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 GREEK &RAMMAR 
 
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PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES 
 
 EDITED B"! 
 
 E. A. SONNENSCHBIN, M.A. (Oxon.) 
 
 GEEEK GEAMMAR 
 
ilarallfl Grammar ^etitfi, 
 
 "Almost every grammatical system has its rationale, capable of being comprehended 
 by the mind, if the miud is kept steadily to it, and of serving as a clue to the facts ; but 
 ■ ■ . • ^™'^y ons of the grammars following a different system, the student masters the 
 rationale of none of them ; and in consequence, after all his labour, he often ends by 
 possessing of the science of grammar nothing but a heap of terms jumbled together in 
 inextncable confusion." — Matthew Arnold. 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR, by E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. (Oxon.), Professor 
 of Classics in the Mason College, Birmingham. 
 
 FIRST LATIN READER AND WRITER, by 0. M. Dix, M.A. 
 
 (Oxon.), Assistant Master in the Oratory School, Birmingham. 
 
 ilhis book contains the essential rules of elementary Syntax, and thus forms, together 
 
 with the Latin Accidence (which may be had separately from the Syntax), a Complete 
 
 Course jor Beginners,] 
 
 SECOND LATIN READER AND WRITER, by C. M. Dix. 
 
 THIRD LATIN READER AND WRITER, by 0. M. Dix. 
 
 LIVY LESSONS, being a FOURTH LATIN READER AND 
 WRITER, by J. 0. NiooL, B.A., Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, 
 and the Bev. J. Hunter iSMiTH, M.A. (Oxon.), First Assistant Master in King 
 Edward's School, Birmingham. 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR, by E. A. Sonxensohein. (Syntax ready in 1893.) 
 
 FRENCH GRAMMAR, by L. Moeiarty, M.A. (Oxon.), Assistant 
 Master at Harrow, late Professor of French in King's College, London, Taylorian 
 Scholar in French. 
 
 PREPARATORY FRENCH COURSE, by Mademoiselle Zweifel, 
 Modern Language Mistress In the Edgbaston High School. 
 
 FIRST FRENCH READER AND WRITER, by E. J. Mowch, Chief 
 
 Modern Language Master in the Manchester Grammar School, and W. S. Lyon, 
 M.A. (Oxon.), late Assistant Master in Manchester Grammar School. 
 
 SECOND FRENCH READER AND WRITER, by P. B. E. Barbiee, 
 
 Lecturer in French in the University College of South Wales. 
 
 THIRD FRENCH READER AND WRITER, by Louis Barb:^, 
 
 Chief Modern Language Master in the Glasgow Academy. (In preparation.) 
 GERMA.N GRAMMAR, by Kuno Meyer, Ph.D., Lecturer in German 
 in University College, Liverpool. 
 
 FIRST GERMAN READER AND WRITER, by B. A. Sonnenschein. 
 SECOND GERMAN READER AND WRITER, by W. S. Maogowan, 
 
 M.A., Ll.M. (Cantab.), Modern Language Master in Cheltenham College. 
 
 THIRD GERMAN READER AND WRITER, by Geoeg Biedlbr, 
 
 Ph.D., Professor of German in Mason College, Birmingham. (In preparation.) 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, by J. Hall, M.A., Head Master of tbe Hulme 
 Grammar School, Manchester ; A. J. COOPER, Head Mistress of the Bdgbaston 
 High School ; and the Editor of the Series. 
 
 ENGLISH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES. Part I., by M. A. 
 
 WOODS, late Head Mistress of the Clifton High School. Part IL by A. J. Cooper, 
 F.C.P., Head Mistress of the Edgbaston High School. 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR, by H. B. Claeke, B.A. (Oxon.), Taylorian 
 Scholar and Teacher of Spanish in the University of Oxford. 
 
 FIRST SPANISH READER AND WRITER, by H. B. Clarke. 
 
 Other "BEADEBS and WBITEBS" to follow the above will be 
 shortly produced. 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 
 
PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES 
 
 GEEEK GRAMMAE 
 
 FOE SCHOOLS 
 
 BASED ON THE FBINGIPLES AND BEQUIBEMENTS 
 OF THE GBAMMATICAL SOGIETY 
 
 E. A. SONNENSCHBIN, M.A. (Oxon.) 
 
 PBOPESSOB OF GEBBK AND LATIN 
 
 IN THE 
 
 MASON" COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM 
 
 PAKT I— ACCIDENCE 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHBIN & CO. 
 
 PATERNOSTER SQUARE 
 
 1892 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The main object of this book is to turn to account for teaching 
 purposes the close relation which exists between Latin and Greek 
 not merely in vocabulary but also in what is practically of more 
 importance — grammatical structure. It is of no little help to a 
 pupil beginning a new language to find that in the field of gram- 
 mar he is on familiar ground — that some of the facts are already 
 known to him, that others may be classified on a plan which he 
 has already mastered, and that the rest may be described in terms 
 of which he knows the precise meaning and value.* This result 
 is here shown to be attainable without a revolution in terminology. 
 The new classifications introduced involve no new difficulties, and 
 are believed to be improvements from the point of view of Greek 
 per se, though their advantage is doubled if the learner has already 
 become familiar with them in their application to Latin. I may 
 refer for an example in Accidence to the declension of nouns (§ § 
 17 — 40), where the facts of Latin and Greek are exhibited section 
 by section on precisely parallel lines ; the scheme of the 3rd 
 declension is based upon the relation of the Stem to the Nomina- 
 tive Singular, and has the advantage of showing afiinities of gender 
 as well as of form, while at the same time it dispenses with a large 
 number of unnecessary paradigms. The gender rules which follow 
 ( § § 64 — 89) are precisely parallel in the two languages. In the verb 
 parallelism of classification is not applicable without a revolution 
 either in Greek or in Latin ; but the method of treating verbs as 
 wholes (in classes or conjugations) corresponds to that universally 
 adopted in Latin, and is shown by experience to be the best. 
 
 * The demand for grammars " similar in construction and uniform in 
 terminology" has recently been included among the ofificial rec[uirements 
 of the Prussian Ministry of Education {Lehrpliine tmd LehroMfgaben fwr die 
 hoheren Schulen, Easter 1892). 
 
Greek grammar. 
 
 Apart from parallelism it is my hope that practical teachers 
 will find something to approve in this grammar. Great pains 
 have been bestowed upon clearness and boldness of outline,* and 
 brevity and accuracy in the rules. Matter which is of secondary 
 importance is subordinated, and matter which is of no importance 
 at all for school purposes is exscinded. A marginal line marks 
 off all that it is desirable to take up in a first course. At the 
 same time the details are not divorced from the context to which 
 they organically belong. 1 
 
 Full use is here made of comparative philology so far as it is 
 of use for the practical study of Greek ; J where it is not, the 
 rules are so worded as to avoid teaching bad philology. Through- 
 out I have tried to build upon the solid ground of fact, and to 
 avoid theories which may require revision as the science advances. 
 The forms and spellings attested by the evidence of inscriptions 
 are adopted so far as they have gained a footing in the best 
 editions of the present day. The evidence is briefly indicated 
 for the use of teachers in Appendix III. 
 
 In this grammar examples precede rules ; the laws of con- 
 traction are introduced as wanted ; the general laws of sound 
 are given in Appendix I. ; the rules of accentuation in Appendix 
 II. Of the two lists of Principal Parts (classified in §§ 280—292, 
 
 • Closely connected matter is presented to the eye on two pages facing 
 one another (left and right); e.g., 1st decl. pp. 6 and 7, 2nd decl. pp. 8 
 and 9, 3rd decl. Class I b pp. 12 and 13 ; so too in the verbs throughout. 
 
 + For example, the Contracted Nomis and Adjectives (§§ 20, 26, 93) 
 are comparatively unimportant ; the so-called Attic declension (§§ 27, 94) 
 is so rare that a pupil wiU not come across more than half-a-dozen 
 examples in the whole course of his school reading ; aviiyeav is not a 
 classical form at all. It is most important that the beginner should 
 acquire a, working knowledge of the whole field before descending to 
 details in any one part. " UKeop fi/ucrv xwtiJj." 
 
 t The less essential philological matter is given in the form of notes, 
 which can be omitted at the discretion of the teacher. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 arranged alphabetically in Appendix V.) the former contains all 
 the verbs of importance which it is necessary to learn at a second 
 " stage ; the latter supplements the classified list by including some 
 verbs of less importance,* and also provides a means of revising 
 the whole verb, regular and irregular. Both lists have been 
 drawn up with great care. To the rule for nouns of the 1st 
 declension (§17) there are no exceptions. The position assigned 
 to the Dual Number corresponds to its comparative unimportance. 
 The definition of the terms "Strong" and "Weak" (§ 185) avoids 
 the difficulties of classifying forms like TreirXt^a, Ituttov. The 
 Strong Aorist is introduced early (§§ 207, 208, 209—211), and 
 Aorists like i^rp/ are brought into clear view after the verb in -/it 
 (§ § 271, 272). The adoption of " parallel forms of the verb-stem" 
 (§ 214 note) is not only scientifically sound but also avoids the 
 practical difficulties involved by Curtius' " Second or Lengthened 
 Class". The verbs tlOtj/xi, i-qfjn, StSw/xt are removed from the 
 position of typical verbs in -/xt (c/. § 257) ; there are no other 
 verbs like them. For the principal features of Homeric and 
 Herodotean Greek the pupil is refen-ed to the introductions to 
 certain well-known editions. 
 
 I have learned much from the school grammar of Kaegi, to 
 whom the gratitude of teachers and pupils alike is due for 
 having shown by an appeal to facts that in some points tradition 
 has imposed upon them an unnecessary burden. I am also 
 indebted to my friends Mr. P. Giles, Eeader in Comparative 
 Philology in the University of Cambridge, and Mr. F. Haver- 
 field, late Senior Classical Master in Lancing College, for their 
 kindness in reading my proof-sheets and making many valuable 
 suggestions. 
 
 E. A. SONNENSCHEIISr. 
 Ldanfair, bt Harlech, 
 1st July, 189S. 
 
 * For example, aySi^cm, of which the only difficult tense — the Aorist — 
 oocTirs only once in classical Attic (Sophocles, Antigone, 89). 
 
CONTENTS OF ACCIDENCE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction - 1 
 
 Nouns : declension i 
 
 gender 20 
 
 Adjectives : declension - ■ . - 24 
 
 comparison - 32 
 
 Numerals (Adjectives and Adverbs) 34 
 
 Pronouns and Adjectives connected therewith ... 37 
 
 Personal - 87 
 
 Possessive - "-39 
 
 Demonstrative (including the Definite Article) - 39 
 
 Interrogative and Indefinite . 42 
 
 Eelative 43 
 
 Definitive 44 
 
 Adverbs : formation and comparison - - 45 
 
 Verbs : — 
 
 Introductory (Verbs in a) 46 
 
 Class I. a (Vowel Stems uncontracted) 48 
 
 Formation of Tenses and Moods 52 
 
 Class I. b (Vowel Stems contracted) . 56 
 
 Class II. a (Mute Stems) 64 
 
 Class II. b (Liquid Stems) 72 
 
 Peculiarities of Verbs in a 78. 
 
 Verbs in -fn {tcrrriiii, SeUvvfii) - 82 
 
 Comparative table of endings . 37 
 
 Peculiarities of Verbs in -fu . gg 
 
 (including rlerini, '/ij/ii, SiSufu) 
 
 Defective verbs in -fu - ... 96 
 
 {(pVlii, ilfil, e'V. e?/". KiBrtimi, Ke7ijai, xf^) 
 
 Aorists like e^rjv, tipav, eyvaiv, f<pvi/ . 99 
 Defective Verbs in -w - 
 
 {olSa, SiSoiKtt, eoiKa^ e'lfiaprai, ireirpurai) 
 
 Peculiarities in the meaning of forms - . 102 
 
 Principal Parts : classified list 1Q4 
 
 Prepositions (short Mst) . . 224 
 Appendix I. — On Sounds 
 Appendix II. — On Accents 
 
 Appendix III. — Notes and Authorities on forms 140 
 
 Appendix IV. — On Dialects . . 142 
 
 Appendix V. — Alphabetical List of Principal Parts I44 
 
 100 
 
 126 
 182 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 letters. 
 A a 
 )8 
 
 7 
 S 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 K 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 (T, or (final) s 
 
 T 
 
 X 
 
 4' 
 
 The Alphabet. 
 
 a or a 
 
 b 
 
 g (as in gate) 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 z 
 
 e 
 
 th 
 
 i or I 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 u or u 
 
 ph 
 
 oh, kh, 
 
 ps 
 
 6 
 
 Names. 
 
 alpha 
 
 beta 
 
 gamma 
 
 delta 
 
 epsilon 
 
 zeta 
 
 eta 
 
 theta 
 
 iota 
 
 kappa 
 
 lambda 
 
 mu 
 
 nu 
 
 xi 
 
 omikron 
 
 B 
 
 r 
 
 A 
 
 E 
 
 Z 
 
 H 
 
 ® 
 
 I 
 
 K 
 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 B 
 
 O 
 
 n 
 p 
 
 T 
 Y 
 
 X 
 
 n 
 
 Note.— 7 before a guttural (y, k, x, or i) has the sound of 
 na in "sing"; SyvcXos, lyKaXa, pronounced ang-gelos, eng-kalo. 
 The letters i, xlf, and ^ as pronounced by the ancient Greeks, are 
 merely ways of writing ks, ps, zd (or dz), and are therefore called 
 Double Consonants. 
 
 Further information about soundR find letters is given in Appendix I. 
 
 Pi 
 
 rho 
 
 sigma 
 
 tau 
 
 upsilon 
 
 phi 
 
 khi 
 
 psi 
 
 omega 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 The vowels ij and ui are always long by nature. 
 The vowels e and o are always short by nature. 
 The vowels a, i, and ■» are sometimes long by nature, and some- 
 times short by nature. 
 In this Grammar a, i, v, when long by nature, are always 
 marked a, Z, v, except (i.) when they are also long by position, 
 i.e. when they stand before two or more consonants, or a double 
 consonant, e.g. in the words irpaa-a-w, 6wpa^, which have a long a ; 
 (ii.) when they bear the circumflex accent (§ 6), which itself marks 
 them as long ; e.g. /laXXov. Vowels short by nature are not 
 marked at all, except for some special reason (a, t, i!). Latin 
 words quoted are marked on the same principles. 
 
 Diphthongs. 
 
 Diphthongs are produced by running two different vowel 
 sounds together so as to make one syllable, which is always long 
 by nature. The Greek diphthongs are eight : — 
 
 at £1 01 vi 
 
 av cv r]v ov 
 
 e.g. alpel (two syllables), evplcrKcmcn (four syllables). 
 
 Other vowels coming together do not form diphthongs : e.g. 
 aopuTTOi (four syllables), aeXTrros (three syllables) . Even the above 
 vowels do not always form diphthongs : in this case the diaeresis 
 is used: e.g. di'Sios (four syllables), aijirvos (three syllables). 
 
 The long vowels d, rj, m, with a small i written under them 
 {Iota Subdcn'pt), are worn-out diphthongs in which the i is not now 
 pronounced : aSijs, wBrj. The t of these worn-out diphthongs is 
 not written under capitals, but stands on the line : 'AiSijs, 'QiSelov. 
 
 Breathings. 
 
 Every initial vowel or diphthong has over it a Breathing : — 
 ■ denotes h (Rough Breathing) : opos, boundary. 
 ' is not pronounced (Smooth Breathing) ; opos, mountain. 
 
 The Breathings are written over the second vowel of diphthongs, 
 and precede capitals : aipS>, oXpw ; "O/x-r/pos, but A°p.<i)i/, Evpium;. 
 
 Every initial p also takes the rough breathing : prfnop, 'PoSos. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Accents. 
 
 The Accents are (i.) the Acute, as in avroi, 
 
 (ii.) the Grave, as in a-uros. 
 
 (iii.) the Circumflex, as in aiT<3, Suipov. 
 The chief rules of accents are given in Appendix II. 
 
 End-consonants. 
 
 1 . The only consonants which can regularly stand at the end 
 of a Greek word are v, p, and s (^ = ks, i/f = ts). 
 
 K, X are exceptions to this rule in the word's it<, out of, ovk or ovx, 
 not. iK stands only before consonants ; before vowels the form i$ 
 (Lat. ex) is used ; e/c t^s oIkms, but i$ oixtds. 
 
 OVK, ovx, not, stand only before vowels {ovx before vowels with 
 the rough breathing) : ovk dya.66';, ovx oi'T'^s. Before consonants 
 the form ov is used : ov /caKos. 
 
 2. The following words have a mOYable v at the end, which 
 is used only when they stand before a word beginning with a 
 vowel or diphthong, or at the end of a sentence : — • 
 
 (i.) Datives and locatives (§ 59) in -en : TrS.cri{v), 'A6^v?jo-t(v). 
 (ii.) Third persons singular and plural in -o-i: 8tS(i)(7i(v), 
 
 Xeyovcrt(v) . 
 (iii.) Third persons singular in -e : iXv£{v), eXva-e{v). 
 (iv.) The third pers. sing, pluperf. in -et : eA.£XvKei(v). 
 (v.) The words eo-T-t(v), he is, uko(ji{v), twenty, TravTwiraxniy), 
 
 all in all. 
 
 3. The o- in the word owtos, thus, is movable, and used chiefly 
 before vowels and diphthongs : owus dya^os, but owto /ca/cds. 
 
 Punctuation. 
 
 The full stop and comma are used in Greek as in English. 
 The Greek mark of interrogation is the same as the English 
 semicolon (;). 
 
 For the semicolon and colon Greek uses a point above the 
 
 line(-)- 
 
ACCIDENCE. 
 
 AcciDBNOE is the part of grammar which tells how words are 
 declined (nouns, adjectives, pronouns), compared (adjectives and 
 adverbs), or conjugated (verbs). 
 
 NOUNS. 
 Greek has one Number more than Latin (the Dual, § 12), and 
 one Case less (the Ablative). In Greek the work of the Latin 
 Ablative is thrown partly on the Dative, partly on the Genitive : — 
 e.g. "with the teeth," dentihus (Abl. of Instrument), tois 
 oSoBo-t (Dat.). 
 "by force," vi (Abl. of Manner),j8ta (Dat.). 
 "in the fourth month," quarto mense (Abl. of "Time 
 
 when"), TO) TerdpTio fxyjvi (Dat.). 
 "he is away from Athens," ahest Athenls (Abl. of Separa- 
 tion), airecTTiv 'AOrjvuiv (Gen.). 
 Prepositions are often used with the Greek Dative and Genitive 
 when they do the work of the Latin Ablative : — 
 e.g. iv rfj -TraT/DiSt (Dat.), m yatrid; 
 
 a-TnevaL aTrb (or Ik) ttj'S irarpt'Sos (Gen.), abire a (or ex) patria. 
 [No Latin Prepositions take the Dat. or Gen.] 
 The Dual Number speaks of two or a pair, e.g. tuj Sre, the two 
 ears ; but it is little used, the Plural (which speaks of more than 
 one) being generally substituted, e.g. to, Sra, the ears. 
 
 The Three Declensions. 
 Greek Nouns are declined in three principal ways, which 
 correspond in general to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd declensions of 
 Latin \cf. §§ 50-58). 
 
 1st Decl. 
 
 GEBEK EXAMPLES. 
 
 LATIN EXAMPLES. 
 
 Kii/ti), hair, (jiiim, repm-t, <pvyi), flight 
 apa, seaso-n 
 MoCo-o, Muse 
 
 coma, fama, fuga, 
 
 hora 
 
 Masa 
 
 2nd Deol. 
 
 Tavpo!, hull, \iKos, wolf, BeSs, god 
 &vTpov, cave, ihaiov, olive oil 
 
 taurus, lupus, deus 
 antrum, oleum 
 
 3rd Decl. 
 
 vu| (vvKT-), nigJU, irois {■iroS-),foot 
 xiwv (\eocT-), lion, /i-fiTrip (in\Tp-),inolher 
 
 nox (nod-), pes (ped-) 
 led {Icon-), mater {malr-) 
 
DECLENSION OP NOUNS. 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 The Stem. 
 The Cases are formed by adding a suffix, called the Inflexion, to the 
 crude form of the word, called the Stem. In the 3rd Declension the Stem 
 may generally he found by striking off the Inflexion of the Genitive Case, 
 as given in the dictionary. But in the 1st and 2nd Deol, the Stem is more 
 difficult to distinguish, because it ends in the 1st Decl. in the vov?el o, in 
 the 2nd Deol. in the vowel o, and these vowels often coalesce with Inflexions 
 beginning with a vowel, so as to form one syllable. Thus, for example, the 
 Gen. Plur. Ko/i,av stands for Ko/ia-aiv (earlier Ko/ia-traiv, cf. Lat. coma-ru/m) ; 
 the Gen. Sing, raipov stands for raipo-o (earlier raipo-to), and so forth. 
 
 Gbnbeal Eules for Case-foemation. 
 
 The Vocative is of the same form as the Nominative, except 
 (i.) in the Singular of words of the 2nd Decl. in -os, e.g. Nom. 
 raCpos, Voc. Tawpe, Lat. taiire ; (ii.) in the Singular of Masculines 
 of the 1st Decl. in -i^s or -ds, e.g. Nom. ttoXitijs, Voc. TroXira; (iii.) 
 in the Singular of some words of the 3rd Decl., e.g. Nom. priraip, 
 Voc. prJTop; Nom. ttoXis, Voo. ttoXi. (§ 29). 
 
 Neuters have the same form for the Nominative, Vocative, 
 and Accusative. 
 
 All words have the same form for the Nominative, Vocative, 
 and Accusative Dual, and for the Genitive and Dative Dual. 
 
 All Genitive Plurals end in -mv (or -Si/). 
 
 Gendbe 
 The rule of Natural Gender is true, with few exceptions, of 
 Greek, as of Latin, French, and German : — 
 
 Nouns denoting Male Persons are Masculine ; nouns denot- 
 ing Female Persons are Feminine. 
 The general correspondence in gender of Greek and Latin nouns 
 denoting Sexless Things is shown as follows ; more exact 
 rules and exceptions will be given later on (§§ 64-89). 
 
 1st Deol. 
 
 GEEBK NOM. SING. 
 
 LATIN NOM. SING. 
 
 in -17, -a, or -a: Fern. 
 
 in -a : Fem. 
 
 2na Decl. 
 
 in -OS : MasG. (a few Pem.). 
 in -ov : Neut. 
 
 in -us : Masc. (a few Fem.) 
 in -mil : Neut. 
 
 3rd Deol. 
 
 formed by adding -s : mostly 
 
 Fein, (some Masc, one or 
 
 two Neut.) 
 formed without adding -s : 
 
 mostly Masc. (some Fern. 
 
 some Neut.) 
 
 formed by adding -s : mostly 
 Fem. (some Masc.) 
 
 formed without adding -s : 
 mostly Masc. (some Fem. 
 some Neut.) 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 First or /4-Declension, 
 
 [Stems in S. In the Nom. Sing. Latin a = Greek o, o, or ?;.] 
 I. Femininbs. 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 1. i^axV' battle. 
 
 2. otKt'd, house. 
 
 S. fidxn 
 fj-dxvv 
 fjLdxv; 
 
 P. fidxai 
 fidxd<; 
 fjiaxSiv 
 jjidxai''! 
 
 S. olKid 
 
 OlKidv 
 OlKid 
 
 P. OIK tat 
 olKid^ 
 
 OLKlcbv 
 
 oIkLuk 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. ^ixi. 
 G. D. /idxaiv 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. oiKi'o 
 G. D. otKlaiy 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 3. Sipa, season. 
 
 4. Movo-a, Muse. 
 
 S. &pd 
 &pdv 
 &pd<; 
 &pd 
 
 P. wpat 
 &pd<; 
 d)pa)V 
 a)pai,<! 
 
 S. Movaa 
 Movaav 
 
 MovCTT)^ 
 
 Mova-T) 
 
 P. Movaai 
 Movad!; 
 Movawv 
 Mova-ai'i 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. Spo 
 G. D. iiipaiv 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. Moiio-o 
 G. D. Moviraiv 
 
 Rule. — If the Nominative Singular ends in 17 (e.g. f^-oLXV)! V is 
 kept throughout the Singular. 
 
 If the Nom. Sing, ends in a preceded by a vowel or p (a pure, 
 mostly long, e.rj. oiVi'd, Sipa), u, is kept throughout the Sing. 
 
 If the Nom. Sing, ends in a preceded by some other consonant 
 than p (a impure, mostly short, e.g. MoDtra), u is changed to rj in 
 the Gen. and Dat. Sing. 
 
 Examples pob Declension. 
 
 1. in 7). 
 fioi], sJiout 
 K^firi, L. coma 
 xipri, maiden 
 l'.op(l)'li, L. forma 
 viipeKri, L. nelmla 
 ipvyh, I^.fuga 
 
 2. in a pure. 
 oiTto, cause 
 $airi\fid, kingdom 
 Bfi, L. dea 
 (TKia, shade 
 $a(rl\fia, queen 
 aroa, porch 
 
 3. in o pure. 
 IfTirepa, L. vcspera^ 
 
 vesper 
 \ipa, L. lyra 
 X^pa, land 
 ir/Kvpa, L. ancora 
 Trpapa, L. prora 
 
 i. in o impure. 
 afia^a, icaggon 
 afiiWa, contest 
 S6^a, opinion 
 6ii\a<Tira (Bd\aTTa), 
 sea [vant 
 
 Bfpi,itaiva,maid-ser- 
 
FIRST DECLENSION OF NOVNS. 
 
 19 
 
 I9b 
 
 II. Masculines. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 1. ToioTTj^, howman. 
 
 2. i/edj/tds, young man. 
 
 ro^oTov* 
 TO^orrj 
 
 P. TO^OTai 
 
 To^orai 
 TO^ordt; 
 to^otSiv 
 
 S. vedvid<s 
 vedvld 
 vedvLdv 
 vedviov * 
 vedvld 
 
 P. vedviai 
 vedviai 
 vedvidi; 
 vedviwv 
 vedviaif 
 
 Ihial. N. V. A. ro^6Td 
 G. D. To\6Taiv 
 
 Dml. N. V. A. viavia 
 Gr. D. veaviaiy 
 
 Rule. — The following Masculines of the 1st Declension form 
 the Voc. Sing, in short a ; — 
 
 (i.) All in T»/s : e.g. w iroXira, S 'Opia-ra. 
 (ii.) Names of nationalities in ijs : e.g. a Uipa-a, S> %KvOa. 
 Other Nouns of the 1st Decl. in iji form the Voc. Sing, in i; : 
 e.g. 3> 'ArptlSr], « livXaSr]. 
 
 Examples fob Declension. 
 ^° All Masculines of the 1st Decl. denote male persons. 
 
 -T7JS : KpiT^s, judge 
 ImBt)ttis, pupil 
 yavTTjs, L. naiUa 
 iroifjT^s, L. poeta 
 7ro\iTi)j, citizen 
 iTTpaTiiiTris, soldier 
 Se<rir6Tris, ruler, despot t 
 
 -ijs : Ile/xrjjj, Persian 
 'ZiciBris, Scythian 
 'ArpeiSiis, son of Atreus 
 "AiSris, Hades 
 
 -as : Atyeids, L. Aeneas 
 
 n06ay6pds, Pythagoras 
 Tafiids, steward 
 
 Peculiarities in Feminines and Masculines. 
 
 20 (i.) Note the Gen. and Dat. Sing, of Feminines in -5 (contracted from 
 
 -dd), e.g. 'AS-qva, Atlwrm (a goddess), /ij/o, mina = 100 drachmae: — 
 
 N. V. 'ABriva, A. 'A9r)vdv, G. 'ABifivas (for -dds), D. 'ABrim (for -d^). 
 (ii.) Some Proper Names, chiefly of foreign origin, form the Gen. Sing. 
 in -it (Doric Gen.) : e.g. 'APpoic6/id, of Abrokomas, 'Opiyrd, ofOrontes (Persians), 
 Boppd, of the North Wind (Nom. Boppas, Doric form of Bopms). 
 (iii.) The Dat. Plur. sometimes ends in ai(ri{v) in poetry. 
 
 * The ending ov is borrowed from the 2nd Decl. 
 t Voc. Sing, accented Sftrirora. 
 
8 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 Second or 0-Declension. 
 
 [Stems in o (a, § 27). In the Nom. Sing. Latin us, urn = Greek oj, oy.] 
 
 
 Masc. and Fem. 
 
 Neuters. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 1. SouXos, m., slave. 
 
 2. SCipov, gift. 
 
 S. BovXo<; 
 BovXe 
 BovXov 
 BoiiXov 
 BovXa 
 
 P. BovXoi 
 BovXoi 
 BovXov; 
 BovXcov 
 BovXoit 
 
 S. Bcopov 
 Bwpov 
 Bwpov 
 Bwpov 
 Bwpa 
 
 P. Bwpa 
 Bwpa 
 Bwpa 
 Bwpwv 
 BwpoK 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. SouAffl 
 G. D. Sov\oit/ 
 
 Dual N. V. A. S,ipa 
 G. D. Sdpoiv 
 
 Examples poe Declension, 
 . 'hiros, m., f., horse, L. equus 
 KvKos, m., wolf, L. lupvs 
 uvos, m., f., ass, L. asinus 
 o<l>Ba\fi.6s, m., eye, L. ociilus. 
 Tavpos, m., bull, L. taunts 
 (many other Masculines) 
 
 Feminines in 
 0l0\os (Eng. Mbla), bark, book 
 pi0\os, Egyptian papyrus 
 yvddos, jaw 
 
 SeKros, icriting tablet (A) 
 Sp6iTos, dew 
 tpri/ios, &iivSpos, desert (properly 
 
 adjs.) 
 Ijireipos, x^po'os, continent 
 KepKos, tail 
 
 2. &ifTpov, n., cave, L. antrum 
 ^4Tpov, n., measure, L. "inetrum 
 fiTJ\ov, n., apple, L. malum 
 CKrivTpov, n., staff, L. seeptrum 
 <f6v, n., cpisr, L. otniwi 
 
 (many other Neuters) 
 
 yijcros, island, L. insula, f. 
 
 v6aos, disease, plague 
 
 dS6s, K4\ev9os, arpair6s, road, path 
 
 irXivBos, brick 
 
 pd^^os, rod 
 
 <rTroS6s, dicst, ashes 
 
 Totppos, dyke, canal 
 
 ^d/xfios, ^l/dfiaQos, &fi/j.os, sand 
 
 \pTi(pos, pebble 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 IS" This list includes the most important Feminines in -os, excepting 
 those which denote Persons (§ 16), Proper Names of cities, countries, 
 islands (§ 68), kinds of trees (§ 69), and animals. Most of the above 
 Feminines may be remembered in connection with Egypt (^ AlyuTrros). 
 
 Peculiarities. 
 
 Se<rfi6s, m., fetter : Plur. Sea-fioi, m., or Seit^uci, n. 
 
 (tTtos, m., com, food, fodder : Plur. o-ito, n., kinds of food, provisions. 
 
 (rrdSiov, n., race-course (Lat. spatium), or stade (a measure of length, 
 
 about J of an English mile) : Plur. itt^Sio, n., or a-rdStot, m. 
 <rTa6fi6s, m., stall, fold (Lat. stabulum, " standing place "), day's march : 
 
 Plur., (TTaBfioi, m. (common in Xenophon), or o-TaBfid, n. 
 8e6s, god, goddess, has no Vocative in e : S 6(6s, S deus. 
 The Dat. Plur. sometimes ends in olixi(v) in poetry. 
 
SECOND DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 Contracted Nouns op the Second Declension. 
 Masculines. Neutbes. 
 
 K 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 1. vous(for voos), mind. 
 
 2. otTTOw (for ocrTeov), bone. 
 
 S. vov^ 
 vovv 
 vov 
 v^ 
 
 P. vol 
 vov<; 
 
 VMV 
 VOL'S 
 
 S. OffTOVV 
 0(TTOVV 
 
 oarov 
 oo-tS 
 
 P. bcTTU 
 OCTTa 
 
 ocrTuv 
 
 OCTToh 
 
 Contracted Nouns have no Vocative or Dual in use. 
 
 EuLE. — and € contract witli o into ov, and disappear before 
 a long vowel or diphthong : e contracts with a into d. 
 
 This contraction of e-o into o, instead of the more common i;, is due 
 to the desire to keep in the Neut. Plur. its characteristic vowel. 
 
 Examples for Dbcleb-sion. 
 
 1. Bpovs (for Bp6os), m., noise 
 irkovs (for irArfos), m., voyage 
 fiovs (for ^6os), m., stream 
 
 2, Kavovv (for Kaveov), n., basket 
 (No other Neuter contracted in 
 both Sing, and Plur.) 
 
 27 
 
 Attic Second Declension. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 vtcos, m., temple. 
 
 S. vetiJS 
 
 P. vea 
 
 A. 
 
 veuiv 
 
 V£(OS 
 
 G. 
 
 vew 
 
 veiav 
 
 D. 
 
 veo) 
 
 vecps 
 
 Diial. N. V. A. yed 
 Q. T>. veifv 
 
 There are no Neuters of cor- 
 responding form except 
 avtiyetoy, upper chamber, in 
 the New Testament (liter- 
 ally a thing raised above 
 the ground, from &vi» above, 
 yata = y9), earth, ground). 
 
 EuLB. — Nouns in cos differ from nouns in o<s by having (i.) w 
 instead of o or ov; (ii.) w instead of oi; (iii.) no separate Voc. 
 
 Examples fob Declension. 
 
 \edis, TO.., people; koAois, m., cable ; \aycis, m., hare. 
 The Aco. Sing, sometimes ends in -a, e.g. Xaydv or Xayd) : cf. 3rd Decl, 
 o2Sfi, § 48, %fw, § 37. 
 
 The word las, i, dawn, is declined : — 
 
 N. V. COJS, A. em, G. iu, D. i<f. 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Third Declension. 
 
 Kouns of this declension fall into two classes : — 
 Class I. Those which have a consonant before the inflexions 
 (Consonant Stems). 
 
 CijASS II. Those which have a vowel or diphthong before the 
 inflexions (Yowel or Diphthong Stems). 
 
 In both classes the Nominative Singular is formed in one 
 of two ways : — 
 
 (rt) by adding the inflexion s to the stem : so many Feminines 
 and Masculines; cj. stem cj^vXaK-, Nom. tj>vKa^ {$ = ks). 
 
 (h) without any addition to the stem : so nearly all Neuters, 
 many Masculines, and a few Feminines. In this case ; — ■ 
 
 (i.) Masculines and Feminines lengthen the stem vowel, if 
 short, e.g. stem fnjTop-, Nom. prjTOjp ; stem Atoyevto--, 
 Nom. ^Loyevrj's ; stem TretSo-, Nom. ttuBw. 
 (ii.) Neuters with stems in -ecr- change the stem vowel e to 
 
 o : e.g. stem yei'ccr-, Nom. yeVos. 
 The Yocative is generally the same as the Nominative. 
 But (i.) those Consonant stems which form the Nom. Sing, by 
 lengthening a short stem vowel (Class I. h), do not, 
 as a rule, lengthen it in the Voc. Sing. 
 (ii.) those Vowel stems in t, v, or ev, which form the Nom. 
 - Sing, by adding s (Class II. a), do not add s in the 
 Voc. Sing. 
 In both these cases, then, the Voc. Sing, is either precisely the 
 same as the stem {e.g. pr/rop, Atoyeves, ttoXi), or the same as the 
 stem without t (e.g. yipov) ; cf. § 7. 1. 
 
 Even ill these cases, however, the Nom. is often used for the Voo. : 
 e.g. it is not wrong to say Si ni\ts. Peculiarities will be found in §§ 41-44. 
 
 The most usuai, Inflexions. 
 
 Nom. Voo. 
 Ace. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Masc. and Fern. Neut. 
 
 -<s or none none 
 
 -a or -V none 
 -OS or -(OS 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Masc. and Fern. 
 -es 
 -as or -[i']s 
 
 Neut. 
 
 -OIV 
 
 -cn(v) 
 
 DvmI. Nom. Voc. Ace. -e 
 Gen. Dat. -oii' 
 
THIRD DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 Class I. (a). Consonant stems which form the Nomina- 
 tive Singular by adding s. qf. Lat. vox (voa-s), Arabs, 
 aetas (= aeiat-s), gens (= gents). 
 
 Femininbs and Masculines. 
 
 Stems. 
 
 1. tpvXaK-, m. or f., loatcJier. 
 
 2. 'ApayS-, m. or f., Arab. 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. 4,vXa^ 
 (f>vXaK-a 
 (j)vXaK-o'; 
 ipvXaic-i, 
 
 P. <j)vXaK-e<; 
 ^vXaK-a<; 
 (f)vXaK-(ov 
 ^vXa^k{v) 
 
 S. "Apay^ 
 "Apa^-a 
 "Apa^-o<; 
 "Apa^-i 
 
 P. "Apa^-e^ 
 "ApaP-a<; 
 'Apd^-cov 
 "Apa'\jn(v) 
 
 Dxial. N. V. A. <l>i\aK-e 
 
 G. D. (pv\dK~OLV 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. "Apo/S-e 
 G. D. 'Apd0-oiv 
 
 Stems. 
 
 3. eXmS-, f., hope. 
 
 4. yiyavT-, m., giant. 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. e'X,7rt-9 
 iXTTiB-a 
 eXTTiS-o? 
 eXTTuS-i 
 
 P. iX-TTiS-e'} 
 eXTTtS-a? 
 iX-TTiS-av 
 eXiri-aiiii) 
 
 S. 7175-? 
 
 jlr/avT-a 
 'yi'yavT-o<; 
 
 P. lyiyavT-ei 
 yuyavT-a'; 
 ryiyavT-cov 
 ryiy d-ai{v) 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. e'Xm'S-E 
 G. D. tATiS-oiy 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. yiyavT-e 
 
 Rules. — 1. A Guttural (y, k, or x) or kt + s becomes f. 
 
 2. A Labial (/3, rr, or 0) + s becomes 1/?. 
 
 3. A Dental (8, t, ^, or v) falls out before s. 
 
 4. vT .falls out before s, and the preceding vowel is 
 
 changed : a becomes d, o becomes ov (« becomes ct). 
 
 Examples fob Declension. 
 
 2. 
 
 Kiypul (KrjpuK-), herald (male) 
 
 <|>\((| (i|)\oT-), f • ^OTie 
 
 aiXiny^ (ffaKinyy-), t. trumpet 
 
 ivul {owx-), ™- riail 
 
 yu| (vwKT-), f . night, Lat. noa; (Moci- 
 
 &va^ (acaKT-), ^orc^ 
 
 c^Ae'lf' (i|)\6/3-), f. ma 
 
 7?Ji(/ (ySir-), m. vulture 
 
 KiK\io\j> (KwAojTT-), Cyclops (male) 
 
 3. irarpl-s {irarpiS-), i. native land 
 [Peculiarities, § 41] 
 Ka/iird-s {KafiiraS-), t. torch 
 Kaic6Tii-s (KmornT-), t iaseness 
 E'tKu-s (EiKan-), Helot, self (male) 
 a\-s (aA-), m. salt, Lat. sal (sal-) 
 Se\<pl-s (Se\(j>Iv-), m. dolphin 
 
 i. i\4:j)a-s {eKetjiavT-), m. elephant 
 avSpia-s (av^piavT-), m. statue 
 oSoi-s {0S0VT-], m. tooth, Lat. 
 <Zere-s (ii«»i-) : Dat. PI. 6Sovin[v) 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Class I. (b). Consonant Stems which form the NominatiYe 
 Singular without any addition, cf. Lat. led (st. lean-), 
 dolor (st. dolor-), nomen (st. nomin-). 
 
 Masculines (a few Femininks), and Neuters. 
 
 Stems.. 
 
 1. dywv-, m., contest. 
 
 2. pr]Top-, m., speaker. 
 
 K. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. dycov 
 dycov 
 dyS>v-a 
 dya)v-o<; 
 dywv-i 
 
 P. dywv-e<; 
 dycov-e<; 
 dySiv-a'i 
 dycov-cov 
 
 dyoi-a-iiv) 
 
 S. prjTwp 
 prJTop 
 prjTop-a 
 
 p/jTOp-O'i 
 
 pijTop-i 
 
 P. pr)Top-e<; 
 prjTop-e^ 
 pijTop-a<; 
 
 pTjTOp-COV 
 
 prjrop-ai(y) 
 
 Ihuil. N. V. A. aywi'-e 
 G. D. ay(ii/-otv 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. p-liTop-e 
 G. D. InjTSp-Qtv 
 
 Stems. 
 
 3. yepovT-, m., old man. 
 
 4. ovo/xaT-, n., name. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. yepeov 
 yepov 
 yipovT-a 
 yepovT-o^ 
 yepovT-i 
 
 P. yepovT-e^ 
 yepovT-e<; 
 yepovT-a<i 
 yepovT-av 
 yepov-ai{v) 
 
 S. ova pa 
 ovo/ia 
 ovop,a 
 6v6p,aT-o<; 
 6v6paT-i 
 
 P. 6v6paT-a 
 6v6p,aT-a 
 ovofxaT-a 
 ovop,aT-(ov 
 6v6fia-ai(v) 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. yipovT-i 
 G. D. yep6vT-oiv 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. ov6naT-e 
 G. D. ovo/idr-oiv 
 
 EuLB. — V and vt fall out before -o-i of the Dat. Plur. (ovr-cn 
 becoming ova-i, as in § 30, Kule 4), but p remains. 
 Examples foe Declension. 
 
 1. With long stem vowel : — 
 
 "lav ('Iwi'-), Ionian (male) 
 li.i\v (iJi.T\v-), m., month [L. inensis] 
 "EWriv ('EWriv-), Qredc (male) 
 TroiSi/ (Toiai/-), m., shout of victory 
 <t>tip {(jxep-), thief (male) 
 fl^p {drip-), m., wild beast 
 
 2. With short stem vowel : Voo. = Stem 
 SaifJMV (Sai/iov-), god or goddess 
 AaKfiaiiiaiv (AaKcSaijiov-), f., Sparta 
 oiK-f]TQ)p {oiKTiTop-), dwcUer (male) 
 
 [Peculiarities, §§ 42-44] 
 
 3. \4iav {\eovT-), m., lion [M. Zeo] 
 SpaKiov (SpaKovT-), m. , serpent 
 Oepdiruy {depairovr-), man-servant 
 Sevo^Siv {'Sevo<l>aivT-), Xenophon 
 apfia (apjuar-), n., chariot 
 irpayfia {irpayfiaT-), n., deed 
 (Txfia {(raifxar-), n., body 
 XPVf-o- (xp'?M''T-); I*." thing: Plur. 
 
 wealth, possessions 
 ydAa {ya\aKT-), n., milk [L. lac] 
 fieM {/leKir-), n., honey [L. mel] 
 vimap {yinTap-), n., nectar [L.] 
 
THIRD DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 13 
 
 Class I. (6). continued. Stems in <t-. ^p° Here the final s is 
 not an inflexion added to the Stem, but pari of the Stem. Cf. 
 Lat. genus, stem genes- (changed to gener- in oblique cases). 
 Neuters, and their Masculine Compounds. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 V.A. 
 
 1. ■y£V€[cr]-, n., race. 
 
 S. yivo^ 
 yevovi, 
 •yevei, 
 
 (§ 29. 6. ii.) 
 for y4vi-os 
 for yhe-i 
 
 P. yivri, for ^eVe-o 
 
 ryev&v, sometimes ^ece'-aij' 
 •yeve-criiv) 
 
 Dual. N. v. A. veVei, 
 G. D. yevo'iy, 
 
 for yeVe-e 
 for yeve-otp 
 
 Stems. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 2. Aio-yeve[o-]-, m.* 
 
 S. Aioyivv; (§ 29) 
 Aioyevei; 
 Aior^evr), for -yive-a 
 
 Aioyeveo 
 
 3. nepi-K\e£[(r]-, m. 
 
 IIepiKkri<i, for -K\ii]s 
 IlepLKKei,';, for -KXe^s 
 UepiKked, for -K\4e-a 
 IIepiK\eov<}, for -K\se-os 
 UepiKXel, for -K\h-i, -KAeei 
 
 Rules. — 1. The o- of the stem falls out before the inflexions, and 
 two vowels thus coming together are contracted : 
 £-0 into ov ; e-L and e-e into ei ; e-a into rj (or d after e) : 
 e disappears before a long' vowel. 
 2. Masculines in -kXtji (from kXcos, st. Kkeea--, n.) contract 
 also the first e of the stem, except in the Aco. and 
 Gen. Thus the Dat. has double contraction. 
 Examples foe Declension. 
 
 &vBos, St. ov96[(r]-, n., flower (1) 
 [a.ve€a--<p6pos, Adj. flower-bearing'] 
 iros, St. eT£[(r]-, n., j/c(M- (1) 
 Kpdros, St. KpaT6[(r]-, n., mastery (1) : 
 
 henoe 'Zaxpirn^, m. (2) 
 fieVos, St. /4€V6[(r]-, n., might (1) : 
 
 henoe K\eo/j.evris, m. (2) 
 ^Epos, st. /iepe[<r]-, n.,^ari (1) 
 irciflos, St. TOe6[<r]-, n., suffering (1) 
 
 o-fleVos, St. (rfle;/e[(r]-, n., strength (1) : 
 
 hence Ariij.o<rBevtis, m. (2) 
 Prom K\e'os, st. KA.ee[(r]-, n., gifor!/ 
 (1), come all proper names in 
 -kAijs, meaning glorious : 
 eg'. 'HpaKA.7Js, m. -i 
 
 0e/ii(rTOKA^s, m. \ (3) 
 2oiJ>okX7)S, m. J 
 [Peculiarities, §§ 45, 46] 
 
 35 Tpi^p77S, St. TpiDp£[<r]-, f., «n«me (2), is properly an Adjective [toEj Tp.^p77S, 
 galley -ulith th ree banks of. oars}. For the Plur. and Dual see § 100. 
 
 36 * Ut. Of the race of Zeus. These Proper Names in -j,s, Gen.-ow, have 
 a hy.form of the Aco. Sing, in -tjv : e.g. Aioyhnv (like xpniiv, 1st Deol.). 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Class II. (a). Yowel or Diphthong stems which form the 
 Nominative Singular by adding s. Gf. Lat. cMs. 
 
 Fbmininbs and Masculines. 
 
 Steins. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. 
 
 1. TToXi-, iroXc-, f., city. 
 
 iroXi-i 
 TToXt 
 
 TToXl-V 
 
 TToXe-o)? 
 TToXei 
 
 P. TToXet? 
 
 •7r6\ei<! 
 
 iroXe-aiv 
 
 'rr6\€-al(v) 
 
 D-ual. N. V. A. irciAei 
 
 G. D. no\€-Oii 
 
 2. ^plvv-, f., Ftiry. 
 
 S. 'Eplvv-'i 
 'Eplvv 
 'Eplvv-v 
 'Eplvv-o'; 
 'Eplvv-t 
 
 P. ^Eplvv-e<s 
 ^Eplvv-e<s 
 'Eplvv-<; 
 'Eplvv-av 
 'Eplvv-(Ti{v) 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. "Eplvi-e 
 
 G. D. 'Eplvv-OLV 
 
 stems. 
 
 3. /Sao-iXev-, ftamXe-, m., /i-/?(r/. 
 
 4. ripia 
 
 -, m., hero. 
 
 N. 
 
 V. 
 A. 
 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 /S l3a(n\ev-<; 
 
 ^aaiXev 
 ^aaiXe-d 
 
 ^aaiXe-co'i 
 
 P. /3a<rtX^9 
 
 (later -els) 
 ^aai\TJi {-f7s) 
 /3aai\e-d<; 
 
 ^acriKe-cov 
 
 8. rjpai-^ 
 
 rjpa)-<; 
 fipu>-a 
 
 or 7;paj 
 
 r)pu>-o<; 
 •Sjpw-i 
 
 or tJp^ 
 
 P. rjpw-e^ 
 
 rjpa-e'; 
 fjpw-a'i 
 
 or ?ipas 
 ripco-aip 
 rjpu) ai{v) 
 
 Dual. [N. V. A. eacn\u] 
 G. D. 0a<n\i-oiv 
 
 Zliw^. N 
 
 . V. A. ifipai-e 
 G. D. ripd)-oiv 
 
 Rule. — i or tv of the stem is changed to e before a vowel 
 (t also before -o-t) ; c-i and e-e contract. Note the inflexions of the 
 Ace. and Gen. Sing., and the Ace. Plur. ; cf. table, § 29. 
 
 Examples 
 
 1. uvd^atrt-s, f., inarch up 
 Sivafu-s, i., power 
 (TTiai-s, L, faction 
 Tafi-j, f., ordering 
 ipiai-s, f., 'nature 
 /lauTL-s, prophet, prophetess 
 
 2. tcrxf-s, f., strength 
 •n'tTv-s, f., pine 
 Ix^i-s, ra.,Jish 
 J-s, or ffv-s, m., t., boar, sow, L. s 
 
 [Peculiarities, § 47] 
 
 FOB Declension. 
 
 3. 'Ax'^^-Aeu-s, Achilles 
 tepeu-s, priest 
 liTirei-s, horseman 
 'OSvirirei-s, Ulysses 
 ^oviv-s, murderer, murderess 
 XO^Keu-s, smith 
 yovris, or -eij (plur.), m., parents 
 
 4. Sfidi-s, captive of war (male) 
 /i'^Tpto-s, uncle {vwther's brother) 
 iraTpai-r, MTicfe {father's brother), 
 
 cf. Lat. ^oirMus 
 
THIRD DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 Class II. (6). Yowel Stems which form the NominatiYe 
 Singular without any addition. Cf. Lat. ovlle. 
 
 There are few words of this kind in Greek. One of them is 
 Neuter ; the rest are Feminine. 
 
 
 Neuter 
 
 
 Feminines. 
 
 Stems. 
 
 1. do-Tu-, a(TTe-, n., town. 
 
 2. TTiiOo-, f., persuasion. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular {No Plural). 
 
 darv 
 da-TV 
 
 dcTTV 
 
 dcne-ai'; 
 acrrei 
 
 d<TTr] for So-Tc-o 
 
 darrj 
 
 da-TTj 
 
 dare-cov 
 
 dcrTe-ai{v) 
 
 nreiOco for veM-a 
 ireiOov'i for Tiie6-os 
 ireidol 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. So-Tfi 
 
 G. D. atrri-oiv 
 
 No Dxial 
 
 EuLE. — The V of acrru is changed to e before the inflexions, like 
 tlie I of irdXis (§ 37). Feminines like iruQui contract o-a into to, 
 o-o into on : note the Voc. in -oi (from an old form of the stem 
 in ot). 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 No other common prose word is declined like the Neuter 
 a.<nv. 
 
 Like Tr(.Siss are declined : — 
 
 'Ap7£4 ('ApTo-); f., the Swift (name 
 of Jason's vessel) 
 
 AriTii (AijTo-), LatoiM (a goddess) 
 
 [Peculiarities, § 4S] 
 
 Topyti (Topyp-), Gorgon (female) * 
 Ka\u\f/ei {Ka\v\j/o-), Calypso (a 
 
 nymph : the Hider) 
 2oir(()co (Soiripo-), Sappho (a poetess) 
 
 * Plural from the stem Topyoy-, with the inflexions -«, -as, -wv, -aif^). 
 So too sometimes in the Singular, Nom. Vafiyiiv, Aoo. ropy6y-a, eto. 
 
i6 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 Peculiarities in the Third Declension. 
 Class I. a. 
 Nouns in -t$ and -vs with Dental Stem* not accented on 
 the last syllable form the Ace. Sing, in -v (like Tr6\i-v, "Eplvv-v, 
 Class II. a) : — 
 
 'ApTe/j.is ('A/DTcyniS-), Artemis: -iv opvl's {opvlB-), m., f., bird: opvlv 
 IpL's (e/oiS-), f., strife : ipiv [Ace. Plur. opvl6a<; or o/jveis] 
 
 Kopvi {Kopv6-), f., helmet : Kopvv X'^P'* (x'^P''''')' ^-i WOi'B : xo-pi-v 
 So too kXcis (kXciS-), f., key : kXUv. Plur. N. A. sometimes xXets. 
 Some of those in -ts also form the Voe. in -i (like iroXi) : — 
 e.g. S) 'ApTCfjii. Similarly S> Tvpawl, from rvpawLi (-r^'pawiS-), 
 t., tyranny ; S irai, from Trats (TraiS-), boy, girl. 
 Class I. &. 
 riaTi^p (-rraTep-), father, f>-'f\Tr\p (/u.ijt£/j-), ■inother,6vydTi]p (dvyarep-), 
 daughter, YaaTTJp (yacrrc/D-), f., belly, drop the stem vowel in the 
 Gen. and Dat. Sing. (cf. Lat, pater, patr-is), and substitute a after 
 p in the Dat. Plural. 
 
 The full forms Trarepos, iraript, 
 fj-TlTepos, /iTjTepi, etc., are 
 sometimes found in the 
 poets. 
 
 The accents in /i-liTnp, Buydrnp, 
 ■ya(niip, follow irar'/ip in tlia 
 oblique cases. (Voo. Sing. 
 fiTJTep, Ovjarep ; N. V. Plur. 
 firirepes, BuyaT^p^s.) 
 
 'k(TTrjp (aa-rep-), m., star, forms Dat. Plur. do-Tpa-o-i(v), but is 
 regular in Gen. and Dat. Sing. (do-Te'/j-os, ao-rip-i). Voc. § 43. 
 
 Nouns with Liquid Stem t accented with the acute on the 
 last syllable lengthen the stem vowel (if short) in the Voe. Sing., 
 and thus have Voc. Sing. = Nom. Sing. : e.g. : — 
 
 N. 
 
 >Si. irarijp 
 
 P. 'Trarep-e'; 
 
 V. 
 
 iraTep 
 
 Trare/o-e? 
 
 A. 
 
 irarep-a 
 
 TraT6p-a<; 
 
 G. 
 
 7rar/3-09 
 
 vaTep-cov 
 
 D. 
 
 irarp-i 
 
 7raTpd-cri(v) 
 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. TOTep-e 
 
 
 G. D. irixT^p-oiv 
 
 N. V. 7iyefj.tliv {-0V-), leader (male 
 or female) 
 e'lKuiv (-0V-), f., image 
 X&<ov (-01'-), f., eaiih 
 X'wi' (-0V-), f., snow 
 
 N. V. Xl/jlt^v (-ev-), m., harbour 
 TToi/i^v (■^■)j shepherd 
 arjp {-ep-), m., lower air 
 aWijp (-6/3-), m., upper air 
 
 Except Trirep, &vep (§ 49, 1) 
 
 XuTTJp {o-uirrjp-), deliverer, 'ArnXKav ('AttoXAmv), the god Apollo, 
 noaciSui/ (Iloo-ctSajv-), the god Poseidon, shorten the stem vowel in 
 the Voo. Sing. : o-arep, " AttoXXov, Iloo-etSoi'. [Accusatives croiTrjpa, 
 'AiroXXuiva or 'AttoAAw, IlocreiSiiii'a or Iloo-etSu).] 
 
 * Stems in 5-, t-, and 6-. 
 
 + Stems in v- and p-. 
 
PECULIARITIES IN THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 17 
 
 Class I. b. (continued). 
 
 45 Three Neuters in -as (stem -ao--) drop o-. before the endings 
 
 and contract a-o and a-ta into w, a-a into a, a-t into a (ef. yeVos, § 33) : 
 Kpia<s, flesh ; ye.pa% gift of lionour ; yrjpa's, old age. 
 
 Kpea 
 
 for Kpea-a 
 Koeaiv for Kp^A-uv 
 
 Kpea-cn{y) 
 
 46 
 
 Kepas, n., horn (Lat. cornU), is declined regularly from. the 
 stem Ke.pa.T- (/cepaT-os, Kepdr-i, Kepdr-a, KepaT-wv, Kepd-ui), except 
 when it means wing of an army ; in this case it is declined like 
 Kpia's, from the stem K€pa[(r]- : e.g. cti Kipws, in single file ; Scfwo 
 Kepa, with the right wing. 
 
 Class II. a. 
 
 47 
 
 Four Masculines in -ug 
 
 change the stem vowel v to e 
 before a vowel and -o-t, like irdXts 
 (§37): 
 
 Trrj^dvi, fore-arm, cubit \ TreXe/cvs, 
 axe ; wpeo-ySvs, old man (Plur. 
 ambassadors*), ey;^€Xiis(in Attic), 
 
 Masculines in -eus preceded 
 by a YOWel may contract e in 
 the Ace. and Gen., Sing, and 
 Plur., e.g. : 
 
 Tleipauvs, m., Piraeus f (No 
 Plur.) ; Ampicvs, Dorian (Ace. 
 Plur. Aupias, Gen. Plur. AwpiGv). 
 Contrast /SacriXevs (§ 37). 
 
 N. 
 
 S. TTjyT^u-? 
 
 P. irrixeKi 
 
 S. Ileipaiev-'i 
 
 V. 
 
 -rrrixv 
 
 7rr}'x,ei.<; 
 
 JJeipaiev 
 
 A. 
 
 7rr)-xv-v 
 
 7rrjxei<; 
 
 Ilecpaia (but paa-tK4-5.) 
 
 G. 
 
 ■Tnj-x^e-eoii 
 
 ■irrjxe-cov 
 
 IleipatS)!; (but jSamXc'-as) 
 
 D. 
 
 ■n-rjxei 
 
 irrjX'^-'^i'iy) 
 
 Ueipaiel 
 
 
 Dual. N. V. A 
 
 vix^i 
 
 
 
 G. D 
 
 . irrix^-oiv 
 
 
 48 Ai8(us (stem atSoo-- or atSo-), f., sense of shame, reverence, is de- 
 
 clined like TTuOw (§ 39) : Voc, Dat. aiSoT, Ace. atSfl, Gen. atSoSs. 
 
 * The Sing, for ambassador is irpi<Tfi€vri]S (1st Decl.). 
 t The chief harbour at Athens : often UeipaSs in insoriptions. 
 2 
 
i8 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Irregular Nouns of the 3rd Decl. in Alphabetical Order. 
 49 KS' Many of these are declined from two distinct stems. 
 
 ]. iin^p, »;r()/(asopposed to (foma?;) 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 avrjp 
 
 ctcep 
 
 avhp-a 
 
 avSp-os 
 
 avSp-i 
 
 avSp-ei 
 avSp-ii 
 ai/8p-as 
 
 ai'( 
 
 i-oiv 
 
 Sp-i 
 di'8pd-(rt(v) 
 
 N. V. A. &ydp-e : G. D. avSp-o^y. 
 
 2. poOs, m., f., ox (Lat. bos, hov-). 
 
 N. 
 
 /3oi}-s 
 
 /8o'-es 
 
 V. 
 
 /SoS 
 
 ^o'-ES 
 
 A. 
 
 Pov-v 
 
 Pou-s 
 
 G. 
 
 |3o-ds 
 
 fSo-S)v 
 
 D. 
 
 jio-L 
 
 Pou-o-t'(v) 
 
 N. V. 
 
 A. ;S<(-6 : G. D. fio-ow 
 
 3. yoi/u, n., 7i'»ce (Lat. genu), is de- 
 
 clined from the stem yovar- 
 (V. A. = N.). 
 
 4. Ypaus, old ir.oman : cf. ySoBs. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 ypavs 
 
 ypav 
 
 ypav-v 
 
 ypci-os 
 
 ypa-i 
 
 ypa-K 
 ypS-es 
 •ypaO-s 
 ypa-wv 
 ypau-triiy) 
 
 N. V. A. ypa-e : G. D. ypa-oiv 
 
 5. yuki^, iDoman. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 yvvt) 
 ywai 
 yui'atf-a 
 yvvaiK 6^ 
 yvvaiK-L 
 
 yvvaiK-e'S 
 ywaiK-es 
 yvvaiK-as 
 ywaiK-Gv 
 yui/ai^t(v) 
 
 N. V. A. 
 
 yvyaiK-G : G. J), yvvaiK-oiv 
 
 6. 8opu, n., spear. 
 
 N. V. A. So'pu 
 G. ' 8opaT-os, 
 
 Sop-OS 
 
 D. Sopar-i, Sop-i 
 
 Sopar-a 
 SopaT-iav 
 
 S6pa-cn{y) 
 
 N. V. A. S6paT-e : G. D. Sopdr-oiv. 
 
 7. cap, n., spring (Lat. t-er), is 
 often contracted. 
 
 N. V. A. 
 G. 
 
 ;d. 
 
 €ap-os, ^p-os 
 £ap-i, rip-L 
 
 SI 
 
 IS 
 
 8. Zeus, Zeus (Lat. Joy- = Dyov-) 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Zev-s 
 
 Zcv 
 
 Ai-a, Z^i/-a 
 
 At-os, Zy]V-6i 
 
 Ai-(, ZiTiv-i 
 
 3 cs 
 o 
 
 9. 6pi|, f., Aa/r, stem Tpi^-- 
 
 On 8 for t, see Appendix I. 
 10. Ki-^cjjas, n., gloom : cf. § 45. 
 
 N. V. A. 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 Kvitf""-^ (st. K»E(^oir-) I "ta 
 Kvei^ous (sfc. Kye(()e(r-) S p 
 
 ilEj O 
 
 Kve(f>d 
 
 IL KTeis, m., comb, is declined 
 from the stem Krev-. 
 
IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 19 
 
 12. Ku'ui/, m., f., doff (Lat. can-] 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 KVtliV 
 KVOV 
 
 Kuv-a 
 
 KUV-OS 
 KVV-i 
 
 ICVV-€S 
 KVV-€'; 
 
 /cuj'-as 
 
 KVV-tJiV 
 
 N. V. A. Kvv-e : G. D. kvv-olv. 
 
 13. fictpru-s, ivitness (male or 
 female), is declined from 
 the stem fuaprvp-, except 
 in Dat. Plur. j«,dpTv-a-t(v). 
 Voc. = Nom. 
 
 14. fttOs, f., ship (Lat. ncwis) : 
 
 cf. ypaBs (No. 4). 
 
 N. 
 
 vaC-s 
 
 I'fj-es 
 
 A. 
 
 yav-i/ 
 
 raO-s 
 
 G. 
 
 re-cis 
 
 ce-oJi' 
 
 D. 
 
 v^-i 
 
 >'au-crt(v) 
 
 N. V 
 
 .A.[vfi-e]: ( 
 
 jr. D. Vi-OiV 
 
 15. oTs, f. (rarely m.), sheep 
 (Lat. avis). 
 
 16. o^/ap, n., dream, is declined 
 
 from the stem oveipar- (V. 
 A. = N.). 
 
 17. ous, n., ear, is declined from 
 
 the stem (St- (V. A. = N.). 
 
 18. irous, m., /oo^, is declined 
 
 from the stem ttoS-. 
 
 1 9. irup, n., fli'e (stem irup-), forms 
 its Plur. ( = watch-Jires) ac- 
 cording to the 2nd Decl. 
 
 N. V. A. 
 
 TTVp 
 
 TTVpd 
 
 G, 
 
 TTVp-OS 
 
 TTVpOiV 
 
 D. 
 
 TTVp-l. 
 
 TTUpOtS 
 
 20. u8up, n., water, \& declined from 
 
 the stem iSar- (V. A. = N.). 
 
 21. utos, son, has, besides the re- 
 gular forms according to the 
 2nd Decl., the following from 
 the stem vlv- (vte-) : cf. § 47. 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 ui^-os 
 
 vli-u>v 
 vie-o't(v) 
 
 N. V. A. vU7: G. D. vU- 
 
 OIV 
 
 22. (t>p€ap, n., tank, well, is de- 
 clined from the stem (j>p£dr- 
 (V. A. = N.). 
 
 23. <))ws, n., light, is declined 
 from the stem ^mt- (V. A. = 
 N.). Or from st. ^laea--, N. 
 A. ^aos, G. tf}dovs, D. ^aei. 
 
 24. x«iPi f-j ^«K'^- 
 
 K V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Xetp-a 
 Xetp-os 
 Xap-i 
 
 X€i.p-£S 
 X«tp-as 
 X€ip-Sv 
 X€p-cn'(v) 
 
 N. V. A. x^ 'P-^ • ^- -'-*• X^'P'"^" 
 
 In poets often x^P"") X^P'^'i X^P'''t 
 Xep-ei, x^P-''"' X^P-"^"' ®*°- 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ebmarks on the Three Declensions. 
 50- There is no 4th or 5th declension in Greek. The 4th Latin 
 58 declension is made up of nouns with stems in u, which are in- 
 cluded in the 3rd Greek declension, e.rj. 'Epivv-, yow- ; the 5th 
 Latin declension is a curious mixture of nouns which correspond 
 to some Greek nouns of the 1st declension, and nouns which 
 properly belong to the 3rd declension. 
 59- Traces of a Locative Case are found in Greek as in Latin : 
 
 63 e.g. Locative Singular MapaOSiv-i, at Marathon ; Locative Plura] 
 'A^^vjy-crt(v), at Athens, 6vpd-a-i(v), at the gates, outside, Lat. foris. 
 The last instance shows how a case of a noun may become an 
 adverb. 
 
 Gender of Nouns. 
 
 64 The most important rule of gender has already been given in 
 
 § 16 :— 
 
 Nouns denoting a male person are masculine ; 
 
 Nouns denoting a female person are feminine. 
 By this rule we may at once tell the gender of any noun denoting 
 a human or divine being, whatsoever its ending may le. Thus 
 veavids and (rfjrj^o? both mean young man, and are therefore mas- 
 culine ; veSvts, KopT], ■jrapOevo's all mean young woman, and are 
 therefore feminine. NavTijs means seavian, Kyjpv^ herald (male), 
 pr)Tu>p public speaker (male), and are therefore all masculine. "EXXijv 
 means Greek man, and is therefore masculine ; 'EAXiyvts means 
 Greek woman, and is therefore feminine. 'OSwo-crcus is the proper 
 name of a hero, therefore masculine ; KaXvxj/u) is the proper name 
 of a nymph, therefore feminine. "Epws is the proper name of a 
 god, the Latin Cupido, therefore masculine ; 'A<f>po&LTrj is the 
 proper name of a goddess, the Latin Venus, therefore feminine. 
 
 This rule covers a large number of words. Moreover all other 
 rules are greatly simplified by first excluding from consideration 
 the nouns that denote persons. The first question then to ask in 
 regard to Gender is. Does the Noun denote a Person ? If so, 
 consider merely the sex of the person denoted by it.* 
 
 Some nouns may denote either a male or a female : these are 
 common, i.e. masculine or feminine according to their application : 
 e.g. ^eos, deity, either god (then masc.) or goddess (then fern. = eed) : 
 
 Trats, child, either boy (then masc.) or girl (then fem.) : 
 
 Tvpawo's, sovereign, either king (then m.) or queen (then f.). 
 
 rjye//.uiv, leader, either male (then masc.) or female (then fern.). 
 
 * Do not confuse gender (of nouns) with sex (of persons or animals). 
 
GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 65 Obs. 1. The above rule of Natural Gender does not apply to collective 
 nouns, e.g., i <rTpaT6s, the army ; 5 Stj/j-os, the people ; rh irXriOos, the Tnasses. 
 Such nouns do not denote " a male person " or " a female person," but a 
 collection of persons : their gender follows the rules for sexless things given 
 below (§§70, 77). 
 
 Obs. 2. The following are neuter exceptions to the rule of Natural 
 Gender — all according to the rules for sexless things : — 
 
 (a) Diminutives in -lov denoting persons : e.g. iraiSlov, iraiSdpiov, little 
 child (boy or girl) ; avSpiov, avBpdmiov, manikin ; cf. German 
 Neuter diminutives like Fraulein, young lady ; Madchen, girl. 
 
 (6) The words rexyoy, tskos, child (properly "thing born") ; avSpdvoSov, 
 captive of war {cf. Lat. mandpium, properly "chattel"). 
 
 66 II. If the Noun does not denote a person, then ask : Dobs the 
 NoTJN DENOTE A Sbxlbss Thing 1 * If SO, its gender will generally 
 depend upon its declension and ending. 
 
 The main rnles and exceptions are given in §§ 70-82. 
 
 67 In ^ few classes of nouns, chiefly proper names of sexless things, 
 
 the gender depends not upon the ending, but upon the meaning of the 
 
 word. 
 
 (a) Proper names of Bivers, Winds, and Months are mostly masculine 
 (as in Latin) ; the reason is partly that rivers and winds were 
 personified as gods, partly that the words denoting "river" 
 (iroTaij.6s), "wind" (Sve/ios), "month" (M^y), were masc, and the 
 proper names of particular rivers, winds, and months were 
 made to correspond. Thus: 6 Eipiiras, d K7i<l)I(r6s, S 'Evl-weis 
 (rivers) ; S Bopc'os, the North Wind ; d ESpos, the East Wind ; 6 
 'E\a<priPo\i(iv, 6 't^vS^arripuliv (months). Exceptions are : ^ MiBri, 
 Lethe ; ri 'Sri^, Styx (rivers of the Lower World) — both according 
 to the rules of ending (§§ 71, 74). 
 
 68 (i) Proper names of Cities, Countries, and Islands are mostly feminine 
 
 (as in Latin), corresponding to the gender of 'ir6\ts, city (§ 74), 
 Th> X<^P°-< ^"™^ (§ '^1)' ''''fos, island (I 73): e.g. ti Aa/ceSaijiiffli', al 
 'A0TJvai, i) K^piySos (cities) ; ^ AiyvTrros, ii 'ApyoKls (countries) ; ri 
 AijKos, 71 ydios, ri 2o\o/iiTs (islands). Exceptions, according to 
 the rules of ending, are : T-b 'Viiyiov (" The Breach," between 
 Italy and Sicily), toi AeEsTpa (understand &Kpa "heights"), -rh 
 KOiKoy ""Apyos ("hill-girt Argos"), and all plurals in -oi, e.g. ot 
 AeAi/)oi, Lat. Delphi. 
 
 69 (c) Nouns denoting kinds of Trees are nearly all feminine (as in 
 
 Latin), corresponding to the gender of ri Spvs, which originally 
 meant tree in general t [= Old Engl, treow, tree], but afterwards 
 came to mean a particular kind of tree, the oak : thus, ^ S/iire- 
 \os, the vine ; ri Kinrdpur<ros, the cypress ; f) <priy^s, the oak (Lat. 
 fagtis, f., means beech); ii irWvs, the pine; but 6 ^otvi^, the date 
 palm ; S Kiaais, the ivy. 
 
 * " Sexless Things " include Abstract Ideas. 
 
 t The common word for tree in general (SeVSpoy) is neuter. 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Rules for nouns denoting sexless things. 
 
 Indeclinable nouns denoting sexless things are neuter ; e.g. to 
 (toB, t(3) xpcMv, necessity, to (toS, t(3) oc^eXos, advantage. So too 
 are all Infinitives (verb-nouns), e.g. to a-lySv KpAnov ia-n tov 
 \aXuv, to be silent is better than to babble, and all other indeclin- 
 able parts of speech when quoted as nouns, e.g. to yvu>6L o-eavrdv, 
 the saying "learn to know thyself". 
 
 Nouns denoting sexless things of the 1st decl. are all fem., 
 e.g. -q 'Attlkti yrj, the Attic land, tj 'ATXavTLioj OdXacra-a, the Atlantic 
 ocean, ayaOrj Povhq, good counsel. 
 
 Nouns denoting sexless things of the 2nd decl. in os and w? 
 are masculine, in ov neuter. 
 
 This rule includes the contracted nouns in -ovs (= o-os), -ow [= e-ov). 
 The chief feminine exceptions In -as are given in §§ 23, 68, 69. Femi- 
 nines in -ois are eas, dawn (§ 28), aXas, threshing-floor. 
 
 Those nouns denoting sexless things of the 3rd decl. which 
 form the Nona. Sing, by adding s to the stem are feminine : 
 
 e.g. vi^, night iXiri-s, hope 
 
 ^Ae'ij/, vein KaK6Ti\-s, baseness 
 [Class I. a, §§ 30, 31.] 
 
 7ri(A.i-J, city h^pv-s, eyebrow 
 
 (biiTt-s, nature vav-s, ship (§ 49, 14) 
 [Class II. a, §§ 37, 38.] 
 
 Those nouns denoting sexless things of the 3rd decl. which 
 form the Nom. Sing, without any addition to the stem are mostly 
 masculine : 
 
 e.g. ciydv (st. ayaiv-), contest I aifl^p (st. aWep-), upper air 
 
 \ii/i(iv (st. Aei/hbj/-), meadow \ Kpa.rl\p (st. KpaTi\p-) m/kmvg bowl 
 [Glass I. 6, § 32.] 
 but 
 
 feminine if the Nom. Sing, ends in u : 
 
 e.g. ■n-eiBii (st. nsiBo-), persuasion, Tix<i (st. iixo-), echo. 
 [Class II. b, §§ 39, 40.] 
 
 neuter if the Nom. Sing, ends in a, i, v ; o's, as, ap : 
 
 e.g. ui/ofjLa (st. oyo/toT-), L. nomen 
 
 yd\a (st. yoKaKT-), J-i. lac (st. lact-) 
 fie\i (st. fi€\Lr-), L. m-cl 
 
 [Class I. 6, § 32, No. 4.] 
 ySyu (st. yovaT-), L. 
 [§ 49, 3.] 
 
 yei/os (st. yevecr-), L. genus 
 
 [Class I. b, §§ 33, 84.] 
 Kpeas (st. Kpstts-), flesh- 
 ly 45. Contrast L. caro, f.] 
 v4Krap (st. veKTttp-), L. nectar 
 Krjp (for Heap), L. cor 
 ^p (for rap, § 49, 7), L. ver 
 Exceptions in the Thied Declension. 
 78 The really important exceptions whioh need to be remembered for 
 
 common use are few.* 13°" See next page. 
 
 * Carefully observe that nouns denoting persons and tinds of animals 
 are not exceptions to the above rules. The former have been already 
 excluded from consideration (see § 64) ; the latter will be spoken of below 
 (§§ 87-89). 
 
GENDER OF NOUNS. 23 
 
 79 Note the following exceptions to tlie rule in § 74 : — 
 
 (a) Masculine, both in Greek and in Latin : 
 
 Hk-s (st. o\-), salt, L. sal [aA.j, sea, is 
 
 fern, in the poets] 
 KTil-s (st. Krev-), conib, L. peden 
 6yv^ (st. WVX-), nail, L. wnguis 
 
 87 
 
 (6) Neuter: 
 
 oZ-s (st. «T-), ear 
 
 (pas (st. <(>MT-), %^ 
 
 oSou-s (st. oSovT-), tooth, L. (Jeres 
 
 TToii-s (st. TroS-),/oo<, J-i. pes 
 
 [All helonging to Glass I. a : a few in 
 
 v-s, of Class II. a, will be found 
 
 in §§ 38, 47.] 
 
 K6pa-s (st. Kepdr-), horn, L. cor«M 
 irepa-s (st. irepaT-), Zm^'i! 
 Tepa-1 (st. TEpar-), portent 
 80 Twenty other Masculines are : &vBpa^, charcoal, 0-fi^, cou^h, Bcipa^, ireast- 
 
 plate, \a,pvy^, windpipe ; (rK6\o\f/, stake, x^^'^t ^^^^ ! AeySTjs, cauldron, rdirris, 
 
 carpet, yeXas, laughter, ^pa>s, love (cf. § 64), ISpiis, sweat, XP<"^> skin, colour; 
 
 jir)yi>,is, surf; aySpids, statue,, i/ids, thong; fiSrpvs, cluster, Sprjvvs, footstool, 
 
 vfKvs, corpse, ffTdxis, ear of corn ; afitftopeiis, jar. 
 
 81 Note the following exceptions to the rule in §§ 75-77 : — 
 (a) Neuter: 
 
 Tivp (st. irup-), Ji/rB I BSwp (gen. BSot-os), water (§ 49, 20) , 
 
 82 (*) Feminine: 
 
 xB^v (st. x^""')' earth 
 
 Xi<iv (st. x""'")i snow J § 43 
 
 (pp^v (st. (ppev), heart, mind 
 
 yaffT'lip (gen. ycuTTp-Ss), belly (§ 42) 
 Xfrp (gen. xf'p-<<s). 'm'"^ (§ ^9, 24) 
 [For TptiipTts; see § 35.] 
 
 III. If the noiin denotes neither a person nor a sexless thing, 
 a,sk lastly : Does the Noun denote a kind op Animal ? {i.e. one 
 of the lower animals). If so, the only general rule is. No nouns 
 denoting kinds of animals are neuter, and the most important 
 are common (§ 64). 
 
 88 Nouns denoting the domestic animals are common : — 
 
 i Pods, bull ; Ti $ovs, cow : so too Lat. bos, m. or f . 
 
 i Kiav, dog ; ^ Kvav, bitch : so too Lat. canis, m. or f . 
 
 i 5s or (TVS, boar ; ^ 5r or (rvs, sow : so too Lat. sits, m. or f . 
 
 i X^"' gander ; r; x^IVj goose : so too Lat. anser, m. or f . 
 
 i ivTos, horse ; ti iViros, mare (or, collective, cavalry) : Lat. equus m., equa f . 
 
 i ivos, he-ass ; ri ovos, she-ass : Lat. asinus m., asina f . 
 
 i oh, ram ; ri oh, ewe : Lat. ovis f . 
 
 i (rfl, he-goat ; rj o?J, she-goat. 
 
 6 aKsKTpvdv, cock ; 4) a\eKTpviiy, hen (= a,\fKTpiaiv(^. 
 
 Exceptions are: irpS^arov, n., sheep, and |Ui)A.ov, n., sheep or goat, 
 
 89 Nouns which denote animal in general, or a particular kind of wild 
 animal, mostly follow the rules for sexless things given above : e.g. Cvo", 
 SAovov, animal, n., 6vo{ifyiov, beast of burden, Lat. jumentum, n. ; %d, L. 
 hydra, i. ; Kayds, hare, L. lepus, m. ; i.\iiwrii, fox, L. 'oulpes, t. 
 
 Where necessary the sex is indicated by adding Apa-nv (&ppriv), male, or 
 Bfi\vs, female: e.g. ri &p<r-nv a\<ivn^, the he-fox; i B^hvs Kayis, the she-hare. 
 
24 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 CiASS I. : Masc. and Neut. like the 2nd Decl. of Nouns, Fern. 
 
 like 1st Decl. [Lat. durus, dura, durum]. 
 Class II. : Masc. and Neut. like the 3rd Decl. of Nouns [Lat. 
 tristis, triste]; some have Fem. like 1st Decl. 
 Many of Class II., and some of Class I., have no separate form 
 for the Fem. A few of Class II. have no separate form for the 
 Neut. either [Lat. prudens]. 
 
 Class I. 
 
 1. 817X09, m., 877X17, f. (cf. /xa^T?, § 17), SrjXov, n., dear. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 >Si. 877X09 877X77 BfjXov 
 BfjXe S77X77 877X01' 
 BfjXov BrfXrjv BfjXov 
 BfjXov 8/7X779 8?7Xou 
 877X&) BijXrj BijXo) 
 
 m. f. n. 
 P. B^Xoi, BfjXai BfjXa 
 877X04 87'7Xat StjXm 
 8?7'Xou9 8)7X09 BfjXa 
 BijXaiv BijXcov B)jX(ov 
 8/7X019 8/7X019 8/7'Xot9 
 
 m. f. n. 
 Dual. N. V. A. 5^Aw [S^\o] 5^A.a 
 
 
 2. v€os, 
 
 m., via., f. {cf. o'tKid, § 17), V€OV 
 
 n., nevi. 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 t n. 
 
 m. 
 
 ■f. 
 
 n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. vio<{ 
 
 vea veov 
 
 P. veoi 
 
 veai 
 
 vea 
 
 V. 
 
 vie 
 
 vea veov 
 
 veoi 
 
 veai 
 
 via 
 
 A. 
 
 veov 
 
 veav veov 
 
 veovg 
 
 ved<; 
 
 via 
 
 G. 
 
 veov 
 
 1/609 veov 
 
 vecov 
 
 veav 
 
 veav 
 
 D. 
 
 vetp 
 
 vea vea 
 
 1/6049 
 
 veaa 
 
 veoc<; 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. n. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. vea 
 
 VedJ yea) 
 
 
 
 
 
 G. D, yeoty 
 
 veaiy] v4oiv 
 
 
 
 KuLB. — Adjectives in -os form the Nom. Sing. Fem. in a after 
 e, i, p, or po ; othervfiae in 77. 
 
 Examples fob Declension. 
 
 1. Seiy6s, terrible 
 KOiKos , hollow 
 
 iritrrSSf faithful I 2. ^i^ios, worthy 
 (ro<f>6sj wise \ SiKuios, just 
 
 Bo6s, 8ai, Bo6y, swift "\-U. 1. 'a J 'a l- 'n 1 J7 
 
 iySoo,, byS6r,, JJ^Soo.-, eigMh}^''^ "*'"'"■ "^P^""- "^f^""' ':™«"««<«- 
 
 Sap(TaKeos, bold 
 voyjip6s, icicked 
 
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 25 
 
 Obs. 1. Participles have Voc. = Nom. : e.g. Xekv/jLivos, loosed. 
 Obs. 2. Nearly all Compound Adjectives have no separato 
 form for the Fern. ; — 
 
 e.g. a-8iKos, m.f., a-SiKov, n., unjust [from Sikh], justice^. 
 
 cv-Sofos, m.f., €v-8ofov, n., renowned [from 8d|o, renown^. 
 So, too, some others, e.g. /SdpPapos, tartar ian ; (jipovi/j.o's, wise. 
 
 Contracted Adjectives of Class I. 
 
 93 (i.) Those in -cos which denote Materials and Colours : — 
 
 e.g. ■)(pi<T€o?, -xpyo-ia. (§ 92), ^va-eov, golden ^^pvcroi, gold^, 
 
 apyvpeoi, apyvpid, apyvpEov, silvery [apyvpoi, silver^. 
 
 ■irop<j>vpeo^, TTopcjivpid, 7rop(f>vpeov, gleaming [Trop^jivpa, purple^. 
 (ii.) Those in -ttXoos which denote so majiy fold : — • 
 e.g. aTrXdos, airXorj (§ 92), airXoov, one-fold, simple, Lat. simplex. 
 
 St-TrXdos, StTrXdr;, SiTrXdov, two-fold, double, Lat. duplex. 
 (iii.) Compounds of vdos, mind; ttXoos, voyage; poo's, stream : 
 e.g. ivvoo<i, m.f., ivvoov, n., loell disposed (§ 26). evpoos, evpoov, 
 
 ttTrXoos, m.f., airXoov, n., unfit for sailing. fairfloinng. 
 
 
 m. i. n. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. )(pv<70V'S )(pv(Trj ^vcrovv 
 
 P. )(pvaoi ■xpvaa.L ^vaS. 
 
 A. 
 
 ■^va-ow -)(pv<j-rjv -)(pv(rovv 
 
 X/Jfo-ovs )(pvo-ai -)(pv<ja. 
 
 U. 
 
 Xpva-ov -)(pv<rri^ ^(pva-ov 
 
 )(pvcr<av )(pva(j}V xpva-uiv 
 
 L>'. 
 
 X/Ouo-o) XP'<"^'tl XP^^'V 
 
 -)(pV(roL<s ■)(pvcra\,<s xpucrois 
 
 So 
 
 airXa 
 
 ivvoa,Tl, 
 
 dpyvpS. 
 
 apyvpd 
 
 apyvplov 
 
 S. dirXovs, ciTrX^, aTrXoBi/ : JP, a.Trko'i, airXai, 
 S. evvovs, m., f., ewovvjU.: P. evvot, m., f.. 
 
 But S. apyvpow, dpyvpoi, dpyvpovv : P. apyvpoZ, dpyvpoL, 
 dpyvpovv, dpyvpdv, apyvpbvv dpyvpovv, dpyvpd's, 
 
 dpyvpov, apyvpds, dpyvpov apyvplov, apyvp&v 
 
 dpyvpta, dpyvpa, dpryvpiS dpyvpoTs, dpyvpai's, dpyvpol'i 
 
 Rules. 1 . In the Maso. and Neut. e and contract with o to ov, 
 and disappear before a long vowel or diphthong 
 (as in nouns, § 26). 
 
 2. The contracted Fem. Sing, has a after p, otherwise 
 
 17 (as in § 92, uncontracted : Trovrjpd, but St^Xyj). 
 
 3. The contracted Nom. Plur. Neut. has d (like do-rS). 
 
 4. The compounds of ydos, irXdos, pdos do not contract 
 
 in the Nom. Plur. Neut. 
 The Voo. and the Dual of Contracted Adjectives is hardly ever found. 
 
26 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 Adjectives like the Attic Second Declension. 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 XXems, IXemv, gracious : af. vcws, § 27. 
 
 m. and f. n. 
 S. iXeoys iXeoiv 
 iXewv IXeijyv 
 {Xeuj 
 IXeia 
 
 m. and f. n. 
 P. 'iXeia IXea 
 ?Xe(Ds iXea 
 IXeojv 
 IXetfi 
 
 in.,f.,n. 
 Dual. N. V. A. iKia 
 G. D. Uiu,p 
 
 The few Adjectives like i^ews have no separate form for the Feminine, 
 except Trkeais, irAed, itKitav^full. 
 
 Class II. (of. § 90). 
 
 In some Adjectives of this Class the Nom. Sing. Masc. is 
 formed by adding s to the stem (as in Nouns, §§ 30, 37), in others 
 without any addition to the stem (as in Nouns, §§ 32, 33). 
 
 St. 
 
 fjLcXav-, m. and u. (cf. SeXcjJiv-, § 30), black. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 S. ju,c'Xa-s ix,iXaiva* /jiiXav 
 /xeXav yiieXatva fx-sXav 
 fj,iXav-a jiiXaivav ji-iXav 
 fjLeXav-os fjLeXaivrji /xeXav-os 
 fjiiXav-L fieXalvrj j.iXav-i 
 
 m. f. n. 
 P. iJ-iXav-es fiiXaivai /AeXav-a 
 /AeXav-es /ieXaivat jj-iXav-a 
 fieXav-as /xeXaiVds /ieXav-a 
 /xeXdv-uiv fjLiXaiv&v jj-eXav-uiv 
 ju.cXa-cri.(v) fieXaivca? fJiiXa-cn{y) 
 
 m. f. n. 
 Dual. N. V. A. /teAoc-e /j.eKaii/a fi4\av-e 
 G. T>. fiiXdv-Oiv ^eXaivaiv fiehiiv-oit' 
 
 So are declined : — 
 
 Tt^Aa-s, rdKaiva, rdXav, unhappy^ wretched. 
 
 Teprjv {stem repey-, cf. § 32), ripeiva, repevj delicate. 
 
 ^ For fxeKap-ta {fi4\av-ya) : declined like eepdiratva, fioda-m, §§ 17, 18. 
 
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 27 
 
 St. 
 
 ■TravT-, m 
 
 and n. (c/. yiyavr-, § 30), every, all, Lat. omnis. 
 
 
 
 
 m. f. 
 
 n. 
 
 N. 
 
 V. 
 
 -S. 
 
 Tra-g "Trdaa* 
 
 irav 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 iravT-a -rraaav 
 
 irav 
 
 U. 
 
 
 
 7ravr-o<; Traarj^ 
 
 Travr-o'i 
 
 i). 
 
 
 
 iravT-b iraay 
 
 TravT-i 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 P. iravT-ei; Trdaao irdvT-a 
 Trdvr-a<i nraad'i vdvr-a 
 TrdvT-cov irdaSiv TravT-av 
 7rd-ai{v) traaait; •jra-cn{y) 
 
 The Dual is excluded hy the meaning. 
 
 Like Tray is declined airas, atraffa, aTrav, all together, Lat. cuncfus. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 evSaufjiov- (cf. Sm/jlov-, § 32), fortunate, happy: 
 
 
 m. and f. n. 
 
 m. and f. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. evSaifKov evBaifiov 
 
 P. evBai.fiov-e<; eiiBai/iov-a 
 
 V. 
 
 evZaijxov evhaifiov 
 
 evBat.fiov-e<; evSalfMov-a 
 
 A. 
 
 ei/Baifiov-a euBai/xov 
 
 eiBat,fi,ov-a<; ev8aifj,ov-a 
 
 G. 
 
 ev8ai,/j,ov-o<} 
 
 evSaifj,6v-wv 
 
 D. 
 
 eiihaifiov-i 
 
 €vBaLfjLO-crt{v) 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. evSai/iov-e 
 
 
 G. D. evZai^6v-oiv 
 
 Examples fob DECtBNSiON. 
 
 KaKoSal/jLtov, KO/crfSai/iOc, imfortunate 
 liviifiav, nvrj/iov, mvndful 
 iinHT^jiMV, iTlffTri/iOv, scientific 
 ayv^/Mij', Hyyaiiov, senseless, unfeeling 
 
 &^pQ}v, &(ppov, senseless 
 irdiippa)!', (rS)<ppov, sensible, mrttums 
 %apd<pp(i)V, irap^(ppov, out of one's senses 
 [from stem of <pp^v (ifpec-), sense] 
 
 * For ffc£vT-io (jrayT-ya): declined like BiKacra-a, /iova-a, §§ 17, 18. 
 
28 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 St. 
 
 £KovT-, m. and n. (qf. yepovr-, § 32), willing. 
 
 N.V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m. t. n. 
 
 S. iKtov cKovcra* Ikov 
 iKovT-a iKovtrav skov 
 Ikovt-os cKovcrijs Ikovt-os 
 Ikovt-i eKOV(rri ekovt-i 
 
 m. I. n. 
 
 P. £KOVT-€S eKoCtrat tKOi/T-a 
 EKOVT-as £Kovo"a.s eKOVT-a 
 
 CK0VT-(1)V CKOVCrUlV EKOVT-eOV 
 
 lKo5-trt(v) tKOVo-ats £KOi)-crt(v) 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. ckSvt-g eK0tJ(rd eK6vT-e 
 G. D. kK6vT-oiv eKo^traiv exSpT-oiy 
 
 Like e/ctiii' is declined SKcoy (for ieKtov), S/couira, S/coi/, unwilling. 
 
 St. 
 
 N. 
 V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 evyevecr- (cf. Aioyey^a-, § 33), ldgh-l)orn, noble. 
 
 m. and f. n. 
 
 S. evyevri'; evyeve<i 
 
 evyevei evyeve^ 
 
 evyevfj ev<yeve<; 
 
 evyevovv 
 
 evyevec 
 
 m. and n. 
 evyevei'i 
 €V'yevei<; 
 evyevel<; 
 
 evyevwv 
 
 evy6ve-cn(v) 
 
 n. 
 evyevfj 
 evyevfj 
 evyevrj 
 
 m. i. n. 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. ebyivet 
 
 G. D. eii-yej/ori/ 
 
 Examples foe Declension (cf. § 34). 
 
 iyicpaT-ffs, iyKpar4s, self-restrained 
 aicpaT'iiSj aKpares, intemperate 
 fiixivijs, fv/i.fves, gentle 
 i.trSii/'fis, aa-Beves, weak 
 
 ^Tjfl^j, a\ri8es, true 
 T//eu5^s, \pevSeSf false 
 ei/Tvx'flSj evTvx^Sj lucky 
 (ra(plflSt (Tatpes, clear 
 €u^e?)s, tH-qOis, foolish 
 
 [rpiiipris has become a Noun; cf. § 35.] 
 Adjectives with a vowel before the ecr- contract e-o into d (not tj) : 
 e.g. el/KXe'fis, evKXeei, glorious {cf,^ 
 
 Aco. U€pii{\ca, § 33) 
 ^cBe^s, evSces, lacking 
 ^v^viis, €v(f>vh, talented 
 vyiitSy vyi4s, healthy 
 Gen. Sing. m. f. n. eu/cXeoCs, ivieovst eiKpvovsj Oyiovs, 
 
 Ace. Sing. m. f., and Nom. Plur. n. 
 evK\ea, ipSea, eittpva, iiyia 
 
 ' Prom ckAt-io (iKOfT-ya) : declined like fiovaa, § 17. 
 
DECLENSION OF AOyECTIVES. 
 
 29 
 
 102 
 
 St. 
 
 yXvKv-, yXvKe-, m. and n. 
 
 (cf. ■n-r)xv-, Trrjx^-, § 47), sweet. 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 H. 
 
 S. yX.VKv-i yXvKua* yXvKV 
 
 P. yXvKus yXvKUM yXvKe-a 
 
 V. 
 
 yXvKV yXvKiia yXvKv 
 
 yXvKUi yXvKuai yXvKe-a 
 
 A. 
 
 yXvicv-v yXvKeTav yXvKv 
 
 yXuKCis yXvKeids yXvKC-a 
 yXvKe-wv yXvKEtSv yXuKC-wv 
 
 U. 
 
 yXvK€-os yXiiKet'ds yXvKe-o^ 
 
 D. 
 
 yXvKei yXvKeid yXvKeL 
 
 yXvKi-(TL(y) yXvKuaLS ■yXuKe-cri(v) 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 Ikial. N. V. A. [yKvKil] yKvKeli [y^vKft] 
 
 
 G. D. yKvK^ 
 
 -oiv y\vKelaiv y\vK€-oiv 
 
 KuLE. — Adjectives in vs, eia, v have Gen. Sing, m., n. in eo?, 
 
 Nom. Plur. n. in ea, 
 (both uncontracted). 
 
 In other cases the masc. is like Tnjxvs, § 47, 
 the neut. is like aa-rv, § 39. 
 
 Examples fob Declension'. 
 
 $a9is, $a9e!a, PaBi, deep 
 jSpaSiJy, ^paSeia, jSpaSii, slow 
 Ppax^s, jSpoxe'a, iSpaX'', short 
 
 €v9vs, eufleio, evBv, straight 
 eupus, eupeitt, eupu, broad 
 o|iJr, o|€ra, o|u, sharp 
 
 103 Note the stems from which the following Adjectives of Class 
 II. are declined ; — 
 
 eveXTTis, m., f., eveXiri, n., hopeful : stem eveXTriS- (but 
 
 Ace. Sing. eveXTTiv, TO.., i. ; cf.''ApT€ixa', etc., § 41). 
 evxapK, m., f., evxaph n., graceful : stem tfip^apiT'. 
 <^iXo7roXis, m., f., (^tXoTToXt, n., patriotic: stem ^iXottoXiS-. 
 TpiTTov^, m., f., TpiTTovv, h., tlires-footed : stem rptiroS-. 
 
 104 The following Adjectives have no separate form for the Fem. 
 or Neut. : — 
 
 dyvws, unknown or unknowing : stem dyvcoT^. 
 dXa^wv, 'boastful : stem dXa^oi'-. 
 oiTrats, childless : stem diraiS-. 
 [xAKap, blessed : stem /Aa/cap-. 
 irevr]^, poor : stem -Kevif-. 
 
 ' From y\uK^-io : declined like ^oiriAeio, § 18. 
 
30 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Irregular Adjectives. 
 
 105 
 
 The following are declined from two distinct stems : — 
 
 St. 
 
 1. /ieyoXo-, 2. /tcya-, great. 
 
 1. iroXXo-, 2. TToXv-, much, 
 many. 
 
 N. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Sinrjular. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 fi£ya-<; /MeydXr] fieya 
 fieya-v /u.eydX'rjv fxeya 
 IxeyaXov fieydX?]'; /j,eyaXov 
 jxeyakw fieyaXrj fieyaXai 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 TToXu-? TToXXlj TTOXV 
 TToXv-V TToXXriV TToXv 
 
 ■jToXXov TroXXr)<; irohXov 
 
 TToXXm TToXXfj TTOXXS 
 
 Note that the Norn, and Ace. Sing. Masc. and Neut. are the 
 only forms from the short stems /xcya-, ttoXv-. 
 
 The Plurals are regular (from the long stems /xeyaXo-, iroXXo-) : 
 [leyciXoi, /jLeydXai, /jLtydXa, etc. iroXXoi, TroXXai, iroXXd, etc. 
 
 106 
 
 St. 
 
 
 1. )(apievT-, 2. 
 
 XapuT-, iileasing. 
 
 m. 
 
 f. n. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. xap^Ei-J 
 
 XapUtrcra* x°-P^^^ 
 
 P. xap^fT-es x^P'^"'"'"' X'^P^^"''''" 
 
 V. 
 
 XapUv 
 
 Xo-pUffffa x^-p''-^^ 
 
 Xo-p^^vr-is xap^fo"(^ai x^-P^^^'^'"' 
 
 A. 
 
 XapUvr.a 
 
 Xapiecrcrav x«P'e^ 
 
 Xo^pi^vT-as x^P'^Vo'ds x^-p''-^^'^'^ 
 
 G. 
 
 XapievT-QS 
 
 Xapt€(rcr7is x°'P^^^'^'°^ 
 
 XCLpihT'Uv x«P'e(r(rwi' x^P'^^'t-wv 
 
 D. 
 
 XapUyr-l 
 
 Xapiea-crri x«p'evt-i 
 
 Xo.pie-(Ti{y) xopietrtrats x^'^^'^^iy) 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. n. 
 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. x«p'e>"r-6 
 
 Xaptea-ffd X"/''^'"''^ 
 
 
 
 U-. V. x^pt^vT-oii 
 
 / Xapt^o'Catv x°-P'-^^'^'°^^ 
 
 Note.— Nom. Sing, xapiei-j for xap(e;'T-s (c/. § 30, Eule 4). 
 Dat. Plur. xop^E-Ti for xap^fr-o-i (c/. § 30, Eule 3). 
 Like xap'e'S : — (puviifis, <pavi)ecrira, tpay/iey, endowed with speech. 
 
 107 irpaos, m., np^ov, n., wm'M, borrows from irpoiis the whole Pem. vpaela, 
 
 Tpaum, etc., but only rarely forms of the Maso. and Neut. like vpaiuv. 
 
 * From xfier-ia (xopwr-^a) : declined like iiKairaa, % 18. 
 
DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 31 
 
 108 
 
 Pabticiplbs (Verb-Adjeotives) op Class II. 
 
 1. Participles in ds (stem avr-) are declined like ttSs (§ 97 ; in the 
 
 Masc. like yi^ds, § 30, 4) : — 
 e.g. N. V. Xvaras Xva-axra Xvaav, having loosed (Active). 
 A. XucravT-a A.ucrdo'av Xvirav 
 
 etc. etc. etc. : D. PI. A.ijo-d-a-t(]/), Avo-ao-at?, 
 
 Xvaa-criiy). 
 
 2. Participles in ovs and u>v (stem ovt-) are declined in the Masc. 
 
 like 6S0VS (§ 30, 4) and yipwv (§ 32, 3), o becoming ov when 
 vT falls out before s : — 
 e.g. N. V. StSov-s StSovo-a SiSdv, giving (Active). 
 A. 8t8ovT-a SiSovcrai/ SiSov 
 
 etc. etc. etc. : D. PI. StSoB-o-t(v), StSovo-ai?, 
 
 8t8oii-a't(v). 
 N. V. Xvw \vova-a \vov, loosing (Active). 
 A. XvovT-a Xvovcrav Xvov 
 
 etc. etc. etc. : D. PI. Xvov-(ri, Xvovcrai^, Xvov-cri. 
 
 3. Participles in tts (stem evr-) are declined on the same principle, 
 
 6 becoming ei when vt falls out before s. 
 
 [No similar noun.] 
 e.g. N. V. XvOei-9 Xvdeia-a XvOiv, loosed (Passive). 
 A. Xv6ivT-a Xv6tZ(Tav XvOev 
 
 etc. etc. etc. : D. PI. Xvdei-a-iiy), XvOeicraK, 
 
 Xv6el-(7L(v). 
 
 4. Participles in vs (stem wt-) are declined on the same principle, 
 
 u becoming S when vt falls out before s. 
 [No similar noun or adjective]. 
 e.g. N. V. SeiKvv-s SaKvvcra hecKvvv, showing (Active). 
 A. BeiKvuvT-a SeiKvvcrav SeiKvw 
 
 etc. etc. etc. : D. PI. 8eiKvC-<n(v), SeiKvt- 
 
 o"ats, SeiKvv-(Ti{v). 
 
 5. Participles in cos are declined regularly from the stem or-; note 
 
 the peculiar co (for o) in the Nom. Sing. Masc. [Contrast 
 EtXms, stem EiXwt-, § 30, 3.] 
 e.g. N. V. XeXu/cws XeXvKvla XeXvKos, having loosed (Active). 
 A. XeXvKOT-a XeXvKViav XeXvKog 
 
 etc. etc. etc. : D. PI. XeXvK6-cn(v), XeXv- 
 
 Kutats, XeXyKo-cniy). 
 The Vocative of all Participles is the same as the Nominative. 
 
32 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives. 
 
 109 !• The usual endings are : — 
 For the Comparative : -repoi m. -repa, f. -repov n. 
 For the Superlative : -raros m. -rarr; f. -rarov n. 
 
 110 These endings are added to the stem of the Positive Masculine : — 
 e.g. S^Xos, St. St^Xo- : StjXo'-te/dos SijAo-raTos 
 
 clear -Tipa,-Ttpov,dearer -Ta.rq,-Ta.Tov,clearest 
 
 /aeXds, St. /jLeXav- '. fitXav-repos /xeXav-Taros 
 
 -T€pd, -repov -ra/rr], -rarov 
 
 evyevrj?, St. ewyevecr- : euycve'cr-Te/DOs evyevec-TaTOS 
 
 -repd, -repov -rdrrj, -rarov 
 
 yXvKws, St. yXvKV- : yXvKv-repos yXvKV-raroi 
 
 -repd, -repov -rarrj, -rarov 
 
 111 But Adjectives in -os (Class I.) lengthen o to w when the vowel 
 of the preceding syllable is both short by nature and not followed 
 by any two consonants or double consonant (§1) : — 
 
 e.r/. veoi, new (§ 92, 2), st. veo- : vew-repo?, ve<!i-raro?. 
 But TTLKpo's, sharp, st. iriKpo- : iriKpo-repo';, Tn/cpo-Taros [wp]. 
 
 evSo^o's, renoiviied, st. cVSofo- : eVSo^o-repos, ev^o^o-raro's [^]. 
 Examples for Comparison will be found in §§ 92, 100, 102. 
 
 112 The following drop the stem vowel o : — 
 yepaioi, aged, st. yepaio- : yepai-repo's, yepai-raros. 
 
 rraXaios, ancient, st. TraXaio- : TraXai-repos, TraXai-raro's [from 
 
 TraXai, adv., long ago]. 
 a-)(oXa2o^, sloio, St. crxoXaLO- : crxoXat-repos, a-)(oXai-raro^. 
 <^i'Ao9, dear, st. <f>LXo- : <j)lX-Tepos or fji.aXXov tfiiXo's, 4>LX-raroi or 
 
 juaXtcrra <^tXo5. 
 
 113 Adjectives in -mv, stem -ov-, insert -eo-- before -repo<;, -raros : — 
 e.g. eiSaL/xoiv, st. evSatpov- : eiSaifiOv-ea-repos, evBaifjuiv-ea-raro's. 
 Examples for Comparison in § 98. 
 
 114 So, too, Adjectives in -oos, contracted -ovs (§ 93, ii,, iii.) : — 
 e.g. a.TrXov'S, simjjle : dTr\ova-repo<;, airXova-raros. 
 
 nvovs, loell disponed : eivova-repo's, evfovcrraro's. 
 Add eppwp.evo's, vigorous : ippuifiev-ea-repos, eppmfiev-ia-raros, 
 
 115 Note xap"""!, pleasing, st. x<^pier- : xa-piea-repos, xipico-TaTos. 
 
 rrerqs, poor, St. rrevrjr- : rrevicr-repos, irevia-raros. 
 (■rrpo, before) : rrpo-repoi, prior, TrpSros, primus. 
 (inrep, above) : virep-repos, superior, vTrep-raros, suprSmus. 
 — : va-^epo<s, posterior, v(r-raros, postremus. 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 33 
 
 II. Less usual endings are : — 
 
 For the Comparative : -Iwv m. f . -lav n. 
 For the Superlative : -icttos m. -to-nj f. -kttov n. 
 These endings are found only in the following Adjectives : the 
 stem of the Positive always suffers some change : — 
 
 Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 ala-xpo-<s, sliameful : alax-iw, -lov atcrx-io-Tos, -icttj;, -kttov 
 
 ex^po-s, hostile : ixO-twv, -lov ej^S-to-ros, -ur-n], -itnov 
 
 TjS-u-s, pleasant : r/S-iwv, -lov ^S-icrros, -io-n], -uttov 
 
 KttXo-s, beautiful: KaXX iW, -lov KaXA-io-ros, -iVtij, -uttov 
 
 In the following the t disappears as a separate syllable. The 
 Neut. Comparative may always be found by changing ojv into ov. 
 /xeya-s, great : iJ.dt,(av /iey-io-TOs 
 
 paSio-s, easy : pdoiv pda-ro^ 
 
 TaX^-S, swift : 6d.<T(TtOV * TO-X-iO-TOS 
 
 In the following, wholly different Stems are employed : — 
 
 ayaOo-i, good : 
 
 Ka/co-s, bad ', 
 
 /iiKpd-s, small : 
 little : 
 
 oXtyo-s, little : 
 (Plur. few) 
 
 I 
 
 ajxaviov 
 jSeXr-trnv \ better 
 
 XtboJl/ ) 
 
 Kpdcro-iov,* stronger 
 KaK-iuiv, baser 
 T^€t/D(ov, worse 
 rjcra-iav* inferior 
 jUKpo-Tepos, smaller 
 eXacrcruv,* less 
 fiieiuiv, less 
 
 ap-ierros | 
 /3iXT-L(TT0i > best 
 
 XuIcTTOS ) 
 
 KpaT-icTTO's, strongest 
 KaK-to-Tos, basest 
 )(etp-io-Tos, worst 
 
 /xiKpd-raTos, smallest 
 IXa^-toTos, least 
 
 T"^™^ \ least 
 
 6Xt- 
 
 eXap(-to'TOs 
 
 iXa.<T(TO>v, less 
 
 p-eitav, less 
 
 TrXeiiov (ttXeuv), more irXetcrTos, ?nos^ 
 
 (Plur. many) 
 * Some Attic writers have rr for (Tct : OAttuv, Kpeirrav, ^ttwv, iKdrimr, 
 
 Minor Pbculiaeities {m Adjectives with -Tepos, -toto?). 
 
 iStTup^o-s, calm : Tifrvxai-repost -raros 
 iao-s, equal : iaal-rtpos, -TaTos 
 fietro Sf middle : fieffal-repos, -raros 
 S^io-s, late : o^piai-TepoSj -raros 
 vp^o-s, early: irptfainpos, -raros 
 
 vpoHpyoV) serviceable: irpovpyiai-repos 
 
 Kd\o-s, talkative : KaXiff-repos, -raros 
 fialcpS-St lonff : /J-aKpS-repos, -TaTO^\ 
 fxacfftiiVf fi-f]K-icrros j 
 
34 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Comparatives in -luyv, -lov (lav, ov) are declined as follows ; — 
 
 Stem. 
 
 jScXtZov-, better. 
 
 
 m. and f. n. 
 
 m. and f . n. | 
 
 N. 
 
 S. ^ekTlwv ^ekrlov 
 
 P.J 
 
 '^eXTiov-€<i ^eXriov-a 
 ffeXrtov^ ^eXrio) 
 
 A. 
 
 i^eXrtov-a ^eXrlov 
 X^eXrio) 
 
 
 0eXTtov-a<; ^eXrtov-a 
 
 
 ^eXTtovf ^eXTico 
 
 G. 
 
 ^eXriov-of 
 
 ^eXrlov-tov 
 
 D. 
 
 /SeXrtov-i 
 
 0eXTto-ai{v) 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 Ihtal. N. V. A. Pe\Tiov-e 
 
 
 G. D. $e\Ti6v-oiv 
 
 The by-forms of the Ace. Sing. Masc, and the Nom. and Ace. 
 Plur., are derived from a different stem in -ioo-- (Lat. -ior, -hus) by 
 dropping o- and contracting the vowels : o-a becomes o) ; o-e be- 
 comes on. The contracted Nom. Plur. is used as an Ace. Plur. 
 
 Comparatives and Superlatives in os, a (or rl), ov, are declined 
 like vc'os, via, viov ; S^Xos, Sj/Xt;, S^Xov (§ 92). 
 
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Cardinal. 
 
 1 £19, iXLo, ev (§ 123) 
 
 2 Svo [Lat. duo, -ae, -o] 
 
 3 Tpcts, Tpla Ures, trio] 
 
 4 TtVo-apts, recrcrapa* 
 a TrevTE Iquinque} 
 
 6 l| [sctI 
 
 7 cTTTa [septewl\ 
 
 8 OKTm [odo] 
 
 9 iwia [novein] 
 10 SeKO, [decern] 
 
 Ordinal. 
 o irpunos, r), ov, the first 
 SevTcpos, a, ov 
 
 TpLTO'S, 1], ov 
 
 TerapTos, t], ov 
 
 TTifHtrTOi, Yj, ov 
 
 e/fTos, ?7, ov 
 c^So^os, ij, ov 
 oySoos, 17, ov 
 cvaros, 77, ov 
 BcKaros, yj, ov 
 
 NUMERAL 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 aTTO^, OBce 
 St's [Lat. Ins] 
 Tpk [Lat. ^er] 
 TerpaKis 
 TrevTOKts 
 
 eirraKts 
 
 OKTOKIS 
 
 evttKts 
 
 ' In some Attio writers Terrapes, reTrapa : so too TtTTopiKovTa, etc. 
 
NUMERALS. 
 
 35 
 
 Cardinal. 
 
 11 evBeKa [undeciin] 
 
 12 StoSeKa [duodedm] 
 
 13 rpeis (rpia) koX BeKa 
 
 14 Ti(r<Taps<s Koi Sexa 
 
 15 TrevTCKaiSeKa 
 
 16 cKKaiScKa 
 
 17 iTTTaKOiSeKa 
 
 1 8 OKTCOKatScKa 
 
 1 9 evveaKaiSeKa 
 
 20 £tKoo-t(i') [OTgriwii] 
 25 eiKocri tteVtc ( § 126) 
 30 TpiaKovra [triginta] 
 40 TecrcrapaKOVTa 
 
 50 •n-evT^KOVTa 
 
 60 k^rjKovra 
 
 70 i^So/i-qKOVTa 
 
 80 oySojjKOVTa 
 
 90 cvevi^KOvra 
 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 700 
 800 
 900 
 
 Sta/cocrtot, ai, a 
 TpiaKocrioi, ai, a 
 TerpaKocrioi,, at, a 
 ■!reVTaKO(not, at, a 
 efa/cdcrtot, at, ti 
 iiTTaKocnoi, at, a 
 oKTaKoaiOi, at, a 
 ci/aKOcrtoi, oi, a 
 
 1000 ^iXtot, at, u, 
 
 2000 Sttr;(fAtot, at, a 
 
 3000 Tpi(T)(l\ioi, at, a 
 
 10,000 pApioi, at, a 
 
 11,000 fxypioi (at, a) Kat 
 
 j^tXtoi (at, a) 
 
 20,000 Sttrjuvptoi, ot, a 
 
 Ordinal. 
 
 EvSeKaros, iy, oj/ 
 ScoSc'/caTOS, ?;, ov 
 TptTos (17, ov) Kai SeKaros, t], ov 
 rerapTO^ KoHi StKaros, etc. 
 irevTeKatSeVaTOS, etc. 
 eK/caiScKaros, etc. 
 ImaKaLSeKaTO's, etc. 
 oKTCoKatScKaTos, etc. 
 cwtaKaiSeKaTos, etc. 
 
 €iKO(rTos, etc. 
 etKOCTTOS TriiXTTTOi, etc. 
 
 TpLO.KOO'TO'S, etc. 
 
 TecrcrapaKOUTO^, etc. 
 TrevTijKoo-Tos, etc. 
 
 e^TJKOCTTO?, etc. 
 C^So/tlJKOCTTOS, etc. 
 
 oySoTjKOCTTOs, etc. 
 evci/iyKoo-Tos, etc, 
 
 €KaToo-Tos, etc. 
 Std/cocrtotTTos, etc. 
 Tpia.KOcnocrTO'S, etc. 
 TCT/DaKOcrtoo-Tos, etc. 
 irevTaKoortoaTos, etc. 
 c^aKOO-totTTOS, etc. 
 IffTaKoo-tocTTOS, etc. 
 oKTa/coo-tocTTOS, etc. 
 evaKoo-tocTTOs, etc. 
 
 ;(tXtO(rTOS, etc. 
 Sttrp^iXtocTTOs, etc. 
 TptcrxtA'OcrTos, etc. 
 fivpuocrTOi, etc. 
 
 8icr/;ti3piocrTos, etc. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 JvScKaKts 
 SbiScKaKtf 
 TptcrxatSeKaKts 
 TeacrapearKaiSeKaKK 
 TrevTeKaiSeKOiKLi 
 l/CKatSe/ca/cis 
 eTTaKatSfKaKts 
 OKTWKatSeKaKig 
 cvveaKaiSc/caKts 
 
 ctKocraKts 
 eiKocra/cts TrcvTciKts 
 
 TptdKOVTCtKtS 
 
 Teero-apaKOVTaxts 
 
 7rCVT17KOVT({KtS 
 
 k^y}KovTa.Ki% 
 
 ePSojJ.rjKOVTO.KL'S 
 
 oySorjiiOVTOLKii 
 
 EKaTOVTClKtS 
 
 StdKOcrtd/cts 
 Tpia.Kocnd.KLi 
 
 TeTpaKOaLOLKLS 
 
 TrevraKotrtaKts 
 
 l^aKocrta/cts 
 
 eTTTaKOcrtaKts 
 
 0KTaK00"td/cts 
 
 evaKOO'iaKts 
 
 ^tXtdicts 
 
 Sto-xtXtd/cts 
 
 Tptc^'XtdKis 
 
 flXplaKLS 
 
 Sto'p.vpidKts 
 
36 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 123 
 
 124 
 
 125 
 126 
 
 Declension of eIs, 
 
 8uo, Tpcis, 
 
 Wo-o-apes. 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 n. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. eU 
 
 fii,a 
 
 ^V 
 
 J). S^o 
 
 A. 
 
 ev-a 
 
 fuav 
 
 ev 
 
 Svo 
 
 G. 
 
 ev-o<; 
 
 fiia<s 
 
 f r 
 
 ev-o'} 
 
 Svolv 
 
 D. 
 
 ev-i, 
 
 fiia 
 
 ev-i 
 
 Bvoiv 
 
 N. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m. 1 n. 
 
 P. rpet? rpi-a 
 Tpei's rpL-a 
 rpi-wv 
 Tpi-crC{v) 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 P. Teaaap-e'i reaaap-a 
 
 Teacrap-w; ricra'ap-a 
 
 Teeradp-eov 
 Tecrcrap-(rt{v) 
 
 127 
 
 Like €1? are declined ouSeis (from cniSe th, not even one), no one, 
 and /xijScis (from ymjSc eh, not even one), no one. Plur. (rare) = no 
 men, none, or nobodies : N. ouSti/es, A. oiSeVas, G. ovSiumi', D. oiSe- 
 <Ti{v) ; N. p.rjSo'e'i, A. /iijSci/as, G. /jLiijSivtov, D. /Aiy86(n(v). 
 
 a/xifxti, both, has N. A. a//,0(i), G. D. a/^K^oiv. 
 But 6oiA is more commonly expressed by djiAc^oTEpot, ai, a (§ 1159). 
 In compound numbers above 20 either place the smaller number 
 first (with Kai), or the larger number first (with or without kcu) : 
 e.g. eh Kol uKom, one and twenty, or uko<tiv ets, tioenty one, or 
 tiKotri Kol ets, tioenty and one. 
 irpuJTos Kal eiVoo-To'?, ^rs< and tioentieth, or cikoo-tos TrpuTos, 
 twentieth first, or cikocttos Kat TrpSros, twentieth and first. 
 fua Kol iKarov vijcs, or l/carov ((cai) /ti'a vrje's, 101 s7liif)S, 
 
 Note the following Adverbs : — 
 
 rplrov or ri rpiroVf thirdly ^ for the third time. 
 
 J/- «v. ^ «- } lastly, for the last tt-me. 
 
 Contrast the meanings of aTra^, owce, 5fr, ^zmc^, etc. (§ 122). 
 
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 37 
 
 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED 
 THEREWITH. 
 
 Personal Pronouns. 
 
 FmsT Pebson. 
 
 Second Person. 
 
 
 I 
 
 we 
 
 
 thou {you) 
 
 you 
 
 N. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. iyw 
 e'/ae, /a6 
 
 i/MOV, flOV 
 
 ifjioi, fjboi 
 
 P. Tjfiei^ 
 rjfi&v 
 
 N. V. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. av 
 ere, ere 
 erov, (Tov 
 crol, croi 
 
 P. v/ieli 
 vfia^ 
 
 VfJbCOV 
 VjUV 
 
 Dual. N. A. v(i [Lat. iio-s} 
 G. D. y^y 
 
 Dual. JSr. A. ffipii 
 G. D. (T^ifv 
 
 The accented forms e/xt, c/xoi), e/iot', ce, crow, o-ot are used : — 
 
 (i.) When there is emphasis on the pronoun: e.ij. ovk i/j-e, aXka 
 ere erripya, he loves not me, hut yov. 
 
 (ii.) Generally with prepositions : e.g. ju,£t I/aov, with me. 
 
 Otherwise the unaccented forms /xe, /iov, etc., are used. 
 
 The plural of formal intercourse [you = thou) is unknown in 
 ancient Greek : t/Atis, like the Lat. vos, is used only when more 
 than one person is addressed. 
 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 him 
 
 her 
 
 it 
 
 them 
 
 them 
 
 them 
 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m. 
 S. avTOV 
 avTov 
 aiiTep 
 
 t. 
 avTijv 
 avTrj^ 
 avrf} 
 
 n. 
 aiiro 
 avTov 
 avTeu 
 
 m. 
 P. avTov<; 
 
 aVTMV 
 
 aiiToh 
 
 f. 
 avrd^ 
 avTebv 
 avTaK 
 
 n. 
 avTo, 
 avrSiv 
 avTol'i 
 
 Dual (all three genders). A. airdS 
 G. D. avToiv 
 
 The Nominative he, she, it, they is either unexpressed or ex- 
 pressed by a Demonstrative (§§ 138-143). 
 
 The reflexive forms of the 1st and 2nd personal pronouns 
 are made up by combining J/t-, ere.- (Plur. ■^/^as, vjiAi, etc.) with 
 the Definitive Adjective avros, self {% 163). Reflexive forms refer 
 to the subject of the sentence, and have no Nominative : — 
 
38 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Reflexive Forms. 
 
 1st 
 
 Person : Sing, myself, 
 Plur. ourselves. 
 
 2nd Pbrs. : Sing. tJnjsdf 
 {i/ourself), Plur. yourselves. 
 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 S. 
 
 e/xavTov efiavTrjv 
 €jJ,avTOV ifiavTrji; 
 ifJ-avTM ifiavTrj 
 
 S. aeavrov aeavTrjv 
 aeavTov aeavTrj<; 
 
 A. 
 G. 
 D 
 
 P. 
 
 rj/Mo,'; avTov<s -^9 
 ■fifiuv ainSiv -wv 
 fiiuv avTOK -at? 
 
 P. vfjba<; avTovi -a? 
 vfjbav avT&v -wv 
 vfuv avToli; -ai? 
 
 Contracted forms of the 2nd person are often found in Attic : 
 e.g. tratJTov, o-avTT^v, cravTov, cravT^s, for a-eavTov, creavTiQV, etc. 
 
 In the 3rd person there are special reflexive forms, ?, ov, ol, 
 etc., corresponding to the Lat. se, sul, sihi; but they are used in 
 prose only as Iiulired Rpflexices, i.e. they stand in a subordinate 
 clause and refer to the subject of the principal clause.* The 
 ordinary Eeflexives of the 3rd person are made up by combining 
 e- with the Definitive Adjective avrds, self. 
 
 3ed Person : Singular, himself, h 
 
 irself, itself; 
 
 Plural themselves. 
 
 
 Direct and Indirect. 
 
 Only Indirect. 
 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m. f. 
 S. eavTov eavTTjv 
 eavTov eavTTj'; 
 eavrS kavrfj 
 
 u. 
 eavTo 
 eavrov 
 eavTW 
 
 m.f. 
 S. I J 
 ov, ov 
 ol, ol 
 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 P eavTOvi eavTd<s 
 eavTMV eavTcov 
 eavTol<; eavTal<; 
 
 eavrd 
 
 eavToiV 
 
 eavToZt; 
 
 p. a(pa^ 
 
 Instead of eaurous, lawTas, kavTuiv, tauTots, etc. , the combinations 
 o-^as avTov<;, -ds, a-0aiv avTuiv, a-<^i(ri.v avToii, etc., are sometimes used. 
 
 Contracted forms are often found in Attic : e.g. avroV, avTrjv, 
 avTOv, avT^s, iov iavrov, iavT^s, etc. 
 
 * S.g. 'Up eipr], eVeiS}) o5 ixfifivai riiv ^vxiiv, aipiKvelffSai (r<|>ds fis T((7ro» 
 TITO Sai/iivwy, Er said that when the soul had departed out of him (Er), 
 they {i.e. he and others) arrived at a mysterious place. 
 
DECLENSION 07? PRONOONS. 
 
 39 
 
 Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns. 
 
 (Declined like SrjXoi, 817X17, SrjXov, or veos, ved, viov, § 92). 
 £/ios, ii/,rj, ifiov, my, my own : as Pronoun mine. 
 o-os, o-^, o-oi', <% (your), thine own {your own) : as Pronoun 
 
 thine {yours). 
 rifierepoi, riij,eTep3., ruienpav, our, our own : as Pronoun ours. 
 v/xerepos, t/Aerepd, v/jiiTepov, your, your own : as Pronoun yours. 
 These Possessives are sometimes reflexive, sometimes not re- 
 flexive ; in either case they are always preceded by the Definite 
 Article : thus, 
 
 orTepya rbv i/xbv iraripa, he loves my father. 
 arepyo) rbv i/wv Trarepa, I love my own father (reflexive). 
 For the Possessives of the 3rd pers. (" his," " her," " its," etc.), 
 the Genitives of personal, demonstrative, or reflexive pronouns are 
 generally used in prose * : thus, 
 
 (rripyto rbv iraripa avrov, I love the father of him (§ 131) = his 
 
 father. 
 uripyui -rbv i/ibv Traripa, oi rbv exetVou, . . . not the one of that 
 
 man (§ 142) = not his. 
 aripyei tov lavrov Trarepa, he loves the father of himself (§ 134) 
 = his own father (reflexive). 
 Genitives may also be used instead of the Possessives of the 
 1st and 2nd pers. : — 
 
 (TTepyei tov iraripa fwv, . . . the father of me = my father. 
 
 Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns. 
 oSe, m., ■^8e, f., ToSe, n., this (by me), Lat. hie, hrec, hoc. 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 m. i. 
 
 n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. oBe ^Se ToSe 
 
 P. otSe aiSe 
 
 rdSe 
 
 A. 
 
 rovSe TijvSe roSe 
 
 TOVcrSe rdaSe 
 
 rdSe 
 
 G. 
 
 TovSe TTJcrBe rovSe 
 
 T&vSe rwvSe 
 
 ravSe 
 
 D. 
 
 TmSe TrjSe rSSe 
 
 ToiaSe TolcrSe 
 
 Tolo'Se 
 
 
 Dual (all three genders). N. A. ti^Se 
 
 
 
 G. D. Toii'Se 
 
 
 If oSe, ^Se, ToSe is joined to a noun, the latter is always pre- 
 ceded by the Article in prose : e.g. oSe b av-qp, this the man = this 
 
 * Ss, 5), 3y, his, her, its, and <r(/>6Tcpoj, -a, -ov, 
 
40 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 L40 
 
 141 
 
 142 
 
 143 
 
 144 
 
 145 
 
 146 
 
 oSe, ^Se, ToSc is a compound of an old demonstrative 6, fj, to, 
 this or that, and the indeclinable suffix -Sc, here ; o-Sc then is 
 literally this here, like Lat. hl-c from hl^ce and French ce-d. 
 
 In the Attic of everyday life o8e was sometimes further streng- 
 thened by the demonstrative suffix i (indeclinable) : 68^ 1781, roSf. 
 
 EKeicos, m., cKEinf), f., iK^ivo, n., that (by him), yon [ille, ilia, illud]. 
 Nom. Plur. Ikuvoi, m., iKeivai, f., eKuva, n. 
 
 The oblique cases are declined like airov, avrriv, avro (§ 131). 
 Note. — eKcivos 6 dviyp, iKiivq ■f\ X(upa, thai man, that country : 
 c.f. § 139. 
 ouTos, m., auTY), f., TouTo, n., this or that hy you [iste, ista, istud]. 
 
 
 m. t n. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 S. ovTO<; avTTj tovto 
 
 p. ovTot avrai TavTa 
 
 A. 
 
 rovTOV ravTrjv tovto 
 
 TovTov; TanTa? ravTa 
 
 G. 
 
 TOVTOV TaVT7J<; TOVTOV 
 
 TOVTwv Tovrmv tovtodv 
 
 D. 
 
 TOVT(p TaVTTj TOVTa 
 
 TOVTOi'; TaVTUK TOVTOl<! 
 
 Dual (all three genders). N. A. -roina 
 
 G.D. TOVTOiU 
 
 NoxB.^ — 0VT09 6 av^p, avTY] ■q ^((o/ad, this man, tliis country : cf. 
 §§ 139, 142. 
 
 o8e is the demonstrative of the 1st person, like Lat. hic. 
 
 oiiTos is the demonstrative of the 2nd person, like Lat. iste, 
 and has a Vocative case {e.g. W oSros, go, you there ; S oStos Aids, 
 ho you there, Ajax /). 
 
 e/cetvos is the demonstrative of the 3rd person, like Lat. ille. 
 
 The following Demonstratives are declined like ovtos : — 
 
 TOIOVTOS, TOiOVTr), TOIoCtO or TOIOVTOV, SUcK 
 
 too-oBtos, Totravrri, toctovto or TotrauTOv, SO great 
 ttjXlkovto';, TT^XtKavn/, TrjXiKcniTO or rrjXiKovTov, so old 
 The following Demonstratives are declined like Adjectives of 
 Class I. (§ 92), with an indeclinable -Se added : — 
 
 TOLOcrSe, TOLaSe, TOiovSe, such ^ a* m d "m" 
 
 TocrocrSe, Tocrrj&e, Toa-ovSe, SO great /■ 'a S § & J 
 
 TrjXiKOaSe, rrjXiKrjSe, rrjXLKOvSe, SO old, SO great ) '3 "" ^ S_'^ 
 
 In the Attic of everyday life ovros was sometimes strengthened, 
 
 like oSc (§ 141), by the demonstrative suffix i : e.g. ovrocri, airrji 
 
 TovTovi, Tovrovi. A short vowel disappears before t : e.g. rovrt, n. 
 
 a , m a 0) 
 
 .S "^ ro J3 '^ 
 
 oJ= ^ o u 
 
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 4t 
 
 147 
 
 148 
 
 149 
 
 150 
 
 6, m., ff, i., TO, n., the (Tlie Definite Article). 
 
 
 m. t. 
 
 n. 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. 6 ■}, 
 
 TO 
 
 P. ol 
 
 ai 
 
 rd 
 
 A. 
 
 TOP TTjV 
 
 t6 
 
 TOV^ 
 
 Tft? 
 
 ra 
 
 G. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TOV T»;s 
 
 TOV 
 
 TCDV 
 
 rwv 
 
 TCOV 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T&) TTJ 
 
 TO) 
 
 TOt? 
 
 TOt9 
 
 T0i5 
 
 
 Dual (all 
 
 three genders) N. A. r^ 
 G. D. Tom 
 
 
 
 The so-called Definite Article (= "little member" or "joint") 
 is simply a weakened demonstrative adjective. The original 
 meaning of o, ^, to was this or that ; this is the most usual mean- 
 ing of the word in Homer ; it is found also in Herodotus, and in 
 certain common phrases of Attic prose : e.g. 6 jneV ... 6 8e, t/iis 
 one . . . that one (the one . . . the other) ; irpo tov, before that ; 
 6 Se, but he, beginning a new sentence ; so, too, in the compound 
 oSe, this here (§ 140). But elsewhere in Attic the original mean- 
 ing this or that has passed into the weakened ' or unemphatic 
 meaning the. In English, French, and German, the history of 
 the definite article is the same. In Latin the unemphatic 
 is, ea, id, sometimes approaches the sense the : e.g. is homo, the 
 fellow. 
 
 aWos, m., oWij, f., aWo, n., other [alius, alia, aliud]. 
 
 Nom. Plur. aXXoi, m., aXXai, f., aXXa, n. 
 
 The oblique cases are declined like avrov, avT'^v, avro (§ 131). 
 
 By doubling the stem of aA.Xos is formed the Eeciprocal Pro- 
 noun : A\\riXou9, m., dWTJXas, f., aXXniKa, n., one another [alius 
 . . . alius], which is declined in the plural and dual like airovg, 
 avrm (§ 131). The meaning of dXX^Xovs excludes a nominative 
 case and a singular number. 
 
42 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 151 
 
 152 
 
 153 
 
 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives. 
 
 Tts, m. and f., ti, n., Interrogative Pron. and Adj., who, what 
 [quis, quid : Adj. qui, quse, quodj. 
 
 N. 
 A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 m., f. n. 
 
 8. Tt-? Tt 
 
 riv-a Tl 
 TiV-o? or TOV 
 Tiv-i or To3 
 
 m., £. 
 P. riv-ei 
 Tiv-av 
 
 Tiv-mv 
 Ti-a-iiy) 
 
 n. 
 
 TLV-a 
 
 riv-a 
 
 
 Dual (all three gend 
 
 3rs). N. A. rlv-e 
 G, D. riv-oiv 
 
 
 154 
 
 155 
 
 156 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 
 Tis, m. and f., ti, n.. Indefinite Pron. and Adj., someone, some- 
 thing, some, a certain; anyone, anything, any. 
 
 The indefinite tis, ti differs in declension from the interroga- 
 tive Tis, Tt only in having (i.) no accent on the first syllable, (ii.) a 
 by-form of the Neut. Plur. Nom. and Ace. ciTra (accented). 
 Examples of usage (interrogative and indefinite) : — 
 TIS rj\.6f.v ; who came 1 tivi rpoirw ; in what way ? 
 ripiTo ni rjX6€v, he asked who came (dependent question). 
 ^\6e TIS, some one came [aliquis]. 
 avrip T4S rikde, a certain man came [quidam]. 
 6i6i Tts etire, some god spoke [Here tis almost = the Engl. 
 
 Indef. Article an, a], 
 n Tts i\6oi, if any one should come [si quis]. 
 jxri Tts ikOoi, lest any one should come [ne quis]. 
 The following Interrogative and Indefinite Adjectives are de- 
 clined like Adjectives of Class I. (§ 92) : — 
 
 TToios, TToia, TTolov, of wlittt sort [qualis]. 
 
 TTocros, TToa-r], ttoctov, hoto great [quantus]. 
 
 irqKiKos, -rnqXiK-r), TrrjXiKov, how old. 
 
 iroT€/3os, TTOTepd, TTorepov, which of the two [uter, interrog.]. 
 
 TTOtOS, TTOta, TTOWV, Of SOVIC SOrt 1 _l /. j ii 
 
 „J7 „„„„ . > no accent on first syll. 
 TToo-os, TToa-rj, TToa-ov, of some size J ■' 
 
 tKacTTOi, iKaa-TT], l/cacTTOv, each [quisque]. 
 
 tKCiTepos, iKarepa, iKarepov, either, both [uterque]. 
 
 The Plural means either party, both parties [utriqiie]. 
 
 I- ' f"-2 f \ neither fneuterl. 
 /jirjOiTepos, -T^po-, -repov ) '- -^ 
 
 afKponpoi, -repai, -repa, both [ambo]. 
 
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 43 
 
 160 
 
 161 
 162 
 
 162b 
 
 Relative Pronoun. 
 
 OS, m., ■^j f., o, n., who, lohicJi, i/iat [qui, quie, quod]. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 u. 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. 6's 
 
 V 
 
 r/ 
 
 
 
 P. 0? 
 
 r/ ' 
 
 at 
 
 a 
 
 A. 
 
 rf 
 
 ov 
 
 ■nv 
 
 rf 
 
 
 ou? 
 
 & 
 
 ^ 
 
 G. 
 
 o5 
 
 ^9 
 
 o5 
 
 WI/ 
 
 wv 
 
 WI^ 
 
 D. 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 ol? 
 
 ah 
 
 ol? 
 
 
 
 Dual (all 
 
 three genders). N. A. S 
 G. T>. oXv 
 
 
 
 Strengthened form : ocnrep, rjinp, oTrep, jiist who, the very one who. 
 
 The -TTcp is indeclmable. 
 
 By combining os, rj, o with the indefinite tis, ti is formed the 
 Indefinite or General Eelative Sans, m., tJtis, f., o ti,* n., any-ioho, 
 any-which, i.e. whoever, whatever, anyone who, anything which 
 [quisquis or quicumque]. Both parts are declinable. 
 
 N. 
 
 m. 
 S. ocrri<! 
 
 t. 
 
 ■tJTl<S 
 
 n. 
 
 rf 
 
 n 
 
 m. f. n. 
 P. Oinvei a"rbve<s (arLva, 
 
 A. 
 
 ovTiva 
 
 rjVTLva 
 
 rf 
 
 Ti 
 
 \aTTa 
 
 ova-Tiva^ aa-Tiva<i JaTira, 
 
 \aTTa 
 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 ■ 
 
 ' OVTlVOS,f 
 OTOV 
 
 [pTtp 
 
 yTivi 
 
 OVTiVOS, 
 OTOV 
 
 ora, 
 
 J avTtifav, 1 jj j.jjj.gg genders 
 [oTtav ) 
 
 joTa-Ti<n(if), aia-Tia-l{v) oT(TTtn(if), 
 \oTOii; oToi'; 
 
 
 Dval (all three gend 
 
 ers). N. A. Urive 
 
 G. D.joivTiVOlV, 
 
 ^Btoiv 
 
 The following General Eelatives are declined like Adjectives of 
 Class I. (§ 92) : — oxoios, ottom, ottoZov, of whatever land. 
 oTToo-os, oTroa-rj, ottoo-oi/, of whatever size. 
 
 All General Eelatives may be used as Interrogatives in depen- 
 dent questions : e.y. ripcTo oo-tis riXOe.v, he asked who came. 
 
 The ooinpouiid ba-nffovv, Snovv {-ovv indeclinable), any one so ever, has 
 only indefinite, not relative or interrogative, meaning. 
 
 * Sometimes written 3,ti (in order to distinguish it from the Conimic- 
 
 tion 3ti, that). , , ■ ii c- 
 
 t The forms printed in small type are the less common m the bing. : 
 irov, Srtf are compounds of tok, t^ (§§ 151, 152) : with Hrrct, cf. Sttb, § 152. 
 
44 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 163 
 
 164 
 
 165 
 
 166 
 167 
 
 168 
 169 
 
 Definitive Adjective and Pronoun. 
 auTos, m,, auTt\, f., auro, n., se// [ipse, ipsa, ipsum]. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 i. 
 
 n. 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 n. 
 
 N. 
 
 S. avTO'; 
 
 avTi] 
 
 avTo 
 
 F. avTol 
 
 avrat 
 
 avra 
 
 A. 
 
 avTov 
 
 avrrjv 
 
 avTO 
 
 avTovi 
 
 avTw; 
 
 avTa 
 
 G. 
 
 avrov 
 
 avTi]<; 
 
 avTOV 
 
 avTcov 
 
 avTdiv 
 
 avTOiv 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 
 » '^ 
 
 » « 
 
 ) 
 
 aVTM 
 
 auTTj 
 
 avTO) 
 
 auTots 
 
 avrat? 
 
 avTots 
 
 
 Dual (all three genders). N. A. avrii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G. D. aiiToTv 
 
 
 Examples of usage : — 
 
 airros 6 nij^ayopds 'l4>-r], Pythagoras himself said so [ipse 
 
 Pythagoras dixit]. 
 airos (.4>Vt ^"^ ^"^"'^ *'" himself [ipse dixit]. 
 MeVtova airov hrifi.\pa., I sent Moiwn hiimelf [Menonem ipsum]. 
 Carefully distinguish airds, avrq, avro, from i/xavrov, (reavrdi/, 
 JavTov, etc. Both may be translated myself, thyself, himself, etc., 
 but these English words are used differently in the two cases. 
 Autos, aim^, airo is essentially an adjective, agreeing in gender, 
 number, and case with a noun or pronoun : it is a pronoun only 
 in so far as the noun or pronoun with which it agrees may be not 
 expressed but only implied, either by the context, or in the ending 
 of the verb. EyuavToV, o-tauToi/, kavTov, on the contrary, are always 
 pronouns, being compounded of the personal pronouns and the 
 adjective airds, avrq, avTo {Ifi.- avrov = me -self, me myself). 
 
 Contrast airiKTuv^v iavrov, he slew himself (reflexive pronoun), 
 avTos (XTrtKTetvc tov Trarepa, he himself slew his father (def. adj.). 
 
 Auto's when preceded by the definite article means very same : 
 6 auTos, 7) avTrj, to auTo, the very same, the same [idem, eadem, idem]. 
 These phrases are sometimes contracted to avTo's, avTrj, ravro (or 
 TauTw) ; so, too, the oblique cases in which the article ends in a 
 vowel or diphthong ; e.g. rairov, Tavrfj, avroC for roB auroC, t^ 
 avrfj, ot avToL 
 
 Distinguish avrfi, the same, i., from avrri, this, f. Is iiq 
 
 Distinguish Taird, the same, n. pi., from TauTa, these, n. pi. P 
 The personal pronouns airSv, avriiv, ourii, him, her, it (§ 131), are in 
 origin the oblique cases of outi^j, out^ out(( (§ 163), used as a pronoun. 
 All the uses of ouriis are shown in the following passage : — 
 
 Ti'j OVTOS 6 eVl ttjj KpiixiBpas avi)p ;^Avt6s. — Tts aiirSs ; — %aiKpiiTr]S.- — 
 
 ''W OVTOS, ava^67](Tov Avt6v fioL ^4ya. — Aut&s ixkv odv (rh KaXeirov. 
 Who is this man in the basket 1 — Himself.— Who himself? — Socrates. — 
 Com,e, you there, shout to Himself (or him) in a loud voice, I pray. — 
 A^ay, call him j/mirscj^ (Aristophanes, Clouds). 
 
FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 45 
 
 176 
 
 Adjective. 
 . (SUaios, just 
 'a a\ o-o<^os, loise 
 '^^ [oLTrkovs, simple 
 
 J ( evSai/jiOiv, happy 
 l|]rfV£vijs, noble 
 [riSv^, pleasant 
 
 Adverb. 
 StKat-tos, justly 
 (ro<f>-S>'s, wisely 
 dirX-Gs, simply 
 euSai/idv-(os, happily 
 evyev-w, nobly 
 ^8e-(Ds, pleasantly 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by means of the 
 ending -los : e.g. 
 
 Gen. Plur. 
 
 cro<^-Gv 
 &Tr\-Siv 
 
 fvSai/jAv-uiv 
 evyev-Syv 
 
 Rule. — ^Add -us to the part of the adjective which remains 
 
 when the ending of the genitive plural {-(ov) is removed. The 
 
 adverb agrees with the gen. plur. in accent. 
 
 Sometimes the neuter singular of the adjective is used as an 
 
 adverb : e.g. raxv, swiftly (also raxiw^); ttoXv, much; oXiyov, little. 
 Comparison of Adverbs. 
 The Comparative is generally supplied by the Neut. Sing, of 
 
 the Comparative Adjective, the Superlative by the Neut. Plur. of 
 
 the Superlative Adjective : — 
 Positive Adverb. Comparative Adverb. Superlative Adverb. 
 
 e.g. SiKaiioi, justly StKatd-repov, more justly StKatd-raTo, most justly 
 (j-o<l>S>9 <TO<f>tx)-Tepov (§ 111) (ro4>ui-TaTa 
 
 eiyevui^ €vyivi<r-T€pov ctiyevecr-TaTa 
 
 eiSai/udvftJS £i8at/AOV-eo--T£/30i' (§113) tiSai/Aov-e'cr-TaTa 
 So Comp. -Zov, Sup. -to-Ttt from aicrxpSs, e^dpS)?, -qSiw?, koXSs 
 
 (§ 117): note paSttos, paov, paa-ra; raxe'cos, ^ao-o-ov, Tax'o-Ta (§ 118). 
 Peculiarities (c/. § 119) : — 
 
 ev, well* afjieivov, better apurra, best 
 
 Ka/cSs, ill Ko-Klov, more miserably KaKurra, most miserably 
 
 X^ipov, worse ■^.'^ipia-Ta, worst 
 
 irokv, much Trkiov, more TrXelarov or TrXetoTo, most 
 
 lj.d\a, highly, /uaAAov, more highly, /iaXto-ra, most highly, 
 
 ^Ktorra > 
 
 rather especially 
 
 ov TToXv) eXao-crovtl eXaxwrTa) 
 
 oXtyov Uittle ■^tro-ov t 
 fJLlKpOV ) /ictov 
 
 Adverbs in -m * form Oomp. in -r^pa, Superl. in -rdra •— 
 
 e.g. &!><», up avu-Tipw, further up avm-rara, furthest up 
 
 Similarly ^is, near iyyv-ripu or -repop, nearer iyyv-rdra, nearest 
 wepa, teyond wepau-TepaOic -repov, farther — 
 
 • Not formed from Adjeotivea. t In some Attio writers %\aTTov, fiTTov. 
 
46 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 VERBS. 
 Greek has one voice (the Middle), one mood (the Optative), 
 and one number (the Dual), more than Latin. 
 
 The Middle Yoice has reflexive meaning, i.e. refers to self: — 
 e.g. iypmj/dfirjv v7rofx.vrifi.a.Ta, I lorote myself notes. 
 The same forms serve for both Middle and Passive, except in 
 the Aorist tense and in the special Future Passive formed from 
 the Aorist. 
 
 The Optative Mood does part of the work of the Latin 
 Subjunctive (Present and Imperfect) : — 
 
 e.g. ypd<f)oi, viay he lorite, an expression of wish [scribat]. 
 
 ypd<t>oi av, he would write, the principal clause of a condi- 
 tional sentence [scribat]. 
 Lva ypoLfjioi, in order that he might write, a clause of purpose 
 [ut scrlberet]. 
 The Dual Number speaks of two or a yair (as in Nouns) : — 
 e.g. ypoL<f>eTov, you two are writing. 
 Greek, like Latin, has seven tenses of the Indicative : — 
 
 NAME OP TENSE. 
 
 ( He writes 
 
 s I J He is writing 
 
 Ph \He has 
 
 } 
 
 ypdff>a [scribit] 
 
 written \ , , r ■ -..-i 
 
 heen writing] y'yP'"^'i^''''''e^'^^ 
 
 
 ■ He wrote eypaij/e [scripsit] 
 
 He was writing typaifie [scribebat] 
 
 He had written ) €yeypa.(j>u 
 
 . He had been writing j [scripserat] 
 
 
 only in Passive 
 and Middle. 
 
 Future (6) 
 Future Perfect (7) 
 
 He will write ] / , r -i . n 
 
 He will be writing J W'^"/'" t«°"^^*] 
 He will have written 
 He will have been 
 writing 
 
 The Future Perfect Active can ordinarily * be expressed only 
 by a periphrasis formed with the Perfect Participle Active and 
 the Future of iijju., I am (§ 266) : e.g. yeypa^ws lo-Tat,' he will have 
 written [scripserit], literally he loill-be having -written. 
 
 Present (1) 
 Perfect (2) 
 
 Aorist (3) 
 
 Past Imperfect (4) 
 
 Pluperfect (5) 
 
 * A very few verbs have a true Fut. Peri. Act. : e.g. reBviiiu, I sTiall he 
 dead, I shall have died ; iirrii^a, I shall stand, I shall have taken vp my position. 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 47 
 
 179 
 
 180 
 
 Note that Greek has two forms for the two meanings he has 
 written and he wrote, Latin only one {scripdt, in form an Aorist). 
 The name Perfect is short for Present Perfect.* 
 The name Pluperfect stands for Past Perfect. 
 The name Aorist (Indicative) is short for Past Aorist (Indica- 
 tive). "Aorist" in itself only means indefinite or undefined 
 (d-opto-Tos, from opt^o), define) ; the tense was so called in order to 
 distinguish it from the other tenses of past time, the Past Imper- 
 fect and the Past Perfect, both of which have reference to a definite 
 point of time expressed or implied. 
 
 From the Verb are formed, as in Latin, 
 (a) Yerb-adjectiYes (all declinable) : — 
 
 1. Participles. (For declension see § 92, Obs. 1, § 108.) 
 /■2. A Verb-adjective in -r-eos, -r-ed, -r-iov, corresponding 
 in meaning to the Lat. Gerundive : — 
 
 e.g. ypoTT-T-eo's, fit to be written, scribendus. 
 The Neuter with ia-n has Active meaning : — 
 
 e.g. ypaTrriov ia-n, one must write, scrlbendum 
 est. 
 3. A Verb-adjective in -t-os, -t-^, -t-6v, corresponding in 
 form and meaning to the Lat. Perfect Participle 
 Passive : — 
 
 e.g. ypaTT-r-ds, written, scriptus. 
 (6) Yerb-nonns: Infinitives. 
 
 Classification of Yerbs. 
 
 A. Verbs in -o). 
 
 Class I. Vowel stems : — 
 
 (a) Stems in v-, i- (eu-, av-, ov- ; ei-, at-) : — 
 e.g. \v-o), loose; rt-o), honour. 
 
 (b) Stems in a-, e-, o- : these contract : — 
 
 e.g, Tl/id-u), Tlfiu), honour ; ttoU-o), ttoioI, do, make ; 
 SijXo-o), SrjXS), make clear. 
 Class II. Consonant stems : — 
 
 (a) Stems in a mute (y-, k-, x-'i P't '"'-1 <t>-> 8-, t-, 6-) : — 
 e.g. TrXeK-ti), weave ; Xcwr-to, leave ; ireiO-to, persuade. 
 
 (b) Stems in a liquid (X-, /*-, v-, p-) : — 
 e.g. ayyeX\-io, announce; tjxdv-w, show. 
 
 B. Verbs in -)u,i (c/. Lat. svrm); e.g. ta-mj-fii, place; Selicvv-fu, show. 
 
 * The Greek Perfect often has Present meaning: e.g. tc'9j^ko, lam dead. 
 
 > 
 
 .g 
 
 -43 
 

 
 
 A. Verbs 
 
 in u. 
 
 
 Class 1. (a). Vowel stems uncontracted: Xiw, loose.— ACTIYE. 
 
 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPTAT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 VERB-ADJ. AND 
 VERB-NOUN. 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 Xi-m 
 
 Xi-at 
 
 Xv-OljXl 
 
 _ 
 
 Pabtiobplb. 
 
 
 2 
 
 Xv-£is 
 
 Xij-Tjs 
 
 Xv-ois 
 
 XC-E 
 
 Xv-wv, -ovcra, -ov 
 
 ErI 
 
 3 
 P. I 
 
 2 
 
 Xi7-€t 
 
 Xu-O/U.EI' 
 XlJ-£T€ 
 
 XiJ-ij 
 
 Xij-CU/iEV 
 
 Xv-r]Ti 
 
 Xv-OL 
 
 Xv-oifiev 
 
 XC-OtTE 
 
 Xi5-£T<J 
 
 Xv-ere 
 
 Gen. -OI/TOS, -OVOTJS, -OVTOS 
 
 Inmnittvh. 
 
 Pu 
 
 3 
 
 Xo-ov(ri.(v) 
 
 Xv-(0(rt(v) 
 
 Xv-oiev 
 
 XS-OVTUV* 
 
 Xii-£(i/ 
 
 
 X>. 2 
 
 AiJ-eToy 
 
 AfS-TjToy 
 
 Kd-OtTOJ/ 
 
 \i-eTov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 AtS-erov 
 
 Al)-t)TOJ' 
 
 \\)-olrT)v 
 
 Kv-erav 
 
 
 M 
 
 S. 1 
 
 £-Xi)-OV 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 e-Xii-cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 P. 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 B. 2 
 
 3 
 
 ?-Xii-£(v) 
 
 i-Xv-OIJ,€V 
 1-Xi-l.Ti 
 
 t-Xv-ov 
 e-Aif-eTov 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 
 ;S. 1 
 
 Xu(r-<o 
 
 
 Xuer-oi/ii 
 
 
 Paetioipkb, 
 
 
 2 
 
 Xti(7-£tS 
 
 
 Xwtr-ois 
 
 
 Xvo"-ft)i/, -ovcra, -ov 
 
 E-i 
 
 3 
 P. 1 
 
 2 
 
 Xi;(r-£t 
 
 Xi;<r-o/iEV 
 
 Xij<7-£Te 
 
 None 
 
 Xc<r-ot 
 
 Xvo--ot/t£v 
 
 Xva--OLTi 
 
 None 
 
 Gen. -ovTo%, -oijCTTjs, -oiTos 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 h 
 
 3 
 D. 2 
 
 Xijcr-ov(rt(v) 
 
 
 Xvcr-oiiv 
 
 \6ff-0lT0V 
 
 
 Xi)(r-«il' 
 
 
 3 
 
 \6lT-eTQV 
 
 
 \v(T-oiTt)V 
 
 
 
 * Later endings of the 3rd Person Plural Imperative (Active, Passive, and 
 Middle) are mentioned in Appendix III. (on forms). 
 
49 
 
 Xiw, Zoose— ACTIVE {Continued). 
 
 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 VERB- AD J. ^ 
 VERB-NOUN. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (rare) 
 
 
 
 5. 1 
 
 XeXvK-a 
 
 XeXvK-o) 
 
 XeXvK-oijut 
 
 — 
 
 Pabticiplb. 
 
 
 2 
 
 XcXuK-as 
 
 X«XlJK-1JS 
 
 XeXvk-ois 
 
 XiXvK-e 
 
 XiXvK-oK, -via, -8? 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 XeXt)K-e(v) 
 
 XeXvK-^ 
 
 XeX-UK-oi 
 
 XiXvK-erio 
 
 Gen. -OTOs, -was, 
 
 S 
 
 P. 1 
 
 XeA.ijK-a/xev 
 
 XeXiJK-UjU.ei' 
 
 XeXvK-OljU/€V 
 
 — 
 
 -OTOS 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 KikuKrare 
 
 XeXuK-rjTC 
 
 XeXlJK-OtT£ 
 
 XeXlJK-£T£ 
 
 
 Ah 
 
 3 
 
 A.eXi;K-ao"t(v) 
 
 X£XvK-cocn(v) 
 
 XeXvK-ot£i' 
 
 Xe.XvK-6vTasv 
 
 IlWlNITIVE. 
 
 
 D. 2 
 
 \6\tiK-OT0y 
 
 XeXuK-rjTov 
 
 KeKiK-OLTov 
 
 \e\6K-eTQy 
 
 XcXvK-fi/ai 
 
 
 3 
 
 \6\l5K-aTO|/ 
 
 Ae\;5K-7;Tov 
 
 \f\vK-olTTII' 
 
 \e\VK.-4TUV 
 
 
 
 >Sf. 1 
 
 e-XcX-uK-ij* 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fi 
 
 2 
 
 e-XcXiJK-iys 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 e-XeXijK-ei(v) 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 P. I 
 
 c-XeXiJK-e/tev 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 €-XeXj;K-eTe 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 c-XeXuK-ccrav 
 
 
 
 
 
 P4 
 
 25. 2 
 3 
 
 l-\e\VK-CTTIV 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-. 1 
 
 e-Xv(r-a 
 
 Xvcr-0) 
 
 \v(r-aLfju, 
 
 
 
 PABTICIPMi. 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 £-Xvo--as 
 
 Xtjct-ij"; 
 
 Xifcr-eias t 
 
 Xva--ov 
 
 Xvar-a.% -ao-a, -av 
 
 3 
 
 £-Xi;o--£(v) 
 
 Xijcr-i; 
 
 X-do--£t£(v)t 
 
 Xw-ttTO) 
 
 Gen. -avTos, -atnjs, 
 
 E 
 
 F. 1 
 
 i-\-v<r-afi,ev 
 
 Xv(r-(o/A£i' 
 
 Xi(r-aifi£v 
 
 — 
 
 -avTos 
 
 EH 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 c-X'V-aTe 
 e-Xvcr-av 
 
 Xijcr-»;T€ 
 Xijo--(oo-t(v) 
 
 Xva--aLT€ 
 Xv(T-€ia,v t 
 
 Xvu-ore 
 X-ucr-avTwy 
 
 iNfflNITIVB. 
 
 O 
 
 <! 
 
 i). 2 
 
 i-\V{T-aToy 
 
 Kbff-T]TOV 
 
 hiff-aiTov 
 
 Kia-aTOV 
 
 XS(r-at 
 
 3 
 
 i-\va--dTriv 
 
 \vff-r\Tov 
 
 \v(r-aiTriv 
 
 Kvff'drav 
 
 
 * Contracted from the Homeric endings : S. 1. -eb, -?• 2. -eoj, S. 3. -£e(i') : ^. 
 Appendix III. (on forms). t Or xia-ais, xia-ai ; P. 3. xia-aiiv. 
 
 4 
 
5° 
 
 
 ,s. 
 
 1 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 VERB-ADJ. ^ 
 VERB-NOUN. 
 
 
 PASSIVE ANE 
 
 MIDDLE. 
 
 
 Xv-o/iai 
 
 Xu-m/xat 
 
 \v-oCfl.7JV 
 
 — 
 
 Pabticiplb. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Xv-;?* (or-ei) 
 
 Xi-ri 
 
 Xc-oio 
 
 Xv-ov 
 
 Xu-dyiievos, ij, ov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Xij-erat 
 
 Xv^rjrai 
 
 X^-OtTO 
 
 Xv-i(T6u> 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 Xv-o/Ac^af 
 
 \v-u>ii.f6a 
 
 Xv-oifiSa 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 Xo-eo-^c 
 
 kv-rjcrOi 
 
 Xv-oio-Oe 
 
 Xc-eo-^e 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 P4 
 
 
 3 
 
 Xii-oi'TOi 
 
 Xv-uvTat 
 
 XC-OIVTO 
 
 Xv-i(r6ijiv 
 
 XiS-eo-^ot 
 
 i). 
 
 2 
 
 \ii-e(r9ov 
 
 \d-TJtT6ov 
 
 K^-ot(r8oy 
 
 \d-e<reov 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Aii-co-eoi/ 
 
 \6--ria-Bov 
 
 \v-ol(r67iv 
 
 Kv-4(r6uy 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 €-Xv-o/Ar;v 
 
 
 
 
 
 «' 
 
 
 2 
 
 e-Xv-ou * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 e-Xij-ero 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 £-Xv-o/xt^a 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 >-l 
 
 
 2 
 
 e-Xv-£(r6« 
 
 
 
 
 
 EH 
 CO 
 
 
 3 
 
 e-Xv-ovTO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S: 
 
 1 
 
 Xv(r-o/J.at 
 
 
 X{i(r-0(!/i»;v 
 
 
 PABTICIPr.B. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 \ia--ri* (-£i) 
 
 
 Xvcr-oio 
 
 
 Xi)or-d/A€vos, 1), ov 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 Xii<r-eVai 
 
 
 Xvcr-oiTO 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 Xvcr-OjLcc^a 
 Xv(r-€0-5e 
 
 None 
 
 \vcr-otfJLe6a 
 Xva-oia-Oe. 
 
 None 
 
 Infinitith. 
 
 
 3 
 
 Xvcr-ovTat 
 
 
 Xva--oi.VTO 
 
 
 \v(T-i(T6<U 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 A.iifr-co-eoi' 
 A(J(r-6ff0oj' 
 
 
 \va-oifT9ov 
 
 
 
 J 
 H 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 ONLY. 
 
 
 £-X€o--aju.i;v 
 
 Xva--ti>fjiai 
 
 Xvcr-ai/ji.r]v 
 
 — 
 
 Pabticiplb. 
 
 
 2 
 
 e-Xi)cr-a)* 
 
 Xvcr-ri 
 
 Xv<T-aio 
 
 Xvcr-ai 
 
 Xvcr-a/ievos, -»?, -ov 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 c-Xver-aTO 
 
 \v<T-r]Tai 
 
 Xv(T-aiTO 
 
 Xva-dcrOo} 
 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 i-Xv(r-d/j.e6a. 
 
 Xvtr-uifjLiOa 
 
 Xucr-ai/AtSa 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-\vcr-a<r6i 
 
 Xv(r-rja6e 
 
 Xvcr-aurde 
 
 Xv(r-ao-6e 
 
 Inpikitivb. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-X.V(T-aVTO 
 
 \va-u)VTaL 
 
 Xv(T-aiVTO 
 
 Xvxr-da-Oijiv 
 
 XvO'-aa'Bai 
 
 5 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 4-\6(r-acrdoy 
 
 \i(r-na-eoy 
 
 \6ff-aicr6oy 
 
 \^ff-aff6ov 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-Xia-itririv 
 
 \d(7-TJ(T6oy 
 
 KviT-ai(r9i]v 
 
 \v(r-d(r6(iiv 
 
 
 * Contracted after loss of r- : Pres. and Put. -ri = -eai {originally -eaai) ; Past Imperf . 
 -ou = -eo (originally -tao) ; Ao . -w = -ao (originally -aaa). 
 
 t Sometimes \v-iij.ea-ea in j)oetry : similarly in other tenses. 
 
51 
 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPTAT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 VERB-ADJ. ^ 
 VERB-NOUN. 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 
 XiXv-jxai 
 
 XeXv-fJiivo's la 
 
 XeXv-/j,ivo's urfv 
 
 
 
 Paeticiplb. 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 
 p. 
 
 2 
 3 
 1 
 
 XiXv-iroLi 
 XeAu-rai 
 Xik-i-fjiida 
 
 V 
 
 £irjs 
 XeXv-ueyoi ei/jLcv 
 
 XiXv-(TO 
 
 XiXu-dOuy 
 
 XiXv-fi.h'O'i, -fJ-ivrj, 
 -fievov 
 
 (4 
 
 
 2 
 
 XiXv-a-Be 
 
 rjT€ 
 
 ehe 
 
 XiXv-cr6e 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 3 
 
 XlXv-VTOLt 
 
 S(ri(v) 
 
 £l£I/ 
 
 XeXv-frOtiiv 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 \4\v-ff6ov 
 
 KeXv-fisfa ^tov 
 
 \s\v-fieva) elroy 
 
 k4\\J'(t6ov 
 
 XeXv-o'Oou, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ke\v-ff&ov 
 
 ijTOV 
 
 eXTTiy 
 
 \eK6-a6uy 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 i-XfXv-fi,rjV 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eh 
 O 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-XiXv-cro 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-XiXv-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 i-Xekv-fJ-eOa 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-XiXv-aOe 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-XiXv-vTO 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1^ 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 XeXv<r-o/j.ai 
 
 
 XeXvcr-ot/xr/v 
 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 
 2 
 
 \e\vo--T;(-ei) 
 
 None 
 
 XeXvcr-oio 
 
 None 
 
 XeXvfr-oiJLCvo'S, r), ov 
 
 ft 
 
 
 3 
 
 XeXva-€Tai 
 
 
 XeXva-oiTO 
 
 
 Inpinitivb. 
 
 
 
 
 etc. (as in 
 
 
 (etc. as in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \v<T-o/jtai) 
 
 
 KviT-olflTlv) 
 
 
 XeXv(r-€(r6ai 
 
 < 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 
 P 
 
 ASSIVE ONLY. 
 
 
 i-Xv6-rjv 
 
 Xv6-Si 
 
 Xv6-ariv 
 
 — 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-Xv6-rjg 
 
 XvO-rjii 
 
 XvO-eirj's 
 
 XvO-TjTl 
 
 Xv6-£i?, -eto-a, -ev 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-Xve-ri 
 
 Xve-fj 
 
 Xvd-dt] 
 
 Xv6-T^T(0 
 
 Gen. -e'vTos, -tia-rj's, 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 i-Xv6-r]iJi€v 
 
 Xv6-S)fi,fv 
 
 XvO-eL/iev* 
 
 
 
 -6VT0S 
 
 i 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 i-Xv6-r}Te 
 i-XvO-yjcrav 
 
 XvO-rJTe 
 Xv6-u>ai(v) 
 
 XvO-etre 
 Xv6-€iei) 
 
 XvO-rp-e 
 XvO-evTUiv 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 o 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 i-\vB-nTOV 
 
 \vd-TJTOV 
 
 Kvi-eirov 
 
 \.i9-t)T0V 
 
 Xv6-rjvai 
 
 < 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^-\vB--l]T1\V 
 
 \v6-71TOlf 
 
 Kvd-eiTTjv 
 
 \v6~4lTUV 
 
 
 fZf 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 XvO-qcr-OfjuxL 
 
 
 Xv6r]a--oifi.rjv 
 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 °m 
 
 
 2 
 
 Xv6ri(r-ri{-€i) 
 
 None 
 
 Xv9i^(r-oio 
 
 None 
 
 Xv6ri<T-6iJi,evoi, 7), ov 
 
 ^2 
 3< 
 
 
 3 
 
 Xvdi^a-eraL 
 etc. (as in 
 
 
 Xv6-^<T-ot,TO 
 etc. (as in 
 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 il 
 
 
 
 Kvff-ofiai) 
 
 
 \v(r'oifi7}v) 
 
 
 Xv6ri(r-e(r6at 
 
 Or \v8-etnnev, -elijre, -slri<rav, etc. 
 
52 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tens 
 
 ',-stems from 
 
 Verb-stem \v-, loose. 
 
 1. 
 
 \v- 
 
 2. 
 
 Xv-a- 
 
 3. 
 
 A.£-\l)-K- 
 
 4. 
 
 Xe-Au- 
 
 5. 
 
 \v-(T- 
 
 6. 
 
 kv-e- 
 
 7. 
 
 X.V-6-7j(T- 
 
 8. 
 
 Xe-Au-(7- 
 
 Formation op Tbnses and Moods. 
 
 184 The tenses and moods of the regular verb (Active, Passive, 
 and Middle) come from eight Tense-stems, which are modifica- 
 tions of a single stem called the Verb-stem : — 
 
 Tenses formed. 
 
 Pres. and Past Imperf. Act. Pass, and Mid. 
 
 Future Act. Pass, and Mid. 
 
 Perf. and Pluperf. Act. 
 
 Perf. and Pluperf. Pass, and Mid. 
 
 Aorist Act. and Mid, 
 
 Aorist Pass. 
 
 Future of the Aorist Pass. 
 
 Future Perf. Pass, and Mid. 
 
 185 The Perf. and Pluperf. Act., the Aorists (Act. Mid. and Pass.) 
 and the Fut. of the Aor. Pass, have each two forms, which do not 
 differ in temporal meaning : — 
 
 (i.) Weak, i.e. formed with the suflBxes k, cr, 0, 0-ria; as in the 
 instances quoted above (stems 3, 5, 6, 7). 
 
 (ii.) Strong, i.e. formed without the suifixes k, cr, 6 : — 
 
 e.g. from stem ypacj}-, write : Perf. st. yeypacj)-, Aor. Pass. 
 St. ypa.<ji-, Fut. of Aor. Pass. st. ypacfi-rjo--. 
 
 Most verbs have the weak forms ; very few have both the 
 strong and the weak ; none have both in ordinary use in all the 
 tenses. 
 
 186 The endings of the Subjunctive (Present, Perfect Active, 
 Aorist) differ from those of the Present Indicative only in the 
 change of o into w, and e into tj : in the 2nd and 3rd Pers. Sing. 
 Active the i of the endings -eis, -« becomes subscript (Subj. -gs, -y); 
 in the 3rd Pers. Plur. the v of the ending -overt disappears (Subj. 
 
 -<00"t). 
 
 The endings of the Optative (Present, Future, Perfect Active, 
 Future Perfect Passive and Middle) differ from those of the Past 
 Imperfect Indicative (unoontracted) only in the change of o and e 
 into 01 (3rd Pers. Plur. Active ote), and the substitution of /ai for 
 V in the 1st Pers. Sing. Activo. 
 
FORMATION OF TENSES AND MOODS. 53 
 
 The endings of the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive and Middle 
 differ from those of Present and Past Imperfect Passive and Middle 
 in the absence of the vowels o, e. 
 
 The Perfect Subjunctive and Optative Passive and Middle can 
 ordinarily * be expressed only by a periphrasis with the Perfect 
 Participle and the Present Subjunctive and Optative of eifit, / am 
 (§ 266); X€Xv/x,cVos S (?/, though) I he loosed; A-eXvyncVos Sqv, may 
 I he loosed; cf. the similar formation of the Latin Perfect and 
 Pluperfect Passive, Indicative and Subjunctive {lauddtus sum, 
 sim, eram, essem). The Participle may be Masculine, Feminine or 
 Neuter, and Singular, Plural or Dual ; but it must always stand 
 in the Nominative Case. 
 
 A similar periphrasis is not uncommon for the Perfect Sub- 
 junctive and Optative Active : XeXdrus S, dr)v, etc. 
 
 The Augment, expressing past time, and employed only in the 
 Indicative (Aorist, Past Imperfect, and Pluperfect), consists 
 
 either (i.) in the syllable e, prefixed to verbs which begin with a 
 consonant : e.g. t-Xvara, I loosed (Syllabic Aug- 
 ment) : p is doubled after the syllabic augment : 
 e.g. €-ppi\j/a, I threio, from ptirTctv. 
 
 or (ii.) in lengthening or modifying the first syllable of verbs 
 which begin with a vowel or diphthong : e.g. ■^yyciXa, 
 I announced, from dyyeXA.cci' (Temporal Aug- 
 ment). 
 
 General Rule for the temporal augment : — 
 
 a becomes yj 
 
 ^ ,7 V 
 
 o ,, 0) 
 
 I becomes i 
 
 V „ V 
 
 ai, a, or et becomes jj 
 
 01 „ 0) 
 
 av or eu „ rjv 
 
 rj, (o, I, V, ov, and sometimes also et and ev, remain unchanged. 
 [Peculiarities will be mentioned hereafter, §§ 239-242.] 
 
 • A very few verbs have a true Perf. Subj. and Optat. Pass, or Mid. ; 
 e.g. fie/ivSi/iai, /ie/ii/^^tiv (from lie/ivriiiai, I remember). 
 
54 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 The Reduplication appears in all the moods of the Perfect, 
 Pluperfect and Future Perfect : — 
 
 (i. ) If the verb-stem begins with a single consonant (except p), 
 this consonant is repeated with t, and the syllable thus formed is 
 prefixed : e.g. \v-, Xc-Xvk- (Perf. Act. st.), A.€-Xu- (Perf. Pass, st.), 
 Ae-A-ver- (Future Perf. St.); rraiSev-, ire-TraiSeuK-, Trc-TraiSeu-, Tre-iraiSevcr-. 
 Compare the Latin Perfects cu-currl, mo-mordl, pe-pigl, etc., which, 
 however, differ in regard to the vowel of the reduplication. 
 
 (ii.) If the verb-stem begins with a mute and a liquid,* the 
 mute alone is repeated with c: e.g. ypa.^-, yc-ypac^-; itXek-, ire-TrXcK-. 
 
 In both cases an initial 6, tft, or y^ is changed to t, tt, or k : e.g. 
 PV-, Tc-pi)- ; <f>plK-, ire-cjiplK- ; x/""") i^^'XPV'' 
 
 All other Perfects (i.e. those formed from verb-stems begin- 
 ning with a vowel, or p, or two consonants other than a mute and 
 a liquid, or a double consonant) are formed with the augment 
 instead of the reduplication; e.g. dyyeX-, rjyyeX- (temporal 
 augment, § 190); ptTr-, k-ppar- ; ktiS-, «-kti8- ; crrtpe-, i-crreprj- ; ^ijre-, 
 i-t,rjTr]-; \j/€vS-, i-fevS- (syllabic augment, § 189). 
 
 [Peculiarities will be mentioned hereafter, §§ 243-245.] 
 
 In verbs compounded with one or more prepositions the 
 augment and reduplication are prefixed to the verbal part. Pre- 
 positions ending with a consonant which has been obscured before 
 the initial consonant of the Present recover their original form 
 before a vowel : prepositions ending with a vowel lose their final 
 vowel before another vowel : e.g. : — 
 
 Present. Past Imperfect. Perfect. 
 
 iK-Pd\\<D, throw out i^-e-^aXXov [Lat. ex] iK-fii-jiX-qKa 
 
 ifjL-PaXkb), throw in, put in iv-i-^aWov c/x-ySe'-ySXijKa 
 
 cn;/*-;8aXX<i), put together crvv-e-^aXXov tru/i-ySe'-ySXijKa 
 
 iraX-Xoy[ip)iai,COnclude logically a-vv-e-X.oyL^6jjLrjv crvX-Xe-Xoyicrfiai 
 
 (rv-(TTpaTev(i>, take the field to- (mv-€-(TTpd.Tevov crvv-i-irTpdTevKa 
 
 gether 
 <rw-eK-/3aXX<tf, throw out together o-w-£^-e-y3aXXov a-uv-fK-^e-^XrjKa 
 
 a.Tro-/3dXXtii, put away, lose dir-e-^aXXov dTTO-fie-PXriKa 
 
 d-Tro-ppLTTTui, throw away &7r-i-ppnrTOV a'lr-i-pplt^a 
 
 Sta-^aXX(i), put across Si-i-PaXXov Sia-P^-pXriKa 
 
 cTTt-ySaXXo), put upon eTT-i-jSaXXov c7ri-^e-ySXijKa 
 
 Trapa-ySaXXo), pM< beside 7rap-e-/3aXXov Trapa-pi-pX-qKa 
 
 * i.e. a mute followed by a liquid. The mutes are y, n, x (Gutturals), 
 P, TT, <i> (Labials), 8, t, 6 (Dentals). The liquids are X, /n, ^, p. 
 
FORMATION OF TENSES AND MOODS. 
 
 55 
 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 Exception. — -wepi and Trpd retain their final vowel : — 
 
 e.g. irepi-pdWdi, throw around ; Trepi-i-^aXXov, 7repi-/3e-/3\ijKa. 
 irpo-pd\Xa>, throw forward ; Trpo-e-^aXXov (contracted irpov- 
 ^aXXov), Trpo-^e-^XrjKa. 
 
 [Other peculiarities will be mentioned hereafter, §§ 246, 247.] 
 
 Verbs of which the first part is not a preposition are aug- 
 mented and reduplicated at the beginning ; — 
 
 e.g. a-Ov/jM, despond [from u not, and stem of Ov/jio^, spirit, 
 courage^ ; rj-Oviww, -^Ov/ja/jKa. 
 
 Sva--TvxS>, am unfortunate [from Sus un-, and stem of tvxVi 
 
 fortune] ; e-8uo--nJXOw, St-Svcr-rup^TyKa. 
 oiKo-Sofjuo, iuild a house ; <oko-S6iji.ovv, (OKo-Bo/xrjKa. 
 
 Examples fob Conjugation of Vowsii Stems XTncontbacted. 
 
 Simple verbs : — 
 
 Ka\ia, prevent \ 
 
 finvia, indicate j- throughout. 
 
 ISpiai, settle, set) 
 
 fiovKeiu, counsel. 
 ye6ofiat, taste, 
 eepaireia, serve, tend. 
 Bnpeia, hunt. 
 iKere^a, entreat. 
 Itvinioreia!, remind. 
 iraiSeia, educate. 
 Tvpavveiw, am, king. 
 ipoveia, slay, 
 
 ■Kaia, make to cease. 
 
 Verbs compounded with Preposi- 
 tions : — 
 
 airo-Kvo), loose away, release. 
 
 airo-Kai\va, prevent (from). 
 
 hro-\aioi, enjoy (Put. airoXaia- 
 ofiai, with Active meaning. 
 No Perf Pass, or Aor. Pass.). 
 
 Sm-Aio), loose asunder, dissolve. 
 
 4K-\ia>, loose out of, release. 
 
 iv-iSpia, settle in, set in. 
 
 ifi-^vTsia, plant in. 
 
 iiri-PovKeiai, plot against. 
 
 e(/)-'eSp6i5a!, lie in wait for. 
 
 Kara-\ia>, loose dovm, destroy. 
 
 wpo-fiovKfia, conceH measwres be- 
 forehand. 
 
 \mo-xiai, loose leneath. 
 
 iTT-oirreico, suspect. 
 
3« 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 f 
 
 l- 
 
 ■c 
 
 <u 
 
 •*-> 
 o 
 m 
 
 !- 
 ^-» 
 
 c 
 o 
 a 
 
 (0 
 
 E 
 
 (U 
 
 ? 
 o 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 b r 1 b 
 
 C5 
 
 I. m to 
 
 & S :^ & ~S ^ 
 h 3 o 3 o o o 
 
 ^ -« ~8 ~8 -« a ■« 
 
 -|<|s|rl 
 
 
 t/i 
 b f 1 b 
 
 
 3 =^ 1 
 
 1 M s fe e ? 
 
 'li'dli 
 
 
 Si ? 
 
 1 i" 1 b 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 s 
 ^ 
 
 ik. fn ^ *" :x o FT 
 ^ B B B"^-^^^ e 
 
 ^3'~3-"3-<3-<3-<3-<S.-S. 
 
 
 ll 3. 
 
 til i 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 K 3 &. p. 1 ^ i 1 1 
 
 w jy - A :^ 
 
 w< =S- ^ b £ £ 
 
 v V V 't, V h p e 
 
 
 3 
 1 i 1 ? 
 
 1 
 
 ^, , a - 1. f i H 
 
 g3*u*ou*owu< 
 
 'h 'h 'h 'S 'h 'h *P 'C 
 
 MHaBB-B-'BB-^B 
 
 |.§.«<|-<l ill 
 
 r>|^ 0(1; n\|^ Am fi^ n^^ n|^ n|^ 
 
 d ^ ? 
 
 ? «T b 
 
 ,3-S: V "r 
 
 i-l<MCOi-l(MC<3incO 
 
 BQ ci; q 
 
 r-i<MeOi-(<Mc<5oqm 
 ori a; c^ 
 
 H « tl "^ 
 
 ■iNasaaa 
 
 •loaaaajHi isva: 
 
57 
 
 W 
 fi 
 
 Q 
 
 > 
 
 l-H 
 
 CO 
 03 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 § 
 
 Oh 
 
 0? 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 S 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 «ii b 
 
 t- o 
 
 3-« 
 
 ^3 ■ 
 
 ,3-8 
 
 a b 
 
 , b 
 <3-i« 
 
 u, 3 S 3 
 
 Q2 % ^ ^ 
 
 b b b b 
 
 \u 3 
 
 b b 
 <a a 
 
 ,3-,3- 
 
 b b 
 IS-B 
 
 a. .a. 
 
 -3-2 b ^ S S fe^ 
 
 o g a. b ^ 
 
 <3-<3-"3-<3-<3-, 
 ,3.,4. 3. S. S. 
 
 b t- t- t- b 
 
 ,3. ,3. 
 
 eg. 
 
 3 B-- FT ^ P- 
 •H ■^ -« -B B ~8 -6 «1 
 
 b b 
 ■8N3 
 
 sl^s S = = 
 
 .5.3-.b.^1^ 
 
 :; ca 
 _ a.,3. 
 
 I- t- h e 
 
 I 
 
 5-^ t- ^ t> S b b 
 
 «3 <ti-ia ^3 <S c3 
 
 ,3- ,§-,3-, 3-, 3-, 3- 
 'e 'e 'e 'e leie 
 
 03 O 
 
 b b 
 ,=i.3. 
 
 S.sta.bSbb 
 8 -8 ^ 8 *^ ^i ^B B 
 
 fe. •ai >• o 
 
 S" o 2^ S 
 
 3. t- =2. b ^ 
 
 ^3 <3 <S ^3 ts <3 
 S. S. S. S. S.,S. 
 
 ? V ^ ^ ^ 
 
 f\\lf «||/ r>\^ «|^ n|4( 
 
 b b 
 IB IB 
 
 =«. a. 
 
 g Q ^i Q 
 
 ■iKasaaa 
 
 i-HtNCOi— IC<leO<M03 
 
 CQ 
 
 ftn 
 
 •iiOaaaadMi isva 
 
 fe b 
 
 S-i3- 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 Si 
 
 b r 
 
 ,3- fc 
 
 *3 
 
 o 
 
 a. 
 
 I 
 
 t- 
 
 b ^ S 
 
 i S § 
 b S cs- 
 
 
 C.I 
 
 b 
 ,1 
 
 a 
 
 b cj lu 
 §" b <i 
 
 b 
 1 
 
 b 'as 
 
 -i3-i J' 
 
 <n" eg 
 
 ^^l. 
 
 ^f.!- 
 
 .1 
 
 o 
 b 
 
 ST- 
 
 b 8 S b 
 
 5" b 'i ^, 
 
 ,3- p- !^ s- 
 
 fc,3-,3- ,3- 
 
 t- h t- ^ 
 
 8 
 
 ^? 
 
 b^ 
 
 -. -= 5" 
 
 I- S S" 
 
 S - S S. 8. ;k 
 
 1 i4 f ^? r 
 
 o 7- i b b '35 
 
 ^l-iS-'b ,3-,3-,3- 
 ,3- 1 *• fc V ^ 
 
 b 
 
 I 
 
 S o 
 
 M M 
 
 I i P^I; ^ ^ § 
 
 g S g e;§PM Hia; 
 
 b I£> ^ O . . . 
 
58 
 
 p4 
 > 
 
 4 
 
 £ 
 g 
 
 ■a 
 
 1 
 
 +■> 
 
 c 
 o 
 u 
 
 (0 
 
 E 
 Si 
 
 la 
 "35 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 ft 
 
 
 tilt 
 
 g e g 
 
 c3 
 
 ,ih ill 
 lllllll 
 
 
 if i 
 
 g N g 
 
 1 
 
 a !* a 
 
 I 3 1 U) h o 3 
 
 g 1 .~fc 1 fc-S t-fc 
 
 Lri I'illl 
 g g g g gi 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 go ??? ???? 
 
 SH U tM «, ^u^ vu^ vy^ vy^ y, 
 
 ft t/* § w ft ft S. 
 
 222292 S"S 
 
 g g g g g ggg 
 
 
 ,3. 
 g t= g 
 
 i 
 
 .g vi vi vij, nJ, ^i vi si vi 
 
 g g g g g g gg 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 »< 3 2 I S- fc § fc fc 
 
 ^ -i, ^i >.i N** ''i •'i -^ ^ii 
 |;t:t:t:t=Ngg 
 
 u 1 S . l-fc l^^fc 
 ^2-SvS 2 S>2 s^ 
 
 OOOOOOoo 
 
 r-ilf <«\y «ly i«ty xjy b^ •^ "gy 
 
 g g -i -i 
 
 SQ cC ci 
 
 i-ioqe<3i-i<Mco<M03 
 
 c?j a; cs 
 
 
 •iKHsaa^ 
 
 •loaaaadwi isva 
 
59 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 B^ 
 ^ 
 
 ,b. 
 
 N.8 
 o o 
 
 g-g 
 
 b b 
 o S 
 
 § b ■as 
 
 N ^ s 
 woo 
 b b ji 
 
 b 
 I 
 ST 
 
 o o 
 
 O W 
 
 fa I' 
 
 § b<i 
 
 S o o 
 fa fa fa 
 
 6 
 
 SI- 
 
 ft 
 
 O 
 I— I 
 
 ft 
 
 l2i 
 
 ''J 
 
 w 
 
 I— I 
 CO 
 02 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Ph 
 
 I 
 
 Oh 
 O 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 I 
 
 
 b b 
 
 S 3 
 
 b b 
 
 ~ 3 » * 
 
 b b ■£ 
 
 ill \u (.■:• 
 
 b b E E 
 
 J 
 
 % w o o S^ 
 t- ^a. b S b b 
 
 S(i^ jy V(j^ Sy^ V)j; 
 
 2 S 2 2 2 S S S 
 poooooSS 
 
 t. a. b 
 
 BfJ ^lU ^11; ■ 
 
 b b 
 
 'UJ *V4y ^ly N(y^ 
 
 3 o "3i >" s i & 
 
 S. e S. b S ? ^ 
 0000005S 
 
 f a - A A 
 
 ^S^Jj -.^ m aoo 
 ^ S.^^ b- S. b abb 
 
 2 ? S 2 S 2 1 3 
 
 OOOOOOoo 
 
 r-H(MeOi-i(MeoiMm 
 
 OQ 
 
 d 
 
 •iiNasaaa: 
 
 !j a. a 
 S ~? ? 
 
 L b a b b 
 I lu o tv ^w 
 I ^ii; ^lii ^m uj 
 
 O O 
 
 2 2 2 s "s 
 
 OOOOOOoS 
 
 bbl=l=b^b^ 
 
 rk^ n^ n^ n\|^ A^ t^^ "U/ ^^^ 
 
 OQ a^ c5 
 
 •loajaadMi isva: 
 
 b '3S 
 O o 
 
 (5 b 
 
 »5" 
 
 
 b b 
 
 Nr 
 
 S b-i 
 
 woo 
 b b b 
 
 o 
 s- 
 
 ••3 
 
 3 <3 
 b <i 
 
 o o 
 b b 
 
 ^ 3 S' 
 
 -|- £ £ g o o 
 o £ N 5 ^ ^ 
 
 I- 
 
 g- 
 o 
 b 
 
 ■ r' P3 b- > H3 
 
 faPHPHp^<i-<!fe<! 
 
6o 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 Oh 
 O 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 t- b b 
 
 MH ■»0 *« •*© 
 
 h ^ f »* w 
 
 'l-'^'S-^ 'g ^s 'S 
 
 ;<'< 
 
 3 a. ^ 
 
 lu h o 3 
 
 3 =^ 
 S ^ II 
 
 £0 CO <o CO 
 
 s^ w S w ^ '^ ^ 
 
 3 3 3 3 5 5=^ 
 
 C- ?:- !^ S- S^ P- B- B- 
 C0(^&0<>0eoc%(oco 
 
 g 3 S-. R-. 3 S-3&B- 
 
 <3 'S 'o c3 (3 c3 ,| ,| 
 
 I ? , 
 
 S3 -. a. fc. a h fc. 
 
 N3 ■»0 ■*« ■^ ^« -^ 
 
 ,, ,g CO ,i-,| <i 
 
 <3 o o o o o 
 
 ^ ^ .< ^ ^ ^ 
 
 S- S- p- p- fr il- 
 co CO 60 CO CO (SO 
 
 < < 
 
 B- S- 
 Co CO 
 
 1— l(MCOi— l<MC<3<MeO 
 
 6rj 
 
 •iNasaad 
 
 a. t- ^ b- i- 
 
 m o ui Q ID ^m 
 o *« ^ o ^ o 
 
 ^ » _ S. (. ;k 
 p ;> P cp cp p 
 o o o o o o 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 co CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 i>^ •'y^ >i)j^ n^ H^ (1^ 
 
 CO Co 
 
 
 •LEoad:aaawi isv<i 
 
 -3 'g, 
 
 '^ CO 
 CO CO 
 
 b 
 c3 
 
 cT 
 
 3 « I •" 
 
 b J b 
 
 -3 'S. ' -3 
 
 ^cS^ 'I 
 
 cS CO 
 
 .s 
 
 eg- 
 
 M 
 
 b 
 
 4 
 
 ^- 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 <N 
 
 cq 
 
 
 
 3-i- 
 
 3- 
 
 O ^ 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 i 
 
 P" w 
 
 P- 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 b 
 
 ^3 
 
 P- 
 ci ^ ci 
 
 b J 'S- 3 
 '<.coeocS 
 
 CC CO "U *ltf 
 
 1 
 
 » Ex fe 
 
 s t^ q 
 Ph Ph <1 
 
6i 
 
 201 
 
 p 
 
 <1 
 
 W 
 O 
 
 
 (45 
 
 
 
 
 b ? 
 
 S- K- 
 
 14 
 
 CO J 
 
 3 
 b 
 
 go CO 
 
 vu 3 ^ ^ 
 
 b ^b 
 
 o o 
 
 b b 
 
 J-,1-.^^ 
 
 a o o o o o ' Q 
 I "^ "-0 O '^ ^o *^ o 
 
 o o o o o ' 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 ?:■ S:^ S- f^ ?r s- 
 eo CO CO CO &o go 
 
 pr is- 
 CO to 
 
 3- I- a- b a 
 
 g a a B- -a s- 3 
 
 MH ^ "^ ^ O ^ ^ 
 I ■ I I I I 
 
 s 
 
 t3 o <3 "3 (3 <3 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ 
 p- ?:- ?:- S- p- SI- 
 
 CO CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 b b 
 
 o o 
 
 b b 
 <3 <3 
 
 < < 
 <o <o 
 
 •d^O uQD lit tiOO 
 
 I 3.^^b a.b Sbb 
 
 I O Bl- tti ^O Vi O IK Uj 
 
 i^^*o o*«^*«^ 
 
 s 
 
 s. e ^s. b s ' 
 
 eg tj IP ^g tp cs I 
 
 O O O O o o ' 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ 
 
 S- K- p- S=- p- C- 
 CO CO Co CO coco 
 
 < < 
 p- B- 
 
 <o to 
 
 I— i<Mccii— itNtooqm 
 
 •iNasaaa: 
 
 B* o lu <Xi h ^ ^ 
 
 a.a b a.b Sbb 
 
 o^o^o o^o^oNao 
 
 
 s cs cs ~r - 
 
 „ ,^ ,^ B cs cs b b 
 o o o O O Q '5 "g 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ -< 
 
 p- s- P- P- P- P- 
 
 CO CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 < < 
 
 Co CO 
 
 i-HC<icOi-HCMcocqcQ 
 
 ■lOtffaaaaMi isva 
 
 
 V b § 
 b Sep- 
 
 "? bi 
 .-3 3 
 
 -ci'p-'p- 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 p- 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 
 P- 
 
 §1 
 
 JcT 
 
 w o 
 
 b"S"S 
 
 J b'=E> 
 
 p- 3 3 
 
 CO 'S. ^ 
 
 ui P- p- 
 &0 OO CO 
 
 6 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 '< 
 
 P- 
 
 -P- 
 
 ? f 
 b qi 
 3 "3 
 ^ -< 
 -■s- p- 
 
 CO CO 
 
 -?3. 
 
 p-'S 
 
 CO CO 
 
 b « w 
 '§.3 3 
 
 flO CQ 60 
 
 J 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 
 cT 
 
 fS 
 
 f I 
 
 3 
 P-. 
 
 3 c3 
 
 b «i 
 ^3 3 
 '< ■< 
 
 s- P- 
 
 CO CO 
 
 f-3 
 3-^ 
 
 ^ 1^ 
 
 ° a p- 
 
 b b «Ci 
 
 3 3^3 
 
 '^CO £^ CO CO &0 
 gQ g-o «uj CO "U; "vu 
 
 3 
 §■ 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 
 cT 
 
 « g p, Ph P P O 
 tDBl^:lD..p. 
 
62 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Formation of Tenses op Vowel Stems Conteactbd. 
 
 Verbs in -ato, -ew, -dco contract the stem vowels a, i, o in all 
 forms of the Present and Past Imperfect tenses. 
 
 ^^ The uncontracted forms (printed below in small type) 
 have been entirely superseded in Attic by the contracted forms. 
 
 1. Steins in a : e.g. rifii-u, Tt/xw, honour. 
 
 KuLE. — a contracts with an e-sound (e, -q, ei, jy) to a, 
 a contracts with an o-sound (o, o), ov, oi) to u, 
 an t in the e- or o-sound becoming subscript (o, u) : — 
 
 e.ij. irifia-f, irifJid ; rlfid-eis {-Jis), Ti/tas ', Tl/ad-oiev, TlfJi(Stv. 
 
 2. stems in € : e.g. mU-a, ttoiw, do, make. 
 Rule. — c contracts with « to ei, 
 
 e contracts with o to ou, 
 
 c disappears before a long vowel or diphthong : — 
 
 e.g. iwoie-e, liTOiu ; iTTotf-ov, eTToiovv ; iroie-rjs, Troths. 
 
 3. stems in o : e.g. STi\6-m, Sr]XS>, make dear. 
 Rule. — o contracts with e or o or ov to ou, 
 
 o contracts with i; or u to m, 
 
 o contracts with an t-diphthong (et, oi, rf) to oi : — 
 e.g. iS-li\o-e, cSt^Xov ; Sri\6-riT(, Sr/kSiTe ; SrjAii-pj, Brj\o1'S. 
 
 The contracted 3rd Pers. Sing, never takes movable v. 
 
 In all contracted verbs (stems in a, «, o) the ending of the 
 Present Infinitive is -eev (not -eiv), and that of the Present Optative 
 Active is generally -oirjv, -oitjs, -olyj in the Singular Number * : — 
 
 e.g. rl/jid-eey, Tl/xav 
 iroU-eej/, TTOUIV 
 STi\6-eev, Sr)\ovv ^ 
 
 The stem vowels a, e, o are lengthened (without contraction) 
 in all tenses except the Present and Past Imperfect : — 
 a becomes r] (or d after e, i, p), 
 e becomes 97, 
 o becomes <o : 
 
 Aor. Act. Perf. Act. Perf. Pass. Aor. Pass. 
 i-TTfi.ri(r-a Ttrr/Aj^K-a reriixy)-p.ai, l-Tifjfqd-Tijv 
 i-6ea.a-diJ.rjv — rtBia-fjiai — 
 
 ida--dfiirjv — — laO-riv 
 
 €-opda-a SiSpaK-a 8eSpa-/Aai (^i-SpaO-rjv) 
 e-TTOtjyo'-a ir€TroirjK-a ireiroirj-fuii i-TroLr/O-rp/ 
 i-or]X(i)cr-a SeS^A.(OK-a SeSi^X.u>-p.ai i-8rjXil}6-rjv 
 [Peculiarities, §§ 231-234.] 
 • Sometimes -01/ti, -ou, -01 (contracted). In the Plural and Dual -otri- 
 liey, -olriTe, -oir\Tov, -oi^'tt)!' are less common than -oi/iey, -oire, oitov, -oirriv. 
 
 f -OLTj^, -OLTi 111 txitJ oinguiax I'N uuiuer • 
 
 }Tllia-oinv, Tijxmqv ) 
 Infin. iroi€-o£77J, TToioiYjs >- Opt. 
 
 5r)\o-o(i), SrjXoir) ) 
 
 Verb-stem. 
 
 Put. Act. 
 
 6ea-, see : 
 la-, heal : 
 Spa-, do : 
 
 np-rja-iii 
 6e.a.a--oiJ.aL 
 ld.a-Ofi.ai 
 Spda-(o 
 
 iroie- : 
 St]Xo- : 
 
 irovqa-io 
 SrjXwa'-o) 
 
VOWEL STEMS CONTRACTED. 
 
 63 
 
 ■Examples foe Conjugation op Stems in a, t, 0. 
 
 Stems in a (chiefly from stems in a of Nouns of 1st Deol.) : — 
 (vlxdu) vlKa, conquer : from stem of viieq, victory. 
 {bpfiAa) SpfiSi, set in motion (transitive), or make a start, hasten (in- 
 transitive, like dpfia/iat) : from stem of Sp/ji.'li, start, impulse. 
 {rfXevrdai) -reXevra, end : from stem of reAcuT^, ertd. 
 (ToKfiia) ToA/itS, dare : from stem of T6\iia, daring. 
 (alri(ioiJ.ai.) airiu/icu, accuse : from stem of airld, accusation, cause. 
 (fleaojuai) fleSjuai, gaze at ; from stem of flea, spectacle, 
 {weipdoiiat) TreipS/iai, attempt : from stem of TreTpa, trial. 
 
 2. Stems in e (chiefly from stems in of 2nd Deol.) : — 
 
 (oSiKEw) aSiKoD, u>rong : from stem of dSiKos, unjust [Sliai, justice). 
 
 (PoTiBea) PoTiBS, succour : from stem of $ori96s, aider. 
 
 (/ctyeoi) Ktva, move. 
 
 {mea) ma, perceive, think : from stem of v6os, vovs, mind. 
 
 (oiVe'w) oMa, inhabit, dwell: from stem of oTkos (poet, for oIkIo), 
 house. 
 
 (oiKoBojue'oj) oiKoSo/iS, build a house : from stem of olKoS6iios, archi- 
 tect [S611.0S, building, Lat. domus]. 
 
 {ipLoKoyia) iiioKoya, agree, confess \ from stem of 6ij.6\oyos, agreeing 
 [61x65, same, and \6yos, word, thought]. 
 
 (■n-oA.6/ttf'ii)) 5roA.efi», wage war : from stem of WAe/ios, war. 
 
 {<pi\€ti) <pi\u, love : from stem of <pl\os, friend, 
 
 3. Stems in o (chiefly from stems in of 2nd Decl.) : — 
 
 (4Ji<(ai) d|iiS, think worthy, esteem : from stem of S|ios, worth, worthy. 
 (Br)A.i{«) Sri\a, make clear : from stem of SriKos, clear. 
 (4\€veep6a) iKevdepSi, set free: from stem of i\eiespos, free. 
 (Cv/ii^u) fw". <^'"«8 loss, fine: from stem of fij/i(o (1st Decl.), loss. 
 
 (Cvi6ai) C"7S, pwt under the yoke : fr. st. of fi;7<{v, yoke (Lat. jugwm). 
 {nurB6a>) iu<r0u, let out for hire : from stem of fiicre6s, wages. 
 (iroXe^doi) woKe/iw, make an enemy of: from stem of TriiAe^oi, war. 
 \<rT(^av6(e) o-recf avM, crown : from stem of <rri<pavos, crown, ga/rland. 
 
 ^" Contracted Verbs are the most numerous of all classes of Verbs 
 in Greek, corresponding to Latin Verbs of the 1st and 2nd Conjugation, 
 e.g. laudo (for laudao), moneo, etc. Latin has no Verbs in -00 (unless in the 
 Perf. Part, aegrot'i 
 
64 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Verbs in u : Class IL, a (§ 180). 
 
 206 
 
 1. Guttural stems : ttXck-, TrkaK-, plait, weave* 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 INF. 
 
 irXiK-m 
 
 -0) 
 
 -OlfU 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -ttiV 
 
 -eiv 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 i-irk^K-ov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 TrXc'f-o) 
 
 
 -01/X.l 
 
 
 -(DV 
 
 -£tV 
 
 S" 
 
 S. 1 
 
 TTeTrXep^-a 
 
 -Hi 
 
 -Ol/tl 
 
 — 
 
 ^?!f 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 Tr£7rXEp(-as 
 
 -r?5 
 
 -ots 
 
 -£ 
 
 H^" 
 
 s 
 
 § 
 
 3 
 
 ir«rXe;^-£(v) 
 
 -2? 
 
 -01 
 
 -£Ta) 
 
 <| ? 
 
 ^6 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 ir£7rXr!^-a/tEV 
 
 -a)/i£v 
 
 -Ol/iCV 
 
 — 
 
 '' £ e 
 
 h^ 
 
 
 2 
 
 ;rc7rX^-aT£ 
 
 -rjTe 
 
 -01T€ 
 
 -£T£ 
 
 ^3 ^fe vfe 
 
 1 
 
 § 
 
 3 
 
 ir£irX€;;^-d(rt(v) 
 
 -iD(Ti.{y) 
 
 -Ol£V 
 
 -OVTWV 
 
 S^d ' 
 
 p^ 
 
 Z). 2 
 
 TreffAex-ttToi' 
 
 -tjrov 
 
 -OITOV 
 
 -£TOV 
 
 No 
 
 
 PM 
 
 3 
 
 TTCirAex-BTOl' 
 
 -7JT0V 
 
 -oiTTjV 
 
 -eTfljj/ 
 
 
 rh* 
 
 S. 1 
 
 «-7re7rXr:^-i7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 £- £7rXe;;^-)j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 3 
 
 £-7r£7rX£;^-£i(v) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 F. 1 
 
 £-7r£irXr!^-£/*£V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 £-7r£irX£;^-£T£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 3 
 
 e-7r£irX£i^-£<rav 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hq 
 
 Z>. 2 
 
 i-Triv\4x-^'^ov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi( 
 
 3 
 
 i-Trev\€X-errii/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 AOBIST 
 
 e-Tr\f$-a 
 
 TrXff-O) 
 
 -ai/jii 
 
 2. -01/ 
 
 -as 
 
 -at 
 
 (Weak). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * In this and the following tables (pp. 64-69), showing the formation 
 of the tenses and moods of Mute stems, the forms to be specially noticed 
 are: — 
 
 (i.) The Strong Perfect and Pluperfect Active (c/. § 185 ii.). 
 
 (ii.) The Perfect and Pluperfect Passive, in which the final mute of 
 the stem suffers various changes (Rules, § 213). 
 
 (ui.) The Strong Aorists (Active, Passive and Middle) : wKeKta has the 
 Str. (as well as the Weak) Aor. Pass., Kelwa and veiea have the 
 Str. Aor, Act. and Mid. (the latter also a Weak Aor. Act.}. 
 
MUTE STEMS. 
 
 65 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUB J. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 INF. 
 
 TrXcK-O/Attl 
 
 -tUfUXl 
 
 -OL/JLrjV 
 
 2. -ou 
 
 -0/i£l'OS 
 
 -€0-6(U 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 £-7r\eK-o/iijv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 ■trXi^-oiJXLi 
 
 
 -oi.iJ.rjv 
 
 
 -oyiievos 
 
 -ecrOai 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 7re7r\£-y-/iai 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ». 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ireTrXe^at 
 
 »!» 
 
 •r 
 
 ■rrerrXi^o 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 3 
 
 TTCTrXe/c-Tai 
 
 fS 
 
 -t? 
 
 7r£7rXe)^-6<o 
 
 P- 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 TmrXiy-fieOa 
 
 c5 
 
 
 — 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■treTrXex-Oe 
 
 ^S 01 
 
 7r£7rX£i^-6£ 
 
 
 3 
 
 ■rrerrXe.y-fi.ivoi 
 
 1 
 
 
 7r£?rX£;^-^(Di/ 
 
 
 
 
 D. 2 
 
 TreirXex-^oj/ 
 
 
 g 
 
 Tre7r\€X-^ov 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ir4ir\ex-0oy 
 
 
 ireirXex-St^y 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 i-TreTrXey-/ji.7]v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B^ 
 
 2 
 
 i-rriirXi^o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-TreirXcK-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 P. 1 
 
 i--rr€7rXiy- ij.e6a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-TreTrXex^Oe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f3 
 
 3 
 
 TTerrXey-jJ-ivoi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 rjcrav 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7). 2 
 3 
 
 4-ir4irXex-Sov 
 i-Tr€7r\€X-6riv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FuT. Perf. 
 
 TreTrXi^-ofiou 
 
 
 -oifi-qv 
 
 
 -0//,£VOS 
 
 -e<Tdai 
 
 Ao.M.(Wk.) 
 
 i-TrXei-dfjLrjV 
 
 irXii-wfuai 
 
 -aljjurjv 
 
 2. -at 
 
 -ajuEVOS 
 
 -axrOaJ. 
 
 Ao. P. (Wk.) 
 
 i-TrXex6-rjv 
 
 TrXex^-S) 
 
 -ctijv 
 
 2. -)7n 
 
 -£tS 
 
 -rjvai 
 
 
 >S. 1 
 
 e-rrXa,K-r}v 
 
 TrXaK-<a 
 
 -ivqv 
 
 — 
 
 -fe" s^ 
 
 
 02 
 
 J/J . 
 
 2 
 
 i-'rrXa.K-rjs 
 
 irXaK-ijs 
 
 -etijs 
 
 -»;ei 
 
 '"^S 
 
 ^ 
 
 E-lO 
 
 3 
 P. 1 
 
 i-rrXaK-rj 
 i-rrXaK-rj/jLev 
 
 -rrXaK-yj 
 irXaK-S/XEv 
 
 -£(/t£V 
 
 -lyTft) 
 
 I- p 
 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 i-TrXaK-rfre 
 i-irXaK-Tjcrav 
 
 TrXaK-rjre 
 irXaK-Gcrt(v) 
 
 -eiTE 
 
 -eiev 
 
 -tyre 
 -evTov 
 
 
 i 
 
 D. 2 
 
 l-Tr\i.K-ii]rov 
 
 •jrXaK-TJTov 
 
 -etTOj' 
 
 -riTov 
 
 4 § 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-rr\aK-i)TW 
 
 Tr\ttK-fJTOV 
 
 -efTj);/ 
 
 -^Tuy 
 
 to 
 
 
 FuT. OF A. p. 
 
 ■rrXcX&ricr-oiJMX 
 
 
 -Oift.'qv 
 
 
 -O/tEVOS 
 
 -arOax 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 ^ 
 
 2. Labial stems : Xeiir- 
 
 , XolTT- 
 
 XXtT; 
 
 leave. 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 Pbesent. 
 
 INDIU. 
 
 SUB J. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 INF. 
 
 KeiTT-O] 
 
 -0) 
 
 -01/i.t 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -u>v 
 
 -£tV 
 
 Past Impp. 
 
 e-Xem-ov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 Xtll/f-O) 
 
 
 -Ol/.'<, 
 
 
 -U)V 
 
 -av 
 
 
 & 1 
 
 XeAoiTT-a 
 
 -co 
 
 -OLIJ.L 
 
 
 
 - „- 
 
 
 2 
 
 \i\of7r-as 
 
 -J)S 
 
 -OlS 
 
 -£ 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 \iX.oi,Tr-i(v) 
 
 -27 
 
 -01 
 
 -€Ta) 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 XeXotV-o/j.ei' 
 
 -COytlCV 
 
 -oijxai 
 
 — 
 
 ■fU 
 
 b 
 
 
 2 
 
 A.cA.onr-aTe 
 
 -ijTe 
 
 -otTe 
 
 -£T£ 
 
 i 
 ^ 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 XeXot7r-d<rt(v) 
 
 -<i)o-t(v) 
 
 -Ot€V 
 
 -OVTCOV 
 
 o a 
 
 
 JD. 2 
 3 
 
 KeKoiTT-aTov 
 
 -7JT0I' 
 
 -OITOV 
 
 -OLT'qv 
 
 -€TOV 
 
 •4tuv 
 
 
 
 ,-i. 
 
 & 1 
 
 e-XcXoiTT-ij 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E-i 
 
 2 
 
 i-XtXonr-T/s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 e-XeXonr-£i(j') 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 €-XeXot7r-£/iei/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 e-XeXoiTT-eTC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-XtXotW-£o-ai' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [3 
 PM 
 
 XI. 2 
 
 ^-\e\o^Tr-€Toi/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-\e\onr-erriv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 S. 1 
 
 C-XtTT-OV 
 
 Xi'tt-o) 
 
 -Olfll 
 
 
 
 
 
 S5 
 
 2 
 
 t-Xi7r-€S 
 
 Xnr-ijs 
 
 -ois 
 
 -£ 
 
 
 § 
 
 3 
 
 e-Xtir-£(v) 
 
 XiV-j; 
 
 -ot 
 
 -£Ta) 
 
 d o 
 
 <5 
 
 EH 
 03 
 
 P. 1 
 
 €-Xt7r-o/X£V 
 
 XnT-aj/iti/ 
 
 -Ol.jJ.€V 
 
 — 
 
 '§ s"g 
 
 
 1— ( 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 £-Xtir-tTe 
 
 e-XtTT-Ol/ 
 
 Xiir-7)T« 
 Xt7r-a)crt(v) 
 
 -otre 
 -oicv 
 
 -£T£ 
 
 -OVTOIV 
 
 ^3 ' 
 
 Pd 
 
 Zl. 2 
 
 e-\^ir-eToy 
 
 XiiT-Tirov 
 
 -OtTOI/ 
 
 -GTOV 
 
 
 
 <i 1 3 
 
 e-AtTT-eTTji' 
 
 \ix-T]TOV 
 
 ■oIttiv 
 
 -eruv 
 
 
MUTE STEMS. 
 
 67 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 INF. 
 
 XiLir-OfjLai 
 
 -oifiai. 
 
 -oifjurjv 
 
 2. -ov 
 
 -o/xevoi 
 
 -icrBax 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 i-Xenr-Ojxriv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 \£i{j/-0[tai, 
 
 
 -OlIM/jV 
 
 
 -0/A6V0S 
 
 -tadai 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 XeActjii-ynai 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Xikeuj/ai 
 
 ►sa 
 
 ^ . 
 
 XiXuij/o 
 
 
 
 
 E^ 
 
 3 
 
 XeA.ei'TT-Tai 
 
 -3" 
 
 '==^ 
 
 XeXu(f>-6(i> 
 
 s=- 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 XeXetfi-fxeOa 
 
 |o 
 
 1»f 
 
 — • 
 
 bi 
 
 
 P4 
 
 2 
 
 XiXeufi-de 
 
 t4 
 
 XiXeLCJi-Be 
 
 s. 
 
 3 
 
 A.£A.etju.-/A£'vot 
 £icri'(v) 
 
 3-^ 
 ^4 
 
 XiXu<j)-6ij>v 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 
 D. 2 
 
 Ke\eul>-6ov 
 
 % 
 
 '< 
 
 \4Kcup-Qov 
 
 '< 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 \4\ei^-6ov 
 
 
 
 Ke\ei<p-dav 
 
 
 
 
 ;S. 1 
 
 i-XeXeliJi,-firiv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 2 
 
 i-XlXeul/o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-XiXeLTT-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 e-XeXei/A-yne^a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 2 
 
 e-XeXet^-Se 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 3 
 
 XeX€i/i-/<.ei'ot 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 ^crav 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 B. 2 
 3 
 
 4-\i\ei<l>-eov 
 i-\f\el<l>-eriv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FuT. Perf. 
 
 XeXeti/f-o/i,ai 
 
 
 -OLfJLrjV 
 
 
 -ojj.ei'O's 
 
 -icrOoL 
 
 S 
 
 5. 1 
 
 l-XnT-ofi/qv 
 
 XxTT-iaimi 
 
 -Ol/AIJV 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 i-XlTT-OV 
 
 k-XiTT-ero 
 
 XtTT-TJ 
 
 Xiir-rp-ai 
 
 -oto 
 
 -OtTO 
 
 -ov 
 
 # 
 
 i 
 
 So 
 
 P. 1 
 
 i-Xnr-6iJ.e6a 
 
 XtJT-cojue^a 
 
 -oifJ.eda. 
 
 — 
 
 § 
 
 vfe 
 
 B^Q 
 
 2 
 
 i-XiTT-io-Oe 
 
 XiTT-YjcrBe 
 
 -oicrOe 
 
 -eo-^e 
 
 S. 
 
 N 
 
 c(j6h 
 
 3 
 
 k-Xhr-ovTO 
 
 XtV-wi'Tai 
 
 -OIVTO 
 
 -ia-dunv 
 
 i 
 
 '< 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 i). 2 
 
 i-?uTr-e(T9ov 
 
 \i'ir-7](rdov 
 
 -oiaiov 
 
 -taBov 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-\nr-ea-6rit' 
 
 KiiT-T\aSov 
 
 -oiff07]V 
 
 -iffQav 
 
 
 
 Ao. P. (Wk.) 
 
 l-Xu<l>6-iriv 
 
 XeLipd-S) 
 
 -iirjv 
 
 2. -17T1 
 
 -£tS 
 
 -^vai 
 
 FoT. OP A. P. 
 
 XeL(j>0T^a--oiJUU 
 
 
 -oifi-qv 
 
 
 -0/A£VOS 
 
 -ecr^at 
 
 
 
68 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 3. Dental stems : « 
 
 0-, TTOiO-, TTlO-, 
 
 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 
 
 (Transitive = 
 
 = urge, persuade, except in 
 
 Strong Perf. and Pluperf.). 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUB J. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 /iV^i?-. 
 
 TTitO-Ut 
 
 -<i) 
 
 -OlfJLL 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -<J)V 
 
 -ElV 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 
 t-Tru6-ov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 
 7ret(r-(i) 
 
 
 -OL/Xl 
 
 
 -uiv 
 
 -£IV 
 
 Perf. (Weak). 
 
 7reir£tK-a 
 
 -0) 
 
 -OL/Xt 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -CDS 
 
 -evai 
 
 
 ;S. 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 Tri-TTOiQ-a * 
 TTtirot^-as 
 
 
 -OlS 
 
 -£ 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 
 3 
 
 •n-e'irot6-e(v) 
 
 -B 
 
 -01 
 
 -€T(a 
 
 ^b 
 
 H 
 
 2. 
 
 P. 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 ■n-£7roi^-a/X€v 
 ireiroi^-aTe 
 
 -<l)/A£V 
 
 -r;T£ 
 
 -oi/xev 
 
 -01T£ 
 
 -£T£ 
 
 - 2 £ 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 ■mTroL6-aa-i{v) 
 
 -a)(n(v) 
 
 -Ol£V 
 
 -OVTiiiV 
 
 s ^ 
 
 N 
 
 
 2). 
 
 2 
 
 TreTTold-aToi/ 
 
 -r;Tov 
 
 -OITOV 
 
 -erov 
 
 SO 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 8 
 
 imroiQ-aTOV 
 
 -7JT0J' 
 
 -oiTljV 
 
 -€TUV 
 
 t= 
 
 
 5" 
 
 S. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 i-TreTroiO-ri * 
 
 t-TrCTTOt'^-T/S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &H 
 
 
 3 
 
 e-Tre7rot5-€t(v) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 1 
 
 £-7r£7roi6-£/iev 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 £-7r£7rOl5-£T£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PM 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-ircTroiO-eo'av 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 i-TreTToiB-eTov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 3 
 
 4-ireiroi6-er'r]j/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ao. (Weak). 
 
 £-7r£i(r-a 
 
 7r£tO-(0 
 
 -ai/iu 
 
 2. -ov 
 
 -ds 
 
 -ai 
 
 5" 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 I-ttlO-ov i" 
 
 TrW-ii) 
 
 -OL/JU 
 
 — 
 
 ^? f 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 £-7n,6l-£S 
 
 ■7ri6-fj<s 
 
 -OlS 
 
 -£ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 £-771^- £ 
 
 ttW-yj 
 
 -01 
 
 -£Ta) 
 
 g° . 
 
 ,fe 
 
 2, 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 €-m9-ofji,ev 
 
 i-TrW-€T€ 
 
 TTLd-ta/jiev 
 
 -oifx.ev 
 -one 
 
 -£T£ 
 
 
 i 
 
 CO 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-inB-ov 
 
 md-ina-Liv) 
 
 -oiey 
 
 -OVTCOl/ 
 
 <3 . 
 
 
 P5 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 i-trid-eTO]/ 
 
 ■KiQ--r)Tov 
 
 -OLTOV 
 
 -CTO*' 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 hirid-eTTiv 
 
 •KlQ-'qTOV 
 
 -oirt]!/ 
 
 -eTwy 
 
 t=o 
 
 
 * Intransitive : ireVoiflo, / trust (Present meaning) ; iireirolBri, I trusted (Past 
 Import meaning). + Poetical ttroughout (transitive ^ersModed). 
 
MUTE STEMS. 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE 
 
 
 
 ( = am persuaded, pei 
 
 suade myself, obey). 
 
 
 
 Prbsbnt. 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUDJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 /iVP. 
 
 Tre[0-ojxaL 
 
 -ai//iat 
 
 -oijx-qv 
 
 2. -ov . 
 
 -d/i€vos 
 
 -ecr^ac 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 i-7ru6-6/j,rjv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FUTUBB. 
 
 ■mur-ofiat 
 
 
 -o'flTjV 
 
 
 -d/itvos 
 
 -60-^at 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 TrtTreicr-ynat 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 Sk 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 W£7r6t-o-at 
 
 »■!» 
 
 
 ■7reTreL-<T0 
 
 1 
 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 7re-n-e«r-Tat 
 
 f3 
 
 V ii 
 
 TTtTTftcr-^a) 
 
 fr- 
 
 
 , o 
 
 P. 1 
 
 2 
 
 7riirei<T-6e 
 
 °-2 
 
 
 ireVetcr-^e 
 
 "i 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 TreTTUcr- fj-svoL 
 
 i^P-' 
 
 fe Ji 
 
 7re7r€ta--6ft)i/ 
 
 b 
 
 fe 
 
 dH 
 
 
 eicri(v) 
 
 b 
 
 ^S 
 
 
 w 
 
 t: 
 
 
 Z). 2 
 
 7r6ir6i(r-0ov 
 
 g 
 
 iS 
 
 ■Kiireia-Bov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7re7rei(r-0oj/ 
 
 
 
 •JT^TTiiff-BtilV 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 k-ireTTiia- fJL-qv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 e-TreireL-a-o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 e-7r£7reicr-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 i-ireTrua--iJL€9a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-TrtTret.cr-6e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7re7r€tcr-/xcVot 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 Tjtrai/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PM 
 
 K. 2 
 3 
 
 e-ir4Tret(r-6ot/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FuT. Peep. 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 & 1 
 
 i-Tri6-6/j,rjV * 
 
 TrW-w/j^at 
 
 -oi/Jirjv 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-TTlB-OV 
 
 Tr!.d-ri 
 
 -010 
 
 -ou 
 
 o 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-TTiO-eio 
 
 TTi^-TJTat 
 
 -OITO 
 
 -io-Om 
 
 $r- 
 
 B 
 
 So 
 
 P. 1 
 
 i-7ri6-6fj.€6a 
 
 Tn0-<j>f),e6a 
 
 -OLfJLcOa 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 vS 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 i-wW-OVTO 
 
 irW-tavTai 
 
 -oiaBe 
 
 -OIVTO 
 
 -iddwv 
 
 
 O 
 
 D. 2 
 
 i-irie-ecrSov 
 
 Tv[Q-j](r6ov 
 
 -oicrdoi' 
 
 -^(tSov 
 
 1 
 
 
 <! 
 
 3 
 
 e-Trid-ea9rjV 
 
 TriB-riffQov 
 
 -oi<Tdr]v 
 
 -IffBtav 
 
 
 Ao. P. (Wic) 
 
 i-Treicr6-r]V 
 
 irua-6-ui 
 
 -eiijv 
 
 2. -,;ti 
 
 / 
 
 -eis 
 
 -Yjvai 
 
 FuT. OP A. P. 
 
 Tr€L<rO-qcr-ofJ,a.i 
 
 
 -OllJLTjV 
 
 
 -o/xci/os 
 
 -ecrOoLi 
 
 * Chiefly poetical throughout (though found in prose inscriptions). 
 
?o Greek Grammar. 
 
 Formation of Tenses of Mute Stems. 
 
 Verbs with mute stems differ from verbs with vowel stems in 
 the following respects : — 
 
 The same changes take place before cr as in nouns of 3rd decl. 
 (§ 30) : e.g. irXei-, for irXeK-o-- ; Xcti/^-, for Xcitt-ct- ; ireur-, for ireLd-ir-. 
 
 In the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive and Middle : — 
 
 (a) cr is dropped in the inflexions which begin with <t6 {-a-6e, 
 -crOiii, -a-Oai) : e.g. yeypa.<^-6ai, from ypa<f>-, write. 
 
 (h) A periphrasis, formed with the Perfect Participle and 
 d<Ti{v), they are, rjo-av, they toere, is used instead of the inflexions 
 of the 3rd Pers. Plur. (-vrai, -vto), which cannot be added to con- 
 sonant stems : e.g. Teray-fievoi dcriiy), iilstructi sunt. 
 
 (c) The mutes are assimilated (see Appendix I. on Sounds), or 
 changed, before inflexions beginning with /x, t, and ; — 
 
 The Gutturals k, ^ become y before /j, : e.g. ttX^k-, irirrXey-iwx, 
 The Gutturals y, x become k before t : e.g. ray-, TcraK-Tat. 
 The Gutturals y, k become x before 6 : e.g. ttXek-, ■rmrXex-BaL. 
 All the Labials become fx, before /a : e.g. Xcltt-, XeXufi-iJ-ai. 
 The Labials /3, ^ become tt before t : e.g. ypa<f>-, yiypair-Tai. 
 The Labials p, ir become 4> before 6 : e.g. Xcnr-, X(.Xu<j>-$ai. 
 All the Dentals are replaced by o- before p., t, or 6: 
 e.g. imB-, TriiTUtT- fiai, 7r€7r£i(r-Tat, 7r£7r«o-6at.* 
 
 Many mute stems form a Strong Perfect and Pluperfect 
 Active, some form a Strong Aorist Passive, a few form a 
 Strong Aorist Active and Middle. These strong tenses (some- 
 times called Second Perfects and Second Aorists) are formed 
 direct from the verb-stem, without any tense-suffix (§ 185, ii.); 
 the stem vowel frequently varies in the different tenses : — 
 Present. Str. Perf. Strong Aorist. Verb-stem. 
 
 •XiK-, irXaK-f 
 
 XeI-TT-, XoiTT-, XtTT-f 
 
 ■mid-, ttolB-, TnB-\ 
 
 e.g. ttXck-o) 7r67rXr)(-a e-7rXaK-i;v (Pass.) 
 XetTT-o) XEXotTT-a e-Xiir-ov (Act.) 
 7rei6-ci) TrinoiO-a i-Tn6~6fx,r^v (Mid.) 
 
 The Perfect and Pluperfect Active of all guttural and labial 
 stems are strong, stems in y, k, yS, ir being generally aspirated, 
 like TTtTrXcx-a; those of nearly all dental stems are weak, the 
 dental falling out before the tense-suffix k, like wtTruK-a from -mid-, 
 i(TK€vaK-a from crKevaS-. 
 
 * So before 9 in the Weak Aor. Pass. : i-ir\f x-9-riv, i-Xii^-e-Qv, i-irda-e-rjv. 
 t These aie parallel forms of the verb-stem, as in Engl, run, ran, etc. 
 
MUTE STEMS. 71 
 
 The endings of the strong tenses do not differ from those 
 of the corresponding weak tenses except in the following points : — 
 (i.) The ending of the 2nd Pers. Sing, of the Strong Aor. Pass. 
 is always -7j6i (not -rfn), even when the stem ends in 
 an aspirate, e.g. ypa.<l>--q6i,. 
 (ii.) The endings of the Strong Aor. Act. and Middle are those 
 of the Past Imperfect (Indicative) and Present (Sub- 
 junctive, Optative, Imperative, Participle and Infini- 
 tive) : e.g. i-Xur-ov, XtV-w, etc. (differing from e-A.ctir-9v, 
 XiiTT-w, etc., only in the stem). 
 Few mute stems appear imchanged in the Present tense : in 
 most cases the stem of the Present and Past Imperfect is 
 an extended form of the verb-stem. ^§^ The other tense-stems 
 are formed from the unextended verb-stem. 
 Two important kinds of extension are : — 
 (i.) The addition of t, chiefly to labial stems (y3 and <j) becoming 
 TT before t) : — 
 Present. Verb-stem. Future. Perfect. Aor. Pass. 
 
 KpvTTT-w, hide, Kpv<l>- Kpv\j/-<o KeKpv(j)-a i-Kpv(f>9-riv 
 
 pLTTT-O), hurl, P'0-j pi^- piip-u> eppl<f>-a i-ppX(l>-r]v 
 
 (ii.) The addition of the sound y : a guttural -H y generally be- 
 comes cro- (or in some Attic writers tt) ; a dental + y 
 generally becomes t, : — 
 Present. Verb-stem. Future. Perfect. Aor. Pass. 
 
 Tao-cr-o), arrange, ray- Ta.^-<o TiTa)(-a i-ra^O-T/jv 
 
 Tr\-^cr(r-Ai), strike, TrX-rjy-, TrXay- irXijf-o) TrorXijy-a e-irXijy-ijv 
 
 KTL^-U>, found, KTtS- KTL(r-ID IktLK-O, k-KTl,(T&-r]V 
 
 EXAMPLJES FOB GOTTJUGATION OF MuTE STEMS. 
 
 1^ In the following examples (i.) the Aorists are weak: (Ii.) the 
 Perfects Active are strong or weak according to the rule in § 215 : (iii.) tL« 
 stem vowel is the same in all tenses. 
 
 KpvvT-a, hide : verb-stem Kpv<p- (seen in Kpufa, secretly). 
 airT-o/iai, touch : verb-stem a4>- (seen in atp'li, touch). 
 
 [All verbs in -ttw come from labial stems.] 
 Tcitrtr-tu (ti^tt-oj), arrange : verb-stem T07- (seen long in ray6s, ruler). 
 <l>u\d(r(r-u {<l>v\(iTT-tii), watch : verb-stem ^vKax- (seen in <j)v\aicfi, guard) 
 rapiiaa-w (rapaTT-ai), disturb : verb-stem rapax- (in rapax^i confusion). 
 Kripi(rcr-u {tcripirT-a), proclaim : verb-stem KiipvK- (in Kvjpv^, herald). 
 
 [Many other verbs in -tro-ai (-ttm) come from guttural stems.] 
 (TKevdC-a, prepare : verb-stem trxevaS-. ktIC-ih, found : verb-etem ktiS-. 
 
 [Many other verbs in -(a come from dental stems.] 
 
72 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 Verbs in 
 
 <o: Class 11 
 
 ., i (§ 180). 
 
 
 
 Liquid stems : dyyeX 
 
 -, announce.* 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUB J. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 p^ijr. 
 
 INF. 
 
 dyyeXX-O) 
 
 -a) 
 
 -OljXl 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -(DV 
 
 -etv 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 ^yycAA-ov 
 
 dyyeA.-(i) 
 dyytX-eis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 2 
 
 
 -oirjv 
 -oirjs 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 @ 
 
 3 
 
 dyycX-ei 
 
 
 -oir) 
 
 
 <l <> S 
 
 <S 
 
 t) 
 
 P. 1 
 
 ayycX-oCynci/ 
 
 
 -oijuev 
 
 
 ° e ^ 
 
 -< 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 d-yycX-eiTe 
 
 
 -01T£ 
 
 
 '^■r? 
 
 fc 
 
 3 
 
 dyyeA-oiJ(rt(i') 
 
 
 -ottr 
 
 
 ■^ '■ 
 
 -r 
 
 
 Z>. 2 
 
 A'yyeX-eTTOi' 
 
 
 -OiToy 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ayYe^-etTO:/ 
 
 
 -otrriv 
 
 
 
 Perf. (Wk.) 
 
 TjyyeXK-a 
 
 -0) 
 
 -ot/it 
 
 2. -e 
 
 -(OS 
 
 -ei/at 
 
 Plupf. (Wk.) 
 
 rryyiXK-rj 
 rjyyak-a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 dyyetA.-ft) 
 
 -aiju,i 
 
 — 
 
 § .," 
 
 
 t4 
 
 2 
 
 ^yyciX-as 
 
 dyyciA.-ijs 
 
 -cias 
 
 -ov 
 
 B"-,fe 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 ^y£iX-e(v) 
 
 dyyct'A-ij 
 
 -£l£(v) 
 
 -aro) 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 2 
 
 rjyyeiX-afj.tv 
 ^yyfiA-are 
 
 dyyttX-Mjuei/ 
 a.yye''\-r)Te 
 
 -aifjLiv 
 -atT€ 
 
 -are 
 
 '? d ? 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 ■^yyeiA.-av 
 
 dyyetX-<jcrt(j/) 
 
 -eiav 
 
 -avTwv 
 
 >-3 
 
 -V 
 
 i>. 2 
 
 7)77eiA.-aTov 
 
 ayyeiX-riTov 
 
 -aiTov 
 
 -aroj' 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 iiyyeiK-drriv 
 
 ayyelK-TjTOV 
 
 -alrriv 
 
 -ciTci);' 
 
 -S-o 
 
 
 * In this and the following tables (pp. 72-75) the forms to be specially noticed 
 are those of the Future and Weak Aorist ; note, too, that \K occurs only in the 
 forms of the Present and Past Imperfect (Active, Passive, and Middle). 
 
LIQUID STEMS. 
 
 73 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIO. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 INF. 
 
 dyycXX-o/uai 
 
 -fc)/iai 
 
 -oifiriv 
 
 2. -ov 
 
 -oi^evos 
 
 -icrOai. 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 ^■yyeAA.-dyLHjv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 ayyfX-ovjjMi 
 
 
 -olfurfv 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 a.yyeX-g{-ei) 
 
 
 -010 
 
 
 F? 
 
 ■J 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 dyyeX-CLTai 
 
 
 -OLTO 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 <£ 
 <§ 
 
 P. 1 
 
 ayyeX-ovfieOa 
 
 
 -o'fiida 
 
 
 ^1- 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 dyyeX-eia-Oe 
 
 
 -ola-Oe 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 3 
 
 dyyeX-ovvTai 
 
 
 -OIVTO 
 
 
 d 
 
 ■f 
 
 
 i). 2 
 
 a.yYe\-e7(reov 
 
 
 -oifrBov 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ayjeX-^ladov 
 
 
 ■oiadrjy 
 
 
 -r 
 
 
 
 ^. 1 
 2 
 
 ■qyyiX-^ax 
 ijyyeX-o-at 
 
 ffS 
 
 
 ■)jyy£X-o"0 
 
 1 
 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 rj-fy^X-Tai 
 
 ^■fS 
 
 ;^ 
 
 ■fjyyiX-Bu} 
 
 P- 
 
 § 
 
 O 
 
 P. 1 
 
 rjyyiX-fjbeOa 
 
 6.3 
 
 'S^ 
 
 — 
 
 s 
 
 <S 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 riyyeX-de 
 rjyyeX-fjJvoi 
 
 
 
 ■^yyeX-^E 
 rjyyeX-6wv 
 
 
 ■1: 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 £i(r((.v) 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z>. 2 
 
 ijyye\-Boy 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ijyye\-6oy 
 
 "S- 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ij'y'y€\-doj/ 
 
 
 -p- 
 
 riyy4\-eav 
 
 
 
 1^' 
 
 S. 1 
 
 rjyyiX-fj.rjv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 2 
 
 riyytX-a-o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 3 
 
 rjyyeX-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aj 
 
 & 1 
 2 
 
 yjyyecX-dfirjv 
 rjyyeiX-<D 
 
 dyyetA-(o/Aat 
 dyyet'A-Tj 
 
 -MO 
 
 -ai 
 
 
 ij 
 
 dg 
 
 3 
 
 TjyyeLX-aTO 
 
 dyyiiX-rjTai 
 
 -aiTO 
 
 -d(j-6(o 
 
 ?« 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 Ao. P 
 
 (Wk.) 
 
 rjyyeXO-Tjv 
 
 dyyeXy-to 
 
 -eujv 
 
 2. -rjTi 
 
 / 
 
 -CIS 
 
 -rjvai 
 
 FUT. c 
 
 )F A. P. 
 
 a.yy€X6rj(T-0fi.ai 
 
 
 -OLfJLTjV 
 
 
 -0//.€l'OS 
 
 -ecrOai 
 
74 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 221 
 
 Liquid stems {continued) : ^av-, <f)r] 
 
 V-.* 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 
 
 (Transitive = show, 
 
 except in Strong Perf. and Pluperf.). 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUDJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 /ifP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 /iVi?". 
 
 ifiaiv-ta 
 
 -0) 
 
 -OljXL 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -(OV 
 
 -CIC/ 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 i-<jiaiv-ov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 2 
 
 <t>av-S> 
 
 
 -oirjv 
 -OtIJS 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 t3 
 
 3 
 P. 1 
 
 <f)av-oviJLfv 
 
 
 -oir) 
 'Oi/xev 
 
 
 ffl 
 
 'r 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 <j>a.v-UTe 
 <jiav-ov(n(v) 
 
 
 -OiTe 
 -oiev 
 
 
 .1 f ■ 
 
 1 
 
 
 XI. 2 
 
 ipay-etTOi/ 
 
 
 -OITOV 
 
 
 >. d 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ipav-urov 
 
 
 -oiri)v 
 
 
 -s-o 
 
 
 Pbrf. (Wk.). 
 
 7re<^ayK-a 
 
 -0) 
 
 -OlyLtt 
 
 2. -€ 
 
 -(is 
 
 -ivai 
 
 Perf. (Sth.). 
 
 7rerf>rjv-a t 
 
 -(1) 
 
 -OlfX.1 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -(OS 
 
 -evaL 
 
 Plup. (Wk.). 
 
 i-Tr€<f>d.yK-rj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pldp. (Str.). 
 
 i--ire<jnjv-rj t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 1 
 
 l-tj>-r)v-a 
 
 
 -axfx.1 
 
 
 ^.1 
 
 
 t4 
 
 2 
 
 i-<f>rjv-a's 
 
 <^^v-rjs 
 
 -eias 
 
 -ov 
 
 
 H 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 e-cl)rjv-e{v) 
 
 <^j^v-37 
 
 -£l£(j') 
 
 -aru) 
 
 b '-g 
 
 ■A 
 
 P. 1 
 
 €-<ly7JV-afJL€V 
 
 ^lyv-w/iev 
 
 -ai/itv 
 
 — 
 
 .§ g e 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 «-(^^7/-aTE 
 
 (^•^V-TJTE 
 
 -aire 
 
 -are 
 
 .g"^ ^ 
 
 i|; 
 
 
 3 
 
 t-<j>r)v-av 
 
 ^■qv-uxn^v) 
 
 -einv 
 
 -avTiov 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 D. 2 
 
 4-ifyfiy-aroy 
 
 lp4}V-7lTOV 
 
 -aiTov 
 
 ■arov 
 
 :§:§ 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 3 
 
 i-(pTtV-aTTIV 
 
 (piv-riTov 
 
 -OITTJV 
 
 -drwy 
 
 ^o 
 
 
 * The forms of stems in p to be specially noticed are those of the Perfect 
 and Pluperfect Passive, in which the v suffers change before fi. The verb 
 ri>alva!, together with a few other liquid stems, forms a Strong Perfect and 
 Pluperfect Active, and a Strong Aorist Passive. 
 
 + Intransitive : Trtip^va, I have appeared ; iin^itvT), I had appeared. 
 
tlQUib St EMS. 
 
 73 
 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE 
 
 
 
 
 ( = am, shown, show 
 
 myself, appear). 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP.' 
 
 PART. 
 
 INF. 
 
 (^aiV-o/iat 
 
 -u>ji.ai 
 
 -OL/JLrjV 
 
 2. -ou 
 
 -d/X€V09 
 
 -ea-dai 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 i-<^a.iv-6u.rjv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aS. 1 
 
 (ftav-cm/jLai 
 
 
 -oifi-qv 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 (f>av-rj{-u) 
 
 
 -010 
 
 
 s? 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 t^av-eiTat 
 
 
 -OITO 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 rj)av-ovjjieOa 
 
 
 -ot/ieSa 
 
 
 o 
 
 'S 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 ^av-owrat 
 
 
 -oTo-^e 
 
 -OIVTO 
 
 
 1 
 
 -0- 
 
 
 D. 2 
 
 tpay-eiffdov 
 
 
 -o1(rBov 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 <pay-e7<T6ov 
 
 
 -oiffSjiv 
 
 
 -6- 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 Tritpacr- /jLat 
 
 *!» 
 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7r£(j)av-o-aL 
 
 t^ 
 
 w 
 
 7rc.<j>av-(ro 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 Trei^av-Tttt 
 
 ^?:= 
 
 ;^ 
 
 '!re(fidv-6<a 
 
 P- 
 
 8 
 
 O 
 
 P3 
 
 /v 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 Tri<l>av-6e 
 
 dtriiy) 
 
 o -p 
 
 >s3 
 
 Tri<^av-6e 
 7re<j>dv-6(iiv 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 n. 2 
 
 ire'cfav-floc 
 
 -9- 
 
 -e- 
 
 ■!re<pav-0ov 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7re(^aj'-0oj' 
 
 t: 
 
 t= 
 
 ■tr€tpiiv-6(av 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 i-ire(l>0La-fi.rjv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 2 
 
 e-7re</>av-cro 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 3 
 
 e-7re^av-T0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ W 
 
 5. 1 
 
 i-<jirivd-fj,r]V 
 
 (^fciyv-m/iat 
 
 -aijxyiv 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 i-cf>i^v-ia 
 
 <^^v-i7 
 
 -ato 
 
 -at 
 
 i. o 
 
 g 
 
 <1 
 
 3 
 
 £-^Tyv-aTO 
 
 (pTQV-TjTal, 
 
 -aiTO 
 
 -dcrOw 
 
 i P- 
 
 t 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 -i: 
 
 AoR. p. (Wk.). 
 
 i-<f>dvO-rp' * 
 
 <fjavO-(x3 
 
 -ct'ijv 
 
 2. -7?Tt 
 
 -615 
 
 -rfvai 
 
 AoH. P. (Wk.)- 
 
 e-tfidv-rjv * 
 
 (fiav-Z 
 
 -CtlJV 
 
 2. -7?6li 
 
 -€IS 
 
 -rival 
 
 ^o^ (Ste.). 
 
 ^avB-qa- -o^ai 
 
 
 -0Lf).7]V 
 
 
 -ofjievo'S 
 
 -eaOai 
 -icrOai 
 
 (^avijcr-ojuai 
 
 
 -oifiriv 
 
 
 -OjJLCVOS 
 
 e(iia.ver]V generally = I was shown, i^av-qv alwa,ys = I appeared. 
 
76 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 223 
 
 224 
 
 225 
 
 226 
 227 
 
 Formation of Tenses op Liquid Stems. 
 
 Verbs with liquid stems differ from verbs with mute stems in 
 the following respects : — 
 
 The Future ActiYe and Middle is in all persons and moods 
 Hke the Present of contracted verbs in -c'co (§§ 198, 199) : — 
 Verb-stem. 
 e.ff. ayyeX-, announce 
 vffi-, allot 
 a-irep-, sow 
 tftav-, shoiD 
 
 Put. Act. Fut. Midd. 
 dyyeXS dyycXowynat \ 
 
 VEUO) VeULOVUM, I ^ - " 
 
 '^ „ ' '-. /-C/. irouD iroiovixai 
 
 (Tircpo) OTrepouynai I ' 
 
 (j>avu> <l>avovjjLai ) • 
 
 The formation arises from (i.) inserting an e between the 
 
 tense-suffix o- and the stem, (ii.) dropping the tr, (iii.) contracting 
 
 the e with the Endings : e.g. from stem dyyeX- (i.) dyyeXecr-w, 
 
 (ii.) dyytAe-ft), (iii.) dyytXi. 
 
 In the Weak Aorist Active and Middle o- is dropped and 
 the stem vowel is changed : — 
 
 Verb-stem. Weak Aor. 
 
 a becomes ij <j>civ-, show f-4>r]v-a 
 
 (or d after i, p irtpav-, accoiivplish l-iripav-a) 
 
 e becomes ei (nnp-, soiu i-a-Treip-a 
 
 I becomes I KpXv-, judge l-Kplv-a 
 
 V becomes v o^vv-, sharpen w^vv-a 
 
 In the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive and Middle the 
 only liquid which is changed before the inflexions is v, and that 
 only before p. : — 
 
 V is replaced by n- before p : e.g. Tri4>a(T-pai, from (t>a.v-. 
 
 Note that v does not fall out before o-, as it does in the case of 
 Nouns : contrast -n-c'^av-o-ai with Se\^i-s (for Se\(jnv-s). 
 
 Liquid stems do not form a Future Perfect Passive and Middle. 
 
 Few liquid stems form Strong Aorists Active or Middle. 
 
 The Perfect and Pluperfect Active are nearly always weak 
 (i.e. formed with k, like XiXvK-a, iXeXvK-rj); e.g. ^yyeX/c-a f rom dyyeX-, 
 tcnrapK-a. from a-rrep- (cnrap-),* iritjiayK-a from (j>av-, v being changed 
 to y ( = ng) before k.\ 
 
 * All liquid stems of one syllable with the stem vowel e in the Present 
 have parallel forms with a : <p6ip-, <p6ap- ; itteA.-, o-toA-. 
 
 t This rule does not apply to Kpiv-w, judge ; KXiv-m, bevd ; reh-ai, stretch ; 
 see Principal Parts, p. 113. Many stems in ;- have no Perf. Act. ; see § 229. 
 
LIQUID STEMS. 
 
 77 
 
 228 
 
 229 
 
 In most verbs with liquid stems the stem of the Present 
 and Past Imperfect is extended by adding the sound y, which 
 in X-stems is generally assimilated to X, and in v- and p-stems 
 produces a change in the stem- vowel (a becomes ai; e, i, il are 
 changed as in the Weak Aorist, § 224) : — 
 
 Present. 
 
 Verb-stem. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 dyyeXX-o) 
 
 dyyeX- 
 
 dyyeX-S 
 
 ^■yyeXfc-a 
 
 rjfyyiKd-riv 
 
 o-Tretp-o) 
 
 cnrep-, tnrap- 
 
 tnrcp-o) 
 
 eoTrapK-a 
 
 i-crirdp-rjv 
 
 <l>aCv-(o 
 
 4>0LV-, ^yqv- 
 
 ^av-ta 
 
 iritpayK-a 
 
 l-<j)a.v-riv 
 
 Kpiv-ia 
 
 Kpiv-, KpX- 
 
 KpiV-Ui 
 
 KiKplK-a 
 
 i-KpW-7jV 
 
 oiiv-as 
 
 ofw- 
 
 o^w-io 
 
 c5fuyK-a 
 
 &^vv6-y][v 
 
 Examples fob CoNjuaATiON ov Liquid Stems. 
 
 In the following examples (i.) the Aorists (Active, Middle and Passive) 
 and the Perfects Active are weak, and formed according to §§ 224, 227 : 
 (ii.) in the case of v- and p-stems the stem vowel of the Present and Past 
 Imperfect difiers from that of the verb-stem according to the rule in § 228. 
 
 rfiiv-a, sweeten : verb-stem ^Suy-. [No Perf . Act.] 
 
 fiippalv-a, cheer : verb-stem evtppav-. [No Perf. Act.] 
 
 KaSalp-a, purify : verb-stem KoBap- (seen in KaBap6s, pitre). [Perf. Act. 
 
 late.] 
 Kviialv-o/iai, insult : verb-stem Kvixav-. 
 li.iaiv-111, pollute : verb-stem fiiav- (seen in filatrna, tar /ilav-iia, pollution). 
 
 [Perf. Act. late.] 
 irepalv-ai, accomplish : verb-stem irepay-. [No Perf. Act.] 
 a-riiwiv-m, show, signify : verb-stem ff-itnav-. [Perf. Act. late.] 
 tfidw-a, pVuck, twang : verb-stem \^aK- (seen in ^a\ii6s, the sound of the 
 
 dihara or ha/rp). 
 
78 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Peculiaeities of Verbs in <a. 
 
 1. Insertion of rr in Aor. and Perf. Pass., 
 and in Yerb-adjectiyes in -reos, -rds (§ 179). 
 
 230 Some vowel stems* insert o- in the Aorist Passive (before ff) ; 
 some also in the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive (before /j. and t) ; 
 some in the Verb-adjectives (before t) : e.g. — 
 
 keXcv-o), bid : e-KcXev-cr-Orjv, KeKeXev-cr-fjiai (-rat), kcAeu-ct-tos. 
 Xpi-d), anoint : i-)(pi-(T-6rjv, Kc^i/Aat, p^i-cr-rds [o X/dio-tos, <Ae 
 Anointed, Christ']. 
 
 2. Irregular stem-yowel in Fut., Aor., and Perf. 
 
 231 Some vowel stems* lengthen their final vowel irregularly (cf. 
 § 204), others do not lengthen it at all, in the Future, Aorist, and 
 Perfect, or in some of these tenses : e.g. xpt4-o/"aii xpS/xai, use : 
 ■)(frr)<TOfiai, i)(pricrdiJi,rjv, Ke)(pr)ix.ai, (.)(prj-iT-6rjv (§ 230). 
 
 irap-atvi-m, Trap-aLvSi, exhort : -aiviaru), -rjvecra, -yvcKa, -yveOrjv j 
 
 but -Tjvij/Aai. 
 S4-U, 85, bind : SeSeKa, StSe/nai, iSi6rjv ; but S^cro), eSTyera. 
 trnd-a, (nru), draw : (nrd(T<ii, ccrirao-a, iairoLKa, Icr7ra-cr-/xat (-rai, 
 § 230), icnrd-cr-6rjv, (Tira-cr-TOS. 
 
 3. Contracted Present and Past Imperfect. 
 
 232 In the following verbs a contracts with an e-sound to i] (instead 
 of d : § 202, Rule 1) :— 
 
 (d-a, tfo, live : Cd-eis, ^^s ; fti-€i, ^ij : (d-ere, t,rJTe ; (d-erov, ^^TOV. 
 
 Past Imperf. fC<^-es, e^iys, etc. Pres. Subj. (d-jjs, ^jjs, etc. 
 
 Infin. C<^-(€v, ^rjv. 
 Siifid-u, Siij/w, am thirsty : Stxj/y's : Sii/^ ; Sti/^re, etc. Infin. Sii/ojv. 
 Treipd-a, TTfivw, am hungry : Travgs, Trttvjj ; TrEtvijTc, etc. Infin. 
 
 TTUVrjV. 
 
 Xpd-ofiai, xpS/nai, use : -ffpfi ; ^(priTaL ; xpW^^i stc. Infin. xprja-Oou. 
 
 233 Stems of one syllable in e admit only the contraction into £i 
 (§ 202, Rule 2) : e.g. stem irXt-, sail, forms : — 
 
 irXe-ets, TrXeis J irAt-ei, irXet; ir\e-eT£, TrXeiTC ; eTrXe-Es, errXcis, etc. 
 but irXe-ft), TrXe-ofiev, 7rX£-ovcrt, e7rXe-ov, TrXe-oj/xev, irXc-i/s, 
 etc. remain uncontracted. 
 
 234 Exception. — Se-m, MtuI, contracts througliout: Sa, Se7s, Se", Sov/iev, 
 SeiTE, 5oi;iri(y) ; ^Sovv, etc. [Se'-a, want, lack, Sf-o/iai, need, ask, follow the 
 rule in § 233 ; e.g. SE(!ytiE6(i, Siovrai, iiedfuiv ; so Su, it is necessary (Impersonal) , 
 
 Sioi, rh Seoj/.'] 
 
 All such verbs will be given among Principal Parts (List I. or II.). 
 
PECULIARITIES OF VERBS IN -Q. 
 
 79 
 
 -a^(o) drop 
 I Fut. = Pres. 
 
 4. Contracted Future. 
 
 235 Some stems in e (Pres. -e<a) and a few in aS (Pres. 
 the a- in the Future and contract : 
 
 1. reKe-a, TiXS), complete : Fut. reAeV-ai, teXe'-w, Te\S>. 
 KOA.6-W, KaXS), Ccdl : Fut. KoAeV-aj, KaKe-at, Ka\S>, 
 
 2. /3tj8a^-(o (verb-st. /SiySaS-), feriniy : Fut. pi$d(r-a, Pifid-ai, l3ij3S>. 
 
 236 Stems of more than one syllable in iS (Pres. -i^ai) drop the o- of 
 the Future (after it has caused the loss of the preceding dental), 
 add £, and contract : 
 
 e.g. Ko/jl^-m, convey (verb-st. ko/jliS-) : Fut. Ko/ilcr-u, Ko/ii-i-a, kojuS). 
 Contrast KT^f a (verb-st. ktiS-, one syllable) : Fut. KTia-a, § 218. 
 
 237 Endings of the above and similar* Contracted Futures : 
 (i.) With contracted e (like iroiS, ■jroiovfrni, §§ 198, 199) : — 
 
 Inf. 
 -eiv 
 
 -eio'Oa 
 
 Inf. 
 -av 
 
 
 Indio. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Part. 
 
 
 > -eis 
 etc. 
 
 -oirpf 
 -oiijs 
 -oti; 
 etc. 
 
 -a)V 
 
 -oCo-a 
 
 -oCv 
 
 -< 
 
 -ovu,ai 
 ^ etc. 
 
 -otfirjv 
 
 -010 
 -OlTO 
 
 etc. 
 
 -01J//.CV0S 
 
 -ovjxivrj 
 -ovfJievov 
 
 (ii. 
 
 ) With contracted a (like 
 
 tI/j-io, tI/xSj 
 
 
 Indio. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Part. 
 
 
 ~u> 
 
 -<i„,v 
 
 -to)V 
 
 ci. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 -(oo:a 
 
 •53. 
 
 . -(d/UU 
 
 -aii.r)V 
 
 -<i)/iei'os 
 
 
 1 -arat 
 ^ etc. 
 
 -too 
 
 -<Sto 
 
 etc. 
 
 -aix^vov 
 
 5. Doric Future. 
 
 238 Two verbs form, in addition to the regular Future in -o-o/iat, 
 
 a Contracted Future in -orov/xai, called the " Doric Future " : 
 ,rXe'o), saU : Fut. ,rW-o/iat or -n-Xevo-ovixai ) g^^jngg ji^g «o„joIaai. 
 <^euyoj, flee : Fut. ^evf-OyUai or ^euf-ov/tat ) 
 
 * Similar formations will be found in §§ 288-292. 
 
8o GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. Augment and Reduplication. 
 
 239 Nine verbs beginning with €* are augmented by changing t xa 
 
 a (instead of rj, § 190) : — 
 
 iiu, iS), let, leave alone 
 idC^w, accustom 
 cXuro-O) (eXtTTO)), roll 
 
 c/OTTo), creep 
 
 ea-Tidai, eo-TtS, entertain 
 
 i\ii>, have 
 
 IXko), drag 
 hro^iai, follow 
 ipyd^ofJLai, work 
 e.g. ei<uv, eidcra, elddyjv, ctdxa, cidyuai (§ 192). 
 
 240 Two or three verbs beginning with a vowel * take the Syllabic 
 instead of the Temporal Augment (§ 189, ii.) : — 
 
 iiBea, 0)dS>, push : i-wdovv ; e-(0O"/u.ai. 
 aveo/j,ai, &VOVfJLai, buy : c-iovou/x.iyi' ; k-iiiv'qfw.l. 
 
 241 Two or three verbs beginning with a vowel take both the Syl- 
 labic and the Temporal Augment : — 
 
 dv-otyo), open : dv-e-wyov, dv-e-co^a, av-l-io^a, 
 ipiai, 6pS>, see : e-utpwv, i-6pa.Ka or i-u>pa.Ka. 
 
 242 In two or three verbs the Syllabic Augment e is sometimes 
 lengthened to ij : — 
 
 ySouXo/Atti, I wish : ■fj-ftovXo/ji.riv or i-PovX6jt,-qv. 
 fjiekXo}, I am about to : ^-p-eWov or e-|u,eXXov. 
 
 243 The following verbs are reduplicated contrary to rule : — 
 
 (i.) yiyvilxTKta, get to know : st. yvo)-, Perf. l-yvcoKo, I know. 
 
 (We should expect yc-; cf. § 191, ii.) 
 (ii.) Kriofiai, KTut/jiai, acquire : st. Kra-, Perf. usually Kt-KT-qixai, 
 I possess. 
 /j.LftvT^a'Ko), remind : st. //.vij-, Perf. /i£-/An;ju,at, / re- 
 member. 
 
 (We should expect i-; cf. § 192.) 
 
 * These verbs originally began with a consonant (digamma or <t), and 
 therefore took the Syllabic Augment, which contracted with a following 
 f after the loss of the digamma or <r : e.g. st. fepyaS- [from epyov = fepyov, 
 Engl, work, Germ, werk'], i-fepjaC-iim", i-fpyaC-6firip, eipya(-6iiriv : st. irex- 
 (seen in Strong Aor. tirxov, for i-aex-ov), i-aex'"", ^-^X'""' f?X-ov : st. <reir- 
 [Lat. seqv^or\ 4-(reir-6fa)Vi 4-ijr-6finv, flv-6/inv, then elTr-6/j.rii', the rough 
 breathing being due to the analogy of the Present eV-o/tai (for o-c'ir-o/ioi). 
 In the case of wBu, mvoviiai the augment remained unoontraeted : e.g. st. 
 Paye- [Lat. ven-do, sell], i-fuve-6ii.i)v, i-ayoifoiv. Similar formations will be 
 found in certain tenses of other verbs : e.g. e!\ov, from ^\- (§ 292). 
 
PECULIARITIES OF VERBS IN Cl. 8i 
 
 244 A few verbs* (besides those mentioned in § 239) have instead 
 of the Eeduplication the syllable ei : — 
 
 e.g. 8ta-Xeyo/*ai, converse : st. Key-, Perf. Si-ci-Xeyyuat. 
 
 crvK-Xiyta, collect : st. Xcy-, Perf. cnv-iL-ko^fa., crw-eL-X.eyfmi. 
 
 245 A few verbs * beginning with a vowel have the so-called 
 "Attic Eeduplication," which consists in prefixing a syllable 
 formed of the first two letters of the stem, and lengthening the 
 vowel which follows : in the Pluperfect only a and o are aug- 
 mented (not e) :— 
 
 Present. Stem. Perfect. Pluperfect. 
 
 e.g. aK»vu>, hear Slkov-, Ako- d/c-^/co-a (Str.) rjK-rjKo-r) 
 
 iyeipo), rouse iyep-, iyop- ky-p-riyop-a (Str.) t iy-p-rjyop-i] 
 
 iX.iy)(w, examine iKey)(-, iKex' ^^--qXey-fiai i\-rjXiy-/iriv 
 
 opvacroi, dig °p^X' op-wpvx-a- (Str.) d>p-cDpvx-Ti] 
 
 (opvTTai) op-ijipvy-jixa wp-wpvy-fir/v 
 
 246 A few verbs* compounded with prepositions have ceased to 
 be felt as compounds, and therefore take the Augment he/ore the 
 preposition : — 
 
 e.g. KaO-i^ofiai, sit down, sit : i-KaOe^ofuiv. 
 KaO-i^w, seat or sit : l-Ka6i£,ov, i-KciOia-a. 
 Ka6-evS(a, sleep : i-Ko.6€v8ov (sometimes Ka£-r]vSov). 
 
 JV.B. — evapTtSofiat, ivavTiovfiai, Oppose, is not compounded with 
 Iv, but is derived immediately from the adj. ivavno's, opposite : 
 hence ■f/vavTiovp.ijv, rjvavriw/jiai, TjvavTiiji6r)v are regular. 
 
 247 A few verbs * augment both the preposition and the verba] 
 part: — 
 
 e.g. dv-ep^o/tai, endure: riv-ei)(pp,riv (§ 239), yiv-c<r)(6ii,rp/ (Strong 
 Aor. ; note on p. 80 : Subj. dva.-(rx<^imi). 
 
 fv-ox^ew, h'-o)(XS>, trouble : ■^v-coxXrjaa, rjv-ii>xX.rjKa. 
 
 iv-av-op8ia, lir-av-op6Si, set up again : iir-rfv-iiipBovv, iir^rp/- 
 (apdtacra, eir-ijv-oip^(o/tat. 
 
 a/iipi-a-PnTea, d/A^t-(rj8ij™, dispute : ■^ix(j)-ea-^TQT0vv, or yj/jLtju- 
 
 a-prp-ovv (like the verbs in § 246). 
 
 * An such verbs will be given among Principal Parts (List I. or II.). 
 
 t With intrusive p, for iy-iryop-a : perhaps cf. Engl, bridegroom, from 
 Old Engl, h-jd-gwma "bride-man" (Germ. BravM-gam). 
 
 6 
 
S2 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. Verbs in - 
 
 fU. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-crrri-iJiL (reduplicated w 
 
 ith I, for crt-o-r)j-/it).- 
 
 -ACTIVE 
 
 (Transitive = place in Pres. and Past Imperf., Fut., Weak Aor.) 
 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 iNDia 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPTAT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 P^/jr. ^ /iVi?". 
 
 La-rrj-fU 
 
 'uttSi 
 
 ItTTaiTj-V 
 
 — 
 
 Paeticiplb. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Kmj-s 
 
 iar^^ 
 
 larraLrj-s 
 
 KTTt) 
 
 toTa-s, io-rScra, tcTTav 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 to-rrj-(n(v) 
 
 lO-TTJ 
 
 Icrralrj 
 
 Icntx-TO) 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 l<TTa-/Ji,ev 
 
 i(rTa>/x€v 
 
 io-Tai-/i*€i' 
 
 
 
 tCTTaVT- 
 
 w 
 
 
 2 
 
 itTTa-Te 
 
 lO-T^re 
 
 lO-Tal-TE 
 
 lO-Ta-TE 
 
 Infinitivb. 
 
 fk 
 
 
 3 
 
 to-Tao-t(v) 
 
 icrT(i)(n(v) 
 
 lo-Ttttc-v 
 
 ifrrd-vTinv 
 
 icrra-ycu 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 'l<TTa-rov 
 
 tO'T^TOJ' 
 
 Iffrou-roy 
 
 'IfTra-rov 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 '[(TTa-rov 
 
 itrrrJTQy 
 
 liTTal-Triv 
 
 iiTTti-Tcay 
 
 
 EH 
 
 o 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 l(TTrj-v 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 2 
 
 Jcrnj-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 3 
 
 l(Trq 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 io'Ta-jxa' 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 2 
 
 la-ra-Tf 
 
 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 3 
 
 lo'Ta-cav 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 ifTTa-Toy 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^(rTti-T7]y 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fotu 
 
 RE. 
 
 
 cmjcr-a) 
 
 
 -OlfJiL 
 
 
 -(OV 
 
 -eiv 
 
 Perfi 
 
 :CT. 
 
 
 €(rT7]K-a * 
 
 -0) 
 
 -Ol/XI. 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -(is 
 
 -O'at 
 
 Plupi 
 
 :ef. 
 
 
 dcTT-QK-r] * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Pbhf. 
 
 lo-T^I-ci) * 
 
 
 -OlfJiL 
 
 
 -(OV 
 
 -£tv 
 
 Aor. 
 
 (W 
 
 K.) 
 
 £-orT»;cr-a 
 
 <TTr)a'-<o 
 
 -ai/ii 
 
 2. -ov 
 
 -as 
 
 -ai 
 
 5" 
 
 S. 
 
 1 
 
 c-o-ny-v t 
 
 (TTUi 
 
 (TTaC-q-v 
 
 — 
 
 Participle. 
 
 § 
 
 
 2 
 
 £-o-T7;-s 
 
 (TT^S 
 
 CTTaiij-s 
 
 (TTrj-Oi. 
 
 (TTa-s, CTTacra, (ttov 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 e-o-TT; 
 
 0-T^ 
 
 (TTair) 
 
 crr)j-T(o 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 S 
 
 P. 
 
 1 
 
 €-(m]-fJI,€V 
 
 (7TU>ix,ev 
 
 (TTai-/l€V 
 
 — 
 
 OTOIVT- 
 
 EH 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-u-rij-Te 
 
 <TTfjTt 
 
 (TTat-TC 
 
 (TTTJ-Tt 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 M 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-(rrq-(Tav 
 
 a-TS>(n(v) 
 
 cTTaie-v 
 
 a-ra-vrwv 
 
 o-rij-vai 
 
 O 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 e-ffT-n-TOV 
 
 (TTTirOV 
 
 (TTai-TOy 
 
 (TTTi-TOV 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-ITT'^-TTiy 
 
 (TTTJTOy 
 
 (rrai-TTiy 
 
 (TT^-Twy 
 
 
 * Intransitive : e<rrriKa, I stand (Present meaning) ; elariiK-n or unaugmeuted k<r- 
 riicrt, I stood (Past Imperf. meaning) ; lo-r^fa, I shall stand (§ 178, note). There are 
 also some forms of a Strong Perf. and Pluperf. (intrans.), § 255. 
 
 + Intransitive, I stepped, I stood. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §3 
 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE 
 
 
 
 (= mn placed, place myself , place for myself ). 
 
 
 S. 
 
 1 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 pr. ^ INF. 
 
 iCTTa-ytiat 
 
 IcttZimu 
 
 l(rTa,L-fUrjv 
 
 
 
 Participle. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 iCTTa-crat 
 
 to-nj 
 
 la-Toi-o J 
 
 to-ra-o-o 
 
 to-Ta-/i€vos, 
 
 EH 
 
 
 3 
 
 tCTTa-Tat 
 
 lo-nyrat 
 
 KTTat-TO 
 
 la-Ta-crOoi 
 
 57, ov 
 
 H 
 
 F. 
 
 1 
 
 la-Ta-ixeOa. 
 
 l(TTWfJi.€Oa 
 
 i(TTai-ixi6a 
 
 — 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 i(TTa-a-6e 
 
 lo-njcrde 
 
 ia-Tol-crOe 
 
 IcTTa-QrOf. 
 
 la-Ta-o-Ooj. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 3 
 
 lara-vTaL 
 
 ICTTWVTai 
 
 L<TTai-VTO 
 
 IcrTa-aOuiv 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 la-Ta-a-Bov 
 
 ta-TTJcrdoy 
 
 IffTOL-txBov 
 
 'itrra-ffdoj/ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 'lara-ffBov 
 
 iiTrriadov 
 
 iffTai-ffBrjv 
 
 Iffra-ffBtav 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 S. 
 
 1 
 
 LaTa-jjajv 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 2 
 
 i<TTa-cro 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 3 
 
 2o-Ta-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 P. 
 
 1 
 
 UTTO.- ixs&a 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 2 
 
 Jo-Ttt- cr^c 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 3 
 
 la-Ta-VTO 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 t<rTa-(r6oj/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 hirT<i,-aBr)v 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 
 (TnQ<j-Ofj.aL 
 
 
 -oifJ-riv 
 
 
 -6/jLevos 
 
 -eo-^at 
 
 Pbefect. 
 
 
 (rare) 
 
 
 
 2. -tro 
 
 -fuevoi 
 
 -o-^ai 
 
 Plupbrf. 
 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fdt. Peef. 
 
 icTTT^i-OfJUll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (raxe) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. M. (Wk.) 
 
 i-a'Tr)cr-diJirjv 
 
 UTqcr-Wfiai 
 
 -atfj-r/v 
 
 2. -ai 
 
 -dfjievoi 
 
 -acrSat 
 
 A. M. (Str.) 
 
 None 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. P. (Wk.) 
 
 i-(rTa.6rjv 
 
 arTa6-S> 
 
 -arjv 
 
 2. -IJTl 
 
 -€11 
 
 -^vat 
 
 FuT. OF ) 
 
 A. P. / 
 
 
 (TTa.6rj(T-0)iai 
 
 
 -otfirjv 
 
 
 -O/ACl/OS 
 
 -ifrOai 
 
 % Placed for myself is tlie only meaning of the Aorist middle. 
 
 % For IffTcu-aro. 
 
84 
 
 250 
 
 CO 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 ^>, 
 
 
 
 
 
 fei 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO . 
 
 
 § k s 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 WW w 
 00 CO 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^? . 
 
 
 
 ttj 
 
 -li> 
 
 
 3 >< 'd 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 jy^ jy 
 
 
 
 c$, 
 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 1 ^ 1 ^ ^ ^ It 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 'g^g 1 g^g ii 
 
 « :<: ^^ a !t a 
 
 
 CO 00 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 U w w vu v tu 
 CO <:<3 60 oo «. *o 
 
 
 <N (M* 
 
 N 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 -» iy w :^ & S. 
 
 s-2 o 3-b 1 ei 
 
 
 3- - 
 
 t5 
 
 f4 
 
 ^ 
 
 0000003^ 
 
 
 3-? 3- 
 
 -" 
 
 > 
 
 :^ 
 
 V ~? ^? ^? ^? ^p ~i = 
 
 
 ?.a^ ? 
 
 a. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 JSS-S^^SS 
 
 
 ^« jy 
 
 'g 
 
 Ih 
 
 ftOCOCOCC^DCO'o'o 
 
 
 CO CO 60 
 
 ^i 
 
 -< 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 S >" K S § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? r- P ? r ? ^ fe 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^g^g^g^g^rgii 
 
 
 cS Jif 
 
 
 
 SwWWWVU^U'U' 
 
 
 w w 
 
 
 
 i/3 
 
 oocc&oeoco6o'o*«> 
 
 
 «5 to 
 
 &^ 
 
 Si ^ ■■ — ' 
 
 fe ui ti a, ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 j= C lu b 5 S 
 
 & u. S, S b ° f 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 5 
 
 :4.t/.ba.t-idgg 
 ^li ^!»; ^^ ^:tf ^^ K a a 
 
 'Ijjji jil 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \U \u ^u '*! MJ MJ ^ iU 
 
 s^ CO W CO '^ 
 W =^ CO 1 
 
 
 
 wiulutuwiuu/ut 
 
 ooe>ocooocciooto6o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 coco6ocococo<o<o 
 
 o\y n\ff my my rly »ny "^ _"UI 
 
 CO CO "IW »W 
 
 
 r-((MC<5i-llNCf5(MCO 
 
 i-i<McOi-i(Mmoqco 
 
 ^^,-< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . •.'^ p^ 
 
 
 
 
 Crj ft^ q 
 
 c<j a; q 
 
 1 8 S&^cg 
 
 « H H ^-^■^ — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •iNHsaaa 
 
 ■ioa.a:HadiHi isva 
 
 P H a q q 
 
8s 
 
 ij 
 
 ft 
 o 
 
 1— 1 
 
 ft 
 
 »2 
 t/2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 vu w 
 CO CO 
 
 i 
 
 CO 
 
 it 
 ■^^ 
 
 ly VU 
 
 eiO 6o 
 
 C/i 
 
 1 1 
 
 ly u 
 
 CO CO 
 
 {/I 
 
 O 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 g^i i^^ill 
 
 ■ 1 1 1 1 o o 
 
 J1 1111 
 
 CO CO cc CO «o «o 
 
 
 
 ? 1 
 
 S f 
 
 
 o o o o o o |~| 
 
 g'gi rrgii 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■^ 
 
 vu 
 
 CO 
 
 1 .^ 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^g^gi rrgii 
 
 C0'5OC0C0CO«O«>*0 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 CO CO 
 
 Eh" 
 
 1 
 
 v5 vS v5 5 v5 vi5 .^ ^5 
 C0'5ocoeo6oco«o«o 
 
 "g g g"g g g i-i 
 (Socococoeoeototo 
 
 my my »ny B\y my f\^i ""iU "iU 
 
 a. r-v£^ 
 
 ? £-.S 
 
 (y •.^y , 
 
 CO CO "W 
 
 1- 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 i-icqcOi-Hoqcooqco 
 5(5 fl^ C5 
 
 i-Hcqco,-iirqc(5<M«) 
 
 g eg 
 
 (S H H 
 b fa CM 
 g !fi tJ 
 t^ H pj 
 fin &H fin 
 
 
 ■ijsEasaaa 
 
 ■Li,oa>a:aa<ii\[i isva 
 
86 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 252 
 
 253 
 
 Formation op Tenses of Verbs in -/ii.* 
 
 Verbs in -ju,i differ from verbs in -to only in the Present and 
 Past Imperfect, and the Strong Aorist Act. and Mid. 
 
 In these three tenses of verbs in -/it : — 
 
 1. The Indicative, Imperative, Participle and Infinitive are 
 formed by adding inflexions to the stem without the vowel o/e f : 
 see the table in § 254. 
 
 2. The Subjunctive is formed as in verbs in -w : — 
 
 (a) la-rd-u, Io-tS}, contracted like TiiJ-a-u, ri/jiSi (§ 202. 1). 
 
 except that a contracts irregularly with rj (ij) to r] {y) 
 iVrci-r^Te, tCTTrJTe j ia-Tfi-Tjs, laTTJ?. 
 
 (b) SeiKvv-u) like Xv-o) (uncontracted) . 
 
 3. The Optative is formed : — 
 
 (a) in verbs like la-nj-fii. by adding to the stem 
 
 Sing. Plur. Dual. 
 
 Act. -"/-»') -";Sj -"? '> -l-fJL€V, -l-T€, -l£-V J -1-T0>/, -1-T5)y J 
 
 P. & M. -i-fLr/v, -i-o, -i-TO ; -L-iJ.€6a, -i-crOc, -l-vto ; -i-trSov, -i-adriv 
 Compare rl/xa-, which contracts with the same endings pre- 
 ceded by o (§ 203). 
 (6) in verbs in -vv-iu as in verbs in -<u : (SctKvv'-ot/ii like 
 
 \v-OLjJ.l). 
 
 The stem of the Present and Past Imperfect is formed 
 from the verb-stem : — 
 
 («) by reduplicating with i (I-crTa-, for o-t-oTa-). 
 (6) by suffixing the syllable -w- {^uk-w-), or after a vowel 
 -vw- (Kepa-vw-, mix). 
 The last vowel of the Pres. and Past Imperf. stem is long in 
 the Singular of the Indicative Active and the 2nd Sing. Imperati-\-6 
 Active {larTTj-, SeiKvv-) ; elsewhere short (la-Ta-, Scikvw-). 
 
 ^^ In the following table the endings of the Present are 
 called " Primary," those of the Past Imperf. and Strong Aor. 
 "Secondary". 
 
 * For other verbs conjugated in Pres. and Past Imperf. like "a-Triiu, 
 SclKvO/ii, see §§ 286, 287. 
 
 t This vowel (o in the 1st Pers. Sing, and Plur., the 3rd Pers. Plur. , 
 and the Participle; elsewhere e) is called the " thematic," or less correctly 
 the " connecting " vowel ; it is really part of the stem (" theme ") of the 
 tenses in which it is found : compare xio-imt with Xara-ixai, SeiKw-fiiu ; e-AOe-s 
 with ((TTJi-s, f-SeUvv-s: \e\u-/iai, like eVro-ziai, has no thematic vowel (§ 187) 
 
 $ Plur. and Dual less commonly -tri-iiev, -nt-re, -irj-irav ; -hj-toc, -wj-Trjc 
 
VERBS IN -MI. 
 
 87 
 
 254 
 
 Comparative Table of Endings and Inflexions: 
 
 Pres. and Past Imperf., Strong Aor. Act. and Mid.; 
 
 Indie, Imperat., Partic, Infin. (c/. § 252. 1). 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Active. 
 
 Passive and Middle". | 
 
 Verbs in -w. 
 
 Verbs in -(ti. 
 
 Verbs in -o>. 
 
 Verbs in -)". 
 
 Primary. Secondary, 
 -u) * -ov 
 
 -£IS * -£S 
 -u * -£(v) 
 
 -Oflev 
 
 -£Te 
 -ov(rt(v) f -ov 
 
 -{TOV 
 
 Primary. Secondary. 
 
 -/At -V 
 
 -s -s 
 
 -o-t(v) — 
 
 -T£ 
 -ao-i(i') i -(TOM 
 
 -Toy 
 -TOP -rf\v 
 
 Primary. Secondary. 
 -o/iat -Ofir/v 
 
 -y t -ov + 
 
 -£Tat -£T0 
 
 -0;a£[o-]^a 
 
 -OVTOJ, -OVTO 
 
 -eirBov 
 ■iirBov -€<rBriv 
 
 Primary. Secondary, 
 -/iai -/^■'Ji' 
 -o-at -o-o 
 
 -Tat -TO 
 
 -/x,€[<r]^a 
 -(rOt 
 
 -VTat -VTO 
 
 -o-floy 
 -o-floy -(t6t]V 
 
 -£ 
 
 -£Tft) 
 -£Te 
 -OVTOJV 
 -GTOV 
 
 -erasv 
 
 — or -01 
 
 -TU) 
 -TE 
 
 -vrcov 
 
 -TOV 
 -TOiV 
 
 -ov J 
 
 -((rde 
 -EcrOcav 
 .ecrBov 
 -ea-Baiv 
 
 ■(TO 
 -0-6(0 
 
 -o-^le 
 -o-^wv 
 -aOov 
 -(tBwv 
 
 
 -OVT- 
 
 (Nom. Sing, 
 without j) 
 
 -VT- 
 
 (Nom. Sing, witli s) 
 
 -o/A£vos, 1], ov 
 
 -/AEvos, iy, ov 
 
 1 
 
 -£IV§ 
 
 -vai 
 
 -iO-Oai 
 
 -o-^ai 
 
 * Here the original inflexions are not easily recognisable. 
 
 t -ouiri for -o-VTi (-o-V(ri) ; -acn for -a-yri (-o-yiri). 
 
 t Contracted after loss of o- : -c-o-oi = -e-at = -5 ; -e-ffo = -f-o = -o«. The ending -ei 
 often found instead of -rj is a peculiar form which cannot be explained as a contraction of 
 -6-01 (Appendix III.). 
 
 § For -e-ev : cf. tIjjmv (for Tif«£-c-ei'), StjAow (for Sr\\6-e-iv), § 203. 
 
88 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Peculiahities in Veebs in -fu. 
 
 1. Strong Perfect and Pluperf. Active of ttmifii. 
 
 255 Of verbs in -fit, lo-ttjixl alone forms a Strong Perfect and Plu- 
 
 perfect Active (stem co-ra-) with the inflexions -/xci', -rt, -tov, Plupf. 
 -crav (for -a/ttv, -are, -arov, Plupf. -ea-av, the inflexions of the Weak 
 Perfect, stem kaTr)K-, § 248). 
 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 IMPBE. 
 
 PART. 
 
 
 Pebf. Plupf. 
 
 
 
 
 «. 1 
 
 — . — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ecrrajs (=€0'Ta-£is), m. 
 
 2 
 
 — — 
 
 — 
 
 io-Ta-Oi 
 
 ia-Tuxra { = lirTii-ouo-a), f . 
 
 3 
 P. 1 
 
 lcrTa-jxa> — 
 
 lo-Ttl/Aev 
 
 ecTTa-TO) 
 
 €0-™s ( = ^(TTO-lis) 1 
 
 or lo-To's ) 
 
 2 
 
 eo-Ta-re — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 3 
 
 €0-Ta<n(v) lo-ra-crav 
 
 co-Tcucrt(v) 
 
 — 
 
 i(TTC)T- ( = lo-Tli-OT-) 
 
 B. 2 
 
 effra-Toj/ — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 3 
 
 %ffra-Tov — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 itTTa-vai 
 
 Obs. — In Homer there are more forms, including an Optative ia-ralriv. 
 
 256 
 
 2. Contracted forms of the 2nd Pars. Sing, in -<ro. 
 
 The verbs iiriffTa-nai, understand, 
 Si/va-fiaiy can, 
 Kp€fj.a-fxai, hang, 
 l-TTpia.-iJ.-qv, bought *, 
 
 sometimes drop tr in the inflexion -ao, and contract the o with the stem 
 vowel o: — 
 
 Indio. Past Impf. S. 2., ^tiVtm, i-Sivoi (or ii-Siva), i-icpe/iw; Aor. 4-irplu. 
 Imperative Pres. S. 2., Mffrm, Siva, Kpe/iu ; Aor. irpta. 
 
 In other respects these verbs are conjugated like the Passive and Middle 
 of Xa-rriiit, § 249. ["Io-th/ioi itself rarely contracts iVtoo-o to 'Io-tu.'] 
 
 Obs. — Contracted forms of the 2nd Pers. Sing, in -croi are occasionally 
 found in verse : e.g. Sivcf for Svva-a-ai. 
 
 * 'E-n-pidiiriv is a Strong Aorist Middle of which the Present in use is 
 iivovfiai, buy (§ 292). 
 
PECULIAR VERBS IN -MI. 8g 
 
 3. The verbs Ti6r)(ii, irjui, SiSwjjii. 
 
 257 The three important verbs nO-rjfu, put,.ir;iji,i, send, let go, SCSmiu, 
 
 give, are peculiar in the following respects : — 
 
 1. In some forms of the Indicative and Imperative they have 
 the vowel o/e, like verbs in -co {cf. § 252. 1) : — ■ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 1. hiv e-SiSow (= ^5iSo-ov) 
 
 § 1^^ 2. I-Tt^£ts (= i-rie^-ii) leil (= ?€-«) €-StSovs (= i-SlSo-,s) 
 
 ^ ►S h^ 3. e-Ti^ei l=i-Ti0€-€) let (= ife-c) i-SiSov {= i-SlSo-s) 
 
 Imper. 2. Ti^ei (=T(9£-e) Tet (=?£-£) 8i'8ov (= Si'So-e) 
 
 "eiy is made to resemble his, hi : we should have expected louv (for 
 
 Other exceptional forms with the vowel o/e are not uncommon: 
 e.g. Pres. Indio. tiSeij (= rifle-cis). 
 
 2. In the Subjunctive (of 8iSo)/*t) : — 
 
 o contracts with jy to u (t/. § 202. 3) : e.g. 8tS(3s (= 5iS(<-7)s). 
 
 3. The Optative is sometimes formed as in verbs in -u (cf. § 
 252. 3) :— 
 
 e.g. n6ot.iJi.rfv (= Tiee-oifi-riv), instead of nOe-t-firjv. 
 
 4. The Aorist Indicative Active is generally Strong in the 
 Plural and Dual ; Weak in the Singular, with k instead of a- : — 
 
 e.g. €-6r]-K-a, i-Orj-K-M, e-drj-K-e, £-6e-/i£i', €-6e-T£, e-Oe-a-av. 
 
 5. The Strong Aorist Imperative Active forms the 2nd Pers. 
 Sing, with the inflexion -s, instead of -6i : Oi-'s, l-s, ^6-i. 
 
 These are properly unaugmented 2nd Sing. Indie., used as Imperat. 
 
 6. The Strong Aorist Infinitive Active has a diphthong before 
 the inflexion -v(u, : Oet-vai, el-vai, Sdv-vai. 
 
 7. The Strong Aorist Middle (except in the Indicative of tiy/Ai) 
 drops cr in the inflexion -<ro, and contracts the o with the stem- 
 vowel {cf. § 256) :— 
 
 Indie. S. 2. c-Cov (= ?-fle-[<r]o) el-o-o t-lov (= r-S<.-[<r]o). 
 
 Imper. S. 2. Oov {= 6ll-[(r]o) o5 (= c-[(r]o) SoB (= S<(-[<r]o). 
 
go 
 
 n-6rj-ij.i (reduplicated with i), set, put. 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 
 ^. 1 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PART. ^ INF. 
 
 TiO-q-iJLi 
 
 Ti6S> 
 
 TiOeirj-v 
 
 
 
 Paetioiple. 
 
 
 2 
 
 Tt^TJ-S 
 
 nOrj'i 
 
 TiOeiTj-'S 
 
 Tldil * 
 
 TLdeL-'s,TtOii<ra, TiOev 
 
 
 3 
 
 TL6rj-(ri{v) 
 
 TcOrj 
 
 TiOu-q 
 
 n6i-Tu> 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 ndevT- 
 
 W 
 
 f . 1 
 
 TLde-fXiV 
 
 nOHfj.o' 
 
 TiOei-ixiv 
 
 — 
 
 W 
 
 2 
 
 nOe-TE 
 
 TI,6^Ti 
 
 TlOil-Ti 
 
 Tt^£-T£ 
 
 INFINITITBI. 
 
 1^ 
 
 3 
 
 Tt5£-d(ri(v) 
 
 Ti6C)aL(v) 
 
 nOiii-v 
 
 Tt^E-VTOJV 
 
 TlOi-VOL 
 
 D. 2 
 
 riSe-TOv 
 
 TldTJTOV 
 
 TiQel-Tov 
 
 rl0e-TOV 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 rl6e-rov 
 
 TiBriTov 
 
 TlBel-TTIV 
 
 Tt6e-Ttity 
 
 
 o 
 
 & 1 
 
 i-TiOrj-v 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 i-ndm * 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 3 
 
 £-Tt(9£l * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 e-TiOi-fjiev 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 l-TiOe-Te 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 3 
 
 i-nde-crav 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 il. 2 
 
 i-rWe-TOv 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 3 
 
 i-Tl6e~T7]V 
 
 
 
 
 
 FuTU 
 
 as. 
 
 6ria--u) 
 
 
 -OlfJLL 
 
 
 -WV 
 
 -eiv 
 
 P^RFi 
 
 SCT. 
 
 Ti6r}K-a t 
 
 -<o 
 
 -Ol/il 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -COS 
 
 -tvai 
 
 Plupi 
 
 DBF. 
 
 i-reOrJK-rjf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weak. 
 
 strong. 
 
 strong. 
 
 strong. 
 
 Pakticiple 
 
 
 ,S. 1 
 
 e-drjK-a J 
 
 Ow 
 
 6eirj-v 
 
 — 
 
 (Strong). 
 
 
 2 
 
 £-6?//c-as 
 
 % 
 
 Oeirj-s 
 
 ei; 
 
 ^£1-5, Oticra, 6& 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 C-^1JIC-£(l/) 
 
 ev 
 
 6ur) 
 
 ei-T(o 
 
 Stem., m., n. 
 
 
 
 Strong. 
 
 
 
 
 eivT- 
 
 o 
 
 P. 1 
 
 £-^£-/<.£V 
 
 6S>fji.ev 
 
 6ei-fiiev 
 
 — 
 
 Inpinitivb 
 
 <; 
 
 2 
 
 £'-&£-T£ 
 
 6iJT€ 
 
 Bei-Te 
 
 $4-T€ 
 
 (Strong). 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-Ot-a-av 
 
 6w(n(y') 
 
 6e2e-v 
 
 Oi-vTuiv 
 
 dci-voj. 
 
 
 D. 2 
 
 i-6e-T0y 
 
 drJTOj/ 
 
 Bel-TOV 
 
 ei-Tov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-84-Triv 
 
 Btjtov 
 
 6el-rriv 
 
 fle-TMi/ 
 
 
 * § 257. 1. [The Past Imperfect Indie, is rarely i-rlBri-s, ^-tWtj.] 
 
 + Less correctly reBeiKa, ireSetKii. The Perf. and Pluperf. are rare. 
 
 J § 257. 4. The Plural is rarely weak, except in the 3rd Pers. (often i-BriK-av). 
 
91 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PART. ^ INF. 
 
 TiOi-fJlW. 
 
 Ti6S>fji.aL 
 
 Tidei-fi,-i]v 
 
 
 
 Pabticiplb. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 n6e-a-aj. 
 
 TcOrj 
 
 TiBei-o 
 
 n6f-(T0 
 
 Tt^e-/A£vos, fj, ov 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 TiOe-TOl 
 
 tlO^tui 
 
 tlOu-to 
 
 Ti.ei-ae<i> 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 H 
 
 F. 
 
 1 
 
 n6i-fJi,e6a 
 
 n0u>fi.€6a 
 
 Ti6u-fie6a 
 
 — 
 
 TiOe-arOai 
 
 H 
 
 
 2 
 
 TtOi-aOc 
 
 TiOrja-Oe 
 
 nOei-crOe 
 
 nee-aOe 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 3 
 
 TlOe-VTM 
 
 TiOSivrai 
 
 TiOei-VTO 
 
 TtBe-aOoiV 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 TiOe-ffBov 
 
 TtBrjcrBov 
 
 TiBet-ffBov 
 
 riSe-a-Bop 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ride-trdov 
 
 TiBTiaBov 
 
 Ti0ei-a-6riv 
 
 TiBi-aBav 
 
 
 f. 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 e-TtSe-ytiijV 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-rWe-a-o 
 
 
 
 
 
 P5 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-rWi-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 e-TiQi-jj-eda 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-n6e-(r6e 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-nOe-VTO 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 i-Tlee-a-Bor 
 
 
 
 
 
 2i 
 
 
 3 
 
 e-Ttde-(r97]y 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 
 6rj(T-oiJaL 
 
 
 -Ol/t)JV 
 
 
 -Ojjieyo's 
 
 -ecrOca 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 
 Ufifim, § 269) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pluperp. 
 
 
 (eKa>r?i/, § 269) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s- 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 i-Oi-fJiTjv 
 
 d&fJIAU 
 
 deC-fJi-rp/ 
 
 
 
 Paetioiple. 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-Oov 
 
 erj 
 
 del-o 
 
 6ov 
 
 Oi-jxevo'i, 7], ov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ■i-Oi-TO 
 
 QfjTaL 
 
 diZ-TO 
 
 ei-o-6oi 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 fi 
 
 p. 
 
 1 
 
 i-6i-fie6a 
 
 OijifieSa. 
 
 Oa-fieda 
 
 — 
 
 ei-a-dm 
 
 p 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-e^-a-ee 
 
 6rja-6€ 
 
 eei-o-6e 
 
 ei-o-Oe 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-Oe-VTO 
 
 OZvTai 
 
 Oei-vTO 
 
 6i-(r6un' 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 e-Be-aday 
 
 Btjo-Bov 
 
 Bsl-trBov 
 
 Be-a-Bov 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-Be-a-e-nv 
 
 Brja-Bov 
 
 Bd-<r9riv 
 
 Bd-a-Baiv 
 
 
 A. P. (W 
 
 ..) 
 
 i-TeOrjv § 
 
 T€6-U) 
 
 -driv 
 
 2. -r]n 
 
 -£IS 
 
 -iji/at 
 
 FUT. OF 
 
 A. P. 
 
 
 Tedri(T-oixai 
 
 
 -oifirjv 
 
 
 -o/Acros 
 
 -€a6ai 
 
 § For i-Bi6-qv, to avoid the aspirates at the beginning and end of the syllable ; 
 cf. ed-a, i-riBtiv, % 280. 
 
92 
 
 I-rj-ju (reduplicated with i, for i- 
 
 fl-fJii), sen 
 
 I, let go. 
 
 1^" Tho 1 of the Present is generally long ir 
 
 Attio. 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 
 & 1 
 
 iNDia. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMPEE. 
 
 PART. ^ INF. 
 
 t-q-ixi 
 
 tS 
 
 UCr)-v 
 
 — 
 
 Participle. 
 
 
 2 
 
 ir;-s 
 
 irjs 
 
 tttij-s 
 
 Xu* 
 
 tct-s, tetca, tev 
 
 
 3 
 
 'T;-o-t(v) 
 
 '» 
 
 lU-q 
 
 l€-T<0 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 P. 1 
 
 t€-/x,ev 
 
 llUfXtV 
 
 lei-fxiv 
 
 
 
 leyT- 
 
 W 
 
 2 
 
 16-T€ 
 
 IIJTE 
 
 tCl-T€ 
 
 l£-T€ 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 P4 
 
 3 
 
 iScrt(v) 
 
 imcrt(v) 
 
 ttie-v 
 
 lE-VTMV 
 
 i£-vai 
 
 Z>. 2 
 
 ^e-Toi/ 
 
 ItlTOV 
 
 Ul-rov 
 
 '/e-TOK 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 '/€-TOJ/ 
 
 irjTov 
 
 Ui-ri\v 
 
 ie-T£i>J/ 
 
 
 o 
 
 S. 1 
 
 w* 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 w* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 iei* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 K-/X£V 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 8e-T£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 3 
 
 ?e-o-av 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 Z>. 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 le-Tr/r 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 ^tr-(i) 
 
 
 -OtjUt 
 
 
 -a)v 
 
 -eti/ 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 £iK-a 
 
 -0) 
 
 -OlfU 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -tus 
 
 -evai 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 SLK-f] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weak. 
 
 strong. 
 
 strong. 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Participle 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 ^K-a t 
 
 0) 
 
 tllJ-V 
 
 — 
 
 (Strong). 
 
 
 2 
 
 ly/c-as 
 
 r?« 
 
 eiT^-s 
 
 «-s 
 
 £t-s, eto-a, ev 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 77k:-£(v) 
 
 V 
 
 eii; 
 
 e-Tto 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 N 
 
 
 Strong. 
 
 
 
 
 CVT- 
 
 o 
 
 P. 1 
 
 £1-/^0/ 
 
 rn/xev 
 
 it-jjiev 
 
 — 
 
 Infinitivb 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 er-T€ 
 
 r)T€ 
 
 €(.-T€ 
 
 €-T€ 
 
 (Strong). 
 
 
 3 
 
 et-o-av 
 
 wa-i(v) 
 
 etc-v 
 
 'i-VTU>V 
 
 et-vat 
 
 
 X>. 2 
 
 eT-Tor 
 
 ?ITOV 
 
 ef-To;/ 
 
 €-TOP 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 il-Tr\v 
 
 ^TOV 
 
 e't-TTiy 
 
 e-TOiV 
 
 
 * § 257. 1. [The Past Imperf. Indie, is rarely ?»;-:'.] 
 
 + § 257. 4 : Plural rarely weak, except in the 3rcl Pers. (often ^k-oc). 
 
93 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE (often = hoAiten). 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 # INF. 
 
 le-fjiai 
 
 Iw/JML 
 
 let-fn)v 
 
 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 
 2 
 
 ie-<Tai § 
 
 '27 
 
 tet-o 
 
 le-o-o 
 
 te-/i€vos, 7], ov 
 
 !zi 
 
 3 
 
 t«-Tat 
 
 iiyrat 
 
 tei-TO 
 
 li-(r6u) 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 H 
 
 A-. I 
 
 U-lxeOa 
 
 liafneBa 
 
 Ui-fieOa 
 
 — 
 
 te-(rdai 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 Le-(T$€ 
 
 Ifjo-Oe 
 
 Ui-cr6e 
 
 te-o-^e 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 le-VTac 
 
 iiavraj. 
 
 lei-vTO 
 
 li-cr6<iiv 
 
 
 
 i). 2 
 
 '/e-trfloy 
 
 iri<rBov 
 
 UT-a-doy 
 
 'U-(tBov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ve-cfloy 
 
 iJiarBov 
 
 Ui-a-Briv 
 
 U-trBaiv 
 
 
 o 
 
 S. 1 
 
 U-fji,rjV 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 2 
 
 le-a-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 le-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 P. 1 
 
 i€-fj.€ea 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 le-^Oe 
 
 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 3 
 
 le-VTO 
 
 
 
 
 
 2). 2 
 
 'U-a'dov 
 
 
 
 
 
 pi 
 
 3 
 
 U-o-Stiv 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 ■^(T-o/tat 
 
 
 -oi/ji,riv 
 
 
 -d/xevos 
 
 -eaOai 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 ei-/j,ai 1 
 
 
 
 2. -0-0 
 
 -/Aevos 
 
 -a-Oca 
 
 Plupbrp. 
 
 €"-/iry7/ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 5. 1 
 2 
 
 €L-IJ.r,v II 
 
 €1-0-0 
 
 V 
 
 el-ft,rfv 
 el-o 
 
 oS 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 3 
 
 ei-TO 
 
 rjTai 
 
 ei-TO 
 
 l-aBm 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 P. 1 
 
 ei-/ji,e6a 
 
 3>fA,e6a 
 
 eL-fj,e6a 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 el-crde 
 
 ^o-Oe 
 
 €l-(r6e 
 
 €-(T0e 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 ei-VTO 
 
 &VTai 
 
 et-VTO 
 
 e-crOoyv 
 
 
 
 -P3 
 o 
 
 D. 2 
 
 eT-ffBov 
 
 •fj~(rdoj/ 
 
 er-o-flov 
 
 e-trBov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i'l-ffdnv 
 
 ^-(r6ov 
 
 i'i-cBnv 
 
 e-ffBoty 
 
 
 
 A.p.(WK.y 
 
 eterjv II 
 
 kO-S) 
 
 -u-qv 
 
 2. -IJTt 
 
 -€^9 
 
 -yjvai 
 
 FuT. OP j 
 
 A. P. ; 
 
 k6ri<T-0fWii 
 
 
 -oifjLrjv 
 
 
 -o^evos 
 
 -ecrOai 
 
 § Once contracted to Ui {i<t>-iei, " thou desirest," Sophocles, Electra, 143). 
 II Augmented in «i (ef. % 239). 
 
94 
 
 
 &'-^ 
 
 (0-/JLI (reduplicated 
 
 with i), gi 
 
 oe. 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 
 -S. 1 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUB J. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PART. 3f INF. 
 
 SiSia'/u 
 
 818(0 
 
 SiSoL-rj-v 
 
 _ 
 
 Participle. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8t8o)-s 
 
 8t8<3s 
 
 8i8oir;-s 
 
 81S0V * 
 
 8i8oi;-s, 8iSoGo-a, 8i8(>v 
 
 f^ 
 
 3 
 
 8i8a)-o-t(v) 
 
 8i8<i) 
 
 StSot?/ 
 
 Biho-Tta 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 P. 1 
 
 8iSo-/xev 
 
 8tSw/i£V 
 
 8i8or-/t£v 
 
 — 
 
 hihovT- 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 St'So-re 
 
 Si8mT£ 
 
 StOOL-T£ 
 
 Bi^O-Ti 
 
 Infinitivb. 
 
 
 3 
 
 Si8d-d(n(v) 
 
 8t85o-i(v) 
 
 8t8or£-V 
 
 8(8(3- VTOJV 
 
 8iS(>-vat 
 
 2). 2 
 
 SiSo-TOV 
 
 SiSiiroz' 
 
 SiSo7-TQy 
 
 ffi'So-TOV 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 diSo-Toy 
 
 SlScifTOJ/ 
 
 SiSoi-Triv 
 
 ^i56-T(i>V 
 
 
 g 
 
 S. 1 
 
 €-8iSow * 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 £-8t'S0VS * 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 3 
 
 i-SlBov * 
 
 
 
 
 
 rf 
 
 P. 1 
 
 i-SiSo-fiev 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 e-8i8o-T£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 3 
 
 £-8iSo-crav 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 i). 2 
 
 i-SiSo-TOV 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4-SlS6-TTIV 
 
 
 
 
 
 FUTUBE. 
 
 8u>(j-(o 
 
 
 -OLflL 
 
 
 -(OV 
 
 -tLV 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 oeSwK-a 
 
 -0) 
 
 -01,/JI.L 
 
 2. -£ 
 
 -(OS 
 
 -£>'at 
 
 Plupebp. 
 
 e-8e8a)K-7; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weak. 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Strong. 
 
 strong. 
 
 Pabticiplb 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 e-S(i)K-a t 
 
 SS> 
 
 8otij-v 
 
 — 
 
 strong. 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-S(UK-as 
 
 S<3s 
 
 Soirj-i 
 
 S()-s 
 
 80U-S, 8oiio-a, 8()V 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 e-8a)K-E(i') 
 
 8(3 
 
 Bolt) 
 
 8(3-T(l) 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 1— ( 
 
 
 Strong. 
 
 
 
 
 iovT- 
 
 o 
 
 P. 1 
 
 e-8o-/x,ei' 
 
 SS/i£V 
 
 Soi-jxev 
 
 
 
 Infinitivh 
 
 <! 
 
 2 
 
 £-8o-T£ 
 
 SGt£ 
 
 Soi-Te 
 
 So-TE 
 
 Strong. 
 
 
 3 
 
 £-So-o-av 
 
 8(0 (n(v) 
 
 SoiE-i/ 
 
 S()-1'T(0V 
 
 hov-vai 
 
 
 i?. 2 
 
 €-So-roy 
 
 SWTOI' 
 
 SoT-TOf 
 
 ^6-TOV 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-^6-T1)V 
 
 SftJTOC 
 
 Sol-TTjy 
 
 d6-Tuy 
 
 
 • § 257. 1. 
 
 t § 257. 4 : the Plural is rarely weak (iSiixa/iev, etc.). 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 §S 
 
 
 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPTAT. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PART, ij- 7i\ri^. 
 
 SLSo-fjiai 
 
 StSS/tat 
 
 SiSoL-fjirjv 
 
 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8tSo-(rat 
 
 8i8i3 
 
 SlSoI-o 
 
 St8o-cro 
 
 8t8o-/iei'os, ■);, oi/ 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 8iSo-Tai 
 
 8i8coTat 
 
 StSot-TO 
 
 OIOO'(t0w 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 SiS6-fJLe6a 
 
 8tSw/ie^a 
 
 SiSoi-fieOa 
 
 . — 
 
 StSo-cr^ai 
 
 2 
 
 SiSo-o-^c 
 
 oiOftxrd^ 
 
 SiSol-aOe 
 
 8t8o-o-ee 
 
 
 PM 
 
 3 
 
 StSo-vrat 
 
 8iSSvTa(, 
 
 OtOOl-VTO 
 
 SiSo-o-^wj/ 
 
 
 
 D. 2 
 
 SiSo-(r9oy 
 
 5t5d)<r0oj/ 
 
 SiSoi-a'doi' 
 
 Sido-trdoy 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Si5o-(r0ov 
 
 8/Sw(r0o^ 
 
 5iSoi-(rdriv 
 
 SM-a-eav 
 
 
 o 
 
 ;Sf. 1 
 
 e-8t8o-/Arjv 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 e-StSo-o-o 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 3 
 
 €-StSo-TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 P. 1 
 
 e-8t8o-/x.€^a 
 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 2 
 
 e-8i8o-(ree 
 
 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 3 
 
 £-St8o-VTO 
 
 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 D. 2 
 
 ^-S/So-o-floy 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 ^SiS(i-(re7)v 
 
 
 
 
 
 FUTU] 
 
 ^B. 
 
 Sd)o-ofxaL 
 
 
 -oifir/v 
 
 
 -0/u.evos 
 
 -co-^at 
 
 Pbrfi 
 
 MT. 
 
 SeSo-ficu 
 
 
 
 2. -0-0 
 
 -jj-ivoi . 
 
 -a-QoA. 
 
 Plupi 
 
 ]EF. 
 
 i-SeS6-fji,riv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. 1 
 
 i-So-fir/v 
 
 Oiofxai 
 
 80L-IJ.T]V 
 
 — 
 
 Pabticiple. 
 
 2 
 
 e-Sov 
 
 S<2 
 
 Soi-o 
 
 80C 
 
 8d-/iei'os, 1;, ov 
 
 CQ 
 
 3 
 
 £-8o-TO 
 
 SSrat 
 
 Soi-TO 
 
 8o-(r6ft) 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 i 
 
 P. 1 
 
 e-So-/xe6a 
 
 8u>fji.i6a 
 
 8ot-/ie^a 
 
 — . 
 
 So-cr^ai 
 
 2 
 
 e-So-trOe 
 
 Swcrde 
 
 Sol-o-Oe 
 
 S6-cr6e 
 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 e-So-VTO 
 
 SwVTOU, 
 
 Soi-VTO 
 
 So-adcav 
 
 
 (4 
 
 D. 2 
 
 e-So-aSov 
 
 ^SktBov 
 
 ^ol-ffBov 
 
 S6-creov 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4M-<revv 
 
 Suffdoy 
 
 Sol-a-e-nv 
 
 U-aBav 
 
 
 A.P.( 
 
 Wk.) 
 
 i-SoOrjv 
 
 S06-S, 
 
 -eirjv 
 
 2. -Tfn 
 
 / 
 
 -CIS 
 
 -yjvax 
 
 FUT. c 
 
 A. p. 
 
 )F ) 
 
 hoO-qiT-oiJMi 
 
 
 -Ol/ATJV 
 
 
 -oz/ievos 
 
 -ecrOcu 
 
96 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 264 
 
 Defective Verbs in -/ii, 
 1. <|>Tin,i, say, say yes [Lat. /«-?•?]. 
 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OFT. 
 
 IMF. 
 
 FART. 
 
 
 Pees. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 4>yi-IJ.L 
 
 e-<f>rj-v 
 
 06j 
 
 (jjalrj-v 
 
 — 
 
 <j>a.-'i m. 
 
 2 
 
 ^,^-s (<^JJ-s) 
 
 l-<^r)-crda 
 
 0ijS 
 
 (jiaiTj-'S 
 
 <i>a-ei{,t>tt.-6i) 
 
 (f)S.(Ta f. 
 
 3 
 
 <^5y-o-i(v) 
 
 Hv 
 
 "^17 
 
 (j}alrj 
 
 cj>a.-TOi 
 
 <f>a.v n. 
 
 P. 1 
 
 <f>a-iJi,ev 
 
 i-<f>a-iJi.ev 
 
 ^Sijxev 
 
 rj>aLi-fX,ev 
 
 — 
 
 Stem, m.,n. 
 
 2 
 
 (j>a-Te 
 
 t-rf>a-Te 
 
 0^Te 
 
 if>a'i-ri 
 
 (jid-Te 
 
 <j)dvT- 
 
 3 
 
 <j>da-i{v) 
 
 i-cj)a-a-av 
 
 ct>w(n.(v) 
 
 (j>me-v 
 
 <l)d-VT<JlV 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 Z>. 2 
 
 <j)a~T6i/ 
 
 i-^a-Tov 
 
 (pyfTov 
 
 <pat-Tov 
 
 (pd-TOV 
 
 (f)d-vai 
 
 8 
 
 (^a,-'r6v 
 
 i-ipd-T-nv 
 
 (pTJTOV 
 
 (pai-rr\v 
 
 ipd-T(av 
 
 
 FuT. <^-^cr-(u 
 
 . Weak Aoe. t- 
 
 4n](T-a. 
 
 
 Obs. 1.— On -o-9o in e(pn<rSa (^irfla, § 266 ; ^eurBa, § 267 ; oTo-fla, ^Sjjo-fla, 
 § 273), see § 274. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The Past e(priv is used sometimes as Past Imperf., sometimes 
 as Aor. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The Participle (pds is little used, its place being generally 
 supplied by <paa-K-iov, -ovaa, -ov (from <pd(TK-u, properly allege, a verb -which 
 also supplies other by-forms of ((>r)/iQ. 
 
 Obs. 4, — The Pres. Indio., except i^^j, generally loses its accent. 
 
 2. ijjjii, say [Lat. ai6\. 
 
 265 This verb is found only in the 1st and 3rd Persons of the Past 
 
 tense, used parenthetically like the Latin inquam, inquit : — 
 rj-v 8' eyto, said I, 
 y) 8' OS, said he; ^8' ^, said she, 
 OS and ^ are here old Demonstratives. 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS IN -MI. 
 
 97 
 
 3. eifii, am [Led,, sum, esse]. 
 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMF. 
 
 PART. 
 
 
 Pbes. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 £1-/11 
 
 ^-v, or ^ 
 
 S, 
 
 eiif-v 
 
 — 
 
 &v m. 
 
 2 
 
 et 
 
 ^o-^a 
 
 HS 
 
 El)?-? 
 
 Ixr-Oi 
 
 owa f. 
 
 3 
 
 e<r-Tt(v) 
 
 ^-v 
 
 V 
 
 .tv 
 
 E(r-TO) 
 
 01/ n. 
 
 R 1 
 
 ecr-fjt,ev 
 
 ^-)tl£V 
 
 Zfifv 
 
 El-flEV 
 
 — 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 2 
 
 k<T-rk 
 
 rj-re 
 
 V£ 
 
 El-TE 
 
 i<r-T€ 
 
 OVT- 
 
 3 
 
 d-(ri{v) 
 
 rj-a-av 
 
 Z(n(v) 
 
 ElE-V 
 
 ecr-T(OV 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 J). 2 
 
 ia-T&v 
 
 ■^ff-TOV 
 
 ^TOV 
 
 eT-TOV 
 
 ilT-TOV 
 
 
 3 
 
 4ff-T6v 
 
 ^tr-Ti\v 
 
 •flTOV 
 
 eX-TTiv 
 
 etr-Twy 
 
 
 
 PUTUBE. 
 
 
 
 
 PART. 
 
 »b'. i 
 
 €o--o/x,ai 
 
 
 i<7-0L/J.7)V 
 
 
 ea-ojxevo's, t], ov 
 
 2 
 
 Ecr-i; (-£t) 
 
 
 E0--010 
 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 3 
 
 £(r-Ta6 
 
 
 £(r-OlTO 
 
 
 €fr-i<r6aL 
 
 P. 1 
 
 £<r-o/u.E^a 
 
 
 ia--OL/ji,€da 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ifT-iO-Oi 
 
 
 €(T-0la-6€ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €(T-OVTaL, etc. 
 
 
 t(r-OLVTO 
 
 
 
 Obs. — The Pres. Indie, except el, generally loses its accent. Tlie -ti 
 of the 3rd Sing, is an older form of -o-j : cf, Lat. es-t. 
 
 4. Eijii, ^0 [Lat. eo, i-re]. 
 
 
 INDIG. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 
 Pees. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 (X-fkl 
 
 Ij-a 
 
 t-ft) 
 
 L-OLfll 
 
 — 
 
 l-iLv m. 
 
 2 
 
 eT 
 
 ■^-Eio-^a 
 
 i-gs 
 
 I-OIS 
 
 l-5t 
 
 t-oBo-a f. 
 
 3 
 
 £1-0-1(1') 
 
 f£.(v) 
 
 '-r/ 
 
 ?-0l 
 
 t-T(l) 
 
 L-6v n. 
 
 P. 1 
 
 1-u.ev 
 
 ■g-fiev 
 
 t-tU/XEV 
 
 i-oi/j-ev 
 
 — 
 
 Stem, m., n. 
 
 2 
 
 l-TE 
 
 ^■TE 
 
 t-i;r£ 
 
 I-OITE 
 
 6-TE 
 
 i-oVt- 
 
 3 
 
 i-ao-i(i') 
 
 ^ o-w 
 
 t-a)o-t(j') 
 
 *-Ol£V 
 
 L-OVTWV 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 D. 2 
 
 1f-T0|/ 
 
 ^-TOV 
 
 1f-7;T0X' 
 
 Jf-OiToy 
 
 X-TOV 
 
 t-€Vat 
 
 3 
 
 t-TOI' 
 
 ii-Tnv 
 
 if-5)T0»' 
 
 t-olTTjV 
 
 X-TWV 
 
 
 Obs. 1. — The Pres. Indie, has Future meaning : cf. Eng. I go, often = 
 I will go. The Present Indicative meaning is supplied by ^pxo/j-ai (§ 292). 
 
 Obs. 2. — The Past Indie, is in form a Pluperfect. Later forms are :- 
 S. 1 ^eiv, 2 jjEis ; P. 1 ^ei/iev, 2 ^eite , 3 ^ea-av ; D. 2 ^enov, 3 ridTi\v. 
 
98 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 268 
 
 269 
 
 
 5. K 
 
 ddrjfiai, am seated, sit 
 
 (^^at, poet 
 
 ical). 
 
 S.l 
 2 
 3 
 
 Pees. 
 Kad-q-iLai 
 Ka.6ri-(rai 
 KaOrj-Tai 
 
 etc. 
 
 INDIO. 
 
 Past. 
 
 i-KaOrf-jxrjV {Kad-q- jrqv) 
 
 i-KaOrj-o-o (/caS^ o-o) 
 
 l-KaOrj-TO {Ka6rj(r-To) 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 I M PER AT. 
 
 Kd6r]-(ro 
 KaO'q-(T0<i> 
 
 etc. 
 
 PART. 
 
 Ka6rj-fJif.vo<i, ri, ov 
 
 INFIN. 
 KaOrj-crOai 
 
 Obs. — Tke rare Subjunctive (icaBuiun, Koflp, Kafl^rai, etc.) and Optative 
 (Ka6rjia)v or icaBolfirii', Radyo, KaSyTo ; P. 3 KaBoii'To) are generally replaced, 
 like the Future, by forms' of KaOeCoiid', I sit down (§ 292). 
 
 6, Keifiai, lie. 
 
 
 TNDia. 
 
 IMPERA T. 
 
 p^fir. 
 
 
 Pbes. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 K€i.-/iat 
 
 Kei-Tai 
 etc. 
 
 £-K€t-/XlJV 
 
 €-K€L-a-0 
 
 t-K€l-TO 
 
 etc. 
 
 KCL-cro 
 
 etc. 
 
 K£t-/u.ei/os, 7j, ov 
 
 INFIN. 
 Kii-aOai 
 
 FuT. Keicrofuu, etc. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Kctyitai replaces the Perfect Passive of ri6f)ii.L (§ 259) : 
 e.g. ot vo/xoi Kcivrat, <7ie laws are laid dmim {riOivai, vo/xovg, to lay 
 down laws), 
 
 Obs. 2. — The Subjunctive (e.g. KeriTai) and Optative {e.g. k^oito) are rare. 
 
 '*'• XPT (sc- eo""')) ^Aere w neetf [c/. Lat. optis esi]. 
 
 270 XPV is properly an indeclinable Noun (= 7ieed) ; tenses are 
 
 formed chiefly by combining it with parts of tlfu, am (§ 266) :— 
 
 Past Indie. XPV^ ( = XPV VX or ^XPV^ (with syllabic augment 
 by analogy). 
 
 Pres. Subj. XPV (= XPV v)i Opt^t- XP«''7.(= XP^ "i?) ; Part. 
 Neut. ;^£a)v ( = ;^^ ov) ; Infin. XPV"''-'' ( = XPV 
 cTvat). 
 
 Fut. Indie. )(p^<TTai ( = ;)^^ lo-Tat), or by analogy )(p-qcrei.. 
 
NON-THEMATIC STRONG AORIST ACTIVE. 
 
 99 
 
 271 
 
 A few verbs in -o) form a Strong Aorist ActiYe without 
 
 the vowel o/e, like verbs in -/At (§ 252. 1) : — 
 
 €-Pr,-v {Pa-L-v-m, § 288. ii.) 
 dw-c-Spd-v (aTTo-St-Spa-CTK-o), run 
 
 away, § 289. ii.) 
 f-yvm-v {yL-yvui-(TK-ta, get to Jcnow, 
 
 § 289. ii.) 
 frfjiv-v {<j>v-oiJ,ai, grow, § 280) 
 
 f.-<t>6ri-v {<f)6a.-v-m, anticipate, § 
 
 288. i.) 
 £-aXti)-v (dA.-io'K-o/iat, am captured, 
 
 am detected, § 289. i.) 
 i-l3io>-v (ii-o,, IS>, live, § 292) 
 i-hv-v (8ii-o/iai, sink, § 280) 
 
 272 
 
 A few others (poetical) will be given among Principal Parts. 
 These Aorists are conjugated as follows : — 
 
 s.\ 
 
 INhlO. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMPEE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 t-lirrv 
 
 I3& 
 
 PaCrj-v 
 
 
 
 /3o-s m. 
 
 j3rj-vaL 
 
 2 
 
 1-^7,-^ 
 
 ^ih 
 
 paiTj-i 
 
 pr,-e. 
 
 ySSo-a f . 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-p-n 
 
 Pv 
 
 Pai-q 
 
 ^Stj-tm 
 
 /3dv n. 
 
 
 P.\ 
 
 e.-^ri-[Ji,ev 
 
 jSdJ/ACI' 
 
 Pai-^iv 
 
 — 
 
 St. pdvT- 
 
 
 2 
 
 l-j8l)-T£ 
 
 j8^« 
 
 Pat-re 
 
 pri-r. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 £-/8ij-o-av 
 
 /3(u<ri(v) 
 
 j8ai€-v 
 
 pa.-vTtm' 
 
 
 
 Zl. 2 
 
 e-Bri-TOV 
 
 jS^TOI/ 
 
 ^oCi-TQU 
 
 firj-Tov 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-^ii-rrii 
 
 jB^TOI/ 
 
 Pal-Ti\v 
 
 Pil-Tav 
 
 
 
 S.\ 
 
 -l-Spo-i/^J 
 
 -SpS II IS 
 
 -Spairj-v 
 
 
 -Spa-S m. 
 
 -Spa-vai 
 
 2 
 
 -l-Spd-s || 
 
 -Spas n "S o5 
 
 -Spairj-s 
 
 
 -Bpacra i. 
 
 
 3 
 
 -l-8pd |1. 
 
 etc. ;i^ 1 
 
 -Spa t's-:^ 
 
 -Spatrj 
 etc. 
 
 
 -Spdv n. 
 St. -Spai'T- 
 
 
 S.\ 
 
 i-yvut-v 
 
 v" <is 
 
 yvoirj-v 
 
 
 
 •yvov-s m. 
 
 yvu)-v<u 
 
 2 
 
 c-yvto-s 
 
 yvcOS "^ (M 
 
 yvoiij-s 
 
 yvS)-6i 
 
 •yvoCcra f. 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-yv<D 
 
 yv<3 g;^ 
 etc. •&.<!■ 
 
 yvoiTj 
 
 yvcu^o) 
 
 yvov n. 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 St. yvovT- 
 
 
 -Sf. 1 
 
 €-<^i;-v 
 
 <l)V-ta 3"g 
 
 
 
 
 (ji-B-'S m. 
 
 (f>v-vai. 
 
 2 
 
 e-i^O-s 
 
 Sfru'-rjs ~|S. 
 
 
 (f>V-6L 
 
 (^wa f . 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-4,i 
 
 (j>v-y ^ # 
 
 
 <f)V-T<a 
 
 <^w n. 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. <,^. 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 St. (jiVVT- 
 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Defective Verbs in -u. 
 
 273 In the following verbs the Perfect has the meaning of a 
 
 Present, the Pluperfect has the meaning of a Past Imperfect : 
 cf. Lat. novi, ' I know ' ; noveram, ' I knew,' etc. 
 
 1. otSa (Strong), know [Lat. vid-l, Engl, wot]. 
 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 OPT AT. 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 
 Pert. 
 
 Plupf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 st. ol^-t (5- 
 
 St. ei'S- 
 
 St. €(§6- 
 
 St. eiSe- 
 
 St. iS- 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 oT8-a 
 
 yS-rj* 
 
 etooj 
 
 «i8e6')y-v 
 
 — 
 
 elStti's m. 
 et8vra f. 
 eiSos n. 
 
 2 
 
 oXaOa* 
 
 ■SS-7,<T0a* 
 
 eiS^s 
 
 €i8en^-s 
 
 la--eL 
 
 3 
 
 olS-€(v) 
 
 !?S-et(v) 
 
 ei8^ 
 
 eiSctij 
 
 lO--T(U 
 
 P. 1 
 
 Kr-iiey 
 
 ycT-ixo' 
 
 ei8S/A€i' 
 
 £l8£t-/X€I' 
 
 — 
 
 stem m., n. 
 eiSoT- 
 
 2 
 
 tcr-Te 
 
 ■go-Te 
 
 ei8^T€ 
 
 ei8€t-Te 
 
 wr-TE 
 
 3 
 
 ta-o.cn(v) 
 
 ■gS-ecrav 
 or y-crav 
 
 ei8(ii(rt(v) 
 
 eiSeie-]/ 
 
 itr-TOiv 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 B.2 
 
 tff-TOV 
 
 rttr-Tov 
 
 eiS^Toi/ 
 
 eiSer-Tov 
 
 To"- TO I* 
 
 
 3 
 
 tar-Tov 
 
 f(r-Triv 
 
 eiS^TOi/ 
 
 eiS(l-T-i)v 
 
 ftr-Twy 
 
 
 FUT. iUT-OfU 
 
 u, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 2. S^SoiKa (Weak), 8^8ia (Strong), fear. 
 
 
 
 INDia. 
 
 
 IMP. 
 
 PART. 
 
 mF. 
 
 
 Peep. 
 
 Plupf. 
 
 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 StSotK-a, 
 
 SeSi-a 
 
 i-SeSotK-ri 
 
 — 
 
 8£8oiK-ais, 
 
 SeSoik- 
 
 2 
 
 8eSot/c-as 
 
 
 i-SfSoiK-rj? 
 
 8£8i-6i6 
 
 -via, -OS 
 
 EVOt 
 
 3 
 
 8e8oiK-e(i/), 
 
 8e8i-£(v) 
 
 e-8£8otK-£i(v) 
 
 SeSC-Tia 
 
 St. SeSoiKOT- 
 
 
 P. 1 
 
 868oiK-a/t6v, 
 
 SeSijj.ev 
 
 i-SiSi-fji.ei' 
 
 — 
 
 SeSi-uts, 
 
 SeSi- 
 
 2 
 
 SeBoiK-are, 
 
 ScSt-Te 
 
 i-SeSi-re 
 
 8£8t-T£ 
 
 -via, -OS 
 
 h>ai 
 
 3 
 
 SeSoLK-axn{v) 
 
 8E8t-acri(v) 
 
 i-SiSL-aav 
 
 — 
 
 st. S£8lOT- 
 
 
 Age. iSeLcra, 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 §274. 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS IN -O. 
 
 3. eoiKtt (Strong), am like. 
 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 SVBJ. 
 
 OFT AT. 
 
 PAET. 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 S. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 Peep. 
 
 £OlK-a 
 
 eoiK-as 
 
 EOl/C-£(v) 
 
 Plupp. 
 iiOK-rj 
 
 ea)K-ei(v) 
 
 ioLK-m 
 
 COtK-IJS 
 
 etc. 
 
 ioiK-OlfU 
 ioLK-OL'S 
 
 etc. 
 
 fXK-UK, 
 
 -Via, -OS 
 st. eiKOT- 
 
 flK-eyai 
 
 P. 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 D. 2 
 
 eotK-aTE 
 ioiK-arov 
 
 i<i)K-€Te 
 i(aK-e<Tav 
 
 [or ciKols 
 S, ^s, etc. 
 § 188] 
 
 [or eiKois 
 etc., § 188] 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 eof/c-aroj/ 
 
 e<jpK-eT97J' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fur. cif (0, etc. 
 
 Obs. — The 3rd Sing. ? oiK6(y) often means it is reasonable ; Neuter Parti- 
 ciple eiKifr, reasonable. Note the o- in the 3rd Plur. €lf|o(ri(v). 
 
 4. ({(tapTai, i£ is fated. 
 
 This verb occurs in Attic only in the Passive 3rd Pers. Sing. : Perf. 
 et/iap-rai, it is fated, Plupf . e'lfiap-ro, it was fated, Part, etfiap-fievos J v ci/uap- 
 fievrj (so. fioipa),fate, rh elfiapfieyoy, that which is fated. 
 
 5. irtirpuToi, it is fated. 
 
 This verb occurs in Attic only in the Passive 3rd Pers. Sing. : Perf. 
 Vfirpa-Tat, it is fated, Part. Tevpa-iJi.ivos ; ^ ireirpu/ievri (so. /loipa), fate, rb 
 Trenpai/j.imi', that which is fated. 
 
 Notes on the above forms. 
 
 274 1. OT(r$a = olS-6a, with an old inflexion of the 2nd Sing. -9a ; the n- 
 
 which crept in here and in ^ff-Ba (§ 266, st. iir-) came to be regarded as 
 part of the inflexion and was thus transferred to other verbs {e.g. %-<p-ri-<rBa, 
 § 264) ; in fS-ria-Ba (§ 273. 1) and ^-tifffla (§ 267) it is combined with ths 
 vowel of the Pluperfect (r; or ei). 
 
 2. Later or less correct forms of the Pluperf. ^St) (§ 273. 1) are : — 
 
 S. 1 i)Seiv, 2 p'Seitrflo {gSeis, jjStjs), 3 ^Si; ; P. 1 p^tfi^y, 2 ^SciTC ; 
 D. 2 ^SeiToy, 3 ^SeiTT/y. 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Pbculiaeities in the meaning of Voices and Tenses. 
 
 275 Middle and Passive forms often assume Active meaning : 
 e.g.— 
 
 ireWta, persuade (Accus.), weBofmi, am persuaded, obey (Dat.). 
 
 <t>o/3S), frighten (Accus.), <^o/3oi)/iai, am frightened, fear (Accus.). 
 
 Verbs which have no Active forms in use, but only Middle or 
 Passive forms with Active meaning, are called Deponent Verbs, 
 as in Latin : e.ij. — 
 
 PovkoiULi, will, /3ov\-i^(TOfMi, /Sej8ovA.i7/iat, ipovX^^B-qv, 
 
 Sexp/xai, receive, Si^o/j-ai, SiSey/juu, eSe^ayujyv. 
 
 Some verbs which have Middle forms with Active meaning 
 have also Passive forms with Passive meaning: e.g. alnS>iMu, 
 accuse ; ^id^ofuu, compel (or am compelled) : — 
 
 Active meaning. 
 aXriS>ii,a.i, ainSicroiuu, •fJTia/Jiai, 
 
 PtAtfifMi, Pw.(rofxai, PiPiaxTjiai, 
 iPia(Ta.fji,riv 
 
 276 In very many verbs the Future alone has Middle or Passive 
 form with Active meaning, especially in verbs which denote the 
 exercise of the bodily or mental faculties : e.g. — 
 
 Passive man nin g, 
 riTLdfi,ai, ■ffTiAOrp/ : 
 
 ^id^o/Mii, /JeySiW/iai, ipiAcrByjv 
 
 (a) EXEEOISE OF THE BoDlLY FACULTIES. 
 
 aSo), sing, 3,(rofi.ai 
 ^ou>, shout, PorjcroiJJU 
 ■ycAo), laugh, yeXao'Ofji.ai 
 ol/Mio^iD, lament, oifJAi^o/jju 
 
 [With others denoting exercise of 
 the voice, or its restraint, e.g. 
 fflyu, ffiayira, am silent, trlyii- 
 (TOfiaL, (rtayir-fjffo/jiat] 
 
 aKOvo), hear, aKovaofnai 
 Oiyyavbi, touch, dL^o/uu 
 
 SaKVU), bite, S'^^o/j.ai 
 icrdio), eat, iSofJiai 1 really old 
 Trfi'o), drink, Trto/JLOJ. I Subjunctives 
 Tpwyia, gnaw, Tpui^ojxax 
 \acrK<ii, gape, xavovfuii 
 
 dtravTSi, meet, airavr^a-ofiai 
 airo-BiSpda-KO), run away, -Spdo-o/xai 
 j3aS£^a>, walk, /SaStov/jMi 
 ^aivia, go, /Stjcroimt 
 Sl(i)kio, pursue, Siw^o/j,ai, 
 6eo), run, Oeva-o/xai 
 vi(o, swim, veva-oiJ.ai 
 TTTjSS), leap, irq^a-ofjua 
 TTtTTTO), fall, wecrovfji/xi 
 TrXeo), sail, TrXeva-o/JMi 
 peoijflow, pvTQo-ofiai 
 TtKToi, bring forth, ri^ofuu 
 rpexoi, run, Spaiuiv/jiai 
 4>evyai, flee, tjieviop-ai (-ovfuai) 
 [With others denoting movement] 
 
MEANINGS OF VOICES AND TENSES. 103 
 
 (5) EXEKOISE OP THE MENTAL PaCULTIBS. 
 
 a/J-apravu), err, a^apr^o-o/Aai 
 yiyvuxTKUi, get to know, yvuxrofiax 
 iw.v6a.via, learn, ixaO-qa-o/Jiai 
 
 OTTOvSa^o), am busy, o-7rov8acro;aai 
 
 aTroXavo), evjoy, a.Tro\avtTOft.ai. 
 iiraivu), praise, iwaivicro/uii 
 Oavixa^o), admire, Oav/jLaa-oiJiai 
 (TK(inmi, jeer, crKwipo/jiaL or -o) 
 v^pi^io, insult, ippiovfiai. or -m 
 
 (c) MlSCBLLAUEOtrS Meaiungs. 
 
 a7ro-6vrj<rKO), die, -OavovfJiai 
 St. |8mi)-, live, piMoroiuu 
 yqpa.<TKU>, grow old, yrjpacrofJMi 
 u/xi, am, itropLOi 
 Tra.cr)(<a, suffer, ireicro/tac 
 
 apTrd^uy, seize, apTracroixai 
 Xayxavw, obtain, \rj^op.a,i 
 \.a/ji,/3dvo), take, A-^i/foynai 
 Tvy)(avii}, obtain, Tev^o/iai 
 
 277 The Perfect Active often has (i.) Intransitive or Passive meaning ; 
 (ii.) Present meaning {cf. note at foot of p. 47) : it may thus correspond in 
 meaning to a Present Middle or Passive : e.g. — 
 
 Sia, dip, sink (trans.), 81)0,1101, dip, sink, get into (intrans.), Se'SCko, have got 
 
 into (intrans.). 
 Xarriiu, place, 'IffTafiai, place myself, eVttiko, stand, 
 wfiyvvfiijfix, TT-ijyj/vfjLat, am fixed, ireirriya, am fixed. 
 iiiyvvfi.1, break, fi'/iyyvfiai, hurst Jorth, ^ppaya, have burst forth. 
 (T^vco, rot (tr.), (T^irojuoi, rot (intr.), aiaiiva, am rotten. 
 
 iT$4vvviu, quench (tr.), tr$€vyvfi.ai, am quenched (intr.), eo-jBrjKa, am quenched, 
 ipia, grow (tr.), ipvo/iat, grow (intr.), ire^vKa, am by nai/wre. 
 
 oKiaKojuu, am captiired, edhmxa, have been captv/red. 
 
 ylyvofiui, become, yeyova, have become. . 
 
 epxofiai, go, come, 4K-f]\v6a, am come. 
 
 /Mimnai, am mad, fiefiiiva, am mad. 
 
 278 When a verb has two Active Perfects or Aorists, one Weak and the 
 other Strong, the Weak forms are generally transitive, the Strong intran- 
 sitive: e.g. — 
 
 iWi/xi, destroy, oKti\eKa, have destroyed, bKaiKa, am undone. 
 velSu, persuade, ireireiKa, have persuaded, TreVoiflo, trust, 
 ipalya, show, iri^ayKa, have shovm, iTe<priva, have appea/red. 
 Hffrn/ii, place, firrriffa, placed, iarnv, stepped, stood. 
 ipia, grow (tr.), ^<jniiTa,grew (tr.), cipiv, grew (intr., § 272). 
 [The above rule does not apply to the Aorists of irtiSoj, which are both tran- 
 sitive, or the Perfects of XtrTTifu, which are both intransitive.] 
 
104 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 
 
 279 The Principal Parts of a Greek Verb are : — 
 
 1. The Present Indicative Active. 
 
 2. The Future Indicative Active or Middle. 
 
 3. The Aorist Indicative Active or Middle (Weak or 
 
 Strong). 
 
 4. The Perfect Indicative Active (Weak or Strong). 
 
 5. The Perfect Indicative Passive and Middle. 
 
 6. The Aorist Indicative Passive (Weak or Strong). 
 
 The following classified list of Principal Parts (§§ 280-292) 
 contains verbs having some peculiarity in their tenses for which 
 no general rule can be given ; all verbs of importance which form 
 a Strong Aorist (Active, Middle, or Passive) are included. The 
 typical regular verbs are inserted in black type. 
 
 An alphabetical list (for reference and revision) is given in 
 Appendix V. ; it contains all the verbs of the classified list, 
 together with a number of others — some irregular but of less 
 common occurrence, others illustrating the rules and exceptions 
 of §§ 184-278. 
 
 In the classified list attention is called to peculiarities by 
 means of references placed after the headings of the sections, 
 and notes at the foot of the page. The less important or poetical 
 tenses are printed in small type. 
 
 A hyphen before a verb indicates that it is found only (or 
 chiefly) in compounds. 
 
 Note the following abbreviations : — 
 
 M. = Middle ; P. = Passive ; A. P. = Aorist Passive. 
 
 Str. = Strong; AVk. = W6ak. 
 
 tr. = transitive : intr. = intransitive. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 loS 
 
 280 Vowe 
 
 stems 
 
 uncontracted (§? 
 
 230, 245, 272, 276). 
 
 Xuu 
 
 Xuau 
 
 eXuao 
 
 X^UKa 
 
 Kikufiai, 
 
 k\i6-i\v 
 
 loose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aKovta 
 
 aKova-ofi-ai 
 
 ijKova-a 
 
 d/c^Koa 
 
 ^Kovfffiat 
 
 r)KCfuo-6y]v 
 
 hear 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dvuo), dvvToi 
 
 a.vu(Tio 
 
 T^wcra 
 
 ^VDKa 
 
 Tjvvfrp.ai 
 
 rpritrOrfv 
 
 accomplish 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ovb) 
 
 8v(ru} 
 
 eSucra (tr.) 
 
 hihvKa 
 
 SiSv/iaj. 
 
 iSvOr/v 
 
 dip,sink(tt.) 
 
 
 iSvv (intr.) 
 
 (intr.) 
 
 
 
 $v(a 
 
 dva-io 
 
 c^vcra 
 
 riOvKa 
 
 TiOvjuu, 
 
 iruB-qv ' 
 
 sacrifice 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 KaraXev^a 
 
 KaTaXevcoi 
 
 KareXcDO-a 
 
 ■ — ■ 
 
 — 
 
 KaTeX.ev(r6rp/ 
 
 stoneto death 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kcXevu) 
 
 KeXevo-o) 
 
 eKcXcvtra 
 
 (ccKeXevKa 
 
 KEKeXcDcr/xai 
 
 iKeXivuB V 
 
 bid 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . , close 
 
 kAtjo) 
 
 kXcicto) 
 
 eKXetcraj 
 l/cXijcra 
 
 KcxXetKal 
 KeKXrjKa 
 
 Ke/cXei/iai 
 KexXij/iat 
 
 iKkrjirO-qv 
 
 kXtjo"0) 
 
 KpOVO) 
 
 Kpovcro} 
 
 €Kpoucra 
 
 K€KpOVKa 
 
 KiKpOV/JUXL 
 
 iKpoixrdtjV 
 
 strike 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trpl'u) 
 
 Trpicroi 
 
 «r(3t(ra 
 
 TrerrplKa 
 
 ■7reirpi(Tp.iu 
 
 iirpicrOrjv 
 
 saw 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 creio) 
 
 creicria 
 
 ecreitra 
 
 CTOTCt/Ca 
 
 a-ea-€urfuu 
 
 laiia-Orfv 
 
 shake 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <j>vio 
 
 (jiVcro) 
 
 £^iJo-a(tr.) 
 
 TTitjiVKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 grow (tr.) 
 
 
 i(j>vv (infcr. 
 
 1. gfj-ew 
 
 2. am Jj/ 
 nature) 
 
 am by 
 natv/re 
 
 
 
 Kaiu) {Kdu)^ 
 
 Kavcro) 
 
 tKOVcra 
 
 KCKavKa 
 
 KCKavfjuu 
 
 iKoiB-qv 
 
 . burn 
 
 
 rwa' 
 
 
 
 
 K\aim {ic\da) ' 
 
 KXavcroixai 
 
 cKXauo-a 
 
 — 
 
 KeKXav/jLai 
 
 — 
 
 weep 
 
 
 
 
 1. am mournm 
 
 2. am bathed 
 
 in tears 
 
 
 ' For i-BiS-riv, to avoid aspiration at beginning and end of syllable. 
 
 2 The stems Kai-, bum, K\ai-, weep, are derived from the stems kou-, kkav- 
 (seen in the Future, Aorist, etc.) by adding y and changing the v to the 
 digamma (xap-y- K\af-y-) : the y produces a change in the stem-vowel (cf. § 
 228), and the f falls out : Kcuf-, kKaif-, become kou-, kAoi-. kA-u, KA.(i-iu are 
 Old Attic forms, never contracted. 
 
 ' Old Attic Aorist, formed without <r. 
 
io6 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 281 Vowel stems contracted (§§ 230-235, 276). 
 
 (a) Stems in a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 honour 
 
 Tlfi,ri<T(a 
 
 ^TifJ.T](ra 
 
 T«Ti(i.r]Ka 
 
 TETlflTIIJiai 
 
 lTlji,r\6r\ii 
 
 aKpoZ/xai 
 
 listen 
 
 aKpod<TOiJi.Oii 
 
 riKpo5.crd[j,rjv 
 
 — 
 
 TjKpoapai 
 
 — 
 
 yeXS) 
 
 laugh ' 
 kKC> 
 
 break 
 
 yeXacro/Aai 
 
 iyi\acra 
 
 — 
 
 yeyeKatr/iat 
 
 iyeXda-Orjv 
 
 Kkd<Tta 
 
 cKkacra 
 
 — 
 
 K€K\a(TflUU 
 
 iKkda-drjv 
 
 KTUl/JLai 
 
 acquire 
 
 KTT^a-o/jiai 
 
 iKTyitrdix-qv 
 
 
 tKTHJIJUll 
 
 iKTTjB-qv 
 was ac- 
 quired 
 
 cnrS) 
 
 drag 
 XPo> (§ 232) 
 
 giveoracle 
 
 (rrdcro) 
 XPW"> 
 
 f.<nra(Ta, 
 
 ia-iraKa 
 
 Ke)(pT]<TTai 
 (S.3) 
 
 lairda-Orjv 
 
 iXp-qcrOri 
 (S.3) 
 
 \ me (§ 232) 
 
 XPV<^o,mi. 
 
 iXpV<rdp.riv 
 
 
 KiXpqpM 
 need 
 
 If as used 
 
 [b) Stems in c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TTOtU 
 
 do, make 
 
 iroi'qo'O) 
 
 EiroiT]a'a 
 
 ■ir£iroiT]KO 
 
 irEiroirifiai 
 
 i-KOI.'f\dl\)> 
 
 a'Sov/jMi 
 respect 
 
 praise 
 
 aiSe'o-o/xat 
 aivecro) 
 
 jjvtcra 
 
 ypriKa 
 
 
 
 apKto 
 suffice 
 
 apKecoi 
 
 ^pK€<Ta 
 
 
 
 
 1 Passive am laughed at. 
 
 ' Subj. KCKTa/iai, KeKTp, K6KT^T01, etc., Optat. KiKT-^/iriV, kckt^o, kektJto, 
 
 etc. (instead of the ordinary periphrasis Kem-n/icvos &, eiriv; cf. § 187*). 
 There is a Fut. Perf. ludio. KfKTia-oinai = I shall possess. 
 
 ' Compounds iir-(uvS>, praise (Put. iiraiyeirafiat, § 276) ; Trap-aiva, exhort 
 (Fut. ■napatviau). 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OP PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 107 
 
 85 (§ 234) 
 bind 
 
 Jijero) 
 
 ■.8rj<Ta 
 
 StSexa 
 
 SeSe/tai 
 
 kSiOrpf 
 
 rpiio 
 tremble 
 
 rpe'crco 
 
 iTpecra 
 
 
 
 
 KoXS) 
 
 call 
 
 Ka\5 
 
 eKttXecra 
 
 K€K\r]Ka * 
 
 KiKXrji/.ai ' 
 
 am. caHai 
 
 iKk-^Or/v ' 
 
 TeXSy 
 complete 
 
 TeAxS 
 
 eTeA,£cra 
 
 TCTcXcKa 
 
 TeTcXecTjitat 
 
 eTikicrOriv 
 
 vioy^'i^ 233) 
 
 vev<roixai 
 
 l('€D(ra 
 
 vei/cuKa 
 
 
 
 
 
 swim 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ttXe'o)^ (§ 233) 
 sail 
 
 TrXeucrofjuxL 
 -irodfiM ; § 238 
 
 hrXevira 
 
 TTCTrXevKa 
 
 TreTrXevfffJLat* 
 
 — 
 
 irve'o)? (§ 233) 
 breathe 
 
 -TrvevcrofjLai 
 
 tTrveucra 
 
 TreTTVfUKa 
 
 
 
 Xe'o) (§ 233) 
 pour 
 
 X^' 
 
 Ixea" 
 S. 3. Ix" 
 
 K€^VKa * 
 
 Ke^VfUU * 
 
 I)(y6r]v * 
 
 (c) Stems in 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St)\u 
 
 make clear 
 
 SriXcaau 
 
 eSi^XciMTO 
 
 SESi^XuKa 
 
 SE8i^X(d|j,ai 
 
 €Sr]X(ieT]i' 
 
 heap up 
 
 Xwcrw 
 
 £X<oo"a 
 
 xi^ioKa 
 
 Ki^wa-lJMi 
 
 €)(i!>a-6rjv 
 
 1 Prom the stem k\i)-. 
 
 ^ The stems «-, ttXe-, iryt- are derived from the stems vev-, irKev-, vvev- 
 (seen in the Future, Aorist, and Perfect) by changing the u to the digamma, 
 which then falls out : vep-, irXc/--, ■rrvep- become cc-, xAe-, irve-. 
 
 " Formed without cr. (x™ is really a Subjunctive used as a.Puture.) 
 
 * The stem x"- is a shorter form of x^"- (seen in rh xEt'/uo, stream) : the 
 
 Present stem xf- comes from x^"- (x^f-)> i"^* "'^ "^"i '"^^-t "'''«- fi^°™ "«"■> 
 
 irXeu-, TTvev- ; see note 2 above. 
 
toS 
 
 Greek grammar. 
 
 282 Mute Stems (§§ 239-245, 276). 
 
 1. Not extended in the Present and Past Imperfect, 
 (a) Guttural. 
 itXeku ' 
 
 weave 
 
 ayia 
 
 lead 
 
 IS.PXO 
 
 J rule 
 
 J apxpfuxi 
 
 \ begin 
 
 iXiyXOi 
 
 examine, 
 
 prove 
 
 IXko) 
 
 drag 
 " i 
 riKut 
 
 am come 
 
 picJc up 
 StaXeyo/Aai 
 
 converse 
 -oiyu) I . 
 -oXyvvfxt J 
 
 open 
 melt (tr.) 
 flee 
 
 liKl^ia 
 
 EirXela 
 
 ir^irXcxa 
 
 (Str.) 
 
 a^m 
 
 •^yayoi' ^ 
 
 VX°- 
 
 ap^ia 
 
 ^p^a 
 
 — 
 
 ap^ofi-ai 
 
 rjpia.ix.-qv 
 
 — 
 
 i\iy^(a 
 
 rjXeyia 
 
 — 
 
 eX^o) 
 
 eiXKUcra ° 
 
 f\ 8 
 
 -Xe^ft) 
 
 -ae^a 
 
 -EiXo;;^a 
 
 hiaXi^o/xai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -otfo) 
 
 -€0)^a 
 
 — 
 
 -oC;uai,§238 
 
 erri^a 
 i<j>vyov 
 
 (intr.) 
 Tr€(f>evya 
 
 TreirXeyjiai 
 
 iTr\4\6r\v 
 i-n\6i,Kr\v 
 
 ^yfiai 
 
 rixdrfv 
 
 ^pyp.a.1 
 
 ripxO-qv 
 
 JjpyiMi 
 
 — 
 
 eX^Xcy/Aat 
 (S. 2 -7|ai, 
 
 S. 3 -VKTHl) 
 
 d\KV(rp.ai " 
 
 yjX '.yxOrjV 
 elXKva-6-rjv ' 
 
 -eiXcy/iai 
 
 -eXiyrjv 
 
 8lEtXcy;ctat 
 
 SieXiXl^W 
 
 -ewy/xai 
 
 -iiaxOiqv 
 
 eraKr/v 
 
 ' The verb-stem has parallel forms with varying vowels (cf. § 214, note) : 
 7r\CK-, ir\a.K- ; Aey-, \oy- ; tjjk-, tok- I i^eiry-, (/)u7-. 
 
 " Formed by reduplicating (cf. § 245, Attic Eeduplioation) and aug- 
 menting. 
 
 ' Prom the stem k\Kv- ; the Pres. and Put. are from the stem i\K-. 
 
 * The-Present has Perfect meaning : the Past ^/coy = (i.) was come, (ii.) 
 came. 
 
 ^ Compounded with Atto-, ^k-, Kara-, <rv\-. = Lat. lego, col-Ugo, intel-lego, 
 etc. Contrast \4yu, say, § 292. The meaning read occurs in Attic only 
 in the Compounds ai/a-Xe-yoynoi, iTii-K4yoii.ai. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 log 
 
 (J) Labial. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XeiTTfti 
 
 leave 
 
 \ei<|>(d 
 
 IViiroi' 
 
 K^Xonra 
 
 \^\Ei|Jifiai. 
 
 E\ci(t>er)i' 
 
 ypoLtjoi) 
 write 
 
 ypd.ij/<i> 
 
 typaxj/a 
 
 yiypa^a 
 
 yiypa/x/JLai 
 
 lypd.<f>y]v 
 
 Tre/JLTTU) 
 send 
 
 Trifiij/oj 
 
 eTre/jLij/a 
 
 7reirOjU<^a 
 
 xeTr€/A/x.at 
 
 i7rep,(j>6rjv 
 
 rot (tr.) ■ 
 UTpeip<o * 
 tu7-n aside 
 
 (ra.7rqa-ofj.ai 
 (Fut. of A. P.) 
 crrpiij/ui 
 
 €(TTpaj/a 
 
 triarytra 
 
 am rotten 
 cffrpoipa 
 
 ea-TpafipoL 
 
 ia-a-Tr-qv 
 i(rTpoi<f>r]v 
 
 rpeirta^ 
 turn 
 
 Tpeij/(a 
 
 erpefa 
 
 Terpo<f)a 
 
 TtTpap-fiai 
 
 iTpaitrpi 
 iTpetpBtjy 
 
 rp€<j>m ' 
 nourish 
 
 Opifm^ 
 
 erpaTrop.rjv 
 
 Terpo(^a 
 
 reOpa/xfjiai ^ 
 
 irpatfyriv 
 
 Tpi^at^ 
 rub 
 
 Tpi\j/(l} 
 
 erpaj/a 
 
 rerpKJM. 
 
 TeTpLiJi,ft.ax 
 
 irpL/irjv 
 
 (c) Dental. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ircidu ^ 
 
 urge, 
 
 ■neiaia 
 
 eireura 
 
 ir^ireiKa (tr.) 
 
 ITEITOlOa 
 
 ir^ircicrfiai 
 
 eiT£i(70r)|i 
 
 persuade ° 
 
 
 Iiri6<i|ji,r|v 
 
 (intr. trust) 
 
 
 
 aSo) 
 
 aa-ofjLai, 
 
 fjtra 
 
 — 
 
 •gcrfJMi • 
 
 yaOrfv 
 
 sing 
 am glad 
 
 ■fjcrOricroitai 
 (Fut. of A. P.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 i^a-Orjv 
 
 pour out * 
 
 (TTtiLtTIO ^ 
 
 eoTTcio-a ' 
 
 
 e(T'ira(TfJMi ^ 
 
 
 ' The verb-stem has parallel forms with varying vowels (cf. § 214, note) : 
 Aeiff-, \i7r-, AoiTT- ; Tre/tTT-, irofnr- ', (Ttjtt-, (Tair- ; ffrp^tp-, trrpoip-, trrpatp- ; rpeTr-, 
 TpoTT-, Tpoir- ; Tpi^-, rptp- (Perf. Act., Aor. Pass.) ; ireifl-, irifl-, iroifl-. 
 
 2 For rpetp-fftot e-Tpe^-(ra, Te-rpa(p-^a.i ; the aspiration lost at the end of 
 the stem owing to the addition of <r or ;« is restored at the beginning : cf. 
 stem rpix-, Nom. Spi^, § 49. 9. 
 
 ' Passive and Middle am persuaded, persuade myself, obey. 
 
 * Middle make a treaty, literally pour libations one with another. 
 
 ^ tnreia-- for (rireyS-a--, cf. x«P^f'S ^°^ X"?'^'"''-* (§ 106), KvBets for \vefVT-s 
 (§ 108. 3). 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Mute Stems (continued: §§ 235-245, 276). 
 
 283 2. Extended in the Present and Past Imperfect by the 
 addition of t. (§ 217. i.) 
 
 harm 
 
 Odwria^ 
 
 bury 
 
 steal 
 Kojrrto 
 
 cut, chop 
 piirrai 1 
 
 ^iwrio ( = -eai) J 
 
 PX-OHJ/O) 
 
 e/3kail/a 
 
 daxj/ta 
 
 Wa^a 
 
 KXei/ro) 
 
 eKX€ij/a 
 
 KOlj/O) 
 
 €KO\j/a 
 
 piij/ui 
 
 €ppi.ij/a 
 
 a-Kaij/oi 
 
 e<TKatj/a 
 
 KcKXoi^a 
 tppl<j>a 
 
 pipXap-jxai 
 
 TiOafJLfj.aL 
 
 KeKXep,iJJii 
 
 (CEKO/X/Hal 
 
 iTd(l>rjv 
 ippi(l>6riv 
 
 hurl 
 a-Kdirrta crKd^j/iji e<TKatj/a i<yKa<f>a €tr/ca/A/iai i(TKd<t>T]v 
 
 dig 
 
 284 3. Extended in the Present and Past Imperfect by the 
 addition of the sound y. (§ 217. ii.) 
 (a) Guttural. 
 
 aXX.d<T<r<i> \ 
 aXXdrro) I 
 change 
 
 eXlTTO) ) 
 
 roll 
 6pv(r(r oy\ 
 OpVTTiO ) 
 
 dig 
 £K-, Kara- 
 irXij(rtr<o| 3 
 ■7rX.-^TT<i> J 
 
 astound 
 ■n-pd<TtTO> \ 
 Trpd-TTdi ) 
 
 c?o, fare 
 
 aXkd^ti) 
 
 TjXXa^a 
 
 iXiiu> 
 
 elXiia 
 
 opinio 
 
 &pv^a 
 
 -wX^^O) 
 
 -eVXij^a 
 
 TTpdio) 
 
 hrpaia 
 
 yjWay(p. 
 
 6pu>pv)(a 
 
 TTtTvpa^^a 
 I have done 
 
 TreTTpdya 
 Ihavefared 
 
 rjXXayfiLai 
 
 eiKiypai 
 
 opwpvyjxai 
 
 -irarXrjyiJML 
 
 rjWdyrjv 
 ilXi)(Orjv 
 d)pv)(dr]v 
 
 -nrXdyriv 
 krpd^Orfi' 
 
 ^ Stem ra^-, seen in the Aor. Pass. i-ri<p-riv and S rij^-os, tomb ; when 
 aspiration is lost at the end of the stem owing to the addition of t, <r, or ^u, 
 it is restored at the beginning (flairr- for to<()-t- ; Ba^- for roup- a- : Sa/j.- for 
 raip- before /i) : cf. rp4<pu, epe^fia, etc., § 282, b. 
 
 ^ The verb-stem has parallel forms (§ 214, note) : K\(ir-, kKott-, kAoit- ; 
 filp-, ^i<p- (seen in Str. Aor. Pass.) ; ir\Tiy-, w\ay-. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 cry aloud 
 
 Kpd^Oi 
 
 scream 
 
 cry alas 
 groan 
 
 (T<f>dTT<0 ) 
 
 slaughter 
 
 KXdyim 
 
 £K\ayia 
 
 KeKpd^ofwj. 
 (Fut. Perf.) 
 
 eKpayov 
 
 OljU(U^O/;ial 
 
 w/xwia 
 
 o-revafo) 
 
 itrreva^a 
 
 (r<l>d$u> 
 
 €(r^a^a 
 
 KexXayya 
 
 KCKpaya 
 
 I scream 
 (Imperat. 
 KeKpaxBi) 
 
 (6) Dental.2 
 
 apiwt,(o \ 
 
 ap/JI-OTTO) I 
 
 Jit 
 
 bring 
 
 accustom 
 
 TrXd.(rcro>\ 
 irXaTTO) ) 
 
 mould 
 
 '9 8 
 
 (ra)4(i) 
 
 save 
 
 a.pp.o<jisi 
 
 /StjSa 
 
 irA.ao 
 
 r]pp,0(Ta 
 
 eyStjSocra 
 
 ere« 
 
 eTrA.acra 
 
 T^pjuoica 
 
 am wont 
 (intr.) 
 
 ti7<l>ayiJiai 
 
 Tjpp.oo'p.ai 
 
 eWktimu 
 
 irejrXacr/iai 
 
 0"60"(D(7/Xat 
 
 o-£(ra)//.ai 
 
 etr^a-yijv 
 
 7)pp.6(T6rfv 
 
 €i6i(r6r]v 
 
 iTrXdcrdrjv 
 
 i(Tut6rjv 
 
 1 Prom the stem K^oyy-. 
 
 2 Stems of more than one syllable in iS-, forming a Contracted Future 
 according to the rule given in § 236 and having no further peculiarity, are 
 not included in this list. 
 
 3 The forms of this verb oome from two stems : (i.) iripS-, a dental stem 
 with iota mbsmpt ; (ii.) <ra-, a vowel stem without iota subscript. 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Liquid stems. 
 285 1. Not extended in the Present and Past Imperfect. 
 
 Scpia^ 
 flay 
 
 SepS) eSeipa 
 
 SlSapKa 
 
 SiSapjjuu 
 
 iSd, 
 
 aprjv 
 
 2. Extended in the Present and Past Imperfect by the 
 
 sound y. (§ 228.) 
 (a) Steins in A. 
 
 &yy£K\(i) 
 
 ayyekS) 
 
 iJYyeiXa 
 
 tJYYeXKO 
 
 i]YYE\|xai 
 
 flYY^erjK 
 
 announce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o-teXXu * 
 
 (TTeXo) 
 
 lo-TCtXa 
 
 coraXKo 
 
 eo-TaX/iai 
 
 OTTaXiji' 
 
 equip, 
 despatch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iv- or cTTt- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TcAAcO ' 
 
 -TcXfi 
 
 -£T£tA.a 
 
 -TeVoAKa 
 
 -TcraXjuat 
 
 — 
 
 enjoin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aXkop-ai " 
 leap 
 
 dXovficu 
 
 ^Xa/Aijv 
 
 (Infin. 
 
 oXao-^at^) 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 throw 
 
 ySoAG 
 
 T]\6fX'qu 
 c^aXoi/ 
 
 l3il3Xr,Ka' 
 
 |8€jSXr/|U,ai* 
 
 il3k-^6riv' 
 
 cr^tiWo) 
 
 o"<^aX(0 
 
 eo-^ijXa 
 
 ^(r<fta\Ka 
 
 ecr<^aX//,ai 
 
 i(rcf)dX.rjv 
 
 cause to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 slip 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (*) 
 
 Stems in p. 
 
 
 
 
 atpui ) 
 aelpw ) 
 
 rais ' 
 
 i « 5 
 
 ttpo) 
 apoC/Attt 
 
 (Infin. 
 Spat') 
 
 rfpKa 
 
 W/*a' 
 
 ^pBrp, 
 
 1 The verb-stem has parallel forms (§ 227, note^): Sep-, Sap-; anK-, 
 ffToK- ; T6\-, Ta\-. 
 
 '^ The verb-stem has short a, seen in the Put. and in the unaugmented 
 forms of the Strong Aor. Midd. ("aAw/tai, 'a\o(fiiiv, 'aXiaBai). 
 
 ^ The stem-vowel o is irregularly changed to d (instead of i; : § 224) in 
 the unaugmented moods of the Weak Aorist. 
 
 ■* From the stem /SX?;-. 
 
 ° The d of the Fut. Act. is probably due to contraction of the stem 
 'cifp-, seen in the Pres. aelpo). The Put. Midd. has a (st. 'ap-, seen in olpai). 
 
 ' Found only in the unaugmented moods 'apco/uu, 'apoifaiv, 'ap4aBai. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 113 
 
 rouse 
 
 iyepSt 
 
 y]japa. 
 
 iiypS/iriv 
 
 iyp-qyopa. 
 (§ 245 1) 
 oAii awake 
 
 iyiiy^pfiai 
 
 rjyepOrjv 
 
 tnr€ip(i) * 
 sow 
 
 crirepo) 
 
 iO-Trapa 
 
 fcnrapKa 
 
 €(7Trap/j,a.i 
 
 icnrd.pr]v 
 
 •(fiOetpm ^ 
 destroy 
 
 -4>0ep!l> 
 
 -e<ji6€ipa 
 
 -t(j>OapKa 
 -%(pQopa 
 
 -l<^6app.ca 
 
 i<j>6dprjv 
 
 (c) steins in y. ( ^g° Weak Perfects in 7K0 are rare or late : cf. the 
 examples for conjugation in § 229.) 
 
 4>aii'u ' 
 
 ^avu 
 
 E<t>T)i'a 
 
 -ire^jayKa 
 
 7r£<t>a(rfjiai 
 
 e(t>(ii'6>]i' 
 
 show 
 
 
 
 TTi^y\ya 
 
 
 i^dyriv 
 
 -KaCvia 
 
 •KavS) 
 
 -e/cavov 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 slay (poet.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 KCpSaivo) 
 
 KipSavZ 
 
 CKepSdj/a 
 
 -KCKfpSriKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 gain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 juatvo/iat^ 
 
 /lavov/mi 
 
 — 
 
 ixipap/a 
 
 — 
 
 iiminpi 
 
 am mad 
 
 
 
 am mad 
 
 
 
 ' 1.S 
 
 ^ 
 
 »f 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 -KTEtJ'ai • 
 
 -KTevlo 
 
 -iKTUVa 
 
 -EKTOVa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 slay 
 
 
 -eK,-avov 
 
 
 
 
 reivm 
 
 TevS) 
 
 erava 
 
 TtraKa 
 
 TerajMU. ^ 
 
 irddi/jv " 
 
 stretch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 KJdvia 
 
 kXivIo 
 
 €K)dva 
 
 KiKkLKO, ' 
 
 KC/cXi/yiai ° 
 
 iKXWrjv' 
 
 lend 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kpivio 
 
 KpWUt 
 
 tKplva 
 
 KiKpiKa * 
 
 KSKpi/JMl^ 
 
 kKpiOrp/ * 
 
 distinguish, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 judge 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 2 
 
 i « 
 
 a - / 
 
 
 3 / 
 
 
 OTTOKpiVOfJiCU 
 
 aTTOKpLVOVfJial. 
 
 aTreKpiva/jjtfv 
 
 "~~ 
 
 aTTOKEKpifiai 
 
 — 
 
 answer 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ The verb-stem has parallel forms (§ 227, note*): ^yep-, eyop-; crtrep-, 
 ffirap- ; <p6ep-, <f}9ap', tpdop- ; ipai/-, iptiv- ; jucw'-, fjLTjy- ; Krev-, KToy-, ktov^, 
 ^ From the vowel stem to-, 'j 
 ' Prom the vowel stem k\i-. V§ 227, notet. 
 * Prom the vowel stem jcpi-. j 
 
 ^ Mostly compounded with dnr<( in prose (airoKTciVa). 
 
 8 
 
114 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Verbs in -/ai. 
 286 1. Like 'o-nj/xi in the Present and Past Imperfect. 
 
 benefit ' 
 TTiiiTrXrifii "^ 
 
 fill [L. pleo] 
 iriix.Trpyiixi ^ 
 
 hum (tr.) 
 
 ffTlr)<TO> 
 -Trprj(Tm 
 
 eo-TTiaa 
 
 eaTKiKa 
 
 eaTT)!' 
 
 
 wvijcra 
 
 — 
 
 <iivrjjji,7fv 
 
 
 €7rXi;(ra 
 
 TreirXrjKa 
 
 -arp-qcra 
 
 — 
 
 %irTa|J.ai 
 
 TreTrXrjcriJiai. 
 
 -irejrpyi<7ix.ai 
 ■^erprjfiaj. 
 
 Deponents (not reduplicated in Pres. and Past Imperf.). 
 
 ayafua 
 
 admire 
 Svya/xai" ^vvfifTOfxai — — oeovvrjfiai, 
 
 can 
 €7r«7Tayaat ° eTrttm^cro/iat 
 
 understand 
 
 epafiat ) 
 epda, ipS> ) 
 
 desire 
 Kpep-afnai ' KpefJi,rj(roiJi,ai 
 
 hang (intr.) 
 
 287 2. Like Sukvv/ji.l in the Present and Past Imperfect. 
 {a) Consonant stems {-vu- in Pres. and Past Imperf. ; § 253 6). 
 
 iirXi^(TOriv 
 -iTrprj(T6yjV 
 
 riya.(T6r]v 
 
 rjiruTTqBrjv 
 
 rjpda-OrjV 
 I desired 
 
 8ElKI<Up.l 
 
 Sei^m 
 
 ISeiJa 
 
 SeSeixu 
 
 8^8Ei.Yp,ai 
 
 eSeixOt])' 
 
 -ayvvfii 
 
 -afo) 
 
 -ea^a 
 
 -edya 
 
 — 
 
 -kay-qv 
 
 break (tr.) 
 
 
 
 am iroken 
 
 
 
 ^evyvvfjii * 
 
 i,ei^fi> 
 
 e^ev^a 
 
 — 
 
 e^euyp-ai 
 
 i^evxOrjV 
 
 yoke, join 
 
 
 
 
 
 iCiy-riy 
 
 piyvvfu* I 
 
 ixi^u) 
 
 iplia 
 
 — 
 
 IxijjXypxi^i 
 
 kpixew 
 
 /X,€('f(0 
 
 6/X£lfa 
 
 
 
 i/iiyriv 
 
 mix 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Middle reap henrflt \ Pres. Mva/iai ; Fut. ofiia'o/j.ai ; Str. Aor. i>v{)-ijai]v, 
 rarely a)yd-/j.7]v like i-irpid-iiriv, § 256 * (Optat. bvatfiriv, oyaio, ivaiTo, etc., Infin. 
 
 ^ The /i inserted after reduplication is dropped in the Present tense of 
 the compounds i/i-irlir\ri/j.i, i/i-wiwp-n/u (to avoid the repeated /i) . 
 
 " § 256. * Parallel forms of verb-stem : feuy-, fCy- ; /juy- or nfiy-, luy-. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 "5 
 
 ir^yviSfii* 
 
 ■n-qtm 
 
 eirr)^a 
 
 TreTTTjya 
 
 _ 
 
 iTrdyr/v 
 
 .,-^- 1 
 
 
 
 afm fixed 
 
 
 
 pT^yvv/Jii 
 
 pri^w 
 
 ipprfia 
 
 ippoyya 
 
 — 
 
 ippdyr)v 
 
 break (tr.) 
 
 
 
 intr. Aave 
 
 
 
 -oWv/u ° 
 
 -oKS) 
 
 -&\eaa ° 
 
 -6A.0)X€Ka ' 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 destroy 
 
 
 -ciXo/AIJl' 
 
 -oA.o)\a 
 
 mm undone 
 
 
 
 OfJiVVllL 
 
 ofwvfmi 
 
 (u/tocra* 
 
 6p,wfwKa * 
 
 0^6^01X0.1 * 
 
 oiii6enr* 
 
 swear 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d/A^te'viHJ/n ° 
 
 d/J^LU) ' 
 
 ■^fi^Ua-a 
 
 — 
 
 r]fi,<jiU(TjJja.l 
 
 
 
 clothe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (b) Vowel stems (-ecu 
 
 ■ in Pres. and ] 
 
 Past Imperf. ; § 253 h). 
 
 KcpawC/^i 
 
 — 
 
 e/ce/oacra 
 
 — 
 
 KeKpa/jMi ' 
 
 iKpaOrfv ' 
 
 mix 
 
 
 
 
 
 iKepdo'BTjv 
 
 KpefiavvvfjiL 
 
 hang (tr.) 
 srerai'vij/ii 
 
 Kpe/xS) ° 
 
 iKpeiJ.a(Ta 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 iKpe/jbdcrdrjv 
 
 TTCTU) * 
 
 eireracra 
 
 — 
 
 TTCTTTa/iat ^ 
 
 lirerdaBriv 
 
 spread out 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (TKeSawv/JLi 
 
 o-ice8a» 
 
 itTKiStwa 
 
 — . 
 
 eerKcSacr/ioi 
 
 ia-KeSdxrOrp' 
 
 scatter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a-^dvvvf/bl 
 
 crPicrm 
 
 ta-Picra 
 
 ta-PnKa 
 
 (o-pea-fjuu 
 
 ka-pifrB-qv 
 
 quench 
 
 Put. Pass. 
 
 ta-p-qv 
 was quenched 
 
 am quenched 
 
 
 
 ^lOWV/JLl 
 
 — 
 
 £^a)tra 
 
 — 
 
 e^oifmi 
 
 
 
 gird 
 
 
 
 
 it,a>(TfW.L 
 
 
 piawviii 
 
 pwo-o) 
 
 eppoicra 
 
 — 
 
 eppio/juxi ° 
 
 ippaxrdriv 
 
 strengthen 
 
 
 
 
 am strong 
 
 
 oTpiawv/jLiX 
 
 CTTpwcro) 
 
 lo-T-pcoo-o 
 
 — 
 
 tfTTptOfWA. 
 
 i<TTpa>6r]v 
 
 ffropw 
 
 i<rT6pe<ra " 
 
 
 
 
 strew 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' Parallel forms of verb-stem : mjy-, iray- ; ^riy-, i>ay-. 
 
 ^ For ix-vuiu. Mi&dle perish: Pres. oKKv/xai; Fut. oXov/mi; Str. Aor. wxj/iijc. 
 In prose always compounded witli atr6 {i.e. a.ir-6K\vfit). 
 
 ' St. o\e- : trans. ^ St. 6/xo-. ^ St. lo-- (pea--), Lat. ves-tiS, ves-tis. 
 
 « § 237. ' St. Kpa-. 8 St. ^To-. 
 
 ' Imperative eppairo, farewell, Lat. -ija??. ^° St. trrope-. 
 
Ii6 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Special groups of verbs in -o). 
 
 ^° The following verbs in -a> have certain special peculiarities in 
 common, and are therefore classified apart. In some the verb-stem (ending 
 in a vowel or consonant) is extended otherwise than by the addition of t or y, 
 either in the Present and Past Imperfect or in the other tenses ; in others the 
 tenses are formed from two or more entirely different stems. 
 
 288 
 
 1. Nasal Group. 
 
 Verb-stems extended in the Present and Past Imperfect by a 
 nasal addition (c/. Lat. si-n-o, verb-st. si- ; ta-n-go, verb-st. tag-). 
 
 (i.) Addition of -v-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 KdiJi,-v-(a 
 
 labour 
 Tijj.-v-ai 
 
 cut 
 
 Tt-V-0) 
 
 ria-m 
 
 eKa/jLOV 
 enrya 
 
 TeTfJirjKa ^ 
 
 TCTl/ca 
 
 TeTp.-qp,a.i ^ 
 
 ir/jirjOijv^ 
 
 pay' 
 <f>6d-v-o>* 
 anticipate 
 
 retcro) 
 
 ereta-a 
 itjid-qv 
 
 te'teikb 
 
 TCTCKr/tai 
 
 iTiiaSriv 
 
 (ii.) Addition of -v- an 
 
 i change of stem-vowel (cf. § 228). 
 
 /Sai-v-to* 
 go, step 
 
 drive 
 
 ji-qa-ofiai. 
 
 
 cX^XaKa 
 
 :A,i;\a/xai 
 
 \d6r]V 
 
 (iii.) Addition of -av-. 
 
 
 aia-d-dv-ofjuu 
 perceive 
 
 afiapT-dv-o) 
 err 
 
 aicr^^tro/iat' 
 d//.apT^tro/iat ' 
 
 ya-Oofxrjv 
 rjjjLapTOV 
 
 ■fjixdprrjKa ' 
 
 XJo-drjixai ' 
 ripAprrifiM.^ 
 
 rjiuiprffirfv ' 
 
 ' St. K/iTj- ; cf. Lat. cer-7i-o, cre-m ; sper-n-o, spre-vl ; ster-n-o, stra-iH, 
 
 " St. r/jiv-. 
 
 ' Middle ^TOiisA, take payment for myself: rlvo/iat, r'urofiai, irltriiniv. 
 
 * Parallel forms of verb-stem : (pBa-, <p8ri- ; $S.-, 0ri-. 
 
 ' Strong Perf. {cf. § 255) Pefia-fiev, /Sc'/So-tc, $e0ci<n{v) ; 0e$is, $e$a(ra (Gen. 
 
 .SCTOSy -f&ffTJs). 
 
 ' Verb-stem 4\a- : Put. i\d-iT-a, ixi-a, i\u (§ 237. ii.). 
 
 ' Here the verb-stem is extended by addition of an «-sound : cf. §8 290, 291. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 117 
 
 a'jr-e\6-a,v-oiJ.ai. 
 
 -e)(0i](TOf/.ai ^ 
 
 ■^rD(66fji,rjv 
 
 _ 
 
 -VX^Vf^i-^ 
 
 
 am hated 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 av$-d.v-u> 1 
 
 aif ^cro) * 
 
 tjvirja-a ^ 
 
 rjv^rjKa * 
 
 riv^rift,ai^ 
 
 r/uf^^V 
 
 increase 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ofjik-UTK-dv-m 
 
 6(j>XT^<r<a * 
 
 S(^Xov 
 
 w<j)XrjKa * 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 owe ((§ 289) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (iv.) Addition of -av- and insertion of a nasal in the stem. 
 
 \ay;^-av-(i) ^ 
 
 Xijiofjiai 
 
 lAaxov 
 
 €tX7;xa 
 
 efA5j7/iai 
 
 ^\itx»nv 
 
 obtain 
 
 
 
 \eA07X'« 
 
 
 
 \a/ij8-av-<i) ^ 
 
 Xij^j/o/jLai 
 
 eXa/Jov 
 
 ctA.i7(^a 
 
 elXri/jLfjiat 
 
 iX.-q<f}6rjv 
 
 take 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Xav6-dv-ii> " 
 
 \^(rftj 
 
 IA,a(9ov 
 
 XeXi^^a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 lie hid ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /juivO-dv-to 
 
 /xaO^qcro/jLai ^ 
 
 efiaOov 
 
 /le/jLdOrjKa ^ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 learn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TTwO-dv-O/JLaiX 2 
 
 ircua-oiiai 
 
 iirv66fii,r]v 
 
 — 
 
 TreTTTJcr/iai 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ascertain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tvy)(-dv-at ^ 
 
 rev^ofjuu 
 
 enrxpv 
 
 TeTV)(rjKa ' 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 hit, happen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (v.) Addition of -ve-. 
 
 
 
 -iK-ve-ofiaty \ 
 
 -L$o[J.ai. 
 
 -iKOfJirjV 
 
 — 
 
 -ly/tiat 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 come 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 uTTitrx-re-o^uai,^ \ 
 mi&xvov/iai f 
 
 vTroa^ri<TOfiai ' 
 
 vir€a-xpfi.r]v 
 
 — 
 
 vTria-X'lf^'- ' 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 promise 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > See note 7, p. 116. 
 
 2 Parallel forms of the verb-stem : Aax'> ^1X-> ^OVX" ! '^"yS-, Xtj/S- ; Aofl-, 
 Aije- ; iriifl-, ireufl- ; Tiix-> tsuX"- 
 
 5 Or escape the notice of (with Aoous.). Middle im-\a,v9ivoiMi, forget : iiri- 
 \it<T0imt, iir-eXa,96/inv, iiri-\e\n(Tiiai. 
 
 * Cf. Engl, wnder-take. The stem lax- is formed by reduplication from the 
 stem <rex-, have, hold (§ 292) : o-i-o-ex-. i"-irx-. '-<rx-. '-"^X-- ^he stem o-ex- is 
 seen shortened in the Aor. (ax-) ; extended in the Fut. and Perf. (irxi-). 
 
ii8 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 289 2. Inceptive Group. 
 
 Verb-stems extended in the Present and Past Imperfect by the 
 addition of -ctk- or -lo-k- (ef. Lat. no-sc-o, pac-iso-oi'). 
 
 (i.) Without reduplication (in Pres. and Past Imperf.). 
 dpe-cTK-o) 
 
 please 
 yripd-cTK-u) 
 
 groio old 
 8i8d-o-K-ft) 8i8d^(u^ €St8a^a^ 8e8t8a)(a^ 8€St8ay/i,ai ^ cStSdp^^ijv' 
 
 teach 
 rj^d-CTK-ui 
 
 grow up 
 
 ^d-(TK-(l> 
 
 gape 
 
 apeffu 
 
 ^petra 
 
 — 
 
 yr]pa(roiJ.ai 
 8i8d^(u^ 
 
 iy-qpdara 
 eyiipav 
 
 yeyqpdKa 
 8e8t8a)(a ^ 
 
 fiPiiira 
 
 Tjjirjcra 
 
 rjPrjKa 
 
 Xavovimt 
 
 e)(a.vov 
 
 I gape 
 
 aXwcro/xai" 
 avdXoicrti) 
 
 laXwv ^ 
 dv^A<0(ra * 
 
 idXwKa ^ 
 
 ^XojKa 
 
 dv)jA.a)Ka* 
 
 e / 4 
 
 evp-qa-ta 
 
 €vpov 
 
 evpr]Ka * 
 
 -Oavov/xai " 
 
 -Wavov ^ 
 
 ridvqKa. ' 
 tt?7i dead 
 
 dvrjk<o/jiai ' 
 evptfiMii * 
 
 dX-ioTK-o/iai 
 
 cfTO caught 
 avaX-LCTK-ui 
 
 spend 
 
 (Vp-LCTK-ia 
 
 find 
 ■6vg-orK-(o ^ 
 die 
 
 (ii.) With reduplication (in Pres. and Past Imperf.). 
 ■Si-Spd-crK-uy 
 
 run away 
 yi-yvui-fTK-to 
 
 get to know 
 
 dvTqXwOrjv ' 
 ivpiO-qv * 
 
 -p.i-p.vri-CTK-U) 
 
 remind * 
 
 TL-TplL-CK-ia 
 
 wound 
 
 -Spacro/xaL 
 
 -iSpdv 
 
 -SiBpaKa 
 
 yVUKTOfUU, 
 
 eyj/(OV 
 
 tyvoiKa 
 I know 
 
 -fjLvrjCTd) 
 
 -efjivrjua 
 
 ' — 
 
 TpdxTtl) 
 
 erpuMj-a 
 
 — 
 
 €yv(o<T/j.ai 
 
 fj.l/ji/i'rjixai '" 
 Irememier 
 
 T€Tp(I)p,at 
 
 lyvuxrOrfv^ 
 
 kjXMrjtTOrjv 
 
 irpmdrjv 
 
 'St. SiSax-- ''St. 'oAu-, 'oAo-: Aor. Subj. 'a\&, Opt. 'aKolriv, Part. 
 'oAotir, Inf. 'a\£»ai (§ 272). ' St. civdAo- : Pres. sometimes ivdK6ai, ooE- 
 tracted a;/aAS. * St. eiS/jE- (c/. §§ 290, 291). = For fli'Tj-Zo-K-a ; in prose 
 always compounded with ctTro-, except in the Perf. which is never com- 
 pounded. 6 St. Bav-. ' Put. Perf. Teevfi^a (§ 178 ») : Strong Perf. 
 (st. ei/d-, cf. § 255) Teflya-juee, TcBya-rc, TeBvain{v) ; Plup. 4-TiBva-(rav ; Opt. 
 reBya-lti-v ; Imperat. Te'Sya-fli ; Part. riBve-ds, -aira, -6s (Gen. -uros, -(i(rr)s). 
 ' Passive of the meaning resolve, judge. * Mid. and Pass, remember, 
 
 mention : /ii/iytiirKOfiai, iJLvriiT8i\iToiiai, ifiviitrBriv, fi.4fivrtfiai. Put. Perf. /ie/iviiiro/iai. 
 " Subj. /ie/iyZ/iai, fie/ivp, ficfivriTai, fusfiv^/ieBa, etc. ; Opt. (ue^j/j/^jjj/, fieiivrio, 
 lu/iypTO, fi.e/iviffieBa, etc. {cf. § 187 *). 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 119 
 
 3. E -group. 
 
 Verb-stems extended by addition of an e-sound : — 
 290 (i.) In the Present and Past Imperfect. 
 
 ya/ji-e-aj ya/Mii 
 
 ya/iS 
 
 iyqixa 
 
 ytya.p,7)Ka ^ 
 
 yeyafuifjuu ^ 
 
 — 
 
 marry ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SoK-e-ci),' SokSi 
 
 So'^(o 
 
 iSoia 
 
 — 
 
 SeSoKTai 
 
 — 
 
 sefim, think 
 
 
 
 
 „ <^-^) 
 
 
 ttifl-e-w, iiBSi 
 
 uicrta 
 
 €<ocra 
 
 — 
 
 'ibXTfiai 
 
 euxrO-qv 
 
 push 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 291 (ii-) In other tenses (not in Pres. and Past Impf.). 
 
 a.-)(6oiJuoj, 
 
 a^6-i-(T0[ji.ai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ■^d-e-o-6-qv 
 
 am grieved 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /3ovXo/j,ca ^ 
 
 ^ovX-T^-a-o/jjai, 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 fte/3ovX.-rj-ixai 
 
 i/SovX-rj-Oriv 
 
 wish, mil 
 
 
 
 
 
 T)PovK--l]-er]v 
 
 yiyvofMaL ^ 
 
 y€v--tj-arofi.ai 
 
 iyevofiTjv 
 
 yiyova 
 
 yeyiv-r]-fmi 
 
 — 
 
 become 
 
 
 
 am, iecome 
 
 am become 
 
 
 Second 233) 
 
 3e-^-cr(o 
 
 i8i-rj-a-a 
 
 SeS4-i]-Ka 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 want, lack 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6(X(o f 
 
 e^eX-'^-crci) 
 
 ■rjOiX-Tj-cra 
 
 rj6iX.-y]-Ka. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Oek-yi-am 
 
 iOiX-rj-cra 
 
 
 
 
 wish, will 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stem ep- ' 
 
 ip-'^-a-ofioL 
 
 ■rip6p.r]v 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 question 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ixd.)^0jjuii 
 
 fM-^auixai ^ 
 
 ifjiax-e-a-dfirpf 
 
 — 
 
 jj,efm)^-Y]-liai 
 
 — 
 
 fight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {Continued on 
 
 next page.) 
 
 ^ Act. yaiM yuviuKa, Lat. duco uxorem ; Mid. yafiovfmi av'Spi, Lat. niiho mro. 
 
 ^ Prom the extended stem of the Pres. and Past Imperf . 
 
 ' Hence (mostly poetical) SoK-'/i-tra, 4S6K-ri-(ra, SeSti/c-rj-Ka, SeSiJk-ji-toi, iSoK-'fi-0riv. 
 
 *• The 2nd Pers. Sing, is always poi\ei in Attic (not ^oiXri). 
 
 ■i From verb-stem yev-, reduplicated and shortened by dropping e ; cf. Lat. 
 gi-gn-or, lam begotten. The verb-stem has parallel forms (§ 214, note): y^v-, yoy-, 
 7a-, the latter seen in the Strong Perfect {cf. § 255) yeya-fiev, yiya-re, yiyaiii(v) ; 
 yiyd)S, 7e7ci)fl'a (Gen. -wros, -tlxnis), 
 
 '■ Aei (impersonal), it is necessary, Se-ii-ffei, iSi-n-ffe, 
 Aeo/iai, need, ask, 5e-'fi-<ro/mi, SeSe-ri-fmi, iis-ii-Sniv. 
 
 ' Present in use ipaniiD, contr. ipinTai (regular), 
 
 8 For iMx-e-aofi-iu : % 237. i.. 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 fxikia * 
 
 ju.eX-^-crco 
 
 ilXiX-rj-cra 
 
 fX.ifx.ik--q-Ka 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 concei'u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /itWo) 
 
 fjLeXX-rj-croi 
 
 ifieW-yj-ca 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 am about to 
 
 
 ilfieW-ri-(Ta 
 
 
 
 
 fxevo) 
 
 fjLevui 
 
 t/xeiva 
 
 fjLefiey-Tj-Ka 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 remain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 viixio 
 
 vf/jua 
 
 ivufi-a 
 
 vtviit.-r]-Ka 
 
 veviiJ.-ri-p.ai 
 
 lvip,-rj-6y]v 
 
 allot 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OLO/JLai ^ 
 
 oi-^-cro/iat 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 <o-T^-6rjv 
 
 think 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OIXOIMU 
 
 olx-'q-o-o/j.ai 
 
 — 
 
 olfxtyKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 am gone ° 
 
 
 
 ^X^'f*' 
 
 
 
 o(^etX(o 
 
 6(pet\--fi-a'(i} 
 
 &<j)€X0V 
 
 uf€(A-JJ-KO 
 
 — 
 
 u(/)clA-^-0l}j/ 
 
 oive 
 
 
 = L. utinam 
 
 
 
 
 irero/tai 
 
 TTT-T^-CrOfiai 
 
 i-n-Toix-qv ^ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 fly 
 
 
 rTTTrjy" 
 
 
 
 
 p£'(o''(§233) 
 
 pv-rq-o-ofiai 
 
 — 
 
 ippv-rj-Ka 
 
 — • 
 
 ippvijv ' 
 
 flow 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Xaipoi 
 
 )(a.ip-rj-(T(i> 
 
 — 
 
 K^xap-n-Ka 
 
 
 £Xapr;v' 
 
 rejoice 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' Mostly impersonal, with Dat. and Gen. : e.g. jueAei /loi SIktis (or irepl 
 SUris), I have a care for justice. — The same sense may be expressed by the 
 personal /iiXo/xai (more commonly ^Tri-jne'Ao/ioi), /utX-^-o-ojuai ,jiie/ie'\-i)-/»ai, l/ieX- 
 il-6Tf)v, with Gen. -. e.g. ij.4\ofiat SiKrjs. 
 
 ^ Or oT/iai (Past Imperf. 4't")v) : 2nd Sing, always olei in Attic. 
 
 5 The Present has Perfect meaning, like ^/tw, § 282 : the Past Imperf. 
 VX^f^V means was gone or sometimes (with Aorist meaning) went. 
 
 * Or iirrifiriv (poetical), formed from st. irra- without the vowel o/e — the 
 only Strong Aor. Middle of this kind belonging to a verb in -u (cf. § 256 *). 
 
 " Prom St. TTTv-, TTTo- ; §§ 271, 272. 
 
 ' Prom stem ^ev- {jjieF-), seen in ri ^eS-iia, current; shorter form pv-: cf. on 
 vi-at, 7rA€-tu, irvi-o}^ X^'^i § 281. 6. 
 
 ' Sometimes regarded as a Strong Aor. Active, like ^0riv, §§ 271, 272, 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 292 
 
 4. Mixed Group. 
 
 Chiefly verbs whose tenses come from two or more entirely 
 different stems {cf. Lat. fei-o, tuU, Idtimi). 
 
 aipe-(i}f Ciipoi 
 
 take 
 eirofiai ^ 
 
 follow 
 go, come 
 eat 
 
 have, hold 
 (§ 232) live 
 
 aiprjaoi 
 £i/rojU,ai 
 
 4\e6irofjiai 
 eSojuai 
 
 efXov 
 itfiayov 
 
 » 6 
 
 ecrxov 
 
 ■qprjKa 
 
 ■gpiQixai 
 
 in compounds 
 Impersonal 
 
 ■fjpidriv 
 
 {Continued on next page.) 
 
 1 Tenses from two stems : aipe-, f\- (Aor. : for augment, cf. § 239). 
 The Middle alpov/uu means / take for myself, I choose ; the Passive aipovfiai 
 means / am taken or / am chosen. 
 
 2 Past Imperf. eM/j-iiv ; § 239. The stem o-ett- (Lat. sequ-or) Is seen 
 with rough breathing for a- in the Pres. and Fut. (Iir-) ; shortened in the 
 Aor. {(TT-) : the syllable I- in the Aor. (aspirated by analogy with the Pre- 
 sent) disappears in the Subj. mutiai, Opt. (riroinriv, Imp. a-irov, Part. a-ir6- 
 liivos, Inf. ffire&Bai. A rare form of the Aor. Indie, without aspiration is 
 seen in the compound iir-etriri/iTii' (for 4^-fa-ir6/iriv). 
 
 3 Tenses from three stems: ipx; I- (§ 267), e'Xufl- (eAeuS-, i\e.). The 
 stem 4px- is used only in the Pres. Indie. ; the Past Imperf. Indie, is sup- 
 plied by Ja; the Pres. Subj., Opt., Imp., Part, and Inf., are supplied by tm, 
 toipii, Wi,'l4pai (§ 267). The Aor. ^KBov has Subj. eAflo), Opt. ^xBoi/u, Imp. 
 4\04, Part. €\etiy, Inf. 4\eelv. 
 
 * Tenses from three stems : eVfli-, iS- (iSo-, 4Se-), ^y-. The Fut. eSo/iai 
 is really a Pres. Subj. used as a Future; Subjunctives with short u are 
 common in Homer. 
 
 = Past Imperf. elx"" '> § 239. The stem o-cx- is seen with rough breath- 
 ing for 0- in the Fut. e|a) ( = f/c-o-oi) ; shortened in the Aor. (trx-) ; extended 
 by an e-sound in the Fut.. irx--ii-(r(>> and the Perfects. For the smooth 
 breathing in the Pres. ex-> 'if- fTviv for 4Bi6if)v, § 280. 
 
 6 Subj. ffxai ; Optat. axo'mv (but irapi-a-xoiiu) ; Imperat. ax^-s, <rxe-™— 
 the only Imperat. in -s belonging to a verb in -ai {(f. § 257. 5, fle'-s, is, 
 S6-s) ; Part, ax^v. Inf. o-xfif- 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 KaOi^o, 1 
 
 KaOuo 
 
 eKaOura. 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 seat, 
 
 
 Ka&itra 
 
 
 
 
 seat myself 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ka6l.i,o)jiai. 1 
 
 Ka^eSovjuai 
 
 tKa6tt,6p.riv 
 
 — 
 
 Ka.6rjix.ai 
 
 — 
 
 
 Past Impf. 
 
 
 I sit 
 
 
 seat myself, 
 
 
 used as Aor. 
 
 
 
 
 sit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ayopevio \ 
 
 ipS) 
 
 etirov,' iiira * 
 
 up-qKO. 
 
 tlp-qpjXL^ 
 
 Ippr/d-qv 
 
 kiyoi > ^ 
 
 Ae'fw 
 
 ^\€^a 
 
 
 KeKeyfjuxi " 
 
 iXix^y)V 
 
 ^ixi ) 
 
 Ijt'flITU 
 
 ^(pTjtra 
 
 
 
 
 speak, say 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SiaXeyofmi 
 
 SiaXc'^o/iai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 StetXc-y/^iat 
 
 SieXexiSriv 
 
 converse 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ipdte, bpSi ° 
 
 o\j/o/iai 
 
 elSov ) 7 
 
 eopaKa \ 
 iuipoLKa J 
 
 lopd/x,ot ) 
 
 wtfiQ-qv 
 
 (§ 241) see 
 
 
 iwpa.fj.ai j 
 
 
 
 
 
 JirwTO 
 
 Syu./j.ai 
 
 
 jroMo ( g 
 
 TVTTTU) f 
 
 waLcrm 
 
 firauya 
 
 fffVAii^a 
 
 Tri-nXtiyfiaL 
 
 iirkr/Yqv 
 
 irarafuj 
 
 cirara^a 
 
 
 
 
 strike 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 The stem o-eS- (Lat. scii-co) is seen unextended in the Put. /taff-fS-oDjuoi 
 (-eT, -en-ai, § 237.1.); extended by the sound y in the Pres. Kae-e(-onai ; 
 reduphcated with i and shortened in the Pres. KaB-lC-a (o-i-o-tS-, iri-o-S-, i-aS-, 
 if-). The Put. KaSi-a (-eij, -ei, § 237. i.) and Aor. eKdeicra come from the 
 parallel form 'IS-. In the Perf. KaBrifrnt the S disappears (§ 268). 
 
 ^ Tenses from six stems : ayopev, \ey-, <pii- ("/>«-)) ^P'> '""■" °'^ *'"■") ^l"- 
 The only compounds of \€ya, say, are dcTiAeV'"! ^T'Ae7'"> '"po^eyie ; in other 
 compounds the place of \eyw is supplied by ayopiia, e.g. atrayopeiw, forbid. 
 Contrast -\iyoi, pick up, § 282. 
 
 ' The syllable ei- is retained in the Subj. eftrw, Opt. eXiroifu, Imp. tiVe, 
 Part, i'ntdv, -oicra, Inf. eiVelc. 
 
 * In the 2nd Person efiraj, efirore are commoner than «!»€$, e!ir«Tc. 
 
 ' Put. Perf. Pass. S. 3. clpTja-erai, \e\f^eTat, it loill be said. 
 
 6 Tenses from three stems : dpa-, on-, Id- {FtS-, Lat. vid-eo, cf. § 273). 
 
 ' I saw. Augm., § 239 * : Active Subj. tSa, Opt. XSoifu, Imp. i5f', Part. 
 iSd)v, -ovffa, Inf. ISuy ; Middle Imp. ISov, as interjection idoi, behold! 
 
 " Tenses from four stems : iroi-, rm- (extended tutt-t-), waray-, ir\riy-. 
 naiai and Tujmi are also used in the sense beat (Lat. verbero), and then 
 have Put. tuttt-^-o-w, Aor. rarely eiraura, Perf. irtirATj^a ; the wanting tenses, 
 Active and Passive, are supplied by using the phrases irhriyas iii.^aK\a or 
 iiiii>iu, I infiict blows; irKriyhs \a.ft0ui'u, I receive blows. 
 
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 123 
 
 Trd(rx<» ' 
 
 TTtLa-OfJuM 
 
 hraBov 
 
 TTiTTOvda 
 
 
 
 suffer 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TTLVOl^ 
 
 iriofJicu 
 
 hriov 
 
 TTtTrCOKa 
 
 7r«ro/iat 
 
 iwodrjv 
 
 drink 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TTITTTO) * 
 
 irecrov/xai, 
 
 errcaov 
 
 TreTTTto/ca 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 fall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ira\4(o, TTWAfli 
 
 TrcoXiycro) 
 
 eTTcuAijcra 
 
 TreirpuKa 
 
 Treirpafiai 
 
 iwpdOrjv 
 
 d7ro8tSo/*at * 
 
 diroSoio-o/iat 
 
 (XTrcSd/Aiji' 
 
 
 
 
 irmpdcTKci) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sell 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TtKTU) " 
 
 Teioficu 
 
 eT£/COV 
 
 TiTOKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 bring forth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eio) (§ 233) J 
 
 SpafiovfiaL 
 
 tSpafiov 
 
 SeSpd/AijKa 
 
 — 
 
 • — 
 
 Bevao/iai 
 
 
 
 
 
 run 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c^epo)' 
 
 01(70) 
 
 vjveymv 
 
 eviyvoi^a 
 
 ivQveyfWLL ' 
 
 TjvixBtjv 
 
 carry, hear 
 
 
 ■^yijKa ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 isv-qa-oiWii 
 
 iirpia.ft.rjv 
 
 - 
 
 litiVrjfJML 
 
 iwv-ijOrjv 
 
 (§ 240) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 buy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Tenses from two stems : iraS- (extended Tracrx; for iraS-irK-), ircyfl- 
 (parallel form irovB-) : c/l rii irdBos, sufferinci ; rh rnvBos, grief. The Put. 
 Triltro/Mi is for irecfl-cr-Oyuoi, cf. o-Treio-- for avivS-n-, note 5, p. 109. 
 
 2 Tenses from two stems: irl- (short iri-, extended iri-i/-), irw- (short to-): 
 c;f. rb vS)ii.a., ii Tr6<ns, Lat. po-tio, drink, draught. The Fut. Trtofiai is really a 
 Pres. Subj. used as a Put., like x^o>! ^Soimi (note 3, p. 107 ; note i, p. 121). 
 
 ' Tenses from three stems : irer- (reduplicated Tri-irer-, iri-irr-), irecr-, 
 TTToi- : cf. rh irrS^fjuit fall. 
 
 * Tenses from three stems : tmAe-, So- (Sa-, § 263), irpa- (extended and 
 reduplicated in-irpa-aK-). 
 
 ' For Ti-TK-a, reduplicated and shortened from stem tsk- (parallel form 
 
 TOK-). 
 
 'Tenses from three stems: rpex-j Sew- (Sef-. 9e-, c/. note 2, p. 107), 
 5pa/i- (extended 5po^-»j-). 
 
 ' Tenses from three stems : (jup- (Lat. fer-o), ol-, imyK- (or cVck-, parallel 
 form fvoK-). 
 
 8 In the 2nd Pers. ^j/e^icor, ijveyKWTi are commoner than ifveyKis, Tiv4y- 
 KETe. So too iveyKdra ; but iveyKeiv, iveyxwv. 
 
 8 S. 2. ivivey^ai, S. 3. evriveyKTai, from St. eye^K- ; c/. ^KiiXey/iai, 4\ii- 
 \ey^ai, cA^AeyKTOi (§ 282). 
 
 1" Tenses from two stems: uve-, irpm- (§ 256*). Contrast ayov/iai, buy, 
 with oylvviJ-h benefit (st. o;/?)-, ora-, § 286). 
 
124 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 In the following brief summary of the uses of the most important 
 Prepositions only the most prominent meanings are given : a fuller 
 account will be found in Syntax, Part II. — The Latin words in square 
 brackets are the etymological equivalents of the Greek Prepositions. 
 
 293 Greek Prepositions in general take their meaning from the 
 Cases with which they are joined. For the most part 
 Greek Genitive with Prepositions corresponds to Latin Ablative : 
 Greek Dative „ „ „ , Latin Ablative : 
 Greek Accusative „ ,, „ „ Latin Accusative. 
 
 294 Prepositions taking the Genitive : — 
 
 avTi, instead of. 
 anro [ab, a], from. 
 
 EK, ii [e, ex], out of. 
 
 Trpo [pro], in front of, before. 
 
 295 Prepositions taking the Dative : — 
 
 h> [in], in. | <tvv, ^v [ciun ?], with.* 
 
 296 Prepositions taking the Accusative : — 
 
 dva, up, along. \ eis, h, into. 
 
 297 Prepositions taking either Accusative or Genitive : — 
 
 8ia (i.) with Ace. : onaccountof, 
 owing to. 
 (ii.) with Gen. : through 
 
 (of place). 
 Kara (i.) with Aco. : according to. 
 (ii.) with Gen. : down from. 
 
 l^jiTo. (i.) with Ace. : after. 
 
 (ii.) with Gen. : with, 
 xnrep [super ?] 
 
 (i.) with Aco. : beyond. 
 
 (ii.) with Gen. : over, above. 
 
 * In Xenophon, later prose writers, and poetry; elsewhere with is gene- 
 rally expressed by fieri with the Gen. (§ 297). 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 125 
 
 298 
 
 Prepositions taking Accusative, Genitive, or Dative : — 
 
 299 
 
 oLfjixfit (i.) with Ace. : 
 
 of place : around. 
 of time : about. 
 (ii.) with Gen. (poetical) : 
 about = cmiceming. 
 
 (ill.) with Dat. (poetical) : 
 aimit = concerning, 
 around. 
 
 bri (i.) with Ace. : 
 
 to, aguinst, upon 
 (motion). 
 
 (ii.) with Gen. : 
 
 on, upon (rest), 
 in the direction of. 
 
 (iii.) with Dat. : 
 
 on, hard by (rest). 
 Trapd (i.) with Acc. : 
 
 to the side of, 
 alongside of. 
 
 (ii.) with Gen. : 
 
 from the side of. 
 
 (iii.) with Dat. : 
 
 at the side of. 
 
 EuLE : — 
 
 irepi (i.) with Acc. : 
 
 of place : around. 
 of time : about, 
 (ii.) with Gen. : 
 
 about = concerning. 
 (iii.) with Dat. (rare or poet.) ; 
 about = concerning, 
 around. 
 
 trpo's (i.) with Acc. : 
 
 to,* towards, against 
 
 (motion), 
 (ii.) with Gen. : 
 
 from the direction of, 
 
 on the side of.^ 
 (iii.) with Dat. : 
 
 hard by (rest), 
 vird [sub] 
 
 (i.) with Acc. : 
 
 under (motion), 
 (ii.) with Gen. : 
 
 by (with Passive), 
 (iii.) with Dat. : 
 
 under (rest). 
 
 With Ik, irpo, air, avTi, use Genitive Case ; 
 With ev and crvv Dative ; Accusative ets, 
 
 Am ; two Cases 8ta, /cara, inrip, p^TO. ; 
 Three irpos, inpi, o.p,^i, im, xnro, irapd. 
 
 300 Adverbs are often used as Prepositions, and then generally 
 
 take the Gen. : e.g. eyyus, Trhquiov, near ; evrds, eicro), within ; cktos, 
 without, outside. But apa, at the same time, and bpjov, together, 
 take the Dative ( = together with). 
 
 * To is often expressed by its with Acc, but only before nouns denoting 
 persons. 
 
 t = Lat. ah with Abl. ; stWre ah aliquo, to stand on the side of amyone. 
 
126 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 ON SOUNDS. 
 
 Classification of Consonant-sounds. 
 
 ( Voiced 
 MUTES I Voiceless 
 
 ( „ Aspirate 
 
 GUTTUBALS. 
 
 TlABlALS. 
 
 Dentals. 
 
 7 
 
 K 
 X 
 
 
 8 
 
 T 
 
 e 
 
 spirants! ™^^ 
 
 [y] 
 
 [f] 
 
 <T,* S 
 
 f Nasal (Voiced) 
 LIQUIDS \ 
 
 ( Lingual (Voiced) 
 
 y = ng 
 
 M 
 
 V 
 
 X P 
 
 Notes. 
 
 The Mutes are momentary or explosive sounds ; the Spirants 
 and Liquids are continuous sounds. 
 
 Yoiced means formed with vibration of the vocal chords. 
 
 Yoiceless means formed without vibration of the vocal chords. 
 
 Aspirate means breathed : (j>, 6, x> ^^ pronounced by the 
 ancient Greeks, had the sound of the corresponding Voiceless 
 Mutes (tt, t, k) accompanied by forcible expiration; thus 6 had 
 the sound heard in the English " &t /lorne ". As pronounced by 
 the modem Greeks ^, 6, x have become Voiceless Spirants, i.e. 
 are pronounced like ph, th, ch in philosopher, thea,tre, and Scottish 
 or German locZi — sounds unknown to the ancient Greeks.f 
 
 The oldest Greek had a Voiced Spirant, pronounced somewhat 
 like the English v or w. The letter representing this sound 
 was F (called the Digamma, because it looked like one F placed 
 on the top of another) ; but it fell out of use in early times. 
 
 * (T is voiced ( = English «) only when it is assimilated to a following 
 voiced consonant: e.g. ireireianai. 
 
 \ Possibly the Attic tt (Appendix IV., 1, Obs. 1) was pronounced th. 
 
APPENDIX I. —ON SOUNDS. 127 
 
 The sound y (not represented by any Greek letter) fell out 
 of use still earlier than the Digamma ; but traces of it are to be 
 seen in the formation of many words, e.g. the Present stems rayy- 
 (racro--), ayyeXy- (dyyeXX-), §§ 217. ii., 228. On tt, employed by 
 some Attic writers for o-cr, see Appendix IV., 1, Obs. 1. Ony = ng 
 and the Double Consonants t,, ^, \j/, see note on § 1, p. 1. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 A syllable is as a rule long not only when it contains a 
 naturally long vowel or diphthong but also when it contains a 
 naturally short vowel followed by two or more conso- 
 nants or a double consonant, except when the two consonants 
 are a Voiceless Mute (k, tt, t; x> i>, ^) followed by a Liquid 
 (X, /x, V, p), or a Voiced Mute (7, p, 8) followed by the Liquid p : 
 
 e-g-— 
 
 Long : KaWos, Tao-o-fu, £X®°'> ^X®po5 j ^,o|'■''■l, Ta|«, o^ofiai : 
 
 [In all such cases the naturally short vowel is said to be 
 long by position.] 
 
 Short : IleptKX^s, aKfiiy, tIkvov, TrtKpo's ; Tv<|)\ds ; v^pts, etc. 
 
 In words like fiaWov, irpdcra-oi, which have a naturally long a, the first 
 syllable is doubly long. 
 
 A vowel standing before another vowel is not necessarily short 
 in Greek words (as it nearly always is in Latin words) : e.g. Xuco, 
 
 Changes of Consonants in Accidence. 
 
 Assimilation. 
 
 Assimilation is the law of like before like. When two conso- 
 nants belonging to different groups come together, the first is 
 generally adapted to the second. 
 
 The practical rules for the formation of cases and tenses under 
 this law have already been given in the Accidence (see especially 
 § 213 c) ; the following examples are arranged under headings so 
 as to show the principle on which the law works. 
 
128 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Interchange of Mutes by Assimilation. 
 
 (a) Change of Voiced to Voiceless before a Voiceless Conso- 
 nant : — 
 
 Tay- : TeraK-Tai, toJo) = raK-ffO). 
 (^Xoy- : <^XdJ = (^XoK-s ; cf. reg- : rex — rec-s. 
 )8XaP- : /3£/SXair-Tai, ^A.ai|«o = /SXair-crw. 
 'ApaP- : 'Apa^ = 'Apair-s ; cf. scrlb-, scrip-si. 
 
 (b) Change of Voiceless to Voiced before a Voiced Consonant: — 
 
 ttXck- : irerr\ey-y.ai, TrXcy-Siji' (Adverb).* 
 
 (c) Change of Unaspirated to Aspirate before an Aspirate : — 
 
 ttXek- : ejrXe'x-6'?''.* Xctir- : eXet'cji-Or^v. 
 
 Tay-; {iTa.K-6r]v) €Tax-6'?>'. /JXaP-: {lfi\a.-iT-6r)v) i/SXa^-Qufv. 
 
 (d) Change of Aspirate to Unaspirated before an Unaspirated 
 Consonant : — 
 
 Sex- • Se'ScK-Toi, 8eJo/iai ; (8e8e/c-/iat) SeSey-fiai. 
 ypa<j>- : yiypair-Tai, ypa.<^to ; (ypa7r-8i;v) ypaP-Srjv. 
 
 2. Change of Mute to Liquid by Assimilation. 
 
 This applies only to Labials : — 
 
 /3XaP- : Ptj3\a^-fi.ai. Xetir- : XeXeifi-nai. 
 ypa<|)- : yeypafi,-fi.aL, 
 
 3. Interchange of Liquids by Assimilation. 
 
 This applies only to the Liquid v in Compounds (c/. § 193) : — 
 
 (a) ev-ypdcfxo: ry-ypac/ia). cc-KaXco: ey-KaXio. iv-\€oi: h/-\€io. 
 
 (b) ei'-PoXXu) : eji-PaXXo). ei'-irXe'/cco : eji-irXcKO). 
 ei>-(|>vo/;iai ; e|j,-<|>vojiiat. 
 
 iv-fievo) : ifi,-fitvio ; cf. iivmemor : im-memor ; 
 irir-perltus, im-pentm. 
 
 (c) ec-XetVo) : eX-XetTTO) ; cf. con-lego : col-ligo. 
 
 (d) (rvv-pio) : crvp-pew ; cf. eon-ruo : cor-ruu. 
 
 But iv remains unchanged in Compounds before p : e.g. ivpvBiios. 
 
 4. The change of n- to p aftei- p in such forms as x^ppo^V"'"^' 
 6appS>, apptjv (used by some Attic writers instead of xepo-ovrja-os, 
 Bapa-S), apa-i/jv) is a case of assimilation. 
 
 * But €/c remains unchanged in Compounds : e.g. iK-Sexo/iat, ix-iiavBilya; 
 iK-9fa, iK-<pio/iai, ix-x^o) ; ^K-imuris, Engl, extasy or ecstacy. 
 
APPENDIX I.— ON SOUNDS. 129 
 
 Other Changes of Consonants. 
 
 1. Dental Mutes replaced by a- before a Dental Mute or jx : — 
 
 ir£i0- : ireTreuTrTai, iTrdcr-drjv, Triirua-fi.a.i. 
 So too V before /* : fjiav-, 7ri<j>a(T-iJ.ai ; but iricfyav-Tai (§ 225). 
 
 2. Loss of a single Dental (Mute or Nasal) before <r : — 
 
 ireud- : iret-cro) (§ 212). 
 trvv-CTTpaTeviti \ arv-<TTpaTev<ii 
 
 Xa/ATraS- : Xa/A7ra-s 1 (■ qn q 
 
 (§ 193). 
 
 But <(>ov- : 'iTc<pav-(rai (§ 225) ; 
 
 iy remains unohanged in Compounds before 0- : 4v-<rrpe<pa, 
 
 3. Loss of v8, vT, v6 (Dental Nasal + Dental Mute) before cr, 
 with change of the preceding vowel : — 
 
 ooorr- : oooii-s ) oet/ci'ui'T- : oetwu-s J 
 
 The same vowel-changes after loss of v alone are seen in 
 
 ev- : eW (§ 123). (Afio-vTi) xoo-vo-i ; Aifoviri (§ 254). 
 
 4. Loss of the Dental Spirant cr : — 
 (a) Between two Vowels : — 
 
 y€Veo--os : yeVe-os, yti/ous (§ 33, Rule 1). 
 kv£-(rai : Xie-ai, X-Brj. eXve-a-o : eAue-o, iX.vov (§ 254). 
 iCTTat-o-o : to-rat-o (§ 249). So Tt^et-o, Wi-o, SiSot-o. 
 I^e-o-o : e'ee-o, eOov. eSo-ao, iSo-o, eSov (§ 257. 7). 
 iSvva-a-o : iSvva-o, eSwco (§ 256, and Obs.). 
 
 (6) Between two Consonants in the Perf. Pass. : — 
 TTETrXcx-^e, '7reir\e)(-6(a, TmrXi^fjOaL (§ 213. a). 
 riyyeX-Oi, r]yyiX-6<a, rjyyiX-6ai, (§ 220). 
 
 (c) Before o- : — 
 
 yevia- : yeve-crt. 
 
 5. Loss of F and 2/ between two Vowels : — 
 
 Pacnkiv-, Pao-iktF : fiaa-iXi-oii fiov-, (SoF: jSo-os (§ 49. 2). 
 (§ 37. 3). 
 
 TrXev-, TrkeF- : TrXe'-o) (§ 281.6). Kav-y-, KaiF- : Kai-ta (§ 280). 
 
 OTOia, o-Toya: cttoo. (§ 18. 2). TrXetW, Trkhjutv: vXitav (§ 119). 
 
 Similarly neipaieiJs or neipaefe (§ 47), ui'ifs or uJl, iroi« or ttoei. 
 
 9 
 
130 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. AVeakening of o- to the Rougli Breathing before a Vowel at 
 the beginning of a word : — 
 
 crCs, Lat. sus: 5s (§ 38. 2). Of. sex: 1^ — septem: kirra. 
 
 (§ 122). 
 cTL-arq-fjiL, Lat. si-sfo : i-arrj-fu (§ 248). o-ttj- : e-arrj-Ka. 
 
 (TiTT- : CTT-O/Aat (§ 292), 
 
 7. Changes of y : — 
 («.) With Mutes :— 
 
 Ikax-iiav, i\ax-y<^v : iXacra-aiv, cXarruv (§ 119). 
 rax-tu)v, Tax-yiov: Oaa-criav, 6a.TT0>v (§ 118), c/. below 9. 
 (jjplK-y-ui : ^pia-a-o), <^piTT-w K g^y^ y gy_ g 284. 
 
 (&) With Liquids : — 
 
 ayyeX-y-u) : dyyeX\-a) ^ 
 
 <f)av-y-ta : <jicuv-ta f § 228. 
 
 (TTCip-y-io : (nrelp-oi I 
 
 a/xev-Liav, a.jj,iv-yw : dyneivuv I s 11 9 
 
 )(ep-LU)V, x^p-yo^ '■ X^'P"*" ) 
 
 8. In the following cases Greek avoids aspiration at the be- 
 ginning and end of a syllable ; — 
 
 (a) In Eeduplication : — 
 
 (t>plK- : Tri^plKa (§ 191). $€- : rWr)ij.i (§ 258). 
 (6) In the Weak Aor. Pass, of the stems 6v-, Ot- : — 
 
 Ov- : k-TvB-qv (§ 280). Oi- : i-ridrjv (§ 259). 
 
 (c) In the 2nd Sing. Imperat. of the Weak Aor. Pass, the 
 second aspirate is changed : — 
 
 \v6ri6i : XvOr/Ti. So trXexOrjTi, ayyiXO^Ti, crrd6r]Tl. 
 In other oases the two aspirates remain unchanged : IxiSrtv, i<j>iv6riv, 
 iipBdS-qv, eflcAxfl')''. eica6dpSrit> ; TreipduBai, KiKaOdpeai ; ypd^riBi, (rTpd<lniBi (Strong 
 Aor. Pass. § 216. i.). 
 
 9. When an aspirate is lost at the end of a syllable according 
 to the foregoing laws of sound, it is restored at the beginning in 
 the following cases : — 
 
 Tptx- : N. S. Opii = epU-i, D. PI. epi^l (§ 49. 9). 
 rpe^- : dpexj/w, idpaf/a, Ti6paiJ.-p.ai (§ 282. 6). 
 Ta<^- : 6d7r-T-<i), 6dxj/u>, Wa\j/a, Tida/x-pLai (§ 283), 
 
 Tax" : 6da-<7iav, 6dTT(ov ; see above 7 (a). 
 
APPENDIX I.— ON SOUNDS. 131 
 
 Changes at the End of Words. 
 
 Elision is the striking out of a vowel at the end of a word 
 before a vowel or diphthong (with rough or smooth breathing) at 
 the beginning of the next word : e.g. dXA.' iyd for aXXa, iyw, or rjv 
 for ore rjv, in avT(S for cttI awriS, dw' i/jLov for aTro e/xo5, Trap' ■^/aSs for 
 Trapa ij/tas. 
 
 (i.) Long vowels and diphthongs are never elided in Greek : — 
 
 e.g. fidxv ^^) '■^ 5otJAy ^(TTi, ol SovKoi etfft. 
 (ii.) The following short vowels are never elided : — 
 
 (a) Short v : e.g. itrrv ^v. 
 
 (i) Short a and in words of one syllahle : e.g. tb ivra, rh tv. 
 
 (c) Short i in irepf, Sxpij li-^xph tU ti, 3ti (Conjunction) : e.g. irepl 
 
 When, owing to the elision of a final vowel, the Voiceless 
 
 Mutes come into contact with a Rough Breathing, they are 
 
 changed into the corresponding Aspirates : e.g. £</>' kavTov for ctt' 
 lauToC, Koff rnxipdv for Kar rifiipdv. 
 
 Crasis (/cpScns, mixing) is the contraction of a vowel or diph- 
 thong at the end of a word with a vowel or diphthong at the 
 beginning of the next word. 
 
 It is employed instead of elision most commonly — 
 
 (i.) After Ka.1 and S : — 
 
 e.g. Kav for koI eV, Kav for ko! kiv, xei for kuI ei, KfTa for Koi 
 cIto, x^) for Kol d, xo' for koI oi ; ayafle for S 07066. 
 
 (ii.) After the Article, the Eelative, and irp6 : — 
 
 e.g. affip for S miip, Ta/id for to i/id, ToSyofm for rh ovofm, 
 TaA.\o for ri SaAo, toutiJ for t!i aurS, eirepov for ri 
 arepov (a by -form of erepoy), BoifiaTiov for ri ifidrioy] 
 av for & Sj', 0716 for & iyii, oi:p6pei for 5 ^(^(fpet ; vpoiS- 
 PaWov for irpoifiaXKov. 
 
 The mixed syllable is necessarily long ; but the contractions 
 are not always the same as in nouns and verbs, xat loses its iota 
 in crasis (/cav, kov) ; the iota subscript appears in the mixed syll- 
 able only when t was present in the second of the two syllables 
 which suffer mixing (xaTa). On accents in crasis, see Appendix 
 II., Rule 8, p. 133. 
 
132 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 ACCENTS. 
 Geneeal Rules. 
 
 1 . The Acute may stand on short or long syllables, the Cir- 
 cumflex only on syllables containing a vowel long by nature or a 
 diphthong : e.g. tov, tw, tovs ; tZv, tov. 
 
 2. The Acute may stand on any of the last thi-ee syllables, 
 the Circumflex only on the last or the last but one : e.g. fieo's, 
 TraiSevo}, iraiSevo/Aai ; Oecni, SS>pov, Troieire. 
 
 3. But the Acute cannot stand on the last but two, nor the 
 Circumflex on the last but one, unless the vowel of the last is 
 short by nature : e.g. S.vOponro's, but dv^/uwiro) (not a,v6po>Trw) ; BCipov, 
 but Swpov (not 8G>pov). 
 
 4. When the last but one contains a vowel long by nature or 
 a diphthong, and the vowel of the last is short by nature, the 
 former, if accented at all, is accented with the Circumflex : e.g. 
 SSipov (not Siipov), aiyna (not at/ia), TroiciTe (not TroiEire), ^\ii (not 
 ^A.1^), Gen. ^Aikos. 
 
 Exceptions only apparent are words like &a-irep, Strre, 5)5e, etc. ; see 
 below (Enclitics : 10, iv. ; 11, e). 
 
 5. The Acute on the last syllable is turned into the Grave 
 when no stop follows : e.g. tov 6e6v, ;(aA.€Tra to. /caAa. 
 
 Except only the Interrogative t/j, ti ; e.g. rts aviip ; tI Sp^. 
 
 6. Contracted syllables are — 
 
 (a) Accented with the Circumflex when the first of the 
 two uncontracted syllables was accented : e.g. Tlp.a.a), 
 rip,!!) ; woUeTe, ttouItc ; SrjXoitrOai, SriXovcrdai ; yeveav, 
 yevSiv. 
 
 (6) Accented with the Acute when the second of the two 
 uncontracted syllables was accented : e.g. ripMeru), 
 
 Tt/X.ffT(l) ; irOUoilJV, TTOlOLrjV ; SljXoO/ACI'OS, SyjXovpxvoi. 
 
 (c) Unaccented when neither of the uncontracted syll- 
 ables was accented : e.g. eri/taov, err/icovj irotte, ttoul; 
 S^Xot, S^XoD ; yive.0^, yevovs. 
 
 ^" It will be seen that no syllable has the Ciromnflex merely because 
 it is contracted ; and many syllables have it which are not contracted (e. g. 
 Swpoy, aT/ia). 
 
APPENDIX II.— ACCENTS. 133 
 
 7. When the final vowel of Prepositions and Conjunctions accented on 
 the last syllable is ehded, the accent disappears together with it ; e.g. in 
 airf for eVl aiT$, oliS' iSuvd/niv for ouSe eSvvdfuiv. In all other classes of 
 words the accent of the elided syllable is thrown back as an Acute on to 
 the preceding syllable : e.g. eW ■i)<Tav for kirrh Jicav, eifi 'OSv<reis for eifd 
 'OSvtTe{is ', thus ei Seiv' ^Spaffas, Seiycfc Kal •KoBeiv ffe XP^- 
 
 8. When two words suffer Crasis, the accent of the first disappears, 
 and that of the second determines the accent of the mixed word : see 
 examples on p. 131. 
 
 9. Prepositions of two syllables, except a/iipi, avrt, ard, Sd, throw back 
 their accent on to the first syllable when they are placed after the word 
 to which they belong : e.g. roirav iripi = Trepl roi-ruv. So too iripa = irdpeim, 
 evi = iveari. The throwing back of the accent is called Anastrophe. 
 
 Enclitics. 
 
 10. Certain words generally lose their accent in consequence of 
 being pronounced, like the Latin -que, in close connexion with the 
 preceding word : these are called "Enclitics" {Leaning words). 
 
 (i.) The following forms of the Personal Pronouns : 
 
 ^e, 1J.0V, 11,01 : ere, arov, (toi (§ 128) : e, ov, 01 (§ 134). 
 (ii.) All forms of the Indefinite rtj, ti, except arra (§ 152). 
 
 (iii.) The Adverbs — 
 
 ■jTov, anywhere; Trot, any whither; iro&ev, any- \ 
 
 whence ; > Indefinite 
 
 TTOTe, ever; ttw?, anyhow; tr-q, anyhow. ) 
 
 ■ye, at any rate; -8e, -wards, and in o8e, § 140; tot, ti-uly; 
 
 vw, accordingly ; Trep, just ; ttui, yet. 
 (iv.) The Conjunction re, Lat. -que (and -« in Compounds like 
 
 WCTTe). 
 
 (v.) The Present Indicative of et/xi, I am, when used with a 
 Predicate Adjective or Predicate Noun, and <^ij^t, I 
 say, except in the 2nd Person Singular (cT, </>^s). 
 
 11. Rules for the use of Enclitics. 
 
 (a) When the syllable that precedes the enclitic has an 
 accent of its own, the accent of the enclitic disappears 
 without producing any effect, except that a preceding 
 Acute is not changed into the Grave (Rule 5) : e.g. 
 TifiS) o-e, / honour thee ; (7o</)ds tis, a certain wise man; 
 a-o^oi Tives, certain wise men ; ^cos eo-rtv dya^os, God is 
 good. 
 
134 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 (ft) When the syllable that precedes the enclitic has no 
 accent of its own, the accent of the enclitic is thrown 
 back upon it as an Acute, except when the effect 
 would be to produce two successive syllables both 
 accented with the Acute : e.g. a.v6p(iiTr6<s tis, a certain 
 man ; Swpay ti, a certain gift ; tv re rfj xiipq., and in 
 the countri/ ; but Xdyos ns (not Xoyo's tis), a certain 
 argument. 
 
 (c) When an enclitic of two syllables follows a word ac- 
 
 cented with the Acute on the last syllable but one, it 
 retains its accent on the second syllable : e.g. Xoyoi 
 Tives, Xoyoyv nvdv, \6yoL Trori ■^(rav. 
 
 (d) When several enclitics follow one another, each throws 
 
 its accent as an Acute on to the preceding syllable : 
 e.g. £1 TTws Tts nvd Trot irifHTTOL, if perchance anyone 
 should send anyone anywhither. 
 
 (e) Enclitics are sometimes written at the end of the word 
 
 that precedes : e.g. oifwi, ah me ; outtm, not yet ; oo-jtc/d, 
 just who, the vei-y man who ; oo-rts, anywho, any man 
 who ; Sio~irep, Just as (not Sxnrcp ; cf. Rule 4 above) ; 
 so always -St both in the sense -loards, and when 
 added to Demonstratives : e.g. oTkoVSe, homewards ; 
 oSe, ^Sc, this here (for o Se, ij 8e; cf. § 140). 
 
 12. The only other cases (besides those mentioned above) in which 
 enclitics are accented are : — 
 
 (a) When they are emphatic, or stand at the beginning of a clause ; 
 e.g. oiiK iKelvov aKKa (re (rripyu, I love not him but you ; juera 
 <rov, with you ; <ro! \4ya, it is to you that I am speaking ; rtvh 
 \4yov(ri, certain persons say ; tpajj-ev -rolvvv, we declare accord- 
 ingly. Enclitics at the beginning of a clause are rare. 
 (J) When the syllable on which their accent would have to fall is 
 elided : e.g. KoKhv S' ^o-rfy, for KdKhv S4 4(Ttiv, but it is a fair 
 thing ; i,\K' eiVl Ka\ol, for aWd elirt xaKoi, but they are fair. 
 
 Obs. — The whole Present Indicative of the verb elfii, I am, is accented 
 when it denotes existence: e.g. %t' ela-iv, they are still in,being; eiVl \6yoi, 
 there are arguments (= arguments exist). The 3rd Sing, is accented on the 
 first syllable — 
 
 (i.) When it denotes existence : e.g. oukc't' tffriv, he is no more. 
 (ii.) At the beginning of a clause : e.g. iari tout' dXTjSe's, this is true. 
 (iii.) In the sense "it is allowed," "it is possible" (= ^Ieo-tj). 
 (iv.) After e*, /caf, ovk, As, and the elided dXA.', toi)t' : e.g. ovk ^ffTiv 
 i.\TlBes, it is not true. 
 
APPENDIX 11.— ACCENTS: 135 
 
 Atona. 
 
 13. A few words have no accent in consequence of being pro- 
 nounced in close connexion with the following word ; these are 
 called "Atona" {Aecentless words): — 
 
 (i.) Four forms of the Article : 6, rj, ol, ai. 
 (ii.) Four Prepositions : eh, is, into ; iv, in ; Ik, ef, out of; 
 
 d)S, to. 
 (iii.) Two Conjunctions : et, if; us, as, when, that. 
 (iv.) Two Adverbs : ov, ovk, ovx, not ; is, how. [But us, 
 thus, is not an Atonon.] 
 
 14. The only cases in wWoh Atona receive an accent are : — 
 
 (a) When an enclitic follows : e.g. elf tis, if any one ; oi <j>ri<ri,-he says 
 
 not, he denies ; 8Be, this here ; eire, whether, Lat. sive ; oSre, 
 
 neither, Lat. neque. 
 {b) When no word follows with which they can be connected : this 
 
 can only happen in the case of ov before a stop : e.g. (piis ^ oi; 
 
 say you so or not ? 
 
 Special Rules. 
 Noans and Adjectives. 
 
 15. The following rules apply to all three declensions gene- 
 rally : — 
 
 (i.) In the inflected cases of Nouns and Adjectives the 
 accent remains unchanged on the syllable which is 
 accented in the Nominative Singular, so long as the 
 general rules of accentuation permit : e.g. wpd, &pdv, 
 <upds, (Spa ; Xoyos, Aoye, A.oyov, Xoyov, Xdyco ; S.vOpiairo';, 
 avOpwire, avOpwirov. When, owing to a change at the 
 end of the word, the original accent would violate 
 one of the general rules of accentuation (1 — 4), it is 
 shifted just so far towards the end of the word, or 
 changed just so much, as is absolutely necessary : e.g. 
 avOpunrav, av6p<i>ir<o ; <r!!)fji,a., cru/xaTos, o-w/iarcov ; reixos, 
 Tet;)(Ous ; TToXlnjs, iroXtra. 
 
 (ii.) The endings ai and ot of the Nominative Plural are 
 treated as short : thus Zpai, avOpwiroi. 
 
 (iii.) The Genitive and Dative of all numbers, when long and 
 accented on the last syllable, are accented with ihe 
 Circumflex', e.g. Tiii,rj, tZ/a^s, ti/aij, tZ/jimv, rl/j.o.'L'i, n/xaLv; 
 oSos, 6S0V, 68(3, oSSv, oSots, oooii'. 
 
136 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obs. 1. No rule can be given for accenting the Nominative Singular, 
 except in a few classes of words : e.g. Nouns of the 3rd decl. in svs and a, 
 most Adjectives in ijj, and Adjectives meaning "good" or "bad" have 
 the Acute on the last syllable, like PcurAeis (§ 38. 3), ireiflii (§ 40), eiyeviis 
 (§ 100), ayae6s, good; iireK6s, noble; xptjCTiis, serviceable; Ka\6s, beautiful; 
 tT0(p6s, wise ; xaKiis, bad ; irovripSs, wicked ; oiVxpi's, disgraceful. 
 
 Obs. 2. Special exceptions to the above rule (15. i.) in the Vocative are — 
 SeffiroTO {§ 19 b, note) ; rrdrfp, Bvyarep (§ 42) ; fiyep, yvvai (§ 49) ; Ai6yeres, 
 neplK\€is (and other nouns declined like them, § 38) ; a-arep, "AiroWov, 
 n6treiSov (§ 44). In aU these forms the accent of the Voo. Sing, retreats 
 as far as possible from the end ; so too in compounds like 'Aydine/ivov (Nom. 
 ^Aya-fji4/j.vwv), KaKS^aifioy (Nom. KaKo-Salfiav). 
 
 16. The following rules apply to particular declensions : — 
 
 (i.) In the 1 st decl. of Nouns the ending av of the Gen. Plur. is always 
 ncoented with the Circumflex, whatever the accent of the Nom. Sing., 
 because here uv is a contraction of li-wv : e.g. &pdj upuv ; Mot/era, Movffuv. 
 
 (ii.) In the Feminine of Adjectives of Class I. the accent follows that 
 of the Nom. Sing. Masculine, so far as the general rules of accentuation 
 permit ; see examples in § 92. Thus : from SiKiuos we have Fem. Nom. 
 Sing. Siica(o, Nom. Plur. Sixatai (not SiKarai, as we might expect from Rule 
 15. i.). Gen. Plur. Smalav (not SiKaiuv, as we might expect from Rule 16. i.). 
 
 (ui.) Contracted Nouns and Adjectives of the 1st and 2nd decl. have 
 the Circumflex on the last syllable throughout (except Compounds of vovs, 
 irhovs, fiovs, e.g. eHmvs, &Tr\ous, eSpovs, § 93. iii.). In most cases the accent 
 is explained by General Rule 6, e.g. in 'AflrjvS = 'ABrivdd (§ 20. i.), your = i/6os 
 (§ 26) : so too in nouns like yr) = yea, earth, land ; 'Ep/i^s = 'Ep/ieas, the god 
 ffermes (Plur. and Du. statues of Hermes), which differ from /«£xij (§ 17), 
 'ArpelSris (§ 19), only in their accent ; — 
 
 Sing. N. V. -y^, A. yHv, G. yrjs, D. 75. 
 Sing. N. 'Ep/iTJs, V. 'Epfirj, A. 'Epfaji', Or. 'Ep/toC, D. 'Ep^p, 
 ' Plur. N. V. 'Ep/ioi, A. 'Ep/uSs, G. 'Epfiav, D. 'Ep/iaTs. 
 ,' Dual N. V. A. 'Ep/iS, G. D. 'Ep/jjuv. 
 Eoppas, North Wind (Doric for Bopeas, § 20. ii), has Boppav, BoppS, Boppf. 
 In some cases, however, the accent violates Rule 6, e.g. in xpvcovs, con- 
 tracted from xpffceos (§ 93. i.). 
 
 (iv.) In the Attic 2nd decl. the Acute of the Nom. Sing, is retained 
 throughout (contrary to Rule 15. iii.) : e^g. veiis, vedv, ved, vecp (§ 27). The 
 a> is treated as short in accenting such words as MeveKetas, 'iKetis (§ 94). 
 
 (v.) In the 3rd decl. words of one syllable shift their accent to the 
 ending in the Gen. and Dat. of all numbers (contrary to Rule 15. i.) ; when 
 the ending is short it takes the Acute, when long the Circumflex (according 
 to Rule 15. iii.) : e.g. ei\p, erip-6s, 6r)p-l, er\p-uiv, 6T]p-ai(v), Srip-otv ; ttoiJj, jroS-ifj, 
 not-l, iroZ-uiv, Tro-tri{y), •tro^-olv : but Oijp-a, Grip-as ; irSS-a, ir65-as. 
 
 Exceptions : — • 
 
 (a) Participles accent the stem in all cases : e.g. &v, ivr-os, ivr-i, 
 
 ivT-wv, QZ-(ri{v); 6eis, 6evT-os, 64vT-i, BeuT-cov, 6eT-a'L{v). 
 
 (b) The word was accents the stem in the Gen. and Dat. Plur. : 
 
 thus irdvT-cov, ira-0'i(y), but iravT-6s, iravr-i, § 97. 
 (e) The words ira'ts, S/ids {captive of war), ois, Tpds {Trojan), accent 
 the stem in the Gen. Plur. and the Gen. and Dat. Dual : 
 thus TraiS-(ov, 'jraiS-oiy, but iraii-6s, iraiS'i, vai-ffi{t'). 
 
APPENDIX II.— ACCENTS. 137 
 
 (vi.) In tlie words of the 3rd deol. like wi\ts (§ 37. 1), irfixvs (§ 47), the 
 endings -us, -ay are treated as short : thus v6\i-as, TriXe-av ; iriixe-us , 
 ■jrijxe-tiiv. 
 
 (vii.) In Adjectives of the Brd deol. in -av, st. -ov-, including Compara- 
 tives in -lay, st. -lov-, the accent retreats as far as possible from the end : 
 e.g. evSaliiav, eSSoi^uov (§ 98) ; P€\Tiav, $e\Tlov (§ 120). 
 
 (viii.) In the few Adjectives of the Brd decl. in -tjj, st. -ea--, not accented 
 on the last syllable in the Nom. Sing. (c/. § 100), the accent generally 
 retreats as far as possible from the end : e.g. ei-lieris, Neut. eS/rjflcj, Gen. 
 Plur. eviiBav (not eiiiBav, though -wv is a contraction of -eav) ; airdpKris, 
 self-sufflcient, airapices, airdpKav : so tpiiipTis, rpiijpuv (or rpiripSiv). 
 
 Yerbs (including Infinitives and Participles). 
 
 17. (i.) As a rule the accent retreats as far frora the end of 
 the verb as the general laws of accentuation permit, i.e. it stands 
 on the last syllable but one when the last is long by nature, on 
 the last syllable but two when the last is short by nature : e.g. 
 \.v<i>, \v6vT(i>v, iXeXvKYj, Xveiv, \.v<i)V ; Xvo/J,£Vf tXvov, XeXvKa j Xve : SO 
 too in Compounds, airoXvio, aTroXve. 
 
 (ii.) Final ai and 01 are treated as short, except in the Optative 
 Mood : e.g. Xvofj-ai, Xve(r$ai, XeXv/xai, X^Xwrai, Xv6/x.evoi ; but X-vcru, 
 airoXvcrai (Aor. Opt.) ; Xvoi, aTroXvoi (Pres. Opt.). 
 
 (iii.) Contracted forms are accented according to General 
 Eule 6, 
 
 Note that the Subjunctive and Optative of all Passive Aorists 
 and of the Present and Strong Aorist Active and Middle of verbs 
 in -/xt (except verbs in -rii/At and the Deponents Svvafx,ai, imcrTaiMu, 
 Kpiiuxjiai, aya/x.at, hrpiajx-qv, wv-qfji-qv) are accented as contracted 
 forms : XvBSi ( = XvOi-m), XvOeir/v ( = Xv6e-irj-v), XvdeLfJ.ev ( = Xv6i-i- 
 /x,€v) ; ia-TW ( = IcTTd-ia), lo'TaLrjv ( = lo-Ta-irj-v), lorTaijitev ( = icrTa-t-/tEi/), 
 cf. § 252 ; 6C>/jLai ( = Oi-oi/xai), OajjLYjv ( = 6e-i-/ji,rjv), Oeiade ( = Oe-i-crOe), 
 of. § 259. [But Sww/iai, ETTto-Tio/Aat, etc. ; Svvaio, eVtcrTatTO, etc.] 
 
 18. Exceptions : — 
 
 (i.) Four forms of the Thematic Aorist (Strong) accent the vowel 
 o/e:— 
 
 The 2nd Sing. Imperat. Mid. : \ivov (= Aw-e-o). 
 The Infin. Mid. : AiireVflai. 
 
 The Infin. and Part. Act. : \iiTeTv {— Am-e-€v), \iT<iv. 
 So too the 2nd Sing. Aor. Imperat. Act. of five verbs : ciVe, 
 tAfle, eipe, (Se, Ka^e ; but not in their Compounds: ii7r£iir€, 
 ciire\6e, 
 
138 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 (ii.) The following Infinitives and Participles accent the last syll- 
 able but one with the Circumflex or Acute according to its 
 quantity : — 
 
 All Infinitives in -vai : Perf. Act. XeAu/c«Voi, Aor. Pass. 
 \v6?}vai, Pres. Act. Itrrdvatf SetKvvi/ai, Aor. Act. deTvai, 
 Sohvatj jS-^fai. 
 The Infin. and Part, of the Perf. Pass, and Mid. : e.g. 
 \€\v(r6ai, KeKvfjievos ; TerifiTJirOait rerifiTifihos ; SeS6(r6att 
 ieSofieyos, 
 The Weak Aor. Infin. Act. : \S<roi, Ti/ti^o-oi, irAe'fai. 
 
 Obs. — Distinguish the following forms in -trai of the Weak Aor. ; — 
 
 2nd Sing. Imper. Mid. (oi short) : ri/irjiroi. 
 
 3rd Sing. Opt. Act. {ai long) : Ti/i^trai. 
 
 Infin. Act. (oi short) : Ti/t^<roi. 
 
 But 7rA.c'{ai is the same in aU three forms, \So-oi in two of them. 
 
 (iii.) All 3rd declension Participles in -s (Nom. Sing. Masc.) have 
 the Acute on the last syllable, except that of the Weak 
 Aorist Active : Perf. Act. \e\vK<is, kiTTiiKis ; Aor. Pass, \v6els, 
 ffraOets, ir\oKe(s ; Pres. and Strong Aor. Act. of verbs in -fn, 
 Io-tAs, TiBels, SiSois, SeiKvis ; ffrds, Bets, Sois : but Weak Aor. 
 Act. A-rftras, (TT-fitras. 
 
 (iv.) In the Feminine and Neuter, and in the oblique cases of all 
 three genders, Participles are accented as Adjectives, i.e. the 
 accent remains unchanged on the same syllable as in the 
 Nom. Sing. Masc. so far as the general laws of accentuation 
 permit : thus &vo\ii(itv, &7roArfoy(ra, diroACoy (not aw6\vov) ; 
 \e\vKiis, \e\vKvia, \iKvK6s ', \v6els, \v6uiTa, \vB4v ; \iiras, 
 \dfrdtra, Xvffav. 
 
 Obs. — Distinguish Tl/iria-ov (Nom. Sing. Neut. of the Fut. Part. Act.), 
 rf/*i)(rov (2nd Sing. Weak Aor. Imperat. Act.). 
 
 (v.) In Compounds the accent is not allowed to retreat — 
 
 (a) Beyond the Augment : e.g. avdyu, &iray€, but awriyov (not 
 Kiriiyoj') ; irapex'': '"dpex^y but Trapeirxov (not irdpetrxoy) ', 
 vip^ffTi, but irapriv (not irdpriv) ; a^tri/ii, d<l>iJKe (not &<^i)kc), 
 atjyeLTo (not fic^eiro), atpeTxa (Augment for Reduplication ; 
 not jii/>f ifca). 
 (S) Beyond the syllable immediately preceding the verbal pa/rt : 
 e.g. i-jricrxes (not ^iriirxes), a-jr6Sos (not diroSos), avTa-jrSSoSf 
 (Tuveicdos. 
 (c) Beyond the verbal part in the following forms : — 
 
 Infinitives and Participles of verbs in -fu : e.g. irapaffTrjmi, 
 •jraptunds ', &Trodovj/ai, airodovSt AiroSrftrflat ; Trape7vai, irapdv, 
 i^6v ; KaraKeTtrQai. [But Indie, diretfii, irdpetrrri, t^effTi ; 
 Imperat. Sirifli, trdpuxBi.'] 
 The 2nd Sing. Strong Aor. Mid. of verbs in -/u when com- 
 pounded with a preposition of one syllable : e.g. irpodov, 
 aipov. [But ireptBoVf aTr6Sov, etc.] 
 
APPENDIX II.— ACCENTS. 
 
 139 
 
 Words distinguished by theie Accent. 
 
 1^" The following list contains only words of some importance. Poetical words 
 are marked with an asterisk. Words occuring only in Homer are omitted. 
 
 &yos, pollution : ayis, leader. 
 iyuv, leading : ayiv, contest, 
 ahos* tale: alv6s,* dreadful. 
 a\Ti04s, true: SAtjAcj; really? 
 aXS, Aor. Subj. of aKiaKOjuai: 
 
 a\a, threshing-floor (Ace). 
 avd, up : &va (i.) Voo. of Syof. 
 
 (ii.) = ttvd(TTT)8l. 
 
 Svoo, up : avZ, Aor; Subj. of avtriiii. 
 &pa, then : Spa, interrogative : apd, curse. 
 auTTj, this (Fern.) ; out^ = r/ airii. 
 $a<rl\eia (i.) queen, (ii.) palaces : 
 
 $a(ri\eid, kingdom. 
 Seiv6s, terrible : 
 
 Seivos, Gen. of Sstva, so and so. 
 Seipds *, ridge : Selpds, Aor. Part, of Sepa. 
 Sri/ios, people : StumSs, fat. 
 Sid, through : Aia, Aoo. of Zeis : 
 
 Sia,* Fern, of STos, divine. 
 61, if: €?, 2nd Sing, of elixi or fl^i. 
 €?«, on ! effi, 3rd Sing. Past Impf . of Ida. 
 etKto, I yield: ehdi* = e'tKiva, image (Ace). 
 etiil, I am : ei/ni, I mil go. 
 flire, he said : eiire, say. 
 eTj, one : els, Aor. Part, of l-qiu. 
 elfft, they are : tlm, he will go. 
 ejre, whether : tire, 2nd Plur. Opt. of ei/ti. 
 4vi = iv : eyt = ^yeffrt. 
 h6s. Gen. of eTs, one : ems, by-gone. 
 i^aipeTos, choice: 
 
 e|aipeT(ij, that can be taken out. 
 
 '*^"^;.5flmperat.}(A--°f^*-P--)- 
 ^, than, or : 
 
 9j (i.) verily. 
 (ii.) said he (§ 265). 
 {Hi.) I was {= ?iv, § 266). 
 ^, Subj. of eifii. 
 V, the: tI, who (Dat. f[). 
 ^v (i.) I was, he was. 
 (ii.) said I (§ 265). 
 fiv (i.) = Hv. 
 
 (ii.) = Lat. en, interj. 
 ^pa, S. 1. Aor. of dtpa : 
 
 ijpa, S. 3. Past Impf. of ipdu. 
 
 IjpaTo, Aor. Mid. of alpai : 
 
 TtpccTo, Past Impf. of apdofiaiM 
 flei, goddess : 6fd, spectacle. 
 6eav, of gods: 04a>y, running. 
 iSov, see, Imperative of eiSS/iTiv : 
 
 iSoi, behold! interj. 
 ia, Subj. of elfit : 
 
 la. Imperative of Idofiat : Iti, ho ! 
 ica\as, beautifully : Kd\as, cable. 
 Kdv = Kal idy : Kay = koI iy. 
 i^'hpt Vt goddess of doom: Kijp, t6, heart. 
 K\eis, key ; KKets = /cXelSes. 
 Kpdros, Nom. strength : Kparis, Gen. head. 
 x4ay, lion : Keiy, people (Ace). 
 /i^Tis *, device : t^'firis, lest anyone, 
 ft^pioi, ten thousamd : ptOpiot, countless, 
 p-iaos, abomination : Mva6s, Mysian. 
 vios, new: ve6: (for y€t6s), fallow land, 
 yeuy. Gen. Plur. of yeos : 
 
 yeSy, Gen. Plur. of yavs : 
 
 vedy. Ace. Sing, of yedis. 
 y6/ios, law : yopiis, pasture, 
 yvy, now : yvv, accordingly, 
 at, Nom. PI. Maso. of S : 
 
 o'l, Nom. PI. Maso. of Ss : 
 
 01, Dat. Sing. (Eeflex.): 
 
 oT, whither. 
 oIkol, houses : oIkoi, at home, 
 oi6s, of a sheep : ohs, alone : 
 
 oTos, Lat. gualis. 
 '6pMS, nevertheless : Sfius, together, 
 iptiiy, of boundaries : dpSv, seeing. 
 ovKovy, therefore : ovkovv, therefore not. 
 irapd, by : irdpa = Trdpetrri. 
 •trdpeiffi, S. 3. of irdpeifit : 
 
 irapua-i, Dat. PI. of Aor. Part, of 
 irapiripit. 
 irepl, about : irepi = wepUffTi. 
 'jrepiffraffty, Dat. PI. of irepiffras : 
 
 irepiaTaffiv, Aco. S. of iieplaTaais. 
 iridy, Aor. Part, of iriya : may, fat (Adj.). 
 irSe^y ; whence 1 iroSsy, anytohence. 
 iroj; whither ? irci, anywhither, 
 vows ; of what sort 1 
 
 iroioj, of some sort. 
 
140 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Trotrlv, Dat, PI. of novs : 
 
 ■n6tTiv, Acc. (i.) hitsbaTid, (ii.) drink. 
 Tr6<ros ; of what size ? 
 
 iroiros, of smne size. 
 nSre ; wJien ? ttotc, ever, 
 TToC ; where ? irov, anywhere, 
 iras ; hoio ? irms, somehow. 
 0-170, Imp. of (Tlyiu : inya, Adv. silently. 
 ffiv^ |i5v, with : (Tvv, Acc. of cvs. 
 ravra, these things '. raura = ret ayra. 
 Tiieis, Part. : TiSeTj, for Wfltij (§ 257. 1). 
 t(j ; «)Ao .» Tij, anyone. 
 Tp6waiov, trophy: 
 
 TpoTraiov, routing, Acc. of Tpotra7os 
 (Zeis). 
 rpdiros, manner : rpoirds, thong. 
 
 Tp6xos, running : rpox^s, hoop, 
 (pdvat, Inf. of (pTj/ii : 
 
 (pavai, torch processions, 
 ipaai, P. 3. Indie. : 
 
 (pSo-i, Dat. Plur. of Part, of <pTiii.i. 
 (pvydv, Aor. Part, of ipeiya : 
 
 (pvyai'. Gen. PI. of (pvyfj. 
 (pus, r6, light : ipiis *, S, man. 
 &, 0, witli Voo. : 
 
 a, oh (independent interj.). 
 &fwi = otfioi, alas : 
 
 Sipioi, Nom. PI. of Sfios, shoulder. 
 
 ii/jioi, Nom. Plur. of uii6s, raw. 
 &s, as, when, that, how ; 
 
 Sis, thus, so. 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 NOTES AND AUTHORITIES ON FORMS. 
 
 §§ 33, 37, 39. N. V. A. Dual of 3rd Deol. in -ei (contracted). 
 The evidence of inscriptions is meagre, but so far as it goes it supports 
 the above form : see Meisterhans, Orammar of the Attic Inscriptions, 2nd 
 ed., pp. 103 {Ceiye^, etc.), 108 (a\i(rei, etc.), 113 (ui'ei), 162. The forms in 
 -r), which appear from B. c. 890 onwards, are probably Plurals, used here 
 as often elsewhere for Duals. The evidence against the uncontracted form 
 (-ee) is given by Dr. Rutherford, Mew Phrynichus, p. 142. 
 
 § 49 (7). eap is uncontracted in inscriptions : Meisterhans, pp. 103, 58. 
 (21). vi6s has also a form without 1 {'j6s or ih), which, like vtis, 
 appears in very old inscriptions. In later times it became 
 the prevailing form. Meisterhans, pp. 47, 113. 
 
 (24). The Gen. and Dat. Dual of x^^P is x^'P"^" (^°^ X^P"''') ™ ™" 
 soriptions : Meisterhans, p. 114. Cf. Eur. Ion, 1493, 1443. 
 § 102. The contracted Dual N. V. A. y\vK€i is given by Kiihner, 
 Qriechische Grammatik (3rd edition). Meisterhans quotes no evidence. 
 
 § 111, " After a mute and liquid the Comparative ends in -6repos, not 
 -drfpos," Meisterhans, p. 118 (aKporipa, etc.), Kriiger, Griechische Sprach- 
 lehre, § 23. 2. Anm. 2 [irtKp6Tepos, ij.aKp6Tepos). 
 §§ 181-183. Imperative, 3rd Person Plural. 
 The following forms are aU late : Meisterhans, p. 132 : — 
 Active : Pres. and Perf. -cTwiraj' (for ■6yT<oy). 
 Aor. -Araia'av (for -dvTwi/). 
 -effduffav (for -4adav). 
 ■(TBaxrav (for -aBaiv). 
 -iaBaaav (for -iffBaiv), 
 -•flTtafrav (for -cVtoix'). 
 
 Pass, and Mid. : 
 
 Pres. 
 
 
 Perf. 
 
 Mid.^ 
 
 Aor. 
 
 Pass. : 
 
 Aor. 
 
APPENDIX III.— NOTES AND AUTHORITIES. 141 
 
 § 182. The evidence for the endings of the Pluperfect Active -n, -r;s, 
 -€i(v), etc., is given by Rutherford, Mw Phrynichus, pp. 229 fi. The follow- 
 ing less correct endings are gradually disappearing from the best English 
 texts : S. 1. -€iv, 2. -eu, 3. -et ; P. 1. -eifisv, 2. -eiTe ; D. 2. -eirov, 3. -ekriv. 
 
 §§ 183, 254. -ei, as the general ending of the 2nd Person Singular 
 Present Indicative Active and Passive, does not appear to be older than 
 B.C. 400-800. Previously we find -p, the normal contraction of -eai 
 (=-6(rai): Meisterhans, p. 131. The -«, which is common in texts and 
 is often mentioned by schoUasts as Attic for -i; (especially in the forms 
 ;3otJ\ei, oUi), is explained by Meisterhans and Blass {Aussprache des Grie- 
 chischen, p. 41) as due to the tendency which began about B.C. 378 to 
 spell every -p as -ei : e.g. eipeflr; ( = r/peBri), rvyxdvei (Subjunctive), 07086? 
 TiJx" (= 07065 "rixv)- Others hold that -ei is an ending borrowed from 
 the Active; e.g. the 2nd Sing. Pres. Indie. Act. was originally tp^pet 
 (= (pepe-iTi, Sanskrit ihdra-si), the s being afterwards added to make it look 
 more like a 2nd Pers. : Brugmann, Gh-iechische Gh-ammatik, § 108 ; Henry, 
 trans, by Eliot, § 264; King and Cookson, Introduction to Comparative 
 Grammar, p. 77. At any rate -ei is a very peculiar form of the Passive 
 and Middle, which cannot be connected phonetically with -77. 
 
 § 190. The augmented forms ri- and ?)u- of verbs beginning with ei- 
 and Eu- is attested by inscriptions of the classical period: Meisterhans, 
 p. 136 ; of. Eutherford, New Phrynichus, p. 245. 
 
 § 224. The rule here given is supported by Attic inscriptions (Meis- 
 terhans, p. 145, verbs in -aiva). Dr. Eutherford's exceptions (First Greek 
 Grammar, p. 162) find no support there. 
 
 § 225. There is no evidence for the dropping of v before ir in verbs 
 (2nd Pers. Sing. Perf. and Pluperf. Pass, and Mid.). 
 
 § 238 (281, b). irviw has •nvmaovji.ai (-eTtoi) once or twice aoc. to MSS. 
 In Aiistoph. JRanae 1221 Dindorf now reads weirsTai. 
 
 § 239, note. Strictly speaking the augmented forms in -€i of the verb 
 spydCo/iai are limited to the Perfect (eJ'p70(r^oi) ; in the Past-Imperfect and 
 Aorist inscriptions support i]pya(i/ji7iy, iipya(rdii.riy ! Meisterhans, p. 135 f. ; 
 Eutherford, Preface to First Greek Grammar, and in his Thwcydides IV. 
 
 § 255. ea-Tdis, the organically correct form of the Neuter of the Strong 
 Perf. Part, of '{(rrrifu, is the only form recognised by recent German autho- 
 rities (Hartel, Kaegi, etc.) : ea-T6s appears in some MSS. (e.g. in Oed. Tyr. 
 633, rh vvv irapeffThs vetKos, Jebb). 
 
 § 258. The incorrect forms of the Perfect Active and the Perfect 
 Middle of riernii ought to be banished from the few passages in which they 
 are found in texts (Veitoh, Greek Verbs Irregular and Defective, pp. 563, 564) ; 
 the form Tcflij/co is attested by four inscriptions of the dates B.C. 400-200 
 (Meisterhans, p. 152), and is approved as correct by Eutherford in the 
 Preface to his FHrst Greek Grammar ; refleiKo does not appear till the 1st 
 century B.C. ; Te'eei/nai does not occur at all in Attic inscriptions, the 
 Perfect Passive meaning being regularly replaced by KeT/toi and its com- 
 pounds (Meisterhans, p. 153) ; the rare Perfect Middle was probably spelled 
 Te0r?;*Oi. 
 
 § 266. " For iarav (3rd Plur. Imperative of iXjd) the Attics said 
 imav," Meisterhans, p. 153 ; but this form is rare in texts (Veitoh, p. 200), 
 and is therefore excluded from the paradigm. 
 
142 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 § 284 (i)- Forms of ircf^a. 
 
 The 1 subscript in the Present is Mly attested by T\Ieisterhans, p. U2, 
 note. The only inscription which he quotes for the Perfect Passive has 
 SiatrKrtjiiiimvs (after B.C. 319, p. 149 note) — probably a confusion of the two 
 stems ffcpS- and o-a-, and thus pointing to the two forms tria-tfa-fiems, iriiTu- 
 11.4ms. The i subscript should at any rate be written wherever the stem 
 with a S appears. Meisterhans also quotes a Future auu = iriDtSi (from 
 iraiCm = aiiQw), like khSlSi (from /caflifai), and an Aorist einjitre (from St. aifS-): 
 pp. 143, 145. 
 
 § 287 b. Qdimviu forms Perf. Pass, efmjuai, not e^wc/<oi in Attic insor. : 
 Meisterhans, p. 148. So, too, recent editors in Thiicydides I. 6 (SiefoijueVoi) : 
 cf. the noun Sid(c>iia. 
 
 § 288 (!•)• The Strong Aor. of riiivu is always fre/xov, never erafwn in 
 Attic inscriptions : Meisterhans, p. 146. In MSS. iraiiov, irafiifiriv have 
 very slender authority in Attic ; see Veitch and Classen on Thucydides I. 81. 
 
 § 289 i. 6v^(rKa> should probably be written with i subscript : Meister- 
 hans, p. 141, note, Jebb Oed. Tyr. 628. 
 
 § 292. For parts of verbs of "saying," see Eutherford, New Fhrynichus, 
 pp. 326-334. 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 DIALECTS. 
 
 Greek was the language of the Hellenes ("EAAiji/es), the inhabi- 
 tants of Greece and the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, Sicily and 
 other parts. It is akin to the languages of the Hindoos, Persians, 
 Romans, and to those of the Slavonian, Gei'manic and Celtic 
 peoples. All these languages are sister tongues, and together form 
 the Indo-European family. 
 
 Greek, unlike Latin, was the language not of a single city but 
 of a whole country ; and, as the same words were pronounced and 
 spelled diiferently in different parts of the country, the Greek 
 language included a number of dialects, which differed from one 
 another in the same sort of way as the dialect of Yorkshire differs 
 from that of Somersetshire. As different forms of literature arose 
 in different parts of Greece, the masterpieces of one district were 
 taken as models in other districts, and hence arose various literary 
 dialects, which were more or less artificial and differed from the 
 actual speech of those who wrote in them. The same thing has 
 happened in other countries ; a particular dialect has stamped 
 itself upon a particular form of literature, and so become current 
 either as the style ■ of that form of literature or as the speech of 
 the educated throughout the country. 
 
APPENDIX IV.— DIALECTS. 143 
 
 The chief dialects of Greek are : — 
 
 1. The Ionic, spoken chiefly by the lonians in Asia Minor, 
 Attica, and numerous islands and colonies. The Ionic was the 
 first to become a literary dialect. It assumed three different yet 
 closely allied forms : — 
 
 (a) The Old Ionic or Epic, found in Homer, Hesiod, and other 
 Epic poets. 
 
 (h) The New Ionic, found in the historian Hbegdottjs. 
 
 (c) The Attic, found in the tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, 
 Euripides, the comic poet Aristophanes, the histo- 
 rians Thuctdides and Xenophon, the philosopher 
 Plato, the orators Lysias, Demosthenes, Absohines, 
 and others. Owing to the importance of Athens and 
 Attic literature, Attic became the chief dialect of 
 Greece : so much so that by " Greek " is generally 
 meant "the Attic dialect of Greek". 
 
 Ob3. 1. There are minor differences of usage even among Attio writers, 
 depending partly upon the date at which they wrote, partly upon the 
 extent to which they adopted or departed from the forms of the spoken 
 language ; for example, the comic poets and the orators wrote and pro- 
 nounced ed\aTTa, irpdrra, &pfn]v, etc., where the tragedians and Thucydides 
 wrote e6,\aa(ra, irpdcffa, &p(rrtv, etc. ; the former are the colloquial, the 
 latter the literary forms of these and similar words. In this Grammar 
 prominence is given to the forms of the literary language employed by the 
 tragedians and Thucydides. 
 
 Obs. 2. Even after Athens had ceased to he the leading state of Greece 
 (from B.C. 404 onwards), Attic maintained its position as the chief Greek 
 dialect. After the time of Alexander the Great (from about B.C. 300 
 onwards) Attio, considerably modified by the introduction of foreign words 
 and by internal changes, gradually became " the com m on language " (^ 
 Kotvii SidKeKTos) of the whole Greek world, ousting the other dialects from 
 the field. The New Testament is written in a form of this " common 
 language "- 
 
 2. The Aeolic, spoken chiefly by the Aeolians in Asia Minor, 
 Boeotia and Thessaly, and found in the fragments of the poet 
 AiCAEUs and the poetess Sappho. 
 
 3. The Doric, spoken chiefly by the Dorians in the Pelopon- 
 nesus, Northern Greece, Crete, and numerous colonies in Sicily 
 and Southern Italy: the bucolic or pastoral poet Thbooritus 
 wrote mainly in Doric. 
 
 Ob3. The choruses of the Attic tragedians were supposed to be written 
 in Doric ; but it was a purely conventional Doric, differing from Attio only 
 in the substitution of d for 7;. 
 
144 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR, 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PBINGIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 
 
 1^" The figures in the right hand column indicate the sections of the Accidence 
 in which the verb or similar formations will be found. — The forms printed in small 
 type in §§ 280-292 are here enclosed in square brackets. 
 
 Present. 
 
 &yafiai, admire 
 ccTTeAXw, announce 
 ayelpcoj colled 
 ~&yvvfii, break (tr.) 
 &yw, lead 
 ^Sco, sing 
 aWovfiaif respect 
 aha{-4co), praise 
 
 r/f -I \raise 
 
 alpu){-4oi)i take 
 aiffBdvofiai, perceive 
 alffx^vwj shame 
 aiTicofiat, accuse 
 iLKovUf hear 
 h.Kpo(ofia.i^ listen 
 oKel^w, anoint 
 aKe^o), ward off 
 a\i(rKo/jLat, am 
 
 caught 
 aWii(r(ra>{-TTQ>)f 
 
 change 
 aWofiai, leap 
 
 aXva-KW, avoid 
 afiaprdvu, err 
 oLfAjfyuj ward off 
 afx<pUvvvfxiy clotlie 
 &fi(l>i(r^r}Tw{-4w), 
 
 dispute 
 ava.Kio'KWj spend 
 avBdvco, please 
 av€xo/iai, endicre 
 av^r)aJ, accomplish 
 a7rauT&{-dta), meet 
 iLTT-ex^dvofxai, am 
 
 hated 
 &.iroKptyofj.at, answer 
 
 Future. 
 
 ayy^Kw 
 
 [ayepu] 
 
 affofiat 
 
 alS4(rofxai 
 
 alveaa 
 
 kp& 
 
 ''apovfxat 
 
 aipT](TQJ 
 
 ai(rd7}(TofiaL 
 
 aiT tdffofiai 
 
 aKov<rofiai 
 aKpodtro/xai 
 
 aXaxrofiai 
 aXKd^ta 
 
 a\ovfj.ai 
 
 a/j.apT'fitrofiai 
 
 OtfjiVVCO 
 
 avvo'ta 
 
 airapr-fia'Ofiat 
 ex&'ho'OfjLaL 
 
 airoKpivovfiai 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 i}yyei\a 
 ijyetpa 
 -ea|a 
 ijyayoy 
 
 yyeffa 
 
 ?ipa 
 
 ivp^f^Vv] 
 
 eT\ov 
 
 ■^irOSfiTjp 
 
 ^(Tx_vpa 
 
 TJridffdfiTiP 
 
 ijKpoda-dfiTjv 
 
 'ijKe^dfj.Tjv 
 d\wv 
 
 TjXdfilJV 
 [7}\6fJ.7}v'] 
 
 fj\v^a 
 rifjiaprov 
 
 avTiKuaa 
 eaSov 
 
 7}V€(rx^f-i-VP 
 fjvviTa 
 
 VX^6fn}V 
 
 \cf7r€Kplvdfi7iv 
 \av4\av0'a 
 
 [ayfiyepKo] [ay^yepfxai] ijyepBrjy 
 
 Perf. Act. Perf. Pass. Aor. Pass. 
 
 ^77€A.Ko 
 
 eaya 
 
 rjveKa 
 ^pKa 
 
 ■^p7}Ka 
 
 SLK-^Koa 
 
 IdkuKa 
 fjWaxo- 
 
 7}f>idprr)K 
 
 avfiKcoKa 
 
 
 iiyye\fj.ai 
 
 i}yd(rdrjy 
 ijyy4K$iju 
 
 awoXfXavKa 
 
 9jyfj.at 
 
 ^Pfxai 
 ^pVfiat 
 
 yrlafxat 
 i)Kp6afj.ai 
 
 ij\\ay/j.ai 
 
 r)fidpTr}fj.ai 
 
 avfiKoofiat 
 
 fjvvtTfiat 
 'hx^'OP-^^ 
 
 ^TTOKSKptfiai 
 
 idyqv 
 ijx^rtv 
 
 •jviBtiv 
 
 ]fp467}v 
 
 fffx^y^vy 
 
 TJrid67)y 
 
 i}\€iip6riy 
 
 i}\\dy7)v 
 
 [iiwdxeny'] 
 
 219 
 245 
 
 287 a 
 282 « 
 282 c 
 281 & 
 2816 
 285 6 
 
 292 
 
 288. iii. 
 228 
 275 
 280 
 281a 
 245 
 
 289. i. 
 
 284 a 
 
 285 a 
 
 TjfiapT-fidi^v 
 
 288. iii. 
 228 
 287 a 
 247 
 
 289.1. 
 
 247 
 280 
 276 
 
 285 c 
 276 
 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 H5 
 
 Present. 
 
 aiTTa, kindle i^lia 
 
 ctirTO/uai, touch S,^onai 
 ipapioKu), Jit — 
 
 ipiaxa), please [apeVoj] 
 
 o/)Kai(-f'a>), suffice opKeVw 
 
 ap/^(J^w(-TT«), ^i ap/j.6ao) 
 
 apira^ot, seize apirdaofuu 
 
 {Spxwi rule Sp£ft> 
 
 KpxO|Uai, begin Spio/iai 
 ctpa;(-(ja>), plough — 
 
 aiiKi^oiiai, encamp — 
 
 av^ava U,jcreaBe oi|^<ra? 
 
 &x9oii(U, am grieved axBiiro/iai 
 
 PttStCa, step jSaSioC/tai 
 
 j3iafo;uoi, compell fiiaaoiuu 
 
 PiPdCa, bring ^'^2 
 $iPp:iiTKa, eat — 
 
 ^KiirTOi, harm, 0\i'pa 
 
 $Ka<rTava, sprout ^KaffTiiaa 
 
 /3AeVa?, ZooS 0\4'i:oix.ai 
 
 PKiiaxa, go /i.o\ovix.(U 
 
 P6<rica,/eed iSoo-k^jo-w 
 
 $oi\oiiai, wish, will ^ovXiiaofia' 
 
 fioai-da), shout /So^irojua: 
 
 70jucS(-e'(i>), marry yafiu 
 
 y(Ka{-dw), laugh yiAda-ofiai 
 
 yneSi{-fa), r^oice [yvBriaa'] 
 
 yripdiTKa), grow old yripd(ro/j.ai 
 
 yiyvoiuu, become yevficroiJ.ai 
 yiyviaKa, get to knowyviaoiiai 
 
 ypdipa, torite ypdtf/u 
 
 SdKva, bite 5<}{o^oi 
 -SapBdvai, sleep — 
 
 Se'xo/ioi, receive Se^o/tat 
 St. SeiS-,fear — 
 
 Se/m/OiUi, show 5f 'J<» 
 
 SepiD, flay Sepoi 
 
 Sf'o), want, lack Sfhaa 
 ^k5)(-6u), make clear Sri\ti(ra 
 
 Sia\€yoiiai, converse 8io\e'|o/4ai 
 SiSao-Ku, teach SiSafio 
 
 -SiSpdffKu, run away -ipdaoimi 
 
 Future. Aorist. Perf. Act. Perf. Pass. Aor. Pass. § 
 
 \j/ipapov\ 
 
 IjpKetra 
 
 ?ipiiO(Ta 
 
 9lpTTa<Ta 
 
 4p£o 
 
 T}pldfiriv 
 
 fipoaa 
 
 7iv\tadfji.-r]y 
 
 iSkto 
 
 €$a\ov 
 i^iaad^Tjy 
 
 'j8A.6i//a 
 
 &papa (intr.) 
 
 ^PfioKa 
 ^pTraKa 
 
 eyTifjLa 
 eyeXaaa 
 
 4yi\pa(Ta 
 [^lyhpav] 
 iyep6fi7ip 
 %yv(av 
 'ypa^a 
 itaKov 
 -eSapBov 
 fSe^dfjiTjp 
 
 iSfipa 
 ebeijffa 
 
 lji;|TJ/ca 
 
 jSe^ArjKa 
 
 )3EjBp(UKa 
 $efi\d<rTriKa 
 
 yeydfiTjKa 
 
 yeyrjSa 
 ysyfipoLKa 
 
 yeyova 
 iypuKa 
 yiypa^a 
 
 ■BeSdpdTjKa 
 
 S4SotKa 
 
 Se'SeiX" 
 ieSapxa 
 
 SfSi'Saxo 
 -SrSpd/ca 
 
 10 
 
 
 ^pfxoff^at 
 
 TipTTOffjUat 
 
 ^pyfiai 
 
 )ji<|r)/Koi 
 
 -$e0pa>/Mai 
 ^i^Xa/xiiai 
 
 ySejSoiiAiJiuai 
 
 yeyafj-fffiai 
 [yeys\acrfiai] 
 
 yeysj/TifjLai 
 iyvuXTfxaL 
 y4ypafj.fj.ai 
 S4driyfiai 
 
 SfSeyfiai 
 
 SeSeiyfiai 
 Se^apfiai 
 
 Se^'ljXQjfiat 
 SieiKeyfxai 
 SeSiSayiJ,ai 
 
 ^(p9T]V 
 
 1" \ 
 
 Tipfj.6a6riv 
 r)P'nd(TQi]v 
 ijpxBvv 
 
 T]p69riy 
 TjvhiffBtjy 
 
 ■tiv^Brfv 
 
 7ix84<r87]y 
 
 ifiid(i6i\v 
 
 -i^pco6T]v 
 e$\d0riv 
 
 ej8ouA^0j]y 
 [ri ^ov\7]d7jy 
 
 :y€\d(r97jv 
 
 ^yvti>txBi)v 
 iypd^rjy 
 
 [eSe'xfll"] 
 
 iSflxBvv 
 iddpriy 
 
 iSriK<i6riv 
 SieAe'xfl'?!' 
 iSiidx^V 
 
 217. i. 
 
 289. i. 
 2816 
 
 284 6 
 276 
 282 a 
 282 a 
 
 217. ii. 
 
 288. iii. 
 
 291 
 236 
 288. ii. 
 
 285 a 
 275 
 284 6 
 
 283 
 
 291 
 
 276 
 290 
 281a 
 
 289. i. 
 
 291 
 289. ii. 
 282 6 
 
 207 
 273.2 
 
 250 
 285 
 291 
 200 
 
 282 a 
 289. i. 
 289. ii. 
 
146 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Vert. Act. 
 
 Perf. Pass. 
 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 § 
 
 SiSw^ui, give 
 
 SiiffU 
 
 
 ifSiuKa 
 
 S4Sofiat 
 
 4S6er,v 
 
 262 
 
 Sii(/ii(-ow), am thirslij 
 
 Sti^-flffa 
 
 4Sif}/r](ra 
 
 SfSlxIniKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 232 
 
 SitiKu, inirsice 
 
 Stui^o/j.at 
 
 4Sitii^a 
 
 Sediotx^ 
 
 SeSiuynat 
 
 4St(ix9v^ 
 
 276 
 
 SoKa{-€u>), seem 
 
 S(i|u 
 
 ?So|o 
 
 — 
 
 S4SoKTai 
 
 — 
 
 290 
 
 Svvafixit can 
 
 Suyfjffo/iai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 SiSiurj/xat 
 
 4Bvvi\Q'rjv 
 [i\Suvi9riv\ 
 
 286 
 
 Sda, dip, sink (tr.) 
 
 Sda-u (tr.) 
 
 eSia-a (tr.) 
 (SOii (intr.) 
 
 SeSOxa 
 (intr.) 
 
 ScSv/iai 
 
 dSie-ny 
 
 280 
 
 Sm{-4a), bind 
 
 S-liiTa 
 
 eSijo-o 
 
 SeSeKU 
 
 BiSefxai 
 
 (Sfdriv 
 
 281* 
 
 iyelpa, rouse 
 
 4y(pS 
 
 
 lypiyopa 
 
 [4yfiyfp/iai] 
 
 vy4pevv 
 
 285* 
 
 i04\a>, zvish, will 
 
 iO€\7}(rQ) 
 
 il94\n(Ta 
 
 fie4\riKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 291 
 
 eei(a, accustom 
 
 ieia 
 
 eWio-o 
 
 etSiKa 
 daiBa (intr.) 
 
 eWifffjiai 
 
 eiOltrdrtv 
 
 284 6 
 
 fixm, yield 
 
 d^a 
 
 fUaBov 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 tVyua/jToi, it is fated 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 278.4 
 
 fl/xi, am 
 
 e<rofiai 
 
 [4y^if6p.7]v'\ 
 
 [y4yom'] 
 
 [yey4vn/w.i'] 
 
 — 
 
 266 
 
 cf/xi : see 4pxo/j.ai 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 267 
 
 efpya* shut But or in 
 
 6ip|a> 
 
 €?p|0 
 
 — 
 
 elpy^ai 
 
 etpxBriv 
 
 190 
 
 i\aiva>, drive 
 
 4\u 
 
 ^\a<Ta 
 
 sA^Aaxa 
 
 4K-{]Kafjiat 
 
 n\deriv 
 
 288. ii. 
 
 e'AE7x». examine 
 
 i\fy^iii 
 
 ij\ey^a 
 
 — 
 
 ^\-r}^eyp.ai 
 
 r]\4yxenv 
 
 282 a 
 
 iKi(raa(-Tfai), roll 
 
 IXi'foi 
 
 E?A.i|o 
 
 — 
 
 e'i\ty/iat 
 
 el\lxSvv 
 
 284 a 
 
 t\Ku, drag 
 
 eX^ci) 
 
 €iA/cu(ra 
 
 e'l\KUKa 
 
 i'lKKVffliaL 
 
 eiKKiaSriv 
 
 282 a 
 
 €fi-iroSiC<f, hinder 
 
 i/x-noSiu 
 
 iv'€ir6SL(ra 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 236 
 
 ivavTtovfiai, opiiose 
 
 ivavT i^tro/xai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ^vtx.vri(eiiai 
 
 i\vavruli>6T)v 
 
 246 
 
 eVox^"(-e'<»), trouble 
 
 iyox^'flfTo} 
 
 TJCf^X^'?^* 
 
 TJVtilX^Vttt^ 
 
 i\viix\rtiiiai 
 
 ^vax^^9i]v 
 
 247 
 
 4v-{iTri-)TeK\a, enjoin 
 
 -TeAw 
 
 ~eT€i\a 
 
 [-T€TOA/Ca] 
 
 -TcVaA/iai 
 
 — 
 
 285 a 
 
 efeTiifa), examine 
 
 i^eraffu 
 
 4^'flTa(ra 
 
 e^^TOKO 
 
 i^ilTtt<rimi 
 
 4^i\Ti.<ri7)V 
 
 284 J 
 
 Past Impf. i^-nr- 
 
 [i^,rS] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fOLKa, am like 
 
 el^a, 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 273.3 
 
 ^ffa(»'a>{-ew), praise 
 
 iiraiyeiTOfiat 
 
 4wrlvf<ra 
 
 Iw-^i/eKa 
 
 — 
 
 4irriv46-itv 
 
 2816 
 
 iTravop6a{-6ai), set up 
 
 iTravopdtiiffu 
 
 4nrii'iip9iuffa 
 
 — 
 
 ilTTii'^pdaifiai 
 
 4irrivup8iBTi\v 
 
 247 
 
 ewavpia-Ko/iai, enjoy 
 
 — 
 
 4'trrivp6firjy 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 MaTaiiai, miderstand 
 
 iiriffTTitrofittl 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 iliruTTiiSriv 
 
 286 
 
 iiroiiai, follow 
 
 €f\/ofi.at 
 
 etrirSjxijv 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 St. ip; question 
 
 ip'f]<ro/jiai 
 
 iip6p.riv 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 291 
 
 '/tf": Adesire 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ijpii(T9Tiy 
 
 286 
 
 ipydConai, work 
 
 4prydirojj.ai 
 
 elpyatrd/nju 
 
 — 
 
 e^pyatr/Jiat 
 
 etpydaBTjv 
 
 289 
 
 ipiru, creep 
 
 epipw 
 
 cXpTTvffa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 239 
 
 eppa, am lost 
 
 4ppri<rii> 
 
 flppT)(ra 
 
 llppriKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 * By-forms ^pya, Ipyvvfn, eipyw, -clpyvvfit : the forms without the aspirate are some- 
 times said to mean shut out, those with the aspirate shut in ; but this is doubtful. 
 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 147 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Perf. Act. 
 
 Perf. Pass. 
 
 Aor. Pass. \ 
 
 § 
 
 epxofuu, go, come 
 
 M (§ 267) 
 
 ^KBoy 
 
 s\-fl\v8a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 ia-Siin, eat 
 
 iSo/iai 
 
 ttpayov 
 
 iSiiSoM] 
 
 JHSea/iai] 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 icrTiu{-da>), entertain 
 
 e<TTia<Ta 
 
 elffria(ra 
 
 EtCTTidKa 
 
 eiffridfjiai 
 
 ela-TidBriD 
 
 239 
 
 -eSBeo, sleep 
 
 evSiitra 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Eu\oi8o0;ua(, beware 
 
 ev\agiiiBoii.ai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 tiXafi-ijBnv 
 
 204 
 
 evplffKo), find 
 
 etipiiffw 
 
 (ipov 
 
 ESpjjKa 
 
 eiSprjfJial 
 
 evp46r}v 
 
 289. i. 
 
 ei<j>paivoii,ai, rejoice 
 
 evtppayovfjLoi 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ev<ppdvQl]V 
 
 228 
 
 itxojAaL, pray 
 
 tt^O/Ml 
 
 ei^d/iriv 
 
 , — 
 
 riSyf/.ai 
 
 — 
 
 207 
 
 ex«> have, hold 
 
 (rxfl(ra 
 
 effxov 
 
 ((rxVKa 
 
 -60-xu/iai 
 
 ~ 
 
 292 
 
 eVo), cook 
 
 eif/^trojuai 
 
 TJi^r^tra 
 
 — 
 
 Mvt^ai'] 
 
 'ir^i]Bi)v\ 
 
 
 i&iido,), let 
 
 idtrw 
 
 €^d(ra 
 
 eXdKa 
 
 eldfiat 
 
 eldBrji/ 
 
 239 
 
 Ceiyvvfu, yoke 
 
 C^iia 
 
 efevfo 
 
 — 
 
 efeuyyuoi 
 
 iCiixBllv 
 
 287 a 
 
 fe'ti), boil 
 
 Ceffm 
 
 eftira 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Ca{Cda>), live 
 
 fiititrofiai 
 
 i^iav 
 
 /3E/3iwKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 idvvv/u, gird 
 
 — 
 
 e^ajtro 
 
 — 
 
 efa)((r);i40i 
 
 — 
 
 287 6 
 
 riPdffKa, grow up 
 
 '_riPi<r(»'] 
 
 flPv<^a 
 
 jii3jj/co 
 
 • — 
 
 — 
 
 289. i. 
 
 TJBoftni, am glad 
 
 riaSi\iTOiuu 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 TJO-SI" 
 
 282 c 
 
 ^Ku, am come 
 
 5i|<» 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 282 a 
 
 il/ii, say 
 
 Bav/jidCie, wonder {at) 
 
 BaviiAmfLai 
 
 ?iy 
 ida^fiacra 
 
 TcBai/iaKa 
 
 TtBav^affflai 
 
 ^BavfidffBrjy 
 
 265 
 276 
 
 SdvTu, bury 
 
 9d\^m 
 
 tBa'f/a 
 
 — 
 
 TedafXfjLai 
 
 erdipriv 
 
 283 
 
 fle'Aw, wish, well 
 
 Behiiaa 
 
 iBeKTia-a 
 
 — 
 
 — • 
 
 — 
 
 291 
 292 
 276 
 
 eta : see rpcxa 
 BiYyava, touch 
 
 Bl^o/iai 
 
 iBiyov 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 -0vtl<rKa, die 
 
 -Bamv/iai 
 
 -ISavov 
 
 riBviiKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 289. ii 
 
 -epda-Koi, leap 
 
 -Bopodfiat 
 
 -%Bopov 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 6da, sacrifice 
 'bifu, send, let go 
 
 Sitra 
 
 iBvffa 
 
 TeBuKa 
 
 TtBvf^at 
 
 eTiBnv 
 
 280 
 
 TJirn) 
 
 ^Ka 
 
 elxa 
 
 etfidl 
 
 s'lBriv 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 iilittv 
 
 
 
 
 
 -'ncyov/iai, come 
 ^iKda-Kofiai, propitiate 
 
 T\d(rofUii 
 
 -'m6hiiv 
 \\a(rdiir)v 
 
 — 
 
 -ty/iM 
 
 A\d<rBriv 
 
 3 'a ■ 
 
 288. V. 
 248 
 
 'la-Tn/ii, place 
 
 (TT^lffU 
 
 ea'TTjffa 
 
 effrriKa 
 
 etrrafiai 
 
 4(TT(I.Bt\V 
 
 
 
 iffT-nv (intr.) 
 
 (intr.) 
 
 
 
 
 KaBalpa, purify 
 
 KoSsiSw, sleep 
 
 Kael(a>, seat, seat myself 
 
 KoBapa 
 
 KaBevS-liira 
 
 KaBta 
 
 ixdBripa 
 
 eKdBiffa 
 [Koflia-a] 
 
 KiKdBapKa 
 
 KeKaBapi^at 
 
 iKaBdpBriv 
 
 228 
 246 
 292 
 
 Koflifojiiai \seat myself, 
 KaSitof^a' ) sit 
 
 KaBeSovfJLat 
 
 iKaBeCi/iW 
 
 — 
 
 KdBftfiai 
 (§ 268) 
 
 
 292 
 
 285 c 
 280 
 
 281 & 
 288. i. 
 280 
 
 -Kaivu, slay (poet.) 
 
 -KavSi 
 
 -iKavov 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 KaKa(-€ai), call 
 
 Kaiffot 
 Ka\u 
 
 iicavffa 
 iKd\i<ra 
 
 KCKavxa 
 
 KEKATJKa 
 
 KGKavfiai 
 KGKKrifiai 
 
 Kifivw, labour 
 KttTa\(iai, stone 
 
 Kafiov/iai 
 Karahtiffa 
 
 KareKevffa 
 
 KiK/iriKa 
 
 ' 
 
 KaTt\e6(T67}p 
 
148 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Perf, Act. 
 
 Perf. Pass. 
 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 § 
 
 KftfLai, lie 
 
 K€i(ro^ai 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 269 
 
 KeXevo), bid 
 
 xeAei/trw 
 
 ^K€\eu<ro 
 
 K6KeA€UKa 
 
 KeKe\iv(r/j.at 
 
 eKekivtrdjjv 
 
 280 
 
 KfWu, bring to land 
 
 KiKtra 
 
 tKe\(ra 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Kepdmu/u, mix 
 
 — 
 
 iKepaa-a 
 
 — 
 
 KtKpd/iai 
 
 ^Kp&Orjf 
 
 287 6 
 
 KfpSaivWf gain 
 
 K€pSavw 
 
 iKfpSdfa 
 
 [•KeKipdTJKo] 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 285 c 
 
 Keii$w, hide 
 
 Kcvffca 
 
 iKevaa 
 
 KiKevda 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 282 c 
 
 KiyX"''"! find 
 
 Kixh^ofxai 
 
 €KtXOV 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 KXd^a, cry aloud 
 
 KXdy^o} 
 
 ^K\ay^a 
 
 KiK\ayya 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 284 a 
 
 
 K\aiKrofiat 
 
 ^KKavffa 
 
 — 
 
 KfK\avfiai 
 
 — 
 
 280 
 
 
 KK-pa-u j 
 
 tKKuffa 
 
 K(K\ttRa' 
 
 KfKXriKa . 
 
 K(K\(liiai' 
 
 KiKXp/jLat ^ 
 
 
 280 
 
 K\ewTa), steal 
 
 KAe'i/^oj 
 
 €KA.€l//a 
 
 KiK\0<pa 
 
 K(K\ffJ.fJtUt 
 
 iK\dirr]v 
 
 283 
 
 K\tvu, bend 
 
 kKivu 
 
 e/cAtco 
 
 KiKhlKa 
 
 KfKKifiai 
 
 iK\i8riv 
 
 285 c 
 
 K\Si(-aai), break 
 
 KKaato 
 
 e«Aa(ra 
 
 — 
 
 K6K\a<rfiat 
 
 iKKdffOr\v 
 
 281a 
 
 Ko/j.i(o>, convey 
 
 KO^iia 
 
 iK6fj.nTa 
 
 KiK6fltKa. 
 
 KiK6^i(rfxat 
 
 (KQ/j.i(r6r]i' 
 
 236 
 
 K6itTa>, ad, chop 
 
 k6}\iw 
 
 e/coi//a 
 
 KiKO^a 
 
 KiKO^^ai 
 
 iK6iTr\v 
 
 283 
 
 Kopfvfv/u, sate 
 
 [ko/jcVw] 
 
 €ff(Jpe(ra 
 
 — 
 
 KiKSpifffiat 
 
 iKop4aQif\v 
 
 
 Kpa.Cc, scream 
 
 KeKpd^ofiai 
 
 €Kpayov 
 
 KfKpdya 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 284 a 
 
 Kpffiafiai, hang (iutr.) 
 
 Kpefi-^ffofia 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 286 
 
 Kpefidvmiii, hang (tr.) 
 
 Kpefiu 
 
 eKpffxacra 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 iKpf/jida'9'qv 
 
 287 6 
 
 Kpiya, judge 
 
 KplUW 
 
 ^Kplva 
 
 KfKpiKa 
 
 KtKptfiat 
 
 iKpiOriv 
 
 285 c 
 
 Kpova, strike 
 
 Kpovtroj 
 
 cKpovira 
 
 iceKpovKa 
 
 Kttcpoufiai 
 
 iKpOVtT97]t/ 
 
 280 
 
 Kpinrra, hide 
 
 Kpv\l/a} 
 
 fKpv\pa 
 
 KiKpvtpa 
 
 KiKpvfjifjLai 
 
 iKpil^9l}V 
 
 [iRpi^-nv] 
 
 217. i. 
 
 -KTelvai, slay 
 
 -KTecw 
 
 [-eKTavop] 
 
 -iKToya 
 
 — 
 
 
 285 c 
 
 KTCi/iai{-doixai), 
 
 KT'liaofJ.ai 
 
 eKTTjffa/ATjy 
 
 — 
 
 Ke'/tTTj/iai 
 
 iKT7]$'qv 
 
 281a 
 
 acquire 
 
 
 
 
 tKTJJjUai 
 
 
 
 KVTTTu, stoop 
 
 Kv^ofxat 
 
 ^Kv^a 
 
 KiKVffta 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 217. i. 
 
 Kupci{-ea)\light 
 KDpai J upon 
 
 KVpTlffOO 
 
 iKvp7j(ra 
 
 KeKvpT]Ka 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Kdpa-b) 
 
 invpffa 
 
 . — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 \ayxdvu, obtain 
 
 \-{)^ofiai 
 
 e\axov 
 
 f1\.i)xa 
 XiKoyxal 
 
 e"\riyfiaL 
 
 i^X^W 
 
 288. iv. 
 
 \atiL0dvu, take 
 
 \-f)\pofiai 
 
 i\a^ov 
 
 dK-ri<l>a 
 
 elXTififiou 
 
 iK7]lpdTlV 
 
 288. iv. 
 
 XavBdva, lie hid 
 
 KTjffO) 
 
 ^Kadov 
 
 \i\riea 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 288. iv. 
 
 XdtrKu), gabble 
 
 KaK-fitrofxai 
 
 eKaKOv 
 
 AfAaica 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 -Kiyu, pick up 
 
 -A€|W 
 
 -€\6|a ^ 
 
 -e'iKoxa 
 
 -eiKiy/iat 
 
 -iKeyriv 
 
 282 a 
 
 ^'-"tr* 
 
 ipu 
 
 €?n-oj', cTTra 
 
 eXpijKa 
 
 fXprifxat 
 
 ippjie-nv 
 
 292 
 
 [Xe'M 
 
 Ef^'^^l 
 
 
 AcAey/ioi] 
 
 4\ex9riv 
 
 
 <py r''^ 
 
 ,<pjcru] 
 
 [^e</>7jo'a] 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ke'nrw, leave 
 
 \flI^GJ 
 
 iKlTTOV 
 
 \e\oiTa 
 
 KiK^ijifiat 
 
 i\ii(^9r]v 
 
 208 
 
 Koyi(ofiai, reckon 
 
 \oytov/xai 
 
 4KoyiadfX7]v 
 
 — 
 
 \e\6yi(r/xat 
 
 iKoyitrBriv 
 
 236 
 
 \vfiaiv-Ofiat, abuse 
 
 \vfjLavovfiai 
 
 4\vfJl.T)vdfi7]i/ 
 
 — 
 
 \i\6nafrfxai 
 
 iKvfi.dvBi\v 
 
 228 
 
 fiaivofxat, am mad 
 
 IJ.avov/j.tti 
 
 — 
 
 fiennva 
 
 — 
 
 i/idvriv 
 
 285 c 
 
 fiav$dyai, leam 
 
 uad-^aofiat 
 
 ijjLaOov 
 
 uffiddTjKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 288. iv. 
 
 tidxoixai, fight 
 
 uaxovfiat 
 
 ifj.axf(rdfxr)v 
 
 — 
 
 ^eylioXW" 
 
 — 
 
 291 
 
ALPHABETICAL LtST OP PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 149 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Pert. Act. 
 
 Perf.Pass. 
 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 § 
 
 uMiTKu, intoxicate 
 
 — 
 
 Jliievaa] 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ifiMaeriv 
 
 
 ixiwa, am about to 
 
 fifW^crai 
 
 illieWria-a] 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 291 
 
 u4\a, concern 
 
 fiE\-l]trw 
 
 ifiiKtjtra 
 
 fiefX^KriKa 
 
 ■ — 
 
 — 
 
 291 
 
 u^fuponat, blame 
 
 fie/i^o/mi 
 
 ^lMifA.^a.}JiT]V 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 209 
 
 ufva, remain 
 
 fieva 
 
 e^fico 
 
 [nc/iivriKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 291 
 
 utaiva, poUvie 
 
 fiiavu 
 
 cfdava 
 
 >ejuio7Ka] 
 
 fiifiia.Gfji.ai 
 
 ifiidfdrfv 
 
 228 
 
 fe]}"^^ 
 
 /ii(a 
 
 ijil^a 
 
 — 
 
 nifiiy/iai 
 
 (fAx^riv 
 
 287 a 
 
 /iei^ai 
 
 e/iei^a 
 
 
 
 '}ti.iynv] 
 
 
 -/u/wricrKa), remind 
 
 -fivilffa 
 
 -f/J.V7]ITa 
 
 — 
 
 Hffiprinai 
 
 ifiVTiaeriv 
 
 289. ii. 
 
 vfiun, allot 
 
 V^HM 
 
 heifxa 
 
 vcvefiTjKa 
 
 yevefiTjfJLat 
 
 hefxT^driv 
 
 291 
 
 via, swim 
 
 v(iiToii.m 
 
 ti/eucra 
 
 v4ycvKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2816 
 
 via, spin 
 
 vjiffa 
 
 evrjiro 
 
 — 
 
 vivrifiai 
 
 fvii6T\v 
 
 204 
 
 via, heap up 
 
 i/'fiaa 
 
 EVTjiro 
 
 — 
 
 feyriiiai 
 
 evlicrBriv 
 
 230 
 
 -n'fw [-viVtb], wash 
 
 -vl\f/u 
 
 'ti/t^a 
 
 — 
 
 -vevifjifA.aL 
 
 — 
 
 217 
 
 po/iiCw, consider 
 
 vofj.ia 
 
 tv6fi.i(rtt 
 
 vevSfjitKa 
 
 vev6/J.ianai 
 
 em/iia-Briv 
 
 236 
 
 ofo?, smell (intr.) 
 
 oC-ilo-a 
 
 dsfijiro 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 •otyw "\ 
 
 -OlfM 
 
 -(f^a 
 
 — 
 
 (t^yfiai 
 
 -iifX^HV 
 
 282 a 
 
 olSa, know 
 
 {"(Toiiai 
 
 — ■ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 273. i. 
 
 al/n.^C"! <^y alas 
 
 ol/ui^oixai 
 
 ^fia^a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 284 a 
 
 oto/iat, think 
 
 ot-fi<rofiai 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ifijBriv 
 
 291 
 
 oXxo/iai, am gmie 
 
 oixflTOfuu 
 
 ~ 
 
 >rxwfa] 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 291 
 
 oKurBivu, slip 
 
 — 
 
 &\t<r9ov 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 -uKKH/ii, destroy 
 
 -6\a 
 
 -iiXiuTiv 
 
 -oAwAo (intr.) 
 
 
 
 
 287 a 
 
 ufiyv/itt swear 
 
 Ofiav/xai 
 
 &fio(Ta 
 
 OfiuifiOKa 
 
 '6fj.ufj.ofiai] 
 
 \wfi667iv] 
 
 287 a 
 
 0fi6pyvvfu, toipe 
 
 6fj.6p^w 
 
 ^liop^a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ufi.6px8riv 
 
 
 hvivriiu, benefit 
 
 ovfiatii 
 
 UvflfiTjV 
 
 
 ~- 
 
 [uyfiBTjp^ 
 
 286 
 
 ot^iva, sharpen 
 
 o^ufSi 
 
 &^uva 
 
 a^uyica 
 
 &^vfjifiai 
 '_&^va-/iai.'] 
 
 w^vvdriy 
 
 228 
 
 opylio/iai, am angry 
 
 opyiovfiat 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 topyiafiai 
 
 wpyitrBTfv 
 
 236 
 
 ip/iiCa, moor (tr.) 
 
 — 
 
 Hpiuaa 
 
 — 
 
 Sipnurnai 
 
 upfli<TBT]V 
 
 217. ii. 
 
 ipniCofiat, moor (intr.) 
 
 dpfiiovfjiai 
 
 6ipixiffafn)v 
 
 — 
 
 i^pfj.ia'fj.at 
 
 upfiiaSriy 
 
 236 
 
 6p/j.u{-dii>), start 
 
 dp/x-litrm 
 
 lipuriaa 
 
 StpiiflKa 
 
 — 
 
 - ) 
 
 
 (tr. and intr.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 204 
 
 op/iuiiai, start (intr.) 
 opvvixi, rouse 
 
 6ptj.-i]ffofiat 
 6po'w 
 
 Stpira 
 [iiPoVrji/] 
 
 ipupa (intr.) 
 
 Sipfoifuu 
 
 apfiifdriv ) 
 
 
 opiaau{-Tral), dig 
 
 opv^ia 
 
 &pv^a 
 
 opdpuxa 
 
 opiipvyfiaL 
 
 wpvxOriv 
 
 284 a 
 
 bp5i{-iia)), see 
 
 oyj/ofiat 
 
 eXSov 
 
 iopaxa \ 
 etipdxa^ 
 
 k6pd.fj.aL \ 
 kiipafuuj 
 
 &(f>dT}U 
 
 292 
 
 
 
 [ci5((/jijc] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 otrama] 
 
 Sififj-at 
 
 
 
 otrippalvo/iai, smell (tr.) 
 
 6(r<pp^ffDfiai 
 
 mn-ippi/iriv 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 o(t>el\a, oioe 
 
 [o<j>etkii(ra>2 
 
 &<j>e\ov 
 
 [oi(j>ei\7iKa] . 
 
 — 
 
 [utpit\'f)dr)v[ 
 
 291 
 
 o<jt\icrKavu, owe 
 
 o<j>\riirw 
 
 &<p\ov 
 
 &<pKT]Ka 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 288. iii 
 
ISO 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Perf . Act. 
 
 Perf. Pass. 
 
 ior. Pass. 
 
 § 
 
 TToffw, sport 
 
 val^ofiai 
 st. Traty-) 
 
 St. iraiS-) 
 
 TTfTrajKa 
 
 w^naitr/Jiat 
 
 — 
 
 217. u. 
 
 TTOlft) 1 , .7 
 
 Traitrw 
 
 ■wotcro 
 
 7reVATj7a] 
 
 KitrKijyfxat 
 
 ivA-liyrii' 
 
 292 
 
 7rOT({|«i) 
 
 iirdra^a 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tupex"' provide 
 
 
 trapeaxov 
 
 TropeVx^JKCt 
 
 iropc'o-xw" 
 (Middle) 
 
 
 292 
 rxft.) 
 
 ■sda-xa, suffer 
 
 velaofjLat 
 
 iiraBov 
 
 ireirovOa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 wetOa, urge, 
 
 irelffco 
 
 iirsura 
 
 ireireiKa tr. 
 
 ireTreiiTfiai 
 
 iireiaOriv 
 
 210 
 
 persuade 
 
 
 iwiBov 
 
 (intr.) 
 
 
 
 
 ir6ij/(u(-<£ti)), am hungry 
 
 iretvijffa 
 
 iirdvno-a 
 
 7re7re/j/TjKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 232 
 
 irefiwa, send 
 
 ire/jLipw 
 
 iircfx^ifa 
 
 7re7ro,U(/>o 
 
 TFfTrefifiat 
 
 Ire/jifBliv 
 
 282 6 
 
 TrcTrptoToi, it is fated 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 273.4 
 
 ireramviu, spread out 
 
 irerw 
 
 ^weratra 
 
 — 
 
 wiirraiiai 
 
 iirerdaSriv 
 
 287 6 
 
 TreVo/ioi, fly 
 
 irT'fi<rofJ.ai 
 
 \iirTTiv'] 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ~ 
 
 291 
 
 TT-fiyvD^i, fix 
 
 irij^a 
 
 CTTTjIa 
 
 iremiyo 
 
 — 
 
 Wtt)!/ 
 
 287 a 
 
 Ti-i)SciJ(-aftj), leap 
 
 VT)b-fi(rofiai 
 
 ^TT^STjcra 
 
 TTtTTI^ST^KO 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 276 
 
 •nifiTrXfifii, fill 
 
 TrX^trw 
 
 effXTjtra 
 
 7r€7rA.7JKO 
 
 TriTr\7i<T fJML 
 
 iir\Ti(TeTiv 
 
 286 
 
 nlfivpriiit, burn (tr.) 
 
 -TTp-^ffW 
 
 •iirptiffa 
 
 
 
 ~'n4'jrp7j(tr)fiai 
 
 -iTrpi\(TB-r\v 
 
 286 
 
 TTivft), dHnk 
 
 iriofiai 
 
 tiriov 
 
 TreVwtta 
 
 jr^iro/101 
 
 ivderiv 
 
 292 
 
 TTinpatTKu : see traKu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 292 
 
 Tzinrui,fall 
 
 ireffovfMai 
 
 €irf<Tov 
 
 ■TreirTWKO 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 Tt\acr<ra(-rT<»), nuyuld 
 
 irXdffa 
 
 eirKaa-a 
 
 — 
 
 ireTrXoff/itoi 
 
 ilr\dlT6l\v 
 
 284 6 
 
 TrAcKfti, weave 
 
 7rX6|w 
 
 ?7rA€|o 
 
 ireirKexO' 
 
 ir^irKfyfiat 
 
 ivXdxriv 
 
 206 
 
 Tr\4a, sail 
 
 
 67rX€UJ'a 
 
 TreVXeufca 
 
 [ire'ir\eu(r/iOi] 
 
 — 
 
 2816 
 
 ■!rK-l\(ra<ii(-rru>), astound 
 
 -7r\^|w 
 
 -eirXTjfo 
 
 — 
 
 tTfTrXjiy/xai 
 
 -iwhdyrjv 
 
 284 « 
 
 see also rralu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 292 
 
 TTvea, breathe 
 
 TTViVffOfiai 
 
 eTTveuffo 
 
 TretryevKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2816 
 
 Trpdir(ra){-rru), do (tr.), 
 
 vpd^a 
 
 I'fl-pala 
 
 ireirpdxa tr. 
 
 Tfvpayfiai 
 
 iirpdx9riv 
 
 284 a 
 
 fare (intr. ) 
 
 
 
 TreiTpdya 
 (intr.) 
 
 
 
 
 irpfo), saw 
 
 irpiau 
 
 %TTpl<Ta 
 
 TreVpt/co 
 
 Tr4irpi(Tfiai 
 
 iirplaSrii' 
 
 280 
 
 nui'6di/ouai'\ . . 
 ■^.ieofJl ]'^'<'rtavn 
 
 •ir€{Krofiat 
 
 4irv96fi7]v 
 
 — 
 
 Tr4irvtTfjLai 
 
 — 
 
 288. iv 
 
 tTw\G,[-ia) ' 
 
 iraXriaw 
 
 iirdtXTja-a 
 
 Tre^rpaKa 
 
 ir4irpdfiai 
 
 iirpdSriP 
 
 292 
 
 aTroSiSofiai sell 
 
 airotdxrofjLai 
 
 aireS6fi7]t/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 TmrpdffKO) 
 jiia, flow 
 
 fiv^trofxat 
 
 
 
 ipp{>7]Ka 
 
 
 
 ippiijv 
 
 291 
 
 j>iiyvviu, break (tr.) 
 
 hi<^ 
 
 eppv^a 
 
 eppuya 
 (intr.) 
 
 — 
 
 ippdynv 
 
 287 a 
 
 pl'7rTW(-CQ>} j 
 
 ftiy^Q) 
 
 ^ppiij/a 
 
 fppi(f>a 
 
 4pptfifiai 
 
 ippi(^Bi)v 
 [ippl<pw] 
 
 283 
 
 }fo>vvvfjLiy strengthen 
 
 ftwffd} 
 
 eppaxra 
 
 — 
 
 eppuflal 
 
 ippiiaBriv 
 
 287 6 
 
 a^fvvvfii, quench 
 
 
 ((T^T]v (intr.; 
 
 (intr.) 
 
 etrfiefffJLai 
 
 iafieae-ifv 
 
 2876 
 
 a-fiw, shake 
 
 (Tcfcrw 
 
 iff i lira 
 
 (TiffeiKa 
 
 a4ffei(rfJLat 
 
 i(rei<rBriv 
 
 280 
 
 o-^irw, rot (tr.) 
 
 a-air'fiffofiat 
 
 — 
 
 fffffTjwa 
 
 (intr.) 
 
 
 iadirtiv 
 
 282 6 
 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 151 
 
 Present. 
 
 aly<i{-dai), am silent 
 (rmir<i{-da), am silent 
 aKoLTiria, dig 
 (TKeSdifyvfiif scatter 
 o'Koirw(-€w), look 
 trKdmria, jeeT 
 aireiptp, SOU) 
 ffirevSa, pour out 
 a-irovSdCm, am busy 
 <rTta{-do!), drag 
 (TTfWa!, equip 
 o-TEvafo), groom 
 ,rT.pWK^ Aaepriw 
 trTep(i)[-eci>) J 
 (rTpet/)&), turn aside 
 
 f'-pf'"'"'"Astrew 
 
 (r(/)iij[ti)(-TTa)), slaughter c 
 aipdWa, cause to slip 
 iTifC^i save 
 
 Telycti, stretch 
 rdWa : see 4v-reX\a 
 re\a{-ia), cmnplete 
 Tefii/b), cut 
 tijKu, '.iielt (tr.) 
 
 Tfflij,u(, set, put 
 
 TLKTu, bring/orth 
 rival, pay 
 
 Tirp(ii(TKai, wound 
 St. tKt); endure 
 rpeTrat, tU7^ 
 
 Tpf<fKo, nourish 
 
 Seal J 
 rpea, tremble 
 rpifia, rub 
 Tpiiyai, gnaw 
 Tvyxdvf), hit, 
 rinrrw : see iralK 
 inturxvovixai, promise 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Perf. Act. 
 
 Perf. Pa3s. 
 
 A or. Pass. 
 
 § 
 
 trlyfja-ofiai 
 
 effiyrfcra 
 
 a€aly7)Ka 
 
 (ri&tyTjfiat 
 
 ialy^Ortv 
 
 276 
 
 (TtwTT'fiaofiai 
 
 i(riti>7rr}(ra 
 
 treffKaTrrtKa 
 
 (reffidnrTinai 
 
 icricoTT-ffdiju 
 
 276 
 
 <TKd\i/a} 
 
 eo-Ka^a 
 
 ^(TKUipa 
 
 etTKa/xfiai 
 
 i(TKd<pt)V 
 
 283 
 
 (TKeSoj 
 
 eV/ceSafTa 
 
 — 
 
 i{rKedatTf/.ai 
 
 iaKeSdaBrtv 
 
 287 6 
 
 ffKe'^pOfiat 
 
 e(TKe\l/dfjn}V 
 
 — 
 
 etTKCfifiai 
 
 — 
 
 2816 
 
 (rKd>\l/ofiai 
 
 feO-Kwi/za 
 
 — 
 
 [^a-Kw/xfiat] 
 
 ia-K<li<p97]v 
 
 276 
 
 fftr^pS) 
 
 ea-iretpa 
 
 iffirapKa 
 
 etrwapfiai 
 
 i(T'irdpf)v 
 
 285 6 
 
 iTirel<rai 
 
 ea-ir€i(ra 
 
 — 
 
 effireifffiai 
 
 — 
 
 282 c 
 
 a"7rovBdfTOfJ.ai 
 
 etTtrovSaffa 
 
 eo-TroiSSaKO 
 
 iffiro'iSafTfxai 
 
 ifftrovZdffdnv 
 
 276 
 
 ffirdaca 
 
 iffiraffa 
 
 etTTra/ca 
 
 ea-iratTfiai 
 
 itrirdaBTjv 
 
 281a 
 
 (TTiXa 
 
 eo-TeiAa 
 
 eCToA/ca 
 
 ^trraKfiai 
 
 iardKrtiv 
 
 285 a 
 
 ffTevd^ci) 
 
 iareva^a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 284 a 
 
 (rrep-f}(r(i> 
 
 i(r74p7)(ra 
 
 iffTfpTfKa 
 
 iffrepTjfiai 
 
 i(rT€p7}6r)y 
 
 
 (TTpi^Ui 
 
 eo'Tpeil'a 
 
 [€<rTpo<f>a] 
 
 etTTpafj-fiai 
 
 iffrpdipriv 
 
 2826 
 
 ffTpdKrco 
 
 ^(TTpaaa 
 
 — 
 
 iffrpwfiai 
 
 iffTptCBrjy 
 
 287 6 
 
 [(TTOpw] 
 
 [i(rT6peaa] 
 
 
 
 
 
 (r<f>d^a) 
 
 €<r<f>a^a 
 
 — 
 
 e<r<{>ayfxat 
 
 4<r<pdy7}v 
 
 284 a 
 
 (r<pa\co 
 
 6ar<p7)\a 
 
 [€<r^a\Ka] 
 
 e(T<pa\fiat 
 
 4(r<pd\7}U 
 
 285 a 
 
 a-i&ffto 
 
 effcoaa 
 
 ffeVw/co 
 
 (r4aa>fiai 
 
 itTi&drjv 
 
 284 6 
 
 Tevu 
 
 €T€tVa 
 
 TCTOKa 
 
 T^rafiai 
 
 irdBrtv 
 
 285 c 
 
 re\co 
 
 ir€\€fTa 
 
 TereAeKO 
 
 T€Ti\€tTfiat 
 
 eVeAeVflijc 
 
 2816 
 
 refxco 
 
 erefiov 
 
 T€Tfl7]Ka 
 
 TfTfirifiai 
 
 iT/j.'^07]y 
 
 288. i. 
 
 T-fi^a 
 
 errj^a 
 
 (intr.) 
 
 — 
 
 fvdKTJV 
 
 282 a 
 
 07}(rto 
 
 
 r4&riKa 
 
 [Kcifiai] 
 
 eVeflTjy 
 
 258 
 
 Tefoutti 
 
 ir^KOv 
 
 TeVofca 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 292 
 
 
 erica 
 
 [TeViKa] 
 
 [reTUTfiai] 
 
 \iTl<Tdnv] 
 
 288. i. 
 
 rela-co 
 
 erettra 
 
 [TeVetKo] 
 
 [reTefCjuai] 
 
 [ereiirdTjv] 
 
 
 Tptixra 
 
 erpaxra. 
 
 — 
 
 rerpufiai 
 
 iTp^eTjv 
 
 289. ii. 
 
 T\^<rofiat 
 
 ctAt)/' 
 
 TerXTiKa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 276 
 
 rpei^fti 
 
 6Tpei|/a 
 
 [irpa'rrov'] 
 
 irpaTrSfirjj/ 
 
 rerpo^a 
 
 rerpafifiai 
 
 irpdiTT)]/ 
 [4rpe(p6T)v'] 
 
 282 6 
 282 5 
 
 dpi^a 
 
 ^Bpe^a 
 
 reTpo<pa 
 
 Tedpafi/jLai 
 
 iTpd(p-nv 
 
 Spafiovfiai 
 
 lEdpafioy 
 
 S^SpdfiriKa 
 
 ■ — ■ 
 
 
 292 
 
 Tpl^CO 
 
 erpeffa 
 
 6Tpi^a 
 
 rerpKpa 
 
 Terpt/Afiat 
 
 4Tpi^7]V 
 
 2816 
 262 6 
 276 
 
 rpd^^ofiai 
 
 irpayov 
 
 — 
 
 rcrptayfiat 
 
 
 
 re^^ofiai 
 
 irvxov 
 
 T^rlxriKa 
 
 ■ — 
 
 ~ 
 
 288. iv 
 292 
 
 viroffxh^^ofJi.ai 
 
 vireffx^M-V^ 
 
 — 
 
 uTreVx^JjUat 
 
 — 
 
 288. V. 
 
152 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. Aorist. Perf. Act. Perf. Pass. Aor. Pass. § 
 
 <l>ali/a, show (frnvai 
 
 (pepu, carry otaa 
 
 tpeiyUfJUe ^ei^Oflai 
 
 [-ovfiat] 
 (pri^ii: see ^ryoi 
 (pSdvu, aiUicipate (pBiifro/iai 
 
 -<p6ilpa, destroy -(jtSepw 
 
 <t>6ivu, waste (intr.) p6i<ra (tr.) 
 
 <t>o0ov/iai, fear ipofiiiaoiiai 
 
 <ppd(r(ru(-TTiii), fence in't'P'ii'' 
 (ppia-<ra(-TTca), shudder — 
 (piui, grow (tr.) (piffa 
 
 Xofpif, rejoice xatpiiiru 
 Xa\ii{-iiw), loosen — 
 
 xdcKw, gape X""'""/'"" 
 
 Xf'w, pour x^" 
 
 Xpii, th-ere is need XRV"''''"'' 
 
 Past XPW or ixPV" XP'h"'^' 
 
 XP'w, anoint XP'"""' 
 
 XP«o{-(itu), give oracle Xf^"" 
 
 XpH/iat, use XpVoM"" 
 
 X<!'{x<''")i heap up x^"" 
 
 i^€uSw, deceive ^l/eiaru 
 
 uda}{-4ai), p}ish &(r(o 
 
 uvovftcu, buy uvtiaoiicu 
 
 ctpTjva 
 
 IjveyKov 
 ijveyKa 
 
 iipBiiv 
 
 '•ipOaffa 
 
 eipOeipa 
 
 h<ra (tr.) 
 i(p8lfn]j/ 
 
 ^(ppa^a 
 etppt^a 
 €ippira. (tr.) 
 i^vv (intr. 
 
 ^X'^tt'^'a 
 
 ^Xowv 
 
 'xea 
 
 expi<ra 
 expiira 
 
 ixPV'f^l'-W 
 eX'W'tt 
 
 iirpiifiTiv 
 
 'irf(payKa 
 (tr.) 
 
 (intr.) 
 iviivoxo- 
 
 etjiBaKa 
 
 ^ipSapxa (tr, 
 [■€<l>dopa] 
 (intr.) 
 
 iipvKtt 
 (intr.) 
 [KexipvKo] 
 
 KexTji-a 
 
 [KexplKo] 
 
 Kexi^Ka 
 
 Tre(pa(rfiat ^tpdvdrjv 
 
 ifpdl/T]!/ 
 
 (intr.) 
 ivilveyiiM Tiv4xSr)V 
 ■y^aij -yicTai 
 
 -i^6app.at 
 
 4(f>BipMl 
 
 nefftpaypLat 
 
 K6X"M<" 
 
 K^XP^fiaL 
 
 K€xp?)<rToi 
 
 KeXPTiyai 
 
 KsxditJ'p-ai 
 
 i^evffp,tit 
 
 eciKTpLai 
 
 i(l>pdx^'t'' 
 
 ixiipv 
 ixa\d(r8riv 
 
 ixiSiiv 
 
 ixpicSriv 
 ^XP^O'^V 
 ^XP^cfll" 
 ^X'^o'^li' 
 
 idtffQtjv 
 
 ^UvfjBTJV 
 
 221 
 
 292 
 
 282 a 
 
 292 
 
 288. i. 
 
 285 i 
 
 275 
 217. ii. 
 217. ii. 
 280 
 
 291 
 
 289. i. 
 
 2816 
 
 270 
 
 281 o 
 
 281a 
 
 281c 
 
 210 
 
 290 
 
 292 
 
 ABEBDEEN UNIVEBSITT PBES3. 
 
PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES 
 
 A 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 FOE SCHOOLS 
 
 BASED ON THE PBINOIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS 
 OF TSS SSAMMATICAL SOCIETY 
 
 BY 
 
 E. A. SONNENSCHBIN, M.A. (Oxon.) 
 
 PBOI-BSSOB OF GBEEK AND LATIN 
 
 IN 
 
 MASON COLLEGE, EIEMINGHAM 
 
 PART II.— SYNTAX 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIIS & CO. 
 
 NEW YORK : MACMILLAN & CO. 
 
 1894 
 
ABBBDEEN UNIVER=iITY PRESS. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 The present volume completes the series of Parallel Grammars 
 which was inaugurated by my Latin Accidence some seven years 
 ago, and in which a serious attempt has for the first time been 
 made to co-ordinate and systematise the teaching of grammar in 
 schools. The Parallel Grammar Series has attracted a good deal 
 of attention, both at home and abroad ; but not till now have 
 teachers been in a position to judge how far the series as a whole 
 meets the demands which may be fairly made upon it. It claims 
 to be regarded not as so many isolated grammars, but as an 
 organic whole, the various volumes of which should be really 
 adapted to be used side by side. 
 
 The advantages of parallelism are specially apparent in dealing 
 with Syntax. Here everything depends on the point of view 
 which one adopts, and if fundamental ideas are to be firmly fixed, 
 it is of prime importance that the point of view be not shifted. 
 In this series a common point of view is secured by basing the 
 treatment of Syntax on a certain scheme of sentence analysis, 
 which is independent of linguistic form : in other words, by basing 
 Syntax primarily upon meanings. This method brings out in 
 strong relief not only the similarities, but also the difierences 
 between languages ; and the learner knows where he is at every 
 point. It has, moreover, the advantage of proceeding from the 
 known (the meanings) to the unknown (the form in which they 
 are expressed) ; and it is entirely unencumbered with the difficult 
 questions connected with the origins of constructions. This simple 
 and purely objective treatment is followed out in Part I. (§§ 301- 
 371); but it is supplemented in Part II. (§§ 372 foil.) by a 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 classification of the main facts of syntax under the head of 
 Meanings of Forma, and a considerable part of the doctrine of 
 Case-construction is reserved entirely for that head. Part I. 
 supplies the "few and fixed categories" demanded by the late 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold * , and these categories are the same and 
 have identical numeration in all the volumes of the series. Part 
 II. is more historical, and gives a glimpse into the problem how 
 certain meanings came to be attached to certain forms. In 
 applying this method it should be borne in mind that the pupil 
 always approaches the systematic study of syntax with a certain 
 stock of knowledge, derived from the Accidence and from his 
 reading of authors : he knows something to start with about the 
 meanings of forms and their organic connexion. 
 
 Here, as in the Accidence, the matter is carefully graduated, 
 and a marginal line indicates the sections of the book which are 
 of prime importance. These sections form a complete course by 
 themselves, suitable for pupils who approach the study of syntax 
 for the first time ; and it is intended that unli/ these sections 
 should be taken up in a first reading. Otherwise the pupil will 
 be introduced at too early a stage to some facts which though 
 closely related to the context in which they stand are nevertheless 
 better reserved until the main outlines of the whole field have 
 been mastered. 
 
 The principle of subordinating rules to examples, which is 
 carried out in all the volumes of the Parallel Crrammar Series, is 
 generally admitted to be educationally sound, and has recently 
 been adopted by Dr. H. Ziemer in his new issue of Gillhausen's 
 Lateinische Schulgrammatik (Berlin, 1893). This method has the 
 advantage of impressing upon pupils from the first what grammar 
 really is — a record of observed facts and not a system of abstract 
 precepts ; it directs their attention primarily to the concrete facts, 
 
 A Fremh Etm, 1892, p. 371. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 and presents the rule as an aid to their own inductive faculties. 
 The grammar becomes thus a kind of hortus siccus, containing 
 classified specimens of the various usages which are found in 
 classical writers and which may be imitated in composition. 
 
 In regard to the scope of this worli, it has been my object to 
 produce a syntax of moderate compass, yet sufficiently full to 
 serve as a guide to reading and composition. Prominence is given 
 to the prose constructions, and it is hoped that all the prose con- 
 structions of importance have been included. 
 
 In the choice of examples great care has been devoted to 
 making them really suitable to the stage of learning for which 
 they are intended, and to taking them, so far as possible, from 
 books which pupils of a particular stage of advancement are likely 
 to have read. Thus the examples for the first stage are short and 
 easy, and come to a great extent from Xenophon and plays like 
 the Hecuba and Alcestis, so far as the former writes good Attic 
 and the" latter do not present specially poetical constructions. 
 For later stages longer and more difficult examples are admitted, 
 drawn chiefly from Thucydides, the orators and the dramatists. 
 Verse examples with prose constructions have been held to deserve 
 preference, as being more easily remembered. 
 
 I have derived much help in the execution of this work from 
 various German school books * ; and I have consulted, as everj 
 grammarian must, the larger works of Krliger, Kiihner, Madvig 
 and Goodwin, besides many special treatises such as the volumes 
 
 * Gfriechische Schulgrammatik, by Dr. A. Kaegi (2nd ed., Berlin, 1889) ; 
 Dr. (ieorg Curtius' Griechische SchulgrammatiJc, 18tli ed. by Dr. W. von 
 Hartel (Leipzig, 1888) ; Sauptregdn der griecMschen Syntax, by Dr. 
 Moritz Seyffert, 17th ed. by Dr. A. von Bamberg (Berlin, 1885) ; GriechiscJie 
 Syntax in kv/rzer, ubersichilicher Fassung auf Grund der Ergebnisse der 
 vergleichenden Sprachforschung, by Dr. Fr. Holzweissig (3rd ed. , Leipzig, 
 1886) ; Kurzgefasste griechische Schulgrammatik, by Dr. H. Pritzsohe 
 (Hannover, 1887). 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 in Schanz' Beifn'iije. Hints have also been derived from many 
 articles published in the Classical Reciein in recent years. Other 
 special obligations are indicated in the second Appendix on Notes 
 and Arthortties, where some moot points of Greek Syntax which 
 it seemed undesirable to introduce into the body of the work are 
 brieily discussed. As I have there had occasion to dissent from 
 some of the doctrines of Goodwin's Mooils and Tenses, I desire 
 here to express my sense of the great value of his book, which is 
 indeed indispensable to any thorough student of Greek. 
 
 My cordial thanks are due to the following friends who have 
 helped me by suggestions and criticisms while this work was 
 passing through the press. The whole of my proof has been read 
 by Dr. J. E. Sandys, Public Orator in the University of Cambridge ; 
 Mr. P. Giles, Reader in Comparative Philology in the University 
 of Cambridge ; Mr. C. D. Chambers, Assistant Master in King 
 Edward's School, Bromsgrove ; and Mr. F. W. Thomas, Head- 
 master's Assistant in King Edward's School, Birmingham ; con- 
 siderable parts have also been read by the Rev. W. Y. Fausset, 
 Headmaster of the Grammar School, Ripon ; Mr. C. R. Haines, 
 Assistant Master at Uppingham ; Mr. F. Haverfield, Senior Student 
 of Christ Church, Oxford ; and Prof. Milton W. Humphreys of the 
 University of Virginia. To Mr. C. D. Chambers I am specially 
 indebted for his kindness in going over the proofs with me for a 
 second time, immediately before publication ; the work has gained 
 in accuracy at several points owing to his thorough revision. To 
 my pupil Mr. C. T. Onions and to Mr. E. D. Girdlestone of Harbornc 
 my best thanks are due for help in the preparation of the Index, 
 and also for counsel on various points. 
 
 E. A. SONNENSCUEIN. 
 
 Mason College, Biemingham, 
 September, 1894. 
 
CONTENTS OF SYNTAX. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 . 
 
 PAUK 
 
 153 
 
 Sentence Conatruotion : — 
 
 
 
 Subject 
 
 . 
 
 - 159 
 
 Predicate 
 
 
 160 
 
 Predicate Adjective or Noun 
 
 
 162 
 
 Object 
 
 
 165 
 
 Two Objects 
 
 
 178 
 
 Predicate Adjective or Noun referring 
 
 to the Object 
 
 176 
 
 Attributes and Adjuncts 
 
 
 177 
 
 Kinds of Sentences 
 
 
 179 
 
 Complex Sentence : — 
 
 
 
 Adverb Clauses 
 
 
 185 
 
 Adjective Glauses - 
 
 
 205 
 
 Noun Clauses 
 
 
 212 
 
 Reported Speech 
 
 
 232 
 
 Meanings of Forms : — 
 
 
 
 Cases 
 
 
 - 237 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 
 - 262 
 
 Voices - 
 
 
 273 
 
 Moods and Tenses : — 
 
 
 
 Tenses of the Indicative 
 
 
 - 275 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative 
 
 
 285 
 
 Imperative 
 
 
 295 
 
 Verb-Nouns and Verb-Adjectives 
 
 
 297 
 
 General Table of Tenses 
 
 . 
 
 312 
 
 Pronouns, etc. 
 
 - 
 
 313 
 
 Article - 
 
 . 
 
 - 317 
 
 Adverbs and Conjunctions 
 
 
 324 
 
 Appendix I. — Prepositions in Composition - 
 
 
 333 
 
 Appendix II. — Notes and Authorities - 
 
 
 335 
 
 Index - ... 
 
 . 
 
 - 345 
 
INTRODUCTION. 153 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1^" Sections 301-315 show the sense in which the most important 
 terms of Syntax are employed in the Parallel Orarnmar Series. 
 
 301 Every sentence consists of two parts, the Subject and the 
 
 Predicate. The Subject is the word or group of words denoting 
 that about which something is said in the Predicate ; the Predi- 
 cate is what is said about that which is denoted by the Subject : — 
 "Opvl^es (Subject) I aSova-iv (Predicate). Birds sing. 
 
 These two parts of the sentence may be contained in a single 
 word, the Subject being expressed in the verb-ending : <bv-fj.i, say 
 I (§ 316.2-4). 
 
 The Predicate may consist, as in the above sentences, of a 
 Yerb alone ; but it may also assume any of the following forms 
 (§§ 302-305). Note that in all cases the Predicate includes the 
 whole of what is said about that which is denoted by the Subject. 
 
 302 The Predicate may consist of a Verb and a Predicate 
 Adjective or Predicate Noun referring to the Subject:— 
 
 Kpoio-os ?v ttXowo-ios. Croesus was rich. 
 Kpoia-os rjv fiacriXevg. Croesus loas a king. 
 
 303 The Predicate may consist of a Yerb and an Object: — 
 
 ®57creiis | crwu/cio-e* -rqv 'Arrticqv. Theseus united Attica. 
 
 304 The Predicate may consist of a Yerb and two Objects: — 
 
 'ApuTTOTeX.rj'i \ eStSacTKcv * 'AXe^avSpov ^iKofTOcfiidv. Aristotle 
 taught Alexander philosophy. 
 
 305 The Predicate may consist of a Yerb, an Object, and a 
 Predicate Adjective or Predicate Noun referring to the 
 Object: — 
 
 IIoXAoi I KoXovcTLv * avTov irXovcriov. Many call him rich. 
 'O 8^/xo? I etkero* avTov ^aaiXed. The peojile chose him king. 
 
 * Verbs which take an Object are called transitive (§§ 303, 304, 30S). 
 Verbs which take no Object are called intransitive (§ 302). 
 
154 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 306 Any Noun in the sentence may be qualified by an Adjective, 
 or Adjective-equivalent (§ 310) : avr)p StVaios, a just man; 6 SUaioi 
 avrjp, the just man. Such a qualifying part of the sentence is 
 called an Attribute. 
 
 Carefully distinguish from the Attribute the Predicate Adjec- 
 tive in 6 av^p I co-Ti StVaios, or, withoiit the verb, 6 avijp | Swaios, 
 the man | is jud (§ 302). 
 
 307 Any Verb, Adjective or Adverb in the sentence may be quali- 
 fied by an Adverb or Adverb-equivalent (§ 311) : oi o-rpanolToi | 
 e/iap^co-ai/TO dvSpetoJS, the soldiers fuwjlit hraoely ; iravTe\Ss (.vTV)(ri<; 
 i<rnv, he is altogether furlunate ; Trdw a-rrovSauas €pyaZ,erai, he works 
 very dilujenlly. Such a qualifying part of the sentence is called 
 an Adjunct. 
 
 308 The Noun, the Adjective and the Adverb may be replaced by 
 other parts of speech doing the same work in the sentence, or by 
 a group of words doing the work of a single part of speech. A 
 word or group of words which replaces a Noun, an Adjective or 
 an Adverb is called an Equivalent (Noim-equivalent, Adjective- 
 equivalent or Adverb-equivalent). 
 
 A group of words forming an Equivalent and not having a 
 Subject and Predicate of its own is called a Phrase. 
 
 A group of words forming an Equivalent and having a Subject 
 and Predicate of its own is called a Subordinate Clause (c/. 
 § 312). 
 
 309 A Noun-equivalent may be : — 
 
 (1) a Pronoun : crv /x.ev eiTu;^->js cT, cyco 8e Svtmjp^'^s, you 
 
 indeed are fortunate, but I am unfortunate ; o8' f'//.' 
 iyu>, I am that man. 
 
 (2) a Verb-noun* (§ 179, i) : a-lyav (or to trlyav) Kpcicrcrov 
 
 icTTi Tov \aXuv, to be silent (Subject) is better than 
 to be a chatterbox ; a-lyav iBiXw, I desire to be 
 silent (Object). 
 
 (3) an Adjective, with or without the Article : oi vXaia-ioi 
 
 Koi 01 irevjjTes, rich and pool'; oi cro^oi, the wisi; 
 
 * The Verb-noun and the Verb-adjeotive participate in all the con- 
 structions of the Verb from which they are formed ; thus they may take a 
 Predicate Adjective or Noun (§ 302), or an Object (§ 303), or two Objects 
 (§ 30i), or an Object and a Predicate Adjective or Noun (§ 805), and they 
 may be qualified by an Adverb (§ 307) — ^just like a Verb, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 155 
 
 TO KaXov, the beautiful, beauty; raXrj&rj, truth; aro-n-ov, 
 a queer thing, an absurdity ; ^eXrlov, a better thine/ ; 
 areXyj (tvv xj/evSea-i, an incomplete result combined with 
 fahehood. So Verb-adjectives with the Article : 6 
 Xiyuyv, the speaker ; 6 PovXaixevoi, avy one who likes ; 
 TO crvufjiipov, that which is expedient ; to vo<tovv, 
 
 (4) a Clause (in a Complex Sentence, § 312): SijXov ka-nv 
 
 oTi KaKws iiroLrja-a.9 /ie, it is clear that-you-have-treated- 
 me-badly (Subject, introduced in English, by the 
 Formal Subject, it) ; tov ayadov avSpa cvSaijUova 
 eivai i^i;/*t, / say thut-the-good-manris-happy (Ob- 
 ject). 
 
 (5) a word or group of words quoted : to yw-q eoTi OrjXv, 
 
 the word "woman" is feminine; to ii/*ew orav ehria, 
 T^v TToXiv Xiyui, when I use the word " you," I mean 
 the city ; to yvSiOi cravTov irao'iv itm )(jyrj(Tiii.av, the 
 saying "know thyself" is good for all. 
 
 310 An AdjectiYe-equivalent may be : — 
 
 (1) a Verb-adjective (§ 179, a; § 309, 2, note): Trora/tos 
 
 peW, a flowing river. 
 
 (2) a Noun in Apposition : ^aoriXeia yvvai, royal lady ; 6 
 
 apxoiv ySao-tXcus, the king-archon ; Arjix.oaOevrj's 6 
 priTiup, Demosthenes the wator (as distinct from 
 Arjfjioa-Oivrii 6 o-Tparrjyoi) ; rjp.€ii ot"EXA,ijv€s, we Greeks; 
 o Ev<t>pa.Tr]s iroTa/Aos, the river Eupihrates ; 6 8' ehr 
 'OSvo-a-ev's, but he, Odysseus, .said {cf. § 148). 
 
 (3) an Oblique Case : AeKcXeia t^s 'Attik'^s, Deceleia of 
 
 Attica, the Attic Deceleia ; r^s avr^s yvw/iiys dpi, I 
 am of the same mind (= likeminded, Predicate 
 Adjective) ; wvpo's ySporois Sonjp, the given- of fire to 
 mortals. 
 
 (4) an Oblique Case with a Preposition : 17 pxTo. Xomjs fjhovri, 
 
 pleasure accompanied by pain; to. hn Tpoia iripyapa, 
 the citadel that crowns Troy; to wevpa to ek Trpupas, 
 the wind from the prow, the head-wind. 
 
IS6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 (5) an Adverb : oi tote "EXXiji/cs, the then Oreels ; rj vvv 
 
 rifiepd, the present day ; oi iraXai, the men of old ; fj 
 avu) irdXis, the upper citij ; fj a.vu> 68os, the jowrney %ip 
 amntry ("Avd^acrts). 
 
 (6) a Clause in a Complex Sentence (§ 312) : rj oIkCo. rjv 
 
 eKeKTrjTO 6 MtXriciSijs ov cre/iv^ ^v, the house which the 
 great Miltiades oicned loas not grand. 
 
 311 An AdYerb-equivalent may be : — 
 
 (1) an Oblique Case : oIkol ixlvia, I remain at home (§ 59) ; 
 
 oyhorjKOvra a-rdSia l7rope.v6rj<ra.v, they marcliP.d ten 
 miles ; TpidKOvra errj yeyovm, thirty years old ; rg 
 TTpoTepaia aTriOavev, he died the day before ; y(p6vu> 
 tfiav-qo-erai, it will appear in time or after some time ; 
 ouSev ;^7j(nynos iariv, he is good for nothing ; rtva 
 Tponrov or Ttvt rpoTri^ ( = irfis) ; how ? Often the 
 Accusative Neuter of Adjectives : //.eya or ;u,€yd\a 
 Sva-Tvxjs, vei-y unfortunate ; iroXv, much (% 172) ; 
 SeuTEpov, secondly, for the second time (§ 127); 
 TouovTov Suifjiipu, it differs so much*; aXri6c^, really? 
 Lat. itane ? (Neut. of aXriOrj's, with changed accent, 
 p. 139); cf aX.rj6u)i adv. truly. 
 
 (2) an Oblique Case with a Preposition : ctt' oikov ti/u, J 
 
 will go home ( = otKaSe) ; dTr' oIkov op/,iS/iai, / start 
 from home ( = oiKod^v) ; nrpos /StW ayoi, I carry off 
 by force ( = forcibly) ; es ^ms Xiyw, I speak to the 
 light (= openly), opposed to Kara o-kotov, darkly; 
 Kaff 6piJ,rjv Spwa-iv, they act impetuously. 
 
 (3) a Clause (in a Complex Sentence, § 312) : otov (XOys, 
 
 ipS), when you come, I loill tell you. 
 
 312 The Simple and the Complex Sentence. 
 
 (1) AvTTi icrriv rj i/jL-fj oIkm. This is my house. 
 
 (2) Av-n; ecrriv ^ oIklo. tjv mKoS6fji,ricra. This is the house which 1 
 
 built. 
 
 * Witla Verbs, such Neuter Adjectives may generally be regarded as 
 Cognate Objects (§ 326*); e.g. /i4ya \4yeis, you say something marvellous or 
 presumptuous [yoii talk big) ; a\r}6fi \4ya, I speak the truth 
 
INTRODUCTION. 157 
 
 A sentence like (1), which contains only one group of words 
 with a Subject and Predicate, is called Simple [Lat. simplex\. 
 
 A sentence like (2), which contains a Principal group and a 
 Subordinate group, each with a Subject and Predicate of its own, 
 is called Complex, and each of the groups is called a Clause : — 
 
 Principal Clause. 
 
 Subordinate Clause. 
 
 313 Kinds of Subordinate Clause. 
 
 Subordinate Clauses may be classified according to the part of 
 speech to which they are akin, as : — 
 
 1. Noun Clauses, i.e. Clauses playing the part of a Noun 
 (§ 309.4). 
 
 2. Adjective Clauses, i.e. Clauses playing the part of an 
 Adjective (§ 310.6). 
 
 3. Adverb Clauses, i.e. Clauses playing the part of an Adverb 
 (§ 311.3). 
 
 314 Co-ordination, — Two or more Sentences, Clauses, Phrases or 
 Single Words, linked together by one of the following Conjunc- 
 tions, are called Co-ordinate, and the Conjunctions which link 
 them together are called Co-ordinating Conjunctions: — 
 
 Kai, re, and ; et, -que 
 aXX-d, Si, but; sed, autem 
 ■5, or ; aut, vel, an 
 
 ovSe] neque 
 
 5,,F nor ] -^ 
 ixrjhi) neve, neu 
 
 yap, for ; nam, enim 
 
 The first member of a group linked together by one of the 
 above conjunctions may be introduced by a word which serves to 
 bring out more clearly its relation to what follows. Thus we get 
 the following pairs : — 
 
 T£ . . . Kai, or /cat . . . icaL, or t« . . . t€, both . . . and. 
 
 [lev . . . 8e, on the one hand . . . but on the other hand. 
 
 ^ . . . ^, either . . . or. 
 
 ovT€ . . . ovre (or /AijTe . . . iJ-rJTe), neither . . . nor. 
 
 Obs. 1. All -Other Conjunctions are Subordinating Conjunc- 
 tions, introducing either Adverb Clauses (§ 346) or Noun Clauses 
 (§ 366); but ehe (=slve), when used without any Verb, may 
 
158 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 have the effect of a Co-ordinating Conjunction (^), e.g. clt aXriBU 
 UTi fiArrjv, either truhj or falsely = cite oATj^es IKtyov, ctrc /ia7-i;v 
 (keyov, whether they spoke truly or falsely. 
 
 Obs. 2. Words like /j-evToi, hoioever (tamen), oJv, therefore 
 (igitur), 87J, nolo (jam), are not Conjunctions at all, but Sentence 
 Adverbs, i.e. Adverbs affecting the sentence as a whole, and not 
 the Verb in particular. 
 
 This is clearly shown in German, where the corresponding words take 
 inverted order, liie ordinary Adverbs (e.g. "Daher glaube ich," therefvre I 
 believe) ; in English the difierenoe between Sentence Adverbs like therefore 
 and Conjunctions like and, but, may be shown partly by the meaning 
 {therefore =for that reason, an Adverb-equivalent, § 311.2), partly by the 
 fact that Conjunctions must stand between the two sentences which they 
 link together {e.g. "He did me a kindness and I am grateful"), while 
 Sentence Adverbs may stand in the middle of a sentence {e.g. " He did me 
 a kindness ; I am therefore grateful "). 
 
 314* A Clause introduced by a Eelative may be equivalent to a 
 Co-ordinate Sentence ; in such cases os = kol oBtos or oBtos Bi or 
 ouro's yap [rf. Lat. qui = et is, sed is, nam is) : e.ij. el 8' u/xets aXko 
 n yvu>(T€(T9c, o /xtj yevoiro, n oi€<x6e (rv/j,^i^<Tt(r6aL ', but if you decide 
 otherwise, and may this never happen, what do you think toill 
 resxdt ? cf. quod di prohibeant. 
 
 315 The two parts of Syntax. 
 
 Syntax has to answer two questions : — 
 
 1. How are meanings expressed in sentences and parts of 
 
 sentences? The answer is given in §§ 316-371, 
 which deal with Sentence Construction. 
 
 2. What are the various uses of the inflected forms of 
 
 words ? The answer is given in §§ 372 foil., which 
 deal with the Meanings of Forms. 
 
 IS* In dealing with Sentence Construction, those construc- 
 tions which are peculiar to the Complex Sentence will be treated 
 after those which are common to the Simple and the Complex 
 Sentence. 
 
316 
 
 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 159 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 PAET I.— SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 THi; SUBJECT. 
 
 1. As in other languages : — 
 
 (a) The Subject is either a Noun or a Noun-equivalent 
 
 (§ 309). 
 (6) If the Subject is a declinable word, it stands in the 
 
 Nominative Case. 
 
 2. As in Latin, the Subject is not expressed by a separate word 
 when it is sufficiently indicated by the Verb-ending : — 
 
 Oio/Mi, ol/jiaL. I think, credo. Oicrat. He thinks, credit. 
 
 Contrast eyo) ot/u.at, tyu^at, / for my part believe, equidem 
 credo, where the Pronoun lends clearness or em- 
 phasis. 
 
 3. A Subject with vague moaning, such as is expressed in 
 English by words like they ( = people in general), one ( = French 
 on, German man), things or it ( = the situation in general, French 
 il, German es), is in Greek and Latin often merely indicated by 
 the Verb-ending : — 
 
 $ao-tV. Men say, dicunt, dioitur. BatVouo-iv. TJiey go, itur. 
 ^aCrji av. One may say, dicas. (Indefinite 2nd Pers. Sing.) 
 'Ea-q/j.rjvev. Some one ( = the bugler) gave the signal. 
 'AvayviixreTai. Some one ( = the clerk) will read aloud. 
 "EToiixa riv. Things were ready ( = ra irpa.yit.aTa kTolii.a rjv). 
 "Itcu. Let things take their course or Gome what may ( = h-m 
 
 TO jxiXKov). 
 'iTiov ia-TLv. One must go, eundum est. 
 Aci'fet. Time will show. {There will be a showing.) 
 
 4. Some Verbs, called Impersonal, are rarely found with a 
 separate Subject : e.g. ia, it rains, pluit. [Occasionally with a 
 separate Subject : tis va, wlio rains 1 6 6eos ^et, God sends rain.] 
 
 ^g- The Passive Construction with a vague Subject merely indicated 
 in the Verb-ending, like Lat. itur, there is a going, pugnatum est, there was 
 a fight (Impersonal Passive Construction), is comparatively rare in 
 Greek, being found chiefly in tenses formed from the Perfect Stem : — 
 
 BePlarai fioi. I have lived, 'ns TTapeffKeiaffTO. When all was ready. 
 Mdrriv 4/ji.ol KeK\aicrerai. My tears will have gone/or nothing. 
 OStm Sf'SoKToi. 'Tis thus resolved. 
 
 Occasionally in the Present : ^paSiperai, there is a lingering. 
 For the 3rd Pers. Sing. Pass, with a Clause as Subject, see § 368 0. 
 
i6o SYNTAX. 
 
 THE PREDICATE. 
 
 The niles for the Agreement of the Verb with the Sub- 
 ject are in general the same as in Latin. Note the following 
 peculiarities of Greek: — 
 
 1. Ildn-a pet. All things change or Nothing is stable. 
 
 To. /icyaXa SZpa t-^s ru^'/s £x" <i>oPov. The great gifts of 
 
 fortune involve fear. 
 TcL riX-rj tGiv AaKeSaiftoviwv vwia'xero ccTySaXeiv. The officials 
 
 of the Lacedaemonians promised to invade. 
 
 Rule. — A Neuter Plural Subject takes a Singular Verb. [But 
 when the Neuter Plural Subject denotes persons the Verb may be 
 Plural : to teXj; vTreV^ovro.] 
 
 2. 'Ai/Spe 8wo ^uipiiTov. Two men are coming. Soph. Phil. 539. 
 
 AvSpe TtuSe TrXiov(TW. These two men are sailing. Ibid. 593. 
 
 Rule. — A Dual Subject may take a Dual or a Plural Verb. 
 
 More often than in Latin, a Singular Noun of Multitude takes a Plural 
 Verb (Construction according to Sense— Karai o-iveo-iv) :— 
 
 Tb irX^flos oXovrai. The inuUitude believe. 
 
 Distinguish a Dual Subject from a Compound Subject, i.e. 
 a Subject made up of two or more Nouns or Noun-equivalents 
 linked together by one of the Conjunctions meaning "and" (§ 314), 
 or united in thought without a Conjunction : — 
 
 Ev/juyu.c'SwT' Kol So^okX'^s ia-rpaTeva-av. Eurymedon and 
 
 Sophocles took the field. 
 'HSov^ /cat Xiitr) iv rrj TroXei ftao-iXeva-erov. Pleasure and pain 
 shall hear joint sway in the city. 
 
 Rule. — A Compound Subject made vip of two Singular Nouns 
 generally takes a Plural Verb ; but the Verb may be Dual when 
 stress is laid on the idea of a pair. 
 
 Note, as in other languages : — 
 
 'Eyu) Kai 6 utds ixov vyialvo/jiev. Ego et filius meus valemus. 
 2v KOL Tj dxrydrrjp crov vytatVere. Tu et filia tua valetis. 
 
 1^ " My son and I " cannot be spoken of together except as " we " ; 
 hence the Verb, if Plural, must be 1st Person : similarly " I and you " = 
 " we " ; " you and your daughter " = " ye ". 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. i6i 
 
 322 As in Latin, the Verb may agree with the part of the Com- 
 
 pound Subject which stands nearest to it, especially if the Nouns 
 composing the Subject denote Sexless Things : — 
 
 SctpKes Koi vivpa i^ aijuaros yiyverai. Flesh and sinews come 
 from blood {vivpa Neut. PL). 
 
 Trjpa'S SlSolctku Travra /cat xpovov TpiP-q. Old age teaches all 
 
 things, and {so does) lapse of time. 
 Hice Xpvcrai/Tas re kox aXkoi TtvES tGv oixotXixiuv. There had 
 come both Chrysantas and certain others of the peers. 
 
 322 1. As in Latin, if the Nouns composing the Subject are so closely con- 
 
 nected as to form mu idea, the Verb may be Singular, Kara aiv«nv [Senatus 
 populusque deorevit] : Oi irepriTes /tal 6 Sfii/.os irKiov fxei- The poor and the 
 masses ham superior power. 
 
 2. 'EiTTi there is, ■Ijv there was, yiyverai there comes into being, may intro- 
 duce a Compound Subject, or even one Plural Subject ; but in such cases 
 the Verb m.ust precede the Subject : "Ea-nv iv tojs &\\ais ■n-6\e(nv S.px""'''^' '''^ 
 Kal Srifios. There are in other cities both rulers and ruled. Tijs 8' ^c Tpeij 
 Ke^aKai. And it had three heads. This construction is called the ' Schema 
 Pindarioum,' though it is not specially common in Pindar. 
 
 Compare Shakspere, Cymbeline IV. 2. 371 : " There is no more such 
 masters"; French "Iles^des hommes"- Similarly 1 Cor. xiii. 13: Niii't 
 5e [livei •jriffrts, i\iris, aydinf], ra rpla ravra. And nxno abideth faith, hope, 
 charity, these three. 
 
 3. MsTii, like Latin citm, may serve as equivalent to " and " : A-niiotrSivn^ 
 fifra Tuv crvaTpaTiiyuv airivSovTm. Demosthenes and his fellow-gene/rals make 
 peace. 
 
 323 As in Latin, the Conjuuotions meaning "or," "nor" (§ 314) do not 
 
 properly link words so as to form a Compound Subject : ^ oStos ^ eKetvos 
 a\riBTJ \iyei, aut hie aut ills vera dicit. Yet the Verb may be Plural : Koi 
 /J,' otJfl' i nKoirwvos xiav \ oiiO' oM iciirri ^ixoiro/iirhs hv Xdptev | iffxov. And 
 neither the dog of Pluto nor Charon, sitting at the oar as conductor of souls, 
 would have held me back ( = both Pluto's dog and Charon would not have held 
 me back). Compare " Neither death nor fortune were sufficient to subdue 
 the mind of Cargill " (Fox, History of James II.). 
 
 So especially with two Personal Pronouns as Subject : Oure irii oSt iyii' 
 ravra eiroi^o-a/iej/. Haeo neque'ego neque tu feoimus. [So too in German, ' 
 French, Spanish.] 
 
i62 SYNTAX. 
 
 324 
 
 Predicate Adjective ok Noun refeering to the Subject 
 (§ 302). 
 
 1. As in other languages, the cliief Verbs which take a Pre- 
 dicate Adjective or Noun referring to the Subject are Verbs 
 denoting to be, become, seem, remain ; be made, be chosen, be called, 
 be thought, be shown : — 
 
 Elfil (*E</>i;i/) evKapSio's. I am stout of heart. 
 
 'H %Traprq i(t>a.vrj SwaTioTarri. Sparta seemed most powerful. 
 
 Oi vofjjoL /ji.ev6vTuiv aKivrjToi. Let the laws remain unchanged. 
 
 KCpos aireSeLxOrj craTpdirris. Cyrus was appointed satrap. 
 
 Ol <t)i\oi vo/iitea-Owv aSeX<f>oi. Let friends be considered brothers. 
 
 2. A Predicate Adj. or Noun often stands without ^o-rf, eiV/ (3rd Pers.) : 
 at Sevrepai n(as fppovTlSes (ro(p(inepat, second thoughts are somehow vdser ; x^^^^^^ 
 TO Ka\d, ardua quae pulchra ; sometimes without el/it, et, i<rfi.eii, line (1st 
 and 2nd Pers.) : o-i iHv Spturis, thou art bold ; eVoi/ios Sovvai, I am ready to 
 give. Note here the omission of the Pronoun iyii. 
 
 3. The above Verbs may also be used without a Predicate Adj. or 
 Noun; in this case they form a complete Predicate, either by themselves 
 or as qualified by Adverbs or Adverb-equivalents : Tl6\is ns tariv. There is 
 a city, or A city exists. Tl6Kts tis Jiv T6re. There was a city at that time. ''Hv 
 4v rp 'ATTi/cp. It was situated in Attica. 'AireSeixBv! "uk ^x^'P"'''"'^*''' ^^ 
 v^as appointed, not elected. 
 
 4. With other Intransitive or Passive Verbs the Predicate 
 Adjective or Noun denotes either (a) the result of an action : — 
 
 To Tiixoi iTTioKoSoixT^Ori vfriXorepov. The Kail was built higher 
 'O Tvpawos rpe^erai /cai avieToi fiiyas. The tyrant is nursed and 
 
 reared to greatness. 
 or (b) what the Subject is, was, or will be, at the time of the 
 action : — 
 
 'O TTOTa/ios pel p.iya.'s (:roA.iJs). 2%e rirer floios strong. Amnis 
 
 fluit magnus (multus) . 
 "ETrav^XSe o-Ss /cat vyt^s. He returned safe and sound (salvus). 
 'O^eia tjioLTo. KoX Ta)(€i aTrepp^erai. It (a fit of sickness) is sharp 
 
 in its coming and sudden in its going. 
 'O Xoyos KaXos TTpocr^v. The plea thai was added was fair. 
 
 Contrast 6 koXos Xo'yos irpoo^v, the fair plea was added. 
 UpwTos Trpoo-^aXAei. He attacks first = He is the first to attack, 
 
 primus aggreditur. Contrast Trp&Tov irpoa-paXXa, he first 
 
 attacks or attacks for the first time (primum), or attacks at 
 
 first (prlm5) : cf. § 127. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 163 
 
 5. The Predicate Adjective may often be conveniently translated by an 
 Adverb or Adverb-equivalent : axai/ ^/lapTov, I sinned involwniarily (invitus 
 or imprudens erravi) ; woKbs ivmeiTo, he attacked violently (multus iustabat) ; 
 ivvvxios ^xfley, Jie came by night (nooturnus venit). Similarly cKiiv, volun- 
 tarily, consulto ; aurif/iaTos, of one's own accord, sponte sua ; ■ irr/ievos, gladly, 
 libenter ; aKoraXos, in the dark (Older English darkling, Adj.) ; SeuTepoios, 
 rpiToias, etc., on the second day, om the third day, etc. ; xf^"'"*! after a long 
 time, or for a long time, etc. But the Adjective must be used in translating 
 ^x' ^i^'OCoSi ^ei 
 
 324^ 
 
 6. Note such Predicate Participles (Verb- Adjectives) as the following; 
 TiKiVTuv %<f>i), he said at the end, lit. he said ending ; i,voiy' avicras or <pSdirds, open 
 quickly, lit. making ha^te ; \adi>v iiroiriffer, he did it unawares (imprudens) or 
 sfcretly, lit. escaping the notice of himself or of others ; x"^?"" a7roAA.aJei, he 
 will get off scot free, lit. ryoicing (Lat. impune, Adv.) ; icKaimv 4peis, you will 
 say it to your sorrow, lit. weeping ; <j>Kvape!s ex""' V"^ trifle persistently, lit. 
 holding oni; Bappav X9i, go fearlessly, lit. being confident. 
 
 Use of the Article with the Predicate Adjective or 
 Noun. 
 
 1. Tw I'jrTa cro<^w <To<f>uiTaTos rjv SoXtov. Solon was the loiscsi 
 
 of the seven wise men. 
 To Oav/jta^eiv iiTrlv apxrj T^s o-o<^tas. Wonder is the beginning 
 of wisdom. 
 
 Rule. — The Predicate Adjective and Predicate Noun have as 
 a rule no Article in Greek, even where the Article is necessary in 
 English. 
 
 2, But the Article is sometimes necessary in Greek, especially — 
 
 (a) to distinguish 6 avrSs, the same, from avris, self; Touyai'Tioi', the 
 opposite, from ivavrloy, opposite; Sdrfpov (= rh &Tepov, p. 131), 
 the one (or the other) of two, from Urepov, une of two : — 
 
 'Eyii iiev 6 ouT(is «i/*i, d/if IS 5e ;U£Ta;8a\A.eTe. / am the same 
 as ever, but you change. 
 (i) to form, with a Participle, a Nouu-equivalent (§ 309.3) : — 
 
 "OS' ?iv 6 irvWaPiiv /is. This was the mare that trapped me. 
 (c) to express " the well known," " the typical " : — 
 
 Sii el S irpoS6rris. Thou art the notorious traitor. 
 
164 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 325 
 
 Agreement of the Predicate AdjectiYe and Noun. 
 
 1. As in Latin, the Predicate Adjective agrees in Gender, 
 Number and Case with the word to which it refers, even when 
 the Subject is a Neuter Plaral and the Verb Singular (§ 317.1) : 
 TO. SiKcita ia-TL KoXd, what is jzist is lovely. The Predicate Noun 
 agrees in Case, but not necessarily in Gender or Number : avSpes 
 yap TToXis, Koi ov T€V)(rj oiSk vrjc; avSpu)v Kivai, for it is men, and not 
 iviills nor ships without men, that constitute a state ; ywalKh la-iJufv 
 aOXuinoTov (jrurov, we women are miserable creatures; airavra Zva-- 
 X€/)e«i, all is vexation. 
 
 2. A Neuter Adjective, used as a Noun-equivalent (§ 309), follows the 
 rule for the Predicate Noun [Triste lupus stabulls] ; — 
 
 'H iroTpls (pl\TaTov fifioTois. The fatherland is a thing most dear to 
 mortals. Patria mortalibus carissimum. 
 
 3. If a Denionstrative or Relative Proneun is the Subject, it is gene- 
 raDy made to agree in Gender, Number and Cass with the Predicate Noun 
 [Hoc opus, hlo labor est. Thebae quod caput Boeotiae est] : — 
 
 ABtt) &\Xn vpiipains Jiv. This icas another vretext. 
 
 'O (p6fios % oiSis KaKtLTai. The fear vhich is called respect. 
 
 i. The Verb is sometimes made to agree with the Predicate Noun, 
 when this hes between the Subject and the Verb : — 
 
 Th x'^P^"" TfiTepov 'Evvca '05o! iKa\oiJyTo. The place was previously 
 called Nine Ways. [Compare " The wages of sin is death ".] 
 
 325* 
 
 1. As in Latin, a Predicate Adjective referring to the whole of 
 a Compound Subject is Masculine Plural if the Nouns composing 
 the Subject denote persons of different iexes. Neuter Plural if 
 they denote things without sex : — 
 
 'O TraTTjp Koi fj lt.rjTqp avTov elai. yei/imot. IJis father and 
 mather are noble ( persons) : sunt generosl. 
 
 $6ovos Kol epws kvavTia icTTiv {cf. § 325,4). £nvy and love 
 are opposite {things) : sunt contraria. 
 
 2. The Predicate Adjective may however agree, like the Verb 
 (§ 322), with the part of the Subject which stands nearest to it: — 
 
 'H o-rdats Koi b TroXe^itos. amos eo-Ti tSv KaKutv. Sedition and 
 war are the cause of our troubles. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 165 
 
 The Object (§ 303). 
 
 326 Yerbs taking the Accusative. 
 
 As in other languages : — 
 
 (a) The Object is either a Noun or a Noun-equivalent. 
 
 [b) If the Object is a declinable word, it generally stands 
 in the Accusative Case. 
 
 326* 1. An Object which is of kindred meaning to the Verb is called 
 
 Cognate. As in Latin, a Cognate Object is generally qualified by 
 an Attribute : — 
 
 TeXuira (rapSdviov iyiXacriv. He laughed a sardonic laugh. 
 
 Risum amarumTisit. 
 Biov avOpunnvov ^ij. He lives a human (i.e. ordinary) life. 
 Aayo) ^Lov t,yj. He lives the life of a hare (Gen.). 
 "OpKov /xc'yav ofjLvvp.i. I swear a great oath. 
 
 2. But the Cognate Object and its Attribute are sometimes 
 expressed by a single word, not of kindred meaning with the 
 Verb :— 
 
 (a) A Neuter Adjective, used as a Noun-equivalent (§ 309.3) : — ' 
 
 'H8-U ytXa. She has a sweei laugh. Dvilce ridet. 
 
 Se/Avov Ktti Tre^povTiKos pXiira. He has a solemn and thought- 
 ful look. BXcTTO) Ppa-xv. I am shortsighted. 
 
 Mrj ^<!)v€i f/.iya. Speak not loud {cf. § 311.1). 
 (&) A Neuter Pronoun : — 
 
 ToSto x'^P'^- ^''**' J^y I ^o.ve. H5c laetor. 
 
 GiSev ySXaiTTei. It does no harm. Nihil nocet. 
 (c) A Noun with the meaning of the Attribute ; — 
 
 "Evi/ciyo-ev 'OXv/tma. He won an Olympic victory. Vioit 
 Olympia. (^OXvii.Tna = vticijv 'OXv/jlttikt^v.) 
 
 ®va evayyikia. He makes a thank-offering for good news. 
 
 "H. PovXrj KoipSafia (or vaTTv) ySXcTrei. The Senate luoks cress 
 (or mustard) = looks cross : cf. " to look daggers ". 
 
 "Eap bpuiaa. With April in her eyes (lit. looking Spring). 
 
 3. A Cognate Object may be added to a Verb which, takes an ordinary 
 Object, and may stand with Passives : — 
 
 'Simtpdrris €Ka(rTov eiepyeTet ri/v iJ.eyla'TTiv eiepye<ridv. Socrates confers 
 
 the greatest benefits on each. 
 Tiva evepyecrlay ei€py€ToiiJ.€da ; What benefit do we receive ? 
 'EireiT' iiioX Tcb Sdv' eTrTjirEiA.Tjir' cTrrj. Then he uttered against me those 
 
 dreadful threats. 
 •S,r€^a,vov<r6aL 'OKiiina. To receive an Olympic crown. Imitated by 
 
 Horace in Epist. I. 1. 50 : ooronari Olympia, 
 
i66 SYNTAX. 
 
 Passive Construction. [Latin Abl. with or without ab, a.] 
 Active. ■ Passive. 
 
 'Ap/ioSio's i<f>6v€V(T€v "Iwirap^oi'. 
 SaiTnodius slew Hipparchus. 
 
 iTnrap^os i<j>ove66rj v<f> 'Ap/xoSiov. 
 Hipparchus was slain by Harmo- 
 
 dim. 
 'ETp4<t>fTo vTTo Orjpiov. 
 He was fed by a wild beast. 
 'H KapSid Tapdcrcrerai <^o/3a>. 
 The heart is troubled by fear. 
 'ErpiLOrj TO^ev/juiTi. 
 
 ©■qplov trpi^ev airrov. 
 A wild beast fed him. 
 $oy8os Tapa(r(Tei rr/v KapSlav. 
 Fear troubles the heart. 
 To^evfia €Tptii(T€V avrov. 
 
 An arroio wounded him. \ He was wounded by an arrow. 
 
 Rule. — In the Passive Construction 
 
 what was the Object in the Active becomes the Subject: 
 what was the Subject in the Active is generally expressed 
 by vnro with the Gen., if it denotes a Living Agent ; 
 by the Dat. without a Preposition, if it denotes 
 something without life. 
 
 Obs. 1. For Inr6 are found wapi, irp6s, and even dird, 4k, with Genitive. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Living Agent is in certain oases expressed by the Dative 
 (§ 423). 
 
 Obs. 3. Things without life are sometimes treated as living, e.g. waves, 
 lightning, etc. : hence imh xepavvov vKriyets for leepaw^ ttKiryfis, struck by 
 lightning. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Dative denoting things without life may be regarded as 
 Dative of Cause (§ 430) or Dative of Instrument (§ 429). 
 
 Yerbs taking the Genitive (Genitive Verbs). — Many Verbs 
 take a Genitive in Greek corresponding to an Object in English : — 
 ' k.vBpioTTO'i tav p.iixvrj(ro ■nj's Komjs tv^i;?. Being man, remem- 
 ber the common lot. Memento sortis commiinis. 
 MaBrnxaruiv ^povTL^e fjioXXov xprj/juxTrnv. Regard learning 
 
 more than riches. 
 Mi] (jjeiarg piov. Heed not my life. 
 Toil ^fjv yap ouSeIs (is 6 yripacTKuiv ipa. For no one desires 
 
 life so much as the man who is growing old. 
 MaKaptos ocTTts ervxe ytwaiov (jiiXov. Happy he who has 
 gained a noble friend. 
 "H^ous SiKaLov (^avXos ov ij/avii Xdyos. Slander touches not a 
 
 just character. 
 'Ovaio T^s apiTTJ's. May you enjoy your virtue I 
 Oi 'A6r]V(uoi '^pxov Twv vTjo-iov. Athens ruled the islands. 
 TLoKiiwv ovK apiofieOa. We shall not begin the war. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 167 
 
 Z^treis j8iov Kpancrrov rjv 6vfJL0v KpaT^s. Thou ioilt live the 
 
 best life if thuu master thy spirit. 
 'O /irjSev dSiKtov oiStvos Sctrai vo/jlov. The man that does no 
 
 vyrong needs no law. 
 Micr^oi^opMv Tvpdwto Set. A tyrant needs meixenaries. 
 
 KuLB. — The chief Genitive Verbs are those denoting : — 
 
 remember /Ai/iv^trKo/iat, [j,vrjfA.oveu<a ( = reminiscor), fiifivrfixm ( = me- 
 
 mini) 
 forget eiriXav^avo/iai ( = ohliviscor), d/iviy/tovui ( = immemor sum) 
 
 regard eTri/i«A.oC/«w, p-iXa /jloi, K-^So/xai, (l>povn^(i), <^€t8o/tat 
 
 disregard djueXfi, oXiyupfi 
 desire hrSvixm, i<l>UiJi.ai, ipZ {rjpdcrOTjv), opiyopMi, 7X9(0/^,01, dvTt- 
 
 iroi.ovp.ai, (rro\a.tf>p,ai 
 attain Tvy^dvm, e<^iKvo5jU,ai 
 
 fail to get afiaprdvui, aTroTVy^dvia, a.TV)(pt, <7^aKXop.ai, i/fcvSo/xai 
 touch Oiyydvoi, ij/avo) ; airTop.aL, Ixopai, X.ap,pdvo/ji.ai, lay hold of 
 
 experience TrcipS/Aat 
 enjoy a.Tro\avu>, yevop,ai, ovLvafiat 
 
 ncle "■PX'^' ySatriXtiJO), Swao-revo), Tvpawevta ; r)yovpxu in the 
 
 sense command, riyep,ovevii}, o-Tpan/yG 
 
 begin dp;^o/*ai (apx<") 
 
 cease iravop.ai, \rfY<j>, pxOUpxu, v(f>iep,ai V f S 407 
 
 master KparSi 
 
 want Siopai, Sel /xoi, cnravi^ui, a-jropSi, crrepo/iai. 
 
 Obs. 1. With Verbs of remembering and forgetting the Object, 
 if it denotes a thing (not person), may stand in the Accusative : 
 lj.efji.vripaL to. irapeXijXvflora, / remember the past, recorder praeterita; 
 a.fji,vripnvet.? ras vTroa-x^cai, you forget your promises, oblivisceris 
 promissa. 
 
 Obs. 2. KparaJ in the sense defeat takes the Accusative : ixpaTTiffav roi/s 
 To\efi.iovs, they defeated the enemy. 
 
 Obs. 3. 'HyoC/ioi in the sense show the waii takes the Dative : 01 yap /SXe'ir- 
 ovTEj TOis Tv<l>\oTs ^yoii/icflo, /or wc loAo s«e guide the blind. 
 
 Obs. 4. Distinguish Se7 hoi, I Tieed, with the Genitive, from Sei jxe, I 
 must, with the Infinitive (§ 368 g, Obs. 1). 
 
 i^" On the Passive Construction of these Genitive Verbs, see § 329. 
 
i68 SYNTAX. 
 
 328 
 
 Yerbs taking the Dative (Dative Verbs).— Many Verbs 
 take a Dative in Greek corresponding to an Object in English : — 
 
 MavTiKrj oi irddofx.ai. I distrust augury. Augurio diffido. 
 'Yirqperet toli rd/xois. Obey the laics. Inservi legibus. 
 AiKaiooTji^y XvcnTfXu rrj TroAircia. Justice benefits the state. 
 
 Justitia prodest relpublicae. 
 Aci yn' dpt'o-KEii' Tots Kara). I imist please those below. Opor- 
 
 tet me placere mortuls. 
 ^H -yap ya/xoB/iai ^oio-a TraiSt (7(3 ttote ; What, shall I living 
 
 ecer viairy thy son? Umquamne viva filio niibam 
 
 tuo ? 
 Ti's ■^/uv ivavTi.t!>(T(TaL ; Who will resist us ? Quis nobis re- 
 
 sistet 1 
 'E7r€o-&€ fioi, avSpes. Follow me, my rmn [= sequor with 
 
 Accus.]. 
 'H/ti)/ (is ^iXoi'; xpwcrai. He icill use ( = treat) us as friends. 
 Tl ^ovkfTai yjiuv -xprifrOai ; For ichat purpose does he wish 
 
 to use ( = employ) us? [= utor with Abl.] 
 
 'AXXco irovoivTi pdSiov TrapaLvicrai. It is easy to advise ariother 
 ■when in trouble. Facile est alii suadere. 
 
 Ila/DeKeAevcravTo dXA.-^Xois. They exhorted one another. 
 
 Ztiis a-vv£yv(o 'HpaKXtt. Zeus pardoned Heracles. Juppiter 
 Hercull ignovit. 
 
 IItcoxos TTa)x<? <i>6ovei. Beggar envies beggar. Meudicus 
 mendico invidet. 
 
 KuLB. — The chief Dative Verbs are those denoting : — 
 
 obey, trust, and their opposites (c/. pareo, confido, credo) 
 
 Treidofiat, irtiBoLp^ut, VTraKovdi, iricmviii, aTrioToi, OTraOS) 
 sei-ve SovXevw, Xarpevw, mr-qperui (cf. servio) 
 succour Por)6u>, iTrapKW, iTriKovpZ, ap-ivm, nfiiopui (ef. Sliccurro) 
 benefit Xv(tlt(XS>, (njfx.<i)ipa {cf. pr5sum) 
 
 please apea-K(o, avSavtii : dit>please aarapiaKto (ef. placeo, displiceo) 
 favour x'lP'Co/^"' W- faveo) 
 marry (of the woman) yafiovjixu {cf. nubo) 
 resist ivavTcovfiaA,, avdicrTafiai, ivi<7Tafj.aL {cf. resisto) 
 revile XoiSopovfuat [cf. maledico) 
 follow (.irop.a.i, aKoXovdu) (bvit sequor takes Accus.) 
 use ^Stfuu (but utor takes Abl.) 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 169 
 
 The following may take, in addition to the Dative, an 
 Accusative or an Infinitive (as Second Object, §§ 331, 333) : — 
 
 command ivTiWojxai, eima,nr(ru>, TrpocrToicrcrm, TrapaKcXcvo/nai {cf. im- 
 per5) ; Xeyw, ^r)(x,[, cnj/xaivoi in the sense hid {cf. 
 dico) 
 
 advise irapaivSi, cru/tySouXeija) (cf. suadeo) 
 
 threaten d-TretXS (cf. minor) 
 
 reproach fjii/xcjinfjuii, e7rm/xS, oi/eiSi^w {cf objicio) : or one Accus. 
 
 forgive crvyyiyvwa-Ka) {cf ignosco) 
 
 envy ^OovSi, fn-eyatpio {cf. invideo). 
 
 Origin ojf the above Datives. — Heidw comes from the" root 
 IIEI®, = Lat. FID, meaning bind ; thus the Passive TnWofuxC o-oi 
 meant originally something like I am bound to you, hence / obej/ 
 you or / tr7ist you : XiJo-iTeXeiv meant originally to pay dues { — Xvuv 
 TeXrj) : similarly apia-Koi a-oi, I am fitting to you (root 'AP, ft) ; 
 yafi-ov/xaL (roi, I am united to or leith you (root TAM, unite) ; xpS^ttat 
 trot, / concern myself ox associate with you (root XPA or XEP, hand). 
 In all cases the Dative denoted either "to," "for," or "with". 
 
 Caution. — The following Verbs of similar meaning to those 
 enumerated in § 328 take the Accusative : — 
 
 XIci^o) (Active), urge, persuade : vetdiD o-e. 
 
 Verbs of believing take an Accusative of the thing believed . 
 TTtcTTcua) TavTCL, I bcKeve this, credo hoc ; Tavrd. (roi oi 
 TTtiOo/jLai, I do not take this on your word, hoc tibi non 
 credo. 
 
 ®apa-!i>, OappS), have confidence in : $appS> Odvarov, I do nut 
 fear death (rarely Dat. of the person). 
 
 ®epa7r(vui, seme, tend : Oepawevu) ToiJs 6eov^, 6epairev<D to (tH/jux.. 
 
 ' kfiMvopuajL and Ti/t(«poi)/j,ai (Middle), avenge myself, take ven- 
 geance for myself: rlfjitapovfiai crt, I avenge myself on 
 you. 
 
 'Ovivrj/jLi and <S<^eXG, benefit : wi^eXS a-e, adjuv5 te (rarely 
 Dat. with tl^eXaj). 
 
 Tafjuo (Active), marry (of the man) : ya/ico yvvaiKa, diic5 
 uxorem. 
 
 AoiSopS . (Active) , revile : XoiSopS o-e. 
 
 KeXc-uo) (Active), command, takes the Accus. with the Infin. : 
 KeXevu o-e eX^etv, / bid you come, jube5 te venire. 
 12 
 
170 SYNTAX. 
 
 329 PassiYe Construction of Genitive and Dative Verbs. 
 
 Mvij/xovevo-o/jLai vtto ttoXXwv. I shall be remembered by many. 
 J^lKrjpa,Toi ipS>v rrjs yvvaiKoi avreparai. Niceratus, loviny his 
 
 wife, is loved in return. 
 "Eav o.p)(ea6aL fiaOturyi, ttoXXSv a.p)(eLV Swyja-ovTai. If they 
 
 learn to submit to rule, they will be able to rule 
 
 many. 
 nei/ijs Xeycuv rakrjOh ov irio-Teu'eTat. A poor man telling the 
 
 truth is not trusted. 
 OvKeri aTreiXov/Aai, dAX' -^Srj aireiXSi oAAots. I am no longer 
 
 t/ireatened but begin to threaten others. 
 "ETTotr/crav &(nrep ■7rpo(reTd)(6rja-av. They did as they had been 
 
 told. 
 
 Rule. — The Passive Construction of Genitive and Dative Verbs 
 is the same as that of Accusative Verbs (§ 327). 
 
 l^° The corresponding Latin oonstruotion (oredor / am trusted, for 
 creditur mihl, invideor for invidetur mihi) is very rare. [But oredor with 
 Infin. is oommou : Juppiter creditur tonare, the Passive of oredimus Jovem 
 tonare.] 
 
 330 
 
 Verbs taking the Infinitive. 
 
 Avvafiai {or"Ex<a) /J-oipTvp^a-ai. I can bear witness. Possum 
 
 testificari. 
 OvK rjBlX-qtra^ ov8' iTokfj.rjcra's 6avuv | tov crarv trpo iraiSds. 
 
 Thou wouldst not and daredst not die for thine own 
 
 child. 
 ToXp-rjo-ov cl>pov€iv. Resolve to be wise. Sapere aude. 
 ^vyrj IX.M t,rjv, ov Svoiv, otfieiXo/jitv. We 02ight to live with 
 
 one life, not with two. 
 Mc'XXo) oiKoSo/Actv. I delay {hesitate, intend) to build. Cunc- 
 
 tor (dubito, cogito) aedificare : see Obs. 3. 
 Tovs TrpoSoTcis yap plfreZv ip-aBov. Fur I have learned to hate 
 
 traitors. 
 'Eiria-Tapai vfiv. I hnow how to swim (/ understand swim- 
 ming, seio nare). 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 171 
 
 KuLBS. — 1. The chief Verbs that take an Infinitive as Object 
 are those denoting : — 
 
 can Swa/iat, l^w ( = possum) : equivalent olos re elfit 
 
 desire ^ovXofjLoi, ideXw, in verse 6e\w, hrvOvftJui, i<j>Ufm.i (volo, 
 
 cupio), crxouSa^ft) (stude5), tv^ofiaj, pray, d^tS claim 
 prefer Trpoaipov/xai, fjiaXXov aijOoB/iat (malo) 
 dare toA,/xS, in verse erXijv (audeo) 
 ought 6<^eiX(a (debeo) 
 delay fieXho, dva/8aAAo/tai (ounctor, moror) 
 fear cj>o/3(yviJi,ai, BiSoiKa, 6ki/(o, cvA,a/3ov/J.at, (^evyio, aur)(vvoiiaL 
 
 (vereor) 
 try im^apZ, TrctpG/Aai (conor) 
 
 hasten iireiyo/jiai, ottcvSo) (festino) 
 intend SLavoovfiai, eirivoS, fjiiXXio (c5git5) 
 resolve povXevo/xai, i/fry<^t^o/iat (statuo, decerno) 
 am wont eiioda, <^iA.S, eWuTfiai (soleo, consuevi) 
 learn navOoivw, ScSao-KOjuat (disco) 
 
 know emcTTa/Aat, oT8a, /At/iViy/iai (scio). 
 
 For Verbs of hoping and promising, see Obs. 4. 
 
 2. As in Latin, a Predicate Adjective or Predicate Noun de- 
 pending on the Object Infinitive agrees with the word to which it 
 refers (here the Subject) : — 
 
 ^ovXo/xaL (Ivai Si/catos. Cupio esse Justus. 
 
 'Okvu) TT/aoSoTiys KoXcLa-Oai. Vereor appellari proditor. 
 
 Obs. 1. The above use of the Infinitive is to be distinguished 
 from the Infinitive of Purpose, which is not uncommon in Greek : 
 fw.v6dv€iv riKOfn.ev lee are come to learn (Lat. ut discamus). The 
 Infinitive was originally the Dative of a Verb-noun, and when it 
 denotes purpose it retains its original datival meaning : fiavOdveiv 
 for learning. When it is used in dependence on the above Verbs 
 this meaning is obscured : (fM^ovfiai awodavelv originally / have fear 
 for dying, hence / fear to die = I fear death, <f)ol3cmiJ.aL Bdvarov. 
 Similarly the English " to " has lost its proper meaning in such 
 cases, and has come to be a mere sign of the Infinitive (" to die " 
 originally = "for dying"). 
 
172 SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 2. In dependence on the above Verbs the Aorist Infinitive 
 marks the action as simply occurring (not as past), the Present 
 Infinitive marks it as going on or denotes a state ; Latin does not 
 ordinarily make any such, distinction : — 
 
 BoijXo/iat viKT/o-ai. I loish to gain the victory \ = Volo 
 BouXo/Aai i/iKttv. / wish to he victoi-ious j vincere. 
 
 Obs. 3. McXXto rarely takes the Aorist Infinitive. With the 
 Present or more commonly the Future Infinitive it is often equi- 
 valent to the Latin Future Participle with sum : /acXXw ot/coSo/iiyo-eti' 
 or oiKoSo/Aciv = aedifioatiirus sum, / am about to build. 
 
 Obs. 4. Verbs of hoping and promising take, as in English, 
 either a Dependent Statement (expressed by the Future Infinitive, 
 § 367.1) :— 
 
 ■EX-TTt^u vLK'^a-iiv. I hope that I shall conquer. Spero me 
 
 victiirum esse. 
 'Y-miTxvoviJi.ai P(n\6yj(Tuv. I promise that I will assist. Polli- 
 
 ceor me subventurum esse. 
 
 or an Object Infinitive (Aorist or Present) : — 
 
 ■EXTTt^o) vl/aja-ai or vikSv. / hope to conquer or to he victorious. 
 'Yirio-xvoC/iat ^oriOrja-ca. I promise to assist. 
 
 'EA.ir(fm = I feel sure and murxvoitmi = I pledge my v-ord may also take 
 other tenses of the Infinitive in a Dependent Statement: 4\iTl(a> vlKav I am 
 sure that I am winning, sperS me vinoere ; t>iniTx''ovii.!U fiojiBeTv I assure you 
 that I am assisting, prcfiteor me subvenire. 
 
 Obs. 5. Verbs of ceasing {Travo/juu, Xiyyo)), enduring (dv£xo/*ai., 
 KapT€pG>) and wearying (aTrayopevu), Kafwia) take a Participle instead 
 of the Object Infinitive : — 
 
 'Avexoi' KoXaJo'/t€vos. Endure to he (lit. being) punished. 
 Obs. 6. 'Apxa/J-ai begin takes either the Participle or the Infin. : — 
 'H/DX'To oiKoSo/iiuiv or oLKoSo/jieiv. Incipiebat aedificare. 
 
 Obs. 7. The Object Infinitive is sometimes found with other Verbs than 
 those given on p. 171 : — 
 
 "Eipri iinSel^aa-Bat. He spolce of exhibiting his art. 
 'Ei/6iu<rav KpaTrjffai. They thought to gain the rrmstery. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 173 
 
 330* 
 
 Two Objects. 
 Yerbs taking two Accusatives. 
 
 1. Oi Uejocrat SiSacTKoucri Tovs TratSas (TMc/jpotruviyv. The Persians 
 
 teach their children discretion (docent liberos pruden- 
 tiam). 
 T'^v Ovyarepa tKpvij/€ tov Odvarov tov di/Spos. He concealed 
 from his daughter the. death of her husband (filiam 
 mortem viri celavit). 
 
 2. BacriXeus u/aSs to. 07r\a aTrairel. The King demands of you 
 
 your arms (postulat a vobis arma). 
 Ov TOUT cpo>T<u ere. That is not what I ask you (non istud 
 te interrogo). 
 
 3. Oi ©pa/ccs e^ovkovTO a.^aipu(r6aj, tovs "S\A,7jva9 rijv "frjv. The 
 
 Tliracians wished to take the land from the Greeks. 
 
 4. Hats /xeyas, TraiSa fUKpov IkSo era's tov ^LT&va, tov laxirov e/cei- 
 
 vov rjfjitpUa-ev. A big boy, hailing stripped a little boy 
 of his tunic, pui his own upon him. 
 
 5. nXeto-Ta KaKo. Tr]v Ttokiv iTroi-quav. They inflicted very great 
 
 injuries upon the state. 
 Tcls /X.CV yvvat/cas ttoXK ayaOa Xiyusv, ere Sc ttoXAoi KaKO.. Say- 
 ing much good of the ladies, but of you much evil. 
 
 Rule. — The following Verbs take two Accusatives, the one 
 generally denoting a person, the other a thing : — 
 
 1 . teach BiSdcTKio (doceo) ; conceal KpihrTui, diro/cpuTTTo/itai 
 
 (celo) 
 
 2. ask ahS} (rogo, oro), ipaTui (interrogo), ela-Trpda-a-u}, 
 
 ■7rpdcr<Top.ai (flagito) 
 
 3. take aivay d<jiaipovfiai, (rvXS>, d'Troa-Tepla (cf. § 415)' 
 
 4. clothe ap^iiwvix.1., h/hvia; unclothe IkSijo) 
 
 5. do [good or evil to] irotG 
 say [good or evil of] Xeyto 
 
 Obs. In the Passive Construction the Accusative of the thing 
 remains unchanged, while the Accusative of the person becomes 
 the Subject : SiSdo-KovTat a-oxppoa-vvrjv, they are taught discretion ; 
 d<f>r]pi$rj<Tav ttjv -fiv wo t(Sv ©paKtov, they icere robbed of the land by 
 the Thraeians. 
 
 not two 
 Accusats. 
 in Latin. 
 
174 SYNTAX. 
 
 331 Yerbs taking an Accusative and a Dative. 
 
 2u€weo-is cSwKe Kvpta xp-^fjiara. Syemiesis gave Gt/rus niuncij 
 or gave money to Cyrus. Cyro peouniam dedit. 
 
 3oT^6aav irc/xi/'O/iev Tois o-u/i/;iaT(ois. We loill send aid to our 
 allies. 
 
 Aet'lo) o-ot Trjfv ohov. I will shoxo you the way. 
 Ilai'T' i/jLol (r7jfx.aiveru>. Let him tell me all. 
 'Yir€(r)^€To fjLurdov tois o-TpaTKOTais. He promised his soldiers 
 pay. 
 
 H€i'0(/)MVTi r^ "-PXV^ liriTpiirovcnv. They entrust the com- 
 mand to Xenophon. 
 
 AouAots -Kovovs TrpoaTo.crcrofji.ev. We impose labours on slaves. 
 Servis labores imperamus (§ 328). 
 
 TavTtt vjuv irapaivS. This counsel I give you (§ 328). 
 
 EuLB. — Verbs of giving, shoioing, telling, promising, entrusting, 
 and the like, take an Accusative (Direct Object) and a Dative 
 (Indirect Object), as in English and Latin. 
 
 Obs. Note that Verbs of taldng away do not, as a rule, take 
 an Accusative and a Dative, as they do in other languages : 
 atfiaipovixai -f^prifiaTa tovs aAXous (§ 330*) or Tfii/ aWuiv (§ 415) / 
 take money from the others, adimo pecSniam ceteris (Dat.). 
 
 332 In the Passive Construction of Verbs taking the Accusative 
 and the Dative, Greek is as free as English : either the Direct or 
 the Indirect Object of the Active may become the Subject of the 
 Passive (t/. § 329) :— 
 
 (i.) 'H apxri iinTphreTai 'Bevotf>wni. The command is entrusted 
 
 to Xenophon. 
 (ii.) Hevo^Si/ eiriT/jeVeTai -rip/ apxw- Xenophon is entrusted {en- 
 trusted with) the command. Cf. He was shown the way. 
 
 But (i.) is the only possible construction with some Verbs : 
 ^pr/fiara iSoOrj Kopo) vtto SveiTt'crfd)? the money u'as given to Cijru.i 
 by Syannesis, pecijnia data est Cyro a Syennese, as in French and 
 German with any Verb of this class. 
 
 Latin occasionally has construction (ii.) : inscripti nOmina regum in- 
 scribed with the names of kings, tyyeypa/i/ifpoi oi/iJ/iaTo pa<ri\4<jiv, 
 
333 
 
 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 175 
 
 Verbs taking a Case and an Infinitiye. 
 
 Oi Uepa-ai 8i8a<7Kovo-i Toiis waiSas (T(0(j)povtiv. The Persinns 
 
 teach their children to he discreet. Decent liberos esse 
 
 prudentes. 
 BatriXevs aiTei D/aSs (SsiTat v/xSiv) to, oirXa TrapaSovvai. The 
 
 king asks you to give up your arms. Eogat vos ut 
 
 arma tradatis. 
 KeXevca (re eiTreiv. I bid you speak. Jubeo te loqui. 
 Ti.apaKeXevo/j.cu croi dtreiv. I command you to speak. Impero 
 
 tibi ut loquaris. 
 Upoa-Tao-croiJi.ev Sou'Aots ttovuv. We command slaves to hdiour. 
 'A'jrayopeua) (rot pjr) ibriiv. I forbid you to speak. Veto te 
 
 loqui. [On the p.rj see § 369 c] 
 'Eo. p.e. Kp2v<u. Let me decide. Sine me decernere. 
 'EiriTpeTTO) (Toi Kplvai. I permit you to decide. Permitto tibi 
 
 ut decemas. 
 
 Exile. — An Infinitive may be substituted as one of the Objects 
 in the Simple Sentence with Verbs denoting teach, ask, hid, forbid, 
 permit, and the like, as in English. 
 
 Obs. 1. In some instances Latin uses the Accusative with the 
 Infinitive, in others a Dative with an wz'-clause. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the above construction of the Accusative and the 
 Infinitive we see the Complex Sentence growing out of the Simple 
 Sentence : thus KeXevut a-e ilTrclv may be translated / bid that you 
 should speak. 
 
 Obs. 3. A Predicate Adjective or Predicate Noun depending 
 on the Infinitive agrees with the word to which it refers (c/. 
 § 330, Rule 2) : thus " I bid you to be just " is either KtXevot o-e 
 ttvat SiKatov, jubeo te esse justum; or irapaKeX.evop.ai (TOI, etvat 
 Stxato). [For another possible construction, see § 532.2.] 
 
 Obs. 4. Passive Construction ;^ 
 
 Ot TraiSes tSv Hep(rS>v StSacrKovrat (r<i}(t>povfiv. 
 AovXot irjootTTacnrovTat ttovuv (cf. § 332). 
 
176 SYNTAX. 
 
 Predicate Adjective ob Noun refburing to the Object 
 (§ 305). 
 
 334 1. As in other languages, the chief Verbs that take a Predi- 
 cate Adjective or Noun referring to the Object are Verbs denoting 
 to iiiakc, choose, call, think, show, leave — the Verbs of which the 
 Passives talie a Predicate Adjective or Noun referring to the 
 Subject (§ 324.1) :— 
 
 AaptTos KtJpov hroiqcre (TaTpa.in}V, Koi a-irlhii^e (TTpaTyjyov. 
 
 Darius made Cyrus satrap, awl appointed hi'ii genei'al. 
 ^aihuivv/jLiai ere 8at/x.oves TLpo/jL-qOta \ Kakovcriv. By a false 
 
 name the gods call thee Prometheus. 
 'No/ji.i^^ a.Se\<t)ovi Toiis a.\r]6ivovi (ftlKovi. Consider genuine 
 
 friends brothers (or as brothers). 
 Jlapu)(iv kavTov SUaLov. He showed himself just. 
 "EaTc Toijs voyttous aKlvryrov;. Leave the laws unchanged. 
 
 2. With other Transitive Verbs the Predicate Adjective or 
 Noun denotes, as in § 324.4, 
 
 Either (a) the result of an action : — 
 
 'E7ra)Ko8o/x77(rav to Teip^os vi^-qkonpov. They built the loall 
 
 higher. 
 Tpi(j)ov(Ti Koi av^ovcn tov Tvpavvov piiyav. They nurse awl 
 
 rear the tyrant to greatwss. 
 AtSao-Kfc) ere LTnrid. I train you as (= to be) a horseman. 
 Or (b) what the Object is, was, or will be, at the time of the 
 action : — 
 
 "Akovto. (t afo). I will take thee against thy will. 
 
 Utt/jvo.^ StmKeis, 3 reKvov, ras eXmSas. Winged (fleeting), my 
 
 child, are the Iwpes thou pursuest. 
 AiKaia Spacrds a-vp.fji.a.^^ov's ef ets ^eoijs. 1 Doing justice you will 
 „ „ (rup.jxd)(iiiv reviy 6eu)v. > have the gods as 
 
 „ „ (rvp.p.d)(OLs XPV^TI ^^o'*- ) allies. 
 
 ToAij^es uTxvov TpirfxD. 2'/ie truth thai I have within me is 
 Strang (Participle). 
 
 3. 'Os, as, Lat. pro, may be added : — 
 
 H.puip.ai TovTO) (is av8pa7rd8<i). / treat him as a slave. 
 
 335 For the Agreement of the Predicate Adjective and Noun (here 
 with the Object), see § 325 ; for the absence of the Article, see 
 § 334* 
 
836 
 
 337 
 
 338 
 
 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 177 
 
 ATTRIBUTES (§ 306) AND ADJUNCTS (§ 307). 
 
 Agreement of Attributes. 
 
 The rules for the Agreement of Attributes are the same as in 
 Latin : — 
 
 (1) Adjective as Attribute. The Adjective agrees in 
 Gender, Number and Case with the word that it quahfies : 6 
 (TOffyos dvjyp the wise man, o-o^a', yuvaiKes wise ■women. If an Adjec- 
 tive qualifies two or more words of different Genders, it agrees 
 with the one that stands nearest ; or else, when clearness or 
 emphasis demand, is repeated : o KaXb'; Kaya66i avrjp /cat ywr/ the 
 noble man and woman, iravn /cat XdyM Kat /jirjxavrj by every argu- 
 ment and device ; tv crG/xa ep^tov /cat ij/vxriv jiiav having one body 
 and one soul, iracrats ^A,t/ctats Kat xacrtv rjOeai for all ages and all 
 characters. 
 
 Obs. More often than in other languages we find agreement 
 according to sense (/caTo, a-weaa/) rather than according to gram- 
 matical form, especially with Neuters denoting Persons : S <^t\e 
 TCKvov dear child, /xetpci/ctoi/ r^v tSe'dv irdvv KaXos a young man very 
 fair of form : cf. § 65. 
 
 (2) Noun as Attribute. The Noun in Apposition (§ 310.2) 
 agrees in Case with the word that it qualifies : Ai^/too-^eVrj tov 
 prJTopa Demosthenes the orator, tov Ei^parou iroTajj-ov of the river 
 Euphrates. 
 
 The Oblique Cases as Attributes and Adjuncts. 
 
 As in Latin the Oblique Cases, with or without a Preposition, 
 may be used either adjectivally (as Attributes) or adverbially (as 
 Adjuncts). The chief difference between Greek and Latin in 
 the use Qf the Cas^s without Prepositions is that the meanings 
 
178 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 expressed in Latin by the Ablative are expressed in Greek partly 
 by the Genitive, partly by the Dative, as shown in the following- 
 table : — 
 
 Greek. 
 Genitive 
 
 Dative - 
 
 Meanings. 
 
 from 1 
 
 with 
 
 by 
 
 on, in J 
 
 to 
 
 for 
 
 Latin. 
 Genitive 
 
 Ablative 
 
 Dative 
 
 Examples of differences between Greek and Latin : — 
 'Eikivdtpoi <j>6pov. Free trom. fear. Liber metii. 
 'Ap)((ov ayado's ov Stac^epci irarpos ayaOov. A good ruler ilofS 
 
 not differ from a good father. Kex bonus non dis- 
 
 crepat a patre bono. 
 TUvpo's aTTiKTUvev 'Aprayiparjv rfj iavTov xctpt. Cyrus sleio 
 
 Artagerses with his own hand. Cyrus Artagersem sua 
 
 manu interfecit. 
 
 'ErpiuO/j To^iv/jMTi. He was wounded by an arrow. Vulner- 
 
 atus est sagitta. 
 Mci^ov tiTTt -n-oWia. It is greater by far. Multo majus 
 
 est. 
 T-p TTc/xTTTij rifi-ipa.. Ou the fifth day. Quinto die. 
 
 The historical explanation of these differences and the details of Case 
 construction will be given later (§§ 372-434). 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 179 
 
 KINDS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 339 
 
 IIS" Sentences may be classified as (I) Statements ; (II-) Will- 
 speech, i.e. Commands, Wishes, Concessions ; (III) Questions ; 
 (IV) Exclamations. 
 
 I. Statements. 
 
 Statements of fact (Indicative : Negative ov = non) : — 
 'EWiyvi^ci. He spedlcs Greek. Graece loquitur. 
 Oi^ kKKy]vCt,ei. He does not speak Greek. 
 
 339* The Historical Infinitive (Lat. Pors omnia regere) is not found in 
 
 Greek; but a repeated or habitual action of the past is sometimes expressed 
 by the Past Imperfect or less commonly the Aorist Indicative with Hiv 
 (" Iterative &f ") ; Negative ou :— 
 
 TloTe /ifv itr' ?ifi.ap e^X""' ^^'''' """ ^^X"" ^"^ Sometimes I used to have 
 enoiogh for the day ; then again I used not to have [elxov &v = 
 etxov). Cf. Engl, would = used to. 
 ' PLViiipffif^av &v. They plucked up courage (on each occasion). 
 
 340 Modest Assertions, i.e. Cautious or Hesitating Statements : — 
 
 AiyoifUL av. I am indiiied to say. Dixerim. 
 BovXoi/Ar^v av. I could wish. Velim. 
 EiTTot Tw av. Some one may say. Dixerit aliquis. 
 ''EBovX6jxr)v av. I could have wished. Vellem. 
 'Eyrai Tts av. One might have observed. Cerneres. 
 
 Etjlb. — Modest Assertions are expressed by the Optative with 
 av when referring to present time, by the Past Imperfect or Aorist 
 Indicative with av when referring to past time. Negative ou. 
 
 Oe3. 1. The 2nd Pers. Sing, is often indefinite ("you" = "one," tu, 
 Pr. on. Germ, man) : ityiaaio &v, one might think (credideiis). 
 
 Obs. 2. The Opt. with S,v may often he translated by " will," " shall," 
 e.g. iihoiy! i.v I will (or would) remain, ii.4vois &v you should remain ; some- 
 times by " can," e.g. S\s is rbv avThv Troro.uby ovk &v e/i;8af7)s one cannot step 
 twice into the same river (Potential use). Caution. The full meaning " am 
 able " is expressed by Sivanai or oUs ts il/ii with the Infinitive. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Opt. with &y often becomes a mere future-equivalent : e.g. 
 H^voin' &v, I shall remain, /ievots &p, you will remain. 
 
 340* Modest Assertions may be substituted for Indicatives in many kinds of 
 
 Subordinate Clause (e.g. Q^usal, Consecutive, Eelative, |§ 349, 352, 364). 
 
i8o SYNTAX. 
 
 341a 
 
 II. Will-speech, i.e. Commands, Wishes, Concessions. 
 Commands. 
 
 Aeye (EtTre). Speak. DiO Or Dicito. 
 
 AeycTO) (EiTraToi). Let him speak. Dicat or DicitS. 
 
 AiywfjLev (EtTrw/ttv) . Let US speak. Dicamus. 
 
 AcytTc (EtTraTt). Speak. Dicite. 
 
 AeydvTO)v (Eotovtwv). Let them speak. Dicnnto or Dicant. 
 
 Rule. — Commands are expressed by the Imperative ; or, in the 
 1st Person Plural, by the Subjunctive. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Present Imperative or Subjunctive marks the 
 action as going on or habitual, and is therefore used in general 
 rules of life ; the Aorist Imperative or Subjunctive marks the 
 action as occurring, and is therefore used in commands applicable 
 to a single occasion : — 
 
 Tois /Acv 6(.ov^ (fio^ov, Toiis 8e yoveds Tif/AO, Toirs 8e (ftikovs ato"- 
 )(Bvov, Tois 8k vo/xois TTiiOov. Fear God, honour your 
 parents, respect your friends, obey the Jaws. 
 
 Mtivov Trap' rj/uv koX crvvlcrno'; ytvov. Remain with US and 
 become a sharer of our hearth. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the 1st Person Singular the Subjunctive is used chiefly when 
 Sye, <l>epe, come, or some other Imperative precedes : — 
 
 'A7€, tSj napTvp'ds i.vayvS>. Conie, let me read the depositions. 
 Aeye S^ ■ tSa. Speak on ; let me, see. 
 
 Obs. 3. Commands may also be expressed (i.) by the Optative with Si/, 
 (ii.) by a Question, (iii.) by Sttws with the Future Indicative : — 
 
 (i.) AeV" S"- ^ray go on speaking. (Mild Command, cf. § 340.) 
 (ii.) Ou triy' avi^ri, iitiZe SeiKldv apsis; Keep silent and do Tiot show 
 cowardice. ' (Lit. Will you not keep silent, and will you show 
 cowardice ? Two independent questions ; oA = nonne, piii = 
 num, cf. § 344 c.) 
 (iii.) "Oiras eiTfirflc &vSpes. Prove yourselves men. (Originally depen- 
 dent on an Imperative like o-KoirciTe understood : see to it Iwio 
 you shall prove . . .) Negative form: — 'oirus fii) with Fut, 
 Indjc. or sometimes Aor. Subj. 
 
341b 
 
 342 
 
 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. i8i 
 
 Prohibitions. (Negative Commands.) 
 
 M'^ Xiye or M'^ etirij?. Do not speak. Ne dixeris. 
 
 M'^ Xeyerto or Mr) ewnj. Let Mm not speak. Ne dicat. 
 
 M'^ X.iy(i)fj,ev or Mi) etirw/icv. -Lei as moif speak. Ne dicamus. 
 
 Mij XeycTc or Mij AirrjTe.. Do not speak. Ne dixeritis. 
 
 Mi; XeyovTw or Mi) eiTTMo-u/. Let them not speak. Ne dicant. 
 
 EuLE. — Prohibitions are expressed by firj (Lat. ne *) with the 
 Present Imperative or Aorist Subjunctive in the 2nd or 3rd Pers., 
 
 Singular or Plural ; 
 Present or Aorist Subjunctive in the 1st Person Plural. 
 
 "Nor" in Prohibitions is /xijSe (Lat. neve, neu). 
 
 Obs. 1. The distinction between the Present and the Aorist is 
 the same as in Commands (§ 341 a, Obs. 1) : /a-^ KXiirre. do not 'be a 
 thief, f/Ji] KXiij/ris TovTo do not steal this. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Aorist Imperative is occasionally found in the 3rd Person : 
 e.g. /JL^ eiiraTti), let Aim not speak, //.ii yevetrSa, let it not happen. 
 
 Wishes. 
 
 i. Zuiy (or EM€ ^<?'?)- J^ay he live ! Vivat (Utinam vivat) 
 
 M-qKen ^(fr/v. May I no longer live ! Ne jam vivam. 
 ii. Ei'(9e e^r;. Would that he were alive I Utinam viveret. 
 
 Et yap iSvva.fji,riv. Would that I could ! Utinam possem. 
 iii. 'Eld' evpofiiv or', "AS/iijre, /jlt] Xmov/ievov. Would that I had 
 found thee not sorrowing ! Utinam invenissem. 
 
 KuLE. — i. Wishes as to the future are expressed by the Opta- 
 tive with or without etOe or ei yap. 
 ii. Wishes that something were (at the present time) 
 otherwise than it actually is, are expressed by the 
 Past Imperfect Indicative with e'^e or ei yap. 
 iii. Wishes that something had been (in the past) other- 
 wise than it actually was, are expressed by the 
 Aorist Indicative with dde or d yap. 
 The Negative is p.ri (Lat. ne *). 
 
 * Ne corresponds to ij.ii in meaning, but not in origin. 
 
182 SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 1. It is from the above use in expressing vrishes that the Optative 
 derived its name (optare). But the Indicative may also express wish, as 
 shown above ; and the Optative has many other meanings besides this. 
 
 Obs. 2. Expressions of wish introduced by ei (eiffle, el yip) are really 
 if -clauses of Conditional Sentences without any Principal Clause expressed ; 
 hence the Moods and Tenses used are the same as in § 355 : d juoi ytVoiro 
 ^e6yyos iv fipa.)(io(Tiv oh if I were to find a voice in my arms! (Eur. Hec. 836) ; 
 cf. 5 mihi praeteritos referat si Juppiter annos ^Virgil). 
 
 Obs. 3. Wishes as to the future may also be expressed by iras &v, how, 
 with the Optative : riais hv oKoifiriv; May I perish I 
 
 Obs. 4. Wishes as to the present and past may also be expressed by 
 li(pe\ov, -6S, -e, literally ought (with or without eXBt, el yap), and the Present 
 or Aorist Infinitive : — 
 
 "AW &<j>i\e fiep KSpos C^y. Well, would that Cyrus were alive! 
 EW li(pe\e /iii yeviaSai. Would that it had not happened ! 
 M^iroTe y^fxas &ipe\ov olKeTtf fiera TTJffSe S6fjLovs. Would that I had 
 never married and dwelled in the house with Iter ! 
 
 Obs. 5. " No amount of absurdity or extravagance in a future wish 
 can make anything but the Optative proper in expressing it : as Aristotle 
 says ^ovK-qdis icTi rwv aSvpdruv, otov tOavafTids, wish may refer to impossibilities, 
 as that u-e may live for ever {rf. the example in Obs. 2, above). So no amount 
 of reasonableness in a present or past wish can make the Imperfect or 
 Aorist Indicative improper" (Goodwin). 
 
 Concessions. 
 
 343 *Eo-T<o. Be it so, or Granted tliat it is so. Esto. 
 
 OStoi tolwv tovto TTETrtto-yu.ci'Ot icTTtav. Grant flieii that they 
 have been persuaded of tliis (= Perfect Imperative, 
 TmreicrBoiv). 
 
 nXouret re yap kot olkov, ei jSovXei, fieya, | Kol ^rj Tvpavuov 
 a-Y^fj.' €X"''- Henp up riches in tliy house, if tluiu idlt, 
 and lice in (lit. liaving) kingly state = altliough thou be 
 rich and Hue lilts a king : followed by 8e, yet, Soph. 
 Antig. 1168. 
 
 Rule. — Concessions are expressed by the Imperative. The 
 Negative is firi (Lat. ne). 
 
 Obs. The same sense may be given in many other ways ; note koI 5^ 
 with the Indicative : Kol 5^ TiBvaaiv. Suppose them to be dead. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 183 
 
 344a 
 
 344b 
 
 III. Questions. 
 
 Any of the forms of the Statement (§§ 339-340) may become 
 interrogative : — 
 
 ■EXXr)vt^€is ; Do you speak Greek ? 
 Ovx eXXrjvi^ii's ; Doji't you speak Greek ? 
 
 Deliberatiye Questions, i.e. questions as to what is or was 
 to be done. (The answer is given by a Command.) 
 
 EiTTw/iev ^ o-IyS/iev ; rj ri SpSaofjiev ; Are we to speak, or are 
 
 ice to be silent f or tohat shall we do 1 Loquamur an 
 
 sileamus ? aut quid faciemus ? 
 Mij a.TTOKpivu>ii.ax ; Am I not to answer ? Non respondeam 1 
 Uorepov pidv (^a/^ci/ r) /j^rj 4>Si[jiev eivai; Are we to say or not 
 
 to say that it is violence ? Utrum dicamus an non ? 
 Tt 8ai ij.' exP^v (or ISci) Spav; What on earth was I to do? 
 
 Quid f acerem ? 
 Ti iroiriTcov y]v ; What was to be done 1 Quid faciendum 
 
 erat? 
 
 Rule. — Questions as to what is to be done in present or future 
 time are expressed by the Subjunctive ; questions as to what was 
 to be done in past time by xP'?*' {^)ipw) or eSet with the Infinitive, 
 or by the Verbal Adjective in -reos with the Past Indicative of 
 ilvai. The Negative of the Subjunctive is p.r) (Lat. non). 
 
 Ob3. 1. The 3rd Person is less common than the 1st Person, and is 
 chiefly used- when the speaker refers to himself by tis: e.g. mi ns (piyr,; 
 whither is a -man to flee > The 2nd Person is very rare. 
 
 Obs. 2. Note that the Optative is not used in Independent Deliberative 
 Questions to denote what was to ie done in past time (= Latin Imperfect 
 Subjunctive). For the Optative in Dependent Deliberative Questions see 
 § 370 b, ii. ; for the Optative in sentences like ris \iyoi ; who could tell ? 
 (very rare in Attic) see § 510 and note. 
 
 Obs 3 The Deliberative Subjunctive is often introduced by an inter- 
 rogative PoiK^i. or |8oiJ\€(r9e (in the poets also by fle'Aeis or Bix^r^) : Poi\€t 
 ivoKpivtefiat ; do you wish that I should answer ? vis respondeam ? 
 
 Obs. 4. The Future Indicative may be nearly equivalent to the Present 
 Subjunctive : iroT tis Tpe'ij/fTai; whither is one to turn? cf. tI SpMro/j-^y (above). 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 34:4c Modes of introducing Questions. 
 
 I. *Ap ctScs; or''H etSes; Did you see? Vidistine? 
 [Answer : — EiSov. Yes. Ovk cTSov. Nil] 
 'Ap' OVK etScs ; Did you not see ? Nonne vidisti 1 
 
 [Answer : — EfSov. Yes-I 
 M)j eiSes; or'^Apa jxri cTSes; or MAv etSes; Did you seel 
 Num vidisti ? [Answer : — Ovk eiSoi/. No.^ 
 
 RiTLE. — Questions which may be answered with "yes" or "no" 
 are often (not always, see § 344 a) introduced by Interrogative 
 Particles : — 
 
 S.pa, ri, = -ne ; /aij, apa jxr), yu.Gj' (for fxr] ovv), = num. 
 iroTepov ... 17 = utrum ... an. 
 Negative questions of this class are introduced by S,p' ovk 
 ( = non-ne) ; to which ^ ydp, or a\Xo ti t^, or oAXo rt, is sometimes 
 equivalent. 
 
 The answer may be expressed by repeating a word, or by 
 
 vai, lidKiiTTa, irdvv fief oiv, ^Tllil (= aio), ^ffrl TaCra, etc. Yes: 
 
 oS, oil B^Ta, oiiSaiiws, Ti/tio-ro ye, oS (j)i)/ti (= nego), etc. No. 
 
 2. Tt's ayopevu ; Who is speaking 1 Quis loquitur ? 
 IIoTos eo-Ttv; What sort of person is he 1 Qualisestt 
 Tim ix^is o-w/iaros ; How do you do i Ut vales 1 
 KuLE. — Questions which cannot be answered with "yes" or 
 "no" are introduced, as in other languages, by Interrogative 
 Pronouns, Adjectives or Adverbs, without any Interrogative 
 Particle. 
 
 IV. Exclamations. 
 
 345 Many of the above mentioned forms of speech may become 
 
 exclamatory {i.e. may be used to express emotion) : — 
 
 Ola TTua-o/jiai KaKo.. What evils (Quae mala) / shall suffer ! 
 'fls KttXGs cliras. How well (Quam pulchre) ijou spoke ! 
 'fig KaXo9 6 iraiTTros. How fine (Quam pulcher) grandfather 
 
 IooIm / Understand ia-Tiv. 
 'fis fjiijdfTrjKa. a-e. How (Quam or Ut) / hate you ! 
 *fi Zcv /SacriXa), rb XP'}/*'* ™^ vvKTCtv oarov. Great Zeus I 
 What a length thi ryhts are I 
 
 Distinguish the Exclamatory olos, oo-os, i><s \ 
 from the Interrogative ttoios; ir6a-o%; irCi's ; / 
 
 = qualis, quan- 
 tus, quam. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 185 
 
 346 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE (§ 312). 
 
 ADVERB CLAUSES (§ 313). 
 
 Adverb Clauses are classified according to the Adverbial mean- 
 ing which they express. Thus we have Adverb Clauses of — 
 
 (a) Time, introduced by — 
 
 OTe, OTTOTE, rjviKa, (OS, wJien 
 
 ( = cum with Indio.) 
 eTTCi, iiraBi^, (is, after {=oum 
 
 with Subj . , or postquam with 
 
 Indio.) 
 iwei TrputTov, ejreiSij Ta.)^i,(TTa, 
 
 as soon as (= ut primuia) 
 acj}' ov, ef o5, ever since (= ex 
 
 quo) 
 £ojs, Iv (2, while (= dum) 
 £(i)s, ((TTe, /*exf"' f^^XP'' '"^' '^XP' 
 
 ov, £is o, until (= doneo) 
 Trpiv, TTpXv Tq, TTporepov 7j, before 
 
 ( = priusquam) 
 
 (6) Place, introduced by — 
 
 ov, oTTOD,. (vBa, tva, where 
 
 01, oTTOt, evOa, lohither (=quo) 
 odev, oTToOev, ivOey, lohence 
 
 ( = unde) 
 ^, oTrrj, along what line 
 
 (=qua) 
 
 (c) Season, introduced by — 
 
 oTL, Sion, (OS, because (= quod, 
 
 quia) 
 cjrei', eVeiSi?, since ( = cum) 
 owe/ca, oOovvcKa, because 
 
 ( = quomain) 
 OTe, o7r()Te, smce (= quando) 
 
 (d) Purpose, introduced by — 
 
 tva, O7r(os, (OS (rare in prose), 
 
 in order that (= ut) 
 /tT;, ?es< {=n.e), rare in prose 
 
 (e) Result, introduced by — 
 
 (oo-TE, (OS, SO iAffli, O-S ^0 ( = ut) 
 (/) Condition, introduced by — 
 ei, idv (contracted ijv, av), if 
 (=si) 
 
 (g) Concession, introduced by — 
 et Kai, iav Kai, although ( = 
 
 quamquam) 
 Kal ct, Kol isv (kSv), even if 
 
 {= etsi) 
 
 ovS' el, ov8' iav I , 
 
 ^, ; w ■ .! ^ Mor e«en it 
 fi.r]b £1, /iryO tav ) -^ 
 
 (h) Comparison, introd. by — 
 
 wcnrep, yirep > as {= sicut) 
 
 07r(os j 
 
 oo-(p, m proportion as ( = qu5) 
 
 (OS, oTt, y = Latin quam 
 with Superlatives 
 
 ?!, than (= quam) 
 
 Comparison + Condition, in- 
 troduced by — 
 
 wfTTrep el, Sxnrep av el, as if 
 ( = quasi) 
 
 Comparison -I- Result, intro- 
 duced by — 
 
 rj wcrre, than SO as to ( = 
 quam ut) 
 
 "On, as, Siras, and /lij are also used in Noun Clauses (§ 367). 
 13 
 
i86 SYNTAX. 
 
 347 
 
 Temporal Clauses. (Clauses of Time; § 346 a.) 
 
 1. Those whose action is marked as fact : — 
 
 'Ettei rjfrOevei Aapcios, ifiovXero ol ria iraTSc ajju^oTipio irapeivai. 
 
 When Darius was sick (cum aegrotaret), he desired 
 
 that both his sons should be by his side. 
 'EtteiS-^ ETcXevTr/crev, 'Apra^cpfjjs KaTecrrr] eis T^v PaxriKtlav. 
 
 When he had died (cum mortuus asset), Artaxerxes 
 
 came to the throne. 
 E(Os fTLfiaTO, irto-Tov iavTov TrapeTx^v. So long as he was 
 
 honoured (quoad honestabatur), he proved faithful. 
 E/ietvav €0)S afftiKOVTO ot crTparrjyoL They waited till the 
 
 generals arrived (donee advenorunt). 
 
 2. Those whose action is marked as (a) prospective, i.e. merely 
 contemplated as a future contingency ; or (b) general : — 
 
 (a) Prospective : 
 
 OvKovv, OTttv Bij /xri aOiva), TrcTrawo/iai. Why then, when 
 
 strength shall /at7 (cum non valebo), I will cease. 
 iTTTTOKparris, oirore xaipos eirj, t/ieWe orpaTeveLv il tovs Boui)- 
 
 Tows. Hippocrates was intending, when the time should 
 
 cmne (cum tempus esset), to march into Boeotia. 
 'EirciSav airavTa aKova-rp-e, Kpivare. When you have ( = shall 
 
 have) heard everything (cum omnia audieritis), judge. 
 Ilept/i.ei'eTe €<ds av avros KeXcvrj. Wait till the master bid or 
 
 shall bid (donee ipse jubeat). 
 nept£//.£VO/iev ecus a.vov)(durj to S£(riJi,(Drqpiov. We used to wait 
 
 till the prison should be opened (donee apertus esset). 
 (6) General [^wej'-clauses of Time] : 
 
 'En-eiS^ Si a.vov)(d(.ir), elcr'fj/J.a' 'irapa. tov SwKpany. But when- 
 
 ever it was opened (quandocumque apertus erat), toe 
 
 used to go in to Socrates. 
 'EiretSav fj iK<f)oph ^, Xapva/cas ayov<nv amafai. WhenBVtV 
 
 the funeral takes place (quandocumque exsequiae 
 
 flunt), waggons bring coffins. 
 "ETTctSav Kpv\j/tji(ri yfj, ciraivos XeyeTou. When[eYev] they have 
 
 covered them with earth, an encomium is pronounced. 
 Ottote 01 EXXijves iiTLOuv, ol iroXip.ioi paZLui^ aTri^euyav. 
 
 Whensvev the Greeks advanced, the enemy easily 
 
 escaped. 
 Ot€ I^u) tow Seivov yivoivTO, ()^at.pov. Whenev&V they got 
 
 (or had gilt) out of danger, thpy rejoiced. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 187 
 
 General Eules. — 1. Temporal Clauses take the Indicative, as 
 in English, when the action is to be marked as fact : Negative ov. 
 
 2. When the action is to be marked as prospective or general, 
 the Temporal Clause takes av with the Subjunctive in present or 
 future time, the Optative without av in past time : Negative fvq. — 
 In these constructions the Present Stem marks the action as not 
 completed ; the Aorist Stem marks it as simply occurring, or some- 
 times as occurring hefore the action of the Principal Clause, like 
 the Latin Perfect Stem. 
 
 IS' The time in which the Temporal Clause stands is shown 
 by the Principal Clause. — Note that the av stands immediately 
 after the temporal conjunction, and where possible forms one word 
 with it : thus orav for ot av, eirav or eir^v for hrel av, etc.* 
 
 3. Special Eulb for ■n-piV. When the Principal Clause is 
 negfitive, npiv takes the same constructions as other temporal con- 
 junctions (see above, Kules 1 and 2) : e.g. — 
 
 AvKOvpyos ov TrpOTepov aTre'SuiKe T<3 TrXrjdei Tovs vofjiov^, irpiv 
 iTT-qpero Tov 6f.6v. Lycurqus did nut give his laws to the 
 people until he had questioned the god. Indie, oi fact. 
 Ov irporepov KaKwv iravcrovTai at ttoXcis, TrpLV av oi <^iXocro(^ot 
 ap^oia-Lv. Cities will not cease from trvuble till philo- 
 sophers shall become rulers. Prospective Subj . with av. 
 OvK i/3ovXx)VTO KiveLV TO. KaOeiTTWTa, Trplv eKTroScov 'AXKtyStaSijs 
 yivoiTo. They did not wish to disturb the established 
 regime till Alcibiades should be got out of the loay. 
 Prospective Optat. without av. 
 But when the Principal Clause is affirmative, irpiv takes the 
 Infinitive (or, with the entrance of a new Subject, the Accus. with 
 Infin.) : e.g. — 
 
 'A-irfjcrav Trplv diroKpiva(rOai. They went away before answer- 
 
 ' ing. 
 *A7ret/it irplv KaKov ri o-v/ijS^vat. / will go away before any 
 mischief is done. 
 
 Note that the Fut. Indie, is practically excluded from Adverb Clauses 
 of Time ; cf. % 362, Obs. 1. — For various peculiarities (common to Adverb 
 and Adjective clauses) see § 365. 
 
 * The Sc is sometimes omitted, chiefly in poetry : ap'tiycr' iffr' iyi' /tuJAu, 
 defend A^to till I come ; fi.'i) o-TeVaff vf\v H(i6r)s, lament not till thou learn. 
 
i88 SYNTAX. 
 
 Local Clauses. (Clauses of Place; § 346 6.) 
 
 348 Local Clauses take, for the most part, the same constructions 
 
 as Temporal Clauses : — 
 
 KarecTK^vr/o-av ov TrpuiTov elSov Kuiix.r)v. They encamped at 
 
 the first place wJiere they saw a village. Indicative 
 
 denoting fact. 
 'ATnovTOiv oTToi av povKtavTOA.. Let them go whithersoever they 
 
 shall loish (quooumque volent). Prospective Subj. 
 
 with av. 
 VLaTpii yap i(rn Tracr' Tv av Tr/oacrcnj Tis €v. For every land 
 
 is a fatherland whei-QYev one is well off (Patria est 
 
 ubicumque est bene). General Subj. with av. 
 KarepaXKov Tois Xi^ous otrov /3ovA.oivTo. They threw down 
 
 the stones wherev&V they liked. General Optative 
 
 without av. 
 
 Obs. 1. But Local Clauses take the Future Indicative to express pur- 
 pose : — 
 
 Kpiif/a T(fS' ^yxos • • . ^"^^'^ M^ tis Jii/(€Toi. / will hide this sword 
 where no one may, or shall, see it (ubi nemo videat). 
 
 Obs. 2. The Optative in such a sentence as cKpwl/' iavriiii ivBa /i^ tis 
 eiViBoi, she hid herself where no one should see her (ubi nemo videret), may be 
 modelled on the Past Prospective construction ; cf. Hor. Od. III. 6. 41, ubi 
 mutaret. 
 
 349 
 
 Causal Clauses. (Clauses of Reason ; § 346 c.) 
 
 'Ettci KS/oos TerekevTqK€, KaOiovfity 'Apialov eis Tov 6p6vov. 
 Since Cyrus is dead (quia Cyrus mortuus est or cum 
 Cyrus mortuiis sit), we will set Ariaeus on the throne. 
 
 Ot 'A.Br)valoi ivofii^ov ■fi<T<Ta(T6ai, on (or SiOTi) ov iroXv eviKWV. 
 The Athenians thought themselves defeated, becavse 
 they loere not dearly the conquerors (quod non erant 
 vict5res). 
 
 Oi 'KOrjvaioi TOV HtpiKXea. eKaxtfov, on ovk iire^dyot. The 
 Athenians abused Pericles on the ground that he 
 did not lead them out against the enemy (quod non 
 ediiceret). 
 
 RtTLB. — Causal Clauses take the Indicative when they denote 
 fact ; but when, in dependence on a tense of past time, they express 
 an alleged or reported reason, they take the Optative. — The 
 Negative is in either case ov. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 189 
 
 Final Clauses. (Clauses of Purpose, § 346 d.) 
 
 350 T'^i' yi4>^pa.v Xvova-w, Iva. firj Sia/SrJTe. They are destroying 
 the iridge, in order that you may not cross (ne trans- 
 eatis). 
 
 M-^ <l>66v€i. Tois evTu;^oiJcrt, /Jiij So/cjjs etvai KaKos- .Envy not 
 the fortunate, lest thou seem to be base (ne improbus 
 videaris) : here fj,-^ is poetical for tva fi^rj. 
 
 ^IXiiiv iSuTo, oTTcos crvvepyov^ e;!^ot. He needed friends, that 
 he might have fellow-workers (ut adjUtores haberet). 
 
 EuLES. — 1. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive (without av) in 
 present or future time, the Optative (without av) in past time. 
 
 2. "In order that . . . not" is tva /x,^ ottuis ft-ri, m firj, or 
 simply fji.ri (lest, ne) ; " in order that no one " iva /ir/Sets or /ti; T19 
 (nequis); "in order that . . never" iva /i'^-n-oTe or /i'^ Trore (ne 
 umqiiam). " And in order that . . . not " is /AiySe (neve) after /X17. 
 
 Obs. 1. Pinal as and final Sirws (not final 'li/a) sometimes take &y witli 
 the Subjunctive : &s hv iJ.d9i}s, avrdicouffov, hear in return, that you may learn. 
 But final ais &i>, like final &s (§ 346 d), is very rare in prose. 
 
 [For the meaning ol '{ya &v see § 348, third example.] - 
 
 Obs. 2. The Subjunctive is frequently found in past time : tA itXoia 
 'APpoic6/ids KareKavrnv, 'Iva, fiij Kvpos Sia0fi, Ahroeomas burned the ships in 
 order that Cyrus might not cross. (Vivid construction, not adjusted to the 
 past point of view.) 
 
 Obs. 3. Pinal Glauses may take, by Assimilation of Mood — 
 
 (as) The Optative in dependence on an Optative : tWe ^kois, 'Iva 
 
 yvoiris, oh that you would come, in order that you might Jcnow. 
 (6) A Past Tense of the Indicative (marking the purpose as not 
 attained) in dependence on a Past Tense of the Indicative 
 denoting unreality ; sXOe ^kcs, 'Iva iyvas, would that you, had 
 come, that so you might have lenown. Compare § 365.5. 
 
 351 Equivalents of a Final Clause. 
 
 "They sent ambassadors to take counsel" may be expressed: — 
 'ETre/xi/fav Trpia-jSus iva or ottws l3ovX€voivxo : ut dellberarent (§ 350). 
 „ „ ot PovXeia-ovrai ; qui dellberarent (§ 364). 
 
 „ „ ^ovXeva-o/j.a'ov; : deliberaturos (§ 547 e). 
 
 „ „ lbs /BovXeva-o/j-evovs (as about to . . ., § 547 e). 
 
 „ „ l3ovXevea-$ai (Infinitive of Purpose, § 528). 
 
 „ „ Tov povXiv(sr9ai (common in Thucydides, § 539.6). 
 
igo SYNTAX. 
 
 352 
 
 Consecutive Clauses. (Clauses of Result ; § 346 e.) 
 
 OvTO) (TKaio'S ianv 
 He is so stupid 
 
 uto'Te ov Svvarai /j-aduv. 
 that he is -unable to luarn. 
 Stare fur/ SvvacrOat fiaOeiv. 
 . as to be unable to learn. 
 
 ( SxTTe y,(DKpdrr] KaTeyvoicrav. 
 
 Ot StKaorat too-ovtov u>pyio-6i]a-av ] that they condemned Socrates. 
 The jurors were so enraged j Sxttc %uiKpa.Tq Karayvuyvai. 
 
 I as to condemn Socrates. 
 
 Apyvpiov ovSets ttoi owo) ttoXv eKT^craro cJjo'TC fji,rj Irt trpocrBucrdai. 
 No one has ever yet made money enough not to want more. 
 
 Tlav iroiT^crovcnv ware (or ojs) Slky/v fji.rj SiSovai. They will do 
 anything so as not to be punished (or, on condition that they are not 
 pwdshed = 1<I> ure tiKr/v fifj SiBovai). 
 
 Rule. — Result is expressed by wa-re with the Indicative (Neg. ov) 
 or more commonly by Sta-re or ws with £he Infinitive (Neg. /x^) : — 
 
 u>a-T€ with the Indie, like English "that" with the Indie, 
 denotes fact, and can be used only when the result is actual. 
 
 S>crT€ with the Infin., like English "as to" with the Infin., does 
 not necessarily denote fact, but way be used in all cases ; it 
 must be used when the result is to be marked as merely 
 contemplated or in prospect, and not as a fact. 
 
 Obs. 1. Latin is incapable of marking the above distinction between 
 fact and tendency, except in past time (ut Sooratem oondemnaverint = 
 ficrre ^aiKpdrTj KareyvoKrav, ut Sooratem condemnarent = SiffTe ^aKptirT} 
 KaTayvuyai). 
 
 Obs. 2. When the Infinitive has an Accusative Subject, it is more 
 convenient to translate by " that " with the Indicative ; — 
 
 Kpavy^v iroW^v iiroiovj/^ SitTTe tovs iroKefiiovs aKoiisiv. Thsy were 
 making a great noise, so that the enemy heard it : lit. as for 
 ( = loud enough for) the enemy to hear. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 191 
 
 353 
 
 If-clauses. (Clauses of Condition ; §346/.) 
 
 A Complex Sentence consisting of an Adverb Clause of Con- 
 dition (the If-clause, sometimes called the Protasis) and a Principal 
 Clause (sometimes called the Apodosis) is called a Conditional 
 Sentence. 
 
 Conditional Sentences fall into two main classes,* which may be 
 most easily distinguished by the form of the Principal Clause : — 
 
 A, Those in which the Principal Clause does not speak of 
 what would be or viould have been, and the If-clause implies nothing 
 as to fact or fulfilment : e.g. " If this is true, that is false ". " If 
 the sky falls, we shall catch larks." [The If-clauses do not imply 
 that this actually is true, or that the sky actually will fall.] 
 
 B. Those in which the Principal Clause speaks of what would 
 be or would have been, and the If-clause contains an implication as 
 to fact or fulfilment : 6.17. " If wishes were horses, beggars would 
 ride " [implication : " wishes are not horses "]. " If the sky were 
 to fall, we should catch larks " [implication : " I do not say that 
 the sky will fall "].+ In both cases the speaker disclaims responsi- 
 bility for the supposition. 
 
 Class B has a special conditional form in modern as well as 
 ancient languages : the Principal Clause is expressed in English 
 by a "should" or "would" (or equivalent Subjimctive), in Greek 
 by adding the Adverb av ; the If-clause is marked by a special 
 use of Tenses or Moods to indicate the remoteness of the supposi- 
 tion : e.g. " If you were right. I shoidd be wrong," " Si tii vera 
 diceres, ego falsa dieerem," " Wenn du Eecht hdttest, so wurde ich 
 Unrecht haben," " Si vous aviex raison, moi j' aurais tort," Ei <tv 
 aXrj6rj eXeya, iyoi ij/evSrj av ekiyov. In these Sentences the Past 
 Subjunctives or Indicatives of the If-clause refer to present time ; 
 instead of denoting what was, they have come to denote what 
 is not. 
 
 * For a tMrd and less important class (Class C)i in wliioh the Principal 
 Clause is the same as in Class A, but the If-olause contains a slight im- 
 pUoation as to fact or fulfilment, see § 505 h. 
 
 f This is the minimwn implied by the form " If X were to be Y ". But 
 even this minimum is very different from no implication at all ; by means 
 of it the speaker cautions the hearer against supposing that he means to 
 say that X mil be Y, and so protects himself against a possible misunder- 
 standing. In a supposition like, "If you were to come," there is always 
 some kind of arriire pensie, whereas " If you come " is quite colourless. 
 
iga SYNTAX. 
 
 354 
 
 Class A. 
 
 1. a. Present Time. Ei ravra -n-ouT., a/mpTdvei. If he is doing 
 
 this, lie is sinning. Si haec facit, pecoat. 
 
 b. Past Tims. Et raSra iiroiei (cTrotijtrti'), rjixapTavev (jj/jMpTev), 
 
 If he was doing {did) this, he was sinning 
 (sinned). Si haec faciebat (fecit), peccabat 
 (peccavit). 
 
 C. Future Time. Eav raOra irotij or ttohjotj, d/iapT^crcTat. If he 
 does ( = shall do or shall, have done) this, 
 he will sin. Si haec faciet or fecerit, 
 peccabit. 
 
 2. El hrovqa-e, /xSpos la-nv. If he did it, he is a fool. 
 El atiKJipoveX, ^iei. If he is wise, he loill come. 
 
 3. El ota-6a, ihre. If you know, speak (§ 341 a). 
 'Ecti' XaySrjs, Sos p-oL. If you receive it, giue it me. 
 tiOvaCrjv, €1 oT8a. May I die (§ 342), if I know. 
 
 tiocroip.' av, ei voa-rjpa roiis i)(6pov'; (TTvyeiv. I will be mad (§ 340) 
 if 'tis madness to hate one's foes : so. etrri; Aesoh. Prom. 978. 
 
 4. El /x'^ ^£01 eicriV, ovK ea-nv epya ^eGv. If there are no gods, there 
 
 are no works of gods. 
 
 Rules. — 1. When the Principal Clause does not speak of what 
 would be or would have been, the If-clause has ei with the Indicative 
 when referring to present or past time, but generally iiv (con- 
 tracted riv, av) with the Subjunctive when referring to future 
 time. {Cf. Obs. below.) 
 
 2. The time referred to need not be the same in both clauses. 
 
 3. A Principal Clause which does not speak of what would be 
 or would have been is free, i.e. it may assume any of the forms of 
 the Simple Sentence (§§ 339-345). 
 
 4. The Negative of the If-clause is pi^ {el prj = nisi). 
 
 Obs. Ei with the Futiire Indicative is often used, but generally with 
 a special rrmdal sense, different from that of pure futurity : — 
 
 *)Av iBihtoiiiv aTToOv^cTKeiy inrep ray Sticaiuj/, eiiSoKt/i'f}(rQfiev • ei S^ <f>o^rj- 
 (r6fie6a rohs Kiv^ivovs, efs iroWas Tapay)i.s KaTa(TTi)ffofiev ijfias 
 aiiTois. If we shall be willing to die for the sake of justice, we shall 
 enjoy a glm-ious name ; but if we are tO fear (or are going 
 to fear) dangers, we shall get ourselves into many difficulties. 
 Often in expressions of menace or warning : — 
 
 Ei Ai}( icaSc^eis yKdia-ffav, inTai aoi Kaicd. If you won't { = will not) 
 hold your tongue, you will get into trouble{cf. Eur. Ale. 733, 386). 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 193 
 
 354* General Conditions are a subordinate variety of If-clauses 
 witliout implication, in whioli if = if ever, tlie Principal Clause 
 expressing an habitual action or a general truth : — 
 
 'Eav Tts kXettttj, KoAa^erai (KoXaa-d-^creTai). If anyone steals, 
 
 he is punished {will he punished). 
 El Ti5 KXhtToi, iKoXd^iTo. If anyone stole, he loas punished. 
 
 Rule. — General Conditions have eav {r)v, av) with the Sub- 
 junctive when referring to present or future time, d with the 
 Optative when referring to past time. Negative /xtj. 
 
 Obs. Thus the construction of if ever clauses is exactly the same as 
 that of other ci>er-olauses (e.g. § 347, 2. 6 and § 348) : iav is simply ti Sy 
 (with interchange of quantities), cf. Srav = Hre &v. 
 
 855 
 
 Class B. 
 
 1. a. Present Time. Ei ravra iTrola, -^fjidpTavev av. If he were 
 
 - doing this (faceret), he would be sinning 
 
 (peccaret). 
 b. Past Time. Ec TaCra iiroi-rja-ev, ^fiaprev av. If he had 
 
 done this (fecisset), he would have sinned 
 
 (peccavisset). 
 C. Future Time. Et ravra Troioirj or iroi^trciev, afrnpTdvot av 
 
 or afxapTOi av. If he were to do this 
 
 (faciat or fecerit), he would sin (peccet 
 
 or pecoaverit). 
 
 2. El ii.rj t/JLCLS ri'\6€T€, iTTopevofjiiOa av lirl PaxnXia. If you had not 
 
 come, loe should be marching against the King. 
 
 Rules. — 1. When the Principal Clause speaks of what woidd 
 he or woidd have been, it takes the Adverb av ; " if " is expressed 
 by d ; and both clauses have — 
 
 (a) the Past Imperf . Indie, when referring to present time ; 
 (6) the Aorist Indie, when referring to past time ; 
 (c) the Optative (Pres. or Aor.) when referring to future 
 time. 
 
 2. An If-clause referring to past time may be joined with a 
 Principal Clause referring to present time, and vice versa. 
 
 3. The Negative of the If-clause is /x,^ (Ex. 2), as in Class A. 
 ^^ Distinguish the Adverb 'av from the Conjunction & 
 
 (=Jiv, §354). 
 
194 SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 1. The time referred to in Class B is not always clearly 
 indicated by the English form. Thus "should" or "would" with 
 the Present Infinitive may refer either to present or to future 
 time; in this case the If-clause will generally show which is 
 meant. Again the English Past Tense (Subjunctive) in the 
 If-clause may refer either to present time, especially in Verbs 
 that denote a state ("if he were" ei ^v, "if he had" el elxev, 
 "if he understood" et rjma-TaTo), or to future time, especially in 
 Verbs that denote an act ("if he came" d IkOoi, "if he did this" 
 ei TavTa voioirf). 
 
 Obs. 2. Contrast the sentences in § 3.55, 1 with those in 
 § 354, 1. It will be seen that el eTroUi and ei e-n-oirja-e are used in 
 both classes (in Class A without implication, in Class B with 
 implication). The meaning of these forms of If-clause, therefore, 
 depends on whether the Principal Clause has av or not. Taken 
 by themselves they are necessarily ambiguous, and when the 
 If-clause comes before the Principal Clause, as in the above 
 examples, the mind of the hearer is held in suspense till the 
 Principal Clause is reached. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Past Imperf. Indie, referred to past time in Homer, and 
 this usage survives in some passages of Attic, to mark an action as going 
 on or habitual in the past, or to denote a past state ; of. the corresponding 
 uses of the Imperf. Subj. in Plautus and classical Latin: ci /lii ti(t' Mmw, 
 fOv hw ovK nv4>paiv6iiirir if I had not then been labouring, I should not now be 
 rejoicing ', ovk iiv vf]ffuf iKpdretf ei /x-fj rt koX vavrtKhv elx^v he would not have 
 been master of islands if he had not also had some naval force (Thuc. I. 9. 3). 
 
 Obs. 4. The Aorist Indicative occasionally refers to present time, mark- 
 ing an action as occurring'. aKoiKrare & iyit ovk &v irore elirov, el /x^ ftot iravT<ir 
 irao'ic i.yv<i)u>ves iSoKitre ehcu listen to xohat I should never say, if you did not 
 seem to me to be altogether inconsiderate (Ken. Anab. VII. 6. 23). So in Plato. 
 
 Obs. 5. The Pluperf. Indie, is ocoasionally used to mark an action as 
 completed in past or present time, or to denote the state resulting there- 
 from ; ei rovTO iireirpdxVt a,Treire4)ivyri &v if I had done this, I should have been 
 acquitted (or I should be am, acquitted man). 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 195 
 
 356 Exception. Instead of the Indicative with av in the Principal 
 
 Clause (§ 355. 1. a, b), an Indicative without av is found : — 
 
 (a) In impersonal expressions meaning "can," "must," "ought" 
 (Past Imperfect tense), such as i^v (licebat or licuit), eSei, xprjv, 
 TrpoarJKi (oportebat or oportuit, decebat or decuit), eiKos rjv 
 ( = aequum erat or fuit), SUaiov rjv, ovayKoiov rjv, koKov rjv, alaxpov 
 rjv, and verbals in -reos with rjv : e.g. d ravra iiroUi, ii^v (xpi)", 
 ei/cos ^v) alTiS.<x6ai avrov if he were doing this, one might {ought to) 
 blame him ; d ravra eTroiijo-EV, efijv (xPWt «'''os w) alrid(ra(r6ai or 
 ainaaOaL avrov if he had done this, one might have {ought to have) 
 blamed him. Note that what would possibly, necessarily or properly 
 be done in present time is expressed by the Present Infinitive; 
 what would possibly, necessarily or properly have been done in past 
 time is expressed by the Aorist or Present Infinitive. 
 
 Obs. 1. "Av may however be added, generally with a slight difference 
 of meaning : e|ij</ hv atriairBai it would be possible to find fault (but under 
 present oiroum'stanoes it is not possible), e^ijv airiaa-eai one would possibly 
 find fault (but under present circumstances one does not), xpij" ^v it would 
 be right (under other circumstances), xP^" 0™ would rightly (but one 
 doesn't). Where Greek has &v, Latin has the Subjunctive (possem or 
 potuissem, oporteret or oportuisset, etc.). 
 
 Obs. 2. Without &v, these Past Indicatives originally denoted it was 
 possible, it was necessary, it was proper, like the Past Indicatives of other 
 Verbs ; and this sense sometimes survives : eSei jue fiheiv I was bound to 
 remain, corresponding to Set fie /ievetv I am bormd to remain. 
 
 {b) In phrases formed with the Past Imperf. of /icXAw and the 
 Future Infinitive (together = Lat. Future Participle with eram 
 or fui) : £i ravra hreicrav, tjueXXov (TVjx/jLaxia.v Troirjcreiv if they had 
 persuaded them of this, they loould have made an alliance (lit. were 
 about to make: past prospective meaning, expressed in Sanskrit by 
 a single tense). 
 
 (c) In cases in which a Principal Clause with av may be sup- 
 plied in thought : et //.^ <^pvyS>v | Trvpyovs irecrovra^ ya-p.ev 'EXXijvojv 
 Sopt, I <f>6pov Trapicrxev ov /xia-ws o8e ktvttjs this noise caused us no 
 little fear (supply or icould have done so), if we had not hnown that 
 the towers of Troy had fallen by the spear of the Greeks. So in Lat. 
 
196 SYNTAX. 
 
 357 a Other modes of introducing If-clauses. 
 
 1. "Whether . . . or " mtroducing alternative clauses of con- 
 dition (= "if ... or if," Lat. sive . . . sive) is expressed by 
 
 CITE . . . €tT£, or idv T£ . . . €aV TE I B.g. ' AirO(TTiX.U> CTt /Stci, EIT€ 
 
 6e'A.cis are fir) OcXeK I will carry you off by farce, whether you wish 
 it or not {9eX.w poetical for iOeXeis). 
 
 2. "But if not" without a Verb (= "otherwise," Lat. sin 
 minus, sin aliter) is £i Se yu.^, even when ikv ficv has gone before : 
 £av /xev SokZ aXrjdrj Klytiv, OjOoXoy^craTt • el Si fiij, ■iravTL Aoya> dvTi- 
 TEtvETE if I shall seem to speak truth, give your assent ; but if not, 
 oppose me by every argument. 
 
 3. "If perchance" ( = "if perhaps," si forte) is el apa; "unless 
 perchance " (nisi forte, nisi vero) is d ixrj apa, often ironical. 
 
 4. "If haply" (= "in the hope that") is lai/ ttws with the 
 Subjunctive, or in past time £i tus with the Optative, the ttws 
 being often omitted : ®^/3ds ^/tSs ■n-E/x.i/fov, idv ttms 8mK<u\c<ru)/j,EV 
 tfyovov send us fo Thebes, if haply {in case somehow) we shall prevent 
 bloodshed ; irpia-fius hrefulfav, £t ttus Trpoa-ayayoivTO r-ijv iroXiv they 
 sent ambamadors in the hope of bringing over the city. Compare 
 St. Mark xi. 13 "He came (to the fig-tree) if haply he might find 
 anything thereon ''. 
 
 357b If-clause disguised or suppressed. 
 
 'AiroXoviJ.ai fi-rj jxaddsv. I shall be undone unless I find oid 
 (lit. not finding out = Ihv (j-t] fj-dOto). 
 
 OiS' av SiKoim £9 KaKov Trea-oifu n. Nor should I justly come 
 to any harm, (SiKatojs = ti SiVaia vdOoifu). 
 
 'HSe'ws av dwe.Kpivdii.riv. I should gladly have answered 
 (understand ei ripov if you had asked me). 
 
 Xprjv 8" eidvi eTvai r^vSe tois iracnv SiKrjv — 
 
 KteiVeiv ■ TO yap travovpyov ovk av rjv ttoXu. 
 
 This retribution ought (if justice were done) to fall straight- 
 way on all malefactors — / mean death ; for (in that 
 case) wickedness would not abound. 
 
 ^^ All the forms of sentence given in § 355. 1 and § 356 a 
 may be used without the If-clause : y\p,aprev dv he would have sinned, 
 apxipToi dv he would sin, i.e. under certain circumstances. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 197 
 
 357c Subordination of Conditional Sentences. — A Conditional 
 Sentence (with or without an If-clause) may be subordinated as 
 a whole to a word meaning "because," "so that," "as," "who" 
 etc. : — 
 
 OvK c'cTTtv ^Tis TovT av 'EWijvts ywij I crXr/. There is no 
 Greek woman who would have dared this deed. 
 
 Obs. 1. When an If-clause of Class A {^ 354) is subordinated 
 to a tense of past time, the verb may be changed into the Optative 
 (eav becoming et) : — 
 
 'Eroi/tos rjv aTronveiv, el Karayvoiev avrov. He Was prepared 
 to pay if they condemned ( = should condemn) him : 
 SI condemnavissent (for eav KarayvSia-w, % 354, 1 c). 
 
 Obs. 2. When a Conditional Sentence with av (§ 355) is sub- 
 ordinated to a construction that takes (1) an Infinitive or (2) a 
 Participle, the If-clause remains unchanged, as in Latin, and the 
 Verb of the Principal Clause is changed into the Infinitive or 
 Participle of the same tense-stem : — 
 
 (1) *r)/il I say (or i^ifv I said) — 
 
 aurbi/ afiaprdveiv ^v, et ravra, eirotet. 
 that he would le sinning, if he were doing this, 
 avrhv ajxaprsiv &v, ei ravra iiroiTtffev. 
 that he would hq,ve sinned, if he had done this, 
 avrhv a/iapraveiv &v {a/iupTiiv Av), ei ravra Trotolri (iroi^ireiEy). 
 that he would sin, if he were to do this. 
 Tfi Si'iffj; hraia-Tif avviixovTO Sirre ^Se'wj Uv mCiv. They were tormented hy 
 ' unquenchable thirst so that they would gladly have drunk (of. § 357 b). 
 
 (2) OTSo I know (or pS?) J knew) — 
 
 avThv afiaprdvovTa &v, ei ravra cTroiei. 
 
 that he would be sinning, if lie were doing this. 
 
 avrhv atiaprdvTa ^v, et ravra. iTroiritrev. 
 
 that he would have sinned, if he had done this. 
 
 avrhv a/napTdvovTa &v {afiaprSvTa &i'), ei ravra iroioin] (iroiV^'f)- 
 
 that he would sin, if he were to do this. 
 
 ■PaSiois fey aipteeXs ei ti rovraiv iTroii)<ii, vpoeiKero 0ave7y. Whereas he 
 
 would eatily have been acquitted if he had done any of these things, he 
 
 preferred to die. 
 
 Note that the Aorist Infinitive or Participle with &v may refer either 
 
 to past time (as representing the Aorist Indicative with &v), or to future 
 
 time (as representing the Aorist Optative with iv). 
 
igS SYNTAX. 
 
 358 
 
 Concessive Clauses. (Clauses of Concession ; § 346 g.) 
 
 The Principal Clause corresponding to a Concessive Clause has 
 adversative meaning, i.e. it expresses what is true in spite of what 
 is granted or conceded. 
 
 1. El Koi fjLTj /JkeTrei's, c^povas o/iojs. Although thou art blind 
 
 (qiiamquam non vides), yet hast thou understanding; 
 cf. § 354, 1 a. 
 Ti's eoTiv ocTTts, ei /cat /jLrjSeli aAAos tTnjv ayij>v, ovk av i-ir avrm 
 TOVTio KartSv koX jj^erpiov 7rapi(T)(a> iavTov ; What man 
 is there who, though there had been no further trial 
 hanging over him, icoidd not have felt abashed at this 
 and behaved with decency 1 cf. § 355, 1 b. 
 
 2. 'O S' ovv iTO), Ku ■)^prj /i« TravTeXSs 6av£ti'. Well, let him go, 
 
 even if / must die outright (etsi mihi moriendum 
 est) : cf. § 354, 1 a. 
 ©avovjxan] yap iirjBr], Ti S' ov ; Kel ftij ooi irpovKi^pv^ai. For 
 I knew full well that I should die — how coidd I have 
 failed to know ? — eYsn if thou hadst not proclaimed it : 
 cf. § 355, 1 b. 
 
 RuLB. — Concessive Clauses are formed by adding Kai to d or 
 idv in If-clauses : — 
 
 1. et (cai or lav km = although, quamquam. 
 
 2. KoX ei (Kel) or koi idv (kSv) = even if, etsi. 
 
 The Moods and Tenses are used in the same way as in If-clauses. 
 The Negative is p.'^. 
 
 Obs. 1. Although is, however, more commonly expressed by a Participial 
 Phrase with xaiirep (or xal or ko! tbOto) ; Negative ov : — 
 
 TliBov 7ui'oifl Kaivcp ow irrfpyav 8/m»r. Take the advice of women none 
 the less though thy heart rebels ; lit. though not acquiescing 
 notwithstanding : the H/jluss belongs in meaning to the m8ov. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Not even if {ne si .. . quidem) may be expressed by ou5' ei, 
 ovS' idv, or, when the Negative /iii is required, by yiir)5' €i, iiiiS' idv, in which 
 phrases the part meaning Tiot (ov-, /mi-) belongs to the Principal Clause, and 
 only the part meaning even (-5e) to the Subordinate Clause : — 
 
 OiS' el $oi\oto, Sivaio &v. You could not, even if you v!Ould (ne si 
 
 veils quidem, possis) ; = ko! ei fioiXoio, ov Svvaio &v. 
 Tbv e^ \eyovTa /ii] v6^i^s eJvat (xaKpdv, fiTjS* B.V cJVp iroWa iral iro\vv 
 xpdvov. Do not consider the man that speaks well tedious, even 
 if he speaks much and lon.g. Here, as often, the Negative is 
 repeated in the Principal Clause, 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. igg 
 
 359 
 
 Comparative Clauses (§ 346 h). 
 
 Comparative Clauses fall into two divisions, according as thej 
 are introduced by words meaning (1) as (2) than. 
 1. Introduced by words meaning as: — 
 (a) OiJtcos €xa (OS (or wcrirep) eiirov. It is as I said (ut dixi). 
 EfecTTiv ifji.01 Te SiaKiyecrdai oircos fiovXofuii koI trot oirus av 
 (TV jSovXy. It is open to vie to argue as I like (siout 
 vols) and to you in tchatsoever way you like (qu5oumque 
 mods tu vis). 
 Hyt (TTpanav ootjv irkaa-rriv iSvvaro. He brought as large 
 
 an army as he could (quantam maximam poterat). 
 
 ^iriyi^ao/juu a)S av 8w<o/tai 8ia /3pa)(VTa.T<av. Iioill explain in the 
 
 briefestterms that I shall beable (quambrevissimepotero). 
 
 TaCra iTroLrjcrav iva avayKOLcraav roiis 'AOr/vaiarvi ovTOii oirioi 
 
 rvxpLo/ avdyea-dai. This they did in order to compel 
 
 the Athenians to put to sea just as they were. 
 
 (i) 'H<rira^ovTo aXXi^Xovs ws aSeXcjiovs. They greeted oneanotheras 
 
 brothers (ut fratres), = as they loould have greeted brothers. 
 
 OiiK dSwaros, a)S Aa/ceSai/iovios, eiiriiv. Not incapable of 
 
 speaking, for a Spartan (ut Lacedaemonius) ; sc. Xeya. 
 
 (c) 'Atti^i <J)s Tax""""- Depart as quickly as possible (qiiam 
 
 celerrime) : <os Ta^QXTTO. = a>s rd,)(iiTTa, Suvao-at [dirtevat], 
 as most quickly you can \depart\ 
 "0 Tt irXeiarrri airopia rjv. Tliere was the greatest possible 
 perplexity (quam maxima difficultas) : o n TrXeio-rj; = 
 o Ti irXiicrq eSwaro eTvat. 
 
 (d) 'Ooro) cro(f)ii>Tep6s Tts ecTTtV, toctovto) cr<i}<f>povi<TT€p6i ia'nv. 
 
 The wiser (quo sapientior) a man is, the more sober 
 (so modestior) he is. 
 
 EuLES. — (a) Words meaning as take the Indicative when the 
 action is to be marked as fact; when it is to be marked as 
 prospective or general, they take av with the Subjunctive in 
 present or future time, the Optative without av in past time. 
 
 (6) If the same verb belongs to both Clauses of the sentence, 
 it is often omitted in the Comparative Clause. 
 
 (c) The highest possible degree is expressed by is or o ti (some- 
 times by jj, o-TTws, oo-os, or oTos) with the Superlative of an Adjective 
 or Adverb, the verb 8wa/tat being often omitted. 
 
 {d) The more . . . the more is oo-m . . . too-ovtu (Dative of 
 Measure, § 432), with the Comparative or Superlative. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 2. Introduced by tj, than : — 
 
 KpeiTTov (TLiairav ecrnv ^ kaXflv /itanjv. /if is better to be 
 
 silent than to talk idly (quam vane loqui or vana 
 
 oratione). 
 HapvcraTLs i<f)(Xa Kvpov /iSWov rj 'Apraiep^v. Pan/satis 
 
 loved Cyrils more than Artaxerxes {i.e. more than she 
 
 loved Artaxerxes : plus quam Artaxerxem). 
 Ileicro/tai /iSWov t<5 6e<S rj v/uv. I will obey God rather 
 
 than you (potius quam vobTs). 
 '^Tipov iari. to 17811 17 to dyaSdi/. The pleasant is other than 
 
 the good (or different from the good : aliud ac bonum 
 
 or aliud bono). 
 
 Rule. — -'H, than (= Lat. quam, ac), takes the Indicative, 
 which is often omitted when the same verb belongs to both Clauses. 
 
 Obs. 1. Instead of ^, than, with the Case demanded by the 
 construction (Nom., Ace, Gen., or Dat.), a Genitive may always 
 be used : e.g. in the above instances KpeiTTov rov XaXelv, fiaXXov 
 'Apra^ipiov, fiaXXov vp.!av, erepov rov ayaOov (Gen. of Comparison, 
 § 411). Thus, the use of the Genitive of Comparison in Greek is 
 wider than that of the Ablative of Comparison in Latin (which 
 would be ambiguous in Ex. 2, and impossible in Ex. 3). 
 
 Obs. 2. "H, than, is sometimes omitted, without influencing the oon- 
 struotiou, between the Adverbs ir\€oi/ (by-form irKslv), e\a(r<rov, lieTov, or the 
 corresponding Adjectives, and a word denoting number or measure : — 
 
 ilA.e'oi' Surx'f^'Oi airiBavov. More than SOOO (plus duo mllia) perished. 
 'AwoKTeivovirtv ov fielov irevraKoffiovs. They slay not less than 500 
 
 (non minus quingentos). 
 'Ett) yeyovtiis irXeim l/SSo^^.coi'Ta. More than 70 years old (plus 
 
 septuSginta aimos natus). 
 Tlora^hs ov fieiov SvoTv a-raSioiy. A river of not less than S stadia 
 
 (non minus duorum stadiorum) m Ireadth. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Subject of a Comparative Clause of which the verb is 
 omitted may be attracted into the Case of the other member of the Com- 
 parison : — 
 
 Tlepiopare roi/s 'AOrivaious ovx ckks, Siffirep 4k€ivou, aXA.* iyyi/s 6yTas, 
 Tou disregard the Athenians who are not far off, as he {i.e. the 
 Persian Mng) is, lut near at hand. 
 Xapt^Sfifyos o'lip <roi avSpt. Showing favour to a man like you: o'lif 
 
 (To I = oTos ffv ej. 
 'Ek Seivorepuv ^ rotuvSe 4ff<iiBT\frav . They were preserved from greater 
 ithanV 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 360 Combinations of 'as' and 'than,' representing Com- 
 paratiYe Clauses, with Clauses of Condition or Result. 
 
 1. As if (= as would be the case, if; Lat. quasi, velut si, 
 tamquam si) : — 
 
 'O/not'us Sie(li6a.p7j(rav, Sxnrep av et irpos aTravras avOpunrovs 
 eiroXc/A'^cra]/. They were destroyed just as if they had 
 made war on all mankind ( = woTrep av Sie<ji6dpria-av, et 
 etc., as they would have been destroyed, if etc.). 
 
 "Ofioia TrdcrxovcTLv wa^rep et rts TroXXd icrdliav [ii/jSiiroTe c/Airt- 
 TrXaiTo. They are in a like position as if anyone eating 
 much loere never to be filled ( = Sxrirep av tis irda-^oi, 
 €1 etc.). 
 
 Rule. — As if {= as would be the case, if) is expressed by 
 wa-Trep d, or more commonly by Stcnrep av el, with the Past 
 Imperfect or Aorist Indicative, or the Optative, the Moods and 
 Tenses having the same meanings as in the corresponding If -clauses 
 (§ 355). 
 
 Obs. 1. The &v which generally accompanies the Za-irep shows these 
 If -clauses to belong to the class which contains an implication as to fact or 
 fulfilment (§ 353 B ; § 355). 
 
 Obs. 2. 'as el in Attic is simply equivalent to us, as: eiivoi^ y' aiSa, 
 //■■Ifrvp i'Cei Tis irio-T^, / speak in goodwill as (or lOce) some faithful mother, 
 "nawep 61 (sometimes written ia-wep^i) and So-Trep hv el (sometimes written 
 iia-Trepavel) may also be used in this way, when the verb is omitted : — 
 
 iofioi/iepos Sxrirep hv ei vats. Fearing like a child {= (po^oi/iti/os 
 Sia-irep ttv itjio^eTro el wais ^v, fearing as he would fear if he were 
 a child). 
 
 2. Than so as to (Lat. quam ut) : — 
 
 'EXaTTO) cTxe ^vvafxiv rj &(TTe (or tj <os) Tovg <^tXous dxjicXelv. 
 He had too small a force to help his friends, lit. smaller 
 than so as to help : minorem quam ut adjuvaret. 
 
 '^6(rrjii.a fiel^ov ^ ^ipuv. Anguish too great for man to bear, 
 lit. greater than for bearing ( = ii^ltpv ^ Sxm (jiepciv). 
 
 Rule. — Than so as to is expressed by fj uia-re, or ^ &?, or tj, 
 with the Infinitive (never the Indicative ; cf. § 352). 
 
 14 
 
4o2 &YNTAX. 
 
 361 
 
 Absolute Clauses. 
 
 ' Absolute Clauses ' are clauses in which the Predicate is formed 
 by a Participle instead of a Finite Verb, and which are equivalent 
 in meaning to Adverb Clauses of Time, Reason, Condition, or 
 Concession. The Case of the Absolute Clause in Greek is the 
 Genitive, or under certain circumstances the Accusative (p. 204). 
 
 1. The Genitive Absolute is the general equivalent for the 
 Latin Ablative Absolute and the English Nominative Absolute 
 (' We sitting, as I said, the cock crew loud ' — Tennyson) : — 
 
 Nau/Aa;^6ds yci'o/xei'Tjs, rpew TpirjpeK Kajj.Pa,vovcnv. A sea-fight 
 having taken place (pugna navali facta), they capture 
 three triremes. Temporal ; Neg. ov. 
 
 OuSev TTOiovvTuiv ifuov, KaK!i>s e)(€L to. Trpa.yfjLa.Ta. As you do 
 nothing (nihil facientibus vobis), affairs are in a bad 
 state. Causal ; Neg. ov. 
 
 Conditional ; Neg. /t^ 
 {= if God wills, deo vo- 
 lente ; if God is unwil- 
 ling, deo nSlente). 
 
 ®eov OiXovTO's oiSev itrp^Oei tjiOovos, 
 Kai fjLrj OiXovTOi oiSiv t(r;^Oa irwos. 
 
 God willing, envy naught prevails; 
 
 Unwilling, labour naught avails. 
 
 OuSevos KwXtioi'Tos, oiiK TjQiXi Trpo^aCvav. Though no one 
 prevented him (nullo obstante), he would not adoance. 
 Concessive; Neg. ov. 
 
 Obs. 1. Note tliat the Negatives employed are the same as in the 
 corresponding clauses with a finite verb, except in the case of the Con- 
 cessive Clause (cf. § 358) ; i.e. the Genitive Absolute is negatived by ou 
 except when it has conditional meaning. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Temporal, Causal, Conditional, or Concessive meaning is 
 often brought out more clearly by the addition of words like fi/ia, at the 
 same time; airlKu, eAfliij, straightway ; /.iera^i, in the midst {/lera^v \4yovTos 
 avTou, in the midst of his speech) ; &s, as ; are, oXov, oTa, quippe (are fiaKoaiv 
 ruv vvKToiv oha&v, since the nights are long) ; Kai, even ; xaivep, although 
 {KaiTTip TToAAwy avTi\ey6vTav, though many opposed). 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 203 
 
 Obs. 3. The Greek Genitive Absolute differs from the Latin Ablative 
 Absolute in the following points ; — 
 
 (a) The Subject is often not expressed by a separate word, when it 
 may be easily supplied from the context or when it has vague 
 meaning: TrpoUvToiv, as they advanced; oSras ix^i/rav, things 
 being in this position ( = rav irpayfidrav oStus ix^"'''""' <</• § 316, 
 3) ; bovras, when it rains {cf. § 316, 4). Similarly with a 
 clause as Subject: cratpSs Sri\a0ivTos '6ri . . . it having been 
 clearly shown thai . . . [cf. in Latin the special phrases 
 audits, comperto, etc.). 
 
 (i) The Participle is never replaced in prose by a Noun or Adjective 
 as in the Latin Pericle duce, -Hannibale vivo : Greek, having a 
 Present Participle of the verb ' to be,' always adds it in such 
 oases ; thus TlspiK\4ovs fiyejj.6vos Svtos ( = ^ye^offiJovToj), 'Avvlpa 
 e/i'f/dxou ovTos (= (avTos). The only exceptions are the 
 Adjectives kiciv, willing, and axav, unwilling, which look like 
 Participles : i/iov Skovtos, me invito. [In the poets we find 
 such expressions as Sv iipnyi]rSiv = qwibus indicibus. ] 
 
 (c) The Subject not unfrec^uently denotes the same person or thing as 
 
 some word in the Principal Clause: StaPs$TiK6ros ijSri Tlepi- 
 K\eous, r}yye\eri our^ Sri McVapo lup4(rTriKei>, PericleS havin^g 
 already crossed over, news was brought to him, that Megara had 
 revolted. This is felt to be awkward in English and Latin : 
 say Pericles, having already crossed over, received the news ; or 
 Pericll, jam transgresso, nuntiatum est. 
 
 (d) Greek, having a Present Participle Passive and a Perfect and 
 
 Aorist Participle Active, is enabled to use the Gen. Abs. in 
 some cases when Latin cannot use the Abl. Abs. : rfls n-iJAeiaj 
 TroXiopKQvfi^vTis, dum urbs obsidetur; ^taKpArovs ye\tiiTavTos, 
 quum Socrates rlsisset; yet on the whole the Gen. Abs. is less 
 common in Greek than the Abl. Abs. in Latin, because in the 
 numerous cases in which Latin employs the Perfect Participle 
 Passive in the Abl. Abs., Greek can and generally does employ 
 the Aorist Participle Active attached to some word in the 
 Principal Clause ; Gyrus, Croeso victo, Lydos in suam dicionem 
 redegit ; & Kvpos, rhv Kpotirov vlxiia&s, KamrTpiif/aTo robs AOSois. 
 So in English Having conquered Croesus (rather than Croesus 
 having been conquered), Cyrus reduced the Lydiams to subjectioti 
 
204 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. The Accusative Absolute is employed to the exclusion of 
 the Genitive Absolute in the following impersonal expressions 
 (Participles without Accusative Subject) : — 
 
 e^ov, TTapov, ■!rap€)(Ov, it beinff possible 
 
 Biov, TrpeVov, vpoa^Kov, it being necessary or fitting 
 
 So^av, ScSoy/tei/ov, Trpoo-TayfOiv, it having been resolved or 
 ertjoinsd 
 
 and the like, including combinations of an Adjective and ov : 
 auT)(pov ov, it being shameful ; aSr/Xov ov, it being uncertain, etc. 
 
 OuScis, iibv ilp-^riv a-yeti/, iroXefiov aipijcrcTat. No one will 
 
 choose war when it is possible to be at peace. 
 ViKotov i(TTi,v, ii TTpa/mi ri<s KaKo, yiyvdxTKuyv on KaKo, ifTTiv, 
 ov SeW. It is ridiculous if anyone does what is evil 
 knowing that it is evil, when he is not bound to (Neg. ov). 
 
 Obs. 4. la other expressions the Accusative Absolute is occasionally 
 admitted, but only when accompanied by is or So-irtp : — 
 
 'fls rhv 8ehv a&sovTo. -riv y' airov y6voy. [I did it] in the belief that 
 the god would preserve his own offspring. 
 
 361 Nominative with Participle. In such a sentence as — 
 
 Aiyoi S' if a\Kij\oi(riv ^ppSSovv Kaicoi, \ <p6\a^ iAeyx^ov (j)i\aica, 
 Angry words flew loud and fast from one to another, watchman 
 accusing watchman (Soph. Antigone, 259 f.), 
 
 the Nominative with the Participle, where we should expect the Genitive 
 Absolute ((piKaKos 4\eyxovTos <j>v\aica), is to be explained as in Apposition 
 to the logical, though not to the grammatical. Subject of the Finite Verb, 
 the first part of the sentence being ec[uivalent in meaning to we bandied 
 angry words to and fro. 
 
362 
 
 363 
 
 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 205 
 
 ADJECTIVE GLAUSES (^ 313). 
 
 Adjective Clauses are introduced by Eelative Pronouns (os, 
 00-Tts, oa-7rep), Relative Adjectives (oios, oa-os, ^Xt/cos, etc.), or 
 Relative Adverbs {ore, iv9a, ws, etc.), referring to a Noun or Noun- 
 equivalent, called tbe Antecedent, expressed or implied in tbe 
 Principal Clause. 
 
 Obs. 1. Words like Sre, evBa, Sis are Eelative Adverbs when they merely 
 define an Antecedent, expressed or implied in the Principal Clause (Sre = 
 at which time ; evOa = at which place ; iis = in which way, etc.) : e.g. ^v irore 
 Xpivos, ire . . . there was once a time at which . . . ; 6\iyov Jrp6(r8ep, '6t€ eyi> 
 fipnv w\ovTe7i', iy4\a(ras eV e/ioi, a little while before, when I said that I was 
 a rich man, you laughed at me ; /iii rnviKavra eS \4ye<r9ai SoKeira, Sre ovx S ri 
 Xpk Toieij/ ?f ere, do not let it seem to he 'Well said at a tim£ when you will not 
 he ahle to do what you ought; rovs Sre ^lij SiefjiapTup6fn]V \4yovTas, those who 
 spoke at the time when I was protesting : in such instances the time of the 
 Principal Clause is already fixed by oKiyov irpda-eep, r-qvucaira, or an implied 
 TcJTE, and the Subordinate Clause is purely supplementary to these adverbial 
 expressions. Contrast the use of ire, eyflo, ws, etc., as Subordinating 
 Conjunctions (§§ 347, 348, 359), where the Subordinate Clause alone fixes 
 the time, place, or manner of the Principal Clause : e.g. St evTux^Ts /xaAio-ra, 
 /ii) iJ.4ya <pp6vei, when you are most prosperov,s, do not he puffed up. Such an 
 Adverb Clause may, however, be resumed by an Adverb in the Principal 
 Clause : e.g. eiretSay irepi tov yivovs eXirto, t(Jt6 irepl To{]rwv ipu, when I shall 
 have spoken ahout my hirth, then I will speak of this. [As a Relative, when 
 is always translated by Hre; as a Conjunction, it is more commonly 
 translated by as, evd, or eVeiSij.] 
 
 Obs. 2. Some Eelative Clauses are adjectival only in form, being 
 equivalent in meaning to Co-ordinate Sentences; see § 314*. Such 
 Co-ordinate Eelative Clauses are constructed in all other respects like 
 Simple Sentences. 
 
 Agreement of the Relative. 
 
 1. As in other languages, the Relative agrees in Gender, 
 Number, and Person with its Antecedent ; the Case of the Relative 
 depends on the part which it plays (as Subject, Object, etc.) in its 
 own Clause : — 
 
 Ei/i' 'OSucrevs AdepriaSTjs, os Tracn SoX.ounv \ avdpwTrouri /xeXto. 
 I am Odysseus, son of Laertes, who am i?i men's minds 
 for all manner of wiles : cf. Sum plus Aeneas, raptos 
 qui ex hoste penates | classe Yeho meoum. 
 
 'AvSpa ayw ov elp^ai Sei. / am bringing a man whom it is 
 necessary to lock up. 
 
2o6 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. If tlie Relative refers to the Principal Clause as a whole, it stands 
 in the Neuter Singular, sometimes preceded by a Demonstrative, as in 
 Latin (quod or id quod) : — 
 
 'Ek TatJrTjs TTJs dfio\oylds iyavriov ri crvve^r] iv rots \6yoiSi rovro h 5^ 
 ayairSs. From this confession a contradiction arose in the argu- 
 ment, a thing which you are fond of. 
 
 3. Attraction. A Relative that ought, according to the structure of 
 the Clause, to stand in the Accusative, and that refers to an Antecedent in 
 the Genitive or Dative, is often attracted into the case of the Antecedent ; 
 but only vrhen the Relative helps to define the Antecedent, not when it 
 refers to an Antecedent already sufficiently defined : — 
 
 *'07rws fi|iot ecrecfle Trjs ^\€v6epids -fis K€/cT?j(r0e (for ^v KixTyiffOe). See 
 to it that you be worthy of the freedom that you enjoy. 
 
 'ladiriv ovZ^v S>v (= roirav ft) Afyouffiv. Tlhey know nothing of what 
 ( = that which) they say. 
 
 'EirojOcuETo aiiy § elx^ Swi/ifi. He marched %oith what force he had. 
 Cf. Milton, P. L., vi. 808, " Vengeance is his, or whose he sole appoints "- 
 
 4. Occasionally the Antecedent is attracted into the Case of the 
 Relative (Inverse Attraction) :— 
 
 eiriKai oVoi ^(Tuv TiSveiirav, iraaas avtlKov. They removed all the 
 tombs of the dead that there were (lit. What tombs of the dead 
 there were, they removed them all) ; Cf. Shaksp., Ant. and Oleop., 
 iii. 1, 15, " When him ( = he whom) we serve's away " ; Virg., 
 Am. 1. 573, " Urbem quam statuo vestra est ". 
 
 a®" On the attraction of the Relative to the Gender, Number, and Case 
 of the Predicate Noun, see § 325, 3 ('O ^6fio! ti aiSiis KaAeiToi). 
 
 5. When two or more Relative Clauses referring to the same Ante- 
 cedent stand side by side, and the second Relative would have to stand in 
 a different Case from the first, it is either omitted or replaced by a Personal 
 Pronoun (Accidence, §§ 128, 131) : — 
 
 'Apiaioi, hv fi/jLiTs iiBeKofiev PanKea KoBtffTdvat, Kol iddxa/iev xa) 
 i\d$o/XEv irKTrd, Tjfias kukus iroietv Tretparai. Ariaeus, whom we 
 wished to set up as king, and to whom we gave pledges, and 
 from wiom we received them, is trying to injure 'us. 
 
 Kol vEv Ti xp); SpSc; SiTTis i/iipaviis SeoTs Andwhatam I to donow! 
 
 '^■j(6aipoii.ai, iiiaei S4 fa' 'EWiivui/ ffrpdros. I who am manifestly hate- 
 ful to the gods, and the Qreek host hates me, 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 207 
 
 Moods in Relative Clauses. 
 
 1. Aeyeis irpayfia o ovirOTf. eyei/ero oiSe ycv^creTai. You Speak 
 
 of a thing which neoer happened and never will happen 
 
 (quod neque accidit umquam neque accidet). 
 Aeyo) a ovk ayvoS). I speak of what I know (quod non 
 
 nescio). 
 "Oi' ot 6eol <j}i\ov(nv, aTroOvrjdKa vios (Mbnandbe). He lohom 
 
 the gods love, dies young. Quern di diligunt, adul- 
 
 escens moritur (Plautus). 
 *A av eroi hoKy, ravTo. woUi. Whatever shall seem good to 
 
 you (quidquid tibi videbitur), that do. 
 'EjSovXovTO o TL SwaivTO A.a;SovT€s aTTieVat. They wished to 
 
 take whatever they should he able (quidquid possent) 
 
 and go away. 
 
 Has TroiijTijs yiyverai, ov av "Eptos aij/rjTai. Everyone that 
 
 Love touches (quemquem Amor tetigit) becomes a 
 
 poet. 
 05 aij/aLTO MiSds iyiyvf-To y^pvaoi. WhatbYet Midas 
 
 touched (quidquid Midas tetigerat) became gold. 
 'AvayKMrai Oeovs | av //.ij deXiocnv, ovS' av eis Suvatr' avrjp. 
 
 No man on earth can force the gods to whatsoever they 
 
 will not (quaecumque nolunt) : av = a av, by crasis. 
 
 The Principal Clause contains a Modest Assertion 
 
 (§ 340). 
 
 Rule. — Relative Clauses take the Indicative, as in Latin, when 
 the action is to be marked as fact ; Negative ov : when the action 
 is to be marked as prospective or general, they take av with the 
 Subjunctive in present or future time, the Optative without av in 
 past time; Negative /t^. In the prospective and general con- 
 structions, the Present Stem marks the action as nat completed ; 
 the Aorist Stem marks it as simply occurring, or sometimes as 
 occurring before the action of the Principal Clause (cf. § 347.2). 
 
 Note that the av, like the English -ev&); comes as nearly as 
 possible immediately after the Relative. 
 
 Obs. 1. The general is often combined with the prospective meaning : 
 see the fourth and fifth examples above. 
 
 Obs. 2. For various peculiarities common to the structure of Adjective 
 and Adverb Clauses see | 365, 
 
2o8 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. In the following special kinds of Eelative Clause, Greek 
 differs from Latin in using the Indicative Mood : — 
 
 (a) Caasal RelatiYe Clauses (Latin Subjunctive) : — 
 
 ©avjjLacTTov xoieis, os (or os ye) ovSiv Si'So)?. You do a strange 
 thing in giving nothing : = on oiScv StSas, seeing that 
 you give nothing (qui nihil des or quippe qui nihil des). 
 KaKoSat;«,a)v iyia, oori? ovSev X-^ij/0/j.ai. Unlucky that I am, 
 not to be going to get anything (qui nihil acceptiirus 
 sim). 
 
 Rule. — Causal Relative Clauses take the Indicative ; Neg. ov. 
 The enclitic ye is often added to os or Sa-ns, as Lat. quippe to qui, 
 in order to bring out the causal meaning more clearly. 
 
 Obs. 1. Similarly oTos = Urt toiovtos, Stros = Sri toitovtos, &? = Sti 
 oStoij, etc. (properly Dependent Exclamations, § 370 a, 2) : — 
 
 TV /"T^fpa ifiaxoipiCov, o'lwv rexvav ervxev. They congratulated the 
 mother on having had such children. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Negative is sometimes nii, when the Relative means one 
 who (one of a class which) : — 
 
 tI yap eSei /a' Spay, 
 "Ortp y' dpuPTi firiShj/ ^v lSe7v y\uK6 ; 
 Why loas I to see, a man who, seeing, had nothing sweet to see! 
 
 (6) Final Relative Clauses (Latin Subjunctive) : — 
 
 IleyxTrei irpecrfifLi ot (or oiTives) tois "EAAt/o-i o-UyUySowXruo/ici/ots 
 (TVfjL^ovXevcrovcnv. He sends ambassadors to give advice 
 to the Greeks who consulted him (qui Graeois consul- 
 entibus consilium dent or darent). 
 
 TpiaKOVTa avo/oas eiXovTO, dt Toiis irarpt'ous vofjuov^ (rvyypdtj/- 
 ova-i, Ka6' o£s TToXiTeva-ovcrtv. They chose thirty men 
 to draw up (qui conscriberent) the laws of their country, 
 under which they should live (quibus viverent). 
 
 RrLB. — Final Relative Clauses take the Future Indicative 
 even in past time ; Negative yni;. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Subjunctive and Optative are occasionally found in 
 Relative Clauses with a sense differing little, if at all, from that of the 
 
 Future Indicative, especially after ouk exf, I have not ; ex^i I li^ve : 
 
 "Exouinv i<p' oTs <pL\oTlftri6uicriv. They have something to be proud of 
 (habent quibus glorientur). Elsewhere the same author 
 (IsoCBATEs) says : ohx exoi'Tej Srif ipBoviiaovaw, not having any- 
 one to envy (cui invideant) : cf. IsocB. 4.43, 44 and 3.18, Xen., 
 Anab. i. 7, 7, Aeistoph., Knights, 1320, etc. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 2og 
 
 OiiK ex" <r6if)i(Ti:^ irif \ t^s vm impoia-ris rniiiovris a7roA.\a7S. I have 
 no device lohereby to be rid (quo liberer) of my present distress. 
 Aesch. , Prom. 470. 
 
 OiiK exwy . . . TLi/ iyx^patv KctKoyeirova, Trap' ^ ffr6yoj/ . . . airo- 
 icAaiJcreiec. Not having any of the dwellers in the land as his 
 neighbour in suffering, in whose ear he should pour forth lament 
 (oui quereretur). Soph., PA.i7. 695. Optative in past time : 
 similarly after ipavra, ibid., 279. 
 
 Obs. 4. The above ooustruotiou probably arose from au extension of 
 the construction of Dependent Deliberative Questions (§ 370 b, ii) to 
 Eelative Glauses dependent on certain verbs : ouk €xa) 8 ti 5S = (i) / do not 
 know what 1 am to give : (ii) IJiave not what to give, in vyMoh the interrogative 
 character is lost and the clause becomes practically final. 
 
 (c) Consecutive Relative Clauses (Latin Subjunctive) : — 
 
 Tts ouTO) jjMiverai ocrns ov crol ^ovXerav ^i\os eivcu ; Who is 
 SO mad as not to wish (qui nSlit) to be a friend to you ? 
 
 OuK to-Tiv ovTio /xwpos OS 6av€Lv ipS.. There is no man so 
 foolish that he is enamoured of death (qui morl cupiat). 
 
 Rule. — Consecutive Eelative Clauses take the Indicative, the 
 Relative being oo-tis more commonly than os ; Negative ov. 
 
 Obs. 5. Thus the Indicative is used after the formulae o6k ianv itr-ris = 
 nobody (nemo est qui), ovk icrnv Sffrts ov = everybody (nemo est quin), which 
 introduce Characterizing Clauses not preceded by a Demonstrative in the 
 Principal Clause : — 
 
 OuK ^iTTi Bi/rirav, Sffris ecrr' iKeiSspos. There is none of mortals that 
 is free (Nemo est mortalium qui liber sit). 
 
 Obs. 6. Mi is sometimes found in Consecutive Eelative Clauses, 
 especially vphen the consecutive meaning shades ofi into the final or 
 general (ef. above, Eules 2 b and 1) : — 
 
 Vritj>i(ra<r6€ Toiavra, 6| &v fi.7iSeir6Te b/iTv /j.erafiA'licrei. Pass such a vote 
 as shall never cause you regret. 
 
 Contrast iKipuyifV S* e;^et | Toffovrov &\yos, ovirod' ov AeX^fferai, but 
 having escaped [death'] he has grief so great that he will n^ver forget it. 
 
 Obs. 7. Consecutive oTos and Sa-os generally take the Infinitive, like 
 So-Tf (§ 352) ; Negative fi^ :— 
 
 ToiovTos ^v otos ijiii fioi\ia9tu tovs (piKovs npoSoSuai. Be was the sort 
 
 of man to be unwilling to betray his friends. 
 'E\eiireTo rrfs vuKThs Sffov a-Koraiovs Trpo$aiveiv. There was enough of 
 the night left for them to continue their march in the dark. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Notes on Adjective and Adverb Clauses. 
 
 365 The following peculiarities are common to Adjective Clauses and 
 
 certain kinds of Adverb Clauses (introduced by words meaning when, 
 where, whither, whence, as). 
 
 1. Instead of tbe Indicative expressing /arf, we may have the Optative 
 or Indicative with &v of the Modest Assertion or the Conditional State- 
 ment : — 
 
 Ol/Sfi' yeviiirfTai olov tiv 0oi\oi(r6f. Nothing will happen siich as you 
 might desire {cf. §§ 340, 340'). 
 
 OuK effTii/ TJTis tout' Si/ 'EWtjpIj yuvii | €T\n. There is no Greek 
 woman who wov.ld have dared this deed {cf. §§ 355, 1 b ; 357 o). 
 
 2. Even forms of Will-speech are not excluded from Relative Clauses : — 
 
 OJffB' oiv & Spaffov; Knowest thou then what thou must (or shall) do! 
 lit. v}hat do (Imperative, 2nd Person). 
 
 OlaBi vvv a fioi yeviaOu ; Knowest thou then what must happen to 
 m£ ? (Imperative, 3rd Person). 
 
 'OpZ ire SuiicovTa Si/ /iii rixois. I see thee pwrsuing things which 
 mayest thou never get (Optative of Wish). 
 
 3. &er-clauses sometimes take the Indicative, as in Latin, especially 
 when introduced by the General Relative So-tis, or by dnire, Sttov, &Voi, 
 dTr6eiv, etc. : but the Negative is always /i-li : — 
 
 'E/iol yap StTTis, waffav eiiBivav iriXiv, For whosoever, guiding a 
 
 M^ Tuv apiffriov airTerai fiouKevfidrrav, whole state, does not cleave to 
 KaKitrros elvai vvv t6 Kai iroiKaL So/ccT. the best counsels, to me seems 
 
 both now and erewhile most base. 
 
 'Ojr6TE rh SiKatov f^^ oTSa '6 ^trriv, a^o^V ^"^fro/xai e'ire aper-fj Tts oi(ra 
 TuTX""^' ^'TE oH. At a time when {= at any time when) I do 
 not know what justice is, I shall hardly know whether it happens 
 to be a virtue or not. 
 
 Thus whoever he is, whoever he may be, be he who he may, thrown in 
 parenthetically to universalize a statement {e.g. in a sentence like ' The 
 man that does this shall be punished, whoever he may be ') is either Sittij 
 iari {e.g. SoPH. , 0. T. 236) or otnis -rror' itrrl {e.g. Zeiis, Scrris ttot iffrl, 
 Aesch., Agam. 160) or itrris 6i/ ^ (§ 364.1). 
 
 4. The General Subjunctive is sometimes found vnthout &v, chiefly in 
 poetry, rarely in prose ; the following instance (Thuc. iv. 17, 2) probably 
 contains a quotation of part of an iambic line (o5 . . . troWols) : — 
 
 ''E.'Kix<^ptQV *ov Tfiitv, o5 fx€v ^pax^'is apKwffL, fx^i 7ro\\o7s xPVO'^ai. It being 
 (Mr national custom, not to use many words wherever few suffice : 
 cf. the Prospective Subjunctive without Si/ in note on p. 187. 
 
 tia" On the omission of iv in If-clauses see § 502. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 5. The same sort of Assimilation of Mood as is'found in Final Clauses 
 (§ 350, Obs. 3) is also found in other kinds of Subordinate Clause : 
 
 (a) The Optative in dependence on an Optative : — 
 
 "EpSoi Tij ijv EKaffTos ciSefi) t4xvw- Would that each man would 
 practise the craft that he understood. (Quam quisque norit 
 artem, in hac se eserceat.) 
 
 TeSvairiv ire fioi jurj/ceri toEto fie\oi. Oh thai I might die when these 
 should he no longer my delight. 
 
 (b) A Past Tense of the Indicative, marking an action as not realized, 
 ip dependence on a Past Tense of the Indicative denoting unreality : — 
 
 XpTJv (Te irepifiev€iv eus aTrsTreipdffTjs ttjs trotpids rauTT/trf. You ought 
 to have waited until you had made trial of this philosophy. 
 
 6. The Principal Clause corresponding to a Relative or Temporal 
 Clause may, like the Principal Clause of a Conditional Sentence, speak of 
 what would he or would have been {i.e. it may contain a Conditional State- 
 ment expressed by the Indicative or Optative with &v) : iu that case the 
 Relative or Temporal Clause takes the same Moods and Tenses as the 
 corresponding kinds of If-clause (§ 355) : — 
 
 Oi Tra7Ses i^ay, Sffoi ej/Bd^e ^ffav, {ynh toiStoji' &y ifipi^ovTO. Your 
 children, as many of them as were present (quotquot adessent, 
 implying that children are not present), would be maltreated 
 by these men : Sroi ?iaav like ei ^aav, § 355, 1 a. 
 
 'OttSts iKeTyo eyj/ufiev, IxavSis Uv e?xf ^ ri^v. When we had discovered 
 the thing [for which we were searching], we should have been 
 content : dv6Te e-yva/iei' like cl fyya/iev., § 355, 1 6. Similarly 
 dTrirepa roiruv aireKpivaro, ii\4yxBrj &v, whichever of these 
 answers he had given, he would have been confuted. 
 
 'E7<l) fuv OKVoi-nv i.v els tb, ir\ota. i/i^aiveiv & Kvpos Soit]. I for my part 
 should hesitate to embark in the vessels that Cyrus gave (quas 
 Cyrus det) : & Soiri like ei 80(77, § 355. 1 "• 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 366 
 
 NOUN CLAUSES (§ 313). 
 Noun Clauses may be divided into two great classes : 
 
 A. Those which express that something is or should he: — 
 (i) 0I8a oTt aSiKos et. / know that you are unjust. 
 
 = / know this : you are unjust. 
 OTSa TovTO • aSiKos ei. 
 
 Here the that-clsMse is a statement of fact, and is called a 
 Dependent Statement. 
 
 (ii) 'Opd fjLT) aSiKos ys. See to it that you be not unjust. 
 
 = See to it : he not unjust (or may you not be 
 unjust). "Opd TOVTO • //.ri aSiKos ta-Bi (or 
 firjs). 
 
 Here the that-clsM&e expresses what should be, and is called a 
 Dependent Command ( = Clause of Desire). 
 
 B. Those which are introduced by an interrogative or exclam- 
 atory word : — 
 
 (i) 'EpoirS et St/catos ei. / ask whether you are Just. 
 = / ask this : are you Just ? 
 TovT IpioTui • S,pa StKaios et ; 
 
 Here the Subordinate Clause is interrogative, and is called a 
 Dependent Question. Note that the Sentence as a whole is here 
 not a Question but a Statement; a 'Dependent Question' may be 
 defined as a Question Clause in a Complex Sentence, or a Noun 
 Clause introduced by an interrogative word. 
 
 The verb on which the Question Clause depends need not be 
 a verb of asking : e.g. Ovk olSa d SUaio's et, I do not know whether 
 you are Just {= I do not know the answer to the question 'are you 
 just ? ') 
 
 (ii) ©av/jMo-Tov ecrnv is oStKos el. It is strange how unjust you are. 
 
 = It is a strange thing : how unjust 
 you are! Tovto Bav/xaa-TOV ecrriv • 
 (US aStKos €1 (cf. § 345). 
 
 Here the Subordinate Clause is exclamatory, and is called a 
 Dependent Exclamation, the Sentence as a whole being a State- 
 ment. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. ni 
 
 367 
 
 Obs. Noun Clauses are chiefly used as the Object of the Principal 
 Verb, and in such cases they may be called Object Clauses (see the first 
 three examples above, p. 212) ; but they may also be used as the Subject of 
 the Principal Verb (see the last example above), or in dependence on a 
 Noun or Pronoun in the Principal Clause {The hope that you will bejmt has 
 vanished. See to this, that you be just.). 
 
 A. Noun Clauses expressing 'that something is or 
 should be' (Dependent Statements and Dependent 
 Commands). 
 
 TAa^clauses are expressed by the following constructions in 
 Greek * : 
 
 1. An Infinitiver with or without an Accusative : — 
 
 No/ii^o) are SUaiov ttvai. I think that you are just. 
 
 Nojui^o) SiKatos etvai. l think that I am just. 
 The construction of the Infinitive vrith an Accusative Subject 
 is exactly like the English I consider you to be just and the Latin 
 arbitror ie justum esse. But that of the Infinitive without an 
 Accusative Subject is foreign to English and Latin, except in such 
 sentences as / desire to be just, cupio esse Justus, which are Simple 
 Sentences (§ 330, 2). 
 
 Edlb. — When the Subject of the Infinitive is different from 
 that of the Principal Verb, it is expressed by the Accusative ; 
 when the Subject of the Infinitive is the same as that of the 
 Principal Verb, it is not expressed at all, and any predicative or 
 attributive words belonging to it are put in the Nominative Case 
 {i.e. are made to agree with the Subject of the Principal Verb). 
 
 Obs. 1. The Definitive Adjective avros (ipse) is frequently used 
 in the Nominative to emphasise the unexpressed Subject of the 
 Infinitive : — 
 
 KA,eu)v ovK i^-q avroi dXA.' IkHvov CTTparriyuv. Cleon said 
 that not he himself but the other man was general. 
 Clean negdvit se (Subject) ipsum (Dei. Adj.) esse ducem. 
 The independent sentence would have been ovk avros 
 a-TpwrqySt, non ipse dux sum.. 
 
 * How these constructions are employed in connexion with particular 
 verbs wiU be shown in §§ 368, 369. 
 
214 SVNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Subject of the Infinitive is occasionally expressed even 
 when it is the same as the Subject of the Principal Verb ; in this case a 
 Pronoun of the 1st or 2nd Person stands in the Accusative or Nominative, 
 a Pronoun of the 3rd Person generally in the Nominative : — 
 
 AoKu |i€ vfipav T^Se To\ii.i\(Tfiv irt. I think that I shall yet make this 
 venture. Accusative with Infinitive (Soph. El. 471, cf. Trach. 
 706). Here the speaker looks at his own action from without. 
 
 El oXfirBe XaKKid4ds ^ Meyapeas r^v 'EWdSa fftiffeiv, b/xeTs 8e atroBpA- 
 aetrBai Th. irpoLy^aTa, ovk 6p6us oXeffde. If you think that 
 Chalcidians or Megarians will save Greece, and that you your- 
 selves (expressed for the sake of emphasis) will get out of the 
 biisiness, you are mistaken. Nominative with Infinitive (Dem. 
 Phil. iu. 74). 
 
 *Ev4fiiC^v ou (r<J3€7s dS{K67(r0a(, aAA* iKeivovs fia?iAof, He thought that not 
 they {= he and his fellow-countrymen, expressed for the sake of 
 contrast to ixeTvoi) hut the other party were being wronged. 
 Nominative with Infinitive (Thuo. iv. 114.5). 
 
 2. A Participle, with or without an Accnsative : — 
 
 OTSa 0-e SUaiov ovTa. / know that you are just. 
 OtSa StKaios &v. I know that I am just. 
 
 This construction is foreign to English and Latin. The 
 Subject of the Participle is expressed by the Accusative, or not 
 expressed at all, in precisely the same way as with the Infinitive 
 (see 1, above). Cf. Milton's imitation, "And knew not eating 
 death ". 
 
 3. °Oti or (is with a Finite Yerb (Indicative or Optative) :— 
 
 Xai'puj oTi Swcatos d. I rejoice that you are just. 
 JLaipm on SUaios dfju.. I r^oiee that I am just. 
 
 This construction is exactly like the form generally used in 
 modern languages (English that, French que, German dass), and 
 is far more common than the quod-olaxxBB in Latin, which corres- 
 ponds to it (Gauded quod Justus es). The on-clause is the most 
 universal form of Dependent Statement in Greek, and may be 
 used not only in dependence on most verbs of saying, perceiving, 
 knowing, showing, rejoicing, grieving, and wondering (§§ 368 a, 
 368 d, 368 e), but also in sentences like t<S <J)66vid tovto /jlovov 
 dyadov Trp6<re(TTLV, on jiiyKnov KaKov TOis e)(pva-Lv icrnv, the only 
 good thing that attaches to envy is that it is a very great curse to 
 those that entertain it (invidiae illud tanium aeeedit bonum, quod 
 summum malum est invidentibus), where the ^Aai-clause does not 
 depend on any special verb. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 215 
 
 EuLB. — In dependence on a tense of past time the Indicative 
 with oTt or us is either retained without change of tense, or 
 changed into the Optative of the same tense-stem : — 
 
 nrev on ep<n;s e<7Tiv. I ^^ ^^^.^ ^j^^^ j^ ^^^ ^ Persian. 
 rjiirev on ilepa-q's eiij. J 
 
 i^ On the use of Tenses see further in § 370 c. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Subject of tlie Dependent Statement is sometimes antici- 
 pated as the Object of the Principal Verb : — 
 
 "Yiyvuiv <re, Stl trxXripis e? &v8pairos. I knew thee that thou art an 
 hard man ( = / knew that thou wast . . .). 
 
 Obs. 4. "On is far more common than S>s, which is chiefly used in 
 dependence on verbs of thinking, to convey an impression that such and 
 such is the case. 
 
 Obs. 5. Other conjunctions used instead of Sti. are ouVc/ca, iBoivina, 
 and (in dependence on verbs of emotion^, § 368 c, Obs. 1) ei. 
 
 Obs. 6. When the Indicative is retained without change of tense, its 
 Person may also remain unchanged ; in this case the Sti is equivalent to 
 inverted commas in English : — 
 
 Elirey oTi Tl4pa-r)s el/ii. He said " I am, a Persian ". 
 
 4, "Oirus with a Finite Yerb (usually Future Indicative) : — 
 
 SKOjrciTe OTTOis StKaiot ia-i(r9e. See to it that you be Just. 
 ''Eirii/.eXovij.ai ottojs SiKaios ia-ofiai. I take care that I may 
 he just. 
 
 This construction corresponds to the Latin ut with the Sub- 
 junctive in Noun Clauses {Curd ut Justus sim), the Future 
 Indicative expressing what shall be (as distinct from what icill be) ; 
 cf. the use of the Future Indicative in Final Relative Clauses 
 (§ 364, 2 b). Note that whereas Latin here employs the same 
 construction as in Adverb Clauses of Purpose {Venio ut videam), 
 in Greek- the Moods are generally different in the two cases (c/. 
 § 350), and im is absolutely excluded from Noun Clauses. 
 
 5. Mil with a Finite Yerb (usually Subjunctive or Opta- 
 tive) : — 
 
 ^^ov/jLoi iJLrj aSiKos ys. I fear lest you may be unjust. 
 'E(l>oj3ovfji.riv ixrj aSiKos elrjv. I feared lest I might be unjust. 
 
 This construction corresponds to the Latin ne with the Sub- 
 junctive in Noun Clauses {Metuo ne injustus sis, Metuebam ne 
 injustus essem). 
 
2l6 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 363a 
 
 Veebs op 'sating' and 'thinking'. 
 
 »y^, (K.vpov fi,\v TiOvavai, 'Apiaiov 8c Tr((j>evyevai. 
 
 '' \oTL Kv/oo5 itxv TidvrjKO/, 'ApLoio's 8e Tre^euyws cirj. 
 
 1 
 
 They said that Cyrus ivas dead and Ariaeus had fled. 
 
 "OuoXovSi "W"''"- I / confess that I sinned. 
 "^ ' [^OTi ijft.a.pTOV. ) 
 
 ToX;«.u)(7i Xeyciv ovSe/jiidv /JuixV^ ycyovevai. They ventltre to 
 
 assert that no battle has taken place. 
 Aeyci (is ouSev e<rTtv aSiKWTepov ^t^/joj's. He says that nothing 
 
 is more unjust than rumour, 
 l^op-illfi) Tov% ovThi Trpd.TTOVTa's ovre <roi^ovs ovtc (Tii)<f>pova% civai. 
 
 / consider that those who act thus are neither wise nor 
 
 right minded. 
 O'ofMu ['EXtti'^o)] vlK-qa-iiv. I think [hope'] that I shall conquer. 
 Oi CTTpariwrai virw-TTTevov hrl PairiKia. Ovai, p.icr6oi6rjvaL 8e ovk 
 
 fTrl TovT<o iipacrav. The soldiers suspected that they were 
 
 marching against the King, hut said that it was not for 
 
 this object that they had been hired. 
 
 2. Ovk €<j)-rj (nrovSd^eiv. He denied that he was in a hurry, or 
 said that he was in no hurry. 
 'H JhiOLo, OVK t(j>ri xp^o-eiv. The priestess refused to declare 
 (or said that she would not declare) the oracle. 
 
 Rules. — 1. That-clsMses depending on verbs of saying and 
 thinking are expressed either by an Infinitive * (with or without 
 an Accusative, § 367, 1) ; Negative generally ov : or by on or (is 
 with a Finite Verb (§ 367, 3) ; Negative always ov. 
 
 2. Instead of using a Negative in the Dependent Clause it is 
 usual in some cases to negative the Principal Verb (ov (jdij/^ii, / deny 
 or refuse = I say that . . . not ; ov vofjit^m, I disbelieve = / think 
 that . . . not, etc.). 
 
 Verbs of saying : Xiy<o {ipu>, elirov), <t>Vl^^i ^oxtku) ; 
 6f).oXoyS>, confess ; ymi<y)(ymipjo,i., v7roSe;^Oyuai, v(f)i<rTap,aL 
 (Aor. VTricrrrjv), eTrayycXXo/iai, promise ; o/xvO/ii, swear ; 
 direiXG, threaten ; 7rpoa-TroioviJ.ai, pretend. 
 Verbs of thinking : vo/ai^io, rfyovfuu, oto/x,ai, SokS ; eXtti'^o), 
 hope; iruTTevw, am sure; tlKa^m, guess; viroXaix^avm, 
 suppose; inroTrTevw, suspect. 
 
 * In this coustruotion the Aorist Infin. refers to past time. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 217 
 
 Obs. 1. Of the above verbs, ipni/il, ipourica, and most verbs of thinking 
 nearly always take tbe Infinitive : ehov takes Hn or i>s : Xcya takes either 
 of these constructions. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Negative with the Infinitive in the Dependent Clause is 
 jii<7 (contrary to the above rule) in two cases : — 
 
 (a) When the Principal Verb would itself be negatived by /f^, for 
 example vrhen it is an Lnperative or stands in an If-olause : vi/nC^ /iiiSfy 
 Tuv avBpaTrivav pifiaiov elvai, consider no hitman interest to be secure {= fih 
 v6fll^e Ti TWV avBptaTTivccv $e^atov eJj/at) : elf tls vofil^ei rt fiij LKavats etp^(r0ai, 
 aviurrvLs inrofiLVTitTdTa, if anyone thinks that anything has not been correctly stated, 
 let Aim get up and say so. 
 
 (b) When the Dependent Clause expresses not pure fact but resolve or 
 strong assurance : inrurxfovfiai fi^ dTroT^tretv vfias, I promise that I will not 
 deceive you ; Sfivvffi ravra /n^irore yeviia'ea'Sai, he swears that this shall never 
 happen. This construction is often found in dependence on verbs of 
 swearing and hoping, and regularly in dependence on verbs of promising ; 
 the Infinitive generally refers to the future, but with S/ivvia sometimes to 
 the present or past (S/iyOo-j fiii Spaaai, he swears that he did not do it). 
 
 368b Verbs of negative meaning belonging to this class (apvoCynai, 
 
 deny, and its compounds ; dvTtXeyw, gainsay ; aTrioTS), disbelieve ; 
 a/j.ffiKrft'^Tla, dispute) generally take an untranslatable Negative in 
 the Dependent Clause (/j,^ with the Infinitive, ov with on or (is) ; 
 and when the verb of negative meaning is itself negatived or 
 stands in a question with negative meaning, the Infinitive (but 
 not the on or is clause) has two untranslatable Negatives {fur} oi) : — ■ 
 
 '^ "^ LoTt ovK-eiroiricra.J 
 
 OvK a.irapvovimi.Ci^ "* Toi^crat. |^ ^^ ^^ ^ that I did it. 
 '^ "^ \0Tt OVK aroL-qcra.) 
 
 Tis airapvriKTerax jj-r] ovk iirlcrTacrOai to, St'/cata; Who will 
 deny that he knows what is right ? 
 
 OiSeis a/t<^to-/8ijT£r /j^rj ovx i^Sta 'tvai to, •^Sca. No One disputes 
 that what is sweet is sweet. Nemo dubitat quin suavia 
 sint suavia. 
 
 Obs. In the Greek idiom the verb of negative meaning is treated as a 
 verb of saying, and the Dependent Clause makes a full statement of what 
 is said (as appears sometimes by the use of the Article t6 with the Infin., 
 § 536, Obs.) ; hence the /i^ in airapvov/iai /j.ii iroj^<roi, 1 enter a disclaimer to 
 the effect that I did not do it. But the oA in n^ ov is a mere echo of the ov 
 expressed or implied with the Principal Verb. 
 
 15 
 
218 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 368c 
 
 368 d 
 
 In the Passive Construction of verbs of saying and thinking, 
 (3reek, like Latin, generally prefers the personal to the impersonal 
 form : — 
 
 "0 KSpos iXiytTo reOvdvai. Cyrus was said to be dead. 
 
 Cyrus dicebatur mortuus esse. 
 'Epws o/xoXoyeiTOt /xeyas Oebs etvai. Love is confessed to he 
 
 a great god. 
 Oi Ile/Do-at evoixi^ovTo avSpeioTaroi eivat. The Persians were 
 thought to be very brave. 
 But verbs of saying (not verbs of thinking) also admit of the 
 impersonal form (rare in Latin) : — 
 
 '^Xiy.TOTOvmpovMva^.\j^ ^^ ^^.^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^ 
 
 xLAeyero OTt o Kvpos TeOvairj > ^p^d 
 
 or TeOvyjKev.) 
 
 AND 'showing' 
 
 '4 , 
 
 Verbs op 'perceiving,' 'knowing,' 
 
 'r\ - f TTCtvTa akriOn ovTa, a XeyeTe. 1 -B o "S =i-i 
 
 {Jp(iiu,ev< , , >\ nr ' « \ ' f = "^ 2 • tf n 
 
 ■^ "^ I OTt iravTa aK-qtrq eo-Tiv, a Key ere. J M -<! ^ p— i 
 
 TFe see that everything you say is true. 
 
 'Icri9i|7°V7 ""■ » jZnoifl that thou art foolish. 
 \.OTi avorjTO's ei.J 
 
 ,T, CovK dirotbeviou.evo'; . 
 
 ' loTi ovK aTTOcpev^ofiai or airocpeufoiyoHjv. 
 
 / /(weifl ^7ja< / should not escape. 
 
 ^ii^ia OVK aftos u)V ^avarov. / sAaZZ sAoM that I am not 
 
 worthy of death. 
 
 EuLB. — J7ia<-clauses depending on verbs of perceiving, Jcnowing, 
 and shomng ( = causing to know) are expressed 
 
 either by a Participle (with or without an Accus., § 367,. 2) ; 
 Negative generally oi : 
 or by oTi or us with a Finite Verb (§ 367, 3) ; 
 Negative always ov. 
 Verbs of perceiving : 6pu>, aKovoi, alcrOavofuxi ; ixav6a.vo>, irwddv- 
 
 o/xai, learn ; evpicrKoi, KwraXaiiPdvu), find. 
 Verbs of knowing : olSa, yiyviicrKui, emcrra/iai, ovk ayvow, etc. ; 
 
 /ujuv^cTKO/iai, ix,i)i,vr]p.ai, remember ; iTriXavOdvofjiaL, forget. 
 Verbs of showing : idicvvpA, SrjXS), <f>alvu> ; i\iy)((o, prove ; woiw, 
 represent ; dyycXXo), announce. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 2ig 
 
 368e 
 
 Ors. 1. The Negative with the Participle in the Dependent Clause is 
 ju^ when the Principal Verb would itself be negatived by /t^ : e.g. yivai, 
 aii.ip' XaBt /i^ /jte SaiTreiirovTd ere, he assured, lady, that I sTiall not flatter thee 
 ( = 3ti ov Bayireierai ire) : cf. § 368 a, Obs. 1. 
 
 Obs. 2. 3ii/oiSa 4iJiavT$ = conscius sum mihi, takes the Participle either 
 in the Nominative or in the Dative : ov <rivoiSa ifiavr^ ao^hs &v, I am, not 
 aware thai I am a wise man ; crw^Sjj ^/iavr^ ovSey iviffTajiepif, I was aware 
 that I Jcnew nothing. 
 
 Obs. 3. Note /ie/ivriiiat (olSa, axoia) Sre, I remember (knoui, hear of) the 
 time when, with the Indicative ; Lat. inemmi cum. 
 
 VbEBS of ' EBJOICING,' ' GRIEVING,' AND ' WONDERING '. 
 
 1 . A)(6sfai oTi ov Tu>v ap)(6vT0]iv 6 avfjp kunv. She is annoyed 
 
 that her husband is not one of the magistrates. 
 
 01 (TTpaTTiyoi IdavfLa^ov on ovre aXXov vifji/iroi ovre airos 
 <l>atvoiTo. The generals wondered at his neither 
 sending any other man nor appearing himself. 
 
 2. OvK a)(6ojtju t' tScov Tt K0.1 Xa;8a)v <I>lX.ov. I am not sorry 
 
 that I have found thee and gained thee as a friend. 
 
 Mere/yieXovTo tus OTrovSas ov Se^a/ucvoi (or Mere/yieXei/ awois 
 Tflts o-JTovSas ov Se^afjJvoK). They repented that they 
 had not accepted the truce. 
 
 T'^S AioXtSos T^aXcirfls e<f)ep€V aveaTfprjp^ei'o's. He took it 
 
 hard that he had been deprived of Aeolis. 
 
 Rules. — 1. TAa^clauses depending on verbs of rejoining, 
 grieving, and wondering are generally expressed by on or is with 
 a Finite Verb (§ 367, 3; cf. Gha. 1, below); Negative ov. 
 
 2. Verbs of rejoicing and grieving may also take the Participle, 
 but only when there is no change of Subject ; Negative ov. 
 
 Verbs of rejoicing: X"'P<"' ^8o/iai, Tepiro/^iat, yeyqOa; dyaTrS, 
 a-repyo), am- content. 
 
 Verbs of grieoing : ax6op,0Li, ayavaKrH), Xvirovfji,ai, /Sapiuii or 
 ^aXiTTwi <J3ipu> = aegre fero ; opyi^op/u, \aXiwaivio, am 
 angry ; aia^vo/xai, alSov/jLai, am ashamed ; fji,iTap,iXoiuxi or 
 fxerafiiXei fwi, repent. 
 
 Verbs of mondering : Oavfia^w, Oavfiaa-rov ia-nv. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 368 f 
 
 Obs. 1. Verbs of wondering more commonly take d in the 
 sense of on or u)s ; in this case the Negative is generally fJj :— 
 
 ®av/xa^u) £t fiT) 6l<rOa. I am surprised that you do not hioin 
 (Mlror si nescis). 
 Ei is also found with 3.^(601x01, ayavaKTW, dyaTrS, etc. 
 
 Obs. 2. The following examples contain peculiarities ; roiis yh,p 
 ei(re$f7s deal | flcjJincoi'Tas oli x'"po5in>', /OJ' the gods do not rejoice that the pious 
 should die (Accusative with Participle) ; TrevBe?!/ 06 o-e 6aviui(a>, I do not 
 wonder thai thou moumest (Accusative with Infinitive). 
 
 Verbs of 'feaeing'. 
 
 Ae'SoiKa fir} errLka.6uiix.i6a Tq's otxaSe 68o5. I fear lest we may 
 forget (ne obllviscamur) the way Jwme. 
 
 'E<}>ol3iLTo fj.i] ov SvvaiTo €K TTj's ^litpdi i^tXOeLv. He feared 
 lest he might not be able (ne non posset or ut posset) 
 to get out of the country. 
 
 Rule. — A fear lest something may or might happen is expressed 
 
 furi with the Subjunctive in present or future time ; 1 ~ ogy k 
 fjiri with the Optative in past time. ) ' ' 
 
 The Negative of the /A);-clause is ov ; hence ' that no one ' is fiJr) 
 oiSci's (ut quisquam). 
 
 The chief verbs of fearing are Sc'SoiKa, Se'Sia, tjiofiovfiai, 6kvC> : 
 equivalent phrases, kIvSvvos itm, tfiojiepov icm, Seivdv ecrrt, etc. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Subjunctive and Optative with iiii, lest, sometimes denote 
 what may prove to be the case : — 
 
 AeiTOs afii/iai /it^ PKewuy S fidivTis J. I have terrible misgivings lest the 
 
 seer prove to have sight. 
 "ESeurav /lij Kiffira rifuv iiximrTdiKoi. They feared lest madness might 
 prove to have fallen upon us. 
 
 Obs. 2. In all the above instances the lear relates to the future : a 
 fear, almost amounting to an anxious conviction, that something is or was 
 the case is expressed by /i^ ( = that) with the Indicative : — 
 
 *o;8o5/»ai ii't) Sv(rK6\m ex"- ^ <^™ afraid that (or / suspect that) I am 
 
 cross : vereor ne morosus sim. 
 ^ofioiiicBa liii S/ia aiujioTepav ri/iapTiiKaiiev. We are afraid that we 
 have missed both objects at the satne time. 
 [Occasionally we find /i^ with the Future Indicative expressing a fear 
 that something will be the case. ] 
 
 Obs. 3. Peculiarity (fcws /x^ for /t^ : cf. % 369 a) : StSotx Siras ix^ 
 aviyicri yfvi)ireTa.i (or yhr\rai), originally, / am anxiously conlrimng how it 
 shall not be necessary = I fear lest it may be necessary. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 368 g Impbrsonal expbessions dbnoting (i) 'it happens,' 'it is the 
 
 FACT,' ' it is possible,' ETC. ; (ii) ' IT IS RIGHT,' ' IT IS WRONG,' 
 ' IT IS NECESSARY,' ETC. 
 
 (i) Swe/Sr; TeXeova vIkcLv. It happened that Gelon loas victorious. 
 
 Accidit ut Gelon victor esset. 
 H yap ttot' €<rTiv iKirttreiv ap)(^s Ataj Is it possible that 
 
 Zeus should ever he cast from his throne ? 
 'Ytrdp)(€i yap o-£ /jbrj yvS>vai nva. It is the fact that no one 
 
 knows thee. 
 'EvSep^eTat avSpa crui(j>pova avdis /J-rj croxjipoveiv. It is possible 
 
 that a right-minded man should in his turn not be right 
 
 minded. 
 'Ev AiyiJTTTO) ovK l^ecTt ^CKTiAed p^cupts tepartK^s ap^^ew. In 
 
 Egypt it is not lawful that a Icing should hold office 
 
 vjithout priestly powers. 
 (ii) Uprj /t£ Ko\At,€a-6ai. It is right that I should he punished. 
 
 Aequum est me piinin. 
 Aei airoris /tij OKViiv Tr6Xep,ov avr' elpT^vrj^ p,eTaXafiil3aveLV. It 
 
 is necessary that they should not hesitate to take war in 
 
 exchange for peace. 
 Tovo-Sc yap /ii) [,fjv ISct (or ovk tSet yap TovcrSc ^yv). For 
 
 these men ought not to he alive. 
 *E8of£ irActv Tov 'AXKijiidSrjv. It was decided that Alcihiades 
 
 should sail. 
 Altrxpov yap avSpa tov /uiKpov XPS^^"' P^ov. For it is dis- 
 graceful that a man should desire the full span of life. 
 ®pa(rvcrT0lJt,eiv yap ov Trpetra tov^ ^crcroj'as. It is TWt fitting 
 
 that the weaker should he hold of tongue. 
 
 KuLE. — TTia^-clauses depending on impersonal expressions 
 
 denoting it happens, it is possible, or it is right, it is wrong, it is 
 
 necessary, and the like, are expressed by the Accusative with the 
 
 Infinitive* (= Lat. aif with Subj. or Aoous. with Infin.); Neg. ^,17. 
 
 Note ov Set ju.£ for Set p,6 fx.ri, etc. 
 
 The chief impersonal expressions of the above kind are : — 
 (rup,y8atVet, V7rdp)(€i, : 
 
 c^etTTt, ecTTt, eyp^wpet, evSej^erat, otov re ecrrt : 
 XPV> ^^'j ■"■peTet, Trpo(TrjK€i, hoKa, (Tvp,<l>ipu, St/caiov ectti, koKov 
 
 icTTi, ai(T\p6v icTTL, etKos ecTTt : 
 vpecov ecTTt, avdyKfj ecrrt, Katpos etrrt, (opa, ecrrt, etc. 
 
 * In this construction the Aorist Infin. does not refer to past time. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 1. Most of the above impersonal expressions (except xp^ ^^^ *") 
 may also take a Dative and an Infinitive, or an Infinitive alone ; but then 
 the sentence is a Simple Sentence : — 
 
 SuvePri auT(J> 'OKvfLiriiSa ave\f<r6ai. Be had the good luck to (oontigit 
 
 ei ut) carry off an Olympic victory. 
 'AyaSoh tpuv Trpoff'liKei etvat. It concerns you to be good. 
 
 The Dative and Infinitive is unknown with xp^ ^^^ extremely rare 
 with ScI: the normal constructions with Set are Sei fie with the Infinitive, 
 Seiyii"' with the Genitive (§ 327'). 
 
 Obs. 2. Verbs of happening sometimes take fio-re with the Infinitive : — 
 Uvye^ri fiffre fi-qSerepovs en a^atrOai iroKe/iov. It resulted that neither 
 party clung to war any longer. 
 
 Obs. 3. Instead of the above impersonal constructions we often find 
 personal constructions like : — 
 
 aIkulSs etfit TovTo TToiflji. I have a right to do this, 
 AlKai6s etfii (riniova-Sai. It is right that I should he fined. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Latin tantum abest ut . . . ut is ordinarily expressed by 
 a personal construction in Greek : — 
 
 TotrouTou Sew rwv hWorpiuv ^TnOiiiAeiv, &ffre ^Wov aipov/iai rh ^fiavrov 
 Ii6mv exeic. / am so far from desiring other men's property 
 that I prefer to possess none but my own {cf. ^ 415, Obs. 2). 
 
 Verbs of Effort. 
 
 Tov (TTparriyov iTniJ.€X.€icr6ai Set OTrtos ol (rrpanwrai, (twol 
 €<rovTai. The general must take care that tlie soldiers 
 he safe (ducem cflrare oportet ut milites incolumes 
 sint). 
 
 'ETre^eXeiTo ottcds /i^ atriTot tcrovTai (or icroivTo). He took 
 care that they should not be without food (ciirabat ne, 
 or ut ne, friimento carerent). 
 
 2oi fiiXiro) OTTojs /Lf^ ere oxj/erai,. Mind he does not see you. 
 
 'EirpcuTo-ov oTTuis Tts poriO^M ^iei. They tried to bring it 
 about that succour should come. 
 
 Rule. — TlMt-dimses depending on Verbs of Effort are expressed 
 by oTTcos with the Future Indicative (§ 367, 4), for whicli the 
 Future Optative may be substituted in past time ; Negative ^7;. 
 
 Verbs of Effort include verbs of 
 
 taking care : €irtjtt£A,oCyu«i, ixAXa /jloi, 'j>povp!i), etc. 
 taking pains : (rirovSd^ia, fi-qy^avwiiaL, irapaa-Kevd.^oiJ.ai, Trpdcra-o; 
 etc. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 223 
 
 Obs. 1. The following verbs of 
 
 seeing to it : opS), ctkowu) {larKs^d.)i.riv), 
 being on one's gtiard : ^uXao-<ro/Liai, evka^ov/xai, ^povTit,u>, 
 take either the same constructions as the above, or the construction 
 of verbs oi fearing {fji,ri with the Subjunctive for oirtos p-rj with the 
 Future Indicative, § 368 f). Thus, Let us see to it that no man he 
 wronged m&j be expressed in either of the following ways : — 
 
 (i) SK07r(ii/i€v OTTCOS /AijSeis aSiKT^crerai. 
 (ii) SK07r5ju,ev /iij rts ABiiaJTaL {lest any man be wronged). 
 
 See to it that you do not fall may be expressed : — 
 
 i^) "2^^. °T^n Tf ^ m \ Vide ne cadSs. 
 (11) Opa /i^ Tretrjjs {J,est you fall).) 
 
 Note, however, that when the Dependent Clause is affirmative 
 the construction with ottcos is alone possible : — 
 
 "Opd oxu)s fj TToAts (T<tiBri(reTai. See to it that the -state be 
 preserved : vide ut respublica servetur. 
 
 Obs. 2. "bpa /j.^ iralCa>v e\eyev (see to it that he was not speaking in jest = 
 consider whether he was not speaking in jest) corresponds in form to (po^ovnai 
 fiil SuirKi\a>s ix" {^ "'"' ofrO'id that I am cross ; § 368 f , Obs. 3) ; but observe 
 that in the former case /f^ is rendered by that not, in the latter by thai,. 
 
 Obs. 3. Verbs of Efiort sometimes, but far less commonly, take the 
 constructions of Pinal Clauses (Adverb Clauses of Purpose), i.e. Situs, ottcos . 
 &v, or iis, iis &v (but never Iva) with the Present or Aorist Subjunctive or 
 Optative : cf. § 350, Bule 1 and Obs. 1 :— 
 
 npdiov&iv 'inas 7r(i\eynos yhnrai. They will cause war to break out. 
 
 'E/iefie^'liKeiv airais Siraif d iTriraypirt]! elSstri. It had ieen their care 
 that the marshal should know. 
 
 SKifirci (hrais &y avroBiivaiiev avSpucdTwra. See to it that we die most 
 mamfuUy. 
 
 'SireiSovTes iis Zeis /nljiroT' Spfeiei/ BiSiv. Eagerly striving that Zeus 
 should never become king of the gods. 
 
 Obs. 4. By omission of an Imperative like a-K6irei or a-Koire^Ts in the 
 Principal Clause we get such expressions of command as Srus S|ioi Eo-co-ee 
 Trjs iKevBeplSs. {See to it] that you be worthy of freedom : cf. p. 180, Obs. 8 (iii). 
 
224 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 369b 
 
 Verbs of Will ob Desikb. 
 'EKcXcutrev (or irap-^yyeiXev) « t^s rd^cws fjLijSiva KlveXcrOai. 
 
 He commanded that no one shoidd move from his 
 
 appointed place. 
 ILyjpv^ dveiire tov BiXovr' iy)^(apioiv \ is Saira ^<apeiv. The 
 
 herald proclaimed that any of the dwellers in the land 
 
 who wished should go to the banquet. 
 EiTTov ['E/SoT^cra] //.T/Seva irapievai eis ttjv aKpoiroX.iv. I said 
 
 [I shouted] that no one should pass into the citadel. 
 Tovs Oeovs €v)(€(r6e ttoXXo. Sovvai Kdyadd. Pray that the gods 
 
 may give many and good gifts. 
 'Yia-rrev^ov elp-^vriv yevecrOai. They were eager that peace 
 
 should be made. 
 'H/iSs oiS' evavXicr^^i/ai hnTphvu';. You do not even permit 
 
 that we should pitch our camp in the country. The 
 
 ov- belongs to the Finite Verb : ovk hnTpi-n-ws = you 
 
 forbid. 
 K.o<T/jL€tcr6ai yvvaiKa ovk ia 'S,6X.wv. Solon does not permit that 
 
 a woman should wear finei y : ovk IS. = forbids. 
 Ovk d^iSi a-e adv)x.€Zv. I do not think it right that you should 
 
 be despondent : = d^iS o-e /xij aOvfutiv. 
 
 Rule. — That-dauses depending on Verbs of Will or Desire are 
 expressed by the Accusative with the Infinitive * ; Negative /x^ : 
 but instead of using /x-q in the Dependent Clause it is usual in 
 some cases to negative the Principal Verb (see last three examples). 
 
 * The tenses of the Infinitive employed in dependence on Verbs of 
 Will or Desire are the Present and the Aorist, both of them denoting shall 
 or should, i-e. expressing Command, In this construction the Aorist 
 Infinitive is timeless, differing from the Present Infinitive only in marking 
 the action as a single occurrence ; it does not, like the Aorist Infinitive in 
 dependence on verbs of ' saying ' and ' thinking,' mark the action as past ; 
 cf. § 368 a, note on p. 216. — Beware of using the Future Infinitive in 
 dependence on a Verb of WiU or Desire ; the Future Infinitive can only 
 express futurity, not command : e.g. (prifil [s^riv] tovto yfvii<re(rSai, I say [/ 
 saidi that this wiU [would] happen. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 225 
 
 tS' This construction, in which the Accusative is the Subject 
 of the Infinitive (the Ace. with Infin. together denoting that some- 
 thing should be), is legitimate even when the verb of Desire talies 
 a Genitive or Dative as one of its Objects in the Simple Sentence 
 (§ 333). The Verbs of Will or Desire include not only verbs 
 which take an Accusative Object, or are Intransitive, such as : — 
 
 PovXofiai, i6 eXoi, vdsh, mil; aipoC/xat, choose, yuaAAov aipov^ai, 
 prefer ( = malo) ; o-ireuSo), desire eagerly ; 
 
 a(T(o, aiToi)/x.at, ash ; irpoKakovfjuii, invite ; a$iSi, claim ; 
 
 KeXevo), bid ; irpoTpiirm, urge ; 
 
 iroiS, cause ; 
 
 IS), permit : 
 
 but also Dative Verbs such as : — 
 
 TrapayyeXXw, irpoa-Tacra-d), command (including verbs of 
 telling — Xeyai, <l>riii.C, fiow, when they denote command); 
 (rvfajSovXevo}, advise; 
 ivxpttai, pray ; 
 cTTtTpciro), o-uyxo)pfi, permit : 
 
 and Genitive Verbs such as : — 
 
 IvSvpiM, desire, hiop.ai, ask. 
 
 Contrast Simple Sentences like the following, in which the 
 expression of desire is addressed to a person : — 
 
 Ae'o/tat vp-Zv a-vp.^rjvai. I ask you to come to terms (Gen., 
 
 § 327*). 
 'Sivp.ftovXevu) vp2v crvp.p^vai. I advise you to come to terms 
 (Dat., § 328, p. 169). 
 with a Complex Sentence like the following, in which an action 
 of a person is desired : — 
 
 Aeojuat Kol (rvp,/3ov\eva) a-vp.l3rjvai. B/aSs. / ask and advise 
 that you should come to terms (Aoo. with Infin.). 
 
 Similarly contrast (.v-)(wp^6a rais Movcrais diruv ■fjp.'iv, let us pray 
 to the Muses to tell us (Simple Sentence) with roiis 6eovs ctJxeo-^e 
 TToXXa SoBvat KoLyaBd (Complex Sentence, quoted on p. 224). 
 
 KeXcvu) is the only verb of commanding which takes the 
 Accusative in either, construction : — 
 
 'E/ceXevicra avTov firi a.$vp,uv. I told him not to despond, or 
 / gave orders that he should not despond. 
 
226 SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 1. Some of the above verbs may be used in two senses : — 
 (i) as verbs of desire : Apya ir" 4yi> SSKifi tiKoieriiT-nv Kafielv. I say that 
 
 thou shalt take Philoctetes by guile. 
 (ii) as verbs of statement : \4ya at fivai trpoSSTriv, I say that thou art « 
 
 traitor. 
 Similarly ^ypai^e tSs iriiAeis aliTov6iiovs elvat migbt mean either he wrote 
 Chat th-e cities were independerii, or he issued a decree that the cities should be 
 independent. 
 
 Obs. 2. Verbs of Will or Desire sometimes take Snas, like Verbs of 
 Effort (§ 369 a, and Obs. 3, p. 223) :— 
 
 AiaKEA.ei>oi/Tai Swus av^p pLaWov iirrai (or p) toB irarpds. They exhort 
 him, to be more of a man than his father. 
 Obs. 3. Verbs of Will or Desire sometimes take a Subjunctive without 
 a Conjunction, as in the Latin oro venias. In these constructions the 
 Subjunctive originally formed an independent sentence : — 
 
 Soi\ei \d$<ii/iai ; Dost thou wish that I should lay hold ? Originally 
 Art thou willing ! Shall I lay hold 1 (Deliberative Subj.) 
 Cf. Shakspere, Tempest, ' Look thou be true ' = ' Look to it : be thou 
 true '. 
 
 369 c Verbs of negative meaning belonging to the class of Verbs of 
 Will or Desire often take an untranslatable ft.ri with the Infinitive 
 {)j.r] ov when they are themselves negatived or stand in a question 
 with negative meaning). This is always the case with om-ayopeioi 
 {aTTcpui, a-Trciirov), forbid : — 
 
 'ATnjyopeve fi-qMva PaXKuv irpiv KCpos i/JLirXrja-diirj 6ripS)v. 
 He forbade that anyone (interdixit ne quisquam) should 
 shoot till Cyrus shoidd have had enough sport. 
 OvK dirtiire [Tis aTrepu] tov KCpoi/ fxri ov /SakXtLv. He did 
 not forbid [ Who will forbid"] thai Cyrus should shoot. 
 Similarly in the Simple Sentence (where ajrayopeiui takes a 
 Dative Object) : airepSi t<3 Kupa) p.r} /SaWeiv, / shall forbid Cyrus 
 to shoot ; OVK a-irfpSt T<5 Kopm p-ij ov ^dWav, I shall not forbid Cyrus 
 to slioot. 
 
 Verbs of preventing take either the bare Infinitive or the 
 Infinitive with p.ri (some of them also, but not KiaXiia, the Infinitive 
 with ix.r) ov) : — 
 
 J Eip^u) o-€ irXiiv or p.r} irXeiv. I shall prevent your sailing.* 
 \ OvK e'pio) o-€ pL-T) ov irActv. / shall not prevent your sailing. 
 jTovTo KoiXva o-e TrXeiv Or p.r) TrA.eu'. This prevents your sailing. 
 lOiSev KtaXvu o-e -n-XiLv. Nothing prevents your sailing. 
 
 * Prohibebo te navigare or ne naviges. The jn^ may be represented in 
 the English translation by using from (' I shall prevent yoafrom sailimj '). 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 227 
 
 370 a 
 
 B. Noun Clauses introduced by an interrogative or 
 exclannatory word (Dependent Questions and 
 Dependent Exclamations, § 366 B). 
 
 Introducing words. 
 
 1 . Dependent Questions : — 
 
 Ov8€« c^cTrio-TOTai I TTiv avpiov //.eXXouo-av et /SuixreTai. No 
 
 one kTiows whether (num) he will live through the 
 
 coming morrow. 
 EtTre ^01 TTOTepov TaBr' aXr/Oij ecmv rj xf/evS^. 
 „ „ €t TttCr' aX.rj67J icrnv ^ xl/evSrj. 
 „ „ eiTC Tain-' ak-rjOrj icrnv eiTe \j/evSij. 
 Tell me whether (utrum) this is true or (an) false. 
 OTSa ocTTts €1. / know who (quis) you are. 
 'EpttfTO oiroorov eo-Tt to a-Tpdrev/ia. He asks how large 
 
 (quantus) the army is. 
 AoTjXov ia-Tw oir(os wiroPrjtrerai to irpayfxa. It is uncertain 
 
 how (quomodo) the matter will turn out. 
 
 2. Dependent Exclamations : — 
 
 OuSe KaOivBiiv Swajnat, 6pS>v ev otois iixfjiev. Nor can I sleep, 
 
 seeing what a ■position we are in (qualibus in periculis 
 
 versemur). 
 'EiOavjjMira tovto &% evp.evSti tov Aoyov aTreSef arc. / marvelled 
 
 at this, how graciously (quam benigne) he listened to 
 
 the argument. 
 *Q ju,iapo;TaTos, iv' inroSiSvKev. Oh the villain ! \to thinlr] 
 
 where he has crept in ! 
 
 Rules. — 1. Dependent Questions are introduced either by 
 Interrogative Particles {cf. § 344 c) : — 
 
 £1, whether 
 
 (num) 
 
 rarely apa 
 
 TTOTepov (or TTOTepa) 
 ei 
 
 or 
 an 
 
 . {whether . 
 
 elreiord) .... L)(^*™"^) 
 or by Interrogative Pronouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs, such as 
 
 6o"TtS or TIS, OTTOIOS or WOtOS, OTTOO-OS or TTOCOS, OTTOTe/DOS or TTOTEpOS, 
 OTTtOS or TtSs, OTTOV or TTOTV, OTTOL or TTOl. 
 
 2. Dependent Exclamations are introduced by Exclamatory 
 Adjectives or Adverbs, such as otos, oo-os, d)s, tva, ol (also used as 
 Relatives, cf. §§ 345, 362). 
 
228 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 370b 
 
 Mood, Tense, and Negative. 
 
 (i) Dependent Questions (not Deliberative) and Dependent 
 Exclamations : — 
 
 'EpwTco €1 toSt' aXrjBrj icmv. I ask whether this is tiibe (Rogo 
 
 num haec vera sint). Corresponding Independent 
 
 Question : ''Apa tout iXijOrj eariv ; Is this true 1 
 'UpoiJi.rjv ti ravr' a\rj6^ icrnv or eiTj. / asked whether this 
 
 was true (Rogavi num haec vera assent). 
 ®av/ia^(i) oTTot Tplij/ovTaL. I ioonder whither they will turn 
 
 (quo versiiri sint). 
 'KOavfia^ov OTTOL Tpexj/ovrai or rpexj/oivTO. I wondered whither 
 
 they would turn (quo versiiri essent). 
 UvvOdveTai 6ir66f.v tj\6ov. He enquires whence they came 
 
 (unde venei'int). 
 'Ettv^cto oTTodev ^\6ov or ^\eoiev. He enquired whence they 
 
 came ( = had come : unde venissent). 
 Eiire p,oi ti ov KaXov <rot Sokci. Tell me whether it does not 
 
 (nonne) seem to you a fine thing. 
 Etire /tot TTOTtpov KaXov (roi So/cet rj ov. Tell me whether it 
 
 seems to you a fine thing or not (necne). 
 Mifwrjcro old airopia. ttrnv. Remember what a difficulty there 
 
 is (quae sit diflBcultas). Corresponding Independent 
 
 Exclamation : Old airopid icrnv. What a difficulty 
 
 there is ! 
 ''Ep.ep.v^p.rjv old airopid eortv or etij. I remembered what a 
 
 difficulty there was (quae esset difficultas). 
 
 (ii) Dependent Deliberative Questions : — 
 
 'AiropSi TToi TpaTTiofiaL. I am in douht whither to turn (qu5 
 vertar). Corresponding Independent Question : irot 
 Tpairtofmi ; Whither am I to turn ? (Quo vertar ?) 
 
 'Hiropci TToZ TpaTrrjTax or Tpawono. He was in doubt whither 
 to turn (qu5 verteretur). 
 
 'BovXevop.eOa EtT« 8iaJBS/iei/ tov iroraphv arc p,rj. We are 
 deliberating whether we slwuld cross (utrum transeamus) 
 the river or not (necne). 
 
 'E^ouXewavTO etre Si,a/3u>cnv (or Sia/Saitv) eiTc /Aiy. They 
 deliberated whether tliey should cross (transirent) or not. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 229 
 
 EtJLE. — Dependent Questions and Dependent Exclamations 
 retain the Mood and Tense and Negative of the corresponding 
 Independent Questions and Exclamations, except that in de- 
 pendence on a tense of past time the Mood may be changed 
 into the Optative of the same tense-stem. 
 
 Thus in dependence on a tense of present or future time — 
 (i) Dependent Questions relating to a matter of fact and 
 Dependent Exclamations retain the Indicative ; Neg- 
 ative o-u (c/. § 344 a), 
 (ii) Dependent Deliberative Questions retain the Sub- 
 junctive ; Negative /j.-^ {cf. § 344 b). 
 In dependence on a tense of past time — 
 
 (i) Dependent Questions relating to a matter of fact and 
 Dependent Exclamations either retain the Indicative 
 without change of tense, or change it into the 
 Optative of the same tense-stem ; Negative oi. 
 (ii) Dependent Deliberative Questions either retain the 
 Subjunctive, or change it into the Optative of the 
 same tense-stem ; Neg. /a-^. 
 Note that whereas in Latin all Dependent Questions have the 
 Subjunctive Mood, in Greek the Subjunctive, where found, is due 
 to the question being deliberative. Note too that the Optative 
 denoting what was to be (= Lat. Imperf. Subj.) is not excluded 
 from the Dependent Deliberative Question, as it is from the 
 Independent Deliberative Question (§ 344 b, Obs. 2). 
 
 Obs. 1. Dependent Questions and Dependent Exclamations are often 
 difficult to distinguish by their form in Greek from Eelative Clauses ; the 
 Moods and Tenses are often the same, and many of the introducing 
 interrogative or exclamatory words are also used as Eelatives {e.g. Sa-ns, 
 interrogative and relative ; oTos and Sffoa, exclamatory and relative). 
 
 Obs. 2. "Os and its derivatives (including o5, where, as, how = in what 
 way, etc.) are sometimes used as Interrogatives : — 
 
 M^TTOTe yiiotris %s e?. 3{ay you never learn who you are. 
 "EKpyev k XSoi. He told what he had seen. 
 Mafle us ravra ipyaiTTea cVtiV. Learn how this is to be done. 
 Thus the following sentences may be translated as containing either 
 (i) a Dependent Question or (ii) a Eelative Clause ; — 
 
 ''n.v ifiKaarev ovk ex" ^.e-ye'". (i) I cannot tell from what parents she 
 
 sprang ; (ii) I cammot name the parents from whom she sprang. 
 OuK elxov tfiroi imaaTaiev. (i) They did not kn/)W to whom to revolt ; 
 ivoi = irphs rivas, and ovk flx"" — iiyviovv : (ii) They had not 
 got any allies to whom to revolt ; iiroi = irphs oSs, and elj^ov = 
 had; for the Optative in the Eelative Clause see p. 208, Obs. 3. 
 
230 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 370 c 
 
 Obs. 3. M^ is often found for ov in the second member of Double 
 Dependent Questions relating to a matter of fact ; occasionally too after a 
 single El : — 
 
 OiiK d ySfios KpivGTat, ir6Tep6v itrriv ^irtT^Seios fl oiJ, aAV v/mus SoKifid- 
 ^6<r06, elT€ itriTiiSeioi itrre eS irdcrx^tv etre ^-{j. It is not the law 
 which is on its trial as to whether it is filling or not, but you 
 yourselves are being put to the test as to wJiether you are fit 
 persons to receive benejits or not. 
 
 Notes on Noun Clauses. 
 
 1. (On Eule §§ 367.3 and 370 b.) In translating into Greek 
 a Dependent Statement by means of a on or is clause, or a 
 Dependent Question or Dependent Exclamation, first throw the 
 dependent clause into the independent form in which it would 
 have been actually expressed : this will show which Tense is 
 to be used in Greek ; the Person of the Verb will often have to be 
 changed (as in English). Thus : — 
 
 / said that he was a lover of Athens = I said ' He is a lover 
 
 of Athens ' : EIttov oti <j>L\a6-qvai6^ ccrriv or ciij. 
 He said thut he icas a lover of Athens = He said ' I am a 
 
 lover of Athens ' : ETircv on ^iKaJdrfVciLo's ecnv or eiij. 
 / aslced whether he was a lover of Athens = I asked ' Are 
 you. . . . ? ' : 'Hpd/x.7/v d ^iXa^ijvaios ecrnv or ttij (num 
 . . . esset). 
 Avoid here the Past Imperfect Jjv ; the Past Tenses of the 
 Indicative appear in the Dependent Clause only when they 
 would have also appeared in the corresponding independent 
 sentence : — 
 
 He said that he was once (or had once been) a lover of 
 Athens = He said ' I was once,' etc. : ETttev on ^v irore 
 (ftLkadr/vaioi. [Avoid etij here, as ambiguous.] 
 I asked why lie had ceased to be a lover of Athens = I asked 
 ' Why DID you cease 1 ' etc. : 'Upo/Mr/v 8ia n cTraijo-aTo 
 or Trava-aiTo (ciir desiisset) ^tXaS^vaios &v. 
 Similarly He said that he should be a lover of Athens = He 
 said ' I SHALL BE,' etc. : ETttcv on ^iXafii/vatos io-rai or 
 icroLTO. 
 Note that Greek differs from both English and Latin in not 
 adjusting the Tenses in the Subordinate Clause to a past tense in 
 the Principal Clause.* 
 
 • Qf.§514. On occasional violations of this rule in Xenophon see Appendix II. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 231 
 
 2. The Eule referred to above (§§ 367.3, 370 b) is subject to the 
 following limitations : — 
 
 (i) When the corresponding independent sentence would have had a 
 Past Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative, these tenses of the Indicative are 
 nearly always retained in the Dependent Clause, and not changed into 
 Optatives ; for the Optatives of these tense-stems would be ambiguous, as 
 also representing the Present and Perfect Indicative ; hence the Optative 
 is to be avoided in the fourth sentence quoted above {He said that he was 
 once, etc. ). Similarly ijpSfnjv ''Atpo^ov et nves naprjirav Sre rb apyipiov atreKdfi- 
 Pavev, I asJced Aphoius whether there were (or had heen) any persons present 
 when he received the money. 
 
 (ii) When the corresponding independent sentence would have had an 
 Indicative or Optative with &v, belonging to a Conditional Sentence or 
 Modest Assertion, these Moods are always retained in the Dependent 
 Clause : — 
 
 'ATreXoyovvTo u>s ovk &v Trore ofircu fi&poL ^ffav. They pleaded that they 
 
 would never have ieen so foolish (Statement : ovk &i/ ^jnei/). 
 'E)8oi>A6i5oyTO STrcas Uv KdWio'Ta rhy irorafihy Siafiatev. They were 
 deliberating how they might best cross the river (Question : vas 
 %v Sta^atfiey ;). 
 ^EckSvovVj et rives \d^oiev rovrwv atff&fiffLV, &y Uv eiK^rtos ayavaK- 
 T'fi<reiav. I considered how angry certain persons would be if they 
 heard of these things (Exclamation : i>s iv a,yavaKTi\(reiav). 
 
 3. In all kinds of Noun Clause the Subject is sometimes anticipated 
 as the Object of the Principal Verb (c/. § 367.3, Obs. 3) :— 
 
 Ae'SoiKa S' airiiv, ij.it Ti $ov\ei(rri viov. I fear lest she may devise some 
 
 new scheme (lit. I fear her, lest, etc.). 
 T6vSe /ioi irpuTov ippdirov \ Ti'y ecmr. Tell me first who this mam, is. 
 'Op^s, 'OSva-o-eO, r'tjv BeSiv lax^v '6<Tri. You see, Odysseus, how great 
 
 the strength of the gods is. 
 
 i. The Vivid Construction alluded to in § 350, Obs. 2 (Subjunctive 
 for Optative in past time) is often found in Noun Clauses introduced by 
 
 ("4 • — 
 
 Oi BsdfjLevoi 4<poPovvTo /lii ti Wflj). The spf.ctators feared lest he should 
 come to grief (irdSri for irdBoi). 
 The use of the unadjusted tenses of the Indicative in Noun Clauses 
 (see above, p. 280) is also a kind of vivid construction. 
 
232 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 REPORTED SPEECH. 
 
 371 Two methods may be employed in reporting : 
 
 1. The reporter may quote words or views in their original 
 independent form (Direct Speech, Oratio Recta) : — 
 
 OuSeis, <f>rjcnv, riSai/iajv 1(tti Trplv av airoOavrj. ' No one,' says 
 he, 'is happy until he dies.' 
 
 2. The reporter may use the form of a clause, or clauses, 
 dependent on a verb of saying, thinldng, loriting, etc., called the 
 leading verb (Indirect Speech, Oratio Obliqua) : — 
 
 Ov ^-qcrC Tiva evSaLfwva eivai irplv av airoBdvi]. He says that 
 a man is not happy until he dies. 
 
 Far less use is made of the indirect form of reporting in Greek 
 than in Latin ; the vivacious Greek generally preferred the simpler 
 form of a direct quotation. But passages of Indirect Speech, 
 sometimes of considerable length, are found. 
 
 Direct Speech. 
 EXeyov TaSe ' KCpos jxh/ ri- 
 6vrjK€v, 'AptaTos Se 7r«<^6i;ya)S iv t(S 
 crTa5/i<5 i(Tn fiera tS)v aX.Xwv /8ap- 
 fiapijiv oOev X^€5 oipfiCivTO ' koI 
 Xc'yci TotSe • " TavTTjv fiev rfjv 
 rjfi€pdv 7r€pt/X€VoC/x€V VjU-as, €i fjiiXX- 
 
 €T€ T]K£I,V, avpiOV Sc aTTiflCV, <l>r](TLV, 
 
 i-Trl 'IwvLas, odevTrep ■^\6ov ". 
 
 They spolte as follows: "Cyrus 
 is dead, and Ariaeus has fled and 
 is with the other barbarians at 
 the station which was their head- 
 quarters yesterday ; and he says 
 this : ' we will wait for you during 
 this day, if you intend to come, 
 but to-morrow, says he, loe shall 
 start for Ionia, whence I came'". 
 
 Indirect Speech. 
 
 EXcyov OTi KCpos jih/ TiOvrjKev, 
 'Apiaios Se 7r£0€vyo!)S iv T<3 (rTa6fJ,<3 
 ut) fiera. tUv aXXcov ftapfidpwv oOfv 
 rfj irporepaLo. iipp.S>VTO, Koi Xeyoi 
 OTi ravTrjV fjiiv ryjv fip.ipa.v irtpi- 
 fievoiev avTonjs, ft yucXXotcv ijkclv, 
 rfj Si V(TT€paia, aTnevai <j>airi im, 
 'lajvids, oBevTTip rjXOev, 
 
 They said that Cyrus was 
 dead and that Ariaeus had fled 
 and was urith the other barbarians 
 at the station which had been 
 their head-quarters on the day 
 before, and that he {= Ariaeus) 
 said that they {= he and his 
 followers) woidd ivait for them 
 ( = the Greeks) during that day, 
 if they intended to come, but 
 declared that on the next day he 
 , (or they) should start for Ionia, 
 whence he had come. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 233 
 
 Old Io-tIv aTTopia, i<f>rj, avev 
 TTJs TS-Vpov -yvwjinjs KoX /jilvuv KoX 
 aTTici^ai ■ dXXa aTpaTffyovs phi 
 ekfaOe SXXovs, €i pr) ^ovXerai KXe- 
 ap;^os OLirdyiLV, iXdovTii 8e TtV€S 
 KCpov alrovvTwv irXoia, ws airo- 
 TrXluyp.o' • iS.v St prj 8iS<3 Tavra, 
 ■^yepova alrovvTOiv auTOV, otrrts 
 
 " PT/iai a difficulty there is," 
 said he, " both in remaining and 
 in going away without the consent 
 of Cyrus / But choose other 
 generals, if Glearchus is unwilling 
 to lead you hack, and let a depu- 
 tation go and ask Cyrus for 
 vessels, in order that we may sail 
 away; and if he refuses this 
 request, let them- ask him for a 
 guide to lead us hack." 
 
 'En-cSetKvu Old £11; a/Tropid ai/eu 
 Tijs KrpoD yvdip/r/i; Kai piveiv ko.1 
 aTTicvaf dW ciTre aTparrjyovs pcv 
 iXicrOai aWovs, tl p,y] ^ovkcrai 
 (or ^ovkoiTo) KXcapp^os dirayeiv, 
 iXdovra'S Se rivas TLvpov airelv 
 irXoia, <J)S aTTOTrXecucriv (or airo- 
 7r\ioL€v) • iav Si prj Si8<3 (or ei 
 Se pr) SiSoir/) Tavra, 7)yep6va alTiiv 
 airov, octis cr^Ss aira^ti f^or 
 d.7rafot). 
 
 He pointed md what a diffi- 
 culty there was both in remaining 
 and in going away without the 
 consent of Cyrus, but told them 
 to choose other generals, if Gle 
 arehus was unwilling to lead them 
 back, and [advised"] that a depu- 
 tation should go and ask Gyrus 
 for vessels in order that they might 
 sail away ; and that, if he refused 
 this request, they should ask him 
 for a guide to lead them back. 
 KuLES. — 1. Simple Sentences and Principal Clauses of Direct 
 Speech become Dependent Statements, Commands, Questions or 
 Exclamations in Indirect Speech (expressed according to the Eules 
 in §§ 368, 369, 370). 
 
 2. Subordinate Adjective and Adverb Clauses of Direct Speech 
 retain their Mood and Tense unchanged in Indirect Speech, except 
 that in dependence on a tense of past time a primary tense {i.e. 
 a Present or Perfect or Future Indicative, or any Subjunctive 
 with or without av) may be changed into the Optative of the same 
 tense-stem, always without av ; in this case idv, orav, kirav, etc., 
 will become ei, ore, imC, etc, : a secondary tense of the Indicative 
 {i.e. a Past Imperfect or Pluperfect or Aorist) must always remain 
 unchanged in Subordinate Adjective and Adverb Clauses of Indirect 
 Speech.* [See table on next page.] 
 
 * Henoe iippuvro, ^\9ev, p. 232. — Note that the rule for converting 
 Adljective and Adverb Clauses difiers from that for converting Simple 
 Sentences and Principal Clauses only in regard to the retention of the 
 Aorist unchanged : ef. § 370 0, 2. — Note, too, that Noun Clauses of Direct 
 Speech remain unchanged in Indirect Speech. 
 
 16 
 
234 SYNTAX. 
 
 Table showing where the OptatiYs may be substituted 
 for the Indicative or Subjunctive in Indirect Speech. 
 
 Direct Speech 
 (§364.1). 
 
 a etxoi') iSiSow. 
 a itrxov, €oo)Ka. 
 
 6\ V « sj / 
 
 a av €)(ta, ooxro). 
 a £f(i), oiocrco. 
 
 Indirect speech, depending on a tense 
 of past time ; e.g. elTrcv on — 
 AW ^ ? ' 
 
 a EX"'' O'ooirj. 
 
 a €tx^' ^SiSov. 
 
 a ecrxev, Soi'r;. This combination of Indicative 
 
 and Optative is rare. 
 a e^oi, ocotroi. 
 a c^oi, SiSonj. 
 a 6^ot, oojcrot. 
 
 The above change to the Optative is not necessary in any case : 
 the Indicatives and Subjunctives of Direct Speech may be retained 
 (e.g. eiTrev OTt a e^ei 8i8o)0"tv). 
 
 The above examples will serve as models for sentences con- 
 taining Adverb Clauses ; for example ei rt may be substituted for 
 a, and idv Tt for a av : thus — 
 
 idv Tt ^x*^' 8a)(T0). etTTti/ on et n ix°h 8a)(roi. 
 
 When the Principal Clause contains av, no change of Mood is 
 possible in either Clause (c/. § 355, 1 ; 370 c, 2, ii. ; § 357 c, 
 Obs. 2) :— 
 
 ei n etxov, iSiSovv av. etTrev on £i n eix^''' ^8'8oii av. 
 
 et n ex"'/"'') 8iSoi7;i' av. etTrev on tt n ^X"'' 818011; av. 
 
 Oes. 1. Indirect Speech is often introduced suddenly, as in Latin, 
 depending on some leading verb which is not expressed : — 
 
 ^o^ovfievot /x^ 6/c tt)s vt](Tov Thv 'niXifj.ov fftpifTi irotavrat, dnKirds Sufilfiaa'av 
 is avriiv • oStw y^p ro7s 'AdT]vaiois t^v vTJtroi/ iroK^ixiav etreffflaf, t^v 5^ ^ireipov, 
 c.\llJ.evov oZcav, ovx *^^ety HQey Spfiii/xevoi axjieX-furovtri Toiis avrav, (r<pets 8e &vev 
 vavfiax^^s iKiroXiopK'tja-itv rh x^P^'^^ Karh t6 ei/c(Js. Fearing lest they [the 
 Athenians] should carry on the war against them [the Lacedemonians'] from the 
 island, they laiided heavy armed troops in it ; for [they refleded, that] in this 
 way the island would be hostile to the Athenians, and the mainland-, being 
 harhourless, would not provide a basis from which they might assist their friends, 
 vjhile they themselves [the Lacedemonians] would probably capture the fort 
 without a sea-fight. 
 
 Oi ^upa.K6ffiQi Sievoovvro ras irpotrfidtrets tpvkdffiretv, Hirios /j.^ kutci ravra 
 KdBuxn a<pas afafiiivTes oliro\efiioi- ou yap %v &\Xri 76 avroys BuvJiBrtvai. The 
 Syracusans intended to watch the approaches, in order that the enemy might not 
 ascend at this point without their noticing it ; for [they thought] they would not 
 be able to do so at any other point. 
 
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. 235. 
 
 Obs. 2. Where Latin, in the middle of a passage of Indirect Speech, 
 employs the Subjunctive without ut to express a Command (= Engl, let 
 . . .), Greek usually employs SeTv or xpvyai with the Infinitive, the Command 
 -being thus expressed as a Statement about what ought to be, or else intro- 
 duces a verb of cmnmanding on which the Infinitive may depend ; yet the 
 bare Infinitive is sometimes employed : — 
 
 hveyvoiffav ras ^irKTroKcts, &v Ke(l>tiKaiot' ^y oil yiyydtrKeiy o ti 0o6\ovTai ■ 
 TToWau yap i\66vTwv "irpetrPecoy ov^sva ravrb, \4yetv • el oiv ^o^Aoyrai (ra(phs 
 Xeyeiv, Tre/i^ficu (or irfft^ai Seiy, or eKe\eve irifji^m) &ySpas i>s airdv. They 7-ead 
 the dispatches [of the king'], the substance of which was that he did not know 
 what they [the Lacedemonians] wanted ; for though many envoys had been sent, 
 none of them said the same as the others ; if therefore they were willing to say 
 something explicit, let them send (mitterent) a deputation to him. 
 
 Obs. 3. A series of Dependent Statements introduced by gri or Sis with 
 the Indicative or Optative, or even by the Infinitive, is occasionally con- 
 tinued by the bare Optative (after ydp or Se) : — 
 
 EAeyoj' '6Ti vavrhs S|ia Aeyei 'Sei6T}s • x^^H-^^ 7^P ^^V /c^i o"KaSe airoirKstv 
 oil Suyarhv ei?;. They said that what Seuthes said was all-important; for 
 [Ihey said] it was winter and they could not sail for home. But here the 
 luflnitive (xei/iwi'a yap elyai, etc. ) would have been much more usual. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Infinitive sometimes appears in Subordinate Adjective or 
 Adverb Clauses of Indirect Speech : — 
 
 ^ 'Kp c^Tj, itretd^ oil ^K^rfvai rijy i^vx^v, a^lKV^'iff&at (T^as els rSiroy riva 
 Sat/i6viov, iv $ 5^' eTvai x"^"'/'"'''''- ^^ V^ Armenian] said that when the soul 
 had departed out of him, they \_= he and his companions] arrived at a mysterious 
 pkice, in which there were two chasms. 
 
 Obs. 5. Indirect Speech often passes suddenly into Direct Speech ; and 
 often the two forms are combined in the same passage : — 
 
 X^pav T^y 0aa'l\^ais, Hffij ttjs 'Atr/ds ea-ri, ^atriKscos elyai ■ Kal irepl ttjs 
 X^pas Tris kavTOv fiov\eveTw fiafftKehs Hirtas jSouAerat • ^y Se rts AaK^Saifioylojy 4irl 
 KaK^ ijj iirl r^y ^atrtXews xt&po^y, AuKeSai/j.oyiovs KoiKteiy Kal ^y Tis iK ttjs ^affiKeais 
 Xr] eTri Kaic^ 4irl AatKeSaifioyiovs, fiatriKeiis KcaKO^Tu. [Th-e treaty ran as follows :] 
 that the territory of the king, as much as was in Asia, should belong to the king ; 
 and let the king dispose of his omn territory as he pleases ; and that if any of 
 the Lacedemonians should march with hostile intent against the king's territory, 
 the Lacedemonians should prevent him ; and if any one from the king's territory, 
 marches with hostile intent against the Lacedemonians, let the king prevent him,. 
 
 Kvpos yap eirefiwev olyoy itoWiIkis, \eyojy Hrt oijirot 5^ iroWov xp^^ov rovrov 
 {jStoyi oiycj) eirtr^xot • rovroy o^y a'auirefiij/ey. f 'yrus used often to send wine, 
 saying that he had not come across a sweeter wine than that for a long lime ; 
 [and telling the messenger to say] " this wine then he has sent you ". 
 
 MeTCE TOvToy &Wos av^ffrf), iiriSeiKyus ois euriSss eti] 7jye/i6ya alTe7y irapa 
 roirov ^ \vfiaiy6p.€6a ri/y trpa^iy. After him another got up, pointing out how 
 foolish it was to ask for a guide from the person whose scheme we [for they] are 
 ruining. 
 
236 SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 6. Note the use of the Indirect Reflexives {Accidence, § 134), 
 referring to the Subject of the leading verb. When they, referring to the 
 Subject of the leading verb, is itself the Subject of a Dependent Statement 
 and needs to be expressed for the sake of emphasis or contrast, it is usually 
 rendered by the Nominative (r<p^7s with the Infinitive ; sometimes by the 
 Accusative <T<f>as with the Infinitive ; cf. § 367.1, Obs. 2, p. 214. An instance 
 of the Nominative will be found on p. 284, Obs. 1 {a-^eTs 4Kiro\iopKii<reiv), of 
 the Accusative on p. 285, Obs. 4 {cupiKve'iireai <r<()5s). The following passages 
 illustrate both the use of Reflexives and also other points in Indirect Speech 
 referred to above ; — 
 
 Kal TTapaiv^treis iwoiovyTo 4v ff^iixtv avrots, &s ov Set aOOfielv 8ti tj irSXst 
 alirav (or auriDj') a,<p4<rTriKev. robs yelp 4\{iir<rovs airh aipSiv tuv irAerfvoic ^efl- 
 fcrravai • ^^^tfvToii' yap (Ttpav rh irav vavTiKSv, rds T6 fiAAds irtfAew wv &pxov(riv 
 avayKafffiv ra ;^p^;tiaTO i/iolccs StS6t/ai Kal €( ^KsTBev &pfiavTO — 'ir6\iv yap tripiffiv 
 iiTvipx^iv Sd/Mov ovK curBfvri — ko! Swareirfpot e?cai cripeTs ex""'''^' tos vads iropl^- 
 ea-Sai Tci eViT^Seio Tuv iv Tp ■ir6\ei. And they encouraged one another yrith 
 the argument that they ought not to lose heart because the city had revolted from 
 them; for it was the fewer who had left the side of the stronger, which was their 
 side ; for while they had cmitrol of the navy as a whole (Gen. Abs., cf. § 361, Obs. 
 3, c), not only would they compel the other cities which they governed to pay them 
 tribute just as well as if they had their head-quarters in the other place {Athens'] 
 — for they had in Samos no weak city — but also, having the ships, they were 
 themselves in a belter position to obtain supplies than those in the city. (Adapted 
 from TMtc. viii. 76, 3-4.) 
 
 Adfiaxos eipri xprt^^^i irKuv eirl ^vpdKo6(j-as, eus ^Tl airaptiffKevol eliriv. 
 aitpviSioi ykp ^v Trpo(rire(rt»!(ri, fid^-icrr' hy o'(/)os irepiyeveffOai Koi Kara irtivra ttv 
 avTohs 4Ktpo^(Tai, Trj re ijipei — TrAeiiTTOi y^p hv vvv ^avrivai — Kol rp irpoffSoKla 
 &v ireiffovrai • ctKhs S' elvai noWobs avoXTjtpdTivai Sik rh amffTsiv fftpas fiij ?i^€iv • 
 Kal i<rK0iii(a/ji.4yay airav tIjv (rTparAv ovk aTopiiffeiv XRV/'-drav. rois re &\Kovs 
 SiKehitirds oStoi Kai ixdvois ov ^vfifiax'/ia'civ Kal (r<t>tiri irpoirUyat Kal ov hiainsKK- 
 ■flffety TrepiffKOTTovuTas 67r6T€poi KpaT'fja'oua'ty • yavffraBfiov 8e Meyapa etpyj xpvy^^ 
 TToiero-floi, & ^v iprj/ia. Lamachus said that they must sail to Syracuse, while 
 the inhabitants were still unprepared ; for if they attacked suddenly, they ( = Jie 
 and his fellow Athenians) would have the best chance of getting the upper hand 
 (i.v with the Infin. is here a future-equivalent), and of striking panic into 
 their opponents in all ways, both by the sight of them— for they would now 
 appear in their fullest strength — and by the anticipation of what they would 
 suffer; and it was natural that many should be cut off through not believing 
 that they would come (ircfSs = the Athenians, here necessarily Accusative 
 because there is a change of Subject) ; and while they {the enemy) were 
 conveying their properly into the city, the army {of the Athenians) would not 
 want necessaries. And the other Sicilian Greeks would thus not only not ally 
 themselves with them {the Syracusans), but also come over to them {the Athenians), 
 and not hesitate and look about to see which side would get the mastery. And 
 he said that they ought to make Megara their naval station, which place was 
 deserted. (The last clause is a parenthetical comment of the historian; 
 hence Past Imperfect Indicative. — Adapted from Thuc. vi. 49.) 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 237 
 
 PAET II.— MEANINGS OF FORMS. 
 MEANINGS OF THE CASES. 
 
 372 Preliminary Note on the Greek Cases. The Nominative, 
 Vocative and Accusative have for the most part the same meanings 
 in Greek as in Latin ; but the Greek Genitive and the Greek 
 Dative have to do not only their own proper work, but also the 
 work of three lost Cases which were originally distinct from them 
 —the Ablative Proper (denoting from, etc.), the Sociative or 
 Instrumental (denoting loith, by, etc.), and the Locative (denoting 
 at, in, etc.). When these became extinct as separate Cases in 
 Greek, their meanings were distributed between the Genitive and 
 the Dative; thus the Greek Genitive and the Greek Dative are 
 joint-heirs to a lost Ablative, a lost Sociative and a lost Locative 
 
 In Latin the Sociative and the Locative also became extinct, 
 but their meanings passed to the Ablative, which in its proper 
 sense denoted from, etc. For traces of the Locative still extant 
 in both Greek and Latin, see § 59. 
 
 Meanings of the Nominative and Vocative. 
 
 373 The Nominative is often used instead of the Vocative, even in 
 declensions which have a separate form for the Vocative : — 
 
 'O <^tXos, fhri. Speak, my friend. 
 
 ''Q, TTokii, iroAis. Oh my counti-y, my country I 
 
 Compare the Vocative in such examples as : — 
 
 'AW, S <^iX Atas, iravT lymyt Wcro/iat. Nay, dear Ajax, 
 I will be obedient in all things. [Aids has no separate 
 form for the Vocative in Attic] 
 
 In examples like the following the Nominative with the Article 
 stands in Apposition to the Subject of the Verb : — 
 "I^t (TV o irpvjjivTa.To's. Go you, the eldest. 
 Oi ©paxes iTi Sevpo. Come hither, Thracians (lit. Do you, 
 the Thracians, come hither). 
 
 374 The omission of S> is common with the Vocative, but rare with 
 the Nominative = Vocative : — 
 
 'AvBpom-e, Tt iroteTs; My good fellow, what are you doing ? 
 Jlat, Aa^e to ^i^X-iov, Take the book, boy, 
 
238 SYNTAX. 
 
 375 
 
 Meanings of the Accusative. 
 (1) The Accusative may be the Object of a Transitive 
 Yerb:— 
 
 "EviKijcre tovs iroXe/itovs. He defeated the enemy. 
 'EviKYjo-ev 'OXvfi-Tna. He loon an Olympic victory (Cognate 
 
 Object : § 326 *). 
 Toy TravTtt S' o\j8ov ■^/J.ap ev /«.' a<^EA.eTo. One day has robbed 
 
 me of all my haiqmess (Two Objects : § 330*). 
 Aapctos KBpov o-arpaTnjv eTrotrjcrev. Darius appointed Cyrus 
 satrap (Predicate Noun agreeing with Object : § 334). 
 'H/iSs TO. iu(7xi(TTa alKL^erai. He does us the most shameful 
 wrong (Object and Cognate Object: § 326*. 3). 
 Similarly as Object of a Verbal Adjective or Noun : iwopa wipijios 
 (Aesch. Prom. 905) ; yevvriTMhv olov eavT6 (begetting a being like itself — 
 Aristotle) ; //.ereupa (j>povTi(TTiis (Plato, Apol. 18 b). 
 
 376 (2) Many Greek Verbs take an Accusative as Object while tlie 
 
 corresponding English Verbs take some other construction, espe- 
 cially a Fixed Preposition : — 
 
 "AvSpa IX.01 tvi/cTre, Mov(ra. Tell me. Muse, of the hero, Gf. 
 
 Arma virumque cano. / sing of arms and the hero. 
 ©au/ta^o) Tqv fimpiav trou. / wonder at your folly. Miror 
 
 stultitiam tuam. 
 Vtka.<; fi,e.. You are laughing at me. Rides me. 
 'Ofx.vvix.i Oeov's Kol 6e&i. I swear by gods and goddesses. Gf. 
 
 Terram, mare, sidera juro (poetical in Latin). 
 'OfoiiaxTi ras o-irovSas. They swuar to the treaty. 
 Such Verbs admit of a Passive Construction : — 
 
 Yi\Si]i.a.i xiirb <roD. I am laughed-at by you. Eideor abs te. 
 
 Note especially, as taking an Accusative : — 
 (a) The following Verbs of shunning : — 
 
 TtVa ^cijyeis ; From whom art thou fleeing ? Quem fugis 1 
 
 'ATToSiSpaa-Ko) o-e. / am running away from you. Def ugio te. 
 
 OvSels irotSv Trovrjpa kavOava ^eovs. No evil doer escapeAS thi; 
 
 notice of the gods (latet or fallit deos). 
 
 (6) The following Middles denoting to be on oTie's guard, and 
 
 to avenge oneself: — 
 
 ToStoi' ijivXaxra-ov. Beware of this man. Hunc caveto. 
 EiXa/3oS TT]v Kvva. Beware of the dog. Cave canem. 
 'Aixvvo/x.ai (TiiJ.(opov/j.ai, TLVopLai) rbv i^Opov. I avenge myself 
 upon my enemy. Ulciscor ijiimicuin. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 239 
 
 (c) The following Verbs of awaiting, facing boldly : — 
 Mevft) 0-6. I am waiting fur you. Maneo te. 
 ®dp(ru (®appet) rbv 6a.va.Tov. Face death holdly. 
 
 (d) The following Verbs of complaining, sorroioing : — 
 M£yL«^o/Aai Ttjv Tv-)(r![v. I complain of my fate. Queror fatum. 
 Ti.fv6S> (KXatcu, AaKpvui, Oi/Am^co, ®p7)vui) tovs Tc^vewras. I 
 
 mourn for the dead. Lugeo mortubs. 
 
 Obs. — But KSirodnai, aKya, I grieve, and x"^P<»i 5iSo/*oi, / rejoice, generally 
 take the Dat., with or without 4irl, at: AuttoS/hoi (or Aij7ro5/iai eirl) rf rixv- 
 
 377 Many Intransitive Verbs of Motion become Transitive when 
 compounded with a Preposition (especially Sid, //.erd, irapd, Trepi, 
 vTrip, VTTOJ : — 
 
 "Aira.a-a.v T^v ^wpa" Si^Xflei/. He traversed the whole land. 
 Toy Tijs Arj6r]'S TroTap-bv ev SiafirjaopLcBa. We shall happily 
 
 cross the stream of Lethe. 
 To Trdyxpva-ov Sepos pie-njXjdov. They went to fetch the golden 
 
 fleece. 
 OvSiv Trap^XOev or Trapifei. He passed over nothing. 
 IlapaySaiVeis Tois vo/u.ous. You are transgressing the law's. 
 T-^v 'EXXaSa irepi'ga. He went round Greece. 
 'Yirepi^aXov to, oprj. They crossed the mountains. 
 MeyaXous KtvSvvovs virio-nja-av. They faced great dangers. 
 
 378 Verbs of Motion compounded with other Prepositions {ds, e/c, eiri, 
 irp6s) sometimes become Transitive ; but they more commonly take a Pre- 
 position before the Case in prose, especially when used with distinct local 
 meaning ; the same distinction is observed in Latin : — 
 
 Eio-pei SIktiv. Se entered upon an action; of. iniit certamen. 
 
 [But fia'Qii ets olKriiM, he entered into a house.'] 
 OiSei'a kIpSwov i^siTTna-av. They shunned no danger ; (/. exlre tela. 
 
 [But i^ea-rn e/c ttjs 6Sov, he stood out of the way.] 
 'EirspxovTat ii.ivTeis. They consult seers, adeunt vates. 
 
 [But hrr\KBBv is rhv t6itov, he came to the place.} 
 Toils Pa/iovs irpoafiKBiv. He visited the altars, obiit aras. 
 
 [But vpoffriKBe irphs or etti or eis , , ., he came near to , . .'] 
 
 379 ^o^ compounds of irapd, irepl, irp6s taking the Dative, see § 426 ; for 
 compounds of e/c, imep taking the Genitive, see § 416. 
 
 380 (2) The Accusative may be the Subject of an Infinitive : — 
 
 'Nop.i^co v/jLais clvat Koi ■TrarpiSa kol c^tXovs kol o-u/A/xap^ous. I 
 consider you to be both father-land and friends and 
 allies. 
 
240 SYNTAX. 
 
 381 (3) The Accusative may have Adverbial meaning: — 
 (a) Denoting " how far " in space, or " how long " in time 
 
 (Accusative of Extent) : — 
 
 Mvjoia crraSia aTretj^ov. They were distant 1250 miles. 
 'EvTav6a e/icivev fjixipws eiKoa-Lv. There he remained 20 dai/s. 
 
 Obs. The bare Accusative denoting " place whither " is poetical: M^Seia 
 iripyovs yrjs ^irAEuff' 'laXxlds, Medea, sailed to the towers of the Iwnd of lolcos. 
 
 382 ip) Denoting "how much" or "how" (Accusative of 
 Measure or Manner) in phrases like the following : — 
 
 noA.ir apuTTos. Much the best. OuScv dyaflos. Nowise good. 
 ndvT evSaiiwvei. He is entirely blessed. 
 
 Thus TL how much 1 how ? why ? tl sonieiohat, somehoio, riva 
 rpoirov in what way, tovtov tov rpoirov in this way, rSAAa otherwise, 
 iroXA.a often, ra. ttoXKo. mostly, apxT/jv at all, Blkt/jv after the fashion 
 of, xa-piv for the sake of, Trp6tj>aa-Lv professedly, r^v Taxicmj/v as 
 quickly as possible, t^v Trpunriv at first, fjLaKpdv far, to Xoarov for the 
 future, TO irpiv of old, to vvv for tlie present, to Kar ip-i so far as I 
 am concerned. Cf. the Dative of Measure (ttoXAuj apto-Tos, etc., 
 § 432) and Manner (tovtco t(3 TpoTtia, etc., § 431). 
 
 383 (c) Denoting " that in respect of which " (Accusative of 
 Nearer Definition): — 
 
 A£/x.as adavoLTouTiv ofwio's. Like to the immortals in stature; 
 
 if. OS humerosque deo similis. 
 Ka/ivo) TTjv Ke<fiaXi^v. I have a head-ache (ache in the head ; 
 
 capite Iab6r5). 
 IIoTa/iOs KuSvos ovop,a, typo's Svo irXiOpuiv. A river Gydnus 
 
 by name, of 200 feet (§ 399) in breadth. 
 
 384 Some Accusatives which may be regarded as coming under 
 § 383 are in reality Accusatives of the Second Object remaining in 
 the Passive Construction (§ 332) : — 
 
 AcXtos iyyiypap.p.ivrj ivvdrjpaTa. A tablet inscribed with 
 tokens ; Passive of iyypa.<f>(a ^wOrffiaTa SeXto) : cf. in- 
 scripti nomina regum. 
 
 "EiKK^Kop-pLivoi 6(f>0aXp.6v. Having had an eye knocked out ; 
 Passive of e/ckotttciv tivi 6(j)6aXp,6v. 
 
 385 (d) Used absolutely (Accusative Absolute, § 361.2). 
 
 386 The Latin Accusative of Exclamation is not found in Greels, 
 
387 
 
 388 
 
 389 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 241 
 
 Meanings of the Genitive. 
 
 The meanings of the Greek Genitive fall into two classes : — 
 
 (A) Meanings of the Genitive Proper. 
 
 (B) Inherited meanings of the Genitive (see § 372). 
 
 (A) Mbanin'gs of the Genitive Peopkr. 
 
 The Genitive Proper, like the Latin Genitive, has one and only 
 one fundamental meaning ("of"), and is primarily an Adjectival 
 Case, i.e. does the work of an Adjective. The particular way in 
 which it qualifies the Noun to which it is joined is shown by the 
 context. 
 
 (1) The Genitive Proper may denote "belonging to," "con- 
 nected with " ; this is the widest meaning of the case, and admits 
 of very various applications : — 
 
 'H MiXriaSoi; oIkm. The house of Miltiades. Here " be- 
 longing to" = "possessed by" (Possessive Genitive). 
 
 MiXriaSiys Kt/iuvos (or tov Ki/^wvo's). Miltiades, son of K. 
 
 'H evvoia tov 'SiWKpa.Tovs. The benevolence of Socrates. 
 
 'Avrjp TOV Stj/xou. a man of the people. 
 
 JloXiTov oLpiTTj. Civic virtue. 
 
 AfKeXcta T^s 'Attw^s. Deceleia of {— in) Attica. 
 
 'AvSpias $£iStoD. A statue of {= by) Phidias. 
 
 Ot ToC KXeapxpy. The men of{= under) Clearchus. 
 
 Tei^os XWov. A wall of (= made of) stone or a stone wall. 
 
 Act-OS oivov. A cup of ( = full of) wine. 
 
 AtTtct (rpa<^^) KXoTr^i. A charge of (trial for) theft. 
 
 Elliptically : ets 'AiSov (understand olddv), to Eadc^ (und. 
 abode). 
 ets StSacr/caAoi; (jtourav, to go to a teacher's. 
 Of. ad Vestae (templumj ; Engl. " to St. Paul's ". 
 
 This Genitive may be used Predicatively, i.e. as equivalent to 
 a Predicate Adjective (§ 302) : — 
 
 'H oLKLo. i<TTl MiX.TLa.Sov. The housc belongs to Miltiades. 
 Ov tSiv vIkuivtihv ecTTt TO. mrXa TrapaSiSovai. It is not the habit 
 (part, mark, duty) of conquerors to deliver up their 
 arms. (Here wkiovtuv means like conquerors ; cf. i/xov 
 ia-Ti, it is my way, meum est.) 
 JIotctTai i7/*Ss eavTov, F£^cit nos suae dicionis. 
 
242 SYNTAX. 
 
 (2) The Genitive Proper may denote a Divided Whole (Par- 
 titiYe Genitive). 
 
 The Partitive Genitive is found not only, as in Latin, in 
 dependence on Nouns and Adjectives which in themselves denote 
 a part, such as /tepos part, iroXXoi mnnij, oi ttoXXoi tlie chief part, 
 ol TrXtLCTToi the inost, oXt'yot few, ouSets no one, oi ix-iv . . . oi Se 
 some . . . others, ol aXA.ot the rest, ns which, Trorepos /nhich of two, 
 etc.', but also in dependence on other Nouns and Adjectives which 
 are only shown to denote a part by the Genitive which follows or 
 precedes them : — 
 
 Ot ^rjcrroL rStv av6pu>Trwv or TSv d.v$p(inr(iiv ol xfyr/a-TOc. The 
 good among men. (Not Ot rSyv avdpuiiruiv ^(prja-Toi.) 
 
 01 Awpt^s -qfiwv. Those of us who are Dorians. 
 
 Predicatively : — 
 
 'E/te ^€5 rZv imraa-ix.iviisv. Put me down as one of those icho 
 
 believe. 
 "RdeXe t5v p-ei/ovnav etvai. He wished to be one of those who 
 remained. 
 
 EuLE. — The Partitive Genitive never stands between the word 
 on which it depends and the Article belonging to that word. 
 
 As in Latin, the Partitive Genitive may depend on the Neuter 
 of Adjectives and Pronouns used as Noun-equivalents (tantum 
 voluptatis) : — 
 
 X^ovos Xa-xitv toctovtov. To obtain so much of the land. 
 
 OvSev airoXuiffia TrpoOv/jiid'S. I will remit no zeal. 
 
 "Ocrov y€ Swi'a//,ea)S Trap' ipLOi icrrLv. So far as I can. 
 
 To TToXv Tov o-TpaTevfj.aTO's. The chief part of ihe army. 
 
 IIoXv TOV o-TpaTcu/taros. A great part of the army. 
 
 Eis TovTo (or Too-ovToi') dvotds iXditv. To proceed to stick a 
 point of folly. E6 insaniae progredl. 
 
 Obs. But, unlike Latin, 
 
 (a) the Neuter Pronouus ti, ti, oJSeV, ^jjSe'c take an Adjective in agree- 
 ment with, them, instead of the Partitive Genitive of an Adjective : — 
 
 TiKaiv6v; What new thing ?\ cQuidnovi? 
 
 'Aya.e6y ti. Something good. [■ contrast | Aliquid bonl. 
 
 OiSey KOKiiv. Nothing bail. J iNihil mali. 
 
 (i) the Adjectives iroXis, irXeicrToj, fi/wrus, \oiir6s more commonly agree 
 in Gender and Number with the Partitive Genitive, instead of standing in 
 the Neuter Singular ; — 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 243 
 
 'H TroWii (for Ti iro\ii) t^s yfis. The chief part of the land. 
 hi riidireuu (for Til 1]in(Tv) tS>v riSiv. Half of the ships. 
 
 Similarly Superlatives : i-ris yris ^ apia-rri, the best part of the land. 
 
 Note the similar expressions in dependence on an Adverb : — 
 'A\is Xoyuiv. Enough of words. Satis verborum. 
 not) T^s yijs ; Where on earth ? Ubi terrarum ? 
 Hrp/Ua T^s rnxipas; At what time of day {what o'clock) ? 
 '0\j/l Tov erovs. Late in the year. 
 nSs e^€is TTJs yvtojuijs ; In what state of mind are you 1 
 
 Thus with other Adverbs of " place " (iroi, iro^ev, hnaxQa, c/cet, 
 €K€to-e, eKei^Ei', 7raj'Ta;;^oC, oiSa/ioS), "time" (■Trpio, TroXXaicis, T/)ts), 
 "manner" (ws, owtojs, «v, apurra, /tcTptcos). 
 
 The Noun on which the Partitive Genitive depends is often not 
 expressed : — 
 
 T^s yijs £T€/Aov. They ravaged part (/iepos) of the land : 
 
 contrast t-qv yrjv i-re/jLov, they ravaged the land. 
 "Eirc/Ai/'e fjuoL tiov eTaipiov. He sent me some (nvas) of his 
 
 comrades : contrast tire/ii/fe iwi. tov% kraipovi, he sent me 
 
 his comrades. 
 Toi) XwTot) e<l>ayov. They ate of the lotus : contrast ia-Oico 
 
 eat up, Tcivia drink up, with the Accus. : StoKparr/s to 
 
 <jid.ppja.Kov e-Tnev. Socrates drank up the poison. 
 
 The Partitive Genitive is not used except where there is real 
 partition : it is thus inadmissible in expressions like " all of us " 
 (ripeL's TravTcs, nos omnes), "how many are there of you?" (Trpo-ot 
 icrre; quot estis?), "there are few of us" (oXiyoi ia-p,4v, pauci 
 sumus). 
 
 "The whole of," "the top of," "the middle of," "the end of" 
 are expressed, as in Latin, by Adjectives (oA,os, Tras, aKpos, /Aecros, 
 co-xoTos) agreeing with Nouns : — 
 
 "Ex aKpwv opewv. On hill tops (tops of hills). 
 
 'Ef aWepi fiia-w. In mid air (the middle of the air). 
 
 The Article may be used (immediately before the Noun) : — 
 !^< ^"f^K r" T'^"- 1 On the tops of the hills. 
 
 hlTTl T(OV OpeO)V CLKpUlV. } 
 
 Contrast em tu>v a.Kpw opiwv, on the high or pointed mountains ; 
 6 /x«Vos SoLKTvkog, the middle finger (§ 587.) 
 
244 SYNTAX. 
 
 397 (3) The Genitive Proper may denote what might have been 
 expressed as the Object of a Verb (Objective Genitive) : — 
 
 'O (jiovev's Tov /8acriXc(i)s. The murderer of the king : 
 
 = Ikuvos OS TW /SaaiXla itfiovevcTev. 
 Tov OavovTo's Ifiepos. A longinfl for one dead (Soph. Phil. 350). 
 'O tS>v TroXefuaiv ^d/9os. Tile fear of the enemy. 
 Ewota rCiv tfiiXwv. Ooodwill towards one's friends. 
 
 398 When the Genitive denotes the person who acts or feels, it is some- 
 times called by contrast the Subjective Genitive : — 
 
 'O Tay iroX^filuv ipo^os. The fear which the enemy feel. \~ qpo 
 Eiiraia Tciiy i/)i'A£iic. Goodwill v:hich friends feel, j^ 
 
 Thus <pi\la ■Ka.Tp6s = (i.) a father's love (Subjective Genitive), 
 (ii.) love for a father (Objective Genitive). 
 
 399 (4) The Genitive Proper may denote Quality (Genitive of 
 Quality) :— 
 
 nais ScKtt eTur. A hoy of ten years ( = ten years old). 
 'OSos rpuav ■fi/j.epSiv. A three days' Journey. 
 
 Rule. — The Genitive of Quality generally has a Numeral 
 Adjective joined with it, to denote magnitude or age. 
 
 Obs. Thus the use of the Genitive of Quality is more restricted in 
 Greek than in Latin : instances like magni ingenii are hardly found except- 
 ing Predicatively : toiJtou toB Tp6irov et/il, lam of this character; t^s avrijs 
 yv(i}j.tis ^aav, they were of the same opinion : instances like aXrireJai wivwv 
 laborious wanderings are poetical. In prose the Accusative of Nearer 
 Definition is used instead ; aviip xpfrrhs rhv Tp6irov, a man of good character 
 (§ 383). 
 
 400 (5) '^^^ Genitive Proper may be equivalent to a, Noun in Apposition 
 (Appositive Genitive) :— 
 
 miya xpSm" <rv6s. A monster of a boar. 1 
 
 Aea/ia ttcScSi'. The bonds of fetters. I colloquial or poetical. 
 
 ''a 'ir6\is "Apyovs. city of Argos. \ 
 
 Obs. In prose " the city of Argos " is generally ^ it6\is rh 'Apyos or 
 "Apyos fi ■it6\is, like urbs Roma : similarly rb ivoiio. riSovti, " the word plea- 
 sure " (contrast vox voluptatis). 
 
 401 As in Latin, the Genitive Proper becomes Adverbial in con- 
 
 nexion with certain classes of words, i.e. it may be used to qualify 
 Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs. The relations in which the 
 Adverbial Genitive stands to the word that it qualifies are very 
 various : in some cases it is Partitive (see §§ 392, 393), in others 
 it is Objective, in others it denotes simply "connected with", 
 [For the Genitive of Price, see § 414.] 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 24s 
 
 402 (1) The Genitive depending on Adverbs used as Prepositions 
 (some of these Adverbs are petrified cases of Nouns) : — 
 
 'EvTos Tov reixovs. Within the wall. 
 nXijaiov ('Eyyvs) t^s ttoXews. Near the city. 
 
 Similarly with eto-o) within, e/cros and cfco outside, fieraiv between, 
 avat above, Karta below, TTpoa-to or TTOppoi far into, far from, ifnrpoa-Bev 
 in front of, OTruj-Oev behind, ■jrepav on the other side of, KaTavrmpv 
 opposite to (a place), ivavnov opposite to (a person), in the presence 
 of = coram, XdOpa and Kpv<f>a without the Itnowledge of = clam, 
 ^apiv for the sake of = gratia, St/cjjv after the fashion of = instar, 
 Ivexa for the sake of = causa, ttXt^v except, p^wpt's apart from, avev 
 without, axpt, /*«XP'' flss/a** as, (usque ad). 
 
 403 (2) The Genitive depending on certain Adjectives : — 
 
 (a) Adjectives derived from Nouns, especially those com- 
 pounded with the negative a- : — 
 
 'Ettouvv/ios Tijo-Se yijs. Bearing the name of this land. 
 AiSaa-KaXiKOi Trjs iavTov <ro(f>id's. A born teacher of his' own 
 
 loisdom. 
 'Aprjs axaXKos acrmSav. The god of war vnthout the bronze 
 
 of shields ( = without bronze shields). 
 AiTios ('Ai/amos) (povov. Responsible (Not responsible) for 
 murder ; reus (insons) caedis : cf aind KXoTnj';, § 388. 
 
 This oonstruotion is extended to other Adjectives compounded with a- : 
 ayv^vatTTos 'jt6vuiv untrained in suffering (from yv^vd^a), &Tp€(rroi fidxvs in- 
 trepid in the fight (from rp4m tremble). 
 
 404 Q>) Adjectives denoting mindful {iivrjfi.(iiv, lirip.iXri^), desirous 
 (TTpoOvfios, iiriOv/jLT/jTiKos), having control (lyKpar'^i;, Kvpio's), and their 
 opposites (d/i.v^ju.a)v, iirLXTJaiJLWv, dfieXiQS, aKparrj's), which in English 
 take " of " and in Latin the Genitive : — 
 
 KttKwv pA/TjiMVi^. Mindful of evils. Memores malorum. 
 "EyKpaT^s kavTov. Master of oneself. Potens sui. 
 
 405 {<>) Adjectives denoting experienced or skilled (e/x;r€ipos, Im- 
 a-n^fji.o)v), sharing (/icroxos), and their opposites (aTreipos, dfioipo?, 
 ayeucTTos, a/cXijpos), which in English take "in" and in Latin the 
 Genitive : — 
 
 noXc/iov c/iir€tpos. Experienced in war. Belli perltus. 
 Me'toxos Tt/i'5s. Sharing in a reward. Particeps praemii. 
 
 406 For the Genitive with Adjectives denoting/MH (plenus), see § 415. For 
 Genitives like Tv(j>\hs toS /ieWovros blind to fhefiitv/re, see § 413. 
 
246 SYNTAX. 
 
 407 (3) The Genitive depending on the Verbs enumerated in 
 § 327 * (except those of ber/lnHiiig, ceaniiiff, mrjaterinq and wanting, 
 see §§ 410c, 4116, 415); these Verbs either denote an action 
 affecting only a part of the Object or take the Genitive on the 
 analogy of Nouns of Icindred meaning : — 
 
 M£T£;^o/Aev aSavatrids. We participate in immortality : = 
 /j,tTe)(oiJiev /j.ipo's a^avacrtds, we have-jointly a share of 
 immortality (Partitive Genitive, cf. § 393). 
 
 Mi/jLvriao Trjs Koivrj^ tvxv^- Remember the common lot : = 
 /itv^/iTjv e;^e ttji Koivrji '^xi)% have memory of. 
 
 MtJ fL avajxyrjori^ KaKwv. Remind me not of sorrows : = firj 
 iwrifi.ii)v TTOiov KaKuiv, do not make miintion of. 
 
 "Epojg tSv BeS>v /3ao-iA.£u«. Love rules the gods : = /Jao-iXeiJs 
 £OTt tS>v OeSiv, is king of. 
 
 408 Certain Verbs of judicial procedure, viz. : of accusing (amw/iai), 
 being accused (cfyevyui), arraigning {ypdcf)oiJi,ai, Suuko), Kpivio, da-dyw, 
 virdyu]), convicting (alpSi), being convicted (aXia-Ko/jML), punishing (Tlp,<o- 
 pov/juxi, TwopLo-i), take a Genitive Proper denoting the "charge" ; — 
 
 MeA.7yTOS %(OKpa.Tr]v iypaij/aTO dcre/Scids. Meletus prosecuted 
 
 Socrates for impiety { = iypdij/aTO ypa<f>r}v doreySeids, drew 
 
 up an indictment of). 
 <I>€vy<o t^ovov. I am accused of murder ( = <f)evy(a hU-qv <l>6vov, 
 
 I flee a triol of murder). 
 Ot irpe'crySets Stipcov iKpiOiqa-av. The ambassadors were tried 
 
 for {on the charge of) bribery : Passive of Kpivw nvd 
 
 nvos. 
 'AXto-KETai KXoTnj's. He is convicted of theft. 
 'Kptvovcri.v 'AkKi/3idSrjv $avdrov. They try Alcibiades on a 
 
 capital charge {in a matter of life and death; cf. capitis 
 
 acciisare) ; hence Passive 'AXKLJSidSrjs Kptverai Oavdrov. 
 
 409 Obs. 1. Verbs of acquitting {i.iro\dm, i.(plriiu) and being acquitted (oiro- 
 ^iiya) take a Genitive denoting " separation " (§ 410) : — 
 
 ' tLitoKiovaiv avrhv Tijs alrias. They acquit him of the charge. 
 
 Obs. 2. Verbs compounded with Kari. and denoting to accuse or to con- 
 demn {KaTnyopa, KaTayryvdiaKw, KaraKpivai, KaTa\f/r)<pl(ofiai, KOToSi/ccffio) take an 
 Accusative of the charge or penalty, and a Genitive of the person (§ 416) : — 
 'A5<KiW 7roAX);y Karrryopoiffiv avTov. They accuse him, of great in- 
 justice (lit. iriiig the charge of injustice again^st him). 
 Kariyvwirav 'XoiKpi.Tovs ddyarav. They passed senterice of death on 
 Socrates or condemned Socrates to death; lit. they decreed death 
 against Socrates (contrast Lat. capitis oondemnaverunt Socra- 
 tem) ; hence Passive KarfyriiaBri 'Zaicpi.Tovs Bdvaros. 
 
410 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 247 
 
 (B) Inherited Meanings op the Genitive. 
 
 As heir to the lost oases (§ 372) the Genitive has a number of 
 meanings which are not ordinarily expressed by the Genitive in 
 Latin : — 
 
 (1) The Genitive may denote "separation" (GenitiYC of 
 Separation = Latin Ablative of Separation) : — 
 
 (a) With Verbs and Adjectives which themselves denote sepa- 
 ration, such as those of separating (x<«p''^w), freeing (eXev^epS, Xsui 
 dTraXXacro-co ; iXevOepoi, KaOapoi), holding aloof {aireifu, airixo}, 
 a.Tre)(OfMi), preventing (KiaXvo)), yielding (ciko), x'^P'^)> differing 
 (Sta^epw; 8ia</>o/3os), and the like: — 
 
 'O OavaTO'S iXevdepoL Trjv ^VXV" '''°^ o-to/taTos. Death frees the 
 
 soul from the body (liberat animam corpore). 
 Tois TTpio-pvTipoi's Sei VTreucctv TOtis veovs /cai otuyv Kai eopSv. 
 The young ought to make way for elders from roads 
 and seats. 
 "Epymv irovjjpSv x"p' iXevOepdv ^x^. Keep thy hand free from 
 
 wicked deeds. 
 "Apx^v dya^os ov Siacftepet Trarpos ayadov. A good ruler does 
 not differ from a good father. 
 
 Obs. 1. Wten the sense of separation is not partly expressed by the 
 Verb itself, " from " is expressed by aw6 or e'/c in prose : airi SdpSeai/ apiiwro 
 he started from Sardis. But in the poets the bare Genitive is used more 
 freely: pdepaiv 'CaraaBi rise from the steps, Syo^ai yiiffov lam carried from the 
 island, ipepa S6fuev I bring from the house, Se'lao-fle /xou receive from me. 
 
 (b) With certain Verbs of sense perception, i.e. Verbs of 
 perceiving (atcr^dvo/iai), learning {■mivdd.voiia.i, pxa/Bofbi), hearing 
 {a,KOv(a, aKpoS>ft.ai), scenting (6cr<jipaivop.M) : — 
 
 Ti S^Ttt ^ovXei SevTcpoi/ fmOelv ifiov ; What then do you mish 
 
 to learn next from me ? 
 "Akovs -irdvToiv, iKXeyov 8' a a-viji,<j)ip€i. Listen to all men, but 
 
 select what is good. 
 Ot iirirot wtrijjpovTo tS>v /cajuiyXui/. The horses got scent of 
 (lit. from) the camels. 
 
 Obs. 2. These Genitives properly denote the "quarter from which" 
 {cf. Lat. audio ex te or abs te) ; they thus mark a person or thing as causing 
 a perception. The "thing heard" (the sound or speech) is commonly 
 expressed by the Accusative : axoiui (pBdyyoi', at<TBdvofi.ai poiiv, I hear a cry ; 
 hence aKoiets fioi\v; h.Kov^is reKvav ; dost hear the cry? dost hear the children? 
 But we also find iJKova-e 8opi$ov, he heard a noise, etc. 
 
248 SYNTAX. 
 
 411 
 
 Obs. 3. With aiaBivoiuu and iruvBivoimi. the Genitive may also denote 
 "about," "concerning": i>s iviiovTo t^s IIuAou KaTei\iiiin4vris, when they 
 learned about the occupation of Pylos. 
 
 (c) With Verbs of heginning {S.p-)(pfw.i, ap^ia, § 327 *), ceasing 
 {■n-avofiai, Xi/yo), fi.i6Uit.ai, v^Ufiai, \ 327 *), and waking to cease 
 (Travo), KaraXoo), TrapaXvai) : — 
 
 At Movcrat v/ivria-av, Aios d/D;^o/i£vai, (reixvrjv ®env. The 
 
 Muses sang of holg Thetis, starting from Zeus : of. 
 
 apyf^Qai oko tSv 6e.u)v, inclpere a dels, to consult the 
 
 gods first. 
 
 2vv Tois ^€015 ap^ecrOe iravTOi ipyov. Begin every work with 
 
 the blessing (under the auspices) of heaven. 
 "ETTciTa Op-qviov Koi yooyv iiravcraTO. Tliereupon she ceased 
 (ceased from) her lamentations and wailing. 
 
 Distinguish ap^^w nvds I do a thing first or begin what others 
 cordinue, from apxo/jLai rivds / begin what I myself continue : — 
 ToC Xoyov r/pxa/ w&e. He opened the discussion thus. 
 Tov Xoyov rjp^ero S8e. He began his speech thus. 
 
 (2) The Genitive may denote " comparison " (Genitive of 
 CompaFison = Latin Ablative of Comparison, § 359.2, Obs. 1):— 
 
 (a) With Comparatives, instead of tj than : — 
 
 ®5.TTov Oavdrov Oei. It runs quicker than death (celerius morte). 
 "Silyq TTOT ia-nv alpiTtoTipa Xoyov ( = ^ Xdyos). Silence is 
 
 sometimes preferable to speech (melius est oratione). 
 <l>iXei 8' iavTOv ( = ^ iavTOv) ttXuov ovSeh oiSeva. But no 
 
 man loves any irum more than himself (magis seipso). 
 TLpoaiqKii fiot naXXov eriptinv {= rj eripoi's) ap)(£iv. It befits 
 
 me better than others (than it befits otiiers) to rule. 
 
 Obs. 1. These Genitives are closely related to the meaning "from": 
 thus we say different from, but other than. 
 
 (b) With Verbs and Adjectives of comparative meaning, such 
 as those of getting the better, beiTig superior (TrXeoveKrS), KparCi = 
 Kpeia-a-(av Ajxi, § 327 *, w£/De;^(D, ■Trtptyiyvopxa, irpuiTeva), apia-Tevco), 
 getting the worst, being inferior (fieioveKTla, ■^crcruip.ai, eXao-o-o€/iai, 
 vo'TipS), Xet7ro//.at; SeuTcpos, va-repo';), and Adjectives denoting so 
 many times as great {SnrXda-io?, iroXXairXacrtos), other (etc/dos, 
 aXXos) : — 
 
412 
 
 413 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 249 
 
 'O aSiKos dftoi ToC SiKaiov irkfoveKTtiv. The unjust man ex- 
 pects to get the better of the just man. 
 
 'H ^vcrts rSiv SiSayiidrmv Kparei. Nature is stronger than 
 nurture. 
 
 Oi Tvpawoi fji,€iov€KTov(ri tSv iSioiT&v. Tyrants are less well 
 off than private persons. 
 
 'ycTTepov/ji.ev rrjs lopTrjis. We are too late for (lit. later than) 
 the feast. 
 
 TwaiKos ■^o-crrj/Acvos. Worsted hy {Inferrior to) a woman. 
 
 IIoA,A.aTrA.acrtot i(T[ji,fv T<ov iroKifuiav. We are many times as 
 many as the enemy. 
 
 Obs. 2. Mfioye/crS and Ae^Trojuai may also take a Genitive which la not 
 Comparative : & T^pavvos fieLoveKret tuv GiKppoirvvui/t the tyrant has less of 
 mirth (Partitive) ; \e\etfiit.evn rsmuv, bereft of children {cf. Verbs of " want- 
 ing"). 
 
 (3) The Genitive may denote " cause " (GenitiYe of Cause, 
 ef. Dative of Cause = Latin Ablative of Cause, § 430) : — 
 
 (a) With Verbs of envying (^ijXS, (jyOovla), admiring [Oavim^ta, 
 ayafiai), congratulating (evSai/iovt^to, pMKapO^ia) : — 
 
 ZtjXw (T€ toC vov, t^s Se SetXtcis crruyS. I envy thee on account 
 
 of thy wit, hut hate thee for thy cowardice. 
 Toils fv -iroXefifo TereXeuTT/jKOTa^ fji,aKaplt,ia tov Oavdrov. I COrir 
 gratulate those who have died in war on their death. 
 
 (6) With Interjections, denoting the cause of astonishment: — 
 Ot/tot tS>v KaK&v. Alas for my misfortunes I 
 
 Similarly with Vocatives : — 
 
 'EKjSarava, toB uxfU^aro^. Jerusalem I (lit. Ecbatana !) 
 What a get up ! (Genitive of Exclamation.) 
 
 (4) The Genitive may denote " that jn respect of which " : — 
 KaXois TrapdirXov keTtoi 17 Kep/cupa. Corcyra lies favourably 
 
 in respect of a coasting voyage. 
 "ETrXeov <S)s elxov toxoids. They sailed as fast as they could 
 
 (lit. as they were in point of speed). 
 Tu^Xds €o-Tt TOV ixiWovros 3.v6p<i>iro<s. Man is blind as to the 
 
 future. 
 K(o</)os TOV vovOiTovvTO's. Deof to odvicB (lit. one advising). 
 "E/xTToSiov dAX^Aots TToXXSv KOL dya6S>v €a-((r6€. You will 
 
 stand in one another's way in regard to many advan- 
 . tages, 
 
 17 
 
25° SYNTAX. 
 
 The origin of the following Genitives is uncertain; some of 
 them are probably derived from lost cases; but some may be 
 Genitives Proper. 
 
 (i.) The Genitive denoting "how much" (Genitive of Price = 
 
 Latin Ablative and Genitive of Price*), with Verbs and Adjectives 
 of valuing (df iS, ri/iG, TliJ.S)fJuxi ; oi^ios, ri/iios), buying (aivovfuu, 
 eTT/Dta/^Tjv, dyopafo) ; (ovios, uvijtos), selling (iroiXS, airoSiSofi,ai, m- 
 Trpctcr/co)), exchanging (dXXdo-o-o/Aat), letting for hire (fuo-dS)), hiring 
 {fiicr6ovfii,ai), and generally with Verbs denoting "to do some work 
 which may be paid for " : — 
 
 TSv iroviav Tr(i)XoC(riv ■q/uv vdvTa rAydd' oi 6toi. The gods 
 
 sell us all good things at the price of toil (vendunt 
 
 laboribus). 
 MiarOov ipyd^oimi. I work for hire (mercede laboro). 
 ndo-ou SiSao-Kct; Jlevre fiv&v. For how much does he teach? 
 
 For five minae (qnajito ■pretio . . . quinque minis). 
 AJ^av woWoS (ttXeovos, -irXela-Tov) tI/jlZ. I value reputation 
 
 at a high {higher, very high) price: magni (plSris, 
 
 pliiriml) aestimS. 
 H/ias oiScvos Xoyov a^iM. He thinks us of no account (nihil! 
 
 facit). 
 "Clviov icrnv oKlyov. It costs little (parvl est). 
 *A^ia /ivij/Aijs. Things worth remembering (digna memoria). 
 
 Obs. 1. noieitrfloi to value (facere) usually takes irepi with the Genitive: — 
 'A\^0e(ay Trepl -koWov •Kotovfia.i. I value truth highly. 
 
 Obs. 2. As terms of judicial procedure ri/iS is said of the judge, rlfiaaSai 
 of the parties to the action : rl/iS iroi Se'ico Ta\dvTiiiv, I mulct you in 10 talents 
 {impose a fine of 10 talents upon, you) ; Tf/iSrat yuoi Bavdrou, he estimates my 
 punishment at death. 
 
 (ii.) The Genitive depending on Verbs and Adjectives of 
 filling (irXijpG, ifariirX-qiu ; -irX-^prj^, l/iTrXeois, ficcrrds), abounding 
 (yift,ti>, euTTopS, ■TrXoucrios), emptying (kcvio ; /cei/ds), deprioing (airo- 
 (TTepu), yvfivSi, sometimes dc^aipoCytiai, cf. § 330 *.3 ; yvfo/os, eprnxos), 
 wanting (Sco/xai, 8ei, airopw, (nravi^ia, (rripo/iai, § 327 * ; evSeiys, 
 imSei^s, iXXiTrrji, irivrf's) ; cf. Latin compleo (Abl.), plenus (mostly 
 Gen.); abundo, vaco, vacuus, privo, careo, etc. (all Abl.) : — 
 
 * The Latin Genitive of Price is in origin a Locative, 
 
416 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 251 
 
 IlX.i^povTa.1 vaBs avSpwv.. A ship is manned (filled with men). 
 Eis K(oju.ds woWZv Koil ayaOtav ye;«.ov(rds rjXBov. They came to 
 
 villages abounding in many good things. 
 Avoiv aSeXfjiOLv ia-TepT^drjiA.o' 8uo. We two have been deprived 
 
 of two brothers. 
 'O [iTiSkv dSiKuv oiSevos Seirat vo/jiov. He who does no wrong 
 
 needs no law. 
 Aei /MXTji. There is need of fighting. 
 
 Obs. 1. Afo/j,al Tiv6s may also mean / ask someone (ti for something) : 
 Tf Se'j; liov; Aeofiat <rou SoS;'af /xoi xfyfiiiaTa. WhM do you ask ofTne? I ask 
 you to give me money. 
 
 Obs. 2. Note the following phrases with the Active S4a>, I want : — 
 TloWou iSenaa <j>vye!v. I was far from running away. 
 'OKiyov fS4ri<ra oirofloKeix. / was within an ace of dyvng. 
 ToffovTov iSetjira <ftvyeiv, S>ffTi aySpeius efiax^ffiifjiriv. 80 fa/r was IfroTS. 
 running away that Ifaagkt bravely. 
 
 (iii.) The Genitive depending on Verbs compounded with 
 I'repositions (especially oltto, ex, Trpo, vTrip, and Kara, in the sense 
 ■' adverse to ") : — 
 
 'ATreo-Tijtrav tSv 'AdrjvaCtov. They revolted from the Athe- 
 nians. 
 'Aircyj/w rrj's am~qpias. He despaired of (lit. turned his 
 
 Jhoughts away from) deliverance. 
 'Eiea-TT] iavTov. He went out of his mind. 
 'E^eTrecre tQs TrdA.eo)s. He was banished from the city. 
 'E^prrifiiida rSa/ iXiriSw. We depend on (lit. hang from) 
 hopes. 
 
 'H60S TrpoKpivuv \prip.a.T(j)v yafxdvvra Set. He who intends to 
 
 marry ought to prefer character to money. 
 HoXXots r) y'KSxTo-a irporpix^i Tijs Stavotas. In many men the 
 
 tongue runs ahead of the thought. 
 UpoKivhvveia t^s ttoXcws. He runs risks on behalf of the state. 
 'Y-irepe<l>a.vr](Tav tov XdijboD. They appeared above the ridge. 
 'Y/xMv iwepaXyS). I am grieved on your account. 
 'Api.crTo<l>a,vrji KarayeXS, 'SitoKpa.Tcnii. Aristophanes laughs at 
 
 Socrates. 
 ILpij /jLTj Karaijipovav ToS irXrjOov^. We ought not to look down 
 
 upon (or despise) the masses : cf. /can^yopG, etc., § 409.2. 
 
 Obs. The Preposition is often repeated before the Noun, especially In 
 prose : 4^ePa\ov airhv Tijs ipxv^ o^ ^'t rTJs apxns, they drove him out of office. 
 
252 SYNTAX. 
 
 417 (iv.) The Genitive of "time" :— 
 
 NuKTos Koi ^//.epas. By night and by day (§439 6). 
 'OXiyiui' etSv. Within a few years (§ 443). 
 Tov Xonrov. For the future ( = toB Xonrov xpovov, § 443). 
 Tov kviavTov. Every year, quotannis (§ 576). 
 
 418 (v.) The Genitive of "place" (poetical and rare in Attic) ; — 
 
 AaiSs p^tipos. On the left hand : = e^ apuTrepS.'S p^etpos. 
 
 419 (vi.) The Genitive Absolute (§ 361.1) :— 
 
 TovTiov ovTuii i)(6vTu>v. This being so. 
 
 420 
 
 Meanings of the Dative. 
 
 The meanings of the Greek Dative fall into two classes : — 
 
 (A) Meanings of the Dative Proper. 
 
 (B) Inherited meanings of the Dative (see § 372). 
 
 (A) Meanings op the Dative Proper. 
 
 The Dative Proper, like the Latin Dative, has two and only 
 two fundamental meanings — " to " and " for ". 
 
 (1) The Dative Proper denoting "to" :— 
 
 (a) Depending on Transitive Verbs (Dative of the Indirect 
 Object, § 331) :— 
 
 'H fuiipLo. St'Scoortv avOpdnroL^ KaKoi. Folly causes troubles to 
 
 men or causes men troubles. 
 ''E<l>rjve TO, ro^a to« 'ApyeioLs. He showed the bow to the 
 
 Cheeks. 
 EiKa^u) ore ^CKoao^ia. I liken you to a philosopher. 
 'O (7t8);pos Urol Tovs a<r6ev€is rots l(T)(ypols, Steel makes the 
 
 weak equal to the strong. 
 
 (b) Depending on Intransitive Verbs : — 
 
 'E0(uVeTo eavTiS evrvx^'i- He seemed to himself fortunate. 
 "ESofe T(3 S-^/AO). It seemed good to the people. 
 ^iXoo-d^tt) eotKas. You are like a philosopher. 
 'EirXrja-ia^ov ttj Kiop-r). They drew near to the village. 
 TovTia Tijs BoKOTtas Trpoo~qK€i ovSo'. Nothing of Boeotia 
 attaches to this man [i.e. he is not a Boeotian). 
 
 Obs. This "to" is closely related in meaning to "towards": in the 
 poets the Dative sometimes denotes " place whither " (§ 435), e.g. kvanlvas 
 oxipavif XE'P", raising his hands to heaven (Homer, c/. it clamor caelo) ; /3i£fij 
 ^\6iv 'IvixVi "■ report came to Inachus ; 6vn^ Pdhe, lay to heart (Aeschylus) = 
 is eo/ihy pdXe (Herodotus). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 253 
 
 421 (2) The Dative Proper denoting "for" (DatiYC of Interest) :— 
 
 nSs avrip avT<3 Trovet. Eoery man works for himself. 
 'kpiOfMv i^pov avTOL's. I invented for them Number. 
 
 422 With eivat, vTrdpxeiv and yiyvea-daL this Dative may denote the 
 Possessor (Dative of Possession; cf. Genitive of Possession, 
 
 389) :— 
 
 'Eo-Tiv avOpdyrria XoyLcrfio's. Man has reason. {There exists 
 for man reason : est homini ratio.) 
 
 'Ovo/jLa Tcp /xapaKim rjv TiXarwv. The young man's name was 
 Plato. (Never Dative of the name, as sometimes in 
 Lat. : nomen adulescenti erat Platoni.) 
 
 423 With the Verb- Adjective in -rt'os, and sometimes with the 
 Perfect Passive, this Dative may denote the Agent (Dative of 
 the Agent) : — 
 
 'AoTKTjTcd €(7Ti TTamv ri aper-q. Virtue is to he practised by 
 all, lit. is for all to be practised (omnibus exercenda 
 est). 
 
 TLavff rifuv ireiroiyjTox. Everything has been done by us. 
 
 424 In loose connexion with the sentence the Dative of Interest is 
 used — 
 
 Either (a) to mark a person as standing in some relation to the 
 action spoken of : — 
 
 TiOvTix V'" "■aA.ai. In relation to you I am long since dead. 
 "EiriSa/ivos iv Se^ia ia-Tiv ia-irXiovn. Epidamnus is on the 
 right as one sails in, lit. in relation to one sailing in. 
 
 "Xvev apx6vTav ovh^v hv Ka\hv yivoiTO, 5>s (rvv€\6vTt elireTv, ovBa^ov. 
 Without leaders nothing good can he done anywhere, to speak 
 generally : avv€\6vTi lit. for (in relation to) one summing up. 
 
 Tovt' ffiol fiovJ^ofiei/tj} [afffievcp; TjSo/jL€v(f), irpo(TSexofJi.epci), etc.) itrriv. 
 This is according to my wish {pleasure, expectation) ; lit. This 
 stands in relation to me wishing {pleased, expecting) . 
 
 Or (b) to mark a person as interested in or sympathising with 
 what is said, rather than in the action spoken of (so-called Ethical 
 Dative, used only in the case of Pronouns : /ioi, aoi, ■^p.iv, tiuv, so 
 accented) : — 
 
 Mij |ioi Oopv^-qarjTe. Pray do not make a noise. 
 'Os KaXos p-oi 6 iramrois. How handsome I find grandfather! 
 Cf. Quid mihi (7 should like to know) Celsus agit ? 
 " Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, 
 And rap me well, or I'll knock your knave's pate." 
 
 Shakspere, Taming of Shrew, (me = I tell yov.) 
 
254 SYNTAX. 
 
 424 Caution 1. When "for" means " in defence of " or "in place of" or 
 
 "in return for," it is generally expressed by uirep, ■irp6, or ivrl, with the 
 Genitive ; — 
 
 'Tirep Trjs irnTptSos oiroflai'eTi'. To die for one's country. 
 
 Ovx V^P^ •Jr\}jy yvi/aiKhs rjrty IjBeKs | floi/eTc wph Kelvov. ffe/ound none 
 
 iut his wife who would die for him. 
 'Av8' S>v eS ^iraSov ev iiroiriffa. For the benefits (hat I received I con- 
 ferred benefits. 
 
 Caution 2. When "for" denotes "purpose" or the "end served," it is 
 generally expressed by eh or rphs with the Accusative : — 
 
 Xp^fiara ffwe^dWovTo avr^ els r^y rpotp^iv r&v ffrpwnwrwv. They 
 
 contributed money for him, for the support of the soldiers. 
 th trrpiiTeviia KoreAOffe irphs SptffTov. The army halted for breakfast. 
 
 425 To one or the other of the fundamental meanings of the Dative 
 
 Proper belong the following constructions : — 
 
 (a) The Dative depending on Adjectives which in English take 
 "to" or "for," together with some Adverbs of kindred meaning: — 
 
 "Oa-a fioL tfi-eis xPW'-l^°^ ^""^^ o'^"- -^'* ^"'"' ™««2/ respects you 
 
 are useful to me I know. 
 Tvpavvos aTrds l}(6po'; ikevOtpiq. kol vd/uois tvavTtos. Every 
 
 tyrant is hostile to freedom and opposed to laws. 
 'OXiyapxca, iirLTr/Sfia. ia-Ti rots AaKeSai/AOi/iotg. Oligarchy is 
 
 suited (serviceable) to the Lacedaemonians. 
 Ta apKovvO' iKavd ia-n TOis a-u><j)pocnv. What is just enough 
 
 is sufficient for the loise. 
 Adfeis o/jioio? Toil Kaxots ■!r€(j>vKevai. Thou wilt seem like to 
 
 the had in nature (rarely Gen. ; contrast similis). 
 'Icros dpi <ToL I am equal to you : cf. o avrds, § 428 d. 
 'Op.oKoyovp.ivuK Ty ^ueret ^rjv. To live agreeably to nature. 
 
 Obs. 1. The following Adjectives take either the Dative Proper or 
 (with some sense of "possession") the Genitive Proper: tSios, oIksIos, 
 proper, koiv6s common, a-vyysviis aJcin, Up6s sacred {cf. proprius, communis, 
 cognatus, sacer) : <pSis &nd<n Koiviv, light common to all ; </>& wdvrav koiv6v, 
 light the common property of all. 
 
 Obs. 2. Adverbs denoting near {eyyis, ir4\as, TrArjo-ioi') and the Adjective 
 irKnirlos generally take the Genitive (occasionally the Dative Proper) : — 
 "E,yybs Trjs irdKeais. Near the city : cf. prope ab urbe. 
 
 Obs. 3. The "purpose" or "end served" is expressed by eis, M, or 
 Trpiis with such Adjectives as eVir^Seios, iKa.v6s, xp^<'''-l^'>s, a>(l>e\ifws : xP^o^'M"* 
 is Ti, useful for somAhing. Contrast xpili^ftos i/xol, useful to me. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 255 
 
 426 (6) The Dative depending on Verbs compounded with Pre- 
 
 positions (especially ev, im, <jvv, also avri, Trapd, irepi, irpo's), and 
 translated by various Prepositions in English : — 
 
 "EveySaAoi/ ffiofiov rots iroXe/ttots. They struck terror into 
 
 {inspired terror to) the enemy : hostibus timorem in- 
 
 cusserunt. 
 OiSeis )(apaKTr]p ifiLTre<j>vKe a-wpari. No stamp has been set 
 
 by nature upon (is innate to) the body. 
 'Em^ovXevet ry Tro\«. He plots against (lays snares for) the 
 
 city. 
 Tfi ywaiKL crv/j.fiax^'i. He takes the woman's side (is an ally 
 
 to the woman). 
 'Hkw KaKOLcrt <roicri (rvyKap,voiv, tskvov. I am come sympa- 
 thising with (sharing pain for) thy troubles, my son. 
 *Epft)Ti oiSe "ApYjs avdla-TaTat. Not even Ares makes stand 
 
 against (offers resistance to) Love. 
 'AScX^os dSeXc^cp TrapeiT]. May brother stand by (be present 
 
 to) brother. 
 T<3 'iTTirdp^io Trepiiruxov. They fell in loith Hipparchus. 
 Ilpoo-ejSaXov t<3 retx'o'MaTi. They made an attack upon the 
 
 fort. 
 
 Obs. In this eonstruotion the Dative depends upon the meaning of the 
 Compound as a whole, and not upon the Preposition alone : some of the 
 Prepositions could not take a Dative by themselves, others could only take 
 it in a different sense. In some instances the Preposition may be repeated 
 with its appropriate case, as in 4ii/i.ev€iv ffirovSats or iv triroi/Sais, to abide by a 
 truce, manere in indutiis ; irpotrUviu r^ Oijif or irfibs rhv Zrnnuv, to appeal to 
 the people; iiria-rpaTeieiv toij iroXe/j.lois or iirl roiis iroKefiiovs, to march against 
 the enemy ; or a different Preposition may be used, as in avBitmurSai 'Epwrt 
 or irphs "Epara, to make stand against Love ; (TvftPdWeiv filKpa. fisydKois or jrphs 
 lieyi\a, to compare small things to great. 
 
 427 (c) The Dative depending on the Verbs enumerated in § 328 
 
 (except those of following and using, see § 428.1). From the 
 Greek point of view these Datives fall either under § 420 or under 
 §421. 
 427* Caution. The Predicate Dative of Latin is not found in 
 Greek : — 
 
 Xaipcc^Sv £/ioi ^rjiud (Nom.) puaXKov r) uxjiiXud ia-nv. Chai- 
 rephon is a dead loss to me rather than an advantage 
 (detrimento potius quam iitilitati). 
 For the Dative qualifying Nouns (rare), see § 310.3: irvphs PporoTs Soriip. 
 
2S6 SYNTAX. 
 
 428 
 
 (B) Inhbritbd Meanings op thb Dative. 
 
 As heir to the lost cases (§ 372) the Dative has a number of 
 meanings which are not ordinarily expressed by the Dative in 
 Latin : — 
 
 (1) The Dative may denote "association'' (Dative of Asso- 
 ciation = Latin cum with the Ablative, or sometimes Ablative 
 alone) : — 
 
 (a) With Verbs which themselves denote association, such as 
 Verbs of consorting (hfiXXm, p^pS/iai, tTrofiai, d/coXou^fi, § 328), con- 
 versing {SiaXfyofiai), agreeing (6/ioA.oyS, oynovoG, derived from 6/io- 
 together), sharing (koivcuvS, ixerixoi), making a treaty (oTrei'So/iat), 
 mixing (Kepavvvfu, /iiyvv/Mi), fighting (yua^ojuai, iroXc/iG), quarrelling 
 {aij,<l>L(T^rp-l!>, 8ta0e/3ofiai, epi'^w) ; similarly with such phrases as eh 
 Xoyovs ievai to enter into conversation, Sta ^iXtds ievou, to enter upon 
 friendly relations : — 
 
 %o<f>oi'i ofuXutv KavToi iKpT^crr) troi^os. Consorting with the 
 wise thou thyself too shalt become wise (iitens sapient- 
 ibus). 
 Tipi)8a^os i^ovXero Sia\c)(6rjvaL tois ap)(OV(nv. Tiribazus 
 loished to converse with the captains (coUoqui cum 
 ducibus). 
 M(Sd9 XcycTat Ttjv Kprjvtifv oivia Kepacrai. Midas is said to 
 have mingled the spring with wine (miscuisse vino w 
 cum vino). 
 ©«(3 /xaxea-dat Scivov icrnv. 'Tis hard to fight with a god (i.e. 
 against a god, cum deo pugnare). Contrast p^eru, rtvos 
 pd)^ea-6ou, or Trokep.eLv, to fight on the side of anyone. 
 
 (h) Of an accompanying force of men or ships : — 
 
 "ETTopeu^i; TToWois orpaTKorais. He marched with a large 
 
 force (ingenti exercitii). 
 "ETrXEvo-e vavcrlv eiKoo-iv. He sailed with twenty ships. 
 
 (c) Qualified by the Dative of avros ( = and all) : — 
 
 Navi/ cTXov avTol<s avSpda-Lv. They captured a ship, crew and 
 all (lit. together with the men themselves). Less often 
 avTois Tois dvSpacrtv. 
 
 {d) Depending on 6 airos {the same), apa, bpov {together) : — 
 'Ev T-auT(3 Tjcrda Tovrots. You toere in the same place as they. 
 'Siol yap i\l/6pea-6' S.p,a. We shall follow with thee. 
 
429 
 
 430 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 257 
 
 (2) The Dative may denote the " instniment with which," or 
 the "means by which" (DatiYe of Instrument = Lat. Ablative 
 of Instr.) : — 
 
 Oi TToXe/jiLoi £y8aXXov avrotis XCOols, koX 'iiraiav nap^atpois. The 
 enemy kept pelting them with stones and striking them, 
 with sabres. 
 
 OiSeis hroLvov ■^SovaTs iKTiyo-aTO. No one ever gained praise 
 by means of pleasures. 
 
 Obs. But " by means of a person " is expressed by Std with the Geni- 
 tive ; 5i' spfiiiveais SioAeyEffSai, to converse ly mearis of cm interpreter. 
 
 (3) The Dative may denote " cause " (DatiYe of Cause = Lat. 
 Ablative of Cause) : — 
 
 'Ayvoia i^afjiapTavova-iv. They sin through ignorance. 
 
 NdcTtt) aTridavev. He died of a plague. 
 
 'HTretyovTO Trpos Tov irorafwv Tov Trieiv iTndvfud. They pressed 
 
 on to the river because of their desire to drink. 
 4>d/3a) (ewota, tpOovto, iroOia, aiSot, v/Spet) iroieiv n. To do 
 
 something from fear (goodwill, envy, desire, respect, 
 
 This Dative is often used with Verbs of emotion, such as 
 rejoicing {-ijSofmi, x'^V")) grieving (dXyS," Xv-irovfxai), being dis- 
 couraged {aBv/xio), being ashamed (aio-xwoynat), being angry {axOofuu, 
 opyi^o/jLai, xaXeTraivco), being annoyed (dyavaKTu), and the like : — 
 
 ToijTois -^a-dri KCpos. Gyrus took pleasure in this or was 
 
 pleased at this (his rebus gaudebat). 
 Oi (TTpaTriyoi rjxBovTo rots yeyevrjfjiivoi,^. The generals were 
 angry at lohat had happened (irascebantur propter 
 ea quae acciderant). 
 
 Obs. 1. Cause (espeoiaUy a hindering Cause) may also be expressed by 
 fiird with the Genitive : vvh TaKatirapias through weariness, vjrh ■7r66ov through 
 desire, om idivuTo KaBeiSeiv virh xrfTTTjs he could not sleep for grief (prae dolore). 
 
 Obs 2 The Verbs of emotion may take iirt with the Dative : x^'p" «'"■' 
 TV pUr, i rejoice at the victory. Verbs of " being angry " also take a Dative 
 in a different sense ; 2sieris iixBero air^ on airyrei rhv fiiaeSi'. Seuthes was 
 angry wUh him, (perhaps Dative Proper, /«Z« anger for him, irascebatur el) 
 because he demanded the pay (Causal Clause). 
 
 ^M" For Verbs that take a Genitive of Cause, see § 412, 
 
358 SYNTAX. 
 
 431 (4) The Dative may denote " manner " or " attendant circum- 
 stances " (Dative of Manner = Lat. Ablative of Manner) : — 
 
 (a) Generally with crvv, if the Noun is not qualified : — 
 Sw xpavyfj Trpojjcrav. They advanced with a shout. 
 Ov /xer dStKids, d\Xa. crvv t<S SiKai(a Koi KoXcp tovtoiv Irvp^tv. 
 He attained this not unjustly, but justly and fairly. 
 
 (J) With or without crvv, if the Noun is qualified : — 
 
 Mc-yaXjj Kpavyfj (or %vv /icyoiAij Kpavyff) Trpojjcrav. They ad- 
 vanced with a loud shout. 
 
 Obs. But in certain phrases crvv is never used : e.g. T(38e t<J 
 TjOOTTO) in the following way, iravrt Tpmria in any way, t<3 5vti in 
 reality, epy<o . . . Xoyw in deed . . . in word, tjiva-u . . . vofiw by 
 nature . . . by convention, yiva by race, irpoffyda-ei professedly ; 
 some of these Datives have become Adverbs ; e.g. crlyij silently, 
 KOLvy in common, Srjfjiocria publice, i8ta privatim, Tret.y on foot, Trg 
 how. 
 
 432 (5) The Dative may denote "how much more or less" (Dative 
 of Measure = Lat. Ablative of Measure) : — 
 
 Texyr] 8' 'AvdyKrj's ao-devecTTepa, fiaKpiS. But Art is far weaJcei' 
 {weaker by far) than Fate : multo infirmior. 
 
 So TToXXcS /u,ei^o)v much greater, oXvym or fUKpiS iKdcrcruiv a little 
 less, ocrci) TrXctoves too-outo) iXapwrepoi the more the merrier (quo . . . 
 eo), TToXXoTs €T€cnv vo-repov many years afterwards, Tpurlv ■^ixipoK 
 irporepov three days before. 
 
 Obs. 1. TloW^, liaKp^, Sfftf are also fovmd with Superlatives : irow^ 
 SpiffToj much the best. 
 
 Obs. 2. " Measure " is expressed by the Accusative of the words t(, ti, 
 oiiSeV, tixfieii, and sometimes of iroXi, oKiyov: ovS^v ^aaov, none the less (niliilo 
 minus) ; iroAu ii.ei(aiy, much greater (multo major) : cf. § 382. 
 
 433 (^) '^^^ Dative may denote "time when" (§ 439a): — 
 
 TavTTj ry rip.ipa,. On this day (Hoc die). 
 
 434 (7) The Dative may denote "place where" (poetical and rare 
 in Attic) ; — 
 
 Nvv 8' dypoio-i Tvyxdvei. But just now he is a-field ( = riirl, 
 
 a Locative). 
 Mapa6S>vL, SaXa/iivt, 'AB-^vr/cri, etc. (common in prose) are 
 
 Locatives : see § 59. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 259 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO MEANINGS OF CASES. 
 
 Expressions of Place. 
 
 435 *Hv €v rrj TroA.£i. / was in the city (in urbe). 
 
 ttt'' '^ /I ' ^^'"'^' ,. ^\l was at Athens (Athenis). 
 Hv AOrjvr](Tiv (Locative). | ^ ' 
 
 ''Hio £K (aTTo) TTJi ttoXews. / Went out of {from) the city : 
 
 ex (ab) urbe. 
 
 *Hia If (ax) 'ABrp/wv. } / MfiMi OM^ of (from) Athens : 
 
 ''Hia 'A^iyvij^cv (Adverb).] Athenis. 
 
 *Hi.a ets T^v iroXtv. / went to the city (ad urbem). 
 
 f-a"' ^''ko ' T"f A A ■u\\ I went to Athens (Atbenas). 
 Hta AdrjvaQe (Adverb). ) ^ ' 
 
 EuLB. — "Place where" "place whence" and "place whither" 
 are expressed, as in English, by Prepositions, even with the names 
 of towns and small islands; or by the Locative ( = at) and Adverbs 
 in -Gev ( = from), -Se ( = to), wherever such forms exist. 
 
 Note oiKoi, doml. oiKo^ev, domo. otKaSc, domum. 
 
 X^li-a-h humi. ;!^a/ia6€v, humo. ^^ajiia^c, ad humum. 
 
 436 The omission of the Preposition contrary to the above rule is poetical 
 (§§ 381, Obs. ; 410, Obs. 1; 434). 
 
 437 Note the ways of expressing " in (from, to) the city of " : 
 
 ■Ev Tf ,niA« Tj? mMr^.Xj.^ ^^^ ^^.^ of Miletus. 
 
 'Ek t7)s KuhTjs w6\€a>s Tijj WiK^Tov. From the fair city of Miletus. 
 Eis Mt\77Toy, KaKi)v ■ir6\iv rrjs 'laij/lds. ToM.,a beautiful city of Ionia. 
 
 Expressions of Space. 
 
 438 'EvrevOev i^eXavvei crTaOfJiovs Svo, Trapacrayyas SeVa. Thence 
 he marches out two days' journey, ten leagues (triginta 
 milia passuum). 
 
 At nXaratat airixovcn t5>v ®r]PS>v o-TaStous, or a-rdSia, e^So- 
 /t^Kovra. Plataea is distant from Thebes 70 stades 
 (decern milia or milibus passuum). 
 Rule. — Distance is expressed by the Accusative, with Verbs of 
 motion and of rest. 
 
 Obs. "How long," "how high," "how broad" are expressed by using 
 Accusatives of Nearer Definition (§ 383)— iUijkoj, Bi/^oj, iipos : — 
 
 'H rd(j>pos ^o-tI rptdKoffiav iroSHv rh firiKos. The trench is 310 feet (lit- 
 
 of 300 /eei. Gen. of Quality, § 399) in Ungth. 
 or 'H rdippos €%" rpiaicocrlovs ir6Sas rh /irJKos. The trench has 300 feet 
 
26o SYNTAX. 
 
 Expressions of Time. 
 
 TIMB WHEN. 
 
 439 (•*) Dative without cv ; — 
 
 lTnrap)(Os i<t)Ove66r] HavaBrjvaioK, 'EKaTo/AySatSi'os firjvo^ TpLTtj 
 
 ^fitVovTos. Hipparclius was murdered at the Panathe- 
 
 naic festival, on the Srd of Hecatombaion waning (i.e. 
 
 the 28th — the Srd reckoning from the end). 
 'Epjxai jLiia wktI oi irXetcrTot TrepieKOTrrjcrav to, irpotToyira. On 
 
 one particular night (iina nocte) most of the bmts of 
 
 Hermes had their faces mutilated. 
 TiJ va-repaia. On the day after (postero die). 
 T(3 Tre/ATTTCi) Kai StKaro) erei, /xrjvl Ikto) Kal afia rjpi ap)(Oft.€yio. 
 
 In the 16th year, in the 6th month and at the beginning 
 
 of spring. Quinto decimS anno, sexto mense, etc. 
 
 {b) Dative with cv (or sometimes Genitive) : — 
 
 "Ev TovTUi Tio xpovw. At this time. "Ev tou™ = interea. 
 
 'Ev T<3 TrapovTL. At the present time. 'Ev <5 = dum. 
 
 "Ev TiS \eiiuovi jScXtIov etrrt ira)(ia tfjidna </>opetv. In the 
 
 winter it is better to wear thick garments. 
 'H oiKLo. p(£i/i5vos /xev evrjXio^ tort, toB St 6ipovs eicKioi. The 
 
 house is sunny in winter and shady in summer. 
 "Ev vvktI ^ovXrj Tois (TO(l>ol<n ytyverat. In the night time 
 
 counsel comes to the wise. 
 OvO' fiiJi,ipdi ovT€ vuKTOs diroXeiVerai. He is absent neither by 
 
 day nor by night. 
 "Ev e/38o/i^KOVTa ireaiv ovK av cTs \d6oi irovqpo's &v. In three 
 
 score years and ten no villain could escape detection. 
 Auoiv hoiv ovK eiX-^(t>e(7av Kaprnv Ik t^s yrji. In the course of 
 
 tivo years they had not gathered harvest from the land. 
 
 Rule. — " Time when " is expressed (a) by the Dative without 
 _.' when an event is dated by the particular datj, night, month or 
 7/ear of its occurrence, or by the name of a festival. KS" In these 
 phrases the Datives ■^p.^pf, wktl, ix-qvC, erei, cviavriS must be defined 
 by an Attribute (an Adjective, Pronominal Adj., Numeral Adj., 
 Participle or Genitive), (b) In all other cases by the Dative with 
 Iv, or less definitely by the Genitive. 
 440 "^^^ tendency of prose is to use iv with the Dat. : hence Iv t JSc rfi fi/iepf 
 
 for rySe rrj rifim' "^ *''*' '^"'V' ^°° ^^^- '*-" ^^ 'learly always used where 
 the Noun' doss not in itself denote time : dv Tiohiiiif, in time of war, in hello. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 261 
 
 TIMB HOW LONG. 
 
 441 
 
 EvraB^a e/tetvc rpeis '^fi.epa.s. Here he remained three days, 
 ^vd-nqv ■^fj.ipdv yiy aii.-qij.€vq idnv. She has been married for 
 
 eight days (lit. the ninth day). 
 ^evSofio'O's ouSeis \av6a.vet iroXvv )(p6vov. No liar escapes 
 
 detection for long. 
 
 EuLB. — " Time how long " is expressed by the Accusative. 
 
 442 ^ ^ Or sometimes by Sia with the Genitive or irapii. with the Accusative : 
 Si' oKiyov, for a short time ; Sict vavrhs to5 fiiov or nap' '6\(iv rhv piov, through 
 the whole of life, per totam vitam. 
 
 Note TpidKovra ETi) yeyoviis, 30 yvars old, triginta aunos natus. 
 
 TIMB WITHIN WHICH. 
 
 443 Bao-tXeus ov fiaxetrai Scxa rj/xepmv . . . OvK apa ert iJi,a)(eLTai, 
 
 el p.!) ev raiJTats pAfxUTCu, Tais rip.epcwi. [The soothsayer 
 said] the king will not fight within ten days : [Cyrus 
 answered] then he will not fight afterwards, if he does 
 not fight within these days (his diebus). 
 
 EuLB. — "Time within which" is expressed by the Genitive, or 
 by iv with the Dative. 
 
 444 Or sometimes by ivT6s with the Genitive : ivris eUoffiv Ti/iepuv within 
 20 days, inter or intra viginti dies. 
 
 TIME HOW LONG BEFORE OB AFTER. 
 
 445 'OXtyats fip.ipai'i vpo r^s p-o-xV^- -^ /^^ days before the fight 
 
 (paucis diebus ante pugnam). 
 
 noXAats ■^p.ipaLs vixTepov * jjiera. Tijv p.(x)jr]v. Many days after 
 the fight (multis diebus post pugnam). 
 
 AeKtt h-iiTiv wTTipov. Teu years afterwards (deoem annis 
 post). 
 
 'OXiyo) (or dXtyov) Trporepov. A little while before (paulo 
 ante). 
 
 lUpovm va-Tepov (or xpoJ"? without va-repov). Some time after- 
 wards (aliquanto post). 
 
 EuLB. — "Time how long before or after" is generally expressed 
 by the Dative, sometimes by the Accusative (of Measure : § § 382, 
 432). 
 
 *"t(TTepov is generally added in phrases formed with /tET(£ and a 
 Dative of Measure. Contrast f^TiKo<rT^ erei /iera Tpotas iAaxriv, in the GOth 
 year (Dative of Time When) after the capture of Troy, 
 
262 SYNTAX. 
 
 MEANINGS OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 446 The Greek Prepositions for the most part take their meanings 
 from the Cases with which they are joined, denoting with the 
 Accusative tvhither or how far, with the Genitive whence, with the 
 Dative where : for example, irapa with Aocus. = to the side of, with 
 Gen. = from the side of, with Dat. = at the side of; eis with 
 Accus. = into ; h/ with Dat. = in ; airo with Gen. = from ; Ik 
 with Gen. = out of; see Accidence, § 293. But this is not true 
 of all uses ; for example em with Gen. denotes on (with verbs of 
 rest), very much like eiri with Dat. (§ 456 c) ; wpos with Gen. 
 may denote not only from but also on the side of, and a very 
 similar meaning may also be expressed by wpos with Accus. 
 (§ 459 a, V). Again there are meanings of Prepositions to which 
 the above distinctions of Case are inapplicable, for example through, 
 on account of, concerning, after. 
 
 447 Phrases formed with Prepositions are used in Latin chiefly as 
 Adverb-equivalents (e.g. moriuntur sine gloria they die ingloriously), 
 comparatively rarely as Adjective-equivalents {e.g. mors sine gloria 
 an inglorious death) ; but Greek is enabled by the possession of 
 an Article to convert any Phrase formed with a Preposition into 
 an Adjective-equivalent {e.g. ■^ iir' olkov 68ds the homeward journey, 
 ■fj iv %aXafuvi. jua^fjj the fight at Salamis, rj Kad' ■^/iepSv Tpo<j>i^ 
 daily sustenance). 
 
 In such Phrases the Preposition is often accommodated to the 
 meaning of the sentence as a whole : ol «« t^s dKpoiroXeojs iro^evov 
 those in the acropolis were shooting arrows from it, lit. those from 
 the acropolis were shooting arrows ; ol wapa 'Apiaiov ^X6ov those who 
 had been sent to Ariaeus returned, lit. those from Ariaeus returned. 
 
 Obs. All the Greek Prepositions were originally Adverbs, i.e. were 
 used without a Noun in dependence on tliem ; but the only Preposition 
 which is capable of being used as an Adverb in Attic prose is irpis { = in 
 addition) : e.g. irphs Se, and moreover (at(jue = ad-que). 
 
 IS" For Adverbs used as Prepositions see § 402, § 428 d, and Accidence. 
 § 300. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 263 
 
 Prepositions taking the Accnsative. 
 
 448 1. 'kvd (cf. the Adverb ai/co up), opposed to Kara, § 452. 
 
 Of place : ova. povv up stream, ova. Traxrav TTjv yrjv over the 
 whole land. 
 
 Of time : avo. Tracrav Trjv -^/Jiipav through the whole day. 
 
 Other meanings : dvo. Kparos according to one's strength, to 
 the best of one's ability, dvo, \oyov proportionately; cf. Kara = 
 according to. 
 
 Distributively : ova. iracrav rjixipav day by day, ava, trivTe Trapa- 
 trdyyas t^s rj/jiipds at the rate of 5 leagues a day, earijo-av ava exaTov 
 they stood in bodies of 100. 
 
 2. Eis, sometimes Is (as in Thucydides), opposed to ix. 
 
 Of place : els KiXi/ctSv Trip,Trav to send into or to Cilicia (in 
 Ciliciam), cf. § 435, ek OaXda-inQS eh OaXaa-crav Ttepie^eiv to encompass 
 from sea to sea. Often with verbs of arriving or assembling : eU 
 TToXiv a.^iKveio'dai or irapetvai to arrive at a city, eh rov l(r6p.6v 
 aOpoL^ea-Oai or a-vvLevai to assemble in the isthmus ; cf. advenire or 
 convenire in locum. With words denoting persons eh is used only 
 in special connexions : £is roiis BotwToiis iropevea-Bai to march into 
 the country of the Boeotians, eh . to ttXtjOos Xeyctv to speaJc to (or 
 before) the multitude, eh e/xe till my time, etc. 
 
 Of time ; ets Trpi va-Tepaiav till the next day (in posterum diem) ; 
 eh ea-irepav towards evening (ad vesperam) ; eis mawov for a year, 
 eh Tov airavTa )(p6vov for ever. 
 
 Other meanings : hi&jtOeipav eh OKTaKomovi they slew to the 
 number of 800 or about 800 (ad octingentos) * ; StSovai or ^p^o-^at 
 eis Ti to give or use for some purpose, to, eh tov iroXepjov the things 
 necessary for war. 
 
 3. 'Jis ; only used with words denoting persons, 
 ire/xireiv ms ^aa-iSAd to send to the king (ad regem). 
 
 * In such phrases cij (or irepl or o/ii/)^ with the Accusative may serve 
 as the Subject of a Finite Verb or in the Genitive Absolute construction : 
 ffvveK4yr}ffa,v els e^cucofflovs, about 600 were got together, (rvveiKeyfieiratv els 
 e^aKo<rhvs, about 600 having been got together. 
 
264 SYNTAX. 
 
 Prepositions taking the Genitive. 
 
 449 1. 'Arri. 
 
 alpiicrdai rb p^cipov dvTi tov ySeXriovos to choose the worse instead 
 of the better (pro melioribus), avrl BvqTcni cno/juiTOi aOdvarov So^av 
 cLXXaiaa-Oai to receive in exchange for a mortal body immm-tal glory ; 
 av6' ov, avO' S>v wherefore. 
 
 2. 'Air(5 [connected with Lat. a&] : — 
 
 Of place : dir' 'AOrjviov from Athens, d<^' ijnrou from horseback. 
 
 Of time : air iKtivtjs t^s ■^iJ.ipas from that day, a<f ov ever since 
 (ex qu5), SoSXoi hr iXfvBipw/ slaves after being free. 
 
 Other meanings : KaXeio-^ai airo tlvo<s to he called after someone \ 
 oLTTo TToXi/xov j8ioT£i5civ to gain one's livelihood from war; wko 
 a-vixiji,axfds avrovoiun independent in virtue of an alliance. 
 
 3. 'Ek, before vowels e| [Lat. ex], opposed to €is. 
 
 Of place : ek tijs 'Attik^s irifm-av to send out of or from Attica 
 (ex Attica), cf. § 435 ; ek Seftds km ef dpto-repas on the right hand 
 and on the left (a dextra et a sinistra). 
 
 Of time ; ck iratSos from boyhood (a puero), « iraXaioS from 
 time immemorial ; ex tovtov hereupon ; cf o5 ever since (ex quo). 
 
 Other meanings : Ik TraT-pos cvyevoCs sprung from a noble father, 
 £K Aids coming from Zeus ; ek tSv irapdvruv in view of present 
 circumstances, ex rS>v SwarSv so far as possible ; ex rovrutv in con- 
 sequence of this, or after this ; ii la-ov on equal terms, equally, c| 
 aTTpoa-SoK-^ov unexpectedly (ex improvis5). 
 
 4. ripd [connected with Lat. pro]. 
 
 Of place : Trpo tS>v iniXtov before the gates (pro portis). 
 
 Of time : irpb i^s fidx^js before the battle (ante pugnam), irpo 
 ■^ftepoii before daybreak, oi wpo rjfuav our ancestors. 
 
 Other meanings : SiKaiocrvvriv wpd dSixt'ds alptia-Oai to choose 
 justice in preference to injustice, Trpo iroXXSiv ■xp-qpATinv Tift.a.(rdai or 
 ■7roi€L<r6ai to value higher than great riclies ; irpo TraiSwv pAx^o-dai. to 
 fight in defence of one's children (pro liberls), rare in prose for 
 virtp, § 454 b. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 265 
 
 Prepositions taking the Dative. 
 
 450 1. 'El/ [connected with Lat. in]. 
 
 Of place : ef rrj 'EA,Xa8t in Greece (in Graecia), iv 'AOi^vous at 
 Athens (§ 435) ; cv tou'tois among these ; iv fidpTva-t before loitnesses. 
 
 Of time : ev tm )(etfuovi in the winter, ev tovtw t<S xpovio at or 
 within this time (§§ 439, 443), kv rats a-irovSats during the truce. 
 
 Other meanings : iv t<3 6e<S to t^s t'-o^Xt'^ tc'Xos the issue of the 
 battle is in the hands of God ; iv rexyrj nvl etvai to be engaged in 
 the practice of a craft (in arte Yersari) ; iv <t>6/3(a elvai to be in a 
 state of alarm, iv iavriS elvai to be self-possessed. 
 
 Phrase: iv tois with a Superlative, iv rots irparoi &p/iri(rav they v>ere 
 among the first to start (inter primos). 
 
 2. Ziii' or |uV. 
 
 iTvv Tois 6eois with the help of the gods (dis adjuvantibus) ; o-w 
 T<3 vd/u,u) in agreement with the law, a-vv tw SiKatoi in accordance 
 with Justice ; (tvv Kpavy^ with a shout. 
 
 Caution. — In classical prose with (= Lat. cum) is generally 
 expressed by /iera with the Genitive (§ 453 b ; Accidence, p. 124). 
 
 Prepositions taking either Accusative or Genitive. 
 
 451 Aid. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative ; — 
 
 Chiefly causal : Bia raSra owing to this, on this account 
 
 (propter haec), 81' e/te owing to me (propter me, = 
 
 owing to my help ov fault). 
 (6) With the Genitive :— 
 
 Of place : 8ta TroXefud^ through an enemy's country (per 
 
 hostium fines) ; 8ta irevre o-TaSiwv at a distance of five 
 
 stades. 
 Of time : 8ta Travro's tov yStou through the whole of life (per 
 
 totam vXtam) ; 81' eiKomv erSi/ after an interval of twenty 
 
 years ; 81a, rpirov Itovs every third year (tertio quoque 
 
 anno). 
 Other meanings : 8t' dyyeXou by means of a messenger (per 
 
 nuntium), 81' kpii-qviois by means of an interpreter ; 
 
 hia. xeipSv ex"'' ^^ ^'^^^ ^'^ hand (inter maniis) ; 8ia 
 
 Ta.-)(ov<; in haste, 8l opyijs in anger ; Sta c^iXt'ds iivai, tivl 
 
 (§ 428 a). 
 
 18 
 
266 SYNTAX. 
 
 452 Kard (cf. the Adverb Karw below), opposed to avd, § 448. 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : Kara povv down stream ; Kara xSo-av rrfv x">pa.v over 
 the whole country ; Kal Kara yrjv koI Kara QaXaa-dav by 
 land and by sea, Kara to eiiowfiov Kcpas T€Td)(6ai to be 
 posted on (or opposite to) the left icing. 
 
 Of time : Kar cKeivov tov xpovov about that time, ot xafl' i5/;ias 
 our contemporaries. 
 
 Other meanings : Kara tov% vofwvs according to the laws 
 (secundum leges, opposed to wapa tovs v6/j,ovs, § 457), 
 Kara UivSapov according to Pindar ; Kara Swa/^tv to the 
 best of one's power ; to xar' ifj-e so far as I am concerned 
 (quod ad me attinet) ; koto Ta^os quickly ; koto rdSe 
 StKaios in the following respects just. 
 
 Distributively : KaTo. rpeis three by three, Kar avSpa man by 
 man (viritim), KaO' fni-ipav day by day. 
 (&) With the Genitive :— 
 
 Of ulace : Kara tu>v irerpiiiv puKTUv to hurl down from the 
 rocks (de riipibus) ; to Kara yri<s all that is under the 
 earth (sub terra) ; Kara yi)s Swat to go down into or 
 under the earth (sub terram). 
 
 Other meanings : Xiyea/ Kara tlvcs to speak against anyone 
 (opposed to iTrlp, § 454 b) ; cf § 416, § 409.2. 
 
 453 Merii. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of time : /iera Tr)v fJi-d-xriv after the battle (post pugnam), 
 fie$' fifiipav in the day time (interdiii), i.e. after day- 
 break. 
 
 Of succession : o ^opvcOivris iroTa/ios /ieytcrros iaTi /tera tov 
 'la-Tpov the Dnieper is the greatest river next to the 
 Danube (maiimus secundum Istrum). 
 (6) With the Genitive {cf on crvv, § 450.2) :— 
 
 01 //.era AeuvtSou those with Leonidas (qui cum Leohida 
 erant), joiera (Tvp.ijA)((iiv jxay^ifyOaj. to fight in company 
 with allies (cf § 428 a) ; joicra SaKpviav LK€Tcveiv to 
 entreat with tears (cum lacrimis), ov fieT dSiKids dA.Xa 
 a-itv T(3 SiKawo not unjustly but justly. 
 
 Obs. In Homer lieri sometimes takes the Dative ( = among). 
 
MEANINGS OP FORMS. 267 
 
 454 'Yir^p [probably connected with Lat. supei-]. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : vTrep to. opr) o'lKelv to dwell heyond the mountains 
 (ultra montes). 
 
 Other meanings : virkp Svra/xiv heyvnd one's poioer (supra or 
 ultra vires, opposed to Kara Svvafuv, § 452 a), i-nrlp 
 avOpunrov heyond the measure of human strength (= ov 
 Kar avOpoiTTOv) ; virkp to, ■rrevT^KOVTa irq yeyovw'S more 
 than thirty years old. 
 
 (b) With the Genitive : — 
 
 Of place : o ■^Xtoi vTrip t^s y^s iropeveTai the sun travels over 
 or ahove the earth (super terram). 
 
 Other meanings : v-n\p i-^s TrarpiSos diro^aveiv to die for one'-' 
 country (pro patria mori), toW virip a-ov iroi-^o-co I will 
 do this on your hehalf ; opyi^ecrdai, virkp tZv yeyei'rjp.a'oiv 
 to he angry at what has happened, xapiv virip tmv 
 djyt]p.iv<ov dhivai to he grateful for what has been said. 
 
 Obs. In the sense concerning ( = Trepi with Gen.) mep is not used till 
 the time of Demosthenes ; cf. Dem. adv. Lept. 124 ; Fals. Leg. 94, etc. 
 
 Prepositions taking AccusatiYC, Genitive, or Dative. 
 
 455 'A(ji,<t)i [connected with a/x</)u), Lat. ambi-, amb-], almost identical 
 
 in use with Trepl (§ 458), which is far commoner, 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : d/t<^i to. opia round about the frontier (circum 
 fines), ol aiji,(JH Kvpov those around Gyrus — the retinue 
 or party of Cyrus. 
 Of time : d,;u.^t p.ia-a.'; vuxras about midnight (circiter or 
 
 circa mediam noctem). 
 Other meanings : iyivovro cru/ATravTes afuju toiis erTaicoo-toDs 
 they we) e in all about 700 (circiter septingenti) * ; note 
 the Article which is usual in these phrases with d/i^t'. 
 (6) With the Genitive (poetical) = wepi with the Genitive. 
 
 (c) With the Dative (poetical) = ir^pl with the Dative. 
 
 p. 263 
 
 * Circiter is here an Adverb, afixjil a Preposition : cf. notes on p. 270, 
 63. 
 
268 SYNTAX. 
 
 456 'Eiri'. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : ctti to /SrjfjLa dva^atveiv to mount on to the rostrum 
 
 or tribune (in rostra escendere) ; iwl $a.\ao-(Tav KaOrjKuv 
 
 to extend to the sea (ad mare), ewi iroWa trraSia to a 
 
 distance of many stades. 
 Of time : iirl ttoAw ^(povovfor a long time. 
 Other meanings : l<f> vSiop Trifnrav to send for water ; im. 
 
 7roA.€/uoiis o-TpaTcuea-Oai to take the field against enemies. 
 Phrase : iis iirl rh iroKvfor the most part. 
 
 (6) With the Genitive :— 
 
 Of place : ctti yjjs ^e^r/Kefai to stand firm upon the ground 
 (in terra), im r^s /cE</)aA,'5s tfiipiiv to carry on one's head ; 
 £<^' ap/Aaros or l<ji imrcov 6)(e'i(T6a.i to ride in a chariot, 
 01 £7ri tS>v viSiv the men on (or in) the ships. 
 
 Of direction : iirl Sa/iow TrXeiv to sail for (in the direction of) 
 Samos, iw' oiKov Uvai to go homewards, to. em OpotxTjs 
 the Thrace-ward parts. 
 
 Of time : etti HepiKXeovs apxovTOi in the arehonship of 
 Pericles, Im tS>v Trpoyovoiv in the time of our ancestors, 
 ol i<fi rjfj.Mv our contemporaries (cf. Kara, with Accus., 
 § 452 b). 
 
 Other meanings : €<^' lauToi) irpaa-a-uv to act hy oneself or 
 independently ; iw' avOpwTrov on human authority ; oi 
 iirl tS)v TrpayiMTiDv those in charge of public affairs ; iirl 
 Ticra-dpwv ra^drjvai, to be drawn up four deep. 
 
 (c) With the Dative :— 
 
 Of place : eVi rg OaXdcrtrg oiVeiv to dwell by the sea (prope 
 mare) ; ctti tois opiois on the frontier. Sometimes 
 synonymous with the Gen. : im vavorlv ayuv to bring on 
 (or in) ships, i-ni ry /ce^aXg (j>opeLv to wear on the head. 
 
 Of time : ivl tiS rpiTw o-iy/Acto) at {= immediately after) the 
 third signal, km toijtois hereupon. 
 
 Other meanings : oi ctti t^ wnru) those in charge of the 
 cavalry ; l^' v/uv eortv it is in your power (penes vos 
 est) ; ETTi TJj vfxij ;^a4>etv or /xeya <j>poveiv to rejoice at or 
 be proud of the victory; ctti futrOw o-Tpareveo-^ai to 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 269 
 
 serve as a soldier for pay, cm totjtois on these conditions, 
 iff)' (ore on condition that ; eirt KaKovpyid ijkuv to have 
 coine with evil intent or for knavish purposes, hrl ravrg 
 rfj Trpo^acret on this pretext. 
 
 457 napii. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place (with words denoting persons) : irapa, ySao-iXe'd 
 ireijareiv to send to the king (ad regem) ; irapa TroTafwv 
 TTOfievicrdai or oiKetv to march or dzoell alongside of a 
 river, Trap aXXrjXa things side by side, parallels. 
 
 Of time : irap oXov rbv /Blov along the whole course of life. 
 
 Other meanings : Trapa rois vo/jmv^ contrary to the laics 
 (contra leges, opposed to Kara tovs vo/uods, § 452 a), 
 Trapa Sdfav contrary to expectation, paradoxically 
 (praeter opinionem) ; tov Oavdrov KaTa</)povctv Trapa rr/v 
 ala-)(yvriv to think little of death in comparison with 
 disgrace. 
 
 Phrase : irap' oAlyov iA6e7v to come within an ace (caroBave'ii' of 
 perishing), iraph tosovtov i\8i!v to come within siieh a degree 
 {KiySivov of peril). 
 
 (6) With the Genitive :— 
 
 Of place (with words denoting persons) : wapa ySacriXews 
 ^Keiv to have come from the Icing (a rege), irapo. (piXwv 
 Xa/A/Savetv to receive from friends. 
 
 Other meanings : irapa nvos /xav^avetv or irwGavi.frQai to learn 
 of {from) anyone, -rapa. tusv Oe&v SeSoa-dai to have been 
 given by {from) the gods, irapa Travrwv o/toXoyeio-^ai to 
 be confessed by all (ab omnibus) ; cf. § 327, Obs. 1. 
 
 (c) With the Dative :— 
 
 Of place (chiefly with words denoting persons) : Trapa 
 ySacrtXct etvat to be at the king's side (apud regem), Trapa 
 Tois Mi^Sois Kol Iv rois Ilepcrats among the Medes and 
 Persians (inter Medos), irapa Sjj/aoo-iu) StSao-KaXoi TratSeu- 
 ecr^ai to be educated at a public teacher's (apud 
 magistrum) ; hence irapa Si/cao-Tai? = coram Jijdicibus, 
 Trap ifioi = me jMicg, 
 
270 SYNTAX. 
 
 458 ncpi (c/. a^i04 § 455). 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : ircpi to Teixos around the wall (circum moenia), 
 01 Trepl Kvpov those around Cyrus = the retinue of Gyrus. 
 
 Of time : inpl fj.ia-a.'s vw/cras about midnight (circiter or 
 circa mediam noctem). 
 
 Other meanings : irepl iTrraKoo-iovs airiOavov about 700 
 perished (circiter septingenti perierunt) * ; irept 0iXo- 
 <ro4>ia.v o-irov8a^€iv to he zealous in the pursuit of philo- 
 sophy, trtpl Tov 6€ov aa-€^elv to be guilty of impiety in 
 relation to the god. 
 
 (b) With the Genitive :— 
 
 irtpi dprivq's fSovXevea-Oiu to deliberate concerning peace (de 
 pace), TTcpl Tijs TToXeus <jiol3eL(r6aL to be alarmed about 
 the city. 
 
 Phrase : Trept ttoWov [irXeovos, TrXewrTOv] Troieio'Sai to value 
 highly [more highly, most highly'] magni [pKris, 
 pliirimi] facere ; cf. § 414, Obs. 2. 
 
 (c) With the Dative (rare or poetical) : — 
 
 Ytravas irepl tois ffrepvois <pope7v to wear tunics around the breast 
 (circum pectus); w€p\ rri it6\ei SeSieVai or Oappuv to fear or be 
 confident about the city (de republioa). 
 
 459 np6s. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : Trpos pamXed irifuruv to send to the Ifing Cad 
 regem) ; to irpos jSoppav or ap/crov [p.eo-ij/x^pidi', tu), 
 ea~7rip6iv\ the region towards the North [South, East, 
 West] ; irpos TOV Srjfiov a-yopeuetv to speak to (or before) 
 the people. 
 
 Of time : Trpos kcnrepav towards evening (ad or sub vesperam). 
 
 * Circiter is here an Adverb, vepl a Preposition, which with its Case 
 here serves as a Nominative ; cf. note on p. 26^, 
 
MEANING}) OH fORMS. ^Ti 
 
 Other meanings : Trpos ^aa-ikia a-rpaTeveaOat to take the 
 field against the Icing (adversus or contra regem); 
 irpb'S ^aa-ikid o-TrovSas TroLeia-Oai to make a truce with 
 the Icing (cum rege, ef. § 428 a) ; oiSev to. xPW'"'"- 
 TT/aos rrjv <ro'f>l,av riches are nothing in comparison with 
 wisdom (nihil ad sapientiam) ; TraiSevco-fei irpos aperTjv 
 to he educated for a virtuous life ; irpbs -^Sovrjv or x^-P"" 
 \iyea/ to speak so as to please another ; aOv/jito? ^X"'' 
 wpos Tov irdA,e/xov to have no heart for the war, to, ■n-po's 
 Tov TTokepLov all that relates to the war ; Trpbs Tavra in 
 regard to these -things = wherefore. 
 
 (b) With the Genitive :— 
 
 Of place : to irpos ia-irepdi tclxo's the wall on the West or 
 facing the West (ab occasii solis), wpos tov iroTa/xov 
 ia-rdvai to be posted on the side facing the river. 
 
 Other meanings : -trpos tivos dvai to be on anyonds side (ab 
 aliqu.6 stare) ; irpos -TraTpoi 'AOrjvaloi elvat to be an 
 Athenian on the father's side ; -irpb^ tGv e;;^di'Ta)v v6ji,ov 
 TiOevai to lay down a law in favour of the rich ; koX 
 ■jrpos OiZv Kol Trpos avOpunrusv SiKaiov eivai to be just in 
 the eyes of both gods and men ; irpos Oelav in the name 
 of the gods (per deos), used in adjurations; liraivov 
 irpoi Tij/os exav or \a[x,pd.v€w to receive praise at the 
 hands of anyone (ab aliquo) ; cf. § 327, Obs. 1. 
 
 (c) With the Dative : — 
 
 Of place : Trpos r^ yrj va.vjj.ax'S.v to fight a naval battle dose 
 to the land (juxta or prope terram), irpos Aiyu/jj off 
 Aegina. 
 
 Other meanings : wpos tovtois in addition to this (praeterea), 
 cf. irpds Se, § 447, Obs. ; irpos rivi eivai to be closely 
 engaged or absorbed in anything. 
 
272 SYNTAX. 
 
 460 'Yiro [connected with Lat. sub']. 
 
 (a) With the Accusative : — 
 
 Of place : iir' avro TO Tctxos ay€iv to lead under or up to 
 
 the very wall (sub murum). 
 Of time : inrb vvxra towards nightfall (sub noctem). 
 
 (6) With the Genitive :— 
 
 Of place (rare) : vm yrjs th <^5s eXSeiv to come from under 
 the earth to the light of day, wo t,vyov \.v€w to loosen 
 from beneath the yoke ; out' iwl ■fq's ovff vm yrjs neither 
 upon the earth nor under the earth (sub terra). 
 
 Other meanings : mo tSv "EtWrfvuiv vlKaa-Oai to be conquered 
 by the Greeks (a Graecis, cf. § 327), mo <^oveo)s moQavtiv 
 to meet one's death at the hands of a murderer, mo 
 Tivos cS Tcaa-xtw to meet with good treatment at the 
 hands of anyone, mo Kijum airoXhia-BoA. to perish of 
 hunger (fame confici) ; wo XlSm^s ov Bvva/j^ai KaOevSew 
 I cannot sleep for grief (prae maerore) ; mo o-dXm-yyos 
 to the sound of the trumpet, mb Ki^pvKos at the cry of 
 the herald. 
 
 (c) With the Dative : — 
 
 Of place : to. mb tu oipdvi^ all that is under the sky (sub 
 
 caelo) ; mb r^ a.Kpoir6\a oiKav to dwell at the foot of 
 
 the acropolis (sub arce). 
 Other meanings : mb Tvpavvia cTvat to be under the rule of a 
 
 tyrant (sub rege or sub dicione regis), v<^' eavnS or vcf)' 
 
 iavTov TTOL^'ixrda.i to bring under on^s own power (suae 
 
 dicionis facere, cf. § 389). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 273 
 
 MEANINGS OF THE VOICES. 
 
 461 1- The Active Yoice often has intransitive meaning, even in 
 
 the case of verbs which are capable of taking an Object : e.g. 
 airaye begone ! Lat. apage (transitively airaye a-^avrov take yourself 
 off) ; ex ripefjux. or e^ V^^X"^ ^'^^P ff^ie^ (c/. § 324.5) ; /caXfis €X" ''■^ 
 is icell (bene habet or bene se habet) ; ttGs e^e's ; how are you ? 
 (ut vales ?) ; ev 7rpdcra-<o I am faring well, I am doing well. 
 
 Note the following verbs : — 
 
 a-iraipuv to march away or to sail away (of. airaipav a-Tparov 
 
 or vals to carry off an army or ships). 
 elcr^dXXeiv, ififtaXXav to make an inroad {cf. ela^aXXav 
 
 crrpaTov to throw an army into). 
 iXavvktv to ride or march {cf. eXawciv iTnrows to drive horses, 
 
 iXavviiv a-TpoLTov to lead forth an army). 
 i^icvai {-ir)fx.i) to gush forth, to discharge itself {cf. e|tei/at 
 
 v8u>p to send out, or let out, water). 
 KaraXveiv to halt or to take up one's quarters {cf. KaraXveLv 
 
 r-TTTTovs to unharness horses). 
 op/jLciv to make a start, to make haste, contendere {6pp.S.v 
 
 transitive = to set in motion, to impel ; Pass, or Midd. 
 
 bpfmcrOax to set out, proficisci;, op/jiaa-OaL e/c or airo 
 
 Toirov to have a place as a basis of operations, sede 
 
 belli iiti). 
 TcXtvTav to die, and Siayeiv to live {cf. TtXevrav or Myeiv 
 
 Tov jSt'ov to end or spend one's life). 
 
 2. The Active Voice of certain verbs serves as a Passive of 
 other verbs, which have no Passive of their own : — 
 
 airoOvga-Kiiv to die (Pass, of diroKTeiveiv to kill). 
 iKTriTTTCLv to be banished (Pass, of ex/SaXXetv to drive out). 
 (I>evyeiv to be accused (Pass, of StoJKetv or ypd<jie(r6ai to 
 
 accuse), or to be banished (Pass, of eK/SaXXav). 
 ev or KOKMS irooxetv to be treated well or ill (Pass, of e? or 
 
 KaKus iroieiv to treat well or ill, § 330*. 5). 
 ev or KaKtSs aKovav to be spoken well or ill of, bene or male 
 
 audire (Pass, of ev or Ka/cGs Xiyav to speak well or 
 
 ill of). 
 
274 SYNTAX. 
 
 3. The Middle Voice has reflexive meaning (i.e. refers to self) : 
 
 (a) Denoting an action done to oneself: — 
 X.ov€(r6ai to wash oneself Q\.ovuv to wash). 
 yv/jLvd^io-dai to exercise oneself (yu/itvd^€iv to exercise). 
 afKJuivwa-daL to clothe oneself (a/xipuvvvvai to clothe). 
 lo-Taa-dai to place oneself, hence to step, to stand (icrTavat to 
 
 place), 
 iramadai to make oneself cease, hence to cease (iraveiv to 
 
 make to cease). 
 <t>(uve(T6ai, to show oneself, hence to appear (tfiaiveiv to show). 
 
 (b) Denoting an action done for oneself or in one's own 
 interest : — 
 
 aipiitrOai, to take for oneself, to choose (aipeiv to take). 
 eiipiaKea-Oai to find for oneself, to get (aipicTKUv to find). 
 iroLaaOai tov piov to gain a livelihoud for oneself, to gain 
 
 one's livelihood {Troiiiv to make). 
 Tidea-dai vo/toDs to make laws for oneself, to pass laws (n^cVai 
 
 vo/Aous to impose or lay down laws). 
 afjivvea-daL to ward off for oneself, hence to defend oneself 
 
 (apLvveiv to ward off). 
 
 (c) Denoting an action done of oneself or from one's own 
 resources, here the reflexive meaning is vague, and the Middle 
 differs from the Active only in laying emphasis on the action 
 being one's oton : — 
 
 Trapex^a-Oai to provide from one's own resoiirces (■n-apexeiv to 
 
 }}rovide). 
 TToieia-OaL iroXefiov to make war on on^s own account = 
 
 bellum gerere (iroteiv -irokefwv to cause or give rise to 
 
 war = bellum movere). 
 apxio-dai, with Gen. to begin one's own work (apx^i-v with 
 
 Gen. to begin what others continue) ; § 410 c. 
 
 Obs. 1. Prom one or other of the above meanings (6 or c) comes the 
 common use of iroieTirBoi with a Noun as a periphrasis for a Verb : thus 
 rroietaOat rhv Biov = BioTeieiv, iroiiitr&ai iriKefloy = iroKefielv, noie7<r6ai \6yous 
 = \4yeiv, iroifiaOai B'fipay i\i!uf>wv = dripciv i\d^ovs, to hunt deer. The Passive 
 of these expressions is formed with yiyvo/Mi : e.g. 176x^1105 ylyverai, \6yoi 
 yiyvovrai. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes the Middle has causative meaning: @enurTOK\rjs 
 rhv vihv mirea iSiSd^aro Themistocles had, his son trained as a horseman [cf. 
 \ 334.2 a). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 275 
 
 MEANINGS OF THE MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 Tenses of the Indicative. 
 A. Tenses formed from the Present Stem. 
 
 The Present Stem marks an action as nut completed. 
 
 The Present Indicative has two chief uses, as in Latin : — 
 
 (1) To mark an action as now going on, or a state as now 
 existing : ypai^co / am loriting, iiria-Tafjiai, I understand or I know, 
 'AKa/iavTis irpvTaveva the tribe Acamantis is in office (from wpvTavis 
 president). 
 
 (2) To mark an action as recurring habitually in the present : 
 ypa^o) I write = I am loont to write (Habitual Present) : 
 
 nXoTov eis A-ijXov 'AdrjvaloL Tre/jLTrova-Lv. The Athenians send 
 
 a vessel to Delos {i.e. every year). 
 OStos /xtv vhoip, iyu) 8' olvov tttvu). This man drinks water, 
 
 but I leine. 
 
 By an extension of these meanings the Present Indicative 
 comes to be used (as in Latin) : — 
 
 (3) To mark an action as merely begun or attempted in the 
 present (though still as in course of accomplishment) : 
 
 'E^eXawcTE ^yuSs Ik tiJs x'^'P"-''- -^"^ ''"'^ i^'lji^g to drive m 
 out of the land. 
 Note especially ireWm I try to persuade, SiSwynt / offer. 
 
 (4) With adverbial expressions of Time like irdXai {a while) 
 and phrases formed with 17877 (jam), to mark an action as begun in 
 the past, but continued up to the present : 
 
 ZtjtS TToXai. I have been seeking a while (diidum quaero). 
 Nw T£ KoX irdXat \iyu>. I say now and have been saying for 
 
 some time (not necessarily a long time). 
 So with €Tos ri^T) Mkwtov now for 10 years, etc. 
 
 (5) To denote what is true at all times (including the present) : 
 'O avOpmiro? icrn OvrjTOi. Man is mortal. 
 
 (6) In vivid narration of past events, instead of the Aorist 
 (§ 481) ; in this use the Present is called Historical : 
 
 IIopeveTai Trpb's /SacrtXcd y iSvvaro TaxuTTa. He marches 
 
 ( = marched) against the king a< quickly as he pot^ld, 
 
276 SYNTAX. 
 
 468 Peculiar to Greek is the apparently Perfect meaning of certain 
 Presents : tjhio (really from a Perfect stem) I am come, oXxofiai I am gone. 
 
 Similarly vIkH often = / am the victor (= vei/ficijica), fia-a-afiai I am the 
 defeated party, iSiKa I am, in the wrong (= &Sik6s «Vi)i <peiyw I am the 
 defendant or / am an exile ; so in verbs denoting to be the father or mother, as 
 rls /i 4K()>iei; who is my sire? (Soph. 0. T. 437), 5J5c t/ktci ire this woman is 
 thy mother (Eur. Ion, 1560) ; cf. idem Atlas generat. 
 
 469 The Past Imperfect Indicative is the Present of the past, 
 i.e. it has the chief meanings of the Present, transferred to past 
 time by means of the Augment. The two chief uses are, as in 
 Latin : — 
 
 470 
 
 471 
 
 472 
 
 (1) To mark an action as going on in the past, or a state as 
 then existing : iypa^ov I was writing, rjTncrTa.ij.rjv I understood or 
 / Jenew, 'AKaixavrls irrpvTavfve the tribe Acamantis was in office, 
 nY®ON EPPA^E Python was the painter (an inscription on 
 a vase*). — Often in descriptions of scenery and localities: 
 Tropevojxevoi S« eiSov ^aiTiKaov n • 080s 8c irpos to \uipCov toijto 8ta 
 yrjXo'ftusv inj/rjKuiv €<fiepev, OL KaOrJKOv diro tov opovs, icj) <5 ^v KU>p.r] : 
 and journeying on they saw a royal castle ; and there was a road 
 leading to this fortified place over lofty slopes, which stretched down 
 from the mountain, at the foot of which was a village. 
 
 (2) To mark an action as recurring habitually in the past ; 
 €ypa<l>ov I used to write or / wrote (Habitual Past Imperfect) : 
 
 To hvirviov iirtKeXevi /*£ tovto rrpdmiv orrep hrpaTTov. The 
 dream kept urging me on to do the very thing that I 
 was in the habit of doing. [Sometimes with av,§339*.] 
 
 By an extension of these meanings the Past Imperfect Indica- 
 tive comes to be used : — 
 
 (3) To mark an action as merely begun or attempted in the past 
 (though still as in course of accomplishment) : 
 
 '^iavexoipa to tiprj/jLeva. He tried to back out of what he 
 had said. So in Lat. (infitiabatur). ' 
 
 Note especially hr^Sov I tried to persuade, cStSow I offered. 
 
 (4) To denote what is not, in If-clauses (§§ 353 ; 355, 1 a). 
 
 * Of Magna Graeoisi. The Aorist is far commoner on vases (Appendix II). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 277 
 
 473 With irdAtti, the Past Imperfect generally has the same meaning as in 
 § 470 (not that of liSit. jamdudum with Impf.) : — 
 
 E« &fiv TJceiy Svirep i^iiix"" "''i^'"' Thou art come to a sight of the 
 very things that thou wast praying for erewhile (oi: hast been long 
 praying for). Aesoh. Choeph. 216. 
 
 Kol jxivris iiv &puTTOs 4(r^d\\ov irdKat; And, being so good a prophet, 
 wast thou so long deceived ? Soph. M. 1481 ; cf. Appendix II. 
 
 474 The Past Imperfect ^1/ was (generally with &pa it seems) may be used to 
 express surprise at the present discovery of a fact already existing, but 
 hitherto overlooked : — 
 
 TowTi t'l Jiv; What on earth is this [which I had not noticed] ? — 
 
 Aristoph. Wasps, 183. 
 Ou av liSvos &p' ^ffd' iiro\j/ ; You are not, then, the only epops [as I 
 
 thought] ?— Aristoph. Birds, 280. 
 
 Compare Terence, Fhorm. 856: Geta. Tu quoque aderas, Phormio? 
 Phoem. Aderam. Geta. Are you here also, Phormio [and I did not know 
 it] ? Phobm. I am. 
 
 Peculiarities of the Greek Past Imperfect. 
 
 ^lyg Peculiar to Greek is the apparently Pluperfect meaning of certain 
 
 Past Imperfects : fiKov generally = / had come, rarely / came ; ^x'^A"!" I ^'^ 
 gone ; hiicav 1 was the victor, ricffdiiiiv I was the defeated party, etc. (§ 468). 
 
 47g The following peculiar uses of the Past Imperfect are not hmited to 
 
 particular verbs : — 
 
 (a) The Past Imperfect is sometimes used to mark an action as having 
 been going on or having been habitual in the past : 
 
 Kvpos elSe toj (TKiivas ot oi KiAi/ces i<pi\aTTov. Cyrus saw the tents 
 where the Cilicians had been on guard (they were no longer 
 there) : Xen. Anab. I. 2, 22. 
 Oirep vp6(T9ev TtpoaeKivovv, Kol •r6re irpoa-eKivtiffav. Those who had 
 been in the habit of paying homage before, paid homage on this 
 occasion also : ibid. I. 6, 10. 
 
 (6) The Past Imperfect is sometimes used as a narrative tense, like the 
 Aorist (§ 481) ; this use is common in Homer, and it survives in many 
 passages of Attic Greek : 
 
 nSis 4re\eiTd; Sow did he die ? Flaito, Phaedo, 57 a.. 
 Ei(ri6pTes oiv KareKa/j-PdvofiEV rhv 'Zaicpdrit &pTi KiKvjiivov. Entering 
 then we found Socrates just released from his chains. Ibid. 60 a. 
 
 Note especially ^nefiirov, airiffreWoy, 4k4\€vov and e\syov in the 
 historians : 
 
 "AyyeXov eire/xwov Ka\ Tohs v^Kpohs vTro(rir6v5ous aireSoffav. They sent 
 (miserunt) a messenger and gave up the dead under terms of a 
 truce. Thuc. ii. 6, 1 ; cf. Soph. El. 680, 0. T. 973 (irpoSKeyov 
 ird\ai I foretold long since). 
 
2^8 SYNTAX. 
 
 B. The Future and the Aorist. 
 
 477 The Future IndicatiYe is used as in Latin : — 
 
 (1) To mark an action as about to occur (or a state as about 
 to exist) Iiereafter : ypafia I shall tirrite, iTrurnia-o^i I shall under- 
 stand or / shall know, 'A/ca/tavTis TrpvTaveva-ei the tribe Aeamantis 
 will be in office or mil come into office. 
 
 478 Distinguish : ypaif/ia I shall write (scrlbam). 
 IxikXui ypdij/eiv or ypatjiuv I am going to write or 
 
 / am likely to write or / intend to write or / 
 am bound to lorite (scriptiirus sum ; cf. 
 § 330, Obs. 3).* 
 kdiXia yponj/ai I will write or / desire to write 
 (scrlbere vol5; cf. § 330, Obs. 2).* 
 
 479 (2) To imply Command or Promise (in the 2nd or 3rd Person, 
 where English often has shall) : — 
 
 ndvTojs 8e tovto S/aacreis. By all means do this.j- 
 
 Xeipl 8' ov i/favcreis ttote. Thou shall never lay hands upon me. 
 
 ^01 y, S> TCKVOV, Koi rovTo KaAAo Tuiv i/xSiv, 
 
 'Oiroiov S.V crot (rv/i<^€pij, yevrftmai. 
 
 To thee, my son, both this shall be granted and anything 
 else of mine that is for thy good. Soph. Phil. 659, cf. 459. 
 
 480 
 
 The Aorist IndicatiYe (Weak or Strong) marks an action as 
 simply occurring in the past : eypatj/a I wi-ote, i^aXov I hurled, 
 tiSov / saio. This meaning of past time belongs only to the 
 augmented Aorist, i.e. the Aorist Indicative : the Aorist Stem 
 merely marks the action as occurring; hence ypai^ai. to write, 
 ^aXelv to hurl, IBeiv to see.% 
 
 * These modal meanings are sometimes implied by the simple Future, 
 t.g. in If-olauses, § 354, Obs. (ei (poPriai/ieBa if we are going to fear). 
 
 t Similarly oT<r9' oSv t Spdireis; Knowesl thou then what thou art to do? 
 Eur. Cyclops, 131 (= olaff oiv % Spacrov; § 865.2). Compare the French tu 
 ne tueras point = thou shall not kilL—Ftoia. this modal use of the Future 
 Indicative comes its use in Final Belative Clauses (§ 364, 2 b). 
 
 I In Dependent Statements, however, to have written, to have hurled, to 
 have seen (p. 216, note). 
 
481 
 
 482 
 
 483 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 279 
 
 The Aorist Indicative has three chief uses : — 
 
 (1) As the narrative tense of Greek (i.e. as the tense answering 
 the question ' What happened next ?) ; in recounting a number of 
 past actions which occurred in succession, the Aorist marks them 
 each separately as simply past : — 
 
 ''TiXOov, eiSov, (.vLK-qfra (Pltjtaech). / came, I saio, I con- 
 quered. Veni, vidi, vici (Suetonius). 
 
 (2) Marking an action as now past ; here emphasis is laid on 
 the relation of the action to present time, and the English trans- 
 lation is have with the Perfect Participle ; 
 
 'E<^uyov KaKov, yjvpov afjiuvov. I have escaped an evil, I have 
 found a better (the exulting cry of the initiated) ; Lat. 
 effiigl, invent; cf. -qvfnjKa, § 489. 
 "HSiy rives (cat Ik havoripw rj toiSi'Se iariaOricrav. Men have 
 ere this been saved from even more terrible straits than 
 these. Thuo. vii. 77, 1 ; cf. ibid., § 4, and ii. 77, i ; ii. 89, 5 ; 
 iv. 62, 3. 
 MoXis yap €(rxov vvv e\ev9epov a-TOfua,. For scarcely now 
 have I gained freedom of speech. Soph. El. 1256, cf. 1176, 
 1263, 1465 ; vvv\ koteXeIos, Aristoph. Plut. 517, cf 548. 
 Adyo) jih i^Kovcr, oTrwira 8' ov /juiXa. I have heard in 
 "story, but seen not with mine eyes. Soph. PUl. 676, cf. 
 664-666, 928 f. : Ajme 1142 eTSov = oiranra 1150. 
 This meaning is especially common in those verbs which have 
 no Perfect, or whose Perfect has come to be used as a Present 
 (§ 490) :— 
 
 KiKTrja-o oLTrep eKTrja-w. Continue to possess just tchat you 
 
 have acquired. 
 "E^iiv frequently = Tre^vKo, I am by nature. 
 
 (3) Marking an action as then past, i.e. as having occurred 
 before some other action in the past ; here the English translation 
 is had with the Perfect Participle : 
 
 'ETpaTTOVTO h rbv Udvop/Ji.ov, odevTrep avriydyovTO. They 
 turned towards Panormus the very place whence they 
 had [previously] put to sea : = Latin Pluperfect Indie. 
 This is the standing use after eirei, tTreiS^ is, when : 
 
 "Exet ia-akmy^ev, eirrjaav. When the bugle had souvded 
 (§ 316.3), they advanced : = postquam (ubi, ut) cecinit. 
 
28o SYNTAX. 
 
 Special uses of the Aorist Indicative. 
 
 484 (a) Ingressive, i.e. marking the entrance into a state, or the 
 commencement of an action, in the past : tySacrtXeuo-a / became king 
 (contrast ifiaa-ikevov I tvas king), Ivoo-qcra I fell sick (contrast 
 ivocTovv I was ill), iddpa-rja-a I plucked up courage (contrast iOdpcrovv 
 I was full of confidence), iSa.Kpva-a I burst into tears (contrast 
 fSd-Kpiov I was weeping or kept weeping), ta-xov I seized (contrast 
 elxov I had). 
 
 Ata /uKpov eTToXe/xijcraTe. You went to war for a trifle. 
 
 TleurKFTpaTov TtXevnyoravTOS, 'iTrmds tcr^e T7]v apyfiv. After 
 the death of Peisistratus, Hippias came to the throne. 
 
 485 (6) Dramatic, referring to the moment just past, where 
 English uses the Present : this use is common in dialogue, 
 especially in the dramatists : iirgvi<ra I approve, rjo-B-qv I am glad, 
 a-uvriKa I understand, dirc'irrvo-a I scout your words, etc. 
 
 Si^/ca TouTTos. / read (Present tense) the riddle. 
 
 ■ESela/xijv TO pr/Oiv. I Welcome the omen. 
 
 KaXGs eXe^as. Thou speakest (or hast spoken) well. 
 
 486 (c) Gnomic, i.e. expressing a universal truth, as in a gnome or 
 proverb, where English uses the J'resent : 
 
 OiSeis CTrXounjerei/ Tax£<i)S StKaios &v (MenaNDBr). Nojust 
 man becomes rich suddenly (or has been known to be- 
 come ; § 482 : cf. " The fool hath said in his heart "). 
 
 487 
 
 Aorist and Past Imperfect contrasted. 
 
 The Past Imperfect often describes the circumstances attending 
 the actions which the Aorist narrates. Hence the rule of an old 
 grammarian : " In the Aorist the narrative progresses ; in the 
 Past Imperfect it halts " : 
 
 KXeapxos a-vtr^ayev eKKXr/crtdv tGv <TTpaTUOTu>v • Kai -irpuiTOV 
 /jkhf iSaKpve ttoXvv xpovov £(rT(us • oE Si, opclvTcs, e6avp,a^ov 
 Kal ea-uaTrum- elra eXe^c ToiaSe. Olearchus summoned 
 (Aorist) an assembly of the soldiers : and at first he 
 stood and wept (Past Impf.) for a long time: and the 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 281 
 
 soldiers, seeing Mm, wondered and kept silence (Past 
 Impf.) : then he spoke (Aorist) as follows. Note the 
 simple Past Tense in English, for both Aorist and 
 Past Impf. 
 
 488 KS" Great care must be taken in translating the ambiguous 
 
 Past Tense of English. 
 
 (1) The Past of verbs denoting an act is generally to be trans- 
 lated by the Aorist (/ spoke etTrov or lAcfa) ; but when it denotes 
 past habit or describes the action as then going on, it must be 
 translated by the Past Imperfect (§§ 471, 470, 487) : — 
 
 e.g. He spoke Oreek fluently from his boyhood. 'E/c iraeSos 
 cuTrcTtils 'EXXijvtcTTt tkeyev (or ^XA.iJvt^cv). 
 
 Then arose a scene of great confusion : men shouted, women 
 wept, dogs barked ; I laughed and tried to speak, hut 
 they would not listen. "Evfc hr] ■n-okkr) rapaxfj iyevero 
 (Aor.); 01 /J.€v yap oivSpes l^ouiv, at Si yvvaiKii eSa/cpvov, 
 01 8£ KW£S vXa/CTODV " iyij) 8e iyiXuiv, koI i7reipu)fji.rjv 
 Xiy€Lv, ak\' ovK fjOeXov aKovav. The Past Imperfects 
 depict the scene, as it were, going on before our eyes. 
 
 (ii) The Past of verbs denoting a state is generally to be 
 translated by the Past Imperfect : he was r)v, he loved etf)L\ei, he 
 knew rjTriq-TaTO, he desired iireOv/iei, he would ■^deXe, he could eSwaro, 
 he loas king i^aa-iXive, it seemed good eSd/cei, etc. The Aorists of 
 these and similar verbs, where they exist, generally denote 
 entrance into the state ( § 484 ijSaa-LXeva-e he became king), or some- 
 thing like an act (eSofc it was resolved, the decision was made), 
 or else are equivalent to English Perfects (i<j>iXrj<Ta I have loved, 
 § 482, cf. Soph. Eleetra, 1363).* 
 
 * Many verbs of this class have no Aorist, just as in English there is 
 no I was loving (except when to love = to fondle). Some of these verbs may, 
 however, he used in two senses ; e.g. <j>i\a 1 love or I kiss (itplKrica 11' 
 
 19 
 
282 SYNTAX. 
 
 C. Tenses formed from the Perfect Stem. 
 
 US' The Perfect Stem marks an action as completed. 
 
 The Perfect Indicative is the Present of the Perfect Stem, 
 and marks an action as noio completed, or more properly denotes 
 tlie present state resulting from a completed cuition * ; yeypa(t>e ravra 
 ©ovKvStSijs Tliucydides has written this or is the loriter of this, mairep 
 yfypaiTTai OS stawis loritten, rjvprjKa I have found it I or / have it I 
 SeSe/iiai / am in honls, K€K\rjfi.a.L I am called, airoXuiXa I am undone, 
 ridvrjKe he is dead, airuprjTai. it is forbidden or it is a forbidden 
 thing : 
 
 'AK-fjKoa jucv Tovvo/j-a, ixvriij,ov€vo> 8' ov. I have heard the 
 name, hut I do not ri'tnemlier it (Plato). 
 
 Aoyos XeXeKTtti irSs. The whole story has been told. 
 
 'Akov€ S); vw rj ySt/SovAcv/iai iroitiv. Hear, then, how I am 
 resolved to act. (Soph., El. 947.) 
 
 Caution. — The Perfect is on the whole comparatively little 
 used in Greek ; where Latin has the Perfect, Greek generally has 
 the Aorist (<■/. § 482). Many Greek verbs have no Perfect, and in 
 others the Perfect is a simple Present in meaning : oTSa / know 
 (novi), ^.i/jivrjixaL I remember (memini), eo-Tij/ca / stand, KCKTiy^uai or 
 iKT-qn-aL I possexs, iriTToiOa I trust, wetjiVKa I am by nature. The 
 Perfects of verbs of emotion are generally equivalent to Presents : 
 fi.£fd'a-riKa I hate utterly (odi), 7re(^oj3r;pii / am filled with alarm, 
 reOavfiLCLKa I am filled with wonder, etc. 
 
 491 '^^® ' Gnomic Perfect ' (denoting a universal truth) is rare or unknown 
 
 in Greek ; doubtful instances are Plato Prot. 328 b, Thuo. ii. 45, 1. Com- 
 pare § 486 (Gnomic Aorist). 
 
 The Pluperfect Indicative is the Past of the Perfect Stem, 
 i.e., it is a Perfect transferred to past time by means of the 
 Augment.f Thus it generally denotes the past state resulting 
 from a completed action : iyeypdcfyrj rr/v hna-ToX-qv I was the writer 
 
 ' The full name of this tense would be Present Perfect {cf. Accidence, 
 § 178, p. 47) : the Greek Perfect is best regarded as a kind of Present. 
 
 f Its proper name would therefore be Past Perfect (§ 178). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 283 
 
 of the letter, eyeypaTrro Iv vrj eirtoroXiJ toSe this is what stood in the 
 letter, ireOvt^Kei he was dead, an-dpyiTo it was forbidden or it was a 
 farhidden thing : — 
 
 'H Olvorq ovara iv /ji,e6op[oLS rrjis 'AttlktJ's koa, Boiwrtds ETcretj^io-TO, 
 Kol aiiTiS <l>povpiif 01 'KOrjvcaoi ixp&VTO, ottotc 7roA.£/«)s 
 KaraXd^oi. Oenoe was a fortified town on the borders 
 of Attica and Boeotia, and the Athenians used to 
 employ it as a stronghold whenever war hrolce out. 
 
 Caution. — Beware of using the Greek Pluperfect as a general 
 equivalent for the Latin Pluperfect : where Latin has the Pluper- 
 fect, Greek generally has the Aorist (§ 483), sometimes the Past 
 Imperfect (§ 476 a) : e.g. I myself delivered the letter which I had 
 written airos aireSa>Ka i-ijv hruiToX-qv rjv eypaifra (or rjv typatfiov = 
 which I had been writing). Sometimes, however, the Pluperfect 
 is used in such cases. 
 
 Where the Perfect is a simple Present in meaning, the 
 Pluperfect is a simple Past, and here often corresponds to a 
 Latin Pluperfect : ■gSrj / kneio (noveram), ip.e^vyjp.rjv I remembered 
 (memineram), eto-rijKi; or icrnjKrj I stood, etc. ; § 490. 
 
 The Future Perfect IndioatiYe is the Future of the Perfect 
 Stem, and denotes thefittvre state resulting from a completed action : 
 -yeypai/fOjuat I shall stand enrolled, to, ypd/jL/jiaTa yeypaxj/erai vihat is 
 written will remain written, reOv^io) I shall be dead, eip^o-erat or 
 XeXeierai it will be said : — 
 
 ^pd^e, KoX ireirpd^eroA.. Speak, and it shall be done ( = shall 
 be a thing done, a 'fait accompli') : cf. § 479. 
 
 OuTQ)s ol TToXl/jLioL Ei/'cucT/ievot ccrovTaL. Tfius the enemy will 
 find themselves mistaken (cf. Lat. Grain.., § 489). 
 
 Similarly from verbs whose Perfects are simple Presents in 
 meaning : fji,€p,v^crofjLai I shall remember (meminero), ia-Tijioi I shall 
 stand, KiKTrjcrofiai I shall possess. 
 
 Catttion. — Beware of using the Future Perfect as equivalent 
 to the Latin Future Perfect in Subordinate Clauses; the only 
 Greek way of representing this is the Aorist Subjunctive preceded 
 by av; e.g. iav TaCra irot^uTj = si haec fecerit, § 354; cf. § 347.2 
 (pp. 186, 187) and § 364. 
 
284 SYNTAX. 
 
 Tense-equivalents. 
 
 496 Greek, like English, has a number of composite expressions 
 
 formed with «t/it or tx'" ^^^ ^ Participle, which are sometimes 
 used as equivalent to Tenses or as substitutes for Tenses : — 
 
 1. A tense of ei/ii with the Present Participle : raS' ea-r apea-K- 
 ovTa tliin is [ileasinrj ( = apia-Ku) ; ravra rjv yiyvofjieva this was 
 happening (= iyiyvero) ; ttov KvpZv ia-ri; inhere is he haply (lit. 
 chancing) 1 Similarly Kvpu> or rvyxdvui with Participle, denoting 
 coincidence: ttov ttot wv Kvpii; tohere is he haply? (lit. lohei'e does 
 he chance beiTig ?), Iktos u>v Tvyxavetjust now he is outside. 
 
 2. A tense of dpi with the Perfect (rarely the Aorist) Parti- 
 ciple : tout' ei|u.i SeSpdKols / am in the position of having done this 
 ( = Se'Spaxa) ; TiOvqKmi rjv he ivas dead ( = iTtOvT^Ku) ; ovk r)V 
 irpccT/Scid a.Trea-TaXfj.eyrj no embassy loas out on a mission (for ovk 
 dTrco-TaXro). These periphrases are in some cases the only forms 
 possible in Attic for tenses from the Perfect Stem : Tren-iurp.evoi 
 €Lcri, Tmruo-p.ivoi rjcrav (3rd Plur. Perf. and Plup. Pass, of Mute 
 and Liquid Stems), eyruKcbs la-ojxai. (for Fut. Perf. Act. : Accidence, 
 § 178 and note) ; and they are very common for the Subjunctive 
 and Optative of the Perfect Active, e.g. eyvwKuJs ui or d-qv. 
 
 3. A tense of c^u with the Aorist (or less commonly the 
 Perfect) Participle ; tovtov dn/iao-ds e^" ^'"'* '"'*'* '^^ ^"^ dishonoured 
 {— rjApaKi) ; TToAAa p^^/MtTO €)(opev avT/jpTraKorei 'we have carried off 
 many valuables (here the verb e^w preserves something of its proper 
 meaning : we have many valuables, having earned them off). This 
 idiom must not be confounded with the modem / have written, 
 j'ai ecrit, etc., in which the Perfect Participle is Passive : ' I have 
 written it ' = I have it written. 
 
 4. A tense of /acAAco with" the Future or Present Infinitive : 
 peXX.ia ypdijreiv Or ypd<f>eiv = scripturus sum. With the Past 
 Imperfect of p,l\\<ji, this combination supplies a Future of the 
 past : ipeXkov ypaxjrav or ypd<f>ei,v = scriptiirus eram, / icas going 
 to write : often equivalent to I should hare written (§ 356 b). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 
 
 The Subjunctive and Optative IVloods. 
 
 1^" The work done in Latin by the Subjunctive Mood is done in Greek 
 by two Moods — the Subjunctive and the Optative. What the original 
 meaning or meanings of the Subjunctive and Optative were, it is difficult 
 to determine ; for all their principal meanings were fully developed before 
 Greek existed as an independent language. The following sections (§§ 
 497-510) deal only with the meanings which these Moods have in the 
 actual usage of Attic Greek, and it must not be supposed that the meaning 
 which stands first in the catalogue is necessarily the more original meaning. 
 Some grammarians hold that the Subjunctive originally expressed will, and 
 that the meaning of futurity was developed out of this ; others hold that 
 the contrary process is more likely to have taken place. 
 
 In Simple Sentences and Principal Glauses, and also in most Sub- 
 ordinate Clauses, the Subjunctive and Optative have meanings which may 
 be traced to some fundamental or original meaning (Will or Futurity in 
 the case of the Subjunctive, Wish or Possibility or Futurity in the 
 case of the Optative). But in some Subordinate Clauses their meanings 
 have become so weakened that the Mood seems purely formal, and may be 
 translated by the English Indicative. 
 
 For the chief constructions here brought together under a common 
 head. Rules have already been given under the various heads of ' Sentence 
 Construction' (§§ 339-371), to which reference is here made. 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 497 The uses of the Subjunctive in Attic Greek fall into two 
 
 classes ; — 
 
 {A) Uses in which it is never accompanied by av : 
 
 (B) Uses in which it is ordinarily accompanied by av 
 (attached to a Relative or a Subordinating Con- 
 junction). 
 
 The Negative of the Subjunctive, whether accompanied or 
 unaccompanied by av, is always /Aiy in Attic (except in dependence 
 on /Ai? lest, § 499 b). 
 
286 SYNTAX. 
 
 (A) The Subjunctive unaccompanied by av. 
 
 498 When unaccompanied by av, the Subjunctive marks an action 
 as willed or desired : — 
 
 (1) In Simple Sentences and Principal Clauses : 
 
 (a) Commands : 
 
 Eiiro);u.ev. Speak we or let us speak : § 341 a. 
 M'^ €i7n;s. Do not speak : Prohibition, § 341 b. 
 
 (b) Deliberative Questions : 
 
 Etir(i)ju,€v ri firj eiTrw/Aci/ ; Are we to speak or are we not to 
 speak ? § 344 b. Deliberative Questions are Command- 
 Questions ; the Subjunctive enquires as to what is to 
 be done, and the answer to it is given by a Command 
 (e.g. ttTrare speak, /at; eLTrqrc do not speak). 
 
 499 (2) In Subordinate Clauses 
 (a) Final Clauses : 
 
 "Hko) iva (or oircos) uvta. I nave come in order that I may 
 speak or in order to speak : § 350. Here a result is 
 marked as icilled (Subjunctive of Purpose"). 
 
 This construction is sometimes extended to Noun Clauses depending 
 on Verbs of Eiiort : — 
 
 llpd^ova-iy iirais ■ir6\(fws yivii)T!u. They will cause war to break out : 
 § 369 a, Obs. 3. 
 
 (&) Noun Clauses depending on Verbs oi fearing : 
 
 ^oPov/juu fxr) ilirg's. I fear lest you may speak : § 367.5, 
 § 368 f. Originally I have a fear: do not speak 
 (Prohibition). 
 
 (c) Dependent Deliberative Questions : 
 
 'A-rropu) o ri ehroi. I am in doubt what to say : § 370 b, ii. 
 
 This construction is sometimes extended to Relative Glauses and to 
 Noun Clauses depending on Verbs of WiU : — 
 
 OvK ixu '6 Ti efirw. / have nolliiiig to say : p. 208 foil., Obss. 3, 4. 
 BoiiA.61 \a$uiiai! Doat wish thai I should lay hold? p. 226, Obs. 3. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 287 
 
 (B) The Subjunctive accompanied by ai'. 
 
 500 When accompanied by av (attached to a Kelative or a Sub- 
 
 ordinating Conjunction), the Subjunctive marks an action as 
 either (1) prospective or f2) general: — 
 
 (1) Prospective, i.e. merely contemplated as a future con- 
 tingency : 
 
 "A av EtTTj/s, TaijTa ircirpdiiTai. Whatever you say ( = shall 
 say, dixeris), shall at once be done : § 364:. 1. 
 
 So, with a Principal Clause referring to the future, 
 
 oTav (or eirctSav) eiirgs as soon as you speak : § 347.2 a. 
 
 iav etTTfls if you speah (Future Condition) : § 354.1 c. 
 
 MS av (or oirft)s av) dirrj<s as you shall direct or i7i whatever 
 way you shall say : § 359.1. 
 
 Uepiixivo) (or Trepi/jLcvS)) £<i)s av £17075. T am waiting (or / 
 shall wait) until you speak (donee dicas or dixeris) : 
 § 347.2 a. 
 
 Obs. The Greek Subjunctive after eaj &v and irplv &v corresponds exactly 
 to the Latin Subjunctive (Present or Perfect) after donee, dum, quoad, 
 amiequam ainA. priusquam ; cf. carus eris Eomae donee te deserat aetas thoa 
 shalt ie beloved at Some till youth and good looks shall forsake thee (Hor. 
 Epist. I. 20, 10 ; not deseret). Words meaning until regularly take the 
 Subjunctive in Latin, when the action is to be marked as prospective ; 
 and in many instances the idea of ' purpose ' is excluded. 
 
 501 (2) Cfeneral (in £«er-clauses) : 
 
 JlopeiovTOA, Te ai d.yeA.at y av auras evdwtocriv 01 vo/f^s, 
 ve/*0VTat T£ p((upta £^' OTroia av airas i<l>u!><nv, aTre^^ovrai 
 T£ wv ai/ avTas airiip/yuiiTW • KoX ToTs Kapiroi's iSicn Tovs 
 l/o/t£ds )(fyfi<j6ax owtcos ottcos av avroi /3ovX(DVTai. Herds 
 are in the habit of going wherever the herdsmen direct 
 tliem, and of pasturing on any lands on to which they 
 turn them, and of abstaining from those from which 
 they debar them : and the profits they permit the herds- 
 men to enjoy in ti'hatever way they themselves please : 
 § 348, § 364.1, § 359.1; 
 
 'Eav fiTTijs, TTUTTevut). If you speak; I always believe : § 354*. 
 
288 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 502 Omission of 4v.- 
 
 rarely in prose). 
 
 -The &v is sometimes omitted (frequently in poetry, 
 
 In some cases the omission produces no perceptible difference of 
 
 meanmg :- 
 
 M^ (TTcVofe, Trplv /jiiBris. Lament 
 not till thou learn : Soph. 
 Phil. 917 (prospective), 
 quoted in note on p. 187. 
 
 'Etti^'^P'o*' ^v Tjfuv ov /lev ^pax^is 
 6ipKw(Ti fii] TToWois ;^^<r0ai, 
 It being our national ctistoin 
 not to use many words wher- 
 ever few suffice, 
 
 9pd<r7is jioi fiij irepd, vplv ttv /idBa. 
 Tell me no more, until I 
 learn : Soph. Phil. 332 (pros- 
 pective) : c/. § 347.3. 
 
 •nXeiotri Se 4v ^ ttv Kaiphs ^, but [to 
 use'] a greater number wher- 
 ever there is occasion: Thuc. 
 iv. 17.2 (general), quoted in 
 § 365.4. 
 
 But in other oases the bare subjunctive has a meaning akin to that 
 of the Subjunctive of WiU (§ 498) :— 
 
 (a) El with the bare Subjunctive : 
 
 AvtrrdKaiva. rap' eyca, | e^ ffov (TTepTjdu. Then wretched indeed am I, 
 if I must lose thee (if I be bereft of thee) : Soph. 0. C. 1442, 
 cf. Ant. 710, Kel tis ^ <ro:p6s wise though a man be (etsi 
 sapiens sit). 
 
 (6) Relative Clauses with the bare Subjunctive sometimes have a 
 restrictive meaning, or exhibit the character of the Antecedent, and may be 
 called Characterizing Clauses : 
 
 Tav i\ev84pu)v \ ov^eIs koklwv ^ovKos, HtfTis ia'6\hs ^. Ko slave thai is 
 honest (nullus servus qui probus sit) is worse than thefreebom : 
 Eur. Ion 855, cf. Soph. 0. C. 895, is vcos ireari = qui juvenis 
 prociderit ; El. 111. 1060. \_Lat. Cham. § 504."] 
 
 Contrast the different meaning of 'dans %v f whoever he is, or whoever 
 he may be : § 365.3. 
 
 Note on the Subjunctive with 8iro)s fiv and <»s fiv. 
 
 502 * The Subjunctive with Svus &v and Sis &v in Pinal Clauses (§ 350, Obs. 1) 
 
 and Noun Clauses (§ 369 a, Obs. 3) is probably of prospective origin, i.e. 
 originally denoted Futurity rather than Will : — 
 
 Tout' auri vvv SiSaffx Sttws tip iKfidBw. Teach me that very thing, 
 thai so I may learn : Soph. 0. C. 575. 
 
 The original meaning of Stcuj and Sis is how ; thus Swas fey iK/ndeai may 
 have been originally Aow I shall leurn, hence in order that I may learn ( = 
 Sttois with the Subjunctive of Purpose, § 499 a) ; in this sense Sirais &v (not 
 S>s &v) remained in use in good prose, especially in the formal language of 
 inscriptions. "Oiras with the Future Indicative in Noun Clauses (§ 367.4, 
 § 369 a) appears to have had a similar history. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 289 
 
 The Optative Mood. 
 
 503 The uses of the Optative in Attic Greek fall into two classes : — 
 
 (A) Uses of the Optative without av : 
 
 (B) Uses of the Optative with av. 
 
 The Negative of the Optative without av is generally /A17 (but 
 see § 504 e) ; that of the Optative with av is always ov. 
 
 (A) The Optative without av. 
 
 (1) In eipressions of Wish relating to the future ; Neg. /iij :— 
 EiTTois. May you speak (sometimes almost = a Command) : 
 §342. 
 From this use the Optative derived its name ('Mood of 
 Wishing'). 
 
 The Optative of Wish is sometimes found in subordination : 
 
 6/)S a€ SidiKovra &v fii) rixots I see thee pursuing things which mayest 
 thou never get : § 365.2. 
 
 504 (2) In Subordinate Clauses depending on a tense of past 
 time : — 
 
 (a) Final Clauses ; Neg. ij.-q : 
 
 ^Hkov Lva (or oTTcos) iiTroiix-L. I had come in order that I 
 might speak or in order to speak : § 350. 
 
 Sometimes in Noun Clauses depending on Verbs of Effort : 
 
 'E/i7)x'"'^o'o''o 87ra5 etivoi. He contrived to speak : § 369 a, Obs. 3. 
 
 (6) Dependent Deliberative Questions; Neg. /x^ : 
 
 'HTTopow o Ti d-Troifu. I was in doubt what I loas to say or 
 what to say : § 370 b, ii. 
 
 Hence extended to Eelative Clauses (p. 208 foil., Obss. 3, 4) : 
 
 OvK elxov of Ti diroifu. I had nothing to say. 
 (c) Prospective Clauses (Relative, Temporal, Local, Conditional, 
 or Comparative) ; Neg. firj : 
 
 "Erot/tos ^v raCra Troietv a ctirois. / was ready to do what 
 
 you should direct : § 364.1. 
 JlepUin-ivov £ft)s aitros eiTrot. / waited till the master himself 
 should speak : § 347,2 a. 
 For If-clauses in this construction see § 357 c, Obs. 1. 
 
ago SYNTAX. 
 
 (d) ^wer-clauses (Eelative, Temporal, Local, Conditional, or 
 Comparative) ; Neg. /u.17 : 
 
 'EiropevovTO ij avToiis evdvvoi,, a.Tre[)(ovTO Si S)v auroiis diretpyoi, 
 £ttt)v Sc )(pTJ(r6ai auTOis ottcos jSouXoito. T/iey MSfid fo 
 march wherever he directed them, and to abstain from 
 anything from wMch he debarred them, and to permit 
 him to treat them in whatever way he pleased : § 348, 
 § 364.1, § 359.1. 
 
 Bi 8e n Sd^a€v aircp a-rj/jLaivecrOai Trapa tS>v didv, ovk av 
 eTreia-Orj Trapa ra a-rifi,a.iv6p.€va Troirjcrai. But if anything 
 seemed to him to be pointed out by the gods, he would 
 never be persuaded to act contrary to what they indicated : 
 § 354* (Aorist Indie, with iterative av in Principal 
 Clause ; § 339*). 
 
 (e) Clauses of Indirect Speech, expressing the words or views 
 of another, or of oneself on another occasion ; Neg. ov or p.rj, 
 according as the Direct Speech would have had oii or /x-^ : 
 
 Eiircv oTt ^iKaOrjvaio^ ilrj. He said that he was a lover of 
 Athens: § 370 c, § 371. 
 
 "YTrecr^^eTO ] tov avSp 'A;^aiots TOvSe STjXwcretv ayoJV — | oioiTO 
 /x,€v pAXurff €Kov(riov \aj3iLv. He promised to bring this 
 man and show him to the Achaeans — most probably, he 
 thought [as he said^, taking him with his consent. 
 
 The same kind of Optative is also found in Causal Clauses 
 (Virtually Indirect) : — 
 
 Tov XlcpticXea. eKaKi^ov, on ovk k-Ki^ayoi. They abused Pericles 
 on the ground that ( = because, as they said) he did not 
 lead them out : quod non educeret, § 349. 
 
 Obs. Many Subordinate Clauses of Indirect Speeoli are at the same 
 time Prospective Clauses or J'«;--clauses, and the Optative in them belongs 
 also to the headings above {c, d) : — 
 
 Hij^avTO ffan-fipLa flytreic, €v6a TrpSyrov els <pi\idj/ yrjy a(j>iKotvTO. They 
 vowed that they would offer sacrifice for deliverance as soon as 
 they should arrive at a friendly land. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 291 
 
 505 (3) In Subordinate Clauses depending on a tense of present or 
 
 future time : — 
 
 {(i) Subordinate to a Principal Clause containing an Optative 
 with av ; Negative (of the Subordinate Clause) /jn^ : 
 
 Et etTTots, -^a-OeLrjv av. If you were to speak, I should rejoice. 
 Both Clauses refer to future time : § 355.1 c. 
 
 nGs av Boirp/ n fi.rj a-uTos expifii ; Hou} could I give what 
 I did not myself possess 1 : § 365.6. 
 
 (6) Subordinate to a Principal Clause containing an Indicative 
 without av or an expression of Command or Wish : 
 
 *I2 irapOiv, €t (Twcrac/ii cr', eioTj /iot x'^'P"' ' Should 1 save thee, 
 maiden, wilt thou be grateful to me ? Eur. Andromeda, 
 frag. 126. 
 El Tis TaSe TrapaPaivoL, evayijs iCTTii). Should anyone trans, 
 gress these laws, let him, be accursed : Aesch. iii. 110. 
 
 El 8' ovv Tt KaKTphroiTo Tofu Trpoa-Oev X.6yov, Be that as it may, 
 OvToi TTOT, S)va^, Tov je Aoiov (j>6vov should he siaerve a 
 
 *avei SiKutios opOov. Soph. 0. T. 851 f. whit from his for- 
 mer speech, necer, king, will he show the murder of Laius 
 to he truly sqiuxre to prophecy. 
 'kXX ov iroA.ts (TT^orete, ToCSe )(/3'^ k\v€lv. But whomsoever 
 the city should appoint, him loe are bound to obey : 
 Soph. Antig. 666. 
 
 ^g- Conditional Sentences of this form belong to the third Class of 
 Conditional Sentences referred to in § 353 (Class C; note on p. 191) : they 
 are fairly common in good prose as well as verse ; and, like the corres- 
 ponding constructions in English, Latin, and other languages, they involve 
 no anacoluthon or mixture of constructions. Compare in English " Should 
 he upbraid, I own that he'U prevail," where the shmild expresses a certain 
 reserve in referring to the future, similar in kind though different in 
 degree from that expressed by were to (§ 355.1 c) ; see Lat. Gram. § 501. 
 
 506 In some instances the subordinate Optative is due to Assimilation 
 
 of Mood : "OAoio /i^Td), vflv fideoi/ii. Perish not yet, until [ learn : Soph. 
 Phil. 961 ; c/. § 865.5 a. 
 
292 SYNTAX. 
 
 (B) The Optative with oi-. 
 
 507 The Optative with av has two meanings in Attic; (1) eon- 
 ditioruxl ; (2) potential : the conditional meaning is the more 
 common of the two. The Negative is in either case ov. 
 
 (1) Conditional, in Principal Clauses of Conditional Sentences 
 of which the If-clause has tl with the Optative (referring to future 
 time) : — 
 
 EiTToi/it av, el KcXevois. / should speak, if you\ 
 
 were to bid me. \ „ „-(. , 
 
 EiTTois av, tl ic£\evoi/*i. You would speak, '/ /[ 
 \oere to hid you. ) 
 
 Often without an If-clause : § 357 b. 
 
 508 (2) Potential, denoting Possibility : — 
 
 Etiroi/i,i av. (i) / may (or might) say : ] „ „/q 
 
 sometimes / can (or could) say J 
 Hence a number of derived meanings : — 
 
 (ii) I will {would or am inclined to) say : almost 
 
 = iOeXo) fhrelv.* 
 (iii) I shall say : a Future-equivalent, § 340, Obs. 3. 
 Eiirois av. fi) You may (or might) say : 
 
 sometimes you can (or could) say. 
 (ii) You shall (or should) say : a form of Command, 
 § 340, Obs. 2, § 341 a, Obs. 3; cf. the 
 English 'you may go' or 'you can go, 
 equivalent to ' go '.t 
 (iii) You will say : a Future-equivalent. 
 With TTws, these Optatives with av may become expressions 
 of Wish:— 
 
 nSs av eiTTots. Would that you would speak (§ 342, Obs. 3). 
 
 509 The Conditional and the Potential Optative with i.v may be subordinated 
 
 to a Relative or a word of relatival origin : — 
 
 ^'Hv fiey &.V Tis i\€v64puy avBpdjTfwv avdyKTjv cTttoi, ^Stj ndpEO'Ttv. What 
 one may (or might) call the necessity of freemen, is already upon 
 us : § 340*, § 365.1. For an example of the Conditional Opt. 
 in subordination see § 35T c. 
 
 * Cf. Aesoh. Piom. 978 (quoted in § 354.3) ; Eur. Ion 668, 981, irreixoiii 
 &II I will go ; Soph. 0. T. 95, \iyotii &v I will tell. 
 
 t Cf. Bur. Ion 385, 1336, \e'7oiv &v say on ; Soph. El. C37, K\iois &v hear ; 
 1491 x^po's ^v eicra? go in (Phil. 674, pray go in). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 293 
 
 510 Omission of &v. The Potential Optative is sometimes found without 
 
 &v in the poets, chiefly in dependence on ova eo-ny Sstis, ovk iaS' Situs, or 
 equivalent expressions ; — 
 
 Ovk fa6' Hiras \efai/ti ri xf/evSri Kd\<i. There is no way by which I 
 could make a false tale fair : Aesoh. Agam. 620.* 
 
 511 
 
 Tenses of the Subjunctive and Optative. 
 
 The Tenses of the Subjunctive and Optative do not mark 
 differences in the time of the action, like the corresponding tenses 
 of the Indicative, but only differences in its character (as going on, 
 completed, occurring, etc.) ; the time referred to by the different 
 tenses of the Subjunctive and Optative depends on the Mood 
 itself, and not upon the Tense of the Mood : thus in ehrwfiev rj 
 avySifjiev ; are we to speak or am we to keep silent ? the Aorist and 
 the Present Subjunctive both denote the same time ; similarly in 
 ^Ko) tva 18(0, -ijKd) iva opZ, I have come in order that I may see. 
 
 The tenses of the Subjunctive and Optative differ only in the 
 same way as the tense-stems from which they are formed : — • 
 
 the Presents mark the action as not completed {i.e. as going 
 
 on or repeated) ; 
 the Perfects mark the action as completed ; 
 the Aorists mark the action as occurring. 
 
 * Here, and in the other passages in which this construction is found, 
 the bare Optative denotes could rather than should ; that is, it is Potential 
 rather than Deliberative : Aesoh. Prom. 292, Ohoeph. 172 ; Soph. 0. 0. 1172 ; 
 Bur. AU. 52 and 113-117 ; Aristoph. Thesm. 872. Precisely parallel 
 passages may be quoted with &11 : Aristoph. Clouds, 1181, Wasps, 212 ; 
 Eur. Ale. 79, JSl. 224, H. F. 186, Soph. Ant. 912, 1156, 0. G., 1167. But 
 these Optatives resemble the Deliberative Optative depending on a tense 
 of past time in so far as the clause in which they stand is of interrogative 
 origin: cf. p. 209, Obs. 4. The corresponding independent construction 
 is extremely rare in Attic : tIs Ae'701 ,- who could tell ? Aesoh. Choeph. 595 ; 
 Hs Kardirxoti who could constrain? Soph. Ant. 605 (Potential Optative 
 without &y in a question). 
 
294 SYNTAX. 
 
 512 The above statement is, however,- subject to some limitations : — 
 (1) Where the Optative merely represents an Indicative (in 
 
 Dependent Statements, Dependent Questions and Dependent 
 Exclamations), its tetises have the same temporal meaning as the 
 corresponding tenses of the Indicative : 
 
 "EAcyov on a.iro6vi^a-Koi, ( = airodv-rjorKa). I said "he is dying''. 
 
 "EXeyov on aTroOdvoi (= direOavfv) . I said "he died". 
 
 "EA.eyor OTt aTroOavolro ( = aTrodavfirai). I said "he will die". 
 
 ^^ The Future Optative is used only in Noun Clauses, to 
 represent the Future Indicative : see examples in § 368 a, § 369 a. 
 
 513 (2) The Aorist Subjunctive and Optative sometimes mark the 
 action as occiirrimi before the action of the Principal Clause, when 
 the context makes the priority of the occurrence plain. This use 
 is chief!}' found in Prospective Clauses and /.Vec-Clauses ; and in 
 such cases the Greek Aorists correspond to tenses from the Perfect 
 Stem in Latin : 
 
 Greek. Latin. 
 
 i i g IfAor. Subj. corresponds to Fut. Perf. Indie, or Perf. Subj. 
 1^ l-S ^ \Aor. Opt. „ „ Pluperf. Subj. 
 
 i I /Aor. Subj. „ „ Perf. Indie. 
 
 I ^ I Aor. Opt. „ „ Pluperf. Indie. 
 
 'EireiSav aTravra aKOvcrrfTi (audieritis), Kpivart : § 347.2 a. 
 Xlepic/io'o^cv €<os a.voiy(6iiiq (apertus esset) to hetriLUiTripiov. 
 'Orav ap^wvrai imivai, Traiavi^ov<TLV. Whenever they begin 
 
 (coeperunt) ta attack, they raise the paean : § 347.2 b. 
 'Ottote apiaivTo iiriivai, hraj.avii,ov . Whenever they began 
 
 (coeperant) to attack, they used to raise the paean. 
 'AX\' evdv's hriX-rfiei cru y arr av Koi fiddrji. But you 
 
 straii/htway forget whatever you have learnt (didicisti) : 
 
 § 364.1. 
 
 514 Attic Greek has no Sequence of Tenses, such as is found in 
 Latin and often in English. One of the most prominent differences 
 between Attic Greek and Latin is that the former does not, and 
 the latter does, adjust the tenses of Dependent Clauses to a past 
 tense in the Principal Clause : see § 370 c. 
 
 Obs. The above statement does not apply to Homeric Greek, in 
 which what was present to the person quoted is treated as now past 
 (Monro, Homeric Grammar, § 270*). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 295 
 
 515 
 
 516 
 517 
 518 
 
 Where Latin has past tenses of the Subjunctive adjusted to a 
 past point of view, Greek has the Optative Mood (representing 
 a Subjunctive or an Indicative in present time) : — 
 Venio ut videam. "'Epxpfx.ai tva iSu>. >g okq 
 Veni ut viderem. ''HA.^ov tva tSoi/u. p 
 ' Interrogo quid faciat. 'Epurcj o n iroia.. ) „ r.-^^ , 
 Interrogavi quid faoeret. 'Hpo/;iiyv o ti iroioti;.) ^ 
 Vereor ne accidat. <E>o;8oC/iat jxiri yivyp-ai. \ „ „„„ f 
 
 Verebar ne acoideret. 'EcjiolSoviJirjv fir} yh/ovro. J ° 
 
 519 But the original Subjunctive or Indicative is often retained 
 after past tenses (Vivid Construction, § 350, Obs. 2 ; § 370, c.4) : — 
 
 *HX6ov iva iSoj. I came to see. 
 
 This is a favourite idiom -with Thucydides : — 
 
 Swej8oi;A,ei;£v CKTrXdJcrai, 07r<os hn irAeoi/ 6 criTOS avTLcrxg. -^^ 
 recommended that they should, sail away, in order that 
 the provisions might hold out longer. Thuc. i. 65, 1. 
 Optative and Subjunctive in tlie same sentence, without 
 difference of meaning : iii. 22, 5 ; vi. 96, 3 : i^aKocrtovs i^fxptvay, 
 Httws <p{i\aKis cirjffoLV KttL raxw ^vv^ffTUTss irapaytyvuvTat. 
 
 The Imperative Mood. 
 
 520 The Imperative marks an action as demanded ; Negative \).-q : — 
 
 (1) In Simple Sentences and Principal Clauses ; 
 
 (a) Commands (c/. Subjunctive, § 498) : 
 WvKi. Speak : § 341 a. 
 Mij A.ey£. Do not speak : Prohibition, § 341 b. 
 
 (6) Suppositions and Concessions (§ 343) : 
 
 IXpoo-eiirixTO) nva <J>i\ikS>'s re ap^mv Koi o JSkottjs • T^v 
 TToripov irpoarprjo-iv /jiaWov evfjipaLveiv Tov a/covcravTa 
 vofii^eK ; Suppose both the rider and the jyrivate citizen 
 to address a person in a friendly way ;■ whose greeting 
 do you think gives the greater pleasure to the hearer? 
 Xen. Hiero, viii. 3, c/. 4 : Tpoa-curdrta = fao alloqui or 
 alloquatur; equivalent in meaning to an If-clause. 
 
 (c) Questions (Oommamd-Questions ; cf. Subjunctive, § 498 b) : 
 
 Terdx^o) 7]fuv Kara ^rj/jLOKparldy d rbiovros avtip, &s S-rifioKpartKhs 
 Hv; TiTdxBto, «'/>')■ Is a man of this character to be set over 
 against democracy by us, as being democratical ? Let him, be so 
 set, he replied. Plato, Bepub. 561 e ; cf. ii.ii i^eaTa, Politicus, 
 295 e. On this interrogative Imperative see § 521, Obs. 
 
296 SYNTAX. 
 
 521 (2) In Subordinate Clauses : 
 
 Offffl" oSv t Spairoy; Knowest thou then what thou must do? § 365.2. 
 Olcrfl' i>s TToiii\<iov ; Knowest thou how thou must act ? Soph. 0. T. 543. 
 'ApSpas TtitnTei o5 (pvKa^dvTa>v t^v v6\iv. He posts men to guard (lit. 
 
 who shall guard) the city : cf. Subjunctive, § 499 a. 
 Kpif Sel^ai '6ti &v fiey itfyUifrai, irphs rohs flij a^vyofiei/ovs 4'irl6vTes 
 
 KTiaSmy. We ought to show them that what they covet they must 
 
 acquire by attacking those who do not defend themselves : Thuc. 
 
 iv. 92, 7. 
 
 Obs. The Interrogative Imperative (§ 520 c) and the Imperative in 
 Subordinate Clauses are comparatively rare in Greek, and unfamiliar in 
 English and Latin idiom ; but they are perfectly legitimate, and logically 
 unobjectionable. We may, perhaps, compare such interrogative English 
 sentences as " Have a glass of wine ? " " Come out for a walk ? " and " To 
 a solemn feast I will invite young Selim Calymath, where be thou present " 
 (Marlowe, Jew of Malta : here, however, the Belative Clause is co-ordinate 
 in effect : § 314*). 
 
 522 The Tenses of the Imperative, like the Tenses of the 
 Subjunctive and Optative, differ from one another only to the 
 same extent as the tense-stems from which they are formed : they 
 do not refer to different times. On the distinction between the 
 Present and the Aorist in Commands, see § 341 a, Obs. 1 and 
 § 341 b, Obs. 1. 
 
 523 The Perfect Imperative is found chiefly in the Passive Voice. 
 3rd Pers. Sing, (like TtraxOoi, § 521 c) :— 
 
 TaSra fj-iv Sr] ravTr] dprjo-dia. Let SO much have been thus 
 said = let what has been thus said he sufficient. 
 
 The 2nd Person of the Perfect Imperative Passive is unusual, 
 except in Verbs whose Perfect is a simple Present in meaning 
 (jiie/i.i'ijo-o remember, etc., § 490) : — 
 
 M'^ ■7r£(f>6^r]a-6e. Be not afraid. 
 
 niiravcro. Have done I {Not another word !) 
 
 The Perfect Imperative Active is unusual, except in Verbs 
 whose Perfect is a simple Present in meaning : — 
 
 'Eo-TttSt. Stand. 'Eo-Tara). Let him stand. 
 
 TeOvaOi. Die. TeOvaToi. Let him die. 
 
 'lo-Tw Zevs. Zeus be m,y witness. 
 
 "Yivhov KeKpa)(6i. Bawl within. Mrj KiKpayare, Don't baui. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 297 
 
 VERB-NOUNS AND VERB- ADJECTIVES. 
 
 524 Verb-Nouns and Verb- Adjectives retain their verbal nature : — 
 
 1. They take the same Case as the Verb to which they belong : 
 
 Tidecrdai vd/iovs to pass laics, 7re[6e(T6ai, vd/iots to obey laws. 
 TiOifxevoi vd/x,ovs passing laws, ■TreiOo/jitvoi vo/xoii obeying laios. 
 
 2. They are qualified by Adverbs : 
 
 KoXSi's a;To6v(j(rKeiv to die nobly or noble dying {cf. koXos 
 
 ddvaTo^ a noble death) 
 Ka\(us a.TroOvy(TKiDv dying nobly. 
 
 The Infinitive. 
 
 525 The Infinitive is by origin the Dative (or the Locative) of 
 a Noun : futvOavtiv for learning. But the datival meaning became 
 obscured in early times, and so the Infinitive came to be used for 
 other Cases, especially the Accusative. The history of the English 
 Infinitive with to is similar (see English Accidence, § 151). 
 
 The Negative of the Infinitive is /jirj, except in dependence on 
 verbs of saying and thinking, where its Negative is generally ov 
 (sometimes /jurj ; see § 368 a, Obs. 2). 
 
 526 The Infinitive is used : — 
 
 (a) As Subject, chiefly of Impersonal Verbs and similar ex- 
 pressions formed with to-Tt and a Predicate Adjective or Predicate 
 Noun (see list in § 368 g) : 
 
 'AW T] KaXSs ^^v 1) Ka\S>^ TtdvrjKevai \ tov ivyivrj xpij. But 
 nobly to live (honeste vivere) or forthwith nobly die is 
 the part of the nobly born. 
 
 Obs. The Infinitive in Spa ^cttIv mnevat it is time to depart (tempus est 
 abire) shows its original datival meaning : it is time for departing. 
 
 (b) As a Predicate Noun : 
 
 To SiKtjv SiSdvat TTOTepov irao^eii' Tt i(rnv ri iroteiv ; Is paying 
 a penalty (Subject, § 534) suffering something or doing 
 something ? 
 
 (c) As Object, depending on certain verbs (§ 330, p. 171) : 
 ToX/jurjcrov <ppoviiv. Resolve to be wise. Sapere audi. 
 
 {d) As one of two Objects, depending on certain Verbs (§ 333) : 
 AtSao-KO) a-e iXXTjvl^eLv. I am teaching you to speak Greek. 
 Dooeo te Graece loqui. 
 20 
 
2g8 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 527 
 
 (e) As an Adjunct (Adverb-equivalent) : here the original 
 datinal meaning comes out clearly, and the Infinitive denotes 
 declination or purpose. In the following adverbial uses the 
 Infinitive is generally Active, or has Active meaning. 
 
 (i) Depending on certain Adjectives (Infinitive of Destination) : 
 
 <u bo 
 o o < 
 
 LKavos, CTtT^Sctos, SuvaTos, oios, olds t£, 
 oo-os, Seti/ds (clever), eToi/j.o's (ready) 
 OL^ios, avaftos 
 jOaStos, XttXeirds 
 
 528 
 
 ^i, capable, 
 
 worthy, unworthy, 
 easy, difficult, 
 pleasant, unpleasant, 
 *and the like. 
 
 "A^tds EOTiv i-iraivicrai. He is worthy to he praised : lit. he 
 
 is a worthy person for praising. The corresponding 
 
 Latin construction is mainly poetical : cantari dignus 
 
 worthy to he sung = dignus qui cantetur. 
 
 'O^'raTot ecTTE yvSvat to prjOevTa. You are very quick at 
 
 understanding what is said. 
 oLKid rjhia-rri ivSiancia-daL a ve7'y pleasant house to live in. 
 paSios €vpelv easy to find (facilis inventii). 
 <^oj3e|0os opav terrible to look at (horribilis aspectii). 
 
 (ii) Depending on certain Verbs (Infinitive of Purpose) : 
 
 giving, entrusting 
 taking, receiving 
 choosing, appointing 
 sending, bringing 
 land the like. 
 
 SlSoi/xi, wape^^ia, eimpeiru) 
 
 alpmifJMi, Ka6C<TTrjjj,i, ei^icmj/it 
 TTe/ji/iria, tjiipu) 
 
 To trS/xa rots a-vyyeveaa/ iSwKe Oa^ai. He gave the body to 
 the relatives to bury (corpus propinquis tradidit sepeli- 
 endum). The corresponding Latin construction with 
 the Infinitive is mainly poetical : loricam donat habere 
 viro he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. 
 
 Ads /tot TTieti'. Grive me to drink (imitated in the Latin 
 da bibere = da ut bibam) . 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. agg 
 
 To Tjfiurv Tov orTpaTivfiLaTO'S KareXiiri ffuvXaTreiv to (TTparoTreSov. 
 
 Half of the army he left to guard the camp. 
 Hi/iil/ov 8' eKeivov avrl (ravTov /jMvOdvav. But send him to 
 
 learn instead of t/ou. So in prose : Thuc. iv. 132, 3 imSeTv 
 
 irefi^avTav, vi. 8, 2, etc., and Xenophon. 
 OvK €T)(ov apyvpiov ein&iT!Z,€(r6ai. They had no money to buy 
 
 provisions. 
 
 529 (iii) Used absolutely, in expressions like the following : 
 
 oXtyou (or fUKpov) Setv nearly : 
 
 cKwv clvat voluntarily (mostly with a Negative) : 
 
 TO vvv uvai for the present : 
 
 (US eiTreiv Or ws Ittos cisretv SO to speak, almost : 
 
 [u)s] crvveXovTi eiTreiv to speak summarily ; § 424 : 
 
 [<J)s] efwl SoKEiv as it seems to me. 
 
 Ov;( 6[JLoXoyi^(ropxv eKovTes etvai. We shall not concede the 
 point if we can help it (lit. voluntarily). 
 
 'AXri6es ye &s eiros etTrciv ovSh eiprjKoxnv. They have hardly 
 uttered a word of truth. 
 
 Obs. 'ns iiros eiireH' is used, not like ut ita dlcam to apologise for a 
 strong metaphor, but to modify a general statement, implying that it is 
 not to be taken too strictly : iroTeptits \eyets r'bv KpeTrrova, rhv &s eTros eiTrelj/, 
 ij rhv axpiPet \iy<f ; Plato, Sepub. 341 b. Hence it is very common with 
 tras, ovSets, etc. 
 
 530 (/) Forming a Predicate (like a Finite Verb) : — 
 
 (i) In Simple Sentences, as an expression of Command : 
 
 Ois /i-ij TreXd^eiy Do not approach these {= p^rj TreXafe) : 
 Aesch. Prom. 712 ; also in prose (e.g. Thuc. v. 9, 5, with Voc). 
 
 (ii) In Subordinate Clauses (Dependent Statements and Com- 
 mands, § 367.1, § 368 a, b, c, g, § 369 b, c) : 
 
 Sowcpanys ijyetTO Otovi Travra eJScvat. Socrates held that the 
 
 gods know everything. 
 'O 'AXc^avSpos t<j>aa-Kev fivai Aios wids. Alexander asserted 
 that he was a son of Zeus. 
 
30O SYNTAX. 
 
 531 '^^^ Infinitive (witli or without a Subject Accusative) is sometimes 
 used in Exclamations or Indignant Questions : — 
 
 TouTov'i Tpiipsiv Kvva. To think of keeping a dog like t}uU / Aristoph. 
 
 JVasps, 835. 
 TouToy Se ufiplCfiv, i,vawve7y Se. But to think that this man should 
 
 behave outrageously, and yet draw his breath ! Demosth. Meid. 
 
 582.2 : cf. Mene inoepto desistere viotam 1 
 
 532 1. The Subject of an Inflnitiye is either expressed by an 
 Accusative or not expressed at all ; see § 367.1 (with Obss. 1 and 2). 
 
 2. Predicate Adjectives or Nouns attached to a Subjectless 
 Infinitive either (a) agree vfith the vford to which they refer, or 
 (6) stand in the Accusative : — 
 
 (a) "E^co-TH/ fifuv evSaifjioa-Lv cTvat. Licet nobis esse beatis. 
 
 (b) "E^eoTLv fjfuv eiSaifiovas elvai. (Accus. rare in Latin.) 
 
 We are permitted to he happy : lit. Tu-be-happy (Sub- 
 ject) is permitted to us. 
 
 (a) A^ovrat y&v ,rv,.^dx<^v dvac. ) ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^j.^_ 
 
 (b) AeovTtti rjiJ,<j>v crv/u./ta;!^ovs etvai. ) 
 
 3. When there is no word (expressed or implied) with which 
 the Predicate Adjective or Noun can agree, it must stand in the 
 Accusative : — ■ 
 
 KpetTToi/ EcTTiv evrjd-q hoKuv i] irovripov eivat. It is better tv 
 seem foolish than to be wicked (Demosth. adv. Lept. 6). 
 So in Latin : melius est videri stultzem quam esse 
 improb?jm. Cf. ConsulsTw fieri magnificum est. 
 
 *EoTiv ( = c^eoTiv) evSai/Aova etvat. It is possible to be happy. 
 So in Latin, when no Dative precedes : clartf??i fieri licet 
 one may become illustrious (Sallust, Oat. 3). The 
 Dative of the Predicate Adj. is rare in this case (licet 
 esse beatJs, Hor. Sat. i. 1, 19). 
 
 4. Even when a Dative precedes, the Predicate Adjective or Noun 
 sometimes stands in the Accusative : — 
 
 'EJco'Ti;' t/uv ^iKovs yeveffSai AaKeSai/iovlois. It is possible for you to 
 become the friends of the Lacedemonians : Thuc. iv. 20, 3 ; cf. 
 Xen. Hell, iv, 8, 4, Oec. 11, 23, etc. ; Lat. Civi Romano licet 
 esse Gaditan^fim, a Roman citizen may be a citizen of Gades 
 {Cic. Pro Balbo, 19). 
 
 5. Attributes attached to a Subjectless Infinitive obey the same law : — 
 
 AiKaiov eS irp6.TT0VTa fj.efii/rja'Bat deov. It is right wheii one is pros- 
 perous to remember God (Menander) : cf. llagna laus est tautas 
 res solum gessisse. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 301 
 
 Tenses of the Infinitive. 
 
 533 1. The Present, Perfect and Aorist InflnitiYe do not in 
 
 themselves mark differences of time, but only differences in the 
 
 character of the action : — 
 
 The Present Infinitive marks the action as not completed 
 
 (i.e. as going on or repeated) : 
 The Perfect Infinitive marks tlie action as completed : 
 The Aorist Infinitive marks the action as occurring. 
 Stpa. eoTt ftovXeveo-Oai it is time to be deliberating : 
 wpa io-Ti Pf-PovXiva-Ooj. it is time to have done deliberating: 
 &pa. eo-Tt j3cwXev(Ta<T6ai it is time to deliberate. 
 "HcrS^vat jx,hi iCTTi Ta^^c'cos Sxnrcp opytaO^vai, ^SecrSai S' ov. 
 
 It is possible to become pleased (ingressive) quickly, 
 jubi as it is possible to get angry quickly, but it is not 
 •possible to be pleased quickly. 
 Here the Aorist refers to the same time as the Present ; cf. 
 § 330, Obs. 2. 
 
 2. But in Dependent Statements the Aorist Infinitive marks 
 the action as having occurred before the action of the Principal 
 Clause, and so differs from the Present and Perfect Infinitive ; — 
 ,<^i7/Ai ypdqiEiv I say that I am writing or write 
 
 (/ declare mysalf to be xoriting or to write) : 
 itfyriv ypdcjieiv I said that I was writing or used to write 
 (/ declared myself to be writing or to be in the habit 
 of writing) : 
 '<l>riiu yiypa4>€va.i I say that I have written 
 
 (/ declare myself to have written) : 
 efjyrjv yeypacfilvai I said that I had written 
 (/ declared myself to have written) : 
 ( <j>r]fu ypd\j/ai I say that I wrote or have written : 
 ( i<^y]v ypmj/ai I said that I lorote (previously) or had written. 
 Here ypdij/aL differs from ypd(f}eiif and yeypatjylvai to the same 
 extent as eypmj/a from ypdfjxa and yiypaipa {cf. §§ 482, 483). 
 
 Obs. 1. The Present Infinitive occasionally marks the action as having 
 been gning on at some time previous to the action of the. Principal Clause, but 
 only when the context makes this meaning clear : — 
 
 1^4ym avrhv StvoBuriffKiiv Sre a^lK6iniv. I say that he was dying when 
 I arrived : cf.Q. Scaevolam memoria teneo, cum asset summa 
 senectute, ootidie facere omnibus potestatem . . . (used to 
 give an opportimity). 
 
302 SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Perfect Infinitive may, like the Present, denote what 
 should be {cf. § 368 g, § 369 b) :— 
 
 Sv/uptpeL T^ 7ri(\ei \e\i<rBai rhv i/<f/itov. It is to the interest of the state 
 
 that the law should he null and void : Dem. Lept. 1. 
 Efiroy tV Bvpav KSKXpirflai. They commanded that the door should be 
 shut {should be in a closed condition) : Xen. Sell. v. 4, 7. 
 
 3. The Future Infinitiye marks an action as in prospect, and 
 is used chiefly in Dependent Statements : — 
 
 (jyrjfu ypai/fEtv / say that I shall write : } . 
 itftr/v ypaxj/eiv I said that I should Write : P 
 
 lit. / declare (declared) myself to he going to write. 
 iXirltu) vlKri<Tuv I hope that I shall conquer )„ „„„ ^, . 
 
 .X !- - ' r J, J J7 w ; ;j t% 330, Obs. 4. 
 
 riK-mtpv viKTjo-ctv / h oped th at J sh o lad conquer : j ^ 
 
 4. But /xe'XXcD and a few other verbs of the same class (§ 330) 
 may take a Future Infinitive, not in a Dependent Statement : — 
 
 jneXXo) oiKoSo/i^cretv or otKoSo/teiv / am going to build. 
 
 Obs. 3. The following verbs are found with a Puture Infinitive in 
 Thuoydides, according to MSS. : SiavooC^iioi / intend (iv. 115, 2 and four 
 other places), PovKo/iai I wish (vi. 57, 2), 4<pleiiai I desire (vi. 6, 1), Siofiai I 
 ask (i. 27, 2) : with some others the MS. authority is less good, and editors 
 generally prefer the Pres. or Aor. Infin. 
 
 5. A common substitute for the Future Infinitive in Dependent 
 Statements is the Aorist Infinitive with av : — 
 
 nfis av oiei eK^^vai to Trpayfia ; How do you think the 
 
 affair is likely to turn out 1 
 OvK av rjyuTO tovk: avSpas i^vyetv. He did not think that 
 
 the men were likely to run aioay. 
 
 Here the Infinitive with av represents a Potential Optative 
 with av : kK^axiq av it might turn out = it will probably turn out ; 
 rf. § 508 and § 340, Obs. 3. Compare the Conditional Infinitive 
 with av, § 357 c, Obs. 2 (i). Note that the av is often placed in 
 an unemphatic position in the sentence, under the shadow, so to 
 speak, of an emphatic word : '/. § 599, Obs, I . 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 303 
 
 The Infinitive with the Article. 
 
 534 The Greek Infinitive shows its character as a Noun very clearly 
 in the fact that it can take the Article (Neuter) ; yet even with 
 the Article it does not lose its character as a Verb : to Ka\S>s 
 airodi/rja-Ketv the noble death or the fact of dying nob/ij [uf. 6 /caXos 
 6avaT0i) ; to 6a.va.Tov SeSicWi the fear of death icf. to hio% Tov 
 Oavdrov) ; to yap o-c^ayijvat tovS' i/wl Capo's fiiya for that this man 
 should he slaughtered is to me great heaviness, Eur. /. T. 598 {cf 
 (jiovoi TovSe the murder of this man). 
 
 535 The Infinitive with the Article is capable of all the construc- 
 tions of an ordinary Noun ; its Oblique cases correspond in general 
 to those of the Latin Gerund : — 
 
 TO im.v66.viiv learning or to learn (discere) 
 
 hrX (€is, Trpos) to pm/Oa.ve.i.v for learning (ad discendum) 
 
 ToC [mv6aviiv of learning (discendi) 
 
 T<S ij.av6dvtLv by learning, to learning, etc. (discendo). 
 
 536 Thus it is used :— 
 
 (1) In most of the constructions of the Infinitive without the 
 Article (§§ 526-531) : 
 
 To KoXd^€a'6ai Ty <I'V)(TJ a/jieivov ianv ^ r/ aKoXao-t'd. To be 
 chastened is better for the soul than unchastened self- 
 indulgence : § 526 a. 
 
 KaXovcTLV a.Ko\a(TLa.v to viro TSnf rjSovwv a.p^i(r6ai. They call 
 being governed by pleasures intemperance : § 526 c. 
 
 To (TirevSeLv (tol irapatvS). I recommend thee to make haste 
 (/ commend speed to thee) : § 526 d. 
 
 To 8e-y8ta itoXItSsv Spav ci^w dyii'^x'^i'os. / am by nature 
 helpless to act in defiance of the state : § 527. 
 
 To iw iKavovs eXvai aTroXtoXare. Sor aught they care you 
 are ruined men : § 529. 
 
 Ti}s /iO)/Dtas ■ TO \ia. vopJ^av, ovTarriXiKovTOVl. What folly ! 
 to believe in Zeus, now you are so big! § 531. The 
 Tnfin. of Exclamation has the Article more commonly than 
 not : Aristoph. Clouds, 819, 268 ; Soph. Phil. 234 ; Eur. Med. 
 1051 ; Xen. Cyr. ii. 2, 3. etc. 
 
 Oes. The Infin. with the Article is rare in Dependent Statements 
 (§ 530 ii.) :— 
 
 'E{o/ii€r rb /lii elSeyai ; Will you deny on oath thai you know ? Soph. 
 Ant. 535 ; for the fii] see § 368 b. 
 
304 SYNTAX. 
 
 537 (2) In many constructions where the bare Infinitive could not 
 stand : — • 
 
 (a) In the relation of a Genitive or Dative : 
 
 KaXais a.Tro6av€LV KpuTTOv iari Tov attr^pCs ^rjv. A noble 
 
 death is better than a shameful life : § 411 a. 
 OiSev ovTE dvaiScids ouTe tov \j/€v8e(r6ai 7rapaXeal/ei. He will 
 
 not stick at any sort of impudence or lying : § 391. 
 Nfxrjo-ov oprfqv Tip Xoyii,itTOai KaXols. Conquer anger by 
 
 sound reasoning : § 429. 
 
 538 (b) Depending on Prepositions : 
 
 Aict TO tfuXofiadrji elvat TroWa toiis TrapovTas avqpijyra.. Owing 
 to being eager for knowledge ( = Causal Clause) he used 
 to put many questions to those present. 
 
 Oi avOpoiiroi -Travra TTOiovcriv inrtp tov /xr) Sowai St/o/i/. Men 
 do anything in order not to suffer punishment. 
 
 OvK cttI t(S SovXot elvat iKirip-TrovTai oi a-TroiKot. Not ore the 
 understanding that they shall be slaves are colonists 
 sent out. 
 
 Notes on the Infinitive with the Article. 
 
 539 1. Predicate Adjectives or Nouns attached to the Infinitive with the 
 Article agree with the word to which they refer ; hence the Nominative in 
 the examples above (§ 538 ; cf. § 532.2). 
 
 2. The Negative of the Infin. with the Article is always fiii ; cf. % 538 
 (second ex.), and below (Note 3). 
 
 3. The Aorist of the Infinitive with the Article and an Accusative 
 Subject generally marks the action as past : — 
 
 Th fiTiSef/.iav twv TriKeatv a\wvat woKiopxi^ fieyiffrSv iari (T7ffie7ov tov 
 5to to6tqvs vetirdet/Tas tous ^w/ceds a)S inrh tov ^iKt-jrirov ffcaQ-i}- 
 ffovTai TavTa Trade'iv. The fact that 7}ot one of the towns was 
 taken by sieije is the strongest pronf that the Phoeians suffered this 
 ouhj because they were induced by these men to believe that they 
 would be saved by Philip : Demosth. Fals. Leg. 61. 
 But it may also be timeless, like the bare Infin. -. see example in § 534. 
 
 4. The Infin. with the Article may have &v : — 
 
 "Xlit^etov elvai TOV Kal &Wo tl tly avTohs &vSpeiui inro/xetvcu. \_He said\ 
 that it was a proof that they would manfully emhcre any other 
 hardships : Thuc, iv. 120, 4. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 305 
 
 5. Verbs otprevmting, which may take fi^ with the Infinitive (§ 369 0), 
 may also take rh ii.ii without difierenoe of meaning : — 
 
 eJp|oi 0-6 ii.'ti vKeiv or rb /iji irA.eii' / shall prevent you from sailing 
 (originally /or sailing, in regard to sailing). 
 
 These verbs may also take the Genitive (denoting/rom) : 
 ftp^w <re ToC TrXeic I shall prevent you from sailing. 
 
 By a mixture of these forms of speech (each logically correct) arises a 
 curious and wholly illogical idiom of the Greek language : 
 
 fXp^u <r£ ToC fjA) TtKe'ii' I shall prevent you from sailing. (This ought 
 to mean /rom not sailing.) 
 e g. OuSefs iro) to5 /lii ■n\eov ex^iy airerpdireTO. No one has ever yet 
 abstained from seeking his advantage : Thuo. i. 76, 3. 
 'O yap aiTKhs Sio &vSpas e|ei rod /iii KaraSvvai. Sq,ch skin-bag will 
 prevent two men from sinking : Xen. Anah. iii. 5, 11 ; cf. Cyr. 
 ii. i, 23. 
 
 6. The Genitive of the Infinitive with the Article sometimes denotes 
 purpose (often in Thuoydides : cf. § 351) : — 
 
 'IiTTrtds i^eiri/iwev ael ToC nil irpoSpiiious arh ttjs a-Tparias robs aypobs 
 KaKoupyetv. He sent out cavalry from time to time in order to 
 •prevent an advanced guard of the army from ravaging the 
 country : Thuc. ii. 22, 2 ; cf. i. i, etc. ' 
 
 The Verb- Adjectives in -t^os and -T69. 
 
 540 The Yerta- Adjective in -t^qs, -rid, -tIov, corresponds to the 
 Latin Gerundive, marking an action as to he done. 
 
 It is used : — 
 
 1. In a pecsowaZ pass we construction; here the Verb-Adjective 
 'agrees with the Subject : 
 
 'U<jiiKr]Tia a-oL r/ iro'Xts coriv. The City must be benefited by 
 you. Civitas tibi adjuvanda est. 
 
 2. In an impersonal active construction ; here the Verb-Adjective 
 stands in the Neuter Nominative, Singular or Plural, and takes 
 the same Case as the Verb from vv'hich it is formed : 
 
 'n<t)€k7jT€ov (or (i0£\ijTea) trot tyju ttoXiv. You, must benefit 
 
 the state. 
 Ourreov ttjv tvxvv- One must bear one's lot. 
 IloXeiwv airriov. We must take to war. 
 BoriOr]Teov rfj ■iroXa. We must succour the state, Civitati 
 
 gubveijiendum est 
 
3o6 SYNTAX. 
 
 541 The personal constructiou is used, as in Latin, only when the 
 Verb from which the Adjective in -Teos is formed takes the Accus- 
 ative ; the impersonal construction may be formed from any verb, 
 even verbs which take an Accusative (where classical Latin would 
 require the personal construction : cT vitas tibi adjuvanda est * ; 
 § 540.2, first example). 
 
 542 The person who 'must' or 'ought,' if expressed at all, is 
 expressed by a Dative, as in Latin (Dative of the Agent, § 423) ; 
 never by im-o with the Genitive ( = Lat. ab with Abl.) : but in 
 the imijersonal construction the Accusative is sometimes found, as 
 though dependent on Scit : — 
 
 Ou 8ouA,evT£ov Toiis vovv Ip^oi/ras Toi<i kokSs tfipovmxriv. Men 
 of sense ought not to be enslaved to fools ( = ofi Sei tovs 
 vovv e.)(ovT(K SovA-cuEii/, etc.). 
 
 543 The Yerb-Adjectiye in -t6s, -ttj, -t&v marks an action as 
 either (1) done : Xu-rds loosed (solii-tus) 
 
 or (2) do-able : Xv-tos loosable (quod solvi potest) : — 
 
 'AAA.' (.(TT CKiLvio vavTa X-CKTa, TravTa 8e | ToX.iJLrjTd. But 
 lie is capable of saying and daring anything: Soph. 
 Phil. 633. 
 
 The Participles. 
 
 544 The Participles are used (1) as Attributes, (2) as Predicate 
 Adjectives, (3) in the 'absolute' construction. 
 
 545 (1) Participles as Attributes (§ 300) :— 
 (a) Used like ordinary Adjectives : 
 
 al KaXov/xevai AidXou v^troi the so-called islands oj Aeolus. 
 oi TT-apovTi'i (so. avOpuyiroi) those who loere present. 
 7rdA.ts (caWet Bia<f>€pov(Ta a city excelling in beauty. 
 (ft) Used like Nouns in Apposition (§ 337) : 
 
 KBpos, TW Kpotcrov v'iKrjcrd';, KaTecTTpeKJ/aTO Tov^ AvSov'S. Cyrus, 
 hamng conquered Croesus, reduced the Lydlans to sub- 
 jection (cf. Cyrus, the conqueror of Croesus, etc.). 
 <E>tA.i7nr(p airiovn aTr-qvTTja-a. I met Philip departing. 
 
 Obs. In both of tlie above uses the Participle is a secondary element in 
 the sentence, which might be removed without destroying the construction. 
 Contrast § 549, where the Participle is an essential part of the Predicate. 
 
 * Old Latin sometimes has constructions like cwitatem tibi adjuvandum 
 est. 
 
 + In this case the verb to-n' appears to be always omitted, 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 307 
 
 546 The Negative of the Participle is oi, except when it has 
 conditioval or general meaning, or stands in a sentence which 
 would be negatived by far) : — 
 
 6 ov Tna-Tevuiv the man who does not believe (is qui non credit) 
 
 6 ixri TnaTevtov anyone ivho does not believe (si quis non credit) 
 
 O /i,ri Sapels avflpwTros ov TraiSevfrai. The unflo(iged man 
 ( = anyone who is not flogged) is not educated. 
 
 'ifri(f>la-a(TOe rbv TroKe/xov, /J.r] (jjo^riOivTei to avrUa ^uvov. 
 Vote for the war, without fearing ( = and do not fear) 
 the immediate danger. 
 
 547 The Appositive Participle may often be translated by an 
 adverbial expression : — 
 
 (a) Temporal : 
 
 TaSra eiTrojv dinjeiv. When he had said this, he dejiarfed. 
 
 The temporal meaning is often brouglit out by the addition of Adverbs 
 like SjUa at the same time, outiko or eiSis straightway, /iieto|u meanwhile : 
 
 'E,udxovTo apa iropev6fi.evoi. They fought as they marched (lit. marching 
 at the same time). 
 
 T^ Se^i$ Kep^ €v8vs airo0e$riK6Ti iirfKeivTO. They fell upon the right 
 wing immediately on its landing. 
 
 'Z^aviar-fiaav /leroji StHrj/oOi'Tej. They got up in the middle of dinner 
 (lit. dining meanwhile). 
 
 (b) Causal : 
 
 Oi KaOevSeiv Svva/xaij opdv ev otots tcr/iei'. / cannot sleep, 
 because I see what a position we are in. 
 
 Often with words meaning as : ore, oiov, oTa ( = quippe), as, Simep : 
 
 '%TraiA,vi^ov are vlxiiaavTiS. They raised the paean because they had 
 
 been victorioiis {&s vlKiitravrGS as if or v/tider the impression 
 
 that, etc.). 
 'Efi\inofiiy Trphs avrhv Sis avrlKa aKov(r6fieyot daufiaa-lovs tiv&s \6yous. 
 
 We turned oii/r eyes upon him in the expectation that we should 
 
 hear some wondrous speech. 
 
 a) Conditional : 
 
 OvK av Swaio juij Kafiiiv tihaiit-oveiv. You cannot be happy 
 unless you labour (Neg. jj-rj '• § 046), 
 
3o8 SYNTAX. 
 
 {(i) Concessive : 
 
 'EpxeTou raX-qOh eis ^fis eviOT ou ^t^tov/hevov. The truth 
 sometimes comes to light though not sought. 
 Often with Kalirep or xai or ««! ravra , see § 358, Obs. 1. 
 
 (e) Final (chiefly Future Participle, rarely Present) : 
 
 Upicr^ws tircfuj/av ravTo. re epovvTa's Koi AviravSpov atTijaovTas 
 cTTt Tus vavs. They sent envoys to say this and to ask 
 for Lysander as admiral. 
 Often with is as : 
 
 TIape<rKeui(ovTo aii iroAc/i^o-ovTer. They ttiade prepartions to fight. 
 
 548 ^ Participle and its Noun may often be translated together by 
 means of a Noun or Verb-Noun with the Genitive : — - 
 
 'H v^cros ip,Trpr]crdeia-a pc6/iijv ouTai 7rapi<r\ev. The bui-ning 
 of tlie island lent him encouragement : Thuc, iv. 29, 2. 
 Cf. occlsus Caesar the slaying of Caesar. 
 
 'A/a' ripi &p-)(opiv<a. At the beginning of spring. 
 
 ''Y.Tii Tre/iiTT^ /teri ^vpaKoiiTas oiKiffBeitrds Aeoi/rivous oiKiCovtrtv. In 
 the fifth year after the foundation of Syracuse (post Syraousas 
 oonditas) they founded Leontini : Thuo. vi. 3, 3. But sentences 
 of this type (like post urbem cond/itam) are rare in Greek. 
 
 549 (2) Participles as Predicate AdjeotiYes (§ 302, § 305):— 
 (a) With verbs of being {ilp.i, yiyvofUM, virdp)((o) and verbs 
 
 denoting some modification of being, such as 
 
 Tvyxpivio I am just now, Xavddvm I am secretly : 
 Sidyo), SiaTeXC), Siaytyvop-ai, I am unceasingly : 
 <l>alvop.at,, SiyXos €t/xi, (jiavepoi €lp,i I am manifestly : 
 <l>6a.vm I am beforehand, oixo/jLai I am gone. 
 
 'Etv^ov Trapovrei. They were just then present : t/. § 496.1. 
 
 ToCto to (TTpa.T(vp.a. eXav^ave rpi^op.o'ov. This army was 
 secretly maintained : cf. § 324.6. 
 
 'ETrra rjulpwi wtura,'; fjMxop,tvoi, SieTeXc(Tav. They fought con- 
 tinuously for seven whole days. 
 
 <^awiTai 6 vo/Aos ^/iSs ^XdiTTiav. The lato is manifestly 
 injurious to us. 
 
 ^ddvov<Ti Tovs ttoXe/aiovs €iri T<p aKpia ye.v6ii.tvoL, They reached 
 the summit before the enemy (§ 324.6). 
 
 Ot;i^€Tai 6av(l>v. He is dead and gone (Soph. Phil. 414; 
 lit. he is gone dead ; cf. o'^^crai <^|OovSos he's clean gone\ 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 309 
 
 (6) With Verbs of beginning} and ceasing or making to cease 
 {ap)(oii.ai, XT/yo), iravofji.aL, iravto), holding out and wearying (dvc;^o/x,at, 
 Kaprepli), a-jrayopevoi, Ka/Avco) ; cf. § 330, Obss. 5, 6 : 
 
 OuTTOTE £irauo/Aijv ^/las jU.ci' oiKtipuiv, Paa-iXia 8e fiaKopt^wv. 
 I never ceased to commiserate ourselves and to con- 
 gratulate the king. 
 M^ Kafi.ri's ipiXov avSpa evepyeTwv. Weary not of doing good 
 
 to one loho is your friend. 
 KaprepS) Akoviov. I am, listening patiently. 
 
 (c) With verbs of doing well or ill (kuXus wolSi, ev irotG, dSiKu, 
 d,aaprdvoi), being superior or inferior (vik<o, KparS), ■irepiyiyvofiat, 
 
 'AStKciTe TToXefiov ap^ovres. You are acting unjustly in 
 coimnencing hostilities (You are the lorongful eom- 
 mencers, etc.). 
 
 'Edv Tis fijxa's (v irotSv VTrdp^y, tovtov eis ye Swa/xtv ou;( 
 ■^crcrijo-o/AcSa «u 7roioi)vT€s. iy' anyone is our benefactor 
 (see a, above), we shall not prove his inferiors in well 
 doing. (The e5 ttoiSiv has nothing to do with the rule.) 
 
 (d) With verbs of rejoicing and grieving : 
 
 "HSo/xai aKovwv (rou (ftpovifiovs Xdyous. / rejoice to hear 
 sensible language from you [I am a glad hearer, etc.). 
 Hence the use of the Participle in Dependent Statements like 
 /x€T€/ieX£To ij/eva-dfji.a'o's he repented having lied = he repented that 
 he had lied (§ 368 e). 
 
 (e) With verbs of perceiving, knowing and showing : 
 
 'OpSi avTov veXd^oura. I see him approaching (vide5 eum 
 
 appropinquantem) : cf. Predicate Adjective, § 334.2 b. 
 
 OiSei/a oTSa /xl&ovvTa roirs eiraivowras. / know no one that 
 
 hates (lit. as a hater of) those who praise him. 
 TUvpov oncTTpaTevovTa TrpuTos -^yyetXa. / was the first to 
 report Gyrus as marching against the king. 
 Similarly with irepiopS) permit : Trepiopaxri tijv yrjv Tp/rjOeia-av 
 they submit to see the land ravaged. 
 
 Hence the use of the Participle in Dependent Statements like "a-Oi 
 dvorjTO's uiv knoio being foolish = know that thou art foolish (§ 368 d). 
 
 549* (3) Participles in the ' absolute construction '. 
 
 (a) Genitive Absolute: see § 361.1. 
 
 (b) Accusative Absolute : see § 361.2. 
 
310 SYNTAX. 
 
 Temporal Meaning of the Participles. 
 
 550 The Participles do not in themselves mark differences of time, 
 
 but only differences in the character of the action, like the corres- 
 ponding Tenses of the Infinitive (§ 533). But they assvune a 
 special kind of temporal meaning in connexion with the Finite 
 Verb of the sentence ; thus : — 
 
 The Present Participle marks the action as not completed at 
 the time denoted by the Finite Verb : 
 
 Soi^ois o/uXiov KauTos eK^i^airi o-oc^os. While consorting with 
 the wise, thou thyself too shalt become wise. 
 
 The Perfect Participle marks the action as completed at the 
 time denoted by the Finite Verb : 
 
 Mithridates comes in view of the Oreeks who had 
 crossed. 
 
 The Aorist Participle marks the action as having occurred 
 before the time denoted by t/ie Finite Verb : 
 
 MccVavrts ravrqv t^v -fjixipav, ry vcmpaia, iiropeuovTO. Having 
 remained for this day, they continued their march on 
 the next. 
 IIoWu va-Ttpov <f>aLveTaL a.Tro6avuiv. It is dear that he was 
 
 put to death long afterwards. 
 MeiJivqiJ.eO' « klv8vvov iXOovTeis /icyav. / remember that I 
 ran into great danger. 
 
 The Future Participle marks the action as in prospect at the 
 time denoted by the Finite Verb : 
 
 'O pdp^apos eiri Trjv 'EXXaSa SovXo)cro/iei/os y]X.6ev. The 
 barbarian came to Greece with a view to enslaving it. 
 
 551 The Present Participle occasionally denotes past time (like the Past 
 Impf . Indie. ) : — 
 
 Oi trufiwpiafiiiovTss Kal ■jrap6vTes Karafj.apTvp'^irova'iy. Those icho were 
 his colleagues on the emlassy and who were present will bear 
 witness: Demosth. Fals. Leg. 129. 
 
 552 An Attributive Aorist Participle may mark an action as past from the 
 piiiiU of view of the present (like the Aor. Indicative) : — 
 
 Of "EA^TjKes Strrepov K\f)9£yres o-jSev irph twv TpajiKuy a9p6oi tirpa^av. 
 The peo2>le who were sabsequenlly called Hellenes never entered 
 upon any joint enterprise before the Trojan war : Thuc. i. 3, 4. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 311 
 
 Tlva ?iv to; KexBdvra (to! irpa^fffWa; ical rtves ot rapaysydfievoi tuv 
 iiriTriSelai/ t^ avSpl; What were the things said and dcme ? 
 And which of hisfnevds came to visit the man? Plato, Phaedo, 
 58 : cf. Demosth. De Cor. 88 (tIs ijv 6 PoriBitaas rah Bv^av 
 riots i). 
 
 "Krepos aStKetj/ itot' eSo^ev i^7v irepl ri Atovitna., Kai KaTex^tpoTOvficraT' 
 avTov irapeSpevovTos &pxovTi rqj vUi' ^v S' odros & tov ^eXritrrou 
 Trar^ip XapiK\elSoVf tov 6,p^avros. Another person was once con- 
 sidered by you to have profaned the Dionysia, and you passed a 
 decree against him, though he was assessor (§ 547 d) to his son, 
 who was archon (Pres. Part., § 550); and this man was the 
 father of the excellent Chariclides, who was (not had been) the 
 archon : Demosth. Meid. 178. 
 
 553 The Aorist Participle always denotes some kind of priority, even when 
 the act is practically identical in time with that of the Finite Verb : — 
 
 MeiSiicrds €</)jj. He said with a smile = Ee smiled and said ; difierent 
 from liiiSiuv €(pi) he said smiling. 
 
 ES 7' iwolriffas avafivijcrds fie. You did well in reminding me (Predi- 
 cate Participle, § 549 c) ; = &vefivritrds fie Ka\us ■jroiwv you 
 rightly reminded me. 
 
 "^ETKTJ/Tav ewiSe'ii/ 4p^fii\v fiev r^v w6\iy yevofUvrfV T^v Se X^P^^ iropBov- 
 fjtevrfv, aTTavra Se rhv vSKefiov Trepi r^v TrarpiSa t))v ainSov ytyv6- 
 fievov. They endured to see their city laid waste (Aor.) and 
 their territory being ravaged (Pres.), and the whole war gathering 
 (Pres. ) around their native land : cf. § 549 e. 
 
 "EXade iroiiiaas. He was unobserved in doing it = He did it secretly 
 {iiroliia-e KdSp^, § 549 a). 
 
 Aadiiii 4woiri<rev. He did it unobserved. 
 
 554 The Present or Aorist Participle with av frequently marks an 
 action as likely to happen : — 
 
 *0 irdvTa ToXfjLuiv kAtto iravTos av <l>ip<i>v 
 
 \6yov SiKoiov fjLrj)(avrj[ji,a iroi/ctXov (Soph. 0. G. 762). 
 
 Thou who art all-daring and ready to draw a crafty 
 
 deoloe from any plea of right. 
 
 Here av ^ipu>v is Potential, = os <l>epoi's av who couldst or 
 mightest draw (§ 508). 
 
 In other cases the Participle with av is Conditional (§ 357 c.2) : — 
 
 'Eyw eifu, Tolv rjSeois p.h' av iX.ey)^9ivT0>v, ijSeaJS S' av iXey^dvToyv. 
 I am one of those who woidd gladly he convicted of error 
 and would gladly convict others. 
 
312 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 555 
 
 o 
 
 EH 
 
 o 
 
 B9 
 
 a 
 
 • iH 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 •OD 
 
 « 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 EH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '3 b 
 2 in ^ .5 
 
 is -ll 
 
 ^S 
 
 rS 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 b 
 
 ll 
 
 .1 
 
 .2 00 
 
 « '-' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 II 
 1 
 
 i2 w 
 
 ■g-3 
 eg' 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oT 3 
 
 f=^ 
 
 hH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 % 
 
 I3 
 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 
 "d 
 
 ^ b S 1 
 
 ll li 
 
 .2 >« 
 1:3 S. 
 
 11 
 
 
 Pm 
 
 
 
 ■43 ^a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =2 
 
 .£-§■ 
 
 i g 
 
 
 
 
 
 O "B 
 
 ■If- 
 
 ^ ^1 
 
 flH 
 
 +3 ■ai 
 
 (0 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 If 
 
 2^3 
 CO 
 
 g .E; §= 
 
 1 
 11 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 -g"§ 
 
 .s 
 
 p,b CO 
 
 «4-H "S 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Si J! 
 
 fc: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1^ 
 
 PM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cm Pm 
 
 
 
 
 tf 
 
 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 Is 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 Si, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ->) 
 
 
 
 1; 
 
 g 
 
 
 Si, 
 
 
 P3 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 o 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
MEANINGS UF FORMS. 513 
 
 PRONOUNS AND ADJEGTIVES OONNECTED THEREWITH. 
 1^" Sections 556-570 are supplementary to Accidence §§ 128-169. 
 
 Personal Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives (§§ 128-137). 
 
 556 The Reflexive Pronouns are either Direct or Indirect (^ 134) : — 
 
 (1) Direct, referring to the Subject of the Sentence or Clause 
 in which they stand : o-wotSa iiJi.avT(S, yvS>6i a-eavrav, etc. : 
 
 nSs avTjp auTov i^iXci. Every man loves himself. 
 
 (2) Indirect, referring to the Subject of the governing Clause : 
 'ETTcicre TOiis 'AOiQvaiovi iaVTOv Kardyeiv. He persuaded the 
 
 Athenians to restore him (se). 
 'Hftou So^^vai 01 TauTas ras TrdXets. He demanded that these 
 cities shoidd be given him (sibi). 
 Obs. Instead of the Indirect Beflexives of the 3rd Person, the Personal 
 Pronoun avT6v, auriiv, avri (§ 131) may be used : — 
 
 'E\e7oi' Sti fifTaiJi4\oi airoTs. They said that they repented. 
 
 557 The Reflexive of the 8rd Person is sometimes used instead of the 
 Reflexive of the 1st or 2nd Person (§ 133) :— 
 
 'Efeo-Ti <roi ^v Kapraifi^vov (§ 532.2) to eauTov. You are at liberty 
 to live enjoying your possessions. 
 
 558 The Reflexive of the 3rd Person Plural is sometimes used instead of 
 oW^XoM, aX\^A.ds, &Wri\a {§ 150) : — 
 
 *H Poi\e<rde ■irepn6vTes avrav irvpedvetrBai ■ \4yeTai ri xatviv ; Or do 
 you ivish to go on walking about and asking one another ' Is there 
 any news ! ' 
 
 559 The Genitive implied in a Possessive Adjective may have another 
 Genitive in agreement with it : — 
 
 KaWov TTiffreiere toTs t/jterepois avray oipSaK/wTs tl tois Toiruv Kiyois. 
 Trust more to your own eyes (vestris ipsorum ooulis) than to 
 these men's speeches. 
 Ta/xa Sutrriivov koto. The woes of wretched me. 
 But instead of ^/aerepos avrStv, etc. , we sometimes find ^/iSx outSc, etc. : 
 T^ tfuSiv auTuy owKa your own arms. 
 
 ^- On the use of the Reflexive <r<peis, <r<pas iu Indirect Speech see 
 § 371, Obs. 6. 
 
 Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns (§§ 138-146). 
 
 560 °08e, ^8e, ToSe and other compounds of -8c point to what is 
 present or to come {the followiruj) ; oJtos, avrq, tovto and its deri- 
 vatives point to what has been already mentioned {the preceding) : 
 
 Tex/Aijpiov 8e TOvTov kol roSe. And the proof of what luis 
 
 been said is the folio rning. 
 TaCra /aev hr) crv Xe-yets, Trap' i^/iiSv 8e dxayyeXXe raSe. That 
 
 i.t what you say, but take back the following message 
 
 from us. 
 
 21 
 
314 SYNTAX. 
 
 561 When used in a local sense, o8« points to what is near the 
 speaker ( = hie) , o£tos to what stands facing him ( = iste), l/ceivos. 
 to what is far off {= ille) ; cf. § 144 : — 
 
 'OSe la-rqKa. Here stand I. 
 
 OvTos oTTia-Oev Trpocripx^Tai. There he comes behind us. 
 
 NijEs EKcTvai €7rLTr\iov(Tiv. Yonder are ships sailing toward us. 
 
 562 1. He who ( = is qui) is in Greek oStos os : — 
 
 'AvSpcios ovo/xd^ETai ovros os av ev rij ra^et fiivuiv fiiyiyyTai tow 
 
 TToXE/Atots. Fortis appellatur is qui in acie cum hostibua 
 
 pugnet. 
 
 2. The English Demonstrative with a Participle in phrases like 
 
 those standing by is rendered in Greek by the Article with the 
 
 Participle : — 
 
 Ot irape(7T(i)T£S Or ol irapuTTo.jx.evoi. Adstantes. 
 
 Relative Pronouns (§ 160). 
 
 563 'Os and the other simple Relatives (oTos, oo-os) refer to a 
 particulur or individual Antecedent : — 
 
 "EcTTtv ^iKYj's 6<f>6aX.fji,6s, OS Ta Trdyff opa. There is an eye of 
 Justice, which sees everything. 
 "Oo-Tts and the other compound Relatives (oiroios, ottoo-os) are 
 general, and refer to a class : — 
 
 MaKapios ootis fTV)(e yewaiov (f>iX.ov. Happy is one who has 
 gained a noble friend. 
 
 Obs. Owing to this general meaning, Sa-ns (not is) is regularly used 
 in dependence on a negative clause : — 
 
 OvK isTiv ifo-Tis = nobody (nemo est qui) : § 364 c, Obs. 5. 
 Similarly irSs 3<rTis, ttAvtis S(roi, everyone who, all who. 
 
 564 "Oo-irep the very one who, often = qui quidem : Xen. Anab. iii. 
 10. 
 
 'Os ye = quippe qui : § 364.2 a (Causal). 
 
 565 The Relative frequently precedes its Antecedent, as in Lat. : — 
 '*0 vTrea-)(6ix.-f]v, tovto ttohJcto). / mil do what I promised. 
 
 The Antecedent of an attracted Relative (§ 363.3), if expressed 
 at all, generally stands at the end of the Relative Clause, and has 
 no Article : — 
 
 TowTous app^ovras IttoUi ^s Kareo'Tpcc^eTO ^(ipas. These he 
 used to malm rulers of the country which he was subduing. 
 
 566 "Oj, % after ^ said (§ 265) are Demonstratives not Eelatives : — 
 
 ^ 5' 3s said he: ^ S' i) said she. 
 
Meanings op porms. 315 
 
 Interrogati7e and Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives 
 
 (§§ 151-159). 
 
 567 The line of demarcation between Interrogatives and Eelatives 
 is less sharply drawn in Greek than in Latin ; hence Dependent 
 Questions are introduced not only by n% n (— quis, quid), but 
 also by oorts, ^rts, o rt (General Kelative, § 563), and sometimes 
 even by the simple os (§ 370 b, Obs. 2). In this respect Greek 
 resembles English. 
 
 MdOe tt/dStov nveq ticTLv. Leaj'n first who they are. 
 
 OvK tcTTe o Tt TTOLUTc. You do Twt know what you are doing. 
 
 M-^TTOTE yvoLrjs OS et. May you never learn who you are. 
 
 568 Note the following meanings of tis, tl (Indefinite) : — 
 some : O^o's tis some god. dewv tis one of the gods. 
 
 ihvoi TIS av someone might say (dixerit aliquis). 
 
 ToiavTa aTTo, SieXexdrjaav they conversed in some such style as 
 
 this. 
 rpiaKovTo. Tivas airiKTavav they slew some thirty. 
 oXi-yot Ttve's some few. ets tis some one (iinus aliquis). 
 Untranslatable in iroXXot tives many, -n-oio^ tis of luhat kind 1 
 
 TToa-ov Tl how great ? crxeSov n pretty nearly. 
 
 ov Travxi Tl Tiot at all. 
 
 Note the use of tis in covert allusion to a person whom one 
 
 does not wish to name : — 
 n8' ovv Oaveirai koL Oavovcr oXei Tiva she then must die and 
 dying destroy another (lit. some one) : Soph. Ant. 751. 
 a certain : 'A^ijraio's tis (Atheniensis quidam). 
 a kind of (with Adjectives) : Sucr/ia^^s tis a dull sort of fellow. 
 
 Seivq TIS 8wa/iis (incredibilis quaedam vis). 
 many a one : ftXa-a tis eKeivov kcu SeSic many a one hates and fears 
 
 him. 
 every one ( = ttSs tis) : tovto tis io-tw let everyone know this, 
 some important : ijux^is tis eivai thou u:ast boasting to he some great per- 
 son; Eur. El. 939 (c/. si vis esse aliquis — Jiwenal,\. 74). 
 Xcyoiio-i yu-eV Ti, ov fia'Toi ye ocrov oiovTat there is something in 
 lehat they say, yet Tiot so much as they think. 
 
3i6 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Carefully distinguish the meanings of the Indefinite rts, ri from 
 those of the General Relative and Interrogative ocrrts, o n. "Oo-tk, 
 TL is always either Relative or Interrogative, introdunng a Sub- 
 ordinate Clause (see examples in §§ 563, 567) ; rts, rt never intro- 
 duces a Subordinate Clause. The English >i:hofoever, whatsoeoer 
 are ambiguous, being sometimes Relative, sometimes Indefinite : — 
 Whatsoever he does, he does lUfll (Relative) : 
 He does nothing whntsoerer (Indefinite). 
 
 Note that the term Indefinite, as applied to a special class of 
 Pronouns, denotes not only vague, but also non-relative : the 
 so-called Indefinite Pronouns resemble Demonstratives so far as 
 the structure of the sentence is concerned. 
 
 Note the DefinitiYe AdjectiYe airo's with Ordinal Numerals : — 
 SrpaTijyos rjv HevoKXa'ST/s Tre/xirTOS airos. Xenocleides was 
 
 general with four others (lit. himself the fifth ; cf. German 
 
 selbdritt = rpiro^ airds). 
 On auTois avSpao-t see § 428 c : on o avrds tivi § 428 d. 
 
 Table of Correlative Pronouns and Adjectives. 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 Demonstrative 
 
 Relative 
 
 Directaud 
 Indirect 
 
 Only 
 Indirect 
 
 Individual 
 § 563 
 
 General 
 §563 
 
 rts 
 
 oo-Tis 
 
 oSf, OVTO%, CKiivOS 
 
 o's 
 
 dcTTis 
 
 TTOTtpOS 
 
 b-TTOTepo^ 
 
 crepos 
 
 — 
 
 OTrdrepos 
 
 TTOTOS 
 
 oiroios 
 
 ToidcrSe, toioCtos 
 
 oios 
 
 OTTOIOS 
 
 TToa-os 
 
 OTr6cro<; 
 
 TOo-dcrSc, too-oBtos 
 
 oo-os 
 
 OTTOO-OS 
 
 TrqXlKO'i 
 
 [inr-qXlKOsI 
 
 TfjXlKOO'hi, TT^XtKOVTOS 
 
 T^At'/COS 
 
 OTrrjXiKos 
 
 Obs. 1. The corresponding Indefinites are tis a«j/, iirSrepos either of two 
 ( = altera ter), Tioi6s of some sort, iro(r6s of some size. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Latin quot? 'how many?' is expressed by the Plural of 
 ir6ffos. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 
 
 317 
 
 Table of Coerblativb Advbebs. 
 
 572 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 Demonstrative 
 
 Relative 
 
 Direct and 
 Indirect 
 
 Only 
 Indirect 
 
 Individaal General 
 
 TTOV ubi 
 
 OTTOV vM 
 
 auTov, ivTavda, Hi; 
 iv6aSe hie, e/cet illie 
 
 ilH 
 
 OTTOV 
 
 TTol quo 
 
 oiroi quo 
 
 avToare, ivTav6a, eo ; 
 ev^dSe hue, e/ccicre illue 
 
 
 OTTOt 
 
 TTodev unde 
 
 oTToOev unde 
 
 avToOev, ivTeuOev, inde ; 
 iv6ivSe hinc, iK^Wev illinc 
 
 oOfv \ ^ 
 „ a 1 VMde 
 evaev) 
 
 OTToOa/ 
 
 TTore quatido 
 
 otroTi quando 
 
 TOTi turn 
 
 0T« cum 
 
 oirore 
 
 irrfVLKO, 
 
 quote 
 
 OTnqviKa 
 
 \hora 
 
 T-qviKavTO, TrjviKaSi 
 ea hora, hac hora 
 
 rjvlKa, qVjS, 
 hora 
 
 oirr)viKa 
 
 TTWS quo- 
 modo 
 
 oirtos quo- 
 modo 
 
 ouTws ita, &Se sic 
 
 (is ut, 
 
 sicut 
 
 OTTUK 
 
 Try qitd 
 
 oirg qua 
 
 TavTr) ea, rfjSe hoe 
 
 V 2^ 
 
 OTTQ 
 
 573 
 
 The Article. 
 
 The so-called Definite Article shows its original character as a 
 Demonstrative Adjective (§ 148) in the following phrases : — 
 
 1. 6 /x£v . . . 6 Se this one (the one) . . . that one (the other) : 
 TO fiev . . . TO Se (or TO, /Aa/ . . . ra 8e) used adverbially : 
 
 partly . . . partly, now . . . now : 
 irpo Tov before that time, previously : 
 Tovs fxh/ iirgvea-e, Tois 8k iiJi,iiJ.tjfaTo. Some he praised, and 
 
 others he blamed. 
 
 2. o 8e, beginning a new sentence, and he, but he : 
 
 AvKOs TrpojSdTOV iStiOKiv ' TO Si Ets vewv k<jyvy€V. A Wolf Was 
 pursuing a sheep ; but it fled into a temple. 
 
 3. Kol TOV or TOV 8e, as Subject of an Infinitive, and he, hit he : 
 Kcu TOV eiTretv aTid [that^ he said : 
 
 TOV Se ye\ao-ai but \that'\ he laughed. 
 
3i8 SYNTAX. 
 
 574 The chief uses of the Article are the same in Greek as in 
 English and other modern languages : — 
 
 (i) To mark off or distinguish particular individuals : oi tTrra 
 aocjioi the seven wise men. 
 
 (ii) To denote a whole class or species : 8ei tov o-TpaTiwTijv 
 tjiofieitrOai /xaXkov tov a.p-)(OVTa, rj toiis ttoXc/xiovs the 
 soldier ( = soldiers, as a class) ought to fear h is general 
 more than the enemy ; h tiytvijs or ot efiyeveis the nobly 
 born. 
 
 Thus distinguish : — 
 
 TToAAoi many ; ot woAAoi the many, the masses : 
 
 irXeoves a greater number ; ol TrXeoves the greater number, the 
 
 majority : 
 TrXeuTToi very many ; ol TrXeicrToi the chief pari, the great 
 
 majority, most (plerlque), often = ol iroXXot. 
 oXiyoifew; ol oXtyoi the oligarchs: 
 SikXai others (alii) ; oi aXA.01 the rest (ceterl). 
 
 575 Note the following differences of idiom : — 
 
 (1) Greek often uses the Article instead of the Possessive 
 Adjective, when the possessor is clearly shown by the context : 
 
 'Ef cTetvt ■7-^1' x"P«- He stretched out his hand ; French il 
 
 dtendit la main : see too German. 
 K5/D0S KaraTnySijo-ds aTro tov ap/xaTOS Tov 6u>pa.Ka eyihv. Cyrus, 
 leaping from Ms cliariot, put on his breastplate. 
 
 576 (2) The Greek Article may be used distributively, where 
 English generally has the Indefinite Article : 
 
 'ESiSov rpel's SapeiKoiis tov fi-qvo^ to! (TTpaTuorg. He used to 
 give three darics a month to each soldier (singulis 
 mensibus singulis militibus). 
 
 577 (3) Greek has the Article in certain connexions where English 
 has no Article.* 
 
 * In poetry the Article is often omitted where prose usage demands it, 
 according to the following rules. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 319 
 
 (a) With Possessive Adjectives : — 
 
 6 6/40S iraTTip or 6 Trarrip 6 i/jios, my father (cf. § 585). 
 
 (6) With the Demonstrative Adjectives ovtos, oSe, e/ccii/os, and 
 with afjiffxi), ajxt^arepoi, eKdrepos '. — 
 
 ovTOi 6 av6p<iiiroi or o avOpioTro's ovto's, this man.) - „ p.j,„ 
 a.fji,<l>ii} TO) TToXei both cities (or both the cities). j •' ' 8 
 
 Witli exatTTos, tlie Article is not necessary : cKaa-Tov rh %Svos each race, 
 eKdtTTov ETous every year. 
 
 On the Article with irSs and S\os see §§ 588, 589. 
 
 (c) After the Possessive Genitive of the Eelative (ov, 175, Siv) : — 
 Ala-x"v6riT€ Ato, cv ov tiS Up<S etr/iev. Do not dishonour Zeus, 
 
 in whose temple we are. 
 
 (d) With words in apposition to Personal Pronouns : — 
 ■§/i£is 01 °EA\»;ves we Greeks ; eyo) o tXij/acov /, yoor wretch. 
 
 (e) With Cardinal Numbers, when they denote a definite part 
 of a known or previously mentioned whole : — 
 
 TO, tvo fj-cpy] two thirds (i.e. two parts out of the three). 
 Tuiv Tpiripw TpidKOauav overSv tCv TrdtrGv ras SidKocrids 17 
 
 ■n-oXis Trapia-xero. Of the triremes, 300 I'w oM, the city 
 
 provided 200. 
 Also after d,/A^i about • djit^i tovs enrdKoo-iovs, § 455. 
 
 (/) With Abstract Nouns, as in French and German : — 
 ■§ aperri virtue (Fr. la vertu, Germ, die Tugend). 
 yj SiKaiocrwrj justice (Fr. la Justice, Germ, die GerechtigJceit). 
 But aperfj, Sikmoo-vvij, etc., are also used without difference of 
 meaning : ipo^oi fairiiJi,-qv e/cTrX^ero-ei fear drives out memory ; /jlovo-ikt] 
 Kol yvfwaa-riKri music and gymnoMics. 
 
 578 Proper Nouns do not in themselves need the Article : — 
 
 SaKpdriis or S 'SaiKp&TTis, Socrates : SuKparris 6 'A0riva7os Socrates the 
 
 Contrast SuKpiriis 'M-i]vaios Socrates, an Athenian. 
 But when the person is to be marked as well known or previously 
 mentioned, the Article must be added : 6 StoKpaTijj the great Socrates, or ths 
 Socrates of whom we have been talking. 
 579 Names of Countries generally have the Article : — 
 
 Tl 'EWtis Greece, ri 'ATTiKij Attica, ^ Eipdirri Europe, 
 These words were originally Adjectives [sc. yrj i 
 
320 SYNTAX. 
 
 (he river Nile. 
 
 580 Names of Rivers often stand between the Article and the word TroTauSs ; 
 
 but other combinations are found in the historians and geographers : note — 
 
 6 NelXoy iroTaflAs 
 
 d irora/ihs 6 NclAos 
 
 & TForafihs 6 NetAoj Ka\ov^fvos the river called the Nile. 
 
 Similarly rh nijKioi/ tipos Muimi Pelion ; but this form is avoided when 
 the name is of different gender from Spos : hence r) "Ocrcro rh tipos Mount 
 Ossa. 
 
 581 (4) Greek has no Article in certain connexions where English 
 may have (and in some cases must have) the Definite Article : — 
 
 (a) With the Predicate Adjective or Predicate Noun : 
 
 ILdvTuiv <^i\o/x,a6e'o-TaTos ^v Kvpos. Cyrus was the most eager 
 
 to learn of all. 
 IIoi/os cukXbos Trarrip. Toil is the mother of renown. 
 
 See further examples in § 324 * and § 334 ; and exceptions in 
 § 324*2. 
 
 (6) With certain Common Nouns which have become almost 
 equivalent to Proper Nouns : 
 
 jSao-iXevs the Persian king, aa-rv the city of Athens (Iv Sxttu, 
 Engl, in town = in the City, similarly cv aKpotroka on 
 the acropolis), TrpvTavu^ the Prytanes, vrja-ot the islands 
 of the Aegean, ^Xios the sun ; oipavos the heavens and 
 yrj the earth often have uo Article (e.g. iwl yrjs § 456 b, 
 inro yrji § 460 h). 
 
 582 The omission of the Article in certain phrases conveys a 
 peculiar effect, as in English : ovre irarpos ovre firjTpoi c^eiStTai he 
 spares neither father nor mother (contrast neither his father nor his 
 mother) ; similarly iratSes koI yuvaiKts women and children (Germ. 
 Weib und Kind — note the different order of words), a-Tparriyol koI 
 \o)(a.yoi generals and captains, iroXi? koX olKiai city and homes. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 321 
 
 Order of words in connexion with the Article. 
 
 Adjectives used as Attributes of a Noun which has the Article 
 
 either stand between the Article and the Noun (as in English) ; 
 
 ayaOoi avrjp the good man : 
 
 or are placed with a repeated Article after the Noun : 6 a.vr]p 
 
 6 ayaBo's t/ifi good man (lit. the man, the good one) : this 
 
 position makes the Attribute more prominent or emphatic. 
 
 Adjectives which precede or follow the group formed by the 
 
 Noun with its Article, and have no Article of their own, are 
 
 Predicate Adjectives §§ 324, 334) :— 
 
 <^ V , J^flthe man is good or the man as good. 
 
 or o avrjp ayattoij " " 
 
 HoWot ot -Kavovpyoi. Many are the rasnids. 
 'Ep^o/xev TO o-S/Aa Qviyrov. Tlie hody which we have is mortal 
 or We have a inortal hody * : lit. We have the hody 
 mortal. 
 McyaXas ras W7rofr;^£cr€is Troietrat. Great a/re the promises 
 
 which he makes or He makes great promises.* 
 TSi/ o-v/x/jLa^wv avTovofJiiDv -^yovvTo. The allies whom they led 
 
 were independent. 
 Hap' fKovTuiv tS)v (rvp.ixa.)(U>v Ttjv ■^ye/jLovidv IXaySpi'. They 
 received the leadership from willing allies.* 
 The following classes of words, in particular, stand in the 
 Attributive Position : — 
 
 (1) Possessive Adjectives : 
 
 6 e/ios Trarrip or 6 iraTrjp 6 ip-oi my father (§ 577 a). 
 
 (2) The Possessive Genitives of Reflexive and Demonstrative 
 Pronouns : 
 
 6 €/xavTov TaTrjp my own father. 
 o fKCLvcyv irarrip his father. 
 
 (3) The Definitive Adjective avTos when it means same : 
 6 avTO's Trarrjp the same father (idem pater). 
 
 Obs. The Possessive Genitive of Nouns is not strictly bound 
 to the Attributive Position : thus rj tu>v Hepcrcav apxv or 17 apxv 
 tSiv Tlepa-wv the empire of the Persians. 
 
 * This is the idiomatic English, the Adjective being emphatic. 
 
322 SYNTAX. 
 
 586 The following classes of words, in particular, stand in the 
 Predicative Position : — 
 
 (1) The Demonstrative Adjectives oBe, oviros, cKeiras, and afi.<j>(a, 
 a.fi,<f>OTepoi, eKo.Tepo'S, and Ikocttos : 
 
 ovTos 6 Trais this hoy : tw iratSc a/xtfioTipiii both hoys. 
 
 (2) The Possessive Genitives of Personal and Relative Pronouns : 
 
 iranyp /aod my father : 6 irar^p avTov his father, 
 ov TO evpos the breadth of which. 
 
 (3) Partitive Genitives (§ 390) : 
 
 01 ■jrXeio'TOi tGv iroX.eu.Cmv 1 ± j; ±i 
 < , < X - )most of the enemy. 
 
 or T<ov 7ro\efji,La)v ol irKacrroil " 
 
 (4) The Definitive Adjective afiro's when it means self: 
 6 TraTqp avToi or auTos 6 TraTqp the father himself (pater ipse). 
 
 587 The Adjectives aKpo^, jueVos, ea-xa-To?, /uoTOs have Attributive or 
 Predicative Position according to the meaning; cf. §§ 395, 396 : — 
 
 (a) TO a.Kpov opos the high or pointed mountain. 
 rb Spos oiKpov 1 f^ ^ ^^ ^^ mountain. 
 or aKpov TO opos ' 
 kir aKpoiv SaKTuXiav On tiptoe. 
 
 (b) 7] p-la-Yj vrja-os the middle island (between two others) ; 
 ■n vrjo-o^ p-lcrr, [ ^^ ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^_ 
 or ft,(.a-q ri vqcroi i 
 
 (c) f) iirxaTr] vrjcros the island at the end (of a row) ; 
 r, v^o-09 co-xaT^ 1 ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^_ 
 or i(7)(p.Tf] i] 1/170-05) 
 
 (d) o p,6voi utos the only son ; 
 o viios /xovoi ^ ^ \ ,j^ ^^^ alone or only the son. 
 or /lovos o vws ) 
 
 588 
 
 Note especially the positions of Tra<; and oXos. 
 
 (1) When :ras and oXos mean whole, and the Noun has the 
 Article, they stand in a position exactly contrary to what one 
 would expect from the English translation : — 
 
 Predicative Position. Attributive Position. 
 
 ^Scra (or hXr,)f, ^6X,,\ ^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 rj TTOMi Tracra (or oAi^)) " 
 
 Attributive Position. Predicative Position. 
 
 17 Trao-a (or oXt;) ttoXij the city as a whole. 
 
589 
 
 590 
 
 MEANINGS OF FORMS. 323 
 
 Obs. a real difference of meaning is expressed by these difierent 
 positions of ttSs and Skos : thus — 
 
 iras S xp^vos means tJie vihole time (in question) ; 
 & iras xp^yos „ eternity, time as a whole : 
 
 Ai (Tvfipopal, ats Si' ifms ixp'ljcavB' ol &vSpe5 oStoi, triiiTa rhv XP^""" 
 xtpiai yeyeyijPTaif al Se SatpeLoi, ts ayrl ro^Tuv %Ka^ov trap'' tfjuov, 
 Ka! Si) \4\vvTai. The calamities which these men suffered on 
 your account have lasted the whole time {i.e. ever since they 
 were first incurred), but the gifts which they received from you 
 as a recompense have been already abolished : Demosth. in Lept. 
 65 ; cf. 113 {ev airavTi tQ xP^^v)- 
 
 TlpoffiiKei Toivvv Tds <rT^\as rairds Kvpids iav rhv •n^.vra xp^vov. It 
 becomes you therefore to let these pillars he intact for ever ; Ibid. 
 64, cf. 79 (rhv S.iravTa xp^y^it *^^ ^ "'"^ XP^""' = eternity ; 
 Plato, Apol. 31. 
 
 'EKeivats fxoL (paiyerai, fiffirep ra rod Trpotr^irou f/.6pia ex^t irphs rh '6Kov 
 irpiaamov. In the farmer way, I think, as the parts of the face 
 stand to the face as a whole : Plato, Protag. 329 e. 
 
 (2) In other uses of n-Ss and 0A.0S the order of words is for the 
 most part the same as in English : — 
 
 irSo-at a[ TrdXcis j^^^ ^j^ ^■^■^^ ujig cities all). 
 or ai iroAeis Trao-aiJ 
 
 TTtto-ai TroA,eis all cities ; or whole cities (= oAai TrdAets). 
 
 ^Sora ,ro'X« ^ ^^ 
 
 or TToAts Traa-al " 
 
 iv iraa-ri avapx^a. t,rjv to live in utter anarchy. 
 
 irav Kpa.TO's complete ( = sovereign) power. 
 
 eKarov oTrXirai 01 iravTes a hundred hoplites in all. 
 
 Any part of speech, or even a whole sentence, may be made 
 equivalent to a Noun by prefixing the Article : — 
 
 TO ayadov the Oood : ol iraXat the men of old : 
 TO a-lyav silence (§§ 536-538). 
 
 TO ToC /^rifioo-Oevovs the well-hnown saying of Demosthenes 
 (illud Demosthenis). 
 
 TO, oiKoi the position of affairs at home. 
 
 To yi/S^i o-auTov •n-ao-tv eo-Ti xPW'-f'°^- ^^ saying 'JmOlU 
 
 thyself is good for all, 
 
324 SYNTAX. 
 
 ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 {A) The Negatives. 
 
 591 Brief Summary of Uses. — The Negatives oi and fi-q corres- 
 pond for the most part in meaning and use to the Latin non and 
 ne respectiYoly. Wherever n? is necessary in Latin, fi-q is necessary 
 in Greek ; but ;u,^ is also used in many cases where Latin uses non. 
 
 Ov denies, /u.-^ debars ; oi simpliciter negantis est, fii^ nolentis. 
 Thus oi is the Negative of Fact-speech (including questions as to 
 a matter of fact) ; /utJ is the Negative of Will-speech (including 
 Deliberative Questions). 
 
 592 Note too the following practical rule : 
 M17 stands — 
 
 (1 ) in all //-clauses and ^j;er-clauses : 
 
 (2) with the Subjunctive, except when dependent on /i^ lest : 
 
 (3) always with the Imperative : 
 
 (4) with the Optative, except when it has av or is Indirect 
 (§ 504 e) or depends on /a'^ lest : 
 
 (5) with the Infinitive, except in dependence on verbs of 
 saying and thinking (§ 368 a, with Obs. 2) : 
 
 (6) frequently with Participles, especially when they have 
 conditional or general meaning (§ 546). 
 
 Obs. 1. Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs may also be negatived by ii.it 
 under the same circumstances as Participles : i fi.ii idrpis anyone who is not 
 a physician (Plato, Oorg. 459 b), ra /ij) ayttSd whatever is not good {Ibid. 468 0), 
 /li) Ka8ap6s one who is Twt pure {Phaedo, 67 b). 
 
 Obs. 2. Ou is sometimes substituted for /lii when only a single word is 
 negatived : e? tis ovk eiK6Ta>s opyiferai if anyone is angry loithout reason (cf. 
 1 above). 
 
 Combinations of like NegatiYes. — 
 
 593 Two or more Negatives of the same kind strengthen one 
 another when the last is compound ; they destroy one another 
 when the last is simple : — 
 
 ouK epei ouScts oihh/ no one will say anything : 
 oiSeis toBto ovk Ipu eceryone will say this 
 
 {no one will fail to say this). 
 In the first case one or more of the Negatives is superfluous : 
 in the second case each Negative has its proper force. 
 
 Ilepicrcra wpauauv oin i)(tL vovv ovhiva. To he O'Oer-husy 
 
 hath no wisdom. Soph. Ant. 68. 
 Ov8cis OVK aTroBavilTOLL. Nemo non morietur. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 325 
 
 Combinations of unlike Negatives. — 
 
 594 M-^ ov stands — 
 
 (i) with the Subjunctive or Optative, depending on verbs of 
 fearing, § 368 f ; here each Negative preserves its proper meaning 
 ( = ne non or ut) : 
 
 ^o/SovfiLat iJLT] ovK (XOy. I fear lest he may not come. 
 
 595 (2) with the Infinitive : 
 
 (a) depending on negatived verbs of negative meaning (§§ 368 b, 
 369 c) ; here both Negatives are untranslatable : 
 
 OiScts irMTTore dvTeiTre /x.17 oi koXSis ?X*"' ''"o^* vofi.ov'S. No 
 one has ever disputed that the laws are good : Demosth. 
 adv. Timocr. 24. 
 OvK eSwaro dvT€;;^€iv /t^ ov y^apitficrOai. He COuld not resist 
 granting the favour : Xen. Cyr. i. i, 2. 
 
 (&) depending on expressions meaning it is not possible, it is 
 not right, a,nd the like : 
 
 aSvvaTov ecrrt, ov SvvafJLai, ov^ oios re ei/it, 
 
 ov 7rpo<TrjKii, ov)( bawv icrn, 
 
 o.l<T)(p6v, Setvov, aL(T)(yvri, avoia icrn : 
 here the ixrj preserves its proper meaning (not), but the oi is 
 untranslatable : 
 
 'ASvvarov iari fwi i^rj ov TriaTeveiv. I cannot help believing 
 
 (It is impossible for me not to believe) ; facere non 
 
 possum quln credam : cf. Thuo. viii. 60, 1. 
 
 OvSeis Olds re icrnv aXX.ui's Xeytov /jlt] ov koi ay iKatno^ elvai. 
 
 JVo one who says otherwise can fail to be ridiculous : 
 
 Plato, Gorg. 509 a. 
 Ovv oaiov crot eo-Tt /j-rj ov ^orjOeiv SiKaiocrvvr/ irarri t/dotto). 
 
 Jt is not right for you not to come to the rescue of 
 
 Justice by every means in your power : Plato, Bepub. 
 
 427 e ; cf. Herod, vii. 5 ; viii. 126. 
 Tlaatv al(rxvvv ^v (i)] oil (rvtr-jrovSci^eit/. All felt sh^me not to join in 
 
 zealously : Xen. Anab. ii. 3, 11. Here it was a shame implies 
 
 it was not right : siiailarly fia\6aKov av5p6s ifrri in Plato, 
 
 P?iaed. 85 0. 
 595* (3) With the Participle, depending on negatived verts: 
 
 Ou yctp Uv fiaKpaf | fi^yeuov avrSs, fiij oi/x ^Xt^v ri (xifi^oXov. For I 
 
 could not have tracked it far by myself, not having (= wtiless I 
 
 had had, § 646) some clue : Soph. 0. T. 221, cf. 13, 0. C. 360. 
 
326 SYNTAX. 
 
 596 Another use of /»j) 06 arises as follows : — 
 
 M^ with the Subjunctive sometimes amounts to an expression of 
 cautious affirmation ; this idiom is common in Plato : — 
 
 Mil a/poLK6Tepiiv rj rh a\ri6fs eiVeiK. I am afraid that (or I rather 
 think that) it may be too rude to tell the truth : Plato, Gorg. 462 c. 
 These sentences or some part of them may be negatived by ov : 
 
 'AWA fiii ovx oBtwi exPi ^ Sdicpares. But I rather think that it is 
 
 not so, Socrates : Plato, Crat. 436 b ; cf. Apol. 39 a. 
 MJ) oJk p SiSaxrhv aptT^. Virtue is perhaps not a thing which can he 
 taught : Plato, Meno, 94 e. 
 
 597 0" M witli the Subjunctive (generally Aorist) or the Future 
 Indicative forms a negative future equivalent * : — 
 
 Ov Ti i/,rj \rj(j>6S) Sokw. I shall not he caught by trickery : 
 
 Aesoh. Sept. 38. 
 Ov fir] mOriTai. He will neoer listen : Soph. Phil. 103 ; cf. 418. 
 Ov (TOL firj fieOaj/oixai irore. I mil never follow thee : Soph, 
 
 M. 1052. 
 Ou 1X.17 ttot' €v irpdia ;rd\is. The state will never prober : 
 
 Eur. Phoen. 1590. 
 
 In the 2nd Person these expressions (especially ov i^-q with the 
 Future Indicative) generally assume the meaning of a Prohibition; 
 cf § 479 :— 
 
 Ov iirj Siarpu/fcis. Don't dawdle : Aristoph. Frogs, 462, cf. 
 
 Wasps, 397. 
 Ov ixji) kripriir(i<i. Don't talk nonsense : Aristoph.' Clouds, 367 
 (MSS), cf. Ibid. 296. 
 
 598 1. In instances like the following the 2nd Person expresses mere denial, 
 like the 1st and 3rd Persons above : — 
 
 Ou fiii oT6s T' ^s aiiKo^ai/Tfiv. You will not be able to play the 
 
 sycophant : Plato, Bepub. 341 b. 
 Toi>s rovripoiis ov jiii ttote fif\Tiovs iroi^ireTE. You will never make 
 
 the wicked better : Aeschines, iii. 177. 
 
 2. In instances like the following the 2nd and 3rd Persons express a 
 threat or promise : — 
 
 06 Iii) ^vrn-re. You shall not escape : Eur. Eec. 1039 ; cf. Soph. 
 
 Phil. 381. 
 Ov /I'll iroTf o-e . . . SkoptJl rts S|Ei. Never shall anyone take tliee 
 away again.it thy will : Soph. 0. C. 176. 
 
 On the origin of this construction see Appendix II. (§ 597). 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 327 
 
 (5) The Adverb Sr. 
 
 599 Summary of Uses. — The Adverb av has two principal uses 
 
 in Attic Greek : — 
 
 (1) With the Optative or Past Tenses of the Indicative, and 
 with the Infinitive or Participle, denoting — 
 
 (a) what would be or would have been (Conditional, § 355, 
 
 § 357 c, Obs. 2) : 
 
 (b) what could be or could have been (Potential, § 340). 
 
 (2) Accompanying the Subjunctive and attached to a Eelative 
 or Subordinating Conjunction, in ^wer-clauses and Prospective 
 Clauses; § 347.2 (Temporal), § 348 (Local), § 354.1 c and § 354* 
 (Conditional), § 359.1 (Comparative), § 364.1 (Eelative). 
 
 The other uses of &v are : — 
 
 (3) Iterative, with Past Tenses of the Indicative ; § 339*- 
 
 (4) Attached to Svas or Ss with the Subjunctive in Pinal Glauses and 
 Noun Clauses (probably of prospective origin) : § 350, Obs. 1 ; § 369 a., 
 Obs. 3 ; § 502*. 
 
 On the omission of &v in some of the above oases, see § 502 and § 510. 
 
 Obs. 1. 'Av generally stands in an unemphatic position in the sentence ; 
 it is either placed after the Verb, or attaches itself closely to some Pronoun 
 or Adverb or Negative or Subordinating Oonjunotion ; cf. § 533. 5. 
 
 Obs. 2. "Av is sometimes doubled, filling up two unemphatic positions 
 in the sentence ; — 
 
 Uws Uy ovK tiv jreto-xoi/tej/j How should we not suffer? 
 
 (0) Other Adverbs and Conjunctions. 
 
 13" This section is supplementary to § 314 (including Observations 1 
 and 2). Only the most prominent meanings are given ; details must be 
 sought in the dictionary. — The words with a dash before them cannot 
 stand at the beginning of a sentence ; they may be called postpositive ; 
 those which are also enclitics have encl. after them. — ^Por Interrogative 
 Particles see § 344 0. 
 
 600 1- «^^- (i) &M!f (sed, at, § 314) ; 
 
 oAAa ... ye yet at any rate (at tamen), the ye 
 being sometimes omitted ; dAXo, vvv ye or dXAa 
 vvv now at any rate. 
 aW y] after Negatives, except. 
 (ii) well then, in appeals and replies. 
 
328 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. aAAws Tc Kai especially ( = both in other ways and). 
 
 3. a/Aa /lev . . . a/ia 8e' ai owce . . . and ; partly . . . partly. 
 
 4. — apa accordingly, then. 
 
 £1 apa if perchance ; if after all: § 357 a. 3. 
 
 5. — av on the other hand ; again ; on his part. 
 
 6. — yap {i)for (nam, enim, § 314); introducing an explana- 
 
 tion, namely. 
 
 (ii) indeed : 
 
 aX\a. yap hut indeed, hut look yov, hut mark me 
 (sed enim, at enim), dXA,' ov yap io-n Tajx^avq 
 KpvTTTeiv but indeed it is impossible to conceal 
 what is manifest, Soph. 0. 0. 755 ; or bnt 
 since (the yap introducing a parenthetical 
 clause). 
 
 Kal yap and indeed (etenim) ; or, the yap may 
 mean for and the xai also or both. 
 
 (iii) Tt's yap ; = quisnam ? 
 
 et yap = utinam : § 342, Obs. 2. 
 
 fl yap introducing questions : § 344 c. 
 
 7. — ye (end.) at least, at any rate ; eywyc / for my part 
 
 (equidem), os ye = qui quidem or quippe qui : § 364.2 a. 
 
 8. — yovv (from ye ovv) at least, at any rate (certe). 
 
 9. — 8e (i) hid (autem, § 314), weaker than dAAa : 
 
 (ii) and. 
 
 But not is always oXX' oi or ov p-ivroi (not ov Si). 
 
 10. — S'^ now (jam) ; indeed; accordingly : 
 aye 8jy come now ! 
 
 yueyioTos 8»j the greatest indeed, far the greatest : 
 ei S^ if really : 
 
 Ipiird ■ epayrS) ^. Put the question. Well, I put it. 
 /cat 8^ (i) see : koI Srj pi^riKa. See, I am gone. 
 
 (ii) suppose : koa, 8^ re^vao-tv. Suppose them dead. 
 
 11. — S^^ev marking something as only apparent or pretended; 
 
 indeed, forsooth (scilicet). 
 
 12. — SrJTTov I suppose, probably, often ironical. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 329 
 
 13. — 8^Ta assuredly, indeed. : 
 
 oil SrJTa certainly not, n S^ra ; what then i 
 
 14. y) (i) verily, often with \x,r]v : (ii) = apa, § 344 c. 
 
 15. Koi (i) and, § 314 ; (ii) also or even, with Comparatives still : 
 
 (iii) as [^= atque) after expressions of likeness ; o/iotcos 
 Koi = aeque ac ; 6 avro^ koL iyu) the same as I. 
 Kol . . . Se and . . . too, and- moreover : here the Se 
 
 connects and the kol belongs to the intervening 
 
 word or words. 
 Ktti ^r) KoL and in particular also, and what is more. 
 
 16. KaiToi and yet (atqui). 
 
 17. jua asseverative, with the Accusative (c/. ofo/vfjn Oeovi, 
 
 § 376) : fjM Tovs Oeov^ by the gods ; vat //.a Ata yes, by 
 Zeus ; oi fxa ^la no, by Zeus. 
 
 18. — ju.ei', a weaker form of (jJiv : 
 
 (i) corresponding to Se, § 314 ; sometimes without any 
 Se, in which case it merely emphasizes the 
 word before it. 
 
 (ii) asseverative, with ^-q and ovv (No. 26). 
 
 19. — /j.ei'Toi (i) however, yet (tamen) ; (ii) of course. 
 
 ov fjievTOL oiXXa. but after all, but notioithstanding (verum 
 tamen) ; see ov i^rp/ dAAa, No. 21, ii. 
 
 20. ,x-fi (i) not, §§ 591-598 : 
 
 (ii) lest, § 368 f (poetical in Adverb Clauses of Purpose, 
 § 346 d, § 350) : 
 
 (iii) interrogative ( = num), § 344 c. 
 
 /ii) 3ti and /ij) Siras not only ■ /ai) '6ti 0ehs aX\A ko! &vBpamoi not 
 only God lyui also men (non modo . . . sed etiam) ; Sxpijo'Toi 
 yap yvvau^l, /i^ 8ti wSpdcri they a/re unsuitable to women, 
 to say nothing of men (ne dioam viris). These construc- 
 tions arise from an ellipsis ( = ^^ eJWai '6ti or p.^ ^irris 
 Uti not to say). When a Negative follows, the /j.^ Sn or 
 fiil Svas seems (but is not really) = not only not : /ai) Snus 
 opxe^ffdat iv ^v6fi^, aW* ou5* opBovffBai ^S^i/affde you were 
 unable not only to dance i» m^easure, but even to stand erect 
 (non modo saltare sed ne stare quidem poteratis) : Xen. 
 Cyr. i. 3, 10 ; cf. vii. 2, 17. 
 
 8ti /t^ (more correctly 3 rt nij) except ; = el ju^ (nisi). 
 22 
 
33° SYNTAX. 
 
 21. — fiT^v (i) verily (ver5, enimveno) : 
 
 ^ fffivfull surdy, in protestations and oaths {ef. 
 U): 
 
 KOI /x^v and behold, and lo, why look you, calling 
 attention to something new,' as the entrance 
 of a person on the stage, or a new point in 
 an argument : koI /jltjv avaf oSc and lo here 
 is the prince (Soph. 0. C. 549 ; without koS., 
 Ant. 626). 
 
 dXXa 11,-riv yet truly (verum enimvero, at vero). 
 
 T» ixr/v ; quid ver5 ? 
 
 (ii) adversative, yet ( = /levroi, tamen) especially 
 after a negative : ovSev nrfv Ku>\ia yet 
 nothing prevents. 
 
 ov fii/v dWd but after all, but notwithstanding 
 (verum tamen), elliptic : 6 'ttitos /UKpov 
 exavov c^cTpa^^Xicrev, ou /iijv aXXa hrefieivev 
 o Kripos the horse almost threw him over its 
 head, but notwithstandtTig Gyrus k^t his 
 seat (= oi iJi.rjv i$erpa)(iqX.ur€y, aXXd, etc.). 
 
 22. rq asseverative, with the Accusative (cf. o/ivti/ii deoxk, 
 
 § 376) : v^ Ata or v^ tov Ata by Zeus, yes, by Zeus ; 
 ef. itA, No. 17. 
 
 23. — vvv (end.) accordingly, then (igitur). 
 
 24. oi (i) not, § 591 ; (ii) no (accented oil, § 344 c). 
 
 ou ii.6vov . . . aXka Koi not only . . . but also (non solum 
 
 . . sed etiam). 
 /Aovov oi and otrov oi all but, lit. oiily not (tantum n5n). 
 
 tux 3ti and ovx Sttois not only (= ouk ipa Sti I ivill not say ; ef. n^ 
 8ti, No. 20) : vdvres dfioSirii' ovx ^^"^ taoi, h,Wh, ko! iroK\i 
 wpSiTos i«airT»s etvai they all claim to be not only equal but even 
 distinctly the first in every instance ; Thuo. viii. 89, i : 
 
 xph ritv fi^ rvx^J'ra yy{&fn]S ovx '^^^ Qripnovv kWh. /nji* aTifjti^ftv it 
 is improper not only to punish the man that does not carry his 
 point, hut even to disdain him ; oi one ought not even to disdain, 
 much less to punish, etc. ; Thuc. ill. 42, 5. Ovx ^ri sometimes 
 = tluiugh ; Plato, Protag. 336 d, Gorg. 460 a. 
 
MEANINGS OF FORMS. 331 
 
 25. ov8e and /tijSe (related to one another as oi to fjirj) : 
 
 (i) WW = and not (neque, neve, § 314), only after ^ 
 Negative in prose ; oi toCto o-68' Ikclvo not this 
 nor yet that : after an affirmative and not is 
 expressed by koX oi or Koi fx-q in prose. 
 
 (ii) not even (ne . . . quidem) : 
 
 ovh' aJs and /xij8' uls n,ot even so (<Ss accented is a 
 
 Demonstrative Adverb). 
 ov8' el and /xijS' el not even if (ne si . . . quidem), 
 
 § 358, Obs. 2. 
 oiSe . . . ov8e «of ew«« . . . nor yet. 
 
 26. — ovv (i) therefore, accordingly (igitur). 
 (ii) at all events or in point of fact : 
 
 aXX' ovv or dXV o5v . . . 7€ well at all events. 
 
 8' ovv be that as it may, used in discussing a 
 subject. 
 
 £1 8' ovv but if indeed, but if in point of fact. 
 
 In alternatives ow lends emphasis : etre . . . elre 
 oJv whether . . . or indeed, etre ovv . . . 
 elre whether indeed . . . or, oike . . . ovre 
 ovv neither . . . nor yet. 
 
 liev ovv in replies, either expressing assent (jraw 
 /*£!/ ovv yes by all means) or correcting a 
 statement, nay rather (immo vero). 
 
 -ovv added to a Belative converts it into an Indefinite 
 (i. e. non-relative, § 569) ; Sa-ris whoever, anyone 
 who, 6a-n(rovv anyone ; Hiras as, Snaa-ovv in any way, 
 to any extent, no matter how : compare Latin 
 guicumqiu as distinct from quilibet ; ut as distinct 
 from qiuilihet ratione '. this distinction is often 
 misunderstood. Thus koI SnoSv = even the least, 
 QvS' dwucovv not even in the least degree. 
 
332 SYNTAX. 
 
 27. ovKovv tlierefore, acxordirujly (an emphatic ow, the negative 
 
 sense having disappeared) : in Questions = then not 
 (nonne igitur) ; but here some editors write ovk ovv 
 or o^Kow (No. 28); e.g. Soph. El. 795, Phil. 1270: 
 OVKOVV (or ovKo\yv) evecTTi /cat fuTayvSivancaKa/ ; is there, 
 then, no room for repentance ? 
 
 28. ovKovv not then, so Twt (an emphatic ovk), in Statements 
 
 and Questions. 
 
 29. ovre . . . ouT€ and //.ijTe . . . /ATjre neither . . . nor, § 314. 
 ouTc . . . Tt on the one hand not . . . but, or not only not 
 
 . . . but (neque . . . et). 
 ovT€ . . . ov (chiefly poetical) = oure . . . cnirt. 
 ovre . . . ouSe neither . . . nor yet. 
 
 30. — irep (end., derived from the epic irepi = v&ry rmich), in 
 
 Attic prose only joined to Relatives and Subordinating 
 Conjunctions and to koi: oo-Trep the very one who (§ 564), 
 wcnrep just OS, in the very way in which, oTe-n-ep or ore 
 ■n-ep just when, lirdirep or eireiSi^Trep = quandoquidem, 
 £i7r£/D = si quidem, Kaurcp although (§ 358, Obs. 1, 
 § 547 d). 
 
 31. ttXt^v (i) Adverb used as Preposition, except, save (§ 402) : 
 
 OVK ecTTiv ocTTis ttX'^i' i/jLOv KiipaiTO vLv there is 
 none save me who could cut it (Aesch. Choeph. 
 172) : 
 (ii) Conjunction, unless, only, but (nisi) : ovk la-riv 
 aWos irXrjv eyto there is no other unless it be I 
 (nisi ego) ; wXrjv ev p,6vov SiSoiKa but there is 
 one thing and only one that I fear (here irXrjv 
 almost = aXkd : Aristoph. Plut. 199, cf. 106 : 
 so sometimes Latin nisi). 
 
 32. — TTO) (end.) yet, mostly with Negatives : oviria not i/e/ 
 
 (nondum) ; contrast owkcti no longer (non jam). 
 
 33. — TOt (end.) in truth, often joined with other Adverbs or 
 
 Conjunctions (see Nos. 16 and 19). 
 Totyapow, Toiydproi (and in verse roiydp) wherefore, or that 
 
 is the reason why. 
 — ToCwv accordingly (a strengthened vvv, No. 23). 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 Prepositions in Composition. 
 
 afi^i- (i) arornid: i/iptPaWuv to throw around. 
 
 (ii) 071 both sides: d/iipiyvoeiv to doubt {to be divided in mind), ct/i^iKkyeiv 
 to wrmigle {to speak on both sides). 
 
 iva- (i) up: ava^aivuv to go up, avayiaBai to put out to sea (opposed to 
 Karayiodai to sail to la/nd), ava9opv^uv to raise a clamour. 
 (ii) back: avayykXKuv to bring back word, dvafujivijaKav to remind, 
 
 dvaxapiiv to retreat. 
 (iii) again: avadappuv to take hea/rt again, avaweiv to breathe again. 
 
 avTi- (i) instead: avBmpuaBai to choose instead, avrididovai to give in return. 
 (ii) agamst: avnXiyuv to speak against, ivOiaraaOai to oppose. 
 
 awo- (i) away, from, off: aviivai to go away, aijuardvai to cause to revolt, 
 aTroTa\U^uv to wall off. 
 (ii) of what is due (=Lat. re-) : cmavriiv to ask what is due (reposcere), 
 cLTToSiSovai to give what is due (reddere"), d^offiovtrOai to acquit 
 oneself of an obligation; benoe dirorpix^iv to take a spin (of one 
 training for a race). 
 
 iia- (i) through, across, to the end : iia^aivav to go through or across, 
 Sia/iivuv to remain to the end, dia^9upuv to destroy utterly. 
 (ii) aswnder; SiaKovTHV to cut in two, dtapspuv to differ. 
 (iii) severally: Siadidovai to distribute, dtarduativ to dispose in order. 
 
 £i(T- into: uadyuv to lead in, to introduce, ua<pBpiiv to bring in, to con- 
 
 tribute. 
 
 Ik- (i) out: e«:/3oXXeiv to cast out, iKKaXv'nreiv to uncover, to unveil. 
 (ii) out and out, thoroughly: iioTrXlZeaBai to arm oneself fully. 
 
 iv (i) in: IvotKuv to dwell in, i) lj'E5pa=iu-sidiae. 
 
 (ii) iMto: i/xPaWuv to cast into (injicere), hrvyxdviiv to fall in with, to 
 light upon (incidere). 
 
 iTTL- (i) upon: Itruvai to be wpon, im^dWhiv to cast upon. 
 
 (ii) in addition: emSidovai to give im addition, sTrdytiv to import. 
 (iii) after: lnaKo\ovdv.v, i^'smaBai, to follow close after. 
 (iv) against: kTrwrpanmiv to march against. 
 
334 APPENDIX t. 
 
 ara- (i) dovm: KaTa^atvuv to go down, KaraarpkipiaQai to siihcbit. 
 (ii) hack; Kardyav to bring bacJe, KaroKdiruv, to leave behind. 
 (iii) adversely : KarayiyvwoKuv, KaraliKdl^civ, to condemn, KaraysXiv to 
 
 laugh to scorn, Karaifipovtlv to despise. 
 (iv) completely : KaravaXiaKeiv to lise up, KareaBiuv to eat wp. 
 
 fiera- (i) denoting change : fiera^aivuv to pass over from one thing to another) 
 fiiTavoiiv to change one's view. 
 (ii) denoting participation : utrixiiv to have a share, nEraSiSdvai to give a 
 share. 
 
 ■Kapa- (i) alongside: nrapiivaito be alongside, irapikvai to go alongside, 
 (ii) past : irapeXavvtiv to drive past. 
 (iii) aside, amiss; napafiaivuv, to transgress. 
 
 ■nipi- (i) aroimd; mpiPdWciv to cast around. 
 
 (ii) very, exceedingly { = La.t. per-) : irepl^o^oq full of fear. 
 (iii) over; inpiyiyviuBai to overcome or swrvive (snperesse), TTtpmpav to 
 overlooh (ciroumspicere), hence to permit, to suffer. 
 
 ,rpo- (i) forward, irpodyav to lead forward. 
 
 (ii) beforehand: irpoaiaSdvidBai to perceive beforehand. 
 (iii) in preference; irpoaipEiaBai to choose in preference (malle). 
 
 Trpoff- (i) to: TrpoaiKavvav to drive to. 
 
 (ii) in addition: ■Kpoaairiiv to ask i/n addition. 
 
 aw (i) together: avyKoKtlv to call together, avWkyuv to collect. 
 (ii) with : mjfivoptvtaBai to march in company with. 
 
 iiTTtp- (i) over, above: vinp^aivuv to step over, turepEXw transitive to hold aiove, 
 intransitive to tower above. 
 (ii) exceedingly: i7repw4.i)Xoc exceedingly high. 
 
 inro- (i) under: ijiroxiiaOai to lie wader, vttoSiXv to underbvnd (the feet), to 
 shoe. 
 (ii) behind; vTroXdiniv to leave behind. 
 
 (iii) gradually: inrdyeiv to lead on by degrees, inrkpxsaeai, to steal over. 
 (iv) secretly, craftily: inominrtiv to send secretly, itpap-Kdltiv, to filch 
 away (suiiipere). 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 NOTBS AND AUTHOKITIE* ON StNTAX.* 
 
 §§ SOI — 806. The terms Subject and Predicate, like the terms Object »nd 
 Transitive, can only be defined in relation to each other; see English Grammar, 
 Part II. § 3. The Finite Verb is not an essential part of the Predicate; see 
 Roby, Preface to Latin Grammar, p. xxii., and Paul, Principles of Language, 
 cb. vi. (translated by Strong), who calls the doctrine that every sentence must 
 'leoessarily contain a finite verb "a widely -spread error," and quotes sentences like 
 aummum jitt tumrna injuria; add sentences like centum aliae (Virgil, ^n. i. 705), 
 'there were a hundred others.' 
 
 § 316. 3. ^Ei^Ei, time mil show; Aristoph. Wasps, 989, Frogs, 1261. More 
 commonly, aiirb Seiiu or SdSu airo, the event will show. 
 
 § 316 Ity. PpaSvvETai, Soph. O.C. 1628 (note of Jebb) ; ci. avyyiyvdaKirai 
 y,oi.=ignoscitur mihi, Xen. Cyr. vii. 1. H; emj3ov\aiia9ai, Hell. Tii. 4. 5. 
 
 § 327. Jebb on Sophocles, Phil. 956 f. : avrbg rdXaQ Gavdiv vnpi^in laXff inp' 
 Civ ijupPojitiv, I myself, wretched one, shall make a feast for those by whom I 
 was fed, i.e. birds and beasts. " Here Philoctetes is poetically saying that he had 
 forced the beasts to become his rpoijiuQ — as he will now be theirs ; and so utto is 
 right." The rule generally given that the personal agent is expressed by ijro with 
 the Gen. is shown by such instances to be too narrow; of. Aristoph. Clouds, 170 : 
 yviijiriv ncydXriv d^jplSij iff' iaKaXa^uTov {ty a lizard) ; Aristotle, H.A. ii. 
 13. 3 : 6 SiKipic dijXd^Erat vvb t&v rkKvinv (is titckled by its yomg) : so too in 
 Latin. 
 
 § 330, Obs. 3. The rarity of /liWo) with the Aorist Infinitive in Comedy is 
 proved by Kutherford in his New Phrynichus, pp. 420 — 425. Phrynichns called 
 the construction iaxdrug /3(ip/3apof, In the Attic inscriptions there is not a 
 single instance of it, whereas there are three instances of the Future Infin. and 
 one of the Present Infin. after /isWio : see Meisterhans, Oram, der att. Inschriften, 
 § 86. 7. The only exceptions in Comedy are Aristoph. Birds, 366, Ach. 1159, 
 Jjys. 117 (Aor. Infin.); compare Asch. Pram. 625 : iiijToi jk KpiiinjQ tov9' ottep 
 fikWiit iraduv. Soph. 0. T. 967 (Kravsiv, MSS., kteveiv, Rutherford and Jebb). Of 
 the Present Infin. there are thirty-five instances in Comedy, of the Future Infin. 
 only twelve; but in Sophocles the two are equally balanced, there being nine 
 instances of each. 
 
 § 332. The first of the two constructions mentioned (Direct Object becoming 
 the Subject of the Passive) has been unduly ignored by many grammarians, as a 
 
 * In this Appendix (designed for the use of teachers) quantities are not marked. 
 
336 APPENDIX 11. 
 
 glance at the dictionary will show : cf. Kruger, Oriech. Sprachl. § 62. 5, 1, 2, 
 and on Xen. Anah. i. 1. 6 ; Thao. v. 31. 3 : Jimjc AaKtSai/iovioiQ tntTpawslmie, 
 vi. ^': arparnyif wpoar^Tayftkvoi, Msch. Eum. 208 : dW ianv ri/uv tovto 
 irpoaTETayiiivov, &c. For the second construction (Indirect Object becoming 
 Subject) see Thuc. I. 140. 6: aWo n fiilKov iiriTaxOrjinTe, i. 126. 6: oi 
 ivirerpafiiievoi rrjv ^vXaidiv, &c. Kriiger's statements, § 52. i. 2 and 5, should 
 be read in the light of his note on Thuc. v. 37. 1, Tavra IvtaraXnevot : he seems 
 not to have drawn a sufficient distinction between verbs which take a Dative by 
 itself and verbs which take Aco. and Dat. 
 
 § 3il b. The rule ordinarily given as to the use of the Imperative and Sub- 
 junctive in Prohibitions is confirmed for the Orators by Mr. C. W. E. 'Miller in 
 the American Journal of Philology, Vol. XIII. No. 4 (see esp. p. 425). Kaegi's 
 rule, which reverses the position of the Aoiist Imperative and the Aorist Sub- 
 junctive in the 3rd Peison, seems to be in error. The Aorist Imperative in the 
 2nd Person (like firj tpevaov, w Xev, Aristoph. Thesm. 870, &o.) is very abnormal, 
 and is therefore excluded from the Rule and Observations on p. 181. 
 
 § 342, Obs. 2. The view here expressed is as old as the time of Aristarcbus 
 (Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, § 723), and is supported in modern times by Goodwin 
 (cf. his Appendix, p. 381) and Monro (Homeric Grammar, § 321); where see 
 authorities for a different theory. 
 
 § 344 b, Obs. 2. On Optatives in Independent Questions (regarded by seme as 
 Deliberative), see § 510, with the note on p. 293 ; also the remarks below (p. 343). 
 
 § 345 and § 370 a. 2. The recognition of the Exclamation and the Dependent 
 Exclamation as separate kinds of Sentence and Clause (a new feature of the 
 Parallel Grammar Series) is rendered specially necessary in Greek, because here 
 the Exclamatory Sentences and Clauses are introduced by a special set of words 
 (we, olof, 'oaoe, &c.), different from the Interrogatives, mig, 'oirtug, irolos, OTTOioe, 
 iroffoc, bv6ffOQ, &c. Hitherto grammarians have been content to regard a sen- 
 tence like ola irdaoiiai Kara as a kind of Statement; but they fall into difficulties 
 and inconsistencies when they come to the dependent form, e.g. ivvor)dkvTiQ old rt 
 Triaxovtriv iiro tiov 'Aaavpimv, Ka'i 'on vvv TiQvait] o apxiov avTwv (Xen. Ci/r. 
 IV. 2. 3). Such clauses are generally called either Dependent QaestioTis or Sela- 
 tive Clauses; they cannot be called, as consistency would demand, Dependent 
 Statements. But, apart from consistency, there are objections to treating these 
 clauses as interrogative or relative, (i) They are not interrogative in meaning, 
 even if it be conceded that words like oloc, Sffog and wc may sometimes introduce 
 Dependent Questions (see p. 229, Obs. 2) : cf. in Latin vides ut alia stet nive 
 candidwm Soracte, where the ut means how/ not how! The corresponding inde- 
 pendent sentence would be ut alta stat nive candidum Soracte, ' how Soracte rises 
 glistening with deep snow!' an exclamation: for tie mood in the dependent form 
 see Latin Grammar, § 370, Eule 2. (ii) If the corresponding clauses in Greek be 
 called Relative, how are we to account for the Optative which appears in some 
 instances? e.g. iTiKXaiov . . . rfiv i/tavrov rvxqv, o'iov dvSpbg iraipov iarcpiinivog 
 etr]v : Plato, Phcedo, 117c, 'I bewailed my fate at the thought what a companion 
 I had lost;' cf. other instances quoted below (on § 370b). The Optative clearly 
 
APPENDIX II. 337 
 
 marks the clause as Indirect, and would not come under any rule for the construc- 
 tion of Relative or Causal Clauses. 
 
 The whole difficulty is disposed of by giving the Exclamation its due place in 
 the Simple and the Complex Sentence : the Exclamation has as much raison d'etre 
 in grammar as the Question, though of course it is not always easy to draw the 
 line in particular instances between interrogative and exclamatory clauses. 
 
 §§ 347 — 365. The classification of Adverb and Adjective Clauses here adopted 
 corresponds to the facts, as they come within the experience of the schoolboy. It 
 is true, of course, as Goodwin shows, that Relative and Temporal Clauses admit 
 of the same constructions as Conditional Clauses ; but the constructions treated in 
 § 335 are comparatively rare in sentences containing Relative and Temporal 
 Clauses, and are therefore relegated to small print (§ 365). In Fart II. of the 
 Syntax (§§ 504, 505), where practical considerations are less prominent, the similar 
 constructions are ranged side by side. 
 
 The use of the term 'conditional' in Goodwin and many German Grammars 
 seems open to grave objections. To call a sentence like when I come, I will tell 
 you a " Conditional Sentence " is surely to perplex the learner. The wAem-clause 
 is not an i/-olause, even though the constructions are the same. If <* common 
 name be needed to embrace these as species of the same genus, it seems better to 
 use some entirely, different term, like Delbriiok's prius. 
 
 On the term 'Prospective' (here and in §§ 348, 359, 364, &c.), see an article by 
 the author in the Classical Review, Vol. VII. 1893, pp. 7 — 11 (where correct two 
 misprints: p. 9, col. 1, line 41, ergo for ego; p. 10, col. 2, line 42, repeated for 
 reported). The main contention, that a large number of Subjunctives hitherto 
 regarded as final really denote only futwrity, has been recently confirmed by Prof. 
 Hale in a valuable article in the same journal (Vol, VIII. April, 1894, where are 
 to be found other articles bearing upon the point). To treat 'iuiq civ with the 
 Subjunctive as denoting futurity, and 'iiaq with the Optative as denoting purpose 
 (Goodwin, §§ 613, 614), seems unjustifiable, and inconsistent with the fact that 
 final Relative Clauses take the Future Indicative. The example, anovSaq iiroirj- 
 aavTo 'itvQ i-irayyiKQui} rd X^x^evra eig AaKeSaifiovu (Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 20), is 
 admitted by Goodwin (§ 698) to correspond to 'ioiq &v iwayyiKOy, but in § 614 
 the very same example is called ^wotZ. 
 
 It will be observed that in § 347 of this Grammar all Temporal Clauses with 
 the Subjunctive or Optative are embraced under a single rule, instead of being 
 split up under the heads of the various kinds of Temporal Conjunctions. Words 
 meaning when, take the prospective constructions like words meaning until ; sen- 
 tences of the type efieWi arpareveiv ottSts Kaipog eIti, when the time should come, 
 are quite common, and do not properly belohg to the head of Indirect Speech ; see 
 examples in Goodwin, §§ 694 foil., where, however, they are said to "express 
 indirectly the past thought of any person." It is simpler to treat them as corre- 
 sponding in past time to the ordiuary examples of 'orav, &c., with the Subjunctive 
 in present time, which no one would think of calling indirect (e.g. iikWui arpar- 
 EVBiv orav Kaipog ^, when the time shall come). 
 
 The quantity of the -av in 'orav and iiruSdv in Attic is not easy to determine. 
 
338 APPENDIX II. 
 
 In Homer we have 8r' av, a clear case of elision ; and probably the Attic Srav had 
 likewise the second syllable short : of. Eur. Bacch. 498, Xivn n' o Saijiav aMc, 
 hrav iyoj 6k\u. It is difficult, however, to quote other instances in which the 
 word is not followed by a consonant. — ^The last syllable of iiruSdv is declared by 
 'KXihneT (Ausflikrliche Orammatik der griech. Spr., 3rd ed. I. 1. 61, p. 222 f.) to 
 be short, on the basis of the only two passages in which it is followed by k Towel : 
 Eur. Hhes. 469, and Mscb. Sept. 734. This is Tery strange, as Kiihn«r says, UDce 
 we have here apparently a case of crasis. 
 
 § 350 and § 346 {d). The rarity of final (iifi in good Attic prose, and iti non- 
 appearance in inscriptions of the classical period, are matters now familiar to 
 scholars; see Weber, Entwichelungsgeschichte der AbsichUsdtie (in Schani' £ei- 
 trage, 1884, quoted by Goodwin, M. T., Appendix III.), and Meisterhans, Gram, 
 der att. Inschriften, p. 212 f. ; yet this simple matter has not found its way into 
 school books, whether German or English. Here, again, as in regard to aiv and 
 the use of tenses, Xenophon is an offender ; and it ia probably his influence which 
 has largely contributed to obscuring the fads. In Thucydides, Plato, the Orators, 
 and Aristophanes, final liig almost disappears; and it would be possible to ignore 
 it altogether in a school manual were it not for the fact that it is extremely com- 
 mon in the tragedians — even commoner than 'iva. On the rarity of final /»q = lest, 
 see Goodwin, note on p. 112; and Weber, in Schanz' Beitrdgo, II. p. 92: "in 
 negative final clauses parataxis (i.e. absence of a conjunction) is almost restricted 
 to poetry ; Attic prose and Herodotus almost always use hypotaxis. " 
 
 § 351. "roB ^ovXaiiaQai: common in Thucydides:" cf. Thuc. i. 4; I, 23. 4; 
 II. 22. 1; II. 32; ii. 75. 1 and 3; ii. 93. 3; v. 27. 3; v. 72. 3; viil. 14. 1; 
 VIII. 39. 3 {ayy^\lav tirEfiTrov . . . rod ^vfiirapaKOfiLffOfivai). 
 
 For twtfi-iiav ^ovKimaBat, of. Thuc. iv. 132. 3 {iviSeiv Trffiipavriav) ; vi. 8. 2 
 {vkfiireiv ^vyKaTOiKiaai); Xen. Anab. v. 2. 12 (iinjv^iiv iinfit\Ti0rjvai) ; vii. 4. 2 ; 
 Aristoph. Clouds, 796 (tts^tteiv 'ikHvov ivrl travrov itavBdvuv) ; Eur. Jon, 1559 
 (tlfiag Itte/jiI/e Toig \6yovg ifiiXv (ppdaai). 
 
 § 352. Exceptions to the rule that wort with the Infinitive is negatived by /jq 
 (not oil) are collected by Shilleto in his edition of Demosthenes, Se Falsa Lega- 
 tione (Appendix B). They are chiefly cases in which the wffrs is subordinate to an 
 Accusative with the Infinitive, e.g. Plato, Apol. 26 d : oUi avToiig iirdpovs ypa/t- 
 lidriiiv elvai diffre oliK dSkvai (representing dirupoi ypafifidriav ilaiv, man ovk 
 laaaiv) ; cf. Thuc. v. 40. 2. Soph. El. 780 f., is a very strange case, to which 
 there are only two parallels ; see note of Jebb (in edition of 1894). 
 
 §§ 353 — 357, and § 505 (6). On the classification of Conditional Sentences see 
 articles by the author in the Classical Renew for June, 1887, and May, 1892. 
 Except in regard to the third class of Conditionnl Sentences (Class C, § 505 b), this 
 scheme coincides with that of Mr. F. D. Morice in the Transactions of the Oxford 
 Philological Society for 1879— an article unknown to the present writer at the 
 time when he wrote the first article in the Classical Review. There is an obvious 
 relation of similarity between all those Conditional Sentences which speak of what 
 would be or would have been under certain conditions ; and it is shown in the 
 volumes of the Parallel Grammar Series that this method of classification fits in 
 
APPENDIX II. 339 
 
 with the linguistic forms of English, French, German and Spanish, as well M 
 those of Latin and Greek. The chief point in which this scheme differs from that 
 of Goodwin is in the position assigned to those sentences which have an Optativ* 
 in both clauses (with av in the Principal Clause). Goodwin, taking as his/umrfa- 
 Ttittitv/m divisionis the time to which the suppositions refer, has to put €t irpdtTtroi 
 roSro, KaXwc civ exoi into the same class as kdv irpaaoy rouro, KaK&Q E^et and £t 
 n-palfi ToBro, KaKdg e^si : and these three kinds of future condition he is unabU 
 to distinguish otherwise than by calling the first less 'vivid' than the second, and 
 the second less ' vivid ' than the third. But this treatment ignores the fundamental 
 difference which separates Apodoses with av from Apodoses without dv ; if applied 
 to Latin, it would divorce si hoc fadat, bene sit from ai hoc faceret, bene esset, to 
 which it is obviously allied, and bring it into the company of si Aoe/aciet, bene 
 erit; and it would produce wild confusion in French and German, where there is 
 no separate form to distinguish if he were to do this (Future Condition) from if he 
 were doing this (Present Condition) : the French s'il faisait cela and the German 
 weiin er dies thdte may refer to either present or future time. 
 
 Sentences of the type ei tovto iroioiri, KoKwg 'i^et, 'should he do this, it will be 
 well,' have hardly received adequate recognition from grammarians. Goodwin 
 (§ 499) treats them as containing a ' mixture of constructions : ' but the type is too 
 familiar in modern as well as ancient languages to be described as anacoluthic. 
 In the Parallel Grammar Series such sentences are treated as forming a class by 
 themselves (Class 0, § 605 5; cf. Latin Grammar, § 501, English Analysis and 
 Syntax, pp. 19 — 24, French Gram. § 3.56*, German Gram. % 434, Spamish Oram. 
 § 356*). It should be noted that the corresponding English in the Protasis is 'if 
 he should do this' of 'should he do this,' not 'if he were to do this,' which would 
 be intolerable in connexion with the Apodosis 'it will be well,' or could only be 
 justified as n, case of anacoluthon. Sentences of this type are found in all the 
 great classical writers ; the Apodosis may contain a tense of present or of future 
 time : e.g. Plato, Phcedo, 72 c : v, dvoBvyaicoi iravra . , . dp' oi> iroWri avdysri, &i5., 
 < should everything die off . . . does it not necessarily follow,' &c. ; ibid. 91 a : oh 
 ydp . . . TrpoOv/iJiOrimiiai., d iifj un irapipyov, 'I will not exert myself, unless as 
 a secondary matter;* Apol. 19 e : sirel Kai tovto ye fioi SokiX KaXbv elvai, et rig 
 oUq t uri iraiSivav dvOpunrovg, ' though this too seems to me .an honourable thing, 
 should any one be able to ed ucate men ; ' Protagoras, 329 a; u St iTravhpoiro nvd 
 Ti, waTTEp j3i(5\ia oiidev 6;^oufftv diroKpivaoQai (the sentence goes on with idv and 
 the Subjunctive — a General Condition); ibid. 329b: fitKpov rivog svSErjg si/u 
 Trdvr' ixiiv, u fioi diroKpivaio toSe : Meno, 80 d : ei ivrvxoig avrip, irSig e'lOEi on 
 TOVTO lanv; Charm. 173 c : eI Sk fiovKoio yE . . . (svyxii>piiait)li'EV . other instances 
 in Riddell's Digest of Idioms, §§ 76 and 77. Antiphon, Tetral. in. A. 4 : ei tovq 
 dvairiovg Smkol/iev . . . dsLVOvg oKirripiovg s^ofiEV . . . Evoxoi te tov (j)6vov rdlg 
 ETnTifiioig iafiBv. Lysias, xxxiv. 6 : j-i rip irXij0£i vEpiyEvriaETai, ei Troa]aaiiiEv, &c. 
 Xenophon, CEconomicus, i. 4, ei fxfi tvxoi : i. 5, ei piriSk . . . eii; : i. 10, ft /uij 
 diro^i^oiro : I. 12, ei TruiXoiri and eI firi rig smaTairo : i. 14, ei fiii rig imaraiTo : 
 VIII. 10, £t fi^ Skoio, /3ov\oio Si (followed by a command) : vni. 15, ei « av/ifiaivot 
 (v.l. avfi^aivu) : XI. 6, ci . . . exoi ; xx. 13, ei . . . eIti, &c. Demosthenes, ad/e. 
 
34<5 APPENDIX n. 
 
 Lept, § 54, ei tiq aicovauev : § 154, ei yap airoaraUv . . . ri kuAvei ; Aristotle, 
 Eth. Nic. I. 4, 7 : ei tovto (paivoiro ap/covvraif, oilkv jrpoaSeriija roB Sion, et. 
 V. 4, 5. Isocrates, Evag. 66 : rlva evpijaofiev ■ . . ei tovg fivGovg &^svtss rrjv 
 aXtjOeiav (TKOTroi/iEV, roiaura Stairewpayfiivov ola Eifayopav, ibid. 33 (subordi- 
 nate to an Infinitive). Lucian, TVmon, § 15 : e! yE rdXriBiq l^eTd^oiSi afi^m aoi 
 EvXoya SoKdi iroieiv. Sopbocles, (Ed. Col. 351 f : devTEp' r/yEtrai ra Tijc oIkoi 
 SiaiTtjs, ei ■waTrjp rpofiiv exoi (where Jebb quotes a fragment of Antipbanes); 
 Trach. 56: ei narpoQ viiioi nv upav; (Ed. Tyr. 851 (quoted in § 505 h). 
 Euripides, Ion, 731 f : ei n rvyxavoi kcucov, etg omiar eivov ^idtoq ififSKeij/ai 
 yXvici : Sec. 786 : ei /i^ rriv Tvxtv avr^v Xhyoig : Andromeda, fragm. 126 : u 
 ■n^apBiv, el aiiaaini a, elay /loi X'lp"'; Anliope, fragm. 211 : ri Sel icaX^j yvvaiKoc, 
 ei p.r) TCLQ ^pivae XPI""""? 'X<" • Archelaus, fragm. 253 : rb yap Xiyeiv ev Seivov 
 kartv, ei ipepoi riva j8Xaj8»/v. 
 
 The following list of passages from Thucydides and Aristophanes is contributed 
 by Mr. C. D. Chambers : Thuc. i. 120, 3, dvSpuiv yap aui^povujv fiiv ianv, ei /trj 
 aSiKoZvTO, r'lavxdZeiv : I. 121, 3, ei S" avTiaxoiev, fiiKeTriaofiev Kal r/fiele . . . rd 
 vavTiKa : in. 9, 2, oi/c aSiKog avTi] ri aSiuxrif ianv, et rixoiev , , , : iii. 10. 1, 
 eiSoreg ovre piKiav idiiiirais /3E/3aiov yiyvopkvriv, ei firj , , . yiyvoivTO, Kal raXKa 
 bpoioTpoTToi eiev: iv. 59, 3, avrd Sk Tavra ei p-q Iv xaipif tvxouv cKdrepoi 
 irpdaaovTEQ, ai Trapaiveaeig Tutv KvvaWayijJV iiipkKifiot [sc. Eiffiv]; vi. 37, 1, e, 
 Se . . . eXOoiev, LKavu)Tkpav t)yovfiai SikeXicev IlEXoTrovv^ffOU StaTToXenijaai . . . 
 Kal ei Sie ToaavTt] eXSoi, iroXi Kpeinaui elvai : VI. 86, 2, ei . . . KaTepyaaaipeSai 
 dSivaroi (se. kapev] Karaaxe'iv. Aristoph. Wasps, 818 f., Birds, 447, Lys. 1111, 
 Thesm. 682(!), after an Optat. of Wish, Ach. 476, Knights, 694, Peace, 1072, 
 Lys. 236. 
 
 § 354. The quantity of the -av in idv is determined by several passages in 
 Aristophanes: e.g. Wasps, 228, according to the reading of the best MSS.: /iq 
 (jipovTiayi- idv kyii \i9avQ exm (restored by Dindorf for idv vep iyii). Similarly 
 (with -av) kdv dneiXy, ibid. 1231, idv oKipe, Plutus, 481. Outside of Aristophanes 
 it is difficult to find conclasive instances, the word being generally followed by a 
 consonant; in Soph. O.C. 1407 the reading is uncertain. The long vowel is 
 doubtless due to metathesis of quantities: Kuhner (Ausfilhrl. Oram. 3rd ed., 
 1890, p. 223) derives Idv from ei av, and compares the interchange of quantities 
 in ISaaCKrja, /SaoiXla. Brugmann, however, in his Grwndriss (ii. p. 627, note) 
 and Chriech. Oram. (2nd ed., 1890, p. 225) says that idv comes from ri av, the ri 
 being that which is found in Epic in the sense whether . . . or. " Ei is probably 
 connected with this ri, and not with the Latin si" (Mr. P. W. Thomas). 
 
 § 354, Obs. On the Future Indicative in ' minatory or monitory clauses," see 
 Gildersleeve in the Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 98, May, 1892. 
 
 § 370 b. For farther examples of Dependent Exclamations see Aristoph. Wasps, 
 188, 1451 (Si)X(3 . . . ol perkaTti); Clouds, 1157 (olog), 1206 (we, olog); Thesm. 
 878 {ol). Plato, Phcedo, 58 E (evSainoiv iipaivero Cig dSewg Kal yewaiug irEXeira), 
 117 C (quoted on p. 336); Protag. 315 B ((is), 334 C (<ie ev Xeyot; Statement?). 
 Soph. 0. T. 947 (iv iari, 'to think that you should have come to this"). Xen. 
 Cyr. I. 4. 19 (oirov), 20 (iig), vn. 3. 13 (KarifKnpe rijv yvvaiKa o'iov avSpog 
 
APPENDIX II. 341 
 
 irrljOoiro, Kai rhv avSpa oiav yvvaTica KaraKnrihv oinckr oipoiro), Andb. i. 3, 13 
 (oi'a elt) onropia). III. 1. 19 (iiffijj' Kai oiav x&pav exoiek, (if St a<p9ova rd 
 imrriSHa), &c. 
 
 § 370 c. Violations of the Rule for Tenses of the Indicative in Noun Clauses 
 occur several times in Xenophon ; in Anab. iii. 1. 2 there is a whole series of Past 
 Imperfects and Pluperfects representing Presents and Perfects (iviOvfiovvro on 
 kTTi TOiQ ^afftXkbiQ 9vpaig i^aav . . . irpovSESuiKetrav Sk avroiiQ 01 jSapjSttjOoi, that 
 they were at the Mng's gates and that the barbarians had betrayed them) ; cf. 
 ibid. X. 2. 21, 11. 2, 5, iv. 1. 24, and Cyr. i. i. 20 {6avfia!^u>v dig i<l>p6vu Kai 
 iypnyopu 6 Kvpoe, marvelling how sensible and wide-awake Cyrus was). Aristo- 
 phanes appears at first sight to have the same usage in Wasps, 282 {IXeyev oig rai 
 ^iKaOfjvaLot; r^v Kai tclv ^d^qi irputTog KareiTrot) ; but here it is possible that the 
 flv means had been at the time indicated by xai . . , Karzmoi : he said that he 
 had both shown his love for Athens and been the first to tell of the goings on at 
 Samos=he said that he had shown his love for Athens when he told, &c. In the 
 same play, 1095, we read ov yap ^v r/fiiv oirujg pijffiv ev Xs^uv i^sWop-^v rdr', 
 ovSk aVKO^avTrjasiv rivd ^povrig, dW otrrtg ipkrrig taoiT dptarog, for we took no 
 thought as to how we should then make fine speeches or calumniate any one, but 
 only as to who should be the best oarsman; here the rore apologizes for the Past 
 Imperfect kfikWop.f-v. 
 
 § 470. The vase with the inscription JliBinv eypafi is at Castle Howard, 
 Yorkshire. "An examination of Klein's Griechische Vasen unit Meiatersignaturen 
 shows 81 examples of the Aorist as against 8 of the Imperfect, and of the latter 
 several are doubtful. On works of sculpture, by far the commoner form in the 
 classical age is the Aorist. The statistics, a« given in Lorenz, Inschriften griech. 
 Bildhauer, show 270 instances of the Aorist [iTroiiyiTE] as against 87 of the Imper- 
 fect [ETToiEt], and of the latter only 4 date from the 6th cent., and only 4 from the 
 5th cent.; in the 4th and 3rd cent, there are none; in the 3rd — 1st cent, there 
 are 32 (mainly at Delos, none in Greece itself) ; in imperial times there are 47. 
 Thus it is not until we reach the period of the Roman dominion in Greece, and 
 especially the time of the Roman Empire, that the Imperfect becomes at all com- 
 mon : e.g. [IIoXujKXfiroe iicoiu 'Apyelog (the inscription is ascribed to the 
 1st cent. B.C.) : Avaiirrrog iwoin is regarded by Brunn and others as belonging to 
 a copy of a work by Lysippos, done in imperial times; similarly npa^irkXrig 
 ^7rotf[i]." Dr. J. E. Sandys; cf. Meisterhans, Gram, der attischen Inschriften, 
 p. 200, and Liddell and Scott (under ttoiew). 
 
 § 473. This curious difference between Greek and Latin appears not to have 
 been noticed by grammarians : contrast ibi jamdudum habitabam, ' 1 had been 
 living there for a long time,' with &V ovvex'_ rt Koptj/^ot; e? ifiov irdXai jxaKpdv 
 dirifKtXro (Soph. 0. T. 997), 'wherefore my home in Corinth was long kept by me 
 afar' (Jebb), or 'the dwellings of Corinth have been far removed from me' 
 (Campbell), or, 'far from Corinth many a day my life was passed' (Whitelaw) : in 
 any case there is no reference to a point of time in the past up to which the action 
 had been going on. Nor is there in 0. T. 947, wdXai rpiniav tfivyi, ' he long 
 feared and shnnnefl ' (Jebb), 973, irpovXeyov wdXai, ' I foretold long since' (cf. Xen, 
 
343 APPENDIX IT. 
 
 (Ec. xix. 17, iraXai aoi tKtyov), 0. 0. 1252, iraXai KaTeixofiev yviifiy, 'was in 
 our thoughts from the first' (Jehb), not 'had been:' cf. too Pseud. Demosth. Phil, 
 iv. 31, 8 Sri AoiTTov tart^ Kal TroiXai ^liv tSu, *one thing remains, which should 
 have been done long ago' (Kennedy), i.e. long before the present moment. 
 
 On the use of TraXai with the Past Imperfect, Mr. P. W. Thomas contributes 
 the following remarks : 
 
 1. iraXai corresponds to the English 'of old.' 
 
 2. It is used with the Present idiomatically to imply 'have long been,' as 
 is also the English ' of old : ' 
 
 n'oXai dlSa, ' I know it of old ' 
 
 = ' I have long known it ;' 
 iraXai SiiltKU, ' he persecutes of old." 
 That the iraXai does not of itself imply duration is evident in such a case as 
 vvv re Kal raXai \iyto, 
 
 3. The corresponding use with the Imperfect is found in the following : 
 
 t6^ov' irap Srj d'iarbv txiv ircCKai i>Q Wvvcv. — Horn. II. i^ 870-1. 
 ^ipKvWiSag, offTTcp Kai iraXot iroXifuoc f/v avT<f, Inxiv iv 'k^iStf &v, 
 
 Xen. Hell. iv. 8. 3. 
 ot 'Aflijvaloi Xa/36vTEC (yaav ydp iraXaC W S'l ;) roif fiiv . . . a^iiaav, 
 
 Dem. 19. 231. 
 
 4. The reason for the apparent rarity of the use with the Imperfect may be 
 explained thus. The sense of duration is obtained by the contrast between 
 the present tense and the pastness implied in the adverb. This vanishes with 
 a past tense unless there is some special peculiarity in the sentence to show 
 that the time referred to by the tense i^ not that stated in the adverb. In 
 'this was what I said (imperf.) of old' there is nothing to show that said 
 refers to the same time as wen and a different time from of old. Nor can we 
 say that the Greek imperfect would in such a sentence necessarily correspond 
 to our ' was saying ;' in 
 
 rouro ijv iiTrcp TrdXat IXsyov, 
 EXtyov does not necessarily refer to the same time as fjv. 
 
 5. Hence in such cases Greek usually employs the Pluperfect. But with 
 equivalents for an Imperfect, e.g. present participles and optatives, the use is 
 quite common : e.g. 
 
 Sis b y'epaiv dyopEUS iraXai iroXiiunv ei tWiifi. — II. A 310. 
 iravToat x"p' ipsywv, ws f' i^Toixl>e iraXai Eiij. — Od. p 369, 
 lir ' AXi^avSpift Tuvovra irdKai to^ov. — ^sch. Ag. 348-9. 
 Tax "" '"' /"'''''"""'' ^'S y'^ofi ToXai. — Soph. 0. C. 965. 
 r) Sk aKivaKJiv waXai Kmrrtfiivt) aiparret iavTr\v. — Xen.Cyr. vili. 3. 14. 
 ol ovv ■jToKat fJKOVTie . . • oil vpoaieaav. — Aiiab. IT. 5. 6. 
 aiirb tovto tvo/j-iiov rb irakai XEyo/ievov virb <dr]pafi,kvovQ. — Thuc. YIII. 94. 
 »f. fioxiKo/iivove Kal jraXai. — vii. 75. 5; Arrian, Anab. iv. 8. 1, 
 
APPENDIX II. 343 
 
 6. There is another use of the Imperfect of what was true a moment ago, a 
 natural use, seeing that the tense need not imply a distant past. This is 
 especially common with J\v and c/je\Xov, i^ov\ofvi\v, &o. But it is not rarely 
 found in such cases as 
 
 ovK tKiyirv (rot Tavra; 'Was I not telling you so?' 
 where without much inaccuracy we can translate ' Have I not been telling 
 you so?' 
 
 With this Imperfect itoKai can be used without ambiguity and is specially 
 common in Attic Tragedy and Comedy; v. Aristophanes, Pint, 169, 410, 
 Lys. 1053, Birds, 1019, 1670, Enighta, 125, Peace, 414, &c. &c. 
 
 § 475 (6). The Past Imperfect was the old Indo-European tense of narration, 
 and was only gradually dislodged from this position by the Aorist in Greek ; 
 similarly in modern languages the simple Fast has been and is being more and 
 more replaced by compound Perfect forms (e.g. in German er thai, by er hat 
 getham; in French il icrivit by il a icrit): see Brugmann, Oriech Oram., §§ 157, 
 160, and cf. Jebb's note on Soph. El. 680 (Appendix). 
 
 § 482. The use of the Aorist Indicative which is to be translated by the 
 English Perfect is far commoner than is generally supposed. There are at least 
 nine instaoces in the first 200 lines of the Antigone of Sophocles (9, 12, 25, 102, 
 148, 160, 163, 165, 171— all so translated by Jebb). Prof. Gildersleeve gives the 
 rule, "when the Perfect is used as a Present, the Aorist is used as a Perfect:" 
 adding, "there were not Perfects enough in Greek, and hence in later times 
 Perfects were manufactured to meet the demand for a wooden uniformity." — 
 American Journ. of Phil. iv. 429. 
 
 § 496. 1. TToS YxpSni iari; cf. Soph. Phil. 544, 805 {utv Kvpug); 0. T. 126, 
 SoKovvra ravT irpi, 747, jiXkTritiv y; for the contrary order of Participle and Verb 
 see 0. T. 274, 580, &c. On the order in Thucydides, see Marchant's note on Bk. ii. 
 (12. 2). 
 
 § 502. On Subjunctives without av in Subordinate Clauses, see Prof. E. B. 
 Clapp in Trcunsactions of the American Philological Atsociation, vol. xxii. 1891. 
 "There are in the extant tragedies no less than 64 cases of this peculiarity, 15 of 
 which are quoted by Goodwin [M. T. pp. 167, 173, 208]. ... Of this total, 20 are 
 ordinary future conditions [introduced by il or a relatival word], but the remaining 
 44 are generic," p. 88. Under the head of generic Prof. Clapp includes such cases 
 as Soph. Ant. 710, 0. C. 395, Eur. Ion, 855, which I think Mr. Bayfield is right 
 in treating as standing on a different footing from ordinary general conditions : see 
 Appendix B to his edition of the Ion. 
 
 § 510 and note on p. 293. On the Optatives without av, see the discussion 
 earried on by Mr. A. Sidgwick, Prof. Tarbell, Dr. Earle, " J. D.," and others, in 
 the Classical Review for 1891-93. Mr. Sidgwick's views appeared in his edition of 
 the Agamemnon (1881) and Choephtoroi (1884), Appendix I.; see, too, Prof. Jebb's 
 CEdipus Goloneiis (note on I. 170 and Appendix, p. 275 foil., 2nd ed.). A very 
 gomplete discussion of the whole question has recently been published by Prof. 
 W. G. Hale (' Extended' and 'Remote' Deliberativet in Qreeh, in the Transactions 
 
344 APPENDIX II. 
 
 of the American Philological Association for 1893, vol. xxiv. pp. 156— 205)— a 
 paper which the present writer has found illuminating. The result at which 
 Prof. Hale arrives is that the evidence is conclusive in favour of a deliberative 
 origin for the Subjunctive in Relative Clauses depending on verbs like oir/c ixm and 
 iX'»> a'i'J '"' includes among his instances Optatives in past time (like those in 
 Soph. PMl. 279, 695). But he differs from Mr. Sidgwiok in holding that the 
 Optatives in present time (oi/c iaS ojruc Xljai/ii rd ^ivlr\ Ka\a, &o.) stand on a 
 different footing: these he agrees with "J. D." in regarding as potential, i.e. he 
 holds that in such instances the hare Optative expresses what is elsewhere generally 
 expressed by the Optative with dv. This was the orthodox view of grammarians 
 previous to the year 1881 (cf. Goodwin, M. T., § 241, 2nd ed.), and recent dis- 
 cussion appears to have confirmed it. 
 
 § 597 and § 598. As to the origin of o4 /iri with the Subjunctive and Future 
 Indicative in expressions of denial and prohibition, various views have been held. 
 The old explanation was that ov /iri with the Subjunctive originated in an ellipsis 
 (oil pLrj \ri^9Ci for ov Ihe Ibti iiri \ri<pdw, there is no fear lest I he caught ; hence 
 never, never shall I be caught — an expression of strong denial relating to the 
 future) : ov firi with the Future Indicative, 2nd Person, was explained on an 
 entirely different principle, as a. negative question in which the second negative 
 was closely connected with the verb {ov /t^ Jiarpii/zf t j = will you not not-dawdle i 
 i.e. will you not abstain from dawdling ?). The objections to these explanation.'; 
 have been set forth by Goodwin in his Oreek Moods and Tenses, §§ 294 — 301 and 
 Appendix II. : it certainly involves many difficulties to separate the two construc- 
 tions of oir /ni. His own explanation maybe summarised as follows: (i) The germ 
 of both constructions is to be found in the use of an independent Subjunctive with 
 firi, such as appears in a favourite idiom of Plato, e.g. ftt] ^aCXov g, originally = may 
 it not prove bad, hence / suspect it may prove bad. (ii) When this idiom had 
 become established as a way of saying it will prove bad, it was negatived by putting 
 oil before it : hence oi fi^ (pavKov j, it is not the case that it mil prove bad, or 
 simply it will not prove bcui. (iii) The recollection of the original construction 
 having been lost, the Future Indicative was sometimes substituted for the Sub- 
 junctive, by a kind of mixing of ov jii) ^av\ov y with ov (paiikov tarat. (iv) Finally, 
 the 2nd Person of these expressions of futurity assumed prohiMtory meaning, like 
 that which the Future Indicative with ov may assume in simple sentences, oi fi-^ 
 0aS\oc ys (or more commonly oi /tij (pavXoe eoEi) passing from the meaning you 
 will not be bad into the meaning you shall not be bad or do not be bad. Goodwin's 
 theory at present holds the field, though it is possible that oi Jeoc lari firi with 
 the Subjunctive may after all turn out to be the true germ of the construction, the 
 Future Indicative being afterwards substituted when oi jiii with the Subjunctive 
 had become a future-equivalent. 
 
 § 680. On the use of the Article in geographical expressions, see H. Kallenberg, 
 Studien iiber den griechischen Artikel, Berlin, 1891 — a continuation of his article 
 in the Philologus, vol. xlix. pp. 515 — 547. 
 
INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 The references are to the sections, except when p. {=page) precedes. 
 
 A.— ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 Ablative, 372. 
 
 Absolute Clauses, 361. 
 Accusative, 326; Cognate, 326*; Abso- 
 lute, 361 (2) ; with Infinitive, 367 
 (1), 368a, 3686, 3683, 369 S, 369(!; 
 dependent on Verbal Adj. or Noun, 
 375 ; of Extent, 381 ; of Place 
 whither, 381 (Obs.) ; of Measure 
 or Manner, 382 ; of Nearer Defini- 
 tion, 383. 
 Active Voice, 461 (1) ; as Passive, 461 
 (2). 
 
 Adjuncts, 307, 338. 
 
 Adjective Clauses, 313, 862—365. 
 Adjective-equivalents, 310. 
 
 Adverb Clauses, 313, 347—361. 
 
 Adverb-equivalents, 311. 
 
 Adverbs used as Prepositions, 402, 
 428 (d); Sentence Adverbs, 314 
 (Obs. 2), 600. 
 
 Agent, Living, 327 (as living, Obs. 3). 
 
 Agreement of Verb, 317—323 (with 
 Predicate Noun, 325.4); of Predi- 
 cate Adj. or Noun, 325, 325», 330 
 (Rule 2), 333 (Obs. 3), 335 ; of 
 Attribute, 336, 337; of Relative, 
 363. 
 
 Although, 358 (and Obs. 1). 
 
 Anacoluthon, 356 (c). 
 
 Answers, 344 c, 1. 
 
 Aorist Indie, 48.0 — 486 ; contrasted 
 with Past Impf., 487, 488. 
 
 Apposition, 310 (2), 337, 577 (d). 
 
 Article, 324*, 447, 456, 573—590. 
 
 As, 359(1); as if, 360(1). 
 
 Assimilation of Mood, 350 (Obs. 3), 
 366 (5), 506. 
 
 Attraction in Comparative Clause, p. 
 200 (Obs. 3), in Relative Clause, 
 363 (3, 4). 
 
 Attributes, 306, 336—338. 
 
 Cases, general meanings of, 338. 
 
 Causal Clauses, 346 (e), 349 ; Relative, 
 364 (2 a, p. 208). 
 
 Clause, 308; Principal, 312; Subordi- 
 nate, 312. 
 
 Cognate Object, 326*. 
 
 Commands, 341a, 341 i; Dependent, 
 366 {A, ii), 367, 369 a, b. 
 
 Comparative Clauses, 346 (A), 359. 
 
 Complex Sentence, 312, 333 (Obs. 2). 
 
 Compound Subject, 319, 320. 
 
 Concessions, 343. 
 
 Concessive Clauses, 346 (g), 358. 
 
 Conditional Clauses, 346 (/), 353—357; 
 Past Imperf. of past time, 3,'i5 
 (Obs. 3) ; Acr. of present time, 
 355 (Obs. 5); Indie, without dv, 
 356 ; If-clause disguised or sup- 
 pressed, 357 i ; Principal Clause 
 suppressed, 342 (Obs. 2); subordi- 
 nation of, 357 c, 365 (1); Class C, 
 505 (b). 
 
 Conjunctions, co-ordinating, 314, 600; 
 subordinating, 314 (Obs. 1), 346. 
 
 Consecutive Clauses, 346 (e), 352 ; Rela- 
 tive, 364 (2c, p. 209). 
 
 Co-ordination, 314; of Relative Clause, 
 314*, 362 (Obs. 2). 
 
 Correlative Pronouns, S71 ; Adverbs, 
 572. ' 
 
 Dative, 328, 328*, 338 ; denoting ' to,- 
 of the Indirect Obj., 420; of Place 
 whither, 420 Obs.; denoting 'for,' 
 of Interest, 421, 424 ; of Posses- 
 sion, 422 ; of the Agent, 423 ; 
 
346 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 Ethical, 424 (6); flep. on certain 
 Adjs. and Adverbs, 425 ; on Verbs 
 comp. with Prepositions, 426; of 
 Association, 428 ; of Instrument, 
 429; of Cause, 430; of Manner, 
 431 ; of Measure, 432 ; of Place 
 where, 434. 
 
 Deliberative Questions, 344 h ; Depen- 
 dent, 370 6, ii. 
 
 Dual Subject, 317. 
 
 Equivalents, 308. 
 
 £'i;er-clause3 : with Subj. or Opt., 347 
 (2 6), 348, 354*, 359, 364, '501, 
 504 (d); with Indie, 365 (3) 
 
 Exclamations, 345 ; Dependent, 366 (B, 
 ii), 370 a (2), 3704(1). 
 
 Final Clauses, 346 (d), 350, 499 (a), 
 604 (a) ; Relative, 364 (24), p. 208. 
 
 For, 421-424*. 
 
 Future Indie, 477—479 ; =Pres. Subj., 
 344 6 (Oba. 4). 
 
 Future Perf. Indie, 494, 495. 
 
 General Clauses : see i'»er-clauses. 
 
 Generic ; see .EoCT'-clauses. 
 
 Genitive, 327*, 338 ; Absolute, 361 (1) ; 
 Possessive, 388; used Predioatively, 
 389; Partitive, 390 -396; depen- 
 dent on Neut. Adjs. and Prons., 
 391 ; dep. on Adv., 392 ; dep. on 
 Noun not expressed, 393 ; Objec- 
 tive, 397 ; Sulijective, 398 ; of 
 Quality, 399 ; Appositive, 400 ; 
 dep. on Advs. used as Prepositions, 
 402 ; dep. on certain Adjs., 403 — 
 406 ; dep. on certain Verbs, 407 — 
 409; of Separation. 410; of Com- 
 parison, 359 (2, Obs. 1), 411 ; of 
 Cause an'l Exclamation, 412; de- 
 noting 'that in respect of which,' 
 413; of Price, 414; dep. on Verbs 
 and i^djs. of 'filling,' 'emptyinff,' 
 &o., 415 ; on Verbs corap. with 
 Prepositions, 416; of Time, 417; 
 of Place, 418. 
 
 Gnomic Aor., 486 ; Perf., 491. 
 
 If perchance, if haply, 357 a (3, 4). 
 
 Imperative, 341a, 3416, 343, 520; in 
 Subordinate Clauses, 521 ; tenses, 
 522, 523. 
 
 Impersonal Verbs, 316 (4), 526 (a). 
 
 Impersonal Passive Constr., 316 <!»■. 
 
 Indefinite 2nd Pers. Sing., 340 (Obs. 1). 
 
 Indicative of action not realize'' 360 
 (Obs. 3), 365 (6 6). 
 
 Indirect Speech, 371, 504 (e). 
 
 Infinitive, 330 ; origin of, 330 (Obs. 1), 
 525 ; with or without Subject, 367 
 (1, Obs. 2), 368 a, 368 4, 368 <?, 
 369 6, 369 c; of Destination, 527; 
 of Purpose, 528 ; Absolute, 529 ; 
 of Command, 530 ; of Exclamation, 
 531 ; Predicate Adj. or Noun with 
 Subjectless Infin., 532 (2—4) ; 
 Attribute, 532 (5) ; Tenses of Infin., 
 533; Infin, with Article, 634—539. 
 
 Inherited meanings of Ca-ses, 372; of 
 Genitive, 410—419; of Dative, 
 4-28—430. 
 
 Inscripti nomina regvan, 332. 
 
 Instrumental Case, 372. 
 
 Interrogative Particles, 344 c. 
 
 Intransitive, p. 153, note ; 461 (1). 
 
 Iterative av, 339*, 604 {d). 
 
 Kara mivtnv, 318, 322*. 
 
 Local Clauses, 346 (6), 348, and Obss. 
 
 1, 2. 
 Locative Case, 372. 
 
 Meanings of forms, 315, 372 foil. 
 Middle Voice, 461 (3) 
 Modest Assertions, 340; In Subordinate 
 Clauses, 340", 366 (1). 
 
 Negatives, 591—598. 
 
 Neuter Adjective, 325 (2). 
 
 No, 344 c. 
 
 Nominative, 316, 373 ; with Participle, 
 
 361*. 
 Not even if, 358 (Obs. 2). 
 Noun Clauses, 313, 366—370. 
 Noun-equivalents, 309. 
 
 Object, 303, 326—330 ; two Objects, 
 304, 330*— 333; Object Clauses, 
 366 (Obs.). 
 
INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 347 
 
 onc=:a/ny one, 316 (3). 
 
 Optative with iiv : of Modest Assertion, 
 340 ; Potential, 340 (Obss. 2 and 
 3) ; of Mild Command, 341 a (Obs. 
 3) ; In Conditional Sentences, 355 
 (1 c) ; accompanied by Relative or 
 Temporal Clause, 365 (6) ; sum- 
 mary of uses, 507 — 509 ; omission 
 of av, 510. 
 
 Optative without av ; of Wish, 342 ; 
 Final, 350 ; extended to Noun 
 Clauses, 369 o (Obs. 3); Prospec- 
 tive or General, 347 (2), 348, 354*, 
 359 (l),"e64 (1) ; Conditional, 355 
 (1 c), 365 (6), 505 (6) ; Delibera- 
 tive, 370 5 (ii) ; extended to Rela- 
 tive Clauses, 364 (2, Obss. 3, 4) ; 
 Indirect, 349, 367 (3. p. 215), 
 370 6, 370 c, 371 ; summary of 
 uses, 503 — 506 ; Tenses of Optat., 
 511—513. 
 Oratio Obliqua and Recta, 371. 
 Order of words : Partitive Gen., 390 ; 
 Article, 583—590. 
 
 Participles, Predicative, 324 (6) ; in 
 Dependent Statemenia, 367 (2), 
 368 d, 368 c (2); all uses, 544— 
 549* ; Tenses, 650—554. 
 
 Particles, 600. 
 
 Passive Construction, 327, 329, 332, 
 333 (Obs. 4). 
 
 Past Impf. Indie, 469—476; with ite- 
 rative av, 339*; contrasted with 
 Aor., 487, 488. 
 
 Perfect Indie, 489—491. 
 
 Phrases, 308. 
 
 Place, 435—437. 
 
 Pluperfect Indie, 492, 493. 
 
 Predicate, 301—305, 317 foil. 
 
 Predicate Adjective on Noun, 302, 305, 
 324-325*, 330 (Obs. 2), 333 
 (Obs. 3), 334, 335. 
 
 Prepositions, 446 — 460; phrases formed 
 with, 447 ; Prepositions in compo- 
 sition. Appendix I. 
 . Present Indie, 462—468. 
 
 Prohibitions, 341 h. 
 
 Pronouns, Demonstrative or Kelative, 
 as Subject, 325 (3) ; uses of Re- 
 flexive, 371 (Obs. 6), 556—558; 
 Demonstrative, 560 — 562, 566 ; 
 Relative, 563 — 565; Interrogative 
 and Indefinite, 567 — 569. 
 
 Prospective, 347 (2 a), 600 (1); 
 
 Subj. and Opt. 
 Purpose, 346 (d), 348 (Obs. 1), 
 
 351. 
 
 J50, 
 
 Qualifying parts of sentence, 306, 307. 
 Questions, 344 a, 344 c; Deliberative, 
 
 3446 ; Dependent, 366 {B, i), 370a 
 
 (1), 370 6. 
 Questions equivalent to Commands, 
 
 341 a (Obs. 3). 
 
 Reflexives, Indirect, 371 (Obs. 6). 
 
 Relative Adverbs, 362 (Obs. 1). 
 
 Relative Clauses, 362 — 366 (co-ordi- 
 nate, 362, Obs. 2); Moods in, 364 
 (Causal, 2o; Final, 2 6; Consecu- 
 tive, 2 c); constructed like If- 
 clauses, 366 (6); with bare Subj., 
 602 (6). 
 
 " Remote Deliberatives,'' pp. 208, 209 
 (Obs. 3, 4). 
 
 " Reported," 349, 371. 
 
 Schema Pindaricum, 322*. 
 
 Sentence- Adverbs, 314 (Obs. 2), 600. 
 
 Sentence construction, 315 — 37l. 
 
 Sequence of Tenses, 514 — 619. 
 
 Simple Sentence, 312. 
 
 Sociative Case, 372. 
 
 Space, 438. 
 
 Statements, 339—340* (softened, 340) ; 
 Dependent, 366 {A, i), 367, 368 
 a—g. 
 
 Subject, 301 ; case of, 316 (1) ; not 
 expressed, 316 (2, 3), 367 (1), 
 367 (2). 
 
 Subjunctive accompanied by av. Pro- 
 spective or General, 347 (2), 348, 
 364 (Ic), 354*, 369(1), 364(1); 
 summary of useS, 500, 501 ; omis- 
 sion of av, 502. 
 
 Subjunctive unaccompanied by av; of 
 Command, 341 a (and Obs. 2), 
 341 6 ; Deliberative, 344 6, 370 h 
 (ii) ; extended to Relative Clauses, 
 364 (2, Obss. 3, 4); to Noun Clauses, 
 3696 (Obs. 3); Final, 360; extended 
 to Noun Clauses, 369 a (Obs. 3); 
 summary of uses, 498, 499 ; Tenses 
 of Subj., 511—513. 
 
348 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 [dynnai — 07 
 
 Temporal Clauses, 346 (a), 3i7 ; con- 
 structed like If-clauses, 365 (6). 
 
 Tenses of Indie, 462—495 ; ot Subj. 
 and Opt., 511 — 513; of Impera- 
 tive, 522, 523; of Infin., 633; of 
 Participles, 550 — 554; General 
 Table of Tenses, 555. 
 
 Tense adjustment, 370 c, 514. 
 
 Tense-equivalents, 496. 
 
 Than, 369 (2), p. 200 ; than so as to, 
 360 (2). 
 
 The highest possible degree, 369 (c). 
 
 TAe more .... the more, 359 (d). 
 
 they = one, 316 (3). 
 
 Time, 439—445. 
 
 Transitive, p. 153, note. 
 
 Verb omitted, 324 (2) ; Verb forming a 
 
 complete Predicate, 324 (3). 
 Verb- Adj. in -rkoe, 540 — 542 ; in Delib. 
 
 Quest, 344 6. 
 Verb-Adj. in -rog, 543. 
 Verbs of saying, thinking, 368 a, 368 c, 
 „ „ denying, gainsaying, 368 b 
 {forbidding, preventing,S69c). 
 .. ■oerceivinq, lennwing, 368 d. 
 
 Verbs of rejoicing, grieving, 368 J, 
 
 „ „ fearing, 368/. 
 
 „ „ happening, &o., 368 jr. 
 
 „ „ Effort, 369 a. 
 
 „ „ Will or Desire, 369 6. 
 
 „ „ motion with Accus., 377, 378. 
 
 „ „ judicial procedure, 408, 409. 
 Verbs taking Pred. Adj. or Noun, 324. 
 
 „ „ Genitive, 327*. 
 
 „ „ Dative, 328. 
 
 „ ,. Infinitive, 330. 
 
 „ „ two Aces., 330*, 
 
 „ „ Aoc. and Dat., 331. 
 
 „ „ Case and Infin., 333. 
 Verb-Nouns and Verb-Adjectives, 524 
 
 —654. 
 Vivid Construction, 350 (Obs. 2), 370 n 
 
 (4), 519. 
 Vocative, 373. 
 Voices, 461. 
 
 Wishes, 342. 
 
 Yes, 344 c. 
 
 B.— GREEK INDEX. 
 
 ayafxai, 412 (a). 
 ayavaKTtti, 368 C, 430. 
 dyaTTu}, 368 c. 
 ayykXKu}, 368 d. 
 aye, 341 a (Obs. 2). 
 dyevarot;, 405. 
 dyvoui (ovk), 368 d. 
 d-yopa?w, 414. 
 clSucQ, with Partic, 549 
 
 (_6)._ 
 dOvfiS), 430. 
 aiSovfiai, 368 c. 
 aipoii/iai, 33', 3696,528. 
 aiptS, 408. 
 alaBdvofiai, 368 d, 410 
 
 (6), and Obs. 3. 
 ataxpov iari, 36851. 
 aiaypvonai, 330, 368 e, 
 
 430. 
 a'lTiCtfiai, 408. 
 aiVw, 330*, 333, 369 J. 
 
 dxKripoQ, 405. 
 
 aKoXouOw, 328. 
 
 d/couw, 368d, 410(5); eiS 
 
 or KaK&Q, 461 (2). 
 dxparriQ, 404. 
 dicpog, 395, 587. 
 6,Kpou}}iai, 410 (6). 
 &X.yia, 376 (d, Obs.), 430. 
 dXiaKOfiai, 408. 
 <i\Xa, 314, 600 (1). 
 SXKdaaoiiai, 414. 
 aX\o Tiri, 344 c. 
 SKKog, 411 (6). 
 &\KaQ TE Kal, 600 (2). 
 a/ia, 361 (Obs. 2), 428(d), 
 
 647 (a), 600 (3). 
 a/japTaj/w,327*, 549(J). 
 dfiekriQ, 404. 
 d/ifXw, 327*. 
 duvrnxovS), 327*. 
 dfivri^ojv, 404. 
 
 dftoipog, 405. 
 
 in-ivo/iat, 328", 376 (6) 
 
 di^vvu), 328. 
 
 dfiipi, 455 ; in comp., 
 Appendix I. 
 
 dfupikwiiii, 330*. 
 
 (i/a0t(r;8i)rai,3686,428(o). 
 
 dfiipii), djiipoTtpog, 577 (ft), 
 586. 
 
 av, Iterative, 339*; in 
 Modest Assertions, 340; 
 in Conditional Sen-, 
 tences, 355 ; in Sub-t 
 ordinate Clauses, see 
 Subjunctive; with In- 
 fin. and Partic, 357 c 
 (Obs, 2), 533(5), 554; 
 Summary of uses, 599 ; 
 — dv omitted, p. 187 
 (note), 356, 365 (4), 
 502, 510. 
 
dva — iSti] 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 349 
 
 ava, 448 (1) ; in comp., 
 
 Appendix I. 
 ava^aWofiai, 330. 
 dvdyKTj Iffrt, 368 g, 
 dvSdvti}, 328. 
 dvsvt 402. 
 dvsxofiai, 330 (Obs. 5), 
 
 549 (6). 
 avQitnafiaif 328. 
 dvTi, 449 (1), 424*; in 
 
 comp., 426, Appendix 
 
 I. 
 avTiXeyo), 368 5. 
 dvTiiroiovfiai, 327*. 
 dviadg, 324 (6). 
 dvui, 402. 
 ajioc, dvdiwg, 41 4; with 
 
 Infin., 527. 
 dSiS, 330, 369 5, 414. 
 aTTayopEvui, 330 (Obs. 5), 
 
 333, 369 c, 549(5). 
 diraipo), 461 (1). 
 dTraXKdaau), 410 (as). 
 aTrajOEffKo), 328. 
 aTTSiQio. 328.^ 
 aTTEiXw, 328, 368 a 
 aTTHfu, 410 (o). 
 direipoQ,, 405. 
 aTTS^w, d:ffl;^o;iflti, 41 0(a). 
 aTrttrrw, 328, 368 5. 
 dvo, 449 (2) ; in comp., 
 
 416, Appendix I. 
 dTTodldofiai, 414. 
 dTToSidpdaicw, 376 (a). 
 aTToBvyaKio, 461 (2). 
 dTroKpvTTTOfiaij 330*. 
 d-TroXainj), 327*. 
 dTToXvai, 409, Obs. 1. 
 dTTopw, 327*, 415. 
 diroiTT-IXXii), 476 (5). 
 dvonTfpS), 330*, 415. 
 dTTOTOyxdi'w, 327*. 
 diroipsvyd), 409, Obs. 1. 
 S.TrTOjiai, 327*. 
 apa, djoa /i^, 3446. 
 apa, 600 (4V 
 dpkdKO), 328, 328*. 
 dpiaTivtti, 411 (5). 
 dpvovfiat, 368 5. 
 dpxnv, 382. 
 apxof, apxojiai, 327 *, 
 
 330 (Obs. 6), 410 (c), 
 
 549 (6). 
 aaiKvoc, 324 (5). 
 
 art, 361 (Obs. 2), 547 (5). 
 
 aVuxii, 327*. 
 
 av, 600 (5). 
 
 aiiriKa, 361 (1, Obs. 2), 
 
 547 (a), 
 aiirof, 570, 585 (3), 586 
 
 (4); in Dep. Statements, 
 
 367 (Obs. 1) ; = aiid 
 
 all, 428 c. 
 df' ov, £| ou, 346 (a), 
 
 , ^^^ 1^>- 
 dfaipovfiai, 330*, 381 
 
 (Obs.), 416. 
 
 dipiriixi, 409, Obs. 1. 
 
 dxBop.M, 368 e, 430. 
 
 ^aatXtvia, 327*- 
 /3o?)ew, 328. 
 (3ov\ivofiai, 330. 
 ^ov\oiiai, 330, 369 5 ; 
 
 ;3o!;XEt,;3ouX£(7e£,3445 
 
 (Obs. 3). 
 
 yanov/uu, yajiia, 328, 
 
 328*. 
 ydp, 314, 600 (6). 
 7£, 600 (7). 
 ykyriBa, 368 e. 
 yeXw, 376. 
 ykp.ti)j 415, 
 ylj/H, 431, Obs. 
 yevofiai, 327*. 
 yiyvojMu, with Dat., 422; 
 
 with Partic, 549 (o). 
 yiyvbitTKiii, 368 (£. 
 yXiXOftai, 327*. 
 yoDv, 600 (8). 
 ypd0a), 369 5 (Obs. 1) ; 
 
 ypdipofiai, 408. 
 yvjivog, yviiviH, 415. 
 
 Saxpvu), 376 (d). 
 21,^314, 6p0 (9). 
 SiSoiKa, dkSia, 330, 368/. 
 Sii, 327* (and Obs. 4), 
 
 368^, 415. 
 ^EtKvvjut, 331, 368 £^. 
 Shvoc, with Infin., 527. 
 Jso/iai, 327*, 333, 369 5, 
 
 415. 
 Ssov, 361 (2). 
 
 SEvrepoQ, 411 (5). 
 dkxopuu, with Infin., 528. 
 Sito, 368g (Obs. 4), 415 
 
 (Obs. 2); Jflv, 529. 
 517,314 (Obs. 2), 600(10). 
 S^Biv, 600 (11). 
 J^Xoe £'Vi, 549 (o). 
 ^jjXw, 368 (i. 
 Sriiioat^, 431, Obs. 
 JiJTrov, 600 (12). 
 iijra, 600 (13). 
 5id, 451, 442 ; in comp., 
 
 377, Appendix I. 
 Sidy<v, 461 (1), 549 (a). 
 diakeyoiiaL, 428 (a). 
 Siavoovftai, 330, 533 
 
 (Obs. 3). 
 diariXd), 549 (a), 
 Sia^kpOfiai, 428 (a) ; 5ia- 
 
 0spw, Sia0opos, 410(a). 
 5tMiTKo/jai,330,461 (Obs. 
 
 2); JtidffKiu, 330«,333. 
 JiJwjiii, 331, 464, 472 ; 
 
 with Infin., 628. 
 SiKatSv Eirrt, ^iKaioq eiixi, 
 
 368 g, and Obs. 3. 
 SUriv, 382, 402. 
 SioTi, 346 (e), 349. 
 SLTrXdaiog, 411 (6). 
 dLti)KlO, 408. 
 doKEi, 368.9; ^okw, 368 a 
 
 (and Obs. 1) ; wg ipoi 
 
 SoKetv, 529. 
 JouXeum, 328. 
 Svvap.ai, 330. 
 Svvaanvo), 327*. 
 ^uvaroc with Infin., 527. 
 
 lav = if, 346 (/), 3.i4 
 (Ic), 354*, 357 a, 357 c 
 (Obs. 1); lav Kai, Koi 
 iav, 346 (g), 358. 
 
 fiOtv : €t av : : ^aaiKkd ; 
 PaaiXrja, 364* (Obs.); 
 Eav r£ . . . . Eav te, 
 357 a (1). ^ 
 
 £a«r6v,Eaurouc,556-558. 
 
 lyywe, 402, 426, Obs. 2. 
 
 iyKparriQ, 404. 
 
 E^Ei, inDeliberativeQuest., 
 344 5 ; in Conditional 
 Sentences, 356 (with 
 dv, Obs. 1). 
 
350 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 [MIXu — tiaaiS/iai 
 
 i9iKo>, 330, 369 h. 
 
 tl = if, 346 (/), 353- 
 357; with Future In- 
 die, minatory or moni- 
 tory, 354 (Obs.); with 
 bare Subjunctive, 502 
 (a) ; El Kai, Koi E(, 346 
 (gr), 358; =<Aai, 368e 
 (Obs. 1) ; = whether, 
 370 a (1) ; d Se /iri, 
 357 a (2). 
 
 E10E, El yap, 342, 350 
 (Obs. 3). 
 
 £i9iffnai, 330. 
 
 Eirajw, 368 a. 
 
 EiKo^ Effn, 368 5^. 
 
 EiKu), 410 (a). 
 
 Ei>i, 324 ; with Dat., 422 ; 
 withPartic, 496(1, 2). 
 
 Eipyw, 369 c. 
 
 Elf, k, 448 (2), 424* (2), 
 425 (Obs. 3); in corap., 
 378, Appendix I. 
 
 Eiffayoj, 408. 
 
 EiVjSnXXw, ififSaWd), 461 
 
 (1)-, 
 liaitpaaau), 330*- 
 Eiow, 402. 
 EfrE, 314 (Ob?. 1); eite 
 
 .... EtT£, 357a (1), 
 
 370 a (1); with firi, 
 
 370 ft (ObB. 3). 
 tiii)9a, 330, 
 k, IS, 449 (3) ; in comp., 
 
 378, 416, Appendix I. 
 'iKaaroQ, 577 (i). 
 EKOTEpOe, 577 (ft). 
 ekJOm, 330*. 
 iKEivog, 567. 
 EKTriTTTUI, 461 (2). 
 EKroc, 402. 
 EKiiv, 324 (5) ; Ikoiv eZvui, 
 
 529. 
 iXnffffoiifiai, 411 (ft). 
 iXavvu), 461 (1). 
 
 eXeuSepoc, AEU^Epui, 410 
 
 (a).^ 
 ^XXiTT^f, 415. 
 a7r,'?w, 330 (Obs. 4), 
 
 368 a (and Obs. 1). 
 IfiirELpoQ, 405. 
 inwlir\rifu, E/iirXswe, 415. 
 l/nrpoaOiv, 402. 
 
 ^, 450 (1) ; in comp., 
 
 426, Appendix I. 
 kvavriov, 402. 
 ^nvrtoii^at, 328. 
 ivSirii, 415. 
 ivlkx^Tai, 368 jr. 
 ivSvu,, 3i0*. 
 'iviKa, 402. 
 EvSa, EV0EV, 346 (6), 348 
 
 (Obs. 1, 2). 
 h^icTa^iai, 328. 
 ivriXKonai, 328. 
 £V7-oe, 402, 444. 
 i^ECTTi, 368 g ; t^fariv 
 
 ilfiLV evSai^oaiV uvat, 
 
 532 (2—4). 
 ^Vl^i, 461 (1). 
 IJdv, 361 (2). 
 rCw, 402. 
 ^TrayylXXojuai, 368 a. 
 
 ETTEi, iirnSr), of Time, 
 
 346 (a), 3 47; of Reason, 
 
 346 (c), 349. 
 iirdyofiai, 330. 
 ^TTi, 456, 425 (Obs. 3); 
 
 in comp., 378, 426, 
 
 Appendix I. 
 kirideris, 415. 
 ImBviiriTiKdg, 404. 
 (l7ri0i;fii3,327»,33O, 369ft. 
 
 kTTlKOVpH, 328. 
 
 ^7riXai'9ai/o/tai,327*(and 
 Obs. 1), 368 d. 
 
 k-TTiK-fltTflMV, 404. 
 
 Itti^eXijc, 404. 
 im/iEXoii/iai, 327*, 369 a. 
 
 ■ ETTIVOW, 330. 
 
 ^TTiarafiai, 330, 368 d. 
 imarqiiuiv, 405. 
 ETTiraffffw, 328. 
 imrriSuoQ, with Infin., 
 
 527. 
 liriTiiiS), 328. 
 ImrpETTW, 331, 333, 369ft; 
 
 with Infin., 628. 
 i7rij;£ipu), 330. 
 cVo^ai, 328. 
 iTTpia/itiv, 414. 
 ?py(^, 431, Obs. 
 iprjiioc, 415. 
 ipiZw, 428 (a). 
 Ipd, 327*. 
 epiorijj, 330*. 
 
 EffTF, 346 (a), 347. 
 
 £<7ri, 322*, 368 jr; toH 
 omitted, 324 (2). 
 
 Eorxaroc, 395, 587. 
 
 ETEpoe, 411 (6). 
 
 IrXrii; 330. 
 
 Eroi/io£, with Infin., 527. 
 
 evSai^oviZdt, 412 (a). 
 
 iiiBvQ, 547 (a). 
 
 £«\a;8oi)/iai, 330, 369 o 
 (Obs. 1), 376 (ft). 
 
 evTTopui, 415. 
 
 evpitTKtti, 368 (2. 
 
 Ev^o/iai, 330, 369 6. 
 
 i^if/jai, 327*, 380. 
 
 £0tK;i/ov/iai, 327*. 
 
 I^i(rrq/ii, with Infin., 528. 
 
 l^vv, 482. 
 
 £Xo;iai, 327* ; Exw, 330 ; 
 with Participle, 4911 
 (3); EX(o, oiiK Exw, o 
 ri, with Subj., p. 208, 
 Obs. 3; Exuv, 324(6); 
 ex' J/Tuxofii 324 (6), 
 461 (1). 
 
 la, 333, 369 ft. 
 
 gwc, 346 (a), 347. 
 
 ?7)Xul, 412 (o). 
 
 ^,^yap, 344c, 600(14). 
 fi = or, 314; =(7iaj?, 346 
 
 (A), 359 (2, p._200); 
 
 omitted, Obs. 2; ?) witte, 
 
 346 (A), 360 (2). 
 5, oiry, of Place, 346 (ft), : 
 
 348 ; of Comparison, 
 
 346 (h), 359. 
 TjyE^ov.vu), 327*. 
 r/yoi>ai, 327* (and Obs. 
 
 3), 368 a (and Obs. 1). ' 
 jfSofiai, 368 e, 376 {d, 
 
 Obs.), 430. 
 riSuq, with Infin., 527. 
 riKiara, 344 c. 
 rfKuj, 468, 475. 
 {i^iiiTU?, 391, Obs. (ft). 
 r)v rtpa, 474. 
 ■fjviKa, when, 346(a), 347. 
 riaaSiiiai, 411 (ft), 468, 
 
 475. 
 
QapaiS — vofiiJ^ii}] 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 351 
 
 9ap(rai, dappSi, 328*, 376 
 
 e««/ua?w, 368 e, 376, 412. 
 ffiKm, 330. 
 Hf-paTTivto, 328*- 
 diyyavoi, 327*. 
 QvyaKu, on tombs, 468. 
 9;u»)viD, 376 (d). 
 
 liios, 425, Obs. 1 ; tSif, 
 
 431, Obs. 
 ifpoc, 425, Obs. 1. 
 iKavoQ with Infin., 527. 
 ij'a=w/4ere, 346(6), 348; 
 
 exclamatory, 370a (2); 
 
 = m order that, 350, 
 
 367 (4). 
 
 KaOapoe, 410 (a), 
 KaOiaTtifii, with Infin., 
 
 528. 
 /cm, 314, 358 (Obs. 1), 
 
 600 (1.5); Kai Sri, 343 
 
 (Obs.). 
 Kaimp, 358 (Obs. 1), 361 
 
 (1, Obs. 2), 547 (d). 
 Katpog koTi, 368 ^r. 
 Kairoi, 600 (16). 
 
 KoXoV k(TTl, 368 ^f. 
 
 Ka/ivu, 330 (Obs. 5), 54 1 
 
 (6). 
 KaprepS, 330 (Obs. 5), 
 
 549 (6). 
 Kara, 452 ; inoomp., 416, 
 
 Appendix I. 
 KaraytyvttiffKw, 409, Obs. 
 
 2. 
 KaraSmdZoi, 409, Obs. 2. 
 KUTaKpiviii, 409, Obs. 2. 
 i:aTa\afi(3dv(t}, 368 £^. 
 /caraXiJw, 410(c), 461(1). 
 KaravTiKpv, 402. 
 Karail/ritjiiZofiai, 409, Obs. 
 
 2. 
 KaTriyopH, 409, Obs. 2. 
 Karw, 402. 
 
 KfVOC, KEJ/W, 415. 
 
 keXeuo), 328*, 333, 369 J, 
 
 476 (6). 
 KtpavvVfii, 428 (a). 
 KriSo/iai, 327*. 
 
 KA.aiw, 376 (rf) ; rcXa/ajv, 
 
 324 (6). 
 Koivog, 425, Obs. 1 ; koiv^, 
 
 431, Obs. 
 Kotvtitvut, 428 (a). 
 Bparw, 327* (and Obs. 2), 
 
 411 (6). 
 Kpivui, 408. 
 KpiWrw, 330*. 
 Kpitipa, 402. 
 ktSiimi, 482, 490. 
 KUpiog, 4ii4. 
 Bupip, with Participle, 
 
 496 (1). 
 bwMJw, 369 c, 410 (a). 
 
 \dQp^, 402. 
 
 Xaewv, 324 (6). 
 
 Xafi^avoiiai, 327*. 
 
 Xafi^avu), 528. 
 
 XavSavu, 376 (o), 549 (a). 
 
 Xarptwo), 328. 
 
 Myu, 328, 330*, 368 a 
 
 (andObs. 1), 3696(and 
 
 Obs. 1), 476 (6). 
 \ei7rofia1, 411 (6). 
 Xriyia, 327*, 330 (Obs. 5), 
 
 649 (6). 
 Xoycjj, 431, Obs. 
 XoiSopovfiai, 328. 
 XoiSopai, 328*. 
 XoiTToe, 391, Obs. (J). 
 Xi;?roi;^ai, 368 e, 376 (d, 
 
 Obs.), 430. 
 \vtnTe\a, 328, 328*. 
 Xuw, 410 (a). 
 
 /ja, 600 (17). 
 juaKapi^u, 412 (o). 
 fiaKiara, 344 c. 
 /jaj-eavw, 330, 368(e,410 
 
 (J). 
 fiaxoiiai, 428 (a). 
 fieyaipta, 328. 
 juSkyLai, 327*- 
 
 /JEIOVEKTW, 411 (6). 
 
 ^sXa /J0(, 327*, 369 a. 
 
 jusXXu), 330 (with what 
 tenses of Infin., Obs. 3), 
 478, 496 (4); £>eXXoj/, 
 356 (5). 
 
 idftvviiai, 327*, 330, 490, 
 
 493, 494;/j. ore, 368d 
 (Obs. 3). 
 
 liklKpo/jiai, 328, 376 (d). 
 
 lisv, 314, 600 (18). 
 
 likvTot, 314 (Obs. 2), 600 
 (19). 
 
 jiha), 376 (c). 
 
 fikaog, 395, 587. 
 
 fieffTOQ, 415. 
 
 /iera, 453 ; in comp., 377, 
 Appendix I. ; = and, 
 322* (3). 
 
 fisTafLe\ofiaL, p.£Tafi£\ei 
 jioi, 368 c. 
 
 utraW, 36HObs. 2), 402, 
 547 (a). 
 
 }itTk\ti), 428 (a). 
 
 fikroxoQ, 405. 
 
 /*£Xpi, oXP'i 346 (a), 347. 
 
 ;i47J = «oS, 3416, 342, 343, 
 347(2), 348, 352. 354, 
 355,358,361,364(1), 
 364(26), 364 (2c, Obs. 
 6), 365(3), 368 a (Obs. 
 2),368d(Oba.l),3ti9a; 
 = 2es*,346(d),350,367 
 (5), 368/; as interro- 
 gative particle, 344.c; 
 summary, 592, 600 
 (20);;tt)}o4, 3686(and 
 Obs.), 368/, 369c, 594 
 — 596;oi;i^,597.598. 
 
 ;ij))Je, 314, 3416, 350(2); 
 jxriS' £1, liTjd' kav, 346 
 (3), 358 (Obs. 2), 600 
 (25). 
 
 fiijv, 600 (21). 
 
 lirin, 314. 
 
 ^Tixavojfiai, 369 a. 
 
 liiyvVfii, 428 (o). 
 
 uiuvJ7(7Eo^ai, jiijivrjiiai, 
 327*(andObs.l),368d. 
 
 fiwBiji, fitaOovftat, 414. 
 
 livriiiovevuj, 327*- 
 
 Hvrijiuiv, 404. 
 
 fiovog, 587. 
 
 /xtoi^, 344 c. 
 
 vai, 344 c. 
 v4 600 (22). 
 j/7km, 468, 475. 
 vofiil^iii, 368 a (and Obs. 
 1).- 
 
352 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 \y6fiif — irKovmoQ 
 
 vofK^f 431, Obs. 
 vvv, 600 (23). 
 
 6, r), TO, 573 — 590 ; 6 
 auTOQ, 428 {d), 585 (3). 
 
 Ti, with Superl., 359 
 (Ic). 
 
 o^E, 560, 561, 577 (i), 
 586 (1). 
 
 SeEVjOiroeei/, 346(6), 348. 
 
 01, 346 (6) ; exclamatory, 
 370 a (2). 
 
 oZ^a, 330, 368(«, 490,493. 
 
 oi'moe, 425, Obs. 1. 
 
 oifiioZt^, 376 {d). 
 
 oio/iai, 316(2), 368(1 (and 
 Obs. 1). 
 
 olow, ola, with Partic, 
 361 (Obs. 2), 547 (6) ; 
 olov re, 368 S'. 
 
 olof, exclamatory, 345, 
 370a(2),3706(Ob8.1); 
 relative, 362 ; causal, 
 364 (2, Obs. 1); con- 
 secutive, 364 (2, Obs. 
 7) ; olof re, 330, 527. 
 
 oI(t9' ovv 8 Spdaov, 365 
 (2), 521. 
 
 olxofiai, 468, 475, 549 (a). 
 
 ixvui, 330, 368/. 
 
 oXiyiopw, 327* 
 
 g\of, 395, 588, 589. 
 
 ofiiKH, 428 (a). 
 
 ojivviit, 368 a, 376. 
 
 oftoXoyWf 368 a. 
 
 o/ioD, 428 (rf). 
 
 dvFidiZi^j 328. 
 
 dvivafiai, 327*, 328*. 
 
 07ri(T9fr, 402. 
 
 oTToi, interrog., 370 o (1). 
 
 oTToiof, interrog., 370 a 
 (1) ; in det, 571 (Obs. 
 
 1). 
 OTToaoQ, interrog., 370 a 
 
 oTTorepoc, interrog., 3700 
 (l);indef.,671(Obs.l). 
 
 Bn-ou, interrog., 370 a (1). 
 
 bjruif = how, 370 a (1); 
 = (fcs, 346(A), 359; = 
 in order that, 346 [d), 
 350 , = that, 367 (4), 
 369 a, 368/ (Obs. 3), 
 
 369 a (Obs. 3), 309 b 
 (Obs. 2) ; = sec to it 
 that, 341a (Obs. 3), 
 369 a (Obs. 4). 
 oTTwe dv, 350 (Obs. 1), 
 
 369 a (Obs. 3), 502*. 
 opyli^ofiai, 368 e, 430. 
 (Sptyofiai, 327*. 
 
 6p/iu, ofjiiSiiai, 461 (1). 
 
 opai, 368d, 369a(Obs.l). 
 
 lie, Hirne, 663, 362 ; 
 causal, 364 (2a) ; final, 
 364 (2 6) ; consecutive, 
 364 (2 c) ; interrog., 
 
 370 a (1), 370i(Obss. 
 1,2); co-ordinate,314*. 
 
 Of, {}, demonstrative, 
 
 566. 
 'iaye, 564. 
 
 'oaoq, exclamatory, 345; 
 370 a (2), 370 6 (Obs 
 1); relative, 362;cau 
 sal, 364 (2, Obs. 1) 
 consecutive, 364 (2, 
 Obs. 7); with Infin 
 627. 
 SffTrsp, 664. 
 ba^paivojiai, 410 (6). 
 '6aif, 346 (h), 359 (1 d). 
 8r£, oTrore, of Time, 346 
 (a), 347, 368 d (Obs. 
 3) ; of Reason, 346 (c), 
 349; as Relative Ad- 
 verb, 362 (Obs. 1). 
 on = because, 346 (c) ; 
 = that, 367 (3), 368 
 a — e; = as, with Su- 
 perl., 346 (h), 359 (c). 
 Qv, ov Sfjra = no, 344 c. 
 ov and nr], 691 — 598; 
 
 600 (20), 600 (24). 
 ov, rjg, S>v = whose, 577 
 
 (c). 
 ov, oX, he., local, 346 (6), 
 
 348. 
 ovSk, 314, 600 (25); oif 
 ft', 346 (g), 358 (Obs. 
 
 2)- 
 oix tad' 'omig Xeiaifii, 
 
 610. 
 ovKoiiv, 600 (27). 
 ovKovv, 600 (28). 
 ovv, 314 (Obs. 2), 600 
 
 (26). 
 
 ouv^Ka, oQovvtKa = be- 
 cause, 346 (c), 349; 
 = that, 367 (Obs. 5). 
 
 oiirt, 314,600(29); ovre 
 . , . ovre, with I'lural 
 Verb, 323. 
 
 o«roc, 660—562. 577(6), 
 586 (1). 
 
 oiiriuf, aSe, 560, 572. 
 
 6^Ei\(ii, 330. 
 
 TraXai, with Pres., 465; 
 
 with Past Impf., 473. 
 jravv /liv ovv, 344 c. 
 irapa, 442, 457; in corap., 
 
 377, 426, Appendix I. 
 TTapayykXXw, 369 6. 
 irapaivai, 328, 331. 
 TrapaKiKevo/iai, 328, 333. 
 TrapaXvoj, 410 (c). 
 TrapaffKivdl^ofiat, 369 a. 
 7r7pE5^w, with Infin., 528. 
 Trac, 395, 588, 589. 
 ira(T;^ui, ti or KaKuig, 461 
 
 (2). 
 Ttavojiai, 327*, 330 (Obs. 
 
 5), 549(6). 
 •Kavtji, 410 (c). 
 ir£?5, 431, Obs. 
 
 TTElfiopXW, 328. 
 
 mteofiai, 328, 328 * ; 
 
 mieu, 328*, 464, 472. 
 TrEipw/itai, 327*, 330. 
 TreXac. 425, Obs. 2. 
 TTE/iTroj, 331, 476(^); with 
 
 Infin., 528. 
 
 TTEJ/Jje, 415. 
 TTEvSw, 376 (d), 
 
 iTEp, 600 (30). 
 
 TTSpdv, 402. 
 
 TTEpt, 458 ; in comp., 377, 
 
 426, Appendix I. 
 mpiylyvoiiai, 411 (6). 
 TTEptopw. 549 (e), 
 irj, 431, Obs. 
 Ttnrpaaicit), 414. ' 
 iri(TTeww,328,328*,368a, 
 ttXeovektw, 411 (6). 
 TrXijV, 402, 600 (31). 
 ■!r\i](yr\Q, 7r\»)pw, 415. 
 7rAi7(Tiov, 402, 425, Obs. 
 
 2. 
 TrXoutreoc, 415. 
 
Itoiovai — XP^] 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 353 
 
 TToioCfiai, 414, Ob3. 1 ; 
 in peiiphrases, 461 (3, 
 Obs. 1). 
 
 irotui, 330*, 368 (i, 369 6; 
 koKiSq or fi, with Par- 
 tic, 549 (J). 
 
 TToXf/iui, 428 (a). 
 
 TtoXKaTtKaawQ, 411 (6). 
 
 ■KoXiii, 324 (4, 5), 391 
 (Obs. *), 574.^ 
 
 TTortpoi' . . . , ^, 344 c, 
 370 a (1). 
 
 irpaaaoiiai, 330*. 
 
 •jrpaaaio, 369 C(. 
 
 TrpcTTfi, 368 gf. 
 
 5rpiv, 346 (o), 347 (3). 
 
 n-po, 449 (4), 424* (1); 
 in comp,, 416, Appen- 
 dix I. 
 
 irpoaipovjuai, 330. 
 
 vpoBvfiog, 404. 
 
 TrpoKaXoiJ/iai, 369 &. 
 
 irpoc, 469, 424* (2), 425 
 (Obs. 3); in comp., 378, 
 426, Appendix I. 
 
 npbg Is, 447 (Obs.). 
 
 irpoariKH, S68g (Obs. 1). 
 
 irpoffn-oiou/tai, 368 a. 
 
 irpoffTaaffiOf 328, 331, 
 333, 369*. 
 
 jrpdffw, irdppui, 402. 
 
 TTporplffw, 369 b. 
 
 TTpo^aaiv, 382 ; Trpo- 
 (paau, 431 (Obs.). 
 
 jrpwrauw, 411 (6). 
 
 wpwrof, Trpwroi', 324(4). 
 
 nvvBavofiM, 368 c2, 410 
 (i), and Obs. 3. 
 
 TTft), 600 (32). 
 
 irixiKiS, 414. 
 
 n-wf av, of Wish, 342 
 (Obs. 3). 
 
 pdSiog, with Infin., 527. 
 
 arifiaivoi, 328, 331. 
 alyy, 431, Obs. 
 moTTui, 369 o (Obs. 1). 
 tmaviKui, 327*, 415-. 
 UTrivSojiai, 428 (a). 
 OTTTO^w, 330, 369 I. 
 avovijilin, 330, 3690. 
 
 arkpyia, 368 e. 
 arkpofiai, 327*, 415. 
 OTOxaKofiai, 327* 
 arparriyiS, 327*. 
 (T7-uyvdg, with Infin., 527. 
 avyyevrig, 425, Obs. 1. 
 avyyiyviixTKbi, 328. 
 (T?;y^aipw, 369 6. 
 ffi;\M, 330*. 
 avji^aiva, 368 jr (and 
 
 Obss. 1, 2). 
 (T«j«;8ouX£iiw,|328, 369 6. 
 avfi^kpeif 328. 
 ffiv, lui/, 450 (2) ; in 
 
 comp., 426, Appendix 
 
 I. 
 avvoiSa i/jtavTt^f 368 d 
 
 (Obs. 2). 
 ff^dXXo/iai, 327*. 
 
 T£, 314. 
 
 TEKiVTiS, 461 (1). 
 
 -rsoff, Verbals in, 344 5, 
 
 356. 
 TspTTOfiatf 368 e. 
 r?)v Tfltxiirr*;!', ttjv Trpw- 
 
 ri))/, 382. 
 riKrw, 468. 
 Ti/iiog, tI/ioS, 414. 
 i-I/iwpoii/iai, 328*, 376(ft), 
 
 408 ; ri/twpw, 328. 
 rtj/o/tat, 376 (6), 408. 
 rig, n, meanings of, 568. 
 TO vvv, TO irpiv, 382. 
 701, 600 (33)._ 
 ToioaSi, TowvTog, 560, 
 
 571. 
 ToXjiw, 330. 
 -roc, Verbals in, 543. 
 ToaoaSe, ToaovTog, 560, 
 
 571. 
 Tvyxavio, 327 * ; with 
 
 Participle, 496(1), 549 
 
 TvpavvEuu), 327 . 
 r^ ovri, 431, Obs, 
 
 VTTayb}, 408. 
 viraKoiiu), 328. 
 iTrapxctv, 368 g' ; with 
 
 Partic, 549 (a) ; with 
 
 Dative, 422. 
 
 iffsp, 454, 424* (1): in 
 comp., 377, 416, Ap- 
 pendix I. 
 
 UTTfpi^dJ, 411 (5). 
 
 inrriptTui, 328. 
 
 VTn(7xvovp.aij 330 (Obs. 
 4), 331, 368 a. 
 
 vvo, 460, 327 (substitutes 
 for, Obs. 1); denoting 
 Cause, 430, Ob". 1 ; in 
 comp., 377, Appendix 
 I. 
 
 VTTodkxofiaL, 368 a. 
 
 VTToXafJilSdvUj 368 a. 
 
 viroTTTevtt), 368 a. 
 
 vaTEpog, i'aTipm, 411 (6). 
 
 i^iffiai, 327*. 
 
 ii^iffTafiai, 368 a. 
 
 ^aivcjf Z68d; ({taivofiat 
 
 with Partic, 549 (a). 
 ^daKiii, 368 a (and Obs. 1). 
 <l>uSofim, 327*. 
 0£pw (3apkixtg or ;^ctA£7rwg, 
 
 368 e; with Infin., S28. 
 ^£wyw, 330, 376 (a), 408, 
 
 461 (2), 468, 475. 
 0))/ii, 328, 368 a (and 
 
 Obs. 1), 369 6; = aid, 
 
 344 c. 
 (ji9dvii>, 549 (a) ; ^Baadg, 
 
 324 (6). 
 ^eovM, 328, 412 (a), 
 0lXu>, 330. 
 
 ij)ol3£p6g, with Infin., 527. 
 ipojSovfiaii 330, 368/. 
 ijipovrl^ia, 327 *, 369 a 
 
 (Obs. 1). 
 0povp(i>, 369 a. 
 ^vXdaffofiatf 376(6), 369a 
 
 (Obs. 1). 
 0u(T€t, 431, Obs. 
 
 ;^;atow, 368 c, 376 (c?, 
 
 Obs.), 430. 
 XaKeiralvb), 368 e, 430. 
 XaXeirog, with Infin., 527. 
 ^apt^ojuai, 328. 
 Xapiv, 402. 
 ^pEwv ^ori, 368 flf. 
 xpjj, 368 gr; xp^") 3**^ 
 
 356. 
 
3S4 
 
 INDEX TO SYNTAX. 
 
 [xp<i/«ii — iSife\iii 
 
 Xpiu/iai, 328, 328* 
 Xiupi?iD, 410 (a). 
 XupiSi 402. 
 XtopiS, 410 (o). 
 
 i(/auw, 327*. 
 yj/ivSonai, 327*. 
 i//))0i^o/tat, 330. 
 
 i5 omitted, 374. 
 «5J6, oBruc, 560, 572. 
 iiviiTog, (Sviof, 414. 
 
 tfivov/iai, 414. 
 
 iipa tari, Ziig, 526 (a, 
 Obs.). 
 
 (Ii£ = ^«), exclamatory, 
 345, 370 a; interroga- 
 tiTe, 370 6 (Obs. 2) 
 = as, 346 (A), 359 
 = w^», 346 (a), 347 
 = 6ecat«ie, 346(c), 349 
 = in order that, 346 
 (d), 350 (with av, Obs. 
 1); = so that, 346(e), 
 352; = tto«, 367 (3), 
 868 a— «, 369 a (Obs. 
 
 8) ; = in oBruf, 864 
 (2, Obs. 1) ; with Su- 
 per!., 359 (Ic); with 
 Partic, 547 (J and e); 
 i>Q £t, 360 (1, Obs. 2) ; 
 (iff eiVeiv, 629, 424 (o). 
 
 lie, Prep. 448 (3). 
 
 liaiTEp, 346 (h), 359 ; &<t- 
 TTtp ti, iiavep &v tt, 
 346 (A), 360 (1). 
 
 iSuT-E, 346(e), 852, 368 o 
 (Obs. 2). 
 
 a!0E\ov, 342 (Obs. 4). 
 
 i!i0£Xui, 828*. 
 
^axMd (Brcimmar ^ttu&^ 
 
 GREEK ACCIDENCE. 
 
 By E. fl. SOflflEIlSCHEIN, IH.fl. Oxon., PpofessoF of Greek and Iiatin In 
 ]Hason College, Birmingham. 
 
 SOME PERSONAL OPINIONS. 
 
 " The adaptation to the present state of knowledge seems most judioiously 
 carried out." — D. B. Monbo, Provost of Oriel College, Oxford. 
 
 " Prof. Sonnensohein'a Gfreek Grammar is admirably clear in its arrange- 
 ment, and, at the same time, comprehensive in its scope. AH that is unim- 
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 Orator in the University of Cambridge. 
 
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 purposes. The information is presented in a manner at once lucid and exact, 
 and the student who advances to more elaborate works will find that he has 
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 lege, and Reader iu Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge. 
 
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 at K. E. S., Bromsgrove. 
 
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 dous circulation."— W. Pbtebson, M.A. Oxon., Principal of Univ. Coll. 
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 tials in convenient order, without verbiage. It deals with facts. It throws 
 the usual into strong relief, and subordinates the exceptional. It utihses the 
 knowledge of grammar already attained by the pupil."— Prof. B. J. Whebleh, 
 of CorneU Univ., N.Y. 
 
 " I find the book a marvel of compactness. I am a thorough believer in 
 this method of teaching Greek Grammar to beginners. No wonder Greek 
 studies have to fight their way, when boys are set to learning long lists of 
 exceptions at the outset." — Prof. H. W. Smyth, of Bryn Mawr Univ., Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 " A most attractive book in form and appearance. The idea of teaching 
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 Michigan. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " It has always seemed to us a strange circumstance that in teaching 
 Greek so little use should be made of the pupil's knowledge of Latin Grammar. 
 Professor Sonnenschein's contribution to the well-known ' Parallel Grammar 
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 clear and concise in style and arrangement. . . . Great labour and judgQient 
 have been bestowed upon this, the value of which we have tested by personal 
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 We may oaU the English schools fortunate which begin and continue the 
 learning of Greek on the lines of Sonnenschein, though we do not always 
 agree with his method. What his eminent industry and practical eye have 
 
produced is sufficient for a. comprehensive reading of Greek authors, and 
 assuredly stimulates to a deeper study of the Greek language. I am eagerly 
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 comparison with Latin."— P. Mijlleb, in the Berliner Fhilologtsche Wochen- 
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 "Teachers in search of a really useful Greek Grammar should see this 
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 care should be taken that they are not too difierent in their plan and con- 
 struction, and that the terminology be here the same as in other languages ' 
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 idea is the same as that which lies at the basis of the admirable ' Parallel 
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 first to carry out with brilliant success the principle of simplifying grammatical 
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 in Germany have only to take the English ' Parallel Grammar Series ' as a 
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 (Translated.) 
 
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