanders excluded former Con- federates and included negroes and adventurers or "Carpet Baggers" from the North, there followed a period of anarchy, and the South was plundered by negro legislators under the domination of their Northern friends. —Congress passed the TENURE OF OF- FICE ACT, which required the consent of the Senate to removals from office by the Presi- dent. The President removed Secretary Stanton without getting the approval of the Senate, and this was made one of the occasions for his impeachment in the following year. Violation of the act was made a misdemeanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. 1868 — February 24, the House of Repre- sentatives adopted a resolution that Presi- dent Johnson be impeached of high crimes and misdemeanors in office. He was brought to trial (March 23). The President was acquitted on three charges and the rest abandoned (May 26). A two-thirds vote was necessary to conviction and the President's "radical" antagonists failed by just one vote to secure the necessary majority, seven conservative Republicans refusing to vote for convic- tion. So bitterly were men's tempers roused that the seven were every one of them ejected from the Republican party. 40 United States History 1869-1872 — AH of the Southern states, except Vir- ginia, Mississippi, and Texas, were readmitted to Congress (June). — The fourteenth amendment to the Consti- tution was officially adopted by the states (July 20). — A final amnesty pardoning all concerned in the rebellion was issued (Dec. 25). — The presidential election of this year ■turned on reconstruction. Horatio Seymour, the Democratic candidate, stood on a platform supporting Johnson's plan of recon- struction, while General Grant, the Republican, "who was elected, declared for the Congressional plan of reconstruction. — The Louisiana State lottery, established in. New Orleans, received a state charter. ADMINISTRATIONS OP ULYSSES S. GRANT Born, In Ohio, April 27, 1822; died, July 23, 1885; Sol- dier; served in Mexican War; entered business, 1854; entered Union Army, 1861; captured Forts Henry and Donelson, February, 1862; captured Vicksburg, 1863; defeated Bragg at Chattanooga, 1863; captured Lee's Army, 1865. Married, 1848, Julia Dent,— three sons, one daughter; Methodist. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1869, to March 4, 1877. 1869 — The noted gold panic of "Black Fri- day" occurred; the United States government being to some extent responsible for the situa- tion. Speculators secured the small amount of gold actually in circulation, and also secured agreements calling for payments in gold ; then they persuaded the government to refuse to pay out gold from the Treasury. Those who owed gold were forced to offer enormous sums for it. Many conservative firms were ruined. To stop the disaster, the Treasury fold was reissued. President Grant was much lamed for the panic, but he only erred through ignorance. — The Atlantic and Pacific coasts were at last united by a railroad line, built by the united efforts of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific companies. The work was completed amid elaborate celebra- tions (May 10). More than $27,000,000 had been given by the government to each of these companies, and they received, in addition, every odd section of land in a strip twenty miles wide along the entire route. — The first female suffrage laws in America were passed in the territories of Wyoming and Utah. — "The Knights of Labor" was organized. 1870— The FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION was formally adopted and proclaimed (Mar. 30) . (See p. 88.), It gave the negroes the right to vote everywhere by establishing a universal manhood suffrage. — The remaining Southern states were re- admitted to representation in Congress. Georgia, which had been a second time ex- cluded, was now admitted again, the last of all (April 20). They had been compelled to ratify the fifteenth, as well as the fourteenth amendment, before admission. —The tariff act of this year, though it in- creased the free list, provided for slight reduc- tion as a whole (see p. 82 and Chart p. 75). 1871 — Congress 'passed the first "civil service reform" measure. In the previous year President Grant's message had suggested the need of selecting government officials from a competitive list, and much against its will Congress now authorized the President to provide for examinations, etc. The President at once appointed George William Curtis at the head of a commission for carrying out the new system. At the end of three years Congress by withholding the necessary appropriations brought the work to an end. — A "Force Bill" was passed by Congress, which by increasing the power of the United States courts in the South did much to break up the Ku Klux Klan. — The "Tweed Exposures" and downfall of the "Tweed Ring" occurred in New York City. The Democratic government of the city under the lead of Tweed had become wholly corrupt. A quarrel among thieves placed evidence of their guilt in the hands of the New York Times. Its revelations aroused public sentiment; a "committee of seventy" was appointed to investigate, and Tweed was arrested (Oct. 28). Most of his accomplices fled. Tweed was not convicted until 1873. The plunder of the ring was said to have amounted to a hundred million dollars. — The great Chicago fire almost destroyed the city, causing a loss of 200 lives and $200,- 000,000 (Oct. 8-11). 1872 — The "Alabama Arbitration Com- mission" sat at Geneva, Switzerland. This was the first great case of international arbitration. England and the United States had agreed in the previous year to submit the claims of the latter, arising out of the damage done by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers, which England had permitted to be sent out from her ports during the Civil War. The claims had caused much angry dis- cussion, and two English ministers had left Washington because of them. The decision of the tribunal, known as the "Geneva Award," was that England had failed to use diligence in the performance of its neutral obligations, and that it pay the United States $15,500,000 in gold. — The extreme northwest boundary with Canada was also in dispute, both sides claim- ing the island op San Juan. The case was submitted to the German Emperor, "William I, and he awarded San Juan to the United States (Oct. 23). — The Homestead Act of this year was the last stage in the land policy of the United States. — Congress created the National Park in the Yellowstone region in Wyoming and Montana. — In the presidential election General Grant was renominated and reelected by a large majority, the Southern states being still under "carpet-bag" control. 1873-1876 National Period 41 The candidate of the Democrats and "liberal" Republicans was Horace Greeley, the editor of the New York Tribune. His followers protested against the continued use of United States troops to uphold the Republican government in the South, and objected to the enormously increasing expenditure of the central government and its hordes of unnecessary Republican employees, "patriots for revenue only." As Greeley had always been a Whig, many Demo- crats refused to vote for him. He died shortly after the election, broken-hearted over the defeat. — The geeat Boston fire occurred, destroy- ing the heart of the business district and caus- ing a loss of seventy million dollars (Nov. 9- 10). 1873 — A financial panic swept the entire country. The reasons for this panic included: 1. Overbuild- ing of railroads; 2. Overcapitalization of many in- dustries; 3. Need of currency to move crops; 4. The heavy land mortgages in the West; 5. Unrest occasioned by the exposure of corruption in public life; 6. Losses from Boston and Chicago fires; 7. General extravagance in living. The failure of Jay Cooke & Co. brought on the crisis which spread throughout the country. It lasted five years, reaching its climax in 1878, when there were 5,000 failures. — The Credit Mobilier was one of the great scandals that marked President Grant's ad- ministration. The Credit Mobilier was an organization created for the purpose of building the Union Pacific Railroad. Stock of this company was distributed among Con- gressmen in a manner that aroused public suspicion. A Congressional investigating commission led to the formal censure of two members of the House of Representatives and to the resignation of Secretary of War, W. W. Belknap, to escape impeachment. — In February a law was passed demone- tizing silver. This caused a drop in the value of silver, and was responsible for the Bland- Allison bill of five years later. This law was called by the friends of silver "the crime of '73." — The Yirginius, an American vessel car- rying supplies to Cuba for the insurgents against the Spanish Government in that island, was captured by a Spanish man-of-war and taken to Cuba. Some of the crew and passengers were tried and shot by the Spanish authorities. Much indignation was felt in the United States at this harsh treatment, and there seemed for a time some danger of war. — Congress passed the Salary Grab Act, March 3, 1873. It increased the salaries of a large number of Federal officials, including Congressmen. The public was much aroused when it was found that so far as Con- gressmen were concerned the act was retroactive, i.e., the increase was made to apply from the beginning of the session. It was repealed later. 1874 — Attempts were made by several South- ern states to throw off colored domination. Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina were es- pecially active, and a great deal of factional fighting resulted. General Sheridan created a great deal of ill-feeling by driving the conservative members out of the Louisiana Legislature and by addressing a letter to the President in which members of the White Leagues were termed " banditti." 1875 — Congress in order to establish public credit, still badly demoralized since the panic of 1873, passed an act providing for the re- sumption op specie payment on January, 1, 1879, i.e., the government promised to re- deem in gold after that date all of its legal- tender notes. Opposition to resumption led to the formation of the "Greenback Party." (See p. 78 and chart p. 75.) — Congress passed a second Civil Bights biU. The act contained sections forbidding discrimina- tion against negroes in inns, public conveyances, theatres, and other places of amusement. These sections were declared unconstitutional by the Su- preme Court, which declared the "rights" to be not civil but social and that in such matters the state and not the nation had jurisdiction. — The electric light was made practical for lighting purposes by Charles Brush, of Cleveland. — A "whisky ring" was discovered, con- sisting of Federal officials and distillers, or- ganized for the purpose of defrauding the government of taxes due on the manufacture of whisky. 1876 — The Centennial op the Adoption op the Declaration op Independence was cele- brated by a great International Industrial Ex- position at Philadelphia. — General George A. Custer with a regiment of soldiers attacked some rebellious Sioux In- dians, commanded by Sitting Bull, in south- ern Montana. He and his entire force of about 300 men were defeated and massacred (June 25). — An especially devised body called the ELECTORAL COMMISSION was necessary to decide the presidential election of this year. The Democrats, who had nominated Tilden, of New York, gained many votes on account of the hard times, the political scandals, and general dis- satisfaction with the reconstruction of the South. The Republicans, who had placed Hayes, of Ohio, in nomination, tried to divert the issue and James G. Blaine made many speeches pointing out the dangers from a solid South. His attacks on rebel rule were termed "waving the bloody shirt." The Greenback Party had a candidate and polled nearly a million votes, chiefly, in the Central and Western states. When the electoral votes were counted it was found that there were two sets of returns from Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina, while one vote of Oregon was in dispute. Hayes needed all of these contested votes to secure his election. No method of deciding how to pass on the disputed votes was reached until a few days before inauguration. Meantime the excitement throughout the country was so intense that civil war was feared. Finally an Electoral Commission op Fifteen was appointed by mutual consent to decide the contest. This Commission consisted of ten Congressmen, five from each party, and five Supreme Court Justices. It was hoped the latter would be above partisanship ; but it happened that three of them were Republicans, and the Commission by a strict party vote, eight to seven, decided each disputed case in the Republicans' favor. 42 United States History 1877-1881 SECTION III UNITED NATION Prom 1877 to present time (1910)— 33 years SUGGESTED READINGS: Sparks, E. E., National Development (The American Nation Series); D. R. Dewey, National Problems (The Ameri- can Nation Series); J. H. Latane, America as a World Power (The American Nation Series); Wilson, History of the American People, V, 115-301; Lodge, The War with Spain; Hart, American History Told by Contempora- ries, IV, 159-259. LEADING FEATURES.— Rapid material progress in national wealth and population. Restoration of the Democratic party to tem- porary power and disappearance of sectional animosity. Increasing importance of the money question and tariff issue in politics. Strife of capital and labor, growth of trusts and government opposition to them. War with Spain and acquisition of territories be- yond the bounds of the mainland, with result- ing "Imperialism" in government and en- largement of the army and navy. ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES Born, in Ohio, October 4, 1828; died, January 17, 1893; Lawyer; educated at Kenyon College; Brevet Major-General of Volunteers in the Civil "War; Member of Congress, 1865- 1867; Governor of Ohio, 1868, 1872, and 1876. Married, 1852, Lucy Ware "Webb,— seven sons, one daugh- ter; Methodist. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1877, to March 4, 1881. 1877 — Extensive railroad strikes spread over the country. Pittsburg was for a time in pos- session of a mob, and property worth forty million dollars was destroyed. In Chicago over a hundred rioters were killed or wounded by the soldiers. The strike began on the Baltimore and Ohio rail- road, caused by frequent reductions in wages. Various state executives called for and received Federal aid and the strikers dispersed. — The telephone was perfected and ap- plied to practical business uses by Alexander Bell, of Boston. — President Hayes removed the soldiers who were still asserting the Federal authority in two Southern states. The withdrawal may be said to have closed the reconstruction period, for it permitted the Southern people to solve their own local problems without national interference, and allowed both North and South to turn their attention to problems of joint importance. 1878 — The Bland-Allison Act was passed by Congress for the purpose of remonetizing silver. A demand for the free coinage of silver had arisen for the following reasons: 1. To raise the value of the metal, whose price had declined as a result of new mines discovered at home and unfavorable governmental action at home and abroad ; 2. To gain a cheap money medium with which to pay debts; 3. To increase the volume of currency. The bill provided that the government was to purchase not less than $2,000,000 nor more than $4,000,000 worth of silver per month at the market price and coin it into silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. The silver thus coined was to be deposited in the Treasury and silver certificates issued against it. 1879 — The resumption of specie payment took place. Few persons asked to have metal for their paper. This was due to the careful arrangements of Secretary of the Treasury Sherman, who was prepared to meet all demands. — Congress parsed the first "Arrears of Pensions" bill, allowing claims for "back pensions." This resulted in the payment of hundreds of millions of dollars. 1880 — A treaty was negotiated with China. It was agreed that the United States might stop Chinese immigration, if it so desired. — The presidential election was contested by General Hancock for the Democrats, and by General Garfield for the Republicans, Gar- field being a compromise candidate selected after a long struggle between Grant, Blaine, and John Sherman for the nomination. There was also a "Greenback" nominee, who drew somewhat from the Northern Democratic vote. Tariff reduction was brought forward as a new issue by the Democrats, but fear of the "Solid South" was the main one, and the North elected Garfield. He carried every Northern state, while Hancock carried the South and the border states. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD Born, in Ohio, November 19, 1831; died, September 19, 1881; Teacher; Lawyer; educated at Williams College; President of Hiram College, Ohio; served as Major-General of Volunteers in the Civil War; Member of Congress, 1863- 1880; U. S. Senator, 1880. Married, 1858, Lucretia Rudolph, — four sons, one daugh- ter; Disciples. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1881, to September 19, 1881. 1881 — Garfield appointed Blaine as his Sec- retary of State and made other appointments in the Cabinet and in the state of New York which aroused the enmity of the "stalwart" leader, Roscoe Conkling. A factional party strife resulted between the "Half Breeds" and the "Stalwarts." The "Half Breeds," who supported President Hayes in the with- drawal of United States troops from the Southern states, favored appointments to office under Civil Service rules, while the "Stalwarts," who advocated a coercive policy toward the South, demanded the "spoils system" in governmental appointments. When the President chose as Collector for the Port of New York a man not approved by Conkling, he and his colleague resigned from the Senate and stood for reelection. The legislature failed to reelect them, and Conkling returned to private life. —GARFIELD WAS SHOT by a disap- pointed office-seeker in the Washington railway station (July 2) and died September 19. ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR Born, in Vermont, October 5, 1830; died, November 17, 1886; Teacher; Lawyer; educated at Union College; Quarter- master-General, State of New York, 1861-1862; Collector, Port of New York. Married, 1859, Ellen Lewis Herndon,— one son, one daugh- ter; Episcopalian. REPUBLICAN; September 20, 1881, to March 4. 1885. 1882-1888 National Period 43 — Edison's improvements in electric lighting resulted in its general installation throughout the country, beginning in New York City. — Lieutenant Greely was sent to the Arctic regions on a government scientific expedition. A relief expedition, sent to bring him back two years later, failed ; and most of his party perished. The survivors, including Greely, were rescued in 1884. — The Atlanta Exposition was held, show- ing the great resources of the "New South." 1882 — A Chinese exclusion bill was passed by Congress. It was only an initial measure, was limited to ten years, and was loosely worded so that it only ex- cluded the Chinese in masses. — The Edmunds bill checked polygamy in Utah by barring polygamists from voting or holding office. — Lieutenant Lockwood and Sergeant Brain- ard, members of the Greely Arctic expedition, reached what was for a dozen years the ' ' farthest north, ' ' 83° 24'. Lockwood perished, but Brainard ultimately got back to the United States. 1883— The second CIVIL SERVICE ACT, sometimes called the "Pendleton Act," was passed by Congress, both parties uniting to approve it. The act was the result of the assassination of Gar- field. By this act, and subsequent extensions of it, most of the minor government appointments were made by examination and taken out of politics. — Congress reduced the rate for United States letter postage to two cents. — The Northern Pacific railroad was com- pleted and opened to traffic. — The huge "Brooklyn Bridge," the first one connecting Manhattan Island with Brook- lyn, was completed. 1884 — The presidential election of this year turned on the records of the candidates, though there was some discussion of the ques- tions of civil service reform and the tariff. Blaine, the Republican candidate, failed to get the votes of many independent Republicans ("Mug- wumps") who favored civil service reform and were dissatisfied with Blaine's explanation of a question- able transfer of some railroad stock. Cleveland's election was chiefly due to his success in the state of New York, where he had won popular approval as a Democratic Governor. — The New Orleans Exhibition was held. ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND Born, in New Jersey, March 18, 1837; died, June 24, 1908; Teacher; Lawyer; Sheriff of Erie County, New York, 1871-1874; Mayor of Buffalo, N. Y., 1882; Governor of New York, 1883-1885. Married, 1886, Frances Folsom,— one son, three daughters; Presbyterian. DEMOCRAT; March 4, 1885, to March 4, 1889. 1885 — Cleveland, the first Democratic President since the Civil War, was inaugu- rated. In the new Presidential Cabinet the South was again represented. — Vice-President Hendricks died (Nov. 25). 1886— THE PRESIDENTIAL SUCCES- SION ACT was passed. It was enacted that in case of the death or dis- ability of both President and Vice-President, the executive office should pass to (1) the Secretary of State, and then to the other Cabinet officers in the following order: (2) Secretary of the Treasury, (3) Secretary of War, (4) Attorney-General, (5) Post- master-General, (6) Secretary of the Navy, (7) Secre- tary of the Interior. — The Bartholdi Statue of Liberty was erected in New York harbor. It was a gift of the French nation. — The Apache Indian band, headed by Geronimo, was captured after many depreda- tions and after a pursuit of many hundred miles through New Mexico and Arizona. — An earthquake was widespread through the South, but especially severe at Charles- ton, the city being almost destroyed. — The Haymarket riot occurred in Chicago. The anarchists were holding a meeting, counselling criminal violence in connection with the labor troubles then going on, when one of the speakers was arrested. Immediately a bomb was thrown among the police- men, killing seven and severely injuring more than twenty. Four leaders were hanged, though the actual throwing of the bomb could not be proven against any of them. The general unsettled labor situation led Missouri, New York, Iowa, and Kansas to establish state boards of arbitration, without, however, conferring compulsory power on them. — President Cleveland refused to furnish the Senate with causes for removals made from public office, and the Senate yielded the point. 1887— THE ELECTORAL COUNT ACT was' passed. Nothing had been done to pro- vide against a recurrence of the Tilden-Hayes incident. This act provided that each state should be the judge of its own returns, Con- gress to be appealed to only in case of a deadlock. — The United States Supreme Court af- firmed the Edmunds Law of 1882, dissolved the Mormon Church Corporation, and declared its property in excess of $50,000 forfeited to the United States. (This property was restored in 1890.) — THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT created a commission of five members to pre- vent railroads operating in more than one state from charging unfair rates or in any way discriminating as between persons and places. 1888— A CHINESE EXCLUSION BILL was passed. The act excluded all Chinese laborers, skilled or unskilled, while those laborers who had once returned to China were not to be readmitted. 44 United States History 1889-1895 — The presidential election of this year turned on the tariff. Cleveland was renomi- nated by the Democrats, and General Har- rison, grandson of the former President Har- rison, was the Republican nominee. Cleveland advocated extensive tariff reductions and was defeated, carrying only one Northern state. — Though the electric trolley was invented by Edison in 1884, the first practical trolley road was operated this year in Richmond, Va. — Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward was published and caused much discussion re- garding industrial organization. administration of BENJAMIN HARRISON Born, in Ohio, August 20, 1833; died, March 13, 1901; Lawyer: educated at Miami University; Brigadier-General of Volunteers in the Civil War; U. S. Senator, 1881-1887. Married (1), 1853, Caroline Lavinia Scott, — one son, one daughter; (2), 1896, Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmiok,— one daughter; Presbyterian. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1889, to March 4, 1893. 1889 — England, Germany, and America agreed to a joint occupation of the Samoa* Islands. — The President declared the Bering Sea closed to foreign nations, also the fur hunting in Alaska. — A portion of Oklahoma was thrown open to settlement, and a rush of fifty thousand waiting immigrants covered the territory (April 22). — Massachusetts introduced the Australian or secret ballot. — A Pan-American Congress was held at "Washington. 1890 — The Sherman silver law passed. The Senate, with representatives from several newly-created silver states, was in favor of the free coinage of silver, but compromised with the House on this bill. It repealed the Bland-Allison Act and instead directed the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase 4,500,000 ounces of silver monthly, to be paid for by Treasury notes redeemable in either gold or silver. The silver was not to be coined except as needed, but the government became the possessor of an increasing amount of silver then decreasing in value. — The McEinley tariff bill was passed. (See p. 82.) — The Dependent pension law was enacted. Union soldiers and sailors who had served ninety days in the war and were unable to earn a living were entitled to a pension. The benefits of the law were extended to dependents. The law produced a host of pension "sharks." — The Mormon Church renounced polygamy and plural marriages and obtained the restora- tion of its property. (See year 1887.) — Congress enacted an anti-trust law. — Great Sioux reservation of 9,000,000 acres and 3,000,000 acres of Indian lands in Min- nesota were opened to white settlers. —Sitting Bull, the Sioux chieftain, was shot while resisting arrest. — Typesetting machine was introduced. 1891 — Some Italian citizens were killed by a mob in New Orleans, and strained relations with Italy resulted. — A diplomatic dispute with Chile arose. Two sailors from a United States battleship were killed in the harbor of Valparaiso, Chili, by a mob who believed the United States to be taking sides in an insurrection. Chili finally made a money repara- tion. — The International Copyright Act was passed. 1892 — There was a serious strike at Home stead, Pa. — The presidential election of this year re- turned the Democrats to power on the tariff issue. The Republicans renominated President Harrison and the Democrats ex-President Cleveland. The Populist party (see p. 78) advocating free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, cast a heavy vote. SECOND ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND DEMOCRAT; March 4, 1893, to March 4, 1897. 1893 — President Cleveland recognized the Hawaiian Island as a constitutional republic. In the last days of the previous administration Queen Liliuokalani had been overthrown by a party of revolutionists, including some Americans. The revolutionists wished annexation, the people of the United States were favorable, and President Harri- son submitted a treaty with that intent to the Senate. It had not been acted on when Cleveland was inau- gurated and he immediately withdrew it. — The Bering Sea Commission met at Paris and disallowed the claims of the United States to control the seal fishing outside the three- mile limit. — Colorado granted full suffrage to women. — The "World's Columbian Exposition was held at Chicago. — The Sherman law was repealed. — A financial panic occurred in this year. It was due to a variety of causes including: 1. The hoarding of gold; 2. Uneasiness regarding sUver ; 3. Stoppage of manufacturing through fear of un- favorable Democratic legislation. 1894 — The Wilson tariff bill was passed. (See p. 82.) — The "Pullman car" railroad strike spread over the West, beginning in Chicago. So great was the destruction of property that President Cleveland sent United States troops to Chicago (July 9). This was done against the protest of Altgeld, the "Labor" governor of Illinois, but it checked the rioting. 1895 — President Cleveland had a sharp clash with the British Government over the Monroe Doctrine. 1896-1900 National Period 45 Great Britain was trying to compel Venezuela to accept a disputed boundary line. The United States urged that the matter be left to arbitration, and England declared that the United States had nothing to do with the matter, that her right to protect other American countries was not recognized abroad. Cleveland, claiming that interposition was in accord- ance with the principles of the Monroe Doctrine, ;sent a message to Congress advising that the United States should send a commission to investigate the boundary claims and then resist by force any effort of England to seize Venezuelan lands (Dec. 17). This proposition was accepted by Congress, and in the following year the British government consented to arbitration with Venezuela. Great Britain, by arbitration, in 1899, obtained most of the territory which she claimed. 1896 — President Cleveland, by an order is- sued May 6, considerably advanced the cause Of CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM. In March and April he made extensions in the classified service, but, by the order of May, 30,000 S laces not previously appointed from a competitive st, were added to the number to be so appointed. — The presidential election of this year re- sulted in a sweeping victory for the Repub- licans after a campaign in which "free silver" and the tariff were prominent issues. The Republicans nominated McKinley, author of the tariff bill of 1890. The Democrats broke away from Cleveland, and, led by the most radical elements of their party, nominated a " free silver" candidate, the orator, Wm. J. Bryan. Bryan was en- dorsed by the Populists, who had shown such strength four years before. Gold Democrats put up an in- dependent ticket and aided in the defeat of Bryan. ADMINISTRATIONS OP WILLIAM McKINLEY Born In Ohio, January 29, 1844; died at Buffalo, N. T., September 14, 1901. Served in Army during Civil War, then a lawyer in Canton, O. Republican Representative in 45th, 46th, 47th, 49th, 50th and 51st Congresses. Governor of Ohio, 1892-1896. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1897, to September 14, 1901. 1897 — Congress was summoned in special session and passed a higher tariff bill, the "DINGLEY TARIFF." See p. 82.) — Rich gold deposits were discovered in the valley of the great Alaskan river, the Yukon. Thousands of gold-seekers rushed thither. The region lay partly in Canadian territory, partly in American, and there was some little friction in ad- justing matters. 1898— TEE HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS WERE ANNEXED to the United States (July 6). (See p. 54, map 31.) —THE WAR WITH SPAIN BEGAN [(April 20). The repressive policy of Spain in Cuba under General Weyler followed a period of heavy taxation and produced extreme discontent in Cuba, and led to numerous expeditions of relief from America. The government was obliged to police its ports to maintain the obligations of neutrality. Finally when the United States warship, Maine, was blown up in Havana harbor, carrying to death over 250 of her crew, Congress issued an ultimatum demand- ing the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. On her refusal Congress declared war. Naval events of the war included: The destruc- tion of the Spanish fleet and forts in Manila Bay by Commodore Dewey (April 28); an American battleship took Guam; the fleet of Admiral Cervera was blockaded in the harbor of Santiago, Cuba, by Admiral Sampson; the Spanish fleet attempted to escape from the harbor (July 3) and the battle of Santiago resulted in the complete destruction of the Spanish fleet. Land events of the war included: Gen. Shafter landed an army near Santiago (June 22) ; the Spaniards were expelled from Las Guasimas; the defenses of Santiago at El Caney and San Juan Hill were taken (July 1); the Spanish army at Santiago surrendered (July 17); Manila, in the Philippines, surrendered to General Merritt (Aug. 16); Porto Rico surrendered to General Miles (Aug.). — The Filipinos declared themselves inde- pendent (Sept. 29). „- -couRP "" 10 . -»* &._/vi2CAnt JLCfOCSSTER J> ui \ BROOKLYN *Si. *.„ V' OREGON Ax v.. \ •owaV. —THE FINAL TREATY OF PEACE WITH SPAIN WAS MADE (DEC. 10). By a preliminary treaty (Aug. 12) Spain had sur- rendered Cuba and Porto Rico to the United States, and now she ceded Guam and the Philippines for $20,000,000. 1899 — The American troops took possession of Havana (Jan. 1). — An investigation of the War Department led the Commission of Inquiry to report that in many respects the management of the depart- ment had not been satisfactory. Considerable indignation was aroused by General Miles' charges that the army had been served with "embalmed beef." — An insurrection of the Filipinos under Aguinaldo broke out. They made an unsuccessful attack on Manila (Feb. 11, 12); the Americans in turn attacked and cap- tured Iloilo and the Philippine capital, Malolos (Mar. 31); the Filipino army was completely defeated at Calumpit; General Lawton was killed in a skirmish (Dec. 18). Desultory warfare continued through the next year. — Many industrial trusts were organized this year, chiefly under the favorable laws of the state of New Jersey. 1900 — The Samoa Islands were divided between the three "protecting" Powers, Eng- 46 United States History 1900-1905 land, Germany, and America. America's SHARE WAS THE ISLE AND PORT OP TUTUILA. (See p. 54, map 31.) — The presidential election of this year re- sulted in the reelection of McKinley. The same candidates for President were put up by the two parties that had been nominated in the preceding election. "Free Silver" was once more an important issue, though the Philippine occupation led to the adoption of an anti-imperialistic plank in the Democratic platform. — American troops joined a European army and assisted in the suppression of a Boxer up- rising in China. — A gigantic coal strike occurred in Penn- sylvania during the months of September and October. 1901 — The Filipino insurrection was prac- tically ended. Congress organized civil government in March, and Aguinaldo was captured during the same month. President McKinley was shot by an anarchist (Sept. 6) and died Sept. 14. Vice-President Roosevelt, who immediately took the oath of office, retained all the members of the late President's Cabinet, and pledged himself to a con- tinuation of his policies. administrations of THEODORE ROOSEVELT Born, 28 Bast 20th Street, New York City, October 27, 1858; educated at Harvard; Member New York Legislature, 1881-1884; United States Civil Service Commissioner, 1889- 1895; Police Commissioner, New York City, 1896-1897; As- sistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897-1898; Colonel in Spanish- American War, 1898; Governor of New York, 1898-1900; elected Vice-President of United States, 1900. Married (1), 1883, Alice Lee,— one daughter; (2), 1886, Edith Kermit Carew, — four sons, one daughter; Reformed Dutch. REPUBLICAN; September 14, 1901, to March 4, 1909. — The Hay-Pauncefote treaty was ratified between England and America (Dee. 16). This treaty superseded the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, and while securing the neutrality of the Isthmian Canal, it made the United States sole builder, owner, and protector of it. The United States began prep- arations for building, selecting at first the Nicaragua route. — Wireless telegraphy was established in America by Marconi. 1902 — A treaty with Denmark purchasing the Danish islands in the "West Indies was ratified in the United States (Feb. 17), but ultimately rejected in the Danish parliament by a tie vote. — The United States troops were withdrawn from Cuba. — The United States decided upon the Panama route for the Isthmian Canal. — The country was brought to the verge of a coal famine by a gigantic coal strike begin- ning May 12. President Roosevelt intervened and persuaded the clashing parties to accept the arbitration of a commission appointed by him. Its decision, rendered the following March, was chiefly in favor of the miners. —A law was enacted for the irrigation ob western lands. A fund is provided for the purpose of constructing dams and reservoirs from the sale of public lands in the western part of the country. — A huge "shipping trust" of Atlantic freight lines was formed by J. P. Morgan. — Marconi came to America in person and succeeded in transmitting a wireless mes- sage across the ocean (Mar. 3). 1903 — The Elkins Anti-rebate Bill was passed (Feb. 20). This law gave the Interstate Commerce Commission more power over shippers and fixed the punishment for rebating. Numerous railroads were soon brought to court, among them the Chicago & Alton, and New York Central railroads. — A reciprocity treaty was made with Cuba (Mar. 19). The two countries agreed to favor each other with especially low tariff rates. — The boundary of Southern Alaska was fixed by a court of joint arbitration (Oct. 17). — The United States recognized the inde- pendence of Panama. This was followed by a treaty with the independ- ent state giving the United States government full rights for the construction and control of a Panama Canal. — Congress created the Department of Com- merce and Labor. It provided for several important bureaus, but one of the most important is the "bureau of corpora- tions" which is authorized to investigate the organiza- tion and general management of any company, other than railroads, engaged in interstate commerce. As a result of its findings the Federal Attorney-General has instituted numerous suits against "trusts." 1904 — The Supreme Court decided that the Northern Securities Company was an organi- zation whose acts were in restraint of inter- state trade. This was the first decision of great importance rendered under the Sherman Act of 1890. The Securities Company was organized to control the stock and interests of several railroads, the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the Burlington lines. The Supreme Court decided that the "Beef Trust" was also a combination which restrained interstate trade. ■ — In the presidential election President Roosevelt received for reelection the largest popular majority ever received, exceeding two million votes. — An act was passed for the government of the Isthmian Canal zone. The act is identical with the act of 1803 drafted by Jefferson for the government of the territory of Louisiana. — The Louisiana Purchase Exposition was held at St. Louis. 1905 — The United States assumed a virtual protectorate over the negro republic of San Domingo. An American commission took charge of the revenues of San Domingo to insure payment of its debts to foreign nations (Mar. 25). 1906-1909 National Period 47 —President Roosevelt acted as mediator be- tween Russia and Japan, and these two na- tions terminated their war by a treaty of peace at Portsmouth, N. H. — The life insurance companies of New York were investigated and found to contain grave scandals and dishonesties. 1906 — Anti-Japanese mobs created disturb- ances in California. — The body of Paul Jones was brought to America and placed in the Naval Academy at Annapolis. — An uprising of the "Moros," a tribe in the Philippines, was crushed by General Wood. — The United States resumed the military occupation of Cuba. Rebellions and general turbulence were responsible for the step. Secretary Taft and then Charles Magoon acted as provisional governors. — Secretary of State Root visited South America and delivered an address before the Pan American Conference. — Congress authorized the construction of a lock canal across the Isthmus. — A new Interstate Commerce Act replaced that of 1887. Among other powers it gave to the Interstate Com- merce Commission the right to fix a maximum rate for transportation of passengers and freight. — Congress supplemented the acts of numer- ous state legislatures by the passage of a Pure Food Law. The act, of course, deals only with interstate trade. It forbids the sale of impure foods and compels the manufacturer of so-called patent medicines to name the ingredients with quantities used which might be considered injurious. — The coal miners and operators of the Mis- sissippi valley settled a serious controversy by direct agreement. — A law for meat inspection was enacted. This was due in great part to the disclosures of conditions in the stock yards and packing houses of Chicago by the novelist Upton Sin- clair in his book, The Jungle. 1907 — A financial panic originated in New York and spread over the country. — A temperance movement spread over the country. The South was especially affected by it and prohibition resulted in Georgia and Ala- bama, while in more than one-half of Kentucky the sale of liquor was prohibited by law. — The Standard Oil Company was fined $29,- 240,000 for having accepted rebates from the Chicago & Alton railroad. — Among the public benefactions of the year the largest was that of John D. Rockefeller, who gave $32,000,000 for the continuation of the work of the General Education Board. — The pension Poll was enlarged by the grant of a pension of twelve dollars a month to every person on reaching the age of sixty-two, who had served for at least ninety days in the army or navy during the Civil War, or sixty days during the war with Mexico. 1908 — The American navy, commanded by Admiral Evans, began a trip around the world. — In the presidential election, President Roosevelt, while refusing renomination, prac- tically dictated the nomination of his choice, Secretary Taft, to continue Roosevelt's poli- cies. The Democrats nominated Bryan for the third time, and he was again overwhelm- ingly defeated- — Ex-President Cleveland died this year. — A National Council of Commerce was or- ganized for the purpose of promoting foreign commerce. — A meeting of governors and leading citi- zens was held at Washington to consider the question of the conservation of natural re- sources. — Under the auspices of the National Civie Federation a board of conciliation in connec- tion with labor disputes was organized and representatives of both capital and labor met in New York. — The Inland Waterways Commission was organized by Congress, but on the failure of that body to continue the necessary appro- priation the President continued its existence by executive order. — The Monetary Commission organized un- der the Vreeland-Aldrich Currency Act be- gan its sitting in Washington. 1909 — The military occupation of Cuba was brought to an end for a second time, and the government restored to the Cubans (Jan. 31). ADMINISTRATION of WILLIAM H. TAFT Born, Cincinnati, Ohio, September 15, 1857; Lawyer. Married, 1886, Helen Herron,— two sons, one daughter; Unitarian. REPUBLICAN; March 4, 1909— — The Payne-Aldrich tariff bill was passed. It attempted to reduce the tariff, but the re- ductions were not sufficiently marked to lead to general satisfaction. — The United States and Great Britain agreed, on January 27, to submit to the Hague Tribunal the dispute over the fisheries pro- visions of the treaty of 1818. 48 United States History 1909-1911 — Peart beached the North Pole (April 6, 1909). — The Pinchot-Ballinger controversy over conservation served to attract public atten- tion to the matter. At a meeting of the National Irrigation Congress* Mr. Pinchot, then Chief Forester, attacked Secretary of Interior Ballinger for revoking a previous order of his immediate predecessor withdrawing from public sale certain lands controlling water power. The controversy continued over the patenting of certain coal lands claimed by the Cunningham syndi- cate. A Congressional investigating committee was ordered and the majority exonerated Secretary Ballinger ultimately, but advised additional conser- vation legislation. Secretary Ballinger resigned early in 1911. — On July 12, Congress submitted to the states a proposed Constitutional amendment authorizing Congress to lay an income tax "without regard to population or to the source of the income. ' ' This proposed amendment has been ratified by the legislatures of 27 states. — In August a Commission on Country Life, appointed by President Roosevelt in the previous year, made a report. The report was a valuable review of the deficiencies in country living and the nature of the remedies to be applied. — The salary of the President was increased from $50,000 to $75,000 a year, and an appro- priation of $25,000 a year was made for his traveling expenses. — Two new courts were created by Congress • — the Commerce Court and the Court of Cus- toms Appeals. The Commerce Court has jurisdiction over cases formerly considered by the Circuit Courts dealing with the enforcement of the orders of the Interstate Commerce Commission not involving a payment of money. The Customs Court hears appeals in customs cases. — The President was authorized under the Payne tariff law to appoint a temporary tariff commission and he created such a board De- cember 24. 1910 — In January several employees of the American Sugar Refining Company were found guilty of defrauding the government through the use of false weights. — The governors of the various states again met in Washington during the month of Janu- ary. Later in the year this so-called " House of Govern- ors" held its third meeting at Frankfort and Louis- ville, Ky. Such meetings, it is hoped, will meet reg- ularly and prove a sort of clearing house for state legislation. — During March "insurgent" or "progres- sive" Republicans in the House of Represen- tatives overthrew Speaker Cannon's leadership by removing the Speaker from the Committee on Rules. The Committee on Rules constitutes a "steering" committee determining what legislation shall be introduced into the House. The Speaker customarily only allowed such legislation as this committee favored to go forward. Thus he and his appointeea had become "a legislative bureau; a responsible legislative committee was in permanent session, and the Speaker occupied a position very much like' that of the Prime Minister in the British House of Com- mons." — The government created a Postal Sav- ings Bank. According to the law no account is to exceed five hundred dollars and the interest rate is fixed at two per cent. The depositor may, however, surrender his deposit and receive government bonds bearing two and a half per cent, interest. —On March 22d President Taft made a celebrated address in New York regarding in- ternational arbitration. In one sentence he said, " Personally I do not see any more reason why matters of national honor should not be referred to a court of arbitration than matters of property or matters of national pro- prietorship." Congress in June provided for a com- mittee to consider the limiting of naval armaments and in December Andrew Carnegie established the Carnegie Peace Fund. He gave $10,000,000 to a board of trustees to be used "to hasten the abolition of international war." — The United States participated in the fourth Pan American Congress held in the summer of this year at Buenos Aires. — The Hague Tribunal decided two impor- tant cases in which the United States was in- terested. The Newfoundland fisheries question, a matter of dispute with Great Britain since 1818, was settled and citizens of the United States were awarded dam- ages as against Venezuela. — The Supreme Court reversed the decision of Judge Landis in connection with the Stan- dard Oil Company. It decided that each shipment contrary to inter- state commerce was not a separate offense. 1911 — The Interstate Commerce Commission denied permission to the Western railways to raise their freight rates. — Congress appropriated $3,000,000 for for- tifying the Panama Canal. — The Supreme Court affirmed the consti- tutionality of the Corporation Tax Laio passed as one of the sections of the Payne tariff law. — The Roosevelt Dam in Arizona was com- pleted, thus making possible the reclaiming of more than 200,000 acres of land. PART II NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER V TERRITORIAL EXPANSION Additions to the National Area and their Subdivision into Territories and States The total area of the United States, in- cluding its non-contiguous territory, is now fully five times that of the original thirteen colonies. The additions to this original ter- ritory, with the approximate area of each, are shown by the following table: Territorial Division. Year. Area Added. 1783 1803 1819 1845 1846 1848 1853 1867 1898 1899 1899 1899 1900 1904 827,844 875,025 70,107 389,795 288,689 523,802 Louisiana purchase Florida Texas Oregon Territory Msxican cession Gadsden purchase 36,211 Alaska 590,884 6,449 Hawaiian Islands Porto Rico 3,435 210 Guam Philippine Islands 115,026 Tutuila Group, Samoa Panama Canal Zone 27 474 The maps which follow show in outline the successive acquisitions of territory and chron- ologically the transition of these various areas into the states and territories now exist- ing. In every case the territory affected is shown by dark lines. overlapped each other, so that certain areas, especially in he Ohio Valley, were claimed by more than one of the colonies. Owing to these conflicting claims, the colonies, in order to avoid internal discord, ceded to the common Union that part of the territory in which these conflicting boundary lines overlapped. In Map 1 it has not been practicable to show all of these disputed boundaries, but only those most generally accepted. Nor has it been pos- sible to determine accurately the area of the original thirteen colonies (Map 1). TEEEITOKT CLAIMED BY THE THIRTEEN COLONIES AT TIME OF THE REVOLUTION The boundaries claimed by the different colonies prior to and at the close of the Revo- lutionary War frequently intersected and }^p-— -fcw^s /J&> ( 1" "''''^&^S^_ ^"^ ^ J- "^c£n?£~-* " h^I \ VA *-J \ r n.C.^ — _ J A- - - — 'x sc Y "^ r ga \j 1783 \( THE UNITED STATES AT THE CLOSE OF THE REVO- LUTIONARY WAR 1783 — Additional area was acquired in the northwest and in the southwest by the Treaty of Peace with Great Britain (Map 2). A 1781-1790 1781-1790 — All the colonies except Georgia ceded to the Union the western territory which they had claimed. The organization of this ceded territory is shown on Map 3. 50 National Development 1791-1805 ^r~- A — r ■>. -^ L/Ti / V^yIn) /^r^ / ^\ 7-fOT ro/ "t/i?U - -vS^R.I. 1 V*' i ti p^r > f*OH«>mWf-GZ$l. D i L4 i \ ' r rS vp> -y s \^-KY./.,.j:.--i \ V— k..^ r ga / €>"^\, x ^ pSB^ ,/ 1790-1798 \f 1791 — Vermont was cut off from New York and admitted as a state (Map 4). 1792 — State of Kentucky was formed from western territory claimed by Virginia. 1796 — Tennessee formed and admitted as a state, and adjacent territory at the south was designated as Territory South of Ten- nessee. 1798 — Territory of Mississippi formed. 1800— "Territory Northwest of the -Ohio" was divided and its western part was orga- nized as Indiana Territory (Map 5). 1802 — Ohio was admitted as a state, and the remainder of the territory northwest of the Ohio was attached to Indiana Territory. After the treaty of peace with the Indians north and west of the Ohio, in 1795, a great stream of im- migration began to flow into that region. In one year over 20,000 persons passed into the territory to find homes. Ohio was admitted as a state with a population of 70,000. — Georgia ceded its western territory to the Union, and in 1804 this territory and the unorganized territory south of Tennessee were incorporated with Territory of Mississippi. FIRST GREAT ACQUISITION 1803— LOUISIANA TERRITORY pur- chased from France (Map 7). 1519-1541 — The attempts by the Spaniards, begin- ning about 1519, to explore the Mississippi Valley from the south, ended in 1541 with the ill-fated expedition of De Soto. 1682 — More than a century passed before the French of Canada, who had been pushing their boundaries toward the West and the South, accomplished the task. In 1682 La Salle explored the Mississippi from the Great Lakes to its mouth and took possession of all territory drained by it for the King of France. 1763 — In less than a century later, at the close of a bitter struggle, France ceded to Great Britain all her possessions in North America- east of the Mis- sissippi River. In November, 1762, however, France had secretly ceded to Spain the great Louisiana Terri- tory lying west of that river. The motive of this cession "appears to have been to indemnify Spain for her expenses in the war then just closed, and to prevent the territory from falling into the hands of the English." 1800 — The King of Spain, desiring the aid of Napo- leon in establishing the Kingdom of Etruria for the Duke of Parma, his son-in-law, agreed to cede Louis- iana to France as an equivalent for that aid. When this treaty became known in 1802, it caused great alarm in the United States, whose relations with France at that time were not friendly. 1803 — James Monroe was sent as minister extra- ordinary to France to cooperate with the resident minister, Robert R. Livingston, for the purchase of New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi. Napo- leon, as a counter proposition, offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory, naming 100,000,000 francs as the price. An agreement was reached for the sale of the entire territory for $15,000,000, and was con- firmed by Congress, notwithstanding much opposi- tion, on Oct. 28, 1803. Bl — A F— / r* tSSsl^ Am / S >v %. rffm ^^"'3? ( \ loui siana \* (§®m^^C$2> *■'■ } v -^Mb^HSs*, ?b-3r v \ I % i««K)Ar-«DEL. 1 r^TENS^—J?y>^ \ I /Terr * \ '"> 5C / \ teg»|55ISSIPPft Gft - / €> 1804-1805 1804 — Territory of Orleans was formed from southern part of the Louisiana purchase. The remainder was designated as the Louisiana District (Map 8). 1805 — Michigan Territory was formed from northeastern part of Indiana Territory. 1809-1828 Territorial Expansion 51 1809 — Indiana Territory was divided and the western portion called Illinois Territory. IBID -1812 1810 — United States assumed control of ter- ritory east of the lower Mississippi River. 1812 — Orleans Territory was admitted as the State of Louisiana. Name of Louisiana Terri- tory was changed to Territory of Missouri. 1816 — Indiana was admitted as a state. 1817 — Territory of Alabama was formed from the eastern portion of the Mississippi Territory, and its western portion admitted as State of Mississippi (Map 11). 1818 — The Territory of Illinois was divided and the State of Illinois formed. The re- mainder of Illinois Territory was attached to Michigan Territory (Map 12). SECOND GREAT ACQUISITION 1819— FLORIDA WAS PURCHASED FROM SPAIN (Map 13). 1763 — Florida was ceded to England by Spain in exchange for Cuba and the Philippine Islands. 1783 — At the close of the Revolutionary War England returned Florida to Spain. Spain suffered severely during the Napoleonic Wars which ended in 1815. At the same time her Mexican and South American Colonies were in revolt, and suc- cessively set up independent republics. Florida fell into a condition of anarchy. Owing to the attacks of the Seminole Indians upon the Georgia frontier, Gen. Jackson invaded and took virtual possession of the country. The matter was finally adjusted by the purchase of Florida from Spain for S5,COO,000 and the ratification of the treaty by Spain in 1821. — Arkansas Territory was formed from the southern part of the Territory of Missouri. It included the present State of Arkansas and a large part of the present State of Oklahoma (Map 13). 1820 — Maine, formerly a district of Massa- chusetts, was admitted as a state (Map 13). 1821-1828 1821 — State of Missouri was formed, but the name Missouri Territory was retained for the undivided portion of the Louisiana purchase. 1824 — An act was passed fixing the west- ern boundary of Arkansas Territory, and ex- cluding from its limits practically all of that territory afterward known as Oklahoma and part of Indiana Territory (Map 14). 1828 — The western boundary of Arkansas Territory was again changed and made prac- tically identical with the present boundary of Arkansas (Map 14). 52 National Development 1834-1850 become an independent state. Its annexation to the United States in 1845 brought on the war with Mexico. 1834 — The Territory of Michigan was en- larged by the addition of that portion of the Missouri Territory lying north of the State of Missouri, and extending north to the Canadian border and west to the Missouri and White Earth Rivers. The remainder of the Mis- souri Territory was designated as The Indian Country (Map 15). 1836 — State of Arkansas was admitted. — Boundary line of Missouri extended to the Missouri River at the northwest corner of the state. — Territory of Wisconsin was formed from the western part of the Territory of Michigan. 1837 — The remainder of the Territory of Michigan was admitted as the State of Michi- gan (Map 16). ® 1838-184.5 1838 — Territory of Ioiva was formed from that part of "Wisconsin Territory lying be- tween the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers. THIRD GREAT ACQUISITION 1845— TEXAS WAS ANNEXED and ad- mitted as a state (Map 17). In 1836 Texas had revolted from Mexico and had FOURTH GREAT ACQUISITION 1846 — The claim of the United States to the Oregon Territory was settled by treaty with Great Britain. This terminated the joint oc- cupation by the United States and Great Britain, which had existed since 1818, and Great Britain now withdrew (Map 18). — State of Iowa was formed from the south- ern part of Iowa Territory. FIFTH GREAT ACQUISITION 1848— NEW MEXICO AND CALIFORNIA were ceded to the United States by Mexico on payment of $15,000,000 and assumption of $3,250,000 claims of American citizens against Mexico (Map 19). 1849-1850 1849 — Territory of Minnesota was formed from the northern portion of the former Ter- ritory of Iowa (Map 20). 1850— Texas ceded 123,784 square miles of her northern territory to the United States for the sum of $10,000,000 (Map 20). 1850-1863 Territorial Expansion 53 — September 9, State of California was ad- mitted and Utah Territory formed from northern portion of Mexican cession lying east of the northern part of California (Map 21). — December 3, Territory of New Mexico was formed from the part of Mexican cession not included in California and Utah; it also included part of territory claimed by Texas, for which Texas was paid $10,000,000. 1853 ! TERRITORV/ , "'•QIHNNESirrAVWIS , v Al0WAy _ V"-t J! ^\ P*V — ^-Tenn TEXAS r— IKISSIALWGA. V ; _ ! ,_-> , SIXTH GREAT ACQUISITION 1853— "GADSDEN PURCHASE" was ceded by Mexico for $10,000,000 and added to New Mexico (Map 22). Owing to errors in the maps used when the Treaty of 1848 was made with Mexico, a dispute arose as to the proper boundaries between New Mexico and the Mexican province of Chihuahua. The territory in dispute was finally purchased by the United States government. — Washington Territory was formed from the northern part of Oregon Territory. 1854 — Territories of Kansas, Nebraska, and Indian Territory were formed out of the un- organized portion of Louisiana purchase (then known as the Indian Country) (Map 23). ^%4- NEBRASKA Hi 1— <«.ss alaJ ga./ TEXAS \ 1858-1859 1858 — State of Minnesota was formed from eastern part of the Territory of Minnesota. 1859 — Oregon was admitted as a state and the eastern part of Oregon Territory tem- porarily attached to "Washington Territory. JfRRITO^OF 1CAL "> TERRY nr T-^INOPAn! ^W^^—* i "~" J ~\ TEXAS \a-\Ax^^ 1861 1861 — Territory of Nevada was formed from the western part of Utah (Map 25). — Territory of Colorado was formed from the eastern part of Utah, western part of Nebraska, and northern part of New Mexico. — Territory of Dakota was formed from the northern part of Territory of Nebraska and that part of the Territory of Minnesota not included in the State of Minnesota (Map 25). — Kansas was admitted as a state. om ' ° F i ■V-T ~ C -*v- r vs.','. r -sii$. T^i TEXAS j J%\ •klSSJALmGA. 1863 1863 — Idaho Territory was formed from the eastern part of Washington Territory and western part of Dakota Territory (Map 26). — Arizona Territory was formed from the western part of New Mexico (Map 26). — State of West Virginia was formed from the western part of Virginia (Map 26). The reason for this division was that Western Virginia remained loyal to the Union during the secession of Virginia. 54 National Development : 864-1910 f Tf ??V /terry ^-liND'iANJ- rlEfef-^J/ ' TEXAS VlP 1864 IcAlN ,£'2^ t0 ' KAN IMOX 1--ky -"^ ft J ■"nnwT? 1889-1896 / «R/Z. ( ' N. HIEX! '-.J#L1aRK,.' ' \ ^S£/ j-~jlllSS[AI.A>GA.' ' TEXAS), ^ 1864 — Montana Territory was formed from the northeastern part of Idaho Territory. — Nevada was made a state and received additional territory from Territory of Utah. 1866 — A second portion of Territory of Utah and the northwestern corner of Territory of Arizona were added to Nevada. 1867 1889 — Montana was admitted as a state. —Washington was admitted as a state. — The states of North and South Dakota were formed from Dakota Territory. 1890 — Oklahoma Territory formed from part of Indian Territory and the unorganized territory north of Texas (Map 30). — "Wyoming was admitted as a state. — Idaho was admitted as a state. 1896 — Utah was admitted as a state. seventh great acquisition 1867— A LASKA WAS PURCHASED FROM RUSSIA for $7,200,000 (Map 28). The reasons for the purchase of Alaska were mainly commercial, of which the fisheries were the principal. On April 9, 1867, the treaty of purchase was rati- fied by the Senate, and the transfer was formally completed at New Archangel, Alaska, on October 9. — Nebraska was admitted as a state. 1868 — Wyoming Territory was formed from eastern part of Territory of Idaho (Map 29). 1876 — Colorado was admitted as a state. extra-continental acquisitions 1898— HAWAII annexed. The reasons for the annexation of Hawaii were political, and were justified on naval grounds. More- over, American commercial interests in the islands were paramount. The resolution of Congress for annexation was signed by President McKinley, July 7, 1898, and the transfer of sovereignty took place August 12, 1898. 18a9— PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, PORTO RICO, and GUAM acquired. The Treaty of Paris, transferring these possessions to the United States, was signed December 10, 1898. 1900— TUTUILA acquired. This is one of the Samoa Islands, which became United States territory by a tripartite agreement with Great Britain and Germany. 1904 — Panama Canal Zone acquired. This is a strip of land, 10 miles wide, ceded to the United States by the Kepublic of Panama. It extends five miles on each side of the centre line of the route of the canal now being constructed. 1907 — Oklahoma, formed from Oklahoma and Indian Territories, was admitted as a state. 1910 — June 16, a bill was passed in the Senate conferring separate statehood upon the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico. This action now awaits ratification. 1606—1620 Constitutional Government 55 CHAPTER VT CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT Its Rise and Development in the United States SUGGESTED READINGS: Bryce, J., The American Commonwealth, I, II; Ashley, R. L., The American Federal Slate; Hart, A. B., Actual Government as Applied under American Conditions; Hinsdale, B. A., The American Government, National and State; Wilson, W., The State, Ch. XI; Woodburn, J. A., The American Republic and its Government. DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL: See references on page 5 and also the following collections: Channing and Hart, eds., The American History Leaflets; Mead, E. D. ed., Old South Leaflets. PERIODS OF CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY The review of the Constitutional govern- ment of the United States may be studied under the following headings : I. Colonial Beginnings.. 1606-1643 — 37yrs. II. Growth op the Fed- eral Idea 1643-1765—122 yrs. III. Establishment op the National Constitu- tion 1765-1789—24 yrs. IV. Development op the Constitution 1789-1840 — 51 yrs. V. National vs. Federal Government 1840-1865—25 yrs. VI. Recent Development. 1865-1911—46 yrs. I. COLONIAL BEGINNINGS, 1606 to 1643—37 Years The English colonists carried with them to the new world all the rights of the English- men. They also carried with them the idea that there was something in government above the ordinary law, i. e., a written constitution. They looked upon the charters granted by the King or the collections of laws they them- selves drew up as constituting such a written document. They thus in colonial days pre- pared the way for the national constitutions of a later time. 1606 — A charter was granted by James I to the London and Plymouth Companies. The charter granted the companies land between 34° and 45° of latitude. Its purpose was merely to incorporate a trading company, and the colonists were given no share in their government, though the document declared they were entitled " to all liberties, franchises, and immunities of British subjects." 1609 — A new charter was granted to the London Company, which had settled James- town two years previously. The London Company was separated from the Plymouth Company. The colonists gained no new liberties by this document, though the patentees in England did. They were given all powers of govern- ment subject to the king, of course. Thus the com- panies' representatives in America, the governor and other officers, were to have "full and absolute power and authority to correct, punish, pardon, govern, and settle." 1618 — The London Company granted REP- RESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT to the in- habitants of Virginia. This idea was incor- porated by the company in the framework of government provided for the colony in 1620. The faction in the company, which represented the Parliamentary opposition to the English sovereign, hoped to secure the cooperation of the colonists in the industrial experiment by granting a greater degree of political liberty. They therefore provided for a government in the colony to consist of a gov- ernor and council, appointed by the company in England, and a general assembly consisting of the council and two burgesses chosen by the inhabitants of each "town, hundred or other particular planta- tion" in Virginia. "Thus was formed and established the first legis- lature that ever sat in America. And this example of a domestic parliament to regulate all the internal concerns of the country was never lost sight of, but was ever afterwards cherished throughout America as the dearest birthright of freemen." THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT 1620 — The Pilgrims drew up the Mayflower Compact, which may be considered the germ of a popular, written constitution, *. e., one prepared by the people for their own govern- ment. The Pilgrims left England with a patent from the London Company. They landed too far north to be under the jurisdiction of that company, and they therefore instituted a government of their own. THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT— 1620. This is taken, with some slight modifications, from Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation. IN the name of God, Amen; We, whose names are underwritten, the loyall subjects of our dread sover- aigne Lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britaine, Franc, and Ireland king, defender of the faith, etc., haveing undertaken, for the glorie of God, and advancemente of the Christian faith, and honour of our king and countrie, a voyage to plant the first colonie in the Northerne parts of Virginia, doe, by these presents, solemnly and mutualy, in the presence of God, and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves togeather into a civil body politick, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid ; and, by virtue hearof, to enacte, constitute, and frame, such just and equall lawes, ordenances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meete and conven- ient for the generall good of the Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In wit- nes whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names, 56 National Development 1629—1643 at Cap Codd, the 11th of November, in the year of the raigne of our sovereigne lord, iving James, of England, Franc, and Ireland the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fiftie-fourth, Anno Domini, 16^0. They later received a patent from the Council for New England, but were never able to get an in- dependent charter. They worked out a scheme of government including a system of town representa- tion. They were finally, 1691, incorporated into Massachusetts Bay. 1629 — A charter was granted to the "Gov- ernor and Company of Massachusetts Bay." In the royal grant nothing was said about where the seat of government was to be. Therefore a group of Puritan stockholders removed the company and its charter to the New World. According to the royal grant the government was to be intrusted to a governor, deputy, and eighteen assistants, elected annually by the whole body of freemen or members of the corporation. Four times a year the governor, assistants, and freemen were to meet in a general court. 1639 — The Connecticut River towns met at Hartford, January 14, and adopted the "FUNDAMENTAL ORDERS." This docu- ment "has been justly pronounced the first written constitution framed by a community, through its own representatives, as a basis for government. ' ' The constitution contained no recognition, what- soever, of any superior authority in England. It was copied in large part from the unwritten constitution which had grown up in Massachusetts, though in Connecticut church membership was not required for the suffrage. PREAMBLE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL ORDERS OF CONNECTICUT— 1639 "Forasmuch as it hath pleased the Allmighty God by the wise disposition of His divyne providence so to order and dispose of things that we the Inhabi- tants and Residents of Windsor, Harteford and Wethersfield are now cohabiting and dwelling in and uppon the River of Connectecotte and the Lands thereunto adjoyneing; And well knowing where a people are gathered togather the word of God re- quires that to maynetayne the peace and union of such a people there should be an orderly and decent Government established according to God, to order and dispose of the affayres of the people at all seasons as occation shall require; doe therefore assotiate and conjoyne ourselves to be as one Publike State or Commonwealth, and doe, for our selves and our Successors and such as shall be adjoyned to us att any time hereafter, enter into combination and Con- federation togither, to mayntayne and presearve the Liberty and purity of the Gospell of our Lord Jesus which we now professe, as also the disciplyne, of the Churches, which according to the truth of the said gosoell is now practised amongst us; As also in our Civill Affaires, to be guided and governed accord- ing to such Lawes, Rules, Orders and decrees as shall be made, ordered & decreed, as followeth:" According to the framework of government which was then laid down the lawmaking body was to be made up of a Governor and Assistants, elected by the whole body of freemen, and four deputies, elected by each town. This general legislative body had the right "to make lawes or repeale them, to graunt levyes, to admitt of freemen, dispose of lands undis- posed of, to severall Townes or persons, and also shall have power to call either power or Courte or Magis- trate, or anv other person whatsoever into question for any misdemeanour and may for just displace or deale otherwise according to the nature of the offence, and also mav deale in any other matter, that con- cerns the goods of this commonwelth excepte election of Magestrats, which shall be done by the whole body of Freemen." II. GROWTH OF THE FEDERAL IDEA, 1643 to 1765—122 Years During these 122 years both the colonists and the home government felt the need of some bond of colonial union. The colonists were forced to realize their need on account of the troubles with the French, Dutch, and the Indians. The English ministry saw the necessity on account of the difficulties of ad- ministration. UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 1643 TO 1684—41 YEARS 1643 — Articles of confederation for the UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND were agreed to by Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. There were several weaknesses in these articles. There was, of course, no action on the individual citizen, the federation was limited to the New England states, and Massachusetts, while contributing most in men and money, was given only the same amount of representation that was given to the other con- federates. A fugitive slave clause, requiring the return of all such fugitives, was included in the articles. EXTRACTS FROM THE NEW ENGLAND CON- FEDERATION.— 1643. The preamble to the Articles gives the name and purpose of the league and then follow the several arti- cles. WHEREAS wee all came into these parts of America with one and the same end and ayme, name- ly, to advaunce, the kingdome of our Lord Jesus Christ, and to enjoy the liberties of the Gospell in puritie with peace. And whereas in our settleinge (by a wise Providence of God) we are further dispersed upon the Sea Coasts and Rivers then was first in- tended, so that we cannot according to our desire, with convenince, communicate in one Government and Jurisdiccon. And whereas we live encom- passed with people of severall Nations and Strang languages which hereafter may prove injurious to us or our posteritie. And forasmuch as the Natives have formerly committed sundry insolences and outrages upon severall Plantacons of the English and have of late combined themselves against us. And seeing by reason of those sad Distraccons in England, which they have heard of, and by which they know we are hindred from that humble way of seekinge advise or reapeing those comfortable fruits of protection which at other tymes we might well expecte. Wee therefore doe conceive it our bounden Dutye without delay to enter into a present consotiation amongst ourselves for mutual help and strength in all our future concernements. That as in Nation and Religion, so in other Respects we bee and continue one according to the tenor and true meaninge of the ensueing Articles: Wherefore it is fully agreed and concluded by and betweene the parties of Jurisdiccons aboue named, and they joyntly and seuerally doe by these presents agreed and concluded that they all bee, and henceforth bee called by the Name of the United Colonies of New- England. II. The said United Colonies, for themselves and their posterities, do joyntly and severally, hereby enter into a firme and perpetuall league of friendship and amytie, for offense and defense, mutuall advise and succour, upon all just occasions, both for preserv- ing and propagateing the truth and liberties of the Gospel, and for their owne mutuall safety and well- fare. 1649—1686 Constitutional Government 57 IV. It is by these Confederats agreed that the charge of all just warrs, .... shall both in men and provisions, and all other Disbursements, be borne by all the parts of this Confederaeon, in differ- ent proporcons according to their different abilitie, in manner following, namely, that the Commissioners, for eich Jurisdiccon from tyme to tyme, as there shalbe occation, bring a true account and number of all the males in every Plantacon, or any way be- longing to, or under their severall Jurisdiccons, of what quality or condicion soeuer they bee, from sixteene years old to threescore, being Inhabitants there. And That according to the different numbers which from tyme to tyme shalbe found in eich Ju- risdiccon, upon a true and just account, the service of men and all charges of the warr be borne by the Poll: Eich Jurisdiccon, or Plantacon, being left to their owne just course and custome of rating them- selves and people according to their different estates, with due respects to their qualities and exemptions among themselves, though the Confederaeon, take no notice of any such priviledg: .... V. It is further agreed That if any of these Juris- diccons, or any Plantacons vnder it, or in any com- bynacon with them be envaded by any enemie whomsoeuer, upon notice and request of any three majestrats of that Jurisdiccon so invaded, the rest of the Confederates without any further meeting or expostulacon, shall forthwith send ayde to the Con- federate in danger, but in different proporcons, namely, the Massachusetts and hundred men suf- ficiently armed and provided for such a service a jorney, and eich of the rest fourty-five so armed and provided, or any lesse number, if lesse be required, according to this proporcon VI. It is also agreed that for the managing and concluding of all affairs proper and concerneing the whole confederaeon two Commissioners shalbe chosen by and out of eich of these foure Jurisdiccons, namely, two for the Massachusetts, two for Plymouth, two for Connectacutt and two for New Haven; being all in Church fellowship with us, which shall bring full power from their severall generall Courts respectively to heare, examine, weigh and determine all affairs of our warr or peace, leagues, ayds, charges and numbers of men for warr, divission of spoyles and whatsoever is gotten by conquest, receiueing more Confederats for plantacons into combinacon with any of the Confederates, and things of like nature which are the proper concomitants or consequence of such a confederaeon, for amytie, offense or de- fense, not intermeddleing with the gouernment of any of the Jurisdiccons which by the third Article is preserued entirely by themselues. But if these eight Commissioners, when they meete, shall not all agree, yet it is concluded that any six of the eight agreeing shall have power to settle and determine the business in question: But if six do not agree, that then such proposicons with their reasons, so farr as they have beene debated, be sent and referred to the foure generall Courts, vizt. the Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connectacutt, and New Haven: And if at all the said Generall Courts the businesse so referred be concluded, then to bee prosecuted by the Confed- erates and all their members. It is further agreed that these eight Commissioners shall meete once every yeare, besides extraordinary meetings (accord- ing to the fift Article) to consider, treate and conclude of all affaires belonging to this Confederaeon, which meeting shall ever be the first Thursday in September. — The Long Parliament, for better admin- istration, gave general control over the affairs of all the colonies to the Lords of Trade and Plantations. 1649 — Maryland, by legislative enactment, established the principle of religious toleration. EXTRACT FROM THE MARYLAND TOLERA- TION ACT— Aoril, 1649 This Is taken from Brown's "Archives of Maryland," I, 244- 247. And whereas the enforceing of the conscience in matters of Religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous Consequence in those commonwealthes where it hath been practised, And for the more quiett and peaceable government of this Province, and the better to preserve mutuall love and amity amongst the Inhabitants thereof. Be it Therefore . . . en- acted (except as in this present Act is before Declared and sett forth) that noe person or persons whatsoever within this Province, or the Islands, Ports, Harbors, Creekes, or havens thereunto belonging professing to beleive in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth bee any waics troubled, Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province or the Islands thereunto belonging nor any way compelled to the beleife or ex- ercise of any other Religion against his or her consent, soe as they be not unf aithfull to the Lord Proprietary, or molest or conspire against the civill government established or to bee established in this Province under him or his heires. And that all & every person and persons that shall presume Contrary to this Act and the true intent and meaning thereof directly or indirectly either in person or estate wilfully to wrong disturbe trouble or molest any person whatsoever within this Province professing to believe in Jesus Christ for or in respect of his or her religion or the free exercise thereof within this Province other than is provided for in this Act that such person or per- sons soe offending, shalbe compelled to pay trebble damages to the party so wronged or molested, and for every such offence shall also forfeit 20s sterling in money or the value thereof, half thereof for the use of the Lo : Proprietary, and his heires Lords and Pro- prietaries, of this Province, and the other half for the use of the party soe wronged or molested as aforesaid, Or if the partie.soe offending as aforesaid shall refuse or bee unable to recompense the party soe wronged, or so satisfy such ffyne or forfeiture, then such Offen- dershall be severely punished by publick whipping & imprisonment during the pleasure of the Lord Pro- prietary, or his Lieutenant or cheife Governor of this Province for the tyme being without baile or maine- prise 1660 — Charles II created a Council for Foreign Plantations. 1662 — Charles confirmed the charter of Massachusetts and granted a new one to Con- necticut. This last named consisted practically of the Fun- damental Orders of 1639 and such additions as the General Court had made to it. Rhode Island also received a liberal charter in 1663. 1667 — A conference consisting of represen- tatives from Maryland, Virginia, and New- York met at Albany to enter into treaty ne- gotiations with the Seneca Indians. 1675 — The King vested the control of colo- nial affairs in a new board, called the Lords of Trade and Plantations. 1684 — Delegates from Virginia, Maryland, New York, and Massachusetts held a confer- ence at Albany to treat with the Five Nations. 1686 — James II sent over Sir Edmond An- dros to be Governor-General of the Dominion of New England. Two years later his power was enlarged and he was made "Captain- General and Governor-in-Chief of all that tract of land from forty degrees north latitude to the St. Croix and St. Lawrence rivers and westward to the South Sea, Pennsylvania and Delaware only excepted." This was a serious attempt to unite the various colonies under the rule of one man. Andros ruled autocratically, but the flight of James II (see Chart) caused his downfall. 58 National Development 1690—1765 1690 — The massacre of Schenectady caused ■a general meeting to be held in New York for the purpose of raising troops. Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, and Maryland sent dele- gates. penn's plan of union. 1697 — One of the earliest plans for a gen- eral colonial union coming from America was that submitted by William Penn. The plan provided for two delegates from ten prov- inces to meet at New York, once a year, the governor ■of that state, appointed by the King, acting as chair- man. The business of the delegates was stated by the sixth article to be as follows: "To hear and adjust all matters of Complaint or difference between Province and Province. As, 1st, where persons quit their own Province and goe to another, that they may avoid their just debts, tho they be able to pay them ; 2nd, where offenders fly Justice, or Justice cannot well be had upon such of- fenders in the Provinces that entertaine them; 3dly, to prevent or cure injuries in point of Commerce; 4th, to consider of ways and means to support the union and safety of these Provinces against the publick enemies. In which Congresse the Quotas of men and charges will be much easier, and more equally sett, than it is possible for any establishment made here to do ; for the Provinces knowing their own ■condition and one another's, can debate that matter with more freedome and satisfaction and better adjust and balance their affairs in all respects for their com- mon safety." — As the result of a memorial to the King by the Lords of Trade, the King appointed the Earl of Bellomont Captain-General and Governor of New York and territories de- pending thereon in America. 1698 — Charles Davenant submitted a plan of colonial union to the Lords of Trade. This was followed by various plans and suggestions looking to the same end by: Livingston, 1701; Earl of Stairs, 1721; Coxe, 1722; Kennedy, 1751, and others. THE ALBANY CONVENTION 1754 — The approach of the French and In- dian War (see Chart) caused the Lords of Trade to call an inter-colonial congress at Al- bany, June 19, 1754. The purpose of the meeting was primarily to agree to a treaty with the Six Nations and to provide for united action against the French. But, on the initiative of Massachusetts, plans 'of union and confederation were considered. The plan finally decided on was largely the work of Franklin. According to him, "the Crown dis- approved of it, as having too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution, and every assembly as having allowed too much to prerogative; so it was totally rejected." FRANKLIN'S PLAN OF UNION— 1754 This interesting plan, which was somewhat similar to a plan worked out by Franklin in 1775, provided for: 1. An executive called a president general, ap- pointed and paid by the crown, who was given the right of absolute veto; 2. A legislature, called the grand council, which was to meet once a year, and each colonial house of representatives was to send to the meeting from 1 to 7 delegates apportioned accord- ing to its share of federal taxes ; 3. The grand council was to make laws (subject to the royal veto in council in three years) ; to control Indian affairs (with the aid of the president general) ; to establish and make laws for new settlements on purchased Indian lands; to regulate Indian trade; to build forts, maintain ships and soldiers, and vote taxes therefor ; to appoint a gen- eral treasurer and' special treasurers in the colonies; to share in the appointment of civil and military officers; 4. Particular colonies were allowed to retain their civil and military establishments and to defend themselves individually, if necessary, submitting a bill of expenses to the grand council. III. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION, 1765 to 1789—24 Years The new imperial policy adopted by Eng- land after 1763 (see pages 16, 17) caused the colonists to gradually replace the regular forms of government by revolutionary ones, such as committees of correspondence, colonial conventions and congresses, and inter-colonial congresses. The second of these inter-colonial bodies authorized the colonies to set up regular governments of their own, then declared in- dependence, and finally drafted a constitution for a loose federal government, which went into effect. It served to prove the need for a strong, centralized power and led directly to the adoption of the present Constitution of the United States. STAMP ACT CONGRESS (first colonial congress) Met in New York City, Oct. 7 to Oct. 24, 15 days. Nine colonies represented. The assemblies of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia not being in session, the governors declined to call a special assembly for the appointment of delegates — a measure which they considered unconstitutional. New Hampshire sent no delegates but promised to unite in whatever action was taken. 1765 — The Stamp Act Congress of this year prepared the way for separation from Eng- land and the union of the colonies. (See pages 16, 17.) It issued the following statement of the colonial wrongs: DECLARATION OF RIGHTS— 1765 The Congress, upon mature deliberation, agreed to the following declarations of the rights and grievances of the colonists in America: The members of this congress, sincerely devoted, with the warmest sentiments of affection and duty, to His Majesty's person and government, inviolably at- tached to the present happy establishment of the Protestant succession, and with minds deeply im- pressed by a sense of the present and impending mis- fortunes of the British colonies on this continent; having considered as maturely as time will permit, the circumstances of the said colonies esteem it our indispensable duty to make the following declarations of our humble opinion respecting the most essent'al rights and liberties of the colonists and of the griev- ances under which they labor by reason of the several late acts of Parliament. 1. That His Majesty's subjects in these colonies, owe the same allegiance to the crown of Great Britain, that is owing from his subjects born within the realm; and all due subordination to that august body, Parlia- ment of Great Britain. 2. That His Majesty's liege subjects, in these col- onies, are entitled to all the inherent rights and liberties of his natural born subjects within the Kingdom of Great Britain. 3. That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them but with their own con- sent, given personally, or by their representatives. 1772-1775 Constitutional Government 59 4. That the people of these colonies are not, and from their local circumstances cannot be, represented in the House of Commons, in Great Britain. 5. That the only representatives of the people of these colonies, are persons chosen therein by them- selves; and that no taxes ever have been, or can be constitutionally imposed on them, but by their re- spective legislatures. 6. That all supplies to the crown, being the free gifts of the people, it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the principles and spirit of the British constitu- tion, for the people of Great Britain to grant to His Majesty, the property of the colonists. 7 That trial by jury is the inherent and invaluable right of every British subject in these colonies. 8. That the late act of Parliament, entitled "An act for granting and applying certain stamp duties, and other duties in the British colonies and planta- tions, in America, etc.," by imposing taxes on the inhabitants of these colonies, and the said act, and several other acts, by extending the jurisdiction of the courts of admiralty beyond its ancient limits, have a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists. 9. That the duties imposed by several late acts of Parliament, from the peculiar circumstances of these colonies, will be extremely burthensome and grievous, and from the scarcity of specie, the payment of them absolutely impracticable. 10. That as the profits of the trade of these colonies ultimately center in Great Britain, to pay for the manufactures which they are obliged to take from thence, they eventually contribute very largely to all supplies granted there to the crown. 11. That the restrictions imposed by several late acts of Parliament on the trade of these colonies, will render them unable to purchase the manufactures of Great Britain. 12. That the increase, prosperity, and happiness of these colonies depend on the full and free enjoyments of their rights and liberties, and in intercourse with Great Britain, mutually affectionate and advantage- ous. 13. That it is the right of the British subjects in these colonies to petition the King, or either House of Parliament. Lastly. That it is the indispensable duty of these colonies, to the best of sovereigns, to the mother coun- try, and to themselves, to endeavor by a loyal and dutiful address to His Majesty, and humble applica- tions to both Houses of Parliament, to procure the repeal of the act for granting and applying certain stamp duties, of all clauses of any other acts of Par- liament, whereby the jurisdiction of the admiralty is extended, as aforesaid, and of the other late acts for the restriction of American commerce. 1772 — "Articles of the Watauga Associa- tion ' ' were adopted by settlers who had planted themselves between the Watauga and Holston rivers in what afterward became the State of Tennessee. _ It has been spoken of as constituting the first prac- tically independent commonwealth on American soil. FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 1774 Met in Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. All colonies were represented but Georgia. The Con- gress was in actual session 31 days. It adjourned, Oct. 26, but issued a call for another Congress to meet May 10, 1775, if necessary. 1774 — The most important thing done by the FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (see page 18) was to draw up the Articles of Association. These established a boycott on English trade, by providing for non-importa- tion, non-exportation, and non-consumption agreements between the colonies. The "As- sociation" has been called the "Commence- ment of the American Union." The following is a summary of the most im- portant of the "articles": We do for ourselves, and the people we represent, firmly agree and associate as follows : 1. That we will not import any goods into British America from Great Britain or Ireland after December next, nor any East India tea from any port of the world ; nor any Molasses, Syrups, Paneles, Coffee, or Pimento from the British Plantations or Dominica; nor Wines from Madeira or the Western Islands, nor Foreign Indigo. 2. Neither import nor purchase slaves. 3. A non-consumption agreement not to purchase any of the above articles if imported. 4. A non-exportation agreement ; but in order not to cause undue suffering, the time of taking is extended to September 10, 1775. After this date nothing will be exported to Great Britain, Ireland, or the West Indies. An exception is made of Rice to Europe. 5. Merchants will give proper orders to agents abroad. 6. Owners of vessels will give proper orders to their captains. 7 & 8. Home industries are to be promoted. 9. Merchants agree not to take advantage of scarcity to raise price. Committees in every County, City and Town are to observe the conduct of all who have entered this Association, and are authorized to publish the names of those who transgress. SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 1775 to 1781 Its meetings began in Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. After the assembling of the Second Continental Congress the Congresses ceased to be numbered. There were six sessions of the Second Continental Congress, meeting as follows: 1. Philadelphia, May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776. 2. Baltimore, Dec. 20, 1776, to Mar. 4, 1777. 3. Philadelphia, Mar. 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777. 4. Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 27, 1777 to Sept. 27, 1777. 5. York, Pa., Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778. 6. Philadelphia, July 2, 1778 to March, 1781. 1775— The SECOND CONTINENTAL CON- GRESS (see pages 19, 20) was compelled gradually to assume sovereign powers and be- came the actual government of the land. It was an extra legal, revolutionary body but its acts were sanctioned by the revolutionary bodies now instituted in all the states. — Congress authorized the colonies to call together representatives of the people to estab- lish new governments. New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Virginia proceeded to form constitutions of government be- fore the Declaration of Independence was adopted. That of Virginia prepared during 1776 is especially interesting on account of the Bill of Rights which formed a part of it. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island maintained their old charters un- changed except so far as the authority of the king was concerned. By 1778 all the states had new governments. 60 National Development 1776—1777 1776 — The way was prepared for a new national government by the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. EXTRACTS FROM THE DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE When, in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to as- sume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, — that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights; that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are insti- tuted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dic- tate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accord- ingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their own future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab- lishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. (There follows a list of grievances from king and parliament, though the king is especially held re- sponsible for the situation in these words: "In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for re- dress in most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be a ruler of a free people.") We, therefore, the Representatives of the united states of america, in general Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- tude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and de- clare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, Free and Inde- pendent States; and that they are Ab- solved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of great Britain, is and ought to be totally dis- solved; AND THAT AS FREE AND INDEPENDENT States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, es- tablish Commerce, and to do all other Acts, and Things which independent States may of right do. And, for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor. 1777— Congress adopted the ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION for the general gov- ernment of the colonies. Franklin suggested a plan as early as 1775 along the lines of his plan of 1754. A committee was ap- pointed in 1776 to frame the form of a Confederation, and its report, in the handwriting of John Dickinson of Delaware, was adopted in 1777, but was not sub- mitted to the states for ratification until 1778. The last state to ratify the articles (1781) was Maryland, who refused her signature until the states along the Atlantic seaboard had agreed to give up their Western lands. The extracts given below do not include the list of powers conferred upon the Congress of Confeder- ation, for they were merely "paper" powers. In the words of a contemporary writer quoted by Story: "The United States in Congress have exclusive power for the following purposes, without being able to execute one of them. They may make and con- clude treaties; but can only recommend the observ- ance of them. They may appoint ambassadors, but cannot defray even the expenses of their tables. They may borrow money in their own name on the faith of the Union; but cannot pay a dollar. They may coin money, but they cannot purchase an ounce of bullion. They may make war and determine what number of troops are necessary, but cannot raise a single soldier. In short, they may declare everything, but do nothing." EXTRACTS FROM THE ARTICLES OF CON- FEDERATION 1776-1778 Article I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be "THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA." Article II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every Power, Juris- diction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. Article III. The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the security of their Liber- ties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. Article IV. No state shall be represented in Con- gress by less than two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; * * * Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the states, and while they act as members of the committee of the states. In determining questions in the united states in Congress assembled, each state shall have one vote. Article X. The committee of the states, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of congress as the united states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress of the united states assembled is requisite. Article XL Canada acceding to this confeder- ation, and joining in the measures of the united states, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states. Article XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of congress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursuance of the present confeder- ation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the united states, for payment and satisfac- tion whereof the said united states and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged. 1781-1787 Constitutional Government 61 Article XIII. Every state shall abide by the determination of the united states in congress as- sembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the articles of this con- federation shall be inviolably observed by every state, and the union shall be perpetual ; nor shall any alter- ation at any time hereafter be made in any of them ; unless such alteration be agreed to in a congress of the united states, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state. 1781 — The Five per cent, amendment to the Articles of Confederation was proposed to the various states in order to strengthen the power of Congress. During 1780 individuals and five conventions in the northeastern states had advocated a more efficient legislature and it was proposed to give Cong- ess the right to collect five per cent, ad valorem to be used exclusively for the interest and principal of the public debt. All the states consented except Rhode Island. 1783 — The Revenue amendment was pro- posed, giving Congress the right to collect a duty on seven enumerated articles for twenty- five years, to be applied to the interest only of the public debt. This amendment failed to meet the approval of New York. 1784 — The Commerce amendment proposed to give Congress power to exclude from Ameri- can ports vessels whose governments had no commercial treaties with our government. It also failed of ratification. 1785 — The Virginia-Maryland Commercial Commission, which met at Alexandria in March of this year to consider the trade situation, led to a general invitation to all the states to send delegates to Annapolis to consider federal regulation of trade. 1786— THE ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION, September 14, under the leadership of Hamil- ton, called for a federal convention to meet the second Monday in May, 1787, to make im- provements in the Articles of Confederation to be ratified by all the states. 1787 — Congress, February 21, sanctioned the proposed convention. Individual citizens had for some time been urging such a convention and New York, 1782, Massa- chusetts, 1785, and Virginia, 1786, had formally recommended it. By 1786-1787 the Confederation was crumbling to pieces, the national finances had collapsed, the foreign commerce was ruined; civil war was raging in several states; threats of secession were heard. Immediate action of some kind was necessary. 1787— The Federal Convention met at Phil- adelphia and drafted the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The Constitution was submitted to Congress, September 12, and by it submitted to the states for ratification. There were numerous parties and antagonisms in the conventions- Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists; friends of centralization vs. advocates of state sov- ereignty, large states vs. small states; commercial or trade states vs agricultural states; North vs. South; East vs. West These antagonisms were smoothed out to a degree by the Three Great Compromises. (See page 22.) — Congress of the Confederation established the relationship between the older states and unorganized territories or colonies by the NORTHWEST ORDINANCE OF 1787. "The Ordinance of 1787 belongs with the Declaration of Independence and the Constitu- tion. It is one of the three title deeds of American constitutional liberty." EXTRACTS FROM THE ORDINANCE OF 1787 Be it ordained by the United States in Congress assembled, That the said territory, for the purposes of temporary government, be one district; subject, however, to be divided into two districts, as future circumstances may in the opinion of Congress, make it expedient. Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the estates, both of residents and non-resident proprie- tors in the said territory, dying intestate, shall descend to, and be distributed among their children, and the descendants of a deceased child in equal parts; * * * Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That there shall be appointed from time to time, by Con- gress, a governor, whose commission shall continue in force for the term of three years, * * * . There shall be appointed from time to time, by Congress, a secretary, whose commission shall con- tinue in force for four years unless sooner revoked; * * * : There shall also be appointed a court to consist of three judges, any two of whom to form a court, who shall have a common law jurisdiction, and reside in the districts, * * * . The governor and judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and publish in the district, such laws of the original states, criminal and civil, as may be necessary, and best suited to the circumstances of the district, and report them to Congress, from time to time ; which laws shall be in force in the district until the organization of the general assembly therein, un- less disapproved of by Congress; but afterwards the legislature shall have authority to alter them as they shall think fit. The governor for the time being shall be com- mander-in-chief of the militia, appoint and commis- sion all officers in the same, below the rank of general officers; all general officers shall be appointed and commissioned by Congress. But as soon as there shall be five thousand free male inhabitants, of full age, in the district, upon giving proof thereof to the governor, they shall receive authority, with time and place, to elect representa- tives from their counties or townships, to represent them in the general assembly; * * * . The representatives thus elected, shall serve for the term of two years; * * * . The general assembly, or legislature, shall consist of the governor, legislative council, and a house of representatives. The legislative council shall consist of five members, to continue in office five years, un- less sooner removed by Congress; any three of whom to be a quorem: and the members of the council shall be nominated and appointed in the following manner, to wit: As soon as representatives shall be elected, the governor shall appoint a time and place for them to meet together, and, when met, they shall nominate ten persons, residents in the district, and each pos- sessed of a freehold, in five hundred acres of land, and return their names to Congress; five of whom Con- gress shall appoint and commission to serve as afore- said; and whenever a vacancy shall happen in the council by death or removal from office, the house of representatives shall nominate two persons, qualified as aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return their names to Congress ; one of whom Congress shall appoint and commission for the residue. And every five years, four months at least before the expiration of the time of service of the members of the council, the said house shall nominate ten persons, qualified as afore- said, and return their names to Congress; five of 62 National Development 1787-1788 whom Congress shall appoint and commission, to serve as members of the council five years, unless sooner removed. And the governor, legislative coun- cil, and house of representatives, shall have authority to make laws, in all cases, for the good government of the district, not repugnant to the principles and arti- cles in this ordinance established and declared. And all bills having passed by a majority in the house, and by a majority in the council, shall be referred to the governor for his assent; but no bill or legislative act whatever shall be of any force without his consent. The governor shall have power to convene, prorogue and dissolve the general assembly, when in his opin- ion it shall be expedient. The governor, judges, legislative council, secretary, and such other officers as Congress shall appoint in the district, shall take an oath or affirmation of fidelity, and of office; the governor before the presi- dent of Congress, and all other officers before the governor. As soon as a legislature shall be formed in the district, the council and house assembled, in one room, shall have authority, by joint ballot, to elect a delegate to Congress, who shall, have a seat in Con- gress, with a right of debating, but not of voting during this temporary government. And for extending the fundamental principles of civil and religious liberty, which form the basis where- on these republics, their laws and constitutions are erected; to fix and establish those principles as the basis of all laws, constitutions, and governments, which forever hereafter shall be formed in the said territory: to provide also for the establishment of states, and permanent government therein, and for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an equal footing with the original states, at as early periods as may be consistent with the general in- terest: It is hereby ordained and declared, by the author- ity aforesaid, That the following articles shall be considered an article of compact between the original states, and the people and states in the said territory, and forever remain unalterable, unless by common consent, to wit: Article the first. No person, demeaning him- self in a peaceable and orderly manner, shall ever be molested on account of his mode of worship or re- ligious sentiments, in the said territory. Article the second. The inhabitants of the said territory shall always be entitled to the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus, and of the trial by jury; of a proportionate representation of the people in the legislature, and of judicial proceedings according to the course of the common law. All persons shall be bailable, unless for capital offenses, where the proof shall be evident, or the presumption great. All fines shall be moderate; and no cruel or unusual punishments shall be inflicted. No man shall be de- prived of his liberty or property, but by the judge- ment of his peers, or the law of the land, and should the public exigencies make it necessary, for the com- mon preservation, to take any person's property, or to demand his particular services, full compensation shall be made for the same. And in the just preser- vation of rights and property, it is understood and declared, that no law ought ever to be made, or have force in the said territory, that shall in any manner whatever interfere with, or affect private contracts or engagements, bona fide, and without fraud pre- viously formed. Article the third. Religion, morality and knowl- edge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of edu- cation shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and in their property, rights and liberty, they never shall be invaded or dis- turbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorised by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity shall from time to time be made, for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them. Article the fourth. The said territory, and the states which may be formed therein, shall forever re- main a part of this confederacy of the United States of America, subject to the articles of confederation, and to such alterations therein, as shall be constitu- tionally made; and to all acts and ordinances of the United States in Congress assembled, conformable thereto. The inhabitants and settlers in the said ter- ritory shall be subject to pay a part of the federal debts, contracted or to be contracted, and a propor- tional part of the expenses of government, to be ap- portioned on them by Congress, according to the same common rule and measure, by which apportionments thereof shall be made on the other states; and the taxes for paying their proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legisla- tures of the district or districts or new states, as in the original states, within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. The legis- latures of those districts or new states, shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by the United States in Congress assembled, nor with any regulations Congress may find necessary for securing the title in such soil to the bona fide purchasers. No tax shall be imposed on lands the property of the United States; and in no case shall non-resident pro- prietors be taxed higher than residents. The navi- gable waters leading into the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways, and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory, as to the citi- zens of the United States, and those of any other states that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impost, or duty therefor. Article the fifth. There shall be formed in the said territory, not less than three, nor more than five states; * * * And whenever any of the said states shall have sixty thousand free inhabitants therein, such state shall be admitted, by its delegates, into the Congress of the United States, on an equal footing with the original states, in all respects whatever; and shall be at liberty to form a permanent constitution and state government: provided the constitution and government so to be formed shall be republican, and in conformity to the principles contained in these articles; and so far as it can be consistent with the general interest of the confederacy, such admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, and when there may be a less number of free inhabitants in the state than sixty thousand. Article the sixth. There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, other- wise than in the punishment of crimes, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: provided al- ways, that any person escaping into the same, from whom labour or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be law- fully reclaimed, and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labour or service as aforesaid. 1788 — The ninth state, New Hampshire, ratified the Constitution and the new govern- ment went into effect. The ratification of nine states, through conventions of the people, was all that was necessary to put the Constitution into operation (for order of ratification see page 92). There was a bitter fight in several states over rati- fication, especially in Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York. The absence of a bill of rights, the power granted to the president, and the amount of power centralized in the national government were espe- cially objected to. The friends of the Constitution were ably organized, and Hamilton, Madison, and Jay exercised a tremendous influence in support of the Constitution by a series of papers, published under the title of the Federalist. The importance of the people in the new government is shown in the table at the top of the next page, which also illustrates the dual relationship of the citizens, i, e., to the state and to the nation. (See outline of Constitution on next six pages.) 1789 Constitutional Government 63 NATIONAL THE PEOPLE I STATE (in Congress) Presidential Electors Vice-President THE PRESIDENT (Presiding Officer of Senate) I (Senators)* State Legislators (State Senators) ( " Assemblymen) Governor other State Officers, Senators (National)f Cabinet Officers Judges of U. S. Supreme Court " Circuit Courts^ " District Courts " Court of Claims " Commerce Court " Court of Customs Appeals " District Attorneys " Marshals Territorial Officers Officers of Army and Navy Officials in Diplomatic Service Consular Service Assistant Secretaries Members of Interstate Commeice. Commission Civil Service Commission If Collectors * Position in case of direct vote for Senators, t Appoint the officers of their respective bodies, t Appoint the United States Commissioners. K Certify classified Civil Service appointments. § Lesser Postmasters are appointed by Postmaster-General. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES PURPOSE OP THE CONSTITUTION The preamble of the Constitution shows how different the government of 1789 was from that created by the Articles of Confederation. The new government was to be very much more than a mere "league of friendship" be- tween sovereign states. We the people of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common de- fence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. KIND OF GOVERNMENT The new document provided for a strong national government and at the same time reserved to the states many important rights and privileges. Thus Madison spoke of the new government as being "partly national and partly federal." This result was ac- complished by reserving some powers to the states exclusively and delegating others to the United States alone, some powers were to be exercised concurrently and others were prohib- ited to both. The merits op such a system have been summarised by Ambassador Bryce as follows : 1. It furnishes the means of uniting common- wealths into one nation under one national govern- ment without extinguishing their separate adminis- trations, legislatures, and local patriotism; 2. It supplies the best means of developing a new and vast country; 3. It prevents the rise of a despotic central government, absorbing other powers and menacing the private liberties of the citizen; 4. It permits self- government which stimulates the interest of people- in the affairs of their neighborhood ; 5. It secures the> good administration of local affairs by giving the in- habitants of each locality due means of overseeing the- conduct of their business; 6. It enables a people to. try experiments in legislation and administration which could not be safely tried in a large centralized country; 7. It makes it possible to stop mischief- making legislation at the state frontier, so that the whole nation is not tainted ; 8. It relieves the national legislature of a part of that large mass of functions which might otherwise prove too heavy for it. After fixing the relations between the na- tion and the states, the Constitution makers, endeavored to establish "a government of checks and balances." Three great depart- ments of national government were instituted,, the legislative, executive, and judicial, but each department was given powers sufficient, to protect it against the encroachments of the other two and each acts as a check on the others. This general system of providing an elaborate sys- tem of checks brought out this criticism from John Adams : " Is there a constitution on record more complicated with balances than purs? In the first place, eighteen states and some territories are balanced against the- national government. ... In the second place, the House of Representatives is balanced against the Senate and the Senate against the House. In the third place, the executive authority is in some degree 64 National Development 1789 balanced against the legislature. In the fourth place, the judiciary power is balanced against the House, the Senate, the executive power and the state gov- ernments. In the fifth place, the Senate is balanced against the President in all appointments to office and in all treaties. This, in my opinion, is not merely a useless but a very pernicious balance. In the sixth place, the people hold in their hands the balance against their own representatives by biennial, which I wish had been annual, elections. In the seventh place, the legislatures of the several states are bal- anced against the Senate by sextennial elections. In the eighth place, the electors are balanced against the people in the choice of the president. And here is a complication and refinement of balances which for anything I recollect is an invention of our own and peculiar to us." FRAMEWORK OF GOVERNMENT 1. The Bill of Rights All the state constitutions included a bill of rights modeled in general after the English Bill of Rights of 1688, and the State of Massa- chusetts and several others ratified the Con- stitution of the United States only with the understanding that amendments should be added to the document, guaranteeing to the people certain rights and privileges. The first ten amendments may therefore be considered as a bill of rights, preceding the framework of government. These amendments are aa follows : Article I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting of the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Govern- ment for a redress of grievances. Article II. — A well regulated Militia, being neces- sary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. Article III. — No Soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Article IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon prob- able cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, lib- erty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, with- out just compensation. Article VI. — In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtain- ing witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. Article VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollar.3, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Article VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be re- quired, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respect- ively or to the people. 2. The Executive The Office of President Establish^. — Executive weakness was the chief defect of the government under the Articles of Con- federation. This was particularly shown in the inability of the executive department to collect taxes and to regulate port duties and interstate commerce. Therefore there was pretty general agreement in the Constitutional Convention that there should be an executive officer with direct power to act, and, although there were various propositions for a plurality in this department, after considerable dis- cussion it was decided that the executive au- thority should be vested in one man. It was finally decided that this officer should be called President, with a four-year tenure of office and with the privilege of reelection. No limit was put on the number of times of reelection, but precedent allows only one re- election. Election of the President. — The Constitu- tional Convention considered various modes of election : by Congress ; by the state governors ; by the people directly; by an electoral college. It was finally decided that the President should be chosen by electors in each state, ap- pointed in such a manner as the state Legis- lature should direct — each state having as many electoral votes as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. (See page 92.) This arrangement did not take into consideration the rise of parties. Since they have been created the entire method of electing the President and Vice- President is managed by political customs that have grown up. Thus the constitutional electors meet simply to vote for candidates nominated by the great national nominating conventions of the political par- ties and not to register their individual preferences. Another interesting feature is that inasmuch as the executive is chosen by electoral votes and not by a majority of popular votes, elections have come to turn upon the electoral votes of certain, so-called "pivotal" states. Qualifications for the Presidency. — The Constitution provides that: No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citi- zen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President, neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty- five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. Compensation of the President. — The sal- ary has been fixed by law and changed on sev- eral occasions. In the Constitutional Convention amounts ranging from 820,000 to $70,000 were discussed as appropriate compensation for the Chief Executive (Washington on 1789 Constitutional Government 65 taking office desired to serve without compensation) ; $25,000 was agreed upon. It was later raised to $50,000, and with the beginning of Taft's administra- tion it was raised to $75,000. Congress also makes an appropriation of $25,000 to be put at the disposal of the President for travel and entertainment. The President has use of the Executive Mansion and its furnishings during his tenure of office. Succession to the Presidency. — The Presi- dent may be removed from office by death, resignation, or impeachment. The Constitution provided that the succession should devolve upon the Vice-President, but that Congress by law could determine the entire matter. It accordingly passed in 1886 the Presidential Suc- cession Act (see page 43). Powers of the President. — The Constitu- tion states without qualification that all execu- tive power is vested in the President. The President is not simply the agent of Congress to execute the laws, but is a Chief Magistrate with power of initiative and the attributes of personal sovereignty, and a majesty personifying the dignity and greatness of the state. His duties are: 1. He has command of the Federal army and navy and militia of the several states when called into service of the United States; 2. He has charge of the management of foreign affairs, with the cooperation of the Senate; 3. He has the right to ap- point (with the sanction of the Senate) and to remove many higher officials (civil service reform has led the President to give up the appointment of most minor officials, see p. 43); 4. He has the pardoning power; 5. He may call Congress in extraordinary sessions; 6. He may veto bills, which may be passed over his veto by a two-thirds majority of Congress; 7. He may recommend measures to Congress. Since the Civil War the Chief Executive has gained much in prominence and power. The Vice-President. — In the original Constitu- tional provision that candidate, who received the next highest vote of the presidential electors, was to become Vice-President. This gave rise to unsatisfactory com- binations. After the fourth presidential election* when a Vice-President was elected with a policy directly opposite to that of the President, the twelfth amendment was adopted, remedying this defect and giving the Vice-President a separate place on the ballot. He is at present nominated by the political parties at the same time that the President is nominated. The Vice-President has no power until he succeeds to the Presidency, except that he acts as President of the Senate, but he has there no vote except in case of a tie. Cabinet Officers and Executive Depart- ments. — The executive administration is car- ried on by various executive departments over which the President has general direction. He appoints their heads, subject to confirmation by the Senate. There are about 250,000 em- ployees in connection with these departments. Nine only of the department heads are in- cluded in what is called the President's Cabi- net, a body of personal advisers. This body was not created by the Constitution which simply authorizes the President to "require the opinion in writing of the principal officers in each of the executive departments." In early years attempts were made to give the Cabinet officials a voice or a seat in the legislative chambers, but such attempt failed. The nine heads of departments which consti- tute the Cabinet are: Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War, the Attorney General, the Postmaster Gen- eral, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS The PRESIDENT o 1. SEfc. of State O 3. Sec. of War O 5. Postmaster ^ Gen'l u 7. Sec of the Interior o TABLE .~ 2. Sec. of the *--' Treasury „ 4. Attorney u Gen'l „ 6. Sec. of the U navy n (8.) Sec of ^ Agriculture o (9.) Sec. of Commerce and Labor The di; gram shows the seating at cabinet meetings. The num- ber befoie the u..me of S. cietary deuotes his older in succesriun to the I'resi ency as provided by Act of 1886. (See p. 43.) Nos. (8) and (y) are n^t specified. I. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. This department was created in 1789 and was called for a time the Department of Foreign Affairs. The Secretary is charged, under the direction of the Presi- dent, with the general administration of foreign affairs. He is also the keeper of the seal, the medium by which the President corresponds with the state executives, and has numerous other special duties. Diplomatic Service — The President, with the consent of the Senate, appoints our diplomatic rep- resentatives abroad. They are divided into four classes: ambassadors; envoys extraordinary and min- isters plenipotentiary; ministers resident; and charges d'affaires (subordinates temporarily in charge of lega- tions). The ambassadorial office was not created until 1893, and such representatives are only ac- credited to Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Mexico. The actions of all are directed by the Secretary of State, who practically determines the foreign policy of the nation. Consular Service — The commercial representa- tives of the nation abroad are divided into the follow- ing grades: consul-general; consul; vice-consul, consular agent. They are accredited to particular towns and cities, especially seaports, and are expected to represent and to develop the trade interests of the country. The consular service looks after American seamen abroad, certifies invoices of merchandise, acts as notaries, and makes reports on the trade of the country, from which significant extracts are taken for an official series known as Consular Reports. The Bureaus of the Department are as follows: 1. Diplomatic Bureau — Conducts the correspond- ence in connection with the diplomatic service. 2. Consular Bureau — Conducts the correspond- ence in connection with the consular service. 3. Bureau op Accounts — Has charge of the dis- bursements of appropriations, the custody of bonds, and the care of the property of the Department. 4. Bureau op Appointments — Has charge of ap- pointments to office under the bureaus, prepares exe- quaturs (without which our foreign representatives have no standing abroad) and issues warrants of ex- tradition. 5. Bureau op Indexes and Archives — Opens, indexes, and registers all correspondence and pre- serves the archives. It, therefore, has charge of a mass of interesting material dealing with our diplo- matic history. 6. Bureau op Rolls and Library — The Secretary of State publishes all laws and resolutions of Congress, and is the custodian of the laws of the United States and of treaties with foreign nations. It is the busi- ness of this bureau to preserve such treaties, laws, rolls, and public documents. 66 National Development 1789 7. Bureau op Trade Relations -^Charged with the compilation of commercial information for the use of the Department of State, and with the collec- tion of consular reports. Besides these permanent bureaus special temporary commissions are created from time to time dealing with international affairs. Such, for instance, are the Reciprocity Commission, the International Prison Commission, etc. II. TREASURY DEPARTMENT The Secretary of the Treasury, an office created in 1789, has duties connected with the management of the national finances. The Bureaus of the Depart- ment are: 1. Supervising Architect — Has charge of the construction and repair of public buildings. 2. Engraving and Printing — Under a Director, this bureau produces all the securities and similar work of the Government printed from steel plates. 3. Secret Service — Charged with detection of counterfeiting and similar frauds on the government. 4. Comptroller op the Treasury — Construes the laws relating to appropriations and methods of ren- dering and stating accounts. 5. Treasurer of the United States— Charged with the receipt and disbursement of all public moneys deposited in the Treasury at Washington, and the sub-treasuries at Boston, New York, etc., and the National banks which are United States depositories. He also is the agent for paying the interest on the public debt. 6. Comptroller op the Currency — Has super- vision of the national banks, the preparation and issue of national bank circulation, and the redemption and destruction of national bank notes. 7. Internal Revenue Bureau — Is assigned the supervision of the collection of all internal revenue taxes, and the enforcement of internal revenue laws. 8. The Mint — Is in charge of a Director, who has supervision of the United States mints and assay offices. 9. Public Health and Marine Hospital- — The commissioner has supervision of the quarantine service of the United States and of marine hospitals. He is, therefore, expected to prevent the introduction and spread of contagious diseases. III. WAR DEPARTMENT The Secretary of War (office created in 1789) is charged with the management of the military service. The general administrative work of the Department is carried on by civilians, while the staff bureaus are in charge of army officers. The chief staff bureaus are given below. 1. General Staff — Established in 1903 to pre- pare plans for military operations and to harmonize the civil and military control of the army. 2. Military Secretary — Established in 1904. His office is a bureau of records, orders, and corre- spondence of the army and militia; is in charge of the recruiting service; transmits military orders of the President and Secretary of War. 3. Inspector-General — Has charge of the inspec- tion of all military commands. 4. Quartermaster-General — Provides transpor- tation, clothing, equipage, horses, mules, etc.; ar- ranges for necessary buildings, wharves, roads, and bridges at military posts; pays guides, spies, and interpreters. 5. Commissary-General — Is in charge of the mat- ter of subsistence. Besides issuing rations, he main- tains large storehouses in various cities. 6. Surgeon-General — Has charge of the medical department. Maintains supply depots and several permanent hospitals. 7. Paymaster-General — Has charge of paying officers and men. 8. Signal Corps — Has charge of the construction, repair, and operation of military telegraph lines. 9. Judge-Advocate General — Receives, reviews, and has a record kept of the proceedings of all courts- martial, courts of inquiry, and military commissions (he is dco a legal adviser to the Secretary of War). 10. Board of Engineers for Rivers and Har- bors — "A permanent body which investigates in their engineering, commercial, navigable and economic aspects all surveys and river and harbor improve- ments proposed by Congress." IV. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. This Department (not formally organized until 1870) is under the jurisdiction of the Attorney-Gen- eral, who is the chief law officer of the government. The number of persons directly connected with the Attorney-General's office is small, but he employs a large number of special attorneys and also supervises the large number of district attorneys and marshals. Also, since 1870, law officers for other departments exercise their functions under the supervision and con- trol of the Attorney- General. V.POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT The Postmaster-General has the direction and man- agement of the postal service of the nation. The office was created in 1794, but the Postmaster-General was not recognized as the equal of the other depart- ment heads until Jackson's administration. "The post office is the only notable example of a business actually conducted by the National ggvernment. More than 1 50.000 persons are employed in gathering and distributing the mails, over 60,000 post offices have been established, and nearly 150 pieces of postal matter for every man, woman and child in the United States are handled yearly. Unlike ordinary firms, Uncle Sam does not seek to make money through the Post Office Department, but gives the people the best service possible at less than cost, the deficit in 1907 being $7,000,000 on a total expenditure of $190,000,000." The general management of the Post Office De- partment is divided up by the Postmaster-General among assistant Postmaster-Generals, who have charge of the following matters : First Assistant Postmaster-General — Appoint- ments, salaries, city delivery service. Second Assistant Postmaster-General — Foreign mails, railway mail service, railway adjustments, etc. Third Assistant Postmaster-General — Stamps, money orders, registered mail, etc. Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General — Rural mail, dead letters, post-routes, maps, etc. VI. NAVY DEPARTMENT. This Department, created in 1798, is charged with the construction, manning, equipment, and employ- ment of vessels of war. It also, has charge of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., the Naval Observatory at Washington, and the Naval War College at Newport. 1. General Board op the Navy — A body of men organized to advise the Secretary of the Navy. The Admiral of the Navy is president of the Board. 2. Bureau op Docks and Yards — Charged with the maintenance and construction of docks and naval buildings. 3. Bureau op Equipment— AH that goes to the furnishing of ships is provided for by this bureau: electric equipment, portable apparatus such as sails, ropes, navigating instruments, etc. Under this bureau is the Hydrographic Office, which is in charge of deep-sea surveys and publication of charts, the Naval Observatory, and the Nautical Almanac. 4. Bureau op Ordnance — Has supervision of torpedo stations, magazines on shore, and manufac- turing of explosives, arms, and equipment. 5. Bureau op Construction and Repair — A very important bureau, which is responsible for the plans of all vessels, and cooperates with the Bureau op Ordinance in determining the number of guns, thickness of armor, etc., of each. 6. Bureau of Steam Engineering — Charged with the steam engineering machinery for our ships. 7. Bureau of Supplies and Accounts — Has charge of supplying provisions, clothing, etc. 1789 Constitutional Government 67 8. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery — Charged with the administration of naval hospitals and hos- pital ships. 9. Judge-Advocate General — Receives and re- cords the proceedings of courts-martial and courts of inquiry. He is also legal adviser for the department. VII. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR This Department was created March 3, 1849, and has now the following divisions: 1. General Land Office — Charged with the sur- vey, distribution, and management of public lands. 2. Patent Office — Administers patent laws and supervises the registration of trade marks. 3. Pension Office — Has charge of the supervision of pension laws and examines and passes on the ap- plication of all claimants for a pension. 4. Bureau of Indian Affairs — Has general super- vision over Indian affairs in the United States. 5. Bureau of Education — The bureau gathers statistical information and makes reports about edu- cation throughout the United States. 6. Geological Survey — Makes classifications of public lands and examinations of geographical struc- ture, mineral resources and mineral products of the National domain. 7. Reclamation Service — Has general charge of all works of irrigation. 8. Bureau of Mines — Promotes mining industry and fosters movements for safety of miners, etc. VIII. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE This Department was created February 9, 1899. and is subdivided as follows: 1. Bureau of Animal Industry — Conducts the work of inspecting animal and meat food products. Investigates the diseases, breeding, and feeding of animals. 2. Bureau of Plant Industry — Encourages de- velopment in farming by introducing new plants and seeds into different parts of the United States and by spreading information as to methods of improving crops. 3. Forest Service — Established to care for the administration of the national forests and to investi- gate the problems of forestry. 4. Bureau of Chemistry — Established to analyze agricultural products and fertilizers and to investigate the composition and adulteration of foods and drugs. 5. Bureau of Soils — "Charged with investigating soils in their relation to climate and organic life." 6. Bureau of Entomology — Organized to assist in the extermination of insects injurious to forests, fruits, and farm crops. 7. Bureau of Biological Survey — Especially charged with the enforcement of the bird and game laws and with the investigation of animal life from the economic standpoint. 8. Weather Bureau— Distributes weather reports and issues forecasts for the benefit of agriculture, commerce, and navigation. 9. Office of Experimental Stations — Assists the experiment stations connected with the state and agricultural colleges and directly manages several such stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. 10. Office of Public Roads Inquiries — Makes investigations and distributes information dealing with the improvement of highways. IX. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR This Department was created February 14, 1903. It contains the following bureaus: 1. Bureau of Corporations — Established to in- vestigate the organization and conduct of corpora- tions, exclusive of railroads, engaged in interstate or foreign commerce. 2. Bureau of Manufactures — Established to dis- seminate information in connection with the develop- ment of manufacturing interests. 3. Bureau of Labor — Charged with the business of acquiring and diffusing among the people informa- tion regarding the problems of labor. 4. Light-House Establishment — Has general charge of the administration of the light-house service. 5. Census Bureau — "It is the duty of the bureau to take a census of the United States every ten years and to collect such special statistics as are required by Congress." It thus publishes statistics of cities, cotton production and consumption, deaths in regis- tration areas, and a special census on manufacturing and agriculture. 6. Coast and Geodetic Survey — Surveys the coasts of the United States and publishes charts showing the results of such surveys. 7. Bureau of Fisheries — Charged with the prop- agation of useful food fishes, the investigation of the deep-sea fisheries, and the care of the Alaskan salmon fisheries and the Pribilof Islands seal herds. 8. Bureau of Navigation — Has national super- vision over the merchant marine, issuing licenses and collecting tonnage taxes, supervises shipping com- missioners in the principal ports of the United States, and enforces the laws for protection and relief of sea- men. 9. Bureau of Immigration and Naturaliza- tion — Has general jurisdiction over the administra- tion of immigration and naturalization laws. 10. Bureau of Standards — Has custody of na- tional standards of measurements and compares with them the standards used in scientific investigations, and those used in commerce and in educational insti- tutions. DETACHED BUREAUS AND INSTITUTIONS 1. Smithsonian Institution — Established in 1846. Its purpose, according to the will of the founder, an English scientist by the name of James Smithson, is for the "increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." It aids scientific researches, and promotes the diffusion of knowledge by lectures, scientific publica- tions, and the maintenance at Washington of a na- tional museum. The national government cooperates with it, by supporting under its direction the bureau of American Ethnology, an astrophysical laboratory, and a national zoological park. 2. Pan-American Union — Is under the direction of a Director-General and exists for the purpose of binding the republics of the Western hemisphere closer together in amity and commerce. 3. Interstate-Commerce Commission — Establish- ed by act of Congress in 1887. Its power has been increased from time to time. Its seven members pass in judgment on all matters dealing with interstate transportation. It may determine maximum freight and passenger rates. 4. Civil Service Commission — A commission was created by Congress in 1871, but it was discontinued. The present commission dates from 1883. It is charged with the conduct of competitive examina- tions of applicants for the classified Civil Service. 5. Government Printing Office — Managed by a Public Printer. It has charge of the printing, press work, and binding of the Government publications. 6. Isthmian Canal Commission — Under the direc- tion of a Chairman and Chief Engineer, assisted by five army officers named as Commissioners. It is directing the building of the Panama Canal. 7. The Library of Congress — The third largest collection in the world. It contains copies of all books copyrighted in the United States and many valuable collections of manuscripts. 8. Tariff Board — Established by Congress in 1909 by one of the sections of the Payne Tariff Law. Its duty is to collect data to assist the President and officers of the Government in the administration of the customs laws. 9. Commission of Fine Arts — Established by Congress in 1910 to pass upon the art and architec- tural features submitted for beautifying the District of Columbia. 68 National Development 1789 3. The Congress The National Congress is provided for by Act I, Section 1, of the Constitution of the United States, which reads as follows: "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representa- tives." These bodies are coordinate bodies in law- making, with the exception that the House of Representatives has the sole right of initiating money bills. As the Senate exercises freely the right of altering or amending such bills the right is not of the greatest importance. Powers Granted to Congress. — (1) To collect taxes. (2) To borrow money. (3) To regulate com- merce. (4) To establish a uniform rule of naturaliza- tion. (5) To establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States. (6) To coin money. (7) To fix the standard of weights and measures. (8) To provide for the punishment of coun- terfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States. (9) To establish post offices and post roads. (10) To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and in- ventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. (11) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court. (12) To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and offenses against the law of nations. (13) To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water. (14) To raise and support armies. (15) To provide and main- tain a navy. (16) To make rules for the regulation of the land and naval forces. (17) To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union . . . and repel invasion. (18) To exercise ex- clusive legislation over the District of Columbia. (19) To determine the time of choosing the Electors for President and Vice-President of the United States. (20) To provide for admission of new states into the Union. The powers of Congress have been much increased by appeals to two clauses of the Constitution which are known as "elastic clauses": Congress shall have power: 1. To provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; 2. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- ing into execution the foregoing powers. Powers withheld from Congress. — (1) To sus- pend the writ of habeas corpus. (2) To pass a bill of attainder. (3) To pass an ex post facto law. (4) To levy taxes unless in proportion to the census or enu- meration herein before directed to be taken; i.e., there must be uniform rates in all ports of the United States. (5) To grant a title of nobility. The Senate. — The Constitutional provisions dealing with the Senate are as follows : Section 3. — The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, un- less they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice- President, or when he shall exercise the Office of Presi- dent of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Im- peachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two-thirds of the Members pres- ent. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualifica- tion to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party con- victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to In- dictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, accord- ing to Law. House op Representatives. — The lower branch of Congress is composed of Representa- tives chosen directly by the people of the different states, voting in congressional dis- tricts. The number of Representatives varies with the population, the present ratio as de- termined by the census of 1910 being one to 211,877. A Representative must be twenty- five years of age, a resident of the state where elected, and have been for seven years a citizen of the United States. The Speaker, chosen by the House from its members, is its presiding officer. Having the power to appoint the chairmen of the numer- ous committees of the House, this officer, next to the President of the United States, prob- ably wields the greatest power over legislation. Some attempt was made in the 61st Con- gress to limit his power by taking from him the right to appoint the Committee on Rules and vesting it in the House itself. All bills for raising a revenue must orig- inate in the House of Representatives; other bills may originate in either House. The House has also the exclusive right of impeach- ing officials. It may choose a President in case no candidate at the presidential election receives an absolute majority of' the votes of the electors. Law Making. — That a bill may become a law it is necessary either : (1) that it receive a majority in each House and then be signed by the President; or, (2) that it receive a two- thirds vote in each House without being signed by the President; or, (3) that it be passed by a majority of both Houses and be kept by the President ten days without being signed or returned. The actual work of law-making is done by various committees. Both Houses have a series of standing committees to which most all bills introduced by individual mem- bers are referred. The meetings are supposed to be secret, though secrecy is not adhered to, and no records of their meetings are published. 4. The Judiciary The United States courts were created by the Constitution of the United States, Article III, Section 1 : " The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for then- services a compensation which shall not be dimin- ished during their continuance in office." 1789-1790 Constitutional Government 69 Besides the Supreme Court there now exist the following national courts: 1. The Circuit Court of Appeal; 2. Circuit Courts; 3. Dis- trict Courts; 4. The Court of Claims; 5. Com- merce Court; 6. Court of Customs Appeals. The jurisdiction of these courts covers the follow- ing variety of cases: 1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made under their authority; 2. Cases "affecting ambassadors, other public minis- ters, and consuls"; 3. Cases arising out of contro- versies to which the United States shall be a party; 4. Cases arising out of controversies between two or more states, between a state and citizens of another state, " but no state shall be sued without its own consent"; 5. Cases arising "between citizens of dif- ferent states, between citizens of the same state claiming land under grants of different states"; 6. Cases arising "between a state or the citizens thereof and foreign states, citizens, or subjects." Most of such cases are tried in the inferior Federal courts and may be appealed, but the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases which affect am- bassadors and whenever a state is a party. The most interesting phase of the activities of the national courts is the right to interpret the Consti- tution^ In their exercise of this right they have quite freely influenced the character and power of the na- tional government through their judicial decisions. Some of the most famous of these decisions have been : 1. Chisholm vs. Georgia; 2. Marbury vs. Madison; 3. McCulloch vs. Maryland; 4. The Dartmouth College Case; 5. Worcester vs. Georgia; 6. The Dred Scott Case; 7. Texas vs. White; 8. The Slaughter House Cases; 9. The Civil Rights Cases; 10. The Legal Ten- der Cases. 5. Amending the Constitution The Constitution provides as follows for its own amendment: Congress by a two-thirds vote of both Houses or by a convention called on the application of two-thirds of the states may propose amendments, which become a part of the Constitution through the ratifica- tion of three-fourths of the state legislatures or Constitutional Conventions called in the various states. By this method the Constitution has been amended only on four occasions. The first ten amendments were made at one time and con- stitute a Bill of Rights; Amendments XI and XII corrected minor defects in the Constitu- tion (see p. 26) ; while the remaining three may be considered as one inasmuch as they were all the outcome of the Civil War. The Constitution may, however, be changed by the following means: 1. By the broad or narrow construction of that document by the Supreme Court; 2. By the use of unusual powers, not granted specifically in the Con- stitution, by the executive or legislative branches of the government, which are popularly approved of and not declared unconstitutional by the court; and, 3. By custom. 6. Omissions in the Constitution The following matters were not foreseen and provided for: 1. Annexation of territory; 2. Need of an extensive civil service ; 3. Rise of political parties ; 4. Possibility of attempts of states to secede. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION, 1789 to 1840— 51 Years "It is a curious reflection that the United States Government, to begin with, was nothing but a few sheets of paper, lying in the drawer of the secretary of the Confederate Congress. Would the words ever have life substance, strength, significance, supremacy?" Many thought not, but that the government estab- lished would have a brief existence and then pass away. That such prophesies did not prove true was partially due to the character of the people and their long political train- ing, and partially due to the ability of such men as Washington, Hamilton, and Marshall, who, in different ways, strengthened the hands of the national government. 1790 — In December Hamilton's proposal to establish a Bank of the United States was in- troduced into Congress and led to an eager debate over the subject of the constitutionality of such a fiscal institution (see p. 24). This was the beginning of a long-struggle between persons and parties favoring a strict construction of the Constitution and others believing in a liberal in- terpretation of that document. At this time the opposing leaders were Jefferson, the strict construc- tionist, and Hamilton, the broad or liberal construc- tionist. Their views are clearly expressed in the fol- lowing extracts from memoranda submitted to Washington. Jefferson's Opinion on the Constitutionality of a National Bank, .... 1791. After arguing that Congress was not distinctly authorized to create a national bank, the Secretary of State asserted that the power to do so did not come within either of the general phrases, later called "elastic clauses." 1. To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of the United States, that is to say, "to lay taxes for the purpose of providing for the general welfare," For the laying of taxes is the power, and the general welfare the purpose for which the power is to be exercised. They are not to lay taxes ad libiium for any purpose they please; but only to pay the debts or provide for the welfare of the Union. In like manner, they are not to do anything they please to provide for the general welfare, but only to lay taxes for that purpose. To consider the latter phrase, not as describing the purpose of the first, but as giving a distinct and independent power to do any act they please, which might be for the good of the Union, would render all the preceding and subsequent enumerations of power completely useless. It would reduce the whole instrument to a single phrase, that of instituting a Congress with power to do whatever would be for the good of the United States; and, as they would be the sole judges of the good or evil, it would be also a power to do whatever evil they please. 2. The second general phrase is, " to make all laws necessary, and proper for carrying into execution the enumerated powers." But they can all be carried into execution without a bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase. 70 National Development 1791-1803 Can it be thought that the Constitution intended that for a shade or two of convenience, more or less, Congress should be authorized to break down the most ancient and fundamental laws of the several States; such as those against mortmain, the laws of alienage, the rules of descent, the acts of distri- bution, the laws of escheat and forfeiture, the laws of monopoly? Nothing but a necessity invincible by any other means can justify such a prostitution of laws, which constitute the pillars of our whole system of jurisprudence. Will Congress be too strait-laced to carry the Constitution into honest effect, unless they may pass over the foundation- laws of the State government for the slightest con- venience of theirs? Hamilton's Opinion as to the Constitutionality of the Bank of the United States 1791. Now it appears to the Secretary of the Treasury that this general principle is inherent in the very definition of government, and essential to every step of progress to be made by that of the United States, namely: That every power vested in a government is in its nature sovereign, and includes, by a force of the term, a right to employ all the means requisite and fairly applicable to the attainment of the ends of such power, and which are not precluded by restric- tions and exceptions specified in the Constitution, or not immoral, or not contrary to the essential ends of political society. [This is the doctrine of implied powers. ] The first of these arguments is: That the founda- tion of the Constitution is laid on this ground: "That all powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited to it by the states, are reserved for the states, or to the people." Whence it is meant to be inferred that Congress can in no case exercise any power not included in those not enumerated in the Constitution. And it is affirmed that the power of erecting a corporation is not in- cluded in any of the enumerated powers. The main proposition here laid down, in its true significance, is not to be questioned. It is nothing more than a consequence of this republican maxim, that all government is a delegation of power. But how much is delegated in each case, is a question of fact, to be made out by fair reasoning and construc- tion, upon the particular provisions of the Constitu- tion, taking as guides the general principles and general ends of governments. It is not denied that there are implied as well as express powers, and that the former are as effectually delegated as the latter. And for the sake of accuracy it shall be mentioned, that there is another class of powers, which may be properly denominated result- ing powers. It will not be doubted that if the United States should make a conquest of any of the terri- tories of its neighbors, they will possess sovereign jurisdiction over the conquered territory. This would be rather a result, from the whole mass of the powers of the government, and from the nature of political society, than a consequence of either of the powers specially enumerated. 1791 — The national government suppressed the so-called "Whiskey Insurrection" in Penn- sylvania (see p. 24). The government not only was able to prove its right to lay such a tax, but further that it could count on the state militia to help suppress domestic insur- rections. 1794— "Ja?/'s treaty" (see p. 24) brought up the question as to whether Congress had the constitutional right to withhold an appro- priation necessary to carry into effect a treaty made by the President and ratified by the Senate. The matter was not decided at this time, for Con- gress reluctantly made the appropriation, but it has since been established that a "later conflicting law supersedes or breaks the earlier treaty." 1798 — The Alien and Sedition Acts, passed as a result of Federalist fear of Jacobin cluba and Anti-Federalist newspaper editors (see p. 25), brought out the celebrated VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS. This may be said to be the real beginning of the nullification and secession movement. The strongest of the Resolutions was one written by Jefferson for Kentucky. It read: "Resolved, That the several states comprising the United States of America are not united on the prin- ciple of ■unlimited submission "to their general govern- ment, but that by compact under the style and title of a Constitution for the United States, and amend- ments thereto, they constituted a general govern- ment, for special purposes, delegated to that govern- ment certain definite powers, reserving each state to itself the residuary mass of their right to their own self-government, and that whensoever the general government assumes undelegated powers, its acts are unauthoritative, void, and of no force; that to this compact each state acceded as a state, and is an in- tegral party; that this government created by this compact was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself; since that would have made its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers; but that as in all other cases of compact among parties having no common judge, each party has an equal right to judge for itself, as well of infractions, as of the mode and measure of redress." —The ELEVENTH AMENDMENT was added to the Constitution, denying the right of a state to be sued by the citizens of an- other state or by foreigners. This grew out of the celebrated case of Chisholm vs. Georgia. 1799 — Most of the states refused to unite with Virginia and Kentucky in their resolu- tions. The New York legislature declared, February 16, " that as the right of deciding on the constitutionality of laws passed by the Congress of the United States doth pertain to the judiciary department of the gov- ernment, this house doth accordingly disclaim the power assumed in and by the communicated resolu- tions." 1803 — Jefferson purchased Louisiana. In- asmuch as the Constitution is silent on the subject of the acquisition of territory the Federalists claimed the President had violated his principle of strict construction. It is now assumed that the President's action came constitutionally within his treaty-making power. — The SUPREMACY OF THE WRITTEN CONSTI- TUTION of the nation over state law was main- tained in the celebrated Supreme Court case of Marbury vs. Madison. This was one of the important cases decided during the time of Chief Justiceship of John Marshall (see p. 25). EXTRACT FROM DECISION IN THE CASE OF MARBURY vs. MADISON,— 1803 The question whether an act repugnant to the Con- stitution can become a law of the land, is a question deeply interesting to the United States ; but happily not of an intricacy proportioned to its interest. It seems only necessary to recognize certain principles supposed to have been long and well established, to decide it. . . . That the people have an original right to establish for their, future government such prin- ciples as in their opinion shall most conduce to their own happiness, is the basis on which the whole Ameri- 1804-1819 Constitutional Government 71 can fabric has been erected. The original supreme will organizes the government and assigns to the different departments their respective powers. . . . The powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution is written. To what purpose are powers limited and to what purpose is that limitation com- mitted in writing, if those limits may at any time be passed by those intended to be restrained? . . . The Constitution is either a superior, paramount law, un- changeable by ordinary means, or it is on a level with ordinary legislative acts, and like any other act is alterable when the legislature shall please to alter it. If the former part of the alternative be true, then a legislative act contrary to the Constitution is not a law. If the latter part be true, then written consti- tutions are absurd attempts on the part of the people to limit a power in its own nature illimitable. ... If an act of the legislature repugnant to the Constitu- tion is void, does it, notwithstanding its validity, bind the courts and oblige them to give it effect? Or, in other words, though it be not a law, does it con- stitute a rule as operative as though it was a law? This would be to overthrow in fact what was estab- lished in theory; and would seem at first view an absurdity too gross to be insisted upon. It shall, however, receive a more attentive consideration. It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to particular cases must, of necessity, expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide upon the operation of each. So if a law be in opposition to the Constitution ; if both the law and the Constitution apply to a par- ticular case so that the court must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the Con- stitution, or conformably to the Constitution disre- garding the law — the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the case. This is of the very essence of judicial duty. If, then, the courts are to regard the Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the legislature, the Constitution and not such ordinary act, must govern the case to which they both apply. Those, then, who controvert the principle that the Constitution is to be considered in court as a paramount law, are re- duced to the necessity of maintaining that courts must close their eyes on the Constitution and see only the law. 1804r— The TWELFTH AMENDMENT was added to the Constitution (see p. 26), pro- viding for the election of President and Vice- President on separate ballots. 1807 — The passage by Congress of the Em- largo Act, December 22 (see p. 26), was a most liberal use of the doctrine of "implied powers" and strengthened the control of Con- gress over commerce. Nowhere in the Constitution is Congress authorized to prohibit all trade with other countries. By this time the Democratic-Republican party had really abandoned their strict constructionist principles. 1814^— The hostility of New England to the administration of Madison and to the prosecu- tion of the War of 1812 led to the HART- FORD CONVENTION, which suggested cer- tain amendments to the Constitution and was accused of favoring the doctrines of nullifica- tion and secession. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION PRO- POSED BY THE HARTFORD CONVEN- TION— 1814 Therefore resolved, — That it be and hereby is recom- mended to the legislatures of the several states repre- sented in this Convention, to adopt all such measures as may be necessary effectually to protect the citizens of said states from the operation and effects of all acts which have been or may be passed by the Congress of the United States, which shall contain provisions, subjecting the militia or other citizens to forcible drafts, conscriptions, or impressments, not authorized by the Constitution of the United States. Resolved. — That the following amendments of the Constitution of the United States be recommended to the States aforesaid, to be proposed by them for adoption by the State Legislatures, and, in such cases as may be deemed expedient by a Convention chosen by the people of each State. And it is further recommended, that the said States shall persevere in their efforts to obtain such amend- ments, until the same shall be effected. First. — Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this union, according to their respect- ive numbers of free persons, including those bound to serve for a number of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, and all other persons. Second. — No new State shall be admitted to the union by Congress in virtue of the power granted by the Constitution, without the concurrence of two- thirds of both Houses. Third. — Congress shall not have power to lay any embargo on the ships or vessels of the citizens of the United States in the ports or harbors thereof, for more than sixty days. Fourth. — Congress shall not have power, without the concurrence of two-thirds of both Houses, to in- terdict the commercial intercourse between the United States and any foreign nation or the depend- encies thereof. Fifth. — Congress shall not make or declare war, or authorize acts of hostility against any foreign nation, without the concurrence of two-thirds of both Houses, except such acts of hostility be in defense of the ter- ritories of the United States when actually invaded. Sixth. — No person who shall hereafter be natural- ized, shall be eligible as a member of the Senate or House of Representatives of the United States, nor capable of holding any civil office under the authority of the United States. Seventh. — The same person shall not be elected President of the United States a second time; nor shall the President be elected from the same State two terms in succession. Resolved. — That if the application of these States to the government of the United States, recommended in a foregoing Resolution, should be unsuccessful, and peace should not be concluded, and the defense of these States should be neglected, as it has been since the commencement of the war, it will in the opinion of this Convention be expedient for the Legislatures of the several States to appoint Delegates to another Convention, to meet at Boston, in the State of Mas- sachusetts, on the third Thursday of June next, with such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may require. 1819 — The celebrated Supreme Court case of McCulloch vs. the State of Maryland estab- lished the validity of the doctrine of "implied powers" as applied to the creation of a na- tional bank and decided that a law of Mary- land taxing such a bank was unconstitutional. DECISION IN THE CASE OF McCULLOCH vs. THE STATE OF MARYLAND In the case now to be determined, the defendant, a sovereign State, denies the obligation of a law enacted by the legislature of the Union; and the plaintiff on his part contests the validity of an act which has been passed by the legislature of that State. The Consti- tution of our country, in its most interesting and vital parts, is to be considered; the conflicting powers of the Union and its members, as marked in that Con- stitution, are to be discussed; and an opinion given, which may essentially influence the great operations of the government. No tribunal can approach such a question without a deep sense of its importance and of the awful responsibility involved in its de- cision. But it must be decided peacefully, or remain a source of hostile legislation, perhaps of hostility of 72 National Development 1820-1823 a more serious nature; and if it is to be so decided, by this tribunal alone can the decision be made. On the Supre.ne Court of the United States has the Con- stitute ja of our country devolved this important duty. Among the enumerated powers, we do not find that of estaolishing a bank, of creating a corporation. But there is no phrase in the instrument, which, like the articles of confederation, excluded incidental or im- plied powers; and which requires everything granted shall be expressly and minutely described. Even the 10th a.Tund-nent, which was framed for the purpose of quieting the excessive jealousies which had been excited, o.nits the word "expressly," and declares only that the powers "not delegated to the United States, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or to the people ;" thus leaving the ques- tion whether the particular power which may become the subject of contest has been delegated to the one government, or prohibited to the other, to depend on a fair construction of the whole instrument. We ad nit, as all must admit, that the powers of the government are limited, and that its limits are not to be transcended. But we think the sound con- struction of the Constitution must allow to the na- tional legislature that discretion, with regard to the means by which the powers it confers are to be car- ried into execution, which will enable that body to perform the high duties assigned to it, in the manner most beneficial to the people. Let the end be legiti- mate, Ut it be within the scope of the Constitution and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional. . . . The court has bestowed on this subject its most deliberate consideration. The result is a conviction that the states have no power, by taxation or other- wise, to retard, impede, burden, or in any manner control, the operations of the constitutional law as enacted by Congress to carry into execution the powers vested in the general government. This is, we think, the unavoidable consequence of that supremacy which the Constitution has declared. We are unanimously of the opinion that the law passed by the legislature of Maryland, imposing a tax on the Bank of the United States, is unconstitutional and void. This opinion does not deprive the states of any re- sources they originally possessed. It does not extend to any tax paid by the real property of the bank, in common with the real property within the state, nor to a tax imposed on the interests which the citizens of Maryland may hold in this institution, in common with other property of the same description through- out the state. But this is a tax on the operations of the bank, and is, consequently, a tax on the operation of an instrument employed by the government of the Union to carry its powers into execution. Such a tax must be unconstitutional. — In the Supreme Court case of the Trus- tees of Dartmouth College vs. Woodward, a state law, impairing the obligation of con- tracts, was voided. 1820— Congress, by the MISSOURI COM- PROMISE (see p. 28), exercised the right of prohibiting slavery within the territories of the United States. 1822 — President Monroe vetoed a bill for improving the Cumberland Road, claiming the nation could not interfere with state transpor- tation or internal improvements. Madison had already, in 1817, vetoed a similar bill. 1823 — Congress began the work of internal improvements by inserting in an appropria- tion bill, which the President had to accept, provision for the improvement of a harbor. — Monroe, in his presidential messages, elaborated the so-called "MONROE DOC- TRINE." "This doctrine is not law but the declara- tion of a policy." Thus the executive depart- ment is able, without Constitutional warrant, to establish a foreign policy and establish it as a part of the law of nations. THE MONROE DOCTRINE— 1823 Taken from President Monroe's Message to Congress, Decem- ber 2, 1823. Rictiardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, II, 207-220. At the proposal of the Russian Imperial Govern- ment, made through the minister of the Emperor residing here, a full power and instructions have been transmitted to the minister of the United States at St. Petersburg to arrange by amicable negotiation the respective rights and interest of the two nations on the northwest coast of this continent. ... In the discussion to which this interest has given rise and in the arrangement by which they may terminate, the occasion has been judged proper for asserting a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American con- tinents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. . . . The citizens of the United States cherish sentiments the most friendly in favor of the liberty and happiness of their fellow- men on that side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy to do so. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent in- juries or make preparations for our defense. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more immediately connected, and by the causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and impar- tial observers. The political system of the allied powers is essentially different in this respect from that of America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective governments; and to the defense of our own, which has been achieved by the loss of so much blood and treasure, and ma- tured by the wisdom of their most enlightened citi- zens, and under which we have enjoyed unexampled felicity, this whole nation is devoted. We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments who have de- clared their independence and have maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great consider- ation and on just principles acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppres- sing them or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposi- tion towards the Un'ted States. . . . Our pol cy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, nevertheless re- mains the same, which is, not to interfere in the internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government de facto as the legitimate govern- m3nt for us; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard to those continents circumstances are eminently and conspicuously different. It is impos- sible that the allied powers should extend their political system to any portion of either continent without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe that our southern brethren, if left to themselves, would adont it of their own ac- cord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should behold such interposition, in any form, with indifference. If we look to the comparative strength and resources of Spain and the new governments, and 1824-1861 Constitutional Government 73 their distance from each other, it must be obvious that she can never subdue them. It is still the true policy of the United States to leave the parties to themselves, in the hope that other powers will pur- sue the same course. 1824— The Supreme Court in the case of Gibbons vs. Ogden declared that the constitu- tional right given Congress "to regulate com- merce with foreign nations and among the several states" included the right to regulate navigation in general. This was the beginning, from which Congress has by successive stages built up a control over interstate commerce, applying "not merely to exchange of ma- terial commodities, but to transportation by land and water, and to communication by coach, boat, rail- road, telegraph, and telephone." 1830 — Webster, in the Webster-Hayne de- bate, maintained that the Constitution was an instrument of government created by the sovereign people of the United States. 1832 — South Carolina attempted to nullify the operations of the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 (see p. 30). V. NATIONAL vs. FEDERAL GOV- ERNMENT, 1840 to 1865—25 yrs. 1845 — Texas was annexed by a joint resolu- tion of Congress. Considerable criticism was leveled at this act by the Whigs on the ground that it was unconstitutional. But the same method of annexation has since been employed in the case of Hawaii. 1850— The Fugitive Slave Act of the Com- promise of 1850 was an attempt to strengthen the constitutional provision requiring the re- turn of such fugitives. 1854— The KANSAS -NEBRASKA ACT provided for popular sovereignty in these ter- ritories (see p. 86). This seemed a violation of a previous compromise, that of 1820, which to many was as binding as the Constitution itself. — The Personal Liberty Laws of the North- ern States practically nullified the operation of an act of Congress, the Fugitive Slave Act. 1857— In the BRED SCOTT CASE the Su- preme Court held that Congress could not prohibit slavery in any part of the national territory and that the Missouri Compromise was therefore unconstitutional and void (see pp. 86, 87). SECESSION ATTEMPTED I860 — Lincoln was elected President on a platform which denied the right of Congress to give legal existence to slavery in any ter- ritory of the United States. South Carolina immediately called a constitutional convention, December, and repealed the Act of 1788, by which that state had adopted the Constitution, and pronounced the union between South Carolina and the United States of America dissolved. Was the union established by the Constitution "inde- structible"? Was it "perpetual"? Could states secede, according to the Constitution? The verdict of the long and bloody war was that the Constitution created an "indestructible union of indestructible states." CONFEDERATE Act of Secession Readmitted to the Union STATES (Named in the order Adopted by Legislature Vote Date of their secession) Yeas Nays South Carolina. . . Florida Dec. 20,1860 Jan. 9, 1861 Jan. 10, " Jan. 11, " Jan. 19, " Jan. 26, " Feb. 1, " April 17, " May 6, " May 21, " June 8, " Unani 84 62 61 208 113 166 88 69 Unani mous 15 7 39 89 17 7 55 1 mous June 25, 1868 Feb. 23, 1870 June 25, 1868 *t tt it July 15, 1870 June 25, 1868 Texas March 30, 1870 Jan, 26, 1870 June 22, 1868 North Carolina . . . June 25, 1868 July 24, 1866 ♦Popular vote for pecespion, 128,884 to 33,134. t Popular vote for secession, 104,01 J to 47,238. 1861— The CONSTITUTION OF THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY, passed this year, was largely a literal copy of the Consti- tution of the United States. The most inter- esting and significant departures from the orig- inal are to be found in the following para- graphs. (For the provisions regarding slavery, see p. 87.) Extracts from the Constitution of the Confederate States of America, .... 1861. We, the people of the Confederate States, each State acting in its sovereign and independent char- acter, in order to form a permanent federal govern- ment, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity — invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God — do ordain and establish this Con- stitution of the Confederate States of America. ARTICLE I Section 1. — All legislative powers herein delegated shall be vested in a Congress of the Confederate States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. — The House of Representatives shall be chosen every second year by the people of the several States * * * *; but no person of foreign birth, not a citizen of the Confederate States, shall be al- lowed to vote for any officer, civil or political, State or Federal. Section 6. — * * * * Congress may, by law, grant to the principal officer in each of the Executive Departments a seat upon the floor of either House, with the privilege of discussing any measure apper- taining to his department. Section 7 — 2. * * * * The President may approve any appropriation and disapprove any other appro- priation in the same bill. In such case he shall, in signing the bill, designate the appropriations dis- approved; and shall return a copy of such appropria- tions, with his objections, to the House in which the bill shall have originated, and the same proceedings shall then be had as in case of other bills disapproved by the President. Section 8. — The Congress shall have power — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, for revenue necessary to pay the debts, pro- vide for the common defense, and carry on the Gov- ernment of the Confederate States; but no bounties shall be granted from the treasury; nor shall any duties or taxes on importations from foreign nations be laid to promote or foster any branch of industry; and all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the Confederate States, 74 National Development 1865-1911 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and .among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; but neither this, nor any other clause contained in the Constitution, shall be ever construed to delegate the power of Congress to appropriate money for any internal improvement intended to facilitate com- merce; * * * To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the Confederate States, reserving to the States, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline pre- scribed by Congress: * * * ARTICLE V Section 1. — Upon the demand of any three States, legally assembled in their several Conventions, the Congress shall summon a Convention of all the States, to take into consideration such amendments to the -Constitution as the said States shall concur in sug- gesting at the time when the said demand is made; and should any of the proposed amendments to the •Constitution be agreed on by the said Conven- tion — voting by States — and the same ratified by the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, or by Conventions in two-thirds thereof — as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro- posed by the general Convention — they shall thence- forward form a part of this Constitution. But no State shall, without its consent, be deprived of its .equal representation in the Senate. — During the year the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus by Lincoln brought up the constitutional question as to what power, the executive or the judicial, had the right to suspend the writ in case of war. The President was eventually allowed to exercise tois right as well as other rights, such as seizing property without "due process of law." The exercise of such rights makes the President a dictator in time of war. V. RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION, 1865 to 1911—46 Years The period following the close of the war was marked by a vigorous assertion of na- tional powers under the Constitution. This was due partially to the outburst of national feeling engendered by the war and partially to the increase of national authority made necessary by its prosecution. During more recent years there have been increases of na- tional authority in connection with the at- tempts of the government to curb the trusts. 1865 — The institution of slavery was de- stroyed by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution (see p. 88). 1867 — Congress passed its plan for recon- struction (see p. 39). The end of the war left the status of the seceding ;States in doubt. If the Southern States were out of -the Union, then the attempt at secession had suc- ceeded. Were they still parts of the Union, but out •of their proper constitutional relation? Had the war caused them to become territories, or to become conquered provinces? The idea finally prevailed that by the rebellion -they had forfeited their rights and could only get them back again on conditions exacted by Congress. 'This right of Congress to restore a State to its proper .condition was maintained by the Supreme Court in -the case of Texas vs. White, 1868. 1868 — The negro was given citizenship by the fourteenth amendment and States were to lose a percentage of their representation in Congress if they abridged the rights of citi- zens, including the right to vote in State and national elections (see p. 88). —PRESIDENT JOHNSON WAS IM- PEACHED by the House of Representatives and tried by the Senate. The necessary two-thirds majority for conviction was not secured. The trial seemed to be one based on political differences rather than on any treasonable acts of the President. This fact and the additional one that some of the Senators feared an undue sub- ordination of the executive to the legislative in case of conviction assisted in the failure to convict. 1870 — The negro was given the ballot by the fifteenth amendment (see p. 88). — The Supreme Court in the first of the so-called Legal Tender Cases decided that Con- gress could not issue "Greenbacks" in "time of peace." The court reversed this decision in both 1872 and 1884. 1873 — In the Slaughter House Cases the Supreme Court passed in review the first clause of the fourteenth amendment (see p. 88). It decided that the States could regulate by State laws the civil rights possessed by a citizen of a State. This was confirmed by the Civil Rights Cases (1883) when the law of Congress passed in 1875 prohibiting any discrimination by railroads, innkeepers, and others on account of color was held to be unconsti- tutional, because such civil rights were rights to be conferred or withheld by the States. 1877 — The national government, at the re- quest of State officials, sent troops to suppress the railroad strike of this year. 1883 — According to the Pendleton Act the appointment of many national civil service employees was placed under a system of com- petitive examinations. This limited the ap- pointing power of the President. 1887 — The control of Congress over inter- state business was extended by the INTER- STATE COMMERCE ACT (see p. 43). 1890 — Congress began to regulate trusts, passing in this year the celebrated ANTI- TRUST ACT. The act declared that combina- tions and conspiracies in restraint of trade were unlawful and punishable by fine and im- prisonment. 1903 — Congress forbade rebating (seep. 46). 1906 — The power of Congress over inter- state affairs was still further increased by a more stringent Interstate Commerce Act (see p. 47). 1911 — The Supreme Court upheld the right of the Intebstate Commerce Commission • £o fix maximum railway rates. — The various State legislatures considered a constitutional amendment to establish an in- come tax. Many ratifications were secured. POLITICAL CHAR' POLITICAL PARTIES, THE TARIFF THE TARIFF, AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. ■SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT DUTY DURING PERIODS See Chapter VI II OLONIAL CONDITI0NS-28YEARS. PROTECTION FAV0RED-I6YRS FREE TERRITORIAL EXPANSION 5&33s=— OF THE — =zzaC UNITED STATES. SHOWING AREA OF FREEHS LAVE SOIL AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. Free Soil- Slave S01L1-I IAVE SOIL , IN I820 I&I9 f^LORIDSJ. TK**.<.'f ~*r^r F* &m '/A JUL /<90S. LOUISI fIN/J bought f/tom F/rflNCE ro/r 6 0.000. 000 fr/> 87S. 02:Oo;fr) gS Copyright, 1(110, by Windsor Publishing Company WINDSOR PU NATIONAL PERIOD "IRRITORIAL EXPANSION, SINCE 1789 THE SLAVERY STRUGGLE 28Years PRELIMINARY QUARREL- I2YEARS IZ 13 < 14- \ 15 CIVIL WAR4Yw RECONSTRUCTION PERI0D-|2yEAR5 1877 THE UNITED NATION 2021 M'tftNlEy ROOSEVELT TAFT C/7SS IZ7 mom P/H/HER 1*0 S0773TI 290 296 296 303 314-81 317-23 401 401 444 447 447 476 483 30 31 31 33 36 37 37 38 38 38 38 44 45 45 45 46 31 3Z 33 34 35 36 37 38 3ii 40 41 \4Z 43 44 45-96 47 48 4-9 5 O 51 52 53 54 55 se 59 60 SI 8230230 234234 234234 237 149 183 183 226246 292292 293;:0: 293323325325 325 332 356356 357357 357357 386386 391 391 'K'i I2Z38I I3I1M 151.911 194.182 6 60 60 62 62 62 62 66 46 50 52 68 74 74 74 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 88 88 88 90 90 90 90 90 90 92 92 ACTI0N-28YEARS WAR TARIFFS-I2Yrs NO POLICY PERIOD I 7 PROTECTION TRIUMPHANT- (1910) 28Years I 192% ; Jo"% 43 2 % 49.Z°b ! 37%< IS9S-99 Hflm II. PHILIPPINES, P0R70HIC0. IIS. 672~ Sq. Mil BS. I,- 9 1867. /7Z./7«y/f77 bought /mm ffussi/i Fon fzsooooo S30.&6"? Sq MILES 36 2/1 3Q M>/ er. lfiS3 GA'L?6£/V PURCh'tiSE r/r>'^r Mty >co rpf; ?>.} <:,>o /'.-Y/. i 1848. MlvXIC/JN CESSldN /item) of w/ir /on //soar */s. ooo. ooo S23. 80Z\ SO MILES i 6 OREGON .TERRITORY /jbo/O By TREATY WITH ORE/IT -BRITAIN. ^ 0-J-? uq MILES. I . TEXAS iT DM IT TED 73S Sq MILES. ,23.191.876 .31443.321 38.558.371 50.155.783 ,62.622.250 76 303387&'&%* 92.226.531 •3.204.3I3 4002.996' <0, >. -y. >, >, ?. >. 4.889.I93 -6.577.l5f K 0-, r -0 p 05 5^ 5=3 7638.360 ,8.840.789 55|55 HI 5ft5 55 IF <0 -. 55? 5? ^ 5 1- "i 5> 'ANY, NEW YORK George E. Croscup, Del. 1776—1803 Political Parties 75 CHAPTER VII POLITICAL PARTIES THEIR RISE AND FALL The history of parties may be divided as follows : 1. Origin of Parties . . . 1776-1817 — 41 years II. Reorganization of Parties, 1817-1840—23 years III. Parties and Slavery, 1840-1870—30 years IV. Parties and Eecent Problems, 1870-1911^1 years I. ORIGIN OF PARTIES, 1776-1817 Political parties in the United States may be said to have had their origin when the questions at issue between the colonists and the English Government, at the beginning of the Revolutionary Period, became subjects of grave and increasing contention. Those who saw no just cause for complaint in the repressive and coercive measures adopted by the Tory ministry of Lord North, took the English name TOBY, while the greater num- ber who advocated resistance to these meas- ures assumed the name WHIG, through grati- tude to the English Whigs, who were strenu- ously advocating the cause of the colonists. 1776-1783 — "When the colonies declared their independence, the names Whig and Tory lost in America whatever of English significance they may have had, and at the close of the war, no issue remaining as to loyalty, the Tory party ceased to exist. 1783 — With the acknowledgment of inde- pendence, the welding of the thirteen colonies into a nation, through the adoption of a Con- stitution, brought forth a natural divergence of opinion which split the revolutionary Whigs into two antagonistic parties. FEDERALISTS.— One party, known as Strong Government Men, advocated a supreme CENTRAL government and a loose construc- tion of the Constitution. ANTI-FEDERALISTS.— "The other party, known at first as P articular ists, advocated the supremacy of the STATE governments and a strict construction of the Constitution. THE FEDERALIST PARTY 1789 — The popularity of Washington re- sulted in his election, without opposition, as the first President of the Republic. Desiring to act as mediator between the opposing fac- tions, he called to his cabinet the strongest men of both parties. The Anti-Federalists did not constitute, at the beginning of this ad- ministration, an organized opposition, but as new measures were introduced, the funda- mental differences in political opinion already mentioned began to crystallize, and organiza- tion began to take shape. 1791 — When the first ten amendments to the Constitution had been adopted, its grow- ing popularity rendered the name Anti-Fed- eralist inappropriate and the minority, which had already been called DEMOCRATIC-RE- PUBLICAN, began to take the shorter name, REPUBLICAN. 1797-1800— The Federalist party gradually lost power. This was due to the personal un- popularity of President Adams, to a factional fight within the ranks of the Federalists, to the party's distrust of the masses, and to the popular hostility to the anti-foreign laws, known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed by the Federalists. After the election of 1800 the Federalists never again regained control of the National Government, though they continued to exercise much influence in State elections, especially in New England. " To the Federalists belong the proud distinction of having laid the foundation of the present structure and of having reared the machinery for its operation. The principles of the party survived its existence. They were denounced by the opposition, but were generally reestablished and maintained by the party that succeeded to power." THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY 1801 — Jefferson tried to establish a govern- ment which should be extremely democratic and of utmost simplicity. He was a strict Constructionist. " Jefferson's importance lies in the fact that he be- came the representative not merely of democracy, but of local democracy; of the notion that govern- ment is hardly wanted at all, that the people are sure to do right, if they are left alone ; . . . that a country where each local body in its own local area looks after the objects of common concern, raising and adminis- tering such funds as are needed, and is interfered with as little as possible by any external power, comes nearest to the ideal of a truly free people." 1803 — The purchase of Louisiana caused the Republicans to break away from their strict construction ideas. 76 National Development 1807—1849 1807 — Jefferson used almost autocratic pow- ers in putting the Embargo Act into opera- tion. The Constitution nowhere authorizes the prohibi- tion of all trade with other countries. The party of Jefferson had departed widely from its original ideas. 1814 — The famous Hartford Convention caused the Federalists, as a party, to become extinct. This Convention was composed of delegates from the New England States who were politically opposed to President Madison and the war with Great Britain. II. REORGANIZATION OF PARTIES, 1817-1840 The "second war of independence" freed the United States from close connection with European politics and parties turned their at- tention to problems connected with the develop- ment of the nation. ERA OF GOOD FEELING 1820 — Monroe was elected the second time without opposition, the only instance of its kind in our history with the exception of Washington's election. The absence of a minority party has caused this period to be known as the "era of good feeling." There was much bad feeling among rival political leaders, before the new parties were definitely or- ganized, and so this period is also called the "period of personal politics." 1824 — The election of this year was a con- test between six great Republicans who di- vided among themselves the votes of the na- tion — Adams, Jackson, Clay, Crawford, Clin- ton, and Calhoun. national republicans — The Loose Constructionists made up of former Federalists and progressive westerners under the leadership of Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams formed the nucleus of the new NATIONAL-REPUBLICAN PARTY which favored a protective tariff, a larger army and navy, public improvements at national ex- pense, and a more prominent position in in- ternational affairs. 1825 — The Strict Constructionists, or Re- publicans, took the name of "Jackson Men," under the leadership of Andrew Jackson. The party emphasized the former doctrines of tariff for revenue only, and state improve- ments instead of national improvements. 1828 — In the presidential election of this year the Jackson men assumed the name DEMOCRAT, which the party has retained ever since. The foundation principles of the party were the strict construction -policies of the Republicans, and in the South the nullification doctrine of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1799. President Jackson added the principles of Unionism and a State Bank System, by which regulations were made to govern the deposits of public moneys in State banks. With these issues the Democrats were able to carry the elections until 1840. ANTI-MASONS — The kidnapping and disappearance in 1826 of William Morgan, of Batavia, New York, who published a book exposing the se- crets of Free Masonry, resulted in the forma- tion in New York of the Anti-Masonic Party. 1831 — The Anti-Masons held a national con- vention and nominated William Wirt for the presidency. 1836 — The Anti-Masons united with the Na- tional Republicans, who added the Sub-Treas- ury Plan to their policies in opposition to the State Bank System of the Democrats. By this plan agents of the United States Treasury were to be appointed whenever necessary to receive and disburse United States revenue. WHIGS 1840 — The National Republicans assumed the new name pf Whigs. The party came into power under the mili- tary banner of William Henry Harrison. They advocated the principles of internal im- provements, a national bank, and the distribu- tion of the surplus revenue among the states. III. PARTIES AND SLAVERY, 1840-1870 Slavery had been the topic for exciting de- bates in Congress on several occasions before 1840, but after that date political parties rise and fall according to their attitude on that subject. THE LIBERTY PARTY —The LIBERTY party was the first to nominate a candidate for the presidency on a platform denouncing slavery. The party was an outgrowth of the anti-slavery or- ganizations that united in 1833 under the party name of National Anti-Slavery Society, which later be- came the Abolition Party. 1843 — In New York the Democrats split into two factions known as "Hunkers," or Con- servatives, who wished to leave the slavery question in abeyance, and the "Barnburners," who opposed the extension of slavery in lie territories. THE FREE-SOILERS 1848 — The Free-Soilers took over the Liberty Party and the Barnburners, and gained strength from the Anti-Slavery Whigs and Anti-Slavery or Free Democrats. 1849 — The slavery issue gradually led to a Process of Change within the older parties. Attempts to settle the question by a great compromise, that of 1850, simply intensified 1852—1864 Political Parties 77 public feeling and the Fugitive Slave Act and the Personal Liberty Laws forced parties to take sides. 1852 — June 1, Democratic National Conven- tion met at Baltimore. It renewed the strict constructionist policies of former conventions, endorsed the Kentucky and Virginia Resolu- tions of 1798, accepted the Compromise of 1850, and opposed further agitation of the slavery question. — June 16, The Whig National Convention met at Baltimore. They stood by their former loose constructionist principles and endorsed the Compromise of 1850. — August 11, The Free-Soil Democratic Con- vention assembled at Pittsburg. The platform declared slavery to be a sin against God and a crime against man, denounced the Com- promise of 1850 and the two parties who sup- ported it. KNOW-NOTHINGS — Bands of men in secret, oath-bound or- ganizations began to exercise considerable power in local elections. From their declara- tion that they knew nothing about their or- ganization or party principles, they were called the KNOW-NOTHING Party. 1854 — The Southern Democrats and South- ern "Whigs united in favor of the Kansas- Nebraska Bill. The Northern Whigs and Free-Soilers united against it, and the North- ern Democrats were evenly divided. — The Northern Whigs repudiated their old party name and were called Anti-Nbbeaska Men. — In many States there arose local parties or factions opposed to slavery. In Michigan such a new state party took the name RE- PUBLICAN. THE AMERICAN PARTY 1856 — The Know-Nothings took the name of TEE AMERICAN PARTY. Its party principles were " America for Americans"; opposition to easy naturalization of foreigners, oppo- sition to Roman Catholics, and aid to native-born citi- zens in the election to office. They were non-committal on the subject of slavery. After the election of 1856 the Southern members united with the Democracy and the American Party disappeared from politics. THE REPUBLICAN PARTY — The Anti-Nebraska men, augmented by recruits from the Free Democrats and Free- Soilers, created a national organization at Pittsburg. They adopted loose constructive principles; favored a protective tariff, internal improvements, a system of national bank cur- rency, maintained that the Federal Govern- ment had power to control slavery in the ter- ritories, and opposed the "twin relics of bar- barism — Slavery and Polygamy." The first party convention met at Philadelphia and nominated John C. Fremont and William L. Dayton as standard bearers. — The Democratic National Convention met at Cincinnati and nominated James Buchanan and John C. Breckinridge. CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY I860 — The former Americans (or Know- Nothings) and some Whigs, mostly men who wished to evade the question of slavery, held a national convention at Baltimore, May 9. The members assumed the name Constitutional Union Party and adopted the evasive plat- form of "The Constitution of the country, the union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws." The party nominated John Bell and Edward Everett for head of their ticket. — The Democratic party split into two fac- tions over the slavery question. The Northern (or Douglas) Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas and Herschel V. Johnson. The Southern faction nominated John C. Breckin- ridge and Joseph Lane. The Northern Demo- crats supported the doctrine of "popular sovereignty. ' ' — The Republican National Convention met at Chicago, May 16, and nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin. The Convention denounced threats of secession, de- clared in favor of each State's right to control its own domestic institutions; but denied the right of Con- gress to give legal existence to slavery in any territory of the United States. 1864 — May 31, a convention of radical men met at Cleveland, Ohio, and nominated John C. Fremont and John C. Cochrane for Presi- dent and Vice-President, respectively. They considered President Lincoln and his policies timid and irresolute, and they wished to deal with rebellion and rebels more harshly. THE UNION PARTY — June 7, the Union National Convention met at Baltimore. It adopted a platform de- claring war upon slavery, and demanding that no terms but unconditional surrender should be given to the rebellious States. It nomi- nated Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. To placate the War Democrats the new name of Union Party instead of Republican was adopted in many States and used by the national organization. — August 29, the Democratic National Con- vention met at Chicago. It was under the control of the Peace Democracy (or Copper- heads), and thus was committed to the decla- ration that the war was a failure. It nomi- nated George B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton. 78 National Development 1867—1910 IV. PARTIES AND RECENT PROBLEMS, 1870-1911 PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY 1867 — A secret order, which had been formed in Washington, with its subordinate lodges or granges assumed the name of Grangers. Their object was to bring about a cooperation among farmers, and though theoretically non-political yet practically they exerted considerable political influence, especially in contests with the railroads for cheaper rates. 1872— The LIBERAL REPUBLICANS un- der the leadership of Carl Schurz and B. Gratz Brown opposed President Grant and his policies. They adopted a platform pledging the party to maintain the Union of the States, emancipation, enfranchisement, the war amend- ment, universal amity, the writ of habeas corpus, and the duty of a thorough civil- service reform. They met at Cincinnati and nominated Horace Greeley and B. Gratz Brown. The Democratic party accepted the Liberal Republican platform and nominees. — The Republicans renominated President Grant and substituted Henry "Wilson for the Vice-Presidency. The Liberal Republicans dis- banded after the campaign. THE PROHIBITION PARTY — The Prohibition Party held its first Na- tional Convention at Columbus, Ohio. In various States, local political organizations had attempted to bring Prohibition forward as a national issue. Failing to get either of the great national par- ties to adopt a Prohibition plank, a third party organi- zation was created. THE GREENBACK PARTY 1876 — The Independent National Party or Greenback Party organized to repeal the "Act for resumption of specie "payments," to save the greenbacks from destruction, to increase their issue, and to make their use permanent. 1880 — The Greenback-Labor Party held its first National Convention at Chicago, June 9, and adopted a platform which claimed for the government the entire control of the issues of money and condemned the grants of lands to railroads and the immigration of Chinese. 1883 — The Knights of Labor, a local society of Philadelphia, numbering 52,000 members, proposed the union of all kinds and classes of labor into one organization. 1884— The independent Republicans, known as Mugwumps, bolted the candidacy of Blaine. 1887 — Many members of the Greenback Party withdrew to organize the Union Labor Party. It asserted the existence of corruption in high places; that railroads and great corporations con- trolled legislation and judicial decisions, and ap- pealed to the voters to come out of the old parties and to unite with the Union Labor Party to relieve the distress of the country. THE PEOPLE'S PARTY 1891 — The People's Party, or Populists, was the outgrowth of the Grangers, the Greenback Party, and the Union Labor organization. It was a movement against plutocracy and against the great accumulations of wealth, and advocated reform legislation on the questions of land, money, and transportation. THE SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY 1896 — Of late years several Socialistic par- ties have appeared. The most important of these is the Social Democratic Party, which is generally known as the Socialist Party. Its object is "the establishment of a system of co- operative production and distribution through the restoration to the people of all means of production and distribution, to be administered by organized society in the interest of the whole people, and the complete emancipation of society from the domina- tion of capitalism." Besides the Socialist Democrats, the Socialist movement has three more orders: the Socialist Labor Party, the International Workingmen's Association, and the International Working People's Association. The former party seeks its end by peaceful agitation and education, while the two latter bodies favor violent methods. These parties generally favor reduc- tion of hours of labor, government issues of money, progressive inheritance and income taxes, and the referendum. 1910 — Independent Republicans, popularly known as Insurgents, or Progressive Republi- cans, opposed the tariff, conservation, and other policies of the Taft administration. 1789—1797 The Tariff 79 CHAPTER VIII THE TARIFF ITS RISE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES Early in the history of the United States Government, as in all governments, two opin- ions prevailed with regard to tariff duties. One class of politicians maintained that the coun- try's manufactures should be protected by levying high duties on imports of foreign manufactures in order that the home market might be kept chiefly for the product of American labor. The other class in- sisted that this high protection was unjust to the American consumers and of doubtful benefit to the manufacturers, and that the tariff should be used chiefly to raise money for the support of the Govern- ment. "This was the main point of difference be- tween the Whigs and the Democrats before the Civil War," and has been no less a subject of dispute be- tween the Republicans and Democrats since that time. PERIODS OF TARIFF HISTORY American tariff legislation logically divides itself into the following six periods: I. Colonial Conditions .. 1789-1816 — 28yrs. II. Protection Favored. . . 1816-1832 — 16 yrs. III. Free-Trade Reaction. . 1832-1860— 28 yrs. IV. War Tariffs 1860-1872—12 yrs. V. "No Policy" Period .. 1872-1882— 10 yrs. VI. Protection Triumphant . . . 1882 — I. COLONIAL CONDITIONS, 1789-1816 Previous to the Federal Convention there had been a brief tariff history. The British government and the colonies had laid some slight import duties. Immediately after the Revolution each individual State began to lay such duties, which tended to seriously impair the power of the government of the Confed- eration. Indeed, the individual States went so far as to lay discriminating duties on the goods, not only of foreign countries, but of other States. This situation was in part re- sponsible for the calling of the Constitutional Convention. 1789— TEE FIRST TARIFF ACT was passed July 4 to continue in force until June, 1796. This act gave rise to a tariff debate and ended in a compromise. It was provided that specific duties should be laid on many articles, ad valorem duties on others, varying from T\ to 15 per cent. Reduced to a general ad valorem basis the rate of duty was 8£ per cent. There was also a large free list, including tin, copper, lead, brass, wool, cotton, hides, etc. Thus the act was only a slight beginning of the pro- tective system. It was, however, expected to carry tome protection to home industries, for the preamble to the act read: "It is necessary for the support of the Government, for the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the encouragement and protection of manufactures, that duties be laid." Between 1789 and 1816, the next important step in tariff legislation, seventeen acts, gradually increas- ing the rate of duties, were passed. — A Tonnage Act, July 20, gave additional protection to home industries. It provided a rate of 6 cents per ton on American built and owned vessels, 30 cents upon vessels Ameri- can built and foreign owned, and 50 cents upon foreign built and foreign owned shipping. — An act for the regulation of collection of duties was passed by Congress on July 31. Each collection district was to be within a State and the act provided for collectors, deputy collectors, naval officers, surveyors, measurers, gaugers, and inspectors. A provision was made to estimate ad valorem duties by adding 20 per cent, to the actual cost of goods imported from Cape of Good Hope or anywhere beyond it, and 10 per cent, if from any other country. It also provided for the cash pay- ment of duties if under $50. If over that sum it might be secured by bonds to run from four to twelve months, with 10 per cent, discount for prompt pay- ment. 1790 — Acts were passed extending duties on importations to North Carolina and to Rhode Island. At the time the tariff of 1789 was passed, North Carolina and Rhode Island had not adopted the Federal Constitution, and consequently were not in- cluded in its enactments. — A new law was passed raising the duties to the equal of an 11-per-cent. ad valorem rate August 10. The workings of the tariff of 1789 showed the duties to be inadequate for the support of the Government. At this time there was also felt a need for the protec- tion of home industries and numerous petitions were sent to Congress, but the French war stopped the petitioning. 1791 — In December, Hamilton issued his Report on Manufactures containing the gen- eral arguments for protection which have been used and elaborated by many writers since his time. This paper contained among other things the famous "infant industries" argument. He said: " Whatever room there may be for expectation that the industry of a people, under the direction of private interest, will, upon equal terms, find out the most beneficial employment for itself, there is none for a reliance that it will struggle against the force of un- equal terms, or will of itself surmount all the ad- ventitious barriers to a successful competition which may have been erected either by the advantages naturally acquired from practice or previous posses- sion of the ground, or by those which may have sprung from positive regulation and an artificial policy." 1792 — The tariff was again revised and the rate was raised to 13^ per cent., principally for the protection of home industries. 1794 — Additional duties were imposed upon some imports classed as luxuries, particularly tobacco, snuff, and refined sugar. This bill was passed in June. 1797 — Duties were increased on brown sugar, molasses, and tea. These duties were consis- tent with the general rising tariff policy. — The duty on salt was increased from 12 to 20 cents later in the year, but repealed March 3, 1807. 80 National Development 1799—1831 1799 — The first elaborate administrative act providing for the reception of foreign mer- chandise and for levying and collecting duties was passed in March. The machinery provided for collecting duties by the Act of 1789 had been inadequate. 1800 — A Bill providing for the increased du- ties on wines, sugar, arid other articles that had previously paid 10 per cent, was passed in May. 1804 — The "Mediterranean Fund" was es- tablished for the protection of commerce and seamen against the Barbary powers. It pro- vided an additional 2J per cent, ad valorem duty on all importations in American ships and 10 per cent, on all foreign ships. 1807 — Jefferson's Embargo and the Non- Intercourse Act of 1809 acted as protective measures, inasmuch as they stimulated Ameri- can manufacturers and cut off foreign importa- tion. 1812— The War of 1812, also, by giving the American manufacturers secure possession of the home market, caused the building up of such manufactures as cottons, woolens, iron, glass, and pottery. — An act increasing the ad valorem duties 100 per cent., with an additional 10 per cent, on all goods brought in foreign vessels, was passed July 1. This act was a war measure to raise revenues for the war of 1812. II. PROTECTION FAVORED, 1816-1832 The situation which confronted the country brought about general support for a strong protective tariff. American manufacturers had been slowly developing under the restrictions imposed by Embargo, Non-intercourse, war, and a war tariff. Then came peace and "the English manufacturers, to whose merchandise after years of commercial war an ample market finally opened, rushed as if to the attack of a fortress. ' ' So overwheming was the result that the nation embarked on a career of protection. 1816 — The general tariff bill enacted April 27 included among other items a duty of 25 per cent, on woolens and cottons, a 30 per cent, duty on certain other goods, as hats, cabinet wares, manufactured wood, leather and its manufactures, and paper. . A specific duty of three cents a pound was laid upon sugar. An interesting addition to the bill was the so-called "minimum principle" applied to cheap cotton goods. All such goods of less value than twenty-five cents per square yard were deemed to have cost that sum and paid duty at that value. 1818 — A bill for the continuation of the tariff on cotton and woolen goods for eight years, until 1826, was passed early in the year. This bill also raised the duty on bar iron from $9 to $15 per ton. 1823 — Congress, by deterrent legislation, put a stop to the "Auction System." By this system foreign merchants sent goods to this country, greatly undervaluing them in invoice, for which their auctioneers gave bonds and immedi- ately sold them for what they would bring. 1824 — An act providing for an average of 37 per cent, duties was debated ten weeks in the House and finally passed by a vote of 107 to 102. It passed the Senate by 25 to 22. This tariff was deemed so high that it caused a great deal of criticism and excited much sectional animos- ity in different parts of the nation. The South was by this time thoroughly opposed to the entire policy of protection. The essential purpose of the act was the exclusion from the American market of such foreign goods as competed with those manufactured in the United States. 1827 — The Hakrisbtjkg Convention, to which only four slave States sent delegates, manifested the growing demand for protection. In the petition it sent to Congress an increase of protective duties on certain articles, par- ticularly glass, iron, steel, wool, woolens, and hemp, was demanded. THE TARIFF OF ABOMINATIONS 1828— A tariff bill, called the TARIFF OF ABOMINATIONS, providing for a rate of 41 per cent., and including the demands and recommendations of the Harrisburg Conven- tion, was passed May 19. It was favored by Daniel Webster and opposed by Southern Con- gressmen. This bill was the result of political jobbery. It called for heavy duties on raw materials, which it was hoped would cause the New England statesmen to vote against it, thus alienating their support in the West. They, however, accepted it, abominations and all, hoping by a later bill to retain the high pro- tection and remove the tax on raw materials. South Carolina protested against the tariff as un- just and unconstitutional. Alabama and Georgia went so far as to deny that Congress had the power to lay duties for protection. Their objection was found in the fact that the act provided for especially heavy duties on wool and cotton. We imported an- nually about $8,000,000 worth of cotton goods from Great Britain and about as much woolen goods. In return we exported to Great Britain, rice, raw cotton, and tobacco (chiefly Southern products), to the value of $24,000,000. The Southern producers not only feared the rise in prices on imported goods, but also the retaliatory measures that Great Britain might enact which would lead to the destruction of the Southern trade with Great Britain. 1830 — Congress reduced the duties on cof- fee, cocoa, tea, molasses, and salt in May. — Secretary of the Treasury Ingham made a report advocating "home valuation" instead of foreign valuation, with the current value of the goods in the United States as the dutiable value. 1831 — The National Free Trade Convention met at Philadelphia, September 30. Albert Gallatin was the chairman of the committee appointed to draft a memorial which was presented to the Senate, January 23, 1832. * * t* 1832—1846 The Tariff 81 — The National Protectionist Convention was held in New York, October 26. Both these bodies met to consider the momentous and stirring question of tariff legislation. III. FREE TRADE REACTION, 1832-1860 This period between 1832 and 1860 was characterized by a decided reaction toward a free-trade policy, reaching in 1846, by the Walker tariff and its reduction in 1857, the nearest approach to free-trade. 1832 — A tariff bill was passed that retained very distinctly the protective features of the tariff of 1828 but nullified and reduced many of the taxes. This bill was a modification of the tariff of 1§28 to meet popular demand and to quiet dissatisfaction that had proved to be a menace. The tax on iron was reduced, that on molasses was increased, some raw wools were let in free, but cotton was left un- changed. This measure did not quiet dissatisfaction in the South and there were even threats of disunion. — The Nullification Act of the South Caro- lina Legislature (November 24) declared the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and prohibited the collection of duties in that State after February 1, 1833. South Carolina was led in this opposition by John C. Calhoun, who had receded from his former broad national policy, and had become through his slavery advocacy a zealous defender of State Sovereignty. Extracts from South Carolina Ordinance of Nulli- fication 1832. Whereas the Congress of the United States by various acts, purporting to be acts laying duties and imposts on foreign imports, but in reality intended for the protection of domestic manufacturers, and the giving of bounties to classes and individuals engaged in particular employments, at the expense and to the injury and oppression of other classes and individuals, and by wholly exempting from taxa- tion certain foreign commodities, such as are not pro- duced or manufactured in the United States, to afford a pretext for imposing higher and excessive duties on articles similar to those intended to be protected, hath exceeded its just powers under the Constitution, which confers on it no authority to afford such pro- tection, and hath violated the true meaning and intent of the Constitution, which provides for equality in imposing the burdens of taxation upon the several States, and portions of the Confederacy : And whereas the said Congress, exceeding its just power to impose taxes and collect revenue for the purpose of effecting and accomplishing the specific object and purposes which the constitution of the United States authorizes it to effect and accomplish, hath raised and collected unnecessary revenue for objects unauthorized by the Constitution We, therefore, the people of the State of South Carolina, in convention assembled, do declare and ordain and it is hereby declared and ordained, that the several acts and parts of acts of the Congress of the United States, purporting to be laws for the im- posing of duties and imposts on the importation of foreign commodities, and now having actual opera- tion and effect within the United States, and, more especially, an act entitled " An act in alteration of the several acts imposing duties on imports," approved on the nineteenth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight, and also an act entitled " An act to alter and amend the several acts imposing duties on imports," approved on the fourteenth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-two, are unauthorized by the Constitution of the United States, and violate the true meaning and intent there- of and are null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this State, its officers or citizens; and all promises, contracts, and obligations, made or entered into, or to be made or entered into, with purpose to secure the duties imposed by said acts, and all judicial pro- ceedings which shall be hereafter had in affirmance thereof, are and shall be held utterly null and void. And it is further ordained, that it shall not be law- ful for any of the constitutional authorities, whether of this State or of the United States, to enforce the payments of duties imposed by the said acts within the limits of this State; but it shall be the duty of the legislature to adopt such measures and pass such acts as may be necessary to give full effect to this ordinance, and to prevent the enforcement and arrest the operation of the said acts and parts of acts of the Congress of the United States within the limits of this State, from and after the first day of February next, and the duties of all other constituted author- ities, and of all persons residing or being within the limits of this State, and they are hereby required and joined to obey and give effect to this ordinance and such acts and measures of legislature as maybe passed or adopted in obedience thereto. — President Jackson, on December 11, pro- claimed his intention to enforce the laws. Jackson's famous proclamation was "full of fire and vigor," although he was as much opposed as Calhoun to the high tariff laws. " The laws of the United States must be executed," he said, "those who told you that you might peaceably prevent their execution deceived you." 1833— The FORCE BILL was passed by Congress on March 2. It was the purpose of the bill to enforce collection of duties. clay's compromise bill — The compromise act of Henry Clay was passed on March 3. This act provided for a gradual reduction of the duties until 1842, after which year all duties were to be 20 per cent. By the end of 1832 things had come to a serious pass and Henry Clay introduced his bill on February 12, by way of pouring oil on the troubled waters. He stated that the object of the bill was "to prevent the destruction of the political system and to arrest civil war and restore peace and tranquility to the nation." — South Carolina repealed her Nullification Act on March 18. 1841 — A general tariff bill providing for an average rate of 33 per cent, was passed. It dropped the provision of "home valuation." — The Home League was formed to work for a high tariff. 1842 — Revenues had so decreased as not to support the Government. In the years fol- lowing there was much discussion and much agitation, but nothing was effected. Many remedies were advanced and as many were rejected. 1846— THE FAMOUS BILL OF R. H. "WALKER, Secretary of the Treasury, was passed. • This was the nearest approach to a free-trade policy that has ever been reached. Its aim was simply to meet the expenses of the Government and eliminated entirely the principle of protection. The average rate of duty under the Walker Tariff was 25 J per cent. 82 National Development 1853—1910 It was successful as a revenue measure and remained practically in force until 1861, longer than any one of its kind in spite of the agitation against it. 1853 — Pierce became President and all hope of a revision upward was lost. The revenues were redundant and as a consequence pro- posals were made for revision downward. 1856 — The policy of Free Trade was adopted by the Democratic party in a national con- vention held at Cincinnati in June. 1857 — A bill was passed enlarging the free- trade list and lowering the average duty to about 20 per cent. IV. TIME OP WAR TARIFFS, 1860-1872 The tariff question was left in the back- ground for several years by the Civil War. Bills were passed only when calls for money to carry on the war came up. 1861— A bill, introduced by Mr. Morrill, was passed raising the tariff of 1857 one-third. 1864 — A joint resolution was passed on April 29 to raise all duties 50 per cent, for sixty days, which later was extended to ninety days. 1865-66 — The expenses of the war demanded further bills for the increase of revenues. 1867 — The Wool Growers' Association and the Wool Manufacturers' Association met at Syracuse and formed an alliance. They de- cided that it was to their interest and to the interest of the country to increase the tariff on wool. They arranged a tariff and recom- mended it to Congress. — A tariff bill, which incorporated the rec- ommendation of the Wool Growers' Associa- tion, was passed by Congress in March. 1869 — The duty on copper and copper ore was increased. 1870 — Duties on tea, coffee, sugar, spices, and pig-iron were reduced. About 130 articles were added to the free list by the same act. V. "NO POLICY" PERIOD, 1872-1882 During this period there seemed to have been no program and no possibility of reach- ing a definite tariff policy. There were in the House some conservative Republicans, who would not follow the radical protectionists. Their influence restrained a radical policy in either direction. 1872 — An act repealing the tax on tea and coffee was passed in July. During the following years there was much ! agitation, but little was accomplished by either party. j 1875 — A reduction in the tariff resulted from the amendment of the tariff law. 1879 — Salt and sulphate of quinine were placed on the free list. VI. PROTECTION TRIUMPHANT, From 1882— 1882 — A Tariff Commission was appointed by Congress to report on the expediency of the reduction of the tariff. The result of this Commission's report was the shaping of the present tariff policy of the Republican party, which was generally proclaimed to be a tariff sufficient to cover the difference in the cost of production at home and abroad, and sufficient, also, to maintain the American scale of high wages. 1884 — A bill for the reduction of impost duties and war tariff taxes was presented. The House was Democratic, but the bill was killed by the Republicans uniting with the Protec- tion Democrats. — The Democratic platform, while evading the question of protection, demanded a reduc- tion of the tariff. 1885 — President Cleveland's first message asked a reduction of the tariff. 1887 — The President's message was devoted entirely to the reduction of the tariff. His efforts for tariff reform were nullified by Con- gress, which remained Republican. 1888 — The Mills Bill was introduced. The object of the bill was to reduce taxation and simplify the laws in relation to the collection of revenues. This bill passed the House, but failed to become a law. 1890— THE McEINLEY BILL passed the House May 21 and was reported to the Senate with amendments. It became a law October 6 and raised the average duty to 48i 2 a per cent, 1894 — The Wilson Bill was passed. It was a reaction from the McKinley protective pol- itcy, but was not in effect long enough to be of much importance. The bill became a law without the President's signature. The aver- age rate of duty was 37 per cent, and wool was placed upon the free list. 1897 — The Dingley Act was passed. It in- creased the customs and duties largely. Under it each important industry fought for especial protection. The Dingley Tariff differed from the Wilson Act in four particulars: (1) It put wool, hides, and other raw materials upon the dutiable list; (2) imposed a gen- erally higher rate on woolens, silks, and other fabrics; (3) levied in many eases specific or compound duties instead of ad valorem duties; and (4) conceded a somewhat broader range of reciprocity duties. 1909 — An elaborate tariff revision took place early in Taft's administration. This revision, known as the Payne Bill, was an ineffectual at- tempt to equalize duties and get rid of special privileges. 1910 — Bills were introduced in Congress pro- viding for a PERMANENT TARIFF BOARD and RECIPROCITY WITH CANADA. 1619—1787 Slavery 83 CHAPTER IX SLAVERY ITS RISE AND FALL IN THE UNITED STATES When the Spaniards came to America their greed for wealth and lust for power snatched from the aborigines their gold and silver and forced the simple natives to delve for more in the mines from which came the first sup- ply. These gentle, indolent natives, driven to hard labor and privation, were reduced from millions to a few miserable thousands within the first century of Spanish rule. A humane and observant priest, Las Casas, seeing this cruelty, suggested the policy of substituting for these feeble people the hardier natives of Western Africa. The suggestion was approved, Papal sanction was obtained, and European powers embarked in the Afri- can slave trade. SLAVERY INTRODUCED IN THE ENGLISH COLONIES 1619 — A Dutch ship landed the first African slaves in the English colonies of North America, at Jamestown, Virginia. Some later investigators have contended that these so-called slaves brought by the Dutch to Virginia were not slaves, technically speaking, but were ser- vants reduced to terms of limited servitude, and fur- ther that a legalized status of Indian, white, and negro servants preceded slavery in almost all, if not in all, of the English mainland colonies. 1640 — Virginia recognized slavery by law. 1641 — Massachusetts adopted slavery. 1650 — Connecticut and Rhode Island adopted slavery. 1653 — North Carolina was settled by Vir- ginians who brought their slaves with them. 1656 — New York recognized slavery by law. 1663 — Maryland became a slave colony. 1665 — New Jersey adopted slavery. 1690 — Pennsylvania had a few slaves at this time. By 1700 slavery had become an economic insti- tution in the Colonial life. The difference in the industries of different States made it more desirable in some States than in others, and very early the natural boundary lines of the slave territory began to develop. Georgia and South Carolina especially were clamoring for slave labor to work on the tobacco, cotton, and rice plantations. In the North it was found to be an unsatisfactory system, and there was early developed a sentiment against slave labor, a negro population, and the institution in general. This was due partly to the economical disadvantage of slave labor in the Northern States, partly to inoral feelings on the subject stimulated by the activities going on in England to abolish the traffic. restriction to the slave trade begun 1695 — English colonies, by numerous statutes from this date on, imposed duties to prohibit or discourage slave traffic, but their efforts were defeated by British merchants and the British commercial policy. 1772 — Virginia, in a formal protest, ex- pressed her sentiment against the increase of the negro population and the slave traffic. 1774 — Connecticut prohibited the slave trade by statute law. 1777 — Vermont, in a Declaration of Rights, declared against the slave trade. It was definitely abolished there in 1779. 1778 — Virginia prohibited slave traffic by effective penalties, and was the first politi- cal community to do this successfully. 1780 — Massachusetts, in a Bill of Rights, declared that "all men are born free and equal." The Supreme Court of Massachusetts in 1783 de- cided that, according to this clause, no person could be legally held as a slave in that State. — Pennsylvania abolished slavery by grad- ual emancipation. 1782 — Virginia repealed the old Colonial statute forbidding the emancipation of slaves except for meritorious conduct. For a period of twenty-three years these emanci- pations were so common that had it not been for the subsequent reenactment of old laws the free colored population would have exceeded the slave population. 1783 — John Jay endeavored to incorporate a clause prohibiting slave traffic in the Treaty of Paris, but was unsuccessful. 1783-1789— In all states, except South Caro- lina and Georgia, the slave trade was either limited or totally abolished. 1787 — A compromise in the Constitutional Convention prohibited interference with th& slave trade until 1808. There was a strong sentiment for the absolute prohibition of the trade, but opposition developed, especially among the South Carolinians, who refused to accept any Constitution which, by giving Congress the right to regulate commerce, gave it the right to abolish the slave trade. The overpowering desire for a Constitution which all might accept brought about the insertion of the following section: Section 9. — The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited hy the Con- gress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. — Another compromise led to the establish- ment of the so-called "federal ratio." The section dealing with this compromise read: Representatives and direct Taxes shall be appor- tioned among the several States which may be in- 84 National Development 1789—1821 eluded within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other Persons. —The famous ORDINANCE OF 1787 pro- hibited SLAVERY IN THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY and thus prepared the way for the admission of new free States. This ordinance provided for the organization of the Northwest Territory, and strange as it may seem "both North and South were united in this prohibitory act, while they disagreed in the Constitutional Con- vention on the subject of slavery. FIRST SOCIETIES FORMED IN BEHALF OF SLAVES — Pennsylvania formed a society for the amelioration of the conditions of slaves, with Franklin as president. Other States followed the example of Pennsylvania, and the move- ment was begun which accomplished the sup- pression of the slave trade after 1808. 1789 — An attempt in Congress to lay a tax of ten dollars a head on imported slaves failed. 1790 — North Carolina, in giving up her claims to western lands, stipulated that Con- gress should make no laws affecting slavery in the territory thus ceded. — Anti-slavery petitions were presented to Congress. They led to violent debates. In the House a decla- ration was entered on the journal to the effect that Congress had no authority to interfere with slavery within the States. 1791 — Vermont, by a constitutional enact- ment, entered the Union as a free state. 1792 — Kentucky was admitted to the Union as a slave state. The northern boundary of this State, the Ohio Hiver, formed a continuation of Mason and Dixo::'s line and a western boundary line between free a:id slave States. 1793 — The cotton gin was invented by "Whitney. This stimulated very greatly the production of cotton and the demand for slave labor. — A Fugitive Slave Law was passed by Con- gress to secure the owners of slaves in their property. This act was passed to carry out that section of the Constitution which provided that persons "held to service or labor in one State . . . escaping to another . . . shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due." The law gave the owner or supposed owner of an alleged fugitive slave the right to take him before a Federal judge, and, upon satisfying the magistrate of his ownership, to secure a warrant for removing the slave to the State of the owner's home. 1798 — Georgia forbade the emancipation of slaves. 1799 — New York provided for the gradual extinguishment of slavery. 1803 — The Louisiana Purchase increased the territory open to slavery. slavery finally abolished in the north 1804 — New Jersey, the last op the North- ern States to abolish slavery, passed an act for general abolition. This practically was THE END OF SLAVERY IN THE NORTHERN STATES. — Congress limited the slave trade in Louisiana. — The inhabitants of Indiana Territory peti- tioned Congress to suspend the ordinance of 1787 prohibiting slavery north of the Ohio River. Both Indiana and Illinois would have come into the Union as slave States had the petition been granted. 1806 — A joint pledge between England and the United States was made to strive for in- ternational abolition of slavery. This was brought on by Jay's entente in 1783. THE SLAVE TRADE ABOLISHED 1S07— THE SLAVE TRADE WAS ABOL- ISHED BY ACT OF CONGRESS. No more slaves were to be imported into the United States after January 1, 1808. This year marked the end of the twenty years, pre- scribed by the Constitution, during which Congress could not interfere with the slave trade. This prompt legislation showed the state of public opinion on the subject. (See 1787, page 83.) 1816 — "The American Colonization So- ciety" and its affiliated State societies were formed. Their object was to solve the slavery question and the free negro question by emancipation and coloni- zation. It aided emigration to Africa and had as its indirect object the removal from the South of its free colored population. The only result was the estab- lishment of Liberia. 1817 — New York decreed the total abolition of slavery after July 4, 1827. 1818-1820 — The further organization of the Louisiana Territory resulted in a sharp politi- cal controversy. Previously, during the period from 1802 to 1817, four States, two free and two slave, had been ad- mitted— Ohio and Indiana against Louisiana and Mississippi. Thus was established the theory of the balance of power. With the application of Missouri for admission to the Union the question approached a crisis, but was adjusted temporarily by the Missouri Compromise. 1820— THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE prohibited slavery north of parallel 36" 30' with the exception of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave State. — Maine was admitted as a free State to bal- ance the admission of Missouri. After this political anti-slavery sentiment became more prominent and THE DISSATIS- FACTION IN THE NORTH WITH THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE LAID THE FOUNDATION OF ABOLITIONISM. BEGINNING OF ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION 1821 — The beginning of the anti-slavery literature was marked by the Investigator, started by Mr. William Goodell in Rhode 1823—1847 Slavery 85 Island, and by Benjamin Lundy's Genius of Universal Emancipation, first published at Mt. Pleasant, Ohio. — The Kentucky Abolition Society was formed about this time. 1823-1835— During this period the tariff, the public land policy, and slavery were the chief issues dominating the economic policies of the South and the North. Upon all three of these subjects the North and the South were diametrically opposed. Their industrial systems, on account of climate, situation, and natural resources, had become very different and the pro- motion of the welfare of one in National policy was detrimental to the other. Discussions of the tariff bills of 1824 and 1828, theories of nullification, states' rights, abolition, and the Hayne^Webster debate of 1830 gradually in- creased the importance of slavery in sectional politics and made it a leading question after the tariff com- promise had settled matters for a time in that direc- tion. The North, too, through discussion and the dissemination of anti-slavery literature was becoming more settled in its opposition to slavery extension. 1827 — New York abolished slavery, setting free about 10,000 slaves. 1831 — The Liberator, an Abolitionist news- paper, was established in Boston by "Win. Lloyd Garrison. It marked the beginning of an avalanche of abolition literature. Prominent among the anti-slavery publica- tions of the time were : The Observer, issued 1832 at St. Louis by Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy. The Emancipator, issued 1833 at New York by R. J. Williams. The African Emancipator, issued 1835 at Phil- adelphia by Enoch Lewis. The Philanthropist, issued 1836 at Cincinnati by Jas. G. Birney. The National Enquirer, issued 1836 at Philadel- phia by Benjamin Lundy. Pennsylvania Freeman, issued 1838 at Philadel- phia by John G. Whittier. The Abolitionist, issued 1839 at Boston by Elizur Wright, Jr. 1832 — The New England Anti-Slavery Society was formed. 1833 — The New York Anti-Slavery So- ciety was organized. —THE AMEBICAN ANTI-SLAVERY SO- CIETY was formed at a National convention held in Philadelphia with representatives from every Northern State. These societies distributed broadcast throughout the land tracts, books, pamphlets, and business labels condemning slavery. Slavery was denounced as a crime and unconditional and immediate abolition without compensation was demanded by the more radical element. Other men gave moral and literary support to reasonable anti-slavery methods and less conservative men near the borders manipulated an "UNDERGROUND RAILWAY" to Canada, by which fugitive slaves were kept in hiding during the day and helped in their overland journey to Canada. 1835 — Many Southern cities refused to al- low Abolitionist literature to be delivered through the post-offices, claiming it to be in- cendiary. Amos Kendall, the Postmaster-General, refused to declare that the post office authorities had the legal right to seize such mail, but encouraged its destruc- tion by claiming that there was a law higher than the civil law. 1836 — The House of Representatives re- fused, by the so-called "gag resolution" to receive any petitions dealing with slavery. Abolitionists began presenting petitions to Congress in 1831. All such petitions were customarily referred to committees which always reported against grant- ing the prayers of the petitioners. Meanwhile the number of Abolitionist petitions greatly increased, and the Representatives adopted the following gag rule, renewed from session to session: "That all petitions, memorials, resolutions, propositions or papers relating in any way or to any extent whatever to the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery shall, without being either printed or referred, be laid upon the table and that no further action whatever shall be had thereon." The Senate, under Calhoun's leadership, adopted resolutions, at about the same time, against intermeddling" with the institution of slavery. 1840— THE LIBERTY PARTY was formed by those Abolitionists and ahti-slavery men who believed in attaining their ends through constitutional methods. They opposed the extreme ideas of Garrison, and though they never succeeded in electing a President they held the balance of power in pivotal States (this was especially true in the election of 1844), and thus gained consideration for their cause. 1842 — A "cruising convention" was entered into between the United States and England to put a stop to the African slave trade. Each nation was obliged to keep a squadron on the West coast of Africa. The results of the convention were meagre. 1845 — Texas was annexed to the United States. This was a decided pro-slavery victory. The slavery aspect of this annexation caused the Senate to give the bill much attention. Both the North and the South realized the importance of the addition of so vast an area to the slavery section. The bill was publicly eulogized by Gen. James Ham- ilton, of South Carolina, as calculated " to give a Gib raltar to the South," and on that ground the measure had the ardent support of the South. Several North- ern members addressed a resolution to the people of the free States of the Union, in which they affirmed that the annexation of Texas had as its particular object "the perpetuity of slavery and the continued ascendency of the slave power." 1846-1848 — The Mexican "War added new territory to the slavery section. slavery in the territories 1847— The famous WILMOT PROVISO was offered as an amendment to an appropria- tion bill. It provided that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any territory acquired from Mexico." The amendment passed the House, but was re- jected in the Senate. The fight for it's passage was evidence of the fact "that the majority of the people in the States where slavery did not exist were un- willing to see it introduced into any of the newly acquired territory." On the other hand, it immedi- ately became clear that the people of the Southern States regarded the existence of slavery in the new territories as vital to their interests. As Congress during the next few years could not agree upon any form of organization for the territories owing to the sectional issue, popular excitement increased in intensity from month to month. 86 National Development 1848—1857 1848 — The question of slavery in the Mexi- can cession became the principal issue in the campaign of 1848. Both Whigs and Democrats tried to ignore the question. The Free-Soilers, who had absorbed the Liberty Party, advocated the principles of the Wilmot Proviso and polled over a quarter of a million votes. They also elected thirteen Congressmen who held the balance of power in the new House of Repre- sentatives. The new party took the watchwords: "Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men." — The Oregon territory was organized without slavery. 1850— THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 in- cluding a new and radical FUGITIVE SLAVE ACT was enacted into law. The compromise measure was the work of Henry Clay. It provided that California, which had al- ready adopted an anti-slavery constitution, should be admitted without restriction as to slavery; that trading in the District of Columbia in slaves brought there for the purpose of sale should be forbidden; that New Mexico and Utah should be organized as territories without provision as to slavery; that there should be a more stringent fugitive slave law; and that Texas should release all claim on Mexico in return for the assumption by the National Govern- ment of the old Texan debt. By these various bills the slavery question seemed to be pretty well provided for, but the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act created much ill feeling in the North and kept the dispute alive. "The Fugitive Slave Law was a vicious and in- human measure, to say the least. When captured by the pretended owner or agent the alleged runaway was carried before a magistrate or commissioner who should hear and determine the case. The law was so framed as to work against the prisoner at every point. The oath of the owner or agent * * * was usually sufficient to decide the matter. The black man could not testify in his own behalf. The benefit of a jury was denied him. Even the com- missioner was bribed by the law, for if he awarded the captive to his captor, he received ten dollars as his fee; if he set him free, he received but five. The worst feature of the law was that it compelled any bystander to assist in making a capture, if summoned to do so by the slave catcher." — "Webster supported the Compromise of 1850 by his so-called "Seventh of March" speech. This oration created consternation throughout the North and caused Webster to be condemned on every side as a traitor to the cause of liberty. He main- tained that the attempt to exclude slavery by law from California and New Mexico was simply "a taunt and reproach" to the South, as the law of Nature had already worked such exclusion. He also contended that the North had failed in its duty in the matter of runaway slaves. 1852 — Mrs. Stowe published "Uncle Tom's Cabin." This was the culmination of the paper war that had raged since 1830. It was directed against the Fugi- tive Slave Law of the Compromise of 1850. This law was openly and flagrantly violated in the North. Perhaps no other book had so wide a circulation or did so much to mould public opinion. 1854— THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL, proposed by Douglas, was passed by Congress. This bill provided that the Territory of Nebraska should be divided into two parts, to be called Kansas and Nebraska. It stated specifically that the slavery restrictions of the Missouri Compromise, being incon- sistent with the principle of non-intervention by Con- gress in the States and Territories as recognized by the Legislature of 1850, be declared inoperative and void. It further provided to leave the people thereof per- fectly free to form and regulate their own domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the Constitution of the United States. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill is chiefly significant be- cause it renewed the contest between the North and the South, which had been thought settled by the Compromise of 1850. It stirred up the passions of the people in both sections, led to a renewed struggle in Congress, and undoubtedly hastened the resort to arms. It made the Fugitive Slave Law a dead letter in the North and was the downfall of the Democratic party. It roused Lincoln and gave direction to his great political ambition. The doctrine put forth by Douglas to allow the people to regulate their own domestic institutions gave rise to what was known as "Squatter sover- eignty." It led to an influx of temporary inhabi- tants, "squatters, " from both North and South, in an effort to gain preponderance in a vote on the slavery question. The feeling on both sides was bitter and a border warfare was waged for some time. — Personal Liberty Laws were passed by Vermont, Ehode Island, and Connecticut and increased the hostile feeling between the sec- tions. Other Northern States soon followed until ten of them had passed such laws. They were issued to nul- lify the operations of the Fugitive Slave Act. They generally included the following features: (1) Refusal to allow State jails to be used for detaining fugitives; (2) Provision for counsel for fugitives; (3)Extension to fugitives of the benefit of the writ of habeas corpus and trial by jury; (4) Denial to the claimant of the right of assistance in securing a fugitive; (5) Re- quirement of two witnesses to prove the identity of the fugitive; (6) Fine and imprisonment for the crime of forcibly seizing or representing as a slave any free person with intent to reduce him to slavery. " The Fugitive Slave Law and the Personal Liberty Laws together show plainly that the Compromise of 1850 was far worse than labor lost. * * * Each section, ignoring the other's complaints, exhausted its own patience in calling for a redress which neither was willing to accord first." — A state convention in Michigan, made up of various anti-slavery elements, declared slavery a "moral, social, and political evil" and adopted a NEW PARTY NAME, RE- PUBLICAN. 1856 — The Republican party was made national this year by a meeting of representa- tives in Pittsburg, February 22d. It gradually absorbed Anti-Nebraskans, Free- Soilers, Anti-Slavery Whigs, and many Democrats. 1857— The DRED SCOTT DECISION was handed down by the Supreme Court. This decision affirmed that the Missouri Compro- mise was unconstitutional; that the power of Congress to govern the Territories was subordinate to its obli- gation to protect private rights in property; that slaves were property and, as such, were protected by constitutional guarantee; that Congress had no power to prohibit a citizen of any State from carrying his slaves or any other property into any other territory! and that Congress had no power to impair the con- stitutional protection of such property while thus held in a territory. This decision, coming as it did after the election of Buchanan, aroused intense feel- ing and showed the North the seriousness of the question to be solved and the difficulties to be over- come. From now on agitation became stronger AND OF A MORE DETERMINED NATURE. 1858—1863 Slavery 87 EXTRACTS FROM THE OPINION OF THE COURT IN THE DRED SCOTT DECISION- MARCH 6, 1857 ******* And upon a full and careful consideration of the subject, the Court is of opinion, that, upon the facts stated in the plea in abatement, Dred Scott was not a citizen of Missouri within the meaning of the Con- stitution of the United States, and not entitled as such to sue in its courts; and, consequently, that the Circuit Court has no jurisdiction of the case, and that the judgement on the plea in abatement is erroneous. * * * Now, as we have already said in an earlier part of ■this opinion, upon a different point, the right of property in a slave is distinctly expressed and affirmed in the Constitution. The right to traffic in it, like an ordinary article of merchandise and prop- erty, was guaranteed to the citizens of the United States, in every State that might desire it, for twenty years. And the government in express terms is pledged to protect it in all future time, if the slave escapes from his owner. This is done in plain words — too plain to be misunderstood. And no word can he found in the Constitution which gives Congress a greater power over slave property, or which entitles property of that kind to less protection than prop- erty of any other description. The only power con- ferred is the power coupled with the duty of guard- ing and protecting the owner in his rights. Upon these considerations, it is the opinion of the Court that the Act of Congress which prohibited a citizen from holding and owning property, of this land in the territory of the United States north of "the line therein mentioned, is not warranted by the Constitution, and is therefore void ; and that neither Dred Scott himself, nor any of his family, were made free by being carried into this territory ; even if they lad been carried there by the owner, with the inten- sion of becoming a permanent resident. — A Southerner, Hinton Helper, .wrote a book called the Impending Crisis. The book created almost as much political excitement as Uncle Tom's Cabin. The author claimed that the South was controlled "by a relatively small number of slave owners and "that slavery had proven bad economically. 1858 — In a speech before the state senatorial nominating convention, at Springfield, Lin- coln delivered his famous "House divided -AGAINST ITSELF " Speech: " We are now far into the fifth year since a policy -was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to slavery agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation "has not only not ceased, but has constantly aug- mented. In my opinion, it will not cease until a crisis shall have been reached and passed. ' A house ■divided against itself cannot stand.' I believe this .government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dis- solved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief "that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old as well as new, North as well as South." — In this same year, Seward expressed the same idea in the following words: "Our country is a theater which exhibits, in full operation, two radically different political systems: "the one resting on the basis of servile or slave labor, "the other on the basis of voluntary labor of freemen. * * * * The two systems are at once perceived to be hi compatible. They never have permanently existed together in one country, and they never can. * * * These antagonistic systems are continually coming into closer contact, and collision results. They who think that it is accidental, unnecessary, the work of interested or fanatical agitators, and therefore ephemeral, mistake the case altogether. It is an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces, and it means that the United States must and will, sooner or later, become either entirely a slave- holding nation, or entirely a free-labor nation." 1858 — Douglas developed his "Freeport doctrine" during the progress of the Lincoln- Douglas debates. While supporting the Dred Scott decision he still maintained that the people could in any territory by unfavorable laws legislate slavery out of existence. 1859 — John Brown's raid was made on the National arsenal at Harper's Ferry, which he hoped would be the signal for a general insur- rection of the slaves. 1860— LINCOLN WAS ELECTED PRESI- DENT on a Republican platform which denied the authority of Congress, of a territorial legis- lature, or of any individual to give legal exist- ence to slavery in any territory of the United States. 1861— The CONFEDERATE CONSTITU- TION was adopted March 11th. It provided for the perpetuation of the institution of slavery. The following sections of the Constitution dealt with slavery : Section 9. — The importation of negroes of the African race, from any foreign country, other than slaveholding States or Territories of the United States of America, is hereby forbidden; and Congress is required to pass such laws as shall effectively pre- vent the same. 2. Congress shall also have power to prohibit the introduction of slaves from any State not a member of a Territory not belonging to this Confederacy. 4. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, or law denying or impairing the right of property in negro slaves shall be passed. ARTICLE IV Section 2. — The citizens of each State shall bo entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens of the several States, and shall have the right of transit and sojourn in any State of this Confederacy with their slaves and other property; and the right of property in said slaves shall not be thereby im- paired. — Senator Crittenden of Kentucky intro- duced a compromise measure into the Senate which it was hoped would quiet the trouble over slavery. It failed of acceptance. According to his resolutions there was to be an irre- pealable constitutional amendment whereby the Missouri Compromise line, 36° 30', was to be extended to the Pacific, slavery to be prohibited north of it and protected south of it. There was also to be compen- sation to slave owners for fugitives not returned to them. 1862 — Congress abolished slavery in the ter- ritories without compensation and in the Dis- trict of Columbia with compensation. 1863— -Lincoln, by the Emancipation Procla- mation, a war measure, freed all the slaves in the rebelling States. 88 National Development 1865—1870 The final Emancipation. Proclamation reads as fol- lows. " Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to wit: "That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty- three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such per- sons, and will do no act or acts to repress such per- sons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. " That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall in the absence of strong countervailing testimony be deemed conclusive evi- dence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States. " Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, in time of actual armed rebel- lion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war meas- ure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days from the day first above mentioned, order and designate as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof, respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit: "Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are for the present left precisely as if this proclamation wore not issued. "And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free ; and that the Executive Government of the United States, in- cluding the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said per- sons. "And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defense; and I recommend to them that, in all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. "And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable condition will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison torts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. "And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon mili- tary necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God." 1865— The THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT was passed; this amendment legally destroyed the institution of slavery. The amendment reads as follows: Article XIII Section 1. — Neither slavery nor involuntary servi- tude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. — Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. —The FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT gave the negro the rights of citizenship. The amendment reads as follows: Article XIV Section 1. — All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or im- munities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protec- tion of the laws. Section 2. — Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty- one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. — No person shall be a Senator or Repre- sentative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by vote of two-thirds of each House remove such disability. Section 4. — The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts in- curred for payment of pensions and bounties for ser- vices in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation in- curred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipa- tion of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. — The Congress shall have power to en- force, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 1870— The FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT granted the suffrage to the negro. The amendment reads as follows: Section 1.— The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. — The Congress shall have power to en- force this article by appropriate legislation. Insular Possessions 89 MAP LOCATING THE POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER X INSULAR POSSESSIONS The Insular Possessions of the United States consist of the Philippine Islands, Hawah, Poeto Rico; Guam, the largest of the Ladrone group; Tutuila and a few small adjacent islets, and Wake Island and several other small islands of the Pacific; with these may also be classed the Panama Zone. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS The Philippine Islands form the northern- most group in the Malay Archipelago. They lie wholly within the tropics and between 116° and 126° E. longitude. The group consists of 2,141 islands, of which 1,668 are named. The two islands, Luzon, with an area of 44,400 sq. miles, and Mindanao, with an area of 34,000 sq. miles, comprise seven-tenths of the total area of the archipelago. These two islands rank among the large islands of the world. The islands next in importance are Samar, Panat, Mindoro, Leyte, Negros, Cebu, Pala- wan, Masbate, and Bohol. ' Topography. — The shallowness of the waters surrounding these islands show them to be a part of a vast submarine plateau. The surface of the two larger islands is very much broken and irregular, traversed in every direction by an alternation of rich valleys and mountain ranges and dotted here and there with vol- canic peaks. The topography of the islands of the second class is simple, each being trav- ersed down its length by a mountain range. Climate. — The climate of the archipelago is tropical. Prom November till June the northeast trade winds prevail, precipitating their moisture on the Eastern Coastal Moun- tains and giving to the larger area of the islands a dry season, while for the rest of the year monsoons prevail and bring on the wet season over most of the area of the archipelago. North of latitude 9° N. heavy cyclones and typhoons prevail, causing heavy loss of life and property. The climate, on ac- count of the broken nature of the country, is varied and generally healthful. Agriculture. — The plant life of the archi- pelago is abundant and varied. Sixty va- rieties of hardwood trees furnish valuable cabi- net lumber; the cocoa palm flourishes every- where. A plant closely resembling the edible banana furnishes the Manila hemp. L?i*ge plantations of it are under culture and yield large profits on investments. Agriculture is the chief source of wealth, and yet only one- ninth of the surface is under cultivation. The soil is very fertile and the tillable area is of sufficient extent to support a population as large as that of Japan. The chief agricultural 90 National Development products are hemp, which constitutes two- thirds of all the exports, rice, tobacco, sugar, coffee, cocoanuts, and cocoa. Minerals. — The mineral resources of the islands are as yet undeveloped. Considerable quantities of a very good grade of carbonif- erous coal are known to exist. Gold and iron are found in various parts of the islands, but little is known of their richness of deposit. Sulphur may be obtained in large quantities around some of the volcanoes. Salt and gypsum are also found. Imports and Exports. — In the year 1910 •the shipments of domestic merchandise from the United States to the Philippine Islands amounted to $16,768,909, and the imports into the United States, $17,317,897. The imports from foreign countries were, in 1909, $23,100,627, and the exports, $20,- 778,232, the foreign trade being chiefly with Great Britain, French East Indies, China, and Spain. Population. — The population on June 1, 1910, was officially estimated at 8,276,802, of whom nearly seven million are civilized to a greater or less degree. The wild tribes num- ber about 9 per cent, of the total inhabitants. The native inhabitants are principally Malays ; the foreigners number about 50,000 and are largely Chinese. By the terms of the treaty of Paris, Spain ceded the whole Philippine group to the United States on payment of $20,000,000 and commercial concessions for a period of ten years. The treaty was ratified February 6, 1899. After this treaty there followed a na- tive insurrection which was not finally quelled until the capture of Aguinaldo, the leader, on March 23, 1901. On July 4, the Military Government was succeeded by a Civil Govern- ment in the pacified districts and by Act of Congress, approved July 1, 1902, Civil rule was established throughout the islands. The government was composed of a Civil Gover- nor and seven Commissioners. By Act of Congress, approved May 11, 1908, the Com- mission was increased by the number appointed by the President, making a Commission of nine, including the Governor. There are thirty-nine provinces, each of which has a Governor, a Supreme Court and fourteen judicial districts. PORTO RICO The United States took possession of Porto Eico October 18, 1898. Area and Topography. — The island is rect- angular in shape and measures 108 miles from east to west and from 37 to 43 miles across. Its area is 3,435 sq. miles, or about three times as large as Bhode Island. About one-tenth of the area of the island is a coastal plain. The interior presents a hilly and picturesque aspect, although there are mountains rising to the height of 3,000 feet. Climate. — The climate is tempered by per- sistent northeast trade winds, and the topog- raphy allows of much difference in the cli- mate. The heat would seldom be oppressive in any parts if it were not for the humidity. It rains almost daily. The island is subject to frequent destructive hurricanes. Product. — Porto Rico has an unusually fer- tile soil. Its dominant industries are agricul- ture and lumbering. More than 500 varieties of trees are found in the forests. Modern methods of agriculture are slowly being util- ized, although to a larger extent crude and primitive methods still prevail. The principal crops are sugar, coffee, and tobacco. Oranges, bananas, corn, rice, and pineapples are also important products. Population and Government. — The people live chiefly in rural districts. There are few large cities, San Juan and Ponce being the only ones that exceed a population of 25,000. About 61 per cent, of the population are whites and the rest colored ("colored" mean- ing mixed white and black), Chinese and negroes; 83.2 per cent, are illiterate. By Act of April 12, 1900, Congress pro- vided Civil Government for the Island, but did not raise it to the status of a territory, nor extend the constitution and laws of the United States to the inhabitants. The gov- ernment consists of a Governor, appointed by the President by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate; an Executive Council of eleven members, five of whom must be natives of Porto Rico, appointed in the same manner as the Governor; and a Legislature consisting of the Council as an upper chamber and a House of Delegates elected by the people for a term of two years. The judges of the Su- preme and District Courts are appointed by the President. Porto Rico is represented in "Washington by a resident Commissioner, who has no seat in Congress. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS Situation and Size. — Ethnologically and geographically these islands form the extreme northeastern group of Polynesia. They are about 2,200 miles southwest of San Francisco and 4,893 miles from Hong Kong. Eight islands in the group are inhabited, and with several small islands are strung along in single file from southeast to northwest over the ex- tent of about 400 miles. The inhabited islands with their respective areas are : Hawaii, 4,210 square miles; Maui, 760; Oahu, 600; Kauai, 590; Molokai, 270; Lanai, 150; Niihau, 97; and Kahoolawe, 63. Topography. — The islands are of volcanic Insular Possessions 91 origin and are all mountainous. Only one island, Hawaii, has active volcanoes. The craters of Mauna Loa and Kilauea on this island are the largest in the world. The erosion by the mountain streams, the rugged rock formations, and the luxuriant vegetation give to these islands a scenery of peculiar charm and beauty. Between the mountains and coast there are fertile plains and valleys. Climate. — The climate is remarkable for its even temperature, which is very healthful and extremely pleasant. Agkiculture. — The islands have large areas of very fertile lowlands, while a large part of the highlands that are not covered with forests are unfit for vegetation. Sugar is the principal crop of the lowlands and its production is managed largely by American capitalists, employing foreign labor from Japan and China. Bice ranks next among the products, while coffee, pineapples, and bananas are also raised and exported. The shipments of merchandise to the United States in the fiscal year 1910 were valued at $46,183,265 ; the corresponding shipments from the United States were $20,560,101. The foreign imports were $4,606,334 and exports $306,763. History, Population, and Government. — The Hawaiian group was discovered by Cap- tain Cook in 1778. It was annexed to the United States by a joint resolution of Con- gress July 7, 1898. The new territorial government was inaugu- rated at Honolulu June 14, 1900, and the first Territorial Legislature opened its sessions at Honolulu February 20, 1901. The Legislature is composed of two houses, a Senate of fifteen members and a House of Representatives of thirty members. The chief executive is a Gov- ernor, appointed by the President. The Gov- ernor, with the consent of the Senate, appoints a, corps of executive officials to take charge of the different departments. The Judiciary of the territory consists of a Supreme Court with three judges, the Circuit Court, and such inferior courts as may be established by the Legislature. The territory has a delegate elected biennially by the people to represent them in Congress. GUAM The island of Guam is the largest of the Ladrone group. It was captured by the U. S. Cruiser "Charleston" on June 21, 1898, dur- ing the war with Spain, and by the Treaty of Paris it was ceded to the United States. This island, which is twenty-nine miles long and varies from three to ten miles in width, with an area of about 210 sq. miles, lies in the direct route from San Francisco to the southern part of the Philippine Islands, being about 1,500 miles east of Manila. The surface in the north is a barren and level plateau, while in the south it is broken by mountains. The island is surrounded by a coral reef with here and there a break making good harbors. Of these harbors, Agafia on the west coast is the largest and best. The climate is moist with rain at all seasons, which does not, however, render it unhealthful. The native plant life is scanty. The prin- cipal trees are the cocoanut, palm, and the oread-fruit. Rice, coffee, cocas, and corn are cultivated. The farms are well provided with live stock, brought by the Spaniards. Guam is most important as a naval station between America and Asia, and to that end the harbor of Agana is being improved. TUTUILA Tutuila, which has an area of 77 sq. miles, belongs to the Southern Pacific group called the Samoan Islands. These islands are rich in. natural vegetation, the soil being of extra- ordinary fertility and well watered. The staple product is the cocoa bean. In 1909 the imports into Tutuila were $88,301 and the exports were $67,100. The inhabitants are Polynesians and Europeans, and number about 6,800. The United States obtained possession of Tutuila, together with two other small islets of the group, by the tripartite treaty with Great Britain and Germany in 1899, effective March 8, 1900. The value of the island lies in the commodious harbor of Pago-Pago, the most valuable island harbor in the South Pacific. "WAKE AND OTHER ISLANDS In January, 1899, Commander Taussig of the Bennington, on his way to Guam, hoisted the American flag on "Wake Island. This island lies in the cable route between the United States and the Philippines, being 2,325 miles west of Honolulu. It is only about one square mile in area and is uninhabited. Besides Wake Island the United States possesses a number of small islands scattered in the Pacific. Some of them are nothing more than rocks or coral reefs. . PANAMA CANAL ZONE By the treaty between the United States and the Republic of Panama, ratified by the United States Senate February 23, 1904, ratifications exchanged and effective February 26, 1904, Panama ceded to the United States a strip of territory adjacent to the canal. By this treaty the United States gained control of a strip of land ten miles wide — extending five miles on each side of the canal throughout its entire length. National Development CHAPTER XI— STATE AND No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 State or Territory Delaware Pennsylvania.... New Jersey Georgia Connecticut. Massachusetts... Maryland South Carolina.. New Hampshire. Virginia New York North Carolina. Rhode Island. . . Vermont Kentucky. Ohio Louisiana.. Indiana.... Illinois. Alabama. Maine Missouri Arkansas Michigan Florida Texas , Iowa Wisconsin , California Minnesota , Oregon , Kansas West Virginia. . Nevada Nebraska , Colorado , North Dakota. South Dakota. Montana Washington... Idaho Wyoming. Utah Oklahoma Adopted Constitution or Made A State First Settlement Where TERRiTORrES(Main Body) District of Columbia.. Arizona. New Mexico Dec 7,1787 Dec 12, 1787 Dec 18, 1787 Jan 2,1788 Jan 9,1788 Feb 6,1788 Apr 28, 1788 M'y 23, 1788 Jun 21, 1788 Jun 25, 1788 Jul 26, 1788 Nov 21, 1789 M'y 29, 1790 Mar 4,1791 Jun 1,1792 Jun 1,1796 Feb 19, 1803 Apr 30, 1812 Dec 11, 1816 Deo 10, 1817 Dec 3,1818 Dec 14, 1819 Nov 15, 1820 Aug 10, 1821 Jun 15, 1836 Jan 26, 1837 Mar 3,1845 Dec 29, 1845 Dec 28, 1846 M'y 29, 1848 Sep 9,1850 M'y 11, 1858 Feb 14, 1859 Jan 29, 1861 Jun 19, 1863 Oct 31, 1864 Mar 1, T867 Aug 1,1876 Nov 3,1889 Nov 3,1889 Nov 8,1889 Nov 11,1889 Jul 3, 1890 Jul 10,1890 Jan 4,1896 Nov 16, 1907 Organized Mar 3,1791 Feb 24, 1863 Sep 9,1850 Near Wilmington. . Philadelphia By Whom When Outlying Territory Alaska (Territory) Hawaii (Territory) Porto Rico Philippines Guam (Ladrone Island) Tutuila (Samoan Island). Wake and other Islands Panama Canal Zone. . . Savannah Windsor ? Plymouth St. Mary's , Old Charleston ? . . Dover ? Jamestown New York Albemarle ? Providence Fort Dummer Harrodsburg Watauga Marietta Below New Orleans. Vincennes Bilo.xi Kaskaskia ? Near Mobile Bay.. . Saco Fort Orleans Little Rock SaultSte. Marie.... St. Augustine San Antonio ? Dubuque Green Bay San Diego Fort Snelling Astoria Leavenworth ? Upshur Co Genoa Near Omaha Denver ? Pembina Yankton ? Helena? Tumwater Pioneer City 7 . . . . Salt Lake City- Swedes English Dutch English English English English English English English Dutch English English English English.. . . English... . English French. . . . French French French French. . . . English.. . . French French French French French Americans, French Spanish Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. English Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. Americans. Yuma Santa Fe\. Acquired Oct 9, 1867 Kadiak Island.. Jul 7, 1898 Feb 6,1899 Feb 6,1899 Dec 10, 1898 1899 Jan 1899 Feb 26, 1904 Island visited by.. San Juan Occupied by Americans Spanish.... Russians.. Spanish. . . Spanish in. Spanish.. 1638 1683 1617 1733 16337 1620 1634 1670 1623? 1607 1614 1653 1636 1724 1774 1771? 1788 1700 1705? 1699 1695? 1702 1622 1719 1690 1668 1565 1692? 1833? 1669? 1769 1819 1811 1854 1764 1850 1847 1859? 1812 1859? 1861 1845 1862? 1867 1847 1854 1598 1784 1542 1511 1565 Gross Area Square Miles 2,370 45,126 8,224 59,265 4,965 8,266 12,327 30,989 9,341 42,627 49,204 52,426 1,248 9,564 40,598 42,022 41,040 48,506 36,354 46,865 56,665 51,998 33,040 69,420 53,335 57,980 58,666 265,896 56,147 56,066 158,297 84,682 96,699 82,158 24,170 110,690 77,520 103,948 70,837 77,615 146,572 69,127 84,313 97,914 84,990 70,057 70 113,956 122,634 3,026,789 590,884 6,449 3,435 115,026 210 77 1 474 3,743,345 Capital Dover Harrisburg Trenton Atlanta Hartford Boston Annapolis Columbia Concord Richmond Albany Raleigh Providence Montpelier Frankfort. Nashville Columbus Baton Rouge.. . Indianapolis Jackson Springfield Montgomery. . . Augusta Jefferson City.., Little Rock Lansing Tallahassee Austin Des Moines Madison Sacramento St. Paul Salem Topeka Charleston Carson City. . . . Lincoln Denver Bismarck Pierre Helena Olympia Boise Cheyenne Salt Lake City. Oklahoma City Washington., Phoenix. Santa Fe\. ... Juneau. . . Honolulu. San Juan. Manila in Con- gress* 1 36(4) 12(2) 12(1) 5 16(2) 6 7 2 10 43(6) 10 3(1) 2 11 10 22(1) 8(1) 13 8 27(2) 10(1) 4 16 7 13(1) 4(1) 18(2) 11 11 11(3) 10(1) 3(1) 8 6(1) 1 6 4(1) 3(1) 3(1) 2(1) 5(2) 2(1) 1 2(1) 8(3) Pago Pago. Elect- oral Vote* 3 38 14 14 7 18 4 12 45 12 5 4 13 12 24 10 15 10 29 12 6 18 9 15 6 20 13 13 13 12 5 10 8 3 8 6 5 5 4 7 4 3 4 10 433 525 Total Population 1910 202,322 7,655,111 2,337,167 2,609,121 1,114,756 3,366,416 1,295,346 1,515,400 430,572 2,061,612 9,113,614 2,206,287 542,610 355,956 2,289,905 2,184,789 4,767,121 1,656,388 2,700,876 1,797,114 5,638,591 2,138,093 742,371 3,293,335 1,574,449 2,810,173 752,619 3,896,542 2,224,771 2,333,860 2,377,549 2,075,708 672.765 1,690'949 1,221,119 81,875 1, 192,214 799,024 577,056 583,888 376,053 1,141,990 325,594 145,965 373,351 1,657,155 331,069 204,354 327,301 Mi: 91,972,266 jc. 55,608 64,356 191,909 1,118,012 8,276,802t 10,0001f 6,8001t 127,362J 101,823,115 RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. The names of the original thirteen States are printed in the above table in small capitals, and are placed in the order in which they ratified the Constitution. The vote by which the Constitution was ratified was as follows: 1. Delaware, unanimously. 5. Connecticut, 128 to 40. 9. New Hampshire, 57 to 46. 13. Rhode Island, 34 to 32. 2. Pennsylvania, 46 to 23. 6. Massachusetts, 187 to 168. 10. Virginia, 89 to 79. 3. New Jersey, unanimously. 7. Maryland, 63 to 12. 11. New York, 30 to 28. 4. Georgia, unanimously. 8. South Carolina, 149 to 73. 12. North Carolina, 193 to 75. It will be noticed that nearly two years and six months had elapsed before the last of these States adopted the Constitution. In some of the States, notably Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York, the outcome was in doubt almost to the end. •Based on the Census of 1910 and by the Apportionment bill passed by the House of Representatives. Feb. 9, 1911, but which is yet to be rati- fied by the Senate. The numbers within ( ) show the gain in Representatives by certain States under the new apportionment. Arizona and N^w Mexico when admitted will have one Representative each, making then the total number of Representatives 435. t Estimate of Census Office, June 1, 1910. ^Estimate of 1900. t Average during fiscal year 1909, estimated by the Isthmian Canal Commission State and Territorial Statistics TERRITORIAL STATISTICS Meaning and Origin of Name Popular Name of State People Flower* After Lord Delaware, its founder "Penn's Woods," the name given by Charles II After the Island of Jersey, in the English Channel After King George II Indian name, meaning "Long River" Indian— "Massa-wachuset"= "at the great hill" After Henrietta Marie, Queen of Charles I After Charles LT. (Latin, "Carolus"= Charles) After the County of Hampshire, England After Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen For the Duke of York, afterwards James II (Same as South Carolina) From the Isle of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea French — " Vert-Mont"=Green Mountain Indian — "Kenta-ke,"= Hunting Ground Indian name for "Crooked River" Indian— "0-hee-yo"= "Beautiful River" After Louis XIV of France Coined in 1800 from the word Indian Indian— "Missi-sepe"=" The Great River" The name of confederated Indian tribes Indian phrase — Here we rest The "Main land" as distinguished from the Islands on its coast Indian — "Missi-souri,"= Great muddy Indian— Probably akin to Kansas Indian, — "Michi-gan,"= Great sea Spanish for flowery — blooming From an Indian tribe " Tehas,"= "friendly" Indian, "A]awa,"=" Beyond or across" Indian— "rushing waters," indicating the rapids of the V,"i3consin River Name given to an imaginary Island in a Spanish romance (1510) Indian, — "Minne-sotah,"= cloudy water Indian, — "Wau-re-gon,"= beautiful w^ter Indian, meaning "south wind people" (Same as Virginia) Spanish,— "Snowy" Indian, — ''Shallow water," referring to the Platte River Spanish, — "red," referring to color of soil and rocks Indian, meaning "allied," referring to the united Sioux tribes (Same as North Dakota) Spanish for "Mountainous" After the Father of his country Indian for "Gem of the Mountains" Indian for "Broad valley" Indian for "Mountain home" Indian for "Beautiful country" Blue Hen. Keystone. Cracker Nutmeg Bay Old Line Palmetto Granite Old Dominion... Empire Old North Little Rhody Green Mountain. Blue Grass Volunteer Buckeye Creole Hoosier Bayou. Prairie..,. Cotton Pine Tree Wolverine- Flower Lone Star . Hawkeye. . Golden North Star.... Sunset Sunflower Panhandle Silver Black Water.. Centennial Sioux Coyote Mountain Chinook Blue Hens. Peach Blossom. Jersey Blues Buzzards Wooden Nutmegs.. Bean Eaters Crawthumpers Mountain Laurel. Golden Rod Granite Boys.. Knickerbockers.. Tar Heels Rose. Green Mountain Boys. Corncrackers Butternuts Buckeyes Violetf Red Cloverf. Hoosiers., Suckers.. Foxes. . . Toothpicks.. Wolverines.. Hawkeyes. Carnation Magnolia. Corn Magnolia Violetf Golden Rod. Pine Cone and Tassel. Golden Rod Apple Blossom Apple Blossom Orange Blossom Blue Bonnet Wild Rose Gophers Web-feet Jayhawkers. . Panhandlers.. Sage Hens. . . California Poppy. Moccasin Oregon Grape Sunflower Rhododendron. . . Tuckoes. Golden Rod| Columbine Wild Rose Anemone Patens. Bitter Root Rhododendron. . . Syringa Sooner. From Columbus "Mexitl," the Aztec God of war.. Aboriginal,— "Al-ak-shak,"= Main land or "great land". Spanish for "Rich Harbor" After Philip II of Spain... Sego Lily. Mistletoe. *The "State Flower" has been adopted in all except two in- stances, by the vote of the public school scholars, in the re- spective states. t Adopted by State Legislature. THE NATIONAL FLAG The official flag of the United States bears forty-six white stars arranged in six rows in a blue field. The second and fifth rows have seven utars each, and the other four rows eight stars each. When Arizona and New Mexico are admitted the flag will bear forty-eight stars arranged in six rows of eight stars each. The garrison flag of the Army is made of bunting, thirty-six feet fly and twenty feet hoist; thirteen stripes, and in the upper quarter, next the staff, is the field or "union" of stars, equal to the number of States, on blue field, over one-third length of flag, extending to the lower edge of the fourth red stripe from the top. The storm flag is twenty by ten feet, and the recruiting flag nine feet nine inches by four feet four inches. The "American Jack" is the "union" or blue field of the flag. 94 National Development CHAPTER XII— PRESIDENTIAL No Year of Elec- tion Num- ber of States Total Elec- toral Vote VICE-PRESIDENT PRESIDENT of Elec- tion Political Party Candidates State Elec- toral Vote Political Party Candidates State Popular Vote Elec- toral Vote 1 1789 10 (13) 73 (91) Federalist... Federalist... Federalist.. . George Washington. John Adams (V. P.) . . John Jay Robert H. Harrison... . George Clinton Va.... 69 34 N.Y.. Md.... 9 6 R.C., 6 4 N.Y.. 3 2 Ga.... 2 Edward Telfair Ga.... 1 Ga.... 1 1 (4) 2 1792 15 135 Federalist.. . Federalist.. . Dem-Rep... Dem-Rep... Dem-Rep... George Washington. John Adams (V. P.). . George Clinton Aaron Burr Va.... 132 Mass.. 77 N.Y.. Va.... 50 4 N.Y.. 1 (3) 3 1796 16 138 Federalist.. . Federalist.. . Dem-Rep. . . Dem-Rep. . . Dem-Rep. . . Dem-Rep. . . Federalist.. . Federalist.. . Federalist.. . Federalist... Federalist... Federalist.. . Tho. Jefferson (V.P.) Aaron Burr George Clinton John Jay James IredelL George Washington. . . Samuel Johnston 71 R.O.. Va.... 59 68 N.Y.. Mass.. 30 15 N.Y.. N.Y.. N.C... Va.... 7 5 3 2 N.C. Md.. . . 2 2 Chas. C. Pinckney. S.C.. 1 11 4 1800 16 138 Federalist... Federalist.. . Dem-Rep... Dem-Rep... Federalist.. . 65 Chas. C. Pinckney. Thomas Jefferson. . . Aaron Burr (V.P.).. John Jay S. C. . Va.... 64 73 N.Y.. N.Y.. 73 1 5 1801 17 176 Federalist Dem-Rep Rufus King George Clinton N.Y. . N.Y.. 14 162 Federalist.. . Dem-Rep. . . Thomas JeSerson. . . R.C. Va.... 14 162 6 1808 17 176 Federalist Dem-Rep Rufus King George Clinton N.Y.. N.Y.. N.H. Va.... Va.... 47 113 9 3 3 (1) Federalist.. . Dem-Rep... Dem-Rep. . . Chas. C. Pinckney... . . George Clinton S. C. . Va.... 47 122 N.Y.. 6 (1) 7 1812 18 218 Federalist Dem-Rep Elbridge Gerry Pa.... N.Y.. 86 131 (1) Federalist.. . Dem-Rep. . . De Witt Clinton James Madison N.Y.. Va.... 89 128 (1) S 1816 19 221 Federalist Dem-Rep Daniel D. Tompkins. Md.... N.Y.. Pa.... Va.... Md.... 22 183 5 4 3 (*) Federalist.. . Dem-Rep. . . Rufus King James Monroe N.Y.. Va 34 183 (4) 9 1820 24 235 Federalist.... Dem-Rep. . . . Federalist.. . Dem-Rep. . . Dem-Rep... Daniel D. Tompkins. . Richard Stockton N.Y.. N.J... Del... Md.... Pa.... 218 8 4 1 1 (3) James Monroe Va.. . . 231 1 (3) 10 1821 24 261 Federalist.. . . Dem-Rep. . . . Dem-Rep Dem-Rep Dem-Rep Dem-Rep Dem-Rep (No candidate) Federalist... Dem-Rep... Dem-Rep. . . Dem-Rep. . . Dem-Rep. . . John C.Calhoun Nathan Sanford Nathaniel Macon Martin Van Buren S.C.. N.Y.. N.C... Tenn.. N.Y.. Ky.... 182 30 24 13 9 2 (1) John Q. Adams * Wm. H. Crawford Henry Clay Tenn.. Mass.. Ga.... Ky.... 155,872 105,321 44,282 46,587 99 84 41 37 Presidential Elections from 1789 95 ELECTIONS FROM 1789 si 3 "3 S25 W Ph 10 8 2 l-s 6 1 5 5 •z, 7 5 2 9 9 9 4 5 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 ax 10 10 16 16 16 13 2 1 16 16 19 19 22 22 15 15 a 6 6 (2) 8 8 (2) 7 4 4 3 d 7 a "A 5 5 10 5 1 S25 (8) 12 d (7) 12 t— I p4 (3) 4 4 Eh > 3 3 A 1 3 3 O a i g 3 3 CO a 2 (1) 3 03 1— < g 3 3 2 1 3 — 3 3 15 14 1 1 2 14 13 21 12 12 4 (1) 4 4 4 4 1 '8 8 6 1 1 20 1 15 3 1 12 12 1 1 11 6 4 . .. 3 1 1 3 3 3 > 3 4 > 3 i 4 * • . . 1 2 7 7 8 8 20 20 25 25 24 (1) 28 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 '4 4 6 6 8 8 9 2 5 5 5 5 2 9 2 9 5 6 8 (3) 11 7 3 1 *8 8 6 6 6 1 4 4 3 21 21 12 12 4 4 8 8 4 4 4 4 3 3 1 10 10 ii 11 11 11 7 7 8 8 7 1 8 24 24 25 25 25 24 4 19 13 6 29 29 29 1 26 5 14 3 11 4 4 6 8 5 3 6 7 5 3 15 15 15 15 4 4 4 (1) 8 8 8 12 12 12 8 8 7 (1) 11 7 a) 8 8 3 3 3 3 2 5 4 7 14 ... 16 96 National Development PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS No. Year of Elec- tion Num- ber of States Total Elec- toral Vote VICE-PRESIDENT PRESIDENT of Elec- tion Political Party Candidates State Elec- toral Vote Political Party Candidates State Popular Vote Elec- toral Vote 11 1828 24 261 John C.Calhoun William Smith Pa.... S.C.. S.C.. 83 171 7 Nat-Rep Andrew Jackson Mass.. Tenn.. 509,097 647,231 83 178 12 1832 24 288 Ind Martin Van Buren.. . Pa.... N.Y.. Mass.. Pa.... Pa 49 189 11 7 30 (2) Nat-Rep Ind Anti-Mason. Ky.... Tenn.. Ga.... Md.... 530,189 687,502 \ 33,108 49 Andrew Jackson 219 11 Anti-Mason. . William Wirt. 7 (2) 13 1836 26 294 Whig Whig Whig Francis Granger John Tyler N.Y.. Va.... Ala... 77 47 23 Whig. Whig Whig Whig. Hugh L. White Willie P. Mangum Martin Van Buren.. . Ohio.. Term.. Mass.. N.C... N.Y.. [ 736,656 761,549 73 26 William Smith 14 11 Dem Ky.... 147 170 14 1810 26 294 Whig Dem Dem John Tyler Va.. . . Ky.... Va.... Tenn.. Pa.... 234 48 11 1 Whig Martin Van Buren Ohio. . N.Y.. 1,275,016 1,128,702 234 L. W.Tazewell 60 James G. Birney N.Y.. 7,059 IS 1844 26 275 Whig Theo. Frelinghuysen.. . George M. Dallas. . . N.J... Pa.... Ohio.. 105 170 Whig Dem Tenn.. Tenn.. N.Y.. 1,299,068 1,337,243 62,300 105 James K. Polk James G. Birney 170 16 1848 30 290 Whig Millard Fillmore .. . William O. Butler, N.Y.. Ky.... Mass.. 163 127 Whig Free Soil.... Lewis Cass Martin Van Buren La. . . . Mich. . N.Y.. 1,360,101 1,220,544 291,263 163 127 17 1852 31 296 Whig. Free Dem William A. Graham William R. King Ala... N.C... Ind... 42 254 Whig. Free Dem.. . Whig. Winfield Scott Franklin Fierce John P. Hale N.J... N.H.. N.H.. Mass.. 1,380,576 1,601,474 156,149 1,670 42 254 18 1856 31 296 Wm. L. Dayton J. C. Breckenridge.. . A. J. Donelson N.J... Ky.... Tenn.. 114 174 8 James Buchanan... . Millard Fillmore Cal.... Pa. . . . N.Y.. 1,341,264 1,838,169 874,538 114 Dem Amer. 174 8 19 1860 33 303 Hannibal Hamlin.. . . Me.... Ga.... Ore. . . Mass.. 180 12 72 39 Dem Abraham Lincoln. . . Stephen A. Douglas. . . J. C. Breckenridge John Bell 111.... 111.... Ky.... Tenn.. 1,866,352 1,375,157 845,763 589,581 180 Dem Union 12 72 39 20 1864 25 (36) 233 (314) Andrew Johnson. .... George H. Pendleton.. . (States not Voting) Tenn.. Ohio. . 212 21 (81) Rep Abraham Lincoln. . . George B. McClellan. . . 111.... N.J... 2,216,067 1,808,725 212 21 (81) 21 1868 34 (37) 294 (317) Schuyler Colfax F. P. Blair, Jr (States not Voting) Ind. . . Mo.... 214 80 (23) Rep 111.... N.Y.. 3,015,071 2,709,615 214 Dem Horatio Seymour 80 (23) 22 1872 1876 37 366 B. Grata Brown Mass.. Mo.... 286 47 Rep Dem. & L. . Temp, , Ind 111.... N.Y.. N.Y.. Pa.... Ind 3,597,070 2,834,079 29,408 5,608 286 Dem. & L... Temp Lib Horace Greeley f Charles O'Conor George W. Julian A. H. Colquitt JohnM. Palmer Willis B. Machen T. E. Bramlette Nathaniel P. Banks. . . Ind... Ga.... 111.... Ohio. . Ky.... Ky.... Mass.. 5 5 3 1 1 3 1 (14) Thos. A. Hendricks . . . David Davis 42 Dem Dem Lib Mo.... 18 Ga.... 2 Ill 1 (17) 23 38 369 William A. Wheeler. Thos. A. Hendricks Gideon T. Stewart D. Kirkpatrick N.Y.. Ind... Ohio. . 185 184 Greenback. . Prohib , Butherford B. Hayes Samuel J. TildenJ Peter Cooper James B. Walker Ohio. . N.Y.. N.Y.. Ky.... 111.... 4,033,950 4,284,885 81,740 9,522 2,636 185 Greenback. . . Prohib 184 Ohio. . N.Y.. 24 1880 38 369 Chester A. Arthur. . . William H. English. . . N.Y.. Ind. . . Tex. . . 214 155 Dem Greenback. . Prohib ,.,. James A. Garfield. . . W.S. Hancock Ohio. . Pa.... Iowa... Me.... Vt. . . . 4,449,053 4,442,030 307,306 10,305 707 214 Greenback. . . Prohib Amer 155 Ohio. . John W.Phelps Presidential Elections from 1789 97 10M 1789 (Continued) \i . 8 8 .. 8 i "9 ii 55 55 8 8 03 < S 15 14 Q a 6 5 5 3 d 03 ii 55 8 ~2A >> 55 16 20 d S3 "is (4 4 4 7 7 7 « 14 15 15 H E-> 11 15 ii O 1— 1 W O 16 21 21 3 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 Q 55 5 9 9 9 12 12 13 03 03 t—t S 3 4 4 4 6 6 7 03 O 55 3 ►j 3 5 5 5 9 9 11 < 5 7 7 7 9 9 9 5 a 8 1 10 10 10 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 d a '3 4 4 4 7 7 9 '9 '9 11 11 6 8 1 is is < 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 (5) 5 8 a 3 3 5 5 6 6 6 8 8 11 s »— < d m 4 '4 4 5 5 6 6 1 5 55 fa t— 1 s 4 4 4 5 5 5 55 O O O 3 03 55 c 5 5 '5 "s > 55 S3 55 O O Q 55 03 53 O a X m < O W 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 O M o 23 23 22 1 23 23 23 23 i 8 "s 8 8 '8 9 9 Q Z 1— 1 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 CO 1— 1 a 9 '9 9 9 9 io io oa 1 22 22 24 24 24 27 27 3 io io 11 ii ii ii ii 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 d a 16 16 17 17 18 18 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 a Z 3 3 3 3 *3 3 3 m w z 5 5 8 8 8 8 8 O O a 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 O Z 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 Q ai 4 4 4 4 4 Eh Z O a 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 O Q t— 1 3 3 3 3 d & 3 3 3 3 3 53 < &h P 3 3 3 3 < -J O 13 12 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 36 36 36 39 39 n ii ii 12 ii 13 12 1 12 ii" 13 12 13 12 13 12 7 The Electors must be chosen within thirty-four days preceding the first Wednesday of December of the year in which an election of President and . ^-President takes place, and must be equal in number to all the Senators and Representatives in Congress. The Electors were at first chosen in four different modes, namely:— (1) by joint ballot of the State Legislature, (2) by a concurrent vote of the i branches of the State Legislature, (3) by the people of the State, voting by general ticket, and (4) by the people, voting in districts. This latter mode was evidently that which gave the fairest expression to public opinion, by approaching nearest to a direct vote. But those tes which adopted it were placed at the disadvantage of being exposed to a division of their strength and neutralization of their vote; while the ctors chosen by either of the other methods voted in a body on one side or the other, thus making the voice of the State decisively felt. This sideration induced the leading States of Massachusetts and of Virginia, which originally adopted the district system, to abandon it in 1800. An Act of Congress was approved January 23, 1845, to establish a uniform time for holding elections for Electors in all the States of the Union, whereby J are appointed in each State on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in the month of March of the year in which they are to be appointed. Each State may also by law provide for the filling of any vacancy or vacancies which may occur in its College of Electors, when such College meets jve its electoral vote; and when any State shall have held an election for the purpose of choosing Electors, and shall fail to make a choice on the day esaid, then the Electors may be appointed on a subsequent day in such manner as the State shall by law provide. The Electors meet in the capitals of their respective States, on the first Wednesday of December, and vote by distinct ballots for President and (-President. They make lists of the number of votes given, and of the persons voted for, which they transmit sealed, by a special messenger, to the ident of the Senate at Washington. t The Senate and House of Representatives, having met in convention on a day fixed, the President of the Senate opens all the certificates, and the s are counted. If no person have a majority of the votes counted, then from the persons having the highest number, not exceeding three, in the list hose voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately and by ballot the President. If the House of Representatives 1 not choose a President, whenever the right of choice devolves upon them, before the 4th of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as sident, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 100 National Development CHAPTER XIII— PRESIDENTIAL PRESIDENTS HAYES, 1877-1881. GARFIELD, 18S1-1881 . ARTHUR, 1881-1885.... cleveland, 1885-1889. harrison, 1889-1893... cleveland, 1893-1897. Mckinley, 1897-1901... ROOSEVELT, 1901-1909. Thomas Jefferson Edmund Randolph.. . . Timothy Pickering Timothy Pickering John Marshall WASHINGTON, 1789-1797. ADAMS, 1797-1801 JEFFERSON, 1801-1809 ? ( .■ 1 1: . n . MADISON, 1809-1817 MONROE, 1817-1825 J. Q. ADAMS, 1825-1829... JACKSON, 1829-1837 Robert Smith. , James Monroe. , John Q. Adams.. Henry Clay. Martin Van Buren Ed. Livingston Louis McLane John Forsyth VAN BUREN, 1837-1841 HARRISON, 1841-1841.. TYLER, 1841-1845 POLK, 1845-1849 TAYLOR, 1849-1849... FILLMORE, 1849-1853. PIERCE, 1853-1857.... BUCHANAN, 1857-1861 LINCOLN, 1861-1865... JOHNSON, 1865-1869.. GRANT, 1869-1877 John Forsyth.. TAFT, 1909. Secretary of State state tear Sec'y of Treasury state year Secretary of War state yeas Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Hugh S. Legare" Abel P. Upshur John C. Calhoun James Buchanan.. John M. Clayton- Daniel Webster.. . Edward Everett. . William L. Marcy.. Lewis Cass Jeremiah S. Black. . William H. Seward.. . . William H. Seward Elihu B. Washburn. Hamilton Fish William M. Evarts. . . James G. Blaine. . . F. T. Frelinghuysen.. . Thomas F. Bayard James G. Blaine John W. Foster Walter Q. Gresham. . . Richard Olney John Sherman William R. Day John Hay John Hay Elihu Root Robert Bacon Philander C. Knox. Va.... Va.... Mass.. Mass.. Va.... Va.... Md... Va... Ky... N.Y. La... Del.. Ga... Ga... Mass. S.C.. Va... S.C.. Pa... Del.. Mass. Mass. N.Y. Mich. Pa... N.Y. N.Y. III... N.Y. N.Y.. Me... N.J.. Del.. Me... Ind.. 111... Mass. Ohio. Ohio. Ohio. Ohio. N.Y. N.Y. Pa.... 1789 1794 1795 1797 1800 1801 1809 1811 1817 1825 1829 Samuel D. Ingham.. . . 1831 Louis McLane 1833 William J. Duane 1834| Roger B.Taney Levi Woodbury. 1837 Levi Woodbury. 1841 1841 1843 1843 Thomas Ewing. . . Thomas Ewing. . . Walter Foreward. John C. Spencer. . 18441 George M. Bibb... 1845 1849 1850 1852 1853 1857 1860 1861 1865 1869 1869 1877 1881 1881 Alexander Hamilton. . Oliver Wolcott Oliver Wolcott Samuel Dexter Samuel Dexter Albert Gallatin Albert Gallatin Geo. W. Campbell Alexander J. Dallas. . . William H. Crawford. . William H. Crawford.. Richard Rush. Robert J. Walker. William M. Meredith. Thomas Corwin James Guthrie Howell Cobb Philip F. Thomas John A. Dix Salmon P. Chase William P. Fessenden. Hugh McCulloch Hugh McCulloch George S. Boutwell.. . . William A. Richardson Ben]'. H. Bristow. . Lot M. Morrill John Sherman.. William Windom Charles J. Folger. Walter Q. Gresham. . . Hugh McCulloch Daniel Manning Charles S. Fairchild. . . William Windom Charles Foster John G. Carlisle 1885 1889 1892 1893 1895 1897 1897 1898 1901 Lyman J. Gage. 1905 Leslie M.Shaw.... 1909 George B. Cortelyou.. Lyman J. Gage. 1909 Franklin MacVeagh.. . Ill N. Y... Conn. . Conn. . Pa... Pa... Term. Pa... Ga... Ga... Pa... Pa... Del.. Pa... Md... N.H.. N.H. Ohio. Ohio. Pa... N.Y. Ky... Pa... Ohio. Ky... Ga... Md... N.Y. Ohio. Me... Md... Md... Ky... Me... Ohio. Minn. N.Y. Md... Md... N.Y. N.Y. Minn. Ohio. Ky... 111... III... la.... N.Y. 1789 1795 1797 1801 1801 1801 1809 1814 1814 1816 1817 1825 1829 1831 1833 1833 1834 1837 John Bell John Bell John McLean John C. Spencer 1844 James M. Porter William Wilkins William L. Marcy. 1841 1841 1841 1843 1845 1850 1853 1857 1860 1861 1861 1864 1865 1865 1869 1873 1874 1876 1877 1881 1881 1884 1884 1885 1887 1889 1891 1893 1897 1901 1901 1907 1909 Henry Knox Timothy Pickering James McHenry James McHenry John Marshall Samuel Dexter Roger Griswold Henry Dearborn William Eustis John Armstrong James Monroe William H. Crawford. . Isaac Shelby Geo. Graham (ad. in) . John C. Calhoun James Barbour Peter B. Porter John H. Eaton Lewis Cass Benjamin F. Butler. . . Joel R. Poinsett. . George W. Crawford. . Edward Bates Chas. M. Conrad Jefferson Davis John B. Floyd Joseph Holt Simon Cameron Edwin M. Stanton Edwin M. Stanton U.S. Grant (ad. in.).. Lor. Thomas (ad. in).. John M. Schofield John A. Rawlins Wm. T. Sherman Wm. W. Belknap Alphonso Taft Jas. Don. Cameron George W. McCrary. . . Alexander Ramsey Robert T. Lincoln Robert T. Lincoln Wm. C. Endicott Redfield Proctor. Stephen B. Elkins Daniel S. Lamont Russell A. Alger Elihu Root Elihu Root William H. Taft Luke E. Wright Jacob M. Dickinson. Henry L. Stinison . . . Md... Md... Va... Mass. Conn. N.Y.. Va.... Ga.... Ky.... Va.... S. C. . Va.... N.Y.. Tenn.. Ohio.. N.Y.. S.C.. Tenn.. Tenn.. Ohio. . N.Y.. Pa.... Pa.... N.Y.. Ga.. . . Mo... . La.... Miss. Va... Ky.... Pa... Ohio. Ohio. 111... 111... N.Y. 111... Ohio. Iowa.. Ohio. Pa... la.... Minn. 111... 111... Vt.... W.Va. N.Y.. Mich. . N.Y.. N.Y.. Ohio.. Tenn.. Tenn.. 1W n.y.. mil Presidential Cabinet Officers 101 IABINET OFFICERS, FROM 1789 Secretary of Navt enjanun Stoddert.. enjamin Stoddert.. . ,obert Smith »cob Crowninahield. 'aul Hamilton.... filliam Jones I. W. Crowninahield. . I. W. Crowninshield. nrith Thompson amuel L. Southard.. . amuel L. Southard. ohn Branch jevi Woodbury. lahlonDickerson... Md.. Md.. Md.. S.C., Pa.., N.Y. N.J- N.J- N.C. N.H. N.J.. 1798 Edmund Randolph.. William Bradford.. . Charles Lee Charles Lee Theophilua Parsons. 1801 1801 1805 1809 1813 Attorney-General Levi Lincoln Robert Smith John Breckinridge. Caesar A. Rodney- Caesar A. Rodney- William Pinkney.. . 1814|Richard Rush lahlonDickerson.. fames K. Paulding. JeorgeE. Badger.., 3eorge E. Badger.. , M)el P. Upshur. David Henshaw Thomas W. Gilmer Tohn Y. Mason 3eorge Bancroft John Y. Mason William B.Preston... William A. Graham. . John P. Kennedy Tames C. Dobbin Isaac Toucey. N.J.. N.Y. N.C. N.C. Va... Mass. Va... Va... Mass. Va... Va.... N.C. Md... N.C. Conn. Jideon Welles.. iSideon Welles. Conn.. 1861 dolph E. Borie eorge M. Robeson. . . ichard W.Thompson. athanGoff, Jr filliam H. Hunt filliam E. Chandler. . filliam C. Whitney., enjamin F. Tracy.. . ilary A. Herbert.... )hn D. Long ihn D. Long 'illiam H. Moody. . . , Jul Morton •las. J. Bonaparte.. . , rtor H. Metcalf H. Newberry rarge Von L. Meyer 1817 Richard Rush. 1818 William Wirt.. 1823 1825 1829 1831 1834 1837 1838 1841 1841 1841 1843 1844 1844 1845 1846 1849 1850 1852 1853 1857 William Wirt.. John McP. Berrien.. , Roger B. Taney Benjamin F. Butler. Benjamin F. Butler. . Felix Grundy Henry D. Gilpin John J. Crittenden. . . John J. Crittenden. . . HughS. Legard John Nelson Va... Pa... Va... Va... Md... Ky... Del.. Del.. Md... Pa... Pa... Va... Va... Ga... Md... N.Y. N.Y. Tenn. Pa... Ky... Ky... S.C.. Md... John Y. Mason. . . Nathan Clifford.. . Isaac Toucey Reverdy Johnson. John J. Crittenden. . . Conn.. Pa... N.J.. Ind.... W.Va, La N.H.. N.Y. N.Y. Ala.. Mass. III... Md... Cal... Mich. 1865 1869 1877 1881 1881 1882 188, 1889 1893 1897 1901 1902 1904 1905 1907 1908 1909 Caleb Cushing Jeremiah S. Black- Edwin M. Stanton. Edward Bates Titian J. Coffey (ad. in) James Speed Henry Stanbery William M. Evarts. . EbenezerR. Hoar- Amos T. Ackerman. . . George H. Williams. . . Edwards Pierrepont- . Alphonso Taft Charles Devens Postmaster-General Samuel Osgood. 1789 1794 Timothy Pickering. 1795 " 1797 1801 Joseph Habersham Habersham Va... Me... Conn. Md... Ky... Pa... Ohio. Mo... Pa... Ky... Ky... Ohio. N.Y. Mass. Ga... Ore.. N.Y. Ohio. Wayne MacVeagh- Benj. H. Brewster. Aug. H. Garland. . Wm. H. H. Mille- Richard Olney Judson Harmon Joseph McKenna John W.Griggs Philander C. Knox Philander C. Knox — William H. Moody. . . . Chas. J. Bonaparte Geo. W. Wickersham. Pa.. Pa.. Ark.. Ind.. Mass. Ohio. Cal... N.J.. Pa... Pa... Mass. Md... N.Y. 1801 1805 1805 1807 1809 1811 1814 1817 1817 1825 1829 1831 1833 1837 1838 1840 1841 1841 1841 1843 Joseph Habersham.. . Gideon Granger. 1845 1846 1848 1849 Gideon Granger Return J. Meigs, Jr. Return J. Meigs, Jr. . John McLean John McLean William T.Barry.... Amos Kendall Amos Kendall. John M. Niles Francis Granger Francis Granger Charles A. Wickliffe- Cave Johnson. Jacob Callamer. 1853 1857 1860 1861 1863 1864 1865 1866 1868 1869 1870 1871 1875 1876 1877 1881 1881 188. 1893 1895 1897 1897 1901 1901 1904 1907 1909 James Campbell. . . Aaron V. Brown. . . Joseph Holt Horatio King Montgomery Blair. William Dennison- William Dennison.. Alex. W. Randall- John A. J. Cresswell- James W. Marshall- . Marshall Jewell James N. Tyner David McK. Key.... Horace Maynard Thomas L. James Timothy O. Howe Walter Q. Gresham. . Frank Hatton William F. Vilas Don M. Dickinson- . , John Wanamaker Mass.. Mass.. Ga.... Ga.... Ga... Conn. Conn. Ohio. Ohio. . Ohio.. Ohio.. 1850 Nathan K.Hall.... Samuel D. Hubbard- . Ky- Ky- Ky.... Conn.. N.Y.. N.Y Ky- Tenn. Vt.... N.Y. Conn. Pa... Tenn. Ky... Me... Md... Ohio. Ohio. Wis.. Md... Va... Conn. Md... Tenn. Tenn. N.Y. Wis.. Ind.. la.... Wis.. Mich. Pa... 1789 1791 1795 1797 1801 1801 1809 1814 1817 1823 1825 1829 1835 1837 1840 1841 1841 1S41 1845 Wilson S. Bissell Wm. L. Wilson James A. Gary Chas. Emory Smith. . . Chas. Emory Smith. . . Henry C. Payne Robert J. Wynne Geo. B. Cortelyou G. von L. Meyer Frank H. Hitchcock. . 1849 1850 1852 1853 1857 1859 1861 1861 1864 Sec'y op Interior Thomas Ewing. James A. Pearce T. M. T. McKennan... Alex. H.H.Stuart.... Robert McClelland. Jacob Thompson... Caleb B. Smith. John P. Usher. . 1865 John P. Usher 1866 James Harlan O. H. Browning 1869 1874 Jacob D. Cox. . Columbus Delano. 1874 Zachariah Chandler. 1876 N.Y.. W.Va. Md-.. Pa.... Pa. . . . Wis. . . Pa.... N.Y.. Mass.. Ohio. Md... Pa... Va... Mich, Miss. Carl Schurz. Samuel J. Kirkwood. . . Henry M.Teller 1877 1880 1881 1881 1883 1884 1885 L. Q. C. Lamar. 1888 William F. Vilas., 1889 John W. Noble. 1893 Hoke Smith 1895 David R. Francis 1897 Cornelius N. Bliss 1898 Ethan A. Hitchcock- . 1901 Ethan A. Hitchcock.. . 1901 1904 1905 1907 1909 James R. Garfield. . Richard A. Ballinger. Walter L. Fisher Ind.... Ind.... 1861 1863 Ind-.. la 111.... 1865 1865 1866 Ohio. . Ohio. . Mich. . 1869 1870 1875 Mo.... 1877 la Colo- . 1881 1882 Miss.... Wis... Mo-.. 1885 1888 1889 Ga.... Mo.... N.Y.. Mo.... 1893 1896 1897 1899 Mo.... Ohio.. 1901 1907 Wash. 111. .. 1909 1911 1849 1850 1850 1850 1853 1857 102 National Development CABINET OFFICERS (Concluded) PRESIDENTS cleveland, 1885-1889.. b. harrison, 1889-1893 cleveland, 1893-1897.. Mckinley, 1897-1901... roosevelt, 1901-1909. . TAFT, 1909 Secs. of Agriculture Norman J. Colman Jeremiah M. Rusk. J. Sterling Morton. James Wilson James Wilson James Wilson State Year Mo. 1889 Wis. 1889 Neb. 1893 la. 1897 la. 1901 la. 1909 Secs. of Com. and Labor George B. Cortelyou Victor H. Metcalf . . . Oscar S. Straus Charles Nagel State N. Y. CaL N. Y, Mo. Yeab 1903 1904 1907 1909 JUSTICES OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT From 1789 (Names of Chief Justices are in Small Capitals) Name John Jay, N. Y John Rutledge, S. C Win. Gushing, Mass James Wilson, Pa John Blair, Va R. H. Harrison, Md. . . . James Iredell, N. C Thos. Johnson, Md Win. Patterson, N. J. . . John Rutledge, S. C. . . Samuel Chase, Md Oliver Ellsworth, Ct. B. Washington, Va Alfred Moore, N. C John Marshall, Va.... Wm. Johnson, S. C B. Livingston, N. Y. . . . Thomas Todd, Ky. Joseph Story, Mass Gabriel Duval, Md S. Thompson, N. Y Robt. Trimble, Ky Service Term 1789-1795 1789-1791 1789-1810 1789-1798 1789-1796 1789-1790 1790-1799 1791-1793 1793-1806 1795-1795 1796-1811 1796-1800 1798-1829 1799-1804 1801-1835 1804-1834 1806-1823 1807-1826 1811-1845 1811-1836 1823-1843 1826-1828 1745 1739 1733 1742 1732 1745 1751 1732 1745 1739 1741 1745 1762 1755 1755 1771 1757 1765 1779 1752 1767 1777 1829 1800 1810 1798 1800 1790 1799 1819 1806 1800 1811 18u7, 1829 1810 1835 1834 1823 1826 1845 1844 1843 1828 Name John McLean, Ohio Henry Baldwin, Pa Jas. M. Wayne, Ga Roger B. Taney, Md. . P. B. Barbour, Va John Catron, Tenn John McKinley, Ala Peter V. Daniel, Va.... Samuel Nelson, N. Y. . . L. Woodbury, N. H. . . . Robert C. Grier, Pa Benj. R. Curtis, Mass. . J. A. Campbell, Ala Nathan Clifford, Me N. H. Swayne, Ohio S. F. Miller, Iowa David Davis, 111 Stephen J. Field, Cal. . . Salmon P. Chase, Ohio. William Strong, Pa Jos. P. Bradley, N. J. . . Ward Hunt, N. Y Service Term 1829-1861 1830-1844 1835-1867 1836-1864 1836-1841 1837-1865 1837-1852 1841-1860 1845-1872 1845-1851 1846-1870 1851-1857 1853-1861 1858-1881 1861-1881 1862-1890 1862-1877 1863-1897 1864-1873 1870-1880 1870-1892 1872-1882 « 1785 1779 1790 1777 1783 1786 1780 1785 1792 1789 1794 1809 1811 1803 1804 1816 1815 1816 1808 1808 1813 1811 1861 1844 1867 1864 1841 1865 1852 1860 1873 1851 1870 1874 1889 1881 1884 1890 1886 1899 1873 1895 1892 Name :. R. Waite, Ohio John M. Harlan, Ky Wm. B. Woods, Ga Stanley Matthews, Ohio Horace Gray, Mass Saml. Blatchford, N. Y. L. Q. C. Lamar, Miss.. . M. W. Fuller, 111 D. J. Brewer, Kan Henry B. Brown, Mich. George Shiras, Jr., Pa. . H. E. Jackson, Tenn Edw. D. White, La.. . R. W. Peckham, N. Y. . Joseph McKenna, Cal. . O. W. Holmes, Mass Wm. R. Day, Ohio Wm. H. Moody, Mass.... Horace H. Lurton, Tenn Charles E. Hughes, N.Y. Joseph R. Lamar, Ga. . W. Van Devanter, Wyo. Service Term 1874-1888 1877-1911 1880-1887 1881-1889 1881-1902 1882-1893 1888-1893 1888-1910 1889-1910 1890-1906 1892-1903 1893-1895 1893-. 1895-1909 1898-. 1902-. 1903- . 1906-1910 1910-. 1910-. 1910-. 1910- . 14 1815 1833 1824 1824 1828 1820 1825 1833 1837 1836 1832 1832 1845 1838 1843 1841 1849 1853 1844 1862 1857 1859 i9id iai 18S3 1903 1893 1893 1910 191C 1895 1909 INDIANS OF THE UNITED STATES The estimated Indian population of the United States, accord- ing to the reports of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs for 1909, was 300,121. The increase in this population during the last three decades was as follows: Population in 1880 1890 1900 1909 256,127 243,524 270,544 300,121 The total area op the Reservations in the same year was: Square miles in 1880 1890 1900 1909 241,800 162,991 121,665 77,447 The amount expended by the United States on account of the Indians from 1789 to 1910, inclusive, was $503,850,921, of which $18,- 752,612 was expended during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910. The following more or less civilized tribes are self-supporting, viz.: Cherokees, 41,512; Chickasaws, 10,989; Choctaws, 26,615; Creeks, 18,762; Serainoles, 3,124; Six Nations (Iroquois), 5,419; Pueblos of New Mexico, 9,146, and Eastern Cherokees of North Carolina, 1,550. The distribution of Indians among the several States in 1908 waa !j as follows: b Oklahoma 117,370 Nebraska 3,744 i Arizona 37,209 Oregon 3,669 I-; South Dakota 20,171 North Carolina 1,898 'jr. California 19,788 Utah 1,771 !c NewMexico 18,627 Wyoming 1,67 It Wisconsin 11,020 Kansas 1,351 !s Montana 10,426 Colorado 808 £j Minnesota 10,008 Texas 470 fe Washington 8,484 Iowa 35i $j North Dakota 8,071 Florida 35| J, i Michigan 6,743 Miscellaneous 713 New York 5,455 ■ Nevada 5,870 Total 300,12) Idaho 4,073 Population of the United States 103 CHAPTER XIV. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES I. POPULATION OF STATES MAP AND TABLE CLASSIFYING STATES WITH RESPECT TO THE PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OB POPULATION, 1900 TO 1910 STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut. Delaware District of Columbia. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky. Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Population 1910 2,138,093 204,354 1,574,449 2,377,549 799,024 1,114,756 202,322 331,069 752,619 2,609,121 325,594 5,638,591 2,700,876 2,224,771 1,690,949 2,289,905 1,656,388 742,371 1,295,346 3,366,416 2,810,173 2,075,708 1,797,114 3,293,335 376,053 1,192,214 1900 1,828,697 122,931 1,311,564 1,485,053 539,700 908,420 184,735 278,718 528,542 2,216,331 161,772 4,821,550 2,516,462 2,231,853 1,470,495 2,147,174 1,381,625 694,466 1,188,044 2,805,346 2,420,982 1,751,394 1,551,270 3,106,665 243,329 1,066,300 Per Cent In- crease 1900- 1910 16.9 66.2 20.0 60.1 48.0 22.7 9.5 18.8 42.4 17.7 101.3 16.9 7.3 -0.3 15.0 6.6 19.9 6.9 9.0 20.0 16.1 18.5 15.8 6.0 54.5 11.8 Rank 1910 18 46 25 12 32 31 47 43 33 10 45 3 9 15 22 14 24 34 27 6 8 19 21 7 40 29 STATE Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Continental United States, Population 1910 81,875 430,572 2,537,167 327,301 9,113,614 2,206,287 577,056 4,767,121 1,657,155 672,765 7,665,111 542,610 1,515,400 583,888 2,184,789 3,896,542 373,351 355,956 2,061,612 1,141,990 1,221,119 2,333,860 145,965 91,972,266 1900 42,335 411,588 1,883,669 195,310 7,268,894 1,893,810 319,146 4,157,545 790,391 413,536 6,302,115 428,556 1,340,316 401,570 2,020,616 3,048,710 276,749 343,641 1,854,184 518,103 958,800 2,069,042 92,531 75,994,575 Per Cent In- crease 1900- 1910 93.4 4.6 34.7 67.5 25.4 16.5 80.8 14.7 109.7 62.7 21.6 26.6 13.1 45.4 8.1 27.8 34.9 3.6 11.2 120.4 27.4 12.8 57.7 21.0 Rank 1910 49 39 11 44 1 16 37 4 23 35 2 38 26 36 17 5 41 42 20 30 28 13 48 104 National Development II. POPULATION OF CITIES The total number of cities in continental United States containing over 25,000 inhabitants in 1910, as announced by the Bureau of the Census, is Two Hundred and Twenty-Eight (228) which may be classified as follows: Number Total Inhabitants (1) Cities Containing Over 100,000 Inhabitants, 50 20,303,047 (2) Cities of from 25,000 to 100,000 Inhabitants Total, 178 8,204,960 28,508,007 Fourteen (14) cities of those included'in this list have risen above the 100,000 limit since 1900. About one-third (69 out of 225) of the cities in continental United States show an increase of over 50 per cent, from 1900 to 1910. Of the 22 cities which have more than doubled their population during the past decade, 10 are in the West, 8 in the South, and 4 in the North. (1) THE FIFTY CITIES OF OVER 100,000 POPULATION, 1910 POPULATION PEE CENT OF INCREASE CITIES 1910 1900 .1890 CITIES POPULATION iaio 190Q 1S9Q PER CENT OF INCREASE. Total for cities of over 100,000 population . . 20, 303, 047 Albany, N.Y Atlanta, Ga Baltimore, Md Birmingham, Ala.. Boston, Mass Bridgeport, Conn Buffalo, N.Y Cambridge, Mass Chicago, 111 Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio. Columbus, Ohio. . Dayton, Ohio — Denver, Colo Detroit, Mich Fall Ri ver, Mass Grand Rapids, Mich. Indianapolis, Ind Jersey (Sty, N.J TTunHflfl City, Mo Los Angeles, Cal. Louisville, Ky — Lowell, Mass. Memphis, Tenn.. Milwaukee, Wis. 11, 470, 364 33.6 32.5 100,253 154, 839 558,485 132, 685 670, 585 102,054 423, 715 304,839 2,185,283 364,463 •660,663 181,548 116,577 213,381 465,766 119,235 112,571 233,650 267,779 248,381 319, 198 223,928 106,294 131,105 373,857 94,151 89,872 508, 957 38,415 560,892 70,996 352,387 91,886 1,698,575 325,902 381,768 125,560 85, 333 133, 859 285,704 104,863 87,565 169, 164 206, 433 163, 752 102,479 204, 731 94, 969 102, 320 285, 315 94,923 65,533 434,439 26,178 ,448,477 48,866 , 255, 664 70,028 1,099,850 296,908 261,353 88,150 61,220 106, 713 205; 876 1 74,398 60, 278 105,436 363,003 132,716 50,395 161,329 77, 696 64,495 204,468 65.0 72.3 9.7 245.4 19.6 43.7 20.2 14.1 28.7 11.8 46.9 44.6 36.6 59.4 63.0 13.8 28.6 38.1 2p:7 51.7 231.5 9.4 11.9 28.1 31.0 '0.8 37.1 17.2 46.7 25.1 45.3- 37.8 31.2 54.4 46.1 42.4 39.4 25.4 38.8 40.9 45.3 60.4 26.6 23.4 103.4 27.1 22.2 58.6 39.5 Minneapolis, Minn. Nashville, Tenn Newark, N.J New Haven, Conn.. New Orleans, La. . . New York, N.Y.. Oakland, Cal...... Omaha, Nebr Paterson, N.J Philadelphia, Pa.. Pittsburg, Pa Portland, Oreg. . . Providence, R. I. Richmond, Va Rochester, N. Y-. St. Louis, Mo St. Paul, Minn San Francisco, Cal. Spran ton , Pa Seattle, Wash .. Spokane, .-Wash. . . . Syracuse, N. Y.... Toledo, Ohio Washington, D. C. Worcester, Mass. . . 301,408 110,364 347,469 133, 605 339,075 4,766,883 150,174 124,096 125,600 1,549,008 633,905 207,214 '224,326 127,628 218,149 687,029 214,744 416,912 129,867 237,194 104,402 137,249 168,497 331,069 145,986 202,718 80,865 246,070 108,027 287,104 3,437,202 66,960 102,555 105,171 1,2- » 451, 512 90,426 175,-597 85,050 162,608 575,238 163,065 342, 782 102; 026 80,671 108,374 131,822 278,718 JJ.8,421 164, 738 76,168 181,830 81, 298 242,039 * 2,507,414 48,682 140,452 78,347 1,046,964 '343,904 46,385 132; 146 81,388 133, 896 451,770 133,156 298, 997 75,215 42,837 19, 922 88,143 81,434 230,392 84,655 48.7 36.5 41.2 23.7 18.1 124.3 21.0 19.4 19.7 18.2 329.2 27.8 50.1 34.2 19.4 33.7 21.6 27.3 194.0 183.3 26.6 27.8 18.8 23.3 23.1 6.2 35.3 32.9 18.6 37.1 37.5 '27.tt- 34.2 23.6 31.3 94.9 32.9 4.5 <2L4 27 3 22.5 14.6 35.6 88.3 85.0 23.0 6L9 2L0 39. 9 1 Decrease. ' Estimated population in 1890 of the area of present New York. The population of New York as it existed in 1890 was 1,515 301 " Includes population of Allegheny, which was, in 1900, 129,896, and in 1890, 105,287. A COMPARISON OF THE NINETEEN CITIES CONTAINING OYER 250,000 POPULATION. 1910 Hew York 4,766,883 Chicago 2,185,283 Philadelphia 1,549,008 St. Louis 687,029 Boston 670,585 Cleveland 560,663 Baltimore 558,485 Pittsburg 533,905 Detroit 465,766 Buffalo 423,715 San Francisco 416,912 Milwaukee 373,857 Cincinnati 364,463 Newark 347,469 New Orleans 339,075 Washington 331,069 Los Angeles 319,198 Minneapolis 301,408 Jersey City 267,779 Population of the United States POPULATION OF CITIES (Continued) (2) THE 178 CITIES OF FROM 25,000 TO 100,000 POPULATION: 1890-1910 105 CITIES Akron, Ohio Allentown, Pa Altoona, Fa Amsterdam, N Y Atlantic City^N. J Auburn, N. Y Augusta, Ga Aurora, 111 Austin, Tex Battle Creek, Mich , Bay City, Mich Bayonue, N J Berkeley, Cal Binghamton, N. Y Bloomington. Ill , "Brockton, Mass Brookline, Mass Butte, Mont Camden, N J Canton. .Ohio. ._. ^ , Cedar Rapids, Iowa Charleston, S C Charlotte, N. C Chattanooga, Tenn Chelsea, Mass Chester, Fa Chicopee, Mass Clinton, Iowa.. Colorado Springs, Colo. . Columbia, 8. C 'Council Bluffs, Iowa. . . . Covington, Ky Dallas, Tex Danville, 111 Davenport, Iowa Decatur, 111 Des Moines, Iowa Dubuque, Iowa Duluth, Minn JEaston, Pa 1!ast Orange, N. J. East St. Louis, 111 El Paso, Tex Elgin,IU Elizabeth, N.J Elmira.N.Y Erie, Pa Evansville, Ind Everett, Mass Fitchburg, Mass Flint, Mich Fort Wayne, Ind , Fo.'t Worth, Tex Galveston, Tex Green Bay^Wis Hamilton, Ohio Hanisburg, Pa Hartford, Conn , Haverhill, Mass Hazleton, Pa HoDoken, N. J Holyoke, Mass Houston, Tex Huntington, W. Va Jackson, Mich Jacksonville, Fla Jamestown, N. Y JohnBtown, Pa Joliet, 111 loplin, Mo Kalamazoo, Mich Kansas City, Kans Kingston.N.Y Knoxville, Tenn La Crosse, Wis Lancaster, Pa Lansing, Mich , Lawrence, Mass Lewiston, Me Lexington, Ky Lima, Ohio Lincoln, Nebr Little Rock, Ark Lorain, Ohio Lynchburg, Va Lynn, Mass Macon, Ga McKeesport, Pa Madison, Wis , Maiden, Mass , POPULATION. 1910 1900 69,067 51,913 52, 127 31,267 46, 150 34, 668 41, 040 29,807 29,860 25, 267 45, 166 55, 545 40, 434 48,443 25, 768 56, 878 27, 792 39, 165 94, 538 50, 217 32, 811 58, 833 34,014 44,604 32, 452 38,"537 25, 401 25,577 29,078 26,319 29, 292 53, 270 92, 104 27,871 43,028 31,140 36, 368 38,494 78,466 28, 523 34,371 58,547 39, 279 25,976 73 L 409 37,176 66, 525 69, 647 33,484 37, 826 38, 550 63, 933 73, 312 36, 981 25, 236 35,279 64,186 98, 915 44, 115 25,452 70, 324 57,730 78,800 31, 161 31, 433 57,699 31,297 55, 482 34, 670 32, 073 39,437 82, 331 25, 908 36, 346 30, 417 47, 227 31, 229 85, 892 26,247 35,099 30,508 43, 973 45, 941 28, 883 29, 494 89, 336 40, 665 42,694 25, 531 44,^04 1590 42, 728 35,416 38, 973 20, 929 27, 838 30, 345 39,441 24, 147 22, 258 18, 563 27, 628 32, 722 13, 214 39, 647 23, 286 .40, 063 19, 935 30, 470 75, 935 30, 667 25, 656 55, 807 18,091 30, 154 34,072 33, 988 19, 167 22, 698 21,085 21, 108 25,"802 42, 938 42, 638 16, 354 35,254 20;754 62, 139 36, 297 52, 969 25. 238 21,506 29,655 15, 906 22,433 52, 130 35,672 52, 733 59, 007 24, 336 31,531 13, 103 45, 115 26, 688 37, 789 18, 684 23, 914 50, 167 79, 850 37, 175 14, 230 59, 364 45, 712 44, 633 11, 923 25,180 28,429 22,892 35, 936 29,353 26,023 24,404 51,418 24, 535 32, 637 28, 895 -41, 459 16, 485 62, 559 23, 761 26,369 '21, 723 40, 169 38, 307 16,028 18,891 68, 513 23,272 34,227 19,164 33,664 27, 601 25, 228 30, 337 17, 336 13,055 25,858 33,300 19, 688 14, 575 13, 197 27, 839 19, 033 5,101 35, 005 20,484 27, 294 12, 103 10, 723 58,313 .26, 189 18,020 54,955 11, 557 29,100 27, 909 20, 226 14,050 13, 619 11,140 15,353 '21,474 37, 371 38,067 11,491 26, 872 Y6;84'l" '50, 093 30, 311 33,115 14,481 137282 15, 169 10,338 17,823 37,764 •30, 893 40, 634 50, 756 11,068 22, 037. 9,803 35, 393 23,076 29, 084 9,069 17, 565 39, 385 53, 230 27, 412 11, 872 43, 648 35, 637 27,557 10, 108 20, 798 17, 201 16,038 21, 805 23, 264 9,943 17, 853 38, 316 21, 261 22, 535 25, 090 32, 011 13, 102 44, 654 21, 701 21, 567 •15, 981 55, 154 25, 874 4,863 19J09 55,727 22,746 20, 741 13, 426 23, 031 61.6 46.6 33.8 49.4 65.8 14.2 4.1 23.4 34.2 36.1 63.5 69.7 206.0 22.2 10.7 42.0 39.4 28.5 24.5 63.7 27.9 5.4 88.0 47.9 »4.8 13.4 32.5 12.7 ,37.9 24.7 13.V 24.1 116.0 70.4 22.1 50.0" 39.0 6.1 48.1 13.0 59.8 97.4 146.9 15.8 40.8 4.2 26.2 18.0 37.6 20.0 194.2 41.7 174.7 '2.1 35.1 47.5 27.9 23.9 18.7 78.9 18.5 26.3 76.6 161.4 24.8 103.0 36.7 54.4 18.1 23.2 61.6 60.1 5.6 11.4 5.3 13.9 89.4 37.3 10.5 33- 1 40.4 9.5 19.9 80.2 56.1 30.4 74.7 24.7 33.2 31.9 CITIES 54.8 40.4 28.5 20.7 113.2 17.4 18.4 22.6 52.7 40.7 '0.8 71.' 9 159.0 13.3 13.7 46.8 64.7 184.2 30.2 17.1 42.4 1.6 56.5 3.6 22.1 68.0 36.4 66.7 89.3 37.5 20.2 14.9 12.0 42.3 31.2 £3.2 24.0 19.7 60.0 74..3 61.9 95.5 53.9 25.9 38.0 16.5 29.8 16.3 119.9 43.1 33.7 27.5 15.7 29.9 106.0 36.1 27.4 50.0 35.6 19.9 36.0 28.3 62.0 18.0 21.1 65.3 42.7 64.8 .26.2 161.7 36.7 34.2 15.4 44.8 15.2 29.5 25.8 40.1 9.5 22.3 35.9 '27.2 48.1 229.6 '4.2 22.9 2.3 65.0 42.7 46.2 Manchester, N. H Meriden, Conn Mobile, Ala. . . , Montgomery, Ala Mount Vernon. N. Y Muskogee, Okla Nashua.N.H Newark, Ohio New Bedford, Mass N_ew.Britain, Conn. Newburgh, N. Y Newcastle, Pa Newport, Ky Newport, R. I NewRochelle, N. Y.... Newton, Mass Niagara Falls, N. Y Norfolk, Va Norristown, Pa QadenJJtah., Oklahoma City, Okia. . . Orange, N.J , Oshkosh, Wis Pasadena, Cal Passaic L N. J.... , . Pawtucket, R. 1 Peoria, 111 Perth Amboy, N.J Pittsfield, Mass Portland, Me Portsmouth, Va. , Poughkeepsie, N . Y Pueblo, Colo Quincy, 111 Quincy, Mess Racine, Wis Reading, Pa Roanoke, Va Rockford, 111 Sacramento,, Cal Saginaw, Mich St. Joseph, Mo Salem, Mass Salt Lake City, Utah... San Antonio, Tex San Diego, Cal San Jose, Cal Savannah, Ga Schenectady. N. Y Wis POPULATION. mo Shenandoah, Pa Sbreveport, La Sioux City, Iowa Somerville, Mass jSouth Bend. Ind South Omaha, Nebr. . Springfield, 111 Springfield, Mass Springfield, Mo Sgringfield^Ohio Stamford, Conn Superior, Wis Tacoma, Wash Tampa, Fla Taunton L Mass. Terre Haute, Ind Topeka, Kans Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica; N. Y Waco, Tex Waltham, Mass Warwick, R. I Waterbury, Conn Waterloo, Iowa Watertown, N. Y WestHoboken, N. J. Wheeling, W. Va Wichita, Kans Wilkes-Barre, Pa Williamsport, Pa Wilmington, Del Wilmington, N. C. . . WoonBocket, R. I Yonkere, N. Y York, Pa Youngstown, Ohio. . . Zanesville, Ohio. . . . 70, 063 27, 265 51, 521 38, 136 30, 919 25, 278 26,005 25,404 96,652 43, 916, 27. 805 36, 280 30, 309 27, 149 28,867 39. 806 30,445 67,452 27, 875 25, 580 64, 205 29, 630 33, 062 30, 291 54,773 51, 622 66,950 32,121 32,121 58,571 33, 190 27, 936 44,395 36, 587 32, 642 38,002 96,071 34,874 45, 401 44,696 50, 510 77,403 43, 697 92, 777 96, 614 39, 578 28, 946 65,064 72, 826 26,398. 25,774 28,015 47, 828 77, 236 ,53 v 684 26,259 51, 678 88, 926 35, 201 46^921 25, 138 40, 384 83,743 37, 782 34, 259 58, 157 43, 684 96, 815 76, 813 74, 419 26,425 27,834 26, 629 73, 141 26, 693 26,730 35,403 41,641 52,450 67,105 31,860 87,411 25,748 38,125 79,803 44,750 79, 066 28,026 1900 56, 987 24,296 38, 469 30, 346 21, 228 4,254 23, 898 18, 157 62, 442 25,998 24,943 28,339 28, 301 22,441 14, 720 33,587 19,457 46, 624 22, 265 16,313 10, 037 24,141 28, 284 9,117 27, 777 39, 231 56,100 17. 699 21, 766 50, 145 17,427 24,029 28, 157 36,252 .23, 899 29, 102 78, 961 21,495 31, 051 29, 282 42, 345 102, 979 35, 956 53, 531 53,321 17. 700 21,500 54, 244 31, 682 22^962 20, 321 16,013 33, 111 61, 643 35 v 999 26,001 34, 159 62,059 23, 267 38,_253 15, 997 31, 091 37,714 15,839 31, 036 36, 673 33, 608 73, 307 60, 651 56,383 20,686 23,481 21, 316 45, 859 12, 580 21, 696 23, 094 38, 878 24, 671 51,721 28,757 76,508 20,976 28.204 47,931 33, 708 44,885 23,638 1890 44, 126 21,652 31,076 21,883 10,830 (*) 19, 311 14,270 40,733 16,519 23,087 11,600 24, 918 19,457 9,057 2t, 379 (') 34,871 19, 791 14. 889 4,151 18,844 22, 836 4,882 13^028 27, 633 41,024 9,512 17,281 36,425 13,268 22,206 24,558 31, 494 16^723, "21,014 58, 661 16, 159 23, 584 26.386 46, 322 52, 324 30,801 44, 843 37,673 16,159 18,060 43, 189 19, 902 .16,359 15, 944 11, 979 37, 806 40, 152 21, 819 8,062 24, 963 44, 179 21, 850 31, 895 11,983 36. 006 5,532 25, 448 30, 217 31,007 57, 458 60, 956 44. 007 14,445 18, 707 17, 761 28, 646 6,674 14,725 11, 665 34, 522 23, 853 37,718 27, 132 61,431 20,056 20,830 32,033 20, 793 33,220 21,009 22.9 12.2 8S.-9 26.7 45.7 494.2 8.8 39.9 64.8 68.9 11.5 28.0 7.1 21.0 96.1 18.5 66.5 44.7 25.2 56.8 539.7 22.7 16.9 232.2 97.2 31.5 19.3 81.5 47.6 16.8 90.5 16.3 57.7 0.9 36.6 30.6 21.7 62.2 46.2 52.6 19.3 '24.8 21.5 73.3 81.2 123.6 34.6 19.9 129.9 15.0 26.8 75.0 44.4 25.3 49.1 1.0 51.3 43.3 51.3 22.7 57.1 29.9 122.0 138.5 10.4 52.6 30.0 32.1 26.6 32.0 27.7 18.5 24.9 59.5 112.2 23.2 53.3 7.1 112.6 29.7 10.8 14.3 22.7 38.7 66.6 32.8 76.2 19.1 > Decrease. 1 Incorporated since 1890. 106 National Development CHAPTER XV.— IMMIGRATION Diagram of Total Yearly Immigration since 1820 Year | Total Immigration Small Divisions-25,000 200,000 rs2d 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 827 1828 1829 1830 IS3I 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 839 1640 IS4I 1842 1643 1844 1845 1846 847 848 1849 1850 1651 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1659 I860 1861 1662 1863 1864 1865 866 1867 1868 W69 1870 187J 672 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1681 1882 1883 1884 1885 886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 895 1696 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 .910 ... _ 200.000 •400,000 Prior to 1820 no records of immigration where kept. Samuel Blodget, a statistician, who wrote on the subject in 1806, expressed the opinion that the immigration during the period from 1784 to 1794 did not average more than 4,000 per annum. Sey- bert's Statistical Annals estimates the arrival of 600.000 1,000.000 1.200.000 600.000 800,000 •(.000.000 1.200,000 immigrants, from 1794 to 1810, at an average of 6,000 per year. The Act of March 2, 1819, provided for the enumeration of immigrants on their arrival, and be- came the basis of the information which now exists regarding immigration since the year 1820. — From the Summary or Commerce and Finance. Immigration 107 INTO THE UNITED STATES Total Yearly Immigration Since 1821, with Number from Principal Countries YEAR Grand Totalfor All Countries UNITED KINGDOM GERMANY RUSSIA AUSTRIA- HUNGARY ITALY NORWAY SWEDEN YEAR 1821-30 143,439 599,125 80,289 104,565 52,496 78,615 114,371 154,416 234,968 226,527 75,803 283,191 53,960 73,347 28,100 47,843 64,031 73,932 128,838 148,093 6,761 152,454 15,291 20,370 14,441 20,731 34,355 57,561 74,281 58,465 91 646 174 28 6 13 1 248 5 1 408 2,253 179 100 117 141 137 151 164 209 1821-30 1831-40 1831-40 1841 195 553 1,748 1,311 928 1,916 1,307 903 1841 1842 1842 1843 1843 1844 1844 1845 1845 1846 1846 1847 1847 1848 1848 1849 297,024 369,980 379,466 371,603 368,645 427,833 200,877 200,436 251,306 123,126 214,530 215,089 272,740 200,247 200,225 160,253 97,199 99,007 53,508 83,030 60,235 78,896 72,482 145,918 141,946 215,009 71,918 71,028 91,781 45,310 44 31 1 2 3 2 13 9 25 246 373 58 447 351 555 1,263 1,052 1,365 1,007 1,240 3,473 1,569 2,424 4,103 3,364 3,531 821 1,157 1,712 2,430 1849 1850 1850 1851 1851 1852 1852 1853 1853 1854 1854 1855 1855 1856 1856 1857 1857 1858 1858 1859 121,282 153,640 91,918 91,985 176,282 193,418 248,120 318,568 315,722 138,840 68,783 68,560 72,127 32,610 85,178 131,724 100,108 133,061 126,289 115,392 41,784 54,491 31,661 27,529 33,162 57,276 83,474 115,892 133,426 55,831 91 65 34 79 77 256 183 287 205 141 932 1,019 811 566 547 600 924 1,382 1,624 891 1,091 298 616 892 1,627 2,249 6,109 12,633 7,055 11,166 1859 1860 1860 1861 13 78 93 136 518 87 392 553 1861 1862 1862 1863 1863 1864 1864 1865 1865 1866 1866 1867 1867 1868 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 352,768 387,203 321,350 404,806 459,803 313,339 227,498 169,986 141,857 138,469 125,250 16,070 142,930 153,626 166,826 115,706 85,846 48,854 38,146 38,082 131,042 118,225 82,554 141,109 149,671 87,291 47,769 31,937 29,298 29,313 343 907 673 994 1,560 3,960 7,982 4,765 6,579 3,037 1,499 4,425 4,887 4,410 7,112 8,850 7,658 6,276 5,396 5,150 1,489 2,891 2,816 4,190 8,757 7,666 3,631 3,015 3,195 4,344 16,068 13,216 9,418 11,421 16,247 10,384 6,093 5,173 4,588 4,759 24,224 13,443 10,699 13,464 14,303 5,712 5,573 5,603 4,991 5,390 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 177,826 457,257 669,431 788,992 603,322 518,592 395,346 334,203 490,109 546,889 49,964 144,870 153,714 179,419 158,082 129,223 109,480 112,539 161,747 182,198 34,602 84,638 210,485 250,630 194,786 179,676 124,443 84,403 106,865 109,717 4,434 4,854 4,865 16,321 9,186 11,854 16,603 17,309 28,944 31,256 5,963 17,267 27,935 29,150 27,625 36,571 27,309 28,680 40,265 45,814 5,791 12,354 15,401 32,159 31,792 16,510 13,642 21,315 47,622 51,558 7,345 19,895 22,705 29,101 23,398 16,974 12,356 12,759 16,269 18,264 11,001 39,186 49,760 64,607 38,277 26,552 22,248 27,751 42,836 54,698 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 444,427 455,302 560,319 623,084 502,917 314,467 279,948 343,267 230,832 229,299 153,337 122,735 122,287 93,598 78,767 52,751 75,137 64,8*8 41,148 38,021 99,538 92,427 113,554 130,758 96,361 59,386 36,351 31,885 22,533 17,111 31,889 33,147 42,045 79,294 37,177 35,694 32,053 45,137 22,750 27,221 34,174 56,199 71,042 76,937 57,420 38,638 33,401 65,103 33,031 39,797 25,307 52,003 76,055 62,137 72,516 43,967 36,961 68,060 59,431 58,613 13,390 11,370 12,568 14,462 16,079 8,867 7,373 8,855 5,842 4,938 35,415 29,632 36,880 43,247 38,077 18,608 15,683 21,177 13,162 13,398 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1909 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 311,715 448,572 487,918 648,743 857,046 812,870 1,026,499 1,100,735 1,285,349 782,870 45,123 48,237 45,546 46,036 68,947 87,590 137,134 102,193 113,567 93,380 17,476 18,507 21,651 28,304 40,086 46,380 40,574 37,564 37,807 32,309 60,982 90,787 85,257 107,347 136,093 145,141 184,897 215,665 258,943 156,711 62,491 114,847 113,390 171,989 206,011 117,156 275,693 265,138 338,452 168,509 77,419 100,135 135,996 178,375 230,622 193,296 221,479 273,120 285,731 128,503 6,705 9,575 12,248 17,484 24,461 23,808 25,064 21,730 22,133 12,412 12,797 18,650 23,331 30,894 46,028 27,763 26,591 23,310 20,589 12,809 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 751,786 1,041,570 878,565 71,826 98,796 25,540 31,283 120,460 186,792 170,191 258,737 183,218 215,537 13,627 17,538 14,474 23,745 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 108 National Development CHAPTER XVI RELIGIOUS BODIES PROPORTION OF THE POPULATION Of each State and Territory, reported as Protestant, Roman Catholic and "all other" church members, and proportion not reported as church members. [Note. — The designation "not church members" represents the difference between the number reported as communicants or mem- bers and the total population; it embraces, therefore, children too younpr to become church members, as well as that portion of the population which is eligible to church membership, although not affiliated with any religious denomination.] SOUTH CAROLINA OEORGIA NORTH CAROLINA VIRGINIA ALABAMA MISSISSIPPI FLORIDA TENNESSEE KENTUCKY OIST. OF COLUMBIA INDIANA ARKANSAS OHIO TEXAS IOWA PENNSYLVANIA WEST VIRGINIA DELAWARE MISSOURI MARYLAND NEBRASKA KANSAS MINNESOTA WISCONSIN SOUTH DAKOTA NORTH DAKOTA ILLINOIS CONNECTICUT LOUISIANA WASHINGTON MICHIGAN NEW JERSEY VERMONT OREGON COLORADO OKLAHOMA NEW YORK NEW HAMPSHIRE MASSACHUSETTS CALIFORNIA MAINE RHODE ISLAND IDAHO MONTANA NEVADA WYOMING NEW MEXICO ARIZONA UTAH PER CENT BO W/ssWs//#&^ y//////////m m az& m 2Z3 v////////m tyssssJysssssfr Tnm mmmmmm;////////////////////// '/mmmmmr/////////////:i M^»MMa frZW#*M*ffl WS>/SSSSJ!/fML mmm0M///////////////////:i mmmmMf//////////////////M wmmmmY///////////////////////M ■mmmmmY/////////////M wmmm///////////x v/mm//M////////////////////////////A wmm////////////////* ■mmv///////////////. \w////v/ssssjmm mms//////////////////////////////////////;, wm//////'///////Mm m PROTESTANT VXA ROMAN CATHOLIC ALL OTHER BODIES | | NOT CHURCH MEM8ERS Religious Bodies 109 DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRINCIPAL DENOMINATIONS IN 1890 AND IN 1906 These Diagrams, with Table, taken from the latest Bulletin (No. 103) of the "Bureau of the Census," show the DISTRI- BUTION of church members in the United States among the principal Denominations for the years 1890 and 1906. 1906 1890 DENOMINATION. All denominations Protestant bodies Adventist bodies Baptist bodies Christians (Christian Connection J Church of Christ, Scientist Congregationalists Disciples or Christians Dunkers or German Baptist Brethren Evangelical bodies Friends German Evangelical Synod of North America Independent churches Lutheran bodies Mennonite bodies. . : Methodist bodies Presbyterian bodies Protestant Episcopal Church Reformed bodies Unitarians United Brethren bodies Uni versalists Other Protestant bodies. 'Roman Catholic Church Jewish congregations Latter-day Saints Eastern Orthodox Churches All other bodies COMMTOICANTS OE MEMBERS. Number. 1906 32,936,445 20,287,742 92,735 5,662,234 110,117 85,717 700,480 1,142,359 97,144 174,780 113,772 293,137 73,673 2,112,494 54,798 5,749,838 1,830,555 886,942 449,514 70,542 296,050 64,158 226,703 12,079,142 * 101, 457 256,647 129,606 81,851 1890 120,597,954 14,007,187 60,491 3,712,468 103,722 8,724 512,771 641,051 73,795 133,313 107,208 187,432 13,360 1,231,072 41,541 4,589,284 1,277,851 532,048 309,458 67,749 225,281 49,194 129,374 6,241,708 * 130, 496 166,125 600 51,838 Percent distribu- tion. 1906 61.6 0.3 17.2 0.3 0.3 2.1 3.5 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.2 6.4 0.2 17.5 5.6 2.7 1.4 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.7 36.7 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.2 1890 100.0 68.0 0.3 18.0 0.5 ( 3 ) 2.5 3.1 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.1 6.0 0.2 22.3 6.2 2.6 1.5 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.6 30.3 0.6 0.8 Increase from 1890 to 1906. 212,367,530 6,^280,555 32,244 1,949,766 - 6,395 76,993 187,709 501,308 ■23,349 41,467 6,564 105,705 60,313 881,422 13,257 1,160,554 552,704 354,894 140,056 2,793 70,769 14,964 97,329 5,837,434 80,522 129,006 30,013 Per cent. i Exclusive of 14,852 communicants or members reported for 26 organizations in Alaska, a Exclusive of Jewish congregations. » Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. „ , ,- , , , , . * In 1906 heads of families only. In 1890, members as well as heads of families included. ' As the figures for the two censuses are not comparable, the increase can not be shown. 2 60.4 44.8 53.3 52.5 6.2 882.5 36.6 78.2 31.6 31.1 6.1 56.4 451.4 71.6 3\.9 25.3 43.3 66.7 45.3 4.1 31.4 30.4 75.3 93.5 ( 5 ) 54.6 21,501.0 57.9. 110 National Development CHAPTER XVII— PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES AEEA— Square Miles Divisions, 759,000 eq mlics POST OFFICE— Receipts Divisions, 345,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 843,246 1,734,633 1,793,299 1,793,299 1,793,299 2,995,772 3,026,789 3,026,789 3 026,789 3,026,789 3,026,789 3,026,789 3,026,789 3,026,789 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 280,804 1 551,684 1 1,111,927 I 1,850,583 I 4,543,522 I 5,499,984 8,518,067 19,772,221 33,315,479 60,882,098 102,354,579 203,562,383 224,128,637 POPULATION Divisions, 20,000,000 WEALTH Divisions, 325,000,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1S30 1S40 1850 I860 1370 18S0 1S90 1900 1909 1910 1911 (a) 5,308,483 7,239,881 9,638,453 12,866,020 17,069,453 23,191,876 31,443,321 38,558,371 50,155,783 62,622,250 76,303,387 88,566,034 91,972,266 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1904 1910 1911 7,135,780,000 16,159,616,000 30,068,518,000 43,642,000,000 65,037,091,000 88,517,306,775 107,104,211,917 NATIONAL DEBT — Less Cash in Treasury Division. $500,000,000 WEALTH— Per Capita Divisions, $300 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 82,976,294 53,173,218 91,015,566 48,565,407 1 3,573,344 1 63,452,774 59,964,402 2,331,169,956 1,919,326,748 890,784,371 1,107,711,258 1,023,861,531 1,046,449,185 1,015,784,338 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1904 1910 1911 307.69 513.93 779.83 850.20 1,038.57 1,164.79 1,310.11 RECEIPTS— National Government Divisions, 5135,000,000 MONEY IN CIRCULATION Divisions, 8750,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 10,848,749 9,384,214 17,840,670 24,844,117 19,480,115 43,592,889 56,054,600 395,959,834 333,526,501 403,080,983 567,240,852 603,589,490 675,511,715 700,109,906 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 26,500,000 1 55,000,000 1 67,100,000 1 87,344,295 186,305,488 278,761,982 435,407,252 675,212,794 973,382,228 1,429,251,270 2,055,150,998 3,106,240,657 3,119,753,246 3,228,627,002 EXPENDITURE— National Government Div., siso.ooo.ooo MONEY— Per Capita 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 10,813,971 1 8,474,753(1 18,285,535 15,142,108 24,314,518 40,948,383 .63,130,598 293,657,005 264,847,637 297,736,487 487,713,792 662,324,445 659,662,348 654,428,286 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 a Estimates of Census Bureau, inclusive of Alaska and Hawaii. Progress of the United States PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES (Continued) 111 NATIONAL BANKS— Capital Divisions, S20o,ni)r) p ooo MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS-Value of Div., $3,000,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1870$ 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 427,235,701 455,909,565 642,073,676 621,536,461 937,004,036 989,567,114 1,019,633,152 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910P 7 - 1911 $1,019,106,616 1,885,861,676 4,232,325,442 5,369,579,191 9,372,437,283 13,004,400,143 14,802,147,087 NATIONAL BANKS— Deposits Divisions, 51,250.000,000 FARMS and FARMPROPERTY— Value of Div. 35,000,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 18701 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 542,261,563 - 833,701,034 1,521,745,665 2,458,092,758 4,898,576,696 5,287:216.30:" 5,477,991,156 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 $3,967,343,580 7,980,493,060 8,944,857,749 12,180,501,538 16,082,267,689 20,514,001,838 SAVINGS BANKS— Deposits Divisions, 31,000,000,000 FARM PRODUCTS— Value of Divisions, 32,OQO,00(r,000 1800 1810 1820$ 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 1 6 14 43 149 549 1,550. 2,389. 3,713, 4,070, ,138,576. 1 ,973,304 1 ,051,520 1 ,431,130 ,277,504 ,874,358 106,973 ,023,956 ,719,954 405,710 486,297 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 $1,958,030,927 2,212,540,927 2,460,107,454 3,764,177,706 8,760,000,000 8,928,000,000 IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE Divisions, 3300,000,000 WHEAT— Bushels Produced Divisions, 150,000,000 bu. 1800$ 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 91,252,768 85,400,000 74,450,000 62,720,956 98,258,706 173,509,526 353,616,119 435,958,408 667,954,746 789,310,409 849,941,184 1,311,920,224 1,557,819,988 1,527,226,105 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 84,823,272 100,485,944 173,104,924 235,884,700 498,549,868 399,262,000 522,229,505 737,189:»0.0(J 695,443,000 EXPORTS OF MERCHANDISE Divisions, 3400,000,000 CORN— Bushels Produced Divisions, 600,000.000 bn. 1800 S 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 70,971,780 66,757,970 69,691,669 71,670,735 123,668,932 144,375,726 333,576,057 392,771,768 835,638,658 857,828,684 1,394,483,082 1,663,011,104 1,744,984,720 2,049,320,133 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 377,531,875 592,071,104 838,792,740 1,094,255,000 1,717,434,543 1,489,970,000 2,105,102,516 2,772,376,000 3,125,713,000(1 a Exclusive of neighborhood industries and hand trades, included in previous years, estimated at $2,064,559,898, b Estimate of the Department of Agriculture ("Wealth production on farms"). 112 National Development PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES (Continued) COTTON— Bales Produced Divisions, 3,000,000 bates 1800 1810 182J) 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 153,509 I 286,195 I 575,540 1,026,393 1,634,954 2,454,442 3,849,469 4,352,317 6,605,750 8,652,597 10.245,602 10,386,209 11,965,962 FARM ANIMALS— Value of Divisions, 8110,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 S 544,180,516 1,089,329,915 1,524,960,149 1,576,917,556 2,418,766,028 2,228,123,134 4,525,259,000 5,138,486,000 WOOL— Pounds Produced Divisions, 75,000,000 lbs. GOLD— Value of Product Divisions, 820,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 35,802,114 52,516,959 60,264,913 162,000,000 232,500,000 276,000,000 288,636,621 328.110,74.9 321,362,750 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 $ ^J 2,463 I fc) 73,112 I te*564,950 1 fani,697,829 50,000,000 46,000,000 50,000,000 36,000,000 32,845,000 79,171,000 99,673,400 (6) 96,055,214 CANE SUGAR — Pounds Produced Divisions, 1 75,000,000 lbs. SILVER— Value of Product Divisions, 112,000,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 120,851,074 247;577,000 230,982,000 87,043,000 178,872,000 301,284,395 322.549,011 828,800,000 750,400,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1911 (c; 253,400 (C) 252,300 % 50,900 1 156,800 1 16,434,000 34,717,000 57,242,100 35,741,100 28,455,200 1910K&) 30,476,896 COTTON— Bales Consumed in U. S. Divisions, 1,100,000 bales COPPER— Tons Produced Divisions, 85,000 ton* 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 190S 1910 1911 18,829 1 35,565 t 100,0001, 129,938 ■ 245,045 ■ 422,626 m 841,975 ■ 1,026,583 ■ 1,865,922 1 2,604,491 1 3,603,516 I 5,198,963 I 4,799.000 I 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1S80 1890 1900 1908 1910 1911 100 650 7,200 1 12,600 27,000 115,966 270,588 420.791 SUGAR — Pounds Consumed in U. S, Divisions, 1,600,000,000 lbs. PIG IRON— Tons Produced Divisions, 6,000,000 tons 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1865 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 631,397,214 1,261,941,665 1,979,221,478 3,192,735.098 4,477J75,236 7,283,425,844 7,360,175,715 7,238,920,640 1S00 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 l'880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 53,908 1 20,000 1 165,000 1 286,903 563,755 I 821,223 1,665,179 3,835,191 9,202,703 13,789,242 '25,793,471 27,298,545 a. Estimate averaged for the prior ten-year period. c. July 31, 1834, to December 31, 1844. b. Preliminary estimate. 1845 to 184* Progress of the United States 113 PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES (Concluded) STEEL— Tons Produced Divisions, 3,000,000 tons VESSELS— Tonnage Built Divisions, 80,000 tons 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1908 1909 1910 68,750 I 1,247,335 4,277,071 10,188,329 14 ; 023,247 23,955,021 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 106,261 127,575 51,394 58,560 121,203 279,255 214,797 276,953 157,409 '294,122 393,790 238,090 TIN PLATES— Pounds Produced Div., 850,000,000 lbs. VESSELS— Tonnage Domestic Trade Div:, 1,500,000 tons 1800 1810 1820 1830 -1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1908 1910 1911 (a) 2,236,743 849,004,022 1,203,075,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 301,919 440,175 660,065 614,508 1,280,999 1,949,743 2,807,631 2,729,707 2715,224 3,477,802 4,338,145 6,501,250 6,716,257 PETROLEUM— Gallons Produced Div., 1,750.000,000 gals, VESSELS— Tonnage Foreign Trade Div., 600,000 tons 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1908 1910 1911 21,000,000 220,951,290 1,104,017,166 1,924,590,02 2,672,062,218 7,542,044,118 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 669,921 684,269 619,048 576,475 899,765 1,585,711 2,546,237 1,516,800 1,352,810 946&95 £26,694 887,505 791,825 COAL— Tons Produced Divisions, 75,000,000 tons VESSELS— Tonnage on Great Lakes Div., 600,000 tons 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1908 1910 1911 RAILROAD MILEAGE W 20 3,080 285,779 I 1,848,249 I 6,266,233 13,044,680 29,496,054 63,822,830 140,866,931 240,789,310 371,288,123 447,853,909 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 3,500 11,106 54,199 1 198,266 467,774 684,704 605,102 1,063,063 1,565,587 2,782,481 2,895,102 Divisions, 50,000 miles NEWSPAPERS and PERIODICALS— No. of Div., 5,000 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 23 2,818 9,021 30,626 52,922" 93,267 167,191 198,964 (d) 244,539 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1909 1910 1911 359* (c) 861 1,403 2,526 4,051 5,871 9,723 16,948 20,806 22,603 22,725 22,806 a Last six months of 1891 b 1814 d 1828 d Excludes mileage- o£ switching: and terminal companies not heretofore segregated. Figures made up by adding mileage construction for 1909, as stated by "The Railway World,"to the mileage of 1908, as given by the Interstate Commerce Commission. 114 National Development CHAPTER XVIII— COMPARATIVE STATISTICS AREA— Square Miles Divisions, 2,000,000 sq. m. British Empire Russian Empire . . France and Colonies. . . China Canada , United States & Alaska. Brazil. J Germany and Colonies . Turkey; Argentina Portugal and Colonies . . Netherlands & Poss'ns . Mexico Egypt Venezuela Austria-Hungary Japan Emp., mcl. Korea Germany , France Spain Sweden Norway Great Britain & Ireland Italy New Zealand 11,467,294 ' 8,374,001 4,448,322 4,300,722 3,729,609 3,617,073' 3,291,410 1,227,017 1,153,500 1,139,196 843,629 802,560 767,323 383,899 363,822 261,214 245,623 208,794 207,129 194,794 17-2,920 124,705 121,371 110,688 104,751 POPULATION in 1907, or on latest available date Divisions, 70,000,01)0 British Empire China Russian Empire U. S., Alaska & Hawaii Germany. Japan Emp. and Korea. Austria-Hungary.. Great Britain & Ireland France Italy Turkey. Brazil...,. Spain .,..,. .... Mexico W Canada Belgium Argentina Netherlands. Sweden.'. Portugal Australia, Com. of... - Switzerland Greece , Norway. 396,295,000 1 330,130,000 i 160,095,000 | 88,566,000 | 64,775,000 62,096,000 50,499,000 | 45,008,000 I 39,300,000 ■ 34,270,000 B 24,029,000 M 21,000,000 m 19,713,000 ■ 13,607,000 ■ 11,287,000 ■ 7,490,000 ■ 7.386,000 ■ 6,489,000 ■ 5,829,000 ■ 5,430,000 a 5,423,000 ■ 4,275,000 ■ 3,559,000 ' 2,632,000 I 2.353.000P WEALTH Divisions, $20,000,000,000 United States Great Britain & Ireland France Germany Russia Austria-Hungary . . . Italy Belgium Spam Netherlands Portugal Switzerland $116,000,000,000 62,200,000,000 42,800,000,000 42,000,000,000 35,000,000,000 20,000,000,000 13,000,000,000 6,800,000,000 5,400,000,000 5,000,000,000 2,500,000,000 2,400,000,000 NOTE. In order that the comparison may be as useful as possible, the data given on pages 114, 115 and 116, are those obtainable for the latest uniform year. Comparative Statistics 115 COMPARATIVE STATISTICS (Continued) NATIONAL DEBT-Gross Divisions, ■ $1,000,000,000 France. , .. . Russia.. Great Britain & Ireland. Italy..-.. United States ! Spain .' Australia. . . , , British India Austria-Hungary Japan ■ . Portugal German Empire. ... Belgium^, China. ....... ......... . Brazil Egypt. .■ . e . . . - Turkey Netherlands Argentina Canada. Mexico New Zealand Greece .' Sweden Norway.. ■.....--■ 5,655,134,825 4,038,199,722 3,839,620,745 2,767,911,949 2,625,531,155 1,829,265,995 1,128,632,767 1,127,923,363 1,092,863,255 932,445,798 864,701,627 855,963,454 621,640,286 609,752,200 542,213,359 468,314,391 458,603,213 458,069,211 444,440,067 382,539,371 222,058,181 306,059,246 167,052,145 102,059,388 91,764,945 REVENUE Divisions, $250,000,000 Russia United States France Great Britain & Ireland. German Empire. . . Italy , British India Austria Hungary. Japan., Spain Australia.. Brazil. . . ,■ Belgium Argentina . . Canada ....... Austria-Hungary.-. ...... Netherlands Egypt , Portugal Chile Sweden , Mexico Roumania New Zealand. ... . . . $1,451,308,000 762,386,905 715,074,344 700,666,869 570,563,137 470,565,700 412,825,000 369,865,472 261,981,691 246,362,944 172,767,678 165,748,231 118,388,586 107,860,738 101,915,035 78,006,599 72,008,078 71,451,788 67,382,304 62,064,000 56,549,978 51,826,000 51,269,008 46,110,834 37,229,202 EXPENDITURE Divisions, $300,000,000 Russia. --.., United States..,.. France. ., .'. Great Britain & Ireland. German Empire *.. Italy "... British India. . . < -.. . Austria ..,...._'... Hungary. , Japan. Australia. Brazil Belgium.. Argentina •- . . . . Netherlands. , Austria-Hungary. Dutch East Indies. .„ Egypt .,«.,• Portugal... „,- Chile? Canada,. Sweden... > .... (Mexico New Zealand $1,650,448,000 736,717,582 715,874,069 683,801,430 572,600,260 ;440,503,700 404,260,000 369,265,569 262,995,860 246,362,944 165,674,506 164,971,284 113,427,944 109,366,961 98,379,638 74,760,449 72,008,078 64,957,370 64,886,665 63,096,000 56,549,978 54,061,325 51,826,000 48,314,646 34,660,868 116 National Development COMPARATIVE STATISTICS (Concluded) IMPORTS Divisions, $800,000,000 British Empire Great Britain & Ireland Germany Prance United States Netherlands Belgium Italy Austria-Hungary. British India Canada. . . . » China Switzerland. Argentina.. . Australia.... Japan Brazil.. Denmark. . . Sweden Spain ..„ Cuba.. . . Norway. $4,790,503,000 3,142,824,000 2,081,705,000 1,201,031,000 1,194,342,000 1,069,001,000 •707,449,000 555,969,000 507,901,000 442,847,000 412,355,000 351,880,000 342,399,000 313,912,000 275,856,000 252,129,000 217,256,000 196,694,000 194,468,000 171,076,000 163,040,000 129,115,000 110,325,000 104,461,000 103,370,000 EXPORTS Divisions, $700,000,000 British Empire Great Britain & Ireland United States Germany. France . Netherlands; Russia British India Belgium Austria-Hungary Italy,.. Australia Argentina Brazil Canada Switzerland China. Japan Spain. Denmark. . . ; Egypt Sweden Mexico Cuba. Chile; $3,843,099,000 2,073,300,000 1,834,786,000 1,629,163,000 1,080,049,000 883,980,000 563,866,000 562,820,000 545,398,000 498,829,000 376,132,000 339,762,000 285,837,000 262,939,000 261,512,000 220,024,000 210,976,000 188,366,000 160,582,000 149,948,000 138,469,000 135,147,000 120,884,000 104,069,000 101,264.000 RAILROAD MILEAGE Divisions, 40,000 Miles United States . . . Russia German Empire France British India ... Canada Austria-Hungary Great Britain . . Australia Argentina Mexico.. Brazil Italy Sweden ..... Japan. Belgium.. ...... China .. . Egypt Turkey Switzerland . . New Zealand . Netherlands . . Denmark | Portugal 218,291 39,591 34,526 29,018 28,221 24,400 24,338 22,907 14,988 12,230 12,227 10,600 10,120 8,782 7,815 4/ 4,375 3,435 3,233 3,110 2,6401 2,526 2,133 2,043 1,550 I Suggestive Questions 117 CHAPTER XIX SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED PROM THE CHART The following questions are taken at ran- dom to show the use that may be made of the chart placed at the end of the volume. It is usually easy to follow a simple historical nar- rative, but when the story becomes complex it is more difficult to comprehend the situa- tion. One of the best ways ordinarily to ac- complish this end is to constantly improvise historical questions for oneself, which, if an- swered, show that the complex story or nar- rative has been understood. A chart such as the one accompanying this book should be a great aid in this connection ; for at a glance interrelations are plainly shown. Furthermore, it is often a great aid in reading even a simple historical account to block it out as the reading proceeds, i.e., divide the main subject into its important subdivi- sions. Here again the chart is of service, for the blocking out is done in advance. In ad- dition, in reading the history of our own coun- try, it is a great aid and a great source of satisfaction to be able to see at the same time what was taking place elsewhere, even if what was happening had no direct bearing on American history. The upper bands of infor- mation on the chart supply this interesting in- formation. 1. How many years elapsed after the ex- plorations of the Cabots before England again entered the field of discovery? "What kings and queens occupied the English throne dur- ing these years? What public questions were uppermost in the minds of Englishmen dur- ing the period of discovery? 2. In what parts of North America did the Spaniards make explorations? Where were their chief settlements made? How much earlier was the Spanish foundation at St. Augustine than that of the English at James- town? 3. What kept France from following up the work of discovery well begun by Cartier? What were two important religious events in French history during the period? 4. What European nations made settle- ments in America during the early part of the seventeenth century? Where did the Swedes settle? What changes did the colony which they established undergo between 1638 and 1776? 5. What nation was England frequently at war with after 1649? What territory in America did she gain from her rival? 6. What powerful French sovereign ruled during the period when French explorers penetrated into the interior of America? In what direction did these explorers go? What forts and settlements did they make in the in- terior ? 7. Between what parallels of latitude was the London Company given its grant of land? What colonies were carved out of this strip? 8. About what time in the history of the English colonies were most of them made into royal colonies? What English king occupied the throne when war with France began? 9. What colonies fell into the three divi- sions of charter, royal, and proprietary? 10. How long did Spain retain possession of Florida before the first cession? What changes in ownership took place after this first cession down to 1845? 11. What bits of territory were added to Massachusetts between 1628 and 1691? When was each addition made ? 12. What territories were created out of the land south of Canada ceded to England by the treaty of 1763? What states were eventually carved out of the area? 13. What were the chief epochs in the his- tory of Texas from the foundation of San Antonio until it was admitted as a state by the United States? 14. At the end of the eighteenth and be- ginning of nineteenth centuries what new- lands did the United States open up by ex- ploration? What other nation claimed some of this same territory? 15. When did Spain get possession of Louisiana territory? What later changes in ownership of this land took place? What states were eventually carved out of the ter- ritory ? 16. What changes were made in the gov- ernment of France during the years when the United States was putting its new Constitution into operation? 17. How long did Congress keep the vari- ous Southern states out of the union? 18. What great Indian wars occurred dur- ing the colonial period of American history? During the later history of the United States ? 19. What three great time divisions may be made of American history? What sub- divisions of each of these periods might one make? 20. What states have been admitted to the Union since the Civil War? What territories have they been carved out of? 21. What great territorial additions have been made to the United States since its foun- dation ? (See key maps on the chart.) -«- aHTEEIST R TCH Power Democratic f ndency of the PEOPLE Pope 'i 1744 Swill d 1745 ANNE 1740 l ^. 1740 "1741 IVAH »l LOUIS X 1743 ,„4 iSi GEORGE II 1242 War toiMin, ""2 E- ls « oerapud EDWARD VII 1901-02 Boer War 1910 SEORGEV \RS ■.,.- (1910) : — L _ I DiRtiPin I I Mg I M „ — Triumph of the English »thur |°mm«|im»"M MCK ROOSEVELT THE ADMINISTRATIONS During the "Settling of the Constitution" two po- litical parties arose:- (1) The FEDERALIST, led by Alex. Hamilton, who advo uated a strong central government, and (2)The DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN, led by Thos. Jeffer- son, who wished the chief power let! with the Slates. After the election of Jelferson the Dem. -Republicans became more and more the National party. In the lime ot J.Q.Adams, they took the shorter name of DEMOCRAT and have continued to the present day. The Federalists ceased to exist as a political party after 1 820. Other questions brought out (3) The NATIONAL REPUBLICAN party, who passed in tne administration of Adams, a highly protective tariff bill (1828). The Nat. Republicans began to be called (4) WHIGS in Jackson's administration (about 1834) and afterwards, on the question uf Slaveiy, were merged mm the present (5) REPUBLICAN party.. Political Affiliation Is shown as follows; FED. OEM.-REP. DEM. WHIGS HEP. Ihe6 PRINCIPAL TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS with thp States cut from each 1 . Original Cession, 1 783 Red 2 Louisiana Purchase, 1803 Green 3. Florida Purchase, 1819 Yellow 4. Texas annexed, 1845 Red and Yellow 5. Oregon Division, 1846 Puiple 6. Mexican Cession. 1848-53. teg* Sen Key Map below) Orang-, 1. ORIGINAL AREA Surrendered by Great Britain; Comprised all the territory- lying East of the Mississippi River, The Original 13 States are marked thus* but out of their original territory the following additional 7 States were form- ed, viz:- in 1791. Vt. set olf from N.Y.SN.H in 1 792, Ky. set off from Va. in 1796, Tenn. set off from N.C, In 1817. Miss. ) set off from Ga., In 181 9. Ala. j S.C. and West Fla., in 1820, Maine set olf from Mass. In 1861, W.Va. set off from Va, Therewasalsoin this Original Cession, the Northwest Territory lying N.W, of Ohio Rlvei and claimed by .Mass., Conn, and Va. Thelr'clalms were surrendered, to the U.S. In 1787, and the lemlory was afterwards divided Into these 5 s-aMS. INDEX Abolitionists, and Nat Turner's insurrection, 30; death of Love- joy, 31. See Anti-Slavery, Liberty Party, Slavery. Acadia, removal of Acadians, 16. See Nova Scotia. Acts of Trade, 1650 and 1660, 13; against Colonial manufactures, 15; enforced, 16. Adams, John, elected president, 24; biography, 24; death, 29. Adams Joan Quincy, elected president, 29; biography, 29; vindicates the right of petition, 30. Adams Samuel, Revolutionary leader, 19. Administrations, presidential, George Washington, 23, 24; John Adams, 25; Thomas Jefferson, 25, 26; James Madison, 26, 27; James Monroe, 28, 29; John Quincy Adams, 29; Andrew Jackson, 29, 30; Martin Van Buren, 31; William H. Harri- son, 31; John Tyler, 31, 32; James K. Polk, 32, 33; Zachary Taylor, 33, 34; Millard Fillmore, 34; Franklin Pierce, 34, 35; James Buchanan, 35, 36; Abraham Lincoln, 36-38; Andrew Johnson, 38-40; Ulysses S. Grant, 40, 41; Rutherford B. Hayes, 42; James A. Garfield, 42; Chester A. Arthur, 42, 43; Grover Cleveland, first, 43, 44; Benjamin Harrison, 44; Grover Cleveland, second, 44, 45; William McKinley, 45, 46; Theo- dore Roosevelt, 46, 47; William H. Taft, 47, 48. Agulnaldo, Emilio, insurrection of, 45, 46. Alx-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 15. "Alabama," Confederate vessel, 40; claims resulting from, 41. Alabama, first settlement of, 15; Creek Indians in, 28; on the tariff of 1828, 80; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900, 103. Alamance Creek, battle of, 18. Alaska, purchase of, 39, 54; gold in, 45; statistics of, 92-93. Albany, settled by the Dutch, 10; meeting of Colonial represen- tatives at, 14; Congress of 1754, 16, 58; conference at, 57. Albemarle, N. C, settled, 12. Alexandria, convention at, 22, 61. Alien and Sedition Acts, 25, 70. Amendments, first ten, 23, 64; the eleventh, 25, 70; the twelfth, 26, 71 ; the thirteenth, 38, 74, 88 ; the fourteenth, 39, 74, 88 ; the fifteenth, 40, 74, 88; income tax amendment proposed, 48, 74. America, discovered, 7; named, 8. American Anti-slavery society, 85. American Colonization society, organized, 84. American Flag, adopted, 20; plan of, 93. American party, origin and principles of, 77; disappearance of, 77. Andover, Mass., sacked, 14. Andre, Major, captured, 21. Andros, Sir Edmund, governor, 13, 14; rule of, 57. Annapolis convention, meeting of, 22, 61. Annapolis, Nova Scotia, named, 15. See Port Royal. Annexations. See Territories. Antietam, battle of, 37. Anti-imperialism, in the election of 1900, 46. Anti-masonic party, enters politics, 29; origin of, 76; united with the Whigs, 76. Anti-Nebraska men, organized, 35. See Republican party. Anti-slavery, petitions regarding, 84; publications favoring, 84, 85. See Slavery, Abolitionists. Anti-trust act, passed, 46, 74. Appointments to office, under Garfield, 42. See Civil Service. Appomattox Court House, surrender of Lee at, 38. Arbitration, international, urged, 48; cases decided by Hague tribunal, 48. Arctic Ocean, Kane's expedition, 35; Greely in, 43; Lockwood and Brainard in, 43. Area, comparative statistics, 114. Arizona, Spanish missions, 9; completion of the Roosevelt dam, 48; made a territory, 53; statistics of, 92, 93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Arkansas, settled, 28; admitted as a state, 51; statistics of, 92- 93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Arnold, Benedict, treason of, 21. Arthur, Chester A., President, 42; biography of, 42. Articles of Confederation. See Confederation. Ashburton treaty, 31. "Association," the, 18, quoted, 59, 60. See Non-importation. Astor, J. J., establishes the Pacific Fur Company, 26. Atlanta Exposition, 43. Atlantic, crossed by a steam vessel, 28. Atlantic cable, laid, 36, 39. Auction system, use of, 80. Austin, Stephen, in Texas, 28. Australian ballot, in Massachusetts, 44. Ayllon, de, explorations, 8. Bacon, Nathaniel, rebellion of, 13. Balboa, V. N. de, discovers the Pacific, 8. Baltimore, Lord, his charter to Maryland, 11. Baltimore, settled, 15; attacked by the British, 27. Bank of the United States, first, established, 24; question of constitutionality of, 69; second, and Jackson, 30. Banks, national, statistics regarding capital and deposits, 111; savings, statistics of deposit, 111. Barlow, Arthur, expedition of, 9. Bay Psalm Book, printed, 12. Behring Sea, closed to foreign nations, 44. Behring Sea Commission, 44. Belknap, W. W., resignation of, 41. Bell, Alexander, invention of telephone, 42. Bell, John, nominated for president, 77. Bellomont, Earl of, in America, 58. Bemis Heights, battle of, 20. Bennington, battle of, 20. Bergen, New Jersey, settled, 10. Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia, 12. Bill of Eights, American, 64. See Amendments, the first ten. Blloxi, founded by the French, 14. Bi-metallism. See Coinage. "Black Friday," 40. Bladensburg, battle of, 27. Blaine, James G., defeated for presidency, 43. Bland-Allison Act, 42; repealed, 44. Blockade, of Confederate seaports, 36. Bonaparte, Napoleon, treaty with, 25; sells Louisiana, 25; Ber- lin and Milan decrees, 26. "Border States," in Civil War, 37. Boston, founded, 11; massacre, 18; tea party, 18; port bill, IS; siege of, 19; evacuation of, 19; great fire, 41. See Massachu- setts, New England. Boundaries, Florida boundary line of 1819, 28; southern bound- ary of Alaska fixed, 28; settlement of the northeastern bound- " ary, 31. Braddock, Edward, expedition against the French, 16. Bragg, Confederate general, 37. Brandywine, battle of, 20. Breckenridge, J. C, nominated for president, 77. Brown, John, in Kansas, 35; raid into Virginia, 36, 87; exe- cuted, 36. Brown university, founded, 17. Brush, electrical invention, 41. Bryan, William J., in the election of 1896, 45; defeated for presidency, 47. Buchanan, James, elected president, 35; biography, 35. Bull Bun, battles of, 37. Bunker Hill, battle of, 19. Burgoyne, John, campaign of, 20. Burnside, A. E., at Fredericksburg, 37. Burr, Aaron, Mississippi scheme, 26; kills Hamilton, 26. Buzzards Bay, settlement, 9. Cabinet, president's, development of, 65; seating of, 65; mem- bers of, from 1789, 100-102. See Executive, Executive De- partments. Cabot, John, discovers North America, 7. Cabot, Sebastian, voyages, 7. Calhoun, John, death of, 34; opposition to tariff act of 1832, 81. California, Drake on the coast of, 9; Spanish missions in, 18; ceded to the United States, 33, 52; applies for admission to the Union, 33; discovery of gold in, 33, 36; admitted as a free state, 34, 53; Anti-Japanese mobs, 47; statistics of, 92- 93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Camden, battle of, 21. Canada, settlement of Quebec, 10; invasion by the American colonists, 14; invasion by New England, 1707, 15; captured by the English, 16; invaded in 1812, 27; second invasion of, 27; revolt against England, 31; reciprocity treaty with, 35; invaded by the Fenians, 39; dispute over San Juan, 40. Canals, Erie canal commenced, 28; Delaware and Hudson canal, 29; Chesapeake and Delaware canal, 29; Erie completed, 29. Cane sugar, statistics regarding, 111. Cannon, Joseph, loses the speakership, 48. Carnegie, Andrew, establishes the "Carnegie Peace Fund," 48. Carolina, explored, 8; settled, 9; Lords' Proprietors in, 13; Locke's constitution for, 13; Indian war in, 15; Cherokee Indians defeated, 20; secession of Tennessee from. 22. 120 United States History Cartier, Jacques, in Canada, 8, 9; attempted colony on the St. Lawrence, 9. Catholics, Roman, refuge in Maryland, 11; numbers of in the various states, 108; comparative numbers in the United States, 109. Cavendish, Thomas, discoveries, 9. Census, first official, 24. Central America, explored by Columbus, 7. Champlain, Samuel, settlement of Port Royal, 9; settles Que- bec, 10; discovers Lake Champlain, 10; discovers Lake Huron, 10. Champlain, lake, discovered, 10; war on, 16; victory of McDon- ough on, 27. ChanceUorsviUe, battle of, 37. Charleston, S. C, settled, 13; attacked by the Spanish, 15; attacked by the British, 19; captured by the British, 21; evacuated by the British, 21. Charters, Baltimore, 11; Connecticut, 1662, 13; Rhode Island, 1663, 13; Massachusetts, 14, 18; Virginia Company, 55. Chattanooga, battle of, 37. Checks and balances, in the Constitution, 64. Cherokees, defeat of, 20. "Chesapeake" affair with the "Leopard," 26; capture of, 27. Chicago, settled, 29; great fire, 40; Haymarket riot, 43; Pull- man car strike, 44; World's Exposition, 44; disclosures in packing houses, 47. Chickamauga, battle of, 37. Chile, diplomatic dispute with, 44. China, commercial treaty with America, 32; immigration treaty, 42; exclusion of Chinese immigrants, 43; Boxer uprising, 46. Chippewa, battle of, 27. Chryslers' Field, battle of, 27. Cibola, Seven Cities of, search for, 9. Cincinnati, settled, 23. Cincinnati, Society of the, 22. Cities, population of cities over 100,000, 104; comparison of the nineteen largest cities, 104; population of cities from 25,000 to 100,000, 105. Civil Eights bill, first, 39; second, 41. Civil Service, first reform act, 40; Garfield and, 42; Pendleton act, 43, 74; Cleveland on removals, 43; Cleveland and Civil Service reform, 45; Civil Service Commission, 67; members of, 74. Civil War, progress of, 36-38. Clark, George Sogers, in the West, 20. Clay, Henry, and the Missouri Compromise, 28; in the election of 1824, 29; in the election of 1832, 30; and the Compromise Tariff, 30; defeated for president, 32; compromise bill of 1833, 33, 81; compromise of 1850, 34; death of, 34. Clayborne, in Maryland, 12. "Clermont," trip of, 26. Cleveland, Grover, first election, 43; biography, 43; refuses to give the Senate causes for removals, 43; on the tariff, 44, 82; defeated for President, 44; reelected, 44; and the Civil Ser- vice, 45; sends troops to Chicago, 44; death of, 47. Coal, statistics regarding, 111. Coinage, establishment of a mint, 24; establishment of bi-metal- lism, 24. Colonial unions, 55-58. Colorado, discovered, 9; female suffrage granted, 44; formed into a territory, 53; admitted as a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Columbia river, discovered, 9; explored, 24; Lewis and Clark on, 26. Columbus, discovers America, 7. Commerce, Colonial acts of trade, 13; acts of trade enforced, 16; Massachusetts' non-importation act, 17; establishment of the "Association," 18, 59, 60; French and English decrees regard- ing, 26; passage of the Embargo act, 26, 71, 76, 80; Macon bills, 26; non-intercourse act, 26, 80; privateering, 27; com- mercial treaties with Great Britain and Turkey, 29; with China, 32; Interstate commerce act of 1887, 43; regulation of interstate commerce, 43, 47, 67; anti-trust law, 44; forma- tion of shipping trust, 46; creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor, 46; interstate commerce act of 1906, 47; pure food law, 47; organization of the National Council of Commerce, 47; organization of the Inland Waterways Commission, 47; beginnings of internal improvements, 72; tariff history, 79-82; laying of tonnage duties, 79; imports and exports of merchandise, 111; comparative statistics re- garding imports and exports, 116. See also Canals, Free- trade, Protection, Railroads. "Commission on Country Life," report, 48. "Commission of Fine Arts," 67. Committee system, in Congress, 48, 68. Compromises, the three great compromises in the constitutional convention, 22; of 1820, 28; of 1833, 33, 81; of 1850, 34. Concord, battle of, 19. Confederacy, first congress of, 36; constitution established, 36; recognized by Great Britain, 36; arrest of commissioners Mason and Slidell, 37; established, 87; slavery provisions of the Confederate constitution, 87; constitution of, quoted, 73, 74. Confederation, articles of, framed, 20, 61; ratified, 21, 61; con- gress of, driven from Philadelphia, 22; characterof, 61; quoted, 61; attempts to amend the articles, 61; character of period, 22. Confederation, of New England, 12, 56. Congress, federal, first, 23; and the salary grab act, 41; estab- lished by the Constitution, 68; powers granted, 68; powers denied, 68; question of its rights to withhold treaty appro^ priations, 70; effect of the Missouri Compromise on, 72; gets the right to regulate interstate commerce, 73; plan of reconstruction, 74. See Senate, House of Representatives. Conklln, Eoscoe, opposition to Garfield, 42. Connecticut, early settlements, 11; settlement at New Haven, 12; first constitution, 12; charter of 1662, 13, 57; abolished slavery, 22; fundamental orders, 56; adopts slavery, 83; prohibits slavery, 83; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Conservation, meeting of Governors over, 47; Pinchot-Ballin- ger controversy, 48. "Constitution," the frigate, 27. Constitution, adopted, 22, 61, 92; adopted by North Carolina, 23; adopted by Rhode Island, 24; rise and development of constitutional government, 55-74; objections to, 63; ratifica- tion of, 63; purpose of, 64; kind of government established by, 64; framework of the government, 64-69; liberal vs. strict construction of, 69; methods of amendment, 69; omissions in, 69; case of Marbury vs. Madison on, 70; recent develop- ment of, 74. Constitutional Convention, at Philadelphia, 22, 61; proposed, 61; three great compromises in, 62; compromises regarding slavery, 83. Constitutional Union party, origin and views, 77. Continental Congress, first, meeting of, 18, 59; second, meeting of, 19, 60, 61. Conway Cabal, 20. Copyright, International copyright act, 44. Corn, statistics regarding, 111. Cornwallis, Lord, in the South, 21; surrender of, 21. Coronado, Francisco de, discoveries in the interior of America, 9. Cortoreal, explorations, 7. Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 8. Cotton, export of, 22; first cotton mill, 27; goods, establishment of the minimum duty on, 80; gin, invention of, 84; statistics regarding, 111. Council for foreign plantations, created, 57. Council for New England, established, 11. Courts. See Judiciary. Cowpens, battle of, 21. Crawford, presidential nomination, 29. "Credit Mobilier," 41. "Creole affair," the, 31. Critical period, character of, 22. Crittenden, compromise of, 36, 87. Crown Point, captured 19; reoccupied by the British, 19. Cuba, Columbus in, 7; conquered by Spain, 8; Lopez Expedition, 34; filibustering in,35; capture of the "Virginius," 41; Spanish treatment of, 45; events of the Spanish War, 45; surrender to the United States, 45; Havana occupied by the Americans, 45; American troops withdrawn from, 46; resumption of military occupancy, 47. Cunard line, established, 31. Currency, demonetization of silver, 41; resumption of specie payment, 41, 42; remonetization of silver, 42; Sherman silver act, 44; repeal of the Sherman act, 44; contest over free silver in the election of 1900, 46; organization of the Monetary Commission, 47. See Coinage. Custer, massacre of, 41. Customs, act regulating the collection of, 79, 80; Ingham advo- cates home valuation, 80; use of the auction system, 80. See Tariff. Dakota, created into a territory, 53; states of North and South Dakota created, 54. Davis, Jefferson, cabinet officer, 34; captured, 38. Davis, John, discoveries, 9. Davis strait, discovered, 9. Daye, Stephen, first printer, 12. Debts, national, comparative statistics, 115. Index 121 Declaration of Independence, adopted, 19, 20; celebration of, 41; quoted, 60. Declaration of Bights, 1765, issued, 17; quoted, 58, 59. District of Columbia, slave trade abolished in, 34; slavery abolished, 87; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Delaware, settled by Swedes, 1 1 ; granted to Penn, 13; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Delaware river, Dutch on, 11. Demarcation, Bull of, 7. Democratic (Republican) Party, origin and views of, 24, 75, 76; in power, 25; divisions in. 1860, 36; gold Democrats in the election of 1895, 45; division over the Kansas-Nebraska bill, 77; candidates of 1856, 35, 77; divisions over slavery in 1860, 77; the convention of 1864, 77; split over slavery in New York, 76; free trade policy in 1856, 82; favors a re- duction of the tariff, 82. Denmark, and the sale of the West Indies, 46. Detroit, settled, 14; surrendered, 27. Dewey, George, victory of Manila bay, 45. Dingley tarlft bill, 82. Distribution of the surplus, 31. Dorr's rebellion, 32. Douglas, Stephen A., Kansas-Nebraska act, 35, 86; debate with Lincoln, 36, 87; nominated for president, 77; doctrine of popu- lar sovereignty, 86. Draft riots, in New York, 37. Drake, Sir Francis, discoveries, 9; on the Carolina coast, 9. Dred Scott case, 35, 73; Supreme Court decision quoted, 86, 87. Dunmore's war, 18. Dutch, discoveries in America, 10, 11; in New Jersey, 10; on the Delaware river, 11; at Hartford, 11; purchase Manhattan Island, 11; found New Amsterdam, 11; conquer New Sweden, 12; introduced slavery into Virginia, 83. Edison, Thomas A., electrical inventions, 43. Electoral Commission, of 1876, 41. Electricity, Franklin's discovery, 15; invention of Brush, 41. Electric light, Edison's improvements, 43. Electric telegraph, Morse's invention, 31. Elizabeth, N. J., settled, 13. Emancipation Proclamation, issued, 37; quoted, 87, 88. Embargo act, 26, 76; repealed, 26; effect on power of Congress, 71 ; effect on manufacturing, 80. Endtcott, John, at Salem, 11. England, discoveries in America, 8, 9; grant to the Virginia company, 9; attempted colonization of America, 9; struggle with France for America, 14-16; claim to the Ohio Valley, 15; Jay's treaty, 24; the rule of 1756, 26; Orders in Council, 26; asserts the right of search and impressment, 26; War of 1812, 27; opens West Indies and South America to American trade, 29; agrees to a treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, 29; Ashburton treaty, 31; the Creole affair, 31; recog- nizes the Confederacy, 36; Alabama Arbitration Committee, 40; Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 46; Cruising Convention, 85. English, westward movement, 15. Episcopal church, first bishop, 22; organization, 23. "Era of Good Feeling," 28, 76. Ericsson, John, invention of the screw steamship, 31. Ericsson, Lief, in America, 7. Erie canal, commenced, 28. Erie, Fort, capture of, 27. Erie, Lake, Perry's victory on, 27. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 21. Excise, on whiskey, 24. Executive departments, created, 23; listed, 65-67; relations with the president, 65. See Cabinet. Expenditure, national, comparative statistics, 115. Exports, comparative statistics, 116. Farms, statistics regarding, 111. Fallen Timbers, battle of, 24. Farragut, D. G., at New Orleans, 37. ' "Federalist," the, 63. Federalists, appearance of, 24, 75; fall of, 25, 75; passage of the alien and sedition laws, 25; passage of the Judiciary act, 25; in the election of 1812, 27; meeting at Hartford, 27. Fenians, invade Canada, 39. Fillmore, Millard, biography, 34. Finance, crisis of 1820, 28; crisis of 1837, 31; panic of 1857, 35; gold panic of 1869, 40; panic of 1873, 41; panic of 1893, 44; panic of 1907, 47. See Banks, Coinage, Currency. Fitch, John, invention of the steamboat, 24. Hag, national, 93; storm, 93; garrison, 93; recruiting, 93; "Amer- ican Jack," 93. Flannel, increase in the production of, 29. Florida, Ponce de Leon in, 8; Narvaezin, 8; settled by Huguenots,. 9; De Soto in, 9; founding of St. Augustine, 9; ceded to Eng- land, 16; uprising of the Seminoles, 28; invaded by General Jackson, 28; purchase of, 28, 51; second Seminole War, 30; removal of the Seminoles, 32; statistics of, 92-93; popula- tion in 1900 and 1910, 103. Force bill, of 1833, 81. Fort Duquesne, French at, 16. Fort Necessity, Washington at, 16. Fort Orange. See Albany. France, discoveries in America, 9; settlements of Champlain, 10;. in Louisiana, 13; at Sault Ste. Marie, 13; at Detroit, 14; struggle with England for America, 14-16; in Illinois, 14; founds New Orleans, 15; claim to the Ohio Valley, 15; cessions by the treaty of Paris, 16; treaty alliance with America, 20; recall of Genet, 24; depredations on American commerce, 25; X, Y, Z affair, 25; Napoleon Bonaparte's treaty with America, 25; evacuates Mexico, 39. Franklin, Benjamin, discovery of electricity, 15; his plan of colonial union, 16, 58; minister to France, 20. Franklin, state of, 22. Fredericksburg, battle of, 37. Freedmen, vagrant laws of the south, 38; southern secret so- cieties and, 39; given civil rights, 39, 41; given the suffrage, 40. See Negro. Freedmen's bureau bill, 39. Freeport doctrine, 87. Free-Soil party, in the election of 1852,34; origin of, 76; opposes the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 77; platform of- 1852, 77; and slavery, 86. Free trade, National free trade convention, 80; memorial of Gal- latin, 80; Walker's tariff and, 81 ; favored by the democratic party in 1856, 82; increase of the free list, 82. See Tariff. Fremont, John C, expedition to the West, 32; order regarding slaves, 37; nominated for president, 77. French and Indian War, 16. Frobisher, discoveries, 9. Frontenac, governor of Canada, 14. Fugitive slave acts, 73, 84, 86. Fulton, Eobert, and steam navigation, 26. "Fundamental orders," quoted, 56. Gadsden purchase, 34, 53. Gage, Thomas, British general, 19. Gallatin, Albert, secretary of the treasury, 25; favors free trade, 80. Gama, Vasco da, discoveries, 7. Garfield, James A., election of, 42; biography of, 42; opposi- tion to in New York, 42; shot, 42. Garrison, William L., establishes the Liberator, 30, 85; mobbed, 30. Gas, first used for lighting, 30. Gaspe, landing of Carrier, 8. "Gaspee," burned, 18. Gates, Horatio, in Burgoyne's campaign, 19; defeated at Cam- den, 21. GenSt, recall of, 24. George, Lake, war on, 16. George m, accession of, 16; proclamation of 1763, 16. Georgia, settled, 15; attacked by the Spaniards, 15; cession of territory, 50; on the tariff of 1828, 80; forbids the emanci- pation of slaves, 84; ratification of the constitution, 92; sta- tistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Germantown, battle of, 20. Gettysburg, battle of, 37. Ghent, treaty of, 27. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, in Newfoundland, 9. Gold, discovered in California, 36; in Alaska, 45. Gomez, discoveries, 8. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, in Maine, 10; settlement at Saco, 11. Gosnold, settlement in New England, 9. Gourgez, de, destroys Spanish settlement on the St. Johns river, 9. Government Printing Office, 67. Grand Army of the Republic, organized, 39. Grand Canon, discovered, 9. G ingers, origin of, 78. C ant, TJ. S., at Pittsburg Landing, 37; at Vicksburg, 37; at Lookout Mountain, 37; made Lieutenant-General, 37; be- fore Richmond, 37; first election, 40; biography, 40; re- elected, 40-41; scandals of his administration, 41. Gray, exploration of the Columbia river, 24. Greeley, Horace, establishes the New York Tribune, 31; can- didate for the presidency, 41, 78. 122 United States History Greely, Arctic expedition, 43. Greenbacks, question of their legality, 74. Greenback party, origin of, 78; absorbed by the Union Labor party, 78; in the election of 1880, 42. Greenback-Labor party, origin of, 78. Greene, Nathanael, retreat of, 21. Greenville, treaty of, 24. Grenvllle, expedition of, 9. Guam, added to the United States, 44, 54; relations with the United States, 91; physical features and resources, 91; sta- tistics of, 92-93. Guilford Court-House, battle of, 21. Habeas Corpus, question of its suspension, 74. Hamilton, Alexander, financial measures, 23-24; "Report on Public Credit," 23; "Report on Manufactures," 24, 79; on the establishment of a mint, 24; introduction of an excise tax, 24; killed, 26; on the constitutionality of the national bank, 70. Hamilton, James, on the annexation of Texas, 85. Harmon, defeated by the Indians, 24. Harrlsburg convention, on the tariff, 80. Harrison, Benjamin, elected president, 44; biography, 44; de- feated for president, 44; Behring Sea decree, 44. Harrison, General Wm. H., defeat of Tecumseh, 26; victory on the Thames river, 27; candidate for presidency, 30; elected president, 31; biography, 31; death, 31. Hartford, Conn., Dutch at, 11. Hartford Convention, meeting of, 27, 71, 76. Harvard College, founded, 12. Hawaiian Islands, annexation question, 44 ; annexed to the United States, 45, 54; description of climate and resources, 90-91; population, 91; relations with the United States, 91; sta- tistics of, 92-93. Hayes, B. B., election of, 41; biography, 42; removal of soldiers from the South, 42. Hayne, E. Y., views expressed in the Webster-Hayne debate, 29. Haytl, Columbus in, 7. Helper, Hlnton, "The Impending Crisis," 87. Hendricks, Thomas A., death of, 43. Henry, Patrick, speech on the Parsons' cause, 17; Stamp act resolutions, 17. Hessians, at Trenton, 19. Home League, on the tariff, 81. Homeopathy, introduced in America, 29. Homestead, Fa., strike at, 44. Homestead act, passed, 40. House of Burgesses, first, in Virginia, 11, 55. "House of Governorf," meetings of, 48. House of Representatives, election of 1824, 29; qualifications for membership in, 68; presiding officers, 68; powers of, 68; on Anti-Slavery petitions, 84, 85. See Congress. Houston, Sam, in Texas, 30. Howe, conciliatory proposals, 19; captures Philadelphia, 20. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of the Hudson river, 10. Hudson river, discovered, 10; Dutch settlements on, 10. Hughes, Charles E., appointed justice of the Supreme Court, 48. Huguenots, at St. Johns river, 9; at New Rochelle, 14. Hull, General Isaac, surrender of Detroit, 27. Huron, Lake, discovered, 10; Nicollet on, 11. Hutchinson, Mrs. Ann, expelled from Massachusetts Bay, 12. Impeachment, share of the Senate in, 68; share of House cf Representatives in, 68. Idaho, territory of, 53; made a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Illinois, first settlement, 14; Mormonism in, 31; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Immigration, treaty regarding Chinese, 42; Chinese exclusion bill of 1888, 43; total yearly since 1820, 106; yearly immi- gration from principal countries since 1821, 107. Implied powers, use of the doctrine of, 24. Imports, comparative statistics, 116. See Tariff. Income tax, act of 1864, 37; constitutional amendment regard- ing, 48, 74. Independence, Declaration of, 19-20; acknowledged, 21. Independent treasury, established, 31; abolished, 31. Indian Territory, created, 54. Indian wars, Pequot, 12; King Phillip's war, 13; conspiracy of Pontiac, 17; Lord Dunmore's war, 18; with Cherokees, : i; the Miami Indians and the treaty of Greenville, 24; defeat .f General St. Clair by Miamis, 24; defeat of General Harmon, 24- defeat of Tecumseh, 26; first Seminole war, 28; second Seminole war, 30; Black Hawk war, 30; end of the Seminole war 31; capture of Osceola, 31; outbreak of the Sioux in Minnesota, 37; Sioux uprising under Sitting Bull, 41; up- rising of the Apaches under Geronimo, 43. Indiana, settled by the French, 15; statistics of, 92-93; popu- lation in 1900 and 1910, 103. Indiana Territory, created, 50; petitions for slavery, 84. Indians, population, 102; cost of the support of, 102; distribu- tion among the states, 102. Industries, English trading companies in colonial America, 9; English navigation and trade acts, 13, 16; beginning of cot- ton exportation, 22; tax on whiskey, 24; establishment of the Pacific Fur Company, 26; first cotton mill, 27; first roll- ing mill, 27; beginning of machine made flannel, 28; litho- graphic printing begun, 29; discovery of gold in California, 33, 36; silver discovered in Nevada, 36; discovery of gold in Alaska, 45; trusts organized under the laws of New Jersey, 45; shipping trust formed, 46; passage of Pure Food law, 47; disclosure of packing house conditions, 47; conservation dispute, 48; Standard Oil Company and the Tobacco Trust in the courts, 48; value of manufactured products, 111; values of farms and farm products, 111; wheat production in America, 111; corn production in America, 111; cotton pro- duction in America, 112; production of wool, cane-sugar, cotton, sugar, farm animals, gold, silver, copper, and pig iron in America, 112. See also Commerce, Railroads. Insurance, life, introduced, 27. Internal improvements, begun by Congress, 1872, 72. Internal revenue, Act of 1864, 37. Interstate commerce act, 43, 47, 67, 74. International WorMngman's association, views of, 78. International Working People's association, views of, 78. Iowa, territory of, 52; made into a state, 52; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Iron, first rolling mill, 27; invention of galvanized, 29. Iroquois, on Lake George, 16. Irrigation, in the West, 46. Isabella, founded by Columbus, 7. Isthmian Canal, Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 34; provisions of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 46; Panama route chosen, 46; act of government for, 46; lock canal decided on, 47. Isthmian Canal Commission, 67. Italy, dispute over killing of Italians in New Orleans, 44. Jackson, Andrew, victory at New Orleans, 27; war against the Seminoles and Creeks, 28; in Florida, 28; in the election of 1824,29; elected president, 29; biography, 29; introduces the spoils system, 29; his "kitchen cabinet," 29; reelected, 30, vetoes bank recharter bill, 30; Specie Circular, 30; removal of deposits from the national bank, 30; opposes nullification, 81. Jamaica, discovered by Columbus, 7. James II, grants New Netherland, 13. Jamestown, Va., settled, 10; Indian attack, 11. Japan, treaty with, 35. Jay, John, treaty with England, 24, 70; constitutional question involved in Jay's treaty, 70. Jefferson, Thomas, writes Declaration of Independence, 19 ; on the assumptiou of the state debts, 24; elected vice-presi- dent, 24; election of, in 1800, 25; biography, 25; and the spoils system, 25; reelected, 26; refuses reelection, 26; death, 29; quoted, on the constitutionality of the national bank, 69, 70; purchase of Louisiana by, 70; writes Kentucky reso- lutions, 70; political views of, 75, 76. Jones, Paul, body brought to America, 47. Jonss Point, battle of, 20. Johnson, Andrew, election of, 38; biography, 38; his recon- struction policy, 38; his impeachment, 39; "tour around the circle," 39; impeached, 39, 74. Judiciary, National, passage of the Judiciary Act, 25; influence of John Marshall as Chief- Justice, 25; organization of the Commerce Court, 48; organization of the Court of Customs Appeals, 48; constitutional provisions regarding, 68; names of the national courts, 68; powers of, 69. See Supreme Court. Kane, Elisha, Arctic expedition, 35. Kansas, war over slavery, 35; votes in favor of prohibiting slavery, 36; Kansas-Nebraska bill, 53, 73, 86; statistics of, 92-93; popu- lation in 1900 and 1910, 103. Kaskaskia, settlement of the French at, 14; captured by Clark, 20. Kennebec river, colony on, 10. Kentucky, resolutions of and nullification, 25, 70; enters Union as a slave state, 50, 84; abolition society, 85; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Key, Francis Scott, the "Star Spangled Banner," 27. Kldd, William, 14. King George's war, 15. King Philip's war, 13. King's Mountain, battle of, 21. Index 123 King William's war, 14. Knights of Labor, organized, 40. Know-Nothing party, origin of, 77; absorbec \y the American party, 77. Kossuth, Louis, in America, 34. Koszta, Martin, case of, 35. Labor, Knights of Labor organized, 40; strikes of 1877, 42; Ameri- can Federation of Labor formed, 43; Haymarket riot, 43; Homestead strike, 44; Pullman car strike, 44; coal strike of 1902, 46; Mississippi valley disputes and settlement, 47; or- ganization of a Board of Conciliation, 47. Labrador, Cabot discovers the coast, 7. Ladrone Islands. See Guam. Lalayette, visits America, 29. La Salle, Sleur de, on the Mississippi, 13. Laudonniere, Rene de, in Florida, 9. Law making, process of, 68. See Congress. Lee, Charles, treason of, 20. Lee, Robert £., surrender, 38. Legislature, Virginia, 11 ; National, established, 65. See Congress. Lehigh coal mining company, formed, 24. Leisler, Jacob, rebellion of, 14. Leon, Ponce de, discovers Florida, 8; attempted settlement in Florida, 8; in Porto Rico, 8. Leopard, attacks the "Chesapeake," 26. Lewis and Clark, western expedition, 26. Lexington, battle of, 19. Liberal Republicans, in the election of 1872, 78. "Liberator," the, established, 30. Liberty party, origin and views of, 76; absorbed by the Free- Soilers, 76; views on slavery, 85; Library of Congress, 67. Life Insurance, investigation of New York companies, 47. Lincoln, Abraham, debate with Douglas, 36, 87; elected in 1860, 36, 87; biography, 36; Emancipation Proclamation, 37, 87; second election of, 38; shot, 38; nominated for President, 77; speech at Springfield, 87. "Little Belt," affair of, 26. Locke. John, "Grand Model," 13. London and Plymouth companies, charter of, 55. London company, charter of 1609, 55; grants representative government to Virginia, 55. Long Island, battle of, 19. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 37. Lopez, General Narcisso, Cuban expedition, 34. Lords of Trade and Plantations, established, 57. "Lost Colony," fate of, 9. Loulsburg, captured by New Englanders, 15; recaptured by the English, 16. Louisiana territory, French in, 13; foundation of Biloxi, 14; capital moved to Mobile, 15; purchased, 25, 50, 70. Louisiana, state lottery abolished, 40; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Lovejoy, E. P., killed, 31. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 27. McClellan, in West Virginia, 36; Peninsula campaign, 37; at Antietam, 37; nominated for President, 38, 77. McDonough, Captain Thomas, victory on Lake Champlain, 27. McKinley, William, tariff bill, 44, 82; election of, 45; biography, 45; reelection of, 46; assassination, 46. Macon bills, 26. Madison, James, biography, 26; reelected, 27; death, 30; opposed to internal improvements, 72. Magellan, names the Pacific, 8; discovers the Philippines, 8. Maine, settlement at Saco, 11; purchase by Mass., 13; Gorges colony, 10; added to Massachusetts, 14; in the Missouri Compromise, 28; prohibition in, 34; statistics of, 92-93; popu- lation in 1900 and 1910, 103. "Maine," blown up, 45. Manhattan Island, settled by the Dutch, 10; purchased by the Dutch, 11. Manila, battle of, 45. See Philippine Islands. Manufactures, statistics regarding, 111. Marconi, and wireless telegraphy, 46. Marietta, Ohio, settled, 22. Marquette, on the Mississippi, 13; in Michigan, 13. Marshall, John, chief justice, 25; decision in case of Marbury vs. Madison, 70. Maryland, Baltimore's charter, 11; settled at St. Mary's, 11; Clayborne in, 12; toleration act, 12; on Western cessions, 22; toleration act, quoted, 57; adopts slavery, 83; ratifica- tion of the constitution, 92- statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Mason, John, grant from the Plymouth company, 11; settlement in New Hampshire, 11. Mason and Slidell, arrest of, 37. Mason and Dixon line, 17; continuation of, 84. Massachusetts, migration of Puritans to, 11; Massachusetts Bay Company organized, 11; troubles with Roger Williams and Ann Hutchinson, 12; body of liberties, 12; emigration to Con- necticut, 12; free schools in, 12; Quakers in, 12; investigated in 1679, 13; loses New Hampshire, 13; purchase of Maine, 13; resistance to Royal Commissioners, 1664, 13; rule of Andros, 14, 57; witchcraft delusion in, 14; charter of 1690, 14; quarrel over quartering of troops, 16, 17; non-importation agreement in, 17; meeting of the provincial congress, 18; charter re- modeled in 1774, 18; declared to be in a state of rebellion, 19; battle of Lexington and Concord, 19; state abolishes slavery, 21; Shays's rebellion, 22; in the war of 1812, 27; separation of Church and State in, 30; introduction of the Australian ballot, 44; charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay Company, 56; adopts slavery, 83; prohibits slavery, 83; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93; popu- lation in 1900 and 1910, 103. See New England. Matches, use of friction, 30. "Mayflower compact," 11; quoted, 55, 56. Medicine, introduction of homeopathy, 29. "Mediterranean Fund," 80. Menendez, founds St. Augustine, 9; destroys French colony, 9. Merchandise, statistics of imports and exports, 111. Methodist church, first bishops, 22. Mexico, conquered by Cortez, 8; cedes territory in Arizona and New Mexico, 34; evacuated by the French, 39; cession of territory to the United States, 33, 52. Mexico, Gulf of, Pineda in, 8. Michigan, settlement at Sault Ste. Marie, 13; formed into a ter- ritory, 50; enlarged, 51; admitted as a state, 51; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Michigan, Lake, discovered, 11. Mill's tariff bill, 82. Minnesota, establishment ot Fort Snelling, 28; Sioux in, 37; Sioux Reservation opened, 44; territory of, 52; made a state, 53; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Mint, first government mint established, 24. Minuit, Peter, purchases Manhattan Island, 11. Missions, Spanish, in New Mexico and Arizona, 9. Mississippi, formed into a territory, 50; statistics of, 92-93; pop- ulation in 1900 and 1910, 103. Mississippi river, De Soto at, 9; La Salle on, 13; Marquette on, 13; exploration of its sources, 30. Missouri, in the Missouri compromise, 28; saved to the Union, 36; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Missouri Compromise, passed, 28, 72, 84. Money, statistics regarding, 110. See Coinage, Currency. "Monitor" and the "Merrimac," 37. Monmouth, battle of, 20. Monroe Doctrine, enunciated, 28; applied to Venezuela, 45; quoted, 72, 73. Monroe, James, elected, 28; biography, 28; purchases Louis- iana, 50; opposed to internal improvements, 72. Montana, territory of, formed, 54; made a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Montcalm, in New York, 16. Montreal, Cartier at, 9; captured by the English, 16; captured by Montgomery, 19. Morgan, William, kidnapping of, 76. Mormonism, established in America, 29 ; introduction of polyg- amy, 31; in Illinois, 31; rebellion of 1857, 35; Edmunds bill regarding polygamy, 43; dissolution of the Mormon Church corporation, 43; renounces polygamy, 44. Morse, S. F. B., and electric telegraph, 31; constructs first sub- marine telegraph, 32. Mosquito Indians, trouble over, 34. Mugwumps, in the campaign of 1884, 78. Murf reesboro, battle of, 37. Narvaez, in Florida, 8. Nashville, battle of, 37. Natchez, La., Indian massacre, 15. National Bank, the first chartered, 24; the second, in the election of 1832, 30; not rechartered, 30; removal of its deposits, 30; attempt to reestablish in 1841, 31. National debt, extinguished, 30. National republican party. See Whigs. Navigation acts. See Acts of Trade. Navy, American, founded, 24; in the War of 1812, 27; cruise around the world, 47. Nebraska, act of 1854 regarding, 35, 53; statistics of, 92-93; popu- lation in 1900 and 1910, 103. 124 United States History Negroes, plot to burn New York city, 15; freed from slavery, 37, 87,88; given rights of citizenship, 74, 88; granted the suffrage, 74, 88. See Anti-slavery, Freedman, Slavery. Neutrality proclamation, Washington's, 24. Nevada, discovery of silver, 36; territory formed, 53; made a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, New Amsterdam, founded by the Dutch, 11. See Dutch, New York. New England, first general court, 11; invasion of Canada, 13; Queen Anne's war in, 14; capture of Louisburg, 15; at the Hartford convention, 27; in the War of 1812, 71. See Massa- chusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, New Haven. New England Anti-Slavery society, 85. New England confederation, established, 12; constitution of, quoted, 56, 57. New England Emigrant Aid society, 35. Newfoundland, Cartier in, 8; Gilbert in, 9; Hudson bay given to England, 15. New Hampshire, named, 11; early settlement, 11; separated from Mass., 13, 14; ratification of the constitution, 92; sta- tistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. New Haven, settled, 12. See Connecticut. New Jersey, Dutch settlement of, 10; settlement at Elizabeth, 13; grant to Berkeley and Carteret, 13; organization of trusts, 45; adopts slavery, 83; abolishes slavery, 84; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. New Mexico, settlement at Sante F£ by Onate, 9; Spanish mis- sions, 9; ceded to the United States, 33, 52; in the compro- mise of 1850, 34, 53; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. New Netherland, settled by the Dutch, 10; patroon system in, 11; conquest by the English, 13; reconquest by the Dutch, 13; granted to the Duke of York, 13. New Orleans, founded, 15; battle of, 27; capture by Farragut, 37; exhibition, 43; Italians killed in, 44. Newport, attempt to capture, 20. New Rochelle, N. Y., settled, 14. Newspaper, first daily, 22; establishment of the New York Tribune, 31. New York, colony named, 13; Andros in, 13; Huguenots in, 14; Leisler's rebellion, 14; a royal colony, 14; congress at Albany, 14; Zenger trial, 15; Montcalm in, 16; refusal to quarter British troops, 17; occupied by the British, 19; cession of Western territory, 22; state conference at, 38; Earl of Bel- lomont in, 58; factional party strife in 1881, 42; opposition to Virignia and Kentucky Resolutions, 70; "Hunkers" and "Barnburners" in, 76; adopts slavery, 83; and slavery, 84; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93; pop- ulation in 1900 and 1910, 103. See New Netherland. New York Anti-Slavery society, organized, 85. New York city, negro plot in, 15; second negro plot, 15; slavery in, 15; meeting of first Congress, 23; growth of, 25; comple- tion of the Erie canal, 29; first street-car line, 30; draft riots, 37; Tweed Ring in, 40; electricity installed, 43; erection of Bartholdi Statue of Liberty, 43; first election of Greater New York, 45. Nicaragua, filibustering in, 35; and the Isthmian Canal, 46. Nicollet, in the Northwest, 11. Nlcolls, Richard, conquest of New Netherland, 13. Non-importation agreements, 17. Non-intercourse act, passed, 26; effect on manufacturing, 80. Norsemen, in America, 7. North, Lord, repeal of the Townshend act, 20; conciliatory pro- posals, 20. North Carolina, settlement at Albemarle, 12; Indian massacre in, 15; separated from South Carolina, 15; regulators in, 18; adopts the constitution, 23; adopts slavery, 83; on slavery, 84; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. North Dakota, admitted as a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; pop- ulation in 1900 and 1910, 103. Nova Scotia, Champlain in, 9; conquered by Sir William Phips, 14; expedition against, 15; given to England, 15; added to Mass., 14. Nullification, Virginia and Kentucky resolution, 25; Federalist declaration of, 27; South Carolinian attempt at in 1832, 30: extracts from South Carolina's nullification act, 1860, 81; opposed by President Jackson, 81. Oglethorpe, James, in Georgia, 15; defeats the Spaniards, 15. Ohio, first settled, 22; admitted as a state, 50; statistics of, 92- 93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Ohio company, grant of land to, 15. Ohio river, first steamboat on, 26. Ohio valley, grant of land to the Ohio company, 15; rivalry of the French and English in, 16; conquered by the English, 16. Oklahoma, settled, 44; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Onate, settlement of Santa Fe - , 9. Ordinance of 1784, 22. Ordinance of 1787, provisions of, 22, 62, 63; on slavery, 84. Oregon, state, Indian troubles, 35; admitted to the Union, 53; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Oregon territory, occupied, 26, 32; dispute regarding the bound- ary of, 32; organized, 52, 86. Orleans, territory of, 50. Ostend manifesto, 35. Otis, James, on writs of assistance, 16. Pacific ocean, discovered, 8; named, 8; reached by Cabeza de Vaca, 8; explored by Drake, 9. Pacific fur company, 26. Pan American Union, 67. Panama, Balboa in, 8; chosen for the Isthmian canal, 46; rela? tions with the United States, 46, 54, 91; statistics of, 92-93. See Isthmian Canal. Paris, treaty of, 16, 21. Parliament, taxation in America, 17, 18; "intolerable" acts, 18. See Acts of Trade. "Parsons' cause," 17. Parties, attitude towards slavery in the election of 1856, 35; rise and fall of, 75-78. See individual parties, i.e., Constitu- tional Union, Democratic, Free-Soil, Greenback, Know-Noth- ing, People's party, Prohibition party, Social Democratic party, Whigs, etc. Patrons of Husbandry. See Grangers. Payne tariff bill, 82. Peary, at the North Pole, 48. Penn, William, grant of land, 13; plan of union, 58. Pennsylvania, granted to Penn, 13; abolishes slavery, 21; whiskey rebellion in, 24, 70; discovery of coal mines, 24; completion of a freight line, 30; coal strike in, 46; adopts slav- ery, 83; prohibits slavery, 83; ratification of the constitu- tion, 92; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery society, 84. Pensions, soldiers of the Revolution, 28; first pension bill, 42; dependent pension law, 44; act of 1907, 47. People's party, origin of, 78. Perry, Lieutenant, victory on Lake Erie, 27. Personal Liberty laws, 73, 86. Petroleum, discovery of, 32; statistics regarding, 111. Philadelphia, founded, 13; meeting of the first Continental Con- gress, 18; meeting of the second Continental Congress, 19; captured by the British, 20; evacuated by the British, 20; constitutional convention in, 22; first mint at, 24; Industrial Exposition, 41. Philippine Islands, discovered, 8; surrender of Manila, 45; up- rising under Aguinaldo, 45, 46; Moro uprising, 47; ceded to United States, 45, 54; description of climate and resources, 89- 90; imports and exports, 90; population, 90; relations with the United States, 90; statistics of, 92-93. Phips, Sir William, invasion of Canada, 14. Photography, use of the daguerreotype, 31. Pierce, Franklin, election of, 34; biography, 34. Pike, Zebulon, western expedition, 26. Pilgrims, at Plymouth, 11; Mayflower compact, 11, 55. Pineda, discoveries, 8. Piracy, in the West Indies, 28. Plscataqua river, settlement on, 11. Pittsburg, founded, 22. See Fort Duquesne. Plymouth, settled, 11; incorporated in Mass., 14. Plymouth company, settlement in Maine, 10. Polk, James K., elected president, 32; biography, 32. Polygamy. See Mormonism. Popular Sovereignty, Kansas-Nebraska act and, 73. Population, comparative statistics, 114. Populists, in the election of 1892, 44. See People's party. Port Royal, N. S., founded by Champlain, 9. See Annapolis. Porto Rico, discovered by Columbus, 7; Ponce de Leon in, 8; sur- render to the United States, 45; ceded to the United States, 45, 54; description of climate and resources, 90; population, 90; relations with the United States, 90; statistics of, 92-93. Portuguese, discoveries in America, 8, 9. Post Offloe, three-cent postage, 34; money order department created, 38; two-cent letter postage, 43; postal savings banks established, 48; statistics of receipts, 110. Postal Savings Banks, established, 48. Preble, treaty with north African states, 26. Presbyterian church, organization, 23. Index 125 President, impeachment of Johnson, 39; electoral commission, for the election of, 41; presidential succession act, 43, 65; the electoral count act, 43; increase of salary, 48; term of, 65; method of election, 65; qualifications for the presidency, 65; compensation of, 65; powers of, 65; cabinet of, 65. See Elections, presidential, 94, and Executive departments, 65. "President," attacked by the "Little Belt," 26. Presidential elections, candidates and electoral votes, 94-99. Presidential electors, established, 98; how chosen, 99; count- ing of the votes of, 99. Princeton, battle of, 19. Pring, in New England, 9. Printing, beginning of lithographic, 29. See Newspaper. Privateers, in the War of 1812, 27. Prohibition, in Maine, 34. Prohibition party, origin, of, 78. Protection, Home League favors, 81 ; National protectionist con- vention, 81; favored by the Wool growers' association, 82; by the Wool manufacturers' association, 82. See Tariff. Protestants, in the various states, 108; comparative numbers in the United States, 109. Puritans, settle Massachusetts Bay, 11; in Connecticut, 12. Quakers, in Massachusetts, 12; in Pennsylvania, 13. Quebec, settled, 10; captured by the English, 16; extension of its boundaries, 18; expedition against, 19. Queen Anne's war, 14, 15. Queenston, expedition against, 27. Railroads, completion of a gravity railroad, 29; first steam rail- road for passengers, 29-30; beginning of the Baltimore and Ohio, 29; use of a locomotive, 29; use of an American-built locomotive, 29; freight line from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, 30; early steam railroad in New York, 30; line from the At- lantic to the Mississippi, 35; Atlantic and Pacific connected by, 40; completion of the Northern and Pacific, 43; mileage, statistics regarding, 111, 116. Raisin river, battle on, 27. Raleigh, Sir Walter, explorations, 9. Rebating, forbidden, 74. Reconstruction, Johnson's plan for, 38; congressional plan for, 39, 74; in the campaign of 1868, 40. Religious bodies, statistics of, 108, 109. Removals from office, Jefferson and, 25; Jackson and, 29; Tenure of Office act, 39 ; Cleveland on, 43. Republican party, Mugwumps, in the election of 1884, 43; nomi- nees of 1872, 78; takes temporarily the name of the Union party, 77; views and platform of 1864, 77; origin of, 35, 77; platform and candidates in 1856, 77; platform and candidates in 1860, 77; split in the party, 1872, 78; insurgent movement, 78; adopts present protective policy, 82; organization of, 86; platform in the election of 1860, 87. See Anti-Nebraska men. Revenue, national, comparative statistics, 115. Revere, John, invention of galvanized iron, 29. Revere, Paul, 19. Revolutionary war, disputes leading to, 17-18; military events, 19-21. Rhode Island, withdraws from the confederation, 22; adopts the Constitution, 24; Dorr's rebellion, 32; charter of 1663, 57; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Ribault, French settlement, 9. Rockefeller, John D., gift to the general education board, 47. Rocky mountains, expeditions to, 26. Roosevelt, Theodore, succession to the presidency, 46; biog- raphy, 46; mediator in the coal strike, 46; elected president, 46; mediator between Bussia and Japan, 47; tour of the West, 48; "New Nationalism" of, 48. Roosevelt dam, completed, 48. Russia, and the southern boundary of Alaska, 29; sale of Alaska, 39. « Ryswick, treaty of, 14. Saco, Maine, settled, 11. St. Augustine, founded, 9; attacked by South Carolina, 14; attacked by Oglethorpe, 15. St. Clair, defeated by the Indians, 24. St. Johns, Newfoundland, Gilbert in, 9. St. Lawrence, Gulf of, Cartier in, 8. St. Lawrence river, Champlain in, 9; Cartier on, 9. St. Louis, founded, 17; exposition, 46. St. Mary's, Maryland, settled, 11. •'Salary Grab Act," 41. Salem, Massachusetts, settled, 11; witchcraft delusion, 14. Samoa, joint occupation of, 44; division of, 45-46, See Tutuila. San Domingo, protectorate over, 46. San Francisco, settled, 20; vigilance committee in, 34, 35. San Jacinto, battle of, 30. San Juan, settled, 8. Santa Fe, settlement, 9. Santiago, destruction of the Spanish fleet at, 18, 45. Saratoga convention, 20. Savannah, settlement of, 15; capture by the British, 20; failure of American attack on, 20; evacuated by the British, 21. Schenectady, massacre of, 58. Scott, General Winfleld, Mexican campaign, 32. Seabury, Samuel, first Episcopal bishop, 22. Secession, of South Carolina, 36, 73; of other southern states, 36, 73; South Carolina and, 73. Second Continental Congress, 19; provides for state govern- ments, 19. Sedition law, 25, 70. Senate, qualifications for, 68; presiding officers, 68; powers of, Seward, Horatio, 87; speech on slavery, 87. Shays's rebellion, 22. Sherman, General W. T., captures Atlanta, 37; march through Georgia, 37; march through Carolina, 37. Shiloh, battle of, 37. Silver, discovery in Nevada, 36; demonetized, 41; Populists ad- vocate free coinage, 44; Sherman act, 44; repeal of the Sher- man law, 44; in the campaign of 1896, 45. Sitting Bull, uprising, 41 ; shot, 44. Slavery, in Virginia, 10; in New York city, 15; abolished in Ver- mont, 20; abolished in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, 21; first fugitive slave act, 24; effect of the invention of the cotton gin on, 24; provisions of the Missouri Compromise, 28; at- tempt to remove slaves to Liberia, 28; treaty for the suppres- sion of the slave trade, 29; review of the struggle over, 33-38; compromise of 1850, 34; fugitive slave act of 1850, 34; slave trade abolished in the District of Columbia, 34; and "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 34; passage of Personal Liberty laws, 34, 73; establishment of the underground railway, 34; civil war in Kansas over, 35; Kansas-Nebraska bill, 35; doctrine of squatter sovereignty, 35; Ostend Manifesto, 35; assault on Sumner, 35; in the election of 1856, 35; Dred Scott decision, 35, 73, 86; vote in Kansas on slavery, 35; Lincoln and Douglas debates, 36; John Brown's Raid, 36; in the election of 1860, 36; orders of Fremont and Lincoln regarding, 37; provisions of the thirteenth amendment regarding, 38; cause of party divisions, 76, 77; history of its rise and fall, 83-88; intro- duced into America by Las Casas, 83; introduced into Vir- ginia, 83; state adoptions of, 83; state laws against, 83; compromises on, in the constitutional convention, 83; at- tempt to tax slaves, 84; first societies formed in behalf of slaves, 84; pledge between England and the United States for its abolition, 84; slave trade abolished, 84; prohibited by the Northwest ordinance of 1787, 84; Missouri compromise regarding, 84; fugitive slave acts of 1793, 84; Liberty party on, 85; cruising convention, 85; importance of annexation of Texas, 85; institution of New England, New York, and Ameri- can Anti-slavery societies, 85; underground railroad, 85; petitions against refused in the House of Representatives, 85; in the campaign of 1848, 86; compromise of 1850, 86; fugi- tive slave act, 86; Dred Scott decision, 86, 87; "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and, 86; Kansas-Nebraska bill and, 86; effect of the Dred Scott decision on, 86, 87; Personal Liberty laws, 87; Republican Party on, 87; Confederate Constitution regarding, 87; Crittendon Compromise, 87; abolished in thi territories and District of Columbia, 87; Emancipation Proclamation, 87, 88; Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments, 88. Slave trade, prohibited, 26. Smith, John, in Virginia, 10. Smith, Joseph, establishes Mormonism in America, 29. Smithsonian Institution, 67. Snelling, Fort, established, 28. Social Democratic party, origin and views of, 78. Socialist party. See Social Democratic party. Socialist Labor party, views of, 78. "Sons of Liberty " organized, 17. "Sons of the South," 35. South, secedes from the union, 36, 73; treatment of freedmen, 39; readmission of southern states to the Union, 40, 73; repre- sentatives readmitted to Congress, 40; final amnesty, 40, force bill of 1871, 40; removal of northern soldiers, 42; rep- resentative in Cleveland's cabinet, 43; fears regarding the tariff of 1828, 80. See Confederacy. South America, discovered by Columbus, 7; Americus Vespu- ciusin, 8; the Monroe doctrine applied to, 28; Pan-American conferences, 47. South Carolina, settlement at Charleston, 13; rice planting in, 14; separated from North Carolina, 15; revolutionary war in, 126 United States History 21; nullification in 1832, 30; secession of, 36, 73; at- tempt at nullification, 73; on the tariff of 1828, 80; nullifi- cation of the tariff of 1832, 81; ratification of the constitu- tion, 92; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. South Dakota, admitted as a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Soto, de, in the Southwest, 9. Spain, discoveries in America, 8, 9. Spanish war, causes for, 45; events of Spanish war, 45; treaty of peace, 45. Speaker, powers of, 68. See House of Representatives. Spoils system, Jefferson and the, 25; Jackson and the, 29; Harrison and the, 31. See Removals from Office, Civil Service. Spoliation claims, 25. Spottsylvanla, battle of, 37. "Squatter sovereignty," 35. Stage line, between New York and Philadelphia, 15. Stamp Act, 17; repealed, 17. stamp Act Congress, 17, 58, 59. States, border states in Civil War, 37; draw up constitutions, 60; eleventh amendment and, 70; refuse to support Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 70; the original thirteen, 92; ratifica- tion of the constitution by, 92; religious bodies in, 108. Steamboat, invented, 24; first in the West, 26. Steamship, Atlantic crossed, 28; invention of the screw steam- ship, 31; regular Atlantic service, 31. Steel, statistics regarding, 111. Stony Point, stormed, 20. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, publishes "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 34, 86. Street-car lines, in New York city, 30. Stuyvesant, conquers the Swedes, 12. Suffrage, female, first laws, 40; in Colorado, 44. Sugar, statistics regarding, 111. Sumner, Charles, assault on, 35. Sumter, fall of, 36. Supreme Court, John Marshall as chief justice, 25; decision in the Corporation Tax case, 48; decision in Standard Oil Cases, 48; according to the Constitution, 68; original jurisdiction, 69; famous cases, 69; case of Marbury vs. Madison, 70, 71; McCulloch vs. the State of Maryland, 71, 72; case of trus- tees of Dartmouth College vs. Woodward, 71; Gibbons vs. Ogden, 73; Dred Scott case, 73, 86, 87; legal tender cases, 74; slaughterhouse cases, 74; civil rights cases, 74; upholds the right of the interstate commerce commission to fix maxi- mum railway rates, 74; justices of, from 1789, 102. See Judiciary. Swedes, and Delaware, 11, 12; conquest of their settlements on the Delaware, 12. Porto Rico, and Guam, 45, 54; addition of Tutuila Group, Samoa, 45, 54; Panama Canal Zone added, 46; territory south of Tennessee organized, 49; territory of Mississippi formed, 50; Indiana territory created, 50; territory of Mis- sissippi enlarged, 50; territory of Orleans and of Michigan formed, 50; territories of Missouri, Alabama, and Arkansas formed, 51; territories of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota formed, 52; territories of Utah, New Mexico, Washington, Kansas, Nebraska, Indiana, Oregon, Nevada, Colorado, Da- kota, Idaho, Arizona organized, 53; Montana, Wyoming, and Oklahoma formed into territories, 54. Texas, settlement of, 28; independence of, 30; independence acknowledged, 31; in the campaign of 1844, 32; admitted to the Union, 32, 52; boundary fixed by the compromise of 1850, 34; constitutionality involved in its purchase, 73; importance of its annexation, 85; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Thames, battle on, 27. Thanksgiving Day, proclaimed, 24. Ticonderoga, captured, 19; captured by Burgoyne, 20. Tippecanoe, battle of, 26. Tobacco, first cultivated, 10. Tonnage, duties on, 79. Toronto, captured, 27. Townshend, tax act, 17. Transportation. See Canals, Railroads. Treaties: Ryswick, 14; Utrecht, 15; Aix-la-Chapelle, 15; Paris, 16, 21, 49; Jay's treaty. 24, 70; Ghent, 27; Ashb'Urton, 31; Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 34; Hay-Pauncefote, 46; right of Con- gress to withhold appropriations for, 70. "Trent," the, affair of, 37. Trenton, battle of, 19. Trinidad, discovered by Columbus, 7. Tripoli, war against, 25. Trusts, organization of, 45; formation of the shipping trust, 46; Elkins anti-rebate bill, 46; Sherman anti-trust act, 46, 74; creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor, 46; de- cisions against the Northern Securities company and the Bee Trust, 46; Standard Oil Company fined for rebating, 47. See Commerce. Turkey, commercial treaty with, 29. Turner, Nat, insurrection of, 30. Tuscarora Indians, driven from the South, 15. Tutuila, relations with the United States, 45, 54, 91 ; population and products, 91; statistics of, 92-93. Tyler, John, accession to the presidency, 31; biography, 31; dis- agreement with the Whigs, 31. Tweed King, in New York, 40. Tait, William H., elected, 47; biography, 47; on international arbitration, 48. Tariff, first tariff act, 23, 79; act of 1812, 27, 80; act of 1816, 28, 80; act of 1824, 28, 80; act of 1828, 29, 80; act of 1832, 30, 81; act of 1833, 30, 81; act of 1842, 32, 81; reciprocity with Canada, 35; act of 1864, 37; act of 1870, 40; act of 1890, 44, 82; act of 1894, 44, 82; act of 1897, 45, 82; in the election of 1892, 44; in the campaign of 1896, 45; act of 1909, 47, 82; establishment of the "minimum principle," 80; demands of the Harrisburg convention, 80; act of 1846, 81, 82; act of 1857, 82; act of 1861, 82; Cleveland on, 82; acts of 1865, 1866, 1867, 82; act of 1882, 82; act of 1888, 82; Democratic party favors the reduction of, 82. Tariff board, bill for a permanent board, 82. Tariff commission, of 1882, 82; of 1909, 48. Taylor, Zachary, Mexican campaign, 32; president, 33; death of, 34. Tea, trouble over tax on, 18. Tecumseh, defeated, 26; killed, 27. Telescope, first used in America, 30. Telegraph, discovery of the principle of, 30; first use of sub- marine telegraph, 32; first line to the Pacific, 37; wireless in America, 46. Telephone, Bell invention, 42. Temperance, movement in the South, 47. See Prohibition. Tennessee, settled, 18; readmitted to the Union, 39; made into a state, 50; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103 Territories, additional area acquired by the treaty of Paris, 1783, 21 49- cession by the states of their western lands, 22, 49; ordinances of 1784 and 1787 for the survey and government of the northwest territory, 22; purchase of Louisiana terri- tory 25, 49; annexation of Florida, 28, 51; annexation of Texas 32, 52; cession of territory by Mexico, 33, 52; Gads- den purchase, 34, 53; purchase of Alaska, 39, 54; annexation of Hawaiian Islands, 45, 54; acquisition of Philippine Islands. Underground railroad, 85. Union Pacific railroad, built, 40; Credit Mobilier in connection with, 41. Union party. See Republican party. Union Labor party, views of, 78. United States, area of 1800-1910, 110; population of 1800-1910, 110; debt of 1800-1910, 110; receipts and expenditures of the National government, 1800-1910, 110; wealth of 1850- 1904, 110. Utah, in the compromise of 1850, 34; female suffrage, 40; terri- tory of, 53; admitted as a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Utrecht, treaty of, 15. Vaca, Cabeza de, 8. Valley Forge, winter quarters at, 20. Van Buren, Martin, in the election of 1812, 27; elected presi- dent, 30; biography, 31; defeated for reelection, 31. Venezuela, trouble with England over, 45. , Vermont, abolished slavery, 21, 83; enters Union as a free state, 50, 84; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Verrazano, explorations in America, 8. Vespuclus, Americus, discoveries, 8. Vice-president, method of selection, 65; duties of, 65. Vlcksburg, campaign of, 37. Vlncennes, French at, 15; captured by Clark, 20. Virginia, settled, 9, 10; named, 9; slavery established, 10, 83; cultivation of tobacco, 10; representative government in, 11, 55; made a royal colony, 11; Puritan commissioners in, 12; Bacon's rebellion, 13; the Parsons' cause, 17; committee of correspondence appointed, 18; resolutions and nullification, 25; Turner's slave insurrection, 30; commercial commission with Maryland, 61; adopts slavery, 83; prohibits slavery, 83; ratification of the constitution, 92; statistics of, 92-93. Virginia company, establishment of, 9. Index 127 Waldseemuller, names America, 8. Wales, Prince of, visits America, 36. Walker, E. H., tariff bill, 81. Wake Island, added to the United States, 91; statistics of, 92- 93. War department, investigated, 45. War ol 1812, causes of, 27; effect on industries, 80. Washington, George, in the Ohio Valley, 15; at Fort Necessity, 16; chosen commander-in-chief, 19; retreat through New Jersey, 19; attempt to displace, 20; inaugurated, 23; biography, 23; "Neutrality Proclamation," 24; reelected, 24; retires, 24; refusal of a third term, 24; commander-in-chief in 1798, 25; death of, 25. Washington, formed into a territory, 53; admitted as a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103. Washington, D. C, seat of government, 25; burned by the British, 27. Washington, Fort, captured, 19. Watauga, constitution of, 59. Wayne, Anthony, defeats the Miamis, 24. Wealth, comparative statistics, 114. Webster, Daniel, debate with Hayne, 29; views expressed in the Webster-Hayne debate, 29; death, 34; on the tariff of 1828, 80; on the compromise of 1850, 86. Webster, Noah, his dictionary published, 29. West Indies, opened to the United States trade, 29. Western lands, cessions of, 22. West Virginia, McClellan in, 37; admitted to the Union, 37, 53; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900 and 1910, 103; sta- tistics regarding, 111. Weymouth, Mass., settled, 9. Whigs, early beliefs of, 29; in the election of 1840, 31; in the election of 1852, 34; led by Clay and Adams, 76; in election of 1840, 76; platform of 1852, 77; divided over the Kansas- Nebraska bill, 77. Whiskey rebellion, 24. Whiskey ring, 41. White, John, at Roanoke Island, 9. Whitefleld, George, revival of, 15. Whitney, Ell, invented the cotton gin, 24, 84. White Plains, battle of, 19. Wilkes, Charles, discovery of the Antarctic, 32. William and Mary college, established, 14. Williams, Soger, settles Rhode Island, 12. Wilmington, Del., settled, 12. Wilmot proviso, 33, 85. Wilson tariff bill, 82. Wirt, William, nominated for President, 76. Wisconsin, territory of, formed, 51; statistics of, 92-93; popu- lation in 1900 and 1910, 103. Wool, statistics regarding, 111. Wool growers' association, 82. Wool manufacturers' association, 82. Writs of Assistance, issued, 16. Wyoming, female suffrage, 40; made into a territory, 54; ad- mitted as a state, 54; statistics of, 92-93; population in 1900> and 1910, 103. Wyoming, Pennsylvania, massacre at, 20. X, Y, Z Affair, 25. Yale College, established, 14. Yellowstone national park, created, 40. Yemmasees, uprising of, 15. York. See Toronto. Yorktown, battle of, 21, Zenger, trial of, 15.