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 " L 
 
A COMPLETE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 EMLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 tthh an appendix containing 
 
 A TREATISE ON COMPOSITION, 
 
 SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE,. 
 
 A DEFENSE OF PHONETICS, &c., &o., 
 
 I'OB THE USE OF 
 
 COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 
 W. COLEGROVE, A. M., 
 
 FBESIDBNT OS WSBT YIBaiNIA COLLSQE. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 THE AUTHORS' PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 
 1879. 
 
 & 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1879, by 
 
 W. COLEGBOVE, 
 In the Office of the Libiarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
TO 
 
 PROFESSOR J. TUCKERMAN, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 
 PBBSLDBNT OP THE QBAKD RIVEB DtSTITUTE, 
 
 TBia WOBK IS DEDICATED 
 
 BY TECB ATJTHOK, 
 
 AS A TOKEN OF SINCEKE LOVE AND EESPECT, AHD AS A MEMENTO OP 
 
 A IiONQ AND HAPFT FRIENDSHIP. 
 
 (v) 
 
PEEFAOE. 
 
 Enolish Gbammae is at present in the same condition in whiclx Coper- 
 nicus found Astronomy, when it was taught that the earth is the great 
 centre of the Unirerse, and that the sun, moon, planets, and stars re- 
 Tolye about it once in twenty -four hours. 
 
 The text books are filled with a mass of absurdity and contradiction 
 totally unworthy of the name of seienee ; and the time and labor of 
 those who use them are worse than wasted. 
 
 This state of things is a disgrace to the scholarship of the age, and 
 calls loudly for a reformation. 
 
 The absolute truth of these statements can easily be demonstrated ; 
 but there is no room in this volume for such matter. Lest, however, 
 any one should think the author to be peculiar and extreme in his 
 views, let a few others be heard. 
 
 President Eliot, of Harvard University, says " I consider the present 
 system of teaching English Grammar in our elementary schools WTa- 
 tional and fruitlem." 
 
 Prof. Child, of the same University, says " I do not know that I ever 
 before saw an English Grammar which I would permit my children to 
 look into, so great the chance has been that they would lea/rn nothing 
 or le taught something faiae." 
 
 The New England Journal of Education agrees with Mr. Epes Sar- 
 gent in calling our ordinary grammars " a Hot on American scholar- 
 ship." 
 
 The New York Evening Post refers to the common system as " an 
 ■ irrational system "; and the Maryland School Journal calls it " a nau- 
 seous mixture for unfortunate juveniles." 
 
 Similar testimonies might be multiplied indefinitely ; and they seem 
 to harmonize perfectly with the author's views. They are undoubt- 
 edly sound testimonies ; and there is in fact abundant reason for the 
 almost universal dissatisfaction with English Grammar as taught in our 
 schools. 
 
 In the present work it has been the aim of the author thorougJily to 
 reconstruct the science from its foundation, and to bring it into har- 
 mony with other departments of modern learning ; and he has no doubt 
 
 (Yii) 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 that one year devoted to the study of this treatise will be worth more 
 to the student than ten years spent upon the ordinary books. 
 
 This work is designed more especially for the use of the higher in- 
 stitutions J but, omitting the parts marked with an Asterisk (*) or 
 Obelisk (f), it is sufficiently elementary for any pupils old enough to 
 study grammar at all. It is intended to be a complete treatise, — simple 
 enough for the beginner, and comprehensive enough for the college 
 student. 
 
 Careful attention is invited to all parts of the work, but especially 
 to the brevity, clearness, and Geometrical accuracy of the definitions, 
 to the thorough treatment of Phonetics and Orthography, of Inflection 
 and Derivation, of Analysis and Punctuation, of Synthesis, of Prosody, 
 and of Composition; — to the logical arrangement of the topics, the 
 Scientific Nomenclature, the Classification of the' Irregular Verbs; the 
 treatment of the Prepositions, the multitude of Examples and Exer- 
 cises, the Models of Analysis and Parsing (among which are many solu- 
 tions of grammatical difficulties), the Transformation of Sentences, and 
 the Analytical Index ; — to the Charts of Words, Phrases, and Senten- 
 ces j — and to the perfect adaptation of the work to the Topical Method 
 of recitation. 
 
 The Analysis of Sentences, although very brief and simple, is yet 
 thorough and searching, and also corryplete, — embracing all the senten- 
 ces of the language, while the ordinary systems of Analysis, besides be- 
 ing false and self-contradictory, are very prolix and cumbersome, and 
 are, moreover, defective, — scarcely embracing one-half of the sentences 
 of the language. 
 
 The System of Punctuation, also, which this Analysis has rendered 
 possible, though comprised in a few pages, is more comprehensive and 
 infinitely more practical and correct than any other whatever. It is 
 adequate to the wants of the Printer, and will, it is hoped, bring some- 
 thing like order out of the enAsting chaos in that department. 
 
 The Scientific Nomenclature used (for the first time, so far as the 
 author is aware) in the classification of Words, Phrases, Sentences, 
 etc., seems to be as valuable in Grammar as in Botany or Zoology ; and 
 the employment of it, together with a Scientific Method, appears to 
 justify the word " Scientific " in the Title of this Work. 
 
 The rules for Spelling, Accent, and Syllabication, have been made to 
 conform substantially to the latest edition of Webster's Unabridged 
 Dictionary. 
 
 The chapter on Synonyms, though very short, is very comprehensive, 
 and also very important to the advanced student. 
 
 The brief treatise on Prosody will certainly be appreciated by every 
 intelligent teacher and student as well as by every incipient Poet, as 
 it seems to be the only accessible one of even tolerable completeness. 
 
PBEFAGE. iX 
 
 The advancing civilization of the English-speaking people has cer- 
 tainly reached a point where English Prosody ought to receive much 
 more attention than hitherto. 
 
 The short and practical chapter on Composition will not escape the 
 notice of those who have felt the need of such a thing. 
 
 The set of detached sentences will he found of great service as Ex- 
 ercises for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 The Selections are also valuable, embracing choice specimens of 
 English and American Literature, at intervals of fifty years or less, 
 from Anglo-Saxon times down to the present. 
 
 In the older specimens the original spelling has been preserved, and 
 the punctuation as far as possible. In the specimens, both English and 
 American, belonging to the present century the punctuation conforms 
 to the system given in this work. 
 
 The extremely Important subject of Phonetic Reform receives some 
 attention in Note 1, in the Appendix. 
 
 Finally this work is committed by the author to the hands of his 
 countrymen, and especially of his fellow Teachers, with the hope that 
 it may serve to lighten the labor of instruction, and smooth the rugged- 
 ness of the path which leads up the Hill of Science. 
 
 Especially does the author hope that students may no longer be 
 obliged to waste their time and stultify their intellects in toiling over 
 the miserable trash which has usurped the name of English Grammar, 
 and that Teachers may be saved from the humiliation of being com- 
 pelled to teach for truth and science that which they know to be/aZ«e- 
 hood and utter nonsense. 
 
 West Virginia College, Nov. 23d, 1878. 
 
INTRODUOTIOK". 
 
 PROF. GKIMM ON" THE BKGLISH LASGUAGB. 
 
 The eminent German Philologist, Jacob Grimm, in refer- 
 ence to the English Language, says : 
 
 " No other Language equals it. — With a law and genius 
 of its own, it levies contributions upon all other languages, 
 and incorporates the power and beauty, — ^the heart and core 
 — of every other tongue into it. 
 
 "For perspicuity and force, — for elegance and smooth- 
 ness, — poetry and science, — metaphysics and theology, — the 
 pulpit or the forum, — ^the senate or the bar, — for any and 
 every use, — there is no other language which equals it.* * * 
 
 " The English Language is rapidly spreading into all lauds, 
 and will, according to present indications, soon become the 
 language of commerce in all nations. The English and 
 Americans are in the East Indies, in Australia, at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, and on the coast of China ; — ^in Asia, Africa, 
 Europe and America ; — on all continents, seas, and islands ; — 
 along .all lines of travel, where they find or leave some who 
 speak the language. 
 
 " The English Language has a veritable power of expres- 
 sion such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of any 
 other language of men. Its highly spiritual genius and 
 wonderfully happy development and condition, have been 
 the result of a surprisingly intimate union of the two noblest 
 languages in Europe, th6 Teutonic and the Romanic. 
 
 " It is well known in what relation these two stand to 
 each other in the English tongue, — the former supplying, 
 in far larger proportion, the material groundwork, — the lat- 
 ter the spiritual conceptions. 
 
 " In truth, the English Language, which by no mere acci- 
 (xi) 
 
xii INTBODUOTION. 
 
 dent has produced and upborne the greatest and most 
 predominant poet of modem times, as distinguished from 
 the ancient Classical Poets (I can, of course, only mean 
 Shakspeare), may, with all right, be called a world language ; 
 and, like the English people, it appears destined hereafter 
 to prevail, with a sway more extensive than its present, over 
 all the portions of the globe. 
 
 "In wealth, good sense, and closeness of structure, no 
 other of the languages at this day spoken deserves to be 
 compared with it, — ^not even our German, which is torn, 
 even as we are torn, and must first rid itself of many defects 
 before it can enter boldly into the lists as a competitor with 
 the English." 
 
 THE STUDY OE THE BKHLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The study of language has always been a favorite pur- 
 suit with people of cultivation and refinement, and has 
 always proved a most efficient means of securing that refine- 
 ment of taste and manners and that vigor of intellect which 
 characterize the best society. 
 
 For this purpose the study of the English Language is 
 second to that of no other. In fact we have the best lan- 
 guage in the world, as is acknowledged even by foreigners. 
 
 Such a language ought to be studied faithfully, at least 
 by all who use it, and for reasons almost innumerable. 
 
 OKIGIlfr OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The most ancient inhabitants of Europe of whom we have 
 any accoimt were called Celts (Kelts). 
 
 This term has the same origin as the words Gael and 
 Gaul, and is supposed to have reference to their fair com- 
 plexions. 
 
 They came originally from Asia, settling in the eastern 
 part of Europe first, and afterwards, as their necessities or 
 inclinations prompted, extending their emigrations west- 
 ward until they reached the Atlantic. 
 
 It appears that those who first settled in England were, 
 after a time, driven from their lands by a fresh emigration of 
 
INTRODUCTION. xiii 
 
 adventurers, more warlike or numerous than themselves, and 
 were obliged to take refuge in the highlands of Scotland, 
 whence colonies passed into Ireland. 
 
 The language of these new comers probably did not differ 
 essentially from that of the first, and had some relationship to 
 the Persian. But they were themselves subdued, after a time, 
 by the Romans, whose language, though from the same origin- 
 al stock, had by cultivation become very dissimilar to theirs. 
 
 While under the Romans (about four hundred years) the 
 language of England proper became mostly Latin, but 
 retained a large mixture of words from the native dialect. 
 
 The Roman armies being at length withdrawn from Eng- 
 land, the country was invaded by the Picts and Soots from 
 the north. — In this emergency the Britons invited the 
 Saxons, a warlike people of Celtic origin in Germany, to 
 come to their assistance. 
 
 The Saxons came, and not only drove back the Picts and 
 Scots, but at length subdued the Britons themselves, and 
 remained masters of the country. 
 
 Another German tribe called the Angles, or inhabitants 
 of the level country, whose language was much like that of 
 the Saxons (Old Frisic, whence comes the modern Dutch), 
 went over in great numbers and settled in Britain, and at 
 length gave the name Angl-land, or England to the country. 
 The Jutes also went over in considerable numbers, but 
 were less numerous than the others. 
 
 These people coalesced with the Saxons ; and their mixed 
 language was called the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 This became the prevailing language, but was modified 
 by mixture with the provincial Latin of the Britons. 
 
 This constitutes the basis, or main stock, of the English 
 language. 
 
 The Danes afterward invaded England, and subdued a 
 large portion of it, but were at last repidsed by King Alfred 
 the Great. — Many of them, however, remained in the coun- 
 try • and very many Danish words were incorporated with 
 the language. 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A second Danish invasion afterward modified the language 
 
 still more. 
 
 Subsequently William the Conqueror, being established 
 upon the throne of England, introduced the Norman French 
 as the language of the Court, and of all legal tribunals, and 
 made great efforts to secure its universal adoption by the 
 
 people. 
 
 In this he did not succeed; but the French continued to 
 be spoken by the higher classes for three hundred years; 
 and, as a result, the French element became a very impor- 
 tant one in the national language. 
 
 In the cultivation of the arts and sciences, and by means 
 of commercial and other intercourse, a great multitude of 
 words has also been borrowed in modern times from the 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, German, Spanish, Arabic, 
 Italian, Welsh, and other languages. 
 
 The language of England previous to the invasion by the 
 Romans under Claudius Csesar, A. D. 43, was Celtic ; and 
 from that stock have sprung the modern Welsh, Irish and 
 Scotch, and the recently extinct Cornish. 
 
 During the Roman dominion the language gradually be- 
 came Latin. 
 
 From the establishment of the ^German tribes in the island 
 (about A. D. 4.50) down to the time of Henry III. (about 
 A. D. 1250), the language of England was Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 From A. D. 1250 to. A. D. 1350 the language is called 
 Old English. 
 
 From 1850 to 1550, it is called Middle English. 
 
 Since 1550, the language is called Modern English. 
 
 DIFFICULTY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 It is often said that the English is the most difficult of 
 the European Languages to learn. This is true only in a 
 qualified sense. The actual difficulties are undoubtedly very 
 great ; but they are not inherent in the language, and might 
 easily be removed. The structure of the English is more 
 simple than that of almost any other language in the world ; 
 and if extrinsic and needless hindrances were removed, it 
 
INTRODUCTION: xv 
 
 could be learned in less than half the time required to master 
 the Latin, Greek, German, French, Spanish, or Italian. 
 
 The first great obstacle in the way of the student of our 
 language is its barbarous orthography, which is inexpressi- 
 bly horrid, and which results from the want of an Alphabet. 
 
 The Roman Alphabet now used is no more adapted to the 
 English Language than are the clothes of a boy of ten years 
 to a fuU. grown man. (See Note 1.) 
 
 The second great obstacle in the student's way has hith- 
 erto been the want of a Grammar,^ — an obstacle which it is 
 hoped the present work will measurably overcome. 
 
NOTE TO TEACHEES. 
 
 Ik using this work it is recommended that classes of beginners, 
 especially if young, should omit, at first, the Chapters, Sections, and 
 Paragraphs, marked with either an Asterisk (*) or an Obelisk (f). 
 Older pupils, or those going over the work a second time, may omit 
 only those parts marked with the Obelisk ; and still more advanced 
 students should not omit any part. 
 
 The teacher, of course, should not feel bound to this order ; but, 
 first mastering the work himself, he should exercise a sound discretion 
 in view of the capacity of his class. — The Topical Method of recitation 
 is earnestly recommended ; and in using the Analytical Index of the 
 work (placed at the close of the volume) instead of a set of Questions, 
 either of the following plans may be adopted : 
 
 1. The teacher may turn to the Index, and call for the definitions, 
 etc., separately. 
 
 2. The pupil, having the -Index open before him, may commence 
 reciting, and continue until directed to stop. 
 
 3. The Class may be required to memorize that part of the Index 
 pertaining to each lesson, and to recite first the Synopsis and then the 
 whole of the lesson, without opening the book or being questioned. 
 
 After the memorized lesson has thus been i-ecited, the books should 
 be opened, and the Examples and Exercises examined at the discretion 
 of the teacher. 
 
 (xvi) 
 
A COMPLETE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC CRAMMAR 
 
 OD" THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 PRELIMINARY DEFIinTIONS. 
 
 1. Science is classified knowledge. 
 
 2. Art is skillful practice based on science. 
 
 3. A Word is a sound or a combination of sounds used 
 as the sign of an idea. 
 
 4. A Syllable is a word or a part of a word pronounced 
 by one impulse of the voice. 
 
 6. Ijaugniage is the use of words in communicating 
 ideas, 
 
 6. Writing is the representation of words by visible 
 signs. 
 
 7. A Written Word is the written representation of 
 a word. 
 
 8. Philology is the science of language. 
 
 9. Grammar is that part of philology which relates to 
 correctness in the formation of words, sentences, verses, and 
 stanzas. 
 
 10. Rhetoric is that part of philology which relates to 
 continued discourse. 
 
 11. The English Language is the language of the 
 English people and their descendants. 
 
 13. English Grammar is the grammar of the Eng- 
 lish language. 
 
 (17) 
 
18 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 13. A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a 
 complete assertion. 
 
 14. A Phrase is a collection of words which may form 
 an element of a sentence. 
 
 15. The Subject of a Sentence is the part of it ex- 
 pressing that of which something is asserted. 
 
 16. The Predicate of a Sentence is the part of it 
 expressing that which is asserted. 
 
 17. The Copula of a Sentence is the part of it con- 
 necting the subject with the predicate. 
 
 18. The Subject of Discourse is the thing signified 
 by the subject of a sentence. 
 
 19. Correct Usage is the use of words in all their 
 forms as they were made to be used. 
 
 20. Authorized Usage is a use established by cus- 
 tom. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1. Gold is yellow. 2. Silver is not yellow. 3. In the house. 4. A 
 very great number 5. Some men are very wise. 6. This lesson is not 
 very long. 7. Many men are foolish. 8. Sometimes a man is ex- 
 tremely imprudent. 9. After a long period of very great perplexity. 
 10. John writes. 11. Birds sing. 12. Five little boys. 13. Thou art 
 a good boy. 14. You are n6t very diligent. 15. He writes extremely 
 well.- 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 The Divisions of Grammar are the four parts called 
 Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 PART I— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Orthography is that part of Grammar which pertains 
 to written characters. 
 
 The Divisions of Orthography are Elementary 
 Sounds, Letters, Syllables, Accent, Spelling, and Punctuation. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 
 
 An Elementary Sound (or an Element) is one of 
 the single sounds used in the formation of words. 
 
 A Letter is a character used to represent an Elementary 
 Sound. 
 
OF THE BNOLISH LANG UA QB. ig 
 
 A Letter Equivalent is a combination of characters 
 representing one sound. 
 
 The Number of Elementary Sounds in the Eng- 
 lish Language is. forty-four. 
 
 The Classes of Elementary Sounds are three, 
 Tonics, Subtonics, and Atonies. 
 
 A Tonic Element is a free uninterrupted sound of the 
 voice. 
 
 A Subtonic Element is a sound somewhat interrupted 
 by the vocal organs. 
 
 An Atonic Element is a whispered articulation. 
 
 A Vowel is a letter representing one of the tonic ele- 
 ments. 
 
 A Consonant is a letter representing one of the sub- 
 tonic or atonic elements. 
 
 An Alphabet is an arrangement of all the letters of a 
 language. 
 
 The Latin Alphabet is that used in the Latin and 
 several Modem Languages. 
 
 The English Alphabet is the Latin Alphabet applied 
 to the English Language. 
 
 * The Deficiencies of the English Alphabet are 
 very great, since it has only twenty-six letters to represent 
 the forty-four sounds ; and several of them, as c, x, q, etc., 
 do not represent any sounds which are not represented by 
 other letters. 
 
 * The Phonetic Alphabet is a completed alphabet 
 for the English Language, and contains forty-four letters. 
 
 The Vo'vrels of the Common Alphabet are the 
 letters a, e, i, o, u, w, and y. 
 
 The Consonants are the other letters of the Alphabet. 
 
 Ambiguous Letters. " W" and " y " at the begin- 
 ning of syllables are consonants ; " u " sometime8=the con- 
 sonant "w"; and "i" and "e" sometimeB=the conso- 
 nant "y." 
 
 * The Fundamental Idea of Alphabetic "Writ- 
 ing is to represent each elementary sound of a language in- 
 
20 
 
 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAR 
 
 variably by one letter, and in writing a word to use those 
 letters only wbicb represent the sounds of the word. 
 
 * The Writing of the English Language differs 
 from this plan almost as widely as possible, — the same letter 
 often standmg for several different sounds, and the same 
 sound being represented by several different letters and let- 
 ter equivalents ; and hence it is extremely difficult. 
 
 Correlative Sounds are those made with the organs 
 in the same position, one being a Subtonic, and the other an 
 Atonic. 
 
 Diphthongs are double sounds, or compound tonic ele- 
 ments. 
 
 LiOng Sounds are those requiring most time in pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 Short Sounds are those requiring least time in pro^ 
 nunciation. 
 
 The Time of a Long Sound usually equals that of 
 two short ones. 
 
 * Variation. The length of a sound varies with accent 
 and emphasis ; and the same sound may be long when com- 
 pared with one, but short compared with another. 
 
 * PhonOlogfy is the Science of Elementary Sounds. 
 
 * Comparative Phonology is the Science of the in- 
 terchanges of Elementary Sounds. 
 
 * Phonography is writing words according to their 
 sounds by means of a completed Alphabet. 
 
 * Heterography is the ordinary method of writing 
 words. 
 
 * Phonetic Short Hand is an improved system of 
 Stenography for rapid writing. 
 
 Long. 
 e me 
 1 mildew 
 a mate 
 e mellow 
 a fare 
 a stand 
 
 TABLE OF SOUNDS.— Tonics. 
 
 Short. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Short. 
 
 Umg. 
 
 e remit 
 
 a bar 
 
 a pillar 
 
 u pull 
 
 i satin 
 
 a all 
 
 a windfall 
 
 oo spool 
 
 a inmate 
 
 lock 
 
 o MUook 
 
 n flute 
 
 e mallet 
 
 u bnm 
 
 n heartburn 
 
 i mine 
 
 a inf are 
 
 e hermit 
 
 e patter 
 
 olboU 
 
 a inkstand 
 
 stone 
 
 o millstone 
 
 ou doubt 
 
 
 o go 
 
 indigo. 
 
 
 Short 
 ■a wishful 
 
 00 fireproof 
 u execute 
 
 1 columbine 
 ol parboil 
 
 ou waturepout 
 
OF THE ENOLIBH LANGUAGE. 
 
 21 
 
 SITBTONICS AND ATONICS. 
 
 SvbUmie. 
 b bay 
 d den 
 j join 
 ggo 
 V vaU 
 
 AtmHo 
 
 SubtonU 
 
 AtoMc. 
 
 SuMonlc. 
 
 ppay 
 
 th tben 
 
 tb tbin 
 
 Hive 
 
 t ten 
 
 z zone 
 
 s so 
 
 m may 
 
 cb cbair 
 
 si fuaion 
 
 sb BbaU 
 
 n no 
 
 k key 
 
 
 bbat 
 
 ng sing 
 
 f faU 
 
 r run 
 
 
 w wlU } 
 y yet ) 
 
 
 r bar 
 
 
 Atonic. 
 
 See Note 3. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Man, make, path, bathe, chalk, joke, give, feel, seize, measure, having, 
 lose, found, sing, far, rise, chair, cast, earth, term, cote, coat,hole, whole, 
 bone, stone, tune, coon, rude, rood, mewed, mood, dew, do, brewed, 
 brood, feud, food, use, usual, year, Spaniard, onion, wince, west, in- 
 quest, query, liquefy, quilt, quote, quoin, buoy, royal, persuade, Para- 
 guay, folio, genius, suit, suite, sweet, strengths, shrink, shrill, thrusts, 
 squash, thrash, schist, school, righteous, cetaceous, chameleon. 
 
 SPECIAL CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 Th.e Liquids are the letters 1, m, n, and r. 
 
 The Aspirate is the letter h. 
 
 The Sibilants are the letters s and z. 
 
 The Ambigues are -w and y. 
 
 The Compound Letter is x. 
 
 The Mutes are all the other consonants. 
 
 in 
 
 DIPHTHONGS. 
 " Time " represents a compound sound whose 
 
 elements are represented by "a" in "bar", and "e" in 
 
 'me". 
 "Oi" 
 
 in " Boil " represents a compound sound whose 
 elements are represented by "a" in "fall", and "i" in 
 "fill". 
 
 "Ou" in "Found" represents a compound sound 
 whose elements are represented by "a" in "bar", and " o" 
 in " move ". 
 
PHONETIC ALPHABET.— (See Note 1.) 
 
 COlSrSONANTS. 
 
 l.p 
 
 P 
 
 2.B 
 
 b 
 
 3.T 
 
 t 
 
 4.D 
 
 d 
 
 5.0 
 
 c 
 
 6. J 
 
 j 
 
 7.K 
 
 k 
 
 8.0 
 
 g 
 
 9.F 
 
 f 
 
 10. V 
 
 V 
 
 11.1 
 
 L 
 
 12. P 
 
 i 
 
 13. S 
 
 s 
 
 14. Z 
 
 z 
 
 15. S 
 
 b 
 
 16. Z 
 
 / 
 
 17. H 
 
 h 
 
 18. R 
 
 r 
 
 19. E, 
 
 f 
 
 20. L 
 
 1 
 
 21. M 
 
 m 
 
 22. N" 
 
 n 
 
 23. ]S 
 
 r 
 
 24. W 
 
 w 
 
 25. Y 
 
 y 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 ■8. 
 
 BXAM- 
 
 I FLES. 
 
 m ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 A> 
 
 
 
 Penn 
 
 5een 
 
 Time 
 
 i>ime 
 
 Chime 
 
 /une 
 
 -fflng 
 
 (?o 
 
 Fme 
 
 Fine 
 
 3%ink 
 
 2%en 
 
 )9ome 
 
 Zion 
 
 Shall 
 
 Pusiori 
 
 Sat 
 
 iJun 
 
 Bar 
 
 Zook 
 
 Man 
 
 JTbw 
 
 SiTi^ 
 Went 
 
 Tet 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 26.11 e 
 27.1 1 
 
 28. A a 
 
 29. B 6 
 
 so. A s 
 
 31. A. % 
 
 32. A fi 
 
 33. A d 
 34.0 o 
 
 35. U U 
 
 36. E e 
 37.0 
 
 38.0 
 
 39. (J a 
 
 40. L U 
 
 41. Uu 
 
 42. 1 i 
 43.0 () 
 44.0 O 
 
 nxAxrjjas. 
 
 Long. I Short. 
 
 
 €0^ 
 
 Hero 
 
 Milford 
 
 Maker 
 
 B«lfry 
 Carefal 
 
 
 (22) 
 
 Barton 
 
 Palling 
 
 Volley 
 
 Compitlsion 
 
 Worthy 
 
 Coatless 
 
 Oakland 
 
 Ft^Uoess 
 
 Moving 
 
 Luting 
 
 Timely 
 
 Boiling 
 
 CoMnter 
 
 Behave 
 
 Lentil 
 
 Mature 
 
 Gospel 
 
 Playfair 
 
 Workman 
 
 Dunbar 
 
 Windfall 
 
 Parasol 
 
 Impzilae 
 
 Dilworth 
 
 Turncoat 
 
 Whiteoak 
 
 Grateful 
 
 Teaspoon 
 
 Kesolute 
 
 Pastime 
 
 Parboil 
 
 Bisoount 
 
OF THE ENaZIBH LANaUA&B. 23 
 
 SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 The Letters of the Common Alphabet represent, 
 each, from one to ten sounds, as follows : 
 
 a, 9, as in all, what, dollar, bar, oare, can, came, any, vil- 
 
 e, 7, as in mercy, sergeant, they, mellow, me, pretty, 
 righteous. 
 
 i, 6, as in fir, time, machine, silver, onion, sirrah. 
 
 0, 10, as in nor, worth, borough, accompt, go, whole, 
 move, wolf, women, one. 
 
 u, 9, as in bulge, burnish, Kussia, fiiU, human, use, bury, 
 busy, persuade. 
 
 y, 4, as in Lyme, myrrh, lynx, yes. 
 w, 2, as in went, ewer. 
 
 b, 1, as in bend. 
 
 d, 2, as in do, laughed. 
 
 f, 2, as in fall, of. 
 h, 1, as in hat. 
 
 j, 2, as in joy, hallelujah, 
 k, 1, as in king. 
 
 c, 4, as in come, cent, suffice, officiate. 
 
 g, 3, as in gun, gem, rouge, 
 
 1, 1, as in like, 
 m, '1, as in make. 
 
 n, 2, as in man, sink. 
 
 p, 2, as in pay, cupboard. 
 
 q, 1, as in queen. 
 
 r, 2, as in ring, bar. 
 
 B, 4, as in so, rose, usual, issue. 
 
 t, 2, as in time, motion. 
 
 V, 1, as in vain. 
 
 z, 3, as in zone, azure, chintz. 
 
 X, 4, as in wax, exist, Xenophon, noxious. 
 
 Rule for x. X commonly=ks ; but in the prefix " ex ", 
 when followed in the same word by an accented syllable be- 
 ginning with a vowel or silent " h ", x=gz. 
 
24 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 At the beginning of a word x=z. When followed by 
 " i " representing the sound of " j " consonant, xi:=k8h. 
 
 Rule for C. Before a, o, u, or a consonant, c sounds like 
 k; but before e, i, or y it sounds like s, or z, or sh. 
 
 Rule for g. Befor ea, o, u, or a consonant, g has a palatal 
 sound, as in go ; but before e, i, or y, it usually sounds like j. 
 Rule for r. Before a vowel, r is rough; but after a 
 vowel it is smooth. 
 
 A D^f^graph. is a combination of two letters to repre- 
 sent one sound. 
 
 A Trigraph. is a combination of three letters to repre- 
 sent one sound. 
 
 A Tetragraph is a combination of four letters to repre- 
 sent one sound. 
 
 * CONSONANT DIGRAPHS. 
 The Consonant Digraphs represent, each, from one 
 to four sounds, as follows : 
 th, 3, as in thin, then, Thomas, 
 sh, 1, as in shall. 
 
 ch, 3, as in chain, chasm, machine, 
 gh, 4, as in laugh, hough, burgh, hiccough, 
 ph, 2, as in philosophy, Stephen, 
 ng, 2, as in sing, finger, 
 sc, 2, as in scene, conscious, 
 ck, 1, as in brick, 
 rh, 1, as in rhetoric. 
 
 ANOMALOUS COMBINATIONS. 
 
 gl, in a few words, equals " ly ", as in " seraglio ". 
 gn, in a few words, equals " ny " as in " vignette ". 
 wh equals "hw", as in "while", equal to "hwile". 
 cz equals " ts " as in " Czar ", equal to " Tsar ". 
 
 RULE FOR " CH ". 
 In words from the Latin and Greek, " ch " sounds like 
 '' k " ; in those from the Spanish, like " ch " in ' chain " ; and 
 in those from the French, like " ch " in " machine ". 
 * DOUBLE CONSONANTS. 
 The Double Consonants, bb, dd, etc., constitute a 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LAN& UA GE. 25 
 
 series of digraphs, each sounding like its corresponding sin- 
 gle consonant. 
 
 * MIXED DIQRAPHS (COHSOITATfTS AND VOWELS). 
 
 The Mixed Digraphs represent, each, one or two 
 sounds, as follows : 
 ci, 1, as in special, 
 si, 2, as in pension, fusion, 
 ti, 2, as in motion, question, 
 di, 1, as in soldier, 
 zi, 1, as in glazier, 
 ce, 1, as in ocean. 
 
 * VOWEL DIGEAPHS. 
 The Vowel Digraphs represent, each, from one to 
 seven sounds, as follows : 
 aa, 2, as in Aaron, Haarlem, 
 ae, 3, as in Caesar, Caesarea, Caernarvon, 
 ai, 5, as in laid, fair, plaid, said, captain, 
 ao, 1, as in gaol. 
 
 au, 4, as in haul, hautboy, sf^ge, aunt, 
 ea, 5, as in break, spread, swear, ream, heart, 
 ee, 2, as in meet, been. 
 
 ei, 6, as in conceit, forfeit, veil, heifer, their, eider, 
 eo, 7, as in people, leopard, dungeon, yeoman, galleon, 
 
 feodal, Macleod. 
 
 eu, 3, as in neuter, Eunice, hauteur. 
 
 ia, 1, as in diamond. 
 
 ie, "4, as in grief, pitied, friend, lie. 
 
 oa, 2, as in goad, broad. 
 
 oe, 3, as in foe, shoe, felloe. 
 
 oi, 3, as in boil, choir, tortoise. 
 
 00, 3, as in moon, book, door. 
 
 ou, 7, as in soup, loud, sought, hough, though, through, 
 rough. 
 
 ua, 2, as in guard, Guadaloupe. 
 
 ue, 3, as in true, guest, Gueynsey. 
 
 ui, 2, as in guile, suit. 
 
26 A- COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAR 
 
 aw, 1, as in law. 
 
 ow, 3, as in now, low, knowledge. 
 
 ew, 2, as in new, sew. 
 
 ay, 2, as in day, says. 
 
 ey, 3, as in they, key, eyre. 
 
 oy, 1, as in boy. 
 
 uy, 2, as in guy, Schuylkill. 
 
 * CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS. 
 
 The Consonant Trigraphs represent, each, one or 
 two sounds, as follows : 
 sch, 2, as in schism, schist, 
 tch, 1, as in caoutchouc, 
 rrh, 1, as in myrrh. 
 
 * VOWEL TRIQRAPHS. 
 
 The Vowel Trigraphs represent, each, from one to 
 three sounds, as follows : 
 
 eau, 3, as in beau, beauty, Beauchamp. 
 
 eou, 1, as in gorgeous. 
 
 ieu, 1, as in lieu. 
 
 oeu, 1, as in manoeuvre. 
 
 eoi, 1, as in bourgeois. 
 
 uoi, 1, as in turquois. 
 
 aie, 1, as in slaie. 
 
 aou, 1, as in caoutchouc. 
 
 awe, 1, as in awe. 
 
 iew, 1, as in view. 
 
 aye, 2, as in aye, prayer. 
 
 eye, 1, as in eye. 
 
 eyo, 1, as in eyot. 
 
 uay, 1, as in quay. 
 
 * CONSONANT TETRAGRAPHS. 
 
 tsch, 1, as in Kamtschatka. 
 
 * VOWEL TETRAGRAPHS. 
 ueue, 1, as in queue. 
 
OF THE ENGLI8M LANG VA GE. 27 
 
 SILENT LETTERS. 
 Silent Lietters are those representing no sounds of the 
 •words in which they stand. 
 
 * The use of Silent Letters is very little, as they 
 merely indicate obscurely the former pronunciation of ■words, 
 and, in a few cases, assist in tracing derivations, and in fixing 
 the sounds of other letters. 
 
 * Th.e Cost of Silent Letters is very great, amounting 
 annually, in the United States, to more than the interest 
 on the National Debt. 
 
 The Letters "which are never Silent are f, j, q, r 
 and V. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Debt, doubt, subtle, indict, victuals, benumb, Wednesday, stadtholder, 
 Scheldt, sign, malign, phlegm, apothegm, ghost, John, rhyme, caught, 
 sought, knit, knight, calm, half, kiln, Lincoln, mnemonic, condemn, 
 hymn, psalm, ptyalism, pteropod, coquet, antique, croquet, isle, disme, 
 viscount, depot, Guizot, wrench, write, hour, evil, basin, mason, reason, 
 spoken, shovel, worked, laugh, strayed, give, programme, have, some, 
 day, say, bow, plough, who, corps, corpse, gnat, Xenophon, eclat, billet- 
 doux, receipt, phthisic, czar, raspberry, thistle, hasten, rendezvous, 
 schism, yacht, drachm. 
 
 * THE FINAL " E " 
 The Final " e " is sometimes absolutely silent, as in 
 " give " ; but usually it is employed to indicate the sound 
 of a preceding vowel, as in " hate ", or a preceding conso- 
 nant, as in " sage ", or a preceding digraph, as in " gil^ge ", 
 or " sheathe ", — ^thus forming, with the preceding letter or 
 letters, a digraph or a trigraph. 
 
 * FINAL " E " DIGRAPHS (VOWELS). 
 
 The Pinal " e" Vo-wel Digraphs represent, each, 
 from one to three sounds, as follows : 
 a — e, 3, as in make, care, village, 
 e — e, 2, as in mete, there, 
 i — e, 2, as in bite, ravine. 
 o — e, 3, as in note, done, prove. 
 
28 A. COMPLETE SOIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 u — e, 2, as in tone, use. 
 y — e, 1, as in thyme. 
 
 * FINAL " E " DIGEAPHS (MIXED). 
 The Final "e" Mixed Digraphs represent, each, 
 one or two sounds, as follows : 
 ce, 2, a& in lace, suffice, 
 ge, 2, as in sage, rouge, 
 se, 1, as in surmise 
 
 * FIKAI " E " TRIGRAPHS (VOWELS). 
 The Final " e " Vowel Trigraphs represent, each, 
 one sound, as follows . 
 au — e, 1, as in gauge. 
 ea — e, 1, as in breathe. 
 
 * FINAL " E " TRIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
 The Final " e " Mixed Trigraphs represent, each, 
 one sound, as follows : 
 — ^the, 1, as in sheathe, 
 is — e, 1, as in disme. 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANTS. 
 Silent Consonants, as well as the Final " e ", are 
 sometimes used to indicate the sounds of preceding Vowels 
 or Digraphs, and thus they form Digraphs, Trigraphs, or 
 Tetragraphs. 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANT DIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
 The Silent Consonant Digraphs represent, each, 
 one or two sounds, as follows : 
 ah, 2, as in hurrah, hah. 
 eh, 1, as in eh ! 
 al, 1, as in halm, 
 ic, 1, as in indict, 
 ig, 1, as in sign, 
 is, 1, as in island, 
 ol, 1, as in holm, 
 ug, 1, as in impugn, 
 uh, 1, as in buhl, 
 eg, 1, as in impregn. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 29 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
 The Silent Consonant Trigraphs represent, each, 
 
 one Bound, as follows : 
 ach, 1, as in yacht, 
 igh, 1, as in sight, 
 oul, 1, as in should. 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANT TETRAGRAPHS (MIXED). 
 The Silent Consonant Tetrag^raphs represent, 
 each, two or three sounds, as follows : 
 eigh, 2, as in sleight, weight, 
 ough, 3, as in ought, though, through. 
 
 * DIFFERENT SIGNS FOR THE SAME SOUND. 
 
 Each Elementary Sound has from one to eighteen 
 different signs to represent it, as follows : 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 Sound No. 1 has two, as in dip, slipper. 
 
 Sound No. 2 has two, as in hut, ehb. 
 
 Sound No. 3 has six, as in set, setting, Thomas, indict, 
 worked, mezzotint. 
 
 Sound No. 4 has three, as in do, add, Dhu. 
 
 Sound No. 5 has three, as in chair, latch, Kamtschatka. 
 
 Sound No. 6 has six, as in gem, join, edge, soldier, adju- 
 tant, Ledyard. 
 
 Sound No. 7 has eight, as in king, cone, wick, chasm, 
 queen, quoin, except, hough. 
 
 Sound No. 8 has three, as in gum, egg, ghost. 
 
 Sound No. 9 has four, as in if, staff, laugh, philosophy. 
 
 Sound No. 10 has three, as in vain, of, Stephen. 
 
 Sound No. 11 has one, as in think. 
 
 Sound No. 12 has one, as in then. 
 
 Sound No. 18 has five, as in so, toss, cent, scene, chintz. 
 
 Sound No. 14 has five, as in is, gaze, buzz, hussy, suflSoe. 
 
 Sound No. 15 has eight, as in shall, sure, issue, ocean, ma- 
 chine, Lucian, motion, pension. 
 
30 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 Sound No. 16 has five, as in azure, glazier, measure, lesion, 
 rouge. 
 
 Sound No. 17 has one, as in hat. 
 
 Sound No. 18 has two, as in run, rhyme. 
 
 Sound No. 19 has three, as in car, whirr, myrrh. 
 
 Sound No. 20 has two, as in look, mill. 
 
 Sound No. 21 has four, as in dim, dimmest, condemn, 
 lamb. 
 
 Sound No. 22 has two, as in tin, Lynn. 
 
 Sound No. 23 has two, as in ring, link. 
 
 Sound No. 24 has four, as in way, persuade, one, choir. 
 
 Sound No. 25 has six, as in yet, million, use, chameleon, 
 ewer, hallelujah. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 Sound No. 26 has eighteen, as in me, mete, leaf, leave, 
 meet, conceit, receive, relief, relieve, people, key, Caesar, 
 suhpoBna, albino, machine, quay, disme, impregn. 
 
 Sound No. 27 has fifteen, as in mill, build, nymph, live, 
 sieve, women, busy, been, England, village, surfeit, lettuce, 
 captain, carriage, tortoise. 
 
 Sound No. 28 has seventeen, as in cable, mate, plague, 
 rain, raise, slaie, gaol, pray, Payne, g(i%feing, ^^e, great, 
 veil, weigh, they, eyot, rendezvous. 
 
 Soimd No. 29 has eleven, as in bell, wealth, belle, friend, 
 nonpareil, many, ate, bury, feoffment, says, meant. 
 
 Sound No. 30 has eight, as in care, fair, heir, prayer, eyre, 
 faery, bear, brass. 
 
 Sound No. 31 has four, as in man, plaid, comrade, Kaaters- 
 kill. 
 
 Sound No. 32 has eight, as in bar, Haarlem, ah, calm, 
 sergeant, aunt, heart, Caernarvon. 
 
 Sound No. 33 has eight, as in nor, war, haul, bawl, awe, 
 sought, walk, George. 
 
 Sound No. 84 has four, as in not, what, knowledge, lough. 
 
 Sound No. 35 has seven, as in pun, blood, come, Douglas, 
 pigeon, cushion, son. ' 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQ UA GE. 31 
 
 Sound No. 36 has seven, as in learn, worth, first, her, 
 myrrh, turkey, nourish. 
 
 Sound No. 37 has two, as in stone, coat. 
 
 Sound No. 38 has fifteen, as in go, cove, doe, coal, oh, 
 door, soul, know, owe, though, folks, sew, beau, yeoman, 
 hautboy. 
 
 Sound No. 39 has fourj,s in wool, wolf, full, should. 
 
 Sound No. 40 has ei§^, as in spool, move, soup, rouge, 
 shoe, manoeuvre, Sohuylkill,_PoesteHla[L 
 
 Sound No. 41 has fourteen, as in ^duty, abuse, due, lieu, 
 view, suit, feud, foed, beauty, few, impugn, through, you, 
 queue. 
 
 Sound No. 42 has eighteen, as in aisle, eider, height, eying, 
 eye, aye, bind, mine, indict, lie, sign, night, island, beguiling, 
 guile, buy, fly, dye. 
 
 Sound No. 43 has two, as in boil, boy. 
 
 Sound No. 44 has three, as in our, foul, sauerkraut. 
 
 * TOTAL NTJMBER. 
 
 The -whole Number of Letters and Letter- 
 equivalents is two hundred and sixty-four. 
 
 ORGANIC CLASSES OF SOTTNDS.-CRAITKS 5). 
 
 1. Labials are lip-sounds, — ^formed in the front part of 
 the mouth. 
 
 8. Dentals are tooth-sounds, — formed just back of the 
 teeth. 
 
 3. Ltnguals are tongue-sounds, — formed in the middle 
 of the mouth. 
 
 4. Palatals are palate-sounds, — formed in the back part 
 of the mouth. 
 
 5. Gutturals are throat-sounds, — formed in the throat. 
 
32 
 
 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 * GROUPING OF THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 iBT BAITK. 
 
 Labials, 
 
 \l 
 
 i; 
 
 m 
 w 
 
 ir> BANK. 
 
 Dentals. 
 
 u 
 
 ( th 
 1 th 
 
 3d bakk. 
 lAnguals. 
 
 )1 
 
 ( sh 
 (zh 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 4th bank. 
 Palatals. 
 
 r 
 
 Sth bank. 
 Outturals. 
 
 * EELATIONS AND CHANGES. 
 
 Related Sounds are those of the same rank. 
 
 Related Words are those having a common origin. 
 
 Th.e Consonants of Related Words of the same 
 class are usually the same, or slightly changed. 
 
 Consonant Changes are mostly according to simple 
 and definite laws. • 
 
 Vo'wel Changes are usually not according to any 
 definite laws yet discovered. 
 
 Assimilation is the change of a sound into coincidence 
 with a following or preceding sound, as when "adnex" is 
 changed into " annex." 
 
 Accommodation ia the change of a sound into another 
 which will more easily unite with a following or preceding 
 sound, as in "compel" for "conpel"; "sympathy" for 
 "feynpathy"; &c. 
 
 !Bduction is the development of a sound from a pre- 
 ceding one, as in '' drownded " for " drowned ", — in which 
 " d " is educed from " n ". 
 
 A Euphonic Change is the change of some element 
 of a word to make the sound more agreeable, or the pro- 
 nunciation easier, as when Accommodation, Eduction, or 
 Omission occurs. 
 
 An Orthographic Expedient is the use of more than 
 one letter to represent one sound, as in " shall ", " think ", 
 "mourn ", " dike ", " piiysic ", &o 
 
 t PHONETIC LAWS.— 12. (See Note 23.) 
 1. Correlative Sounds are most frequently inter- 
 changed. 
 
OF THE ENGLraS LANGUAGE. 33 
 
 2. Related Sounds are very often interchanged. 
 
 3. Sounds of Adjacent Hanks are sometimes inter- 
 changed. 
 
 4. Sounds of more Remote Ranks are less fre- 
 quently interchanged. 
 
 5. A sound is often assimilated or accommodated to a fol- 
 lowing or preceding one. 
 
 6. A sound is often omitted from a word. 
 
 7. A sound is sometimes inserted in or appended to a word. 
 
 8. Two sounds are sometimes mutually transposed. 
 
 9. A sound is sometimes educed from a preceding one. 
 10. A sound is often substituted for tioo others. 
 
 12. A consonant sound is sometimes changed to a vowel. 
 12. A vowel sound is sometimes changed to a consonant. 
 
 t EXAMPLES. 
 Baptist, babtist ; cupboard, cubboard ; pill, ball ; purse, bourse (Fr.) ; 
 bump, bomb ; life, live ; leaf, leaves ; heave, heft ; ablaiif (Fr.), abla- 
 tive ; teufelifi.), devil; alt (G), old ; thor (G), door; adtain, attain; 
 cloth, clothe ; face, phase; so, zoo (D.); cleriei (It.), clergy; malice, ma- 
 licious ; parish, parage (Fr.) ; cress, grass ; cat, gatto (It.) ; tyke, dog ; 
 poke, bag; fieus (L.), flg; seif (Q.), soap; Joppa, Jaffa; April, .4w«7 
 (Fr.) ; flow, blow ; table, tafel {Or.) ; Rufus, rubus (L.) ; habe (G.), have ; 
 gebe (G.), give ; Polly, Molly ; break, wreck ; bear, wear ; tuber, 
 tumor; marble, marmor (L.) ; wasp, vespa (L.) ; i)ulnus (L.), wonni; 
 helve, helm; author, awieur (Fr.) ; mot'h,motte (Q.); father,^a<er (L); 
 thing, ding (G.) ; thorn, dorn (G.) ; that, das (G.) ; out, aus (G.) ; eat, 
 iss (Or.) ; route, rouse ; pretend, pretense ; adsume, assume ; public, pub- 
 licity ; VOCO (L.), voice; adnex, annex; silteth, sits ; loveth, loves ; peach, 
 peche (Fr.) ; . chief, die/ (Fr.) ; head, caput (L.) ; jom-ua], journal (Fr.) ; 
 Mary, Molly ; original, originaire (Fr.) ; yarn, gam (G.) ; way, wege 
 (G.) ; get, yet; adpend, append; beard, barbe (Fr.) ; subtain, sustain; 
 _adfirm, afSrm ; disfer, differ ; time, tide ; exfuse, effuse ; conpare, com- 
 pare ; burnstone, brimstone ; inpel, impel ; sled, sledge; asc*io(L.), ac- 
 tion ; divide, division ; adligate, alligaie ; adrange, arrange ; shall, soil 
 (Or.) ; dish, tasse (Fr.) ; brass, brazier ; raise, rear ; iron, eisen (G.) ; con- 
 late, collate ; organ, orgel (G.) ; conrect, correct^ carmen (L.), charm ; 
 make, match; car, chair; break, breach; kirk (Sc), church; dig, 
 ditch ; barge, bark ; hedge, hecke (G.) ; surgo (L.), surge ; look, guck 
 (G ) ; crack, crash ; Lucius, Luke ; tusk, tush ; skiff, ship ; heart, cor 
 (L.) ; hull, keel ; adcord, accord ; adgression, aggression ; prance, 
 prank ; glide, slide ; bank, bench ; drink, drench ; shell, hull ; sub- 
 
34 
 
 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIF1G GRAMMAR 
 
 ceed, succeed I war, guerre (Jlx.)\ j-ellow, gelb (G.)i Welsh, Gaulish ; 
 yaul, ward ; hemi.semi ; scale, shell ; flsk, flsh ; plough, plow ; draught, 
 diaft; fife, pipe; pad, foot; clash, crash; (Ger. pfeife, pfote, San. 
 klrad); S3.\\,aegel (An. S.) ; rain, regen (An. S.) ; hotel, hostel (Fr.); 
 bachelor, bachelder ; egoism, egotism ; flrth, frith ; task, tax ; tener 
 (L.), tender; numerus (L.), number; hlican, (Ah. S.), blink; dreamt, 
 dreampt; conduct, conduit; fruet (L.), fruit; salsus (L.), sauce; avi- 
 spicea (L.), auspices ; Thomson, Thompson ; Bagster, Baxter ; suUractio 
 (L.), Bubstraction ; Anglo-Saxon; serio-comic ; cheir (G.), reach ; guma 
 (An. S.), groom ; coud, could ; perlucid, pellucid ; interligent (L.), in- 
 telligent; transscribe, transcribe ; his ternate (L.), biternate ; private- 
 cy, privacy. 
 
 CHAPTER n.— LETTERS, 
 
 Capital Letters, called hj printers Upper-case Letters, 
 are the large letters placed at the beginning of sentences. 
 
 Small Letters, called by printers Lower-case Letters, 
 are the ordinary letters, and are used wherever capitals 
 are not required for some definite reason. 
 
 * Tlie Styles of Letters are very numerous, as 
 Roman, Italic, Old English, Antique, Gothic, Full Face, 
 Clarendon, Script, and an almost endless variety of Orna- 
 mental Letters. 
 
 * The Sizes of Letters in these different styles are 
 almost as numerous as the styles, ranging from the large 
 Wood-type letters, a foot or more in height, down to the 
 almost invisible Brilliant. 
 
 Some of th.e Common Sizes are 
 
 Great Primer, 
 
 English, 
 Pica, 
 Small Pica, 
 
 Long Primer, 
 Bourgeois, 
 Brevier, 
 Minion, 
 
 Nonpareil, 
 
 Agate, 
 
 Pearl, and 
 
 RTILES FOR CAPITALS. 
 
 I. The first word of a sentence, of a line of poetry, of a 
 formal question or quotation, of a numbered clause, or of a 
 resolution or enactment, should begin with a Capital. 
 
 II. Proper and Family names, and their derivatives, all 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAOE. 35 
 
 titles, important words of headings, appellations of God, 
 common nouns personified, generic names, words defined, 
 and words of special importance, should each begin with a 
 Capital. 
 
 III. The pronoun I, the exclamation O, and, in print, 
 headings and title pages, should consist entirely of Capitals. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The diligence of those students Is very commendable. 
 
 2. Deeper, deeper, let us toil 
 
 In the mines of knowledge ; 
 Nature's wealth and learning's spoil 
 Win from school and college. 
 
 3. Please tell me, then. Were yon present at the time or not "i 
 
 4. We should remember the precept — "As ye would that men should 
 do to you, do ye also to them likewise." 
 
 5. I shall endeavor to prove, 1st, That he could not have been pres- 
 ent at the time specified. 2d, That if he had been present, he could 
 not have done what he is accused of. 
 
 6. Besolved, That female education is sadly neglected. 
 
 7. Be it enacted iy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled. That Savings Banks 
 may be organized in the District of Columbia. 
 
 8. He said that Thomas Jefferson lived in Virginia. 
 
 9. The Augustan age was very remarkable in Roman Histoi-y. 
 
 10. He saw the Rev. A. L. Stone, D. D., and the Hon. Chas. Sumner 
 conversing with Prof. J. Tuckerman, LL. D. 
 
 11. An Improved Grammar of the English Language. 
 
 12. To the Savior, our Lord Jesus Christ, are attributed all the okar- 
 acteristics of the Deity, equally with God the Father, and with the Holy 
 Spirit. 
 
 13. Terribly destructive has been the reign of King Alcohol. 
 
 14. One of our earliest spring flowers is the Epigea repens. 
 
 15. Capital Letters are head letters; i. e., letters belonging at the 
 head, or beginning. 
 
 16. Our people elect a President once in four years. 
 
 17. He said " I wish, how I wish ! that I could see this work com- 
 pleted." 
 
 18. A TEEATISE ON 
 
 ENGLISH PUNCTUATION. 
 
 BY JOHN WIT;SOIJ. 
 
36 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAE 
 
 EXERCISES. (For Correction.) 
 
 1. the rational study of language is excellent for mental discipline. 
 
 2. what the weak head with strongest bias rules 
 is pride, the never-failing vice of fools. 
 
 3. John smith lives in boston, mass. 
 
 4. 1 ask you again why should this not be done 1 
 
 5. said John " i am ashamed of this fellow's impudence." 
 
 6. 1 think that, 1st, it is false ; 2nd, it is malicious ; and, 8d, it is most 
 ridiculous. 
 
 7. resolved that audacity is a sure indication of depravity. 
 
 8. be it enacted hy the legislature of west mrginia that waitman t 
 willey, president, and william wagner, secretary of the board of trustees 
 of the morganlown female collegiate institute, are hereby empowered to 
 sell the lot upon which the said institute is located. 
 
 9. mr. smith says that the sufferings of the Parisians during the siege 
 of 1870 were very terrible. 
 
 10. general von moltke and prince bismarck have acquired a world 
 wide reputation. 
 
 11. the degree of d. d., or doctor of divinity, has been conferred upon 
 rev, d. m. graham, of hillsdale, mich. 
 
 12. an account of the hoosac tunnel in massachusetts. 
 
 13. his reference to god and the savior and the holy spirit seemed 
 very irreverent. 
 
 14. ah eloquence ! thou wast undone, 
 wast from thy native country driven, 
 when tyranny eclipsed the sun, 
 
 and blotted out the stars from heaven. 
 16. a very common, but also very beautiful, flower is the little poten- 
 tilla canadensis. 
 
 16. a catalogue is a list of names. 
 
 17. the commencement exercises at the university were very inter- 
 esting. 
 
 18. certainly it is he ; but o how changed since last i saw him ! 
 
 19. lippincott's pronouncing gazetteer of the world. 
 
 20. they Said that The book Belonged to benjamin. 
 
 21. In the German Language every Noun begins with a capital Let- 
 ter, whatever may be its Signification, or its Position in the Sentence. 
 
 * ITALIC LETTERS. 
 Italic Letters are those which stand inclining. 
 The Use of italic letters is to distinguish a word or pas- 
 sage, for emphasis or otherwise. 
 Rules for Italics. Italic letters should be used for 
 
■ OP THE ENaLISH LANGUAGE. 37 
 
 words requiring special emphasis, for words borrowed from 
 foreign languages, for names of authors annexed to extracts 
 from their writings, for the word Resolved ■snh.en prefixed to 
 a Resolution, and for the enacting clause prefixed to a stat- 
 ute or enactment. 
 
 Italics in the Bible indicate words not in the original, 
 hut supplied by the translators. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Liberty and Union, now axiA forever. 
 
 2. Tlie Motto of the United States is " Epluribus unum." 
 
 3. " Art is long ; and time is fleeting." — Longfellow. 
 
 4. Resolved, That the so called English Grammars are a great nui- 
 sance. 
 
 5. It is enacted iy the General Assembly as follows : 
 
 The Salary of the Commissioner of Public Schools shall be two thou- 
 sand dollars per annum. 
 
 SMALL CAPITALS, &c. 
 
 Small Capitals, Capitals, and other styles of letters 
 are sometimes used for distinction. 
 
 Tlnderscoring, in writing, consists in drawing lines un- 
 der words which are to be distinguished. 
 
 One Xiine under a written word indicates that it should 
 be printed in Italics ; two lines indicate small capitals ; 
 three lines indicate CAPITALS ; and four lines indicate 
 ITALIC CAPITALS, or Prnamental jL^etters. 
 
 Different Degrees of Emphasis are indicated by 
 using successively italics, small capitals, and capitals. 
 
 Other Modes of Distinction are the use of the index 
 (is"), the letters N. B., Sac. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. He buys, he sells, he steals, he KILLS for gold. 
 
 2. j^^ A student should never miss any recitation of his class. 
 
 3. N. B. A thing which is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. • 
 
 CHAPTER IIL-SYLLABLES. 
 Constituents. A Syllable may consist of, 
 
 1st, A vowel sound, as in " I ", " O ", " a-dore "- 
 
38 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFI0 GBAMMAB 
 
 2nd, One or more consonant sounds, as in " ris-en ", 
 " ryth-m ", " shov-el ", " a-ble ", " ri-fle ", " tin-gles ". 
 
 3d, A vowel sound preceded by one or more consonant 
 sounds, as in " say ", " play ", " stray " " throw ", &c. 
 
 4th, A vowel sound followed by one or more consonant 
 sounds, as in " aim ", " ale ", " ears ", " urged ", " arms ", &c. 
 
 5th, A vowel sound both preceded and followed by one 
 or more consonant sounds, as in " man ", " cares ", " star ", 
 "storms", "strengths", &c. 
 
 A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable, as " come ". 
 
 A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables, as " man-ly ", 
 " un-der ". 
 
 A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables, as " use-ful- 
 ness ". 
 
 A Polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables, 
 as " dis-u-nit-ing ", " non-con-form-i-ty '', "in-com-pat-i-ble- 
 ness ", " re-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty ", " in-oom-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty". 
 
 The Greatest Number of Syllables in any ordinary 
 English word is eight ; but there may he as many as twelve. 
 
 A Compound. "Word is one which is composed of two 
 or more words, as " book-binder ", " pen-wiper ", " pocket- 
 book-maker ". 
 
 A Sim.ple Word is one which is not composed of two 
 or more words, as "house", "time", "paper", "wisely'', 
 " penurious ". 
 
 t SYLLABICATION. 
 
 Syllabication is the division of words into syllables. 
 
 The Objects of Syllabication in writing are, 
 1st, To indicate the pronunciation of words ; 
 2nd, To show the composition, or derivation, of wordsi 
 
 The American Method of syllabication is that which 
 is designed to indicate pronunciation. 
 
 The English Method is that which is designed to 
 shew the composition and derivation of words. 
 
 RULES FOR THE AMERICAN METHOD.-ll. 
 1. Separate Compound Words into their simple compo- 
 nents. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 39 
 
 2. Separate Prefixes, Suffixes, and Inflectional Endings, 
 from their Radicals, and from each other. 
 
 3. Divide bi-aocentual words so as to show the difference 
 in pronunciation, as " re-bel' " " reb'-el " ; " mi-nute' ", min'- 
 ute " ; &c. 
 
 4. When a single consonant occurs between two vowels, 
 join it with the second, if the 1st vowel is long ; otherwise 
 join it with the first, as " de'-mon ", " Dem'-ing " ; &o. 
 
 5. When a mute followed by a liquid occurs between two 
 vowels, join both consonants to the following vowel, if the 
 previous vowel is long ; otherwise join the mute to the pre- 
 vious vowel, and the liquid to the following vowel, as " re- 
 flow' " " ref '-luence " ; " de-preciate ", " dep-recate " ; &c. 
 
 6. When any two consonants, except a mute followed by 
 a liquid, occur between two vowels, separate the consonants, 
 as " mag-pie " ; " con-template " ; &c. 
 
 7. When three or more consonants occur between two 
 vowels, join the first consonant with the previous vowel, and 
 the others with the following one, as " in-troduce " ; " un- 
 grammatic " ; etc. 
 
 8. When two vowel sounds come together, separate them, 
 as " di-ameter " ; " re-entrant " ; &c. 
 
 9. Treat digraphs, trigraphs, and tetragraphs as single 
 letters, as "bish-op"; "ma-chine"; "beau-ty"; "Her- 
 schel " ; " Kam-tschat-ka " ; &c. 
 
 10. When silent letters occur, neglect them in dividing ; 
 and if they come between syllables, join them to the 
 former syllable, as '' calm-ness " ; " John-son " ; " asth-ma " ; 
 &c. 
 
 11. In dividing a word at the end of a line adopt the 
 English method ; and never divide a syllable ; nor leave a 
 syllable of only one or two letters standing alone. 
 
 RULES FOB, THE ENGLISH METHOD.— 3. 
 
 1. Separate the original elements of the word without 
 regard to pronunciation, as " a-pathy " ; " poly-gamy " ; astro- 
 nomy"; &c. 
 
 2. When a consonant, or consonant digraph or trigraph, oc- 
 
40 -1 COMPLETE SGIENTIFIO OBAMMAB 
 
 curs between vowels, join it to the following vowel ; as " pre- 
 face"; "pro-phet"; " a-na-to-my " ; " ma-the-ma-tics " ; &o. 
 
 3. In other respects, divide according to the American 
 Method. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 Human, humming, realize, motion, neuter, instrumental, dental, 
 remain. Remington, usual, hypothesis, belligerent, phalanx, anxious, 
 retiring, usefulness, bookmaker, razorseller, premonition, premises, 
 manliness, usefulness. 
 
 CHAPTER IV— ACCENT. 
 
 The Ultimate is the last syllable of a word. 
 
 The Penult is the last but one. 
 
 The Antepenult is the last but two. 
 
 Accent is the stress of voice upon the principal syllable 
 of a word, as in " grand'ly ". 
 
 The Elements of Accent are time and force. 
 
 Polysyllables sometimes have two or three accents. 
 
 The Primary Accent is the strongest one. 
 
 The Secondary Accent is the one next to the prim- 
 ary in strength. 
 
 The Tertiary Accent is the weakest one. 
 
 The Character called the Acute Accent ( ' ) is 
 used to mark the accented syllables of a word, as "great'- 
 ness ". 
 
 The Heavy Acute Accent { ' ) marks the primary 
 accent. 
 
 The Light Acute Accent ( ' ) marks the secondary 
 and tertiary accents, as " spec '-u-la'tion " ; " in-com' -pre-hen'- 
 si-bil'ity ". 
 
 Bi-accentual Words are those in which different 
 meanings are distinguished by different accents. 
 
 t RULES FOR ACCENT.-17. 
 
 1. All monosyllables are accented when separately ut- 
 tered ; but some, as " the ", " my ', " in ", '' o/", &c., lose the 
 accent when used with other words. 
 
 2. Inflected forms and Derivatives of monosyllables have 
 the accent on the radical syllable. 
 
OF THE ENGLISS LANG UA GE. 41 
 
 3. Primitives of more than one syllable usually have the 
 accent on the radical syllable. 
 
 4. Inflected forms and derivatives of words of more than 
 one syllable usually accent the same syllable as their prim- 
 itives. 
 
 5. Words borrowed from foreign languages, until they 
 become naturalized, preserve their original accent, — those 
 from the French accenting the ultimate, — ^those from the 
 Latin the penult or antepenult, — and those from the Greek 
 one of the last three syllables. 
 
 6. Naturalized words often move the accent back one or 
 two syllables. 
 
 7. Ease of pronunciation sometimes makes exceptions to 
 Rules 3 and 4. 
 
 8. A pair of bi-accentual words being a noun and a verb, 
 the noun has the prior accent. Being an adjective and a 
 verb, the adjective has the prior accent. Being a noun and 
 an adjective, the noun has the prior accent. 
 
 9. Similar contrasted words accent syllables which differ. 
 
 10. Words ending in -cracy, —ferous, -fluent, -fluous, 
 -gonal,—gony, -graph6r,-graphy,-loger, -logist, -logy, -loquy, 
 inachy, -matlvy, —meter, -metry, -norny, -parous, -pathy, 
 -phony, —scopy, —strophe, —tomy, -trophy, -vomous, and 
 —voroits, accent the antepenult. 
 
 11. Words of more than two syllables ending in -cate, 
 -date, -gate, -fy, -tude, and -ty preceded by a vowel, ac- 
 cent the antepenult. 
 
 12. Words having the sound of sh, zh, or y, before their 
 last vowel, except those in which ch sounds like sh, accent 
 the penult. 
 
 13. Words ending in ie or ies usually accent the penult. 
 
 14. Words ending in e-al, e-an, and e-um (except ideal), 
 accent the antepenult. 
 
 15. Dissyllabic adjectives ending in ose accent the ulti- 
 mate. 
 
 16. Adjectives of more than two syllables ending in ose 
 accent the antepenult. 
 
42 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 17. Exceptions to these rules must be learned from ob- 
 servation, and the Dictionary. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Man, manly, manfully, unmanly, write, writing, writer, written, 
 the, the man, the great man, my, my own, my own house, of, of course, 
 by, by all means, mistake, undertalce, mistaking, mistakenly, overlook, 
 repose, contain, exclaim, human, jewel, captive. 
 
 2. Deficient, inveterate, deficiently, deficiency, inveteracy, inveterate- 
 ness, reposing, reposed, contains, contained, containing, containable, 
 exclaiming, exclamation, humanize, humanizing, humanity, inhuman. 
 
 8. Sanguine, sanguinely, sanguineneas, sanguinary, sanguify, sangui- 
 fler, sanguinariness, sanguiferous, sanguifluous, sanguineous, sangui- 
 suge, consanguined, consanguinity, chapeau, politique, politic, Socrates, 
 abdomen, museum, amazon. 
 
 4. Orator, convert, contract, perfect, protest, perfume, proceeds, 
 compact, minute, gallant, attribute, misconduct, overthrow, intervene, 
 supervene, amputation, imputation, biennial, triennial, exe'roise, exor- 
 cise, prophet, profit, donor, donee. 
 
 6. Aristocracy, auriferous, confluent, superfluous, diagonal, cosmog- 
 ony, biographer, selenography, astrologer, geologist, zoology, colloquy, 
 logomachy, chrestomathy, pyrometer, altimetry, economy, oviparous, 
 sympathy, symphony, aeroscopy, apostrophe, anatomy, hypertrophy, 
 ignivomous, omnivorous. 
 
 6. Abdicate, accommodate, investigate, magnify, fortitude, com- 
 plicity, ambiguity, commotion, relation, suspicion, affusion, celestial, 
 christian, Indian, machine, chicane, organic, dietetic, mechanics, pneu- 
 matics, inharmonic. ♦ 
 
 7. Laryngeal, Herculean, periosteum, petroleum, morose, verbose, 
 comatose, operoae, tuberose, pertinacious, lyceum, incongruity, illogi- 
 cal, immaculate, graminivorous, luraeniferous, lanigerous. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— SPELLING. 
 
 General Rules for the spelling of all words are impos- 
 sible, in the present condition of the alphabet. 
 
 Individual Words, in most cases, must be learned by 
 observation in reading, and by the careful and persevering 
 use of the Spelling Book and Dictionary. 
 
 Special Rules for spelling certain classes of words 
 have been given, and are serviceable, w^en thoroughly 
 learned together with their exceptions. 
 
OP THE ENGLISH LANQ UAQE. 43 
 
 * RULES FOR SPELLING— 14. 
 
 1. Double the / and I at the end of a monosyllable, 
 after a single vowel, except in def, if, and of. 
 
 2. Double the s in the same case, except in gas, as, has, 
 was, yes, his, is, vs, thus and this. 
 
 3. Double the b in abb and ebb ; the d in add, odd and 
 ncdd ; the g in egg and bigg (a kind of barley) ; the n in inn ; 
 the r in err, parr, birr, and shirr / the t in mitt, smitt, and 
 butt / and the z in fizz, fuzz, buzz. 
 
 4. Add A to c following a vowel, at the end of a mon- 
 osyllable, except in lac, sac,ploc, and soe (a law term) ; also 
 in words of more than one syllable when the c is preceded 
 by any other vowel than i or ia, except in almanac, sandarac, 
 manioc, and havoc. 
 
 5. Add /i; to c at the end of a word before adding a ter- 
 mination beginning with e, i, or y. 
 
 6. Double a final consonant preceded by a single vowel 
 (except h or a;) of a word accented on the last syllable, before 
 adding a termination beginning with a vowel, except in the 
 derivatives of gas (aside from gassing and gassy), and those 
 words in which the termination throws back the accent of 
 the primitive. 
 
 7. Drop one / from pontiff before adding a termination ; 
 and one I from a word ending in II, before adding a termin- 
 ation beginning with I. In other like cases retain the double 
 consonant. 
 
 8. Drop a final silent e preceded by a different vowel, 
 before adding a termination beginning with a consonant. 
 Also drop final e- in forming wholly and wisdom, and be- 
 fore a termination beginning with a vowel, — except in 
 hoeing, toeing, shoeing, and the present participles of dye, 
 singe, springe and tinge, — and also in words whose termin- 
 ations beginning with a or o follow ce or ge. 
 
 9. Change final ie to y before adding ing. 
 
 10. Change y preceded by a consonant into i before 
 adding a termination not beginning with i, except in ad- 
 jectives of one syllable, and cases where ship is added, and 
 
44 ^ COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAS, 
 
 also in babyhood, ladykin, and where y is changed to e in 
 beauteous, duteous, bounteous and plenteous. 
 
 11. Retain a final y preceded by a vowel, in adding a 
 termination, except in daily, laid, paid, said,saith, slain and 
 staid. 
 
 12. Drop a final e of words ending with a vowel sound, 
 before a termination beginning with e. 
 
 13. Retain a final double consonant, when a prefix is 
 joined to a word, except in until and annul. 
 
 14. In compound words, retain all the letters of the 
 simple words composing them, except in some compounds 
 of all, well, mass, — ^those words in which full is the sec- 
 ond part, and chilblain, fulfill, namesake, numskull, pastime, 
 standish, and wherever. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Cliff, beef, snuif, leaf, muff, iill, roll, soil. 
 
 2. Mess, pass, loss, hiss, fuss, house, news, keys, gross. 
 
 4. Black, rock, stick, duck, pinchbeck, public, maniac. 
 
 5. TrafiSoker, talcky, zincky, publication, catholicize. 
 
 6. Abetting, committed, briefer, beginner, reveling, runner, gaseous, 
 traveler, reference. 
 
 7. Ponliflcal, hopefully, skillful, dullness, dully, oddly. 
 
 8. Buly, argument, awful, living, widest, widely, lateness, dyeing, dy- 
 ing, singing, singeing, courageous, mortgageor, noticeable. 
 
 9. Lying, tying, hying, vying, underlying. ~" 
 
 10. Beautiful, heartily, heaviness, denying, shyness, spryly, ladyship, 
 suretyship, carrier, deadlier. 
 
 11. Saying, playful, surveyor, conveyance, buying. 
 
 12. Truer, shoer, suer, truest, owed, freer, freest, agreed. 
 18. Foretell, surpass, suppress, superadd, rebuff. 
 
 14. Saveall, widemouthed, wellmade, alwise, alone, welcome, welfare, 
 Christmas, hopeful, wishful, willful, fuUorbed. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Cleff, iff, thee ende off liffe, att eb tyd, lett hymn ad thoas nombres,' 
 staf, clif, halff, wel, ful, wheel, shal, shel, smal, rol, wooU, del, feell, 
 Bteall, ruff, stuff, cuf, muf. 
 
 2. Gass, yess, thus, thiss, uss, fus, furse, hiss, pass, las, mas, flos, bos, 
 moss, kis, bl6s. 
 
 8. Ab, slabb, tubb, hub, eb, knobb, ad, od, sod, rodd, mudd, rud, eg, 
 the big iss rype, a. bigg roum, ane oald in, er, bir, shir, the stok iz ate 
 
OB' THE ENaLian LAJsra uaqe. 45 
 
 parr, hee caut the par inn a nett, mit, tha marct thee sheapp withe smit, 
 wee hadd a but of wein, al butt one, buz, fiz, fuz, let themra com, dimm, 
 dumm. 
 
 4. Blac, thic, stak, breack, loook, shellack, a sac of corn, the flewid is 
 oontaned inn a lille sack, plock, a woolen soc, almanack, sandarack, 
 maniock, havock, brie, trie, cambrick, relick, maniack, alembick, wic, 
 pic, weeck, loc. 
 
 5. Trafficer, roUicing, rusticate, rusticity, mimicer. 
 
 6. Beginning, beginer, spiner, thiner, compeling, exceling, entraping 
 surpassing, expressing, omiting, recoiling, exoelent, compelative, dim- 
 mer, tiner, gasy, gasing, gasseous, gassometer, gassify, qulting, ac- 
 quited, awaitted, outwitted, caballism, caballist, preferrence, reference, 
 deferrence, remitance, remitting, omited, omiting, omitt. 
 
 7. Pontif, pontiffical, fully, dulness, fulnes, ading, odness, ering, fizz- 
 ing, buzing, ebing. 
 
 8. Duely, dubill, hohandle, hoing, shostring, shoemaker, wholey, 
 wisedom, likly, finly, suing, toing, dyeing, singeing, springeing, tinge- 
 ing, dying, singing, springing, dinging, pacer, racer, peacable, notica- 
 ble, forceible, useable, useage,managable,manageing, mortgagor, mort- 
 gageing. 
 
 9. Lieing, dieing, vieing, hying, reliing. 
 
 10. Complyant, relyant, espying, espyed, relyed, complyed, denied, 
 deniing, denyal, tryal, sprier, dryed, drier, supplyed, suppliing, babi- 
 hood, ladiship, suretiship, ladikin, beautyous, beautyful, dutyous, dute- 
 ful, bountyous, bounteful, plentious, plenteful, wrier, flying. 
 
 11. Dayly, layed, sayed, sayeth, slayn, stayd sais, buys, conveies, de- 
 stroies, annoied, dismaied. 
 
 12. Awful, suer, pursueer, enduer, hoeed, sueed, oweed, freeer, seeer, 
 freeost, seeest, agreeed, agreable, oweing, awed, argueed, plagueed. 
 
 13. Befal, recall, befel, enthral, enrol, unrol, readd, superad, repas, 
 expres, suppres,.redres, rebuf. 
 
 14. Harebell, farewel, herin, therin, therby, forordain, allmosi!, all- 
 lone, wellcome, welborn, welworn, allmighty, painfull, banefuU, carefull, 
 wasteful, usefull, chillblain, fullfll, narae'ssake, numbskul, passtime, 
 standdish, whereever, thereunder, morover. 
 
 tPaiNCIPLES OF ABBREVIATION. 
 
 Abbreviation, is the shortening of words by omitting 
 parts of them. 
 
 The Object of Abbreviation is to save time and 
 space in writing and printing. 
 
 A Good Abbreviation is one which is short and sug- 
 gestive of the whole word. 
 
46 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 METHODS OF ABBEEVIATION— 15. 
 
 1. The first syllable is written, as Ans., Pres., Jan., <fcc. 
 
 2. The first syllable and the first letter of the next sylla- 
 ble, as Lond., Benj. , 
 
 3. The first letter is written, as A., p., O., &c. 
 
 4. The first and last letters are written, as Js. Yd., Yr., 
 &o. 
 
 5. The first, and a medial letter are written, as Cs., Eb., 
 &C. 
 
 6. The first two and the last letters are written, as Amt., 
 Clk., &o. 
 
 7. The first and the last two letters are written, as Cts., 
 Yds., <fcc. 
 
 8. Of a compound word, the first and last letters of one 
 part,' and the first or last letter of the other part, as Ldp., 
 &c. 
 
 9. Of a compound name or title, the first letter of each 
 part is written, as S. C, U. C, L. I., &o. 
 
 10. Of a phrase used as a name or title, the first letter of 
 each principal word is written, as M. C, K. G. 0., &o. 
 
 11. The abbreviations of Latin equivalents are used, as 
 
 A. A. S., &c. 
 
 12. The abbreviations of French equivalents are used, as 
 No., Messrs., &c. 
 
 13. A letter is doubled for the plural, as pp., MSS., LL. D., 
 &c. 
 
 14. Irregular abbreviations are used, as Jno., bbl., viz., 
 as., (fee- 
 ls. Arbitrary Signs are used, as &, $, 3 , | , o , ', ", +, 
 
 — , X, v> ^c- 
 
 CLASSES OF WORDS ABBB,EVIATED.-15. 
 
 1. Titles of Honor, as A. M., D. D., LL. D., Ph. D., H. 
 
 B. M., &c. 
 
 2. Titles of Office, as Capt., Gov., Gen., A. A. G., Abp., 
 fto. 
 
OJP TBE ENGLI8H LANG tTA OE. 47 
 
 3. Geogi-aphical names, as Al., N. T., "W. Va. IJ. S 
 Can., &c. ' ' '' 
 
 4. Names of Months and Days, as Jan., Dec, Ap., Tues. 
 Wed., &o. 
 
 5. Names of Persons, as Chas., Wm., Thos., Benj., <fcc. 
 
 6. Names of Weights, Measures, Moneys, <fcc., as lb., oz., 
 rd., ft., £., &c. 
 
 7. Names of Societies, as A. B. S., H. M. S., E. S. L.,- &c. 
 
 8. Names of Religious Denominations, as Bap., Math., 
 Pres., &c. 
 
 9. Names of Books of the Bible, as Gen., Ex., Ps., Mat. 
 Bom., &c. 
 
 10. Theological Terms, as Sab., Ser., Ord., Com., Rub., 
 <fec. 
 
 11. Legal Terms, as Cod. Stat., L., Q. B., Nol. pros., «fcc., 
 
 12. Medical Terms, R., Gtt., Pulv., Scil, Cub., iss., &c. 
 
 13. Nautical Terms, as Naut., Nav., Bk., Sch., Lat., Lon., 
 
 <&G. 
 
 14. Commercial Terms, as @, Acct., Amt., Blk., Co., Cr., 
 Dr., <fec. 
 
 15. Technical Terms pertaining to all the Arts and 
 Trades. 
 
 * THE WORD MISTERS. 
 
 The Word Misters is a legitimate and convenient 
 word, and its proper a,bbreviation is Ma. The use of this 
 mstead of the awkward French equivalent Messrs. (Mes- 
 sieurs) would save a great amount of time and trouble. 
 
 The Abbreviation of Mistresses is Mrss. 
 
 A Pull List of Abbreviations is given in Webster's 
 Unabridged Dictionary. 
 
 * CHAPTER VI.— PUNCTTIATION. 
 [To be studied after Chap. I. of the Syntax.] 
 
 Punctuation is the insertion in a literary composition 
 of various marks called points. 
 
 The Use of Punctuation is to make the meaning 
 more evident. 
 
 The Pauses in Reading are not clearly indicated by 
 
48 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 the Points, since they are much more nuraerous than the 
 Points, and often occur at different places. 
 
 The Classes of the Points are three, — Sentence Points, 
 "Word Points, and Miscellaneous Points. 
 
 SENTENCE POINTS. 
 The Sentence Points are the Period (.), Colon (:), 
 Semicolon ( ; ), Comma ( , ), Interrogation Point ( ?), Exclama- 
 tion Point ( ! ), Curves ( ), Brackets [ ], Dash ( — ), Quotation 
 
 Marks ( " " ), and Marks of Ellipsis (* * *, . . , , ), 
 
 <&c. 
 
 RULES FOB, THE PERIOD.-*. 
 
 1. Place the Period at the end of a positive sentence, and 
 afiber a disconnected word or phrase. 
 
 2. Place the Period after an abbreviation, except @, arbi- 
 trary signs, and those in which a numeral represents the 
 first part of the word, as 4th, &c. 
 
 3. Place a period after a figure or letter used in number- 
 ing chapters, &c. 
 
 4. The period afler an abbreviation may be followed by 
 any other point. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Audacity always indicates a corrupt mind. 
 In the house. Latin Grammar. Geograpliy. 
 
 2. Chas. and Wra. ; Mass. ; A. D. ; March 10th; 7 @ 8 ; &c. 
 4. Flemington, Taylor Co., W. Va., Jan. 1st, 1879. 
 
 RULES FOR THE EXCLAMATION P0INT.-4. 
 
 1. Place the Exclamation Point at the end of an Exclama- 
 tory Sentence or Phrase, or a word indicating emotion. 
 
 2. Place the Exclamation Point afler an Interjection, un- 
 less it is closely connected with other words. 
 
 3. Place the Exclamation Point after any remarkable ex- 
 pression or statement. 
 
 4. To denote intensity of emotion, the Exclamation Point 
 may be sometimes doubled or tripled. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. How great care is required in order to write correctly I 
 What a wonderful art ! Happy man ! Indeed I 
 
OF TEE ENOLISH LANG UAGE. 49 
 
 2. Hurrah ! the victory is ours, but alas ! how dearly bought ! 
 when will men learn wisdom ! Woe to the conquered ! 
 
 3. The Ethiopians had developed a very remarkable civilization many 
 ages previous to that of the Assyrians ! 
 
 In America were cities and art and literature as long ago as the 
 times of Hesiod and Homer ! 
 
 4. Glorious news ! We have carried the day ! ! Our candidate is 
 elected by an overwhelming majority ! ! ! 
 
 ETTLES FOR THE INTERROGATION P0INT.-2. 
 
 1. Place the Interrogation Point at the end of an Inter- 
 rogative Sentence, either entire or contracted, except when 
 it is indirectly quoted. 
 
 2. The Interrogation Point inclosed in curves or brackets 
 may be placed after a doubtful or questionable statement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Is it not evident that the world is Improving 1 — Not to your mind? 
 No evidence adduced % None 1 
 
 He said " Why do you not go 1 " — He asked why we did not go. 
 
 2. Recent discoveries prove that the so-called " fixed stars " are 
 moving with immense velocities in all directions (i). 
 
 RULES FOR THE C0L0N.-2. 
 
 1. Use the Colon to separate a Prospective Sentence 
 from its Consequent. 
 
 2. Use the Colon to separate the number of a Chapter 
 from that of a Verse quoted froiji the Bible. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. My advice is this : Never do that which you tnoW to be wrong. 
 Please send me the following articles : 
 
 One Smith's New Patent Mowing Machine, 
 Two Heavy Steel Prairie Plows, and 
 One Impi'oved Corn-Sheller. 
 
 2. The text of the preacher was John 14 : 3. 
 
 RULES FOR THE SEMICOLON.— 3. 
 
 1. Use the Semicolon to separate the members of a 
 Normal Loose Sentence, if not inverted ; but when the 
 Loose Sentence is used as a member of a Compact or Close 
 Sentence, omit the point. 
 
60 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. Use the Semicolon to separate the principal members 
 of a double or Ti-iple Compact Sentence. 
 
 3. Use the Semicolon to separate distinct groups of 
 words used as examples. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. John has gone to school; and Thomas has gone to Market. If 
 one has an excess of corn and another has an excess of beef, they may 
 make an exchange profitable to both. 
 
 2. Because when he was at College, he wasted his time ; therefore 
 when a good situation was offered to him, he was not able to fill it. 
 
 8. The sounds of p and b are often exchanged, as poll, boll | pat, 
 bat; &c. 
 
 RULES FOR THE C0MMA.-9. 
 
 1. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Single 
 Compact Sentence, except when the correlatives are " as " 
 and " as ", or '' so " and " as ". 
 
 2. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Loose 
 Sentence, if reduced or inverted ; but if the connective is 
 " or ", omit the comma. 
 
 3. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Close 
 Sentence when it is Complex, Complicate, or Reversed, — 
 when the second member is parenthetic or independent, — 
 or when the Relative is much separated from its Antece- 
 dent. 
 
 4. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Com- 
 pound Element, when the Conjunction is omitted. 
 
 5. Use the Comma with the Conjunction before the last 
 member of a series. 
 
 6. Use the Comma to separate distinct elements, when 
 it will prevent ambiguity. 
 
 7. Use the Conima to isolate a Rational Exclamation. 
 
 8. Use the Comma to isolate an incidental passage. 
 
 9. Use the Comma to isolate a transposed passage, when 
 it will prevent ambiguity. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1 . When one has nothing to say, then he should .say nothing. 
 
 2. Modesty is tine of the chief ornaments of youth, anr! ha-s^p^er beep 
 esteemed a presage of rising merit. 
 
OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 51 
 
 The man has made, and he sees it now, a great mistake. 
 
 3. He had just sold the house, which was very unfortunate for him. 
 Ms. Smith and Jones, who were the principal owners, refused 
 
 their consent. 
 
 The work was done by Brown and Eeeves, who are good me- 
 chanics. 
 
 Who ventures to invade my rights, he does it at his peril. 
 
 A man of most excellent literary judgment, who has read J;he 
 work, pronounces it remai-kably good. 
 
 4. Aright, aleft, above, below, he whirled the rapid sword. 
 
 The work is accomplished in a careful, thorough, scholarly manner. 
 
 5. Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness. 
 
 6. The house stands beyond tho river, under the hill, near the road. 
 He promised to visit the place, to ascertain the facts, and to report 
 
 at once. 
 
 She draws, paints, sings, and plays admirably. 
 
 7. I think, Jolm, that it will rain to-morrow. 
 
 Well, that will not be unfavorable to the farmers. 
 
 8. The Genei'al, with commendable-foresight, retired across the river. 
 
 9. To the wise and good, old age presents a Sicene of tranquil enjoy- 
 ment. 
 
 RULES FOR THE CURVES.-3. 
 
 1. Use the Curves to include a disconnected remark hy the 
 Author. 
 
 2. Use the Curves to include a point, letter, or figure, used 
 for some special purpose. 
 
 3. If a point is required where the Parenthesis occurs, 
 place it after the second Curve, — unless the Parenthesis is a 
 complete sentence or is exclamatory or interrogative. In 
 that case place the point hefore the first Curve. (A supplied 
 ellipsis included in curves is not a Parenthesis; and not 
 subject to this Rule.) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. If you can do it (and I have no doubt that you can), please give 
 me some information on this subject. 
 
 2. This remark was made, it is said, by the Hon. (V) John Smith. 
 
 3. If this plan is practicable, (and why is it not 7) we ought to adopt it. 
 In the mean time the Indians, (miserable wretches !) or some other 
 
 foes, had burned his house. 
 
52 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 EULES FOE THE BEACKETS.— 2- 
 
 1. Use the Brackets to inclose something introduced by 
 an Editor or Copyist, or which may be omitted, or which 
 is removed from its proper place. 
 
 2. The Brackets may be used by an Author to inclose in- 
 cidental matter of some special kind, as, in a Dictionary,, the 
 Etymologies, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Art is long [i. e. we have rauch to do] ; and time is fleeting. 
 
 [Zion enjoys her Monarch's love, 
 
 Secui-e against a threatening hour ; 
 Nor can her firm foundations move, 
 Built on his truth, and krmed with power.] 
 
 [and weary]. 
 Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak 
 
 2. Rational [L. rationalis], relating to reason. 
 
 EULES FOE THE DASH.-7. 
 
 1. Use the Dash as a sign of Ellipsis where a sentence is 
 commenced bjit not finished, or where the beginning of a 
 sentence is omitted. 
 
 2. In a case of Anacoluthon. place the Dash after the un- 
 finished part. 
 
 3. Use Dashes instead of the Curves when the Parenthe- 
 sis has some slight connection with the sentence in which it 
 is placed. 
 
 4. When a Parenthesis occurs within a Parenthesis, use 
 Dashes instead of a second pair of Curves. 
 
 5. Use the Dash to mark a significant pause, — either alone 
 or after some other point. 
 
 6. Use the Dash to show the beginning of a new Para- 
 graph upon the same line with preceding words. 
 
 7. Use the Dash to separate the number from the head- 
 ing of a chapter; to separate a side heading from the Para- 
 graph ; and to separate the name of an Author or Authority 
 from a passage quoted or copied, when placed on the same 
 line. 
 
OF THE BNGLISE LANO UA OE. 53 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are 
 
 too weak, too powerless to express them. 
 
 2. That patriotism which, catching its inspiration from the immortal 
 God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below all lesser, grovel- 
 ling, personal interests and feelings, animates and prompts to deeds of 
 self-sacrifice, of valor, of devotion, and of death itself, — that is public 
 virtue^ that is the noblest, the sublimest of all public virtues. 
 
 3. In youth — that is to say somewhere between the period of child- 
 hood and manhood — there is commonly a striking development of sen- 
 sibility and imagination. 
 
 4. When I went to vote (for I always vote — though sometimes with 
 reluctance — on election day), I met him. 
 
 B. He said ; then full before their sight 
 
 Produced the beast ; and lo ! — 'twas white. 
 I pause for a reply. — None 1 Then none have I offended. 
 And life's piano now for me hath lost its sweetest tones, sir, 
 Since my Matilda Brown became — some fellow's Mrs. Jones, sir. 
 
 6. The door then closed. — Seven years afterwards I met him again in 
 the streets of Paris. 
 
 7. Chapter 8.— Cokal Islands. Lessoh- 10. — Voicaitoes. 
 Something New. — Mr. John Smith has recently invented a new fish- 
 hook, which he has patented. 
 
 " Heaven's fire is around thee to blast and to burn." — C 
 
 RULES FOR THE aUOTATION MARKS.-5. 
 
 1. Place Double Inverted Commas before, and double 
 Apostrophes after, a direct quotation. 
 
 2. If other words intervene between the parts of a quo- 
 tation, then mark each part separately. 
 
 3. If a quotation contains a quotation, mark that which is 
 contained with single points, and if still another is contained 
 within this last, mark it with double points. 
 
 4. Omit the Quotation Marks in case of an indirect quo- _ 
 tation ; of a quotation from another language and printed in 
 italics ; and of numerous short extracts used as examples in 
 text books ; but insert them with single words used merely 
 as examples, 
 
 5. When successive paragraphs are quoted, place the In- 
 verted Commas before each ; but the Apostrophes after the 
 last only. 
 
54 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GSAMMAB 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 
 
 2. " Suspicion," said the man, " is one of the meanest of vices." 
 
 8. When tieating of Christian Orators, Maury asks the following 
 apposite questions : " What is this you call eloquence 1 Is it the 
 wretched trade of imitating that criminal, mentioned by a poet in his 
 satires, who balanced his crimes before his judges with antitlieses ? Is 
 it the puerile secret of forming jejune quibbles ; of rounding periods ; 
 of tormenting one's self by tedious studies, in order to reduce sacred 
 instruction into a vain amusement '\ " 
 
 4. Socrates said that he believed in the immortality of the soul. 
 Such little words as " and " and " the " and " by " should be spo- 
 ken distinctly. 
 
 The student should take Nil desperandum for his motto. 
 
 5. " Don't choose a piece too big for you, or too long for your au- 
 dience. 
 
 " Learn the Author's name ; when, why, where, to whom, and 
 under what circumstances he spoke. 
 
 " Bead your selection very carefully, at least three times through, 
 before you begin to commit it to memory." 
 
 RULES FOR THE MARKS OF ELLIPSIS.-4. 
 
 1. A Blank space may be used to show the omission of a 
 part of a line of poetry ; and in Legal Forms, to show the 
 omission of any number of words or lines. 
 
 2. The Long Dash may be used to show the omission of a 
 part of a name ; of a whole name ; of a number ; of a sum 
 of money expressed by figures ; &c. 
 
 3. Stars, Dots, or Hyphens, may be used to show the 
 omission of some letters of a name ; of some words of a sen- 
 tence ; of some sentences of a paragraph ; or of an indefinite 
 portion of a book. 
 
 4. The Double Period pr the Dash should be used to in- 
 dicate any common Ellipsis of one or more words from a 
 sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " Down, down they go ; 
 The Gael above ; Pitz James below." 
 
 2. No . Mr. C '8 B 1. 
 
 I promise to pay to or order Dollars. 
 
 8. Ms. J**n S*i'*h, T....S J... s, andW mM---e 
 
OF I HE ENGLISH LANQ UAGE. 55 
 
 There are but few who know how to be friends to the dead: ***** 
 * ♦ * » » f he name of our friends, their glory, their family, have still 
 claims upon our affection which it would be guilt not to feel. 
 
 If the great have no other glory than that of their ancestors,.... 
 their birth dishonors them, even in the estimation of the world. 
 
 4. He is .. in the house, He sent .. me the book. Where did you 
 see him ? . . In the house. Lay . , aside the books. Virtue is always 
 advantageous ; vice . . never. 
 
 WORD POINTS. 
 
 The "Word Points are the Accents ( ' ' * " ), the Hy- 
 phen (-), the Apostrophe ( ' ), the Macron ( " ), the Breve 
 ("), the Diaeresis ( " ), the Cedilla ( , ), the Tilde ( ~ ), and 
 the Dot ( ■ ). 
 
 The Acute Accent ( ' ) is used to mark the accented 
 syllable of a word ; and, ii Heading Books, to indicate the 
 Upward Inflection. 
 
 The Grave Accent ( ') is'used sometimes to show that 
 a final " ed" is to be pronounced as a distinct syllable. In 
 Heading Books it marks the Downward Inflection. 
 
 The Circumflex Accent ( * ) properly denotes a con- 
 traction, and is used in Reading Books to mark the Com- 
 pound Inflection. It is also used as a Diacritical Mark over 
 the letters a, e, o, and «, to indicate particular sounds. 
 
 The Double Acute Accent ( ) is sometimes used to 
 mark the primary accent in a long word, and is sometimes 
 used as a Diacritical Mark to the letters c, t, and n. 
 
 The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the syllables of a 
 word, or the members of a compound word, and it is placed 
 at the end of a line where a word is divided. 
 
 The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used to show the omission of 
 one or more letters. 
 
 The Macron ( " ) is used as a Diacritical Mark, placed 
 over or under certain letters, to indicate particular sounds. 
 
 The Breve ( " ) is used as a Diacritical Mark over cer- 
 tain letters. 
 
 The Diaerisis ( " ) is used to show that the vowel over 
 which it is placed does not belong to the same syllable as 
 
56 -4 GOMPLETM 80IENTIFI0 GRAMMAR 
 
 the one preceding it. It is also placed over or under single 
 vowels to indicate particular sounds. 
 
 The Dot ( ■ ) is used over or under a letter to indicate a 
 particular sound. 
 
 The Cedilla ( , ), or little z, is used under the letter c to 
 imlicate the sound of s. 
 
 The Tilde ( ~ ) denotes contraction, and is used over n 
 to show the omission of g before it ; and sometimes over a 
 vowel to show the omission of n or m after it. Also, in 
 Reading Books, to indicate the Compound Inflection or 
 "Wave ; and it is sometimes placed over a letter to indicate 
 a particular sound. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Armost, com'monly, incom'prehen' 'aible, worshipped, whispered, c&re, 
 Ihere, f6r, fftrl, use-ful-ness, niani-fest, tho', 'tis, John's, make, mean, 
 mine, moan, miisio, rhyme, food, get, «hord, was', exist, linger, linlt, 
 veil, mat, m6t, sit, n6t, b&t, hymn, f66t, reSl, gebmetry,far, fall, pique, 
 dQ, rgde, last, what, done, wolf, p&sh, gem, fa<;ade, term, firm, cafion, 
 nS,me& (Lat.). 
 
 MTSCELLAKTEOITS POINTS. 
 The Paragraph ( If ) is sometimes used to mark the 
 divisions of a chapter. It is also used in correcting for the 
 press. 
 
 The Section ( ^ ) is often used to mark the paragraphs 
 of a book or chapter. 
 
 The Index ( I®" ) is used to call special attention to a 
 
 The Asterism ( *^* ) is used like the Index, but is less 
 forcible. 
 
 The Caret ( a ) is used in writing to show where some- 
 thing which has been omitted ought to be inserted. 
 
 The Double Comma ( „ ) is used to show the omission 
 of the word under which it is placed. 
 
 The Brace [ { ) is used to connect several lines or words 
 which are to be taken together. 
 
 Leaders ( ) are used to lead the eye across a 
 
 blank space. 
 
 Marks of Reference {■* t H II ^) are used to call at- 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANO WAGE. 57 
 
 tention to explanatory notes at the side or bottom of a page. 
 The Asterisk (* ) is used first, then the Dagger ( t ), Double 
 Dagger ( J: ), Section { § ), Parallels ( || ), and Paragraph ( T ), 
 successively; and if more are required, they are doubled, 
 and tripled if necessary, in the same order. Sometimes let- 
 ters or figures inclosed in curves are used for the same pur- 
 pose, especially if the notes are numerous, or placed in the 
 Appendix instead of the margin. 
 
 Superiors (*, ", ", &e., or ^, 2, *, &c.,) are sometimes 
 used as Marks of Reference, and are preferable to the old 
 arbitrary characters. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 The Spring Time of life is rapidly passing away 
 
 2 Art is long and lime ia fleeting 
 
 3 Contrasted words sometimes have their accents changed, as im- 
 merge and emerge exercise and exorcise &c 
 
 4 When the righteous are in authority the people rejoice but when 
 the wiclied beareth rule the people mourn 
 
 5 Ms Sheldon & Co Please send me the following 
 
 3 Doz Stoddard's Complete Arithmetics 
 1 Bullions s Greek Grammars and 
 1 Morris s Latin Lessons 
 
 6 How very difficult it is to punctuate correctly 
 
 7 Is not panctuation very easy when one understands the analysis 
 of sentences 
 
 8 Where did you find those beautiful flowers 
 
 9 What Are there no enjoyments in life None 
 
 10 Alas What can one enjoy who is bereft of hope 
 
 11 Over the river December Gen Andrew Jackson 
 
 12 Butter is selling in the market at 20 @ 23 cts 
 
 13 Lesson XXII Autumn Foliage. 
 
 14 On the 4th of Aug having closed his school he departed 
 
 15 West Va College Flemiugton Taylor Co W Ta 
 
 16 what a beautiful collection of birds 
 
 17 If one even of the nearest stars were to be suddenly struck out 
 of existence it would be several years before we should miss it from the 
 sky 
 
 18 To arms To arms they cry 
 
 19 When you are sure that you are right then go ahead 
 
 20 The men were in earnest and were determined to be heard 
 
 21 Men women children cattle perished in the flood 
 
58 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 22 Books teachers and opportunities of every kind will fail to make 
 scholars of those who lack industry 
 
 23 He opened the book full of expectancy to find that he had been 
 grossly deceived 
 
 24 Please tell me sir how far it is to Wheeling 
 
 25 Yes It is certainly a very curious coincidence 
 
 26 No I would not do it on any consideration 
 
 I 27 He as was natural enough supposed himself to be meant 
 
 28 Who yields to fear that man I never could endure 
 
 29 Said Tom to Dick Dick was his chum 
 
 I wonder where the money goes 
 Said Dick to Tom Now comrade come 
 I'll tell you what my cash book shows 
 80 The proper order of inquiry is a What are the facts and b 
 What are the reasons for Ihose facts 
 81. If this be true miserable fate I am utterly hopelessly ruined 
 
 82 The most prejudicial the Author means prejudiced man will cease 
 to oppose the measure when he discovers that it will double his income 
 
 83 Will he never but why should I care 
 
 84 My dear native hills shall I never see them again 
 
 35 While he was doing this not with a very good grace the other 
 members of the party came up 
 
 36 Many a man and woman too if the truth were known I think has 
 regretted a hasty decision 
 
 87 The result of all this labor and expense is a failure 
 
 88 And so we left the mountain Another interesting subject for 
 investigation is the inscription in the cave 
 
 39 Chapter 4 The Eegimental Organization 
 
 40 Let us then be up and doing 
 
 With a heart for any fate Longfellow 
 
 41 That honesty is the best policy is oftener said than believed but 
 here is a whole nation testifying to the truth of it N T Evening Poet 
 
 42 Said Harry then Now let the bravest follow me 
 
 43 Let no one think said Oliver that I fear the man But I scorn to 
 notice him 
 
 44 What said he can be more disagreeable than to beat the bush 
 while another catches the bird 
 
 45 The speaker said that he would soon make this point clear 
 
 46 Where are you going I asked To Boston said he 
 
 47 There is nothing honorable that is not innocent and nothing mean 
 but what attaches guilt 
 
 48 It was a saying of Socrates that we should eat and drink in order 
 to live instead of living as many do in order to eat and drink 
 
OF THE ENOLISH LAJSTQ UA GE. 59 
 
 49 He is not prepared thoroughly to weigh the arguments 
 
 50 Jolin said William where are you going 
 
 51 By Cowley the Philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus 
 
 52 Richard Green Parker says James Eussell Lowell is a great genius 
 
 53 In the above sentence Who is the genius and Who says so 
 
 54 Is the man described in the next exercise a good man or a bad 
 man 
 
 55 He is an old expei'ienced man in vice and wickedness he is never 
 found opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the downfall 
 of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of any of his fellow 
 creatures he ia always ready to assist in destroying the peace of society 
 he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly diligent in 
 sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride 
 in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been negli- 
 gent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public teachers he makes no ex- 
 ertions to subdue his evil passions he strives hard to build up Satan's 
 kingdom he lends no aid to the support of the Gospel among the hea- 
 then he contributes largely to the evil adversary he pays no attention to 
 good advice he gives great heed to the devil he will never go to heaven 
 he must go where he will receive the just recompense of reward. 
 
 56. Boston Mass March 10th 1877 
 
 Ms C Williams and Co 
 
 Dear Sirs Tour favor of the 7th inst is received and 
 I am glad to inform you that Mr Jones has paid his Note with Inter- 
 est amounting to Seven Hundred and Fifty Dollars and Twenty five cents 
 and that I have placed the money in the Merchants Bank of this city 
 subject to your order 
 
 Very respectfully Yours 
 
 James Bradford 
 
 PART n.— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Etymology is that part of Grammar which pertains to 
 individual words. 
 
 The Divisions of Etymology are Classification, In- 
 flection, Composition, and Derivation. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Classification is the grouping together of words which 
 are alike in respect to their use or inflection. 
 
 The Chief Object of Classification is to facilitate 
 the learning of the forms of words. 
 
 The Parts of Speech are the nine principal classes of 
 
60 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QRAMMAB 
 
 words, called Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Copulas, Verbs, 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 
 CLASS I.-NOTJIfS. 
 A Noun (or Substantive) is a word used as a name. 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. A Proper Noun is the name of an individual. 
 
 2. A Common Noun is a name common to many in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 1st SUB-CLASS.— PROPER WOUNS. 
 Proper Names of Persons usually consist of two or 
 more parts. 
 Other Proper Names generally consist of only one 
 
 part. 
 A Pre2iam.e, Given Name, or Christian Name, 
 
 is the first part of a person's name. 
 
 A Surname, or Family Name, is the last part of a 
 person's name. 
 
 A Middle Name is an additional Prename. 
 Surnames alone are common nouns, except where 
 Prenames are understood. 
 
 2nd SUB-CLASS.-C01IOI0N NOUNS. 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Full (or Mobile) Nouns are those having the three 
 Modes of Inflection called Gender, Number, and Case ; as 
 Julius, Author, &c. 
 
 2. Defective (or Fixed) Nouns are those not having 
 the Mode of Inflection called Gender ; as Smith, book, &c. 
 
 2nd DIVISION.— DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
 SUB-DIVISIONS.— 4. (See Note 7.) 
 1. Masculine Nouns are names of males and of such 
 other objects as exhibit masculine properties ; as " Walter ", 
 "boy", "sun", &c. 
 
 3. Ferftinine Nouns are names of females and of such 
 other objects as exhihit feminine properties ; as " Sarah ", 
 f'girl", "moo^'^ &o, 
 
OF TEE EN0LI8H LANG UAGB. 61 
 
 8. Doubtful Nouns are such names of persons and of 
 gome of the larger animals as do not indicate the sex, as 
 "teacher", "Moose ", &o. 
 
 4. Neuter Nouns are such names of inanimate objects 
 as are neither masculine nor feminine, and names of animals 
 ■whose sex is unknown or obscure ; as " ball ", " mouse ", 
 " child ", &c. 
 
 Note. Many Neuter Nouns become Masculine or Femi- 
 nine by Personification. 
 
 METAPHYSICAL SUB-CLASSES OF NOUNS 
 
 1. A Concrete Noun is the name of some material 
 thing ; as " stone '', &c. 
 
 2. An Abstract Noun is the name of some immaterial 
 thing ; as " time ", &c. 
 
 GROUPS OF COMMON NOUNS. 
 
 1. A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of 
 individuals, as "school", &c. 
 
 2. A Material Noun is the name of a substance con- 
 sidered in reference to mass or quantity; as "earth", 
 « wheat ", « gold ", &c. 
 
 3. A Participial Noun is a Participle used as a name. 
 Notes. 1. A Common Noun personified becomes a 
 
 Proper Noun. 
 
 2. Surnames have originated from paternal names, oc- 
 cupations, localities, peculiarities, &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. House, book, time, friendship, sand, coal, beauty, redness, school, 
 army, society, multitude, thing, world, James, education, Abraham 
 Lincoln, Boston, running, Hartford, Henry Ward Beeoher, Smith, Ed- 
 ward Baker, Richard Henry Lee Brewer, virtue, wealth, Benjamin 
 Carpenter, John Stewart. 
 
 2. William Henry Brown, Horace White, Edwin Strong, Alfred Marsh, 
 Richard Hill, Julius Dale, Webster, Weaver, Shepherd, Cooper, Farmer, 
 Tanner, Walter Long, David Short, Sun, Moon, Star, Sirius, Aldebaran, 
 Hudson, Johnson, McDonald, Fitzjames, Pitz Hugh, Baltimore, Lake 
 Erie, Potomac River, Alleghany Mountains. 
 
62 ^ COMPLETE 80IENTIFI0 GRAMMAR 
 
 CLASS II.— ADJECTIVES, 
 An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pro- 
 noun. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES.— 2. 
 1. A Descriptive Adjective is one describing the 
 thing signified by the word it modifies, as " long," " wooden," 
 "persistent,' &c. 
 
 A Definitive Adjective is one which merely limits 
 or restricts the word it modifies, as "this", "some", 
 "other", "ten", &c. 
 
 1st SUB-CLASS.— DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 DIVISIONS.— 3. 
 
 1. A Qualitative Adjective is one expressing some 
 quality of the thing signified by its noun ; as " good", 
 "large", "sweet", &c. 
 
 2. A Material Adjective is one expressing that of 
 which a thing is composed; as "wooden", "golden", &c. 
 
 3. A Participial Adjective is a Participle used as a 
 modifier, including Present and Past Participles, and those 
 Adjectives ending in " ant " and " ent " which were once 
 Participles ; as " resonant", " confident", &c. 
 
 Note. Some Participial Adjectives are also Qualitative. 
 
 2nd SUB-CLASS.— DEFmiTIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 DIVISIONS.— 3. 
 
 1. Articles are the words "an" or "a" and "the." 
 
 2. Numeral Adjectives are those used in number- 
 ing or counting. 
 
 3. Pronominal Adjectives are those frequently 
 used alone, as if they were Pronouns. 
 
 1st DIVISION.— ARTICLES. 
 
 1. The Definite Article is the word " the." 
 
 2. The Indefinite Article is the word " an," which 
 becomes "a" before a Consonant. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA OE. 63 
 
 2iid DIVISION-NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
 SUB-DIVISI0NS.-2. 
 1 . Cardinal Numerals are those expressing numbers ; 
 as " one," " two," " three," &o. 
 
 S. Ordinal Numerale are those expressing orders ; 
 as " first ", " second ", " third ", &c. 
 
 3d DIVISION-PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 SUB-DIVISI0NS.-5. 
 1. Demonstratives are the words the, this, these, that, 
 those, former, latter, both, such and same. 
 
 3. Distributives are the words each, every, either, 
 neither and whether. 
 
 3. Indefinites are the words some, other, another, any, 
 moH/^TfetS^one, none, all and several. 
 
 4. Interrogatives are the words what, which and 
 
 whether. 
 
 5. Relatives are the words what, and which. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The more one has, the more he desires. This is mine, and those 
 are yours. That is better than these. The former is worse than the 
 latter. Both are mistaken. Such is the result. The same is true of 
 the other party. 
 
 2. Let him summon each and every of them. Either may be used ; 
 but neither is suitable. Show whether of these two thou hast chosen. 
 
 3. Some are better than others. Another will do as well. He has 
 not any. Many are called ; but few are chosen. One is better than 
 none. 
 
 All wished to go j but several were unable. 
 
 4. What will he do 1 Which is the largest book 1 Whether is easier 
 to say this or that ■! 
 
 5. He spends what time he can get in study. He cultivates a farm, 
 which farm he received from his father. They returned the money, 
 which thing was very creditable to them. They lost what money they 
 had. 
 
 He inquired which road would lead him to the city. 
 
 GROUPS OF ADJECTIVES. 
 1. Proper Adjectives are those derived from Proper 
 Names; as "English", &o. 
 
64 A COMPLETE! SOIENTIWIC GRAMMAR 
 
 2. Periodical Adjectives are those derived from names 
 of periods of time ; as " daily ", " hourly ", " weekly ", <fcc, 
 
 3. Replicatives are those expressing repetition; as 
 "single ", " double ", " triple ", &c. 
 
 4. Combiuatives are those derived from names of 
 combinations; as " triangular",*" quadrangular", "pentago- 
 nal", &c. 
 
 5. Singular Adjectives are those denoting unity ; as 
 "an" (or "a"), "one", "each", "every", "either", 
 " neither ", &c. 
 
 6. Plural Adjectives are those denoting plurality ; as 
 " many ", " several ", " divers ", " two ", " three ", " four ", 
 &o. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The French people are noted for their politeness. 
 
 2. The year 1876 is called the centennial year of the American Re- 
 pubHc. 
 
 3. Single vices bring in their train manifold miseries. 
 
 4. A hexagonal figure is one having six corners. 
 A quadrilateral figure is one having four sides. 
 
 5. Each individual has his own personal peculiarities. 
 Every man is at some time in need of assistance. 
 Either course is practicable ; but neither is commendable. 
 
 6. Many attempts have been made to reach the North Pole. 
 Several nations at divers times have sent out exploring expedi- 
 
 ditions. 
 
 The Israelites sojourned forty years in the wilderness. 
 
 7. Good houses. Bad men. Long roads. Little books. American 
 scenery. English cheese. French politeness. Running brooks. Fly- 
 ing clouds. Rainy weather. This person. That lady. These flowers. 
 Those peaches. One apple. Seven plums. Tho horses. An inkstand. 
 A penholder. Former times. Latter days. Both ways. Each exam- 
 ple. Every page. Either side. Neither plan. Some chestnuts. Other 
 fruits. Many times. 
 
 8. A white house. The crooked river. All useful things. Such 
 valuable hints. Pew diligent students. Much hard study? Several 
 stormy days. Another pleasant morning. A large white house. The 
 poor old man. Six iittle white mice. The first lesson. The fifth 
 added line. These four double rows. Ten little alumnae. Those two 
 long triple cords. A sevenfold vengeance. 
 
OF THE ENOLISH LANG UA OE. 65 
 
 CLASS III— PEONOUNS. 
 A Pronoun is a word used to represent a Noun. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES— 5. 
 
 1. A Personal Pronoun is one whioli has the Mode 
 of Inflection called person. 
 
 Liist. The only personal Pronoun is the word " J" (in- 
 cluding its inflectional forms). 
 
 2. A Relative Pronoun is one which relates to some 
 word or words in a preceding member of a sentence, and 
 thus connects the two members. 
 
 The Antecedent of a Relative is that to which it re- 
 lates. 
 
 List. The Relative Pronouns are who, which [what, 
 where, whence, whither, why, how), as, that, than, and the 
 compounds of these with " so " and " ever 'I, as " whoever ", 
 " whosoever ", " whichsoever ", &c. 
 
 An Interrogative Pronoun is one used to make a 
 Sentence interrogative. 
 
 liist. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, what, 
 whether. 
 
 4. An Indefinite Pronoun is one which represents 
 some unexpressed indefinite term, such as " something", 
 "somebody", "anybody", "some person", " any person", <fec. 
 
 Liist. The indefinite pronouns are it, one, other, and 
 there. 
 
 5. A Possessive Pronoun is one which is derived 
 fi:om the Possessive Case of a Personal Pronoun. 
 
 List. The Possessive Pronouns are hers, ours, yours, 
 and theirs, — and sometimes mine, thine, and his. 
 
 COMPOUND FORMS. 
 
 Myself, thyself, &o. (usually called Compound Per- 
 sonal Pronouns) are consolidated phrases, — each consist- 
 ing of the noun " self" limited by a Possessive Case of the 
 Personal Pronoun. 
 
 Himself and themselves are anomalous forms in 
 
66 A OOKPLETE SOIESTTIFIO GBAMMAB 
 
 which " him " and " them " are improperly used for " his " 
 and " their". 
 
 I have seeu them myself; and you will aoon see them, for they are 
 coming here. One needs patience with some people. It is uncertain 
 whether he will pay the Note or not. Mine is better than theirs. That 
 liorse of yours is lame. 
 
 CLASS IV.— COPULAS. 
 
 A Copula is a word used to connect the subject of a 
 Sentence with the Predicate. 
 
 Liist. The Copulas are the word be (or am) in all its 
 forms, and, in a few sentences, the word loorth. (See Note 6.) 
 CLASS V-VERBS. 
 
 A Verb is a word which may be used as the predicate in 
 a sentence without a Copula. (See Note 5.) 
 
 A Participle is a form of the verb which may be 
 used as the predicate in a sentence with a Copula. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES-2. (See Note 4.) 
 
 1. A Regular Verb is one whose Past (Tense) Stem 
 and Past Participle are formed by annexing " ed " to the 
 Present Stem, and making the changes required by the 
 Rules for Spelling. 
 
 2. An Irregnilar Verb is one whose Past Stem and 
 Past Participle are not formed as those of a Regular Verb. 
 
 GEOUPS OF VERBS.-4. 
 
 A Copulative Verb is one compounded of a Verb and 
 Copula. 
 
 List. The Copulative Verbs are beeome, befall, and be- 
 chance. 
 
 2. A Defective Verb is one which lacks some of the 
 usual forms. 
 
 List. The Defective Verbs are shall, will, may, can, 
 must, ought, quoth and wit. 
 
 3. A Redundant Verb is one which has duplicate 
 forms in some of its parts. 
 
 4. An Auxiliary Verb is one used in forming the 
 tenses of other verbs. 
 
OF TEB BNGLISn LANO TTA GK 67 
 
 Liist. The Auxiliary Verbs are do, shall, will, may, can, 
 must, and have. 
 
 OBJECT. 
 
 The Object of a Verb is the modifier of it which 
 answers the question " What ? " in reference to the Verb. 
 
 Example. In the sentence '• He lost his knife," the Ob- 
 ject of "lost" is "knife." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Birds are musical. Birds sing. Birds are .singing. Boys play. 
 Boys are playing. Gaines are played. I write. I am writing. Letters 
 are written. The tower stands. He speaks. They saw him. We 
 heard them. Some persons left the house. We saw those persons. 
 Eich men have much money. Idlers waste their time. Mary found her 
 book. Susan learns her lessons. 
 
 2. These apples are ripe ; those are unripe. Some students are dili- 
 gent ; others are idle. The former condition was tolerable ; the latter 
 was intolerable. This method is easy; the other was diiHcult. All 
 men have some felicity ; none enjoy perfect happiness. 
 
 CLASS V3.-ADVERBS. 
 An Adverb is a word used to modify a Verb, Copula, 
 Adjective or Adverb. 
 
 STJB-CLASSES.— 2. 
 
 1. Limiting Adverbs are those which are used singly, 
 and only as modifiers, 
 
 2. Conjunctive Adverbs are those used in pairs, — 
 each one of a pair being the Correlative of the other, — and 
 each pair serving as a Connective. 
 
 GROUPS OF ADVERBS.— 10. 
 
 1. A Modal Adverb is one use. to modify a Coplila, 
 — or, in a Verbal Sentence, to modify the manner of the 
 assertion, as " not ", " truly ", " perhaps ", &o. 
 
 2. An Adverb of Time is one used to indicate time 
 as "now", "then", "lately", &c. 
 
 3. An Adverb of Place is one used to indicate local- 
 ity, as " here ", " there ", " somewhere ", &c. 
 
 4. An Adverb of Cause is one used to indicate cause, 
 as "why", "wherefore", "therefore", &c. 
 
68 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMA 11 
 
 6. An Adverb of Manner is one used to indicate 
 manner, as " rapidly ", " slowly ", &c. 
 
 6. An Adverb of Degree is one used to indicate de- 
 gree, as " greatly ", " extremely ", &o. 
 
 7. An Adverb of Number is one used to indicate 
 number, as " once", "twice", "thrice ", &c. 
 
 8. An Adverb of Order is one used to indicate 
 arrangement, as " firstly ", " secondly ", " thirdly ", « lattly ", 
 
 (&C. 
 
 9. An Adverb of Interrogation is one used to indi- 
 cate inquiry, as " why ", " where ", " whence ", " how ", <fcc. 
 
 10. An Adverb of Negation is one used to indicate 
 denial, as " not ", " never ", "nowise ", &c. 
 
 LIST OF CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 
 As — so; as — as; how — so; so — as; the — ^the ; when — 
 then ; whenever — then ; whensoever — then ; where — there ; 
 wherever — there ; wheresoever — there ; whence — thence ; 
 whencesoever — thence ; whither — ^thither. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Now, then, always, here, there, yonder, somewhere, hence, where- 
 fore, therefore, fairly, faithfully, well, badly, very, much, greatly, once, 
 twice, firstly, secondly, how, why, where, not, truly, surely, doubtless, 
 perhaps, perchance, peradventure. 
 
 2. He writes well. They understand the lesson well. She always 
 writes carelessly. That person frequently comes here. These students 
 manifest very great intelligence. The fruit is certainly good. They 
 were doubtless mistaken. He twice returned. 
 
 The speaker showed, firstly, the practicability of the plan ; and when 
 he had done this, then he explained the utility of the work. How high 
 are those mountains 1 Why is he not ready 1 
 
 CLASS Vn-PREPOSITIONS. 
 A Preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
 tween other words. 
 
 The Object of a Preposition is a word which ans- 
 wers the question " What ? " in reference to the Preposition. 
 STJB-CLASSES.-2. 
 1. A Simple Preposition is one derived fi-om a sin- 
 gle original word. 
 
OF THIS ENGLISH LANG UA OE. 69 
 
 2. A Compound Preposition is one derived from 
 two or more original words. 
 
 1st SUB-CLASS. -SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 
 DIVISI0NS.-2. 
 
 1. A Substantive Preposition is one derived from a 
 Noun, as « of", « by", <fco. 
 
 2. An Adjective Preposition is one derived from an 
 Adjective, as " after ", &c. 
 
 2nd SUB-CLASS.-COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 
 DIVISI0NS.-2. 
 
 1. A Phrase Preposition is one consisting of a Prep- 
 osition and its Object united, as " around ", " beside '', &c. 
 
 2. A Double Preposition is one consisting of two 
 Prepositions combined, or of a Preposition and a Participle, 
 as "into", "towards", &c. 
 
 Not3. When two separate Prepositions occur together, 
 they do not constitute a Compound Preposition ; but there 
 is an Ellipsis of some word or words. Example. He came 
 from beyond the sea=He came from (a place which is 
 situated) beyond the sea. 
 
 LISTS AND DEFINITIONS OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Isi SUB-CLASS.-SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 
 1st DIVISION.-SUBSTANTIVE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 At=thing joined, as He sits at the table. 
 
 by=lst, A Hou^e ; 2nd, Intermediate Station,; as He came 
 ty the Post OflSce. 
 
 down=hill, and is used instead of adoioii, ^oflF hill, 
 =from a high place. 
 
 for=cause, as He waited /br the cars. 
 
 from^beginning, as He came from Chicago. 
 
 in=cavity, as He studies in his room. 
 
 of=origin, as The fruit of the tree. 
 
 off=thing separated, as The ship lies off Stonington. 
 
 on=support, as The boy stood on, the burning deck. 
 
 round= circuit, as They went round the hill. 
 
 through=door, as He passed through the gate. 
 
70 A COMPLETE BOIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 till=end(of time), as He -waited till night. 
 to=end (of space), as He went to Boston. 
 Hp=high place, as He went up the hill. 
 with=lst, A Willow; 2nd, A band; 3d, Thing con- 
 nected ; as He went with his brother. 
 
 2nd DIVISION.-ADJECTIVE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 After=later or hinder (in space or time), as He arrived 
 after the fair. After the Artillery came the Infantry. 
 
 over=higher, as He saw a sword suspended over his 
 head. 
 
 under=lower, as They were sent under the yoke. 
 
 If ote. These Adjectives have come to be used as Prep- 
 ositions by a process of Ellipsis, thus — He arrived after the 
 fair=He arrived (in the) after (time of) the fair. After 
 the Artillery came the Infantry = (In the) after (place of) 
 the Artillery came the Infantry, &c., &c. 
 
 2nd SUB-CLASS. -COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 
 1st DIVISION.-PHRASE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 About=on the bout=on the doubling, as He went about 
 the town. 
 
 above=on the bove^on the higher place, as He went 
 above the clouds. 
 
 across=on the cross^on the crossing, as He went across 
 the street. 
 
 adown=off hill=from a high place, as It swept adown 
 the sky. 
 
 against=on the gainst=on the opposed thing, as He 
 leaned against the wall. 
 
 alobg=on the long=on the length, as They marched 
 along the street. 
 
 amidst j ""'" *^® midst=in the middle place, as He stood 
 amidst the ruins. 
 
 among=in the mong=in the number, as There was a trai- 
 tor among them. 
 
 around=on the round=on the circuit, as He went around 
 the camp. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQ UA QE. 1\ 
 
 atliwart=on the th'wart=on the cross, as They sent a 
 shot athwart our bows. 
 
 bef'ore=by the fore (iu time or position), as He stood 
 before the king. 
 
 behind=by the hind (in time or position), as They stood 
 behind the house. 
 
 below^by the low=by the lower place, as These rocks 
 lie below the coal. 
 
 beneath=by the neath=by the lower part, as He lies 
 beneath a rude and nameless stone. 
 
 beside^by the side, as He stood beside the coffin. 
 
 be8ides=by the sides=separate from, as There were four 
 besides him. 
 
 between=by the twain, as He passed between the two 
 armies. 
 
 betwixt=by the two, as He sat betwixt two aged oaks. 
 
 beyond=by the yond^by the farther place, as The house 
 stands beyond the river. 
 
 since =si</i-thence=" time from that," as I have not seen 
 him since that battle. 
 
 throughout=through the out=through the far portion=: 
 through the whole, as He' traveled throughout the State. 
 
 underneath=under the neath=below, as He lies under- 
 neath this stone. 
 
 withiii=with the in=with the cavity, as The kernel lies 
 within the shell. 
 
 without:=with the out=outside of, as Some drive the car 
 without the gate. 
 
 2nd DIVISION.— DOITBLE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Into=cavity end, as He went into the house, 
 upon = high-place support, as The snow lies upontYie roof, 
 until =ontill= support end, as He waited until March. 
 towards=end looked=looked for end, as He went towards 
 home. 
 
 t DEFINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The Definitions of Prepositions here given are the 
 
72 A COMPLETE BOIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 primary or principal ones, from which many others have 
 been derived. 
 
 A valuable exercise is to trace from these primary 
 significations the various meanings which the Prepositions 
 are found to have in diflferent sentences. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The word " by " signifies 1, A house ; 2, Intermediate Btalion ; as 
 He came hy the school-house ; 3, Anything intermediate, and hence, 
 a road, as He came 'by the turnpike ; 4, Anything which serves as a 
 guide, as He sailed by the compass ; He drew the line by a ruler ; He 
 solved the problem by the rule ; 5, Anything instrumental, as He took 
 the town by assault ; He gained the fortress by strategem ; He secured 
 his election by the use of money ; He obtained the position by the in- 
 fluence of his friends ; He secured respect by his hone.sty ; He obtained 
 admittance Jy means of a Pass; He returned Jy Steamboat; 6, Any- 
 thing near, as He stood by the lake ; The dog remained by the body of his 
 master ; He will return by Wednesday ; He will come by and by (i. b. 
 very soon, (See Note 24) ; 7, A place where one does not stop, as He 
 passed by the church ; 8, A period of time in which something is done, 
 as He studies by day and by night ; 9, A dimension acljoimng and per- 
 pendicular to another, as The room is fifteen feet by twenty. 
 
 Moreover, since byes, or intermediate stations, were not always fixed 
 in the most direct route, — and, the roads being straitened, they were 
 sometimes left at a distance, — the word by came to signify, 10, A place 
 out of the usual route, and hence, retired, unfrequented, or not easily 
 accessible ; and at length it was used as an Adjective in that sense, as 
 The house stands in a 6y« place; 11, A journey, as in the expression 
 " Good bye." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The old man remains at home. He sits by the fire. The horses 
 ran down the hill. John went for assistance. Tea is brought from 
 China. The bird was kept in a cage. He is reading the work of a 
 learned man. The Light Ship is anchored off the mouth of the harbor. 
 The book lies on the table. The surveyor proceeded round the fiield. 
 The lonely travelers went through the forest. They will remain till the 
 end of the year. He sent the book to them. They went up the moun- 
 tain with the guide. Those who came after them passed over the river 
 and under the arch. He is (standing) on the bye. 
 
 2. He wandered about the city. They went across the Ferry. The 
 fruit was hanging far above his reach. He ran against a post. The 
 party proceeded along the river. He built his cabin amidst the forest, 
 and lived among the savages. The wolves howled around his dwell- 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 73 
 
 ing. The lightning darts athwart the sky. The beggar stood before the 
 door. The Indian skulked behind a tree. The treasure was found a 
 few feel below the surface of the ground. The noble ship has sunk be- 
 neath the wave. 
 
 3. He stood beside the monument. He had, besides this weapon, 
 a large knife. The beautiful valley lies between the lofty ridges. 
 Betwixt two seats one comes to the ground. Tbe State extends beyond 
 the mountains. Since that event he has not been seen. A large vault 
 was constructed underneath the house. Many curiosities are contained 
 within the walls of the museum. Pompey left his Army without the 
 city. The rumor spread throughout the country. He put the article 
 into his trunk. He laid the book upon the table. The storm continued 
 until Thursday. They proceeded towards the town. 
 
 CLASS VIIL-CONJTJNCTIONS. 
 A ConJTUlctioil is a -word used to connect -words, 
 phrases, or sentences. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. An Absolute Conjunction is one which consti- 
 tutes a complete connective by itself, as " and ", " lest ", and 
 "but". 
 
 2. Relative Conjunctions are those used in pairs, — 
 each one of a pair being the correlative of the other, — and 
 both constituting one connective, as " though — yet ", &c. 
 
 DIVISI01TS.-5. 
 
 1. Verbal Conjunctions are those derived from 
 verbs. 
 
 List. The Verbal Conjunctions are and, but, lest, though, 
 although, yet, if, unless. 
 
 2. Adjective Conjunctions are those derived from 
 Adjectives. 
 
 liist. The Adjective Conjunctions are then, either, neither, 
 or, nor, and whether. 
 
 3. A Substantive Conjunction is one derived from 
 a Koun, as for. 
 
 4. Phrase Conjunctions are consolidated Preposi- 
 tional Phrases. 
 
 List. The Phrase Conjunctions are because, therefore, and 
 indeed. 
 
74 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAB 
 
 5. Composite Conjunctions are those variously com- 
 pounded. 
 
 Liist. The Composite Conjunctions, are as (from " also ") 
 and since (from "sith thence"). 
 
 LIST OF RELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Though— yet; although— yet ; if— yet; if— then ; unless 
 — ^then ; because — therefore ; as — therefore ; since — there- 
 fore; therefore — for; therefore — because; indeed — but; 
 either — or; neither — nor; whether — or; whereas — there- 
 fore. 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF CONJUNCTIONS- 
 
 1. And=add, as Mary and Susan went. Two and three 
 make five. 
 
 2. But=be out or be opposite, as He lost all but one. 
 They tried ; hut they failed. 
 
 3. Lest=loo8ed^separated, as Watch and pray lest ye 
 enter into temptation. 
 
 4. Though or although=admit, as Though he appears 
 rough, yet he is intelligent. 
 
 5. Yet=get=admit also, as Although it is strange, yet it 
 is true. 
 
 6. If=give=admit or suppose, as 7^ this is true, then the 
 man is ruined. If he had committed an offense, yet he was 
 not wholly depraved. 
 
 7. Unless=loosen=separate, as Unless it shall rain soon, 
 (then) the crops will fail. 
 
 8. Then=in that (case), as If youth is wasted, then old 
 age is sure to be miserable. 
 
 9. Either==one of two, as Either he will fail, or he will 
 change his plans. 
 
 10. Or=other, as He will (either) accomplish his purpose, 
 or he will die in the attempt. 
 
 11. Neither=not either, as Neither does it belong to him 
 nor to them. 
 
 12. Nor=not other, as They will neither work themselves 
 nor permit others to work. 
 
OF THE ENaLISH LANO UA OS. 75 
 
 13. Whether= which of two, as He was asked whether he 
 would go, or stay. 
 
 14. Becanse=by the cause, as Because they are rich, 
 therefore they are proud. 
 
 15. Therefore=for that, as Therefore they failed, because 
 they had not prepared themselves. 
 
 16. Indeed=in fact=truly, as They were disappointed 
 indeed, but not discouraged. 
 
 17. As=because, as in the sentence As time is short, 
 therefore we must hasten. 
 
 18. Since=because, as Since they will not listen to reason, 
 therefore they must suffer. 
 
 19. For==because, as I will not attempt a reply, for the 
 time will not permit. 
 
 20. Whereas=as what=for what (cause)=because, as 
 Whereas many sheep are annually killed by dogs, therefore 
 be it enacted That every person keeping a dog shall pay a 
 tax of ten dollars annually. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Bryaut and Longfellow are distinguished American poets. 
 
 2. Over the mountain and over the moor. 
 
 8. The merchant went to New York j and there he made his pur- 
 chases. 
 4 I am anxions to obtain that work ; but I fear that I shall not get it. 
 
 5. I will undertake it, if you will assist me. 
 
 6. We assisted him, though he did not deserve it. 
 
 7. Though it is winter, yet we find it very pleasant. 
 
 8. I will certainly go, unless something unexpected shall prevent. 
 
 9. Be very careful, lest you make some mistake. 
 
 10. I wish that he would either resign his office or discharge the du- 
 ties of it. 
 
 11. He seems to be neither able nor willing to fulfill his promise. 
 
 12. We must persevere, whether we find the work pleasant or un- 
 pleasant. 
 
 13. Opposition was made by none but him. 
 
 14. If he is honest, yet the people have no confidence in him. 
 
 15. Unless he had done this, then nothing would have been saved. 
 
 16. The spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak. 
 
 17. He lost as many dollars as he gained cents. 
 
 18. Endeavor so to treat others as you wish others to treat you. 
 
76 -4 COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 19. When the Spring shall return, then the flowers will appear. 
 
 20. Whenever a man stoops to dishonesty, then he loses his self- 
 respect. 
 
 21. Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered 
 together. 
 
 22. Whence come malaria, thence come fevers. 
 
 23. Whither he has gone, thither will I go. 
 
 CLASS IX.-INTEEJECTIONS. 
 An Inteijection is a disconnected emotional word or 
 sound thrown between words forming sentences. 
 
 STJB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. Inarticulate Interjections are mere sounds which 
 are not represented by letters, as groans, coughs, whistles, 
 &c. 
 
 2. Articulate Interjections are radical words. 
 
 2nd STTB-CLASS.-DrVISI0NS.-2. 
 
 1. General Interjections are those which indicate 
 emotion in general, and are used indiscriminately for differ- 
 ent kinds of emotion, as " 0," « Oh ! " " ah 1 " " aha ! " « ho ! ' 
 " halloo I " 
 
 2. Special Inteijections are those which are restricted 
 to certain kinds of emotion. 
 
 2nd DIVISI0N.-SUB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 
 
 1. Joyous Interjections are those indicating joy, as 
 " hey ! " " hurrah ! " " huzzah ! " &c. 
 
 2. Sorro-wfu.1 Interjections are those indicating sor- 
 row or pain, as " Alas 1 " " alack ! " " woe ! " &c. 
 
 3. Contemptuous Interjections are those denoting 
 contempt, as " pshaw ! " "pooh ! " " foh 1 " " fudge 1 " &c 
 
 SPECIAL CLASS.-EXCLAMATIONS. 
 An ISxclamation is a word used in calling or exclaim- 
 ing. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. An Emotional Exclamation (or Inteijection) is 
 one indicating some emotion or feeling. 
 
 2. A Rational Exclamation is one used for some 
 rational purpose, and not to indicate emotion. 
 
OF THE MNQLISn LAJVG UAQE. 77 
 
 2nd SUB-CLASS-RATIONAL EXCLAMATIONS. 
 DIVISIONS-a. 
 
 1. Compellatives are names, titles, <fco., used in direct 
 address. 
 
 2. Kesponsives are the words Tea, Yes, JSTay, and JSTo, 
 used in answering questions. 
 
 3. Fragments are miscellaneous exclamatory words, 
 such as " well ", « what ", "come ", " hush ", " good ", &c., 
 which may be regarded as fragments of sentences. 
 
 EXEHCISES. 
 
 1. how bright the sun shines ! John, come here. Halloo, James, 
 let me see the hook. How dare you come here, you villain "i Well, 
 Thomas, what is the news in Boston 1 Were you there at the time of 
 the great fire ? Yes. I saw the fire j and oh ! I never wish (wish 
 never) to see another. Are you sick to-day % No. I am in usual 
 health. How many, alas ! are ruined by vice ! 
 
 2. Come, Henry, what did you see at the Fair ?— Not much. — Pshaw 1 
 I fear you were not observing. — Pooh ! What did I go for but to 
 observe % Hurrah ! Hurrah ! ! The glorious day has come ! 
 
 Ho 1 Halloo ! I want to cross the Ferry. Well, I will come directly. 
 
 CHAPTER II-INFLECTIOir. 
 
 The General Stem of a word is its first, or principal, 
 form. 
 
 The Termination of a word is the part following the 
 Stem. 
 
 Inflection is changing the Stem or Termination of a 
 word without changing its Class. 
 
 The Uninflected Classes of words are Prepositions 
 and Conjunctions. 
 
 Modes of Inflection are the methods by which words 
 are inflected for different purposes. 
 
 DTFLECTION OF N0UNS.-4 MODES. 
 1st MODE OF INFLECTION.-GENDER. 
 
 Gender is a mode of Inflection used to distinguish the 
 sexes. 
 
78 A COMPLETE aOIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 A Masculine Form is a form denotiag the male sex. 
 
 A Feminine Form is one denoting the female sex. 
 
 The Masculine Gender of a word is the aggregate of 
 its masculine forms. 
 
 The Feminine Gender of a word is the aggregate of 
 its feminine forms. 
 
 The Masculine Stem is the first, or principal, mascu- 
 line form, and is the same as the general stem of the word. 
 
 The Feminine Stem is the first feminine form. 
 
 BULES FOE FORMING THE FEMnTINE STEU. 
 
 1. In Proper Nouns add a, ina, or etta, to the mascu- 
 line stem, and then contract if necessary. (See Hules for 
 Spelling, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12.) 
 
 2. If the Masculine Stem ends with us, drop us be- 
 fore adding the feminine termination. 
 
 3. In Common Nouns, except a few foreign words, 
 add ess, and then contract. 
 
 * RULES FOR CONTRACTION. 
 
 1. The a of a feminine termination may be changed to e, 
 
 2. The n of ine, or iiia, may be dropped, making it ie or ia. 
 
 3. The ie may be changed to y. 
 
 4. The final te of ette, may be dropped, making it et. 
 fj. Drop a final i before adding ina. 
 
 6. Drop e or o before a final r, on adding ess ; and some- 
 times drop other letters. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 1. IiUCius becomes Lucia, Lucina, or Lucietta. 
 
 2. These become Lucie, Lucine, and Lucietle. 
 8. These become Lucy, Lucie, and Luciet. 
 
 LIST OF PROPER NOUNS, REGULAR. 
 
 Adin, Alexander, Agrippa, Alfred, Anthony, Albert, 
 Augustus, Amandus, Alcestus, Aurelius, Benedict, Camillus, 
 Clement, Constant, Cornelius, Cecil, Celius, Charles, Car- 
 olus, Claudius, Clarus, Clorus, Christian, Celestus, Da- 
 vid, Emilus, Ernest, Edwin, Eugene, Faustus, Frederic, 
 Florus, Gerald, George, Helenns, Henry, Harry, Hilary, 
 Hortensius, Irenius, lanthus, James, Joseph, Josephus, John] 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANO UA OE. 79 
 
 Julius, Justin, Julian, Lucius, Lucian, Louis, Laurus, Lucre- 
 tius, Marius, Marcus, Marcellus, Myrus, Octavius, Paul, 
 Kufus, Sylvanus, Stephen, Theodore, Theodosius, Thomas, 
 TuUius, Ulric, Victor, Valerius, Virginius, WiUiam, Walter 
 Winfred. 
 
 PROPER NOUNS, IRREGULAR. 
 Clorus, Clorinda ; David, Vida ; Emory, Emoroy ; Felix, 
 Felicia; Francis, Frances; Florus, Florinde; Hans, Han- 
 nah, Anna, or Ann ; James, Jaqueline ; Jesse, Jessa, or 
 Jessica; Lucian, Lucinda; Perseus, Persis; Sylvanus, Syl- 
 via ; William, Wilhelmina. 
 
 COMMON NOUNS, REGULAR. 
 
 Abbot, Aster, Administrator, Adjutor, Ambassador, Ad- 
 venturer, Anchorite, Arbiter, Arbitrator, Archer, Auditor, 
 Author, Baron, Benefactor, Canon, Caterer, Chanter, Com- 
 mander, Competitor, Conductor, Creator, Count, Dauphin, 
 Deacon, Deserter, Doctor, Director, Diviner, Demander, 
 Detractor, Eagle, Editor, Embassador, Emperor, Emulator, 
 Enchantor, Executor, Exactor, Farmer, Fornicator, Founder, 
 Factor, Giant, God, Governor, Hebrew, Heir, Heritor, Her- 
 mit, Huckster, Hunter, Host, Inhabiter, Inheritor, Instruc- 
 tor, Jesuit, Jew, Launder, Lion, Mediator, Minister, Mister, 
 Master, Monitor, Mayor, Negro, Offender, Ogre, Orator, 
 Painter, Patron, Peer, Poet, Porter, Prior, Proprietor, 
 Prophet, Prosecutor, Protector, Priest, Prince, Rector, Ee- 
 gent. Shepherd, Sblicitor, Songster, Sorcerer, Steward, 
 Suitor, Spectator, Sultan, Tailor, Testator, Tiger, Traitor, 
 Tyrant, Tutor, Victor, Waiter, Warder, Wanderer, &c., &c. 
 
 COMMON NOUNS, IRREGULAR. 
 Bridegroom, Bride; Carl, Carline; Czar, Czarina; Don, 
 Donna; Duke, Duchess; Hero, Heroine; Landgrave, 
 Landgravine ; Margrave, Margravine ; Marquis, Marchion- 
 ess ; Palsgrave, Palsgravine ; Pythonist, Pythoness ; Sultan, 
 Sultana; Testator, Testatrix; Signore, Signora; Widower, 
 Widow. 
 
 CORRESPONDING NOUNS. 
 Corresponding Masculine and Feminine Nouns 
 
80 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 GBAMMAR 
 
 are those representing males and females of the same class, 
 as "boy", "girl"; &o. 
 
 Formation. Corresponding Nouns are formed, when 
 necessary, by compounding words, as " male-child ", " female- 
 child ", &c. 
 
 EZEECISES. 
 Julius, Julia; Prince, Princess; Administrator, Admini.stratrix ; 
 Brother, Sister; Officer, Visitor, House, Tree, Oak-tree, Wasp, Kat. Kil- 
 ten, Child, Winter, North-wind, Mississippi, Ganges, Atlantic, Chimbo- 
 razo. Death, Time, Sword, Bifle, Parrott-Gun, Spring, Memory, Charity, 
 Patience, Boston, Summer. 
 
 2nd MODE OF IKTLECTION.-NUMBER. 
 
 Xumber is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish unity 
 from Plurality. 
 
 A Sing^ar Form of a Noun is one denoting one ob- 
 ject, as "book". 
 
 A Plural Form is one denoting more than one object, 
 as " books ". 
 
 The Singular Stem of a word is its first singular 
 form. 
 
 The Plural Stem of a word is its first plural form. 
 
 The Singular Number of a word is the aggregate of 
 its singular forms. 
 
 The Plural Number of a word is the aggregate of its 
 plural forms. 
 
 * RULES FOE rOEMIKTG THETpLTJEAL STEM. 
 
 1. Generally add « to the Singular Stem. 
 
 2. If the word ends with ch (soft), sh, a, e, or x, add es. 
 
 3. If the word ends with o preceded by a consonant, add 
 es, except in Proper and Foreign Nouns. 
 
 4. If the word ends with y preceded by a consonant 
 change y to ie and add s. 
 
 5. In life, knife, wife, leaf, sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, 
 elf, self, shelf, and wolf, change /or fe to ve, and add s, as 
 " lives ", &c. 
 
 6. In figures, letters, marks, and words used out of their 
 classes, add 's as " 4'8 ", &c. 
 
OF THE BNQLian LANGUAGE. 
 
 81 
 
 7. In seven words, and their compounds, change the vow- 
 els, viz., ma»i, m.en y woman, women ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; 
 tooth, teeth ; louse, lice / mmise, mice. 
 
 8. In ox, add en; and in child, add ren, as "oxen" 
 " children "- 
 
 9. In brother, die, and penny, form the double plurals 
 brothers and brethren, dies and dice, pennies and pence. (See 
 Note 8.) 
 
 10. In compound words, inflect the principal part, as 
 " courts-martial ", &c. 
 
 11. In a condensed phrase, add s or es at the end. 
 
 12. In a Name with a Title, inflect both, as " The Misses 
 Smiths ", &c. (See Note 9.) 
 
 13. In foreign words, when possible, use English plurals 
 in ordinary discourse ; but in technical or scientific discourse 
 use the foreign plurals. 
 
 14. Always use the foreign plurals where they are formed 
 by changing is to es or ides. 
 
 * FOREIGN WORDS. 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. (Change 
 
 final a to ae.) 
 
 Calculus 
 
 Calculi 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Equua 
 
 Equi 
 
 Alumna 
 
 
 Alumnae 
 
 Echinus 
 
 Echini 
 
 Alumina 
 
 
 Aluminae 
 
 Exodus 
 
 Exodi 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 
 Ammoniae 
 
 Focus 
 
 Foci 
 
 Aqua 
 
 
 Aquae 
 
 Fungus 
 
 Fungi 
 
 Arena 
 
 
 Arenas 
 
 Genius 
 
 Genii 
 
 Corona 
 
 
 Coronae 
 
 Hippopotamus 
 
 Hippopotami 
 
 Formula 
 
 
 Formulae 
 
 Literatus . 
 
 Literati 
 
 Lamina 
 
 
 Laminae 
 
 Magus 
 
 Magi 
 
 Larva 
 
 
 Larvae 
 
 Nucleus 
 
 Nuclei 
 
 Macula 
 
 
 Maculae 
 
 Nautilus 
 
 Nautili 
 
 Minutia 
 
 
 Minutiae 
 
 Obolus 
 
 Oboli 
 
 Nebula 
 
 
 Nebulae 
 
 Polypus 
 
 Polypi 
 
 Siliqua 
 
 
 Siliquae 
 
 Radius 
 
 Radii 
 
 Simla 
 
 
 Simiae 
 
 Stimulus 
 
 Stimuli 
 
 Scoria 
 
 
 Scoriae 
 
 3. (Change 
 
 um to a.) 
 
 linctura 
 
 
 Tincturae 
 
 Animal culum 
 
 Animalcula 
 
 2. (Change us to i.) 
 
 Aquarium 
 
 Aquaria 
 
 Aiumnus 
 
 
 Alumni 
 
 Arcanum 
 
 Arcana 
 
82 
 
 A COMPLETE BCIENTIFIC QRAMMAB 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Corrigendum 
 
 Corrigenda 
 
 6. (Change is to i(i6«.) 
 
 Cranium 
 
 Crania 
 
 Aphis 
 
 Aphides 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Data 
 
 Apsis 
 
 Apsides 
 
 Desideratum 
 
 Desiderata 
 
 Cantharis 
 
 Cantharides 
 
 Efflurium 
 
 Effluvia 
 
 Chrysalis 
 
 Chrysalides 
 
 Encomium 
 
 Encomia 
 
 Ephemeris 
 
 Ephemerides 
 
 Erratum 
 
 Errata 
 
 Epidermis 
 
 Epidermides 
 
 Gymnasium 
 
 Gymnasia 
 
 Iris 
 
 Irides 
 
 Herbarium 
 
 Herbaria 
 
 Proboscis 
 
 Proboscides 
 
 Medium 
 
 Media 
 
 6. (Change 
 
 X to ces.) 
 
 Memorandum 
 Momentum 
 
 Memoranda 
 Momenta 
 
 Appendix 
 Calx 
 
 Appendices 
 Calces 
 
 Menstruum 
 
 Menstrua 
 
 Calix 
 
 Calices 
 
 Planetarium 
 
 Planetaria 
 
 Cicatrix 
 
 Cicatrices 
 
 Eostrum 
 
 Kostra 
 
 Helix 
 
 Helices 
 
 Scholium 
 
 Scholia 
 
 Matrix 
 
 Matrices 
 
 Spectrum 
 
 Spectra 
 
 Quincunx 
 
 Quincunces 
 
 Speculum 
 
 Specula 
 
 Radix 
 
 Radices 
 
 Stratum 
 
 Strata 
 
 Varix 
 
 Varices 
 
 Trapezium 
 
 Trapezia 
 
 
 
 Vinculum 
 
 Vincula 
 
 7. (Change ex to ices.) 
 
 4. (Change is 
 Amanuensis 
 
 to ««.) 
 Amanuenses 
 
 Apex 
 Caudex 
 
 Apices 
 Caudices 
 
 
 
 Index 
 
 Indices 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Analyses 
 
 Vertex 
 
 Vertices 
 
 Antithesis 
 
 Antitheses 
 
 Vortex 
 
 Vortices 
 
 Axis 
 
 Axes 
 
 
 
 Basis 
 
 Bases 
 
 8. (Change en to iiia.) 
 
 Crisis 
 
 Crises 
 
 Legumen 
 
 Legumina 
 
 Diaeresis 
 
 Diaereses 
 
 Stamen 
 
 Stamina 
 
 Diesis 
 
 Dieses 
 
 Tegmen 
 
 Tegmina 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 Ellipses 
 
 9. (Change us to era.) 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 Emphases 
 
 Genus 
 
 Genera 
 
 Pascis 
 
 Fasces 
 
 10. (Make 
 
 no change.) 
 
 Hypothesis 
 
 Hypotheses 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 Metamorphosis 
 
 Metamorphoses 
 
 Hiatus 
 
 Hiatus 
 
 Metropolis 
 
 Oasis 
 
 Parenthesis 
 
 Metropoles 
 
 Oases 
 
 Parentheses 
 
 11. (Change both parts.) 
 
 Ignis- fatuua 
 
 Ignes-fatui 
 
 Phasis 
 
 Phases 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Praxis 
 
 Praxes 
 
 1. (Change 
 
 on to a.) 
 
 Synthesis 
 
 Syntheses 
 
 Automaton 
 
 Automata 
 
 Synopsis 
 
 Synopses 
 
 Ephemeron 
 
 Ephemera 
 
 Thesis 
 
 Theses 
 
 Phenomenon 
 
 Phenomena 
 
OF TEE BNQLISE LANGUAGE. 
 
 83 
 
 ion Plural. 
 
 2. (Masoulinb.) 
 
 Anak Anakim 
 
 Targum Targumim 
 
 Cherub Cherubim 
 
 Pur Purira 
 
 Seraph Seraphim 
 
 Teraph Teraphim 
 
 French. 
 
 Angular. Plural. 
 
 2. (Add ta.) 
 Dogma Dogmata 
 
 Miasma Miasmata 
 
 Stigma Stigmata 
 
 3. (Change (X to ges.) 
 Larynx Larynges 
 
 Pharynx Pharynges 
 
 Phalanx Phalanges 
 
 Italian. 
 Dilettante Dillettanti 
 
 Bandit Banditti 
 
 Virtuoso Virtuosi 
 
 Cicerone Ciceroni 
 
 Hebrew- 
 
 1. (FEMIlfllfB.) 
 
 Behemah Behemoth 
 
 Mazzarah Mazzaroth 
 
 Saba Sabaoth 
 
 AMBIGTJOUS NOUNS. 
 
 Ambiguous Nouns are those having a Singular or 
 Plural form only, but both Singular and Plural significa- 
 tion, as 
 
 Appar 
 
 Conge 
 
 Corps 
 
 Deer 
 Cattle is Singular in form, but Plural in sense. 
 
 UNINFLECTED NOUNS. 
 Uninflected Nouns are mostly those having Plural, but 
 no Singular, forms, — some of them being singular in sense. 
 A few Singular Nouns, as Mum, Nil, Now, &c., are unin- 
 flected. 
 
 1.— NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM AND SENSE. 
 
 Abatis 
 
 Abatis 
 
 Beau 
 
 Beaux 
 
 Bateau 
 
 Bateaux 
 
 Billet-doux 
 
 Billets-doux 
 
 Chapeau 
 
 Chapeaux 
 
 Cheval 
 
 Chevaux 
 
 Chef-d'oeuvre 
 
 Chefs-d'oeuvre 
 
 Eau 
 
 Eaux 
 
 Monsieur 
 
 Messieurs 
 
 Madame 
 
 Mesdames 
 
 Plateau 
 
 Plateaux 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 Grouse 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Superficies 
 
 Odds 
 
 Congeries 
 
 Hose 
 
 Series 
 
 Swine 
 
 Bellows 
 
 Corps 
 
 Heathen 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Vermin 
 
 Shad 
 
 Deer 
 
 Perch 
 
 Species 
 
 Pike 
 
 Trout 
 
 Aborigines 
 
 Forceps 
 
 Pantaloons 
 
 Annals 
 
 Graminivora 
 
 Pinchers 
 
 Antipodes 
 
 Grallae 
 
 Passeres 
 
 Apocrypha 
 
 Headquarters 
 
 Paraphernalia 
 
 Archives 
 
 Hustin!|S 
 
 Riches 
 
84 
 
 A COMPLETE 80IENTIF10 QBAMMAli 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Assets 
 
 Banns 
 
 Belleslettres 
 
 Billiards 
 
 Bowels 
 
 Breeches 
 
 Bitters 
 
 Calends 
 
 Clothes 
 
 Carnivora 
 
 Credentials 
 
 Drawers (a garment) 
 
 Dregs 
 
 £mbers 
 
 Entrails 
 
 Hemorrhoids 
 
 Herbivora 
 
 Ides 
 
 Insectirora 
 
 Intestines 
 
 Inwards 
 
 Lees 
 
 Matins 
 
 Mammalia 
 
 Nippers 
 
 Nones 
 
 Nuptials 
 
 Omnivora 
 
 Obsequies 
 
 Overalls 
 
 Remains 
 
 Begalia 
 
 Scissors 
 
 Shears 
 
 Spatterdashes 
 
 Statistics 
 
 Sporades 
 
 Tidings 
 
 Tongs 
 
 Trousers 
 
 Teens 
 
 Vespers 
 
 Victuals 
 
 Vitals 
 
 Withers 
 
 2.-W0UirS PLTJEAL IN FOEM, BUT SINGULAE IN 
 
 Alms Harmonics Numismatics 
 
 Acoustics Hysterics News 
 
 Amends Mathematics Optics 
 
 Billiards Measles Physics 
 
 Dynamics Mechanics Phonetics 
 
 Ethics Mallows Politics 
 
 Gallows Metaphysics Pneumatics 
 
 Gymnastics Melodies Statics 
 
 Hydraulics Mnemonics Suds 
 
 Hydrostatics Mumps Wages 
 
 Humanics Molasses Yellows 
 
 Humanities . 
 
 3 — PLUEALS HAVING SINGULAE FOEMS OF DIFFEE- 
 ENT MEANING. 
 
 Ashes Goggles Physics 
 
 Arms Goods Piles 
 
 Compasses Irons Pains 
 
 Colors Letters Salts 
 
 Corns Manners Snuffers 
 
 Dominoes Means 
 
 Effects Morals 
 
 3d MODE OF INFLECTION!— CASE, 
 Case is a Mode of Inflection used to show the relation of 
 a word to another word. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQ UAGE. 85 
 
 A Possessive Case of a Noun is a form of it made to 
 be used as a modifier of some other Noun. 
 
 BULES FOR FORMING THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 1. Add 's to the Stem, either Singular or Plural. 
 
 2. If the Plural Stem ends with s, add ' only. (See Note 
 10.) 
 
 3. In a Compound Noun, inflect the last component only. 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 Declension is the complete Inflection of a word. 
 To Decline a Word is to give all its forms in system- 
 atic order. 
 
 PARADIGMS. 
 1. Declension of the Noun Author. (Full Noun.) 
 
 Singular Nuniber. Plural Number. 
 
 Masculine ( Stem. Author I Stem. Authors 
 
 Gender, t Poss. Case. Author's I Poss. Case. Authors' 
 
 Feminine ( Stem. Authoress I Stem. Authoresses 
 
 Gender. I Poss. Case. Authoress's I Poss. Case. Authoresses' 
 
 2. Declension of the Noun Child. (Defective Noun.) 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Stem. Child I Stem. Children 
 
 Poss. Case. Child's I Poss. Case. Children's 
 
 3. Declension of the Noun Deer. (Defective Noun.) 
 
 Stem. Deer 
 
 Poss. Case. Deer's 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Joseph recited a very long lesson in a very creditable manner, 
 Josephine and Jaqueline are studying Astronomy. 
 
 Deer and sheep are very timid animals. 
 
 The Science of Phonetics is important to those who study lan- 
 guages. 
 Fish and fowl are abundant in the northern regions. 
 Some fishes and some fowls are excellent for food. 
 Simeon, Levi, and Susan are studying Mathematics. 
 Pneumatics is an important branch of Natural Philosophy. 
 
 2, Theodore was idle ; and by this means he lost his position. 
 
 The sword and chapeau of Gen. Lyon are in the Atheneum at 
 Hartford. 
 
86 A COMPLETE! SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAU 
 
 Some extremely ingenious Automata were invented. 
 Circles, Ellipses, Parabolas, and Hyperbolas are called Conic Sec- 
 tions. 
 From these data one arrives at no other conclusion. 
 Such Phenomena are of extremely rare occurrence. 
 Edwin's father requested of him an account of his studies. 
 Mary's sister Eliza came for her yesterday. 
 3. Some men's consciences are often troublesome to them. 
 John Smith's relatives are found in almost every place. 
 The boys' hats were left hanging in the ante-room. 
 James's knowledge of Optics was surprising to them. 
 William CuUen Bryant's poetry is of a very high order. 
 His conscience's voice was then no longer heard. 
 In time of war churches are often converted into hospitals. 
 The weight of the boxes was so great that it excited suspicion. 
 A series of careful experiments threw much light on the subject. 
 Several congeries of facts established his guilt beyond doubt. 
 
 '►4th MODE OF INFLECTION.-GEADE. 
 Grade is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish mag- 
 nitudes. 
 
 1. Normal Forms are those indicating average mag- 
 nitudes. 
 
 2. Diminutive Forms are those denoting less than 
 average magnitudes. 
 
 3. Augmentative Forms are those denoting more 
 than average magnitudes. 
 
 DIMINUTIVES. 
 Formation. Diminutives are formed by changing the 
 vowel of the Normal Form (General Stem) to i, as " top ", 
 "tip "; or by adding a diminutive termination, as "hill", 
 "hillock"; &c. 
 
 The Diminutive Terminations are ule, cule, le, cle, 
 kin, ing, ling, ot, ette, et, el, ocJc, ie, and let- 
 
 Patronymics are Nouns denoting family descent, some 
 of which are Diminutives, as " Elising ", "Atheling ", &c. ; 
 and some are Compounds. 
 
 Bndearants are Diminutives denoting affection as 
 " Willie ", " doggie ", &c. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA &M. 87 
 
 AUGMENTATIVES. 
 
 Formation. Augmentatives are formed by adding 
 terminations to the Normal Stem, as " ball ", " balloon " ; &o. 
 
 The Augmentative Terminations are ard, art, 
 one, oon, ion, on, od, et, ock, and ass (asse, ace, ess). 
 
 SPECIES OF GRADE.-3. 
 
 1. Diminution is the formation of Diminutives. 
 
 2. Augmentation is the formation of Augmentatives. 
 
 3. Double Q-rade is the formation of both Diminutives 
 and Augmentatives from the same Normal Stem. 
 
 EXAfiEFLES. 
 
 1. Diminution. Cat, kit; stock, sticli ; sup, sip; lock, locket; poke, 
 pocket ; eye, eyelet ; lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling. 
 
 2. Augmentation. Card, cartoon ; rat,rattoon; hall, saloon; galley, 
 galleon ; musket, musketoon. 
 
 8. Double Grade. Ball, ballot, balloon ; cycle, eyelet, cyclone ; lake, 
 lakelet, lagoon ; trump, trumpet, trombone ; medal, medalet, medallion ; 
 mantle, pantelet, pantaloon. 
 
 DmmUTIVE FORMS. 
 
 1. Bit, fib, pill, pick, chick, rill, trill, snip, snib, sniff, squib, nib, nip, 
 sip. 
 
 2. Bullet, pellet, clarionette, socket, bucket, planchet, target, hatchet, 
 mallet, bracket, jacket, placket, thicket, ticket, wicket, pricket, brocket, 
 trinket, Jjask^ wisket, whisket, casket, tablet, driblet, circlet, giblet, 
 bracelet, mantelet, eaglet, ringlet, wallet, rillet, samlet, gimblet, pistol- 
 et, chaplet, droplet, harslet, fortlet, rivulet, signet, cygnet, cabinet, 
 sonnet, canzonet, cornet, skippet, sippet, puppet, floret, floweret, arbor- 
 et, ferret, turret, tabret, closet, paroquet, rosette, palette, falconette, 
 lunette, bankette, coquette, gvisette. 
 
 3. Granule, plumule, plantule, ovule, tabule, spatule, ferule, vestibule, 
 reticule, globule, animalcule, nodule, glandule, schedule, formule, 
 spherule, valvule, capsule. 
 
 4. Mannikin, bodkin, napkin, pipkin, ladkin, ladykin, ciderkin ; Per- 
 kins, Wilkins, Tompkins, Watkins, Hawkins, Jenkins, Hopkins, Simpkins, 
 Fielding, 'Whiting, Browning. 
 
 5. Pellicle, follicle, cornicle, funicle, tunicle, auricle, ventricle, pinna- 
 cle, binnacle, tentacle, manacle, buckle, ressicle, versicle, canticle, par- 
 ticle, clavicle, tubercle, arbuscle, parcel, pedicel, damsel, pickerel, 
 squirrel, sorrel, timbrel, foundling, lordling, youngling, duckling, sap- 
 ling, fopling, darling, nursling, witling, bantling, nestling, worldling, 
 stripling (stirpling). 
 
88 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 GBAMMAE 
 
 AUGMENTATIVE FORMS. 
 
 1. Harpoon, batoon, platoon, festoon, buffoon, raccoon, bassoon, car- 
 doon, barracoon, doubloon, seroon, frigatoon, picaroon. 
 
 2. Million, billion, trillion, &(., button, champion, tompion, piston, 
 apron, falchion, trunchion, patron, matron, bastion, gabion, squadron 
 gammon, chaperon, morion, barcon, cannon, pinion, pennon, talon, seton, 
 trunnion, griffon. 
 
 3. Paddoc, pollock, tussock, puttock, waddock, girrock. 
 
 4. Braggart, drunkard, laggard, buzzard, reynard wizard, dotard. 
 
 5. Owlet, hakod, hakot. 
 
 6. Cuirass, mattrass, cutlass, crevasse, pailasse, galliass, morass, 
 mattress, pinnace. 
 
 INFLECTION OF PEONOTTNS. 
 Modes of Inflection. — 4. 
 The Pronoun I has four Modes of Inflection, called 
 Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 
 
 The Pronouns One and Other iiave eacii two Modes 
 of Inflection, called ^Number and Case. 
 
 The Pronoun "Who has one Mode of Inflection, called 
 Case. 
 The other Pronouns have no Inflection. 
 
 1st MODE OF INFLECTION. -PERSON. 
 
 Person is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish those 
 speaking, those spoken to, and those spoken of 
 
 Forms of the 1st Person are forms denoting those 
 speaking. 
 
 Forms of the Snd Person are forms denoting those 
 spoken to. 
 
 Forms of the 3d Person are forms denoting those 
 spoken of. 
 
 The First Person of a Pronoun is the aggregate of its 
 Forms of the First Person. 
 
 The Second Person of a Pronoun is the aggregate of 
 its Forms of the Second Person. 
 
 The Third Person of a Pronoun is the aggregate of 
 its Forms of the Third Person. 
 
OF TEE ENQLISH LANG UA QE. 89 
 
 2nd MODE OF HfFLECTIOlT.— HTIMBEB,. 
 
 Number is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
 Unity from Plurality. 
 
 A Singular Form of a Pronoun is one designed to 
 represent a Singular Form of a Noun. 
 
 The Singular Number of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
 of its Singular Forms. 
 
 A Plural Form of a Pronoun is one designed to repre- 
 sent a Plural Form of a Noun, or a Collection of Nouns. 
 
 The Plural Number of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
 of its Plural Forms. 
 
 3d MODE or mFLECTIOW.— GENDER. 
 
 Gender is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish the 
 sexes. 
 
 A Masculine Form of a Pronoun is one designed to 
 represent a Masculine Noun 'or a Masculine Form of a 
 Noun. 
 
 The Masculine Gender of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
 of its Masculine Forms. 
 
 A Feminine Form of a Pronoun is one designed to 
 represent a Feminine Noun or a Feminine Form of a Noun. 
 
 The Feminine Gender of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
 of its Feminine Forms. 
 
 A Neuter Form of a Pronoun is one designed to re- 
 present a Neuter Noun. 
 
 The Neuter Gender of a Pronoun is the aggregate of 
 its Neuter Forms. 
 
 4th MODE OF INFLECTION.— CASE. 
 
 Case is a Mode of Inflection used to show the relation 
 of a word to another word. 
 
 A Nominative Case of a Pronoun is a form of it de- 
 signed to be used as the Subject of a Sentence. 
 
 A Possessive Case of a Pronoun is a form of it de- 
 signed to be used as a Modifier of a Noun. 
 
 An Objective Case of a Pronoun is a form of it de- 
 signed to be used as the Object of a Verb or Preposition. 
 
90 
 
 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 
 
 Declension of the Pronoun /. 
 
 
 
 
 iSing-iUar. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 ■ Nom. Case. 
 
 I 
 
 Nom. 
 
 We 
 
 1st Person. . 
 
 Poss. Case. 
 
 (My 
 iMine 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Our 
 
 
 . Obj. Case. 
 
 Me 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Us 
 
 ■ Nom. 
 
 Thou 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Te 
 
 2nd Person. Poss. 
 
 (Thy 
 t Thine 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Tour 
 
 .Obj. 
 
 Thee 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Tou 
 
 3d 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 mut. 
 
 
 - 
 
 Person . 
 
 Nom. He 
 Poss. His 
 
 She 
 Her 
 
 stem. It 
 Poss. Its 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 
 They 
 Their 
 
 
 .Obj. 
 
 Him 
 
 (Hem) 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Them 
 
 The Form Hem is an old Obj. Case of the 3d Person, 
 which is now obsolete, — ^its place being supplied by the 
 Poss. Her. (See Note 11.) 
 
 The Pronouns One and Other are declined like 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Declension of the Pronoun Who. 
 Nom. Who 
 
 Poss. Whose 
 
 Obj. Whom 
 
 The Form Whose is also used sometimes as a Posses- 
 sive case for Which, What, or That. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He went with them to see their friends in the city. 
 
 2. They were much pleased with his company, 
 8. Tou will find your books upon the desk. 
 
 i. Ye are the light of the world. 
 
 5. His lessons are well prepared ; but theirs are neglected. 
 
 6. She left her music upon the Piano. 
 
 7. They found it when they came into the room. 
 
 8. These papers certainly belong to him. 
 
 9. I met him in the street in company with his friend. 
 
 10. My pretended friends have deserted me in my affliction. 
 
 11. Who will undertake to solve this problem'! 
 
 12. The man -whose house was burned has built another. 
 
OF THE MWGLI8E LAKG UAGB. 91 
 
 13. Thou art gone to thy grave, as thy fathers before thee. 
 
 14. The phantom is gone, and its terrors gone with it. 
 
 16. We were delighted with our visit, and with the attentions paid to 
 us. 
 
 16. Whoever observes these rules is sure of success. 
 
 17. Whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely. 
 
 18. He giveth it to whomsoever he will. 
 
 19. He appointeth over it whomsoever he will. 
 
 20. The rewards were given to such as appeared worthy. 
 
 21. They heard what was said, and refrained from what they were 
 doing. 
 
 22. Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. 
 
 23. Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them. 
 
 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 Modes of Inflection. The Modes of Inflection of ad- 
 jectives are three, called Grade, Comparison, and Number ; 
 but no one Adjective is inflected in aU the Modes. 
 
 1st MODE OF INFLECTION— GRADE. 
 
 Grade is a Mode of Inflection used to distingnish similar 
 qualities. 
 
 Normal Forms are those expressing distinct qualities. 
 
 Diminutive forms are those expressing subordinate 
 or indistinct qualities. 
 
 Formation. Diminutives are formed by adding ish to 
 the Normal Stem, as " white ", " whitish " ; &o. 
 
 Liimitation. This Mode of Inflection belongs only to 
 some Qualitative Adjectives. 
 
 2nd MODE OF INFLECTION— COMPARISON. 
 
 Comparison is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
 degrees of quality. 
 
 The Positive Degree of a word is the same as its 
 General Stem. 
 
 The Comparative Degree is formed by adding er to 
 the Positive, and making the changes required by the Rules 
 for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12.) 
 
 The Superlative Degree is formed by adding est to 
 the Positive, and making the changes required by the Rules 
 for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12.) 
 
92 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAB 
 
 Limitation of Comparison. This Mode of Inflection 
 belongs only to Qualitative Adjectives. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF GOMFAEISON. 
 
 Pos. Deg. Large i Poa. Early 
 
 Com. Deg. targer Com. Earlier 
 
 Sup. Deg. Largest | Sup. Earliest 
 
 Pos. Immature 
 Com. Immaturer 
 Sup. Immaturest 
 
 PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 
 
 Periphrastic Comparison is the formation of Com- 
 paratives and Superlatives by prefixing Adverbs to the Pos- 
 itive, instead of changing its termination. 
 
 Ascending Periphrastic Com.parisou is the use 
 of more and most to denote excess of the quality. 
 
 Descending Periphrastic Comparison is the use 
 of less and least to denote deficiency of the quality. 
 
 Uses. The Periphrastic Comparison is used for Euphony 
 in comparing long words, and sometimes for variety or em- 
 phasis in comparing short ones. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 
 
 Po9. Illuminating 
 Com. More Illuminating 
 Sup. Most Illuminating 
 
 Pos. Studious Pos. Wise 
 
 Com. Less Studious Com. More Wise 
 Sup. Least Studious Sup. Most Wise 
 Comparison of Diminutives. Diminutives are com- 
 pared by the Periphrastic method, as redish, more redish, 
 most redish, &o. 
 
 IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
 Irregular Comparison is that in which the Compara- 
 tives and Superlatives are not regularly formed from the 
 Positives. Of this there are four cases. 
 
 1. Sometimes they are formed not from the Positives, but 
 from other words now obsolete. 
 
 2. Sometimes contraction has occurred in some of the 
 forms. 
 
 3. Sometimes the Superlative is formed by adding m,ost 
 instead of est. 
 
 4. Sometimes one, or more, of the forms is wanting. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAQE. 
 
 93 
 
 EXAMPLES OF rRREGTJLAE COMPARISON. 
 
 Positive. 
 ' Good 
 
 Bad ) 
 
 111 f 
 
 Far 
 
 (Forth) 
 
 Fore 
 
 Late 
 
 Much ) 
 Many ) 
 Little 
 
 Near 
 Old 
 Hind 
 In 
 
 Out 
 
 T7p 
 
 Aft 
 
 (Neath) 
 
 Down 
 
 Top 
 
 North 
 
 Northern 
 
 South 
 
 Southern 
 
 Gompwrative. 
 Better 
 
 Worse 
 
 Farther 
 Further 
 
 Former 
 
 Later 
 
 More 
 
 Less 
 
 Nearer 
 
 ( Older 
 I Elder 
 
 Hinder 
 Irnier 
 
 Outer 
 Utter 
 
 Upper 
 
 Under 
 HitTier 
 Over 
 After 
 
 Nether 
 
 Best (See Note 12.) 
 Worst 
 
 Farthest 
 
 Furthest 
 j Foremost 
 I First 
 j Latest 
 ( Last 
 
 Most 
 
 Least 
 
 {Nearest 
 Next 
 ( Oldest 
 [ Eldest 
 j Hindmost 
 ( Hindermost 
 
 {Inmost 
 Innermost 
 (Outmost 
 Outermost 
 Utmost 
 Uttermost 
 1 Upmost 
 1 Uppermost 
 Undermost 
 Hithermost 
 Overmost 
 Aftermost 
 Nethermost 
 Downmost 
 Topmost 
 Northmost 
 Northernmost 
 Southmost 
 Southernmost 
 
 Note. The -words in italics in tbe above list are compar- 
 ative in form, but sometimes positive in sense. 
 
 The Latin Comparatives interior, exterior, superior, 
 
94 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO GRAMMAS 
 
 &o., are used as postives, and are compared periphrasti- 
 cally. 
 
 3d MODE OF INFLECTION.-NTIMBER. 
 Number is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
 unity from plurality. 
 
 The "Words this and that have the plural forms these 
 and those ; and they are the only Adjectives having this 
 Mode of Inflection. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Sweet, sweetest, sweetish, more sweet, least sweet, less sourish, 
 
 most sourish, hluer, more blue, least blue, more bluish, less 
 bluish, bluest, indiscreetish more indiscreetish, less indiscreet. 
 
 2. Great and costly houses are not always the abodes of happiness. 
 This farm is larger than that, but not so productive. 
 
 These books are better than those, and also much cheaper. 
 This being admitted, there needs no further argument. 
 The house is situated on the farther side of the river. 
 Learning is valuable ; prudence is more valuable ; and virtue is 
 
 more valuable still. 
 The next man lost his money, even to the last cent. 
 8. Short, shorter, shorter yet my breath I drew. 
 
 The utmost diligence is required in such investigations. 
 The army lay encamped on the hither side of the mountain. 
 The old homestead descended to the eldest son. 
 They penetrated the innermost recesses of the dismal cavern, 
 The party reached the northernmost limit of actual discovery. 
 The tempting fruit was hanging on the topmost boughs. 
 4. His opinions were more carefully expressed than those of the 
 other man, and seemed less open to adverse criticism. 
 The most superior abilities are of little advantage to a man, unless 
 
 he is endowed with firm moral principles. 
 These specimens are more inferior than the others were. 
 The less inferior kinds were exhausted long since. 
 The interior should not be neglected for the sake of adorning the 
 exterior. 
 
 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
 Modes of Inflection. The Modes of Inflection of 
 Verbs are five, called Tense, Number, Person, Diminution 
 and Frequentation. 
 
 1st MODE OF INFLECTION.— TENSE. 
 Tense is a Mode of Inflection used to indicate time. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 95 
 
 A Tense is a set of verbal forms indicating the same 
 time. 
 
 Keg^ar Tenses are those formed without auxiliaries. 
 Periphrastic Tenses are those formed by means of 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 BEGULAR TENSES. 
 
 Present Forms are those indicating present time. 
 
 The Present Tense of a verb is the aggregate of its 
 present forms. 
 
 The Stem of a Tense is the first or principal form of it. 
 
 The Stem of the Present Tense is the General 
 Stem of the Verb. 
 
 Past Forms are those indicating past time. 
 
 The Past Tense of a verb is the aggregate of its past 
 forms. 
 
 The Stem of the Past Tense is formed regularly by 
 adding ed to the Present Stem, and making the changes re- 
 quired by the Rules for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 
 12). 
 
 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 
 
 The Auxiliaries used are the present forms do, shall, 
 will, ham, may, can, must, — and the past forms did, had, 
 might, could, would, and should. 
 
 The Periphrastic Present Stem is formed by placing 
 do before the General Stem. 
 
 The Periphrastic Past Stem is formed by placing 
 did before the General Stem. 
 
 The Other Tenses are all periphrastic. 
 
 Future Forms are those indicating future time. 
 
 The Future Tense of a Verb is the aggregate of its 
 future forms. 
 
 The Future Stem is formed by placing shall or will be- 
 fore the general Stem. 
 
 Indefinite Forms are those indicating indefinite time- 
 
 The Indefinite Tense of a verb is the aggregate of 
 its indefinite forms. A 
 
 The Indefinite Stem is formed jf- placing may, can. 
 
96 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 must, might, could, would, or should, before the General 
 Stem. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The Present Participle is always formed by adding 
 inff to the General Stem, and making the changes required 
 by the Rules for Spelling. (See Rules 8 and 9.) 
 
 The Past Participle in Regular Verbs is like the Stem 
 of the Past Tense ; in Irregular Verbs the form is various, 
 and must be learned from the Table. 
 
 The Compound Participle is formed by placing the 
 word having before the Past Participle. (See NoteJrSC) 
 COMPOUND TENSES. ^^< 
 
 The Compound Tenses are those whose stems are 
 formed by placing Auxiliaries before the Past Participle. 
 
 The Simple Tenses are those whose stems are not so 
 formed. 
 
 Compound Present Forms are those used in refer- 
 ence to some period of time partially expired, as the pres- 
 ent day, week, &c. 
 
 The Compound Present Tense of a verb is the 
 aggregate of its Compound Present Forms. 
 
 The Compound Present Stem is formed by placing 
 the word have before the Past Participle. 
 
 Compound Past Forms are those used in reference 
 to a past time preceding some other past time mentioned. 
 
 The Compound Past Tense of a Verb is the aggre- 
 gate of its Compound Past Forms. 
 
 The Compound Past Stem is formed by placing the 
 word had before the Past Participle. 
 
 Compound Future Forms are those used iu reference 
 to a future time preceding some other future time men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The Compound Future Tense of a Verb is the ag- 
 gregate of its Compound Future Forms. 
 
 The Compound Future Stem is formed by placing 
 shall have, or will have, before the Past Participle. 
 
 Compound Indei.nits Forms are Compound Forms 
 used in reference to itwefinite time. 
 
OF THB EN0LI8E LANG tTA GE. 9? 
 
 The Compound Indefinite Tense of a verb is the 
 aggregate of its Compound Indefinite Forms. 
 
 The Compound Indefinite Stem is formed by 
 placing may have, can have, &o., before the Past Participle. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 They wait. He waited. I do wait. You did wait. James will wait. 
 We must wait. Tiiey have waited to-day. Slie had waited long before 
 they came. You will have waited an hour before he will arrive. They 
 may have waited long already. They may have waited long before 
 he came. They may have waited long before he will arrive. 
 
 2nd MODE OF INFLECTION.-NUMBER. 
 
 Number is a Mode of Inflection used to show the Num- 
 ber of the Subject of the Verb. 
 
 A Singpular Form of a Verb is one made to be used 
 with a singular subject. 
 
 The Sing^ular Number of a Tense is the aggregate 
 of its singular forms. 
 
 A Plural Form is one made to be used with a plural 
 subject. 
 
 The Plural Number of a Tense is the aggregate of 
 its plural forms. 
 
 Plural Forms in use. No plural forms are used in 
 any Tense, — the Tense Stem, which is neither singular nor 
 plural, being always used instead. 
 
 Singular Forms in use. Two singular forms are 
 used in the Present Tense, two in the Compound Present, 
 and one in each of the other tenses. 
 
 3d MODE OF INFLECTION.-PERSOBT. 
 
 Person is a Mode of Inflection used to show the Person 
 of the Subject of the Verb. 
 
 A Form of the 1st Person is one used on^ with a 
 Subject of the 1st Person. 
 
 A Form of the 2nd Person is one used only with a 
 Subject of the 2nd Person. 
 
 A Form of the Sd Person is one used only with a 
 Subject of the 3d Person. 
 
 Forms of the 1st Person used. No Form of the 1st 
 Person is used, — the Tense Stem being always used instead. 
 
98 ^ COMPLETE 80IBNTIFI0 QBAMMAR 
 
 Forms of the 2nd. Person used. One Singular Form 
 of the 2nd Person is used in each Tense. (See Note 13.) 
 
 Forms of the 3d Person used. One Singular Form 
 of the 3d Person is used in the Present Tense, and one in 
 the Compound Present Tense ; in each of the other Tenses 
 the Stem is used instead of such a form. 
 
 Formation of the 2nd Person. The 2nd Person 
 of the Singular Number is formed in the Regular Tenses, by 
 adding est to the Tense Stem, and making the changes 
 required by the Rules for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 
 12.) (See Note 13.) In the Periphrastic Tenses the termi- 
 nation est is added to the Auxiliary ; and that is then con- 
 tracted according to its own peculiarity. 
 
 Formation of the 3d Person. The 3d Person of the 
 Singular Number is formed in the Regular Present Tense, 
 by adding es or eth to the Tense Stem, and then contracting 
 according to the Rules for Spelling, In the Periphrastic 
 Present, and in the Compound Present, the termination 
 is added to the Auxiliary ; and that is then contracted. 
 
 The Terminations eth and es are substantially the 
 same, the second being derived from the first by a slight 
 change. 
 
 INFINITIVE FORMS. 
 
 Infinitives are forms used for abbreviating sentences. 
 
 The Simple Infinitive is formed by placing "to" be- 
 fore the General Stem. 
 
 The Compound Infinitive is formed by placing " to 
 have " before the Past Participle. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 The Principal Parts of a Verb are the Present Stem, 
 the Past Stem, and the Past Participle. 
 
 S.eason for the Name. These parts are called Prin- 
 cipal, because all the other parts of the Verb are formed 
 from them. 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 
 
 Strong Verbs are those vrhich form their Past Stem 
 ■without any addition to the Present Stem, as " write ", 
 " wrote " ; &c. 
 
OF THE ENaLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 99 
 
 "Weak Verbs are those requiring Bome addition to the 
 Present Stem to form the Past Stem, as " flee ", "fled"; 
 " keep ", « kept " ; « call ", « called » ; &o. 
 
 o 
 
 
 IS a I; 
 
 ..§ 
 
 
 
 ■i j^ s s 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 g 
 
 •a 
 
 fi 
 
 Si's? 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 M M 
 
 
 ^ S3 S' ^ 
 
 •^ ~ 1=^ 
 
 
 N CO 
 
 ■8 J3 |£ fe" 
 
 " -a f^ 
 
 
 
 
100 
 
 A COMPLETE 8GIE1TTIFI0 GRAMMAR 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 Conjugation is the joining (yoking together) of the forms 
 of the Verb and the Pronouns they ought to accompany. 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB MOVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Compound Present Tente. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 I, We, Te, 
 
 Ton, or They r'""™ 
 
 I, We, Ye, 1 ^ 
 
 You, or They f"*^"""™* 
 
 SingiUar. 
 
 Slngmlar. 
 
 8nd Per. Thou movest 
 
 2nd Per. Thou hast moved 
 
 3d Per. He, She, or It moves, or moveth 
 
 8d Per. He, She, or It has or hath moved 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Compound Past Tense. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 1,'Ho, She, It, ) 
 
 We, Ye, You, or They r""'"''* 
 
 I, He, She, It, .. j ^ 
 We, Ye, You, or They \ ""^ ""^^ 
 
 SlngUm: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 8nd Per. Thou movedst 
 
 3nd Per. Thou hadst moved 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Compound Future iinse. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 I, He, She, It, i ^ „ 
 We, Ye, You, or They \ «'»»'' ""^ 
 
 I, He, She, It, ^ „ ^ 
 
 We, Ye, You, or They \ ^^^^ l"*™ -"O™* 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 2nd Per. Thou shalt move 
 
 2nd Per. Thou shalt have moved 
 
 Ind^nite Tense. 
 
 Compound Tndifinlte Tense. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 I, He, She, It, (may move 
 We, Ye, You, or They ; 
 
 I, He, She, It, 
 
 We, Ye, You, or They f'""''' ^""^ "^"^^^ 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 2nd Per. Thou mnyest move 
 
 2nd Per . Thou mayest have moved 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. The Stem of each Tense, except the Present and Comp. 
 Present, is used with any Nominative Case of the Pronoun, 
 except Thou. 
 
 2. The Second Person of the Singular Number of each 
 Tense is used with Thou. 
 
 3. In the Pres. and Comp. Present Tenses, the Third Per- 
 son of the Singular Number is used with He, She, or It. 
 
 4. The 3d Person of the Sing. Num. is also used with a Sin- 
 gular Noun, or with a Relative or Indefinite Pronoun repre- 
 senting a Singular Noun. 
 
 5. The Stem of each Tense, except the Present and Comp. 
 Present, is used as the 3d Per. of the Sing. Number is used in 
 those two Tenses. 
 
OF THE ENQLiaH LANGUAGE. 
 
 101 
 
 6. In every Tense, the Stem is used with a Plural Noun, 
 or with any Pronoun representing a Plural Noun. 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB WRITE. 
 Principal Farts. 
 
 Past, Wrote 
 
 PreB., Write 
 
 P. Part., Written 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Pres. Writing 
 
 Past, Written 
 
 Comp., Having written 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Present 
 Tense. 
 
 Stem, Write 
 ( 2nd Per. Writest 
 ®'°S--j sd Per. Writes -eth 
 
 Past 
 Tense. 
 
 j Stem, Wrote 
 
 I Sing. 2nd Per. Wrotest 
 
 Puture 
 Tense. 
 
 Stem, Shall write 
 Sing. 2nd Per. Shalt write 
 
 Indefinite Stem, May write 
 
 Tense. Sing. 2nd Per. Mayest write 
 
 jTtffinUives. 
 
 Simple, To Write 
 Comp. To have written 
 
 Oompcmncl Tenses. 
 
 Stem, Have written 
 1 2nd Per. Hast written 
 S'°g- \ 3d Per. Has (or hath) written 
 
 Stem, Had written 
 Sing. 8nd Per. Hadst written 
 
 Stem, Shall have written 
 Sing. 2d Per. Shalt have written 
 
 Stem, May have written 
 Sing. 2nd Per. Mayest have written 
 
 PEBIPilRASTIC PRESENT AMD PAST TENSES. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Stem, Do write 
 J 8nd Per. Dost write 
 Sing- -j 3d Per. Does (or doth) write 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Stem, Did write 
 I Sing. 2nd Per. Didst write 
 
 Use of the Periplirastic Present and Past Tenses. 
 
 These Periphrastic Tenses are more forcible than the regu- 
 lar Tenses, and, hence, are used for emphasis, and some- 
 times for variety. 
 
 SHALL AND WILL. 
 
 Tlie Auxili&ries Shall and "Will both form a Future 
 Tense ; but they must not be used indiscriminately. 
 
 Use. They sometimes merely indicate future time ; and 
 they sometimes also indicate authority or determination in 
 the speaker. 
 
 INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL FUTURE. 
 
 The Indicative Puture is the Future Tense merely 
 indicating futurity. 
 
 The Potential Puture is the Future Tense indicating 
 futurity and authority. 
 
 The Indicative Puture is formed by using " Shall " 
 with a Subject of the First Person, or " Will " with a Sub- 
 ject of the Second or Third Person. 
 
102 
 
 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFI0 GRAMMAR 
 
 Indicative Future. 
 I shall write We shall write 
 Thou wilt write Ye will write 
 He will write They will write 
 
 The Potential Future is formed by using " Shall " 
 with a Subject of the Second or Third Person, or " Will " 
 with a Subject of the First Person. 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 Potential Future. 
 I will write We will write 
 
 Thou Shalt write Ye shall write 
 He shall write They shall write 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE COPTJIA. 
 Contrast of Copula and Verb. The Copula is like 
 a Verb, except that it has a 1st Person Singular, and a du- 
 plicate 2nd Per. Sing, in the Present Tense, — has Plural 
 Forms in the Present and Past Tenses, — has a Hypothetical 
 Tense, — and has no Periphrastic Present or Past Tense. 
 
 The Hypothetical Tense is a remnant of a former 
 Mode of Inflection of the Copula and of Verbs, called Mood, 
 ' — of which there are now but few traces in the language. 
 Former Inflection of Verbs. Verbs formerly had 
 a 1st Person Singular in the Present and Compound Pres. 
 Tenses, — and Plural Forms in all the Tenses. 
 DECLENSION OF THE COPULA. 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Fres , Be and Am 
 
 Past, Was 
 
 P. Part., Been 
 
 Farclclples. 
 
 Present, Being 
 Past, Been 
 Comp. Ha^dng been 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Present 
 Tense. 
 
 Stem, Be 
 
 Am 
 
 Sing. 
 let Per. 
 » , „ J Art, or 
 andPer.^Beest 
 aa Per. Is 
 
 Plural. 
 Are 
 
 Past 
 Tense. 
 
 Sing. 
 Stem, Was 
 2nd Per. Wast 
 
 Plural. 
 Were 
 
 Future 
 Tense. 
 
 Stem, Shall be 
 Sing. 2nd Per. Shalt be 
 
 Indefinite 
 Tense. 
 
 Stem, May be 
 Sing. 2nd Per. Mayest be 
 
 Hypothet- 1 Stem, Were 
 
 leal Tense | Sing. 2nd Per. Wert 
 
 Inflnltlves. 
 
 Simple, To be 
 Comp. To have been 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 Stem, Have been 
 j 2nd Per. Hast been 
 &ing.-J34pgj Has been 
 
 Stem, Had been 
 Sing. 2nd Per. Hadst been 
 
 Stem, Shall have been 
 Sing. 2nd Per. Shalt have been 
 
 Stem, May have been 
 Sing 2nd Per. Mayest have been 
 
 The Compound Past Tense Is used 
 also OS a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 
 
OV TEE ENQLIBH LANGUAGE. 
 
 103 
 
 EXEEGISES. 
 
 1. Believe, Believed, Believing, Having believed, Believest, Believeth, 
 Believes, Believedst, Shall believe, Shalt believe. Will believe. Wilt be- 
 lieve. May believe, Mayest believe. Can believe, Canst believe, Must be- 
 lieve. Might believe, Mightest believe. Could believe, Couldst believe, 
 Would believe, Wouldst believe. Should believe, Shouldst believe. To 
 believe. To have believed. Have believed, Hadst believed, Has believed. 
 
 2. Had believed, Hadst believed, Shall have believed, Shalt have be- 
 lieved. May have believed, Mayest have believed. Can have believed. 
 Canst have believed, Must have believed, Might have believed, Mightst 
 have believed. Could have believed, Couldst have believed. Would have 
 believed, Wouldst have believed, Should have believed, Shouldst have 
 believed. Do believe. Dost believe. Does believe. Didst believe. 
 
 3. Be, Am, Was, Wast, Been, Being, Having been. Art, Is, Are, Were, 
 Shall be, Shalt be. Wilt be, Mayest be, Couldst be. Hast been. Has 
 been, Hadst been, Shalt have been. Must have been, Wert, Have been. 
 Could have been, Couldst have been, Would have been. Should have 
 been, Shouldst have been. 
 
 IRREGTJLAR VERBS. 
 
 DIVISION 1st— HAVING NO REGULAR FORMS. 
 
 SECTION 1st.— PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 ALIKE. 
 Class 1st.— No Change in the Present Stem to form the other 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 isent Tense (Stem). 
 
 Past Tense {Stem). 
 
 Past Pa/rticvpU. 
 
 Burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 Cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 Cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 Cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 Hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 Hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hm-t 
 
 Let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 Put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 Bid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 Set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 Shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 Shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shred 
 
 Shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 Spit 
 
 spit 
 
 spit 
 
 Split 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 Spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 Thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 Wet 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 
 
Wi 
 
 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFia OBAMMAB 
 
 Class 2nd.- 
 
 -A Change in the Vowel of the Present Stem. 
 
 Pretent Tente. 
 
 Paat Tenge. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abode 
 
 Bind 
 
 bound 
 
 bound 
 
 Bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 
 
 ^reed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred 
 
 Cling 
 
 clnng 
 
 clung 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drank 
 
 Feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 Cb-ind 
 
 ground 
 
 • ground 
 
 Hold 
 
 held 
 
 held 
 
 Lead 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 Bead 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 Sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 Slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
 Speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 Spin 
 
 spun 
 
 spun 
 
 etick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 Sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 
 String 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 Swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 Win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 Wind 
 
 wound 
 
 woupd 
 
 Wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 wruri^ 
 
 Class 3d.— Change in the Final Consonant of the Present Stem- 
 Have had had 
 Lend lent lent 
 Make made made 
 Bend rent rent 
 Send sent sent 
 Spend spent spent 
 Wis wist wist 
 
 Class 4th.— Change in both Vowel and Consonant of the Pres- 
 ent Stem, 
 
 Beseech besought besought 
 
 Bring brought brought 
 
OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 
 
 105 
 
 Buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 
 
 Creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 Feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 Flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 Hear 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 
 
 Keep 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 Mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 Sell 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 Shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 Sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 Stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 Sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 Teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 Tell 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 Think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 Weep 
 
 wept 
 
 wept 
 
 SECTION 2nd.- 
 
 -PAST TENSE AND PAST PAB 
 
 DIFFERENT. 
 
 Class 5th.— Present Tense and Past Participle Alike, 
 
 Come came come 
 
 Run ran run 
 
 Class 6th.- 
 
 -Principal Parts 
 
 all Different. 
 
 Blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 Break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 Choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 Do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 Fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 Forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 Give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 Go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 Grow 
 
 grew 
 
 growr 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 Lie (to recline) 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 Bise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
106 
 
 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC &BAMMAB 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 
 seen 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 
 shaken 
 
 Slay 
 
 slew 
 
 
 slain 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 
 stolen 
 
 Stride 
 
 strode 
 
 
 stridden 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 
 striven 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore 
 
 
 sworn 
 
 Take 
 
 took 
 
 
 taken 
 
 Tear 
 
 tore 
 
 
 torn 
 
 Throw 
 
 threw 
 
 
 thrown 
 
 Wear 
 
 wore 
 
 
 worn 
 
 Write 
 
 wrote 
 
 
 written 
 
 Class 7th. 
 
 —Duplicate 
 
 Forms in 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Begin 
 
 began ( 
 
 Dr begun 
 
 begun 
 
 King 
 
 rang or 
 
 rung 
 
 rung 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 or shrunk 
 
 shrunk 
 
 Sing 
 
 sang or 
 
 sung 
 
 sung 
 
 Spring 
 
 sprang 
 
 or sprung 
 
 sprung 
 
 Swim 
 
 swam or swum 
 
 swum 
 
 Class 8th,- 
 
 -Duplicate Forms in Past Participle, 
 
 Bear 
 
 bore 
 
 
 borne or born 
 
 Beat 
 
 beat 
 
 
 beat or beaten 
 
 Bite 
 
 bit 
 
 
 bit or bitten 
 
 Chide 
 
 chid 
 
 
 chid or chidden 
 
 Get 
 
 got 
 
 
 got or gotten 
 
 Hide 
 
 hid 
 
 
 hid or hidden 
 
 Ride 
 
 rode 
 
 
 rode or ridden 
 
 Slide 
 
 slid 
 
 
 slid or slidden 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 
 smit or smitten 
 
 Speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 
 spoke or spoken 
 
 Strike 
 
 struck 
 
 
 struck or stricken 
 
 Tread 
 
 trod 
 
 
 trod or trodden 
 
 Weave 
 
 wove 
 
 
 wove or woven 
 
 Class 9th,— Duplicates in both Past Tense and Past Participle 
 
 Bid bid or bade bid or bidden 
 
 Cleave (to split) clove or cleft cleft or cloven 
 
 Sink sank or sunk sunk or sunken 
 
 (This Division includes about 130 simple verbs.) 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQUAGE. 
 
 107 
 
 DIVISION 2nd. -HAVING REGULAR FORMS. 
 
 SECTION Ist-PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 ALIKE. 
 Class 1st, R, — Same as Class 1st in Division 1st, except the 
 
 Regular Forms. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Bet bet bet 
 
 Knit knit knit 
 
 Quit quit quit 
 
 Slit slit slit 
 
 Sweat sweat sweat 
 
 Whet whet whet 
 
 Class 2nd, R. — Same as Class 2ndi Div. 1st, except the Reg^ar 
 
 Forms, 
 
 Awake awoke awoke 
 
 Dig dug dug 
 
 Dive dove dove 
 
 Hang hung hung 
 
 Heave hove hove 
 
 Light lit lit 
 
 Shine shone shone 
 
 Stave stove stove 
 
 Class 3d, 
 Bend 
 
 R.- 
 
 -Same 
 
 as Class 3d, Div. 
 
 Forms. 
 
 bent 
 
 1st, 
 
 except the Regular 
 bent 
 
 Blend 
 
 
 
 blent 
 
 
 blent 
 
 Build 
 
 
 
 built 
 
 
 built 
 
 Burn 
 
 
 
 burnt 
 
 
 burnt 
 
 Dwell 
 
 
 
 dwelt 
 
 
 dwelt 
 
 Gild 
 Gird 
 Lay 
 Learn 
 
 
 
 gilt 
 girt 
 laid 
 learnt 
 
 
 gilt 
 girt 
 laid 
 learnt 
 
 Pay 
 
 Pen (to inclose) 
 
 Say 
 
 Spell 
 
 Spill 
 
 Spoil 
 
 paid 
 pent 
 said 
 spelt 
 spilt 
 spoilt 
 
 
 paid 
 pent 
 said 
 
 spelt 
 spilt 
 spoilt 
 
 Class 4th. R.- 
 
 Bereave 
 
 —Same 
 
 as Class 4th, Div. 
 Forms. 
 
 bereft 
 
 .1st, 
 
 except the Regular 
 
 bereft 
 
 Catch 
 
 
 
 caught 
 
 
 caught - 
 
108 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QMAMMAB 
 
 Clothe clad clad 
 
 Deal dealt dealt 
 
 Dream dreamt dreamt 
 
 Eneel knelt knelt 
 
 Class 6th, B,— Same as Class 6th, Div. 1st, except the Regular 
 
 Forms- 
 Seethe sod sodden 
 Thrive throve thriven 
 SECTION 2nd.-PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE 
 DIFFERENT 
 Class 10th, £.— Irregular Past Tense Wanting. 
 
 Freight fraught 
 
 Grave graven 
 
 Hew hewn 
 
 Lade (to load) laden 
 
 Mow mown 
 
 Rive riven 
 
 Saw sawn 
 
 Shape shapen 
 
 Shave shaven 
 
 Shear shorn 
 
 Show shown 
 
 Sow — — — sown 
 
 Slrow -^^— . strown 
 
 Swell swollen 
 
 Work wrought 
 
 Class 11th, R.— Irregular Past Participle Wanting. 
 
 Crow crew 
 
 Dare (to venture) durst 
 
 (This Division embraces about 54 simple verbs.) 
 
 Compounds (such as overtaJce, &o.) are inflected in the 
 same manner as the simple verbs of which they are formed, 
 except Welcome and Behave, which are regular. 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Shall Should 
 
 Will Would 
 
 May Might 
 
 Can Could 
 
 ■ Must ^—^ 
 Ought 
 
Wit ; 
 Wot I 
 
 OV TEE BNaLiaE LAN9 UAQE. 109 
 
 Quoth . 
 
 Will and Can as Principal Verbs are regular. 
 
 Shall and Will, as auxiliaries, have a future signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 May and Can are indefinite, referring either to present 
 or. future time, 
 
 Wit is used only in the Infinitive form To wit. 
 
 Wot is nearly obsolete. 
 
 The Past Tenses of the Defective Yerbs, except Quoth, 
 are indefinite, referring to past, present, or future time. 
 
 Quoth, has a past signification, and is singular. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He haa set a stake at the corner of the lot. They took the meas- 
 ure of the building. We shall go to-morrow. He went to-day. She 
 sat by the window. We will maintain our rights. He shall not es- 
 cape from justice. They shall obey the laws. I will not consent. 
 Thou shalt not steal. Thou wilt never return. He will retire. We do 
 you to wit of the grace of God. I see, quoth he, a wondrous sign. We 
 wot not what is become of him. 
 
 2. They wist not that it was he. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 
 Thou canst not live in such a place. The ship was laden with lumber. 
 I have not seen him. These rocks have lain in their present position 
 many years ; and they may lie there many years longer. They are all 
 gone from the mountain home. They have gone to the city. He laid 
 the book upon the table. They began to seek for some secure place 
 of refuge. 
 
 *4th MODE OF mFLECTIOH.-DIMINUTIOlf. 
 
 Diminution is a Mode of Inflection used to distiaguish 
 grades of action. 
 
 Diminutive Forms are those indicating small or slight 
 actions. 
 
 Formation of Diminutives. Diminutives are formed 
 in three ways : 
 
 1. By changing the stem, as " click " from " clack " ; " nip " 
 from '' nab " ; &c. 
 
 2. By adding the termination le, as " crackle " from 
 " crack " ; &c. 
 
110 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 3. By both methods combined, as " dribble " from " drop ", 
 " shuffle " from " shove " ; &o. 
 
 Apparent Diminutives are Diminutives of Nouns, 
 -used as Verbs, as " ruffle " from "ruff"; '' sparkle " from 
 "spark"; &c. 
 
 Occasional Use. Diminutives are sometimes used as 
 Frequentatives. 
 
 Limit. This Mode of Inflection is used in a few verbs 
 
 only. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 1. Dab, dib ; dap, dip ; grab, grip; sup, sip ; chop, chip ; &c. 
 
 2. Crack, crackle ; crink, crinkle; crunk, crunkle; crimp, crimple j 
 crumb, crumble ; ding, dingle ; darh, darkle ; drag, draggle ; freck, 
 freckle; fizz, fizzle ; frizz, frizzle; gab, gabble; grunt, gruntle ; hand, 
 handle ; hack, hackle ; hag, haggle ; hurt, hurtle ; jog, joggle ; nib, 
 nibble ; nest, nestle ; raff, raffle ; stick, stickle ; snuif, snufl3.e ; sniff, 
 sniffle ; start, startle ; snug, snuggle ; siss, sizzle ; tick, tickle ; ting, 
 tingle ; tink, tinkle ; tramp, trample ; tip, tipple ; wag, waggle ; wrest, 
 wrestle ; &c. 
 
 3. Bat, battle ; choke, chuckle ; cake (ob.), cackle ; chink, jingle ; 
 dwine (ob.), dwindle ; daze, dazzle ; grab, grapple ; hawk, higgle ; 
 prate, prattle ; pose, puzzle ; pad, paddle, peddle ; sprinke, sprinkle ; 
 shoot, shuttle ; throat, throttle ; turn, trundle ; wring, wrinkle ; wring, 
 wrangle ; Fr. tomber, tumble ; Lat. seribo, scribble ; Oer. schioinden, 
 swindle ; An. Sax. smugan, smuggle ; Sw. Strug, struggle ; Du. 
 acha/mpen, scamble; &c., &c. 
 
 *5th MODE OF INFLECTION.-FKEaUENTATION. 
 
 Frequentation is a Mode of Inflection used to distin- 
 guish frequency of action. 
 
 Frequentative Forms are those indicating repeated 
 actions. 
 
 Formation of Frequentatives. Frequentatives are 
 formed in two ways : 
 
 1. By inserting it, as " nictitate " from " nictate " ; &c. 
 
 2. By adding ter, mer, or pe7; with or without a change 
 of the stem, as " twitter " from " twit " ; " whimper " from 
 " whine " ; " shimmer " from '' shine " ; " glimmer " from 
 gleam " ; &c. 
 
 Xiimit. This Mode of Inflection is used only in a few 
 
 vprbs. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAQE. m 
 
 EXAMPLES OF FBEaUENTATIVES. 
 
 1. Agitate, calcitvate, cogitate, dictate, (dubitate), hesitate, palpitate, 
 racket, visit, inliabit, prohibit, crepitate, (flagitate), &c. 
 
 2. Batter, banter, bluster, clatter, clutter, cluster, canter, chatter, 
 flatter, flitter, flutter, fluster, flicker, flounder, falter, fritter, filter, glis- 
 ter, glitter, litter, molder, mutter, pester, palter, plaster, potter, saunter, 
 scatter, swelter, sputter, spatter, slaughter, shudder, splutter, snaolder, 
 stagger, smatter, roister, tatter, titter, totter, utter, wander, welter. 
 
 8. Scamper, simper, tamper, temper, whisper, slumber, clamber, 
 stammer, simmer, (Slaver, shiver, quaver, quiver, waver. ) 
 
 tVOICE AND MOOD. (See Note 25.) 
 Voice and Mood are Modes of Inflection of the Verb 
 used in some Languages, but not in English. 
 
 Ancient and Foreign use. The Mode of Inflec- 
 tion called Mood once existed in English ; but it is now lost. 
 The Mode of Inflection called Voice never belonged to the 
 English Language, and is found in but few other modern 
 languages. It occurs in the Icelandic, Swedish, and Danish 
 Languages; but not in the French, German, Spanish, or 
 Italian. 
 
 Voice is a Mode of Inflection used to show the relation 
 of the Subject of Discourse to the action expressed by the 
 
 verb. 
 
 An Active Form is one which represents the Subject 
 of Discourse as acting, as in Lat. Moneo. (I advise.) 
 
 Th.e Active Voice of a Verb is the aggregate of its 
 Active Forms. 
 
 A Passive Form is one which represents the Subject 
 of Discourse as acted upon, as Moneor. (I am advised.) 
 
 The Passive Voice of a Verb is the aggregate of 
 its Passive Forms. 
 
 Mood is a Mode of Inflection used to vary the manner 
 of the assertion, as Moneo (I advise), Moneam (I may ad- 
 vise). 
 
 An Indicative Form is one used to make an asser- 
 tion absolute. 
 
 The Indicative Mood of a Verb is the aggregate of 
 its Indicative Forms. 
 
112 
 
 A OOMPLETE SOIENTIFIO QBAMMAB 
 
 A Subjunctive Form, is one used to make an asser- 
 tion conditional. 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood of a Verb is the aggregate of 
 its Subjunctive Forms. 
 
 Greek. In the Greek Language, besides the Active and 
 Passive, the verb has a Middle Voice ; and Verbs, Nouns, 
 Pronouns, and Adjectives have, besides the Singular and 
 Plural, a Dual Number. 
 
 Other Languages. In some other Languages the 
 Verb has several other modes of Inflection, as Gender, 
 Kank, &c, (See Note 14.) 
 
 PAST OF THE DECLENSION OF THE LATIN VERB 
 
 MONEO. (ADVISE.) 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 iBt Per. Moneo 
 
 Monemns 
 
 Ist Per. Moneor 
 
 Monemur 
 
 and " Monea 
 
 Monetis 
 
 2nd " Moneris 
 
 Monemini 
 
 3d " Monet 
 
 Honent 
 
 3d " Monetur 
 
 Monentur 
 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 
 Bng. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 let Per. Monebam 
 
 MonebamuB 
 
 let Per. Monebar 
 
 Monebamnr 
 
 2nd " Monebas 
 
 MonebatiB 
 
 2nd " Monebaris 
 
 Monebamini 
 
 3d " Monebat 
 
 Monebant 
 
 3d " Monebatni, 
 
 Monebantnr 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 aing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Pl'U. 
 
 Ist Per. Moneam 
 
 Moncamns 
 
 Ist Per. Monear 
 
 Moneamnr 
 
 gnd " Moneas 
 
 Moueatis 
 
 2nd " Monearis 
 
 Moneamini 
 
 3d " Moneat 
 
 Moneant 
 
 8d " Moneatnr 
 
 Moneantur 
 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 
 Bing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Flu. 
 
 let Per. Monerem 
 
 Moneremns 
 
 1st Per. Monerer 
 
 Moneremur 
 
 2nd " Moneres 
 
 Monoretis 
 
 2nd " Monererls 
 
 Monereminl 
 
 8d " Moneret 
 
 Monerent 
 
 8d " Moneretnr 
 
 Monerentar 
 
 PART OF THE DECLENSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXON 
 VERB NIMAN, (TO TAKE). 
 
 Indicative Mood, Present Tense. Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense. 
 
 let Per. Nime 
 2nd " Nimest 
 Sd " Nimeth 
 
 Phi. 
 
 Nimath 
 
 Nime 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Nimen 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 113 
 
 INFLECTIOir OF ADVERBS. 
 Adverbs of Manner have one Inflection, called Com. 
 parison. 
 
 Other Adverbs have no Inflection. (See Note 15.) 
 The Comparison of Adverbs is like that of Adjec- 
 tives. 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ADVEEB GAYLY. 
 
 Ordiruwy Oomp. 
 
 Ascend. Periph. Comp. 
 
 Descend. Periplie. Comp. 
 
 Pos. Gayly 
 
 Pos. Gayly 
 
 Pos. Gayly 
 
 Com. Gaylier 
 
 Com. More Gayly 
 
 Com. Less Gayly 
 
 Sup. Gayliest 
 
 Sup. Most Gayly 
 
 Sup. Least Gayly 
 
 IRSEGULAE COMPARISON- 
 
 Pontive. 
 
 Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 Well 
 
 better best 
 
 Badly 
 
 worse worst 
 
 Far 
 
 farther farthest 
 
 Little 
 
 less least 
 
 Much 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He should write more carefully and more truthfully. 
 
 He suffered worse than his enemy ; and he suffered justly. 
 
 Luther said that to have prayed well was to have studied well. 
 
 John left home sooner than his cousin came. 
 
 She conversed freely, and sang sweetly, and played delightfully. 
 
 Just when the mice were sporting gayliest, the cat appeared, 
 
 One might easily go farther and fare worse. 
 
 He said little and cared less about the result. 
 
 They had a much nobler object and a more persistent zeal. 
 
 * GENERAL INFLECTION, OR REDUPLICATION. 
 
 Reduplication is the most general kind of Inflection, 
 and is common to all classes of words except Copulas, 
 Prepositions and Conjunctions. 
 
 Method. Reduplication consists in the repetition of a 
 part or the whole of a word, usually with some slight 
 change, as " tee-total ", from " total " ; " click-clack ", from 
 " clack " ; " whim-wham ", from " wham " ; &c. 
 
 Use. Reduplication is used chiefly in the colloquial style, 
 and mostly for emphasis. 
 
 Importance. In some languages Reduplication is a more 
 
114 
 
 A COMPLETE BOIENTIEIO GBAMMAB 
 
 important Inflection than it is in English. In the Greek 
 there is a regular Reduplication of the Verbal Stem in some 
 Tenses. It is also common in Latin, Hebrew, German and 
 
 other languages. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Nouns. Mama, papa, ding-dong, sing-song, dingle-dangle. Aim flam, 
 knick-knacli, slip-slop, pick-nick, snip-snap, hurdy-gurdy, gew-gaw, &o. 
 
 FronounB. Me-me my-my, you-you, Lat. sese, quia-quis, &c. 
 
 Adjectives. Namby-pamby, harum-scarum, wishy-washy, ziz-zag, 
 &c. 
 
 Verbs. See-saw, dilly-dally, ziz-zag, wig- wag, &o. 
 
 Adverbs. Hurry-skurry, helter-skeller, pit-a-pat, so-so, pell-mell, 
 &c. 
 
 Interjections. Pooh-pooh, bow-wow, fol-de-rol, pshaw-pshaw, &o. 
 
 t REMAmS OF FOEMEE INFLECTIONS. 
 
 Nominatives. It, that, what, and which, were formerly 
 Nominative Cases. 
 
 Genitives. Hence, thence, whence, once, whiles, else, 
 needs, rights, and unawares, were formerly Genitive Cases. 
 (See Latin Grammar.) 
 
 Datives. Me, him, them, whom, whilom, and seldom, 
 were Dative Cases. 
 
 Accusatives. Than or then, when, and whilon (Obs.), 
 were Accusative, or Objective, Cases. 
 
 Ablatives. Here, there, where, and whilere (Obs.), were 
 Ablative, or Locative, Cases. 
 
 Adlatives. Hither, thither, and whither, were Adlative 
 Cases. 
 
 Instrumental. How, why, thus, and the, were Instru- 
 mental Cases. 
 
 Relations. The relations of some of these words to each 
 other may be seen from a Paradigm. 
 
 Norn. BU (It)-Thia 
 Gen. Heuce^^om this 
 Bat, Him— for this 
 
 Ace. Bhie (obB. )«this 
 
 Abl. Here—in this 
 Ad], Hither— to this 
 InBtro. How— with this 
 
 Special Paradigm. 
 
 That 
 Then 06— from that 
 Them, 
 
 ThmnJ -'o'tliat 
 Than. • 
 Then} '~"^' 
 There— in that 
 Thither— to that 
 The 1 
 tThnsS """""that 
 
 What 
 Wheace^from what 
 
 Whom— for what 
 
 When— what 
 Where— in what 
 Whither— to what 
 Wta7— with what 
 
 While— time 
 Whiles— of while 
 
 Whilom— for wliile 
 
 WMUm (obs. )— while 
 Whilere— in while 
 
OF TEE BNQLISH LANQ UAGE. 115 
 
 * CHAPTEE HI-COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 Composition is the formation of Compound Words by 
 combining separate words. 
 
 The Uses of Composition are to abbreviate language, 
 and to form specific names, as apple-tree, peach-tree, white- 
 oak, &c. 
 
 A Binary Compound is one composed of two words. 
 
 A Ternary Compound is one composed of three 
 words, &c. 
 
 Hesemblants are Greek Compounds terminating in oid, 
 as spheroid, &c. 
 
 Modifiers. In a Binary Compound one part is a modifier 
 of the other. 
 
 The Accent, in a Binary Compound, falls on the modi- 
 fier, except in Resemblants, and Proper and Scientific 
 Names. 
 
 A Noun modifying another Noun is placed before 
 it. 
 
 An Adjective modifying a Noun or Adjective 
 is usually placed before it. 
 
 French Compounds. In words from the French a 
 modifying Adjective is often placed after the Noun. 
 
 A Noun modifying an Adjective or a Partici- 
 ple is placed before it. 
 
 A Noun modifying a Verb is placed before it to 
 form a Verb, and after it to form a Noun. 
 
 An Adjective modifsong a Pronoun is usually 
 placed before it. 
 
 Double Compounds. Two Compound Words may 
 be combined, forming a Double Compound. 
 
 Consolidation. A Phrase or Sentence may be consol- 
 idated into a Compound Word. 
 
 Distinction. A Word modified by another is not the 
 same thing as a word compounded with another. (A black 
 bird is not the same thing as a black-bird. A crow, a hen, 
 or a turkey, may be a black bird ; but neither of them is a 
 
116 A COMPLETE! BCIENTIPIO OBAMMAB 
 
 black-bird. Black-cattle are not necessarily black, but may 
 be white of red.) 
 
 A Preposition combined with a Noun is placed before 
 it ; but combined with a Pronoun or Verb, is placed after 
 it, A Preposition placed before a Verb forms a cleriva- 
 Hve, and not a compound word. 
 
 Tke Possessive Case of a If oun, combined with a 
 following Noun, usually drops the Apostrophe, and some- 
 times the s, of its termination. 
 
 The Plural Stem of a Noun is changed to the Sin- 
 gular before entering into Composition, as a cushion for 
 pins=a pincushion. 
 
 Transposition and Omission. In combining two 
 Noims there is usually a transposition of the words, and an 
 omission of the words of, for, and, &c., as a shoemaker= 
 a maker of shoes ; a pig-pen^a pen for pigs ; a steam-boat 
 =a boat propelled by steam ; a printing-preBB=a press for 
 printing ; the boy-soldier=the boy and soldier ; fourteen= 
 four and ten ; &c. 
 
 A Participial Noun often drops its termination when 
 combined, as a " wash-tub "=a " tub for washing." 
 
 Contraction. The Composition of a word is sometimes 
 obscured by contraction, as in " daisy ", from " day's eye " ; 
 " shepherd ", from " sheep herd "; &c. 
 
 Scientific and Proper Names are usually Com- 
 pounds, as " Lobelia j^rdinalis ", "John Smith", ''Henry 
 Ward Beecher ", " Professor Perry ", &c. 
 
 A Connecting Vowel is one used to connect two 
 parts of a word, as o, in " Anglo-Saxon *', '' serio-comic ', &c. 
 
 In Greek Compounds the Connecting Vowel is usu- 
 ally 0. 
 
 In Latin Compounds the Connecting Vowel is gener- 
 ally i. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND WOEDS. 
 
 1. Bookcase, comcrib, chessboard, sideboard, cbeesepress, haystack, 
 pancake, pepperbox, honeycomb, fireplace, lamppost, gateway, window- 
 frame, bedstead, broomcom, doorstep, steeltrap, bookcover, scbool 
 house, chairman, penman, goatherd, sbeepshears, watchmaker, p,?Q 
 
OF TEE BNGLISH LANQ UA QE. 117 
 
 knife, caseknife, wheelwright, Inkstand, broomstick, sheepskin, shoe- 
 string, bootsole, oornsheller, hillside, sidehill, locksmith, goldsmith, 
 manservant, servant-man, doorkey, plowman, dairyman, payday, Sun- 
 day, Monday, foxhunter, golddigger, seasickness, summerhouse, hand- 
 ful, pailful, bypath. 
 
 2. Beanpole, polebean; workhouse, housework; freightship, ship- 
 freight ; flowergarden, gardenflower ; bookshop, shopbook ; chestnut- 
 horse, liorsechestnut ; horsework, workhorse ; &c. . 
 
 3. Bear's-wort, cat's-foot, goal's-rue, virgin's-bower, lady's-slipper, 
 rat's-bane, king's-evil, John's-wort, Johnstown, Taylorsville, Youngs- 
 town, Greenville, Smithfield, Harrisburg, kinsman, kinswoman, hounds- 
 tongue, bearsgrass, whalebone, buckskin. 
 
 4. Johnson, Jackson, Dickson, Dixon, Nixon, Peterson, Samson, Samp- 
 son, Simpson, Thompson, Nelson, Wilson, MacGregor, MacWilliams, 
 McDonald, M'Leester, O'Niel, O'Brien, Pitz Hugh, ap Howell, Powell, 
 Prichard. 
 
 5. Readingbook, writingdesk, wrappingpaper, knittingneedle, smooth- 
 ingiron, drippingpan, turninglathe, tuningforfc, washbasin, bakepan 
 currycomb, grindstone, turntable, ripsaw, forcepump, blowpipe. 
 
 6. Dutchman, Frenchman, Englishman, blacksmith, whitesmith, 
 blackbird, bluebird, redbird, freshman, blackoak, sauerkraut, sweetflag, 
 greencorn, courtmartial, cousingerman, princeregent, heirapparent. 
 
 7. Manlike, childlike, seasick, homesick, skyblue, snowwhite, grass- 
 green, chromeyellow, jetblack, brimfuU, brandnew, worldwide, self- 
 sufficient. 
 
 8. Winedrinking, seafaring, heavendarlng, sabbathbreaking, summer- 
 flowering, nightblooming, cottonproducing, woolmanufacturing, fruit- 
 bearing, selfdeceiving, motheaten, heavenborn, heartbroken, selfde- 
 ceived, friendforsaken, lovelorn, weatherbeaten, shipwrecked. 
 
 9. Blue-eyed, blackhaired, squaretoed, threecornered, fourfooted, 
 sixsided, manyangled, halffinished, sourfaced^ 
 
 10. Longenduring, longsuffering, longconcealed, longforgotten, fine- 
 drawn, hardboiled, softboiled, hardfought, finecut, &c. 
 
 11. Myself, thyself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, himself, them- 
 selves. 
 
 12. Aboard, across, athwart, besides, between, Indeed, forsooth, 
 herein, hereof, hereby, hereon, herewith, hereunder, therefore, there- 
 over, thereupon, thereagainst, thereof, whereof, whereby, whereat, 
 wherewith, &c. 
 
 13. Whoever, whichever, whatever, whoso, whosoever, whosesoever, 
 whatsoever, whichsoever, whenever, whensoever, whencesoever. 
 
 14. Boxhaul, backbite, checkmate, cathaul, caseharden, hamstring, 
 handcuff, handsel, hoodwink, logroll. 
 
 16. Catchpoll, cutpurse, cutthroat, pickpocket, scapegallows, scare- 
 
118 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 OMAMMAIi 
 
 crow, spendthrift, telltale, tutncoat, catchfly, cutwater, catchward, 
 breakfast, spitfire, pastime, portcrayon, portfolio, portmoney, ward- 
 robe. 
 
 16. Illtimed, illfavored, illconcealed, illcontrived, illconstructed, well- 
 planned, wellmaneuvered, wellmanaged, hardlyfought, oftcontested, 
 flnelycut, coarsely ground, wellmeaning, ill-loojcing, illmeaning. 
 
 17. Fabherinlaw, motherinlaw, aid-de-canip, chevaux-de-frise, cap-a- 
 pie, avoir-du-pois,. leger-de-main, sleight-of-hand, blind-man's-buflf, 
 fox-and-geese, Jack-with-a-lanlern, Will-with-a-wisp, forget-me-not, 
 four-o-clock, shoulder-of-mutlon, good-for-nothing, the unable-to-take- 
 care-of-themselves argument, the I-hope-you-are-not-offended style, 
 the never-to-be-forgotten day, the ever-to-be-remembered event, &c. 
 
 18. Cycloid, spheroid, planetoid, asteroid, ellipsoid, varioloid, placoid, 
 ganoid, crinoid, conchoid, conoid, ovoid, cylindroid, rhomboid, parabo- 
 loid, prismoid, trapezoid, metalloid, alkaloid, crystalloid, colloid, cora- 
 coid, coralloid, ginglymoid. 
 
 19. John Bright, Eichard Whately, Henry Wilson, James Russell 
 Lowell, Martin Van Buren, Edgar Allan Poe, Clupea harengus, Alosa 
 praestabilis. Cor Scorplonis, Alpha Leonis, Corvus Americanus, Quis- 
 culus versicolor, Salva officinalis, Pyrus mains, Equus caballus, Cauis 
 familiaris, Gryllus vulgaris. Sodium Nitrate, Potassium Sulphite, &c. 
 
 NAMES OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 The Names of the Sciences are mostly Greek com- 
 pounds ending with logy, meaning Science, or with graphy, 
 meaning description. 
 
 Connection. These endings are usually joined to the 
 first part of the name by the connecting vowel o, as in " Ge- 
 o-graphy ", " Ge-o-logy ", &c. 
 
 Other Endings. Sometimes the endings nomy, mean- 
 ing law, and metry, meaning measuring, are used in the same 
 way, as in " Astronomy ", " Geometry ", &c. 
 
 EXEBCISES. 
 
 1. Qeo=earth; Helio=sun; Seleno^moon; Astro=3tar; Aero^ 
 air ; Meteoro=thing in the air ; Urano=heavens ; Oceano=ocean ; 
 Cosmo=world ; Pyro=are ; Hydro=water ; Physio=nature ; Hygro= 
 moisture ; Eudio=pure air ; Aetio=cause ; Chrono=time ; Choro= 
 place; Climato=climate ; Hagio=Bacred ; Paradoxo=parodox ; Phono 
 =sound ; 
 
 2, Auto=self ; Psycho=soul ; Hepato=liver ; Panto=alI ; Chryso= 
 gold ; Neo^new; Anthropo^man ; Ethno=peopln ; Bio=life; Mytho 
 =fable ; Lexico=dictionary ; Biblio=ibook ; Carto=inap ; Etymo=; 
 
OV TRE ENGLISn LAN& UA GE. 119 
 
 word root ; Ideo=idea; Hymiio=hymn ; Hamiono=harmony | Glosso= 
 language or explanatiou j Eoo=house ; Pharmaco=medicine j Noso= 
 disease j Chromato^oolor ; Qonio=angle | Trigono=!triangle ; Helico 
 =spii'al ; 
 
 3. Archaeo=antique ; PaIaeonto=ancient being; CrystalIo=crystal ; 
 Phyto=leaf ; Carpo=fruit ; Embryo=germ ; 00=egg ; Zob=animal ; 
 Entomo=:Insecto=insecfc ; HelmlQtho=worm ; Herpeto=reptile ; Os- 
 teo=;bone ; Syosteo=joint ; Concho=shell ; Dermato=sltin ; Neuro= 
 nerve J Odonto=tooth ; Phlebo=vein j Mammo=mammal ; Ornitho= 
 bird; Ichthyo=flsli ; Malaco=sofl; Necro=dead; Egypto=Egypt ; 
 Christo=Christ ; Christiano = christian ; Minera= mineral; 6enea= 
 lineage; Systemato=:system ; &c. 
 
 NAMES OF PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMEITTS. 
 The Ending Meter means measure. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Anemo=:wind ; Gaso=gas ; Clirono=:time ; Baro=weight ; Hydro= 
 liquid; Hygro=moisture ; Thermo= warmth; Micro=small ; Gonio— 
 angle; Odo=road; Ozono=ozone ; Saccharo=sugar ; Galvano=:gal- 
 vauism ; Photo=light; Eleotro=electricity.; Eudio=pure air. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS GREEK COMPOUNDS. 
 The Siuding -graph, or -gra'phy sometimes signifies 
 ■writing or drawing, as in " orthography'', &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Ortho==correct ; Calli=beautiful ; Steno=short ; Phono=soand ; 
 Photo=light ; Typo=type ; Xylo=wood ; Tele=far ; Litho=stone ; 
 Helio:=sun ; Chiro^hand ; Auto^self ; Zinco=zino ; Panto^all ; 
 Odonto=tooth. 
 
 The iEndiug Meter means measure or measurer. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Geo=earth; Dia=through ; Peri^a,rotmd ; Thermo=:warmth; Pyro 
 =heat; Baro=weight; Photo^ight ; Gonlo=angle ; Hydro=liquid ; 
 Gaso=gas ; Hygro=moisture ; Eleotro==electricity ; Gal7ano=galvan- 
 ism ; Micro^small ; Odo^way ; Oeno=alcohol ; Anemo^wind ; Aero 
 =air; Psychro=:cold ; Ozono=ozone ; Sacoharo=sugar. 
 
 The Endings -oracy and -arehy, mean government. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Mono=one ; 01ig=few ; An=without ; Hept=:seven ; Demo=peo- 
 ple; Theo=God; Aristo=best. 
 
120 A. COMPLETE 801ENTIFI0 OBAMMAS. 
 
 LATIN COMPOUNDS. 
 Tlie Ending -ferous means producing, and is usually 
 joined to the first part of the word by the connecting vowel i. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Grainini=grass ; Carpi=frnit ; Lumini=Iight f Fo8eili=fossil ; Me- 
 talli=metal; Auri=goldj Argenti=silver; Cupri=copper; Plumbi 
 =lead; Ferri=iron; Carboni=coal; 01ei=oil ; Sacchari = sugar j 
 Grani=grain| ConcW=8hell ; Lanci=lancej Laui=wool. 
 
 Th.e iEnding -voroua means eating, or devouring. 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Herbl=vegetable ; Carni=flesh ; Insecti=insect j Gramini=grass ; 
 Omni=zall; Carpi=:fruit ; Qrani=grain; Phyti=leaf. 
 
 t CHAPTER IV.-DERIVATION. 
 
 A Primitive Word is one not formed from another 
 by any other process than Inflection, Euphonic Change, or 
 Orthographic Expedient, as " puts", " blink " (blic), " vile", 
 "faUs", &c. 
 
 A Real Stem, is the first, or unaltered, form of a Primi- 
 tive Word, as " put ", « blic ", « vil ", " fal ", &c. 
 
 A Root is an original Syllable from which Stems are 
 formed, as ag, from which comes fag, whence fac, and hence 
 fact, face, &o. 
 
 Root-Stem. A Stem is sometimes also a Hoot, as in 
 "action'', in which the Stem is ag, and the Root is ag. 
 
 An Affix is a part of a word (not inflectional or ortho- 
 graphic) placed before or after the Stem. 
 
 A Prefix is an Affix placed before the Stem, as im, in 
 impure. 
 
 A Suffix is an Affix placed after the Stem, as li/, in the 
 word purely. 
 
 Derivation is the formation of a word from some other 
 word, either by the use of a Prefix, or by such a change in 
 the Stem or the Termination of the word as changes its 
 Class, as " immoral ", from " moral " ; " hot ", from " heat " ; 
 " manly ", from " man " ; &c. (See Note 27.) 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 121 
 
 A Derivative "Word is one formed from another by 
 Derivation. 
 
 The General Stem of a word may sometimes be the 
 . same as the real stem, as in " run " ; but usually it is differ- 
 ent, as in " reduplications '', — of which the General Stem is 
 " reduplication " ; but the Real Stem is pli. 
 
 The Theme of a word is the Real Stem increased by 
 some permanent inflectional or educed letter or letters, as 
 in "preemption", — of which the Stem is em; the p is 
 educed ; the t is inflectional (participial) ; and the Theme is 
 enipt. 
 
 Inflectional Terminations mostly disappear in the 
 process of Derivation; but those of . Participles, Diminu- 
 tives, Augmentatives, and Frequentatives remain. Hence 
 these are sometimes mistaken for Derivative Forms. 
 
 Stems and Themes are always monosyllabic, and form 
 the bases of Derivative Words- 
 
 Afi&xes are joined to Stems and Themes according to 
 the Rules for Spelling and the principles of Euphony. 
 
 The Approximate Theme of a word is the simplest 
 form of it which is used as an entire English word, and may 
 consist of several syllables, as in the word " instrumental- 
 ity", of which the Approximate Theme is "instrument.'' 
 
 MODES OF DERIVATI0N.-2. 
 
 1. The Strong Derivation is that which is effected 
 without Affixes. 
 
 2. The Weak Derivation is that in which Affixes are 
 used. 
 
 1st M0DE.-STR01fG DERIVATIOIT. 
 The Methods of the Strong Derivation are six, viz. : 
 
 1. A Simple Transfer from one class to another, 
 without any change in the Stem, as the Noun " fire " be- 
 comes a Verb in the sentence " They fire the guns " ; &e. 
 
 2. A Change of Accent, as " compo<ind ", " com- 
 pound"; &c. 
 
 8. A Vowel Change, as « tale ", from " tell ; « shot ", 
 from " shoot " ; &c. 
 
122 A COMPLETE aCIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 4. A Ch.ange of Vo"wel and Accent, as " produce " 
 "produce"; " rec6rd "," record " ; &c. 
 
 5. A Consonant Change, as "leaf", "leave", 
 " thief", " thieve " ; " use ", " use " ; &c. 
 
 6. A Consonant and Vowel Change, as "live", 
 " life " ; " bake ", « batch " ; &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Iron, ill, shovel, rake, fork, fall, fence, heat, wet, foot, book, pencil, 
 hand, mouth, finger, louse, cover, call. 
 
 2. Absent, abstract, accent, affix, augment, colleague, compact, com- 
 pound, compress, concert, concrete, conduct, confine, conflict, conserve, 
 consort, contract, contrast, converse, convert, desert, descant, digest, 
 essay, extract, ferment, frequent, import, incense, insult, object, per- 
 fume, permit, prefix, subject, survey, torment, transfer, protest, trans- 
 port, compact, august, exile, instinct, supine, contract, convert, perfect, 
 detail, increase, retail. 
 
 3. Sell, sale; slit, slat, slot; gripe, grip; beat, bat; bind, band, 
 bond ; bite, bit; bleed, blood ; cut, coot; deal, dole ; draw, dray ; feed, 
 food; gold, gild; hang, king ; knit, knot; lade, load; lay, law ; lead, 
 lode ; say, smc ; sip, sop, soup ; shear, share ; sing, song ; spit, spite, 
 spot, spout ; stick, stack, stake, stock ; strike, stroke ; strow, straw ; 
 sweep, swoop ; &c. 
 
 4 Deser't, dfisert ; premise, premise ; presAge, prfisage ; present, pre- 
 sent ; project prfiject ; rebfil, r^bel ; refuse, r6fuse. 
 
 5. Oird, girt ; beak, peak ; lose, loose ; rise, ri«e ; boll, poll ; dig, 
 ditch; house, hoase ; strive, strife; wreath, wreathe ; sheath, sheathe ; 
 believe, belief; relieve, relief; reprove, reproof; behoove, behoof; 
 knob, knop ; &c. 
 
 6. Cloth, clothe ; breathe, breath ; lose, loss ; choose, choice ; dig, 
 dike, ditch ; creep, crab ; ball, pill ; botch, patch ; bump, bomb ; sweep 
 swab ; make, match ; live, life ; &c. 
 
 2nd MODE.-WEAX DEarVATION. 
 
 The Methods of the Weak Derivation are five, viz. : 
 
 1. A Prefix is used, as in '' unsound ", from " sound ". 
 
 2. A Suffix is used, as in " soundly ", from " sound ". 
 
 3. A Prefix and Sllffix are used, as in " unsoundly ", 
 from " sound ", 
 
 4. Repetition. These Processes are repeated, as in 
 " in-com-presa-ibil-ity ", from " compressible ", from " press "- 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG V AGE. 123 
 
 6. Addition. Each, of these changes is added to each 
 of the changes of the Strong Derivation. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Incomplete, completeness, incompleteness ; press, express, express- 
 ive, expressiveness, inexpressiveness ; hand, handy, unhaDdy, unhand- 
 ily ; reconfinement ; unbinding, disbanded, rebonded | representative, 
 presently ; uudergirding, ungirted ; loser ; breathless ; cleave, cleft ; 
 compose, compost ; band, bind, bond, bundle. 
 
 CLASSES OF DERIVATIVES. 
 "Words of each. Class are derived from those of each 
 class, viz. : 
 
 I. Verbs from. Nouns, as "thieve", from "thief "; 
 " leave ", from " leaf " ; &c. 
 
 8. Nouns from Verbs, as " life ", from " live " ; " drift ", 
 from " drive " ; &c. 
 
 3. Adjectives from Nouns, as "wooden", from 
 " wood " ; " peaceful ", from " peace " ; &c. 
 
 4. Adjectives from Verbs, as " speakable ", from 
 " speak " ; " saving ", from " save " ; &o. 
 
 5. Adjectives from Adjectives, as '' untrue ", from 
 " true " ; " impure ", from " pure " ; &c. 
 
 6. Nouns from Adjectives, as "bitters", from 
 " bitter " ; " usefulness ", from " useful " ; &c. 
 
 7. Verbs from Adjectives, as "enrich", from 
 "rich"; " belittle ", from " little " ; &c. 
 
 8. Pronouns from Adjectives, as " it ", from " hit "; 
 " them ", from " that " ; &c. 
 
 9. Adverbs from Adjectives, as "sweetly", from 
 " sweet "; " soonly", from " soon " ; &c. 
 
 10. Adverbs from Pronouns, as " here ", from " hi " 
 (A. S.) ; " then ", from « that " ; &c. 
 
 I I, Adverbs from Nouns, as " twice " from " two " ; 
 "verbatim", from"verbum" (L.); &c. 
 
 12. Adverbs from Adverbs, as "untruly", from 
 " truly " ; " im'properly ", from " properly " ; &c. 
 
 13. Prepositions from Nouns, as " by", from " bye " ; 
 « in ", from " inna " (Goth.) ; &c. 
 
124 A COMPLETE SCWJUfTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 14. Adverbs from Prepositions, as " in ", from " in " 
 (they called him in) ; &c. 
 
 1 5. Conjunctions from Verbs, as " if ", from " give " ; 
 " and ", from " andan " (A. S.) ; &c. 
 
 16. Nouns from Nouns, as " unTeraut " from " hraut " 
 (Gar.) ; "nothing", from " thing" ; &o. 
 
 17. Verbs from Verbs, as "return", from "turn"; 
 " withstand ", from " stand " ; &c. 
 
 FOBEIGX MATEBIALS. 
 
 1. Foreign Words. Very many words have been 
 borrowed from the French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Dutch, 
 Danish, Spanish, Italian, Welsh, Arabic, German, Portu- 
 guese, and Indian Languages. 
 
 2. Foreign Stems and Themes. Besides entire 
 words many Stems and Themes have been taken from those 
 Languages ; and from them a multitude of Derivatives have 
 been formed, — sometimes a hundred or more from a single 
 stem. 
 
 3. Foreign Af&xes. Many Affixes as well as Stems 
 are from the Latin, Greek, French, &c. 
 
 The Original Stock or foundation of the English Lan- 
 guage is the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 The Principal. Additions to that have been taken 
 from the French, Latin, and Greek. 
 
 AFFIXES. 
 1. Some Anglo Saxon Prefixes. 
 
 ^=on, as aboard. Ex. Shore, ground, side, sleep, loft. 
 
 S«=by, as because, &c. Often it is intensive or merely euphonic, as 
 in bedim, bespatter. In become, befall, and bechance, it is the 
 Copula. Ex. Before, besides, between, bedim, befit, behave, be- 
 spatter, becloud, bedizzen, betray, bewilder. 
 
 En^in, or make, as encase, enrich. Ex. Close, chain, circle, camp, 
 force, grave, feeble, lai'ge, trap, tomb, bottle, bark, balm, brace, 
 power, bitter, hezde. 
 
 in=in, or make. Ex. Close, gulf, wall, sure, bitter, brown, brue, 
 prison, poverish, sure, fix, bibe, pair. 
 
 i?'ore=before. Ex. Noon, see, tell, sight, head, ordain. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 125 
 
 Jfis=wrong. Ex. Call, calculate, behave, deed, demeanor. 
 
 Ottf =beyond, or external. Ex. Bid, live, last, run, do, march, niimber> 
 
 line, side, ride, wear, lai^dish, post, crop. 
 OBer=over, or too much. Ex. Hang, leap, load, awe, throw. 
 
 J7»=dis, or not. Ex. Bind, bolt, load, certain, fair, true. 
 
 Under=\o^st. Ex. Officer, clerk, current, bid, mine, take. 
 
 TFitA=from, or against, Ex. Draw, hold, stand. 
 
 2.— Some Latin Prefixes. 
 
 .46=from. Ex. Duct, solve, dicate, lution, vert, tain. 
 
 Ad=\.o. Ex. Join, here, mit, duoe, vert, jacent, scend, spire, scribe, 
 venge, cept, cident, cord, knowledge, quire, firm, finity, flux, 
 gress, glutinate, gravate, literation, leviate, lege, lot, nex, nounce 
 nul, numerate, noy, pend, ply, pertain, proach, range, rogate, 
 rosion, rive, sist, similate, sume, sail, tempt, test, tend, tribute. 
 
 .4?n6=about. Ex. Ition, iquity, putate, lent, ustion. 
 
 .4.nt«=before. Ex. Cedent, date, chamber, diluvian, penult, 
 
 Oircit?»= around. Ex. Navigate, scribe, ference, it, spect, stance. 
 
 Cis=:on this side. Ex. Atlantic, Alleghan, Alpine, Arctic. 
 
 C'o»= together, or with. Ex. Duct, duce, nect, voke, cur, tain, tract, 
 gress, elude, sider, agulate, adjutor, heir, here, tangent, operate, 
 lect, lide, .lapse, gnate, gnition, guizaiit, bine, press, mingle, 
 pose, plete, respond, rect, rode, roborale, rugate, relative. 
 
 C'o?l<rfl5=against. Ex. Diet, vene, vert, distiiiguish. 
 
 CoMraJer=against. Ex. Act, mand, balance, ma/rch, sign. 
 
 i)e=down, from, or about. Ex. Duce, fend, ject, pose, pend, 
 
 J)i« (F.)=not, or un. Ex. Honest, respectful, crown, mount. 
 
 Dis (L.)=apart. Ex. Pel, sect, tend, tract, pose, tribute, vert, verge, 
 gress, vide, vorce, mension, fuse. 
 
 jEj— out. Ex. Olude, cite, tract, tend, cept, ist, tort, ceed, pert, ject, 
 lect,. rase, duce, gress, liminate, face, fuse, feet, fluence, ferves- 
 cence, fort. 
 
 Extra^=beyoaA. Ex. Mundane, ordinary, vagant, judicial. 
 
 J7i=in, on, or not. Ex. Case, elude, flux, fuse, spect, ter, cision, hale, 
 sect, luminate, lusion, merse, mure, pede, plant, pose, print, pugn, 
 precate, radiate, ruption, active, glorious, justice, ability, correct, 
 logical, legible, licit, material, mature, partial, prudent, regular, 
 resolute. 
 
 7?ii6r=between. .Ex. Cede, jacent, vene, line, lude, sect. 
 
 Intro— va. Ex. Duce, vert, spection, mission. 
 
 Jwato^next. Ex. Position, posit. 
 
 06=:against, on account of, or before. Ex. Trude, struct, ject, viate, 
 stacle, cur, cultation, fend, fer, pose, pugn, press. 
 
 J/ffl(I=bad. Ex. Practice, formation, treat, aria, administration. 
 
126 A COMPLETE aOIENTIFia GliAMMAn 
 
 i'er=through, or wrong. Ex. Ambulate, forate, feet, vade, lucid, 
 
 spire, speetive, spicuous, ennial, vert. 
 Multi=ma.ny. Ex. Ply, farious, angular^ tude, nomial. 
 Po8t=a,{tev. Ex. Script, meridian, diluvian, mortem. 
 Pr«=before. Ex. Cede, diet, fix, destine, judge, lude, mise. 
 Preter='bejonA. Ex. Natural, ite, human, legal, perfect, 
 Pro={oT, or forward. Ex. Noun, consul, ceed, duce, pel, tract, claim, 
 
 fit, logue, mote, phet, scribe, spect, vide. 
 iJ6=back, again, or against. Ex. Cede, call, form, sume, sist, cant, 
 
 duce, fleet, novate, eem, integrate, iterate. 
 JB«fro=baekward. Ex. Grade, spect, cede, vert. 
 jS=much, or large. Ex. Melt, plash, nip, lash, pike, pile, creak, 
 
 mash. 
 /8e=a8ide. Ex. Cede, cession, duce, elude, leet.'ver, parate. 
 Semi=ha,]{. Ex. Circle, circumference, weekly, annual, fluid. 
 ,8iTOe=without. Ex. Cure, cere, pie, gle. 
 Sub=:uuieT. Ex. Scribe, oflieer, marine, urbs, divide, mit, ject, 
 
 stance, tract, eumb, ceed, eor, fuse, fer, fix, port, press, ply, 
 
 plant, pend, tain, spect, ceptible. 
 Siii>ter=nndeT. Ex. Fuge, fluent, fluous. 
 Super=:oveT. Ex. Fine, excellent, ior, structure, fluous, sede. 
 Sti^ (F.')=over, or upon. Ex. Charge, vive, vey, face, name, plus, 
 
 tout. 
 2Van«=over, or through. Ex. Poi-t, scend, alpine, parent, fer, late, 
 
 atlantic, scribe, gress, fuse, lucent, mit, pose, port, plant, dition, 
 
 montane, 
 rora=beyond. Ex. Montane, 1st, ism, marine. 
 
 3. Some Greek Prefixes. 
 
 .4=without. Ex. Cephalous, byss, chromatic, damant, morphoua, 
 
 archy, omaly, onymous, tom, theigt. 
 Amphi=ioa\)\e. Ex. Bious, bia, bian, bole, bolite, brach, logy. 
 ^Bas=:again, up, or through. Ex. Baptist, chronism, gram, logy, 
 
 lysis, lytic, thema, tomist, leplie. 
 .4?iii=against, or opposite. Ex. B.epubliean, slavery, agonist, pathy, 
 
 podes. 
 Apo=fTOja. Ex. Cope, gee, logy, helion, calypse. 
 Cata=dovn, against. Ex. Logue, ract, rrh, strophe, holic. 
 J)i(i=through, apart, or double. Ex. MeLer, gonal, lect, logue. 
 Dys—bai. Ex. Pepsia, phony, odile, opsy, phoria. 
 Ec=oul, or from. Ex. Centric, lectio, haust, hume, act. 
 En=:ia, or upon. Ex. Demie, phasis, caustic, plection. 
 .^i=upon. Ex. Demie, zo&tie, logue, hemeral, thet, tome. 
 .Bfit=good. Ex. Logy, phony, angel, phemism, charist. 
 
' j. = twice. Ex. Sextlle, lateral, valve, dentate, chromate, axial. 
 
 OF THE ENQLISH LANG UA&E. 127 
 
 Hyper^owet. Ex. Critical, bole, bola, borean, meter, trophy. 
 ^2/^0= under. Ex. Sulphite, nitrous, crisy, tenuse, gean. 
 Meta=\>ey oui. Ex. Physics, phor, thesis, morphose, plasm. 
 P(M'as=beside. Ex. Phrase, allel, ody, dox, ble, digm, graph. 
 Peri=about. Ex. Meter, phrase, phery, helion, gee, style. 
 PoZy=many. Ex. Syllable, petalous, gon, pus, theist, pod, nomial. 
 Sy»i=with. Ex. Opsis, od, pathy, logism, lable, metry, stem, bol, 
 phony, tax, ptom, cope, ohronism. 
 
 4. Numeral Prefixes.— Latin. 
 
 Uni I _Q^g_ jjx. Lateral, verse, valve, arian, que, son, plicate. 
 Unit I 
 
 Eia\ 
 
 Bi 
 
 ' (. =thrice. Ex. Syllable, chotomous, angle, foliate, une, pie. 
 Tri j 
 
 Qad'n=iowc. Ex. Angle, ennial, ate, el, ant, lateral, dentate. 
 
 Qmnque 1 _g^g_ j,^ Dentate, fid, angular, syllable, partite, pie. 
 Qintu j 
 
 . (. =six. Ex. Angle, digitism, ennial, fid, syllable, tile, tant. 
 
 *^ (. =seven. Ex, Partite, ber, angular, ennial, flaous, virate. 
 
 Octo^eight. Ex. Decimal, ennial, ber, dentate, petalous. 
 
 Ifovem=nme. Ex. Ennial, ber, ary, ene. 
 
 Decem=teQ. Ex. Ennial, ber, al, fid, vir, dentate, illion. 
 
 5. Nuineral Prefixes.— Greek. 
 
 Jlforeo=Single. Ex. Tone, gram, lith, cracy, archy, syllable. 
 
 ' }= twice or double. Ex. Hedral, graph, lemma, morphism. 
 jJi } 
 
 . t =thrice. Ex. Petaloid, petalous, phthong, pod, spermons. 
 In I 
 
 Tetra=fovLT. Ex. Chord, meter, gon, hedron, logy, merous. 
 
 Penta=&7e. Ex. Gon, chord, capsula, crinite, hedral, tench. 
 
 Sexa^six.. Ex. Meter, merous, androus, gon, pod, hedron. 
 
 Septa— aeyen. Ex. Hedron, gon, archy, teuch.glot, chord, merous. 
 
 ** J =eight. Ex. Gon, Hedron, merous, teuch, spermous, pod. 
 Octo } 
 
 Ennea=n\ne. Ex. Gon, hedron, spermous, petalous, androus, hedral. 
 
 J)eca— ten. Ex. Chord, gon, gram, hedron, loglie, meter, phyllous, 
 
 pod. 
 
 Endeea=e\even. Ex. Gon, gynous, phillous. 
 
 2)o(ieca= twelve. Ex. Gon, gynous, hedron, androus, petalous, style. 
 
128 -4 COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG QRAMMAR 
 
 ~~ 6. Principal Suffixes. 
 
 We=able, fit, or proper, — as prQfitable=able or fit to profit. Ex. 
 
 Suit, eat, driuk, use, access, aud, conlempt. 
 Ueness \ =:the quality of being able, &c. Ex. Reason, pardon, com- 
 Ulity j pat, combust, excuse, resist, reprehensi, conlempt. 
 nc6 \ =stale, act, or thing. Ex. Prevale, dilige, expecta, relucta, 
 T^y j importa, insura, impude, compete, rege, solve. 
 ant ) =ing, person, or thing. Ex. Presid, resid, conson, dec, relev, 
 ent \ pursu, cogniz, stiing, redol, confid, indol, vigil, ten. 
 fcjiizrabounding in. Ex. Corpu, viru, vio, escu, pesti. 
 fonc«=quality of abounding in. Ex. Corpu, &c. 
 ion \ =act, state, or thing. Ex. Punish, quest, agree, vis, sess, 
 ment \ resent, reduct, provis, elect, argu, tor, imple. 
 a<e=having the quality, or to make. Ex. Kose, cune, foli, digit, 
 
 nomin, separ, design, vlti, illustr, ov, immedi, reuov. 
 a;^«=rank, office, state, act, thing, or allowance. Ex. Parson, peer, 
 
 usage, person, pilgrim, ton, post, vis, sav, salv, mess, pass. 
 en,fy. j =lo make, making, or made. Ex. Light, dark, just, magn, 
 fit, fi,c \ test, bene, pro, sopori, beati, cheap, wood, hard, vili, terri. 
 er, or, eer, ier, ian, dan, ean, \ =person. Ex. Writ, execut, auc- 
 ee, ist, ite, san, zan, zen, ast, J tion, cannon, civil, arithraeti, crus- 
 
 tac, consign, bapt, Israel, arti, courte, citi, enthusi, gymn, parti. 
 or, wry, ate, we ) (sometimes)=person or thing. Ex. Li, secret, magn, 
 sltr, ado, oso j relat, pun, desper, virtu, col. 
 
 ac, a/r, ary, an, ai, \ (generally) =pertaining to, relating to, or like. 
 ic, ine, ile, ical, ) Ex. Cardi, demoni, regul, exempl, Hercule, fill, 
 
 histor, atmospher, fel, puer, cler, clas?, spher. 
 AootJ=community, condition, or office. Ex. Brother, man, priest, 
 
 neighbor. 
 i2e=easily. Ex. Duct, doc, frag, ag, versat, volat. 
 ice, ty, cy=quality or office. Ex. Just, vani, luna, frequen, coward, 
 
 beau, captain, liber, chad, priva. 
 fice=a, making, or doing. Ex. Bene, arti, of, sacri, ori. 
 
 j =:partaking of, like, or consisting of. Ex. Sapon, aren, 
 
 r resin, hazard, vitre, vicl, melodi, labor. 
 mis ) 
 
 i=of (Termination of L. Genitive). Ex. Agriculture, horti, aurifer- 
 ous, somni, regicide, fratri. 
 
 ii)e=:tending to. Ex. Destruct, affirmat, posit, rtlat, distinct. 
 
 tsm^doctrine, state, science, or peculiarity. Ex. Mormon, vulgar, 
 wittic, barbar, American, Anglic, magnet, Galvan. 
 
 K!e=make or assimilate. Ex. Revolution, christian, galvan, magnet, 
 theor, advert, civil, real. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG WAGE. 129 
 
 4(;s=science, doctrine, or art. Ex. Median, phys, gymnast, opt, 
 
 mathemat, polit, eth, liydrostat, metaphys. 
 t«/i=like, pertaining to, or to malce. Ex. Publ, turn, tarn, accompi, 
 
 dimin, rel, embell, Engl, Scott, brut, wolf, winter, establ. 
 ed or jci=made or making. Ex. Sol, gel, val, flor, insip, wretch, 
 
 crook. 
 Zc«s=without or destitute of. Ex. Life, money, power, use. 
 i^=like, or in a manner. Ex. Brother, friend, world, kind, beast, 
 
 pure, wise, happi, exceeding, useful. 
 ful \ =full, like, or abounding in. Ex. Hope, use, lacrym, siliqu, 
 oae j silicnl, joy, comat, verb, joe, bellic. 
 nes«=:act, state, or quality. Ex. Calm, white, busi, rash. 
 /ero««=producing. Ex. Lumeni, pest, voc, carp, auri. 
 <wy=:contaiuing, tending to, nature of, or place where. Ex. Dormit, 
 
 laborat, orat, invent, dilat, satiafact, nugat, circulat, excret. 
 
 I =Jurisdiction or possession. Ex. Bishop, king, earl. 
 
 «^ij)=Office, state, or district. Ex. Judge, town, friend. 
 
 «cZ6=capacity or state. Ex. Quiet, plenit, magnit, gratit. 
 
 Mar(Z=in a direction. Ex. Heaven, home, wind, back. 
 
 urc=a.ci, art, state, or thing. Ex. Impost, forfeit, fail, indent, agri- 
 cult, manufact, discomfit, feat. 
 
 ery ) art, practice, place, full of, ) Ex. Brib, lann, gunn, penu, abilit, 
 
 '>'y< y ) state, possession, thing. ) honest, propert, batter, laund. 
 
 some=m a measure. Ex. Lone, dark, noi, toil, blithe. 
 
 i/t^quality, or act. Ex. Warm, streng, wid, grow, til. 
 
 d or <=thing. Ex. Produc, fac, frui, sigh, draugh, haf, hil, hef, 
 shaf, pos, twls, mal, plai, deb, join. 
 
 m.=thing. Ex. Bloo, glea, wor, ste, pal, pris, chas, psal, char, har. 
 
 <w=qnality. Ex. Err, fav, od, trem, turn, splen, vig, rig, val. 
 
 and \ =should be. Ex. Multiplio, divide, minu, subtrah, leg, rever, 
 
 end J deod. 
 
 andum ) ,, , „ ,, , , 
 
 , } =that which should be. Ex. Memor, add, corrig. 
 enavrni j 
 
 esC6=begln. Ex. Conval, deliqu, efferv, acqui, efflor. 
 
 ed, d=did, made, or supplied with. Ex.. Wait, round, ruin, water, 
 
 horn, beard, red hair, blue eye, col, wil, bal, ari. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 The Development of a Stem or Theme is the 
 
 formation of its Derivatives. 
 
130 
 
 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFI0 QBAMMAB 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Development of the Stem pel 0»m?«)= drive or strike. 
 
 Compel ^ 
 
 CfljjqjSTled ^^^ 
 Cjmi^elMg"^ 
 Compeller 
 Compellable 
 Compellibly 
 Compellation 
 Compellatory 
 Compulsatory 
 Compulsatire 
 Compulsatively 
 Compulsatorily 
 Compulsion 
 Compulsive 
 Compulsively 
 Corapulsivenesa 
 Compulsory 
 Compulsorily 
 Depulse 
 Depulsion 
 Depulsory 
 Depulsive 
 Dispel 
 
 DispelTeS^^ 
 ^ _,X)ispeHtng 
 Dispeller 
 Dlspellible 
 Dispulsion 
 
 Expel 
 
 Expeller ^_^ 
 JicpeHIiig 
 
 Ezpellable 
 
 Expulse 
 
 Expulsion 
 
 Expulsive 
 
 Expulsively 
 
 Impel 
 
 IjIlf>eHea 
 
 Impellent 
 
 Impeller 
 
 IigpsUiirg 
 
 Impulse 
 
 Impulsor 
 
 Impulsive 
 
 Impulsively 
 
 Impulsiveness 
 
 Impulsion 
 
 Interpel 
 
 Propel^__^ 
 
 EcopeHed 
 
 EiopeHlng' 
 
 Propeller 
 
 Propellable 
 
 Propulse 
 
 Propulsive 
 
 Propulsation 
 
 Propulsion 
 
 Propulsively 
 
 Pulse 
 
 Pulsate 
 
 Pulsatile 
 
 Pulsative 
 
 Pulsation 
 
 Pulsatory 
 
 Pulsifio 
 
 Pulsion 
 
 Pulsator 
 
 Pulseless 
 
 Pulselessness 
 
 Pulsimeter 
 
 Pulsive 
 
 Appulse 
 
 Appulsion 
 
 Appulsive 
 
 Eepel 
 
 RepaWfif' 
 
 Ee.pellga' 
 
 Repellent 
 
 Repeller 
 
 Repellency 
 
 Eepellence 
 
 Repellable 
 
 Repulse 
 
 I Repulser 
 
 Repulsion 
 Repulsive 
 Repuisiveness 
 Repulsory 
 Repulseless 
 Repulsively 
 Uncompelled 
 Uncompellable 
 Uiicompelling 
 Uneipelled 
 TJuexpellable 
 I Unexpelling 
 Unrepelled 
 Unrepelling 
 Unrepellable 
 Compellibility 
 Corapellableness 
 Dispellibility 
 Dispellibleness 
 Expellableness 
 Expellibility 
 Impellable 
 Impellableness 
 Impellibility 
 Interpellableness 
 
 STEMS AND THEMES FOR DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 1. Bide, wake, bear, beat, bend, bid, bind, bite, blow, break, bring, 
 build, bnrn, buy, cast, catch, choose, clothe, come, creep, cut, dare, 
 deal, dig, do, drive, eat, fall, feed, fight, find, fly, freeze, get, gild, gin, 
 give, go, hang, have, hear, hit, hold, hurt, keep, knit, know, knead, lead, 
 let, lose, make, mean, mow, pay, quit, read, rend, rid, ride, rise, run, 
 saw, say, see, sell, send, set, sit, shape, shave, shear, shine, shoe, shoot, 
 shut, aing, sling, smite, speak, spell, spin, spring, stand, stick, strike, 
 strive, sweep, swell, take, teach, tell, think, thrive, weave, work, write. 
 
 2. Bode, curse, chase^ clean, cleanse, clear, clip, chop, chain, dim, 
 dip, drill, drain, dwell, dwine, dull, earn, free, fare, fell, fend, fill, fix, 
 filch, fray, gain, gauge, gore, graze, gaze, glaze, glare, heal, heave, hop, 
 hope, haul, hum, hack, hew, howl, jar, jolt, kill, kick, lave, 
 
OF THE ENQLian LANG UAQE. 131 
 
 live, love, lack, last, lapse, list, move, march, munch, mix, mince, nab, 
 nip, ope, own, oust, pick, pack, pitch, push, pull, pule, play, ply, plow, 
 plead, plod, plunge, plan, pray, pry, prune, press, pour, purl, purr, 
 quench, quizz, raise, rave, risk, rest, rinse, rip, rap, rub, save, search, 
 serve, tend, tame, tinge, tap, tip, urge, vex, view, wend. 
 
 3. Ape, air, ax, art, awn, arm, ash, bag, bog, bug, book, boor, boy, 
 box, boll, ball, bell, bill, bale, boil, bud, beam, boom, bar, beer, bean, 
 bone, bound, bond, band, base, beast, boast, bunch, bank, bench, cart, 
 car, cave, call, cap, cop, cob, cab, day, dell, dole, deal, dike, ditch, dart, 
 dirt, din, den, doom, dame, eve, elf, elm, end, earth, ell, eye, fan, fen 
 fawn, fun, fame, fume, foam, flame, flow, flue, flax, flock, flag, floor, 
 frame, frog, fish, fist, foot, fop, fence. 
 
 4. Gate, gale, gull, ghost, grain, grass, ground, grip, hand, hen, hall, 
 hill, hull, home, heart, hearth, horse, house, inch, imp, inn, jamb, jar, 
 jug, jig, jew, jaw, king, key, knot, lad, lid, list, last, lease, loss, lace, 
 laugh, life, leaf, loaf, lip, leap, lamb, limb, lime, loam, lump, lamp, man, 
 moon, moan, mist, mast, nest, nose, night, owl, oak, oar, oil, pan, pine, 
 pain, pound, pint, quart, quest, queen, rain, rent, rock, rick, rug, ring, 
 song, sack, sill, silk, sun, sort, tack, tin, tun, town, urn, van, voice, vice, 
 wall, well, while, whale, wheel. 
 
 5. All, arch, blue, base, bare, broad, cool, cross, dense, dry, dear, 
 dull, deaf, dark, drear, dun, deft, east, far, fore, fine, false, fresh, free, 
 frank, full, foul, great, grand, good, high, hot, hale, hard, ill, just, kind, 
 loose, lax, lame, late, lean, lone, low, much, meek, mere, near, nigh, 
 north, nice, out, old, own, pert, poor, pure, spry, shrill, shrewd, strong, 
 swift, straight, tame, true, vain, void, wan, well, wise, young. 
 
 6. Ac=sharp, ag (act)=act, al=nourish or grow, alt (ult)=change, 
 alt=high, ambl=walk, am=love, ampl=large, ang=vex or trouble, 
 angI=eorner, an (anim)=life or mind, ann (enn)=year, art=joint, aspr=: 
 rough, astr=star, and (ed, ey)=hear, aug (auc, auth)=increase, van 
 (ab ante)=front, barb=beard, beau (belle) =flne, bell=war, ben 
 (bene)=well. 
 
 7. Blam=censure, cad (cas, cid)=fall, cid (cis)=cut or kill, calc= 
 stone, cand (cend, cens)=glow, can (cant, cent)=sing, cap (cep, cept, 
 ceit, cip, ceiv)=take, cap (capit, cipit, chap)=head, carn=flesh, ced 
 (cess)=go, cent=hundred, cer=wax, cern (crem, crim, cret)=separate, 
 circ=ring, cit (quot)=can, civ=townsman, clam (claira)=:call, clar=: 
 clear. 
 
 8. Claud (claus, clois, clud, clus, clos)=:close, col (cul)=till, cor 
 (cour, cord)r=heart, corn=horn, corp=body, cred=believe, cre=orig- 
 inate, crep (crepit)=snap, cresc (cret, creas, cm, cruit) grow, crim 
 (crimin)=crime, cruc=cross, cumb (cub)=reoline, cur=care, curr 
 (cour)=rnn, cut (cuss)=shake, dent=tooth. 
 
132 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 9. Die (dit)=:show or say, dign (deign, dain)=worthy, do (dat, dit, 
 doD)=giTe, doc=teach, dol=grief or pain, dub=doubl,, duc=:lead, 
 dur=hard, ens (ent)=:being, i (it, t)=go, equ=equal, err=wandei', 
 fac (fee, flc, fy, feas, feat, flt)=do or malte.fall (fal3)=deceive, fam= 
 fame. 
 
 10. Fa (fae, far, fant, fand, fat)=speak, fend (fens, fence)=strike, 
 fer=bear, fid (fy)=faith, fin=limit,flec (flex)=bend, flor (flour, flower) 
 =blossom,flu (flux)=flow, form=shape, fort (force)=strong, frag(frac, 
 frange, fringe) =break, frig (fresh)=cold, fund (fuse)=pour, gen= 
 origin, ger (gest)= carry. 
 
 11. Grad (gress)=:step, grat (greet, gree)=graee or favor, grav (griev, 
 grief)=heaTy, hab (hib, ab, bt)=have, her (hes)=stiek, jac (iect)= 
 throw, jud (jus rfi6)=decide, jung (join)=:unite, jur=swear, jus (jur)= 
 law, jnst=right, lat=carry, Ieg=send, leg (llg, lect)= gather or read, 
 lev (leav, liev, lief, lift)=light. 
 
 12. Leg (law)=rule, lib {liv)=free, libr=weight, lig=tie, lim (limit) 
 =boundary, ]in=line, liq=flowing, loc=place, loq (loc)=speak, luc= 
 light, lud (lus)=play or deeeive, magn (main, maj)=:great, raand 
 (mend) = order, mane (main, mans)=continue, man (main)=:hand,med= 
 middle. 
 
 13. Med=care, mem (ment)=mind, mend=blemish, mere (merch) 
 =trade, merg (mers)=dip, migr=remove, nun:=overtop, min=le3S, 
 mir=:wonder, misc (mix, ming)=blend, mitt (miss)=send, mod=meas- 
 ure, mon=advlse or warn, monstr=show, mors (mort, murd)=deatb, 
 mor=manner. 
 
 14. Move (mot, mob)=move, rann (mon, muner)=part or reward, 
 mnt=ehange, nas (nat)=:birth, nect (nex)=join, noc (nox, nuis)=liurt, 
 nose (not, gnose, gnit, know)=know, not=mark, nov=new, nunc 
 (nounc)=tell or call, ord=arrange, or (orat, orac)=speak, par (pair, 
 peer)=equal. 
 
 15. Par (per, pair, ver)^make ready or command, pars (part, parc)= 
 part, pat (pass)=endure, pac (peas, peae)=:peaee, pell (puls)=drive, 
 pend (pens)=hang, pend (pens) = weigh, pen (pain)=pain, ped (pet)= 
 foot, pet (peat)=seek or ask, plac (plais, pleas) =please, plen=full, pie 
 (plet, pleth, plish, pli, pler)=fill. 
 
 16. Plie (pli, ply, pie, ble, plex, play, pl)=fold, pond (poise)=weight, 
 pon (pos, pound, post, pot, vost)=put or place, pop (peop, pub)=peo- 
 ple, port=earry, pot (posa, puis, pow)=able, prec (prais, priz)=price, 
 pree (pray)=entreat, ^r«hend (prig, priz, priev, prens)=grasp, prem 
 (prim, print, press)=press. 
 
 17. Prob (prov, proof) =try, pugn (pugil)=fight,pung (punct, poign, 
 pon, point, pounce, punoh)=prick, put=:think, quer(ques, quis, quir)=; 
 seek, rap (rep, rav)z=seize, reg (rig, reet, right, reign, rul)=ru]e, rid 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 133 
 
 (ris)=:laugh, rog=ask, rupt=break, sal (sail; saiilt, salt, su/, suit, sil)= 
 leap, sat=enoiigh. 
 
 18. Scand (soend)=oUmb,soi=know, scrib (script)=:write, sec (sect, 
 saw)=cut, sed (sess, sid, sieg, siz)=sit, sent (seas)=feel or thinkj seq 
 (sect, sue, sui)=follow, sert=put, serv (serg)=keep, sign=raark or 
 seal, sist=stand, solv (solut)=loose, spec (spic, spis, spit)=look, spiv 
 (sprite, spvight, spirit)=:breath. 
 
 19. St (stat, stit, Stic) =stand, string (stric, strain, strait, straiglit)= 
 bind, stru (struct, stray)=build, sum (surapt)=take, tang (tact, tag, 
 ting, tig, leg, tir)=toach, temp (time)=time, tend (tent, tens)— strelcli 
 or go, ten (tain, tin, tent)=hold, term=limit, terr=earth, terr=frigliten. 
 
 20. Test=witness, ting (tinct, tain, tint)=:stain, tort (lors)^twist, 
 trah (track, tract, drag, draw, trail, trail, tray, trac, trad)=draw, tri= 
 three, ut (us)=use, val (vail)=be strong, ven (vent)=come, vert (vers, 
 veer, Tort)=turn, vi (voy, way)=way, vid (vis, vie, ud, ved, view)=see. 
 
 21. Vid (void, vie, vis, wid)=part, vino (vict, vanq)=coniiuer, viv 
 (vict, vil)=live, voc (vok, vouch, vow)=caIl, volv (volut, volt, wallow) 
 =:roll, vot (vout, vow)=vow, vulg (mulg)=coramon, franc (franche)= 
 free or French. 
 
 22. Aer=air, angel^messenger or message, astr=star, aut=:self, bi 
 =life, bol=cast or put, centr=middle, chir=hand, chol=bile, christ= 
 anointed chron=time, chym=melted, cler=lot or portion, clin (clit) 
 ^lean or lie, com=festivity, cosm^beauty or the world, crat (crac) = 
 power. 
 
 23. Crit (cris)=judge, crypt=conceal, cycl=circle, dem=peopIe, 
 dox=teaching. ev (eu)=well, gam=marriage, ge=eartli, gen=descent, 
 gloss (glot)= tongue, glyph=writing, hel=sun, hem=haif, hol=whole, 
 hom=same, hor=hour, hydr (hy)=water, id=peculiar, idol=image, 
 ls=equal, gno=know, gon=angle, graph (grave, gram)=writing. 
 
 24. Lab.=:take, la (lay)=people, latr=service or worship, leps (lept, 
 Iem)^taking, leth=oblivion, lith=stone, log=science or discourse, lys 
 =loosing, macr=large, mano=divining, mart=witness, math=learn- 
 ing, mat=moving, mech(mechan)=contrive, mel (melan)=black, men 
 =month, mes (mezzo)= middle. 
 
 25. Metr=measure, micr=small, mim=iraitator, mis=hatred, mon= 
 one or alone, morph:=form, mus=song, rays=rausole, myst=secret, 
 myth=fable, narc=stupor, naus=seasickness, nav=8hip, neb=fog, 
 necr^dead, nem=grove, ne=new,nes=island, neur=nerve, nom=pas- 
 ture, nom^law. 
 
 26. Nos=disease, od (ed, ad)=poem, od=road, oid=figure, ol (oliv) 
 =oil, om (omal)=like,- nom (onom, onym)=name, ont=being, oph 
 (ophid, ophi)=serpent, opt (ops)=:view, orc=oath, org (organ; =instru- 
 ment, orn (ornith)=bird, orth=right, ost (o3le)=bone, ox (oxy)=sharp 
 or sour, pap (pop)= father. 
 
134 -4 COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAB 
 
 '/i. Pas (pan, pant)=all, patra (parr)=:father, path=feeling, pect= 
 comb, ped=child or learning, pat (petal)=expand, petr=rock. phag= 
 eat, phan (phen, fan, phas)=appear, phem (phas, phat, phet)=speak, 
 pharm (pharmac)=:drug, pher (phor)=bear, phil=loTer, phleg (pMog) 
 =bura, phoa=sound. 
 
 28. Phos (phot)=light, phras=expression, phren (fren, fran)=mind, 
 phthegtn (thegm, them)=word or saying, phthong=sound, phys=na- 
 tare, phyt=plant or leaf, pir (pirat)=try, plas (plast)=form or spread, 
 pneumrrair, pole (poe)=make, pol=:selI, pol=city, pol (poly)=many, 
 peir (por)=pierce, pot=drink. 
 
 29. Pons (pod)=foot, pras (pract, prag)=:do, prism=sawn, prot= 
 first, p8eud=false, psych=soul, ptom=falIen, pyr=fire, rhe (rho, rhet, 
 res)=flow or speak, sal (sauc, seas)=salt, sarc=flesh, scept (skept)= 
 doubt, schism=division, schol=school, sci=shadow, 3cop=look, len 
 (aelene)=inoon. 
 
 80. Soph=wisdom, sperm=seed, sphere=globe, stas (stat, stem)= 
 standing or weight, stell (stle, sloI)=Bend, sten=short, stere=solid, 
 stich=line, strat=army, stroph=turning, styl=pillar or pen, supr 
 (suTT, sovr)=abore, syc=fig, tac (tact)=arrange, techn=art, the=God, 
 therm=:warmth, them (thes, thet, thec)=placed. 
 
 31. Tom=cut, tain (ton, tun, thun)=stretch, top=place, trie (trick, 
 iirigu)=hair, trech (troch, truck)=run, trop=turn, turb (troub, troop) 
 =crowd, typ=type, tyr (tyran)^pres8, zel=zeal, zo (zoO)=live, zum 
 =ferment. 
 
 WOED SYNTHESIS. 
 Word Synttesis is the Composition, or putting to- 
 gether the parts of a word, beginning with a Koot, Stem, or 
 Theme. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 From the Theme count are formed successively account, accountable 
 unaccountable, unaccountableness, &c. 
 
 From the Koot Jla are derived the Stem flag, the Theme jlagr, and 
 the words fiagrate, conflagrate, conflagrative, conflagratmeness, &c. 
 
 From the Root 8tru come the Stem struc, the Themes struct and 
 strop, and the words destroy, destructible, indestructible, indestructi- 
 bility, &rC. 
 
 WOED ANALYSIS. 
 
 "Word Analysis is the reverse of Synthesis, and consists 
 in separating the parts of a word. 
 
 Systematic Analysis is removing consecutively the 
 several Affixes until the Theme, Stem, or Root is found. 
 
OF THE ENGLian LANG UAOE. 135 
 
 Approximate Analysis is a partial Analysis, con- 
 tinued until the Approximate Theme is found. 
 
 Ultimate Analysis is Analysis completed, or continued" 
 until the Eioot is found. 
 
 Ordinary Students can easily master the Approximate 
 Analysis and will find it a very valuable exercise. 
 
 More Advanced Students will find in the Ultimate 
 
 Analysis an exceedingly interesting and profitable study, 
 
 and one suflSciently diflScult to give full exercise to their 
 
 powers. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Unconcentrativeness, by dropping the Affixes successively, 
 gives eoncentrativenesa, concentrative, concentrate, centrate, and finally 
 centre, the Approximate Theme. 
 
 2. Preterdemoniacally gives demoniacally, demoniacal, demoni- 
 ac, and demon, the Approximate theme. 
 
 3. Unexoeptionableness gives unemaeptionaUe, exceptionable, 
 exception, except, " eept" (Theme), •' cep " (Stem), and " ca" (Root) . 
 
 4. Transitionally gives transitional, transition, "ition", "if 
 (Stem), and " i " (Root). 
 
 DEFINITION. 
 Stems and Affixes. When the meanings of a Stem 
 and its AflSxes are known, it is easy to determine the primary 
 or radical meaning of each Derivative from that Stem. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Irresistibility. The Stem sist=stand ; hence re8ist=stand 
 against; resisti=to be stood against; resistible=able to be stood 
 against ; irresistible=:not able to be stood against ; and irresistibility 
 =the quality of being not able to be stood against. 
 
 2. BeCOnSOlidativenesS. Sol=one ; solid=made one ; solidate 
 =make solid; consolidate=make solid with,; consolidative=tending 
 to consolidate ; reconsolidative=: tending to consolidate again ; recon- 
 Bolidativeness=the quality of tending to reconsolidate. 
 
 3. Obesity. Es=eat ; obes=:on account of eating ; obesity=the 
 quality or condition which is on account of eating.^ 
 
 4. Unreprovability. Reprove = censure ; reprovable=censura- 
 ble; reprovability=the quality of being censurable ; unreprovability 
 =the quality of being not censurable. 
 
 5. Superunoontradistinguishability. Sting=point or mark ; 
 stinguish=make a mark; distinguish=to mark apart, or separate; 
 oontradistinguish=to distinguish against or from ; contradistinguish- 
 
136 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 able=able to be contradistinguished; uncontradistinguishable=not 
 contradistinguishable ; micontradistinguishability=tbe quality of being 
 not able to be contradistinguished ; superuncontradistingnishability 
 =the excessive quality of being not able to be contradistinguished. 
 
 Secondary Significations are often derived from 
 primary ones by a simple process of variation. 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The word " stand " signifies 1. To be erect ; 2. To be firmly erect ; 
 3. To continue erect; 4. To occupy a place; 5. To stop or halt; 6. 
 To endure ; 7. To maintain one's ground ; 8. A place of standing ; 
 9. A station ; 10. A stop.; 11. A platform ; 12. A small table ; &c. 
 
 ABSTRACTION. 
 
 All Primary Significations are realistic, or mate- 
 rial. 
 
 All Abstract or Immaterial significations are sec- 
 ondary, or derived. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The word virtue is from the stem vir, signifying man. The Suflix 
 tut (tnde) being added, the word signified manhood, or manliness. 
 Then, as military bravery was formerly considered the noblest attribute 
 of man, the word came to signify bravery or prowess. Afterwards, 
 when other qualities were more highly esteemed, the word acquired the 
 sense which it now has. 
 
 All Primitive Nouns originally were names of material objects. 
 
 AU Primitive Verbs originally denoted actions of material beings. 
 
 ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. (See Note 17.) 
 
 A Radicle, or Rootlet, is a Significant Elementary 
 Sound. 
 
 A Root is a Single Radicle, or a combination of two or 
 three Radicles. 
 
 A Stem is a Root or the combination of a Root mth a 
 Radicle. 
 
 Original "Words. All Words were origmally Stems. 
 
 Use. All Stems -were at first used indiscriminately as 
 Nouns, Verbs, or 'Adjectives. 
 
 Later Use. At a Later Period some were commonly 
 used as Nouns, others as Verbs, and others as Adjectives. 
 
 Modified Use. Afterwards some Nouns were used as 
 Prepositions, some Verbs as Conjunctions, and some Adjec- 
 tives as Pronouns and Adverbs. 
 
OF THE BN&LISH LANG UAOM. 137 
 
 The First Inflection used was Reduplication, as 
 " mama ", " papa ", &o. 
 
 Other Inflections resulted from joining Prepositions 
 to Nouns, Pronouns to Verbs, &c., and from Vowel and 
 Consonant changes. 
 
 Interjections are mostly undeveloped Radicles, Roots 
 or Stems. 
 
 Secondary Prepositions, &o. In the next stage, the 
 terminations becoming obscure, other Prepositions and 
 Pronouns were developed and used with the inflected forms 
 of Nouns and Verbs. 
 
 Dropping of Inflections. Finally the terminations, 
 becoming of little use, have, in modern Languages, been 
 mostly dropped. 
 
 Copulas. In almost every Language some one Verb, 
 losing partially or wholly its original meaning, has been used 
 as a Copula; and in some Languages several Copulas have 
 been developed. 
 
 VARIATION. 
 
 Variation is the diversity of words of the same Class 
 and Grammatical form, and derived from the same original. 
 
 Origin. Variation commonly results from derivation 
 through different channels. 
 
 HXAHFLE. 
 
 The same word has often come into the English Language directly 
 from the Latin, and also indirectly through the French ; and in such 
 cases there is generally a double form, as ''regal " and "royal ", &e. 
 
 Methods. Variation is effected in strong Derivatives hy the omis- 
 sion, insertion, or transmutation of sounds, and in weak derivatives by 
 simply varying the Affixes. 
 
 Genera. Variation is of three Genera, 1. Formal, 2. Significant, and 
 3. Mixed. 
 
 1st GENUS.-FORMAL VARIATION. 
 SPECIES.-3. 
 
 1. Graphic Variation is a diflference in writing, as 
 "plough" and "plow ". 
 
 S. Phonic Variation is a difference in sound, as 
 " either " and " either " (ee-ther and eye-ther). 
 
138 A COMPLETE aCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 3. Combined "Variation is a difference in botli writ- 
 ing and sound, as "baptist" and "babtist"; "cress" and 
 "grass"; "kirk" and "church"; "adjunct" and "ad- 
 joined "- 
 
 2nd GEMrUS-SIGNIFICANT VARIATION. 
 SPECIES.-2. 
 
 1. Homogeneous Variation is the development of 
 different meanings from the same radical meaning, as 
 " stand", a position, and " stand", a small table, both from 
 " stand ", to be erect. 
 
 2. Heterogeneous Variation is a difference of mean- 
 ing where the same form has been derived from ^different 
 radical words, as " yet " from " get " and from " eti " (Gr.) ; 
 " one '' from " awe " and from "on" (Fr.) ; "were" from 
 " weron " and from " weren " ; " comate " from " mate " and 
 from " coma " (L.) ; " render " from " rend " and from " ren- 
 dre " (Fr.) ; " own " from " owe " and from " an " ; &c. 
 
 3d GENUS.-MIXED VARIATION. 
 Mixed Variation is that in which a difference of both 
 form and sense has arisen from the same radical word. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1 . Beam and boom ; peak and beak ; poll and boll ; patch and 
 botch ; cadence, chance, and case ; canker and cancer ; cant and 
 chant; capital and chapter ; chart and card -, compute and count; de- 
 clension and declination ; faculty and facility ; fidelity and fealty ; par- 
 cel and particle; provident and prudent; ratio, ration, and reason; 
 shell and scale ; ship and skiff ; swallow and swill ; tenth and tithe ; 
 assay and essay ; procurator and proctor ; procuracy and proxy ; pro- 
 pose and purpose ; sleigh and sledge ; rain, reign, and rein ; recognize 
 and reconnoitre ; hold and hilt ; cove and cave ; decking and ticking ; 
 mount and mound ; corn and grain ; shipper and skipper ; kid and 
 goat ; hemp and canvas ; host and guest. 
 
 2. Manly and manful; manliness and manfulness; rigldness and 
 rigidity ; humidness and humidity ; impression, suppression, com- 
 pression, expression, repression, depression, oppression, pressure, im- 
 pressiveness, expressiveness, impressibility, compressibility ; &c. 
 
 8, Draft and draught ; Kamchatka, Kamtchatka, and Kamtsctiatka ; 
 abatis and abattis ; accouter and accoutre ; ax and axe ; arbor and 
 arbour ; &c. 
 
OF THE ENGLian LANQ JJAOE. 139 
 
 4. Counter and counter ; divers and divers ; elder and elder ; flatter 
 and flatter ; former and former ; founder and founder ; render and 
 render ; tender and tender. 
 
 DIVERGENCE. 
 
 Divergence is the diversity of "wordsof diflferent Classes, 
 from the same original, where one is not derived from the 
 other. 
 
 Methods. Divergence is eflfected in the same manner as 
 Variation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Strong Derivatives. Creep and crab ; hare and hop ; wolf and 
 swallow ; bump and bomb ; sweep and swab ; purse and disburse ; have 
 and haft ; weave and weft ; sieve and sift ; wave and waft ; shave and 
 shape ; &c. 
 
 Weak Derivatives. Careful and carelessly ; duty and duly ; 
 greatly and greatness ; extension and extensive ; faithful and fidelity ;, 
 &c. 
 
 t SYNONYMS. 
 
 Ssmonyms, or Synonymous "Words, are words of 
 like signification. 
 
 Perfect Synonyms are words which are exactly equiv- 
 alent. 
 
 Approximate Synonyms are words which are near- 
 ly equivalent. 
 
 Origin. Synonyms have arisen generally from the intro- 
 duction of foreign words. 
 
 Paucity. Very few Perfect Synonyms remain in the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Reason. Words originally exactly equivalent to others 
 in the language have become obsolete, or have changed their 
 
 meaning. 
 
 APPROXIMATE SYNONYMS. 
 CLASSES. 
 
 1. Those differing as Genus and Species ; as " Do " and 
 « make " ; "think " and " believe ". 
 
 2. Those differing in respect to Intensity; as " See " and 
 " look " ; " hear " and " listen ". 
 
 3. Those differing in respect to Activity ; as " Reasona- 
 ble "and "rational". 
 
140 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GMAMMAR 
 
 4. Those differing in respect to Positiveness ; as "Fault" 
 and "defect". 
 
 5. Those diflfering as separate Species ; as " Shovel " and 
 " spade " ; " arms " and " weapons " ; " spear " and " lance " ; 
 " pen " and "pencil " ; " come " and " go " ; " lie " and " re- 
 cline ". 
 
 6. Those differing as Whole and Part; as " Address" and 
 " du-ection " ; " universe " and " world " ; " region " and 
 " district " ; " obey " and " yield " ; " confide " and "believe ". 
 
 7. Those differing in other respects, as " Brute " and 
 "beast"; "consequence" and "result"; "contest" and 
 " conflict " ; " game " and « play " ; " think " and " cogitate "- 
 
 EXEBCISES. 
 
 1. Adjective, epithet ; answer, reply ; bravery, courage ; bonds, fetters ; 
 booty, prey ; behavior, conduct ; custom, habit ; comparison, analogy ; 
 duty, obligation ; fear, terror ; &,ncy, imagination ; haste, hurry ; 
 list, catalogue ; manners, address ; negligence, neglect ; news, tidings ; 
 occasion, opportunity ; picture, painting ; pillar, column ; populace, 
 mob ; posture, attitude ; praise, applause ; robber, thief j safety, se- 
 curity ; shape, form j talent, genius ; temper, humor ; temple, church ; 
 vestige, trace ; vice, sin ; way, road ; word, term. 
 
 Augur, forebode ; bestow, confer ; bring, fetch ; bury, inter ; clothe, 
 dress ; calculate, reckon ; do, make ; divide, separate ; doubt, question ; 
 expect, hope ; finish, conclude ; give, grant ; gain, win ; have, possess ; 
 help, assist ; leave, quit ; chastise, punish ; place, put ; reprove, re- 
 buke ; ridicule, deride ; try, attempt j worship, adore. 
 
 Ancient, antique ; clear, distinct ; entire, complete ; exterior, exter- 
 nal; extravagant, profuse ; frail, brittle; great, big; heavenly, celes- 
 tial ; high, tall ; laudable, praiseworthy ; lucky, fortunate ; mute, 
 dumb : new, novel ; particular, peculiar ; prevalent, prevailing ; strong, 
 robust ; translucent, transparent ; weak, infirm ; weighty, heavy ; 
 whole, entire ; on, upon. 
 
 2. Ability, capacity ; aversion, antipathy ; approval, approbation ; 
 burden, load; chief, head; consent, assent ; cultivation, culture ; deity, 
 divinity; example, instance; facility, ease; faith, belief; falsehood, 
 falsity; force, strength ; forgetfulness, oblivion ; affliction, grief ; hatred, 
 odium ; inclination, disposition ; understanding, intellect ; pretence, 
 pretext; proposal, proposition; rashness, temerity; reason, cause; 
 recovery, restoration ; reformation, reform ; contrition, repentance ; 
 smell, odor; tyranny, oppression; unity, union; utility, usefulness; 
 value, worth ; veracity, truth. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LAN& UA GE. 141 
 
 CauUon, warn ; defend, protect ; eat, feed ; employ, use ; find, meet 
 with ; found, ground; furnish, supply ; invent, discover; keep, re- 
 tain ; lay, lie ; persevere, persist ; teach, learn ; trust, credit ; waver, 
 fluctuale. 
 
 Authentic, genuine ; actual, real ; awkward, clumsy ; apt, fit ; con- 
 tented, satisfied ; efficacious, effectual ; efficient, effective ; expert, ex- 
 perienced ; fruitful, fertile ; friendly, amicable; healthy, wholesome; 
 impracticable, impossible ; intolerable, insufferable ; likely, probable ; 
 lovely, amiable ; malicious, malignant ; mercantile, commercial ; owing, 
 due; peaceful, peaceable; poetic, poetical; reasonable, rational; 
 sociable, social ; salutary, salubrious ; sufficient, enough ; sure, cer- 
 tain ; thankful, grateful ; vacant, empty ; warlike, martial ; unavoida- 
 ble, inevitable. 
 
 3. Act, action ; anguish, agony ; artisan, artist ; compunction, re- 
 morse ; diligence, industry ; discernment, penetration ; intention, pur- 
 pose ; moment, instant ; necessity, need ; obstruction, obstacle ; per- 
 tinacity, obstinacy ; persuasion, conviction ; pleasure, happiness ; 
 plenty, abundance ; riot, tumult ; servant, slave ; slander, calumny ; 
 temperance, abstinence ; vicinity, neighborhood ; wood, forest. 
 
 Alter, change ; be, exist ; confuse, confound ; deprive, bereave ; dis- 
 perse, dispel ; enlarge, increase ; estimate, esteem ; excite, incite ; exert, 
 exercise ; forgive, pardon ; grow, become ; hate, detest : hear, listen ;' 
 lament, deplore ; overcome, conquer ; perceive, discern ; raise, lift ; re- 
 ceive, accept ; remark, observe ; remember, recollect ; reveal, divulge ; 
 satisfy, satiate ; see, look ; should, ought ; slake, quench ; surprise, 
 astonish ; understand, comprehend. 
 
 Adjacent, contiguous ; contemptible, despicable ; covetous, avari- 
 cious ; different, various ; evident, obvious ; forsaken, forlorn ; general, 
 universal; idle, indolent ; miserable, wretched ; modern, recent; scarce, 
 rare ; silent, taciturn ; wonderful, marvelous. 
 
 Below, beneath; between, among; by, with; frequently, often; 
 immediately, instantly ; middle, midst ; while, whilst. 
 
 4. Despair, hopelessness ; disability, inability ; disbelief, unbelief ; 
 freedom, liberty; lie, untruth; allow, permit ; assuage, mitigate ; avoid^ 
 shun ; prevent, hinder ; barbarous, inhuman ; defective, faulty ; exces- 
 sive, immoderate, 
 
 5. Accent, emphasis ; arms, weapons ; discretion, prudence ; observ- 
 ance, observation ; abbreviate, abridge ; avenge, revenge ; contemplate, 
 meditate ; copy, imitate ; dissert, discuss ; equivocate, prevaricate ; 
 foretell, predict ; prevail with, prevail upon ; repeal, revoke ; handsome, 
 pretty ; impertinent, insolent ; ludicrous, ridiculous ; mature, ripe j 
 modest, bashful ; between, betwixt ; farther, further. 
 
 6. Address, direction; articulate, pronounce ; confute, refute ; con- 
 jecture, guess ; any, some; enormous, immense ; little, small. 
 
142 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG ORAMMAJR 
 
 7. Beast, brute ; consequence, resalt ; contest, conflict ; endurance, 
 duration; era, epoch; fault, mistake; idea, notion; method, mode; 
 pride, vanity ; advance, proceed ; appear, seem ; compare to, compare 
 with ; compare, contrast ; conciliate, reconcile ; decrease, diminish ; go 
 hack, return ; shall, will ; wake, waUen ; all, every, each ; common, 
 ordinary; ferocious, savage; Grecian, Greek; ingenious, ingenuous; 
 irksome, tedious ; liable, subject ; alone, only ; almost, nearly ; also, 
 likewise, too ; at last, at length ; nevertheless, notwithstanding. 
 
 8. Strife, discord ; changeable, inconstant ; repeat, reiterate ; offen- 
 sive, offending ; mercenary, venal ; will, testament ; refuse, deny ; in- 
 cessant, unceasing ; electric, electrical ; pleasant, pleasing ; cool, dis- 
 passionate ; confident, confiding ; aversion, dislike ; disposal, disposi- 
 tion; patient,invalid; doubtful, uncertain ; different, unlike ; attendant, 
 attending. 
 
 Politic, political ; injury, disadvantage ; fervor, ardor ; warmth, 
 heat; abundant, abounding ; deceit, fraud ; heroic, heroical ; faithless, 
 unfaithful; dramatic, dramatical; worthless, unworthy; coinradent, 
 coinciding ; weaken, invalidate ; comic, comical ; flow, gush ; intent, 
 intense ; fantastic, fantastical ; signification, meaning ; always, ever ; 
 attribute, impute ; confess, acknowledge. 
 
 Work, toil ; rock, stone ; spear, lance ; spite, bite ; individual, per- 
 son ; ax, hatchet ; game, play ; cogitate, think ; loving, amiable ; be^ 
 lieve, credit ; method, manner ; law, rule ; book, volume ; chair, seat, 
 bench; readable, legible; intelligent, intelligible; silent, reticent; 
 amity, friendship ; scholar, student, pupil ; meeting, assembly, congre- 
 gation, church ; minister, deacon ; bishop, priest, evangelist, presbyter, 
 preacher; weaver, Webster; spinner, spinster. 
 
 t SPECIALTIES. 
 
 Tlierefore=for that; and of the same nature are all 
 the compounds of there, here, and where, with the Prepo- 
 sitions for, in, by, with, on, to, of, &c. 
 
 Heretofore =tofore this=before this. Tofore is obso- 
 lete except in this word. 
 
 Soiiie"wh.ere=ui some what (place). Of the same kind 
 are nowhere, elsewhere, anywhere, and everywhere. 
 
 If ot'mth.standiiig is the Adverb not, improperly joined 
 to the Participle witJistanding. The words should be sep- 
 arated. 
 
 W Jioe ver = every who ; and such are whichever, what- 
 ever, whenever, and wherever. 
 
 W iiosoever =: every such who; and of the same kind 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 143 
 
 are the compounds of soever with which, what, whose, where, 
 when, whence, and how. 
 
 Note. When a word limited by every and used as the 
 Antecedent of a Relative is omitted, the every (contracted 
 to ever) is attached to the Relative, thus producing the com- 
 pounds whoever, &c. 
 
 Beware is the Copula he improperly joined to the Ad- 
 jective ware. 
 
 Methinks=it thinks (i. e. seems) to me. Me is the 
 old Dative Case. 
 
 "WTience, Whitlier, Why, and How are old cases 
 of the Relative Pronoun, and are equal respectively to 
 '^ from which ", " to' which "," with lohich ", and " in which ". 
 
 Hitherto is an improper compound, and = to this. 
 
 Yes=Fr. a2/ez=awe3=aye=have, and is used for " have 
 it ", i. e. " have it so "- 
 
 Nay^Fr. ne ayez=n'dyez=hLaye not, i. e. " have it not 
 so". 
 
 No, as a Responsive, =Fr. non=not, and is used for 
 " have not " / &c. 
 
 Hypoth.esis=supposition=thihg placed under (i. e. for 
 a suppoit). 
 
 Hypothetical = pertaining to (or like to) a hypothesis. 
 
 PART III.-SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax is that Part of Grammar which pertains to Sen- 
 tences. 
 
 The Divisions of Syntax are Analysis, Synthesis, and 
 Ornamentation. 
 
 CHAPTER L-ANALYSIS. 
 
 Analysis is that part of Syntax which pertains to the 
 Nature of Sentences. 
 
 A Sentence is a coUectioa of words expressing an As- 
 sertion. 
 
 A Phrase is a collection of words not expressing an 
 Assertion, but which may form an Element of a Sentence. 
 
144 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Snmmer is pleasant. Winter is not always unpleasant. A very large 
 house. On the top of a high mountain. The man who lost his horse 
 has purchased another one. In the midst of a very earnest and inter- 
 esting conversation. 
 
 SECTION L-AW ALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 The Subject of a Sentence is the part of it expressing 
 that of which something is asserted, as " Time ", in the sen- 
 tence Time is short. 
 
 The Predicate of a Sentence is the part of it expressing 
 that which is asserted, as " short ", in the sentence Time is 
 diort. 
 
 The Copula of a Sentence is the part of it which con- 
 nects the Subject with the Predicate, as " is ", in the sen- 
 tence Time is short. 
 
 The Subject of Discourse is the thing represented by 
 the Subject of a Sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Music is delightful. Dissension is not agreeable. Very many per- 
 sons certainly are not sufficiently careful of their health. Those boys 
 really were very courageous. 
 
 A Modifier is a "Word, Phrase or Sentence used to limit 
 the meaning of some word, as " great ", in the phrase A great 
 fire. 
 
 A Connective is a word or a pair of words used to 
 connect two sentences or similar parts of a sentence. 
 
 An Slement of a sentence is a single word, or a group 
 of words which collectively perform a single office in the 
 sentence. 
 
 The Principal Elements of a sentence are the Sub- 
 ject, Copula, and Predicate. 
 
 The Subordinate Elements of a sentence are Modi- 
 fiers, Conjunctions and Prepositions. 
 
 A Primitive Element is an Element taken without 
 its modifiers. 
 
 An Expanded Element is an Element taken with its 
 modifiers. 
 
 A Compound Element is one composed of two or 
 more Elements united by connectives. 
 
OF TEE BNaLISH LANQ UA GE. 145 
 
 A Complicate ^ilement is one containing a Sentence. 
 ^Exclamations. Interjections, Compellatives, and Re- 
 sponsives are not elements of any Sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 In the sentence " Those boys aie not very diligent ", the word " boys " 
 is the Primitive Subject; and the plirase " Tliose boys " is the Ex- 
 panded Subject. The word " are " is the Primitive Copula; and the 
 phrase "are not" is the Expanded Copula. The word "diligent" is 
 the Primitive Predicate; and the phrase "very diligent" is the Ex- 
 panded Predicate. 
 
 In the sentence " Honesty and temperance are indispensable virtues ", 
 the phrase " Honesty and temperance " is the Compound Primitive 
 Subject ; and the phrase " indispensable virtues " is the Simple Expand- 
 ed Predicate. The words " and " and " indispensable " are Subordi- 
 nate Elements ; the first a Connective, and the other a Modifier. 
 
 EXEEGISES. 
 
 Great men are not always destitute of shameful vices. Some great 
 men are models of Christian virtue. 
 
 CLASSES OF SENTENCES.-*. 
 
 1. A Simple Sentence is one having a Simple, Non- 
 complicate, Subject and Predicate. 
 
 2. A Complex Sentence is one having a Compound 
 Subject or Predicate or both, but otherwise like a Simple 
 Sentence. 
 
 3. A Compound Sentence is one composed of two 
 or more Sentences united by Connectives. 
 
 4. A Complicate Sentence is one having a Sentence 
 in its Subject or Predicate or both. 
 
 A Member of a Compound Sentence is one of the Sen- 
 tences composing it. 
 
 An Elem.entary Sentence is one, of any class, used 
 as an Element in a Complicate Sentence. 
 
 A Prospective Sentence is one, of any class, which 
 looks forward to a following one called its consequent. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Simple Sentences, — Henry is studious. Some boys are very 
 
 vicious. 
 
 2. Complex Sentences. — James and John built a house. Iron is 
 strong and useful. Joseph and his brother drove out the cattle and 
 repaired the fence. 
 
146 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 3. Compound Sentences. — Art ia long; and time is fleeting. 
 Gold is yellow ; bat silver is white. Birds sing sweetly ; and little 
 flowers bloom gently. 
 
 4. Complicate Sentences. — " I am ready " was the answer. 
 His reply was " I will not go." He said " I am sure of it." James, 
 knowing the time bad expired, said " It is now too late." 
 
 CLASS l.-SIMPLE SENTEITCES. 
 OaDEES.-2. 
 
 1. A Copulative Sentence is one whose Subject and 
 Predicate are united by a Copula. 
 
 2. A Verbal Sentence is one whose Predicate is a 
 Verb, but not a Participle. 
 
 OEDEE l.-COPTILATIVE SENTENCES. 
 STrB-0EDEES.-3. 
 
 1. An Active Sentence is one whose Predicate is a 
 Present Participle. 
 
 2. A Passive Sentence is one whose Predicate is a 
 Past Participle. 
 
 3. A Neuter Sentence is one whose Predicate is not 
 a Participle. (See Note 16.) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The French people are very affable and courteous to strangers. 
 Some persons almost always preserve a dignified silence. 
 A man's character is known by that of his associates. 
 Dr. Livingstone was still pursuing his discoveries in AfHca. 
 Golumbus discovered America in the year 1492. 
 
 GENEEA.-2. 
 
 1. An Affirmative Sentence is one which affirms 
 something. 
 
 2. A Negative Sentence is one which denies some- 
 thing. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Virtue is always honorable. Vice is not honorable. 
 Thorough culture gives a person very great advantages. 
 An educated man will not lack opportunities for usefulness. 
 
 STTB-GENEEA.— 2. 
 1. A Positive Sentence is one expressing an Asser- 
 tion positively. 
 
0¥ THE BNGLIBH LANQ UAQB. I47 
 
 2. An Interrogative Sentence is one expressing an 
 Assertion interrogatively. 
 
 C0H0RTS.-2. 
 
 1. A Definite Question is one which may be ans- 
 wered by yes or no. 
 
 2. An Indefinite Question is one which cannot be 
 answered by yes or no. 
 
 SUB-C0H0RTS.-2. 
 
 1. A Direct Question is one in the Interrogative 
 form, as " Are you sure ? " 
 
 2. An Indirect Question is one in the Positive form, 
 as " You are sure ? " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Columbus was not the first discoverer of America. 
 Was not Columbus the first discoverer of America ? 
 Why were they so long in accomplishing the work ? 
 Have the Jews many Synagogues In this country? 
 They are distinguished for their great learning "i 
 
 SPECIES.-5. 
 
 1. An Indicative Sentence is one expressing a bare 
 Assertion not merely hypothetical. 
 
 2. A Subjunctive Sentence is one expressing a 
 merely hypothetical Assertion. 
 
 3. An Imperative Sentence is one expressing an 
 assertion in the form of a command or request. 
 
 4. An Infinitive Sentence is one having its Copula 
 or Yerb in the Infinitive form. 
 
 5. An Exclamatory Sentence is one commencing 
 with Sow or What, and used as an Exclamation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Julius Csesar was a very remarkably successful General. 
 
 (If) a man were ever benefited by the use of intoxicating drinks. 
 
 Give to every man the full enjoyment of his rights. 
 
 Him to have an opportunity for justifying his conduct. 
 
 How many persons waste their most precious opportunities ! 
 
 What an amount of mischief one foolish man can do I 
 
 How hard he tries to become an accurate scholar ! 
 
148 A COMPLETE SGIENTIPIO GBAMMAR 
 
 PRIMITIVE ELEMENTS. 
 
 The Primitive Subject of a Simple Sentence is a 
 Noun or Pronoun. 
 
 The Prmiiti^ve Copula is some form of the word he 
 or am. <X£ajc> t^^ »- ^«<*r fi Ai-t--^ ^^^- "'!H.fl^''*t»-4-;*r* '' 
 
 The Primitive Predicate is a Noun, Pronoun, Adjec- 
 tive, Participle, or Verb. 
 
 A Primitive Modifier of a Noun is a Noun, Pro- 
 noun, Adjective, or Participle. 
 
 A Primitive Modifier of a Verb is a Noun, Pronoun, 
 or Adverb. 
 
 A Primitive Modifier of an Adjective or Adverb 
 is an Adverb. 
 
 CLASS n.-COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 SUB-CLASSES.-3. 
 
 1. A Subjective Sentence is one having a Compound 
 Subject. 
 
 2. A Predicative Sentence is one having a Com- 
 pound Predicate. 
 
 3. A Mixed Sentence is one having a Compound Sub- 
 ject and Predicate. 
 
 OBDERS, SUB-ORDERS, &c. 
 The Orders, Sub-Orders, &c. of Complex Sentences 
 are the same as those of Simple Sentences. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Justice and Mercy are attributes of the Deity. 
 
 They protested, and entreated, and petitioned, and remonstrated in 
 vain. 
 
 He and his brother are diligent, faithful, and successful. 
 CLASS ni-COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 SUB-CLASSES.— 3. 
 
 1. A Loose (Compound) Sentence is one whose 
 members are connected by absolute Conjunctions, expressed 
 or understood. 
 
 2. A Compact Sentence is one whose members are 
 connected by Correlative Words, either Conjunctions or 
 Adverbs. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 149 
 
 3. A Close Sentence is one whose members are con- 
 nected by Relative Pronouns, or Relative Pronominal 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Labor is honorable ; and industry is profitable to every man. 
 Though he was poor, yet by perseverance he accomplished his pur- 
 pose. 
 
 They are not always happy, who have great possessions. 
 
 1st SIJB-CLASS.-LOOSE SENTENCES. 
 DIVISI0NS.-2. 
 
 1. A Normal Loose Sentence is one in which each 
 Member is independent of the others. 
 
 2. A Reduced Loose Sentence is one in which a 
 
 part common to the several Members is omitted in all 
 
 except the first. 
 
 STTB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 
 
 1. A Direct Loose Sentence is one whose second 
 Member is placed after the first. 
 
 S. An Inverted Loose Sentence is one whose 
 second Member is placed between the parts of the first. 
 
 3. A Reversed Loose Sentence is one whose 
 second Member is placed before the first. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The second French Empire is overthrown ; and Louis Napoleon is 
 dead. 
 
 2. This Monarch obtained his crown by violence and fraud, and lost 
 it by folly and presumption. 
 
 3. This man owns a large, and that man a very small, farm. 
 
 4. It was wicked I know ; I told him the ship had been lost. 
 
 2nd SUB-CLASS,-COMPACT SENTENCES. 
 DIVISI0NS.-3. 
 
 1. A Single Compact Sentence is one having two 
 Members connected by one pair of Correlative "Words. 
 
 S. A Double Compact Sentence is one in which a 
 Single Compact Sentence is united to a Sentence not Com- 
 pact by a second pair of Correlative Words. 
 
 3. A Triple Compact Sentence is one composed of 
 two Single Compact Sentences united by a third pair of 
 Correlative "Words. 
 
150 A COMPLETE SGIENTIPIG QBAMMAR 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Where confidence is wanting, there friendship is not pennanent. 
 
 2. Though the man was honest ; yet when he was accnsed, then he 
 could not readily prove his innocence. 
 
 3. Because when he was at College, he then wasted his time ; there- 
 fore when a valuable situation was offered to him, then he was entirely 
 unable to fill it. 
 
 SXrB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 
 
 1. A Direct Compact Sentence is one whose second 
 Member is placed after the first. 
 
 2. An Inverted Compact Sentence is one whose 
 second Member is placed between the parts of the first, or 
 whose first Member is placed between the parts of the 
 second. 
 
 3. A Reversed Compact Sentence is one whose 
 second Member precedes the first. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Though he was industrious, yet he continued very poor. 
 
 2. He, though he was industrious, continued very poor. 
 
 3. He continued very poor, though he was industrious. 
 
 4. They can, as well as not, return by the same boat. 
 
 5. He could, if he chose, obtain many recommendations. 
 
 6. The men, when they were hei-e, were very sociable. 
 
 7. If I were in his place, I would send an apology. 
 
 8. I would send an apology, if I were in his place. 
 
 SECTI0NS.-2. 
 
 1. An Absolute Sentence is one expressing an as- 
 sertion joined with some related or contrasted assertion, 
 but without any Condition. 
 
 2. A Conditional Sentence is one in which one 
 member expresses a condition; and the other expresses an 
 assertion depending on that condition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Though wealth is desirable, yet it is not essential to happiness. 
 
 2. If he is honest, then he will return the money to its owner. 
 
 SXrB-SECTI0NS.-2. 
 1. A Contingent Sentence is one whose conditional 
 part expresses an assertion which may or may not be true. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 151 
 
 2. A Hypothetical Sentence is one whose condi- 
 tional part expresses an assertion which is not true, hut is a 
 mere supposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. If he is guilty of this crime, he deserves severe punishment. 
 
 2. If he were guilty of this crime, he would deserve severe punish- 
 ment. 
 
 3d SUB-CLASS.-CLOSE SENTENCES. 
 DIVISIONS.— 3. 
 1. A Simple Close Sentence is one in which the 
 antecedent of the Relative is a single word. 
 
 S. A Complex Close Sentence is one in which the 
 antecedent of the Relative is compound. 
 
 3. A Complicate Close Sentence is one in which 
 the antecedent of the Relative is a Sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The persons who were present expressed their approbation. 
 
 2. The merchants, farmers, and mechanics, who were oppressed by 
 this law, petitioned for its repeal. 
 
 3. The President vetoed the Bill, which was a mark of his good sense. 
 
 SUB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 
 
 1. A Direct Close Sentence is one whose second 
 Member is placed after the first. 
 
 2. An Inverted Close Sentence is one whose second 
 Member is placed between the parts of the first. 
 
 3. A Reversed Close Sentence is one whose second 
 Member is placed before the first. 
 
 EXAMPLES. . 
 
 1. I have just seen the man who lost his fortune by the fire. 
 
 2. The man who lives only for himself is despised by his neighbors. 
 
 3. What I know to be true, that I must constantly afllrm. 
 
 CLASS IV.— COMPLICATE SENTENCES. 
 STIB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. A Simple Complicate Sentence is one having a 
 simple Subject and Predicate. 
 
 2. A Complex Complicate Sentence is one having 
 a Compound Subject or Predicate or both. 
 
152 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFIG QBAMMAB 
 
 DIVISI01fS.-3. 
 
 1 . A Subjective Complicate Sentence is one having 
 a compound Subject. 
 
 2. A Predicative Complicate Sentence is one 
 having a compound Predicate. 
 
 3. A Mixed Complicate Sentence is one having a 
 compound Subject and Predicate. 
 
 SUB-DIVISI0IirS.-3. 
 
 1. A Co-Subjective Sentence is one having a Com- 
 plicate Subject. 
 
 2. A Co-Predicative Sentence is one having a Com- 
 plicate Predicate. 
 
 3. A Co-Mixed Sentence is one having a Complicate 
 Subject and Predicate. 
 
 SECTI01irS.-3. 
 
 1. A Primary Complicate Sentence is one whose 
 Elementary Sentence is a Principal Element. 
 
 2. A Secondary Complicate Sentence is one 
 whose Elementary Sentence is a Subordinate Element. 
 
 3. A Composite Complicate Sentence is one having 
 Principal and Subordinate Elementary Sentences. 
 
 Note. — Elementary Sentences and Members of Com- 
 pound Sentences should be analyzed in the same manner as 
 other sentences. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " Time and tide will wait for no man " is a common proverb. 
 
 2. His answer was " I will not be an instrument of such meanness." 
 
 3. The Pox, pretending that he did not care, said " Those grapes are 
 sour." 
 
 4 Henry and William said they would not undertake the business. 
 
 5. That they did not go was evidence and demonstration that they 
 meant what they said. 
 
 6. I wish that they were better qualified for their positions. 
 
 7. I wish that he had been more careful in the search. 
 
 8. " I don't know " and " I don't care " are common expressions. 
 
 SECTION n.-ANALYSIS OF PHRASES. 
 Tlie Base of a Phrase is the principal word in it. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQ UA GE. 153 
 
 The Elements of a Phrase are the Base and its 
 Modifiers. 
 
 CLASSES OF PHRASES.-4. 
 
 1. A Simple Phrase is one whose Elemenos are all 
 simple. 
 
 2. A Coinplex Phrase is one containing a Compound 
 Element. 
 
 3. A Compound Phrase is one composed of two or 
 more Phrases united by Connectives. 
 
 4. A Complicate Phrase is one having a Sentence in 
 one of its Elements. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Great men. 2. Many persons. 3. In haste. 4. Very good. 5. 
 Six little boys. 6. Sings sweetly. 7 On the table. 8. Beautiful 
 hills and valleys. 9. With patience and care. 10. Carefully and cor- 
 rectly written. 11. Large books and small books. 12. Over the moun- 
 tain and over the moor. 13. Neither in this way nor in that way. 14. 
 Saying " It is true." 15. The sentence " Gold is yellow." 16. The 
 usual " I thank you." 
 
 SIMPLE PHRASES.-SUB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. A Primary Simple Phrase is one whose Ele- 
 ments are Single Words. 
 
 2. A Secondary Simple Phrase is one some of 
 whose Elements are Phrases. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Short lessons. 2. Faithful students. S. Three large white 
 houses. 4. The end of the street. 5. Very great fortunes. 
 
 COMPLEX PHRASES.-SUB-CLASSES.-3. 
 
 1. A Basic Complex Phrase is one having a Com- 
 pound Base. 
 
 2. An Adjunctive Complex Phrase is one having 
 a Compound Modifier. 
 
 3. A Mixed Complex Phrase is one having a Com- 
 pound Base and a Compound Modifier. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Many books and papers. 2. Strong and cogent reasons. 3. 
 Toung and thoughtless boys and girls. 4. On sea and land. 
 
154 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 COMPOUND PHEASES.-SUB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. A Loose Phrase is one whose Members are united 
 by Absolute Conjunctions. 
 
 2. A Compact Phrase is one whose Members are 
 united by Correlative Words. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1. Very large and very heavy. 2. Quite carions indeed, but per- 
 fectly useless. 3. Neither by land nor by sea. 4. Either in this way 
 or in that way. 5. A large fine house and a poor old barn. 
 
 COMPLICATE PHEASES.-STIB-CLASSES.-2. 
 
 1. A Simple Complicate Phrase is one having a 
 Simple Base and Simple Modifiers. 
 
 2. A Comiplex Complicate Phrase is one having a 
 Compound Base, or Compound Modifiers, or both. 
 
 COMPLEX COMPLICATE PHRASES.-DIVISI0irS.-3. 
 
 1. A Basic Phrase is one having a Compound Base. 
 
 2. An Adjunctive Phrase is one having a Compound 
 Modifier. 
 
 3. A Mixed Phrase is one having a Compound Base 
 and a Compound Modifier. 
 
 SirB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 
 
 1. A Primary Complicate Phrase is one whose 
 Base is a Sentence. 
 
 2. A Secondary Complicate Phrase is one having 
 a Sentence used as a Modifier. 
 
 3. A Composite Complicate Phrase is one having 
 a Sentence for its Base, and another Sentence used as a 
 Modifier. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1. A prompt " I will try." 2. The sentence " Time is short." 
 3, With " We will go " and " They will come.'' 4. The sentences 
 " Art is long " and " Time is fleeting." 6. The pretense and cry of 
 " The wolf is coming " 6. Saying " Excuse me " and " I am sorry." 
 7. The hearty " Fare you well " and " Come again." 8. Saying smd 
 writing " We are ready " and " Ton shall have it." 
 
 9. The " I will go " of the sentence "I tell you ' I will go.' " 
 
 10. The usual in such cases " I thank you." 
 
 11, The uttered in haste " Do not follow me." 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQ UAQE. 155 
 
 SPECIES-IO. 
 
 1. A Substantive Phrase is one whose base is a 
 Noun. 
 
 S. An Adjective Phrase is one whose base is an Ad- 
 jective. 
 
 3. A Pronominal Phrase is one whose base is a 
 Pronoun. 
 
 4. A Copulative Phrase is one whose base is a 
 Copula. 
 
 5. A Verbal Phrase is one whose base is a Verb. 
 
 6. A Participial Phrase is one whose base is a Par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 7. An Infinitive Phrase is one whose base is an In- 
 finitive Form. 
 
 8. An Adverbial Phrase is one whose base is an 
 Adverb. 
 
 9. A Prepositional Phrase is one whose base is a 
 Preposition. (See Note 19.) 
 
 10. A Sentential Phrase is one whose base is a Sen- 
 tence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1. A very short time. 2. Extremely useful. 3. Wretched me. 
 
 4. Certainly is not. 5. More commonly think. 
 
 6. So extremely well. 7. On the rugged mountains. 
 
 8. Considering these circumstances. 9. Less accurately reasoning. 
 10. Very improperly spoken. 11. To write correctly. 
 ]2. To spell common words. 13. Frequently to he. 
 14. The expression " Lead is heavy." 15, To say " I am sorry." 
 
 USES OF PHRASES. 
 1. A Substantive Phrase is used as a Subject, Pred- 
 icate, Modifier, or Exclamation. 
 
 5. An Adjective Phrase is used as a Modifier or as a 
 Predicate. 
 
 3. A Pronominal Phrase has the same uses as a Sub- 
 stantive Phrase. 
 
 4. A Copulative Phrase is used as a Copula. 
 
 6. A Verbal Phrase is used as a Predicate. 
 
156 A COMPLETE BOIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 6. A Participial Phrase is used as a Predicate, Mod- 
 ifier, or Contraction. 
 
 7. An Infinitive Phrase is used as a Predicate in a 
 Contracted Sentence. 
 
 8. An Adverbial Phrase is used as a Modifier. 
 
 9. A Prepositional Phrase is used as a Modifier. 
 10, A Sentential Phrase has the same uses as a Sub- 
 stantive Phrase. 
 
 SECTION ni-TRANSFOEMATION. 
 
 Transformation is changing the structure of a sentence 
 without materially changing its meaning. 
 
 The Methods of Transformation are Conversion, 
 Contraction and Expansion. 
 
 An Objective Sentence is one whose verb has an 
 Object. 
 
 A Double-Objective Sentence is one whose verb is 
 followed by two words, either of which may be its Object, 
 if a Preposition is supplied before the other. 
 
 Corresponding Sentences are equivalent sentences 
 of different Orders. 
 
 1st METHOD.-COirVERSION. 
 
 Conversion is changing a sentence of either Order to 
 an equivalent sentence of the other Order. 
 
 MODES OF C0NVEESI0N.-4. 
 
 1. Verbal to Active Sentence. B,ule. Substitute 
 for the Verb its Present Participle with a Copula of the same 
 Tense as the Verb. 
 
 2. Active to Verbal Sentence. Btile. Reverse the 
 preceding process. 
 
 3. Verbal to Passive Sentence. Bule. Substitute 
 for the Verb its Past Participle, with a Copula of the same 
 Tense as the Verb ; take the Object of the Verb for a 
 Subject, changing its Case if necessary ; and take the Sub- 
 ject of the Verb for the Object of the Preposition " by" in- 
 serted, changing its Case if necessary. 
 
 4. Passive to Verbal Sentence. Rule. Reverse 
 the preceding process. 
 
OF THE ENGLIBS LANG UA&E. 157 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. 
 
 (Normal.) He deceives his brother. 
 
 (Equivalent Active.) He is deceiving hia brother. 
 (Equivalent Passive.) His brother is deceived by him. 
 
 2. 
 
 They taught him grammar. 
 (1st Normal.) They taught him (in) grammar. 
 
 (1st Eqiiiv. Active.) They were teaching him (in) grammar. 
 (1st Equiv. Passive.) He was taught (in) grammar by them. 
 (2nd Normal.) They taught (to) him grammar. 
 
 (2nd Equiv. Active.) They were teaching (to) him grammar. 
 (2nd Equiv. Passive ) Grammar was taught (to) him by them. 
 
 EXERCISES. (To be transfonned as above,) 
 
 1. John relieved him. 2. Henry found a knife. 3. I was assisted by 
 him. 
 
 4. They were asking him. 5. Joseph was instructing John. 
 
 6. He refused me this privilege. 7. They were paid a premium. 
 
 8. We asked him his opinion. 9. They call him John. 
 
 10. He was named Caesar by his friend. 11. Thomas will show him 
 the way. 
 
 12. I can furnish him sufficient proof. 13. I will credit him ten 
 dollars. 
 
 14. He charged the man a great price. 15. No one will excuse him 
 that fault. 
 
 2nd METHOD.-CONTRACTION. 
 
 Contraction is the abbreviation, or shortening of Sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Note. Nearly all sentences are more or less contracted ; 
 but in the Colloquial Style more Contractions occur than in 
 any other ; and the Analysis of Colloquial Language is 
 therefore more difficult than any other. 
 
 MODES or C0NTIIACTI0N.-2. 
 
 1. Contraction by Omission is simply leaving out 
 such words as can readily be supplied. 
 
 S. Contraction by Substitution is substituting a 
 short expression for a longer one without changing the 
 sense. 
 
158 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OSAMMAB 
 
 Ist MODE OP CONTRACTION-OMISSION. 
 Parts Omitted. Any part of a sentence may some- 
 times be omitted. 
 
 EXAMPLES OP OMISSION. 
 
 (The Curves in these Examples include words which may be omitted.) 
 
 1. A Modifled Noun. This (book) is my book. That (horse) is 
 John's horse. He left his own hat, and took William's (hat.) 
 
 2. A Modifier. He had a beautiful house ; and that (beautiful) 
 house was burned. He speaks (very readily) and writes very readily. 
 He had a little black Canadian pony ; and he sold that (little black 
 Canadian) pony for a hundred dollars. 
 
 3. An Object of a Verb or Preposition. Thomas is plowing (a 
 field). He mows (grass) well. He put his hat on (his head). 
 
 4. A Subject of a Sentence. Come (you) and see this picture. 
 Harvey writes well, and (he) speaks fluently. 
 
 5. A Predicate. John will go ; and James also (will go). 
 Henry returned sooner than Martin (returned soon). 
 
 6. A Copula. His voice is weak ; his hand (is) tremulous ; and 
 his cheek (is) pale. 
 
 7. A Subject and Copula. He is able ; but (he is) not willing. 
 
 8. A Copula and Predicate. Mary was ready before Susan (was 
 ready). 
 
 9. A Subject, Copula, and Predicate. They are striving; 
 but (they are striving) in vain. 
 
 10. A Preposition. He gave (to) me a book. 
 
 They are hoping for honor, (for) wealth, and (for) preferment. 
 
 11. A Coiyunction. Thomas, (and) John, (and) Henry, and 
 Charles went. 
 
 12. Correlative Words. When he had finished the work, (then) 
 he returned. 
 
 (Therefore) I pursued these studies, because they were very delight- 
 ful. 
 
 (Though he was) a professed Catholic, (yet) he imprisoned the Pope. 
 
 (Because he was) weary from labor, (therefore) he sought repose 
 early. 
 
 13. A Member of a Compound Sentence. A man came to 
 me in a very excited manner ; and I asked the man (who cams to mo 
 in a very excited manner) what was the canse of his agitation. 
 
 The farmer prepares the soil ; and (when he has prepared the soil) 
 then he sows the seed. 
 
 14. Wearly a Whole Sentence. Q. Who owns that beautiful 
 white house upon the hill yonder 1 Ans. David Jones (owns that beau- 
 tiful white house upon the hill yonder). 
 
OF THE ENG-LISH LAWG UAGB. 159 
 
 Q. How do you think such a proposition as that which I have sug- 
 gested would be received by your political friends 1 
 
 Ans. (I think such a proposition as that which you have suggested 
 would be received by my political friends) favorably. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Those ( ) are beautiful horses. Instead of good' articles he has 
 sent ( ) me these ( ). Having lost his own ball, he lias taken Henry's 
 { ). John is chopping ( ) ; David is reading ( ) ; Mary is spinning ( ) ; 
 and Susan has just put the kettle on ( ). 
 
 Hear ( ) the birds sing ( ). What ( ) did he say 1 ( ) Nothing. 
 This book is larger ( ) than that ( ). He gave ( ) them ( ) money. 
 Herman has arrived ; and Edward too ( ). 
 
 2. The flowers are gone ; ( ) the trees ( ) bare j and the ground ( ) 
 while. 
 
 They are ( ) in the house. The leaves are ( ) on the trees. 
 Those people are ( ) in great distress. The man is not ( ) there. 
 There is ( ) no remedy. There is ( ) no proof of his guilt. 
 ^Walter is as large as Humphrey ( ). Owen has more money than 
 David ( ). Gold is worth more ( ) than Iron ( ). 
 
 3. They are making great efforts ; but ( ) f o no purpose. 
 
 We have been making great sacrifices ; but ( ) not unwillingly. 
 
 ( ) A pretended philanthropist, ( ) he oppresses the poor. 
 
 Let ( ) them ( ) be persuaded of his honesty ; and ( ) then they will 
 trust him. 
 
 Who was Commander in Chief of the American Armies during the 
 Revolutionary War 1 Geo. Washington ( ). 
 
 2iid MODE OF CONTRACTION.-STJBSTITUTION. 
 
 1. Contraction of Compact Sentences. In Com- 
 pact Sentences a Participle is often substituted for a Tense 
 Form, as a Sign of Contraction, when the Correlatives are 
 omitted ; and in this case the Subject of the first or second 
 Member is frequently omitted. 
 
 S. Contraction of Close Sentences. In Close Sen- 
 tences a Participle is often substituted for a Tense Form, 
 as a sign of Contraction, when the Relative is omitted. 
 
 3. Contraction of Elementary Sentences. In 
 Elementary Sentences an Infinitive or a Participle is often 
 substituted for a Tense Form, as a sign of Contraction, 
 when a preceding " that " is omitted ; and an Infinitive is 
 never used for any other purpose. 
 
160 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 4. The Subject of an Infinitive Sentence takes 
 the form of the Objective Case, when possible, and is often 
 omitted. 
 
 5. Subject -with a Participle. In an Elementary 
 sentence, when a Participle is substituted, the Subject takes 
 the form of the Objective or Possessive Case. 
 
 EXAMPLES or SUBSTITITTION. 
 
 1. A Pronoun for a Woxm. 
 
 a. Llewellyn was rash ; and Llewellyn bitterly regretted Llewellyn's 
 rashness. 
 
 b. Llewellyn was rash ; and he bitterly regretted his rashness. 
 
 2. A Pronotin for a Phrase. 
 
 a. The three strange gentlemen said that the three strange gentlemen 
 had lost the three strange gentlemen's way. 
 
 b. The three strange gentlemen said that they had lost their way. 
 
 3. A Pronoun for a Sentence. 
 
 a. The speaker said that in his youth he had been induced to engage 
 in some mischierons pranks, and that he now remembered that in his 
 youth he had been induced to engage in some mischievous pranks with 
 much regret. 
 
 b. The speaker said that in his youth he had been induced to en- 
 gage in some mischievous pranks, and that he now remembered it with 
 much regret. 
 
 a. They at first made sport of the old man ; and that they at first 
 made sport of the old man afterwards cost them much sorrow. 
 
 b. They at first made sport of the old man, which afterwards cost 
 them much sorrow. 
 
 4. An Adjective for a Phrase. 
 
 a. He is a man of prudence. 
 
 b. He is a prudent man. 
 
 5. An Adjective for a Sentence. 
 
 it. She has a dress which is made of wool. 
 b. She has a woolen dress. 
 
 a. That is a statement which may be questioned. 
 
 b. That is a questionable statement. 
 
 6. An Adverb for a Phrase. 
 
 a. Columbus sailed in a westerly direction. 
 
 b. Columbus sailed westward. 
 
 7. A Complex for a Compound Sentence. 
 
 a. They talked ; and they laughed; and they played. 
 
 b. They talked and laughed .ind played. 
 
 a. John wrote; and his brother wrote; and his friends wrote. 
 
OF THE ENQLISH LANQ UA QE. 161 
 
 b. John and his brother and Ms friends wrote. 
 
 8. A General Term for several Specific Terms. 
 
 a. The men and the women and the children all forsook the place. 
 
 b. The people all forsook the place. 
 
 9. An Exclamation for a Sentence, 
 
 Do you think he will go"! Yes =1 think he will go. 
 Have you seen him 'i No.=I have not seen him. 
 
 10. A Participle for a Tense Form,— Subject and Correl- 
 atives omitted. 
 
 a. When the man shall accomplish this purpose, then he will be de- 
 lighted. 
 
 b. The man, accomplishing this purpose, will be delighted. 
 
 a. When he shall have flnished.his studies, then he will graduate. 
 
 b. Having finished his studies, he will graduate. 
 
 a. When he shall finish his studies, then he will graduate. 
 
 b. Finishing his studies, he will graduate. 
 
 a. When he had finished his studies, then he graduated. 
 
 b. Having finished his studies, he graduated. 
 
 a. When he finished his studies, then he graduated. 
 
 b. Finishing his studies, he graduated. 
 
 a. Because he has finished his studies, therefore he now graduates. 
 
 b. Having finished his studies, he now graduates. 
 
 a. Because he finishes his studies now, therefore he graduates now. 
 
 b. Finishing his studies now, he graduates now. 
 
 a. When one General had failed, then another undertook the enter- 
 prise. 
 
 b. One General having failed, another undertook the enterprise. 
 
 11. An Infinitive for a Tense Form,— "that " omitted, &c. 
 
 a. He would not permit that they should go. 
 
 b. He would not permit them to go. 
 
 a. They suspected that he had done this mischief. 
 
 b. They suspected him to have done this mischief. 
 
 a. He asked ( ) that I should undertake this work. 
 
 b. He asked ( ) me to undertake this work. 
 
 a. They wished that they might go. 
 
 b. They wished themselves to go. 
 
 c. They wished ( ) to go. 
 
 a. That one should decide a case before hearing it is unjust. 
 
 b. To decide a case before hearing it is unjust. 
 
 a. Thpy asked ( ) him that he should assist them. 
 
 b. They asked ( ) him himself to assist them. 
 
 c. They asked ( ) him ( ) to assist them. 
 
 a. That one should he good is better than that one should seem ( ) 
 good. 
 
162 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIO QRAMMAB 
 
 b. To ie good is better than to aeem good. 
 
 a. They beliere that he did (or that he has done) this thing, 
 
 b. They believe him to have done this thing. 
 
 a. They think that he is injuring them. 
 
 b. They think him to be injuring them. 
 
 a. They thought that he was injuring them. 
 
 b. They thought him to be injuring them. 
 
 12, A Participle for a Tense Form,— "that " omitted, &c. 
 
 a. I have fears ( ) that rain will fall before ( ) I ( ) reach home. 
 
 b. I have fears of rain falling before I reach home, 
 a He suspects that ( ) the man is dishonest. 
 
 b. He suspects the man being dishonest. 
 
 c. He suspects the man's being dishonest. 
 
 a. There is no danger ( ) that ( ) he will neglect his duty. 
 
 b. There is no danger of him neglecting his duty. 
 
 c. There is no danger of his neglecting his duty. 
 
 a. We do not fear that ( ) they will desert their post. 
 
 b. We do not fear them deserting their post. 
 
 c. We do not fear their deserting their post. 
 
 13. A Participle for a Tense Form,— a Relative being 
 omitted. 
 
 a.. Those men who desire preferment should make themselves worthy 
 of it. 
 
 b. Those men desiring preferment should make themselves worthy 
 of it. 
 
 a. On the time in which we arrived at the gate we found the porter 
 asleep. 
 
 b. On arriving at the gate we found the porter asleep. 
 
 EXE£CISES. 
 
 1. If some people would mind some people's own business, it would 
 be better for some people. 
 
 2. Mr. John Smith built a large brick house ; and Mr. J. Smith sold 
 the large brick house. 
 
 3. They told him that his brother was dead ; and when he heard 
 that his brother was dead, he fainted. 
 
 4. Prof. Agassiz was a man of very great learning. 
 
 5. That is an assertion which admits of doubt. 
 
 6. He did the work in a very faithful manner. 
 
 7. John studied Latin; and Thomas studied Latin; and William 
 studied Latin. 
 
 8. The corn and the wheat and the rye and the barley and the oatg 
 and the apples were all harvested. 
 
OF THE ENOLISE LANQ UA BE. 163 
 
 9. Will they come and see us to-morrow "i They will come and see 
 us to-morrow. 
 
 10. When they had defeated the enemy, they proceeded to despoil 
 the country. 
 
 11. They hoped that they might find some relics of the ancient peo- 
 ple. 
 
 12. I have little hope that he will pay the money according to his 
 promise. 
 
 13. Those who expect to become learned should not waste their 
 time. 
 
 3d METHOD.-EXPANSION. 
 
 Expansion is the reverse of Contraction, and consists in 
 supplying omissions, and in substituting full forms for con- 
 tracted ones. 
 
 The Use of Expansion, in Analysis, is to discover 
 the relations of the words which are expressed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 a. No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet 
 To chase the glowing hours with flying feet. 
 
 b. No sleep (will then be had) till morn, when youth and pleasure 
 
 meet 
 (For themselves) to chase the glowing hours with flying feet. 
 ITote. For other Examples, take in reversed order, those under Sub- 
 stitution. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He wished to visit England, but bad not the means. 
 
 2. They asked him to resign ; but he refused. 
 
 3. It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. 
 
 4. " Better late than never" is not so good a motto as " Better never 
 late." 
 
 5. Neglecting this opportunity, it was impossible to escape. 
 
 6. Driven to despair by his misfortunes, he attempted to destroy him- 
 self. 
 
 7. The more money one has, the more he usually desires. 
 
 8. The man said he lost one horse, not fhree ; and that a poor one. 
 
 9. He knows to sing and build the lofty rhyme. 
 
 10. Why not tell us where, and when, and why, and how the deed 1 
 
 ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 
 Th.e Proper Order in analysing a sentence is to deter- 
 mine 1. The Class; 2. The Sub-Class; 3. The Division; 4. 
 The Sub-Division; 5. The Section; 6. The Sub-Section; 7. 
 
164 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 The Order; 8. The Sub-Order; 9. The Genus; 10. The 
 Sub-Genus; 11. The Cohort; 12. The Sub-Cohort; 13. The 
 Species ; 14. The Elements (Primitive and E xpanded) ; 
 15. The Phrases ; 16, The Elements of the Phrases. (See 
 the Chart.) 
 
 PARSING. 
 Parsing (or Parting, from Lat. Pars) is the Analysis of 
 the Elements of a Sentence, beginning with individual 
 words. 
 
 The Things to be done in parsing a word are three ; 
 viz. : 
 
 1. To refer the word to its proper Class, Sub-Class, &c. ; 
 
 2. To name its Inflectional form (if it has any Inflection) ; 
 
 3. To point out its Use, or its Relation to the other words 
 of the Sentence. 
 
 Xote. The reason for each step in classing a word, and 
 the Rule for its Inflectional Form may be given until the 
 Definitions and Rules are familiar. 
 
 The Proper Order of Parsing a word is to determine 
 1. Its Class; 2. Its Form; 3. Its Use. 
 
 The Purposes of Parsing are usually three ; viz. : 
 
 1. To ascertain the meaning of Sentences ; 
 
 2. To discover whether Sentences are correct or not ; 
 8. To develop the powers of the mind. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Him saw they not. 2. Them feared not he. 3. Whom knew I 
 then the same to be. 4. This man, than whom none higher stood in 
 estimation of the King, became the instrument of death. 
 
 Note. By parsing the words in the first Example we ascertain that 
 the word " Him", although it stands before the Verb " saw" is not the 
 Subject of " saw ", since it is the Objective Case of the Pronoun, while 
 " saw " is not an Infinitive Form. Also that the word " they ", although 
 it stands after the Verb " saw " is not the Object of " saw ", since it is 
 the Nominative Case. Hence this Sentence is inverted ; and the mean- 
 ing of it is " They saw not him." Such inversions are common, espe- 
 cially in Poetry and Oratory. 
 
 In the 3d Example the words read much more smoothly than if 
 they were arranged " I then knew whom to be the same " ; but it is 
 easily discovered, by Parsing, that the meaning must be the same. 
 
OF THE ENQLISn LANQ UA OE. 165 
 
 In the 4th Example the word " whom ", being the Objective Case, 
 ought to be the Object of some Verb or Preposition, or tiie Subject of 
 an Infinitive. Since, however, it is neither of these, but tlie Subject of 
 the Verb " Stood " (understood), it is evident that the Sentence is in- 
 correct; and that the form "whom "should he altered to "who". 
 So also in the passage from Milton, " Satan, than whom none higher 
 Bat, &c." j and Mat. 16 : 15, " Whom say ye that I am 1 " &c. 
 
 MODELS OF AITALYSIS AND FABSING. (See Note 21.) 
 
 1. The Farmer's horses are feeding in his pasture. 
 Analysis. 
 
 This is a Simple, Copulative, Active, Aflarmative, Posi- 
 tive, Indicative Sentence. 
 
 The Expanded Subject is "The farmer's horses ". 
 
 The Primitive Subject is " horses ". 
 
 The Copula is " are "- 
 
 The Expanded Predicate is " feeding in his pasture ". 
 
 The Primitive Predicate is " feeding." 
 
 The Expanded Modifier of " horses " is " The farmer's ", 
 a Simple Substantive Phrase. 
 
 The Primitive Modifier of" horses " is " farmer's ". 
 
 The Primitive Modifier of " feeding " is " in his pasture ", 
 a Simple Prepositional Phrase. 
 
 The Expanded Object of " in " is " his pasture ". 
 
 The Primitive Object of " in " is " pasture "- 
 
 The Primitive Modifier of " pasture " is " his ". 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 The word "The" is (1.) the Definite Article ; and (3.) it 
 limits " farmer's ". 
 
 "Parmer's" is (1.) a Common Full Ifoun; (2.) of the 
 Masculine Gender, Singular Number,. Possessive Case, and 
 (3.) is used to modify " horses ". 
 
 "Horses" is (1.) a Noun, Common, Defective, Doubtful ; 
 (2.) of the Plural Number, the Stem ; and (8.) it is used as 
 the Subject of " feeding "- 
 
 " Are " is (1.) a Copula (Principal Parts Am, Was, Been), 
 (2.) of the Present Tense, Plural Number, and (3.) is used 
 
166 A COMPLETE 8GIEWTIFI0 QRAMMAR 
 
 to connect the Subject " horses " with the Predicate " feed- 
 ing". 
 
 "Feeding" is the Present Participle of the Verb "feed " 
 and used as the Predicate of " horses ". 
 
 "In"' is (1.) a Simple Substantive Preposition, and (3.) is, 
 used to show the relation between " feeding " and " pasture ". 
 
 "His" is (1.) a Personal Pronoun, (2.) of the Third Per- 
 son, Singular Number, Masculine Grender, Possessive Case, 
 and (3.) is used to limit " pasture ''. 
 
 " Pasture " is (1.) a Common Defective If enter Noun, 
 (2.) of the Singular Number, the Stem, and (3.) is used as 
 the Object of the Preposition " in ". 
 
 2. Joseph and Henry could not find the oxen. 
 Analysis. 
 
 This is a Complex, Subjective, Verbal, Negative, Posi- 
 tive, Indicative Sentence. 
 
 The Compound Subject is " Joseph and Henry ", a Sim- 
 ple Substantive Phrase. 
 
 The Simple Expanded Predicate is " could not find the 
 oxen ", a Simple Verbal Phrase. 
 
 The Primitive Predicate is " could find ". 
 
 The Modifiers of "could find" are "not" and "the 
 oxen ". 
 
 The Expanded Object of " could find " is " the oxen ". 
 
 The Primitive Object of" could find" is " oxen ". 
 
 The Primitive Modifier of " oxen " is " the ". 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 "Joseph" is (1.) a Noun, Proper, Pull, (2.) Masc. Gen., 
 Sing. Num., the Stem, and (3.) is used as a part of the Sub- 
 ject of " could find ". 
 
 " And " is (1.) an Absolute Conjunction, and (3.) is used 
 to connect "Joseph" with "Henry." 
 
 " Henry " is parsed like " Joseph." 
 
 " Could find " is (1.) an Irregular Verb, (Prin. Parts 
 Find, Found, Pound), (2.) Indefinite Tense, the Stem, and 
 (3.) is used as the predicate of " Joseph and Henry." 
 
OF THE EW0LI8H LANGUAOE. 167 
 
 "Not " is (1.) an Adverb, of Negation, and (3) is used to 
 modify " could find." 
 
 " Oxen " is (1.) a Common Defective Masculine Noun, 
 (2) Plur., Stem, and (3.) is used as the Object of " could 
 find." 
 
 8. Nations have perished ; and kingdoms have gone to 
 decay 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Normal, Direct. 
 The First Member is " Nations have perished." 
 The Second Member is " kingdoms have gone to decay." 
 The Connective is the word " and." 
 
 4. Se studies the intrests of his employer, aud discharges 
 all his duties faithfvtVkf. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Reduced, Direct. 
 
 The First Member is " He studies the interests of his em- 
 ployer." 
 
 The omitted Subject of the Second Member is " he." 
 
 The Second Member is " (he) discharges all his duties 
 faithfully." 
 
 5. "When the weather is good, then we usually walk in the 
 fields. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
 
 Absolute. 
 
 The Correlatives are " When " and " then." 
 
 The Second Member is "When the weather is good." 
 
 The First Member is " then we usually walk in the fields." 
 
 The Connective is the pair of Correlatives, " When " and 
 
 " then." 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 The word " when " is (1.) an Adverb of Time, and (3.) is 
 used to limit the Copula " is ", and also, by its relation to 
 " then ", to connect the two Members of the Compact Sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The word "then" is (1.) an Adverb of Time, and (3.) is 
 
168 -A. COMPLETE aCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 used to limit the Verb " walk ", and also, by its relation to 
 " when ", to connect the two members. 
 
 6. If the weather prove favorable, then I shall return to- 
 morrow. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
 Conditional, Contingent. 
 
 The Correlatives connecting the Members are." If" and 
 "then." 
 
 The Second Member is " the weather (shall) prove favor- 
 able." 
 
 The First Member is " I shall return to-morrow." 
 
 The Sentence constituting the First member is Simple, 
 Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Indicative. 
 
 That forming the Second Member is of the same kind. 
 Parsing. 
 
 The word " If" is (1.) a Conjunction, Relative, Correlative 
 of " then ", and (3.) is used to introduce the Condition, and 
 to connect the two Members. 
 
 The word " then " is (1.) a Conjunction, Relative, Correla- 
 tive of " if", and (3.) is used to introduce the Conditional As- 
 sertion, and also to connect the two Members. 
 
 7. If I were sure of a welcome, I would call upon him. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
 Conditional, Hypothetical. 
 
 The word "then", correlative of "if" is understood. 
 
 The Sentence " I were sure of a welcome," constituting 
 the second Member, is Simple, Copulative, Neuter, Affirm- 
 ative, Positive, Subjunctive. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 The word " were " is (1.) a Copula, (2.) Hypothetical 
 Tense, the Stem, and (3.) connects the Subject " I " with 
 the Predicate " sure." 
 
 8. If I saw any reason for going, then I would go. 
 
 Analysis. 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
 Conditional, Hypothetical. 
 
OF THE ENQLISE LANG TTA GE. 169 
 
 The Sentence "I sa-w any reason for going,'' constituting 
 the Second Member, is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, Posi- 
 tive, Subjunctive. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 The word " saw " is (1.) a Verb, Irregular, (Prin. Parts 
 See, saw, seen), (2.) Past Tense, Stem, and (3.) is used in- 
 stead of a Hypothetical Tense, as the Predicate of " I." 
 
 9. If that ( ) he so, { ) his case is hopeless. 
 This Sentence is Contingent. 
 
 Parsing. 
 The word "be" is a Copula, Present Tense, the Stem, 
 and connects the word " thing " understood with " so." 
 The word "so" (=suoh) is an Adjective, and is used as the 
 Predicate of" thing." 
 
 10. If John comes home, he will receive a farm. 
 
 In this Sentence the Present " comes " is used for the 
 Future " shall come." 
 
 11. If you came here qflener, it would he for your advan- 
 tage. ' 
 
 In this Sentence the Past " came " is used for the Indefi- 
 nite "should come." 
 
 12. If William hadwritten the letter hefore the news came, 
 he is excusable. 
 
 This Sentence is Contingent; and "had written " is sim- 
 ply the Compound Past Tense, Stem. 
 
 13. If William, had written the letter before the news came 
 he would have been excusable. 
 
 This Sentence is Hypothetical; and "had written" is 
 used instead of a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 
 
 14. If he had been there, he would have prevented it. 
 This Sentence is Hypothetical ; and " had been " is used 
 
 instead of a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 
 
 15 If, when he was young, he had improved his opporVun- 
 ities, then, when he was old, he would not have been despised. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Triple, Reversed, 
 Conditional, Hypothetical. 
 
 16. Therefore, indeed, he returned the Watch, for it was a 
 thing of little value ; but therefore he did not return the 
 Diamonds, for they were things of very greai value. 
 
170 -4 COMPLETE SGIENTIFIO OBAMMAB 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Triple, Direct 
 Absolute. 
 
 The first Single Compact Sentence is " Therefore he re- 
 turned the Watch, for it was a thing of little value ". Its 
 Correlatives are " Therefore " and " for "- 
 
 The second Single Compact Sentence is " therefore he 
 did not return the Diamonds, for they -were things of very- 
 great value ". 
 
 Its Correlatives are also " therefore " and " for ". 
 
 The Correlatives uniting the two Single Compact Senten- 
 ces are " indeed " and " but "- 
 
 17. J have seen the man who fell from the roof. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 
 The first Member is "I have seen the man ". 
 
 The second Member is " who fell from the roof ". 
 
 The Connective is the word " who ". 
 Parsing. 
 
 The word " who " is (1.) a Pronoun, Relative, relating to 
 man, (2.) Nominative Case, and (3.) is used as the Subject 
 of " fell ", and also, by its relation to man, to connect the 
 two Members. 
 
 18. The man who lost his horse has bought anothr. 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Inverted. 
 The first Member is " The man has bought another 
 
 (horse) ". 
 
 The second Member is " who lost his horse " 
 This Member is placed bo.tween the parts of the first in 
 order to bring the Relative Pronoun " who " as near as pos- 
 sible to its Antecedent " man ". 
 
 19. The weather is very warm, which is unfavorable to 
 health. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Complicate, Direct. 
 The Antecedent of " which " is " the weather is very warm ". 
 
 20. Lead is heavier than Iron. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 The first Member is " Lead is heavier (in the compari- 
 son) ". 
 
OF THE ENGLISE LANG UAGK 171 
 
 The second Member is " (in) than iron (is heavy) ". 
 
 The Connective is the Relative Pronoun "than'', whose 
 Antecedent is the word " comparison " (understood) in the 
 first Member. 
 
 21. He refused ( ) what was offered. 
 
 In this Sentence the word " what " is (1.) a Relative Pro- 
 noun, relating to the word " thing " understood, and (3.) is 
 used as the Subject of " offered ". 
 
 22. Wait here until I see what means can he adopted. 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 The first Member is " Wait here until (the time) ". 
 
 The second Member is " (in which) I (shall) see (those 
 means) what means can be adopted ". 
 
 This second Member is itself a Compound, Close, Simple, 
 Direct Sentence, in which the Connective is the Relative 
 Pronominal Adjective " what ", relating to its antecedent 
 " (means) ". 
 
 23. There needed a new dispensation of religion. 
 
 In this Sentence the word " There " is (1.) a Pronoun, 
 Indefinite (meaning the people, the world, society, &o.), 
 and (3.) is used as the Subject of " needed ". 
 
 24. There needs little skill for doing such work. 
 
 In this Sentencp the Pronoun " There "=:any one, any 
 person, &c. 
 
 25. There is no better evidence of a man's being a coward 
 than his constant boasting of his courage. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 
 The first Member is " There is no better evidence of a 
 man's being a coward. 
 
 The second Member is" (in) than his constant boasting of 
 his courage (is good evidence). " 
 
 The Subject of the first Member is the Indefinite Pronoun 
 "there." 
 
 The first Member is a Complicate Sentence, of which the 
 Elementary Sentence is "a man's being a coward", which is 
 a modified form of "a man is a coward," and is used as a 
 Modifier of the word " thing" understood. 
 
172 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 GRAMMAR 
 
 The Connective is the Relative "than ", which=" that" 
 and relates to the word " comparison " understood. 
 
 26. Sis answer was "I am ready for any emergency.'" 
 This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Predicative, 
 
 Primary. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence " I am ready for any emer- 
 gency " is Simple, Copulative, Neater, Affirmative, Positive, 
 Indicative. 
 
 27. They saw thai { ) he was unwilling. 
 
 This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Predicative 
 Secondary. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence " he was unwilling " is used as 
 a Modifier of the word " thing " understood after " that ''. 
 
 28. Thomas and William refused to go. 
 
 This Sentence is Complicate, Complex, Subjective, Co- 
 Predicative, Secondary. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence " (themselves) to go " is the 
 Ohj. of "refused." 
 
 This Elementary Sentence is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, 
 Positive, Infinitive. 
 
 29. To say that he had seen the Mm/peror was his ambi- 
 tion. 
 
 This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Subjective, 
 Primary. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence " (himself) to say that he had 
 seen the Emperor " is itself Complicate, Simple, Co-Predi- 
 cative, Secondary, Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Infinitive. 
 
 30. Sis refusing to apologize was proof that an insuU was 
 intended. 
 
 This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Mixed, Sec- 
 ondary, Copulative, Neuter, Affirmative, Positive, Indica- 
 tive. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence in the Subject is " (himself) to 
 apologize ", and is used as the Object of " reftising ". 
 
 The Elementary Sentence in the Predicate is " an insult 
 was intended", and is used as a Modifier of the word 
 " (thing) " understood. 
 
OF THE MN&LI8H LANQ UA QE. 173 
 
 31. I shall have finished the letter hy eight o'clock. 
 
 The Phrase "by eight o'clock "=by the time which is 
 called eight hours of the clock. 
 
 32. Wlio will show ( ) iis any good { )? 
 
 This Sentence is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, Intetrroga- 
 tive. Indefinite, Direct, Indicative. 
 
 The word " to " is understood before " us " ; and " thing " 
 after "good". 
 
 33. The sun having risen, we pursued our journey. 
 
 In this Sentence the Compound Participle " having risen " 
 is substituted for the Compound Past Tense " had risen ", 
 to show the omission of the Correlatives " when " and 
 "then" 
 
 34. ZTse all the care which it is possible for you to exercise. 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 
 The first Member " Use all the care " is Simple, Verbal, 
 Affirmative, Positive, Imperative. 
 
 The second Member, " which it is possible for you to ex- 
 ercise ", is Complicate, Simple, Co-Subjective, Primary. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence " (yourself) to exercise which" 
 is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Infinitive ; and it 
 is used as a Modifier of the Indefinite Pronoun " it ", which 
 is the Subject of " possible ". 
 
 35. They taught him grammar. 
 
 This is a Double Objective Sentence, and="They taught 
 (to) him grammar ", or " They taught him (in) grammar ". 
 
 36. They called him John. 
 
 This Sentence =" They called (to) him John", or "They 
 called him (by the name) John." 
 
 37. I was taught grammar. 
 
 In this Sentence " grammar " is the Object of " in " under- 
 stood. 
 
 38. We hear much now a days about progress. 
 
 In this Sentence the word " days " is the Object of the 
 Preposition " a ", which shows the relation between " now " 
 and "days". The"a"=of. 
 
 " Now " is a Noun, the Object of " in " understood. The 
 
174 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 Phrase is often consolidated (now-a-days, or nowadays) and 
 forms an Adverb. 
 
 39. Three times three is nine. 
 
 This Sentence is an abbreviation of the following : 
 The number formed by taking " three " three times is 
 nine. 
 
 It should be written three-times-three is nine. The con- 
 solidated phrase constitutes a Compound Noun. 
 
 40. To speak plainly, the man was drunk. 
 
 This Sentence is a Contracted form of the following : 
 " Because I wish to speak plainly, therefore I say the man 
 was drunk ". 
 
 41. The more we have, the more we desire. 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Absolute. 
 
 The Correlatives are " The " and " the " (=L. quanta and 
 tantu). 
 
 The word " the ", in this example, is not the Article, but 
 is derived from the old Instrumental Case of "that"; and 
 the Sentence=By how much we have more, by so much 
 we desire more. 
 
 42. William became the leader of a party. 
 
 The word " become " is the Copula " be ", in combination 
 with the Verb " come ", and called a Copulative Verb. 
 
 This Sentence, then, is Complicate, and is equivalent to 
 the following : WiUiam came (to the condition of himself) 
 to be the leader of a party. 
 
 43. William came to be the leader of a party. 
 
 This Sentence is ambiguous in signification ; and in one 
 sense it is exactly equivalent to the preceding Example. 
 In the other sense it^the following : WUliam came (for 
 himself ) to be the leader of a party. 
 
 This is Complicate, Simple, Co-predicative, Secondary, 
 Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Indicative. 
 
 The Elementary Sentence is " (himself) to be the leader 
 of a party " ; and it is used as the Object of the Preposition 
 (for). 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 175 
 
 44. " Se f Bid you say he ? " "■ I said he "■ 
 
 In each of these expressions the word " he " is the Sub- 
 ject of some word understood ; and the Sentences are Com- 
 plicate. 
 
 In the Sentence " He, his and him iire forms of the Per- 
 sonal Pronoun", he, his, and him are used to limit " words '' 
 understood. 
 
 45. " Ji is not by starts of application that eminence can 
 he attained ". 
 
 The structure of this sentence is readily seen when 
 arranged thus : " It is not (true) that eminence can be at- 
 tained by starts of application ". 
 
 46. " Woe worth the day "- 
 
 In this example '' worth " is the Copula; and the sentence 
 —" Woe be to the day ". 
 
 47. " This look is worth a dollar " This=" This book is 
 (a book of the) worth (of) a dollar". 
 
 48. " It took Rome three hundred years to die ". 
 
 In this sentence " Rome " is used as a Modifier of the 
 Subject " J*". 
 
 49. " We do you to wit of the grace of God ". 2nd Cor. 
 8:1. 
 
 In this sentence " do "=make or cause ; and " to wit"= 
 to know. 
 
 50. " They elected him Governor "- 
 
 This = They elected him (for himself to be) governor. 
 
 51. " ITe was chosen king ". This=He was chosen (for 
 himself to be) king. 
 
 52. " Me opened his hand wide " This=He opened his 
 hand (for it to be) wide. 
 
 53. " The glasses were colored blue ". This=The glasses 
 were colored (for them to be) blue. 
 
 54. ^^ Soft sighed the Jlute". 'Y:Ya&= Softly sighed the 
 flute. 
 
176 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 55. ^^ Sis provisions were grown short'"- This = His pro- 
 visions were grown (to themselves to be) short. 
 
 56. " The vowel is pronounced short ". 
 
 Thi8=The vowel is (so) pronounced (as itself to be) short. 
 
 57. ^^ Horses are sold extremely dear". This^Horses 
 are sold (at an) extremely dear (price.) 
 
 58. " JBut meray first and last shall brightest shine ". 
 Thi8=But mercy first and last shall (in the) brightest 
 
 (manner) shine. 
 
 59. " T%ey all ran away, to a man ". 
 
 This=They all ran away; (and this statement is exact) 
 to a man. 
 
 60. " The waU is three feet high ". This=The wall is 
 high (by) three feet. 
 
 61. '' Sis son is eight years old ". This=His son is old 
 (by) eight years. 
 
 62. " The load weighs a ton". This=:The load weighs 
 (itself by) a ton.=The load is weighed (i. e. balanced) by a 
 ton. 
 
 63. " ITie trees measures ninety feet ".=:The tree measures 
 (itself by) ninety feet. = The tree is measured (i. e. equalled 
 in length) by ninety feet. 
 
 Note. The idiom in the last two examples is similar to 
 the French idiom in which Reflexive Verbs are used as a 
 substitute for a Passive Voice, e. g. " Corn sells at a good 
 price" is rendered in French ie blS se vend d bon prix; 
 i. e., literally, " The com sells itself at a good price." 
 
 64. " Methinks they were right, ". 
 "Methinks"=it thinks to me=it seems to me. 
 
 65. " William left Boston, where he was doing well " 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 
 The Connective is the Relative " where ", which relates 
 to " Boston ", and is used to modify " doing ". It is the 
 old Locative Case of " which ". (See Note 26.) 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOE. 177 
 
 66. He has gone to JBoston, w/ience he will proceed to Sal?m. 
 This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. The 
 
 Connective is the Relative Pronoun ' whence ", .which relates 
 to Boston, and limits " will proceed "- It is the old Geni- 
 tive Case of "which". 
 
 67. -He came from Boston, whither he will soon return. 
 This sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. The 
 
 Connective is the Relative Pronoun "whither", which 
 relates to "Boston", and limits "will return". It is the 
 old Adlative Case of " which'". (See Note 26.) 
 
 68. Please tell me the reason why he failed. 
 
 In this sentence the word " why " is a Relative Pronoun; 
 — the old Instrumental Case of " which ". 
 
 69. That horse of yours, &o. This =" That horse of 
 yourself, &c." 
 
 70. " I stood upon the hills, where heaven's wide arch 
 Was glorious with the sun's returning march; 
 And woods were brightened; and soft gales 
 Went forth to kiss the sun-clad vales." 
 
 This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Normal, of three 
 Members. 
 
 The first Member, including the first two lines, is Com- 
 pound, Compact, Single, Absolute, — ^the Correlatives being 
 "there" (understood) and " where." Each Member of this 
 Compact Sentence is Simple. 
 
 The second Member of the original Sentence, " woods 
 were brightened ", is a Simple Sentence, and ifl connected to 
 the first Member by the Conjunction " and ". 
 
 The third Member, " soft gales went forth to kiss the sun- 
 clad vales", is Complicate, Simple, Co-Predicative, Sec- 
 ondary, Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Indicative, and is con- 
 nected to the second Member by the Conjunction " and ". 
 
 The Elementary Sentence in this Member, " (themselves) 
 to kiss the sun-clad vales ", is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative 
 Positive, Infinitive, and is used as the Object of the Prepo- 
 sition (for).. 
 
178 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFI0 GBAMMAE 
 
 71. Se broke the letter open. = He broke open the letter. 
 =He broke the letter (to it to be) open, i. e., He broke 
 the letter ; (and the " end " of the breaking was it to be) 
 open. 
 
 72. Me washed his hands clean,='H.e washed his hands 
 (to them to be) clean. 
 
 73. T had rather that he should go than that I should go. 
 In this sentence "had " is a relic of the old Subjunctive 
 
 Mood, and=" would have ". So in all similar cases where 
 " had " is used before " rather ", " better ", &c. 
 
 74. Ther/ had better return.=Thej would have (them- 
 selves) better (in themselves to) return. 
 
 75. " There was a pound of revelry by night ; 
 And Belgium's Capital had gathered then 
 Her beauty and her chivalry ; and bright 
 
 The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men ; — 
 A thousand hearts beat happily ; and when 
 Music arose with its voluptuous swell, 
 Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again ; 
 And all went merry as a marriage bell ; 
 But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising 
 knell 1 " 
 This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Normal, of Seven 
 Members, which are separated by the Semicolons. 
 
 The first Meniber, of which the word " There " is the Sub- 
 ject, is Simple. 
 
 The second Member is Simple, and is connected to the 
 first by "and". 
 
 The third Member is Simple, and is connected to the sec- 
 ond by " and ". 
 
 The fourth Member is Simple, and is connected to the 
 third by " and " (understood). 
 
 The fifth Member is Compound, Compact, Single, Abso- 
 lute, having " when " and " (then) " for its Correlatives, and 
 connected to the fourth by " and ". 
 
 The second Member of this Compact Sentence is Com- 
 pound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANQ UA OE. 179 
 
 The sixth Member is Compound, Compact, Single, Abso- 
 lute, having « (as) " and " as " for its Correlatives, and is 
 connected to the fifth by " and ". 
 
 The seventh Member is Compound, Compact, Smgle, Ab- 
 solute, having " (so) " and " as " (which should have been 
 used instead of " like ") for its Correlatives, and is connected 
 to the sixth by the Conjunction " But ". • 
 
 " Hush " and " hark " are used as Exclamations. 
 
 CHAPTER H-SYNTHESIS. 
 
 Synthesis is that part of Syntax pertaining to the con- 
 struction of Sentences. 
 
 The Divisions of Synthesis are Agreement, Gov- 
 ernment, Arrangement, the Uses of Words and Forms, — 
 and Idioms. 
 
 SECTIOB' I.-Aa££EMENT. 
 
 Agreement is the correspondence of words of diflferent 
 classes in respect to forms. 
 
 The Classes of Agreements are three, viz. : 
 
 1. Those of the Pronoun with the Noun it represents ; 
 
 2. Those of the Adjective with the Noun it limits ; and 
 
 3. Those of the Verb or Copula with the Subject of the 
 Sentence. 
 
 Corresponding Forms are those which, in different 
 Classes, have the same names. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The word " he " is the 3d Person of the Singular Number of a Pro- 
 noun ; and " goes " is the 3d Person of the Singular Number of a Verb. 
 " He " and " goes ", therefore, are Corresponding Forms. 
 
 Equivalence. Two or more Singular Forms of Nouns or Pronouns, 
 connected by " and " are, in respect to Agreement, equivalent to a Plu- 
 ral Form, unless they denote tJie same thing. 
 
 Impossibility. Agreement is impossible without Corresponding 
 Forms. 
 
 GENERAL RULE FOR AaREEMENT. 
 
 Use Corresponding Forms, if possible, in uniting words 
 
 of diflferent classes. 
 
180 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GSAMMAR 
 
 CLASS L-AGREEMENTS OF PEONOTTITS. 
 Principle. Pronouns ^hould a^ee,with their Nouns in 
 Gender and Number» ^ f<^^' ' *^'- -e., 
 
 SFEeiAL BTJLES. 
 
 1. Use a Masculine Form to represent a Masculine Noun, 
 or a Masculine Form of a Noun, — a Feminine Form to 
 represent a Feminine Noun, or a Feminine Form of a Noun, 
 and a Neuter Form to represent a Neuter Noun. 
 
 2. Use a Masculine Form to represent a Doubtful Noun, 
 when the sex is unknown ; but when the sex is known, use 
 the appropriate Form. 
 
 3. Use a Singular Form to represent a Singular Form of 
 a Noun, and a Plural Form to represent a Plural Form of a 
 Noun. 
 
 4. Use a Singular Form to represent a Noun which is 
 Plural in form, but singular in sense. 
 
 5. Use a Singular or Plural Form, according to the sense, 
 to represent an Ambiguoils Noun. 
 
 6. Use a Singular Form to represent a Singular Collective 
 Noxm ; but use a Plural Form, when necessary, to represent 
 some such Plural word as " individuals ", " members ", <fcc., 
 understood before the Collective Noun. 
 
 7. Use a Form of the 1st Person to represent any Com- 
 pound Term including a 1st Person. 
 
 8. Use a Form of the 2nd Person to represent any Com- 
 pound Term including a 2nd Person but not a 1st Person. 
 
 9. Use a Form of the 3d Person to represent any Com- 
 pound Term not including a 1st Person or a 2nd Person. 
 
 EXEECISES. (Correct the errors, and fill the blanks.) 
 
 1. The gentleman had her watch stolen yesterday. 
 
 2. When the Authoress heard that statement, he was surprised. 
 
 3. This ink does not hold his color well. 
 
 4. A certain teacher proposed a question to its class. 
 
 5. John slipped on the ice, and sprained their ankle. 
 
 6. Those men carried his heads very high, 
 
 7. Those young men will be despised unless change 
 
OF TEE BNGLISS LANG UAGE. 181 
 
 8. When the man was last seen, was standing with hat 
 
 in hand. 
 
 9. The lady said that would use influence as far as 
 
 could. 
 
 10. The child has burnt fingers upon the hot stove. 
 
 11. That statue appears as if would soon fall from 
 
 pedestal. 
 
 12. The Society refused assent to this arrangement. 
 
 13. The (members of the) Society expressed approbation by 
 
 cheering. 
 
 14. A good teacher is usually beloved by the most of pupils. 
 
 15. The enraged Elephant broke chain, and rushed upon 
 
 keeper. 
 
 16. The frightened sheep escaped from keeper, and fled into 
 
 the woods. 
 
 17. The swift footed deer left pursuers far behind. 
 
 18. The lady said that hated politics, and thought 
 
 very wearisome. 
 
 19. James and John lost his way in the woods. ' 
 
 20. Neither Henry nor William lost their way in the same woods. 
 
 21. Susan and Mary forgot books, and went back for 
 
 22. You and I were not perfect in your recitations this morning. 
 
 23. You and I and James ought to have been in seats before 
 
 now. 
 
 24. You and he are deserving of praise for diligence. 
 
 25. He and John have written compositions for next week. 
 
 26. That eminent philosopher and statesman sent in resigna- 
 tion. 
 
 CLASS IL-AGREEMEITTS OF ADJECTIVES. 
 Principle. Adjectives shopld agre.ejjrith their N'ouns 
 or Pronouns in Number. »^ f-if-'J-l* t- ,-0 ,- 
 » -IIXJLE. 
 Use a Singular Adjective or a Singular Form of an Adjec- 
 tive to limit a Singular Form of a Noun or Pronoun, and a 
 Plural Adjective or a Plural Form of an Adjective to limit 
 a Plural Form. 
 
 EXERCISES. (Correct the errors, and fill the blanks.) 
 
 1. The Surveyor's Chain is four rod long, , 
 
 2. Some people object to these kind of exercises. \ 
 
 3. I think that the merchant asks too much for these molasses. 
 
 4. Please tell me the price of shears. 
 
 5. What do you think of the credibility of news 1 
 
182 A aOMPLETE SCIEWriFIC GBAMMAB 
 
 6. Tell the servant to be careful in removing ■ ashes. 
 
 7. I never like to converse with ^-^— sort of persons. 
 
 8. The Doctor says that victuals not suitable for the 
 
 patient. 
 
 9. The surveyor uses a four-rod chain, 
 
 10. The carpenter uses a ten-foot pole and a twelve-inch rule. 
 
 CLASS ni-AGREEMENTS OF THE COPULA AND VEEB. 
 Principle. The Copula or Verb should agrep with its 
 Subject in Jfumber and Person, ' -" / »' wV^t m^^^.^ 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. Use a Singular Form with a Singular Subject, and a 
 Plural Form with a Plural Subject. 
 
 2. Where Plural Forms are lacking, use the Tense Stems 
 instead of them. 
 
 3. When the Subject is a Personal Pronoun, use a Form 
 of the 1st Person with a Subject of the first Person, — a 
 Form of the 2nd Person with a Subject of the 2nd Person, 
 — .and a Form of the 3d Person with a Subject of the 3d 
 Person. 
 
 4. Where Personal Forms are lacking, use Tense Stems 
 instead of them. 
 
 5. When the Subject is a Singular Noun or a Sentence, 
 use a form of the 3d Person Singular with it. 
 
 6. When the Subject is a Relative Pronoun, make the 
 Copula or Verb agree, if possible, with the Antecedent of 
 the Relative. 
 
 EXERCISES. (Correct the errors and fill the blanks.) 
 
 1. Many great and good men is still living. 
 
 2. We am going to the Lecture this evening. 
 
 3. The man says that he are going to Philadelphia. 
 
 4. Willie said that he were going to have a new pair of skates. 
 
 5. I does not believe that I is not as good as he am. 
 
 6. John write compositions better than James do. 
 
 7. Thou is not well prepared for recitation. 
 
 8. I thinks that thou have need of more diligence. 
 
 9. Thou said that thou would return very early. 
 
 10. Thou will be fortunate if thou escape without damage. 
 
 11. They has not returned, and is not expected to return. 
 
 12. Persons who is wise will take care of their health. 
 
OF THE ENOLISE LANO UAGM. 183 
 
 18. The signers of the Declaration of Independence all dead. 
 
 14. The man who hurt by the accident recovered. 
 
 15. Those men no need to apologize, when their work 
 
 finished. 
 
 16. If thou been faithful to thy trust, thou be re- 
 warded. 
 
 17. Those books -^^— written by authors who wise and good. 
 
 18. I not sure that he a knave ; but I think he . 
 
 19. If they ' honest, they return those articles to their 
 
 owners, 
 
 20. The times changed since these old men were young. 
 
 21f Joseph and Thomas is gone to the Fair. 
 
 22. You and I and George was on the same train to-day. 
 
 23. If I was in your place, I would not go there. 
 
 24. Was he as wise as he thinks he be, he would not do such things. 
 
 SECTION n-GOyERNMElTT. 
 
 Government is the control of one word over another 
 in respect to Case. 
 
 The Species of Government are three ; that of the 
 Subject, that of the Predicate, and that of the Object. 
 
 1. A Subject is governed by its Copula or Verb. 
 
 2. A Predicate is governed by its Copula. 
 
 8. An Object is governed by its Verb or Preposition. 
 
 SPECIES L-GOVERNMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 
 BULES. 
 
 1. When the Subject of any Tense Form is to be a Pro- 
 noun, use its Nominative Case. 
 
 2. When the Subject of an Infinitive is to be a Pronoun, 
 use its Objective Case. 
 
 SPECIES n.-GOVERlIMENT OF THE PREDICATE. 
 RULE. 
 
 When a Predicate is to be a Pronoun, use the Nomina- 
 tive Case with a Tense Form, and the Objective Case with 
 an Infinitive. 
 
 SPECIES III.— GOVERNMENT OF THE OBJECT. 
 RULE. 
 When the Object of a Verb or Preposition is to be a Pro- 
 noun, use its Objective Case. 
 
184 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIO GSAMMAB 
 
 EXERCISES. (Correct errors and fill blanks.) 
 
 1. Him and me went to the city on tlie 4tli of July. 
 
 2. Tliem said them wished we to come and assist they. 
 
 8. The persons who them wished to be there were not there. 
 
 4. The man saw they while them were stealing the horse. 
 
 5. Her said that the book belonged to they. 
 
 6. The teacher told the boy that would give a book. 
 
 7. When the prisoners heard the evidence against ■ , de- 
 spaired. 
 
 8. Thomas told his friends that he wished to assist — . 
 
 SECTION in.— ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 1. The Normal Arrangement of a Simple Verbal 
 Sentence, witb Primitive Elements, is (1.) The Subject; and 
 (2.) The Predicate. 
 
 2. A Copulative Sentence has (1.) The Subject ; (2.) 
 The Copula ; and (3.) The Predicate. 
 
 3. Adjectives modifying a Noun are placed before it. 
 
 4. Adverbs modifying a Copula or Verb are placed 
 after it; but those modifiying an Adjective or Adverb are 
 placed before it. 
 
 5. Tlie Object of a Verb or Preposition is placed 
 after it. 
 
 6. A Prepositional Phrase is placed after the word 
 it limits. 
 
 7. Separate Adjectives. Several Adjectives sepa- 
 rately modifying a Noun are placed before it in any order, 
 and connected Uy Conjunctions expressed or understood. 
 
 8. Consecutive Adjectives. Of several Adjectives 
 consecutively modifying a Noun, the 1st is placed immedi- 
 ately before the Noun, the 2nd before the 1st, and the 3d 
 before the 2nd, &c., with no Conjunctions or Points between 
 them. 
 
 9. An Article precedes its Noun; and if other Adjec- 
 tives are used with it, the Article precedes the whole. 
 
 10. Adverbs of the same Group. Several Adverbs 
 of the same Group, limiting a Verb, are placed after it, and 
 connected by Conjunctions, expressed or understood. 
 
 11. Adverbs of Different Groups. When Adverbs 
 
OF TEE ENGLISH. LANGVA&E. 185 
 
 of different' Groups modify tte same Verb, some are placed 
 before it and some after it, — those of the same Group being 
 placed together. 
 
 12. Modal Adverbs modifying a Verb are placed be- 
 fore it. 
 
 13. Variation. This Order is frequently and exten- 
 sively varied for special purposes. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Time flies. 2. Time is precious. 3. He has active assistants. 
 
 4. He writes rapidly. They are not pi-esent. She is very active. A 
 lazy student vfill most certainly fail to succeed. 
 
 5. We met them in the field of wheat hy the side of the river. 
 
 6. He is a man of great learning. They write in a careless manner. 
 
 7. He had an old, weather-beaten, and dilapidated house. 
 
 8. The poor old man owned a miserable little brown house. 
 
 9. The house stands near a large spreading oak-tree. 
 
 10. That young man writes slowly, carefully, and accurately. 
 
 11. They usually prepare their lessons carefully and thoroughly. 
 
 12. The young men certainly speak with much ease and propriety, 
 
 BITLES OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 1. Place all Modifiers so that it shall be evident what 
 words they are intended to limit. 
 
 2. Arrange all parts of a Sentence so as to make the 
 meaning as clear as possible. 
 
 3. Place emphatic words, when practicable, near the be- 
 ginning or the end of a Sentence. 
 
 4. Place Relative Pronouns as near as possible to their 
 antecedents. 
 
 5. Avoid beginning a Sentence with " and" or " hut ". 
 
 6. Place the most emphatic Modifier of a Verb immedi- 
 ately after it. 
 
 7. Avoid closing a Sentence with a Preposition, unless its 
 Object be the Relative " that ", or " what ". 
 
 8. Place all Pronouns so that it shall be evident what 
 words they represent. 
 
 9. Place the Article before its Noun. 
 
 10. Place the Indefinite Article after " such ", " many ", 
 
186 A COMPLETE SOIBHTTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 " what ", and " both " ; and after words limited by " as ", 
 « so ", " how ", and " too ". 
 
 11. Avoid the use of Parentheses, redundant words, and 
 Exclamations. 
 
 12. Avoid a succession of words or syllables of like sound. 
 
 13. In Interrogative Sentences, unless the Subject is an 
 Interrogative Pronoun, place the Subject after the Verb or 
 Copula ; or, if Auxiliaries are used, place the Subject after 
 the first Auxiliary. Also observe the same rule in Hypo- 
 thetical Sentences, when "if" is omitted; and likewise in 
 Imperative' Sentences. 
 
 14. In referring to several individuals, place ^rs^ the word 
 designating the person addressed, and let that denoting the 
 speaker stand last ; — but if anything unfavorable is men- 
 tioned, reverse the order. 
 
 15. Let no word come between the " to " of an Infinitive 
 and the other parts of the form. 
 
 EXERCISES. (Correct the errors.) 
 
 1. These lines were written by one who has for many years lain in 
 his grave for his own amusement. 
 
 Wanted. A boy to open Oysters about fifteen years old. 
 He is not prepared thoroughly to weigh the arguments. 
 They are not fitted properly to enter upon this worlc. 
 
 2. He yet would not, although he had the opportunity of doing so, 
 take advantage of their want of preparation. 
 
 3. By him the discovery was made ; and the honor should be ascribed 
 to him. 
 
 I tell you again, gentlemen, that justice ought to be our first 
 object. 
 
 4. The man has returned for his own benefit who left his country for 
 his country's good. 
 
 5. And, now, gentlemen, it is time for us to attend to other matters. 
 But none are so blind as those who do not wish to see. 
 
 6. This poet has the ability to write rapidly and beautifully such 
 
 He takes this course for the benefit of his friends, for the welfare 
 of his neighbors, and for his own interest. 
 
 7. He is the most singular man whom I have ever been acquainted 
 with. 
 
 This result is that which I have long been laboring for. 
 
OF THE SNGLISH LANG TIAGE.. 187 
 
 8. I went to the stable for a horse with Tom Flynn ; and I told the 
 man to put the saddle on him. 
 
 The man told the boys to saddle the donkey ; and sb they saddled 
 him. 
 
 John said that his brother had returned, and that he had lost his 
 watch. 
 
 9. I saw stars the, beautiful and numberless as sands the on a 
 beach. 
 
 10. I never before saw a such multitude of people. 
 
 It is surprising how a great part of life is made up of trifles. 
 11.' Walter (for that was the name of the boy whom I met) requested 
 me to go with him. 
 
 The way and manner of doing it Is certainly, as it seems to me, 
 very evident and plain and easy to be understood and comprehended. 
 
 They returned back again to the same city from whence they came 
 forth. 
 
 How beautiful the grass and trees and flowers look in the Spring t 
 and how sweetly the birds sing ! and how joyful every thing seems ! 
 
 12. This miserable old man chillily and lonelily proceeded to his mis- 
 erable home. 
 
 " O'er the sea see the flamingo flaming go, 
 The lark hie high, the swallow follow low,- 
 The small bees busy at their threshold old, 
 And lambs lamenting the three-fold fold." 
 
 13. A man very much under the influence of liquor, with a pair of 
 shad, was making his way under difiSculties to the depot on Saturday. 
 
 She added to unusual learning much talent as a painter, and 
 according to her admiring cotemporaries, as a poetical writer. 
 
 She wrote, among other poems, a spirited defense of her sex, in 
 answer to Pope's Characters of Women, which Duncomb praises in his 
 Feminead. 
 
 Kich or poor you hare always been to me a true friend. 
 
 The English hate frogs ; but the French love frogs and hate the 
 English, and cut off their hind legs, and consider them a great delicacy. 
 
 John Smith, his wife, baby, and dog came up to town to see the 
 fair ; and passing through the streets he amused himself by barking at 
 every unprotected female he met. 
 
 14. James and I and you were present at the wedding. 
 I and you and Thomas were very fortunate. 
 
 You and Henry and I committed a great error. 
 
 15. It is not advisable for us to now go there. 
 
 For him to in that manner have gone there Is strange. 
 
188 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 
 
 SECTION IV.— USES OF WORDS AND FORMS. 
 NOUNS. 
 A Noun Stem is used as a Subject, Predicate, Modifier 
 or Exclamation. 
 
 A Possessive Case of a Noun is always used as a 
 Modifier. 
 
 Modifying Noun. A Noun is used as a Modifier in 
 several ways : 
 
 1. It is appended to another Noun meaning the same 
 thing, for the purpose of identifying or explaining it. (Ap- 
 position.) 
 
 2. It is placed, like an Adjective, before a Noun meaning 
 a different thing. In this use it becomes an Adjective sub- 
 stantially (except in the Possessive Form), and is frequently 
 in fact a contraction of an Adjective, as " gold " for " gold- 
 en"; " wood " for " wooden " ; &c. 
 
 3. It is used as the Object of a Verb. In this use 
 it modifies the Verb by answering the question "What? " , 
 — just as other Modifiers answer the questions " When ? ", 
 " Where ? ", " Whence ? », " How ? ", " Why ? ", &c. 
 
 4. It is used as the Object of a Preposition. In 
 this use it also answers the question " What ? ", and modi* 
 fies the Preposition, just as in the first use it modifies a Noun 
 in Apposition ; for the Preposition and its Object mean the 
 same thing. The apparent exception to this principle in 
 the case of the Adjective and Phrase prepositions is the re- 
 sult of Contraction. On restoring the -original forms, the 
 principle holds good. 
 
 5. In the Possessive Form it modifies a Noun de- 
 noting a different thing, and indicates origin, possession, 
 authorship, adaptation, &c. 
 
 The Possessive Case of a Noun is usually equivalent 
 to the Stem placed after the word " of ", as John's house= 
 The house of John. 
 
 A Noun foUoTved by Modifiers is often treated as 
 a Compound Noun ; and its Possessive Case is formed by 
 adding the Possessive termination to the last word, as "For 
 
OF THE BNaLian LANO UAGK 189 
 
 my servant David's sake "; "The President of the Literary 
 Society's decision" ; &c., hut such expressions are awkward 
 and should be avoided. 
 
 Joint Liimitation. Of two or more Nouns jointly 
 limiting the same word, only the last takes the Possessive 
 form ; feut if they separately limit the word, then each takes 
 that Form. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Time is short. I wish the ' moaey to be sent. He is a farmer, 
 Bichard wishes to be a painter. He wears a cloth coat and a gold 
 
 chain. 
 
 They eat the bread of industry. That iron fence belongs to 
 Henry. 
 
 Milton, the poet, and Bacon, the philosopher, were very dis- 
 tinguished men. '' 
 
 Friends and Countrymen, I congratulate you. James, come here. 
 
 2. John's hat. Children's shoes. The tree's fruit. Webster's Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 The animal's tracks. The horse's back. The ship's sails. The 
 man's debts. 
 
 The rope's end. The citizen's duty. . The laborer's work. The 
 parent's obligation. The child's disobedience. Ivison, Blakeman, 
 and Taylor's Publications. Webster's, Worcester's, and Smart's Dic- 
 tionaries. 
 
 PRONOUITS. 
 
 Use. A Pronoun represents a Noun, a Phrase, or a 
 Sentence. 
 
 Origin, Originally all Pronouns were Definitive Ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 Personal Pronoun. The Forms of the Personal Pro- 
 noun are all from the same original, and are closely related 
 to the Pronominal Adjectives. 
 
 A Nominative Case is used as a Subject, Predicate, 
 or Exclamation. 
 
 A Possessive Case is used as a Modifier. 
 
 An Objective Case is used as an Object, as a Subject of 
 an Infinitive, or as an Exclamation. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. He writes. It is he. It is I. Ye villains ! Thou miscreant ! 
 Fortunate he ! Happy they ! A he-goat. A she-wolf. 
 
190 A COMPLETE SOIENTLFIO OBAMMAR 
 
 2. His book. Their time. His conduct. Tour deficiencies. 
 Thy likeness. Thine image. His absence. My presence. 
 
 3. I saw him. The house belongs to them. There is necessity for 
 him to go. O^wretched we ! Ah miserable me ! 
 
 4. The man has sold his house. He built a large fine house, and 
 sold it. He is a poor scholar ; and he knows it. 
 
 She is very quick tempered, which is often a cause of regret to 
 her. 
 
 5. That beautiful farm, which farm I once owned, is now for sale. 
 Wait here until I see what course it is best for us to take. 
 That thing which ( ) most disturbs him is the fear of detection. 
 
 SPECIAL FOEMS. 
 
 The Forms of the 2nd Person, Singular, are now 
 used only in the solemn, impassioned, or poetic style, except 
 among the Friends, or Quakers, and in some provincial dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 1^" These forms are not obsolete nor obsolescent, but 
 are retained for the highest purposes, and should be thor- 
 oughly- familiar. 
 
 The Form " You " is the common drudge among Pro- 
 nouns, being compelled, in addition to its own, to do the 
 work of "Te", " Thou", and "Thee ". 
 
 The Form "It" is often used as an Indefinite (or In- 
 ceptive) Pronoun at the beginning of a Sentence ; and a 
 Predicate of any Gender, Number, or Person, may be joined 
 to it by the Copula. When used in this way it sometimes 
 represents an Elementary Sentence which is afterwards in- 
 troduced as a Modifier of it ; but more frequently the phrase 
 " that (thing) " is first introduced as a Modifier of the In- 
 ceptive " it ", and then the Elementary Sentence as a Modi- 
 fier of "thing". Sometimes "it" is used indefinitely as 
 the Object of a Verb ; but this use is not common, and 
 ought to become obsolete. 
 
 The Form "There " is frequently used inceptively in 
 the same manner as " it ". 
 
 Omitted Antecedents. The Antecedents of the Rel- 
 atives what, whatever, whichsoever, whosoever, &o., are usu- 
 ally omitted. 
 
 Use of the Relatives. " Who " is used to represent 
 
OF TEE JEJV&LISS LANQ UAGK 191 
 
 persons; "which" and " what " to represent things; and 
 " that " to represent either persons or things. 
 
 The Forms Thou and You are not applicable to the 
 same person in the same connection. Neglect di this prin- 
 ciple is a great blemish in some of the Poets. 
 
 A Pronoun used as a Predicate takes tlie same form 
 as if it were a Subject in the same Sentence. 
 
 The Possessive Pronouns. Each of these forms is 
 equivalent to a Noun limited by a Possessive Case of a Per- 
 sonal Pronoun. 
 
 ERRORS. 
 
 " They " is often used improperly for " one " or "he ", as " If any 
 one does not like this booli, tliey a/re (he is) not obliged to read it." 
 
 " Them " is sometimes improperly used for " those ", as " Bring me 
 them (those) books." 
 
 " As " is sometimes wrongly used for " who ", as " The men as (who) 
 do such things ought to be punished." 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee. 
 
 2. Gentlemen, you all are greatly mistaken in your opinions. 
 
 3. I thank you, sir, for your kindness, and will remember the obliga- 
 tion. 
 
 4. It is I. It is thou. It is he. It is we. It is you. It is they. 
 
 It is this man. It is that woman. It is those persons who are do- 
 ing this. 
 
 6. It is certain that he has not returned'yet. 
 It is not certain that he will ever return again, 
 
 6. Haste ye, nymphs, and trip it as ye go. 
 
 They lorded it over the people with absolute sway. 
 
 7. There are ( ) reasons for taking such a course. 
 
 There were ( ) multitudes ( ) ready to confirm his statements. 
 
 8. When he saw ( ) what would result from his act ( ) he desisted. 
 The reward is ready for ( ) whoever shall deserve to receive it. 
 To whomsoever the property belongs ( ) it shall soon be restored. 
 
 9. The men who best deserve preferment do not always obtain it. 
 The cattle which he bought are certainly very valuable. 
 
 The men that lived here, and the habitations that they built, have 
 disappeared. 
 
 10. It is he who did it ; and I can easily prove it to be him. 
 
 11. That book is hers (her book). Tours (your letter) of the 3d is 
 received. 
 
192 A COMPLMTE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 
 
 Our friends ai-e better than theirs (their friends). 
 
 That hook of hers (herself ) cannot be found. 
 
 That nose of his (his self = himself ) Is very crooked. 
 
 EXERCISES. (Correct the errors.) 
 
 1. It is me. It is him. It was her which did it. The man does not 
 wish them horses to be disturbed. If any one fails to learn their lesson 
 they will suffer great loss. If I knew who it was wliich did this, I 
 would make them pay for their mischief. It was not them as did it. 
 
 2. Thou art younger than your looks imply. You have many advan- 
 tages ; but thou dost not seem to know it. The horse who ran away 
 yesterday was badly hurt. I knew it to be he by his voice. They do 
 not think it is him. Whom do they think it is ■? Who does he believe 
 it to be "i 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Uses. Adjectives are used to limit Nouns or Pronouns, 
 and to form Predicates in Copulative Sentences. 
 
 Position. The Position of an Adjective is usually be- 
 fore a Noim, or after a Pronoun. 
 
 Order. Several Descriptive Adjectives separately limit- 
 ing a Noun are placed before it in any order, and connected 
 by Conjunctions, expressed or understood, as " A great, wise 
 and virtuous man." Definitive Adjectives used with other 
 Adjectives are placed before them. 
 
 Several Adjectives consecutively limiting a Noun are 
 placed in consecutive order before it, the 1st next the Noun, 
 the 2nd before the 1st, &c., with no Conjunctions or points 
 between them, as " That beautiful white dove". In this case 
 " dove " is first limited by " white " ; then " white dove " is 
 limited by ""beautiful"; and finally "beautiful white 
 dove " is limited by " That ". 
 
 Definitives remain before the Noun when other Adjectives 
 are placed after it. 
 
 Qualities expressed by Adjectives are not Abso- 
 lute but Relative ; and the Significance of each Adjective 
 varies according to the class of the Noun it limits. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The word " great " expresses a different magnitude in each of the 
 phrases, A great needle, a great pencil, a great poker, a great club, a 
 great trunk, a great wagon, a great locomotive, a great house, a great 
 
OF- TME BNaLISH LAN& UAOE. Ig^ 
 
 church, a great city, a great State, a great country, a great continent. ' 
 a great planet, a great sun, a great stellar system, &c, 
 
 THE POSITIVE DEGREE. 
 
 Implication. The Positive degree of a Qualitative Ad- 
 jective implies the comparison of the thing mentioned with 
 some Ideal Standard. 
 
 The Ideal Standard is usually the average degree of 
 the quality in the class to which the thing belongs ; and in 
 that case the Positive form indicates a degree of the quality 
 fully up to the standard (e. g. A tall man) ; but sometimes 
 the Ideal Standard is absolute perfection ; and in that case 
 the Positive form only indicates an approximation to the 
 standard (e. g. Round timber and square timber). 
 
 Consequence. Hence such words as " round ", " square ", 
 " perfect ", " supreme ", &c., are as properly compared as 
 any others. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 Implication. The Comparative Degree implies the 
 comparison of the thing mentioned with some other thing 
 or class of things having the same quality (e. g. A larger 
 book). 
 
 Significance. The Comparative Degree expresses more 
 of a quality than the Positive in the same connection ; but in 
 a different application the Positive may express more of the 
 quality than the Comparative or even the Superlative in a 
 given application. 
 
 iExample. The Positive " great " applied to an ox ex- 
 presses more of magnitude than the Superlative "greatest" 
 applied to a dog. 
 
 Contrast. When the Comparative Degree of a q^ality 
 is attributed to any object, the Positive Degree is always 
 attributed to the contrasted object. Ex. " An ox is larger 
 than a dog"=An ox is larger than a dog {is large). 
 
 Sequence. The Comparative Degree of a word is fol- 
 lowed by the word " than ", after which the Positive Degree, 
 of the same word is always either expressed or understood. 
 
194 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIO GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE STJPEELATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 Implication. The Superlative Degree implies a Com- 
 parison of the thing mentioned with two or more other 
 things having the same quality. 
 
 Significance. The Superlative Degree indicates more 
 of a quality than the Comparative in the same connection. 
 
 Contrast. When the Superlative Degree is attributed to 
 any object, the Positive is always attributed to some one, 
 at least, and the Comparative to some other of the contrasted 
 objects. 
 
 Sequence. The Superlative Degree is followed by the 
 Preposition " of" and its Object, expressed or understood. 
 
 Superlative of Eminence. A Superlative of Emi- 
 nence is a Superlative used instead of a Positive limited by 
 " very ", as "the greatest anxiety "=" very great anxiety ". 
 
 TEBUS OF A COMFABISON. 
 
 The Terms of a Comparison are the two terms in- 
 dicating the things which are compared. The Ist Term is 
 the one first mentioned; and the 2nd Term is the one 
 with which the 1st is compared. 
 
 Limit of Terms. When the Positive or Comparative 
 Degree is used in a formal comparison, the second Term 
 must never include the first ; and the first must never in- 
 clude the second ; but when the Superlative Degree is 
 used, the second Term must always include the first, as 
 " This book is the best of the three books"- 
 
 Consequences. Hence it is incorrect to say " This book 
 is better than all books", or " This book is the best of all 
 other books". 
 
 Also it is correct to say " the better of the two", or "the 
 best of the three " ; but it is not correct to say " the best of 
 the two " or « the better of the three ". 
 
 mSCELLANY. 
 Compounds. An Adjective limiting another Adjective 
 forms with it a Compound Word, and should be joined to 
 it by a Hyphen, as A red-hot iron ; a dark-blue coat " ; && 
 
OF THB ENGLIBH LANG UAOE. 195 
 
 Double Comparatives and Superlatives should 
 be avoided, as " A ■worser evil " ; " the most straightest 
 sect " ; "a lesser amoTint " ; &c. 
 
 Superior, Inferior, and other similar words, should be 
 treated as Positive and not as Comparative Forms. 
 
 The two first, &C. The expressions " The two first " 
 and " The first two " are not equivalent, and should be used 
 with discrimination. " The two first " means the two which 
 are first, each in its own series. " The first two '' means the 
 two which precede all the others in the same series. 
 
 Adjectives and Verbs. Adjectives do not modify 
 Verbs ; but in those Sentences where they have been thought 
 to do so, the Adjectives are used by Poetic License for Ad- 
 verbs, or there is an Ellipsis of some words, or the expres- 
 sions are incorrect. 
 
 EXEBCISES. (Correct the errors.) 
 
 1. The house great stands upon the hill lofty beyond the river large. 
 
 2. Man a great, wise, and virtuous is beloved by all the good. 
 
 3. Little red those birds make their appearance in the Summer. 
 
 4. That old poor man has lost both fortune and friends. 
 
 5. Man this, young, rich, and intelligent, is very much flattered. 
 
 6. Solomon, the Jewish King, was very much wiser than all men. 
 
 7. Solomon, the Jewish King, was very much the wisest of all other 
 men. 
 
 8. This book is the best of the two. That house is the larger of the 
 
 three. 
 
 9. He stood too near the red hot stove, and scorched his coat. 
 
 10. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 
 
 11. John and Thomas are the first two boys in their respective schools. 
 
 12. Henry and William are the two first boys in their class. 
 
 13. He spoke rough and fretful and unkind, and acted ungenerous. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Xiimit of Use. A Noim is never to be limited by more 
 than one Article at the same time. 
 
 Repetition. In a Series of Adjectives the repetition of 
 the Article implies the repetition of its Noun. 
 
 Omission. The Article should be omitted in the follow- 
 ing Cases: 
 
 1. Before a Proper Noun, a Compellative, or a Participle 
 
 used as a Noun and followed by an Object. 
 
196 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFia GRAMMAR 
 
 2. Before a Noun used in an Indefinite sense. 
 
 3. Before a Noun limited by any one of the Pronominal 
 Adjectives except otJier, one, former, latter, same, many, few, 
 and several. 
 
 Implied Article. In a Series of Nouns the Article is 
 frequently understood with each Noun except the first. 
 
 Contrasts. When two Nouns are contrasted, the Arti- 
 cle should be inserted before each, or omitted before each. 
 
 Necessity. The Article miist sometimes be used, be- 
 cause its omission would change the meaning from what is 
 intended. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The red, the white, and the blue flag. (Three flags.) 
 
 2. The red, white, and blue flag. (The flag of three colors.) 
 8. John Smith said " Henry, stop beating that drum." 
 
 4. Iron is heavy. Bears are dangerous animals. Beauty is transient. 
 6. This young man is studious ; that one is idle ; and the other is 
 
 vicious. 
 
 6. The horse, ox, camel, sheep, goat, and swine, are useful animals. 
 
 7. Neither the sun nor the moon. Neither sun nor moon. 
 
 8. The German, the Irish, and the French Eegiment went into camp. 
 
 9. The German, Irish, and French Regiment went into camp. 
 
 10. The German, the Irish, and the French Regiments went into camp. 
 
 11. The German, Irish, and French Regiments went into camp. 
 
 12. The Old and the New Testament. The Old and New Testaments. 
 
 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Number of Limited Nouns. The Definite Article 
 may be used to limit both Singular and Plural Nouns. 
 
 Special Cases. This Article should be used in the fol- 
 lowing cases : 
 
 1. Before a Noun denoting a whole Class, except " man " 
 and "woman". 
 
 2. Before a Noun denoting some particular part of a 
 Class. 
 
 3. Before an Adjective used as a Noun. 
 
 Position. When used with other Adjectives this Arti- 
 cle is properly placed before them, and remains before the 
 Noun even when the other Adjectives are placed after it. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LA NQ UA OE. 197 
 
 "Understood" Article. Sometimes this Article is 
 understood before a Noun denoting a Class. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The horse, the cow, stnd the mules were all stolen. 
 
 2. The lion is a carniTorous animal. 
 
 3. The lions are very powerful and sagacious animals. 
 
 4. The lion which I saw was tame. 
 
 5. The lions in the cage were quiet and docile. 
 
 6. Man is much superior to the other animals. 
 
 7. Woman has no less need of education than man. 
 
 8. The rich and the poor, the high and the low, must meet death at 
 last. 
 
 9. The animal, hungry and fierce, rushed upon the prey. 
 
 10. The beautiful fleet horse soon carried him out of danger. 
 
 11. The Penguin is a kind of (the) bird. 
 
 12. The Elephant is the largest of (the) Quadrupeds. 
 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Liimitatioii. The Indefinite Article can limit Singular 
 or Ambiguous Nouns only. 
 
 Use. The use of it is to restrict the meaning of a Noun 
 to a single thing, and to distinguish a Common Noun fi:om 
 a Proper Noun. 
 
 Old Form, &C. It was formerly -written " ane " and 
 means " one ", 
 
 Present Forms. It is now written "an" before a 
 Vowel, or " a " before a Consonant. 
 
 Substitution. It is employed instead of " one " where 
 less Emphasis is required. 
 
 Few, &C. When this Article precedes " few ", <' hun- 
 dred ", " thousand ", &e., those words are not Adjectives, 
 but Nouns. 
 
 Many. When " a " is used after " man^ ", as " mani/ a 
 man ", &e., it is not the Article, but a corruption of the 
 Preposition " of" ; also when used before a Plural Noun, 
 as " Now a days ", &o. 
 
 Position. When used with other Adjectives, this Arti- 
 cle precedes them, except " such " and "what ". 
 
198 A COMPLETE BGIENTIFIG QRAMMAB. 
 
 EXAMPLES- 
 
 1. A certain man found a mischievous boy stealing apples. 
 
 2. Deer and sheep were feeding on the grassy hill. 
 
 3. A deer and a. sheep were feeding on the grassy hill. 
 
 4. Man, through vice, had completely ruined his health. 
 
 5. A man, through vice, had completely ruined his health. 
 
 6. An elderly man sat in the shade beneath an oak. 
 
 7. Such a one desired a shade, but could not find one tree in the 
 desert. 
 
 8. A few honest patriots are better than a hundred mere hirelings. 
 
 9. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
 
 10. This man is a much better farmer than mechanic. 
 
 11. This man is a much better farmer than a mechanic. 
 
 12. That young man is a far better scholar than the teacher. 
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Tlie Word " the ", in the Sentence " He will the rather 
 go ", is not an Article, but a Pronominal Adjective, and is 
 equivalent to "by that". So also in the Sentence "The 
 inore one has, the more he wants ", &c. 
 
 "This" and "These" are applied to things com- 
 paratively near, — " that " and " those " to things more dis- 
 tant. "When they refer to two things just mentioned, 
 « this " refers to the " latter ", and " that " to the " former " 
 one. 
 
 "Both." means "the two", and is often used as a 
 Noun. 
 
 "Such" indicates resemblance; and "Same" denotes 
 identity. 
 
 The Distributives are all essentially Singular. 
 
 Sach Other, &c. The elliptical expression '' each 
 other " is used in reference to Iwo individuals ; and " one an- 
 other " in reference to more than two. 
 
 "Either" and "Neither" should each be used in 
 reference to two things only; but " any one " and " no one " 
 should each be used in reference to more than two things. 
 
 "Sonie"=a part or portion, and is often used as a 
 Noun. 
 
 " Other "=that which remains of a set of things. It 
 
OF THE ENGLLSH LANQ UAGE. 199 
 
 should not be applied except to the last thing of a set ; but 
 the Plural, " others ", may be applied to those which re- 
 main after some one, or more, of a set has been mentioned. 
 " Other " is often improperly used in the sense of" second " ; 
 but iX properly has that sense in the Example " I have no 
 other house than this ". 
 
 " Anotlier" may he applied to any one of a set, except 
 the first or last. 
 
 " Any " means either " one " or " several " out of a set. 
 
 " Many " formerly signified a group or multitude, and 
 is often used as a Noun. 
 
 " Fe'W " is often used as a Noun, meaning a small num- 
 ber. 
 
 " One " is a word of double origin and meaning. In one 
 sense it is identical with the Article '' an " and the Numeral 
 " one ". In the other sense it comes from the French In- 
 definite Pronoun " on ", which is itself derived from 
 " homme", meaning "man''. 
 
 " N'one "=no one, or no ones, or no. 
 
 " All " is often used as a Noun, meaning the " whole ". 
 
 " Several" generally naeans a small number, but more 
 than two. 
 
 " What ? " and " which ? " are different forms of 
 the same word ; but " which ? " is properly used in reference 
 to two things or, sets of things only, while " what ? " is used 
 in reference to any other number of things. If a person, in 
 speaking, is not understood, the proper inquiry is " What ? " 
 or " What did you say ? ", and not " Which ? " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The sooner the work Is begun, the sooner it will be completed. 
 
 2. " Farewell my friends ; farewell my foes ; 
 
 My peace with these, my love with those." 
 
 3. I saw both men He has found both of the horses. 
 
 4. I have seen such men ; but they were not the same whom you 
 saw. 
 
 5. Either of these is worth more than all of those. 
 
 6. Every one of them has disgraced himself. 
 
200 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 7. These two men struck each other ; and those three abused one 
 another. 
 
 8. Neither he nor I Is rich ; but we have each given more than any 
 one of that large company. 
 
 9. " One day, in doubt, I cast for to compare 
 
 Whether in beauty's glory did excel." — Spenser. 
 
 10. One day, seeing some beggars, he gave them some money, 
 
 11. Thomas caught the first bird j William the second ; and Henry the 
 other. 
 
 12. Joseph caught one fish ; Julius caught another ; and Stephen the 
 others. 
 
 13. They saw many squirrels ; but they did not catch any of them. 
 
 14. Any who think they can solve the problem may try it. 
 
 15. A few of them succeeded in accomplishing it. 
 
 16. Few persons are aware of their real deficiencies. 
 
 17. If one is ignorant, he should endeavor to acquire knowledge, 
 
 18. This person has many friends ; but that one has none. 
 
 19. None are so blind as those who wiU not see. 
 
 20. His friends have much land ; but he has none. 
 
 21. He has left all of his competitors far behind him. 
 
 22. We saw several persons in the fields, but did not come near them. 
 
 23. Which of those two boys is the more diligent 1 
 
 24. Please excuse me, sir ; but what did you say 1 
 
 YERBS, 
 
 Primarily, Yerbs indicate action, as Birds fly ; The 
 boy runs ; &c. 
 
 Secondarily, Verbs express abstract ideas having some 
 analogy to actions, as The money draws interest ; The house 
 yields a rent ; The field contains ten acres. 
 
 !Each. Tense of a Verb may indicate a momentary, a 
 continuous, or a repeated action, as He says no ; He lives in 
 Boston; He dines at noon ; — He said no ; He lived in Bos- 
 ton ; He dined at noon while in the country ; &c. 
 
 The Present Tense is used to indicate a present, past, 
 or future action. 
 
 Th.e Past Tense is used to indicate a past or hypothet- 
 ical action. 
 
 The Future Tense is used to indicate a future or cus- 
 tomary action. 
 
 The Indefinite Tense is used to indicate present, past, 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAOE. 201 
 
 or future contingent, permitted, possible, determined, or re- 
 quired action. 
 
 The Compound Present Tense is used to indicate an 
 action completed within some definite period of time termin- 
 ating with the present moment. This definite period is the 
 past portion of some such period as the present day, week, 
 month, year, century, &c., which is usually expressed, but 
 sometimes understood. 
 
 Th.e Compound Past Tense is used to indicate an 
 action completed at or before some past time expressed or 
 implied. 
 
 The Compound Future Tenss is used to indicate an 
 action completed at or before some future time expressed or 
 implied. 
 
 The Compound Indefinite Tense is used to indicate 
 a contingent, possible, determined, or required action com- 
 pleted in present, past, or future time. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The rain falls steadily to-day. This man works at hlaclismithing. 
 
 2. He then seizes his gun, pursnes the animal, and quickly dispatches 
 him. 
 
 3. When the messenger comes, I will go with him. 
 
 4. Thomas writes me that he will soon return. 
 
 5. If he finishes it before Saturday, he will have done well. 
 
 6. He remained there a year, and hunted, and fished, and studied, and 
 wrote. 
 
 7. Joseph went away last month ; and yesterday he returned. 
 If they knew his character, they would avoid him. 
 
 8. They will go to New York next week, and will engage in business 
 there. 
 
 He will sometimes work diligently j and sometimes he will neglect 
 his duties. 
 
 9. I may be mistaken. He may go, if he wishes it. 
 
 10. They can make some trouble. We must revise our opinionsi 
 
 11. You might improve yourselves by reading. They could accom- 
 plish much. 
 
 12. He says he loiU go, at all events. She would proceed in spite of 
 warning. 
 
 13. They would accomplish more, if they would work systematically. 
 
 14. Young persons should select their companions with gTea.t oare. 
 
202 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 15. If we should lose our way, we should certainly perish. 
 
 16. He has written two letters to- day. They have studied well this 
 
 term. 
 
 17. Prof. Agassiz has written several books, and made many discov- 
 eries. 
 
 18. John had left home before Henry arrived there. 
 
 19. Oscar had graduated, and began to think of settling in life. 
 
 20. The Spring will have returned before he will finish that work. 
 
 21 . That thing may have occurred several times before it was observed. 
 
 22. These matters should have been arranged before this time. 
 
 23. If they had not been hindered, they would have finished the work 
 before the first of next December. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present Participle. The Present, Active, or Imper- 
 fect, Participle has no reference to present time, but usually 
 denotes a continuance of what is signified by its stem, and 
 the activity of whatever is signified by its Subject, as in the 
 sentence He was writing. In contracted sentences the idea 
 of continuance does not appear, as in the example Finishing 
 his task, he returned home. 
 
 Use. This Participle is used as a Predicate, as a Modi- 
 fier, as a Noun, and as a Contraction (Substitute for a Tense 
 Form). 
 
 Past Participle. The Past, Passive, or Perfect, Parti- 
 ciple has no reference to past time, but usually denotes 
 either a continued, or a finished passivity of whatever is sig- 
 nified by its Subject, as in the sentence They are despised ; 
 He was struck ; &c. 
 
 Use. It is used as a Predicate, aa a Modifier, and as an 
 Element of the Compound Tenses. 
 
 The Compound Participle is used as a Contraction. 
 (See Note 20.) 
 
 Participles of the Copula. The Present Participle 
 of the Copula is used as a Contraction, or as a Noun. The 
 Past Participle is used as an Element in the Compound 
 Tenses of the Copula. The Compound Participle is used as 
 a Contraction. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The bojr is writing. The girls were writing. 
 
 2. The writing of compositions is a profitable exercise. 
 
OW TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 203 
 
 3. Writing letters is sometimes a task, and sometimes an amusement. 
 
 4. The writing-books are very creditable to the writing class. 
 
 5. Writing a letter hastily, he folded it and carried it to the Post 
 Office. 
 
 6. We waited at the hotel, while the horses were shod. 
 
 7. When the horses were shod, we pursued our journey. 
 
 8. Having shod the horses, the blacksmith brought them to the 
 door. 
 
 9. Every human being shares in the beneficence of his Creator, 
 
 10. Being expert in mathematics, he soon solved the problem. 
 
 11. We have been amused by his sprightly conversation. 
 
 12. Having been deceived by him once, I shall not trust him again. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 Auxiliary and Participle. In the Compound Tenses 
 both the Auxiliary " have " and the Past Participle lose 
 their ordinary signification. There is in these Tenses noth- 
 ing of the idea of possession {having), or of passivity; but 
 they all express completed activity. " He has written the 
 letter to-day " does not mean that " he has the letter in a 
 ■written condition to-day " ; but that he completed the act 
 of writing the letter in that part of to-day which is past. 
 
 HYPOTHETICAL TENSES. 
 
 Tlie Copiila has a Simple Hypothetical Tense, used in 
 Hypothetical Sentences ; and its Compound Past Tense is 
 also used as a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 
 
 Sig^nificauce. The Hypothetical Tense indicates present 
 time ; and the Compound Hypothetical Tense indicates 
 past time ; and each implies that a supposition made is 
 merely hypothetical, as " If I were in his place, I would not 
 go " ; " If I had been in his place, I would not have done 
 it"; &c. 
 
 The Other Tenses, in Conditional Sentences, imply 
 that the case supposed is, or may be, not merely hypotheti- 
 cal, but actual, as " If this is true, he ought to be punished ". 
 
 Verbal Tenses. In Verbal Hypothetical Sentences the 
 Past Tense of the Verb is used as a Hypothetical Tense ; 
 and the Compound Past Tense is used as a Compound 
 Hypothetical Tense. ' 
 
204 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. If he were in possession of that property, he would be rich. 
 
 2. If he had been guilty, he would have deserved this punishment. 
 
 3. If he had an opportunity, he would make rapid improvement. 
 
 4. I wish that I knew where my book is. 
 
 6. If he studied more carefully, he would improve more rapidly. 
 
 6. Had he known the difficulties of the work, he would have shrunk 
 from it. 
 
 7. Our freedom would he useless, if it were not for the intelligence 
 
 of the people. 
 
 8. I wish that the gentleman were present himself. 
 
 9. I wish that he had been present himself on that occasion. 
 
 10. I wished then that I knew my lesson more thoroughly. 
 
 11. He wished then that he had prepared his lesson more carefully. 
 
 12. You will then wish that you knew more of the Sciences. 
 
 13. They will then wish that they had studied the Sciences more dili- 
 gently. 
 
 nrriniTiVEs. 
 
 Use. Infinitives are always used as Contractions, or 
 Substitutes for Tense Forms. 
 
 Th.e Simple Infinitive usually denotes an unfinished, 
 and the Compound Infinitive a finished, action. 
 
 The To in Infinitives is not now used as a Preposi- 
 tion, but as a substitute for the former Infinitive Termina- 
 tion -an or -on. 
 
 Former Use. The Sign " To " was originally a Prepo- 
 sition, meaning " for ", and was followed, not by the Infini- 
 tive, but by a Participle (or Gerund) in the Dative Case, 
 and ending with -nne. 
 
 Omission. The " to " is usually omitted in Infinitives, 
 following the words bid, dare, make, see, hear, feel, help, 
 let, &c. 
 
 AUXILIARIES. 
 
 All the Auxiliaries were formerly principal Verbs, 
 the Verbs after them being Infinitives. 
 
 Do, Have, and. "Will, are frequently used as principal 
 Verbs now. 
 
 Do and Did, without Emphasis, are redundant and dis- 
 agreeable, unless the principal Verb is omitted. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 205 
 
 The Termination of the 3d Person, Singular, in 
 
 the Auxiliaries, is lost, except in Do and Have. 
 
 Emphasis often modifies essentially the meaning of the 
 Auxiliaries. 
 
 The Potential Future Tensa, with Emphasia on the 
 Auxiliaries, is indefinite in regard to time, and expresses de- 
 termination or threatening ; hut -without Emphasis on the 
 Auxiliaries, it is used for promising. 
 
 Shall and Will in Conditional Sentences. In the 
 conditional part of a Sentence, Shall is always Indicative ; 
 and Will is always Potential. 
 
 Do and Have, with Emphasis, are simply more inten- 
 sive. 
 
 May, with Emphasis, expresses contingency; without it, 
 permission. 
 
 Can expresses ability or power, and is intensified by Em- 
 
 Must expresses necessity, and by Emphasis is intensified 
 or made threatening. ,^!fe^, t5-i:V' 
 
 Might and Could are the Past JC&Bsesof May and Can, 
 and are used in the same way. 
 
 Would is the Past JJ^^'cff Will. Sometimes it ex- 
 presses contingency, sometimes disposition, and sometimes 
 habit. .^i^fe^;::- 
 
 Should is the PastJCfiBsefof Shall, and expresses some- 
 times contingency, and sometimes obligation. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He has much patience, does his work w«ll, and wills to be an hon- 
 est man. 
 
 2. Tliey speak better than he does ; but he writes better than they 
 do. 
 
 3. I shall go to the City to-morrow ; and you and John will go with 
 me 
 
 4. I will go to the City to-morrow ; and you and John shall go with 
 me. 
 
 5. They do try to learn ; and they have made good progress. 
 
 6. I may go to Baltimore ; and, if so, you may go too, if you choose. 
 
 7. I can give you no assistance, for I have no money ; but that man 
 can help you if he is so disposed, for he is very rich. 
 
206 A COMPLETE SOIEHTTIFIG aSAMMAB 
 
 8. They have neglected this matter too long ; and now they must at- 
 tend to it. 
 
 9. This statement might he credited, if one could believe the former 
 story. 
 
 10. They would not go yesterday j and now it would he useless for 
 them to go. 
 
 11. He would frequently spend whole days alone in the forest. 
 
 12. He should do this, whatever others should say about it. 
 
 13. They might have gone with him, if they would. 
 
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
 
 Indirect, or Depandent, Discourse is repeated 
 Discourse following the word " that " (sometimes omitted) 
 and Modifying the word "thing " understood. 
 
 Direct, or Independent, Discourse is original Dis- 
 course not following the word " that " and Modifying the 
 word " thing " understood. 
 
 The Tenses are changed, in making discourse Indirect, 
 
 if the word " that " is preceded by a Past or Compound 
 
 Past Tense, or by an Indefinite or Compound Indefinite 
 
 ^Tense with a Past Auxiliary. Otherwise they are not 
 
 changed. 
 
 The Changes of the Tenses are (1) A Present to a 
 Past, (2) A Compound Present to a Compound Past, (3) A 
 Past to a Compound Past, (4) A Future to an Indefinite 
 with Would or Should, (5) A Compound Future to a 
 Compound Indefinite with Would or Should, (6) An Indefi- 
 nite with a Present Auxiliary to one with a Past Auxiliary, 
 and (7) A Compound Indefinite with a Present Auxiliary 
 to one with a Past Auxiliary. Similar changes occur in the 
 Tenses following a Hypothetical Tense (or a Substitute for 
 one) in Elementary Sentences. 
 
 aUOTATION. 
 
 Quotation is the repetition of the previous language of 
 a person, either by himself or by some other person. 
 
 A Formal (Quotation is one preceded by words indi- 
 cating that it is a quotation. 
 
 An Informal Quotation is one not preceded by such 
 words. 
 
OV THE ENGLISH LANG TTA GE. 207 
 
 A Direct Quotation is one rehearsLng the exact 
 words of a person, and not introduced by the word " that ". 
 
 An Indirect Quotation is one introduced by the word 
 " that ", and rehearsing not the exact words of a person, but 
 only the substance of his expression. Of this there are three 
 cases. 
 
 1st Case. In Indirect Quotation from one's self, the 
 Tenses are changed as in general Indirect Discourse ; but 
 the Pronouns are not changed. 
 
 2nd Case. In .Indirect Quotation from a person ad- 
 dressed, the Tenses are changed ; and the pronouns of the 
 1st Person are changed to the 2nd. 
 
 3d Case. In Indirect Quotation from a person not ad- 
 dressed, the Tenses are changed ; Pronouns of the Ist Per- 
 son are changed to the 3d ; and those of the 2nd Person are 
 changed to Nouns. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. They are honest, and will pay all the debts which they have con- 
 tracted or may contract. 
 
 2. I thought that they were honest, and would pay all the debts 
 which they had contracted or might contract. 
 
 3. We had thought that they were honest and would pay their debts. 
 
 4. One would think that they were honest and would pay their debts. 
 
 5. You would have thought that they were honest, and would pay 
 theii debts, 
 
 6. I had been in that City previously ; I went there yesterday ; I have 
 been there to-day ; I shall go there to-morrow ; I may go again on 
 Wednesday ; I shall have been there twice more before Saturday ; I 
 would live there if I could ; and I should have lived there these five 
 years past, if I had consulted my own pleasure in the matter. 
 
 7. He said that he had been in that City previously ; that he had 
 gone there the day before ; that he had been there that day ; that he 
 should go there the next day ; that he might go again on Wednesday • 
 that he should have been there twice more before Saturday ; that he 
 would live there if he could ; and that he would have lived there these 
 ftve years past, if he had consulted his own pleasure in the matter. 
 
 8. I live in Boston ; and I have lived there three years. 
 
 9. Thou saidst that Thou llvedst in Boston ; and that thou hadst 
 lived there three years. 
 
 10. Thou sayest that Thou livest in Boston ; aud that thou hast 
 lived there three years. 
 
208 A. COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 
 
 11. I and thou and he will go together. 
 
 12. He said that He and the two others would go together. 
 
 13. The Bihle says " There is no peace to the wicked." 
 
 14. I found the man " clothed and in his right mind," and glad to see 
 me. 
 
 15. It is true that time and tide will not wait for us more than for 
 
 others. 
 
 16. I wish that I knew where my book is. 
 
 17. I wish that I felt more certainty about this business. 
 
 CONTRACTIONS OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
 Substitution. Indirect Discourse is often contracted 
 by substituting Infinitives or Participles for the Tenses. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. He feared that they would do this particular thing. 
 
 2. He feared them to do this particular thing. 
 
 3. He feared them doing this particular thing. 
 
 4. He feared their doing this particular thing. 
 
 5. They suspected that he had done this mischief. 
 
 6. They suspected him to have done this mischief. 
 
 7. They suspected him doing this mischief. 
 
 8. They suspected his doing this mischief. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 Use. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Copulas, Ad- 
 jectives, and Adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs and. Nouns. Adverbs are sometimes appar- 
 ently used to limit Nouns ;. but those Adverbs were former- 
 ly Adjectives, and are to be considered as Adjectives still 
 when they limit Nouns. Such Archaisms should be avoided. 
 
 Old Forms. Some Adverbs are old inflectional forms, 
 or Cases, of Adjectives or Pronouns, as " "When ", " where ", 
 "whence ", &c. 
 
 Hence, &c. Before the words " hence ", " thence ", and 
 " whence ", the Preposition '■'from " should not be used. 
 
 Two Negatives in the same Simple Sentence neutral- 
 ize each other, leaving the Sentence Affirmative, as He was 
 not unwLlling=He was willing. 
 
 Modal Adverbs. Adverbs of time, certainty, contin- 
 gency, negation, &o., are sometimes used to modify the 
 Copula, and in Verbal Sentences they are often used to mod- 
 
OF TEE MNGLISn LANQ UA GE. 209 
 
 ify the manner of the assertion, and are then called Modal 
 Adverbs. 
 
 Absurdities. An Adverb is never used independently, 
 nor to modify a Preposition, or a Proposition, or two sepa- 
 rate words at the same time. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions are used to connect Words, or Phrases, 
 or Sentences ; and for either of these purposes an Absolute 
 Conjunction, or a pair of Correlative Conjunctions may be 
 used. 
 
 Elements. Several Elements of a Sentence are united 
 by Conjunctions into a Compound Element, when they col- 
 lectively perfonn a single oflGlce in the Sentence. 
 
 Sentences. Several Sentences are united by Conjunc- 
 tions into a Compound Sentence, when they sustain such re- 
 lations to each other as are expressed by the Conjunctions. 
 
 " Both. " is not a Conjunction, but a Pronominal Adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 ■ 
 
 " And " is used singly, and sometimes connects Words 
 or Phrases. 
 
 " Ijest " is used singly, and always connects Sentences. 
 
 "But "is sometimes used singly, and never connects 
 Words or Phrases. 
 
 " Or " is sometimes used singly, and sometimes appears 
 to connect Words or Phrases ; but in those cases the lan- 
 guage is elliptical ; and the real connection is between Sen- 
 tences. 
 
 AH Other Conjunctions are used in pairs, and usually 
 connect Sentences. " That ", " than ", " as ", ?ind " so " are 
 never used as Conjunctions^,^.^<.,,j>4r' <^'iL^^f^ 1-'^ ■-' * 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A Preposition is used to show the relation between a 
 Noun, Pronoun, Verb, or Adjective, and the Object of the 
 Preposition. 
 
 Opposites. Some Prepositions are nearly opposite in 
 meaning to others. 
 
210 A COMPLETE SOIENTIEIO QBAMMAR 
 
 Prefixes. Many Prefixes of words were formerly used 
 as Prepositions. 
 
 Contradictious. A Preposition following a word 
 should not be opposed in meaning to the Prefix of the word. 
 
 Absurdities. Hence it is absurd to say " averse to ", 
 "different to", "adverse from", "opposite from", "differ 
 with", " dissent to "," emigrate into", "immigrate from", 
 &c. 
 
 " Among " signifies "in the mong " (i. e. menge, mul- 
 titude, or number) ; and hence it is improper to say " among 
 the two." 
 
 " Between " means " by the two " ; hence it is improper 
 to say " between the three ", " between every word ", &e. 
 
 Two Prepositions occurring together, as "from be- 
 tween ", <fcc., imply an Ellipsis. The Object of the first one 
 is omitted. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The proceedings of the then Ministry were very extraordinary. 
 
 2. He went to England, whence he proceeded to Germany. 
 
 3. The facts of the case are not unknown to them. 
 
 4. Thomas or William will bring the desired information. 
 
 5. He will proceed or return in a short time. 
 
 6. Neither Algebra nor Geometry is so difficult as some suppose. 
 
 7. The enemies came from over the sea. 
 
 8. The fiend blows mildew from between his withered lips. 
 
 t SECTION V.-IDIOMS. 
 
 Idioms are expressions peculiar to a Language, and are 
 frequently difficult to analyze. 
 
 Anomalies. Many Idioms appear anomalous through 
 ignorance of their origin. Some of them are really wrong, 
 and should be corrected ; others are easily resolved when 
 the Ellipses are supplied. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The grain is ripe enough (for one) to cut (it). 
 
 2. The grain is ripe enough (for itself) to be cut. 
 
 3. Many a man=A many of men. 
 
 4. Now a days^In the now of days. Quotha=Quoth he. 
 
 5. A ten foot pole=A ten- foot pole ; &c. 
 
 6. " Of lesser note " should be 'Of less note ". 
 
OF THE BNGLiaS LANG UA&B. 211 
 
 7. He was driving plow=He waa driving (the team of a) plow. 
 
 8. " Who was you talking with " 1 should be " With whom were you 
 talking " 'i 
 
 9. The goods sell (themselves) rapidly=The goods are sold rapidly. 
 (This last Idiom comes from the French, In which Reflexive Verbs 
 
 like " se vendre " [to sell themselves, or to sell one's self], are regularly 
 employed instead of a Passive Voice.) 
 
 10. The house is being buiIt=:The house is (in the process of) being 
 built=:The house is (situated) in the process of that (thing) it is built. 
 
 This is much better expressed by saying " The house is built ", not- 
 withstanding a little ambiguity in the last expression. 
 
 A better form still is " The house is building", which equals The 
 house is (in) building=The house is (situated In the process of) 
 
 tailding. ^^^ 'S^./i"' V . . • ■■/-'••i--£' 
 
 11. He was offered .{t^jjo-tespedrtSya seat. -w'^'^-'* t^ -'-■ ' — i 
 
 12. He took her to wife=He took her for a wife. 
 
 13. The horse and chaise is at the door=The (equipage consisting of 
 the) horse and chaise is at the door. 
 
 14. Bread and milk is the best food for children=(Food consisting 
 of) bread and milk is the best food for children. ^,„-'— 
 
 15. He was found fault with^He wa.*; fQ»wd-wTffifa.nlt. 
 
 It would be better to say Fault was found with him. 
 
 16. The object was lost sight of^=TheobjeatJBar153r(in_rgsp«tSj^Df 
 
 17. " The coat was wet through and through ", i. e., completely 
 through. 
 
 This expression " through and through " is a kind of Reduplica- 
 tion for Emphasis, analogous to the Greek "anthropos anthropos", 
 " man man ", i. c, any man whatever. ^ 
 
 18. The rule must be lived up to =(It) must h e IvfeSruptnT^ha rule. 
 
 19. " I had rather be myself the slave." 
 
 In this and similar examples " had " is not an Auxiliary, but a 
 Principal Verb, — used for " have ", " has ", " would have ", or " should 
 have " ; and the Verb or Copula following it is an- Infinitive. 
 
 This example^X would have it rather myself to be the slave. 
 
 " We had need pray "=We have need to pray. 
 
 Such a lesson had need be early begun=Such a lesson has need to 
 be, &c. 
 
 Instead of saying " I had rather" it is much better to say " I would 
 rather ", &c. 
 
 20. They were all rescued (and this statement is exact) to a man. 
 
 21. He went to Boston, whence he proceeded to Hartford=He went 
 to Boston, from which (place) he proceeded to Hartford. 
 
212 A OOMPLBTE SGIENTIFIO QRAMMAB 
 
 t CHAPTER III-ORBfAMENTATION. 
 
 Omaraentation is the beautifying of discourse. 
 
 Figures of Speech are such peculiarities in the structure 
 of sentences as are designed to make them forcible or pleasing. 
 
 Ellipsis is the omission of words -which can be easily supplied. 
 
 iBxample. — A horse ! A horse ! My kingdom for a horse. 
 
 Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words. 
 
 !E!xailiple. — I saw it with my own eyes. — I, that speak to ye. 
 
 Iteration is the repetition of an expression, in the same, or a 
 slightly different form. 
 
 Example. — " The hills and the valleys are sand, sand, still sand, 
 and only sand, and sand, and sand again." 
 
 " She winks and giggles and simpers. 
 
 And simpers and giggles and winks ; 
 And though she talks but little, 
 
 'Tis a great deal more than she thinks." 
 
 Enphemisni is the use of a mild expression instead of a 
 coarse or offensive one. 
 
 Xixample. — a. The man lies. 
 
 h. The gentleman has fallen into an unfortunate mistake. 
 
 Circumlocution is the use of a long expression instead of a 
 short one. 
 
 fiXample. — a. I have received your letter, and will come. 
 
 b. I hasten to say that your late esteemed fovor has already been 
 received and heartily welcomed, and that, as soon as I shall have been 
 able to adjust my affairs in such a manner as to render it practicable, 
 I will do myself the pleasure to accept of your very kind invitation, 
 and will certainly come. 
 
 Anacoluthon is leaving a Sentence unfinished, and proceed- 
 ing with a new Sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The signers of the Declaration of Independence, — where are they 
 nowl 
 
 The infinity of worlds and the narrow spot of earth which we call 
 our country or our home, the eternity of ages and the few hours of life, 
 the Almighty power of God and human nothingness, — it is impossible 
 to think of these in succession without a feeling like that which is pro- 
 duced by the sublimest eloquence. 
 
 Dialectism is an imitation of local, class, or individual pecu- 
 liarities of speech. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 (Yankee.) Waal naow I vum, that 'tarnaj critter of a caow has got 
 into the barn and gone to eatin up the corn. 
 
OF THE ENaLI8H LANG UA GE. 213 
 
 (Virginia.) I woosh that man 'd take up nour slcule j 'cause he's got 
 right smart o' larnin. The chap that teecht last Winter was an ornery 
 feller, and used to git stalled ev'ry day in Eethmetic. 
 
 (Western.) I say, straunger, yu'd better not go that way onless yur 
 able to whip yur weight in wild-cats ; fur yu'U like enuf meet Bill 
 Stokes ; and if ye du, dog on't, yu'll get catawompusly chawed up. 
 
 (Yorkshire, Eng.) Ah sudn't wonder bud, when some foak hear o' 
 me startin' on a paper, they'll say " What in't world hez maad Dicky 
 Dickeson bethink liizzen o' cummin' sich a caaper as that 1 " 
 
 (Suffolk, Eng.) I was axed some stounds agon, by our 'sessor at Mul- 
 
 laden, to make inquiration o' yeou if Master B had pahd in that 
 
 there money into the bank. 
 
 Archaisna is the use of ancient peculiarities. 
 
 Example. — I think that cannot be our old friend Jones, for it is 
 " certainly straunge gif hi Cometh in swilo a guise." 
 
 Transposition is variation from the ordinary arrangement of 
 words. 
 
 Use. This Figure is used for the purpose of Emphasis, 
 Euphony, or Variety ; or to give an air of Originality, Ludi- 
 crousness, or Dignity to the Sentence. 
 
 The Principal Variations are the following : 
 
 1. Exchanging the positions of the Subject and Predicate. 
 
 2. Placing Adjectives after their Nouns or Pronouns. 
 
 3. Placing Adverbs before Verbs, or after Adjectives, «&o. 
 
 4. Placing Prepositional Phrases before the words they limit. 
 
 5. Placing an Object before its Verb. 
 
 6. Periodicity, or reserving some principal word for the last 
 place in the Sentence,- so that the sense is suspended till the 
 close. 
 
 7. Eeversion, or changing the order of the Members of a Close 
 or Compact Sentence. 
 
 8. Inversion, or placing one Member of a Compound Sentence 
 between the parts of the other. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Dark was the night. 
 
 2 Responded he, with hand upraised, and visage wrathful black. 
 
 3. At fifty, no man easily finds a woman beautiful as the houries, and 
 wise as Zobeide. 
 
 4. Joyfully and triumphantly, with no misgivings or fears, he waited 
 for death. 
 
 5. Without doubt he was a man strong physically and intellectually. 
 
 6. This man he preferred ; and him he would have for a companion. 
 
214 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QRAMMAU 
 
 7. I would not pretend to any unusual patriotism, or to have con- 
 ferred any important benefits upon the Country, or upon my friends, or 
 upon any body else, if I were in his place. 
 
 8. Who dares do right, though knaves and fools may scoflf, 
 That man shall ne'er the robes of honor doff. 
 
 9. He desires applause, though he is entirely unwilling to deserve 
 applause. 
 
 10. I will, if you desire it, produce the evidence of this assertion. 
 A Simile is a direct formal comparison. 
 
 Example. — He rushed like a tiger on his victim. 
 A Metaphor is an implied comparison. 
 Example. — The soul mounts triumphant on the wings of faith. 
 An Allegory is an extended Metaphor. 
 
 EXAMPLE.-Psaliiis 80 : 8-16. 
 
 Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the hea- 
 then and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause 
 it to take deep root ; and it filled the ladd. 
 
 The hills were covered with the shadow of it ; and the boughs there- 
 of were like the goodly cedars. 
 
 She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches tmto the 
 rivers. 
 
 Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all thay which pass 
 by the way do pluck her 1 
 
 The boar out of the wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the 
 field doth devour it. 
 
 Return, we beseech Thee, God of hosts ; look down from heaven • 
 and behold, and visit this Vine, and the vineyard which thy right hand 
 hath planted, and the branch that thou madest strong for thyself. It 
 is burnt with fire; it is cut down; they perish at the rebuke of thy 
 countennnce. 
 
 An Antithesis is an expression of which one part is in oppo- 
 sition or contrast to the other. 
 
 Example.— Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 
 
 A Hyperbole is an excessive exaggeration, intended to be 
 understood as such. 
 
 Example.— He was so gaunt, the case of a fiageolette was a palace 
 for him, 
 
 Tliat fellow is so tall that he does not know when his feet are cold. 
 
 Irony is a mode of expression in which the literal meaning ia 
 exactly opposite to that intended. 
 
 Example.— Pope Hildebrand, you know, was remarkable for his 
 meekness and humility. 
 
OF TUB SNGLiaa LANG UAGE. 215 
 
 Metonomy is calling a thing by the name of some other thing 
 to which ii has some relation. 
 
 Example. — Gray hairs (i. e. old persons) should be respected. 
 
 Synecdoche is calling a part by the name of the whole, or 
 the whole by the name of a part. 
 
 Examples. — This roof (i. e. house) shall be his protection. 
 
 All the world knows (i. e. many persons know) that Julius CsBsar 
 was a gi'eat Roman General, and the first Emperor. 
 
 Personification is the representation of animals or inanimate 
 things as if they were persons. 
 
 Exam.ple. — See ! Winter comes to rule the varied year. 
 
 Apostrophe is a direct address to some person or thing either 
 present or absent. 
 
 Example. — Ye Crags and Peaks, I'm with you once again, &c. 
 
 Interrogation is asking a question in such a manner as to in- 
 dicate emphatically a contrary assertion. 
 
 Example. — But when shall we be stronger % Will it be when our 
 enemies have bound us hand and foot 1 
 
 Paralipsis is pretending to omit what is reaUy mentioned. 
 
 Example. — I will not call him villain, because it would be unparlia- 
 mentary. I will not call him fool, because he happens to be Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer. 
 
 An Allusion is an iadirect reference, — ^usually to some occur- 
 rence or statement. 
 
 Example. — When you go into the museum, be Argus ; but not 
 Briareus. 
 
 A Pun is the use of a word in an unexpected sense so as to 
 produce a ludicrous effect. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 A man quoted the expression " The quality of Mercy is not strained " 
 to account for the muddiness of the river Mersey. 
 
 Another man, in reply to the remark that punning is a low kind of 
 wit, answered " Yes, it is Vae foundation of all wit." 
 
 , Vision is the representation of absent or imagiuary things as 
 if they were present ajid seen. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 " For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 
 And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight. 
 They rally — they bleed for their kingdom and crown I 
 Woe, woe to the riders that trample them down ! " &o. 
 
216 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 " Look on him ! through his dungeon grate, 
 
 Feebly and cold, the morning light 
 Comes stea'ing round him, dim and late. 
 As if it loathed the sight." &c. 
 Climax is a figure in which several ideas are arranged in a 
 regular ascending series from the least impressive to the most 
 
 impressive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 " A Scotch mist hecomes a shower ; and a shower a flood ; and a 
 flood a storm; aud a storm a tempest; and a tempest thunder and 
 lightning ; and thunder and lightning heaven-quake and earth-quake." 
 
 " What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! 
 
 How infinite in faculties ! In form and moving 
 
 How express and admirable ! In action how like an angel ! 
 
 In apprehension how like a God I " 
 
 t PART IV. -PROSODY. (See Note 22.) 
 
 Prosody is that part of Grammar which pertains to Poetry. 
 
 Poetry is Artistic Composition, whose chief end in respect 
 to form is beauty. 
 
 Prose is Ordinary Composition, whose chief end in respect 
 to form is utility. 
 
 The Beauty of Poetic Expression generally consists in 
 resemblances and arrangements which are perceived to be de- 
 signed. 
 
 DIVISIONS.-?. 
 
 The Divisions of Prosody are 1. Versification, 2. Or- 
 namentation, 3. Adaptation, 4. Arrangement, 5. Classification, 
 6. Poetic Ijicense, 7. Poetic Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER I.-VERSiriCATION. 
 SECTION L-MEASURES. 
 
 Measure is the resemblance to each other of the successive 
 portions of a line, in respect to time and Accent. 
 
 The Essential Characteristic of Modem English (and 
 Classical) Verse is Measure, whUe Ehyme and other Ornaments 
 are unessential. 
 
 The Quantity of a Syllable is its length, or the time occu- 
 pied in pronouncing it.' 
 
 A Long Syllable is one which is accented. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 217 
 
 A Short Syllable is one which is not accented. 
 
 The Time of a Long Syllable is usually equal to that of 
 two short ones. 
 
 A G-reat Syllable is one which is especially prolonged. 
 
 The TLtne of a Great Syllable is usually equal to that of 
 three short ones. 
 
 A "Verse is a line of definite length in which the Accent 
 recurs at regular intervals. 
 
 A Foot is one of the parts into which a Verse is divided by 
 the Accent, and consists of one, two, three, or four syllables. 
 
 A Measure is the time occupied by a Foot in Pronunciation. 
 
 Equahty of Measures. The Measures of the same Verse are 
 all equal, and are divided according to the syllables of the cor- 
 responding Feet. 
 
 Exception. As Imperfect Rhymes are sometimes allowed, so, 
 occasionally, a Foot longer or shorter than the others by the time 
 of one short syllable may be used in a verse. 
 
 Scanning is resolving Verses into their component Feet. 
 
 SECTION 2.-FEET. 
 GENERA. -4 
 
 1 . A Macron is a Foot consisting of one Great Syllable. 
 
 2. A Disyllabic Foot is one consisting of two Syllables. 
 
 3. A Trisyllabic Foot is one consisting of three Syllables. 
 
 4. A Tetrasyllable Foot is one consisting of four Syllables. 
 
 GENUS 2.-DISYLLABIC FEET. 
 SPECIES.-4. 
 
 1 . An Iambus is a Foot whose first syllable is short, and sec- 
 ond long, as " remain ", " control ", " suppose ", &o. 
 
 3. A Trochee is a Foot having its .first syllable long, and 
 second short, as "greatness", "useful", "mischief", &c. 
 
 2. A Spondee is a Foot of two long syllables, as " amen", 
 " all this ", &c. 
 
 4. A Pyrrhic is a Foot of two short syllables, as the last two 
 in " distressfully '', &o. 
 
 GENUS S.-THISYLLABIC FEET. 
 SPECIES.-8. 
 
 1 . A Dactyl is a Foot having the first syllable long, and the 
 other two short, as "usefully ", "plentiful ", &o. 
 
 2. An Anapaest is a Foot having the last syllable long, and 
 the other two short, as "intercede ", " discommode "■, &c. 
 
218 A OOMPLETE aOIBNTIFIO GRAMMAR 
 
 3. An Amphibrach is a Foot having the second syllable 
 long, and the other two short, as " remember ", "confusing ", &o. 
 
 4. A Tribrach is a Foot of three short syllables, as the last 
 three in " infallibleness ", &o. 
 
 5. A Bacchius is a Foot having the first syllable short and 
 the other two long, as " before them ", "suppose now ", &c. 
 
 6. An Antibacchius is a Foot having the last syllable short 
 and the other two long, as " grea;t forces ", " wide river ", &c. 
 
 7. An Aznphimacer is a Foot having the second syllable 
 short and the other two long, as " wait a while '', " come away ", 
 &c. 
 
 8. A Molossus is a Foot of three long syllables, as " now 
 amen ", " there' they go ", &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF SCANNING. 
 
 1. Not half I BO awift | the trem | bling doves | can fly. 
 
 2. Bound U3 | roars the | tempest | louder. 
 
 8. Hail to the { chief who in | triumph ad { vances liere. 
 
 4. At the close | of the day | when the ham ] let is still. 
 
 5. Ne'er ranged in | the forest | nor smolied on | the platter. 
 
 6. Boldly they | rode and well | into the | jaws of death, 
 
 GENUS 4.-TETRASYILABIC (COMPOUND) FEET. 
 
 Tetrasyllabic Feet are produced by compounding and 
 doubling the Disyllabic Feet. 
 
 SPECIES.-! 6. 
 
 1. A Choriambus, — -^ ^^ — , is composed of a Trochee (or Choree) 
 and an Iambus. 
 
 2. An Antispast, ■^ ■— - , is the above reversed, or an Iambus 
 
 and a Trochee. 
 
 3. An Ionic a majore, ^ ^^ , is a Spondee and a Pyrrhic. 
 
 4 An Ionic a minore, s-- .— , is a Pyrrhic and a Spondee. 
 
 5. A First Peon, — w- w •— , is a Trochee and a Pyrrhic. 
 
 6. A Second Peon, '— — -^ w , is an Iambus and a Pyrrhic. 
 
 7. A Third Peon, >— ^ ■ , is a Pyrrhic and a Trochee. 
 
 8. A Fourth Peon, ^ w ^ — , is a Pynhic and an Iambus. 
 
 9. A First Epitrite, ^ , is an Iambus and a Spondee. 
 
 10. A Second Epitrite, — w , is a Trochee and a Spondee. 
 
 11. A Third Epitrite, ■— _ , is a Spondee and an Iambus. 
 
 12. A Fourth Epitrite, ^ , is a Spondee and a Trochee. 
 
 18. A Diiambus, ~ _ ^ _ , is a Double Iambus. 
 
 14. A DItroohee, — .^ _ ^^ , is a Double Trochee. 
 
 15. A DIspondep, , is a Double Spondee. 
 
OF THE EN&LISS LAN& UAQE. 219 
 
 16. A DipyiThic, -^ ^^ ^^ -_- , is a Double Pyrrhic, or Proceleusmatic. 
 Note. It should be observed that the Peons consist each of a long 
 syllable with three short ones ; and in the First Peon the long syllable 
 has the first place, in the Second Peon it has the second place, &c.; also 
 each Epitrite consists of a shoit syllable with three long ones ; and in 
 the First Epitrite the ihort syllable has the first place ; in the Second 
 Epitrite it has the second place, &c. This will make it easy to remem- 
 ber the whole arrangement. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Choriambic Trimeters. 
 
 Over the sea, | weary they go | over the sea, — 
 Wearily here, wearily there, over the sea, — 
 Tossed by the waves, pushed by the winds, driven by fate. 
 Month after month, year after year, early and late ; 
 Diverse the lands, various the climes, many the shores, 
 Where they supposed they should obtain rest from the oars, — 
 Where they should build walls for themselves, happy and free. 
 After their cruise, stormy and sad, over the sea. — G. 
 
 Third Peonic Tetrameters. 
 In the meadow ] intervening | they were walking | all together, 
 And were talking and remarking of the season and the weather. 
 When the oldest of the members, Mr. Weston, of Nebraska, 
 Who was thinking of departing in the morning for Alaska, 
 Turning sudden to the beautiful and lovely Miss Mahoning, 
 Interjected some expressions of a querulous bemoaning. — G. 
 
 SECTION 3.-VERSES. 
 CLASSES.-8. 
 
 1. An Iambic Verse is one composed whoUy or cMefly of 
 Jambic Feet. 
 
 2. A Trochaic "Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly of 
 Trochaic Feet. 
 
 3. A Dactylic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly of 
 Dactyls. 
 
 4. An Anapaestic Verse is one composed whoUy or chiefly 
 of Anapaests. 
 
 5. An AmpMbrachic Verse is one composed whoUy or 
 chiefly of Amphibraohs. 
 
 6. An Amphimaceric Verse is one composed whoUy or 
 chiefly of Amphimacers. 
 
 7. A Choriambic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly 
 of Ghoriambics. 
 
220 A COMPLETE BGIENTIFIO GBAMMAB 
 
 8. A Peonic "Verse is one composed ■wholly or chiefly of 
 Peons. 
 
 ORDEES-2. 
 
 1 . A Pure "Verse is one composed entirely of one kind of 
 feet. 
 
 2. A Mixed Verse is one having feet of different kinds. 
 
 GENERA -8.-METEES. 
 A Meter is a set of Feet constituting a Verse. 
 
 1. A Monometer is a "Verse consisting of one Foot. 
 
 2. A Dimeter is a Verse of two Feet. 
 
 3. A Trimeter is a Verse of three Feet. 
 
 4. A Tetrameter is a Verse of four Feet. 
 
 5. A Pentameter is a Verse of five Feet. 
 
 6. A Hexam.eter is a Verse of sis Feet. 
 
 7. A Heptameter is a Verse of seven Feet. 
 
 8. An Octometer is a Verse of eight Feet. 
 
 SPECIES.-10. 
 
 1. "R la.nk Verse is verse vfithout ornament, except occa- 
 sional Alliteration. 
 
 2. Rhymed Verse is verse ornamented with Bhyme. 
 
 3. Alliterative Verse is verse regularly ornamented ■with 
 Alliteration. 
 
 4. Paralleled Verse is verse ornamented ■with Parallelism. 
 
 5. Imitative Verse is verse ornamented ■with Imitation. 
 
 6. Amiominative Verse is verse ornamented •with An- 
 nondnation. 
 
 7. E^aphtlistic Verse is verse ornamented ■with Euphuism. 
 
 8. Liipogrammatic Verse is verse ornamented -with Lipo- 
 grammatism. 
 
 9. Macaronic Verse is verse ornamented -with Macaro- 
 nism. 
 
 10. Acrostic Verse is verse ornamented ■with Acrosticism. 
 
 SECTION 4.-PATrSES. 
 Poetic Pauses are those peculiar to Poetry. 
 
 1 . The Final Pause is that made at the end of a line, to in- 
 dicate the close of the verse. 
 
 2. A Caesural Pause is one sometimes made to occur at or 
 near the middle of a Une, thus cutting the Verse into halves, or 
 hemistichs. 
 
 3. The Demi-Caesural Pause is one which sometimes, in 
 
OF THE ENQLISH LANG UAGE. 221 
 
 long lines, is made to occur at or near the middle of eaoli hemis- 
 tich, thus cutting the verse into quarters. 
 
 The Time of these Pauses, when they do not coincide -with 
 Grammatical or Rhetoric Pauses, should be the shortest which 
 can be perceived. 
 
 SECTION 5.-1I0TATI01I. 
 
 Poetic Notation is the method of representing the structure 
 of verses by Symbols. Most commonly the Macron ( - ) is used 
 to represent a long syllable, and the Breve (— ) to represent a 
 short one. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Iambic Pentameter. |v-^ — |^-^ — l^-' — |>— • — |— . — || 
 
 2. Dactylic Tetrameter. | — v_-w| — ww| — ^ ^\ — v_-^|| 
 
 3. Anapaestic Trimeter. |v_,._^ — |^_-_ — |n_-s_- — || 
 
 4. Amphibrachic Trimeter. I—' — ._^|._- — v^|v_, — ^.^]| 
 
 5. Mixed Hexameter. | — ^^1 — v^~_-| — ..^-_-[ | — ^^._- 
 
 I--II 
 
 6. I At the close | of the day, | when the ham | let is still || 
 1^ |^^_|^__|_ __|| 
 
 7. " The skies looked coldly down 
 
 As on a royal crown j 
 Then with drop for drop, at leisure, 
 They began to rain for pleasure," — Mrs. Browning. 
 \- -I- -I- -II 
 I- -I- -I- -II 
 |-"|--'|--'|--ll 
 I- -I- -I- -I- -11 
 
 CHAPTER n.-OEITAM:EITTATION. 
 
 Ornamentation is the use of various expedients to beautify a 
 composition. 
 
 SECTION l.-EHYME. 
 
 Rhyme is the correspondence in sound of certain parts of a 
 Verse or Stanza. 
 
 A Rhyme is a pair of words whose terminations correspond in 
 sound. 
 
 A Single Rhyme is one in which the last syllable of one 
 word corresponds with the last syllable of the other, as "remain" 
 and " contain"- 
 
222 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIEI0 GMAMMAR. 
 
 A. Double Rhyme is one in wliich the last two syllables of 
 one word correspond to the last two syllables of the other, as 
 " supposing " and " disclosing ". 
 
 A Triple Rhyme is onfe in which the last three syllables of 
 one word correspond to the last three of the other, as " depend- 
 ently " and " resplendently ''. (See Note 18.) 
 
 A Perfect Rhyme is one in which the vowel sounds of the 
 final syllables of the two words are the same ; the parts following 
 the vowels are the same ; the parts preceding the vowels are 
 different; and the syllables are accented, as "expand" and 
 " withstand "- 
 
 An Imperfect Rhyme is one lacking in some of these con- 
 ditions, as "explain" and "exclaim"; "despair" and "com- 
 peer " ; "repose " and " suppose " ; " compose " and " deplore " ; 
 "displease" and "increase"; "release" and "rehearse"; 
 " devour " and " outpour " ; " better " and " after " ; &c. 
 
 A Rich Rhyme (used often in French) is an Imperfect 
 Bhyme in which the final syllable of one word is exactly the same 
 as that of the other. 
 
 Half Rhyme is the correspondence of final consonants only, 
 as "bad" and "led"; "sin" and "run"; "thrash" and 
 " crush " ; &c. 
 
 Assonance is the correspondence of Vowels only, as " come " 
 an4 "sun " ; &o. 
 
 Example. " Softly now a sifting 
 
 Snows on landscape frozen ; — 
 Thickly fall the flakelets. 
 Feathery-light, together, 
 Shower of silver pouring, 
 Soundless all around us. 
 Field and river folding 
 Fair in mantle rarest."— J^Voro tTie ledandie. 
 Old. Rhymes often are imperfect now merely because the 
 pronunciation of words has changed since they were written. 
 
 The Use of Imperfect Rhymes should be avoided when it 
 is possible. 
 
 Terminal Rhymes are those placed at the ends of lines, as 
 " In human worlts, though labored on with pain, 
 A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain," — Pope. 
 T nitial Rhjrmes are those placed at the beginning of lines, as 
 Length of days has never yet excused 
 Strength perverted, — ^noble powers abnsed. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LAN& UA OE. 223 
 
 LJne Rhymes are those introduced -within a line, as 
 When the south wind prevailed, on the morrow they sailed. 
 "Miglit v/i\l yield lo right ; and the strong y/ill do no wrong in that 
 
 time ; 
 Pain will cease to reign; and no strife will mar the life in that clime." 
 
 SECTION 2.-ALLITEB,ATI01I. 
 
 AUiteration is the correspondence of sounds at the beginning 
 of words. 
 
 The Use of Alliteration in English is that of an occasional 
 ornament ; but in Anglo-Saxon it was esseintial, constituting the 
 principal ornament. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 " And now is religion a rider, a roamer by the streets, 
 A leader of love days, and a land buyer." — Piers Plowman. 
 
 " Silently sat the artist alone, 
 
 Carving a Christ from the ivory bone. 
 
 Little by little, with toil and pain. 
 
 He won his way through the sightless grain." — Boker. 
 
 " An Austrian Army, awfully arrayed, 
 
 Boldly by battery beseiged Belgrade." 
 
 The Abuse of Alliteration is seen in this last example. It 
 is the beginning of a poem of twenty six lines, in which every 
 word of the first line begins with "a", every word of the second 
 with "6 ", every word of the third with " c ", and so on throiigh 
 the Alphabet. Another Example of this abuse is found in a Latin 
 poem called Pugna Porcorum, or the Battle of the Pigs, and con- 
 taining several hundred lines, in which every word begins with 
 "p". — ^A more recent example is a poem of twenty -eight lines, 
 called "A Serenade in M Flat", in which every word begins 
 
 with m. 
 
 SECTION 3.-PARALLELISM. 
 
 ParaUelism. is the matching or contrasting with each other 
 of the different parts of a Verse or of a Stanza. It was the prin- 
 cipal Ornament of the ancient Hebrew Poetry. 
 SPECIES.-3. 
 
 1. Synonymous ParaUehsm is that in which the two 
 parts of the Parallel express the same (or nearly the same) sense, 
 but in different words. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 " Fret not thyself because of evil doers ; 
 
 Neither be thou envious against the workers of iniquity." — Smiid. 
 
224 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFI0 GBAMMAB, 
 
 " But where shall wisdom be found 7 
 
 And where is the place of understanding t " — Job. 
 
 " And the destruction of the trangressors and of the sinners shall be to- 
 gether ; 
 
 And they that forsake the Lord shall be consumed." — Isaiah. 
 " There shall come a star out of Jacob ; 
 And a Scepter shall rise out of Israel." — Balaam. 
 
 " How long shall the wicked, Jehovah, 
 How long shall the wicked trinmph 1 " 
 " Kings shall see him, and shall rise up ; 
 Princes, and they shall worship him." — Isaiah. 
 " Come and let us return unto Jehovah, 
 For he hath torn, and he will heal us ; 
 He hath smitten, and he will bind us up." — Hosea. 
 " Askalon shall see it and shall fear ; 
 Gaza shall also see it, and shall be greatly pained ; 
 And Ekron shall be pained because her expectation is put to shame ; 
 And the king shall perish from Gaza ; 
 And Askalon shall not be inhabited." — Zeclia/riah. 
 " Prom the heavens Jehovah looketh down; 
 He seeth all the children of men ; 
 Prom the seat of his rest he contemplateth 
 All the inhabitants of the earth." — Psalms. 
 " The Lord reigneth ; let the people tremble ; 
 He sitteth between the cherubim ; let the earth be moved." — Psalms. 
 
 2. Antithetic Parallelisin is that in which the two parts of 
 the Parallel express opposite sentiments. 
 
 EXAMPLES; 
 
 " The blows of a friend are faithful ; 
 
 But the kisses of an enemy are treacherous. 
 
 The cloyed will trample upon a Tioney-comb ; 
 
 But to the hungry every bitter thing is sweet." — Proverbs. 
 " There is who maketh himself rich, and wanteth all things ; 
 Who maketh himself poor, yet hath much wealth." — Proverbs. 
 " The bows of the mighty are broken ; 
 And they that stumbled are girded with strength ; 
 The full have hired themselves for bread ; 
 And the hungry have ceased to hunger."— 1«< Samuel 2nd. 
 
 3. Constructive Parallelism is that in which the two parts 
 of the Parallel have the same construction. 
 
OF THE ENOLISE LANG UAGE. 225 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 " The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul j 
 
 The testimony of Jejjovah is sure, making vvisethe simple. 
 
 The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart ; 
 
 The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes." — Psalms. 
 
 " The nations raged ; the kingdoms were moved ; 
 
 He uttered a voice ; the earth was dissolved." — Psalms. 
 
 SECTION 4.-0THER ORNAMENTS. 
 
 I. — Imitation is the representation of sounds and movements 
 by the sovmds of the words and the movement of the verse, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " 'Tis not enough no harshness gives oifense ; 
 The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 
 Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows'. 
 
 And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows ; 
 
 But when loud surges lash the sounding shore. 
 
 The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar. 
 
 When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
 
 The line too labors : and the words move slow. 
 
 Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain. 
 
 Flies o'er th' unbending corn, and skims along the main." — Pope. 
 
 2. " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
 
 That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along." — Id. 
 
 3. " Over the valley with speed like the wind all the steeds were a 
 
 galloping." 
 
 4. " At each bound he could feel his scabbard of steel 
 
 Smiting his stallion's flanks." — Longfellow. 
 
 5. Quadrupe | dante pu \ trem soni \ tu quatit | ungula {. campum. 
 
 — Virgil. 
 
 6. Oil' in I ter se \ se ma \ gna m \ bracJiia \ tollunt. — Id. 
 
 7. " Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 
 
 Honored and blest be the evergreen pine. 
 Long may the tree, in his banner that glances. 
 Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line. 
 Heaven send it happy dew — 
 Earth lend it sap anew — 
 Oaily to bourgeon and broadly to grow. 
 While every highland glen 
 Sends our shout back again, 
 Eoderick Vich Alpine dhu, ho I leroe 1 " — Scott. 
 
 8. Southey's " Cataract of Lodoi-e " is another example. 
 
226 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFI0 GRAMMAR 
 
 n. Annomination is opposing to each other words of simi- 
 lar sound, but of different sense or use. 
 Example. — " Twilight stillness when I drink^ 
 And myself am gazing still, 
 Thinking only that I think, . 
 
 Then will never rest my will 
 Till to rest I hid it sink." — From the Germcm. 
 
 m. Euphuism is nearly the same thing as Annomination. 
 Example. — " Blessed be thou, Urania, the sweetest 
 
 Fairnesse, and the fairest sweetnesse." — PliUip Bydney. 
 See also Mrs. Browning's " Man and Nature ". (Ap. Chap. III., No. 24.) 
 
 rV. Ldrafogrammatism is the puerile device of leaving out 
 certain letfiers from a Composition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. A man wrote a Paraphrase of Homer's Illiad, in which the letter 
 "as" was omitted from the first Book, "b" from the Second, and " c " 
 from the Third, &c. — Another man wrote a. Novel in which the letters 
 •' a " and " / " were not used. In the Poem from which the first of the 
 following is taken, " c " and " s " are omitted ; and in the second the 
 Vowels are all omitted except " o ". 
 
 2. " Oh ! tell me. Queen of Fairyland, . 
 
 What elfln lore may do 
 To win for me that lily hand 
 
 The hand of her I woo. 
 I need not name or herh or draft. 
 
 You know them all too well ; 
 Prepare the bowl ; — let it he quafied 
 
 By haughty Annabel." — Arthur Locker. 
 
 3. " From Donjon tops no OronooUo rolls ; 
 Logwood, not lotos, floods Oporto's bowls. 
 Troops of old tosspots oft to sot consort ; 
 Boxtops our school-boys flog for sport. 
 Bold Ostrogoths of ghosts no horror show ; 
 On London shop-fronts no hop-blossoms grow. 
 To crocks of Gold no Dodo looks for food ; 
 
 On soft cloth footstools no old Fox doth brood." &c. 
 
 v. Macaronism is the mixture of words of different Lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Example,— Parvus Jacobus Horner 
 Sedebat in corner 
 Edens a Christmas pie. 
 
OF THE ENOLISH LANG UA OE, 227 
 
 Inseruit his thumb ; 
 
 Extrahit a plum, 
 
 Olamans " Quid smart pner am I ! " 
 
 "VT. Acrosticism is inserting consecutive letters, syllables, or 
 ■words, in the corresponding parts (usually at the beginning or 
 end) of several lines so that being read downwards or upwards 
 they form words or sentences. 
 Example. — Be not, my friend, so very sure 
 Of what you're able to endure ; 
 Or think that you, and none beside, 
 Know what is needful to provide, 
 n'ote. In this example the first letters of the lines form the word 
 " book." 
 
 CHAPTER IIL-ADAPTATION. 
 
 1 . Iambic Verse is more generally used than any other, and 
 seems adapted to a greater variety of subjects. It is especially 
 suited to solemn and grave themes. 
 
 2. Trochaic Verse is well fitted for lively subjects. 
 Example, — " Softly sweet, in Lydian measures. 
 
 Soon he soothed bis soul to pleasures. 
 
 War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; 
 
 Honor but an empty bubble ; " &c. — Dryden. 
 
 3. Amphibrachic Verse is best adapted to lively or comic 
 subjects. 
 
 Example. — " Since conjugal passion 
 Has come into fashion, 
 And marriage so blest on the throne is. 
 Like Venus I'll shine, 
 Be fond and be line ; 
 ^ And Sir Trusty shall be my Adonis." — AMimn. 
 
 4. The DactyUc and Anapaestic Verses are suited to a 
 variety of subjects. 
 
 5. Occasional Feet. The Macron, Spondee, Pyrrhic, and 
 Tribrach, are used only occasionally, and always in connection 
 with other feet. They do not form verses alone ; except that 
 sometimes one of them may be used as a Monometer. 
 
 The Macron, when used, commonly occupies the first or the 
 last place in the verse ; bat it may be used in other places, espe- 
 cially if followed by a pause. 
 
228 A COMPLETE SCIENTIVIC GRAMMAR 
 
 Example. — " Maud Muller on a summer's day 
 
 Raked | themea | dowsweet | with hay." — WMUi&r. 
 
 The Spondee, in Dactylic Hexameters, uniformly occupies 
 the sixth place, and may take any other place in the verse except 
 the fifth. In Heroic Verse (Iambic Pentameter) it may occupy 
 any place in the line, but is most graceful after a Trochee. 
 
 EXAMFIXS. 
 
 " Clearly the | rest I be | hold of the | darl^<f eyed | sous of A | chaia ; 
 
 Known to me | well are the | faces of | all ; their | names I re j mem- 
 ber; 
 
 Two, two I only re | . main whom I | see not a | mong the com ( 
 manders." — Hawtrey. 
 
 " Good life ( be now | my task ; | my doubts | are done." — Dryden. 
 
 " Load the | tall hark \ and launch { into | the main." 
 
 " He spoke 1 and in | loud tri | umph spread 
 The long contended honors of her head." — Pope. 
 
 The Pyrrhic, in heroic verse, is common in the first and 
 fourth places, and sometimes occurs in the second and third. ' 
 
 Examples. — " Nor in \ the help | less or | phan dread | a foe." 
 
 Pope. 
 "To farthest shores the ambrosial spirit flies, 
 Sweet to I the world | and grate | fid to \ the skies." — Id. 
 
 The Tribrach, in heroic verse, may stand in the third or 
 fourth place. 
 
 Examples. — He writes | anon | ymoutly | secure | from harm. 
 
 " And thun | ders down | impet | uout to \ the plain." — Pope. 
 
 The Long Feet (longer than the Spondee) are not admissible 
 xn Iambic Verse ; and are seldom used at all. 
 
 The Amphimacer is sometimes used to form entire verses ; 
 and the Molossus, Bacchius, and Antibacohius occur in connec- 
 tion with it as Occasional Feet. 
 
 Example. — " Flashed all their | sabers bare ; 
 Flashed as they | turned in air. 
 Sabering the | gunners there. 
 Charging an | Army, while 
 
 All the world | wondered. 
 Plunged in the | battery smoke, 
 Bight through the | line they broke ; 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 229 
 
 Cossack and | Russian 
 Reeled from the | saber stroke 
 Shattered and | sundered. 
 Then they rode | back,, but not, 
 
 Not the six | hundred." — Tennyson. 
 The Trochee, in heroic verse, often occupies the first place 
 in the line, and may be used in the third or fourth place. 
 Examples. — " Warms in \ the sun, | refresh | es in | the breeze, 
 
 Glows in I the stars, | and bios | soms in | the trees." 
 
 — Pope. 
 " Eve right | ly called | mother \ of all | mankind." 
 "And, stag | gered by | the stroke, | drops the \ large ox." 
 
 The Amphibrach, in heroic verse, is used only in the fifth 
 place. 
 IiXample. — " What can ennoble sots or slaves, or cowards ? 
 
 Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." — Pope. 
 
 The Dactyl, in heroic verse, is most commonly used in the 
 fir.st place of the line, but may occur in the third or fourth. 
 Examples. — " Parious \ he spoke ; | the ang | ry chief | replied." 
 At ftngth I he came | again. "| Wistfully \ he looked, 
 And looked once more upon the golden prize. 
 
 The Anapaest may be used in any place of the line. 
 
 Example. — And when | he looked | in the face | of that | old man. 
 
 He shrank | likeaguil | ty wretch | and hung | his head. 
 
 The Heroic Verse is the most elevated and dignified kind 
 
 of Verse, and consists, in English, of five Feet, generally all 
 
 Iambics ; but occasionally other Feet are interspersed among 
 
 them. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 " And so there grew great tracts of wilderness 
 Wherein the beast was ever more and more, 
 But man was less and less, till Arthur came. 
 For first Aurelius lived and fought and died ; 
 And after him King Uther fought and died ; 
 But either failed to make the kingdom one. 
 ^nd after these King Arthur for a space. 
 And, through the puissance of his Table Bound, 
 Drew all their petty princedoms under him, 
 Their king and head, and made a realm, and reigned." — 
 
 Tennyson. 
 The Common Octosyllabic Verse is Iambic Tetrameter, 
 ■with occasionally a Trochee in the place of an Iambus. 
 
230 A COMPLETE BGIENTIFIG QRAMMAB 
 
 Example, — " It happened on a winter night, 
 As authors of the legend write. 
 Two brother hermits, saints by trade, 
 Taking their tour in masquerade, 
 Disguised in tattered habits, went 
 To a small village down in Kent, 
 Where, In the stroller's canting strain. 
 They begged from door to door in vain, — 
 Tried every tone might pity win ; — 
 But not a soul would let them in." — Deem iSwift. 
 The Tetrasyllabic Feet are adapted to various purposes, but 
 
 are seldom used in English Poetry. In Latin and Gre,ek they 
 
 are common. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.-AREANGEMENT. 
 
 Arrangeinei).t is the grouping of Verses to form Stanzas. 
 
 A Stanza is a system of from two to fourteen verses, forming 
 a regular division of a Poem. The end of a Stanza should coin- 
 cide with the end of a Sentence. , 
 
 Note, A Stanza is often improperly called a Verse. 
 
 CLASSES OF STANZAS.-13. 
 
 1 . A Couplet consists of two lines which rhyme together. 
 Example. — I saw the bright star which had ushered the day 
 
 In the orient light slowly fading away. 
 
 A Distich, consists of two verses (rhymed or not) making a 
 complete sentence, as in the last example. 
 
 2. A Triplet is a Stanza of three Hues, aU usually rhyming 
 together. 
 
 Example, — " These three made unity so sweet 
 My frozen heart began to beat, 
 Eemembering its ancient heat." 
 
 3. A Quatrain is a Stanza of four lines, or verses. 
 
 4. A Quintette is a Stanza of five verses. 
 
 5. A Sestette is a Stanza of six verses. 
 
 6. A Septette is a Stanza of seven verses. 
 
 7. An Ocstave is a Stanza of eight verses. 
 
 The Class of any Stanza depends upon the number of its 
 verses. 
 
 The Number of the Class of any Stanza is one less than 
 tho number of its verses. 
 
OF TEE BN0LI8H LANG UAGE. 231 
 
 Blaiik Verse is usually continuous (not arranged in Stanzas 
 or Strophes) ; and each verse consists of four, five, or six feet. 
 
 EXAMPLES-1. 
 
 " As yet 'tia midnight deep. The weary clouds. 
 
 Slow meeting, mingle into solid gloom. 
 
 Now while the drowsy world lies lost in sleep. 
 
 Let me associate with the serious Night 
 
 And Contemplation, her sedate compeer. 
 
 Let me shake off th' intrusive cares of day, 
 
 And lay the meddling senses all aside." — Thompson, 
 
 " Forth into the mighty forest 
 
 Bashed the maddened Hiawatha. 
 
 In his heart was deadly sorrow | 
 
 In bis face a stony firmness ; 
 
 On his brow the sweat of anguish 
 
 Started ; but it froze, and fell not." — Longfellow. 
 
 " This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, 
 Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight. 
 Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prouhetic.";— /d!. 
 
 " Are they not here in the host, from the shores otLacedaemon ; 
 
 Or, though they came with the rest in the ships that bound through 
 
 the waters. 
 Dare they not enter the fight, or stand in the council of heroes, 
 All for fear of the shame and the taunts my crime has awakened 1 " — 
 
 Rhymed Verse is sometimes continuous, but is usually di- 
 vided into stanzas. 
 
 I. — ContimiOUS. Poems of much length in continuous Bhyme 
 are rare. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Beautiful, beautiful, beautiful day ; 
 Merrily rustle the leaves in their play ; 
 Autumn woods revel in colors so gay ; 
 Children are laughing ; and happy are they. 
 Coming from school in a comical way ; 
 Joyous the farmers their corn-fields survey ; 
 Drovers are placing their herds in array ; 
 Cloudlets the impulse of zephyrs obey ; 
 Flowrets of summer have gone to decay ; 
 Blue-birds, lamenting in funeral lay, 
 
232 A COMPLETE 8CIENTJEI0 OBAMMAB 
 
 Mournful and saddeued still sit on the spray ; 
 Sportsmen are hunting the squirrel so gray ; 
 Quails to the thicket retreat in dismay ; 
 Swallows have left us ; but robins delay ; 
 Sparrow and red-bird remain with blue-jay ; 
 Silent the crickets ; no katydids stay ; 
 Fragrant the meadows with aftermath hay ; 
 Sun is resplendent with genial ray ; 
 Glories of Nature no pen can portray 
 Dazzle and charm us this beautiful day. — C. 
 n. Couplets. Stanzas of two lines are common, -with verses 
 of yarious lengths. 
 
 1. Tetrameters.— 
 
 " The Judge rode slowly down the lane. 
 Smoothing his horse's chestnut mane. 
 
 He di-ew his bridle in the shade 
 Of the apple-trees to greet the maid." — Whittier. 
 I walked in the morning, a morning in June, 
 To breathe the fresh air, and with nature commune. 
 I saw the bright star which had ushered the day 
 In the orient light slowly fading away. — 0. 
 
 2. Heroic Couplets (Pentameters.) 
 
 " Know then thyself ; presume not God to scan ; 
 The proper study of mankind is man. 
 
 Placed on this isthmus of a middle state, 
 A being darkly wise and rudely great. 
 With too much knowledge for the skeptic's side. 
 With too much weakness for the stoic's pride. 
 He hangs between, in doubt to act or rest. 
 In doubts to deem himself a god or beast." — Pope. 
 Note. These are sometimes called Biding Bhymes because they 
 are used in the Canterbury Tales, which are represented as told by a 
 party riding to Canterbury. 
 
 3. Hexameters (Iambic). 
 
 " Then from her burnisl«d«gate the goodly glittering East 
 Gilds eyemjoj^wmch late the humorous Night 
 Bespangled had with pearl, to please the Morning's sight. 
 
 On this the mirthful quires, with their clear open throats, 
 
 Unto the joyful morn so strain their warbling notes 
 
 That hills and valleys ring, and even the echoing air 
 
 Seems all composed of sounds about them everywhere." 
 
 Drayton, 
 
OF THE ENOLISM LANO UAGE. 233 
 
 Note. These are called Alexandrine Verses from having been for- 
 merly used in poems celebrating the exploits of Alexander the Great. 
 They are also called French Heroics. 
 
 4. Heptameters (Iambic). 
 
 " She sits beneath the elder shade in that long mortal swoon ; 
 And piteously on her wan cheek looks down the gentle moon ; 
 And when her senses are restored, whom sees she at her side 
 But her, believed in childhood to have wandered off and died." — 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 The Service Meter, or Common Meter of the Versions of 
 
 the Psalms, is Iambic Heptameter ; but the length of these verses 
 
 makes it more convenient usually to divide them, and ■write each 
 
 as if it consisted of two verses, — one of four, and the other of 
 
 three feet. 
 
 " I choose the path of heavenly truth, 
 
 And glory in my choice ; 
 Not all the riches of the earth 
 Could make me so rejoice." 
 Another Ehyme is frequently used, when the verses axe writ- 
 ten in this manner, making alternate Bhymes. 
 
 " When midnight darkness veils the skies, 
 
 I call thy words to mind ; 
 My thoughts in warm devotion rise. 
 And sweet acceptance find." 
 
 The Short Meter Stanza consists of a Hexameter and a 
 Heptameter (Iambic), which are usually divided in writing. 
 " While all his wondrous works through his vast kingdom show 
 Their Maker's glory, thou, my soul, shalt sing his praises too." 
 " Thither the tribes repair, 
 
 Where all are wont to meet, 
 And, joyful in the house of prayer. 
 Bend at the mercy seat." 
 
 Terminal Amphibrach. In Iambic Heptameters sometimes 
 an Amphibrach is used instead of the last Iambus. 
 '• Had Ellen lost her mirth % Oh no ! But she was seldom cheerful ; 
 And Edward looked as if he thought that Ellen's mirth was fearful." 
 
 5. Octometers. A Macron in the fifth place of the Une. 
 "Here about the beach I wandered, nourishing a youth sublime 
 With the fairy tales of science, and the long result of time. 
 
 When the centuries behind me like a fruitful land reposed, — 
 When I clung to all the present for the promise that it closed." — 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
234 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAB, 
 
 The Long Meter is Iambic Ootometer ; and, in writing, the 
 Verses are almost always divided, — each one occupying two lines, 
 — and usually an additional Ehyme is introduced. These 
 Bhymes are sometimes alternate, and sometimes consecutive. 
 " Faith sees the bright eternal doors unfold to make his children way ; 
 They shall be clothed with endless life, and shine in everlasting day." 
 
 " From sea to sea, through all the shores. 
 
 He makes the noise of battle cease ; 
 When from on high his thunder roars, 
 
 He awes the trembling world to peace." 
 
 " Blest are the souls that find a place 
 • Within the temple of thy grace ; 
 There they behold thy gentler rays, 
 And seek thy face, and learn thy praise." 
 The BaUaxi Stanza is the same as the Common Meter ; and 
 the long lines are usually divided in the same way. 
 
 EXAKFLES. 
 
 " Three times all in the dead of night a bell was heard to ring ; 
 And shrieking at her window thrice the raven flapped his wing." 
 
 Tickea. 
 " Forbear, my son," the hermit cries, 
 
 " To tempt the dangerous gloom ; 
 For yonder faithless phantom flies 
 To lure thee to thy doom." — Qoldsmith. 
 m. Triplets. Three line stanzas are occasionally used, some- 
 times aU rhyming together, and sometimes not ; and the Verses 
 vary in the number and kind of fe«t. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1. Iambic Tetrameters. 
 
 " Transfused through you, mountain friends, 
 With mine your solemn spirit blends. 
 And hfe no more hath separate ends. 
 
 I read each misty mountain sign ; 
 
 I know the voice of wave and pine ; 
 
 And I am yours j and ye are mine." — WMUier. 
 
 " And thou, amidst thy sisterhood 
 Forbearing long, yet standing fast 
 Shalt win their grateful thanks at last. 
 
 When North and South shall strive no more. 
 And all their feuds and fears be lost 
 III Freedom's holy Pentecost."— /li. 
 
OF THE ENQLian LANG UA&B. 235 
 
 2. Iambic Pentameters. 
 
 " Strongest of men, they pierced the mountain boar, 
 
 Banged the wild deserts red with monster's gore. 
 
 And from their hills the shaggy Centaurs tore." — Pope. 
 
 3. Trochaic Tetrameters. 
 
 To the Throne each soul compelling, 
 Voice of trumpet, louder swelling, 
 Sounds through sepulchre and dwelling. 
 
 Death and nature stand demented, 
 
 When the creature, unprevented. 
 
 Is before the Judge presented. — O. 
 
 " Pact and fancy, thought and theme, 
 
 Word and work, begin to seem 
 
 Like a half remembered dream." — Whittier. 
 
 TV. Quatrains. Four line Stanzas are more common than 
 any others ; and the variety of them is very great. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1.— Iambic Tetrameter. 
 
 " He knew not if the brotherhood 
 
 His homily had understood ; 
 
 He only knew that to one ear 
 
 The meaning of his words was clear." — Longfellow. 
 " Strange trees and fruits above him hung ; 
 Strange odors filled the sultry air ; 
 Sti-ange birds upon the branches swung ; 
 Strange insect voices murmured there." — Whittier. 
 
 2.— Trochaic Tetrameter. 
 
 " Never errant knight of old. 
 Lost in woodland or on wold. 
 Such a winding path pursued 
 Through the sylvan solitude." — Longfellow. 
 
 3.— Iambic Heptameter. 
 
 " Far as the eager eye can reach the crested billows rise. 
 Till on the distant verge they seem to kiss the bending skies ; 
 No sail, like sea-bird's wing, appears to speak of life to me 
 Through all this livelong holy day, — ^this Sabbath on the Sea." — 
 
 a. T. Day. 
 
 4. Megiac Verses are Heroics in four line Stanzas, with al- 
 ternate Rhymes. 
 
 Example. — '^ The Curfew tolls, — ^the knell of parting day ; — 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea \ 
 
236 A COMPLETE BOIENTIEIO QRAMMAR 
 
 The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me." — i 
 
 5.— Octosyllabics. 
 
 " Sow rings the woodland loud and long ; 
 
 The distance takes a lovelier hue ; 
 
 And, drowned in yonder living blue. 
 
 The lark becomes a sightless song." — Tennyson. 
 
 6.— Heroics and Alexandrine. 
 
 " Rustling, the leaves are rudely hurried by ; 
 
 Or in dark eddies whirled, while from on high 
 
 The ruffian Winds, as if in giant mirth. 
 
 Unseat the mountain pine, and headlong dash to eirth." — 
 
 Pickering. 
 
 v. — Quintettes. Mve line Stanzas are somewhat rare ; but 
 they are sometimes tised with good effect. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Trochaic Tetrameter. 
 
 " I have known how sickness bends, 
 
 I have known how sickness breaks, — 
 How quick hopes have sudden ends, 
 How the heart thinks, till it aches. 
 Of the smile of buried friends." — MrB. Browning. 
 "VL. — Sestettes. — Sis line Stanzas are very numerous, and of 
 great variety. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Heroics. 
 
 " She holds the casket, but her simple hand 
 Hath spilled its dearest jewel by the way ; 
 
 She hath life's empty garment at command. 
 But her own death lies covert in the prey ; 
 
 As if a thief should steal a tainted vest ; 
 
 Some dead man's spoil, and sicken of his pest." — Hood. 
 
 Vli. — Septettes. — Seven Une Stanzas are many and various. 
 
 The Hhyuie Royai, invented by Chaucer, consists of seven 
 lines of Heroics, the last two rhyming successively, and the others 
 alternating variously. 
 
 EXAUPLE. 
 
 "The soldier he delighteth, all in arms. 
 To see his colors in the field displayed. 
 And longs to see the issue of those harms 
 
OF THE EN&Lian LANQ UA QE. 237 
 
 That may reveal an enemy dismayed, 
 
 A fort defeated, or a town betrayed ; 
 
 And still to be in action day and night, 
 
 But little thinks on God in all the fight." — Breton. 
 
 Vm. — Octaves;-"— Eight line Stanzas oocur in great number 
 and variety. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 1.— Dactylic Tetrameter, with Macron in the fourth place. 
 " Joyfully, joyfully, onward I move. 
 Bound for the land of bright spirits above. 
 Angelic choristers sing, as I come, 
 ' Joyfully, joyfully, haste to thy home.' 
 Soon, with my pilgrimage ended below. 
 Home to the land of bright spirits I go. 
 Pilgrim and stranger, no more shall I roam. 
 Joyfully, joyfully, resting at home." — Anon. 
 
 2. The Ottava Hima, consisting of eight Heroic lines, the 
 first six rhyming alternately, and the last two successively. 
 
 " Morgante had a palace in his mode, 
 
 Composed of branches, logs of wood, and earth. 
 
 And stretched himself at ease In this abode. 
 
 And shut himself at night within his berth. 
 
 Orlando knocked, and knocked again, to goad 
 
 The giant from his sleep ; and he came forth 
 
 The door to open, like a crazy thing ; 
 
 For a rough dream had shook him slumbering.". — Byron. 
 
 IX. — ^Nine Ldue Stanzas are somewhat frequent. They ex- 
 hibit much variety ; and some of them have been developed with 
 great skill. 
 
 The Speuceriau Stanza, invented by Spencer, and much 
 used, consists of two Heroic Quatrains, rhyming alternately, 
 the last line of the first rhyming with the first line of the 
 second, and these followed by an Alexandrine rhyming with the 
 eighth line. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 " A gentle Knight was pricking on the plain, 
 Tcladd in mightle armes, and silver shielde 
 Wherein old dints of deep woundes did remain. 
 The cruel marks of many a bloody fielde ; 
 Tot armes till that time did he never wield. 
 
238 A COMPLETE BCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 His angry steede did chide his foamiog bitt, 
 As mnch disdayning to the curbe to yield. 
 Full jolly Knight he seemed, and faire did sitt. 
 As one for knightly giusts and fierce encounters fitt. " — 
 
 X. — Ten Lme Stanzas oocsnr but seldom. 
 Example, — " After the tempest — the Inll of waves ; 
 
 After the battle — peaceful graves j 
 
 After the knell — the wedding bells ; 
 
 Joyful greetings from sad farewells. 
 
 After the bud — the radiant rose ; 
 
 After our weeping-— sweet repose ; 
 
 After the burden — the blissful meed ; 
 
 After the furrow — ^the waking seed ; 
 
 After the flight — the downy nest ; 
 
 Over the shadowy river — rest." — Anon. 
 
 SI. — Eleven Line Stanzas are not often used. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 " Worthless are all such pilgrimages — ^very. 
 
 If Palmers at the Holy Tomb contrive 
 
 The human heats and rancor to revive 
 
 That at the Sepulchre they onght to bury. 
 
 A sorry sight it is to rest the eye on 
 
 To see a Christian creature graze at Sion ; 
 
 Then homeward, of the saintly pasture full, 
 
 fiush, bellowing, and breathing fire and smoke. 
 
 At crippled Papistry to butt and poke, 
 
 Exactly as a skittish Scottish bull 
 
 Haunts an old woman in a scarlet cloak." — Hood. 
 
 XII.--Tw^elve Ldne Stanzas are often nsed by a few Poets. 
 
 Example. — " Come let us set our careful breasts, 
 Like Philomel, against the thorn 
 To aggravate the inward grief 
 That makes her accents so forlorn. 
 The world has many cruel points 
 Whereby our bosoms have been torn ; 
 And there are dainty themes of grief 
 In sadness to outlast the mom, — 
 True honor's dearth, affection's death. 
 Neglectful pride and cankering scorn, 
 With all the piteous tales that tears 
 Have watered since the world was born." — Id. 
 
OF THE EN&LI8B LANG UAQE. 239 
 
 Xm.— Thirteen Liae Stanzas are seldom used. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 " But hark ! those shouts ! that sudden din 
 
 Of little hearts that laugh within. 
 
 take him where the youngsters play ; 
 
 And he will grow as young as they ! 
 
 They come ! they come ! each blue-eyed sport, 
 
 The Twelfth-Night King and all his court. 
 
 'Tis Mirth fresh crowned with mistletoe I 
 
 Music with her merry fiddles, 
 
 Joy " on light fantastic toe," — 
 
 Wit with all his jests and riddles. 
 
 Singing and dancing as they go ; 
 
 And Love, young Love, among the rest, 
 
 A welcome, nor unbidden, guest." — Id. 
 
 XrV. — Fourteen Lane Stanzas are common, especially the 
 Sonnet, -whieli is very elaborate. It consists of Heroics, and has 
 two parts called the Octave and Sestette. The Octave consists of 
 two Quatrains, in each of which the first line rhymes with the 
 fourth, and the second with the third. Also the fourth rhymes 
 with the fifth. The Sestette is rhymed variously. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 " Each creature holds an insular point in space ; 
 
 Yet what man stirs a finger, breathes a sound. 
 
 But all the multitudinous beings round 
 
 In all the countless worlds, with time and place 
 
 For their conditions, down to the central base. 
 
 Thrill, haply, in vibration, and rebound,— 
 
 Life answering life across the vast profound 
 
 In full antiphony, by a common grace 1 
 
 I think this sudden joyaunce, which illumes 
 
 A child's mouth sleeping, unaware may run 
 
 From some soul newly loosened from earth's tombs. 
 
 I think this passionate sigh, which half begun 
 
 I stifle back, may reach and stir the plumes 
 
 Of God's calm angel standing in the sun." — Mrs. Browning. 
 
 Variations of the Sonnet are common, in which the 
 Bhymes of the Octave alternate variously. The so called Sonnets 
 of Shakespeare are so inartistic as scarcely to deserve the name. 
 
 A Strophe is a system of from two to thirty verses, forming 
 one of the irregular divisions of a Poem. (See CoUins's Ode on 
 the Passions, &c.) 
 
240 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 Note. The DiTisiona of a Poem are called irregular when 
 they differ from each other in the number, length, or combina- 
 tion of their verses, or when the number of verses in each ex- 
 ceeds fourteen. 
 
 A Stanza or Strophe is not a mere aggregation of verses, 
 but it is a group in which the verses are so bound together by the 
 interlacing of the Bhymes, or otherwise, as to form a system by 
 itself. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES OF STAlfZAS.-2. 
 
 1. A Homogeneous Stanza is one having the same num- 
 ber of Feet in each of its verses. 
 
 2. A Heterogeneous Stanza ia one not having the same 
 number of Feet in eaclx of its verses. 
 
 ORDERS.-*. 
 
 1 . A Continuous Rhymed Stanza is one whose verses all 
 rhyme together. (See " The rain," p. 309.) 
 
 2. A Consecutive Rhsrmed Stanza is one in which the 
 verses of each rhymii.g pair or set are not separated by iijiterven. 
 ing verses. 
 
 3. An Alternate Rhymed Stanza is one in which the 
 verses of each rhyming pair are separated by one intervening 
 verse. 
 
 4. A Remote Rhymed Stanza is one in which the verses 
 of some of its rhyming pairs are separated by two or more inter- 
 vening verses. 
 
 Varieties of the Stanza. By combining verses diflFering in 
 length and construction, and variously distributing the Ehymes, 
 an almost inflnite variety of Stanzas has been developed ; and the 
 number is continually increasing. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " Yellow leaves, how fast they flutter, — woodland hollows thickly 
 
 strewing, 
 Where the wan October sunbeams scantly in the midday win. 
 While the dim gray clouds are drifting, and in saddened hues im- 
 buing 
 
 All without and all within." — Jean Ingelow. 
 
 2. " Within deep dungeons heavenly light comes flaming, 
 
 When Faith kneels ttiere to pray ; 
 And voiceless solitudes hear heaven proclaiming 
 Redemption on its wa.v." — O. T. Day. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 241 
 
 3- " Brighter waters sparkled never 
 
 In that magic well 
 Of whose gift of life forever 
 
 Ancient legends tell, — 
 In the lonely desert wasted, 
 And by mortal lip untasted." — Whittier. 
 
 4. " Last night I wasted hateful hours 
 Below the city's eastern towers ; 
 
 I thirsted for the brooks, the showers ; 
 
 I rolled among the tender flowers ; 
 I crushed them on ray breast, my mouth ; 
 I looked athwart the burning drouth 
 Of that long desert to the south." — Tennyson. 
 
 5. " The day had sunk in dim showers, 
 
 But midnight now, with luster meek, 
 Illumined all the pale flowers, 
 Like hope that lights a mourner's cheek. 
 I said, while 
 The moon's smile 
 Played o'er a stream in dimpling bliss, 
 ' The moon looks 
 On many brooks ; 
 The brook can see no moon but this.' 
 And thus, I thought, our fortunes run ; 
 For many a lover looks to thee, 
 While, oh ! I feel there is but one. 
 One Mary in the world for me ! " — Moore. 
 
 6. " To crown the whole with triple queue, 
 
 Another such there's not in town, 
 
 Twitching his restless nose askew. 
 
 Behold tremendous Harry Brough- 
 
 -am, Law Professor at the U- 
 
 niversity we've Got in town — 
 Diversity we've Got in town." — Ba/rham. 
 
 7. Ah met 
 Am I the swain 
 
 That late from sorrow free 
 
 Did all the cares on earth disdain 1 
 
 And still untouched, as at some safer games, 
 
 Played with the burning coals of love and beauty's flames 1 
 
 Was't I could dive and sound each passions secret depth at will. 
 
 And from those huge o'erwhelmings rise by help of reason still 1 
 
242 
 
 A COMPLETE SCIEHTIFIG GRAMMAS. 
 
 /;- 
 
 And am I now, heavens ! for trying this in vain. 
 
 So sunk that I shall never rise again? 
 
 Then let despair set sorrow's string 
 
 For strains that doleful be. 
 
 And I will sing 
 
 Ahme!"— W»ft«r. 
 
 " What sounds were heard 1 
 What scenes appeared 
 O'er all the dreary coasts 1 
 
 Dreadfal gleams. 
 
 Dismal screams, — 
 
 Fires that glow. 
 
 Shrieks of woe, — 
 
 Sullen moans. 
 
 Hollow groans, — 
 And cries of tortured ghosts I " — Pope. 
 
 9. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 From 
 
 The hill 
 
 Come 
 
 So still 
 
 The moon and star 
 
 And night onbar. 
 
 3. Sleep's 
 Cover 
 Creeps 
 Over 
 
 Loved nature's 
 Calm features." 
 
 10. 
 
 Iiight 
 
 Fades; 
 
 Night 
 
 Shades 
 
 Appalling 
 
 Are falling. 
 
 " Hearts of love and souls of daring, in the world's high field of 
 action, 
 Te who cherish Ood'g commandments, bending not to rank or faction, — 
 Te whose life in slothful pleasure never sinks, nor idly stagnates, 
 Te who wield the scales of justice, weighing peasant men with mag- 
 nates, 
 I<o ! the voice of benediction falls upon yon from on high ; 
 Ye are chosen ; ye are missioned ; ye are watched by Heaven's eye." — 
 
 jyu^anrk£. 
 
 11. " The station clock proclaims the close of day ; 
 The hard worked clerks drop gladly off to tea; 
 The last train starts upon its dangerous way. 
 
 And leaves the place to darkness and to me." — Punch. 
 
 12. " Not a sou had he got ; — not a guinea or note ; 
 And he looked confoundedly flurried. 
 
 As he bolted away without paying his shot ; 
 And the landlady after him hurried." — BarJuan. 
 
OF TEE ENGLISH LANO UA GM. 243 
 
 CHAPTER V.-POEMS. 
 A Poem is a piece of metrioal composition. 
 
 CIASSES.-3. 
 
 1 . A Lyric Foero, is one designed (ox suitable) for singing. 
 
 2. A Dramatic Poem is one designed for theatrical speak- 
 ing. 
 
 3. A Lectio Poem is one designed simply for reading. 
 
 CLASS I.-LYRIC POEMS. 
 GE1TERA.-2. 
 
 1 . A Sacred Poem is one designed for religious use. 
 
 2. A Secular Poem, is one designed for uses not religious. 
 
 GENUS 1.-SACRED POEMS. 
 SPECIES.-2. 
 
 1. A Psalm is one of the sacred poems contained in the 
 Bible. 
 
 2. A Hymn is a sacred poem not contained in the Bible. 
 
 GENUS 2.-SECULAR POEMS. 
 SPECIES.-4. 
 
 1. A Song is a short lyric poem, various in form and subject. 
 
 2. A Ballad is a long narrative song in the Ballad Meter. 
 
 3. An Ode is a long, elaborate, and dignified lyric, sometimes 
 not intended to be sung. 
 
 4. At) EUegy is a funeral or mournful song. 
 
 CLASS n.-DRAMATIC POEMS. 
 GENERA.-3. 
 
 1 . A Tragedy is a Dignified Dramatic Poem, nsnaUy having 
 a fatal issue. 
 
 2. A Comedy is a light and amusing Dramatic Poem. 
 
 3. A Mask is an irregular, extravagant Drama, in tragic 
 form, introducing extra-human characters. 
 
 GENUS 2.-C0MEDIES. 
 SPECIES.-2. 
 
 1 . A Regular Comedy is one in regular form, -with re- 
 spectable characters and natural incidents. 
 
 2. A Farce is a low, irregular. Comedy in which the charac- 
 ters and incidents are ridiculous. 
 
244 A OOMPLETE 80IENTIFI0 GB.AMMAU 
 
 CLASS HL-LECTIC POEMS. 
 OEDEES-2. 
 
 1 . A Didactic Poem is one designed to afiEbrd instruction. 
 
 2. An Aesthetic Poem is one designed merely to afford 
 pleasure. 
 
 OEDEE l.-DD)ACTIC POEMS. 
 GENEEA-5. 
 1 . A Sistoric Poem is one narrating historical events. 
 
 3. An Argumentative Poem is one devoted to argument, 
 or reasoning. 
 
 3. A Descriptive Poem is one describing persons, places, 
 or things. 
 
 4. A Hortatory Poem is one devoted to exhortation, or 
 persuasion. 
 
 5. A Satiric Poem is one severely criticising, in rough lan- 
 guage, certain persons, characters, or customs. 
 
 GEiniS 1.-HIST0EIC POEMS. 
 SPECIES.-3. 
 1. At> Epic Poem is one narrating, in elevated style, the 
 achievements (real or imaginary) of distinguished persons. 
 3. A Chronicle is a plain narrative of actual events. 
 3. An Anecdote is a brief, and frequently humorous, narra- 
 tive. 
 
 OEDEE 2.-AESTHETIC POEMS. 
 SPECIES.-10. 
 
 1 . A Romance is a flctitious, sometimes extravagant, biog- 
 raphy or love story. 
 
 2. A Pastoral Poem is one pertaining to rural affairs, espe- 
 cially to the af&irs of shepherds. 
 
 3. An Idyl is a short, but elevated and artistic, pastoraL 
 
 4. A Fable is a fictitious and improbable narrative, designed 
 for amusement and instmction. 
 
 5. An Epistle is a familiar communication or letter. 
 
 6. A Parody is a poem in which some of the words have 
 been so changed as to adapt it to a purpose different from the 
 original one. 
 
 7. A Burlesque is a poem in which there is a ludicrous con- 
 trast between the style and the subject. 
 
 8. A Macaronic Poem is one in which words from two or 
 more different languages are used promiscuously. 
 
OV THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 245 
 
 9. Task Poetry is that in which the sense ia made subservi- 
 ent to the form, as in Acrostics, Echos, Puzzles, &c. 
 
 10. An Epigram is a short pungent expression, usually of 
 censure or ridicule. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF AN EFIGBAM. 
 
 " Sir, I admit your general rule 
 That every poet is a fool ; 
 But you yourself may serve to show it 
 That every fool is not a poet." — Pope. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.-POETIC LICENSE. 
 Poetic Ldcense is the privilege of using, in poetical compo- 
 sition, on account of its difficulty, many modes of expression 
 which are in some respects objectionable. 
 
 EXPEDIENTS.-IO. 
 
 1 . Contraction of "Words, as ' ' 'gan " for " began " ; " e'er " 
 for " ever " ; &o. 
 
 3. Combination of "Words, as "th' immense" for "the 
 immense " ; &c. 
 
 3. Antiquated Pronunciation, as " smUed " for " smiled" ; 
 &c. 
 
 4. Antiquated Inflection, aa " writeth " for "writes " ; &c. 
 
 5. Antiquated "Words and Phrases, " ' I am ' quod he " ; 
 &c. 
 
 6. Constant Use of Ellipsis and other Ehetorical Figurea, 
 aa "He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme " ; &c. 
 
 7. Changing the Accent of words, as " useless " for " use- 
 less " ; &c. 
 
 8. Imperfect Rhymes, as " shade " and " had " ; &c. 
 
 9. Imperfect Feet, as a Spondee or Pyrrhic in Iambic 
 Verae ; &c. 
 
 10. Imperfect Stanzas (i. e. such as close in the midst of a 
 Sentence, making a Caesura of the Sentence). 
 
 ABUSES OF POETIC LICENSE. 
 
 1 . Too frequent resort to the above expedients. 
 
 2. Indiscriminate Use, in the same Composition, of the 
 forms "thou " and " you " to designate the same individual. 
 
246 A. COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 3. Confoimding the Tenses of the Verb or Copula in the 
 same Sentence. 
 
 5. Comiptmg Words by omission or insertion of sounds, 
 as when "mama" is made to rhyme with "unbar"; "saw" 
 with " war " ; &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. " The ladies first 
 
 'Oan murmur, as became the softer sex." — Cowper. 
 
 " O'er hills, o'er dales, o'er crags, o'er rocks they go." — Pope. 
 
 " I Tie'er the paths of leamiDg tried." — Gay. 
 
 2. " For 'twas the self same power divine." — Cowper. 
 "Thau wheu employed f aeeommodate the fair." — Id. 
 " TK eternal snows appear already past." — Pope. 
 
 8. " Lo the poor Indian whose untutored mind 
 
 Sees God m clouds, or hears him in the lOiTid. — IS. 
 " His bloodless cheek is seemed and hard ; 
 Unshorn his gray neglected beard. — WTUttier. 
 " An 'twere not for thy hoary beard. 
 Such hand as Mansion's had not spared 
 To cleave the Douglas's head." — Seott. 
 i. " Go when the morning shineth; 
 
 Go when the eve dedineth." — Edin. LU. Rev. 
 " That eagerly Tiolp him for to flght." — Old Romanee. 
 " With points of blastborne hail their heated eynej 
 So their wan limbs no more might come between." — Teimysoa. 
 
 5. " WUhouten that would come an heavier bale." — Thornton. 
 " Not one eftgoons in view was to be found."— iS. 
 
 " Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." — Id. 
 " A train band Captain eke was he." — Cowper. 
 
 6. " Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." — Beatie. 
 
 " The virindy summit, wild and high, 
 Bonghly rushing on the sky." — Hyer. 
 " My heart is a sieve where some scattered aflFections," &c. — Moore. 
 1. " Now Christ thee save thou proud porter." — Old BaUad. 
 " Myself right surely know als6 that 'tis my doom to perish."— 
 
 Newman. 
 " Without retfnne to that friendly shore." — Pope. 
 " And humble all his airs of insolence." — Id. 
 8. " His dreadful journey to the realms beneath 
 
 To seek Tiresias in the vales of death." — Id. 
 " And bids Aurora with her golden wheels 
 Flame from the ocean o'er the eastern hills."— i3, 
 " Alone and unattended let me try 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 247 
 
 If yet I share the old man'a memory." — Id, 
 " Far from the town, an unfrequented bay 
 Relieved our wearied vessel from the sea." — Id. 
 " If this raise anger in the stranger's thought, 
 The pain of anger punishes the fault." — Id. 
 " To fame I sent him to acquire renown ; 
 To other regions is his virtue known." — Id. 
 " Behold the gloomy grot whose cool recess 
 Delights the Nereides of the neighboring seas." — Id. 
 9. " Warms in the sun ; refresh | es in | the breeze ; 
 
 Glows in the stars ; and bios | soma in | the trees." — Id. 
 " Not a drum ] was heard, | nor a fu | neral note 
 As his corse | to the rampart | we hurried ; — 
 Not a sol I dier discharged \ his fare ] well shot 
 O'er the grave | where our hero | we buried." — Wolfe. 
 
 10. " So word by word, and line by line. 
 
 The dead man touched me from the past ; 
 And all at once it seemed at last 
 His living soul was flashed on mine ; 
 
 And mine in his was wound, and whirled 
 
 About empyreal heights of thought, 
 
 And came on that which is, and caught 
 The deep pulsations of the world." — Tennyson. 
 
 11. " If thou man, a stranger art at home, 
 Then know thyself, — the human mind survey; 
 The use, the pleasure, will the toil repay. 
 Nor study only ; practise what you know ; 
 
 Tour life, your knowtedge, to mankind you owe." — 
 
 12. " Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat 1 
 loves of his own and raptures swell the note. 
 The bounding steed you pompously bestride 
 Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 
 
 Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain ? "—^Pope. 
 
 13. " And when lord Marmion reached his band. 
 He halts, and turns with clinched hand. 
 And shout of loud defiance pours. 
 
 And shook his gauntlet at the towers." — Seott. 
 " Thus while he spoke, the queen of heaven, enraged. 
 And queen of war, in close consult engaged j 
 Apart they sit, their deep designs employ, 
 And meditate the future woes of Troy."— Pop*. 
 
248 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 14. " Victory soon shall crown our banner ; 
 
 Soon the conflict will be o'er ; 
 Then the nation's loud hosannah 
 Shall resound from shore to shore." — OrMey. 
 
 CHAPTEE Vn— POETIC ANALYSIS. 
 
 Poetic Analysis is to a Poem what ordinary Analysis (in- 
 cluding Parsing) is to a Sentence. 
 
 Process. In Poetical Analysis one should class 1st, The 
 Poem ; 2nd, the Stanzas or Strophes ; and 3d, the Verses. 
 
 Additional "Work. After the Poetic Analysis one should 
 Analyze the Sentences, and Parse the Words. 
 
 " Philological Method." Besides the preceding work, one 
 should, when possible, study the Uterary History of the Composi- 
 tion, and the Biography of its Author ; — also the history of his 
 time and country ; and he should gather up every accessible fact 
 in relation to every person, place, or thing, mentioned or alluded 
 to in the Composition. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Byron's Waterloo, p. 296 is a piece of Metrical composition, and 
 hence is a Poem. It is Lectic, Didactic, Historic, an Anecdote. 
 
 It is divided into Stanzas, which are each of Nine Lines, Heteroge- 
 neous, composed of two Alternately Bbymed Quatrains, in which the 
 first line of the second rhymes with the last line of the first, together 
 with a ninth line rhyming with the eighth. 
 
 The Verses, except the ninth of each Stanza, are Iambic, Mixed, 
 Pentameters (i. e. Heroics), Rhymed. The ninth Verse is Iambic, Mixed, 
 Hexameter (i. e. Alexandrine) ; and hence the Stanzas are Spence- 
 rian. 
 
 EXEECISES. 
 
 1. " High on a throne of royal state, which far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, 
 
 Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand. 
 Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
 Satan exalted sat, — by merit raised 
 To that bad eminence." — Milton. 
 
 2. " Fair laughs the morn, and soft the zephyr blows. 
 While, proudly rising o'er the azure realm, 
 
 In gallant trim the gilded ressel goes, — 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 249 
 
 Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm, — 
 
 Begardless of the sweeping whirlwind's sway. 
 
 That, hushed in grim repose, expects his evening prey." — Gray. 
 
 3. " The sportive Autumn claimed by rights 
 
 An Archer for her lover ; 
 And even in Winter's dark cold nights 
 A charm he could discover." — Gampbell. 
 
 4. " When, bound to some bay 
 In the billowy ocean, 
 
 O'er sea rolling surges 
 The sailors are steering, 
 God weighs on his waters 
 Their wandering bark, 
 And wafts them with winds 
 On their watery way. " — Anon. 
 
 5. " The rolling year 
 
 Is full of Thee. Forth in the pleasing Spring 
 Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 
 Wide flush the fields ; — the softening air is balm ; — 
 Echo the mountains round; — the forest smiles ; — 
 And every sense, and every heart is joy." — Thomson. 
 
 6. " Could love forever 
 Run like a river. 
 And Time's endeavor 
 
 Be tried in vain, 
 No other pleasure 
 With this could measure, 
 And, like a treasure, 
 
 We'd hug the chain." — Byron. 
 
 7. " Then out spake brave Horatius, the captain of the gate ; 
 ' To every man upon this earth death coraeth soon or late ; 
 And how can man die better than facing fearful odds 
 
 For the ashes of his fathers, and the temples of his gods ? ' " — 
 
 8. "Child of the country, free as air 
 Art thou, and as the sunshine fair. 
 Born, like the lily, where the dew 
 Lies odorous when the day is new, — 
 Fed mid the May-flowers, like the bee, — 
 Nursed to sweet music on the knee, — 
 Lulled in the breast to that glad tune 
 Which winds make 'mong the woods of June, — 
 
250 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 I sing of thee. 'Xis sweet to sing 
 
 Of such a fair and gladsome ihiag."— Cunningham. 
 
 9. " Day-stars, that ope your eyes with morn to twinkle, 
 From rainbow galaxies of earth's creation 
 And dew-drops o'er her lovely altars sprinkle 
 
 As a libation." — Horace Smith.. 
 
 10. " Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early morn ; 
 Leave me here ; and when you want me, sound upon the bugle 
 
 horn. 
 'Tis the place ; and all around it, as of old, the curlews call, 
 Dreary gleams about the moorland, flying over Locksley Hall, — 
 Locksley Hall, that in the distance overlooks the sandy tracts. 
 And the hollow ocean-ridges roaring into cataracts." — Tennyson. 
 
 11. " If they rob us of name and pursue us with beagles, 
 Give their roof to the flame and their flesh to the eagles. 
 While there's leaves in the forest and foam on the river, 
 McGregor, despite them, shall flourish forever." — Scott, 
 
 12. " A conquest how hard and how glorions ! 
 
 Though fate had fast bound her 
 With Styx nine times round her, 
 Yet music and love were victorious ! " — Pope. 
 
 13. " Te shepherds so cheerful and gay, 
 
 Whose flocks never carelessly roam. 
 Should Corydon's happen to stray. 
 Oh call the poor wanderers home." — Shenstone. 
 
 14. " Thanks, my lord, for your venison, for finer or fatter 
 Ne'er ranged in the forest ner smoked on the platter. 
 The flesh was a picture for painters to study. 
 
 The fat was so white and the lean was so ruddy. 
 
 Though my stomach was sharp, I could scarce help regretting 
 
 To spoil such a delicate picture by ea.aag."~goiasmith. 
 
 15. " Come as the winds Come, when 
 
 Forests are rended ; 
 Come as the waves come, when 
 
 Navies are stranded. 
 Faster come ; faster come ; 
 
 Faster and faster j — 
 Chief, vassal, page, and groom, 
 
 Tenant and master." — Seott. 
 
OF TEE ENGLISH LANO UAffE. 251 
 
 16. " This Is the forest primeval j but where are the hearts that be- 
 
 neath it 
 Leapt like the roe, when it hears in the woodland the voice of the 
 
 huntsman "i 
 Where is the thatch-roofed village, the home of Acadian farmers t 
 Men whose lives glided on like rivers that water the woodlands, 
 Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of 
 
 Heaven 1 " — Longfellow^ 
 
 17. " At the close otday, when the hamlet is still, 
 
 And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove. 
 When nought but the torrent is heard on the hill, 
 
 And nought but the nightingale's song in the grove, — 
 'Twas thus, by the cave of the mountain afar, 
 
 While his harp rung symphonious, a hermit began. 
 No more with himself or with nature at war, 
 
 He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man." — Beatie. 
 
 18. " Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 
 
 weary. 
 Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, — 
 While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping 
 As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber-door. 
 ' 'Tis some visitor,' I muttered, ' tapping at my chamber-door ; — 
 Only this, and nothing more.' " — Poe. 
 
 19. " Speak gently of the erring ;— oh ! do not thou forget, 
 However darkly stained by sin, he is thy brother yet ; — 
 Heir of the self-same heritage, — child of the self-same God, — 
 He hath but stumbled in the path thou hast in weakness trod." — 
 
 F. e. Lee. 
 
 20. " Oh 1 a dainty plant is the Ivy greea 
 
 That creepeth o'er ruins old ! 
 Of right choice food are his meals, I ween. 
 
 In his cell so lone and cold. 
 The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed. 
 
 To pleasure his dainty whim ; 
 And the mold'ring dust that years have made 
 
 Is a merry meal for him. 
 Creeping where no life is seen, 
 A rare old plant is the Ivy green." — DieJc&na. 
 
252 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GSAMMAS 
 
 21. " Hear the sledges with the bells, — ■ 
 
 Silver bells. 
 What a world of merriment their melody foretells J 
 How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 
 
 In the icy air of night, 
 While the stars, that over sprinkle 
 All the heavens, seem to twinkle 
 
 With a crystalline delight, — 
 Seeping time, time, time, 
 In a sort of Bunic rhyme 
 To the tintinnabnlation that so musically wells 
 From the bells, bells, bells, bells, 
 Bells, bells, bells,— 
 Prom the jingling and the tinkling of the bells I " — Poe. 
 
 8's and 7's. 
 
 22. " Sweet the moments, rich in blessing. 
 Which before the cross I spend, — 
 Life and health and peace possessing, 
 
 Prom the sinner's dying Friend." — Boibinaon, 
 
 7'S. 
 
 23. " Praise the Lord, for he is kind ; 
 Praise him with a joyful mind ; 
 For his mercies shall endure, — 
 Ever faithfnl, ever sure.'' 
 
 8's, 7's, and 4. 
 
 24. " See, from Zion's sacred mountain, 
 
 Streams of living water flow ! 
 God has opened there a fountain 
 That supplies the plains below. 
 
 They are blessed 
 Who its sovereign virtues know." — KeOy. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 26. " How pleasing is the voice 
 
 Of God, our heavenly King, 
 Who bids the frosts retire. 
 And wakes the lovely spring I 
 Bright suns arise ; 
 The mild wind blows ; 
 And beauty glows 
 Through earth and skies." — BwigM. 
 
OF THE BNGLiaR LANG UAGE. 253 
 
 8's. 
 
 26. " The winter is over and gone ; 
 
 The thrush whistles sweet on the spray ; 
 The turtle breathes forth her soft moan ; 
 The lark mounts and warbles away." — Hawes. 
 
 L. P. M. 
 
 27. " The Lord hath eyes to give the blind ; 
 The Lord supports the sinking mind ; 
 
 He sends the laboring conscience peace ; 
 He helps the stranger in distress, — 
 The widow aiid the fatherless — 
 
 And grants the prisoner sweet release." — Anon. 
 
 ll's. 
 
 28. " I would not lire alway ; I ask not to stay 
 Where storm after storm rises o'er the dark way. 
 The few lurid mornings that dawn on us here 
 
 Are enough for life's woes, — full enough for its cheer." — 
 
 12's and ll's. 
 
 29. " Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee. 
 Though sorrows and darkness encompass the tomb ; 
 
 The Savior has passed through its portals before thee ;■ 
 And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom.' — 
 
 Meher. 
 
 12's. 
 
 30. " The voice of free grace cries ' Escape to the mountain ; 
 For Adam's lost race Christ hath opened a fountain. 
 For sin and uncleanness and every transgression 
 
 His blood flows most freely in streams of salvation.' " — 
 
 ll's. 
 
 31. " Daughter of Zion, awake from thy sadness ; — 
 Awake, for thy foes shall oppress thee no more. 
 Bright o'er thy hills dawns the daystar of gladness ; 
 Arise, for the night of thy sorrow is o'er." — Anon. 
 
 ll's and lO's. 
 
 32. " Brightest and best of the sons of the morning, 
 
 Dawn on our darkness ; and lend us thine aid ; 
 Star of the east, the horizon adorning, 
 
 Guide where our infant Redeemer is laid." — Id. 
 
2544 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIG GMAMMAR 
 
 ll's and 8's. 
 
 33. " Be joyful in God, all ye lands of the earth ; 
 
 Oh ! serve him with gladness and fear. 
 Exult in his presence with music and mirth ; 
 With love and devotion draw near." — Id. 
 
 Tt and 6's. 
 
 34. "As flows the rapid river, 
 
 With channel broad and free. 
 Its waters rippling ever, 
 
 And hasting to the sea, — 
 So life is onward flowing. 
 
 And days of offered peace ; 
 And man is swiftly going 
 
 Where calls of mercy cease." — 8. F. Smitli. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 CHAPTER l-COMPOSITIOBT. 
 
 iNTRODirCTION. 
 
 Composition is the writiug of original Continued Discourse. 
 
 This properly belongs to the department of Rhetoric ; but students 
 should have much practice and training in the art of Composition 
 before they are old enough, or sufficiently advanced in other branches, 
 to study Rhetoric as a Science. 
 
 This exercise should be commenced as soon as the pupil can write, 
 and continued as long as he attends school. 
 
 The lessons should be regular, and as frequent as circumstances 
 will permit, — daily, if possible ; otherwise, semiweekly, or weekly, 
 or bi-weekly ; but never more seldom. 
 
 Habits of neatness, order, and exactness should be cultivated. 
 
 Compositions should be written first with a pencil, either on a slate 
 or paper ; and, after careful revision and correction by the writer, 
 they should be copied with a pen, iu the best possible style, upon 
 good clean paper of the form and size prescribed by the teacher, — 
 neatly folded, — ^with the title, date, and author's name on the out- 
 side, according to the directions given. 
 
 They should then be carefully examined by the teacher, or by more 
 advanced students under his supervision, and, with the errors marked, 
 should be returned to the writer for correction and rewriting in books 
 kept for that purpose. 
 
 When possible, regular Classes should be formed in Composition 
 as well as in other studies ; and the Essays should generally be read 
 before the school. 
 
 Subjects should be assigned and explained by the teacher ; and the 
 whole Class should write upon the same topic. 
 
 Pupils should never be required to Write upon a. subject which 
 they know nothing about. 
 
 Abstract subjects should never be assigned to the younger Classes. 
 
 The older and more experienced may be permitted to Select subjects 
 for themselves. 
 
 (255) 
 
256 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 
 
 When about to write upon any topic, a student should not begin 
 by reading anything pertaining to that subject ; but should first think 
 about it, — ^form his plan, — and write as well as he can. Then he 
 should read whatever he can find relating to the topic ; and after 
 that he should revi&e aud correct his production. Thus he wiD 
 secure originality. 
 
 Either in writing or in debate, one should never attempt to argue 
 a question in the form of a Compa/rison, as " Which is the greater 
 evil. Intemperance or Lying?", &c., since it is entirdy impossible to 
 construct a TicUid argument on either side of any such question. 
 
 Compositions should not be very long. Usually one page of quarto 
 Letter Paper is the most proper length for beginners. 
 
 Sentences should generally be short ; and Essays should be prop- 
 erly divided into Paragraphs. 
 
 Writing should always be perfectly legible, and as beautiful as 
 possible. 
 
 Compositions should be criticised in respect to the following points : 
 1. Penmanship ; 2. Spelling ; 3. Capitals ; 4 Punctuation ; 5. Para- 
 graphing ; 6. Use of Words ; 7. Correctness of Syntax ; 8. Conden- 
 sation of Expression ; 9. Amplification of Thought ; 10. Accuracy of 
 Statement ; 11. Conclusiveness of Beasoning ; 13. Sufficiency of 
 Effort. 
 
 For dlSerent Classes of Students the following courses of Exercises 
 are proposed. 
 
 PAET L— AN" ELEIUENTAEY COTIESE. 
 
 In this, the attention should be directed mainly to Penmanship, 
 Spelling, Capitals, and Neatness. 
 
 1. Copying. — ^At first several Exercises may profitably be devoted 
 to copying paragraphs from some accurately printed modem book. 
 If not done correctly at the first trial, the work should be done over 
 again untU it is correct. The Eules for SpeUiug, p. 43, should be 
 studied. 
 
 2. Lists of Wames.— As a second step let the student write lists 
 of names of Persons, Places, Animals, Trees, Plants, Minerals, Uten- 
 sUs, Articles of Dress, Furniture, Books, &c. 
 
 The Eules for Capitals, p. 34, should be studied. 
 
 3. ITames of Parts.— Let the names of the parts of a House, 
 Carriage, Book, Tree, Ship, Locomotive, Port, Clock, Plow, Loom] 
 Piano, Trunk, &c., be written. 
 
 EXAMPLE.— A Stalk ov Cobn. 
 The parts of a Stalk of Com are the stem, root, rootlets, leaves 
 tassel, flowers, pollen, ear, husk, silk, kernels, cob, pith, woody 
 fibres, vascular tissue, cellular tissue, ohlorophy], &c. 
 
APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 257 
 
 4. Qualities of Things. — Let the student enumerate the quali. 
 ties of Iron, Lead, Copper, Gold, Silver, Mercury, Wood, Glass, 
 Stone, Brick, Clay, Earth, "Water, Ice, Snow, Wool, Cotton, Flax, 
 Hemp, Flour, Meal, Salt, Alcohol, Tobacco, Sugar, Paper, Leather, 
 Coal, Bone, Ivory, Marble, &o. 
 
 EXAMPLE.— Wax. 
 Wax is useful, beautiful, fragrant, common, cheap, plenty, fusible, 
 pliable, combustible, convenient, opaque, &c. 
 
 5. Uses. — Enumerate the uses of the things mentioned in Nos. 
 Three and Four, and of other things. 
 
 EXAMPLE.— Coal Tab. 
 Coal Tar is used for covering walks, — ^making roofing, — ^making 
 shoe-blacking, — painting iron fences, chains, coal-hods, tools, &c., — 
 preventing insects from going up the trees, — for manufacturing Light 
 Carbon Oils for illuminating purposes, — Naptha for preparing Var- 
 nishes, — Heavy Oils for lubricating Machinery,— Paraffine formaking 
 Candles, — ^Alcohols for various purposes, — Aniline Colors for Dye- 
 fetufEs and for the use of Artists, — ^Fruit Essences for Perfumery, — 
 Carbolic Acid for medicinal, preservative, and disinfecting purposes, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 6. Writing from Memory. — Let the Teacher read to the 
 Class a simple story or narrative from some book or paper not accessi- 
 ble to the Class ; and let the students afterwards write what they can 
 remember of it, not assisting one another. The Teacher may some- 
 times give original narrations ; but usually the selections are better, 
 because they can be more readily compared with the work of the 
 pupils ; and the quality of that work more accurately estimated. 
 
 7. Description of Things. — After a sufficient number of Exer- 
 cises from Memory, let the Class proceed to write simple descrip- 
 tions of things which they have seen, as a Horse, Ox, Cow, Sheep, 
 Dog, Goat, Cat, Goose, Squirrel, Pox, or other Animal, a Cart, 
 Wagon, Car, Engine, Ax, Plane, Saw, Scythe, Mowing-Machine, 
 Spinning- Wheel, Loom, Sewing-Machine, Cooking-Stove, Writing- 
 Desk, Table, Bureau, Sofa, Chair, Lamp, Piano, Melodeon, Organ, 
 Sleigh, Bridge, House, Barn, Garden, &c., &c. 
 
 EXAMPLE. — A SliEDGE-HAMMEK. 
 
 A Sledge-Hammer is a large hammer, sometimes weighing ten or 
 fifteen pounds, and generally used by a black-smith or a stone-mason. 
 It has a long handle made of some strong tough wood, and is used 
 by the stone-mason for breaking large rocks, or for driving wedges 
 to raise up a rock. Sometimes he uses it in drilling holes in the 
 rock which he intends to break with wedges, powder, or Nitro- 
 glycerine. 
 
258 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAB. 
 
 The sledge sometimes has two round or square faces ; but in most 
 eases it has one face only ; and opposite to that it has an edge some- 
 what like that of an as., but not so long or so sharp. 
 
 The sledge used by the black-smith is generally not so heavy as that 
 of the stone-mason, and is more neatly finished. 
 
 B^equently the edge is blunted so as^o make a kind of narrow face ; 
 and sometimes it is turned In a difEerent direction, so as to stand 
 either oblique or at right angles to the direction of the edge of the 
 mason's hammer. 
 
 The black-smith uses his sledge in forging, welding, bending, or 
 breaking large irons. 
 
 The larger part of the sledge-hammer is commonly made of Iron ; 
 but the face and the edge are made of Steel, which is harder, stronger, 
 and more durable than Iron. 
 
 8. Bescription of Places. — ^From the description of things it is 
 easy to pass to the description of places. Let the pupil describe the 
 House, Door-yard, Farm, District, VUlage, Street, or City where he 
 lives, or where he has been, or any remarkable place that he has 
 seen. 
 
 9. Description of £vents, or Narration. — ^This is a very easy 
 and pleasant exercise. Let each member of the Class describe some 
 occurrence which he has seen or participated in, as a Walk, — a Foot- 
 race, — an Excursion for hunting, fishing, gathering Botanical, Min- 
 eralogical, or Geological Specimens, — a Sleigh-ride, a Sail upon the 
 water, — a Visit to a friend in the Country, or in the the City, — ^fall- 
 ing from a horse, going a skating, — going to market, — visiting a 
 School, — going to Church, — a thunder shower, — an Aurora Borealis, 
 — a husking party, — an apple paring, — a log-rolling, — ^the r^ing 
 of a building, — thebumingof abuUding, — apic-nic, — acelebration, — 
 a snow storm, — a Lecture, — a Concert, — an Exhibition, — a County 
 Fair, — a Church Fair, &c., &c. 
 
 EXAMPLE. — Gatheresq Chebtttdts. 
 
 It was late in the Fall, and the leaves, being killed by the frost 
 and dried by the sun, were brown and rustling and rapidly falling 
 from the trees, when I and my friend started for the woods in pur- 
 suit of chestnuts. — The way was long ; and the hills we had to climb 
 were steep ; and my friend was so large and heavy that I feared he 
 would not hold out well on such an excursion. But I soon found 
 that I had enough to do to keep up with that heavy, dumpy looking 
 fellow ; and, by the time that we reached the chestnut trees, I was 
 glad to stop a while and rest. 
 
 After a little we began to look for chestnuts ; but although the 
 
, APPENDIX.—GOMPOSITION. 259 
 
 burs were well opened and we could see an abundance of them 
 some fifty or eighty feet above our heads, we could scarcely find 
 one upon the ground. 
 
 The little roguish Squirrels, which had carried off all the fallen 
 chestnuts to their burrows or to the hollow trees where they were 
 laying up their winter store, and which were darting a,bout here and 
 there, seemed to exult in our perplexity, and fairly to mock us with 
 their chattering. 
 
 But their triumph was of sliort duration ; for my fa,t friend soon 
 showed them that he could climb trees as well as they ; and up he 
 went into one of those big lofty trees and began to shake ; and " Oh ! 
 what a fall was there, my countrymen I " not of the fat fellow, as I 
 almost expected, — ^nor of the squirrels, — ^but of the chestnuts. 
 
 They rained, — they poured, — and soon the ground was covered ! — 
 I began to pick them up ; and in a short time my friend came down 
 to my assistance. — We filled our pockets, and succeeded in getting 
 home in time for tea. 
 
 10, Ijetters. — ^Almost every person has frequent occasions to 
 write letters ; and the exercise ought to be so familiar as not to oc- 
 casion the slightest inconvenience ; but many a/re, unfortimately, 
 very much embarrassed when it is necessary for them to write, be- 
 cause they have had neither instruction nor practice in the art of 
 letter- writing. Not only are they embarrassed in the writing, but 
 their performances often subject them to much ridicule and contempt, 
 which might aU be avoided by a little attention to this matter while 
 at school. 
 
 The style of letters should be varied according to Circumstances ; 
 but a few points should always be observed. 
 
 1. Letters should be perfectly legible. 
 
 2. It should be clearly evident where, when, by whom, and to whom 
 the letter is written. 
 
 3. Business letters should be short and explicit. 
 
 4. A letter asking a favor, or pertaining exclusively to the busi- 
 ness of the writer, should contain a stamp to prepay the postage on 
 the answer. 
 
 5. All letters should be promptly answered, unless there are pe- 
 culiar and strong reasons for not answering them. 
 
 6. A letter to a relative or intimate friend should be less formal 
 than one to a stranger, or mere acquaintance ; and in addressing a 
 person of high rank or dignity one should be more precise and formal 
 than in ordinary correspondence. 
 
 7. The date should be written first, near the top of the page, and 
 towards the right Side. Next, the formal Address should be written 
 
260 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 
 
 a little below, and beginning at the left side of the page. Then, 
 just below the termination of the Address, the Gomplimentary Ad- 
 dress should begin. After this last, on the same line, or the next be- 
 low, the body of the letter should begin. After the body of the 
 . letter, near the middle of a line, the Complimentary Closing should 
 begin ; and below the end of that the Signature should be written. 
 
 In a familiar letter to a friend, the Formal Address may be omitted. 
 
 After the Formal Address the Point required is the Period ; but 
 after the Complimentary Address, the Comma. 
 
 If it is desired to be especially respectful, the letter should begin 
 not much above the middle of the page ; a whole sheet of paper 
 should be used ; and if the first page does not contain the whole, the 
 remainder should go upon the third page, leaving the second blank. 
 
 In ordinary correspondence ahalf sheet of paper may be used, un- 
 less the communication is too long for two pages to contain it ; but 
 never less than half a sheet. 
 
 If the letter is in reply to one received, the reception of it should 
 be acknowledged at the beginning. 
 
 In writing the Address upon the Envelope, the title should stand 
 at the left, just below the middle of the face, — the name should fol- 
 low in the same line, — then below, at about the middle of the face 
 lengthwise, the name of the Town should commence, — ^below that, 
 and farther to the right, the name of the County should begin, — and 
 below that, and still farther to the right, the name of the State. This 
 last may be abbreviated, if it is long. 
 
 If the letter is sent to a large City, the number and name of the 
 Street should be given first after the name of the person. 
 
 Let the Class write imaginary Letters to Parents, Brothers, Sisters, 
 Friends, Business Men, Firms, Members of the Legislature, Members 
 of Congress, Classmates, Teachers, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 FoaoNSTON, Taylok Co., W. Va. 
 January 15th, 1879. 
 Ms. Thomas Sheldon & Co. 
 
 Dkas Sibs, — ^Tour favor of the 10th of this month was duly 
 received ; and it will give me great pleasure to comply with your 
 request. 
 
 I think the business can be finished in a few days ; and I will 
 promptly inform you of the result. 
 
 Very truly Tours, 
 
 JaMSS ANDEKSOIf. 
 
APPENDIX.— G0MP08ITI0M. 261 
 
 Ms. Thomas Sheldon &• Co., 
 
 Whitestown, 
 
 Oneida Co., 
 N. V. 
 
 Haktfokd, Conn., March 5th, 1879. 
 My Dsab Bkothbb, — 
 
 I received your kind letter of Feb. 20th last week, 
 and was extremely glad to learn that you arrived safely at the end of 
 your journey, and found your family safe and well. 
 
 We are well and prosperous, but have felt lonesome ever since you 
 left us. I wish that you were not so far away but that we might en- 
 joy your visits more frequently. — John has left us, since you went 
 away, — ^having taken charge of a School in a neighboring town, 
 where he seems to be enjoying himself and giving satisfaction. 
 Henry is stUl pursuing his studies at the High School, and hopes to 
 be ready to enter College next fall. — Business is becoming much more 
 lively than it was when you left us ; and we think the prospect is 
 good for the coming season. 
 
 We were all much interested in the Lecture.last evening, at Allen 
 Hall, by Professor Tyndall, on the Subject of Light. His apparatus 
 is splendid, and his treatment of his theme is most masterly. I wish 
 you could hear him. 
 
 Tour affectionate Brother, 
 
 Alfred Bingham. 
 
 500 Bkoad-wat, N. T., Tibesdat, April 8th, 1879. 
 To THE Hon. A. I. Bokbman, Senator of the TJ. 8. 
 
 Deak Sib, — Please allow me to congratulate you upon the 
 passage of the Law which you have recently advocated with so much 
 zeal and ability, and which is destined, I have no doubt, to be of 
 great utility to the Country. 
 
 I assure you that I, with many others, have watched with great in- 
 
262 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GSAMMAR. 
 
 terest the progress of legislation In regard to this matter, and that 
 we arrf peculiarly gratified at this final happy result. 
 I remain. Sir, with great respect. 
 
 Tours very truly, 
 
 Joseph Dknham. 
 
 PART H— AH DT TEEMEDIATE COITESE. 
 
 This Ck)UTse is designed for those who have been through with 
 Syntax, and have made corresponding progress in other studies. 
 
 SECTION 1. 
 Construct half a dozen original Sentences of each kind mentioned 
 in the Analysis ; and pUTtcttuUe them. 
 
 Study the Chapter on Punctuation, beginning at p. 47. 
 
 SECTION 3. 
 
 Take the Sentences of the List beginning at p. 274, and subject 
 them to all the Transformations of which they are susceptible ; viz. : 
 
 1. Change the Sentences of each Order into the Equivalent Sen- 
 tences of the other Order. 
 
 2 Contract such as can be in any way contracted. 
 
 3. Expand all contracted forms in every possible way. 
 
 4. Transpose the Members and Elements in all possible ways. 
 
 SECTION 3. 
 Take the Poetical Selections in the Grammar, and in the Readers, 
 and transform them into Prose. 
 
 FAST nX-A HIGHEB COUBSK 
 
 This Course Is designed for those who have completed the Gram- 
 mar, and made corresponding progress in other studies. 
 
 SECTION 1.— Pbosb. 
 Write Dissertations, Essays, and Orations. 
 In order to produce an Essay take the following steps : 
 
 1. Select a Theme, if one is not assigned by the Teacher. 
 
 It is comparatively unimportant what the Theme is, provided that 
 one knows something about it, and works It up faithfully. 
 
 2. Form a Plan, or outline of the Essay. 
 
 An Essay or IMsconrse without a Plan is generally without sense 
 or utility, — the mere raw material from which something valuable 
 might, perhaps, be elaborated, but is not. 
 
 3. Proceed to fill up the Plan, or write according to it. 
 
 The Plan itself should not, generally, be mentioned or made promi- 
 nent in the E^say. A gnide board is useful to direct one in the right 
 
appbjutdix.—oomposttion: 263 
 
 ■way ; but it is not necessary or useful for him to shoulder it, and 
 carry it along with him. 
 
 4. Acquire all the information possible in regard to the Theme ; 
 and then revise, criticise, correct, and rewrite the Essay. 
 
 PLANS. 
 
 The Plan of an Essay or Discourse must depend, to a cert^n extent, 
 upon the nature of the Theme ; but it usually depends to a greater 
 extent upon the occasion, and the purpose and ability of the writer. 
 
 The same Thenie admits, usually, of a number of difEereut plans ; 
 and two different writers upon the same subject scarcely ever adopt 
 exactly the same plan. 
 
 A Theme may consist of a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence. 
 
 When the Theme is a Word, the writer has perfect freedom of 
 choice in regard to the plan. If the Theme is a Phrase, he is some- 
 what restricted ; and if it is a Sentence, he is still more restricted. 
 
 A Theme consisting of a Word or Phrase is a General Theme ; — a 
 Sentence forms a Particular Theme, 
 
 In general, one should study brevity and condensation. 
 
 Introductions, if used at all, should be very short, and apologies 
 should be utterly discarded. 
 
 Essays designed as School Exercises should not exceed three quarto 
 pages of ordinary manuscript. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PLANS.— (Jenbral Themes. 
 Theme,— The Sheep. 
 FiEST Plan. 
 1. The Size and Appearance of the Sheep. 
 
 3. The Habits. 3. The Utility. 4 The History. 5. The Enemies, 
 6. The Varieties of the Sheep. 
 
 Second Plan:. 
 1. The Scientific Name and Rank of the Sheep. 
 3. The Time of its Domestication. 
 
 3. Its Use among the Ancient Nations. 
 
 4. Allusions to it in the Bible. 
 
 5. Allusions to it in Classical Literature. 
 
 6. Its Use for Keligious Sacrifices. 
 
 Thibd Plan, 
 
 1. The Rank of the Sheep among Domestic Animals. 
 
 2. The Industries depending upon the Sheep. 
 
 3. Mutton as an Article of food. 
 
 4. Wool as an Article of Commerce. 
 
 6. Wool as a Material for Manufactures. 
 6. Woolen Manufactories. 
 
264 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 Fourth Piaw. 
 
 1. The Sheep as a Means of Civilization. 
 
 2. Sheep raising as a Business. 
 
 3. Sheep and Dogs. 
 
 4. Climatic Distribution of Sheep. 
 
 5. Sheep Husbandry among the Nations. 
 
 6. The Future of Sheep Husbandry. 
 
 Fifth Plaw. 
 
 1. The Comparative Value of the Sheep and Swine. - 
 
 2. The Conditions of Success in Sheep Husbandry. 
 
 3. The Bank of Sheep Husbandry, compared with other Industries 
 
 in the United States. 
 
 4. The Effect of Tariff Laws npon Sheep Husbandry. 
 
 5. Imported Sheep. 
 
 6. Sheep at County Fairs. 
 
 SrXTH P1.AS. 
 
 1. Sheep as a Rural Ornament. 
 
 2. Sheep in Pastoral Poetry. 
 
 3. Sheep in B!pic Poetry. 
 
 4. Sheep in Fable. 
 
 5. The Sheep as a Religions SymboL 
 
 6. The Sheep as a Means of National Superiority. 
 
 Seventh Plan. 
 
 1. The Sheep as a Means of American Independence. 
 
 2. Sheep raising in New Kngland. 
 
 3. Sheep raising in Texas. 
 
 4. Sheep Husbandry in Scotland. 
 
 5. Sheep Husbandry in Australia. 
 
 6. Sheep Husbandry in South Africa. 
 
 Eighth Plan. 
 
 1. Large Sheep. 
 
 2. Sheep without Wool. 
 
 3. Syrian Sheep. 
 
 4. Sheep in relation to the Fine Arts. 
 
 5. The Geological Era of Sheep. 
 
 6. The Connection of Sheep with Astronomy. 
 
 NrNTH Plan. 
 
 1. Sheep and Ooats. 
 
 2. Fine and Coarse Wooled Sheep. 
 
 3. Diseases of Sheep. 
 
 4. The Colors of Sheep. 
 
 5. The Food of Sheep. 
 
 6. The Care of Sheep. 
 
APPEN-D1X.—G0MP08ITI0N. 265 
 
 Tknth Plan. 
 
 1. The kind of Country best adapted to Sheep. 
 
 3. The Age of Sheep. 
 
 3. The Eelation of Sheep to Music. 
 
 4. Sheep and Royalty. 
 
 5. Sheep Husbandry in Palestine. 
 
 6. Syrian Sheep and Goats in relation to Darwinism. 
 
 These different plans are not by any means all that might be given ; 
 but they may serve to illustrate the variety of treatment of which a 
 common simple Theme is susceptible. 
 
 Any one of these plans furnishes abundant material for an ordinary 
 School Essay ; and in fact one of the Single Divisions of these plans 
 is often suflBcient not merely for a short Essay, but for a Volume, 
 if fully developed. 
 
 THE SECOND PLAN DEVELOPED. 
 The Sheep. 
 
 1. The Common Sheep belongs to that part of the Animal King- 
 dom called Vertebrates, — to the First Grand Division, called Warm 
 Blooded Animals, — to the First Class of these, called Mammalia, or 
 animals that nurse their young, — toihe Second Sub-Class, called TJn- 
 gulata, or Hoofed Animals, — to the Second order of this Sub-Class, 
 called Ruminantia, or Cud-chewing Animals, — to the Family Ovidae, 
 or Sheep-like Animals, — to the Genus Ovis, — and to the Species 
 Aries. — Hence its Scientific Name is Ovis a/ries ; and it may be said 
 to be a Ruminant Ungulated Mammal. 
 
 It differs in some some respects from, and yet is closely allied to, 
 the Ovis Ammon, or Siberian Sheep, — the Ovis Canadensis, or Big 
 Horn Sheep of Canada, which is probably the same as the Ovis Mon- 
 tana of Colorado, — the Ovis Musimon, or MouflBon of Cyprus, — the 
 Ovispolycerata, or Many Horned Sheep, — the Ovis laticauda, or Broad 
 Tailed Sheep of Syria, — the Ovis strepsioeros, or Twisted Homed 
 Sheep of Crete, — and the Ovis Guiniensis, or Guinea Sheep ; and 
 all these are nearly allied to the Capridae, or Goat Family. 
 
 3. The time of the original domestication of the Sheep is entirely 
 unknown ; but we have accounts of it in a domestic state, which are 
 older than those relating to any other animal in that condition ; and 
 it has been a constant companion of civilized man during the whole 
 of the historic era at least. 
 
 3. The use of the Sheep was universal among the civilized, and 
 many of the barbarous, nations of antiquity ; and it seems to have 
 been an important means of national development. 
 
 Its flesh and milk were used for food ; its wool and skin were 
 used for clothing, beds, bedding, and ornaments ; and in many cases 
 
266 A COMPLETB 8CIENTIFIG QBAMMAB. 
 
 flocks of Sheep constituted an important part of the wealth even of 
 nobles and monarchs. 
 
 4. AUnsions to the Sheep are extremely numerous in the Bible, 
 from Oenesis to Revelation. 
 
 Adam and Eve were clothed with skins which in all probability 
 were Sheep skins. At any rate their second son, Abel, was a keeper 
 of Sheep ; and probably the farmer Cain had some, or at least might 
 have had some ; else he would not have been censored for not bring- 
 ing one as an offering to the Lord. 
 
 Job, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and David,were also keepers of Sheep, 
 as were the Jews generally whUe they remained in Palestine. 
 
 To Shepherds who were watching their flocks by night the Angelic 
 Messengers announced the birth of the Savior, the Prince of Peace, 
 — "the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." 
 
 5. Homer, the oldest Classical Author, makes frequent mention 
 of the Sheep. Paris, Isus, and Antiphus, sons of Priam, King of 
 Troy, he describes as Shepherds, and makes even Polyphemus the 
 Giant, one of the Cyclops, the son of the Sea God, Neptune, to be a 
 keeper of Sheep. Herodotus, also, the Father of History, as he is 
 csdled, alludes to the keeping.of Sheep among several nations. Vir- 
 gil, the Boman Poet, and other Latin Authors, frequently mention 
 the Sheep as a well-known domestic animal. 
 
 6. The use of the Sheep in Beligions Sacrifices was common among 
 the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and especially so among the Jews. 
 
 Among other nations the Pig, Dog, &c. , were sacrificed as well as 
 the Sheep ; but to the Jews those animals were unclean ; and they 
 were not permitted to sacrifice them. 
 
 Hence the Sheep was used more frequently than it would other- 
 wise have been. In fact the Sheep, or rather the Lamb one year old, 
 came to be regarded among the Jews as a sort of Symbol of all Sac- 
 rifices ; and among Christians it has always been a sacred Symbol 
 of that one Great and Final Sacrifice which was offered on Mount 
 Calyaiy, to make at once an Atonement for the sins of all mankind. 
 
 PARTICULAR THEMES. 
 
 When the Theme is a Sentence, or Proposition, the object of the 
 writer is usually to prove, or disprove ; or else to illustrate and en- 
 force it. 
 
 Sometimes Proof and Illustration are combined in the same dis- 
 course. 
 
 Illustrations have great effect in rendering a proposition clear and 
 making it seem true. In fact they are often mistaken for proofs ; 
 but the writer should remember that they are entirely different ; and 
 that no amount of illustration can ever prom any thing at aU. 
 
APPEirmX.—COMPOBITION'. 267 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Theme. It is the duty of every person to discourage the use of 
 intoxicating drinks. 
 
 1. Explanation of the proposition. 
 3. Statement of the Argument. 
 
 3. Illustration of the Argument. , 
 
 4. Statement and refutation of Objections. 
 
 5. Proof of the things alleged in answer to the Objections. 
 
 6. Development of the Argument for the Proposition. 
 
 7. The Conclusion. 
 
 FILLING UP OF THE PLAN. 
 
 1. This proposition iinplies that every person ought, in the first 
 place, to abstain from the use of intoxicating drinks himself, since 
 one's example often carries with it more influence than he can exert 
 in any other way ; and if the influence of his example is given in 
 favor of the use of such drinks, he cannot be said to discourage their 
 use. 
 
 Again, if it is a duty to discourage dnBking, it must be on account 
 of its injurious effects ; but that which will injure another, will in- 
 jure one's self ; and one ought not to injure himself any more than 
 to encourage others to injure themselves. Hence the proposition im- 
 plies not only that every person ought to discourage the use of intox- 
 icating drinks by others, but that he ought to abstain from their nse 
 himself. 
 
 3. The proposition is evidently true, because the use of intoxicat- 
 ing drinks inflicts many and very great evils upon the community, 
 and is in no way beneficial. 
 
 It is, of course, assumed, as a first principle, that every person is 
 in duty bound to do that which is beneficial, and to abstain from do- 
 ing that which is injurious to the public. 
 
 3. In order to prove the proposition, it is necessary to show, not 
 only that drinking inflicts great evils upon the community, but that 
 it does not confer any benefits ; for it may happen that a thing which 
 is sometimes injurious, is at other times beneficial to such an extent 
 as to overbalance the injuries, and to be, on the whole, beneficial. — 
 Such is the case, for example, with the use of fire. — It sometimes 
 results in terrible conflagrations, like those in Portland, Chicago, and 
 Boston, but stUl fire is a thing of such great and universal utility 
 that no one dreams of abandoning the use of it. 
 
 Not so, however, with the use of intoxicating drinks ; but its 
 results are evil and only evil, and that continually. 
 
 4. It is said, to be sure, by those who are fond of drinking or sell- 
 
268 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 
 
 ing these beverages, that they are, like fire, beneficial when properly 
 used, and only injorions when abused ; but this is not so. Tliere is 
 no proper use for them. Their effect upon the human constitution 
 is always injurious. They always tend to disorder the stomach and 
 the nervous system, and to induce disease, even when they are not 
 used so as to produce drunkenness. Moreover, if one uses them at 
 all, he is always in danger of becoming a dmnkard. 
 
 It is said that they promote digestion and cure Dyspepsia by stim- 
 ulating the stomach to more e£5cient action, — ^that they enable one 
 better to endure cold, heat, and fatigpae, and to resist the effects of 
 malaria and contagion. 
 
 These statements, however, are directly contrary to well-established 
 facts. Instead of promoting digestion, they retard or absolutely pre- 
 vent it ; — instead of curing Dyspepsia they produce it ; — and instead 
 of increasing the vital energies and enabling one to endure cold, heat 
 and fatigue, and to resist contagion and malaria, they always dimin- 
 ish the vital energies and make one much more likely to be overcome 
 by cold or heat, or fatigue, or contagion or miasm. 
 
 It is said that they are valuable and even necessary as medicines. — 
 This is not so ; but even if it were so, it would have no bearing upon 
 the argument ; for when taken as medicines they are not used as bev- 
 
 If they produce any beneficial effects in medicine, those effects are 
 due to the Alcohol which they contain, and can be obtained from 
 the use of pure Alcohol instead of the filthy stuff called Rum or 
 Brandy or Whiskey. * 
 
 It is said that Alcohol is necessarily used in the Arts ; — but that 
 has no relation to the proposition, since Alcohol is not a drink. 
 
 5. The proof of these allegations is found, in part, in the testi- 
 mony of the most eminent medical men, who have made the subject 
 a study, and have arrived at these conclusions from many and care- 
 ful observations and experiments. It is claimed that there are at 
 least certain advantages accruing to those engaged in the manufac- 
 ture and sale of these liquors ; and perhaps this may be so in some 
 cases ; but the same may also be said of theft and robbery and mur- 
 der. Shall they be justified because those who engage in them de- 
 rive some advantages from them ? 
 
 6. The evils resulting from the use of intoxicating drinks are 
 grievous and almost innumerable. 
 
 This use leads to drunkenness, idleness, poverty, disease, and 
 crimes of every grade and form. 
 
 Our cities are filled with paupers, — our prisons are filled with 
 criminals,— and the gallows is burdened with victims, — property is 
 destroyed and dtizens are murdered,— as the result of this use. 
 
APPENDIX.-C0MP08ITI0N. 2ti9 
 
 Bright hopes are destroyed, family ties are sundered, the young 
 and gifted and promising are utterly wrecked, — their prospects 
 blighted, and their lives destroyed. 
 
 The country is burdened with taxes, and its prosperity hindered, — 
 the church is disgraced, — God is dishonored, — and souls are sent to 
 perdition, — through this monstrous practice ! 
 
 These things are too well known to require proof. They are mani- 
 fest to every one. 
 
 7. Hence it is evident that it must be the duty of every person to 
 discourage the use of intoxicating drinks. 
 
 SECTION 2.— Poetry. 
 
 Write Verses, Stanzas, and Poems. 
 
 The beginner in Poetical Composition should first undertake single 
 Verses. 
 
 Having determined what kind of Verse he will make, he should 
 represent it by the proper Symbol*. E. g. If he intends to write 
 Heroic Verses", let him write this Model : 
 
 He should then select, without regard to meaning, a set of words 
 corresponding to the symbols in respect to accent, as 
 I Command | respect [ the man | myself | at home | 
 I Before | surprise | receive | this time | away | etc., etc. 
 These lines constitute what are called Nonsense Verses. 
 When he has acquired a little facility in forming such Verses, let 
 him select Rhymes, and write Nonsense Couplets, as 
 I Remote | on him | believe | the sight | exclaim | 
 I Escape | fulfill | suppose | inside | defame | etc., etc. 
 When this can be done readily he should form Stanzas, first 
 arranging complete Models, and marking, with corresponding letters, 
 the lines which are to rhyme together, as in this example : 
 
 |_-^|__|__|_^|__|a 
 |^_|__|^_|^_|^_|b 
 
 |_^|__|_^|_^|_>_la 
 
 |_^^|_^w|_^^|_^^|_^|c. 
 1 Wisely ] waiting | useful | by the | good land | a. 
 I Remote | export | . so soon | at last | desire | b. 
 
 I Surmise | his own | refuse | release | expire | b. 
 
 I Hasty j youthful' [ therefore | honest | woodland | a- 
 
270 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 
 
 I Hauglitily | mischievous | universe | villages | foemen | c. 
 I Vstoity I mellowness | wittily | over the | yeomen | c. 
 
 After some practice of this kind with Nonsense Verses, the writer 
 should proceed to write Sense Verses, beginning with Blank Verse, 
 and afterwards undertaking Ehymed Verse — first in Couplets, and 
 then in longer Stanzas. 
 
 Before attempting original composition in Verse, he should take 
 some of the Prose Selections from the Grammar or some of the 
 Readers, and convert them into Poetry. 
 
 Proceeding thus gradually through these several simple ^eps, it is 
 no difficult matter, for any ordinary student to learu to write re^ 
 spectable Verses, Stanzas, and Poems. 
 
 PART rV.-A COURSE FOR SELF-INSTRTTCTION. 
 
 1. Take the List of Sentences at p. 274, and copy a dozen or more 
 of them for a Lesson, — changing*the Capitals to small letters, — omit- 
 ting the points, — and changing the spelling of the words. 
 
 2. Lay aside the Book, jmd rewrite the Exercise from your manu- 
 script, — ^restoring it, as nearly as possible, to its original condition. 
 
 3. Compare this copy with the Book, and mark the errors. 
 
 4. Rewrite again from the first copy, and so continue until you can 
 write the exercise correctly. 
 
 5. Proceed through the List of Sentences and the Selections in the 
 Grammar (except the very old ones) ; and then procure some other 
 accurately printed Book (as one of Wilson's Readers for example)j 
 and pursue the same course with it. 
 
 6. Study the Grammar carefully from, the beginning ; but oniit the 
 Chapter on Punctuation until you have completed the one on 
 Analysis. 
 
 7. Continue the copying and comparing process until you can 
 Spell, and Punctuate, and use Capitals pretty accurately ; and then 
 go carefully through with the Klementary, Intermediate, and Higher 
 Courses in Composition. 
 
 8. Get some literary friend, if possible, to criticize and mark the 
 errors in your productions ; but correct them yourself. 
 
 LIST OP THEMES. 
 
 1. An Ax. 
 
 2. A Plow. 
 
 3. A Wagon. 
 
 4. A Fire Engine. 
 
 5. A Locomotive. 
 
 6. A House. 
 
 7. A Barn. 
 
 8. A Shop. 
 
 9. A Store. 
 
 10. A Factory. 
 
 11. A Bail Road. 
 
 12. A School House. 
 
 13. A School. 
 
 14. The Horse. 
 
 15. The Ox. 
 
 16. The Cow. 
 
 17. The Pig. 
 
 18. The Dog. 
 
APPilM'Ht.^d^MPOSITIOW. 
 
 271 
 
 19. Tllfe Cat. 
 
 61. Marbles. 
 
 104. 
 
 The kelodeon. 
 
 20. Tlie Squirrel. 
 
 62. Money. ' 
 
 105. 
 
 Band Instru- 
 
 21. The Woodchuck. 
 
 63. Coins. 
 
 
 ments. 
 
 22. Poultry. 
 
 64. Ne-wspapeirs. 
 
 106. 
 
 'Music. 
 
 23. Domestic Ammate. 
 
 65. Novels. 
 
 107. 
 
 Singing Schools 
 
 24. The Pox. 
 
 66. Books. 
 
 108. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 25. The Wolf. 
 
 67. Reading. 
 
 109. 
 
 Painting. 
 
 26. The Bear. 
 
 68. Friends. 
 
 110. 
 
 Sculpture. 
 
 27. The Lion. 
 
 69. Schoolmates. 
 
 111. 
 
 The Fine Arts. 
 
 28. The Elephant. 
 
 70. Corn. 
 
 113. 
 
 Dress. 
 
 29. WUd Animals. 
 
 71. Potatoes. 
 
 113. 
 
 Fashions. 
 
 30. (Geography. 
 
 72. Wheat. 
 
 Ii4. 
 
 Freedom. 
 
 31. Arithmetic. 
 
 73. QraSs. 
 
 115. 
 
 Government. 
 
 32. GrammaT. 
 
 74. Coal. 
 
 1113. 
 
 Congress. 
 
 33. Algebra. 
 
 75. Fuel. 
 
 117. 
 
 Legislatures. 
 
 34. Geometry. 
 
 76. Food. 
 
 Il8. 
 
 Taxes. 
 
 35. Nat. PhilosophJ'. 
 
 77. Trades. 
 
 119. 
 
 Tari'ffs. 
 
 36. Chemistry 
 
 78. Profes^oris. 
 
 i30. 
 
 tJsury Laws. 
 
 37. Nat. History. 
 
 79. Carpenters. 
 
 131. 
 
 Driinlcenhess. 
 
 38. Botany. 
 
 80. Blacksmiths. 
 
 133. 
 
 Liquor Laws. 
 
 39. Astronomy. 
 
 81. Lawyers. 
 
 133. 
 
 Banking. 
 
 40. Languages. 
 
 83. Doctors. 
 
 134. 
 
 Auctions. 
 
 41. HijrherMathemSit- 
 
 83. Farniei's. 
 
 1^5. 
 
 Gold-digging. 
 
 ica. 
 
 84. Sailors. 
 
 M. 
 
 Diamonds. 
 
 42. Metaphyaies. 
 
 85. The Ocean. 
 
 127. 
 
 Great ken. 
 
 48. School Studies. 
 
 86. Commei'ce. 
 
 128. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 44. Spring. 
 
 87. Merchants. 
 
 139. 
 
 Jefferson. 
 
 45. Summer. 
 
 88. Fishes. 
 
 130. 
 
 Franklin. 
 
 46. Autumn. 
 
 '89. Shell Msh. 
 
 131. 
 
 Patrick Henry. 
 
 47. Winter. 
 
 90. Birds.. 
 
 132. 
 
 Prdif. Morse. 
 
 48. The Tear. 
 
 91. Geese. 
 
 133. 
 
 Columbus. 
 
 49. Childhood. 
 
 93.' Turkeys. 
 
 134. 
 
 Bryant. 
 
 50. Youth. 
 
 98. feobihs. ■ 
 
 135. 
 
 Longfellow. 
 
 51. Manhood. 
 
 94. Bliie-BiMs. ' 
 
 136. 
 
 Whittier. 
 
 52. Old Age. 
 
 95. Black-Birds. ' 
 
 137. 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 53. Life. 
 
 96. Crows. 
 
 138. 
 
 Mrs. Browhihg. 
 
 54. Death. 
 
 97. Partridges. 
 
 139. 
 
 Arkwright. 
 
 55. Virtue. 
 
 98. Quails. 
 
 140. 
 
 Fulton. 
 
 56. Vice. 
 
 99. Pheasants. 
 
 141. 
 
 Gough. 
 
 57. City Life. 
 
 100. Whiles. 
 
 143. 
 
 Agassiz. 
 
 58. Country Life. 
 
 lOi. Steamboats. 
 
 143. 
 
 Guyot. 
 
 59. Games. 
 
 103. The Piano. 
 
 144. 
 
 Erricsbn. 
 
 60. Ball Playing^i 
 
 103. The Organ. 
 
 
 
272 
 
 A COMPLETM 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 
 
 145. The Discovery of America. 
 
 146. The Exploration of Africa. 
 
 147. The Piiding of Livrngstone. 
 
 148. The Invention of Printing. 
 
 149. The Discovery of Oxygen. 
 ■ 150. The Manufacture of Glass. 
 
 151. The Manufacture of Soda. 
 
 152. The Manufacture of Cotton. 
 
 153. The Manufacture of Wool. 
 
 154. The Manufacture of Iron. 
 
 155. The Discovery of Neptune. 
 
 156. The Spectrum Analysis. 
 
 157. The Invention of the Telescope. 
 
 158. The Invention of the Steel Pen 
 
 159. The Invention of the Gold Pen. 
 
 160. The Invention of Bleaching Pow- 
 
 ders. 
 
 161. The Invention of Gun Powder. 
 163. The Invention of the Mowing Ma- 
 chine. 
 
 163. The Invention of the Sevring Ma- 
 
 chine. 
 
 164. The Invention of the Bail Road. 
 
 165. The Invention of the' Mariner's 
 
 Compass. 
 
 166. The Invention of the Safety Lamp. 
 
 167. The Invention of the Microscope. 
 
 168. The Invention of the Cotton Gin. 
 
 169. The Invention of the Cooking 
 
 Stove. 
 
 170.' IMscoveries in Pales- 
 tine. 
 171. Pre-Historic Nations. 
 173. Repeating Fire Arms. 
 173. Western Mounds. 
 174 Fossil Remains. 
 
 175. American Minerals. 
 
 176. Collections of Coins. 
 
 177. Courses of Study. 
 
 178. Teaching as a Profes- 
 
 sion. 
 
 179. The Camel in Amer- 
 
 ica. 
 
 180. The Public Lands. 
 
 181. Agricultural Colleges. 
 183. Compulsory Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 183. The British Empire. 
 184 French History. 
 
 185. The Western Fever. 
 
 186. Proi)er Use of Carica- 
 
 ture. 
 
 187. Presidential Elections. 
 
 188. Chinese Immigration. 
 
 189. William the Conquer- 
 
 or. 
 Unconscious I n fl u- 
 
 ence. 
 Protective Tariffe. 
 The Influence 
 
 Newspapers. 
 Indirect Taxation. 
 
 190. 
 
 191. 
 193. 
 
 of 
 
 193. 
 
 194 A man's Character is known by that of his Associates. 
 
 195. A man's manners commonly shape his fortune. 
 
 196. Moderate drinking leads to drunkenness. 
 
 197. Liquor Selling is an immoral occupation. 
 
 198. Immoral practices should not be licensed. 
 
 199. Novel reading is of pernicious tendency. 
 
 200. The taste for Fiction is one of the great evils of the Age. 
 301. Fictitious Literature should be excluded from Sabbath Schools. 
 303. Education is the great business of Life. 
 
 303. Knowledge is not education. 
 
 304 MonojKjlies are becoming dangerous to American Liberty. 
 
 205. To exact excessive profits on merchandise iaa species of robbery. 
 
APPENDIX.-aOMPOaiTION. 273 
 
 206. Indirect taxation is direct oppression. 
 
 20?. Tlie clamor for Short Courses of Study is excessively foolish. 
 
 208. The claim that the higher Education is not practical is false. 
 
 209. Audacity is always an evidence of baseness of character. 
 
 210. Procrastination is a most dangerous habit. 
 
 211. A suspicious temper is a source of misery to its possessor. 
 
 212. A Quack in Medicine robs people of both money and life. 
 
 313. A Quack in Theology robs a man of both his money and his 
 soul. 
 
 214. Scientific Discoveries are the basis of Inventions in the Arts. 
 
 215. The Mind malces the Man. 
 
 216. There is no excellence without great labor. 
 
 217. Labor accomplishes all things. 
 
 218. Too much familiarity generally breeds contempt. 
 
 219. Wealth is not indispensable to happiness. 
 
 220. Wealth without intelligence and virtue, cannot procure happi- 
 
 ness. 
 
 221. A man should do right, simply because it is right. 
 
 232. Every person should endeavor to rise to some higher condition. 
 223. What are the advantages of Education to the Farmer ? 
 224 Why should common laborers be educated ? 
 
 225. What are the benefits of studying the Ancient Languages ? 
 
 226. What is the use of studying Latin and Greek Prosody ? 
 
 227. Why should ladies study Chemistry ? 
 
 228. Should not a man confine his studies to the line of his.Profes- 
 
 sion ? 
 
 229. What is the use of Astronomy to a Shoemalcer? 
 2j0. How is a Carpenter benefited by studying Latin? 
 
 231. What should be one's chief purpose in life ? 
 
 232. Why should one acquire wealth ? 
 
 233. Why should one learn a Trade or study a Profession 1 
 334. What is a Pratical Education ? 
 
 235. Is it not a waste of time to study the Fine Arts ? 
 336. Is it good policy to build up great Colleges ? 
 
 237. Should the smaller Colleges be discouraged for the sake of the 
 
 larger ? 
 
 238. Is it morally wrong to use Tobacco ? 
 
 239. Is a farmer justifiable in selling his grain to a distiller ? 
 
 240. Should there be any restriction upon the freedom of the Press ? 
 341. Ought foreign immigration to be encouraged ? 
 
 242. Should a man be permitted to vote who cannot read 1 
 
 243. Should paupers be permitted to vote ? 
 
274 
 
 A COMPLETE SCIENTIEIG GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. 
 3. 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 13. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 30. 
 31. 
 23. 
 23. 
 24. 
 
 35. 
 26. 
 37. 
 
 39. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32. 
 33. 
 34. 
 
 35. 
 
 36 
 37. 
 38. 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 Wisdom is precious. 
 
 Gold is yellow. 
 
 John is diligent. 
 
 They are students. 
 
 We were classmates. 
 
 You wiU be glad. 
 
 I am fearful. 
 
 Thou art careful. 
 
 James is a cai-penter. 
 
 It is a pity. 
 
 The boy is waiting. 
 
 It is raining. 
 
 The boys were playing. 
 
 Thou wast confident. 
 
 The letter is written. 
 
 The men were seen. 
 
 The books have been studied. 
 
 They can be ready. 
 
 Tou must be careful. 
 
 The house might be bought. 
 
 The land could be sold. 
 
 They would be present. 
 
 Scholars should be diligent. 
 
 Wise persons may be mis- 
 taken. 
 
 Such things have been seen. 
 
 Many reports had been heard. 
 
 Thou hast been deceived. 
 
 The truth has been discov- 
 ered. 
 
 Thou hadst been advised. 
 
 The book will have been read. 
 
 Thou wilt have been omitted. 
 
 The ground was not frozen. 
 
 The story will not be believed. 
 
 The girls have not been dili- 
 gent. 
 
 They cannot have been in- 
 formed. 
 
 Silver is not yellow. 
 
 John was not reading. 
 
 Were they not ready ? 
 
 -EXERCISES. 
 
 39. Are you certain t 
 
 40. Tou were present 1 
 
 41. WiU he not be prepared? 
 43. How many were present ? 
 43. Who will be incommoded ? 
 44 If I were sure of it. 
 
 45. Be not discouraged. 
 
 46. Him to be benefited. 
 
 47. How beautiful the fields are ! 
 
 48. What a pity it is I 
 
 49. He remembers. 
 
 50. James wrote. 
 
 51. They will not come. 
 53. The men had not gone. 
 
 53. The time will not have ex- 
 pired. 
 
 54. Do they remember ? 
 
 55. Did you not perceive ? 
 
 56. Have they not discovered ? 
 
 57. They must have written. 
 
 58. Why do the men not come 1 
 
 59. They have not written ? 
 
 60. If they had anticipated. 
 
 61. Bring me the books. 
 63. Them to return. 
 
 63. How quickly he succeeded I 
 
 64. What carefulness he maul, 
 tested ! 
 
 65. She sings very sweetly 1 
 
 66. Did they recite promptly 1 
 
 67. When did the horse run 
 away? 
 
 68. The old man lost his hat. 
 
 69. How did the man break his 
 arm? 
 
 70. How foolishly he sold his 
 house ? 
 
 71. I shall return to-morrow. 
 73. A very beautiful book. 
 
 73. In an extremely short time. 
 
 74. Eetiring at an early hour. 
 
 75. Can they be mistaken ? 
 
APPENDIX.— OOMPb'SlTIOM. 
 
 276 
 
 89 
 
 90, 
 
 93 
 
 94. 
 
 You and I have missed our 
 recitation. 
 
 You and lie liave failed in 
 your lesson. 
 91. He wrote and folded the let- 
 ter. 
 
 lie and John built and painted 
 the house. 
 
 He and I went and saw the 
 man. 
 
 Butter and eggs are plenty 
 and cheap. 
 
 95. Gold, silver, and copper are 
 
 useful. 
 
 96. He was poor, friendless, and 
 
 discouraged. 
 
 76. To study so continually. 
 
 77. He cut the string with a 
 
 knife. 
 
 78. The little girls write beauti- 
 
 fully. 
 
 79. The white dove broke the 
 
 window. 
 
 80. They have returned from the 
 
 fair. 
 
 81. How can they be certain 1 
 83. Why will he go there t 
 83. Give therii an opportunity. 
 81 How strangely they act ! 
 8j. We did not believe the story. 
 80. Thomas and John went. 
 
 87. They went and returned. 
 
 88. He is weary and sick. 
 
 97. Henry and his father drove out the cattle and mended the fence. 
 
 98. The wheat and the rye were not smitten and destroyed. 
 
 99. Are the Sun and Moon very large bodies ? 
 
 100. Are not famine and pestilence the scourges of God 1 
 
 101. Whyare fever and other diseases so prevalent in new countries ? 
 
 102. Are not you and William studying Algebra ? 
 
 103. How long have Arithmetic and Geometry been studied ? 
 
 104. Were the Greeks and the Romans equally proficient in the Sci- 
 
 ences ? 
 
 105. How conspicuous in History are Bonaparte, and Caesar, and 
 
 Alexander ! 
 
 106. How manifestly have Smith and Jones not fulfilled their pro- 
 
 mises ! 
 
 107. He tried the efEect of flattery ; but he was not successful. 
 
 108. I went to the city yesterday ; and John will go there to-morrov.'. 
 
 109. Wine is a mocker ; strong drink is raging ; and whosoever is de- 
 
 ceived thereby is not wise. 
 
 110. The prisoner has been convicted, and has received his sentenc;^ 
 
 111. The buildings were not destroyed, but were seriously damaged. 
 
 112. This man has acquired a small, and that man a large, fortune. 
 
 113. It is well to rejoice moderately, but not immoderately, in good 
 
 fortune. 
 
 114. When I shall see it, then I will believe it. 
 
 115. Though he had ho money, yet he found means to go, 
 
 116. As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive. 
 
 117. Because he is himself dishonest, therefore he thinks that all 
 
 men are so. 
 
276 A COMPLETE SCIEJfTTFIC OBAMMAB. 
 
 118. If you will assist me, then I wUl undertake it. 
 
 119. If those statements are true, he is certainly a great villian. 
 
 120. If those statements were true, he would be a great villain. 
 
 121. If the man had the goods, he certainly should pay for them. 
 
 122. If the man had the goods, he might easily sell them. 
 
 123. I wrote, because it amused me. 
 
 124. When he had finished the speech, he resumed his seat. 
 
 125. He left the things exactly where he found them. 
 
 126. Had he asked me to assist him, I would have done it. 
 
 127. Were I in his place, I would resign my Commission. 
 
 128. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope. 
 
 129. Being conscious of his error, he tried to apologize. 
 
 130. Reduced to extreme necessity, he returned to his father. 
 
 131. I was hungry ; and ye gave me no meat. 
 
 132. Their provisions were almost exhausted ; and yet they would 
 
 not surrender. 
 
 138. This event having occurred, he necessarily returned home. 
 
 184. The provisions having been stolen, we were in great want. 
 
 185. Because, when he was young, he was idle and vicious ; there- 
 
 fore, when he was old, he was wretched and despised, 
 
 136. Therefore, indeed, he returned the watch, for it was of little 
 
 value ; but he did not, therefore, return the diamonds, for 
 they were of more value than the reward offered. 
 
 137. Though, when he was young, he had lost his estate ; yet, when 
 
 he was old, he recovered it. 
 188. Because, though he was poor, he had cultivated his powers ; 
 therefore, though the rich were his competitors, yet he bore 
 off the prize. 
 
 139. He sings, indeed, as well as John sings ; but he does not speak 
 
 as well as Henry speaks. 
 
 140. Phillips speaks as well as Sumner ; but he does not reason as 
 
 well. 
 
 141. Henceforth I call you not servants, for the servant knoweth not 
 
 what his lord doeth ; but I have called you friends, for all 
 things that I have heard of my Father I Ixave made known to 
 you. John 15 : 15. 
 
 142. If they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you ; if 
 
 they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. 
 
 143. Where no wood is, there the fire goeth out ; so where there is 
 
 no talebearer, the strife ceaseth. 
 
 144. When righteous men do rejoice, there is great glory ; but when 
 
 the wicked rise, a man is hidden. 
 
 145. When the wicked rise, men hide themselves ; but when they. 
 
 peri.3h, the Tighteons increase. 
 
APPENDIX.— GOMPOaiTION. 211 
 
 146. When tlie righteous are in authority, the people rejoice ; hut 
 
 when the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 
 
 147. If, when he had good opportunities for education, he had im- 
 
 proved them ; then, when an excellent situation was offered 
 him, he would have been prepared for it. 
 
 148. If, when the public money was committed to his care, he appro- 
 
 priated it to his own use ; then when this can be proved, he 
 should suffer the just penalty of his crime. 
 
 1 49. 1 had forgotten the circumstances which you mention. 
 
 150. We have just seen the man that fell from the roof yesterday. 
 
 151. I have heard of the man of whom you speak. 
 
 152. The man who is honorable in his dealings, will be respected. 
 153 Those who waste their time will never prosper. 
 
 1 54. He that is wise will shun temptation. 
 
 1.55. That which is agreeable is often dangerous. 
 
 156. Such men should fill public offices as are honest and capable. 
 
 157. Such as secure oiBce by bribery should be punished. 
 
 158. Have you heard what happened to him yesterday ? 
 159 Whoever obtains this prize, he will be fortunate. 
 
 160. Blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in me. 
 
 161. Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them. 
 
 162. I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me. 
 
 163. Each one took whatever he could get. 
 
 164. He had returned the day before, which was fortunate for him. 
 
 165. They have now, which is almost incredible, recovered the money. 
 
 166. He says that he will certainly go again to-morrow. 
 
 167. " I will not be imposed upon " was his reply. 
 
 168. His answer was " I have never seen the man." 
 
 169. John said " I have no discretion in this matter." 
 
 170. It is not easy to discover how this thing was done. 
 
 171. To deny the fact is to a:dd infamy to folly 
 
 172. To read well and to write well are very desirable accomplish- 
 
 ments. 
 
 173. He said that he would go, and that he would accomplish his 
 
 purpose. 
 
 174. One of the most infamous things is to ignore obligations, and 
 
 to insult and abuse those who are friendly, 
 
 175. That one should be mistaken, and that he should commit 
 
 errors, is simply that he should be human, and that he should 
 
 act humanly. 
 
 176. " I have not seen him " was an answer equivalent to saying "I 
 
 will not tell you where he is." 
 
 177. I wish that I knew where I could find him. 
 
 178. He said that if he linew where he could find a good horse for 
 
 sale, he would go and buy it at once. 
 
278 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG OBAMMAB. 
 
 179. "The Union must and shall be preserved" -was said bv Gen. 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 180. The attempt to tunnel the Hoosac Mountain was very bold, 
 
 and cost the state of Massachusetts a great sum of money. 
 
 181. To neglect opportunities for improvement is not less disgrace- 
 
 ful than to squander one's patrimony in luxury and vice. 
 
 182. Is it not better to suffer wrong than to do wrong 1 
 
 183. Did he say " I wiU never speak to that man again " ? 
 
 184. How soon did he say that he would return 1 
 
 185. " Time and tide wait for no man " is a saying often heard but 
 
 seldom heeded. 
 
 186. To retaliate an injury is to nuike two wrongs where there was 
 
 but one before. 
 
 187. Saving the fruits of his labor, he was at length able to buy a 
 
 farm. 
 
 188. I have given five times as much as he ; and yet I fear that I 
 
 have not given enough. 
 
 189. Let him see that something is to be gained by study ; and 
 
 then he will apply himself to books. 
 
 190. This event having occurred, he felt unable to remain in that 
 
 place. 
 
 191. In order to succeed, it is necessary that they should seem 
 
 honest. 
 
 192. In order to meet this demand, he was obliged to sell his farm. 
 
 193. To secure the life of his friend he cheerfully gave up his own. 
 
 194. It was not an eclipse that caused the darkness at the crucifixion 
 
 of our Lord, for the sun and moon were not relatively in a po- 
 sition to produce an eclipse ; but a direct interposition of God, 
 for on no other supposition can we account for it. 
 
 195. They had not come in search of gain, for the soil was sterile 
 
 and unproductive ; but they had' come that they might wor- 
 ship God according to the dictates of their own consciences. 
 
 196. We must not impute the delay to indifference, for delay may 
 
 be designed to promote our happiness. 
 
 197. It is not his power, as attested by all that exists within the 
 
 limits of actual discovery ; but his power as conceived .to 
 form and uphold a universe whose outskirts are unknown. 
 
 198. You were paid to fight against Alexander ; not to rail at him. 
 
 199. Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. 
 
 200. What was the consequence of his rashness 1 
 
 201 Let it not be said that you have learned nothing in school this 
 
 term. 
 302 Thou slialt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. 
 208. Turn we a moment Fancy's rapid flight. 
 
APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 279 
 
 204. Fall he who must beneath a rival's arms. 
 
 205. In sooth he was a strange and wayward wight. 
 
 206. Even if I was there, I w.&s where I had a right to be. 
 
 207. I saw the iron becoming hot. 
 
 208. There required haste in the business. 
 
 209. He said that if John came back, he would give him a faim. 
 
 210. He hoped that when they saw this, they would return. 
 
 211. I cared not whether he were rich or poor. 
 
 212. Though I be a beggar, yet I have some rights. 
 
 213. Though I were a beggar, yet I should liave some rights. 
 
 214. The book belongs to Sam the Miller's son. 
 
 215. The book belongs to Sam, the Miller's son. 
 
 216. The enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and 
 
 what by the soldiers, findeth succor in no place. 
 317. That was the effect of his obeying tlie rule 
 
 218. His being a foreigner prevented his election. 
 
 219. This was owing to there being twelve men in the house. 
 
 220. That is wholly a mistake. 
 
 221. He does not work at. farming, for that is not profitable ; but 
 
 he works at mining, for that Is more remunerative. 
 
 222. Where there is great impudence, there is indeed always very 
 
 little sense ; but when a fool's insolence exceeds certain limits, 
 it then seems best to chastise him. 
 
 223. Having entered the hall, he spoke thus : " Gentlemen, the 
 
 King requires your immediate presence at the Palace." 
 
 224. It is to that Union we owe our safety. 
 
 225. I looked him full in the face. 
 
 226. They were all captured, to a man. 
 
 227. The next speaker, and he evidently had been there, gave a 
 
 description of England. 
 
 228. He, and not I, made that statement. 
 
 229. He gathered the harvest ; he sowed the seed ; he plowed the 
 
 land. 
 
 230. I gave him a dollar, which was all the money I had. 
 
 331. He is always annoying his neighbors, who are much afraid of 
 him. 
 
 232. The man has been condemned ; the case has been tried. 
 
 233. "I shall write" aond "Iron is strong" and "He went" are 
 
 three simple sentences, 
 284. "He caved "and "They skedaddled" signify "He yielded" 
 
 and " They ran away." 
 335. The expressions "I'm done for" and "He's gone up" and 
 
 " They are some pumpkins " are examples of " slang". 
 236. "He fizzled" and "They slumped" and "Tom cut stick" 
 
280 -4 COMPLETE 8GIENTIVIG QRAMMAU. 
 
 are equal in vulgarity to "He absquatulated" and "They 
 went to grub " and " Sam kicked the bucket ". 
 
 237. "They said that he would sing'; is a sentence of the fourth 
 Class. 
 
 338. Did he not say " The time is short " ? 
 
 289. Is the sentence " That is him " correct ? 
 
 240. Why did he say " You are mistaken " ? 
 
 241. "What kind of a sentence is " If this report is true, then he is 
 
 not wise " ? 
 
 242. They have returned to England, whence they came. 
 
 243. Cries of " I see him", "I hear him", and "Where is he?" 
 
 were heard on all sides. 
 244 While he was saying "I hope they will be caught" he heard 
 cries of " There he goes", " Stop him", &c. 
 
 245. He saw no other man than John. 
 
 246. They have returned from Spain, whither they went la.st year. 
 
 247. They have no money wherewith they may purchase food. 
 
 248. James and John and Thomas declared that the statement waa 
 
 false. 
 
 249. To utter falsehoods is dishonorable and dangerous. 
 
 250. To Bjjeak falsely is always to speak foolishly. 
 
 251. I had rather go than stay. 
 
 252. Tou had better come with me. 
 
 CHAPTER ni.-SELECTIONS. 
 
 1. — F^BOM THE Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Sixtigum wintrum aer tham the Crist waere acenned, Gaius Julius 
 se casere aerest Romana Brytenland gesohte, and Bryttaa mid gef eohte 
 cnysede, and hi oferswithde. 
 
 A. D. 381. Her Qotan tobraecon Eomeburh, and naefre siththan 
 Romane ne ricsodon on Brytene. 
 
 A. D. 449. Her Hengest and Horsa fram Wyrtgeome gelathode, 
 Brytta cyninge, gesohton Brytene Bryttum to fultume. Hi comon 
 mid thrim langum scipum. 
 
 A. D. 455. Her Hengest and Horsa f uhton with Wyrtgeome tham 
 cyninge. Horsan man thaer ofsloh ; and aefter tham Hengest feng 
 to rice, and Aesc his sunu. 
 
 A. D. 596. Her Qregorius papa sende to Brytene Augustinum mid 
 wel manegom munucum, the Oodes word Engla theode god,spellodon. 
 
 A. D. 827. Her geeode Ecgbriht cyning Mearcena rice, and eaj 
 
APPBNDIX.— SELECTIONS. 281 
 
 thaet be suthan Humbre waes ; and lie waes se eahtotha cyning the 
 Brytenwealda waes. 
 
 A. D. 873. Her gefor Aetliered cyning. Tha feng Aelfred Aethel- 
 wulfing his brother to West-Seaxena rice ; and thaes ymb anne mon- 
 ath gefeaht Aelfred cyning with eaJne thone haethenne here lytle 
 werode aet Wiltune. 
 
 A. D. 1066. Her com Willelm eorl of Normandige into Pefenasae ; 
 
 and Harold cyning gaderode thamicelne here, and com him togeanes ; 
 
 and Willelm him com ongean on uuwaer, aer his folc gefylced waere. 
 
 A. D. 1087. Her Willelm forthferde. — He laefde aefter him threo 
 
 sunan. 
 
 3. — From Wage's Coronation of Arthtib. — A. D. 1170. 
 
 Quand li rois leva del mangier, 
 
 Ale sunt tuit esbanoier, 
 
 De la cite es champs issirent ; 
 
 A plusors gieux se despartirent. 
 
 Li uns alerent bohorder, 
 
 Et les ineaus chevalx monstrer. 
 
 Li autre alerent e cremir, 
 
 Ou pierres getier, ou saillir. 
 
 Tielx i avoit qui dars lancoent, 
 
 Et tielx i avoit qui lutoent ; 
 
 Chascun del gieu s'entremetoit 
 
 Qui entremetre se savoit. 
 3. — ^Pkom a Charter of Henky III. — A. D. 1358. 
 Henry, thurg Godes fultome. King on Engleneloande, Lhoaverd 
 on Trloand, Duk on Norman, on Acquitain, Earl on Anjou, send I 
 greting, to alle hise holde, ilaerde and ilewede on Huntindonn- 
 schiere. Thaet witen ge wel alle, thaet we willen and unnen, thaet 
 ure raedesmen alle other the moare del of heom, thaet beoth ichosen 
 thurg us and thurg thaet loandes-folk on ure kiueriche, habbith 
 idon, and schullen don in the worthnes of God, and ure treowthe, 
 for the f reme of the loande, thurg the besigte of than toforen iseide 
 laedesmen, &c. 
 
 4.^-ERpM Kobbrt's Chronicle. — A. D. 1398. 
 Engelond ys a wel god lend, ich wene of eche lond best, 
 Tset in the ende of the world, as al in the west. 
 The see goth hym al about, he stont as an yle.' 
 Here fon heo durre the lasse doute, but hit be thorw gyle 
 Of folc of the selve lond, as me hath y'-seye wyle. 
 From south to north he ys long eighte hondred myle. 
 And the Normans ne couthe speke tho bote her owe speche. 
 And speke French as dude atom, and here children dude al so teche. 
 
282 
 
 A COMPLETE! SCIENTIFIG OBAMMAB- 
 
 So fhat heymen of thys lond, that ol her blod come, 
 Holdeth alle thulke speche, that hii of hem nome, 
 Vor bote a man couthe French, me tolth of hym wel lute ; 
 And lowe men holdeth to Englyss, and to her kunde speche yute. 
 5.— Prom the Vision of Pibrs Ploughman.— A. D. 1362. 
 
 Wiste 1 nevere where. 
 
 I biheeld 
 
 intp 
 
 the 
 
 In a somer seson 
 
 Whan softe was the sonne, 
 
 I shoop me into shroudes 
 
 As I a sheep weere, 
 5. In habite as an heremite 
 
 Unholy of workes, 
 
 Wente wide in this world 
 
 Wondres to here ; 
 
 Ac on a May morwenynge 
 10. On Malverne hilles 
 
 Me bifel a ferly, 
 
 Of f airye me thoghte. 
 
 I was wery for-wandied, 
 
 And wente me to reste 
 15. Under a brood bank 
 
 By a bournes side ; 
 
 And as I lay and lenede. 
 
 And I loked on the watres, 
 
 I slombred into a slepyng, 
 20. It sweyed so murye. 
 
 ThSmne gan I meten 
 
 A inerveillous swevene. 
 
 That I was in a wildernesse, 
 
 6. — From the Narrative op Sir John MANDEViiii-E. — A.i). 1356. 
 
 1. In that Lond, ne in many othere beyonde that, no man may see 
 the Sterre transmontane, that is olept the Sterre of the See, that is 
 unmevable, and that is toward the Northe, that we clepen the Lode 
 Sterre. But men seen another Sterre, the contrarie to him, that is 
 toward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. 
 
 2. And right as the Schip men taken here avys here, 'and governe 
 hem be the Lode Sterre, right so don Schip men beyonde the parties, 
 be the Sterre of the Southe, the whiche Sterre apperethe not to us. 
 And this Sterre, that is toward the northe, that wee clepen the Lode 
 Starre, ne apperethe not to hem. 
 
 3. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the Lond and 
 the See ben of roWnde schapp and forme. For the partie of the 
 firmament schewetlie in o cobtree, that schewethe not in another 
 contree. And men may well preven be experience and sotyle com- 
 
 25. And as 
 eest. 
 
 An heigh to the sonne, 
 
 I seigh a tour on a toft 
 
 Trieliche y-maked. 
 
 A deep dale bynethe, 
 30. A dongeon therinne. 
 
 With depe diehes and derke 
 
 And diedf uUe of sighte. 
 
 A. fair f eeld f ul of folk 
 
 Fond I ther bitwene, 
 35. Of aJle manere of men. 
 
 The meene and the riche, 
 
 Werchynge and wandringe. 
 
 As the world asketh. 
 
 Some putten hem to the plow, 
 40. Pleiden f ul selde. 
 
 In settynge and sowinge 
 
 Swonken f ul liai-ie, 
 
 And wonnen that wastoui^ 
 
 With glotonye destmyeth. 
 
APPENDIX.— SELECTIONB. 283 
 
 passement of 'wytt, that yif a man fond passages be Scliippes, that 
 wolde go to serchen the world, men myghte go be Schippe alle aboute 
 the world, and aboven and benethen. 
 
 7.— From the Clerke's Tale, by CHAtrcBR. — A. D. 1400. 
 
 1. Ther is right at the West side of Itaille 
 Doun at the rote of Vesulus the cold, 
 A lusty plain, habundant of vitaille. 
 
 Ther many a toun and tour thou maist behold. 
 That founded were in time of fathers old. — 
 And many another delitable sighte, — 
 And Saluces this noble contree highte. 
 
 2. A markis whilom lord was of that land. 
 As were his worthy elders him before. 
 And obeysant, ay redy to his bond. 
 Were all his lieges, bothe lesse and more. 
 Thus in delit be liveth, and hath don yore. 
 Beloved and drad, thurgh faVor of fortune. 
 Both of his lordes, and of his commune. 
 
 21. Nought fer fro thilke paleis honourable, 
 
 Wher as this markis shope his mariage, 
 Ther stood a thorpe, of sighte delitable. 
 In which that poure folk of that village 
 Hadden hir bestes and Mr herbergage. 
 And of hir labour toke hir sustenance. 
 After that the erthe yave hem habundance. 
 
 22 Among this poure folk ther dwelt a man. 
 
 Which that was holden pourest of hem all 
 (But highe God sometime senden can 
 His grace unto a litel oxes stall), 
 Janicula men of that thorpe him call. 
 A doughter had he, faire ynough to sight, 
 And Grisildis this yonge maiden hight. 
 
 8.— ENGLISH COURAGE.— By Sm John PoRTESctiE.— A. D. 1450. 
 
 It is cowardise and lack of hartes and corage that kepith the 
 Frenchmen from rysjng, and not povertye ; which corage no 
 Frenche man hath like to the English man. 
 
 It hath ben often seen in Englond that iij or iv thef es, for povertie, 
 hath sett upon vij or viij true men, and robbyd them al. But it 
 hath not ben seen in Fraunce that vij or viij thefes have ben hardy 
 to robbe iij or iv true men. Wherfor it is right seld that French- 
 men be haugyd for robberye, for that they have no hertys to do so 
 
284 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAB 
 
 terryble an aote. There be therfor mo men hangyd in Englond, in a 
 yere, for robberye and manslaughter, than ther be hangid in Fraunce 
 for such cause of crime in vij yers. 
 
 9.— JACK CADE.— By Robert Fabian.— A. D. 1500. 
 
 And in the moneth of Juny this yere, the commons of Kent assem- 
 blyd them in grete multytude, and chase to them a capitayne, and 
 named hym Mortymer, and cosyn to the Duke of Yorke ; but of most 
 he was named Jack Cade. 
 
 This kepte the people wondrouslie togader, and made such orde- 
 naunces amonge theym, that he brought a grete nombre of people of 
 theym vnto the Blak Heth, where he deuysed a bylle of petycions to 
 the kynge and his counsyll. 
 
 10. From the Geneva Bible. — Tr. by Coyerdale. — A. D. 1557. 
 
 John 14 : 1. — And he sayd vnto his discipliss. Let not your hart be 
 troubled, ye beleue in God : beleue also in me. 
 
 3. In my Fathers house are many dwelling places : if it were not 
 so, I would hade tolde you : I go to prepare a place for you. 
 
 3. And if I go to prepare a place for you, I will come again, and 
 receaue you, euen vnto my selfe : that where I am, there may ye be 
 also. 
 
 4 And whytner I go ye knowe, and the way ye knowe. 
 
 5. Thomas sayd vnto hym. Lord we know not whither thou goest : 
 how then is it possible for vs to knowe the way? 
 
 11. — From the Authorized Version. — A. D. 1611. 
 
 John 14 : 1. — Let not your heart be troubled : yee beleeue in God, 
 beleeue also in me. 
 
 2. In my Fathers house are many mansions ; if it were not so, I 
 would haue told you : I goe to prepare a place for you. 
 
 3. And if I goe and prepare a place for you, I will come againe, 
 and receiue you vnto my selfe, that where I am, there ye may be 
 also. 
 
 4. And whither I goe yee kn6w, and the way ye know. 
 
 5. Thomas saith vnto him. Lord, we know not whither thou goest : 
 and how can we know the way ? 
 
 12. — From the Fairib Qtjebnb. — ^By Spenser. — A. D. 1590. 
 7. Enforst to seeke some covert nigh at hand, 
 A shadie grove not f arr away they spide. 
 That promist ayde the tempest to withstand ; 
 Whose loftie trees, yclad with sommers pride. 
 Did spred so broad, that heavens light did hide. 
 
APPENDIX— SELECTIONS. 285 
 
 Not perceable -with power of any starr : 
 And all -witMn were pathes and alleles wide. 
 With footing worne, and lisading inward fair : 
 Faire harbour that them seems ; so in they entred ar. 
 
 8. And foorth they passe, with pleasure forward led. 
 Joying to heare the birdes sweete harmony, 
 Which, therein shrouded from the tempest dred, 
 Seemd in their song to scome the cruell sky. 
 Much can they praise the trees so straight and hy. 
 The sayling pine ; the cedar proud and tall ; 
 The vine-propp elme ; the poplar never dry ; 
 The builder oake, sole king of forrests all ; 
 
 The aspine good for staves ; the cypresse f unerall ; 
 
 9. The laurell, meed of mightie conquerours 
 And poets sage ; the firre that weepeth stiU ; 
 The willow, worne of forlorne paramours ; 
 The eugh, obedient to the benders will ; 
 
 The birch for shaftes ; the sallow for the nfill ; 
 
 The mirrhe sweete-bleeding in the bitter wound ; 
 
 The warlike beech ; the ash for nothing ill ; 
 
 The fruitfull olive ; and the platane round ; 
 
 The carver holme ; the maple seeldom inward sound. 
 
 10. Led with delight, they thus beguile the way, 
 Untill the blustring storme is overblowne ; 
 When, weening to returne whence they did stray. 
 They cannot finde that path, which first was showne, 
 But wander too and fro in waies unknowne. 
 Furthest from end then, when they neerest weene. 
 That makes them doubt their wits be not their owne : 
 So many pathes, so many turnings seene. 
 
 That, which of them to take, in diverse doubt they been. 
 
 11. At last resolving forward still to fare, 
 TiU that some end they finde, or in or out. 
 
 That path they take, that beaten seemed most bare. 
 
 And like to lead the labyrinth about ; 
 
 Which when by tract they hunted had throughout 
 
 At length it brought them to a hollowe cave. 
 
 Amid the thickest woods. The Champion stout 
 
 Eftsoones dismounted from his courser brave. 
 
 And to the Dwarfe a while his needlesse spere he-gave. 
 
286 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFia GRAMMAR. 
 
 13.— ANGELS, MEN, AND BEASTS.— By Eichard Hooker.— 
 A. D. 1600. 
 
 In the matter of Knowledge, there is between the Angels of Ood, 
 and the Children of Men, this difference : ABgels already have full 
 and compleat knowledge in the highest degree that can be imparted 
 unto them : Men, if we view them in their Spring, are at the first with- 
 out understanding or knowledge at all. Nevertheless, from this ut- 
 ter vacuity they grow by degrees, till they come at length to be even 
 as the ABgels themselves are. That which agreeth to the one now, 
 the other shall attain unto in the end ; they are not so far disjpyned 
 and severed, but that they come at length to meet. 
 
 The Soul of man being therefore at the first, as a Book, wherein 
 nothing is, and yet all things may be imprinted ; we are to search by 
 what steps and degrees it riseth unto Perfection of Knowledge. 
 
 Unto that which hath been already set down concerning Natural 
 Agents, this we must add. That albeit therein we have comprised as 
 well Creatures living, as void of life, if they be in degree of nature 
 beneath Men ; nevertheless, a difference we must observe between 
 those Natural Agents that work altogether unwittingly ; and those 
 which have, though weak, yet some understanding what they do, as 
 Fishes, Fowls, and Beasts have. Beasts are in sensible capacity as 
 ripe even as Men themselves, perhaps more ripe. 
 
 14. — MtlRELUJS ON C^SAR. — Shakbpearb. — A. D. 1605. 
 Wherefore reioyce ! 
 What Conquest brings he home ? 
 What Tributaries follow him to Rome, 
 To grace in Captiue bonds his Chariot Wheeles ? 
 You Blockes, you stones, you worse then senslesse things : 
 O you hard hearts, you cruell men of Rome, 
 Knew you not Pompey many a time and oft ? 
 Haue you not climb'd vp to WaUes and Battlements, 
 To Towres, and Windowes? Yea, to Chimney tops, 
 Your Infants in your Armes, and there haue sate 
 The liue-long day, with patient expectation. 
 To see great Pompey pass the streets of Rome : 
 And when you saw his Chariot but appeare, 
 Haue you not made an Vniuersall shout. 
 That Tyber trembled vndemeath her bankes 
 To hear the replication of your sounds. 
 Made in her Concaue Shores ? 
 And do you now put on your best attyre t 
 And do you cuU out a Holyday ? 
 
APPENDIX.— SELEGTIONS. 287 
 
 And do you now strew Flowers in his way, 
 That comes in Triumph ouer Pompeyes blood ? 
 Be gone, 
 
 Bunne to your houses, fall vpon your knees. 
 Pray to the Gods to intermit the plague 
 That needs must light on this Ingratitude. 
 
 15.— TRAGEDY.— By John Milton.— A. D, 1670. 
 
 Tragedy, as it was anciently compos'd, hath been ever held the 
 gravest, moralest, and the most profitable of all other poems : there- 
 fore said by Aristotle to be of power by raising pity and fearj or ter- 
 ror, to purge the mind of those and such like passions, that is, to 
 temper and reduce them to just measure with a kind of delight, 
 stirr'd up by reading or seeing those passsions well imitated; 
 
 Nor is Nature wanting in her own effects to make good his asser- 
 tion: for so in physic, things of melancholic hue and quality are us'd 
 against melancholy, sour against sour, salt to remove the salt humors. 
 Hence Philosophers and other gravest writers, as CicerOj Plutarch 
 and others, frequently cite out of tragic poets, both to adorn and illus- 
 trate their discourse. The Apostle Paul himself thought it not un- 
 worthy to insert a vprse of Euripides into the text of; Holy Scripture, 
 1 Cor. XV. 33, and Paraeus commenting on the Revelation, divides 
 the whole book as a tragedy, into acts distinguished each by a chorus 
 of heavenly harpings and song between. Heretofore men in highest 
 dignity have labor'd, not a little to be thought able to compose a 
 tragedy. 
 
 Of that honor Dionysius the elder was no less ambitious, than be- 
 fore of his attaining to the tyranny. Augustus Caesar also had begun 
 his Ajax, but unable to please his own judgement with what he had 
 begun, left it uufinish'd. Seneca the philosopher is by some thought 
 the author of those tragedies, (at least the best of them) that go un- 
 der that name. 
 
 Gregory Naaianzen, a Father of the Church, thought it not unbe- 
 seeming the sanctity of his person to write a tragedy, which is 
 entitled Ghrist suffering. 
 
 16. — Fbom Samson Agonibtbs. — By Milton. ^A. D. 1670. 
 That fault I take not on me, but transfer 
 On Israel's governors, and heads of tribes, 
 Who seeing those great acts which God had done 
 Singly by me against their conquerors, 
 5. Acknowledg'd not, or not at all consider'd 
 Deliverance ofEer'd : I on th' other side 
 Us'd no ambition to commend my deeds, 
 
288 A COMPLETE aCIENTIFIC GRAMMAB. 
 
 The deeds themselves, though mute, spoke loud the doer ; 
 But they persisted deaf, and would not seem 
 10. To count them things worth notice, till at length 
 Their Lords the Philistines with gathar'd pow'is 
 Enter'd Judea seeking me, who then 
 Safe to the rock of Etham was retir'd. 
 Not flying, but fore-casting in what place 
 15. To set upon them, what advantag'd best : 
 Mean while the men of Judah, to prevent 
 The harrass of their land, beset me round ; 
 I willingly on some conditions came 
 Into their hands, and they as gladly yield me 
 30. To the uncircumcis'd a welcome prey. 
 
 Bound with two cords ; but cords to me were threds 
 Touch'd with the flame : on their whole host I flew 
 TJnarm'd, and with a trivial weapon fell'd 
 Their choicest youth ; they only lived who fled. 
 35. Had Judah that day joined, or one whole tribe. 
 They had by this possess'd the tow'rs of Gath, 
 And lorded over them whom now they serve : 
 But what more oft in nations grown corrupt, 
 And by their vices brought to servitude, 
 30. Than to love bondage more than liberty. 
 Bondage with ease than strenuous liberty ; 
 And to despise, or envy, or suspect 
 Whom God hath of his special favor rais'd 
 As their deliverer ; if he ought begin, 
 35. How frequent to desert him, and at last 
 To heap ingratitude on worthiest deeds ? 
 
 17.— THE SOUL'S PBOGBESS.— By Joseph Addison.— A. D. 1711. 
 
 There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant con- 
 sideration in religion, than this of the perpetual progress which the 
 Soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever arriving 
 at a period in it. To look upon the Soul as going on from strength 
 to strength, to consider that she is to shine forever with new aces- 
 sions of glory, and brighten to all eternity ; that she will be stUl adding 
 virtue to virtue, and knowledge to knowledge ; carries in it something 
 wonderfully agreeable to that ambition which is natural to the mind 
 of man. Nay, it must be a prospect pleasing to God himself, to see 
 his Creation forever beautifying in Ms eyes, and drawing nearer to 
 Him, by greater degrees of resemblance. 
 
 Methinks this single consideration, of the progress of a finite Spirit 
 to perfection, will be sufficient to extinguish all envy in inferior na- 
 
APPJSNDIX.— SELECTIONS. 289 
 
 tures, anti all contempt in superior. — TtBt Cherubim which now 
 appears as a God to a human Soul, knows very well that the period 
 will come about in Eternity, when the human soul shall be as perfect 
 as he himself now is : nay, when she shall look down on that degree 
 of perfection, as much as she now falls short of it. It is true, the 
 higher nature still advances, and by that means preserves his dis- 
 tance and superiority in the scale of Being ; but he knows, how high 
 soever the station is of which he stands possessed at present, the in- 
 ferior Nature will at length mount up to it, and shine forth in the 
 same degree of glory. 
 
 With what astonishment and veneration may we look into our own 
 Souls, where there are such hidden stores of Virtue and Knowledge, 
 such inexhaustible sources of perfection ? We know not yet what 
 we shall be, nor will it ever enter into the heart of man to conceive 
 the glory that will always be in reserve for him. The Soul consid- 
 ered with its Creator, is like one of those mathematical lines that may 
 draw nearer to another to all eternity without a possibility of touch- 
 ing it ; and can there be a thought so transporting, as to consider our- 
 selves in these .perpetual approaches to him, who is not only the 
 standard of perfection, but of happiness ! 
 
 18.— HAPPINESS.— By Amixandbr Pope.- A. D. 1733. 
 
 Oh Happiness ! our being's end and aim. 
 
 Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content, whate'er thy name ; 
 
 That something still which prompts the eternal sigh. 
 
 For which, we bear to live, or dare to die. 
 
 Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies, • 
 
 O'erlooked, seen double, by the fool, and wise ! 
 
 Plant of celestial seed I if dropped below. 
 
 Say, in what mortal soil thou deign'st to grow ? 
 
 Fair opening to some court's propitious shine. 
 
 Or deep with diamonds in the flaming mine ? 
 
 Twined with the wreaths Parnassian laurels yield. 
 
 Or reaped in iron harvests of the field ? 
 
 Where grows 1 — where grows it not ? If vain our toil. 
 
 We ought to blame the culture not the soil. 
 
 Fixed to no spot is Happiness sincere ; 
 
 'Tis nowhere to be found, or everywhere ; 
 
 'Tis never to, be bought, but always free. 
 
 And fled from monarchs, St. John, dwells with thee. 
 
 Ask of the learned the way I The learned are blind ; 
 
 This bids to serve, and that to shun mankind ; 
 
 Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 
 
 Those call it pleasure, and contentment these ; 
 
290 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO GRA MMAB. 
 
 Some sank, to lieasts, find pleasure end in pain ; 
 Some swelled to gods, confess even virtue vain ; 
 Or indolent, to each extreme they fall. 
 To trust in everything, or doubt of all. 
 
 19.— THE PASSIONS.— COLLINB.— 1747. 
 
 1. When Music, heavenly maid, was youngi 
 While yet in early Greece she sung. 
 The Passions oft to hear her shell 
 Thronged round her magic cell 
 Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting. 
 Possessed beyond the Muse's painting. 
 By turns they felt the glowing mind 
 Disturbed, delighted, raised, refined. 
 Till once, 'tis said, when all were fired, 
 FUled with fury, rapt, inspired. 
 From the supporting myrtles round 
 They snatched her instruments of sound ; 
 And as they oft had heard apart 
 Sweet lessons of her forceful art. 
 Each (for madness ruled the hour) 
 Would prove his own expressive power. 
 
 2. First Fear his hand its skill to try 
 Amid the chords bewildered laid, 
 And back recoiled (he knew not why) 
 E'en at the sound himself had made. 
 
 8. Next Anger rushed ; his eyes, on fire. 
 In lightning s owned his secret stings ; 
 In one rude clash he struck the lyre. 
 And swept with hurried hand the strings. 
 
 4 With woful measures waji Despair — 
 Low sullen sounds his grief beguiled ; 
 A solemn, strange, and mingled air ; 
 'Twas sad by fits ; — by starts 'twas wild. 
 
 5. But thou, O Hope, with eyes so fair. 
 What was thy delighted measure ? 
 Still it whispered promised pleasure. 
 And bade the lovely scenes at distance haiL 
 StUl would her touch the strain prolong ; 
 And from the rocks, the woods, the vale. 
 She called on Echo still through all her song ; 
 And where her sweetest theme she chose. 
 
APPENDIX.— 8ELE0T10N8. 291 
 
 A soft responsive voice was ieard at every close ; 
 
 And Hope, enchanted, smiled, and waved her golden hair ; — 
 
 6. And longer had she sung ; — ^but with a frown 
 
 Revenge impatient rose. 
 He threw his blood stained sword in thunder down. 
 
 And, with a withering look. 
 
 The war-denouncing trumpet took, 
 And blew a blast so loud and dread 
 Were ne'er prophetic sounds so full of woe ; 
 
 And ever and anon he beat 
 
 The doubling drum with furious heat ; — 
 And though sometimes, each dreary pause between. 
 
 Dejected Pity at his side 
 
 Her soul-subduing voice applied. 
 Yet still he kept his wild unaltered mien. 
 While each strained ball of sight seemed bursting from his 
 head. 
 
 7. Thy numbers. Jealousy, to nought were fixed ; — 
 
 Sad proof of thy distressful state ! 
 Of differing themes the veering song was mixed ; 
 And now it courted Love ; now, raving, called on Hate. 
 
 8. With eyes upraised, as one inspired. 
 Pale Melancholy sat retired. 
 
 And from her wild sequestered seat. 
 
 In notes by distance made more sweet. 
 Poured through the mellow horn her pensive soul ; 
 
 And, dashing soft from rocks around. 
 
 Bubbling runnels joined the sound. 
 Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole ; 
 
 Or o'er some haunted stream with fond delay 
 
 (Bound a holy calm diffusing 
 
 Love of peace and lonely musing). 
 
 In hollow murmurs died away. 
 
 9. But oh ! how altered was its sprightlier tone. 
 When Cheerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue. 
 
 Her bow across her shoulder flung, 
 
 Her buskins gemmed with morning dew, 
 Blew an inspiring air, and dale and thicket rung, 
 The hunter's call, to Faun and Dryad known ! 
 
 The oak-crowned sisters and their chaste-eyed Queen. 
 
292 A COMPLETE 80JENTIPIG QBAMMAB. 
 
 Satyrs, and sylvan boys, were seen 
 Peeping from forth their alleys green. 
 Brown Exercise rejoiced to hear ; 
 And Sport leaped up, and seized his beeohen spear. 
 
 10. Last came Joy's ecstatic trial. 
 He, with viny crown advancing. 
 First to the lively pipe his hand addressed ; 
 But soon he saw the brisk awakening viol 
 Whose sweet entrancing voice he loved the best. 
 They would have thought who heard the strain. 
 They saw, in Tempe's vale her native maids. 
 
 Amid the fatal sounding shades, 
 To some unwearied minstrel dancing, 
 "While, as his flying fingers kissed the strings. 
 Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round 
 (Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound) ; 
 And he, amidst his frolic play, — 
 As if he would the charming air repay, — 
 Shook thousand odors from his dewy wings. 
 
 20.— PROCRASTINATION.— By Edwabd Youm.— A. D. 1741. 
 
 Be wise to-da/y ; 'tis madness to defer ; 
 Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 
 Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
 Procrastination is the thief of time ; 
 Year after year it steals till all are fled, 
 And to the mercies of a moment leaves 
 The vast concerns of an eternal scene. 
 If not so frequent, would not this be strange ? 
 That 'tis so frequent, this is stranger still. 
 
 Of man's miraculous mistakes, this bears 
 The palm, " That all men are about to live," 
 Forever on the brink of being bom ; 
 All pay themselves the compliment to think 
 They one day shall not drivel, and their pride 
 On this reversion takes up ready praise ; 
 At least their own ; their future selves applaud ; 
 How excellent that life they ne'er will lead I 
 Time lodged in their own hands is Folly's vails ; 
 That lodged in Fate's to wisdom they consign ; 
 The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone. 
 'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool. 
 And scarce in human wisdom to do more. 
 
"' APPEMI>IX.-8ELEGTI0N8. 293 
 
 All promise is poor dilatory man, 
 
 And that through every stage. When young, indeed. 
 
 In full content we sometimes nobly rest, 
 
 TJnanxious for ourselves, and only wish, 
 
 As duteous sons, our fathers were more wise. 
 
 At thirty man suspects himself a fool ; 
 
 Knows it at forty, and reforms his plan ; 
 
 At fifty chides his infamous delay, 
 
 Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve ; 
 
 In all the magnanimity of thought 
 
 Resolves, and re-resolves ; then dies the same. 
 
 21.— ITALY.— By Olitbk Goldsmith.— A. D. 1764. 
 
 Far to the right, where Appenine ascends, 
 Bright as the summer, Italy extends ; 
 Its uplands sloping deck, the mountain's side. 
 Woods over woods in gay theatric pride ; 
 While oft some temple's mouldering tops between. 
 With venerable grandeur mark the scene. 
 CJould nature's bounty satisfy the breast. 
 The sons of Italy were surely blest. 
 Whatever fruits in difEerent climes were found. 
 That proudly rise, or humbly court the ground ; 
 Whatever blooms in torrid tracts appear. 
 Whose bright succession decks the varied year ; 
 Whatever sweets salute the northern sky 
 With vernal lives that blossom but to die ; 
 These, here disporting, own the kindred soil. 
 Nor ask luzuriance from the planter's toil ; 
 While sea-bom gales their gelid wings expand. 
 To winnow fragrance round the smiling land. 
 But small the bliss that sense alone bestows. 
 And sensual bliss is all the nation knows. 
 In florid beauty groves and fields appear, 
 Man seems the only growth that dwindles here. 
 Contrasted faults through all his manners reign : 
 Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; 
 Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
 And even in penance planning sins anew. 
 All evils here contaminate the mind. 
 That opulence departed leaves behind ; 
 For wealth was theirs, not far removed the date. 
 When commerce proudly flourished through the state. 
 
294 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC 9RAMMAR. 
 
 32.— EUEAL SOUNDS.— By William Cowpbb.— A. V>. 1785. 
 
 Nor rural siglits alone, but rural sounds, 
 Exhilarate the spirit, and restore 
 The tone of languid nature. Mighty winds 
 That sweep the skirt of some far-spreading wood 
 Of ancient growth, make music not unlike 
 The dash of ocean on his winding shore. 
 And lull the spirit while they fill the mind, 
 TJnnumbered branches waving in the blast. 
 And all their leaves fast fluttering all at once. 
 , Nor less composure waits upon the roar 
 Of distant floods, or on the softer voice 
 Of neighboring fountains or of rills that slip 
 Through the cleft rock, and chiming as they fall 
 Upon loose pebbles, lose themselves at length 
 In matted grass, that with a livelier green 
 Betrays the secret of their silent course. — 
 Nature inanimate displays sweet sounds, 
 But animated nature sweeter stUl, 
 To soothe and satisfy the human ear. 
 Ten thousand warblers cheer the day, and one 
 The livelong night ; nor these alone whose notes 
 Nice-fingered art must emulate in vain, 
 But cawing rooks, and kites that swim sublime 
 In stUl repeated circles, screaming loud. 
 The jay, the pie, and even the boding owl 
 That haUs the rising moon, have charms for me. 
 Sounds inharmonious in themselves and harsh, 
 Tet heard in scenes where peace forever reigns. 
 And only there, please highly for their sake. 
 
 23.— CHARACTBE OF CHRIST.— William Palet. 
 
 The Jews, whether right or wrong, had understood their prophe, 
 cies to foretell the advent of a person who, by some supernatural as- 
 sistance, should advance their nation to independence, and to a 
 supreme degree of splendor and prosperity. This was the reigning 
 opinion and expectation of the times. 
 
 Now, had Jesus been an enthusiast, it is probable that his enthusi- 
 asm would have fallen in with the popular delusion, and that, 
 whilst he gave himself out to be the person intended by these predic- 
 tions, he would have assumed the character to which they were 
 universally supposed to relate. 
 
 Had he been an imposter, it was his business to have flattered the 
 
APPEITDIX.—8MLEaTI0NS. 295 
 
 prevailing liopes, because these hopes were to be the instruments of 
 his attraction and success. 
 
 But, what is better than conjecture, is the fact that all the pre- 
 tended Messiahs actually did so. We learn from Josephus that there 
 were many of these. Some of them, it is probable, might be impos- 
 tors who thought that an advantage was to be taken of the state of 
 public opinion. Others, perhaps, were enthusiasts whose imagina- 
 tion had been drawn to this particular object by the language and 
 sentiments which prevailed around them. But, whether impostors 
 or enthusiasts, they concurred in producing themselves in the char- 
 acter which their countrymen looked for, — ^that is to say, as the re- 
 storers and deliverers of the nation, in that sense in which restora- 
 tion and deliverance were expected by the Jews. 
 
 Why therefore Jesus, if he was, like them, either an enthusiast or 
 impostor, did not pursue the same conduct as they did, in framing 
 his character and pretensions, it will be found difla.cult to explain. 
 
 24.— WATERLOO.— Bykon. 
 
 1. There was a sound of revelry by night ; 
 And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
 Her beauty and her chivalry ; and bright 
 The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men ; — 
 A thousand hearts beat happily ; — and when 
 Music arose with its voluptuous swell, 
 Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again ; 
 And all went merry as a marriage bell ; — 
 But hMsh ! hark! — a deep sound strikes like a rising kueU 1 
 
 3. Did ye not hear it 1 No ! — 'twas but the wind. 
 Or the car rattling o'er the stony street. — 
 On with the dance ! Let joy be unconfined. 
 No sleep till mom, when youth and pleasure meet 
 To chase the glowing hours with flying feet. — 
 But hark I — That heavy sound breaks in once more, 
 As if the clouds its echo would repeat ; 
 And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before — 
 Arm ! — Arm ! — It is — ^it is — ^the cannon's opening roar I 
 
 3. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro, 
 And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress, 
 And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago 
 Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness ; 
 And there were sudden partings, such as press 
 The life from out young hearts ; and choking sighs 
 Which ne'er might be repeated. Who could guess 
 
296 A COMPLETE SCmJ^TIFIC GRAMMAR. 
 
 If ever more should meet those mutual eyes. 
 
 Since upon night so sweet such awful mom could rise I 
 
 4. And there was mounting in hot haste ; the steed. 
 The mustering squadron, and the clattering car. 
 Went pouring forward with impetuous speed. 
 And swiftly forming in the ranks of war ; 
 
 And the deep thunder, — peal on peal afar, — 
 And near, the beat of the alarming drum 
 Roused up the soldier ere the morning star ; 
 WhUe thronged the citizens, with terror dumb. 
 Or whispering with white lips " The foe ! they come, they 
 Come 1 " 
 
 5. And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, — 
 Dewy with nature's tear-drops, — as they pass, 
 Grieving, — if aught inanimate e'er grieves, — 
 
 Over the unretuming brave, — alas I 
 
 Ere evening, to be trodden like the grass 
 
 Which now beneath them, but above shall grow 
 
 In its next verdure, when this fiery mass 
 
 Of living valor rolling on the foe. 
 
 And burning with high hope, shall molder cold and low. 
 
 6. Last noon beheld them full of lusty life ; 
 Last eve in beauty's circle proudly gay ; 
 
 The midnight brought the signal sound of strife ; 
 
 The mom, the marshalling in arms ; — ^the day 
 
 Battle's magnificently stem array ; 
 
 The thunder clouds close o'er it, which when rent. 
 
 The earth is covered thick with other clay 
 
 Which her own clay shall cover, heaped and pent, 
 
 Rider and horse, — friend, foe, — ^in one red burial blent. 
 
 35.— THE LAMARCKIANS.— HpghMillek. 
 
 In this curious question, however, which it must be the part of 
 future explorers in the geological field definitely to settle, the 
 Lamarckian can have no legitimate stake. 
 
 It is but natural that, in his anxiety to secure an ultimate retreat 
 for his hypothesis, he should desire to see that darkness in which 
 ghosts love to walk settling down on the extreme verge of the geo- 
 logical horizon, and enveloping in its folds the first beginnings of 
 life. — But even did the cloud exist, it is, if I may so express myself 
 on its nearer side, where there is light, — not within nor beyond it 
 where there is none, — that the battle must be fought. 
 
 It is to Geology as it is known^to lie that the Lamarckian has ap- 
 
APPENDIX.— aELEOriONS. 297 
 
 pealed,— not to Q-eologyas it is not known to be. He has summoned 
 into court existing witnesses ; and, finding tlieir testimony unfavor- 
 able, he seeks to neutralize their evidence by calling, from the " vasty 
 deep" of the unexamined and the obscure, witnesses that "wont 
 come", — that by the legitimate authorities are not known to exist, — 
 and with whom he himself is, on his own confession, wholly unac- 
 quainted, save in the old scholastic character of mere possibilities. 
 
 The possible fossil can have no more standing in this controversy 
 than the " possible Angel." 
 
 He tells us that we have not yet got down to that base-line of all 
 the fossUiferous systems at which life first began. Very possibly 
 we have not ; but what of that ? He has carried his appeal to Geol- 
 ogy as it is. He has referred his case to the testimony of the known 
 witnesses ; for in no case can the unknown ones be summoned or 
 produced. It is on the evidence of the known, and the known only, 
 that the exact value of his claims must be determined ; and his ap- 
 peal to the unknown serves but to show how thoroughly he himself 
 feels that the actually ascertained evidence bears against him 
 
 The severe censure of Johnson on reasoners of this class is in no 
 degree over-severe. "He who will determine," said the moralist, 
 "against that which he knows, because there may be something 
 which he knows not, — ^he that can set hypothetical possibility against 
 acknowledged certainty, — is not to be admitted among reasonable 
 beings." 
 
 26.— MAN AND NATURE,— Mbs. E. B. Bbowning. 
 
 A sad man on a summer day 
 
 Did look upon the earih and say — 
 
 " Purple cloud, the hill top binding. 
 
 Folded hills, the valleys wind in. 
 
 Valleys, with fresh streams among you. 
 
 Streams, with bosky trees along you. 
 
 Trees, with many birds and blossoms. 
 
 Birds, with music-trembling bosoms. 
 
 Blossoms, dropping dews that wreathe you 
 
 To your fellow flowers beneath you. 
 
 Flowers that constellate on earth. 
 
 Earth, that shakest to the mirth 
 
 Of the merry Titan ocean, 
 
 All his Shining hair in motion ! 
 
 Why am I thus the Only one 
 
 Who can be dark beneath the sun? " 
 
 But when the summer day was past. 
 
 He looked to heaven and smiled at last, 
 
 Self -answered so — 
 
298 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 
 
 " Because, O cloud, 
 
 Pressing with thy crumpled shroud 
 
 Heavily on mountain top, — 
 
 Hills, that almost seem to drop, 
 
 Stricken with a misty death. 
 
 To the valleys underneath, — 
 
 Valleys, sighing with the torrent. 
 
 Waters, streaked with branches horrent. 
 
 Branchless trees, that shake your head 
 
 Wildly o'er your blossoms spread 
 
 Where the common flowers are found. 
 
 Flowers, with foreheads to the ground. 
 
 Ground, that shriekest, while the sea 
 
 With his iron smiteth thee, — 
 
 I am, besides, the only one 
 
 Who can be bright without the sun." 
 
 27.— THE PURITANS.— T. B. Macaulat. 
 The puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar char- 
 acter from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal 
 interests. Not content with acknowledging in general terms an 
 overruling Providence, they habitually ascribed every event to the 
 will of the Great Being for whose power nothing was too vast, — for 
 whose inspection nothing was too minute. To know Him, to serve 
 Him, to enjoy Him, was with them the great end of existence. 
 
 They rejected with contempt the ceremonious homage which other 
 sects substituted for the pure worship of the soul. 
 
 Instead of catching occasional glimpses of the Deity through an 
 obscuring vail, they aspired to gaze full on the intolerable bright- 
 ness, and to commune with Him face to face. 
 
 Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. The 
 difEerence between the greatest and the meanest of mankind seemed 
 to vanish when compared with the boundless interval which separa- 
 ted the whole race from Him on whom their eyes were constantly 
 
 fixed. 
 
 They recognized no title to superiority but His favor ; and, confi- 
 dent of that favor, they despised all the accomplishments and all the 
 dignities of the world. If they were unacquainted with the works 
 of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of 
 God. If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, 
 they felt assured that they were recorded in the Book of Life. 
 If their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials, 
 legions of ministering Angels had charge over them. Their palaces 
 were houses not made with hands ; their diadems, crowns of glory 
 which should never fade away. 
 
APPEJirniX.— SELECTIONS. 299 
 
 On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, they looked 
 down with contempt ; for they esteemed themselves rich in a more 
 precious treasure, and eloquent in a more sublime language ;— nobles 
 by the'right of an earlier creation, and priests by the imposition of a 
 mightier hand. 
 
 28.— THE PASSING OF ARTHUR.— A. Tennyson. 
 
 " But now farewell. I am going a long way 
 With these thou seest, — if indeed I go, — 
 (For aU my mind is clouded with a doubt) 
 To the island- valley of Avilion, 
 5. AVhere falls not hail, or rain, or any snow, 
 Nor ever wind blows loudly ; but it lies 
 Deep-meadowed, happy, f?ir with orchard-lawns 
 And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea. 
 Where I will heal me of my grievous wound." 
 
 10. So said he, and the barge with oar and sail 
 
 Moved from the brink, like some fuU-breasted swan 
 That, fluting a wild carol ere her death. 
 Ruffles her pure cold plume, and takes the flood 
 With swarthy webs. — Long stood Sir Bedivere 
 
 15. Revolving many memories, till the hull 
 
 Looked one black dot against the verge of dawn ; 
 And on the mere the wailing died away. 
 
 At length he groaned, and turning slowly clomb 
 The last hard footstep of that iron crag ; 
 
 20. Thence marked the black hull moving yet, and cried 
 " He passes to be king among the dead. 
 And after healing of his grievous wound 
 He comes again ; but, — ^if he come no more, — 
 Oh me ! be yon dark Queens in yon black boat, 
 
 35. Who shrieked and wailed, — ^the three whereat we gazed 
 On that high day, when, clothed with living light. 
 They stood before his throne in silence, — friends 
 Of Arthur, who should help him at his need ? " 
 Then from the dawn it seemed there came, but faint 
 
 30. As from beyond the limit of the world. 
 Like the last echo born of a great cry. 
 Sounds, as if some fair city were one voice 
 Around a king returning from- his wars. 
 Thereat once more he moved about, and clomb 
 
 35. E'en to the highest he could climb, and saw. 
 Straining his eyes beneath an arch of hand. 
 Or thought he saw, the spec]?; that bare the king 
 
300 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIPIG GRAMMAR. 
 
 Down that long water, opening on the deep 
 Somewhere far off, pass on and on, and go 
 40. From less to less and vanish into light. 
 
 And the new sun rose bringing the new year. 
 
 39.— KEASON AND TKUTH.— F. Watlakd. 
 
 1. In order to improve the reasoning powers, it is important that 
 we always labor for truth.— Many persons, in order to ax^uire skill in 
 debate, are in the habit of defending the true or false indiscriminately, 
 ^believing that they can cultivate their own understanding by mis- 
 leading the understanding of others. 
 
 2. A man may learn thus to embarrass and confound an antagonist ; 
 but he does it at great sacrifice. 
 
 By earnestly seeking for truth, and rejecting all sophistry, the 
 mind acquires a tendency to move in the right direction. Chemists 
 speak much of the aflBnities of various substances for each other. 
 TherB is a natural affinity in this human mind for truth ; and this 
 affinity is strengthened by seeking for it with an honest and earnest 
 purpose. 
 
 3. If we in our investigations inquire for nothing but truth, it 
 spontaneously reveals itself to us. The whole history of philo- 
 sophical discovery illustrates this remark. Hence nothing can be 
 more unwise than to destroy the original delicacy of the faculty of 
 reason by employing it indiscriminately in the support of truth or 
 falsehood. We may thus gain the praise of acuteness or readiness 
 in debate ; but we lose what is of incomparably greater consequence, 
 — ^the instinctive love of truth, and the delicate discrimination be- 
 tween truth and error. 
 
 30.— SUNRISE ON THE HILLS.— H. W. Longfixlow. 
 
 1. I stood upon the hills, where heaven's wide arch 
 
 Was glorious with the sun's returning march ; 
 
 And woods were brightened ; and soft gales 
 
 Went forth to kiss the sun-clad vales. 
 3. The clouds were far beneath me ; — ^bathed in light. 
 
 They gathered midway round the wooded height. 
 
 And in their fading glory shone 
 
 As hosts in battle overthrown. 
 
 3. As many a pinnacle, with a shifting glance. 
 Through the gray mist thrust up its shattered lance, 
 And, rocking on the cliff, was left 
 
 The dark pine, blasted, bare, and cleft, — 
 
 4. The veU of cloud was lifted ; and below 
 Glowed the rich valley ; and the river's flow 
 
APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 301 
 
 Was darkened by the forest's shade, 
 Or glistened in the white cascade, 
 
 5. Where upward, in the mellow blush of day. 
 The noisy bittern wheeled his spiral way. 
 
 I heard the distant waters dash ; 
 I saw the current wheel and flash ; 
 
 6. And richly, by the blue lake's sUver beach. 
 The woods were bending with a silent reach. 
 Then o'er the vale with gentle swell, 
 
 The music of the village bell 
 
 7. Came sweetly to the echo-giving hills ; 
 
 Ajad the wild horn whose voice the woodland fills 
 Was ringing to the merry shout 
 That, faint and far, the glen sent out, 
 
 8. Where, answering to the sudden shot, thin smoke 
 Through thick-leaved branches from the dingle broke. 
 If thou art worn, and hard beset 
 
 With sorrows that thou wouldst forget, — 
 
 9. If thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep 
 
 Thy heart from fainting, and thy soul from sleep. 
 Go to the woods and hills ! No tears 
 Dim the sweet look that nature wears. 
 
 31.— -EVENING ON THE ST. LAWRENCE.— Silliman. 
 
 1. From the moment the sun is down, everything becomes silei 
 on the shore which our windows overlook, and the murmurs of the 
 broad St. Lawrence, — ^more than two miles wide immediately above 
 us, and a little way to the right spreading to five or six miles in 
 breadth, — are sometimes, for an hour, the only sounds that arrest 
 our attention. 
 
 3. Every evening since we have been he(re, black clouds and splen- 
 did moonlight have hung over and embellished this tranquil scene ; 
 and on two of these evenings we have been attracted to the window 
 by the plaintive Canadian boat-song. 
 
 3. In one instance it arose from a solitary voyager floating in his 
 light canoe which occasionally appeared and disappeared on the 
 sparkling river, and in its distant course seemed no larger than some 
 sportive insect. 
 
 4. In another instance a larger boat, with more numerous and less 
 melodious voices, not indeed in perfect harmony, passed nearer to 
 the shore, and gave additional life tathe scene. A few moments 
 after, the moon broke out from a throne of dark clouds, and seemed 
 to convert the whole expanse of water into one vast sheet of glitter- 
 ing silver ; and in the very brightest spot, at the distance of more 
 
302 A COMPLETE 80IENTIFIG GBAMMAB. 
 
 than a mile, again appeared a solitary boat, but too distant to admit 
 of our hearing the song with which the boatman was probably sol- 
 acing his lonely course. 
 
 32.— APRIL.— J. G. "Whittier. 
 
 'Tis the noon of the spring-time, yet never a bird 
 
 In the wind shaken elm or the maple is heard ; 
 
 For green meadow-grasses wide levels of snow. 
 
 And blowing of drifts where the crocus should blow ; 
 
 Where wind-flower and violet, amber and white, 
 
 On south-sloping brook-sides should smile in the light. 
 
 O'er the cold winter-beds of their late- waking roots 
 
 The frosty flake eddies, the ice-crystal shoots ; 
 
 And, longing for light, under wind-driven heaps, 
 
 Bound the boles of the pine- wood the ground-laurel creeps, 
 
 Unkissed of the sunshine, unbaptized of showers. 
 
 With buds scarcely swelled, which should burst into flowers 1 
 
 We wait for thy coming, sweet wind of the south ! 
 For the touch of thy light wings, the kiss of thy mouth ; 
 For the yearly evangel thou bearest from God, 
 Eesurrection and, life to the graves of the sod I 
 Up OUT long river- valley, for days, have not ceased. 
 The wail and the shriek of the bitter northeast, — 
 Raw and chill, as if winnowed through ices and snow. 
 All the way from the land of the wild Esquimau, — 
 Until all our dreams of the land of the blest. 
 Like that red hunter's, turn to the sunny southwest. 
 O soul of the spring-time, its light and its breath. 
 Bring warmth to this coldness, bring life to this death ; 
 Renew the great miracle ; let us behold 
 The stone from the mouth of the sepulchre rolled, 
 And Nature, like Lazarus, rise, as of old I 
 Let our faith, which in darkness and coldness has lain, 
 Revive with the warmth and the brightness again, 
 And in blooming of flower and budding of tree. 
 The symbols and types of our destiny see ; — 
 The life of the spring-time, the life of the whole, 
 And as sun to the sleeping earth, love to the soul. 
 
 38.— THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE.- Noajh; Porter. 
 
 We contend not only that, the CJolleges have judged rightly in 
 giving to the study of language the prominence which it receives, 
 and that the Greek and Latin deserve the special preeminence which 
 has been assigned them, but that there are peculiar reasons why 
 
APPMNDIX— SELECTIONS. 303 
 
 tliey should "be even more thoroughly and earnestly cultivated than 
 they have been. 
 
 Our first position is that, for the years appropriated to school and 
 College training, there is no study which is so well adapted to men- 
 tal discipline as the study of language. We argue this from the 
 fact that language is the chief instrument of intelligence. It is 
 thought made visible and clear, not merely to the person to- whom 
 thoughts are to be conveyed, but to the person who thinks for and 
 by himself. The earliest discriminations and memories to which we 
 are tasked by nature, are those which are involved in the mastery 
 of our mother tongue. 
 
 It is true the observation required for the education of the eye and 
 ear and in the control and discipline of the body, involves a multi- 
 tude of " object lessons," and imposes much "object teaching," but 
 it can scarcely be contended that this discipline of the senses requires 
 either the culture or the discipline of the intellect, in the same sense 
 as does that attention to language which is required in learning to 
 speak and write the language which is first acquired. We assume, 
 because it is not necessary to prove, that the most conspicuously in- 
 tellectual of the various intellectual acts of infancy and childhood 
 are exercised upon language. 
 
 34.— LIBRARIES.— John G. Saxb. 
 
 I love vast libraries, — revere the fame 
 
 Of all the Ptolemies and each other name, — 
 
 .^milius, Augustus, Crassus, Caesar, — all 
 
 The old collectors, whether great or small. 
 
 Who helped the cause of learning to advance, — 
 
 Trajan and Bodley, Charles the Wise of France, 
 
 Kings, nobles, knights, who, anxious of renown 
 
 Beyond the fame of garter, spur, or crown, 
 
 And wisely provident against decay 
 
 (Since parchment lives while marble melts away). 
 
 Reared to their honor literary domes. 
 
 And grew immortal in immortal tomes 1 
 
 Here e'en the sturdy democrat may find. 
 Nor scorn their rank, the nobles of the mind. 
 While kings may learn, nor blush at being shown, 
 How Learning's patents abrogate their own. 
 A goodly company and fair to see, — 
 Royal plebeians, earls of low degree, 
 Beggars whose wealth enriches every clime. 
 Princes who scarce can boast a mental dime,—' 
 
304 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO QBAMMAB. 
 
 Crowd here together like the quaint array 
 Of jostling neighbors on a market day. 
 Homer and Milton (can we call them blind?),— 
 Of godlike sight, the vision of the mind, — 
 Shakespeare, who calmly looked creation through, 
 " Exhausted worlds and then imagined new," 
 Plato, the sage, so thoughtful and se.-ene. 
 He seems a prophet by his heavenly mien. 
 Shrewd Socrates, whose philosophic power 
 Xantippe proved in many a trying hour. 
 And Aristophanes whose humor run 
 In vain endeavor to be-" cloud " the sun, 
 Majestic jEschylus whose glowing page 
 Holds half the grandeur of the Athenian stage, 
 Pindar, whose odes, replete with heavenly fire, 
 Proclaim the master of the Grecian lyre, 
 Anacreon, famed for many a luscious line 
 Devote to Venus and the god of wine 
 
 1 love vast libraries ; and yet there is a doubt 
 If one be better with them or without. 
 Unless he use them wisely, and indeed 
 Knows the high art of what and how to read. 
 At Learning's fountain it is sweet to drink ; 
 But 'tis a nobler privilege to think ; 
 And oft, from books apart, the thirsting mind 
 May make the nectar which it cannot find. 
 'Tis well to borrow from the good and great ; — 
 'Tis wise to learn ; — 'tis godlilee to create 1 
 
 35.— READING.— Geo. S. Hillakd, 
 
 We cannot linger in the beautiful creations of inventive genius, or 
 pursue the splendid discoveries of modern science, without a new 
 sense of the capacities and dignity of human nature, which naturally 
 leads to a sterner self-respect, to manlier resolves and higher aspira- 
 tions. 
 
 We cannot read the ways of God to man as revealed in the history 
 of nations, — of sublime virtues as exemplified in the lives of great and 
 good men, — without falling into that mood of thoughtful admiration, 
 which, though it be but a transient glow, is a purifying and elevat- 
 ing influence while it lasts. 
 
 The study of history is especially valuable as an antidote to self- 
 exaggeration. It teaches lessons of humility, patience, and submis- 
 sion.. When we read of realms smitten with the scourge of famine 
 or pestilence, or strewn with the bloody ashes of war, — of grass 
 
APPENDIX.— SELEOTIONS. 305 
 
 growing in the streets of great cities, — of ships rotting at the 
 wharves, — of fathers burying their sons, — of strong men begging 
 their bread, — of fields untilled, and silent workshops, and despairing 
 countenances, — we hear a voice of rebuke to our own clamorous sor- 
 rows and peevish complaints. We learn that pain and suffering and 
 disappointment are a part of God's providence, and that no con- 
 tract was ever yet made with man by which virtue should secure 
 to him temporal happiness. 
 
 In books, be it remembered, we have the best products of the best 
 minds. We should any of us esteem it a great privilege to pass an 
 evening with Shakespeare or Bacon, were such a thing possible ; but 
 were we admitted to the presence of one of these illustrious men. We 
 might find him touched with infirmity, or oppressed with weariness, 
 or darkened with the shadow of recent trouble, or absorbed by intru- 
 sive and tyrannous thoughts. To us the oracle might be dumb, and 
 the light eclipsed. But when we take down one of their volumes, 
 we run no such risk. Here we have their best thoughts embalmed 
 in their best words, — ^immortal flowers of poetry wet with Castalian 
 dews, and the golden fruit of wisdom that had long ripened on the 
 bough before it was gathered. Here we find the growth of the 
 choicest seasons of the mind, when mortal cares were forgotten, and 
 mortal weaknesses were subdued, and the soul, stripped of its vani- 
 ties and its passions, lay bare to the finest effluences of truth and 
 beauty. 
 
 We may be sure that Shakespeare never out-talked his Hamlet, 
 nor Bacon his Essays> Great writers are indeed best known through 
 their books. 
 
 36 — THE PREACHER. — Cob. of LotnsvTLLB Jottrnal. 
 
 1. The day was declining ; — the breeze in its glee 
 Had left the fair blossoms to sing on the sea. 
 As the sun in its gorgeousness, radiant and still. 
 Dropped down like a gem from the brow of the hill ; 
 One tremulous star in the glory of June 
 
 Came out with a smile and sat down by the moon ; 
 
 As she graced her blue throne with the pride of a queen. 
 
 The smiles of her loveliness gladdened thfe scene. 
 
 2. The scene was enchanting ; — ^in distance away 
 Rolled the foam-crested waves of the Chesapeake bay, 
 While, bathing in moonlight, the village was seen 
 With the church in the distance that stood on the green. 
 The soft-sleeping meadows lay brightly enrolled 
 With their mantles of verdure and blossoms of gold ; 
 
306 A. COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 OBAMMAR 
 
 And the earth in her beauty, forgetting to grieve. 
 Lay asleep in her bloom on the bosom of eve. 
 
 3. A light-hearted child, I had wandered away 
 
 From the spot where my footsteps had gamboled all day ; 
 
 And free as a bird's was the song of my soul. 
 
 As I heard the wild waters exultingly roll. 
 
 While lightening my heart, as I sported along. 
 
 With bursts of low laughter and snatches of song, 
 
 I struck in the pathway half worn o'er the sod 
 
 By the feet that went up to the worship of (Jod. 
 
 4. As I traced its green windings, a murmur of prayer 
 With the hymn of the worshippers rose on the air ; 
 And, drawn by the links of its sweetness along, 
 
 I stood unobserved in the midst of the throng. 
 
 For a while my young spirit stiU wandered about 
 
 With the birds and the winds that were singing without ; 
 
 But birds, waves and zephyrs were quickly forgot 
 
 In one angel-like being that brightened the spot. 
 
 5. In stature majestic, apart from the throng. 
 
 He stood in his beauty, — ^the theme of my- song. 
 
 His cheek pale with fervor, — the blue orbs above 
 
 Lit up with the splendors of youth and of love, — 
 
 Yet the heart-glowing rapture that beamed from those eyes 
 
 Seemed saddened by sorrow and chastened by sighs. 
 
 As if the young heart in its bloom had grown cold. 
 
 With its loves unrequited, its sorrows untold. 
 
 6. Such language as his I may never recall ; 
 
 But his theme was salvation, — salvation to all ; — 
 
 And the souls of a thousand in ecstasy hung 
 
 On the manna-like sweetness that dropped from his tongue. 
 
 Not alone on the ear his wild eloquence stole ; 
 
 Enforced by each gesture, it sunk to the soul, 
 
 TUl it seemed that an Angel had brightened the sod. 
 
 And brought to each bosom a message from God. 
 
 37.— LOVE OF FAME.— Washington iRvmo. 
 1. Among the variety of principles by which mankind are actuated, 
 there is one which I scarcely know whether to consider as springing 
 from grandeur and nobility of mind, or from a refined species of van- 
 ity and egotism. It is that singular, though almost universal, de- 
 sire of living in the memory of posterity, — of occupying a share of 
 the world's attention,— long after we have ceased to be susceptible 
 either to its praise or censure. 
 
APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 307 
 
 2. Most of the passions of the mind are bounded by the grave. 
 Sometimes, indeed, an anxious hope or trembling fear will venture 
 beyond the clouds and darkness that rest upon our mortal horizon, 
 and expatiate in boundless futurity ; but it is only this active lovQ 
 of fame which steadily contemplates its fruition in the applause or 
 gratitude of future ages. 
 
 3. Indignant at the narrow limits which circumscribe existence, 
 ambition is foreVer struggling to soar beyond them, — to triumph 
 over space and time, and to bear a name, at least, above the inevit- 
 able oblivion in which everything else that concerns us must be in- 
 volved. It is ambition which prompts the patriot to his most heroic 
 achievements, — ^which inspires the sublimest strains of the poet, 
 and breathes ethereal fire into the productions of the painter and 
 the sculptor. 
 
 4. For this the monarch rears the lofty column, — ^the laureled 
 conqueror claims the triumphal arch, — while the obscure individual 
 who moved in a humble sphere asks but a plain and simple stone 
 to mark his grave and bear to the next generation this important 
 truth — that he was born, died, and was buried. 
 
 5. It was this passion, too, which erected the vast Numidian pUes 
 whose ruins we have so often regarded with wonder, as the shades 
 of evening, fit emblems of oblivion, gradually stole over and envel- 
 oped them in darkness. It was this which gave being to those sub- 
 lime monuments of Saracen magnificence which nod in moldering 
 desolation as the blast sweeps over the deserted plains. — How futile 
 are all our efforts to evade the obliterating hand of time ! 
 
 38.— THE APPIAN WAY.— T. Buchakan Bead. 
 
 1. Here slumbers Rome among her broken tombs, 
 With few inscriptions save the constant blooma 
 By kindly nature on their altars cast, — 
 
 A funeral highway stretching down the past. 
 
 2. The dust of glory aU around me lies, — 
 
 The ashes of dead empires, and their kings ; — 
 I hear no voice save what from out the skies 
 The lark shakes down from his invisible wings. 
 
 3. Where slept a Csesar, now the owlet hides, 
 A silent spirit till the day has fled ; 
 
 Here gleams the lizard ; there the viper glides ; — 
 The steadfast guests of the patrician dead. 
 
 4. A funeral aspect fills the whole campaign ; 
 
 Their tomb-like flocks the distant mounds disclose ; 
 Like scattered blocks of granite on the plain. 
 The dove-hued oxen Virgil sang repose. 
 
308 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. All Rome to-day sits on the buried past ; 
 
 Her later walls with sculptured blocks are flecked ; 
 The spoilers toiled for ages fierce and fast. 
 Then left the rest to ruin and neglect. 
 
 6. And still beneath their tread what wonders lie 1 
 Brave statues of the god-like and their gods, 
 And columns that might corridor the sky ; • 
 Yet scarce a spade upturns the shallow clods I 
 
 39.— ANCIENT ARABIA — J. D. Baldwin. 
 
 1. I can imagine nothing that would shed so great a light on the 
 pre-hjstoric ages as an accurate history of Arabia from the beginning 
 of its civilization. Histories of that country were undoubtedly writ- 
 ten before and after the time when Menes united Upper and Lower 
 Egypt under one government ; for in that old time, so far away from 
 us in the deepest antiquity, Arabia was the foremost country in the 
 world. 
 
 3. The people that originated the art of writing did not fail to have 
 writers of their own annals. Nevertheless, their ancient history can- 
 not now be produced ; for not only their own literature perished, but 
 also that of the nest succeeding nations ; and for more than twenty- 
 five hundred years no other country with which our civilization is 
 connected has been so completely withdrawn from the observation of 
 what we call history. It has been a mystery, — an unreal country ;-^ 
 and failure to see its historic importance has left many important 
 problems of Ancient History without proper solution. 
 
 3. And yet a weird influence of its great past is felt wneuever in- 
 quiry turns to its ancient history ; and now and then a writer won- 
 ders that "a nation whose history ascends without interruption to 
 so remote an origin, and whose name has been so celebrated, should 
 have its political infancy shrouded in so thick a mist of doubt and 
 oblivion." Even from this writer its grandest ages are hidden under 
 that phrase " its political infancy." 
 
 4. These ages are shrouded in doubt and oblivion partly because 
 they are so remote. We consider Egypt and Chaldea very old ; but 
 Ihe culture and political organization of the Arabian Cushites were 
 much older. They belong to what both Egyptians and Chaldeans 
 regarded as antiquity. 
 
 5. Time, that wastes all things human, and buries nations out of 
 sight, has not spared the primeval history of this oldest of civilized 
 peoples. Add to this that the distance from us in time of the 
 beginnings of the Cushite civilization is so vast as to frighten the 
 current chronologies into absolute lunacy; and we shall cease to 
 
APP SH^DIX.— SELECTIONS. SOS 
 
 ■wonder that the early history of Arabia has been so buried in obliv- 
 ion, and so discredited by the chrouologists that it has failed to com- 
 maad much attention or even to be thought of as a reality. 
 
 40.— THE RAIN".— D. P. MacCabthy. 
 
 1. The Bajn, the Bain, the beautiful Rain, — 
 Welcome, welcome it cometh again ; 
 
 It cometh with green to gladden the plain 
 And to waken the sweets in the winding lane. 
 
 2. The Rain, the Rsdn, the beautiful Rain, — 
 It fills the flowers to their tiniest vein 
 
 Till they rise from the sod whereon they had lain— 
 Ah me ! ah me ! like an army slain. 
 
 8. The Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, — 
 Each drop is a link of a diamond chain 
 That unites the earth, with its sin and its stain. 
 To the radiant realm where God doth reign. 
 
 4. The Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, 
 Each drop is a tear, not shed in vain. 
 Which the angels weep for the golden grain 
 All trodden to death on the gory plain ; 
 
 5. For the Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, 
 Will waken the golden seeds again ; 
 
 But ah ! what power will revive the slain 
 Stark lying in death over fair Lorraine ? 
 
 6. 'Twere better far, beautiful Rain, 
 
 That you swelled the torrent and flooded the main. 
 And that Winter, with all his spectral train, 
 Alone lay camped on the icy plain ; 
 
 7. For then, Rain, O beautiful Rain, 
 
 The snow-flag of peace were unfurled again ; 
 And a truce would be rung in each loud refrain 
 Of the blast replacing the bugle's strain. 
 
 8. Then welcome, welcome, beautiful Rain, 
 Thou bringest flowers to the parched up plain. 
 Oh ! for many a frenzied heart and brain 
 Bring peace and love to the world again. 
 
 41.— THE MAYFLOWER.— Edwabd Everett. 
 
 1. Methinks I see it now, that one solitary adventurous Vessel, 
 the Mayflower of a forlorn hope, freighted with the prospects of 
 
310 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 
 
 a future State, and bound across the unknown sea. I behold it pur- 
 suing, with a thousand misgivings, the uncertain, the tedious voy- 
 age. Suns rise and set ; and weeks and months pass ; and winter 
 surprises them on the deep, but brings them not the sight of the 
 wished-f or shore. I see them now scantily supplied with provisions, 
 crowded almost to suffocation in their ill-stored prison, delayed by 
 calms, pursuing a circuitous route, and now driven in fury before 
 the raging tempest on the high and giddy waves. 
 
 3. The awful voice of the storm howls through the rigging ; the 
 laboring masts seem straining from their base ; the dismal sound of 
 the pumps is heard ; the ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow 
 to billow ; the ocean breaks, and settles with ingulfing floods over 
 the floating deck, and beats with deadening weight against the stag- 
 gering vessel. I see them, escaped from these perils, pursuing their 
 all but desperate undertaking, and landed at last, after a five months' 
 passage, on the ice-clad rocks of Plymouth, — weak and weary from 
 the voyage, poorly armed, scantily provisioned, depending on the 
 charity of their ship-master for a draught of beer on board, drinking 
 nothing but water on shore, without shelter without means, sur- 
 rounded by hostile tribes ! 
 
 3. Shut now the volume of history ; and tell me, on any principle 
 of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of ad- 
 venturers? Tell me, man of military science, in how many, months 
 were they all swept off by the thirty savage tribes enumerated 
 within the early limits of New England ? Tell me, politician, how 
 long did this shadow of a colony, on which your conventions and 
 treaties had not smiled, languish on the distant coast ? 
 
 4. Student of history, compare for me the baffled projects, the 
 deserted settlements, . the abandoned adventurers, of other times ;' 
 and find the parallel of this. Was it the winter's storm beating upon 
 the houseless heads of women and children ; was it hard labor and 
 spare meals ; was it disease ; was it the tomahawk ; was it the deep 
 malady of a blighted hope, a ruined enterprise, and a broken heart 
 aching, in its last moments, at the recollection of the loved and' left 
 beyond the sea ; was it some or all of these united that hurried this 
 forsaken company to their melancholy fate ? 
 
 5. And is it possible that neither of these causes, — that not all 
 combined were able to blast this bud of hope? Is it possible that 
 from a beginning so feeble, so frail, so worthy not so much of ad- 
 miration as of pity, there has gone forth u progress so steady, a 
 growth so wonderful, a reality so important, a promise yet to be ful- 
 filled so glorious? 
 
APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 311 
 
 43.— SHORT WOEDS.— J. Addison Albxandbb. 
 Think not that strength lies in the big round ■word, 
 / Or that the brief and plain must needs be weak. 
 To whom can this be true who once has heard 
 The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak 
 5. When want or woe or fear is in the throat, 
 So each word gasped out is like a shriek 
 Pressed from the sore heart, or a strange wild note 
 Sung by some fay or fiend ? There is a strength 
 Which dies if stretched too far or spun too fine, 
 
 10. Which has more height than breadth, more depth than length. 
 Let but this force of thought and speech be mine. 
 And he that will may take the sleek fat phrase 
 Which glows and burns not, though it gleam and shine, — 
 Light, but not heat, — a flash without a blaze. 
 
 15. Nor is it mere strength that the short word boasts. 
 It serves of more than fight or storm to tell, — 
 The roar of waves that clash on rock-bound coasts, — 
 The crash of tail trees when the wild winds swell, — 
 The roar of guns, — the groans of men that die 
 
 20. On blood-stained fields. It has a voice as well 
 For them that far ofE on their sick beds lie, — 
 For them that weep, — ^for them that mourn the dead, — 
 For them that laugh and dance and clap the hand, — 
 For joy's quick step as well as grief's low tread. 
 
 25. The sweet plain words we learnt at first keep time. 
 And, though the theme be sad or gay or grand. 
 With each, with all, these may be made to chime 
 In thought or speech or song or prose or rhyme. 
 
 43.— NEUTKALITY.— Chas. Fkancis Adams. 
 
 1. This great victory is won ; and for the future no question wiU 
 ever be raised of the right of the United States to remain at peace, 
 no matter what parties may choose the fearful work of mutual de- 
 struction. May I not venture to use the words of an old poet ? 
 
 " And now time's whiter series is begun. 
 Which in soft centuries shall smoothly run ; 
 Those clouds that overcast your morn shall fly 
 Dispelled to furthest corners of the sky ; 
 Our nation, with united interests blest. 
 Not now content to poise, shall sway the rest." 
 
 2. Tes, it shall "sway the rest"; but only by presenting an ex- 
 ample of adhering, in the day of its great power, to the same pure 
 and honorable policy which it proclaimed and defended when rela- 
 
312 A COMPLETE SOIENTIFIO OBAMMAE. 
 
 tively -weak. Tes, and still more by developing the system which 
 ■ has been inaugurated, as far as it may be carried, to secure peaqe to 
 combatants everywhere. The Convention of Paris in 1856 made 
 great steps toward it ; but it wanted one which Mr. Marcy went too 
 far in making a condition to our signing that instrument. 
 
 3. Thus our national testimony has failed to be recorded upon a 
 paper so honorable to the progress of the present age The time 
 had not arrived for that more magnificent advance in the career of 
 humanity ; but brilliant will be the fame of the statesman who may 
 have it to declare that through his agency so great a, step shajll have 
 been taken. 
 
 4. Nay, and still beyond that. His province it may be to make 
 yet other moral conquests, — to disclaim the right of neutrals to sup- 
 ply instruments of war to either belligerent, — to expand the privi- 
 leges of the sea so that no piratical cruiser shall be permitted to 
 stroll over the ocean in search of plunder from the unarmed and 
 defenseless on the plea that he is a privateer. 
 
 5. And even beyond that again, that no innocent unarmed private 
 voyager of any country, found on any ocean of the globe, shall take 
 harm to himself or his property merely from the fact that he belongs 
 to a belligerent nation. 
 
 6. These be thy victories, O. Peace, before which the roar of the 
 booming cannon, the yell of savage combat, the execrations of the 
 dying, the groans of the wounded, and the shriek of the widow and 
 the orphan, all melting into harmony, into blessings, shall be made 
 to ascend as sweet incense to the skies. 
 
 44.— BOUCHEB.— T. Nield. 
 
 1. Into the park, on a festive day, 
 Vienna turned out its people gay ; 
 Like bees at swarming time were they. 
 
 2. And hungry and friendless ones were there 
 Whose very looks were a silent prayer. 
 Amid the pleasures, for Lazarus's share. 
 
 3. Among the rest, on that festive day. 
 Was a war-scarred soldier, old and gray ; 
 And he was sad as the crowd was gay. 
 
 4. On a violin,, 'neath an old tree's shade. 
 The battle tunes of his youth he played ; 
 And a kind of food for his heart they made ; 
 
 . 5. But they had no charm for the tide of men. 
 Still fresh to him, they were stale to them 
 As he played them o'er and o'er again. 
 
APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 813 
 
 6. Though he had once been brave and bold, 
 And gave of his blood while some gave gold, 
 They recked not now that he was poor and old. 
 
 7. As the sun was sinking in the west, 
 
 So the hopes were sinking in his breast. 
 As his weary arms he dropped to rest. 
 
 8. A strangei; who, in the crowd so gay. 
 Had listened a while that festive day 
 Now asked the reason he ceased to play; 
 
 9. " For my country I gave one leg, you see ; 
 And I hold my bow with fingers three ; 
 So I'm tired and hungry too," quoth he. 
 
 10. Said the stranger " Take this gold as pay 
 For the loan of your instrument, 1 pray. 
 Now watch the hat ; and I will play." 
 
 11. So saying, the instrument up he threw. 
 And o'er its arch the slim bow drew. 
 When out the tremulous music flew. 
 
 13. At last was a necromancer found ' 
 
 Who a spirit called up at every sound. 
 That charmed the spirits of all around. 
 
 13. And, whUe tickling still the nervous strings, 
 The music fluttered with restless wings. 
 And made them think of unearthly things. 
 
 14. And the veteran, through that wondrous hour. 
 Was spell-bound by the magic power. 
 While money rained like a thunder shower; 
 
 15. " Now empty your hat," the people cried ; 
 And money still rained from every side. . 
 Oh ! that was a freshet in fortune's tide. 
 
 16. When the finale trembled from the bow — 
 " God bless the emperor Francis," — oh ! 
 Men's hats flew thick as winter's snow. 
 
 17. " Who is the stranger?" asked the crowd, — 
 " Who ? " and their voices grew more loud 
 As he dropped the instrument and bowed. 
 
 18. Patricians mingled with plebeians there ; 
 And the voice of one rang through the air, 
 
 " The player you've hesird is the great Boucher." 
 
314 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 GRAMMAR. 
 
 19. Three cheers for Boucher gave the crowd, 
 That burst so suddenly and so loud 
 
 It thundered from a living tloud. 
 
 20. Happy was one with his store of gold ; 
 But happier he, if the truth were told. 
 For whom those lusty cheers outrollbd. 
 
 21. The pleasure such actions yield iS pttrei ; 
 And all should know, for iiaught is truer, 
 That they are rich who help the poor. 
 
 45.— HIGHER ANTICIPATIONS.— Wendell Phillips. 
 
 1. I confess the pictures of the mere industrial value of the Union 
 make me profoundly sad. 1 look as, beneath the skillful pencil, 
 trait after trait leads to globing life, and ask at last " Is this all? 
 Where are the nobler elements of national purpose and life? Is 
 this the whole fruit of ages of toil, sacrifice, and thought, — those 
 cunning fingers, — the overflortfing lap, — labor vocal on every hill- 
 side, and commerce whitening every sea? All the dower of one 
 haughty overbearing race, the zeal of the Puritan, the faith of the 
 Quaker, a century of colonial health, and then this large civilization, 
 — does it result only in a workshop, — fops melted in baths and per- 
 fumed, and men grimed with toil ? — Raze out, thon, the ea^le from 
 our banner ; and paint instead Niagara used as a cotton-mill ! 
 
 2. Oh no ! Not such the picture iny glad heart sees when t look 
 forward. Once plant deep in the national heart the love of right ; — 
 let there grow out of it the firm purpose of duty ; and then from the 
 higher plane of manhood we can put aside, on the right hand and 
 on the left, these narrow, childish, and mercenary considerations. 
 
 " Leave to the soft Gahipdilian 
 His baths and his perfumes ; 
 Leave to the sordid race of Tyre 
 Their dyeing vats and looms ; 
 Leave to the sons of Carthage 
 
 The rudder and the oar ; 
 Leave to the Greek his marble nymph 
 And scrolls of wordy lore ; " — 
 but for us, the children of a purer civilization, the pioneers of a 
 Christian future,— it is for us to found a Capitol whose corner-stone 
 is Justice, and whose top-stone is Liberty ;— within the sacred pre- 
 cinct of whose Holy of Itolies dwelleth One who is no respecter of 
 persons, but hath made of One blood all nations of the earth to serve 
 him. 
 
 3. Crowding to the Shelter of its stately arches, t see bid ahd young 
 
APPENDIX.^SELECflOm. 315 
 
 learned and ignorant, rich and poor, native and foreign, Pagan, Chris- 
 tian, and Jew, — black and white, in one glad, harmonious, triumph- 
 ant procession I 
 
 " Blest and thrice blest the Roman 
 
 Who sees Rome's brightest day ; — 
 Who sees that lohg Victorious poliip 
 
 Wind ddwn the sacted tfay. 
 And through the bellotfrlttg foruttt. 
 And round the stipplifttit's Grove, 
 Up to the everlasting gates 
 Of Capitolian Jove ! " 
 
 4e.— FARMERS.— H. W, Pakebr. 
 
 1. The AUietietin Partner, son of the Sun, 
 Bronzed with a glow from its glory won. 
 As free as the air it is heaven to inhale. 
 And strong as the steeds of the prairie gale. 
 Lord of his castle and broad domain,-^ 
 The herd his vassals, the flock his train, 
 And rich in the coin his granaries hoard. 
 He sits at the»head of his bountiful board, 
 And laughs at the crowded world afar 
 Buzzing with ceaseless commercial war. 
 
 2. Behold hini at mom ! — His polished plow 
 Traces dark lines With his silver pfow, 
 Writing the verse in alluvial mold 
 
 The summer shall print in letters of gold. 
 And set to the trill of the oriole's tune. 
 Behold Tiinri at rest in the languid noon, 
 Stretched on the grass and cooled by the breeze. 
 His kingly pavilion the glistening trees ! 
 Behold him at eve !— Tlie evening Ms own. 
 Home joys are Ms that to few are known. 
 The russet is brought from his last year's store ; 
 His fruity -faced children play on the floor ; 
 And his wife, her cheek like orchard bloom. 
 Is the crown, the queen of the cheerful room. 
 
 3. That mine of riches,^^hat farmer's vf'ife ! 
 How busy and happy and proud her life ! 
 From her pans she " pans out " her rolls of gdM ; 
 And her eggs are all " nest-eggs " of wealth untold ; 
 B tries not her patience to try out her lard ; 
 
 And her lot, liie her bread, iS nfever hard ; 
 
316 ■ A COMPLETE 8GIENTZEI0 GRAMMAR. 
 
 She knits lier stockings, but never lifer brows ; — 
 Gives the fowls a dressing, but not her spouse. 
 Oh 1 busy and happy and proud the life 
 The farmer lives, and the farmer's wife. 
 
 4. Is the picture too fair, too rosy its glow ? 
 Tell us thou husbandman, John or Joe ! 
 What are thy musings the livelong day. 
 Or home returned in the twilight gray 1 
 What honest pride, what bliss of health, — 
 Of peace, content, what conscious wealth ? 
 What converse with Nature ? What hidden lore. 
 Wiser than books, is it thine to explore ? 
 
 What science untaught, in schools unheard, 
 Of soU and plant, or of beast and bird ? 
 
 5. John — who is one of the rarer kind, 
 Sunny in heart and searching of mind, 
 Replies in few words : " Ah 1 well do I know 
 Life's flowers and briers commingling grow ; 
 And man may pluck, if he so desires. 
 
 The flowers alone, or only the briefs. 
 One thorn there is — I feel it in truth, — 
 The lack of a studious habit in youth." 
 Thus worthy John. Is he right ; — is it so? 
 Come give us thy mind, thou frequent Joe. 
 
 6. '" Wall now I guess," Joe answering says, 
 " A ruther hard time on't the farmers hez ; 
 There's nuthin to think on but work and eat ; 
 And arter his chores a man is dead beat ; 
 
 An' there's oilers bad luck a feller frets, — 
 High price an' low price, notes an' debts. 
 An' breachy critters an' losin' a hoss. 
 An' somehow the gain's no more'n the loss. 
 I wuz down with the rheumatiz May an' June ; 
 An' the seed wa'n't sown the right o' the moon. 
 The sheep's got foot-rot ; an' market is down ; 
 An' Wheat I kept, hopin' prices come 'roun' ; 
 An' wife she is kind o' droopiu' jest now. 
 An' the children took sick, I can't tell how ; 
 I'm sartin we giv 'em plenty o' piUs ; 
 But a bilious fever brings doctor's bills. 
 Wall, honest folks— they must oilers work ; 
 It's only your village sharpers can shirk." 
 
APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 317 
 
 7. Thus Joe discourses. Alas ! How the real 
 Kicks over the pail of the creamy ideal ! 
 
 If Joe were honest, there still would he 
 Some milk remaining for poetry's tea ; 
 But he keeps, 'tis said, the strippings apart. 
 When he vends his milk hy the pint or quart ; 
 There's a tallow faced hue in his butter and lard ; 
 And his four-foot wood is cut — by the yard ! 
 
 8. Is it then but a dream, — this son of the soil. 
 Noble and wise in his primitive toil ? 
 
 Nay, hither shall come and hence shall go 
 Youth who their earnest work shall know, — 
 Tho.artizau's son and the farmer's boy, — 
 Whose fathers calling is honor and joy. 
 In mind and muscle strong and skilled. 
 By them our ideal shall gradually be filled ; 
 The woodman's name be a name of pride. 
 By knowledge and character glorified. 
 
 47.— SHALLOW CULTURE.— H. A. Thompson. 
 
 1. One of the peculiarities of the American people, especially the 
 American youth, is the ambition to do things quickly, — not well. 
 Our driving must be that of Jehu, the son of Nimshi ; it must be 
 done furiously. We are not willing to sow the seed, and wait pa- 
 tiently, in faith, for the summer's sun and genial rains to mature the 
 expected crop. 
 
 3. This desire for haste, — ^this furious driving, — ^has seriously in- 
 terfered with our educational processes. If it were possible, by any 
 forcing process, any legerdemain, to grow the form of an oak in a 
 single night, it would not be an oak. There must be a slow solid 
 growth, — ^the proper unfolding of its nature. The storms of years 
 'must beat upon it ; and its fiber must become hard and strong ; other- 
 wise it will not be the oak. 
 
 3. That there was no royal road to learning was discovered by the 
 ancients ; but some of us have yet to learn that there is no short cut 
 to all those graces and traits and powers which characterize the schol- 
 ar. — That there are minds which develop more rapidly than others is 
 true ; but these, as all others, must be developed in accordance with 
 their own individual natures. 
 
 4. I am sorry to know that there are institutions of learning pan- 
 dering to this diseased public sentiment. Instead of being educators 
 of the public mind, helping to form a healthy public sentiment, they 
 pander to its weakness. Some of our Commercial Colleges make 
 Book-keepers in three months, and the best of Bankers in six, — not 
 
318 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QMAMMAR. 
 
 knowing, or not earing to know, that the aoienee of banking is a 
 study for a life-time. 
 
 5. Some of these institutjons, despising the slower and surer pro- 
 cesses of College training, will turn out aeeomplished teachers in six 
 weeks, and make Homers and Ciceros in a few months I " Why, 
 then," say they, in vigorous appeals to unthinking young men and 
 ignorant parents, " send your brothers and sisters and sons and 
 daughters to College, to squander six years of this life in pursuit of 
 a College course, when we can give you the same instruction and the 
 same culture, and send you out with the same tastes And the same 
 ability in a few short months ?" 
 
 6. And, strange to say, many of these parents, sod $is many of 
 these young people, are deceived by such shallow prgtense ; and time 
 and money are squandered in the pursuit of that w) lict satisfieth not. 
 The thing promised is sijnply an impossibility Ufttjl the laws of the 
 human mind are entirely changed. If a young man seeks scholar- 
 ship, he wants the best training he can get. If he means to make a 
 aJiam of himself and of his life, — pretending to be vhftt he is not, 
 and to have what he does not possess, it matters little how short his 
 course or how fuiiojisly he drives, 
 
 7. A gentleman once visited one of these sliort-cjjt a^d time-saving 
 institutions where students received the highest classical cjj.lt»n9 in 
 » few months ; and, on searching for the Professor of Greds, is whcwi 
 resided th« wonderful skill to do these great things which all Colleges 
 had failed to do, he found a young gentleman whfl spent his unoccii- 
 pied hours in preparing himself to enter i^e freaJiman elase at Yale 
 CoUegel 
 
 48.— SCIENCE,— G. T. Day, 1875. 
 
 Scienioe is not something to be sneered at or to be dreiuled. Its 
 work is vast, varied, wonderful, beneficent. It is weighing tUe plfui- 
 ets, analyzing the sun, making each dumb and stony-lipped mountaJa 
 eloquent and impressive ; it is filling the water^dfop with teeming 
 life, and showing us the germ of a world in an atom ; it is resolFiog 
 our coal-fields into suubewis, and showing the oneness of Ijejit and 
 motion ; it is giving the winds a captain, and making the ligjitniag 
 man's docile servant ; it is bridging the ages with solid facts, and 
 bringing what seemed the most wayward and wandering phenomena 
 within the embrace of law ; it is illustrating the majesty of man, 
 and interpreting the infinity of God. It is not for Christian men to 
 denounce it as the soul's greatest peril. Bather it should be heard 
 with candor by the church, and welcomed as lan ally by the pulpit. 
 If it fairly disproves a cherished opinion, let the opinion go. What 
 do any of us want of a falsehood, but to hasten with it to burial ? If 
 it shows that truth jically requires us to wfldifyour creed, -r-np mattej- 
 
APPENBIX.— NOTES. 319 
 
 whether that creed was built up by our own hands, or inherited from 
 the earlier centuries, — we may well thank it for having taug^ht us.. 
 It may reach and open sepulchers where greai truths lie buried, — 
 roll away the stone, and set them free to walk the earth aa ministers 
 of light and givers of blessing. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.-NOTES. 
 
 NOTE 1.— INTEQPPCTION, p. XV. 
 
 Phonetics. — The original and fundamental idea of Alphabetical 
 Writing is to use one letter, and no more, to represent each elemen- 
 tary sound of the language. Hence an Alphabet should have just 
 as many letters as the language to be represented by it has sounds. 
 The Ancient languages were written on this plan ; and some Modern 
 ones are so written. But in English, the fundamental idea is com- 
 pletely lost ; and the spelling is entirely arbitrary. 
 
 The result is that the mere spelling ot words becomes a distinct 
 branch of study, to which is devoted, on an average, not less than 
 one-quaxter of the time spent by children in school ; and after all, 
 it is not mastered by one in fifty of thejn. The cost of learning to 
 spell, even very poorly, is, in the United States, not less then a hun- 
 dred millions of dollars a year ; and every person who gets a thor- 
 ough education spends from tliree to five years of time and labor on 
 this one thing. That is to say the burden pf our orthography is 
 greater than the burden of our National Debt ! 
 
 Thig monstrous tax upon the people is entirely useless and unneces- 
 sary, and might easily be avoided by the simple nieans of adopting a 
 complete Alphabet and returning to the original common-sense prin- 
 ciple of writing words as they are pronounced. 
 
 Spelling, in that case, would no longer be a distinct branch of 
 study ; all the time and labor and expense of it would be saved ; the 
 labor of learning to read would be reduced by three-fourths ; and 
 progress in other studies would be greatly facilitated. Hence mil- 
 lions of the lower classes would be enabled to become at least par- 
 tially educated, instead of lemjaining in utter ignorance, as at pres- 
 ent ; and the higher classes would become much more thoroughly 
 educated. 
 
 The late war checked for a time a movement which had made 
 considerable progress towards the reformation of English Orthogra- 
 phy ; but the reformation must eventually be accomplished. 
 
 Several objections are often urged against the proposed change-; — 
 and sometimes by those who ought to know better. 
 
 1. Jt is said that if words are spelled as they are pronounced, we 
 
320 A COMPLETE 8C1ENTIFI0&BAMMAR. 
 
 shAM be unable to distinguish words of the same sound but different 
 meanings, as "rain", "rein", "reign", &c. 
 
 The loss, however, if there should be any in this respect, would 
 be more than made up in that class of words now spelled alUce but 
 pronounced difEerently as "bow" and "bow"; "mow" and 
 "mow"; "gUl" and "gill", &c. ; for each pair of w(»ds of this 
 class, — ^more numerous than the other, — would then' be spelled dif- 
 ferently ; and both the different pronunciation and different meaning 
 would be indicated. Again, if the words in question were to be 
 spelled alike, we should have no more trouble in distinguishing 
 them in reading than we now have when we hear them spoken ; but 
 we never require the speaker to spell these words, that we may 
 know whether he means "rain," "rein," or "reign," &c. More- 
 over, we should have much less reason to apprehend difficulty from 
 this class of words than from others that we never thought of fear- 
 ing ; for not more than /oMr different meanings are in any case dis- 
 tinguished by different spellings ; but a single word, without differ- 
 ence of spelling, frequently has from twenty to fifty different mean- 
 ings, — all of which are readily distinguished, both in writing and 
 speaking, — as "good", "break"', "take", "stand", &c., &c. 
 
 3. It is said that the proposed changes will destroy the analogies 
 of words so that their relationship to each other cannot be perceived, 
 and that an important means of ascertaining the meaning of words 
 will thus be lost. 
 
 This objection is quite as futile as the other, as may easily bo 
 shown. If, to the classical scholar, the advantages of analogies 
 were twice as great as they were ever thought to be, and if the re- 
 form would destroy them all, yet the reform ought not to be de- 
 layed a moment on that account ; for the^e advantages are only 
 available to the better educated, while the toiling millions who can 
 derive no benefit from such "analogies" are most cruelly taxed for 
 them. 
 
 Classical scholars-hardly constitute a thousandth part of those who 
 iave to learn the English language in some way, and it is certainly 
 a shame that nine hundred and ninety nine persons should be so 
 enormously taxed in order that one, who is more highly educated, 
 may enjoy the luxury of " analogies." 
 
 The case, however, is really very different from what is supposed ; 
 and the required changes, instead of being detrimental to the classi- 
 cal scholar, would be very greatly to his advantage. Analogieu 
 would not be destroyed nor obscured, except in a few cases ; bat 
 thousands of analogies, now hidden under our false 'orthography, 
 would reappear and become available. :' 
 
 If "laugh" should be spelled " laf ", then " laughter " would be 
 
APPENDIX.— NOTES. 321 
 
 , spelled "lafter" ; and the analogy is quite as clear between "laf " 
 and "lafter", as beween "laugh" and "laughter". If " phUoso- 
 -phy" should be speUed "filosofi", although it would be made to 
 differ from the Latin and French forms, yet it would be made to 
 agree with its original Greek form, in which there is no "ph", and 
 also with the Italian and Spanish forms. So also with all that class 
 of words in which " ph " occurs. They would also be made to con- 
 form to the "analogy" of the words "offer", "differ", "false", 
 "fame", " fallacious "," face ", "ferocious" &c., &c., which are also 
 from the Greek, but are spelled with " t" instead of " ph". This 
 single change, then, of " ph" into "f " would bring to light hun- 
 dreds, if not thousands, of " Analogies" which are now obscured, 
 and would, therefore, confer a great benefit upon the student of 
 Language. 
 
 Again, if all those words in which " th" occurs were to be spelled 
 with a single letter instead of the "th", then thousands more of 
 obscured Analogies would become clearly manifest ; for almost every 
 one of these words is derived either from the Greek or from the 
 Anglo-Saxon ; and in neither of those languages is there any such 
 awkward combination as " th " • but the sound which we indicate 
 by " th " is, in each, invariably represented by a single letter. 
 
 If "could" should be written without an "1" its relation to its 
 primitive would not be obscured, but made manifest ; for the original 
 word had no " 1 ". It has been foisted into the word through some- 
 one's blunder. Such also is the case with the "b" in the word 
 "numb", the "1" in "stalk", the "b" in " dumb", the "t" before 
 "■ch" in "witch", and "stitch", and "thatch", and "hatch", &c., 
 &c., and the "k" in "wreck" and "rack", &c. If the "k" were 
 to be omitted from "knee " and ' knuckle ", their relation to "neck" 
 and "nod", which have the same origin, would be made more ap- 
 parent. The proposed reform would also make evident the relation- 
 ship of "sprite" and "sprightly", "inveigh" and "convey", 
 "noun" and " renown "," deceit " and "receipt", "spacious" and 
 " expatiate ", " fancy " and " phantom ", &c. , &c. 
 
 These are a. few of the examples which might be cited in this con- 
 nection ; — ^but it may be well to notice more specifically the changes 
 which are required. 
 
 In the first place, there are three or four thousand words in the 
 language which would not be changed at all in making the proposed 
 reformation. 
 
 Secondly, there are about twenty thousand words in each of which 
 it would only be required to change the /arm of a letter. Evidently 
 this cannot destroy " analogies ". 
 
 Thirdly, there are nearly thirty thousand words in which the only 
 
322 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC ^BAMMAB. 
 
 additionftl cliauge required would be the substitu'tion, in each, of a 
 single letter for a digraph or trigraph (i. e., for a, group of two or 
 three letters representing a single sound). Any one having the 
 slightest knowledge of Etywoilogy must see that this cannot destroy 
 "Analogies". 
 
 Fourthly, there are eight or nine thousand words in which the 
 only change requisite in addition to those already mentioned would 
 be the omission, in each, of a final '■' e ". Now, since the final " e" 
 is, in most caseSj a mere orthographical expedient to indicate the 
 sound of a pneceding vowel, and since it has already been rejected, 
 without any inconvenience, from the majority of the words in which 
 it was formerly used, it is eertaiuLy reasonable to suppose that its 
 entire disuse can neither ideatroy nor obscure any ' ' Analogies ". 
 
 In the fifth place, there are about two hundred words in which, 
 besides the foregpipg, it would be necessary to change the order of 
 the lettprs " wh ", so as to write " hwen " instead of " when-" &c. ; 
 but as these words were fortnerly written in this wa/y, the effect 
 would be not to obscure^ but to make evident their relations to their 
 primitives. 
 
 Sixthly, it would be necessary, in a very few words, to insert a 
 "w"ora"y"at the beginning; but this can have no importiuit 
 bearing upon " Analogies ' . 
 
 These Classes include the great body of words belonging to the 
 language ; but finally, in the Seventh place, there are some words 
 from which, besides the above mentioned changes, it would be neces- 
 ,sary to drop what are called " silent letters ", as " w " from " wrap ", 
 "h"from "ghost", "gh" from " thought", "k" from "knif^", 
 "g" from "gnat", "p" from "pneumatic", "n "from "column", 
 "ph" from " phthisic ", "ch " from "yacht", " 1" from "half", 
 " rh " from " myrrh ","t " from ' ' eclat ", " d " from " stadtholder-", 
 " m " from " mnemonic ", "o " from " indict ", " b " from '■ doubt ", 
 "s" from "isle", "e" from "w:orked", "ps" from ■" corps ", &c. 
 
 In some of these cases the silent letters are of some little service to 
 the Etymologist in tracing the origin and history of a word ; but to 
 the ordinary learner of the language, they are only a grievous imped- 
 iment ; and sometimes they are a stumbling-block to the advanced 
 student, as in the case of the "h"in " ghost ", which hinders one 
 from perceiving the relationship of the word to its parent "gast" 
 its grandparent "gest", and its cousins ' geest" and " geist ", &c. 
 Moreover, to drop these silent letters from the words in which they 
 occur would only be doing what has already been done with thou- 
 sands of words of the same kind without any perceptible disadvan- 
 tage, as in dropping the " ve " in " hast ", the " gh " in " not ", the 
 " 1 " in ":Sueh", the " f •' in "head ", the " h " in see ", the " w" in 
 
4.PPSNDIX.— NOTES. 323 
 
 " sister", the "h " in '' Iwf ''. in " load", ami in " rap ".—the " g " 
 in "loin", the "h" in "lean", the " s " in "hoter'.the "c" jn 
 "feat", the "g" in "like" and "paint", — the "h" in "lot", 
 "lank", "loud", "last", and " ready ",— the "l"in "bag", the 
 "h""in " lord ", " l?idy ", "nice", "nut", "raven ",, and '.'it", — 
 the "w"in "jlisp", "root", and " so ".—'the ,"1" in "which" 
 "each '' and " much ", — the " g " in "if", "he", and " written ", — 
 the "s"iu "dafEpdil", the "v"ftnd the "o"in "lark", &c., &c., 
 &c. In all thege cases there was no hetter reason for omitting the 
 letters which had become silent than there is now for omitting those 
 which have become silent in our present words ; and if these last 
 ought to be retained, then those which hav,e been rejected ought to 
 be restored; and we ought tp spell "morning", as formerly, 
 " morwenynge", &c., &c., &ic. 
 
 Finally, it seems to be a sufficient answer to those who predict 
 dire calamities as the result of rationalizing the orthography of the 
 language to point them to pther languages, as the Spanish, Italian, 
 &c., in which the thing has been substantially accomplished, and 
 with excellent results. 
 
 3. It is said that the proposed change would render all our libra- 
 ries and books of every descsijptiQn useless. This is not true. The 
 present generation certainly would not lose the ability to read our 
 present books ; and the coming generations, having been ia\ight 
 phonetically, would read them with very little trouble, — just as we 
 now read the old bookf in which the orthography differs f roin ours 
 as ours differs from the proposed new orthogrjiphy. In fact it has 
 been demonstrated by repeated experiments that a saving of more than 
 one half of the time and labor of teaching children to read our com- 
 mon books may be effected by teaching them the phonetic methpd 
 first, and then making the transition to the common orthography. 
 
 4. It is said that all the present type and printer's cases wpuld be 
 rendered useless by the proposed changes. Tliis is also not true. 
 The type is continually wearing out ; and in renewing, phonetic type 
 could be obtained as well as any pther, and with ho increased ex- 
 pense. Large and valuable fonts, not much worn, could be extended 
 by having the new letters cast to match them. The present cases 
 would answer fpr the new Alphabets by simply putting the Small 
 Capitals of each font into a small job case. 
 
 NOTE 2.— Phonetic Alebabbts. ( p. 33.) 
 
 The Phonetic Alphabets which have heretofore been proposed 
 have been very imperfect ; and that has been one reason why they 
 have not been more readily received. Near the beginning of this 
 volume, however, a very much improved Alphabet is given , which 
 
324 A COMPLBTH SOIENTIFIC CUtAMMAR. 
 
 is respectfully offered to the consideration of all friends of the Lan- 
 guage Bef orm. 
 
 It will be seen that this Alphabet is more complete than former 
 ones, — representing, as it does, forty-four elementary sounds (in- 
 cluding diphthongs),— that the script forms of the new letters are 
 easily produced with the pen, and do not extend below the line, or 
 differ much from forms already in use, — that the new typic 
 forms are modifications of the common letters, and obtained by sim- 
 ply omitting certain parts of them, — that the valuable letter " c " is 
 retained, and assigned, as in Italian, to the sound of " ch " in 
 " chain ", — that the nineteen Vowels all represent long sounds when 
 accented, and short ones when not accented, — that if it is desired to 
 distinguish long and short sounds otherwise than by the Accent, it 
 may he donp by using Roman letters for the long sounds, and Italic 
 letters for the short ones, — and that by this construction of the 
 Alphabet is avoided the glaring absurdity of mating together as long 
 and short two sounds which differ in quality more than in length, 
 and which are often reversed in Speech and in Poetry, — ^the so-called 
 long sound being used as sfiort, and the so called a7iort one as long in 
 the same foot. 
 
 A SPIiSIMEN OV FONtTIK PRINT. 
 Slim OV de prmsipal \dv<mtajez nv dis Ponotipik 41fabtt. 
 
 1 . It iz komplet enuf tu aford de mcn4 nv rtprezentir wid tolerabl ak- 
 urasi de aktyual pronunsiaiun nv de pepl, hwic iz nnt de kas wid tni nv 
 de uder ^Ifahets ytt nferd.Iti^ ekwivaltnt tuwun "v siksti-lre Itte/z. 
 
 2. It avddz de fatal mistak nv doz Alfabtts m hwic sundz diferir muc 
 m kwnliti sir trettd az if da we/ lop and knrt sondz nv de sam kwnhti. 
 
 3. It iz kwit Itjibl evn tu doz hu hav ntvee studid Ponttiks; and it 
 diferz so lit! in aperans frnm o/dmari tip az nnt tu be repidsiv. 
 
 4. It tmploz de Itterz a,e,i,o,^ u,tu rtprczfcnt d»/(sokdld)lnp sundz. 
 
 5. It kan be ezili preps rd wid a ptn-nif in tni printm nfis. • 
 
 6. It tntirli nbviats de grat ckspens ov prpsrir matnsez for nu tips m 
 aX de difcrbnt stilz and sizbz ov Ittrrz. 
 
 NOTE 3.— p. 4.— Initial " W " and " Y ". 
 The sounds of initial " w" and "y " resemble the sounds of "oo" 
 in "pool", and "e" in "me", respectively, so much that some 
 have thought them to be Vowel sounds, or Tonics. If one begiris 
 with the sound "oo", and utters after it the sound of "a" in 
 "make", — thus oo— a, — repeating several times, and gradually 
 bringing the sounds together, he will almost imperceptibly glide 
 into the word " way ". Hence the sound " oo " will seem to be the 
 same as the sound of " w ". In like manner, if one begins with the 
 sound of " e" in " me ", and utters after it the same ssound of " a " 
 
APPEMDIX.-NOTEa. 325 
 
 in " mEike '.', — ^thus e — a, bringing the sounds together in repeating, 
 he will glide into the word "yea ". Hence the sound " e " will seem 
 to he the same as that of "y". These conclusions, however, are 
 not correct, as may be seen by different experiments. 
 
 Beginning, as before, with the sound "oo", if one utters after it 
 the same sound "oo" again, — thus oo — oo, and brings the sounds 
 gradually together in repeating, he will find that there will either 
 be a gap between the sounds, or, if they come entirely together, they 
 
 will simply form one long " oo '' ; but if the sound of " w " is 
 
 uttered first, and the sound " oo " follows it, then, on bringing them 
 together, the resiilt is the word " woo ", which is not merely one long 
 
 " 00 ", nor is there a gap between the two parts. Hence the 
 
 sound of " w" is not the same as that of " 06 ". So also beginning 
 with " e ", and uttering after it the same " e " again, one gets " e " — 
 ,"e" — two sounds with a gap between them, — or else one long 
 
 " e " ; but beginning with the sound of " y ", and uttering after 
 
 it the sound of "e ", — when these sounds are brought together, the 
 
 result is the word " ye ", which is not merely a long ' ' e ", nor is 
 
 there a gap between the parts. Hence the sound of " y " is not the 
 same as that of ' ' e " 
 
 In forming the sound of "w", the lips are not protruded as in 
 forming the sound of " 00 ", but are kept back next the teeth, while 
 they are drawn up like a purse ; and the sound is made as short as 
 possible. 
 
 In forming the sound of " y ", the tongue is pressed up towards 
 the roof of the mouth much harder than in forming the sound of 
 " e", thus making the aperture through which the breath passes 
 much smaller ; and the sound is made as short as possible. 
 
 NOTE 4. — p. 66. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 
 
 No attempt is made in this work to separate the Verbs into the 
 Sub-Classes Transitive and Intransitive, because this divisipn seems 
 not to be either a natural or a necessary one. The word " transitive " 
 means " passing over ", or " going across " ; and a Transitive Verb 
 is usually defined as one expressing an action which passes over from 
 the Subject to the Object, and terminates on the Object. Very many 
 Verbs, however, are reckoned as transitive, which are not included by 
 this definition. In the sentence " He feels a pain ", it is a little diffi- 
 cult to perceive how the action expressed by the verb "feels" passes 
 over from the Subject "he" and terminates on the Object " pain ". 
 This definition is also happily illustrated by the following examples, 
 each of which contains a " Transitive " Verb and its Object. 
 
 He resembles his brother. He lacks an opportunity. He needs 
 encouragement. He neglects his business. He forgets his obliga- 
 
326 A COMPZEfS ^OIWTIFIO aRAMMAR. 
 
 tious. He hears ^ sound. He ojait? Lis lessons. He avoids the ob- 
 stacle. He shuns the danger. He misses the opportunity. He has 
 A book. He owns a farm. He owes me a dollar. He experiences 
 pleasure. He endures the trial. He foregoes the enjoyjjieat. He 
 disbelieves the story. He knows the man. The house occupies 
 much space. The field contains ten acres. The tree exceeds fifty 
 feet in height. He received a blow upon the head. He lost his life 
 by means pf the wound. The tree afEords a. shelter. The farm 
 yields an jp.coihe. Tj(ie jpouutain retains its position. The rock 
 maintains its sUence. Tlie scene disappoiuits my expectations. The 
 gui<le-board Indicates the way. This path will lead you to the cave. 
 Fossil remains demonstrate the fprmer existence of strange animals. 
 The hat fits hiip. This pi^ce malQhes the other. The earth covers 
 the rock. New times ,denia,nd new measures and new men. His 
 position exposes him to criticism. The air surrounds the earth. 
 The ^hell inclines the kernel. T^iese lines include a space. The 
 desert exhibits a ^tirange appearance. This fact concerns him alone. 
 That hill hi^es the village j£roi;^i our y^w. This considerataon obvi- 
 ates the difficulty. The letter " x " represents the imknpwn quantity. 
 The brilliancy of the Diamond enhances its va,lue. -The odd shape 
 of the article preyents the use ,of it. The yijelght of the implement 
 destroys its utility. T^s circuinsta,nce exonerates him from blame. 
 
 Other Definitions. 
 
 A Transitive Verb is sometimes said to be one which has, or may 
 have, an object after it.— If this is true, then all verbs are transitive ; 
 for every verb has, or may have, an object after it. 
 
 Sometimes a Transitive Verb is said to be one which requires the 
 addition of an object to complete its meaning. If this is true then 
 710 Verbs are transitive ; for no Yerb requires the addition of an ob- 
 ject to complete its meaning. 
 
 NOTE 5. — p. 66. — Definitions of the Verb. 
 The definitions of the Verb heretofore given are very unsatisfac- 
 tory, as all are aware who have studied them carefully. In defining 
 the other classes of words, the manner of their use has been taken as 
 their dLstinguishing attribute ; and an Adjective has been defined as 
 a word used to limit a Noun, &c. ; but in defining the Verb, it has 
 been attempted to base tlie definition not upon the use of the word, 
 but upon the signification of it. This plan can never lead to a good 
 definition of any class of words. It has been said that " A Verb is a 
 word signifying to be, to do, or to suffer.; but this is three definitions 
 instead of one, and makes three classes of words ; for it is not 
 meant that any one Verb signifies all these things, but that some 
 Verbs signify "to be", some others "to do", and others still "to 
 
APPENDIX.^M0TE8. ^11 
 
 siifEer ",— thus making tliree classes of words, and giving no reason 
 why they should all be called Verbs. Many other objections aJso lie 
 against this definition. Others have said that " A Verb is a word 
 which signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon." This avoids the 
 uncommon use of the word sufEer in the former definition ; but 
 otherwise it is no better. 
 
 Again it has been said that " A Verb is a word which expresses 
 action, being, or state ". — This, in addition to the objections to the 
 former definitions, is liable to this, that it includes a multitude of 
 words which are not Verbs ; for the words action, business, exertion, 
 and employment express ' ' action " ; life, being, and existence, ex- 
 press "being " ; and state, condition, quietude, &c. , express " state" ; 
 but none of them are Verbs. 
 
 Once more, it has been said that " A Verb is a word which ex- 
 presses an assertion or affirmation ". — It requires, however, at least 
 two words to express an assertion, — unless an exception should be 
 found in the word " yes ", which is not a Verb. 
 
 Again the following beautifully bfief ftud luminous definitiQn ;lias 
 been given : " The Verb is a primary jjart of speech, an4 of the most 
 importance The uses of the Vferb are to affirm, assert, or declare, — 
 to command, exhort, or invite, — -.to pray, request, entreat, — to in- 
 quire or question." 
 
 In the last two definitions it is attempted to ppLut out the -use of 
 the Verb ; but the attempts are unsuccessf\il. 
 
 Home Tooke, after quoting in dei;ision, abojit ;a 4ozen futile 
 attempts, utterly declines himself to undertake the definition of the 
 Verb ; and Gould Brown strongly intimates that a satisfactory defi- 
 nition is impossible. — It will be found, however, that the definition 
 given in this work, is complete and exact. It is baseid upon the only 
 charftcteristlo which is peculiar to all Verbs ; and hence it completely 
 distinguishes them from aU other words ; and it is sufficiently brief 
 to be convenient for use. 
 
 NOTE 6.— p- 66.— The Oopula. 
 
 It is sometimes said that "am "or " be " imeans " esiSrt ", apd h«poe 
 is a Verb ; but this is not so. The Predicate af j;er the Copula is 
 often omitted ; but i,t must be supplied in analyziiig. In answer to 
 the question "Is he ready?" it maybe replied "He is." In this 
 case, however, it is not- " existence " ibut " readiness " that is affirmed 
 of"he".. The Predicate " ready " is understood So also m the sen- 
 tence " He that cometh to God must believe that He u, and that He 
 is a rewarder, &c.", the Predicate " existing " is understood. In the 
 sentence " The house is still existing", evidently the " is" does not 
 mean "exists " ; for " The house exists still existing " is .merely a 
 
328 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OBAMMAB. 
 
 Bpecimen of tautology and nonsense. In tbe sentence '• The beauty 
 of the rose will soon be annihilated ", if ' be " means " exist '\ then 
 " The beauty of the rose will exist in a state of nan-existence " ! In 
 the sentence " A Fairy is an imaginary creature", if "is" means 
 " exists ", then "A Fairy exists an imaginary creature" ; but "an 
 ima^nary creature " is one which does not exist ! In the sentence 
 "That is a non -entity ", If " is " means " exists ", then the sentence 
 becomes " That exists an un-existing thing " ! In fact neither ' be ", 
 " am ", nor " is " ever means " exist " or " exists " 
 
 NOTE 7.— p. 60.— Gendek. 
 
 Since Adjectives have no Gender, in English, it is often thought 
 to be unnecessary to classify the Nouns as Masculine, Feminine, 
 Doubtful, and Neuter ; but since the Personal Pronoun has Gender, 
 it is as truly necessary to make this classification as if the Adjectives 
 were inflected as in Latin. 
 
 NOTE 8. — p. 81.— Bkethkbn, Dies, Pennies, Pease, &c. 
 
 The old Plural " brethren " denotes those of the same Church, So- 
 ciety, or Association; but "brothers" denotes those of the same 
 family. 
 
 "Dies'" means stamps used in coining, &c. ; but "dice" means 
 little cubical blocks used in gaming. 
 
 " Pennies " denotes separate pieces of coin ; but " pence" denotes 
 twelfth- parts of a Shilling, — indicating value only. 
 
 The form " pease " is not a plural form. 
 
 NOTE 9.— p. 81. — Plurai, of a Name and Title. 
 
 The title is simply a second name, modifying (i. e. in apposition 
 ■with) the first, and must agree with it in Number. 
 
 It is proper to say " The Harpers, those Publishers ", or " Those 
 Publishers, the Harpers " ; but it is not proper to say " The Ilarpers, 
 that Publisher ", or " That Publisher, the Harpers ", or " The Har- 
 per, those Publishers", or " Those.Publishers, the Harper". 
 
 If the Harpers were to be called Doctors, or Generals, or Misters, 
 or anything else, it would make no difference ; — the title must still 
 agree with the name. The use or disuse of the words " those ", 
 ' ' that ", and ' ' the " does not alter the case at all. 
 
 NOTE 10.— p. 85.— Possessive Case. 
 
 The Possessive Case formerly ended in "i.s" or "es" ; and the 
 Apostrophe, in Possessive forms, merely shows the omission of one 
 or both the letters which formed the Case-endingj 
 
 The habit which some have of omitting both of the terminal let-' 
 ters in the Singular's very objectionable. 
 
APPENDIX.— N0TB8. 329 
 
 NOTE 11.— p. 90.— The Form "Hem" 
 
 The forms She (A'eo), Her, and "Hem", were formerly used as 
 Plurals. When " She " and " Her " came to be used as Feminiaes 
 Singular, their places were supplied in the Plural by " They" and 
 "Their"; but "Hem" remained in its original use until it was 
 superseded by " Them," and then became obsolete. In the WicklifEe 
 version of the Bible "hem" is used for "him" in Genesis 30.: 36. 
 
 NOTE 13.— p. 98.— CoMPABisoN of Good and Bad. 
 It is remarkable that the Adjectives signifying " good " and " bad " 
 are irregular in many other, languages as well as in the English, — 
 particularly in the Greek, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian, 
 Dutch, Danish, Icelandic, Swedish, &c. 
 
 NOTE 18.— p. 98.— Forms of the 2nd Person. 
 It is a very pernicious error to assume, as some do, that the forma 
 of the Second Person Singular of Verbs and Pronouns are obsolete in 
 the la;nguage. They are appropriated, it is true, to, certain specific 
 uses in Poetry, and Religious Exercises, aside from their use in the 
 Bible ; but they are neither obsolete nor obsolescent, and probably 
 never will he while the language shall endure. It is certainly a bold 
 and most unwarranted proceeding to attempt to remove from Text 
 Books those forms which are especially appropriate to devotional lan- 
 guage, even if they were not also indispensable to the better kinds 
 of Poetry. Jteligion itself is not yet entirely obsolete! 
 
 t NOTE 14.— p. 113.— Inflections. 
 
 The Santal, one of the Languages of Hindoostan, has a regular set 
 of Dual Forms ; and some languages have more modes of inflection 
 than the Greek, and very many more Inflectioiial Forms. The 
 Fiji Language has four Numbers, Singular, Dual, Small Plural, and 
 Large Plural. 
 
 The Sanskrit has eight Cases, the Turkish twelve, the Basque 
 'twelve, and the Finnish and Laplandish each fourteen. 
 
 The Congoes and Caffirs have many Genders. 
 
 The Latin has four Moods (or Modes), the Greek five, and the Sans- 
 krit six. The Russiaii Verb, besides Moods and Tenses, has six 
 ■Aspects ; and the Hebrewhas seven Voices and thirteen Conjugations. 
 
 In the Turkish Language, the Verb has, sometimes, 
 
 1st, Simple, Reflexive, and Reciprocal Forms. 
 
 2nd, Each of these has a Causative Form. — making six fornjs, 
 
 3d, Each of these six has a Passive Form, — making twelve. 
 
 4th, Each of these twelve has, besides its Aifirmative, a Negative 
 and an Impossible Form, — making tliirty-six. 
 
B^Q A COMPLWTB BPIENTIFIC OBAMMAB. 
 
 6th, Each of the thirty-six has Modes, Tenses, Nujabers, and Per- 
 sons, — making three or four thousand Forms. 
 
 In the Basque Language all Parts of Speech admit of Declension,-^ 
 even Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 
 
 The Adjective has twenty Cases. Every Verb has twenty-six 
 radical forms, each with a great number of Inflections. 
 
 Different forms of the verb are employed in addressing a child, a 
 woman, an equal, or a superior. 
 
 In the Tamil Language there are alsi? Honorific pornas ; and the 
 Verbs have Gender, but not Voice. . There are no Relative Pronouns ; 
 and instead of saying " I am beaten ", one must say " I suffer beat- 
 ing ", " I get beating ", " I get stripes ", " I eat beating ", &c. 
 
 Also the terminations used in Inflection exist as' separate words in 
 the Language, and are called Particles. 
 
 Honorific Fprins gre abundant iji the Samo^n, 8JJ4 other Polynesian 
 La^^uage^. 
 
 NOTE 15.— i). 113.—" Soon ", &c. 
 
 The words " soon ", •" often ", " seldom ", &c., are no exceptions to 
 this statement, as they are really Adverbs of Manner. " Soon?' is a 
 contraction of the old word '> soonly " ; &c. 
 
 NOTE 16. — p. 146.-T-ACTIVITT, &c. 
 
 In a Verbal Sentence, or an J^tiy.e Copulative Sentence, the person 
 or thing jj^diosted by tl),e Subject is usy,ally represented as actinj^. 
 
 In a Passive Sepitence the person or thing indicated by tjje Subject 
 is usually represented as acted upon. 
 
 In a Neuter Sentence the person or thing indicated by the Subject 
 ■is umifMy represented neither as Siting i^pr as acted upon. 
 
 In the sentence " The stone brpaks #s.sjly ", Jihe woj:d " itgejf •" is 
 understood affer " breaks " ; and " breaks itself '=" is broken ". 
 This Idijam j| borrowed from the Pfe»di, an,^ is qnite cppjmo^. 
 Verbs so used are called Mefleidve Verbs. 
 
 In J,h^ sentence "Theyarg gone ", (the word "gone" is to be 
 regarded as an ^djcictive rather than as a P»jrti<aple ; and so tisp 
 the predicates in the sentences "The days are come "," The birds 
 are flow^", "TJie years are fled", "The friends are departed", 
 " The sun is risen ", " They are fallen ", " The glass is broken ", 
 " The rod is bent ", &c., &c. Hence these are not Passive Sejiitences. 
 
 NOTE 17.— p. 136.— t The Origin of Language. 
 
 Much needless mystery has been thj-owii around the Origin, of 
 Language. It has been thought to be a miraculous Divine Gift ; — 
 impossible to have been developed by human intelligence, &c. ; but 
 in fact, to a being possessed of man's intelligence and vocal organs. 
 
APPENHIX.^NOTES. 881 
 
 language is a necessity instead of an impossibility, — as much so as 
 laughing or crying. There is nothing niore incoinprehensible in the 
 origin of Language than in the constantly pbserved growth and de- 
 velopment of it. — Children, long before they Cftn speak, utter spon- 
 taneously many of the Radicles and Roots ; and, a little later, they 
 produce many of Jhe gtems s,ad Themes fronj whicji words have 
 been developed ; and it seems strange that to any observing person, 
 acquainted with the nature of language there shoujd be any appear- 
 ance of mystery about it. The methods by which particular sounds 
 ftfid jBoi)].bina,tio!is of soufids have been associated with specific ideas, 
 and hence have become words, are doubtless various. To suppose 
 otherwise i^ to suppose ti}^ iLupian mind to be different from what it 
 is known to be. 
 
 The principle of irn,itation ha? led to the f ornjation of many words, 
 but not all. gome Interjections have been developed int;o inflepled 
 words ; bat all words have not been flius formed. Neither "the 
 Onomatopoetic nor the Inter jectional theory ,TT^aeit)}er tlie l/ai/i-wpw 
 nor the pooh-'pooh theory, as they have been called, — is sufficient by 
 itself, nor are the two .combined sufficient to account for all words, 
 or even a piajority of then). ; but that fact does not make it at all 
 probable t}iat human Lagagiut^ge is not a spontaneous outgrowth of 
 human nature. 
 
 t NOTE 18.— p. 2?3.^Mui/riPLB Rhymes. 
 Rhymes of four, #ve, six, seven, and even eight gyflables, are pos- 
 sible in English ; bi;it they are sejLdom iJ^sed because t^ey give to ^ 
 composition something of the disagreeable character of Task Poetry. 
 In Arabic and Persi^ji quadruple gnd qij.intupje rhymes are some- 
 times used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 QUABRWPLE RSYMK. 
 
 TJie book is full | of question mark^ | and notes esjAxca. j atory ; 
 Tl;i,e l^Jiguage too, | I'm sure I think, .] is quite defam | Atory. 
 
 QuiNTOPiiE Rhyme. 
 And when 'twas found the wondrous Duke had lost hi? yigjibility, 
 The people hardly could^ in truth, restrain their risibili,tjr. 
 
 Sextuple Rhyme. 
 In regard to | his creed he | was lati j tudinistio ; 
 In respect to | his style he | was plati | tudinistic. 
 
 Septuple Rhyme. 
 However mapy points there be of ttncongeniality, 
 you'll find at least between the two there's one congeniality. 
 
332 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC 6RAMMAB. 
 
 OcTUPiiB Rhymes. 
 How, think | you, can | any man | wonder at | unin [ telligl | bility 
 In a I book whose [author en | deavors to | shun in | telllgi | bility? 
 Or how can | any one | fail to ex | pect some | incompre | hensi | 
 
 bility 
 Where a | writer no | longer en | deavors to | win compre | hensi ( 
 bUity? 
 
 NOTE 19.— p. 155. — Pkepositional Phrases. 
 
 In case of the Substantive Prepositions, the Preposition is the 
 Base of the Phrase ; and the Object is a Modifier of the Base. 
 NOTE 30.— p. 303, — Compound Pakticiplbb, &c. 
 
 The terra "Compound Participle'' is a convenient one; but it 
 should be noticed that the combination which it indicates is not em- 
 braced in the Definition of " A Participle " ; and a like observation 
 may be made in regard to the terms "Compound Phrase" and 
 " Compound Sentence". 
 
 NOTE 21.— p. 165.— Chabts. 
 The use of the Analytical Charts, placed at the beginning and end 
 of this Volume, will be found of essential service to the beginner in 
 analyzing sentences, and in Parsing. 
 
 t NOTE 33.— p. 216.— Poet, &c. 
 
 The word "Poet" signifies a "Maker" ; and "Poetry" means 
 literary composition which is " made ", i., e., skillfully, or artistically 
 made. 
 
 t NOTE SS.—p. 82.— Grimm's Law. 
 
 There are three Classes of the Indo-Germanic Languages, sustain- 
 ing a peculiar relation to each other. 
 
 The 1st, or English,- Class includes the English, Anglo-Saxon, 
 Gothic, Frisian, &c. — The 3nd, or Latin, Class includes the Latin, 
 Greek, Sanskrit, Lithuanian, and Slavonic, and the Lfinguages de- 
 rived from them. — The 3d, or German, Class includes the High Ger- 
 manic Languages. 
 
 Now when the same word is found in all, or any two, of these 
 Classes of Languages, it may be expected to present, in passing from 
 one Class to another, the Consonant Changes represented in the fol- 
 lowing Table. There are, however, many exceptions to this Law. 
 
 GEIMM'S LAW TABULATED. 
 
 Sngllsh 
 
 P 
 
 t 
 
 k 
 
 b 
 
 d 
 
 g 
 
 f 
 
 th 
 
 h 
 
 Latin 
 
 b 
 
 d 
 
 S 
 
 f 
 
 cU 
 
 th 
 
 P 
 
 t 
 
 k 
 
 German, 
 
 f 
 
 th, z 
 
 Cll 
 
 P 
 
 t 
 
 k 
 
 b 
 
 d 
 
 S 
 
APPENDIX.— NOTES. 333 
 
 NOTE 24.— p. 73.—" By and by ". 
 " By and by " is an example of intensive, or emphatic, repetition, 
 sucli as occurs very frequently in the Hebrew. The " by " was taken 
 in the sense of " near time " = " soon ''. " By and by ''then signified 
 " very soon " ; but being often used in predicting things which did 
 not occur very soon, its meaning-was-Biisapprehended, and finally 
 reversed, so that now it signifies " after sometime ", or " not very 
 soon"; 
 
 ' ■ NOTE 25.' — p. 111. — Voices op the Verb. 
 
 The Active Voice of a Verb (commonly, but im'properly, so 
 called) consists of all the forms of the -verb except the Past Partly 
 ciple. 
 
 The Passive Voice (improperly so ct^lled) is formed by annexing,' 
 the Past. Participle of the verb to the several forms of- the Copula. 
 
 NOTE 26..— p. 176.— Where, Whence, and. Whither. 
 In Example 65, the Preposition " in" may perhaps be supplied be-- 
 fore the word "where", and justified by the common forms 
 " wherein ", " whereby ", &c. — In likp manner " from " may be sup- 
 plied before " whence " in Example 66, and " to ' before " whither " 
 in Example 67. — This is only doing the same thing which is done in 
 Latin, when Prepositions are used before Xblatlve forms, &c. If 
 anyone wishes to call "where", " wh.enQe ". and .".whither" Ad- 
 verbs; in the above Examples, they may .be called Belatiiie Pronomi- 
 nal Adverbs. 
 
 ■ ■ NOTE 27. — ^p. 120. — " Derivation ". 
 
 The Definition of " Derivation " may appear to some to be imper- 
 fect. Many words will seem to be impijoperly excluded by it from 
 the Class of " Derivatives "- - ■ • • 
 
 AUthose words will, however, be found to be really examples of 
 Inflection or ' Composition, except,! perhaps, a very few anomalous 
 forma.. . ■ .• 
 
Al^TALTTIOAL INDEX 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Preface *ii 
 
 Prof. Grimm on the English 
 
 Language xi 
 
 The Study of the English 
 
 Language xii 
 
 Origin of the English Iian- 
 
 . guage... . .,.,.,:.. 
 
 Difficulty of the English Lan- 
 
 gait^.i.. ...i .f... it.i xiv 
 Note to Teachers xvi 
 
 A COMPLETE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 
 
 OF TBB ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 PKBLIMINABT DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Science 17 
 
 Art..". 
 
 AWord 
 
 A Syllable : 
 
 Language . . :. .i i . 
 
 Writing 
 
 A Written Word 
 
 Philology a,. 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Rhetoric w . 
 
 The English Language. ...;-. 
 
 English Grammar 
 
 A Sentence t 18 
 
 A Phrase 
 
 The Subject of ia Sentence. : . 
 The Predicate of a Sentence. 
 The Copula of a Sentence. .> 
 The Subject of Discourse.... 
 
 Correct Usage 
 
 Authorized Usage 
 
 DIVISIONS. EXAMPLES. 
 
 The Divisions of Grammar . . 
 PART I. — Okthogkapht. 
 
 Orthography . . . . 
 
 Divisions of Orthography. . . 
 CHAPTER I.— Elementary 
 Sounds. 
 An Elementary Sound , . 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 A Letter 
 
 A Letter-eqiii-^^iletit 19 
 
 Number of Elementary 
 Sounds, i ..i. .. 1 
 
 Classes of Elementary Sounds 
 
 A Tonic Element 
 
 A Stlb-Tonic Element. ...... 
 
 An Atonic Element. ..<. .<.. 
 
 A Vowel. 
 
 A Cohsonaht ...ati... 
 
 An Alphabet.... ;> a 
 
 The Latin Alphabet 
 
 The English Alphabet 
 
 The DeficieiieeB of the Eng- 
 lish Alphabet. • . .< ^ 
 
 T'he Phonetic Alphabet 
 
 The Vowels of the Common 
 Alphabet 
 
 The Consonants . .-. , ..i. ...>. 
 
 Ambiguous Letters. . . t . . .... 
 
 Fundamental Idea 
 
 Writing of the Eng. Language 30 
 
 Correlative Sounds 
 
 Diphthongs 
 
 Long Sounds 
 
 Short Sounds w 
 
 Time of a Long Sounds , ,.,. 
 
 Variation 
 
 Phonology 
 
 Comptlrative Phctnology 
 
 Phonography t 
 
 Heterography 
 
 Phonetic Short Hand 
 
 TABLE OF SOUNDS. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Special Classes of Conso- 
 nants 21 
 
 The Liquids 
 
 The Mutes 
 
 The Aspirate 
 
 The Sibilant 
 
 DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 I" in "time" 
 
 (334) 
 
AlfALTflCAL INDEt. 
 
 3S5 
 
 PAGB. 
 
 "Oi"m "boil" ..;:;. 
 
 "Ou"m "found".;.; 
 
 Phonetic Alphabet ; ; . ; 22 
 
 Sounds of the Letters ....;. ; 33 
 
 Letters of the Common Al- 
 Pliat'et. 8, e, i, o, u,y, w, 
 b, d, f, h, j, k, c, g, 1, mj 
 n, p, q, T,B,i, V, z, Xi... 
 
 Bule for x ...;.;... ; , . 
 
 Buleforc ; ,... 34 
 
 Rule for g 
 
 Bule for r 
 
 A Digraph 
 
 A Tri^raph ; 
 
 A Tetragraph 
 
 * CONSONANT I>IGRAI>HS 
 
 The Consonant Digraphs .... 
 
 th, sh, ch, gh, ph, ng. 
 
 sc, pk, rh, gl, gn, wh, cz. ..;: 
 Bule for ch. . ; ; .... 
 
 * DOtlBLE CONSONANTS. 
 
 The Double Consonants bb, 
 &c 
 
 * MIXED DIGRAPHS (CONSONAifTS 
 AND VOWBIrS)... ... 25 
 
 The Mixed Digraphs ci; si, tij 
 di, zi, ce ;..;.; 
 
 * VOWEL DIGBAPHS. 
 
 The Towel Digraphs, aa, ae, 
 ai, ao, au, ea, ee, ei, eo, 
 eu, ia, ie, oa, oe, bi, oo, 
 ou, ua, ue, ui, aw, ow, 
 ew, ay, ey, oy, uy 
 
 * CONSONANT TRIGKAPHS 36 
 
 The Consonant TrigraphSj 
 sch, tch, irh 
 
 * VOWBL TRIGRAPHS. 
 
 The Vowel Trigraphs, eau, 
 eou, ieu, oiBU, eoi, noi, aie, 
 aou, awe, iew, aye, eye, 
 eyo, uay ....;..... 
 
 * CONSONANT TETRAGRAPHS. 
 
 tsch 
 
 * TOWEL TETRAGRAPHS 
 ueue 
 
 * SILENT LETTERS.. . . 27 
 
 Silent Letters 
 
 Use ........... 
 
 Cost 
 
 Letters never Silent ; 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 * FINAL " E." 
 
 The Final' e" 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 * FIlSrAL " E " DIGilAPHS (VOWELS). 
 
 The Final "e" Vbwel Di- 
 graphs, a-e, 6-6, i-e, o-e, 
 u-e, ^:e 
 
 * FINAL " E " lilSRAPHS (Mlxfeo). 
 
 The Final "e" Mixed Di- 
 graphs, ce, gB, se 
 
 * Mnal "e" trigraphs 
 
 (VOWELS). 
 The Final "e" Vowel tri- 
 graphs, au-e, ea-e 
 
 * FINAL ''E" TRIGRAPIld (MIX- 
 
 ED) :. 28 
 
 The Final "e" Mixed Tri- 
 graphs, th-e, is-e 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANTS; 
 
 Silent Consonants. 
 
 * silent consonant digraphs 
 
 (mixed). 
 The Silent Consonant Di- 
 graphs, ah, eh, al, ie; ig; 
 is, oi, ug, uh, eg. ; i . . . : J 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS 
 
 (MIxfeD). 
 
 The Silent Consonant Tri- 
 graphs, ach, igh, oul. ... 39 
 
 * SILENT CONSONANT TETRA- 
 
 GRAPHS (MIXBp). 
 
 The Silent Consonant Tetra- 
 grapKs, eigh, ough 
 
 * DIFFERENT SIGNS FOR THE 
 
 ., SAME SOUND. 
 
 Each Elementary Sound; . . . ; 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 1,3,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,13. 
 13,14,15, i6, it, 18,19, 
 20,21,31,33/24,35:. 
 
 VOWELS.:;; 30 
 
 36, '37, 28, '29, 3Q, 31, 33, 33, 
 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39; 40; 
 41,1^,43,44... 
 
 * TOTAJj NTTMBBR 31 
 
 The Number of Lettters and 
 Letter-Equivalents 
 
 ORGANIC CLASSES OF THE SOUNDS. 
 
 Labials :.;..;.. 
 
 Dentals ;.. 
 
 Linguals ; ; ; 
 
 falatals ;.;. 
 
 Gutturals . . . , ;;;..;;;; 
 
 * GROUPING OF THE C0Ns6nASt|. 
 
 Ifet, 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th fianks. 32 
 
336 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 * RELATIONS ASD CHANGES. 
 
 Belated Sounds 
 
 Related Words 
 
 Consonants of Related Words 
 
 Consonant Changes. 
 
 Vowel Changes 
 
 Assimilation 
 
 Accommodation 
 
 Eduction '. 
 
 Buphonic Change 
 
 Orthographic Expedient 
 
 f PHONETIC LAWS. 
 
 1. Correlative Sounds . . .... 
 
 2 Related Sounds 33 
 
 3. Sounds of Adjacent Ranks 
 
 4. Sounds of More Remote 
 Ranks 
 
 5. Assimilation, &c 
 
 6. Omission 
 
 7. Insertion, &c 
 
 8. Transposition 
 
 9. Eduction 
 
 10. Substitution of one for 
 
 two 
 
 11. Consonant to Towel 
 
 12. Vowel to Consonant. .... 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Lettbbs 34 
 
 Capital Letters 
 
 Small Letters 
 
 * Styles of Letters 
 
 * Sizes of Letters 
 
 Some Common Sizes 
 
 KULES FOB CAPITALS. 
 
 Rule I 
 
 Rule II 
 
 Bulelll ^ 35 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 EXERCISES 86 
 
 * ITAMC LETTERS. 
 
 Italic Letters 
 
 Use 
 
 Rule 
 
 Italics in the Bible 37 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SMALL CAPITALS. 
 
 Small Capitals, &c 
 
 Underscoring 
 
 One Line under 
 
 Two Lines 
 
 Three Lines 
 
 Four Lines 
 
 Degrees of Emphasis 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Other Modes of. Distinction. . 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER III.— Syllables. 
 Constituents, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.. . . . 
 
 A Monosyllable 38 
 
 A Dissyllable^ .... 
 
 A Trisyllable i 
 
 A Polysyllable. . ^ . . . i 
 
 Greatest number of Syllables. 
 
 Compound Word '. 
 
 Simple Word . : 
 
 ■ f SYLLABICATION. 
 
 Syllabication • 
 
 Objects, 1st and ^d 
 
 American Method 
 
 English Method 
 
 BULBS FOB AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 1. Compound Words 
 
 2. Prefixes, &c 39 
 
 3. Bi-accentual Words 
 
 4. Single Consonant be- 
 tween Vowels 
 
 5. Mute and liquid between 
 Vowels 
 
 6. Any other two Conso- 
 nants between Vowels . . 
 
 7. Tliree or more Conso- 
 nants between Vowels . . 
 
 8. Two Vowel Sounds to- 
 gether 
 
 9. Digraphs, &c 
 
 10. Silent Letters 
 
 11. Word at the«nd of aline. 
 
 RULES FOR ENGLISH METHOD. 
 
 1. Original Elements 
 
 2. Consonants, &c., between 
 
 Vowels.. 
 
 3. In other respects 40 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 CBfAPTER IV.— Accent. 
 
 The Ultimate. .. ! 
 
 The Penult 
 
 The Antepenult 
 
 Accent 
 
 Elements of Accent 
 
 Polysyllables 
 
 Primary Accent. 
 
 Secondary Accent 
 
 Tertiary Accent 
 
 Acute Accent 
 
 Heavy Acute Accent 
 
 Light Acute Accent 
 
 Bi-accentual Words 
 
ANALTTIOAL INDEX. 
 
 337 
 
 PAGE, 
 t KtTLEB FOB ACCENT. 
 
 1. Monosyllables 
 
 2. Inflected forms, &c., of 
 Monosyllables 
 
 3. Priniitlves of more than 
 one Syllable 41 
 
 4. Inflected forms, &c., of 
 long words 
 
 5. Foreign Words 
 
 6. Naturalized Words 
 
 7. Eas^of Pronunciation... 
 
 8. Bi-accen.tual Words 
 
 9. Contrasted Words 
 
 10. Words ending in craey, 
 &c , 
 
 11 . Words ending in cate, &c. 
 13. Words witli sound of sh, 
 
 &c 
 
 13. Words ending in ic, &c. . 
 
 14. Words ending in e-al, &c. 
 
 15. Dissyllabic Adjectives 
 
 16. Adjectives of more than 
 two syllables 
 
 17. Exceptions 43 
 
 ■ EXERCISES. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— Spelling. 
 
 General Rules. , 
 
 Individual Words 
 
 Special Rules 
 
 * HULES FOB SPELLING. 43 
 
 1. Double the f and 1, .&c. . . 
 3. Double the s, &c 
 
 3. Double the b. &c 
 
 4. Add k to c following a 
 Vowel, &c 
 
 5. Add k to e at the end, &c. 
 
 6. Double a final single con- 
 sonant, &c. 
 
 7. Drop one f,. &c. 
 
 8. Drop a final silent e, &o.. 
 
 9. Change a final ie, &c 
 
 10. Change y, &c 
 
 11. Retain a final y, &c 44 
 
 13. Drop a final e, &c 
 
 13. Retain a final double Con- 
 sonant, &c. 
 
 14. In Compound Words, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 t PKINCtPLBS OF ABBREVIATION. 
 
 Abbreviation 45 
 
 Object of 
 
 A wood Abbreviation 
 
 PAGE- 
 Methods 1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 
 10,11,13,13,14,15 46 
 
 WORDS ABBBEVIATED. 
 
 First Class 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third " 47 
 
 Fourth " 
 
 Fifth •• 
 
 Sixth " 
 
 Seventh Class 
 
 Eighth " 
 
 Ninth " 
 
 Tenth " 
 
 Eleventh " 
 
 Twelfth " 
 
 Thirteenth" 
 
 Fourteenth Class 
 
 Fifteenth " 
 
 THE WORD MISTERS. 
 
 The Word Misters 
 
 Abbreviation of Mistresses.. 
 Where to find a List of Ab- 
 breviations 
 
 * CHAPTER VI.— PtnsrcTUATiON. 
 
 Punctuation 
 
 The Use of Punctuation 
 
 Pauses in Reading. 
 
 Classes of Points. .....' 48 
 
 SENTENCE POINTS. 
 
 The Sentence Points. ....... 
 
 BULKS FOB THE PBBIOD. 
 
 First Rule 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 RULES FOB THE EXCLAMATION 
 
 POINT. 
 
 First Rule ■■■•. 
 
 Second" 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 BULBS FOB THE INTEBBOGATION 
 
 POINT. 
 
 FirstRule... 49 
 
 Second " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 BITLES FOB THE COLON. 
 
 FirstRule 
 
 Second " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
338 
 
 ANALYTtOAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 RtTLEB rOK THE BBMI-COLOK. 
 
 First Eule 
 
 Second" 50 
 
 Third " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 KULES FOK THE COMMA. 
 
 First Rule. 
 
 Second" 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth" 
 
 Fifth " 
 
 Sixth " 
 
 Seventh Hule 
 
 Eighth " 
 
 Ninth " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 KX3LE8 FOR THE CTJBVES. 
 
 FirstEule 51 
 
 Second" 
 
 Third " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 KULES FOB THE BRACKETS. 
 
 FirstRule 53 
 
 Second" 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 RtTLES FOR THE DASH. 
 
 First Rale 
 
 Second" 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth" 
 
 Fifth " 
 
 Sixth " 
 
 Seventh Rule 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 RULBB FOR THE QUOTATION 
 
 MARKS. 
 
 FirstEule 53 
 
 Second " , 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth" 
 
 Fifth " 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 RULES POR MARKS OP ELLIPSIS. 
 
 FirstEule 54 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third " ; 
 
 Fourth « 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 WORD POINTS. 
 
 The Word Points 55 
 
 The Acute Accent 
 
 The Grave Accent 
 
 The Circumfiex Accent 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 The Double Acute Accent. .. 
 
 The Hyphen 
 
 The Apostrophe 
 
 The Macron 
 
 The Breve 
 
 The Diaeresis 
 
 The Dot 56 
 
 The Cedilla 
 
 The Tilde 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 MISCELLANEOUS POIlfTS. 
 
 The Paragraph 
 
 The Section 
 
 The Index 
 
 The Asterism 
 
 The Caret 
 
 The Double Comma 
 
 The Brace 
 
 Leaders 
 
 Marks of Reference 
 
 Superiors 57 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 PART II.— Etymology. 
 
 Etymology 59 
 
 Divisions of Etymology 
 
 CHAPTEE I. — Classification. 
 
 Classification 
 
 Object of Classification 
 
 Parts of Speech 
 
 CLASS I. — Nouns. 
 A Noun 60 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 A Proper Noun 
 
 A Common Noun 
 
 first sub-class. — proper 
 nouns. 
 Proper Names of Persons. . . 
 
 Other Proper Names 
 
 A Prename 
 
 A Surname 
 
 A Middle Name 
 
 Surnames Alone 
 
 second sub-class. — common 
 
 nouns. 
 
 divisions. 
 
 1. Full Nouns 
 
 3. Defective Nouns 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. — DEFECTIVE 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Masculine Nouns 
 
 2. Feminine Nouns 
 
 3. Doubtful Nouns 61 
 
ANALYTICAL mBEX. 
 
 339 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 4. Neuter Nouns 
 
 Note 
 
 METAPHYSICAL SUB-CLASSES OF 
 NOUNS. 
 
 1. A Concrete Noun 
 
 3. An Abstract Noun 
 
 GROUPS or COMMON NOUNS. 
 
 1. A Collective Noun 
 
 3. A Material Noun 
 
 3. A Farticipisd Noun 
 
 Notes 1 and 3 ; 
 
 EXEatCISES, 
 OIiASS II. — ^ADJECIIVBS. 
 
 An Adjective.. ......> 63 
 
 ' SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. A Descriptive Adjective. . . 
 3. A Definitive Adjective 
 
 ITRST SU^-OLASS. — ^DESOKIPTCVE 
 ADJECnVBS. 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A"Qualitatlve Adjective. . . 
 
 2. A Material Adjective 
 
 3. A Participial Adjective.. . . 
 Note 
 
 BBOOND SUB-GLASS. — DEFINITIVE 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Articles 
 
 3. Numeral Adjectives 
 
 3. Pronominal Adjectives.... 
 
 FntST DIVISION. ^ABTICLBS. 
 
 1. The Definite Article 
 
 3. The Indefinite Article. . . . 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. — ^NUMBBAL 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Cardinal Numerals. .. .... 63 
 
 3. Ordinal Numerals 
 
 THIBD DIVISION. — ^ERONOMINAl. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Demonstratives 
 
 2. Distributives^ . , 
 
 3. Indefinites .< 
 
 4. Interrogatives 
 
 5. Relatives 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 6KOUPS OE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Proper Adjectives 
 
 3. Periodical Adjectives 64 
 
 3. Beplicatives. . . < 
 
 4. Combinatives 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 6. Singular Adjectives ...... 
 
 6. Plural Adjectives 65 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 GLASS nl. — PEONOUNS. 
 
 A Pronoun 
 
 SUB-OLASSES. 
 
 1. A Personal Pronoun 
 
 LBT. 
 
 2. A Relative Pronoun 
 
 The Antecedent of a Rela- 
 tive 
 
 UST. 
 
 3. An Interrogative Pronoun. 
 
 LIST. 
 
 4. An Indefinite Pronoun. . . . 
 
 LIST. 
 
 5. A Possessive Pronoun. . . , 
 
 LIST. 
 CQJkEPOUND POBMS. 
 
 Myself, Thyself, &g 
 
 Himself and Themselves. . . . 
 
 EXEBCISBS. 
 CLASS rV. — COPULAS. 
 
 ACgpula 66 
 
 LIST. 
 CLASS V. — ^VEEBS. 
 
 A Verb 
 
 A Participle , 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. A Regular Verb 
 
 3. An. Ixregular Verb 
 
 GEOUPS OE VEBBS. 
 
 1. A Copulative Verb 
 
 LIST. 
 
 2. A Defective Verb 
 
 LIST. 
 
 3. A Redundant Verb_ , 
 
 4. Ati Auxiliary Verb. , 
 
 LIST. 
 OBJECT. 
 
 The Object of a Verb 67 
 
 EXEBCISES. 
 CLASS Vl — ADVBEBS. 
 
 An Adverb 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. Limiting Adverbs 
 
 3. Conjunoiiive Adverbs 
 
 GBOUPS OF ADVEEBS. 
 
 1. A Modal Adverb 
 
 3. An Adverb of Time 
 
 8. '" " " Place 
 
 4. '■' " " Cause 
 
840 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 5. An Adverb of Manner... 68 
 
 6. " " " Degree .. 
 
 7. " " " Number.. 
 
 8. " " " Order 
 
 9. " " " Interroga- 
 tion • • - - 
 
 10. " " " Negation. 
 List of Conjunctive Adverbs. 
 
 EXEBOISES. 
 
 CLASS vn. — pEEPosmoiirs. 
 
 A Preposition 
 
 The Object of a Preposition. 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 A Simple Preposition 
 
 A Compound Preposition ... 69 
 
 FIRST STJB-CLASS. — SIMPLE PEE- 
 POSITIONS. 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Substantive Preposition 
 3. An Adjective Preposition. 
 
 SECOND SUB-CLASS. — COMPOUND 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Phrase Preposition 
 
 3. A Double Preposition 
 
 Note 
 
 LISTS AND DEFINITIONS OF PRE- 
 POSITIONS. 
 SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Substantive Prepositions. 
 
 3. Adjective Prepositions 70 
 
 Note 
 
 COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Phrase Prepositions 
 
 3. Double Prepositions 71 
 
 f DEFINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The Definitions Given ... 
 
 A Valuable Exercise 72 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 EXERCISES. 
 CLASS VIII. — CONJUNCTIONS. 73 
 
 A Conjunction 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. An Absolute Conjunction. 
 3. Relative Conjunctions 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Verbal Conjunctions 
 
 LIST. 
 
 3. Adjective Conjunctions 
 
 LIST. 
 
 3. A Substantive Conjunction 
 
 4. Phrase Conjunctions 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 LIST. 
 
 5. Composite Conjunctions.. 74 
 
 LIST. 
 LIST OF RELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Definitions of Conjunctions.. 
 
 EXERCISES. 75 
 
 CLASS IX. — INTERJECTIONS.. 76 
 
 An Interjection 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. Inarticulate Interjections. 
 3. Articulate Interjections. . . 
 
 SECOND SUB-CLASS. — DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. General Interjections 
 
 3. Special Interjections 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. — SUB-DIVI- 
 SIONS. 
 
 1. Joyous Interjections 
 
 3. Sorrowful Interjections. . . 
 3. Contemptuous Interjec- 
 tions : 
 
 SPECIAL CLASS. — EXCLAMATIONS. 
 
 An Exclamation 
 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. An Emotional Exclama- 
 tion 
 
 3. A Rational Exclamation . . 
 
 SECOND SUB-CLASS. — RATIONAL 
 
 EXCLAMATIONS 77 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Compellatives 
 
 3. Responsives 
 
 8. Fragments 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Inflections. 
 
 General Stem of a Word 
 
 Termination of a Word 
 
 Inflection 
 
 Uninflected Classes of Words 
 
 Modes of Inflection 
 
 inflection of nouns. 
 
 FIRST mode op inflection. — 
 GENDER. 
 
 Gender 
 
 A Masculine Form 78 
 
 A Feminine Form 
 
 The Masculine Gender of a 
 
 Word 
 
 The Feminine Gender. 
 
 The Masculine Stem of a 
 
 Word 
 
 The Feminine Stem 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 PAGE. 
 RtlLES FOR FOBMING THE FEMI- 
 NINE STEM. 
 
 1. Proper Nouns 
 
 2. Proper Nouns in " us " . . . 
 
 3. Common Nouns 
 
 * BULBS FOR CONTRACTION. 
 
 1. The. termination " a " 
 
 2. The "n" of " ine " 
 
 3. The termiAation " ie " 
 
 4. Th.e Anal,"te" 
 
 5. Tiiefin"ai"i" 
 
 6. "E" or "o" before final 
 
 "r,"&p,., 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 List of . Proper Nouns, Reg- 
 ular 
 
 List of Proper Nouns, Irreg- 
 ular. .. . 79 
 
 List of Common Nouns, Reg- 
 ular. .... , 
 
 List of Common Nouns, Ir- 
 regular , 
 
 CORRESPONDING NOUNS! 
 
 Corresponding Masculine and 
 
 Feminine Nouns 
 
 Formation 80 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 NUMBER. 
 
 Number 
 
 A Singular Form, 
 
 A Plural Form 
 
 The Singular Stem 
 
 The Plural Stem 
 
 The Singular Number of a 
 
 Word 
 
 The Plural Number of a 
 
 Word 
 
 * RULES FOB THE PLURAL STEM. 
 
 1. General Rule 
 
 3. Words in " oh," &o 
 
 3. Words in "o" 
 
 4. Words in" y" 
 
 5. Life, Knife, &o 
 
 6. Figures, &c 
 
 7. Man, &c 81 
 
 8. Ox, &c 
 
 9. Brother, &c 
 
 10. Compounds 
 
 11. Condensed Phrase 
 
 13. Name with Title 
 
 13. Foreign Words 
 
 14. Foreign Plurals 
 
 PAGE. 
 * FOREIGN WORDS. — LATIN. 
 
 1. Nouns in " a " 
 
 3. Nouns in "us " (1st) 
 
 3. Nouns in ' ' um " 
 
 4. Nouns in " is " (1st) 83 
 
 5. Nouns in " is ' (3nd). . . . 
 
 6. Nouns in " x " (1st)'. .... 
 
 7. Nouns in " x " (2nd) 
 
 8. Nouns in " en " 
 
 9. Nouns in '■ us " (3nd) . . . 
 
 10. Nouns in " us " (3d) 
 
 11. Ignis-faiuus 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 1. Nouns in " on " 
 
 3. Nounsin "a" 83 
 
 3. Nounsin "x" 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 Dillettante, &c. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 1. Feminine Nouns 
 
 2. Masculine Nouns 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 Abatis, Beau, &c 
 
 AMBIGUOUS NOUNS. 
 
 Ambiguous Nouns 
 
 LIST. 
 
 "Cattle" 
 
 UNINFLECTED NOUNS. 
 
 TJninflected Nouns 
 
 LISTS. 
 
 1. Nouns Plural in Form and 
 Sense 
 
 3. Nouns Plural in Form, 
 
 but Singular in Sense. . . 84 
 3. Plurals having Singular 
 Forms of different Sense. 
 
 THIRD MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 
 CASE. 
 
 Case 
 
 Possessive Case 85 
 
 RULES FOR POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 1. General Rule 
 
 3. Plural Stems in " s " 
 
 3. Compounds 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 Declension 
 
 To Decline a Word 
 
 PARADIGMS. 
 
 1. Author 
 
 3. Child 
 
 3. Deer , 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
342 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGB. 
 * FOURTH MODE OP INPLBCTION. 
 GRADE. 
 
 Grade 86 
 
 1. Normal Forms 
 
 2. Diminutive Forms 
 
 3. Augmentative Forms . 
 
 DIMINOTIVES. 
 
 Formation 
 
 Diminutive Terminations.. . . 
 
 Patronymics 
 
 Endearants 
 
 AUGMENTATIVBS. 
 
 Formation 87 
 
 Augmentative Terminations. 
 
 SPECIES OF GRADE. 
 
 1. Diminution 
 
 2. Augmentation 
 
 3. Double Grade , 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 List of Diminutives 
 
 List of Augmentatives 88 
 
 Inflection of Pronouns 
 
 MODES OP INFLECTION. 
 
 The Pronoun I 
 
 " " One and Other. 
 
 " Who 
 
 The Other Pronouns 
 
 PniST MODE OF INPLBCTION. — 
 PERSON. 
 
 Person 
 
 Forms of the First Person. . 
 " " Secraid " .. 
 Third " .. 
 The First Person of a Pro- 
 noun 
 
 The Second Person of a Pro- 
 noun 
 
 The Third Person of a Pro- 
 noun 
 
 SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 NUMBER 89 
 
 Number 
 
 A Singular Form 
 
 The Singular Number of a 
 
 Pronoun 
 
 A Plural Form 
 
 The Plural Number 
 
 THIRD MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 GENDER. 
 
 Gender 
 
 A Masculine Form of a Pro- 
 noun 
 
 The Masculine Gender of a 
 Pronoun 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 A Feminine Form of a Pro- 
 noun 
 
 The Feminine Gender of a 
 Pronoun. 
 
 A Neuter Form of a Pronoun. 
 
 The Neuter Gender of a Pro- 
 noun 
 
 FOURTH MODE OP IHPLBCTIOBr.^ 
 
 CASE. 
 
 Case 
 
 A Nominative Case 
 
 A Possessive Case 
 
 An Objective Case.. 
 
 DECLENSION OP THE PRO- 
 NOUN 1 90 
 
 The Form "Hem" 
 
 The Pronouns One and Other. 
 Declension of the Pronoun 
 
 Who 
 
 The Form Whose 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 INFLECTION OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Modes of Inflection 91 
 
 FIRST MODE OP INPLBCTION. — 
 GRADE. 
 
 Grade 
 
 Normal Forms 
 
 Diminutive Forms 
 
 Formation 
 
 Limitation 
 
 SECOND MODE OP INFLECTION. — 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Comparison 
 
 The Positive Degree 
 
 The Comparative Degree. . . . 
 
 The Superlative Degree 
 
 Limitation of Comparison... 93 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 
 
 Periphrastic Comparison. . . . 
 
 Ascending Periphrastic Com- 
 parison 
 
 DescendingPeriphrastic Com- 
 parison 
 
 Uses , 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Comparison of Diminutives.. 
 
 IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
 
 Irregular Comparison 
 
 EXAMPLES 93 
 
 Note 
 
 The Latin Comparatives ' • ia., 
 
 terior,'' &c 
 
AWALTTIVAL INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 THIRD MODE OF IITPLECTlOlf . — 
 
 NUMBER 94 
 
 Number 
 
 The Words This and That.... 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 INFLECTION OF ATERBS. 
 
 Modes of Inflection 
 
 FIRST MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 
 TENSE. 
 
 Tense 
 
 ATemse..... 95 
 
 Eegular Tei\ses 
 
 Periphrastic Tenses. ...;,... 
 
 REOULAR TENSES. 
 
 Present Forms , 
 
 The Present Tense of a Verb. 
 
 The Stem of a Tense 
 
 The Stem of the Present 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Past Forms 
 
 The Past tense 
 
 Stem of the Past Tense 
 
 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 
 
 Auxiliaries Used., 
 
 Periphrastic Present Stem.... 
 
 Periphrastic Past Stem 
 
 The Other Tenses 
 
 Future Forms 
 
 The Future Tense" 
 
 The Future Stem 
 
 Indefinite Forms 
 
 The Indefinite Tense 
 
 The Indefinite Stem ; 
 
 PARTICIPLES 56 
 
 The Present Participle 
 
 The Past Participle .,.. 
 
 The Compound Participle..... 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 The Com,pound Tenses 
 
 The Simple Tenses 
 
 Compound Present Forms.... 
 The Compound Present Tense 
 The Compound Present Stem 
 
 Compound Past Forms 
 
 The Compound Past Tense... 
 
 The Compound Past Stem 
 
 Compound Future Forms 
 
 The Compound Future Tense. 
 The Compound Future Stem. 
 Compound Indefinite Forms.. 
 The Compound Indefinite 
 
 Tense 97 
 
 The Compound Indefinite 
 
 Stem , ,, 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 Number 
 
 A Singular Form 
 
 The Singular Number. 
 
 A Plural Form 
 
 The Plural Number 
 
 Plural Forms in use. 
 
 Singular Forms in use 
 
 THIRD MODE OP INFLECTION. — 
 PERSON. 
 
 Person. 
 
 A Form of the First Person. 
 " " Second Per- 
 son 
 
 A Form of the Third Person. 
 
 Forms of the First Person 
 used 
 
 Forms of the Second Person 
 used 98 
 
 Forms of ithe Third Person 
 iised 
 
 Formation of the Second Per- 
 son 
 
 Formation of the Third Per- 
 son 
 
 The Terminations " eth " and 
 "es".. 
 
 INFINITIVE FORMS. 
 
 Infinitives 
 
 The Simple Infinitive 
 
 The Compound Infinitive .... 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 The Principal Parts 
 
 Reasons for the Name 
 
 STRONG AHD WEAK VERBS. 
 
 Strong Verbs 
 
 Weak Verbs 99 
 
 DECLENSION OF THIE VERB MOVE. 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 Conjugation 100 
 
 flONJUGATION OP THE VERB 
 
 MOVE. 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. The Stem of each Tense.. 
 
 2. The Second Person Singu- 
 
 lar of each Tense 
 
 3. The Third Person Singu- 
 
 lar in Present Tenses 
 
 4. The Third Person Singu- 
 
 lar with Noun, &c 
 
 5. Stem of Tenses not Pre- 
 
 sent 
 
344 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 6. Stemwith a Plural Subject 101 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE VEHB WRITE. 
 
 Use of Periphrastic Present 
 and Past Tenses 
 
 SHALL AND WILL. 
 
 Tte Auxiliaries Shall and 
 
 WiU 
 
 Use 
 
 INDICATIVB AND POTENTIAL 
 PUTUBB. 
 
 The Indicative Future 
 
 The Potential Future 102 
 
 Formation of Indicative Fu- 
 ture 
 
 Formation of Potential Fu- 
 ture 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 INFLECTION OP THE COPULA. 
 
 Contrast of Copula and Verb. 
 
 Hypothetical Tense 
 
 Former Inflection of Verbs. . 
 
 DECLENSION OP THE COPULA. 
 
 EXERCISES 108 
 
 IKREGULAK VERBS. 
 DIVISION FIRST. — NO REGULAR 
 
 FORMS. 
 
 SECTION FIRST, PAST TENSE AND 
 
 P. PARTICIPLE ALIKE. 
 
 Class First, No change in 
 
 Present Stem 
 
 Class Second, Vowel changed 104 
 Class Third, Final Consonant 
 Class Fourth, Vowel and 
 Consonant changed 
 
 SECTION SECOND. — PAST TENSE 
 AND PAST PARTICIPLE DIF- 
 FERENT 105 
 
 Class Fifth, Present Tense 
 
 and P. Participle alike 
 Class Sixth, Principal Parts 
 
 all difEerent 
 
 Class Seventh, Duplicate Past 
 
 Tense 106 
 
 Class Eighth, Duplicate P. 
 
 Participle 
 
 Class Ninth, Duplicate Past 
 
 Tense and P . Participle . . 
 
 DIVISION SECOND. — HAVING REG- 
 ULAR FORMS 107 
 
 SECTION FIRST. PAST TENSE AND 
 P. PARTICIPLE ALIKE. 
 
 Class First, E. = Class First 
 of Division First, + Regu- 
 lar Forms 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Class Second, R. = Class Sec- 
 ond of Division First, 
 + Regular. Forms 
 
 Class Third, R. = Class Third 
 of Division First, + Regu- 
 lar Forms 
 
 Class Fourth, R. = Class 
 Fourth of Division First, 
 -I- Regular Forms 
 
 Class Sixth, R. = Class Sixth 
 of Division First, + Reg- 
 ular Forms 108 
 
 SECTION SECOND, PAST TENSE 
 AND P. PARTICIPLE DIFFERENT. 
 
 Class Tenth, R. — Irregular 
 Past Tense Wanting. . . . 
 
 Class Eleventh, R. — Irregular 
 Past Participle Wanting. 
 
 Compounds 
 
 Defective Verbs 
 
 Will and Can as Principals. . 109 
 
 Shall and Will as Auxiliaries 
 
 May and Can 
 
 Wit 
 
 Wot 
 
 Past Tenses of Defectives. .. 
 
 Quoth 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 * FOURTH MODE OP INFLECTION. 
 
 — DIMINUTION. 
 
 Diminution 
 
 Diminutive Forms , 
 
 Formation of Diminutives. . . 
 
 Apparent Diminutives 110 
 
 Occasional Use 
 
 Limit 
 
 EXAMPLES OP DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 * FIFTH MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
 
 FREQUBNTATION. 
 
 Frequentation 
 
 Frequentative Forms 
 
 Formation of Frequentatives 
 Limit 
 
 EXAMPLES OF FREQUENTA- 
 TIVES Ill 
 
 f VOICE AND MOOD. 
 
 Voice and Mood 
 
 Ancient and Foreign Use. . . . 
 
 Voice 
 
 An Active Form 
 
 The Active Voice 
 
 A Passive Form 
 
 The Passive Voice of a Verb. 
 Hood 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 FAOE. 
 
 An Indicative Form 
 
 The Indicative Mood of a 
 
 Verb 
 
 A Subjunctive Form 113 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood 
 
 Greek 
 
 Other Languages 
 
 Partial Declension of Moneo. 
 
 (Latin). ^ 
 
 Partial Declension of Niman. 
 
 (Anglo-Saxon) 
 
 INFLECTION OF ADVERBS. 113 
 
 Adverbs of Manner 
 
 Other Adverbs 
 
 The Comparison of Adverbs. 
 Declension of Oayly 
 
 IBKEGULAIl COMPARISON. 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 * GENERAL INFLECTION, OR RE- 
 
 DUPLICATION. 
 
 Keduplication 
 
 Method 
 
 Use 
 
 Importance 
 
 EXAMPLES 114 
 
 Nouns 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 Verbs 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 Interjections 
 
 f REMAINS OP FORMER INFLEC- 
 TIONS. 
 
 Nominatives 
 
 Genitives 
 
 Datives 
 
 Accusatives 
 
 Ablatives 
 
 Adlatives ... 
 
 Instrumentals 
 
 Relations 
 
 Special Paradigm 
 
 * CHAPTER III.— COMPOSITION 
 
 OP Words 115 
 
 Composition 
 
 Uses 
 
 A Binary Compound 
 
 A Ternary Compound 
 
 Resemblants 
 
 Modifiers 
 
 Accent ■ ■ ■ ■ 
 
 Noun modifying another 
 Noun 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Adjective modifying Noun or 
 Adjective 
 
 French Compounds 
 
 Noun modifying Adjective or 
 Participle 
 
 Noun modifying Verb 
 
 Adjective modifying Pro- 
 noun 
 
 Double Compounds 
 
 Consolidation 
 
 Distinction 
 
 A Preposition in Composi- 
 tion 116 
 
 Possessive Case of a Noun.. 
 
 Plural Stem of a Noun 
 
 Transposition and Omission.. 
 
 A Participial Noun 
 
 Contraction 
 
 Scientific and Proper Names . 
 
 Connecting Vowel 
 
 Connecting Vowel in Greek 
 Compounds ; 
 
 Connecting Vowel in Latin 
 Compounds 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 NAMES OF THE SCIENCES. 118 
 
 The Names of the Sciences. . 
 
 Connection 
 
 Other Endings 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 NAMES OP PHILOSOPHICAL IN 
 STRUMENTS 119 
 
 The Ending-^meier 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 MISCELLANEOUS GREEK COM- 
 POUNDS. 
 
 The Ending — graph, or 
 grapTiy 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The Ending — meter 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The Endings cracy and a/rchy 
 
 . EXERCISES. 
 LATIN COMPOUNDS. . . 120 
 
 The Ending— /«ro«s 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The Ending — vorous 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 f CHAPTER IV.— Derivation. 
 
 A Primitive Word 
 
 A Real Stem 
 
 A Root 
 
 1 Boot-Stem 
 
346 
 
 ANALTTWAL INBEK. 
 
 PAOB. 
 
 An Affl y 
 
 A Prefix 
 
 A Suffix 
 
 Derivation 
 
 A Derivative Word 131 
 
 The General Stem of a Word 
 
 The Theme of a Word 
 
 Inflectional Terminations .... 
 
 Stems and Themes 
 
 Affixes 
 
 Approximate Theme 
 
 MODES OF DERIVATION. 
 
 1. The Strong Derivation.... 
 3. The Weak Derivation 
 
 FIRST MODE. — STRONG DBKIVA- 
 TION. 
 
 Methods 
 
 1. Simple Transfer 
 
 2. Change of Accent 
 
 3. Vowel Change 
 
 4. Change of Vowel and 
 
 Accent 123 
 
 5. Consonant Change 
 
 6. Consonant and Vow^ 
 
 Change 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SECOND MODE. — WEAK DERIVA- 
 TION. 
 
 Methods... 
 
 1. Use of Prefix 
 
 2. " " Suffix 
 
 3. " " Prefix and Suffix . . 
 
 4. Bepetition 
 
 5. Addition 133 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 CLASSES OP DERIVATIVES. 
 
 Words of each Clasa 
 
 1. Verbs from Nouns 
 
 2. Nouns from Verbs 
 
 3. Adjectives from Nouns . . 
 
 4. Adjectives from Verbs. . . 
 
 5. Adjectives from Adject- 
 ives 
 
 6. Nouns from Adjectives. . 
 
 7. Verbs from Adjectives. . . 
 
 8. Pronouns from Adjec- 
 tives 
 
 9. Adverbs from Adjectives. 
 
 10. Adverbs from Pronouns. 
 
 11. Adverbs from Nouns 
 
 12. Adverbs from Adverbs. . . 
 
 13. Prepositions from Nouns. 
 
 14. Adverbs from Preposi- 
 tions. 134 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 15. Conjunctions from Verbs 
 
 16. Nouns from Nouns 
 
 17. Verbs from Verbs 
 
 FOREIGN MATERIALS. 
 
 1. Foreign Words 
 
 3. " Stems and Themes 
 
 3, '• Affixes 
 
 Original Stock 
 
 Additions 
 
 AFFIXES. 
 FIRST. — ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 
 
 A, Be, En, In, Fore, Mis, 
 Out, Over, Un, tJnderj 
 With 
 
 SBCONJ). — LATIN PREFIXES. 135 
 
 Ab, Ad, Amb, Ante, Circum, 
 Cis, Con, Contra, Counter, 
 De, Dis(F.), Dis(L.), Ex, 
 Extra, In, Inter, Intro, 
 Juxta, Ob, Mai, Per, 
 Multi, Post, Pre, Preter, 
 Pro, Be, Betro, S, Se, 
 Semi, Sine, Sub, Subter, 
 Super, Sur (F.), Trans, 
 Ultra, 
 
 THIRD. — GREEK PREFIXES. 126 
 
 A, Amphi, Ana, Anti, Apo, 
 Cata, IMa, Dys, Ec, En, 
 Epi, Eu, Hyper, Hypo, 
 Meta, Para, Pere, Poly, 
 Syn 
 
 FOURTH. — NUMERAL PREFIXES. 
 (LATIN.) 137 
 
 TJni or Unit, Bis or Bi, Tris 
 or Tri, Quadri, Quinque 
 or Quintu, Sex or Sexi, 
 S^tem or Sept, Octo, 
 Novem, Decern 
 
 NUMERAL PREFIXES. GREEK. 
 
 Mono, Dis or Di, Tris or Tri, 
 Tetra, Peuta, Hexa, Hep- 
 ta, Oota or Octo, Ennea, 
 Deca, Endeca, Dodeca. . . 
 
 PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES.. 138 
 
 ble ; bleness or bility ; nee 
 or ncy ; ant or ent ; lent ; 
 lence ; ion or ment ; ate ; 
 age ; en, fy, fit, or flc ; 
 er, or, eer, ier, ian, cian, 
 ean, ee, ist, ite, san, zan, 
 zen, ast ; ar, ary, ate, ive, 
 ster, ado, oso ; ao, ar, ary, 
 an, a], ic, ine, ile, leal ; 
 hood ; ile ; ice, ty, cy ; 
 
AMAL7TICAL INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 fioe ; aoious, aceous, ous ; 
 i ; ive ; ism ; ize ; ics ; 
 isli ; ed, id ; less ; ly ; 129 
 f ul, ose ; ness ; f erous ; 
 ory ; ric, dom ; ship ; 
 ude ; ward ; ure ; ery, 
 ry, y ; some ; tli ; d, t ; 
 m ; or ; and, end ; esce ; 
 ed, d -;k 
 
 DEVELOPMENT. I 
 
 The Development of a Stem 
 or a Theme 
 
 EXAMPLE 130 
 
 STEMS AND THEMES. 
 TVOKD SYNTHESIS 134 
 
 Word Synthesis 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 ■VrORD AHALTSIS. 
 
 Word Analysis ... 
 
 Systematic Analysis 
 
 Approximate Analysis 135 
 
 Ultimate Analysis.. 
 
 Ordinary Students 
 
 More Advanced Students 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Stems and Affixes 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Secondary Significations 136 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 ABSTRACTION. 
 
 Primary Significations 
 
 Abstract Significations 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Primitive Nouns 
 
 Verbs 
 
 OKIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 A Radicle, or Eootlet 
 
 A Hoot 
 
 A Stem 
 
 Original Words. 
 
 Use 
 
 Later Use 
 
 Modified Use 
 
 First Inflection 137 
 
 Other Inflections 
 
 Interjections 
 
 Secondary Prepositions, &c. . 
 
 Dropping of Inflections 
 
 Copulas 
 
 VAKIATION. 
 
 Variation 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Methods 
 
 Genera 
 
 FIKST GENUS. — FORMAL VARIA- 
 TION. 
 SPECIES. — ^2. 
 
 1 . Graphic Variation , . 
 
 3. Phonic Variation 
 
 3. Combined Variation 138 
 
 SECOND GENUS. — SIGNIFICANT 
 VARIATION. 
 SPECIES. — !J. 
 
 1. Homogeneous Variation.. 
 
 2. Heterogeneous Variation. . 
 
 THIRD GENUS. -^MIXED VARIA- 
 TION. 
 
 Mixed Variation — 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 DIVERGENCE 139 
 
 Divergence. 
 
 Methods 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 STJIONYMS. 
 
 SynonyimB. ., 
 
 Perfect Synonyms.... 
 
 Approximate iSynonyBig. .... 
 
 Origin - 
 
 Paucity 
 
 Beason 
 
 APPROXIMATE SYNONYMS. 
 
 Classiflcation of Synonyms . . 
 
 First Class {Genus and Spe- 
 cies) 
 
 Second Class (Intensity) 
 
 Third " (Activity) 
 
 Fourth ' (Positiveness). 140 
 
 Fifth " (Species) 
 
 Sixth " (Whole and 
 Part) 
 
 Seventh Class (Mise^lane- 
 
 ous 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SPECIALTIES 143 
 
 Therefore ,. 
 
 Heretofore 
 
 Somewhere 
 
 Notwithstanding 
 
 Whoever 
 
 Whosoever 
 
 Note 143 
 
 Beware 
 
 Methinks 
 
 Whence and Whither 
 
 Hitherto 
 
 Yes 
 
348 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Nay .».. 
 
 No 
 
 Hypothesis : 
 
 Hypothetical 
 
 PAET III.— Stntax. 
 
 Syntax. , 
 
 Divisions 
 
 CHAPTER I.— AuAlTsis. 
 
 Analysis 
 
 A Sentence 
 
 A Phrase 
 
 EXAMPLES 144 
 
 SECTION FIKST. — ANALYSIS OF 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 The Subject of a Sentence.. 
 The Predicate of a Sentence. 
 The Copula of a Sentence . . . 
 The Subject of a Discourse. . 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 A Modifier 
 
 A Connective _. 
 
 An Element of a Sentence. . . 
 
 Principal Elements 
 
 Subordinate Elements 
 
 Primitive Element 
 
 Expanded Element 
 
 Compound.Element 
 
 Complicate Element 145 
 
 Interjections, &c 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 CLASSES OP SENTENCES. 
 
 1. A Simple Sentence 
 
 3. A Complex Sentence 
 
 3. A Compound Sentence 
 
 4. A Complicate Sentence. . . 
 A Member of a Compound 
 
 Sentence 
 
 An Elementary Sentence 
 
 A Prospective Sentence 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 CLASS I. — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 146 
 
 ORDERS. 
 
 1. A Copulative Sentence... 
 3. A Verbal Sentence 
 
 STJB-ORDERS. 
 
 1. An Active Sentence 
 
 8. ■ A Passive Sentence 
 
 3. A Neuter Sentence 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 GENERA. 
 
 1. An AflSrmative Sentence. . 
 3. A Negative Sentence 
 
 PAGE. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SUB-GENERA. 
 
 1. A Positive Sentence 
 
 3. An Interrogative Sentence 147 
 
 COHORTS. 
 
 1. A Definite Question 
 
 3. An Indefinite Question. . . . 
 
 SUB-COHORTS. 
 
 1. A Direct Question 
 
 3. An Indirect Question 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. An Indicative Sentence. . . 
 3. A Subjunctive Sentence.. 
 
 3. An Imperative Sentence . . 
 
 4. An Infinitive Sentence. . . . 
 
 5. An Exclamatory Sentence. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 PRIMITIVE ELEMENTS. 148 
 
 Primitive Subject 
 
 " Copula 
 
 " Predicate 
 
 " Modifier of a Noun 
 Verb 
 " Modifier of an Ad- 
 jective or Adverb 
 
 CLASS II. — COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. A Subjective Sentence 
 
 3. A Predicative Sentence. .. 
 
 3. A Mixed Sentence.. 
 
 ORDERS, &o. 
 The Orders, Sub-Orders, &c. . 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 CLASS III. — COMPOUND SEN- 
 TENCES. 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1. A Lopse. Sentence 
 
 3. A Compact Sentence 
 
 3. A Close Sentence 149 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 FIRST SUB-CLASS. — LOOSE SEN- 
 TENCES. 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Normal Loose' Sentence. 
 3. A Reduced Loose Sen- 
 tence 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Direct Loose Sentence. . 
 
 3. An Inverted Loose Sen- 
 tence 
 
 3. A, Reversed Loose Sen- 
 tence : 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
ANAL YTICAL mDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 PAGE. 
 SECOND StTB-CLASS. — COMPACT 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Single Oompact Sen- 
 tence 
 
 3. A Double Compact Sen- 
 tence 
 
 3. A Triple Compact Sen- 
 tence 
 
 EXAMPLES 150 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Direct Compact Sen- 
 tence 
 
 3. An Inverted Compact Sen- 
 tence 
 
 3. A Reversed Compact Sen- 
 tence .• 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SECTIONS. 
 
 1. An Absolute Sentence 
 
 3. A Conditional Sentence. .. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SUB-SECTIONS, 
 
 1. A Contingent Sentence... 
 
 3. A Hypothetical Sentence. 151 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 THIBD SUB-CLASS. — CLOSE SEN- 
 TENCES. 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Simple Close Sentence. . 
 3. A Complex Close Sentence 
 3. A Complicate Close Sen- 
 tence 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Direct Close Sentence... 
 
 2. An Inverted Close Sen- 
 
 tence 
 
 3. A Reversed Close Sen- 
 
 tence 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 CLASS IV. — COMPLICATE SEN- 
 TENCES. 
 SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 1." A Simple Complicate Sen- 
 tence 
 
 2. A Complex Complicate 
 
 Sentence 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Subjective Sentence.... 153 
 
 3. A Predicative Sentence. . . 
 3. A Mixed Sentence 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. A Co-Subjective Sentence. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 3. A Co-Predicative Sentence 
 3. A Co-Mixed Sentence 
 
 SECTIONS. 
 
 1. A Primary Complicate Sen- 
 
 tence 
 
 2. A Secondary Complicate 
 
 Sentence 
 
 3. A Composite Complicate 
 
 Sentence 
 
 Note 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 SECTION II. — ANALYSIS OF 
 
 PHRASES. 
 
 Tlie Base of a Phrase 
 
 The Elements 153 
 
 CLASSES OP PHRASES. 
 
 1. A Simple Phrase 
 
 3. A Complex Phrase 
 
 3. A Compound Phrase 
 
 4. A Complicate Phrase 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 SIMPLE PHRASES. — SUB-CLASSES. 
 
 TWO. 
 
 1. A Primary Simple Phrase 
 
 2. A Secondary Simple 
 
 Phrase 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 COMPLEX PHRASES. — SUB-CLAS- 
 SES. — THREE 154 
 
 1. A Basic Complex Phrase. . 
 
 2. An Adjunctive Complex 
 
 Phrase 
 
 3. A Mixed Complex Phrase. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 COMPOUND PHRASES. — SUB 
 
 CLASSES. — TWO. 
 
 1. A Loose Phrase 
 
 2. A Compact Phrase 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 COMPLICATE PHRASES. — SUB- 
 CLASSES. — TWO. 
 
 1. A Simple Complicate 
 
 Phrase 
 
 2. A Complex Complic::to 
 
 Phrase 
 
 COMPLEX COMPLICATE PHRASES. — 
 DIVISIONS. — THREE. 
 
 1. A Basic Phrase 
 
 2. An Adjunctive Phrase 
 
 3. A Mixed Phrase 
 
 SUB-DIVISIONS. — THREE. 
 
 1. A Primary Complicate 
 Phrase 
 
350 
 
 ANALTTIOAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 3. A Secondary Complicate 
 
 Phrase 
 
 3. A Composite Complicate 
 
 Phrase 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SPECIES. — TEN 155 
 
 1. A Substantive Phrase... 
 
 2. Aa Adjective Phrase 
 
 3. A Pronominal Phrase. . . . 
 
 4. A Copulative Phrase 
 
 5. A Verbal Phrase 
 
 6. A Participial Phrase. . . . 
 
 7. An Infinitive Phrase 
 
 8. An Adverbial Phrase . . . 
 
 9. A Prepositional Phrase... 
 10. A Sentential Phrase 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 USES OP PHRASES. 
 
 1. A Substantive Phrase — 4. 
 
 2. An Adjective Phrase — 2. 
 
 3. A Pronominal Phrase — 4. 
 
 4. A Copulative Phrase — 1 . 
 
 5. A Verbal Phrase — 1 
 
 6. A Participial Phrase^-3. . 156 
 
 7. An Infinitive Phrase — 1, 
 
 8. An Adverbial Phrase — 1. 
 
 9. APrepositional Phrase— 1 
 10. A Sentential Phrase — 4. . 
 
 SECTION THREE. — TRANSFOHMA- 
 TIOK. 
 
 Transformation 
 
 Methods 
 
 An Objective Sentence 
 
 A Double Objective Sentence 
 . Corresponding Sentences. . , 
 
 PIRST METHOD. — CONVERSION. 
 
 Conversion 
 
 MODES OP CONVERSION. 
 
 1. Verbal to Active Sentence 
 
 3. Active to Verbal Sentence 
 
 3. Verbal to Passive Sentence 
 
 4. Passive to Verbal Sentence 
 
 EXAMPLES 157 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SECOND METHOD. — CONTRACTION. 
 
 Contraction 
 
 Note 
 
 MODES OF CONTRACTION. 
 
 1. Contraction by Omission. . 
 3. Contraction by Substitu- 
 tion 
 
 PIRST MODE. — OMISSION. 158 
 
 Parts Omitted 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 EXERCISES 159 
 
 SECOND MODE. — SUBSTITUTION. 
 
 1. Contraction of Compact 
 Sentences 
 
 3. Contraction of Close Sen- 
 tences 
 
 3. Subject of Infinitive Sen- 
 
 tence 160 
 
 4. Subject with a Participle. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 EXERCISES 162 
 
 THIRD METHOD. — EXPANSION. 163 
 
 Expansion 
 
 Use 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Note 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 ■ ORDER OP ANALYSIS. 
 
 The Proper Order 
 
 PARSING 164 
 
 Parsing 
 
 Things to be Done 
 
 Note 
 
 Order of Parsing 
 
 Purposes 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Note 
 
 MODELS.t 165 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Synthesis. 179 
 
 Synthesis 
 
 Divisions of Synthesis 
 
 SECTION I. — AGREEMENT. 
 
 Agreement 
 
 Classes of Agreements 
 
 Corresponding Forms 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Equivalence 
 
 Impossibility 
 
 GENERAL RULE POK AGREE- 
 MENT. 
 
 CLASS I. — AGREEMENT OP PRO- 
 NOUNS 180 
 
 Principle. , . 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. To represent a Masculine 
 Noun, &c 
 
 3. To represent a Doubtful 
 Noun, &c 
 
 3. To represent a Singular 
 
 Form, &c 
 
 4. To represent a Noun Plu- 
 
 ral in Form, &c 
 
ANALTTIdAL INDEX. 
 
 351 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 5. To represent aai Ambigu- 
 
 ous Noun 
 
 6. To represent a Singular 
 
 Collective Noun, &c 
 
 7. To represent a Compound 
 
 Term including a First 
 Person 
 
 8. To represent a Compound 
 
 Term including a Second 
 Person 
 
 9. To represent a Compound 
 
 Term not including a 
 First or Second Person. . 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 CLASS 11. — AGREEMENT OF AD- 
 JECTIVES 181 
 
 Principle 
 
 Kule 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 CLASS III. — AGREEMENTS OF COPU- 
 LA AND VERB 182 
 
 Principle 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. With Singular Sabjects,&c 
 
 2. Where Plural Forms are 
 
 lacking 
 
 3. Subject a Personal Pro- 
 
 noun 
 
 4. Where Personal Forms are 
 
 lacking 
 
 f). Subject a Singular Noun, 
 
 i'C 
 
 G Subject a Relative Pro- 
 noun 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SECTION II —GOVERNMENT. 183 
 
 Government 
 
 Species of. 
 
 1. A Subject 
 
 2. A Predicate 
 
 3. An Object 
 
 SPECIES I.^^OVERNMENT OF SUB 
 JECT. 
 RULES. 
 
 1. Subject.of Tense Form. .. 
 
 2. Subject of Infinitive 
 
 SPECIES II. — GOVERNMENT OF 
 PREDICATE. 
 
 Rule 
 
 SPECIES III. — GOVERNMENT OF 
 OBJECT. 
 
 Rule 
 
 EXERCISES 184 
 
 PAGE. 
 SECTION III. — ARBAN6BMBNT. 
 
 1. Normal arrangement of 
 
 Verbal Sentence 
 
 3. Copulative Sentence 
 
 3. Adjectives 
 
 4. Adverbs 
 
 5. Object 
 
 6. Prepositional Phrase 
 
 7. Separate Adjectives 
 
 8. Consecutive Adjectives.. 
 
 9. Articles 
 
 10. Adverbs of the Same 
 Group 
 
 11. Adverbs of Diffieremt 
 Groups 
 
 13. Modal Adverbs 185 
 
 13. Variation 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 1. Modifiers 
 
 2. Clearness 
 
 3. Emphatic Words 
 
 4. Relative Pronouns 
 
 5. :'And" and "But" .... 
 
 6. Emphatic Modifier of 
 Verb 
 
 7. Closing Preposition 
 
 8. Pronouns.^ 
 
 9. Articles 
 
 10 Indefinite Articles 
 
 11. Parentheses, &c 186 
 
 13. Succession of like Sounds 
 
 13. Interrogative Sentences. , 
 
 14. Order of the Persons. . . . 
 
 15. Infinitives 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SECTION IV. — USES OF WORDS 
 AND FORMS. , . . 188 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Stem 
 
 Possessive Case. 
 
 Modifying Noun. 
 
 First Use 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth " :. 
 
 Fifth " 
 
 Po.ssessi ve Case of Noun . 
 
 .\oun followed by Modifiers. 
 Joint Limitation 189 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 Use 
 
 Origin : 
 
352 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDBX. 
 
 FAGi:. 
 
 Personal Pronoun 
 
 Nominative Case 
 
 Possessive Case 
 
 Objective Case 
 
 BXAMPLBS. 
 SPECIAIi FORMS 190 
 
 Forms of Second Person, 
 
 Singular 
 
 TheForm "You" 
 
 The Form "It" 
 
 The Form "There" 
 
 Omitted Antecedents 
 
 Use of the Relatives 
 
 Thou and You 191 
 
 Pronoun as Predicate 
 
 Possessive Pronouns 
 
 ERRORS. 
 
 "They " 
 
 ■Them" 
 
 "As" 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 KXBRCISKS 192 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Uses 
 
 Position 
 
 Order 
 
 Qualities expressed by Adjec- 
 tives 
 
 EXAMPLE, 
 THE POSITIVE DEGREE . 193 
 
 Implication 
 
 The Ideal Standard 
 
 Consequence 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 Implication 
 
 Significance 
 
 Example 
 
 Contrast 
 
 Sequence 
 
 THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 194 
 
 Implication 
 
 Significance 
 
 Contrast 
 
 Sequence 
 
 Superlative of Eminence. . . . 
 
 TERMS OF A COMPARISON. 
 
 The Terms of a Comparison. 
 
 Limit of Terms 
 
 Consequences 
 
 MISCBLLAUT. 
 
 Compounds 
 
 Double Comparatives, &c 195 
 
 Superior, &c. 
 
 " The Two First," &o 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Adjectives and Verbs 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Limit of Use 
 
 Repetition 
 
 Omission 
 
 Implied Article 196 
 
 Contrasts 
 
 Necessity 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Number of Limited Noun. . . 
 
 Special Cases 
 
 Position 
 
 " Understood "' Article 197 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Limitation 
 
 Use 
 
 Old Form, &c 
 
 Present Forms 
 
 Substitution 
 
 Few, &e 
 
 Many 
 
 Position 
 
 EXAMPLES 198 
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 "The" 
 
 "This and These" 
 
 "Both" 
 
 "Such" 
 
 The Distributives 
 
 " Each Other," &c 
 
 " Either " and " Neither "... 
 
 ' ' Some " 
 
 "Other" 
 
 "Another" 199 
 
 "Any" 
 
 " Many", . , 
 
 " Few" 
 
 "One" 
 
 "None" 
 
 "AU" 
 
 "Several" 
 
 " What " and " Which" 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 VERBS 300 
 
 Primarily 
 
 Secondarily 
 
 Each Tense 
 
 The Present Tense 
 
 The Past Tense .' 
 
 The Future Tense '. 
 
 The Indefinite Tense 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 353 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 The Compound Present Tense 201 
 Past Tense. . . 
 " " Future Tense. 
 
 Indef. Tense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 PASTICIPIiBS 202 
 
 Present Participle 
 
 Use 
 
 Past Participle 
 
 Use 
 
 Compound Participle 
 
 Participles of the Copula. . . . 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 COMPOUND. TENSES. .. 203 
 
 Auxiliary and Participle .... 
 
 HYPOTHETICAL TENSES. 
 
 The Copula 
 
 Significance. 
 
 The Other Tenses 
 
 Verbal Tenses 
 
 EXAMPLES 204 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Use 
 
 Simple Infinitives, &c 
 
 The f To " in Infinitives 
 
 Former Use 
 
 Omission 
 
 AUXILIARIES. 
 
 All the Auxiliaries 
 
 " Do," " Have," and "Will," 
 
 " Do " and " Did " 
 
 Termination of Third Per- 
 son, Singular 205 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 " Potential" Future Tense.. 
 
 " Shall " and ' ' Will " in Con- 
 ditional Sentences 
 
 "Do" and "Have" 
 
 ■•May" 
 
 "Can" 
 
 "Must" 
 
 " Might " and " Could" 
 
 "Would" 
 
 "Should" 
 
 EXEKCISES. 
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT DIS- 
 COURSE 206 
 
 Indirect Discourse 
 
 Direct Discourse 
 
 The Tenses 
 
 The Changes, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 
 5th>6thand 7th 
 
 QUOTATION. 
 
 Quotation 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Formal Quotation 
 
 Informal Quotation.. 
 
 Direct Quotation 307 
 
 Indirect Quotation 
 
 First Case 
 
 Second Case ' 
 
 Third Case 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 CONTRACTIONS OP INDIRECT DIS- 
 COURSE 208 
 
 Substitution 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 Use 
 
 Adverbs and Nouns 
 
 Old Forms 
 
 " Hence," &c 
 
 Two Negatives, i 
 
 Modal Adverbs. 
 
 Absurdities.. 209 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 Conjunctions 
 
 Elements 
 
 Sentences 
 
 "Both" 
 
 "And" 
 
 "Lest" 
 
 "But" 
 
 "Or"...; 
 
 Other Conjunctions. ........ 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A Preposition 
 
 Opposites 
 
 Prefixes 
 
 Contradictions 
 
 Absurdities 
 
 " Among." 
 
 " Between " 
 
 Two Propositions 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 SECTION V. — IDIOMS. 
 
 Idioms 
 
 Anomalies 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 210 
 
 f CHAPTER III.— Ornamenta- 
 tion. 212 
 
 Ornamentation.. 
 
 Figures of Speech 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 Pleonasm 
 
 Iteration. 
 
 Euphemism 
 
 Circumlocution 
 
354 
 
 ANALYTICAL ISTDEX. 
 
 FAOE, 
 
 Auacoluthon 
 
 Bialectism 
 
 EXAlTPIJaS. 
 
 Archaism 213 
 
 Tranposition 
 
 Use , 
 
 PHINCIPAL VARIATIONS. 
 
 1. Subject and Predicate. . . . 
 
 2. Adjectives 
 
 3. Adverbs 
 
 4. Prepositional Phrases. . . , 
 
 5. Object 
 
 6. Periodicity 
 
 7. Beversiou 
 
 8. Inversion..: 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Simile 214 
 
 Metaphor 
 
 Allegory 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Antithesis 
 
 Hyperbole 
 
 Irony 
 
 Metonomy 215 
 
 Synecdoche ,. 
 
 Personification 
 
 Apostrophe 
 
 Interrogation 
 
 Faralipsis 
 
 Allusion , 
 
 APun.... 
 
 Vision 
 
 Climax ,... 216 
 
 *f PART IV.— Pbobobt. 
 
 Prosody..... 
 
 Poetry..- - , 
 
 Prose. ^ 
 
 Beauty oi Poetic Expression. 
 
 DIVIBIONS. 
 
 The Divisions of Prosody. .. 
 CHAPTER I.— Versification. 
 
 SECTION I. — MBASrTRBS. 
 
 Measure 
 
 Essential Characteristic 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Long Syliable 
 
 Short Syllable 217 
 
 Time of a Long Syllable. . . . 
 
 A Great Syllable 
 
 Time of a Great Syllable 
 
 A Verse 
 
 A Foot 
 
 A Measure 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Equality of Measures 
 
 Exception 
 
 Scanning. 
 
 SECTION II. — FEET 
 GENERA. 
 
 1. A Macron 
 
 2. A Dissyllabic Foot 
 
 3. A Trisyllabic Foot 
 
 4. A Tetrasyllabic Foot 
 
 GENUS II. — DISSYLLABIC FEET. 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. An Iambus 
 
 2. A Trochee 
 
 3. A Spondee. 
 
 4. A Pyrrhic 
 
 GENUS III. — TRISTLIlABIC FEET. 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. A Dactyl 
 
 2. An Anapaest 
 
 3. An Amphibrach 218 
 
 4. Tribrach 
 
 5. A Bacchius 
 
 6. A Antibacchius 
 
 7. An Amphimacer 
 
 8. A Molossus 
 
 EXAMPLES OF SCANNING. 
 
 GENUS IV. — TETBABYLLABIC 
 
 FEET. 
 
 Tetrasyllable Feet 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. A Choriambus 
 
 2. Am Antispast 
 
 3. An loniQ a majore 
 
 4. An Ionic a minore 
 
 5. A First Peon 
 
 6. A Second Peon. 
 
 7. A Tliird Peon 
 
 8. A Fourth Peon. ... , 
 
 9. A First Epitrite. 
 
 10. A Second Epitrite 
 
 11. A Third Epitrite 
 
 12. A Fourth Epitrite 
 
 13. A Di-iambus 
 
 14. A Ditrochee , 
 
 15. A Dispondee, 
 
 16. A Dipyrrhie 
 
 Note 219 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 SECTION III. — VERSES. 
 
 CLASSES. . 
 
 1. An Iambic Verse 
 
 2. A Trochaic Verse , 
 
 3. A Dactylic Verse 
 
 4. An Anapaestic Verse 
 
ANALTTIGAL INDEX. 
 
 355 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 5. An Amphibrachic Verse. . 
 ^^_g»: An Amphimaoeric Veree. . 
 .. J,, A Choiiambis V^rse 
 
 Si-Aj'eonic Verse 220 
 
 ORDEBS. 
 
 1. A Piire Verse 
 
 2. A- Jiixed Verse 
 
 GENERA. 
 
 A Meter 
 
 1. A Monojneter ., 
 
 2. A Dimeter 
 
 3. A Trimeter 
 
 4. A Tetrameter 
 
 5. A Pentameter. 
 
 6. A Hexameter 
 
 7. AHeptameter 
 
 8. An Octometer 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. Blank Verse 
 
 2. Ehymed Verse 
 
 3. Alliterative Verse 
 
 4. Paralleled Verse 
 
 5. Imitative Verse 
 
 6. Annominative Verse. . . . 
 
 7. Euphnistic Verse 
 
 8. Lipogrammatio Verse 
 
 9. Macaronic Verse 
 
 10. Acrostic Verse. 
 
 SECTION IT. — PAUSES. 
 
 Poetic Pauses 
 
 1. The Final Pause 
 
 2. The Caesural Pause . 
 
 3. The Demi-Caesural Pause. 
 The Time of these Pauses. . . 221 
 
 SECTION y. — NOTATION. 
 
 Poetic Notation 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Ornamenta- 
 tion, 
 Ornamientation 
 
 SECTION I. — ^RHTMB. 
 
 Bhyrae.... 
 
 A Rhyme 
 
 A Single Rhyme 
 
 A Double Rhyme 222 
 
 A Triple Rhyme 
 
 A Perfect Rhyme 
 
 An Imperfect Rhyme 
 
 A Rich Ehyme 
 
 Half Rhyme 
 
 Assonanca 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Old Rhymes. , 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Use of Imperfect Rhymes. . . 
 
 Terminal Rhymes 
 
 Initial Rhymes 
 
 Line Rhymes. 223 
 
 SECTION II. — ALLITERATION. 
 
 Alliteration 
 
 Use 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Abuse of Alliteration 
 
 SECTION III. — PARALLELISM. 
 
 Parallelism '. 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. Synonymous Parallelism. . 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 3. Antithetic Parallelism.... 234 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 3. Constructive Parallelism.. 
 
 EXAMPLES 225 
 
 SECTION IV. — OTHER ORNAMENTS. 
 
 I. Imitation 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 II. Aunomination 236 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 III. Euphuism 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 IV. Ltpo-grammatism. ....... 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 V. Macronism 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 VL Acrosticism 327 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Note 
 
 CHAPTER III.— Adaptation. 
 
 1. Iambic Verse 
 
 3. Trochaic Verse 
 
 example. 
 
 3. Amphibrachic Verse 
 
 example. 
 
 4. Dactylic and Anapaestic 
 
 Verses 
 
 5. Occasional Feet 
 
 The Macron 
 
 The Spondee 338 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The Pyrrhic: 
 
 examples. 
 TheTribrach 
 
 examples. 
 
 The Long Feet 
 
 The Amphimacer, &c 
 
 example. 
 The Trochee in Heroic Verse. 229 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
350 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 The Amphibrach in Heroic 
 Verse 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The Daxityl in Heroic Verse . . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The Anapaest in Heroic Verse 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The Heroic Verse 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Common Octosyllabic Verse. 
 
 EXAMPLE 330 
 
 Tetrasyllabic Feet 
 
 CHATER IV.— Arbakgembnt. 
 
 Arrangement 
 
 A Stanza 
 
 Note.. 
 
 CLASSES OF STANZAS. 
 
 1. A Couplet 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A IMstich 
 
 a. ATriplet 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 3. A Quatrain 
 
 4. A Quintette 
 
 5. A Sestette 
 
 6. A Septette 
 
 7. An Octave 
 
 The Class of a Stanza 
 
 The Number of the Class. .. 
 Blank Verse 231 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Rhymed Verse 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I. Continuous 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 II. Couplets 232 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Tetrameters 
 
 • 3. Heroic Couplets 
 
 Note 
 
 3. Hexameters (Iambic) 
 
 Note 233 
 
 4. Heptameters 
 
 The Service Meter, or Com- • 
 
 mon Meter 
 
 The Short Meter 
 
 Terminal Amphibrach 
 
 5. Octometers 
 
 The Long Meter 234 
 
 The Ballad Stanza 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 III. Triplets 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1. Iambic Tetrameters 
 
 2. Iambic Pentameters 235 
 
 3. Trochaic Tetrameters 
 
 IV. Quatrains 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 V. Quintettes 336 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 VI. Sestettes 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 VII. Septettes 
 
 Rhyme Royal 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 VIII. Octaves 237 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Ottava Rima 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 IX. Nine Line Stanzas 
 
 Spi'iicerian Stanza 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 X. Ten Line Stanzas 238 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Eleven Line Stanzas. . . . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 XII. Twelve Line Stanzas. . . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Thirteen Line Stanzas. 239 
 
 XL 
 
 xin. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Fourteeen Line Stanzas 
 
 XIV, 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Variations of the Sonnet 
 
 A Strophe 
 
 Note 240 
 
 SXJB-CLASSES OF STANZAS. 
 
 1. A Homogeneous Stanza. . . 
 
 2. A Heterogeneous Stanza. . 
 
 ORDERS. 
 
 1. A Continuous Rhymed 
 Stanza 
 
 3. A Consecutive Bhymed 
 
 Stanza 
 
 3. An Alternate Rhymed 
 
 Stanza 
 
 4. A Remote-Rhymed Stanza 
 Varieties of the Stanza 
 
 MISCELLANEOTTS EXAMPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— PoEMS. 343 
 A Poem , 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 1. A Lyric Poem 
 
 2. A Dramatic Poem 
 
 3. .A Lectic Poem 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 357 
 
 FAOE. 
 CI-ASS I. — ^LYRIC POBMS. 
 GENBBA. 
 
 A Sacred Poem 
 
 A Secular Poem 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— Poetic License 
 Poetic License 
 
 GENTJB I. — SACKED POEMS. 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. A Psalm 
 
 2. A Hymn 
 
 GENUS II. — SECULAR POEMS, 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. A Song 
 
 2. A Ballad 
 
 3. An Ode 
 
 4. An Elegy 
 
 CLASS II. — DRAMATIC POEMS. 
 GENERA. 
 
 1. A Tragedy 
 
 3. A Comedy 
 
 3. A Mask 
 
 GENUS II. — COMEDIES. 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. A Regular Comedy 
 
 3. A Farce 
 
 CLASS III. — LECTIC POEMS. 344 
 ORDERS. 
 
 1. A Didactic Poem 
 
 3. An Aesthetic Poem 
 
 ORDER I. — DIDACTIC POEMS. 
 GENERA. 
 
 1. A Historic Poem 
 
 3. An Argumentative Poem. 
 
 3. A Descriptive Poem 
 
 4. A Hortatory Poem 
 
 5. A Satiric Poem 
 
 GENUS I. — HISTORIC POEMS. 
 SPECIES. ' 
 
 1. An Epic Poem 
 
 3. A Chronicle 
 
 3. An Anecdote 
 
 ORDER II. — AESTHETIC POEMS. 
 SPECIES. 
 
 1. A Romance 
 
 3. A Pastoral Poem 
 
 3. An Idyl 
 
 4. AFable 
 
 5. An Epistle 
 
 6. A Parody 
 
 7. A Burlesque 
 
 8. A Macaronic Poem 
 
 9. Task Poetry 345 
 
 10. An Epigram 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 EXPEDIENTS. 
 
 1. Contraction of Words . . . 
 3. Combination of Words. . 
 
 3. Antiquated Pronuncia- 
 tion 
 
 4. Antiquated Inflection 
 
 5. Antiquated Words and 
 Phrases 
 
 6. Constant Use of Figures. 
 
 7. Changing the Accent 
 
 8. Imperfect Rhymes 
 
 9. Imperfect Feet 
 
 10. Imperfect Stanzas 
 
 ABUSES OP POETIC LICENSE. 
 
 1. Too frequent resort to it. . 
 
 3. Indiscriminate use of Thou 
 
 and You 
 
 3. Confounding the Tenses. . 346 
 
 4. Corrupting Words ....... 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— Poetic Analy- 
 sis 348 
 
 Poetic Analysis 
 
 Process 
 
 Additional Work 
 
 " Philological Method " 
 
 example. 
 
 exercises. 
 
 t APPENDIX 355 
 
 CHAPTER I.— Composition. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 PART 1. — An Elementary 
 
 Course 356 
 
 Principal Points 
 
 1. Copying 
 
 3. Lists of Names 
 
 3. Names of Parts 
 
 example. 
 
 4. Qualities of Things 
 
 example. 
 
 5. Uses 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 6. "Writing from Memory . . 
 
 7. Description of Things. . . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 8. Description of Places . . . 
 
 9. Description of Events, 
 or Narration . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
358 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 10. Letters 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 PART II. — A3S Intermediate 
 
 COtTRBE 363 
 
 Section 1 
 
 Section 3 
 
 Section 3 
 
 PART III.— A Higher 
 
 COITRSB 263 
 
 Design 
 
 SECTION I. — PBOSE. 
 
 1. Theme 
 
 3. Plan 
 
 3. FUlingup 
 
 4. Study and Revision, &o. . . 
 
 plans. 
 
 Plans and Themes 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PLANS (GESEKAL 
 
 themes). 
 Development of Plans 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Partionlax Themes 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 SECTION n. — ^poetry. 
 
 Special Directions 
 
 Nonsense Verses 
 
 Sense Verses 
 
 PART IV.— Course of Self-In- 
 
 STBTJCTION 370 
 
 1st Step 
 
 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 
 Stqm 
 
 LIST OF THEMES. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Exercises. 
 CHAPTER III.— Selections. 380 
 
 1. From the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle 
 
 2. From Wace's Coronation 
 
 of Arthur 281 
 
 3. Prom a Charter of Henry 
 III 
 
 4. Robert's Chronicle 
 
 5. From the Vision of Piers. 
 Plowman 283 
 
 6. Prom the Narrative of 
 Mandeville 
 
 7. From the Gierke's Tale, 
 
 by Chaucer. 283 
 
 8. English Courage, by For- 
 tescne 
 
 9. Jack Cade, by Robert 
 Fabian 284 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 13. 
 
 13. 
 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 23. 
 33. 
 34. 
 35. 
 36. 
 37. 
 38. 
 39. 
 30. 
 31. 
 
 PAGE. 
 From the Geneva Bible. . 
 From the Authorized 
 
 Version ~ 
 
 From the Fairie Queen, 
 
 by Spenser 
 
 Angels, Men and Beasts, 
 
 by Hooker 386 
 
 Murellus on Csesar. ..... 
 
 Tragedy, by Milton 387 
 
 From Samson Agonistes. 
 
 The Soul's Progress 388 
 
 Happiness 289 
 
 The Passions 290 
 
 Procrastination 293 
 
 Italy 393 
 
 Rural Sounds 394 
 
 Characterof Christ 295 
 
 Waterloo 295 
 
 The Lamarckians 396 
 
 Man and Nature 297 
 
 The Puritans 398 
 
 The Passing of Arthur. . 399 
 
 Reason and Truth 300 
 
 Sunrise on the Hills 
 
 Evening on the St. Law- 
 rence 301 
 
 April 802 
 
 The Study of Language. 
 
 Libraries 303 
 
 Reading 304 
 
 The Preacher 305 
 
 Love of Fame 306 
 
 The Appian Way 307 
 
 Ancient Arabia 808 
 
 The Ram 309 
 
 The May-Flower 
 
 ShortWords 311 
 
 Neutrality 
 
 Boucher 313 
 
 Higher Anticipations. . . . 314 
 
 Farmers 315 
 
 Shallow Culture 317 
 
 Science 318 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— Notes. 319 
 
 , Phonetics. ..." 
 
 Phonetic Alphabets 833 
 
 Initial Wand T 
 
 , Transitive and Intransi- 
 tive Verbs 335 
 
 , Definitions of the Verb. . 336 
 
 . The Copula. 827 
 
 . Gender 328 
 
 . " Brethren," " Dies," &c.. 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 a59 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 9. Plural of a Name and 
 Title 
 
 10. Possessive Case 
 
 11. The Form " Hem " 339 
 
 13. Comparison of " Qood " 
 
 and " Bad" 
 
 13. Forms of the Second Per- 
 son 
 
 14. Inflections 
 
 15. " Soon," " Often," &e. .. . 330 
 
 16. Activity, &c 
 
 17. Origin of Language 
 
 18. Multiple Rhymes 331 
 
 19. Prepoational Phrases... 333 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 30. Compouhd Participles, &c. 
 
 31. Charts 
 
 33. "Poet,"&c 
 
 33. Grimm's Law. .'. 
 
 34. "By and by" 333 
 
 35. Voices of the Verb 
 
 36. Where, Whence and 
 Whither 
 
 37. Derivation 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. . 334 
 
 Word Chart No. 1 360 
 
 Word Chart No. 2 361 
 
 Phrase Chart 363 
 
360 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFia GRAMMAR 
 
 WORD CHART.-No, 1. 
 
 Ciiiss I.— Nouns. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 classes. 
 
 1. Proper. 8. Common. 
 
 Divisions. I 
 
 1. Fnll. 8. Defective. 
 
 Sub-Divisions. | 
 
 1. Masc. 8. Fem. 3. Doubt. 4 Neat. 
 
 Metaphysical i 1- Concrete. g J 1. Material 
 
 Sub-Classes j, ^^^^^ of Nouns. j|-. g^SS. 
 
 Class n.— Adjectives. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 classes. 
 
 1. Descriptive. 2. Deflnitive. 
 
 Dlvi- I slons. 
 
 1. Qualitative, 8. Material. 3. Participial. 
 
 Divi- 
 
 sions. 
 
 1. Articles. 8. Numerals. 3. PronomlnalB. 
 Sub-Divisions. | Sub- 1 Divi sions. 
 
 1. Def . 8. Indef. 1. Cardinal. 2. Ordinal. 
 
 Sub-Divisions. 
 
 1. Demon. 2. Dlstrib. 8. Indef. 4. Xnterrog. 5. Belative? 
 Geoups op Adjbctivbs. 
 
 1. Proper. 3. Bepllcative, 6. Singular. 
 
 8. Periodical. 4. Combinative. ' 6. Plural. 
 
 Class HI.— Pronouns. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 Classes. 
 
 1. Pers. 2. Eelat. 3. Interrog. 4. Poss. 5. Indef. 
 Class IV.— Copdlas. 
 
 Class V.— Vbbbs. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 Classes. 
 
 1. Begular. 2. Irregular. 
 Groups op Verbs. 
 
 1. Copulative. 8. Defective. 3. Redundant. 4. Auxiliary? 
 
OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAQE. 361 
 
 WORD CHART -No. 2. 
 
 Class VI.— Advbhbs. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 1. Limiting. 2. Conjunctive. 
 
 ^ I Divisions. 
 
 1. Fixed. 2. Mobile. 
 
 GROtirs or Adveebs. 
 
 1. Modal. 3. Place. 5. Manner. 7. Number. 9. Interrogation. 
 
 2. Time. 4. Cause. 6. Degree. 8. Order. 10. Negation. 
 
 Class VII.— Pkepositions. 
 
 Sub- ClaBses. 
 
 1. Simple. 2. Compound. 
 
 Dlvi- I sions. Dlvi- 1 sions. 
 
 1. Substan. 2. Adjec. 1. Phrase. 2. Double. 
 
 Class VHI.— Conjunctions. 
 
 Sub- Classes. 
 
 1. Absolute. 2. Relative. 
 
 I Divisions. | 
 
 1. Verbal. . 2. Adjec. 3. Substan. 4. Phrase. 5. Composite. 
 
 Class IX. — Intekjections. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 Classes. 
 
 1. Inarticulate. 2. Articulate. 
 
 Divi- 1 sions. 
 
 1. General. 2. Special. 
 
 Sub-Divl- I sions. 
 
 1. Joyous. 2. Sorrowful. 3. Contemptuous. 
 
 Special Class.- Exclamations. 
 
 Sub- 
 
 Classes. 
 
 1. Emotional anterjections). 2. Rational. 
 
 Divisions. I 
 
 ' 1. Compellatives. 1. Eesponsives. 3. Fragments. 
 
362 
 
 A OOMPLETB aCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 
 
 53 i 
 
 <i to 
 
 
 » 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9< 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 .& 
 
 c« 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ■a 
 
 3 
 
 •a 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 fq 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 QQ 
 
 
 
iSpecimm pages of Descriptive CaMogm of the AUTSORS' PUB. CO. 
 
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THE ATJTHOBS' PUBLISHING COMPANY'S DESORIPTIVE LIST. 17 
 
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 Ways to arrive at the Demonetization of Gold and Silver. 
 By M. E. PiLON, author of "Prices and Profits," "Higtory . 
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 style, and contains much useful 
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 LEGAL CENT, 
 
 HAVING FULL WEIGHT OF METAL. 
 
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 Louisville CoTrvmerdal. 
 
 .Especially valuable to 
 financiers. Jersey City Daily 
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 who has extensively stud- 
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 His hits are often sharpy 
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 DOMESTIC DOLLAR 
 
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18 THE authors' publishing compant's desceiptivb list. 
 
 Is Our Republic a Failure? 
 
 A Discussion of the Eights and Wbongs of the North and 
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 and their Origin," etc. English cloth, ink and gold, 12mo, 
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THE AUTHOBS* PUBLISHING COMPANY'S DESOBIPTIVB LIST. "" 19 
 
 The Universe of Language. 
 
 I. Nature, Development^ and J^eculiarities of Language, — ^ 
 H. Stkuctuee, with Uniform Notation and Classification 
 of Vowels, adapted to all Languages. — in. Vs^, JProposed 
 Changes, Fhonology, J^honotopy^ and the Spelling Reform. 
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 {in front of hook). By the late George Watson, Esq., of 
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36 THE author's publishing COMPAinr'S DESOBIPTrVE LIST. 
 
 Scrap Books, and How to Make Them. 
 
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 BOOKS f 
 
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MECHANICAL EXECUTION OF BOOKS 
 
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 press and binding come to our table. — BaUimore Methodist Protestant. 
 
 We can and do cheerfully commend to our readers any book bear- 
 ing their imprint, as we feel assured that nothing will pass their 
 examination save the purest and best. — Louisville Saturday Review. 
 
 SECOIVD YEAR, 18T4. 
 
 Their binding is elegant. — Baltimore Epis. Register. 
 
 The company I am told do a very good business. — Cor. JV. 0. Times. 
 
 This company means business, as its numerous publications amply 
 indicate. — Philadelphia Day. 
 
 It is not a company for publishing everything that may happen to 
 be offered John Stuart Mill advocated just such a pub- 
 lishing association years ago, but he died without the sight. It has 
 been reserved for America — the youngest, and destined, no doubt, to 
 be one of the greatest nations of the world— to establish it. From 
 present appearances it is on a firm footing. It has its publishing, 
 sales and printing departments all under good headway, and con- 
 trolled by a competent board of offloers-^TFasAm^'tore Gazette, 
 
 THIRD YEAR, 1875. 
 
 Excellent taste. — Eev. T. MoCaxh/BT, Haohettstovm.,N. J. 
 
 The execution is exceptionally good.-^Boone Co., Pa., Republican. 
 
 Beautiful specimens of typographical and binding art. — Baltimore 
 Meth. Protestant. 
 
 Printing, paper, and binding are combined to make ornaments to 
 the library. — Atlanta Christian Index. 
 
 The material and style of the publishers' work is capital, attractive 
 and tasteful. — Columbia, 8. C, Register. 
 
 I admire very greatiiy and rejoice at the success the enterprise has 
 met with. — Eev. G. W. Eabij, D.D., Brooklyn, Ontario, Ca. 
 
 (45) 
 
46 THE AUTHOES' PUBLISHING OOJEPANT'S DESCEIPTIVB LIST. 
 
 The books are elegantly gotten up and finely printed -with clear 
 new type. We are glad to know that the company is meeting with 
 steady success. — Pomeroy's Democrat, N. Y. 
 
 A leading New York publishing house whose taste and experience 
 in book-making are a sufficient guaranty of the style in which a book 
 will be gotten up. . . First class printing, elegant binding and 
 fine iQustrations. — Westfield, Pa., Idea. 
 
 FOITRXH YEAR, 1876. 
 
 The company does its own printing. — Literary World, Boston. 
 
 I am very much pleased with your style of binding and getting 
 up. — Rev. W. Undebwood, D.D., West Berkshire, Vt. 
 
 Already this company's success is assured beyond a doubt. It has 
 members in nearly every one of the States, has weathered the past 
 three years of financial stringency, and has issued a fair line of pub- 
 lications, some of which have already achieved an enviable reputation. 
 In doing this latter it has brought out several authors of merit whose 
 lack of means, influence, and business experience would have forever 
 kept them in the back-ground. And what it has done thus far is but 
 a small indication of what its great purpose is. Its management has 
 been economical and cautious but energetic and prompt, showing 
 clearly that its officers are men of ability and tact. Its annual state- 
 ment of January 1, 1876, shows $100,000 invested, ^nd only $396.17 
 of debts. — Temperance Vindicator, Harrisburg, Pa. 
 FIFTH YEAR, 1877. 
 
 Elegantly bound. — San Francisco New Age. 
 
 The Authors' Publishing Company is a remarkably successful or- 
 ganization. There is a breadth and an enterprise about this under- 
 taking which stamps it as one of the most remarkable even of the 
 present intellectual age. It was regularly chartered and organized 
 in 1873, with a paid-up capital of $100,000, properly secured. It 
 brings out books as quickly and as handsome as any publishing house. 
 We find that to-day the Authors' PuBLisHEra Compant is one of the 
 most popular and flourishing concerns in existence. The books pub- 
 lished by the Company are sold by all of the leading book stores in 
 this country, and by some in Europe ; and many of the foremost 
 .men in the world of literature have their books published by it. 
 The business arrangements of the Company are straightforward and 
 dear. There are now 128 members, residing in every State of the 
 Union. — New York Trade Journal. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR, 1 878. 
 
 Neatly made. — N. Y. Post. 
 
 Tastefully bound. — Baltimore Sunday News. 
 
 Very tastefully printed. — Baltimore Bulletin. 
 
THE ATTTHOB's PrBMSHINa COMPANY'S DESOBIPTIVB LIST. 47 
 
 Very neatly printed. — Chicago Sat. Ev. Herald. 
 
 Beautifully gotten up. — Plattsburgh Republican. 
 
 A credit to the house from -which they come. — Bridgeport Standard. 
 
 Entirely creditable to the Company. — Essex Co. Press, Newark. 
 
 I am thoroughly pleased with the books ; just right in size ; paper 
 and type are excellent. — Col. 0. A. Sumnbb, author of " Poems," etc. 
 
 We have had occasion, to speak in praise of several of the publica- 
 tions of this house. We venture the after-thought that our praise 
 was judicious. They are beautifully printed and elegant to behold. — 
 South, N. Y. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR, 1879. 
 
 Beautifully bound and printed. — Baltimore Epis. Meth. 
 
 Very tasteful and beautiful bindings. — Richmond Whig. 
 
 Very neatly printed and in attractive bindings. — Baltimorean. 
 
 Gotten up in a fresh style and in plain type. — Pittsburg Leader. 
 
 Beautiful from the hands of the publishers. — Chicago Inter-Ocean. 
 
 Typography and " get up " are done very tastefully. — Baltimore 
 JEherif Saturday. 
 
 Elegantly bound — deserve places on the parlor table of every family. 
 — Hudson Go. Ledger, N. J. 
 
 The publishers have done their duty in getting their books out in 
 very attractive style. — Lynchburg Virginian. 
 
 Published in excellent style, the binding being specially attractive. 
 Their books are elegantly made. — N. Y. Mail. 
 
 Neatly and tastefully gotten out. The publishers have done them- 
 selves great credit in the typographical appearance of their work. — 
 Brown's Phonographic Monthly, N. Y. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 [From the "Publishers' Weekly," May 3, 1879.] 
 
 The Atjthoes' Pubi;Ishin» Co. are making extensive improve- 
 'ments in the arrangement of their store and offices at their old stand, 
 27 Bond street. The reception-room, or general business office, and 
 book-keeper's and entry-clerk's offices remain in the front part of the 
 first floor, whUe the private offices for president, secretary, and board 
 of directors are located in the rear of the building. The front offices 
 are finished in black walnut and ash, and the rear offices are in black 
 walnut with hangings of brown and gold. In the extreme rear of the 
 private offices a pretty conservatory is being added, which gives a de- 
 UghtfuUy aesthetic effect. Judging from the present demonstrations 
 of cabinet-makers, painters, and upholsterers, the offices are to be 
 among the most elegant as well as comfortable of publishing houses — 
 an inScation of increasing prosperity. 
 
THE ATJTHOES' PTJBLISHlNa COMPAlOr'S DESCEIPTlVJa UST. 
 
 Author's Manuscript Paper- 
 
 Our own manufacture, of white paper, made from superior 
 stock, and sold only in ream packages — each package war- 
 ranted to contain full count of 480 sheets. 
 Author's Manuscript Paper, No. 2,5| + 11, per ream. . .$1.00 
 Author's Manuscript Paper, No. 1, 5| + 11, per ream. . . 1.25 
 
 Note.— When paper is Bent by mail 50 cents per ream, in addition to price, must 
 accompany order to prepay postage. 
 
 How IT IS Sold bo Cheap. 
 
 It is only by making a specialty of this paper, manufacturing directly at the mills in 
 large quantities and selling exclusively for cash, that the demand can be supplied at this 
 low price. It is really nearly one HirsniRED pee cekt cheaper than any other paper in 
 the market. 
 
 How BvEBT BtTTEit GETS His Monet's Wobth. 
 
 It is made with strong fibre and smooth surface, in two grades only, (Nos. 1 and 2). 
 These grades are similar in quality, and differ merely in weight. 
 
 ■ The shape and style (ruled on one side, the other side plain), is approved by writers 
 and preferred by printers ; and it has now become the popular standard paper for 
 authors, contributors, editors, and writers generally. 
 
 How THIS Depabtment is Manaqed. 
 
 Six years ago the Authors' Pitb. Co. introduced this paper to authors and writers. 
 Its sale grew so rapidly that the JYla.uuflicript Paper JJepartment became an 
 exclusive and permanent feature. 
 
 The Company sells no other stationery. The present large sales of this paper to 
 Booksellers and Stationers^ to Newspaper Publishers (for editorial use) — including many 
 leading DaUieB and Weeklies in New York City— and to writers everywhere, justify the 
 theory that the greater care and attention bestowed upon this Special Line, results in 
 greater satisfaction alike to dealers and consumers. 
 
 How BVEBTBODT SPBAKS 01" IT. 
 
 We find it just what teachers and pupils need.— iV«te England Journal of Education. 
 
 Celebrated for the use of authors and contributors. It is of excellent quality, and 
 convenient to both writer and printer. — J'rovidence Town and Country, 
 
 The distinguishing feature of the Manuscript Paper is its convenient shape. The 
 texture is neither too thick nor too thin, making it m every way a desirable paper for 
 writers and contributors.— ^cto Columbiana, New York. 
 
 Manuscript Manual. 
 
 How to Prepare Manuscripts for the Press. A practical, 
 concise and reliable guide for authovs, contributors and 
 writers generally. Paper covers Price 10 cents. 
 
 " Sotran AND UsEruL." 
 Worth tenfold its price. — Philadelphia Say. 
 
 The instructions are sound and are much needed. — JBoston Beacon. 
 Gives excellent hints to intending writers — Cleveland Evangelical Messenger. 
 A most useful little companion to the yoimg writer and editor.— yAe South, JV^. T. 
 
 " Pitnctuation- A Volume in a Nut Siiell." 
 WiU really give you a great deal of useful information —Louisville Home and School. 
 Is practically vmtten. The chapter on punctuation is a volume in a nutshell.- 
 London Paper and Printing Trade Journal. 
 
 Letteb Writing. 
 While the suggestions It contains on writing for the press are most valuable, it would 
 not be amisB for all young people to read and practice the rules given in its pages. The 
 art of letter writing could be more easily learned from it than from a score of " letter 
 writers." We most heartily commend it.— CTiamiMiyn (7^.) &'az««e.